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AndoWr-HArvarp
THEOLOGICAL UBRARY
The Catholic Encyclopedia
VOLUME NINE
Lap rade— Mass
ST. LUKE PAINTING THFT VIRGIN' AND CHILD
THE CATHOLIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA
AN INTERNATIONAL WORK OF REFERENCE
ON THE CONSTITUTION, DOCTRINE,
DISCIPLINE, AND HISTORY OF THE
CATHOLIC CHURCH
EDITED By
CHARLES a HERBERMANN, PilD., LLD.
EDWARD A. PACE, PuD, D.D. COSDt B. PALLEN, Ph.D., VU>.
THOMAS J. SHAHAN, D.D. JOHN J. WYNNE, aj.
ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS COLLABORATORS
FIFTEEN VOLUMES AND INDEX
VOLUME IX
new Vlotli
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PRESS, INC
Nihil Obstat, February 1, 1910
REMY LAFORT, S.T.D.
CBNBOB
Imprirnalvx
* JOHN CARDINAL FARLEY
ARCHBISHOP OF NEW YORK
Copyright, 1910
By Robert Appleton Company
Copyright, 1913
By the encyclopedia PRESS, INC.
The articles in this work have been written specially for The Catholic
Encyclopedia and are protected by copyright. All rights, includ-
ing the right of translation and reproduction, are reserved.
PRCttWORK AND BINDINa BY J. ■. LYON CO . ALSANY, N. Y.. U. •. A.
Contributors to the Ninth Volume
ARERK, MICHAEL JOSEPH, S.J., Innbbbuck, BEECHER, PATRICK A., M.A., S.T.D., Pbofbssm
AuBTBiA: Lueger, Karl. of Pastoral Theology and Sacbed Eloquence,
AHERNE, CX)RNELIUS, Reotob, Pbofessor op Matnooth College, Dublin : MacCarthy, Nich-
New Tbbtament Exegesis, St. Joseph's Col- °^*^ Tuite.
LB8B, Mill Hnx, London: Luke, Gospel of BEMELMANS, JOHN, CM., Ozone Park, New
Saint. York : Mary, Missionaries of the Company of.
AIKEN", CHARLES F., S.T.D.. Pbofessob of Apol- bENIGNI, L^IBERTO, Professor of Ecclesias-
TICAL IIlSTORT, PONT. COLLEOIO URBANO DI
ooEnos, Catholic Universitt of Amouca,
Washington : Manu, The Laws of.
ALBERS, p., S.J., Maastricht, Holland: Lidwina,
Saint.
ALBERT, F. X. E., Ph.D., Professor of Sacred
Scwptube, St. Joseph's Seminary, Dunwoodie,
New Yor^: Le Camus, Emile-Paul-Constant-
Ange; Loaves of Proposition; Lot.
IldIsY, ANTAL, Ph.D., Archivist of the Li-
brary of the National Museum, Budapest:
Propaganda, Rome: Larino, Diocese of; Lecce,
Diocese of ; Leghorn, Diocese of ; Leo XIII, Pope ;
Lippomano, Luigi; Litta, Alfonso and Lorenzo;
Ijodi, Diocese of; Lucca, Archdiocese of; Lucent
Diocese of; Luni-Sarzana-Brugnato, Diocese of;
Macerata and Tolentino. United Sees of; Machia-
velli, Nicole ; Maffei, Raffaelo; Magistris, Simone
de; Manredonia, Archdiocese of; Mantua, Dio-
dese of; Margotti, Giacomo; Marsi, Diocese of;
Marsico Nuovo and Potenza, Diocese of.
Margaret of Hungary, Blessed.
ALSltJN. G. OYPRIAN. O.S.Ii., Downside Abbiit, ^™™^'..^.^^^:.J''?!^'„!^.*'!L!'_I^
Bath, England: Llanthony Priory; Low Sun-
day.
AMADO, RAMON RUIZ, S.J., LL.D.. Ph.L., Mad-
RID: Leon, Diocese and Civil Province of.
A!RENDZEN, J. P., Ph.D., S.T.D., M.A. (Cantab.),
Professor of Sacred Scripture, St. Edmund's
College, Ware, £!ngland: Manichneism; Mar-
ceUus of Ancyra; Marcionites; Marcosians;
Marcus.
AUCLAIR, ELTE J., B.A., S.T.D., J.C.D., Pro-
fessor AT THE University of Laval, Mont-
real, Canada: Mance, Jeanne.
AVELING, FRANCIS, S.T.D., London: Man.
AZEVEDO E CASTRO, J05o PAULINO D,
Bishop of Macao, China: Macao, Diocese of.
BACCHUS, FRANaS JOSEPH, B.A., The Ora-
tory, Birmingham, England: Macarius, Saint;
Macarius of Antioeh.
University, Professor of French Literature,
Institut Catholique, Paris: Le Sage, Alain-
Ren6; Lourdes, Notre Dame de; Maistre, Joseph-
Marie, Comte de; Maistre, Xaxier de.
BESSE, J. M., O.S.B., DiREaiOR, "Revue Mabil-
LON ", Chevetogne, BELGIUM : L^rius, Abbey of.
BIHL, MICHAEL, O.F.M., Lector of Ecclesias-
tical History, Collegio San Bonaventura,
QuARAcciii, Florence: I.«onard of Port Maurice,
Saint; Macedo, Francisco; Magnus, Valerianus;
Maillard, Olivier.
BONNEY. EDWIN, Professor and Librarian,
St. Cuthbert^s College, Ushaw, England:
Lingard, John.
BOUDINHON, AUGUSTE-MARIE, S.T.D., D.C.L.,
Director, ** Canoniste Contemporain '*, Pro-
fessor OF Canon Law, Institut Catholique,
Paris: Law, Canon; Lay Confession; Majority;
Mansi, Gian Domonico; Margarita;.
BARNES, Mgb. ARTHUR STAPYLTON, M.A.
(OxoN. AND Cantab.), Cambridge, England: BOYLAX, PATRICK, M.A.. Professor of Sacred
Scripture and Oriental Languages, May-
NOOTH College, Ditblin: Lefftvre de la Boderie,
Guy.
Lateran, Saint John.
BALiMGARfTEN, PAUL MARIA, J.U.D., S.T.D.,
Domestic Prelate, Rome: Maestro di Camera
del Papa; Majordomo; Marini, Luigi Gaetano.
BECHTEL, FLORENTINE, S.J., Professor of
Hebrew and Sacred Scripture, St. Louis BRANTS, VICTOR, J.C.D., Member of the Rotal
Urivebsitt, St. Louis, Missouri: Machabees, Academy of Belgium, Louvain: Louvain, Uhi-
The; HCachabees, The Books of; Manna. versity of.
v
BRANN, HENRY A., S.T.D., New York: McOos-
key, William George.
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE NINTH VOLUME
BRASSINNE, JOSEPH, Ph.D., Litt.D., Fibst CLEARY, GREGORY, O.F.M., S.T.L., J.U.L., Pro-
ASSISTAITT LiBBABIAN, UniVEBSITT OF Li£gE, FESSOB OF MOBAL ThBOLOGT AND CANON LaW.
Belqixtm: Lidge, Dioces^ of. St. Isidobe's Collbob, iRoME: MacCaghwell,
BRAUN, JOSEPH, S.J., Belucvue, Luxembubo: ^^^'' Marchant, Peter.
Mace; Maniple; ManteUetta; Manuterge. CLEARY, HENRY W., S.T.D., Bishop of Auck-
BRfiHIER, LOUIS.REN«, Pbofessob of AKdEitT ^^' ^"^ Zealand: Lismore, Diocese of.
AND Medieval Histoby, UmvEBSiTY of Cleb- CLUGNET, JOSEPH-LEON-TIBURCE, Litt.L.,
mont-Febband, PuY-DE-DdME, Fbance: La ^^*™-' ^ Sallette; LaBarus of Bethany, Saint;
Valette, Jean Parisot de; Manuscripts; Manu- Leontius, Saint; (Margaret of Lorraine, Blessed;
scripts, lUuminated. Margaret of Savoy, Blessed; Margaret of the
Blessed Sacrament; Marie Christine of Savoy,
BRIDGE, JAMES, S.J., M.A. (OxoN.), Pbofebsob Blessed; Maris, Martha, Audifax, and Ahachum,
of Philosophy, Stonyhubst College, Blacb- Saints; Mark and Marcellian, Saints; Martial,
BUBN, England: Libellatici, Libelli ; Lucy, Saint; g^int; Martina, Saint; Martin of Leon, Saint;
Malebranche, Nicolas; Martyrs, Acts of the. Martin of Tours, Saint.
BROCK, HENIRY M., S.J., Obe Place, Hastings, cX)RDIER, HEXRI, Pbofessob at the School fob
England: (Mann, Theodore Augustine. Obiental Living Languages, Pabis: Man-
BRUCKER, JOSEPH, S.J., Editob, "Etudes", churia; Martyrs in China.
Pabis: Malabar Rites. CUTHBERT, FATHER, O.S.F.C, Cbawlet, Sus-
BURKE, EDMUND, B.A., Instbuctob in Latin, ^^' England: Margaret of Cortona, Saint.
College of the Crrr of New Yobk : Manutius, D'ALTON, R A., LL.D., M.R.I.A., Athenby, Ibe-
Aldus. LAND: Limerick, Diocese of; Lombard, Peter,
^«.r^*»r>^* «^^<.^-r«^ ^,»^*.».r* « ^ Archbisfaop of Armagh ; Lynch, John ; McCabe,
BURTON. EDWIN, S T.D.. F.R. Hist. Soo.. Vice- j,^^^^ MacGeoghe^n, jltmes; Magrath. John
Pbesident, St. Edmund's College, Ware, Macrorv
England: Lawrence, Saint; Litchfield, Ancient
Diocese of; Lincoln, Ancient Diocese of; Llan- DEGERT, ANTOINE, Utt.D., Editob of "La
daff, Ancient Diocese of; London; Lucas, Fred- "^^^^ ^^ la Gascoigne", Pbofessob of Latin
erick; Malmesbury, The Monk of; Marian Litebature, Institut Cathouque, Toulouse:
Priests; Marshall, Thomas William. ^^j»' Ecclesiastical; Le6n, Luis de; Marca,
Pierre de.
BUTLER, RICHAIRD URBAN, O.S.B., Downside
Abbey, Bath, England: Laura; Lchnin, Abbey ^^ JOXGH, HENRI, S.T.L., Pbofessob of Mobal
of; Luxeuil, Abbey of. Theology, Univebsitt of Louvain: Lindanus,
William Damasus.
CABROL, fern and, O.S.B., Abbot of St. t^tt't ahicawdt^ t^ttto vr t> tx y
,,',-, ' _ - , DELA'MARIRE, I/)L^S N., Ph.D., Instbuctob in
Michael's, Fabnbobough, England: Lauds. .p_ ' ^ ^r ^r
French, College of the City of New iobk:
CAMBOUfi, PAUL, S.J., Tananarivo, Madagascar: Littrfi, Paul-Maximilien-Emile.
Madagascar. DELANY, JOSEPH, S.T.D.. New York: Lust.
CANDIDE, FATHER, O.M.'Cap., Vicar and Pro- DELEHAYE, HIPPOLYTE, 8J„ Brussels: Mar-
fessor of Theology, College of the Capuchin tyrology.
Fathers, Ottawa, Canada: Lorenzo da Brin- rn^T-nr *r^T? Tr\T-Te o t tw t»
/ ' DELPLACE, LOUIS, S.J., Pbofessob of Religion,
isi, am . Chbistian Brothers' Normal School, I^u-
CAPES, FLORENCE MARY, London: Mary Mag- vain: Martyrs, Japanese.
dalen de' Pazzi, Saint. DOLAN, JOHN GH^BERT, O.S.B., The Priory,
CATHREIN, VICTOR, S.J., Professor of Moral Little Malvern, England: Malmesbury; Mal-
PiirLosoPHY, St. Ignatius Collkje, Valken- vern; Martinsberg.
BL-RG, Holland: Law. DOLL, SISTER MARY BERNARD, of the Vis.
CERRETTI, BONAVENTURE, S.T.D., J.U.D., H. M., Monastery of the Visitation, Wil-
LL.D., Censor of the Theological Academy mington, Delaware: Margaret Mary Alacoque,
IX Rome, Private ChAmbeblain to His Holi- Blessed.
ness, Aitditob of the Apostolic Delegation ix)NOVAN, JUSTIN FOLEY, M.D., M.Ch., Port
AT Washington, U. S. A.: Legate. „^^^ ^^^ p^^^ ^^^^^ Jamaica: Leprosy
CTIAMPON, LOUIS MARIE ABEL, S.J., Lrrr.L., in the Middle Ages.
St. llfLiER,JEBSEY: LaRue,Charle8de,S.J. DONOVAN, STEPHEN M., O.F.M.. Fbanciscan
CHAPMAN, JOHN, 0.S3., B. A. (OxoN.), Pbiob of Monastery, Washington^ Louis of Casoria,
St. Thomas's Abbey, Erdington, Birmingham, Venerable; Margaret Colonna, Blessed: Mari-
England: Lil)eriu«>, Pope. anus of Florence; Mark of Lisbon.
▼i
OaNTRIBUTORS TO THE NINTH VOLUME
DIRISOOLL, JAMES F., &T.D., Nsw Yoke:: Lefvites. FORTESCUE, ADRIAN, Ph.D., 6.T.D., Letcr-
woBTH, - H^BTFOHDSHiBB, Bnqlaicd: Latin
DRUM, WALTER, S.J., P«aFBSsaB of HtaRBW Church; Lavaho; Lector; Leo Diaconus; Leon-
AND Sacbed Scbiptube, WOODSTOCK CoLLBQB, tius Byaantinus; LesBons in the Liturgy; Libera
Mabylajo): Lazarus; Magi; Manahem; Mana- ^e; Libera Nos; Liberatus of Carthage; Litur-
hen. Saint; Manasaes; Manuscripts of the Bible; gical Books; Liturgy; Lumen Christi; Marcel-
Martin, Paulin. linua Ckmies; Jdarcian; Marcus Diadochus;
DRORT, EDWIN, Nntmx. Kkhtvcky: Loretto, ^^^'^^^^^i^^.Cb^Vt^'^iGouye^tu,!;
Sisters of, at the Foot of the Cross. ' ^
FOBrriER, ALCEE, LL.D., Cheyausr of the
DUBKAY, C. A., S.M., S.T.B., Ph.D., Psotbssob of Leqiow of Honoub; OFncEa of Public In-
PHIL060PHY, Mabibt Colubob, Washuygton: STBUcnoN; Pbbbioent, Louisiana Histqbical
Le Fdvre, Jacques. Socdctt, Pbofebsob of Romance Languages,
TULANE Unitebsitt, New Oblbans: Louisiana,
DUGOAN, THOMAS, Editob, "The Cathoug ColoniaL
Tbanscbipt", Habtfobd, Connecticut: Mac- pOURNET, PIERRE AUGU8TB, S.S., MJ^,, Pbo-
Farland, Francis Patridt. fessob of Histoby, CouAqe de Montreal : Marie
DUNN, JOSEPH, PH.D., Pbofibbob of Celtic de rincamation, Blessed ; Marie de llncamation.
Languages and Litsbatubb, Catholic Uni- ^^^^ ^
YEBSITT OF AjiEBiCA, WASHINGTON: Mabinogion. ^^^* JAMES J., S.T.D.,PbofbssoeofPhilosopht,
St. Thomas's College, Washington: Law,
DWYER, PATRICK VINCENT, S.T.D., Bishop of Natural.
Maitland, Austbalia : Maitland, Diocese of. fqX, WILLIAM, B.S., M.E., AssociAra Pbofbssob
^nr^'^wrs'^T^^ r^<r«^«^A rs c^ ^ -^ * OF Phtsics, Colleoe OF THE Cnr OF New
EDMONDS, OOLUMBA, O.S.B., Fobt Augustus, ^^^^ ^^ ./ ,, i tlt • ** wj
' T- J- * A ■ • i. T^- 1 York: Maignan, Emmanuel; Mariotte, Edme;
Scotland: Lindisfame, Ancient Diocese and
Monastery of.
Marsigli, Luigi Ferdinando.
GANfiBVld, ANTHONY LAWIRENCE, PhD.,
ENOLEHAIRDT, ZEPHYRIN, O.F.M., Watson- S.T.D., Zaostbog, Dalmatia: Lesina; Lucie
yille, Califobnia: Magin CataU; Margil, (Lucius), John.
Antonio; Martin of Valencia. GANSS, HENRY G., Mus.D., Lancasteb, Pewnstl-
«.«^.r^^^ ^rrr^^* ^«, ^ ,^ r, , ^ VANiA : Llszt, Frauz ; Luther, Martin.
FANNING, WILLAM H. W., S.J., Pbofessob of » » ,
Chubch Histobt and Canon Law, St. Lol^s GARDNER, EDMUND GARRETT, M.A. (Cam-
UNivEBsnY, St. Louis, Mksoubi: Legitimation; bbidge), Bablow Lectubeb on Dante, Univeb-
ManifesUtion of Conscience; Marriage, Mixed. «"^ College, London: Latini, Brunette; Mala-
testa, House of; Manzoni, Alessandfo.
FARLEY, JOHN M., S.T.D., Abchbishop of New qeUDENS, FRANCIS MARTIN, O.Pb^m., Abbot
YOBK: McCloekey, John. Titulab of Barlings, Corpus Christi Pbioby,
FBNLON, JOHN F., S.S., S.T.D., Pbesident, St. Manchesteb, England: Lohel, Johann.
Austin's Coiajbge, Washington; Professor GHELLINCK, JOSEPH DE, Pbofessob of Patbol-
OF Sacbed Scbiptube, St. MABr*s Seminary, ogy and Theological Literature of the
Baltimore: Legrand, Louis; Le Hir, Arthur- Middle Ages, University of Louvain: Lessius,
Marie; Le Long, Jacques. Leonard; Lugo, John de.
FINEOAN, PHILIP M., SJ., College of the GIBBONS, JAMES, OAiRDINAL, Abchbishop of
Atenbo, Manila, Philippine Islands: Manila, Baltimobe: Magnien, Alphonse.
Archdiocese of; Manila Observatory. GIETMAXN, GERARD, S. J., Teacheb OF Classical
«»%-n.T »TT<r-rvi»« 'mr^n,-^^-^ r^ n, -rx r^ , LANGUAGES AND -ESTHETICS, St. IGNATIUS Col-
FINN, WimAM JOSEPH, C.S p., Chicago, iLLi- ^^^ Vau^urg, Holland: Lemercier,
NOIS: MarceUo, Benedetto; Marenzio, Luca. j^^^^^. j^^^^^ pj^^^. Levau, Louis; Liesborn,
FISHER, J. H., S.J., Woodstock College, Mary- Master of; Lochner, Stephan; Maderna, Carlo;
land: Liberatore, Matteo; Lohner, Tobias; Mansard, Frangois and Jules.
Lugo, Francisco de; Mary Anne de Paredes, GILDAS, M.,O.C.R., La Trappe, Quebec : Lestrange,
Blessed. I-iOuis-Henri de.
FORD, JEREMIAH D. M., M.A., Ph.D., Professor GIMLET, LOLTfS, Pabis: Limbourg, Pol de; Lippi,
OF Fbench and Spanish, Habtabd Univbbsity, Filippino; Lippi, Filippo; Lorenzetti, Pietro and
Cam bbidge, Mabsaohubbits : Lope de Vega Ambrogio; Masolino da Panicale.
Carpio, Felix; March, Ausias; Marenco, Carlo GIROXJX, C. H. A., O.M.I., Pbovidence, Canada:
and Leopold. Mackenzie^ Vicariate Apostolic of.
OONTIIIBUTORS TO THE NINTH VOLUME
GLASS, JOSEPH S., CM., S.T.D., PBESnnarr, St. HECEJVIAN, FEIfiDINAND, O.F.M., Tkachbs of
VlNCBNT^ COLLBQB, LOS AlfOELES/ CAUFOBmA : LaTIN AND GbEEK, FRANCISCAN MONASTERY,
Le Oras, Louise de Maxillae, Venerable. ' Washington: Mary Frances of the Five Wounds
OOYAU, GBCXRGE8, Asboctatb Editor, " Bitot <>' Jesus.
DEB Deux Mondbs", Paris: La Rochefoucauld- HENRY, H. T., Litt.D., Rector op Roman Cath-
Liancourt, Francoi8-Alteandre-Fr6d6ric,I>ucde;' ©Lie High School for Boys, Professor of
La Rochelle, Diocese of; Laur^ntie, Pierre- English Literaturb and of Gregorian Chant,
Sftbastien; Laval, Diocese of; League, The; St. Charus Seminary, Ovkbbbook, Pbnnsyl-
Leclerc du Tremblay, Francois; Le Mans, Die- vania: Lauda Sion; Magnificat,
cese of ; Le Puy, Diocese of; Le Tellier, Michel; HBRWEGEN, ILDEPONSUS, CAB., Maria-Laach
L'Hospital, Michel de; Lille; Limoges, Diocese Abbey, Niedebmendig, Germany: Maria-Laach-
of; Louis IX, Saint; Louis XI; Louis XIV; HOEBER, KARL, PhJD., Editor, " VoLtfsziaTUNG"
Lucon, Diocese of ; Lyons, Archdiocese of ; Lyons, ^^^ "Akademische MonatsblXtteb ", Cologne :
Councils of; MacMalion, Marie-Edme-I%itrice- Lasaulx, Ernst von; Leipzig, University of;
Maurice de; M&con, Ancient Diocese of; Main- Marius Maximus.
tenon, Frangoise, Marquise de; Mame, Alfred- HOLMAN, FREDERICK VAN VOORHIES, Port-
Henri-Amand ; Marie Antoinette;. Marseilles, ^^^» Oregon: McLaughlin, John.
HUDLESTON, GILBERT ROGER, O.8.B., Down-
side Abbey, Bath, England: Liessies; Ligug6;
Lilienfeld; Llancarvan; Lobbes, Benedictine
Abbey of; Loccum; Margaret of Scotland, Saint.
LottTrintonio', luttj', J^.B^ptiTt^Tii^nt^. HUGHES, JAMES. LrvEBPOOL. England: Liverpool,
Diocese of.
HULL, ERNEST R., S.J., Editor, "The Exami-
ner", Bombay, India: Madras, Archdiocese of;
Madura Mission; Malabar; Malacca, Diocese of;
Alcalft, Diocese of ; Marquesas Islands, Vicariate HUOT^^Sn/p^rF^soR of Art, College op
Apostolic of. ^^ (.j^ ^^ j^^ y^jjj^. Lorrain, Claude de.
GRUBER, HERMANN, S.J., Stella Matutina HL^NTER-BLAIR, D. 0., Bart., O.S.B., M.A., Fort
College, Feldkirch, Austria: Liberalism; Augustus Abbey, Scotland: Leslie, John,
Diocese of; Martinique, Diocese of.
GRATTAN.FLOOD, W. H., M.R.I.A., Mus.D.,
Rosemou>'t» Ennisoorthy, Ireland: Lawrence
. OToole, Saint; Locke, Matthew; Loman, Saint;
Saint; Malachy, Saint.
GREY, J. C, New York; Le6n, Diocese of; L^rida,
Diocese of; Lima, Archdiocese of; Linares, Arch-
diocese of; Lisbon, Patriarchate of; Madrid-
Masonry.
Lindores, Benedictine Abbey of; Lochleven.
GLTNET, JOHN PETER, M.S., Superior, Mission- HUONDER, ANTHONY, S.J., Edtior, " Katho-
aries of La Salette, Hartford, Connecticut:
La Salette, Missionaries of.
GiJNTHBR, HEINRICH, Ph.D., TtfBiNCEN, Ger-
many: Legends of the Saints.
HAGEN, JOHN G., S.J.. Vatican Observatory,
Rome: Lilius, Aloisius.
HANDLEY, MARIE LOUISE, New York : Madema,
Stefano; Majano, Benedetto da; Marches!, Pom-
peo.
HARTIG, OTTO, Assistant Librarian of the
Royal Library, Munich: Lorraine; Magellan,
lische Missionen", Bellevub, Luxe^iburg:
Le Gobien, Charles; Maroni, Paul; Martini,
Martino.
JONES, ARTHUR EDWARD, S.J., Corresponding
Member of the Minnesota, Ontario, and Chi-
cago Historical Socifties; Hon. Member of
the Missoimi Historical Society; Member of
THE International Congress of Americanists ;
Archivist of St. Mary's College, Montreal:
La Richardie, Armand de; Lauzon, Pierre de;
Le Mercier, Frangois; Levadoux, Michael;
Marchand, Jean Baptisto; Martin, Felix.
Ferdinand; Magnus, Olaus; Mailla, Joseph- jquvE, ODORIC-M., O.F.M., Candiac, Canada:
Anna-Marie de Moyria de; Mandeville, Jean dc;
Martyr d'Anghiera, Peter.
La Roche Daillon, Joseph de; Le Caron, Joseph;
l^clercq, Ch rest ion.
HARTIGAN, JEREMIAH ALTrUSTUS, S.J., D.Lirr. JOYCE, GEORGE UAYWAIRD, S.J., M.A. (Oxon.) ,
(Orientauum), Stonyhurst College, Black- st. Beuno's College, St. Asaph, Wales: Lister
burn, England: Mageddo; Maspha, (alias Butler), Thomas.
HASSETT. Mgr. MAL^ICE M., S.T.D., Harris- KEEGAN, PETER CHAiRLES, Van Buren, Maine :
BURG, Pennsylvania: Lateran, Christian Mii- Maine.
scum of; Lucina, Crypt of; Mamertine Prison; KEILEY, JARVIS, M. A., Grantwood, New Jersey :
Martyr. La Salle, Ren6-Robert-Cavalier, Sieur de ; Malory,
HEALY, JOHN, S.T.D., LL.D., M.R.I.A., Arch- Sir Thomas.
Bishop of Tuam, Senator of the National KE5LLY, BLANCHE M., New York: Macariua
University of Ireland: Lismore, School of. Magnes; Majorca and Ivisa, Diocese of; Malaga,
HEALY, PATRICK J., S.T.D., Assistant Profes- • Diocese of; Malhferbe, Francois; Mangan, Jamef*
»OR OF Church History, Catholic University
of America, Washutgton: Lucian of Antioch.
Clarence; Mantegna, Andrea; Margaret Pole,
Blesseia.
00NTRIBUT0R6 TCKTHE N13NTH VOMJME
KELLY, JOSEPH I., Ph J>., LL,D., Fobmibly Leo LENNOX, PATRICK JOSEPH, B.A., Pmxrssob c»
TUBES ON Roman Law in Northwestern Enolish Lanoitage and Literature, Catholic
University and Dean of the Faculty of Law University of America, Washington : Marrjat,
IN Louisiana State University, Chicago: Law, Florence.
'^^^^' LINDSAY, LIONEL ST. GEORGE, B.Sc, Ph.D.,
KELLY, LEO A., Ph.B., Rochester, New York: Editor-in-Chief, "La Nouvellb France*',
Lourdes, Brothers of Our Lady of. Quebec: Lanzon, Jean de; Laval, Francois de
KELLY, MARY THRESA, Dublin: MacHale, John. Montmorency; Laverdiftre, Charles-Honorfi ; Le
KENDAL, JAMES, S.J., Bulawato, Rhodesia, ^ojne Family; Le Moyne, Simon; Lescarbot,
South Africa: Malta. ^^^^^* I^^sig^an, Jean-Baptiste-Alphonee ; Mail-
lard, Antoine-Simon. .
KENNEDY, THOMAS, B.A. ( R.U.I. ), London:
Lebwin, Saint; Letourneux, Nicholas; Lockhart, ^^^^y JOSEPH, Freiburo-im-Breisoau, Germany:
William; MacCarthy, Denis Florence; Majunke, Lavant; Leipzig; Leitmeritz, Diocese of; Lim-
Paul; Mariana Islands, Prefecture Apostolic of. ^^^Sy Diocese of; Linz, Diocese of; Lithuania;
Ltibeck; Lublin, Diocese of; Lucerne; Mainz.
KENT, W. H., O.S.C, Bayswater, London: Man- ..
ning Henry Edward. LOEFFLER, KLEMENS, Ph.D., Librarian, Univer-
^^ -- - ^ siTY OF Breslau: Lco X, Popc; Leubus; Lies-
KETTENBURG, PHILIPP, BARON VON, Chap- ^^^„. Li^^emann, Wilhelm; Luscinius, Ottmar;
LAIN OF St. Ansgar's Churcth, Copenhagen, Magdeburg; Magliabechi, Antonio; Mallinck-
Denmark: Lund. ^.^^^^ Hermann von; Maria Theresa ; Marienberg.
KIRSCH, JOHANN PETER, S.T.D., I^omestio luceY, Mgr. JOHN M., Vicar-General, Diocese
Prelate, Professor of Patrology and Chris- ^^ little Rock, Arkansas: Little Rock, Dio-
TiAN Archaeology; University of Fridourg: ^^^ ^£
Lapsi; Lawrence, Saint; Lawrence Justinian,
Saint; Lay Abbot; Leo I (the Great), Saint, MA AS, A. J., S.J., RECTOR, Woodstock College,
Pope; Leocadia, Saint; Leonidas, Saint; Liber Maryland: Lentulus, PubUus; Logia Jesu;
Diumus Romanorum Pontificum; Liber Pontifi- Lucifer.
calis; Linus, Saint, Pope ;Liutprand of Cremona; MacAULEY, PATRICK J., Belfast, Ireland:
Lucius I, 8aint, Pope; Luna, Pedro de ; Macrina, Legists; Loango, Vicariate Apostolic of.
Saints; Mamertus, Saint; Marcellina, Saint; ^, tx/^vt4x-»> axtxt* n-n-r. . /nt-tt. «* t>
Marcellinus, Saint/ Pope; M.rceUinu8, Flavins; MacDONALD, ANXA SPRAGUE B.A., Boston.
Marcellu. I, Saint. Pope; Mark, Saint. Pope; Massachusetts: MacDonald. John.
Martin of Troppau; Martinuzzi. George. MACDONALD, DOKAIJ> K., B.A.. Glen Nevis,
KXOTT, A. LEO. Baltimobe, Maeyland : Maryland. Ontabio, Canada : Macdonell. Alexander.
KRAFT, JOSEF. Ph.D.. Innsbecck". austbia: -^^^^^RI-EAN. ANDKEW A., New York: Leodegar
League. German (Catholic). (Leger), Saint; Loja. Diocese of; Lugo. Diocese
^ . of; Magnesia; Maine de Biran. Franeois-Pierre-
LABOIIRT, JBFIOME, S.T.D., Lnr.D., Member of Gonthier; Mariana, Archdiocese of; Marshall
THE Asiatic Soctett of Paris, Paris: Maph- Islands, Vicariate Apostolic of.
rian; Maronites. « ^
' McGAHAN, FLORENCE RUDGE, M.A., Youngs-
LAUCHERT, FRIEDRICH, Ph.D., Aachen: Lie- ,^y^^^ ohio: Magdalens; Marcoux, Joseph. .
bermann, Bruno Franz Leopold; Manharter. , ,
^ McHUGH, JOHX AMBROSE, O.P., S.T.L., Lector
LEBRETON, J., S.J., Lrrr.D. (Sorboitne), Pro- ^f Philosophy, Dominican House of Studies,
FESSOR, History of Christian Origins, Insti- Washington: Lutheranism.
TUT Cathouque, Paris: Logos, The.
IVTcKEXNA, CHARLES F., Ph.D. ( Columbia ), Sec-
LECLEROQ, HENRI, O.S.B., Ix)ND0N: Lateran ^^j,^y, Catholic Home Bureau, Vice-Presi-
Councils; Lay Communion; Lucifer of Cagliari. ^^^^ ^^, York State Probation Commission,
LEHMKUHL, AUGUSTINUS, S.J., St. Ignatius ^'ew York : Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent.
COLLBGE, Valwinburg, HOLLAND: Mariana, McLOUGHLIN, JAMF^ J., LL.B., New Orleans:
Juan; Marriage, Sacrament of. Louisiana, The State of.
LEJAY, PAUL, Felix>w of the UNivEEsnT of j^f^^EAL, J. PRESTON, B.A., LL.B., Baltimore:
FRANCE, professor, CATHOLIC INSTITUTE, PARIS : ^cSherry, James ( 2 ) ; McSherry, Richard ; MartS-
Lascaris, Constantine; Lascaris, Janus; Latin , , Ambrose
Literature, Christian, Early Centuries; Latin '
Literature in the Church, Classical; Lipsius, MACPHERSON, EWAN, New York: Maffei, Fran-
Justus; Mai, Angelo; Manuel Chrysoloras; Mar- cesco; Malvenda, Thomas; Map, Walter; Mar-
tianus Capella. tini, Antonio; Mason, Richard Angelus.
00NTRIBUT0B6 TO "PHE NINTH VOLUME
ICacRORT, JOSEPH, S.T.D., PtonsfisoB of Sacbed MOELLBR, GH., PaoFBasoB of Gbtvebal HiSTOBr,
ScBiPTUBE, Matnooth Oollbgb, Dubun: Mar- UinviBsmr of Louyains Lazarus, Saint, Order
garet, Saint, Virgin and Martyr; Marie, Saint of, of Jerusalem.
and Evangelist; Marie, Gospel of Saint; Mary of MOLLOY, JOSEPH VINCENT, O.P., S.T.L., SoMEB-
Efeypt, Saint sbt, Ohio: Malchus.
MAERE, R., S.T.D., Pbofesbob of Chbistian MOONEY, JAMES, United States Ethnologist,
ABCH.aoi[X)OT, Univebsity of Louvain: Le Bubeau of Amebioan Ethnology, Washinqton :
Blant, Edinonrf-Fr6d6ric; Mamachi, Thomas Lesueur, Francois Eustace ; Lillooet Indians;
Maria; Marchi, Giuseppe; Martigny, Joseph- Lorette; Lul6 Indians; Lummi Indians; Maina
Alexandre. Indians; Maipure Indians; Maliseet Indians;
MAHER, MICHAEL, S.J., Lrrr.D., M.A. (London), Mameluco Indians; Mandan Indians; Mascoutens
DiBECTQB OF STUDIES AND Pbofessob OF PEDA- Indians.
GOGics, Stonthtjbst COLLEGE, Blackbubn, MORICE, a. G., O.M.I., Editob of " Le Patbiote db
England: Life. l'Ouest", Duck Labjs, SASijKJiTCHEWAN, Can-
MANN, HORACE K., HkADiCAsrCB, St. Cuthbebt's ada: Lav^rendrye, Pierre-Gaultier de Varennes,
Gbakmab School, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Eng- Sieur de; Laverlochdre, Jean-Nicolas; Loucheux;
LAND: Leo II, Saint, Pope; Leo III, Saint, Pope ; Manitoba.
Leo IV, Saint, Pope; Leo V, Pope; Leo VI, Pope; MOUGEL, AMBROSE, O.Cabt., St. Hugh's Chab-
Leo VII, Pope; Leo VIII, Pope; Leo IX, Saint, tebhouse, Pabkminsteb, England: Ludolph of
Pope; Marinus I, Pope; Marinus II, Pope. Saxony.
MARIQUE, PIERRE JOSEPH, Instbuctob in MULLER, ULRICH F., C.PP.S., Pbofessob of
Fbench, College of the City of New Yobk: Philosophy, St. Chables Bobbomeo Seminaby,
Laprade, Victor de; La Rocbejacquelein, Henri- Cabthaoena, Ohio: Le Verrier, Urbain-Jean-
Augiiste-Georges du Vergier, Comte de; Lecoy de Joseph.
La Marche, Richard-Albert; Marie de France. MURPHY, JOHN, C.S.Sp., Pbovincial of the
MATHIEU, Rt. Rev. Mgb., O.E., S.T.D., Seminaby Fathebs of the Holy Ghost, Cobnwells
of QtTEBEC, Canada: Laval, University of, Pennsylvania: Libennann, Francis Mary Paul
Quebec. Venerable.
M A YENCE, FERNAND, Ex-Membeb of the £colb OBRECHT, EDMOND M., O.C.R., Abbot of Geth
FRANgAiSB at Athens, Pbofessob of Abch.«- semani Abbey, Kentucky: La Trappe; Mari
OLOGY, Univebsity op Louvain: Lenormant, annhill, Congregation of the Missionaries of.
Charles; Lenormant, Francois. O'CONNOR, JOHN B., O.P., St. Dominic's Pbioby
MAYER, JOHANN GBORG CANON, D.C.L., San Fbancisoo, Califobnia: Louis Bertrand
Rbqent and Pbofessob of the Seminaby op Saint; Louis of Granada.
Chub, Switzbbland: Lussy, Melchior. ^ OXEARY, THOMAS M., Chanckllob, Diocese of
MEEHAN, THOMAS F., New Yobk: Lead, Diocese Manchesteb, New H'ampshibe: Manchester,
of; League of the Cross, The; L'Enfant, Pierre- Diocese of.
Charles; Liberia; Lincoln, Diocese of; London, OLIGER, LIVARIUS, O.F.M., Lectob OF Chubch
Diocese of; Longstreet, James; McGee, Thomae Histoby, Collegio S. Antonio, Rome: Latera,
D*Arcy; McMahon, Martin Thomas; McMaster, Flaminius Annibali de ; Louis of Toulouse, Saint ;
James Alphonsus; McQuaid, Bernard John; Marcellinus of Civezza.
Mallory, Stephen Russell; Marquette League. q'NEILL, ARTHUR BARRY, C.S.C, M.A., Asso-
MBRK, AUGUST, S.J., Pbofessob of Apologetics, ciatb- Editob " Ave Maria ", Notbe Dame,
St. Ignatius College, Valkenbubg, Holland: Indiana: Lefebvre, Camille; Le Loutre, Louis-
Lebanon; Machpelah; Magdala. Joseph.
MKRSHMAN", FRANCIS, O.S.B., S.T.D., Pbofessob OTT, MICHAEL, O.S.B., Ph.D., Pbofessob of the
OF Mobal Theology, Canon Law, and Liturgy, History of Philosophy, St. John's Univebsity,
St. John's UNtvERsmr, Collegeville, Minne- Collegeville, Minnesota: Laski (a Lasco),
sota: Larue, Charles de; Lectern; Lennig, John; Laymann, Paul; Ledochowski, Miecislas
Adam Franz; LeKourry, Denis-Nicolas; Litany; Halka; Lemcke, Henry; Leo XI, Pope; Lucius
Litany of the Holy Name; Litany of the Saints; II, Pope; Lucius III, Popej Ludmilla, Saint;
Ludger, Saint; Lumper, Gottfried; MaiTei, Ber- Magnus, Saint; Malagrida, Gabriel; Mallinck-
nardino; Martin I, Saint, Pope; Martin, Abbot rodt, Pauline; Maran, Prudentius; Marbodius,
of Schottenkloster ; Martyrs, The Ten Thousand ; Bishop of Rennes; Marcellua II, Pope; Marius
Maruthae, Saint. Mercator; Martin IV, Pope; Martin V, Pope;
MEYER, GEORGE, Pbovincial, Society of Mary, Martin of Braga, Saint; Mary de Cervellione.
of Pabis, Dayton, Ohio: Mary, Society of, of OTTEN, JOSEPH, PrrrsBUBO, Pennsylvania:
Paris. Lassus, Orlandus de.
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE NINTH VOLUME
pfiREZ GOTENA ANTONIO, 8-T., Edtiob, " Raz6t ROMPEL, JOSEPH HEINRICH, SJ., Ph.D., Sikxul
T Fk", Madbid: Maldonado, Juan; Martfn y Matutina College, FEmfiSmcH, Austria: La-
Garda, Luis. treille, Pierre- Andr^; Loeeen, ELarl August;
pfiTRIDfis, 90PHR0NE, A. A., Professor, Greek MaUard, Emest-Frangoig.
^Cathouo iSEMiNART, Kadi-Keui, Coxstanti- ROTH, LEANDER M., MAinnEvnuE, LoxnsiANA:
NOPLE: Laranda; Lebedus; Lete; Leuce; Limyra, Lorsh Abbey.
Liiioe;Loryma;Lyrbe;Lyaia8;Macri;Mactaris^, RYAN, JOHN A., 8.T.D., Peofbbsob op Moral
Madaurua; Magydus; Mallus; Marciane. Theoloot, St. Paul Seminary, &r. Paul,
PBttLBIN, EUGENE A., Regent op the Univer- Minnesota: Marriage, History of.
srrr op the State of New York, New Yor^': saCHBR, HERMANN, Ph.D., Editor op thi
^^^ " Konversationslexikon ", Assistant Kihtob
POLLEN, JOHN HL^GBREORD, S. J., London : of the " Staatslexikon op the Gorresgesell-
Martinov, John; Mary Queen of Scots (Mary schapt", Freiburg-im-Breibgau, Germany:
Stuart). Lippe.
PONCELET, ALBERT, S. J., Brussels : Leonard of S AGMULLER, JOHANNES BAPTIST, PRonssoi
Limousin, Saint. ' of Theology, University of Tubingen: Lay
POPE, HUGH, 0.P., S.T.L., Doctor op Sacred Tithes; Letters, Ecclesiastical; Ligamen.
Scripture, Professor op New-Testament SALEMBIER, LOUIS, S.T.D.., Professor 'or
Exegesis, Collegio Angelico, Rome: Maledic- Chl^rch History, University of Lille: Mar-
tion (in Scripture) ;* Mammon; Martha, Saint; silius of Padua.
Martianay; Mary, the name of several personages ^^^1, AXGELO DE, SJT., Rome: Litany of Loreto;
in the N. T. ; Mary, The Name of, in Scripture Liturgical Chant.
. and in Catholic use; Mary Magdalen, Saint. „^.^^^„^^ r«r*r>,l.^ ^ « om^ «<^
SCANNELL, THOMAS B., Canon, S.T.D., Wey-
POULAIN, AUOUSTIN, 6. J., Paris: Louis-Marie bridge, England: Latria.
Grignion de Montfort, Blessed; Marriage, Mys- gcHAEFER, FRANCIS J., ®.TJ)., Ph.D., Profm-
^ soR OP Chl'rch History, St. Paxtl Seminary,
POWER, ALICE, R.S.H., Convent op the Sacred St. Paltt, Minnesota: Law, Civil, Influence of
Heart, Kenwood, Albany, New York: La- the church on; Madruzzi, Christopher.
taste. Mane. SCHEID, NICHOLAS, S.J., Stella Matutina Col-
PRESTAGE, EDGAR, B.A. (Oxon.) ; Commenda- lege, Feldkirch, Austria: Latin Literature,
DOR, Portuguese Order op S. Thtago; Cor- II, Sixth to Twentieth Century.
responding Memheb op the Lisbon Royal schlaGER, HEINT^ICH PATRICIUS, O.F.M., St.
Academy op Sciences and Lisbon Geooraphi- ludwio^s College, Dalheim, Germany: Lupus
CAL Society, Manchester, England: Macedo, ^^y^j^)^ Christian; Ltitolf, Aloys; Maassen,
Jose Agostmho de. "Friedrich Bernard Christian ; Marius Aventicus;
QL^NN, iSTANLEY J., New York: Line, Mrs. Anne. Mart^ne, Edmond; Martin, Konrad.
RANDOLPH, REGINA, Baltimore, Maryland: SCHROEDER, JOSEPH, O.P., Dominican Housb
Margaret Haughery. ^^ Studies, Washington: Lemos, Thomas de;
^ Loaisa, Garcia; Marini (de Marinis).
REILLY, THOMAS A KEMPIS, O.P., Dominican ' ^^
House op Studies, Washington: Mariales, S^^^^^^™' J^^^^"', S.T.D., Jefferson City, Mis-
Xantea. souri: Marriage, Moral and Canonical Aspect of.
SHIPMAN, ANDREW J., M.A., LL.M., New York:
Lutzk, Zhitomir, and Kamenetz, Diocese of.
REINHOLD, GRBGOR, Freiburo-im-Breisgau,
Germany: Lausanne and Geneva, Diocese of;
Lieber Moriz. SHORTER, JOSEPH A., Leavenworth, Kansas:
Leavenworth, Diocese of.
REMY, ARTHUR F. J., M.A., Ph.D.. Adjunct-
Professor OP Germanic Philology, Columbia SILVA, PAOLO, S.J., S.T.D., Rome: Lombardy.
University. New York: Lassberg, Baron SLATER, T., S.J., St. Beuno's College, St. Asaph,
Joseph Maria Christoph von; I^^nda, Literary Wales: Law, Divine, Moral Aspect of; Lottery;
and Profane; Maelrant, Jacob van. Lying; Malone, William.
REZEK, ANTOINE IVAN, Houchtox, Michigan: SMITH, IGNATIUS, O.P., Dominican House op
Marquette, Dio<!e8e of. Studies, Washington : Leonard of Chios.
ROBINSON, PASCHAL, O.F.M., Franciscan Mon- SMITH, SYDNEY P., S.J., London: Low Church.
ASTERY, Washington: I^, Brother. ^^^^^ WALTER GEORGE, M. A., LLB. (Univer-
ROCK, P. M. J., LouisvnxE, Kentucky: Louisville, sity of Pennsylvania), Philadelphia, Penn-
Diocese of. sylvania: Law, International; Marriage, CiviL
Si
OOKTItlBlItORS TO TUB NINTH VOLUME
SOLLIER, JOSEPH IltANCIS, 8.M., fiiTJD., Sux VAS HOONACEER, A., Pborssob of Ckitical
Fbakcisoo, Calxpobnia: Layigerie, Charles- Histobt of the Old TESTAifEitr and OBiEin'AL
Martial-AUonuid; L» Camus, £tienne; Le Cos, LAsauAOES, Univebsitt of Louyair: Malachias.
Claude; I^TeUier, Charles-Maurice; Lomftiiede y^jf ^^^^ ^' p^.L., PBorassoB of Chtjbch
Brlenne, fitienne-Charlee de; Love, Theological H,a^„ ^^ C^^^,,, La^^ Univebsitt of
Virtue of; Mary, Society of. Locvain: Legacies; Lex (Law) ; Liber Septi-
SORTAIS, GASTON. S.J., Absibtant Kditob. bus; Liber Sextus Decretalium; Luca, Giovanni
" Etudes ", Paris: Magaud, Antoine-Dominique; Battista de.
Btlas&ccio
SOUVAY, CHARLES L., CM., S.T.D., PH.D., Pro- VINCENT, HUGUES, O.P., S.T.D., AssoaATE
FESsoR, Sacred Scripture, Hehrew and Lit- Editor, "Revue Biblique" and "£tudes
UROT, Kenrick Seminary, St. Louis, Missouri: Bibliques ", St. Stephen's Biblical School,
Leprosy. Jerusalem: Madianites.
SPAHN, MARTIN, Ph.D., Professor op Modern WAINBWRIGHT, JOHN BANNERMAN, B.A.
History, University of Strasburo: Lieber, (Oxon.), London: Leigh, Richard, Venerable;
Ernst Maria. Lloyd, John, Venerable; Lockwood, John, Ven-
SPALDING, HENRY S., S.J., St. Ignatius Col- erable; Mahony, Charles, Venerable.
lege, Chicago, Illinois: Marquette, Jacques.
SUAU, PIERRE, S.J., Toulouse, France: Leander WALSH, JAMES J., M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., Dean op
of Seville Saint. ^^™ Medical School, Forduam ^ University,
SWIFT, HENIRY JARVIS, S.J., Editorial Staff, ^«^ York: Larrey, Dominique- Jean ; Linacre,
"America", New York: Lapuente, Louis de, Thomas; MacNeven, WiUiam James; Malpighl,
Venerable. Marcello.
TAAFFE, JAMES A., S.J., Professor of Rhetoric, WARD, IRt. Rev. Mor. BERNARD, President,
College of St. Francis Xavier, New YdRK: St. Edmund's College, Ware, England:
Maltret, Claude. Martiall, John; Martin, Gregory.
THURSTON, HERBERT, S. J., London :Lectionary; „,^^^„vr TTAm:. ii#ai>v r y:^
T X tI t. ux t j. t^ t • WARREN, KATE MARY, Lecturer in English
' Lent; Libraries; Lights; Lords Prayer; Louis , -^
.,, J -ni J T • T xA. X J Literature under Lniversity op London at
AUemand, Blessed; Lummare; Lunette; Lynd- ,,. ^ ^
jt xi7-n- nr ' Xk-.i 1 r ikir WeSTFIELD COLLEGE, HAMPSTEAD, LoNDON :
wood, William; Marriage, Ritual of; Mary ^ , . , ^
Tudor. Lydgate, John.
TOKE, LESLIE ALEXANDER ST. LAWTRENCE, WATRIGANT, HENRI, 9.J., Enohien, Belgium:
B.A., StrattoN-on-the-Fosse, Bath, England : Mary de Sales Chappuis, Venerable.
Lay Brothers; Leo XII, Pope; Little Office of ^AUGH, NORMAN. Cabltwn, YobkShhUB, Eng-
Our Lady; Mab.llon, Jean ; Maedoc. Saint ; Mael- ^^^, ^eed Diocese of.
man. Saint; Maelrubha, Saint.
TONER, PATRICK J., S.T.D., Professor of Dog- WEBER, N. A., S.M., S.T.D., Professor op Funda-
MATio Theology, Maynooth College, Dublin: mental Theology and Church History,
Limbo. Marist College, Washington: Lefdvre d*Eta-
TRISTRAM, henry, B.A (Oxford and London), pies, Jacques; Lorenzana, Francisco Antonio de;
The Oratory, Birmingham, England: Lejeune, Lupus, Abbot of Feri&res; Maimbourg, Louis.
Jeaw- WILHELM, J., S.T.D., Ph.D., Battle, England:
TURNER, WILLIAM, B.A., S.T.D., Professor op Loci Theologici.
Logic and the History of Philosophy, Cath- ^^ «^ ^^ ^^ » ^ ^
ouc University op America, Washington: WILLIAMSON, GEORGE CHARLES, Lirr.D.,
'■ Leibniz, System of; Logic; Maimonides, Moses, London: Lebrun, Charles; Lefdvre, Family of;
Teaching of; Marianus Scotus. Lopez-Caro, Francisco; Lotto, Lorenzo; Luini,
URQUHART, FRANCIS FORTESOUE, Fellow Bernardino; Maratta, Carlo; Martini, Simone.
AND Lecturer in Modern History, Balliol WILLIS, JOHN WILLEY, M.A., St. Paul, Minne-
COLLEOE, Oxford: Lollards; Magna Charta; sqta: Law, Common.
Mannyng, Robert; Marisco, Adam de.
VAILHE, SIMEON, A.A., Member of the (Russian WITTMANN, PIUS, Ph.D., Reichsarchtvrat.
Arch^ological Institute of Constantinople, Budingen, Germany: Linde, Justin Timotheus
Professor of Sacred Scripture and History, Balthasar, Freiherr von; Luxemburg.
Greek Catholic Seminary of Kadi-Keui, zFPHIRINY, BROTHBR, Iberville, Canada:
Constantinople: Lares; Larissa; Legio; Lem- ^ kittle Brothers of.
berg; Leontopolis; Lepanto; Leptis Magna; Le
Quien, Michel; Leros; Lesbi; Livias; Lorea; ZIMMERMAN, BENEDICT, O.D.C., St. Luke's
Lugos, Diocese of; Lycopolis; Lydda; Lystra; Priory, Wincanton, Somersetshire: Leginont,
Marash; Marcianopolis; Marcopolis; Mardin; Oliver; Lezana. Juan; Lobera, Ann: Ludnvicus
Haironia; Biartyropolis. a S. Carolo.
idi
Tables of Abbreviations
The following tables and notes are intended to guide readers of The Catholic Enctclopedi^ in
interpreting thoaeabbreviations, signs, or technical phrases which, for economy uf space, will be most fre-
quently used in the work. For more general information see the article Abbbeviations, Ecclesiastical.
I. — GEiTEaiAL Abbreviations.
a article:
ad an at the year ( Lat. ad ctnnum) .
an., ann the year, the ycarH (Lat, annue,
anni ) .
ap in ( Lat. apud ) .
art : • article.
Assyr Assyrian.
A. S Anglo-Saxon.
A. V Authorized Version ( i.e. tr. of
the Bible authorized for use
in the Anglican Church — the
so-called ** King James ", or
"Protestant Bible").
b. bom.
Bk Book.
Bl blessed.
C., c about (Lat. circa ) ; canon ;
chapter ; compagnie,
can canon.
cap chapter (Lat. caput — used
only in Latin context).
cf compare ( Lat. confer) .
cod codex.
col column.
concl conclusion.
const., constit Lat. constilulio.
curft .by the industry of.
d. died
diet dictionary ( Fr. dictionnaire) .
disp Lat. dispufatio.
diss Lat. dissertatio,
dist Lat. distinclio.
D. V Douay Version.
ed.. edit edited, edition, editor.
Ep., Epp letter, letters (Lat. epistola) ,
Fr French.
gen genus.
Gi Greek. •
H. E., Hist. Eccl. .. Ecclesiastical History.
Heb., Hebr Hebrew.
ib., ibid in the same place ( Lat. ibidem).
Id the same person, or author
(Lat. idem),
inf. below (Lat. infra).
It Italian.
1. c, loc. cit at the place quoted (Lat. toco
citato).
I^t Latin.
iat latitude.
lib book {Ijsii. liher) ,
long longitude.
Mon Lat. Monumenta.
MS., MSS manuscript, manuscripts.
n., no number.
X. T New Testament.
Nat National.
Old Fr., O. Fr Old French.
op. cit in the work quoted (Lat. opere
citato),
Ord Order.
O. T Old Testament.
p., pp pag«i pages, or ( in Latin ref-
erences) pars (part).
par paragraph.
passim in various places.
pt part.
Q Quarterly ( a periodical ) , e.g.
" Church Quarterly *'.
Q.J QQ.) quflBst question, questions (Lat.
qUCBStio),
q. V which [title] see ( Lat. quod
vide).
Rev Review (a periodical ) .
R. S Rolls Series.
R. V Revised Version.
S., SS Lat. Sanctus, Sancti, " Saint ",
" Saints " — used in this En-
cyclopedia only in Latin
context.
Sept Septaugint.
Sess Session.
Skt Sanskrit.
Sp Spanish.
Sq.; sqq following page, or pages (Lat.
srquens) .
St., Sts Saint, Saints.
Hup Above ( Lat. supra ) .
H. V Under the corresponding title
(Lat. auh voce).
xib
TAIBiLES OF ABBRBVIATIGNB.
tonii volume (Lat. tomua).
tr. translation or translated. By it-
self it means '' English trans-
lation", or "tranelated into
English by ". Where a trans-
lation is into any other lan-
guage, the language is stated.
tr., tract tractate.
▼. see ( Lat. vide),
Ven Venerable.
Vol Volume.
II. — Abbbeviationb of Titles.
Acta 6S Acta Samoiorum (Bolkmdists).
Ann. pont. cath Battandier, Annuaire pontifical
cathoUque,
Bibl. IMct. Eng.
Cath Gillow, Bibliographical Diction-
ary of the English Catholics.
Diet. Christ. Antiq . . Smith and' Cheetham ( ed ) ,
Dictionary of Christian An-
tiquitii
Diet. Christ. Biog... Smith and Wace (ed.), Diction-
ary «of Christian Biography.
Diet, d'arch. chr6t. . .Cabrol (ed.) , Diciionnaire d'ar-
ehiologie chr6timne et de
liturgie.
Diet. deth6ol. cath.. Vacant and Mangenot (ed.),
Diatiomiaire de tMologie
catholique.
Diet. Nat Biog Stephen and Lee (ed.). Diction-
ary of National BiograjAy.
Hast., Diet, of the
Bi^le HasUngs (ed.), A Dictionary
of the Bible.
Kirchenlez Wetzer and Welte, KircKen^
lecriootu
P. G Migne (ed.), Patreg Ormoi,
P. L Migne (ed.), Pairea La'tini,
Vig., Diet, de la BibleVigouroux (ed.), Diciionnaire
de la Bible.
pace of
Nora I.— Lsne RomAn numermhi standing alone indieate volumea. Small Roman numerals standing alone indicate dusters.
Aiabio numerals standing alone indicate pages. In other eases the divisions are explicitly stated. Thus Rashdall, UniversitieB of
Europe, I, iz '* refers the reader to the mnth chapter of the first vohime of that work; I, p. is *' w<Hild indicate the ninth
the Mefaoe of the same volume.
NOTB II. — Where St. Thomas (Aquinas) is cited without the name of any partieular woric the reference is always to *' Si
Thsologica " (not to " Summa Philosophis "). The (tivisions of the " Summa Theol." are indicated by a system which may best
be understood by the following example: ** I-II, Q. vi. a. 7, ad 2 um " refers the reader to the aeventk article of the wixth question
Id the fint part of the neand imrt, in the reqsonse to the moimd objection.
NoTB III.«- The abbreviations enu^osrea for the various books of the Bible are obvious. Eodesiasticus is indicated by Sedut.,
to distincuiah it from Eoolesiastes (EodHt.). It should also be noted that I and II ^ngs in D. V. correspond to I and II Samuel in
A. v.; and I and II Par. to I and II Chronioles. Where, in the Tp^Hing of a proper name, there is a marked difference between the
D. V. and the A. V.. the form found in the kttsr is added, in paientbssss.
Mh
Full Page Illustrations in Volume IX
Frontispiece in Colour p^^b
Apse, St. John Lateran, Rome 14
Convent of Mar Saba, from Brook of Cedron 38
St. Lawrence being ordained Deacon by Sixtus II 90
St. Peter giving the Pallimn to Leo III 158
Leo XIII— Chartran 170
Le6n 176
Lichfield Cathedral 232
Lincoln Cathedral , 266
Madonna with the Violet — Lochner 320
Shrine of EJdward the Confessor, London 352
St. Peter Martyr — Lorenzo Lotto 366
St. Louis relieving the Needy, etc : . . 367
Louisville 386
Lund 434
Isabella the Catholic 518
Signing of the Magna Carta — Ernest Normand 532
Chapel of St. Peter in Carcere, Mamertine Prison 578
Henry Ekiward, Cardinal Manning — Eklwin Long 606
Cardinal Giulio Rospigliosi — Carlo Maratla 636
Christ and Mary Magdalen — Correggio 760
Mary Queen of Scots 766
Mary Tudor, Queen of England — Antonio Moro 767
THE
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA
Laprade, Victor de, French poet and critic, b.
at Montbrison in 1812; d. at Lyons in 1883. He first
studied medicine, then law, and was admitted to the
bsLTf but soon left it to become professor of French
literature at the "Faculty des lettres" of Lyons. He
lost this position in 1863 for having published ^* Les
Muses d'Etat", a satire aimed at the men of the Sec-
ond Empire, and from that time on he devoted all his
time to poetry. In 1858 he had taken the seat of Mus-
set in the French Academy. Laprade is probably the
most idealistic French poet of the nineteenth century.
His talent somewhat resembles that of Lamartine,
whom he ^dly acknowledged as his master. His in-
spiration IS always lofty, his verses are harmonious
and at times graceful. God, nature, the fatherland,
mankind, friendship, the family are his favourite
topics. To form a correct opinion of his work, one
should discriminate between the two phases of his
literary career. During the first, which extends down
to his admission into the Frencn Academy, he takes
pains to connect the ancient with the modem world,
mythology with Christianity. This is what might be
termed the impersonal phase of his thought. *Tsych6"
ri342), "Les Odes et Formes" (1844), "Les Podmes
6vang61iques" (1852). " Les Symphonies " (1855), be-
long to this first period. Another collection of poems
"L©8 Idylles h^roiquea" (1858), marks the transition
from the first to the second phase. Laprade's poetical
pantheism has now given place to a more Cnristian
and more humane inspiration. The "poet of the
summits", as he was sometimes called, had become a
man of his times; filial and parental love, the coimtiy
life of his dear native province (Forez), are now his
topics. To this period belong " Fernet te" (1878),
"Harmodius" (1870), "Les Formes civiques" (1873).
It was then that, in some measure, he became
popular. He was also a remarkable educational and
sesthetical writer, as is shown by the following works:
" Questions d'art et de morale " (1867), " Le Sentiment
de la nature avant le christianisme " (1867), "L'^u-
cation homicide" (1867), "L'^ducation Hb^rale"
(1873).
BiRK, V. de Laprade, mvieeteee ctuvres (Paris, b. d ).
Pierre Marique.
Lapsi (Lat., labi^ lapsus) ^ the regular designation in
the third century for Christians who relapsed into
heathenism^ especially for those who during the per-
secutions displayed weakness in the face of torture,
and denied the Faith by sacrificing to the heathen gods
or by other acts. Many of the lapsi, indeed the ma-
jority of the very numerous cases in the great perse-
cutions after the middle of the third century, certainly
did not return to paganism out of conviction: they
simply had not the courage to confess the Faith stead-
fastly wl^n threatened with temporal losses and se-
vere punishments (banishment, forced labour, or
IX.- 1
death), and their sole desire was to preserve them-
selves from persecution by an external act of apostasy,
and to save their property, freedom, and life. Toe
obligation of confessing the Christian Faith imder all
circumstances and of avoiding every act of denial was
firmly established in the Church from Apostolic times.
The First Epistle of St. Peter exhorts the believers to
remain steadfast imder the visitations of affliction
(i, 6, 7; iv, 16, 17). In his letter to Trajan, Plmy
writes that those who are truly Christians will not
offer any heathen sacrifices or utter any revilings
against Christ. Nevertheless we learn both from
" The Shepherd " of Hennas, and from the accounts
of the persecutions and martyrdoms, that individual
Christians after the second century showed weak-
ness, and fell away from the Faith. The aim of the
civil proceedings against Christians, as laid down in
Trajan's rescript to Pliny, was to lead them to apos-
tasy. Those Christians were acquitted who declared
that they wished to be so no longer and performed
acts of pagan religious worship, but the steadfast were
punished. In the "Martyrdom of St. Polycarp"
(c. iv; ed. Funk, " Patres Apostolici ", 2nd ed., I, 319),
we read of a Phrygian, Quintus. who at first volun-
tarily avowed the Christian Faitn, but showed weak-
ness at the sight of the wild beasts in the amphithea-
tre, and allowed the proconsul to persuade him to
offer sacrifice. The letter of the Christians of Lyons,
concerning the persecution of the Church there in 177,
tells us likewise of ten brethren who showed weak-
ness and apostatized. Kept, however, in confine-
ment and stimulated by the example and the kind
treatment they received from the Christians who had
remained steadfast, several of them repented their
apostasy, and in a second trial, in which the rene'
^les were to have been acquitted, they faithfully
confessed Christ and gained the martyrs' crown
(Eusebius, "Hist. EccL". V, ii).
In genera], it was a weil-established principle in the
Church of the second and the beginning of the third
century that an apostate, even if he did penance, was
not again tidcen into the Christian community, or ad-
mitted to the Holy Eucharist. Idolatry was one of
the three capital sins which entailed exclusion from
the Church. After the middle of the third century,
the question of the lapsi gave rise on several occasions
to serious disputes in the Christtan commimities, and
led to a further development of the penitential disci-
pline in the Chureh. The first occasion on which the
question of the lapsi became a serious one in the
Church, and finally led to a schism, was the great per-
secution of Decius (250-1). An imperial edict, which
frankly aimed at the extermination of Christianity,
enjoined that every Christian must perform an act of
idolatry. Whoever refused was threatened with the
severest punishments. The officials were instructed
to seek out the Christians and compel them to saerifioe.
uunx
and to proceed against the recalcitrant ones with th«
greatest severitv (see Decius). The consequences of
this first general edict of persecution were dreadful for
the Church. In the long peace which the Christians
had enjoyed, many had Ix^come infected with a
worldly spirit. A great number of the laity, and even
some meml>ers of the clergj', weakened, and, on the
promulgation of the edict, flocked at once to the
altars of the heathen idols to offer sacrifice. We are
particularly well-informed about the events in Africa
and in Rome by the correspondence of St. Cyprian,
Bishop of Carthage, and bv his treatises. ** De catho-
licae ecclesi® unitate " and De lapsis " (" Csecilii Cyp-
riani openi omnia", ed. Hartel, I, II, Vienna, 18d8-
71). There were various classes of lapsi, according to
the act by which they fell: (1) sacrificatiy those who
had actuallv offered a sacrifice to idols; (2) thurificcdif
those who had burnt incense on the altar before the
statues of the gods; (3) libdlaticij those who had
drawn up an attestation (libeUus), or had, by bribing
the authorities, caused such certificates to be drawn
up for them, representing them as having offered
■aerifice, without, however, having actually done so.
So far five of these libelli are known to us (one at Ox-
ford, one at Berlin, two at Vienna, one at Alexandria;
see Krebs in "Sitzungsberichte der kais. Akademie
der Wissenschaften in Wien", 1894, pp. 3-9; Idem in
"Patrologia Orientalis", IV, Paris, 1907, pp. 33 sq.;
Franchi de* Cavalieri in " Nuovo Bullettmo di arche-
ologia cristiana", 1895, pp. 68-73). Some Christians
were allowed to present a written declaration to the
authorities to the effect that they had offered the
prescribed sacrifices to the gods, and asked for a cer-
tificate of this act (libdlum tradere): this certificate
was delivered by the authorities, and the petition-
ers received back the attestation (libeUum accijjere),
Hiose who had actually sacrificed (the sacrificati and
the thurificati) also received a certificate of having
done so. The libellatici, in the narrow sense of the
word, were those who obtained certificates without
having actually sacrificed. Some of the libellatici,
who forwarded to the authorities documents drawn
up concerning their real or alleged sacrifices and bear-
ing their signatures, were also called actafadentes.
The names of the Christians, who had shown their
apostasy by one of the above-mentioned methods,
were entered on the court records. After these weak
brethren had received their attestations and knew
that their names were thus recorded, they felt them-
selves safe from further inquisition and persecution.
The majority of the lapsi had indeed only obeyed the
edict of Decius out of weakness: at heart they wished
to remain Christians. Feeling secure against further
persecution, they now wished to attend Christian
worship again and to be readmitted into the conmiu-
nion of the Church, but this desire was contrary to the
then existing penitential discipline. The Lapsi of
Carthage succeeded in winning over to their side cer-
tain Cmistians who had remaned faithful, and had
suffered torture and imprisonment. These confes-
sors sent letters of reconmaendation in the name of the
dead martyrs (libelli pads) to the bishop in favour of
the renegades. On tne strength of these ''letters of
peace", the lapsi desired immediate admittance into
communion with the Church, and were actually ad-
mitted by some of the clergy inimically disposed to
pyprian. Similar difficulties arose at Rome, and St.
(Brian's Carthaginian opponents sought for support
in the capital in their attack against their bishop.
Cyprian, who had remained in constant communica-
turn with the Roman clergy during the vacancy of the
Roman See after the martyrdom of Pope Fabian, de-
cided that nothing should be done in the matter of
reconciliation of the lapsi until the persecution should
be over and he could return to Carthage. Only those
apostates who showed that they were penitent, and
had received a personal note (kbellus pacts) from a
confessor or a martyr, might obtain absolution ano
admission to communion with the Church and to the
Holy Eucharist, if they were dangerously ill and at the
point of death. At Rome, likewise, the principle was
established that the apostates should not be given up,
but tliat they should be exhorted to do penance, so
that, in case of their being again cited before the pagan
authorities, they might atone for their apostasy by
steadfastly confessing the Faith. Furthermore, com-
munion was not to l^ refused to those who were seri-
ously ill, and wished to atone for their apostasy by
penance.
The party opposed to Cyprian at Carthage did not
accept the biahop's decision, and stirred up a schism.
When, after the election of St. Ck)rneUus to the Giair
of Peter, the Roman priest Novatian set himself up
at Rome as anti-pope, he claimed to be the upholder
of strict discipline, inasmuch as he refused uncondi-
tionally to readmit to communion with the Church
any wno had fallen away. He was the founder of
Novatianism (q. v.). Shortly after Cyprian's return
to his episcopal city in the spring of 251, synods were
held in Rome and Africa, at wmch the affair of the
Xwas adjusted by common agreement. It was
.ited as a principle that they should be encouraged
to repent, and, imder certain conditions and after s^e-
quate public penance (exoniologesis), should be read-
mitted to communion. In fixing the duration of
the penance, the bishops were to take into considera-
tion the circumstances of the apostasy, e. g., whether
the penitent had offered sacrifice at once or only after
torture, whether he had led his family into apostasy
or on the other hand had saved them therefrom, after
obtaining for himself a certificate of having sacrificed.
Those, who of their own accord had actually sacrificed
(the sacrificati and thurificati), might be reconciled
with the Church only at the point of death. The
libellatici might, after a reasonable penanc«, be im-
mediately readinitted. In view of the severe perse-
cution then inuninent, it was decided at a subsequent
Carthaginian synod that all lapsi who had undergone
public penance should be readmitted to full com-
munion with the Church. Bishop Dionysius of Alex-
andria adopted the same attitude towards the lapsi
as Pope Cornelius and the Italian bishops, and C^'p-
rian and the African bishops. But in the East Kova-
tian's rigid views at first found a more sympathetic
reception. The united efforts of the supporters of
Pope Cornelius succeeded in bringing the ^eat ma-
jority of the Eastern bishops to recognise him as the
rightful Roman pontiff, with which recognition the
acceptance of the principles relative to the case of the
lapsi was naturally united. A few groups of Chris-
tians in different parts of the empire shared the views
of Novatian, anci tlius enabled the latter to form a
small schismatic community (see Novatianism).
At the time of the great persecution of Diocletian,
matters took the same course as under Decius. Dur-
ing this severe affliction which assailed the Church,
many showed weakness and fell away, and, as before,
p^ormed acts of heathen worship, or tried by arti-
fice to evade persecution. Some, with the collusion
of the officials, sent their slaves to the pagan sacrifices
instead of (^oing themselves; others bribed pagans to
assume their names and to perform the required sac-
rifices (Petrus Alexandrinus, ''Liber de poenitentia'*
in Routh, *' Reliquiae Sacr.", IV, 2nd ed., 22 sqq). In
the Diocletian persecution appeared a new cat^'gory
of lapsi called the trcuiitares: tnese were the Christians
(mostly clerics) who, in obedience to an edict, gave up
the sacred books to the authorities. The term tra-
ditorea was given both to those who actually gave up
the sacred books, and to those who merely delivered
secular works in their stead. As on the previous occa-
sion, the lapsi in Rome, under the l^ership of a
certain Heraclius, tried forcibly to obtain readmission
to communion with the Church without performing
LAPUINTI 3 Ul&ZOHAEDIX
penance, but Popes Blaroellus and Eusebius adhered a part of the sultanate of Konia, and after the pos-
strictly to the tiaditional penitential discipline. The sessions of the Seljuks were divided, it became the
confusion and disputes caused by this difference capital of Caramania, conquered in 1486 by the Os-
among the Roman Christians caused Maxentius to manli Sultan Bajazet II. The name Laranda is sel-
fcMinish MarceUus and later Eusebius and Heraclius dom heard in modern davs, the city is generally known
(cf. Inscriptions of Pope Damasus on Popes Mar- as Caraman. It has about 15,000 mhabitants, the
cellus and Eusebius in Inm, ''Damasi epigrammata'', majority being Mussulmans, and is one of the chief
Leipzig, 1895, p. 51, n. 48; p. 25, n. IB). In Africa towns of the vilayet of Konia. Cbtton and silk fab-
the unhappy Donatist schism arose from disputes rics are made there, and it is a railway-station be-
about the lapsi, especially the traditores (see Dona- tween Konia and Eregli on the way to Bagdad. There
TiSTs). Several synods oi the fourth century drew up are no ancient ruins. Laranda is mentioned as a suf-
canons on the treatment of the lapsi, e. g., the fragan of Iconium bv the *'Notitise Episcopatuum"
Synod of Elvira in 306 (can. i-iv, xlvi), of Arlee in imtil about the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Only
314 (can. xiii), of Ancyra in 314 ([can. i-ix), and the four of its bishops are known: Neo, mentioned by
General Council of >fice (can. xiii). Many of the Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., VI, xix); Paul, present at the
decisions of these synods concerned only members of Council of Nicsea, 325; Ascholius, at Chalcedon, 451 ;
Uie clergy who had committed acts of apostasy in Sabbas, at Constantinople, 879.
time of persecution. L» quikn, Orien$ Christ., l, 1081; Smith, Diet, of Greek and
HsrBLB. KonxUienoeKh., I (2nd ed.. FreibuiK. 1873). Ill i^oman Get^., 8. v.; lUittAr, A«ia if inor, poMtm.^
■qq., 155 sqq.. 211. 222 sqa., 412 sqq.; Duchksnb. Hiat. an- b. I'ETIUDES.
eUnne de VBglise, I (Paris. 1906) ..397 sqq.; Funk, Zur altchrittl.
f.'TSi^^'^.^'tSSl^rSS::^:^^^ ^»', formerly a titular areluepiscopal aee in pn>.
rian 'mZeUaehr. fur KirchengeMch., XVI (1896), 1-44. 187-219; consular Afnca. In ancient times it was a fortified
8ip3p^R,DieBehandlunoderOejaU^ town, mentioned by Sallust (JuRurtha, xc), later it
i;SE»!;^^VEfe?J^teiKrdr2?.i5^^: ^}yf the.name of Colonia ^lia Aug. La.res. At
ThUe (LvoDfl, 1904); 8ch6naich, Die ChristenverfoJoung dtt least five of its bishops are known: Hortensian, who
Kainer»fieciu9 (Jauer. 1907): Db Roasi. Roma toUerruneaari*- took part in 252 and 255 at the Councils of Carthage;
^Stii^-^y>^^ii>^'^^id^'J%^T'"^' ^' *'' •'^ yictorinu8 who with his Donatist colleague Honoratus
J. p. KiRSCH. figured at the conference of Carthage; Qumtian who
Uved at the time of the persecution of Iluneric (about
Lapuente (D'Apontb, db Pontb, Dupont), Luis 480); Vitulus, who was living in 525 in the time of
DB, Venerable, b. at Valladolid, 11 November, 1554; King Hilderic. St. Augustine (Ep. ccxxix), Victor
d. there, 16 February, 1624. Having entered the So- Vitensis (Hist. Pers. Vand., 6 and 9), Procopius (Bell,
ciety of Jesus, he studied under the celebrated Suarez. Vand., II, 22 and 28), also Arabian and other historians
and professed philosophy at Salamanca. Endowed mention the town. It is the Loroeus of to-day, be-
with exceptional talents for government and the for- tween Tunis and Tebessa; the ruins cover a large
mation of young reli^ous. he was forced by impaired area, which would indicate that once it had been a
health to retire from offices which he had filled town of considerable importance. A mosque has
with distinction and general satisfaction. The ^ears taken the place of a church, and the ruins of a basilica
that followed were devoted to Uterary composition, are still visible.
Though not reckoned among Spanish classics, his OAiia, Serie* episcoporum. I, 466; Toulotte, O^ographie d§
works are so replete with practical spirituaUty that VAfriquechritienneproconsulaire (Paris, 1892). 191-4.
they claim for him a place among the most eminent • ^^^^^^'
masters of ascetidwn Ordwned priest in IMO, he be- j^ Eichardie, Armand de, b. at P<5riKueux, 7 June,
owne the spintual dujwstor of the celebrated Marma de iggg ^ ^^ q^^^ 17 ^^^^ 1758 g^ ^^t^^ed th^
f^?^'u^A^'t,°B'^ » continued till his death. Society of Jelu8atBordeaux,40ct., 1703,andinl725
In 1599 he devoted himself with great chanty to the „^ J^^. ^ the Canada misdon. He s^nt the two
care of the plagius-rtncken in Villagarcia. Of remark- snowing years helping Father Pierre I^iel Richer
able umocence of life he not only avoided all^evous ^^ Lorett/, and studying the Huron language. In
sin, but bound himself by vow, some years before his ^728 he went to Detroft to re-establish^e long-
f^i'^^'tSr^eilf ^S'J5i'!?^i:r!fl?„^J^jrJi!l^ interrupted mission to.the dispersed. Petun-Hurons^
Christian did
had been bap-
ineHurons. During the
father was stricken with
lhu^ vu ^u&unx ij^ucir,. xiiu, i«iv woriL xii« ue«u ^j^fy^i^ and on 29 Julv he was placed in an open
trandatod mto ten different languag^, indudmg Ara- ^oe ^nd thus conveyeJ to Quebei. ^
bic. A few years irfterhw death, the SacredC^^ j^ 1747 ^y^^ HuroM insisted on his returning to
tiOQ of Rites admitted the cause for his beatification ^^^ tranquiUity to their nation. The fatherliad
*%S22^S2.''S:j.. VI. Ix; N,.H.MB.Ro. Varones Husire.. ^^8^ completely Tecovered from his palsy, and will-
IX. mgly consented. He set out from Montreal on 10
Henrt J. Swift. Sept., and reached Detroit on 20 Oct. From this
date until 1751, leaving the loyal Hurons in the keep-
Laranda, a titular see of Isauria, afterwards of in£ of Father Potier at the Detroit village, he directed
Lycaonia. Strabo (XII, 569), informs us that Laranda allhis energies to reclaiming Nicolas Orontondi's band
had belonged to the t3rrant Antipater of Derbe, of insurgent Hurons. These had already in 1740,
whence we may infer that it was governed by native owing to a bloody feud with the Detroit Ottawas and
princes. The city was taken by storm and destroyed to the reluctance, if not refusal, of Governor Beauhar-
Dy Perdiccas (Diodorus Siculus, XVIII, 22), after- nais to let the Hurons remove to Montreal, sullenly
wards rebuilt. Owing to its fertile territory Laranda left Detroit and settled at " Little Lake" (now Ron-
beoune one of the most important cities of the di»- deau Harbour) near Sandusky. There they had been
trioty also one of the principM centres for the pirates of won over to the English cause, had openly revolted in
Uauria. It was the birthplace of the poets Nestor and 1747, and had muroered a party of Frenchmen. Earl)'
*'*- son Pisander (Suidas, s. v.). In later times it was in the tpring of 1748 Orontondi (not Oronteny) set
LARINO
Ul BOOHS
fire to the fort and cabins at Sandusky, and withdrew
to the Rividre Blanche, not far from the junction of
the Ohio and Wabash Rivers. Until his death, which
occurred some time after September, 1749, Orontondi
continued to intrigue with the English emissaries, the
Iroquois, and the disaffected Miamis. When there
was no longer doubt of the renegade leader's demise,
dc La Richardie resolved on a final attempt at concilia-
tion. He had already at intervals spent months at a
time among the fugitives, and now on 7 Sept., 1750,
at the pern of his life he started, with only three canoe
men for the country of the "Nicolites" as they were
then termed. The greater nimiber remained obdu-
rate. It is the descendants of the latter who in July,
1843, removed from their lands at Upper Sandusky,
Ohio, to beyond the Mississippi, and now occupy the
Wyandot reserve in the extreme north-eastern part
of Oklahoma. The father's failing strength obliged
his superiors to recall him to Quelle in 1751, and on
30 June he bade a final farewell to the Detroit mis-
sion. From the autumn of 1751 until his death he
filled various important offices in Quebec College. His
Huron name was Ondechaouasti.
Original sources: Potier, MS. Journal, passtzo: Census of
Hurona, Gramin.t 149-60; Paris Archives, Minisltre dcs
Colonies, Canada: Corrcsp. gfnirale, LIII» c. xi, fol. 207-
14; LXXIV, c. xi, fol. 80. 268; L»CV, c. xi, fol. 90, 97. 121,
124, 130, 149. 164. 1.55, 249. 370; iZXXVIl, c. 3d. fol. 166,
LXXXI, fol. 160; Archives Coloniales, Canada: Correspond.
a6n., XCIII, c. xi. fol. 31, 282; Collection de MSS. rdatifs a la
Nouvelle-France, III (Quebec, 1884). passim: N. Y. Colonial
Does., X, 99-130. 134-46. 246-61; Wisconsin Hist. CoU., XVII,
XVIII, passim.
Modem authors: Shea, Hu<. of Caih. Missions among the
Indians (1856) 202-03; Idem, Hist, of Cath. Ch. in U. S..
I. 1886, 631; III, 1890, 330. Thwattes, Jes. Rds. and Allied
Docs., LXVIII, 333; tXXIII. 80: db Rochemonteix, Les
Jisuites et la Nouv. France, I, 346, UI. 626.
Arthur Edward Jones.
Larino (Larinum), Diocese of, in the province of
Campobasso, Southern Italy. Larinum was a city of
the t rentani (a Samnite tribe) and a Roman municip'
turn. The present city is a mile from the site of the
ancient I-Armum, destroyed by war and epidemic, and
is first mentioned as an episcopal see in 668. Note-
worthy among the bishops were Giovanni Leone
(1440), a distinguished canonist and theologian; Fra
Giacomo de' Petruzzi, a saintly and renowned phi-
losopher; Belisario Baldovino (1555), present at the
Council of Trent, founder of the seminary and epis^
copal palace; the Oratorian Gian Tommaso Eustachi
(1612), famous for his sanctity; Carlo M. Pianetti
(1706^, who restored the cathedral, with its beautiful
marble fao^de; Gian Andrea Tria (1726), historian of
Larino. The diocese is a suffragan of Benevento, and
has 21 parishes with 79,000 souJs, 3 religious houses
of men and 1 of women, and 1 school for girls.
Cappelletti. Le chiese d* Italia, XIX (Venice, 1867); Tria,
Storia civile ed ecclesiastiche di Larino (Rome» 1744).
U. Benigni.
Larissa, the seat of a titular archbishopric of
Thessaly. The city, one of the oldest and ricnest in
Greece, is said to have been founded by Acrisius, who
was killed accidentally by his son, Perseus (Stephanus
Byzantius, s. v.). There lived Peleus, the hero be-
loved by the gods, and his son Achilles; however, the
city is not mentioned by Homer, unless it be identified
with Argissa of the Iliad (II, 738). The constitution
of the town was democratic, which explains why it
sided with Athens in the Peloponnesian War. In the
nei(;hbourhood of Larissa was celebrated a festival
which recalled the Roman Saturnalia, and at which the
•laves were waited on by their masters. It was taken
by the Thebans and afterwards by the Macedonian
kings, and Demetrius Poliorcetes gained possession of
it for a time, 302 b. c. It was there that Philip V.
King of Macedonia, signed in 197 b. c, a shameful
treaty with the Romans after his defeat at Cynosce-
|^1», and it was there also that Antiochus III, the
Great, won a great victory, 192 b. c. Larissa is fre-
quently mentioned in connexion with the Roman civil
wars which preceded the establishment of the empire,
and Pompey sought refuge there after the defeat of
Pharsalus. First Roman, then Greek until the thir-
teenth century, and afterwards Prankish until 1460,
the city fell into the liands of the Turks, who kept it
imtil 1882, when it was ceded to Greece; it sufifeied
greatly from the conflicts between the Greeks and the
Turks between 1820 and 1830, and quite recently from
the Turkish occupation in 1897. On 6 March, 1770,
Aya Pasha massacred there 3000 Christians from
Trikala, who had been treacherously brought there.
Very prosperous under the Turkish sovereignty
Larissa, which counted 40,000 inhabitants thirty
years ago, has now only 14,000, Greeks, Turks, and
Jews; tne province of which it is the chief town has a
population of 140,000. Christianity penetrated early
to Larissa, though its first bishop is recorded only in
325 at the Council of Nicsea. We must mention
especially, St. Achilius, in the fourth century, whose
feast is on 15 May, and who is celebrated for his mira-
cles. Lequien, *'Oriens Christ.", II, 103-112, cites
twentjr-nine bishops from the fourth to the eighteenth
centuries; the most famous, Jeremias II, occupied the
patriarchal See of Constantinople in the sixteenth
century. As to the archbishops of Latin Rite, about
ten names were recorded by Lequien, op. cit., Ill,
979. and chiefly by Eubel, ** Ilierarchia catholica
medii aevi" (MQnster), I, 307; II, 191. The metro-
politan See of Larissa depended directly on the pope
as Patriarch of the West imtil 733, when the Emperor
Leo III the Isaurian annexed it to the Patriarchate of
Constantinople. In the first years of the tenth cen-
tury it had ten suffragan sees (Gelzer, " Un^edruckte
. . . Texte der Notitiffi episcopatuum '\ Munich, 1900,
557); subsequently the number increased and about
the year 1175, under the Emperor Manuel Comnenus,
it reached twenty-eight (Parthey, **Hieroclis Synec-
demus", Berlin, 1866, 120). At the close of the fif-
teenth century, under the Turkish domination, there
were only ten suffragan sees (Gelzer, op. cit., 635),
which gradually grew less and finally disappeared.
Since 1882, when Thessaly was ceded to Greece, the
Orthodox Diocese of larissa has been dependent on
the Holy Synod of Athens, not Constantinople. Ow-
ing to the law of 1900 which suppressed all the metro-
p(3itan sees excepting Athens, Larissa was reduced to
the rank of a simple bishopric; its title is united with
that of Pharsalus and Platamon, two adjoining bishop-
rics now suppressed.
S. Vailh^.
La Roche, Alain de. See Alanus de Rupe.
La Roche Daillon, Joseph de, Recollect, one of the
most zealous missionaries of the Huron tribe, d. in
France, 1656. He landed at Quebec, 19 Jime, 1625,
with the first Jesuits who came to New France, and at
once set out with the Jesuit Father Br^beuf for Three
Rivers, to meet the Hurons into whose country they
hoped to enter. Owing to a report that the Hurons
had drowned the RecoUect Nicolas Viel, their mis-
sionary, the journey was put off. In 1626 La Roche
Daillon was among the Hurons, leaving whom he
passed to the Neutral Nation after travelling six days
on foot. He remained with them for three months,
and at one time barely escaped being put to death.
This caused his return to the Hurons. In 1628 he
went to Three Rivers with twenty Huron canoes, on
their way to trade pelts with the French. From
Three Rivers he journeyed to Quebec, and on the tak-
ing of the city, in 1629, the English sent him back to
France. La Roche Daillon published an account of
his voyage to and sojourn amongst the Neutrals, de-
scribing their country and their customs, and men-
tioning a kind of oil which seems to be coal oil. Sa-
gard and Leclerca reproduced it in their writings, in a
more or less alniaged form.
LA BOOHtrOUOAULD-LUMOOnaT
BAMTuiN. CEucret. «d, L&VBiuiikas (Quebw, 1870);
ABD. Hisloire du Camida.tA. Tsou (Faiu. 1S6B): Lk-
«™, £y™;.(««inm( dt la Fai CPstia. 16011; wJn'i— -f—
I. Rdatioa dt 15*1 IQuebtc. 185S); Pa
poeed during the last ye&is of the rciKn of Loub ,_ .
to the government of Maupcou, and tlie friend of all
the reformers who BUrrouniied Louis XVI, he owed to
the influence of these economists the favour of the king.
rage for rural life which characterized the last years
of the old regime, La Rochefoucauld made his estate
at Liancourt an experimental station, wishing to im-
prove both the eoil and the peaaantry. He intro-
duced new methods of farming, founded the first
model technical school in Franco (intended for the
children of poor soldiers), and started two factories.
Politically, he was a partisan of a democratic regime
of which the king was to be the bead, and throughout
his life was faithful to this dream. Deputy for the
Dobility of Clermont in Beauvabis at the States-Gen-
eral, he voted unhesitatingly for the "reunion of the
three orders". It waa he who in the night which
foUowod the taking of the Bastille (14 July, 1780)
Assembly from 20 July to 3 August, 1789. On the
night of 4 August he was one of the most enthusiastic
in voting the abolition of titles of nobility and privi-
leges. As grand master of the wardrobe he accom-
mnied Louis XVI from Veruaillea to Paris on 5 and 6
October, 1789. Aa president of th« coimnitt<« of
mendicancy, he made a supreme effort at the Constit-
uent Assembly to organize public relief; he determined
the extent and the limits of the rights of every citiien
to assistance, determined the obligations of the State,
and established a budget of State assi:jtancc which
amounted annually to five millions and a half of
francs, and which implied the national confiscation of
hospital property, of ecclesiastical charitable property,
and of tno mcomo from privat* foundations.
Liancourt is one of the most undisceming repre-
sentatives of the tendency which led the revolutionary
floastoprenii
but Louis A
of constitutional deputies. Ijb. Rochefoucauld- Li-
ancourt emigrated shortly after 10 August, and re-
sided in England until 1794, afterwards in the United
States (1794-7). He took advantage of his residence
b that country to write eight volumes on the United
States, to induce Washington to interfere in favour of
Lafayette, and to gather ideas upon education and
Mriculturc which ho attempted later to appl;]^ in
France. After 18 Brumaire, Natx>lcon auttiorizcd
him to return to tiis Liancourt estate, which was re-
stored to him. This former duke and peer gloried in
being appointed, during the First Empire (1806).
general in><pector of the " Ecole dos arts et metiers
at Chalons, of which his Liancourt school had been a
forerunner. The IxHjk "Prisons de Philadelphie",
which he composed in America and published in
1706, was meant to initiate a penitentiary reform in
France; at the Restoration in 1814 he begged but one
favour— to be appointed prison inspector. In 1819
he became inspector of one of the twenty-eight 'ir-
rondiMemenla into which Prance was divided for peni-
tentiary puiposea. LouisXVIIIeave him back neither
Ihe blue ribbon nor the mastership of the wardrobe,
and in the House of Peers he sat with the opposition.
5 LA BOOHEJAOQUELBIH
La Roohefoucauld-Lioncourt was the Franklin of
the Revolution. An aristocrat by birth, a liberal in
his views, in touch with all the representatives of the
new commerce, be availed himself of this concurrence
of circumstances to become the leader of every cam-
paign for the people's protection and l)etterment:im-
Sirovenient of sanitary conditions in hospitals and
oundlinjt asylums, reorganization of schools accord-
ing to the theories of Lancaster, wliosc book be
had translated (Systt^me anglais d'Inst ruction). He
brought into use the method of mutual instnietion,
and the pupils between 1816 and 1820 increased from
165,000 to 1,123,000. In 1818 ho established the first
savings bank and provident institution in Paris. On 19
Nov., 1821, he founded the Society of Cliristian Morals,
over which he presided until 1825. It was at timeB
looked upon with suspicion by the police of the Res-
toration. At ita meetings were such men as Cliarles de
Rfimusat, Charles Coquerel, Guizot the pedagogue,
Oberlin, and Llorento, historian of the Inquisition.
Broglie, Guizot, and Benjamin Constant were chairmen
in turn, and Dufauro,Tocqueville, and Laiiiariine made
there their maiden speeches. In these meetings prov-
ident institutions, rather than charitalilc ones, were
discussed; slavery, lottery, gambling were comlwitted,
and the matter of prison inspection was taken up.
When La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt dieil, the Resto-
ration would not permit tlic students of Citrons to
carry his coffin, and the two chambers were much con-
cerned over such extreme measures. La Rochefou-
cauld-Liancourt was a typical philnnthropist, with all
that this word implies of generous inti'ntions and prac-
tical innovations; but also with a certain naive pride,
inherited from the philosophy of the eighteenth cen-
tury, which led him to mistrust the charitable initia-
tive of the Church, and to forget that the Church, the
most perfect representative of the spirit of brother-
hood, is still called in our modem society to win the
victory for this spirit by putting it to practical uses,
as she alone can.
Ii^am-VAHD-Daavrus, t/a pAilnnlArojir d'autrefiiii: La
Rocht/oueaiM-LianrouH, ITiT-ISt7 (Paris. ]90a).
(Jkohuks Gotau.
LsRochejacqaelein.HENfti-AunusTE-GEOROEanD
Vbbgibk, Comte db, French politician; b. at the
chateau of Citran (Gironde), on 28 Se|iieiuber. ISd-'j;
d. on 7 January,
1867. He belonged
to an old illus-
trious French fam-
Saint Louii^'s Cru-
sade in 1248, His
father, Louis del.!i
Rocbejacquelcin,
andhisuncloHenri
had won fame b'
royalist generals
in the wars of the
Vend fans agaiiwt
the National Con-
vention. Hi
mother left inter-
esting memoirs
which have been
jacquelein entered the military academy at Saintly rat
theageof sixteen and in 182-? he received acommission
aa second lieutenant in the cavalrv. He took part in the
Spanish War(1823) and in the Jluaso-Tiirkish War of
1828. In 182,5 he had been made a peer, but he re-
signed shortly after the Revolution of 1S30, which
brought the younger branch of the House of Bourbon
to Ifae tlur(»ie of France. The Department o{ Uq^Mt
Ul boohellk
LA BOOHKLLB
han sent him to the legislature in 1842. He took his
seat among the members of the Extreme Right, or Le-
gitimist party, with whom he usually cast his vote,
although he occasionally supported liberal measures.
In KS48 the "Gazette de France" supported his can-
didacy for the presidency of the newly established
French licpublic, but he obtained only an insignificant
number of votes. In 1852 he was made a senator by
Napoleon III, which caused some astonishment and
comment among his friends the Legitimists. In the
senate La Roche jacquelein always snowed himself an
ardent defender of Catholicism, but he may be re-
proached with having given his support to the whole
foreign policy of the imperial Government. He pub-
lished a number of works on political and economical
subjects, among them being: *' Considerations sur
rimpot du sel'' (Paris, 1844); "Opinion sur le projet
de loi relatif k la r^forme des pensions" (1844);
"Situation de la France" (1849); "A mon pays"
(1850); "La France en 1853" (185.3); "Question du
jour" (1850): "La suspension d'armes" (1859); "La
politique Internationale et le droit des gens" (1860);
^*Un schisme et I'honneur" (1861).
Bioffraphie dfM 900 ilepui^H h VAsnembtre nationale (Paris,
1848); Bwgraphie de» 760 d^putrs a VAnaemhUe It'gialative (Paris,
1852).
Pierre Marique.
La Rochelle, Diocese of (Rupellensis), suffra-
gan of Bordeaux, coinpriscj^ the entire Department of
Charente-Inf^rieure. The See of MaillezaLs (see Lu-
f on) was transferred on 7 May, 1048, to La Rochelle,
which diocese just previous to the Revolution, aside
from the territory of the former Bishopric of Maillezais,
included the present arrondissementa of Marennes,
Rochefort, La Rochelle, and a part of Saint-Jean-
d'Ang^ly. At the Concordat the entire territory of
the former See of Saintes (less the part comprised in
the Department of Charente, and belonging to the See
of Angouleme) and of the See of Lu^on was added to it.
In 1821 a see was established at Lugon, and had under
its jurisdiction, aside from the former Diocese of Lu-
9on, almost the entire former Diocese of Maillezais; so
that Maillezais, once transferred to La Rochelle, no
longer belongs to the diocese now known as La
Rochelle et Saintes.
I. See of La Rochelle. — Mgr Landriot, a well-
known religious writer, occupied this see from 1856 to
1867. St. IjOuls of France is the titular saint of the
cathedral of La Rochelle and the patron of the city.
St. Eutropius, first Bishop of Saintes, is the principal
patron of the present Diocese of La Rochelle. In this
diocese are especially honoured: St. Gemme, martyr
(century unknown); St. Seronius, martyr (third cen-
tury); St. Martin, Abbot of the Saintes monaster}'
(fifth century) ; St. Vaise, martyr about 500; St. Mac-
lovius (Malo), first Bishop of Aleth, Brittany, who
died in Saintonge about 570; St. Amand, Bishop of
Maastricht (seventh centur>0- From 1534 La Ro-
chelle and the Province of Aunis were a centre of Cal-
vinism. In 1573 the city successfully resisted the
Duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX, and remained
the chief fortress of the Huguenots in France. But in
1627 the alliance of La Rochelle with the English
proved to IjOuLs XIII and to Richelieu that the politi-
cal independence of the Protestants would be a men-
ace to France; the famous siege of La Rochelle (5 Au-
gust, 1627 — 28 Octolxjr, 1628), in the course of which
the population was reduced from 18,000 inhabitants
to 5000. terminated with a capitulation which put an
end to the political claims of the Calvinistic minority.
II. Ancient See of Saintes. — Saintes had a cer-
tain importance under the Romans, as is proved by
manv existing monuments. The oldest bishop of
known date is Peter, who took part in the Council of
OrManr? (511). The first bishop, however, is St. Eu-
tropius. Venantius Fortunatus, in a poem written in
the second half of the sixth century, makes explicit
mention of him in connexion with Saintes. Eutropiu
was said to be a Persian of royal descent, ordained and
sent to Gaul by St. Clement; at Saints he converted
to Christianity the governor's daughter, St. Eustelle,
and like her suffer^ martyrdom. This tradition a
noted by Gregory of Tours, with a cautious ut/ertur;
Saintes is thus the only church of Gaul which Gregoiy
traces back to the first centur>'. This evidence is
much weakened, says Mgr Duchesne, by Gregoiy's
remark to the effect that no one knew the history of
St. Eutropius before the removal of his relics by
Bishop Palladius, which took place about 590. At
this tardy date seems to have arisen the account of
Eutropius as a martyr. Among the bishops of
Saintes are mentioned: St. Vivianus (419-52?), once
Count of Saintes, later a monk; St. Trojanus, di«l
about 532; St. Concordius (middle of the sixth cen-
tury); S. Pallais (Palladius), about 580, to whom St.
Gregory the Great reconunended St. Augustine on hn
way to England; St. Leontius, bishop in 625; Cardinal
Raimond Perauld (1503-05), an ecclesiastical writer,
several times nuncio, legate for a crusade against the
infidels and the re-establishment of peace between
Maximilian and Louis XII; Cardinal Francois Sode-
rini (1507-16), who died in Rome as dean of the Sacred
College, and his nephew Jules Soderini (I516-i4);
Charles of Bourbon (1544-50), cardinal in 1548, after-
wards Archbishop of Rouen, whom Mayenne wished
later to make King of France; Pierre Louis de La
Rochefoucauld (1782-92), massacred at Paris with
his brother, the Bishop of Beauvais, 2 September,
1792, thus closing the list of the bishops of the dio-
cese as it opened, with a martyr.
Several councils were held at Saintes: in 562 or 563,
when Bishop Emerius, ilicf^allv elected, was deposed
and Heraclius appointed in his stead; other coun-
cils were held in 579, 1074 or 1075, 1080, 1081, at
which last, metropolitan authority over the sees of
Lower Brittany was panted to Tours as against the
claims of Dol, and William VII gave the church of St-
Eutropius to the monks of Clunv; also in 1083, 1088,
1089, 1097. The crvpt of St. fiutropius, one of the
largest in France, dates from the beginning of the
twelfth century . Urban 1 1 consecrated it on 20 April ,
1096. Kings of France and England, and dukes of
Guyenne, enriched the church with numerous founda-
tions. Charles VII made a pilgrimage to it in 1441.
Louis XI himself wrote a prayer against dropsy, in
honour of St. Eutropius. Through the Middle Ages
manv pilgrimages were made to the tomb. In iSdS
the Calvinists ravaged the crj*pt, but the tomb of St.
Eutropius was so well hidden by the monks that it was
thougnt to be lost; it was not until 19 Mav, 1843, that it
was again discovered. In a Bull of Nicholas V, 1451,
it is said that the cathedral of Saintes was the second
church ever dedicat^^d to St. Peter. Geoffrey Martel,
Count of Anjou, and his wife, Agnes of Bummdy,
founded in 1047 the Abbev of Notre-Dame de Saintes
for Benedictine nuns, which foundation was sanc-
tioned by a Bull of Leo IX. During seven centuries
this monasterv had thirty abbesses, most of them
daughters of the first families of France. The abbe>'
church, now a military barrack, is Poitou Roman-
C3c\uc of the twelfth century. The Church of Saintes
clamis the honour of being the first to begin the prac-
tice of the Angelus (q. v.); when John XXlI heajtl of
this pious custom he solemnlv authorized it by two
Bulls (1318, 1.327). The monastery of "Angeria-
cum ", founded in 768 by Pepin the Short, was the be-
ginning of the town of Saint- Jean-d*Ang^ly. In 1010
Abbot Alduin, while having the walls of the church re-
f?tored, declared that he found in a cvlindrical stone a
silver reliquary containing the hean of St. John the
Baptist: William V, Duke of Aquitaine, had the'reJic
exposed, and King Robert and Queen Constance in-
spected it. The future fifteenth-century Cardinal
Jean de I^ Balue was Abl)ot of Saint-Jean-d'Angdly.
Bernard Pftliaiy, the famous artist in ceramics (1610-
00), was one of the foundeis of the Protestant Iteform
Church of Saintes, and his atelier was about 1562 a
■ecret asMmblT-place of (he Huguenots; for this he
'was summoned Defore the Parleoient. Aside from
the Basilica of St. Eutropiua, the principal pilgrimages
of the dioceee are: Our Lady of Corme- Ecluse, near
Saujon; Our Lady of Pity, at Citiix-Gente (twelfth
century); Our Laay of Seven Sorrows, at Jaugou.
There were in the Dioceae of La Rochelle. when
the Associations Law was enforced, Lazarists, Little
Brathera of Mary, Marianists, Children of Mary Im-
maculate, and a local congregation called the Broth-
ere of St. Francis of Assisi, known as ' ' farming broth'
ere"; this congregation, founded in 1841 by Pore
Deahayea, then superior general of the Mi""' ;~."f
instruction of foundlings. Three congregati_._. __
women trace their origin to this diocese; the Provi-
dence Sisters of St. Jopeph, a teaching order founded
at La Rochelle in 1668 by Isatielle Mauriet ; Providence
Sisters of St. Mary, a teaching onier founded in 181 8,
with the mother-house at Raintes; Ursulines of the
Sacred Heart, a nursing and teaching order, founded
in 1807 by Pfre Charles Barreaud, with mother-house
at Pons. In 1900, before the Associations Iaw, the
religious congregations had in the diocese one
cr^be, 34 day nurseries, one convalescent home for
children, an institute for the blind, an agricultural
settlement for boys, 8 orphanages for girls, an indus-
trial room, a society for the preservation of young
Rirfa from danger, 14 hospitals, homes, and asylums
for the aged, 18 convents of visiting nurses, 2 houses
of retreat, and an insane asylum. In 1905 (last year
of the Concordat) the Diocese of La Rochelle had 452,-
149 inhabitants, 46 parishes, 326 succursal churches,
GaUia Chriitiarui. Wota. II (IT^), 1053, 1093 nod instrvm..
1S7-Se: DccBSBHi, Fatla tirucopaux di I'ancifnne Uaulf. II.
7J-7b and 138-3^: Bbiakd. HiHoirt dt I'^ltn tanloni H auni-
■ ■- ■-"--'- -•e.ltM5-46); BuN-
, . Um pour I'huliiire dti iiociia dt tiainta etdtta tiothtlk
(Parii. 1SS2): Ideu. Abbaut dt Notrt-Damt dt SainU". hisloiri
H donrnwrUf (Paris, 1884!; BiinH.iT, Dt adminiilTalimt Ur-
rarvn Smttomnuii abbatia, IOi7-tttO (Ia RwheLle. 1901):
Ai-DUr. La diod- dt SainUi au XVIIf liMe (Paris, IHM):
Palatsi, Btmard Faliny tt Id d»uU de la Rfformt m Sainionet
(Cabon. 1899); CoDBFBOM, Euai tur fhtnloirr du protrtlan-
HulnniUUlioch.lU.i3. Dsnti B'Aniuii i3 vols.. Pari.. ISSO-
0OJ; D> La GiuvlEKB, Let orvinrt dt ia mdrinF fntn^aitt tt la
laetigue naturdU: U ritgt de La Rotkrlle (Paris, IS91): Boiio-
CAHAcm. Let demiem tempt du tH^e tU La RoehtUf, rtlatifm du
noneeofaj^itiqui: Guidi IVarit. Ili99); LAKOm-n, Quat oh amtai
ntpdUtuit rttpitblva prr—^' " ' " — *"" -'^'"" "
Topo-BM., a. V, SiHJuUt.
I (La Rochella. 1
Geo ROBS Goyao.
L& Bocqne, Pavl. See Shbrbrooke, Diocxbe op.
LuTBJ, Dominhjdb-Jban, Baron, French military
turgeon, b. at Baudfan, Hautes-I*}' rinses,' July, 1766;
d. at Lyons, 25 July, 1842, His parents were so poor
that he obtained his preliminary education only
through the kindness of the village priest. After the
death of his father, when the boy was thirteen years of
age, he was sent to his uncle Dr. Oscar Larrey, a suc-
cessful surgeon of Toulouse. The surgical anility of
the family had already been, established by his elder
brotjiar, Charles-Fran cois-Hil aire Larrey, recognised
ss an able surgeon and writer on surgery. At the age
of twenty-one the youn^r Larrey went to Paris, and
»fter a brilliant competitive examination entered the
navy. Later he became a pupil of DessaulU He
ioiued thearmyiu 1792, and tne next year established
the ambiilanct volante (Sying ambulsnce), a corps of
turveonsand nuraea whowent into battle with the men
and tended to their wounds on the battle-6eld as far as
waa possible. For this be was made surgeon-in-ehief
•Dd accompanied Napoleon on his expedition into
Bf^t. He became a great favourit« with Napoleon
LA&UK
for his devotion to duty. He was noted not only fw
his care of the wounded soldiers during and after tlw
battles^ but also for his care of the health of the troC^Ml
at all times. Friends or enemies all received the sama
devoted attention. For distinguished courage he was
made a baron by Napoleon on the field of Wagram in
1S09. He was wounded at Austerlitz and at Waterloo-
He made many ingenious and important inventions in
operations, and significant advances in clinicalsurgery.
His observations in medicine and on the health of
troops during campaigns were scarcely less valuable-
Some of his suggestions on medicine and surgery are
still used. "It ever", said Napoleon, "the soldiers
erect a statue it should be to Baron Larrey, the moat
virtuous man I have ever known." He has two mon-
uments, one erected in 1850 in the court of the Val-de-
Gr&ce military hospital, Paris, and the other in tha
hall of the Academy of Medicine, The American sur-
geon Agnew said of him: "As an ojierator
judicious but bold and rapid; calm and self-pc
in every emergency; but full of feeling and tenderiie™.
He stands among the military surgeons where Napo-
leon stands among the generals, the first and the great-
est." His attachment to his profession was only ex-
ceeded by his patriotism. After the exile of Napoleon,
deprived of nis honours and emoluments, though
solicited by the Emperor of Russia and by Peilro I of
Braiil to take charge of their armies with high rank,
he refused to leave his native land. One of his special
pleasures at the end of his life was a meeting with the
AbUfi de Grace, the preceptor of his early years, whom
be held in higii veneration. His works have been a
favourite study of the surgeons of all nations during
the nineteenth century. Moat of them have been
translated into all modem languages. His principal
works are: "Relation histor. et ciiirurg. de VexpAii-
tion de Tarm^e d'Orient en Egypt* et enSyrie" (Paris,
1803), translated into EngUsh and German; "Clinique
cbirurgicale dans les camps et hdpitaux miUtaires";
"Surgical Memoirs of Campaigns: Russia, Germany,
France" (Philadelphia, 1832); "Cholera Morbus, Mi-
moire" (Paris, 1831).
The principal w -'----■-.'._... ,.., ... ._
Larue, Charles de, b. 29 July, 16S.5 (some say 12
July, 1684), at Corbie, in France; d. 5 Oct., 1739, at
St. Germain-des-Pr^s. Very early he displayed talent
in the study of
languages and
signs of a religious
vocation. He
took the habit of
St. Benedict in
the Abbey of St.
Faro at Meaux,
and made his re-
ligious profession
on 21 Nov., 1703.
Ho then studied
philosophy and
theology, and in
1712 was sent to
Dom Bernard de
Montfaucon in
his literary work
The latter soon
bad a true esti-
mate of his young
assistant, and set
him to work at
editing all the
worksofOri^n, except the" HexapUi". Lame worked
with energy; in 1725 printingwas begun, and eight yesM
later two volumes appeared with a dedication to Pope
Clement XII. Id the prsEace Larue gives the v«riQUI
ul Rxne
8
Ul SALETTS
opinions of earlier writers on Origen and his works,
and states his reasons for making a new edition. The
first volume contains the letters of Origen (mostly in
fragments), the four books '* De principus " on prayer,
an exhortation to mart^rrdom, and the eight hooks
against Celsua. To this is added '*De recta in Deum
fide contra Marcionem ", which had been published in
1674 under the name of Origen. Larue proves that
this book and the books "Contra haereses are falsely
ascribed to Origen. To each book Larue adds copious
explanatory notes. In the preface to the secona vol-
ume is given an outline of the method followed by
Origen in explaining the Holy Scriptures; then follow
the commentaries on the Pentateuch, Josue, Judges,
Ruth, Kin^s, Job, and the Psalter. Larue had gath-
ered material for two other volumes, but a stroke of
paralysis put an end to his labours. They were
editea by his nephew Vincent de Larue, a member of
the same congregation.
Tabbis, Oelehrlengesch. der Congr. von St. Maw, II (Ixiipzig,
1874), 271 ; Lama, Bibl. des fcrivains de la Congr. dr. St. Maur, no.
451; ILlulbn in Kirchenlex.^ s.v.; Hdrter, Nomendator.
Francis Meilshman.
La Rue, Charles de, one of the great orators of
the Society of Jesus in France in the seventeenth cen-
tury, b. at Paris, 3 August, 1643; d. there, 27 May,
1725. He entered the novitiate on 7 September,
1659, and being afterwards professor of the human-
ities and rhetoric, he attracted attention while stil>
young by a poem on the victories of Louis XIV. Cor-
neille translated it and offered it to the king, saying
that his work did not equal the original of the young
Jesuit. He wrote several tragedies, brought out an
edition • of Virgil, and wrote several Latin poems.
After having several times refused to permit him to go
to Canada, his superiors assigned him to preaching; as
an orator he was much admired by the court and the
king. His funeral orations on the Dukes of Bur-
gundy and Luxemburg, and that on Bossuet, his ser-
nions on " Les Calami^ publiques" and "The Dying
Sinner'* have been regarded as masterpieces by the
greatest masters. He preached missions among the
Protestants of Lan^uedoc for three years. He was a
most virtuous religious, and during his last years en-
dured courageously great infirmities.
P. Veroilii Maronis opera, interpretation r et notia illustravit
Carolua Ruaua Soc. Jesu, jussu Christianissimi Regis, ad usum
Serenisnmi Delphini (Paris, 1675), frequently reprinted in
Fnmce, England, Italy, Germany (latest Paris. 1864. 3 vols.).
All the oratorical works in Miqne. Coll. irUajmle et univ. dc*
Orateurn aaeria (1844-66), XXVIII. col. 199-1570; XXXIII.
1120-1214; Qtuirenmale del P. Carlo Delia Rue (Milan. 1858);
Confererue tenrde neW avento (Milan, 1853); Nettemknt.
Oraiaont Fttnkbrea de Boaatiett Bourdaloue,' de La Hue (Paris.
1842) ; Eloge duP, de La Rue in Mercure de Prance, June, 1725,
1324-1332; Feller, Did. hiai., V (1839), 350; Sommervogel,
Bibl. de la Compagnie de JUua, VII, col. 290-307, contains a
oomplete Ust of bis works.
Abel Champon.
La Salette, in the commune and parish of La Sa-
lette-Fallavaux, Canton of Corps, Department of
Isdre, and Diocese of Grenoble. It is celebrated as
the place where, it is said, the Blessed Virgin ap-
peared to two little shepherds; and each year is visited
Dv a large number of pilgrims. On 19 Sept., 1846,
about three o'clock in the afternoon in full sunlight, on
a mountain about 5918 feet high and about three miles
distant from the village of La Salette-Fallavaux, it is
related that two children, a shepherdess of fifteen
named M^lanie Calvat, called Mathieu, and a shep-
herd-boy of eleven named Maximin Giraud, both of
t hem very ignorant, beheld in a resplendent light a
• l>eautif ul lady " clad in a strange costume. Speaking
r'tornately in French and in patois, she charged them
with A message which they were "to deliver to all her
f^pople". After complaining of the impiety of Chris-
tians, and threatening them with dreadful chastise-
meiit<5 in case they should i>ersevere in evil, she prom-
ised them the Divine mercy if they would amend.
Finally, it is alleeed, before disappearing she com-
municated to each of the children a special secret.
The sensation caused by the recital of M^lanie and
Maximin was profound, and gave rise to several in-
vestigations and reports. Mgr Philibert de Bruillard,
Bishop of (jrenoblc, appointed a commission to ex-
amine judicially this marvellous event; the commis-
sion concluded that the reality of the apparition
should be admitted. Soon several miraculous cures
took place on the mountain of La Salette, and pil-
grimages to the place were begun. The miracle, need-
less to say, was ridiculed by free-thinkers, but it was
also questioned among the faithful, and especially by
ecclesiastics. There arose against it in the Dioceses
of Grenoble and Lyons a violent opposition, aggra-
vated by what is known as the incident of Ars. As a
result of this hostility and the consequent agitation,
Mgr de Bruillard (16 November, 1851) declared the
apparition of the Blessed Virgin as certain, and au-
thorized the cult of Our Lady of La Salette. This act
subdued, but did not suppress, the opposition, whose
leaders, profiting by the succession in 1852 of a new
bishop, Mgr Ginoulhiac, to Mgr Bruillard, who had
resigned, retaliated with violent attacks on the re-ality
of the miracle of La Salette. They even asserted that
the" beautiful lady " was a young woman named Lam-
erlidre, which story gave rise to a widely advertised
suit for slander. Despite these hostile act^, the first
stone of a great church was solemnly laid on the mount
of La Salette, 25 May, 1852^ amid a large assembly of
the faithful. This church, later elevated to the rank
of a basilica, was served by a body of religious called
Missionaries of La Salette (q. v.). Since 1891 dio-
cesan priests have replaced these missionaries, driven
into exile by persecuting laws.
As said above, the Blessed Virgin confided to each
of the two children a special secret. These two se-
crets, which neither Mmnie or Maximin ever made
known to each other, were sent by them in 1851 to
Pius IX on the advice of Mgr de Bruillard. It is un-
known what impression the.se mysterious revelations
made on the pope, for on this point there are two ver-
sions diametrically opposed to each other. Maximin 's
secret is not known, for it was never published. M4Ian-
ie's was inserted in its entirety in a brochure which she
herself had printed in 1879 at Lecce, Italy, with the
approval of the bishop of that town. A Hvely contro-
versy followed as to whether the secret published in
1879 was identical with that communicated to Pius
IX in 1851, or whether in its second form it was not
merely a work of the imagination. The latter was the
opinion of wise and prudent persons, who were per-
suaded that a distinction must be made between the
two M^lanies, between the innocent and simple voy-
ante of 1846 and the visionary of 1879, whose mind had
been disturbed by reading apocalyptic books and the
lives of iUumiiiati. As Rome uttered no decision the
strife was prolonged between the disputants. Most of
the defenders of the text of 1879 suffered censure
from their bishops. Maximin Giraud, after an un-
happy and wandering life, returned to Corps, his
native village, and died there a holy death (1 March,
1875). M^lanie Calvat ended a no less wandering life
at Altamura, Italy (15 Dec, 1904).
Bex (Canon). Pllerinage h la Salette, ou examm erUique de
Vapparition de la aainte Vietge h deux bergers (L\'ons, 1847);
RoussELOT, La vMtr aur I'ev/nemenl de La Salette du 19-aeptem'
bre 1846, ou Rapport a Mgr Vt'^taue de Grenoble aur Vapparition
de la aainte Vierge a deux petita hergera aur la montagne de La
Salette (Grenoble, 1848); Idem, Nouveaux documenta aur Vfoene-
ment de La Salette (Grenoble, 1850); Bez (AaBfe), M. Vianneu,
curi d'Ara, et Maximin Giraud, berger de La Salette, ou la
vhil^ H'cuperant aea droita (Paris and Lyons, 1851); Rou»-
8BLOT, D6fenae de Viv/ncment de Iai Salette contre de nouvellea
attaquea (Grenoble, 1851): Idem, Vn novveau mnctuaire b Marie
ou condition de V affaire de La Salette (Grenoble, 1853) : Nicolas,
La Salette devant la raiaon (Pariii. 1855) ; Giraud. Ma profeaaion
de foi aur Vapparition de Notre Damede Jm Salette (Paris. 1866);
Calyat, Vapparition de la trH aainte Vierge aur la montagne
de La SaleUe le 19 aeptembre 1846 (Lecce, 1879), a pamphlet
several timet reprinted in France; Bsrtrand, La Saldte, docu-
UL SALXnX
9
UL SALLX
maito d hMiograpkU (Paris, 1 889). The chief woria publiehad
•Sttinst the appariUoii of La Salette are the foUowing: Donna-
DiMU (peeudonym of Abb^ D^xtoN), La SalHte-FaUavaux
(FaUmx ValHahou la VaUce du Menwnge (Grenoble, 1852-53);
utvtoM AND CARTELLnsR, La Salette devant le pape . . . rmr
pluai€ur$ membre* du elerg/' diociaain (Grenoble. 1854). For
the Lamerli^re affair, see Favrs, Mimoire pour Mile Constance
de Saini'Ferri'ol de Lamerlih-e (Paris, s. d. (18571): Sabbattkr,
Affaire de La Salette, Mile de LamerlHre contre MM, D6i6on ei
Coftellier (Grenoble, 1857). The beet work on the difficulties
relating to the apparition of La Salette is Verdunoy. La Salette,
aude criHqm (Paris, 1906).
LiiON Clugnet.
La Salette, Missionaries of. — ^The Missionaries of
La Salette were founded in 1852, at the shrine of Our
Lady of La Salette, where some priests banded to-
gether to care for the numerous pilgrims frequenting
the mountain. In 1858 these priests formea a little
community with temporary constitutions, under the
immediate charge of the Bishop of Grenoble. In 1876
Rieht Rev. Mgr Fava gave them more complete rules,
and in May, 1890, the Institute was approved by
Rome. Finding it hard to recruit their number from
the secular clergy, the fathers founded an "Apostolic
school " or missionary college in 1876. At present
they have about 250 students. Their classical course
lasts six years, and after their novitiate they repair to
Rome, where the scholasticate is located. Here they
complete their philosophical and theological course in
the Gregorian University. In 1892 five of the mis-
sionaries arrived in the United States with fifteen
students. Bishop McMahon of Hartford, Conn., wel-
comed them into his diocese, and they established
themselves in the episcopal city, occupying the former
bishop's residence on Collins Street. In 1895 they
removed to their present quarters at 85 New Park
Ave., Hartford, Conn., close to the church of Our Lady
of Sorrows. Hitherto a mission church of the cathe-
dral, it was made a parish and given in charge of the
fathers, who began to tend it on Ascension Day of the
same year. In 1894, having established themselves
in the Springfield Diocese, the fathers received the
French parish of St. Joseph, Fitchburg, Mass., from
Rt. Rev. Thomas Beaven. In 1895 Rt. Rev. Michael
Tiemey, successor to Bishop McMahon, rec|uested the
fathers to take chaige of the mixed parish of St.
James, Danielson, Conn. In 1901, at the suggestion
of Bishop Beaven of Springfield, the Very Rev. Supe-
rior General sent a few students to Poland to prepare
themselves for Polish parishes in the Springfield Dio-
cese, and at present tne parish at Ware and that of
Westfield are in their care. In 1902 they were received
into the Diocese of Sherbrooke, Canada, with a parish
at Stanstead, P. Q., Canada, and also into the Arch-
diocese of New York, with a parish at Phoenicia,
Ulster Co. At the request of Archbishop Langevin of
St. Boniface, Canada, a few fathers were sent from the
mother-house in Hartford to establish themselves in
West Canada. They now form a separate province
with headquarters at Forget, Sask. They tend to the
spiritual wants of four nourishing parishes. Forget,
Esteven, Ossa, and Weybum. In 1909, the mission-
aries deemine their order suflSciently developed, owing
to additional foundations in Belgium, Madagascar.
Poland, and Brazil, the Very Rev. Superior General
petitioned the Holy See to approve their constitutions.
The request was granted 29 January, 1909. The
students of the Apostolic schools are trained chiefly to
combat the great crimes of the day, especially those
denounced in the discourse of the Blessed Virgin at La
Salette. The spirit of the community is that which
pcarades the whole apparition of Mary on the Moun-
tain of La Salette — a spirit of prayer and sacrifice.
J. GUINET.
La Smile, Jean Baptist db. See John Baptist
im LA Salle, Saint.
La BaUe, RsNi^-RoBERT-CAVELiER, Sieur db, ex-
, b. at Rouen, 1643; d. in Texas, 1687. In his
youth he displayed an unusual precocity in mathe-
matics and a prelection for natural science; his out-
look upon life was somewhat puritanical. Whether
or not he was educated with a view to entering the
Society of Jesus is a matter of doubt, though some
religious order he must have subsequently jomed, for
to this fact is assigned the forfeiture of his estates. The
career of a churchman was definitively abandoned,
however, when, after receiving the feudal grant of a
tract of land at La Chine on the St. Lawrence from the
Sulpicians, aeigneurs of Montreal — perhaps through
the influence of an elder brother who was a memMr
of the order at that place — he came to Canada as
an adventurer and trader in 1666. For three years
La Salle remained quietly upon his little estate,
mastering Indian dialects and meditating on a south-
west passage. Upon the latter quest he set out
in 1669 with a party of Sulpicians, who, deeming
that there waH ^*eater missionary work among the
north-western tribes, soon abandoned the expedi-
tion. La Salle's subsequent travels on this occa-
sion are shrouded in an obscurity that will pep-
haps never be dispelled. Whether he was the first
white man to gaze upon Niagara, whether he ex-
plored the Allegheny valley or the Ohio river, he
seems not to have reached the Mississippi, Joliet's un-
disputed claim to that distinction durmg La Salle's
residence in Canada being r^arded, at present, as
finally estabUshed. Indeed .joliet's announcement,
some few years later, that the Orande Riviere flowed into
the Gulf of Mexico perceptibly stimulated La Salle to
fashion and carry out those schemes which must have
been taking shape even in the novitiate at Rouen —
dreams of acquinng a monopoly of the fur trade and of
building up tne empire of New France. The French
doctrine that the discovery of a river gave an inchoate
right to the land drained by its tributaries suggested to
La Salle and Governor Frontenac a '* plan to effect a
military occupation of the whole Mississippi valley . . .
by means of military p>osts which shoula control the
communication and sway the policy of the Indian
tribes *', as well as present an impassable barrier to the
English colonies. The money needed for such a plan
drove La Salle to those attempts at a monopoly wnich
engendered such persistent opposition, ana which ao^
count, partlv at least, for the failure of his plans.
A trip to France in the autumn of 1674 followed his
erection of Fort Frontenac for the protection of the
fur trade at the outlet of Lake Ontario. The king
gave him a grant of this fort and the adjacent territory,
promised to garrison it at his own expense, and con-
ferred upon him the rank of esquire. Upon his r^
turn. La Salle rebuilt the fort, launchea upon the
Niagara River the '* Griffin ", a forty-five ton schooner
with five guns, in which, with Hennepin, a Francis-
can, and the Neapolitan Henri de Tonty, he set saU
in the autumn of 1678, passed over Lakes Erie and
Huron, and reached the southern extremity of Lake
Michigan. Here the gunboat was sent back, unlaw-
fully laden with furs to appease I^a Salle's creditors,
and was never heard from again. The expedition
Cushed on to the Illinois, where Fort Cr^veccsur was
uilt. After waiting through the winter for the re-
turn of the "Griffin", La &lle, leaving the faithful
Tonty in charge of the fort, resolved to return one
thousand miles on foot to Montreal, accompanied by
four Frenchmen and an Indian guide. The sufferinn
of this famous retreat were borne with incredible
fortitude, and he was returning with supphes when it
was learned that the garrison at Fort Urdvecoeur had
mutinied, had driven Tonty into the wilderness, and
were then cruising about Lake Ontario in the hope
of murdering La Salle. The dauntless Frenchman
pushed out at once upon the lake, captured the mu-
tineers, sent them back in irons to the governor, and
then went to the rescue of Tonty, whom he met at
Mackinaw on his return trip after abandoning the
uuutnJc
10
t.jgOAtTg
search. For a brief space in 1682 La Salle's fate
seems more propitious, when, on 9 April, we catch a
glimpse of hmi planting the fleurs-de-lis on the banks
of tne Mississippi, and claiming for France the wide
territory that it drained. But, five years later, in the
wretched failure of an attempt to plant a colony at
the mouth of the Mississippi, he was murdered by
mutineers from ambush.
La Salle's schemes of empire and of trade were far
too vast for his own generation to accomplish, though it
was along the Unes tliat he projected that France
pmmied her colonial policy in the New World in the
eighteenth century until finally overthrown by the
English in the French and Indian Wars.
Maeobt, Af <*motrM et DocumenU (Paris, 1879-88), I, II, III;
Shxa, Discovery of the Mississippi; Charlkvoix. Hifioire de
la Nouvelle-France (Paris, 1744; tr. Shea, New York, 1865-72^;
Lbcubrcq. Etdblissemeni de la foi dans la Nouvelle-France
(Paris. 1691; tr. Shba, New York, 1881): Parkm an, La iSa//^
and the Discovery of the Greii West ( New Yorljrf 1869) . For full
bibliojeraphy of tne La Salle-Marquette-Joliet controversy, con-
sult WiNSOR, Narrative and Critical History of America, IV
(London, 1884-9), 245 sqq.
Jarvis Keiley.
Lasaulx, Ernst von, scholar and philosopher, b. at
Coblenz, 16 March, 1805; d. at Mumch, 9 May, 18G1.
His father, Johann Claudius von Lasaulx, was a dis-
tinguished architect; his uncle, Johann Joseph Gorres
(q. v.), was the fiery champion of Catholic liberties;
and the young Ernst became imbued with an enthu-
siasm for the Catholic Faith and for liberty. He first
studied at Bonn (1824-30), and later took up classical
philology and philosophy at Munich, attaching him-
self in particular to Schelling, Gorres, and Baadcr, and
then spent four years travelling through Austria,
Italy, Greece, and Palestine, visiting the places most
famous in the history of civilization, both pagan and
Christian. His voyage to Athens was made as a
member of the suite of Prince Otto of Wittelsbach
fBavaria), who had been elected King of the Hellenes.
On his return to his native land he took the doctor's
degree at Kiel, in 183i), presenting a dissertation en-
titled *' De mortis dominatu in vetercs, commentatio
theologica-philosophica",andwas appointed dozerU in
classical philology at the University of Wurzburg,
where he exercised a deep and far-reaching influence
on the vouth of the university. Meanwhile he mar-
ried Julie Baader, daughter of the Munich philosopher,
Franz Baader.
Upon the arrest (20 November, 1837) of Clemens
August, Archbishop of Cologne, whose forcible deten-
tion in the fortress of Minden by order of the Prus-
sian Government caused a great stir in Catholic
circles both at home and abroad, Lasaulx wrote
to his uncle, Gorres, calling upon him to protest
against the arbitrary act of the "military Govern-
ment of Berlin agamst the Archbishop of Cologne".
This was the impulse that was responsible for
Gbrres's celebrated " Athanasius". At the same time
Lasaulx himself issued the controversial pamphlet
"Kritische Bemerkungen iiber die K5lner Sache",
a bold attack on the Prussian Government and
the diplomat Josias von Bunsen. In the autunm
of 1844 Lasaulx was appointed professor of philology
and aesthetics at the University of Munich, despite the
vigorous efforts of the Wurzburg senate to secure his
continued services there. At Munich he quickly be-
came famous as a magnetic and stimulating teacher.
When his influence effected the downfall of the min-
ister Abel, the senate of the University applauded his
action, but Iving Louis, on the other hand, vented his
displeasure by dismissing Lasaulx from office (28 Feb-
ruary, 1847). Demonstrations on the part of the stu-
dents followed, resulting in the dismissal of eight
other members of the university teaching staff. In
1848 Lasaulx, with three of his former colleagues, was
elected to the National Assembly at Frankfort, where
he identified himself with the Conservative group and
again and again eloquently defended the liberties of
the Catholic Church among the intellectual ilite o£
Germanv.
King Maximilian II having at length yielded to the
petition of the Munich students to reinstate Lasaulx
and the other expelled professors (15 March. 1849),
Lasaulx resumed his work as a philosophical writer.
Id the same vear he was elected a member of the Ba-
varian Chamber of Deputies, where, until his death, his
masterly ability in all political controversies found
energetic expression. Soon after his death, four of
his works were placed on the Index; it was found that
in them he had erred on the side of effacing the dis-
tinction between the conmion human religious ele-
ment in heathenism and the theological expression of
Christian revelation. Several years earlier, however,
he had declared that, should any errors be found in
his works, he would freely submit to the judgment
of the Church.
Holland, Erinncrungen an Ernst von Lasaulx (Munich, 1861);
Stolzle, Ernst vonlAiuulx (Miinater, 1904).
Karl Hoeber.
Lascaris, Constantine, of Constantinople, Greek
scholar, b. 1434; d. at Messina in 1501. Made a pris-
oner by the Turks on the fall of Constantinople, he
probably stayed the greater part of seven years in
(Jorfu; he made a visit to Rliodes where he acouired
some manuscripts; finally came to Italy and settled at
Milan as a copyist of manuscripts. His work on the
eight parts of speech presented to Princess Hippolyta
Sforza procured from her father a reauest to teach
the princess Greek. Lascaris followea the princess
to Naples when she married Alfonso II (1465). The
following year he left for Greece, but the vessel stop-
ping at Messina, he was urged to stay there, con-
sented, and died there after many years, bequeathing
to the city his seventy-six manuscripts. They re-
mained at Messina until 1679, and were then moved
first to Palermo and later to Spain^ where they are
now in the National Library of Madrid. Constantine
Ijascaris was above all a tutor and a transcriber of
manuscripts. One of his pupils was the future Cardi-
nal Bembo. His industry as a copyist was soon su-
perseded by the art of printing. He was himself the
author of the first lx)ok printed in Greek, a small
grammar (Milan, 1476) entitled "Erotemata".
Leorand, Bibliographie hell&nique, I (Paria, 1884), Ixxi;
Iriarte,_ BibliothecoB Matritensis codices m-ceci (1769);
* .' ' arec de VEsc ' ' '_
1880); Rapport sur une mission en Espagne in Archives des
Graux, Essai sur les origines du fond grec de VEscurial (Paris,
missions, 3d ser.. V, i (Paris, 1877), 124; Sandtb, A History oj
Classical Scholarship, II (Cambridge, 1908), 77- Sabbadini,
IjC scoperte dei codicx latini e greci net secoli XIV e XV (Florence,
1905), 67.
Paul Lejat.
Lascaris, Janus (or John), surnamed Rhtnda-
CENUS (from Rhyndacus, a country town in Asia
Minor), noted Greek scholar, b. about 1445; d. at
Rome in 1535. After the fall of Constantinople he
was taken to Peloponnesus and to Crete. When still
quite young he came to Venice, where Bessarion be-
came his patron, and sent him to learn Latin at Padua.
On the death of Bessarion, Lorenzo de' Medici wel-
comed him to Florence, where Lascaris gave Greek
lectures on Thucydides, Demosthenes, Sophocles, and
the Greek anthology. Twice Lorenzo sent him to
Greece in quest of manuscripts. When he returned
the second time (1492) he brought back about two
hundred from Mount Athos. Meanwhile Lorenzo had
passed away. Lascaris entered the service of France
and was ambassador at Venice from 1503 to 1508, at
which time he became a member of the Greek Acad-
emy of Aldus Manutius; but if the printer had the
benefit of his advice, no Aldine work Dears his name.
He resided at Rome under Leo X, the first pope of the
Medici family, from 1513 to 1518, returned under
aement VII m 1523, and Paul III in 1534. Meanwhile
he had assisted Louis XII in forming the library of
LAB 0A8A8
II
LiMUS
Blois, and when Francis I had it removed to Fontaine-
bleau, Lascaris and Bud^ had charee of its organiza-
tion. We owe to him a number of Mitiones pnncipeSf
amon^ them the Greek anthology (1494), four plays of
Euripides, Callimachus (about 1495), ApK)lloniu8 Itho-
dius, Lucian (1496), printed in Florence in Greek capi-
tals with accents, and the scholia of Didymas (1517)
and of Porphyrins (1518) on Homer, printed in Rome.
Lborand, BMiographie helUnique, I (rarb, 1884), cxzzi;
III. 411; OifONT« Catalogue dn manuacnU grw de Fontaine
bleau (Paris, 1889); Sandts, A Hiatory ofClauical Seholarahip,
II (Cambridge, 1908), 78. Paul LejaT.
Ia8 Oasas. See Cabas, BABTOLOMt de Las.
Laski (a Lasco), John, Archbishop of Gnesen and
Primate of Poland, b. at Lask, 1456; d. at Gnesen,
19 May, 1531. In 1482 he entered the service of the
royal arch-chancellor Kurozwcki, who made him pro-
vost cf Skalmierz and of the cathedral church in
Posen, and canon of Krakow. In 1502 he became
royal arch-secretary, in 1505 arch-chancellor, in 1509
coadjutor of Archbishop Boryszewski of Gnesen, and,
after the death of the latter in 1510, Archbishop of
Gnesen and Primate of Poland, whereupon he re-
signed as arch-chancellor in 1511. In 1513 he took
part in the Fifth General Council of the Lateran, when
he delivered an oration in which he ur^ed upon Pope
Leo X and the temporal princes to assist Poland and
Hungary against tne continually increasing inroads
of the Turks. Though he had little success in his
plea for a crusade, he prevailed upon the oope to take
measures against the Teutonic Knights, who had been
openly and secretly intriguing against Poland ever
smce 1466, when it had taken West Prussia and Erm-
land from them and begim to exercise its suzerainty
over East Prussia. During the progress of the ^te-
ran Council. Leo X conferred upon Laski and his suc-
cessors in tne archiepiscopal See of Gnesen the title
of leaatus ncUus, The Bull conferring the title is
dated 25 July, 1515. and is still preserved in the
archives of the catheoral chapter of Gnesen (no. 625).
It was reprinted in Korytowski's " Arcybiscupi
Gnieznienscy ", II (Posen, 1888), 662. Laski^s eleva-
tion to the cardinalate by Pope Leo X is said to
have been prevented by King Sigismund. Archbishop
Laslp was a z^ous upholder of ecclesiastical disci-
pline within his archdiocese, and a strenuous opponent
of Protestantism in Poland. To put a stop to various
ecclesiastical abuses, he held two provincial synods
at Piotrkow (1510, 12) and a diocesan synod at
Gnesen (1513). The seven other provincial synods
which he held were intended chiefly to stem the
spread of Protestantism in Poland. Four of these were
convened at Lencicz in the years 1522, 1523, 1525, and
1527, and three at Piotrkow in 1526, 1532, and 1533.
Many of the legislative measures passed at these
synods are printed in the " Constitutiones synodorum
metropoUtanse ecclesiae Gnesnensis'' (Krakow, 1630).
Most of the canons and decrees of the earlier synods
Laski edited in his " Sanctiones ecclesiastics^ tam ex
pontificum decretis quam ex constitutionibus syno-
dcmun provincis excerptse, in primis autem statuta
in diversis provincialibus synodis a se sancita " (Kra-
kow, 1525), in his "Statuta provincialia " (1512), and
"Statuta provinci® Gnesnensis" (1527). After the
marriage of King Sigismund of Poland with Barbara
Zapolya, in 1512, Archbishop Laski entered into
friendly relations with John Zapolya, a brother of
Barbara and an aspirant to the Crown of Hungary.
He sent his nephew Jerome Laski to Hungary to
assist Zapolya with money and troops in his opposi-
tion against the rightful lung Ferdinand of Hungary.
If we may believe his enemies (especially Cardinal
Gattinara), he continued to support his nephew even
after the latter allied himself witn the Turkish Sidtan
Solimaii with the purpose of marching upon Vienna.
In 1530 he was cited to Rome by Clement VII to give
an aceouDt of his actions. His departure was, how-
ever, delayed by King Sigismund, and he died tlM
following year after expressing his desire to resign
his see. Besides collecting the synodal legislations
mentioned above, he made a compilation of the most
important laws of Poland while he was arch-chancel-
lor. The work is entitled " Commune inclyti Polonis
regni privilegiorum, constitutionum et indultuum",
etc., and was published at Cracow in 1506. His
"Lioer beneficiorum archidioecesis Gnesnensis'' was
edited by Lukowski, with a biography of the author
by Korytowski (Gnesen, 1880-1).
ZsiBSBBBQ, Johann Laski, Erzbitchof von Gneaen, ttnd aein
Tettament (Vienna, 1874) : Hirschbebo, /. Laaki (da Verhiin*
deter dea tUrkiachen SxtUana (Lemberg, 1879) ; Bukowski, Dzieja
reformacyi to Polace (Krakow, 1883). MiCHABL Ott.
Laasbeif^. Babon Joseph Maria Christoph von,
a distingmshed German antiouary, b. at Donaue-
schingen, 10 April, 1770; d. 15 March, 1855. He was
descended from a pious Catholic family. His father
was chief forester in the service of Prince von Fiirsten-
berg. After a brief service in the army, he entered
the University of Strasburg and later that of Frei-
burg im Br. to study law and economics, especially
forestry. From 1789 he was in the service of Prince
von Fiirstenberg, becoming chief warden of the for-
ests in 1804. Princess Elizabeth, who ruled the prin-
cipality during the minority of her son Karl Egon,
showed him marked favour. He became privy coun-
cillor in 1806, and accompanied her on ner travels
through Switzerland, Italy, and England. When the
regency ended in 1817, Lassbere resigned his position
and retired to private life, residing nrst on his estate
at Eppishusen in Thurgau, and from 1838 at Castle
Meersburg on Lake Constance. He now devoted him-
self zealously to the study of old German literature,
and in the pursuit of these studies he collected a su-
perb library of upwards of 12,000 books and 273 valu-
able manuscripts, among which was the codex of the
" Nibelungenlied " (known as the Hohenems MS. and
commonly designated as C). After his death this li-
brary was presented to the town of Donaueschingen.
Lassberg was very hospitably inclined and manv
visitors were entertained at Castle Meersburg. Uhland,
Lachmann, Gustav Schwab, and other distinguished
men of letters were among his friends. He was twice
married, his second wife being Maria Anna von Droste-
Hiilshoff, a sister of the famous poetess Annette
(q. v.). His literary work consisted chiefly in editing
medieval German poems, many of which were put?
lished under the pseudonym of Meister Sepp von Ep-
pishusen. Especially noteworthy is the ' * Liedersaal ,
a collection of medieval German poems, chiefly of the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, of miscellaneous
content. It appeared at St. Gall in four volumes.
In the fourth volume the above-mentioned Nibel-
ungen MS. was printed for the first time.
Driefweehael twiachen Laaaberg und Uhland, ed. PrEirrxB
sqq. and dUd sqq
AUgemeine Deutache Biographie, XVlI. 780-84.
Arthur F. J. Remy.
Laasua, Orlandus de (original name, Roland de
Lattre), composer, b. at Mons, Hainault, Belgium,
in 1520 (according to most biographers; but his epitaph
gives 1532) 'd. at Munich, 14 June, 1594. At the age of
eight and a half years he was admitted as soprano to the
choir of the church of St. Nicholas in his native city.
He soon attracted general attention, lx>th on account
of his unusual musical talent and his beautiful voice;
so much so that he was three times abducted. Twice
his parents had him returned to the parental roof, but
the third time they consented to allow him to take up
his abode at St-Didier, the temporary residence of
Ferdinand de Gonzaga, general m command of the
armv of Charles V and Viceroy of Sicily. At the end
of the campaign in the Netherlands, Orlandus fol-
lowed his patron to Milan and from there to Sicily.
LAST
Ah« the chaDge of his voice Orlandus apent about
tiiree yeara at the court of the Mftrquess della Teru, at
Naples. He next went to Rome, where he enioyed
the favour and hospitality, for about a\x monttis, of
tJie Cardinal Archbishop of Florence, who was then
liviof; there. Through the influence of this prince of
the Church. Orlandus obtained the position of choir-
master at St. John Lateran, in spite of his extreme
jroutb and the fact that there were many capable mu-
eicians available. During his residence m Rome,
I^Bsua completed his first volume of Maasee for tour
voices, and a collection of motets for five voices, all of
wbich he had published in Venice. After a sojourn of
probably two ycare in Rome, Laasus, learning of the
serious illness of his parents, hastened back to Bel-
([ium only to find tliat they had died. His native
city Mons not offering him a suitalile field of activity,
It two
It was
while here that
Orlandus received
m invitation from
Albert V, Duke of
Bavaria, not onlv
to become the di-
rector of Ills court
chapel, but also to
recruit capable
the Netherlands.
While in the em-
ployment and
under the pro-
tection of this art-
loving prince, I,as-
BU9 developed that
phenomenal pro-
ductivity as a com-
poser which is un-
surpassed in the
histtiry of music.
For thirty-four years he remained active at Munich as
composer and director, first under Alltert V, and then
under his son and successor, William V. During all
tills time ho enjoyed not only the continued and sym-
pathetic favour of his patrons and employers, but was
also honoured by Pope Gregory XIII, who appointed
him Knight of the Golden Spur; by Charles IX of
France, who bestowed upon him the cross of tlic Order
of Malta: and by Emperor Maximilian, who on 7 De-
cemi >er, 1 570, raised I Jissus and his descendants to the
nobility. The imperial document conferring the honour
is remarkable, not only as showing the enteem in which
the master was held by rulers and nations, but particu-
larly as evidence of the lofty conception on the part of
this monarch of tlic function of art in the social econ-
omy. Lassus's great and long-continued activity
linnlly told on his mind and caused a depression and
Itreak-down, from which he at first rallied but never
fully recovered.
tassui was the heir to the centuries of preparation
and development of the Netherland school, and was its
greatest and also its last representative.
While with many of his contemporaries, even the
mo3tnote<l,suchaKDufay, Okeghem, Obn!cht,andJos-
quin des Pr^, contrapuntal skdl is often an end in it-
self, LassuB, being consummate master of every form
of the art and possessing a powerful imagination, al-
ways aims at a lofty and truthful interpretation of the
text before liim. His genius is of a universal nature.
His wide culture and the extensive travels of his youth
bad enabled him to absorb the djstmgujshing musical
traits of cveri- nationality. None of his contempo-
raries liad surh a well-defined judgment in the choice
of the means of expression which best served his pur-
pose. 1^ lyric, epic, and dramatic elements are
12
UTUTE
ORLANnCt
alternately in evidence in his work. But he would
undoubtedly have been greatest in the dramatic style,
had he lived ata later period. Although Loseus lived
at the time of the Reformation, when the individ-
ual and secular spirit manifested itself more and more
in music, and although he interpreted secular poems
such as madrigals, chansottt, and German lieder, the
contents of which were sometimes rather free (as was
not infrequently the case in those times) , his distinction
lies overwheljmngly in his works for the Church.
The diatonic Gregorian modes form the basis of his
compositions, and most frequently his themes are
taken from liturgical melodies. The number of works
the master has left to posterity exceeds two thousand,
in every possible form, and in combinations of from
two to twelve voices. Many of them remain in manu-
script, l>ut the great majority have been printed at
Venice, Munich, Nuremberg, Louvain, Antwerp, or
Paris. Among his more famous works must be men-
tioned his setting of the seven penitential psalms,
which for variety, depth, truth of expression, and ele-
vation of conception arc unsurpassed. Duke Albert
shou'od his admiration for this work by having it
written on parchment and liound in two folio vol-
umes, which the noted painter Hans Mielicb illus-
trated, at the command of the duke, in a most beau-
tiful manner. These, with two other smaller volumes
containing an analysis of Lassus's and ^lielicll's work
liy Samuel van Quickelberg, a contemporary, are
preserved in the court library at Munich. I.assus left
no fewer than fifty Masses of his composition. Some
of these arc l>uilt upon secular melodies, as was cus-
tomary in his time, but the thematic material for
most of thcni has been taken from the liturgical chant.
In 1^04, his two sons, Rudolph and I'erdinand, also
musicians of note, published a collection of 516 mo-
tets, under the title of "Magnum opus musicum".
which was followe.1 in 1609 by " Jubilus B. Maria- Vir-
ginis", consisting of 100 settings of the Magnificat.
The publication of a critical cilition of Lassus's com-
plete works in sixty volumes, prepared by Dr. Haberl
and A. Sandberger, was begun in 1894.
BSriiKEn, Orlandun de Ijimi (Freibuix. 1878); Ahbhob.
OfMhirhtr dft «fu«*. Ill (I^ipiiK. 1881). 3M-T0; DEt-MOTTE,
Not^r bionraphiqar mr Bnlnnd dr IMiTt fVnl™ci»nnps. IS-LI);
Matthibo, Roland dt Ijallri (Moiu, 18118); Habebl, Kirrhn-
intinicaliKhtm JahrirucA (m04)- ^
Joseph Otten.
Last Supper. See Bttppkr, The Last.
Lataste, Mame, b. at Mimbasf* near Da,\, France,
21 Fcbruarj", I822;'d. at Renncs, 10 May, 1S47; was
the youngest child of simple pious peasants. Accord-
ing to her own narralive, written under obedience, she
was a poor, lowly, country girl, knowing nothing but
what her mother taught her; hence, in the natural
order, all her learning consisted in being able to read,
write, sew, and spin. Her knowledge in tlic supeis
nutiirn) onlcr long embraced merely the principal
tnilhs of nalvation. Little by Utttc tbc liglit gn-w like
a vast funuice on which wood is cast, and towards
which a mighty wind blows from all sides. The I.onl
Jesus, the Light of the World, hail been the light of her
soul. He had brought her up a.s a mother docs her
chilli, with patience and perseverance; if she knew
aught she owed it to Him, she liad all from Ilim. A
troublesome child, proud, ambitious, and self-con-
tained, she was the constant subject of her mother's
anxious prayer, and her first Communion, made in her
twelfth year, was the turning point in her life. A
strong impression of the I>ivine presence on the great
day, and confirmation received soon after, strength-
ened her piety and virtue, which thenceforward never
faltered. About a year, aftflr Marie saw at Mass,
during the Elevation, a bnghi light which seemed to
inflame her love for the Eucharistic I-ord and to in-
ULTERA
13
ULTERA
■evere intorior trials and temptations, whence docility
to her director brought her forth victorious. He al-
lowed her to make a yearly vow of virginity, and the
Blessed Sacrament became the central thought of her
life. According to her own narrative, towards the end
of 1839, when she was seventeen, she saw Christ on the
altar. On the Epiphany, 18^, this was repeated, and
for three whole years every time she assisted at Mass
this grace was granted her. Almost daily she received
from the lips of Jesus instructions forming a complete
spiritual and doctrinal education. He* explained in
smiple language the principal truths of faith; some-
times He showed her symbolical visions, or taught her
in parables. He sent His Mother and angels to her;
at times He reproached and humbled her. Her prog-
ress in virtue was rapid, her defects disappeared, and
she exercised a happy influence on those who ap-
proached her. She did not suspect at first that hers
was a singular privilege, yet she never mentioned it
except to her confessor.
In 1840 M. TAbb^ Pierre Darbins succeeded M.
Farbos as cur^ of Mimbaste. By Divine command
Marie revealed her soul to him. Much surprised, he
tested his penitent by trying her obedience and
humility; he found her wholly submissive. Then he
asked the help of the director of the seminary of Dax.
They agreed to order her to put in writing everything
supernatural she had heard and seen in tne past, and
all she might hear and see in the future. In due time
this was accomplished; but the true text has been so
much interpolated by the editor that the "Works of
Mario Lataste'' are not considered authentic. The
Divine Master had made known to her His will, that
she should embrace religious life, and in the Society of
the Sacred Heart, recently founded and wholly un-
known to her and ner director. After many objections
and delays, she obtained permission and loft for Paris,
21 April, 1844, alone, under the guidance of Divine
Providence. She was received at the H6tel Biron by
Madame de Boisbaudry^ who had her examined by an
experienced spiritualguide. She was admitted as lay-
sister on 15 May. With great joy she entered upon
this new life. Humility, charity, obedience, and fidel-
ity to common life were ner chief characteristics. Her
sisters* testimony was: " Sister Lataste does eveiy-
thin£ like every one else, yet no one does anything like
her.'' Still a novice she was sent to Rennes, in the
hope that change of air would improve her health.
An active life succeeded the quiet of the noviceship;
she was infirmarian, refectonan, portress, but her
humble virtues shone the more brilliantly; children,
strangers, as well as her superiors and her sisters, felt
her hidden sanctity. Marie's vows had been post-
goned in the hope of an improvement in her health.
>ut on Sunday, 9 May, she became suddenly so very
ill that the end seemed near. She was allowed to
pronounce her vows, just before receiving the last
sacraments. Then the pent-up ardours of her soul
burst forth in ecstatic joy until her death on 10 Ma^,
1847, at the age of twentjr-five. Her memory lives in
benediction. Her remains have been secured from
desecration and now repose at Roehampton near
London.
Vie de Marie LaUulepar une reUgieuse du S. C. (Paris. 1866);
Dabbins, La Vie et let (Euvree de Marie LaUute (Paru, 1866).
AucB Power.
lAtera, Flaminius Annibau de, historian, b. at
Latera, near Viterbo, 23 Nov., 1733; d. at Viterbo,
27 Feb., 1813. He received his first education from
a priest, Paolo Ferranti, and at the age of sixteen
entered the Order of Friars Minor Observants in the
Roman Province, taking the habit at the convent
^ of St. Bemardine at Orte, 23 January, 1750; a y^ar
later on the same day he made his solemn profession.
Being in due time ordained priest, he passed his ex-
aminations as lector generalia (protcssor), and 8uccea«
sively taught theology in various convents — ^Viterbo,
Fano, Velletri, and Rome. From 1790 to 1791 he
was definitor general of the order, and from 1794 to
1797 superior of the Roman Province. When the
convents in Italy were suppressed by Napoleon I in
1810, Annibali retired to Viterbo, and died there in a
private residence.
De Latera during fifty years developed immense
activity as a writer. Unfortunately he lived at a time
when Franciscan history had just passed through the
Seat and passionate Spader-Ringhieri and Lucci-
arczic controversies, which circumstances had a not-
able influence on his writings: instead of using his re-
markable talents for constructive work, he wrote
mostly with a polemical motive. Still his merits are
freat enough to secure him an honourable place in
'ranciscan literature. His chief works are (1) "Ad
Bullarium Franciscanum a P. Hyacintho Sbaralea
Ord. Min. Con v. . . . editum, Supplementum" (Rome,
1780), dedicated to Pope Pius Vl, by whose orders it
was written to correct the Conventual interpreta-
tions of Sbaralea [see '' Archiv f. Litt. u. Kirchenge-
schichte'', I (1885), 516-171. (2) '* Manuale de' Frati
Minori . . . con un appenoice, o sia risposta all' au-
tore (P. Sangallo, O.M. Con.) del Saggio compendi-
oso della dottrina di Giustino Febbronio" (Home,
1776). This latter work occasioned great controver-
sies, which partly took a violent and abusive form. (3)
" Dissertationes critico-historicae in quarum una Ser.
Patriarcha Franciscus Tertii Ordinis institutor, in
altera Indulgentiae Portiunculae Veritas asseritur et
vindicatur (Rome, 1784), (4) "Veritas impressionls
Sacrorum Stignuttum in corporeSeraphici S. Francisci
Assisiensis ..." (Rome, 1786). (5) "La storia della
Indulgenza concessa da Gesu Cristo . . . nclla Chiesa
della Portiuncula si dimostra vera ..." (Rome,
1796). The last three books were written against
rationalistic attacks of the time, concerning which see
Pezzana, "Memorie degli Scrittori e Letterati Parmi-
fiani", VI, pt. I, 127 (Parma, 1825). When the
Benedictine Pujati had, by order of Scipio Ricci of
unhappy memory, written against the traditional
form of the Stations of the Cross, Annibali, with the
Franciscans AfTo and Tommaso da Cireglio, was
chareed to answer; he then wrote (6) "LaPraticadel
pio Esercizio della Via Crucis . . . vendicata dalle
obbiezioni di D. Giuseppe Ma Pujati, Monaco Casi-
nese ..." (Viterbo, 1783; 2nd ed., Viterbo, 1785).
(7^ '*La Difesa dell' antico metodo della Via Crucia
e la Censura del nuovo ..." (against the "Annali
ecclesiastici" of Florence) (Viterbo, 1783). An im-
portant but little -known work is (8) "Compendio
della Storia degli Ordini religiosi esistenti" (4 vols.,
Rome, 1790-91); 2nd ed. of the same with the title
"Storia degli Ordini r^golari ..." (Naples, 1796).
(9) A life of St. Collette, in Italian (Rome, 1805; 2nd
ed., Rome, 1807). (10) Italian life of St. Hyacintha
Mariscotti (Rome, 1805; 2nd ed., Rome, 1807). (11)
New edition of "F. Francisci Horantii Hispaoi
(O.F.M.) . . . Locorum Catholicorum . . . libri VII"
(2 vols., Rome, 1795-96). (12) Annibali worked at
the reform of the Franciscan Breviary, 1784-85, and
composed many new offices edited separately at
Rome, 1785 (see "Archivum Franc. Hist.", I, Quar-
acchi, 1908, 45-49). (13) An Italian hymn-book (Vit-
erbo, 1772). After his death appeared (14) "Notizic
storiche della Casa Famese della fu Citt^ di Castro
. . . coir aggiunta di due Paesi Latera e Famese"
(in 2 parts, Montefiascone, 1817-18). We omit some
other works, as well as the anonymous and pseudony-
mous pamphlets of the author.
The biographical notices have been taken from the archives
of Ara Coeli, Rx>nie; the biblioeraohioal indications, from th«
books themselves. Breve Compenaio della Vila di F. Flaminio
Annibali da Latera (s. d., but probabty about 1770-80\ is noth-
ing but a sad travesty of Aonibali, wntten by one of his literal^'
advenaries.
LtYAiuns OuQxm.
ULTIRAH
14
L4T1RAH
lAteran, Canons Regulab of the. See Canons
AND CaNONEBSES ReQULAB.
Lateran, Christian Museum of, established by
Pius IX, in 1854, in the Palazzo del Laterano erected
by Sixtus V on part of the site of the ancient Lateran
palace destroyed by fire in 1308. In 1843 the " pro-
fane" Museum of the Lateran was founded by Greg-
ory XVI, in whose pontificate also was mooted the
idea of establishing a museum ol Christian antiquities
in the same edifice. Nothing of consequence, how-
ever, was accomplished until Pius IX, at .the date
noted, entrusted the task to the two famous archae-
ologists, Father Marchi, S.J., and Giovanni Battista
de Rossi. To Marchi was assigned the work of col-
lecting and arranging the sculptured monuments of
tiie early Christian a^ges, to de Rossi all that con-
cerned ancient Christian inscriptions; a third depart-
ment of the museum consisted of copies of some of the
more important catacomb frescoes. The larger part
of the material for the new foundation was drawn
from the hall in the Vatican Library set apart by
Benedict XIV, in 1750, as the nucleus of a Cnristian
museimi, from the storerooms of the Vatican, and
from the Roman catacombs. The Roxnan munici-
pality also contributed a number of Christian monu-
ments from the Capitoline Museum, while many
others were recovered frona convents, chapels, sac-
risties, and private collections. Plaster casts were
also supplied of certain especially interesting monu-
ments that could not be removed from their orijginal
location. The result has been eminently satisfac-
tory, so much so indeed that the Christian Museum of
the Lateran contains to-day a collection of monu-
ments the study of which is mdispensable to a proper
appreciation of the earlier ages of Christianity. The
section devoted to early Christian e{)igraphy, classified
by de Rossi, begins with a collection of mscriptions
relating to the most ancient basilicas, baptisteries,
etc.; then follow in order the Damasan inscriptions,
inscriptions with consular dates, those containing allu-
sions to dogma, to the hierarchy, civil matters, and
accompanied with such symbols as the anchor, dove,
and monograni. Still another section is occupied by
monumento with inscriptions classified according to
their topography. The most interesting, perhaps, of
idl the mscribed monuments of the museum is that
containing the famous epitaph of Abercius, one frag-
ment of which was presented to Leo XIII by the
Sultan Abdul Hamid II, the other by Professor (now
Sir William) Ramsa^r. The sculptured monimients
include a fine collection of fourth and fifth century
8Ut;ophagi, the statue of St. Hippolytus, and an ad.-
mirable third-^entury statue of the Good Shepherd.
The third section of the museum consists of copies, not
always accurate, of some of the most interesting
paintings discovered in the Roman catacombs.
NoRTHCOTE AND Brownlow, Roma SoUerranea (London,
1878-70); Northcx>tb, Epitaphs of the CtUacombt (London,
1878); Marucchi, Guxda del Muteo CrUUano LcUeranense
(Rome, 1808).
Maubice M. Hassett.
Lateran, Saint John, — ^Thb Basilica. — ^This is the
oldest, and ranks first among the four great "patri-
archal" basilicas of Rome. The site was, in ancient
times, occupied by the palace of the family of the
Laterani. A member of this family, P. Sextius Lat-
eranus, was the first plebeian to attain the rank of
consul. In the time of Nero, another member of
the family, Plautius Lateranus, at the time consul
dssignatus was accused of conspiracv against the em-
peror, and his goods were confiscated. Juvenal men-
tions the palace, and speaks of it as being of some
magnificence, "regise sedes Lateranorum". Some
few remains of the original buildings may still be
traced in the city walls outside the Gate of St. John,
and a large hall decorated with paintings was unc-ov-
ered in the eighteenth century within the basilica itself ,
behind the Lancellotti Chapel. A few traces of older
buildings also came to lignt during the excavations
made in 1880, when the work of extending the apse
was in progress, but nothing was then discovered of
real value or importance. The palace came event-
ually into the hands of Constantine, the first Christian
emperor, through his wife Fausta, and it is from her
that it derived the name by which it was then some-
times called, *'Domus Faustse". Constantine must
have given it to the Church in the time of Miltiades,
not later than about 311, for we find a council against
the Donatists meeting within its walls as early as 313.
From that time onwards it was always the centre of
Christian life within the city; the residence of the
popes and the cathedral of Rome. The latter distinc-
tion it still holds, though it has Ions lost the former.
Hence the proud title which may be read upon its
walls, that it is *' Omniimi urbis et orbis ecclesiarum
mater, et caput '\
It seems probable, in spite of the tradition that Con-
stantine helped in the work of building with his own
hands, that there was not a new basilica erected at the
Lateran, but that the work carried out at this period
was limited to the adaptation, which perhaps involved
the enlargement, of tne already existing basilica or
great hall of the palace. The words of St. Jerome
" basilica quondam Laterani '' (Ep. Ixxiii, P. L., XXII,
col. 692) seem to point in this direction, and it is also
probable on other grounds. This original church was
probably not of very laree dimensions, but we have no
reUable mformation on the subject. It was d^cated
to the Saviour, ''Basihca Salvatoris'', the dedication
to St. John being of later date, and due to a Benedic-
tine monastery of St. John the Baptist and St. John
the Evangelist which adjoined the basilica and whose
members were charged at one period with the duty of
maintaining the services in tne church. This later
dedication to St. John has now in popular usage al-
together superseded the original one. A great many
donations from the popes and other benefactors to the
basilica are recorded in the "Liber Pontificalis", and
its splendour at an early period was such that it be-
came known at the ''Basilica Aurea*', or Golden
Church. This splendour drew upon it the attack of
the Vandals, who stripped it of all its treasures. St.
Leo the Great restored it about 460, and it was again
r^tored by Hadrian I, but in 896 it was almost totally
destroy ed by an earthquake (' ' ab altari usque ad port as
cecidit "). The dams^ was so extensive that it was
difficult to trace in every case the lines of the old build-
ing, but these were in the main respected and the new
bwlding was of the same dimensions as the old. This
second church lasted for four hundred years and was
then burnt down. It was rebuilt by Clement V am!
John XXII, only to be burnt down once more in 1360,
but again rebuilt by Urban V.
Through these various vicissitudes the basilica re*
tained its ancient form, being divided by rows of col-
imms into aisles, and having in front an atrium sur-
rounded by colonnades with a fountain in the middle.
The facade had three windows, and was embellished
with a mosaic representing Christ as the Saviour of the
world. The porticoes of the atrium were decorated
with frescoes, probably not dating further back than
the twelfth century, which commemorated the Roman
fleet under Vespasian, the taking of Jerusalem, the
Baptism of the Emperor Constantine and his ** Dona-
tion" to the Church. Inside the basilica the columns
no doubt ran, as in all other basilicas of the same date,
the whole length of the church from east to west, but
at one of the rebuildings, probably that which was
carried out by Clement y, the feature of a transverse
nave was introduced, imitated no dotibt from the one
which had been, long before this, added at S. Paolo
f uori le Mura. It was probably at this time also that
the church was enlarged. When the popes returned to
Rome from their long absence at Avignon they found
ULTiaAH
15
ULTiaAH
fthe city deserted and the churches almost m ruins.
Great works were begun at the Lateran by Martin V
and his successors. The palace, however, was never
Again used by them as a residence, the Vatican, which
stands in a much drier and healthier position, being
chosen in its place. It was not until the latter part
of the seventeenth century that the church took its
present appearance, in the tasteless restoration carried
out by Innocent X, with Borromini for his architect.
The ancient columns were now enclosed in huge pi-
lasters, with gigantic statues in front. In consequence
of this the church has entirely lost the appearance
of an ancient basilica, and is completely altered in
character.
Some portions of the older buildings still survive.
Among these we may notice the pavement of medieval
Cosmatesque work, and the statues of St. Peter and St.
Paul, now in the cloisters. The graceful haldacchino
over the high altar, which looks so utterly out of place
in its present surroundings, dates from 13G9. The
stercoraria, or throne of red marble on which the
popes sat, is now in the Vatican Museum. It owes its
unsavoiuy name to the anthem sung at the ceremony
of the papal enthronization, *' De stercore erigens pau-
perem". From the fifth century there were seven
oratories surrounding the basilica. These before long
were thrown into the actual church. The devotion of
visitina; these oratories, which held its ground all
through the medieval period, gave rise to the similar
devotion of the seven altars, still common in many
churches of Rome and elsewhere. Between the ba-
silica and the city wall there was in former times the
great monastery, in which dwelt the community of
monks whose dutv it was to provide the services in the
basilica. The only part of it which still survives is the
cloister, surrounded by graceful columns of inlaid
marble. They are of a style intermediate between
the Romanesque proper and the Gothic, and are the
work of Vassellectus and the Cosmati. The date of
these beautiful cloisters is the early part of the thir-
teenth century.
The ancient apse, with mosaics of the fourth cen-
tury, survived all the many changes and dangers of
the Middle Ages, and was still to be seen very much in
its original condition as late as 1878, when it was de-
stroyed in order to provide a larger space for the or-
dinations and other pontifical functions which take
place in this cathedral church of Rome. The original
mosaics were, however, preserved with the greatest
possible care and very great success, and were re-
erected at the end of the new and deeper apse which
had been provided. In these mosaics, as they now
appear, the centre of the upper portion is occupied by
the figure of Christ surrounded by nine angels. This
figure is extremely ancient, and dates from the fifth,
or it may be even the fourth century. It is possible
even that it is the identical one which, as is told in
ancient tradition, was manifested to the eyes of the
worshippers on the occasion of the dedication of the
If it is so, however, it has certainly -been retouched.
Below is seen the crux gammata, surmounted by a
dove which symbolizes the Holy Spirit, and standing
on a hill whence flow the four rivers of the Gospels,
from whose waters stags and sheep come to drink.
On either side are saints, looking towards the Cross.
These last are thought to belong originally to the
sixth century, though they were repaired and altered
in the thirteenth by Nicholas IV, whose effigy may be
seen prostrate at the feet of the Blessed Virgin. The
river which runs below is more ancient still, and may
be regarded as going back to Constantine and the first
day^ of the basilica. The remaining mosaics of the
apse are of the thirteenth century, and the signatures
01 the artist-s, Torriti and Camerino, may still be read
upon them. Camerino was a Frandsoan friar; per-
haps Torriti was one also.
The pavement of the basilica dates from Martin V
and the return of the popes to Rome from Avignon.
Martin V was of the Colonna family, and the columns
are their badge. The high altar, which formerly oc-
cupied the position customary in all ancient basilicas,
in the centre of the chord of the apse, has now beyond
it, owine to the successive enlargements of the church,
the whole of the transverse nave and of the new choir.
It has no saint buried beneath it, since it was not, as
were almost all the other great churches of Rome,
erected over the tomb of a martyr. It stands alone
among all the altars of the Catholic world in being of
wood and not of stone, and enclosing no relics of any
kind. The reason for this peculiarity is that it is it-
self a relic of a most interesting kind, being the actual
wooden altar upon which St. Peter is believed to have
celebrated Mass during his residence in Rome. It
was carefully preserved through all the years of per-
secution, and was brought by Constantine and Syl-
vester from St. Pudentiana's, where it had been kept
till then, to become the principal altar of the cathedral
church of Rome. It is now, of course, enclosed in a
larger altar of stone and cased with marble, but the
original wood can still be seen. A small portion was
left at St. Pudentiana's in memory of its long con-
nexion with that church, and is still preserved there.
Above the High Altar is the canopy or haldacchino al-
ready mentioned, a Gothic structure resting on four
marble columns, and decorated with paintings by
Bama of Siena. In the upper part of the baldacchino
are preserved the heads of the Apostles Peter and
Paul, the great treasure of the basilica, which until
this shrine was prepared to receive them had always
been kept in the *^Sancta Sanctorum", the private
chapel of the Lateran Palace adjoining. Bchmd the
ai^e there formerly extended the "Leonine" portico;
it is not known which pontiff §ave it this name. At
the entrance there was an inscription commemorating
the dream of Innocent VIII, when he saw the church
of the Lateran upheld by St. Francis of Assisi. On
the opposite wall was hung the tabula magna, or
catalogue of all the relics of the basilica, and also of the
different chapels and the indulgences attached to
them respectively. It is now in the archives of the
basilica.
The Baptistery. — ^The baptistery of the church,
following the invariable rule of the first centuries of
Christianity, was not an integral part of the ciiurch it-
self, but a separate and detached building, joined to
the church by a colonnade, or at any rate in close prox-
imity to it. The right to baptize was the peculiar
privilege of the cathedral church, and here, as else-
where, all were brought from all parts of the city to re-
ceive the sacrament. There is no reason to doubt the
tradition which makes the existing baptistery, which
altogether conforms to these conditions, the original
Imptistery of the church, and ascribes its foundation
to Constantine. The whole style and appearance of
the edifice bear out the claim made on its behalf.
There is, however, much less ground for saying that it
w^as here that the emperor was baptized by St. Syl-
vester. The building was originally entered from
the opposite side from the present doorway, through
the portico of St. Vcnantius. This is a vestibule or
atrium, in which two large porphyry columns are still
standing and was formerly approached by a colonnade
of smaller porphyry columns leading from the church.
The baptistery itself is an octagonal edifice with eight
immense porphyry columns supporting an architrave
on which are eight smaller columns, likewise of por-
phyry, which in their turn support the octagonal
drums of the lantern. In the main the building has
preserved its ancient form and characteristics, though
it has been added to and adorned by many popes.
Sixtus III carried out the first of these restorations
ULTSRAH
16
ULTK&AN
and adornments, and his inscription recording the fact
may still be seen on the architrave. Pope St. Hilary
(461-468) raised the height, and also added the chap-
els round. Urban VIII and Innocent X repaired it m
more recent times.
In the centre of the buildinc one descends by sev-
eral steps to the basin of crecn oasalt which forms the
actual baptismal font. 1 here is no foundation for the
idea that the Emperor Con^tantine was himself ac-
tually baptized in this font by Pope St. Sylvester.
That is a confusion which lias arisen from the fact that
he was the founder of the baptistery. But although
he had embraced Christianity and had done so much
for the advancement of the Church, the emperor, as a
matter of fact, deferred the actual reception of the
sacrament of baptism imtil the very end of his life,
and was at last baptized, not by Sylvester, but by Eu-
sebius, in whose diocese of Nicomedia he was then,
after the foundation of Constantinople, pcrmanentlv
residing (Von Funk, ''Manual of Church History' ,
London, 1910, 1, 118-119; Duchesne, *' Liber Pontifi-
cahs", Paris, 1887, I, cix-cxx). The mosaics in the
adjoining oratories are both ancient and interesting.
Those in the oratory of St. Jolm the Evangelist are of
the fifth centuiy, and are of the conventional style of
that period, consisting of flowers and birds on a gold
ground, also a Lamb with a cruciform nimbus on the
vault. The corresponding mosaics of the chapel of
St. John the Baptist disappeared in the seventeenth
century, but we have a ciescription of them in Pan-
vinio. The mosaics in the chapel of St. Venantius
(the ancient vestibule) are still extant, and are of con-
siderable interest. They date from the seventh cen-
tury, and a comparison between the workmanship of
these mosaics and of those in the cliapel of St. John
offers an instructive lesson on the extent to which the
arts had deteriorated between the fifth and the sev-
enth centuries. The figures represent, for the most
part, Dalmatian saints, and the whole decoration was
originally desired as a memorial to Dalmatian mar-
tyrs, whose relics were brought here at the conclusion
of the Istrian schism.
The Lateran Palace. — From the beginning of the
fourth century, when it was eiven to the pope by Con-
stantine, the palace of the Lateran was the principal
residence of the popes, and continued so for about a
thousand years. In the tenth century Serglus III
restored it after a disastrous fire, and later on it was
greatlv embellished by Innocent III. This was the
period of its greatest magnificence, when Dante speaks
of it as beyond all human achievements. At this t imc
the centre of the piazza in front, where now the obe-
lisk stands, was occupied by the palace and tower of
the Annibaldeschi. Between this palace and the ba-
silica was the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius,
then believed to represent Constantine, which now is
at the Capitol. The whole of the front of the palace
was taken up with the ''Aula Concilii", a magnifi-
cent hall witn eleven apses, in which were held the
various Councils of the Lateran during the medieval
period. The fall of the palace from uiis position of
flory was the result of the departurie of the popes from
Lome during the Avignon period. Two aestructive
fires, in 130/ and 1361 respectively, did irreparable
harm, and although vast sums were sent from Avignon
for the rebuilding, the palace never again attained its
former splendour. When the popes returned to Home
they resided first at Santa Maria m Trastevere, then at
Santa Maria Maggiore, and lastly fixed their residence
at the Vatican. Sixtus V then destroyed what still
remained of the ancient palace of the Lateran and
erected the present much smaller edifice in its place.
An apee lined with mosaics and open to the air still
preserves the memory of one of the most famous halls
of the ancient palace, the "Triclinium" of Leo III,
which was the state banqueting hall. The existing
fftructure is not ancient, but it is possible that some
portions of the original mosaics have been preserved.
The subject is threefold. In the centre Christ gives
their mission to the Apostles, on the left he gives the
kc>[s to St. Sylvester and the Labarum to Constantine,
while on the ri^ht St. Peter gives the stole to Leo III
and the standard to Charlemagne. The private
rooms of the popes in the old palace were situated be-
tween this '^Triclinium" and the city walls. The
palace is now given up to the Pontifical Museiun of
Christian Antiquities.
For the history of the basilica, the student should consult
primarily the two quarto volumes of the Liber PontificaKs,
edited by Duchesne (Paris, 1887 sqq.). Other monographs are
Joannes Diaconuh, Liber de Ecclena Laleranensi in P. L.:
AxjEMANNi, De Laieranensibiu parietinis (Rome, 1625); Uah-
poNDi, De basilica el patriarchio Jjoteranenn (Home, 1656);
Crescimbeni and Baldeschi, Stalo delta S. Chiesa papale Latera-
nense nell' anno 172S (Rome, 1723); Skverano, Le »eUe chiete
di Roma; Ugonio, Historia delle Stazioni di Roma; Panvinio,
De Seplem urbis ecclenis; Piazza, Stazioni di Roma. The latter
four works were published in Rome in the sixteenth or seven-
teoith century.
Among recent books the best are: Armellini, Le chieae di
Roma (Rome, 1891); Marucchi, Basiligucs et Eglises de Rome
(Rome. 1902); and in particular, ns Fleury, Le Lairem au
moyen Age^ (Paris, 1877). There is a lai]ge number of plans and
manuscripts in the archives of the bxisilica. For special points
consult also de Rossi, Musaici delle chiese di Roma anteriori al
secolo XV (Rome, 1872); de Montault, La grande pancarU de
la baeilique de Latran in Revue de Vart chritien (Paris, 1886) ;
GER8PA(*n, La Moea'ique apaidaie dee Sancla Sanctorum du
Latran in Gazette dee beaux aria, 1880: Bartouni, Sopra
Vantichiaaimo altare di legno in Roma (1852).
Arthur S. Barnes.
Lateran Oooncils, a series of five important coun-
cils held at Rome from the twelfth to the sixteenth
century. From the reign of Constantine the Great
imtil the removal of the papal Court to Avi^on, the
Lateran palace and basilica ser\'ed the bishops of
Rome as residence and cathedral. During this long
period the popes had occasion to convoke a number
of general councils, and for this purpose thev made
choice of cities so situated as to reduce as much as pos-
sible the inconveniences which the bishops called to
such assemblies must necessarily experience by reason
of long and costly absence from their sees. Five of
these councils were held in the Lateran palace, and
are known as the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and
Fifth Lateran Councils, held respectively in 1123,
1139, 1179, 1215, and 1512-17.
First Lateran Council (1123). — The Council of
1123 is reckoned in the series of oecumenical councils.
It had been convoked in December, 1122, immediately
after the Concordat of Worms, which agreement be-
tween pope and emperor had caused general satisfac-
tion in tne Church. It put a stop to the arbitrary
conferring of ecclesiastical benefices by laymen, re-
established freedom of episcopal and abbatial elections,
separated spiritual from temporal affairs, and ratified
the principle that spiritual authority can emanate only
from the Church; lastly, it tacitly alx)lished the exor-
bitant claim of the emperors to interfere in panal elec-
tions. So deep was the emotion caused by tnis con-
cordat, the first ever signed, that in many documents
of the time the year 1122 is mentioned as the be^n-
ning of a new era. For its more solemn confirmation,
and in conformity with the earnest desire of the Arch-
bishop of Mainz, Callistus II convoked a council to
which all the archbishops and bishops of the West were
invited. Three hundred bishops and more than six
hundred abbots assembled at Rome in March, 1123;
Callistus II presided in nerson. Both originals {in-
strumenta) of the Concoraat of Worms were read and
ratified, and twent-y-two disciplinary canons were pro-
mulgated, most of them reinforcements of previous
conciliary decrees. Canons iii and xxi forbia priests,
deacons, subdeacons, and monks to marry or to have
concubines; it is also forbidden them to keep in their
houses any women other than those sanctioned by the
ancient canons. Marriages of clerics are null vieno
jvre, and those who have contracted them are subject
to penance. Canon vi: Nullity of the ordinations per-
L4TIKAH
17
LATERAH
formed by the heresiarch Burdinus (Antipope Greg-
ory VIII) after his condemnation, panon xi: Safe-
guard for the families and possessions of crusaders.
Canon xiv: Excommunication of laymen appropriat-
ing offerings made to the Church, and those who for-
tify churches as strongholds. Canon xvi: Against
those who molest pilgrims on their way to Rome.
Canon xvii: Abbots and religious are prohibited from
admitting sinners to penance, visiting the sick, ad-
ministering extreme unction, singing solemn and pub-
lic Masses; they are obliged to obtam the holy chrism
and holy oils from their respective bishops.
Second Lateran Council (lli^9). — ^The death of
Pope Honorius II (February, 1130) was followed by a
schism. Petrus Leonis (Pierleoni), under the name of
Anacletus II, for a long time held in check the legiti-
mate pope. Innocent II, who was supported by St.
Bernard and St. Norbert. In 1135 Innocent II cele-
brated a Council at Pisa, and his cause gained steadily
until, in January, 1138, the death of Anacletus helped
largely to solve the difficulty. Nevertheless, to efface
the last vestiges of the schism, to condemn various
errors and reform abuses among clergy and people,
Innocent, in the month of April, 1139, convofced, at
the Lateran, the tenth oecumenical council. Nearly
a thousand prelates, from most of the Christian na-
tions, assisted. The pope opened the council with a
discourse, and deposed from their offices those who
had been ordained and instituted bv the antipope and
by his chief partisans, iEgidius of 'fuscuhim and Ger-
ard of Angoul^me. As Roger, King of Sicily, a parti-
san of Anacletus who had been reconciled with Inno-
cent, persisted in maintaining in Southern Italy his
schismatical attitude, he was excommunicated. The
council likewise condemned the errors of the Petro-
brusians* and the Henricians, the followers of two
active and dangerous heretics, Peter of Bruys and
Arnold of Brescia. The council promulgated against
these heretics its twenty-third canon, a repetition of
the third canon of the Council of Toulouse (1119)
against the Manichseans. Finally, the council drew
up measures for the amendment of ecclesiastical
morals and discipline that had grown lax during the
schism. Twenty-eight canons pertinent to these
matters reproduced in great part the decrees of the
Council of Reims, in 1131, and the Council of Cler-
mont, in 1130, whose enactments, frequently cited
since then under the name of the Lateran Council, ac-
quired thereby increase of authority. Canon iv: In-
junction to bishops and ecclesiastics not to scandalize
anyone by the colours, the shape, or extravagance of
their garments, but to clothe tJiemselves in a modest
and well-regulated manner. Canons vi,vii,xxi: Con-
demnation and repression of marriage and concubin-
age among priests, deacons, subdeacons, monks, and
nuns. Canon x: Excommunication of laymen who
fail to pay the tithes due the bishops, or who do not
surrender to the latter the churches of which they re-
tain possession, whether received from bishops, or
obtained from princes or other persons. Canon xii
fixes the periods and the duration of the Truce of God.
Canon xiv: Prohibition, under pain of deprivation of
Christian burial, of jousts and tournaments which
jeopardize life. Canon xx: Kings and princes are to
dispense justice in consultation with the bishops.
Canon xxv: No one must accept a l^enefice at the
hands of a layman. Canon xxvii: Nuns are prohibited
from singing the Divine Office in the same choir with
monks or canons. Canon xxviii : No church must be
left vacant more than three years from the death of
the bishop; anathema is pronounced against those
(secular) canons who exclude from episcopal election
"persons of piety" — ^i. e. regular canons or monks.
Third Lateral Council (1179). — ^The reign of
Alexander III was one of the most laborious pontifi-
cates of the Middle Ages. Then, as in 1 130, the ot)ject
to repair the evils caused by the schism of an anti-
pope. Shortl^r after returning to Rome (12 Marcfa.
1178) and receiving from its inhabitants their oath off
fidelity and certain indispensable guarantees, Alex-
ander had the satisfaction of receiving the submission
of the antipope Callistus III (John de Struma). The
latter, besieged at Viterbo by Christian of Mainz,
eventually yielded and, at Tusculum, made his sub-
mission to rope Alexander (29 August, 1178), who
received him with kindness and appomted him Gover-
nor of Beneventum. Some of his obstinate partisans
sought to substitute a new antipope, and cnose one
Lando Sitino, under the name of Innocent III. For
lack of support he soon gave up the struggle and was
relegated to the monastery of La Cava. In Septem-
ber, 1178, the pope in agreement with an article of the
Peace of Venice, convoked an oecumenical council at
the Lateran for Lent of the following year and, with
that object, sent legates to different countries. This
was the eleventh of the oecmnenical councils. It met
m March, 1179. The pope presided, seated upon an
elevated throne, surrounded by the cardinals, and by
the prefects, senators, and consuls of Rome. The
gathering numbered three hundred and two bishops,
among them several Latin prelates of Eastern sees.
There were in all nearly one thousand members.
Nectarius, abbot of the Cabules, represented the
Greeks. The East was represented by Archbishops
William of Tyre and Heraclius of Caesarea, Prior
Peter of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Bishop of Bethle-
hem. Spain sent nineteen bishops; Ireland, six;
Scotland, only one; England, seven; France, fifty-
nine; Germany, seventeen; Denmark and Hungary,
one each. The bishops of Ireland had at their head
St. Laurence, Archbisnop of Dublin. The pope con-
secrated, in the presence of the council, two English
bishops, and two Scottish, one of whom had come to
Rome with only one horse, the other on foot. There
was also present an Icelandic bishop who had no other
revenue than the milk of three cows, and when one of
these went dry his diocese furnished him with another.
Besides exterminating the remains of the schism,
the council undertook the condemnation of the Wal-
densian heresy and the restoration of ecclesiastical
discipline, which had been much, relaxed. Three
sessions were held, on 5, 14, and 19 March, in which
twenty-seven canons were promulgated, the most
important of which may be summarized as follows:
Canon i: To prevent schisms in future, only the car-
dinals should have the right to elect the pope, and
two-thirds of their votes should be required for the
validity of such election. If any candidate, after se-
curing only one-third of the votes, should arrogate to
himself the papal dignity, both he and his partisans
should be excluded from the ecclesiastical order and
excommunicated. Canon ii: Annulment of the or-
dinations performed by the heresiarchs Octavian and'
Guy of Crema, as well as those by John de Struma.
Those who have received ecclesiastical dignities or
benefices from these persons are deprived of the same;
those who have freely sworn to adhere^ to the schism
are declared suspended. Canon iii: It is forbidden to
promote anyone to the episcopate before the age of
thirty. Deaneries, archdeaconries, parochial charges,
and other benefices involving the care of souls shall
not be conferred upon anyone less than twenty-five
vears of age. Canon iv regulates the retinue of mem-
bers of the higher clergy, whose canonical visits were
frequently ruinous to the rural priests. Thencefor-
wara the train of an archbishop is not to include more
than forty or fiftv horses; that of a bishop, not more
than twenty or thirty; that of an archdeacon, five or
seven at the most; the dean is to have two. Canon
V forbids the ordination of clerics not provided with
an ecclesiastical title, i. e. means of proper support.
If a bishop ordains a priest or a deacon without assign-
ing him a certain title on which he can subsist^ the
bishop shall provide such cleric with means of hveli>
ULTUUir
18
L4TIRAH
hood until he can assure him an ecclesiastical revenuej
that is, if the cleric cannot subsist on his patrimon^
alone. Canon vi regulates the formalities of ecclesi-
astical sentences. Canon vii forbids the exaction of a
sum of money for the burial of the dead, the marriage
benediction, and, in general, for the administration of
the sacrji^ments. Canon viii: The patrons of benefices
shall nominate to such benefices within six months
after the occurrence of a vacancy. Canon ix recalls
the military orders of the Templars and the Hospital-
lers to the observation of canonical regulations, from
which the churches dependent on them are in no wise
exempt. Canon xi foroids clerics to receive women in
their hoiises, or to frequent, without necessity, the
monasteries of nuns. Canon xiv forbids laymen to
transfer to other laymen the tithes which they possess,
under pain of being debarred from the communion of
the faitliful and deprived of Christian burial. Canon
xviii provides for the establishment in every cathedral
church of a school foi poor clerics. Canon xix: Ex-
communication aimed at those who levy contributions
on churches and churchmen without the consent of the
bishop and clergy. Canon xx forbids tournaments.
Canon xxi relates to the "Truce of God". Canon
xxiii relates to the organization of asylums for lepers.
Canon xxiv consists of a prohibition against fur-
nishing the Saracens with material for the construc-
tion of their galleys. Canon xxvii enjoins on princes
the repression of heresy.
Fourth Lateran Council (1215). — From the com-
mencement of his reign Innocent III had purposed to
assemble an cBcumemcal council, but only towards the
end of his pontificate could he realize this project, by
the Bull of 19 April, 1213. The assembly was to take
place in November, 1215. The council did in fact
meet on 11 November, and its sessions were prolonged
until the end of the month. The long interval oe-
tween the convocation and the opening of the council,
as well as the prestige of the reigm'ng pontiff, were re-
sponsible for the very large number of bishops who
attended it; it is commonly cited in canon law as "the
General Council of Lateran", without further qualifi-
cation, or. ag^in, as "the Great Council". Innocent
III found himself on this occasion surrounded by
seventy-one patriarchs and metropolitans, including
the Patriarchs of Constantinople and of Jerusalem,
four hundred and twelve bishops, and nine hundred
abbots and priors. The Patriarchs of Antioch and
Alexandria were represented by delegates. Envoys
appeared from Emperor Frederick II, from Henry,
Latin Emperor of Constantinople, from the Kings of
France, England, Aragon, Hunganr. Cyprus, and
Jerusalem, and from other princes. Tne pope himself
opened the council with an allocution the lofty views
of which surpassed the orator's power of expression.
He had desired, said the pope, to celebrate this Pasch
before he died. He declared himself ready to drink
the chalice of the Passion for the defence of the Catho-
lic Faith, for the succour of the Holy Land, and to
establish the liberty of the Church. After this dis-
course, followed by moral exhortation, the pope pre-
sented to the council seventy decrees or canons, al-
ready formulated, on the most important points of
donatio and moral theology. Dogmas were defined,
points of discipline were decided, measures were
drawn up against heretics, and, finally, the conditions
of the next crusade were regulated.
The fathers of the council did little more than ap-
prove the seventy decrees presented to them; tnis
approbation, nevertheless, sufficed to impart to the
acts thus formulated and promulgated tne value of
oecumenical decrees. Most of them are somewhat
lengthy and are divided into chapters. The follow-
ing are the most important: Canon i: Exposition of
the Catholic Faith and of the dogma of Transub-
stantiation. Canon ii : Condemnation of the doctrines
of Joachim of Flora and of Amaury. Canon iii: Pro-
cedure and penalties against heretics and their pro-
tectors. Canon iv: iSdiortation to the Greeks to
reunite with the Roman Church and accept its max-
imjs, to the end that, according to the Gospel, there
may be only one fold and only one shephera. Canon
v: Proclapiav^ion of the papal primacy recognized by
all antiquity. After the pope, primacy is attributed
to the patriarchs in the following order: Constant!*
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem. (It is enough
to remind the reader how long an opposition preceded
at Rome this recognition of Constantinople as second
in rank among the patriarchal sees.) Canon vi: Pro-
vincial councils must be held annually for the reform
of morals, especially those of the clergy. Canon viii:
Procedure in regard to accusations against ecclesias-
tics. Until the French Revolution, this canon was
of considerable importance in criminal law, not only
ecclesiastical but even civil. Canon ix: Celebration
of public worship in places where the inhabitants be-
long to nations following different rites. Canon xi
renews the ordinance of the council of 1179 on free
schools for clerics in connexion with every cathedral.
Canon xii: Abbots and priors are to hold their general
chapter every three years. Canon xiii forbids the
establishment of new religious orders, lest too great
diversity bring confusion into the Church. Canons
xiv-xvu: Against the irregularities of the clergy —
incontinence, drunkennness, the chase, attendance
at farces and histrionic exhibitions. Canon xviii:
Priests, deacons, and subdeacons are forbidden to per-
form suigical operations. Canon xix forbids the
blessing of water and hot iron for judicial tests or
ordeals. Canon xxi, the famous "Omnis utriusnue
sexus", which commands every Christian who has
reached the years of discretion to confess all his, or
her, sins at least once a year to his, or her, otvn (i. e.
parish) priest. This canon did no more than confirm
earlier legislation and custom, and has been often,
but wrongly, quoted as commanding for the first time
the use of sacramental confession. Canon xxii: Be-
fore prescribing for the sick, physicians shall be bound,
under pain of exclusion from the Church, to exhort
their patients to call in a priest, and thus provide for
their spiritual welfare. Canons xxiii-xxx regulate
ecclesiastical elections and the collation of benefices.
Canons xxyi, xliv, and xlviii: Ecclesiastical procedure.
Canons 1-lii: On marriage, impediments of relation-
ship, publication of banns. Canons Ixxviii, Ixxix:
Jews and Mohammedans shall wear a special dress
to enable them to be distinguished from Christians.
Christian princes must take measures to prevent
blasphemies against Jesus Christ. The council, more-
over, made rules for the projected crusade, imposed a
four years' peace on all Christian peoples and princes,
published indulgences, and enjoineci the bisnops to
reconcile all enemies. The council confirmed the ele-
vation of Frederick II to the German throne and took
other important measures. Its decrees were widely
published in many provincial councils.
Fifth Lateran Council (1512-17). — When elected
pope, Julius II promised under oath that he would
soon convoke a general council. Time passed, how-
ever, and this promise was not fulfilled. Conse-
quently, certain dissatisfied cardinals, urged, also, by
Emperor Maximilian and Louis XII, convoked a coun-
cil at Pisa and fixed 1 September, 1511, for its open-
ing. This event was delayed until 1 October. Four
cardinals then met at Pisa provided with proxies from
three absent cardinals. Several bishops and abbots
were also there, as well as ambassadors from the King
of France. Seven or eight sessions were held, in the
last of which Pope Julius II was suspended, where-
upon the prelates withdrew to Lyons. The pope
hastened to oppose to this concUiabulum a more
numerously attended council, which he convoked, by
the Bull of 18 July, 1511, to assemble 19 April, 1512,
in the church of St. John Lateran. The Bull was ai
ULTiy 19 ULTXN
once a canonical and a polemical document. In it the CW/. Regia etmeUiomm, XXVII. col.. 32.120, 434; M arca. Con-
pope refuted in detaU the ,«j«,n8 aUeged bv the <»,^ ro^!t:;^::^i^'r^:^^x^2^h^!?'&.t^-M^^%\
dinals for their Pisa concuiabxdum. He declared that Alexander. Hi^. ecdea., VII (Venice. 1778), 299-302; 347-58;
his conduct before his elevation to the pontificate was Lessius, Discunaio decreti magni concUH Laieranen--ia (Mains.
a pledge of his.sincere desire.for the celebration of the l^^^\^Xo'^riV^^rw^i^.Z t^r.t^^o^::fJ,J^^.
council; that since his elevation he had always sought torico-theologica de concUUa Lateranensibw rei Christiana noxiia
opportunities for assembUng it; that for this reason (Jena. 1725); HEFELB,Con^ten(7«5cAic^^^ (Freiburj? im Br.,
hp hiiH Rniicrlif t-n iv-Psfjihlisli npjipp nmonir rhrlstinn 1886). 378, 438. 710, 872; Rivinoton. TAe Primitive Church
ne naa sougni to re-estamisn peace among cnrisimn ^^^ ,^ ^^^ ^^ p^^ (London. 1894); Pastor. iri/>tory of the
prmces; that tne wars which had ansen agamst his Popes, tr. Antrobus, V (London, 1902), pa»«<im.
will had no other object than the re-establishment of H. Leclercq.
pontifical authority m the States of the Church. Ho
then reproached the rebel cardinals with the irregular- Latin, Ecclesiastical. — In the present instance
ity of their conduct and the unseemliness of convoking these words are taken to mean the Latin we find in the
the Universal Church independently of its head. He oflScial text-books of the Church (the Bible and the
pointed out to them that the three months accorded Liturgy), as well as in the works of those Christian
oy them for the assembly of all bishops at Pisa was writers of the West who have undertaken to expound
too short, and that said city presented none of the or defend Christian beliefs.
advantages requisite for an assembly of such impor- Characteristics. — Ecclesiastical differs from classical
tance. Finally, he declared that no one should attach Latin especially by the introduction of new idioms and
any si^ificance to the act of the cardinals. The Bull new words. (In syntax and literary method, Christian
was signed by twenty-one cardinals. The French writers are not different from other contemporary
victory of Ravenna (11 April, 1512) hindered the writers.). These characteristic differences are due to
opening of the council before 3 Ala^, on which day the the origin and purpose of ecclesiastical Latin. Origi-
fathers met in the Lateran Basilica. There were nally the Roman people spoke the old tongue of Latium,
present fifteen cardinals, the Latin Patriarchs of ]aiGwn aa priscaJatiniias, In the third century b. c,
Alexandria and Antioch, ten archbishops, fifty-six Ennius and a few other writers trained in the school
bishops, some abbots and generals of religious orders, of the Greeks undertook to enrich the language with
the ambassadors of King Ferdinand, and those ot Greek embellishments. This attempt was encour-
Venice and of Florence. Convoked by Julius II, the aged by the cultured classes in Rome, and it was to
assembly survived him, was continued bv Leo X, and these classes that henceforth the poets, orators, his-
held its twelfth, and last, session on 16 ^arch, 1517. torians, and literary coteries of Rome addressed them-
In the third session Matthew Lang, who had repre- selves. Under the combined influence of this political
sented Maximilian at the Council of Tours, read an act and intellectual aristocracy was developed that classi*
by which that emperor repudiated all that had been cal Latin which has been preserved for us in greatest
done at Tours and at Pisa. In the fourth session the purity in the works of Csesar and of Cicero. The
advocate of the council demanded the revocation of mass of the Roman populace in their native rugged-
the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. In the eighth ness remained aloof from this hellenizing influence,
(17 December, 1513), an act of King Louis XII was and continued to speak the old tongue. Thus it came
read, disavowing the Council of Pisa and adhering to to pass that after the third century b. c. there existed
the Lateran Council. In the next session (5 March, side by side in Rome two languages, or rather two
1514) the French bishops made their submission, ana idioms: that of the literary circles or hellenists (sermo
Leo X granted them absolution from the censures pro- urbanus) and that of the illiterate (sermo vulgaris);
nounced against them by Julius II. In the tenth and the more highly the former developed the greater
session (4 Mav, 1515) the pope published four decrees; grew the chasm between them. But in spite of all the
the first of these sanctions the institution of monies effortsof the purists, the exigencies of daily life brought
pielatis, or pawn shops, under strict ecclesiastical super- the writers oi the cultured mode into continual touch
vision, for the purpose of aidiqg the necessitous poor with the uneducated populace, and constrained them
on ihe most favourable terms; the second relates to to understand its speech and make it understand them
ecclesiastical liberty and the episcopal dignity, and in turn; so that they were obliged in conversation to
condemns certain abusive exemptions; the third for- employ words and expressions forming part of the
bids, under pain of excommunication, the printing of vulgar tongue. Hence arose a third idiom, the sermo
booKS without the permission of the ordinary of the coiidiantLs, a medley of the two others, varying in the
diocese; the fourth orders a peremptory citation mixture of its ingredients with the various periods of
a^inst the French in regard to the Pragmatic Sane- time and the intelligence of those who used it.
tion. The latter was solemnly revoked and condemned. Origins. — Classical Latin did not long remain at the
and the concordat with Francis I approved, in the high level to which Cicero had raised it. The aristoc-
eleventh session (19 December, 1516). Finally, the racy, who alone spoke it, were decimated by proscrip-
council promulgated a decree prescribing war against tion and civil war, and the families who rose in turn to
the Turks and ordered the levying of tithes of all the social position were mainly of plebeian or forcism ex-
benefices in Christendom for three years. traction, and in any case unaccustomed to the delicacy
Otheb Lateran Councils.— Other councils were of the literary language. Thus the decadence of clas-
held at the Lateran, among the best known being sical Latin began with the age of Augustus, and went
those in 649 against the Monothelite heresy, in 823, on more rapidly as that age rcce<ied. As it forgot the
86 ^, 900, 1 102, 1 105, 1110, 1111, 1112, and 1 1 16. In classical distinction between the language of prose and
1725, Benedict XIII called to the Lateran the bishops that of poetry, literary Latin, spoken or written, began
directly dependent on Rome as their metropolitan to borrow more and more freely from the popular
see, !• o. archbishops without suffragans, bishops im- speech. Now it was at this very time that the Church
znediately subject to the Holy See, and abbots exer- found herself called on to construct a Latin of her own;
cising quasi-episcopal jurisdiction. Seven sessions and this in itself was one reason why her Latin should
were held between 15 April and 29 May, and divers differ from the classical. There were two other rea-
regulations were promulgated concerning the duties sons however: first of all the Gospel had to be spread
of bishops and other pastors, concerning residence, by preaching, that is, by the spoken word; moreover
ordinations, and the periods icfc the holding of synods, the heralds of the good tidings had to construct an
The chief objects were the suppression of Jansenism idiom that would appeal, not alone to the hterary
and the solemn confirmation of the Bull "Unigen- classes, but to the whole people. Seeing that they
iios'*, which was declu^ a rule of faith demanding sought to win the masses to the Faith, they had to
Mm fullest obedience. come down to their level and employ a speech that
ULTXN
20
LATIM
was familiar to their listeners. St. Augustine says
this very frankly to his hearers: "I often employ''*,
he says, ** words that are not Latin, and I do so that
you may understand me. Better that I should incur
the blame of the grammarians than not be imderstood
by the people " (In Psal. cxxxviii, 20). Strange though
it may seem, it was not at Rome that the building up
of ecclesia«tical Latin began. Until the middle of the
third century the Christian community at Rome was
in the main a Greek-speaking one. The Liturgy was
celebrated in Greek, and the apologists and theologians
wrote in Greek until the time of St. Hippolytus^ who
died in 235. It was much the same in Uaul. at Lyons
and at Vienne, at all events until after the a ays of St.
Irenseus. In Africa, Greek was the chosen language
of the clerics, to begin with, but Latin was the more
familiar speech for the majority of the faithful, and it
must have soon taken the lead in the Church, since
Tertullian, who wrote some ■of his earlier works in
Greek, ended by employing Latin only. And in this
use he had been preceded by Pope \ictor, who was
also an African, and who, as St. Jerome assures us, was
the earliest Christian writer in the Latin language.
But even before these writers various local Churches
must have seen the necessity of rendering hito Latin
the texts of the Old and New Testaments, the reading
of which formed a main portion of the Litiu-gy. This
necessity arose as soon as the Latin-speaking faithful
became numerous, and in all likelihooti it was felt first
in Africa. For a time improvised oral translations
sufficed, but soon written translations were required.
Such translations multiplied. " It is possible to enu-
merate", says St. Augustine, "those who have trans-
lated the Scriptures from Hebrew into Greek, but not
those who have translated them into Latin. In sooth,
in the early days of faith whoso possessed a Greek
manuscript and thought he had some knowledge of
both tongues was daring enough to undertake a trans-
lation" (De doct. Christ., 11^ xi). From our present
point of view the multiplicity of these translations,
which were destined to have so great an influence on
the formation of ecclesiastical Latin, helps to explain
the many colloquialisms which it assimilated, and
which are found even in the most famous of these
texts, that of which St. Augustine said: " Amor^ all
translations the Itala is to be preferred, for its lan-
guage is most accurate, and its expression the clearest "
(De doct. Christ., II, xv). While it is true that many
renderings of this passage have been given, the gener-
ally accepted one, and the one we content ourselves
with mentioning here, is that the Itala is the most
important of the Biblical recensions from Italian
sources, dating from the fourth century, used by St.
Ambrose and the Italian authors of that day, which
have been partially preserved to us in many manu-
scripts and are to be met with even in St. AJugustine
himiself. With some slight modifications its version
of the deuterocanonical works of the Old Testament
was incorporated into St. Jerome's " Vulgate ".
Elements from African Sources. — But even in this
respect Afnca had been beforehand with Italy. As
early as a. d. 180 mention is made in the Acts of the
ScilUtan martyrs of a translation of the Gospels and of
the Epistles of St. Paul. " In Tertullian's time ", savs
Hamack, " there existed translations, if not of all the
books of the Bible, at least of the 'greater number of
them." It is a fact, however, that none of them pos-
sessed any predominating authority, though a few
were beginning to claim a certain respect. And thus
we find TertiuUan and St. Cyprian using those by
preference, as app>ears from the concordance of their
(quotations. The interesting point in these transla-
tions made by many hands is that they form one of the
principal elements of Church Latin; they make up, so
to say, the popular contribution . This is to be seen in
their disregard for complicated inflexions, in their
analytical tendencies, and in the alterations due to
analogy. Pagan liUSrcUeurSf as Amobius tells us (Adv.
nat., I, xlv-lix), complained that these texts were
edited in a trivial and mean speech, in a vitiated and
uncouth language.
But to the popular contribution the more cultivated
Christians added their share in forming the Latih of
the Church. If the ordinary Christian could translate
the " Acts of St. Pcrpetua", the " Pastor" of Hermas,
the "Didache", and the "First Epistle" of Clement
it took a scholar to put into Latin the " Acta Pauli "
and St. Irenaeus's treatise "Adversus ha>reticos", as
well as other works which seem to have been trans-
lated in the second and third century. It is not known
to what country these translators belonged, but, in the
case of original works, Africa leads the way with Ter-
tullian, who has been rightly styled the creates of the
language of the Church. Born at Carthage, he studied,
and perhaps taught, rhetoric there: he studied law
and acquired a vast erudition; he was converted to
Christianity, raised to the priesthood, and brought to
the service of the Faith an ardent zeal and a forceful
eloquence to which the number and character of his
works bear witness. He touched on every subject,
apologetics, polemics, dogma, discipline, exegesis. He
had to express a host of ideas which the simple faith of
the communities of the west had not yet grasped.
With his fiery temperament, his doctrinal rigidness.
and his disdain for literary canons, he never hesitated
to use the pointed word, the everyday phrase. Hence
the marvellous exactness of his style, its restless vigour
and high relief, the loud tones as of words thrown im-
petuously together: hence, above all, a wealth of
expressions and words, many of which came then for
the first time into ecclesiastical I^atin and have re-
mained there ever since. Some of these are Greek
words in Latin dress — baptisma, charisma, extasis, idolo^
latria, prophetia, martyr, etc. — some are given a Latin
termination — dccmonium, aUegorizare, Paracleltis, etc
— some are law terms or old Latin words used in a
new sense — ablviio, gratia, sacram^ntumj scBculum, per^
secutor, peccator. The greater part are entirely new,
but are derived from Latin sources and regularly in-
flected according to the ordinary rules affecting anal-
ogous words — annunciatioj concupisceniia, christianiS'
mtiSf coa^ternus, compatilnlis, trivitas, vivificare, etc.
Many of these new words (more than 850 of them)
have died out, but a very large portion are still to be
found in ecclesiastical use; they arc mainly those that
met the need of expressing strictly Christian ideas.
Nor is it certain that all of these owe their origin to
Tertullian, but before his time they are not to be met
with in the texts that have come down to us, and very
often it is he who has naturalized them in Christian
terminology.
The part St. Cyprian played in this building of the
language was less important. The famous Bishop of
Carthage never lost that respect for classical tradition
which he inherited from his education and his previous
profession of rhetor; he preserved that concern for
style which led him to tiie practice of the Hterary
methods so dear to the rhetors of his day. His lan-
guage shows this even when he is dealing with Chris-
tian topics. Apart from his rather cautious imitation
of Tertullian's vocabulary, we find in his writings not
more than sixty new words, a few Hellenisms — apos^'
tola, gazophyladum — a few popular words or phrases —
magnolia, mammona — or a few words formed by added
inflections — apostatare, darificatio. In St. Augustine's
case it was his sermons preached to the people that
mainly contributed to ecclesiastical Latin, and present
it to us at its best; for, in spite of his assertion that he
cares nothing for the sneers of the grammarians, his
youthful studies retained too strong a hold on him to
permit of his departing from classical speech more
than was strictly necessary. He was the first to find
fault with the use of certain words common at the
time, such as dolu» for doHor, effloriet for fiorebit, 098um
L4TIN
21
L4TIN
for 08, The language he uses includes, besides a large
mirt of Clascal Latin and the ecclesiastical Latin of
Tertullian and St. Cyprian, borrowings from the popu-
lar sp)eech of his day — incantare, falsidicus^ tantillus,
cordatus — and some new words or words in new
meanings — spiritiudis, adorator, beaiifiais, (rdificare,
meaning to edify, inflaiio, meaning pride, reatiu^, mean-
ing guilt, etc. It is, we think, useless to pursue this
inquiry into the realm of Christian inscriptions and the
works of Victor of Vito, the last of these Latin writers,
as we should only find a Latin peculiar to certain indi-
viduals rather than that adopted by any Christian
communities. Nor shall we delay over Africanisms,
i. e. characteristics peculiar to African writers. The
very existence of tnese characteristics, formerly so
strongly held l)y many philologists, is nowadays gener-
ally questioned. In the works of several of these
African writers we find a pronounced love for em-
phasis, alliteration, and rhythm, but these are matters
affecting style rather than vocabulary. The most
that can be said is that the African writers take more
account of J^atin as it was spoken {sermo cotidianus),
but this speech was no peculiarity of Africa.
St. Jerome's Contribrdion. — After the African writers
no author had such influence on the upbuilding of
ecclesiastical Liitin as St. Jerome had. Ilis contribu-
tion came mainly along the lines of literary Latin.
From his master, Donatus, he had received a gram-
matical instruction that made him the most literary
and learned of the Fathers, and he always retained a
love for correct diction, and an attraction towanls
Cicero. lie prized good writing so higlily that he
grew angrj' whenever he was accused of a solecism;
one-half of the words he uses are taken from Cicero,
and it has been computed that besides employing, as
occasion required, the words introduced by earlier
writers, he himself is responsible for three hundred and
fifty new words in the vocabulary of ecclesiastical
Latin; yet of this numl)er there are hardly nine or ten
that; may fitly be considered as barbarisms on the score
of not conforming to the general laws of Latin deriva-
tives. " The remainder ", says Goelzcr, " were created
by employing ordinarv suffixes and were in harmony
with the genius of the language." They are both
accurately formed and useful words, expressing for the
most part abstract qualities necessitated by the Chris-
tian religion and which hitherto had not existed in the
Latin tongue, e. g., clericatus, imjKTmtentia, deitasj
dualitas, ghrificatio, corruptrix. At times, also, to sup-
ply new needs, he gives new meanings to old words —
conditor^ creator, redemplor, saviour of the world, pro'-
destinatio, commiinio^ etc. Besides this enriching of
the lexicon, St. Jerome rendered no less service to eccle-
siastical Latin by his edition of the Vulgate. Whether
he made his translation from the original text or
adapted previous translations after correcting them,
he diminishe<l, by that much, the authority of the
many popular versions which could not fail to be
prejudicial to the correctness of the language of the
Cliurch. By this very same act he popula rized a num-
l>er of Hebraisms and modes of speech — v^ir desidcrio-
rum, filii inu^idtatM, hortvs iK)luptalu, infcrioris a
Danide^ inferior to Daniel — which completed the
shaping of the peculiar physiognomy of church Latin.
After St. Jerome's time ecclesiastical Latin may be
said to be fully formed on the whole. If we trace the
various steps of the process of producing it we find
(1) that th3 ecclesiastical rites and institutions were
first of all known by Greek names, and that the early
Christian writers in the Latin language took those
words consecrated by usage and embodied them in
their works either in ioto (e. g., angdus, apostolus, eccU'
«a, evang^ium, clerus, episcopus, martyr) or else trans-
lated them(e. g.,verbum, persona, testamerUum, gerUilis),
It sometimes even happened that words bodily incor-
porated were af terwarrls replaced by translations (e. g.,
chrvima by dnnum, hffpoRlaRvt by substaniia or persona,
exomologesia by confessio. synodus by concilium). (2)
Latin words were created by derivations from existing
Latin or Greek words by the addition of suffixes or
prefixes, or by the combination of two or more words to-
gether (e. g., evangelizare, Incarnaiio, consubstaniialis,
idololatria) . (3) At times words having a secular or
profane meaning are employe<l without any modifica-
tion in a new sense (e. g.,fidelis, deposUio, scriptura,
sacramentum, resurgere, etc.). With respect to its ele-
ments, ecclesiastical Latin consists of spoken Latin
(scrmo cotidianus) shot through with a quantity of
Greek words, a few primitive popular phrases, some
new. and normal accretions to the language, and,
lastly, various new meanings arising mainly from
development or analogy.
With the exception of some Hebraic or Hellenist
expressions popularized through Bible translations,
the grammatical peculiarities to be met with in eccle-
siastical Latin are not to be laid to the charge of
Christianitv; they are the result of an evolution
through wnich the common language passed, and are
to l)e met with among non-Christian writers. In the
main the religious upheaval wliich was colouring all
the beliefs and customs of the W^estern world did not
unsettle the language as much as might have been
expected. Christian writers preserved the literary
Latin of their day as the basis of their language, and if
they added to it certain neologisms it must not be for-
gotten that the classical writers, Cicero, Lucretius,
Seneca, etc., had before this to lament the poverty of
Latin to express philosophical ideas, and had set the
example of coining words. Why should later writers
hesitate to say annunciatio, incarnaiio, prwdestinatio,
when Cicero had said moniiio, debiiio, prohibition and
Livy, coercitio? Words like deltas, nativitas, trinUas
are not more o<ld than autumnitas, olivitas, coined by
Varro, and plebilas, which was used by the elder Cato.
Development in the Liturgy. — Hardly had it l)een
formed when church Latin had to undergo the shock
of the invasion of the barbarians and the fall of the
Empire of the West; it was a shock that gave the
death-blow to literary Latin as well as to the Latin of
everyday speech on wliich church Latin was waxing
st rong. Both underwent a series of changes that com-
pletely transformed them. Literary Latin became
more and more debased; popular Latin evolved into
the various Romance languages in the South, wiiile in
the North it gave way before the Germanic tongues.
Church Latin alone survived, thanks to the religion of
which it was the organ and with which its destinies
were linked. True, it lost a portion of its sway; in
popular preaching it gave way to the vernacular after
the seventh century; but it could still claim the Lit-
urgy and theologj', and in these it served the purpose
of a living language. In the liturgy ecclesiastical
Latin shows its \ntality bv its fruitfulness. Africa is
once more in the lead with St. ('yprian. Besides the
singing of the Psalms and the readings in public from
the Bible, which made up the main portion of the
primitive liturgy and wliich we already know, it
shows itself in set prayers, in a love for rhythm, for
well-balanced endings that were to remain for cen-
turies during the Middle Ages the main characteristics
of liturgical Latin. As the process of development
went on, this love of harmony held sway over all
prayers; they followed the rules of metre and prosody
to begin with, but rhythmical cursus gained the
upper-hand from the fourth to the seventh, and from
the eleventh to the fifteenth, century.
As is well known, the ctirsus consists in a certain
arrangement of words, accents, and sometimes whole
phrases, whereby a pleasing modulated effect is pro-
duced. The prayer of the " Angelus " is the simplest
example of this; it contains all three kinds of cursus
that are to be met with in the prayers of the Missal and
the Breviary: (1) the cursus planus, "nostris iii-
f unde " ; (2) the cursus tardus, ** incamationem cognovi-
LATIN
22
LATIN
>»,
mus"; (3) the cursus veLox^ "gloriam perducamur."
So great was their influence over the language that the
cursus passed from the prayers of the liturgy into
some of the sermons of St. Leo and a few others, into
papal Bulls from the twelftli to the fifteenth century,
and into many Latin letters wi-itten during the Middle
Ages. Besides the prayers, hymns make up the most
vital thing in the Liturgy. From St. Hilary of Poi-
tiers, to whom St. Jerome attributes the earliest, down
to Leo XIII, who composed many hymns, the number
of hymn writers is very great, and their output, as we
learn from recent research, is beyond computing.
Suffice it to say that these hymns originated in popu-
lar rhythms founded on accent; as a rule they were
modelled on classical metres, but gradually metre gave
way to beat or number of syllables and accent. (See
Hymnody and Hymnology.) Since the Renaissance,
rhythm has again given way to metre; and many old
hymns were even retouched, under Urban VIII, to
bring them into line with the rules of classical prosody.
Besides this liturgy which we may style official, and
wliich was made up . of words of the Mass, of the
Breviary, or of the Ritual, we may recall the wealth of
literature dealing with a variety of historical detail,
such as the " Pereginatio ad Loca sancta " formerly at-
tributed to Silvia, many collections of rubrics, orcfines,
sacramentaries, ordinaries, or other books of a reli-
gious bearing, of which so many have been edited of
late years in England either by private individuals or
by the Surtees* Society and the Bradshaw Society.
But the most we can do is to mention this brilhant
liturgical efflorescence.
Devdomnent in Theology. — Wider and more varied
is the field theologj' opens up for ecclesiastical Latin;
so wide that we must restrict ourselves to pointing out
the creative resources which the Latin we speak of has
given proof of since the beginning of the study of
speculative theology', i. e., from the writings of the
earliest Fathers down to our own day. More than
elsewhere, it has here shown how capable it is of ex-
pressing the most deUcate shades of theological
thought, or the keenest hair-splitting of decadent
Scholasticism. Need we mention what it has done in
this field ? The expressions it has created, the meanings
it has conveyed are only too well known. Whereas the
major part of these expressions were legitimate, were
necessary and successful — iranssubstarUiatio, forma,
materia, indudduum, accidens, appetitus — there are
only too many that show a wordy and empty formal-
ism, a deplorable indifference for the sobriety of ex-
pression and for the purity of the Latin tongue — a^eitas,
futuritio, beatificativum, tenninatio, actuulitas, hceccei-
tas, etc. It was by such w^ords as these that the
language of theology exposed itself to the iibes of
Erasmus and Rabelais, and brought discredit on a
study that was deserving of more consideration. With
the Renaissance, men's minds became more difficuU to
satisfy, readers of cultured taste could not tolerate a
language so foreign to the genius of the classical Latin-
ity that had been revived. It became necessary even
for renowned theologians, like Melchior Cano in the
preface to his " Loci Theologici ", to raise their voices
against the demands of their readers as well as against
the carelessness and obscurity of former theologians.
It may be laid down that about this time classic
correctness began to find a place in theological as well
as in liturgical Latin.
Present Position. — Henceforth correctness was to be
the characteristic of ecclesiastical Latin. To the ter-
minology consecrated for the expression of the faith
of the Catholic Church it now adds as a rule that gram-
matical accuracy which the Renaissance gave back to
us. But in our own age, thanks to a variety of causes,
some of which arise from the evolution of educational
programmes, the Latin of the Church has lost in quan-
tity what it has gained in Quality. Latin retains its
ftlace in the Liturgy, and rightly so, the better to point
out and watch over, in the very bosom of the Church,
that unity of belief in all places and throughout all
times whicji is her birthright. But in the devotional
hymns that accompany the ritual the vernacular alone
is used, and these hymns are gradually replacing the
liturgical hymns. AH the official documents of the
Church, Encyclicals, Bulls, Briefs, iiistitutions of
bishops, replies from the Roman Congregations, acts
of provincial councils, are written in Latin. Within
recent years, however, solemn Apostolic letters ad-
dressed to one or other nation have been in their own
tongue, and various diplomatic documents have been
drawn up in French or in ItaUan. In the training of
the clergy, the necessity of discussing modem systems,
whether of exegesis or philosophy, has led almost
everywhere to the use of the national tongue. Man-
uals of dogmatic and moral theology are written in
Latin, in Italy, Spain, and France, but often, save in
the Roman universities, the oral explanation thereof is
given in the vernacular. In German- and English-
speaking countries most of the manuals are in their
own tongue, and nearly always the explanation is in
the same languages.
Cooper, Word Formation in the Roman aermo plebeitu (Boa-
ton and London, 1895)- Harnack, Geschichte der aUckrisUichen
Literatur (Leipzig, 1904); Schanz, Geaehichte der rumiachen
Literatttr, III (Munich, 1896); Duchebne, Histoire ancienne de
VEglise, I (Paris, 1906); Koffmane, (jeaofcicA/e dea Kirchenla-
teins (Breslau, 1879, 1881); Monceaux, Histoire litliraire de
VAfrique chritienne (Paris, 1901-05); RoNScn. Jtala und Vid-
gata (2nd ed. Marburg, 1875); Word8Worth, Sandat ajtd
White, Old Biblical Latin Texta (Oxford, 1883-88); Coh-
DAMiN, De TertuUiano . . . prcecipuo Christiana linqvux artifice
(Lyons, 1877); Bataro, Le latin de aaint Cyprxen (Paris,
1902): Ga:LZER, LatinilA de aaint J^6me (Paris, 1884); Idem,
Histoire du latin du III* au VJJ^ aii-cle in Revue IntemcUiimal
de V Enaeignement (Paris, 1908) ; Ri:oNiER, De la latiniU dea aer-
mons de aaint Augtiatin (Paris, 1886); Deqert, Quid ad morea
ingeniaque A/rorum cognoscenda con/erant aancti A uguatini aer-
monea (Paris, 1894): Ebert, Geaehichte der Chriaileben Littera-
tur (Leipzig, 1874, French tr., Paris, 1883); Cabrol, Introduc-
tion aux etudes liturgique^ (Paris, 1906); Chevalier, Poiaie
liiurgujue du moyen Oge (Paris, 1893); Schwane, Hiatoire dea
Dogmes, V, VI, French tr., Degert (Paris, 1904); Simler, Dea
Sommes de th^ologie (Paris, 1871); Zell, Commentatio de lati-
nitate atxuliose colenda (Freiburg, 1870); Guibert, Le Latin
dana les arminairea (Paris, 1909).
Antoine Degert.
Latin Ghurch. — The word Church (ecclesia) is used
in iU first sense to express the whole congregation of
Catholic Christendom united in one Faith^ obeying one
hierarchy in communion with itself. This is tne sense
of Matt., xvi, 18; xviii, 17; Eph., v, 25, 27, etc. It is
in this sense that we speak of the Church without quali-
fication, say that Christ founded one Church, and so
on. But tne word is also constantly applied to the
various individual elements of this union. As the
whole is the Church, the universal Church, so are its
parts the Churches of Corinth, Asia, France, etc. This
second use of the word also occurs in the New Testa-
ment (Acts, XV, 41; II Cor., xi, 28; Apoc., i, 4, 11,
etc.). Any portion then that forms a subsidiary unity
in itself may be called a locid Church. The smallest
such portion is a diocese — thus we speak of the Church
of Paris, of Milan, of Seville. Above this again we
group metropolitical provinct^s and national portions
together as unities, and speak of the Church of Africa ,
of CJaul, of Spain. The expression Church of Rome,
it should be noted, though commonly applied by non-
Catholics to the whole Catholic body, can only be used
correctly in this secondary sense for the local diocese
(or possibly the province) of Home, mother and mis-
tress of ail Churches. A German Catholic is not,
strictly speaking, a member of the Church of Rome,
but of the Church of Cologne, or Munich-Freising, or
whatever it may be, in union with and under the
obedience of the Roman Church (although, no doubt,
by a further extension Roman Church may be used as
equivalent to Latin Church for the patriarchate).
The word is also used very commonly for the still
greater portions that are united under their pa-
triarchs, that is for the patriarchates. It is in tnis
ZJLTIH
23
ZJLTIH
BBOse that we speak of the Latin Church. The Latin
Church is simply that vast portion of the Catholic
bodv wluch obeys the Latin patriarch, which submits
to the pope, not only in papal, but also in patriarchal
matters. It is thus distinguished from the Eastern
Churches (whether Catholic or Schismatic), which rep-
resent the other four patriarchates (Constantinople,
Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem), and any fractions
broken away from them. The Latin patriarchate has
always been considerably the largest. Now, since the
great part of Eastern Christendom has fallen into
schism, since vast new lands have been colonized,
conquered or (partly) converted by Latins (America,
Australia, etc.), the Latin part of the Catholic Church
looms so enormous as compared with the others that
many people think that every one in communion with
the pope is a Latin. This error is fostered by the
Anglican branch theory, which supposes the situation
to be that the Eastern Church is no longer in com-
munion with Rome. Against this we must always
remember, and when necessary point out, that the
constitution of the Catholic Church is still essentially
what it was at the time of the Second Council of Nicsa
(787; see also canon xxi of Constantinople IV in 869
in the ''Corp. Jur. can.", dist. xxii, c. vu). Namely,
there are still the five patriarchates, of which the Latm
Church is only one, although so great a part of the
Eastern ones have fallen away. The Uniate Churches,
small as they are, still represent the old Catholic Chris-
tendom of the Rast in union with the pope, obeying
him as pope, though not as their patriarch. AH Latins
are Catholics, but not all Catholics are Latins. The
old frontier passed just east of Macedonia, Greece
(lUyricum was afterwards claimed by Constantinople),
ana Crete^ and cut Africa west of Egypt. All to the
west of this was the Latin Church.
We must now add to Western Europe all the new
lands occupied by Western Europeans, to make up the
present enormous Latin patriarchate. Throughout
this vast territory the pope reigns as patriarch, as well
as by his supreme position as visible head of the whole
Church. With the exception of very small remnants
of other uses (Milan, Toledo, and the Byzantines of
Southern Italy), his Roman Rite is used throughout,
according to tne general principle that rite follows the
patriarcmite, that local uishops use the rite of their
patriarch. The medieval Western uses (Paris, Sarum,
and so on), of which people at one time made much
for controversial purposes, were in no sense really
independent rites, as are the remnants of the Gallican
use at Milan and Toledo. They were only the Roman
Rite with very slight local modifications. From this
conception we see that the practical disappearance of
the Gallican Rite, however much the archaeologist may
regret it, is justified by the general principle that rite
should follow patriarchate. Uniformity of rite through-
out Christendom has never been an ideal among
Catholics; but uniformity in each patriarchate is. We
see also tliat the suggestion, occasionally made by
advanced Ani^licans, of a Uniate Anglican Church
with its own rite ami to some extent its own laws (for
instance with a married clergy) is utterly opposed to
antiquity and to consistent canon law. England is
most certainly part of the Latin patriarchate. When
Anglicans return to the old Faith they find themselves
subject to the pope, not only as head of the Church,
but also as patriarch. As part of the Latin Church
England must submit to Latin canon law and the
Roman Rite just as much as France or Germany. The
eomparison with Eastern Uniates .rests on a miscon-
ception of the whole situation. It follows also that
the expression Latin (or even Roman) Catholic is quite
justifiable, inasmuch as we express by it that we are
not only Catholics but also members of the Latin or
Roman patriarchate. A Uniate on the other hand is
a Byaantine, or Armenian, or Maronite Catholic. But
a person who is in schism with the Holy See is not,
of course, admitted by Catholics to be any kind of
Catholic at all.
Adrian Fortescue.
Latin Langfuage, Use of, in the Liturgy. See
Liturgy.
Latin Literature, Christian. — Early Centuries.
— The Latin language was not at first the literary and
official organ of the Christian Church in the West. The
Gospel was emnounced hy preachers whose language
was Greek, and these continued to use Greek, if not in
their discourses, at least in their most important acts.
Irenffius, at Lyons, preached in Latin, or perhaps in
the Celtic vernacular, but he refuted heresies in Greek.
The Letter of the Church of Lyons concerning its
martyrs is written in Greek; so at Rome, a century
earlier, is that of Clement to the Corinthians. In botn
cases the language of those to whom the letters were
addressed may ^ve been designedly chosen; never-
theless, a document that may be called a domestic
product of the Roman Church — ^the *' Shepherd" of
Hermas, was written in Greek. At Rome in the
middle of the second century, Justin, a Palestinian
philosopher, opened his school, and suffered martyr*
dom; Tatian wrote his ''Apologia" in Greek; at
Rome in the third century Hippolytus compiled his
numerous works in Greek. And Greek is not only the
lanjguage of books, but also of the Roman Christian ii^
scriptions, the greater number of which, down to the
third century, are written in Glreek. The most an-
cient Latin document emanating from the Roman
Cliurch is the correspondence of its clergy with Car-
thage during the vacancy of the Apostolic See»follow-
ing on the oeath of Pop>e Fabian (20 January, 250).
One of the letters is the work of Novatian, the first
Christian writer to use the Latin language at Rome.
But even at this epoch, Greek is still the official lan-
guage: the original epitaphs of the popes are still com-
posed in G reek. We have those of An terns, of FabiaD^
of Lucius, of Gains, and the series brings us down to
296. That of CorneUus, which is in Latin, seenis to be
later than the third century. In Africa Latin was
always the literary language of Christianity, although
Punic was still used for preacliing in the time of St.
Augustine, and some even preached in the Berber lan-
guage. These latter, however, had no literature;
cultivated persons, as well as the cosmopolitan popu-
lation of the seaports used Greek. The oldest Chris-
tian document of Africa, the Acts of the Scillitan
Martyrs, was translated into Greek, as were some of
the works of Tertullian, perhaps by the author himself,
and certainly with the object of securing for them a
wider diffusion. The Acts of Sts. Perpetua and Feli-
citas, originally written in Latin, were translated into
Greek. In Spain all the known documents are writ-
ten in Latin, tut they appear very late. The Acts of
St. Fructuosus, a martyr under Valerian, are attrib-
uted by some critics to the third century. The first
Latin Christian document to which a quite certain
date can be assigned is a collection of the canons of the
Council of Elvira, about 300.
Side by side with literary works, the Church pro-
duced certain writings necessary to her life. In this
category must be placed the most ancient Christian
documents written in Latin, the translations of the
Bible made either in Africa or in Italy. Beginning
with the second century, Latin translations of techni-
cal works written in Greek became numerous — trea-
tises on medicine, botany, mathematics, etc. These
translations served a practical purpose, and were made
by professionals; consequently tney had no literary
merit, and aimed at an almost servile exactitude re-
sulting in the retention of many peculiarities of the
original. Hellenisms, a very questionable feature in
the literary works of preceding centuries, were fre-
quent in these translations. The early Latin versions
of the Bible had the characteristics common to all
ZJLTXH
24
LATIN
texts of this ^up; Hellenisms abounded in them,
and even Semitisms filtered in through the Greek. In
the fourth century, when St. Jerome made his new
Latin version of the Scriptures, the partisans of the
older versions to justify tlieir opposition praised
loudly the harsh fidelity of these inelegant traaslations
(Augustine, "Dedoct. christ.", II, xv,in P. L., XXXIV,
46). These versions no doubt exercised a great influ-
ence upon the imagination and the style of Christian
writers, but it was an influence rather of inven-
tion and inspiration than of expression. The incor-
rectness and barbarisms of the Fathers have been
much exaggerated: profoimder knowledge of the
Latin language and its history has shown that they
used the language of their time, and that in this re-
spect there is no difference worth mentioning between
tnem and their pagan contemporaries. No doubt
some of them were men of defective education, writers
of incorrect prose and popular verse, but there have
been such in every age; the author of the "Bellum
Hispaniense^', the historian Justinus, Vitruvius, are
profane authors who cared little for purity or elegance
of style. TertuUian, the Christian author most fre-
quently accused of barbarism, for his time, is by no
means incorrect. He possesses strong creative power,
and his freedom is mostly in the matter of vocabulary;
he either invents new words or uses old ones in very
novel ways. His style is bold; his imagination and
his passion light it up with figures at times incoherent
and in bad taste; but his syntax contains, it may be
said, almost no innovations. He multiplies construc-
tions as yet rare and adds new constructions, but
he always respects the genius of the language. His
work contains no Semitisms, and the Hellenisms
which his critics have pointed out in it are neitlier
frequent nor without warrant in the usage of his day.
This, of course, does not apply to his express or im-
plicit citations from the Bible. At the other extreme,
chronologically, of Latin Christian literary developH
ment, a pope like Gelasius gives evidence of consider-
able classical culture; his language is novel chiefly in
its choice of words, but many of these neoterisms were
in his time no longer new, and had their origin in the
technical usage of the Church and the Roman law.
In the historical development of Christian Latin
literature three periods may be distinguished: that of
the Apologists, lasting until the fourth century; that
of the Fathers of the Church (the fourth centurj') ; and
the Gallo-Roman period. The first period is charac-
terized by its dominant tone of apology, or defence of
the Christian religion. In fact, most of the earliest
Christian writers wrote apologies, e. g. Minucius Felix,
Tertullian, Arnobius, Lactantius. In face of pagan-
ism and the Roman State they plead the cause of
Christianity, and the3r do it each according to his
character, and each with his own line of arguments.
Minucius Felix represents, in a way, the transition
from the traditional philosophy of the cultured classes
to the popular preaching of Christianity and in this
approaches closely to some of the Greek apologists,
converts from philosophy to Christianity, e. ^. Justin,
Beekinff at the same time to harmonize their inherited
mental culture with their faith. Even the dialogue
form they use is meant to retain the reader in that
philosophic world with which Plato and Cicero had
lamiliarized him. Tertullian, perhaps identical with
the jurisconsult mentioned in the '* Digest" of Jus-
tinian, lifts out boldly arguments of a legal order and
examines the juridical bases of the persecution. Arno-
bius, rhetorician and philosopher, is first and foremost
A product of the school; he exhibits the resources of
amplification and displays the erudition of a scholiast.
Lactantius is a philosopher, only more profoundlv
penetrated by Christianity than were the earlier apol-
ogists. He IS also very particular about the main-
tenance of social order, good government, and the
State. Hid writings are well adapted to a society that
has recently been shaken by a long period of anarchy
and is in process of reconstruction. In this way the
early Christian Latin literature presents all the varie-
ties of apology. There are here mentioned only those
apologies which formally present themselves as such ; to
them should be added some of St. Cyprian's works —
the treatises on idols, and "ad Donatum", the letter
to Demetrianus, works which attack special weak-
nesses of polytheism, the vices of pagan society, or
discuss the calamities of Rome.
These writers do not confine their activity to con-
troversy with the pagans. The extent and variety of
the works of Tertullian and St. Cyprian are well
known. At Rome, Novatian touches, m his treatises,
on questions which more particularly interest the
faithful, their religious life or their beliefs. Victorinus
of Pettau, in the mountains of Styria, introduced Bib-
lical exegesis into Latin literature, and be^an that
series of commentaries on the Apocalypse which so in-
fluenced the imagination, and echoea so powerfully
among the artists and writers, of the Middle Ages.
The same visions were embodied in the verses of Com-
modianus, the first Christian poet; but in a second
work he took his place among the apologists and com-
batted paganism. In their other worfi St. Cyprian
and Tertmlian kept always in view the apoio^tic
interest; indeed, this is the most noteworthy trait of
the early Christian Latin literature. We may caU
attention here to another characteristic: many Latin
writers of this time, Minucius Felix, Tertullian, Cyp-
rian, Arnobius, perhaps Commodianus, were Africans,
for which peculiarity two causes may be assigned.
On the one hand, Gaul and Italy had lone employed
the Greek language, while Spain was backward, and
Christianity developed there but feebly at this period.
On the other hana, Africa had become a centre of
profane literature; Apuleius, the greatest profane
writer of the ace, was an African; Carthage possessed
a celebrated scnool which is called in one inscription
by the same name, studium, which was afterwards ap-
plied to the medieval universities. There is no doubt
that the second was the more potent cause.
The second period of Christian literature covers
broadly speaking, the fourth century' — i. e. from the
Edict of Milan (313) to the death of St. Jerome (420).
It was then that the great writers of the Church
flourished, those known pre-eminently as *'the Fath-
both West and East. Though the term pcUris-
ers
tic belongs to 'the whole period here under considera-
tion, as contrasted with the term scholastic applied to
the Middle Ages, it may nevertheless be restricted to
the period we arc now describing. Literar>' produc-
tiveness was no longer the almost exclusive privil^e
of one country; it was spread throughout all the
Roman West. Notwithstanding this diffusion, all the
Latin writers are closely related; there are no national
schools; the writers and their works are all caught up
in the general current of church history. There is
truly a Christian West, all parts of which possess
nearly the same importance, and are closely united, in
spite of differences of climate and temperament. And
this West is beginning to stand off from the Greek
East, which tends to follow its own particular path.
The causes of Western cohesion were various, but
it was principally rooted in community of interests
and the similarity of questions arising immediately
after the peace of the Church. At the beginning of
the fourth century Christological problems agitated
the Church. The West came to the aid of the ortho-
dox communities of the East, but knew little of Arian-
ism until the Teutonic invasions. WTien the conflict
concerning the use of the basilicas at Milan arose, the
Aiians do not appear as the people of Milan; they are
Goths (Ambrose, Ep. xii, 12, in P. L., XVI, 997). In
the fourth century the j^at personages of the West
are champions of the faith of Nicaea — Hilary of Poi-
tiers, Lucifer of Oagliari, Phoebadius of Agen, Am-
LLTTS
25
L4TIK
IntMe, Augustine. Nevertheless, the West has errors
of its own: Novatianism, a legacy from the preceding
age; Donatism in Africa; Manichaeism, which came
from the East, but developed cliicfly in Africa and
Cjaul; Priscilhanism, akin to Manicha?ism, and the
tirstfruits of Spanish mysticism. Manichajism has a
complex character, and, in truth, appears to be a dis-
tinct religion. All other errors of the West have a
bearing on discipUne or morals, on practical hfe, and
do not arise from intellectual speculation. Even in
the Manichsean controversy, moral questions occupy
a large place. Moreover, the characteristic and most
important heresy of the Latin countries bears upon a
problem of Christian psychology and life — the recon-
ciliation of human liberty with the action of Divine
grace. This problem, raised by Pela^ius, was solved
by Augustine. Another characteristic of this period
is the universality of the gifts and the activity dis-
played by its ^atest writers; Ambrose, Jerome, and
Augustine are in turn moralists, historians, and ora-
tors; Ambrose and Augustine are poets; Augustine is
the universal genius, not only of his own time, but of
the Latin Church — one of the greatest men of an-
tiquity, to whom Hamack, without exaggeration,
has found none comparable in ancient history except
Plato. In him Christianity reached one of the hign-
est peaks of human thought.
Tnis second period may be again sulxlivided into
three generations. First, the reign of Constantino
after the peace of the Church (313-37), when Juvcncus
composed the Gospel' History (Historia EvaiigeMca) in
verse; from the preceding period he had inherited the
influence of Hosius of Cordova. Second, the time
between the death of Constantine and the accession of
Theodosius (337-79). In this generation apologetic
assumes an aggressive tone with Firmicus Maternus,
and appeals to the secular arm against paganism;
Christianity, by many held res|X)nsible for the gather-
ing misfortunes of the empire, is defended by Augus-
tine in "The City of God ; Ambrose and Prudentius
protest against the retention of paganism in official
ceremonies; great bishops like Hilary of Poitiers, Zeno
of yerona, Optatus of Mileve, Lucifer of Cagliari, Eu-
sebius of Vercelli, take part in the controversies of the
day; Marius Victorinus combines the erudition of a
philologian with the subtlety of a theologian. The
third generation was that of St. Jerome, mider Theo-
dosius and his son (380-420), a generation rich in
intellect — Ambrose, Prudentius, Sulpicius Sevcrus,
Rufinus, Jerome, Paulinus of Nola, Augustine, the sec-
ondary poets Proba, Damasus, Cyprian; the Spanish
theologians Pacianus and Gregory of Elvira; Philas-
trius of Brescia and Phoebadius of Agen. The long-
lived Augustine overlapped this period; at the same
time by the sheer force of genius he is both the last
great thinker of antinuity in the West and the first
great thinker of the Middle Ages.
Early Christian literature in the W'est may \ye re-
garded as ending with the accession of Theodoric
(408) . Thenceforth until the Carlo vingian renascence
there arises in the various barbarian kingdoms a lit-
erature which has for its chief object the ^ucation of
the new-comers and the transmission of some of the
ancient culture into their new civilization. This
brings us to the last of our three p>eriods, which may
conveniently be called the Gallo-Roman, and com-
prises about two generations, from 420 to 493. It is
dominated by one school, that of I^rins. but already
the splintering of the old social and political unity is at
hand in the new barbarian nationalities rooted on pro-
vincial soil. In Augustine's old age, and after his
death, a few disciples and partisans of his teachings
remain: Orosius, a Spaniard; Prosper of Aquitaine, a
Gallo-Roman; Marius Mercator, an African. Later,
Victor Vitensis tells the story of the Vandal persecu-
tion; in him Roman Africa, overrun by barbarians,
furnishes almost the only writer of the second half of
the century. To the Ust of African authors must h%
added the names of two bishops of Mauretania men-
tioned by Gennadius — Victor and Voconius. In Gaul
a pleiad of writers and theologians develops at L^ins
or within the radius of that monastery's influence —
Cassian, Honoratus, Eucherius of Lyons, Vincent of
I-.<5rins, Hilarj'^ of Aries, Valerian of Cemclium, Sal-
viaiius, Faustus of Riez, Gennadius. Here we might
mention Amobius the younger, and the author of the
"Praedestinatus". No literary movement in the
West, before Charlemagne, was so important or so
prolonged. Gaul was then truly the scene of manifold
intellectual activity; in addition to the writers of
Ldrins, that country reckons^ one poly^apher, Sido-
nius Apollinaris, one philosopher, Claudian Mamertus,
several poets, Claudius Marius Victor, Prosper, Orienr
tins, Paulinus of Pella, Paulinus of P4rigueux, perhaps
also CcdUus Sedulius. Against tliis array Italy can
offer only two preachers, St. Peter Chrysologus and
Maximus of Turin, and one ^eat pope, Leo I, still
greater by his deeds than by his writings, whose name
recalls a new influence of the Church of Rome on the
intellectual movement of the time, but a juridical
rather than a literary influence. Early in the fifth
century Innocent 1 appears to have been occupied
with a first compilation of the canon law. He and his
successors intervene in ecclesiastical affairs with let-
ters, some of which have the size and scope of veritable
treatises. Spain is still poorer than Italy, even count-
ing Orosius (already mentioned amon^ the disciples of
Augustine) and the chronicler Hydatius. The island
peoples, which in the preceding period had produced
the heresiarch Pelagius, deserve mention at this date
also for the works attributed to St. Patrick.
A first general characteristic of Christian liter-
ature, common to both East and W^est, is the space it
devotes to bibliographical questions, and the impor-
tance they assume. This fact is explained by the very
origins of Christianity: it is a religion not of one book,
but of a collection of books, the date, source, authen-
ticity, and canonicity of which are matters which it is
important to determine. In Eusebius's "History of
the Church" it is obvious with what care he pursues
the inquiry as to the books of Scripture cited and
recognized by his Christian predecessors. In this way
there grows up a habit of classifying documents ana
references, and of describing in prefaces the nature of
the several books. The Bible is not the only object of
these minute studies; every important and complex
work attracts the attention of editors. Let it suffice
to recall the formation of the collection of St. Cyprian's
letters and treatises, a more or less official catalogue
of which, the ** Cheltenham Catalogue ", was drawn up
in 359, after a lengthy elaboration, the successive stages
of which are still traceable in several manuscripts.
Questions of authenticity play a large part in the dis-
sensions of St. Jerome and Rufinus. Apocryphal
writings, fabricated in the interest of heresy, engen-
dered controversies between the Church and the heret-
ical sects. Another illustration of the same literary
interest is to be found in the inquiry instituted at the
end of the fourth century as to tne Canons of Sardica,
called Canons of Nicaea. The " Retractationes " of
St. Augustine is a work unique in the history of an-
cient bibliography, not to speak of its psychologjc
interest, a peculiar quality of all Christian literature in
the West.
In part, therefore, Christian I^atin literatiu*e natu-
rally assumes a character of immediate utility. (Cata-
logues are drawn up, lists of bishops, lists of martyrs
(Depo»iliones episcoporum et marti/rum) , catalogues of
cemeteries, later on church inventories, '*Provin-
ciales ", or lists of dioceses according to countries. Be-
sides these archive documents, in which we recogniie
an imitation of Roman bureaucratic customs, certain
literary genres bear the same stamp. The accounts of
pilgrimages have as much of the guide-book as of the
Dwntive in them. History tutd tiixeady been raduoed method of expoeition, but aieo furniohes some of the
to a number of itereotyped Bcenee by the profuie maa- themes developed, commonpkces of popular morality,
t«Ta, &nd hod been incorpor&ted, at Alexandria, in that modified and adapted, but still recognuable. WitA-
elementary literature which condeosed b11 knowledge out repudiating tnis indebtedness of Christian lit«ra-
into ft minimum of dry formula. The "Chronicle "of ture to pagan literary form, one cannot he!p seeing in
St. Jerome, really only a continuation of that of Eu- itsdoublecharacter, oratorical and moral, the peculiar
sebius, is in turn continued by a seriea of special stamp of Roman genius. This explains the con-
writers, and even a Sulpicius Severus betrays the in- stant tone of exhortation which makes most works of
fluence of the new form of chronicle. While in these ecclesiastical writers so monotonous and tiresome,
departments of literature the West but imitates the Exegesis borrows from Greek and Jewish literature
East, it follows at the same time its own practical ten- the system of allegory, but it lends to these parables a
dencics. Indeed, the Latin writeis make no pretence moralizing and edifymg turn, ll^iography finds its
to originality; they take their materials from their models in biographies Tike thtsc of Plutarch, but al-
E^tem brethren. Five of them, Hilary, Jerome, ways accentuates their panegyrical and moral tone.
Rufinus, Caasian, and Marius Mercator, have been Some compensation is to be found in the autobiograph-
described as helleniEing Westerns. St. Ambrose is ical writings, the personal letters, memoira, and con-
generally considered an authentic representative of feesions. In the "Confessions" of St. Augustine we
the Latin mind, and this is true of the bent of his gen- have a work the value of which is unique in the litera-
ius and of his exercise of authority as the head of a ture of all time.
Church; but no one, perhaps, translated more fre- Although its oratorical methods are chosen with an
quently from the Greek writers, or did it with more eye to the character of its public, there is nothing t>op-
^irit or more care. It is an acknowledged fact that ular in the form of Christian Latin literature, notliing
his exegesis is taken from St. Basil's " Hexaemeron" even corresponding to the freedom of the primitive
and from a series of treatises on Genesis by Philo. translationsof the Bible. In prose, the work of Luci-
Tbe same holds good in respect to his dogrnatic or fer of Cagliari stands almost alone, and reveals the
mystical treatises: the "De mysteriis", written in his aforesaid rhetorical influence almost as much as it does
last years, before 397, is largelj' taken from Cyril of the writer's incorrectness. The Christian poets might
Jerusalem and a treatiKe of DidjTnus of Alexandria have wandered somewhat more freely from the beaten
publislied a little before 381, while the "De Spiritu path; nevertheless, they were content to imitate olas-
Sancto", written before Easier, 381, is a compilation sical poetry in an age when prosody, owing to the
from AthanasiuB, Basil, Didymus, and Epiphanius, changes in pronunciation, had ceased to be a living
from a recension of thp "Catecheses" of Cyril made thing. Juveneus was more typical than Pnidentius.
after 3(50, and from some theological discourses which The verses of the Christian poets arc as artificial as
had been delivered by Gregory of Naiiangus leas than those of good scholars in our own time. Commo-
atwclvemonth previously (i)30). St. Augustine is less dianus, out of sheer ignorance, supplies the defects of
erudite; his learning, if not his philosophy, is more prosody with the tonic accent. Indeed, anew type of
Latin than Greek. But it is the strength of his genius riiythm, based on accent, was about to develop from
which makes him the most original of the Latin the new pronunciation; St. Augustine gives an exam-
Fathers, pie of it m his " psalmus abecedarius ", It may there-
One influence, however, no Christian writer in the fore be said that from the point of view of literaiy
West escaped, that of the literary school and the lit- history the work of the Latin Christian writers is little
erary tradition. From the licginning similarities of more than a survival and a prolongation of the early
Style with Pronto and Apuleius appear numerous and profane literature of Rome. It counta amone its
distinctly perceptible in Minucius Felix, Tertullian, celebrities some gifted writers and one of the noblest
and Zeno of Verona; owing, perhaps, to the fact tha g n use h m .....
all writers, sacred and profane, adopted then the sam und ■
fashions, particularly unitation of the old Latin wri 0 ^ '■ — .--
crs. To its traditional character also, early Christian ^^ rf'dVlMjWo*'
Latin literature owes two characteristics more pecu n, mdiu d Arad-mM dn
iarly its own ; it is oratorical, and it is moral. From ntm to v ^ """' r^ ■^ " j' ^J.'""""
remote antiquity there had existed a moral literature '^™ "" ™^ ^ A^>a£ uJb enrnmr Bmlau 1879-
more exactly a preaching, which brought certain 88 one nl « in ed C Bfouanum od
truths within the reach of the masses, and by the tnpioTeM m»du» M tafiwum latiniuau (Pans, 16<B); Ronsch,
j>Knroft»r nf its Bii[lipn<>D won cnm™illiul tr. omr.1^., ''""' ""'' Vvloala, Dot SpToth-idiam drr Ilala nndder Vaigala
cnaracier oi iia auuience was compellea to employ -jiartjuiK, 1875); Hopra. Svntaj- raid Slil drt Tmullianv*
certam modes of expression. On this common ground (Leip.ig, 19031. cf. Snue Criitow. I (1908), 107; moM of tlw
the CVnic and the Stoic philosophies had met since at.adiam'W6lWii'aArctiiv{'iTlai.LriikotrafAiiundGrairaiH-
tne tnira century dci ore Chnst. trom the still ex- ^^^ priKillian. HI (1888). 300; Luri/n- of CagHiri. ill
tant remains of leles and Bion of Bor\'sthenes we (i8.se), l; the Pernmnofiu orf lora mncto of Silvia iEtkmn).
can form some idea of this style of preacliine. From IV (1887), 259; XV (1901). 238: XV (19(>8). 5<B; Crfanu.,
this source the satire of Horace borrows some of its "" (1003). I; SaiMBaudicl. IX p896), 493; Jordanc, XI
themes. This Cynico-Stoic morality finds expression iss*);' Bonskt. Ct latin dr Grfooi-n dr Toun (Parii. 1890)!
also in the Greek of Musonius, Epictetus, and some of «i™» gnwral importajica Be* Ihc hiBionsna of laliu
of Plutarch's treatises, likewise in the Latin of Son- J|^h'/hi?oriS' oTcbriSra Ef"mVim"{H' bnT^"" N™*'!?"
eca's letters and opuicula. Its decidedly oratorical ALXnn. Bahdbhreves), atao the artiplM of thii eno-clo-
Charactcr it owes to the factthatwith the beginning of rwdia. r^tivo to pKtrolop', theology. ChHsliiui writcn, imtl
the Christian era rhetoric became the sole form of , ™'." rS^ J''2 I'JfS^ !n^.?:l T™i™ iK^.ii^« tiH
... ,, J f ^ L- ,¥M ■ A |..- ArHFI-is, Die Munymioffim (Berlin. IWKl); I^AUW^AItx, (w*
literary culture and of teaching. This tradition was rT.-rv )jnii> arr rlmiKhm Cfmittrim in Rom. Quattaltthrifl,
perpetuated bv the Fathers. It furnished them the XV (1901), 1; DycHFBNB, Let Prmndeux in M/lansn dr
inrmn most, n^dirl Tnr thpir wnrlt nf instmetinn- tho I^Scolt de Romi. XXIV (1904), 76; Lejat. Reoue ShtUatre tt
lomis most needed tor their work of instruction the ^ jituroi^ ««ffi™.«. vn (19621, 367: Stwhachiii. t'((»T dit
letter, developed mto a brief treatise or reasoned ex- ^Ualt ptntHlidu RrgiHerweien in MiUrilunnrn dit IntliluU
position of opinion in the correspondence of Seneca f'' oiierrricJi. OtKhirhiifvrKhuns, XXIII (1901). 1; Hab-
with Lucilius; the treatise in the shape of a discourse 1,'i^^^J' zi^D^^h^'i'v^- ^^T^owin %S^«I,"
tn- as Seneca again calls it a dialf>!7u«,- lastly, the ser- KnC<itvi<<». p.29e(oaChTutiuipmching).
mon itself, in all its varieties of conference, funeral Paul Lejat,
oration, and homily. Indeed, homily {homtiia) is a
technical term of the Cyi>ic and Stoic moralists. And IT. Sixth to Twintibth CBNTtmT. — During the
the aforesaid literwy tradition not only dominAtee the Middle Ages the so-called church Latin was to a great
L4TXH
27
LATIN
extent the language of poetry, and it was only on the
advent of the Renaiasance that daseioal Latin re-
vived and flourished in the writings of the neo-Latinists,
as it does even to-day though to a more modest ex-
tent. To present to the reader an account of Latin
poetry in a manner at once methodical and clear is
not an easy task; a strict adherence to chronology
interferes with clearness of treatment, and an ar-
rangement according to the different kinds of poetry
womd demand a repeated haudling of some of the
poets. However, the latter method is preferable be-
cause it enables us to trace the historical development
of this literature.
A. The iKxbin Drama, — Both in its inception and its
subsequent development Latin dramatic poetry dis-
plays a peculiar character. *' In no domam of litera-
ture", says W. Creizenach in the opening sentence of
his well-known work on the historv of the drama,
" do the Middle Ages show so complete a suspension
of the tradition of classical antiquity as in the drama.''
Terence was indeed read and tausht in the schools of
the Middle Ages, but the true dramatic art of the
Roman poet was misunderstood. Nowhere do we
find evidence that any of his comedies were placed on
the stage in schools or. elsewhere; for this an ade-
quate conception of classical stage-craft was wanting.
The very knowledge of the metres of Terence was lost
in the Middle Ages, and, just as the difference between
comedy and tragedy was misunderstood, so also the
difference between these and other kinds of {poetical
composition was no longer understood. It is thus
clear why we can speak of imitations of the Roman
writer only in rare and completely isolated cases, for
example, m the case of the nun Hroswitha of Gander-
sheim in the tenth century. But even she shared the
mistaken views of her age concerning the comedies of
Terence, having no idea that these works were written
for the stage nor indeed any conception of the dra-
matic art. Her imitations therefore can be regarded
only as literary dramas on spiritual subjects, which
exercised no influence whatever on the subsequent
development of the drama (see Hroswitha). Two
centimes later we find an example of how Plautus
far^ at the hands of his poetical imitators. The fact
that, like Seneca, Plautus is scarcelv ever mentioned
among the school-texts of the Middle Ages makes it
easier to understand how at the close of the twelfth
century Vitahs of Blois came to recast the ''Amphi-
truo" and the ** Querulus", a later sequel to the " Au-
lularia", into satirical epic poems.
That the drama might therefore never have devel-
oped in the Middle Ages were it not for the effective
stimulus supplied by the ecclesiastical liturgy is
quite conceivable. Liturgy began by assuming more
solemn forms and finally gave rise to the religious
drama which was at first naturally composed in the
liturgical Latin language, but subseouently degen-
erate into a mixture of Latin and tne vernacular,
until it finally assumed an entirely vernacular form.
The origin of the drama may be traced to the so-called
Easter celebrations which came into life when the
strictly ecclesiastical liturgy was developed into a
dramatic scene by the introduction of hymns and se-
quences in a dialogue form. A further step in the de-
velopment was reached when narration in John, xx,
4 sqq., was translated into action and the Apostles
Peter and John were represented as hastening to the
tomb of the risen Saviour. This form appears in a
Paschal celebration at St. Lambrecht ana another at
Au^burg, both dating back to the twelfth century.
This expansion of the Easter celebration by the intro-
duction of scenes participated in by the Apostles
spread from Germany over Holland and Italy, but
seems to have found a less sympathetic reception in
France. The third and final step in the development
of the Easter celebrations was the inclusion of the
apparition of the risen Christ. Among others a Nu-
remberg antiphonary of the thirteenth century eon-
tains aU three scenes, joined together so as to give
unity of action, thus possessing the character of a
little drama. Of such Paschal celebrations, which
still formed a part of the ecclesiastical liturgy, 224
have been already discovered: 159 in Germany, 52 in
France, and the remainder in Italy, Spain, and Hol-
land. The taste for dramatic representations, awak-
ened in the people by the Easter celebrations, was
fostered by the ciergy, and by bringing out the human
side of such characters as Pilate, Judas, the Jews, and
the soldiers, a true drama was gradually created.
That the Easter plays were orieinally composed in
Latin is proved by numerous still existing examples,
such as those of "Benediktbeuren'*, "Klostemeu-
burg", and the "Mystery of Tours"; gradually, how-
ever, passages in the vernacular were mtroduced, and
finally this alone was made use of. Passion-plays
were first produced in connexion with the EEtster
plays, but soon developed into independent dramas,
generally in the mother-tongue. As late as 1537 the
passion-play "Christus Xylonicus" was written in
Latin by Barth^lemy de Loches of Orleans. As the
Easter plays developed from the Easter celebrations,
so Christmas plavs develojjed from the ecclesiastical
celebrations at Christmas. In these the preparatory'
season of Advent also was symlx)lized in the predic-
tions of the Prophets. Similarly the plays of the
Three Kings origmated in connexion with the Feast
of the Epiphany; there the person of Herod and the
Massacre of the Innocents are the materials for a very
effective drama. It was but natural that all the plays
dealing with the Christmas season should be brought
together into a connected whole or cycle, beginning
with the play of the Shepherds, continuing in that c«
the Three Kings, and ending with the Massacre of the
Innocents. That this combination of plays actually
existed we have abundant manuscript evidence; par-
ticularly famous is the Freising cycle.
The transition to the so-called eschatological plays
— the climax of the history of the Redemption — ^was
easy. Two such plays enjoy a special celebrity, "The
Wise and Foolish Virgins", which appeared in France
in the twelfth century, and "The Appearance and Dis-
appearance of Antichrist", written by a German p)oet
about 1160. The latter, which is also entitled "The
Roman Emperor of the German Nation and Anti-
christ", has also been regarded as an Easter play, be-
cause the arrival of Antichrist was expected at Eioster.
The second title agrees better with the contents of the
play. The poet, who must have been a learned
scholar, drew his inspiration from the politico-reli-
gious constitution of the Roman Empire as it existed .
in the golden period of Frederick Barbarossa, and
from the Crusades. This ambitious play with its mi-
nute directions for representation is divided into two
main actions — the realization of a Christian world-
empire under the German nation, and the doings of
Antichrist and his final overthrow by the Kingdom of
Christ. The unity and conception of the two parts is
indicated by the fact that the nations appearing in the
first part suggest to the spectator what will be tneir at-
titucle towards Antichrist. The drama was intended
to convey the impression that the German people
alone could fulfil tne world-wide office of the Roman
Empire and that the Church needed such a protector.
The extension of the ecclesiastical plays by the in-
troduction of purely worldly elements led gradually
to the disappearance of spiritual influence, the decay
of which may also be gathered from the gradual adop-
tion of the vernacular for these plays. While the firet
bloom of the neo-Latin drama is thus attributable to
the influence of the Church, its second era of prosper-
ity was purely secular in character and began with the
laDours of the so-called Humanists in Italy, who called
into life the literary drama. Numerous as they were,
we do not meet with a single genuine dramatist amon^
LATIN
28
LATIN
them ; still many sporadic attempts at play-writing
were made by them. The pagan classics were naturally
adopted as models — Seneca for tragedy, as is shown by
the plays of Mussato, Loschi, or Dati, and especially
the " Progne" of Corraro. On the other hand Plau-
tus and Terence found more numerous imitators, whose
works did not degenerate into ribaldry, as is seen from
the attempts of Poggio, Beccadelli, Bruni, Fidelfo, etc.
These humanistic attempts attained a measure of
success in the school drama. A beginning was made
with the production of the ancient dramas in the
original text; such productions were introduced into
the curriculum of the Lidge school of the Hieronymites
and they are occasionally mentioned at Vienna, Ros-
tock, and Lou vain. A permanent school-stage was
erected in Strasburg by the Protectant rector, John
Sturm, who wished that " all the comedies of Plautus
and Terence should be produced, if possible, within
half a year."
The second step in the development was the imita-
tion of the classical drama, which may be traced to
Wimpfeling's "Stylpho"; produced for the first time
at Heidelberg in 1470, this play was still produced
in 1505, a proof of its great popularity. A glorifica-
tion and defence of classical studies was foun<l in
the comedy of "Codrus" by Kerkmcister, master of
the Miinster grammar school. The contrast between
humanistic studies and medieval methods, which
does not come into prominence in Wimpfeling's " Styl-
pho", forms here the main theme. Into the same
category falls a comedy by Rebel, demonstrating the
superiority of humanistic culture over medieval learn-
ing. Into these plays important current events are
introduced, such as the war of Charles VII against
Naples, the Turkish peril, the political situation after
the Battle of Guinegate (1513), etc. The best-known
of these dialogue writers were Jacob Locher, Johann
von Kitzcher, and Hermann Schottcnius llessus.
Another hybrid class of drama was the allegorical
festival plays, which were fitted out as show-pieces
after the fashion of the Italian mask-comedies. A
briUiant example of this class is the " Ludus Dianaj",
in which Conrad Celtes (1501) panegyrizes the pre-
eminence of the emperor in the chase. Similar to that
of the festival plays was the development of the so-
called moraUties in the Netherland schools of rhetoric.
These represented the strife between the good and the
bad principles (virtus et voluptas) for the soul of man,
e. g., Locher's "Spectaculum de judicio Paridis" or the
well-known dramatized version of the " Choice of Her-
cules". • Side by side with these semi-dramatic plays
proceeded the attempts to follow more closely the
ancient dramatic form in the school drama with its
varied contents. Reuchlin with his three-act comedy,
which treats as subject the wonderful skull of Sergius,
may be regarded as the real founder of the school
drama. With "Henno", his second and still more
famous drama, the humanistic comedy became nat-
uralized in Germany. The great master of this art is
unquestionably George Macropedius (i.e.,Langh veldt),
with his three farces "Aluta" (1535), "Andriska"
(1537), and "Bassarus" (1540). A further develop-
ment led to the religious school drama, which
fmerallv drew its subject -matter from Holy Writ.
o further his own objects Luther had counselled
the dramatization of Bibhcal subjects, and tales from
the Bible were thus by free treatment of the in-
cidents made to mirror the conditions of the time,
while containing occasional satirical sallies. Among
the numerous writers of this class must ])e mentioned
before all as the pioneer, the Netherlander Wilhelm
Graph&us (Willem van de Voldergroft), who became a
Protestant: his much-discussed " Acolastus" (the story
of the prodigal son), which follows the Protestant ten-
dencjy^ of representing the uselessness of good works
and justification b^ faith alone, was reprinted at least
£orty-seven times in various countries between 1529
and 15S5, frequently translated, and produced ev^iy-
where.
This species of drama was cultivated by the Catho-
lics also, who introduced greater variety of subject-
matter by incluiling lives of the saints. Thus Corne-
lius Crocus wrote a "St. Joseph in Egypt", PetriiK
Papeus a "[Good?] Samaritan", and George Holonins
several martyr-plays. The founder of the school
drama in Germany was Sixt Birk (Xistus BetuHus):
his "Susanna", "Judith", and "Eva" have primarily
an educative aim, but are coupled with Protestant
tendencies. His example was followed by a fair num-
ber of imitators: George Buchanan (1582), a Scot<*.h-
man, wrote " Jephthe" and " Baptistes", and the belli-
cose Naogeorgus treats with still more bitterness the
differences between Catholics and Protestants in his
"Hamanus", "Jeremias", and "Judas Iscariot".
Among the polemical dramatists on the Catholic side
Cornelius Laurimanus and Andreas Fabricius must be
mentioned.
Although the number of the Biblical school-dramas
was not small, it was far surpassed by the number of
the moralities. As has Ixjcn said, those originated in
the "Netherlaiuls, and it was the Maiistricht priest,
Christian Ischyrius (Sterck), who freely adapted the
famous English morality "Everyman". This is the
dramatized and widely circulated " Ars moriendi" and
represents the importance of a good preparation for
death. The same subject in a somewhat more de-
tailed fonn is treated by Macropedius in his " Hecas-
tus" (1538). The conclusion of the drama is an
exposition of justification bv faith in the merits of
Christ. This inclination of the Catholic poet towards
Luther's teaching found great applause among Protes-
tants, and fostered the development of polemico-
satirical sectarian plays as Naogeorgus's " Mercator"
(1539) shows. The Catholic standpoint also found its
exposition in the moraUties, for example in the " Miles
Christianus" of Laurimanus (1575), the "Euripus" of
the Miooritc Levin Brecht, the "Pomius" of Iiannar-
dus Gamcrius, the "Evangelicus fluctuans" (1569) of
Andreas Fa})ricius, who had composed his "Religio
patiens" three years earlier in the service of the Coun-
ter-Reformation. Still more bitter now grew the
polemics in the dramas, which borrowed their material
from contemporary history. The most notorious of
this class is the "Pamachius" of the pope-hater,
Thomas Naogeorgus, who found many imitators.
Towards the end of the sixteenth century materials
derived from ancient popular legends and history first
came into greater vogue, and gradually led to the
Latin historical drama, of which we find niunerous
examples at the famous representations given at the
Strasburg academy under its founder Sturm. This
example found ready imitation, especially wherever
the influence of the English comedy-writers had made
itself felt. In this way Latin drama enjoyed a period
of prosperity everj^'here until the seventeenth cen-
tury. The best-known dramatic poet of the latter
half of the sixteenth century was the unfortunate
Nicodemus Frischlin. Examples of everj' kind of
school drama may be found among his works : " Dido"
(1581), "Venus" (1584),and"Helvctiogcrmani" (1588),
owe their subjects to the ancient classical period; "Re-
becca" (1576),'*Susanna" (1577), his incomplete Chris-
tianized drama of " Ruth", after the manner of Terence,
the " Marriage of Cana", and a " Prologue to Jaseph",
treat Biblical topics; German legend is represented by
" Hildegardis", the wife of Charlemagne, whose fate is
copied from that of St. Genevieve; of a polemico-
satirical nature are "Priscianus vapulans" (1578), a
mockery of medieval Latin, and " Pliasma" (1580), in
which the sectarian spirit of the age is scourged. A
play of an entirely original character is his "Julius
redivivus": Cia^ro and CiPsar ascend from the lower
world to Germany, and express their wonder at Ger-
man discoveries (gimpowder, printing). All these
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29
LATIN
attempts at a Latin school drama^ in so far as thev
servea educational purposes, were most zealously wel-
comed in the schools of the regular orders (especially
those of the Jesuits), and cultivated with great suc-
cess. Thus the purely external side of the dramatic
art developed from the crudest of beginnings to the
brilliant settings of the so-calleii liidi cicsarii. With
the suppression of the Society of Jesus the school drama
came to a rapid end, and no serious attempt has been
since made to revive it and restore it to its fonner posi-
tion. However from time to time new plays nave
been produced both in Europe and America, and the
'*St. John Damascene", written by Father Harzheim
of the Society of Jesus, is worthy to take its place
among the best productions of the Jesuit dramatists.
B. Latin Lifncal Poetry. — This division of Latin
poetry falls naturally into two classes: secular and re-
ligious. The former includes the poems of itinerant
scholars and the Humanists, the latter h^innody. The
development of vagrant scholars {cleria, vagi) is con-
nected with the foundation of the universities, as stu-
dents wandered about to visit these newly founded in-
stitutions of learning. From the middle of the twelfth
century imperial privileges protected these travelling
schoku^. The majority intended to devote them-
selves to theology, but comparatively few reached
orders. The remainder found their callings as amanu-
enses or tutors in noble families, or degenerated into
loose-living goliards or into wandering scholars who
became a veritable plague during the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries, as they wandered, begging, from
place to place, demanded hospitality in monasteries
and castles ami like the wandering minstrels paid
with their songs, jugglery, buffoonery, and tales.
Proud of their scholarly attainments, they used Latin
in their poetical compositions, and thus arose a special
literature, the goHaraic poetry. Of this two great col-
lections are still extant, the " Benediktbciircn " collec-
tion and the so-called Harleian MS. (no. 978) at Cam-
bridge. The arrangement of ''Carmina burana", as
their first publisher, Schmeller, named them, was upon
a uniform plan, according to which they were divided
into serious, comic, and aramatic pieces. Songs cele-
brating the spring and the winter, m which sentiments
of love also find expression, follow one another in great
variety. Together with these are pious hymns of en-
thusiasm for the Crusades or of praise for the Blessed
Virgin. We also find the most riotous drinking-songs,
often of a loose, erotic nature, nor arc diatribes of a
satirical nature wanting: these soured and dissolute,
though educated, tramps delighted especially in lam-
poons against the pope, bishops, and nobles, inveigh-
mg with bitter sarcasm against the avarice, ambition,
and incontinence of the clergy. In this Professor
Schonlmch sees the influence of the Catharists.
Concerning the composers of this extensive litera-
ture nothing can be stated with certaintv. The
poems were m a certain sense regarded as folk-songs,
that is as common property and international in the
full sense of the word. Some representative poets are
indeed mentioned, e. g., Golias, Primas, Archipoeta,
but these are merely assumed names. Particularly
famous among the poems is the "Confessio Goliae",
which was referred to the Archipoeta, and may be re-
garded as the prototype of the goliardic songs : strophes
12-17 (Meum est vropositum in taberna ynori) are even
to-day sun^ as a clrinking-song in German student cir-
cles. The identity of the Archipoeta has been the sub-
1'ect of much investigation, but so far without success,
'aris was an important centre of these itinerant poets,
particularly in the time of Abelard (1079-1142), and it
was probably thence that they derived the name of
foliards, Atfelard having been called Golias by St.
Bernard. From Paris their poetry passed to England
and Germany, but in Italy it found Httle favour. At
a later period, when the goliardic songs had become
known ever}'where, the pngin of their title appears to
have grown obscure, and thus emerged a Bishop Go-
lias— a name referred to the Latin gtUa — to whom a
parody on the Apocalypse and biting satires on the
pope were ascribed. There even appeared poets as
filiuft or puer or discipulus de familia GolicBf and fre-
quent mention is made of a goliardic order with the
titles of abbot, prior, etc. Apart from their satirical
attitude towards ecclesiastical life, the goliards showed
their free, and at times heretical, views in their paro-
dies of religious hymns, their irreverence in adapting
ecclesiastical melodies to secular texts and their use
of metaphors and expressions from church hymns in
their loose verses.
In outward form the poetry of the goliards resem-
bled the ecclesiastical sequences, rhyme being com-
bined with an easily sun^ rhythm and the verses being
joined into strophes. Smgularly rapid in its develop-
ment, its decay was no less sudden. The cause of its
decline is traceable partly to the conditions of the time
and partly to the character of the goliardic poets. In
a burlesque edict of 1265 the goliards were compared
to bats — neither quadrupeds nor birds. This was in-
deed a not inapt comparison, for their unfortunate
begging rendered them odious to clergy and laity alike.
Forgetting their higher educational parts, they found
it necessary to ally themselves more and more closely
with the strolling players and thus became subject to
the ecclesiastical censures repeatedly decreed by
synods and councils against these wandering musi-
cians. Thus, regarded virtually as outlaws, they are
heard of no more in France after the thirteenth cen-
tury, although they are referred to in the synods of
Germany until the following century. Together with
the poets gradually disappeared their songs, and only
a few are preserved in the KommersbUcher of the stu-
dent worla. Yet the influence of their poetry on the
secular German lyric, and perhaps also on the out^r
form of religious poetry, was both stimulating and
permanent. In this fact lies their principal literary
importance and they are valuable as illustrations of
the literary culture of the time.
Quite distinct in subject and form is the lyric poetry
of the humanistic period, the era of the revival of
classical learning. The work of a few scattered
poets, it could not attain the popularity won by the
goliardic poetry, even had its form not been exclu-
sively an imitation of ancient classical versification.
From the beginning of the sixteenth century the Cath-
olic humanist, Vida, had been engaged among other
works on the composition of odes, elegies, and hymns:
he belonged to the poetcs urhani of the Medici period of
Leo X, many of whom wrote lyrical, in addition to
their epical, pieces. Johannes Dantiscus, who died in
1548 as Bishop of Ermland, composed thirty religious
hymns after the fashion of the older ones in the Brevi-
ary, without any trace of classical imitation. Even
the renowned Nicolaus Copernicus composed seven
odes embodying the beautiful Christian truths associ-
ated with Advent and Christmas. Among the Hu-
manists of Francer John Salmon (Salmonius Macrinus)
was named the French Horace, and among the numer-
ous other names those of Erixius with his " Carmina"
(1519) and Theodore de Bds^e with his "Poemata"
(1548) deserve special mention. In Belgium and the
Netherlands Johannes Secundus (Jan Nicolai Ever-
aerts,d. 1536) was conspicuous as a lyrical poet. From
Holland Latin poetry found an entrance also into the
Northern Empire under the patronage of Queen Chris-
tina, while even Iceland haa its representative in the
Protestant Bishop Sveinsson (1605-74), who among
other works published a rich collection of poems to the
Blessed Virgin in the most varied ancient Clascal
metres.
As in the domain of drama, so also in that of lyrical
poetry. Humanism showed itself most fruitful in Ger-
many, particularly in connexion with the disseminsr
tion of the new doctrine of Luther. * * Thus among the
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30
LATIN
neo-Latinist poets we meet a large number of preach-
ers, school-rectors, university and grammar-school
professors, who translated the Psalms into Horatian
metres, converted ecclesiastical and edifying songs of
every type into the most divine ancient strophes^ and
finally, in an immeasurable number of occasional
poems, celebrated in verse princes and potentates, re-
ligious and secular festivals, the consecration of
churches, christenings, marriage, interments, installa-
tions, occasions of public rejoicing and calamity''
(Baum^artner). The Jesuits were as distinguished
for theu" fruitful activity in the field of lyrical poetry
as in the school drama. With Sarbiewski (q.v.)» the
Polish Horace, were associated by Urban VIIl for the
revision of the old hymns in the Breviary Famian
Strada, Tarauinius Galuzzi, Hieronymus Petrucci,
and Cardinal Robert Bellarmine. In addition to
Balde (q. v.) there were amon^ the German Jesuit
poets a notable number of lyricists. Of the many
names we may mention Jacob Masen, Nicola Avan-
cini, Adam Widl, and John Bissel, who must be num-
bered among the best-known imitators of Horace. In
the Nethermnds, France, Italy, England, Portugal,
and Spain, their number was not smaller, nor their
achievements of less value. For example the Dutch
Hosschius (de Hossche, 1596-1669) excels both Balde
and Sarbiewski in purity of language and smoothness
of verse. Simon Rettenbacher (1634-1706), the
Benedictine imitator of Balde, whose lyrics show a
true poetic ^ft, also deserves a place among the neo-
Latinist writers of odes. The nineteenth century
added but one name to the list of Latin lyricists, that
of Leo XIII, whose poems evince an intimate knowl-
edge of ancient classical literature. The other trend
of neo-Latinist lyric poetry embraces religious hym-
nody. "The whole career of ecclesiastical and devo-
tional hynmody from its cradle to the present day may
be divided into three natural periods, of which the first
is the most important, the second the longest, and the
third the most insignificant.'' Such is the division of
Latin ecclesiastical hymnody (q. v.) given by the
fl;reatest authority, the late Father Guido Dreves,
formerly a memlx^r of the Society of Jesus.
C. Tne neo-Latin Epic. — ^The epic forms, as is nat-
ural, the largest part of our inheritance of Christian
Latin poetry. As a lucid treatment according to any
regular division of the subject-matter is difficult, we
slmll content ourselves with a chronological sketch of
it. The foundation of the Benedictine Order was in
every respect an event of prime importance. The
Benedictines advanced the mterests of culture, not
only to supply the needs of life, but also to embellish
it. Thus among the earliest companions of St. Bene-
dict we already find a poet. Marcus of Monte Cas-
sino, who in his distich san^ tne praises of the deceased
founder of his order. Dunng the sixth century, while
the foundations of a rich literature were being thus
laid the culture formerly so flourishing in Northern
Africa had almost died out. The imperial governor,
Flaviua Cresconius Corippus, and Bishop Verecundus
were still regarded as poets of some merit: but the for-
mer lacked poetic inspiration, the latter, poetic form.
Among the Visigoths in Spain, however, we find true
poets, e. g., St. Eugenius II with his version of the Hex-
aemeron. In Gaul in the sixth century flourished the
most celebrated poet of his age, Venantius Fortunatus.
Most original is his '* Epithalamium " on the marriage
of Sigebert I of Austrasia to the Visigothic princess
Brunehaut, Christian thought being clothed in ancient
mythological forms. About 250 more or less exten-
sive poems of Venantius are extant, including a " Life
of St. Martin" in more than two thousand hexameter
verses. Most of his composition are occasional poems.
In addition to his well-known hymns " Vexilla regis"
and ** Pange lingua", his elegies treating of the tragi-
cal fate of the family of Radegundis found the greatest
appreciation. About the same period there sprang up
in the British Isles a rich harvest of Latin culture
One of the most eminent poets is St. Aldhelm, a scion
of the royal house of Wessex: his great •work "De
laudibus virginum", containing 3000 verses, attained
a wide renown which it long enjoyed. The Venerable
Bede also cultivated Latin poetry, writing a eulogy of
St. Cuthbert in 976 hexameters.
Ireland transmitted the true Faith, together with
higher culture, to Germany. The earliest pioneers
were Saints Columbanus and Gall: the former is cred-
ited with some poems, the latter founded Saint-Gall.
The real apostle of Germany, St. Boniface, left behind
some hunareds of didactic verses . The seeds sown by
this saint flourished and spread under the energetic
Charlemagne, who succeecled, without neglecting his
extensive affairs of state, in making his Court a Roimd
Table of Science and Art, at which Latin was the collo-
quial speech. The soul of this learned circle was Al-
cuin, who showed his knowledge of classical antiquity
in two great epic poems, the " Life of St. Willibrord
and the history of his native York. In command of
language and skill of versification as well as in the
number of poems transmitted to posterity, Theodulf
the Goth surpassed all members of the Round Table.
Movements similar to that at Charlemagne's Court are
observed in the contemporary monastic schools of
Fulda, Reichenau, and Saint-Gall. It will suffice to
mention a few of the chief names from the multitude
of poets. Walafrid Strabo's " De visionibus Wettini".
containing about 1000 hexameters, is justly regarded
as the precursor of Dante's "Divine Comedy". His
verses on the equestrian statue of Theodoric, " Versus
de imagine tetrici ", are of literary importance, because
he represents the king as a tyrant hating God and man.
Highly interesting also for the art of gardening is his
great poem "Hortulus", in which he descries the
monastery garden with its various herbs etc. Con-
temporary with Walafrid and characterized by the
same spirit were the poets Ermoldas, Nigellus, Ermen-
rich, Sedulius Scottus, etc. As a " real gem from the
treasury of old manuscripts" F. RQckert describes the
elegy on Hathumod, the first Abbess of Gandersheim,
written by the Benedictine Father Agius. From the
same monk of Corwey we have the poem "On the
translation of St. Liborius" and a poetical biography
of Charlemagne. A peculiar work was written by
Albert Odo of Cluny under the title "Occupatio": it
is an epico-didactic poem against pride and debauch-
ery, which he demonstrates to be tne chief vices in the
history of the world.
The golden age of Saint-Gall begins with the end of
the ninth century, after which opens the epoch of the
four famous Notkers and the five not less renown^
Ekkehards. The first Ekkehard is the author of the
welUknown "Waltharius" which Ekkehard IV re-
vised. About the time when the " Waltharius" was
revised, there appeared another epic poem "Ruod-
lieb" — a romance in Latin hexameters by an unknown
author, describing the adventurous fate of the hero —
which is unfortunately only partly extant. The
name of the poet who in 1175 composed in Latin
hexameters the first "animal" epic, "Ecbasis cuius-
dam captivi per tropologiam", is also unknown. The
frame-work of the poem is the story of a monk who
runs away from the monastery but is brought back
again under the form of a calf. The "Fable of the
l£es" forms the "animal" epic in which the enmity
of the wolf and fox is the central point. In the twelfm
century this "animal" epic received an extension,
probably from Magister Nivardus of Flanders, under
the title "Ysengrimus" or "Renardus vulpes : from
the poem thus extended an extract was made later,
and this is the last product of the " animal" epic in the
thirteenth century. Like Charlemagne Otto the Great
(936-73) sought to make his Court the centre of
science, art. and literature. The most brilliant reDr&-
sentative ot this period is the nun Hroswitha, pupu at
ZJLTIH
31
LATIH
the emperor's niece Gerberga. It was in the epic that
Bhe achieved her first poetic successes: these were her
well-known " Legends , which were followed by two
long epic poems in praise of the imperial house (see
Hroswitha).
The chroniclers and historians of the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries but seldom use verse in their
narratives, their works being intended above all else
for strictly historical purposes. Histories in verse,
however, were not wanting. Thus Flodoard records
in legendary fashion almost the whole ecclesiastical
history of the first ten centuries. Walter of Speyer
wrote during the same period the first " Legend of St.
Christopher", and an unknown poet composed "The
Epic of the Saxon War" (of Henry IV). Other poets
wrote on the Crusades, Walter of Ch&tillon even ven-
tured on an " Alexandreis", while Hildebert produced
a " Historia Mahumetis" in verse.
The Humanists of the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies are characterized by a closer approach to an-
cient classical form . Mar bod (d . II 23) was a scholarly
poet, and left behind a considerable number of legencis
and didactic aphorisms. His younger contemporary
Hildebert of Tours also wrote a fair number of re-
ligious poems: more important are the two "Roman
Elegies", in which he treats of the remains of ancient
Rome and the sufferings of the papal capital under
Paschal II. Most artistic in its conception and execu-
tion, is his fragment " Liber mathematicus", in which
the tragical complications caused by the superstitious
fear arising from an unfavourable horoscope are de-
picted. That the medieval Scholastics could combine
theological knowledge with humanistic culture may
be seen from the works of the two scholars John of
Salisbury and Alanus de Insulis. That the influence
of this humanistic culture was unfortunately not
always for good, the notorious prurient narratives
of Matthew of Vend6me prove. In the days of
the goliards there were also poets who depicted in
verse contemporary events. Thus the achievements
of Barbarossa were sung by no less than three
poets.
Humanism attained its full bloom in the era of the
Renaissance, which began in Italy. Dante gives
strong evidence of this movement, as does even more
strongly Francesco Petrarch, whose epic "Africa" en-
joyed wide renown. Giovanni Boccaccio, a contem-
porary of the preceding, belongs ratlier to Italian
literature, although he also cultivated Latin poetry.
The himoanistic movement found favourable reception
and encouragement everywhere. In Florence there
sprang up about the Augustinian monk. Luigi Marsigli
(d. 1394), a kind of literary academy lor the cultiva-
tion of ancient literature while in the following cen-
tury the city of the Medici developed into the literary
centre of all Italy. Most representatives of the new
movement preserved their close connexion with the
Church, altnough a few isolated forerunners of the
great revolt of the sixteenth century already made
their appearance. The seeds of this religious revolu-
tion were sown by the lampoons and libidinous poems
of such men as Poggio Bracciolini, Antonio Beccadelli,
and Lorenzo Valla. MafTeo Vegio on the other hand
followed the purely humanistic direction of the true
Renaissance; he added a thirteenth book to Virgil's
" iEneid", making the poem conclude with tiie death
of iGneas. He also composed poetic versions of the
" Death of Astyanax" and "The Golden Fleece", and
still later composed a " Life of St. Anthony". An
epic eulogizing the elder Hunyadi was begun by the
Hungarian Janus Pannonius, but unfortunately left
unfinished. A legendary poem of an entirely original
character is the " Josephma", written in twelve cantos
by John Gerson, the learned chancellor of the Univer-
sity of Paris. It reminds us of a similar poem by
Hroswitha, though the apocryphal narratives taken
from the so-called Gospel of St. James are marked by
greater deoth. Humanism was planted in Germany
by Petrarcn during his residence there as ambassador
to Charles IV, with whom he corresponded after his
departure. 'The interest in humanistic studies was
abo spread by Mne&s Silvius at the Council of
Basle.
As in Italy, the movement rapidly developed every-
where, evincing at first a religious tenaency but
afterwards becoming hostile to the Church. In the
century preceding the "Reformation", indeed, the
foremost representatives of Humanism remained true
to the ancient Faith. Conrad Celtes, although his four
books of "'Amores'' are a reflection of his dissolute
life, sang later of Catholic truths and the lives of the
saints. Similarly Willibald Pirkheimer (d. 1528)
among many others, notwithstanding his satire *'Ec-
cius desolatus", remained faithful to the Church. On
the other hand Eoban Hessus, Crotus Rubeanus, and
above all Ulrich von Hutten espoused the cause of the
new doctrine in their highly satirical writings. A
somewhat protean character was displayed by Desid-
erius Erasmus of Rotterdam, whose early works in-
clude hymns to Christ and the Virgin Mary. " Laus
stultitise", a satire on all the estates after the fashion
of Brant's "NarrenschifT", was written in seven days
to cheer his sick friend, Thomas More. In England es-
pecially at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge,
the humanistic movement developed along the same
lines as in Germany. The first direction was given to
the movement mainly by Thonuis More, whose
"Utopia" (1515) is world renowned. In Italy the
Renaissance movement continued into the sixteenth
century. Sadolet's poem on "The Laocoon Group"
is known throughout the literary world, while his epic
on the heroic death of Caius Curtius is equally fin-
ished. Not less famous is Vida's " Christiad " : he also
wrote didactic poems on "Silk-worms" and "Chess".
Among the more important works of this period must
also be included Jacopo Sannazaro with his classically
finished epic "De partu Virginis", at which he la-
boured for twenty years. His " Naenia" on the death
of Christ also merits every praise. The example of
Vida and Sannazaro spurred numerous other poets to
undertake extensive epical works, of which none at-
tained the excellence of their models.
In other countries also the new literary movement
continued, although it produced richer fruit in the
field of dramatic and lyric poetry than in epic poetry.
The singular attempt of Laurenz Rhodomannus to
compose a "Legend of Luther" in opposition to the
Catholic legend deserves mention on account of its
peculiarity. Among the works of the dramatists we
also meet with more or less ambitious attempts at epic
verse. This is especially true of the dramatists of the
Society of Jesus. J. Masen's " Sarcotis ", for example,
enjoys a certain fame as the proto-type of Milton's
"Paradise Lost" and Vondel's "Lucifer". Bieder-
mann and Avancini also composed small epic narra-
tives. Balde produced many epical works; his "Ba-
trachomyomachia" is an allegorical treatment of the
Thirty Years' War, and his " Obseauies" of Tilly bring
to light many interesting particulars concerning the
mat general. He also celebrated in verse the heroic
death of Dampierre and Bouo^uois. Not least among
his works is his " Urania Victnx ". But, instead of ac-
cumulating further names, let us bring forward just
a few of the more important poems: the " Puer Jesus"
of Tommaso Ceva must be placed in the front rank of
idyllic compositions; the "Life of Mary" (2086 dis-
tichs) of the Brazilian missionary, Venerable Joseph
de Anchicta, is a model for similar works. During tne
nineteenth century the Latin epic more or less cen-
tred around the endowment of the rich native of
Amsterdam, Jacob Henry Hoeufft, who founded a
competitive prize for Latin poetry. Peter Esseiva, a
Swiss, is the best-known prize winner: he celebrated in
beautiful classical verse and brilliant Latin such mod-
LATXK
32
LATIN
era inventions as the railroad, etc., and also treated
strictly religious and light topics (e. g., in "The Flood",
"The Grievances of an Old Maid' ') . I^ XIII was the
last writer who wrote short epical poems in addition
to his odes. Baumgartner, the author of '* Weltliter-
atur", assigns to Latin Christian poetry the well-
merited pn*'se: "It still contains creative sugges-
tions and offers the noblest of intellectual enjo}'-
ment. '*
BADifQARTNER, Oeschichte der Weltliteratur, IV (Freibui^g,
1900); Salzer, JllustricrU Geschichte der deuUchen LUcratur
^Vienna), publication not yet completed; Drevks, Die Kirche
xn ihren Liedem (Kemoten, 1908); Hartuno, Andreas Gryphius
und daa Drama der Jesuiten (Halle, 1907); CREiZENACn, Oe-
aehichte dee neueren Dramas, I, II (Halle, 1893-1901); Heinzel,
Beschreibung des geistelichen Sehauspiels im deutschen Mittelalter
(Hamburg, 1898) ; Goedkke, Grunariss (2nd ed.); Schmidt, Die
aUhnenverhUltnisse des deutschen Schuldramas (Berlin, 1903);
ScHEiD, Der Jesuit J. Masen (Cologne, 1898); Idem, Jakob
Balde in HiUorische-politische BUiUer, CXIII, 19; Swoboda,
Odonis ahbatis Ctuniacensis Occupatio (Leipzig, 1900).
N. SCHEID.
Latin Literature in the Ghurch, Classical. —
I. This article deals only with the relations of the
classical literature, chiefly Latin, to the Catholic
Church. When Christianity at first appeared in
Rome the instruction of youth was largely confined to
the study of poets und historians, chief among whom
at a very early date appear Horace and Virgil. Until
the peace of the Church, early in the fourth century,
the value and use of classical studies were, of course,
not even questioned. The new converts to Christian-
ity brought with them such mental cultivation as they
had received while pagans. Their knowledge of my-
thology and ancient traditions they used as a means
of attacking paganism; their acqmrements as orators
and writers were placed at the service of their new
Faith. They coula not conceive how a thorough edu-
cation could be obtained under conditions other than
those under which they had grown up. Tertullian for-
bade Christians to teach, but admitted that school
attendance by Christian pupils was unavoidable (De
idol., 10). In fact, his rigorous views were not carried
out even so far as the prohibition of teaching is con-
cerned. Arnobius taught rhetoric, and was very
proud of having numerous Christian colleagues (Adv.
nat., II, 4). One of his disciples was Lactantius, him-
self a rhetorician and imperial professor at Nicomedia.
Among the martyrs, we meet with school teachers like
Cassianus (Prudent., "Perist.", 9) whom his pupils
stabbed to death with a stylus; Gorgonis, another
humble teacher, whose epitaph in the Roman cata-
combs dates from the third century (De Rossi, "Roma
Sotterranea", II, 810). During the fourth century,
however, there sprang up an opposition between pro-
fane literature and the Bible. This opposition is con-
densed in the accepted translation, dating from St.
Jerome, of Psalm Ixx, 15-16, *'Quoniam non cognovi
litteraturam, introibo in potentias Domini; Domine
memorabor justitise tuae solius". One of the va-
riants of the (jireek text (ypafifMTias for wpaynarlas)
was perpetuated in this translation. The opposition
between Divine justice, i. e., the Law and literature,
became gradually an accepted Christian idea.
The persecution of Julian led Christian writers to
express more definitely their views on the subject. It
produced httle effect in the West. However, Marius
Victorinus, one of the most distinguished professors in
Rome, chose "to give up the idle talk of the school
rather than denv the Word of God" (Augustine.
"Conf.", VIII, 5). Thenceforth, Christians studied
more closely and more appreciatively their own litera-
ture, i. e., the Biblical writings. St. Jerome discovers
therein a Horace, a Catullus, an Alcjeus (Epist. 30).
In his "De doctrina Christiana" St. Augustine shows
how the Scriptures could be turned to account for the
•tudy of eloquence; he analyses periods of the Prophet
Amos, of St. Paul, and shows excellent examples of
rhetorical figures io the Pauline Epistles (Doctr, chr..
IV, 6-7). The Church, therefore, it seemed ought to
have given up the study of pagan literature. She did
not do so. St. Augustme suggested his method only
to those who wish^ to become priests, and even for
these he did mean to make it obligatory. Men of less
marked ability were to use the ordinary method of in-
struction. The " De doctrina chrif tiana" was written
in the year 427, at which time his advancing age and
the increasing strictness of monastic life might have
inclined Augustine to a rigorous solution. St. Jerome's
scruples and the dream he relates in one of his letters
are quite well known. In this dream he saw an|;els
scourging him and saying : * * Thou art not a Christian,
thou art a Ciceronian" (Epist. 25). He finds fault
with ecclesiastics who find too keen a pleasure in the
reading of Virgil; he adds, nevertheless, that youths
are indeed compelled to study him (Epist. 21). In
his quarrel with Rufinus he declares that he has not
read the profane authors since he left school; **but I
admit that I read them while there. Must I then
drink the waters of Lethe that I may forget?" (Adv.
Ruf., I, 30).
In defending himself the first figure that occurs to
him is taken from mythology. What these eminent
men desired was not so much the separation but the
combination of the treasures of profane literature and
of Christian truths. St. Jerome recalls the precept of
Deuteronomy: " If you desire to marry a captive, you
must first shave her head and eyebrows, shave the
hair on her body and cut her nails; so must it be done
with profane literature, after having removed all that
was earthly and idolatrous, unite with her and make
her fruitful for the Lord" (Epist. 83). St. Augustine
uses another Biblical allegory. For him, the Christian
who seeks his knowledge in the pagan authors re-
sembles the Israelites who de8[)oil the Egyptians of
their treasures in order to build the tabernacle of God.
As to St. Ambrose, he has no doubts whatever. He
quotes quit€ freely from Seneca, V^irgil, and the " Con-
solatio of Servius Sulpicius. lie accepts the earlier
view handed down from the Hebrew apologists to
their Christian successors, viz., that whatever is good
in the literature of antiquity comes from the Sacred
Books. Pythagoras was a Jew or, at least, had read
Moses. The pagan poets owe their flashes of wisdom
to David and Jol>. Tatian, following earlier Jews had
learnedly confirmed this view, and it recurs, more or
less developed, in the other Christian apologists. In
the West Minucius Felix gathered carefully into his
"Octavius" whatever seemed to show harmony be-
tween the new doctrine and ancient learning. This
was a convenient argument and served more than one
purpose.
But this concession pre-supposed that pagan stud-
ies were subordinate to Christian truth, tne "He-
braica Veritas". In the second book of his " De doc-
trina Christiana", St. Augustine explains how pagan
classics lead to a more perfect apprehension of the
Scriptures, and are indeed an introduction to them.
In this sense St. Jerome, in a lett-er to Magnus, pro-
fessor of eloquence at Rome, recommends the use of
profane authors; profane literature is a captive (Epist.
85). Indeed, men neither dared nor were able to do
without classical teaching. Rhetoric continued to in-
spire a kind of timid reverence. The panegyrists, for
example, do not trouble themselves about the em-
peror s religion, but addressed him as pagans would a
pagan and draw their literary embellishments from
mythology. Theodosius himself did not dare to ex-
clude pagan authors from the school. A professor like
Ausonius pursued the same methods as his pagan pred-
ecessors. Ennodiiis, deacon of Milan under Theo-
doric, and later Bishop of Pa via, inveighed against the
impious person who carried a statue of Minerva to a
disorderly house, and himself under pretext of an
" epithalamium " wrote light and trivial verses. It is
true that Christian society at the time of the barbarian
LATDr
33
LATnr
invasions repudiated mythology and ancient culture,
but it did not venture to completely banish them. In
the meantime the public schools of antiquity were
gradually closed, rrivate teaching took their place,
but even that formed its pupils, e. g. Sidonius Ap-
poUinaris, accordinfi" to the traditional method.
Christian asceticism, however, developed a strong feel-
ing against secular studies. As early as the fourtn cen-
tury St. Martin of Tours finds that men have better
thines to do than studving. There are lettered monks
at Lerins, but their scholarship is a relic of their early
education, not acquired after their monastic profes-
sion. The Rule of^St. Benedict prescribes reading, it
is true, but only sacred reading. Gregory the Great
condemns the study of literature so far as bishops are
concerned. Isidore of Seville condenses all ancient
culture into a few data gathered into his withered
herbarium known as the ^'Origines'^ just enough to
prevent all further study in the original sources. Cas-
siodorus alone shows a far wider range and makes pos-
sible a deeper and broader study of letters. His en-
cvclopedic grasp of human knowledge links him with
the best literary traditions of pagan antiquity. He
planned a close union of secular and sacred science,
whence ought to issue a complete and truly Christian
method of teaching. Unfortunately the invasions of
the barbarians followed and the Institutiones of Cas-
siodorus remained a mere project.
II. At this period, i. e. about the middle of the sixth
century, the nrst indications of classical culture were
seen in Britain and a little later, towards the close of
the century, in Ireland. Thenceforth a growing liter-
ary movement appears in these islands. The Irish, at
fint scholars ana then teachcra. create a culture which
tlie Anglo-Saxons develop. Tnis culture places pro-
fane hterature and science at the service of theology
and exegesis. They seem to have devoted themselves
chiefly to grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics. Whence
did the Irish monks draw the material of their learn-
ing? It is quite unlikely that manuscripts had been
brought to the island between 350 and 450, to bring
about very much later a literary renaissance. The
small ecclesiastical schools almost everywhere pre-
served elementary teaching, reading and writing. '
But Irish scholarship w^ent T&t beyond that. During
the sixth and seventh centuries, manuscripts were stin
being copied in colitinental Europe. The writing of
this period is imcial or semi-uncial. Even after elim-
inatmg fifth-century manuscripts there still remains a
fair number of manuscripts in this style of writing.
We find among these profane works practically use-
ful writings, glossaries, treatises on land-surveying,
medicine, the veterinary art, juridical commentaries.
On the other hand, the numerous ecclesiastical manu-
scripts prove the persistence of certain scholarly tra-
ditions. The continuations of sacred studies sufficed
to bring about the Carlovingian revival. It was like-
wise a piurely ecclesiastical culture which in their turn
the Irish brought back to the continent in the sixth
and seventh centuries. The chief aim of these Irish
monks was to preserve and develop religious life; for
literature as such they did nothing. Wlien we exam-
ine closely the scattered items of information, espe-
cially the hagiological indications, their importance is
peculiarly lessen^, for we find that the teaching in
question generally concerns Scripture or theologj'.
Even St. Columbanus docs not seem to have organized
literary studies in his monasteries. The Irish monks
had a personal culture which they did not make any
effort to diffuse, for which remarkable fact two general
reasons may be given. The times were too barbarous,
and the Church of Gaul had too long a road to travel
to meet the Church of Ireland. Moreover, the disciples
of the Irish were men enamoured of ascetic mortinca-
tion, who ahimned an evil world and sought a life of
prayer and penance. For such minds, beauty of lan-
guage and verbal rhythm were frivolous attractions.
IX.— 3
Then, too, the material equipment of the Irish religious
establishments in Gaul scarcely admitted any other
study than that of the Scriptiu^s. Generally these
establishments were but a group of huts surrounding
a small chapel.
Thus, until Charlemagne and Alcuin, intellectual
life was confined te Great Britain and Ireland. It re-
vived in Gaul with the eighth century, when the clas-
sic Latin literature was again studied with ardour.
This is not the place to treat of the Carlovingian re-
naissance nor to attempt the history of the schools and
studies of the Middle Ages. It will be sufficient to
point out a few facts. The study of classical texts for
their own sake was at that period very uncommon. The
pagan authors were read as secondary to Scripture and
theolcwgy. Even towards the close of his life, Alcuin
forbade his monks to read Vii^gil. Statins is the fa-
vourite poet, and, ere long, Ovid whose licentiousness is
glossed over by allegorical interpretation. Mediocre
abstracts and compilations, products of academic de-
cadence, appear among the books frequently read,
e. g. Homerus latinus (llias latina), Dictys, Dares, the
distichs ascribed to Cato. Cicero is almost over-
looked, and two distinct personages are made of Tul-
lius and Cicero. However, until the thirteenth century
the authors read and known are not a few in number.
At the close of the twelfth century, in the early years
of the University of Paris, the principal known au-
thors are: Statins, Virgil, Lucian, Juvenal, Horace,
Ovid (with exception of the erotic poems and the
satires), Sallust, Cicero, Martial, Petronius (judged as
combining usefiil information and dangerous passages),
Symmachus, Solinus, Sidonius, Suetonius, Quintus
Curtius, Justin (known as Trogus Pompeius), Livy,
the two Senecas (including the tragedies), Donatus,
Priscian, Boethius^ Quintilian, Euclid, Ptolemy (Haw-
kins, " Harvard Studies", XX, 75). In the thirteenth
century the influence of Aristotle restricted the field of
reading.
There are, however, a few real Humanists among
the medieval writers. Einhard (770-840), Rabanus
Maurus (776-856), the ablest scholar of his time, and
Walafrid Strabo (809-849) are men of extensive and
disinterested learning. Servatus Lupus, Abbot of
Ferrit^res (805-862), in his quest for Latin manuscripts
labours as zealously as any scholar of the fifteenth
century. At a later period Latin literature is more or
less felicitously represented by such men a|^Remigius
of Auxerre (d. 908), Gerbert (later Pope Sylvester II,
d. 1003), Liutprand of Cremona (d. about 972), John
of Salisbury (1110-1180), Vincent of Beauvais (d.
1264), Roger Bacon (d. 1294). Naturally enough
medieval ]&tin poetry drew its inspiration from Latin
poetry. Among the imitations must be mentioned the
works of Hroswitha (or Roswitha), Abl)ess of Gan-
dersheim (close of the tenth century), whom Virgil,
Prudentius, and Sedulius inspired to celebrate the acts
of Otho the Great. She is of particular interest in the
history of the survival of Latin literature, because of
her comedies after the manner of Terence. It 1 iii.s lx*en
said that she wished to cause the pagan author to be
totally forgotten, but so base a purpose is not recon-
cilable with her known simplicity of chara(;t<>r. A
certain facility in the dialogue and clearness of style do
not offset the lack of ideas in her writings; they ex-
hibit only too clearly the fate of classical culture in the
Middle Ages. Hroswitha imitates Terence, indeed,
but without understanding him, and in a ridiculous
manner. The poems on actual life of Hugh of Orlclfans,
known as ** Primas " or " Archipoota " are far superior,
and betrav genuine talent as well as an intelligent
grasp of Horace.
During the Middle Ages the Church preserved sec-
ular literature by harbouring and copying its works in
monasteries, where valuable libraries existed as early
as the ninth centurj'; in Italy, at Monte Cassino
(foimded in 529), and. at Bobbio (founded in 612 by
LATINI
34
LLTOn
Columbanus) ; in Gennany at Saint GaU (614), Reich-
enau (794), Fulda (744), Lorech (763), Hersfeld (768;,
Corvey (822), Hirschau (830); in France at St. Mar-
tin's of Tours (founded in 372, but later restored),
Fleury or Saint-Benott-sur-Loire (620), Ferridres
(630), Ck)rbic (662), Cluny (910). The reforms of
Cluny and later of Clairvaux were not favourable to
studies, as the chief aim of the reformers was to com-
bat the secular spirit and re-establish strict religious
observances. This influence is in harmony with the
tendencies of scholasticism. Consequently, from the
twelfth century and especially the thirteenth, the copy-
ing of manuscripts became a secular business, a source
of gain. To Gudeman (" Grundriss zur Geschichte der
klassischen Philologie", Leipzig, 1909, p. 160) we owe
the following list of the most ancient or most useful
manuscripts of the Latin classics for the Middle Ages.
Eighth-ninth centuries: Cicero's Orations, Horace, the
philosopher Seneca, Martial. Ninth century : Terence,
Lucretius, Cicero, Sallust, Livy, Ovid, Lucan, Val-
erius-Maximus, Columella, Persius, Lucan, the philoso-
pher Seneca, Pliny the Elder, QuintusCurtius, the The-
baid of Statins, Silius Italicus, Plinv the Younger,
Juvenal, Tacitus, Suetonius, Florus, Cfaudian. Ninth-
Tenth centuries: Persius, Quintus Curtius, Caesar,
Cicero, Horace, Livy, Phaedrus, Persius, Lucan, the
philosopher Seneca, Valerius Flaccus, Martial, Jus-
tin, Ammianus Marcellinus. Tenth century: Caesar,
Catullus, Cicero, Sallust, Livy, Ovid, Lucan, Per-
sius, Quintus Curtius, Pliny the Elder, Quintilian,
Statins, Juvenal. Eleventh century: Caesar, Sallust,
Livy, Ovid, Tacitus, Apuleius. Thirteenth century:
Cornelius Nepos, Propertius, Varro, *'De lingua
latina".
This list, however, furnishes only incomplete in-
formation. An author like Quintus Curtius is repre-
sented by numerous manuscripts in every century;
another, like Lucretius, was not copied anew between
the ninth century and the Renaissance. Moreover, it
was customary to compile manuscripts of epitomes
and anthologies, some of which have preserved the
only extant fragments of ancient authors. The teach-
ing of grammar was very deficient; this majy^, perhaps,
account for the backwardness of philological science
in the Middle Ages. Latin grammar is r^uced to an
abridgment of Donatius, supplemented bv the mea-
gre conmientaries of the tealciier, and replaced since
the thirteenth century by the "Doctrinale" of Alex-
ander de Vflledieu (de Villa Dei).
III. The Renaissance brought to light; the hidden
treasures of the Middle Ages. Prior to this period,
classical culture had been an individuaJ, isolated fact.
From the fourteenth century on it became collective
and social. The attitude of the Cliurch towards this
movement is too important to be treated within the
brief limits of this article (see Humanism; Renais-
sance; Leo X; Pius 11; etc.). As to Latin studies, in
particular, the Church continued to influence very
actively their development At the beginning of the
modem era Latin was the court language of sove-
reigns, notabl^^ of the Italian chanceries. The Roman
curia ranks with Florence and Naples, amons the first
for the eminence, fame, and grace of its Latinists.
Poggio was a papal secretary'. Bembo and Sadoleto
became cardinals. Schools and universities soon
yielded to the influence of the Humanists (see Hu-
manism). In France, the Netherlands, and Germany
the study of the ancient classics was more or less
openly influenced by tendencies hostile to tlie Church
and Christianity. But tlie Jesuits soon made Latin
the basis of their teaching, organized the same in a
systematic way and introauced compulsory and daily
construing of Cicero. The newly founded Lou vain
University (1426) became a centre of Latin studies,
owin^ chiefly to the Ecole du Lis founded in 1437 and
especially to the Ecole dcjs Trois Langues (Greek,
Latin, Hebrew), opened in 1517. It was at the Ecole
du Lis that Jan van Pauteran (Despauterius) taught,
the author of a Latin grammar destined to survive
two centuries, but unfortunately too clearly dependent
on Alexander de Villedieu's above-mentioned "Doo-
trinale'*. In the seventeenth century Port Royal in-
troduced a few reforms in the method of teauching,
substituted French for Latin in the recitations, and
added to the programme of studies. But the general
lines of education remained the same.
In the nineteenth century, classical philology re-
vived as a historical science. The men who brought
about this progress were mainlv Germans, Dutch, and
English. The Catholic Church had no share in this
labour until towards the close of the century. In ^e
middle of the nineteenth century sprang up in France
a controversy of a pedago^cal nature, concerning the
use of the Latin classics in Christian schools. Abb^
Gaume insisted that Christians, especially future
priests, should obtain their hterary training from the
reading and interpretation of the Fathers of the
Church, and he went so far as to call classical educa^
tion the canker-worm (ver rongeur) of modem society.
Dupanloup, superior of the Paris seminary of Notre-
Dame des Champs, later Bishop of Orleans, took up
the defence of the classical authors, whereupon there
broke out a long polemical controversy whicn belongs
to the history of Catholic Liberalism. Louis Veuillot
answered Dupanloup, but the Holy See was silent and
the French bishops did not alter the curriculum of
their "petits s^minaires" or preparatory schools for
the clergy. Veuillot withdrew from the discussion in
1852. Dubner edited a collection of patristic texts so
graded as to serve all Christian schools from the ele-
mentary to the upper classes. Less positive at-
tempts were made to introduce selections from the
principal ecclesiastical \ivTiter8 of Christian antiquity
(Nounsson, for the state lyc^es and colleges; Monier,
for the Catholic colleges). In Belgium Guillaume
urged the simultaneous comparative study of a Chris-
tian and a pagan author. Both in Belgium and
France the traditional use of the pagan authors has
held its own in most educational houses; in this re-
spect, the Jesuit schools and the government institu-
tions do not differ. In recent times attacks have been
aimed, not merely at pagan authors, but in general at
all mental training in Latin. The leaders of this new
opposition are on the one hand the so-called *'prac-
ticar' men, i. e. representatives of the natural and
applied sciences, and on the other declared adver-
saries of the Catholic Church, many of whom hold the
opinion that the study of Latin makes men more
ready to receive the teachings of Faith. Once again,
therefore, the destinies of the Church and of the J^tin
classics are brought into connexion. On this subject
see the various articles of The Cathouc Encyclo-
pedia concerning schools, studies, education, the
history of philology, etc.
Sandys, History ofClassical Scholarship: The Survival of (he
Latin Classics^ I (Cambridge, 1903-8), ch. xxxii; Boissieb,
La fin du paganitme, I (Pans, 1891) 233-398: Lrjay, Littera-.
tura in Revue de phitologie de liUSraure et d'histoire ancienne,
XVI (1892), 22| Roger, L'enseignement dca leltrea claaaiques
d'Aitsone • Alcutn (Paris, 1905); Chatelain, Vncialia scriptura
codicum latinorum (Paris, 1902): Traube, VorUtungen und Ab-
handlungen, 1 (Munich, 1909) ; Haskins, A List of Text-Books
from the close o' the twelfth century in Harvard Studies in Classi-
cal Philology, XX (1909), 75; Laorangb, Vie de Mgr Dupan-
loup (Paris, 1907).
Paul Lejay,
Latmi, Brunetto, Florentine philosopher- and
statesman, b. at Florence, c. 1210; the son of Buonac-
corso Latini, d. 1294. A notary by profession, Brunetto
shared in the revolution of 1250, by which the Ghibel-
line power in Plorence was overthrow^n, and a Guelph
democratic government established. In 1260, he was
sent by the Commune as ambassador to Alfonso X of
Castile, to implore his aid against King Manfred and
the Ghibellines, and he has left us in his "Tesoretto"
{II, 27-50), a dramatic account of how, on his return
LATZTUDIIIA&IANS
35
X41TBBIIJ.X
Journey, he met a scholar from Bologna who told him
that the Guelphs had been defeated at Montaperti and
expelled from Florence. Bnmetto took refuge at
Paris, where a f^erous fellow-countT3rman enabled
him to pursue his studies While carrying on his pro*
fession of notaiy. To this unnamed friend he now
dedicated his "Tr^sor''. After the Guelph triumph
€/[ 1266 and the establishment of a new democratic
constitution, Bnmetto returned to Florence^ where he
held various offices, including that of secretary to the
Commune, took an active and honoured part m Flor-
entine politics, and was influential in the counsels of
the Republic. Himself a man of great eloquence, he
introduced the art of oratory and the systematic study
oi political science into Florentine public life. B!e
was buried in the church of Santa Maria Magf^iore.
Among the individuals who had come under his influr
esice WCU9 the young Dante Alighieri, and. in one of the
most pathetic epi^es of the *' Inferno' (canto XV),
Dante finds the sage, who had taucht him *' how man
makes himself eternal", among ttie sinners against
nature.
Brunetto's chief work, " Li Livres dou Tr^r ", is a
kind of encyclopedia in which he *' treats of all things
that pertain to mortals". It was written in French
prose during his exile, and translated into Italian by a
contemporary. Bono Giamboni. Mainly a compila-
tion from St. Isidore of Seville and other writers, it
includes oompendiums of Aristotle's *' Ethics" and
Cicero's treatise on rhetoric. The most interesting
portion is the last, " On the Government of Cities", in
which the author deals with the political life of his own
times. The "Tesoretto", written before the "Tr6-
sor", is an allegorical didactic poem in Italian, which
undoubtedly influenced Dante. Bnmetto finds him-
self astray in a wood, speaks with Nature in her secret
places, reaches the reaun of the Virtues, wanders into
the flowery meadow of Love, from which he is deliv-
ered by Ovid. He confesses his sins to a friar and
resolves to amend his life, after which he ascends Olym-
pus and begins to hold converse with Ptolemy. It has
recently b^n shown that the ''Tesoretto" was prob-
ably dedicated to Guido Guerra, the Florentine sol-
dier and politician who shares Brunetto's terrible fate
in Dante s ' ' Inferno ". Bnmetto also wrote the ' ' Fa-
volello", a pleasant letter in Italian verse to Rustico
di Filippo on friends and friendship. The other poems
ascribed to him, with the possible exception of one
cansone, are spurious.
Cbabailub, ZA Livret dou Trimur par BrunHto Latini, piMiS
pour la premiere Jots (Paris, 1863); Qaiter, // Tesoro dt Brur
neUo LaHni volgarittato da Bono Oiamboni (4 vols., Bologna,
1878-83); Zannoni, II TeaoreUo e il Favoletto [sic] di Ser Bru-
ndio Laiini (Florence. 1824); Wzbse, Der Te^oreUo und FavoleUo
B. Lai%no9j kriti9eher Text in Zeitschr. f. romanUche Philologie
(Halle. 1883), VII; SuifSBT. DeUa Vita e ddU Opert di Bnuutto
Latini, tr, Rbnbr. with appendixes by Dbl LuNooand Musba-
rtA (Florence, 1884); Schbrillo, Alcuni capitoli delta biooro'
fki di Dante (Turin, 1806); Zinoabxlu, Danfe jTMilan, 1903).
Edmund G. Gardner.
Latitadinarianfl. See Low Church.
Za Trappe.— This celebrated abbey of the Order
of Reform^ Cistercians is built in a solitary valley,
surrounded by forests^ and watered by numerous
streams which form, m the vicinity, a number of
beautiful lakes. The location is ei ghty-f our miles from
Paris, and nine miles from the little town of Mortagne
in the Department of Orne and the Diocese of Sdez,
within the ancient Province of Normandy. At its
beginning it waa only a small chapel, built in 1122
in pursuance of a vow made by Rotrou II, Count of
Perehe, who, a few years afterwards, constructed a
monastery adjcnning, to which he invited the religious
of Breuil-Benolt, an abbey belonging to the Order of
Savigny, then in great renown for fervour and holi-
nees; and in 1140 the monastery of La Trappe was
erwted into an abbey. In 1147 Savigny, with all
its affiliated mooasteneB, was united to tm Order of
Citeauz, and frimi this time forth La Trappe was a
Gisterdan abbey, immediately depending on the
Abbot of Clairvaux. During several centuries La
Trappe remained in obscurity and, as it were, lost
in the vast multitude of monasteries that claimed
Citeaux for their mother. But in the course of the M-
teenth century La Trappe, on accoimt of its eeograph-
ical situation, became a prey to the Englidi troofxi,
during the wars between France and EngUind, and in
the sixteenth century,, it, like all the other monaa*
teries, had the misfortune to be given "in commen*
dam"; after this the religious had nothing further to
preserve than the mournful ruins of a glorious past.
However, the hour was soon to come when tlie
monastery was to have a bri^t return to its primitive
fervour. The author of this reform was de Ilano6,
fourteenth commendatory Abbot of La Trappe, who,
as regular abbot, employed all his zeal in this great
enterprise, the noble traditions of the holy founders
of Citeaux bein^ again enforced. The good odour of
sanctity of the inhabitants of La Trappe soon made
the monastery celebrated amongst all Christian
nations. On 13 February, 1790, a decree of the
Government was directed against the religious orders
of France, and the Abbey of La Trappe was sup-
pressed; but the religious, who had taken the road
to exile under their abbot, Dom Augustin de Le-
strange, were one day to see the doors reopen to them.
In 1815, the abbey, which had been sold as national
property, was repurchased by Dom Augustin. but on
their return the Trappbts found nothing besiaes ruin;
they rebuilt their monastery on the foundations of the
old one, and on 30 August, 1832, the new church was
solemnly consecrated by the Bishop of S6ez. In 1880
the Trappists were again expelled; they, however,
soon returned, to the great joy and satisfaction of
the working classes andf the poor. Under the able
administration of the present abbot, Dom Etienne
Salasc, the forty-fifth abbot since the foundation,
and the fourteenth since the reform of de Ranc6, the
monastery has been entirely rebuilt: the new church,
which is greatly admired, was consecrated on 30
August, 1895. The different congregations of Trap-
pists are now united in a single order, the official name
oeing the " Order of Reformed Cistercians", but for a
long time they will continue to be known by their
popular name of "Trappists" (see Cistercians).
Bossuet was a frequent visitor at La Trappe, in
order to spend a few days in retreat with his friend,
the Abbot de Ranc^; James II of England, when a
refugee in France, went there to look for consolation.
Dom Mabillon. after his long quarrels with de Ranc^,
visited him tnere to make peace with him. The
Count of Artois, afterwards Charles X, spent several
days at the abbey; and in 1847 Louis Philippe wished
likewise to visit this celebrated monastery. Amongst
those who have contributed to the glory of the abbey
in modem times we will only mention Father Robert,
known to the world as Dr. Debreyne, one of the most
renowned physicians of France, and held in high re-
pute for his numerous medico-theological works.
Manriqub, Annaiea Ciatercienaea, IIU), III48; Jongblinus,
Notitia Abbatiarum O. Cttt., I, 86; Janauschek, Orig. Cist., I,
2S5, and introduction : Gattia ChriMtiana^ XI; OAZLLARDnr,
Hiatoire de La Trappe (Faria, 1844) ; db Charbncbt, CartuUure
de VAbbaye de N. D, de La Trappe (Alencon. 1889): Hiatoire de
N. D. deLa Trappe^ by a religious of the monastery (Paris, 1895) ;
M. P., La Trappe mieux connue (Paris, 1834); M. L. D. B,,Hi9-
toire eimU, relioieueeel litUraire de VAbbaye de La Trappe (Paris,
1824) ; La Trappe, joar un Trappiete de Sept Fone (Paris. 1870);
PPANNBNSCHMiOTt lUiutrierte Geachic?Ue der Trappiaten (Pader*
bom, 1873); Deacription de VAbbaye de La Trappe, en forme de
fettre (Paris. 1671).
Edicond M. Obrecht.
Latreilley Pierre -AndrI:, a prominent French
zoologist; b. at Brives, 29 November, 1762; d. in
Paris, 6 Feb., 1833. Left destitute by his parents in
1778, the bov found benefactors in Paris, and was
adopted by the Abb4 HaOy, the famous mineralogist.
LLmk
36
lavha
He studied theolo^ and was ordained priest in 1786,
after which he retired to Brives and spent his leisure
in the study of entomology. In 1788 he returned to
Paris, where he lived till (uiven out by the Revolution.
Al^ough not a pastor, he was arrested with several
other priests, sentenced to transportation, and sent in
a cart to Bordeaux in the summer of 1 792. Before the
veaael sailed, however, Latreille made the acquaintance
of a physician, a fellow-prisoner, who had obtained a
specimen of the rare beetle, Necrobia ruiicoUis, It
was through this discovery that Latreille became ac-
quainted with the naturalist, Bory de Saint- Vincent,
who obtained his release.
He was again arrested in 1797 as an 4tnigrif but was
once more saved by influential friends. In 1799 he
was placed in char^ of the entomological department
of the Museum of Natural History in Paris, and was
elected a Member of the Academy in 1814. In 1829
he was appointed professor of entomolo^ to succeed
Lamarck. From 1796 to 1833 he published a great
number of works on natural history. He was the real
founder of modem entomology.
His lesser treatises and articles for various en-
cyclopedias are too numerous for detailed mention
here; details of them will be found in "Biographie
g^n^rale", XXIX, and in Carus-Engelmann, ''BibUo-
theca zool.", II ^Leipziff, 1861). In his "Prdcis des
caract^res g^n^nques dies Insectes" (Brives, 1795),
and ''Genera Crustaceorum 'et Insectorum" (4 vols.,
Paris, 1806-09), Latreille added very lai^ly to the
number of known genera, and he rendered an incom-
parable service to science by grouping the genera into
families, which are treated in the complete work
"Histoire naturelle g^^rale et particulidre des Crus-
tac^ et Insectes" (14 vols., Paris, 1802-06). But
his two most, conspicuous writing on this subject
of natural classification are: "Considerations sur Tor-
drenatureldesanimaux" (Paris, 1810), and *' Families
naturellesdur^sne animal" (Paris, 1825). His last work
was "Cours d'Entomologie" (2 vols., Paris, 1831-33).
neiteren Nahtrwiaaenschaft (Freiburs, 1904); Bubckbarot,
Oetchichte der Zoologie (Leipzig, 1907}.
J. H. ROMPEL.
Latria (Xarpc/a) in classical Greek originally meant
"the state of a hired servant" (^Isch., "Prom.",
966), and so service generally. It is used especiaUy
for Divine service (Plato, " Apol.". 23 B) . In Cnristian^
literature it came to have a tecnnical sense for the'
supreme honour due to God alone, in contradistinc-
tion to the inferior honour due to His servants, the
angels and saints. This latter was styled ''dulia"
(a. v.). Etymologically, however, there is no reason
wny latria should be preferred to designate supreme
honour; and indeed tne two words were often used
indiscriminately. The distinction is due to St.
Augustine, who says: '' Latria . . . ea dicitur ser-
vitus quae pertinet ad colendum Deum" (De Civ, Dei,
X, i). (See Adoration; Wohship.)
T. B. SCANNELL.
Latulipe, Eue Anicet. See Temiscaming, Vicar-
iate Apostolic op.
Lauda Sion. — ^The opening words (used as a title) of
the sequence composed by St. Thomas Aquinas, about
the year 1264, for the Aiass of Corpus Cnristi. (See
Corpus Christi, Feast of.) That the sequence was
written for the Mass is evidenced by the sixth stanza:
Dies enim solemnis agitur
In qua mensae prima recolitur
Hujus institutio.
(["for on this solemn day is again celebrated the first
institution of the Supper"). The authorship of the
sequence was once attributed to St. Bonaventure; and
Gerbert^in his " De cantu et musica sacra", declaring it
redolent of the style and rhyUimic sweetness chaise
teristic of the verse of this saint, moots the question
whether the composition of the Mass of the feast
should not be ascribed to him, and of the Office to St.
Thomas. The fact that another Office liad been com<*
posed for the local feast established by a synodal de-
cree of the Bishop of Lidge in 1246 also led some
writers to contest the ascription to St. Thomas. His
authorship has been proved, however, beyond ques-
tion, thinks Martdne (De antiq. rit. eoel., IV, zxx), by
the dissertation of No£l Alexandre, which leaves no
doubt (minimum dubUandi acrupulum) in the matter.
There is also a clear declaration (referred to by Car-
dinal Thomasius) of the authorship of St. Thomas, in
a Constitution issued by Sixtus IV (1471-1484), ana to
be found in the third tome of the '' Bullarium noviasi-
mum Fratrum PrsBdicatorum". In content the great
sequence, which is partiy epic, but mostiy didactis
and lyric in character, summons all to endlesB praise
of the Blessed Sacrament of the Altar (lines 1-15);
assigns the reason for the commemoration of its in-
stitution (lines 16-30); gives in detail the CathoKo
doctrine of the Sacrament (lines 31-62): "Dogma
datur Christianis", etc.; shows the fulfilment ai an-
cient types (lines 63-70): "£cce panis angdcniim'S
etc.; prays the Good Shepherd to feed and guard us
here and make us sharers of the Heavenl;^ Table here-
after (lines 71-80) : ** Bone pastor, panis yeare" eto.
Thioughout the long poem tne rhythmic flow is ea^y
and natural, and, strange to say. especially so in the
most didactic of the stansas, aespite a scrupulous
theological accuracy in both thought and phrase.
The saint "writes with the full panoply under his
singing-robes"; but always the melody is perfect, the
condensation of phrase is of crystalline clearness, the
imction is abunoant and, in the closing stsmzas, of
compelling sweetness. A more detailed description of
the content of the ' ' Lauda Sion " is not neoessarj^ bere»
since both Latin text and English version are given in
the Baltimore " Manual of Prayers", p. 632.
In form, the seauenoe follows the rhythmic and
stanzaic build of Acfam of St. Victor's " Laudes crucis
attollamus", which is given by present-day hymnolo*-
gists as the type selected by St Tnomas for the ' * Lauda
Sion ". Thus the opening stanzas of both sequences
have the form:
which is continued through five stanzas. In the
sixth stanza the form changes in the " Lauda Sion " to:
"Dies enim solemnis agitur" etc.. as quoted above;
and in the "Laudes crucis" to the iaentical (numerical)
rhythms of:
Dicant omnes et dicant singuli,
Ave salus totius sseculi
Arbor salutifera.
Both sequences then revert to the first form for the
next stanza, while in the following stanza both alter the
form to:
in which all three Unes are in the same rhjrthm. Both
again revert to the first form, the " Lauda Sion" having
ten such stanzas, the ^ ' Laudes crucis ' ' twelve. We next
come to a beautiful stanzaic feature of the sequences
of Adam, which is imitated by the " Lauda Bion ".
The stanzaic forms thus far noticed have comprised
three verses or Unes. But now, as if the fervour of bis
theme had at length begun to carry the poet beyond
LAUDJL
87
LAUD4
narrow stanxaic fimits, the lines multiply in each
stanza. Thus, the following four stansas in both
sequences have a form which, as it has in various ways
become notable in the ''LaudaSion", may be given
here in the text of one of its stanzas :
Ecce panis angelorum
Factus cibus viatorum;
Vere panis filiorum
Non mittendus canibus.
finally, both sequences close with two stanzas
having each five lines, as illustrated by the penulti-
mate stanza of the " Lauda 8ion " :
Bone pastor, ^anis vere,
Jesu, nostri miserere;
Tu nos pasce, nos tuere,
Tu nos bona fac videre
In terra viventium.
It is clear from the above detailed comparison of the
two sequences that St. Thomas, following the form of
the " Laudes cnicis" throughout all its raythmio and
stahzaic variations, composed a sequence which could
be sung to a chant already in existence; but it is not
a necessary inference from this fact that St. Thomas
directly used the 'Maudes crucis' ' as his model. In form
the two seouences are indeed identical (except, as al-
ready notea, that one has two stanzas more than the
other) . But identity of form is also found in the "Lauda
8ion and Adam's Easter sequence. "Zyma vetus
expurgetur ", which Clichtoveus rightly styles "admo-
dum cuvina **^ and whose spirit and occasional phrase-
ology approxmiate much more closely to those of the
" Lauda Sion '' . This is especially notable in the sixth
stanza, where the first peculiar cnange of rhythm oc-
curs, and where in both sequences the application of
the theme to the feast-day is made directly and for-
mally. Thus (in" Lauda Sion''): " Dies enim solemnis
agitur ", etc.; and (in " Zyma vetus") : " Hsec est dies
quam fecit Dominus " (This is the day which the Lord
hath made). It may well be surmised that Adam de-
sired to include this famous liturgical text in his
Easter sequence of " Zyma vetus expurgetur'' even at
the expense of altering the rhythm with which he had
begun nis poem; and St. Thomas, copying exactly the
new rhythmic form thus introduced, copied also the
spirit and pungency of its text. The same thing is not
true, however, of the corresponding stanza of the
"Laudes crucis", which gives us merely similarity of
form and not of content or of spirit. Other verbal
correspondences between the "Z3rma vetus" and the
"Lauoa Sion" are observable in the closing stanzas.
It may be said, then, that the ''Lauda Sion owes not
only its poetic form, but much also of its spirit and fire,
ana not a little even of its phraseology, to various
sequences of Adam, whom Gu^ranger styles " le plus
grand podte du moyen d.ge ". Thus, for instance, the
two lines (rhythmically variant from the type set in
the first stanza) of the ^' Lauda Sion **:
Vetustatem novitas,
Umbram fugat Veritas,
were directly borrowed from another Easter seauence
of Adam's, Ecce dies Celebris , in which occurs the aouble
stanza:
Lstis cedant tristia,
Cum sit nugor gloria,
Quam pnma conf usio.
Umbram fugat Veritas,
Vetustatem novitas,
Luctum consolatio—
while the " Pascha novum Christus est " of the Easter
sequence of Adam, and the " Paranymphi novse legis
Ad amplexum novi Regis" of his sequence of the
Apostles^ find a strong echo in the " Novum pascha
novs leas " of ^e "Lauda Sion".
The plainsong melody of the "Lauda Sion " includes
the seventh and eighth modes. Its purest form is
found in the recently issued Vatican edition of the
RoomQ Gradual. Its authcnrship is not known; and.
accordingly, the surmise of W. S. Rockstro that the
text-authors of the five sequences still retained in the
Roman Missal probably wrote the melodies also (and
therefore that St. Thomas wrote the melody of the
"Lauda Sion"), and the conviction of a writer in the
"Irish Ecclesiastical Record", August, 1888 (St.
Thomas as a Musician), to the same effect, are incor-
rect. Shall we suppose that Adam of St. Victor com-
posed the melody? The supposition, which would of
course date the melody in the twelftn century, is not
an improbable one. Possibly it is of older date ; out the
pecuhar changes of rhythm suggest that the melody
was composed either by Adam or by some fellow-
monk of St. Victor's Abbey; and the most notable
rh3rthmic change is, as has been remarked al)ove, the
inclusion of the intractable liturgical text: ''Hsec
dies quam fecit Dominus " — a change demanding a
melodfy appropriate to itself. Since the melody dates
back at least to the twelfth century, it is clear tnat the
"local tradition" ascribing its composition to Pope
Urban IV (d. 1264), who had established the feast-day
and had charged St. Thomas with the composition of
the Oflice, is not well-based: "Contemporary writers
of Urban IV speak of the beauty and harmony of his
voice and of his taste for music and the Gregorian
chant; and, according to a local tradition, the music
of the Office of the Blessed Sacrament — a composition
as grave, warm, penetrating, splendid as the celestial
harmonies — ^was the work <M Urban IV" TCruls,
"The Blessed Sacrament", tr., Preston, p. 76). In
addition to the exquisite plainsong melody mention
should be made of Palestnna's settings of the " Lauda
Sion ", two for eight voices (the better known of which
follows somewhat closely the plainsong melody), and
one for four voices; and also of the noble setting of
Mendelssohn.
The " Lauda Sion " is on^ of the five sequences (out
of the thousand which have come down to us from the
Middle Ages) still retained in the Roman Missal. Each
of the five has its own special beauty; but the "Lauda
Sion" is peculiar in its combination of rhythmic flow,
dpgmatic precision, phrasal condensation. It has
been translated, either in whole or in part, upwards of
twenty times into English verse; and a selection from
it, the " Ecce panis angelorum ", has received some ten
additional versions. Amongst Catholic versions are
those of Southwell, Crashaw, Husenbeth, Beste,
Cakeley, Caswall, Wallace, Aylward. Wackerbarth,
Henry. Non-Catholic versions modify the meaning
where it is too aggressively dogmatic and precise. E.
C. Benedict, however, in his " Hymn of Hildebert ",
etc., ^ves a literal translation into verse, but declares
that it is to be understood in a Protestant sense. On
the other hand, as the editor of "Duffield's Latin
Hymns" very sensibly remarks, certain stanzas ex-
press " the doctrine of transubstantiation so distinctly,
that one must have gone as far as Dr. Pusey, who
avowed that he held 'all Roman doctrine', before
using these words in a non-natural sense." The ad-
miration tacitly bestowed on the sequence by its
freauent translation, either wholly or in part, by non-
Catnolic pens, found its best expression in the elo-
quent Latin eulo^ of Daniel (Thesaurus Hymnologi-
cus, II, p. 88), \J^cn, speaking of the hymns of the
Mass and Office of Corpus Christi, he saj's: "The
Angelic Doctor took a single theme for his singing, one
filled with excellence and divinity and, indeed, angelic,
that is, one celebrated and adored by the very angels.
Thomas was the greatest singer of the venerable
Sacrament. Neither is it to be believed that he did
this without the inbreathing of God (quern non sine
numinis afflatu cecinisse credos), nor shall we be sur-
prised that, having so wondrously, not to say uniquely,
absolved this one spiritual and wholly heavenly theme,
he should thenceforward sing no more. One only off-
spring was his— but it was a lion {Peperit semel, sed
leonem),*'
ULUDIAVUS
38
LkVDB
Katsbr, B€UTqM §ur OtaohUhU imtf Briitrmqder aU&h
KirAgnhumnmi^ 11 (Paderbom and Manster, 1886), 77; Juuan,
Dictianary of Hymnohgy (New York, 1882), s.v. for referenoes
to MSS. and translatKnis; Dretbs and Blumb, Analeeta
Hymnica (Leipiig), x. 123; zxxvii, 58; zxxix. 226, 220: xl, 311;
xlii, 104, 151, for poems founded on the Lauda Sion, and zxxvii,
269 (no. 312) for a sequence in honour of St. Thomas Aquinas,
beginnhig Lauda Sion increatamf Sodegiaatical Review, Iv, 443,
for text and translation, notes and commoit.
H. T. Henry.
Laudianos Oodex. See Hanxtbcrifts of the
Bible.
Lauds. — ^In the Roman Litui^gy of to-day lauds
designates an office composed of psalms and canticles,
usiuuly recited after Matins.
I. The Term Lauds and the Hour op the Of-
fice.— ^The word Lauds (i. e. praises) explains the
particular character of this office, the end of which is
to praise God. All the Canonical Hours have, of
course, the same object, but Lauds may be said to
have Uiis cluuucteristio par excellence. The name is
certainly derived from the three last psalms in the
office (cxlviii, cxlix, cl), in all of which the word
laudate is repeated frequently, and to such an extent
that originally the word Lauda designated not, as it
does nowadays, the whole office, but only* the end,
that is to sav, these three psalms with the conclusion.
The title Afi>ot (praises) has been retained in Greek.
St. Benedict also employs this term to designate the
last three psalms: poet hoc [viz, the canticle] aequantur
Laudee (Regula, cap. xiii). In the fifth and sixth cen-
turies the Office of the Lauds was called Matutinunif
which has now become the special name of another
office, the Night Office or Vigils, a term no longer
used (see Matins). Little b^ little the title Lauds
was applied to the whole office, and supplanted the
name of Matins. In the ancient authors, however,
from the fourth to the sixth or seventh century, the
names MatuHnum, Laudes maiviiruBj or Malutini
hymnif are used to designate the office of daybreak or
dawn, the Office of Matins retaining its name of Vig-
ils. The reason of this confusion of names is, perhaps,
that originally Matins and Lauds formed but a single
office, the Night Office terminating only at dawn.
In the liturgy, the word Lauds has two other mean-
ings: It sometimes signifies the Alleluia of the Mass;
thus a Council of Tol^o (IV Council, c. xii) formally
pronounced: "Lauds are sun^ after the Epistle and
before the Gospel'' (for this mterpretation compare
Mabillon, *'De Liturgia gall.", I, iv). Saint Isidore
sajrs : *' Laudes, hoc est. Alleluia, canere *' (De div. offic,
xiii). The word Lauds also designates the public
acclamations which were sung or touted at tne ac-
cession of princes, a custom which w^as for a long time
observed in the Christian Church on certain occasions.
II. The Office in Various Liturgies. — In the
actual Roman Liturgy, Lauds are composed of four
psalms with antiphons (in reality there are usually
seven, but, foUowmg the ordinary rules, psalms with-
out the Gloria and antiphon are not counted sepa-
rately), a Canticle, Capitulum, Hymn, Versicle, the
Bencdictus with Antipnon, Oratio, or (Collect, and, on
certain days, the Preces, or Prayers and Vcrsicles.
The psalms, unlike those of Matins and Vespers, are
not taken in the order of the Psalter, but are chosen
in accordance with special rules without reference
to their position in the Psalter. Thus the psalm
** Miserere mei Deus" (Pe. 1) is said every day on
which a feast does not occur. The psalms ''Deus^
Deus mens" (Ps. Ixii) and "Deus miscreatur nostn
et benedicat nobis" (Ps. Ixvi), and finally the last
three psalms, "Laudate Dominum de coelis'', "Can-
tate Domino canticum novum'', and "Laudate
Dominum in Sanctis ejus" (Pss. cxlviii-cl), are
recited every day without exception. As we have
remarked, it is from these last that this office derives
its name. It will be noticed that, in general, the other
psalms useil at Lauds have also been chosen for special
reasons, beoauaeone or other of their verses (xmtains an
allusion eitiier to the break of day, or to the Resur-
rection of Christ, or to the prayer of the morning,
which, as we shall presently point out, are the raisan
iTitre of this office. Such are the verses: " Deus Deus
mens ad te de luce vigilo"; "Deus misereatur nostri
. . . illuminet vultum suum super nos"; "Mane
astabo tibi et videbo"; "Emitte lucem tuum et veri-
tatem tuam"; "Exitus matutinum et vespere de-
lectabis"; "Mane sicut herba transeat, mane fioreat
et transeat " ; " Ad annuntiandmn mane misericordiam
tuam ", ete. Another characteristic of this office are
the canticles which take place between the psalms
bdi-lxvi and the last three psalms. This collection of
seven canticles from the Old Testament (Canticle
" Benedicite", Canticle of Isaias, Canticle of Ezechias,
Canticle of Anne, the two Canticles of Moses, the
Canticle of Habacuc) is celebrated, and is almost in
agreement with that of the Eastern Church. St.
£»)edict borrowed it from the Roman Church and,
having designed the plan of the Office of Lauds in
accoroance with that of the Church of Rome, pre-
scribed a special canticle for each day: "Canticum
unumquodque die suo ex prophetis, sicut psallit
Ecclesia Romana, dicatur" (Reg., xiii).
To these canticles the Roman Liturgy adds, as the
finale to this office, that of S^achary, "Benedictus
Dominus Deus Israel ", which is recited eveiy da^ and
which is also a canticle to the Light, viz. dbrist:
" Hluminare his qui in tenebris et in umbra mortis se-
dent". The hymns of Lauds, which in the Roman
Church were only added later, also form an inter-
esting collection; they generally celebrate the break
of day, the Resurrection of Christ, and the spiritual
light which He has made to shine on earth. Tney are
very ancient compositions, and are probably anterior
to Saint Benedict. In the Ambrosian Office, and also
in the Mosarabic, Lauds retain a few of the principal
elements of the Roman Lauds — the Benedictus, can-
ticles from the Old Testament, and the psalms cxlviii,
cxlix, cl, arranged, however, in a different order (cf.
Dom G. Morin, op. cit. in bibliography). In the
Benedictine Lituigy, the Office of Lauds resembles the
Roman Lauds very closely, not ovly in its use of the
canticles which St. Beneoict admits, as we have
already remarked, but also in its general construc-
tion. The Greek office corresponding to that of Lauds
is the 6p0pos, which also signines "morning"; its com-
position is different, but it nevertheless retains a
few elements of the Western Lauds-;-notabl^ the can-
ticles and the three psalms, cxlviii-cl, 'which in the
Greek Liturgy bear the name AIvoi or Praises, corre-
sponding to tne Latin word Laudes (cf. "Diet, d'ar-
cn^l. chr6t. et de lit.", s. v. Ainoi; "Horologion",
Rome, 1876, p. 65).
III. Lauds in the Early Christian Ages and
THEIR Origin. — Lauds, or, to speak more precisely,
the Morning Office or Office of Aurora corresponding
to Lauds, is incontestably one of the most ancient
offices and can be traced liack to Apostolic times. In
the sixth century St. Benedict gives us a very de-
tailed description of them in his Rule (chap, xii and
xiii) : the psalms (almost identical with those of the
Roman Liturgy), the canticle, the last three psalms,
the capitulum, hymn, versicle, the canticle Benedic-
tus, and the concluding part. St. Columb^us and the
Irish documents give us only very vague information
on the Office of Lauds (cf. "Regula S. Columbani",
c. vii, " De cursu psalmorum" ' in P. L., LXXX, 212).
An effort has been made to reconstruct it in accord-
ance with the Antiphonary of Bangor, but this docu-
ment, in our opinion, eives us but an extract, and not
the complete office (cf. Cabrol in "Diet, d' archil, et
de lit.", 8. V. Bangor, Antiphonaire de). St. Gregory
of Tours also makes several allusions to this office,
which he calls Maiutini hymni; he gives us, as ite con-
stitutive parts, psalm 1, the Benedicite, the thrse
CONVENT OF MAR SABA, FROM BROOK OF CEDRON
(OXCE KNOWN AB THE ORBAT LAURA)
ULUBik
39
L4UBSNTIE
psalms, czlviii<-cl, and the versicles (" Hist. Franco-
nim", II, vii, in P. L., LXXI. 201, 256, 1034 etc.
Cf. B&umer-Biron, "Hist, du br^v. rom.", I, 220-
30). At an earlier period than that of the fifth and
fourth centuries, we find various descriptions of the
Morning Office in Cassian, in Melania the Younger,
in the " Per^rinatio iEtheri»", St. John Chrysostom,
St. Hilary, Eusebius (BSximer-Biron, op. cit., I, 81,
114, 134, 140, 150-68, 208, 210).
Naturally, in proportion as we advance, greater
varieties of the form of the Office are foimd in the
different Christian provinces. The general features,
however, remain the same; it is the office of the dawn
(Aurora), the office of sunrise, the momins office, the
morning praises, the office of cock-crow {GaUicinium,
ad galh cantus), the office of the Resurrection of
Christ. Nowhere better than at Jerusalem, in the
"Peregrinatio Etherise", does this office, celebrated
at the very tomb of Christ, preserve its local colour.
The author calls it hymni matutinales; it is considered
the principal office of the day. There the hturgy dis-
plays all its pomps; the bishop used to be present with
all his cler^, tne office being celebrated around the
Grotto of ttie Holy Sepulchre itself; after the psalms
and canticles had beensimg, the litanies were chanted,
and the bishop then blessed the people. (Cf. Dom
Cfabrol, " Etude sur la Peregrinatio Silvise, les Eglises
de Jerusalem, la discipline et la liturgie au IV^ si^
cle", Paris, 1895, pp. 39, 40. For the East cf. "De
Virginitate", xx, m P. G., XXVIII, 275.) Lastly,
we again find the first traces of Lauds in the third,
and even in the second, century in the Canons of Hip-
polytus, in St. Cyprian, and even in the Apostolic
Fathers, so much so that B^Lumer does not hesitate to
assert that Lauds together with Vespers are the most
ancient office, and owe their origin to the Apostles
(Bftumer-Biron, op. cit., I, 58; cf. 56, 57, 64, 72 etc.).
rV. Stmbolibm and Reason op This Office. — It
is easy to conclude from the preceding what were the
motives which gave rise to this office, and what its
signification is. For a Christian the first thought
mdch should present itself to the mind in the morning,
is the thought of God; the first act of his day should be
a prayer. The first gleam of dawn recalls to our
minds that Christ is the true Light, that He comes to
dispel spiritual darkness, and to reign over the world.
It was at dawn that Christ rose from the tomb, Con-
queror of Death and of the Night. It is this thought
of His Resurrection which gives to this office its whole
signification. Lastlv, this tranquil hour, before day
has commenced, ancl man has again plunged into the
torrent of cares, is the most favourable to contempla-
tion and prayer. Liturgically, the elements of Lauds
have been most harmoniously combined, and it has
preserved its significance better than other Hours.
Bona, De. Divina Ptalmodia, v, in 0pp. omnia (Antwerp,
1677), pp. 705 »qq.;Commentaritu hialoncua in Romanum Bre-
viarium (Vaiice, 1724), 102; Probst, Bremer u. Brevierod>€t
(Tubingen. 1868). pp. 146. 173. 184. 188; Idem, Lehre u. Gd>et in
den dre% eraten Jahrk. (Tubingen. 1871); Baumer. Hist, du hr&
viaire, French tr. Biron. I (Paris, 1905), 68. 164. etc.; Batif-
roL, Hiai. du br&v. romain (Paris, 1803). 22 sqq.; Dx7chbsnb,
ChriaUan Worship (London, 1904). 448-9; Hotham in Did.
ChrisL. Antiq., s. v. Office, The Divine; Scudauore. ibid., b. v.
Hourt of Prayer; Monm. Lee Laudea du dimanche du IV* au
VII* ai^eU. in Revue Binidictine (1889). 301-4; BmoHAlf,
Worka (Oxford, 1855). IV, 342. 548, etc. See also Brbviart:
Hours, Canonical; VxaiLs; Matins.
F. Cabrol.
Laura. — ^The Greek word laura (Ka^pa) is em-
ployed by writers from the end of the fifth century to
distinguish the monasteries of Palestine of the semi-
eremitical type. The word signifies a narrow way or
passage, and m later times the quarter of a town. We
find it used in Alexandria for the different portions of
the city grouped around the principal churches; and
this latt^ sense of the word is in conformity with
what we know of the Palestinian laura, which was
a group of hennitages surrounding a church.
Although the term laura has been almost exclusively
used with re^rd to Palestine, the type of monastery •
which it designated existed, not only there, but in
Syria and Mesopotamia; in Gaul; in Italy; and among
the (Celtic monks. The type of life led therein might
be described as something midway between the purely
eremitical — inaugurated by St. Paul the first hermit —
and the purely cenobitical life. The monk lived alone
though dependent on a superior, and was only bound
to the common life on Saturdays and Sundays, when
all met in church for the solemn Eucharistic Liturgy.
This central church was the origin of what was after-
wards called the axnobiumj or the house of the im-
perfect, or of "the children". There the future soli-
tjuy was to pass the time of his probation, and to it he
might have to return if he had not the strength for the
full rigour of the solitary life. The lauras of Palestine
were originated by St. Chariton, who died about 350.
He founded the Laura of Pharan, to the north-east of
Jerusalem, and that of Douka, north-east of Jericho.
But most of the lauras in the vicinity of Jerusalem
owed their existence to a Cappadocian named Sabas.
In 483 he founded the monastery which still bears his
name, Mar Saba. It stands on the west bank of Q^
dron and was once known as the Great Laura. We
know that in 814 the Laura of Pharan was still flourish-
ing, and it appears that on Mount Athos this type of
life was followed till late in the tenth century, ft gave
way, however, to the cenobitic, and no monastery now
extant can be said really to resemble the ancient lauras.
KrOlx. in Real EncylopAdie dir Chriatlicher AUerihiimer, 8. v.
Laura; Butlsr, Tho iMuaiac Iliaiory of Palladius, I (Part 2,
London, 1901): G&nier. W« de Euthyme le grand. — Lea moinea
et VSgliae en Pateatine au V» aikde (Pans. 1909).
R. Urban Butler.
Laurence Johnson, Blessed. See William File y,
Blessed.
Laurentie, Pierre-S^bastien, French publicist;
b. at Houga, in the Department of Gers, France, 21
January, 1793; d. 9 February, 1876. He went to
Paris in the early part of 1817, and on 17 June of the
same year enterea the famous pious and charitable
association known as ''La Congregation". Through
the patronage of the Royalist writer Michaud, Lau-
rentie became connected with the editorial stafif of
"La Quotidienne '*, in 1818; and in 1823 he was ap-
pointed Chief Inspector of Schools (inspecteur g^n^
ral des etudes), with the functions of which office
he was able to combine his work as a publicist. His
earliest writings wo^ for him a great reputation.
They were: "De I'i^loquence publique et de son in-
fluence" (1819); "Etudes litt^raircs et morales sur
les historiens latins" (1822); "De la justice au
XIX« sidcle" (1822); "Introduction k la philoso-
phic" (1826); "Considerations sur les constitutions
ddmocratiques " (1826). The complaint was made
against the last-named of these works, that it was
aimed at the Villi^le Ministry, and censured its legis-
lation in regard to the press. This charge, together
with the attacks on the Ministry which appeared
in "La Quotidienne" and the fact of Laurentie's
friendly relations with Lamennais, led to Laurentie's
dismissal from the oflice of Chief Inspector of
Schools (5 November, 1826). "La Quotidienne"
supported the Martignac Ministry until it issued the
decrees of 16 June, 1828, against the Jesuits, and
the 'peiUa s^inaires. Laurentie vigorously opposed
these decrees. He purchased the old Benedictine col-
lege of Ponlevoy, which had existerl for more than
seven centuries and which, ^-ith the colleges of Juilly,
Sordze, and Venddme, Napoleon had permitted to
continue in existence side by side ^-ith the univer^
sity. Laurentie's plan was to take advantage of this
exceptional official authorization (which constituted
a breach in the wall of the state university monopoly)
to insure the prosperous existence of one independent
LAXJBXJXTldB 40 ULUSAimS
educational institution. His worl^ "Sur I'^tude et Windisch to Constance (q. v.). Besson has made it
I'enseigncment des lettres", published in 1828, was probable that, between 549 and 585, the see was di-
understood to embody the programme which he pro* vided and the real seat of the bishops of Windisch
posed to follow at Ponlevoy. transferred to Avenches (Aventicum), while the east-
After 1830, Laurentie, oefeated politically, devoted em part of the diocese was united with Constance,
all his efforts as a publicist to three ^reat causes: According to the Synod of M4con, 585 (Maassen, L c,
(1) freedom of education: (2) Legitimism; (3) the 163-73), Bt. Marius seems to have been the first resi-
oefence of religion. (1) For the nrst of these, we dent Bishop of Avenches. The Chartularium of Lau-
may mention his "Lettres sur I'Mucation" (1835- sanne (ed. G. Waitz in "Mon. Germ.: Scriptores",
37), his "Lettres smr la liberty d'enseignement" XXIV, Hanover, 1879, 794; also in '^Mtooires et
(1844), and ike part he played, in 1849 and 1850, in documents publ. par la Soci^t4 de la Suisse Bo-
regard to the commission which prepared the Fal- mande", VI, Lausanne, 1851, 29) affirms that St.
loux Law; also his treatise, "L'Esprit chr^tien dans Marius was bom in the Diocese of Autun about 530.
les etudes" (1852). his book on ** Les Crimes de F^du- was consecrated Bishop of Avenches in Mav, 574, and
cation frangaise" (1872), and his successful efforts for died 31 December, 594. (For his epitaph in verse,
freedom of higher education (1875). (2) In support formerly in the chiurch of St. Thyrsius at Lausanne,
of the second of these causes he wrote the pamphlet, sen "Mon. Germ.: Script.", XXIV, 795.) To him we
Czar" (1862), " L'Ath^isme social et TEglise, schisme or possibly not before 610.
du monde nouvcau" (1869). Inspired oy the same Lausanne was originally a suffragan of Lyons (cer-
cause, Laurentie also contributed, under Hie Mon- tainly about the seventh century), later of Besangon,
archy of July, to "Le R4novateur'' and "La Quoti- from which it was detached by the French CJoncordat
dienne". Again, between 1848 and 1876, the battle of 1801. In medieval times the diocese extended frotai
for the principle of Legitimism went on day after day the Aar, near Soleure, to the northern end of the Val-
in the columns of the Rojralist " L'Union"^nd in con- ley of St. Imier, thence along the Doube and the ridge
nexion with this campaign Lamrentie's "Histoire des of the Jura to where the Aubonne flows into the Lake
dues d'Orldans" was published in 1832, handling Uie of Geneva, and thence along the north of the lake to
Orleans family with ^reat severity, and follow^ by Villeneuve. whence the boundary-line followed the
the ten volumes of his " Histoire de France" (1841- watershed oetwecn Rhone and Aar to the Grimsel, and
55), a kind of historical illustration of his political doc- down the Aar to Attiswil. Thus the diocese included
trines. (3) As early as 1836 Lamrentie conceived the the town of Soleure and part of its territory, that part
idea, in defence of religion, of a Catholic encyclopedia of the Canton of Berne which lay on the left baoK of
which he prefaced with a Catholic theory oi the the River Aar, also Biel. the Valley of St. Inuer,
sciences. In 1862 he published a pamphlet attacking Jougiie, and Les Longevillcs in the Franche-Comt^,
scientific atheism. His " Histoire de FEmpire Ro- the counties of Neuch&tel and Valangin, the greater
main" (1862) is an apolog^r for infant Chnstianity, part of the Canton de Vaud, the Canton of FriD0Uig»
and his " Philosophie de la pridre" (1864) contains the the County of Gruy^re, and most of the Bemese Ober-
outpouring of a devout souL ^ land. The present Diocese of Lausanne includes the
As an octogenarian, Laurentie was the confidant of Cantons of Fribourg, Vaud, and NcuchAtel.
the Comte de Chambord, whose rights he daily cham- Of the bishops who in the seventh century succeeded
gioned in "L'Union". His "Souvenirs", left un- St. Marius almost nothing is known. Between 694
nished at his death, were published by his grandson and 800 only three bishops are known: Arricus,
in 1893. " He was an honour to his party and to the present at the Council of Chalon-«ur-Sa6ne (Maassen,
press", wrote Louis Veuillot. From the beginning t c, 208-14), Protasius, elected about 651, and Chil-
to the end of his career he was an anti-Gallican mon- me^isilus, about 670. From the time of Charlema^e
archist, never seeking in his theory of the Throne and until the end of the ninth century the following bish-
the Altar a means of making the Altar subservient ops of Lausanne are mentioned: Udalricus (Ulrich),
to the Throne, but advocating the liberty of the a contemporary of Cliarlemagne; Fredarius (about
Qiurch and of education. 814); David (827-50), slain in combat with one of the
Ladrbntie^ Soumirainjdiu (Para. 1893); Grandmaison, lorcls of Dcgerfelden: Hartmann (851-78); Hicrony-
La Congrigalvm, 1801-1830 (Pans. 1889). 200-74; Veuiixot, _,,„ /07Q qo\ T>i« Tn/vaf f1i«fin«rinfilir»f1 nmnnsr fJiA
Dem«T«m«an(7«».in (Paris, 1909), 82, 83 ^^ ^^''*~}'il\ ^^^ most distmguisned among tne
Georges Gotatt subsequent bishops are: Heinrich von Lenzburg (a.
1019), who rebuilt the cathedral in 1000; Hugo (1019-
Laurentius, Antipopb. See Syaimachus, 8aist, 37), a son of Rudolf III of Burgundy, in 1037 pro-
PoPB. claimed the "Peace of God"; Burkart von Oltingen
(1057-89), one of the most devoted adherents of
Lausanne and Oeneya, Diocese of (Lattsaxnen- Henry IV, with whom he was banished, and made the
618 ET Genevexsis), in Switzerland, immediately sub- pilgrimage to Canossa; Guido von Mcrlen (1130-44),
ject to the Holy See. a correspondent of St. Bernard; St. Amadeus of
I. Lausanne. — ^According to the most recent in- Hauterive, a Cistercian {1144-^59), who wrote homilies
vestigations, particularly those of Marius Besson, the in honour of the Blessed Virgin (P. L., CLXXXVIII,
origin of the See of Lausanne can be traced to the 1277-1348); Boniface, much venerated (1231-39), for-
ancicnt See of Windisch (Vindonissa). Bubulcus, the mcrly a master in the University of Paris and head of
first Bishop of Windisch, appeared at the imperial the cathedral school at Cologne, resigned because of
Synod of Epao in Bunrundy, m 517 (Maassen, "Con- physicd ill-treatment, afterwisirds auxiliary bishop in
oDia ffivi merov." in '^on. Germ. Hist.: Leg.", Ill, Brabant (see Ratzinger in "Stimmen aus Mariar
L Hanover, 1893, 15-30). The second and last known Laach", L, 1896, 10-23, 139-57); the Bionedictine
Bishop of Windisch was Gramatius (Grammatius), Louis de la Palud (1432-40), who took part in the
who signed the decrees of the Synod of Clermont in Councils of Constance (1414), Pavia-Siena (1423),
635 fMaassen, L c., pp. 65-71), of Orleans, 541 (Maas- Basle (1431 — ) and at the last-named was chosen, in
sen, 1. c, 86-99), ana that of Orleans. 549 (Maassen. January, 1432, Bishop of Lausanne, against Jean de
L c, 99-1 12). Hitherto it has generally been believed Prangiiis, the chapters choice; Palud was later vice-
tbat shortly after this the see was transferred from chaTT)l>erlain of the conclave whence Anuideus VIII of
LltrSAMtt 4
S&T07 emerged as the aati-pope, Felix V, by whom he
was made a cordioftl; George of Saluizo, who pul>-
lished ^yoodical constitutiona for the reform of the
clergy; Cardinal GiuUano delta Rovero (1472-76), who
in 1603 ascended the papal throne aa Julius II.
Meanwhile the bishops of Lauuanne. who had been
Counts irf Vaud since the time of Rudolf III of Bur-
gundy (1011), and until 1218 subject only to imperial
authority^ were in 1270 made princes of the Holy
Roman Empire, but their temporal power only ex-
tended over a small part of the diocese, namely, over
the city and district of Lausanne, as well as a (ew
towns and villages in the Cantons of Vaud and Kri-
bourg; on the other hand, the bishops possessed many
feoffees among the moat distinguished of the patrician
families of Western Switaeriand. The guardians of
the ecclesiastical property (advocali, avouee) of the
The Cantons of Vaud, XeucLiilel, and lienie, w«ra
entirely lost to the See of Lausanne by the Refornur
tion. By the French Constitution Civile du Clei^
(1790) the parishes of the French Jura fell to the Dio-
cese of Belfey, and thia waa confirmed by the Concor-
dat of 1801. In 1814 the parishes of Soleure, in 1828
those of the Bemeae Jura, and in 1864 also Ihat dis-
trict of Beme on the left bank of the Aar were at-
tached to the See of Basle. In compensation, Piua
VII aadgned, in a papal brief of 20 September, 1819,
the city of Geneva and twenty parishes belonging to
the old Diocese of Geneva (which in 1815 had become
Swias) to the See of I-auaanne. The bishop (in 1815
Petrus Tobias Yenni) retained his residence at Fri-
bourg, and sine* 1821 has home the t itlo and arms of the
bishops of Lausanne and Geneva. His vicar general r©-
sides&tUeneva.and is always parish priest of that city.
of kyburg, lastly, the counts (later dutes) of Savoy.
These guardians, whose only duty originally was the
protectimi of the diocese, enlargcti their jurisdiction
at the expense of the dioceaan rights and even filled
the episcopal see with members of iheir families.
Weanacmte quarrels nsulted, during which the city
of Lauaanoe, with t)ie aid of Beme and Fribourg, ac-
quired new righto, and gradually freed itself from
episoopal suierainty. When Bishop Sebastian de
Htmtfaueoa (1517-fiO) took sides with the Duke of
Savoy in a battle against Beme, the Bemeae used this
as a pretext to seize the city of I^kuaanne. On 31
March, 1636, Hans Frani Niigeli entered Lauaanne as
«onqimor, abolished Catbolicism, and began a re-
ligious revolution. The bishop was obliged to fly, the
enJesiaatical treasure was takea to Beme, the cathe-
dnJ chapter was dissolved (and has never been le-
estaUislMd), wlule the cathedral was given over to
PretestontiHn. Biahop Sebastian died an exile in
1660, and his three suoceaaora were likewise exilea. It
WM only in 1610, under Biahop Joharm VII of Watte-
Tille, tfakt the see was i>rovisionBlly re-eatablished at
FrOxnirg, where it has ainoe remained.
IT. Geneva (Qenata, or Grneva, also Janta and
GF.NUA),capitalof the Swiss canton of the sanke name,
situated where the Rhone Ijsues from the Luke of
Geneva (Locus Lemanta), first appears in history as a
border town, fortified against the Helvetians, wliich
the Romans took in 120 a. c. In a. d. 443it wan taken
by Burgundy, and with the latter fell to the Franks in
534. In 88S the town was part of the new Kingdom
of Burgundy, and with it was taken over in 1033 by
the German Emperor. According to legendary ae-
counts found in the works of Gregorio Lcti ("Historia
Genevrina", Amsterdam, I63S) and Besson ("M6-
mobes pour I'histoire eccl^aiaatique dcs dioceses de
Geneve, Tarantaise_, Aoste et llauricnne", Nancy,
1759; new ed. Moutiera, 1871), Geneva was Christian-
ized by Dionj^iua Areopagita and Paracodus, two of
the seventy-two diaciplea, in the time of Bomilian;
Dionyaius went thence to Paria, and Paracodus be-
came the first Bishop of Geneva. This legend, bow-
ever, is fictitious, as is that which makes St. Naiarius
the first Biahop of Geneva, an error arising out of the
similarity between the Latin namea GeTiava (Geneva)
and <renuo (Genoa, in Italy). The so-called "Cata>
logue de St. Pierre", which ^ves St. Diogenus (Dio-
genes) aa the first Biahop of Geneva, ia untrustwortlyr.
tkVUXSt 4
A letter of St. Euchcrius to Solviua makes it almost
oeTtiunthatSt.Isaac(c,400}wa8thefirBt bishop. In
440 St. SaJonius appears as Bishopof Geneva; he wasa
son of St. Euchenus, to whom the latter dedicated his
" Instructiones "; he took part in the Coiincilsof Orange
(441), Vaigon (442), and Arlea (about 455), and is aup-
lished in P. L., LII, 967 sqq., 993 sqq. as works of i .
otherwise unknown bishop, Saloniua of Vienne). Lit^
tie is known about the followioE bishops: Theoplastus
(about 475), to whom St. Sidonius Apollinaris ail-
dresseda letter; Domitianus (l^fore 500), under whora
of Soleure tranaferpcd to Geneva, where she built a
basilica in hia honour; St. Maximua (about 512-41), a
friend of Avitus, Archbishop of \'ieniie, and ("yprinn of
Toulon, with whom he ivas in correspondence (Wawra
in "Tilbinger Theolcg. QuartaJBchrift", iJiXXV.
1905, 576-94).
Bishop Pappulus
eent the priest Thori-
biusoshissubstitute
to the Svnod of Or-
leans (541). Bishop
&ilonius II is only
known from the eig-
naturea of the ^noda
of Lyons (570) and
Paris (573), and
Bishop Cariatto, in-
B tailed by King (jun-
§ resent at the two
ynods of Valenoe
and BUcon in 685.
From the begin-
ning the See of Ge-
neva was a suffragan
of Vienna. The
bishops of Geneva
had been princes of
the Holy Roman Empire since 1154, but had to
maintain a long strugE'e for their independence
against tJie guardians (navoeart) of the see, the counts
of Geneva and, later, the counts of Savoy, In 1290
the latter obtained the right of installing the viee-
domimu of the diocese — the official who exercised
minor jurisdiction in the town in tlie bishop's name.
In 1387 Bishop Adh^mar Fabry granted the to^vn its
great charter, the basis of its communal splf-govem-
ment, which every bishop on his accession was ex-
pected to confirm. When the line of the counts of
Geneva became extinct, in 1394, and the House of
Savoy came into possession of (heir territory, assurn-
ing, after 1416, the title of Duke, the new djiiasty
BOURht by every means to bring the cilv of Geneva
under their power, particularly by elevating members
of their own family to the episcopal see. The city
protected itself by union with the Swiss Federation
{Eidgeno»sen»chaft), uniting itself, in 1526, with Berne
and FribouTg. The Reformation plunged Geneva into
new entanglements: while Berne favoured the intro-
duction of the new teaching, and demanded liberty
of preaching for the Eeformere Farel and Froment,
Catholic Fribourg, in IKH, renounced its alliance with
Geneva. Calvin went to Geneva in 1536 and began
Ssteniaticaiiy to preach his doctrine there. By his
eocratic "Reign of Terror" he succeeded in forcing
himself upon Geneva as absolute ruler, and converted
the citv mto a Protestant Home. As early as 1533
ths bishop had been obliged to leave his residence,
never to return; in 1534 he fixed his see at Gex, in 1S35
»t Annecy Tlie Apostolic leal and devotion of St. Fran-
oil de Sales, who was bishop of Geneva from 1602 to
lUItiestond toGatholici«ma lai^e part of th* diooaae .
Nyon, also, often erroneously considered a sepamtA
diocese, belonged to Geneva Under Charlemagne
Tarantaise was detached from Geneva, and became a
separate diocese. Before the Reformation tlie 8ee of
Geneva ruled over 8 chapters, 423 parishes, 9 abbeys,
and 68 priories. In 1802 the diocese waa united with
that of Chambiry. At the Congress of Vienna the
territory of Geneva was extended to cover 16 BAToy-
ard and 6 French parishes, with more than 16,000
Catholics; at the same time it was admitted to the
Swiss Federation. The Congress expressly provided
— and the same proviso was included in tlie Treaty
of Turin (16 March, 1816)— that in these territories
transferred to Geneva the (Catholic religion was to be
protected, and that no changes were to be made in ex-
isting conditions without agreement with the Holy
"-- "* - VII next (1819) united the city of Geneva
.th the Diooeee of Lausanne, white
the rest of the an-
cient Diocese of Ge-
(outside of
Switzerland) was re-
coniKtituted, in 1822,
as the Diocese of
Annecy. The Great
Council of Ckmeva
(cantonal council)
afterwards ignored
the responsibilities
tiius undertaken; in
imitation of Napo-
leon's "OrKonic Ar-
ticles' Xsee Ann cues.
The OnOANic) , it in-
sisted upon the
"Placet", or pre-
vious approval of
publication, for all
Eapal documents.
atholic indigna-
tion ran high at
the civil measures taken against Marilley, the parish
priest of (jeneva, and later bishop of the see. Still
greater indignation was aroused among the Cath-
olics by the injustice created by the KidtwkampJ,
which obliged them to contribute to the budget of the
Protestant Church and to that of the Old Catholic
Church, while for their own religious needs they did
not receive the smallest pecuniary aid from the public
treasury. On 30 June, 1907, most of the Catholics of
Geneva voted for the separation of Church and State.
By this act of separation they were assured at least a
negative equality with Protestants and Old Catholics.
Since then the Canton of Geneva has given aid to no
creed out of either the state or the mimieipal revenues.
The Protestants, however, have been favoured, for to
them a lump compensation of 800,000 francs (about
1160,000) was paid at the outset, whereas the Catho-
lics— in spite 01 the international agreements assuring
financial support to their religion, either from the
public funds or from other sources — received nothing.
III. Lausannr and Geneva, — Bishop Yenni's (d. 8
December, 1845) succcssorwasEtienneMarill^, De-
posed, in 1848, by the Cantons of Berne, Geneva,
Vaud, and Nouchfltel, owing to serious differences with
the Radical regime at Fribourg, he was kept a prisoner
tor fifty days in the castle of ChiJJon, on the Lake of
Geneva, anil then spent eight years in exile at Divonne
(France) ; he was allowed to return to his diocese 10
Deceml>er, 1856. In 1864 Pius IX appointed tte
vicar-general of Geneva, Gaspard Mermillod, auxiliary
bishop, and in 1873 Vicar Apostolic, of Geneva, thus
detaching the Genevese territory from the diocese and
making it a vicariate. This new Apostolic vicariate
was, howevw, not reoogniwd bf dther tha St«l«Couiir
ULUSON
43
IJLU20N
cil of Geneva or the Swiss Federal Council, and Mer-
millod was I^tnished from Switserland by a decree of
17 February, 1873. When the Holy See condemned
this measure, the Government answered on 12 De-
cember, 1873, by expelling the papal nuncio. After
Bishop Marilley had resigned his diocese (1879) Moh-
sign ir Cossancicy, provost of the theological seminary
at Fribourg, was elected Bishop of Lausanne and
Geneva, and after his death, Mermillod. Thus the
Apostolic Vicariate of Geneva was given up, the con-
flict with the Government ended, and the decree of ex-
pulsion ai^nst Mermillod was revoked. When, in
1890, Leo XIII made Mermillod a cardinal, he removed
to Rome. The Holy See then appointed the present
bishop, Monsignor Joseph Deruas, and he was conse-
cratea at Rome, 19 March^ 1890, by his predecessor.
Mgr. Denial was bom 13 May, 1826, at Choulex in the
Cfuiton of Geneva, studied theology at Fribourg and
Annecy, and was ordained priest in 1850. For a time
he was vicar at Grand Sacconex, near Geneva, and
then cur^ at Rolle, in the Canton of Vaud, and at Lau-
sanne. He was present at the Vatican Council with
Bishop Marilley. As bishop he worked in the spirit of
conciliation, and was successful in remedying the ills
of the KuUurkampf in the Canton of Geneva.
Statistics. — ^The present Diocese of Lausanne-Geneva
comprises the Cantons of Fribourg, Geneva, Vaud, and
Neuchfttel, with the exception of certain parishes on
the right bank of the Rhone belonging to the Diocese
of Sion (Sitten). According to Bticni (see bibliog-
raphy) and the ''Dictionnaire g^graphique de ia
Suisse" (Neuch&tel, 1905), III, 49 sqq., the diocese
numbers approximately 434,049 Protestants and 232,-
056 Catholics; conseauently, the latter form some-
what more than one-tnird of the whole pjopulation of
the bishopric The Catholics inhabit principallv the
Canton ot Fribourg (excepting the Lake District) and
the country parishes transferred to Geneva in 1815,
four communes in the Canton of Neuchdtel, and ten
in the Canton of Vaud. The Catholic population in
the Cantons of Fribourg and Geneva consists princi-
pally of farmers, in both the other cantons it is also
recruited from the labouring classes. The Catholics
are distributed among 193 parishes, of which 162 are
allotted to Lausanne, 31 to Geneva. The number of
secular priests is 390, those belonging to orders 70.
llie religious orders and congregations are almost en-
tirely in the Canton of Friboure. The Capuchins have
numasteries at Fribourg and Bulle, and hospices at
Romont and Landeron; since 1861 the Carthusians
have been in possession of their old convent of Val-
Sainte, suppressed in the eighteenth century. The
Franciscans conduct the German classes in the Fri-
bourg G3rmnasium. The Marists and the Congre^
tjon of the Divine Saviour (Societas Divini Salvatons)
have establishments at Fribourg. The female congre-
gations represented in the diocose are: Cistercians at
Maigrauge, near Frilxnirg, and Fille-Dieu, near Romont;
Dominicans at Estavayer: Sisters of Charity (Hos-
pital Sisters) at Fribourg, Estavayer, and Neuch&tel,
(Theodosians of the Holy Cross) at FViboure, Uebers-
torf, St. Wolfgang and Neuchdtel, (of St. V/ncent de
Paul) at FrilySurg, Chatel-St-Denis, Billens, and Ta-
fers; Capucines at Montoi^, near Fribourg. The
Visitandmes and the Ursulines conduct each a girls'
scho(d at Fribourg; the Teaching Sisters of ^e Holy
Cross, of Menzingen and Ingenbohl, conduct several
schools for girls (among them the Academy of the
Holy Cross at Fribourg attached to the university);
they are also employed as teachers in maiw of the
village Bchods. Tne Filles de I'CEuvre de St. Paul (not
properly religious) have, among other works, a Cath-
olic bookstore at Fribourg, and a well-arranged print-
ing house. Among the more important educational
establishments of the diocese, besides those alr^Eidy
meotionedi are: the University of Fribourg [see F^-
aouBO OSwimncLAKD), Univjbhhi'it op}; the theo-
logical semmary of St. Charles at Fribourg, with seven
ecclesiastical professors; the cantonal school of St.
Michel, also at Fribourg, which comprises a German
and French gymnasium, a Realschule (corresponding
somewhat to the English first-grade schools) and
commercial school, as well as a lyceum, the rector of
which is a clergyman. This school has at present
(1910) about 8(KI pupils, with 40 ecclesiastical and as
many lay professors. Three other cantonal univer-
sities exist in the diocese: Geneva (founded b}r Calvin
in 1559, and in 1873 raised to the rank of a imiversity
with five faculties); Neuchdtel (1866, academ}^; 1909,
university); Lausanne (1537, academy; university
since 1890, with five faculties). Geneva and Lau-
sanne both have cantonal Protestant theological
faculties, Neuchdtel a "Faculty de th^logie de T^-
glise ind^pendante de T^tat". For the government
of the diocese there are, besides the bishop, two vicars-
general, one of whom lives at Geneva, the other at
Fribourg. There are, moreover, a provicariua gene"
raliSf who is also chancellor of the diocese, and a secre-
tary. The cathedral chapter of Lausanne (with 32
canons) was suppressed at the time of the Reforma-
tion, and has never been re-established, in consequence
of which the choice of a bishop rests with the Holy
See. In 1512 Julius II established a collegiate chapter
in the chureh of St. Nicholas at Fribourg, which is im«
mediately subject to the Holy See, with a provost
appointed by the Great Council, also a dean, a cantor,
and ten prebends. This collegiate church takes the
place of the diocesan cathedral, still lacking, since the
cathedral of St. Pierre at Geneva and that of Notre
Dame at Lausanne were given over to Protestantism
at the time of the Reformation.
Besides works cited under CALViNTsif and Fribourg. see:—
On Lausanne, Scbmxtt, Mimoirea hiatoriqtiea aurU diocese de
Latuanne, ed. Ubemaud in Mimorial de Fribourg^ V, VI (Fri*
bouiK, 1858-59): Qenoud, Lee Sainle de la Suieee fran^aiee
(Bar-le-Duc, 1882); Deluon, DitiionfMire hiet. et etcUiet. dee
paroieeee com. du canton de Fribourg (13 vols., Fribourg, 1884—
1903) ; SscRirrAN. Hiet. de la cathidrale de Laueanne (Lausanne,
1889); Ddprac, La Cathidrale de Laueanne (Lausanne, 1906);
Stammler, Der Domechatz von Laueanne (Bern, 1894), French
tr. by Qallbt (Lausanne, 1902); BOchi, Die kath. Kirche in
der iSchwtixJiMvanchf 1902), 56-67; Doxjuerqxjk, Laueanne au
tempa de la Riformatton (Lausanne, 1903); Holder, Lee Vieitee
j^aetoralee dane le dioekee de Laueanne depute la fin du 16* eiicle
^uequ'h vera le milieu du 19* eUcle (FribourK, 1903) ; Bbsson,
Kecherchea aur lee oripinee dee ivichie de Oentve^ Laueanne, Sion
et leura j^emiera titulairee juequ*au didin du 6* eilcle (Fribouiis
and Pans, 1906) (contains a copious bibliography, pp. 230-44);
Idrii, Contribution a VhiUoire du dioc^ae de Laueanne eoue la
domination franque, 634-888 (Fribourg, 1908); Directorium Di'
(Bceeie Laueanneneie et Oeneveneie in annum 1910 (Fribourg,
1910).
On Geneva, cf. the older literature in Chbyauer, Topo-Bibl,,
1284 sqq. Also, Fleubt, Hietoire de Viglise de OenHe (3 vols.,
Geneva, 1880-81) : Lafrabse, Etude eur la liturgie dane Vancien
diodee de OenHe (Geneva and Paris, 1901) ; Duchesne, Faetee
ipieoopavx de Cancienne Oaule, I (2nd ed.. Pans, 1907), 226
sqq.; De Girard, Le Droit dee catfuniquea romaine de Qen^ve au
buaoet dee euUee (Geneva, 1907) ; De la Rive, La Siparation de
VEgliee H de VEtat h OenHe (Paris, 1909); Martin, La Situa*
tion du catholicieme ii Geneve 1816-1907 (Lausanne, 1909);
S[peiser], Genf und die katholieche Kirche im 19. Jahrhunderi
repuL.'ihed from the Neuen Zarcher Nachrichten (1909), nos.
344,346.
Gregob Reinholo.
Lamon, Jean de, fourth governor of Canada, b. at
Paris, 1583; d. there, 16 Feb., 1666. He was the son of
Francois de Lauzon and IsabcIIe Lotin. In 1613 he
was councillor of the Parlement of Paris; master of
petitions (1623); appointed by Cardinal Richelieu In-
tendant of the Company of New France, he was
lauded by Champlain for obtaining the restoration of
Quebec taken by the Kertk brothers (1629). Lau-
zon's position enabled him to secure for his sons Im-
mense domains in Canada, including the seigniories of
Lauzon (opposite Quebec), de la Citi^re, with sixty
leagues of frontage on the right shore of the St. Law-
rence, and the Island of Montreal, later ceded to La
Dauversidre, one of the foimders of Ville Marie. His
important office and services merited him a good recep-
tioQ as governor (1651). Times were critical. Lanaocu
ULxmm
44
UkVASO
scholar, able magistrate and financier, <H*ganised the
regular administration of dvil and criminal justice,
and provided, from the fur-trade at Tadoussac, for
the civil and military list, besides furnishing pensions
for the Jesuits, Ursulines, and hospital-nuns. But
unused to war and already aged, he could not subdue
the Iroquois, whose audacious crueltv made several
victims imder the walls of Quebec. Although his eld-
est son, Jean, destined like Dollard to an heroic death,
represented him wherever danger threatened, Lauzon
resigned before the expiration of a second term of
office (1656), leaving the government ad interim to a
younger son, Charles de Lauzon-Chamy. Lauzon is
credited for his probity, virtue, exemplary life, and
great zeal for God's interests and the conversion of
savages; but he lacked experience, decision under
trials, and had assumed the direction of the colony
under too adverse circumstances.
Ferland, Colors d'hialoire du Canada (Quebec, 1882) ; RoT,
Bx8toire de la aetgneurie de Lauzon (Levis, 1897); Garneau.
Hutoire du Canada (Montreal. 1882); Rocbbmontbix, Le«
Jituitea et la NouveUe-France (Paris, 1896).
LioNBii Lindsay.
Lauson, Pierre de, a noted missionary of New
France in the eighteenth century, b. at Poitiers, 26
Sept., 1687; d. at Quebec, 5 Sept.^ 1742. Though
sometimes mentioned as Jean, in his official acts ne
invariably signed Pierre. He joined the Jesuits at
Limoges, 24 Nov., 1703, and after ordination was sent
to Canada in 1716. From 1716 to 1718 he was Father
Daniel Richer's assistant at Lorette, where he studied
the Huron-Iroquois language. He did missionary
duty at Sault St. Louis (Caughnawaga) from 1718 to
1731, with the exception of the scholastio year 1721-
22, when he replaced Father Francois Le Brun as
instructor in the royal school of hyorography in the
college at Quebec,* as the exhausting; labours of the
mission had imdermined his health. His Iroquois In-
dians clamoured for his return, and on 12 May, 1722,
they formally petitioned Governor Vaudreuil and the
Intendant B^gon to that efifect. These in turn, per-
suaded that it was he alone who, on the occasion of a
change in the village site, had prevented two-thirds
of the Indians from moving away and settling within
easy reach of the English, urged the superior to send
him back, and in 1722 he returned to Sault St. Louis.
It was none too soon, for the spirit of revolt was
spreadine among the Caughnawaga Iroquois, in conse-
quence of a menace of again quartering upon them a
French garrison, an ever profific cause of debauchery
and disorder. He made his solemn profession of the
four vows at Sault St. Louis on 2 Feb., 1721.
In 1723 he was named superior of the Caughnawaga
mission, and the ability he displayed in governing dur-
ing the nine succeeding y^ears determined the general,
Fnincis Ketz, to place him in 1732 over the whole Can-
ada mission. This, according to established custom in
Canada entailed the duties of rector of the college at
Quebec. During his term of office, which lasted seven
years, he crossed over to France (1733) in quest of
recruits. Amon^ those whom he brought back with
him was the sainUy Father Jean-Pierre Aulneau,
massacred in 1736 at the Lake of the Woods. Mgr
Dosquet of Quebec, returned at the same lime, bring-
ing with him three Sulpicians. The party embarked
29 May and reached Quebec 16 Aug., after a distress-
ing voyage of eighty days. Terrific winds and pesti-
lential disease marlced the long journey. De Lauson,
besides ministering to the sick, as did the other priests
on boardj was appointed boatswain's mate, for the
ecclesiastics did not shirk their share of the work. In
September, 1739, he resumed his missionary labours
with the Caughnawaga Iroquois, but owing to failing
strength he was recalled to Quebec in 1741, where,
after a short illness of two and a half days, he died in
the following year.
Jones. Aulnmtu Collect, pMrim; MSS. doeumeoUt and
oatakicuM in St. Maiy'e College Arehivee;. Paris Arekiwmk
Ahthttr Edward Jones.
Layabo, the first word of that portion of Pa.
said by the celebrant at Mass while he washes hia
hands after the Offertory, from which word the whole
oeremon^r is named.
The principle of washing the hands before celebrat-
ing the noly Liturgy — at first an obvious practioed pre-
caution of cleanness, then interpreted also symboli-
cally— occurs naturally in all rites. In the Eastern
rites this is done at the beginning as part of the vest-
ing; it is generally accompanied by the same fragment
of Ps. XXV (vv. 6-12) said in the West after the Offei^
tory. But in the " Apost. Const.", VIII, 1 1, the hands
of the celebrants are washed just before the Hit^miaftftl
of the catechumens (Brightman, 13), in the Syriac and
Coptic rites after the creed (ib., 82 and 162). Q^ of
Jerusalem also mentions a washing that takes place in
sight of the people (Cat. Myst., v). So also in the
Roman Rite the celebrant washes his hands before
vesting, but with another prayer (*' Da, Domine, vir-
tutem , etc., in the Missal among the " Orationes ante
Missam"). The reason of the second washing, during
the Mass, at Rome was no doubt the special need for
it after the long ceremony of receiving the loaves and
vessels of wine from the people at the Offertory (all of
which is absent from the Eastern rites). The first
Roman Ordines describe a general washing of hands
by the celebrant and deacons, who have received imd
carried the offerings to the altar, immediately after
they have done so (" Ordo Rom. I ", 14; " Ordo of St.
Amand" in Duchesne. "Origines du Culte", 4^. etc.;
in the St. Amand Orao the Pontiff washes his nands
both before and after the Offertory). There is as yet
no mention of any psalm or prayers said at the time.
In the Gallican Rite the offenngs were prepared before
Mass began, as in the East; so there was no Offertory
nor place for a Lavabo later. At Milan there is now an
Offertory borrowed from Rome, but no washing of
hands at this point; the Mozarabic Liturgy also has a
Romanizing Offertory and a washing, but without any
prayer ("Missale Mixtum", P. L., LXXXV, 538).
The Roman Rite had in the Middle Ages twa washing
of the hands at the Offertorv, one iust before, while the
deacon spread the corporal on the altar, one imme-
diately alter the incensing that follows the offertory
(Durandus, "Rationale", IV, 28; Benedict XIV, "Do
SS. Missse Sacrif.", II, 11). The first of these has now
disappeared. The. second was accompanied by the
verses 6-12 of Psalm xxv. This psalm is first men-
tioned by the medieval commentators (e. g. Durandus,
loc. cit.). No doubt it was said from very early times
as a private devotion obviously suitable for the ooca-
sion. We have noted that it accompanies the wash-
ing before the Liturgy in the Byzantine Rite. Benedict
XIV notes that as late as his time (eighteenth century)
"in some churches only some verses are said" (loc.
oit.), although the Missal requires that all (that is
from V. 6. to the end) be recited. CyrU oi Jerusalem
(loc. cit.) already explains the washing as a symbol ot
purity of the soid; all the medieval writers (Durandus,
loc. cit.; St. Thomas Aquinas, "Summa Theol.", Ill,
Q. Ixxxiii, art. 5, ad l^''^; ete.) insist on this idea.
The present rule is this : At high Mass (or sung Mass),
as soon as the celebrant has incensed the alter after
the Offertory and has been incensed himself at the
Epistle side, he remains there while his hioids are
washed by the acolytes, who must be waiting by the
credence-table. The first acolyte pours water from
the cruet over his fingers into the httle dish provided,
the second then hands him the towel to dry the fin-
gers. Meanwhile he says : " Lavabo inter innooentes ".
ete., to the end ci the psalm, with *' Gloria Patri " ana
"Sieuterat". The Gloria is left out in Maawe for the
ULYAL
45
LAVAL
dead and in Blasaes de tempore from Passion Sunday to
Holy Saturday exclusively ("Ritus celebrandi '', VII,
6, in the Missal). A bishop at high Mass wears the
*' precious" mitre {mitra pretiosa) while he is incensed
and washes his hands (Caerim. Episc., II, 8, 64) ; in this
case a larger silver jug and basm are generally used,
thou^ the " Cserimoniale Episcoporum" does not
mention them. At low Mass, since there is no incense,
the celebrant goes to the Epistle side and washes his
hands in the same way immediately after the prayer
" Veni sanctificator ". For his convenience the altar-
card on the Epistle side contains the prayer said when
the water is blessed before it is put into the chalice
("Deus qui humanse substantis'') and the verses
"Lavabo^, etc.
QiBS, DoM ktnliat MeMfonfmr (Freibuis im Br., 1897), 502-05;
BxNBDicT XIV, De SS, Mt—m Sacrificio, II, 11 (ed. Schneidkb,
Mains. 1879, pp. 14^-48); Durandxts, Rationale divinorum offi-
IV, 28, DB HsBDT, S. Liiwrgia praxu, I (9th od., Lou-
Tain. 1894), 307-08; 464-65; Duchxsnb, Orients du CviU
€krHien (Paris. 1898). 167, 443.
Adbian Fortescue.
•
Laval, DiocE«E of (Valus Guidonis) includes
the DepaEurtment of La Mayenne. Until 1855 the
territory of this diocese was annexed to Le Mans.
Since the seventeenth century the creation of a See of
Laval had been under consideration. A constitu-
tional bishopric existed there for a short time during
the Revolution ; and two titular incumbents, Vilar
and Doriodot, occupied the position. In 1S46 the
creation of the see was decided upon, but was not
carried out until after the death of Bishop Bouvier of
Le Mans in 1854. A Bull of Pius IX, 30 June, 1855,
established the See of Laval. The apologist Emile
Bougaud (q. v.) was consecrated Bishop of Laval in
February, 1888, and died a few months later. The
request of the Holy See in 1904 for the resignation
of Bishop Pierre Victor Geav (1896-1904) was one of
the reasons assigned by the French Republic for
breaking with the pope and preparing the separation
o£ Church and State. During the French Revolution,
Laval was captured by the Vendeans on 22 October,
1793, after widch the diocese became the seat of the
"Chouannerie", a movement similar to theVendean
but less aristocratic, the ** Chouans " consisting almost
entirely of peasants who wore a picture of the Sacred
Heart of Jesiis on their arm or their breast and fougjbt
for the liberty of their priests and for the royaUst
cause, without, however, avoiding frequent acts of
brigandM^e. They were organized into bands by a
eertain Jean Cottereau, called Jean Chouan (1757-
1794) and after his death continued their adven-
turous resistance till 1796. For the principal saints
ven»ated in the Diocese of Laval, see Le mans; only
those whose memories are closely associated with the
present confines of the diocese are here mentioned:
St. Constantianus, a monk of Micy, who founded the
monastery of Lasisay, at the same time that St. Er-
neus, St. Bohemad, and St. Alveus, also monks of
ICcy, were foimding the monasteries of Ceaul^,
Saint-Bomer, Saint Auvieu in the forest of Passais,
on the borders of the Departments of Mayenne
and rOme (sixth century), the deacons Sts. Serenus
and Serenic, hermits of Saulges, who belong to the
seventh century. Blessed Merolus, a native of Evron
and chorepiscopus of Saulges, later Bishop of Le
Mans, is of the eighth century, and the hermit St.
Simeon of Vauc6 of the ninth. Bemier (1764-1806),
Eishop of Origans, one of the negotiators of the con-
irdat and Cardinal de Cheverus, Bishop of Boston,
Maas. and Archbishop of Bordeaux (1768-1836), were
natives of the diocese.
Two councils were hdd at Laval m 1207 and 1242
and four at ChAteau Gontier in 1231, 1253, 1268 and
1336 for the restoration of discipline. The prindpal
pikrimages in the diocese are: Notre-Dame de F^
at Laval, a shriDie of great antiquity; Notr^Dane de
r£j»ne at Evron. About 648 a pilmm bearing a
rehquary containing a relic of the Blessed Virgin
stopped at a sanctuary which had been erected in her
honour by St. Thuribius, second Bishop of Le Mans,
and hung the reliquary on a hawthorn bush. Sub-
seciuent miracles, it is said, induced St. Hadouindus,
Bishop of Le Blans, to build there a second shrine
and a monastery. In the last half century more
than 100,0(X) people visited Notre-Dame de TEpine.
Notre-Dame des Freux at Bellebranche, Notre-Dame
d'Av^nidres, and Notre-Dame de CourM!fo6se at Fou-
Serolles date from the twelfth century. Notre-Dame
es Bob at dJontest dates from the mteenth century.
Notre-Dame de la Mariette at Beaumont, Notre-Dame
de la Crueat St- Martin du Limet, and Notre-Dame du
Ch^ne at St-Martin de Conn^. date from the six-
teenth century. Notre-Dame de la Tremblaye at Daon
(since 1660), Notre-Dame de Bon Secours at Craon
Saint Nicholas (since 1709), and since 1871 two im-
g>rtant pilgrimages, Notre-Dame Auxiliatrice de la
ucraie at Burest and Notre-Dame d'Esp^rance at
Pontmain.
Before the application of the Associations Law of
1901, there were Jesuits, Fathers of the Sacred Heart
of Jesus and' of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, and
various orders of teaching brothers in this diocese. The
Trappists are still at the monastery of Notre Dame du
Port Salut, at Entrammes. The principal communi-
ties of women originating in this diocese are: the
Ursulines of Chateau Gontier, founded in 1630 for
teaching; the Hospitaller nuns of the Mercy of Jesus
founded at Ch&teau Gontier in 1674; the Sisters of
Our Lady of Mercy, hospitaller nuns found^ in 1816
by Thdr^se Agathe Rondeau, a poor working woman
known as "Good Mother Th^r^"; the Sisters of
Charity of Notre-Dame, teachers and hospitallers,
founded in 1682 by Madame Thulard. The mother-
house of this community established at Evron in 1901,
coimts 1700 members and 184 institutions in the Dio-
cese of Laval and 137 outside the diocese. In 1908
there remained twenty communities of women in this
see. At the close of the nineteenth century the reli-
^ous orders maintained here 27 infant schools, 2
institutes for the deaf and dumb, 1 orphanage for boys
and 6 for girls; 4 work rooms, 12 hospitals or alms
houses; 6 nouses whose members care for the sick in
their homes and 4 houses for retreats. In 1908 the
Diocese of Laval numbered 305,457 inhabitants; 31
parishes; 265 "succursales"; 210 vicariates, and 705
secular priests.
CouANiER DE Launat, Vie De Mgr C. Wicart^ premier Svique
de Laval, et hietaire de Virectum de cet Mchi (Laval, 1888);
BouiLLiER, Reeherrhes hietoriauee eur Vfgliee el la paroiese de la
Trinity de LatnZ (ibid., 1845) ; Couanier de I^unat, Legendaire
ou vie» dee eainU du dioc^ae de Laval (ibid.. 1891); Idem, PHe'
rinagee et Sanctuairee didiie ii la Sainte Vierge dana le dioeiae de
Laval (ibid., 8. d.): Chevalier, Topobibl., pp. 1647-48.
Georoes Goyau.
Laval F&AN^oiB de Montmorency, first bishop of
Canada, b. at Montigny-sur-Avre, 30 April, 1623, of
Hu^ues de Laval and JVIichelle de P^ricard; d. at
Quebec on 6 May, 1708. He was a scion of an illus-
trious family, whose ancestor was baptized with
Clovis at Reims, and whose motto reads: "Dieu ayde
au premier baron chrestien.'' He studied under the
Jesuits at La Fl^he, and learned philosophy and
theology at their college of Clermont (Paris), where he
i'oined a group of fervent youths directed by Father
)agot. This congregation was the ^erm of the Sem*
inaiy of Foreign Missions, famous in the history of
the Church, and of which the future seminary of Que-
bec was to be a sister institution. His two older
brothers having died in battle, Francois inherited the
family title and estate. But he resisted all worldly
attractions and a mother's entreaties, and held fast to
his vocation. After ordination (1647), he filled the
office of archdeacon at Evreux. The renowned Jesuit
misajooaiy, Alexander de Rhodes, having obtained
lAYAL
46
L4YAL
from Innocent X the appointment of three vioara
ApK)stolic for the East, Laval was chdsen for the Ton-
quin mission. The Portuguese Court opposed the plan,
and from 1655 to 1658 the future bisnop lived at the
" Hermitage " of Caen, in the practice of piety and good
works, emulating the example of the prominent fig-
ures of that period of religious revival, Oher, Vincent
of Paul, Bourdoise. Eudes, and others, several of whom
were his intimate friends. This solitude was a fitting
preamble to his apostolic career. Appointed Vicar
Apostolic of 'Sew France, with the title of Bishop (rf
Petrsea, Laval was consecrated on 8 Dec., 1658. by the
papal nuncio Piccolomini in the abbatial churcn of St-
Germain-des-Pr^s, Paris. He landed on 16 June,
1659, at Quebec, which then counted hardly 500 in-
habitants, the whole French population of Canada not
exceeding 2200 souls.
Laval's first relation to the pope (1660) breathes ad-
miration for the natural grandeur of the country,
courage and hope for the future, and praise for the
seal of the Jesuits From the outset he had to assert
his authority, which was contested by the Archbishop
of Rouen, from whose province came most of the col-
onists, and whose pretensions were favoured by the
court. Laval claimed j urisdiction directly from Rome.
This conflict, which caused trouble and uncertainty, was
ended when the See of Quebec was definitively erected
by Clement X into a regular diocese depending solely
on Rome (1674). But the hardest struggle, the trial
of a life-time, was against the liquor-traffic with the
Indians. The problem, on whose solution depended
the civilization and salvation of the aborigines and the
welfare of New France, was rendered more arduous by
the intense passion of the savage for firewater and the
lawless greed of the white trader. Laval, after ex-
hausting persuasive measures and consulting the Sor-
bonne theologians, forbade the traffic under pain of
excommunication. The civil authorities pleaded in
the interest of commerce, the eternal obstacle to tem-
perance. First d'Avaugour relaxed the severity of
prohibition, but, through Laval's influence at court,
was recalled. De M^sy, who owed his appointment to
the bishop, first favoured, but then violently opposed
his authority, finally dying repentant in his arms.
His successors, envious of clerical authority and ovei^
partial to commercial interests, obtained from the
king a mitigated legislafion. Thus, the Intendant
Talon and Frontenac, notwithstanding their states-
manship and bravery, were imbued with Gallicanism
and too zealous for-their personal benefit. The vice-
roy de Tracy, however, seconded the bishop's action.
At this period the Diocese of Quebec comprised all
North America, exclusive of New England, the At-
lantic sea-board, and the Spanish colonies to the West,
a territory now divided into about a hundred dioceses.
Laval's zeal embraced all whom he could reach by his
representatives or by his personal visitations. In sea-
son and out of season, he made long and perilous jour-
neys by land and water to minister to his flock. His
fatherly kindness sustained the far-oflf missionary.
" His heart is always with us ". writes the Jesuit Dab-
Ion. He was a protector ana guide to the religious
houses of Quebec and Montreal. He was deeply at-
tached to the Jesuits, his former teachers, and recalled
to Canada in 1670 the Franciscan R6collets, who had
first brought thither the Go.spel. By the solemn bap-
tism of Garakonti6, the Iroquois chief, an efficacious
promoter of the true Faith was secured among his
Barbarous fellow-countrymen, who received the black-
robed Jesuit and gave many neophytes. Laval's fore-
sight made him foster the most cherished devotions
of the Church: belief in the Immaculate Conception,
the titular of his cathedral, and the cult of the Iloly
Family, which flourished on Canadian soil (Encyclical
of Leo XIII). He was a devout client of St. Anne,
whose shrine at Beaupr^ was rebuilt in 1673. As a
patron of education Laval occupiee a foremost rank.
At that early period, with a handful of colonists and
scanty resources, he organixed a complete system of
instruction: primary, technical, and classical. His
seminary (16i63) and little seminary (1668) trained
candidates for the priesthood.
An industrial school, foimded at St-Joachim (1678),
provided the colonjr with skilled farmers and crafts-
men. To these institutions, and particularly to the
seminary, destined to become the university which
bears his name, he gave all his possessions, including
the seigniory of Beauprd and Isle J^us. In view of
the future he built the seminary on a relatively large
scale, which excited the envy and criticism of Fronte-
nac. No regular parishes having been yet established,
the clergy were attached to the seminary, and thence
radiatedr everywhere for parochial or* mission work,
even as far as the Illinois. The tithes, after much dis-
cussion and opposition, had finally been limited to the
twenty-sixth bushel of grain harvested, an enactment
still legally in force in the Province of Quebec. These
tithes were paid to the seminary, which, in return, pro-
vided labourers for Christ's vineyard.
Laval's patriotism was remarkable. The creation
of the Sovereign Council in lieu of the Company of
New France was greatly due to his uifluence, and con-
duced to the proper administration of justice, to the
progress of colonization, and the defence of the coun-
try against the ever-increasing ferocity and audacity
of the Iroquois. He later concurred in obtaining the
regiment of Carignan for the last-named object (1665).
Exhausted by thirty years of a laborious apostolate,
and convinced that a younger bishop would work more
efficaciousljr for God's glory and the good of souls,
he resigned in 1 688. His successor, Abb4 de St-Vallier,
a virtuous and generous prelate, did not share all his
Mews regarding the administration. Laval might have
enjoyed a well-earned retreat in France, whither he
had sailed for the fourth time. He preferred returning
to the scene of his labours, where many opportunities
occurred of displajnng his zeal during the many years
of St-Vallier's absence, five of which were spent in cap-
tivity in England. During that period, the seminary
was twice burned (1701 and 1705) to Laval's intense
sorrow, and rebuilt through his energy and gener-
osity. The end was near. The last three years he
spent in greater retirement and humility, and died in
tne odour of sanctity.
His reputation for holiness, though somewhat
dimmed after the Conquest, revived during the nine-
teenth century, and, the cause of his canonization hav-
ing been introduced (1890), he now enjoys the title of
Venerable. Laval has been accused of attachment to
his own authority and disregard for the rights of civil
authority, a reproach that savours somewhat of the
Gallican spirit of the rulers of the time, and of the his-
torians who endorsed their prejudices. The truth is
that he had to protect his flocK from the greed and self-
ishness of worldly potentates for whom material in-
terests were often paramount; to defend the immu-
nities of the Church apiinst a domineering Frontenac,
who pretended to arraign clerics before his tribunal,
and oblige missionaries to secure a passport for each
change of residence, and refused the bisliop the rank
due to his dimity and sanctioned by the king, in the
council of which the prelate was the chief founder, the
soul and hfe. In an age when churchmen like Ma«-
arin and Richelieu virtually ruled the State, Laval's
authority, always exercised for the country's weal,
was prooably not exorbitant. He was loyal to thf
Crown when superior rights were not contradicted,
and received nought but praise from the Grand Ma-
narque. The charge of ambition and arbitrariness is
equally groundless. In the Sovereign Council, Laval
showea prudence, wisdom, justice, moderation. His
influence was always beneficent. Although firm and
inflexible in the accomplishment of duty, he was rea^y
to consult and follow competent advice. He was of
UL VALETTE
47
L4YAL
the race of Hildebrand, and to him likewise might
have been applied the text: "Dilexisti justitiam et
odisti iniquitatem. ** His sole ambition was to be a
bishop according to God's heart. His spirit and prac-
tice of mortification and penance, his deep humility,
his lively faithj his boundless charity towards the poor,
rank him among the most holy personages.
GoASCLiN, Vie de Afar de Laval (Quebec, 1890); Garnrau,
Hitioire du Canada (Montreal, 18S2) ; Febland, Cottra d'hiatoire
du Canada (Quebec, 1882) ; Rochbmonteix, Les Jisuitea et la
Nouvelle-Fmnce (Paris, 1896); Mabie de l'In carnation, Le<-
trea (Toumai. 1870); Souvenir dee fUea du Monument Laval
(Quebec.1908). LlONEL LiNDSAT.
La Valette, Jean Parisot de, forty-eighth Grand
Master of the Order of the Knights of St. John of Jeru-
salem; b. in 1494; d. in Malta, 21 August, 1568. He
came from an old family of Southern France, several
members' of which had been camtouls (chief magis-
trates) in Toulouse. When still very yoimf he en-
tered the Order of St. John as a knight of the Lan-
guage of Provence. After the taking of Rhodes by the
Sul&n Soliman (1522), the order had, in 1530, settled
in Malta which, with the city of Tripoli, the emperor
Charles V had made over to them in full sovereignty.
Here the knights devoted themselves to fighting the
corsairs of Barbary, who were upheld by the Turkish -
Sultan. During this struggle La Valette made his
first campaign, and soon rose to the highest ranks in
the order. In 1537 he was appointed conmiander and
governor of Tripoli. In that city, exposed to the at-
tacks of the famous Dragut, chief of all the corsairs
of Africa, La Valette displayed his power of organiza-
tion, re-establishing discipline among the C&istian
and Moorish troops, driving useless persons out of the
town, and punishing blasphemers, a^ was no longer
in Tripoli when it was taken by Dragut in 1556.
La Valette was unanimouslv chosen (18 Aug., 1557)
to succeed Claude de la Sangle as grand master. He
re-established his authority over the provinces of
Germany and of Venice, which had refused to pay the
taxes levied by general chapters, but was unable to •
secure from the Q>uncil of Trent a confirmation of the
order's privileges, and the restitution of commanderies
usurped by Protestants. Lastly, he ardently devoted
himself to fighting the Moslems. In 1560 he formed
an alliance with Juan de la Cerda, Admiral of Philip 11,
to recover Tripoli, but the Spanish scjuadron wasted
time in the useless conquest of the island of Jerba.
The Moors of Barbary, commanded by PiaM and
Dragut, destroyed 22 warships of the Christians, and
14,000 Christians were killed or died of disease.
Thanks to La Valette*s intrepidity, the galleys of the
order were able to save several Christian ships and to
capture many corsairs. At his own private expense
La Valette had two galleys built and the wealthier
commanders followed his example. The vessels of the
order were commanded by experienced navigators,
like Romegas, who knew all the ports and even the
smallest bays of the Mediterranean.
This naval strength soon made itself feared by the
Moors of Barbary and even by the Turks. The Ivnights
of Malta having aided Garcia of Toledo to take pos-
session of Valez de la Gomera (southeast of the present
Spanish military station of Penon-de- Valez in the
Rif), the alarmed Moors appealed to Constantinople.
Before long the Maltese squadron gained a bloody
.victory between the Islands of Zante and Cephalonia,
and captured a Turkish galleon manned by 200 jani-
zaries and laden with precious merchandise; and
^nthin five years they had taken 50 Turkish vessels.
The Sultan Soliman, exasperated, ordered all his
available vessels to assemble before Malta, where
Dragut and the corsairs were invited to join them.
Spies were sent to examine the fortifications. Don
Garcia de Toledo, Viceroy of Sicily, ha\'inff obtained
secret information of all this, warned La Valette and
endeavoured to induce Philip II to assist in the de-
fence of Malta. La Valette summoned all the knights
of Christendom, raised 2000 men in Italy, and ob-
tained from Don Garcia two companies of Spanish
troops. The inliabitants of Malta were organized as a
militia; every priory sent money, and 600 knights
from all the provinces of the order hastened to the
rescue. La Valette displayed extraordinary activity,
planning fortifications, helping the diggers with his
own hands, inspecting magazmes, andattending to
the smallest details. He told the assembled knights
that they had now entered upon a struggle between
the Gospel and the Koran, After receiving Holy
Communion, all vowed to shed their blood in defence '
of the Faith. But the Order of Malta was poorly sup-
ported in this crisis by the Christian prmces. The
King of Spain alone promised assistance, which, how-
ever, was not ready when the Turkish fleet, commanded
by Mustapha, appeared before Malta on 18 May,
1565. It consistea of 159 warships manned by 30,000
janizaries or spahis, and. a large number of vessels
were employed to carry the siege train. The defenders
of Malta were 700 knights, with 8500 mercenaries and
enrolled citizens and peasants.
Mustapha attacked the fort of St. Elmo, and Dragut
joined him with 13 gallevs. In spite of the Mal^se
artillery, in spite of the heroism of the besieged, the
Turks succeeaed in taking that fort on 23 June, after
an assault lasting seven hours. Thousands of Turks
and the famous Dragut died in the encoimter. Mus-
tapha, exasperated by the resistance, ordered the
hearts of the wounded knights to be torn out of their
bodies. La Valette, on his side, had all the Turkish
prisoners beheaded and forbade any more prisoners to
be taken. From that time the town proper and all the
fortfl were surrounded. On 18 August tne Turks tried
to enter by a breach in the wall, but were driven back
after six hours' fighting. La Valette himself, pike in
hand, charged them, leading his knights. On 23
August another assault resulted in the taking of the
Castille bastion, but La Valette spent that night con-
structing new defences. At last, on 7 September, the
relieving fleet of Don Garcia de Toledo arrived. After
four months of fighting, Mustapha, disheartened,
raised the sie^e; he had lost more than 20,000 men, and
abandoned his hea\*v artillery. Malta was saved, and
the heroism of La Valette at last awakened Europe
from its torpor. All the princes sent their congratu-
lations; the pope offered him a cardinal's hat, which
he refused; 300 noblemen, among them Brantome,
came and offered him their services. To protect the
island from any future attack, the grand master had
another town ouilt upon the site of Fort St. Ellmo
(1566). ThLs was the city of Valette (or Valletta),
which made Malta impregnable, and which was still
sufficiently strong in 1798 to check Bonaparte. The
last years of Valette's life were saddened oy conflicts
with the pope, but at the time of his death, in his
seventv-fourth year, he was busy preparing " for some
great deed of war and of conquest" (Brantome).
Brantobce, Oranda capitainea frunrois, V (Paris, .806), 215-
39; Idem, Dea CouronncU fran^oia: Ricii du voyage i!€ Braninme h
Maltc (Paris, 1870), 407-410; Coleccidn de documentoa inrditoa,
XXVI. XXIX (Madrid, 1870) (letters of La Valette): Vehlot.
Histoire dea chev liera hospitaliera. III, IV (Paris, 1726): Forne-
BON^ Histoire dePhUippe II, I (Paris, 1881), 376-^9.— For bibli-
ography of the siege of Miha, see Pohler, Bibliotheca HiatO'
ivco-militana, I (Leipzig, 1880). 163-64.
Louis Br^hier.
Layal Uniyersity of Quebec. — ^The University of
Laval was founded in 1852 by the Seminary of Que-
bec; the royal charter granted to it by Queen Victoria
was signed at Westmmster, 8 December, 1852. By
the Biill "Inter varias soUicitudines", 15 April, 1876,
Pius IX completed the university by according it can-
onical erection together with the most extensive privi-
leges. In virtue of this Bull the university has as its
protector at Rome the Cardinal Prefect of Propa-
ganda. The control of doctrine and discipline de-
LM.7A2, 4
Tolves upoD a superior council composed of the arch-
bishop and biafaope of the Province of Quebec, under
the presidency of the Archbishop of Quebec, who is
himself chancellor of tlie university. By the terms
of the royal charter the Visitor of the Lavu University
is always the Catholic Archbishop of Quebec, who has
the right of veto in regard to all regiuations and ap-
g)intmente. This shows in what a broad spirit the
ngliah Government pertnlts the Catholic French
Canadians, without other supervision than that of on
archbishop of their Church and nationality, to organ-
ize their university education. The royal charter in-
deed guarantees li1>erty of huher education. By this
charter the office of rector, the most important m the
university, belongs of right to the superior of the Sem-
inary of Quebec. This position is temporary, since
the superior of the seminaiy, who is elected for three
years and is eligible
for reflection after
this term.cannothold
office for more than
six consecutive years,
except with speoiaj
authorization from
the ecclesiastical au-
thorities. The char-
ter also provides for
the establishment of
a council which, co
jointly with the re
tor, shall conduct tl
administration of tl
university. This
council is composed
of ail the directors of
the seminary and of
the three oldest pro-
fessors of each fac-
ulty. It is em-
powered to make
whatever statutes
and rules it judges
suitable, i
i XATU
tension of the faculties of the uiiiver«ty wm made in
favour of Montreal, the archbishop of which was
named vice-chancellor of the university. The decree
'.' Jamdudum" of 2 Februarv, 1889, modified in some
respects the constitution of the Montreal branch of
the university. The direction of this branch is now
confided to a vice-rector propoeed to the univeisity
council of Quebec by the bishops of the ecclesiastical
Province of Montreal. The branch baa thus becoma
nearly independent of the mother university.
The academic year comprises nine months, and is
divided into three terms. Instruction is given by
titular professors, associate professors, and instructors.
Only tne titular professors are professors in the re-
quired sense of the ciiartcr, and as such may be roan-
bers of the university council. The physical museum
for the use of the faculty of arts at Quebec is x-ery
complete. Itinoludu
nearly fifteen hun-
dred instruments in
all the branches of
physics, among them
most of the apparatus
for the demonstra-
coveries. The miner-
atogical museum is
rich in specimens.
EapcciaJly remark-
able is a valuable
Sieral collection of
nadian minerals
and rocks. Thegeo-
tains more than two
thousand specimens.
In the botanical mu-
seum there are a com-
plete collection ot
Canadian woods used
I industry, and hav-
LlVAI. Uhi
condition that these enactments contain nothing con-
trary to the laws of the United Kingdom or to those
of Canada.
The university comprises the four faculties of theol-
ogy, law, medicine, and arts. Each faculty is pro-
vided with a special council which discusses and sub-
mits to the university council all questions which most
directly interest one or the other of these faculties.
The professors of tlie faculty of theology are named by
the visitor; all the others are appointed by the council.
The degrees which may fcie obtamed by students in
each of these faculties are those of bachelor, master,
licentialc, and doctor. Good conduct is an essential
condition for securing deerees. In order that the
^atcst number of classictd colleges may profit by its
right of conferring diplomas granted by the royal char-
ter, and may sIho take a more direct interest in its
work, the university received, in virtue of a provision
of this charter, the power to affiliate with itself such
public educational establishments of the province as it
may desire on the conditions laid down by the coun-
cil. At present all the houses of secondary education
in the Province of Quebec, except the Jesuit College at
Montreal, have sought and obtained this affiliation.
The College of St. Dunstan, Cbarlottetown, Prince
Edward Island, has also secured for its students the
advantages and privileges attached to the examina-
tions for the universitv baccalaureate. To Laval
University are also affiliated the Polytechnic School
of Montreal, the School of Dental Surgery, the School
ot Pharmacy, the French Velerinan- School, and the
Central School of Surveying of Queoec.
Conformably to a decision of the Sacred Congrega-
tion of Propsgitnda, dut«d 1 February, 1876, an ex-
ing
value, several collec-
tions of exotic woods, amooK osiers a very remarkable
collection of woods sold in the English rnarkets, and a
fine collection of artificial fruits and mushrooms. The
herbarium of the University of Quebec contains more
than twelve thousand plants. The soological mu-
cious birds or birds of prey is nearly complete as re-
gards Canadian species, not including several rare
exotic specimens. The entomological collection now
numbers more than fifteen thousand species of insects
from all parts of the world; the numismatic museum,
over eleven thousand coins and medals; the library,
nearly one hundred and fifty thousand volumes.
Students and strangers have access to it for purposes
of study every day except Sunday. The Art Gallery
contains nearly four hundred pictures, many of them
of great value. Among them arc canvases signed by
renowned artists such as Salvator Rosa, Lesucur, Lan-
tranc, Pousain, Van Dyck, Pugct, Vemel, Romanelli,
Albano, Parrocel, Lebrun, etc.
The principal building of the University at Quebec,
generally called Lava! University, iw that in which the
courses in law and arts are held and in which the mu-
seums and the library are located. It is five stories
high and more than three hundred feet long. The
theological faculty resides in a more recent edifice two
hundred and sixty feet long and five stories hi^. ^ It
accommodates over one hundred students, besides
forty professors attached to the establishment. The
natqts of the rectors of the university since its foundac
tioit are as follows; Abb« h. 3. Casault, Mgr E. A.
lAVAHT
49
ULVJJIT
TMchereau, Mgr M. E. M^thot, Mgr T. E. Hame!,
Mgr J. C. K. Laflamme, Mgr O. E. Mathieu, and Abb6
A. Gosselin. Di^ring 190^-09 four hundred and
twenty-one students attended the various faculties,
while the number who followed the courses at Mon-
treal was much larger.
O. E. Mathieu.
Lavant (Lavantina), an Austrian bishopric in the
southern part of Stjrriai suffragan of Salzburg. The
orig^inal seat of the bishopric lay in the eastern part of
Carinthia in the valley of the Lavant. It was here
that Ebeihard 11, Archbishop of Salzbiu^, estab-
lished, 20 Aug., 1212, at St. Anar&, with the consent of
Pope Innocent III and Emperor Frederick II, a col-
Iwate chapter, the canons of which followed the Rule
oTSt. Augustine; its members were chosen from the
cathedral chapter of Salzburg. On account of the
great remoteness and the difficulty of travelling, the
archbishop, about the year 1223. asked Pope Hon-
orius III to allow Jbim to found a oishopric at St. An-
di&. After the pope had had the archbishop's re-
quest examined bv commissioners, and had given his
consent, Eberhard drew up the deed of foundation, 10
May, 1228, wherein he secured the possession of the
episcopal chair for himself and his successors in per-
petuity. He named as first bishop his court chaplain
ulrich, who had formerly been priest of Haus, in
Styria (d. 1257).
In the deed of foundation of the new bishopric, no
boundaries were defined. In a deed of Arcnbishop
Frederick II of Salzburg of 1280, seventeen parishes,
situated partlv in Carinuiia and partly in Styria, were
describea as oelonging to Lavant; the extent ef the
diocese was rather smiul, but the bishops also attended
to the office of vicar-general of the Archbishops of
Salzburg for some scattered districts; they also fre-
quently attended to the office of Vicedom (bishop's
aeputy in secular affairs) at Friesach. The tenth
biuiop. Dietrich Wolfhauer (1318-32), is mentioned
in deeos as Uie first prince-bishop; he was also secre-
tary of Frederick III the Handsome, of Austria, and
was present at the battle of MOhldorf in 1322. Since
the twenty-second bishop, Theobald Schweinbeck
(1446-63), the bishops have borne without intermis-
sion the title of prmce. The following prominent
bishops deserve special mention: the humanist Johann
I von Rott (1468-82), died as Prince-Bishop of Bres-
lau; Geoig II Agrikola (1570-84), who after 1572 was
also at the same time Bishop of Seckau; Georg III
Stob&us von Palmbuig (1584-1618), a worthy pro-
motor of the Counter-Reformation; Maximilian (Ran-
dolph Freiherr von Kienbuig (1654-65), did much to-
wards increasing the financi^ resources of the diocese.
By the new regulations under Emperor Joseph II,
several bishoprics were added to the Diocese of La-
vant. Prince-Archbishop Michael Brigido of Laibach
in 1788 ceded a number of parishes in the southern
part of what is now the Diocese of Lavant; and the
district of Volkermarkt, which was afterwards a^ain
detached, was added to the bishopric at that time.
The present extent of the diocese was brought about
by the circumscription of 1 June, 1859. The valley of
the Lavant and the district of Volkermarkt in Carin-
thia fell to Gurk; in consequence of which the Dis-
trict of Marburg was traxisferred from Seckau to
Lavant; since then the diocese comprises the whole of
aou^em Styria. By the decree of the Congregation of
the Consistory of 20 May, 1857, the see of the bishop
was removed from St. Andrft to Marburg; the parish
church of St. John the Baptist in that place being
erected into a cathedral, and the title "of Lavant
bdn|( preserved. On 4 Sept., 1859, Bishop Anton
Martm. Slomschek (1846-62) made his solemn entry
into Marburg. His suocessors, Jakob Maximilian
Stepischnegg (1862-89), and Michael Napotmk (since
1889) have shown great zeal for the promotion of the
spiritual life by introducing reli^ous orders and found-
ing educational and chariUible institutions and clubs.
But the most beneficial work done for the religious life
of the diocese was that of the diocesan synods, hejd by
Stepischnegg (1883), and by Napotnik, who followed
his example (1896, 1900, 1903, and 1906).
The bishopric is divided into 24 deaneries, and
numbered (1909) 223 parishes, 200 chaplaincies (48
unoccupied), 7 unoccupied offices and benefices, 375
priests engaged in the cure of souls, 39 secular priests
and 53 r^udar cleigy in other positions, 37 clergy
without office, 675 churches and chapels, and 521,896
souls. The cathedral chapter, which is four-fifths
Slovene and one-fifth German, consists of one mitred
cathedral provost, one mitred cathedral dean, and
five canons. The old cathedral chapter, which was
composed of the canons of the Augustinian order, was
dissolved in 1808, and its property was assigned to the
*' Religionsfond'' founded by Joseph II; in 1825 a new
catliedral chapter was provisionally erected, and defin-
itively so in 1847. Besides the actual canons, there are
six stiedls for honorary canons (four temporarily va-
cant). The council is composed of six advisors; the
Srince-bishop is the presiaent. In the theological
iocesan college there are eleven lecturers; the epis-
copal priests' seminarv numbers (1909) 4 classes, with
42 students; the *'Maximilianum-Viktorinum'', an
episcopal seminary for boys, 8 classes, with 80 students.
Eight clerical teachers taught in 7 state schools.
In the diocese there arc the following establish-
ments of religious orders: 1 monastery of Minorites of
Sts. Peter and Paul, at Pettau (founded 1 239) , with nine
fathers; 4 Franciscan monasteries, with 31 fathers, 23
lay brothers, and 5 clerical novices; 1 Capuchin mon-
astery at Cilli (foimded 1611), with 6 fathers, and 4 lay
brothers: 2 mission houses of the Fathers of St. Vin-
cent de JPaul, with 8 priests, and 10 lay brothers; 1
Trappist abbey, Maria Eriosung, at Heichenburg
(founded 1881 by French Trappists), with 21 fathers,
and 48 brothers. Orders of women : Sisters of CTiarity
of St. Vincent de Paul, 82, in 6 establisliments, who
are dedicated to the nursing of the sick; School Sisters
of the Third Order of St. Francis of Assisi, 1 mother-
house, 14 afl&liated houses, 190 sisters; School Sisters
from the mother-house of Algersdorf, Graz, 9, with 1
institution; 1 magdalen asylum, with 17 canonesses,
and 15 lay sisters: Sisters of Mercy of the Holy Cross,
3, with ohe establishment; Sisters of the Teutonic
Order, 9, with one hospital; 1 Carmelite Convent of
Perpetual Adoration (10 sisters). The School Sisters
conduct a training school for female teachers, 1 ly-
ceum, 11 girls' schools, 5 boarding-schools, 6 kinder-
gartens, 2 orphan asylums, 2 schools of domestic
economy, and one home for servant-girls. There are
36 Catholic clubs and confraternities in the diocese,
besides 25 associations for the building and adorn-
ment of churches.
The most prominent ecclesiastical buildings in the
diocese are: the cathedral and parish churcli of St.
John the Baptist, at Marburg, which was begun in
the middle of the twelfth century as a Romanesque
basilica, rebuilt after 1520 in the Gothic style, again
restored after the fire in 1601, and once more in 1885;
the provostship and parish church of St. Georg, at
Pettau, erectea in the Gothic style about 1314; the
abbey and parish church of St. Daniel, at Cilli, dates
from the middle of the sixteenth century; and the
shrine of St. Maria der Wiiste, in the neighbourhood of
Marburg (built 1628), in the baroque style.
Tjlnol, Reihe der Biackofe von Lavant (IQacenfurt, 1841):
Stepischneoo, Georg 111. Stohiiua von Palmburg, FUrstbuchof
von Lavant in Archiv. fQr Kunde osterreichiacher Oeachichlaquel-
Un (1856); QeOa et Statuta Synod. dueceMncB, 1896 (Marbuqi,
1807); Die Zweite Didceaansjfnode (Marburg. 1896); Ecclena
Lavantinm Synodua diacesana 1905 (^larburs* 1^04); Synod^^*
dioBoemna 1906 (Marbuxg. 1907); Ktrchlxchea Verordnungtblatl
far die Lavanter Didcese; Permnialaland de» Bistuma Lavant in
Steiermark Jur daa Jahr 1909 (Marbuif* 1909).
Joseph Lins.
LAVERDIt&E
50
LAVIGEUE
Layerdidre, Charlbs-Honob£, French-Canadian
historian, b. at Chateau-Richer, Province of Quebec,
1826; d. at Quebec, 1873. After his ordination (1851)
he was attached to the Quebec Seminary, where he had
studied the classics and theolofi;y, and he remained
there till his death. He utilizea his varied talents in
teaching belles-lettres, physics, chemistry, mathemat-
ics, music, and drawing. His favourite pursuits were
Canadian history and archaeology. Although his orig-
inal writings were few, including a school history of
Canada and some historical pamphlets, he supervised
the re-editing of several most important works, which
are the very sources of Canadian history. Conspicu-
ous among these are the "Relations des J^suites"
(1858), with erudite and exhaustive analytical tables;
the "Journal des J^suites'* (1871); and finally, the
realization of his most ardent wish, " Les CEuvres de
Champlain" of which he wrote the introduction and
countless annotations of great historical exactness and
value. He often spent a day in verifying a single date
or the spelling of a name. WTien the recently com-
pleted edition was entirely destroyed by fire, Laver-
di^re calmly remarked that some misprints that had
escaped his vigilance might be avoided in a new edi-
tion. His thorough knowledge of plain-song enabled
him to publish a series of liturgical works. He was of
a mild and amiable character, esteemed by all who
knew him. His mastery of Canadian history, espe-
cially the period from 1500 to 1700, gave his assertions
great authority.
Annuaire de VUnxversUf Laval (Quebec, 1874); Faucher
DB St -Maurice, L'AbbS Chanea- Honors Laverdicre (Quebec,
1874).
Lionel Lindsay.
Lay^rendrye, Piehre Gaul/tier de Varennes,
SiEUR de, discoverer of the Canadian West, b. at
Three Rivers, Quebec, 17 Nov., 1685; d. at Montreal,
6 Dec., 1749. His early manhood was passed as a
soldier in the service of France, and he was wounded
on the battlefield of Malplaquet. Later he returned
to his native country and engaged in the fur trade.
As a step towards the exploration of the Pacific, or the
Western Sea as it was then called, he established three
trading posts west of Lake Superior, i. e. Forts St.
Pierre, on Rainy River (1731), St. Charles on the Lake
of the Woods (1732), and Maurepas, at the mouth of
the Winnipeg River (1734). A sincere Christian, and
having at heart his own religious interests as well as
those of his men, he had taken with him Father
Charles M. Mesaiger, a Jesuit, who did not go farther
than the Lake of the Woods, where he was succeeded,
in the summer of 1735, by Father Jean P. Aulneau de
La Touche.
This young priest having temporarily left for the
east (8 June, 1736) with Lavdrendrye's eldest son,
Jean-Baptiste, and nineteen "voyagcurs'*, in quest
of much needed provisions, the entire party was
slain on an island of the Lake of the Woods on the
very day of their departure. Lav6rendrye prudently
resisted the pressing solicitations of the natives, burn-
ing to avenge on the Sioux, the authors of the mas-
sacre, the wrong done to the French. Then, in spite of
his many debts occasioned by explorations and estab-
lishments for which he had no other funds than the
desultory returns of the fur trade in an unorganized
coimtry, he went on with the task entrusted to his
patriotism bv the French court. On 24 September,
1 738, he reached the exact spot where now stands Win-
nipeg, and, ascending the Assiniboine to the present
site of Portage la Prairie, he built there a post which
he caUed Fort La Reine. Thence he made for the south,
and by the end of 1738 he was at a Mandan village on
\he Upper Missouri. Early in the spring of the follow-
ing year, he sent north one of his sons, who discovered
Luces Manitoba, Dauphin, Winnipegosis, and Bour-
boni and erected a fort on Lake Daupnin. Meantime
La v^ndiye had had to repair to Montreal to ocmie to
an imderstanding with his creditors. On his return
to the west he took with him the Jesuit Father Claude
G. Coquart, the first priest to see the confluence of the
Assiniboine with the Red River and reside at what is
now Portage la Prairie (1741). In the spring of 17^
he commissioned two of his sons, Pierre Gauthier, dii
the Chevalier, and Fran9ois, to explore the country as
far west as they could possibly go. In the company of
savages who had never seen a white man, thev reached,
after many perils, one of the spurs of the Rocky
Moimtains, which the^ partially scaled (12 Jan.,1743).
The desertion of their native guides, terrified at the
unexpected discovery of a village of their traditional
enemies, alone prevented further progress. The ex-
plorers must have penetrated to a point in the north-
west comer of what is now Montana. Lav4rendr>'e
was naturally endowed, it is true^ with inuomi-
table energy, but he was struggling against too
heavy odds. Dragged before the law courts by
the Montreal merchants whom he could not pay,
and accused by others of thinking more of filthy lucre
than of discoveries, and ill sustained by the Paris
authorities, he had to give up his work (1744), after
consecrating to it the thirteen best years of his life.
Gradually his worth became recognised at Paris, and
honours were bestowed upon him oy the French king.
He was on the eve of resuming his explorations when
he died, and was buried in the vault of Notre-Dame,
Montreal.
An upright man and a good Christian, Lav^ren-
drye was considerably more than a mere explorer.
No less than six fur -trading stations attested to
his efficiency as an organizer. On the other hand,
the numerous personnel of " voyageurs" whom these
posts necessitated eventuallv gave rise to that won-
derful race, the M^tis, which was in after years to
glay such an important part in the history of Central
anada.
DuoAS, V Quest Canadien (Montreal, 1896); Laitt, Path'
Anders of the West (Toronto, 1904): Prud'uommb. Pierre O. de
Varennes, Sieur de La Virendrye (()ttawa, 1905); Burpub, The
Search for the Western Sea (Toronto, 1908) { Marsh, Where the
Buffalo roamed (Toronto. 1908) ; Moricb, Dtctionnaire historioue
des Canadiens et des Mitts Francais de V Quest (Quebec. 190b):
Idbm, History of the Catholic Church in Western Canada (To-
ronto, 1910).
A. 0. MORICE.
Layerlochdre, Jean-Nicolas, missionary, b. at St.
Georges d'Esp^rance, Grenoble, France, 6 Dec., 1812;
d. at Temiscaming, Canada, 4 Oct., 1884. He began
his religious life as a lay brother in the Congregation of
the Oblates, but feeling called to evangelize the natives
of Canada, he was allowed to studv for the priesthood,
and was ordained 5 May, 1844, at L'Acadie^ near Mon-
treal. He was sent in succession to Abittibbi, Moose
Factory, and other posts on Hudson Bay, where he
laboured for the conversion of the native tribes.
Alone, or in collaboration with others, he published a
number of devotional books in Indian. Btis letters in
the ** Annales de la Propagation de la Foi" attracted
wide attention, and his reputation as a zealous mis-
sionary spread throughout Catholic Europe to such an
extent that he was ultimately recognized as the Apos-
tle of Hudson Bay. A stroke of palsy intemiptea his
labours in the course of 1851.
Soullerin, LePhre Laverlochhre (Paris, s. d.); Annales de la
Propagation die la Foi, passim.
A. G. MoRicE.
LayiaUe, Peteb Joseph. See Louisville, Dio-
cese OF.
Lavigerie, Chables-Martial-A'llemand, French
cardinal, b. at Huire near Bayonne, 13 Oct., 1825; d.
at Algiers, 27 Nov., 1892. He studied at the diocesan
seminary of Larressore, then went to St. Nicolas-du-
Chardonnet in Paris, and finally to St. Sulpice. Or-
dained On 2 June, 1849, he devoted the first years bf
LAViaiBIS
51
LAVianuE
his pieethood to higher studies at the newly founded laboura mnged far beyond the vast teiritoriee placed
Ecdle dee Carmee, takmg at the Sorbonne the doetoi^ under hia jurisdiction. Klein (Le Caidinal Lavigerie,
ateaoflett«re (1850), and of theology (1^53), to which p. 2B8) deecribes minutely the many ways in which he
be added lat«r the Roman doctorates of civil and Krved the best interests of France in, and out of; Af-
conon law. Appointed chaplain ot Sainte-Genevi^e riea. He will, however, be beat remembered by the
in 1853, aasociatc ptofeesor of church history at the leading rflle he played in furthering the policy of Leo
Sorbonne in 1SS4, and titular of the chair in lf!57, XIII with regard to French Catholica, and in pro-
lavigerie did not confine his actii-ity to his chap- moling the anti-slavery movement.
laJncy or chair, but took a leading part in the orpini- Tinctured with tJaliicanism through hia early asBO-
zation of the students' eerclea catholiquee, and of ciation with the Sorbonne, Lavigerie modified hia
I'tEuvre desfeoles d'Orient, Ah direct or of the latter viewaduringhisstay at Rome, and his attitude at the
be collected large nums for the benefit of the Oriental Vatican Council is fully expressed by the promise he
Christiana persecuted by the Druses, and even went to made his clergy " to be with Peter ", When Leo XIII,
Syria to BuperintendpereonflUy the distribution of the by hia Encychcala "Nobihasima Gallorum gens" of 8
funda (ISflO). His bnlliant Befvices were rewarded by Feb., 1884, and "Sapientia! ffitflmip" nf 3 Feb.. 1890.
rapid promotion, first in 1861 to the Roman Rota, and directed the French Catholics
be generously pxit aside other
poUtical aJfihationa and again
■■waH with Peter". A groat
sensation was created when
at Algiers, on 12 Nov., 1890,
he proclaimed before a vast
Bsaemblagc of French ofGciala
the obligation for French Cath-
olics of sincerely adhering to
the republican form of gov-
ernment. The famous " toast
d'AJger" waa the object ot
harsh criticism and even vitu-
peration from the monarchist
element. With hia usual
vehemence Cardinal Lavigerie
anawered by his " Lettre k ua
catht^tque", in which he not
only impugned theprctenders
— the Comtc de Chambord,
the Comte Ue Paris, and'
Prince Niipoli5on— but even
hinted that monarchy was an
outgrown institution. In this
he may have gone too tar, but
in the main point it was
proved later by Cardinal Ram-
polla's letter of 28 NovenJDer,
IS90. and Pope Leo's Encycli-
cal "Inter innumeraa" ot 16
Feb., IK92, that Lavigerie had
been the aclf-sacriticing
apokesman of the pope.
The auppression of slaveiy
had been the subject of Lavi-
^ric's first pastoral letter at .Algiers. When Leo
XIII in his Encyclical tc the bishops of Brazil (5 May,
1-S88) appealed tn the world in bchalt of the slaves, the
Primate of Carthage was tile first to respond. In
_. in which was to bring his heroic missionarieaintri the spite of age and infirmities he visited the capitala of
very heart of the Dark Continent, and reault in the Europe, teihng of the horrors of -African slavery and
erection of five vicariates Apostolic in Equatorial Af- urging tlie formation of anti-Hlavery societie.s. The
rica. Tn thoae many burdens— made heavier by the international "Conference" of Brussels, 1890. prac-
eonae^uencee (felt even in Algeria) of the Franco- tically adopted I^avigerie's suggestions as to the lioat
Prussian war, the withdrawal of government finan- means of achieving the desired abolition, and the
lupport, and the threatened extension to the "CongrSsde Paris", called the aame year by the car-
' ' ' dinal himself, ahowed great enthusiasm and verified
Lavigerie's saying: " pour a:iuvcr I'Afrique int^rieure,
il faut sou lever la colore du monde."
After the "toast d'.\lger" and the "Congres de
'"''■'■ health, relired to .Al-
„ - — - ^ — __ ,. saddened by theoftcu
iate. Cardinal in 1881, he became the first primiite ot unjust criticism of hia cherished jMuject^the " fteres
the ne«dv restored See of Carthage in 1«84, retaining plonnicrs du Sahara" — the death of many of his inis-
meanwhite the See of Algiers. " I shall not upvk one sionaries, and, alwve all, the passing ot Ugaiidu under
ifay's re-st" waa the rrmark of Lavigrrie wlicn he tlie control of the sectarian Imperial Ea.-it-.\frican
landed on African soil. He carrie<l onl lluit piomisc ('ompany. He die<l at .Algiers as prepamtiims were .
to the letter. While Notre-Dame tl'.Afrique at Al- being made tor the twenty-fifth anniversary of hia
gfm. the BaBilica of St. Ixiuta at (^irthage, and the -African episcopate. The daily prea.t throughout the
Cathedralof St. Vincent de Paulnl I'lini.s will stand as world eulogiiud liim. who had forbidden all eulogies
woounwuts of his prodigiuua activity in Africa, his at hia tuneral, and the "Moniteur du Rome" ti.«i.'<-^'$
a yearn later to the See of
Nancy. From the lieginning
ot hia episcopate he displa^i'ed
that genius of organiialion
which is the characteristic of
his life. The foundation of
collegtt at Vic, Blamont, and
Lun^ville; the establishment
at Nancy of a higher institute
(or clenca and of a Maison
d'^tudiants for law students;
the organiiation of the episco-
pal curia: the pubUcaUon of
the " Recu^ des Ordomiaiices
^piacopales, atatuta et rigle-
menta du diocdse de Nancy",
were but the first fruita ^ a
Eromi^ng episcopate, when
e was transferred to Algiers
on37UAidi, 1867.
.\a Aichbiihop of Algiers he
promptly revened the pcriiey
of neutrality towards the Hoe-
Icms imposed upon his pred-
ecessors by the French au-
ttiorities, and inaugurated a
strong movement of assimila-
tion and. converaion. With
the help of the White Fathers
and 01 the White Sistem,
whom he founded for the pur-
pose, he established and
maintained at great coxt
orphan asylums, iniluatria!
srfiofds, boBpitals, and agricul-
tural settlements, wherein the .Arabs could l)e brought
underthe influence of the {iofliM'l. Appointed as early
as 1868 Apostolic Delegale of H'pstern Sahara and the
Sudan, he began in 1S74 the work nl southward expan-
African colonies of anti-religious legi.station passed
France— lavigerie added other eares: the administra-
tion of the Diocese of Constantina, 1S71; the founda-
tion at St. Anne of Jerusalem of a clerical seminary
tor the Oriental missions, 1378, and, after tljooccupa>- Paris", Ijavigerie, broken
tionof Tunis bj^ France, the government of tliat vicar- giera.
K (Parii, ISSSl.
, IBOSI.udnKii
Bummariied his Ufa by sajin^ that, in a few y«an of
incredibla activitv, he had laid out woric for geaera-
tiona. An able scnolar and an orator of the first order,
Lavigerie was also a. writer. Beaides some scholastic
productions destiuad for his pupils at the Ecole des
Cannes (184H), we have from his pen a doctorate
thesis: "EBsaisurl'ficolechr^tienned'Edesse" (Paris,
1850); several contributions to the '-' Bibilotb^que
pieuse et instructive & I'usage de la jeunesae chj^
tienne" (Paris^ 1853); "Ezpos^ des erreurs doctrin-
aiee du Jana^niame" (Paris, 18CS), an abridgment of
his leesons at the 8orbonne; "Decreta concjlii pro-
vincialis Algeriensis in Africa" (1873); a large num-
ber of discourses, pamphlets, or reports, some of which
were embodied m the two volumes of his "(Euvrea
choisies" (Paris, 1834); " Documents pourlafoodation
de I'ceuvre antiesclavadste " (St. Cloud, 1889), etc.
BauhiIIITi, Le Cardinal Lamgirit iPaiia, 1896 and ISBR):
Kleih, Lt Cardinal Lavittrit rt tta amra (FAfrtfut (Toara,
18DI and 1897); de LAcaysE. Lt Card, liavietHt In Lt Comt-
madanl [Sept.. 1900): DE Coucville, Lt Cardinal Lavigiria
iPam. 1905) -.P tan, U Cardinal lAivigirit. la Ti
dottrint in Bioira SactrdolaUi CatUrmpommt*
Cbubsenmiyeii, Vingl-cinii annirt d'tjiiicoait
S« atw PioLrr, Let Mutiont d'Afrimu (Pu^ IBOS),
poriwlicfili H tte RuUHin dra Munotu d-Algtr. the Mi*linu
d' Afriipie dtt Pirn BlatKM, the Buli^in official d* la SacCtUanti-
tKlavagiite dt France,
3. F. SOLUBB.
Lavigne, Chables. See Trincomali, Diocksb or.
Lavoisior, ANToiNE-LAintENT, chemist, philoao-
pher, economist; h. in Paris, 26 August, 1743; guillo-
tined 8 May, 1794. He wwi the son of Jean-Antoine
Lavoisier, a lawyer of distinction, and Emilie Punctis,
who belonged to a rich and influential family, and who
died when Ant^lne-Laurent was five years old. His
early years were most carefully guarded by his aunt,
'Mile Constance Punctis, to whom he was devotedly at-
tached; and through lier asaiijtance he was secured the
advantage of a good education. He attended the Col-
Uge Mazarin, which was noted for its faculty of science,
and here he studied mathematics and astronomy
under Abb£ dc la Caillc, who had built an observatory
at the college after having won renown by^neasuring
an arc of the meridian at the Cape of Good Hope,
by determining the length of the eeoond's pendulum,
and by his catalogue of the stars. Young Lavoisier
also received instruction from Bernard de Jussieu in
botany, fromOucttardingcologvand mineralogy, and
from Rouelle in chemistry. In logic he was inmienced
by the writings of Abb^ de Condillac, as he fre<)uently
aeknowledRca in his "Traits EltoentairedeChimie.
He began hia career by entering the profession of tho
law, but soon abandoned this to return to his favourite
studies of chemistry and roineralogy. His first scien-
tific communication to the Academy was upon the
composition and properties of gypsum and pister of
Paris, and this is to-day a classic and a valuable eon-
tribution to our knowledge of crystallixing cements.
He early learned to look to the balance for teip in the
definition of facta, and found its great value particu-
larly when he began to study the phenomena wo now
know under the terms combustion or oxidaOioa, aad
reduction or deoxidation.
The most advanced chemical philosophers of his day
taught that there was something in eveiy combustible
substance which was driven out by the burning, that
the reduction of an oxide of a metal to the metallic
state meant the absorption of this substance or princi-
ple, which Stahl haa called phlogiston. Lavoisier
studied the teaching of the phlogistonists, but having
also a mastery of physics and of pneumatic experi-
mentation he became dissatisfied with their theory.
He seised upon two important discoveries, that of
oxygen by Priestley (1774), and that of the compound
nature of water by Cavendish (1781) and by a mas-
lerly stroke of gcmus reconciled disoordant appearances
Sfia threw the light of day upon every phase of t^e
world's reacting elements. His theory, for a long
time thereafter known as the antifdiknsts' tJieoiy,
was really the reverae of that of the prntwiBtonista,
' "'raply that something pondoabk wasab-
in the weight of a metallic substance when burned
was equal to the decrease in the weight of the air
used; that most substances thus bummg were eon-
verted into acids, or. metals into metallic oxides.
Priestley had called this absorbed subetance or gas de-
phlogisticated air; Scheele called it empyreal air; I*-
voisier "air strictly pure "or "very respirable air" as
distinct from the other and non-respirable constituent
of tbeatmospbere. Later, he called it oxygen because
it was acid-making (ifi't, and yftniiat).
So great a change ensued in experimental chemistiy,
and in theory and nomenclature, and such a mass Of
facts was co-ordi-
nated and ex*
plained by Lavoi-
sier that he has
been justly called
"the father of
modem chemis-
try".
He was the first
to explain defi-
nitely, the forma-
tion of acids and
salts, to enunciate
the principle of
conservation as
set forth by chem-
ical equations, to
develop quantita-
tive analysis, gas
analysis, and cal-
orimetry, and to
iNE-L*oaiNr Latoisieb
creat« a consistent
system of chemical
nomenclature. He made deep researches in oiganie
chemistry, and studied the metabolism of organic com-
pounds. His memoirs and contributions to the Acad-
emy were of extraordinary number and variety. His
life in other fields was romantic, full of interest and a
■ocial triumph, but sadly destined to end in tragedy.
Happily manied, and having (he aid of his wife even
to the extent of employing her in the prosecutbn and
recording of his expenmente, he drew around hie fire-
tude and to his libraiy at the State Gunpowder Works
a circle of brilliant French savants and distinguished
travellers from other lands. Early in his career he
felt the need of increasing his resources to meet tlie
necessities caused by his scientific experiments. With
this in view he Iwcame a deputy /ermier-gfni'ral,
whereby his income was much incrcssed. But join-
ing this association of State- protected tax-collectors
Old V prepared the way for many years of bitt«r attack
and a share of the public odium attaching to their
privilege. He headed many public comnussions ro-
Suiring scientific investigation, he aimed at bringing
ranee to such a state of agricultural and industritu
expansion that the peasant and the working-man
would have profitable employment and the small
landed proprietor relief froKi burdensome taxes
hitherto purposely increased to make grants to
corrupt favourites of the Court, Having incurred
the hatred of Marat he found himself, together with
his fellow /(Tmterj-ffinfraJ, growing more and more
unpopular during the terriole days of the Revo-
lution. Finally in 1764 ho was imprisoned with
twenty-seven others. A farcical trial speedUy fol-
lowed, in which he was charged with "incivism" in
that he had damaged public health by adding water to
tobacco. He and hia companions, amongst them
Jacques Alexis Paulie, bis lathei^in-law, were con-
L4W
53
L4W
denmed to death. Lavoisier, who was devotedly at-
tached to him, was obliged to stand and see M.
Paulie's head fall under the guillotine, 8 Mav, 1794.
Lavoisier was then 51 years old. His biographers say
little as to his last hours. Grimaux relates that all the
oondemned men were silent and carried themselves
with dignity and courage in the face of death. What
Lavoisier's sentiments were can be assumed from a
passage in Grimaux (p. 53) who had been the first
biographer to obtain access to Lavoisier's papers.
"lUised in a pious family which had given many
priests to the Cnurch, he liad held to his beliefs. To
Edward Kins, an English author who had sent him a
oontroversiafwork, he wrote, ' You have done a noble
thing in upholding revelation and the authenticity of
the Holy Scriptures, and it is remarkable that you are
using for the defence precisely the same weapons
whidi were once used for the attack."' His goods
and chattels and all his scientific instruments were
listed and appropriated on the day followinj^ his exe-
eution, though Mme Lavoisier succeeded m having
tome restored to her. She was childless and long sur-
vived him.
TtoBFB in Contemporary Review^ Antoine LaurerU Lavoisier
Cpio.^ 1800); Gbimadx, Lawiaier 174^1791 (Paris, 1888);
Tsoam, Pneatley, CavendUh, Lavoieier ana La Revoltdion
Ckimitue in Brit. Aaeoe. Address (Leeds, 1890); Bebthblot,
La B€9olviion Ckimique (Paris. 1880); Kopp, Entdedeung der
Qmme an der neueren Zeit (1874) ; Hofbb, Histoire de la Chimie,
U, 400; TON Mbtvb, Qeschichte der Chemie (Leipsis. 1888);
Lavcukib, Mimoirts de Chimie (1805); (Eavres de Lavoisier,
wibftilMiH by the Ministiy of Public Instruction (Paris, 1864-8);
DuMASf Lepims sur la Phuosophie Chimioue,
C. F. McKenna.
^ — ^I. CJoNCEPT OF Law. — A. By law in the
widest sense is understood that exact guide, rule, or
authoritative standard by which a being is moved to
•etaon or hdd back from it. In this sense we speak of
law even in reference to creatures that are incapable of
thinking or willing and to inanimate matter. The
Book Of Proverbs (ch. viii) says of Eternal Wisdom
that it- was i^resent when (jod prepared the heavens
and when with a certain law and compass He en-
elosed the depths, when He encompassed the sea with
its boimds and set a law to the waters that they should
not pass their hmits. Job (xxviii, 25 soq.) lauds the
wisdom of (}od Who made a we^ht for tne winds and
weighed the vraiter by measure, Who gave a law for the
lain and a way for the souncUng storms.
Duly experience teaches that all things are driven
l^ their own nature to assume a determinate, con-
stant attitude. Investigators of the natural sciences
hold it to be an established truth that all nature is
ruled by universal and constant laws and that the ob-
ject of the natural sciences is to search out these laws
and to make plain their reciprocal relations in all di-
rections. All bodies are subject, for example, to the
law of inertia, i. e. they persist in the condition of rest
or motion in which they may be until an external
cause changes this condition. Kepler discovered the
kws according to which the planets move in elliptical
orbits around the sun, Newton the law of gravitation
by which all bodies attract in direct proportion to
their mass and inversely as to the sc^uare of the di^
tanoe between them. The laws which govern light,
heat, and electrioitv are known to-day. (!liemistr^,
biology, and physiolo^ have also their laws. Tlie sci-
entific tonnuuB in which scholars express these laws
are only laws in so far as they state what processes
actually take place in the objects under consideration,
for law implies a practical rule according to which
things act. These scientific formulae exert of them-
arives no influence on things; they 8hnd|y state the
eondition in which these ^ings are. Tne laws of
nature are nothing but the forces and tendencies to a
deiominate, constant method of activity implanted
fay the Creator in the nature of thin^, or the unvary-
mg, homogeneous activity itself which is the effect of
tiiafc tendency. The word law is used in this latter
sense when It Is asserted that a natural law has been
changed or suspended by a miracle, f^or the miracle
does not change the nature of things or their constant
tendencv; the Divine power simply prevents the
things from producing their natural effect, or uses
them as means to attaming an effect surpassing their
natural powers. The natural tendency to a deter-
minate manner of activity on the part of creatures
Uiat have neither the power to think nor to will can be
called law for a twofold reason: first, because it forms
the decisive reason and the controlling guide for the
activities of such creatures, and consequently as re-
gards irrational creatures fulfils the task which de-
volves upon law in the strict' sense as regards rational
beings; and further, because it is the expression and
the effect of a rational lawgiving will. Law is a prin-
ciple of regulation and must. Tike every regulation,
be traced l^k to a thinking and wiUing being. This
thinking and willing being is the Oeator and Regula-
tor of all things, God Himself. It may be said that
the natural forces and tendencies placed in the nature
of creatures, are themselves the law, the permanent
expression of the will of the Eternal Overseer Who in-
fluences creatures and guides them to their appointed
ends, not by merely external influences but by their
innate inclinations and impulses.
B. In a stricter and more exact sense law is spoken
of only in reference to free beings endowed with rea-
son. But even in this sense the expression law is used
sometimes with a wider, sometimes with a more re-
stricted meaning. By law are at times understood all
authoritative standards of the action of free, rational
beings. In this sense the rules of the arts, poetry,
grammar, and even the demands of fashion or etiquette
are called laws. This is, however, an inexact and ex-
aggerated mode of expression. In the proper and
strict sense laws are the moral norms of action, oinding
in conscience, set up for a public, self-governing com-
munity. This is probably the original meaning of the
word law J whence it was gradually transferred to the
other kinds of laws (natural laws, laws of art). Law
can in this sense be defined with St. Thomas Acjuinas
(Summa Theol., I-II, Q. xc, a. 4) as: A regulation in
accordance with reason promulgated by the head of
a community for the sake of the common welfare.
Law is first a regulation, i. e. a practical principle,
which aims at ordering the actions of the members oi
the conmiunity. To obtain in any community a uni-
fied and systematized co-operation of all there must
be an authority that has the right to issue binding
rules as to the manner in which the members of the
community are to act. The law is such a binding
rule and draws its constraining or obligatory force
from the will of the superior. Both because the su-
perior wills and so far as he wills, is law binding. Not
every regulation of the superior, however, is binding,
but only those in accordance with reason. Law is the
criterion of reasonable action and must, therefore,
itself be reasonable. A law not in accordance with
reason is a contradiction. That the Divine laws must
of necessity be reasonable and just is self-evident, for
the will of God is essentially holy and just and can
only command what is in harmony with the Divine
wisdom, justice, and holiness. Human laws, how-
ever, must be subordinate to the Divine law, or at
least, must not contradict it, for human authority is
only a participation in the supreme Divine power of
government, and it is impossible that God could give
uman beings the right to issue laws that are unrea-
sonable and in contravention of His will. Further,
law must be advantageous to the coinmon welfare.
This is a universally acknowledged principle. That
the Divine laws are advantageous to the common wel-
fare needs no proof. The ^lorv of the Creator is,
truly, the final goal of the Divine laws, but God desirei
to attain this glory by the happiness of mankind.
Human laws must also be useful to th^ c/c^s^eii^^nr^
LAW
54
LAW
fare. For laws are imposed upon the community as
such, in order to guide it to its goal; this goal, how-
ever, is the common welfare. Further, laws are to
reeulate the members of the commumty. This can
only come about bv all striving to attain a common
goal. But this goal can be no other than the conunon
welfare. Consequently all laws must in some way
serve the common welfare. A law plainly useless or
a fortiori injurious to the community is no true law.
It could have in view only the benefit of private indi-
viduals and would consequently subordinate the com-
mon welfare to the welfare of mdividuals, the higher
to the lower.
Law therefore is distinguished from a command or
precept by this essential application to the common
welfare. Every law is a form of command but not
every command is a law. Every binding rule which a
superior or master eives to his subordinates is a com-
mand; the command, however, is only a law when it is
imposed upon the community for the attainment of
the common welfare. In addition, the command can
be given for an individual person or cose. But law is
a permanent, authoritative standard for the commu-
nity, and it remains in force until it is annulled or set
aside. Another condition of law is that it should pro-
ceed from the representative of the highest public au-
thority, Ix; this a single person, several persons, or
finally the totality of all tne members of the commu-
nity, as in a democracy. For law is, as already said, a
binding rule which regulates the community for the
attainment of the common welfare. This regulation
pertains either to the whole community itself or to
those persons in the highest position upon whom de-
volves the guidance of the whole community. No
order or unity would be possible if private individ-
uals had the Iil>erty to impose binding rules on others
in regard to the common welfare. This right must be
reserved to the supreme head of the community. The
fact that law is an emanation of the liighest authority,
or is issued by the presiding officer of the community
by virtue of his authority, is what distinguishes it from
mere counsels, requests, or admonitions, which presup-
pose no power of jurisdiction and can, moreover, oe
addressed by private persons to others and even to
superiors. Laws, finally, must be promulgated, i. e.
mode known to all. Law in the strict sense is im-
posed upon rational, free beings as a controlling j^ide
for their actions: but it can be such only when it has
been proclaimecl to those subject to it. From this
arises the general axiom: Lex non promulaata non ohli-
QcU—^ law which has not been promulgated is not
uinding;. But it is not absolutely necessary to pro^
xnulgation that the law be made known to every indi-
vidual; it suffices if the law be proclaimed to the com-
munity as such, so that it can come to the notice of
all members of the community. Besides, all laws do
not require the same kind of promulgation. At pres-
ent, laws are considered sufficiently promulgated when
they are published in official journals (S&te or im-
perial gazettes, law records, etc.).
In addition to the moral law as treated above, it is
customary to speak of moral laws in a wider sense.
Thus it is said it is a moral law that no one is willingly
deceived, that no one lies without a reason, that every
one strives to learn the truth. But it is only in an un-
real and figurative sense that these laws are called
moral. They are in reality only the natural laws of
the human will. For although the will is free, it re-
mains subject to certain inborn tendencies and laws,
within which bounds alone it acts freely, and these
laws are called moral only because they bear on the
activities of a free will. Therefore they are not ex-
pressed bv an imperative "must". They merely
state that by reason of inborn tendencies, men are ac-
customed to act in a ffiven way, and tliat such laws
are observed even by those who have no knowledge of
them.
To understand still better the significance of moral
law in the strict sense, henceforth the sole sense
intended in this article, two conditions of such law
should be considered. It exists first in the intellect
and will of the lawgiver. Before the lawgiver issues
the law he must apprehend it in his mind as a practi-
cal principle, and at the same time perceive that it is a
reasonable standard of action for his subjects and one
advantageous to the common welfare. He must then
have the will to make the observance of this principle
obligatory on those imder him. Finally, he must
make known or intimate to those under him this prin-
ciple or authoritative standard as the expression of
his will. Strictly construed, legislation in the active
sense consists in this last act, the command of the su-
perior to the inferiors. This command is an act of the
reason, but it necessarily presupposes the aforesaid
act of the will and receives from the latter its entire
obligatory force. The law, however, does not attain
this obligatory force until the moment it is made
known or proclaimed to the community. And this
brings us to the point that law can be considered ob-
jectively, as it exists apart from the lawgiver. At this
stage law exists either in the mind of the subjects or in
any permanent token which preserves the memoiy of
it, e. g. OS found in a collection of laws. Such out-
ward tokens, however, are not absolutely necessary to
law. God has written the natural moral law, at least
in its most general outlines, in the hearts of all men,
and it is otjiigatory without any external token.
Further, an external, permanent token is not abso-
lutely necessary for human laws. It suffices if the
law be made known to the subjects, and such knowl-
edge can be attained by oral tradition.
II. Obligation Lmposed by Law.— Law (in the strict
sense) and command are pre-eminently distinguishexl
from other authoritative standards of action, inasmuch
as they imply obligation. Law is a bond imposed
upon the subjects by which their will is bound or in
some way brought under compulsion in regard to the
performance or the. omission of definite actions.
Aristotle, therefore, said long ago that law has a com-
pelling force. And St. Paul (Rom., xiii, 1 sqq.)
teaches that we are bound to obey the ordinances of
the authorities not only through fear but also for con-
science' sake. In what then does this obligation
which law imposes upon us consist? Modem ethical
systems which seek to construct a moraUty indepen-
dent of God and religion, are here confronted by an in^
explicable riddle. The utmost paina have been taken
to construct a true obligation without regard to God.
According to Kant our reason itself is the final source
of obligation, it obliges us of itself, it is nomothetic
and autonomous, and the absolute form in which it
commands us is tlie categorical imperative. We are
obliged to fulfil the law omy on account of itself or be-
cause it is the law of our reason; to do something be-
cause another has commanded us is not moral, even
should this other be God. This view is entirely un-
tenable. We do not owe obedience to the laws of
Church and State because we bind ourselves thereto,
but because their superior authority obliges us. The
child owes obedience to its parents not because it en-
gages so to do but because the authority of the par-
ents obliges it. Whoever asserts that man can bind
only himself, strikes at the root of all authority and
asserts the principle of anarchism. Authority is the
ri^ht to issue to others binding, obligatory regulations.
Whoever maintains that none can put more than
himself under obligation denies, thereby, all authority.
What is said of human authority is equally valid of the
Divine authority. We owe adoration, obedience, and
love to God, not because we engage so to do, but
because God obliges us by His commands. The as-
sertion that to do something because God has com-
manded us is heteronomy (subjection to the law of
another) and therefore not moral, implies in principlt
ULW 55 LAW
the deetructioQ of all religion, which in its essence rests tions. This conoept originally arose only in regard to
upon the subjection of the creature to his Creator. actions which were quickly followed by external pun-
The adherents of the Kantian autonomy can also ishments. Gradually, by association of ideas, it was
be asked whether man binds himself of necessity or also connected with other actions imtil then per-
voluntarily? If voluntarilyi then he can at any formed or avoided purely on account of their natural
moment annul this obligation; conseauently, in a consequences. Through evolution, howaver, he goes
practical sense, no obligation exists. If of necessity, on to say, the idea of compulsion, owing only to con-
the question arises whence comes this necessiW to fusion or false generalization, tends to disappear and
bind oneself unconditionally? To this question Kant eventually is found only in rare cases. Spencer
has no answer to give. He refers us to an undemon- claimed to have found, even to-day, here ana there
strable and incomprehensible necessity. He says: men who regularly*do good and avoid evU without any
*'A11 human reason is incapable of explaining how idea of compulsion. Most modem writers on ethics, who
pure reason may be practical (imposing obligation), do not holcl to a positive Christian point of view, adopt
. . . Thus, it is true, we do not comprehend the prac- these Spencerian ideas, e. g. Laas, von Gizycki, Paul-
tical, unconditioned necessity of the moral imperative, sen, Leslie, Fouill^, and many ot)}ers. Spencer and
but we do, however, comprehend its incomprenensibil- his followers are nevertheless wrong, for their explana-
ity, which is all that can, m fairness, be demanded from tion of duty rests on entirely imtenable premises. It
a philosophy that seeks to reach the principles which presupposes that the animal has already a conscience,
mark the limit of human reason'' [/'Grundleg. zur that man does not differ essentially from the animal,
Metaphys. der Sitten", ed. Hartenst«in, IV (1838), that he has gradually developed from a form of ani-
91-93]. Kant, who without hesitation sets aside sil mal, that he possesses no essentially higher spiritual
Christian mysteries, in this way imposes upon us in powers, etc. Moreover, their explanation of duty is
philosophy a mystery of his own invention. Kant's meaningless. No one will assert of a man that he acts
views contain a germ of truth, which, however, they from duty if he abstains from certain actions through
distort until it can no longer be recognized. In order fear of police penalties, or the anger of his fellow-men.
that a human law may be obligatory upon us we must Besides, what is the meaning of an obligation that is
have in ourselves from the beginninjz the conviction only an accidental product of evolution, destined to
that we are to do good and avoid evil, that we are to disappear with the progress of the latter, and for dis-
obey rightful authority, etc. But the further ques- regarding which we are responsible to no superior?
tion now arises, whence do we receive this conviction? In contiast with these modem and untenable hv-
From God, our Creator. Just as our whole being is an potheses the Christian theistic conception of the world
image of Grod, so also is our reason with its powers and explained long since the origin and nature of duty in a
inborn tendencies an image of the Divine Reason, and fully satisfactory manner. From eternity there was
our cognitions which we involuntarily form in con- present to the Spirit of God the plan of the govern-
sequence of natural tendency are a participation in ment of the world which He had resolved to create,
the Divine wisdom, — are, it may be said, a streaming This plan of government is the eternal law (lex aterna)
in of the Divine light into the created reason. This is, according to which God guides all things towards their
indeed, not to be so understood as though we had in- final goal: the jglorifying of God and the eternal happi-
nate ideas, but rather that the ability and inclination ness of mankind. But the Creator does not move
are inborn in us by virtue of which we spontaneously creatures, as men do, simply by external force, by
form universal concepts and principles, both in the pressure, or impact, and the like, but h}r tendencies
theoretical and practical order, and easily discern that and impulses which He has implanted in creatures
in these practic^ed principles the will of the Supreme and, what is more, in each one according to itis indi-
Director of all things manifests itself. • vidual nature. He guides irrational creatures by
The Kantian philosophy has now but few adherents; blind impulses, inclimitions, or instincts. He can-
most champions of independent ethics seek to explain
the origin of duty by experience and development.
Typical of writers on ethics of this school are the which in the act of creation He im{)l
opinions of Herbert Spencer. This philosopher of man heart. As soon as man attains to the use of
evolution believed that he had discovered already in reason he forms, as already indicated, on account of
animals, principally in dogs, evidences of conscience, innate predispositions and tendencies, the most gen-
especially the beginnings of the consciousness of dut^, eral moral principles, e. g. that man is to do good and
the idea of obligation. This consciousness of duty is avoid evil, that man is to commit no injustice, etc.
further developed in men by the accumulation of ex- He also easily understands that these commands do
periences and inheritance. Duty presents itself to us not depend on his own volition but express the will of
as a restraint of our actions. There are, however, se v^ a higher power, which regulates and guides all things,
eral varieties of such restraints. The inner restraint is By these commands (the natural moral law) man
developed by induction, inasmuch as we discern by re- shares in a rational manner in the eternal law; they
peated experience that certain actions have useful, are the temporal expression of the eternal, Divine law.
others injurious results. In this way we are attracted The natural moral law is also the foundation and root
to the one, uid frightened away from the other, of the obligation of all positive laws. We recognize
Added to this is the external restraint, the fear of evil that we cannot violate the natural moral law, and the
results or punishments which threaten us from with- positive laws that are rooted in it, without acting in
out and are threefold in form. In the earliest stageis opposition to the will of God, rebelling against our
of development man has to abstain from actions Creator and highest Master, offending Him, turning
through fear qf the anger of uncivilized associates away from our final end, and incurrmg the Divine
(social sanction). , At a nigher stage man must avoid judgment. Thus man feels himself to be always and
many actions, because such would be punished by a ever^nvhere bound, without losing his freedom in a
powerful and bold associate who has succeeded in physical sense, to the order appomted him by God.
making himself chief (state sanction). Finally, we He can do evil but he ought not. If of his own will he
have in addition the fear of the spirits of the dead, es- violates God's law he brings guilt upon himself and
pecially of the dead chiefs, who, it was believed, lin- deserves punishment in the eyes of the all-wise, all-
gered near and still inflicted punishment upon many holy, and absolutely just God. Obligation is this ne-
actions displeasing to them (religious sanction), llie cessity, arising from this knowledge, for the human
external restraint, L e. the fear of punishment, created will to do good and avoid evil.
in mankind, as yet little developed, the concept of III. Classification of Laws. — A. The actual, di-
eompcilsUm, df obligation in relation to certain ac- rect effect of law is obligation. According to the
LAW
M
tM9
varieties of dut> imposed, law is classified as: com-
manding, prohioitive, permissive, and penal. Ck)m-
manding laws (leges affirmoHvoi) make the perform-
ance of an action, of something positive, obligatory;
prohibitive laws {leges ne^cUivce), on the other hand,
make oblig&tor^ an omission. The principle holds
good for prohibitive laws, at least if they are absolute,
Bke the commands of the natural; moral law, (*'Thou
shalt not bear false witness", **Thou shalt not com-
mit adultery", etc.) that they are always and for ever
obligatory (leges negativce obligant semper et mo sem^
per — negative laws bind always and forever), i. e. it
IS never permissible to perform the forbidden action.
Conunandinf laws, however, as the law that debts
must be paid, alwSys impose an obligation, it is true,
but not for ever (l^es affipnatiwB obUgant semper^ sed
non pro semper— affirmative laws are binding alwavs
but not forever J, that is, they continue always to be
laws but they do not oblige one at everv moment to
the performance of the action commanded, but onlv
at a certain time and under certain conditions. All
laws which inflict penalties for violation of the law
are called penal, whether they themselves directly
define the manner and amount of penalty, or make it
the duty of the judge to inflict according to his judg-
ment a just punishment. Laws purely penal (le^es
mere pcenales) are those which do not make an action
absolutely obligatory, but simply impose penalty in
case one is convicted of transgression. Thus they
leave it, in a certain sense, to the choice of the subject
whether he will abstain from the i>enal action, or
whether, if the violation is proved against him, he will
submit to the penalty. The objection cannot be
raised that purely penal laws are not actual laws be-
cause they create no bounden duty, for they oblige the
violator of the law to bear the punishment if the
authorities apprehend and convict him. Whether
a law is a purely penal law or not is not so easy to de-
cide in an individual case. The decision depends on
the will of the lawgiver and also upon the general
opinion and custom of a community.
B. In treating of promulgation a distinction has to
be made between natural moral law and positive law.
The first is proclaimed to all men by the natural light
of reason; positive laws are made known by special
outward signs (word of mouth or writing). The nat-
ural moral law is a law inseparable from the nature
of man; positive law, on the contrary, is not. In re-
gard to the origin or source of law, a distinction is
made between Divine and human laws according as
they are issued directly by God Himself or bv men in
virtue of the power granted them by God. If man in
issuing a law is simply the herald or messenger of
God, the law b not human but Divine. Thus the laws
which Moses received from God on Mount Sinai and
proclaimed to the people of Israel were not human
but Divine laws. A distinction is further made be-
tw^een the laws of Church and State according as they
are issued by the authorities of the State or of the
Qiurch. Laws are divided as to origin into prescrip-
tive and statute law. Prescriptive, or customaiy,
law includes those laws which do not come into exis-
tence by direct decree of the lawgiving power, but by
long continued custom of the community. Yet every
custom does not give rise to a law or a right. In order
to become law a custom must be univereal or must, at
least, be followed freely and with the intention of
raising it to law by a considerable part of the popula-
tion. It must further be a custom of long standing.
Finally, it must be useful to the common welfare, be-
cause this is an essential requisite of every law. Cus-
tom receives its bindine, obligatory force from the
tacit or legal approval of the lawgiver, for every true
law binds those upon whom it is imposed. Only he
can impose a binding obligation on a community on
whom the supervision of it or the power of jurisdiction
over it devolves. If the legislative power Ix^longs to a
people itself it can impoee obligation upon itself as t
whole, if it has not this power the obligation oan only
be formed with the consent of the lawgiver (see Co*-
tom;.
A classification of law, as limited to law adminis-
tered in the courts, and familiar to Roman jurispru-
dence, is that of law in the strict sense and equity
(jiis strictum et jus cequum et honum). Ekjuity is often
taken as synonymous with natural justice.* In this
sense we say that equity forbids that anyone be
judged unheard. Frequently, however, we speak of
equity only in reference to positive laws. A human
lawgiver is never able to foresee all the individual cases
to which his law will be applied. Consequently, a
law though just in general, may, taken literally, loul
in some unforeseen cases to results which agree neither
with the intent of the lawgiver nor with natiural jus-
tice, but rather contravene them. In such cases the
law must be expounded not according to its wording
but according to the intent of the lawgiver and the
general principles of natuml justice. A reasonable
mwgi ver could not desire this law to be followed liter-
ally in cases where this would entail a violation c^ the
pnnciples of natural justice. Law in the strict sense
{jus strictum) is, therefore, positive law in its literal
interpretation; equity, on the contrary, consists of the
principles of natural justice so far as they are used to
explain or correct a positive human law if this is not in
harmony with the former. For this reason Aristotle
(Ethica Nicomachea, V, x) calls eouity the correction
(iTay6p$(afM) of statute or written law.
St. Thomab, Summa Theologica, I-II. Q. xc sqq.; Suabks,
De Itffibua et legUlatore Deo, I; Latmann, Theologto morali^, I,
tract, iv; Bouqcillx)N, Theologia /undamcntalU, no. 52 sqq.;
Taparelli, Saoffio ieoretico di dirxUo naturale, I, b. 03 sqq.;
Meyer. Orundaiitze der Sittlichkeii und dea Rechta (1868): Idem.
Inatitutionea juria naturalxa, I (Freiburg, 1006), no. 218 sqq.;
Wy.RNE, Jtia Decretaliutn, I (Rome, 1808). 70 sqq.: ScBimNi
Philoaophia moralxa^ I (Turin, 1801), 104 sqq.; Lehmkuhl.
Theolooia tnoralia, I, 67 sqq.; Rickabt, Moral Phitoaophy or
and RiqhU of Man (London, 18S8); (^athrein, Moralphxloao-
phie, I (Freiburs, 1004), 332 sqq.: Sciileiermacher, Ueberden
Vnterachied von SiUenoeaeiz und Naturgeaetz ^Berlin, 1825);
Zeller, Begriff und BegrHnduno der aUUichen UeaeUe (Bcriin,
1883); Lackner, Wie unieracfieidet aich daa Sxttenotaets vom
Naturgeaetz: Spes cer, Principlea of Ethica: I, Data of Ethica
(London, 1881), N-ii; Paduben, Svatem der Ethik, I (Berlin,
1000). 320 sqq. V. CaTHREIN.
•
Law. Canon. — ^This subiect will be treated under
the following heads: I. General Notion and Divi-
sions. II. Canon Law as a Science. III. Sources of
Canon Law. IV. Historical Development of Texts
and Collections. V. Codification. VI. Ecclesiastical
Law. VII. The Principal Canonists.
I. General Notions and Divisions. — Canon law n
the body of laws and rej^ations made by or adopted
by ecclesiastical authonty, for the government or the
Christian organization and its members. The word
adopted is here used to point out the fact that there are
certain elements in canon law borrowed by the Church
from civil law or from the writings of private individ-
uals, who as such had no authority m ecclesiastical
society. Canon is derived from /rawln', i. e. a rule or
practical direction (not to speak of the other meanings
of the word, such as list or catalogue), a term whicn
soon acquired an exclusively ecclesiastical significi^
tion. In the fourth century it was applied to the
ordinances of the councils, and thus contrasted with
the word vf>pjoi, the ordinances of the civil authori-
ties; the compound word **Nomocanon" was given to
those collections of regulations in which the laws for-
mulated by the two authorities on ecclesiastical mat-
ters were to be foimd side by side. At an early period
we meet with expressions referring to the body of
ecclesiastical legislation then in process of formation:
canoneSf ordo canonicus, sanctio carumica; but the ex-
pression "canon law'* Ot** canonicum) becomes cur-
rent only about the beginning of the twelfth century,
being used in contract with the "civil law" Qus
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tivUe), and later we have the " Corpus juris canonici ",
B8 we have the "Corpus juris civuis''. Canon law is
also called "ecclesiastical law" ( jus ecdeaiasticum) ;
however, strictly speaking, there is a slight difference
of meaning between the two expressions: canon law
denotes in particular the law of the "Corpus Juris",
including the regulations borrowed from Koman law;
whereas ecclesiastical law refers to all laws made by
the ecclesiastical authorities as such, including those
made after the compiling of the "Corpus Juris"
(BSfipQller, "Kirchenrecht", 3). Contrasted with
the unperial or Cnsarian law (Jua ccesareum), canon
law is sometimes styled pontifical law (Jus pontifir
cium), often also it is termed sacred law ^U8 sacrum),
and sometimes even Divine law (jus divinum: c. 2,
De privil.)> as it concerns holy things, and has for its
object the wellbeing of souls in the society divinely
established by Jesus Christ.
Canon law may be divided into various branches,
according to the points of view from which it is con-
ffldered: (1) If we consider its sources, it comprises
Divine law, including natural law, based on the nature
of things and on the constitution ^ven by Jesus Christ
to His Church; and human or positive law, formulated
by the legislator, in conformity with the Divine law.
We shall return to this later, when treating of the
sources of canon law. (2) If we consider the form in
which it is found, we have the written law (jvs scrip-
turn) comprising the laws promul^ted by the com-
petent authorities, and the unwntten law (jiAS turn
acriptum), or even customary law, resulting irom
practice and custom; the latter however became less
miportant as the written law developed. (3) If we
consider the subject matter of the law, we have the
public law (jus j^licum) and private law (jus privor
turn) . This division is explained in two different ways
by the different schools of writers: for most of the ad-
herents of the Roman school, e. g. Cavagnls (Instit. jur.
publ. eccL, Rome, 1906, 1, 8), public law is the law of
the Church as a jperfect society, and even as a perfect
society such as it has been established by its Divine
founder: private law would uierefore embrace all the
regulations of the ecclesiastical authorities concern-
ing the internal organization of that society, the func-
tions of its ministers, the rkhts and duties of its mem-
bers. Thus understood, the public ecclesiastical law
would be deriv^ almost exclusively from Divine and
natural law. On ^le other hand, most of the adher-
ents of the Genuaii school, following the idea of the
Roman law (Inst., I I, 4; "Publicum jus est quod ad
statum rei Roma : d; ectat: privatum quod ad priva-
torum utilitatem"), acfine public law as the body of
laws determining t e riehts and duties of those in-
vested with ecclesias caTauthoritv, whereas for t^em
fjfivate law is tliat wiiich sets lortn the rights and du-
ties of individuals as such. Public law would, there-
Core, directly intend the welfare of society as such, and
indirectly that of its members; while private law
would look primarily to the wellbeing of the individual
and secondarily to that of the communitv.
(4) Public law is divided into external law (jta ex-
ternum) and internal law (jus internum). External
law determines the relations of ecclesiastical society
with other societies, either secular bodies (the rela-
tions therefore of the Church and the State) or reli-
gious bodies, that is, interconfessional relations. In-
ternal law is concerned with the constitution of the
Church and the relations subsisting between the law-
fuUy constituted authorities and their subjects. (5)
Considered from the point of view of its expression,
canon law may be divided into severaJ branches, so
doselv allied, that the terms used to designate them
are often employed almost indifferently: common law
and special law; universal law and particular law;
general law and singular law (jus commune el speciale;
tu$ wnivarsaie ei parUctdare; rus generale et singvlctre),
Xi 18 ea^ to point out the difference between thei^;
the idea is that of a wider or a more limited scope; to
be more precise, common law refers to things, univer*
sal law to territories, general law to persons; so regular
tions affecting only certain things, certain territories,
certain classes of persons, bein^ a restriction or an ad-
dition, constitute special, particular, or singular law.
and even local gr mdividual law. This exceptional
law is often referred to as a privilege (privHegium, lex
jjrivata), though the expression is applied more usu-
ally to concessions made to an indivicfual. The com-
mon law, therefore, is that which is to be observed
with regard to a certain matter, unless the legislator
has foreseen or granted exceptions; for instance, the
laws regulating oencfices contain special provisions
for benefices subject to the right of patronage. Uni-
versal law is that which is promulgated for the whole
Church; but different countries and different dioceses
may have local laws limitins; the application of the
former and even derogating From it. Finally, differ-
ent classes of persons, the cleig>', religious orders, etc.,
have their own laws which are superadded to the gen-
eral law.
(6) We have to distinguish between the law of the
Western or Latin Church, and the law^ of the Eastern
Churches, and of each of them. Likewise, between
the law of the Catholic Church and those of the non-
Catholic Christian Churches or confessions, the Anjgli-
can Church and the various Oriental schismatical
Churches. (7) Finally, if we look to the history or
chronological evolution of canon law, w^e find three
epochs: from the beginning to the "Decretum" of
Uratian exclusively; from Gratian to the Council of
Trent; from the Council of Trent to our day. The
law of these three periods is referred to respectively as
the ancient, the new, and the recent law (jils anti-
quum, novum, novissimum), though some writers pre-
fer to speak of the ancient law, the law of the Middle
Ages, and the modem law (Laurentius, " Instit.", n.4^.
II. Canon Law as a Science. — As we shall see in
treating of the gradual development of the material of
canon law (seeoelow, IV), though a l^islative power
has always existed in the Church, and though it has
always been exercised, a long period had necessarily to
elapse before the law^s were imuced to a harmomous
systematic body, serving as a basis for methodical
study and giving rise to general theories. In the first
place, the legislative authority makes laws only when
circumstances require them and in accordance with a
definite plan. For centuries, nothing more was done
than to collect successively the canons of councils, an-
cient and recent, the letters of popes, and episcopal
statutes; guidance was sought for in these, when ai^-
pgous cases occurred, but no one thought of extract-
ing ceneral principles from them or of systematizing
all the laws then in force. In the eleventh century
certain collections group under the same headings the
canons that treat of the same matters; however, it is
only in the middle of the twelfth century that we meet
in the " Decretum" of Gratian the first really scientific
treatise on canon law. The School of Bologna had
just revived the study of Roman law; Gratian sought
to inaugurate a similar study of canon law. But,
while compilations of texts and ofiicial collections were
available for Roman law, or "Corpus juris civilis".
Gratian had no such assistance. He therefore adoptea
the plan of inserting the texts in the body of his gen-
eral treatise; from uie disordered mass of canons, col-
lected from the earliest days, he selected not only the
law actually in force (eliminating the regulations
which had fallen into desuetude, or which were re-
voked, or not of general application) but also the prin-
ciples; he elaborated a system of law wliich, however
incomplete, was nevertheless methodical. The science
of canon law, i. e. the methodical and co-ordinated
knowledge of ecclesiastical law, was at length estab-
lished.
Gratis'? "P^retum" wi^s a wonderful work; wel*-
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corned, taught and glossed by the decretiats at Bo-
logna and later in the other schools and universities,
it was for a long time the text-book of canon law.
However his plan was defective and confusing, and,
after the day of the glosses and the strictly literal com-
mentaries, it was abandoned in favour of the method
adopted by Bernard of Pa via in his *' Breviarium" and
by St. Raymund of Pennafort in the official collection
of the "Decretals" of Gr^ory IX, promulgated in
1234 (see Corpus Juris Canonici). These collec-
tions, which did not include the texts utilized by Gra-
tian, grouped the materials into five books, each di-
vided mto "titles", and under each title the decretals
or fragments of decretals were grouped in chronologi-
cal onier. The five books, the subject matter of
which is recalled by the well-known verse: "judex,
judicium, clerus, connubia, crimen" (i.e. judge, judg-
ment, clergy, marriages, crime), did not display a very
logical plan; not to speak of certain titles tnat were
more or less out of place. They treated successively
of the depositaries of authority, procedure, the clergy
and the things pertaining to them, marriage, crimes
and penalties. In spite of its. defects, the system had
at least the merit of being official; not only was it
adopted in the latter collections, but it served as the
basis for almost all canonical works up to the sixteenth
century, and even to our day, ccpecially in the univer-
sities, each of which had a faculty of canon law.
However the method of studying and teaching
gradually developed: if the early decretalists made
use of the elementary plan of the gloss and literal com-
mentary, their successors in composing their treatises
were more independent of the text; they commented
on the titles, not on the chapters or the words; often
thev followed the titles or chapters only nomi-
nally and artificially. In the sixteenth century they
tried to apply, not to the official collections, out in
their lectures on canon law the method and division
of the "Institutes" of Justinian: persons, things, ac-
tions or procedure, crimes, and penalties (Institutes, I,
ii, 12). This plan, popularized by the " Institutiones
juris canonici of Lancellotti (1563), has been fol-
lowed since by most of the canonist authors of " Insti-
tutiones" or manuals, though there has been consid-
erable divergency in the sub-divisions; most of the
more extensive works, however, preserved the order
of the "Decretals". This order will also be followed
in the redaction of the forthconain^ code. In recent
times many text-books, especially m Germany, have
adopted onginal plans. In the sixteenth century too.
the study of canon law was developed and improved
like that of other sciences, by the critical spirit of the
age: doubtful texts were rejected and the raison
aHre and tendency or intention of later laws traced
back to the customs of former days. Canon law was
more studied and better understood; writings multi-
plied, some of an historical nature, others practical,
according to the inclination of the authors. In the
universities and seminaries, it became a special study,
though as might be expected, not always held in equal
esteem. It may be noted too that the study of civil
law is now frequently separated from that of canon
law, a result of the changes that have come over soci-
ety. On the other hand, in too many seminaries the
teaching of ecclesiastical law is not sufficiently distin-
guished from that of moral theology. The publication
of the new general code of canon law will certainly
bring about a more normal state of affaire.
The first object of the science of canon law is to fix
the laws that are in force. This is not difficult when
one has exact and recent texts, drawn up as abstract
laws, e. g. most of the texts since the Council of Trent,
and as will be the case for all canon law when the new
code is published. But it was not so in the Middle
Ages; it was the canonists who, to a large extent,
formulated the law by extracting it from the accumu-
lated mass of texts or by generalizing from the indi-
vidual deoisioDs in the early collections of decretals.
When the law in force is known it must be explained,
and this second object of the science of canon law is
still unchanged. It consists in showing^ the true sense,
the reason, the extension and application of each law
and each institution. This necessitates a careful and
exact application of the triple method of exposition,
historical, philosophical, and practical: the first ex-
plains the law in accordance with its source and the
evolution of customs; the second explains its princi-
ple; the last shows how it is to be applied at present.
This practical application is the object of Jurispru-
dence, which collects, co-ordinates and utiuzes, for
more or less analo^us cases, the decisions of the com-
petent tribunal. From this we may learn tJie position
of canon law in the hierarchy of sciences. It is a judi-
cial science, differing from the science of Roman law
and of civil law inasmuch as it treats of the laws of an-
other society; but as this society is of the spiritual
order and in a certain sense supematiural, canon law
belongs also to the sacred sciences. In this category
it comes after theology, which studies and explains
in accordance with revelation, the truths to be be-
lieved: it is supported by theology, but in its turn it
formulates the practical rules toward which theology
tends, and so it has been called " theologia practica ,
"theologia rectrix". In as far as it is practical the
science of canon law is closely related to moral theol-
o^; however, it differs from the latter which is not
directly concerned with the acts prescribed or for-
bidden by the external law, but only with the recti-
tude of human acts in the light of the last end of man,
whereas, canon law treats ofthe external laws relating
to the good order of society rather than the workings
of the individual conscience. Juridical, historicfU,
and above all theological sciences are most useful for
the comprehensive study of canon law.
III. SotJRCEs OF Canon Law. — ^Thds expression has
a twofold meaning; it may refer to the sources from
which the laws come and which give the latter their
judicial force {fonles juris eaaendi); or it may refer to
the sources where canon law is to be found (fontes
juris cogno8cendi)y i. e. the laws themselves such as
they occur in the texts and various codes. Tliese
sources are also called the material and the formal
sources of canon law. We shall consider first the
sources under the former aspect.
The ultimate source of canon law is God, Whose
will is manifested either by the very nature of thinp
(natural Divine law^), or by Revelation (positive Di-
vine law). Both are contained in the Scnptures and
in Tradition. Positive Divine law cannot contradict
natural law; it rather confirms it and renders it more
definite. The Church accepts and considers both as
sovereign binding laws whicn it can interpret but can-
not modify; however, it does not discover natural law
by philosophic speculation; it receives it, with posi-
tive Divine law, from God through His inspired
Books, though this does not imply a confusion of the
two kinds of Divine law. Of the Old Law the Church
has preserved in addition to the Decalogue some pre-
cepts closely allied to natural law, e. g. certain matri-
monial impediments; as to the other laws given by
God to His chosen people, it considers them to have
been ritual and declares them abrogated by Jesus
Christ. Or rather, Jesus Christ, the Lawriver of the
spiritual society founded by Him (Con. Trid.. Sess.
Vl, "De justif. , c^. xxi), nas replaced them by the
fundamental laws which He gave His Church. This
Christian Divine law, if we may so call it, is foimd in
the Gospels, in the Apostolic writings, in the living
Tradition, which transmits laws as well as dogmas.
On this positive Divine law depend the effiential
principles of the Church's constitution, the primacy,
the episcopacy, the essential elements of Divine wor-
ship and the SjEMjraments, the indissolubility of mar-
riage, etc.
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Again, to attain its sublime end, the Giurch, en-
dowed by its Founder with leeislative ix)wer, makes
laws in conformity with natural and Divine law. The
sources or authors of this positive ecclesiastical law
are essentially the episcopate and its head, the pope,
the successors of the Apostolic Collie and its divinely
appointed head, Saint Peter. They are, properly
speaJdng, the active sources of canon law. Their ac-
tivity is exercised in its most solemn form by the cecu-
memcal councils, where the episcopate united with its
head, and convoked and presided over by him, with
him defines its teaching and makes the laws that bind
the whole Church. The canons of the oecumenical
councils, especially those of Trent (see Councils) hold
an exceptional place in ecclesiastical law. But, with-
out infrmging on the ordinary power of the bishops,
the pope, as head of the episcopate, possesses in him-
self the same powers as the episcopate united with him.
It is true that the disciplinary and legislative power
of the popes has not always, in the course of centuries,
been exercised in the same manner and to the same
extent, but in proportion as the administration be-
came centralized, tneir direct intervention in legisla-
tion became more and more marked; and so the sov-
ereign pontiff is the most fruitful source of canon law;
he can abrogate the laws made by his predecessors or
by oecumemcal councils; he can legislate for the whole
church or for a part thereof, a country or a given body
of individuals; if he is morally bound to take advice
and to follow the dictates of prudence, he is not le-
gally obliged to obtain the consent of any other pei^
son or persons, or to observe anv particular form; his
power 18 limited only by Divine law, natural and posi-
tive, dogmatic and moral. Furthermore, he is, so to
say, the living law, for he is considered as having all
law in tiie treasury of his heart (" in scrinio pectoris";
Boniface VIII, c. i, " De Constit.", in VI^). From the
earliest a^es the letters of the Roman pontiffs con-
stitute, with the canons of the councils, the principal
element of canon law, not only of the Roman Church
and its immediate dependencies, but of all Christen-
dom; they are everywhere relied upon and collected,
and the ancient canonical compilations contain a large
number of these precious "decretals** (decreta, atat-
ukif epistolcB decreUdeSj and epistolce synodicm) . Later,
tho pontifical laws are promulgated more usually as
constitutions, Apostolic Letters, the latter being classi-
fied as Bulls or Briefs, according to their external
form, or even as spontaneous acts, "Motu proprio*'.
(See BuLi^ and Bbiefs.) Moreover, the legislative
and disciplinary power of the pope not being an in-
communicable privilege, the laws and regulations
made in his name and with his approbation possess his
authority: in fact, though most of the regulations
made by the Congregations of the cardinals and other
organs of the Cuna are incorporated in the Apostolic
'Letters, yet the custom exists and is becoming more
general lor legislation to be made by mere decrees of
be Congregations, with the papal approval. These
are the Acts of the Holy See" (Acta Sanctss Sedis),
and their object or purpose permitting, are real laws
(see Roman Curia).
Next to the pope, the bishops united in local coun-
cils, and each of them individually, are sources of law
for their common or particular territory; canons of
national or provincial councils, and diocesan statutes,
constitute local law. Numerous texts of such origin
are fotmd in the ancient canonical collections. At the
S resent day and for a long time past, the law has laid
own clearly the powers of local councils and of
bishops; if their oecrees should interfere with the
common law they have no authority save in virtue of
pontifical approbation. It is well known that dio-
cesan statutes are not referred to tlie sovereign pon-
tiff, whereas the decrees of provincial coimcils are
submitted for examination and approval to the Holy
See (Const. "Immensa" of Sixtus V, 22 Jan., 1587).
We may liken to bishops in this matter various bodiaf
that have the right of governing themselves and thus
enjoy a certain autonomy; such are prelates with terri-
torial jurisdiction, religious orders, some exempt chap-
ters and universities, etc. The concessions granted to
them are generally subject to a certain measure of
control.
Other sources of law are rather impersonal in their
nature, chief among them being custom or the un-
written law. In canon law custom has become al-
most like a legislator; not in the sense that the people
are made their own lawriver, but a practice followed
by the greater part of the commumty, and which is
reasonable and fulfils the legal requirements for pre-
scription and is observed as obligatory, acquires the
force of law by at least the tacit consent of the legis-
lator. Under such circumstances custom can create
or rescind a legal obligation, derogate from a law,
interpret it, etc. But it must be remarked that in«our
days, owing to the fullv developed body of written
law, custom plays a much less important part than did
the practices and habits of early Christian times,
when there was but little written law and even that
seldom of wide application. The ci\nl law of different
nations, and especially the Roman law, may be num-
bered among the accessory sources of canon law. But
it is necessary to explain more exactly its role and im-
portance. Evidently secular law cannot be, strictly
speaking, a source of canon law, the State as such hav-
ing no competence in spiritual matters; yet it may
become so by the more or less formal acceptation of
particular laws by the ecclesiastical authorities. We
pass by in the first place the laws made bv the mutual
agreement of both parties, such as the legislation of
the numerous assemblies in the Visigothic kingdom,
and the Frankish kingdom and empire, where the
bishops sat with the lords and nobles. Such also is the
case of the concordats (q. v.) of later ages, real con-
tracts between the two powers. In these cases we
have an ecclesiastico-civil law, the legal force of which
arose from the joint action of the two competent au-
thorities. It is in a different sense that Roman law,
Germanic law, and in a lesser degree modem law, have
become a subsidiary source of canon law.
It must be remembered that the Church existed for
a long time before having a complete and co-ordinated
system of law; that many daily acts of its administra^
tion, while objectively canonical, were of the same
nature as similar acts in civil matters, e. g. contracts,
obligations, and in general the administration of prop-
erty; it was quite natural for the Church to accommo-
date itself in these matters to the existing laws, with-
out positively approving of them. Later when the
canonists of the twelfth century began to systematise
the ecclesiastical law, they found themselves in pres-
ence, '^n the one hand, of a fragmentary canon law, and
on the other hand of the complete methodical Roman
code ; they had recourse to the latter to supply what was
wanting m the former, whence the maxim adopted by
the canonists and inserted in the '' Corpus Juris ", that
the Church acts according to Roman law when canon
law is silent (cap. 1. "De novi op. nunc.*', X, i, V,
tit. xxxii). Moreover, in the Teutonic kingdoms the
clergy followed the Roman law as a personal statute.
However, in proportion as the written canon law in-
creased, Roman law became of less practical value in
the Church (cap. 28, X, "De priv.^', X, lib. V, tit.
xxxiii). Canon law, it may be said, adopted from
Homan law what relates to obligations, contracts, ju-
diciary actions, and to a great extent civil procedure.
Other Roman laws were the object of a more positive
recognition than mere usage, i. e. thev were formally
approved, those, for instance, which though of secular
origin, concerned ecclesiastical things, e. g. the By-
zantine ecclesiastical laws, or again laws of civil origin
and character but which were changed into canon-
ical laws, e. g. the impediment of marriage arising
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from adoption. The juridical influence of Teutonio law
was mucn less important, if we abstract from the in-
evitable adaptation to the customs of barbarous races,
3ret some survivals of this law in ecclesiastical legisla-
tion are worthv of note: the somewhat feudal system
of benefices; ihe computation of the d^rees of kin-
dred; the assimilating of the pNenitential practices to
the system of penal compensation (u^eAr^e^; finally,
but for a time only, justification from criminal charges
on the oath of guarantors or co-jurors (De purgatione
canonica, lib. V, tit. xxxiv).
Modem law has only a restricted and local influence
on canon law, and that particularly on two points.
On the one hand, the Church conforms to the civil laws
on mixed matters, especially with regard to the ad-
ministration of its property; on some occasions even it
has finally adoptea as its own measures passed by the
civil powers acting independently ; a notaole case is the
French decree of 1809 on the "Fabriques d'^lise".
Chi the other hand, modem legislation is indebted to
the canon law for certain beneficial measures: part of
the procedure in criminal, civil, and matrimonial
cases, and to some extent, the organization of courts
and tribunals.
IV. Historical Development op Texts and Col-
LECTioNs.—^nsidered under the second aspect, the
sources of canon law are the legislative texts, and the
collections of those texts whence we derive our knowl-
edge of the Church's laws. In order to appreciate fully
the reasons for and the utility of the great work of codi-
fication of the canon law, recentlv begun by order of
Pius X, it is necessary to recall tne general history of
those texts and collections, ever increasing in number
up to the present time. A detailed accoimt of each of
the canomcal collections is here out of place; the more
important ones are the subject of special articles, to
which we refer the reader; it will suffice if we exhibit
the different stages in the development of these texts
and coUections, and make clear the movement to-
wards centralization and unification that has led up
to the present situation. Even in the* private col-
lections of the early centuries, in which the series of
conciliarv canons were merely brought together in
more or less chronolo^cal order, a constant tendencv
towards unification is noticeable. From the ninth
century onwards the collections are systematically ar-
rang;ed; with the thirteenth century begins the first
official collections, thenceforth the nucleus around
which the new legislative texts centre, though it is not
yet possible to reduce them to a harmonious and co-
ordinated code. Before tracing the various steps of
this evolution, some terms require to be explained.
The name "canonical collections'' is given to all
collections of ecclesiastical legislative texts, because
the principal texts were the canons of the councils.
At first the authors of these collections contented
themselves with bringing together the canons of the
different councils in chronological order; consequently
these are called "chronological" collections; in the
West, the last important chronological collection is
that of Pseudo-Isidore. After his time the texts were
arranged according to subject matter; these are the
"systematic" collections, the only form in use since
the time of Pseudo-Isidore. All the ancient collec-
tions are private, due to personal initiative, and have,
therefore, as collections, no official authority: each
text has only its own intrinsic value; even the "De-
cretum" of Gratian is of this nature. On the other
hand, official or authentic collections are those that
have been made or at least promulgated by the legis-
lator. They besin with the "Compilatio tertia of
Innocent III; the later collections of the "Corpus
Juris ", except the " Extra va^antes ", are official. All
the texts in an official collection have the force of law.
There are also general collections and particular col-
lections: the former treating of legislation in general,
ihe latter treating of some special Bubject, for in-
stance, marriage, procedure, etc., or even of the local
law of a district. Finally, considered chronolo^cally,
the sources and collections are classified as previous to
or later than the "Corpus Juris".
A. Canonical Collections in the East, — Until the
Church began to enjoy peace, the written canon law was
very meagre; after making full allowance for the docu-
ments that must have perished, we can discover onhr
a fragmentary law, made as circumstances demanded,
and aeyoid of all system. Unity of legislation, in as
far as it can be expected at that period, is identical
with a certain unuonnity of practice, based on ^e
prescriptions of Divine law relative to the constitu-
tion of the Church, the liturgy, the sacraments, etc.
The clergy, organized everywhere in the same wsy,
exercisedalmost everywhere the same functions. But
at an early period we discover a greater local disci-
plinary uniformity between the Churches of the great
sees (Rome, Carthage, Alexandria, Antioch, later
Constantinople) and the Churches depending im-
mediately on them. Further it is the disciplinary de-
cisions of the bishops of the various regions that
form the first nucleus of local canon law; these texts,
spreadii^ gradually from one country to another by
means of tne collections, obtain imiversal dissemina-
tion and in this way arc the basis of general canon law.
There were, however, in the East, from the early
days up to the end of the fifth century, certain writ-
ings, closely related to each other, and which were in
reality brief canon law treatises on ecclesiastical ad-
ministration, the duties of the clergy and the faithful,
and especially on the liturgy. We refer to works at-
tributed to the Apostles, very popular in the Oriental
Churches, though devoid of official authority, and
which may be called pseudo-epi^raphic, rather than
apociyphal. The principal writings of this kind are
the " Teaching of the Twelve Apostles " or " Didache ",
the "Didascalia", based on the "Didache"; the
"Apostolic Constitutions", an expansion of the two
preceding works; then the "Apostolic Church Ordi-
nance", the "Definitio canonica SS. Apostolorum",
the "Testament of the Lord" and the "Octateuch of
Clement"; lastly the "Apostolic Canons". Of all
this literature, only the "Apostolic Canons" were in-
cluded in the canonical collections of the Greek
Church. The most important of these documents,
the "Apostolic Constitutions", was removed by the
Second Canon of the Council in Trullo (692), as
having been interpolated by the heretics. As to the
eighty-five Apostolic C^nons^ accepted by the same
council, they rank yet first m the above-mentioned
"Apostolic" collection; the first fifty, translated into
Latin by Dionysius Exiguus (c. 5(X)), were included in
the Western collections and afterwards in the " Corpus
Juris".
As the later law of the separated Eastern Churches
did not influence the Western collections, we need not
treat of it, but go on to consider only the Greek collec-
tion. It begins early in the fourth century : in the dif-
ferent provinces of Asia Minor, to the canons of local
councils are added those of the oecumenical Council of
Nicsea (325) , everywhere held in esteem. The Province
of Pontus furnished the penitentiary decisions of An-
cyraand Neocsesarea (314) ; Antioch, the canons of the
famous Council " in encseniis " (341), a genuine code of
metropolitan oi^ganization; Paphlagonia^ that of the
ClTouncil of Gangra (343), a reaction against the first
excesses of asceticism; Phrygia, the fifty-nine canons
of Laodicea on different disciplinary and lituz|^cal
matters. This collection was so highly esteemed that
at the 0)uncil of Chalcedon (451) the canons were
read as one series. It was increased later by the
addition of the canons of Constantinople (381), with
other canons attributed to it, those of Ephesus (431),
Chalcedon (451), and the Apostolic canons. In 692
the Council in Trullo passed 102 disciplinary can-
ons, the second of which enumerates the dements of
L4W 61 L4W
the oflkial collection: they are the texts we have just Charlemagne at the Diet of Aachen in 802. This was
mentioned, together with the canons of Sardica, and an important step towards the centralisation and uni-
of Carthage (419), according to Dionysius Exi^us, fication of the ecclesiasticallaw, especially as the Latin
and numerous canonical letters of the great bi£op6, Catholic world hardly extended bevond the limits of
S8. Dionysius of Alexandria, Greffory Thaumaturgus, the empire, Africa and the south of Spain having been
Basil, etc. If to these be add^ t£e canons of the two lost to the Church through the victones of Islam.
OBCumenieal councils of Nicsea (787) and Constanti- (2) The canon law of the African Church was
nople (JM) we have all the elements of the definitive strongly centralised at Carthage; the documents nat-
couection in its final shape. A few " systematic " col- urally took the form of a collection, as it was custom-
lections may be mentioned as pertaining to this pe- ary to read and insert in the Acts of each council the
riod: one containing fifty titles by an unknown author decisions of the preceding coimcils. At the time of
about 535; another with twenty-five titles of the ec- the invasion of the Vandals, the canonical code of the
elesiastical laws of Justinian; a collection of fifty titles African Church comprised, after the canons of Nicsea,
dnwn up about 550, by John the Scholastic, a priest of those of the Coimcil of Carthage under Bishop Gratus
Antioch. Tlie compilations known as the *'Nomocan- (about 348), under Grenethlius (390), of twenty or
ons" are more important, l)ecause they bring together twenty-two plenary councils imder Aurelius (from 393
the civfl laws anci the ecclesiastical laws on the same to 427), ana the minor coimcils of Constantinople.
■objects; the two principal are the Nomocanon, Unfortimately these records have not come down to
wronghr attributed to John the Scholastic, but which us in their entirety; we possess them in two forms: in
dates Rom the end of the sixth century, with fifty the collection of Dionysius Exiguus, as the canons of a
^tles; and another, drawn up in the seventh century, "Concilium Africanum^'; in the Spanish collection, as
and afterwards augmented by the Patriarch Photius those of eight councils (the fourth wronglv attributed,
in 883. bein^ a document from Aries, dating about the be-
B. The Canonical CoUections in the West to Pseudo- gimune of the sixth century'). Through these two
Isidore, — In the West canonical collections devel- channels the African texts entered into W^tem canon
oped as in the East, but about two centuries later, law. It will suflfice to mention the two ''systematic"
At first appear collections of national or local laws, and collections of Fulgentius Ferrandus and Cresconius
the tendency towards centralization is partially ef- (q. v.).
fected in the ninth century. Towards the end of the (3) The Church in Gaul had no local rclisious oen-
fourth century there is yet in the West no canonical tre, the territory bein^ divided into unstaole king-
collection, not even a local one. those of the fifth cen- doms; it is not surprismg therefore that we meet no
tury are essentiallv local, but all of them )x)rrow from centralized canon law or universally accepted collec-
the Greek councils. The latter were known in the tion. There are numerous councils, however, and an
West by two Latin versions, one called the *'Hispana" abimdance of texts; but if we except the temporary
or " Ludorian", because it was inserted in the Spanish authority of the See of Aries, no church of Gam could
canonical collection, attributed to St. Isidore of Seville, point to a permanent group of dependent sees. The
the other called the "Itala" or "ancient" fPrisca), canonical collections were fairly numerous, but none
because Dionysius Exiguus, in the first half of the was eenerally accepted. The most widespread was
sixth century, foimd it m use at Rome, and beins dis- the ''<QuesnelIiana", called after its editor (the Jan-
satisfied with its imperfections improved it. Ahnost senist Paschase Quesnel), rich, but badly arranged,
all the Western collections, therefore, are based on the. containing many Greek, Gallic, and other councils,
same texts as the Greek collection, hence the marked also pontifical decretals. With the other collections
influence of that collection on Western canon law. it save way to the *'Hadriana", at the end of the
(1) At the end of the fifth century the Roman eighth century. (4) In Spain, on the contrary, at
Church was completely organized and the popes had least after the conversion of the Visigoths, the Church
promulgated many legislative texts; but no collection was strongly centralized in the See of Toledo, and in
of them had yet been made. The only extra-Roman close union with the royal power. Previous to this,
canons recognized were the canons of Nicaea and Sar- we must note the collection of St. Martin of Braga, a
adopted as ecclesiastical law. Towards the year 500 and important collection of the Visigothic Church.
DionjTsius Exiguus compiled at Rome a double collec- The latter, beeun as early as the council of 633 and in-
tion, one of the councils, the other of decretals, i. e. creased by the canons of subsequent coimcils, is
papal letters. The former, executed at the request of known as the " Hispana" or *' Isidoriana", because in
Stephen, Bishop of Salona, is a translation of the later times it was attributed (erroneously) to St. Isi-
Greek councils, mcluding Chalcedon, and begins with dore of Seville. It comprises two parts: the councils
the fifty Apostolic canons; Dionysius adds to it only and the decretals; the councils are arranged in four
theLatintextofthecanonsofSardica and of Carthage sections: the East, Africa, Gaul, Spain, and chrono-
(419), in which the more ancient African councils logical order is observed in each sec tion; the decretals,
are partially reproduced. The second is a coUection 104 in number, range from Pope St. Damasus to St.
of thirty-nine papal decretals, from Siricius (384) to Gregory (36fMK)4). Its original elements consist of
Anastasiua II (49fr-98). (See Canons, Collections the Spanish councils from Elvira (about 300) to the
OF Ancibnt.) Thus joined together these two collec- Seventeenth Council of Toledo in 694. The influence
tions became the canonical code of the Roman Church, of this collection, in the form it assumed about the
not by official approbation, but by authorized prac- middle of the ninth century, when the False Decretals
tioe. But while m the work of Dionysius the collec- were inserted into it, was veiy great.
tion of conciliary canons remained unchanged, that of (5) Of Great Britain and Ireland w© need mention
the decretals was successively increased; it continued only the Irish collection of the beginning of the eighth
to incorporate letters of the different popes till alx)ut century, from which several texts passed to the conti-
the middle of the eighth century when Adrian I gave nent; it is remarkable for including among its canons
(774) the collection of Dionysius to the future Em- citations from the Scriptures and the Fathers ''Col-
pcror Charlemaflme as the canonical book of the Ro- lectio Hibemensis", 2nd ed., Wasserschleben, Leipzig,
man Oiureh. This collection, often called the *' Dio- 1885). (6) The collection of the False Decretals, or the
Dysio-Hadriana", was soon officially received in all Pseudo-Isidore (about 850), is the last and most com-
frankish territory, where it was cited as the "Liber plete of the "chronological" collections, and there-
Uuionum", and was adopted for the whole empire of fore the one most utilized by the authors of the sub-
XJkW 62 L4W
sequent ** systematic '' collections; it is the " Hispana" are in P. L., CLXI. (1 1) The unedited Spanish col*
or Spanish collection together with apocryphal de- lection of Saragossa (Csesar-augustana) is based on
cretsus attributed to the popes of the first centuries these works of Ives of Chartres. (12) Finally, the
up to the time of St. Damasus, when the authentic ''De misericordia et justitia'^ in three books, com-
decretals b^in. It exerted a very great influence posed before 1121 by Algerus of Li^, a {general
(see False Decretals). (7) To conclude the list of treatise on ecclesiastical discipline, in which is fore-
collections, where the later canonists were to gamer shadowed the scholastic method of Gratian, reprinted
their materials, we must mention the "Penitentials** in P. L.. CLXXX.
(q. v.), the "Ordines" or ritual collections, the "For- D. The *'Decretum" of Gratian: the Decretists.—
mularies", especially the " Liber Diurnus"; also com- The " Concordantia discordantium canonum", known
I>ilations of laws, either purely secular, or semi-ecclo- later as '* Decretum", which Gratian published at Bo-
siastical, like the "Capitularies" (cj. v.). The name logna about 1148, is not, as we consider it to-day, a
"capitula" or "capitularia'' is given also to the collection of canonical texts, but a general treatise, in
episcopal ordinances quite common in the ninth cen- which the texts cited are inserted to help in establish-
tury. It may be noted that the author of the False ing the law. It is true that the work is very rich in
Decretals forged also false "Capitularies", under the texts and there is hardly a canon of any importance
name of Benedict the Deacon, and false episcopal contained in the earlier collections (including the de-
" CapituJa ", under the name of Angilramnus, Bishop cisions of the Lateran Council of 1 139 and recent papal
of Metz. decretals) that Gratian has not utilized. His ooject,
C. Canonical Collections to tfie Time of Gratian, — however, was to build up a juridical system from all
The Latin Church was meanwhile moving towards these documents. Despite its imperfections, it must
closerunity; the local character of canonical discipline be admitted that the work of Cfratian was as near
and laws gradually disappears, and the authors of perfection as was then possible. For that reason
canonical collections exhioit a more personal note, it was adopted at Bologna, and soon elsewhere, as
i. e. they pick out more or less advantageously the the text -book for the study of canon law. (For
texts, which they borrow from the "chronological" an account of this collection see Corpus Juris
compilations, though thev display as yet no critical Canonici; Canons.) We may here recall again that
discernment, and include many apocryphal docu- the "Decretum" of Gratian is not a codification, but
ments, while others continue to be attributed to the a privately compiled treatise; further, that the build-
wrong sources. They advance, nevertheless, espe- ing up of a general system of canon law was the work
cially when to the bare texts they add their own opm- of the canonists, and not of the legislative authorities
ions and ideas. From the end of the ninth century to as such.
the middle of the twelfth these collections are very Quite as the professors at Bologna commented on
numerous; many of them are still unpublished, and Justinian's "Corpus juris civilis", so they began at
some deservedly so. We can only mention the prin- once to comment on Gratian 's work, the personal ele-
cipal ones. ment as well as his texts. The first commentators are
(1) A collection in twelve books, compiled in North- called the "Decretists". In their lectures (Lat. lee-
em Italy, and dedicated to an Archbishop Anselm, ^urcp, readings) they treated of the conclusions to be
doubtless Anselm II of Milan (833-97), still unedited j drawn from each part and solved the problems
it seems to have been widely used. (2) The "Libn {a^ucestUmes) arising therefrom. They synopsized
duo de synodalibus causis" oif Regino, Abbot of Priim their teaching in "glosses" (q. v.), interlinear at first,
(d. 915), a pastoral visitation manual of the bishop of then marginal, or they composed separate treatises
the diocese^ edited by Wasserschleben (1840). (3) known as" Apparatus , "Summae"^ "Repetitiones",
The volummous compilation, in twenty books, of or else collected "casus", "qu«stiones", "Margar-
Burchard, Bishop of Worms, compiled between 1012 it»", "Breviaria", etc. The principal decretists are:
and \QQ2f entitl^ the "CoUectarium", also "Decr^* Paucapalea, perhaps the first disciple of Gratian,
tum", a TnAnuAl for the use of ecclesiastics in their whence, it is said, the name "palea" given to the ad-
ministry; the nineteenth book, " Corrector " or " Med- ditions to the " Decretum " (his "Summa " was edited
icus", treats of the administration of the Sacrament by Schulte in 1890); Roland Bandinelli, later Alex-
of Penance, and was often current "as a distinct work, ander III (his "Summa" was edited by Thaner in
This widely circulated collection is in P. L., CXL. At 1874) : OmniIx)nus, 1 185 (see Schulte, " De Decreto ab
the end of the eleventh century there appeared in Omnioono abbreviato", 1892), John of Faenza (d.
Italy several collections favouring the reform of bishop of that city in 1190); Rufinus(" Summa "'edited
Gregory VII and supporting the Holy See in the in- by Singer, 1902); Stephen of Toumai (d. 1203; "Sum-
vestiture strife; some of the authors utilized for ma" ^ted by Schulte, 1891); the great canonist
their works the Roman archives. (4) The collection of Huguccio (d. 1210; "Summa" is being edited by M.
Anselm, Bishop of Lucca (d. 1086), in thirteen books, Gillmann); Sicard of Cremona (d. 1215): John the
still unedited, an influential work. (5) The collection Teuton, really Semeca or Zemcke (d. 1245; ; Guido de
of Cardinal Deusdedit, dedicated to Pope Victor III Baysio, the "archdeacon" (of Bologna, d. 1313); .and
(1087), it treats of the primacy of the pope, of the especially Bartholomew of Brescia (d. 1258), auUior
Roman clerg>', ecclesiastical property, immunities, of the "gloss" on the "Decretum" in its last form,
and was edited by Martinucci m 1869, more recently E. Decretals and Decretalists, — While lecturing on
and better by Wolf von Glanvell (1905). (6) The Gratian's work the canonists laboured to complete and.
"Breviarium of Cardinal Atto; edited by Mai, elaborate the master's teaching; with that view they
"Script, vet. nova collect.", VI, app. 1832. (7) The collect^ assiduously the decretals of the popes, and
collection of Bonizo, Bishop of Sutri, in ten books, especially the canons of the (scumenical coimcils of
written after 1089, still unedited. (8) The collection the Lateran (1179, 1215); but these compilations were
of Cardinal Gregory, called by him "Poly carpus", in not intended to form a complete code, they merely
eight books, written before 1120, yet unedited. (9) centred round and supplemented Gratian's " Decre-
In France we must mention the small collection of tum"; for that reason these Decretals are known as
Abbo, Abbot of Fleury (d. 1004), in fifty-two chapters, the "Extravagantes", i. e. outside of, or extraneous
in P. L., CXXXIX; and especially (10) the collections to, the official collections. The ^ve collections thus
of Ives, Bishop of Chartres (d. 1115 or 1117), i. e. the made between 1190 and 1226 (see Decretals), and
Collectio trium partium", the "Decretum", es- which were to serve as the basis for the work of Greg-
•eciaJly the " Panormia ", a short compilation in eight ory IX, mark a distinct step forward in the evolution
fo)ks, extracted from the preceding two works, and of canon law: whereas Gratian had inserted the texts
widely used. The "Decretum" and the "Panormia" in his own treatise, and the canonists wrote their
L4W 63 L4W
^orks without indudiDg the texts, we have now com* of the Council of Vienne (1311-12); it was published
pilations of supplemental^ texts for the* purpose of in 1317 by his successor John XXII and was called the
teaching, but woich nevertheless remain qwte dis- "Clementin®'\ This was the last of the medieval
iinct; m addition, we at last find the legislators official collections. Two later compilations included
takingpart officially in editing the collections. While in the "Corpus Juris'' are private works, the ''Ex-
the^Breviarium" of Bemara of Pa via, the first to travagantes of John XXII", arranged in 1325 by Zen-
exhibit the division into five books and into titles, zelin ae Cassanis, who glossed them, and the ** Extra-
which St. Rayo&imd of Pennafort was later to adopt, vagantes communes", a belated collection; it was only
is the work of a private individual, the ' ' Compilatio in the edition of the " Corpus Juris " by Jean Chappuis,
tertia" of Izmocent III in 1210, and the " Compilatio in 1500, that these collections found a fixed form. The
(^uinta" of Honorius III, in 1226, are official collec- "Sextus" was glossed and commented by Joannes An-
tions. Thouffh the popes, doubtless, intended only to dreee, called the "fons et tuba juris" (d. 1348), and
give the pro^ssors at Bologna correct and authentic by Cardinal Jean Le Moine (Joannes Monachus, d.
texts, they nevertheless acted officially; these collec- 1313), whose works were often printed,
tions, however, are but supplements to Gratian. \Vhen authors speak of the *' closing" of the "Cor-
Thjs is also true of tlie great collection of ** Deere- pus Juris", they do not mean an act of the popes for-
tals" of Gregory IX (see Decretaxs and Corpus bidding canonists to collect new documents, much less
Juris Canonici). The pope wished to collect in a forbiduing themselves to add to the ancient collec-
more uniform and convenient manner the decretals tions. But the canonical movement, so active after
'Utury,
sities of Bologna and Paris. He did not wish to sup- vourable to the compiling of new canonical collections;
press or supplant the "Decretum" of Gratian, but but there were more direct causes. The special ob-
this eventually occurred. The " Decretals" of Greg- ject of the first collections of the decretals was to help
oiy IX, though composed in great part of specific de- settle the law, which the canonists of Bologna were
cisions, represented m fact a more advanced state of trying to svstematize; that is why they contain so
law; furthermore, the collection was sufficiently ex- many specific decisions, from which the authors gath-
tensive to touch almost every matter, and could serve ered general principles; when these had been asccr-
as a basis for a comj "
gave rise to a senes
works, as the **Decretum'
these were more important since they were based oh when thev are the statement of a general law. Any
more recent and actual legislation. The commenta- changes deemed necessary could be made in teaching
tors of the Decretals were known as Decretalists. The without the necessity of recasting and augmenting the
author of the *' gloss" was Bernard de Botone (d. already numerous and massive collections.
1263); the text was commented on bv the most dis- F. From the Decretals to the Present Time, — ^After
tinfuished canonists; fcimong the best known previous the fourteenth century, except for its contact with
to 9ie sixteenth century, we must mention, after Ber- the collections we have just treated of, canon law
nard of Pa via (" Summa" edited by Laspeyres, 1860), loses its unity. Hie actual law is found m the works
Tancred, archdeacon of Boloena, d. 1230 C^Summa de of the canonists rather than in any specific collec-
liatrimonio", ed. Wundernch, 1841); Godfrey of tion; each one gathers his texts where he can; there
Trani (1245); Sinibaldo Fieschi, later Innocent IV is no one general collection sufficient for the pur-
(1254), whose *' Apparatus in quinque libros decre- pose. It is not a case of confusion, but of isolation
talium" has been frequently reprinted since 1477; and dispersion. The sources of law later than the
Henry of Susa, later Cardinal-BiBhop of Ostia (d. "Corpus Juris" are the decisions of councils, es-
1271), hence "Hostiensis"; his** SummaHostiensis", pecially of the Council of Trent (1545-1563), which
or "Summa aurea" was one of the best known ca- are so varied and important that by themselves they
Doni(»l works, and was printed as early as 1473; Mpr form a short code, though without much order; the
liufl de Fuscarariis (d. 1289); William Durandus {d, constitutions of the popes, numerous but hitherto
1296, Bishop of Mende), sumamed "Speculator", on not officially collected, except the "Bullarium" of
account of nis important treatise on procedure, the Benedict ^V (1747) ; the Kules of the Apostolic
"Specidum judiciale", printed in 1473; Guido de Chancery (q. v.); lastly the decrees, decisions, and
Baysio, the archdeacon", already mentioned; Nico- various acts of the Roman Congregations, jurispru-
las de Tudeschis (d. 1453), also known as "Abbas dence rather than law properly so called. For local
siculus " or simply " Panormitanus " (or also " Abbas law we have provincial councils and diocesan statutes.
junior seu modemus") to distinguish him from the It is true there have been published collections of coun-
" Abbas antiquus", whose name is imknown and who cils and Bullaria. Several Roman Congregations have
commented on the Decretals about 1275); Nicolas also had their acts collected in official publications;
left a "Lectura" on the Decretals, the Liber Sextus, but these are rather erudite compilations or rcper-
and the Clementines. tories. We are to-day farther away than ever from a
For some time longer, the same method of collecting single accurate code of ecclesiasticstl law, owing to the
was followed; not to speak of the private compilations, mass and variety of documents, and also because no
the popes continued to keep up to date the " Decre- regulation is presumed abrogated imless it is abro-
taLs <H Gregory IX; in 1245 Innocent IV sent a col- gated expressly by a new law. From this one can
lection of forty-two decretals to the universities, or- appreciate the utilitv as well as the difficulty of the
dering them to be inserted in their proper places; in edification undertaken by Pius X.
1253 ne forwarded the "initia" or first words of the V. Codification — The method followed, both by
authentic decretals that were to be accepted. Later private individuals and the popes, in drawing up ca-
Gregory X and Nicholas III did likewise, but with nonical collections is rather that of a co-ordinated com-
little profit, and none of these brief supplementary col- pilation or juxtaposition of documents than codifica-
lections survived. The work was again undertaken tion in the modem sense of the word, i. e. a redaction
by Boniface VlII, who had prepared and published an of the laws (all the laws) into an orderly scries of short
official ooUection to complete tne five existing books; precise texts. It is true that antiquity, even the
this was known as the "Sextus" (Liber Sextus). Roman law, did not offer any model diifferent from
dement V also had prepared a collection which, in that of the various collections; that method, however,
•ddltioii to his own decretals, contained the decisions long since ceased to be useful or possible in canon law.
LAW 64 LAW
Since the "closing'' of the ''Corpus Juris" two at- definition of .St. Thomas (I, 2, q. 00, a. 1} a law is a
tempts have been made; the first was of little use, not reasonable ordinance for the common good, promul-
being official; the second, was official, but was not gated by the head of the community. Ecclesiastical
brought to a successful issue. In 1590 the juriscon- law therefore has for its author the head of the Chris-
suit rierre Mathieu, of Lyons, published under the tian community over which he has jurisdiction strictly
title ''Liber septimus'' a supplement to the '' Corpus so called; its object is the common welfare of that
Juris", di video according to the order of the books community, although it may cause inconvenience to
and titles of the Decretals. It includes a selection of individuals; it is adapted to the obtaining of the corn-
papal constitutions, from Sixtus IV to Sixtus V (1471- mon welfare, which maplies that it is ph3rsically and
1590), but not the decrees of the Council of Trent, morally possible for the majority of the commimity to
Tins compilation was of some service, and in a certain observe it; the legislator must mtend to bind his sub-
niunber of editions of the ''Corpus Juris" was in- jects and must make known that intention clearfv;
eluded as an appendix. As soon as the official edition finally he must brin^ the law imder the notice of the
of the " Corpus Juris " was published in 1582, Gregory community. A Law is thus distinguished from a coun-
XIII appointed a commission to brin^ up to date and sel, w^hich is optional not obligatory; from a precept,
complete the venerable collection. Sixtus V hastened which is imposed not on the community but on indi-
the work and at length Cardinal Pinelli presented to vidual menibers; and from a regulation or direction,
Clement VIII what was meant to be a ''^Liber septi- which refers to accessory matters,
mus". For the purpose of further studies the pope The object therefore of ecclesiastical law is all that
had it printed in 1598: the pontifical constitutions and is necessary or useful in order that the society ma^
the decrees of the Council of Trent were inserted in it attain its end, whether there be question of its orgam-
in the order of the Decretals. For several reasons zation, its working, or the acts ot its individual mem-
Clement VIII refused to approve this work and tKe bers; it extends also to temporal things, but only
project was definitively aoandoned. (An abridged indirectly. With regard to acts, the law obliges the
edition of this "Liber Septimus" of Clement VlII individual either to perform or to omit certain acts:
this
little
tinning to grow worse. have "permissive" laws, or laws of forbearance; fi-
Many times during the nineteenth century, espe- nally, tne law in addition to forbidding a given act
cially at the time of the Vatican Council (Collectio may render it, if performed, null and void; these are
Lacensis, VII, 826), the bishops had ureed the Holy "irritant" laws. Laws in general, and irritant laws
See to draw up a complete collection of the laws in in particular, are not retroactive, unless such is ex-
force, adapted to the needs of the day. It is true, their pressly declared by the l^islator to be the case. The
requests have been complied with in r^ard to certain publication or promulgation of the law has a double
matters; Pius X in his "Motu proprio of 19 March, aspect: law must be brought to the knowledge of the
1904, refers to the constitution "ApoBtolicse Sedis" community in order that the latter may be able to
religious congregations with simple vows. * These and erly so called (see PROMULaATiON). Whatever may
several other recent documents were, moreover, be said about the forms used in the past, to-day Hie
drawn up in short precise articles, to a certain extent promulgation of general ecclesiastical laws is effected
a novelty, and the beginning of a codification. PiusX exclusively by the insertion of the law in the official
has at lexigth official^ ordered a codification, in the publication of the Holy See, the "Acta Apostolic®
modem sense of the word, for the whole canon law. Sedis", in compliance with the Constitution "Pro-
In the first year of his pontificate he issued the Motu mulgandi", of rius X, dated 29 September, 1908, ex-
Proprio "Arduum", (De Ecclesi® legibus in unum cept in certain specifically mentioned cases. The law
redigendis) ; it treats of the complete codification and taKcs effect and is binding on all members of the corn-
reformation of canon law. For this purpose the pope mXinity as soon as it is promulgated, aDowing for the
has requested the entire episcopate, grouped in prov- time morally necessary for it to become known, unless
inces, to make known to him the reforms they desire, the le^lator has fixed a special time at which it is to
At the same time he appointed a commission of con- come mto force.
suitors, on whom the initial work devolves, and a com- No one is presumed to be ignorant of the law; only
mission of cardinals, charged with the study and ap- ignorance of fact, not ignorance of law, is excusable
proval of the new texts, subject later to the sanction (Keg. 13 jur. in VI°). Ever^'one subject to the l^gis-
of the sovereign pontiff. The plans of the various lator is bound in conscience to observe the law. A
titles liave been confided to canonists in eveiry coun- violation of the law, either by omission of by act, if
try. The general idea of the future Code includes punishable with a penalty (q. v.). These penalties
(after the preliminary section) four main divisions: may be settled beforehand by the legislator, or they
persons, things (with subdivisions for the sacraments, may be left to the discretion of the judge who imposes
sacred places and objects, ete.), trials, crimes and them. A violation of the moral law or what one's
penalties. It is practically the plan of the " Institu- conscience judges to be the moral law is a sin; a vio-
tiones ", or manuals of canon law. The articles wiU be lation of the exterior penal law, in addition to the sin,
numbered consecutively. The first part of this great renders one liable to a punishment or penalty; if the
work is now almost finished. It is impossible to say will of the legislator is only to oblige tne offender to
what modifications and reforms will be made in the submit to the penalty, the law is said to be "purely
ancient law; we can, however, expect from this penal"; such are some of the laws adopted by civil
great work, to the immensity of which {amplitudo et legislatures, and it is generally admitted that some
moles) Pius X makes allusion, the best results for the ecclesiastical laws are of this kind. As baptism is the
study and practice of ecclesiastical law. gate of entrance to the ecclesiastical sociefy, all those
VI. Ecclesiastical Law. — The sources of canon who are baptized, even non-Catholics, are m principle
law, and the canonical writers, give us, it is true, rules of subject to the laws of the Church; in practice the
action, each w^ith its specific object. We have now to question arises only when certain acts of neretics and
consider all these lai^-s in their common abstract ele- schismatics come before Catholic tribimals; as a gen-
ment, in other words Ecclesiastical Law, its charac- eral rule an irritant law is enforced in such a cajse,
teristics and its practice. According to the excellent imless the legislator has exempted them from its ob-
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servance, for instance, for the f onn of marriage. Gen-
eral lawSi therefore, bind all Catholics wherever they
may be. In the case of particular laws, as one is sul>-,
ject to them in virtue of one's domicile, or even quasi-
domicile, passing strangers are not subject to them,
except in the case of acts performed within the terri-
tory.
The r61e of the legislator does not end with the pro-
mulgation of the law; it is his office to explain and
interpret it ^declaratiOf interpretatio legis). The in-
terpretation IS "official" (cnUfientica) or even "neces-
sary", when it is given by the legislator or by some
one authorized by him for that purpose; it is "cus-
tomary", when it springs from usage or habit; it is
"doctrinal", when it is based on the authoritvof the
learned writers or the decisions of the tribunals. The
official interpretation alone has the force of Law. Ac-
cording to the result, the interpretation is said to be
"comprehensive, extensive, restrictive, correct! ve^"
expressions easily understood. The legislator, and m
the case of particular laws the superior, remains mas-
ter of the law; he can suppress it either totally (abro-
gation), or partiallv (derogation), or he can combine it
with a new law which suppresses in the first law all
that is incompatible witn the second (abrogation).
Laws co-exist as far as they are reconcilable; the more
recent modifies the more ancient, but a particidar law
is not suppressed by a general law, unless the fact is
stated expressly. A law can also cease when its pur-
pose and end cease, or even when it is too difficult to
be observed by the generality of the subjects; it then
falls into desuetude (see CusrroM).
In every society, but especially in a societv so vast
and varied as the Church, it is impossible for every
law to be applicable always and in all cases. Without
suppressing the law, the legislator can permanently
exempt from it certain persons or certam groups, or
certam matters, or even extend the rights of certain
subjects; all these concessions are known as privileges
(q. v.). In the same manner the legislator can dero-
gate from the law in special cases; this is called a dis-
pensation (q. v.). Indults or the powers that the
bishops of the Catholic world receive from the Holy
See, to regulate the various cases that may arise in the
administration of their dioceses, belong to the cate-
gory of privileges; together with the dispensations
granted airectfy by the Holy See, they eliminate any
excessive rigidity of the law, and ensure to ecclesias-
tical legislation a marvellous facility of application.
Without imperilling the rights and prerogatives of the
legislator, but on the contrary strengthening them, in-
dmts impress more strongly on the law of the Church
that humane, broad, mercifid character, mindful of
the welfare of souls, but also of human weakness,
which likens it to the moral law and distingiiishes it
from civil legislation, which is much more external
and inflexible.
VII. The Principal Canonists. — It is impossible
to draw up a detailed and systematic catalogue of all
the works of special value in the study of canon law;
the most distinguished canonists are the subject of
special articles in this Enctclopedia. Those we have
mentioned as commentators of the ancient canon-
ical collections are now of interest only from an his-
torical point of view; but the authors who have writ-
ten since the Council of Trent are still read with
profit; it is in {heir great works that we find our prac-
tioU canon law. Among the authors who have written
on special chapters of the "Corpus Juris", we must
mention (the date refers to the first edition of the
works): Prospero Fagnani, the distinguished secre-
tary of the Sacred Congregation of the Council, "Jus
canonicum seu oommentana absolutissima in quinque
librosDecretalium" (Rome, 1661); Manuel Gonzalez
T^ei (d. 1649), "Commentaria perpetua in singulos
testus juris canonici" (Lyons, 1673); the Jesuit Paul
l4iymann, better known as a moral theologian, "Jus
canonicum seu commentaria in lihros Dccretalium**
(Dillingen, 1666) ; Ubaldo Giraldi, Clerk lU^ular of the
Pious Schools, "Expositio juris pontificu juxta re-
centiorem EcclesisB disciplinam" (Rome, 1769).
Among the canonists who have followed the order
of the titles of the Decretals: the Benedictine Louis
Engel, professor at Salzburg, " Universum jus canon-
icum secundum titulos libr. Decretalium " (Salzburg,
1671) \ the Jesuit Ehrenreich Pirhing, " Universum jus
canomcum" etc. (Dillingen, 1645); the Franciscan
Anaclet Reiffenstuel, "Jus canonicum universum"
(Freising, 1700) ; the Jesuit James Wiestner, " Institu-
tiones canonic®" (Munich, 1705); the two brothers
Francis and Benedict Schmier, both Benedictines and
professors at Salzburg; Francis wrote " Jurisprudentia
canonico-civilis" (Salzburg, 1716); Benedict: "Liber
I Decretalium; Lib. II etc." (Salzburg, 1718); the
Jesuit Francis Schmalzgrueber, "Jus ecclesiasticum
universum" (Dillingen, 1717); Peter Leuren, also a
Jesuit, "Forum ecclesiasticum" etc. (Mainz, 1717);
Vitus Pichler, a Jesuit, the successor of Schmalz-
grueber, "Summa jurisprudentiae sacrae" (Augsburg,
1723); Eusebius Amort, a Canon Regular, "Elementa
juris canonici veteris et modemi" (Ulm, 1757); Amort
wrote also amon^ other works of a very personal char-
acter, "De origme, progressu . . . indulgent iariim "
(Augsbm^, 1735); Carlo Sebastiano Berardi, "Com-
mentaria m jus canonicum universum " (Turin, 1766) ;
also his "Institutiones" and his great work "Gratiani
canonesgenuiniabapocryphisdiscreti", (Turin, 1752);
James Anthony Zallinger, a Jesuit, "Institutiones
juris ecclesiastici maxime privati" (Augsburg, 1791),
not so well known as his "Institutionum juris natur-
alis et ecclesiastici publici libri guinque" (Augsburg,
1784). This same method was followed again in the
nineteenth century by Canon Filippo de Angelis,
" Prselectiones juris canonici", (Rome, 1877); by his
colleague Francesco Santi, " PrsBlectiones", (Ratisbon,
1884 • revised by Martin Leitner, 1903) ; and E. Grand-
clauae, "Jus canonicum" (Paris, 1882).
The plan of the "Institutiones", in imitation of
Lancelotti (Perugia, 1563), has been followed by very
many canonists, among whom the principal are: the
learned Antonio Agustin, Archbishop of Tarragona,
" Epitome juris pontificii veteris" (Tarragona, 1587);
his "De emendatione Gratiani dialogorum libri duo"
(Tarragona, 1587), is worthy of mention; Claude
Fleury, "Institution au droit eccl^siastique" (Paris,
1676); Zeger Bernard van Espen, "Jus ecclesiasticum
universum" (Colore, 1748); the Benedictine Dom-
inic Schram, "Institutiones juris ecclesiastici" (Au^
burff, 1774); Vincenzo Lupoli, "Juris ecclesiastici
praJectiones" (Naples, 1777); Giovanni Devoti, tit-
ular Archbishop of Carthage, " Institutionum canon-
icarum libri quatuor" (Rome, 1785); his "Commen-
tary on the Decretals" has only the first three books
(Rome, 1803); Cardinal So^lia, "Institutiones juris
privati et publici ecclesiastici" (Paris, 1859) and " In-
stitutiones juris publici", (Loreto, 1843); D. Craisson,
Vicar-General of Valence, "Manuale compendium
totius juris canonici" (Poitiers, 1861). School man-
uals in one or two volumes are very numerous and it is
impossible to mention all. We may cite in Italy those
of G. C. Ferrari (1847); Vecchiotti (Turin, 1867); De
Camillis, (Rome, 1869) ; Sebastiano Sanguinetti, S. J.
(Rome, 1884); Carlo Lombardi (Rome, 1898); Gug-
Uelmo SebastianelU (Rome, 1898), etc. For German-
speaking countries, Ferdinand Walter (Bonn, 1822);
F. M. Permaneder, 1846; Rosshirt, 1858; George
Phillips (Ratisbon, 1859: in addition to his large work
in eignt volumes, 1845 sq.); J. Winckler, 1862 (spe-
cially for Switzerland) ; S. Aichner (Brixen, 1862) spe-
cially for Austria; J. F. Schulte (Greissen, 1863) ; F. H.
Vering (Freiburg-im-B.^ 1874); Isidore Silbemagl
(Ratisbon, 1879); H. Laemmer (Freiburg-im-B.,
1886); Phil. Hergenroether (Freiburg-im-B., 1888);
J. Hollweck (Freibuig-im-B., 1905); J. Laurentiui?
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(Freibiu^g-im-B., 1903); D. M, Pnimmer, 1907; J. B.
•Sfigmaller (Freiburg-im-B., 1904). For France: H.
Icard, Superior of Saint-Sulpice (Paris, 1867); M.
Bargilliat (Paris,' 1893); F. Deshayes, " Memento juris
ecclesiastici" (Paris, 1897). In Belgium: De Braban-
d^re (Bruges, 1903). For English-speaking countries:
Smith (Sew York, 1890); Gignac (Quebec, 1901);
Taunton (London, 1906). For Spain: Marian Aguilar
(Santo Domingo de la Cahsaaa, 1904); Cionzales
Ibarra (Valladolid, 1904).
There are also canonists who have written at con-
siderable length either on the whole canon law, or on
special parts of it, in their own particular manner; it is
difficult to give a complete list, but we will mention:
Agostino Barbosa (d. 1639), whose works fill at least
30 volumes; Cardinal J. B. Luca (d. 1683), whose im-
mense "Theatrum veritatis" and "Relatio curiae
romanse" arc his most important works; Pignatelli,
who has touched on all practical questions in his
" CJonsultationes canonicae , 11 folio volumes, Geneva,
1668; Prospero Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV), per-
haps the greatest canonist since the Council of Trent
((J. V.) ; in the nineteenth century we must mention the
different writings of Dominique Bo\;Lix, 15 volumes,
Paris, 1852 sq.; the " ICirchenrecht" of J. F. Schulte,
1856 and of Rudolf v. Scherer, 1886; and above all the
great work of Franz Xavier Wemz, General of the
Society' of Jesus, "Jus decretalium" (Rome, 1898 sq.).
It is miposcible to enumerate the special treatises.
Among repertoires and dictionaries, it will suffice to
cite the *'Prompta Bibhotheca" of the Franciscan
Ludovico Ferraris (Bologna, 1746); the "Diction-
naire de droit canoni(^ue" of Durand de Mai Dane
(Avi^on, 1761), contmued later by Abb6 Andr6
(Pans, 1847) etc.; finely the other encyclopedias of
ecclesiastical sciences wherein canon law has been
treated.
On ecclesiastical public law, the best-known hand-
books are, with Soglia, T. M. Salzano, *'Lezioni di
diritto canonico pubbhco et privato" (Naples, 1845);
Cardinal Camillo Tarquini, Juris ecclesiastici pub-
lici institutiones" (Rome, 1860); Cardinal Felice tJav-
^nis, "Institutiones iuris publici ecclesiastici"
(Rome, 1888); Mgr Adolfo Giobbio, "Lezioni di di-
plomazia ecclesiastical' .(Rome, 1899); Enunan. de la
Pena y Femdndez, "Jus publiciun ecclesiasticum"
(Seville, 1900). For an historical view, the chief work
is that of Pierre de Marca, Archbishop of Toidouse,
"De Concordia sacerdotii et imperii" (Paris, 1641).
For the history of canon law considered in its
sources and collections, we must mention the brothers
Pietro and Antonio Ballerini of Verona, "De antiquis
coUcctionibus et coUectoribus canoniun" (Vemce,
1757); among the works of St. Leo I, in P. L., LIII;
the matter has been recast and completed by Fried-
rich Maassen, "Geschichte der Quellen und der Lit-
eratur des kanonischen Rechts im Abendland", I,
(Graz, 1870) ; for the history^ from the time of Gratian
see J. F. Schulte, "Geschichte der Quellen und der
Literatur des kanonischen Rechts von Gratian bis
zum Gegenwart" (Stuttgart, 1875 s(i.), and "Die
Lehre von der Quellen des katholiscen Kirchen-
rechts" (Giessen, 1860); Philip Schneider, "Die
Lehre von den Kirchenrechtsquellen " (Ratisbon,
1892), Adolphe Tardif, "Histoire des sources du droit
canonique (Paris, 1887); Franz Laurin, "Introduc-
tio in Corpus Juris canonici" (Freiburg, 1889). On
the history of ecclesiastical discipline and institutions,
the principal work is "Ancienne et nouvelle disci-
pline de I'Kglise" by the Oratorian Louis Thomassin
(Lyons, 1676), translated into Latin by the author,
"Vetus et nova disciplina" (Paris, 1688). One may
consult with profit A. J. Binterim, " Die vorzQglich-
sten Denkwttrdigkeiten der christkatolischen Kirche"
(Mainz, 1825); the "Dizionario di erudizione storico-
ecclesiastica by Moroni (Venice, 1840 sq.); also J.
W.Bickell, "Geschichte des Kirchenrechts " (Gies-
sen, 1843); E. Loening, "Geschichte des deutschen
Kirchenrechta (Strasburg, 1878); R. Sohm. "Kir-
chenrecht, I: Die geschichtliche Grundlagen (1892).
A. BOUDINHON.
Law, CrviL, Influence op the Church on. —
Christianity is essentially an ethical religion; and, al-
though its moral principles were meant dii^ectly for
the elevation of the indi\adual, still they could not fail
to exercise a powerful infiuence on such a public insti-
tution as law, the crystallized rule of human conduct.
The law o^Rome escaped this influence to a large ex-
tent^ because much of it wa« compiled before Chris-
tiamty was recognized by the pubhc authorities. But
the leaes barbarorum were more completely interpene-
tratea, as it were, by Christian influences; thev re-
ceived their definite form only after the several na-
tions had submitted to the gentle yoke of Christ. This
influence of the Church is particularly noticeable in
the following matters:
^1) Slavery, — The condition of the slaves was meet
Eitiablc in the ages of antiquity. According to Roman
kw and usage a slave was considered, not as a himian
b^ng, but as a chattel, over which the master had
the most absolute control, up to the point of inflict-
ing death. Gradually, the spirit of Christianity re-
stricted these inhuman rights. From the time of the
Emperor Antoninus Pius (138-61) a master was pun-
ished if he killed his slave without reason, or even
practised on him excessive cruelty (Instit. Just., lib.
I. tit. 8; Dig., lib. I, tit. 6, leges 1,2). The emperor
Constantine (306-37) made it homicide to kill a slave
with malice aforethought, and described certain modes
of barbarous punishment by which, if death followed,
the guilt of homicide was incurred (Cod. Just., lib.
IX, tit. 14). A further relief consisted in facilitating
the manumission or liberation of slaves. According to
several laws of Constantine the ordinary formalities
could be dispensed with if the manumission took place
in the churcn, before the people and the sacred minis-
ters. The clei^ were permitted to bestow freedom
on their slaves m their last will, or even by simple
word of mouth (Cod. Just., lib. I, tit. 13, leges 1, 2).
The Emperor Justinian I (527-65) gave to freed per-
sons the full rank and rights of Roinan citizens, and
abolished the penalty of condemnation to servitude
(Cod. Just., lib. VII, tit. 6; Nov., XXII, cap. viii; Nov.
LXXVIII. pnef. capp. i, li"). Similar provisions were
found in the Barbarian coaes. According to the Bur-
gundian and Visi^othic laws the murder of a slave was
punished; emancipation in the church and before the
priest was permitted and encouraged. In one point
they were ahead of the Roman law; they reco^ized
the legality of the marriage between slaves, m the
Lombardic law, on the authority of the Scriptural
sentence: "Wliom God liath joined together, let nc
man put asunder." The Church could not directly
abolish slavery; she was satisfied with admitting the
slaves within her pale on a footing of eciuality with
others, with counselling patience and submission on
the part of the slave, forbearance and moderaHon on
that of the master. Otherwise she concurred in the
civil legislation, or even went beyond it in some cases.
Thus, the killing of a slave was severely punished
(Counc. of Elvira, A. d. 300, Can. v; Counc. of Epaon,
A. D. 517, Can. xxxiv); a fugitive slave who had taken
refuge in the church was to be restored to his master
only on the latter 's promise of remitting the punish-
ment (Counc. of OrL^ans, a. d. 511, Can. iii, c. vi,
X, lib. Ill, tit. 49); marriage between slaves was recog-
nized as valid (Counc. of Chalons, a. d. 813, Can. xxx;
c. i, X, lib. IV, tit. 9) ; and even the marriage be-
tween a free person and a slave was ratified, provided
it had been contracted with full knowledge (Counc. of
(}ompi6gne, a. d. 757, Can. viii).
(2) Paternal Authority {Potestas Paterna), — Accord-
ing to the Roman law the power of the father over his
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children was as absolute as that of the master over
his slaves: it extended to their freedom and life. The
harsher features of this usage were gradually elimi-
nated. Thus, according to the laws of different em-
perors, the killing of a child either by the father or by
the mother was declared to be one of the greatest
crimes (Cod. Theod., Ub. IX. tit. 14, 15; Cod. Just.,
lib. IX, tit. 17; Dig., Ub. XL VIII, tit. 9, lex 1). Cruel
treatment of chil^en was forbidden, such as the fus
Hberoa noxa dandif i. e., the right of handing children
over to the power of someone ipjured by them (Instit.
Just, lib. IV, tit. 8) ; children could not be sold or given
away to the power of others (Cod. Just., lib. IV, tit.
43, lex 1) ; children that were sold by their father on ac-
count of poverty were to be set free (Cod. Theod., lib.
Ill, tit. 3, lex 1) ; finally, all children exposed by their
parents and fallen into servitude were to become free
without exception (Cod. Just., lib. VIII, tit. 52, lex 3).
The son of a family was entitled to dispose in his last
will of the possessions acquired either m military ser-
vice (peculium ccutrense), or in the exercise of an office
{peetuium quasi castrense), or in any other way (In-
stit. Just., lib. II, tit. 11; c. iv, VI, lib. Ill, tit. 12).
The children could not be disinherited at the simple
wish of the father, but onlv for certain specified rea-
scms based on ingratitude (Nov. CXV. cc. iii sqq.).
(3) Marriage, — In the ancient law of Rome the
wife was, like the rest of the familv, the property of
the husband, who could dispose of her at will. Chris-
tianity rescued woman from this degrading condition
by attributing to her equal rights, and by making her
the companion of the husband. This equality was in
part recognised by imperial laws, which gave to
women the right of controlling their property, and to
mothers the right of guardianship (Cod. Theod., lib.
II, tit. 17, lex 1 ; lib. Ill, tit. 17, lex 4). The boundless
liberty of divorce, which had obtained since the time
of Augustus, was restricted to a certain n\m[iber of
cases. The legislation of the Emperors Constantine
and Justinian on this subject did not come up to the
standard of Christianity, but it approached it and im-
posed a salutary check on the free desire of husband
or wife for separation (Cod. Theod., lib. Ill, tit. 16,
lex 1; Cod. Just., lib. V, tit. 17, leg.8, 10, 11). Woman
was h^hly respected among the barbarian nations;
and with some, like the Visigoths, divorce was for-
bidden exc^t for adultery.
(4) Wills and Testaments. — ^The canon law intro-
duced various modifications in the regulations of the
civil law concerning last wills and testaments; among
them there is one ^raich enforced a particular fairness
in favour of the necessary heirs, such as children. Ac-
cording to Uie Roman law, one who became heir or
l^atee with the condition of & fideicommisaum (i. e.,
ot transmitting his inheritance or legacy to another
after his death) had the right of deducting the fourth
part from the inheritance or legacy, which was not
transmitted; this fourth part being known as the
Trebellian quarter. Again, the necessary heirs, such
as children, nad a claim on a certain part of the inher-
itance. If it hap'pened that the share of the necessary
heir was bmtiened with h fideicommissum, then the
necessary heir was entitled only to deduct the part
coming to him as a necessary heir, but not the Tre-
bellian quarter (Cod. Just., lib. VI, tit. 49, lex 6). The
canon law modified this provision by enjoining that
^the necessary heir in sucn a case was entitled first to
*the deduction of his natural share and then also to the
deduction of the Trebellian quarter from the rest of
the inheritance ^. 16, 18, X, lib. Ill, tit. 26).
(5) Property Rights. — According to a provision in
the Roman law, a man who was forcibly ejected from
hb property could, in order to recover it, apply the
procesB known as the interdidtan unde vi against the
one who ejected hhn directly or indirectly, i. e.,
against him wfaoperpetrated the act of ejection or who
enimidled H^ Bui he could take action against the
heirs of those who ejected him only in so far as they
were enriched by the spoliation, and nunc against a
third owner, who meanwhile had obtained possession
of his former property .(Dig., lib. XI.VIII, tit. 16, lex 1
tit. 17, lex 3). The canon law modified this unfair
measure by decreeing that he who was despoiled of
his property could insist first on being reinstated; if
the matter were brought to the courts, ne could allege
the exceptio apoliif or the fact of spoliation; and, fi-
nally, he was permitted to have recourse to the law
against a third owner who had acquired the property
with the knowledge of its unjust origin (c. 18, X,
lib. II, tit. 13; c. 1, VI, lib. II, tit. 5).
(6) Contracts. — The Roman law distinguished be-
tween pacts (pacta 7ivda) and contracts. The former
could not be enforced by law or a civil action, while
the latter, being clothed m special judicial solemnities,
were binding before the law and the civil courts.
Against this distinction the canon law insists on the
obligation incurred by any agreement of whatever
form, or in whatever manner it may have been con-
tracted (c. 1, 3, X, lib. I, tit. 35).
(7) Prescriptions.-^The Roman law admitted the
right of prescription in favour of him who had been in
good faith only at the beginning of his possession; and
it abstracte<l altogether from the good or bad faith in
either party to a civil action, if it were terminated by
prescription. The canon law required the good faith
in him who prescril)cd for all the time of his posses-
sion; and it refused to acknowledge prescription in the
case of a civil action against a possessor of bad faith
(cc. 5, 20, X, lib. II, tit. 26; c. 2, VI, lib. V, tit. 12, De
Reg. Jur.). (See Prescription.)
(8) Legal Procedure. — ^Tho spirit of Christianity
made itself felt in the treatment of criminals and pris-
oners. Thus prisoners were not to be subjected to in-
human maltreatment before their trial (Cod. Theod.,
lib. IX, tit. 3, lex 1); criminals already sentenced were
not to be branded on the forehead (fjod. Theod., lib.
IX, tit. 40, lex 2) ; the bishops received the right of
interceding for prisoners detained for lighter offences,
and to obtain their freedom on the feast of Easter;
they were likewise empowered to visit the prisons on
Wednesdays or Fridays in order to see that tlie magis-
trates heaped no extra afilictions on the prisoners
(Cod. Theod., lib. IX, tit. 38, leges 3, 4, 6-8; Cod. Just.,
lib. I, tit. 4, leges 3, 9, 22, 23). To all this may be added
the recognition of the right of asylum in the churches,
which prevented a hasty and vindictive administra-
tion of justice (Cod. Theod., lib. IX, tit. 15, lex 4).
A great evil among the Germanic nations was the trial
by ordeals, or juc^j^ments of God. The Church was
unable for some time to suppress them, but at least
she tried to control them, placed them under the di-
rection of the priests, and gave to them a Christian ap-
pearance by prescribing special blessings and cere-
monies for such occasions. The popes, however, were
always opposed to the ordeals as implying a tempting
of God; aecrees to that effect were enacted by Nich-
olas I (858-67), Stephen V (885-91), Alexander II
(1061-73), Celestine III (1191-98), Innocent III
(1198-1216), and Honorius III (1216-27) (cc. 22, 20,
7,C. II, q. 5; cc. 1, 3, X, lib. V, tit. 35; c. 9, X, Ub. Ill,
tit. 50). Another evil consisted in the feuds or san-
guinary conflicts between private persons in revenge
for injuries or murders. The Church could not stop
them altogether, owing to the conditions of anarchy
and barbarism prevailing among the nations in the
Middle Ages; but she succeeded at least in restricting
them to certain periods of the year, and certain days
of the week, by what is known as the treuga Dei, or
"Truce of God". By this institution private feuds
were forbidden from Advent te the Octave of Epiph-
any, from Septuagesima Sundav until the Octave of
Pentecost, and from sunset of tV^ednesday until sun-
rise of Monday. Laws te that effect were enacted as
early as the middle of the eleventh century in neaxW
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68
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all countries of Western Europe — in France, Germany,
Italy, Spain, England. The canon law insisted on
certain principles of fairness: thus, it acknowledged
that a civil action might extend sometimes over three
years, against the ordinary rule (c. 20, X, lib. II, tit.
1); connected questions, such as disputes about pos-
sessions and the right of property, were to be sub-
mitted to the same coiut (c. 1, X, lib. II, tit. 12; c. 1,
X, lib. II, tit. 17) ; a suspected jud^e could not be re-
fused, unless the reasons were manifested and proved
(c. 61, X, lib. II, tit. 28); of two contradictory sen-
tences rendered by different judges the one favouring
the accused was to prevail (c. 26, X, lib. II, tit. 27);
the intention of appealing could be manifested outside
of the court in the presence of good men, if anyone
entertained fear of the judge (c. 73, X, lib. II, tit. 28).
(9) Legislation^ Government^ and Administration of
Justice. — The Church was allowed to exercbe a wide
influence on civil law by the fact that her ministers,
chiefly the bishops and abbots, had a laree share in
framing the leges barbarorum. Practically all the
laws of the barbarian nations were written under
Christian influences; and the unlettered barbarians
willingly accepted the aid of the lettered clergy to re-
duce to writing the institutes of their forefathers.
The co-operation of the clergy is not expressly men-
tioned in all the codes of this kind: in some only the
learned in the law, or, again, the proceres, or nobles, are
spoken of; but the ecclesiastics were, as a rule, the
only learned men, and the higher clergy, bishops and
abbots, belonged to the class of the nobles. Eccle-
siastics— priests or bishops — were certainly employed
in the composition of the "Lex Romana Visigotho-
rum" or **Breviarium Alarici*', the '^Lex Visigotho-
rum" of Spain, the "Lex Alamannorum", the "Lex
Bajuwariorum", the Anglo-Saxon laws, and the ca-
pitularies of the Frankish kings (cf. Stobbe, "Gesch.
der deut. Rechtsquellen", I). The bishops and ab-
bots also had a great share in the government of
states in the MidcQe Ages. They took a leading part
in the great assemblies common to most of the Ger-
manic nations; they had a voice in the election of the
kings; they performed the coronation of the kings;
they lived much at the Court, and were the chief ad-
visers of the kings. The office of chancellor in Eng-
land and in the medieval German Empire was the
highest in the State (for the chancellor was the prime
mmister of tb^ king or emperor, and responsible for all
his public acts; it was the chancellor who annulled in-
iquitous decrees of the king or emperor, and righted all
that was wrong) ; and this office was usually entrusted
to an ecclesiastic, in Germany generally to a distin-
Siished bishop (cf. Stubbs, "Constitutional History of
upland'', I; Waitz, "Deutsche Verfassunesge-
schichte'', VI). The bishops also had a great snare
in the administration of justice. As in the East so
also in the West, they had a general superintendence
over the courts of justice. They always had a seat in
the highest tribunal; to them the injured parties could
appeal in default of justice; and they had the power to
punish subordinate judges for injustice in the absence
of the king. In Spain they had a special chaise to
keep continual watch over the administration of jus-
tice, and were summoned on all great occasions to in-
struct the judges to act with pietv and justice. What
is more, they often acted directly as judges in tem-
poral matters. By a law of the Emperor Constantine
(321) the parties to a litigation could, by mutual con-
sent, appeal to the bishop in any stage of their ju-
dicial tontroversv; and by a further enactment (331)
either party coujd do so even without the consent of
the other. This second part, however, was again ab-
rogated by subsequent legislation.
In the Middle Ages the bishops acted likewise as
judges, both in civil and in criminal matters. In civil
matters the Church drew to its jurisdiction all things
of a mixed character — ^the causa spirituali annexas,
9
which were partly temporal and partly ecclesiastical.
Criminal matters were brought oefore the bishop's
court, which was held usually in connexion with the
episcopal visitation throughout the diocese (cf. Sfig-
mdller, " Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechts", III, 668 s^q^.
The methods employed by the ecclesiastical or episco-
pal courts in a ludicial process were such that they
served as a model for secular courts. At the begin-
ning the proceedings were very simple; the bishop de-
cided the case presented to him witn the advice of the
body of presbyters, but without any definite formal-
ities. After the twelfth century the Church elaborated
her own method of procedure, with such comparative
perfection that it was imitated to a large extent hy
modem courts. Several principles pre^mled in this
regard: first, all essential parts of a trial were to be re-
corded in writing — such as the presentation of the
complaint, the citation of the defendant, the proofs,
the deposition of witnesses, the defence^ and the sen-
tence; secondlv, both parties were entitled to a full
opportunity of presenting all material relating^ to the
accusation or to the defence; thirdly, the parties in a
litigation had the right of appealing to a higher court
after the lapse of the ordinary term for a trial (which
was two years) ; the party dissatisfied with the deci-
sion was permitted to appeal within ten days after the
rendering of the sentence (cf . Sfigmiiller, " Lehrbuch
des Kirchenrechts'*, III, 668 sqq.).
(10) Sacred Scripture in Legislation. — A last in-
stance of the influence of Christianity on legislation is
found in the appeal to the books of Sacred Scripture in
support of civil laws. In the Roman law there is
hardly any reference to Scripture. And that is not
surprising, since the spirit of Roman legislation, even
under the Christian emperors, was heathen, and the
emperor — the princijns voluntas — was conceived of as
the supreme and ultimate source of legislation. On
the contrary, the codes of the barbarian nations are
replete with quotations from Scripture. In the pro-
logue to several of them reference is made to the legis-
lation given by Moses to the Jewish people (cf . Stobbe,
"Gesch. der deut. Rechtsquellen", I, 67). Mention
has been made above of a Ix>mbardic law which recog-
nizes the legality of marriages among slaves on the
authority of the Scriptural text: "Wnom God hath
joined together, let no man put asunder " (Matt., xix,
6; Mark, x, 9). Many other examples may be found,
e. ^., in the " Leges Visijgothorum and in the captu-
laries of the Frankish kings, where almost every hook
of the Old and New Testament is resorted to for argu-
ment or illustration. It will suffice to open the pajgee
in the editions of these codes by Zeumer, Boretius,
and Krause, in the "Mon. Germ. Hist.: L^es'', sect.
I, 1, Sect. II, 1, 2, where the exact references to the
Scriptural passages are marked in foot-notes.
Besides the wor&, already quoted, of Stvbbb and Waiti.
see Permaneder in Kxrchenlex., s. v. Civilrecht vend Civil'
proteaa, Einfluaa der Kxrche auf dieteWen; Milman, Hittory of
Latin Chriatianity, I (New York, 1896): Schaft, Hiaiory of Ike
Christian Church, III (5th ed.. New York, 1803): QLAsaotf.
Hiatoire du droit H dea inalitutiona de la France, I (Paris, 1887);
DiQBT, Morea Catholici, or Agea of Faith (3 vols., London, 1841-
47); Genqler. Einfluaa d. Chriitenthuma aufd. deutache RediU-
leben (Erlangen, 1884); Kober, Einfiuaa d. Kirche u. thrar
Oeaetzgebimg auf Oesittung . . . im Mittelalter in Tab. TheoL
Quartalachrift (1888). 443, 466; TROPLONa, De VinAuenee du
ckriatianiame aur U droit romain (reprint, Toure, 1003); Grupp,
Culturgeach. dea MiUelaliers (Stuttgart, 1894-97); AllaxOj Laa
Eaclavea chrltiena (Paris, 1900) ; Kurth, Oriainea de la dmliaa-
tion modeme (Paris, 1898); Ratzinger, Oeach. d. kirchl. Armen-
pflege (Freiburg, 1884); Lalxxmakt, Hiat. de la eharitS (Paris, •
Francis J. Schasfbr.
Law, Common (Lat. communis^ general, of general
application; lexy law). The term is of English origin
and is used to describe the juridical principles and
general rules regulating the possession, use and inheri-
tance of property and the conduct of individuals, the
origin of wluch is not definitely knowq^ which have
been observed since a remote period of antiquity, and
LAW
69
LAW
which are based upon immemorial iisages and the de-
taeioQB of the law courts as distinct from the lex
9cnpta; the latter consisting of imperial or kingly
edicts or express acts of legislation. That pre-eminent
English lawyer and law-writer, Sir *WilIiam Black-
stone, states in his *' Commentaries upon the Laws of
England" that the common law consists of rules
properly called leges non scripUB, because their ori^nal
institution and authority were not set down in writing
as Acts of Parliament are, but thev receive their bino-
ing power and the force of laws, by long immemorial
usage, and by their universal reception throughout the
kingdom; and, quoting from a famous Roman author,
Aulus Gellius, he follows him in defining the common
law as did Gellius the Jus non scriptum as that which
is "tacito illiterate hominum consensu et moribus ex-
pressum" (expressed in the usage of the people, and
accepted by the tacit imwritten consent of men).
Wnen a community emerges from the tribal con-
dition into that degree of social development which
constitutes a state and, consequently, the powers of
government become defined with more or less distinct-
ness as legislative, executive, and judicial, and the ar-
bitration of disputes leads to the establishment of
courts, the commimity finds itself conscious of certain
rules regarding the conduct of life, the maintenance of
liberty, and the securitv of property which come into
heiDf at the very twilight of civilisation and have been
consistently observed from age to age. Such were the
usages and customs, having the^ force of law which be-
came the inheritance of the English people and were
first compiled and recorded by Alfred the Great in his
famous "Dome-book" or "Liber JudiciaUs", pub-
lished by him for the general use of the whole King-
dom. That famous depositoiy of laws was referred to
in a certain declaration of King Edward, the son of
Alfred, with the injunction : " Omnibus qui reipublicse
prsBSunt etiam atque etiam mando ut omnibus aequos se
pnebeant judices, perinde ac in judiciali hbro scnptum
habetur: nee quicquam formident quin jus commune
audacter libereque dicant" (To all who are charged
with the administration of public affairs I give the
ei^ress command that they show themselves in all
things to be just judges precisely as in the Liber Judi-
dalis it is written; nor shall any of them fear to de-
clare the common law freely and courageously).
In modem times the existence of the "Liber Judi-
dalis" was the subject of ^reat doubt, and such doubt
was expressed by many writers upon the constitutional
history of England, including lx)th Hallam and Tur-
ner. After their dav the manuscript of the work was
brouf^t to light and waspublished both in Saxon and
English by the Record Commissioners of England in
the first volume of the books published by them under
the title, " The Ancient Laws and Institutes of Eng-
land". The profound religious spirit which governed
King Alfred and his times clearly appears from the
fact that the "Liber JudiciaHs" began with the Ten
Commandments, followed by many of the Mosaic pre-
cepts, added to which is the express solemn sanction
given to them by Christ in the Gospel: " Do not think
that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets; I
am not come to destroy but to fulfil. " After quoting
the canons of the Apostolic Council at Jerusalem, Al-
fred refers to the Divine commancbnent, " As ye would
that men should do to you, do ye also to them", and
then declares, " From this one doom, a man may re-
member that he judge every one righteously, he need
heed no other doom-book." The original code of the
common law compiled by Alfred was modified by reason
of the Danish invasion, and from other causes, so that
when the eleventh century began the common law of
England was not uniform but consisted of observances
of different nature prevailing in various districts, viz:
Meicen Lage, or Mercian laws, governing many of the
midland counties of England and those Ix)rdoring
Upon Wales, the country to which the ancient Britons
had retreated at the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasion.
These laws were, probably, influenced by and inter-
mixed with the British or Druidical customs. An-
other distinct code was the West-Saxon Lage (Laws
of the West-Saxons) governing counties in the south-
em part of England irom Kent to Devonshire. This
was, probably, identical for the most part with the
code which was edited and published by Alfred. The
wide extent of the Danish conquest is shown by the
fact that the Dane Lage, or Danish law. was the code
which prevailed in the rest of the mialand counties
and, also, on the eastern coast. These three systems of
law were codified and digested by Edward the Con-
fessor into one system, which was promulgated
throughout the entire kingdom and was universally
observed. Alfred is designated by early historians
as Legum Anglicanarum Conditor; Edward the Con-
fessor as Legum Anglicanarum Restilutor.
In the days of the Anglo-Saxon kings the courts of
justice consisted principally of the county courts.
These county courts were presided over by the bishop
of the diocese and the ealdorman or sherm, sitting en
banc and exercising both ecclesiastical and civil juris-
diction. In these courts originated and developed the
custom of trial by jury. Prior to the invasion led by
WiUiam the Norman, the common law of England pro-
vided for the descent of lands to all the males without
any right of primogeniture. Military service was re-
quired in proportion to the area of each free man's
land, a system resembling the feudal system but not
accompanied by all its hardships. Penalties for crime
were moderate; few capital punishments being in-
flicted and persons convicted of their first offence be-
ing aUowed to commute it for a fine or weregild; or in
default of payment, by surrendering themselves to
life-long bondage. The legal system which thus re-
ceived form under the direction of the last Saxon King
of England, was common to all the realm and was
designated .as " Jus commune " or Folk-right.
In contradistinction to English jurisprudence the
Civil Law of Rome prevailed throughout tne Continent.
William the Conqueror brought with him into England
jurists and clerics thoroiighly imbued with the spirit
of the civil law and distinctly adverse to the English
^tem. However, the ancient laws and customs of
England prevailing before the Conquest, withstood
the shock and stress of opposition and remained with-
out impairment to any material extent. The first
great court of judicature in England after the Con-
quest was the Aula Regis or Eang's Court wherein the
king either personally or constructively administered
justice for the whole kingdom. The provision in
Magna Charta to the effect that the King's Court of
Justice should remain fixed and hold its sessions in one
certain place, instead of being a peripatetic institu-
tion, constitutes historic evidence of the existence of
such a court and, also, gives expression to the public
discontent created by the fact that its sessions were
held at various places and thus entailed great expense
and trouble upon litigants. In later days, the Aula
Regis became obsolete and its functions were divided
between the three great common-law courts of the
realm, viz; the Court of King's Bench, the Court of
Common Pleas, and the Court of Exchequer. The
Court of King's Bench was considered the highest of
these three tribunals, although an appeal might be
taken from the decisions thereof to the House of Lords.
The Court of Common Pleas had jurisdiction over or-
dinary civil actions, while the Court of Exchequer was
restricted in its j urisdiction to causes affectin g tne royal
revenues. Besides these courts the canon law was
administered by the Catholic clergy of England in cer-
tain ecclesiastical courts called " CurisB Christianitatis "
or Courts Christian. These courts were presided oyer
by the archbishop and bishops and their derivative
officers. The canon law at an early date laid down
the rule that ' ' Sacerdotes a regibus honorandi sunt« non
XJLW 70 XJ^W
telicandi, "i.e. the clergy are to be honoured by kings, ing of the ecclesiastical state and of eodesiaBtical pep-
t not to be judged by them, based on the tradition sons "and all manner of errors, heresies, sehisma,
that when some petitions were brought to the Em- abuses, offences, contempts and enormities". This
peror Constantine, imploring the aid of his authority court was the agent by which most oppressive acts
against certain of his bishops accused of oppression were committed and was justly abolish^ by statute,
and injustice, he caused the petitions to be burned in 16 Car. I, c. XI. An attempt was made to revive it
their presence bidding them farewell in these words, during the reign of King James II.
" Ite et inter vos causas vestras discutite, quia dignum The Chiuxh of England was the name given to that
non est ut nos judicemus deos" (judge your own portion of the laity and clergy of tl^ Caw(^c Church
cases; it is not meet that we should judge sacred men), resident in England during the da3r8 of the Anglo-
The ecclesiastical courts of England were: (1) The Saxon monarchy and during the history of England
Archdeacon's Court which was the lowest in point of under William the Conqueror and his successors down
i'urisdiction in the whole ecclesiastical polity. It was to the time when Henry VIII assumed unto himself
leld by the archdeacon or, in his absence, before a the position of spiritual and temporal head of the
judge appointed by him and called his official. Its English Church. Prior to the time of Heniy VIII, the
jurisdiction was sometimes in concurrence with and Church of England was distinctly and avowedly a part
sometimes in exclusion of the Bishop's Court of the of the Church universal. Its prerogatives and its con-
diocese, and the statute 24 Henr. VlII, c. XII, pro- stitution were wrought into the fibre of the common
vided for an appeal to the court presided over by the law. lis ecclesiastical courts were recognized by the
bishop. (2) The Consistory Court of the diocesan common law — the jus publicum of the kingd<Hn — and
bishop which held it^ sessions at the bishop's see for clear recognition was accorded to the right of appeal to
the trial of all ecclesia^stical causes arising within the the sovereign pontiff; thuspractically making the pon-
diocese. The bishop's chancellor, or his commissary, tiff the supreme judge for fmgland as he was for the r^
was the ordinary' judge; and from his adjudication an mainder of Christendom in all ecclesiastical causes,
appeal lay to the archbishop of the province. (3) The The civil courts rarelv sought to trench upon the do-
CJourt of Arches was a court of appeal belonging to the main of ecclesiastical affairs and conflict arose only
Archbishop of Canterbury, and tne judge of such court when the temporalities of the church were brought
was called the Dean of the Arches because in ancient within the scope of litigation. The common law is
times he held court in the church of St. Mary le bow chiefly, however, to be considered in reference to its
(Sancta Maria de arcubus), one of the churches of protection of purely. human interests- As such it
liondon. (4) The Court of Peculiars was a branch of pro\'ed to be powerful, efficient and imposing. The
and annexed to the Court of Arches. It hml jurisdio- Court of King's Bench, Common Pleas and the Ex-
tion over all those parishes dispersed throughout the chequer, together with the High Court of Chancery,
Provinceof Canterbury- in the midst of other dioceses, were justly famous throughout Christendom. The
which were exempt from the ordinary's jurisdiction original Anglo-Saxon juridical system offered none but
and subject to the metropolitan only. All ecclesiasti- simple remedies comprehended, for the most part, in
cal causes arising within these peculiar or exempt ju- the award of damages for any civil wrong and in the
risdictions were, originally, cognizable by this court, delivery to the proper owners of land or chattels
From its decisions an appeal lay, formerly, to the wrongfully withheld. Titles of an equitable nature
pope, but during the reign of Henry VIII this right of were not recognized and there was no adequate
appeal was abolished by statute and therefor was sub- remedy for the breach of such titles. The preven-
stituted an appeal to the king in Chancery. (5) The tion of wrong by writs of injunction was unknown.
Prerogative Court was established for the trial of tes- The idea of a juridical restoration of conditions
tamentaiy causes where the deceased had left " bona which had been disturbed by wrongful act as well as
notabilia (i. e. chattels of the value of at least one the idea of enforcing the specific performance of con-
hundred shillings) within two different diocr^es. In tracts had never matured into either legislation or
that case, the probate of wills belonged to the arch- judicial proceedings. Such deficiencies in the juriS'
bishop of the province, by way of special prerogative, prudence of the realm were gradually supplied, under
and all causes relating to the wills, administrations or the Norman kings, by the royal prerogative exercised
legacies of such j)ersons were, originally, cognizable through the agency of the lord chancellor by special
therein before a ludge appointed by tHe archbishop adjudications based upon equitable principles. In the
and called the Judge of the Prerogative Court. From course of time, a great Court of Clianceiy came into
■ this court an appeal lay (until 25 Henr. VIII, c. XIX) being deriving its name from the fact that its presiding
to the pope; and after that to the king in Chancery, judge was the lord chancellor. In this court were
These were the ancient courts. After the religious administered all the great principles of equity jiuis-
revolution had been inaugurated in England by prudence. The lord chancellor possessed as one of his
Henry "\T[ II, a sixth ecclesiastical court was created by titles that of Keeper of the King's Conscience; and,
that monarch and designated the Court of Delegates hence, the High Court of Chancery was often called a
(jvdices delegati)^ and such delegates were appointed Court of Conscience. Its procedure did not involve
by the king's commission under his great seal, issuing the presence of a jury and it differed from the courts of
out of chancer}', to represent his royal person and to common law in its mode of proof, mode of trial, and
hear ordinary ecclesiastical appeals brought before mode of relief. The relief administered was so ample
him by virtue of the statute which has lx?eii mentioned in scope as to be conformable in all cases with the
as enacted in the twenty-fifth year of his reign. This absolute requirements of a conscientious regard for
commission was frequently filled with lords, spiritual justice. Among the most eminent of the Chancellors
and temporal, and it^ personnel was always composed of England was Sir Thomas More who laid down lus
in part of judges of the courts at Westminster and of life rather than surrender the Catholic Faith, and Lord
Doctors of the Civil Law. Supplementary to these Bacon who was the pioneer in broadening the scope of
courts were certain proceedings under a special tribu- modem learning. After the time when courts became
nal called a Commission of Review, which was ap- established and entered upon the exercise of their
pointed in extraordinary cases to revise the sentences various functions, the common law developed gradu-
of the Court of Delegates; and, during the reign of ally into a more finished system because of the fact
Elizabeth, another court was created, called the Court that judicial decisions were considered to be an exposi-
of the King's High Commission in C'ases Ecclesiastical, tion of the common law and, consequently, were the
This court was created in onler to supply the place of chief repository of the law itself. For this reason the
the popt^'s appt^llato jnristiiction in reganl to causes observance of preoetlenta is a marked feature in Eng-
appcrtaining to the reformation, onlering and correct- lish jurisprudence and prevails to a much greater ex«
XJLW
71
LAW
tent than under other ^tems. As the law is deemed
to be contained in the decisions of the courts, it neces-
sarily follows that the rule to be observed.in any partio-
ular proceeding must be found in some prior aecision.
Wnen ^e period of English colonization in America
began, the aborigines were found to be wholly uncivil-
lE^ and, consequently, without any system of juris-
prudence, whatsoever. Upon the theory that the
English colonists carried with them the entire svstem
of the English law as it existed at the time of their
migration from the fatherland, the colonial courts
adopted and acted upon the theory that each colony,
at the very moment of its inception, was sovemed by
the legal system of England mcluding me juridical
principles administered by the common law courts
and by the High Court of Chancery. Thus, law and
equity came hand in hand to America and have since"
beoi the common law of the former English colonies.
When the thirteen American colonies achieved their
independence, the English common law, as it existed
with its legal and eouitable features in the year 1607,
was universallv held by. the courts to be the common
law of each of the thirteen states which constituted
the new confederated republic known as the United
States of America. As the United States have in-
creased in number, either by the admission of new
states to the Union carved out of the ori^nal undivided
territory, or by the extension of territorial area through
purchase or conouest, the common law as it existed at
the close of the War of the American Revolution has
been held to be the common law of such new states
with the exception that, in the State of Louisiana, the
civil law of Rome, which ruled within the vast area
originally called Louisiana, has been maintained, sub-
ject only to subsequent legislative modifications. The
I)ominion of Canada is subject to the common law
with the exception of the Province of Quebec and the
civil laws of that province are derived from the old
customary laws of France, particularly the Custom <^
Paris, in uke manner as the laws of the English-speak-
ing provinces are based upon the common law of Eng-
lana. In process of time, the customary laws have
been modined or replaced by enactments of the Im-
perial and Federal parliament and by those of the
provincial parliament; they were finally codified in
the year 1866 upon the model of the Code Napoleon.
However, the criminal law of the Province of Quebec is
founded upon that of England and was to a great
extent codified by the federal statute of 1892. Prac-
tice and procedure in civil causes are governed by the
Code of Civil Procedure of the year 1897.
The common law of England is not the basis of
the jurisprudence of Scotland ; that country having
adhered to the civil law as it existed at the time of the
union with England except so far as it has been modi-
fied b}r subsequent legislation. The English common
law with the exceptions which have been noted pre-
vails throughout the English-speaking world. Mexico,
Central America, and South America, with the excep-
tion of an English Colony and a Dutch Colony, remain
under the sway of the civil law. The common law of
England has been the subject of unstinted eulogy and
it is, undoubtedly, one of the most splendid embodi-
ments of human genius. It is a source of profound
satisfaction to Catholics that it came into being as a
definite system and was nurtured, and to a great ex-
tent admmistered, during the first ten centuries of its
existence by the clergy oT the Catholic Church.
Reevbs, UitUny of the EnglUh Law (Philadelphia, 1880);
BLACKcrroinB, Canunentaries on the lAiwe of England, Shars-
WOOD etOtUm (Philadelphia, 1875); Pollock and MArnuiKD.
rik« ffialm of J?n0ltc& Law (Boston. 1875); Kent. CommenlA-
lift upom Anurican Laiw (12th ed., Boston, 1873).
John Willey Wilus.
Law, DzvxNB, Moral Aspect op. — Di\'ine Law is
that which is enacted by God and made known to man
through revelati(m. We distinguish between the Old
Law, contained in the Pentateuch, and the New Law,
which was revealed by Jesus Christ and is contained in
the New Testament. The Divine Law of the Old Tes-
tament, or the Mosaic Law, is commonly divided into
civil, ceremonial, and moral precepts. The civil legis-
lation regulated the relations of the people of God
among themselves and with their neighbours; the
ceremonial r^a^ulated matters of religion and the wor-
ship of God; the moral was a Divine code of ethics.
In this article we shall confine our attention exclu-
sively to the moral precepts of the Divine Law. In the
Old Testament it is contained for the most part and
summed up in the Decalogue (Ex., xx, 2-17; Lev.,
xix. 3, 11-18; Deut., v, 1-33).
The Old and the New Testament, Christ and His
Apostles, Jewish as well as Christian tradition, agree
in asserting that Moses wrote down the Law at the
direct inspiration of God. God Himself, then, is the
lawgiver, Moses merely acted as the intermediary be-
tween God and His people; ho merely promulgated
the Law which he had been inspired to write down.
This is not the same as to say that the whole of the Old
Law was revealed to Moses. There is abundant evi-
dence in Scripture itself that many portions of the
Mosaic legislation existed and were put in practice
long before the time of Moses. Circumcision is an in-
stance of this. The reli^ous observance of the seventh
day is another, and this, indeed, seems to be implied
in the very form in whicn the Third Commandment is
worded: '^Remember that thou keep holy the sabbath
day." If we except the merely positive determinations
of time and manner in which religious worship was to
be paid to God according to this commandment, and
the prohibition of making images to represent God
contained in the first commandment, all the precepts
of the Decalogue are also precepts of the natural law,
which can be gathered by reason from nature herself,
and in fact they were known long before Moses wrote
them down at the express command of God. This is
the teaching of St. Paul — " For when the Gentiles, who
have not the law, do by nature those things that are of
the law; these having not the law [of Moses], are a law
to themselves: who shew the work of the law written
in their hearts^ their conscience bearing witness to
them'' (Rom., li, 14, 15). Although the subsbince of
the Decalogue is thus both of natural and Divine law,
yet its express promulgation by Moses at the com-
mand of God was not without its advantages. The
great moral code, the basis of all true civilization, in
this manner became the clear, certain, and publicly
recognized standard of moral conduct for the Jewish
people, and through them for Christendom.
Because the code of morality which we have in the
Old Testament was inspired by God and imposed by
Him on His people, it follows that there is notning in it
that is immoral or wrong. It was indeed imperfect, if
it be compared with the higher morality of the Gospel,
but, for all that, it contained nothing that Ls blame-
worthy. It was suited to the low stage of civilization
to which the Israelites had at the time attained; the
severe punishments which it prcscrilxMl for trans-
gressors were necessary to bend the stiff necks of a
rude people; the temporal rewards held out to those
who observed the law were adapted to an luispiritiial
and carnal race. Still its imperfections must not be
exaggerated. In its treatment of the poor, of strangers,
of slaves, and of enemies, it was vastly superior to the
civilly more advanced Code of Hammurabi and other
celebrated codes of ancient law. It did not aim merely
at regulating the external acts of the people of God, it
curbed also licentious though t.s and covetous desires.
The love of Go<l and of one's neigh})our was the great
precept of the Law, its summary and abridgment, that
on which the whole Law and the Prophets depended.
In spite of the undeniable superiority m this respect of
the Mosaic I^iw to the other codes of antiquity, it has
not escaped the adverse criticism of heretics in all ages
L4W
72
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and of Rationalists in our own day. To meet this ad-
verse criticism it will be sufficient to indicate a few
general principles that should not be lost sight of, and
then to treat a few points in greater detail.
It has Always l^n freely admitted by Christians
that the Mosaic Law is an imperfect institution; still
Christ came not to destroy it but to fulfil and perfect
it. We must bear in mind that God, the Creator and
Lord of all things, and the Supreme Judge of the world,
can do and command things which man the creature
is not authorized to do or command. On this principle
we may account for and defend the conmiand givenl>y
God to exterminate certain nations, and the permis-
sion given by Him to the Israelites to spoil the Egyp-
tians. The tribes of Chanaan richly deserved the fate
to which they were condemned by God; and if there
were innocent people among the guil^, God is the
absolute Lord of life and death, and He commits no
injustice when He takes away what He has given.
Besides, He can make up by ^fts of a higher oraer in
another life for sufferings which have been p^atiently
endured in this life. A great want of historical per-
spective is shown by those critics who judge the Mo-
saic Law by the humanitarian and sentimental canons
of the twentieth century. A recent writer (Keane,
*'The Moral Argument against the Inspiration of the
Old Testament in the Hibbert Journal. October,
1905, p. 155) professes to be very much shocked by
what IS prescribed in Exodus, xxi, 5-6. It is there
laid down that if a Hebrew slave who has a wife and
children prefers to remain with his master rather than
^o out free when the sabbatiqal year comes round, he
IS to be taken to the door-post and have his ear bored
through with an awl, and then he is to remain a slave
for lite. It was a sign and mark by which he was
known to be a hfelong slave. The practice was doubt-
less already familiar to the Israelites of the time, as it
was to their neighbours. The slave himself probably
thought no more of the operation than does a South
African beauty, when her lip or ear is pierced for the
lip-ring and tne ear-ring, which in her estimation are
to add to her charms. It is really too much when a
staid professor makes such a prescription the ground
for a grave charge of inhumanity against the law of
Moses. Nor should the institution of slavery be made
a (ground of attack against the Mosaic legislation. It
existed everywhere and although in practice it is apt
to lead to many abuses, still, in the mild form in which
it was allowed among the Jews, and with the safe-
guards prescribed by the Law, it cannot be said with
truth to be contrary to sound morality.
Polygamy and divorce, though less insisted on by
Rationalist critics, in reality constitute a more serious
difficulty against the holiness of the Mosaic Law than
any of those which have just been mentioned. The
difficulty is one which has engaged the attention of the
Fathers and theologians of the Church from the begin-
ning. To answer it they take their stand on the
teaching of the Master in the nineteenth chapter of St.
Matthew and the parallel passages of Holy Scripture.
What is there said of divorce is applicable to plurality
of wives. The strict law of marriage was made known
to our first parents in Paradise: *"They shall be two
in one flesh^* (Gen., ii. 24). When the sacred text
says two it excludes polygamy, when it says one flesh
it excludes divorce. Amid tne general laxity with
regard to marriage which existed among the Semitic
tribes, it would nave been difficult to preserve the
strict law. The importance of a rapid increase among
the chosen people of God so as to enable them to de-
fend themselves from their neighbours, and to fulfil
their appointed destiny, seemed to favour relaxa-
tion. The example of some of the chief of the
ancient Patriarchs was taken by their descendants
as being a sufficient indication of the dispensation
granted by God. With grpecial safeguards annexed
to it Moees adopted the Divine dispensation on ac-
count of the hardness of heart of the Jewish people.
Neither polygamy nor divorce can be said to be con-
trary to the primary precepts of nature. The primary
end of marriage is compatible with both. But at least
they are against the secondary precepts of the natural
law: contrary, that is, to what is required for the well-
ordering of human life. In these secondary precepts,
however, God can dispense for good reason if He sees
fit to do so. In so doing He uses His sovereign author-
ity to diminish the right of absolute equauty which
naturally exists between man and woman with refer-
ence to marriage. In this way, without suffering any
stain on His holiness, God could permit and sanction
polygamy and divorce in the Old Law.
Christ is the author of the New Law. He claimed
and exercised supreme legislative authority in spirit-
ual matters from the beginning of His pubhc life until
His Ascension into heaven. In Him the Old Law had
its fulfilment and attained its chief purpose. The
civil legislation of Moses had for its object to form and
preserve a peculiar people for the worship of the one
true God, and to prepare the way for the coming of the
Messias who was to oe bom of the seed of Abraham.
The new Kingdom of God which Christ founded was
not confined to a single nation, it embraced all the
nations of the ^ulh, and when the new Israel was con-
stituted, the old Israel with its separatist law became
antiquated ; it had fulfilled its mission. The ceremonial
laws of Moses were types and figures of the purer,
more spiritual, and more efficacious sacrifice and sacra-
ments of the New Law, and when these were instituted
the former lost their meaning and value. By the death
of Christ on the Cross the New Covenant was sealed,
and the Old was abrogated, but until the Gospel haa
been preached and duly promulgated, out of deference
to Jewish prejudices^na out of respect for ordinances,
which after all were Divine, those who wished to do so
were at liberty to conform to the practices of the Mo-
saic Law. When the Gospel had been duly promul-
gated the civil and ceremonial precepts of the Law of
Moses became not only useless, but false and super-
stitious, and thus forbidden.
It was otherwise with the moral precepts of the
Mosaic Law. The Master expressly taught that the
observance of these, inasmuch as they are prescribed
by nature herself, is necessary for salvation — "If
thou wouldst enter into life keep the commandments ".
— those well-known precepts of the Decalogue. Ot
these commandments those words of His are especially
true — "I came not to destroy the law but to fulfil
it." This Christ did by insisting anew on the great
law of charity towards God and man, which He ex-
plained more fully and gave us new motives for prac-
tising. He corrected the false glosses with which the
Scribes and Pharisees had obscured the law as revealed
by God, and He brushed aside the heap of petty ob-
servances with which they had overloaded it, and
made it an intolerable burden. He denounced in un-
measured terms the externalism of Pharisaic observ-
ance of the Law, and insisted on its spirit being
observed as well as the letter. As was suited to a law
of love which replaced the Mosaic Law of fear, Christ
wished to attract men to obey His precepts out of
motives of charity and filial obedience, rather than
compel submission by threats of punishment. He
promised spiritual blessings rather than temporal, and
taught His followers to despise the goods of this world
in order to fix their affections on the future joys of life
eternal. He was not content with a bare observance
of the law, He boldly proposed to His disciples the
infinite goodness and holiness of God for their model*
and urged them to be perfect as their heavenly Father
is perfect. For such as were specially called, and who
were not content to observe the commandments
merely, He proposed counsels of consummate perfec-
tion. By observing these His specially chosen fol-
lowers, not only conquered their vices, but destroyed
LAW
73
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the roots of them, by constantly denying their natural
Sropensities to honoiirs, riches, and earthly pleasures,
till it is admitted bv Catholic theologians that Christ
added no new merely moral precepts to the natural
law. There is of course a moral obligation to believe
the truths which the Master revealed oonceming God,
man's destiny, and the Church. Moral obligations, too,
arise from the institution of the sacraments, some ot
which are necessarv to salvation. But even here noth-
ing is added directly to the natural law; given the rev-
elation of truth by God. the obligation to believe it
follows naturally for all to whom the revelation is
made known; and given the institution of necessary
means of grace and salvation, the obligation to use
them also follows necessarily.
As we saw above, the Master abrogated the dispen-
sations which made polygamv and divorce lawful for
the Jews owing to the s]>ecial circumstances in which
they were placed. In this respect the natural law was
restored to its primitive integnty. Somewhat similarly
with regard to the love of enemies, Christ clearly ex-
plained the natural law of charity on the point, and
urged it against the perverse interpretation of the
Pharisees. The Law of Moses had expressly enjoined
the love of friends and fellow-citizens. But at the
same time it forbade the Jews to make treaties with
foreigners, to conclude peace with the Anunonites,
Moabites, and other neighbouring tribes; the Jew was
allowed to practise usury in dealing with foreigners;
God promised that He would be an enem^r to the
enemies of His people. From these and similar pro-
visions the Jewish doctors seem to have drawn the
conclusion that it was lawful to hate one's enemies.
Even St. Augustine, as well as some other Fathers and
Doctors of the Church, thought that hatred of ene-
mies, like polygamy and divorce, was permitted to the
Jews on account of their hardness of heart. It is
clear, however, that, since enemies share the same
nature with us, and are children of the same common
Father, they may not be excluded from the love which,
by the law of nature, we owe to all men. This ob-
Kgation Christ no less clearly than beautifully ex-
pounded, and taught us how to practise by His own
noble example. The Catholic Church by virtue of the
commission given to her by Christ is the Divinely con-
stituted interpjreter of the Divine Law of both the Old
and the New Testament.
St. Thomab, Summa O^eologica (Pannftt 1852); Suarek, De
Letnbua (Paris, 1856); Fesch. PreglecHones dogmatica, V (Frei-
buic. 1900) ; ]^abbnbaubr, Commentariut in Evangdia (Paris,
1882); GiQOT^ Biblical Lectures (New York, 1901); Palmisri,
De Matrimonto (Rome, 1880); Pei/t, HiaUnre de Vancien Testa-
ment (Paris, 1901); von HuiCMSUinBR, Commentarius in Bxo-
dum, Leviticum, ueut&vnomium (Paris, 1897, 1901); Vxoou-
Boux, Did. de la Bible (Paris, 1908); Hastings. Diet, of the
BibU CBdinbuigh, 1904).
T. Slater.
Law, International. — International law has been
defined to be " the rules which determine the conduct
of the general body of civilized states in their dealings
with each other" (American and English Encycl. of
Law) . Different writers have given varying views of the
foundation of the law of nations, some holding that it
is foimded merely upon consent and usage, and others
that it is the same as the law of nature, applied to the
conduct of nations in the character of moral persons
susceptible of obligations and laws. Chancellor Kent
holds that neither of these views is strictly true; that
the law of nations is purely positive law founded on
usage, consent, and agreement, but that it must not be
separated entirely from natural jurisprudence, since it
derives its force "from the same principles of ri^ht
reason, the same views of the nature and constitution
of man, and the same sanction of Divine revelation,
as those from which the science of morality is de-
duced ". It follows, then, that by the natural law
every state is bouna to conduct itself towards other
states In accordance with the rules of justice, irre-
spective of the general rules that have arisen from long
established custom and usage. International law is a
part of the law of the land of which the courts take
judicial notice, and municipal statutes are construed
so as not to infringe on its doctrines. ^ The rules of
international law are to be found in writers of recog-
nized authority, in treaties between civilized nations,
in the decisions of international tribunals, in state
papers and diplomatic corresoondence, and its applica-
tion is to be sought especially in the decisions of the
courts of the different nations where the rules have
been defined in Utigated cases, arising especially in the
admiralty where judgment has been sought m prize
cases. The first great modem authority on the sub-
ject was Grotius. His works have been followed by
those of Puffendorf, Burlamaqui, Bynkershoek, and
Vattel. The works of these learned authors have been
adapted and expanded by various writers, so that now
there is a vast body of literature upon the subject
' remesenting great learning and ability.
The law oi nations is essentially the product of
modem times. Ancient nations looked upon strangers
as enemies, and upon their property as lawful prize.
Among the Greeks prisoners of war might lawfully be
put to death or sola into slavery with tneir wives and
children, and there was no duty owed by the nation to
a foreign nation. Some beginnings of diplomatic in-
tercourse mav be traced in the relations of the Greek
states towards one another, by agreements relating to
the burying of the dead and the exchange of prisoners,
while the .^nphictyonic Council affords an instance of
an attempt to institute a law of nations among the
Grecian states themselves. The Romans show
stronger evidence of appreciation of international law,
or at least of the beginnings of it. They had a college
of heralds charged with the Fetial Law relating to
declarations of war and treaties of peace, and as their
power and civilization grew, there came an apprecia-
tion of the moral duty owed by the state to nations
with which it was at war. After the establishment of
the empire, especially in its later periods, the law of
nations became recognized as part of the natural rea-
son of mankind. After the fall of the empire there
was a relapse into the barbarism of earlier ages, but.
when in the ninth century Charlema^e consolidated
his empire imder the influence of Christianity, the law
of nations took on a new growth. As commerce de-
veloped, the necessity of an international law provid-
ing tor the enforcement of contracts, the protection of
shipwrecked sailors and property, and the maintaining
of narbours, became more apparent. Various codes
and regulations containing tnc laws of the sea grad-
ually developed, the most famous of which are the
''Judgments of 016ron", said to have l)een drawn up
in the eleventh century and long recognized in the At-
lantic ports of France and incorporated in part in the
maritime ordinances of Louis XIV; the * Consolato
del Mare", a collection of rules applicable to questions
arising in commerce and navigation both in peace and
war, probably drawn up in the twelfth centur>' and
founaed upon the Roman maritime law and early
maritime customs of the commercial cities of the Medi-
terranean; the *' Guidon de la Mar", which dates from
the close of the sixteenth century and deals with the
law of maritime insurance, prize, and the regulations
foveraing the issue of letters of marque and reprisal,
n addition to these there were various bodies of sea
laws, notably the maritime law of Wisby, the customs
of Amsterdain, the laws of Antwerp, and the constitu-
tions of the Hanseatic League. Ail of these codes con-
tained provisions extracted from the earliest known
maritime code, the Rhodian Laws, which were incor-
porated into the general body of Roman law, and were
recognized and sanctioned by Tiberius and Hadrian.
During the long period between the fall of the Ro-
man Empire and tne definitive beginning of modem
European states the greatest influence working for a
LAW 74 L4W
recognition of international law amon^ all peoples was protect the Christian Church. . . . The Gospel was to
the Church. A common faith, imposing tne same ob- be the law of nations. The State would consolidate
ligation^ upon the individual members of the Church the nations, while the Church would sow tiie seeds of
among all nations, obviously tended to the establish- revealed truth " (Janssen, " History of the German
ment and recognition of rules of justice and morality People ", II, 110 sq.) . In this ideal we find the medie-
as among the nations themselves; and, when the more val conception of the State. Although the ideal was
general acceptance of the obligations of Christianity never completely realized, yet it met such general ac-
became the rule, it followed naturally that the Head ceptance tnat the emperor became the chief protector
of the Church, the pope holding the Divine commis- of law and order and the arbiter between lesser princes,
sion, should become the universal arbiter in disputes The growth of the power of the State gradually dimin-
among nations. For centuries the ^reat o£Bces of ished that of the feudal barons, whose petty conten-
state, especially those having to do with foreign rela- tions and the violence of whose lives were a hindrance
tions, wore held by bishops learned in canon law, and, to the development of international justice. Until
as canon law was based upon Roman law and espe- this phase of the beginnings of civilization changed
cially adapted to the government of the Church whose there was little to ameliorate the brutality of conduct
jurisdiction was not Dounded by state lines, it nat- between warring peoples, except as the individual
urally suggested many of the rules that have found a education of knights in chivalry affected their conduct,
place in mtemational law. The pope became the Another influence of great importance in the forma-
natural arbitrator between nations, and the power to tion of international law were tne general councils of
which appeals were made when the laws of justice and the Church, affecting as they did all Christian nations
morality were flagrantly violated by sovereigns either and laying down rules of faith and discipline binding
in relation to their own subjects or to foreign nations, alike upon individuals and governments. The history
As the empire founded by Charlemagne gained in and development of rules of international law from
power and extent, the controversies precipitated by these early beginnings have been traced to contem-
the conflicting claims of civil and ecclesiastical juris- porary times, and, notwithstanding periods when the
diction developed still further the position of the pope influence of a lofty and Christian ideal of the relations
as the highest representative of the moral power of between nations seems almost to have been lost, it
Christendom. It has been justly said therefore that, will appear that there has been a steady advance in
*' of all the effects of Christianity in altering the polit- the recognition of the existence of a moral law of na-
ical face of Europe throughout all its people, and tions whose sanction is the public opinion of the worid.
which may therefore very fairly be denominated a part So far has this system progressed that its underlying
of its Law of Nations, none are so prominent to ob- principles are, in the main, well-defined, universally
servation during these centuries as those which sprang recognized, and constantly appealed to, both in times
from the influence and form of government of the of war and in times of peace, by all civilized nations.
Church'' (\yard, "Law of Nations , II, 31). At first Rules governing the acciuisition of territorial prop-
pel
known as the Father of Christendom. Under the Holy m the affairs of foreign nations, have all been measur-
Roman Empire from the time of Otho I, as is point^ci ably settled ; and so far as relates to the rights and du-
out by Janssen, there was a close alliance between the ties^ of belligerents and of neutral states in declaring
Church and the State, though they were at no time and carrying on war, the fixing of the character d
identical. "Church and State", he says, "granting property* the regulating of the effect of intercourse
certain presupposed conditions, are two necessary between individuals, many vexed points have also
embodiments of one and the same human society, the been carefully defined and to a large extent settled.
State taking charge of the temporal requirements, and Some of the most delicate questions, such as the right
the Church of the spiritual and supernatural. These to visit and search the blockaded ports of the enemy,
two powers would, however, be in a state of continual and the character of correspondence permitted be-
contention were it not for a Divine Law of equili- tween the subjects or citizens of neutral states and the
brium keeping each within its own limits." He points belligerents, may be considered as well settled and
out further that the original cause of the separation recognized by decisions of the highest courts of all
between the spiritual and temporal powers, as "taught civilized nations as any of the rules of municipal law.
by Pope Gelasius at the end of the nfth century, lies in Earnest and inteUigent efforts to bring about a per-
the law established by the Di\dne founder of the manent court of arbitration have resulted in the for-
Church, Who, * cognizant of human weakness, was mation of an international tribunal at The Hague,
careful that the two powers should be kept separate, which has already l>een accept-od by the voluntary
and each limited to its own province. Christian action of the various nations as a proper forum for the
princes were to respect the priesthood in those things decision of many international questions specially re-
which relate to the soul, and the priests in their turn ferred to it. The principles of arbitration accepted by
to obey the laws made for the preservation of order in the United States and Great Britain in the settlement of
worldly matters; so that the soldiers of God shall not the so-called Alabama Claims and the frequent agree-
mix in temporal affairs, and the worldly authorities ments between the contending parties over questions
shall have naught to say in spiritual things. The of boundary, fisheries, and damages to private prop-
province of each being so marked out, neither power erty of their respective citizens or subjects, have given
shall encroach on the prerogatives of the other, but emphasis to international law. Its rules have en-
confine itsi'lf to its own limit.' " forced respect for private property on the part of con-
" While it is recognized that the kingdoms of this tending armies, and, under certain conditions, when
world, as opposed to the one universal Church, may such is carried by ships, have forbidden the use of oer-
exist and prosper while remaining separate and inde- tain destructive missiles, and in very many ways have
pendent, yet it was thought that the bond with the alleviated the horrors of war. While there must al-
Church would \xi of a higher nature if the partition ways remain questions that no self-respecting nation
walls l)etween people and people were broken down, would be willing to submit to arbitration, yet the field
all nations joined together in one, and the unity of the for the exercise of the latter is indefinitely great, and.
human race under one lord and ruler acknowledged, as the demands of modem civilization, the means or
It was this idea which inspired the popes with the communication between nations, and the develop-
desire to found the Holy Roman Empire, whose ment of trade relations increase, questions more
Emperor would deem it his highest prerogative to frequently arise requiring appeal to some tribunal, ao-
LAW
75
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eeptable to both parties, whose decision shall be final
aiid absolute. Until the revolt against the Church in
the first quarter of the sixteenth century^ this power
of arbitration, as has been stated, rested in the pope.
With the decline of recognition of this moral power,
religious sanctions in the relations between nations
have gradually lessened. Instead of a decision of the
pope, bearing with it the impress of the revealed truth
of religion, the agreements of modem courts of arbi-
tration or other referees for the settlement of interna-
tional disputes have for their sanction the general
sense of justice existing naturally among men,
strengthened by such faith in revealed religion as may
exist among them irrespective of the teaching of the
Church. This is the great difference between the
sanction of modem international law and that existing
previous to the so-called Refc»'mation. Previous to
that event the power of the Church was exercised
merely in a moral way by an appeal to the faith and
consciences of all men and nations, enforcing the de-
crees of the arbiter of Christendom — the pope.
Controversy concerning this arbitration nas been
carried on, at first with great violence, but since with a
calmer and fairer recognition of the exceeding advan-
tage to nascent civilization of such power as that exer-
cised b3r the popes during the Middle Ages. It has
been insisted that the popes not alone wished to vindi-
cate their supreme spiritual power^ but cherished a de-
sire to reduce all princes to a condition of vassalage to
the Roman See. This is a grave error. The Church
has never declared it to be an article of faith that tem-
poral princes, as such, are in temporal matters subject
to the pope. The confusion or thought has ansen
from the fact that in the eyes of the Church the kingly
power has never been looked upon as absolute and un-
limited. The rights of the people were certainly not
less important than those of the ruler, who owed them
a duty, as they owed a duty to him. They did not
exist for his benefit, and his power was to be employed,
not for his own ends, but for the welfare of the nation.
He was to be, above all, the servant of God, the de-
fender of the Church, of the weak, and of the needy.
In many states the monarch was elected only on the
eocpress condition of professing the Catholic Faith and
defending it against attack. In Spain, from the
seventh to the fourteenth century, tne king had to
take such an oath, and. even when it was no longer
formallv administered^ ne was still understood to be
bound by the obligation. The laws of Edward the
Confessor, published by WiUiam the Conqueror and
his suooessors, expressly provide that a king who does
not fulfill his duties towards the Church must forfeit
his title of king. Kings were constantly reminded
that their temporal power was given them for the de-
fence of the Church, and that they should imitate King
David in their submission to God.
With this intimate relation of Church and State, the
dergy, by reason of their education and force of char-
acter and the respect paid to them because of their
office, took an active part in the civic affairs of the
various nations, and, until the controversies arose be
tween them and the emperors who succeeded Charle-
magne, Uie civil and religious powers existed harmoni-
ously in the main. Owing to the limitations of human
nature, and especially because the support of both
Church and State necessarily came from voluntary or
enforced contributions of the people, causes of friction
would arise from time to time between the two pow-
ers. The decrees of the councils of the Church were
confirmed as la'^rs of the empire to secure their being
pot in force by the civil power, and the sentence was
pronounced at Chalcedon (451) that imperial laws
that were contrary to canon law should be null and
void. Freedom and religion were mutually supported
because the Church, in which religion was incorpor-
ated, was at the same time the guardian of freedom.
The power of the pqpe as Head of the Church Univer-
sal 'gainetl somewhat, but not sufficiently to affect in a
very mark^ degree his influence as the iicud of
Christendom from the fact of his becoming a temporal
prince during the eighth century. Again and again
the popes have declared it was part of their duty to
make and preserve peace on all sides; to mediate be-
tween royal families; to hinder wars or bring them to a
speedy close; to defend Christendom against the in-
cursions of the Mohammedans; to incite Christian na-
tions to carry on the crusades for the recovery of the
Holy Places of Jerusalem. Whoever felt himself op-
pressed turned to the Koman See, and, if it did not
give him help, the pope was thought to have neglected
his dutv. " In an age ", says Lingard. ** when warlike
gains alone were prized, Europe would have sunk into
endless w^ars had not the popes striven unceasingly for
the maintonance and restoration of peace. They re-
buked the passions of princes, and checked their un-
reasonable pretensions; their position of common fa-
ther of Christendom gave an authority to their words
which could be claimed by no other mediator; and
their legates spared neither journeys nor labour in
reconciling the conflicting interests of courts, and in
interposing between the swonis of contending factions
the dive-branch of peace " (History of England, IV,
72; quoted by Hergenr6ther). The great Protestant
writer Grotius says: "Quot dissidia sanata sint auc-
toritate Romanae Sedis, quoties oppressa innocentia
ibi prsEsidium reperit, non alium testem quam eun-
dem Blondellum volo" (Hergenrother, "Church and
State", pp. 286-7), i. e., how many quarrels were
healed by the authority of the Roman See, how often
oppressed innocence found support there, the same
Blondel abundantly testifies.
Much misunderstanding as to the attitude of the
popes has arisen from the Bull of Pope Alexander VL
when, acting at the solicitation of the sovereigns oi
Castile, he drew the limits of a line from the North to
the South Pole, 100 Spanish leagues to the west of
the most westerly island of the Azores; all that was
east of the line belonged to Portugal, and all that was
west of it to Spain. By this decision it has been said
that the maxim ** de extemis non iudicat ecclesia" has
been violated, and also the further maxim that the
conversion of subjects to the Catholic Faith takes
nothing from the rights of infidel princes. The true
explanation of this Bull will be found when it is
remembered that the pope was acting as arbitrator
between two nations of explorers, when it was most
desirable that a line of demarcation should be drawn
between the fields to be explored. It was intended
only to prevent dissension and struggles likely
to arise from rival pretensions, and, since by its
terms it precluded any Christian prince from inter-
fering within the boundaries assigned to each nation,
it was a powerful preventive of wrong-doing. It be-
ing admitted that sovereignty over uncivilized peo-
f)les can be claimed under certain conditions by civi-
ized nations, the pope sought only to regulate the
rights of such nations so as to avoid war. It must be
borne in mind, moreover, that the principal motive,
as professed by the Spanish explorers, was not com-
merce or the acquisition of wealth alone, but the con-
version of heathen nations to the Christian Faith.
It will appear from a review of the history of the
centuries from the accession of Charlemagne to the
crown of the Holy Roman Empire until modern times,
the power of the pope as tlie supreme and common
tribunal between nations has been exercised for the
advantage of mankind in the extension of justice to
all. In England, the excommunication of King John
compelled tlie submission of a monarch, who, accord-
ing to the Protestant writer Ward, had "by his vio-
lence and depravity drawn down upon himself the
just detestation of mankind". In the example of
Emperor Lothair of Lorraine in the ninth century, an
instance may be found of an intervention of the pope
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to prevent the repudiation by this monarch of his IjIw-
ful wife in order that he might marry another. The
pope intervened to secure the release of Richard I of
England from the prison of the Duke of Austria and
the emperor. By his interposition in 1193 he pro-
cured the Uberty of the three daughters of King Tan-
cred of Sicily, who had been unjustly carried off and
retained captive by Emperor Henry VI. So in the
case of the infant son of tne King of Aragon. In 1214
Simon de Montfort was compiled to surrender his
Srisoner on the application of the prince's mother,
[any other instances of equal importance show the
reverence of peoples and sovereigns for the pope and
for the fearless and impartial way in which his author-
ity was exercised. The same author, from whom these
instances have been quoted, speaks of the Councils of
the Church. He says they were "composed of dele-
gates from every nation of Christianit^y, and under this
appearance Europe may fairly be said to deserve the
appellation which has sometimes been bestowed upon
it of a Republic of States." He points out that the
two Councils of Lyons give an idea of '* an almost per-
fect Coiui; of Parliament of Christendom, in which the
affairs of sovereigns were discussed, and sovereigns
themselves proceeded against, under all the forms of a
regular trial and sentence" (Ward, "Law of Nations",
II, 55, 59).
The influence of the structure of the Roman State,
with the emperor as the supreme ruler in temporal
matters, educated the minds of the northern peoples,
especially the Germans, who, on the fall of the
Empire, gradually took possession of its former ter-
ritory, ^ter the acceptance of Christianity as the
state religion in the reign of Constantine, it was not
difficidt for even the most ignorant of men to grasp an
idea of the dual powers ruling hxmian life — that of the
sovereign with supreme jurisdiction in temporal mat-
ters, and that of tne pope, the primate of all the bish-
ops, the successor of St. Peter, the Head of the
Church, the visible representative of the moral power
of God on earth. While, in his human capacity, the
pope in any given era may have been affected by the
prevailing habit of thought of that era, and as a man
nas been subject to the limitations of our common
nature, it may be safely said of the papacy that no
institution ha^ had so profound an effect upon the
evolution of the laws of justice and right in the con-
duct of nations, and that without such a power of
moral influence modem civilization would not have
attained a higher plane than that of Imperial Rome.
The sense of duty and obligation, which is a cardinal
principle of Christianity, has been enforced among
princes and peoples, so that even in our day the va-
rious nations, although to a great extent separated
from the Catholic Faith, still recognize that the pope,
as the head of the most venerable and most numerous
body of professed Christians, embodies the moral
power of Christianity and must be respected accord-
mgly. As has been said by Hereenrother, "the
perfection of international law depends upon two con-
ditions: (1) the degree in which the notion of a com-
mon humanity is developed among nations; (2) the
closeness of the connexion by which they feel them-
selves imited. Christendom and the Church have had
a powerful influence upon both these conditions. Af-
ter the fall of the Roman Empire it created amongst
new States common interests and an international
law, which, founded upon the principles and laws of
ike Church, was administered by her and her Head as
an international tribunal under the protection of the
penalty of the Church's ban" (Church and State, 369).
In giving an address at the conference held under
the auspices of the Civic Federation in W^ashing-
ton on 18 Jan., 1910, EKhu Root, former Secretary
of State of the United States, said: "Since the Con-
gress of Vienna in 1815, in which the powers of Europe
tor the first time undertook to deal with subjects of gen-
eral interest to them, as distinct from specific situiu
tions which were the results of war, up to three years
ago there had been over one himdred and twenty con-
gresses or conferences of representatives of a consider-
able part, practically the wnole of the civilized powers
of the earth, and those conferences or congresses have
accomplished a great variety of things. They have
established an international postal union; they have
agreed upon and put into force rules for the protection
of industrial property, patents, copyrights, and trade-
marks; they have estaolished rules for sanitation or
control, and, to some degree, the prevention of dis-
ease, under which each country binds itself to so legis-
late and so enforce its laws as to prevent its being a
nuisance to the other countries with whom it is in
conference. They have united iri measures for the
abolition of the slave trade, for the abohtion of priva-
teering, for the establishment of agreement upon rules
of the private international law, so that private rights
depending upon the laws of different countries may be
recognized and dealt with under uniform rules; itxey
have in a series of conferences held at Geneva estab-
lished rules for the enforcement of hmnane principles
for the conduct of war, and by rules adopted at The
HaguC; for the enforcement of humane rules in the
conduct of war by sea; they have established for the
greater part of the world uniform weights and meas-
ures; they have agreed upon rules designed for the
prevention of the white slave trade; they have, by a
series of conferences, a^ed in Europe upon a num-
ber, as yet a comparatively small number^of provi-
sions for the protection of labour; they have agreed
upon rules for telegraphic communication, rules for the
protection of ocean cables, rules for the government of
wireless telegraphy."
It will be seen from the foregoing sketch that all
these beneficent results have followed from the devel-
opment of the Christian idea of the brotherhood of
mankind. International laws like all other systems,
will be found to be but an endeavour to bring mto the
affairs of life the eternal principles of right at all times
taught by the Christian Church. For the actual status
of Uie Holy See concerning conflicts and wars be-
tween Christian nations, peace, peace conferences, and
international arbitration, see Papacy; Peace; Wab,
Hebqenrother, Catholic Church and Christian Stale (Lon-
doQ, 1876); Jauget, Did. ApoloaUique de la foi caiholique
(Paris, 1889), 8. V. Alexandre VIi Ward, Lata of Nationa (Lon-
don, 1795); Kent, Commentanea (1884); Mannino, Interna-
tional Law (London. 1875); Davis, The Elements of Interna-
tional Law (New York, 1908) ; Wheaton, International LotPt ed.
Attat (1904): Lawrence, International Law (1885): American
and Enqliah Encyclop. of Law (IdOO) ; Perrin, Uordre iniema-
tional (Paris, 1888); Pradier-Fod^I:, Traiti de droit intemor
iional (Paris, 1885) ; The Peacemaker of the Nations in The Month
(May, 1869); Speech of Lord Stanley of Alderlet in the
House of Lords (25 July, 1887); letter (1870) of Urquhart to
Pius IX in Acta Cone. VcUicani; in Coll. Lacensie, VII; Haxxs,
The Peace Conference at The Ilaque (New York, 1900), and cri-
tique of same by Shahan in Cath.Vniv. Bulletin, VII (1901 ) , 1-22.
Walter George Smith.
Law, Moral. See Ethics; Law, Natural.
Law, Mosaic. See Mosaic Legislation.
Law, Natural. — ^I. Its Essence. — In English this
term is frequently employed as equivalent to the laws
of nature, meaning the order which governs the activ-
ities of the material universe. Amon^ the Roman
jurists natural law designated those mstincts and
emotions common to man and the lower animals,
such as the instinct of self-preservation and love of
offspring. In its strictly ethical application — the
sense in which this article treats it — the natural law
is the rule of conduct which is prescribed to us bv
the Creator in the constitution of the nature with
which He has endowed us.
According to St. Thomas, the natural law is "noth-
ing else than the rational creature's participation in
the eternal law" (I-II, Q. xciv). The eternal law is
God's wisdom, inasmuch as it is the directive norm
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of an movement and action. When God willed to
nve existence to creatures, He willed to ordain and
direct them to an end. In the case of inanimate
things, this Divine direction is provided for in the
nature which God has given to each; in them deter-
minism reigns. Like all the rest of creation, man is
destined by God to an end, and receives from Him a
direction towards this end. This ordination is of a
character in harmony with his free intelligent natiu^.
In virtue of his intelligence and free will, man is
master of his conduct. Unlike the things of the
mere material world he can vary his action, act, or
abstain from action, as he pleases. Yet he is not a
lawless being in an ordered universe. In the very
constitution of his nature, he too has a law laid down
for him, reflecting that ordination and direction of
all things, which is the eternal law. The rule, then,
which Uod has prescribed for our conduct, is found
in our nature itself. Those actions which conform
with its tendencies, lead to our destined end, and are
thereby constituted right and morally good; those
at variance with oin: nature are wrong and immoral.
The norm, however, of conduct is not some partic-
ular element or aspect of our nature. The standard
Is our whole human nature with its manifold re-
lationships, considered as a creature destined to a
special end. Actions are wrong if, though subserving
tne satisfaction of some particular need or tendency,
they are at the same tune incompatible with that
rational harmonious subordination of the lower to
the higher which reason should maintain among our
conflicting tendencies and desires (see Good). For
example, to nourish our bodies is rightj but to in-
dulge our appetite for food to the oetnment of our
corporal or spiritual life is wrong. Self-preservation
is nght, but to refuse to expose our life when the
well-oeing of society requires it, is wrong. It is
wrong to drink to intoxication, for, besides being in-
jurious to health, such indulgence deprives one of the
use of reason, which is intended by God to be the
guide and dictator of conduct. Theft is wrong, be-
cause it subverts the basis of social life; and man's
nature requires for its proper development that he
Uve in a state of society. There is, then, a double
reason for calling this law of conduct natural: first,
because it is set up concretely in our very nature it-
self, and second, bBcause it is manifested to us by the
piirely natural medium of reason. In both respects
it is distinguished from the Divine positive law, which
contains precepts not arising from tne nature of things
as God has constituted them by the creative act, but
from the arbitrary will of Goa. This law we learn,
not through the unaided operation of reason, but
through the light of supernatural revelation.
We may now analyse the natural law into three
constitutents: the discriminating norm, the binding
norm (norma obligans), and the manifesting norm.
The discriminating norm is, as we have just seen,
human nature itself, objectively considered. It is,
80 to speak, the book in which is written the text of
the law, and the classification of human actions into
good and bad. Strictly speaking, our nature is the
proximate discriminating norm or standard. The
remote and ultimate norm, of which it is the par-
tial reflection and application, is the Divine nature
itself, the ultimate groundwork of the created order.
The binding or obligatory norm is the Divine author-
ity, imposing upon the rational creature the obliga-
tion of living in conformity with his nature, and thus
with the imiversal order established by the Creator.
Contrarv to the Kantian theory that we must not
acknowledge any other lawgiver than conscience, the
truth is tlSit reason as conscience is only immediate
moral authority^ which we are called upon to obey,
and conscience itself owes its authoritv to the fact that
it IB the mouthpiece of the Divine will and iynperium.
The manifesting norm (norma denuntians), which
determines the moral quality of actions tried by the
discriminating norm, is reason. Through this faculty
we perceive what is the moral constitution of our
nature, what kind of action it calls for, and whether
a particular action possesses this requisite character,
ll. The Contents of the Natural Law. — Radi-
cally, the natural law consists of one supreme and uni-
versal principle, from which are derived all our natural
moral obligations or duties. We cannot discuss here
the many erroneous opinions regarding the fimdamen-
tal rule of life. Some of them are utterly false — for
instance, that of Bentham, who made the pursuit of
utilitv or temporal pleasure the foundation of the
moral code, and that of Fichte, who taught that the
supreme obligation is to love self above everything and
all others on account of self. Others present the true
idea in an imperfect or one-sided fashion. Epicurus,
for example, held the supreme principle to be, " Follow
nature"; the Stoics inculcated living according to
reason. But these philosophers interpreted their prin-
ciples in a manner less in conformity with our doctrine
than the tenor of their words suggests. Catholic
moralists, though agreeing upon the imderlying con-
ception of the Natural Law, have differed more or less
in their expression of its ftmdamental formulae. Among
many others we find the following: *' Love God as the
end and everything on account of Him"; "live con-
formably to human nature considered in all its essen-
tial respects"; "Observe the rational order estab-
lished and sanctioned by God " ; " Manifest in your life
the image of God impressed on your rational nature."
The exposition of St. Thomas is at once the most sim-
ple and philosophic. Starting from the premise that
good is what pnmarily falls under the apprehension of
the practical reason — that is of reason acting as the
dictator of conduct — and that, consequently, the su-
preme principle of moral action must nave the good as
its central idea, he holds that the supreme principle,
from which all the other principles and precepts are
derived, is that good is to be done, and evil avoided
(I-II, Q. xciv,a. 2).
Passing from the primary principle to the subor-
dinate principles and conclusions, moralists divide
these into two classes: (I) those dictates of reason
which flow so directly from the primary principle that
they hold in practical reason the same place as evident
propositions in the speculative sphere, or are at least
easily deducible from the primary principle. Such,
for instance, are: "Adore God"; "Honour your par-
ents"; "Do not steal"; (2) those other conclusions
and precepts which are reached only through a more
or less complex course of inference. It is this diffi-
culty and uncertainty that requires the natural law
to be supplemented by positive law, human and Di-
vine. As regards the vigour and binding force of these
precepts ana conclusions, theologians divide them into
two classes, primary and secondary. To the first class
belong those which must, under all circumstances, be
observed if the essential moral order is to be main-
tained. The secondary precepts are those whose
observance contributes to the public and private good
and is required for the perfection of moral develop-
ment, but is not so absolutely necessary to the ratioi^-
ality of conduct that it may not be lawfully omitted
under some special conditions. For example, imder
no circumstances is polyandry compatible with the
moral order, while polygamy, though mconsistent with
human relations m their proper moral and social
development, is not absolutely incompatible with
them imder less civilized conditions.
II. The Qualities of the Natural LAW.-;-(a) The
natural law is universal, that is to say, it applies to the
entire human race, and is in itself the same for all.
Every man, because he is a man, is bound, if he will
confortn t^ the universal order willed by the Creator,
to live conformably to his own rational nature, and to
be guided by his reason. However, infants and in-
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sane persons, wha have not the actual use of their
reason and cannot therefore know the law, are not
responsible for their failure to comply with its de-
mands, (b) The natural law is immvlable in itself and
also extrinsically. Since it is founded in the very
nature of man and his destination to his end — ^two
bases which rest upon the immutable ground of the
eternal law — it follows that, assuming the continued
existence of human nature, it cannot cease to exist.
The natural law commands and forbids in the same
tenor everywhere and always. We must, however,
remember that this immutability pertains not to those
abstract imperfect formulsB in which the law is com-
monly expressed, but to the moral standard as it
applies to action in the concrete, surrounded with all
its determinate conditions. We enunciate, for in-
stance, one of the leading precepts in the words: "Thou
shalt not kill "; yet the taking of human life is some-
times a lawful, and even an obligatory act. Herein
exists no variation in the law; what the law forbids is
not all taking of life, but all unjust taking of life.
With regard to the possibility of any cnange by
abrogation or dispensation, there can oe no ques-
tion of such being introduced by any authority except
that of God Himself. But reason forbids us to think
that even He could exercise such power; because, given
the hypothesis that He wills man to exist. He wills him
necessarily to Uve conformably to the eternal law, bv
observing in his conduct the law of reason. The Al-
mighty, then, cannot be conceived as willing this
and simultaneously willing the contradictory, that man
should be set free from the law entirely through its
abrogation, or partially through dispensation from it.
It is true that some of the older theologians, followed
or copied by some later ones, hold that God can dis-
pense, and, in fact in some instances, has dispensed
from the secondary precepts of the natmtil law, while
others maintain that the bearing of the natural law is
changed by the operation of positive law. However,
an examination of the argimients offered in support of
these opinions shows that the alleged examples of dis-
pensation are: (a) cases where a change of conditions
modifies the application of the law, or (b) cases con-
cerning obligations not imposed as absolutely essential
to the moralorder, though their fulfilment is necessary
for the full perfection of conduct, or (c) instances of
addition made to the law.
# As examples of the first category are cited God*s
permission to the Hebrews to despoil the Egyptians,
and His command to Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. But
it is not necessary to see in these cases a dispensation
from the precepts forbidding theft and murder. As the
Sovereign Lord of all things, He could withdraw from
Isaac his right to life, and from the Egjrptians their
right of ownership, with the result that neither would
the killing of Isaac be an unjust destruction of life, nor
the appropriation of the Egyptians* goods the unjust
taking of another's property. The classic instance al-
leged as an example of (b) is the legalization of polyg-
amy amon^ the Hebrews. Polygamy, however, is not
under all circumstances incompatible with the essen-
tial principles of a rationally ordered life, since the
chiei ends prescribed by nature for the marital union
— the propagation of the race and the due care and ed-
ucation of offspring — may, in certain states of society,
be attained in a polygamous union. The theory that
God can dispense from any part of the law, even from
tJie secondary precepts, is scarcely compatible with the
doctrine, whicn is the common teaching of the School,
that the natural law is founded on the eternal law,
and, therefore, has for its ultimate ground the immu-
table essence of God himiself. As regards (c), when
positive law, human or Divine, imposes obligations
which only modify the bearing of the natural law, it
cannot correctly be said to change it. Positive law
may not ordain anything contrary to the natural law,
from which it draws its authority; but it may — and
this is one of its functions — determine with more pre-
cision the bearing of the natural law, and for good rea-
sons, supplement its conclusions. For examine, in the
eyes of the natural law mutual verbal agreement to a
contract is sufiicient; yet, in many kincb of contract,
the civil law declares that no agreement shall be valid,
unless it be expressed in writmg and signed by the
parties before witnesses. In estaolishing this rule the
civil authority merely exercises the power which it de-
rives from the natural law to add to the operation of
the natural law such conditions as the common good
may call for. Contrary to the almost universaUy re-
ceived doctrine, a few theologians held erroneously
that the natural law depends not on the essential neces-
sary will of God, but upon EKs arbitrary poGiitive will,
and taught consistently with this view, that the nat-
ural law may be dispensed from or even abrogated by
God. The conception, however, that the moral law is
but an arbitrary enactment of the Creator, involves
the denial of any absolute distinction between right
and wrong — a denial which, of course, sweeps away
the very foundation of the entire moral order.
III. Our Knowledge of the Law. — Founded in
our nature and revealed to us by our reason, the moral
law is known to us in the measure that reason brings
a knowledge of it home to our understanding. The
question arises: How far can man be ignorant of the
natural law, which, as St. Paul says, is written in the
human heart (Rom., ii, 14)? The general teaching of
theologians is that the supreme and primary principles
are necessarily known to every one naving the actual
use of reason. These principles are really reducible to
the primary principle which is expressed by St. Thomas
in tne form: "Do good and avoid evil'*. Wherever
we find man we find him with a moral code, which is
foimdcd on the first principle that good is to be done
and evil avoided. When we pass from the universal
to more particular conclusions, the case is different.
Some follow immediately from the primary, and are
so self-evident that they are reached without any com-
plex course of reasoning. Such are, for example:
" Do not commit adultery " ; " Honour your parents ".
No person whose reason and moral nature is ever so
little developed can remain in ignorance of such pre-
cepts except through his own fault. Another cla^ of
conclusions comprises those which are reached only by
a more or less complex course of reasoning. These
may remain unknown to, or be misinterpreted even
by persons whose intellectual development is consid-
erable. To reach these more remote precepts, many
facts and minor conclusions must be correctly appre-
prcciated, and, in estimating their value, a person may
easily err, and conse(|uently, without moral fault,
come to a false conclusion.
A few theologians of the seventeenth and eij^hteenth
centuries, following some older ones, maintained that
there cannot exist in anyone practical ignorance of the
natural law. This opinion however has no weight
(for the controversy see Bouquillon, *'Theologia Fun-
damentalist, n. 74). Theoretically speaking, man is
capable of acquiring a full knowledge of the moral law,
which is, as we have seen, nothing out the dictates of
reason properly exercised. Actually, taking into con-
sideration the power of passion, prejudice, and other
influences which cloud the understanding or pervert
tiie will, one can safely say that man, unaided by su-
pernatural revelation, would not acquire a full and
correct knowledge of the contents of the natural law
(cf. Vatican Council, Sess. Ill, cap. ii). In proof
we need but recall that the noblest ethical teaching
of pagans, such as the systems of Plato, Aristotle,
and the Stoics, was disfigured by ita approbation of
shockingly immoral actions and practices.
As the fundamental and all-embracing obligation
imposed upon man by the Creator, the natural law is
the one to which all his other obligations are attached.
The duties imposed on us in the supernatural law come
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home to us, because the natural law and its exponent^
consdencei tell us that, if God has vouchsafed to us a
supernatural revelation with a series of precepts, we
are bound to accept and obey it. The natural law is
the foundation of all human law inasmuch as it ordains
that man shall live in society, and society for its con-
stitution requires the existence of an authority, which
shtkll possess the moral power necessary to control the
members and direct them to the common good. Hu-
man laws are valid and equitable only in so far as they
correspond wi^, and enforce or supplement the nat-
ural law; the^ are null and void when they conflict with
it. The Umted States system of equity courts, as dis-
tinguished from those engaged in the administration
of the common law, are founded on the principle that,
when the law of the legislator is not in harmony with
the dictates of the natural law, equity (cequitaSf em-
keia) demands that it be set aside or corrected. St.
Tliomas explains the lawfulness of this procedure.
Because human actions, which are the subject of laws,
are individual and innumerable, it is not possible to
establish any law that may not sometimes work out
unjustly. Legislators, however, in passing laws, at-
tend to what commonly happens, though to apply the
conunon rule will sometimes work injustice and defeat
the intention of the law itself. In such cases it is bad
to follow the law; it is ^ood to set aside its letter and
follow the dictates of justice and the common good
(II-II, Q. cxx, a. 1). Logically, chronologically, and
ontolo^cally antecedent to all human society for
which it provides the indispensable basis, the natural
or moral law is neither — as Hobbes, in anticipation of
the modem positivistic school, taught — a product of
social agreement or convention, nor a mere congeries
of the actions, customs, and ways of men, as claimed by
the ethicists who, refusing to acknowledge the First
Cause as a Personality with whom one entertains per-
sonal relations, deprive the law of its obligatory basis.
It is a true law, for through it the Divine Mmd im-
poses on the subject minds of His rational creatures
their obligations and prescribes their duties.
On this subject consult Eh'Hics; Conscience; Good: Dvtt;
8umma Theol.. I-II. <^. xci, xciv; I. Q.. Ixxix, a. 12; Suarss,
De Legibta, II, v-xvn; METBRt Inatitutiones Juris NcUuralia,
II. The natural law is treated in^ all Catholic text-books of
ethics. A good exposition in English will be found in Rickabt,
Moral Phiia9ovhy (London, 1888): Hill, Ethxca or Moral Phi-
lo9ophy ^Baltimore, 1888). Consult also: Robinson. Elements
q/Amertean Jurisprtidence (Boston, 1900); Liixy, Right and
Wrong (London. 1880): Ming, The Data of Modem Ethics
iSxamined (New York, 1897): Bouquillon, Theologia Moraiis
FundameniaUs (Ratisbon ana New York. 1890); Blackstone,
Commemiaries, 1, intiod.t sec. i.
James J. Fox.
Law, Roman. — In the following article this subject
is briefly treated under the two heads of: I. Principles;
II. Histoiy. Of these two divisions, I is subdivided
into: A. rersons; B. Things; C. Actions. The sub-
divisions of II are: A. Development of the Roman
Law (again divided into periods) and B. Subs^uent
bifluence.
I. Principles. — ^The characteristic of the earlier Ro-
man law was its extreme formalism. From its first
secret administration as the law of the privileged
classes it expanded until it became the basis of all
civilized le^ systems. The Roman law in its matu-
rity recognized a definite natural-law theory as the
ultimate test of the reasonableness of positive law, and
repudiated the concept that justice is the creature of
positive law. Cicero (De leg., I, v) tells us "Nos ad
justitiam esse natos, neque opinione sed natura con-
stitutum esse jus" (i. e. Justice is natural, not the
effect of opinion). Justice was conformity with pjer-
fect laws, and jurisprudence was the appreciation
of things human and divine — the science of the just
and the unjust, but always the science of law with its
just applTcation to practical cases. Law was natural
or positive (man-made) ; it was natural strictly speak-
ing (instinctive) t or it was natutal under the' Roman
concept of the jv^ gentium (law of nations) — natural
in itself or so universally recognized b^ all men that a
presumption arose by reason of universality. The
Romans attributed slavery to the jus gentium because
it was universally practised, and therefore implied the
consent of all men, yet the definition of slavery ex-
pressly states that it is contra naturam, '^ against na-
ture". The precepts of the law were these: to live
honestly; not to in lure another; to give unto each one
his due. Positive law wad the jus civile, or municipal
law, of a particular state.
Gains says that all law pertains to persons, to things,
or to actions.
A. Persons. — Man and person were not equivalent
terms. A slave was not a person, but a tiling; a per-
son was a human being endowed with civil status. In
other than human beings personality might exist by a
fiction. Status was natural or civil. Natural status
existed by reason of natural incidents, such as post-
humous or already bom (jam nati), sane and insane,
male and female, infancy and majority. Civil status
had to do with liberty, citizenship, and family. If
one had no civil status whatever, he had no personal-
ity and was a mere thing. Men were either free or
slaves: if free they were either free bom or freedmen.
Slaves were bom such or became slaves either by the
law of nations or by civil law. By the law of nations
they became slaves bv reason of captivity; by civil
law, by the status of their parents or in the occasional
case where they permitted themselves to be sold in
order to participate in the price, if they were over
twenty years of age. An ungrateful freedman, again,
might become a slave, as mignt one condemned to in-
voumtary servitude in punishment for crime. Free-
bom, in the later law, were such as were bom of a
mother who was free at conception, at birth, or at any
time between conception and birth. Freedmen were
former slaves who had been emancipated under one of
several forms. They owed obseguium — i. e., respect
and reverence — to their former masters. The Lex
iElia Sentia placed restrictions on emancipation by
minors and m fraud of creditors. The Lex Fusia
Caninia restricted the right of manumission propor-
tionately to the number of slaves owned.
Men were either citizens or foreigners (peregrini),
perhaps more accurately ' * denizens ' ' . Assuming that
one had civil status, he might be either sui juris (his
own master) or alieni juris (subject to another) . The
power to which he was subject was termed a potestas:
slaves were under the dominical power, and children
were under the pairia potestas exercised by a male
ascendant; the marital power was termed manus (i. e.,
"the hand", signifying force).
Slaves were at first insecure in their lives, but later
the master's power of life and death was taken away.
They were in commerce and might be sold, donated,
bequeathed by legacy, alienated by testament, or
manumitted. They had nothing of their own, and
whatever was acquired through them accrued to the
masters. Only very rarely could they bring their
masters into legal relations with third persons.
The patemalpower over children (descendants) was
a close patriarcnal relationship, dating from remote
antiquity and at first extending to life and death. Be-
tween paterfamilias and filius familias (father and
son), no obligation was legally enforceable (see Pre-
judicial action below^). During his lifetime the pater--
/amilias was the owner of accessions made by the
filius familias. The later law, however, reco^zed a
quasi-partnership of blood and conceded an mchoate
ownership in the paternal goods, which was ^iven ex-
pression m the system of successions. A child untler
power might have the administration of separate goods
called his peculium. The paterfamilias did not part
with the ownership. The military and quasi-military
peculium became a distinct , separate property. Even
the slave at his master's sufferance might enjoy a
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pecidium. The paternal power was stripped of the
power of life and death, the right of punisnment was
moderated, and the sale of children was restricted to
cases of extreme necessity. In the earlier law, it had
been permitted to the father to give over his child (as
he might give over a slave) to some person injm^ed
through the act of the child, and thus escape liability.
With the growth of humane sentiment, the noxal ac-
tion in the case of children was abolished. Between
parents and children, only affirmative or negative
actions on the question of miation or the existence of
the paternal power were permitted. The paternal
power was held only by males, and extended indefi-
nitely downward during the lifetime of the patriarch:
i. e., father and son were under the patria potestas of
the grandfather. The potestas was in no wise in-
fluenced by infancy or majority. In the case given,
upon the death of the CTandfather the paternal power
woiild fall upon the father. The patria 'ootestas was ac-
quired over children bom in lawful wedlock, by legiti-
mation, and by adoption.
Marriage (huptice or connubium) was the association
or community of life between man and woman, for the
procreation and rearing of offspring, validly entered
mto between Roman citizens. It was wont to be pre-
ceded by spansalia (betrothal), defined as an agree-
ment of future marriage. Sponsalia might be ver-
bally entered into, and required no solemnities. The
mutual consent of the spouses was requisite, and the
object of marriage was kept in mind so that marriage
with an impotent person (castratus) was invalid: the
parties must have attainea puberty, and there could
De but one husband and one wife. It is true that
more or less continuous extra-matrimonial relations
between the same man and woman in the absence of
any other marriage were considered as a kind of mar-
riage, under the jv^ gentium, by the jurists of the sec-
ond and third centuries. The cannubium, or Roman
marriage, was for Roman citizens: matrimonium
existed among other free persons, and corUvbemium
was the marital relation of slaves. The latter was a
status of fact, not a juridical status. Marriage might
be incestuous, indecorous, or noxal: incestuous, e. g.,
between blood relations or persons between whom
affinity existed; indecorous, e. g., between a freeman
and a lewd woman or actress; noxal, e. g., between
Christian and Jew, tutor or curator and ward, etc.
Cognation or blood relationship is indicated by de-
grees and lines; the degree measures the distance be-
tween cognates, and the line shows the series, either
direct (ascending or descending) or collateral; the
collateral line is cither equal or unequal in the descent
from the common ancestor. In the direct line, in both
civil and canon law, there are as many degrees as there
are generations. In the collateral line there is a
difference: by civil law, brother and sister are in the
second degree, although each is only one degree re-
moved from the common ancestor, the father; by
canon law, they are in the first degree. The civil law
counts each degree up to the common ancestor and
then down to the other collateral. The canon law
measures the cognation of collaterals by the distance
in degrees of the collateral farthest removed from the
common ancestor. Uncle and niece are three degrees
distant by civil law; by canon law they are only two
degrees removed. Aflanity is the artificial relation-
ship which exists between one spouse and the cognates
of the other. Affinity has no degrees. By Roman
law, marriage in the direct line was prohibited; in the
collateral line it was prohibited in the second degree.
Marriage was usually accompanied by the dowry,
created on behalf of the wife, and by donations propter
nuptias, on behalf of the husband. The dowry (dos)
was what the wife brought or what some other person
on her behalf siipplied towards the expenses of the
married state. Property of the wife in excess of the
dowry was called her paraphernalia. The dowry was
profective, if it came from the father; adventitious, if
from the wife or from any other source. The husband
enjoyed its administration and control, and aU of its
fruits accrued to him. Upon the dissolution of the
marrii^ the profective dowry might be reclaimed by
the wile's father, and the adventitious by the wife or
her heirs. Special actions existed for the enforcement
of dotal agreements.
The offspring of incest or adultery could not be le-
gitimated. Adoption, whieh imitates nature, was a
means of acquiring the paternal power. Only such
persons as in nature might have oeen parents could
adopt, and hence a difference of eighteen years was
necessary in the aees of the parties. Adoption was of
a minor, and could not be for a time only. Similar to
adoption was adrogation, whereby one sui juris sub-
jected himself to the patria potestas of another.
The paternal power was dissolved by the death of
the ancestor, in which case each descendant in the first
degree became sui juris; those in remoter degrees fell
imder the paternal power of the next ascendant. Upon
the death of the grandfather, his children became sui
juris, and the grandchildren came under the power of
their respective fathers. Loss of status (capitis di-
minution media or maxima), involving loss oi liberty
or citizenship, destroyed the patemaTpower. Eman-
cipation and adoption had a similar effect.
One might be sui juris and yet subject to tutorship
or curatorship. Pupillary tutorship was a personal
public office consistmg in the education ana in the
administration of the ^oods of a person sui juris, but
who had not yet attained puberty. Tutorship was
testamentary, statutory, or dative: testamentary
when validly exercised in the will of the paterfamilias
with respect to a child about to become sui juris, but
under puberty. A testamentary tutor could not be
appointed by the mother nor by a maternal ascendant.
The agnates, who were an important class of kinsmen,
in the early Roman law were cognates connected
through males either by blood relationship or by the
artfficial tie of agnation. Statutory tutorship was
that which the law immediately conferred, as the
tutorship of agnates, of patrons, etc. The first statu-
tory tutors were the agnates and gentiles called to
tutorship by the Twelve Tables. Justinian abolished
the distinction in this respect between agnates and
cognates, and called them promiscuously to the statu-
tory tutorship.
Similar to tutorship, although distinct in its inci-
dents, was curatorship. In tutorship the office ter-
minated with the puberty of the ward. The interpo-
sition of the tutor's auctoritas in every juridical act
was reauired to be concurrent, both in time and place.
He had no power of ratification, nor could he supply
the auctoritas by letter or through an agent. Curators
were given to persons sui juris after puberty and be-
fore they had reached the necessary maturity for the
conduct of their own affairs. Curators were appointed
also for the deaf and dumb, for the insane and for
prodigals. The curator of a minor was given rather
to the goods than to the person of his wara; the cura-
tor's consent was necessary to any valid disposition
of the latter's goods. Tutors and curators were re-
auired to give security for the faithful performance of
uieir duties and were liable on the quasi-contractua!
relationship existing between them and their wards.
In certain cases the law excused persons from these
duties, and provision was made for the removal of
persons who nad become "suspect ".
In the law of persons, status depended upon liberty,
citizenship, and family; and the corresponding losses
of status were known respectively as capitis aiminu-
tio maxima, media, and minima. The minima, by a
fiction at least, was involved even when one became
sui juris, although this is disputed.
B. Things. — ^Things were divini vet humani juris
(i. e., governed by divine or by human law). Things
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Bocrce were publicly consecrated to the gods; places of
burial were ^things rdigiosce; things mncUB were so
called because protected by a penal sanction — ^thus
the city walls, gates, ditch, etc. were aanctce. None of
these could be part of an individual's patrimony, be-
cause they were considered as not in commerce.
Things humani juris were the things with which the
private law concerned itself. Things are conunon
when the ownership is in no one, anof the enjoyment
open to all. In an analogous wav, things are public
wnen the ownership is in the people, and the use in in-
dividu^s. The air, flowing water, the sea, etc. were
things common to all, and therefore the property of
none. The seashore, rivers, gates, etc., were public.
Private things were such as were capable of private
ownership and could form part of tne patrimony of
individuals. Again, thin^ were collective or singular.
The once important distinction between res mancipi
and nee mancipi was suppressed by Justinian. Res
mancipi were those things which the Romans most
highlyprized: Italian soil, rural servitudes, slaves,
etc. Tnese required formal mancipation.
Things were either corporeal or incorporeal: cor-
pora were those quce tangi possunt (which can be
touched — tangible). Detention or naked possession
of a thing was the mere physical faculty of disposing of
it. Possession was the detention of a corporeal thmg
coupled with the animus dominiiy or intent of owner-
ship. It might be in good faith or in bad: if there was
a just title, tne possession was just: if not, unjust. A
true possession was possible of a corporeal thing oi^y ;
quasi-possession was the term employed in reference
to an incorporeal thing, as .a right. The jus posses-
sionis was the entirety of riehts which accrued to the
possession as such. The advantages of possession as
mdependent of ownership were as follows: the pos-
sessor had not the burden of producing and proving
title; sometimes he enjoyed the fruits of the thing; he
retained the thing until the claimant made proof; he
stood in a better position in law than the claimant,
and received the decision where the claim was not
fully established; the possessor might retain the thing
bv virtue of the jus reteniionist until reimbursed for
chaises and outlays; the possessor in eood faith was
not liable for culpa (fault). One might not recover
possession by violence or self-help.
A right in re was a real right, valid against all the
world; a right ad rem was an obligation or personal
right against a particular person or persons. Rights
in re were ownership, inheritance, servitudes, pledge,
etc. Ownership was quiritarian or bonitarian: qmri-
tarian, when acquired by the jus civile only available
to Roman citizens; bonitarian, when acquired by any
natural, as distinguished from civil, means. This dis-
tinction was removed by Justinian. There could be
co-ownership or sole ownership.
The modes of acquiring ownership were of two
genera, arising from natuml law and from civil law.
One acquired, by natural law, in occupation, acces-
sion, perception of fruits, and by tradition (delivery).
Occupation occurreii in acquisition by hunting, fishing,
capture in war, etc. The right of post-liminium was
the recovery of rights lost through capture in war, and
in proper cases applied to immoveables, moveables,
ana to the status of persons. Finding was also a
means of occupation, since a thing completely lost or
abandoned was res nuUius, and therefore belonged to
the first taker.
Accession was natural, industrial, or mixed. The
birth of a child to a slave woman was an instance of
natural accesdon; so also, was the formation of an
island in a stream. This accrued to the riparian
owners proportionately to their frontage along the
side of the river towards which the island was formed.
Alluvion was the slow increment added to one's ripar-
ian property by the current. Industrial accession re-
quired human intervention and occurred by adjunctio,
IX.— 6
spedficatio, or commixtio^ or by a species of the latter,
confusio. Mixed accession took place by reason of the
maxim: Whatever is planted on the soil, or connected
with it, belongs to the soil.
In perception of fruits the severance or taking of
revenue might be by the owner or by another, as by
the usufructuary, the lessee (in locatio-conductio), by
the creditor (in antichresis), and by the possessor in
good faith.
Tradition was the transfer of possession and was a
corporeal act, where the nature of the object per-
mitted. CJorporeal things were moveables or immove-
ables. In modem civil law, incorporeal things are
moveables or immoveables, depending upon the na-
ture of the property to which the rights or obligations
attach. In Roman law obligations, rights, and ao-
tions were not embraced in the terms moveables and
immoveables.
The vindicatory action (rei vindiccUio) went to the
direct question of ownership, and ownership was re-
quired to be conclusively proved. Complete proof of
ownership was often extremely difficult, or impossible,
and the Frsetor Publicius devised the actio pMiciana
available to an acquirer by just title and in good faith,
but who could not establish the ownership of his
author. It was available to such an acquirer against
a claimant who possessed infirmiure jure.
Ownership {dominium) is an absolute right in re,
A servitude (sometimes called a dismemberment of
ownership) was a constituted right in the property of
another, whereby the owner was bound to suffer
something, or abstain from doing something, with re-
spect to his property, for the utility of some other per-
son or thing. A servitude was not a service of a per-
son, but of a thing, and to adjoining land or to a
person. Servitudes due to land were real (predial),
while servitudes due to a person as such were personal.
There were servitudes which might be considered as
either real or personal, and others, again, which could
only be personal, such as usufruct, use, habitation,
ana the labour of slaves. A real servitude existed
when land was servient to land. Such a servitude
was either urban or rural, depending not so much on
whether the servitude was exercised in the city or
country as upon its relation to buildings. Servitudes
consisted in something essentially passive, in patiendo
vd in non faciendo; never in jaciendo. Servitudes
which consisted in patiendo were affirmative and those
in rum faciendo were negative. Servitudes could arise
by agreement, last will, or prescription.
There were numerous urban predial servitudes: as
onus ferendi, by which one's construction was bound
to sustain the columns of another or the weight of his
wall; tigni immittendi, the right to seat one's timbers
in his neighbour's wall; projiciendi, the right to over-
hang one's timbers over the land of another, although
in no way resting on the other's soil; protegendi, a
similar right of projecting one's roof over another's
soil. The servitudes stiUicidii and fluminis recipiendi
were similar: stiUicidium was the right to drip; and
fluminis recipiendi, the right to discharge rainwater
collected in canals or gutters. The servitude ottiiw
non toUendi was a restriction on the height of a neigh-
bour's construction while altius toUendi was an affirma-
tive right to carry one's construction higher than
otherwise permitted. Servitudes of light and. pros-
pect were of similar nature.
Rural predial servitudes were iter, actus, via, aqtuB-
ductus, and the like. The servitude of iter (way) was
an eight-foot roadway in the stretehes, with accom-
modation at the turns. It included the right of driv-
ing vehicles and cattle, and the lesser right of foot-
passage. Actus was a right of trail of four feet in
which cattle or suitable narrow vehicles might be
driven. Iter was a mere right of path. In these
servitudes the lesser was included in the greater. The
nature of the right of aquaductus is obvious, as well
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as the various servitudes of drawing water, of driving
cattle to water, of pasturage, of burning lime, of dig-
ging sand or gravel, and the like. Servitudes of this
character could be extinguished by the consolidation
of ownership of both servient and dominant estate in
the same owner, and by remission or release; by non-
user for the prescriptive period, and by the destruction
of the dominant or servient estate.
Usufruct was the greatest of personal servitudes;
jret, as its measure was not the stnct personal needs of
its subject, it exceeded a personal servitude. During
the period of enjoyment it was almost ownership, and
was described as a personal servitude consisting in the
use and enjoyment of the corporeal things of another
without change in their substance. Usvsfructus was
the right ulendi^ fmendi, salva substantia. In a strict
sense it applied only to corporeal things which were
neither consumed nor dimimshed by such use. After
Tiberius, a quasi-usufruct (as of money) was recog-
nized. Monev, although not consumable naturaliter,
was consumable civUiter. Usufruct could arise by
operation of law, by judicial decision (as in partition),
by convention, by laist will, and even by prescription.
The natural or civil death of the usufructuary ex-
tinguished the right, as did non-user and the complete
loss of the thing.
Use and habitation were lesser rights of the same
general nature. Ustis was the right to use the things
of another, but only to the extent of the usee's necessi-
ties, and always sdva substantia. Habitation was the
right of dwelhng in another's building in those apart-
ments which were intended for habitation, salva sub-
stantia (i. e., without substantial modification). The
personal servitude operce servorum embraced every
utility from the labour of another's slave or slaves.
"The actions from servitudes were confessoria or nega-
toriay in assertion of the servitude or in denial of it.
Ownership might further be acquired by usucap-
ion (usucapio) and prescription for a long period.
Prescription (a slight modification of the older usu-
capion) is the dispensing with evidence of title, and is
acquisitive when it is the means of acquiring owner-
ship and extinctive (divestitive) when it bars a right of
action. Acquisitive prescription reauired (1) a thing
subject to prescription, (2) good faitn, (3) continuous
possession, and (4) the lapse of the prescribed time.
Again, ownership could be acquired by donation,
the gratuitous transfer of a thing to another person.
Donations were mortis causa or inter vivos, and the
former was in reality a conditional testamentary dis-
position and very similar to a legacy, while the latter
did not require the death of the donor for its perfec-
tion. A species of donation inter vivos was the donatio
propter nuptias from the husband.
T/he juridical consequence of ownership is the
power of alienation, and yet the law limited certain
owners in this respect. The husband owned the
dowry, but was suDJect to restrictions; the pupil
under tutorship was owner, but without power to
alienate, except probably in the single case ota sister's
dowry. Even where one was owner without these
specific limitations, if he had conceded rights in re to
another, he could not alienate prejudicially to such
other: thus, the pledge debtor could not prejudice the
rights in re of the pledge creditor.
Acquisition could be made, not only personally, but
through children and slaves; and, m the later law,
through a mandatory or procurator. Acquisition
could be made of possession, of ownership, and of the
right of pledge.
Succession. — Succession to a deceased person was
either testate or intestate: particular things were ac-
quired by legacies or by trust-bequests (fidei-comn
missa), A universal succession was an inheritance.
The Twelve Tables recognized the right of testation,
and the civil law later conceived of a partnership ot
blood in both testate and intestate successions. The
praetor's intervention was frequent in testamentary
matters; and in equitable cases he soften^ the rigour
of the law and gave the possessio bonorum. A testa-
ment was the legally declared last will in which an
heir was instituted. Some departure from the strict
formalities was permitted in the case of soldiers' wills.
The right of testament was active and passive. Per-
sons generally who were under no incapacity could
make a will; those prohibited were such as had some
defect of status, some vice or defect of mind, or even
some sufficient defect of body, and those guilty of
crime or improbity. The passive right of testament
was the right to take under a will. Heirs were volun-
tary or necessary (forced). In the early freedom of
the law, Romans might disinherit without cause; later,
this liberty was restricted to disherison for just cause,
and a legitima^ or statutory provision, was prescribed.
Disherison was the express exclusion from the whole
inheritance of one who was entitled to the legiHma,
One was prceteritus who was neither instituted an heir
nor disinherited. Since disherison- was required to be
express, one conditionally instituted was only preter-
mitted. Further, disherison required exclusion from
all heirs and from every degree. Under the early
law, sons were required to be excluded by name;
daughters and grandchildren could be excluded by
class. The later law required that all children should
be deprived by name. Justinian enumerated the
" just' causes of disherison in Novel cxv ; they are sub-
stantially the same in the modem civil codes.
The instituted heir, as successor to the universal
rights of the decedent, was required to have passive
t^tamentary capacity at the time of the will and at
the time of the acath; the intervening period was of
no consequence. It was, however, requisite that he
should retain capacity from the time of the death until
the taking of the inheritance. In a conditional in-
stitution of the heir, capacity was necessary at the
time of the will, at the time of the death, and at the
time of the happening of the condition. Slaves as
well as freemen could oe instituted heirs, and, in the
case of a slave the gift of liberty was implied. Un-
certain and indeterminate persons might he instituted
if they could be rendered certain ; such were the poor,
the municipalities, and licit corporations. Where co-
heirs were instituted without definite shares, they
took equally. The heir might be instituted abso-
lutely or conditionally, but not merely for a time. A
physically impossible condition, negatively added,
left the institution absolute; in general, tne condi-
tions annexed were various and quite similar to the
classes of conditions known to the modern civil law.
Where one of several co-heirs failed to take, his por-
tion accrued to the others as a matter of law, without
their knowledge and even against their wiQ: this was
called the ju^ accrescendi.
As already intimated, the testator mi^ht institute
one or several heirs; if all were instituteaat the same
time, they were direct heirs; but one might be direct
and the other substituted by way of fidei-commissum.
Again, the testator could suDstitute an heir, in case the
first should not take. Direct substitution, therefore,
was the institution of a second heir, in case the first
failed to take: with respect to the person making the
substitution, it was eitner military or non-military.
The case in which the substitution was intended to
take place classed it as vulgar, pupillary, or c[uasi-
pupillary: vulgar was the ordinary substitution in
which one was named to take, in case the first "heir de-
faulted or died ; pupillary, was where an heir was insti-
tuted to succeed a child under pubeijy (since such
child could not make a will, the parent in a sense made
two wills, one for himself to the child and one for the
child in case the latter should die before puberty).
Testaments were vitiated in several ways: nuUum,
void from the begining, where there was a defect in the
institution of the heir or incapacity in the teetator;
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inpt^uMf not' legally executed and hence void; rup-
hun, by revocation or by the agnation of a posthumous
diild, either natural or civil; irruptunif where the
testator had lost the civil status necessary for testa-
tion; deatUtUum, where the heir defaulted because
dead or unwilling, or upon failure of the condition;
ndssumf as the consequence of a legal attack upon an
undutif ul will.
It has been said that heirs were either necessary or
voluntary: necessary heirs were either such as could
not be pretermitted or such as were forced to accept.
These were again sui el neceaaarii or necessarii omy.
The former were children under the patria potesias, and
they were aui because one's own, and necessarii, be-
cause the civil law made them forced heirs, although
the prsdtor ^ve to such the heneiicium abstinenai.
Voluntary heirs were strangers who nad a perfect right
of election to accept or reject the inheritance. The
praetor conceded to the heir a period of time in which
to balance the advantages and disadvantages of the
inheritance, called the jus ddiherandi. Justinian
added to this the benefit of inventory.
Aside from the inheritance proper, a will could con-
tain le^^ies whereby things were bequeathed by a
single title and hy express words; they could be im-
perative or precative. Legacies were by vindication,
where the express words justified a direct legal claim
by the legatee; bv condemnation, where the language
condemned or ordered the heir to transmit the legacy;
by prcBceptio, where a legacy was left to one only of
several co-heirs; and stnendi modo, by permissive
words. As in the case of joint-heirs, the jus accres-
cendi existed also amon^ joint-legatees.
By reason of the ambulatory character (as Hcin-
eccius terms it) of man's will, legacies and trust-be-
quests (fideircommissa) were subject to ademption and
tmnsfer to another legatee. The Lex Falcidia, which
created the statutory fourth portion, applied to lega-
cies as well as to other testamentary provisions.
Fidei^commissa were created by precative words ad-
dressed to the conscience of the heir, and were at first
not lesally enforceable. Trust-bequests were later
g^ven I^al sanction; and the^r were universal or of
single things. The modem civil law is hostile to
trusts of any kind.
If a last will contained the institution of an heir,
it was a testament; if it contained less, it was a codi-
dl. Originally, codicils were only letters; later, they
began to have testamentary force, containing, how-
ever, nothing which pertamed to the direct insti-
tution of the heir. There could be several non-
repugnant codicils. Not only could they contain no
institution of an heir, but thev could not provide for
disherison or substitution. They were made either in
connexion with a will or, in some cases, with a view to
the intestate succession of the heir.
If there was an invalid will or no will at all, the suc-
cession was intestate: in the ancient law the basis of
intestate succession was the peculiarly Roman arti-
ficial family made up of the agnates. Emancipated
childreoi and non-agnatic cognates did not succeed,
since they were no part of the family. In the first
rank, the heirs were the decedent's children (natural
or adoptive) who took per capita^ in the nearest degree
and per stirpes, or bv representation, in remot<?r de-
crees. Elmancipated. children had no claim until
Kter, when they were aided by the prsetor's edict,
" Unde liberi ". The Twel vfe Tables provided that, in
the absence of children, the nearest agnate should be
called: this was known as the statutory sucession of
the agnates. Those only were called who were lx)und
in amation to the deceased through males; hence
fenudes beyond sisters were not called. The pnetor,
however, provided for the more remote in the edict,
" Unde cognati "• Agnates by adoption enjoyed the
same rights as agnates by nature. The nearest agnate
todc, and there was no right of representation, al-
though here again the prsetor made innovations which
were supplemented by the legislation of Justinian.
The father did not succeed to the son, consistently
with the idea that the son could have nothing of his
own, and, where the father took, it was by n^ht of
resumption. The father succeeded to his emancipated
child, not as an agnate, but as a manumissor. The
mother was not an agnate, and did not succeed to her
children, nor did they succeed to her. Here, again,
changes were effected by the edict, "Unde cognati",
and by the Senatus-consulta Tertullianum and Or-
phitianum. The former senatv^'ConsuUum provided
that, if a free mother gave birth to three chil(&en, or a
freedwoman to four, there should be a right of suc-
cession, and this legislation was modified by Justinian
even more favourably to the mother. The Senatus-
consultum Orphitianum was the complement of the
other, and nrovideii th.it the right of succession be-
tween mother and children should be reciprocal.
These rights were extended by imperial constitution
to grandchildren.
If agnates were wanting, the Twelve Tables called
the gentiles in the next rank, and not the cognates: the
praetor, however, in the edict **Unde cognati", called
the cog^nates in this rank.
Servile cognation (that contracted in slavery) had
been an impediment of marriage; but the slave wo-
man, manumitted with her chudren, could not avail
herself either of the Senatus-consultum Tertullianum
or of the possession of goods derived from the edict
"Unde cognati". Justinian created rights of suc-
cession to remedy this defect.
The former master or, by assignment of f reedmen,
his children, stood in loco jxirentis to the freedman,
and succeeaed to his patrimony. Even the prede-
ceased patron, through his nearest children (repre-
sentation being excluded) succeeded to the goods of
his former slave. Libertini, freedmen, were restricted
in their capacity to make a will. The prsetor con-
sidered it no more than equitable that the libertinus
should leave one-half his property to his former master.
A higher equity arose where the freedman left children
of his own, and in this case the patron might be ex-
cluded, the whole pjatrimony going to the treedman's
children. In all other cases, and even contra tabulas,
the patron took one half: later, in special circum-
stances depending upon the freedman s wealth, Jus-
tinian, developing tne principles of the Lex Fapia
Foppsea, increased the patron's portion.
The prse tor's intervention in succession matters did
not directly overturn the provisions of the ius civile,
but he devised the possessio bonorum, applicable to
both testate and intestate successions. Justinian
recognized and gave sanction to three kinds of jws-
sessvo: first, contra tabulas (contrary to the will),
where persons had been inequitably pretermitted;
second, secundum tabulas; third, possession of an in-
testate's estate. The bonorum possessor was not an
heir in accordance with jtLS civile^ yet he enjoyed all of
the privileges of an heir. Justiman placed the right
of succession upon a basis of cognation, or blood re-
lationship, and succession by right of blood occurred
in four orders which may be mdicated as follows: First
order (a) the sui heredes, or natural heirs, who suc-
ceeded in virtue of the con-dominium in the inherit-
ance; (b) those whose strict legal right had been
barred (as by emancipation), but whom the praetor
called to the inheritance; (c) emancipated sons to
whom Justinian's constitution restored natural rights.
Second order, (a) statutory heirs, agnates; (b) persons
entitled under the Senatus-consultum Tertullianum;
(c) tliose entitled under the Senatus-consultum
Orphitianum. Third order, the cognates. (Hein-
eccius gives tables of descent both before and after
Justinian's legislation). None of these orders being
entitled to take, the estate escheat-ed to the fiscuSj or
public treasury. The adjective law (below, undex
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C. Actions) supplied various forms for the heredUas
petitio, CoUatiOj or the return of advancements, was
required in order that there might be a fair distri-
bution. This is the collation of the modem civil
codes. .
Another means for the acquisition of ownership was
adrogation, whereby a person sui juris was adopted
into the paternal power of another. Originally the
obligations of the adrogatus were strictly and logically
extinguished, but the injustice to creditors was the
subject of remedial legislation.
^ain, one might acquire the goods of another by
9ecHo or venditio bonorum, a sale at auction for the
benefit of creditors.
The rights ^win^ out of pledge were also a means
for the acquisition of property. This institution was,
in its inception, only a fiduciary pact without means of
enforcement, and the title passed to the pledge credi-
tor; later, it took the form of mgnusj or pledge proper,
whereby the creditor was placed in possession of a
moveable with certain duties towards the debtor; a
form of the same contract was extended to immove-
ables, and this was known as antichresis. In anii-
chresis the creditor was placed in possession of the im-
moveables and obliged to pay, first, his interests and
charges, and then to deduct from the principal debt
whatever he received as revenue. Hypothecay or
mortgage, was a development and in scientific theory
is the substructure of the modem law of mortgage.
Privileges were akin to modem civil-law rights
of the same name and to the liens of the common law;
but possession was not of prime importance.
Pledge was extinguished by the extinction of the
principal debt, by express release, by expiration of the
time, by destruction of the thing pledged, etc. The
actions, growing out of it were the Servian and general
hypothecary, or quasi-Servian action.
Real rights (in re) differ essentially from personal
rights (ad rem) J or obligations, which have persons as
their immediate objects. Even these have things as
their remote objects, since they tend to the attainment
of a thing through a particular person and by reason
of their being usuaUy convertible into a money value.
Obligations (dismissing at once those which were
purely natural and hence imenforceable) were broader
than either contract or tort, and included liability
arising from both. They were civil or praetorian, and
could arise from contract, quasi-contract, delict, and
quasi-delict. In conventional obligations some thmgs
were essential, others accidental. Contractual obliga-
tions arose through delivery of a thing, through woras,
through writing, or merely through tne consent of the
parties; and were, accordingly, contracts re, verbis, lit-
teris, or consensu.
Contracts re were the bailments, loan for use, loan
for consumption, deposit, and pledge.
Contracts verbis were entered into by a formal stipu-
lation consisting of a direct question and an adequately
responsive answer. They could take immediate effect,
could commence in/uturo, or could be conditional.
Stipulations were praetorian, judicial, common, and
Aouilian: the praetorian and judicial were scarcely
voluntary. The common stipulation was used in
the ordinary affairs of men and by persons in fidu-
ciary relationships (e. g., in this form the tutor
»ve security for the faithful discharge of his duties).
The Aquilian stipulation, in connexion with acceptila-
Uo, was a means of general release for the dissolution of
any obligation. Stipulations required the same con-
sensual elements that were necessary in other agree-
ments, in addition to their own peculiar formalism. If
a conditional response were made to a direct question,
the stipulation was void; so also, if made by letter
or messenger. The relation of suretyship could be
created by stipulation: suretyship was an accessory
contract, and the surety was known as the fidei^
fussor. Sureties had the beneficium divisionis, which
was conceded by Hadrian. They enjoyed also the
beneficium ordinis, invented by Justinian, and the
beneficium cedendarum actionum, or subrogation to the
ri^t of action of the creditor against uie principal
debtor, or pro rata against the co-sureties.
Contracts litteris took their juridical efficacy from
writings, which evidenced the fact that an obhgation
subsisted or that it had been extinguished. The
latter were called apochce. Writing evidencing a sub-
sisting obligation were syngraphic or chirographic
respectively, as they expressed a mutual or a unilat-
eral obligation. A writmg in the book of the debtor
which supported the creditor's entry was conclusive,
and even the creditor's entry created a strong pre-
sumption.
Contracts consensu were not peculiar in that they
required consent, which was requisite in all contracts.
Their peculiarity was in the fact that consent alone
sufficed. They were five in number: buying and sell-
ing (emptio-venditio); letting and hiring (locaHo-oon-
ductio); the emphyteuticary contract; partnership
(sodetas); and mandate (gratuitous agency). In sale,
there was necessary the consent of the parties, an
object and an agreed price. Letting and hiring might
be considered a temporary' sale, and the essential inci-
dents of a valid contract were the same as in sale.
Emphyteusis strictly was neither a sale nor a letting;
it was rather a quit-rent lease dependent in its dura-
tion upon the payment of the agreed canon. Its
special incidents were a quasi-ownership in the tenant
and a right of pre-emption in the dominus. Similar
to emphyteusis was the right of superficies; but as it
applied only to the surface — that is, to buildings — it
was less permanent. Partnership was general or
universal; particular or special; and. finally, singular.
As consent was of its essence, withorawal of consent
worked its dissolution. Partnership was an entity
distinct from the individual partners; it gave rise to
the actio pro socio. The leonine partnership (sodetas
leonina) was illegal. Mandate was a consensual con-
tract whereby one undertook gratuitously to attend to
an affair for another; it was commissioned agency
and was an actual contract; it was distinguishable
from negotiorum gestio (uncommissioned agency) in
that the latter belonged to quasi-contract. It gave
rise to the actio niandati, directa, or contraria.
The contracts which had a definite name and form
of action for their enforcement were nominate con-
tracts. There were others termed innominate be-
cause they had no special names: these were summed
up in the four formulae: Do, ut des; Do, ut facias;
Facio, ut des; and Facio, ut facias. They were en-
forcea by the general action in factum or by the action
prcBscriptis verbis.
All of the foregoing contracts, nominate and in-'
nominate, were contracts in the true sense of the word,
but there was another class of relations in which the
law imposed duties and obligations as if the parties
had actually contracted. These were the so-called
quasi-contracts, and the forms were negotiorum gestio,
tutorship, inheritance, administration in common,
hereditaiis aditio, indebiti solutio (payment under mis-
take of fact), and a few others of similar nature.
Obligations could be acauired through the paternal
and dominical powers ana through mandataries. A
civil obligation once constituted could be extinguished
by an exception (plea in bar) or by its own terms.
Pleas in bar were divers and could arise from a will, a
contract or pact, a judicial decision, etc.
The means of extinction common to all obligations
were: solutio (payment); compensatio (set-off); con-
fiisio (merging of the character of debtor and creditor)
ablatio et consignatio (tender) ; rei interitus (loss of the
thing); novaiio (substitution ot obhgations as to per-
son or thing) ; prasrriptio (lapse of time) ; and furtner,
in proper cases, by arc^ptilaiio (release) and by viutuui
dissetisus (mutual change of intention).
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The pnetorian resiUviio in integrum was an equitable
lestoration of the parties to their former situation, and
could be invoked for metus (duress), dolus (fraud),
minority, and generally by all who had suffered hard-
ship through no fault of their own.
Obligations and rights of action arose also out of
ddidumj which was the voluntary penal violation of
human law. Delicts were either actual or c|uasi-
delicts — ^the former deliberate, the latter neghgent.
When public, they were crimes; when private, torts.
Instances were: furtum (theft), either manifest or con-
cealed; rapina (robbery with violence); damnum in^
jfoia datum (injury to property); and injuria (a kind
oi outrage, or defamatory wrong by worn or action).
Jnfurtumf the thief could be prosecuted either civilly
or criminallv, and in the civil action the thin^^ or the
penalty could be recovered. The Roman criminal law
imposed a fine to the fiacua and corporal or capi-
tal punishment. Justinian abolished mutilation and
capital punishment for theft and substituted fines
and exile. Rapina, like furtumy required a criminal
intent. Where the putative owner, in the belief of
ownership, sought to recover his property by violence,
this was not robbery, but the offence against public
order was punished by the loss of the property with-
out, however, any fine to the fiscus. Damage to the
property of another injuria datum was the subject
matter of the Aquilian Law, and the damage must
have been inflicted by a freedman; if by a slave, it was
A noxal tort; if by a quadruped, the tort and liability
were designated pauperies. The measure of damages
in injuria depended upon the atrocity of the wrong and
the status of the parties; the right of action accrued
to the father for injuria to the son; to the husband,
for the wife; to the master, for the slave, etc. Quasi-
delictual obligations were torts or wrongs based on
culpa (fault or negligence), and not upon dolus (evil
intent). An instance was where anything was negli-
gently or carelessly thrown from a house (dejecta vet
effusa). Quasi-deuctual, also, were the obligations of
persons employed in a public calling, such as shi{)-
masters ana innkeepers, for the wrongful acts of their
servants.
C. Actions. — Adjective Law. — An action was the
legal means for the enforcement of a right, and the
Roman law included in the term actio both the ri^ht of
action and the action itself. Actions were petitory,
when ihey sought to recover the very thing in con-
troversy, or possessory, where the right of p>ossession
only was in issue. Specific nominate actions were
provided in most of the relations between men, and
^diere the relations were innominate there were ac-
Hones in factum, prcescriptis verbis, and condiciiones
ex lege.
Aocordinff to their origin, actions were civil or
honorary, the latter emanating either from the praetor
or from tiie sediles. Civil actions were either directed
or uHles: dvreda, if brought in the express words of the
law or by the logical paries; tUileSy if brought upon
equitable facts not within the strict letter, and possi-
hly. in the case of a ceded action, by the nominal
plamtiff for the use of the real plaintiff. Actions
aiming to establish personal status were called pre-
judicial. R^Eil actions were vindicationes; personal
irere condictiones,
Rei vindicatio and the Publician action went to the
question of ownership. Succession gave rise to the
hereditas petUio and to the querela inojficiosi. Servi-
tudes were affirmed or denied by an actio confessoria
or negatoria. In pledge, there was the Servian or
quasi-Servian action. The praetor or the sedile granted
equitable actions, such as the actio ad exhibendum for
the production of moveables; the actio in factum de
edendo, an action of accoimt against bankers; and the
redhtbitaria and quanH minoris, actions for redhibition
ttid abatement of the price. The actions based on
duress, fraud, and minority were purely equitable, and
there was a condictio sine causa in cases of failure of
consideration. This may be considered as equitable
or as growing out of quasi-contract. Indeea, all of
the^ quasi-contractual relations had their appropriate
actions. Private wrongs, too, were redressed in suit-
able forms of action. In delicts the recovery might be
simply the value, as in the persecutory actions; or
double the value, as in the actio furti nee manifesti and
in the action for corrupting a slave. In some in-
stances, a triple, or even quadruple, recovery might be
had.
Actions founded on the consensual contracts of
sale, hire, emphyteusis, partnership, and mandate,
and on the real contracts of commodatum, depositum,
and pignus were actions bonce fidei: so also, the actio
proiscriptis verbis for innominate contracts and the
quasi-contractual actions neyotiorum gestorum, fune-
raria, tutelce, etc., as well as the personal action here-
ditas petitio.
The actio ex stipulatu and the condictio ex chiro'
grapho were actions of strict law {stricli juris).
An arbitrary action was one in which a non-com-
gliant party was forced to comply or be held liable in a
irger discretionary sum.
Certain exemptions to judgment debtors were
favoured by the Roman law; among these was the
beneficium competentice.
Ordinarily tne foundation of liability was personal,
yet one might incur liability through the act of an-
other— ^as a son, a slave, or even a stranger. The
actio quod jussu was properly brought against father or
master for an act done by his order. The master of a
ship, whether freeman or slave, by a sort of necessary
agency could incur liability for the ship-owner and the
right of action was enforced by the actio exerdloria.
Similar in theory was the actio institoria which was
the proper form in which to bring an action against
one who had placed another in chai^ge of a shop for the
buying and selling of wares. The age and condition
of the institor were immaterial. The praetor ^ave an
actio de peculio to persons who contracted with son
or slave in respect to the pecidium, and this action was
effective against the father or master to the extent of
the peculium.
Aside from the specific remedies sought in particular
cases, actions were perpetual or temporary, aepending
upon the lapse of time. Perpetual actions were or-
dinarily such as were barred by thirty years' prescrip-
tion, while temporary actions were Barred by shorter
periods.
Exceptions or pleas to actions, like actions them-
selves, were civil or prsetorian; and in general were
perpetucB and peretnptorUe (complete pleas in bar) ; or
temporarice (only dilatory).
The developed written altercations, or pleadings, of
the parties were as f oUows : the actor (plaintiff) brought
his actio, which the reus (defendant) met with his ex-
ceptio (plea). To this the plaintiff could reply with a
replicatio, which in turn might be met with a dupli-
catio, and in exceptional cases the pleadings might ad-
vance to a triplicatio and a quadruplicatio.
The interoicts were formulae, or conceptions of
words, whereby the praetor, in an invent cause or in
one affecting the public interest, ordered or forbade
something to be done. They were, in effect, pro-
hibitory or mandatory injimctions; they were pro-
hibitoria, as against violence to possession, obstruct-
ing a public place, etc.; they were restitutoria, to
restore possession, etc.; and, finally, exhibitoria, as
for the production of a free man or for the production
of a will. The object to be attained by a possessory
interdict was to receive, to retain, or to recover pos-
session. The interdicts quorum bonorum and quod
legatorum had to do with successions. The Salvian
and quasi-Salvian interdicts were used for foreclosure
in pledge obligations.
(The subject of Roman criminal law is beyond the
LAW 86 LAW
scope of this article; its most concise arrangement is nation of magistrates to formulate i;iTittcn laws,
to befoundinPothicr's^Pandectse: depoenisJ') In 303 decemvirs were appointed, and they agreed
II. History and Sources. — ^A. Its Developmeni. — upon ten tables during the first year of their magis-
The classic period of development of Roman Law was tracy, and two additional tables the second year. The
in the second and third centuries of oiu* era, and this is political object sought by the plebeians, namely, the
known to us for the greater part through the compila- lusing of both classes into one, was not attained:
tions of Justinian, in the sixth centiuy. In the form private rights, however, were given definite form,
given it by Justinian, the Roman Law, through the re- These laws of the Twelve Tables contained the ele-
vivaJ of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, spread ments from which, in process of time, the vast edifice
over Europe and became the foimdation of modem of private law was developed.
European law. (2) From the Twelve Tables to Actium. — ^The law
The history of Roman law has been variously expanded rapidly and commensurately with tie ex-
divided into periods. One division is into the Regal pansion of Rome in territory and civilization. The
Period, from the foundation of the city, the Republi- jurists, however, had not yet the imperiumy or power
can, until the time of Augustus, and, finally, the Im- of developing the law through judicial legislation,
perial, closing with the legislation of Justinian in the The growth of law was simply the result of mterpre-
year 1280 (a. d. 526) from the foundation of the city tation of the Twelve Tables. The jurists of this
(Howe) . Again, the lapse of almost 1000 years, from period were skilled lawyers who penetrated the spuit
the Twelve Tables to the reign of Justinian, has been of the law, but were not free to aepart from it. The
divided into three periods: the first, a. u. c. 303- few /^jFes passed by the people in assembly had practi-
648; the second a. u. c. 648-988, the splendid age cally little to do with private law. The Senate, which
from the birth of Cicero to the reign of Alexander was really an administrative body, b^zan to assume
Severus; the third, from Alexander to Justinian, in legislative powers, but this source of law was as yet
which "the oracles of Jurisprudence were almost unimportant. The activity of the jurisconsults in
mute" (Gibbon). A better division, and one which inter|)reting the Twelve Tables was the most con-
more accurately corresponds with the growth of Ro- spicuous factor in the growth of private law, and their
man political institutions, gives four periods : the first, labours were designated by the same term which desig-
from the foundation of the city down to the laws of nated the Twelve Tables, i. e., jus civile. The Roman
the Twelve Tables; the second, to the battle of Act- magistrate, however, did possess the imperium, and,
ium (beginning of the empire) ; the third, from the whue at first he used it sparingly, he at length b^an
battle of Actium to the accession of Diocletian; the to develop an equitable juris<Bction, giving remeaies
fourth, from Diocletian to the death of Justinian in a limited numoer of cases where the fus civile gave
(565). The first of these four periods is that of in- none. He proceeded cautiously and upon a rational
fancy; the second, of adolescence; the third, of ma- theory, and!, since he could not introduce chaos into
ture age; the fourth, of senility and decay (Ortolan; the law by varying it in the particular case, he antici-
Staedtier). paled its defects in hypothetical cases and announced
(1) From the Foimdation of Rome to the Twelve the relief which he would give. The praetor made an
Tables. — Our knowledge of this period is largely con- announcement in an edict upon assuming magistracy:
jectural, from data furnished by the subsequent period, he was bound by his edict, yet he did not discard the
Roman history b^ns with pure myth and fable, then edicts of his predecessors, and in this sense the prsetor's
passes through a stage of blended fable and fact, and edict became an edictum perpetuum, i. e., permanent,
finally becomes history properly so called. The his- WTien experience showed the value of an innovation,
tory of Roman Law has no vital interest with the the praetor made it, and thus the honorary law became
petty communities and subordinate nationalities that a developing system, modified and improved from
were finally absorbed in the three ethnological ele- year to year. In the course of time it became volu-
ments, Latin, Sabine, and Etruscan, with which the minous. Most of the changes wrought by the praetor
dawn of Rome's legal history begins. Of these three were inroads (after the manner of the I^glish chan*
elements the Etruscan was more advanced in civiliza- cellors), upon the harsh rigour of the Twelve Tables,
tion, witii definite religious and political institutions The Twelve Tables were deferentially treated by the
(Ortolan). The only Etruscan text we have is that of praetor, whose functions were constructive, and not
the nymph Vegoia {lasa Veku)^ which recognizes the destructive, yet, by reason of his imperium^ he was not
right of property and protects it with the wrath of the bound by the jus civile in the drafting of his edict.
ds (Casati). It is customary to speak of certain Hence the praetor had the power to engraft upon Ro-
jes in the earliest historical period as leges regice: man law new ideas and new principles derived from
whether these were real statutes enacted during the the jus gentium. There were many non-citicens at
regal period or the mere formulation of customary Rome, and non-Roman relations were administered
law is disputed (Bruns, introd. note to " Leges Regiae by a special magistrate, called the praUor peregrinus,
in "Fontes Jur. Rom. Antiqui ")• There were some under a body of principles which were conceived to be
well established, though crude and radical, rules of common to all men. There was a naturalness and an
private law, such as the harsh paternal power and the equity in these principles in which all men were pre-
equally drastic right of the creditor over his unfortu- sumed to concur. This was in striking contrast with
nate aebtor. It may safely be affirmed that during the jus civile^ and the contact of legal ideas began to
this primitive period customary law was the only law. broaden and liberalize Roman law. This infiuence,
Pomponius says: " At the be^nning of our city, the however, had not yet overpowered the jus civile at the
people Degan their first activities without any fixed close of this second period.
law and without any fixed rights: all things were ruled (3) From Actium (31 b. c.) to Diocletian (d. a. d.
despotically by kings" (2, §1. D. 1. 2). In the next 313). — In this, the classic period, the science of law
paragraph he speaks of the so-called leges regixB as col- reached a high degree of perfection. Leges were very
lected and still extant in the book of Sextus Papirius. rare, and were usually measures of public policy to
Again, after the expulsion of the kings the people re- which some slight elements of private law were mci-
Borted to customary law. The great mass of historical dental ; such were the legislative measures rewarding
facts prove that there was no private law other than marriage and dealing wiui the emancipation of slaves
custom down until this period closed with the enact- (Staedtler). Senatus-consuUa, on the contrary, be-
ment of the Twelve Tables (Staedtler). The lack of a came of increasing importance, and, whereas at first
precise definition of their rights was the principal their constitutionsiity, so to speak, had been doubted,
grievance of the plebeians, and in a. u. c. 292 they were fully recognized as law. Other sources were
their tribune, Terentilius Arsa, proposed the nomi- the con^/t^u/tVmesprinctpum, or imperial constitutions;
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87
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these took the fonn of edicts, mandates, decrees, and
leeeripts. The edictal legislation of the magistrates
(the honorary law) had b^^ome so voluminous that it
was incapable of further growth; it wasj moreover,
out of harmony with changed positive legislation and
with changed oonditj^ons. Salvius Julianus was com-
missioned py Hadrian to revise and edit it, and on this
revision many of the jurisconsults made their com-
mentaries ad edietum. In the literary splendour of the
Augustan age the jurisconsults took high rank; their
wonc was not only scientific, but literary, and it has
bc»en said that, had all its other monuments perished,
classical Latin would have survived in the fragments
of the jurisconsults of this period. Augustus granted
to the most eminent in law the startling jus respon-
dendi, i. e., the right of officially giving, in the name of
the prince, opinions which were legally binding upon
the judge. These reaponsa were in writing and were
sealed tefore delivery to the judge. Among the cele-
brated jurisconsults were Capito and Labeo, foimders
of rival schools (2, § 47, D. 1. 2). Others were Sal-
vius Julianus and Sextus Pompomus, both represented
by copious fragments in the Pandects. In tne second
oentu^ came Gains, of whose " Institutes " those of
Justinian are only a recension. In 1816 a palimpsest
was discovered by Niebuhr in the library or the cathe-
dral chapter of Verona. On it were some compositions
of St. Jerome, in places superimposed on an earlier
writing, which proved to be a copy of the lost "In-
stitutes " of Gains. Gains himsell was a contempo-
mry of the Emperor Hadrian, but scientific Research
has fixed the date of this copy of his great work as a
little earlier than the time of Justinian^ in the sixth
eentunr.
In the third century lived Papinian, "the Prince of
the Jurisconsults '\ Ulpian and Paulus also were
among the greatest lawyers of the period: approxi-
mately onoHsixth of the Digest is made up of frag-
ments from Ulpian, while raulus is represented by
Siwards of two thousand fragments (Staedtler).
odestinus was the last of the great series. We have
in manuscript part of an elementary work by Ulpian
and the Institutes of Gains. In Justinian's Digest a
veiy large part of the writings of the classical jurists is
to be foimd. Most of the original treatises have per-
ished; two thousand of these, containing three million
impunctuated and unspaced lines, were abridged to
one hundred and fifty thousand lines or sentences.
The originals became useless in practice, and were for
the greater part soon lost. A number of classic ju-
rists are represented in a collection of 341 fragments,
discovered m the Vatican Library in the early part of
the nineteenth century by Cardinal Mai, and edited by
him at Rome in 1 823. Another edition was published
in Germany in 1828, under the title "^Fragmenta Vati-
oana". Fragments of the classic jurists are also con-
tained in the "Collatio Mosaicarum et Romanarum
Legum'', known also as the "Lex Dei", compiled in
the fourth and fifth centuries. They are found also
in the *' Breviary of Alaric" or "Lex Romana Wisi-
gothorum'', which contains the Sentences of Paulus
and the excerpts from Papinian's ' ' Responsa' * . Frag-
ments from the iurisconsults are founa in the " Edie-
tum Theodorici ' or "Lex Romana Ostrogothorum"
and in the "Lex Romana Burgundionum'' (see below).
(4) From Diocletian (d. 313) to Justinian (d. 565). —
The seat of an absolute monarchy was now shifted
from Rome to Constantinople, and the Empire was
divided into East and West. Constructive juris-
Erudence ¥ras a thins of the past, and the sources of
kw were merged in tne will of the prince. The edicts
of the pretonan prefect were given the same effect
as the imperial constitutions, which were concerned
principally with public law. Private law was vast
and diversified, but it had lon^ since ceased to have
any stimulating growth. The jus civile, expanded by
the Ancient jurists in the interpretation of tne Twelve
Tables, the honorary law of the magistrates, the public
legislative acts of the early empire, the mass of im-
perial constitutions, and the writings of the classic
Jurisconsults, composed a heterogeneous jumble of
legal materials from which a systematic jurisprudence
was destined to arise. An attempt was made in the
early fifth century to effect a workable system, and the
law of citations was adopted by which the relative
authority of the classic jurists was posthumously
fixed by statute. Numerical weight of authority was
done away with, and the great galaxy were the recog-
nized authorities, although other jurists mi^ht be
cited if approved by any of the five. Collections of
imperial constitutions were made at an interval of
fifty years, and published upder the names of the
Gregorian and Theodosian Codes respectively; the
latter was republished in the " Breviary of Alaric ".
Something at least, had been done for the simplifica-
tion of a difficult legal situation. The Eastern and
Western emperors thenceforward agreed to mutually
communicate their legislative designs for simultaneous
publicatioir in both empires, and these future projects
were to be Known as novellcB constUuiiones.
Upon Justinian's accession there were in force two
principal sources of law: the imperial constitutions
and the classical jurisprudence operating under the
law of citations (Staedtler). To Justinian's practical
mind, the state of the law was still chaotic; the em-
pire was poor, and it was a hardship for lawyers to
possess themselves of the necessary MSS. The very
bulk of the law produced a situation analogous to that
which exists in common-law jurisdictions to-day, and
which always ushers in more or less abortive efforts
towards codification. Justinian undertook to make
these immense materials more accessible and more
responsive to the practical needs of his empire. That,
in the opinion of some, he wronged posterity by
destroying the original sources, is entirely beside the
mark. He has been lauded as a great lawgiver when
measured by the needs of his time and situation; and.
on the other hand, he has been as heartily abused and
reviled for an unscientific iconoclast. The first task
of the commission appointed by Justinian was to edit
the imperial constitutions as a code, published under
the title, * * Codex Justiniani ' '. After this the emperor
directed the compilation of a complete repository of
the law made up of fragments of the classical writings
strung together without any too scientific arrange-
ment. This work is the great treasury of juridical
lore, and was the most valuable part of Justinian's
compilation. It was called the Digest" or "Pan-
dects'*. Occasionallv Tribonian, who, with two other
jurists, was Intrusted with the task, complacently or
ignorantly modified the text. The emperor forbade
commentaries and abbreviations.
Upon the completion of the Pandects, Justinian,
always intelligently interested in legal education, or-
dered an abndgment of the Digest for the purposes
of instruction; these are the Institutes of Justinian.
The Institutes of Gains (see above, under 3) furnished
a ready model; indeed, the Institutes of Gains and
those of Justinian are even to-day the most essential
first books of the law. The first araf t of the Code was
not in complete harmony with the Digest and the In-
stitutes, and a revision of it became necessaiy ; this
was promulgated as the "Codex Repetitae rraelec-
tionis '*. The second edition of the code was intended
to be final, and upon its publication Justinian an-
nounced that any new imperial legislation would take
the form of detached constitutions to be known as
"novels" (rwvellce, i. e. "new "); of these he issued a
large number, but two only (the 118th and 127th)
have great importance for modem law.
The Justinian conapilation is sometimes elegantly
termed the Imperial Code; it is, however, more accu-
rate to refer to it as the " Corpus Juris Civilis ". It ifl
the whole body of the civil law comprising the foui
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88
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books of the Institutes, the fifty books of the Digest,
the twelve books of the Code, and the Novels. Early
editions divide the Pandects into three parts, the
pigestum vetus, the Infortiatum, and the Digestum
novum. The labours of Justinian have come down
to us in the form of texts of the' so-called glossators
during the Middle Ages. The glossators worked from
earlier manuscripts and harmonized conflicting texts
into a generally accepted lectio vulgata (** vulgate ", or
* * common reading "). We have one text known as the
"Florentine Pandects" which dates from the seventh
century, one hundred years after Justinian. It is,
however, in all probability, only one of the texts from
which the glossators worked, and, when the errors of
copyists are considered, its antiouity should not en-
title it to overrule the vulgate. This Florentine text
is the subject of legend, ana the revival of the study of
Roman law has been attributed to its discovery.
Saviffny and others have demonstrated that the i-e-
vivalwas well under way before the discovery of this
codex. The publication of a photographic reproduc-
tion of the Florentine Pandects was b^un at Rome in
1902, and seven of the ten parts are alreafly at hand.
In what had been the Western Empire, Justinian no
longer held sway at the date of the promulgation of his
laws; the subject race were, however, permitted by
their barbarian conquerors to retain the pre-Justinian
law as their personal law. The conquerors themselves
caused to be made the several compilations known as
the " Roman Barbarian Codes " (see Lex). Justinian
did, however, effect the reconquest of Italy, and held
it long enough to promulgate his laws. Wnen the Os-
trogoths agam became masters they left the legislation
of Justinian undisturbed, and it flourished m a less
corrupted form than in the Eastern Empire, which
was its logical field. The Roman law of Justinian
superseded the barbarian codes and, with the revival,
was taught in the medieval schools and thus spread
all over Europe.
B. Subsequent Influence, — In the Eastern Empire
subsequent changes are of interest to the historian
rather than to the jurist. There was a lull of nearly
three centuries after the death of Justinian, until Leo
the Philosopher revised the legislation and published
what is known as the "Basilica". While Byzantine
materials throw many side lights upon the Roman
legal system, they are relatively unimportant, though
they were of service to the Humanists. The Eastern
law schools only (Constantinople and Berytus) were
subject to Justinian at the time of his constitution on
legal education, yet he speaks of Rome as a royal city
and prohibits the teachmg of law elsewhere than in
these three cities (Ortolan). Professors of law had
been active in all of his reforms: Tribonian was a pro-
fessor of law and an able, but venal, jurist, whose
career had much resemblance with that of Bacon.
Theophilus was also a professor of law who, like Tri-
bonian, had taken part in the work of Justinian, and
he coiiiposcd a paraphrase of the Institutes in Greek.
A number of commentaries in Greek were produced
and an abridgment of the Novels. The greater part
of the Byzantine writings were from secondary sources
and are abridgments, condensations, manuals, etc.
Among others were the " Enchiridium" of Isaurian
law, the "Prochiron" of Basil, and the revision en-
titled "Epanagoge"; and the revised Basilica from
A. D. 906 to A. D. 911. In the composition of these
collections it is highly probable that the sources were
secondary and that the originals of Justinian were not
directly consulted. The Basilica through its scholia
or annotations grew so bulky that a synopsis of it was
made, and this continued in high repute until the fall
of the empire, in 1453, when the Greek legal authori-
ties were supplanted by the Mohanmiedan Koran.
Enough of personal law was suffered to the vanouished
by the conqueror to constitute the historic element
and principal basis of Greek civil law (Ortolan, Morey).
Greek fugitives also carried over with them into Italy
and elsewhere the relics of their law, and many manur
scripts are still extant: of these the Humanist Cujas
possessed a valuable library. Thus, the Greek texts,
while of little value to the glossators, were yet a po-
tent factor in the second renaissance of Roman law in
the sixteenth century. This was of service to the
historical and philological school, the inspirations and
traditions of which are still active in modem scholar-
ship, particularly that of Germany, where, as Mon-
treuil wrote fifty years ago, the French school is re-
found in the labours of Reitz, Ruhneken, Biener,
Witte, Heimbach, and Zacharia.
The most flourishing school of law following the
first revival of Roman law was that of Bologna, to-
wards the end of the eleventh century. Its founder
was Imerius, and he was the first of the glossators.
Placentinus and Vacarius were others of the glossators.
Vacarius was a Lombard, and he it was who carried
the texts of Justinian to England and foimded a law
school at Oxford, about the middle of the twelfth cen-
tury. The glossators known as the four doctors all be-
longed to Bologna; and that school accjuired a reputa-
tion in civil law equal to that of Paris m theology and
canon law. So attractive was the Roman law that the
clergy had to be restrained from its study, and the
study of canon law stimulated by a decretal in 1220
(Morey), The early Church had been governed by
councils, synods, etc. Collections had t^en made in
the fifth and sixth centiuies, but it was only in the
ninth c&ntuiy that a real collection of ecclesiastical
legal documents was made. There began to be col-
lections of decrees of the popes, and the revival of
Roman law at Bologna in the twelfth century gave
impetus to a systematic canon law. About 1130
Gratian, a Benedictine monk, made the compilation
which developed into the "Corpus Juris Canonici'\
The external similarity of this compilation to the
"Corpus Juris Civilis" is thus ^ven by Duck: "The
Roman pontiffs effected that m the Church which
Justinian effected in the Roman Empire. They
caused Gratian's Decree to be published m imitation
of the Pandects; the Decretals in imitation of the
Code; the Clementine Constitutions and the Extra va-
gantes in imitation of the Novels; and to complete the
work Paul IV ordered Launcellot to prepare Institutes
which were published at Rome imaer Gregory XIII,
and added to the Corpus Juris Canonici/' (In quali-
fication of this, see CV)rpu8 Juris Canonici. )
To return to the Roman law, the school of the
glossators (of whom Accursius in the middle of the
thirteenth century was the last) was succeeded by
the school of which Bartolus of Sasso Ferrato and Al-
ciat were representatives. From 1340 ihe Bartolists
flourished for two hundred and fifty years, to be suc-
ceeded in turn by the Humanist school, of which
Cujas was the chief ornament. Until the sixteenth
century Roman law was most cultivated in Italy; its
glory then passed to France, and, in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, though there were con-
spicuous Dutch jurists of great ability in the applica-
tion of the law, it may fairly be said to belong to Ger-
many during that period. France, Italy, Belgimn, and
even England, however, are awakening in the dawn
of the twentieth century.
The siu-vival of Roman-law principles was in great
measure due to the principle of personality. The
Roman-Greek law had not oeen entirely supplanted
by the Koran in the Moslem states, such as Egypt and
Syria (Amos). In modem Egypt there has been a
reaffirmation of many Roman principles in the Civil
Code proposed by the international commission which
"harmonized the rules of Arabic jurisprudence which
were not repugnant to European legislation, with the
chief provisions of the Code Napoleon ". An interest-
ing Syrian text has been edited by Bruns (Sjrrisch*
Rdmisches Rechtsbuch aus dem 15. Jahrhundert).
XJLWRXiroE 89 UWEENOE
ITua principle of personality permitted by the kinp t« admiralty, chancery, and ecclesiastical law there
of the Visigoths, Ostrogothe, and BuisunduuiB sufficed haa never been, nor could there well be, any disposi-
tokeepahvetheRomanlawin the West. Except as tion to withhold acknowledRment to Rome. The
to the municipalities, the Raman political system had practice is quite common of reierring to the chancellor
been destroyed. The concession of personal law to as the prffitor. This indebtedness, bo begrudgingly
Roman subjects and tlie influence of the clergy, who acknowledged by many early English jurists in a mie-
alwaya preferred to claim the civil law, waa atarrier taken sense of national pride, ia now frankly admitted
" hetweeaRomanciviliiationand barbarism" (Morey). by all who lay claim to a knowledge of both Civil and
In the miUtary tenures of feudalism, it has been Common law.
attempted to trace the idea of two distinct ownerships, A "^'^ uJ't^^Srt^ "' A^lSt^b^" " ""^^h^Mi"?
the dominium emineng and the d/>minium mitgare, to ^*^^ ^lon modem aulboritative civi[la™!°^™e wotka us
the Roman contract of emphyteusis. A collection of fouod on the ahetvcs of ■ gcxHl American milection givea h
feudal law kliown as the " Consuetudines Feudorum" idea of tbeweallhot this liWralun;:—
is contained aa a kind of appendix in most editions of socimo; Uoki; BbiH?^' Dkcns; Ci^t'^'CoLnnH^
the"Corpus". In the Amsterdam editionof 1681, is Cokb4t (Com); Cohnil: Cobta: Coduhoss: Cud:
the note after the second book: " Hie eat finis Feudo- M"""i 02?"^^^;°
rum in editione vulgata" (End of the feudal constitu- FBieonKTi Giuabu:' Gldck: GUtekbocb; HIhel' Hai^-
tions in the vulgate edition). The third book is miss- r/LxTaiitiaoui; Hbihbach:' HEuoa; Hdhter; fitiscHKi:;
imt; frajnnentsof the fourth are given, as well as parts J™"; Imma: JicaoBUH: JoBBfe-DnvAi.: Jom; Lmbl;
of a fifth book, reconstructed by Cujas, In feudaham mSSSStI Wo^uSTBBnck; 1^™.^:^™!!;.; P^u^
the institutions of Roman law and Gcrmamc customs hobb; Posts; Ptchta; Robt; Sindabs; Saviqnt; Schbdrl;
became merged; the impress of the former upon the a™iaDT; ScaDwisaiSTABDTiiR; Voiot; WACBTiiK;Wii.rEa;
ETwia St impiy oS, o£ tenrnnoloBy; with the ^S!S. "'"""'■ "'"""""i """"■■■■ "—"■
terminology was much of interpretation and illumi' The wriwr of this utide ukuowledgss special iadebtedueat
natmg piScipie. It would be raah to assert that injtspreparati™ w toAEorijctt Coi^. J*i}«i(^«D«^^^
feudJisSi ow^ more to Roman public law than to ^^i^'™' ^^^- ""**" ^^ '^ ™ '^'™ ^^ ^'^■
theories and analogies drawn from the private law of Beinbcciub, Bltmmia Jvru Civilii [OflttiDgsn, 1787);
Rome. Charlemagne favoured the eivil-law ideas MuniJWBBnCT. Dadnra Pnnd«cto™n (H»llo. IMB): 8oa«,
which savoured of imperialism, and adopted Roman ^it^^Jt^ll'^tX^fiS^Cu^^t ul^ 3^™
methods of adnuuistration. The German emperors i.aii: (Lomlon. 1SU3); Howe. ,;iiidi« in lAiCinl Laic (Boston,
also found in Roman legal institutions a plausible is^aj' I)"''}-'- ISi- "Z"''^- tP^'^w'S??';, '"IS.^^S"'
support for their claim tTthehnperial power. The ?^MH™l*n?SJ V^" t^«. t'?^^ii= "l^3S
predominant influence in the survival of Roman pn- isiMt): Ahob. H<tf. and rrtncipiesa/Aom. law (London. 1SB3).
vate law in alt the countries of central and southern IipportRoi tai-sjniilo reprnductioM of qriginiU i,-iu are the
Europe was that of the clergy. In all national codes fg^^^RSj;^, 3"of'ths M^^f G««l iZ^tZ (lJ^I^
there is present a large quantity of customary law; isos). Among the approved tEita srs the following^ (olPre-
yet, in concept and in claaaification, all of the eivU JuBUniao: Gaius. tr. bj. Meaw (Londoo. I8B3). by P<«t»
^« are Ro^ though and through, and this ia as f^'''^]^f''l-£t^.t^^\^^'-^^l}^f^'f^
true of the German civil code (and, in part, of the Romarti Jnl<7UiIinVann (Fam. 1839); Corpui Jvrii AMcjut-
Japanese code) as of thoae other national codes which "."'«?*', (•*"?"■ '^'': /'!""" i?™ jS™?"! ./."'»!»,( H't
tn^their immediale parentage to the Code Napoleon '^«- ^^^^J^^^'^^^f^ JtJ'^IX d^th
and their remote ancestry to the Twelve Tables. (wo vola, in English . by Prof.'mohrd, of Cunbndse. have
England, from a purely external point of view, is appeiirod (bis un^moly death leaves (he complL'tion to an.
less indebted to the Roman system, but the jurist gpSh: C^Mjt-i".^of\hi" rV''"?" .^^
trained in both systems is at no paina to (hscower ia the Gennsn ed. (Beriin. ioo4-o8) (/ ' .it,
analogies and runa upon evidence of the common Dw«(byHo»«BKH.C«(.byKK(jjoER . m ..
law'slndebtcdness at every step. Anglo-Saxon legal 5',"^iS",?|ro^™f^^,?th« l™d'X of '^o^rAv^E b^™S
institutions have been jealously and persiatentiyrepre- du«d a9imil(ii'eTi(ii>a] (ext the Bnt pan uf nhith appearvd in
sented as in no wise beholden to Rome. This is to be \'""^-„ <•'' lli'pi'n Ji.yimn„i, itjite: Edicium Tluotodia. ot
accounted for in part by a peculiarity in the mamier ot ^ «^?^ B^'^fiS'^^u^^n^^T^ isiiTl^^-
administration of the common law. With its narrow mami Wirioailiorum, or Brmaru of Alaric hu been edited by
tradition and its abject rule of stare decisU, it haa HSmel (L«piig, 1MB) and, more rocratly in Spjun, <rf) Bv-
offered until recently at leas^an unattractive field S!^™ a.*^^ R:t^i!:^ilIv^!"if^^^^J^
for histoncai jurisprudence. The courls and lawyers Uanvale flonWeonim (Ldpiig, 1819).
of the common law have always been intensely practi- Joseph I. Kellt.
cal and have accepted their system, not only as purely
indi^enouB, but also, in the words of the Blackatonian Iiawiance, Saint, martyr; d, 10 August, 258. St.
tiadition, as "the perfection of reason". For four Lawrence, one of the deacons of the Roman Church,
centuries after Casar's conquest Roman law held sway was one of the victims of the persecution of Valerian
in Britain; her soil was trodden by the great Fapinian in 258, like Pope Sixtus II and many other members
himself, and poasibly by others of the immortal five of the Roman clergy. At the beginning of the month
gSxavy). There ipust indeed have remained in of August, 258, the emperor issued an edict, com-
ritain a substantial deposit of Roman law, and it ia manding that all bishops, priests, and deacons should
not to be affirmed that this was completely destroyed immediately be put to death ("episeopi et presbs^ri
by aubaequent invBsionB or by the conquest. The et diacones incontinenti animadvertantur" — Cyp- ,
earliest Ejulish treatises are for the most part trans- rian, Epiat. Ixxx, 1; ed. Hartel, 11, 839). This un-
criptionsofRomanlaw: such was the book of Bracton perial command was immediately carried out in Rome.
(GQterboch). The Roman law was historically in the On 6 August Pope Sixtus II was apprehended in
earlyEnglishlawof persons, ot property, of contracts, one of the catacombs, and executed forthwith ("Xis-
and of procedure, although not always with equal turn in cimiterio animadversum aciatia VIII id. Au*
obviouaness. While it had little in common with the gusti et cum eo diacones quattuor." Cyprian, ep.
taw of real property, we are fairly justified m main- Ixxx, 1; ed. cit., 840), Two other deacons, Felieis-
ttuning that Roman law has always continued a sub- aimusandAgapitus, were putto death the aamcday. In
■tantial ingredient in English law, from the Rornan theRomanCaleniJaroffeastsofthcfourthcenturytheir
occupation down to the time when we can cite specific feast day ia on the same date (cf. also " l.iljer Pontifi-
deeiBiODS in which Roman law principles were en- calls", Xy3lu!<Il,ed. Duchesne, I, Ifl.'i)- Fourdavslaler,
paftod m the chancery law of England. ]n respect on the lOth of August of that same year, Lawrence,
LAWBEKOE
90
LAWBraOE
the Ust of the seven deacons, also HufFered a martyr'e these narrativee a Dumber of the martyrs of the Via
death. The amiiversary of tbia holy martvr falls on Tiburtina and of the two CatacombB of St. Gyriaca in
that day, accordmg to the Almanac of Philocalua for agra Verann and St. Hippolytus were connected in a
the year 354, the inventory of which contains the prin- romantic and whoUy legendary fashion. The details
cipal feasts of the Roman martyrs of the middle ol the given in these Acts concerning the martvrdom of St.
fourth century; it also mentions the street where his lawrence and hia activity before his death oaoDot
S'ave is to be found, the Via Tiburtina ("IlII id. claim any credibility. However, in spite of this criti-
ug. Laurantii in Tiburtina"; Ruicart, "Acta sin- cismof the lal«r accounts of the martyrdom, Uiere can
Cera", Ratiabon, 1859, 632). The itineraries of the be no question that St. Lawrence was a real hlatorical
graves of the Roman martyrs, as given in the seventh personage, nor any doubt as to the martyrdom of that
century, mention the burial-place of this celebrated venerated Roman deacon, the place of its ooourrence,
martyr in the Catacomb of C^riaca in agro Verano and the daU of his burial. Pope Damaaus built a
(De Rossi, "Roma Sott", I, 178). basilica in Rome which he dedicated to St. lAwmice;
Suice the fourth century St. Lawrence has been one this is the church now known as tbstofSanLorenioin
of the most honoured martyrs of the Roman Church- Damaso. The church of San Lorenzo in Lucina, also
Constantine the Great was the first to erect a little dedicated ta this saint, still exists. The feast day of
oratory over his burial-place, which was enlarged and St. Lawrence is kept on 10 August. He is pictured in
beautified by Pope Felagius II (579-90). Pope Six- art with the gridiron on which be is supposed to have
tus III (432-10) built a large basilica with three naves, been roasted to death.
the apse leaning against the
older church, on the summit
of the hill where he was buried.
In the thirteenth century Hon-
orius III made the two build-
ings into one, and so the bas-
ilica of San LoronBO remains
to this day. Pope St. Damssus
(386-84) wrote a panegyric
in verse, which was engraved
in marble and placed over his
tomb(lhm, " Damasi epigram-
mato", Leipzig, 1895, 37, num.
32). Two contemporaries of
the last-named pope, St. Am-
brose of Milan and the poet
Prudentius, give particular
details about St. Lawrence's
death. Ambrose relates (De
ofHciis min., xxviii) that when
St. Lawrence was asked for the
treasures of the Church he
brought forward the poor,
among whom he had divided
the treasure, in place of alms;
also that when Pope Sixtua II
was led away t« his death he
comforted Lawrence, who
wished to share his martyr-
dom, by saying that be would
follow h'im in three davs. Tbc
saintly Bishop of Milan also
Bbites that St. Ijawrence was
burned to death on a grid-
iron (De ofiic. xli). In like
~ "^^pm
»_
111
1
u
1B95), 3fl9 sqq.: Au-ahd, Hiihirt
dtt ttrrtfrulioru. III (PuH. 1387).
8S nqq,: Fhanchi db Cavaukm. S.
Lorauo e \l jiippKtio della artairola
in R'M. Quarlalxtirifl (1900). ISS
Hqq,: .Mahucchi, BanJiQtietti tatistf
dckomf (Rome, 1002), 4a5Kig.,419
Bqci„ 4rfl sqcj.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Itawranca, Saint, second
Archbishop of Canterbury, d.
2 Feb., ei9. For the putic-
ulars of his life and pontif-
icate we rely exclusively on
Venerable Bede's "History"
details added by medieval
Lt LuDlwth PbIicc. Engl,
, but with r
T
, Hymnus
they may possibly embody
ancient traditions. According
to Bt. Bede, he was one of
the original missionaries who
leftRomewithSt. Augustine in
595andfinallylandedmThanet
immated in 697. After St. Augustine
^ had been consecrated be sent
St. Lawrence back to Rome,
the pope the news of the c
■■'and his pcop
ask for direc
^ rtain questions.
in this' passage of the historian St. Lawrence is re-
ferreil to as iireabyler, in ilistinction to Peter who
The meeting between St. Lawrence and Pope Six- ferreil to as iireaL^.-. , ,__ . _ _
tus II, when the latter was being led to execution, called munadtiie. From this it lias been conjectured
related by St. Ambrose, is not compatible with tbc that he was a secular priest and not a monk; out this
contemporaneous reports about the persecution of conclusion bun been questioned by_Bene<liotine_writers
Valerian. The manner of bis execution— burning on such as KIrohara in the Middle A'ges and Mabillon in
a red-hot gridiron — also gives rise to grave doubts, kter times. When St. Clregory had decided the ques-
Thc narrations of Ambrose and Prudentius are tions asked, St. Lawn'nce returned to Britain bearing
" founded rather on oral tradition than on written ac- the replies, and he remained with St. Augustine shar-
counts. It is quite possible that between the year ing his work. That saint, shortly before his death
258 and the end of the fourth century popular legends which probably took place in 6(M, consecrated St.
may have grown up about this highly venerated Lawrrnce us btsbop, lest the infant Church should l>e
Roman deacon, and some of these legends have left for a time without a pastor. Of the new arch-
been preserved by these two authors. We have, in any bishop's episcopate Bede writes; "Ijiwrencc, liaving
case, no means of verifying from earlier sources the attained the dignity of archbishop, strove most vigor-
details derived from St. Ambrose and Prudentius, ously to add to the foundations of the Church which
or of ascertaining! to what extent such details arc he tad seen so nobly laid and to forward the work by
supported by earlier historical tradition. Fuller ac- frequent wortls of holy exhortation and by the eon-
counts of tlic miirtjTilom of SI. I^wrcnce were com- stiiTif fXiimple of bis ilevoted ialvnir." The only ex-
posed, probably, curly in the sixth century, and in taut genuine di>cument relating to him is tbc frai^ient
ST. LAWRENCE BEING ORDAINED DEACON BY 8IXTUS II
FR/L ANQEUCO VATICAN
preserved by Bede of the letter he addressed to the simplicity Mid poverty. He was greatly respected
Celtic biabopB exhortins them to peace and unity with both in Italy and elsewhere by the digmtariea ot both
Rome. The death of King Ethelbert in 616 was (ot- Church and State. He tried to foster the religious
towed by a heathen reaction under his son Eadbald, life by his sennona as welt aa by his writings. The
and under the sons of Scliert who became Idngs of the Diocese of Castello belonged to the Patriarchate of
East Saxons. Saints Mellitus and Justus, bishops of Grado. On 8 October, 1451, Nicholas V united the
the newly-founded Sees of London and Rochester, Seeof Castellowith thePatriarchat«of Grado.and the
took refuge with St. Lawrence at Canterbury and see of the patriarch was transferred to Venice, and
urged him to fiy to Gaul with them. They departed, Lawrence was named the first Patriarch of Venice, and
and he, discouraged by the undoing of St. Augustine's exercised his office till his death somewhat more than
work, was preparing to follow them, when St. Peter four years later. His beatification was ratified by
appeared to him in a vision, blaming him for thinking Clement VII in 1524, and he n'as canonized in 1090 by
en leaving hia flock and inflicting stripes upon him. Alexander VIII. Innocent XII appointed 5 Sep-
In the morning he hastened
to the king, exhibiting his
wounded boch' and relating
his vision. This led to the
convetmon of the kinji, to the
recall of Saints Mellitus and
Justus, and to their persever-
ance in their work of evan-
gelizing Kent and the neigh-
bouring provinces. These
events occurred about 617 or
618, and shortly afterwards
St. Lawrence died anil was
buried near St. Augustine in
the north porch of St. Peter's
.\bbey church, afterwards
known as St. Augustine's.
His festival is observed in
England on 3 February.
Bkdb. BiMoTXa EccittituHea
aaitii Analormn, I. uvii; II,
BAM, Hi^oria Afanae-
inAaa. It
id.. Fab™
. 1858): ,
I SS.
. Do-
ii: IftCBBS in Did. ChriM. Biog..
a V. Laurtntiui (3S); Hunt in
Dtrt. HaL Btog., m. v. Lamftnct.
Edwin Burton.
Lawnnea Jnatlnian,
Saint, Biediop and first Pa-
triarch of Venice, b. in 1381,
and d. 8 January, 1456.
He was a descendant of
the Giustiniani, a, Venetian
Etrician family which num-
red several saints among
its members. I.awrencc'g
pious mother sowed the
seeds of a devout religious
life in the boy's youth. In
1400 when he Was about
nineteen years old, he en-
tered the monastery of the Canons Regular of St. taincd permission to
Augustine on the Island of Alga near Venice. Inspite Giendalough; in that ^ ^
of his youth he excited admiration by his poverty, thirteen years, conspicuous for his piety and learning,
mortifications, and fervour in prayer. At that time So great was his reputation in the eyes of the com-
the convent was changed into a congregation of secu- munitv that on the death of Alil>ot Dunlaing, early in
lar canons living in community. After his ordination 1154, he was unanimously called to preside over the
in 1406 Lawrence was chosen prior of the community, Abbey of St.Kevm. Dermot, King of Leinster, mar-'
and shortly after that general of tho congregation, ried Mor, sister of St, Lawrence, and, though his char-
He gave them their constitution, and was so zealous in acter has been painted in dark colours by the native
spreading tbe same that he Was looked upon as the annalists, he was a great friend lo the Church. He
tember for the celebration
of his feast. The saint's
ascetical writings have
often been published, first
in Brescia in 1506, later la
Paris in 1524, and in Basle
in 1660, etc. We are in-
debted to his nephew, Ber-
nardo Giusliniani, for his
biography.
BehnarddsJcbtiniancb, ,pput-
tini^i (Venice? 1574",'"s"iuS!!
De n'fu aairforum. ed. 1618, I.
12a-3£: Ada SS., Jani KTy I.
bbl-Si; BiHioDitra haarforavh'ca
lalfT.a. ed. BnujNnwtB.II. 1708;
BuUaritan Romanan, ad. Tachih..
V, 107 aaa.\ Edbel. Uirntrtkia
■• lica fPiorti ari/ll. 134-290;
, Summonm PimtiJIcun, il-
umviniram . .,. di b. Lau-
J. P. KntscH.
Lawnnce O 'Toole (Loit-
c\N Ua Toathail) Saint,
confessor, b. about 1128, in
the present Co, Kildare; d.
14 Nov., IISO, at £u in
Normandy; canonized in
1225 by HonoriiLH III. Hit
father was chief of Hy
Murray, and his mother
one of the (.'Ian O'Byme.
At the age of ten be was
taken asa hosta^ by Dermot
McMurrogh, King of Lein-
ster. In 1140 the boy ob-
iter the monastic school of
.lley-eanctuary he studied for
prelate restored churches, established
12 May, 1433, he was raised to the Bishopric of Cas- (Co. Kilkenny! and at Agbiade (Co. ('ariow), in 1151.
._.!_ rjn. 1 . .._ 1 .1 .1 . 1 ,! . . jjg ^1^ founded an abbey for Cistercian monks at
Baliinglaas, and an abliey for Austin canons at Fcma.
St. Lawrence, through humility, deelined the See of
Giendalough in 1160, but on the death of Gregory,
vents, and reformed the life of the canons. But above
all be was noted for his Christian charity and his
hounded liberality. All the monev he couhl raisf
bestowed upon tbe poor, while be himaelf ted a life of tbe vacant
X, and wa& cuiuiccratcd iu Christ Chuich
LAXZ8M
92
LAY
cathedral by Gilla Isu (Grelasius), Primate of Annagh,
early in the following year. This ap]>ointment of a
native-bom Irishman and his consecration by the suc-
cessor of St. Patrick marks the passine of Scandinav-
ian supremacy in the Irish capital, and the emancipa-
tion from canonical obedience to Canterbury which
had obtained under the Danish bishops of Dublin.
St. Lawrence soon set himself to effect numerous re-
forms, commencing by converting the secular canons
of Christ Church cathedral into Aroasian canons
(1163). Three years later he subscribed to the foun-
dation charter of All Hallows priory, Dublin (founded
by Kins Dermot), for the same order of Austin can-
ons. Not content with the strictest observance of
rules, he wore a hair shirt underneath his episcopal
dress, and practised the greatest austerity, retinng
for an annual retreat of forty days to St. Kevin's cave,
near Glendalough. At the second siege of Dublin
(1170) St. Lawrence was active in ministration, and
he showed his political foresight by paying due
deference to Henry II of England, during that mon-
arch's stay in Dublin. In April^ 1178, he entertained
the papal legate. Cardinal Vivian, who pr^ided at
the Synod of Dublin. He successfully negotiated the
Treaty of Windsor, and secured good terms for Rod-
eric, King of Connacht. He attended the Lateran
Council in 1179, and returned as legate for Ireland.
The holy prelate was not long in Dubun till he deemed
it necessary again to visit Kmg Henry II (impelled by
a burning charitv in the cause of King Roderic), and
he cross^ to England in September of that year.
After three weeks of detention at Abingdon Abbey,
St. Lawrence followed the English King to Normandy.
Taken ill at the Augustinian Abbey of Eu, he was
tended by Abbot Osbert and the canons of St. Victor;
before he breathed his last he had the consolation of-
leaming that Kin^ Henry had acceded to his request.
Messxnobam. Flonlegium (Paris, 1624); O'Hanlon, Life of
St. Lawrence O'Toole (Dublin, 1S57); Hbalt, Ireland's Ancient
Schools and Scholars (4th ed., Dublin, 1902).
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
Laxism. See Theology, Moral.
Lay Abbot {aJbhaiocomeSy abbas laicuSt abbas miles),
a name used to designate a layman on whom a king or
someone in authoritv bestowed an abbey as a reward
for services rendered; he had charge of ^ the estate be-
longing to it, and was entitled to Sart of the income.
This baneful custom had a bad effect upon the life of
the cloister. It existed principally in the Prankish
Empire from the eighth century tifl the ecclesiastical
reforms of the eleventh. Charles Martel (q. v.) was
the first to bestow extensive ecclesiasticai property
upon laymen, political friends, and warriors who
had helped him in his campaigns. At an earlier
period the French Merovingians Imd bestowed church
tajids on laymen, or at least allowed them their pos-
session ana use, though not ownership. Numerous
83niods held in France in the sixth ana seventh cen-
turies passed decrees a^inst this abuse of church
property. The French kmgs were also in the habit of
appointing abbots to monasteries which they had
founded; moreover, many monasteries, though not
founded by the king, placed themselves under royal
patronage in order to snare his protection, and so oe-
came possessions of the Crown. This custom of the
Merovmgian rulers of disposing of church property in
individual cases, as also that of appointing abl)ots to
monasteries founded by or belonging to themselves,
was taken as a precedent by the French kings for re-
warding laymen with abbeys, or giving them to bishops
in commendam. Under Charles Martel the Church
was greatly injured by this abuse, not only in her pos-
sessions, but also in her religioiis life. St. Boniface
and later Hincmar of Reims picture most dismally
the conse<iuent tlownfall of church discipline, ana
though St. Boniface tried sealously and even success-
fully to reform the Frankish Church, the bestowal of
abt!eys on secular abbots was not entirely aliolished.
Under Pepin the monks were permitted, in case their
abbey should fall into secular hands, to go over to an-
other community.
Charlemagne also frequently gave church property,
and sometimes abbeys, in feudal tenure. It is true
that Louis the Pious aided St. Benedict of Aniane in
his endeavours to reform the monastic life. In order
to accomplish this it was necessary to restore the free
election of ablx)ts, and the appointment as well of
blameless monks as heads of the monastic houses.
Although Emperor Louis shared these principles, he
continued to bestow abbeys on lajrmen, and his sons
imitated him. The important Abbey of St. Riquier
(Centula) in Picardy had secular abbots from the
time of Charlemagne, who had given it to his friend
Angilbert, the poet and the lover of his daughter Ber-
tha, and father of her two sons (see Angilbert,
Saint). After Angilbert's death in 814, the abbey
was given to other laymen. Under such influences
the CSiurch was bound to suffer; frequently the abbeys
were scenes of worldliness and revelry. Various syn-
ods of the ninth century passed decrees against this
custom; the Synod of Dieaenhofen (October, 844) de-
creed in its tlurd canon, that abbeys should no longer
remain in the power of laymen, but that monks should
be their abbots (Hefele, "Konziliengeschichte", 2nd
ed., IV, 110). In like maimer the Synods of Meaux
and Paris (845-846) complained that the monasteries
held by laymen had fallen into decay, and emphasised
the king's duty in this respect (op. cit., IV, 116). But
abbeys continued to be bestowed upon laymen espe-
cially in France and Lorraine, e. g. St. Evre near Toul,
in the reign of Lothaire I. Lothaire II, however,
restored it to ecclesiastical control in 858, but the
same king gave Bonmoutier to a layman; and the
Abbeys of St. Germain and St. Martin, in the Diocese
of Toul, were also given to secular abbots. In the Dio-
cese of Metz, the Abbey of Gorze was long in the hands
of laymen, and imder them fell into decay. Stavelot
and Malm^y, in the Diocese of Li^ge, were in the
eleventh century bestowed on a certain Count Ragin-
arius, as also St. Maximin near Trier on a Count Adal-
hard, etc. (Hauck, " Kirchengeschichte Deutsch-
land", II, 598). In 888 a Synod of Mainz decreed
(can. xxv) that the secular abbots should place able
provosts and provisors over their monasteries.
Coimcils, however, were unable to put an end to the
evil; in a synod held at Trosly, in the Diocese of Sois-
sons, in 909, sharp complaints were made (ch. iii)
about the lives of monks; many convents, it was said,
were governed by laymen, whose wives and children,
soldiers and dogs, were housed in the precincts of the
religious. To better these conditions it was neces-
sary, the synod declared, to restore the regular abbots
and abbesses; at the same time ecclesiastical canons
and royal capitularies declared laymen quite devoid of
authority in church affairs (Hefele, op. cit., IV, 572-
73). Lay abbots existed in the tenth century, also in
the eleventh. Gosfred, Duke of Aquitainc, was Abbot
of the monastery of St. Hilary at Poitiers, and as such
he published the decrees issued (1078) at the Synod of
Poitiers (Hefele, op. cit., V, 1 16). It was only through
the so-called investitures conflict that the Church was
freed from secular domination; the reform of religious
and ecclesiastical life brought about by the papacy,
put an end to the bestowal of ablwys upon laymen.
Thomaahinuh, Vetus et ?u)tx» eeclesia disciplina circa t»eneficia,
part II. lib. II. c. 12 sqq. (Lyons. 1705, 686-622); Hefele.
Historj/ of the Councils; Digbt. Ages of Faith; Fouter, British
Mona»ticism; LnvoARD, Historjf of England (Dublin. 1878);
D' Alton, History of Ireland; Stuart and Coleman. History of
the Diocese of Armagh.
J. P. KiRSC'H.
Lay Baptism. See Baptism, sub-title XITI.
Xiay Benefice. See Commjsndatoby Abbot.
ULT
93
LAY
Lay Brothers. — ^Religious occupied solely with
m^nni^l labouT and with the secular affairs of a monas-
tery or friary. They have been known, in various
places and at various times, hs/ratres conversi, laid
oarbcUif iUitercUi, or tdiotoBf and, though members of
their respective orders, are entirely distinct from the
choir monks or brothers, who are devoted mainly to
the opus Dei and to study. There is some dispute as
to the origin of lay brothers. They are first heard of
in the eleventh century, and are stated by Mabillon to
have been first instituted by St. John Gualbert at Val-
lombrosa, about 1038. But, though the name con-
vert is first applied to religious of this kind in the life
of St. John Uualbert, written by the Bl. Andrea
Strumensis about the end of the eleventh century, it
seems certain they were instituted before the f oimding
of Vallombrosa. St. Peter Damian indicates that
servants who were also religious were set apart to per-
form the manual labour at Fonte Avellana, which was
founded about the year 1000, while, at the monastery
of Fonte Buono, at Camaldoli, founded about 1012,
there were certainly brethren who were distinct from
the choir monks, and were devoted entirely to the
secular needs of the house.
In early Western monasticism no such distinction
existed. The majority of St. Benedict's monks were
not clerics, and all performed manual labour, the word
conversi being used only to designate those who had
received the fiabit late in life, to distinguish them from
the obiaH and nutriti. But bv the beginning of the
eleventh century the time devoted to study had
greatly increased, a larger proportion of the monks
were in Holy orders, while great numbers of illiterate
persons embraced the religious life. At the same time
it was found necessary to regulate the position of the
famuli, the hired servants of the monastery, and to
include some of these in the monastic familv. So in
Ital^ the lay brothers were instituted, and we find
similar attempts at organization at the abbey of St.
Benignus, at Dijon, under William of Dijon (d. 1031)
and Kichard of Verdun (d. 1046), while at Hirschau
the Abbot William (d. 1091) gave a special rule to the
fratres barboH and exteriores. At Cluny the manual
work was relegated mostly to paid servants, but the
Carthusians, the Cistercians, the Order of Grandmont,
and most subsequent religious orders possessed lay
brothers, to whom they committed their secular cares.
At Grandmont, indeed, the complete control of the
order's property by the lay brothers led to serious dis-
turbances, and finally to the ruin of the order; but
the wiser regulations of the Cistercians provided
against this danger and have formed the model for the
later orders. The English Black Monks have made
but slight use of lay brothers, finding the service of
paid attendants more convenient; but Father Taun-
ton was mistaken in his assertion that " in those days
in English Benedictine monasteries there were no lay
brothers", for they are mentioned in the customaries
of St. Augustine's at Canterbury and St. Peter's at
Westminster.
Lay brothers are now to be found in most of the re-
ligious orders. They are mostly pious and laborious
persons, usuallv drawn from the working classes of the
community, who, while unable to attain to the degree
of learning rec]uisite for Holy orders, are yet drawn to
the religious life and able to contribute by their toil to
the prosperity of the house or order of their vocation.
Not selclom they are skilled in artistic handicrafts,
sometimes they are efficient administrators of tem-
poral possessions, always they are able to perform
domestic services or to follow agricultural pursuits.
The Cistercians, especially their lay brethren, are fa-
mous for their Skill in agriculture, and many a now
fertile spot owes its productiveness to their unremit-
ting labour in modern as well as in medieval times.
Lay brothers are usuallv distinguished from the
choir brethren by some difference in their habit: for
instance, the Cistercian lay brother wears a brown
habit, instead of white, with a black scapular; in choir
they wear a large cloak instead of a cowl; the Vallom-
brosan lay' brothers wore a cap instead of a hood, and
their habit was shorter; the English Benedictine lay
brothers wear a hood of a different shape from that of
the choir monks, and no cowl; a Dominican lay
brother wears a black, instead of a white, scapular.
In some orders they are required to recite daily the
Little Office of Our Lady, but usually their office con-
sists of a certain number of Paters, Aves, and Glorias.
Wherever they are found in considerable niunbers
they possess their own quarters in the monastery; the
domus conversorum is still noticeable in many of the
ruins of English monasteries.
Lay sisters are to be found in most of the orders of
women, and their origin, like that of the lay brothers,
is to be found in the necessity at once of providing the
choir nuns with more time for the Office and study,
and of enabling the unlearned to embrace the religious
life. They, too, are distinguished by their different
habit from the choir sisters, and their Office consists of
the Little Office of Our Lady or a certain number of
Paters, etc. They seem to have been instituted earlier
than the lay brothers, being first mentioned in a life of
St. Denis written in the ninth century. In the early
medieval period we even hear of lav brothers at-
tached to convents of women and of lav sisters at-
tached to monasteries. In each case, of course, the
two sexes occupied distinct buildings. This curious
arrangement has long been abolished.
Bessb. Le Moine Ben^ictin (Ligug6, 1898), 190-1; GrDtz-
HACHER in Hjbrzog u. Hauck, Realencyklopddie (LeipzijS, 1903),
s. V. Monchtum; Heimbucher, Die Orden u. Kongregationen der
katholischen Kirche, I (Paderbom, 1907), 268-271; HAltot,
Dictionnaire des Ordres Rdiqieux (Paris, 1863), s. v. Hiraauge;
Hergott, Vetiu DUciplina Monaatica (Paris, 1726); Hoffman,
Daa Konversen-Institul dea Ciatercienaerordena in aeinem Ur-
aprung und aeiner Oroaniaation (FreiburK, 1905); Mabillon,
Acta Sanctorum O.S.B. (Venice, 1732-40). ssc. Ill (I), v-ix:
saec. VI (II), xl-xli, 281, 733; Mabillon, Annalea O^.B., IV
(Lucca, 1739), 411; Mart^ne, De arUiquia Morutchorum ritibua
(Lyons, 1690); Mart^nr and Durand, Theaaurua Novua Ante-
dotorum (Paris, 1617). IV, 1547-1(^2; Mittarslli and Costa-
DONi. Annalea Camatdulenaea O.S.B.t I (Venice, 1755; App.,
336-457; Thompson. Cuatomarv of Uie Benedictine Monaateriea of
St. Auguatine, Canterbury^ and St. Peter , Weatminater^ ed. Henrt
Bradsuaw Society (London, 1902-4); Zocklbr, Aakeaeund
Monchtum, 403, 405, 407.
Leslie A. St. L. Toke.
Lay Gommunion. — ^The primitive discipline of the
Church established a different punishment for certain
crimes according as they were committed by laymen
or clerics. The former entailed a shorter and ordina-
rily lighter penance than the latter, which were pim-
ished with a special penalty. The lavman was ex-
cluded from the community of the faitnful, the cleric
was excluded from the hierarchy and reduced to the
lay communion, that is to say, he was forbidden to
exercise his functions. The nature of the latter
punishment is not quite certain. According to one
opinion, it consisted in excommunication, together
with a prohibition to receive the Blessed Eucharist;
according to another, the penitent was allowed to
receive Holy Communion, out only with the laity.
Canon xv of the so-called Apostolical Canons (see
Canons, Apostolic) forbids any priest, residing out-
side his diocese without authorization, to celebrate
the Holy Sacrifice, but grants him permission to
receive the Eucharist along with the faithful. The
canon Ixii ordained that clerics who apostatized dur-
ing the persecutions were to be received among the
laity. In 251, a letter of Pope Cornelius to Fsu)ius,
Bishop of Antioch, informs us that the pope, in
presence of all the i>eople, received into his commim-
lon, but as a layman, one of the bishops guilty of
having conferred sacerdotal ordination on the heretic
Novatian. A letter of St. Cyprian of Carthage men-
tions a certain Trophimus, who was admitted to
communion among the laity. It would be easy to
mention similar cases, in wmch we find it stated that
ULY 94 LAY
the penitent 'was admitted to receive communion purity to the priest, and according to hto Judgment
among the laity. The Council of Elvira (c. 300) carefully purify ourselves in the manner and time he
which reveals to us in many ways the rehgious life shall fix' (In Ep. Jacob, c. v; P. L., XCIII, 39).
G^ an entire ecclesiastical province, in canon Ixxvi, Clearly Bede did not consider such mutual avowal a
^ropos of a deacon, mentions the same discipline, saccamental confession; he had in mind the monas-
'Diis is the most ancient canonical text that speaks tic confession of faultis. In the eleventh century
of the custom of lay communion. We do not cite Laofranc sets forth the same theory, but distinguishes
the Council of Cologne (346) since its authenticity between pubUc sins and hidden faults; the first he re-
may yet be questioned. But from that time for- serves "to priests, by whom the Church binds and
ward we find, in a series of councils, declarations looses'', and authorizes the avowal of the second to all
which show conclusively that, when lay communion is members of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and in their
mentioned, there is Question of the reception of the absence to an upright man (vir mundus), and in the
Blessed Eucharist. Besides the Council of Sardica, absence of an upright man, to God alone ('^Decelanda
those of Hippo (393), canon xli; Toledo (400), canon confess.", P. L., CL. 629). So also Raoul I'Ardent,
iv; Rome (487) canon ii, are too explicit to admit of after having declared that the confession of grievous
any doubt that we have here an established discipline, faults (criminalium) should be made to a priest, de-
We may also cite the Councils of Agde (506), canon clares that 'Hhe confession of venial sins may be made
1; Lerida (524), canon v; Orleans (538), canon ii; to any person, even to an inferior" (cuUibet, etiam
etc. minor!) , but he adds this explanation : ' ' We make this
Speaking generally, the expression 'May com- confession, not that the layman ma^ absolve us; but
munion" does not necessarily imply the idea of the because, by reason of our own humiliation and accusar
Eucharist, but only the condition of a layman in tion of our sins and the prayer of our brethren, we may
communion with the Church. But as the Eucharist be purified of our sins" (Hom. Ixiv, P. L., CLV, 1900).
was granted onlv to those in communion with the Confession to laymen made in this way has, therefore.
Church, to say tnat a cleric was admitted to the lay no claim to a sacramental character and provokes no
communion is equivalent to saying that he received theological objection. The passage from Bede is fre-
the Holy Eucharist. The person who passed from quently quoted by the Scholastics,
the condition of a penitent to the la}r communion, The otner text on which is based the second form of
had necessarily to be received by the bishop into the confession to laymen, is taken from a work widely read
bosom o( the Church, before being admitted to com- in the Middle Ages, the " De vera et falsa pcBuitentia",
munion. There are no groimds for supposing that imtil the sixteenth century imanimously attributed to
this transition implied an intermediate stage in which St. Augustine and quoted as such (P. L., XL, 1122).
lie who was admitted to the communion was deprived To-day it is universally regarded as apocryphal, though
of the Blessed Eucharist. This discipline applied not it would be difficult to aetermine its author. After
only to those who were guilty of a secret sin, but saying that "he who wishes to confess his sins should
also to those who had for some time belonged to an seek a priest who can bind and loose", he adds these
heretical sect. But there was no absolute rule, since words often repeated as an axiom: "So great is the
the Council of Nicsea (325) received back the Nova- power of confession that if a priest be wanting, one
tian clergy without imposing this penalty on them, may confess to his neighbour' (tanta vis est confes-
while we see it enforced in the case of the Donatists. sionis ut, si deest sacerdos, confiteatur proximo).
In modem times "lay communipn" is sometimes He goes on to explain clearly the value of this con-
imposed, but only in exceptional cases, which need fession made to a layman in case of necessity: " Al-
not be treated of here. though the confession be made to one who has no
ScuDAuoEE in Diet. Christ. Antiq., ■• v* „ power to loose, nevertheless he who confesses his
H. Leclercq. crime to his companion becomes worthy of pardon
through his desire for a priest." Briefly, to obtain
Lay OonfesBion. — ^This article does not deal with pardon, the sinner performs his duty to the best of his
confession by la}anen but with that made to laymen, ability, i. e. he is contrite and confesses with the desire
for the purpose of obtainin|g the remission of sms by of addressing himself to a priest; he hopes that the
God. it has no practical importance, and is treated mercy of God will supply what in this point is lacking,
merely from an historical point of view. It is found The confession is not sacramental, if we may so spe^,
under two forms: first, confession without relation to except on the part of the penitent; a layman cannot be
the sacrament, second, confession intended to supply the minister of absolution and he is not regarded as
for the sacrament in case of necessity. In the first such. Thus understood confession to laymen is im-
instance, it consists of confession of vernal sins or daily posed as obligatory, later only counselled or simply
faults which need not necessarily be submitted to the permitted, by the greater number of theologians from
power of the keys; in the second, it has to do with the Gratian and Peter Lombard to the sixteenth century
confession of even grievous sins which should be de- and the Reformation. Though Gratian is not so ez-
clared to a priest, but which are confessed to a layman plicit (can. 78, Dist. I, De Poenit.; can. 36, Dist. IV,
because there is no priest at hand and the case is ur- De Cons.), the Master of the Sentences (IV, dist. xvii)
sent. In both cases the end sought is the merit of makes a real obligation of confession to a layman iir
humiliation which is inseparable from freely performed case of necessity. After having demonstrated that
confession; but in the first no administration of the the avowal of sins (confessio oris) is necessary in order
sacrament, in any degree, is sought; in the second, on to obtain pardon, he declares that this avowal should
the contrary, sacramental confession is made to a lay- be made nrst to God, then to a priest, and in the ab-
man for want of a priest. Theologians and canonists sence of a priest, to one's neighbour (socio). This
in dealing with this subject usually have two historical doctrine of Peter Lombard is foimd, with some differ-
texts as a basis. The optional and meritorious con- ences, in many of his conmientators, among them,
fession of slight faults to any Christian is set forth in Raymond of Pef&afort, who authorizes this confession
Venerable Bede's ' Commentary on the Epistle of St. without making it an obligation (Summa, III, xxxiv,
James": "Confess your sins one to another" (Con- 84); Albertus Magnus (in IV, dist. xvii, aa. 58, 59^,
fitemini alterutTum peccata vestra). "It should be who. arguing from baptism conferred by a layman m
done", says the holy Doctor, " with discernment; we case of necessity, ascribes a certain sacramental value
should confess our daily and slight faults mutually to to absolution by a la>^man. St. Thomas (in IV, dist.
our equals, and believe that we are saved by their xvii, q. 3, art. 3, sol. 2) obliges the penitent to do what
daily prayer. As for more grievous leprosy (mortal he can, and sees something sacramental (guodam'
Bin), we shcndd according to the law, diacover its imr modo sacramerUalis) in his confession; he adds, aad
L4Y
95
L4Y
in this many followed him, that if the penitent sur-
vives he should seek real alxjolution from a priest
(cf. Bonav. in IV, sent., d. 17, p. 3, a. 1, q. 1,
and Alex, of Hales, in IV, ci. 19, m. 1, a. 1). Scotus,
on the other hand (in dist. xiv, q. 4; dist. xvii,
q. 1), not only does not make this confession obli|^a-
tory, but discovers therein certain dangers; after him
John of Freiburg, Durandus of Saint-Pour9ain, and
Astesanus declare this practice merely licit. Besides
the practical manuals lor the use of the priests may
be mentioned the *' Manipulus curatorum of Guy dc
Montrocher ^1333), the S3modal statutes of William,
Bishop of Cahors, about 1325, which oblige sinners to
confess to a layman in case of necessity: all, however,
agree in Ba3rin^ that there is no real absolution and
that recourse should be had to a priest if possible.
Practice corresponds to theory; in tne medieval
ehansana de geates and in annals and chronicles, ex-
amples of such confessions occur (see Laurain. "Dc
r intervention des laYques, des diacres, et des abi3e88es
dans I'administration de la Penitence '^ Paris, 1897).
Thus, Joinville relates (Hist, de S. Louis, §70), that the
array of the Christians having heon put to flight by
the Saracens, each one confessed to any pnest he
could findi and at need to his neighbour; he himself
thus received the confession of Guy d' Ybelin, and gave
him a kind of absolution saving: " Je vous asol de tel
pooir que Diex m'a donnei (I absolve you with such
power as God may have given me). In 1524 Bayard,
wounded to death, prayed before his crpss-shaped
sword-hilt and made his confession to his "maistre
d'ostel" (Hist, de Bayard par le loyal servitcur, ch.
Ixiv-v). Neither theory nor practice, it will readily
be seen, was erroneous from a theological point of
view. But when Luther (Prop, danm., 13) attacked
and denied the power of the priest to administer ab-
solution, and maintained that laymen had a similar
power, a reaction set in. The heresy of Luther was
condenmed by Leo X and the Council of Trent; this
Council (sess. xiv, cap. 6. and can. 10), without di-
rectly occupying itselt witli confession to a layman in
case of necessity, defined that only bishops and priests
are the ministers of absolution. Sixteenth-century
authors, while not condemning the practice, declared it
dangerous, e. ^. the celebratca Martin Aspilcueta (Na-
varrus) (Enchirid., xxi, n. 41), who witn Dominicus
Soto says that it had fallen into desuetude. Both
theory and practice disappeared by degrees; at the end
of the seventeenth century there remained scarcely a
memory of them.
MoRiN, Comment, hiidor. de discipL in adminisir. aacram,
Pamit.t Vin (Paris, 1C51), c. xxiii-iv; (!!hardon, Histoire des
Sacrementa; la P^Uence, sect. II, c. vii (in Mione, Pat. LcU.,
XX); Lauhain, op. cit.; Mart^nb, Dean/tg. ecel. riWma (Rouen,
1700), I, a, 6, n. 7; and II, 37; and Vacawt, Dxct,de ThMogie
eath., I, 182; KOnioer, Die Beiehl nach Ciisariua von Heister-
baeh (1906). From a Protestant point of view, to be corrected
by the foregoing. Lka. History of Auricular ConfeMion^ I
;PhiUdelphia, 1^). 218.
A. BOUDINHOX.
Lay Inyestitiire. See Investiture.
Lasnuann, Paul, a famous Jesuit moralist, b. in 1574
at Arzl, near Innsbruck; d. of the plague on 13 Novem-
ber, 1635, at Constance. After studying jurispru-
dence at Ingolstadt, he entered the Jesuit Onier tnere
in 1594, was ordained priest in 1(K)3, taught philosophy
at the University of Ingolstadt from 1C03-9, moral
theology at the Jesuit house in Munich from 1609-25,
and canon law at the University of Dillirigen from
1625-32. He W'as one of the greatest moralists and
canonists of his time, and a copious writer on philo-
sophical, moml, and juridical subjects. The most im-
portant of his thirty-three literary productions is a
compendium of moral theology ''Theologia Moralis in
quinque libros partita'' (Munich, 1625), of which a
second and enlaiiged edition in six volumes appeared
hi 1626 at the same place. Until the second quarter
of the eightMnth contuiy it was edited repeatedly
(latest edition, Mainz, 1723), and was extensively used
as a textbook in seminaries. Especially in the third
edition of his ''Theologia Moralis", Laymann stands
up resolutely for a milder treatment of those who liad
been accused of witchcraft. The reason whv Lay-
mann is often represented as an advocate of the hor-
rible cruelties practised at trials for witchcraft Hes in
the false assumption that he is the author of a 1x)ok
entitled ''Processus juridicus contra sagas et vene-
ficos" (Cologne, 1629). Quite in contrast with Lay-
mann's ''Theologia Moralis ■\ this book is a defence of
the extreme severity at trials for witchcraft. Father
Duhr, S.J., has now proved beyond doubt that Lay-
mann is not the author of this work. See ' ' Zeitschrif t
fur katholischeTheologie", XXIII (Innsbruck, 1899),
733-43; XXIV (1900), 585-92; XXV (1901), 166-8,
XXIX (1905), 190-2. At the instance of Bishop
Heinrich von KnOringen of Augsbui^, Laymann
wrote ''Paciscompositio inter Pnncipes et Ordines
Imi)erii Romani Catholicos atque Augustanae Con-
fessionis adhserentes" (Dillingen, 1629), an elaborate
work of 658 pages, explaining the value and extent of
the Religious Peace of Augsbui^, effected by King
Ferdinand I in 1555. Ailother important work of Lay-
mann is entitled " Justa defensio S. Rom. Pontificis,
augustissimi Csesaris, S. R. E. Cardinalium, episco-
porum, principum et aliorum, dcmum minimse Socie-
tatis Jesu, in causa monasteriorum extinctorum et
bonorum ecclesiasticorum vacantium ..." (DiUin-
pen, 1631). It treats of the Edict of Restitution,
issued by Ferdinand II in 1629, and sustains the point
that in case of the ancient orders the property of sup-
pressed monasteries need not be restored to the order
to which these monasteries belonged, because each
monastery was a corporation of its own. Such prop-
erty, therefore, may be applied to Catholic schools and
other ecclesiastical foundations. In the case of the
Jesuit Order, however, he holds that all confiscated
property must be restored to the order as such, l)ecause
the whole Jesuit Order forms only one corporation.
His work on canon law, *'Jus Canonicum seu Com-
mentaria in libros decretales" (3 vols., Dillingen,
1666-98), was published after his death.
SoMMERVOGEL., Bibliothcque de la Compaonie de JUus (Bnu-
sels and Paris. 1890-1909), IV, 1582-94; Schwickerath,^«»-
tude of the Jesuits in the trials for witchcraft in American Cath,
guarterly Review, XXVII (Philadelphia. 1902), 493-8; Specht.
eschichte der Universitdt Dillingen (Freiburg im Br.. 1902),
325. etc. Michael Ott.
Lay Tithes. — Under this heading must be dis-
tinguished (1) secular tithes, which subjects on crown-
estates were obliged to pay to princes, or tenants, or
vassals on leased lands or lands held in fief to their land-
lords {decinuE oriaine laicales), and (2) ecclesiastical
tithes, which in the course of time became alienated
from the Church to lay proprietors {decima ex post
laicalea «. scecularizaia). There is question here only
of the latter. In the secularizations initiated under
the Merovingians the transference of ecclesiastical
Eroperty and their tithes or of the tithes alone to
lymen was effected. In subsequent times church
laiEids with their tithes, or the tithes alone, were be-
stowed even by bishops and abbots on laymen to
secure servants, vassals, protectors against violence
and defenders of their civil rights. Other church
property with tithes, or the tithes alone, were forcibly
seized by laymen. Finally, the development of
churches, once the property of private individuals,
into parish churches subject to the bishop gave rise to
the landlord appropriating the tithes due to the parish
church. The church soon took measures to repress
this spoliation, beginning as early as the ninth century
at the Synod of Diedenhofen (844; cap. iii, 5) and that
of Beauvais (845; cap. iii, 6). Gregory VII revived in
a stricter form these old canons at the Autumn Synod
of 1078, demanding that the laity should return all
tithes to the Church, even though they had been givea
cUred aJI who refused obedience to be aacnlegi (C. 1,
C. XVI, q. 7). Succeeding popes and Hvnods repeated
this order, declaring that Church tithes lo he itiru
divini (C. 14, X, de decim., Ill, 30); that, as the in-
aUenable source of income of the parish church, they
couid not be transferred to another church or monas-
tery (C, 30, X,dedecim.,III, 30); that they could not
be acquired by a laymaa through prescription or in-
heritance, or otherwise aUenated.
But it waa quite impossible for the Church to recover
the tithes possessed for cen' uries by lasTnen, to whom
in fact they had been in many cases trwisferred by the
Church itself. Laymen gave them in preference to the
monastery instead o! the parish church, but this be-
came thenceforth subject to the approval of the
bishop (C. 3, X, de privil., Ill, 33).^ The decision of
the Lateron Council (1179), forbidding the alienation
of the church tithes possessed by the laity, and de-
manding their return to the Church (C. 19, X, de
decim., Ill, 30), waa interpreted to mean that those
ecclesiastical tithes, which up to the time of this coun-
cil wero in possession of Isymed, might be retained by
them, but no further transference should take place
(C. 2.VX, de decim.. Ill, 30, c. 2, 3 in VI'", h. t^III,
13). But even this could not be carried out. There
thua existed side by side with church tithes a quantity
of lay tithes; the latter were dealt with by secular
courts as being purelv secular rights, while ecclesias-
tical law waa applied to ecclesiastical tithes. How-
ever, certain of the obligations imposed by the (once)
ecclesiastical tithes continued to bind the proprietor,
even tbourfi he were a layman. Thus, in the case of
church buSdinxB, the Council of Trent declared that
patrons and all" (|ui fructus aliquos ex dictis ecclesiia
provenientes percipiunt" were bound secondarily t«
defray the cost of repair (Sess. XXI, De ref., c, vii; see
Fabrica Ecclesle). When there is a doubt as to
whether the tithes in question are ecclesiastical or lay^,
the reasonable presumption is that they are ecclesi-
Fehk^is, Bibl. anonica (Rorao. 1885-99), s, v. Dedma;
Pebels, thet.Vci;. Z(Anlm im tanjlinD. firicA (Berlin, 19M):
"■ ■ ■ - icopafH.UBrrlm. 1908), 114
,jo<CWeininr, 1908).
a Baptist SAuut'LLER.
Laiarista. See MiaeiON, Congreoatioh op thb.
Luanu (Gk. Aifapot, a contraction of EXtdfj^wt—
see II Mach., vi, IS — meaning in Hebrew "God hath
helped"), the name of two persons in the N. T.; a
character in one of Christ's parables, and the brother
of Martha and Mary of Bethania.
Laiahus or THE Parable. — (l) The Story. — The
dramatic storyof the rich man and the beggar (only in
Luke, ivi, 19-31) is set fortli by Christ in two striking
: (a) Their Condition Here.— The rich
indTay there all
ihc crumbs that
fel! from the rich man's table, but received none, and
was loft (o the dogs, (b) Their Condition Hereafter.
— The earthly banquet is over; the heavenly banquet
is begun, Lazarus partakes of the banquet in a place
of honour (cf. John, xiii, 23). He reclines his head on
Abraham's bosom. The rich man is now the outcast.
He yearns for a drop of water. I jiaarus is not allowed
to leave the heavenly banquet and t«nd to the outcast,
(2) The Meaning. — Catholic excgetes now com-
monly accept the story as a parable. It is also legen-
dary that the sorea of Laiarus were leprous. 'The
purpose of the parable is to teach ua the evil result of
the unwise neglect of one's opportunities. Laianis
was rewarded, not because he was poor, but for his
virtuous acceptance of poverty; the rich man was
punished, not because he was rich, but for vicious
neglect of the opportunities given him by bis wealth.
II. Lazarus oftre HntACt,B, — This personaKe was
the brother of Martha and Mary of Bethania; all three
were beloved friends of Jesus (John, xi, 5). At the
request of the two sisters Jesus raised Lazarus from
the dead (John, xi, 41-14). Soon thereafter, the
Saturday before Palm Sunday, Lasarue took part in
the banquet which Simon the Leper gave to Jesus in
Bethania (Matt., xKvi, 6-16; Mark, xiv, 5-11; John,
xii, l-ll). Many of the Jews believed in Jesus bo-
cause of Laiarus, whom the chief priests now sought
to put to death. The Gospels tell us no more dl
Lazarus (see Lazarus of Bethany, Saint).
Walter Dhuh.
Luania, Saikt, Order of, op Jerusalem. — The
military order of St. Lasarus of Jerusalem originated in
a leper hospital founded in the twelfth century by.
the crusaders of the Ijitin Kingdom. Without doubt
there had been before this date leper hospitals in the
East, of which the Knights of St. I,.azarus claimed to
be the continuation, in order to have the appearance
of remote antiquity and to pass as the oldest of all
orders. But this pretension is apocryphal. These
Eastern leper hospitals followed the Rule of St. Basil,
while that of Jerusalem adopted the hospital Rule of
St. Augustine in use in the West. The Order of St.
Lazarus was indeed purely an order of hospitAllers
from the beginning, as was that of St. Jolm, but with-
out encroaching on the field of the latter. Because of
its B[>eciBl aim, it had quite a different organJEation.
The inmates of St. John were merely visitors, and
changed constantly; the lepers of St. I.,azarus on
the contrary were condemnea to perpetual seclusion.
In return they were regarded as brothers or sisters <A
rule which imited them ii
reli^^ous
Ages even inL _ _ „ . .
lepers. It is not proved, though it has been asserted,
that this was the case at Jerusalem.
The Middle Ages surrounded with a touching pity
these the greatest of all unfortunates, these miselu, aa
thev were called. From the time of the crusades,
with the spread of leprosy, leper hospitals became very
numerous throughout Europe, so that at the death m
St. Louis there were eight hundred in France alone.
LAZARUS
97
LAZARUS
HoweveTi these houses did not form a congregation;
each house was autonomous, and supported to a great
extent by the lepers themselves, wno were oUiged
when entering to bring with them their implements,
sjui who at their death willed their goods to the insti-
tution if they had no children. Many of these houses
bore the name of St. Lazarus, from which, however, no
dependence whatever on St. Lazarus of Jerusalem Ls to
be inferred. The most famous, St. Lazarus of Paris,
depended solely and directly on the bishop of tliat
city, and was a mere priory when it was given by the
archbishop to the missionaries of St. Vincent de Paul,
who have retained the name of Lazarists (1632).
The Question remains, how and at w^hut time the
Order of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem became a military
order. This is not known exactly; and, moreover, the
historians of the order have done much to obscure the
question by entangling it w^ith gratuitous pretensions
and suspicious documents.
The house at Jerusalem owed to the general interest
devoted to the holy places in the Middle A^es a rapid
and substantial gro^^'th in goods and privileges of
•very kind. It was endoweii not only by the sot-
ereigna of the Latin realm, but by all the states of Eu-
rope. Louis VII, on his return fn)m the Second
Crusade, |»ve it the Chateau of Broigny, near Orleans
(1154). This example was followed bv Henry II of
England, and by Elmperor Frederick 1 1. This was
the origin of the military commanderies whose con-
tributions, called responsions, flowed into Jerusalem,
swollen bv the collections wliich the hospital was
authorized to make in Europe.
The popes for their part were not sparing of their
favours. Alexander I V recognized its existence under
the Rule of St. Augustine (1255). Urban IV as.su re<l
it the same immunities as were granted to the monas-
tic orders (1262). Clement IV obliged the secular
clergy to confine all lepers wliatsocver, men or women,
clencs or lavmen, religious or secular, in the houses of
this order (1205).
At the time these favours were granted, Jenisalem
had fallen again into the hands of the MussulniaiLs.
St. Lazarus, although still called *'of Jerusalem'' had
been transferred to Acre, where it had l>een ceded ter-
ritory by the Templars (1240), and where it received
the confirmation of its privileges by Urban IV (1201) .
It was at this time also that the Order of St. Laz-
arus of Jerusalem, following the example of the Order
of St. John, armed comL)atants for the defence of the
remaining possessions of the Christians in Asia. Their
presence is mentioned without further detail at the
EEtttle of Gaza against the Khwarizmians in 1244, and
at the final siege of Acre in 1291 .
As a result of this catastrophe the leper hospital of
St. Lazarus of Jerusalem disappeared; however, its
eommanderies in Europe, togetner with their reve-
nues, continued to exist, but hospitality was no longer
practised. The order ceased to be an order of ho.-^
pitallers and became purely military. The knigiils
who resided in these commanderies liad no tasks, and
were veritable parasites on the Christian charitable
foundations.
Things remained in this condition until the pontifi-
cate of Innocent VIII, who suppressed this usoU^ss
order and transferred its possessions to the Knights
of St, John (1400), which transfer was reueweil bv
Pope Julius II (1505). But the Order of St. John
never came into possession of this property except in
Germany.
In France, Francis I, to whom the Concordat of Loo
X (1519) had resigned the nomination to the greater
number of ecclesiastical benefices, evaded the Bull of
suppression bv conferring the commanderies of St.
Lazarus on Knights of the Order of St. John. The
hot nam«>d vainlv claimed the possession of these
goods. Their chum was rejected by the Parliament
or Paris (1547).
XX.— 7
Leo X hims^ disregarded the value of this BuU
by re-establishing in favour of Charles V the priory oi
Capua, to which were attached the leper ho-spitallers
of Sicily (1517).
Pius IV went further; he annulled the Bulls of his
predecessors and restored its possessions to the order
that he might give the mastersliip to a favourite.
Giovanni de Castiglione (1565). But the latter did
not succeed in securing the devolution of the com-
manderies of France. Pius V codifietl the statutes
and privileges of the order, but reserved to himself the
right to confirm the appointment of the grand master
as well as of t^e beneficiaries (1567). He made an at-
tempt to restore to the order its hospitaller character,
by mcorporating with it all the leper hospitals and
other houses founded under the patronage of St. Lazh
arus of the Lepers. But tliis tardv reform was ren-
dered useless by the subsequent gradual disappearance
of leprosy in Europe.
Finally, the grantl mastership of the order having
been rendered vacant in 1572 by the death of Castig-
Hone, Pope Gregory XIII united it in perpetuity with
the Crown of Savoy. The reigning duke, Philibert III,
liastened to fuse it with the recently founded Siivoyan
Order of St. Maurice, and thenceforth the title of
Grand Master of the Order of Sts. Maurice and I-.az-
arus was hereditary in tliat house. The pope gave
him authority over the vacant commanderies every-
where, except in the states of the King of Spain, which
included the greater part of Italv. In England and
Germany these commanderies liad been 8upi)ressed by
Protestantism. France remained, but it was refrac-
tory to the claims of the Duke of Savoy. Some years
later King Henry IV, having founded with the appro-
bation of Paul V (1609) the Order of Notre-Dame du
Mont-Carmel, liastened in turn to unite to it the va-
cant possessions of St. Lazarus in France, and such is
the origin of the title of "Knight of the Koyal, Mili-
tary, and Hospitaller Onler of Our Ladv of Mount
C^fmel and St. Lazarus of Jerusalem", which carried
with it the enjoyment of a benefice, and which was con-
ferred by tlie king for services rendered.
To return to the dukes of S:ivoy: Gement VIII
grante(l them the right to exact from ecclesiastical
Ixjiicfices jwnsions to the sum of four liun<lred crowns
for the i)enefit of knights of the order, dispensing them
from celibacy on condition that they should oljserve
the statutes of the order and consecrate their arms to
the defence of the Faith. Besides their command-
erioij the order had two houses where the knights
might live in common, one of which, at Turin, was to
contribute to combats on land, while the other, at
Nice, had to provide galleys to tight the Turks at sea.
But wiien thus reduced to the states of the Duke of
Savoy, the onler merely vegetated until the French
Revolution, which suppressed it. In ISlC the King of
Sanlinia. Victor Emmanuel I, re-established the titles
of Kniglit and Commander of Sts. Maurice and
I^zarus, as simple decorations, accessible without
conditions of birth to both civilians and military men.
DE SiBKRT, Hi^oire de9 Ordrea myaux deXoire Dame de MtrrU-
Carmcl tt dc St-Jjuzare de JCrumxlem (Pari*, 1772;; Fkiuiavd,
PrC-in hiftlorique des Onlrea de Si-Ijazare et deSt-MnurireCl.yonH.
rizio 6 Lasaro (Turin, 1855).
Oil. Mof:ller.
Lazarus of Bethany, Saint, reputed fir.-t B:>h:p
with some holy women anrl otlurr'^ of 11:^ : ^' :i>V
were put out to sea by the Jew^ ho-t I!*.' to ^^T*^}^ »
in a vessel without sails, oars, or helm. ^fYofcc*
tnimcuJouB y^yafe Und^^l in proven<» ** *
LEAD 98 LSAOTJS
<allecl to-day the Saintes^MarieS. It is related that }084) ; Faili.on, Man. in6d. »ur VapostoUU de 8te, Maris Mad»
ttey separated there to go and preach the Gospel in 'r^^%^f:;^o^,6r<t^ttio'l^Hti iS^^^nf&t.
different parts of the south-east of Gaul. Lazarus of lena et Martha in Provindam appulau ditaertatio (Paris. 1 Wl);
whom alone we have to treat here, went to Marseilles, »■ Mazenod. Preuves de la misnon de S. Latare h MareeiUe m
and, having converted a number of its inhabitants to iPIi^^^^i^ A^'AZi^liwiF'^Vp^i' ^i^a^^^'qI^S*^^'
/-»! ._.. -i.^ 1 xi- * /! A X -nv • xi- Mem, pour eervtr a I ntat. ecciee., II (Fans, 1694), 32—4: L. Du-
Chnstiamty, became their first pastor. During the chesnb. Faeies Spise. de Vane. Gaule, I (Paris, 1894), 324-6.
first persecution under Nero he hid himself in a crypt, 341-4; Mosm, S. Laware et 8. Maximin, donnfea nouvMee eur
over which the celebrated Abbey of St-Victor was con- SSTd^Ti^STrF^iSef F^f^^^ Um^i"^ '''"• ^ ""
structed m the fifth century. In this same crjyt he if^^ Cluonet.
was interred, when he shed his blood for the Faith.
During the new persecution of Domitian he was cast Lead, Diocese of (Leadensis), which was estab-
into pnson and beheaded ma spot which is believed Hshed on 6 August, 1902, comprises aU that part of
to be identical with a cave beneath the pnson Saint- the State of South bakota (U. S. A.) west of thTMis-
Lazare. His body was later tmi^lated to Autun, gouri River-an area of 4L759 square miles. The
and buned m the cathedral of that town. But the residence of the bishop is at Hot Sprmgs. The tern-
ftiuup, tuia tiauuiuii, wmuii vvc« uuiieveu lur »everui the Uatholic Indians of the Sioux Reservations. As
centuries and which still finds some advocates, has first bishop, the Very Rev. John N. Stariha, Vicar-
no sohd foundation. It is m a wnting, contuined General of the Archdiocese of St. Paul, was chosen and
m an eleventh century manuscript (Pans, 1767, consecrated in St. Paul, 28 October, 1902. He was
Fonds Notre^Dame, 101), with some other documents born in the Province of Krain (Camiola), Austria, 12
relating to St. Magdalen of V<Szelay that we first May, 1845. Migrating to the United States he became
read of Lazarus m connexion with the voyage that affiliated to the Diocese of St. Paul, where for many
brought Magdalen to Gaul. Before the middle of years he was pastor of the Church of St. Francis de
the eleventh century there does not seem to he the gales. The opening of the Rosebud Reservation to
slightest trace of the tradition according to which the settlers and the extension of railways across the state
Palestiman saints came to Provence. At the begin- attracted many emigrants to South Dakota, and a
rung of the twelfth century perhaps through a con- number of new parishes were established, churches
fusion of names, it was believed at Aut;un that the erected in these new towns, and missions and schools
tomb of St. Lazarus w;as to be found in the cathedral located among the Indians. In 1909, Bishop Stari-
dedicated to St. Nazanus. A search was made and re- ha's ill-health and age determined him to resign the
mams were discoverecl, which were solemnly trans- gee, and he returned to his old home in Austria on 1
lated and were considered to be those of him whom May of that year. On 11 April, 1910, Pius X rati-
Cnnst raised from the dead but it was not thought fied the appointment of the Rev. Joseph F. Busch,
necessary to mquu-e why they should be found in of Excelsior, Minnesota, as bishop. The religious
France. communities in the diocese include the Jesuit and
The question, however, deserved to be examined Benedictine Fathers and the Benedictine Sisters and
with care, seeing that, according to a tradition of the the Sisters of St. Francis. Statistics (1909): priests,
Greek Church, the bodv of St. Lazarus had been 25 (regulars, 9); churches with resident priests, 18;
brought to Constantinople, just as all the other saints missions with churclies, 35; schools, 5: pupils, 1030;
of the Palestinian group were said to have died in the i orphan asylum, 21 inmates; Catholic population.
Orient, and to have been buried, translated, and hon- n OOO whites and 6.500 Indians,
oured there. It is only in the thirteenth century that Catholic Newe (New York), filee; Catholic Directory (Milwau-
the belief that Lazarus had come to Gaul with his two kee, 1909). r? \t
sisters and had been Bishop of Marseilles spread in j.homa8 F. Meehan.
Provence. It is true that a letter is cited (its origin is
uncertain), written in 1040 by Pope Benedict IX on League, The. — I. The Leaotjb of 1576. — ^The dis-
the occasion of the consecration of the new church of content produced by the Peace of Beaulieu (6 May,
St-Victor in which Lazarus is mentioned. But in this 1576) ,wnich restored the government of Picardy to the
text the pope speaks only of relics of St. Lazarus, Protestant Prince de Cond^ and gave him P^ronne to
merely calling him the saint who was raised again to hold as a security, induced d'Humit^res, a Catholic who
life. He does not speak of him as having lived in commanded the city of P6ronne, to form a league of
Provence, or as having been Bishop of Marseilles. The gentry, soldiers, and peasants of Picardy to keep
most ancient Provencal text alluding to the episco- Cond^ from taking possession of the city. D'Humi^res
pacy of St. Lazarus is a passage in the " Otia impe- also appealed to all the princes, nobles, and prelates
rialia" of Gervase of Tilbury (1212). Thus the belief of the kingdom, and to the allies of the nations neigh-
in his Proven9al apostolate is of very late date, and its bouring to France. Tliis League of P^ronne thus as-
supporters must produce more ancient and reliable pired to become international. From a religious point
documentary evidence. In the crypt of St-Victor at of view it aimed at supporting Catholicism in France.
Marseilles an epitaph of the fifth century has been politically at restoring the ** ancient franchises ana
discovered, which informs us that a bishop named liberties against the royal power. Its programme
Lazarus was buried there. In the opinion of the most was spread tliroughout France by the efforts of Henri
competent archieologists, however, this personage is de Guise (see Guise), and Henry III, then on eood
Lazarus, Bishop of Aix, who was consecrated at Slar- terms with the Gmses, declared himself its enief.
seilles about 407, and who, having had to abandon his Gregory XIII was apprised of the formation of the
sec in 411, passed some time in Palestine, whence he League by Jean David, an advocate of the Parliament
returned to end his days in Marseilles. It is more than of Paris, acting for the Guises, and he communicated
likely that it is the name of this bi^op and his return the fact to Philip II. But when the Peace of Berge-
frora' Palestine, that gave rise to the legend of the rac (17 September, 1577) between Henry III and the
coming of the Biblical Lazarus to Provence, and his Protestants, curtailed the liljerties accorded them by
apostolate in the city of Marseilles. the Edict of Beaulieu, the king hastened to dLssolve
Chevalier. OaUia christ. nofw«.. II (Paris, 1899), l-«: Ana*' the league of Pi^ronne and the other Catholic leagues
Ic-f. Bo/ten r. Vf (BniMcls, 1887). 88-;02: Douche, Vindicia filet formed after its example. This dissolution was the
e# ntetatvt Promnna pro cadUtbw tlhti* lut^lartbus reetUuendtt n«niB« nf trrt^ai' i*niniPin^ i^ a norfnin niiTnhAr ftf rovftl.
(Air, 1644) ; db Cbantbloup. L'apdlre de la Provence oulavie ?^^^ ^ ?J^i IP^^x ^1°?, , * ^^^"^^^ number Ot rovai-
iu ghrieux S. LoMore, premier Mque de MareeOU (Maneines, uts, who neld that "all leagues and assOOiatlOQS in *
LEAGUC 99 LEAGUC
monarohical state are matters of grave consequence, because immediately after the assassination of Henry
and that it is impossible for subjects to band them- III the Senate had decided to send an ambassador to
selves together without preiudicmg the royal supe- Henry of Bourbon, the pope sent him back to his post,
riority ". The nobility had lacked unanimity, and the expressing a hope that the Venetians might be able to
cities had been too lukewarm to maintain this first persuade Menry of Bourbon to be reconciled with the
league. Holy See. On 14 May, 1590, the papal legate Caetani
fl. The League of 1585. — ^The death of the Duke blessed, saluting them as Machabees^ the 1300 monks
of Anlou (10 June, 1584) having made Henry of Bour- who, led by Rose, Bishop of Senlis, and Pelletier,
bon, the Protestant King of Navarre, heir presumptive Cur^ of Saint-Jacques, organiz^ for the defence of
to Henry III, a new league was formecf amone the Paris against Henry of Bourbon; but, on the other
aristocracy and the people. On the one hano, the hand, the pope manifested great displeasure because
Dukes of Guise, Mayenne, and Nevers and Baron de the Sorbonne had declared, on 7 May, that, even "ab-
Senecey met at Nancv to renew the League, with the solved of his crimes*', Henry of Bourbon could not be-
object of securing the recognition, as heir to the come King of France. The Leaguers in their enthu-
throne, of the Cardinal de Bourbon, who would extir- siasm had denied to the papal authority the richt of
mtte heresy and receive the Council of Trent in France, eventually admitting Henry of Bourbon to the Uirone
Fhilip II, by the Treaty of Joinville (31 December, of France. They found new cause for indignation in
1584), promised his concurrence, in the shape of a the fact that Sixtus V had received the Duke of Lux-
monthly subsidy of 50,000 crowns. At Paris, on the embourg-Piney, the envoy of Henry's party; and
other hand, Charles Hotteman, Sieur de Rochcblond, Philip II, while in Paris, caused a sermon to be
"moved by the Spirit of God", Provost, cur4 of Saint preached against the pope.
S6verin, Boucher, cur6 of Saint Benott, and Launoy, a But when, after the brief pontificate of Urban VII,
canon of Soissons, appealed to the middle classes of the Gregory XIV became pope (5 December, 1590) the
cities to save Catnolicism. A secret society was League and Spain recovered their influence at Rome,
formed. Rocheblond and five other leaguers carried Several Briefs dated in March, 1591, and two "moni-
on a propaganda, gradually organizing a Rttlc armyat toria " to the nuncio Landriano once more proclaimed
Paris, and establishing relations with the Guises. The the downfall of Henry of Bourbon. The prelates who
combination of these two movements — the aristo- sided with Henry, assembled at Chartres, in Septem-
cratic and the popular — ^resulted in the manifesto of ber, 1591, protested against the "monitoria" and ap-
30 March, 1585, launched from P^ronne by Guise and pealed from them to tne pope's maturer information,
the princes amounting to a sort of declaration of war The gradual development oi a third party weakened
against Henry III. The whole story of the League the League and hastened the approach of an under-
has been told in the article Guise. We shall here standing between Rome -and Henry of Bourbon (see
dwell upon only the following two points. Henry I V) . Briefly, the Holy See felt a natural sym-
A. Relations between the Fopes and the League, — pathy for the Catholic convictions in which the League
Gregory XIII approved of the Lea^e after 1584, but originated; but, to the honour of Sixtus V, he would
abstained from committing himself to any writing in not, in the most tragic moments of his pontificate,
its favour. Sixtus V wished the struggle against compromise himself too far with a movement which
heresy in France to be led by the king nimseff; the floufei the authority of Henry III, the legitimate
religious zeal of the Leaguers pleased him, but he did king; neither would he admit the maxim: "Culpam
notlike the movement of political independence in re- non pocnam aufert absolutio peccati^' (Absolution
lation to Henry III. Events, however, drove Sixtus blots out the sin, but not its penalty), in virtue of
V to take sides with the Leaguers. The Bull of 9 Sep- which certain theologians of the League claimed that
tember, 1585, by which he declared Henry of Bourbon Henry IV, even if absolved by the pope, would still be
and the Prince of Cond6 as Protestants, to have for- incapable of succeeding to the French throne. By
feited the succession, provoked so much opposition this wise policy, Sixtus prepared the way far in ad.-
from the Parliament, and so spirited a reply from vance for the reconciliation which he hoped for, and
Henry, that the League, in its turn, recognized the which was to be realized in the absolution of Henry IV
necessity of a counterstroke. Louis d 'Orleans, an ad- by Clement VIII.
Yocate and a leaguer, imdertook the defence of the B. Political Doctrines of the League, — Charles La-
Bull in the " Avertissement des Catholiques Anglais bitto has found it possible to write a book on "La
aux Frangais Catholiques'S an extremely violent D^ocratiesouslaLigue'\ The religious rising of the
manifesto against Henry of Bourbon. Madame de people soon took shelter behind certain political
Montpensier, a sister of the Guises, boasted that she theories which tended to the revival of medieval po-
ruled the famous preachers of the League, the " Satire htical liberties and the limitation of royal absolutism.
M^nipp^'' presently turned them to ridicule, while In 1586 the advocate Le Breton, in a pamphlet for
in their turn the Leaguers from the pulpits of Paris, which he was hanged, called Henry III "one of the
attacked not only Henry of Bourbon, but the acts, greatesthvpocrites who ever lived", demanded an as-
the morals, and the orthodoxy of Henry HI. Such sembly of the States General from which the royal /
preachers were Rose, Bishop of Senlis, Boucher and officers should )ye excluded, and proposed to restore
Ft^vost, the aforesaid cur^, — ^the latter of whom all their franchises to the cities. Ideas of political
caused an immense picture to be displayed, represent- autonomy were beginning to take definite shape. The
ing the horrible sufferings inflicted upon Catholics League wished the clergy to recover those liberties
by the English co-religionists of Henry of Bourbon, which it possessed before the Concordat of Francis I,
Other preachers were de Launay, a canon of Soissons, the nobility to regain the independence it enjoyed in
the learned Benedictine G^n^brard, the controver- the Middle Ages, and the cities to be restored to a cer-
Bialist Feuardent, the ascetic writer Pierre Crespet, and tain degree of autonomy. After the assassination of
Guincestre, cur6 of Saint-Gervais, who, preaching at Guise, a crime instigated by Henry III, sixty-six
Saint-Barth^lemy on New Year's Day, 1589, made fdl doctors of the Sorbonne declared that the king's sub-
irtio heard him take an oath to spend the last penny jects were freed from their oath of allegiance and
they had and shed their last drop of blood to avenge might lawfully take arms, collect money, and defend
the assassination of Guise. By these excesses of the the Roman religion against the king; the name of
Leaguers asginst the monarchical principle, and by the Henry III was erased from the Canon of the Mass and
murder of Henry III by Jacques Clement (1 August, replaced by the "Catholic princes". Boucher, cur^
1589), Sixtus V was compelled to assume an attitude of Saint-Benolt, popularized this opinion of the Sor-
oC extreme reserve towanis the League. Tibe nuncio bonne in his book * De justa Henrici Tertii abdica-
Matteuxzi having thought it his duty to leave Venice tione", in which he maintained that Henry lU, *'aa A
LSAOITE
100
UBAauc
perjurer, assassin, inurdereri a sacrilegious person,
patron of heresv. simoniac, magician, impious and
damnable", could be deposed by the Church; that, as
" a perfidious waster of the public treasure, a tyrant
and enemy of his country ", he could be deposed by the
people. Boucher declared that a tyrant was a fero-
cious beast which men were justified in killing. It
was under the influence of these theories that upon the
assassination of Henry III by Jacques Client (I
August, 1589), the mother of. the Guises harangued
the throng from the altar of the chm-ch of the Corde-
liers, and glorified the deed of Clement. These exag-
gerated ideas served only to justify tyranny, and did
not long influence the minds of men. Moreover, the
" Declaration" of Henry IV against seditious preachers
(September, 1595) ana the steps taken at Kome by
Csurdinal d'Ossat, in 1601, put a stop to the political
preachings which the League had brought into fash-
ion. The memory of the excesses committed imder
the League was afterwards exploited by the legists of
the French Crown to combat Koman doctrines and to
defend royal absolutism and Gallicanism. But, con-
sidering the bases of the League doctrines, it is impos-
sible not to accord them the highest importance in the
history of political ideas. Power, they said, was de-
rived from God through the people, and they opposed
the false, absolutist, and Gallican doctrine of the Di-
vine right and irresponsibility of kings, such as Loiiis
XIV professed and practised; and they also bore wit-
ness to the perfect compatibility of the most rigorous
Roman ideas with democratic and popular aspirations.
It has been possible to trace Certain analogies be-
tween the doctrines of the League and Protestant
brochures like Hotman^s "Franco-Gallia" and the
"VindicisB contra tyrannos" of Junius Brutus (Du-
Slessis Momay), published immediately after the
[assacre of St. Bartholomew. Indeed, both Hugue-
nots and Leaguers were then seeking to limit the
royal power; but in the Huguenot projects of reform
the tendency was to favour the aristocracy, the opti-
mates; they would not allow the mob— the mediastimis
quilibet of whom the " Vindiciaj" speak so contempts
uously — any right of resistance against the king; the
Leaguers, on the contrary, appealed to the democracy.
The Huguenots permitted no uprising of the mere
private individual save with "God's special calling";
the Leapiers held that every man was called by God
to the oefence of the Church, and that all men were
equal when there was question of repelling the heretic
or the infidel. Hence, in his work, "Des progrds de
la revolution et de la guerre contre TEglise" Lamen-
nais felt free to write (1829): "How deeply Catholi-
cism has impressed souls with the sentiment of liberty,
was never more evident than in the days of tne
League."
See the bibliography of Guise; also Labitte, De la dSmocratie
chez lea prfdicateura de la Ligve (Paris, 1841); Weill, Lee
tkimieM eur le pouvoir royal en France pendant le» guerrte de
religion (Paris, 1891); Treuhann, Die Monarchomachen: eine
Darslellung der revolution^ren SUuUslehren dee XVI, Janrhun-
derU, 1673-1699 (Leipzig, 1885).
Georges Goyau.
League, German (Cathouc). — Onlv three y^ears
before the League was established, DuKe Maximilian
of Bavaria (d. 1651), who was afterwards its leading-
spirit, declared against the formation of a confederacy
of the Catholic states of the empire in Germany, pro-
posed^ by the spiritual electors. Soon after, how-
ever, in 1(507, he emphasized the need of such a con-
federacy, "in order that each may know how far he
may rely on the others". There is indeed nothing
more natural than the drawing together in times of
discord of those who think alike. Besides, the Protest-
ant *' Union ** was inaugurated in May, 1608.
Early in 1608 Duke Maximilian started negotiations
with the spiritual electors and some of the Catholic
•tAtes of the empire, with a view to the formation of a
union of the Catholic states. On 5 May, 1608, there
was a eonference on this question in the Imperial Diet
at Ratisbon, which amounted, however, only to an
exchange of ideas. Two months later (5 July), we
find the spiritual electors assembled at Andemach at
the invitation of the Archbishop of Maine. This
assembly was really held to consiaer the questicm of
the imperial succession, but the proposed League was
also discussed, and a tendency was manifested in
favour of the confederacy suggested by Maximilian.
Opinions were even expressea as to the size of the
confederate military forces to be raised. Maximilian,
who took the most active part at the Andemach
conference, afterwards sought among the neighbour-
ing princes members for the proposed Leajgue. Sahi-
bui^ showed disapproval; Wilrzhurs's bishop was
not much more encouraging, but uie Bishops of
Augsburg, Passau, and Ratisbon concurred. Until
the end of January^ 1609, however, the negotiations
flagged. About this time Maximilian won over the
Catholic states of Swabia to his project, and on 5
July the representatives of Augsburg, Constance,
Passau, Ratisbon, and Wiirzburg assembled at Mun-
ich. Salzburg was not invited this time, and Eich-
stadt still hesitated. Here on 10 July, 1609, the
participating states concluded an alliance " for the de-
fence of the Catholic religion and peace within the
Empire*'. The confederates might not make war on
each other; their disputes must be decided either by
arbitration within the confederacy, or by the laws of
the Empire; should one member be attacked, the
League must resort to arms, or, if prevented .from
doing this, must take legal steps. Duke Maximilian
was to be the president of the confederacy, and the
Bishops of Augsburg, Passau, and W(irzburg his
councillors. The League was to continue for nine
years.
The foundation of the confederacy was at last laid,
but a substantial structure was certainly not erected
at Munich. TTiis was not the fault of Maximilian, but
of the states, which, alwavs cautious and dilatory,
could not be spurred to take decisive action. On 18
June, 16()9, even before the Munich Diet, the Electors
of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier had exchanged opinions
through their envoys as to the personnel of the League
and the size of the confederate army, for which they
proposed 20,000 men. They had also considered the
making of Maximilian president of the alliance, and
on 30 August they announced their adhesion to the
Munich agreement, provided that Maximilian ac-
cepted the Elector of Mainz as co-president. As the
arch-chancellor of the Empire, the latter enjoyed great
Srestige, and was in a position to exercise great in-
uence; consequently, nis support could scarcely be
termed anything less than essential to the League.
Indeed, in conformity with his wishes, the emperor
was informed of the foundation and aims ot the
confederacy. As to its precise object, the members
themselves were not quite clear. Maximilian, there-
fore, urged the convocation of a general meeting of
the confederates to remove all misunderstandings.
The first was held on 10 Feb., 1610, at Wdrzbuiig.
Except Austria and Salzburc, all the important
Catholic states and a great num oer of the smaller ones
sent representatives. The organization of the coali-
tion, the raising of a confederate army, the apportion-
ment of the contributions to the alliance, and the
enlistment of foreign mercenaries, were the Questions
under discussion. The confederacy receivea the of-
ficial name, De/enstv- oder Schirmvereinigung. Only
after this can one really speak of a Catholic League.
The foreign help, on which they principally counted,
seemed a&eady assured. The pope and the King of
Spain, who had been informed by Maximilian of his
plan through the medium of Zuniga, the Spanish
ambasaador at Prague, were both favourably disposed
to^pi^utils the undertaking.
LSAOUE
101
LEAans
But the BucoesB of the League depended primarily
on the efiFective co-operation of the members them-
selves. This broke down when it came to the collec-
tion of contributions. In the case of very many of
the members, their contribution was, in the words of
Maximilian, nothing but a "poor prayer''. Up to
April, 1610, not a single member had paid his quota,
although at that very moment, the dispute concerning
the Jmich succession, and the threatening of the
Rhenish principalities by the troops of the Union,
uijgently reouired a League ready for war. Disgusted
with the indifference of the members, which narrow-
ness of means on the part of a few could not excuse,
IfA-yimiliiLn threatened to resign the presidentship. His
threat at once achieved this, that Spain, whicn had
made the giving of a subsidy dependent on Austria's
enrolment in the League, waived this condition, and
the pope promised a further contribution in 1 6 11 . The
conduct of the Union in the Jiilich dispute and the
warlike operations of the Union army in Alsace,
seemed to m^e a battle between Ix^ague and Union
inevitable. But tbe internal affairs of the League were
to become still more critical. In the year 1613 the
exertions of Cardinal Klesl at an assembly of the con-
federates in Ratisbon (where the Imperial Diet was
also sitting), against the wishes of Duke Maximilian
but very much in accordance with the wishes of the
£lector of Mains, succeeded in bringing about the
enrolment of Austria in the League. The assembly
now appointed no less than three war-directors: Duke
Maximilian, and Archdukes Albert and Maximilian of
Austria. The object of the League was now declared
"eine christlich rechtmSssige Defension". The divi-
sion of leadership did not conduce to increasing the
League's power, while, by Austria's accession, it
became entangled in her difficulties, already very
threatening in her hereditary domains.
Duke Maximilian, who attached great importance
to the Lease's fitness for war, showed his disapproval
ci the Ratisbon resolutions by ref usinff to accept them,
and later resi^c^ his post as president, when Arch-
duke Maximilian, of Austria, the third director, pro-
tested against the inclusion of the Bishop of Augsburg,
and the Provost of Ellwangen in the Bavarian Direc-
tory, and was supported in his protest by Mainz and
T^ier, On 27 May, 1617, he formed a separate league
for nine years with Bamberg, Eichst&dt, Wurzbur^,
and the rrovost of Ellwangen. But the position m
Bohemia, as in Lower and Upper Austria, gradually
became so critical, that King Matthias at the end of
1618 strove hard with Mainz for the restoration of the
League. A meeting of several of the ecclesiastical
states met the emperor's wishes in that, at Obcrwesel
(Jan., 1619), they decided to reconstruct the League,
but on its original basis. It was in future to ^ve
ofdy two groups: the Rhenish under the presidency of
Mains, and the Oberland imder Bavaria, the treasury
and the military command were to be considered as
separate. Maximilian might only lead the whole of
the troops, when he had to appear in the Rhenish dis-
trict. After Maximilian had made sure that Austria
would not again claim the privilege of appointing a
third director, he summonea the Oberland states to
Munich, where on 31 May the Oberland group came
again into life. The Rhenish group was already re-
established at Oberwesel. The two groups bound
themselves to render mutual help for six years.
The Kingdom of Bohemia, in a state of insurrection
from 1618, deprived Ferdinand II of the Bohemian
crown, and gave it to Elector Palatine I'rederick V
{26-27 Aug., 1619). Ferdinand's sole hope of recover-
ing his lands now lay in drastic action. On the way
to Frankfort on the day of the imperial election he
had already consulted personally with Maximilian
of Bavaria on the projected warlike preparations.
Ait&t the etection Ferdinand conferred with the
q;uritual electon still at Frankfort conceming the
support of the League. With the formation of a
comederate army the serious activity of the League
bef^n. The critical time, which Maximilian's ctear
vision had foreseen, and for which, with characteristic
energy, he had been long making provision, made him
the undisputed leader of Catholic Germany. On 8
Oct., 1619, Ferdinand and Maximilian came to an
agreement at Munich over the support of the League,
and the separate support of Bavaria. The latter
supplied 7000 men to the confederate army, whose
strength was fixed at an assemblv at WOrzburg in Dec.,
1619, as 21,000 infantry and 4000 cavalry.
In July, 1620, the League army totalled about
30,000 men, to which tlie Protestant Union could
only oppose about 10,000. This superiority at once
helped the League to a diplomatic victory o^'er the
Umon, with which an agreement was come to, whereby,
during the war in Austria and Bohemia, hostilities
between the parties of both alliances in Germany
should cease. Bavaria and the L^kgue had thus their
whole military forces free to support the emperor.
On 3 July the arrangement had been made with the
Union; on 24 July Tilly had already begun his inarch
into Upper Austria. That there was no decisive
battle till 8 November was due to the over-cautious
and procrastinating imperial field-marshal, Buquoy.
Even before Prague he was still averse to a battfe.
That one was fought was due to Maximilian and
Tilly. With the victory of the combined confederate
and imperial armies over the Bohemians at Prague
the first stage of the League's activity durinj^ the
Thirty Years War ended. Its subsequent history
is closely involved in that of the Thirty Years War
(q. v.). The strength of the League principally lay in
Maximilian's personality, and in the resources of his
excellently administered country. But for Max>»
milian (q. v.) the League at the beginning of the
Thirty Years War would probably have been just as
disorganized a body as its opponent, the Union.
Brief e v. Akten zurOeach. des dreisaigjiihr, Kriegea zur Zeil
dea vorwaltendcn Einflusaea der WiUelabacher: voL VII: Von
der Abretae Erzh. Leopolda nach jQlich bia zu den Werbwiifen
Herzog Afaxim. von B. im M&rz WW, ed. Stievb and revised by
Matr (Munich, 1905); vol. VIII: Von den ROalunoen Herzog
Maxim, von B. hia zum Aufbruch der Paaaatier.ed. Stievi: and
revised by Matr (Munich, 1908)* vol. IX: Vom Einfall dea
Paaaauer Kriegavolka bia zum Niimberger KurfuatenUig, od.
Chroust (Munich, 1903); vol. X: Der Auagang der Regienmo
Rudolfa II. u. die An^inge dea Kaiaera MaUhiaa, ed. Chroust
(Munich, 1906); vol. XI: Der Reichatag wn WIS, ed. Chroust
(Munich, 1909); BCrqer. LigapoHtik dea Mainzer Kurftlraten
J oh. Schweickhard v. Cronbera W04-WIS in Wiirzburger Studien
fie, I; Cornelius, Zur. GeacK. der GrUndunqder detUachen Liga
(Munich, 1863); GcVrz, Die Kriegakosten Bayema u. der Li-
gaatAnde im dreiaaigjohr. Kriege in Foraehungen tur Oeach,
Batfema, XII; Gothein, Deutachland vor dem dreiaaigjuhr,
Krxege (Leipzig, 1908); Janbhen-Pastor, Oeach, dea detUachen
Volkea aeit dem A uagange dea MiUelaltera, vol. V: Die kirchluJi-
pol. Revolution v. ihre Bekdmpfung aeit der VerkUndigung der
JConkordienformel 1630 bia zum Beginn der dreiaaigj&hr. Kriegee
(15th and 16th improved ed., Freiburg, 1902); Ritter,
Deutache Oeach. im ZeUcdter der Oegenref, u. dea dreiaaigiiihr,
Kriegea {t555-WJ^), II (WSe-WW) (Stuttgart, 1895), III
(Stuttgart and Beiim, 1908); Stievb, KurfUriA Maxim. I, von
B. in Abhandlungent Vorir&ge tt. Reden (Leipzig, 1900); Idem,
Daa "Contobuch der DetUachen Liga in DeutMne Zeitachr. /Or
OeaehichtaiDiaaenaehaft, X (1893); Wolf, Oeach. Maximilians /.
u. aeiner Zeit, II (Munich, 1807).
J. Kraft.
League of the Gross , The, a Catholic total absti-
nence confraternity founded in London in 1873 by
Cardinal Manninfi; to unite Catholics, both cler^ and
laity, in the warfare ai^ainst intemperance, ana thus
improve religious, social, and domestic conditions,
especially among the working classes. The original
and chief centres of the league are London and Liver-
pnool, and branches have been organized in the va-
rious cities of Great Britain and Ireland and in Aus-
tralia. The fundamental rules of the league are: (1)
that the pledge shall be of total abstinence, and taken
without limit as to time; (2) that only Catholics can
be members; (3) that all members shall live as good,
practical Catholics; (4) that no one who is not a prac-
LEAMDER 102 LSATIMWOBTH
tical Catholic shall, as long as he fails to practise his Leap Yeftr. See Calkndab, Revoric of the.
religion, hold any office in the league. The pope has Leayenworth, Diocese of (Leavenwobthensis),
At his request, ten years later the Holy See divided
* J m a 'tt a i.' i. r^v x 'x i_ i. the dioccse into three: Wichita, Concordia, and Lea V-
Leander of Se^e, Saint, bishop of that city, b. at enworth. Leavenworth was then restricted to the 43
Carthage about 534, of a Roman family estabhshed m counties lying east of Republic, Ooud, Ottawa, Saline,
that city; d at Seville, 13 March, 600,or 601. Some McPherson, Harvey, Se^wick, and Sumner Ooxmiiea.
historians claim that hw father Seyenan was duke or j^^ diocese had an are* of 28,687 sq. m., with a total
governor of Carthage, but St. Isidore simply states population in 1890, of 901,536. Authorised by the Holy
that he was a citizen of that city. The famihr emi- §ee^ Bishop Fink on 29 May, 1891, took up his residence
grated from Cartlmge about o54 and went to Seville. ^ j^^^,^ ci^y, Kans., and the dioce»B was named
The eminent worth of the children of .Se venan would ^fter this city for some years. Apostolic letters dated
seem to indicate that they were reared m distinguished j j^ 1397^ further diminished the territory of the
wirroundmgs Seyenan had three sons, Leander Isi- diocese in favour of Concordia and Wichita. It now
dore, and Fulgentius and one daughter, Florentma. includes only the Counties of Anderson, Osage, Potta-
St. Loander and St. Isidore both became bishops of watomie, Shawnee, Wabaunsee, Wyandotte, Jackson,
Seville; St. Fulgentius, Bishop of Carthagena, and St. Jefferson, Linn, Lyon, Marshall, Miami, Nemaha, Atl
Florentma, a nun who directed forty convents and one ^hison. Brown, Coffey, Doniphan, Douglas, Franklin,
thousand nuns. It has been also believed, but wrongly, Johnson, and Leavenworth ; an arek of 12,594 sq. miles,
that Theodosia, another daufjhter of Sevenan, became jhe first missionary to the wild Indians of the plains,
the wife of the V^igothic kmg, Leovigild lender ^jthin the present borders of Kansas, was Father Juan
became at first a Benedictme monk, and then in 579 ^e Padilla. He obtained the martyr's crown just
Bishop of Seville. In the meantune he founded a fifty years after Columbus discovered the New Worid.
oelebraledschwl, which soon became a centre of learn- xhe firsv permanent Indian missions in these parts
M and orthodoxy. He assisted the Princes In^n- ^ere established by the Jesuit Fathers among the Pot-
this to convert her husband Hermenegild, the eldest tawatomies and Osages. The latter originSly dwelt
son of Loovigild, and defended the convert against his ^^ both sides of theMissouri. They knew of Father
father's cruel reprisals. In endeavouring to save his Marquette and had implored Father Gravier to preach
country from Arianism, Leander showed him^lf an to them. Two Franciscan friars had been among
orthodox Christian and a far-sighted patriot. Ebciled them in 1745. Bishop Duboure promised them mis-
bjrLeoyi^ild, he withdrew to Byzantium f^^^ sionaries in 1820. The Pottawatomies came from
582. It IS possible but not proved, that ho sought to Michigan and Indiana. Some hundreds of them had
rouse theEmperorTibenustotakeuparmsagainstthe been baptized by the Rev. S. T. Badin of Kentucky,
Anan king: m anv case the attempt was without the first priest ordained in the United States. In In-
result. He profited, however, by his stay at Byzan- ^i^na. Father Descilles was succeeded among the Pot- •
tium to compose important works agamst Ananism, tawatomies by Father Petit, who accompanied them
and there became acquainted with the future Gregory to the confines of their new reservation in the Indian
the Great, then le^te of Pelagius II at the Byzantine Territory, which then included Kansas. The Indian
court. A close friendship thenceforth united the two converts were confirmed by Bishop P. Kenrick in 1843,
men, and the correspondence of St. Gregory with St. ^nd by Bishop Barron in 1845. An Indian priest of the
Leander remains one of the latter s great titles to Oklahoma Diocese is descended from the Pottawato-
honour. It is not known exactly when Lender re- ^ies and was bom in I^nsas. In 1845 by the zealous
tomed from exJe. L^vigild put to death his son eflfortsofthe Jesuit missionaries, Catholic prayer-books
Hermenegild m 585, and himself died in 589. in the Pottawatomie dialect were given to the Indians.
In this decisive hour for the future of Spam, Leander Manual trainmg schools for giris and boys had been
did most t» ensure the religious unity, the fervent established some years previously. The latter were
faith, and the bngd culture on which was based its conducted by the Jesuits. Bishop Rosati wrote from
kter greatncM. He had a share m the converaon of Europe that Gregory XVI would be delighted to have
Reccared, and never ceased to exercise over him a ^ SacW Heart school among the IndW In the
deep and beneficial influence At the Third Council g^r 1841 the Religious of thi Sacred Heart opened
of Toledo where Visigothic Spam abjured Arianism, ^ g^hool among the Pottawatomies under the leader-
Leander dehvered the closing sermon On his return ship of Mother Philippine-Rose Duchesne. Manual
from this council, Leander convened an imp^nt training schools were^tablished among the Osages
svnod m his metropolitan city of ScviHe (Cone. Hi«p., -^ ^^f jj^^ ^3^ the boys' school was underSie
I), and never afterwards ceased his efforts to consoli- conduct of the Jesuits; but the giris' school was in
date the work, in which his brother and succe^r St. charge of the Sisters of Loretto.
Isidore was ^ foUow him. Leander received the pal- j^^^g^ ^^s under the jurisdiction of the ecclesias-
hum in August, 599. There remain unfortunately of tical superiors of Louisiana until St. Louis was made
this writer superior to his brother Isidore, only two ^^ episcopal see. The Vicariate Apostolic of the In-
works: De institutione virgmum et contemptu dian Territory east of the Rocky Mountains included
mundi a monastic rule composed for his sister, and the present states of Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma;
Homilia ,^fp^""'?P?^..ecclesia; ob conversionem that part of North and South Dakota west of the
P^.w'^'Ti^'^'r^^ St. Isidore wrote of his Missouri River, Wyoming, Montana, and a part of
I^Tl^ Ii..nl 1^1^ T^'Z ^^^.^^'^^ ^l^ eminent Colorado. It was placed uSder R t. Rev. John B.^idge,
J^«o ^l L f /?^ ^-^ ^^ w J'n"f2''^ ^y ^'^u ^" S.J., who was anointed vicar Apostolic, and conte-
\^^\^^L^liVJ^ and zeal the Gothic people hiive crated Bishop ofliWnia. in St. Ix)uis, 25 Mareh, 1851.
been converted from Amnism to the Catholic faith" Accompanied by Father Paul Ponziglione, 8. J., who
(Descnpt.eccles.,xxviu). ,„ ^ , „ , was to devote himself for fortv years t?the Indians and
Ao1.^:'colfJS^^'^T^4An;f^^^ lt?/^^^>^.^il'^ settle!^ of the new ^^cariate Bishop
orada, IX ; Bodrret.L Vco/c chritienne de SHUle 9ou3 la mo- D/liesK amved among the Pottawatomies on the Kan-
norcAte dea V^tht (Paris. 1 855) ; Mo.vtalembert. Le« Moin^a sas Ki ver, where now stands St. Marv's College, in May
i^'S^IG^ Q'iin°ES-Zi.^:rKo7SS^«^%'Si^',i^ of tl^t J-e^V The founder of the PottawatWie n;ii-
Kirchenprov. Botica m Znttch. fur u^ssenschaftl. Theol., Ill sion of the Immaculate Conception, Father Clumian
C19W). PiBBRE SuAU. Hoecken, S.J., while ascending the Miseouri Rivw
LEATIMWOBTH
103
LEAVEMWOBTH
with Father P. J. de Smedt, died of cholera, at the
ace of forty-three years (19 June, 1851), fifteen of
which were passed among the Indians in the Missouri
VaUey.
Bishop Mi^ge was born 18 September, 1815, at La
Foret, Upper i&voy, Italy. He studied classics and phi-
losophy at the diocesan seminary of Moutiers where his
elder brother Urban was a teacher for over forty years.
He entered the Societ>^ of Jesus at Milan 23 Oct.,
1836; was ordained priest 7 Sept., 1847, at Rome,
where he was professor of philosophy in the Roman
College. Driven from Italy by the political troubles
of the following year, he was sent at his own recjuest
to the Indian Missions in the United States. In 1849
he was assistant pastor of St. Charles's church at St.
Charles, Missouri. In 1850 he was socius of the master
of novices at Florissant. He also taught moral theol-
ogy there. The vicariate subjected to his jurisdiction
in 1851 consisted mostly of Indian missions. There
were five churches, ten Indian Nations, and eight
priests, with a CathoUc population of almost 5000, of
whom 3000 were Indians. He was an indefatigable
missionary, traversing on horseback and by wagon for
years the wild remote regions over which his people
were scattered, visiting the Indian villages, forts, trad-
ing posts, and growing towns. In August, 1855, there
were seven CathoUc ^milies in Leavenworth^ and he
moved his residence from the Pottawatomie mission,
to this city for a permanent location to minister to the
fast increasing tide of inmiigration that had turned to
Kansas. In 1856 the Benedictines began a founda-
tion at Doniphan, near Atchison, but a short time
afterwards they established a priory and a college in
the latter city. They were followed by the Carme-
lites in 1864. Father Theodore Heimann, a German,
who later joined the Carmelite Fathers; Father J.
H. Defoun, from Savoy; and Father Am])rose T.
Butler, from Ireland were among the first secular
priests to come to the assistance of Bishop Midge,
who was represented at the second Plenary Coun-
cil of Baltimore, and went to Rome in 1853. He as-
sisted at provincial councils in St. Louis in 1855 and
1858. The bishop soon had a parochial school wherever
there was a resident priest. He built a noble cathedral
at Leavenworth. Before leaving for the (Ecumenical
CouncH of the Vatican, he appointed the Very Rev.
L. M. Fink, Prior of St. Benedict's, vicar-general in
spiritualibus, and Father Michael J. Corbett, admin-
istrator in Umporalibtis. Nebraska was formed into
a separate vicariate in 1857; but the jurisdiction of
Bishop Midge over the new vicariate (which included
the present states of Nebraska, part of the Dakotas,
Wyoming, and Montana) continued until May, 1859.
The increase in the Kansas Territory-, which extended
west to the Rocky Mountains, was steady. Desiring
to return to the ranks of the Society of Jesus, Bishop
Midge petitioned to be allowed to resign his epi8<ff>pal
jurisdiction, and in 1871 a coadjutor was given him in
the Very Rev. liOuis M. Fink, prior of the Benedictine
monastery at Atchison, and who had as a priest
worked on the missions in Pennsylvania, Kentucky,
New Jersey, and Illinois. He was consecrated at Chi-
cago 11 June, 1871, titular Bishop of Eucarpia.
Bishop Midge then went on a begging tour in aid of
the vicariate and spent three years collecting in South
America. His petition to be allowed to resign was
granted in December, 1874, when he retumoxl to his
order, being assigned to the house of studies at Wood-
stock, Maryland. In 1877 he was sent to Detroit
where he founded a college and remained until 1880,
when he wa*? appointed spiritual director at Wood-
stock for three years. Hero he died 21 July, 188-1.
In 1874 Bishop Fink took charge of the vicariate
on the resignation of Bishop Midge; and 22 May, 1877,
it was estabhshed as the Diocese of Leavenworth, and
his title was transferred to this see. He was born 12
July, 1834, at Triftersberg, Bavaria, and emigrated in
boyhood to the United States. He entered the Bene*
dictine Order in September, 1852, and was ordained
priest at St. Vincent's Abbey, Beatty, Pennsylvania,
27 May, 1857. When he assumed jurisdiction in 1874,
there were within the boundaries of Kansas 65
priests, 88 churches, 3 colleges, 4 academies, 1 hos-
pital, 1 orphan asylum, 13 parish schools with 1700
gupils; and conmiunities of Benedictine, Jesuit, and
armehte priests; of Religious of the Sacred Heart,
of Sisters of St. Benedict, of Sisters of Charity, and
of Sisters of Loretto; with a Catholic population of
nearly 25,000. In 1887 there were in Kansas 137
priests, and 216 churches. The decrees of the second
diocesan synod are admirable. The two new dioceses
of Wichita and Concordia took from the diocese over
69,000 sq. miles. The parochial schools were placed
under the supervision of a diocesan board that selects
textbooks, and examines teachers and pupils. He
fostered the Association of the Holy Childhood, the
sodalities of the Blessed Virgin, and the Holy Angels;
established the Confraternity of the Holy Family
throughout the diocese, and acted as diocesan director
of the League of the Sacred Heart. Bishop Fink took
{)art in the Third Council of Baltimore, and sedu-
ously endeavoured to enforce its decrees. He con-
tinued to promote the progress of the Church imtil
his death, 17 March, 1904.
There were then 110 priests, 100 chiuxjhes, 13 sta-
tions and chapels, 37 parochial schools, 4000 pupils,
35,000 Catholics. On his demise the Very Rev.
Thomas Moore, who had been vicar-general since
1899, was made Apostolic administrator.
The successor of Bishop Fink was the Very Rev.
Thomas F. Lillis, Vicar-General of the Diocese of
Kansas City, who was bom at I^xiugton, Missouri, in
1862, and ordained priest in 1885. He was conse-
crated Bishop of Leavenworth, in Kansas City, 27
December, 1904. His episcopjal administration of the
Leavenworth Diocese was eminentlv successful. The
growth of the Ch urch under his j urisoiction was marked
by the foundation of new congregations, and the
building of churches and parochial schools. Cathohc
societies were strengthened and the diocesan statutes
revised to enforce the decrees of the Third Plena^
Council of Baltimore under present conditions. He
adopted practical means of enforcing the papal " Motu
Proprio , on Church music. In March, 1910, he was
appointed coadjutor to the Bishop of Kansas City,
Missouri, cum jure successionis.
Statistics. — Orders of men : Benedictines, Carmelites,
Franciscans, Jesuits. Women: Sisters of St. Bene-
dict, Sisters of Charity, Sisters of St. Frances, Sisters
of the Poor of St. Francis, Sisters of St. Joseph, Oblate
Sisters of Providence (coloured), Ursuline Sisters, Fe-
liciun Sisters, PVanciscan Sisters, Sisters of the Pre-
cious Blood. Priests, 143 (regulars, 71) ; churches with
resident priests 76, missions with churches 46, stations
7, chapels 8, brothers 71, sisters 160; diocesan semi-
nary 1 , seminary for religious 1 ; colleges and academies
for boys 2, students 750; academies for young ladies
3, pupils 325, parochial schools 39, pupils 5700; high
schools 2; orphan asylums 2, inmates l.'iO; young peo-
ple under Catholic care, 6900; hospitals, 4; Catholic
population 56,000. The Ursuline academy at Paola
with 30 sisters was founded from Louisville in 1895.
Mt. St. Scholastica's convent, established in 1863 sub-
ject to a prioress, has one hundred and seventy-five
professed sisters with schools in the Dioceses of Con-
cordia, Davenport, Kansas City. Sioux City, and Leav-
enworth with 3680 pupils. They conduct an acad-
emy at Atchison. The Sisters of Charitv have a
mother-house at St. Mary's Academy at Leavenworth
since 1858. There are over 500 Sisters conducting
establishments in the Archdiocese of Santa F^, and in
the Dioceses of Denver, (jreat Falls, Helena, and
Leavenworth, with 8000 patients yearly in hospitals,
525 orphans, and 6000 pupils. St. Margaret's Hoe-
t. Benedict's Abbey, Atchison, lounded
T fifty
e Benedictine Fathers conduct St. Benedict'
College, a boarding school with 300 pupils. St. Mary's
College, a boarding school with 450 pupils, conducted
b^ the Jesuit Fathers, ig the development of the Mia-
Bion School which the Jesuits established among the
Pottawatomie Indiana in 1841. There are churches
for the Crofltians, Slovaks, Slovenians, Poles, Bo-
hemians, and Germans, as well as for the English-
speaking congregations. The majority aS the Cath'
olics in the diocese are Irish and Germans who came to
America over fifty years ago, and tlicir descendants.
A goodly proportion of the cler^ ordained durmg the
paflt twenty-five years are natives of the state Sev
eraJ of the clergy are still active, after more than a
quarter of a century of pastoral duties. TheRt Rev
Mgr Ant. Kuhls, ordained in 1863, retired to St Mar^
garet's Hospital after forty-five years of EealouB work
(See Duchesne, pHiijpws-E-RoaE; KANaAS )
DCFOtiHl. Onginal Dinriii and LMrrt aJJauit MunoiHina,
Catholic DircctoTv. I36I-I9W: CtAilRi, Liwi of Oir Drccattd
BUIiopi of tht "-■'-'- "■- - I - -•-- >■--■--■ -. -" ..
H UBBUIOV
mon, 9300. Deposits due to glacier formations m^
be observed at the top, but no one has as yet reached
the actual snow line. Between Lebanon and Antt-
libaous extends the table-land of Be<)^'a, 5 to 9 miles
broad.about 70 miles long, never rising to any height ,
considered by many the true Ccelesycia. The plain of
Lebanon (D. V. Libanus) mentioned in Joe., zi, 17,
and xii, 7, is probably MerJ 'Aiyun. The southern ana
central parts are very fertile to-day. Near Ba'albek
is the watershed (about 3800 f^t) between south and
north, between the Nahr el-'Aei (Orontes) and the
Nahr el-Lltlni (not the Leontes), which latter aa
York. 1888). All mo.: HEUsa. Biol. Curt, i,f Iht
arrhu in U. S. (^liTwBukee, ISBS); Watim H.
Louis, MiBBOuri). files. J A °
Shorter
possibly, Ramanu; Gr. Jil^rat), modem Jehel _
ndn, or "White Mountain" (Semitic root laban) so
called from the snow which covers the highest peaks
during almost the entire year, or from the Imiestone
which glistens white in the distance. The centre of
the great mountain range of Central Svna which
stretches from N.N.E. to S.S.W. almost parallel v- th
tiie sea for about 95 miles from 33° 20' to 34 40 is
separated in the south by the Q&simiye from the Gah
lean hill-country; in the north, by the Nahr el Keblr
from Jcbel el-Ansarieh. It consists of two parallel
mountain chains of the same formation; the western,
or Lebanon proper, called Jebei el-gharbi; the east-
ern, known as Jebel e!-sharqi (the Antilibanus of the
Greeks). The primeval mass was cleft asunder to-
wards the end of the Tertiary formation (Pliocene),
forming the northern part of the Jordan fissure,
which extends southward to the Red Sea.
Geologically there are four strata, which are easily
distinguishable in the deeply rent ravines. The first
stratum, consisting of a laj'cr of limestone (Araya
limestone), about 980 feet m thicltneas, is sparingly
strewn with fossils {cidaris glanduTta, corals and
sponges), and belongs to the Cenoman, earliest of the
Upper Jura. Above it lies a richly fossilized com-
posite (Cephalopoda) of sandstone, from 650 to 1630
feet in thickness, and clay marl, divided by layers of
chalky deposit (Trigonia or Nubian sandstone) from
the Cenoman. Basaltic masses of lava appear in the
sandstone. Peat, iron ore, and traces of copper are
also found, and fossilized resin in the coal schiste.
The third layer of Lebanon limestone (about 3580
feet thick) is characterized at the base by abundant
ovster beds or by hippurite limestone (Cenonian-
TSiron). One peeuliarity is the slate of Ilakcl, con-
taining fossil fishes, found also in the marly limestone
of SShil 'Alma. In Antililianus (the BeqS'a), and on
the outer edges of Lebanon, a fourth stratum of Sen-
onian (not over 330 feet in thickness) appears in flinty
chalk and limestone.
The highest peaks of these mountuns are in the
Wesl<?m chain. They rise in the Art Libndn to a
height of more than 9800 feet, as Dahr el-Qodlb;
Jcbel Makmal; Dahr cl-Duhab (Qarn Sauda), about
10,000 feet. Exact measurementa are wanting. To-
wards the south the ele\-af ion is not so great: Jcbcl-e!
Huneitira. 0130: Jebel Sannin, 8500 feet. In Anti-
libanus the Tala' at MOsa is 8710 feet in height; Her-
Nahr el-QAsimiye empties into the sea a httle to the
north of Tyre. The western slope of Lebanon has
many springs and rivers which pierce the limestone
after a partly subterranean course, e. K- the Nahr el-
Kelb. From south to north we come m succession to
the Nahr el-Zaherfini; Nahr e!-'Awali; Nahr Dflmttr
(Tamyras); Nahr Beirut (Magoras); Nalir el-Kelb
(Lykus), at the mouth of which Egyptian, As^rian,
Greek, and Latin inscriptions are found; Nahr Ibrlt-
hlm (Adonis), at whose source was AfjEa(Apheka), the
celebrated temple of Venus n-ith iia lewd and bloody
cult, destroyed by Constantine; finally the Nahr
el-Joz, and Nahr Qadisha. The eastern slope and the
AntiUbanus are less favoured. In the north and east of
Antilibanus there is great scarcity of water. Towards
the south there arc a few tributaries of the lit^ni,
chiefly the celebrated BaradA, the river of Damascus
(with 'Ain Hje), the Abana of Holy Writ (IV Kings,
V, 12). Hermon feeds the three sources of the Jord^.
The Wcinity of the sea causes proportionate damp- '
ness and warmth on the western side. The mountaios
are frequented aa summer resorts on account of their
agreeable climate. In the Beqd'a the winter is apt to
be sharp. During severe winters the snow descends
to the most outlying spurs of the Lebanon. Along the
coast, frost is unusual. In October the rainy season
ushers itself in with sudden and violent showers.
From December until February there are, on an aver-
age, twelve rainy days. In May rain is infrequent.
The effects of the rainstorms, which are frequently of
tropical violence and accompanied by thunder and
lightning, are seen in the excetu^ive erosion of the viJ-
leys. "The natural bridges are also the result of ero-
sion, for instance those of 'Aqflra and Jisr el-^ajar
(with a span of about 130 feet; more than 65 over the
Neba' el-Leben).
LlBBittTft
105
UB BULMt
In tlie western region, where water is plentiful, the
flora is abundant ana of great variety. In prehistoric
times the entire range as far as the coast was covered
with forests. According to the Old Testament and
profane literature, the I^banon was renowned for its
abundance of wood. Cedar, pine, maple, linden, and
oak made the possession of the mountains lucrative.
Solomon and Hiram, Egyptian and Assyrian, profited
by these resources. To-dajr, through senseless plun-
der and the progress of cultivation, Lebanon has been
largely robbed of its ancient splendour. Cedar is
found in but few places, although all the climatic con-
ditions for a successful growth are at hand. Large
tracts are now used for cultivating plants; and olive,
fig, and mulberry trees constitute the wealth of to-day.
Pomegranate, peach, apricot (in Damascus and vicin-
it^jr), almond trees, walnuts, quinces, and other vari-
eties of fruit flourish. The grape ripens at an altitude
of nearly 5000 feet. The cultivation of the vine has
developed advantageously. Grain flourishes at an al-
titude of 6200 feet, out is little cultivated. A number
of sweet-scented shrubs deserve mention: myrtle,
oleander, sage, lavender, etc., to which fragrant plants
the Old Testament attributes part of the fame of Leb-
anon. On the west, in general, the flora of the Medi-
terranean is found, and, on the heights, Alpine flora.
On the eastern slope, in northern Beqa'a and in Anti-
libanus, with their dry, severe climate, the flora is
that of the steppes.
The prehistoric fauna was very different from that
of to-day; stag, deer, bison, the wild horse, wild boar,
Ivnx, lion, bear, and wild goat Inhabited the forests.
As remotely as Assyrian and Babylonian times, Ix*b-
anon was celebrated as a royal hunting;-g[round. To-
day the number of deer is greatlv diminished; bears,
wolves, and panthers are rare, fiyenas, jackals, and
wild boars are more frequent. The birds are not as
well represented. Songsters are rare. Wild doves,
rock ptarmigan, eagles, and hawks are more often
found. Reptiles are fairly numerous. Serpents, often
venomous, abound, and also lizards (chameleon,
gecko).
Traces of human occupation are found, dating from
prehistoric times. Not only from the mouth of the
Q&simiye to Tripolis, but also in the mountains and in
Beqd'a J genuine neolithic and palseolithic remains have
been discovered. Broken human bones su^st the
cannibalism of the aborigines. In historic tunes the
Amorrhites appeared, whilst in the period of the
Israelite kings the Phoenicians exercised dominion
over the Lebanon, and Solomon had buildings erected
there (III Kin^, v, 6 sqq.; ix, 19). Later tne Itura&-
ans occupied Lebanon, and in Christian times the
Maronites. The bloody persecutions of 1860 result<>d
in some improvement m the condition of part of the
country, chiefly throi^h the interference of France.
Tlie iudependent province of Lebanon has a Christian
sovemor named by the sultan and approved l>y the
Powers. BetedcUn, near Der el-Qamar, is the seat
of government. The inhabitants in 1900 numbered
about 400,000; the greater part are Catholic Maronites;
about 8 per cent, Greek Uniats; 13 per cent, Orthodox
Greeks; 12 per cent, Druaes; 4 per cent, Shiit« Meta-
wiles: 3 per cent, Sunnites. The spirit of travel has
seized the Maronites, who seek profit in Eg>'pt, the
United States, or in Latin America, returning later to
their mountains.
Ecclesiastically, the Maronites arc subject to a pa-
triarch who lives in -the monastery of Qannobin.
Numerous convents, some of them wealthy, are scat-
tered over the hills; they maintain schools and have
set up printing-presses. Higher instruction is siven
chiefly by European priests, but those of native oirth
take an active part. The American Protestant mis-
sions have long since entered into competition. For
the education of the girls, native teaching sisters
(Ifariamettes) are employed jointly with Europeans.
In times of peace the Christian administration haid
obtained good results. Safety and order have been
established, and a great deal has been done for com-
merce. The high road from Beirut to Damascus
(about 70 miles) was built in 1862, and other roads
later, e. g. that following the coast, that from Beirut
to Jezztn, from Je^zln to Saida, etc. In 1895 the first
railroad was opened from Beirut to Damascus (90
miles), which in Lebanon reaches an elevation of 4850
feet, and in Antilibanus 4570 feet. The branch line
from RayAq to Qaleb was opened in 1906. Further
plans are being considered, principally for a better
connexion with Beqd'a.
Thomson, The Land and the Book (London, 1886), sections on
Lebanon and Damascus ; Burton and Drake, Unexplored
Syria, 2 vols. (London, 1872); Porter, Five Years in Damaa-
ciM, 2 vols. (London, 1855); Baedeker, Palestine and Syria
(4th ed., Leipzig, lOCiS); Post, Flora o J Syria, Palestine, ar^
Sinai (Beirut, 1896) ; Kitter, Erdkunde von Asien, VIII (Ber-
lin, 1855); Fraah, Drei Monate im Libanon (Stuttgart, 1876);
Idem, Aus dem Orient (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1878); Diencr,
Libanon (Vienna, 1886); Zumopfen, La PhHiicie avant lea
Ph^iciens (Beirut, 1900); Cuinet, Syrie, Liban et Palestine
(Paris, 1896-1902) ; Zcmoffen, L*aoe de la pierre en Phenicie in
Anthropos, III (1908), 431-55; Blanckenhorn, Abriss der
Goologie Syriens, Attneiiland (Berlin, 1905); Idem, Ueber die
Steinzeit imd die Feuersteinpeirefakten in Syricn-Paldstina in
Zeitschrift far Ethnologie, XXXVII (1905), 447-68.
A. Merk.
LebbflBUB. See Jude, Saint.
LebeduSftltular see of Asia Minor, suffragan of Ephe-
sus. It was on the coast, ninety stadia to the east of
Gape Myonnesus, and 120 west of Colophon. According
to rausanius, the town was inhabited oy Carians when
the lonians immigrated there under the guidance of
Andrsemon, a son of Codrus. Strabo, however, states it
was colonized by Andropompus, and that it previously
bore the name of Artis. It became a flourishing city
by its commerce, and was famous for its mmenu
springs, but was nearly destroyed by Lysimachus,
who transported the population to Ephesus. Under
the Romans, however, it flourished anew, became the
meeting place of the actors of all Ionia, and festivals
were celebrated in honour of Dionysus. It^s remains,
of little interest, are seen near Hypsili Hissar, in the
caza of Sivri Hissar, vilayet of Smyrna. Lobedus ap-
pears in *'Notitia) episcopatum" as an episcopal see,
suffragan of Ephesus until the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. Three bishops only are known: Cyriacus,
who witnessed the Robber Council of Ephesus, 449;
Julian, represented by his metropolitan at Chalcedon
in 451; Theophanes or Thomas, who attended the
Council of Ni«8ea, 787.
Lequien, Oriens Chridianvs, I, 725; Chandler, Asia Minor,
125; Smith, Did, Oreek and Roman Geog., s. v.
S. P£tridi:s.
Le Blant, Edmond-Frederic, French arch8Fx>lo-
gist and historian, b. 12 August, 1818; d. 5 July, 1897
at Paris. He studied law and haWng qualified to prac-
tice, hc5 obtained in 1843 a situation in the customs
under the Finance Board. This position assured his
future and he was free to follow his scientific inclina-
tions. During a voyage through Italy (1847) he
visited the Kircher Museum, and his intercourse with
G. B. de Rossi determined him to undertake in France
the scientific work which the founder of Christian
archsBolo^ had undertaken in Rome. As early as
1848 Le Blant was commissioned to collect the in-
scriptions of the earliest days of C'hristianity in Gaul,
and like de Rossi, he made an investigation of manu-
scripts, printed books, museums, churches, and the
Gallo-Roman cemeteries. In 1856 appeared the first
volume of his "Recueil dos inscriptions chr^tiennes
des Gaules ant^rieuros au VIII* si^cle ". The second
volume of the work (Paris, 1865) obtained for its au-
thor his election as a member of the Academic des
Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. A third volume ap-
peareci in 1892 under the title of " Nouveau Recueil .
In the course of his researches Le Blant did not over-
LEBBtJN
lOG
LEBwnr
look any questiom* raised by his documents. lie wrote
learned articles on the method of Christian epigraphy,
on Christian art, on the origin, progress, popular be-
liefs, and moral influence of Christianity in ancient
Gaul. When he resigned his post as sub-commis-
sioner of the customs (1872) he continued to devote
himjself to his favourite studies.
He tried to gather into one " Corpus" the Christian
sarcophagi of which so many have oeen preserved in
the south of France. In 1878 he published in Paris
his "Etudes siu* les sarcophages Chretiens de la ville
d' Aries", which was followwl by a second work
"Etudes sur les sarcophages chr^tiens de la Gaule"
(Paris, 1886). In the introduction he treats of the
form, ornamentation, and iconography of these monu-
ments; he dwells upon the relationship between the
sarcophagi of Aries and those of Rome, and the differ-
ence oetween them and those of the south-west of
France, in which he finds more distinct signs of local
influence. His studies and his personal tastes led him
to take an interest also in the history of the j>er8ecu-
tions and the martyrs. In numerous WTitings he
treats in particular of the iudicial bases of the perse-
cutions and the critical value of the Acts of the Mar-
tyrs. These studies were crowned by his fine work
"Pers^^cuteurs et Martyrs" (Paris, 1893), in which he
displays his scientific knowledge of history and his
deep Christian convictions. In 1883, Le Blant became
director of the Ecole Fran^aise at Rome. As such, his
name figures honourably between that of GefTroy and
of Mgr Duchesne. In audition to his works mentioned
above we may mention his collaboration with Jacque-
mart in "Histoire artistique, industrielle et com-
merciale de la porcelaine (Paris, 1862); "Manuel'
d'^pigraphie chrfetienne " (Paris, 1869) ; " Les Actes des
martyrs, Supplement aux *Acta sincera' de Dom
Ruinart" (Paris, 1882).
Waxxon, Notice sur la vie Hie* travaux de E. Fr. Le Blant in
Compte rendu Acad. Inscr. et Bellea-Lcttres, I (Paris. 1900), 609-
44; Hauvette, Notice nicrologique aur Edmond Le Blant in
Bull. aSoc. Antiquairea de France U899), 59-77; Prou, Biblio-
graphie dee cmvrea d" Edmond Le Blant, ibid., 79-123.
R. Maere.
I«ebnin, Charles, French historical painter, b. in
Paris, 1619; d. at the Gobelin tapestry works, 1690.
This great designer, whose fertility was so wonderful,
received his first instruction in art from his father, and
at the age of eleven was placed in the studio of Vouet.
There he attracted the notice of Poussin, and in 1642
accompanied him to Italy, remaining there four years.
On his return, he was for a while at Lyons, and then
settled down in Paris. His skill soon brought him
before the notice of the eminent personages of iiis day,
and he received an important commission from Fou-
auet, and painted a large picture for Queen Anne of
Austria, wno in return gave liim her portrait set in
diamonds. Cardinal Mazarin introduced him to Louis
XIV, and he speedily became a very popular person
at court, and neld almost unlimited sway over all
artistic matters after the death of Le Sueur. He was
intimately concerned in 1648 in the foundation of the
Academy, and when the king, under the advice of
Colbert, founded the Gobelin tapestry works in 1662,
Lebrun was appointed director, and was styled "a
person skilful and intelligent in the art of painting, to
make designs for tapestry, sculpture, and other works,
to see that they were correctly rendered, and to direct
and overlook all the workmen employed". Lebrun
was responsible^for designing almost all the important
cartoons for th*e early work of the Gobelin factory,
but beyond that, he was responsible for decoration
and for statues at Versailles, for a long series of alle-
gorical paintings, and for decoration work at Sceaux,
Versailles, and Marly. When Colbert died in 1683,
Lebrun lost his gjeat patron, and during the last few
years of his life, he withdrew from court, and fell into
a condition of melancholv which continued until the
time of his death. Ue was a great scenic artist. in«
s{)ired by grand ideas, a man of unceasing energy,
with a fine colour sense, and good knowledge of deco-
ration, but his work was somewhat heavy, and the in-
fluence he exercised over French art was not wholly to
its advantage. In designing tapestry, his art was well
employed, and he will be remembered more for his
splenclid designs for the Gobelin work than for his own
paintings.
Laoordaire, Notice hidorique eur lee Manufacturee impirialea
de Tapisseriea dea Oobdimt et de Tavis de la Savonnerie
(Paris, 1853, 1873); Coub, Tape^ry ana Embroidery (London,
1888); Thomson. Hiatorv of Tapeatry (London. 1906); Bon-
NAFFK. Fouquet (Paris, 1882); Montault. Tapeatrieapreaerved
by Rome (Arras. 1879); Dubos, Beauvaia Tapeatry (Beauvaia.
1834).
George Charles Williamson.
Lebwin (Lebuinus or Liafwin), Saint, Apostle of
the Frisians and patron of De venter, b. in England of
Anglo-Saxon parents at an unknown date; d. at De-
venter, Holland, about 770. Educated in a monastei^
and. fired by the example of St. Boniface, St. Willi-
brord, and other great English missionaries, Lebwin
resolved to devote his life to the conversion of the
(Germans. After his ordination he proceeded to
Utrecht, and was gladly welcomed by Gregory, third
bishop of that place, who entrusted him with the mis-
sion of Overyssel on the borders of Westphalia, and
save him as a companion Marchelm (Marcellinus), a
disciple of St. Willibrord. Hospitably received by a
widow named Abachilda (Avaerhilt), he fearlessly
preached the Gospel among the wild tribes of the dish
trict, and erected a little chapel at Wulpe (Wilpa) on
the west bank of the Yssel. As the venerable person-
ality and deep learning of the missionary quickly won
numbers, even of the nobles, to the Faith, it soon be-
came necessary to build at Deventer on the east bank
of the river a larger church, after which a residence
for Lebwin was also erected. This state of undis-
turbed development of his little fold was not, however,
to continue. Lebwin's wonderful success excited
great hostility amonj^ the pagans; ascribing his con-
versions to witchcraft, they formed an alliance with
the predatory and anti-Christian Saxons, burned the
church at Deventer, and dispersed the flock. Having
with difiBculty managed to escape, Lebwin deter-
mined to voice the claims of Christianity at the na-
tional a^embly of the Saxons. To this the three
estates of each gau sent twelve men as representatives,
and with it the decision of all important matters
rested. Setting out for Marclo near the Weser in
Saxony, where the assembly was held, Lebwin was
hospitably entertained by a noble named Folchert
(Folklwrt), apparently a Christian, w^ho vainly strove
to dissuade him from his purpose. Clad in priestly
vestments and bearing the crucifix in one hand and
the Gospels in the other, Lebwin appeared in the
midst of the assembled Saxons, while they were en-
caged with their sacrifices to their false deities. Hav-
mg boldly proclaimed the One True God, the Creator
of all, he warned them that, if they obstinately ad-
hered to their idolatry, ''a bold, skilful, and mighty
king would advance upon them like a raging torrent,
destroy everj'thing with fire and sword, brmg want
and banishment into their territories, send their wives
and children into slavery, and make the remainder
submit to the yoke of his domination.'* Enraged at
these words, the Saxons demanded that this enemy of
their religion and land should expiate his reckless
offence by death, and they prepared to slay him
with stakes torn from the thickets and sharpened,
but he made his escape. An old nobleman, Buto,
reminded the assembly that, while ambassadors
from the Normans, Slavs, and Frisians had been
always honourably received and dismissed in peace,
they were now insulting and threatening with death
the ambassador of the Highest God, of whose
mightiness the present wonderful deliverance of His
LE 0AMX7S 107 LEGOS
«ervaat from instant death was sufficient evidence, suet. The Sorbonne niade him doctor of theology at
Convinced by this speech, the Saxons pjromised hence- the age of eighteen. The fact of his consorting with
forth to respect the rights of Christianity. On his such men as Benserade, Vivonne, and Bussy drew
return to Fnesland, Lebwin rebuilt the church at De- unon him the severity of Mazarin, and he was for a
venter, and found there his last resting-place. That wnile exiled to Meaux. Recalled through the in-
he died before 776 is certain, since in that year tjie fluence of Coll>ert, he retired in 1665 to La Trappe
Saxons made a fresh inroad into the district and burnt with de Ranc^, and passed from his former levity to an
the church, but, in spite of the most careful search for asceticism that led him to Port-Royal. The pubhca-
three days, were unable to discover the saint's body, tion of his letters by Ingold shows that Jansemsm was
St. Ludger (q. v.) rebuilt the chiutjh a few years later, with Le Camus more a matter of personal sympathy
and found the saint's remains. Lebwin is commem- and spiritual discipline than of doctrinal tenets. Made
orated by the Church on 12 November. a^inst his will Bishop of Grenoble in 1671, he proved
-r^B'^Pv"^?!'^*^ aourc« for Lebwin's biography arejHucBAi^ himself zealous almost to excess in reforming abuses
(918-7o), Vila a. L^uinx m Surius, VUa SS., VI, 277-86, and • v.:« j:^«««« t« *k^ »ir»:. ^f ♦k« <(.x»»i» » u« ^^4^^A
k abbi4viat«d form in Mon. Oeim. SS., ll, 360-4; tr. in m his dioccse. In the affair of the regale he acted
CHBssT.CAurcA/fiAtoryo/BrOtoni/.XXIV. vii;RADBOD,£cto0a as intermediary between Rome and Versailles, and
ei Sarmo (on Lebwin) mHvjuva,\h ^9; \i^^ showed creditable courage before the omnipotent
iZ^.ii:;^^rD^'dlkJ'^B^:s. ^:^i'e^'nlV'^''^"^'^ Louis Xiy innocent XI^ havmg made him ca^niinal
Thomas Kennedy. instead of Harlay, presented by the king, he was not
allowed till 1689 to go to Rome to receive the insignia
La 0*mns,EMiLB-PAUirO>N8TANT-ANGE, preacher, of his dignity. Le Camus founded in the Diocese of
theologian, scripturist, Bishop of La Rochelle and Grenoble two seminaries and several charitable insti-
Saintes, b. at Paraza, France, 24 August, 1839; d. at tutions. Besides a "Recueil d'ordonnances syno-
Malvisade, near Castelnaudary, France, 28 Septem- dales" we have from him the** Ddfensede la Viiginit^
ber, 1906. He made his preparatory studies at Car- perpdtuelle de la Mdre de Dieu " (Paris, 1680), and
cassonne, and then entered tne theological seminary numerous letters published by Ingold.
of St-Sulpice at Paris. In 1861 he went to Rome, BELLirr, //M^oircduCany truiZL«<7amuj» (Paris, 1886); Saintb-
where he received hte doctorate in theology, and in the f^^^fl^T^'^^^'U^^t^^^i^Vl^^^^fZ^
following year, 20 December, 1862, he was ordained ^e to vie de M. U dardiruii Le Camua (l*am. 1720); Incjold,
priest at Carcassonne, France. He at once revealed Lettres du Card. Le Camus in Bulletin de V Academic DelphinoiM,
remarkable oratorical powers, and in 1867 he was in- ^nd senes, I. J, F. Soluer.
vited to preach the Lenten sermons at Avignon, for * xi # •
which he was made honorary canon. This same hon- -Le Oaron, Joseph, one of the four pioneer imssiODr
our was again conferred upon him somewhat later by anes of Canada and first missionanr to the Ilurons
Mgr Las Cazes, Bishop of Constantme (Algeria), who (q- v.), b. near Paris in 1586; d. m France, 29 March,
also chose Le Camus as his theologian at the Vatican 1632. He embraced the ecclesiastical state and was
Council. In 1875 Le Camus was appointed assistant chaplam to the Duke of Orl^ns. When that pnnce
duwtor of the Dominican school at Sorez, France, but died, Le Caron joined the RecoUects and made his
soon after he became head of the new school of St. profession m 1611. On 24 April, 1615, he sailed from
Francis de Sales, which he established at Castelnau- Honfleur, reached Canada on 25 May, and unmedi.
dary. Here he laboured until 1887, when he resigned ately went to Sault St. Louis. After a short tune he
his position as director in order to devote himself ex- travelled to Quebec, provided hunself with a portable
clufli vely to the study of the New Testament. To ^^^^ service, returned to the Sault, and went into the
equip hunself properly for this study, and especially to land of the Hurons, bemg the first to visit their settle-
study the topography of the Holy Land, he made his ments and preach the Gospel. He stayed with them
first journey to the East in the following year (1888). about a year, and was again among them m 1623. In
This was followed by several other visits, and the re- 1616 he returned to France to look after the spiritual
suite of his travels and studies were published at var- and material mter^ts of the colony. The fol owing
ious times. While pursuing his Scriptural studies, spring saw him m Canada again, as provmcial com-
Le Camus also found time to preach several ecclesias- missary. During the wmtere of 1618 and 1622 he
tical retreats at Lyons, Montpellier, Paris, and Rome, evangelized the Montagnais of Tadousac. In 1625 he
In 1897 he was elected theological canon of Carcas- was once more in trance, returned to Canada a year
Sonne, and on 6 April, 1901, he received his appoint- later, was elected superior of his order at Quebec, and
ment as Bishop of La Rochelle and Saintes. He was ^Ued this office until the capture of Quebec by the
consecrated at Carcassonne, 2 July, 1901, by Cardinal Enelish in 1629, when he and his colleagues were sent
Lecot. Even as bishop, Le Camus continued his work back to France by the conquerors.
on the New Testament, and also pubhshed several let- Le Caron was a saintly man, given to the practice of
ten and pamphlete on ecclesiastical topics. austerities, but gentle towards others. He died of the
His more important works are: "La Vie de Notre- plague in the convent of Ste-Marguerite in France.
Swgneur J&us<:airist", 3 vols., 6th ed., 1901 (trans- We owe to him the first dictionary of the Huron lan-
Ut^»H infy> F.n<r1i»h rUrmAn anH TtAlinn^• "Vnviuroa Kuagc. The * ' Bibliothcca Uuiversa Frauciscaua" of
•• Yraie et 1« ausse HJxegese ' ; " Lettre sur la i? ormation wruu? aiso v^uajrimoiua x\ u vw r muuias v^^xupiiuut
Ecclfeiastique des S^minaristes"; "Lettre r^lant la of New France). . « ^ . ,^.,., vr . « . .
rfonraniaaUon des dtudes eccl^iastiques"; "M6- ^^j^frechronol.deJapwmncedeSt-D^^^^
^*'!***^^T^ - ^ .-V^ 1 '''^^*^"«»'M 1 » J , Mortuologe dc8 ItrcoUcte dc la province de St-Denis {ISLie Bev&i'
move addresse a MM. les deputes membres de la t^enth- century MS., in the archives of Quebec seminary);
Commission des Congregations". Champlain, CEuvres. ed. Laveroikre (6 vols.. Quebec, 1870);
BuUetin Trimettriel des Anciena Elkvea de St-SuMce, n. xliii SAOARD,//i«toireduCana<to,ed.TR083(4 vols.. Paris, 18^^
(16 Nov„ 1906), 460-64; New York Review, II, n. lii, 496; II, S^R^'Q- PrrmicrEtabltsaement de la Fox dans la Nouvelle France
vl, 773-60. (2 vols.. Pans. 1691).
F. X. E. Albert. Oporic-M. Jouve.
Le Ctamiui, Etienne, French cardinal, b. at Paris, Lecce, Diocese of (LiaENSis), suffragan of
1632; d. at Grenoble, 1707. Through the influence of Otranto. Lecce, the capital of a province in Terra
his fa^r, Nicolas le Camus, a state councillor, he was d'Otranto in Apulia, seven and a half miles from the
when still very younff attached to tb« court as al- sea, is an industrial and commercial city (tobacco,
of the long, and enjoyed the friendship of Bos- grain, wine, oil, woven goods). Marble quarries are
USOLXRO 108 UBOLERO
ta the vicinity. Extensive ruins of megalithic struo in view, founded (1617) the Order of the Christian
tares in its territory prove that it was inhabited at a Militia. Pdre Joseph even wrote an epic poem on this
very remote period. It was known to the ancients as subject, *' La Turciade. " But the conflict between the
Lupise, and then had a port, enlarged bv Hadrian and Habsburgs and the Bourbons, as well as the new
Marcus Aurelius. Near Lecce is the village of Rugge, prospects of the Mantuan succession open to Qiarles
the ancient Rudiee, birthplace of Enniu& In the de Nevers caused the crusade scheme to fail. Pdre
time of the Normans, Lecce became the seat of a Joseph then became Richelieu's confidential political
countship, some of its counts being famous, notably agent, hoping that, with the Bourbons victorious, and
Tiuicred (d. 1194), who contested with Heniy YI the peace established in Europe, it would finally be possi-
Kin^om of the Two Sicilies, and Gautier de Brienne, ble to march against the Turks. His scheme was to
cousm of Tancred. Under Charles V, to whom a tri- weaken both the Protestants and the House of Aus-
umphal arch was erected in the city, Lecce received tria, both of whom he considered enemies of the peace
new life, and the features of that epoch arc retained to of Europe. He wished France to use the Protestants
this day. For this reason Lecce is one of those cities to weaken the House of Austria, and the House of
that have preserved a characteristic and uniform style Austria to weaken the Protestants,
of architecture. Of the more ancient buildings there Richelieu sent him to Rome in 1625, to negotiate
remains only the church of SS. Nicola and Cataldo, regardmg the rival claims of the Orisons and Spain in
outside the city, in Romanesque style (1180). Valtellina. In 1630 he was sent to the Diet of Ratis-
The cathedral of S. Oronzio (first built in 1114 by bon to give quiet support to the opposition of the
Goffredo d'Alta villa), in its present form, and the German princes to the claims of Emperor Ferdinand,
church of S. Domenico are of the seventeenth century, and to strengthen the bonds of alliance between
S. Croce of the dxteenth — all in baroque style. The France and the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, head
cathedral tower is about 240 feet high, and serves yet of the Catholic League. On the morrow of the Diet of
as a lighthouse for ships plying between Otranto and Ratisbon, Germany was divided between a powerless
BrindisL Until the beginning of the nineteenth cen- emperor and two parties, one Catholic, the other Prot-
tury there was a signal on its summit to give warning estant, both equally hostile to the empire. Pdre
of pirate ships. The Palazzo dclla Intendenza, once Joseph laboured to obtain the neutrality of the Duke
the abbey of the Celestines, is noteworthy. Mention of Bavaria and of the Catholic League m view of the
must also be made of the manufacture of tobacco in invasion of Gustavus Adolphus, protector of the
the ancient Dominican convent. The historian Scip- Protestants; he even had hopes of forming an alliance
ione Ammirati and the painter Matteo da Lecce (six- between Maximilian and Gustavus Adoljmus. After
teenth century) were natives of Lecce. The Christian the death of Gustavus Adolphus war became inevita-
religion, it is said, was first introduced by St. Oron- able between France and the Habsburgs, and it broke
tins, a Pythagorean philosopher converted by St. out in 1635. Henceforth instead of pressing on Riche-
Pai^. St. Leucius is also venerated as bishop and lieu his own broad political views, P^re Joseph was
martyr. But a bishop of Lecce is first mentioned in content to support the makeshift policy imposed b^
1057, in the person of Teodoro Bonsecolo. Other circumstances on the cardinal. Tne desire for tem-
bishops of note were Roberto Vultorico (1214), who torial expansion, which at that time governed French
restored the cathedral; Tommaso Anmiirati (1429); policy, was Richelieu's rather than P^re Joseph's.
Ugolino Martelli (1511), a linguist; Giambattista Cas- The latter however, eagerly followed the progress of
tromediani (1544), wno founded the hospital and the French troops and, in the cardinal's name, kept up
other institutions for children and the poor; Luigi an active correspondence with the generals and min-
Pappacoda (1639), who rebuilt the cathedral, which isters. Tradition represents the cardinal as bending
contains his statue in marble; Antonio Pignatelli over his dyin^ friena and saying to him: '*P^re Jo-
(1672), later Innocent XII, who founded the seminary seph, Brisach is ours ". As a matter of fact the taking
of Lecce. of Brisach, which occurred on 17 Dec, 1638, could not
The diocese has 32 parishes with 100,000 souls, 8 have been known in Paris on the next morning, the
religious houses of men and 16 of women, 10 schools date of the death of Pdre Joseph; but the tradition
for Dovs, and 6 for girls. such as it is, svmbolizes the close bond which patri-
D» SiMONE. Lecce ei svoidintomi (Lecce, 1874); Cappei/- otism created between these two men.
MTO. Le Chtese d Italia, XXI. Benioni ^^^*^® *^® religious idea of a crusade inspired the
secular policy of Pdre Joseph, intense sacerdotal and
Lederc da Tremblay, Fran(X)is, a Capuchin, Apostolic zeal characterizea him amid all his political
better known as Pi:RE Joseph, b. in Paris, 4 Nov., preoccupations. At his suggestion d'Orl^ans-Longue-
1577; d. at Rueil, 18 Dec., 1638. Owing to the influ- ville reformed the Benedictine Order at Fontevrault
ence of his kinsman the Constable de Montmorency, he and founded the congregation of Our Lady of Calvwy,
appeared at court at the age of eighteen with the title of for whose nuns he wrot« many books of pietjr. He
Baron de Maffliers, and served in the armies of Henry opposed, even more openly than Richelieu, Richer's
IV against Spain. On 2 Feb., 1599 he became a C^lican doctrines. Pere Joseph also founded Capu-
Capuchin novice. He was provincial of the Capuchins chin missions for the conversion of Protestants, in
of Touraine in Sept., 1613, and took part in 1616 in the Poitou, Dauphin^, the Cevennes, Languedoc, Pro-
negotiations of Loudun between Marie de Medicis and vence, and later in the East. The sending of P^re
the malcontents led by the Prince de Cond^. To the Pacifique to Constantinople in 1624, with the title of
future Cardinal de Richelieu he furnished the oppor- "Prefect of Eastern Missions" was the beginning of
tunity of a conference with Cond^, the first service vast spiritual conquests by the Capuchins in the
rendered by Richelieu to Marie de MedicLs and to the Archipelago, the Greek peninsula, and Asia Minor.
State. In this way Pdre Joseph appears at the opening From Paris Pdre Joseph directed this work, and in
of Richelieu's political career. The r61e of Pdre 1633 there were ten Eastern missions. It was he also
Joseph has recently been studied anew by Abb6 De- who, in 1633^ sent Pdre Agathange of Venddme to
douvres and M. Fagniez. Their researches prove that found a mission in Egypt; this same father in 1637
Pdre Joseph remained true to the medieval idea of attempted but in vain to establish a mission in Abys-
Christendom. He had visions of a crusade that would sinia; finally Pdre Joseph tried, but unsuccessfully, to
combine all Europe, and the purpose of his visit to establish a mission of French Capuchins in Morocco.
Home in 1616 was to discuss with Paul V the schemes Faqnik*. LeP. Joaeph et Richelieu (2 vob.. Paris. 1894); Db-
of the Duke of Neverg^ who wasplanning to unite W^,;Sr!h^)f-i'^^^^srh^;i'^cS:S::^'i^:i^^^
against the Turks the Mamots of Morea and the Slav Marie, LePheJoteph et U SacrfCceur (Angera. 1899).
Iiopulations of the Balkans, and with this enterprise Georges Qotau.
isauutoQ
109
LE OOZ
LMlsrcq, Chbebhen, a Franciscan R^collet and
one of the meet aealous missionaries to the Micmac of
Canada, also a distinguished historio^pher of Nou-
Telle France. A Fleming by birth, he loincd the prov-
ince of the R^collets of St. ^toine, in Artois, and went
to Canada in 1675; on 11 October of that year he was
gut in charge of the Micmac mission by Mgr de Laval,
[e learned the lan^ua^e of that tribe and devoted him-
self to its evangelization. His superiors sent him to
fYance in 1680 on business connected with the Fran-
ciscan missions in Canxula ; he returned in the following
spring with letters authorizing the foundation pf a con-
vent m Montreal, whither he went during the summer
of 1681 to carry out this work. In the month of
November he went back to the Micmac mission, where
he passed in all twelve years of his life. In autumn.
1686 he returned finally to France, where he filled
various positions of authority in the Artois province of
his order. The date of his death, like that of his birth,
is unknown, but he was still living in 1698. After his
return to France, he completed two works which he pub-
lished at Paris in 1691. They are: (1) "Premier 6ta-
blissement de la foy dans la Nouvelle-Francc", 2 vols,
in 12mo. The first volume contains fourteen unnum-
bered leaves and 559 pages; the second 458 pa^es.
This work is now very rare and commands a high price.
It may be divided into three part^. The first contains
the early history of Nouvelle-France, the introduction
of Catholicism into that country, and describes the la-
bours of the first missionaries in Canada, the Rdcollcts.
This part ends at the year 1629 on the taking of Que-
bec b^ the English. The second part, from 1632 till
1670 mclusive, continues the history of the colony, re-
lates the spreuading of the Faith amone the native
tribes through the devoted labours of the Jesuit
Fathers, and tells of the return of the Rdcollets to
Canada and their new foundation of the convent of
Notre-Dame des Anges at Quebec. The third part
S'ves one of the best accounts, and in certain matters
le only account of the travels and discoveries of de
La Salle, and ends with the victory of the French over
the English at ihe siege of Quebec in 1690. The work
has been criticized, Cnarlevoix complaining that Le-
clercq treats onlv of the religious affairs in which
the Ililcollets took part, and even ascribing to Fron-
tenac a share in the authorship of the work; but the
authenticity of the documents on which the author
relied for his information has never been impugned;
and it remains an important source for the hiistory of
. Canada and of the Catholic Church in North America.
An English translation by John Gilmary Shea, was
published at New York in 1881, containing an account
of the author, portraits, map, views, and facsimile.
(2) "NouvelJe relation de la Gasp^ie", 1 vol. in
12mo, also published at Paris, in 1691, by Auroy,
contains four unnumbered leaved and 572 pages. This
book describes the scenes of the Apostolic la1)ours of the
lealous author from 1675 till 168G. It relates the mis-
nonary efforts of Leclercq and some other RdcoIIets
around the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Baie des Cha-
kurs, and in New Brunswick. But the author de-
scribes in particular the life, customs, and beliefs of
the savages (called by him by the general name of
Gaspesians) who then inhabited these regions. It is
an important work, though of mere local interest.
From it we learn that Leclercq invented a system of
writing by which he taught the Micmac Indians to
read their own language. Very probably these hiero-
glyphics have been preserved, and are to l>e found in the
Micmac writing which still exist. It has been trans-
lated into English by W. F. Ganong, with an account of
the author am illustrations (1 vol., Edinburgh, 1910).
Arthivei of tha ArehbMopric of Quebec: Leclercq, Prtmier
MnbluBonent lU la toy dann la NouveUe-France (Paris, 1091);
Idem. NouvdU rtlatum dg la OaspSne (Pam. 1601); Hennepin.
Noureau voyaqe, eU. (Utrecht, 169<>): Reveillaud, IlisUnrt
tknnohifique d* la NtrnvtUe-France (Paris. ISS ).
Odorio-M. Join'E.
Lecoy de La Marche (Kichabxx-Albxbt)^ French
historian; b. at Nemours, 1839; d. at Pans, 1897i
He left the Ecole des Chortes in 1861, and was
appointed archivist of the Department of Haute
Savoie. In 1864 he went to Pans as archivist in the
historical section of the Archives Nationales; he was
also, for many years, professor of French history at the
Catholic Institute in Paris. Lecoy de La Marche was
gifted with rare qualities as a writer and scholar, and
what is still more remarkable, he never separated the
research for and the diffusion of historical truth from
the defence and propagation of religious truth. His
masterpiece is liis " (Ilhaire fran^aise au moyen &ge "
rParis, 1868), which was awarded a prize by the
Acad^mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. It has
served as a model for many books on this subject, but
has remained to this day the standard work of its kind.
It consists of three parts: "Les pr^dicateurs; les
sermons; la socidt^ d*apr^ les sermons". Part I be-
gins with a summary of the history of preaching in the
primitive Church, and in France previous to the
eleventh century, and then gives an exhaustive history
of the French preachers in the following centuries,
especially the thirteenth. Part II deals with the audi-
ences, the time and the place of preaching, and the
various kinds of sermons. Part III, which is perhaps
the most remarkable section of the book, is a study ci
French society in the Bliddle Ages as it appears in the
light of the sermons. Kings, lords, bishops, priests,
monks, burgesses, peasants, men and women, pass
before our eyes, with their characteristic traits and
weaknesses. Lecoy de La Marche also published:
"L'acad^mie de France k Rome" (1874); "Le roi
Ren^, sa vie, son administration " (1875) ; " Anecdotes
historiques, etc." (1876); "La Soci6t^ au XIII*
sidcle" (1880); "Saint Martin" (1881); "Les manu-
scrits et la miniature " (1884); " Relations politiques
de la France et du royaume de Majorque " (1892), etc.
Reime des quesliona hiUoriquea (Paris, 1807).
Pierre Marique.
Le Ck>i, Claude, French bishop, b. at Plou^vea-
Parzay (Finist^re), 1740; d. at Villevieiix (Jura), 1815.
Pupil, then professor, and finally principal of the Ck|l-
l^ge ae Quimper. he took the constitutional oath in
1791, was elected schismatic Bishop of Ille-et-Vilaine.
and wrote in defence of his election — declared null ana
void by the pope— ;** Accord des vrais principes de la
morale et de la raison sur la Constitution civile du
cleig6". Elected to the Legislative Assembly he
showed courage and ability in defending against the
majority Catholic colleges, the ecclesiastical costume,
ana even Christian marriage. His moderation drew
upon him the severity of the Convention, and he spent
fourteen months in the prison of Mont-Saint-MicheU
Later, under the Directory, the vigour with which he
opposed the substitution oi the decadi for the Christiaa
Sunday came near causing his deportation. Under the
Concordat, Le Coz was one of the Constitutional bish-
ops whom the force of circumstances compelled the
Iloly See to recognize, and he became Archbishop of
Besan^on. There is a doubt as to the nature of hb re-
tractation: Bemier, the ecclesiastical diplomat who
negotiated the rehabilitation of the jurors, thought it
best, in order to avoid delay, not to make a clear meii-
tion of the manner of retractation required by Pius VII;
as a consequence, I^e Coz denied ever having retracted,
and the awkwanlnessof the situation was ended oi^
by a personal interview between Le Coz and Pius VII,
in wliich both were seen weeping but of which neither
ever spoke. As scliismatic Bishop of Ille-et-Vilaine,
Le Coz failed in his endeavour to organize the new
Erovince of which he was the metropolitiin; otherwisB
e proved a zealous administrator and even a chari-
table pastor. As Archbishop of Besan^on he displayed
some ffood qualities, but nis sad antecedents, the
doubt nanging over hb conversion, and the presenot
LKOTERN
110
ZAnnoiiABY
in his archiepisoopal palace of too many ex- juror
priests, detracted considerably from the effectiveness
of his ministry. The strange mixture of truth and
error, of good and evil in Le Coz's life, is partly ex-
plained by his intensely Gallican education, which
caused him to adopt with apparent sincerity and to
maintain with imconquerablo obstinacy tne most
schismatic views. His Gallicanism, whicn made him
90 haughty toward the pope, found him almost cring-
ing before the various political regimes which suc-
ceeded one another during his episcopate. In an age
full of confusion, we should give some credit to Le
Coz for sometimes having, even against the all-FK)wer-
ful Abb4 Grdgoire. defended the cause of religion in
the "Annales de la Religion", in which he was an
assiduous collaborator, and in his **Correspondance",
part of which has been published by hi j oioCTapher.
RoussEL, Jj€ Coz, Svique d Ille-et-Vilaine (Pa'.Ts, s. d.); Idem,
Correfpondance de Le Cox (Paris, 1000); Pisami, Le Coz in RS-
pertoire biographique de V Episcopal Constituiionnel (Paris, 1907) .
J. F. SOLLIER.
Lectern (Lecturn, Letturn, Lettern, from
legere, to read), support for a book, reading-aesk, or
bookstand, a solia and permanent structure upon
which the Sacred Books, which were generally large
and heavy, were placed when used by tne ministers of
the altar in liturgical functions. In early days only
one such structure was employed; later, two were
erected, one at the northern wall of the choir, and an-
other on the opposite side. From the former the
sermon was delivered by the priest, and also by the
bishop, unless he spoke from nis cathedra; here de-
crees of synods were promulgated, censures and ex-
communications pronounced, the diptychs read, the
Gospel chanted by the deacon, and all those parts of
the lituigy were simg which belonged to the deacon's
office. Tne other, somewhat longer but not so high,
was divided into two compartments or stories — the
higher, facing the altar, was used by the sulxleacon
when reading the Epistle ; in the other, facing the nave,
the other lessons were read. A third lectern was useu
in some churches for the sermon. Some of these were
built of marble, others of wood, highly adorned with
silver and ^old, enamelled, and set with precious stones,
covered with bronze plates and carvings in ivory. Be-
sides those mentioned under Ambo, we find among the
treasures of the Abbey of Saint-Riquier "lectoria tria
ex marmore, aigento et auro fabricata" (P. L.,
CLXXrV, 1257). One in the court of the church of
St. Pantalaemon in Thessalonica is held to be the
oldest. On its lower part is found in relief the Ma-
donna and Child, seated on a throne and surrounded
by shepherds and the three Magi, and on the super-
structure are symbolic representations. The upper
part of the lectern in S. Apollinare Nuovo at Ravenna
IS old and fairly complete. Another, well preserved
and richly decorated, a donation of Henry II, is at
Aachen. Movable lecterns were also made of wood,
bronze, or polished brass. A bronze lectern inlaid
with ivory, made about the middle of the twelfth
century by Suger, Abbot of St. Denis, was in the shape
of an eagle whose outspread wings held the book.
Eagle-shaped lecterns were also numerous in the thir-
teenth and fourteenth centuries in England. Samples,
but not going back later than the fifteenth century,
are found at Aachen, DQsseldorf, St. Severin's at Co-
logne, etc. A lectern of neatly wrought iron, in the
dmpe of an X, which can be folded, is in the Mus(^
Cluny at Paris. The Carthusians of Dijon had a lec-
tern which was a large column of copper, in renais-
sance style, supporting a phoenix surrounded by the
four animals of the Prophet Ezechiel. In some the
figure of a deacon holds tne book.
The Synods of MQnster (1279V Li^ge (1287). and
Cambrai (1300) prescribed that the Mis.sal, enveloped
in a linen cloth, should be laid on the altar. Towards
the end of the thirteenth century a cu.shion came into
use. The oldest notice of a stand for the Missal ift
found in an inventory of the cathedral of Angers of
the year 1297 (Zeitschrift fOr christliche Kunst, X,
175) . All such lecterns were covered on festivals with
rich cloths of silver and gold. At the present day
lecterns are in use as Missal-stands and for the reading
of the prophecies on Holy Saturday and Pentecost
Saturday, for the chanting of the Passion, the singing of
the " Exultet ", and the reading of the lessons in choirs.
DucHBSNB. Chriaiian Worahip (London, 1904), 114, 169, 353;
RocKj Chiarch of our FcUkera, I (London, 1903)^ 106; Kbadb.
GeschxcfUe der chrisUichen Kunstt II (FreibuiK im Br., 1897),
482; BiNTBRiM, DenkwUrdiakeUetit IV, i, 70
Francis Mershhan.
Lectionary (Lectionarium or Legenda), is a term of
somewhat vague si^iificance, used with a good deal
of latitude by liturgical writers. It must be remem-
bered that in the early Middle Ages neither the Liturgy
of the Mass, nor the Divine Office recited by moiu&
and other ecclesiastics in choir, were to be found,
as in the Missal and the Breviary of the present day,
complete in one volume. Botn for the Mass and
for the Office a variety of books were used, for it
was obviously a matter of convenience when books
were both bulky and costly to produce, that the
prayers, e. g. which the priest had to say at the altar,
should be contained in a different volume from the
antiphons to be sung by the choir. The word lection-
ary, then, in its wider sense, is a term which may be
correctly applied to any liturgical volume containing
passages to be read aloud in the services of the Church.
In tlus larger signification it would include all Script-
ural books written continuously, in which readings
were marked, such as the " Evangeliaria" (also often
known as "Tcxtus")» as well as books, known also
as "Plenaria", containing both Epistles and (jos-
pels combined, such as are commonly employed in a
high Mass at the present day, and also those collections,
either of extracts from the Fathers or of historical
narrations about the martyrs and other saints, which
were read aloud as lessons in the Divine Office.
This wider signification is, however, pjerhaps the less
usual, and in practice the term lectionary is more
conmionly used to denote one of two things: (1) the
book containing the collection of Scriptural readings
which are chanted by the deacon, subaeacon, or a lec-
tor during Mass; (2) any book from which the read-
ings were taken which are read aloud in the Office of
Matins, after each noctum or group of psalms. With
regard to these last the practice seems to have varied
greatlv. Sometimes collections were made containing
just the extracts to be used in choir, such as we find
them in a modem Breviary. Sometimes a large
volume of patristic homilies (known also as ser--
monarium) or historical matter w^as employed^ in
which certain passages were marked to lie used as
lessons. This last custom seems more particularly to
Imve obtained with regard to the short biographical
accounts of martyrs and other saints, which in our
modem Breviary form the lessons of tne second noc-
tum. In this connexion the word legenda in particu-
lar is of common occurrence. The Bollandist Ponce-
let is, consequently, inclined to draw a distinction
between the *' L^enda*' and the ' Lectionarium" (see
Analecta Bollandiana, XXIX^ 13). The -Legenda",
also called **Passionarium", is a collection of narra-
tives of variable length, in which are recounted the life,
martyrdom, translation, or miracles of the saints.
This usually forms a large volume, and the order of
the pieces in the collection is commonly, though not
necessarily, tliat of the calendar. A few such ' * Legen-
dsB " come down from quite the early Middle Ages, out
the vast majoritv of those now preserved in our libra-
ries belong to tne eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth
centuries. The earliest is the "Codex Vclseri", MS.
Lat. 3514, of the Royal Library at Munich, written
probably before the year 700. When these books
UOTOB
111
■ll'llMIll
IWSXI
wer% used in choir duriiiff Office the reader either read
certain definitelv marked passages, indicated by
markings of which our existing manuscripto constantly
show traces, or, in the earlier periods especially^ he
read on until the abbot or priest who presided gave
him the signal to stop. After the thirteenth century
however, this type of book was much more rarely
transcribed. It was replaced by w^hat may conven-
iently be called for distmction's sake the *'Lectiona-
rium par excelleficef a book which consisted not of
entire narratives, but only of extracts arranged ac-
cording to feasts, and made expressly to be read in the
Office. It may be added that about the same period
the still more comprehensive liturgical book, known to
us so familiarly as the Breviary (q. v.) also began to
make its appearance. In the early centuries the
Scriptural passages to be read at Mass, whether taken
from the Gospels, the Epistles, or the Old Testament,
were very commonly mcluded in one book, often
called a Comes " or ** Liber Comicus ". But no con-
stant or uniform practice was followed, for sometimes
the Epistles and Lessons were read from a continuous
text equipped with rubrics indicating the different
days for which the passages were intended — ^this is the
case with the famous *'Epistolarium" of St. Victor
of Capua in the sixth century; sometimes Lessons,
Epistles, and Gospels were all transcribed in their
proper order into one volume, as in the case of the
* Liber Comicus" of the Church of Toledo lately
edited by Dom Morin, or of the Lectionnaire de
Luxeuil, published by Mabillon in his ''Liturgia
Galhcana .
Baudot. Les Lectionnairea in Science ei Reliffion ^aris, 1007),
noo. 4d3, 464; Sauea in Buchderoer, Kirchlichea Uandlex.^ a. v.
Lektionar; Morin, Liber Comicus, introduction (Mareclsous,
1883): and many articles of tho same writer in Revtie B&rUdic'
tine: PoNCELBT in Analecta BoUandiana, XXIX (Brussels,
1010). 1-48; Bbissel. EnttAehungder Perikopen dee rrim. Mesa-
buchea (Freibuiis ioQ Bn^lOO?); Ranke, Daa kirch. Perikojten-
System (Berlin, 1847); Wordsworth and Littlehales, Old
Service Book* of the EngliA Church (London, 1904).
Herbert Thurston.
Lector. — A lector (reader) in the West is a clerk
having the second of the four minor orders. In all
E^astem Churches also, readers are ordained to a minor
order preparatory to the diaconate. The primary
reason for a special class of readers was the need of
some persons sufficiently educated to be able to read
the books in church, for the Christians continued the
Jewish practice of reading the Sacred Books publicly.
The first mention of a Christian liturgical reader is by
Justin Martyr (d. about 165) in I ApoL, Ixvii, 3, 4.
The homily known as " II Clem, ad Corinthios " also
contains a reference to a lector, dvayivii<rK<av (xix, 1).
The position of reader was honourable and dignified.
It involved a higher standard of education than that
of most offices. Although Justin says that the bishop
preached the sermon, it appears that the reader him-
self often went on to expound what he had read. As
the idea obtained that a special blessing and dedica-
tion should be given to everyone who performs an
office for the Church, the reader too was instituted by
prayers and some ceremony. Readers were blessed
and set apart, as were the fossores who dug graves, the
nokirii who kept registers, and widows. AH the group
of rituals that depend on the "Apostolic Constitu-
tions" contain the rite of ordaining readers. " Apost.
Const.", viii, xxii. tells the bishop to ordain a reader
by laying on his hand and saying a prayer, which is
given. The derived documents however forbid an
imposition of hands. ("Epitome Const. Ap.", xiii;
Funk. "Didascalia", Paderborn, 1905, II, p. 82; see
also the "Egyptian Church Order". V, ib., p. 105).
During the first centuries all the lessons in the
liturgy, including the Epistle and Gospel, were read
bv the lector. Cornelius I (251-53) in a letter to
fwius of Antioch mentions that the Churcli of Rome
has forty-two acolytes and fifty-two cxorclsUj, readers
and doorkeepers. (Denzinger, " Enchiridion '*, n. 15}.
In the fourtn century in Africa the Church of Cirta
had four priests, three deacons, four suodeacons. and
seven readers. The account of the persecution ( Ges*
ta apud Zenophilum" printed in the appendix to Op-
tatus of Mileve in the Vienna edition ot Corp. Script,
eccl. lat.", XXVI, 185-97) describes how the readers
kept the sacred books which the magistrate demanded
to be given up (p. 1 87) . An old set of Western canons,
ascribed (wrongly) to a supposed Council of Carthage
in 398, but really of the sixth centurj", gives forms for
all ordinations. Canon 8 is about our subject : " When
a reader is ordained let the bishop speak about him
(facial de Ulo verbum) to the people, pointing out his
faith and Ufe and skill. After this, while the people
look on, let him g^ve him the book from which he is to
read, saying to him: Receive this and be the spokes-
man (relator) of the word of God and you shall have,
if you do your work faithfully and usefully, a part with
those who have administered the word of God " (Den-
zinger, op. cit., n. 156). But gradually the lectorate
lost all importance. The deacon obtained the office
of reading the Gospel; in the West the Epistle bo-
came the privilege of the subdeacon. In the East-
em Churches this and other lessons are still supposed
to be read by a lector, but everywhere his office (as all
minor orders) may be supplied by a layman. The
lector is still mentioned twice in the Roman Missal.
In the rubrics at the beginning it is said that if Mass be
sung without deacon and subdeacon a lector wearing
a surplice may sing the Epistle in the usual place; but
at the end he does not kiss the celebrant's hand ("Ri-
tus celebr. Missam", vi, 8). On Good Friday the
morning 8er\'ice begins with a prophecy read by a lec-
tor at the place where the Epistle is usually read (first
rubric on Good Fridav).
Everywhere the order of reader has become merely
a stepping-stone to major orders, and a memory oi
early days. In the Roman Rite it is the second minor
order (Ostiarius, Lector^ Exordsta^ AcolyUius). The
minor orders are conferred during Mass after the first
Lesson; but they may be given apart from Mass, on
Sundays or doubles, in the morning. The lectorate
involves no obligation of celibacy or of any other kind.
The Byzantine Office will be found in the " Eucholo-
gion " (Ei^xoX^ioy t6 /x^a, Venetian 8th edition^ 1898,
Ep. 186-87). The Armenians (Gregorian and Lniate)
ave adopted the Roman svstem of four minor orders
'exactly. Their rite of ordaining a reader also con-
sists essentially in handing to him the book of the
Epistles.
WxELAND, Die Oenetiache Entwickduno dcr eog. Ordinet
minorea in den S eraten Jahrhundertcn in R^miache Quartahrhrift,
Suppl. no. 7 (Rome, 1892); Harnack. Vber dm Vraprunp dea
Ledorala u. dcr anderen niederen Weihen in Texle u. Unter'
auchungent II, 5.
Adrian Fortescub.
Ledochowski, Miecislas Halka, count, cardinal,
Archbishop of Gnesen-Posen, b. at Gorki near San-
domu- m Russian Poland, 29 October, 1822; d. at
Rome, 22 July, 1902. After studying at Radom
and Warsaw, he entered the Accademia dei Nobili
Ecclesiastici in Rome in 1842, and was ordained priest
13 July, 1845. He became domestic prelate of Pius
IX in 1846, auditor of the papal nunciature at Lisbon
in 1847, Apostolic delegate to Colombia and Chile
in 1856, nuncio at Brussels and titular Archbishop of
Thebes in 1861, and finally Archbishop of Gnesen-
Posen in December, 1865. He was preconized on 8
January, 1866, and enthroned on 22 April of the same
year. Being on friendly terms with the Ki^^ oi
Prussia, he was sent to Versailles by Pius IX in
November, 1870, to ask the services of Prussia for
the re-establishment of the Pontifical States, and to
offer the services of the pope as mediator between
France and Germany, but his mission proved
fruitless.
112
Shortly after the outbreak of the German KvUur*
kampf, toe Prussian Government, without the knowl-
edge or co-operation of Ledochowski, passed an ordi-
nance that, after Easter, 1873, all religious instruction
in Posen should be imparted in the German language
only. It was but natural that the Polish people
should object to such an unjust ordinance, especially
since most of the children were either entirely igno-
rant of the German lan^age or understood it only
with difficulty. When the Government ignored the
urgent request of the archbishop to revoke the ordi-
nance, he issued a circular on 23 February, 1873, to the
teachers of religion at the higher educational insti-
tutions, ordering them to use the vernacular in their
religious instructions in the lower classes, but per-
mitting the use of the German language in the higher
classes, beginning with the secunda. Pius IX ap-
S roved this act of the archbishop in a Brief dated 24
[arch, 1873. All the teachers of religion were obedi-
ent to their archbishop and, in consequence, the
Government deprived them of their positions. Ke-
lson being thus no longer taught at many institu-
tions, the archbishop erected private religious schools,
but in an ordinance of 17 September, 1873, the Govern-
ment forbade all pupils of the higher institutions to
obtain religious instruction at these private schools.
As all protests of the archbishop proved useless, he dis-
regarded the unjust ordinances of the Government,
and, after being fined repeatedly, he was finally
ordered on 24 Isovember, 1873, to present his resig-
nation. The archbishop's answer was that no tem-
poral court had the right to deprive him of an office
which God had imposed upon him through His visi-
ble representative on earth. Before he was formally
deposed, he was arrested between 3 and 4 o'clock in
the morning of 3 February, 1874, and carried off to the
dungeon of Ostrowo, because he refused to pay the
repeated fines imposed upon him. While in prison, he
was created cardinal by Pius IX on 13 March, 1874.
The Prussian Government declared him deposed
on 15 April, 1874. On 3 February, 1876, he was re-
leased from prison, but was ordered to leave Prussia.
He continued to rule his diocese from Rome, and was
sentenced to imprisonment for "arrogating episcopal
rights" on three occasions, viz., 9 Feb. and 26 May.
1877, and 7 Nov., 1878. After being appointed
aecretarjr of papal Briefs in 1885 he voluntarily re-
signed his archdiocese in the interests of peace. In
1892 he became Prefect of the Propaganda, an office
which he held until his death. An official reconcilia-
tion between the cardinal and the Prussian Govern-
ment took place when Emperor William II visited
Rome in 1893.
BrCck, Geachichte der katholiachen Kin-he in Deutschland im
19. Jahrhundfrt, IV (Mainz, 1901), 147-50 et alibi: Hor.AN in
The Iri§h Ecdeaiastical Review^ fourth series, XII (Dublin,
1902), 289-301.
Michael Off.
Leeds (Loinis), Diocesb of (Loidensis), em-
braces the West Hiding of Yorkshire, and that part
of the city of York to the south of the River Ouae.
Though one of the fourteen dioceses now comprised
in the Province of Westminster, it. was not erected at
the time of the restoration of the English hierarchy by
Pius IX in 1&50. For in that year the Holy See,
whilst anticipating and providing for its ultimate
division, created for Yorki*hire the See of Beverley,
with jurisdiction over the entire county then known
to the ecclesiastical authorities as the Yorkshire Dis-
trict. As that of Lancashire, this vicariate had Ixien
made in 1840 by Gregory XVI out of a portion of the
original Northern District, first establislied by Inno-
cent XI, in 1688.
Dr. John Briggs, President of St. Cuthbert's College,
Durham (1832-36), and last vicar Apostolic of this
extensive territory, wliich included seven counties
of the North of England, and the Isle of Man, was, in
1833, eonsecrated as Bishop of Trachis in parUbfiimp
and coadjutor of the Northern District, to which hs
succeeded in 1836. In 1839 he returned the number
of CathoUcs within his vicariate as about 180,000, of
whom only 13,000 were in Yorkshire. Having in
1840 been appointed to the Yorkshire District, Dr.
Bri^s, by a aecree of Propaganda approved by Pius
IX, 23 Sept., 1850, was translated from Tracms to
Beverley, which see he resigned, 7 Nov., 1860. He
died at York, 4 Jan., 1861. Eventually senior bishop
of the restored hierarchy, his episcopate was one long,
heroic struggle to provide schools and churches lor an
ever-growing destitute Catholic population — ^the out -
come of many years of Irish immigration. So early as
1838, Bishop Brings deplored th^t great numbers of
his people were witnout pastors, without chapels, and
without schools for their children; of whom, in 1845,
he stated that, in Yorkshire alone, no less than 3000
were receiving no Catholic education whatsoever —
a class, ten years later, known to have numbered,
throughout England and Wales. 120,000.
Dr. Briggs was succeeded in the See of Beverley by
Dr. Robert Comthwaite, canon of Hexham and New-
castle, and formerly rector of the English College.
Rome (1851-57). He was consecrated by Cardinal
Wiseman, 10 Nov., 1861. Subsequently, Dr. Com-
thwaite obtained from Rome a Brief, dated 20 Dec.,
1878, though not published until 6 Feb., 1879, dividing
the Diocese of Beverley into those of Leeds and Middles-
brough— that of Leeds lying, for the most part, to
the south of a line running east and west through the
County of Yorkshire, marked by the courses of the
Humber, the Ouse, and the Ure, but embracing also
a small [>ortion of the county north of the Ouse in-
cluded within the parliamentary division of the West
Riding. Of the 152 clergy of Beverley (who in 1850
had numbered 69) 98 were transferred to Leeds; of its
123 churches and cliapels (which twenty-nine years
before were 61) Beverley surrendered to Leeds 85;
whilst of its 141 schools (in 1850 in all 31) 105 were
transferred to the larger of the two new dioceses,
carrying with them more tlian four-fifths of the
15,677 children formerly in attendance within the
Diocese of Beverley.
Dr. Comthwaite having petitioned the Holy See
for assistance, he received as coadjutor Dr. William
Gordon, a member oC the Leeds Chapter, and after-
wards his vicar-general, and rector of the diocesan
seminary. The last priest ordained by Dr. Briggs in
1859, he was consecrated as Bishop of ArcadiopoUs
in partibus, and coadjutor of Leeds cum jure succes^
sioniSf 24 Feb.. 1890, to which see he succeeded upon
the death of liis predecessor, 16 June, 1890. His
coadjutor, Dr. Joseph Robert Cowgill, was appointed
fifteen years later cum iure successionis. At that time
financial agent of the diocese^ and canon of the Chap-
ter, he was consecrated as Bishop of Olenus in parti-
bus, 30 Nov., 1905.
With an estimated Catholicpopulation of about 106;-
000, mostly operatives, the Diocese of Leeds now con-
tains 138 churches and chapels, served by 163 clei^, of
whom 36 are members of religious orders and congrega-
tions. Of its 150 elementary and other schools, 70 are
taught by religious. Among other memorials of Dr.
Comthwaite's episcopate, l^sides 39 churches and
chapels, and its diocesan seminary at Leeds, the diocese
possesses houses of the Little Sisters of the Poor, for
the aged and infirm, at Sheffield and Leeds; industrial
schools for boys and girls at Shibden and Sheffield;
St. Mary's Orplianage for Girls and St. Vuicent's
Working Bo>^' Home, at Leeds; and, at Boston Spa,
St. John's Institution for the Deaf and Duml^ — one of
the largest of its kind, and in efficiency second to none
in the kingdom. During Dr. Gordon's government
of the diocese, much-needed secondary schools for
boys have been established at Leeds and Bradford:
of these, St. Michael's College, Leeds, b^ing erected
113
LE Fivas
1908-00, at a cost of upwards of £18,000. Provision
Das also been made, during this period, for the higher
education of girls at Sheffield, Leeds, and Bradfoid —
the Leeds Centre and Teachers' Training College,
under the care of the Sisters of Notre Dame (Namur),
representing an outlay of about £15,000.
Among the 35 religious houses for women, within
the Diocese of Leeds, special interest attaches to the
seventeenth-centurv Bar Convent, of the Institute of
Mary, in York, rich in Catholic associations and in
relics of the English martyrs. Of the numerous
churches more recently built, particular mention
should be made of the cathedral, dedicated to St.
Anne, and erected at Leeds, in 1902-04, from the de-
signs of J. U. Eastwood, A. R. I. B. A., a small but
unique example of ''developed Gothic"; and, among
the churches of earlier date architecturally remarkable,
St. Mary's, Sheffield (1850) and St. Mary's, Leeds
(1857), are both fine examples of the Gothic revival of
the last century. And with these mav be associated St.
Edward's, Clinord (1850), a small church in the Nor-
man style, worthy of the ages of Faith, erected prin-
cipally through the piety of descendants of the Vener-
able Kalph Grimston, martyred under Elizabeth at
York, in 1598.
Dioeeaan Archives of Beverley and Leeds* Bkadt, Englith
Catholic Hierarchy (London, 1883); Wauoh, The Leeds Missions
(London, 1904); Lanb-Fox, Chronicles of a Wharf eddLe Parish
(Fort Augustufl, 1909).
N, Waugh.
LefebTre, Camille, Apostle of tha Acadians, b. at
St. Philippe, P, Q., 1831; d. at St. Joseph, N. B., 1895.
The son of sturdy French-Canadian peasants, he at-
tended the village school and academy until he was
seventeeil, became a primary teacher for several half-
yearly^ terms, prosecuted his study of Latin at St.
Cyprien, ana m 1852 entered the Congregation of
the Holy Cross, at St. Laurent, near ^lontreal. Or-
dained priest in 1855, he served 8ucce^^sively as curate
at St. Eustache and St. Rose, professor at St. Lau-
rent College, and missionary in the Diocese of SU
Hyacinth, this last office coming to him as the nat-
ural result of his quite exceptional ability as a pulpit
orator. His real life-work, however, began only in
1864, when, in accordance with an agreement be-
tween .his religious superiors and Bishop Sweeney of
St. John, he took charge of the principal Acadian j)ar-
ish, Memramcook, N. B., and forthwith began the
foundation of St. Joseph's College. Half a century
ago, the French Acadians of New Brunswick, Nova
Scotia, and Prince Edward Island were admittedlv an
unimportant factor in the social life and polity of those
provinces. From the time of the great expulsion in
1755, they had been constructively deprived of all
means of instruction, in public, professional, or even
commercial life; in consequence, an Acadian name
rarely if ever became prominent. Unquestionably
looked down upon by their English and non-Catholic
neighbours as a race naturally inferior to Anglo-Saxons
and Celts, they aoparentlv acquiesced in the fate that
doomed them to be mere hewers of wood and drawers
of water. With the advent among them of Father
Lefebvre and the establishment of St. Joseph's Col-
lege, there dawned a new era, and in the brief space of
three decades there was wrought a veritable transfor-
mation.
Ilianks mainly to his initiative, his personal service^
and the enthusiasm with which he imbued his fellow-
workers in the collie and the leaders of the people
themselves, Father lifebvre lived to see the practical
servitude and inferiority in which he found the Aca-
dians replaced by genuine equality and freedom. In
ever-increasing numbers his students t<x)k prominent
places in the business, educational, or professional
world, gave themselves to the altar or pleaded at the
bar, entered the provincial legislative assemblies and
tbe federal parliament, and graced the bench of the
Supreme Court. From 1864 to 1875 the "Apostle of
the Acadians" encountered trials, reverses, and diffi-
culties which nothing but indomitable energy, coupled
with imwavering confidence in God, could nave en-
abled him to survive. During these years, in addition
to his duties as college president and pastor of Mem-
ramcook, he preached missions throughout Acadia,
served several terms as Provincial of his Congregation,
founded the Little Sisters of the Holy Family, and was
honoured with the decree of Doctor of Divinity by
Laval University and tne title of Apostolic Missionary
b^ Pius IX. His death occurred in Jan uary , 1 895 ; and
within two years St. Joseph's Alumni erected at Mem-
ramcook in his honour a handsome §tonc edifice, the
Lefebvre Memorial Hall. "After God", says his
Acadian biographer, "he loved especially the (jongre-
^ation of the Holy Cross and the Acadian people. He
IS perhaps the purest glory of the former: he is cer-
tainly the greatest benefactor of the latter.
PoXRUCR, Le Phre Lefeivre H VAcadie (Montreal, 1898);
SoRiN, Circular Ldters (Notro Dainc. Ind., 1880); Album
Souvenir (Montreal, 1894).
Arthub Bakry O'Neill.
Lefdvre, Family op. — ^There were various members
of the Lefdvre family engage<l in tapestry weaving in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. We hear of
one Lancelot Lef db vre as one of the masters of tapestry
weaving in Brussels and in Antwerp in 1655; and in
Italy, in 1630, we read of a certain Pierre le Fdvre, a
master tapestry worker, w^ho was a native of Paris.
It is not known whether these two men were con-
nected one with the other, and of their personal his-
tory we know very little. Pierre died in 1669, leaving
a son Philip, who was working in Florence in 1677.
In 1647, Pierre was attracted by some offers made him
on the part of Henry IV of France, and left Florence
for Paris. There he received considerable emolu-
ments, was styled Tapissier to the Iving, and provided
with a workshop in the Garden of the Tuileries. He
is known to have gone back to Florence in 1650, but to
have returned to Paris five years later; he probably
lived in Florence for about ten years, returnmg there
for the last short period of his life. His son Jean, who
came with him, does not appear to have ever quitted
France, and he had the signal honour, on the estab-
lislmient of the Gobelin factory, of directing with Jean
Jans the high warp looms. Jans was a Flemish
weaver, but had come to Paris to work in the royal
buildings in 1654, and he had charge of the largest
workshop of the new factory, giving employment to
sixty-seven weavers, exclusive of apprentices. The
second workshop, which was erected in the Garden
of the Tuileries, was the one conducted bv Jean Le-
fcvre, and he appears to have had full charge of it
until 1770, and to have earned for the Government a
very large sum of money. The fine tapestry entitled
"Tlie Toilet of a Princess", which was in the Spitzer
collection, was the work of Jean Lefdvre, and three
other pieces, representing Bacchanalia, bear his name
on their selvedge. One of his most wonderful works
was entitled " The Toilet of Flora *\ a sheet of tapestry
now preserved at the Garde-meuble. Cardinal Maz-
arin possessed one of his hangings entitled "The His-
tory of St. Paul", and he was probably largely re-
sponsible for the two series entitled "The History
of Louis XIV", and "The History of Alexander".
MuNTZ, History of Tapestry (London, 1885); Thomson, His-
tory of Tapestry (London, 1906); Lacordaire, Notice hv^to-
rigue sur Us Manufactures impiriale^ de Topiaseriet des Oobdins
(Faris, 1853, 1873), various articles in La Oazeite des Beaux Arts.
Gkorge Chakles Williamson.
Lefdvre, IIoNonF. See FAimi.
Le Fdvre, Jacques, a French theologian and con-
troversialist, b. at Lisieux towards the middle of the
seventeenth century; d. 1 July, 1716, at Paris. He
became archdeacon of Ids native city and vicur-general
of the Archbishopric of Bourges, and in 1674 received
LEnVBS
114
LXIWItl
the doctorate in theology from the Sorbonne, His
works are the following: "Entretiens d'Eudoxe et
d* Euchariste sur les histoires de I'arianisme et des
iconoclastes du P. Maimbourg" (Paris. 1674J. The
first of these dialogues was condemned and burned.
" Motifs invincibles pour convaincre ceux de la religion
pr6tendue r^form^** (Paris, 1682), in which Le F^vre
endeavours to show that there is fundamental agree-
ment between Catholic and Protestant teachings, the
differences being of slight importance and mostly
verbal. These conciliatory views were attacked by
Aniauld, and, in answer. Lie F^vre wrote "R^plique a
M. Amauld pour la defense du livre des motifs invin-
cibles " (1C85) . Amongst Le Fdvre's other works are:
" Conference avec un ministre touchant les causes de la
separation des protestants" (Paris, 1685); "Instruc-
tions pour confirmer les nouveaux convertis dans la
foi de reglise" (Paris, 1686); "Recueil de tout ce qui
s'est fait pour et centre les protestants en France"
(Paris, 1686); "Lettres d'un docteur sur ce qui se
passe dans les assemblies de la facult6 de th^ologie de
Paris'* (Cologne, 1700). These letters were published
anonymously when the work of the Jesuit Father Le-
comte, " M^moires sur la Chine '*, was referred to the
faculty of theology. To Father Lallemant, who had
defended his confrere in the "Journal historique.des
assembl6es tenuesenSorbonne", Le F6\Te replied in
his "Anti-journal histori que . . •"; and he also pro-
duced " Animadversions sur Thistoire ecciesiastique du
P. No6l Alexandre "j the first volume of which was
printed at Rouen without date about 1680; it was
seized and destroyed, and the other volumes were not
published.
HuRTER, NoTnenctator; NouvelU biographie gSn^rale, XXX
(Paris, 1858), 344.
C. A. DUBRAY.
Lefdvre de la Boderie, Gut, French Orientalist
and poet; b. near Falaise in Normandy, 9 August,
1541; d. in 1598 in the house in which he was
bom. At an early age he devoted himself to the
study of Oriental languages, particularly Hebrew and
Syriac. After much travelling in different provinces
01 France he settled down to iminterrupLed study
under the guidance of the Orientalist Guillaume Pos-
tel, who was a professor in the Coll^ge de France.
Guy was an earnest student and his scientific ardour
was intensified by the religious enthusiasm of his char-
acter. He was convinced that deep study and full
knowledge were the surest natural mainstays of faith.
He felt, too, that if this was true generally, it was true
in a very special way in regard to Biblical work. He
became an Orientalist therefore, like many others, be-
cause he was an apologist. He selected Syriac and
Aramaic generally as ms spjecial department that he
might come nearer to the mind of Cni*ist by the study
of Christ's vernacular. His first published work of
importance was a Latin version of tne Syriac New Tes-
tament published in 1 560. This work att racted much
attention, and in 1568 Guy was invited by Arias
Montanus to assist in the production of the Antwerp
Polyglot. Guy accepted the invitation and proceeded
to Antwerp with his brother Nicolas who was also
an Orientalist.
The work assigned to Guy by Arias Montanus was the
editing of the Syriac New Testament. He examined for
this purpose a new S>Tiac MS. of the New Testament
whicn Guillaume Postel had brought from the East.
In 1572 appeared in the fifth volume of the Antwerp
Polyglot Bible the result of Lef^vre's work, entitled
" Novum Testamentum s>Tiace, cum versione latina ".
This work included the collated Syriac text and Le-
fdvre*s previously published (and now amended) Latin
version. Tliis work was republished by I^ Jay in
1645 in the Paris Polyglot. In 1 572 Lcf^vre publishe<l
at Antwerp a shortSyriac text which he had found
accidentally thrown together with the Eastern Bibli-
cal MS. above mentioned. This text, furnished w'tD
a Latin translation, appeared under the title "D.
Severi, Alexandrini, quondam patriarchse, de Ritibus
baptism! et sacrse S3rnaxis apud Syros Christianos re-
ceptis liber". Leflvre teUs us (Epistola dedicatoria,
p. 4 f.) that he published this text to illustrate the
agreement of the ancient Eastern Church with the
Western in the important matter of sacramental ritual.
To make the little text useful for beginners in Syriac
Leflvre vocalized the text and added at the foot of the
page a vocalized transliteration in Hebrew characters.
In the sixth volume of the Antwerp Polyglot appeared
a further work by Leflvre, " Grammatica chaldaica et
Dictionarium Syro-Chaldaicum ", In the same year
1572, Lefdvre published^ also at Antwerp, a short intro-
duction to Syriac, "Synacss linguae prima elementa".
This work has no scientific value: it is little more than
an account of the names of the consonants and vowel
signs with a few easy texts. On completing his worit
in Antwerp in 1572 Lefdvre returned to France where
he soon obtained the post of secretary and interpreter
to the Duke of Alen^on. In this position he was
brought into close contact with the somewhat radical
thouglit of the period. His associates were men like
Baif, Dorat, Ronsard, Vauquelin de La Fresnaye etc.
But Lef6vre remained, in spite of all, a strong Catholic
and a steady enemy of Protestantism. In 1584 he
published a transliteration in Hebrew characters of the
Syriac Nc^ Testament, "Novum J. Chr. Testamen-
tum, syriace Htteris hebraicis. cum versione latind
interlincari ". In this work tne Vulgate and Greek
texts were printed at the foot of the page.
But Lef6vre was not merely a philologist; he was
also a poet. His poetic flights, nowever, were not
high, and in his poetry, as in his Orientalia, the apolo-
getic trend of his thought is clear. He was, as his
friend Vauquelin de La Fresnaye said of him, poHe
tout chresiien. Among his more important poetic per-
formances are: " L'Encyclie des secrets de 1 Etermt4 "
(Antwerp, 1571), an apology of Christianity^; "La
Galliade, ou de la revolution des arts et sciences"
(Paris, 1578; 2nd ed. 1582), which celebrates the re-
turn to France of the banished sciences; "H^mnes
ecclesiastiques" and "Cantiques spirituels et autres
melanges po^tiques'* (Paris, 1578-1582), many of
which are translations from the Italian ; " L'Harmonie
du Monde " (Paris, 1582) , a translation of a Latin work.
Leflvre published in his last years an immense number
of translations from Latin, Italian, Spanish etc., in
verse and prose. Most of these translat i ons are apolo-
getic, and few of them are of any value. Lefevre
shows by the choice of his life-work that his thoughts
were ahead of his time. Of his life, apart from his
writings, we know next to nothing. It nas been con-
jectured from some words of his in a poem addressed
to Marguerite de France that he was an ecclesiastic;
and it has been said that Pope Clement VIII wished to
make him a cardinal. But Lefdvre would not allow
himself to be led away in his last days from his books
to the Roman Court. He died in the peaceful family
mansion of La Boderie in 1598. An epitaph which he
wrote for himself sums up his life work simply and
well:
Tandisque j'ai vescu, j*ai toujours souhait^
Non d'amasser tr^sors, mais chercher Verity.
De La Fekriiire-Percy, LcsLa Boderie (Paris, 1857); NJtVB,
Gu>t Le Ft-vre de Im Boderie (Brussels, 1862); Nickron, Mi-
moires. Vol. XXXVIII, 303-314; Goujet, BikioUikque Fn^n-
^iee, VI, XIII.
P. BOYLAN.
Lefdvre d'Etaples, Jacques, frequently called
Faber Stapulensis, a French philosopher, biSlical and
patristic scholar, b. at Etaples in Picardy, about 1455;
d. at Ndrac, 1536. He pursued his classical studies at
the University of Paris, graduating as master of arta
In 1492 he made a journey to Italy. His protracted
vi.<5its to Florence, Rome, and Venice were devoted
UBOA0IS8
115
UO^
Mt ^.
ehlefly to the study of the works of Aristotle. On his
return to Paris he displayed considerable activity as
professor in the college of Cardinal Lemoine. Amone
his disciples were the Protestant reformer Farel and
the later bishops Bri9onnet, Roussel, D'Arande, Pon-
cher. In 1507 he was invited to the monastery of
St. Germain-de&-Pr63 near Paris, by the abbot Bri-
^onnet. Here he resided till 1520, assiduously study-
ing the Bible. The first-fruit of his labours was his
•^salterium Quint uplex, gallicum, romanum, hebrai-
cum, vetus, conciliatum" (Paris, 1509). In 1517 and
1519 he published at Paris two critical essays on Mary
Magdalen, "De Maria Magdalena" and "De tribus et
unica Magdalena disceptatio secunda ". In these writ-
ings he endeavoured to prove that Mary, sister of
Lasarus, Mary Magdalen, and the penitent w^oman
who anointed Christ's feet (Luke, vii, 37) were three
distinct persons. This opinion, new at the time, gave
rise to a violent controversy; refutations by No6l
B^er, syndic of the University of Paris, and John
Fisheri the martyr-Bishop of Rochester, appeared;
they were followed by the condemnation by the Sor-
bonne in 1521. The preceding year, Lcfdvre had left
Paris for Meaux, where his friend, Bri^onnet, now
bishop of this city, was to appoint him his vicar-gen-
eral in 1523. He continued his bibilical studies, pub-
lishing the " 0)mmentarii initiatorii in f^uatuor Evan-
gelia' (Paris, 1522); a French translation of the New
Testament (Paris, 1523), and of the Psalms (Paris,
1525); an explanation of the Sunday Epistles and
Gospels (Meaux, 1525). As these works contained
some erroneous views and revealed the author's s>Tn-
pathies for the doctrines of the so-called reformers,
they again brought him into conflict with the Sor-
bonne. His commentary on the Gospels was con-
denmed in 1523, and only the timely interposition of
the king shielded him temporarily from f urtner moles-
tation. But during the captivity of Francis I, which
followed the battle of Pa via (February, 1525), further
proceedings were instituted against Ijcfdvre for his
novel doctrines and he sought safety in flight. After
the king's release, he was recalled from exile and
appointed librarian in the royal castle of Blois
(1526). Here he worked at his translation cf the
Old Testament, which appeared at Antwerp in 1528.
In 1531, he accompanieii Marguerite, Queen of Na-
varre, to N^rac, where he spent the last years of his
life. Leffevre was a strong advocate of ecclesiatical
reforms but did not deem a separation from the Cath-
olic Church, of which he always remained a member,
necessary for the attainment of this end. Among his
non-biblical writings the following may be mentioned:
"Theologia vivificans, Dionysii coelestis hierar-
chia, Ignatii XV epistolse, Polycarpi epistoiro"
(Paris, 1498); "Opera complura St^ Hilarii episcopi"
(Paris, 1510); "Liber trium virorum Hermai, Ugue-
tini et Roberti triumque spiritualium virginum Hilde-
gardis, Elizabethae et Mechtildis" (Paris, 1513).
Grap« Jacobus Faber Stanulenvia in Zeitach. fQr Hist. Theol.
(1852), 3-88. 166-237: Barnaud, J. Lefivre d'Etaples (Cahora,
iOOO); Pboosdiq, /. Lefcvre cTEtaples, voorgangcr van Calvijn,
(Leydfen, 1906); Bairo, The Rise of the HuguenotSt I (Nemr
York, 1907), 67-98.
N. A. Weber.
A pious bequest differs likewise from a '* donatio xnor>
tis causa", which is a contract^ whereas the bequest is
made by a unilateral act. It is distinguished, nnally,
from a foundation, which can be made during life as
well as by provision in a will, and which always im-
poses on the favoured establishment obligationSi
either perpetual or of fairly long duration. A legacy
may be but is not necessarily a foundation.
n. Right op the Church to Receive Legacies. —
Natural law, no less than Divine, ordains that the will
of the faithful, bequeathing part of their wealth to the
Church should be respected (Instruction of Propa^
ganda, 1807, in "Collectanea S.C. de P. F.", I, Rome,
1907, n. 689) . The Church was established by God as
a necessary and perfect society, since its object is to
lead men to their last end, consequently, it can uphold
its right to acquire all the means necessary to realize
the object for which God instituted it. Being an ex«
temal and visible society, it must be able to dispose of
temporal goods for the needs of Divine service, the
support of its ministers, the propagation of the Faith,
the care of the poor, etc. Therefore, it may acciuire
these goods by all legitimate means, and ainong these
means are included pious bequests or legacies. Nat-
ural right demands that the goods of parents dying
intestate should pass to their children, and in many
cases it is a duty for parents to leave part of their patr-
rimony to their children; canon law recognizes and ap»
proves of this duty. But there is no serious reason for
depriving parents of the right to dispose by will, for a
pious purpose, of those goods that are at their free dis-
posal as long as they are alive. While profitable to
the Church, pious bequests are not less so to the do-
nors " for the salvation of their souls", in the words of
the usual testamentary formula of the Middle Ages
(Foumier, "Lcs officialit^s au moyen ^ge'*, Paris,
1880, p. 87). The Council of Trent (Sess. XX\^,
Deer, de Purgatorio) declares that pious founda-
tions are a means of relieving the sufferings of
purgatory. The First Provincial Council of Halifax
applies to pious bequests those words of the Gospel:
"Make unto you friends of the Mammon of iniquity;
that when you shall fail, they may receive you into
everlasting dwellings*' (Luke xvi, 9; "Collectio La-
censis'*. III, Freiburg, 1875, 746). Pious bequests
are a means by which generous souls can continue,
after their decease, their jgood works, and provide for
the future of the institutions that they have founded
or enriched. Those who have omitted during life to
fulfill the precept of charity can find therein a way of
repairing their negligence ("First Provincial Council
of Westminster", 1852, XXV, II; "Collectio La-
censis". III, 942). Those, finally, who, owing to daily
cares and anxieties, found it impossible to be oountiful
during life, may yet, if only at the hour of death, co-
operate in the relief of the unfortunate, and assure
their neighbour the spiritual advantages of Divine
service.
Legacies (Lat. Legato). — ^I. Definition. — In its
most restricted sense, by a pious legacy or bequest
Qeaatum pium) is understood, the assignmg, by a last
will, of a particular thing forming j^art of an estate, to
a church or an ecclesiastical institution. It differs
from a testament in favour of pious works {testament
turn ad pias catisas) in this, that in a testament the
favoured institution is made the true heir of the testa-
tor, continuing as it were his person. Moreover, a
testament deals with the whole property, the patri-
mony of the testator. It results from this that a
rns legacy or l)cqu^ need not necessarily be made
the body of a will; it can be inserted in a co<licil.
III. History. — ^The charity of the first Cliristians
led them to despoil themselves while alive of their su-
perfluous goods; consequently, mention is rarely made
of pious legacies before the time of Constantino.
After that emperor's conversion they became more
prominent, especially after the law of the year 321
allowed churches to receive all kinds of l^acies, and
granted them the "factio testamenti passiva'*, i. e.
the right of being made heirs (Theodosian Code, XVI,
II, lit. iv). Authors are not agreed on the import of a
law of Theodosius dated June, 390, forbidding deacon-
esses, who were ^-idows and had children, to dispose of
their goods in favour of churches or the poor (ibid.
XX vii). Many authors consider it an important re-
striction of the right recognized by Constantine as be-
longing to the churches (Foumeret, "I^es biens d'E-
elise apres les 4dits de pacification; Ressources dont
I'Eglise diaposa pour rcconstruire son patrimoine".
Paris, 1902, p. 84). Others see in it only a means of
LEOA0I18
116
LxaAoixa
protecting, against the abuse of maternal power, the
rights of the children to the succession of their par-
ents (ICnecht, *' System des Justinianischen Kirchen-
vermogensrechtes", Stuttgart, 1905, 75-76). In any
case, Emperor Marcian restored the right to the
churches in 485 (Justinian Code, I, II, xiii). Among
the Teutonic peoples, testamentaiy liberalities prop-
erly so-called seem to have been imknown, but the^
bad an arrangement resembling the " donatio mortis
causa" of the Romans, L e., the "cessiones post
obitum '^ donations which the donor boimd himself
not to retract, but which took effect only on his death.
In virtue of the Teutonic principle of the personal-
ity of law, the inhabitants whom the Teutons found
settled in the old provinces of the empire they con-
Suered could continue to follow the Roman law.
a this wa>r the power to bequeath to pious establish-
ments was introduced among the Visigoths, Burgundi-
ans, and Bavarians, while in Gaul pious bequests were
tolerated in fact before being authorized bylaw (Loen-
ing, "Geschichte d€# deutschen Kirchenrechts", II,
Strasburg, 1878, 655). Several synods of the Frankish
period even declare the validity of testaments,
especially those of ecclesiastics, in which the formalities
prescribed by the civil law had not been observed (Bon-
droit, " De capacitate possidendi EcclesisB setate mero-
vingica", Louvain, 1900, 87 and 105). (See Dona-
tions.)
The bishops retained in the Middle Ages the right of
supervising the execution of pious bequests, which had
been recognized by the Justinian Code (I, III, xlv).
This right was even extended, and in several regions
the ecclesiastical tribunal judged of the validity of
wills and supervised their execution (Fournier, op. cit.,
87; Friedberp, "De finium inter Ecclesiam et Civit-
atem regundorum judicio quid medii ffivi doctores
etatuerint". Leipzig, 1861, 124). It was in virtue of
this right that Alexander III determined the condi-
tions for the validity of wills in non-ecclesiastical mat-
ters (c. X., "De testamentis et ultimis voluntatibus",
X, III, xxvi. See Wemz, "Jus Decretalium", III,
Rome, 1901, 309). This same pope ordained, follow-
ing the example of St. Gregory, that the ecclesiastical
judge was to decide the validity of pious bequests
not in accordance with the provisions of the Roman
law but with the decrees of canon law (cc. iv, xi, " De
testamentis et ultimis voluntatibus", X, III, xxvi).
The practice of pious bequests was so common in
the Middle Ages that it seemed improbable that any
person would have dispensed himself from it. This
was the origin of the right of bishops in certain
places, particularly in France and Southern Italy, to
dispose, in favour of pious objects, of part of the goods
of an intestate deceased person (Fournier, op. cit.,
89). The generosity of the faithful built and en-
dowed those wonders of art, the monasteries and
churches, as well as the many charitable institutions
that were the glory of the medieval Church, and that
the official charity of the State has succeeded neither
in rivalling nor m replacing. It was not until the
close of the medieval period that the civil power be-
gan to restrict the acquisition of property by religious
mortmain. In modem times, even in Catholic coun-
tries, wills were withdrawn from the judicial authority
of the Church, and the civil power finally deprived the
latter of the right to adjudicate even on testamentary
questions relating to pious bequests.
IV. Actual Canonical Legislation.— The Church
reserves to itself, even now, an exclusive authority
in the matter of pious wHIb and legacies; it has its
own legislation, the Roman law modified on several
points by canon law, and its ecclesiastical tribunals to
examine the questions connected therewith. (1) Be-
sides persons who by natural law or in virtue of the
enactments of Roman law are incapable of making a
will, the Church refuses to accept- tlie pious bequests
of usurers (c. ii, De usuris, in \'I®, V, 5), of heretics
and their accomplices (c xiii, De luereticis, X, V» 7),
and of those who are euilty of attacks on the cardinals
(c. v, De pcBnis,in VI , V, 9). In practice, the Church
refuses at the present time, to accept the bequests of
sinners who die impenitent, and especially of usurers,
in order not to be enriched by their ill-gotten goods
(Santi, "Prselectiones juris canonici". III, Rome,
1898, 224-25). Religious who make solemn vows of
profession are permitted to make wills only during the
two months preceding their solemn profession; other
religious must conform to the rules of their congrega-
tion. The rules {norma) drawn up by the Con^regsr
tion of Bishops and Regulars for the approbation of
institutes bound by sim^e vows (Rome, 1901) forbid
the making of wills after religious profession without
the permission of the Holy ^c or, m case of iirgency,
without the authorization of the bishop or the supe-
riors (Art. 120 and 122. See Vermeersch, "Dc reli-
giosis", I, Bruges, 1902, 148).
(2) It is not alone bequests made to churches that
enjoy the prerogatives established by canon law, but
also those made to monasteries, reli^ous houses, and
all institutions, whether purely religious or of a charit-
able character subject to the direction of religious
authorities. However, certain religious orders, either
because they practise poverty in a stricter manner, or
in virtue of their constitution, have only a restricted
right to acquire property by legacy or will (Santi, op.
cit., Ill, 238-9; Wemz, op. cit., Ill, 322).
(3) The heirs of the testator are obliged to exe-
cute pious bequests, even if they have not been
made in accordance with the formaUties prescribed
under penalty of nullity by the civil law, pro-
vided canon law considers them to have been made
validly. The State has an incontestable right to
prescribe the formalities requisite for the valid-
ity of wills in all matters falling within its juris-
diction, but pious legacies and bequests for pious
purposes are under the exclusive control of the
Church. This principle was clearly enunciated by
Alexander III in the decretal "Relatum" (c. xi, De
testamentis et ultimis voluntatibus, X, III, xxvi).
It is true this decretal was addressed to the judges of
Velletri, a town in the Papal States, but its force can^
not be restricted solely to the territory imder the tem-
poral power of the pope, and the insertion of the decre-
tal in the "Corpus Juris*', or general law of the
Church , deprives the obj ection of aU force. It has been
urged that a contrary custom had abrogated this ca-
nonical enactment, and that, moreover, only natural
equity and the favour shown by the Church to pious
bequests have caused pious legacies made with a neg-
lect of solemn formalities to be considered vaUd. llie
constant practice of the Holy See proves that this ar-
gument is not conclusive. On 10 January, 1901, the
Sacred Penitentiaria declared that, as a general rule,
it considers valid and binding in conscience pious be-
quests which the civil law declares void on account of
the omission of extrinsic formalities prescribed by the
civil law. Nevertheless, in such a case the ecclesiasti-
cal authorities are generally disposed to come to
terms with the heirs C' Acta Sanctae Sedis'*, XXXIV,
Rome, 1902, 384). (See, in the same sense, the de-
crees of the S. C. C. "in cans. Arimin.'*, 13 September.
1854; "in cans. Hortana", 29 Februarj^ 1855; and
reply of the Penitentiaria, 23 June, 1844.J
According to the common opinion of theologians,
for a pious Dequest to be obligatory in conscience it
suffices that the wish of the testator be well e»stab-
lished, e. g. by a holograph or a \^Titing merely signed
by the testator, by a verbal declaration made to the
heir himself or before two witnesses (a single testi-
mony other than that of the heir would be insuffi-
cient). If it be urged that the testator has revoked
his bequest, the fact must be proved. The Congrega-
tion ot the Council decided, 16 March, 1900, ui&t a
writing containing erasures, which is only a draft of a
LEOA0IX8
117
LEGAOIES
will, IB not a sufficient proof that the testator wished
to revoke a previous will (''Acta Sanctse Sedis'^
XXXII, Rome. 1900-01, 202). The contrary opin-
ion is now held onlv bv a few authorities (Car-
riftre, "De contractious , n. 686, Louvain, 1846;
D'Annibale, '^Summula theologize moralis'*, IT, n
339, Rome, 1892; Boudinhon in "Le Canonistc con-
temporain", XXIV, Paris, 1901, 734). By Roman
law, if a testator knowingly bequeathes a tlung not in
his possession, it was equivalent to ordering the heir
to purchase the thing for the legatee or, if that were
impossible, to give him its value. A decree of
Gregory I seems to overrule this decision (c. v. De
^ testamentis et ultimis voluntatibus, X, III, xxvi).
But it ma^ be replied that this decree, while admitting
the principle of the Roman law, intended only to de-
clare that natural equity will often dispense the heir
from carrying out the wish of the testator in the mat-
ter (Santi, op. cit.. Ill, 242-245). This provision of
Roman law oeing not generally known in our day, it
is lawful to presume that the testator made a mi^
take, and ih&t the bequest is therefore void.
(4) The Church approved the provision of the
Roman law prohibiting; the testator from disposing of
the *' pars legitima" which the laws ordered to be pre-
serveu to the heirs, this being conformable to natural
law. Although in our modem codes the ''pars legit-
ima" is greater than it was in the Roman law, it may
be presimied that the Church recognizes the ruling of
our codes in the matter. All bequests exceeding the
amount which the civil law allows to be dispot^ of
freely by the testatoi^ may therefore be reduced. The
provisions of the Corpus Jiuris (cc. xiv, xv, xx, De
testamentis et ultimis voluntatibus, X, III, xxvi)
granting the bishop the "portio canonica" — i. e. the
quarter of all pious bequests not affected by the testa-
tor to a defimte purpose — are no longer in force.
(5) The bishop can compel the heirs or the executors
to fulfil the last wishes of the deceased in the matter of
pious bequests (c. ii, v, xix, "De testamentis et ul-
timis voluntatibus", X, III, xxvi; Council of Trent,
Sess. xxii, ** De reformations " ; c. viii) . He is also the
judge of the first instance in testamentary cases sub-
mitted to ecclesiastical tribunals. In virtue of this he
has the right to interpret the terms of the will, but any
change properly so called of the wishes of the deceased
is reserved, we think, to the Holy See, which can make
Buch change only for grave reasons (c. ii, "De rcli-
giosis domibus". III, 11, in "Clem.")* The Council of
Tirent (Sess. XXII, De reformatione, c. vi) recognizes
in bishops only the right of executing a change m the
wil^made by the pope; this, however, does not prevent
a bishop from applying to another object, a legacy left
for a definite purpose which can no longer be executed
in accordance with the wish of the testator. Propa-
ganda grants vicars Apostolic the right of making
changes in the will of a testator, in countries where
communication with Rome is very difficult, and in
eases where it is impossible to carry out the testator's
wish; but it obliges them in each case to obtain a sul>-
sequent approval of their act by the Holy See (In-
struction of 1807, in "Collectanea". I, n. 689). The
Constitution "Romanos pontifices" of 8 May, 1881.
km down certain rules concerning the interpretation
of the terms of a last will (" Acta et decreta concilii
plenarii Baltimorensis III ", Baltimore, 1886, 46, 225-
227).
V. Wills OF Ecclesiastics. — ^While canon law has
never forbidden ecclesiastics to dispose freely of their
own private property, it has always maintained the
principle that the superfluous revenues derive<l from
church property ought to be devoted to religious or
charitable purposes. If they have not been so dis-
posed of during his lifetime by the person who was in
receipt of them, after his death they should be distrib-
uted either as canonical legislation enacts or as a
pious bequest. During the first centuries of the
Church, when bishops alone had the admimstration
of ecclesiastical property, measures were taken by the
ecclesiastical authorities to prevent its dissipation by
the heirs of the bishops. Justinian forbade bishops to
dispose of the goods acquired by them after their pro-
motion to the episcopacy, excepting, of course, their
own patrimonial estate (Novelhe, CXaXI, c. xiii) . The
Third Council of Carthage (397) had already legislated
in a similar sense with regard to ecclesiastics (Bruns,
"Canones apostolonmi et conciHorum veterum so-
lecti'*, I, Beriin, 1839, 134). Moreover, the Theo-
dosian Code assigned to the Church the goods of
clerics dying intestate, and not leaving chfldren or
relatives (V, III, lib. i). These regulations were con-
firmed by the popes and the councils (see Decretum
Gratiani, II, c. xii, q. 5, "An liceat dericis tcstamenta
conficere'*). But, as early as the sixth century, we
learn from the decrees of councils that abuses had al-
ready crept in: ecclesiastics and even bishops were at-
tempting to seize ecclesiastical property on the death
of their confreres (Decret. Gratian, loc. cit., q. 2);
later, it was the turn of the laity; emperors, prmces,
lawyers, and patrons claimed a right to the spoils
(Jus spoilt or exuviarum).
To remedy this stato of affairs, the reforming popes
of the eleventh and twelfth centuries forced tlie em-
perors to renounce explicitly their right to the spoils,
and the Third Council of Lateran (1179) as well as
Alexander III made certain enactments regarding the
estates of ecclesiastics; the latter were free to dispose
of their own patrimony, the "peculium patnmo-
niale", as canonists call it, i. e., all ^oods which eccle-
siastics acquired by inheritance, will, or any kind of
contract soever, but independently oi the ecclesiasti-
cal character. They might dispose likewise of the
"peculium industriale" or "quasi patrimoniale", L e.
the property acquired by their own personal activity.
To tnis was likened the "peculium parsimoniale", or
that portion of the revenues coming from ecclesiasti-
cal benefices, which the beneficiaiy might reasonably
have spent on himself, but which he economized
(Santi, op. cit., Ill, 210). But he was forbidden to
dispose of the " peculium l^eneficiale", the superfluous
revenue of the benefices ho held, and which he did not
distribute in good works during his life. In principle
this was to pass to the church in which the ecclesiastic
held the benefice. However, Alexander III does not
blame the custom, where it exists, of bequeathing
some part of this "peculium" to the poor, or to eccle-
siastical institutions, or even, as a reward for services
rendered, to persons, w^hether relatives or not, who
have been in the service of tlie deceased cleric (cc. vii,
viii, ix, *xii, De testamentis et ultimis voluntatibus,
X, III, xxvi).
It does not follow, of course, that the law was ob*
served; the "spolium" remained customary among
ecclesiastics, especially abbots of monasteries, chap-
ters, and bishops fc. xl, "De electione" in VP, I, 6; c.
ix, "De officio ordinarii" in VP, I, 16; c. i, "De ex-
cessibus prselatorum ", in Clem. V, vi). The popes
themselves saw in it a means of increasing their rev-
enues. As early as the fourteenth century, they re-
served to the Holy See that portion of the property of
ecclesiastics which the latter could not dispose of
freely, with certain exceptions. These fiscal meas-
ures reached their highest limits? during the Western
Schism. They met with vigorous opposition in
France, where the kings rcfus'^d to admit the right of
the pope, and also in the councils of the fifteenth
century. Nevertheless the popes maintained their
claims for a long time (see tnc Constitution of Pius
IV "Grave nobis", 26 May, 1500 in "Bullarum am-
plissima collectio", ed. Cocquelines, IV, ii, 18; that of
Pius V **Roinani pontificis providentia", 30 August,
1587, Ibidem, 394; and of Grcgor\' XIII, "Officii", 21
January, 1.577, Ibidem, IV, iii, 330). On 19 June.
1817, Pius VIII declared that Propaganda was entitled
LEGAL
118
LEQATE
to all revenue of the "spolium" (Collectanea, I, n.
724). On the other hand, even when the legislation
of Alexander III was introduced, it was not always en-
forced in the same way; in some places the ecclesias-
tics could dispose of their ''peculium beneficiale^' in
favour of pious purposes; in others they were granted
full testamentary liocrty, provided they made a leg-
acy in favour of pious objects, or else paid a certam
sum to the bishop who allowed them to make the will.
These practices, together with the difficulty of dis-
tinguishing, in the mheritance of an ecclesiastic, the
amount of the "patrimonium beneficiale*', eventually
left ecclesiastics testamentary freedom.
However, the canonical legislation is yet substan-
tially unchanged; ecclesiastics are even now obliged to
bequeath for pious purposes the superfluous part of
the revenues from their Dcnefices which they have not
distributed during their life. This principle, recalled
by the Council of Trent (Scss. XXV, De reformatione,
c. i), is reasserted in most provincial councils of the
nineteenth century. It is conmionly admitted that it
imposes no obligation of justice, but merely one based
on ecclesiasticsd precept (Santi, op. cit., Ill, 211;
Wernz, op. cit., Ill, 210-11). This obligation does
not exist m countries where there are no benefices, or
where benefices strictly so called are notoriously in-
sufficient for the support of the clergy who enjoy
them. Under these circumstances, pious bequests
are earnestly recommended to ecclesiastics, but they
are never ol)ligator>' in conscience. For the special
rules regulating the wills of cardinals, see Santi, op.
cit., Ill, 227-34. The obligations imposed on eccle-
siastics, needless to say, are binding on their heirs in
case they die intestate. Sometimes this matter is de-
cided by local custom. The Provincial Councils of
Vienna (185S) and of Prague (1860) decree that the
estate of an ecclesiastic deceased intestate is to be di-
vided into three parts: one for the Church, one for the
poor, and the third for the relatives of the deceased.
If the deceased was not possessed of any ecclesiastical
benefices, only one-third of the estate is subject to the
above rule, and that is to be distributed among the
needy, but should the heirs of the deceased belong to
that class, said portion may be given to them.
See the commentaries of the canonists on the Third Book of
the Decretals, titles xxv, xxvi, and xxvii; ScnMALZORCEBER,
Jua canonicum universunit Hit ii (Rome, 1844), 462-607;
Rbiffenstuel, Jua canonicum univeraunij IV (Paris, 1867),
362-567; Hauti, Prcilectionf a juris amonici.lll (Rome, 1897),
209-247; Wernz, /ua dccrefa/tum, III (Rome, 1901), 199-218,
306-327; SagmOluer, Lehrbuch dea kathoHachen Kirchenrechta
(Freiburg. 1904), 764, 787-92: Thomassincs, Vetua et nova erclc-
aia diaciplina, pt. Ill, bk. II (Paris, 1691), cc. xxxviii-lvii; Wao-
ker. Diaaertatio de teatamento ad piaa cauaaa (Leipzig, 1735);
Thomas, Daa kanoniacfieTeatament (Leipzig, 1897); Wolff von
Olanvell, Die letzvoHlige Vcrfuqunoen nach gemeinim Kirch-
lichen Rechte (Paderbom, 1900); Fknelon, Lea fondationa et lea
Habliaaementa eccliaiaatiguea (Paris, 1902); Schmidt, Theaaurua
juria eccUaiaatici, IV (Heidelberg, 1727), 382^40: Sentis, De
jure tealamentorum a clericia aeaJtlaribua ordinandorum (Bonn,
1862); EiSENBERO. Daa Spolienrecht am Nachlass der Qcisi-
lichen (Marburg, 1886); Hollweck, Daa Testament der Geiat-
Hchen nach kirchlichen und hurgerlichen Recht (Mainz, 1901);
Sam ARAN, La jurisprudence poniificale en matih^ de droit de
dtpouille (jua apolii) dana la seconde moitiS du X7T'« sxi-cle in
AulangeH d*arch^ologie et d'histoire (EcoU fran^iae de Rome)
XXn, (Paris, 1902), 141 sq.
A. Van Hove.
Legal, Emile Joseph. See St. Albert, Diocese
OP.
Legate (Lat. legarCj to Bend) in its broad significa-
tion means that person who is sent by another for
some representative office. In the ecclesiastical sense
it means one whom the pope sends to sovereigns or
governments or only to the members of the episcopate
and faithful of a country, as his representative, to
treat of church matters or even on a mission of honour.
Hence the legate differs from the delegate, taking this
term in a strictlv juridical sense, since the delegate is
one to whom the pope entrusts an affair or many
affairs to be treated through delegated jurisdiction
and often in questions of Utigatiou, whereas the legate
goes with ordinary jurisdiction over a whole country
or nation. The canon law treats of delegates of the
Holy Sec, delegaii Sedis Aposiolicoc (Decret., lib. I,
tit. xxix), and in this sense even bishops, in certain
cases determined by the Council of Trent (Sess. V,
cap. i, De Ref., etc.), may act as delegates of the Holy
See. Nevertheless, as will be seen later, according to
the present discipline of the Church, a delegate, inas-
mucn as he is sent to represent the Holy See in some
particular country, really fills the office of a legate.
Since the jurisdiction of a legate is ordinaiy, he does
not cease to be legate even at the death of the pope
who appointed him^nd even if he arrived at hb post
after tlie death of that pope.
The pope, by virtue of his primacy of jurisdiction,
has the right to send legates to provide for the unity
of Faith and for ecclesiastical disciplincj and to choose
them at will. Though self-evident, this authority of
the pope has been contested from a very early period.
Gregory VII (1073-S5) reproved the claims of those
who wished to have only Ilomans as legates and not
representatives from other countries. Paschal II
(1099-1118), in a letter to Henry II of England, ^ev-
ously deplores the vexations inflicted on the pontifical
legate, and maintains the right of the pope to send
such representatives. Jolm XXII (131(V-34) declares
unreasonable and contrary to the authority of the
pope the refusal to admit a papal legate without the
approval of the sovereign. And there are not wanting
writers who denied, some wholly, others in part, such
a right on the part of the pope, e.- g. Marc* Antonio de
Dorainis, Richer, Febronius, Eybel, and others. This
erroneous claim was upheld in the eighteenth century
by four archbishops of Germany, those of Mainz,
Trier, Cologne, and Salzburg, to whom Pius VI made
the famous reply of 14 November, 1789, in which we
read that one of the rights of primacy of St. Peter is
that "By virtue of his Apostolic prerogative, while
providing for the care of all the lambs and the sheep
confided to him, the Roman Pontiff discharges his
Apostolic duty also by delegating ecclesiastics for a
time or permanently as may seem best, to go into
distant places where he cannot go and to take bis
place and exercise such jurisdiction as he himself, if
present, would exercise". Worthy of attention also
are the diplomatical note of Cardinal Consalvi to the
Spanish Government (9 January, 1802), which treats
01 the character of the A|>o8tolic nuncio, and the letter
of Cardinal Jacoljini (15 April, 1885) to the same Gov-
ernment. The Vatican Cfouncil, in stating the true
doctrine concerning the primacy of the pope (Sess. 1 V,
cap. iii), condemned implicitly the said errors. The
Constitution " Apostolicie Sedis ", moreover, contains
(no. 5) an excommunication reserved speciaii modo to
the pope against those who harm, expel, or unlawfully
detain legates or nuncios.
Historical Development and Division. — The
popes have made ase of this right from the earhest
ages of the Church. The first example was the send-
ing by Sylvester I of legates to the Council of Nicxa
f 325) ; afterwards those sent to the Council of Sardica
(345) ; and those sent by Zosimus I to Africa (418), to
settle certain ecclesiastical matters. In the fourth
century we find the first example of a papal represen-
tative sent in an official character^ i. e. tne apocnsiarius
(q. v.), or responsolis, Accordmg to Ilincmar of
Reims, the apocrisiarius dates back to the time of
Constantine, but according to De Marca (De Ord.
Palatii, cap. xiii), the office dates from the Coimcil of
Colchis (451). From the letters of Gregory I, himself
an apocrisiarius, and from a letter of Leo I to Julianus
of Cos, whom he ai)pointed apocrisiarius; can be de-
duced the powers of this officer and his duties, i.e. to
look after the observance of ecclesiastical discipline,
to resist the spread of heresy, and to defend the rights
of the pope. For three centuries such a papal inter-
LSaATE lid LEGATE
mediaiy existed at the Byzantine Court. During the The lastiegate a latere was also sent to France m 1856.
IconocLsist troubles of the eighth century this office in the person of Cardinal Patrizi, to baptize the Prince
disappeared, but was temporarily revived in the West Impenal. The " Diario di Roma" of that year gives
when the empire was restored by Leo III (795-816). all the particulars of the proclamation of the appoint-
Finally, however^ the necessity and freauency of ex- ment in a consistory of 27 August, and of the cere-
traorainarylegations,the weakening and later division monies which accompanied the departure of the
of the empire among the successors of Charlemagne. legate. The same Cardinal Patrizi on that occasion
rendered useless and almost impossible the presence ot was deputed to present the Golden Rose to thl^ Em-
Apostolic legates at the Frankish court. press Eug6iiie. The powers of the legate a latere are
LegoH Nati, — Almost contemporaneously with the of the most ample character, both in matters of litiga-
apocrisiarius, the popes established in the fourth cen- tion and favours. He journeys with an imposing
tury another class of legates, of a purely ecclesiastical suite; immediately after leaving Rome the cross is
character, known eventually as feoo/i wail, or perpetual borne before him, and in his presence not even pa-
legates. The^ may be regarded!^ as originating^ from triarchs have the right that thou* cross should precede
the "Apostohc vicars *' established by Popes Dama- them; bishops cannot give episcopal blessings without
sus I (366-84) and Siricius (384-99). To provide his consent. According to the present usage, how-
more expeditiously for ecclesiastical discipline and to ever, a cardinal sent on a mission does not always bear
facilitate the dispatch of ecclesiastical affairs, the the title of legate a latere, as in the case of a cardinal
aforesaid popes deemed it opportune to attach to cer- sent by the pope to represent him at some religious
tain sees (and first to ThSssaionica) the title and duties gathcnug, like the Eucharistic Congresses of West-
of Apostohc vicar. The same title and duties were minster, Cologne, and Montreal. The Decretals and
conferred by later popes on other sees. The prelates the Council of Trent clearly defined the powers of
who successively occupied those sees came to be known legates missi and legates a latere. Since the lat-
aslegatinati, inasmuch as by their election to the said tcr were sent only for very important matters, the
sees they became ipso facto Apostolic legates, that custom of sending legati missi became more frequent,
office bemg attached to the see itself. In the course Nuncios. — In the thirteenth century legati missi
of time legati nati became very numerous; in France came to be known as nuncios, by which name they are
those of Aries (545), Sens (876), Lyons (1097); in yet called. After the Council of Trent nuncios were
Spain those of Tarragona (517), Seville (520), Toledo established permanently in various countries. Besides
!1088); in Germany those of Trier (969), Salzburg an ecclesiastical mission, they have also a diplomatic
973); in Italy that of Pisa; in England that of Can- character, having been from their origin accredited tp
terbury, etc. In the beginning the faculties of legati courts or governments. Their jurisdiction is ordinary.
nati were very ample^ namely, the right of visiting the but it is customary at present to grant them special
dioceses of the province, of examining the status of faculties, according to the needs of the country to
candidates for bishoprics, of consecrating the metro- which they are sent; such faculties are conveyed in a
politan, etc.; eventually^ however, these faculties special Brief . They are -also given credential letters
were much lessened, and m the eleventh century the to be presented to the ruler of the country, and par-
legati nati practically ceased to exist. In our day the ticular instructions in writing. The nuncios are
sees to which was annexed such privilege have no usually titular archbishops; occasionally, however,
longer any extraordinary jurisdiction, though some bishopsorarchbishopsof residential sees are appointed
enjoy an honorary distmction; the Archbishop of to the office. Some nuncios are of the first and some
SauDurg, for example, may wear the cardinalatial of the second class, the only difference between them
purple, even in Rome. being that, at the end of their mission, those of the
Legati Missi. — ^The ecclesiastical conditions of the first class are usually promoted to the cardinalate.
tenth and deventh centuries were responsible for the Vienna, Madrid, and Lisbon have nuncios of the first
cessation of the office of legati nati. Ecclesiastical life cLiss. Paris was also of this class, but, on account of
was then in many ways and places ill-regulated^ and eo- the rupture of diplomatic relations between France
clesiastical discipline very htx; the legati nati proved and the Vatican which took place in 1907, it has
incapable of remedying these evils, either because some- at present no represent ati ve of tlie Holy See. Bavaria,
times their own conduct was not exemplary or because Belgium, and Brazil have nuncios of the second class.
they were negligent in the discharge of their duties. There is no specified period for the duration of the term
The Holy See was obliged to combat these abuses by of a nuncio s office; it depends on circumstances and
choosing and sending into various countries persons the will of the pope.
who could be depended upon to secure the desired Internuncios. — According to the present disciplinCi
results (Luxardo, " Das p&pstliche Vordekretalen- there are also internuncios, who in the order of pon^
Gesandschaftsrecht"^ 1878). Thus came into exist- tifical diplomacy follow immediatelv after nuncios.
ence the legati missi, or special envoys. Later all These also are frequently titular archbishops, always
those whom the Holy See sent on a special mission have a diplomatic character, and are sent to govem-
were called legati missi, even those who were to preside ments of less importance. They are equivalent to
at some solemn ceremony, e. g. a royal baptism or mar- ministers of the second class, have the same faculties
ria^:tho9eAppointed to meet anemperor or a sovereign as nuncios, and are furnished with similar credentials
visiting Rome, etc. This title was also given to those and instructions. At present there are internuncios
who were chosen to rule some provinces of the Pontifi- in Holland, Argentina, and Chile. In Holland, how-
cal States, e. g. the legate of Bologna, of Urbino, etc. ever, because ofthe exclusion of the Holy See from the
Legati a Latere. — ^About the same time another form Peace Conference of 1899, the internuncio, Monsignor
of legation was established, which became and is the Tamassi, was recalled, and now there is only a papal
highest, i. e. the legaH a latere. The legate a latere is charge d'affaires. The internuncio of Holland is also
always a cardinal, and this name arises from the fact accredited to the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg,
that a cardinal, being a member of the senate of the Apostolic Delegates and Envoys Extraordinary. —
pope, Is considered as an intimate, one attached to the Actually there are also papal representatives known
very aide of the Roman Pontiff. Other authorities as Apostolic delegates and envoys extraordinary,
denye this title from the custom of receiving the in- Apostolic delegates, strictly spcaldnK, are alwavs
signia and the office in the presence, or at the side, of the ecclesiastical in character, and are usually sent by the
pope. Such legates are sent on missions of the greatest Congregation of Propaganda to missionary countries.
importapce, e. g. the legate a latere sent to France by However, the pontifical secretariate of state is accus-
Pius Yll, in the person of Cardinal Giovanni Battista tomed to send Apostolic delegates purely ecclasiastical
Oipcwa^ to execute the famous Concordat of 1801. in character to countries wMch hiAve not diplomatio
LEQAtt 120 LEGATE
relations with the Holy See; at the same time when Cardinal Biartinelli 30 September, 1902, and took po»-
sending an Apostolic delegate to a country which has session on 21 November, 1002. He was bom 20
diplomatic relations with the Holy See there is added September, 1842, at Pescocostanxo in the Abnixii,
the title of envoy extraordinary, by which title he is Italy, and entered the Franciscan Order 2 September,
accredited to the Government. Such are the Apo&- 1860. On the completion of his studies he was sent
tolic delegates and envoys extraordinary to South as missionary to the United States to the mother-
Ameriea, e. g. to Colombia, Peru, Bohvia, Ecua- house of the Franciscans at Alleghany, New York, and
dor, Costa Rica, etc. Other Apostolic delegates, was ordained priest by Bishop Timon of Buffalo, 4
purely ecclesiastical in character, are those sent to the January, 1866. After filling several important posi-
United States of America, Canada, Mexico, Philip- tions, he was sent, November. 1871, to Newfoundland,
pines, Cuba, and Porto Rico. The Apostolic delega-. as rectorofthecathedral, ana secretary and chancellor
tion to the United States deserves special mention, to the bishop. He left Harbor Grace in 1882, and in
First, on account of its importance it is practically 1883 returned to Italy. In 1889 he was chosen procur-
equivalent to a nimciatiure of the first class, as may be ator-^neral of his order, and in July, 1892, was precon-
imerred from the Encyclical of 6 January, 1895 'ad- ized titular Bishop of Lacedonia. A few years later, he
dre^ed by Leo XIII to the archbishops and bishops was promoted to the archiepiscopal See of Acerenza and
of the United States, which declares: '' When tne Matera in Southern Italy. Monsignor Falconio was
Council of Baltimore had concluded its labours, the appointed first permanent Apostolic Delegate to Can-
duty still remaincxl of putting, so to speak^ a proper ada, 3 August, 1899, and on 30 September, 1902, was
and becoming crown upon the work. This we per- nominated Apostolic Delegate to the United States,
ceived could scarcely be done in a more fitting manner The Holy See is also accustomed, according to cir-
than through the due establishment by the Apostolic cumstances, to send so-called Apostolic vicars, who
See of an American legation. Accordingly, as you are may be either bishops or prelates or simply members
well aware, we have done this. By this action, as we of religious commimities. ^ Such representatives have
have elsewhere intimated, we wished^ first of all, to alwajrs an ecclesiastical mission only, and are sent to
certify that in our judgment and affection America examine the status of a diocese or seminaries, or
occupied the same place and rights as other states, some religious body.
however powerful and imperial." Moreover, from the To nunciatures and Apostolic delegations is at-
beginning all the incumbents of this office have been tached a staff composed of an auditor and a secretary,
elevated to the cardinalate. Second, the Apostolic They are nominated bv the Holy See, and are either
delegation to the United States has the power to decide of the first or second class. Sometimes the Holy See
appeals by definitive sentence; in other words it is a sends also to nunciatures a counsellor and an attach^,
tribunal of third instance, and from its decision there In the absence of nuncio or delegate the auditor takes
is regularly no appeal to the Holy See. This power, his place with the title of charge d'affaires,
although grantea from the beginning, has been re- Among the envoys of the Holy See should be men-
cently confirmed by a declaration of Sbe Consistorial tioned also the Apostolic ablegate and the bearer of
Congregation to an inouiry of the Apostolic delegate the Golden Rose. The Apostolic able^te is geneally
at Washington, as to whether the ori^nal papal grant a Roman prelate or private chamberlain, sent to bear
of authority was to be continued, in view of tne trans- the cardinal's biretta to a new cardinal who is absent
fer of the United States from the juris(iction of from the residence of the pope. He is accompanied by
Propaganda to the common law of the Church (Sa- a member of the Noble Guard, who carries the auc-
pienti Consiho, 4 November, 1908). The said reply, chetto, and by a private secretary. The ceremony of
given 8 May, 1909, establishes once for all that the conferring the birette is performed either by the head
parties are free to appeal from a sentence of a dioce- of the State, if in diplomatic relation with the Holy
san or metropolitan curia directly to Rome or to the See, or by the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in the
delegation, but, an appeal once made to the delega- coimtry. The bearer of the Golden Rose is appointed
tion, the sentence pronounced by the delegate is to be to carry the Golden Rose (blessed by the pope on
considered definitive. Lffitare Sunday of each year) to sovereigns or tc dis-
The Delegation of the United States was established tinguished individuals or to some famous church. In
by Leo XIII, 24 January, 1893. The first delegate 1895 this office was estabhshed permanently,
was Monsignor Francesco Satolli, who in 1892 nad Right op Precedence op the Reprebbntattvbs of
been selected to represent the Holy See in the United the Holy See. — ^The question of precedence among
States at the World's Fair in Chicago, as papal com- the various diplomatic representatives to forei^
missioner. HewasbomatMarsciano,Arcn(iioceseof countries was treated at the Congress of Vienna m
Perugia, Italy, in 1839; d. at Rome, 8 Jan., 1910. 1815, and it was decided that it always appertains to
Acknowledged as one of the leading theologians of the the representatives of the Holy See. Hence nuncios
day, he was appointed by Leo XIII a professor in the are by right and in fact deans of the diplomatic body,
most famous theological schools of Rome, the Propa- Some objections were afterwards made, especially by
ganda college and Roman seminarv. lie was later England and Sweden, as to the precedence of Apos-
made president of the Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics tolic delegates and internuncios, these not being men-
in Rome (1886), and titular Arciibishop of Lepanto tioned in the Congress of Vienna; however, it ended
ri888); promoted to the cardinalate 29 November, in theur practical recognition as included in the
1895, he received the biretta in February, 1896, at decision ot said congress.
the cathedral of Baltimore, from Cardinal Gibbons. Sources.— D«Trf. Grat., dist. xxi. c. xl xxxvi, C. n, q. vl;
Cardinal Satolli was succeeded 27 Aug., 1896, by Compl.,lJA,i.xxn,deoff,leoaH.;n,l,t,xm\mieB]aopecreL
Monsignor Sebastian MartineUL an Augustinian. ^^^■^.,^i^"'iikivr4'^^ii^T,fNi,
Bom m August, 1848, he entered the Augustiman /j«pon»u>aJJtf«fropoZitano«3foj7Mn/.. ^rr^Co(<m..rf5a/i»frM.
Order in 1863 and was ordained priest in 1874. He JQ*/J<^ ^789); Pius IX. Const. Apott. Sed., no. 6; Ada 83.,
occupied many prominent positions in lus order cmd ^Xuthw8\:-Commentato« on the Corpus Juru at thk title;
was elected pnor general for the second term m 1895. Zbch. Hier, BccUs., XXV, De Leg. et Num.: Phillips. KtrM«n.
While in Nice, he was appointed Apostolic Delegate r*^* Ij,*^- ^^* °" ^ Torrb, De auctoritate . . ,legaton$ma
to the United States and created Archbishop, of '^^l'^i^Sul^'^u^''S'^'*^^aS^Z\ ^Jl
Ephesus m August, 1896. He was made cardinal n, cvii sqq.; and db Luisb, De jwepybl. aeu diptom. Bed,
15 April, 1901, and received the biretta 9 May of that Ca^^^l Audibio, Idm ator. e rap dMalkplam. Bedes.; Wbrni,
year in the cathedral of Baltimore from Cardinal ir.S:^^h'^^l^±TSLt^:^i^id\fr.^^.
Gibbons. The present Apostolic delegate (1909), rA« Law c//A« CAurdT (St, Louis, 1906). s. v.
Monsignor Diomede Falconio, a Franciscan, succeeded B. Cerrbtti.
LEOATZO
121
LEGENDS
Logfttio Sleulft. See Sicily.
Legend, Thb Golden. See Jacopo be Voraginb.
Le^jendfl, Litbrart or Profane. — ^In the period
of natioiml ormns history and legend are inextricably
mingled. In uie course of oral transmission historic
narrative neccfisaril}^ becomes more or less legendary.
Details are emphasised or exaggerated, actions as-
cribed to different motives, facts are forgotten or
suppressed, chronological and geographical data con-
f usfxi, and traits and motifs from older tales arc added.
Gradually this* tradition, passing from mouth to
mouth, takes on a more defimte shape and a more dis-
tinct outline, and finally it passes mto literature and
receives a permanent and fixed form. We are seldom
able to give a clear and connected account of the ori-
gin and development of a saga or legend. In most
cases the literary sources on which we depend for our
knowledge are of comparativelv late date, and even
the earliest of them present the legend in an advanced
phase of evolution. Of preceding phases we can form
an opinion <m]y through a critical analysis and com-
parison of the soiurces. In this process of reconstruc-
tion much must be left to conjecture; uncertainty
necessarily prevails, and difference of opinion is un-
avoidable.
Germanic Heroic Saga, — A brief notice of this vast
subject must suffice. The Euhemeristic method of
interpretation, which attempts to explain the sagas on
a purely historical basis, is now generally discredited.
A blending of mythic and historic elements is now
conceded te be a necessary process in all saga-forma-
tion. But the view, imtil recently generally accepted,
which interprets the mythical traits as due to the
personification and 83rmbolization of natural phe-
nomena, has b^n criticized on good grounds. No
doubt, nature symbolism plays a large r61e in myth-
ology proper, but it seems to have little, if anything,
to oo with the development of the primitive hero-tales.
llieir roots seem to lie rather in fairy-lore. Thus in the
greatest and oldest of Germam'c heroic sagas, that of
Siegfried, the nucleus is apparently a primitive Low
Gennan tale of greed and murder and cruel ven-
seanee, amplified oy motifs like those of the dragon-
fi^t and the Sleeping Beauty. Siegfried, who owns a
treasure, is murdered by his covetous brother-in-law
HiH^n. Grimhild (Kriemhild), Siegfried's widow,
marries another king, who actuated by greed, murders
TTimrpn. Grimhild in revenge murders her second hus-
band. This seems te be the bare outline of the old
tale which was combined with a new historic sasa,
traceable to the destruction of the Buigundiuns by
the Huns in 437, and the sudden death of the great
Hunnish l^uler, Attila, after his marriage to a Ger-
man princess, Bdico (i. e. Hilde), in 452. Now, when
Uie two sagas were fused, Ildico was conceived as a
Buivundian princess who slew Attila in revenge for
Uie destruction of her kin. Sweeping changes in the ac-
tion and the motives of the storv were a necessary con-
seouence of this fusion. The Norse version ('* £dda '',
" Volsungasaga") and the German version of the
"Nibelungeniied" both tell of Grimhild 's revenge.
But in the former she kills her husband, the slayer of
her brother, as in the older form of the legend; m the
latter version she kills her brothers, in revenue for the
murder of her husband (see Germany, sub-title Liter--
atwre, III).
While Siegfried is a mjrthical figure, Dietrich of
Bern is historic. He is the famous East-Gothic king,
Theodoric, who ruled over Italy (493-526). Dietrich
and Bern are the German forms of Theodoric and
Verona. The heroic figure of the king became the
centre of the great mass of Gothic tradition, and a
wbc^ cycle of sagas gathered about his name. Man^
loetd legends were <uawn into this cycle. The basic
historic facts were completely distorted in process of
legendaiy fonnation> and when the great Dietrich
saga appeared in literature, in the Old Hi^h German
" flildebrandslied '\ in numerous Middle High Gerxhan
epics (see Germany, sub-title Literature, III), and
the "Thidrekssaga" (which, though written in Norse
about 1250, is based on Low German tradition), little
that is historical remained.
Myth and history are also combined in the Beowulf
sa^a, which forms the subject of the oldest English
epic. Beowulf, a prince of the Gcdtas, comes to ndp
tne Danish king, Hrothgar, against Grendel, a fiendian
monster, who nad ravaged the Danish realm. In
two mighty combats he slays Grendel and Grendel's
mother. Ketuming, he becomes king of his people,
over whom he rules happily for fifty years. Once
more the aged hero goes forth, to battle with a fire-
breathing oragon that devastates the land. He kills
the monster, but dies of injuries sustained in the fight.
It is generally believed that the Beowulf saga is of
Scandinavian origin. But whether the enic arose in
Scandinavia or in England is a question that has not
been decided.
On the subject in general consult Symons, Germaniache
HeUUriMge in Paui*, Grundriss der GerffUiniachen PhUologie (2ml
ingen saga
una die Entwickdung der Nxhelungcneage (Hallc, 1907). The
presentation of the Kenesis of the legend given above is based on
this work. For the Dietrich saga see particularly JiBicxax«
Deutsche Heldentagen (Strasburg, 1898). For the Beowulz
saga see Stmons, op. cit., 644-651, where bibliography is given.
Leaends of Charlemagne, — It was inevitable that
Charlemagne should become the hero of romance and
legend. His actual exploits were magnified and ad-
ditional ones were invented or transferred te him from
other popular heroes, especially Frankish kings of the
same name, like Charles Martel and Charles the Bald.
The formation of legend relating to Charlemagne be-
gan even during the lifetime of tne great ruler. In the
book of the so-called Monachus ^ngallensis, which
was written after 883 on the basis of oral tradition, he
appears alreadv as a legendary figure. Among the
stories there related are those of the Iron Charles en-
tering Pa via, where the Langobardian King Deside-
rius, and Otker the Frank await his coming, and the
latter swoons at the sight of the mailed emperor; or
of the giant Eishere who, in battle against tne Slavs,
spears seven to nine heathens like frogs on the point of
his lance; of the ruthless slaughter of all those captur^
Saxons whose stature exceeded the measure of the
emperor's sword. Unlike the heroic sa^as, the
Charlemagne legends from their very inception show
an ecclesiastical tinge. In this connexion we may re*
call the canonization of Charles by the antipope
Paschal III in 1165, which, of course, never possessed
validity.
When the Franks lost their Germanic character
their hero became identified with the French nation-
ality. Stories connectetl with his name were more or
less current in various parts of Germany. It was said
that he did not die, but resided in the Odenljerg,
Hessia, or the Untersl)erg (near Salzburg), whence he
would reappear to bring back the empire to glory.
His justice also was proverl)ial, as is atteat^nl by the
story, told in German chronicles, of the serpent ringing
the bell that Charles had set up before his palace for
all those having a grievance to bring to his attention.
But he never became prominent in German literature,
whereas in France he became the very centre of the
national heroic &pop6es. His legendary deeds and
those of his pakdins were celebratc<l in numerous
epics or " Chansons de Geste " ("Chanson do Koland ",
"P^lerinage", "Aspremont", "Fierabras'', "Ogier",
" Kenaud de Montauban ", etc.) . At first these poems
were only loosely connected; later on attempts were
made at cvclic unification, resulting in such compila-
tions as the "Charlema^e" of Girard d' Amiens (c.
1300), the German "Karlmeinet", the Norwegian
" KarlamagntSssaga" and the Italian prose romance
LKOEMD8
122
UOINDS
** Real! di Francia " of Andrea dc' Magnabotti. Much
legendary mateiial is also found in chronicles, like
those of the above-mentioned monk of St. Gall, of the
monk of Saintonge, of Alberic do Trois Fontaines (c.
1250), of Philippe Mousket (c. 1241), and the German
chronicle of Enenkel.
What is related of Charlemagne in these soim^es is a
medley of fact and fiction. The story of his parents,
Pepin the Short and Bertha (in ** Berte aux grands
pieds"), is the familiar theme of virtue slandered but
m the end vindicated. To escape the persecutions of
his bastard brothers, Charles takes refuge in Toledo
with the heathen king Galafre, whose daughter Gali-
enne he marries, after he has punished his wicked
brothers and regained his father s kingdom ("Charle-
magne", "Karuneinet", "Karleto''^ "Cronica gen-
eral"). Possibly this reflects hbtoncal events from
the period of Charles Martel, who was of illegitimate
birth, and experienced difficulties in his accession to
the tnrone. At anv rate, Pepin and Berthn are his-
toric personages. Wholly fabulous, however, is the
story of the pilgrimage imdertaken by the emperor
and his peers to the Holy Land, whence thev oring
back the Passion relics, which were deposited in the
Qiurch of St. Denis. Probably the legend arose in
connexion with these relics, which were actually pre-
sented by the Patriarch of Jerusalem about 800.
In the poems and romances that deal with the wars
of Charlemagne in Spain [(778) " Chanson de Roland "]
and Italy [(773) ^Ogier", "Fierabras", "Aspre-
mont "] the principal r61e is assigned not to Charles, but
to his paladins (Roland, Olivier, Turpin) or vassals
(sons of Aimon, Ogier). The Saxon wars have left
little trace in French poetry [Bodel's "Saisnes" (c.
1200), and an older *' Guitalin , known only from the
Norse version in the "Karlamagnussaga"]. In Ger-
many their memory is preserved by many a legend
concerning the heroic Widukind (Wittekind). In
French versions the conversion of the Saxon chieftain
is represented as insincere and of short duration, in
German legend, on the contrary, it is glorified by mir-
acle. While Widukind in the disguise of a beggar at-
tends the Easter celebration in the Prankish camp, he
sees the image of the Christ-Child at the moment of the
elevation of the Host during Mass, and his conversion
is the result (Grimm, "Deutsche Sagen", 448). In a
narrative of the life of the Empress Mathilde (974)
Widukind is made to fight in single combat with
Charles, and on being defeated turns Christian. The
French version also knows of this combat, but here
Guiteclin is killed. The name of Frankfort (the ford
of the Franks) is explained by a German legend which
relates how the hani-pressed Franks were saved by a
hind that showed them a place where they could cross
the River Main in safety (Grimm, op. cit., 449).
In the older French epics, devoted to the glorifica-
tion of royalty, Charlemagne is represented as the in-
carnation of majestv, valour, and justice, the cham-
pion of God's Churcfc against the infidel. In the later
epics, the so-called feudal rpop^e ("Ogier", "Renaud
de Montauban", "Doon de Mayence", etc.), which
reflect the historic struggles of the monarchy with tur-
bulent vassals, the great emperor appears in quite a
different light, as a vindictive tyrant and unjust op-
pressor. Nor does he appear to advantage in the vari-
ous legends that tell of his love affairs, among which is
the well-known German legend of his attachment to a
dead woman due to the magic power of a jewel hidden
in her mouth. This legend was localized at Aachen.
A courtier who had gained possession of the talisman
dropped it in a hot spring. Henceforth the emperor
felt an irresistible love for this spot and caused
Aachen to be built there.
Through French me<liation the Carlovingian ro-
mances came to other nations. In England, Caxton
publishe<l " The Lyfe of Charles the Crete " (1485) and
The four sonnes of Aymon" (I486). Lord Bemers
translated "Huon of Bordeaux" in 1534. In Ger^
many the "Rolandslied" of Konrad der Pfaffe. the
poem of Strieker (thirteenth century), the "Karl-
meinet" (fourteenth century), and the chap-books of
the fifteenth century, in Scandinavia the " Karlamag-
ni!i8saga" (c. 1300), in the Netherlands numerous
translations like "Carel ende Elegast" show the
spread of the Charlemagne legend. In Italy, it was
especially favoured. There it inspired the Franco-
Italian epics and the bulky romance of Magnabotti,
and culminated in the famous chivalric epics of Bci-
ardo and Ariosto.
Paris, Ilialoire poHiqme de CharUmagne (Paris, 1805; 2nd
ed., 1905); L6on Oautxsb, Let Epopieg fran^xiues. III (2iid
cd., Paris, 1888-1897); GafiBER in (frundriaa der romani*chen
Phitoloate, II (Strasburg, 1902). 1. 461-469; 538-552; Becker.
Orundrisa der altfranxoaitehen Lileratur. I (HoidelbexSi 1907),
62-92. Many ot the legends, particularly those current in
German^', are found in Grimm, ueutsche Sagen (4 th ed., Berlin,
1905) , nos. 22, 26-28, 437^54. See also KOoel. OeBchiehU der
deutaehen LUteratur, 1 (Strasbuxg, 1894). pt. II. 220-230.
Roland, — Of the paladins, usually twelve in number,
with whom legend surrounds Charlemagne, the most
famous is Roland, whose heroic death forms the theme
of the "Chanson de Roland" (c. 1080). This poem
relates how the rear-^uard of the Frankish army, re-
turning from a victonous campaign against the Sara-
cens in Spain, is treacherously surprised by the enemy
at Roncevaux, and how Roland, OUvier^ and Turpin,
after incredible deeds of valour, are slain before the
emperor arrives to bring help. The events narrated
here have a historical basis; the battle of Roncevaux
(Roncesvalles) actually took place on 15 August, 778.
According to Einhard (Vita Caroli Magni, IX) the
Frankish rear-guard was cut to pieces by Basque
marauders, among the slain being Hruodlandus, pre-
fect of the Alarch of Brittany. In the poem the defeat
is laid to the treason of Ganclon; the vengeance which
the emperor exacts from the enemy and the punish-
ment of the traitor are vividly narrated. Tne legend
represents Roland as Charlemagne's nephew, the son
of the emperor's sister Bertha and of Duke Milo of
Aglant. The story of their romantic love, their quar-
rel with the emperor, and their ultimate reconciliation
to him figures prominently in Italian versions ("Reali
di Francia"). Roland is a paraxon of knightly virtue.
Quite young he distinguishes himself in wars against
the Saracens in Italy (*' Aspremont") and the Saxons,
in both campaigns saving his uncle from tlu*eatened
disaster.
In Italian literature Roland becomes the chief hero
of the chivalric &pop^e represented at its best by
Pulci's "Morgante maggiore" (1482), Boiardo's "Or-
lando innamorato'' (I486), and Ariosto's "Orlando
Furioso" (1516). In Spain the tradition underwent a
complete change; the defeat of the Franks was re-
garded as a Spanish victory, and the real hero of Ron-
cevaux is the national champion, Bemaldo del Carpio.
Roland's opponent. The German poem of Konraa
der Pfaflfe nas been mentioned al)Ove.
Paris, op. cit., 250-285, 406^14, 415; see also his essay Ron-
cevaux in L^endes du moyen dge (Paris, 1903), 1-63.
Genevil've (Genove/a) of Brabant. — This legend may
be discussed in connexion with the Carlovingian cycle,
inasmuch as the events therein related are usually as-
signed to the eighth ccnturv, to the period of the wars
of Charles Mart<;l against tfie Saracens. It has for its
theme the familiar stor}' of persecut<?d innocence, and
is therefore closely akin to the legends of Griseldis, Hil-
de^rd, Hirlanda of Brittany, and other heroines of
suffering. According to the usual version, Genevidve
Is the wife of the Count Palatine Siegfried, residing in
the region of Trier. When he is call^ away on an ex-
pedition against the infidels, he entrusts his wife and
castle to the care of his major-domo Golo. Inflamed
with sinful passion, Crolo makes advances to the coun-
tess, and on being repulsed, falsely accuses her to her
ttl )sent lord of adultery. The count sends word to put
123
LEOENDB
bis wife and her new-born son to death, and Golo bids
two servants execute this command. But moved
by pity they let her ro, and she takes refuge in a cave in
the Ardennes together with her child, who is miracu-
lously suckled bv a roe. At the end of six years Count
Signed, who has in the meantime repented of his
rash deed, is led to this cave while pursuing the roe,
and a happv reunion is the result. Golo dies a trai-
tor's death, nis limbs being torn asunder by four oxen.
The legend adds that a chapel was built and dedicated
to Our Lady at the \ery spot where the cave was. It
is the Chapel of Frauenkirchen, near Laach, and there
Genevieve is said to be buried.
The origin of the legend is wholly unknown. The
oldest versions are found in manuscript dating from
the fifteenth centur>', most of them hailing from
Laach. An account was written in 1472 by Matthias
Emichius (Emmich) a C'armelite friar, later auxiliary
Bishop of Mainz. The learned antiquarian Marquard
Freher appended a version of the legend drawn from a
Laach manuscript to his*'Origines Palatinse" (1G13).
The legend is told in connexion with the foundation
of the chapel of Frauenkirchen. In all these versions
the time of action is that of a Bishop Hildulf of Trier.
But no such bishop is known. Nor is it possible to
identify Genevieve with any historic personage. As
for Signed, there were several counts of that name,
but nothing is known of them to permit of an identifi-
cation. An historical basis for the legend has not been
foimd. The ar^iunents for a mvthical origin are fu-
tile. So the opmion has been advanced (])y Seuffert)
that the legend is the fabrication of a monk from the
monastery of Laach, and dates from the fourteenth
century.
The fame of the story" is due to the work of the
French Jesuit Ren^ de Cerisiers. His book, entitled
•' L'Innocence reconnue ou Vie de Sainte Genevieve de
Brabant", won immediate popularity. The oldest
datable edition is from 1638. Two years later this
stonr, together with those of Jeanne d'Arc and Hir-
landa, was reprinted in *' Les trois ^tats de I'innocence
afflig^'^ etc. • In Cerisiers* version the legend has
been considerably amplified; its pious character is em-
phasised, especially through the copious introduction
of miracles. Here also the child receives the Biblical
name Benoni (i. e. son of my sorrow. Gen., xxxv, 18)
whence the " Schmerzenreich " of the German version.
Reference to Charles Martel fixed the eighth century
as the time of action.
Cerisiers' work inspired a number of Dutch and
German books on the legend, in all of which the ma-
terial is treated with more or less freedom. The au-
thors of the first two German versions are Jesuits;
these versions were followed bv the ^'Auserlesenes
Histoiy-Buch" (Dillingen, 1G87) of Father Martin of
Cochem (d. 1712), a Capuchin friar. Here the story
of St. Genevieve is given among a number of pious
legends, and it was tnis version that made the legend
popular in Germany, where it became the subject of
chap-books. Some of these books base their accoimt
on Dutch versions, the first of which had appeared in
1645. In these Protestant influence is unmistakable;
the miracles, already ciu-tailed in the German version,
are here completely expunged. Of English versions
we have at least two, one of which "The Triumphant
Lady, or the Crowned Innocence" (Ix)ndon, 1654) is
by Sir W. Lower.
Saukbborn, Oe^AiehU der Pfalzgrufin Genovefa vnd der Ka-
pdU Frauenkirchen (Rfttisbon, 1856;; i^Kvrvr.KT, Die Legende
von der P/dlzprflfin Uenovefa (WQrabuxTK, 1877); Goi^, Pfalz-
grikfin Oenave/a in der deutsehen Dichtung (Leipzig, 1897).
Arthur (Artus)^ a famous legendary King of the Bri-
tons, the central figure of a great medieval cycle of
romance. His court is represented as a model court
for the cultivation of every knightly virt ue. He him-
self presides ovBrtbe famous Round^al)le. about which
19 assembled % band of ohosen knights. The adven-
tures of these knights form the subject-matter of the
numerous romances of the Arthurian cvcle.
The history of the oriffin and development of the
Arthurian legend is not clear. The verj' existence of
Arthur has been doubted, and attempts have been
made to reduce him to a myth. But it is now well
known that he was an historic figure, a British chieftain
of the end of the fifth and the oeginning of the sixth
century a. d., who championed the cause of the
native Britons against the foreign invaders, especially
the Angles and Saxons. The oldest British chronicler
of Wales, Gildajs, in his "De Excidio Britannia)" (c.
540) knows of the great victory of the Britons at Mount
Badon, but makes no mention of Arthur. The first
record of him is found in the "Historia Brittonum"
(written 796) , ascribed to Nennius. There he appears
already as a legendary figure, the champion of an op-
pressed people against the cruel invaders, whom he de-
feats in twelve great battles, the last being fought at
Mons Badonis, So by the end of the eighth century the
legend of a great champion was already current among
the Celtic population of the British Isles and Brittany,
and this legend was further developed and amplified
by the addition of new legendary traits. It received
its literaiy form in the " Historia regimi Brittannise*',
a Latin chronicle, written between 1118 and 1135 by
the Welsh monk Gwifrey (Galfridus, Gruffydd) of
Monmouth. This work, purporting to give a histoiy
of the British kings from the mythical Brutus to Cad-
wallo (689) , is a curious medley of fact and fable. The
exploits related of Arthur are whollv fabulous. His
father is Uther Pendragon (Uther dragon-head), his
moiher Igema, wife of the Duke of Cornwall. Merlin
the Wizard by a trick has effected their union. Arthur
becomes ruler at the age of fifteen and at once enters
upon his career of victory by defeating the Saxons.
He marries Guanhumara (Gwenhwyvar. Ginevra, Gui-
nevere) and establishes a court the lame of which
spreads far and wide. In a series of wars he conquers
Scotland, Ireland, Norway, and Gaul. Finally he
makes war against Rome, but, though victorious, is
compelled to turn back to protect his wife and king-
dom from the treacherous designs of his nephew Mor-
dred. In the battle of Camlan (Cambula) tne latter is
killed, but Arthur, too, is mortally wounded and mys-
teriously removed to the Isle of Avalon, whence he will
reappear (so other chronicles relate), some day to re-
store his people to power.
It is not known with certainty what sources Godfrey
used. Probably he drew his information from Welsh
chronicles, as well as from oral tradition preserved
by Breton story-tellers. Much, also, is his own inven-
tion. The work won immediate favour, and became the
basis of several other rhj-med chronicles, such as the
"Brut" of Wace (or Gace) written about 1157, and
that of Layamon (c. 1200), the first English work in
which the legend of Arthur appears. In Godfrey's
histon' mention is made of Arthur's court as far-
famcd, but the first explicit reference to the lioimd
Table is found in Wace's "Brut". From this refer-
ence it is perfectly clear that this legendary institution
was already well known in Brittany when vVace wrote.
At a later period, when the Grail legend was fused
with that of Arthur, the Round Table was identified
with the Grail table instituted by Joseph of Arima-
thea, and was then said to have been founded by
ITther Pendragon at the suggestion of Meriin (so in the
Grail romance of Robertr de Boron).
Towards the end of the twelfth century the Arthur-
ian legend makes its appearance in French literature
in the epics of C'hrestien de Troyes. How this material,
the inatirre de Bretagne, was transmitted, is one of the
most diflicult and disputetl questions in connexion
with the history of medieval I rench literature. It is
admitted that Godfrey and the chroniclers cannot
liave been the only sources; the subject matter of the
romances is too varieil for that, and points to the in-
LEGENDS
124
LEGENDS
fluenoe of popular tradition. Moreover, the material
has been entirely transformed under the influence of
the ideals of knight-errantrv and courtly love. These
deeds dominated all the Arthurian romances, and gave
them their immense vogue with the poUte society of
the Middle Ages. Arthur plays but a pajssive role in
them; the c^ef stress falls on the adventures of the
Knights of the Table Round. Of these Gawain
(Gwalchmai, Gauvain) already figured prominently in
the history of Godfrey, where he is called Walgannus.
Perceval, the Peredur of Welsh folk-tales and of God-
frey, has become especially famous as the hero of the
Quest of the Holy Grail. Originally his legend, like
tnat of the Grail, was whoUy independent of that of
Arthur (for the Perceval legend see Grail, The Holt).
Other famous legendary heroes like Lancelot and
Tristram were also joined to the company of the Table
Hound, and their legends likewise mcorporated into
that of Artliur. So the great cycle of Arthurian
romances gradually came into existence.
Through French mediation these romances spread
through Europe. In Germany they inspired the
courtly epics (see Germany, sub-title Literature ^ III).
They also came to Italj', Spain, and Norway. In
England Sir Thomas Malory gatnered them and used
them for his famous prose romance "Morte Arthure"
(finished 1470, printed by Caxton, 1485). To Malorv
the legend of Arthur owes its popularity in England.
Its influence is felt in Spenser's " Faerie Queene", and
Milton, as is well known, thought of writing an Eng-
lish Arthuriad. In modem times Tennyson has re-
vived the legend in his " Idylls of the King".
Consult the bibliography appended to the article on the Holy
Grail. Many of the works there cit«d treat abo of the Arthu-
rian legend. See abo Zimmer, Nennius vindicatua (Berlin,
1893)
legend.
; llHTS,
Studies in the Arthurian Legend (Oxford. 1891);
Newell, King A rthur and the Table Round (Boston, 1897). On
the question of the origin of the " mati^re de Brctagne " see Vor-
BTESCH, Einfijhrung in das Studium der altfranzdsiKhen Literatur
(Halle, 1905), 339-352, where the literature of the subject is
fliven in full. Useful also for the later literature is Maccallum,
Tennyson* 8 Idylls of the Kinff an '
teenth Century (Glasgow, 1894).
ennyson*s Idylls of the King and Arthurian Story from the Six-
Tristan and Isolde. — Among the knights of Arthur
appears also Tristan (Tristram), whose love for Isolde
and its tragic end are the subject of some of the most
famous romances in literature. Here, too, we have an
originally independent legend of Celtic origin, but
elaborated by French poets into a love romance. The
names Tristan and Mark point to Celtic heroic saga as
the root of the story — Drust or Drustan as a name of
Pictish kings can be traced as far back as the eighth cen-
tury. The name of Morholt is probably Germanic; so
is Isold (i. e. Iswalda) or Isclt (i.e. Ishilt). These Ger-
manic elements date from the period of Viking rule in
Dublin during the ninth and tenth centuries. The
legend, no doubt, took shape in Britain and then wan-
dered to Brittany, experiencing in the course of its
development various modifications. New motifs, like
that of the love potion, the story of the vicarious woo-
ing, the trick whereby Isolde successfully imdergoes
the ordeal, were added. They are familiar from
story-literature. Other motifs, such as the ship with
black sails, are clearly traceable to antique romance,
in this case to the Theseus legend. By tlie middle of
the twelfth century a full-fledged Tristan romance
existed, but the literary versions that we possess are of
a later date. It is known that Chrestien de Troyes
wrote a poem about Mark and Isolde, but it is lost.
The French versions extant are those of B&rol, a Bre-
ton jongleur, or glee-man, and of Thomas, an Anglo-
Norman trouvbre, who wrote between 1160 and 1170.
B^rol's version, the date of which is a matter of dis-
pute, is the basis of the German "Tristan" of Eilhard
von Oberg, while Gottfried von Strassburg followed
Thomas. Both versions agree for the main traits of
the legend, however much they differ in detail.
For the content of the legend and its bibliography see the
article on Gottfuied von Strassburo.
Lohengrin, the Knight of the Stoan, — ^In Wolfram's
''Parzival", where a brief outline of the story of
Lohengrin is given at the close, the legend appears as
a part of the Grail cycle, and therefore also of the Ar-
thurian cycle. But originally it was wholly inde-
pendent of both. In the oldest literary versions, the
French poems of the " Chevalier au cygne " (the ear-
liest dates from the beginning of the Uiirteenth cen-
tury), the tale of the ICmght of the Swan is connected
with Godfrey of BouiUon, and the French poems them-
selves are part of an epic cycle dealing with the Cru-
sades. How this connexion came about is not known.
But it was certainly well known by the end of the
twelfth century, as is proved by an allusion to it in the
history of the Crusades written by Bishop William ol
Tyre (d. about 1184). The purpose was evidently to
glorify the House of Bouillon by ascribing to it a super-
natural origin. The story as given in the FiBnch
poems is as follows: before Emperor Otto hokiing
court at Nymwegen the Duchess of Bouillon pleads
for justice against the Saxon Duke Renier, who has
maae grave charges against her. She cannot find a
champion to prove her innocence in single combat,
when suddenly an unknown knight appears in a skin
drawn by a swan. He defeats her opponent and
marries her daughter Beatris. But he miiposes the
condition that his wife must never ask his name or
lineage. When, after seven years of wedded life, she
breaks this command, the unknown knight leaves her.
A daughter named Ida has resulted from this union.
She marries Count Eustache of Boulogne and be-
comes the mother of Godfrey of Bouillon.
The kernel of this legend seems to be an old genea-
logical myth, such as that told of Scyld in " Beowulf "•
A mysterious stranger arrives in a rudderless ship
among a people, becomes their ruler and the ancestor
of the reigning house. When his time is fulfilled, he
departs as mysteriously as he has come. Such a myth
was current among Germanic tribes inhabiting the
sea-coast. Possibly the mysterious stranger originally
was a solar deity and the swan a s3rmbol of the cloud.
The story was designed to show the divine descent ol
the ruling house. Its origin, whether Celtic or Ger-
manic, is in dispute. The theme of the Lohengrin
legend, the union between a supernatural being and a
mortal, is of frequent recurrence in mythology and
folk-lore.
With the tale of the swan-knight was combined an
old Germanic fairy tale of some children changed into
swans by the evil arts of a wicked stepmother. Only
the little girl escapes, and becomes the means of res-
cuing her brothers. This story is familiar to readers
of Grimm's fairy tales. In the French poems on this
subject, the children are the offspring of a union be-
tween a king and a fairy, and the king's mother plays
the villain's part. Their transformation into swans is
the result of their being deprived of the necklaces which
they had when they were bom. When these are re-
stored they regain their human form, all but one, who
has lost his necklace. He remains a swan and hence-
forth draws the skiff of his brother, who is therefore
called the knight of the swan. It is clear that this
story was add^ to account for the mysterious origin
of the hero. Its earliest literary record occurs in the
Latin romance "Dolopathos", a collection of stories,
mostly of Oriental origin, written by Jean de Haute-
seille (Johannes de Alta Silva) at the beginning of the
thirteenth century. Here the characters are as yet
imnamcd. In the French poem known as "Elioxe"
(end of twelfth century) the hero is a king named
Lothair, the fairy is called Elioxe TEliouse). In the
versions of the "Chevalier au cygne the king's name
is Oriant, his wife is called Beatris, his mother
Matabrune.
Through French mediation the legend passed into
other lands. In England we have the poem of the
"Chevalero Assigne" and the prose romanoe of " llcl-
L1GC1ID8
125
LEOENDS
yas, Knifl^t of the Swan " (edited by ThomB in *' Early
English Prose Romances ' ' ) . In Spain the legend was
incorporated in the ''Gran Conquista de Ultramar"
(xlvii sq.). There are also versions in Italy and Ice-
land. Of special interest is the development of the
legend in Germany.
In the French versions the swan-knight is called
Hellas (Elie). In Konrad von Warzburg's epic ''Der
Schwanritter" (c. 1260) he remains unnamed. The
lady in distress is the Duchess of Brabant, the em-
peror is Charlemagne. The swan-knight is not the
ancestor of Godfrey of Bouillon, but of the dukes of
Cleves. Konrad's version is based on an unknown
French source. So is the brief outline given by Wolf-
ram at the close of his " Parzival". There the legend
is connected with that of the Grail in that the hero is
the son of Parzival, the Grail-king. Here also he is
called Loherangrin (i. e. Loherene Garin, Garin the
Lotharingian). The duchess is Elsa of Brabant.
Whether these changes in names are Wolfram's own,
or whether they were in his French source cannot be
decided. On tne basis of Wolfram's outline, but am-
I^ified and expanded by the introduction of wholly
extraneous matter, arose between 1283 and 1290 the
bulky German epic " Lohengrin", the work, it seems,
of two different authors, but unknown. Tne Lohen-
grin story is here a mere episode of the legendary min-
strel contest held at the Wartburg castle and is put
into the mouth of Wolfram himself. The accuser is here
Count Friedrich Telramund, the emperor is Henry I
the Fowler, and a Duchess of Cleves instigates Elsa to
put the forbidden question. We see that in German
versions Cleves figures in the legend; in fact, in some
chronicles the scene of action is laid there (see Grimm,
" Deut-sche Sagen ", 4th ed., ed. Steig, Berlin, 1905, no.
535), and the date given is 711. Fantastic continua-
tions are found in the poem called ''Der jUngere
Titurel " (c. 1260) and in tne bulky versified narrative
of Ulrich FUctrer "Buch der Abenteue" (written c.
1490). According to the account there given^ Lohen-
grin sallies forth a second time, and comes to Lyzabori
(Luxemburg) where he marries the Princess Belaye.
An attempt is made on his life by her jealous relatives,
and, though it is repulsed, Lohengrin succumbs to a
wound received in the struggle. His wife dies of grief.
GoLTHBR in Roman\9che Fonchungen (1890), V, 103-136;
Todd, preface to La Naisaance du Chevalier au Cyqne in
Publication of the Modem Languape Asaociation of America, IV
(Baltimore. 1889); Munckeb. Die Dichtung dee Lohengrin von
Riekard Wagner und ihre Quellen in BeHage zur Allgemeinen
Ztitung (1891). no. 148; Panskb, Lohenhrinatudien (Halle.
1894); BLdra In ZeUachHft far romamsche PhUologie, XXI
(1897), 170 sq.; Idbu in Zeitschrift far deiUachea AUertum,
XUI (1898), 1 sq.
Tannhduser. — This legend, as related in German
folk-songs of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
and their variants in Low German, Dutch, and Dan-
ish, is as follows: Tannh&user, a minstrel knight, en-
ters the mountain of Venus, a sort of subterranean
paradise where the heathen goddess holds her volup-
tuous court, and for a ^ear he revels in its unholy
pleasures. Then a longmg seizes upon him to return
to earth, and when^ through the aid of Mary, whom he
invokes, his wish is realized, he hastens to Rome to
implore pardon for his sin from Pope Urban IV. This
ihe pope refuses to grant; TannMuser cannot be
saved any more than the staff in the pontiff's hand can
put forth fresh leaves. In despair tne knight returns
to the mountain of Venus and is not seen again. Soon
after, the staff bursts into blossom and now messen-
gers are sent to seek the knight, but too late.
No doubt we have here a tale of originally heathen
character^ subsequently Christianized. Its theme is
the famihar story of the seduction of a human being
by an elf or fairy. But all the delights of the fairy-
realm cannot make him f or^t his earthly home, for
which he longs. His desire is granted^ but he is not
happy, and in tlie end returns to the f airy-laad. This
moil/ is a commonplace in folk-lore literature. In the
German legend the seductive fairy is identified with
the ancient goddess of love, and the story is given a
distinctly religious colour through the introduction of
the pilgrimage of the repentant sinner to Rome. The
motif of the withered staff bursting into blossom has
also manv parallels in sacred legend, and is evidently
a later addition. How the legend came to assume the
form outlined above can only be surmised. Of the
poems that we possess on the subject none dates fur-
ther back than the middle of the fifteenth century.
The famous Volkalied that gives the above version is
from the sixteenth century. A passage in Hermann
von Sachsenheun's poem, "Die Morin" proves that
the legend, with its essential traits, was already known
in 1453 when the poem was written. There Tann-
hiluser is referred to as the husband of Dame Venus.
Now the historical Tannhiiuser was a Minnesinger of
the thirteenth century, who seems to have led a roving
life, in the course of which he experienced many
changes of fortune. His checquered career is reflected
in his poems, which exhibit a strange mingling of dis-
solute boasting and pious sentiment. In one poem
ascribed to him, repentance is expressed for foolish
and sinful living, and this poem is supposed to be re-
sponsible for his appearing in the legend in the role of
tne penitent knignt. But this is purely conjectural.
As a matter of fact, the only connexion between the
legendary and historical Tannhiiuser is the identity
of name.
It is noteworthy that a legend strikingly similar to
that of Tannhauser is attached in Italy to the Monte
della SibiUa, near Norcia. It is related at length by
Antoine de La Sale in his " Salade ", written between
1438 and 1442. He visited the sibyl's cave in 1420, and
heard the storv from the people of the neighbouring
region. A still earlier reference to the legend is found
in the famous romance "Guerino il meschino" of
Andrea dei Magnabotti (1391). The Italian version
knows that the cavalier entering the cave is a German,
but does not mention his name; the queen of the sub-
terranean paradise is the Sibyl of ancient prophetic
fame, transformed into the goddess of pleasure. In
view of these parallels which antedate the appearance
of the legend m German literature, Gaston Paris dis-
putes the German origin of the Tannhiiuser legend,
and regards Italy as its home. Its ultimate source he
finds in Celtic folk-lore. But this cannot be proved,
since the earlier history of the legend is not attested by
any extant literary monuments either in Italy or in
Germany. It is to be noted that in the German ver-
sion there is a distinct tone of hostility to the papacy,
wholly lacking in the Italian variants. In fact the
miracle of the blossoming staff is a pointed reproof of
the pope's harshness. This can readily be explained if
the legend developed in Germany, where antipapal
feeling was strong after the days of the Hohen-
staufens. The dominant idea of the legend is the
glorification of God's infinite mercy to sinners. But
this ideal is set forth in a spirit most unfriendly to the
(IJhurch. The attitude ascribed to the pope by the
Volkslied is wholly contrary to Catholic cloctrine.
Qrasse, Der Tannhduaer unk ewige Jude (Dresden, 1861);
VON ScHLEiNiTC, Wagner'a Tannhtiuacr und Sdngcrkrieg aufder
Wartburg (Meran, 1891), especiallv 127-178; Golther, Ge-
achichte der Tannhduaer-Sage und Dichtung in Bajfreuther
Taachenkdlender (1801). 829 sq.; Schmidt, TannhAuaer in Sage
und Dichtung in Nord und Siid (Xov., 1802); SOderhjelm,
Antoine de La Sale et la U-gende deTannhAuxer in Mimoiren de la
aociH* nfo-Philologiqueh Ilelaingfora. II (1897), 101-167; Paris.
Lfgendea du Moyen Age ^Paria, 1003), 111-145; RBrHCHSL,
Die Tannh'iwtcrttaoe in Ar>//' Jnhrbiirher fiir dan KlaasiitcAe
AUertum, Geachichte und dtutache Liie^ni*^. XIII (LeipziK.
1904), 653-667.
Robert ihe Devil. — God's boundless grace to sinners
is also the theme of this legend as prf aented in French
romances. Robert is the devil's own child, for his
mother, despairing of heaven's aiJ in order to obtain a
son, has addressed herself to the devil. From th0
LEGENDS
120
LEOEUDS
moment of his birth the boy shows his vicious instincts,
which urge hin, when grown to manliood, to a career
of monstrous crime. At 'last the horror which lie in-
spires everywhei« causes him to reflect, and, having
found out the awful secret of his birth, he hastens to
Rome to confess to the pope. He undergoes the most
rigorous penance, living in the disguise of a fool at the
emperor's court in Rome. Three times he delivers the
city from the assault of the Saracens, but, refusing all
reward, he ends bis life as a pious hermit. According
to another version he marries the emperor's daughter,
whose love he has won in his humble disguise, and suc-
ceeds to the throne.
The oldest known account of this legend is a Latin
prose narrative by a Dominican friar, Etienne de Bour^
Don (c. 1250). Then it appears in a French metrical
romance of the thirteenth century, also in a dit of
somewhat later date, and in a miracle play of the four-
teenth centvuy . A French prose version was also pr^
fixed to the old "Croniques de Normandie" (probably
of the thirteenth century). But the legend owes its
popularity to the 8tor>'-l)ooks, of which the earliest
known appeared at Lyons in 1496, and again at Paris
in 1497. under the title " La vie du terrible Robert le
dvable' . Since the sixteenth century the legend was
often printed together with that of Richard sans Peur ;
it was published in completely recast form in 1769
under tne title " HLstoire de Robert le Diable, due de
Normandie, et de Richard Sans Peur, son fils."
From France the legend spread to Spain, where it
was very popular. In England the subject was
treated in the metrical romance, "Sir Gowther", the
work of an unknown minstrel of the fifteenth century.
An English translation from the French chap-book
was made by WjTikyn de Worde, Caxton's assist-ant,
and published without date under the title " Robert
deuyll" (reprinted inThoms, " Early English Prose Ro-
mances", London and New York, 1907). Another vei^
sion, not based on the preceding, was given by Thomas
Lodge in his book on "Robin the Divell" (London,
1591). In the Netherlands the romance of Rol)recht
den Duv^-el was put on the index of forbidden books
by the feishop of Antwerp (1621). In Germany the
legend never attained much of a vogue; not until the
nineteenth century did it pass into the Volkshucher,
being introduced by Gdrres (q. v.). It was treated in
epic form by Victor von Strauss (1854), in dramatic
form by Raupach (1835) . Meyerbeer's opera " Robert
le Diable" (1831) enjoyed great favour for a time.
The libretto, written by Scribe and Delavigne, has
little in conmion with the legend except the name of
the hero.
Du M^iRiL, La Ifgendt de Robert le Diable in Etudes aur
quelques points d'arch/i)loQie et d'hisUnre lUtfraire (1862),
272-317; introduction to Breul, Sir Qowlher (Oppeln, 1886).
In this book a complete bibliography ia given. See also the in-
troduction to LdscTH's edition of Robert le Diable (Paris, 1903).
The Wandering Jew. — ^This legend has been widely
popular ever since its first appearance in a German
chap-book of 1602. There it is told as follows: When
Jesus bore his Cross to Calvary, he passed the house of
a cobbler, Ahasuerus by name, who had been one of
the rabble to shout, " Crucify him." Sinking beneath
his burden, Jesus stopped to rest at the threshold of
the cobbler, but was driven away with the words;
*'Go where thou belongest." Thereupon Gur Lord
gazed sternly at Ahasuerus and said: "I will stand
here and rest, but thou shalt go on until the last day."
And since then the Jew has l)een roaming restlessly
over the earth.
The first lit^raiy record of such a doomed wanderer
is found in the "Floras Historiarum", a chronicle of
Roger of Wend over, a monk of St. Albans (d. 1237).
The account there given was incorporated with some
slight amplifications into the "Historia Major" of
Matthew Paris (d. 1259). The story is told on the
authority of an Armenian bishop who visited England
in 122S and had personally known the doomed
man. According to this version, Cartaphilus, a door-
keeper at Pilate's mansion, saw Jesus as he was led
fortn to be crucified and struck him contemptuously,
crying at the same time: "Go Jesus, go faster, why
dost thou linger ? " Whereupon Jesus replied : " I go,
but thou shalt wait till I come." And so the offender
has not been able to die, but still waits for the com-
ing of Christ. He is leading a quiet, saintly life.
Whenever he reaches the age of a hundred years he is
miraculously restored to the age of thirty. Since his
conversion to Christianity his name is Joseph. A similar
version, also on the authority of the Armenian bishop,
is given by the Flemish chronicler, Philippe Mousket,
Bishop of Toumai (about 1243). No doubt, this
version is the basis for the story given in the chap'
books.
Now the legend is surely not the invention of the
Armenian bishop, as has been sometimes claimed. It
was well known m Italy during the thirteenth century,
and must liave existed long before that. According
to the astrologer Guido Bonatti, who is mentioned by
Dante (Inf., xx, 118), the wanderer passed tlirougjn
Forli in 1267. PliiUp of Novara, a famous jurist, in
his "Livre de Fonne de Plait" (c. 1250), refers to a
certain Jehan Boute Dieu as one proverbially long-
lived. Now Philip resided for a long time in Jeru-
salem and Cyprus ; this, together with the fact that the
account in the English chronicles also localizes Carta-
philus in Armenia, seems to point to an Oriental origin
for the legend. Probably it was part of a local cycle
that sprang up in Jerusalem in connexion with the
Passion, and was brought to Europe by crusaders or
pilgrims. A legend of a surviving witness of the
Crucifixion, who is represented as the victim of a
curse, was certainly current in Jerusalem, and is re-
peateidly referred to in accounts of travels to the Holy
Land . The name of the accursed wanderer is generally
given as Joannes Buttadeus, in ItaUan as Bottadio,
which evidently means " God-smiter". An old Ital-
ian legend knows of a similar punishment inflicted on
the soldier who struck Christ before the High Priest
(John, xvili, 22), and later on this soldier was identi-
fied with Malchus whose ear was cut off by Peter.
This legend was furthermore confused, it seems, with
one current about St. John, to whom tradition as-
cribed immortality on the basis of a passage in John,
xxi, 20 sqq. The names Johannes and Cartaphilus
(Kdfyra 4>L\os "much beloved"), given to the wanderer,
lend some colour to this theory.
But, whatever its origin, tne legend owes its fame
and popularity to the above-mentioned German chap-
book, which appeared anonymously in 1602 under the
title: "Kurtze Beschreibung und Erzehlung von
einem Juden mit Namen Ahas^'•erus ", etc. There the
story is related on the authority of a Lutheran clergy-
man, Paul us von Eitzen (d. i598), who claimed to
have met the Jew in person in Hamburg in 1542, and
to have heard the story from Ahasuerus himself. In a
later edition of 1003, " Wunderbarlicher Bericht von
Einem Juden Ahasver", etc., where the anonymous
author assumes the pen-name of Chrj'sostomus Uudu-
Iffius Westphalus, the meeting is assigned to the year
1547, and in an appendix the fate of the Jew is made
the subject of an exhortation to the Christian reader.
The legend at once sprang into popular favour, and
numerous editions followed. Prom Germany it
spread to Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, and es-
pecially to France, where it nas enjoyed a great vogue
up to the present. The best-known French version is
the "Histoire admirable d'un Juif Errant" dating
from the seventeenth century. Here a tragic touch is
added by the recital of the dangers which the Jew
courts ill the vain hope of ending nis misery in death.
Stories of the actual appearance of the Jew also began
to be common, many of them, no doubt, traceable to
impostors who played the r61e with succew. Of such
£',
127 LBOKHDS
a on« «« have a well autlienticatcd record from Italy ^^o^sd from his quiver, avows that hod Ue mjured tlie
in 1415, child he would have pierced the governor. He is put
Various namee are K>ven to the Waudering Jew in on board a ship to be traiviporC«d to Kttssnacht, but a
diSereitt countries. The Englisli chroniciea call him etonn coming up, he escapea, and eventually iiberat«
Cartapldlus. The Italian form is Bottadio, and this his country. This in brief ia the legend. As early as
correBpouds to Boudedeo in Brittany and Bedeua in 1607 ita truth was questioned on the ground that not
Saxon Transylvania. In Belgium he is known as Isaac the slightest documentary proof of Tell's existence
Laquedem, probably a name of Hebrew origin. In could be found. Swiaspatriotism, however, for a long
Spam his name has undergone the significant change time ailenced scepticism, until the work of scholars «
to Juan E«pera-en-Dios (John Trust-in-God). Why theninetcenthcenturj-separatedfact from fiction and
the German version calls him Ahaaverus is not clear, consigned Tell's exploit to the realm of fable.
This name is familiar from the Old Testament (Esther, ,^"-HJJ' '-" OrTin"«. drtaC«nfedfTai(«n Su-i.^. jli^ *
i, 1) aa the surname of a Persian monarch (written Aa- s^rSlf SJ^iVATTH^IblS^Si,; iS7T)Ta»Ui.. O^^^
suerua in Catholic versions). It is to be noted that (Bemr. 1805); DANDUKEn. OachithU drr ^cAmu. I (4th ed..
the Original wandererwaanotneceasarilya Jew; Carta- fh","£';vJ5S^U^P^iji™^SL.Ii"St^^a^*'i-^(NSS
nhilus, the door-keeper in Pilatc'smansion, must have York, 1900)34-43.
>een a Roman.
a«Am» J>*r ronnJuluKr und drr ewiar J i^' (Brrsdra, 1661); Faiul. — The ongin and dovelopnient ot this famou*
CoMWi*. Tlu Wamlmnv Jtie ilfndoD and New York, IHSl): Jegend jg tolerably cleor. Ita hero ia an actual peraon-
t^^'lTsi^o 1-S" .i"/^i^"&B^'woirpIi " 2; «|e, aman who lived in Germany during the sixteenUi
Jui{ Brrant in Uumdesdu Uoum Agr CPoria. 1003). I4!t-1B0: century. To be sure, many of the exploits related of
i5L?H.''«'"' ™"«"^i'""i™aisc^a5ion of ihf! Iwmd i« the himaresomanifestlyfabulous thatsomescholarshave
work ol NicaAUn. Da Saae vam twwtn Jvaen (2DdeiI.. I*in- . i_.ji_' _ -i lu „ i.^i*u..
•ia. 18931. For s h<a^m7oi the Iwn.i ia litciitufe ace K*i- doubted his verj" existence and have regarded the
nxLi, AKantTuj in drr WcU-porsU (Berlin, 1906). Ic^nd as purely mythical. But against this view we
, , are able to adduce the itxplicit testimony of a number
The Flying Dutehmnn.—The theme of the doomed of contemporaries: Tritbemius of Sponheim, Mvifianus
Wanderer recurs in this legend of the sea. The super- Rufus, Johoon Cast, Agrippa von Netteahcim, and
Btitious belief m a spectre ship is widespread among others, who ckhn to have known Faust either in per-
mariners. _ But the I^nd springing from this belief son or by reputation. Thev all agree in representing
never attuned a fixed form; the vcraions given of it him asa charlatan, who wect about the countrj- under
rtry considerably. The most common wrsion as cur- asaumed high-sound iiyj names boasting of his skill in
rent among Dutch sailors relates how a capUin by the fortune-telling and nuigic, and praying on the credu-
name of Vanderdecken or Vanderstraaten from the lityandsuperHtiliousignoranceof tbciiooplc. PbiliD
Temeuse district, while on a voyage to India, is de- B^ardi, a physician of Worms, autlior ol an "Index
hiyed off the Cape of Good Hope by a calm or a storm. Sanitatis" (1539), knew a number of persona duped by
In his rage he swears a blasphemous oath to double the swindler. He mentions Fauet aa a man who was
tne Cape, if he were to sail until the Judgment Day. ^cll known, but of whom nothing had been heard
Offended, God took him at his word and he is doomed lately. Alclancltthon (aa reported by Manlius, 1590)
to sail the seas forever, an omen of ill-luck to all rnari- ^a Joliann Weyer (d. 1588) tell us that Faust wu
lers by whom his spectre-ship is sighted. l^im in Kundlingen (i. e. Knittlingen) in WOrtemberg
The legend docs not appear in literature before the and studied magic at Cracow; also that he came to a
nineteenth century. It was made familiar to Ameri- violent end, being found dead one morning with a
can readers b^ Washin^n Irving'a tale "The Storm- twisted neck.
ship", an episode in his "Bracebritlge Hall" (1822). The boasting of Faust did not seem so alwurd in an
But it became widely known through Heine, whoprob- age when the belief in demonology and magic was imi-
ably took it from oral tradition, and related it in his versal. What more natural than tliat his supcruat-
"Reisabilder aus Nordemey" (1826) and again in ural powersshould beascribcd totlieaidof theDei-ilT
"MemoirendesHermvon Schnabelewopski (m his Stonesaboutmeninlengucwithlhc Evil Onehod been
"Salon', 1834). Heine mentions neither names currtint since earlv Chri-itian times. Zoroaster, Vir-
nor places, and in the second version the setting of gjl, Apolionius, Albcrtiis Magnus, Popes Sylvester H
the story is undignified, it not vulgar. Nevertheless and Paul II were some of the eminent men of whom
theltsendwasgivenamtichdeeperimportthroughthe such tales were related. Of especial significance in
introduction of the moti/af redemption. Every seven this connexion are the legends of Cyprian of Antioch
years the Dutchman may land and look for a woman ttnd Theophilua of Adaiui, in which we meet with the
whose self-sacrificing love will lift the curse. At type of the wicked magician, who, to gratify ambition
length he findsa maiden who pledges him her love, but or to accomplish some unholv purpo^', sells his soul to
at the last moment he refuses her generous sacrifice, the Devil. So, when Faust met with a sudden and
reveals himself to her and leaves. She heroically violent death under mysteriovw tirciiiHatances, ru-
insists on keeping her promise and casts herself into mour had it that the Devil had carried him off, and
the sea. This noble act of self-sacrifice removes the thus arose the story of his compact with Satan. Now
curse; the Dutchman and his ship sink beneath the the tales that were current concerning former sorcer-
waves. ers who had entered into such an unholv partnership
,^-,i'iiil?^-''S^,f?-'^''^^^1.fT'^S',Jj.'fi'?i^^ were repeated eonreming Faust, and gradually the
rad(18d4).imd<.tQo,.™.BuiSflA«.«ndIF^tl90i). ohaeure charlatan becante the arcl.-magTcian, ai^und
whose name gathered a moss of fublc and tradition
WiBiam TeO. — The story of Tell, connected with dealing with black art. So the Faust legend gradu-
the origin of the Swiss Confederation, until compara- ally took shape. Its fir^t appearance in literature
tively recent times passed for history, but its fobulous da'tea from 1587, when the first Fuust l)Ook appeared
character ia now universally reccmnized. Tell, a yeo- anonymously at FrankfortKin-t he-Main under the
manofUri, famed for his skill with the cross-bow, liav- title "Iliatoria von D. Johann Faualen dem weitbe-
ing refused to salute the hat, the symbol of Austrian schreyten Zauberer und Schwartzkiln.Htler". In a
sovereignty which Oessler, the most notoriously cruel preface the publiaher, whose name was Johann Spies,
of the Austrian governors, had caused to be placed on tJ^tls ua that he olitained the manuscript from " a good
a pole at Altdon, is brought before the governor and friend in Speyer". According to the version of tbis
ordered to show his skill by shooting an apple on tiie iMok. Faust studies theology at Wittenberg, but, be-
head of his son. He successfully performa the feat ingof a "foolish and arrogant" turn of mind, and de-
•od oa being aiked to explain why be had taken two sirous of searching " into all things in heaven «ad
UBOENDB
128
LEGENDS
earth '\ he resorts to magic and evokes the Devil. A
demon, who is called Mephistopheles, appears, and a
compact is made whereby for a stated term (later on
fixed at twenty-four years) he agrees to be Faust's
servant, in return for which the latter pledges his soul
to the Devil. This compact is sealed with Faust's
blood. For a time the sorcerer lives in powpr and
splendour, performing strange deeds and experiencing
marvellous adventures. But at the end of the stated
term the Devil claims his prey. A strange tumult is
heard at ni^ht, and the next morning Faust's man-
gled corpse IS foimd on a heap of refuse.
The book itself is totally devoid of literary merit.
Its purpose is purely didactic; the magician's awful
fate is held up as a solemn warning to all who might be
tempted to resort to black art. Tne f undamenteJ idea
of the story is the wickedness of striving for forbidden
knowledge by sinful means. The anonymous author,
who, judging from the general tone of the book, was
probably a Lutheran pastor, emphatically disapproves
of the spirit of free inauiry that cnaracterizes the period
following the great oiscoveries and the Reformation.
Of subsequent editions, that of Widmann (1599)
seems to nave been the chief source of later versions.
Here the anti-Catholic tendency, unmistakable in the
first edition, is still further emphasized. Faust's
downfall is directly attributed to the cult of the Catho-
lic Church. There are besides a number of changes,
usually with a didactic purpose and to the detriment
of the literary quality of the book. A lenethy com-
mentary is also addca. A new edition of Widmann's
version was given by Pfitzer in 1674, and an abbrevi-
ated edition was brought out about 1725, by one who
calls himself a "man of Christian sentiments". But
the popularity of the legend was due not so much to
the chap-books as to the crude dramatic performances
given by bands of strolling players. In these perform-
ances English actors played an important part. On
the basis of an English' translation of the German
chap-book, Christopher Marlowe wrote his well known
drama of Faustus (first performed in 1595), and this
Slay was performeid in Germany by English actors.
>f the German Faust plays we have but scanty knowl-
edge. Ajs we know them from the eighteenth centurj^
they were coarse farces in which buffoonery and sensa-
tionalism were relied on for success. Such plays dis-
appeared from the literary stage when French classi-
cism prevailed. But the Faust play survived as a
puppet-show given by showmen at fairs to amuse the
yoimg and uncritical, and such a show inspired the
young Goethe with the idea of writine his famous
masterpiece. Already Lessing had called attention to
the dnsunatic possibilities of the subject, and tried his
hand at a Faust drama of which he had sketched a
scene (cited in the seventeenth "Literaturbrief",
1759).
The old Faust legend as presented in the chap-books
and the plays is essentially a tragedy of sin and dam-
nation, a characteristic product of the age of the Ref-
ormation. In older legends of great sinners like Rob-
ert the Devil, the eflicacy of penitence was proclaimed,
the sa\'ing power of the Church was emphasized.
With the Reformation this was changed. The rigid
Lutheran orthodox theology denied the redeemmg
powers of the ancient Church and this harsh spirit is
reflected in the legend. The sinner who leagues with
the Devil was irrevocably damned. Goethe, the en-
lightened humanitarian, disagreed with this concep-
tion. For him Faust was not a presumptuous sensual-
ist, but a titanic striver after truth, a representative
of humanity's noblest aspirations, and, whatever his
sins and errors might be, in the end he was to be saved.
In Goethe's "Faust" (see Germany, loc. cit. tupra)
the legend has received its classic form.
For a fairly complete bibliography of the hnmenM fitereture
of the subject down to 1884 consult Enqkl, ZtuamnunaUlluno
der Faust-Sehriften vom W. Jahrhundert bU mitte 188A (Olden-
burs* 1885); see also Fibchsb, OoHhet Faxtal in Oodh&'
IUlt OeschidUswiBsenschaftt VII (Freiburg im Br. and liepxig,
1897) • 298-^360 (here ail the literaiy testimonials conceming the
historical Faust are adduced and discussed). Consult also the
introduction to Thomas, Cfoethe*8 Fatut (Boston. 1899).
Abthur F. J. Remt.
Legends of the Saints. — Under the term legend
the modem concept would include every untrue tale.
But it is not so very long since its meaning has been
extended thus far, nor is such a definition historically
justifiable. That which was understood by the word
legend, at the time when the concept arose, in-
cluded both truth and fiction (considered from the
standpoint of modem historical criticism) . And this is
what the numerous friends of the legend amons the
German poets, since the days of the Romantic School,
understand by the term. The legenda included facts
which were historically genuine, as well as narra-
tive which we now class as unhistorical legend. The
term is a creation of the Middle Ages, and has its
source in the reading of the prayers used in Divine
service. Since the c&ys of the martyrs, the Church
recalled to mind her famous dead in the prayers of the
Mass and in the Office, by commemoratmg the names
noted in the martyrologies and making mention of in-
cidents in their lives and martyrdom. When the
lectio became a matter of precept, the reading matter
in the office for the day became in a precise sense
legenda (that which must be read). After the thir-
teenth century the word legenda was regarded as the
equivalent of vita and passio, and, in the fifteenth
century, the liber ledionarius is comprised under
what is known as *' legend". Thus, historically con-
sidered, legend is the story of the saints. As by this
time it had unfortunately happened that the stories
of the saints were supplemented and embellished by
the people according to their primitive theological
conceptions and inclinations, the legend became to a
large extent fiction. The age of the Reformation re-
ceived the legend in this form. On accoimt of the im-
portance wmch the saints possessed even among
Protestants, especially as the instruments of Divine
grace, the legends have remained in use to this day,
Particularly m sermons. The edition of the "Vit®
'atrum", which Georg Major published at Witten-
berg in 1544 by Luther's orders^ closely follows Atha-
nasius, Rufinus, and Jerome, rejecting merely the ob-
vious fantasies and aberrations, such as, for example,
were to be seen in the "Vita s. Barbar»", the "Le-
genda Aurea" of the thirteenth century, or in the
" Vita s. Simeonis Stylitffi" of Pseudo-Antonius. But
the opposition to the ancient Church became intensi-
fied, and led to the Reformers' breach with the saints.
Simultaneously, the legends of the saints disappear
from Protestantism, and it is only in the nineteenth
century, after the brief appearance of Romanticism,
that they again find entrance into official Protestant-
ism in connexion with the attempts of Ferdinand
Piper (d. 1899 at Berlin) to revive the popular cal-
endars.
In the usage of the Catholic Church and of the
people, the legend plays the same part tondav as in
the Middle Ages. Here also science has taught that
distinctions are to be made. Thus it was felt that not
all the legends we possess were of equal value, and
especially that the editions of the lives of the saints
were entirely imsatisfactory. It was the Jesuit Heri-
bert Rosweyde of Utrecht who, at the beginning of the
seventeenth century, imdertook to remedy matters
by referring to the most ancient texts, and by point-
ing out how the tales developed. Rosweyde wished
merely to correct the old collections; his idea was to
treat the martyrologies. beginning with the most an-
cient, from the philological standpoint. But his
scheme was forthwith taken up by his order, and after
his death (1629) was carried out on a large scale, with
LEOEHDS
129
LEQEHDB
ftD eye also to sectarian opponents, who might learn
from the lives of the saints the continuity of Caliiolic
teaching and Catholic life. Thus there came into ex-
istence the *'Acta Sanctorum" of the ^ollandists
^q. v.). This monumental work has become the
foundation of all investigation in hagiography and
lesend.
In their present state of development, we would do
well to keep these two departments separate. The
meaning of the word legend has indeed been practi-
cally transformed; the Roman Breviary officially
designates the lesson for the day as lectiOf and the
Church now recognizes the legend rather as a popular
stonr, since the populace are always more impressed
by the extraordinaiy and the grotesque. The Iqgend has
thus come to be regarded merely as a fictitious reli-
gious tale. Nothing therefore stands in the way of a
distinction, which besides is indispensable to those
who desire clearness in hagiography. Hagiography is
to-day the province of the historian, who must, even
more carefully in the history of the saints than in other
historical questions, test the value of the sources of
the reports. Only thus will it be possible to arrive at
the fundamental question of all hagiography, the ques-
tion of miracles m history. Are matters, which the
modem man is inclined to take as legend, authenti-
cally vouched for, or are they met with only in doubt*
f ul sources? The belief in miracles, considered as such,
does not affect the historian. He has only to gather
the original authorities together and to say: This is
what happened, so far as historical science can deter-
mine. Ii this presentation of the facts be correct, then
no objection can be raised against the results. We
have now an abundance of hagiographic memorials
which are just as truly history as any other memo-
rials. Reports of miracles which partake of a vague
and general character we may and must exclude from
this category — e. g.^ when St. Gregory the Great, in a
letter to St. Augustine, makes mention of the miracles
which followed on Augustine's zealous activity in
England: *'Scio quod omnipotens Deus per diloction-
em tuam in eentc, quam eligi voluit, magna miracula
ofltendit" (I know that .Almighty God by His love
for thee has shown forth great miracles among the
people, whom he wished to be saved" — "Gregorii Regis-
trum ", XI, ep. xxxvi). We possess hagiographic re-
Sorta on the best possible autnority in numerous legal
ocuments and official registers concerning depositions
under oath. Such vouchers, however, cannot in the
nature of the case be applicable to the entire life of a
saint, but only to individual occurrences, and, for the
most part, not to occurrences in the saint's lifetime,
but to those which took place at his shrine. The mira-
cles of healing at the shrine of Bishop Willehad at
Bremen (d. about 790) in 860, the miracles of Bernard
in the "Liber Miraculorum*' of 1146-47, the cures at
the grave of Bishop Bruno of Wurzburg (d. 1045)
in l!^-03, are related in a manner open to no ob-
jection.
Concerning the miraculous occurrences at the grave
of St. Peter Parenzo at Orvieto (d. 1199) — an ex-
haustive list cannot be attempted here; we quote but
a few examples — of St. Bertrand of Aquileia (d. 13.'>0),
of St. Helena of Udina (1458), of St. James Philippi of
Faenaa (1483), of St. HypoUstus of Atripalda (1637-
46), of St. Juventius in Casa Dei (at Rouen, 1667-74),
we have documentary accoimts (Acta SS., May, V,
pNOSsess an imposmi
ray of reports of eyewitnesses in every centurv, lucid
Aels of martyrs, relations like that of the monk Cuth-
bert on the death of the Venerable Bede (735), of
Willelwld of Mains on the life of Boniface the Great,
the history of the holy virgin Oda (d. 1158) at Gute-
hoffnung near BingeHi the life of Cardinal Nicholas
▲Ibergati of Bi^logna (d, 1443). Whoever gives fair
1\. 0
consideration to all these facts must come to a double
conclusion: (1) that the extraordinary does not neces-
sarily appertain to the life of the samt; and (2) that
in every case these signs and wonders are not un-
worthy of the saint, e. g. cures, apparitions, prophecies,
visions, transfigurations, stigmata, pleasant odour,
incomiption. But the historian ought likewise to
remember that (leaving the stigmata, an essentiallv
Christian manifestation, out of the question) all
these phenomena were also known to antiquity.
Ancient Greece exhibits stone monuments and inscrip-
tions which bear witness to cures and anpantions m
the ancient nivtholo^. History tells ot Aristeas of
Proconnesus, Hermotimus of Clazomense, Epimenides
of Crete, that they were ascetics and thereby became
ecstatic, even to the degree of the soul leaving the
body, remaining far removed from it, and being able
to appear in other places. Nor is it essential that
medieval mysticism oe something different from the
ancient hieromania; in both cases the presumption is
the same as regards the faculties of the soul.
History, therefore, knows of miracles, and the na-
ture of the historical miracle itself leads us to the di»-
tinction between history and legend. If the authen-
tic reports are held to be trustworthy, and within the
bounds of physicid and psychical experience, and the
unauthentic reports repel us owing to their fantastic
embellishments, then we will be justified in claiming
that the surplus of these latter narratives over the au-
thentic reports is imtrue, and is legend in the modem
sense of the word. The establishment of this distinc-
tion is, therefore, entirely a matter of historical
method. But, since mistrust of the historical woik
may lead to the suspicion that the estimation of the
value of the sources has been influenced by the subject
matter of the miracle, the proof must be carried a step
farther, and the origin of the superfluous matter
demonstrated. Hence arises as our next task, to
indicate (1) the contents and (2) the sources of
legends.
Manifold as the varieties of legends now seem to be,
there are fundamentally not so very many different
notions utilized. The legend considers the saint as a
kind of lord of the elements, who commands the water,
rain, fire, mountain, and rock; he changes, enlarges, or
diminishes objects; flies through the air; delivers from
dungeon and gallows; takes part in battles, and even
in martyrdom is invulnerable; animals, the wildest
and the most timid, serve him (e. g. the stories of the
bear as a beast of burden ; the ring in the fish; the frogs
becoming silent, etc.) ; his birth is glorified by a mira-
cle; a voice, or letters, from Heaven proclaim his iden-
tity; bells ring of themselves; the heavenly ones enter
into {personal intercourse with him (betrothal of
Mary) ; he speaks with the dead and beholds heaven,
hell, and purgatory; forces the Devil to release people
from compacts; he is victorious over dragons; etc.
Of all this the authentic Christian narratives know
nothing. But whence then does this world of fantas-
tic concepts arise ? A glance at the pre-C'hristian re-
ligious narratives will dispel every doubt. All these
stories are anticipated by the Greek chroniclers, writ-
erh of myths, collectors of strange tales, neo-Plato-
nism, and neo-Pythagorism. One neeil only refer to
the 'EXXdSos xepuffynffis of Pausanias, or glance through
the codices collected by Photius in his " Bibliotheca ,
to recognize what great importance was attached to
the reports of miracles in antiquity by both the edu-
cated and uneducated. The legend makes its appear-
ance wherever the common people endeavoured to
form theological concepts, and in its main features it i»
everywhere the same. Like the myth (the explana-.
tory fable of nature) and the doctrinal fable, it has ita
independent religious and hortatory importance. Thft
legend claims to show the auxiliary power of the supeiv
natural, and thus indicate to the people a " saviour in
every need. The worshioDer of divinity, the hei:Q*
LSaEMDS
130
LSaSNIIB
worshipper, is assured of the supernatural protection
to which he has established a claim. With the old
mythologies and genealogies of gods, of which they
serve after a certain fashion as corrol>orative evidence,
these tales may ]ye regarded as the theology of the peo-
ple. The guiding thoughts are in every case taken
from life; they deal with the fulfilment of the simple
wishes and expectations likely to arise in the minds of
men whose lives were spent in contest with the forces
and laws of nature.
Hellenism had already recognized this characteristic
of the religious fable, and would thus have been obliged
to free itself from it in the course of time, had not the
competition with Christianity forced the champions of
the ancient pol>i:heism to seek again in the ancient
f al )les incidents to set against the miraculous power of
Christ. In this w-ay popular illusions found tneir way
from Hellenism to Christianity, whose struggles in the
first three centuries certainly produced an abundance
of heroes. The genuine Acts of the martyrs (cf ., for
example, R. Knopf, " Ausgewilhlte MiirtjTeracten *',
Tubingen, 1901; Ruinart, " Acta MartjTum sinoera",
Paris, 1689, no longer sufficient for scientific research)
have in them no popular miracles. After the persecu-
tions, however, when, with the lapse of time, there was
no longer any standard by which to measure the unex-
ampled heroism of the martyrs, it l^ecame easy to
transfer to the Christian mart>Ts the conceptions
which the ancients held concerning their heroes. This
transference was promoted by the numerous cases in
which Christian saints l>ecame the successors of local
deities, and Christian worship supplanted the ancient
local worship. Tliis explains the great number of
similiarities between gods and saints. For the often
maintained metamorphosis of gods into saints no
proof is to be found. The earliest Catholics of whom
legends are told are therefore the martjTS. And from
them the conceptions are then transferred to the con-
fessors, as, after the days of persecution, the scene of
the contest for salvation was changed from the rack
and the amphitheatre to the human soul.
But how was the transference of legends to Chris-
tianity consummatetl? The fact that the Talmud
also uses the same ideas, with variations, proves that
the guiding thou/i;hts of men during the period of the
first spread of Christianity ran in general on parallel
lines. There is no doubt, therefore, that these Chris-
tian legends are to be traced to a common oral tradi-
tion, which was unconsciously transferred from one
subject of a legend to another. For the hypothesis of
this literary transference, no proofs can be given. If
St. Augustine (De cura pro mortuis gerenda, xii) and
also St. Gregory the Great (Dialogues, IV, xxxvi) relate
of a man, who died by an error of the Angel of Death
and was again restored to life, the same story which is
already given by Lucian in his " Philopseudes ", such
an example at once shows that the literary style was
not the model, but that the oral relation was. Augus-
tine and Gregory received the story of the occurrence
from those who claimed to have seen it. . To such an
extent had certain imaginary conceptions l^ecome the
common property of the people that they repeated
themselves as auto-suggestions and dreams. There
are ideas of so pronounced a peculiarity that they can
be invented only once, and tneir successive reappear^
ances in new surroundings must, therefore, \>e due to
oral transmission. Such is the characteristic tale of
the impostor, who concealed the money he owed in a
hollow stick, gave tliis stick to the creditor to hold,
and then swore that he had given back the money;
this tale is found in Conon the Grammarian (at Rome
in Cajsar's time), in the Ilaggada of the Talmud (Xe-
darim, 2r)a), and in the Christian legends of the thir-
teentli century in Vincent of Beauvais. The leading
ideas of t'.e legends were transferred individually, and
appoan^( I hitf^r in literary form in the most varied com-
binat ions. Not till the sixth century may the literaiy
type of martyr be considered as perfected, and we are
subsequently able to verify the Uterary associations of
ideas. This Cathohc type had indeed had models in
the distant past. The pre-Christian religious narra-
tive had already worked up the old motives into ro-
mances, and, starting from this example, there arose
in Gnostic circles after the second century the apocry-
phal accounts of the Uvea of the Apostles, indicating
dogmatic prepossessions. The Church combatted these
stories, but the opposition of centuries — ^the Decree
of Gelasius in 496 is well-known — was unable to pre-
vent the genuine narratives from becoming infected,
and the ideals of the common people from obtaining
preponderance over historical facts. The place of
origin and of dissemination of these mere legends was
the East. With the termination of the sixth century
the taste for them was transplanted to the West also,
owing to the active intercourse between Syria and
Gaul. Even Gregory of Tours (d. 594) was acquainted
with the apocryphal lives of the Apostles. At the be-
ginning of the seventh century we already find related
in Gaul (in the " Passio Tergeminorum " of Wamahar
of Langres), as an incident in the local history of
Langres, a story of martyrdom originating in Cappa-
docia.
The seventh century sees the literary form of legend
•domiciled in the West. Bede's " Martyrology " and
Aldhelm of Malmesbury (d. 709) indicate a wide
knowledge of this foreign literature. Ireland and
England eagerly follow in the new direction. In the
western part of the continent the taste changes accord-
ing to the times. Rough times require more abun-
dant consolations; thus the legends of the "saviour"
make their appearance in the Merovingian seventh
century up to the middle of the eighth; others in the
time of the perils from the Northmen, of the religious
wars, and the Crusades, and especially tow^ards the end
of the Middle Ages with its social calamities. During
the millenarian tenth century, the era of the Cluniacs
and mysticism make the biographies of the saints sub-
jective. The twelfth century brings with the new
religious orders the contemplative legends of Mary.
The thirteenth sees the development of the cities and
the citizens, hand in hand with which goes the popu-
larization of the legend by means of collections com-
piled for the purposes of sermons, vita sanctorum^ ex-
empla, or merely to give entertainment (Vincent of
Beauvais, Caisarius of Heisterbach, James of Vitry,
Thomas of Chantimpr^, *'Legenda Aurea") ; in this cen-
tury also arise the legends oif Mary and, in connexion
with the new feast of Corpus Chnsti (1264), a strong
interest in tales of miracles relating to the Host. In-
deed it was in the very nature of the case that the new
legend should appear otherwise than the old. Tran-
substantiation is something specifically Christian.
Still, we find only variations oi the old concepts of
tnmsformation and apparitions, as in the innumerable
stories which now circulated oi visible incarnation of
the Divine Child or of the Crucified One, or of the mon-
strance being suspended in the air. But the continu-
ity of the concepts is quite evident in the case of the
legend of Mary. If Mary considers herself as be-
trothed to the priest who ser\'es her, the meaning of
this is not far to seek; but nevertheless Callimachus
(third century B.C.) had also treated this idea in a leg-
end of Artemis, and Antoninus Liberalis and the Tad-
mud have variations of it. And if, in this legend of
Mary, the Blessed Virgin put a ring on the hand of her
betrothed under quite characteristic circumstances,
that is nothing else than the Roman local legend of the
betrothal of Venus, as it has been preserved by Wil-
liam of Malmesbury and the "Deutsche Kaiser-
chronik " of the twelfth century.
Therefore: (1) the original reports of martyrdoms
and lives do not present what is called '* legend"; (2)
legends repeat tne conceptions found in the pr»-
Christian religious tales. From this it follows that w«
U5GSR
131
uazmcAnoM
have a right to identify the pre- and post-Christian
popular religious tales; the legend is not Christian,
only Christianized. But where then He its ultimate
sources? In many cases it lias obviously the same
origin as the myth, when it refers the incomprehensi-
ble to religious heroes. Anti(iuity traced back sources,
whose natural elements it did not understand, to the
heroes; such was also the case with many legends of
the saints, although others should rather be regarded
as outgrowths of the genuine history of the saints.
Etymwogy also has often led to the promotion of
legends; thus, Christopher becomes the actual Christ-
carrier. Again, there must be taken into consideration
the inexhaustible imagination of the conunon people;
merely because the people expected help, or punish-
ment, in certain situations, the fulfilment of such ex-
pectations was soon related. And, finally, general
axioms of experience (as in Pantschatantra; or, in the
case of the Talmud and Christianity, merely sentences
and figures of speech from the Holy Scripture are
clothed in the garb of narrative.
Dblbhate, Les U-gendes hagiographiquea (Brussels, 1905),
tr. CRAWfORD. Legeruh of the Saintx (London and New York,
laasy, QGitTKnt Legtnden^Sludifn iCologne^ 1906); Idem, X>ie
cHriatL Legende dea AbtTidlandea (Heidelberg, 1910).
Heinrich GCnter.
Leger, Saint. See Leodegaji.
Leghorn. Diocese of (Liburnensis), suffragan of
Pisa. Leghorn (Ital. Ldvorno), in Tuscany, is the
capital of the smallest of the provinces of Italy. The
city is situated on marshy ground, and is in conse-
quence intersected by many canals, hence it has Ixjcn
called ** Little Venice". A larger canal puts it in
communication with Pisa. It has two ports, the old,
or Medici, port, and the new port constructed in 1854.
In former times leghorn was the most important port
in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany; even now it is out-
ranked only by Genoa and Naples. Among its nu-
merous teaching establishments are a naval academy,
and an observatory erected in 1881. The public u-
brary is important, and the prehistoric museum con-
tains man>r Etruscan and Iloman antiquities. The
town likewise possesses a gallery of paintings, and its
archives have an historical mterest. Among the
more important industries are shipbuilding, iron-
works, and trade in alabaster and coral. The cathe-
dral dates from the sixteenth century; there are also
churches belonging to the Greek, the Maronite, and the
Armenian Rites. The svnagogue (1603) is second
only to that at Amsterdam. The royal palace was
erected by Cosimo I. Of note also are the Torre del
Marzocco, now used as a signal station, and the Torre
della Meloria, near which, in 1241, the Pisans sur-
priaed and defeated the Genoese fleet on its way to
Home with the French bishops who were going to the
council summoned against Frederick II. Among the
andents Leghorn was known as Portua Libwmi, and
was of small importance until the sixteenth century.
It belonged to the Pisans, and was captured from
them hj the Genoese. In 1421 the Florentines
bought it for 100,(X)0 florins, and thus Leghorn came
to TO the main outlet for Florentine commerce, to the
detriment of Pisa, which from that time began to
wane. The Medici family took great interest in the
Prosperity of this stronghold; Alessandro de' Medici
uilt the old fortress; Cosmo I, under the supervision
of Vasari, built a breakwater and a new canal. But
the real author of its fatness was Ferdinand I, who
called Leghorn ** his mistress ". To increase its popu-
lation he showered his favours on it and on those who
went to Uve there, and made it a town of refuse for men
from every nation, so that there flocked to it not only
outlaws from all over Italy, but even Greeks, Jews, and
Moors driven out of Spain. Exiled English Catholics
found a ho/ne there. Cosmo II erected a monument
to Ferdinand, the work of Giovanni dell' Opera. Ow-
ing to the bombardment (by the English in 1651 , and
by the 1" rench in 1671) of the Dutch fleet stationed in
the harbour, Ferdinand II caused Leghorn to be de-
clared a neutral port by international treaty (1601).
This neutrality was violated for the first time in 1796
by Bonaparte, whose idea of a ** Continental blockado "
did immense damage to the commerce of the town.
In 184S Leghorn was the hotl>ed of the Tuscan revolu-
tion.
The episcopal see was created hy Pius VII in 1806.
Its first bishop was Filippo Canucci. The diocese lias
32 parishes with 170,000 souls. The number of reli-
gious houses for men is 9, and for women, 12. It has
3 educational institutions for boys, and 7 for girls.
Repetti, Ditxonario Geografico ecc. dclla Toacana (Florence*
1835); Tarqioni-Tometti and Boufti, Lihunn civitaa (Ix>g-
horn, 190C). U. BeniGNI.
Legio, titular see of Palestina Secunda, sufTragan of
Scythopohs. It figures for the first time in a Latin
episcopal notitiay tkiting probably from the eleventh
century, where it is given under the name of Legionumf
between the Bishoprics of Dioca'sarea and Capitolias
rTobler and Mohnier, "Itinera Hierosolymitana'*, I,
Geneva, 1880, 343). If, however, we consult the
Greek " Notitiae Episcopatuum", of which the Latin is
only a translation, we fmd in that place, not Legio, but
Maximianopolis ("Byzant. Zeitschr.'*, I, Leipzig,
1892, 253, 256). The See of Leeio is, therefore, iden-
tical with Maximianopolis; in tiie Middle Ages both
cities were identified, being near neighbours, though
really distinct places in the same see. Ix»gio is now
Ledjun, well known in the Bible and in history under
the name of Mageddo. S. Vailh^:.
Legipont, Guver, Benedictine, bibliographer, b.
at Soiron, Limburg, 2 Dec., 1G9S; d. at Trier, 16
Jan., 1758. Having received his early education from
the Franciscans at Verviers. he proceeded for higher
studies to Cologne, where ne entered the abbey of
Great St. Martin, received the priest hoo<l on 22 May,
1723, and the degree of Licentiate in 1728. His life
was practically a succession of jounirj's to the numer-
ous libniries, which he was commissioned to examine
and put in order. Though zealous in the sacred
ministry, he had little opportunity of exercising it;
nor did he devote much time to teaching, though he
was instrumental in promoting the higher studies in
his order by the erection of a Benedictine college in
the University of Heidelberg. Most of his writing
remain unedited, but among the printed works his
edition of Ma^oald Zicgclbauer's "Ilistoria rei litter-
ariiB ord. Sti. Benedicti" (1754 — ), *'Monasticum
same also in Spanish, Valencia, 1759) nave lasting
value
Allg! Deuiach. Bwg., XVIII, 126.
Benedict Zimmerman.
Legists, teachers of civil or Roman law, who, be-
sides expounding sources, explaining terms, eluci-
dating texts, summarizing the contents of chapters,
etc., illustrated by cases, real or imaginary, the nu-
merous questions and distinctions arising out of the
'Corpus Juris" enactments of the ancient Roman
code. From the twelfth centurv, when a fresh im-
pulse was given to legal researches, the terms legist
and decretist — the latter applied, in the narrower sense,
to the interpreter of ecclesiastical law and commen-
tator on the canonical texts — have been carefully
distinguished.
P. J, MacAuley.
Legitimation (Lat. legUimatio), the canonical term
for the act by which the irregularity contracted bj
being bom out of lawful wedlock is removed (see Ir-
RRouLARiTv). Legitimation consequently presup-
U OOBIBN
132
U QOBIUI
poses illegitimacy. It is to be noted that all ohildren
bom of marriage are presumed in canon law to be
legitimate. This holds, not only for valid marriages,
but also for such as are commonly reputed to be valid,
though really invalid, provided sucn marriages were
entered into, by at least one of the parties, in good
faith. A marriage of this latter kind is called a puta-
tive marriage. If both parties to such marriage were
in bad faith, the children would be held legitimate
in the external forum, as this bad faith would not be
manifest. In case botn contractors were in good faith,
the children would be legitimate, even if the marriage
were afterwards declared to be null. Presumption of
legitimac}^ is always in favour of the children born of
a person in wedlock, unless evident proof be given
that physical reasons make the paternity of the hus-
band impossible, such as absence, impotence, etc.;
and even a sworn confession of wrongdoing on the
part of either reputed parent will not otherwise affect
the legitimacy of the children. Infants bom before
the usual time of gestation or after it, as, for example,
at the beginning of the seventh month after the mar-
riage ceremony, or at the completion of the tenth
month after the death of the husband, are held to be
legitimate. When marriage is entered into by two
parties who suspect there is an impcKliment but make
no inquiry into the truth, ana it afterwards be
made plain that such obstacle to validitv did exist,
their offspring is illegitimate, because affected igno-
rance is equivalent to knowledge. If, however, the
doubt arise after the consummation of the marriage,
children conceived before a sentence of invalidity is
rendered have the standing of legitimate children.
Illegitimate offspring are designated by various
names in canon law, according to the circumstances
attending their procreation: they are called natural
(naturales) children, if bom of unmarried persons be-
tween whom there could have been a legitimate mar-
riage at the time either of the conception or the birth
of their offspring; if bom of a prostitute, illegitimate
children are called manzeres; if of a woman who is
neither a prostitute nor a concubine, they are desig-
nated bastardi; those who are sprung from parents,
who either at the time of conception or of birth could
not have entered into matrimony, are termed spurii;
if, however, valid marriage would be impossible both
at the time of the conception and of the birth of the
children, the latter are said to be bom ex damnato
coitu; when one parent is married, the illegitimate
children are called nothi; if both are wedded, adtdte-
rini; if the parents were related b^ collateral con-
sanguinity or affinity, incestuosi; if related in the
direct line of ascent or descent, nefarii. Illegitimate
natural children are legitimatea by a valid or putative
marriage subsequently contracted between tneir par-
ents, even if that marriage be not consummated.
Hence such a marriage could be contracted even by a
dying person. But this privilege is extended only to
those between whose parents a legitimate marriage
would be possible either at the time of birth or concep-
tion, or. at least, at some intermediate time, not to
those whose parents, during that whole P^od, would
be boimd by a diriment impediment. Tlie legitima-
tion of children does not depend on the will of their
parents, and takes place even when the latter are
unwilling, or even when the marriage has been cele-
brated after other marriages contracted during the
interim. This legitimation extends to natural children
who are already dead and consec^uently to their living
descendants. An infant thus legitimated is held equsd
to legitimate children in all respects as to sacred
ord^ and as to ecclesiastical dignities, except the
cardinalate. This last exception was made by Sixtus
V (3 Dec., 1586). It is not required that mention of
such legitimation be made either in public documents
or nuptial banns. Such legitimation is termed plenior
in canon law to distinguish it from the plena legitima-
tion which is fpranted by papal rescript, and from the
pUniasima which follows on the radical validation of a
marriage (sanatio in radice), Ille^timate children
who are not naiurales cannot be legitimated by a sub-
sequent marriage of their parents. This privilege may
however be granted them by dispensation from the
pope.
The sovereign pontiff has the power of legitimating
all children bom out of wedlock and thus making them
capable of hereditary succession, and of receiving sa-
cred orders, honours, dignities, and ecclesiastical bene-
fices. A legitimation by a civil law does not remove
the canonical irregularity, as laymen have no ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction. By conmion canon law, it is for-
bidden to ordain illegitimate persons, unless they be
lawfully dispensed or be professed in a religious oraer.
In the latter case, however, they are not capable of
receiving prelacies, unless a special rescript be con-
ceded. For maior orders, dignities, and canonries in a
cathedral church, the pope alone can dispense; the
power of the bishop extends only to minor orders and
simple benefices. If an episcopal see be vacant, the
cathedral chapter has the same power as the bishop.
Legitimation for Sacred orders carries with it the dis-
pensation to obtain a benefice, but not that for minor
orders, unless it be expressly stated. A son bom law-
fully to one who afterwards receives Sacred orders can-
not immediately succeed to the paternal benefice; if
unlawfully begotten, he may not succeed at all. A
father, however, may succeed his lawful son in a bene-
fice without any dispensation, because there is then no
question of hereditary succession. Canon law and
the Roman civil law are not in accord in the matter
of le^timation, as the latter restricts the privilege
to children bom of concubinage, whose parents after-
wards married. The church law, as we have seen,
extends to all illegitimate children the benefit of possi-
ble legitimation. The laws of England and those of
many states of the American Union do not recognise
legitimation of children as following upon a subsequent
marriage.
Ferraris, Bibliotheca Canonica, s. v. Filius and LeoiUtnatio
(Rome. 1886); Taunton, The Law of the Church, b. v. lOeoitir
mate Children (London, 1906); Aichner, Compendium Juria
Ecclesiastici (Brixen, 1895); Xaurentiub, InstittUionee juria
eccleaiaatici (Freiburg, 1903). W. FANNING.
Le Gobien, Charles, French Jesuit and founder of
the famous collection of *'Lettres (klifiantes et cur-
ieuses'^ one of the most important sources of informa-
tion for the history of Catholic missions, b. at St-
Malo, Brittany, 25 November, 1671; d. at Paris,
5 March, 1708. He entered the Society of Jesus on
25 November, 1671. As professor of philoeophj^ and
especially while procurator of the Franco-Chinese
specially
ussion, he
mission, he sought in a series of admirable pai>ers to
awaken the interest of the cultivated classes in the
great work of Christianizing Eastern Asia. In 1697
appeared at Paris his *'Lettres sur les progr^ dela
religion k la CJhine". Apropos of the violent literary
feud then in progress concerning the so-called "Chi-
nese Rites''^ he published among other things "His-
toire de T^dit de I'empereur de la Chine en faveur de
La religion chr^tienne avec un dclaircissement sur les
honneurs que les C^hinois rendcnt k Confucius et aux
morts" (Paris, 1698); and in the year 1700: "Let-
tre 2l un Docteur de la Faculty de Paris sur les propo-
sitions d^f^^ en Sorbonne par M. Prioux". under
the same date there appeared in Paris the "His-
toire des Isles Mariannes nouvellement converties
k la religion chr^tienne'\ The second part, trans-
lated into Spanish by J. Delgado, is founa in the lat-
ter's "Historia General de Filipinas" (Manila, 1892).
In 1702 Pdre Le (jrobien published "Lettres de quel-
ques missionnaires de la Compagnie de Jdsus, Writes de
la Chine et des Indes Orientales''; this was the begin-
ning of the collection soon to become celebrated imder
the title of "Lettree ^ifiantes et curieuses dqrites dea
LEORAMD
133
LB HIR
missions ^rang^res par quelques missionnalres de la
Compagnie de J^sus^'. The first eiffht series were by
PIre le Gobien, the later ones by Fathers Du Halde,
Patouillet, Geoffroy, and Marshal. The collection
was printed in thirty-six vols, duodecimo (Paris, 1703-
76), and reissued in 1780-81 by Fathers Yves, de
Querbeux, and Brotier in twenty-six vols, duodecimo,
unfortunately omitting the valuable prefaces. New
editions appeared in 1819, 1829-32, and 1838-43.
One abridgment in four vols, octavo, was entitled
"Panth^n Litt^raire", by L. Aim€ Martin (1834-43).
A partial English translation came out in London in
1714. The publication incited the Austrian Jesuit
St5cklein to undertake his " Neuer Welt Bott " (about
1720), at first considered merely a translation, but
soon an independent and particularly valuable col-
lection (five vols., folio in forty parts) substantially
completing the "Lettres Edifiantes" (see Kath. Mis-
sionen, 1904-05).
SoMiiBRVOGRL, Bibl. de la Cotnp. de Jraua, s. v. Oobien; de
GuiLBBRMT, Minoloffe de la Comp, de Jtaue, I (Paris, 1892),
324; Now. biogr. gin., XXX (Pana. 1883), 40;i; Feller, Diet.
hUl., IV. 82. A. HUONDER.
LMfimnd, Louis, French theologian and noted doc-
tor of the Sorbonne, b. in Burgundv at Lusigny-sur-
Ouche, 12 June, 1711, d. at Issy (Paris), 21 July, 1780.
After studying philosophv and theology at St. Sul-
pice, Paris, he taught philosophy at Clermont, 1733-
1736, resumed his studies at Paris, where he entered
the Society of St. Sulpice in 1739 and obtained the
licentiate in 1740, professed theolo^ at Cambrai,
1740-1743, was superior of the seminary of Autun,
1743-1745, and having been recalled to Paris received
the doctorate in theolo^ from the Sorbonne in 1746.
Henceforth he remain^ at the seminary of St. Sul-
[nce in various emplo3rments. Appointed director of
studies in 1767 he exercised in this capacity a great
influence over the brightest young ecclesiastics of
France, who were preparing to take their degrees at
the Sorbonne. As a doctor of the Sorbonne he was
called upon to take a prominent part in framing the
decisions and censures of the theological faculty; in
that time of intense opposition to Christian dogma no
(]uestion of importance was decided by the Sorbonne,
it is said, without consulting M. Legrand. It was he
who wrote the condemnation of Jean-Jacques Rous-
seau's *' Emile", which has been accounted a remark-
able analysis and refutation of that celebrated work,
*' learned, exact, well thought out, deep, and singu-
larly clear" (reprinted in Migne's ''Theologiae Cuiius
Completus ", II, col. 1 1 1 1-1248) . Unfortunately, Le-
grand's condemnation is forgotten or little read,
while the genius of Rousseau has made " Emile" im-
mortal. IjCgrand also drafted the censures of Marmon-
tel's "B^lisaire" and Pdre Berruyer's "Histoire du
Peuple de Dieu", which, like the censure of "Eroile",
were regarded by divines as model expositions of theo-
logical knowledge and clear thinking. He helped to
tLvisTt a censure from Buffon's "Epoques de la Na-
ture", in consideration of the author's retraction. Le-
grand's moderation and kindliness gained the esteem
and good will of both Buffon and Marmontel. Nearly
all the writings of Legrand, most of which, however,
are his only in part, have had the honour of being se-
lected by Migne in his "Theologise Cursus Comple-
tus". The most important are: ''Prselectiones The-'
ologics de Deo ac divinis attributis", a work by La
Fosse baaed on Toum^ly's treatise, re-edited by Le-
grand, who added about 400 pages of additional mat-
ter. It is still considered a very solid and valuable
treatise; reprinted in Migne. VII. ^'Tractatus de In-
camatione Verbi Di vini " (in Migne, IX) , also based on
Tounifily ; a work of high value. Parts of his " Trac-
tatus de Ecclesia" have been reproduced by Migne in
his "ScriptuTBB Sacras Cureus Completus", IV. Le-
KFBpd lert a posthumous treatise, ** De Existentia
ud " (PtunSf 1812), which, though unfinished, is con-
sidered ''equally remarkable for the depth of its doc-
trine and the clearness of its arguments".
BKtnnAitDtHisloirelUtfrairedela Compaonie de StSulpiee, I
g*aris, 1900), gives the complete list of Legrand's writings;
ONTAioNB, Notice prefixed to the above mentioned treatise
De Existentia Dei (Paris. 1812).
John F. Fenlon.
Le Gras, Louise de Mahillac, Venerable, foim-
dress of the Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, b.
at Paris, 12 August, 1501, daughter of Louis de Maril-
lac, Lordof Femdres, and MargueriteLeCamus ; d. there,
15 March, 1660. Her mother having died soon after
the birth of Louise, the education of the latter de-
volved upon her father, a man of blameless life. In
her earlier years she was confided to the care of her
aimt, a religious at Poissy. Afterwards she studied
under a preceptress, devoting much time to the culti-
vation of the arts. Her fatner's serious disposition
was reflected in the daughter's taste for philosophv
and kindred subjects. When about sixteen years old,
Louise developed a strong desire to enter the Capu-
chinesses (Daughters of the Passion). Her spiritual
director dissuaded her, however, and, her father hav-
ing died, it became necessary to decide her vocation.
Interpreting her director's advice, she accepted the
hand of Antoine Le Gras, a young secretary imder
Maria de' Medici. A son was bom of this marriage on
13 October, 1613, and to his education Mile Le Gras
devoted herself during the years of his childhood. Of
works of charity she never wearied. In 1619 she be-
came acquainted with St. Francis de Sales, who was
then in Paris, and Mgr Le Camus, Bishop of Belley,
became her spiritual adviser. Troubled by the thought
that she had rejected a call to the religious state, she
vowed in 1623 not to remarry should her husband die
before her.
M. Le Gras died on 21 Dec, 1625, after a long ill-
ness. In the meantime his wife had made the ac-
quaintance of a priest known as M. Vincent (St. Vin-
cent de Paul), wno had been appointed superior of the
Visitation Monastery by St. Francis de Sales. She
placed herself under his direction, probably early in
1625. His influence led her to associate herself with
his work among the poor of Paris, and especially in the
extension of the Confr^rie de la Charit<S, an association
which he had founded for the relief of the sick poor.
It was this labour which decided her life's work, the
founding of the Sisters of Charity. The history of the
evolution of this institute, in which Mile Le Gras plays
so prominent a part, has been given elsewhere (see
Charfty, Sisters of) ; it suffices here to say that,
with formal ecclesiastical and state recognition.
Mile Le Gras' life-work received its assurance of suc-
cess. Her death occurred in 1600, a few months bo-
fore the death of St. Vincent, with whose labours she
had been so closely united. The process of her beatifi-
cation has been inaugurated at Rome.
Baunard, La VM/rable Louise de Mariflac (Paris, 1904) ; Life
of Mademoiaelle Le Gras (New York, 1884); Archives of the
Oongregatioh of the Mission (Paris).
Joseph S. Glass.
Le Hir, Arthur-Marie, Biblical scholar and Orien-
talist; b. at Morlaix (Finist<»rre), in the Diocese of
Quimper, France, 5 Dec, 1811; d. at Paris, 13 Jan.,
1868. Entering the seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris, in
1833, he joined uie Sulpicians after ordination, and was
appointed professor of theology. He was then made
professor of Sacred Scripture and also of Hebrew, to
which branches he had been thoroughlv formed by
Gamier, a scholar, says Renan, *' who had a very solid
knowledge of languages and the most complete knowl-
edge of exegesis of any Catholic in France" (Souven-
irs d'enfance et de jeunesse, 269). Le Hir continued
in this teaching till his death, about thirty years later,
and through his own work and that of his pupil, Renan.
he influenced powerfully the revival of Biblical and
Oriental studies in France. Renan regarded him as
LXHHIH 1^
Uie beat Hebrew and Syrmc scholar of France in his
generation, and one, moreover, who was thorouKhly
versed in Biblical science, including' the current Ger-
man works thereon, whose theories he exposed and
Btmngly combatted. Some lay to his uncompromising
attitude the defection of Renan, which was so liarmfui
to religion in France. He was as enuuent in sanctity
and modesty as in science, and no doubt this contrib-
uted to the extraordinary impression ho left upon his
intiniates, whicli his writmgs (partly because they are
chiefly posthumous) fail to produce. Moat students
of his books would hesitate about accepting Kenan's
judgment, tliat be "was certainly the most remark-
able man in the French clergy of our day" (op. cit.,
273). Le Ilir published only a few articles, which,
along with others, were collected, after his death,
in the two volumes entitled "Etudes Biblinues",
Paris, 1S69. This work shows him at his best, m the
range and solidity of his aeciuirements, and in the
breadth of hia views. His other writings, all posthu-
mous, and not left by him ready for the press, are
studies in the translation and exegesis of certain
Biblical worits: "Le Livre de Job'^ (Paris, 1873);
"Les Psaumcs" {Paris. 1870); "Lcs trois Grands
Prophfites, Isaie, J^rfmie, Ez6chiel" (Paris, 1876};
"LeC^nti(iucdcsCanti<iucs" (Paris, 1883).
BcRTRAND, Bibliatlitme Sulpieienne. II (Paria, 1000), with b
Ien«hy dc«ription of Le Hir's writingi nwl referrocoi to arti-
cled «>Dn>niiii« him; of. lusH in Via., Diet, dt la HiU,, a. v.;
RilHAH.S</u«^irid'tnfimctftde/euneur(Pan3,lSSi1.221.2ea.
274. 2B8: Ibeu in Journal Aiuiliqar. XII (Paris, 1898), IS;
remimsoomea— evidnntly Joistaken — of a prclcoded judgment
of Benan upon Le Hir, UtnUy st vsrioDcc with that pvva ia
thfl Souimiirj and Jaumai Attaliiiur.
John F. Fenlon.
Lehnin, .•\nnEY of, founded in 1180 by Otto H,
Margrave of Brandenburg, for Cistercian monks, Sit-
natod about eipht miles to the south-east of Branden-
burg, its church was a fine example of Romanesque
architecture. It is not of great importance in history
save for the famous "Vatieinium Lehninense ", sup-
posed to have been written in the thirteenth or four-
teenth century by a monk named Hermann. Manu-
scripts of the prophecy, which was first printed in
1722, exist in Berlin, Dresden, Breslau, and Gottingen.
It begins by lamentmg the end of the Ascanian line of
the margraves of Brandenburg, «-ith the death <rf
Henry the Younger in 1319, and gives a faithful por-
traiture of several of the margraves tUl it comes to
deal with Frederick William I. Here the writer
leaves the region of safety and ceases to make any
portraiture of the people about whom he is prophesy-
ing. Frederick III, who became first King of Prussia
in 1701, he makes suffer a terrible toss, and he sends
Frederick William H to end his days in a monastery.
He makes Frederick the Great die at sea, and ends the
House of Iloheimollem with Frederick Wilham III.
A Catholic ruler, who re-establishes Lehnin as a mon-
astery (it had been seculariied at the Reformation), is
also made to restore the union of the Empire. The
work ia anti-Prussian, but the real author cannot be
discovered. The first to unmask the fraud was Pastor
Weiss, who proved in his " Vatieinium Germanicum "
(Beriin, 1746) that the pseudo-prophecy was really
written between 1688 and 1700. Even after the de-
tection of its true character, attempts were made to
use it in anti-Pruasiaa polemics. Its last appearance
was in 1848.
ZcJCKLEK in Realmcyt. far jmA. Throl. s.y. LdiriinirluWe
t, (RatJabon, 1897).
;. Urban Butlkr.
Leibnis, Sisteii op.— I. Life op Leibmz. — Gott-
fried WUhebn von Leibniz was bom at Leipzig on 21
June (1 July), 1616. In 16GI heentercd the Univer-
sity of Leipzig as a student of philosophy and law, and
in 1666 obtamed the degree of Doctor of I«.w at Alt-
dorf. The following year he met the diploniat Baron
von Boineburg, at whose suggestion he entered the
diplomatic service of the Elector of Mainz. The years
1672 to 1676 he spent as diplomatic representative of
Mainz at the Court of Louis XIV. During this time
he paid a visit to London and made the acquaintance
of the most learned English mathematicians, scien-
tists, and theologians of the day. ftliile at Paris be
became acquainted with prominent representatives of
Catholicism, and began to interest himself in the ques-
tions which were in dispute l)etween Catholics and
Protestants. In 1676 he accepted the position of
librarian, archivist, and court councillor to the I>uke
of Brunswick. The remaining years of his life were
spent at Hanover, with the exception of a brief inter-
val in which he journeyed to Rome and to Vienna for
the purpose of examining documents relating to the
history of the House of Brunswick. He died at Han-
over on 14 Nov., 1716.
As a mathematician Leibnii claims with Newton
the distinction of having invented (in 1675) the differ-
ential calculus. As a scientist he appreciated and en-
couraged the use
of obser vation and
experiment: " I
prefer," he said,
"a Ijoeuwenlioek
who tells me what
be sees to a Car-
tesian who tells me
what he thinks."
As a historian he
emphasized the
importance of the
study of docu-
chives. As a phi-
lologist he laid
stress on the value
of the compara-
tive study of lan-
guages, and made
tioos to the hbtoiy
ofGerman. As a philosopher he is undoubtedly the
foi«most German thinker of the eighteenth century,
Kant being generally reckoned anione nineteenth-cen-
tury philosophers. Finally, as a stuoent of statccr^t
he realiiod the importance of freedom of conscicnoe,
and made persistent, well-meant, though uusuocessful
efforts to reconcile Catholics and Prolestant.4.
11. Leibniz and Catholici8.m. — When Lctbnii be-
came hbiarianand archivist of the House of Brunswick
in 1676, the Duke of Brunswick was Juliann Friedricb,
a recent convert to Catholicism. Almost immediately
Leibniz began to exert liimeclf in the cause of rec-
onciliation between Catholics and Protestants. At
Paris he bad come to know many prominent Jesuits
and Oratorians, and now he be(;au Lis celebrated co:^
respondence with Bossuet. With the sanction of the
duke and theapprovaI,not onlyof the vicar Apostolic,
but of Innocent XI, the project to find a basis of agree-
ment between Protestants and Calhulics in Hanover
was inaugurated. Leibniz soon took the place of Ho-
lanus, president of the Hanoverian Consistory, as tie
representative of the Protestant claims. He tried to
reconcile the Catholic principle of authority with the
Protestant principle of free enquirj'. He favoured a
species of syncretic Qu-istianity first proposed at the
University of Helmstadt, whicn adopted for its creed
an eclectic formula made up of the dogmas supposed
proval not oijy MBishop Spinola of Wiener-Neustadt,
who conducted, so to speak, the cose for the Catholics,
but also of "the Pope, the Cardinals, the Geuend of
LEIBMIZ 135
rllllvU-
the Jesuits, the Master of the Sacred Palace and founds new system of philosophy, as that of a philo-
others " (Rommel, *' Leibniz u. der Landgraf Ernst V. sophic diplomatist who would reconcile all existing sys-
H. Pheinfels," II, Frankfort, 1847, p. IS^). The ne- terns by demonstrating their essential harmony. Con-
fotiations were continued even after the death of seqiicntly, his starting<{>oint is vcr>' different from that
)uke Johann Friedrich in 1670. Leibniz, it should be of Descartes. Descartes believed that his first duty was
understood, was actuated as much by patriotic mo- to doubt all the conclusions of all liis predecessors;
tives as he was by religious considerations. He saw Leibniz was of the opinion that his duty was to show
clearly that one of the greatest soiu'ces of weakness in how near all Ins predecessors had come to the truth,
the German States was the lack of religious unity and Descartes was convinced, or at least assumed the con-
tiie absence of the spirit of toleration. Indeed, the viction, tliat all the philosophers who went before him
rdle he played was that of a diplomaf rather than that were in error, because they appeared to be involved in
of a theoloeian. However, nis correspondence with inextricable contradictions; Leibniz was equally well
Bossuet ana Pelisson and his acquaintance with inany convinced that all the great systems agree tundamen-
prominent Catholics produced a real change in his at- tally, and that their imaniniity on essentials is a fair
titude towards the Church, and, although ne adopted indication that they arc in the right. Leibniz there-
for his own creed a kind of eclectic rationalistic Chris- fore resolved, not to isolate himself from the philo-
tianity, he ceased in 1696 to frequent Protestant ser- 'sophical, scientific, and literary efforts of his predeces-
vices. The causes of the failure of his negotiations sors and contemporaries, but, on the contrary, to
liave been, variously summed up by different histori- utilize everything that the human mind liad up to his
ans. OnethingseemsclearrLouisAlV. who, through time achieved, U> discover agreement where discord
Bossuet, professed his approval of Leibniz's project, and contradiction semed to reign, and thus to estab-
had very potent political reasons for placing obstacles lish a permanent peace among contending schools,
in the way of Leibniz's irenic efforts. Leibniz, it Even thinkers so widely scimrated as Plato and De-
should be added, met with httle success in his other mocritiis, Aristotle and Descartes, the Schola-stics and
plan of conciliation, namely, his scheme for the union modern physicists, hold certain doctrines in common,
of Protestants among themselves. and Ijeil>niz makes it the business of his philosophy to
III. Leibniz and Learned Societies. — In 1700 single out those doctrines, explain the manifold bear-
Leibniz, through the munificenco of his royal pupil ings of each, remove apparent contradictions, and so
Princess Sophie Charlotte, wife of Frederick the First accomplish a diplomatic triumph where others had,
of Prussia, founded the Society (after\vards called the hke Descartes, but made confusion worse confounded.
Academjr) of Sciences of Berlin, and was appointed its The philosophy to which Leibniz thus ascribed irenics
first president. In 1711, and again in 1712 and 1716, as one of its chief aims, is a partial idealism. Its
he was accorded an interview with Peter the Great, and principal tenets are: (1) The doctrine of monads, (2)
suggested the formation of a similar society at St. pre-established harmony, (3) the law of continuity,
Petersburg. In 1689, during his visit to Rome, he and (4) optimism.
waLS elected a member of the pontifical Accademia (1) Tlie Doctrine of Monads, — Like Descartes and
Fisico-Mattematica. Spinoza, Leibniz attaches great importance to the no-
IV. Leibniz's Works. — Since the discovery in tion of substance. But, while they define substance
1903 of fifteen thousand letters and unedited frag- as independent existence, he defines substance in
ments of l^eibniz's works at Hanover, the learned terms of independent action. The notion of sub-
world has come to realize the full force of a saying of stance as essentially inert (see Occasionalism) is fun-
Leibniz himself: " He who knows me by my published damentally erroneous. Substance is essentially act-
works alone does not know me at all" (Qui me non ive: to be is to act. Now, since the independence of
nisi editis novit, non novit). The works published substance is an independence in regard to action, not
during his lifetime or immediately after his aeath are, in regard to existence, there is no reason for maintain-
for the most part, treatises on particular portions of ing, as Descartes and Spinoza maintained, that sub-
his philosophy. None of them gives an aaequate ac- stance is one. Substance is, indeed, essentially indi-
count of his system in its entirety^. The most import- vidual, because it is a centre of independent action;
ant are **Disputatio metaphysica de principio mdi- but it is no less essentialljr manifold, since actions are
vidui",**Lamonadologie","fesaisdetn^odic^e",and many and varied. Tlie indeixjndent, manifold cen-
•'Nouveaux essais sur Tentendement humain". The tres of activity are called monads. The monad has
(ast of these is a reply, chapter by chapter, to Locke's been compared to the atom, and is, indeed, like it
"Essay". In the account given below, these works in many respects. Like the atom, it is simple (devoid
are used; but use is also made of the fragments pub- of parts), indivisible, and indestructible. However,
iished by Couterat in his "Opuscules et fragments the indivisibility of the atom is not absolute but only
inddits de Leibniz " (Paris, 1903), and by Baruzi in his relative to our power of analysing it chemically, while
"Leibniz" (Paris, 1909). Of Leibniz s treatises on the indivisibility of the monad is absolute, the monad
religious topics the most important arc: (1) '' Dialogus being a metaphysical point, a centre of force, incap-
de rehgione rustici", a fragment, dated Paris, 1673, able of being analysed or separated in any way. Again,
and treating of predestination; (2) " Dialogue effectif according to the Atomists, all atoms are alike: accord-
sur la libeitd de Thomme, et sur Torigine du mal" ing to Leibniz no two monads can be exactly alike.
dated 1695, still unpublished, and treating of the same Finally, the most important difference between the
topic; (3) '' Letters" to Amauld and others on tran- atom and the monad is this: the atom is material, and
sunstantiation ; (4) Letters, tracts, opuscula, etc., of an performs only material functions ; the monad is imma'
irenic character, e. ^. ** Variae definitioncs ecclesi®" terial and, in so far as it represents other monads,
"De persona Christi", "Appendix, de resurrectione functions in an immaterial manner. The monads,
corporum", "De cultu sanctorum", letters to Pelis- therefore, of which all substances are composed, and
son, Bossuet, Mme de Brinon,etc.; (5) contributions which are, in reality, the only substances existing, are
to mystical theology, e. g. " Von der wahren Theologia more like souls than bodies. Indeed, Leibniz does
Mystica", "Dialogues" on the psychology of mysti- not hesitate to call them souls and to draw the ob-
cism {cS. "Revue de Metaph. et de Morale", Jan., vious inference that all nature is animated (panpsy-
1905). chism).
V. Leibniz's Philosophy. — As a philosopher Leib- The immateriality of the monad consists in its
niz exhibited that many-sidedness which characterized power of representation. Each monad is a micro-
his mental activity in general. His sympathies were cosm, or universe in miniature. It is, rather, a mirror
broad, his convictions were eclectic, and his aim was of the entire universe, because it is in relation with all
not 90 much that of the synthetic thinker who would other monads, and to that extent reflects them all, so
136
ttututaU-aeeLoK eye looking At one monad could see hit philtwophy. His opposition to "immodenl^ Cu^
reflect«d in it Kirthe leet of creation. Of course, this tesiBnismwasopenly acknowledged in his pbilosoph-
representation is difFerent in different kinds of mo- ical treatises aa well as in his lectures. He looked upon
nads. liie uncroated monad, God, nurrors all tbin^ Spinoia's conclusions aa being the logical outcome uf
clearly and adequately. The created monad which is Deacartes's eironeouB delinition of sulwlance. "8pi-
the liuman soul — the " queen-monad ""representB noia", he wrote, " simply ooiU out loud whnt Descarte*
consciously but not with perfect clearness. And, ac- was thinking, hut did not dare to express". But,
cording as we descend the scale from man to the while he had in view the refutation of extreme Car-
iowest mineral substance, the region of clear represen- tesianism, he must have intended also by means of bii
tation diminishes and the r^ion of obscure represen- doctrine of monads to stem the current of material
tation increases. The extent of clearrepreaeatation in ismwhichhadsAinin England and was soon to sweep
the monad is an index of its immateriality. Every before it in France many of the ideas which he cher-
monod, except the uncreated monad, is, therefore, ished.
partly material and partly immaterial. The material (2) The Doctrine of Prf-etlablUhed Harmony. —
element in the monad corresponds to the passivity "Every present stato of a simple substance is a oat-
oF maleria prima, and the immaterial element to the ural consequence of its preceding state, in such a way
activity of the fom\a svbsUmtialia. Thus, Lelbnic that its present is always the cause of its future
imagined, the Scholastic doctrine of matter and form (" Monadologic," thesis xxii). "The soul follows ita
is reconciled with modem science. At the same time, own laws, and the body has its laws. They are fitted
he imagined, the doctrine of monads emhodies what is to each other in virtue of the pre-eirtablished harmony
true in the atomism of Democritus and doea not ex- among all substances, since they are all represent*-
elude what is true in Plato's immaterial ism. tions of one and the same universe" (op. cit., theaia
The universe, therefore, as I^eibniz represented it, Ixxviii). From Descartes's doctrine that matt«rise«-
ismadeupof an infinite number of indivisible monads sentiaily inert, Malcbranche (q. v.) had drawn the
which rise in a scale of ascending immaterial ism from conclusion that material substances cannot be truo
the lowest particle of mineral dust up to the highest causes, but only occasions of tlie effects produced by
created intellect. The lowest monad has only a most God (Occaaionalism). Leibniz wished to avoid this
imperfect glimmering of immateriality, and fho hi^h- conclusion. At liie same time, he had reduced all the
. eat haa still some remnant of materiality attached to activity of the monad to immanent activity. That is,
it. In this way, the doctrine of nuinads strives to rec- ho had defined substance aa action, and explained that
oncile materialism and idealism by teaching that the essential action of substance is representation,
everythingcreated is partly material and partly unma- He saw dearly, then, that there can be no interaction
terial. For matter is not separated from spirit by an among monads. The monad, he said, has "no win-
abrupt difference, such as Descartes imagined to exist dows" through which the activity of other monads
between body and mind. Neither arc the functions can enter it. The only recourse iett him it "^ '-
of the immaterial gcnerlcally diftcrent from the funo- tain that each monad unfolds its own activity, pur-
tions of mal«rial substance. Tlie mineral, which at- sues, as it were, its career uf representation independ-
tracts and is attracted, has an incipient or inchoate ently of other monads. This would make each monad
power of perception; the plant, which in so many amonarcli. If, however, there were no control of the
dilTcrent ways adapts itself to its environment, is in a activities of the monad, the world would be a chaos,
sense aware of its surroundings, though not conscious not the cosmos that it is. We must, therefore, con-
of them. The animal by its power of sensation rises by ceivethat God at the beginning of creation so arranged
impereeptible steps alrove the mentality of the plant, things that the changes in one monad correspond per-
and iictwecn the highest or most " intelligent ani- fectlytothose in theothermonadswliichbelongtoits
mala and the lowest savases there is no very violent system. Inthecaseof the soul and body, for instance,
break in the continuity of the development of mental neither has a real influence on the other: but, iust as
power. All this Leibniz maintains without any two clocks may be so perfectly constructed and so ao-
thought, apparently, of genetic dependence of man on curately adjusted that, though independent of each
animal.animalon plant, or plantonmjncral. Hehaa other, they keep exactly the same time, bo it is »r-
no theory of descent orascent. He merelj; records the ranged that the monads of the body put forth their
absence of "breaks" in the plan of continuity, as it activity in such away that to each physical activity
presents itself to his mind. lie is not concerned with of the monads of the body there corresponds a p«y-
the problem of origins, but rather with the Cartesian ohical activity of the monad of the soul. This lb the
problem of the alleged antithesis between mind and famous doctnna of pre-established harmony. "Ao-
matter. How to bridge the imaginary chasm between cording to this system ", says Leibnii, " bodies act m
mind which thinks, and matterwhich is extended, was if (to suppose the imoomible) there were no souls at
the problem to which all the philosophers of the all, and aouls act as S there were no bodies, and yet
eighteenth century addressed themselves. Spinoxa both body and eoul act aa if the one were influeaeuig
merged mind and matter in the one infinite substance; the other" (op. dt., thesis buorii). Thus the numid
the materialists merged mind in matter: the im- ia not really a monnroli, but a subject ot God's Kin^
materialists merged matter in mind; Hume denied the dom, which is the universe, " the true city of God ".
terms of the problem, when he reasoned away both If we take this doctrine literally, and deny aH fa-
mtttcr and mind and left only appearances. LeibniB, fluence of one monad on another, we are fornxl at onoe
diplomot and peacemaker, toned matter up and toned toa-ik: How, then, is it possible for the monad toicn-
mind down until they gave forth what he considered resent, if it is not acted uponT Leibnii 's answer •loilM
unison. Or, if we are to go back to the original figure be that he denied to the monad siU oomnrani "^
of speech, he spanned the chasm by his definition of from without, lie affirmed that the monad t
substance as action. Representation is action; repre- -windows on the oufaidc, but ho did not d
sentation is a function ot so-called roat«rial things as the heart of the monad is a door that <4
well as of those which are generally called immaterial, finite, and from that side it is in c
Representation, rising from the most rudimentary all other monads. Here Lcibnii pi
"little perception" {nelile perceptum) in the mineral Icm from metaphysics to mysticii. „
upto"appereeption in the human soul, is the bond unity in diversity, the unity in the p»>HW*''
ol substantial continuity, the bridge that joina to- harmony is not so much a unity of *
gethcr the two kinds of substances, matter and mind, of final destiny. All thiogs "^
which Descartes so inconsiderately separated. There verse not only because God "
is no doubt that Leibnis was oooadinia of tbU aim of they all spring, but ~"" ~'
137
End towards which they are all tending, and the Per-
fection which they^ are all striving to attain.
(3) Law ofComnuity. — From the description of the
monads dven above, it is clear that all kinds and con-
ditions of created things shade off by gradual differ-
ences, the lower appearing to be merely an inferior
degree of the higher. There are no " breaks " in the
continuity of nature, no "gaps" between mineral,
plant, animal, and man. The counter-view is the
law of indiscernibles. There can be no meaningless
duplication in nature. No two monads can be ex-
actly alike. No two objects, no two events can be en-
tirely similar, for, if they were, they would not, Leib-
niz thinks, be two but one. The apphcation of these
principles led Leibniz to adopt the view that, while
every thing differs from every other thing, there are
no true opposites. Rest, for instance, mav be con-
sidered as mfinitely minute motion; the fluid is a solid
with a lower degree of solidity;* animals are men with
infinitelv small reason, and so forth. The application
to the theory of the differential calculus is obvious.
(4) Optimism, — In the centre of the vast harmo-
nious svstem of monads which we call the universe is
God, the original, infinite monad. His power. His
wisdom. His goodness are infinite. When, therefore.
He created the system of monads. He created them as
good as they could possibly be, and established among
them the best possible kind of harmony. The world,
therefore, is the best possible world, and the supreme
law of finite being is the lex mdioris. The Will of God
must realize what His understanding recognizes as
more perfect. Leibniz represents the possible monads
as present for all eternity in the mind of God; in them
was the impulse towards actualization; and the more
perfect the possible monad the more strongly did it
possess this impulse.* There went on, therefore, so to
speak, a competition before the throne of God, in
which the best monads conauered, and, as God could
not but see that they were tne best, He could not but
will their realization. Behind the lex melioris is,
therefore, a more fundamental law, the law of suffi-
cient reason, which is that '* things or events are real
when there is a sufficient reason for their existence."
This is a fundamental law of thought, as well as a
primary law of being.
The four doctrines here outlined may be said to siun
up Leibniz's metaphysical teaching. They find their
principal application in his psychology and his the-
odicy.
(5) Psychology. — In the " Nouveaux Essais ". which
were written in refutation of Locke's " Essay , Leib-
nix develops his doctrines regarding the human soul
and the origin and nature of knowledge. The power of
representation, which is common to all monads, makes
its first appearance in souls as perception. Percep-
tion, when it reaches the level of consciousness, b^
comes apperception. The Cartesians "have fallen
into a serious error in that they treat as non-existent
those perceptions of which we are not conscious."
Perception is found in all monads; in those monads
which we call souls there is apperception, but there is a
large subconscious region of souls in which there are
p«roeptions. Perceptions are the source of appercep-
tions. They are the source also of volitions, because
impulse, or appetite, is nothing but the tendency
of one perception towards another. From percep-
tion, therefore, which is found in everything, up to
intelligenoe and volition, which are peculiar to man,
there are imperceptibly small grades of differentiation.
Whence, then, come our ideas? The question is al-
readv answered in Leibniz's general principles. Since
intelligence is only a differentiation of that immanent
action which all monads possess, our ideas must be
the result of the self-activity of tne monad called the
human soul. The soul has "no doors or windows"
towards the side facing the external world. No ideas
come from that direction. All our ideas are in-
nate. The Aristotelian maxim, "there is nothing in
the intellect that was not previously in the senses,"
must be amended by the aadition of the phrase, "ex-
cept the intellect itself". The intellect is the source
as well as the subject of all our ideas. These ideas, how-
ever subjective tneir origin, have objective value, be-
cause, by virtue of the harmony pre-estabUshed irom
the beginning of the universe, the evolution of the
psychic monad from virtual to actual knowledge is
paralleled by the evolution in the outside world of the
physical monad from virtual to actual activity.
Leibniz has no difiicultv in establishing the inmia-
terialitv of the soul. All monads are immaterial,
or rather, partlv immaterial and partly material.
The human soul is no exception; its '^ immaterial-
ity" is not absolute, but only relative, in the sense
that in it the region of clear representation is so
much greater than the re^on of ODScure representa-
tion that the latter is practically a negligible quantity.
Similarly, the immortality of the human soul is not,
absolutely speaking, a unique privilege. All monads
are immortal. Each monad being an independent,
self-active, source of action, neither dependent on
other monads nor influenced by them, it can continue
acting without interference forever. The human soul
is peculiar in this,' that its consciousness (appereep-
tion) enables it to realize this independence, and
therefore the soul's consciousness of its immortcdity is
what makes human immortality to be different from
every other immortality.
(6) Theodicy.— The work entitled "Th^dic^", a
treatise on natural theology, was intended as a refuta-
tion of the Encyclopaedist, Bayle, who had tried to
show that reason and faith are incompatible. In it
Leibniz takes up: (a) the existence of God (b) the
problem of evil, and (c) the question of optimism.
(a) Existence of God. — Leibniz, true to his eclectic
temperament, admits the validity of all the various
argiiments for the existence of God. He adduces the
argument from the contingency of finite being, recasts
the ontological argument used by Descartes (see
God), and adds the argument from the nature of
the necessitv of our ideas. The third of these ar^-
ments is really Platonic in its origin. Its validity de-
pends on the fact that our ideas are necessary, not
merely in a hypothetical, but in an absolute and cate-
gorical sense, and on the further contention that a
necessity of that kind cannot be explained unless we
grant that an absolutely necessary Being exists.
(b) Problem of Evil. — This problem is mscussed at
length in the "Th^odic^" and in many of Leibniz's
letters. The law of continuity requires that there be
no abrupt differences among monads. God, there-
fore, although He wished to create the best possible
world, and did, in fact, create the best world that was
in se possible, could not create monads which were all
perfect, each in its own kind. He was imder no ne-
cessity of His own Nature, but He was obliged, as it
were, by the terms of the problem, to lead up to per-
fection oy passing through various degrees of imper-
fection. Leibniz distinguishes metaphysical evil, which
is mere finiteness, or imperfection in general, physical
evilf which is suffering, and moral evil, which is sin.
God permits these to exist, since the nature of the uni-
verse demands varie^ and gradation, but He re-
duces them to the minimum, and makes them to serve
a higher purpose, the beauty and harmony of creation
as a whwe. Leibniz faces resolutely the problem of
reconciling the existence of evil with the goodness and
omm'potence of God. He reminds us that we see only
a part of God's creation, that part, namely, which is
nearest to ourselves, and, for tnat reason, makes the
largest demand on our sympathy. We should learn,
he says, to look beyond our own immediate environ-
ment, io observe the larger and more perfect world
above us. Where our sympathies are involved, we
should not allow the prevalence of evil to overpower
uiaH i:
our feelings, but should exercise our faith and our love
of God; where we can view God's works more imper-
sonally, we should realize that evil and imperfection
are always and everjis-here made to serve the purpose
of hannony, symmetry, and beauty.
(c) Optunism. — Leibniz is, therefore, an optimist,
both because he maintains as a general metaphysical
principle that the world whi;;h cxii^tfi is the l>cst pos-
sible world, and because in his discussion of the prob-
lem of evil he tries to trace out principles that will
"justify the ways of God to man in a manner com-
patible with God's goodness. It had become the fash-
ion among materialists and freethinkers 1^ draw an
over-gloomy picture of the universe as a place of pain,
BulTcrmg, and sin, and to ask triumphantly: " IIow can
a good God, if He is omnipotent, permit such a state
of things?" Leibniz's aaswer, though not entirely
original, is correct. Evil sliould be considered in re-
lation not to the parts of reality, but to reality as a
whole. Many evils are "in Other respects" good.
And, when, in the final resort, we cannot see a definite
rational solution of a porplexin^ problem, we rfiould
fall back on faith, which, especially in regard to the
problem of enl, aids rca.'-on.
(7) Leibniz's Elliirs.—Wa have seen that, although
the monad is by definition independent, and, there-
fore, a monarch in its own realm, yet, by virtue of pre-
established harmony, the multitude of monads which
make up the universe are organized into a kingdom of
spirits, of which God is the Supreme Ruler, a city of
God, governed by Divine Providence, or, more cor-
rectly still, a family, of which God is the Father.
Now, there is "a hairoony between the physical realm
of nature and the moral realm of grace" ("Monadol-
ogie", thesis Ixxxviii); monads making progress along
natural lines towards perfection are progressing at the
same time aloi^ moral Ijnea towards happiness. The
essential perfection of a monail is, of course, perfect
distinctness of representation. The more the numan
soul progresses in distinctness of ideas, the more in-
sight it obtains into the the connexion of all things
and the harmony of the whole universe. From this
realization springs the impulse to love others, that is
to seek the happiness of others aa well as one's own.
The road to liappincss is, therefore, through an in-
crease of theoretical insight into the univeme, and
through an increase in love wiiich naturally follows
an increase of knowledge. The moral man, while he
thus promotes his own happiness by seeking the hap-
Slnessof others, fulfilsat the same time the Will of God,
oodncss and piety are, therefore, identical.
VII. Influence op Lt:iiiNiz. — Tlirough liis contro-
versy with Clarke coiu'crning the nature of space and
the existence of atoms, and also on account of the
rivalry lictween himself and Ncnlon in respect to the
discovery of the calcului, Leibniz came to be well-
known to tbe leiimeil world in England at the end of
the seventeenth i*nfiiryandthcljpginningoftheeigh-
tei;nlh. His residence in Paris brought him into con-
tact witli the gri';it men of the court of I^uia XIV, as
well as with iihiuist all the ivritcrs of that age who
were distinguished eitlier in the world of science or in
that of theology. It was, however, in his own country
thiit he Ijccamc best ktion-n as a philosopher. The
multiplicity oE his interests and iha v.inetv nf thp
tasks ne set himself to accomplisl
8 uipzia
tion, that of substance, is more worthy of a poet and ft
mystic than of a philosopher and a scientist; neverthe-
less, like Plat^, he is to be Judged by the loftiness of
his speculations, not by his Tack of scientific pre-
cision. He did his share in stemming the tide of
materialism, and helped to - . < .
{esthetic ideals until such timi
constructively, as they were
in the nineteenth century.
LrOmitii Optra omnia, ed. Dutens (6 vob., Geneva, 1768}:
trilmu'* gaammtUe Wttke, eil. Kloi>p (11 voh,. Hiuiaver.
lB64-d4t: li'uWMiifi,nJmii, sd. F(H'c:HEB1>bCakeii,C7 vols..
Pbju. 1SS9-77)^ <Eui>tcii ahila:, td. Rabpe (Amslenliun. I70fll;
Oprra philotaphica. eH. Ehbbans (3 pla., Berlin, 1839-40): Dit
piUomphiKkat SeAriJIen. ed. (iEKBAsr (7 vol*,. Berlin. IS75-
W>). There an auamana ediiioi- -' '- -"--
vnlunblo fragmi
lOttl). TrajiBlD
Haven. ISUO). t
I, e. B. bis COfTB-
<Ian<loa. I7IT]; and tbere sre miiny
Opiinaitta tie., ed. Couterat (Parig,
'h<la»ophical Workt. tr. Dchcak (N™
liffeient noa. of tta Journal of Sptc
re on JMe(np*„rtr„ tr. MaNmolfisT
'-. Lanqley (LoodoD nud M«w
^., ix. KcwELL (London. 18G01,
Crilieal Exiaiilion oj An PhUotopti^ of
i.mynit (\,unonaKfli 1000); Marte, LeibnU (Londwi ud
KdinburBh, I88«)! Diij.m»k- "--- " '-" ■*-
MenedtrtU-'-— " -'—' ' "'
M (Leipi
Christian Wolff (1C79-1754), who reduced his teachings
to more compact form, that he exerted the influence
which he did on the movement known as the German
lUuminalion, In point of fact, until Kunt (see Kant,
PmiioeoFnY or) began the puUic exposition of his
criticul philosophy, Leibniz was the dominant mind
in the world of philosophy in Germany, And his in-
fluence wiu", on the whole, salutary. It is true that
his philosophy is unreal. His fundamental concep-
3lMig, 1800,,
. !(rflfliBO,lS7<}i PlAT, i«m. . ._. ___
(PiLiia, IQDO); Watwih, Ltibnilt and Pnleatant ThmtoaV Id
Nap World. V(tS9a), pp. iaj-22): Lnhnu and lit CaAoUe
Chanh in Dii)-lin Bfoicw, X (1S41). pp. 394-4^>y, Far cola-
picte liat af Hrliclia etc., cf. Baijiwin, Dictionary of PMl., ID,
pt. 1, 332 HIQ,
WlLUAM TUKNEH,
Laigh, RicHABD, Venerable, English martyr,
b. in Cambridgeshire about 1561; d. at Tyburn, 30
August, 1588, Ordained priest at Rome in February,
1586-7, he came on the mission the same year, was
arrested in London, and banished. Returning he was
committed to the Towerin June, 1588, and was con-
demned at the Old Bailey for being a priest. With
him suffered four laymen and a lady, all of whom
have been declared " Venerable". Edward Shelley.
of Warminghurst, Susses, and East Sroitbheld, Lon-
don (son of Edward Shelley, of Warminghurst, a
Master of the Household of the sovereign, and the
settlor in "Shelley's case"^ and Joan, daughter of
Paul Eden, of Penshurst, Kent), aged 50 or 60, who
wasalready in tlie Clink for his religion in April, 1584.
was condemned for keeping a book culled " My Lord
Leicester's Commonwealth and tor having assisted
the Venerable William Dean (q. v.). He was appai^
ently uncle by marriage to Benjamin Norton, aftei^
wards one of the seven vicars of Dr. Richard Smith.
Richard Martin, of Sliropshire, was condemned for
being in the company of tlie Ven. Robert Morton, and
native of the Diocese of Bangor (Wales), aged about
21, younger brother of Father Owen Lloyd, was con-
demned for entertaining a priis;t named William
Horner, alias Forrest. John Itfielie (nfins Neele), an
Irish serving-man, and Margaret Ward, gentlewoman
of Cheshire, were condemned for having assisted a
priest named William Watson (as to whom see Gillow,
op. cit, inf., V, 575) to escape from Bridewell.
Put-LEN, Aril of the Enelitli Uartipi (Londoo, ISQl), 110,
IIS, 286-7, 300-7, ail-12; CuUmlic Ktcord Sarirlv't PuUics-
(i«n (London, privately printed, 1905, ett,). IL W5, 282, lU.
MS. V. purim; CiLtow, Uibl. Did. cf iht Eng. Calh. (London
and New York, !**,')- 1902), IV, 194, 493; L'HAi,LONEtt, Mit-
lionaru Pricil; I (Lcominetoo and Lonjrm, 1. d.l, 231-8;
liEBBi, SuierT Otntnlosiet (l-ondon, 1S30), «l. 80; Uallaway
AMD Cabtwhiout. SuiKi, II IIaqJoq. 1819-30). ii, 257.
John B. Wainewhioht.
Leighlin. See Kildare and Leighlin, Diocbsb or.
Lelpiig, chief town in the Kingdom of Saxony, sit-
uated at the junction of the Pleisse, Parthe, and
Weisse Elster, In 1905 it contained 50:i,672 inhab-
itantt, of whom 22,864 were Catholics; the population
to-day numl>eTs about 545,000. The memting of Um
LEIPZia
139
Lxipzia
word Leipzig, which is probably of Slavonic origin, is
still uncertain. The latest investigations have proved
beyond doubt that the region about Leipzig was orig-
inally occupied by the Teutons. With the migration
of the nations, the Slavs settled there, but in the ninth
century, the Germans succeeded in re-establishing
themselves. In 922 King Henry I conquered the
Daleminzians, and laid out the fortified town of Meis-
sen. Other strongholds were subsequently founded
in the vicinity. The first mention of Leipzig is to be
found in the chronicle of Bishop Thietmar of Merse-
burg (1009-18). Another German colony grew up
beside this stronghold, to which Margrave Otto of Meis-
sen gave a charter (alx)ut 1160), the so-called Stadt-
brief of Leipzig. According to this charter Leipzig was
given the Magdeburg code of laws, and at the same
time an important plan of extension was decided upon.
The expansion of the Gorman people was followed
everywhere by the growth of Christianity. Leipzig
l)elonged to the Diocese of Mersel)urg. The oldest
church was Peterskapclle, the larger Xikoliiikirche was
built later. Of this, parts are still extant in the present
church of that name. The Thomaskloster, the first
monastery, was found*.*^! in the reign of Margrave Diet-
rich (1197-1221); bolh the Nikolaikirche and the
Peterskapelle were made subordinate to this monas-
tery, which was governed by the Augustinian Canons.
By purchase and through foundations the monastery,
wnose prior was freely elected by the friars, gradually
became pK)ssessed of considerable real estate and valu-
able tithes. A school, the oldest in Saxony, was soon
founded in connexion with the monastery. Three
other convents were founded in the town after the
Tliomaskloster; first that of the Cistercian Sisters
mentioned l>etween 1220 and 1230, which found a
great benefactor in Margrave Heimnch (1230-88);
then the monastery of the Dominican fathers, founded
about 1229 and consecrated in 1210 in the presence of
the Archbishop of Magdeburg and the uishops of
Merseburg, Naumburg, and Meissen; and lastly the
monastery of the Franciscans, which existed at least
as early as 1253. Including these four convent
churches, Leipzig thus possessed six churches in the
Middle Ages; to these were added the Katharinen-
kapelle (1210), the Marienkapelle (about 1262), and
the chapels belonging to the townhall and the castle
(fifteenth oenturj'). The oldest hospital in the town
was that founded together and in connexion with the
Thomaskloster in 1213; its management was trans-
ferred from the convent to the town in 1439. St.
John's hospital, erected at the end of the thirteenth
century, was originally devoted to the care of lepers.
From the latter part of the twelfth century Leipzig
was looked upon as the most important military sta-
tion between the Saale and the Mulde. The Messen
or annual fairs added greatly to the prosperity of the
town; at first they were held in the Spring (Jubilate^
mesae) and Autumn (Michaelisme^ise), but after 1458
they were also held at Christmas or the New Year.
In 1419 I^ipzig obtained from Pope Martin V privi-
leges on account of her fair, and received in 1515 a
papal market privilege. The fame and importance of
the city was greatly increased by still another event,
namely the foundation of the university in 1449 by the
students and professors who had seceded from Prague
on account of the tyrannical actions of the Czech-
Hussite faction. The foundation was confirmed by
Pope Alexander V in 1409. Towards the latter part
of the Middle Ages the state of the Church had changed
for the worse. The convents were becoming more
worldly; in 1445 the Bishop of Merseburg found it
necessary to attempt a reform of the Thomaskloster,
but met with no success. The remedial measures
tried by Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa in 1451 brought
about no permanent improvement. The preaching
acsUvity of St. John Capistran in 1455 was more suc-
cessful, at least among members of bis own order (the
Franciscans), bat the Cistercian Sisters in Leipzig
did ever3rthmg in their power to impede a reform.
Later on there was a division in both the Dominican
and Franciscan orders, which led to mutual opposi-
tion, some contending for a more rigorous and some
for a laxer interpretation of the rule. The relations
between the towni council and the townsi>eople on the
one side and the clerics, more particularly the regu-
lars, on the other, became strained in the fifteenth
century. The situation was further aggravated by the
quarrel between the secular clergy and the monas-
teries. Small wonder, therefore, that Luther's reform
movement soon found adherents in Leipzig.
Another connexion which the city had with the new
movement was that Tetzel was a citizen, and also that
Luther's Theses of 1517 were printed there. The
celebrated Disputation between Luther and Karlstadt
on one side and Eck on the other also took place in
Leipzig; this was held under the most brilliant aus-
pices, and lasted from 27 June until 15 Julv, 1519.
Although both sides claimed the victory, Lutfier's ad-
herents increased so greatly that neither the Bishop of
Meissen nor the university dared announce in I^eip-
zig before 1521 the Bull of excommunication against
Luther, which Eck had brought from Rome. Among
the many scholars of the town who energetically op-
posed the new movement by word and writing, par-
ticular mention must be made of the Dominican Pe-
trus Sylvius, Professor Dungersheim of the university,
the Franciscan Augustin Alfeld, Ilieronymus Emser.
and later Cochljeus. The Reformation made no head-
way in Saxony and I^eipzig as long as Duke George
lived; he even commanded four hundred adherents of
the new teaching to leave the town in 1552, and for-
bade the people of Leipzig to attend the University of
Wittenberg. After his death in 1539 the Reformation
was introduced, and in 1543 all the convents were sup-
pressed, their lands sold, the buildings mostly torn
down, and Catholic public worship abolished. Besides
the Disputation, there is another important event of
the Reformation period connected with the town of
Leipzig: the so-called Leipzig Interim (see Interim).
In connexion with the political history of the town
there are many events which deserve special mention.
The town suffered greatly during the Thirty Years
War. In 1631 Tilly appeared before it with his army
and captured it, l^ut was defeated at Breitenfeld by
Gustavus Adolphus on 17 Septeml)er. Ix?ipzig was
besieged seven times and was captured six; from 1642
until 1650 it was in the possession of the Swedes; in
1706 it had to pay heavy tribute to Charles XII.
Even more oppressive were the burdens of war im-
posed on the town by the Prussians during the Second
Silesian War in 1745 and during the Seven Years
War. In consequence its trade and industries were
ruined for years. In the Napoleonic Wars Leipzig
was occupied by the French Marshal Davoust in LSOO
after the battle of Jena and Auerstiidt; in 1809 it was
pillaged by the Duke of Brunswick; and it was only
after the battle of Leipzig (16-18 Octoljcr, 1813) that
the town was freed from heavy taxation and oppres-
sion. Half a million men fought in this mammoth
battle, by which Germany was liberated from Na-
poleon's yoke. After Saxony's accession to the Ger-
man Customs' Union in the year 1834, the town
received a new impetus. While in 1834 it only num-
bered 45,000 inhabitants, it had 107,000 in 1871,
149,000 in 1880, 455,000 in 1900, and at the present
time (1910) has 545,000.
After the Reformation was accomplished ,Catholicism
became wholly extinct; at least there is no mention of
any Catholic parish until about 1710. Only during
the time of the fair Franciscans came from Halber-
stadt to Leipzig to say Mass. No mention is made of
where the services were held. In 1710 the Catholics
received permission to celebrate Mass openly, and
EHector Frederick Augustus I, who became a Catholic
„ . .. .__ ,._ . d in Bohemift by John Hub.
WM again said. The parish was in charge of the At Leipiig Friedrich and Wilhelm, Landgiavea of
Jesuits, at first two fathers, but after 1743 toere were Thuringia and ilargravea of Meissen, founded a
three. Ah chaplains of the elector, or king, they re- itudium generate, the Bull for the foundation being
oeived from the court in Dresden their saWieB and issued ^ Pope Alexander V at Pisa, 9 Sept«nil>er,
rent allowance. The Catholic school also found a 1409. The charter was signed od 2 D<ecember of the
K' ux in the Pleissenbure. When in 1738 the chapel same year, and the first rector was Johannes of HOn-
came too small for the faithful, the elector gave aterberg. In the first semester 369 students matric-
funds to replace it by a larger one. The fathers did ulated. The Bishop of Meiseburg was appointed
not confine their activity to Leipzig alone, but ex- chancellor. At the opening of the sixteenth century
tended it as far as Merseburg, Chenmitc, Naumburg, Iieipiig was, likeCologne, astrongbold of scholasticism,
Wittenberg etc.; and from 1749 they were also en- anda large part of the "Epistohe virorum obacuro-
trusted with the spiritual care of the prisoners. Alter rum", written in Erfurt near by, refers to it. The
the auppression of the Society of Jeaua, the fathers re- university, specially the theological faculty, remained
mained as secular priests. The prieste, who subse- true to the Church at tlie beginning of the Refonna-
Suently laboured in Leipzig, came for the most part tion, while Wittenberg, founded in 1502, was a
■OTa Austria, particularly Bohemia. When in the starting-point for Luther'a doctrine. During the
nineteenth century the chapel of the Pleiasenburg be- period of religious dissension the University ofLeip-
came dilapidated, and had to be given up, the town lig declined greatly. Through the efforts of its rec-
council placed the Mattii&ikirche at certain hours at tor, Kaspar Bomer, the university obtained from
the disposal of the CathoUca. The necessary means Duke Maurice of Saxony an annual grant of 2000 gold
for the uuilding of a new church had been partly col- gulden. In 1543 it was boused in the Paulinum, a
lected by the zealous cFForts of the chief pastor of the Secularized Dominican monastery. In 1559 the
Saxon cFathoIios in those days, Bishop and Apostolic amendment of the statutes by the rector, Joachim
Vicar Franz Laurens Mauermann. In 1345 the foun- Camerariua, was completed. In the seventeenth and
dation stone of the first Catholic church was laid, and eighteentli centuries the univeriity suffered con-
in 1847 it was consecrated by the new bishop, Joseph aiderably from wars, epidemics, and the billeting of
Dittrich, As the town developed, the Catholic con- soldiers. It remained, however, especially in the
gresation also grew; their esteemed pastor Frani eighteenth century, a centre of scholarly and literary
Stolle built the rectory in 1871, founded the Societies activity, well-known representatives of which were
of St. Vincent and St. Elizabeth with their homes, the Johann Christian Gottsched and Christian Filrcb-
reading association, etc. In 1892 the comer-atone of tegott Gellcrt,
tiie second Catholic church was laid in Leipzig-Reud- In 1768 Prince Joseph Alexander Jablonowaky
nitz: in 1907 the Marienkirche in Leipzig-Plagwits- founded a learned iM>ciety for history, mathematics,
Undenau, and in 1S38 a new large Catholic school physics, and economics, which is still in existence,
was built, in addition to which chapels and schools The Linnsan Society for the Advancement of the
have been established in the newly incorporated sub- Natural Sciences was founded in 1789, and in 1824
urbs, was united with the Society for Physical Research.
At the present time Leipzig baa three Catholic par- In 1812 the university dropped its Protestant ecclesi-
ish churcnefi and two chapels; a Stammichvle com- asticaJ character; and in 1830 received a new consti-
prising a public school and a high school: three branch tution. A decree of King Anthony of Saxony
schools; three institutions belonging to the Grey abolished the old division of professors and students
Sisters of St. Ehzabeth, who have charge of St. into "nations" and entrusted the administration of
Vincent's establishment (institution [or the care of the university to the rector and the four faculties.
the sick, boarding school, and public kitchen), St. By a ministerial decree of 1851, the body of the ordi-
Joaeph's Home (institution for the care of the sick and nary professors form the university assembly; they
surgical clinic), and St. Elizabeth's Home (home for elect the rector and a member of the Lower House of
single persons and servants). Among the well- the Saxon Diet, and have the bestowal of the bene-
developed Catholic institutions worthy of mention are fices belonging to the university. Besides this assem-
tho Society of St. Vincent and also of St, Elizaljeth, bly there is a smaller body, the senate, composed of
the Apprentices' Club, the Club for CathoUc Business the rector, the pro-rector, the four deans, and twelve
Men, the Association of Catholic Teachers^ two stu- representatives elected by the faculties. In 1836 a
dents' corporations, the Workingmen's Guild, the new university building named the Augusteum, in
Uarienverein, the Catholic Casino, the Borromean honour of Frederick Augustus, first King of Saxony,
Society, and others. was opened; in 1871 an auditorium called the Bomeri-
UrkundcnbucJi der Stadt L^ptia in Codej iliplomfilicut Sax- anum, in honour of the rector Kaspar Bomer, was
onia regia, div. II. voli. VIII-S, XVI-XVIII; WtiHTMiNN, aAAini tn thp AiiBiwtj.iim Tn Hip siimmpr nf 1897
Au, LkpiiQ. Yirvajv^M (Leipili. 1885 lud 18B8): Ids- f^°^ "* "* Augusteum. In the Summer ol 1W<
OiKlten iiTOMc*, L.; (a vob.. iSpuw. 18f»*5); losH. L. there was opened a new building, erected from the
durck drei Jahrh. (Leipiic. ISSL); Ideh, OtttA. dcr StadI L., I plans of Arved Rossbacb, On the site of the original
SsSrSi,SiA'.KJiSfrSl,'2. fl«a?ft: -"Ivmity From old .„d new don.tioo. Ih. uSvw-
intu Bauioi (Leiptlg. 1892); Gubutt, SucArnWla ci^eJ- sity has a lai^ endowment in land and funds, over
Iww da- alimn 8au- u. Kunitdmimaltr da KeniBrridu Sadi- which the Saxon Government has the right of super-
j«.™rt.xvii,xv1Li(DrB«jBii.l8061:t,™/aA™/Ki^(I*i™«. ^jgn ^^ administration. In 1909 its property
JM,pu1ixvii,xv1U (Dnsden. ISMhr., imJakn IB04 (Leipiig,
imfTtot St. Louti Exhibition; Waaai,. L. im UniwriOei-
JMaanfJahr ISOSiLeipric, 1900): SiArillm da VerttTH fur
dii Ofch. L.-M. I-XIII (LdpHi. 1873-1900). For jnlormation
amounted to thirty-one million marks.
. ----.- ---,- _- — the university library consists of the valuable col-
vTJZir^r! ;7™ ~7,Mi,',„i^i,^.^~j?Mi^'.?^A!^Ph^-^'i..'oe' lections taken from the suppressed Saxon monasteries;
TTitibOit (Lcipiis. 1S871: Deutscbiiuih, Handtrriarr (Qr d. it contains about 600,000 volumes and ooUU manu-
kathol. Phrrbairk L. (Lpipiig. 10021; Bruno- KaUndar (Dim- scnptS. At the instance of the rectOT of that period,
"iw. 1850-). Joseph Lish, Dukes Maurice and Augustus of Saxony founded, 22
April, 1544, a refeclozy {Tnenta commutiie) for needy
Lsipiig, UuivERfliTT OF. — The University of Leip- students, where meals could be obtained either with-
sig in Saxony is, next to Heidelberg, the oldest univer- out cost, or at moderate nrices. At the present day
dty in the German Empire. It was established when from two to three hundred students share in this
the German students under the leadership of Johannes privilege.
af Hdnsterberg, who had been deposed as rector by Amon^ the distinguished scholars may be men-
King Wencealaus, left Prague in May, 1409, and went Uoned: m the evangelical theological faculty, Tiscb-
LUTBCBBITZ
141
LUTBSERITZ
endorf, Luthardt, and the ecclesiastical historian.
Hauck; in the faculty of law. von W&chter, ana
Windscheid; the Germanic scholar Wilhelm Albrecht,
and his pupil von Gerber, later Minister of Worship
and Education in Saxony; the historians of German
jurisprudence, Stobbe and Sohm, and the authorities
on criminal law» Binding and Wach. More than one-
fifth of all the law students of Germany in the years
1875--85 took a part of their course at Leipzig. At
the present date the law faculty of Leipzig ranks
thira in Germany, after Berlin and Municn. In the
medical faculty, Benno Schmidt, Trendelenburg, and
Kolliker have especially aided in the advancement
of sumry; in anatomy, Bock and His; in patho-
logical anatomy, Birch-Hirschfeld and Marchand;
in physics and physiology, Ludwig* in the philo-
sopnical faculty, Weber, the founder of psycho-
physics; Volkelt, writer on Eesthetics; the philosopher
Uustav Theodore Fechner, and Wilhelm Wundt, the
founder of the widely known institute for experi-
mental psychology. Pedagogics developed at Leipzig
into an independent science, and, when a pedagog-
ical seminary was founded by Ziller in 1861, the
study acquii^ a still greater importance. In the
department of classical philolo^ should be men-
tioned the names of Hermann, Ritschl, Ribbeck, and
ihe ardhffiologist Overbeck; in Germanic philology,
Haupt and Zamcke; in comparative philology, Bru^-
mann; in the languages of Eastern Asia, Conradi; m
the science of history, Mommsen and Lamprecht,
¥dio of late years has been known far beyond the
circle of specialists in his department. In political
economy, Roscher was the founder of the historical
school; also Bilcher, who is well known for his in-
vestigations into the relations of the State to trade
and manufacture, and applied statistics. The
matriculated students at Leipzig number nearly 5000.
Fribdbbro, Die Univ. Leiptia in VergangenheU und Oegen-
iMxr< (Leipsig. 1898); Leipxiger KtUender. IlltuirierUB Jahrbuch
umd Chronik (LeipztjS, 1909); Euuenburq, Die Entwicklung der
UniveraiUU Leipzig in den letiten hundert Jahren (Leipzig, 1909) ;
itf Unwerntat Leipzig in ihrem tatutendMen Semester
Uach
?tig,
Kkbn, Die Leipziger Theologi^che FakulMt in fUnf Jahrhunder-
BncDA. Die
CLoipsi^, 1909) ; FeHtchrift zur Feier dee 500 jHhrigen BeeUhene
der VmvereiUU Leipzig, issued by the rector and senate: I,
^etpzxg\
rFt
ten; II, Frtedbbro, Die Leipziger JurielenfakuWit, ihre Dok-
loren und ihr Heim; III, Die fnslitide der mediziniachen FakuU&t
an der Univereit&t Leipzig; IV, Die Inetitute und Seminare der
pkiioeophieehen Fc^ulUit an der UnivereiUit Leipzig; part I, Die
^iMogieehe und die philoaophieeh-hiMoriache Sektion; part II,
Die matkematieeh-naturwieeenechaftliche Sektion (I^eipsig, 1909);
LiEBifANV, Festgdbe der deutachen Juriatenzeitung zum 600
i^hrigen Jubil&um der UniveraiUU Leipzig (Berlin, 1909).
Karl Hoeber.
Leitmeriti, Diocese of (Litomericensis), in
Austria, embraces the northern part of the Kingdom of
Bohemia (see map accompanying Austria-Hungart).
I. History. — After the introauction of Christianity
under Charleniagne and Louis the German, the present
Diocese of Leitmeritz formed part of the Diocese of
Ratisbon. Before the end of the tenth century the
Christian religion was so widespread that Emperor
Otto I founded the first Bohemian diocese (Prague)
in 973, which included all Bohemia. The first church in
Leitmeritz, dedicated to St. Wenceslaus, was built in
925, while in 1057 Duke Spitihn^ built St. Stephen's
church and founded a collegiate chapter. In time
numerous monasteries were ouilt; in 1384 the city,
with its suburbs, possessed thirteen churches and
chapels, and, besides numerous religious, twenty secu-
lar priests engaged in the cure of souls. The Hussite
Ware put an end to this flourishing ecclesiastical or-
pmisation. In 1421 Ziska appear^ before Leitmer-
iti, which was spared only on condition of accepting
Uie Hussite religion. The collegiate church alone,
despoiled of its possessions, held nrm to the old rite of
Communion unaer one kind. Hussitism was the fore-
runner of Protestantism, which found the ^und al-
readv prepared on account of the long religious ware,
the decline of learning among ecclesiastics, the lack of
priests, and the insubordination of the nobles, who
nad become rich andpowerf ul through the wealtn and
possessions of the Church. At first the nobility ac-
cepted the teaching of Luther, and in many cities the
transition from Utraquism to Lutheranism soon fol-
lowed. Through the priest Gallus Cahera, a disciple
of Luther, Leitmeritz was also won over to Protestant-
ism. The Thirty Years War brought a reaction. By
the victorious campaign of the emperor in Bohemia
the revolutionary nobles were overthrown, the cities
lost theirprivileges, and the people emigrated or again
became (Jatholics. For the better administration of
the laige Archdiocese of Prague, the bishop of that time,
Count Ernst Adalbert von Harrach, a nephew of Wal-
lenstein, divided its territory, and created the dioceses
of KoniggHitz (q. v.) and Leitmeritz as its suffragans.
In 1655 the then provost of the collegiate chapter of
Leitmeritz, Baron Max Rudolf von Schleinitz, was
named first Bishop of Leitmeritz (1655-75). He buil^
the cathedral to replace the small collegiate church,
organized the diocese, and expended his whole fortime
on the improvement of his see. His successor, Coimt
Jaroslaus Franz Ignaz von Sternberg (1676-1709),
finished the cathedral and erected the episcopal cuna
(1694-1701). The foiuth bisiiop, Johann Adam,
Count Wratislaus von Mitrowitz (1721-33), appeare to
have administered also the Archdiocese of Prague. In
the Seven Years War, during the administration of
Duke Moritz Adolf of Sachsen-Zeitz (1733-59), who
built the seminary, the diocese had much to suffer
from the Prussians. His successor, Coimt Emanuel
Ernst von Waldstein (1760-89), made little opposition
to the efforts of the Government to spread through the
diocese the ideas of Febronius; the convents of the
Jesuits, Augustinians. Servites, etc. were confiscated,
manv churches closed as superfluous, and all brother-
hoods disbanded. In 1784 the territory of the diocese
was increased by two districts. The next bishop,
Ferdinand Kindermann, Ritter von Sohulstein (1790-
1801), had before his appointment to the bishopric
won deserved fame as a reformer and organizer of the
whole educational system of Bohemia; as bishop he
continued to direct education in his diocese, built the
cathedral parochial school, and erected an institute
for the education of girls at Leitmeritz. The eighth
bishop, Wenzel Leopold Chlumdansky, Ritter von
Prfistawlk and Chlum6an (1802-15), a true father of
the poor, built the ecclesiastical seminary in 1805.
Joseph Franz Hurdalek (1815-1823) was obliged to
resign. Vincenz Eduard Milde (1823-32) OMCcame
Archbishop of Vienna. Augustin Bartholomftus Hille
(1832-65) opened in 1851 the school for boys and a
normal college. He was succeeded by Augustin Paul
Wahala (1866-77), in whose time originated in Wams-
dorf the sect of the Old Catholics; Anton Ludwig Frind
(1879-81), the learned author of the "Ecclesiastical
History of Bohemia"; and Emanuel Johann Schobel
(1882-1909), to whom the diocese is indebted for
many churches and for the introduction of popular
missions: and JosephGross (consecrated 23 May, 1910).
II. Statistics. — In 1909 the diocese numlwred 28
vicariates, 2 provostships, 3 archdeaneries, 37 deaner-
ies, 392 parishes, 7 Exposituren (substantially inde-
pendent filial churches), 343 stations, chaplaincies,
and curacies, 26 other benefices, 628 churches, 397
public chapels, 756 secular priests engaged in the cure
of souls, 87 other secular priests, 140 religious priests.
1,598,900 Catholics, 33,560 Protestants, 10,400 Old
Catholics, and 18,300 Jews. The Church in this dio-
cese has much to contend with. For centuries two
different races (German and Czech), and two different
beliefs (Catholic and Protestant), have existed side by
side, and national and religious diputes are of frequent
occurrence. The Loa-voU'Rom movement, having its
origin in (jrermany, sought in the Diocese of Leitmer-
ritz, situated on the boniers. a vantage ground for the
propagation of its ideas, and as a remilt thousands of
LEJEUNE
142
LELOifO
Catholics drifted away from the Church. Another
difiBculty is the lack of priests, over a hundred vacan-
cies existing in the parishes. The language spoken in
twenty of me vicariates is German, in six Czech, and
in two is mixed." More than a third of the priests are
Czech. There are 309 German parishes, 95 Czech,
and the rest mixed. The cathedral chapter possesses
a provost, a dean, five capitulary, and six honor-
ary canons. The clergy are trained in the episcopal
seminary and in the theological training school at
Leitmeritz. The Catholic intermediate schools of the
diocese are the private gymnasium of the Jesuits at
Mariaschein, which is at the same time the diocesan
school for boys, and five seminaries, of which two are
in Reichenberg and one each at Leitmeritz, Teplitz-
Schonau, and Jungbunzlau. In the pubUc primary
and secondary schools the Church has very little op-
portunity to impart religious instruction. For girls,
nowever, there are several institutions for instruction
and training conducted by sisters: 8 boarding schools,
10 primary schools, 2 secondary schools, and 20 ad-
vanced and industrial schools.
The following orders have foundations in the dio-
cese (1909): Cistercians at Ossegg, 1 abbey (founded
in 1293), with an extensive library and galleiy of paint-
ings; the fathers teach in the Gymnasium of Komotau;
Jesuits, 1 college in Mariaschein; Piarists; Redemp-
torists; Dominicans; Aueustinians; Reformed Fran-
ciscans; Minorites; Capuchins; Order of Malta; Crosier
Fathers; Premonstratensians; the Congregation of the
Sacred Heart. In 1909 the female orders and congre-
gations in the diocese had 68 foundations, with 654
sisters, 93 novices, and 15 postulants: Congregation of
St. Elizabeth, 1; Ursulines, 1; Borromeans, 23; Sisters
of the Cross, 22; Poor School Sisters of Our Lady, 5;
Daughters of Divine Charity, 2; Poor Handmaids of
Jesus Christ, 4; Franciscan Sisters, 3; Sisters of Char-
ity of St. Vincent de Paul, 5; and Sisters of Christian
Cnarity, 1 foundation. Among the charitable insti-
tutions of the diocese under religious management are
20 orphan asylums, 7 asylums for children, 14 kinder-
Sartens, 1 reformatory, and 20 infant asylums; the
iocese conducts also its own institute for the deaf and
dumb at Leitmeritz. Of the many associations, the
following are worthy of mention: Cficilienverein (As-
sociation of St. Cecina), the Apostleship of Prayer, the
Marian Confraternities, the Catholic Teachers' Asso-
ciation, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, the Gesel-
lonvereine, the Catholic People's Unions (60), and
others. There are 55 shrines and places of pilgrimage
in the diocese, the most popular being Mariaschein,
Bohmisch-Kamenitz, Ossegs, Philippsdorf, and Krie-
Bchitz. The principal church of the diocese is the ca-
thedral, built in 1671 in Renaissance style. The most
ancient is St. Clement's in Levy-Hradec. Among
others, the beautiful churches of Melnik, Nimburg,
Aussig and Saaz, the chief churches of their respective
deaneries, and the iovm church of Brux daXe from
Gothic times, and the cathedral, the collegiate church
of Ossegg, and the pilgrimage church of Mariaschein
from the Renaissance perioof. The churches of Eich-
wald, Philippsdorf, St. Vincent in Reichenberg, the
church of St. Elizabeth in Tcplitz-Schonau, and
others, were built in the nineteenth century.
Bretkeld, UmrxM finer kunen Ge»eh. dea Leitmeritzer Bis-
turns (Vienna, 181 l)j Frind, Die Kirchengeach. Bdhmens im
allgemeinen und in xhrer btaonderen Beziehung auf die jeUige
IjeitmeriUer Didcew (4 vols., PraRue. 1864-78): Sbipert, Die
Lritmeriizer Diticese nach ihren ffeschichtl., kirchl. u. topograph,
Brziehunqen (Saax, 1899); Endlkr, Dae eoziale Wirken der
kathol. Kirehe in Oesterreich, XI: Die Didcene Leitmeritz
(Vienna, 1903): Directorium divini officii et calalogua univerti
deri diceceaani Litomericensia (Leitmeritz, 1910).
Joseph Lins.
Lejeune, Jean, b. at Poligny in 1592 ; d. at Li-
moges, 19 Aug., 1672: member of the Oratory of
Jesus, founded by de B^'ruUe in 1611. He was dis-
tinguishi^d by the siinotity of his life, but l^s reputa-
tion mainly depends upon his renown as a preacher.
The eneigy witn which he conducted his apostolate,
gained for him the name of ''The Missionary of the
Oratory" and the blindness which overtook him at
the age of thirty-five, the further appellation of "The
Blind Father ". He was the son of a lawyer at D61e,
of a family, which during the previous century had at-
tained to a high position in the magistracy and was
renowned for the piety and virtue of its members.
Owing to the early loss of his father, his education de-
volved upon his mother who devoted herself to his
spiritual advancement. Having studied theology at
tte University of Dole, he fell imder the influence of
de B^ruUe and entered the Oratory in 1614. He was
appointed director of the seminary at Lan^res but
soon manifested his vocation to mission work amone
the poor, and henceforward all his effort was directed
to tnis. His life was unmarked by any external event
except the loss of sight which occurred in 1627, while
he was preaching the Lenten course at Rouen, but
this caused no cessation in his apostolic work. The
bishops employed him in preaching the Lent and Ad-
vent courses and the Government in the conversion
of Protestants. He avoided the custom of treating
controversial matter in the pulpit and confincKl him-
self to the exposition of fundamental truths. It was a
novel idea of his to introduce after his discourses an
abridgement of Christian doctrine. He also held con-
ferences for the instruction of the cleigy in his methods
and was recoinmended by Massillon to young eccle-
siastics for their imitation. The French Oratory was
suspected of Jansenism, and he was himself criticized
on the ground that his preaching led to unsatisfactory
results. In 1660 he appealed for advice to Amauld,
who ascribed these results to the laxity of imprudent
confessors imder the influence of casuistry, and dis-
suaded him from the design of abandoning his mission
work. His sermons in twelve volumes w^ere pub-
lished at Toulouse, Paris, and Rouen before his death,
and a Latin translation at Mainz in 1667. There is an
edition published at Lyons in 1826, but the latest and
best edition is that of Peltier in ten volumes issued in
1889. Four volumes of extracts also appeared at
Avignon in 1825 under title of ** Pens^esdu P. Lejeune".
Cloyseault, Recueil de^ Viea de auelquea prftrea de VChatoire;
PcRRAUD, VOratoire de France (runs, 1866); Rbnoux, Vie
du P. Lejeune (Paris, 1875); Tabaraud, Vie du P. Lejeune
(Limoges, 1830). and Life in Vol. XII of Lyons edition of
Henry Tristram.
sermons.
LeUiSfCAMiLLUs of. See Camillus de Lellis, Saint.
Lelong, Jacques, French bibliographer, b. at
Pars, 19 April, 1665; d. there, 13 Aug.. 1721. As a
bov of ten, he entered the Order of the Knishts of St.
John of Malta, and, after a very brief and unhappy
sojourn in Malta, made his studies at Paris. He left
the Order of the Knights and entered the Oratory in
1686. He then taught at the college of Juilly in the
Diocese of Meaux, where he was ordained priest in
1689, and was later librarian at the seminary of Notre-
Dame des Vertus in Aubervilliers near Paris. He was
transferred in 1699 to the Oratory of St-Honor^ at
Paris, and remained there as librarian till his death
twenty-two years later. The title of the first work
which brought him fame indicates its contents fairly
completely: **Bibliotheca Sacra in binos Syllabos dis-
tincta quffi (I) omnes sive Textus sacri sive Versionum
ejusdem qua vis lingua expressarum Editiones, necnon
prsBstantiores MSS. Codices cum notis historicis et
criticis, (II) omnia eorum opera quovis idiomate con-
scnpta, qui hucusque in s. Scripturam quidpiam edid-
erunt, et grammaticas et I^xica linguarum prsesertim
orientalium, quae ad illustrandas sacras paginas all-
quid adjumenti conferre possunt, continct (2 vols.
8vo, Paris, 1709; — ^Vigouroux, contradicting other
authorities, says 1702;2nded., 1709); edited by Boer-
ner with additions chiefly of German works (Ant-
werp, 1709); folio edition by the author (Paris, 1719);
n^tod after the author's death with many additions
and correctioos by Leloug and by his coiifr^re, Des-
moleta, who prefixed the life from which we draw our
(acta (2 vols., fol., Paris, 172;j). The last and best
._._ .arly modern literature concerning them.
lielong also wrote a "Discoura biat4>ru|uc sur L'sprin-
cipalea editioiude^ Biltles polyglottut" (PurLj, l7l:i).
IIh other work, which aliows hia variety of tastea and
has proved very useful to studentsof French history, ia
entitled " Biblioth('<{uc historique de la l''ranee, con-
tenant le catoloKue dcs ouvraRes imprimis et manu-
sorits i|ui traitent de I'histuirc de ce royaume, ou qui
y ODt mpport, avec dcs notes critiques et hiutoriques"
(ParU, X719).
La Lontre, Lol'ih- Joseph, missionarv to I he Mio>
mac Indians und Vicar-General of Acadia under the
Biabop orQuiljec, b. in France about Itt'.tlJ: A. there
about 1770. He was a conspicuous figure in Nova
Seotia in Uie middln of the eiKhteenth century, and
his portrait as drawn l>y some writers lends colour to
the charge that history is often a conspiracy ai^iinst
truth. Anxioiu to juiitify the memoral>le iie|Hirtation
of the Acadianu in 1755, portion annalist^j and chron-
iclera of the {>eriocl represi^nt Le Loutre as the evil
genius and tvrant of tne Aeadiuns, the sworn enemjr
of the En(;iish, iind -.i pastiir who threatened with ex-
comraunicution and with mussiicre l)y his Iniliana all
who favoured measures of reconcihation with the
Englinh Government. Better accredited hi.'itoriana,
however, such as Haliburton, acknowledge tliat thi^
Picture of the abl>£ is mom caricature than portrait.
he truth appears to l)e that Le Loutre was a typical
French missionary of forceful character ami iriitmtive,
with a natural desire, sii long as the matter was in
digputxt, to hold the Acadiana to their alle|;i:ince to
France: that he showed himself more than once un ex-
cellent friend of imlividiial Englishmen in tlieir time
of need; and that his accompanying the Miemiies on
seveni expeditions against the English, expiililions
which he had done his best to prevent, was tor the nolo
purpose of restmining the cruelty and vengeimce of
his Indian Hock. A letter sent in 1757 by the Bishop
of Quebec to the AbM of I'Isle-Diou pmclaims Lo
Loutm lo have l>een " irreproachable in every respect,
both in the functions of his sacred ministrv and in the
part he took in the temporal affairs of tne colony".
Captured by the English while on the way to France,
Lc Loutre was held prisoner by them for some ^ate in
the Isle of Jersey; on his release he returned to France,
where a few years later he died.
HAUauBTOH, Hiaoru of iVo™ Sailwi (Halifiu, 1862); Ricd-
inn, Aeailia ilHOi}; Boukuej.u, Iliilairr Ju Canada (Mou-
ir™l 1903). ABTHnR Babhv O'Neill.
the Acts make St. Julianus one of the seventy-two
ilLsciples of Christ and state that he arrived at Le
MuiLH with two companions: Turibius, who became
bishop under Antoninus (laS-lOl), and Pavatius who
was bishop under Maximinua {235-238) and under
Aureiian (270-275), in which event, Pavatius would
have lived over two hundred years. Liborius, suc-
cessor of Pavatius, woulii have been the contemporary
of Valentinian (364-375). These chronological ab-
surdities of tile Acts liave Icfl Mgr Duchrane to
conclude that the first Bisliop of Le Mans whose
episcopate can bo dated with certainty is Victurius,
who attended the C-ouneils of Angers and of Tours, in
-!53 and 401, and to whom Gregory ot Tmirs alludes
Le HuiB, Diocese of (Ci
KTscs the entire Department ot Sarthe. Prior to the
evolution it included ri36 parishes and was one of
ihe most extensive dioceses of France; at the time
of the Concordat of 1X01, it lost some parishes in
A'end6mois and Normandy, and acquired some in
Anjou. The Diocese of Le Mans embraced 665 com-
munes from then up to the year IS55, when the De-
partment of Mayenne was detached from it to form
the Diocese of Laval. The origin of the Diocese of
Le Hans has given rise to very complicated discus-
rions among scholars, based on the value of the
"Gesta domni Aldriei ",and of the " .\ctU8 Ponlificum
Cenoraannis in urbc degentium", both compiled dur-
ing the episcopate of Aldric (R.12-S57). The " fiesta "
rdate that Aldric had the bodies of Saints Julianus,
l^bius, Pavatius, Roman us, Liborius. and Ha-
ddlDdua, first bishops of Mans, brought to his cathedral;
as "a venerable confessor". Turibius who, according
to the .Acts, WHS thesucceesorof Julianus, was, on the
contrarv. i^uccessor to Victurius and occupied the see
from 4!K) to 400.
Among the nuhsequent bishopH of !« M:ios are
meiitiontsl the following saints: Principius (41)7-511),
InnocentiuB (5;)2-J3), Domnolus (5tiO-Sl), Bertech-
ramnus or Bertram (587-623), founder of the Abbey
of Notre-Dame de la Couture, Uadoindus (623-,^),
Berecharius or B^raire (655-70), and Aldric (832-.'>7).
If we admit the theory according to wliich the
False Decretals were compiled at Le Mans by the
author of the "Actus pontificum", then Aldric must
have used the?c false documents a!i a weapon against
the institution of the chorepiscopi and also against the
pretensions of the Breton usurper Nomenoe lo the
ecclesiastical province of Tours. It was Aldric who
had the relics of St. Liborius conveyed to Paderlwm.
Other bishops were: Blessed Geoffroy de I,ouilun
(1234-55), wnnm Gregory IX made papal legate for
the entire Kingdom of France, and who, in 1251, con-
secrated the cathedral of Le Mane and foundivl the
superb monastery of Notre-Dame rlu i'arc d'Orquea,
where he was interred and where miraele-i were
wrought at his tomb; and Martin Bemiwr [!l-^'2-67),
who left a memoir written in defence of .Inwn of Arc
From 1468 to 1619 the See of T.c IXari^ w:f« occupied
LIMBEBO
144
by prelates of the House of LuxemburRi and froml519
to 1537 by their cousin, Louis de murbon. Jean,
Cardinal du Bellay, Dean of the Sacred College, was
bishop from 1546 to 1556; and Bouvier, the theo-
lo^n, from 1834 to 1854.
During the episcopate of St. Berecharius (655-70)
the body of St. Scholastica was brought from the
monastery of Fleury to Le Mans; the monastery
erected to shelter the remains of the saint was de-
stroyed by the Northmen in the second half of the
ninth century. A portion of her relics was brought
in 874 by the Empress Richilda to the monastery
of Juvigny les Dames. The remaining portion was
conveyed to the interior of the citadel and placed in
the apse of the collegiate church of St. Pierre la Cour,
which served the counts of Maine as a domestic
chapel. The fire that destroved Le Mans 3 Sep-
temper, 1134, also consumed tne shrine of St. Scho-
lastica, and only a few calcined bones were left. On
11 July, 1464, a confraternity was erected in honour
of St. Scholastica, and on 23 November, 1876, she
was officially proclaimed patroness of Le Mans.
The Jesuit college of La Fldche, founded in 1603 by
Henry IV. enjoyed a great reputation for a century
and a half, and Maraiial de Gu^briant, Descartes.
Father Mersenne, Prince Eugene of Savoy, ana
84guier were all numbered among its students. The
Dominican convent of Le Mans, begun about 1219,
in fact during the lifetime of St. Dominic, was emi-
nently prosperous, thanks to the benefactions of
John of Troeren, an English lord; the theologian
Nicolas Coeffeteau, who died in 1623, was one of its
glories, prior to becoming Bishop of Marseilles. The
Kevolution swept away this convent.
The diocese honours in a special manner as saints:
Peregrinus, Marcoratus, and Viventianus, martyrs;
Hilary of Oiz4, nephew of St. Hilary of Poitiers (in
the fifth centuiy) ; Bonuner, Almirus, Leonard, and
Ulphace, hermits; Gault, Front, and Brice, soli-
taries and previously monks of Micy; Fraimbault,
hermit, foimder of a small monastery in the valley of
Gabrone; Calais, hermit and founder of the monasterv
of Anisole, from whom the town of SaintrCalais took
its name; Laumer. successor to St. Calais; Guingalois
or Gu^nol^, foimaer of the monastery of Landevenec
in Brittany, whose relics are venerated at Ch&teau du
Loir; all m the sixth century: Rigomer, monk at
Soulign^, and T^ncstine, his penitent, both of whom
were acquitted before Childebert, through the mira-
cle of Palaiseau, of accusations made against them
(d. about 560); Longis, solitary, and Onofletta, his
penitent; Siviard, Abbot of Anisole and author of the
life of St. Calais (d. 681) ; the Irish St. C^rota, and her
mistress Osmana, daughter of a king^f Ireland, died a
solitary near St-Brieuc, in the seventh century;
M^n^l^, and Savinian (d. about 720), natives of Pr^
dga^f who repaired to Auvergne to found the Abbey
oi M^nat, on the ruins of the hermitage where St. Ca-
lais had formerly lived ; there is also a particular devo-
tion in Le Mans to Blessed Ralph deLa Fustaye, monk
(twelfth century) ,disciple of Blessed Robert d' Arbrissel
and founder of the Aboey of St. Sulpice, in the forest
of Nid de Merle in the Diocese of Rennes. The cele-
brated Abbot de Ranc^ made his novitiate at the
Abbey of Persaigne in the Diocese of Le Mans.
Also there may be mentioned as natives of the diocese,
TTrbain Grandier, the celebrated cur6 of Loudun,
burned to death for sorcery in 1634; and Mersenne,
the Minim (d. 1648), philosopher and mathematician
and friend of Descartes and Pascal. The cathedral
of St. Julian of Mans, rebuilt towards the year 1100,
exhibits specimens of all styles of architecture
up to the fifteenth century, its thirteenth-century
cnoir being one of the most remarkable in France.
The church of Notre-Dame de la Couture dates from
the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.
The Abbey of Solesmes, founded by €leo£FroydeSabl^
in 993 and completed in 1095, has a thirteentli-
century church which is a veritable muaeum of sculp-
tures of the end of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies. Its "Entombment of Christ", in terra cotta,
is famous; the Magdalen m the group, already cele-
brated even in the fifteenth century for its beauty,
attracted the attention of Richelieu, who thought of
having it broiight to Paris. Several sculptures de-
picting scenes in the life of the Blessed Virgin fonn a
series unique in France..
Pilgrimages to Notre-Dame de Toutes Aides at
Saint-Remy du Plein, Notre-Dame de La Faigne at
Pontvallain, and Notre-Dame des Bois at La Suze,
date back to primitive times. The chapel of Notre-
Dame de Torc^, erected in the sixth century, has been
much frequented by pilgrims since the eleventh cen-
tury. Besides these places of pilgrimage may be
mentioned those of Notre-Dame de La bit at 6om-
front, and of Notre-Dame du Ch6ne at Vion, near
Sabld, which can be traced to 1494. It was estab-
lished in the place where in former times Urban II
had preached the crusade.
Pnor to the application of the .\ssociations law of
1901, there were m the Diocese ^{ Le Mans, Capuchins,
Jesuits, and the monks of Solesmes, where^ through
the efforts of Dom Gu^ranger, a Bencdictme house
of the Congregation of France was founded in 1833.
Several .congregations of women originated in the
diocese; the nuns of Notre-Dame de TAv^ at La
Fl^he, a teaching order, founded in 1622; the Sisters
of the Visitation Sainte Marie, at Le Mans, a contem-
plative order founded in 1634; the Sisters of St.
Joseph at La Fl^he, a nursing order, founded in
1636; the Sisters of Uharity of Providence, devoted
to teaching and hospital work, founded in 1806 by
Abb^ Dujari^, the mother-house being at Ruill^sur-
Loir; the Sisters of the Child Jesus, teachers and
nurses, founded in 1835, with their mother-house at
Le Mans; the Marianite Sisters of the Holy Cross,
founded in 1841, with their mother-house at Le Mans
and important educational institutions in New York
and Louisiana; the Benedictine nuns of the Con-
gre^tion of France known as the Benedictines of St.
Cecilia, founded at Solesmes in 1867 by Dom Gu^r-
anger and Mother Cecilia. At the close of the nine-
teenth century the following institutions in the dio-
cese were under the direction of religious: 3 infants'
asylums, 39 infants' schools, 1 boys' orphanage, 10
girls' orphanages, 3 industrial schools, 2 houses of
shelter, 2 reformatories, 32 hospitals or hospices, 12
private hospitals and retreats, 1 asylum for idiots,
1 asylum for the blind, 1 asylum for insane women
and 8 homes for the aged. In 1905 (the last year of
the concordatory regime), the Diocese of Le Mans had
a population of 422,699, with 38 parishes, 350 chapels
of ease, and 111 curacies subventioned by the State.
OaUia chriHiana (nova, 1856), XIV. 338-432; inahnimenta,
09-142; LoTTiN and Cauvin, Cartularium innan%§ tcduim
ctnomanenM, quod dicilur liber albua capitvli (I^e Mans, 1869);
Geata Aldrici, ed. Charles and Froger (Mamers, 1889); Dn-
CHB8NE, Faatea ^aeopaux, II (Paris, 1900). 309, 340; Haybt,
(Euvrea, 1 (Paris. 1900). 275-317; Bcsson and Lbdru, Adut
poniificum Cenomanni* in vrbe degeniium (liC Mans, 1901); db
Brousillon. Carirdaire de VH^chS— 996-1790 (Le Mans, 1900):
Chambois, R^ertoire historique et biographiqtie du diockte du
Mane (Le Mans, 1896) ; Ledru, La cathMraU Saint-^tdien du
Man», »ee Hiquee, eon archilectttre, ton mobilier (Mamere, 1900) ;
Lavdb. Recherchee aur lea ptlerinagra manceaux (Le Mans,
1899); Heurtebizb and Triger. iSaVntr Scholantique, patnmne
de ki viUe du Mana (Solesmes. 1897); Cosnard, Hiatoire du
cottvent dee frhrea prichettra du Mana (Le Mnns, 1879) ; CartuUnre
dee abhayee de Saint-Pierre de La Couture el de Saint-Pierre de
Soleamea, published by the Benedictines of Solesmes (Le Mans,
1881): DB La Trbmblatb, Soleamea. lea aculpturea de VigUe9
abbatiale, 1496-166S (Solesmes, 1892); de KocHEifONTBnc,
Un eollhtje de jHuitea au 17* et 18* Si^cUa: le rolUge Henri IV d§
La FUche, 4 vols. (Le Mans, 1889); Chevalier, Tbpo-Wbtio-
graphie, pp. 1832-33. GeORGBS GoTAU.
iMBlberff seat of a Latin, a Uniat Ruthenian,
and a Uniat Armenian archbishopric. The city is
called Lwow in Polish, Leopol in latinised Poliflh,
UMBIBa
145
LBMBIBO
Ijdw«nbuiv,m Gennan, Lwihohrod in Rulhenian. It
was founded in 1259 by the Ruthenian King Daniel
for his son Leo, Prince of Halics, and took its name
from that prince. Destroyed by the Tatars in 1261,
it was rebtult in 1270 on the same spot by Prince Leo,
as is recorded by the inscription on one of its gates:
" Dux Leo mihi fundamenta jecit, posteri nomen de-
dere Leontopolis'^ (Duke L«> laid my foundations,
posterity gave me the name of LeontopoHs). In 1340
Casimir the Great, King of Poland, took possession of
it, built two new castles, attracted German colonists
to it, and gave it a charter modelled on that of Magde-
buii^. In 1372 Louis of Huneaiy entrusted the ad-
ministration of the city to Wladislaw, Prince of Op-
S5ln; in 1387 it was given as dowry to the Princess
edwig, by whose marriage with Jagellon it became
a possession of the Polish Crown. Lemberg was
thenceforward the recognized capital of the Russian
territories dependent on Poland (i. e. Red Russia),
which preserved their autonomy undiminished until
1 433. The city was one of the great entrepots of Euro-
pean commerce with the East, which, after the taking
of Constantinople by the Turks, followed for the most
part the overland route. Lemberg was besieged many
times — by the Lithuanians in 1350, the Wallachians in
1498, the Turks in 1524 and 1672, and the Cossacks
in 1648 and 1655. Charles XII of Sweden took and
plundered it in 1704. By the first partition of Poland
it was assigned to Austria in 1772; finally, in 1848, it
revolted and was bombarded.
Lemberg is situated in a deep and narrow vallev on
the Pelter, a tributary of the Bug; the capital of the
Austrian Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, it con-
tains— including ita many and populous suburbs —
about 160,000 imiabitants, of whom 45,000 are Jews.
Of the convents which, in the seventeenth century,
gained for it the name of ''City of Monks '^ some still
exist. Emperor Joseph II reduced the number of its
churches from seventy-two to about twenty; some of
them are very noteworthy — e. g. the Latin cathedral,
built in the Cfothic style in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries; the Ruthenian Catholic cathedral, built in
1740-9 in the neo-Italian style; the church of the Ber-
nardines, with the tomb of St. John of Dukia, Patron
of Lemberg; the Dominican, the Jesuit, the Wallach-
ian, and other churches. The national Ossolinski In-
stitute possesses a library of the highest value for the
study of Polish literature and local history, containing
more than 100,000 volumes and 4000 manuscripts.
The university, founded in 1060 by Casimir of Poland,
suffered especially from the withdrawal of the Jesuits
and the political changes which culminated in Galicia
becoming an Austrian province. It was restored in
1784, though with curtailed privileges and a much
restricted staff, by Joseph II, who desired to keep the
Polish youth from going to Vilna or Warsaw. Re-
duced in 1807 to the rank of a lyceum, the university
was once more established with some measure of its
former autonomy in 1816. It now numbers about 200
professors and tutors, with 1900 students, 300 of whom
attoid the faculty of Catholic theology. The city also
possesses a large number of educational estaolish-
ments for boys and girls, besides many benevolent in-
stitutions.
Latin Archbishopbic. — ^The Latin Bishopric of
Halics, in which that of Lemberg originated, appears
to have been established no earlier than the year 1361.
On 8 April, 1363, Urban V wrote to the Bishop of
Gnesen to insist that King Casimir III of Poland
should build a cathedral in the city of Lemberg, which
he had recently taken from the Russian schismatics.
Nevertheless, letters of Gregory XI, dated 13 Febru-
ary, 1375, mention only the metropolitan See of Ha-
lics, and the Bishoprics of Prsemysl, Chelm, and Vlad-
bnir, student evidence that that of Lemberg was not
yet established. On 3 March, 1375, the question is
ouied of tnuuferring the See of Halicx to Lemberg, a
DC— 10
transfer which was effected only in December, 1414^
by John XXIII. In 1501 Bishop Andreas Rosea was
given the administration of Przemysl, but was trans-
ferred in 1503 to the See of Gnesen; his successor,
Bemardine Wilczek (1503-40), rebuilt the cathedral,
which had been destroyed by fire. Many of the subse-
quent bishops were famous; such were Stanislaus
Urochovski (1634-45), a writer of religious poetry, and
Nicholas Poplavski (1709-11), an ecclesiastical writer.
A great many synods were held here from the siirteenth
to the eighteenth centuries. Upon the opening of the
Estates (or Diet) of Galicia, 13 February, 1817, Arch-
bishop Skarbel Ankvics obtained the title of Primate
of the Kingdoms of Galicia and Lodomeria, which title
has been accorded since 1849 to the Ruthenian Cath-
olic metropolitan. The Latin archdiocese has two
suffragan bishoprics: Przemysl and Tamo v. It num-
bers 920,000 faithful, 36,000 Protestants, and 550,000
Jews. There are 249 parishes, 579 secular and 290
regular priests — Dominicans, Franciscans, Capuchins,
Jesuits, Carmelites, etc. There are also a great many
religious women engaged in teaching and works of
mercy. The seminary numbers 60 students.
Uniat Ruthenian Archbishopric. — After the coin
version of the Ruthenians in this region to Christian-
ity, the Bishopric of Halicz, suffragan to Kiev, was
established for their benefit between 1152 and 1180.
Halicz had been made a metropolitan see in 1345 by
John Calecas, Patriarch of Constantinople, but in 134?
it was again placed under the jurisdiction of Kiev, at
the request of the Grand Duke Simeon of Moscow.
'Its metropolitan rank was restored to Halicz only
after the Polish occupation of the province about
1371; it had four suffragans: Kulm, Ptzemysl, Turof,
and Vladimir. In 1414 King Ladislaus, for some un-
known reason, transferred the Latin See of Halicz to
Leopol, and suppressed the Ruthenian metropolitan
See of Halicz. Tne see was subsequently administered
by vicars of the Metropolitan of Kiev until 28 October,
1539, when it was restored as a simple bishopric
Macarius Tuczapsti, the titular, next year changea his
residence to Lemberg and took the combined titles of
Halicz and Lemberg, which his successors have borne,
adding those of Kamenets and Podolia, when their
jurisdiction extended so far. With the establishment
of the Jesuits in this country began the reform of the
extremely ignorant schismatic clergy, who gradually
turned towards Rome. In 1597 the Bishop of Lem-
berg, the celebrated Gideon Balaban, brought his dio-
cese back to Catholicism^ but afterwards, tnrough hia
ambition, he relapsed mto schism, and with him
nearlv all his subjects. A council held at Lemberg in
October, 1629, laboured in vain for the conversion of
the diocese, and it was not until the end of the seven-
teenth century that Bishop Joseph Czumlanski em-
braced the cause of union, secretly at first in 1677, and
then openlv in 1700. After Joseph came Barlaam
Czeptyski (1710-5) and Athanasius Czeptyski (1715-
46), who, being promoted to the metropolitan See of
Kiev, retained that of Lemberg with it. This example
was followed by Leo Louis Czeptyski (1749-79), when
he became metropolitan in 1762.
Under Peter Bielanski (1779-98) the Diocese of
Lemberg, to which were imited those of Halicz and
Kamenets, fortunately became the possession of Aus-
tria, whose government took in hand the education of
the clergy, who were poor and so ignorant as hardly to
know their own rite. Maria Theresa had students sent
to the seminaiy established at Vienna for the Hunga-
rian Uniats. Joseph II turned the Dominican convent
into a seminary for Ruthenians, adding to it the
church and the garden, and soon the Ruthenian stu-
dents had places reserved for them in the theological
faculty of the city. On 22 February, 1807, Pius Vll,
by the Bull "In universalis ecclesiss re^imine'S with-
drew Lemberg from the metropolitan jurisdiction of
Kiev and made it a metropolitan see, with Kulm and
LIMOXS 146 LE MEBOISR
Pnemysl as suffragans. The Diocese of Kulm was de- obliged to submit to the authority of the Latin bish-
pendent on I^emberg until 1837, when it was made im- ops. Until the nineteenth century the popes had the
mediately subject to the Holy See until its suppression direct nomination to this archbishopric; and the kings
by Russia. In its place another suffragan diocese, that of Poland only granted the exequatur. By a Brief of
of Stanislaov, was given to Lemberg in 1856. The 20 September, 1819, Pius VII conceded to the new
£m)x^ror of Austria obtained from Rome the right to sovereign, the Emperor of Austria, the choice of an
nominate the metropolitan and his suffragans, while archbishop from three candidates presented by the
the metropolitan was authorized to confirm their Armenian clergy of Lemlx?rg. The present archdio-
nomination and to consecrate them, as had formerly cese numbers 4000 faithful, 20 priests, 9 churches, 13
been granted to the Metropolit-an of Kiev by Clement chapels, and 10 parishes. There is no seminary, the
VIII. The Habsburg monarchy has seriously taken clergy being prepared in the Latin seminary. There
up the task of developing education among the clergy, are two houses for the education of poor orphans,
and of putting them upon the same footing as the Latm Besides the CathoUc, there are about 800 schismatic
clergy by giving them the same political rights, and Armenians,
lastly of teachmg the Ruthenian language in the „ NEHiiRin/:m:/Mw7«..8.v; .LE^uIBN,Orirn«C
ai»hr^]a a. nninf os fy^ wKinh ihn Prklou ko/l ni>A^'/\iia1v EuBEL, Hurarchta cath. medit avt, I (M..nstcr, 1898), 308; II,
scnooi8--a pomt as to which the l oles hacl previously j^. q^^^ ^^^^^ epUcoporum Ecd. cath. (Ratisbon). 351 ; «up-
cared little. Between the Poles and Ruthenians, in- pi«n.. Ixxxlii; Mvinonet catholica (Rome, 1907). 760. 790;
deed, there has alwavs existed a certain hostility, Hahawbvicx. ^nfm/«a Eecletia rutkena (LembeiK, 1862);
which, during the nineteenth century, resulted in vio- Maeko^ttch. Gh Slavx ed x Papx, I (Agmm). 16^73.
lent controversies, and eventually, in 1862, necessi- *
States,
at Car-
Vom a
gether witran ex(^ivrSe"tion for"RiJ^k""ThJI^ ?m1^*'"*i* preailier he Wame a Catholic on 21 April
they have sho^-n an inclination to return to the primil ^^'.^'^ ''?? f'^-V.^oJ'"''?* '^a?il^°P ^'"'*"' **
tive Gncco-SIavic Rite, and to suppress the moJlifica- Ratisbon on 11 Aprd, 1826. In 1834 he came as mo-
tions which in former times had Wn-wrongly per- 8io°ary *« the Lnitcd btates ami "fter bemg stationed
haps-introduced into the Liturgy, but which, Vthe * ^^""^ *""« "*■ ^^?^y7?'^}^ ^''"7 ' ^^'^'''P^"".' ***
miiKUof the people, have now become to a certain ex- ?"?,.f P* "f assistant to the age<l and mfirm Pnnce
tent identified with Catholicism. Hence continual r«- GaHitzm at Loretto, Penns.vlvania. Hs took up his
ligious troubles have ari.scn, and indeed numerous •"^'dence m the neighbouring town of W>cnsf)urg,
difectionfi. The reform of the Basilian monks inau- 1^?* ^>f^}''> f*^H'^ *° a portion of father (.allit-
gumtcd by Leo XIII has in part remedied these fatal ^ sJ'stnct, about fifty miles m cxt<;nt. In 18.% he
tendencies, which, however, are still the chief danger ^""e^'^ some land on which two y«irs later he Imd out
threatening the Uniat Catholics of this arehdiocesef f *°^? which m honour of the first Cathohc Bishop m
The Ruthenian arehdiocese comprises the districts ^KS"''*** j^^'^^^^r^il*^ ^arrolltown. Ue suc-
ofLembei«,Stryj.Brze«anv,ZlocMW,andTamopol, ^^ ^^^^^^^^J^*-^''" Gallitzin as pastor of
and numfere 1.400,000 faithful. There are 881 I«retto m 1840. Father Lcmcke w^s instrumental m
priests-21 religious, 26 celibate seculars, 148 wid- ^"^^"I *,° H'^ ^P**^^*?,"^ *^« ^^ BcnedictmM,
wers, and 687 Siarried. There is a chapte^ of 10 can- ^^er the leadership of Father Bomface ^\ immer, the
ons and a diocesan consistory of 23 members. The ^*«f« Arehabbot.of St. Amcent s, m Pennsylvania,
archdiocese is divided into 30 deaconcrics and 752 ^*^«'' If mcke himself joined the new BencdicUne
parishes. There are 749 churehes with, and 500 with- ^^»^^y "» 18=2. In ISoo he went as missionary
imt reBiHent, nriMt* »nd ."?« chftivla. Vhe aominarv *<> Kansas, and prepared the way forjhe fo^dation of
Jersey, the ro-
>wn. He is the
.o.v./lx^il^^grwMro^thercleri^are'^u^t^'^^ «".t^°' "j ^ •«.« °f I^ince Gallitzin: "Leben und
Vienna and in the Ruthenian seminary at Rome. J?*^^^?,^^ Pnnzen Demetrius Augustm von Gal-
The Basilian monks have 3 houses with 23 religious; T\^.,i^"w®*'":' ,S^';,^„ r i n<!B i.. a^ »/„„•-.
the Basihan nuns, 2 houses with 68 religious; the (Notre Dame, Indiana, 1883), XIX, 41-45, 6<^-7i.8S-oi. no-
Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary (founded in H3. 128-132. 141-143. Michael Ott.
1892), 6 houses with 39 religious.
Uniat Armenian ARCHnisHOPRic— As early as 1062 hb Mercier, Franj^ois, one of the early mission-
there were Armenians settled at Kiev, in consequence aries of New France, b. at Paris, 4 October, 1604; d,
of the various invasions and persecutions of Tatars, in the island of Martinique, 12 June, 1690. He
Turks, and Greeks. Thence these exiles migrated to entered the Society of Jesus at Paris, 19 October, 1620.
Lemlx»rg, Kamenets, and Lutzk. The Catholic arch- He taught in succession all the classes of grammar and
diocese was founded in 1365, upon the union of the humanities in the Jesuit college of the capital, and.
titular, Gregory, with Rome; the cathedral was built after completing his own philosophical and theological
two years later. From 1492 to 1516 the see remained studies, was sent to Canada, where he arrived 20 July,
vacant, after which it was occupied by schismatics until 1635, and with Father Pierre Pijart set out for the
24 Octol^er, 1630, when Nicholas Torosze^^icz took the Huron country the third day after landing at Quebec,
oath of fidelity to Urban VIII. Since then the sue- reaching his destination on 13 August. He devoted
cessionof archbishops has been regular (Gams. ** Scries himself to the work of the Huron mission for fifteen
for a brief absence at
mission during the summer
jeivcd the Huron name of
the two suffragan Bishoprics of Kamenets-Podolski ChaQosd, but vears after when among the Onondacas he
and Mohileff, which had been taken from him when went bv the froquoisnameTeharonhiagannra. I'^ther
they passed under Russian domination. In 1808 his Jean de Br^beuf, an exacting judge of what was re-
junsaiction was restricted to the territory of Galicia (quired of an Apostolic lalx)urer, wrote his i)anegyric
and Bukovina. Even the Armenian Catholics of in two words when he described him as "a ixjrfect
Transylvania, numbering 10,000, have been unable to missioner ". While in Huronia he was stationed from
obtain a bishop of their own rite or to become subject 1635 to 1637 at Ihonatiria, from 1637 to 1639 at
to the Armenian Archbishop of Lembeiig, and they are OBsossan^, from 1639 to 1640 at Ste-Marie I, again
LEBSERGISR
147
LEMEBGISR
at Ossoflsan^ until 1642, at Ste-Marie I until 1649, and
finally at 8te-Mahe II, on St. Joseph's Island, from
16 June, 1649. He left Huronia only after the laying
waste of the country by the Iroquois, and the complete
abandonment of the mission, subsequent to their
inroads, on 10 June, 1650.
(>n his return to Quebec he was engaged in the
ministry there and at Three Rivers until 165:^, when
he was appointed rector of the college and superior of
the whole Canada mission, a post he occupied until
1656. But while yet in office, on 1 1 May of the latter
year, not willing to expose the lives of others to perils
he was not ready to face, he named Father J6r6me
Lalemant vice-superior, so as to l)c himself free to
head a tentative missionary expedition, fraught wi^h
danger, to the Onondagas. Wnile on his way to this
fierce Iroquois nation he wrote from Montreal on 6
June, 1656. to his provincial in P^rance a letter setting
forth vivialy the oifficulties of the undertaking (see
"Relation, 1657", Quebec ed., 50-54). On 1 June,
1657, he was back at Quebec, but started to return
on 27 June. He could not have proceeded far when
he was recalled, for the "Jesuits' Journal" mentions
his saying the Christmas midnight Mass for the
Hurons at the Quel^ec hospital. From 1659 to 1660,
though in charge of the parish with Father Dablon,
he h£i also to attend the outlying mission at Beaupr^.
He was formally named assistant parish priest, 21
October, 1660, by Mgr de Petr^, the first Bishop of
Quebec, who had arrived in June of the previous year.
On 6 August, 1665, for the second time, he was pro-
moted to the office of rector and superior of the whole
Canada Mission, and continue<i to act as such until
replaced by Father Dablon on 12 July, 1671, Le Mer-
cier becoming procurator et primaries in contnchif or,
in modem parlance, "bursar and vice-president" of
the Jesuit college at Quebec. Father Le Mercier was
recalled from Canada and was deputed by the general
of the order as visitor of the French missions in South
America and in the Antilles, in 1673. By 12 Decem-
ber of the same year he was already acting in that
capacity in Cayenne. On 12 October, 1674, he was
named superior of all these missions. For ten years
he acquitted himself of his onerous duties to the
satisfaction of all, and died at Martinique at an ad-
vanced age with a widespread reputation for sanctity
of life.
We are indebted to Le Mercier for the compiling of
nine of the annual " Relations", 1653, 1654, 1655, and
1665 to 1670 inclusively, besides the two written by
him on the Huron mission, those of the years 1637
and 1638.
(Martin]. JauU Rdalions (Quebec ed., 1858); THWAmsa,
Jaiuit Relaiiong and Allied Docmnenttt: Lavkkdikre and Cas-
ORAIN, Journal des JttmiteB (Quebec. 1871); ManiMcript
CaUUogues of Uu Socieh/^ and Martin, Catalogue Rniwnne des
RdaHonBt both in St. Mary's Coll. Archives, Montreal.
A. E. Jones.
Lemerder, Jacques, b. at Pontoisc, about 1585;
d. at Paris, 1654. Lemercier ^^PMne with Mansart and
-Le Muet the ^lory of repret^atiqK French architec-
ture most briUiantly under Louis XIII and Richelieu.
He was likewise a sculptor and engraver. He imitated
in a measure the strong but somewhat prosaic style of
Salamon de Brossc. The French Renaissance had at
that time already reached its last stage, but it still re-
tained an important heritage from the days of Lescot.
Lemercier was in Italy, presumal>ly from 1G07 to
1613, and, while in Rome, probably engraved a
model of St. Peter's. As early as 1618 he appears as
royal architect with a salary of 1200 livres. In 1639
he became chief architect, m which capacity, having
the supervision of all the royal building enterprises, he
fell into a disagreeable dispute with the cultivated
Poussin about the decorations in the Louvre. In
general, he is considered a well-meaning, discreet char-
acter, living entirely for his art, he thought very
little of his profit, and, in spite of the great works
which he executed, it was found necessary after his
death to sell his entire large library to cover his debts.
He was highly extolled as the exponent of the classic
tendenci^ of Palladio. Richelieu, in particular, en-
trusted him with a series of important works. As yet
Lescot's plan for the Louvre had been scarcely half
finished. The cardinal, an enthusiastic patron of
architecture, placed Lemercier at the head of this
undertaking in 1624. In carrying on the work begun
by Lescot, Lemercier subordinatwi himself to the Tat-
ter's style and design, but he followed his own ide««
in his more substantial plan and in quadrupling the
building area, eacli of the four sides having a pavilion
at its centre. In this manner he built the northern
half of the west side — the celebrated Pavilion de
THorloge — ^and the western part of the north side.
It is, however, an exaggerated opinion to regard the
Pavilion de i'Horloge as the best example of French
architecture.
After 1627, in Richelieu's personal service, Lemer-
cier built the Chateau de Richelieu in Poitou and the
f)arish church of the same town, in which he displayed
lis talents to splendid advantage. The castle was
worthy of a king. In addition, he began the Palais-
Cardinal at Paris in 1629, which, after its donation to
the king, was known as the Palais Royal. He was
likewise entrusted with the subse(]uent extension of
this building, of which there remains at present only
an interior wing. It is wanting in lightness and pro-
portion in the disposal of its masses. The master
earned great and well-merited renown by his work on
the Sorbonne which was begun at the same time. The
collie and the church are both his work. The latter
is noteworthy for its domical shape in the stvle of the
Italian Renaissance (like Val-do-Gr4ce an^ the In-
valides of the two Mansarts). In France, contrary to
the Italian custom, the exterior dome was made of
wood, which was less monumental, though about the
same in appearance. Lemercier inaugurated this
economical method in his claustral dome over the
Pavilion de I'Horlc^e. The dome presents a har-
monious effect. It is a complete hemisphere, with
four small cupolas in the Greek cross above the two
orders of columns on the fa<?ade. The interior also
makes a better effect than Mansart's dome of the In-
valides, and was formerly intended to be beautifully
decorated. The square interf?ection is surrounded by
cylindrical vaults and a semicircular choir apse. The
north side consists of a portico in classic style. The
whole may be considerea one of the finest buildings
of that time.
I-»emercier produced a similar result with his work
on the ablxjy church of Val-de-Cirdce, which he took
up as the successor of Father Mansart. The latter had
refused to execute an order requiring a change in the
design, whereupon the principal part as far as the en-
tablature appears to have l)een carried on by Lemer-
cier and finished by other masters. The foundation of
the church and royal abbey was determined upon at
the birth of Louis XIV, and Louis himself, when six
years of age (1645), laid the cornerstone. Here too
the different orders of columns harmonize l)eauti fully
with the principal dome and the four smaller domes
and their tambour. The front view is truly magnifi-
cent. In the details of execution a noble taste, as well
as great care, is evident. In 16.S5 Richelieu once
again claim(Kl the services of Lemercier for work on
the Chateau de Rueil, near Paris, which he had ac-
quired at that time. The artist's great patron was
buried in the church of the Sorlxjnne in 1642. Le-
mercier continued to enjov the favour of the court
and the pul)lic. In 1645 lie received as first of the
royal architects a salary of 3000 livres. His last work
was the plan of the church of St. Roch in Paris. He
completed only the choir and part of the nave. A
few unimportant earher works, wliich are not unanir
LIMOB I^
mouily Mcribed to Lemercier, nwv also be mentiotted.
In 1630 be built tjie choir of the enurch of the Oiator-
iaus in Paris after the design of G&nent U^ceau,
who had laid the comeratone in 1621. The fogade be-
longs to a lat«r period. He also erected the Hdteb de
Liancourt anddeLa Rochefoucauld. Also ascribed to
him are the Hotol de Longuevllle and the ChAt«au
Silly, or Chilly . of Marehal d^ffiat A hunting seat of
Louis XIII, with splendid pleasure grounds, was a re-
markable Versailles in miniature, forecasting the cele-
brated pleasure palace of a later period. The statue
of Henn' IV with the sarcophagus in the Lateran is a
fine piece of plastic work.
Jacques Lemercier had a younger brother Francois,
who in 1 836 rcpresentod him for a time in the capacity
ot architect. His two sons Jacques and Francis re-
ceived a pension from the state to enable them to study
architecture. TheLemerciersof Poctoise were indeed
one of those gifted families in which several members
bad a vocation for the same branch of art. The two
celebrated churches of St. Maclou at Pontoise and St.
Eustocbe in Paris have been traced to one Pierre I.e-
mercier, who at Pontoise was succeeded immediately
by Nicholas Lemercier and more remot«ly by a con-
nexion by marriage, Charles David. But tnc glor-
ious church of St. Eustaehe was a greater source of re-
nown for the family. According to GeymUller, whose
Opinion is hardly to be disputed, Pierre Licmereier's
entire share in St. Maclou consisted in the somewhat
unusual dome tower, and further inferences con-
oeming St. Eustaehe would be without foundation.
Everything else is uncertain.
Taoc, Jt(cA(nA« hiMoriquei, ardiMleoiqueM tl bioaraphitui*
nr la villx de Penloitt (PoDtoiw, 1841); Bkbtt, La anndi
arehOaU puncait (Parig, 18«0]: Liihce. Diet, da arAiUOtt
(Pvu, 1873): GethOixib ia Han^budi drr ATchildaur nm
iXinn eU.. II, vi (Stuttgurt, IQOl). 2; GoauTr, Ottch. da
BanelcMih (Stutt«ut. 1^7).
G. GiBTUANN.
LemoB, Thomas de, Spanish theoloKisn and contro-
versialist, b. at Rivadevia, Spain, 1555; d. at Rome,
23 Aug., 1629. At on early age he entered the Order
of St. Dominic in his native town; heobtained, in 1590,
the lectorate in theologry and was at the same time
appointed regent of studies in the convent of St. Paul
at Valladolid. In 1604 he was assigned to the chair of
theology in the university of that city. The intel-
lectual atmosphere of the time was troubled; theolog-
ical discussion was rife. The controversy aroused in
1588 by the publication of Molina's work "Concordia
liberi arbitriicumKratifedonis", between the Domin-
icans and Jesuits, had reached a heated and turbulent
stage not only at Valladolid but also at Salamanca,
Cordova, Saragossa, and other cities of Spain. The
almost oaily oisputations, both public and private,
showed a tendency to arift away from the hith-
erto universally accepted teaching of Augustine and
Thomas Aquinas. In 1600 Lemos was chosen to rep-
reeent his province in the public defence of selected
theses before the general chapter of his order held at
Naples. The propositions embraced the doctrine of
St. Thomas and his school on grace and free-will. In
his defence Lemos proved himself a disputant of the
highest order. His familiarity with the works of St.
Augustine on the question under discussion was such
that the slightest deviation from them, either in con-
tent or in diction, would not pass him uncorrected;
and that he was no less familiar with the writings of
St. Thomas ia evident from his own words: "noc nos
in Hispania aliis armis nisi armis S. Thoms inciep-
imus nana doctrinam impugnare" (Acta Congteg.,
diep. ii, col. 176). Hia ability and success prompted
the general of bis order to send him to Rome to assist
his confrere. Father Alvarez, in defending the teaching
of his order against the Holinists before the Congre-
Sltio de Auxiliis established by Clement VIII to aet-
tls the controversy.
s !>■ uoYn
upon his arrival he was given first place in the
defence, which be held till the termination of the Con-
gregation (26 Feb., 1606), For four years, in forty-
seven public conferences, in the presence of Clement
VIII and Paul V, he defended the teaching of St.
Thomas with extraordinary skill against Rve no less
able adversaries, the ^lite of the great Jesuit theolo-
gians of the time. Referring to this event he himself
writes: "Fuit ista Congregatio Celebris, de qua multi
mirati sunt, quod tot ac tenlis. ubi fecerunt summum
proehum patrcs Societatis, sic ex tempore fuisnet rcf-
ponsum. Sed gratia Deisum id quod sum" (Acta <^on-
gr^., 1231). At the conclusion of the c
biahopric, but he declined the honour, preferring I(
main m Rome in the convent Sopra Mmerva to devote
himself to literary work. Three years before his death
he became totelly blind. During his lifetime he pub-
lished nothing. The work which has given him a per-
manent and prominent place in the histon" of theology
appeared about fifty years after his death, the "Pan-
optia gratis seu de rationalis crealiirx in finem super-
naturalem gratuita divina suavipotente otdinatione,
ductu, mediis, tiberoque progressu, disaertationes the-
ologicte" (Lidge, 1676). The "Acta omnia Congrega-
tionum et disputalionum, quie coram SS. Clemente
VIII et Paulo V Sunmiis Pontilicibus sunt celebrnta;
in causa et controvcrsia ilia magna de auxiliis divintc
gratiie" (Louvain, 1702) appeared nesrlv a hundred
year* after his death. While he is the author of a Urge
number of works, these are the only ones which have
thus far been published.
Qc^nr-EcHAHD, 5.S. Ord. PtaJ., 11, 4fil:TiiUR0N, HM.da
hammrtiUuU.dt forJredr S. Horn.. IW 767: Huhteh. JVonoi-
dalor: SiRRY. HUl. Contreffalionta de auii/i'u. panjin.
Joseph Schroedek.
Le Moyns, the name of one of the most illustrious
families of the New World, whose deeds adorn the
pages of Canadian historv.
Chables Le Moyne, founder of the family, b- of
Pierre he Moyne
and Judith Du-
chesne at Dieppe
on 1 August, 1626;
d. at Ville-Marie
(Montreal), 1683.
On reaching Can-
ada in Ifrll, he
spent four years in
the Huron coun-
try, and then set-
tled at Ville-Marie,
his knowledge of
the India!
-^.. .?ndering
him useful as anin-
teipreter, and his
ing to defend the
colony. He often
fought single-
handed against
bravery encouraged the settled to cultivate the soil.
In 1653 be negotiated a peace which lasted five
years. He married Catherine Primot in 1654. Sur-
prised by a partv of Iroquois in 1665, he was preparing
to sell ms life dearly, when he tripped and was cajt-
tured. Awed by his valour and fearing reprisals, his
captors did not torture, but soon releaaea him. Ho
accompanied Courcelles and Tracy against the Five
Nations and shored their success. In recognitian of
his services Louis XIV ennobled him with the title of
Sieurde Longueuil. He served as interpreter to Cour-
eollesand the Govemorsof Montreal .ind Three Riven
during a visit to t^ Iroquois country, and was IV
LB MOTHI
149
U MOTHI
warded by Intendant Talon with a vast concession on
the St. Lawrence, reaching from Varennes to La-
prairie, henceforth named the Longueuil fief. He was
the father of fourteen children, seven of whom hon-
oured Canada by their prowess, three dying in battle
and four becoming governors of cities or provinces.
Of his sons, surnamed for their bravery the *' Macha-
bees of New France", the two most renowned are
treated in separate articles (see Iberville, Pierre
Le lliloTNE, SiEUR d'; BiEnville, Jean-Baptiste Le
MoTNE, Sieur de); each of the five others deserves
here a short notice.
Charles Lb Moyne, eldest son of the preceding,
b. at Ville-Marie, 10 Dec., 1656; d. in 1729. After
serving in France, he returned to Canada with the rank
of lieutenant, and, at the age of twenty-seven, was
appointed major of Montreal by Governor de la Barre.
He married Elizabeth Souart. In 1700 he received
for his services an additional grant of land and pro-
motion to the rank of baron. He won fame in battle
against the Iroquois and in the defence of Quebec
(1690). The croas of St. Louis was awarded him, and
he was successively Governor of Three Rivers and
Montreal. In 1711, prece<led by the religious stan-
dard embroidered by Jeanne Leber, he marched to
Chambly against the invading army, which retreated
on hearing of the wreck of Walker's fleet.
Jacques Le Moyne, Sieur de Sainte-H^ldne, b. at
Ville-Marie, 16 April, 1659; d. at Quebec, 1690. A
soldier from early youth, he trained for warfare his il-
lustrious brother, d'lberville. During Phipps's siege of
Quebec, Ste-H^l^ne with 200 volunteers repulsed a
troop of 1300 men commanded by Mai or Whalley,
who had attempted to cross River St. Charles. Mor-
tally wounded in this encounter, Ste-H^ldne died
shortly after, mourned by the whole colony for his
courtesy and valour. The Iroquois of Onondaga sent
a wampum collar as a token of sympathy, and re-
leased two captives to honour his memorv.
Paul Le Moyne. Sieur de Maricourt, b. 15 Dec.,
1663; d. on 21 March, 1704. He accompanied d'lber-
ville to Hudson's Bay, and amply shared his success,
particularly in boardmg and capturing with only two
canoes a large English cruiser. In 1690 he aided Ste-
H^ldne in defeating Whalley. Frontenac having un-
dertaken a decisive campaign against the Iroquois;
Maricourt forced them to surrender. Skilful diplomat
as well as intrepid warrior, he was chosen to negotiate
peace. His success was due to the affection and es-
teem of the Iroquois for his uprightness, which mod-
erated their dread of his bravery. They had begged
him to act as their protector and mediator. In 1691
be married M. Madeleine Dupont de Neuville.
FRAN90I8 Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville I, b. 1666;
d. 1691. After several valourous exploits, he was shot
in an encounter with a party of Onneyouts at Repen-
tigny, while assailing tne window of a house where
thev had taken refuge.
Joseph Le Moyne, Sieur de S^rigny, b. 22 July,
1668; d. at Rochefort. France, in 1704. A worthv
emulator of d'lberville, he commanded the vessels
sent from France to enable his brother to take pos-
session of Hudson's Bay. In that expedition, as well
as in Florida and Louisiana, he flisplayed great valour.
With his brothers he drove the Spaniards from Pensa-
cola, after which he fortified Mobile and expelled
the Spaniards from He Dauphin. He was promoted
captain in 1720, and in 1722 became Governor of
Rochefort, France, where he died in 1734. He had
married M. Elisabeth H^ron.
Louis Le Moyne, Sieur deChAteauguay I, b. 4 Jan.,
1676; d. 1694. He fought under d'lberville at Hud-
son's Bay, assisting when only a bo^ at the capture of
Fort Monsipi. In the years following he so often de-
feated the English that they were at last reduced to
Fort Nelson (Bourbon), their most important post.
This stronghold was likewise captured after a long and
difficult attack, during which Ch&teauguay was killed
at the age of eighteen.
Chaklcs Le Moyne, second baron de Longueuil, b.
at Longueuil, 18 Oct., 1687; d. on 17 Jan.. 1755. He
entered the army quite young, and, after having
served in France, was appointed major of Montreal
(1733), and received the cross of St. Louis (1734). As
Governor of Montreal (1749) he administered the col-
ony after Jonqui^re's death. He saved from suppres-
sion the General Hospital of Venerable Madame
d'Youville, maliciously threatened with destruction.
He marrie<l Catherine Charlotte de Gray in 1720.
Paul-Joseph Le Moyne, b. 1701; d. at Port-Louis,
France, in 1778. Inheriting the military spirit of his
ancestors, he joined the army at the age of seventeen,
and served as lieutenant in rf ormandy. He was suc-
cessively commander of Fort Frontenac, Governor of
Detroit, of Three Rivers, and finally commander of
the citadel of Quebec. He fought under Vaudreuil,
Montcalm, and L6vis, and won the cross of St. Louis.
After the Conquest, he returned to France, where he
died at Port-Louis in 1778. He married (1728)
Genevieve Joybert de Soulanges.
Joseph-Dominique-Emmanuel Le Moyne, second
son of oreceding, b. at Soulanges on 2 April, 1738. He
began nis milit^y career at the age of twelve. After
serving as captain and major under the French regime,
he later served under the British flag after the change
of domination, bravel}^ defending Fort St. John in
1755 against the American invaders. He was succes-
sively appointed inspector general of militia (1777),
colonel of the Royal Canadians (1796), and legislative
councillor. He cfied in 1807.
Daniel, Histoire de* fprandes famiUes francaitea du Canada
(Montreal, 1867) ; Faillon, HtJiloire de la coionie francaiae eri
Canada (Ville-Marie, 1S65); Marmetts, Let AfachabieM de la
Nouvelle France (Quebec, 1882); Documente inidite (Montreal,
1890); JoDOiN, Histoire de LongueuU (Montreal, 1889).
Lionel Lindsay.
Le Moyne, Simon, Jesuit missionaiy, b. at Beau-
vais, 1604; d. in 1665 at Cap de la Madeleine, near
Three Rivers. He joined the Society in 1622, and
reached Canada in 1638. He worked on the Huron
mission with Chaumonot, Bressani, and the future
martyrs. Second to Chaumonot alone in his mastery
of the Huron-Iroquois language, he was unequalled
in the knowledge of the character of the Indians,
their customs and traditions, even the artifices of their
savage eloquence and diplomacy. The ascendancy he
thereoy enjoyed made him a desirable ambassador on
all delicate and arduous occasions. He was the first
European to penetrate among the Onondagas, where
his eloquence and acquaintance with their traditions
won their admiration. They begged for a missionary
to teach them about the Great Spirit (1654). His
second mission was to the fierce Mohawks, the mur-
derers of Father Jogues, jealous of the favour shown
to the Onondagas. They received him well, and be
journeyed to Manhattan or New Amsterdam, where
the governor, Peter Stuyvesant, treated him courte-
ously. When a fresh outburst, of Mohawk jealousy
threatened to disturb the peace, Le Moyne again
volunteered to pacify them, visiting Ossemenon a
second and third time, and, though outwardly hon-
oured, he frequently faced death. When after two
years of warfare agamst the French and their allies the
Cayuga Iroquois sued for peace in Montreal, and
craveS for a "black gown", Le Mojme went to test
their sincerity (1661). This was his fifth embassy,
and during it he was seized, tortured, and even con-
demned to death. He was always ready for mar-
tyrdom. He owed his preservation to the chief
Garakonti^, whom Bishop Laval had baptized. He
consoled the Indians and French captives, many of
whom owed him their release. When the regular
missions were established he longed to return to the
Onondagas, but death overtook him at Cap de la
Hftdeleine. Garakonti^ eloquently eulogised his un-
daunted courage and eminent virtues.
RorHEUONTT.ii. Lm JfiuUet rl la NoaitUe Pnnce (Pftris,
lB9fl);CAJipr— - "- "-' ' ■•— ' ' ^^-/u— 17— ..
L, Pioneer FrieMt 0/ A'l
AmerwH^iew-y
Lamuel. See Lamuel.
L'Enf&nt, Pierre-Charles, engineer, b. in France,
Atigust, 1755: d. near Bladensburg, Maryland, U. S.
A., 4 June, 1833. He was educated as an engineer
and joined Lafayette aa a. volunteer to help the
revolted American colonists in 1777. Appointed a
captain of engineers on 18 Feb., 1778, and brevet
major on 2 May, 1783, in Washiagton'a army, he did
valiant service during the Revolutionary War. At its
close he remodelled the old City Hall in New York tor
the meeting of the First Congress, and later arranged
the Federal Hall in Philadelphia. When the site for
the Federal city was finally adopted, he spent much of
bia time during the year 1791 considering a plan for
the new city, which he finally drew up with the title :
" Plan of the City, intended for the Permanent Seat of
the Government of the United States. Projected
agreeable to the direction of the President of the
United States in pursuance of an act of Congress
passed the sixteentb day of July, MDCCXC, establish-
mgthe Permanent Seat ontheuank of the Potomac".
L'Enfant had a quick temper and an overbearing dis-
poeition^ and, as he quarrelled with his superiors
before his plans could be carried out, President Wash-
ington dismiB-scd him from the service on 1 March,
1TO2. He refused an appropriation offered him for
his work on the plan for the Capitol, and also the ap-
pointment of professor of engineering at the Military
Academv, West Point. During the War of 1812 with
England he set to work constructing fortifications near
Waahington, but again i^uarrelled with his superior
officers, and through pique left the service. He
haunted the doors of Congress for years with applica-
tions for recompense for his work that were never
heeded. Poor and forgotten he spent the rest of his
days at the home of his friena, William Dudley
Digges, near Bladensburg, Maryland, and his body
was buried there. In April, 1900, in accordance witn
an Act of Congress, the remains of Major L'Enfant
were removed from liis grave in Maiyland, and, after
lying in state for a short time in the Capitol at Wash-
ington, were reinterred in the National Cemetery at
Arlington with the ceremonies of the Church and
the oulitary honours due to his rank in the Continental
Army.
Varmuu, Tilt SmI o/ Gorimmml of the V. S. IWruhinglon.
IBM); Amervan Calli. Hit. Rararrhtr. (Philmlelnhia, jHnuarv,
1907): MuHAN in Amrrira (New York. 1 SUy, igou); Enevd.
Thomas F. Mebhan.
Mai
BeedREAT Falu), Dioowb
Leniug, Adau Franz, theolotciun, b. 3 Dec. 1S03.
at Mainz; d, there, '12 Nov., l.SCG. He studied at
Bouchsal under the private tutursliip of llie ex-Jesuit
Lauren tius Doller, and afterwardaat the bishop'sgym-
nasium at Miiinz. Ilciu); too young for ordination, he
went to Paris to study Oriental languages under Syl-
vestre de Sacy, tlicn to Rome for a higher course in
theology. Here he was ordained priest, 22 Sept., 1827,
and tiien taught for a year at Mainz. I^ennig was a
strenuous defender of the rights of the Church, and
vhen on 30 Jan., 1 8;(0. the Hessian Government, which
for quite a time had been trying to interfere in church
matters, passed thirty-nine articles on ecclesiastical
administration, be eent tliem to Rome. Rome sent
back a protest, but, since the bishops remained silent,
and since Bi.sliop Burjc of Mainz even defended the
articles, Lennig left for Bonn, and attended the lec-
tures of Sailer, Windiscbmano, and Klee. In June,
1832, he accepM th« pastorate of Gaulsheim, declin-
>0 LKirOEBSAirT
ing to take the chair of theology and exegesis at Haint.
In 1839 he was made pastor at Seligenstadt. Bishop
Kaiser of Mainz in 1845 promoted him to the cathe-
dral chapter. InMarch, 1848, heestablLshed the "PiuB-
verein", which did much good among the Catholics
of Germany. He organized the first meeting of Cath-
olic societies and of Catholics in general, held at
Mainz, October, 1848. In the same montii he was
present at the meeting of the German bishops at
Wilrzbui^. acting as representative of his bishop, who
was ill. About this time he founded at great ex-
gjnse the "Mainzer Journal". After the death of
ishop Kaiser (30 Dec, 1848), troubles arose about
the choice of a successor. Lennig was acknowledged
by all as a leader of true Christian spirit and suffered
much abuse from the Liberals. In 1852 he was made
vicar-genera! by Bishop von Ketteler, and in 1858
dean of the chapter. He zealously assisted bis bishop
in bringing the Capuchins and Jesuits into the diocese.
In 1854 he was in Rome at the definition ot the Im-
maculate Conception, and later visited Rome twice.
In 1859 he wrote a protest against the spoliation of
the Holy See, and had it eiRned by 20,000 Catholics.
He was undoubtedly one of the most mfluential and
zealous German pnesis of his day. I.ennig pub-
lished in 1849 his Panegyric on Bishop Kaiser", and
in 1802 his "Funeral Oration on the Archduchess
Mnthildc of IIcssc". His meditationson the Passion
and on the Our Father and Hail Mary were published
1867 and 1869 by his nephew, Chr. Moufang.
BnltcK.Arfam from Imnitf. etc. (Maim, 1870): AOt.DivtKhe
Bionr.. XVIII, 261: Kalholik, 1887, 1. 267; TtVi-t. Bitehof tmt
KetUler (.Maim. 18tl»). pasiim; Mat. Cexh. drr Generalver-
Mmm.'. d>T Kalh. DeulidS. (Cologne, 1M)4). 22, 26, 33.
Francis Mebshmak.
Paris, 1 Jimc, 1802; d. at Athens, 24 Nover
After pursuing his studies at the Lyc€e Charlemagne
and the Lyc^e
Napoleon, he took
up law, but a visit
to Italy and Sicily
(1822-23) made
him an enthusias-
tic archffiologist.
In 1825 he was
named sub-inspec-
tor of fine arts and
a few months later
married Amelia
of tne celebrated
Mme RScamier.
He visited Italy,
Bekium, Holland,
aad accompanie<J
Champollion to
Egypt, where he
devoted himself to the stuily of architectural works.
Later he travelled through Greece as assistant director
of the archieological department of the Morea scien-
tific commission. On his return he was appointed cu-
rator of the works of art in the royal palaces (1829).
In 1835 he was Guizot's substitute at the Sorlxinnc.
Although the chair was that of modern history, he
lectured chiefly on ancient history, more especially on
the origins of Greek civiliBation. In 1836 he was ap-
E Dinted curator of printed books in the Royal Li-
mry, and in 1839 was elected member of the Acad-
emy. In 1840 he was made curator of the Cabinet of
Medals. Guizot, who became minister of foreign af-
faire in 1841, sent him on a mission to Greece. On re-
turning from this second \i3it to the East he continued
his lectures at the Sorbonne, and made a particular
study of Christian civilization in its sourees. This
study maile of him a true ('hristian, and from that
LXNORHAKT
151
LE HOURRY
time his lectures bore the impress of his deep Catholic
belief. He ^ ve voice to his convictions in his ' * Ques-
tions histonques" (Paris, 1845), in his work on the
*' Associations religieuses dans la soci^t^ chr^tienno"
(Paris, 1866), and in many serious articles in the
*'Correspondant". His writings greatly influenced
the much discussed question of freedom of teaching
{liberU d'enseignemeni). In 1846, the students, in re-
taliation for the suppression of M. Quinet's chair, com-
pelled Lenormant to give up his professorship; he
was then given the editorship of the." Corresponaant'*
which he resigned in 1855. In 1848 he was named
director of the conmiission of historical monuments,
and in 1849 an almost unanimous vote of the members
of the Academy appointed him to the chair of ar-
chaeology in the ColUge de France. From that time he
devoted himself entirely to the teaching of Egyptian
archaeology. He died while on an expedition under-
taken for the sake of initiating his son mto the knowl-
edge of the monuments of antiquity.
Many articles from the pen of Lenormant appeared
in the " Annates de I'lnstitut Archdologique de Kome",
the *'M6moires de T Academic dcs Inscriptions", the
"Revue de Numismatique", and the "Correspon-
dant ". His chief independently published works are :
"Les Artistes contemporains " (raris, 1833, 2 vols.);
"Introduction h Thistoire de I'Asie occidentale"
(Paris, 1838); "Mus^e des Antiquit(f'S ^gyptiennes"
(Paris, 1842); " Questions historiques" (Paris, 1845),
besides two valuable collections, "Trdsor de numis-
matique etdeglyptiaue" (Paris, 1834-50) (in collabo-
ration with Paul Dclaroche and Henriguel Dupont)
and " Elite des monuments c^ramographiques " (1844-
58)(withDeWitte).
De Witte, Annuaire de VAcadHtie de Beloique (Brussels,
l«6l), 129-86; Aftmioires de Vlngtitut de France, XXXI,
(Pans), p. 547-608.
F. Mayence.
Lenormant, FR.VMfois, archaeologist, son of the
preceding, b. at Paris, 17 January, 1837; d. there.
9 December, 1883. His father personally supervised
his education and exercised great influence over his
mind and studies. He gave early proofs of classical
scholarship, by publishing, when only fourteen, an
article in tne "Revue ardi^ologique": "Lettre i M.
Hase sur des table ttes grecques trouv^'es d Memphis ".
In 1857 he was awarded the numismatic prize by the
Academy of Inscriptions for a remarkable essay pub-
lished in the "Revue numismatique": "Essai sur la
classification des monnaies des Lagidcs *\ While pur-
suing his classical studies, he attended the lectures of
the raculty of law and in 1857 received his degree as
licentiate. In 1858 he visited Italy and in 1859 ac-
companied his father to the East. The latter having
died during the journey Frangois returned to France
with the body, but set out soon again for Greece. He
conducted important excavations at Eleusis and as a
result pubh'shed several essays, notably: "Rccherches
arch^ologiques rl Eleusis" (Paris, 1862). While thus
engaged, he heard of the massacre of Christians by the
Druses, and immediately ceasing his researches sailed
for Syria to go to the rescue of the victims of Moslem
fanaticism. When the French expedition reached
Syria, he felt free to return to Eleusis. In 1862 he
was appointed sub-librarian of the Institut de France.
In 1865 and 1866 he travelled again through the
East, and shortly after this, sununarized his studies in
a "Manuel d'histoire ancienne de I'Orient jusqu'aux
guerres Mddiques " (Paris, 1868), a very popular work,
in 1869 he visited Eg}'pt and familiarized himself with
Egyptian antiquities; he published numerous essays
on the cuneiform texts and on the language spoken in
Babylon and Nineveh. During the siege of Paris,
1870, he took part in several engagements. Two
years later, his " Essai de commentaire des fragments
cosmogoniques de B^rose" (Paris, 1S72) was pub-
lished.
In 1874 Lenormant succeeded Beul^ as professor of
archseology at the Biblioth^que Nationale, and deliv-
ered brilliant lectures on Greek and Eastern antiqui-
ties. With de Witte, a Belgian archaBologist, he
founded in 1875 the "Gazette arch^ologique " for the
publication of unknown monuments and miscellane-
ous archicological studies. In this review he pub-
lished many articles on ancient monuments of every
description and origin. From 1879 to 1883 he visited
Southern Italy several times, and as a result of his
travels published a work on Lucania and Apulia. In
1880 he produced the first volume of "Origines de
I'histoire d'aprds la Bible et les traditions des peuples
orientaux" (3 vols., Paris, 1880-83), a work that at-
tained wide pubhcity. The writer thought it impossi-
ble to maintain a unity of composition in the books of
the Pentateuch. He held that there were certain
traces of "two distinct original documents; the Elo-
histic and the Jehovistic which served as a basis for
the final compiler of the first four books of the Penta-
teuch, anti he is satisfied with establishing between
them a certain concordance, leaving untouched their
original redaction ". The first chapters of Genesis, ao-
coiSing to him, are a " book of origins" and represent
the story of Israel as told from generation to genera-
tion since the time of the Patriarchs; in all fundamen-
tal facts this narrative tallied with the sacred books of
the Euphrates and the Tigris. For him, inspiration
lies in the absolutely new spirit which animates the
narrative, though in composition it is quite similar to
the stories of neighbouring tribes. Four years after the
death of the author this book was put on the Index
(19 December, 1887). Quite probably Lenormant
would have suomitted, since in his introduction he as-
serts his attachment to the Catholic Faith and his de-
votion to the Church. He died from the after effects
of a disease contracted during one of his visits to
Southern Italy. In 1881 he had been made a member
of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres.
lenormant wrote many works. Aside from those
referred to above, must be mentioned: "Sur I'origine
chr6tienne des inscriptions sinaitiques" in "Journal
Asiatique", XIII (Paris, 1859), fifth series; "Ilistoire
des Massacres de Syrie en 1860" (Paris, 1861); "La
Revolution en Grdce" (Paris, 1862); "Essai sur I'or-
ganisation politique et <5conomique de la mormaie dans
I'antiquite'' (Paris, 1863); "Chefs-d'ceuvres de I'art
antique" (Paris, 1867-1868) in 7 vols.; "Histoire du
peuple juif" (Paris, 1869); "Le deluge et Tepopde
oabylonnienne " (Paris, 1873); "Les premidren civili-
sations" (Paris, 1873 — 2 vols.): " La langue primitive
de Chald6e et les idiomes touraniens" (Paris, 1875):
"La monnaie dans I'antiquit^" (Paris, 1878-1879);
"Atraversl'Apulie et laLucanie" (Paris, 1883): "La
Gen^se traduite d'apr^s I'h^breu, avec distinction
des elements constitutifs tlu texte, suivi d'un essai
de restitution des textes dont s'est ser\'i le dernier
r^dacteur" (Paris, 1884).
Le Hir, Francois Lenormant, t'tude hiographique (Lyons,
1884); VAN DEN (Iheyn, F. Lenormant (Brussels, 1884);
Babelon, Adrien de Longph-ier, Francois Lenormant, Erneti
Muret, trots rUcrolooiea (Berlin. 1885): de Witte in Annuaire
de VAcadtmie de Befgigue (1887), 247-291.
F. Mayence.
Le Nourry, Denis-Nicolas, of the Congregation
of St-Maur, ecclesiastical writer, b. at Dieppe in Nor-
mandy, 18 Feb., 1647; d. at the Abbey of St-Germain
in Paris, 24 March, 1724. He received his first educa-
tion from the priests of the Oratory at his native place;
then entered the Benedictine Oixler at Jumidges, 8
Julv, 1665. After completing his theological studies
and being ordained to the priesthood, he was sent to
Rouen, where, in the Abbey of Bonnenouvelle, he
assisted John Garet in publishing the writings of Ca»-
siodorus (1679). For this work he wrote the preface
and the life of the author. In the edition of the works
of Pt. Ambrose he aided Jean du Chesne and Juliea
LENT
152
LENT
Bellaise at Rouen, and later Jacques du Frische at
Paris, where he spjent the last forty years of his life.
His greatest work is the " Apparatus ad bibliothecam
maximam veterum patrum et antiquorum scrip-
torum", published at Paris in two volumes (1703 and
1715) as an aid to the study of the Lyons collection of
the Fathers. In extensive dissertations he gives the
biography of each writer; the occasion, design, scope,
and genuineness of every writing; a history of the
time in which the author lived; its dogmatical and
moral tendency, and its struggles against heathenism
or heresies. The work was well received. In 1710 he
edited the " Liber ad Donatum confessorem de morti-
bus persecutorum ", and in a special dissertation tries
hard to prove that the book was written by Lucius
Csecilius and not by Lactantius. Besides these he
edited the " Epitome institutionum divinarum " of
Lactantius, the " Expositum de die paschse et mensis "
of Hilarianus, and a fragment " De origine generis
humani".
Tabsin, Histoire litt. de la cong. de SairU-Afaur (Paris, 1770).
436; HuRTKR, NomendatorAl (Innsbruck, 1893), 1117; Tubinger
Quartal»chrift (1834), 15; DOx in Kirchenler., s. v.; NicI^bon,
liimoires, I (Paris. 1727-38), 275-8.
Francis Mershman.
Lent. — ^The Teutonic word L/entf which we employ
to denote the forty days' fast preceding Easter, origi-
nally meant no more than the spring season. Still
it has been used from the Anglo-Saxon period to trans-
late the more significant Latin term qiiadragesima
(Fr. carhnef It. miaresimat Span, cuaresma), meaning
the " forty days , or more literally the " fortieth day".
This in turn unitated the Greek name for Lent,,T€(r-
ffopaKocrij (fortieth), a word formed on the analogy of
Pentecost (TerrriKOffr'^), which last was in use for the
Jewish festival before New-Testament times. This
etymolo^, as we shall see, is of some little importance
in explaining the early developments of the Easter
fast.
Origin, — Some of the Fathers as early as the fifth
century supported the view that this forty days' fast
was of Apostolic institution. For example, St. Leo
(d. 461) exhorts his hearers to abstain that they may
"fulfil with their fasts the Apostolic institution of the
forty days" — ut apostolica institutio quadraginta
dierum jejuniis impleatur (P. L., LIV, 633), and the
hifltorian Socrates (d. 433) and St. Jerome (d. 420)
use similar language (P. G., LXVII, 633; P. L., XXII,
475) . But the best modem scholars are almost unani-
mous in rejecting this view, for in the existing remains
of the first three centuries we find both considerable
diversity of practice regarding the fast before Easter
and also a gradual process of development in the mat-
ter of its duration. The passage of primary impor-
tance is one quoted by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., V, xxiv)
from a letter of St. Irenfieus to Pope Victor in con-
nexion with the Easter controversy (q. v.). There
Irenteus says that there is not only a controversy
about the time of keeping Elaster but also regard-
ing the preliminary fast. **For", he continues,
"some think they ought to fast for one day, others
for two days, and others even for several, while
others reckon forty hours both of day and night to
their fast." He also urges that this variety of
usage is of ancient date, which implies that
there could have been no Apostolic tradition on
the subject. Rufinus, who translated Eusebius into
Latin towards the close of the fourth century, seems
so to have punctuated this passage as to mi^e Ire-
nseus say that some people fasted for forty days.
Formerly some difference of opinion existed as to the
proper reading, but modem criticism (e. g., in the
edition of Schwartz commissioned by the Berlin
Academy) pronounces strongly in favour of the text
tnuislated above. We may then fairly conclude that
IrenflBus about the year 190 knew nothing of any
Easter fast of forty days. The same inference must be
drawn from the langua^ of Tertullian only a few
years later. When writing as a Montanist, he con-
trasts the very slender term of fasting observed by the
Catholics (i. e., "the days on which the bridegroom
was taken away", probably meaning the Friday and
Saturday of Holy Week) with the longer but still re-
stricted period of a fortnight which was kept by the
Montanists. No doubt he was referring to fasting of
a very strict kind {ocerophagicB — dry fasts), but there is
no indication in his works, though he wrote an entire
treatise, *'De Jejunio", and often touches upon the
subject elsewhere,* that he was acquainted with any
period of forty days consecrated to more or less con-
tinuous fasting (see Tertullian, "De Jejun.", ii and
xiv; cf. "DeOrat.",xviii; etc.). And there is the same
silence observable in all the pre-Nicene Fathers,
though many had occasion to mention such an Apos-
tolic institution if it had existed. We may note for
example that there is no mention of Lent in St. Diony-
sius of Alexandria (ed. Feltoe, 94 sqq.) or in tne
"Didascalia", which Funk attributes to about the
year 250; yet both speak diffusely of the paschal fast.
Further, there seems much to suggest that the Church
in the Apostolic Age designed to commemorate the
Resurrection of Christ, not by an annual, but by a
weekly celebration (see "The Month", April, 1910,
337 sqq.). If this be so, the Sunday liturgy constituted
the weekly memorial of the Resurrection, and the
Friday fast that of the Death of Christ. Such a
theory offers a natural explanation of the wide diver-
gence which we find existing in the latter part of the
second century regarding both the proper ume for
keeping Easter and also the manner of the paschal
fast. Christians were at one regardinjg the weekly ob-
servance of the Sunday and tne Friday, which was
primitive, but the annual Easter festival was some-
thing superimposed by a process of natural develop-
ment, and it was largely influenced by the conditions
locally existing in the different Churches of the East
and West. Aloreover, with the £aster festival there
seems also to have established itself a preliminary
fast, not as yet anywhere exceeding a week in dura-
tion, but very severe in character, which commem-
orated the Passion, or, more generally, "the days on
which the bridegroom was taken away ".
Be this as it may, we find in the early years of the
fourth century the first mention of the term rtcffapa-
KooT^, It occurs in the fifth canon of the Council of
Nic£ea (a. d. 325), v;here there is only question of the
proper time for celebrating a synod, and it is conceiv-
able that it may refer not to a period but to a definite
festival, e. g., the feast of the Ascension, or the Purifi-
cation, whicn ^theria calls miadragesimce de Epipha-
nia. But we have to remember tliat the older word
TcrrriKoar'^, Pentecost, from meaning the fiftieth day,
had come to denote the whole of the period (which we
should call Paschal Time) between Easter Sundav and
Whit-Sunday (cf. Tertullian, "De Idololatria", xiv—
"pentecosten implere non poterunt"). In any case it
IB certain from the "Festal Letters" of St. Atha-
nasius that in 331 the saint enjoined upon his flock a
period of forty days of fasting preliminary to, but not
mclusive of, the stricter fast of Holy Week, and sec-
ondly that in 339 the same Father, after having trav-
elled to Rome and over the greater part of Europe,
wrote in the strongest terms to urge this observance
upon the people of Alexandria as one that was uni-
versally practised, '' to the end that while all the world
is fasting, we who are in Egypt should not become a
laughing-stock as the only people who do not fast but
take our pleasure in those days". Although Funk
formerly maintained that a Lent of forty days was not
known in the West before the time of St. Ambrose,
this is evidence which cannot be set aside.
Duration and Nature of the Fast. — Jn determining
this period of forty days the example of Moses, Elias,
and Christ must have exercised a predominant in flu-
LBNT
153
LEHT
enee, but it is also possible that the fact was borne in
mind that Cfajist lay forty hours in the tomb. On the
other hand just as Pentecost (the fifty days) was a
period during which Christians were j oy ous and praved
standing, though they were not always engaged in
such prayer, so the Quadragesima (the forty days) was
originally a period marked by fasting, but not neces-
sarily a period in which the faitliful fasted every day.
Still, this principle was differently understood in dif-
ferent localities, and great divergences of practice
were the result. In Rome, in the fifth century, Lent
lasted six weeks, but according to the historian Soc-
rates there were only three weeks of actual fasting,
exclusive even then of the Saturdav and Sunday, and,
tf Duchesne's view may be trusted these weeks were
not continuous, but were the first, the fourth, and the
sixth of the series, being connected with the ordina-
tions (Christian Worship, 213). Possibly, however,
these three weeks had to do with the "scrutinies
preparatory to Baptism (a. v.), for by some author-
ities (e. g., A. J. Maclean in his " Recent Discoveries")
the duty of fasting along with the candidate for bap-
tism is put forward as the chief influence at work m
the development of the forty days. But throughout
the Orient generally, with some few exceptions, the
same arrangement prevailed as St. Athanasius's
"Festal Letters" show us to have obtxiinod in Alex-
andria, namely, the six weeks of Lent were only pre-
paratory to a fast of exceptional severity maintamed
during Holy Week. This is enjoined by the "Apos-
tolic Constitutions" (V, xiii), and presupposed by St.
Chrysostom (Horn, xxx in (jien.. i). But the number
forty t having once established itself, produced other
modifications. It seemed to many necessary that
there should not only bo fasting during forty days but
forty actual fasting days. Thus we find ^theria in
her " Peregrinatio "speaking of a I/Cnt of eight weeks
in all observed at Jerusalem, which, remcml>ering that
both the Saturday and Sunday of ordinary weeks
were exempt, gives five times eight, i. e. forty days
for fasting. On the other hand, in many localities
people were content to observe no more than a six
weeks' period, sometimes, as at Milan, fasting only
five days in the week after the oriental fashion (Am-
brose, "De Elia et Jejunio", 10). In the time of
Gregory the Great (590-604) there were apparently at
Rome six weeks of six days each, making thirty-six
fast days in all, which St. Gregory, who is followed
therein by many medieval writers, describes as the
spiritual tithing of the year, thirty-six days bein^ ap-
proximately the tenth part of three hundred and sixty-
five. At a later date the wish to realize the exact
number of forty days led to the practice of beginning
Lent upon our present Ash W^ednesday, but the
('hurch of Milan even to this day adheres to the more
primitive arrangement, which still betrays itself in the
Roman Missal when the priest in the Secret of the
Mass on the first Sunday of I^ent speaks of "sacrifi-
cium quadragesimalis initii", the sacrifice of the open-
ing of Lent. Neither was. there originally less diver-
gence regarding the nature of the favSt. For example,
the historian ^crates (Hist. EccL, V, 22) tells of the
practice of the fifth century: "Some abstain from
every sort of creature that has life, while others of all
the fiving creatures eat of fish only. Others eat birds
as well as fish, because, according to the Mosaic ac-
count of the Creation, they too sprang from the water;
others abstain from fruit covered with a hard shell and
from eggs. Some eat dry bread only, others not even
that; otJiers again when they have fasted to the ninth
hour (three o?clock) partake of various kinds of food."
.\mid this diversity some inclined to the extreme
limits of rigour. Epiphanius, Palladius, and the au-
thor of the " Life of St. Melania the Younger" seem to
contemplate a st&te of things in which ordinary
Christians were expected to pass twent v-four hours or
more without food of any kind, especially during Holy
Week, while the more austere actually subsisted dur>
ing part or the whole of Lent upon one or two meals 8
week (see RampoUa, "Vita di S. Melania Giuniore",
appendix xxv, p. 478). But the ordinary rule on fast>-
ing days was to take but one meal a day and that only
in the evening, while meat and, in the early centuries,
wine were entirely forbidden. During Holy Week, or
at least on Good Friday, it was common to enjoin the
xerophaaiay i. e. a diet of dry food, bread, salt, and
vegetables. There does not seem at the beginning to
have been any prohibition of laciiciniaf as the passage
just quoted from Socrates would show. Moreover, at
a somewhat later date, Bede tells us of Bishop Cedda,
that during Lent he took only one meal a day con-
sisting of " a little bread, a hen's egg, and a little milk
mixed with water" (Hist. EccL, III, xxiii), while
Theodulphus of Orl^ns in the eighth century re-
garded abstinence from eggs, cheese, and fish as a
mark of exceptional virtue. None the less St. Gregory
writing to St. Augustine of England laid down the
rule, "We abstain from flesh meat, and from all
things that come from flesh, as milk, cheese, and eggs."
This decision was afterwards enshrined in the " Corpus
Juris", and must be regarded as the conunon law of
the Church. Still exceptions were admitted, and dis-
pensations to eat " lacticinia" were often granted upon
condition of making a contribution to some pious
work. These dispensations were known in Germany
as Butlerhrie/e, and several churches are said to have
been partly built by the proceeds of such exemptions.
One of the steeples of Rouen cathedral was for this
reason formerly known as the Butter Tower. This
general prohibition of eggs and milk during Lent is
perpetuated in the popular custom of blessing or
making gifts of eggs at Easter, and in the English
usage of eating panc-akes on Shrove Tuesday.
Relaxations of tfie Lenten Fast. — From what has
been said it will be clear that in the early Middle Ages
Lent throughout the greater part of the Western
Church consisted of forty weekdays, which were all
fast days, and six Sundavs. From the beginning to
the end of that time all Aesh meat, and also, for the
most part, "lacticinia", were forbidden even on Sun-
days, while on all the fasting days only one meal was
taken, which single meal was not permitted before
evening. At a ver3r early period, however (we find the
first mention of it in Socrates), the practice began to
be tolerated of breaking the fast at the hour of none,
i. e., three o'clock. We learn in particular that
Charlemagne, about the year 800, took his lenten re-
past at 2 p. m. This gradual anticipation of the hour
of dinner was facilitated by the fact that the canon-
ical hours of none, vespers, etc., represented rather
periods than fixed points of time. The ninth hour, or
none, was no doubt strictly three o'clock in the after-
noon, but the Office of none might be recited as soon
as sext, which, of course, corresponded to the sixth
hour, or midday, was finished. Hence none in course
of time came to be regarded as beginninj^ at midday,
and this point of view is perpetuated m our word
noony which means midday and not three o'clock in
the afternoon. Now the hour for breaking the fast
during Lent was after Vespers (the evening service),
but by a gradual process the recitation of Vespers was
more and more anticipated, until the principle was at
last officially recognized, as it is at present, that Ves-
pers in Lent may be said at midday. In this way, al-
though the author of the " Micrologus" in the eleventh
century still declared that those who took food before
evening did not observe the lenten fast according to
the canons (P. L., CLI, 1013), still, even at the close
of the thirteenth century, certain theologians, for
example the Franciscan Richard Middleton, who
based his decision in part upon contemporary usaf;e,
pronounced that a man who took his dinner at mid-
day did not break the lenten fast. Still more material
was the relaxation afforded by the introduction of
LENTULUS
154
LEO
"collation''. This seems to have begun in the ninth
century, when the Council of Aix ut Chapelle sanc-
tioned the concession, even in monastic houses, of a
draught of water or other beverage in the evening to
quench the thirst of those who were exhausted by the
manual labour of the day. From this small beginning
a much larger indulgence was gradually evolved. The
principle o? parvitaa vmteriaiy i. e., that a small quan-
tity 01 nourishment which was not taken directly as a
meal did not break the fast, was adopted by St.
Thomas Aquinas and other theologians, and in the
course of centuries a recognized Quantity of solid food,
which according to received authorities must not ex-
ceed eight ounces, has come to be permitted after the
midday repast. As tliis evening drink, when first
tolerated in the ninth-century monasteries, was taken
at the hour at which the "Collationes" (Conferences)
of Abbot Cassian were being read aloud to the breth-
ren, this slight indulgence came to be known as a
"collation", and the name has continued since.
Other mitigations of an even more 8ul)stantial char-
acter have been introduced into lenten observance in
the course of the last few centuries. To begin with,
the custom has been tolerated of taking a cup of liquid
(e. g., tea or coffee, or even chocolate) with a fragment
of bread or toast in the early morning. But, what
more particularly regards I^nt, successive indults
have been granted by the Iloly See allowing meat at
the principal meal, first on Sundays, and then on two,
three, four, and five weekdays, throughout nearly the
whole of Lent. Quite recently Maundy Thursday,
upon which meat was hitherto always forbidden, has
come to share in the same indulgence. In the United
States the Holy See grants faculties whereby work-
ing men and tlieir families may use fiesh meat once
a day throughout the year, except Fridays, Ash
Wednesday, Holy Saturday, and the vigil of Christ-
mas. The only comi>ensation impased for all these
mitigations is the prohibition during Lent against
partaking of both fish and flesh at the same repast.
[See Abstinence; Fast; Impediments, Canonical
(III); LiETARE Sunday; Septuagesima; Sexages-
ima; Quinquagesima; Quadragesima; Vestments.]
Vacanoard in Vacant, Did. de Thiol. Cath.^ s. v. Cartnu,
An admirable summary of the question may also be found in
Ermoni, Lc Car&me in Science et Religion series (Paris, 1907).
See also Thurston, Lent and Holy Week (London, 1904); Funk
lu /KtrcfienaeAch. AhhandL, I (Paderborn. 189'/), 241-78; Ltvekn-
u.vYii, Eniwickltmo des kircfdichen Fastendlaciplina (Munich,
1S77); LiEMKE, Die Quadragesimalfasten der Kirche (Munich,
1853); Sinker in Diet. Christ. Antiq., s. v. Ixvit; Hedser in
KiriJumlex.t s. v. Fastemeiten; Maci^an, Recent Discoveriet
UluatnUing early Christian Life and Worship (London, 1904).
Herbert Thurston.
Lentulus, Publius, is a fictitious person, said to
have been Governor of Juclea before tontius Pilate,
and to have written the following letter to the Roman
Senate: " Lentulus, the Governor of the Jemsalemites
to the Roman Senate and People, greetings. There
has appeared in our times, and there still lives, a man of
great power (virtue), called Jesus Christ. Tne people
call him prophet of truth; his disciples, son of God.
He raises the dead, and heals infirmities. He is a man
of medium size (statura procerus ^ mediocris et specta^
bilu) ; he has a venerable aspect, and his beholders can
both fear and love him. His hair is of the colour of
the ripe hazel-nut, straight down to the ears, but be-
low the ears wa\y and curled, with a bluish and bright
reflection, flowing over his shoulders. It is parted in
two on the top of the head, after the pattern of the
Nazarenes. His brow is smooth and very cheerful,
with a face without wrinkle or spot, embellished by a
slightly reddish complexion. His nose and mouth are
faultless. His beard is abundant, of the colour of his
hair, not long, but divided at the chin. His aspect is
simple and mature, his eyes are changeable and bright.
He IS terrible in his reprimands, sweet and amiable in
his admonitions, cheerful without loss of gravity. He
was never known to laugh, but often to weep. His
stature is straight, his hands and arms beautiful to be-
hold. His conversation is grave, infreauent, and
modest. He is the most beautiful among tne children
of men."
Different manuscripts vary from the foregoing text
in several details: Dobschiitz ("Christusbilder", Leip-
zig, 1899) enumerates the manuscripts and gives an
" apparatus criticus ". The letter was first printed in
the "Life of Christ" by Ludolph the Carthusian
(Cologne, 1474), and in the "Introduction to the
works of St. Anselm" (Nuremberg, 1491). But it is
neither the work of St. Anselm nor of Ludolph. Ac-
cording to the manuscript of Jena, a certain Giacomo
Colonna found the letter in 1421 in an ancient Roman
document sent t^Rome from Constantinople. It
must be of Greek origin, and translated into Latin dur-
ing the thirteenth or fourteenth century, though it re-
ceived its present form at the hands of a humanist of
the fifteenth or sixteenth century. The description
agrees with the so-called Abgar picture of our Lord ; it
also agrees with the portrait of Jesus Christ drawn by
Nicephorus, St. John Damascene, and the Book of
Painters (of Mt. Athos). Muntcr ("Die Sinnbilder
und Kunstvorst^llungen der alten(^hrist«n", Altona,
1825, p. 9) l>elieves he can trace the letter down to the
time of Diocletian; but this is not generally admitted.
The letter of Lentulus is certainly apocryphal: there
never was a Governor of Jerusalem; no Procurator of
Judea is known to have been called Lentulus; a Ro-
man governor would not have addressed the senate,
but the emperor; a Roman writer would not have em-
ployed the expressions, "prophet of truth", "sons of
men ", "Jesus Christ". The former two are Hebrew
idioms, the third is taken from the New Testament.
The letter, therefore, shows us a description ol our
Lord such as Christian piety conceived him.
Von DobschOtz, Chrinttufbilder in Texle und Untersitchungent
XVIII (Leipcif, 1899), supplement, 308-29; Kbaus, Real-
EncyklopQdxe aer chrisUichen AUerthumer, s. v.; Harnack in
Hebzoq, ReaUncyklop&die,yiIl (1881), 548; Via., Did.dela
Bible.
A. J. Maas.
Leo I (the Great), SAifrr, Pope (440-61), place
and date of birth unknown; d. 10 November, 461.
Leo*s pontificate, next to that of St. Gregory I, is the
most si^ficant and important in Christian anti<juity.
At a time when the Church was experiencing the
greatest obstacles to her progress in consequence of the
hastening disintegration of the Western Empire, while
the Orient was profoimdly agitated over dogmatic
controversies, this great pope, with far-seeing sagacity
and powerful hand, euiaed the destiny of the Roman
and Universal Chureh. According to the *' Liber Pon-
tificalis" (ed. Mommsen, I, 101 sqq., ed. Duchesne, I,
238 sqq.), Leo was a native of Tuscany and his fath-
er's name was Quintianus. Our earliest certain his-
torical information about Leo reveals liim a deacon of
the Roman Chureh under Pope Olestine I (422-32).
Even during this period he was known outside of
Rome, and had some relations with Gaul, since Cas-
sianus in 430 or 431 wrote at Leo's suggestion his
work "De Incamatione Domini contra Nestorium"
fMi^e, P. L., L, 9 sqq.), prefacing it with a letter of
dedication to Leo. Aoout this time C^ril of Alexandria
appealed to Rome against the pretensions of Bishop
Juvenal of Jerusalem. From an assertion of Leo's in a
letter of later date (ep. cxvi, ed. Ballerini, 1, 1212; II,
1528), it is not very clear whether Cyril wrote to him
in the capacity of Roman deacon, or to Pope Celes-
tine. During the pontificate of Sixtus III (432-40),
Leo was sent to Gaul by Emperor Valentinian III to
settle a dispute and bring alx)ut a reconciliation be-
tween Aetius. the chief military commander of the
province, ana the chief magistrate, Albinus. This
commission is a proof of the great confidence placed in
the clever and able deacon by the Imperial 0>urt.
Sixtus III died on 19 August; 440, while I^eo was in
ISS
uo
Gauly and the ktter was chosen his successor. Ee-
tuming to Rome, Leo was consecrated on 29 Septem-
ber ofwe same year, and governed the Roman Church
for the next twenty-one years.
Leo's chief aim was to sustain the unity of the
Church. Not long after his elevation to the Chair of
Peter, he saw himself compelled to combat energet-
ically the heresies which seriously threatened church
unity even in the West. Leo had ascertained through
Bishop Septimus of Altiniun, that in Aquileia prieste,
deacons, and clerics, who had been adherents of Pe-
la^us, were admitted to communion without an ex-
phcit abjuration of their heresy. The pope sharply
censured this procediu^, and du'ected that a provin-
cial synod should be assembled in Aquileia, at which
such persons were to be required to abjiu« Pelagian-
ism pubUcly and to subscribe to an imequivocal
confession of Faith (epp. i and ii). This zealous pas-
tor waged war even more strenuously against Mani-
ch^eism, inasmuch as its adherents, who had been
(hiven from Africa by the Vandals, had settled in
Rome, and had succeeded in establishing a secret
Manichssan conununitv there. The pope ordered the
faithful to point out these heretics to the priests, and
in 443, together vriih the senators and presbyters, con-
ducted in person an investigation, in the course of
which the leaders of the commimity were examined.
In several sermons he emphatically warned the Chris-
tians of Rome to be on their guard against this repre-
hensible heresy, and repeatedly charged them to give
information about its followers, their dwellings, ac-
quaintances, and rendezvous (Sermo ix, 4, xvi, 4;
zxiv, 4; xxxiv, 4 sq.; xlii, 4 sq.; Ixxvi, 6). A number
of Mismichseans were converted and admitted to con-
fession; others, who remained obdurate, were in obe-
dience to imperial decrees banished from Rome by the
civil magistrates. On 30 January, 444, the pope sent
a letter to all the bishops of Italy, to which he appended
the documents containing his proceedings against the
Bianichsans in Rome, and warned them to be on their
guard and to take action against the followers of the
sect (ep. vii). On 19 June, 445, Emperor Valentinian
III issued, doubtless at the pope's instigation, a stem
edict in which he established severe pimishments for
the Manichseans ("Epist. Leonis", ed. Ballerini, I,
626; ep. viii inter Leon. ep.). Prosper of Aquitaine
states m his "Chronicle'' (ad an. 447; *'Mon. Germ,
hist. Auct. antiauissimi", IX, 1, 341 sqq.) that, in con-
sequence of Leo s energetic measiu^s, the Manichseans
were also driven out of the provinces, and even Orien-
tal bishops emulated the pope's example in regard to
this sect. In Spain the heresy of Pnscillianism still
survived, and for some time had been attracting fr^sh
adherents. Bishop Turibius of Astorga became cogni-
zant of this, and oy extensive journeys collected mi-
nute information about the condition of the churches
and the spread of Priscillianism. He compiled the er-
rors of the heresfy, wrote a refutation of the same, and
sent these documents to several African bishops. He
also sent a copy to the pope, whereupon the latter sent
a lengthy letter to Turibius (ep. xv) in refutation of
the errors of the Priscilliamste. Leo at the same time
ord^^ that a council of bishops belonging to the
neighbouring provinces should be convened to insti-
tute a rigid enquiry, with the object of determining
whether any of the bishops had become tainted with
the poison of this heresy. Should any such be dis-
covered, they were to be excommunicated without
hesitation. The pope also addressed a similar letter to
the bishops of the Spanish provinces, notifying them
that a umversal synoa of aU the chief pastors was to be
summoned; if this should be found to be impossible,
the bishops of Galicia at least should be assembled.
These two synods were in fact held in Spain to deal
witii the pomts at issue (Hefele, " Konziliengesch."
n, 2nd ed., pp. 306 sqq.).
The creator disorg^zed ecclesiastical condition
of certain countries, resulting from national migra*
tions, demanded closer bonds between their episcopate
and Rome for the better promotion of ecclesiastical
life. Leo, with this object in view, determined to
make use of the papal vicariate of the bishops of Aries
for the province of Gaul for the creation of a centre
for the Gallican episcopate in immediate union with
Rome. Li the begmning his efforts were greatly hiuoa-
pered by his conmct with St. Hilary, then Bishop of
Aries (see Hilaky op Arles, Saint). Even earlier,
conflicts had arisen relative to the vicariate of the
bishops of Aries and ite privileges. Hilary made ex-
cessive use of his authority over other ecclesiastical
provinces, and claimed that all bishops should be con-
secrated by him, instead of by their own metropolitan.
When, for example, the complaint was raised that
Bishop Olidonius of Besangon had been consecrated
in violation of the canons — the grounds alleged being
that he had, as a layman, mamed a widow, and, as
a public officer, had given his consent to a death
sentence — Hilary deposed him, and consecrated Im-
portimus as his successor. Gehdonius thereupon ap-
pealed to the pope and set out in person for Rome.
About the same time Hilary, as if the see concerned
had been vacant, consecrated another bishop to take
the place of a certain Bishop Proiectus, who was fll.
Projectus recovered, however, and he too laid a com-
plaint at Rome about the action of the Bishop of
Aries. Hilary then went himself to Rome to justify
his proceedings. The pope assembled a Roman synod
(about 445) and, when the complaints brought against
Celidonius could not be verified, reinstated the latter
in his see. Projectus also received his bishopric again.
Hilary returned to Aries before the synod was over;
the pope deprived him of jurisdiction over the other
Gallic provinces and of metropoUtan righte over the
Erovince of Vienne, only allowing him to retain his
►iocese of Aries.
These decisions were disclosed by Leo in a letter to
the bishops of the Province of Vienne (ep. x). At the
same time he sent them an edict of Valentinian III of
8 July, 445, in which the pope's measures in regard to
St. Hilary were supported, and the primacy of the
Bishop of Rome over the whole Church solemnly
recognized ("Epist. Leonis," ed. Ballerini, I, 642).
On his return to his bishopric Hilary sought a recon-
ciliation with the pope. After this there arose no
further difficulties t«tween these two saintly men and,
after his death in 449, Hilary was declarecl by Leo as
"beatffi memoriffi". To Bishop Ravennius, St. Hil-
ary's successor in the see of Aries, and the bi^ops of
that province, Leo addressed most cordial letters in
449 on the election of the new metropolitan (epp. xl,
xli) . When Ravennius consecrated a little later a new
bishop to take the place of the deceased Bishop of
Vaison, the Archbishop of Vienne, who was then in
Rome, took exception to this action. The bishops of
the province of Aries then wrote a joint letter to the
pope, in which they begged him to restore to Raven-
nius tiie rights of which his predecessor Hilary had
been deprived (ep. Ixv inter ep. Leonis). In his reply
dated 5 A^y, 450 ^ep. Ixvi), Leo acceded to their re-
auest. The Archbishop of Vienne was to retain only
tne suffragan Bishoprics of Valence, Tarentaise,
(jeneva, and Grenoble; all the other sees in the Prov-
ince of Vienne were made subject to the Archbishop
of Aries, who also became again the mediator be-
tween the Holy See and the whole Gallic episco«
pate. Leo transmitted to Ravennius (ep. Ixvii), for
commimication to the other Gallican bishops, his
celebrated letter to Flavian of Constantinople on the
Incarnation. Ravennius thereupon convened a S3mod,
at which forty-four chief pastors assembled. In their
synodal letter of 451, they affirm that they accept the
pope's letter as a symbol of faith (ep. xcix inter ep.
Leonis). In his answer Leo speaks further of the con-
denmation of Nestorius (ep. cii). The Vicariate of
LEO 156 LBO
Aries for a long time retained the position Leo had ac- ing them to convene a general council in order to re-
corded it. Another papal vicariate was that of the store peace to the Church. To the same end he used
bishops of Thessalonica, whose jurisdiction extended his influence with the Western emperor, Valentinian
over lllyria. The special dutv of this vicariate was to JII^ and his mother Galla Placidia, especially during
protect the rights of the Hoiv See over the district theu* visit to Rome in 450. This ^neral council was
of EajBtem ulyn&f which belonged to the Eastern held in Chalcedon in 451 under Marcian, the successor
Empire. Leo bestowed the vicariate upon Bishop of Theodosius. It solemidy accepted Leo's dogmati-
Anastasius of Thessalonica, just as Pope oiricius had cal epistle to Flavian as an expression of the Catholic
formerly entrusted it to Bishop Anysius. The vicar Faith concerning the Person of Christ. The pope con-
was to consecrate the metropolitans, to assemble in a firmed the decrees of the Council aiter eliminatmg the
synod all bishops of the Province of Eastern lllyria, canon, which elevated the Patriarchate of Constant i-
to oversee iheir administration of their office; but the nople, while diminishing the rights of the ancient
most important matters were to be submitted to Onental patriarchs. On 21 March, 453, Leo issued a
Rome (epp. v, vi, xiii). But Anastasius of Thessa- circular letter confirming his dogmatic definition (ep.
lonica used his authority in an arbitrary and despotic cxiv). Through the mediation of Bishop Julian of
manner, so much so that he was severely reproved by Cos, who was at that time the papal ambassador in
Leo, who sent him fuller directions for the exercise of Constantinople, the pope tried to protect further eccle-
his office (ep. xiv). siastical interests in tne Orient. He persuaded the
In Leo's conception of his duties as supreme pastor, new Emperor of Constantinople, Leo I, to remove the
the maintenance of strict ecclesiastical disciphne oc- heretical and irregular patriarch. Timotheus Ailunis,
cupied a prominent place. This was particularly im- from the See of Alexandria. A new and orthodox
Cortant at a time wnen the continual ravages of the patriarch, Timotheus Salophaciolus, was chosen to fill,
arbarians were introducing disorder into all condi- his place, and received the congratulations of the pope
tions of life, and the rules of morality were being in tne last letter which Leo ever sent to the Orient,
seriously violated. Leo used his utmost energy in In his far-reaching pastoral care of the Universal
maintaining this discipline, insisted on the exact Church, in the West and in the East, the pope never
observance of the ecclesiastical precepts, and did not neglected the domestic interests of the Church at
hesitate to rebuke when necessary. Letters (ep. xvii) Rome. When Northern Italy had been devastated by
relative to these and other matters were sent to the Attila Leo by a personal encounter with the King of
different bishops of the Western Empire: — e. g., to the Huns prevented him from marching upon Rome,
the bishops of the Italian provinces (epp. iv, xix, At the emperor's wish, Leo, accompanied by the Con-
dxvi, clxviii), and to those of Sicily, who had toler- sul Avienus and the Prefect Trigetius, went in 452 to
ated deviations from the Roman Liturgv in the ad- Upper Italy, and met Attila at Alincio in the vicinity
ministration of Baptism (ep. xvi), and concerning of Mantua, obtaining from him the promise that he
other matters (ep. xvii). A very important disciplin- would withrdaw from Italy and negotiate peace with
ary decree was sent to Bishop Rusticus of Narbonne the emperor. The pope also succeeded in obtaining
S). clxvii). Owing to the dominion of the Vandals in another great favour for the inhabitants of Rome,
tin North Africa, the position of the Church there When in 455 the city was captured by the Vandals
had become extremely gloomy. I^o sent the Roman under Genueric, although for a fortnight the town had
priest Potentius thither to inform himself about the been plundered, Leo's intercession obtained a promise
exact condition, and to forwiuxl a report to Rome, that the city should not be injured and that tne Uves
On receiving this Leo sent a letter of detailed instruo- (k the inhabitants should be spared. These incidents
tions to the episcopate of the province about the ad- show the high moral authority enjoyed by the pope,
justment of numerous ecclesiastical and disciplinary manifested even in temporal affairs. Leo was always
questions (ep.xii). IjCo also sent a letter to Dioscurus on terms of intimacy with the Western In^perial
of Alexandria on 21 July, 445, urging him to the strict Court. In 450 Emperor Valentinian III visited Rome,
observance of the canons and discipline of the Roman accompanied by his wife Eudoxia and his mother
Church (ep. ix). The primacy of the Roman Church Galla Placidia. On the feast of Cathedra Petri (22
was thus manifested under this pope in the most var- February), the Imperial family with their briUiant
ious and distinct wajrs. But it was especially in his retinue took part in the solemn services at St. Peter's,
interposition m the confusion of the Christological upon which occasion the pope delivered an impressive
Suarrels, which then so profoundly agitated E^sistem sermon. Leo was also active in building and restoring
hristendom, that liCo most brilliantly revealed him- churches. He built a basilica over the grave of Pope
self the wise, learned, and energetic shepherd of the Cornelius in the Via Appia. The roof of St. Paul's
Church (see Monophtsitism). From his first letter without the Walls having been destroyed by hght-
on this subject, written to Eutyches on 1 June, 448 ning,hehadit replaced, and undertook other improve-
(ep. xx), to ills last letter written to the new orthodox ments in the basilica. He persuaded Empress Galla
Patriarch of Alexandria, Timotheus Salophaciolus, on Placidia, as seen from the inscription, to have executed
18 August, 460 (ep. clxxi), we cannot but admire the the great mosaic of the Arch of Triumph, which has
dear, positive, and systematic manner in which Leo, survived to our day. Leo also restored St. Peter's on
fortined by the primacy of the Holy See, took part in the Vatican. During his pontificate a pious Roman
this difficult entanglement. For particulars refer to lady^ named Demetria, erected on her property on
the articles: Eutyches; Flavian, Saint; Ephesus, the Via Appia a basilica in honour of St. Stephen, the
Robber Council of. ruins of which have l)een excavated.
Eutyches appealed to the pope after he had been Leo was no less active in the spiritual elevation of
excommunicated by Flavian^ Patriarch of Constanti- the Roman congregations, and his sermons, of which
nople, on account of his Monophysite views. The ninety-six genuine examples have l)een preserved, are
Eope, after investigating the dirouted question, sent remarkable for their profundity, clearness of diction,
is sublime dogmatic letter to Flavian (ep. xxviii), and elevated stvle. The first five of these, which were
concisely setting forth and confirming the doctrine of delivered on the anniversaries of his consecration,
the IncamatioUj and the union of the Divine and manifest his lofty conception of the dignity of his
human natures m the one Person of Christ. In 449 office, as well as his thorough conviction of the pri-
the council, which was designated by Leo as the "Rob- macy of the Bishop of Rome, shown forth in so out-
ber Synod ''. was held. Flavian and otherpowerful spoken and decisive a manner by his whole activity as
prelates of tne East appealed to the pope. Tne latter supreme pastor. Of his letters, which are of great im-
•ent urgent letters to Constantinople, particularly to portance for church history, 143 have come down to
Elmperor Theodosius II and Empress Puloheriai. urs^ us: we also possess thirty which were sent to him. The
UEO
167
LIO
•o-called "Sactamentarium Leonianum" is a collec-
tion of orationa and prefaces of the Mass, prepared in
the second half of the sixth century. Leo died on 10
November, 461. and was buried in the vestibule of
St. Peter's on the Vatican. In 688 Pope Sergius had
his remains transferred to the basilica itself, and a
special altar erected over them. They rest to-day in
St. Peter's, beneath the altar specially dedicated to St.
Leo. In 1754 Benedict XIV exalted him to the dig-
nity of Doctor of the Church (doctor ecdesice). In
the Latin Church the feast day of the great pope is
held on 11 April, and in the Eastern Church on 18
Februaiy.
LmnU Opera omnia, ed. Abdicinxo dblla Porta (Rome,
1470); ed. Qub8NBL (2 vols., Paris, 1675); edd. Petrds and
HnBONTMUS Ballerini (3 vols., VeDice, 1753-7); ed. in P. L.,
LIV-VI; Amslu, iS. Leone Magna e VOrienU (Rome, 1882;
MontacMMno. 1890); Momusen in Neuee Archiv, XI (1886),
361-8; JAfTB, RegeMa Rom. Pont., 2nd ed.. I, 58 sqq.; von
NosnTS-RxENECK, Die Briefe Papat Leoe J. im Codex Afonacen.
14640 in HieUnieckee Jahrbuch (1897). 117-33; Idem, Die
pdpmieken Urkunden fiir Theeealonike und deren Kritik dutch
Prof, Friedrich in Zeiischr. fiir kath. Theologie (1897), 1-50.
Trioslation of letters and sermons given in Feltoe, A eelect
lAbfory of Nieene and Poat-Nicene Pcikere, XII (2nd series. New
York, 1806); Sacramentaritun Leonianum, ed. Feltoe (Cam-
bridpO; 1897). (^noeming the Saeramentarium, cf. Duchesne,
ChruUan Worehip; ita origin and evoltUion (London, 1903),
135 SOQ.: and Probst, Die nlUdKn ritmiachen Sakramentarien
und OrOinea erkUiH (Monster, 1892). — Liber Pontificalia, ed.
Ddchbanb, I, 238 sqq.; Tillemont, Mhnoirea pour aervir ii
I'hiatoire eedra.,'KV, 414 sqq.; Arendt, Leo derOroaae u. aeine
Ztit (Hiuns. 1835); Perthbl, Papat Leoa L Leben u. Lehren
(Jena. 1843); db Saint-Ch^ron, aiat. du Pontificat de Saint-
I>on U Qrand (Paris. 1845; 2nd ed., 1861-4): Fr. and P.
RoBRiNOEB, Die Vnter dea Papattuma Leo L und Oregor I in Die
Kirche Chriati u. ihre Zeugen (Stuttgart, 1879); Bertani, Vita
di Leone Magno (3 vols., Honsa, 1880-2); Gore in IHel. ChriM.
Biog, (London, 1882), s. v.; Lanoen. Geach. der rtim. Kirche, II
(Bonn, 1885), 1 sqq.; Grisar, Oe^rh. Roma u. der Pdpale im
MitUlaUer, I, 308 sqq.; Idem, // Primato romano nel aecolo
ouinlo in Analecta Romana, I (Rome, 1900), 307-52); Idem,
Rom u. die frUnkiache Kirche vomehmlich im VL Jahrhunderl in
Zeitachr. fiir kath. Theologie (1890), 447-93; GundlacH; Der
Streit der Biatftmer Arlea u. Vtenne um den Primatua Galltarum
in Nauea Arehiv (1889). 250 sqq.; (1890), 9 sqq., 233 sqq.;
KuHK, Die Chriatologie Leoa L dea Oroaaen (Wiirzourg, 1894);
Hbpblb, Konziliengeach., II (2nd ed.), passim.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Lao n, Saint, Pope ((>82-83), date of birth un-
known; d. 28 June, (>8.3. He was a Sicilian, and son of
one Paul. Though elected pope a few days after the
death of St. Agatho (10 Jan., 681), he was not conse-
crated till after the lapse of a year and seven months
(17 .^ug., 682). Under Leo's predecessor St. Agatho,
negotiations had been opened between the Holy See
and Emperor Constantine Pogonatus concerning the
relations of the Byzantine Court to papal elections.
Gonstantine had already promised Agatho to abolish
or reduce the tax which for about a century the popes
had had to pay to the imperial treasury on the occasion
of their consecration, and under Leo's successor he
made other changas in what had hitherto been re-
auired of the Roman C!hurch at the time of a papal
lection. In all probability, therefore, it was con-
tinued correspondence on this matter which caused the
delay of the imperial confirmation of Leo's election,
and hence the long postponement of his consecration.
The most important act accomplished bv Leo in his
short pontificate was his confirmation of the acts of
the Sixth (Ecumenical Council (680^1). This council
bad been held in Constantinople against the Monothe-
lites, and had been presided over by the legates of
Pope Agatho. After Leo had notified the emperor
that the decrees of the council had been confirmed by
him, he proceeded to make them known to the nations
of the West. The letters which he sent for this end to
the kinff and to the bishops and nobles of Spain have
eome down to us. In them he explained what the
council had effected, and he called upon the bishops
to fnibwribe to its decrees. At the same time he was
at pains to make it clear that in condemning his pred-
ecessor Honorius I, he did so, not because he taught
heresy, but because he was not active enough in op-
posing it. In accordance with the papal mandate, a
synod was held at Toledo (684) in which the Council
of Constantinople was accepted.
The fact that Ravenna had long been the residence
of the emperors or of their representatives, the exarchs,
had awakened the ambition of its archbishops. They
aspired to the privileges of patriarchs and desired to be
autocephalouSj i. e. free from the direct jurisdiction of
the pope, considered as their primate. As they could
not succeed in inducing the popes to agree to their
wishes, they attempted to secure their accomplish-
ment by an imperial decree recognizing them as auto-
cephalous. But this did not prove sufficient to enable
the ardhbishops to effect their purpose, and Leo ob-
tained from Constantine Pogonatus the revocation of
the edict of Constans. On his side, however, Leo
abolished the tax which the archbishops had been
accustomed to pay when they received the pallium.
And though he insisted that the archbishops-eleot
must come to Rome to be consecrated, he consented
to the arrangement that they should not be obliged to
remain in Rome more than eight days at the tii^e of
their consecration, and that, while they were not to
be bound to come again to Rome themselves in order
to offer their homage to the pope, they were each year
to send a delegate to do so in their name. Perhaps
because he feared that the Lombards might agam
ravage the catacombs, Leo transferred thence many
of the relics of the martyrs into a church which he
built to receive them. This pope, who is called by his
contemporary biographer both just and learned, is
commemorated as a saint in the Roman Martyrology
on 28 June.
Liber Pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, I (Paris, 1886), 359 sqq.;
ViLLANU.N'O. Summa Condi. Hiapania, I (Barcelona. 1850), 310
sq.; Acta 8S., Jime, V, 375 sqq.; Mann, Livea of the Popea, I
(London, 1902), pt. II, 49 sqq.
Horace K. Mann.
Leo m, Saint, Pope, date of birth unknown; d.
816. He was elected on the very day his predecessor
was buried (26 Dec, 795), and consecrated on the fol-
lowing day. It is quite possible that this liaste may
liave been due to a desire on the part of the Romans to
anticipate any interference of the Franks with their
freedom of election. Leo was a Roman, the son of
Aty uppius and Elizabeth. At the time of his election
he was Cardinal-Priest of St. Susanna, and seemingly
also vestiarius, or chief of the pontifical treasury, or
wardrobe. With the letter informing Charlemagne that
he had been unanimously elected pope, Leo sent him the
keys of the confession of St. Peter, and the standard of
the city. This he did to show that he regarded the
Frankish king as the protector of the Holy See. In
return he received from Charlemagne letters of con-
gratulation and a great part of the treasure which the
king had captured from the Avars. The acquisition
of this wealth was one of the causes which enabled
Leo to be such a great benefactor to the churches and
charitable institutions of Rome.
Prompted by jealousy or ambition, or by feelings of
hatred and revenge, a number of the relatives of Pope
Adrian I formed a plot to render Leo unfit to hold his
sacred office. On the occasion of the procession of the
Greater Litanies (25 April, 799), when the pope was
making his way towards the Flaminian Gate, ne was
suddenly attacked by a body of armed men. He was
dashed to the ground, and an effort was made to root
out his tongue and tear out his eyes. After he had
been left for a time bleeding in the street, he was hur-
ried off at night to the monastery of St. Erasmus on
the Coelian. There, in what seemed quite a miracu-
lous manner, he recovered the full use of his eyes and
tongue. Escaping from the monastery, he betook
himself to (!!harleinagne, accompanied by many of the*
Romans. He was received by the Frankish king
with the greatest honour at Paderbom, although his
enemies Imd filled the king's ears with malicious accu-
LEO
158
LSO
sations against him. After a few monthfi' stay in
Germany, the Frankish monarch caused him to be
escorted back to Rome, where he was received with
every demonstration of joy by the whole populace,
natives and foreigners. The pope's enemies were then
tried by Charlemagne's envoys and, being unable to
establish either Leo's guilt or their own innocence,
were sent as prisoners to France (Frankland). In
the following year (800) Charlemagne himself came to
Rome, and the pope and his accusers were brought
face to face. The assembled bishops declared that
• they had no ri^ht to judge the pope; but Leo of his
own free will, m order, as he said, to dissipate any
suspicions in men's minds, declared on oath that he
was wholly guiltless of the charges which had been
brought against him. At his special request the
death sentence wliich liad been passed upon his
principal enemies was commuted into a sentence of
exile.
A few days later, Leo and Charlemagne again met.
It w|is on Christmas Dav in St. Peter's. After the
Gospel had been sung, tne pope approached Charle-
magne, who was kneeling before the Confession of St.
Peter, and placed a crown upon his head. The as-
sembled multitude at once made the basilica ring with
the shout: ''To Charles, the most pious Augustus,
crowned by God, to our great and pacific emperor life
and victory ! " By this act was revived the Empire in
the West, and, in theory, at least, the world was de-
clared by the Church subject to one temporal head, as
Christ had made it subject to one spiritual head. It
was imderstood that the first duty of the new emperor
was to be the protector of the Roman Church and of
Christendom against the heathen. With a view to
combining the East and West under the effective rule
of Charlemagne, Leo strove to further the project of a
marriage between him and the Eastern empress Irene.
Her deposition, however (801), prevented the realiza-
tion of this excellent plan. Some three years after
the departure of Charlemagne from Rome (801), Leo
again crossed the Alps to see him (804) . According to
some he went to discuss with the emperor the division
of his territories l)etween his sons. At any rate, two
years later, he was invited to give his assent to the
emperor's provisions for the said partition. Equally
while acting in harmony with the pope, Charlemagne
combatted the heresy of Adoptionism which had arisen
in Spain; but he went somewhat further than his spir-
itual ^de when he wished to bring about the general
insertion of the Filioque in the Nicene Creed. The
two were, however, acting together when Salzburg
was made the mctropolitical city for Bavaria, ana
when Fortunatus of Urado was compensated for the
loss of his see of Grado by the gift of tiiat of Pola. The
joint action of the pope and the emperor was felt even
m England. Through it Eardulf of Northumbria re-
covered his kingdom, and the dispute between Ean-
bald. Archbishop of York, and Wulfred, Archbishop
of Canterbury, was regulated.
Leo had, nowever, many relations with England
solely on his own account. By his command the
synod of Beccanceld (or Clovesho, 803) condemned the
appointing of laymen as superiors of monasteries. In
accordance with the wishes of Ethelheard, Archbishop
of Canterbury, Leo excommunicated Eadbert Praen
for seizing the throne of Kent, and withdrew the pal-
lium which had been granted to Lichfield, authorizing
the restoration of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the
See of Canterbury " j ust as St. Gregory the Apostle and
Master of the nation of the English had arranged it".
Leo was also called upon to intervene in the quarrels
between Archbishop Wulfred and Cenulf, King of
• Mercia. Very little is known of the real causes of the
inisunderstandings between thorn, but, whoever was
the more to blame, the archbishop seems to have had
the more to suffer. The king appears to have induced
ihe pope to suspend him from the exercise of his epis-
copal functions, and to keep the kingdom under a
kind of interdict for a period of six yeare. Till the
hour of his death (822), greed of gold caused Cenulf to
continue his persecution of the archbishop. It also
caused him to persecute the monastery of Abingdon,
and it was not until he had received from its abbot
a large sum of money that, acting, as he declared,
at the request of "the lord Apostolic and moet
glorious Pope Leo", he decreed the inviolability of
the monastery.
During the pontificate of Leo, the Church of Con-
stantinople was in a state of unrest. The monks, who
at this period were flourishing under the guidance of
such men as St. Theodore the Studite, were suspicious
of what they conceived to be the lax principles of
their patriarch Tarasius, and were in vigorous oppo-
sition to the evil conduct of their emperor Constantme
VI. To be free to marry Theodota, their sovereign
had divorced his wife Maria. Though Tarasius con-
demned the conduct of Constantine, still, to avoid
greater evils, he refused, to the profound diseust of
the monks, to excommunicate him. For their con-
demnation of his new marriage Constantine pimished
the monks with imprisonment and exile. In their
distress the monks turned for help to Leo, as they did
when they were maltreated for opposing the arbitrary
reinstatement of the priest whom Tarasius had de-
graded for marrying Constantine to Theodota. The
pope replied, not merely with words of praise and en-
couragement, but also by the dispatch of rich pres-
ents; and, after Michael I came to the Byzantine
throne, he ratified the treaty between him and
Charlemagne which was to secure peace for East and
West.
Not only in the last mentioned transaction, but in
all matters of importance, did the pope and the Frank-
ish emperor act m concert. It was on Charlemagne's
advice that, to ward off the savage raids of the Sara-
cens, Leo maintained a fleet, and caused his coast line
to be regularly patrolled by his ships of war. But be-
cause he did not feel competent to keep the Moslem
pirates out of Corsica, he entrusted the guarding of it
to the emperor. Supported by Charlemagne, he was
able to recover some of the patrimonies of the Roman
Church in the neighbourhood of Gaeta, and again to
administer them through his rectors. But when the
great emperor died (28 Jan., 814), evil times once more
broke on Leo. A fresh conspiracy was formed against
him, but on this occasion the pope was apprised of it
before it came to a head. He caused the chief con-
spirators to be seized and executed. No sooner had
tnis plot been crushed than a number of nobles of the
Campagna rose in arms and plundered the country.
They were preparing to march on Rome itself, when
thev were overpowered by the Duke of Spoleto, acting
imder the orders of the King of Italy (Langobardia).
The large sums of monev which Charlemagne gave to
the papal treasury enabled Leo to become an efficient
helper of the poor and a patron of art, and to renovate
the churches, not only of Rome, but even of Ravenna.
He employed the imperishable art of mosaic not
merely to portray the political relationship between
Charlemagne and himself, but chiefly to decorate the
churches, especially his titular church of St. Susanna.
Up to the end of the sixteenth century a fi^pire
of Leo in mosaic was to be seen in that ancient
church.
Leo III was buried in St. Peter's, (12 June, 816),
where his relics are to be found along with those of
Sts. Leo 1, 1^0 II, and Leo IV. He was canonized
in 1673. The silver denarii of Leo III stil) extant
bear the name of the Frankish emperor upon them
as well as that of Leo, showing thereby the emperor
as the protector of the Church, and overlord of the
city of Rome.
Liber P<mtificalis. ed. Duchxsks, II (Paris, 1892). 1 tqq.l
Codex CarolinuM, ed. JaffA (Berlin, 1867); iifmofet Binhar^
LEO
159
LIO
Cto called) and other Chronicles, in Mon. Oerm.: Script. ^ I;
Carmen de Carolo Maano, in P. L., XCVIII. Cf. Bbtce, The
Holy Roman Empire (London, 1889) ; Klkinclaugus, L'Emtnre
CaroHngicn (Palis, 1902) ; Hodqkin, Italy and her Invader;
VIII (Oxford, 1899); Bohmer, Regesta Imperii, ed. MChl-
BACHER. I (Innsbruck, 1908); Mann, The Lives of the Popes in
the Early Middle Ages, II (London, 1906), 1 sqq.
Horace K. Mann.
Leo IV, Saint, Pope (847-55), a Roman and the
son of Radoald, was unanimously elected to succeed
Serpius IT, and as the alarming attack of the Saracens
on Rome in 846 caused the people to fear for the
safety of the city, he was consecrated (10 April, 847)
without the consent of the emperor. Leo received his
early education at Rome in the monastery of St. Mar-
tin, near St. Peter's. His pious behaviour attracted
the notice of Gregory IV, who made him a subdeacon;
and he was created Cardinal-Priest of the church of
the Quatuor Coronati by Sergius II. As soon as Leo,
much a^inst his will, became pope, he began to take
precautions against a repetition of tne Saracen raid of
846. He put the walls of the city into a thorough
state of repair, entirely rebuilding fifteen of the great
towers. He was the first to enclose the Vatican hill
by a wall. To do this, he received money from the
emperor, and help from all the cities and agricultural
colonies (domus cultce) of the Duchy of Rome. The
work took him four years to accomplish, and the
newly fortified portion was called the Leonine City,
after him. In 852 the fortifications were completed,
and were blessed by the pope with great solemnity.
Whilst the work of refortifying the city was in prog-
ress, a great fleet of the Saracens sailed for Rome,
seemingly from Sardinia, but it was completely de-
stroyed off Ostia by the allied fleets of Rome, >faples,
Amalfi, and Gaeta, and by a tempest (849). When the
rebuilding of the walls of Rome was accomplished,
Leo rebuflt Portus, and handed it over to a,numbcr of
Corsican exiles, whom the ravages of the Saracens had
driven from their homes. Other cities too in the
Roman duchy were fortified, either by the pope him-
self or in consequence of his exhortations. Leo also
endeavoured to make good the damage which the
Saracen raid of 846 had done to the diff'erent churches.
St. Peter's had suffered very severely, and though as a
whole it never again reached its former magnificence,
Leo managed to make it in parts at least more beauti-
ful than it had been before. St. Martin's, where he
had been educated, the Quatuor Coronati, of which he
had been the priest, the Lateran Palace, the Anglo-
Saxon Borgo, Subiaco, and many other places both in
Rome and out of it were renovated by the energetic
Leo. It was by this pope that the church of S. Maria
Nova was built, to replace S. Maria Antiqua. which
the decaying Palace of the Caesars threatened to en-
gulf^ and of which the ruins have recently been brought
to h^ht. In 850 Leo associated with Lothair in the
empire his son Louis, by imposing on him the imperial
crown. Three years later "he hallowed the child
Alfred to king [says an old English historian] by
anointing; and, receiving him for his own child by
adoption, gave him confirmation, and sent him bacK
[to England] with the bessing of St. Peter the Apostle."
The same year (853) he held an important synod in
Rome, in which various decrees were passed for the
furtherance of ecclesiastical discipline and learning,
and for the condemnation of the refractory Anastasius,
Cardinal of St. Marcellus, and sometime librarian of
the Roman Church. Equally rebelHous conduct on
the part of John, Archbishop of Ravenna, forced Leo
to undertake a journey to that city to inspire John
and his accomplices with a respect for the law. It
was while engaged in endeavouring to inspire another
archbishop, Hincmar of Reims, with this same rever-
ence, that Leo died. Another man who, till his
death (851), defied the authority of the pope was
Nomeno^, Duke of Brittany. Anxious to be inde-
pendent of the imperial authority Nomeno^, in defi-
ance both of Leo and Charles the Bald, not only de«
posed a number of bishops, but made new ones, and
subjected them to a metropolitan see (Dol) of his own
creation. It was not till tne thirteenth century that
the Archbishop of Tours recovered his jurisdiction
over the Breton bishops. For consecrating a bishop
outside hb own diocese, St. Methodius, Patriarcn
of Constantinople, had suspended Gregory Asbestas,
Bishop of Syracuse. St. Ignatius, who succeeded St.
Methodius, in consequence forbade Gregory to be
E resent at his consecration. This led Gregory to
reak all bounds. St. Ignatius accordingly caused
him to be deposed, and begged the pope to confirm the
deposition. This, however, Leo would not do, be-
cause, as he said, Ignatius had assembled bishops and
deposed others without his knowledge, whereas he
ought not to have done so "in the absence of our
legates or of letters from us ". Despite the fact that
Leo was then in opposition to the Patriarch of Con-
stantinople, one of his dependents, Daniel, a magister
milUum, accused him to the Prankish Emperor Louis
of wishing to overthrow the domination of the Franks
by a Greek alliance. Leo had, however, no difficulty
in convincing Louis that the chaige was absolutely
groundless. Daniel was condemned to death and
only escaped it by the intercession of the emperor.
Shortly after this Leo died, and was buried in St.
Peter's (17 July, 855). He is credited with being a
worker of miracles both by his biographer and by the
Patriarch Photius. His name is found in the Roman
Martyrology.
Liber PorUrficalis, ed. DucnESNE, II, 106 sq.: his letters in
P. L., CXV, CXXIX; the letters of Hincmar in P. L., CXXVI;
the annals of Hincmar etc. Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script., I; Life oj
St. Ignatius and other documents in Labbe, Concilia, VIII; cI.
Lanciani, The Destruction of Ancient Rome (London, 1901),
132 sq.; Thurston, The Roman Sacring of King Alfred in The
Month (Oct., 1901); Fortescde, The Orthodox Eastern Church
(London, 1907), 136 sq. ; de Brolo, Storia della Chiesa in Sicilia
(Palermo, 1884), II, 265 sq.; Mann, Lives of the Popes, II (Lon-
don, 1902), 258 sciq.
Horace K. Mann.
Leo V, Pope. — ^Very little is known of him. We
have no certainty either as to when he was elected or
as to exactly how long he reigned. It is highly prob-
able that he was pope during August, 903. He was a
native of Priapi, a small place in the district of Ardea.
When chasen he was not one of the cardinal-priests of
Rome, but was attached to some church outside the
City. Hence, in contemporary catalogues of the
popes he is called a presbiter forensic. Auxilius, a
writer of the time, says that he held " the rudder of the
Holy Roman Church" for thirty days, and that "he
was a man of God and of praiseworthy life and holi-
ness. " Except that he issued a Bull exempting the
canons of Bologna from the payment of taxes, we
know of nothing that he did as pope. The circum-
stances of his death are as obscure as those of his life.
Afiter a pontificate of somewhat over a month he was
seized by Christopher, Cardinal-Priest of St. Damasus,
and cast into prison. The intruder promptly seated
himself in the chair of Peter, but was soon after dis-
placed by Sergius III. According to one authority,
Sergius took pity" on the two imprisoned pontiffs,
ancTcaused them both to be put to death. However,
it seems more likely that Leo died a natural death in
prison or in a monastery.
Liber Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, II (Paris, 1892), 234;
jArrfe, Reg. Pontif., II (Leipzig, 1888), 746. Cf. Mann, Lives
of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, IV (London. 1906), 111
sqq. Horace K. Mann.
Leo VI, Pope. — ^The exact dates of the election and
death of Leo VI are uncertain, but it is clear that he
was pope during the latter half of 928. If, as some
suppose, he was elected in June, 928, then he died in
Feoruary, 929, as he reigned seven months and five
days. Others, however, believe he became pope be-
fore the month of June. He was a Roman, the son of
the primiceriua, Christopher, who bad been prime
LEO
160
LEO
minister of John VIII. When Leo became pope, he
was Cardinal-Priest of St. Susanna. His immediate
predecessor, John X, had be^n engaged in settling
questions of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Dalmatia;
some of these were decided by Leo VI, and there is ex-
tant a Bull of his in which he states that he has
granted the pallium to Archbishop John of Spalato,
orders all the bishops of Dalmatia to obey him, and to
confine their operations within the limits of their own
dioceses, and instructs Bishop Gregory to be content
with the Diocese of Scodra. The only other item of
information regarding Leo which has reached us is
that "according to most writers he was buried in St.
Peter's".
Liber PorUificalis. ed. Duchesne, II (Paris, 1892), 242;
Mann, Liven of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, IV, 188.
Horace K. Mann.
Leo VJlI, Pope, date of birth unknown; d. 13 Julv,
939. A Roman and priest of St. Sixtus, and probably
a Benedictine monk, he was elected pope 3 January,
936. He seems to have been placed upon the Chair of
Peter by the power of Alberic, prince and senator of
the Romans. Alberic's authority in Rome was dis-
puted by Hugo, who bore the title of King of Italy
(Langobardia) . The citv was being besieged by Hugo
when the famous Odo, Abbot of Cluny, reached it. He
had been summoned by Leo, who knew his great in-
fluence with both Alberic and Hugo, to make peace be-
tween them. Odo accomplished the desires of the
pope, and a marriage between Alberic and Hugo's
daughter Alda effected at least a temporary under-
standing between the belligerents. The Bulls of
Leo consist for the most part of grants of privilege to
various monasteries, especially to Cluny. One, how-
ever, is a letter to Frederick, Archbishop of Mainz.
With a view to co-operating in the work of reform
which was being accomphsh^ in Germany by Henry
I (the Fowler) and his son Otho I, Leo named Fred-
erick his vicar throughout all Germany, with power to
proceed against all erring clerics. He would not , how-
ever, allow the archbishop to baptize the Jews by
force, though he did authorize their expulsion from
the cities on their refusal to embrace Christianity.
Liber Pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, II (Paris, 1892), 244;
JhTTk, Reg. Pontif., I (Leipzie, 1888), 3597 sqq.; Mann, Lix'ea
of the Popes in the Early MiMU Ages, IV (LondoD, 1906). 205
■qq.
Horace K. Mann.
Leo Vm, Pope, date of birth unknown; d. between
20 February and 13 AprU, 965. When the Emperor
Otho I illegally brought about the deposition of the
unworthy rope John XII (Nov.. 963), he equally il-
i^ally caused to be elected, to fill his place, a layman,
"Leo, the venerable protonotary'*. Leo was a Ro-
man and the son of one John. His family was well
known in the Clivus Argentarii (now Via di Marforio,
between the Corso and uie Forum Romanum), and he
himself gave his name to various streets in the neigh-
bourhood of his home. Chosen pope on 4 December,
he was consecrated Bishop of Rome on 6 December,
all the lesser orders having, in violation of the canon
law, been bestowed upon him in the meantime by Sico,
Bishop of Ostia. A few weeks after Leo's consecra-
tion, the Romans made a vain effort to overthrow the
authority of the emperor. They were severely pun-
ished for their attempt; but, through the intercession
of Leo, Otho restored to them the hostages he had re-
ceived from them. No sooner, however, did the em-
peror leave Rome, than the people rose and expelled
his nominee (Feb., 964). Jonn XII at once returned
to the city, summoned a council, condemned Leo
"one of the employees of our curia, who has broken
his faith with us", and degraded those clerics who had
been ordained by him. ^on after this John died (14
May, 964), and the Romans unwisely elected to suc-
ceed him the Cardinal-Deacon Benedict. Indignant
ftt the expulsion of Leo, and the election of Benedict,
Otho hurried to Rome, and waa soon in poanession of
both it and the new pope. Leo returned with the em«
peror, and at once brought Benedict to trial. With
the consent of all his would-be judges, Benedict was
degraded to the rank of a deacon, Lio himself tearing
the pallium from his shoulders (July, 964). If it be
the fact, as is asserted by a contemporary, that Bene-
dict acquiesced in his deposition, and if, as seems cer-
tain, no further protest was made against Leo*s posi-
tion, he may well be regarded as a true pope from July,
964, to his death in 965, about the month of March.
No extant records inform us of any deeds which Leo
performed during the period when he may be safely
regarded as a true pope. He is said, indeed, to
have given Otho the right of nominating any one he
chose to be pope or bishop, and to have restored to
Otho all the lands which hb predecessors had be-
8towe<l upon the papacy. It is ^enerallv allowed, how-
ever, that the documents which make these state-
ments are imperial productions forged during the
investiture quarrel.
Liber Pontificalis, ed. Ddchesnk. II (Paria, 1892), 250;
LlOTpRAND, Hist. Ortoni« (Hanover, 1S77), ixsqq.; Ann. Alta-
hensrs majores (Hftnover, 1868), an., 963 sq.; JAFrfe, Reg., I
(Leipzig, 1888 ^ , 467 sqcl Cf. Fisher. The Medieval Empire, II
(London. 1897), li:?: Duchesne, The Beginnings of the Tem-
poral Sovereignty of the Popes (London, 190S), 222 »qq.; Majnn,
The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, IV, 260-81.
HoKACE K. Mann.
Leo IX, Saint, Pope (1049-54), b. at Egisheim,
near Colmar, on the borders of Alsaco, 21 June, 1002;
d. 19 April, 1054. lie belonged to a noble family which
had givi'n or was to give saints to the (^hurch and
rulers to the Empire. He was named Bruno. His
father Hugh was nrst cousin to Emperor Conrad, and
both Hugh and his wife Heilewide were remarkable
for their piet v and learning. .^Vs a sign of the tender
conscience which soon began to manifest itself in the
saintly child, we are told that, though he had given
abundant proofs of a bright mind, on one occasion he
could not study out of an exceptionally beautiful book
which his mother had bought and given to him. At
length it transpired that the book had been stolen
from the Abbey of St. Hubert in the Ardennes. When
Heilewide had restored the volume to its rightful
owners, the little Bruno's studies proceeded un-
checked. When five years of age, he was committed
to the care of the energetic Berthold, Bishop of Toul,
who had a school for the sons of the nobility. Intelli-
gent, graceful in body, and gracious in uisposition,
Bruno was a favourite with his schoolfellows. Whilst
still a youth and at home for his holidays, he was
attacked when asleep by some animal, and so much
injured that for some time he lay between life and
death. In that condition he saw, as he used after-
wards to tell his friends, a vision of St. Benedict, who
cured him by touching his wounds with a cross. This
we are told by Leo's principal biographer, Wlbert,
who was his intimate friend when the saint was Bish-
op of Toul.
Bruno became a canon of St. Stephen's at Toul
(1017), and though still quite young exerted a sooth-
ing influence on Herimann^ the choleric successor of
Bishop Berthold. When, m 1024, Conrad, Bruno's
cousin, succeeded the Emperor Henry I, tne saint's
relatives sent him tp the new king's court **to serve
in his chapel ". His virtue soon made itself felt, and
his companions, to distinguish him from others who
bore the same name, always spoke of him as **the
good Bruno ". In 1026 Conrad set out for Italy to
make his authority respected in that portion of his
dominions, and as Herimann, Bishop of Toul, was t<X)
old to lead his contingent into the peninsula, he en*
trusted the command of it to Bruno, then a deacon.
There is rt»ason to believe that this novel occupation
was not altogether uncongenial to him, for soldiers
seem always to have had an attraction for him . While
he was thus in the midst of arms. Bishop Herimann
died and Bruno was at once elected to succeed him.
LEO
161
LIQ
Conrad, who destincii him for higher things, was loath
to allow him to accept that insignificant see. But
Bruno, who was wholly disinclined for the higher
things, and wished to Uve in as much obscurity as
possible, induced his sovereign to permit him to take
the see. Consecrated in 1027, Bruno administered
the Diocese of Toul for over twenty years, in a season
of stress and trouble of all kinds. He had to contend
not merely with famine, but also with war, to which
as a frontier town Toul was much exposed. Bruno,
however, was equal to his position. He knew how to
make peace, and, if necessary, to wield the sword in
self-defence. Sent by Conrad to Robert the Pious, he
established so firm a peace between France and the
empire that it was not again broken even during the
reigns of the sons of both Conrad and Robert. On the
other hand, he held his epfltoopal city against Eudes,
Count of Blois, a rebel against Conrad, and "by his
wisdom and exertions ** added Burgundy to the em-
pire. It was whilst he was bishop that he was sad-
dened by the death not merely of his father and
mother, out also of two of his orothers. Amid his
trials Bruno found some consolation in music, in
which he proved himself very efficient.
The German Pope Damasus II died in 1048, and the
Romans sent to ask Henry III, Conrad's successor, to
let them have as the new pope either Halinard, Arch-
bishop of Lyons, or Bruno. Both of them were fav-
ourably known to the Romans by what the3r had seen
of them when thev came to Rome on pikrimage.
Heniy at once fixed upon Bruno, who did all he could
to avoid the honour wnich his sovereign wished to im-
pose upon him. When at length he was overcome by
the combined importunities of the emperor, the Ger-
mans, and the Romans, he agreed to ro to Rome, and
to accept the papacy if freely elected thereto by the
Roman people. He wished, at least, to rescue the
See of Peter from its servitude to the German emper-
ors. When, in company with Hildebrand he reached
Rome, and presented hunself to its people clad in pil-
grim's guise and barefooted, but still tail, and fair to
look upon, they cried out with one voice that him and
no other would they have as pope. Assuming the
name of Leo, he was solemnly enthroned 12 February,
1049. Before Leo could do anything in the matter of
the reform of the Church on wnich his heart was set,
he had first to put down another attempt on the part
of the ex-Pope Benedict IX to seize the papal throne.
He had then to attend to money matters, as the papal
finances were in a deplorable condition. To better
them he put them in the hands of Hildebrand, i^ man
capable of improving anything.
He then b^gan the work of reform which was to
give the next hundred years a character of their own,
and which his great successor Gregory VII was to
carry so far forward. In April, 1049, he held a synod
at which he condemned the two notorious evils of the
day, simony and clerical incontinence. Then he com-
m^iced those journeys throughout Europe in the
cause of a reformation of manners which gave him a
pre-eminent right to be styled Peregrinus Apoatolicus,
Leaving Rome in May, he held a council of reform at
Pavia^ and pushed on through Germany to Cologne,
where he iomed the Emperor Henry III. In union
with him he brought about peace in Lorraine by ex-
communicating che rebel Godfrey the Bearded. De-
spite the jealous efforts of King Henry I to prevent him
from coming to France, Leo next proce^ed to Reims,
where he held an important synod, at which both
bishops and abbots from England assisted . There also
assembled in the city to see the famous pope an enor-
mous number of enthusiastic people, Spaniards,
Bretons, Franks, Irish, and English". Besides ex-
communicating the Archbishop of Compostela (be-
cause, he had ventured to assume the title of Avob-
iUicui, reserved to the pope alone), and forbidding
marriage between William (afterwards called the Con-
DC— 11
queror) and Matilda of Flanders, the assembly issued
manv decrees of refoon. On his way back to Rome
Leo held another synod at Mainz, everywhere rousing
public opinion agamst the great evils of the time as he
went along, and everywhere being received with un-
bounded enthusiasm. It is apparently in connexion
with this return journey that we have the first men-
tion of the Golden Rose. The Abbess of Woffen-
heim, in return for certain privileges bestowed by the
pope, had to send to Rome "a golden rose" before
Lsetare Sunday, on which day, says Leo, the popes are
wont to carry it. Also before he returned to Home,
he discussed with Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen,
the formation of all the Scandinavian countries, in-
cluding Iceland and Greenland, into a patriarchate,
of which the see was to be Bremen. The scheme was
never accomplished, but meanwhile Leo authorized
the consecration by Adalbert of the first native bishop
for Iceland.
In January, 1050, Leo returned to Rome, only to
leave it again almost immediately for Southern Italy,
whither the sufferings of its people called him. They
were being heavily oppressed by the Normans. To
the expostulations of Leo the wily Normans replied
with promises, and when the pope, after holding a
council at Siponto, returned to Rome, they continued
their oppressions as before. At the usual paschal
synod which Leo was in the habit of holding at Rome,
the heresy of Berengarius of Tours w^as condemned — a
condemnation repeated by the pope a few months
later at Vercelli. Before tne year 1050 had come to a
close, Leo had begun his second transalpine journey.
He went first to Toul^ in order solenmly to translate
the relics of Gerard, bishop of that city, whom he had
i'ust canonized, and then to Germany to interview the
Cmperor Henry the Black. One of the results of this
meeting was that Hunfrid, Archbishop of Ravenna,
was compelled by the emperor to cease acting as
though he were the independent ruler of Ravenna and
its district, and to submit to the pope. Returning to
Rome, Leo held another of his paschal synods in
April, 1051, and in July went to take possession of
Benevento. Harassed by their enemies, the Bene-
ventans concluded that their only hope of peace was
to submit themselves to the authority of the pope.
This they did, and received Leo into their city with
the greatest honour. While in this vicinity, Leo
again made further efforts to lessen the excesses of the
Normans, but they were crippled by the native Lom-
bards, who with as much folly as wickedness massa-
cred a number of the Normans in Apulia. Realizing
that nothing could then be done with the irate Norman
survivors, I^ retraced his steps to Rome (1051).
The Norman question was henceforth ever present
to the pope's mind. Constantly oppressed oy the
Normans, the people of Southern Italy ceased not to
implore the pope to come and help them. The Greeks,
fearful of being expelled froni the peninsula altogether,
begged Leo to co-operate w^ith them against the con>
mon foe. Thus urged, Leo sought assistance on all
sides. Failing to obtain it, he again tried the effect of
personal mecfiation (1052). But again failure at-
tended his efforts. He began to be convinced that
appeal would have to be made to the sword. At this
juncture an embassy arrived from the Hungarians,
entreating him to come and make peace between them
and the emperor. Again I-^eo crossed the Alps, but,
thinking he was sure of success, Henry would not ac-
cept the terms proposetl by the pope, with the result
that his expedition against the Hungarians proved a
failure. And though he at first undertook to let Leo
have a German force to act against the Normans, he
afterwards withdrew his promise, and the pope had to
return to Italy with only a few German troops raised
by his relatives (1053). In March, 1053, Leo was
back in Rome. Finding the state of affairs in South*
em Italy worse than ever, he raised what forces he
LIO
162
UBO
could among the Italianprinces, and, declaring war on
the Normans, tried to effect a junction with the Greek
general. But the Normans defeated first the Greeks
and then the pope at Civitella (June, 1053). After
the battle Leo ^ve himself up to his conauerors, who
treated him with the utmost respect and considera-
tion, and professed themselves his soldiers.
Though he gained more by defeat than he could have
gained by victory, Leo betook himself to Benevento, a
broken-hearted man. The slain at Civitella were ever
before him, and he was profoundly troubled by the
attitude of Michael Cflcrularius, Patriarch of Constan-
tinople. That ambitious prelate was determinerl, if
possible, to have no superior in either Church or State.
As early as 1042, he had struck the pope's name off the
sacred diptychs, and soon proceeded, first in private
and then m public, to attack the Latin Church because
it used unfermented bread (azymes) in the Sacrifice
of the Mass. At length, and that, too, in a most
barbarous manner, he closed the Latin churches in
Constantinople. In reply to this violence, Leo ad-
dressed a strong letter to Michael (Sept., 1053), and
began to study Greek in order the better to under-
Btajid the matters in dispute. However, if Michael
had taken advantage of the pope's difficulties with the
Normans to push his plans, the Greek Emperor, seeing
that his hold on Southern Italy was endangered by
the Norman success, put pressure on the patriarch to
make him more respectful to the pope. To the con-
ciliatory letters which Constantine and Cierularius
now dispatched to Rome, Leo sent suitable replies
(Jan., 1054), blaming the arrogance of the patriarch.
His letters were conyej'ed by two distinguished car-
dinals, Humbert and Frederick, but he had departed
this life before the momentous issue of his embassy
was known in Rome. On 16 July, 1054, the two
cardinals excommunicated Ca>rularius, and the East
was finally cut off from the body of the Church.
The annals of England show that Leo had many
relations with that country, and its saintly King
Edward. He dispensed the king from a vow which he
had taken to malce a pilgrimage to Rome, on condition
that he give alms to the poor, and endow a monas-
tery in honour of St. Peter. Leo also authorized the
translation of the See of Crediton to Exeter, and
forbade the consecration of the unworthy Abbot
of Abingdon (Spearhafoc) as Bishop of London.
Throughout the troubles which Robert of Jumi^ges,
Archbishop of Canterbury, had with the family of
Earl Godwin, he received tne support of the pope, who
sent him the pallium and condemned Stigand, the
usurper of his see (1053?). King Macbeth, the sup-
posed murderer of Duncan, whom Shakespeare has
mimortalized, is believed to have visited Rome during
Leo's pontificate, and may be thouglit to have ex-
posed the needs of his soul to that tender father.
After the battle of Civitella Leo never recovered his
spirits. Seized at length with a mortal illness, he
caused himself to be carried to Rome (March, 1054).
where he died a most edifying death. He was buried
in St. Peter's, was a worker of miracles both in life and
in death, and found a place in the Roman Martyrology.
WiBERT aiid other contemporary biographcri of the saint in
Watferich, Pont. Horn. Viiae, I (Leipzig, 1862)- P. L.. CXLIII.
etc. ; AsBF.iM of Reims, ibid., CXLII ; Libuin in Watterich and
in P.L., C!XLIH; see also Bonizo ofSdtri, St. Peter Damian,
Lanfranc, and other contemporaries of the saint. His letters
are to be found in P. L., CXLlII; cf. Delarc, Un pape Ahacien
(Paris, 1876) : Brucker, L'A laace et I'/vlise ou temps du pape S.
Lion (Paris, 1889); Martin. S. Lfon IX (Paris, 1904); Br^iuer,
Le Schisme Oriental du XI* Silcle (Paris, 1899); Fortescub.
flu Orthodox Eastern Chureh (London, 1907), v; Mann, Lives of
tfc«Pop««, VI (London. 1910). HoRACE K. MaNN.
Leo X, Pope (Giovanni de' Medici), b. at Florence,
11 December, 1475; d. at Rome, 1 December, 1521, was
the second son of Lorenzo the Mapiiiicent (1409^
1492) and Clarice Orsini, and from his earliest youth
was destined for the Church. He received tonsure in
1482 and in 1483 was made Abbot of Font Douce in
the French Diocese of Saintes and appointed Apostolic
prothonotary by Sixtus IV. All the benefices which
the Medici could obtain were at his disposal; he conse-
quently became possessed of the rich Abbey of Pas-
signano in 1484 and in 1486 of Monte Cassino. Owing
to the constant pressure brought to b<^r by LoreiUBO
and his envoys, Innocent VIII in 1489, created the
thirteen ^^ear old child a cardinal, on condition that he
should dispense with the insignia and the privileges of
his office for three years. Meanwhile his education
was completed by tne most distinguished Humanists
and scholars, Angelo Poliziano, Marsilio Ficino, and
B<»mardo Dovizi (later Cardinal Bibbiena). From
1489 to 1491 Giovanni de' Medici studied theolo^ and
canon law, at Pisa, under Filippo Decio and Barto-
lomeo Sozzini. On 9 March, 1492, at Fiesole, he was
invested with the insignia of a cardinal and on 22
March entered Rome. The next day the pope re-
ceived him in consistory with the customaiy ceremo-
nies. The Romans found the youthful cardinal more
mature than his a^e might warrant them to expect.
His father sent him an impressive letter of advice
marked by good sense and knowledge of human na-
ture, besiucs bearing witness to the high and virtuous
sentiments to which the elder Lorenzo returned to-
wards the end of his life. In this letter he enjoins
upon his son certain rules of conduct, and admonishes
him to be honourable, virtuous, and exemplary, the
more so as the College of Cardinals at that time was
deficient in these good qualities.
In the very next month Lorenzo's death recalled
the cardinal to Florence. He returned once more to
Rome for the papal election, which resulted, very
much against his approval, in the elevation of the
unworthy Alexander VI, after which Giovanni re-
mained in Florence from August, 1492, until the ex-
pulsion of the Medici in 1494, when he fied from his
native city in the habit of a Franciscan monk. After
several fruitless attempts to restore the supremacy of
his family, he went on a Jong journey through Ger-
many, Holland, and France, from which he returned
to Rome in 15()0. There, in keeping with the habits
of his family, he led the life of a literary and artistic
amateur. Patronage, liberality, and poor financial
administration frequently reduced him even then to
distressing straits; indeed, he remained a bad manager
to the last. But though his manner of life- was qmte
worldly he excelled in dignity, propriety, and irre-
proachable conduct most of the cardinals. Towards
the end of the pontificate of Julius II (1603-1613^, for-
tune once more smiled on Giovanni de* Medici. In
August, 1511, the pone was dangerously ill and the
Medici cardinal alreacly aspired to the succession. In
October, 1511, he became legate; in Bologna and Ro-
maf^na, and cherished the hope that his family would
again rule in Florence. The Florentines had taken
the part of the schismatic Pisans (see Julius II) for
which reason the pope supported the Medici. Mean-
while the cardinal suffered another reverse. The
army, Spanish and papal, with which he was sojourn-
ing, was defeated in 1512 at Ravenna by the French
and he was taken prisoner. But it was a Pyrrhic vic-
tory, for the French soon lost all their possessions in
Italy, and the cardinal, who was to have oeen taken to
France, succeeded in making his escape. The suprem-
acy of the Medici in Florence was re-establisliod in
September, 1512, and this unexpected change in the
fortunes of his family was only the prelude to higher
honours.
Julius II died on 21 February, 1513, and on 11
March Giovanni de' Medici, then but thirty-eight
years old, was elected pope. In the first scrutiny he
received only one vote. His adherents, the younger
cardinals, held back his candidacy imtU the proper
moment. The election met with approval even in
France, although here and there a natural misgiving
UM^, byKholu«aDd&rti£taof whom be
patron, and by theolopaos who looked fur energetic
church refonna under a pacific ruler. Unfortunately
be realised the hopes only of the artiats, literati, and
worldUngs who looked upon the papal court as a centre
of amusement.
Leo's personal appearance has been perpetuated for
us in BaphBel'a celeDratcd picture at tue Fitti Gallery
m Florence, which representa him with CardlDBU
Uedici and Rossi. He was not a hjutrbome man. His
fat, shiny, effenunate countenance with weak eyes pro-
tnides in the piotura from under a cloae-IittJng cap.
The unwieldy body is supported by Uiin legs. His
movements were sluggish and during ecclesiastical
functions his corpulence made him constiintly wipe the
perspiration from his face and hands, to the distress of
the bystanders. But when he laughed or spoke the
unpleasant impression vanished. He had an agreeable
voice, knew how to express himself with elegance and
vivacity, and his manner was easy and gracious. " Let
usenioy the papacy since God has given it to us", he
is said to have remarked after his election. The Vene-
tian ambassador who related this of him was not un-
biased, nor was he in Rome at the timp, newrthtless
e uu
Ouder such circumstances, it is not surprising that
the large treasure left by Julius II was entirely dis».
pated in two years. In the spring of 1515 the ex-
chequer was empty and Leo never after recovered from
his fimLnciai emt»rrassment. Various doubtful and
reprehensible methods were resorted to for raising
money. He created new offices and dignities, and the
most exalted places were put up for sale. Jubilees
and indulgences were degraded almost entirely into
financial transactions, yet without avail, as the treas-
ury was ruined. The pope's income amounted to be-
tween 500,000 and 000,000 ducats. The papal houso-
hold abnc, which Julius II had maintained on 48,000
ducats, now cost
him. He paid no attention to the dangers tbreatc
ing the papacy, and gave hunself up unrestrainedly to
amusements, that were provided in lavish abundant^.
Be was possessed by an insatiable love of pleasure,
that distmctive trait of his family. Music, the thea-
tre, art, and poetiy appealed to him as to any pam-
pered worldling. Though temperate himself, he loved
to give lianquets and expensive entertainments, ac-
companied by revelry and carousing; and notwith-
standing his indolence he had a strong passion for the
cbasCi which he conducted every year on the largest
scale. From his youth he was an enthusiastic lover of
music and attracted to his court the most distin-
guished musicians. At table he enjoyed hearing im-
provisations, and though it is hard to believe, in view
of his dignity and his artistic tastes, the fact remains
that he enjoyed also the flat and absurd jokes of buf-
foons. Their loose speech and incredible appetites
delighted him. In ridicule and caricature he was him-
self a master. Pageantry, deur to the pleasure-seek-
ing Romans, bull-lights, and the like, were not neg-
lected. Every year he amused himself during the
carnival with masques, music, theatrical perform-
ances, dances, and races. Even during the troubled
years of 1520 and 1521 he kept up this frivolous hfc.
Id 1620 he took part in unusually brilliant festivities.
Theatrical representations, with agreeable music and
graceful dancing, were his favourite diversions. The
Kpal palace t>ccame a theatre and the pope did not
gitate to attend such improper plays as the immoral
"CflJendra" by Bibbiena and Ariosto's indecent " Sup-
Kiti ". His contemporaries all praised and admired
.'s unfailing good tamper, wliich he never entirely
lost even in adversity and trouble. Himself cheerful,
bis wished to see others cheerful. He was good-
natured and liberal and never refused a favour either to
bis relatives and fellow Florentines, who flooded Rome
and seiaed upon ail official positions, or to the numer-
ous other petitioners, artists and poets. His gener-
osity was boundless, nor was his pleasure in giving a
pose or deaire for vajnglorj-; it came from the heart.
He never was ostentatious and attached no impor-
tance to ceremonial. He was lavish in works of clior-
ity; convents, hospitals, discharged soldiers, poor stu-
dents, pilgrims, exiles, cripples, the blind, the sick, the
unfortunate of every description were generously ro-
membered, and more than oOOO ducats were annually
about four and
half million ducats
during his pontifi-
cate and left a debt
amounting to 400,-
000 ducatM. On his
unexpected death
his creditors faced
financial ruin. A
lampoon proclaimed
tliat "Leo X had
consumed three
pontiticati's; the
treasure of J ulius 11,
the revenues of his
own reign, and those
of ;■■ '■
rtBtibmtaCMatbitt
■, to pay full i
lit to the good TiTLEori.iiIlui.L..rLE;oX_
diitiibuted in alm^.
proper, how-
to pay full
credit to the good
qualitiesofLeo. He Cond™ninE
was liighly cultivated, susceptible to all that was
beautiful, a polished orator and a clover writer, pos-
sessed of good memory and judgment, in inanner
dignified and majestic. It was genemllv acknowl-
edged, even by those who were unfriendly towards
him, that he was unfeignedly religious and strictly
fulfilled his spiritual duties. lie heard Moss and
read his Breviary daily and fasted three times s
week. His piety cannot truly be described as deep
or spiritual, but that does not justify the continued
repetition of his alleged remark: ' Ilow much we
and our family have profited by the l»«end of Christ,
is sufQciently evident to all ages." John Bale, the
apostate English Carmelite, the first to give cur-
rency to these words in the tunc of Queen Elizabeth,
was not even a contemporary of Leo. Among the
many sayings of Leo X tliat tiavc come down to UB,
there is not one of a Bccpticul nature. In his private
life he preserved as pope the irrenroachuble reputation
that he had borne when a carainal. His citaracler
shows a remarkable mingling of ^;ood and bud traits.
The fame of Leo X is due to his promotion of litera-
ture, science, and art. Under him Home became more
than ever the centre of the literary world. " From all
parts", wrot« Cardinal Riario in 131.) to Era.<;mu^ at
Rotterdam. " men of letters are hurriing to the Eter-
nal City, tneir common country, their support, and
their patroness." Poets were especially numerous in
Rome and few princes hai-e been so lauded in verse as
Leo X. He lavished gifts, favours, positions, titles,
not only on real poets and scholars, but often on
poetasters and commonplace jesters. He esteemed
particularly the papal secretaries Bembo and Sado-
Icto, both celebrated poets and prose writers. Bembo
cliarmed everyone by his polish and wit. His classic,
Ciceronian letters exhibit a rcmaikably varied inter*
course with almost all the celebrities of his day.
.\mong other thinss, he prepared a critical edition of
Dante's works and was a zealous collector of manu-
scripts, books, and works of art. Ilia conduct was ncMi
LSO
164
LIO
in accord with his position as papal notary, count
palatine, and incumbent of numerous benefices, for he
was worldly and self-indulgent. Sadoleto was quite
another man. He led a pure and spotless life, was a
model priest, united in Imnself the dififerent phases of
ancient and modem culture and was an ardent en-
thusiast for antiquity. In elegance and polish he was
in no way inferior to Bembo. Among the Latin poets
of Medicean Rome we may briefly mention Vida. who
composed a poem of great merit, the " Christiade and
was extoUea by his contemporaries as the Christian
Virgil; Sannazaro, author of an epic poem on the birth
of Christ which is a model of style; the Carmelite Spa-
gnoloMantovano with his" Calendar of Feasts " ;F er-
leri, who in the most naive way recast the h3rmns in
the Breviary with heathen terms, images, and allu-
sions. The total number of these poets exceeds one
hundred; and a lampoon of 1521 says they were more
numerous than the stars in heaven. Most of them
have fallen into well-deserved oblivion.
This is equally true of the contemporary Italian
poetry — ^more prolific than notable. Among the Ital-
ian poets Trissino wrote a tragedy, "Sophonisba",
and an epic ** L'ltalia liberata dai Gothi '', out had no
real success with either in spite of earnest purpose and
beauty of language. Rucellai, a relative of the pope,
whose clever and sympathetic didactic poem on bees
met with great approval from his contemporaries,
owed his reputation chiefly to an inferior work, the
tragedy of Rosmonda". The celebrated improvisa-
torCj Tebaldeo wrote in both Latin and Italian. To-
wanls Ariosto the pope was remarkably harsh. Ar-
chaeology received great encouragement. One of its
most distinguished representatives was Manctti. In
1521 the firet collection of Roman topographical in-
scriptions appeared and introduced a new era. Im-
portant progress was due to the works of the learned
antiquary, Fulvio. Fulvio, Calvo, Castiglione, and
Raphael had planned an archaeological survey of an-
cient Rome with accompanying text. Raphael's
early death abruptly interrupted the work which was
carried on by Fulvio and Calvo. The Greek lan-
guage also found favour and encouragement; Aldus
Manutius. the Venetian publisher, whose excellent and
correct eaitions of Greek classics became so popular,
was one of Leo's prot^g6s. Andreas Johannes Las-
caris and Musurus were sunmioned from Greece to
Rome and foimded a Greek college, the "Medicean
Academy". Moreover the pope encouraged the col-
lection of manuscripts and books. He recovered his
family library which had been sold by the Florentines
in 1494 to the monks of San Marco, had it brought to
Rome, and enforced the regulations of Sixtus IV for
the Vatican Library. The most distinguished of his
librarians was Inghirami, less indeed through any
learned works than for his gift of eloquence. He was
called the Cicero of his age and played an important
r61e at court. In 1516 he was succeeded by the Bo-
lognese Humanist Beroaldo. Leo tried, as >iicholas V
had formerly done, to increase the treasures of the
Vatican Library, and with this object sent emissaries
in all directions, even to Scandinavia and the Orient,
to discover literary treasures and either obtain them,
or borrow them for the purpose of making copies. The
results, however, were unimportant. The Roman uni-
versity, which had entered on decay, was reformed, but
did not long flourish. On the whole, Leo, as a literary
Maecenas, has been overrated by his biographer Giovio
and later panegyrists. Relatively little was accom-
plished, partly on account of the constant lack of
money and partly because of the thoughtlessness and
haste which the pope often showed in distributing his
favours. He was in reality only a dilettante. Yet he
gave an important stimulus to scientific and literary
life, and was a potent factor in the cultural develop-
ment of the West.
More important results ensued from his promotion
of art, though he was unquestionably inferior in taste
and judgment to his predecessor Julius II. Leo en*
couraged painting beyond all other branches of art;
pre-eminent in tms class stand the immortal produc-
tions of Haphael. In 1508 he had come to Rome,
summoned by Julius II, and remained there until his
death in 1520. The protection extended to this mas-
ter genius is Leo's most enduring claim on posterity.
Raphael's achievements, already numerous and im-
e)rtant, took on more dignity and grandeur under Leo.
e painted, sketched, and engraved from antique works
of art, modeled in clay, made designs for palaces,
directed the work of others by order of the pope, gave
advice and assistance ahke to supervisors and work-
men. " Everything pertaining to art the pope turns
over to Raphaer', wrote an ambassador m 1518.
This is not, of course, the place to treat Raphael's
prodigious activity. We hmit ourselves to brief men-
tion of a few of his works. He finished the decoration
of the Vatican halls or " Stanze " begun imder Jidius
II, and in the third hall cleveriy referred to Leo X by
introducing scenes from the pontificates of Leo lU
and Leo IV. A more important commission was given
him to paint the cartoons for the tapestries of the Sis-
tine Chapel, the highest of Raphael's achievements,
the most magnificent of them b^ing " St. Peter's mir-
aculous draught of fishes " and " St. Paul preaching in
Athens". A third famous enterprise was the decent
tion of the Vatican Loggia done by Raphael's pupils
under his direction, and mostly from his designs.
The most exquisite of his paintings are the wonderful
Sistine Madonna and the "Transfiguration". Sculp-
ture showed a marked decline under Leo X. Michel-
angelo offered his services and worked from 1516 to
1520 on a marble fa<;ade for the chureh of San Lor-
enzo in Florence, but did not finish it. On the. other
hand the pope gave especial attention and encourage-
ment to the minor arts, e. g. decorative carving, and
furthered the industrial arts. The greatest and most
difficult task of Leo was in the field of architecture and
was inherited from his predecessor, viz., the continua-
tion of the new St. Peter's. Bramante remained its
chief architect imtil his death in 1514. Raphael suc-
ceeded him, but in his six years of office little was
done, much to his regret, through lack of means.
We may now turn to the political and religious
events of Leo's pontificate. Here the bright splen-
dour that diffuses itself over his literary and artistic
patronage, is soon changed to deepest gloom. His
well-known peaceable inclinations made the poUtical
situation a disagreeable heritage, and he tried to main-
tain tranquillity bv exhortations, to which, however,
no one listened, f ranee desired to wreak vengeance
for the defeat of 1512 and to reconquer Milan. Venice
entered into an alliance with her, whereupon Em-
peror Maximilian, Spain, and England in 1513 con-
cluded a Holy League against France. The pope
wished at first to remain neutral but such a course
would have isolated him, so he decided to be faithful
to the policy of his predecessors and sought accord-
ingly to oppose the designs of France, but in doing so,
to avoid severity. In 1513 the Frencn were decisively
routed at Novara and were forced to effect a recon-
ciliation with Rome. The schismatic cardinals (see
Julius II) submitted and were pardoned, and France
then took part in the Lateran Council which Ijqo had
continued.
But success was soon clouded by uncertainty.
Franco endeavoured to form an alliance with Spain and
to obtain Milan and Genoa by a matrimonial alliance.
Leo feared for the independence of the Papal States
and for the so-called freedom of Italy. He negotiated
on all sides without committing himself, and in 1514
succeeded in bringing about "an Anglo-French alliance.
The fear of Spain now gave wav to the bugbear of
French supremacy and the pope began negotiating in
a deceitful and disloyal manner with France and ner
UK> 185 UK>
eniUDies dmuHaneouBly. Before he bad decided to to be feared that Qod Himself would cut off the rottea
bind himself in one way or the other, Louis XII died limbs and destroy them with fire and sword. That
and the yoimg and anient Francis I succeeded him. very year this prophetic warning was verified. The
Onoe more Leo sought delay. He supported the salutary reforms of the Lateran Council found no prac-
League against France, but until the last moment tical acceptance. Pluralism, conunendatory bene-
hoped for an arrangement with Francis. But the lat- fices. and the granting of ecclesiastical dignities to
ter shortly after his descent upon Italy, won the great children remained customary. Leo himself did not
victory cf Marignano^ I3~14 September, 1515, and the scruple to set aside repeatedly the decrees of the ooun-
pope now made up his mind to throw himself into the eil. The Roman Curia, then much despised and
arms of the Most Christian King and beg for mercy, against which so many inveighed with violence, re-
He was obliged to alter his policy completely and to mained as worldly as ever. The pope was either un-
abandoQ to the French lung Parma and Piacenza, willing or not in a position to regulate the imworthy
which had been retmited with Milan. An interview and immoral conduct of many of the Roman courtiers.
with King Francis at Bologna resulted in the French The political situation absorbed his attention and was
Concordat (I5I6), that brou^t with it such important largely responsible for the premature close of the
ocmseauenoes f(Nr the Church. The Pragmatic Sano- coimcil.
tion of Bourges (1438), deeply inimical to the papacy, In March, 1516, Emperor Maximilian crossed the
was revoked, but the pope paid a hig^ price for tms Alps to make war on the French and Venetians.
ooncession, when he grantee! to the king the right of Ilie pope followed his iisual course of shifting and
nomination to all the sees, abbejrs, and priories of dissimulation. At first, when events seemed favour-
France. Through this and other concessions, e. g. able for the French, he supported Francis. But his
that pertaining to ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the former double-dealing had left Francis in such ill-
r^yal mfluence over the French Church was assured, humour that he now adhered to aii antipapal policy,
Great discontent resulted in France among the clergy whereupon Leo adopted an unfriendly attitude to-
and in the parliaments. The abolition of the Prag- wards tne king. Their relations were further strained
matic Sanction, drawn up in compliance with the de- apropos of the Duchy of Urbino. During the French
erees of the Council of Basle, affected the adherents invasion the Duke of Urbino had withheld the assist-
of the conciliar system of church government. The ance which he was in duty bound to render the pope,
abolition of free ecclesiastical elections affected griev- who now exiled him and gave the title to his nephew,
ously the interests of many and opposition to the Con- Lorenzo dc' Medici. The French king was highly dis-
oordat was maintained for centuries. The advantage pleased with the papal policy, and when Francis I and
to the Church and the pope of such a great sacrifice Maximilian formed the alliance of Cambrai in 1517
was that France, hitherto schismatical in attitude, and agreed on a partition of Upper and Central Italy,
now stood firmly bound to the Holy See, which thus Pope Leo found nimself in a disagreeable position. In
turned aside the danger of complete estrangement, part by reason of his constant vacillation he had
However, the way in which the French crown abused drifted into a dangerous isolation, added to which the
its ocmtrol over the Church led at a later period to great Duke of Urbino reconquered his duchy; to crown
evOs. all other calamities came a conspiracy of cardinals
Ifoanwhile the Lateran Coimcil, continued by Leo against the pope's life. The ringleader, Cardinal Pe-
after his elevation to the papacy, was nearing its close, trucci, was a young worldly ecclesiastic who thought
having issued numerous and very timely decrees, e. g. only of money and pleasure. He and the other cardi-
t against the false philosophical teachings of the Pa- nals who had brought about Leo's election, made after-
duan professor, Pietro Pomponazzi, who denied the wards such numerous and insistent demands that the
immortality of the soul. The encroachments of pagan pope could not yield to them. Other causes for dis-
Humanism on the spiritual life were met by the simul- content were found in the imfortunate war with Ur-
taneous rise of a new order of philosophical and theo- bino and in the abolition of the election capitulations
kmcal studies. In the ninth session was promulgated and the excessi vc privileges of the cardinals. Petrucci
a BuH that treated exhaustively of reforms in the bore personal ill-will towards the *'\mgrateful pope".
Curia and the Church. Abbeys and benefices were who had removed his brother from the government of
henceforth to be bestowed only on persons of merit Siena. He tried to have the pope poisoned by a
and according to canon law. Provisions of benefices physician, but suspicion was aroused and the plot was
and ronsistorial proceedings were regulated ; ecclesi- oetrayed through a letter. The investigation impli-
astical depositions and transfers made more difficult; catcd Cardinals Sauli, Riario, Soderini^ and Castellesi;
commendatory benefices were forbidden; and unions thcv had been guilty at least of listening to Petrucci.
and reservations of benefices, also dispensations for and. perhaps ha^ desired his success, though their full
obtaining them, were restricted. Measures were also complicity was not actually proved. Petrucci was
taken for reforming the curial administration and the executed and the others punished by fines; Riario paid
lives of cardinals, clerics, and the faithful. The reli- the enormous sum of 150,000 ducats.
Sous instruction of children was declared a duty. The affair throws a lurid li^ht on the degree of cor-
lasphemers and incontinent, negligent, or simoniac ruption in the highest ecclesiastical circles. Uncon-
ecdesiastics were to be severely punished. Church cemed by the scandal he was giving. Leo took ad-
revenues were no longer to be turned to secular uses, vantage of the proceeding to create thirty-one new
The immunities of the clergy must be respected, and cardinals, thereoy obtaimng an entirely submissive
all kinds of superstition abolished. The eleventh see- college and also money to carry on the unlucky war with
aion dealt with the cure of souls, particularly with Urbino. Not a few of these cardinals were chosen on
preaching. These measures, unhappily, were not thor- account of the large sums they advanced. But this
oughly enforced, and therefore the much-needed gen- wholesale appointment also brought several virtuous
uine reform was not realized. Towards the close and distinguished men into the Sacred College, and it
of the council (1517) the noble and highly cultured was further important because it definitively estab-
layman, Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola, dcliv- lished the superiority of the pope over the cardinals.
ered a remarkable speech on the necessity of a reform The war with Urbino, encouraged by Francis I and
of morals; his accoimt of the moral condition of the Maximitianfor the purpose of increasing Leo's diflScul-
clergy is saddening, and reveals the many and great ties, was finally brought to a close, after having cost
difficulties that stood in the way of a genuine reU)rm. enormous sums and emptied the papal treasury. Lor-
He concluded with the wamine that if Leo X left such enzo de' Medici remained in possession of the duchy
offences longer unpunished and refused to apply heal- (1517). Faithful to the ancient tradition of the Holy
ing remedies to tneee wounds of the Church, it was See, from the ver}' beginning of his reign, Leo zealously
UO 166 UBO
advocated a crusade against the Turks, and at the close obliged to collect 10,000 ducats^ which he was taxed
of the war with Urbino took up the cause with renewed over and above the usual connrmation fees. To in-
determination. In November, 1517, he submitted an demnify him, and to make it possible to discharge these
exhaustive memorial to all the princes of Europe, and obligations Rome permitted him to have preached in
endeavored to unite them in a common eflfort, but in his territory the plenary indulgence promised all those
vain. The replies of the powers proved widely dis- who contributed to the new St. Peter's; he was al-
smoilar. They were suspicious of one another and lowed to keep one half the returns, a transaction which
each sought naturally to realize various secondary brought dishonour on all concerned in it. Added to
purposes of its own. Leo answered a threatening let- this, abuses occurred during the {^reaching of the In-
ter from the sultan by active exertions. Religious dulgence. The money contributions, a mere acces-
processions were held, a truce of five years was pro- sory, were frecmently the chief object, and the "Indijd-
claimed throughout Christendom and the Crusade gences for the Dead'' became a vehicle of inadmissible
was preached (1518). The pope showed real earnest- teachings. That Leo X, in the most serious of all the
ness, but his great plan miscarried through lack of co- crises which threatened the Church, should fail to
operation on the part of the powers. Moreover, Car- prove the proper guide for her, is clear enough fram
dmal Wolsey, Lord Chancellor of England, thwarted what has been related above. He recognised ndther
the pope's peaceful efforts and thus dealt a grievous the cavity of the situation nor the underlying causes
blow to the international prestige of the papacy, of the revolt. Vigorous measiures of reumn mig^
When the Crusade was preacned in Germany, it found have proved an efficacious antidote, but the pope was
a large section of the people strongly predisposed deeply entangled in political affairs and allowed the im-
against the Curia, and furnished them with an occasion periaf election to overshadow the revolt of Luther;
to express their views in plain terms. It was believed moreover, he gave himself up unrestrainedly to his
that the Curia mefrcly sought to obtain more money, pleasures and failed to grasp fully the duties of his
One of the numerous spiteful pamphlets issued dc- nigh office.
clared that the real Turks were in Italy and that these The pope's last political efforts were directed to ex-
demons could only be pacified by streams of gold, panding tne States of the Church, establishing thereby
The good cause was graaually merged with an impor- a dominating power in Central Italy by means of ihe
tant poUtical (question, the succession to the imperial acquisition of Ferrara. In 1519 he concluded a treaty
throne. Maximilian sought the election for his grand- with Francis I against Emperor Charles V. But the
son, Charles of Spain. A rival appeared in the person selfishness and encroachments of the French and the
of Francis I, and both he and Charles vied witn each struggle against the Lutheran movemen^ induced
other in seeking to win the pope's favour by re- him soon to unite with Charles, after he had again re-
peated assurances of their willingness to move against sorted to his double-faced method of treating with
the Turks. The event of the election relegated the both rivals. In 1521 pope and emperor signed a d©-
crusade to the background. In 1519 the pope real- fensive alliance for the purpose of on vine the French
ized that there was no longer any prospect of carrj'ing out of Italy. After some difficulty, the allies occupied
out his design. Milan and Lombardy. Amid the rejoicings over
Leo's attitude towards the imp>erial succession was these successes, the pope died suddenly of a malignant
influenced primarily by his anxiety concerning the malaria. His enemies are wrongly accused of having
power and independence of the Holy See and the so- poisoned him. The magnificent pope was given a simr
called freedom of Italy. Neither candidate was ac- pie funeral and not until the reign of Paul III was a
ceptable to him, Charjes, if possible, less than Francis, monument erected to his memory in the Church ot f
owinff to the preponderance of power that must result Santa Maria sopra Minerva. It is cold, prosaic, and
from his accession. The pope would have preferred quite unworthy of such a connoisseur as L^.
a German electoral prince, that of Saxony or later, The only possible verdict on the pontificate of Leo
the Elector of Brandenburg. He "sailed", as usual, X is that it was unfortunate for the Church. Sigi&-
"with two compasses", held both rivals at bay by a mondo Tizio, whose devotion to the Holy See is un-
double jame played with matchless skill, and even doubted, writes truthfully: *'In the general opinion it
succeeded in concluding simultaneously an alliance was injurious to the Church that her Head should de-
with both. The deceitfulness and insincerity of his light in plays, music, the chase and nonsense, instead
political dealings cannot be entirely excused, either by of paying serious attention to the needs of his flock
the difficult position in which he was placed or by the ana mourning over their misfortunes". Von Reu-
example of his secular contemporaries. Maximilian's mont says pertinently — '* I^eo X is in great measure to
death (January, 1519) ended the pope's irresolution, blame for the fact that faith in the integrity and merit
First he tried to defeat both candidates by raising up a of the papacy, in its moral and regenerating powers,
German elector. Then he worked zealously for Fran- and even in it« good intentions, should have sunk so
cis I in the endeavour to secure his firm friendship in low that men could declare extinct the old true spirit
case Charles became emperor, an event which grew of the CHiurch."
daily more likely. Only at the last moment when the Pastor, History of the Popes, VII (St. Louis, 1908): Lwnis
election of Charlw was certain and unavoidable did J„t^b,«-,.f.?,:tF«fb "fJSS^^lr/ovJv^^^
Leo come over to his side; after the election he watched (Florence. 1548. Losi) ; Fabroniuh, Lconit x. P. M. vita (Pita.
in cnreat anxiety the attitude the new emperor might 1797): Uosoqe, Life and Pontificate of Le^ X (Liverpool, 1806,
-_-?,_- London, 1883): Italian tr. with new matenals by B«>8«i (Milan,
^ri .. XX rx » x-/? X ism, \\J DIS, H iUoire de ly on X.etde son siMc {Ftin9,lS44);
The most important occurrence of Leo S pontificate Nirn, Leone X e la sua politica (Florence, 1892); CoNFORTi,
and that of gravest consequence to the Church was the Leone X edU suo eecolo (Parma, 1896); Von Reumont, Ge-
Pt^fnrmof inn xrViiVh l^vnn in 1 ^1 7 \Vp rinnof pnt^r 9chichte derStadt Rom, III (Berlin, 1870). part ii; Greooroviub,
Ketormation, Which began in ii)i/. v\ e cannot enter ^^^/^^^^^ ^^ ^,^ /^^^^ VIII (Stuttgart, 1896); Geiger.
mto a minute account of this movement, the remote Renaissance und Humanismus in Deutschland und Italien (Bor-
cause of which lay in the religious, political, and social lin. 1882).
conditions of Germany. It is certain, however, tliat Klemens L(>ffler.
the seeds of discontent amid which Luther threw his
firebrand had been germinating for centuries. The Leo XI (Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici),
immediate cause was bound up with the odious greed Pope, b. at Florence in 1535; d. at Rome 27 April,
for money displayed by the Roman Curia, and shows 1605, on the twenty-seventh day after his election to
how far short allefforts at reform had hitherto fallen, the papacy. His mother, Francesca Salviati, was a
Albert of Brandenbui^, already Archljishop of Magde- daughter of Giacomo Salviati and Lucrezia Medici,
burg, received in adtlition the Archbishopric of Mainz the latter l)eing a sister of Leo X. From his boyhood
and the Bishopric of Han)erstadt, but in return was he led a life of piety and nlwajTS had an earnest desire
ISO u
to enter the eceleeiutical stete, but could not obtain
bia mother'! consent. After her death he was ardained
priest and somewhat later Grand Duke Cosimo of Tua-
onny sent him as arabeissador to Pius V, a position
which he held for fifteen years, Gregory XIII made
in 1590, as legate te France where he did cooil service
for the Church in repressing the Huguenot influence at
the cMiurt of Henry IV, and helping to restore the
Catholic religion. On hia return to Italy he was ap-
niint«d prefect of the Congregation of Bishops and
Hegulais. In ItiOO he became Bishop of the aubur-
Ucarian Diocese of Albano, whence he was transferred
to Palestriua in 1Q02, AJest^andro was an intimate
friend of Saint Philip Xeri with whom he spent much
thne in spiritual conversation and whose advice he
•ought in all important matters. When Alessandro
wax Tuscan ambassador at the court of Pius V Philip
predicted hia election to the papacy.
On 14 March, 1805, eleven days after the death of
Clement VIII, sixty-two cardinals entered the Con-
clave. ProDiiuentamong the candidates for the papacy
were the great historian Baronius and the famous
Jesuit controversialist Bellarmine. But Aldobrandini,
the leader of the Italian party among the cardinals.
made common cause with the French party ann
brought about the election of Alessandro against the
express wish of Kins Philip III of Spain, King Ilcnry
IV of France, who had learned to esteem Alessandro
when papal legate at his court, and whose wife, Maria
de' Medici was related to Alessandro, is said to have
spent 300,000 6ciis in the promotion of Alessandro's
candidacy. On 1 April, 1605, Alessandro ascended the
papal throne as I,eo XI, beinf; then seventy years of
age. He took sick immediately after his coronation.
During his sickness he was importuned by many mem-
beiB of the Curia anri by a few ambassadors from
foreign courts to confer the cnnlinalate on one of his
grandnephews, whom he had himself educated and
whom he loved dearly, but bo had such an aversion
for aepotism that he firmly refused the request. When
his confessor urged him to grant it, he dismissed him
and sent for another confessor to pr^jare him for death.
chitta V (Ko'mB, 1792), ISl gq.: Caff-celatbo. LitenlFMip
Wirr, it. PoPB. II (2od ed., London. ISe*). 227-232.
Michael Orr.
Leo ZH, PoFE (Annibale Francesco Cleuentb
Melchiore GinoLAUO Nicola della Genoa), b. at
the Caatello della Genga in the territory of Spoleto, 22
August, 1760; d. in Rome, ID February, 1839. His
father's family had been ennobled by Leo XI in 1605;
his mother was Maria Luisa Periberti of Fabriano.
They had a large family, seven sons and three daugh-
ters, of which Anmbale was the fifth son and sixth
child. At the age of thirteen he was placed in tbe
CoUedo Canopana of Osirao, whence he was trans-
ferred, in 1778, to the Collegia Piceno in Rome and
shortly afterwuds to the Accademia dei Nobili Elccle-
siastici. He was ordained subdcacon four vears later,
and deacon in 1783. Two months later he was or^
dained priest, dispensation lieing obtained for the de-
fect of age, as he was only twenty-three. He was of
handsome person and engaging manners and, soon
after his oidination, attracted the notice of Pius VI,
who was visiting the Accademia, and by him was
raised to the prelature as comertere segrdo. In 1790
be was chosen to deliver in the Sixtine Chapel the ora-
tion on the death of the Emperor Joseph II and ac-
complished his difficult task to the admiration of all
hearers, without offending the susceptibilities of Aus-
tria or compromising the authority of the Holv See.
in 1792 he became a canon of the Vatican church, and
the following year was consecrate<l titular Archbishop
ofTyre and sent as nuncio to Lucerne. Thence he was
transferred to the nunciature at Cologne in 1794, a
post which he occupied with great success for eleven
years. In 1805 he was accredited as nuncio extraoi^
dinaiy to the Diet of Ratisbon liy Pius VII in order
that be might deal with the dithculties between the
German Church and its I'rusaian rulers. Return-
ing to Rome to confer with ConsaKi i)n these mat-
ters, he learnt that Napoleon desiretl the substitution
of anothernuncio more devoted to his interests, in the
person of Bemier, Bishop of OrWiins. Pins VII, bow-
Delia Genga re-
turned to Munich.
In 1803 he went
with Cardinal Ca-
prara to Paris with
the object of ar-
ranging some
I. He was re-
ceived, however,
but coldly, and the
negotiations soon
came to nothing,
Delia Genga rf^
turned to Rome
where he witnessed
the indignities of-
fered toPius VI I by
the French. "
Lio XII
o tlie Abbey of
'turned in dismay t
Monticelli, which had been granted t
mendam for life by Pope Pius VI. Here he spent bis
time teaching his choir of peasants to play the organ
and to sing plain-chant.
Expecting to end his days there, he built in the
abbey church the toml)s of his mother and himself.
But in 1811. with the fall of Napoleon, Pius VII ro-
tumecl to Rome and Mgr Delia Genga was sent to
Paris (is envoy extraordinary to convey the pope's con-
LIO
LIO
Kntui&tions to King Louis XVIII. Consalvi, how- of those who were then pioneen of tbe greater libertr
ever, who wbh accredited to all tbe sovereigns tiien at that had become inevitable. Stern attempts were
Paris, strongly resented this mission, which he held to made to purify the Curia and to control the crowd of in-
be a slight to himself. Louis XVIIJ endeavoured to efficient and venal officialt tbat composed its staff.
smooth over matters, but the powerful Secretary of Indifferentiam and the Proteetant proselytism of the
State had his way, and Delia Genga returned to Rome, period were combated; the devotion of the CiUbolic
whence he again retired to Montinelli. Here he re- world wasstimulated by theiubileeof 1825,inapiteof
mained for two years, when Pius VII created him car- the o[>position of timid and reactionary pr«lat«s or
dinalof Santa Maria in Trastevere and appointed him sovereigns; the persecution of the Catholics in tbe
Bishop of Sinigagtia. But his ill-health necessitated NetherlandB was met and overcome, and tbe move-
residence in the healthy air of Spoleto and he never ment for the emancipation of the Cathohcs ii "
British isles 1
Bured. Popular discontent with
tbe government of the Pa^
States was met by the severitiefl
of Cardinal Rivarola.
The legitimist cause in Franee
and in Spain, though marked in
both countries by the misuse of
religion as an instrumeat of po-
Utical reaction, was supported,
even when (as in the suppression
of the Jesuit schools in Fnaet,
and the vacancy of Mexican sees
owing to tbe claims of Spain over
her former colonies) the repre-
sentatives of that cause showed
themselves indifferent or opposed
to the interests of the Faith.
Consalvi was consulted and ad-
mired by the pope, who, both
in this case and that w tbe
treasurer Cristaldi, ^owed him-
self too magnanimous to allow
entered his diocese, which he
signed two years later. In 1820,
his health being improved, he
was made Vicar of Rome, aroh-
priest of the Liberian Basilica and
prefect of several congregations.
Tliree years later, on 20 August,
Pius VII died, and on 2 Sep-
tember the conclave opened at
tbeQuirinal. 1 1 lasted fort wen ty-
sixdays. Atfirstthemost prom-
inent candidates were Cardinal
Severoli, the representative of
the Zclantt, and Cardinal Castig-
lioni (afterwards PiusVIII), the
representative of the moderate
party. Castiglioni was the can-
didate most desired by the great
Catholic powers, but, in spite of
their wishes Severoii's influence
grew daily and by the morning
of 21 September, he Tifld received
asmanyas twenty-six votes. As
this meant that he would probably
be elected at the next scrutiny.
Cardinal Albani, who represented
Austria at the conclave, informed
his colleagues that the election
of Cardinal Severoli would not
be acceptable to the emperor
and pronounced a formal veto.
The Zelanti were furious, but,
at Severoii's suggestion, trans-
ferred their support to Delia
Genga, and before the powers
realized what was happening,
triumphantly elected him by
thirty-four votes on the morning
of 28 September. At first, bow-
ever, the pope-elect was unwil-
ling to accept the office. With
tears he reminded the cardinals
of his ill-health. " You are elect-
ing a dead man ", he said, JDut,
when they insisted that it was
bis duty to accept, he gave way
and gracefully assuring Caniinal Castiglioni that he and recovered only ~ uj » uu.<«,.^ i,...u..6u mo
some day was to be Pius VIII, announced his own prayers of the venerable Bishop of Marittima, Vin-
intention of taking the style of Leo XII. cenzo Strambi, whose life was rflered to God and
Immediately after his election he appointed Delia accepted in tbe stead of the pope's. On 5 Feb-
Somaglia, an octogenarian. Secretary of State, an act ruary, 1829 after a private audience with Cardinal
signiUcact of the policy of the new reign. Leo was Bemetti, who had replaced Somaglia as Secretary of
crowned on 5 October. His first measures were some State in 1828, he was suddenly taken ill and seemed
notverysuccessfut attempts to repress the brigandage himself to know that his end was near. Ontfaeeighth
and license then prevalent in Manttima and the Cam- he asked for and received the Viaticum and waa
pagna, and the publication of an ordinance that con- anointed. On the evening of the ninth he lapsed
lined again to their Ghettoes the Jews, who had moved into unconsciousness and on the morning of the tentii
into the city during the period of the Revolution, he died. He had a noble character, a passion for order
These measures are typical of the temper and policy of and efficiency, but he lacked insight into, and sym-
l«o XII. There is sometbing pathetic in the con- patby with, the temporal developments of his period,
traat between the intelligence and masterly enerm His rale was unpopular in Rome and in the Papal
displaye<i b^ him as ruier of the Church and the inefn- States, and by various measures of his reign be
ciency of his policy as ruler of the Papal States. In diminished greatly for his successors their chances
face of the new social and political order, he undertook of solving the new problems that confronte<l them.
the defence of ancient custom and accepted institu- AstArn de Mo.'sroii Hitioirt du Papt Uon Xlt (Piris.
" I- I- J ...... ■ isight into the hopes and visions i843>; CkateVubriand, JW/moiVt. rfoinir-ianift* li {Bnaesh,
against the appreciation oj
but the cardinal's death ii
prevented the contribution erf his
wisdom to the councils of the
Holy See. The CoUegio Romano
was restoredto the efficient hands
of the Jesuite in 1824; the Free-
masons and other secret societies
were condemned in 1825; the
Vatican printing press was re-
stored and the Vatican tjbraiy
enriched ; scholars like Zuria,
Martucci, and Champollion were
encouraged: much was done to-
wards the rebuilding of St. Paij's
and the restoration of the seemli-
nesa of worship. But Leo's health
was too frail to support his un-
remitting devotion to the affaire
of the Church. Even in Decem-
1323, he had nearly died,
by a miracle, through the
tions; he had little ii
LSO
169
LEO
1852). 149-202; XXXVIII, 50-83; Wiseman. RecoUediont of
M« JajM FourPopew (Loodon^858) ; 209-362.
Noa-GatboUc: Bknbath in Hebsoo and ELiuck, Real-tncyklo'
p^ldie, XI, (Leipnc. 1902), 390-393. Nielbkn, History of the
Papaeif tn tlU XlXtk Century, II (London, 1906), 1-30.
Lesue a. St. L. Toke.
Lm ZnZy Pope, b. 2 March, 1810, at Carpineto;
elected pope 20 February, 1878; d. 20 Juty, 1903, at
Rome. Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Lui^i was the
sixth of the seven sons of Count Lodovico recci and
his wife Anna lS*osperi-Busi. There was some doubt
as to the nobility of the Pecci family, and when the
younff Gioacchino sought admission to the Accademia
dei Nobili in Rome he met with a certain opposition,
whereupon he wrote the history of his family, showing
that the Pecci of Carpineto were a branch of the Pecci
of Siena, obliged to emigrate to the Papal States in
the first half of the sixteenth century, under Clement
VII, because they had sided with the Medici.
At the ase of ekht, together with his brother Giu-
seppe, ased ten, he was sent to study at the new
Jesuit school in Viterbo, the present seminary. He
remained there six years (1818-24), and gained that
clawicaljfacility in tne use of Latin and Italian after-
wards justly admired in his official writing and his
poems. Much credit for this is due to his teacher,
Padre Leonardo Garibaldi. TVlien, in 1824, the Col-
legio Romano wasgiven back to the Jesuits, Gioacchino
and his brother Giuseppe entered as students of hu-
manities and rhetoric. At the end of his rhetoric
course Gioacchino tiras chosen to deliver the address in
Latin, and selected as his subject, ''The Contrast be-
tween Fe^fBJi and Christian Rome ^. Not less success-
ful was his three years' course of philosophy and nat-
ural sciences.
He remained yet uncertain as to his calling, though
it had been the wish of his mother that he should em-
brace the ecclesiastical state. Like many other young
Romans of the period who aimed at a public career,
he took up meanwhile the studv of theology as well as
canon and civil law. Among his professors were the
famous theoloeian Perrone and the scripturist Pa-
trisi. In 1832 he obtained the doctorate of theology,
whereupon, after Hie difficulties referred to above, ne
asked and obtained admission to the Academy of
Noble Ecclesiastics, and entered upon the study of
canon and civil law at the Sapienza University.
Thanks to his talents, and to the protection of Car-
dinals Sala and Pacca, he was apppointed domestic
prelate by Gregory XVI in January, 1837, while still
in minor orders, and in March of tnat year was made
"referendario della Segnatura'', which office he soon
exchanged for one in the Congregazione del Buon
Govemo, or Ministry of the Interior for the Pontifical
States, of which his protector Cardinal Sala was at that
time prefect. Dunn^; the cholera epidemic in Rome
he ably assisted Cardinal Sala in his duties as overseer
of all the city hospitals. His zeal and ability con-
vinced Cardinal Sala that Pecci was fitted for larger
lesponsibilitiee, and he again urged him to enter the
priesthood, hinting in addition that before long he
might be promoted to a post where the priesthood
would be necessary. Yielding to these solicitations,
he was ordained priest 31 Dec., 1837, by Canlinal
Odeschalchi, Vicar of Rome, in the chapel of St.
Stanislaus on the Quirinal. The post hint^ at by
Cardinal Sida was wat of Delegate or civil Governor
of Benevento, a city subject to the Holy Sec but sit-
uated in the heart of the Kingdom of Naples. Its
condition was very unsatisfactorv; the brigands of the
Neapolitan territory infested the country in mat
numoers, survivals of the Napoleonic Wars and the
guerrilla of the Sanfedisti. Gregor>' XVI thought a
Cung and energetic delegate necessary. Cardinal
mbruschini, secretary of state, and Cardinal Sala sug-
gested the name of Mgr. Pecci, who set out for Bene-
vento 2 Februaiy» 18^. On his recovery from an at-
tack of typhoid fever, he set to work to stamp out
brigandage, and soon his vigilance, indomitable pur-
pose, and fearless treatment of the nobles who pro-
tected the brigands and smugglers, pacified the wnole
DTOvince. Aided bv the nuncio at Naples, Mgr. di
Pietro, the youthful delegate drew up an agreement
with the Naples police for united action against brig-
ands. He also turned his attention to the roads and
highways, and arranged for a more just distribution
of taxes and duties, until then the same as those im-
posed by the invading French, and, though exorbi-
tant, exacted with the greatest rigour. Meanwhile
the Holy See and Naples were discussing the exchange
of Benevento for a streteh of Neapolitan territorjr
bordering on the Papal States. When Mgr. Pecci
heard of this he memorialized the Holy See so strongly
against it that the negotiations were broken off.
The results obtained in three years by the delegate
at Benevento led Gregory XVI to entrust another
del^ation to him where a strong personality was re-
ouired, thouffh for very different reasons. He was
nrst destined for Spoleto, but on 17 July, 1841, he
was sent to Perugia, a hotbed of the anti-papal revo-
lutionary party. For three years he improved the
material conditions of his territorv and introduced a
more expeditious and economical administration of
justice. He also b^an a savings hank to assist small
tradesmen and farmers with loans at a low rate of
interest, reformed educational methods, and was oth-
erwise active for the common welfare.
In January, 1843, he was appointed nuncio to
Brussels, as successor of Mgr. Fomari, appointed
nimcio at Paris. On 19 Feb., he was consecrated ti-
ular Archbishop of Daniiata by Cardinal Lambrus-
chini, and set out for his post. On his arrival he
found rather critical conditions. The school ques-
tion was warmly debated between the Catholic ma-
jority and the Liberal minority. He encouraged the
bishops and the laity in their struggle for Catholic
schools, yet he was able to win the eood will of the
Court, not only of the pious Queen Louise, but also
of King Leopold I, strongly Liberal in his views.
The new nuncio succeeded in uniting the Catholics,
and to him is owing the idea of a Belgian college in
Rome (1844). He made a journey (1845) through
Rhenish Prussia (Cologne, Mainz, Trier), and owing
to his vigilance the schismatic agitation of the priest
Ronge, on the occasion of the exposition of the Holy
Coat of Trier in 1844, did not affect Belgium. Mean-
while the See of Perugia l)ecame vacant, and Gregory
XVI, moved by the wishes of the Perugians and the
needs of that city and district, appointed Mgr. Pecci
Bishop of Perugia, retaining however the title of arch-
bishop.
With a very flattering autograph letter from King
Leopold, Mgr. Pecci left Brussels to spend a month in
London and another in Paris. This brought him in
touch with both courts, and afforded him opportuni-
ties for meeting many eminent men, among others
Wiseman, afterwards cardinal. Rich in experience
and in new ideas, and with greatly broadened views,
he returned to Rome on 26 May, 1846, where he found
the pope on his deathbed, so that he was unable to re-
port to him. He made his solemn entiy into Perugia
26 July, 1846, where he remained for thirty-two years.
Gregory XVI had intended to make him a cardinal,
but his death and the events that troubled the opening
vears of the pontificate of Pius IX postponed this
honour until 10 December, 1853. Pius IX desired to
have him near his person, and repeatedly offered him a
suburbicarian see, but Mgr. Pecci preferred Perugia,
and perhaps was not in accord with Cardinal Anto-
nelli. It is certainly untrue that Pius IX designedly
left him in Perugia, much more untnie that he did so
because Pecci 's views were lilieralistic and concilia-
tory. As Bishop of Perugia he sought chiefly to in-
culcate piety and knowledge of the truths of Faiths
LIO
170
LIO
He insisted that his priests should preach, and should
catechize not only tne young but the grown up; and
for this purpose he wished one hour in the afternoon
set apart on Sundays and feast days, thus forestalhng
one of the regulations laid down by rius X in 1905 for
the whole Church. He brought out a new edition of
the diocesan catechism (1856), and for his clergy he
wrote a practical guide for the exercise of the ministry
(1857). He provided frequently for retreats and mis-
sions. After the Piedmontese occupation and the
suppression of the religious orders the number of
priests was greatly diminished; to remedy this lack of
ecclesiastical ministers, he established an association
of diocesan missionaries ready to go wherever sent
(1875). He sought to create a learned and virtuous
clergy^ and for this purpose spent much care on the
matenal, moral, and scientific equipment of his sem-
inary, wnich he called the apple of his eye. Between
1846 and 1850 he enlarged its buildings at considerable
personal sacrifice, secured excellent professors, pre-
sided at examinations, and himself gave occasional in-
struction. He introduced the study of the philosophy
and theology of St. Thomas, and in 1872 established
an ''Accademia di S. Tommaso'', which he had
planned as far back as 1858.
In 1872 also he introduced the government stand-
ards for studies of the secondary schools and colleges.
When the funds of the seminary were converted into
state bonds, its revenues were seriously affected, and
this entailed new sacrifices on the bishop. With the
exception of a few troublesome priests who relied on
the protection of the new government, the discipline
of tne clergy was excellent. For the assistance of
many priests impoverished by the confiscation of
church funds, he instituted in 1873 the Society of S.
Gioacchino, and for charitable works generally, con-
ferences of St. Vincent de Paul. He remodelled many
educational institutions for the young and bqgan
others, for the care of which he invited from Belgium
nuns of the Sacred Heart and Brothers of Mercy. Dur-
ing his episcopate thirty-six new churches were built
in the diocese. His charity and foresight worked mar-
vels during the famine of 1854, consequent on the
earthquake which laid waste a large part of Umbria.
Throughout the political troubles of the period, he was
a strong supporter of the temporal power of the Holy
See, but he was careful to avoid anvthing that might
give the new government pretext for further annoy-
ances.
Shortly after his arrival in Perugia there occurred a
popular commotion which his personal intervention
sucoeeded in appeasing. In 1849, when bands of
Garibaldians expelled from Rome were infesting the
Umbrian hills, tne Austrians under Prince Liechten-
stein hastened to occupy Perugia, but Mgr. Pecci, real-
izing that this foreign occupation would only increase
the irritation of the inhabitants, set out for the Aus-
trian camp and succeeded in saving the town from oc-
cupation. In 1S59 a few outlaws set up in Perugia a
provisional government; when the cardinal heard
that, few as they were, they were preparing to resist
the pontifical troops advancing under Colonel Schmidt
he wrote a generous letter to try and dissuade them
from their mad purpose and to avoid a useless shed-
ding of blood. Unfortunately thev spumed his advice,
and. the result was the so-called " Massacre of Perugia "
(20 June). In February, 1860, he wrote a pastoral
letter on the necessitv of the temporal power of the
Holy See; but on 14 September of that year Perugia
and Umbria were annexed to Piedmont. ■ In vain he
besought General Fanti not to bombard the town; and
during the first years that followed the annexation he
wrote, either in his own name or in the name of the
bishops of Umbria, eighteen protests against the vari-
ous laws and regulations of the new Government on
ecclesiastical matters: against civil marriage, the sup-
pression of the religious orders and the inhuman
cruelty of their oppressors, the " Placet " and " Exe-
quatur '' in ecclesiastical nominations, military service
for ecclesiastics, and the confiscation of church prop-
erty. But withal he was so cautious and prudent, m
spite of his outspokenness, that he was never in seri-
ous difficulties with the civil power. Only once was he
brought before the courts, and then he was acquitted.
In August, 1877, on the death of Cardinal de An-
gelis, Pius IX appointed him camerlengo, so that he
was obliged to reside in Rome. Pope Pius died 7 Feb-
ruary, 1878, and during his closing years the Liberal
press had often insinuated that the Italian Govern-
ment should take a hand in the conclave and occupy
the Vatican. However the Russo-Turkish War and
the sudden death of Victor Emmanuel II (9 January,
1878) distracted the attention of the Government, the
conclave proceeded as usual, and after the three scru-
tinies Canlinal Pecci was elected by forty-four votes
out of sixty-one.
Shortly before this he had written an inspiring pas-
toral to his fiock on the Church and civilization. Ec-
clesiastical affairs were in a difficult and tangled state.
Pius IX, it is true, had won for the papacy the
love and veneration of Christendom, and even the ad-
miration of its adversaries. But, though inwardly
strengthened, its relations with the civil powers had
either ceased or were far from cordial. But the fine
diplomatic tact of Leo succeeded in staving off rup-
tures, in smoothing over difficulties, and in e8taJi>lisn-
ing good relations with almost all the powers.
Throughout his entire pontificate he was able to
keep on good terms with France, and he pledged him-
self to its Government that he w^ould call on afi Catho-
hcs to accept the RepubHc. But in spite of his efforts
very few monarchists listened to him, and towards the
end of his life he beheld the coming failure of his French
policy, though he was spared the pain of witnessing
the final catastrophe which not even he could have
averted. It was to Leo that France owed her alliance
with Russia; in this way he offset the Triple Alliance,
hoped to ward off impending conflicts, and expected
friendly assistance for the solution of the Roman ques-
tion. With Germany he was more fortunate. On the
very day of his election, when notifying the emperor
of tne event, he expressed the hope of seeing relations
with the German Government re-established, and,
though the emperor's reply was coldly civil, tne ice
was broken. Soon Bismarck, unable to govern with
the Liberals, to win whose favour he had started the
Kulturkampf (q. v.), found he needed the Centre
Party, or Catholics, and was willing to come to terms.
As early as 1878 negotiations began at Kissingen be-
tween Bismarck and Aloisi-Masclla. the nuncio to
Munich; they were carried a step farther at Venice be-
tween the nuncio Jacobini and Prince von Reuss; soon
after this some of the Prussian laws against the
Church were relaxed. From about 1883 bishops be-
gan to be appointed to various sees, and some of the
exiled bishops were allowed to return. By 1884 diplo-
matic relations were renewed, and in 1887 a moduM
Vivendi between Church and State was brought about.
In 1885 the question of the Caroline Islands arose, and
Bismarck proposed that Pope Leo should arbitrate be-
tween Germanv and Spain. The good feeling with
Germany found expression in the three visits paid Leo
bv William II (1888, 1893, and 1903), whose father
also, when crown prince (1883), had visited the Vati-
can. As a sort of quid pro quo Bismarck thought the
pope ought to use his authority to prevent the Catho-
lics from opposing some of his political schemes. Only
once did Leo interfere in a parliamentaiy question,
and then his advice was followed. In 1880 relations
with the Belgian Government were again broken off k
propos of the school question, on the pretext that the
Cope was lending himself to duplicity, encouraging the
isnops to resist, and pretending to the Government
that he was urging mcxieration. As a matter cMf fact^
LEO XIII
CHARTRAN (1801), VATICAM
had been settled on before the school question
Id 1885 the new Cfttholic Government restored it.
During Pope Leo's pontificate the condition of the
Church in Switiertand improved somewhat, eapeeially
in the Tioino, in Aargau and in Basle. In Russia.
3oloviev'a attempt on Alexander II {14 April, 1879)
and the silver jubilee of that csar'a reign (18.S0) gave the
pope an opportunity to attempt a rapprochement. But
itwaanotuntilafterAlcianderincame to the throne
(1883) that an agreement was reached, by which a few
episcopal sees were tolerated and some of the more
stringent kws against the CathoJic clergy slightly re-
laxed. But when, in 1884, Leo consented to present
to the cxar a petition from the Ruthenian Cathdics
against the oppression they had to suffer, the persecu-
tion only increased in bitter-
ness. In the last year of
Alexander III (May, 1S94)
diplomatic relations were re-
established. On the day of
hia election, Leo had ex-
pressed to this emperor the
wish to see diplomatic rela-
tions icstored,; Alexander, like
William, though more warm-
ly, answered in a non-com-
mittal manner. Intbemean-
time Leo was careful to exhort
the Poles under Russian dom-
ination to be loyal Hubjecta.
Among the acts of Leo
XIII that affected in a par-
ticular way the English-
speakiuE world may be
mentioned: for England, the
elevation of John Henry
Newman to the cardinalate
(1879), the •' Romanoe Ponti-
fices" of 1881 concerning the
relations of the hierarchy and
the regular clerKV, the beati-
fication (1886) offifty English
martyrs, the celebration of
die thirteenth centenary of
St. Gregory the Great, Apos-
tle of England (1891), the
Encyclicals "Ad Anglos "
of 1395, on the return to Catholic unity, and the
"Apostolicee Cune<.' of 1806, on the non-validity of
the Anglican orders. He restored the Scotch hici^
archy in 1878, and in 1898 addressed to the Scotch a
very touching letter. In English India Pope I*o es-
tablished the hierarchy in 188C, and regulated there
long-atanding conflicts with the Portuguese authori-
ties. In 1903 King Edward VII paid him a visit at the
Vatican. The Irish Church experienced his pastoral
solicitude on many occasions. His letter io Arch-
bishop McCabe of Dublin (1881), the elevation of the
same prelate to the cardinalate in 1882, the calling of
the Insh bishops to Rome in 1885, the decree of the
Holy Office (13 April, 1888) on the plan of campaign
and boycotting, and the subsequent Encyclical of 24
June, ISSS, to the Irish hierarchy represent in part
his fatherly concern tor the Irish people, however
diverse the feelings they aroused at the height of the
land agitation.
The United States at all times attracted the atten-
tion and admii«tion of Pope l,co. He confirmed the
decrees of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore
(ISM), and raised to the cardinalate Archbishop Gil)-
honsof that city (1886). His favourable action (1888),
at the instance of Cardinal Gibbons, towards the
Knights of Labour won him general approval. In
18S9 he sent a pf^al del^ate, MouEignor Satolli, to
represent him at Washington on the occasion of the
n Lzo
The Apostolic Delegation at Washington was founded
in 18^; in the same year amieared nis Encyclical on
Christopher Columbus. In 1893 he participated in the
Chicago Exposition held to commemorate the fourth
centenary of the discovery of America; this he did by
the loan of \«Iuable relics, and by sending Monsignor
Satolli to represent him. In 1895 he addressed to the
hierarchy of the United Slates his memorable Encyo-
lical "Longinqua Oceaoi Spatia"; in 1898 appeared
his letter '^Testem Benevolentife" to Cardinal Gib-
bons on "Americanism"; and in 1902 his admirable
letter to the American hierarchy in response to their
congratulations on hia pontifical jubilee. In Canada
he confirmed the aj|reement made with the Province
of Quebec (1889) for the settlement of the Jesuit E»-
tat^ question, and
foundation of the Catholic University of America.
sent MoDsignor Merry del
val to treat in his name
with the Government con-
cerning the obnoxious Mani-
toba School Law. His name
will alao long be held in bene-
diction in ^uth America for
the First Plenary Council of
Latin America held at Rome
(1899), and for his noble En-
cyclical to the bishops of
Brazil on the abolition of
slavery (1888).
In Portugal the Govern-
ment ceased to support the
Goan schism, and m 1886 a
concordat was drawn up.
Concordats with Montenegro
(1886) and Cobmbia (1887)
followed. The Sultan of Tu>
key, the Shah of Persia, the
Emperors of Japan and of
China (1885), andtheN^:ua
of Abyssinia, Menelik', sent
him royal gifts and received
gifts from him in return. His
charitable intervention with
the negus in favour of the
Italians taken prisoners at
the unlucky battle of Adna
(1898) failed owing to the
attitude taken by those who
ought to have been moat
grateful. He was not succ^aful in establishing diieot
diplomatic relations with the Sublime Porte and wiUt
China, owing to the jealousy of France and her fear of
losing the protectorate over Christians. During the
negotiationsconcemingchurchpropcrty in the ralip-
pines, Mr. Taft, Uter President of the United Stat^
had an opportunity of admiring the pope's great qual-
ities, as he himself declared on a memorable occasion.
With regard to the Kingdom of Italy, Leo XIII
maintained Pius IX's attitude of protest, thus con-
firming the ideas he had expressed in his pastoral of
1860. He desired complete independence for the Holy
See, and consequently its restoration as a real sove-
reigntj*. Repeatedly, when distressing incidents took
place m Rome, he sent notes to the varioua govem-
menta pointing out the intolerable position in which
the Holy See was placed through its subjection to a
hostile power. For the same reason he upheld the
" Non cxpedit", or prohibition against Italian Cath-
olics taking part in political elections. His idea was
that once the Catholics abstained from voting, the
subversive elements in the country would get the
upper hand and the Italian Government be obliged to
come to terms with the Holy See. Events proved he
was mistaken, and the idea was abandoned by Pius X.
At one time, however, "of^cioua" negotiations wen
kept up between the Holy Soe and the Italian Gov-
ernment through the agency of Monsignor Carini,
Prefect of the Vatican Libnuy and a great friend of
LIO 172 UBO
Crispi. But it in uot known on what lines they were (22 Jan., 1890). In the Brief "Apostolice Curs'*
conducted. On Cridpi's part there could have l^een no (1896) he definitively decided against the validity of
(uicstion of ceding any territory to the Holy See. Anglican Orders. In several other memorable encye-
I^ ranee, moreover, then irritated against Italy be- licals he treated of the most serious questions affectmg
cause of the Triple Alliance, and fcarine that any modem society. They are models of classical style,
rapprochement between the Vatican and the Quirinal clearness of statement, and convincing logic. The
would serve to increase her rival's prestige, interfered most important are: *' Arcanum divinsB sapientia"
and forced Leo to break off the aforesaid negotiations (1880) on Christian marriage; ^'Diutumum illud"
by threatening to renew hostilities against the Church (1881), and " Immortale Dei'' (1885) on Christianity
in France. The death of Monsi^or Carini shortly as the foundation of political hfe; ''Sapienti® chrb*
after this (25 June, 1895) ^ave rise to the senseless tianse" (1890) on the duties of a Christian citiien;
rumour that he had been poisoned* Pope Leo was no '^Libertas'' (1888) on the real meaning of UberU^;
less active concerning the interior life of the Church. '^Humanum genus" (1884) against Freemasonry (he
To increase the piety of the faithful, he reconunendcd also issued otner documents taring on this subject),
in 1882 the Third Order of St. Francis, whose rules in Civilisation owes much to Leo for his stand on the
1883 he wisely modified; he instituted the feast of the social question. As early as 1878, in his encyclical on
Holy Family, and desired societies in its honour to be the equality of all men, he attacked the fundamental
founded everywhere (1892); many of his encyclicals error of Socialism. TheEncychcal^Rerumnovarum"
preach the benefits of the Rosary; and he favoured (18 May, 1891) set forth with profound erudition the
greatly devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Christian principles bearing on the relations between
Under Leo the Catholic Faith made great progress; capital and labour, and it gave a vigorous inipulse to
during his pontificate two hundred and forty-eight the social movement along Christian lines. In Italy,
episcop^al or archiepiscopal sees were created, and especially, an intense, well-organized movement be-
forty-eight vicariates or prefectures Apostolic. Cath- gsui; but gradually dissensions broke out, some leaning
olics of Oriental rites were objects of special attention; too much towards Socialism and giving to the words
he had the ^ood fortune to see the end of the schism " Christian Democracy " a political meaning, while
which arose in 1870 between the Uniat Armenians and others erred by going to the opposite extreme. In
ended in 1879 by the conversion of Mgr. Kupelian and 1901 appeared the Encyclical " Graves de Communi ",
other schismatical bishops. He founded a college destinea to settle the controverted points. The
at Rome for Armenian ecclesiastical students (188^, "Catholic Action" movement in Italy was reorgan-
and by dividing the college of S. Atanasio he was able ized, and to the ** Opera dei Congressi '' was added a
to give the Ruthenians a college of their own; already second group that took for its watchword economic-
in 1882 he had reformed the Kuthenian Order of St. social action. Unfortunately this latter did not last
Basil; for the Chaldeans he founded at Mossul a semi- long, and Pius X had to create a new party which has
nary of which the Dominicans have charge. In a not yet overcome its internal difficulties,
memorable encyclical of 1897 he appealed to all the Under Leo the religious orders developed wonder-
schismatics of the East, inviting them to return to the fully; new orders were founded, older ones increased.
Universal Church, and laying down rules for govern- and in a short time made up for the losses occasioned
ing the relations between the various rites in countries by the unjust spoliation they had been subjected to.
of mixed rites. Even among the Copts his efforts at ^ong every line of religious and educational activity
reunion made headway. they have proved no small factor in the awakening and
The ecclesiastical sciences found a generous patron strengthening of the Christian life of the whole coun-
in Pope Leo. His Encyclical *'^temi Patris'' (1880) try. For their better guidance w^ise constitutions
recommended the study of Scholastic philosophy, es- were issued; reforms were made; orders such as the
pecially that of St. Thomas Aquinas, but he did not Franciscans and Cistercians, which in times past had
advise a servile study. In Rome he established the divided off into sections, were once more united; and
Apollinare College, a higher institute for the Latin, the Benedictines were given an abbot-primate, who
Greek, and Italian classics. At his suggestion a Bo- resides at St. Anselm's College, founded in Rome under
hemian college was founded at Rome. At Anagni he the auspices of Pope Leo (1883). Rules were laid
founded and entrusted to the Jesuits a college for all down concerning members of religious orders who be-
the dioceses of the Roman Campagna, on which are came secularized.
modelled the provincial or "regional" seminaries de- In canon law Pope Leo made no radical change, yet
sired by Pius A. Historical scholars arc indebted to no part of it escaped his vigilance, and opportune
lum for the opening of the Vatican Archives (1883), on modifications were made as the needs of the times re-
which occasion he published a splendid encyclical on quired. On the whole his pontificate of twenty-five
the importance of historical studies, in which he de- years was certainly , in external success, one of the most
clares that the Church has nothing to fear from his- brilliant. It is true the general peace oetween nations
torical truth. For the administration of the Vatican favoured it. The people were tired of that antideri-
Archives and Librarv he called on eminent scholars calism which had led governments to forget their real
(Hergenrother, Deniflc, Ehrle; repeatedly he tried to purpose, i. e. the well-being of the governed; and, on
obtainJanssen, but the latter declined, as he was eager the other hand, prudent statesmen feared excessive
to finish his ** History of the German People"). For catering to the elements subversive of society. Leo
the convenience of students of the archives and the himself used every endeavour to avoid friction. His
Ubrarv he established a consulting library. The Vat- three jubilees (the golden jubilees of his priesthood
ican 01>servatory is also one of the glories of Pope and of his episcopate, and the silver jubilee of his pon-
Leo XIII. To excite Catholic students to rival non- tificate) showed now wide was the popular sympathy
Catholics in the study of the Scriptures, and at the for him. Moreover, his appearance either at Vatican
same time to guide their studies, he published the receptions or in St. Peter's was always a signal for out-
" Pro videntissums Deus" (1893), which won the admi- bursts of enthusiasm. Leo was far from robust in
ration even of Protestants, and in 1902 he appointed a health, but the methodical regularity of his life stood
Biblical Commission. Also, to guard against the dan- him in good stead. He was a tireless worker, and al-
ters of the new style of apologetics founded on Kant- ways exacted more than ordinary effort from those
ism and now knowTi as Modernism (n. v.). he warned who worked with him. The conditions of the Holy
in 1899 the French clergy (Encycl. ** Au Milieu"), and See did not permit him to do much for art, but he re-
before that, in a Brief ^dressed to Cardinal Gibbons, newed the apse of the Lateran Basilica, rebuilt its
he pointed out the dangers of certain doctrines to presbytery, and in the Vatican caused a few halls to be
which had been given the name of "Americanism" painted.
LEO
173
XJB00ADI4
Baob» LmmU XIII Carmina, hitenptionss, NtanimiuUa
aM3), tr. Hjbnrt (Philadelphia—); Acta Leonit XIIL 26
▼ok. (Rome. 1878-1903); Scetta di aUi apoatolici dd card. Peed
(Rome, 1879); CcnvetdumeM de re6tM tcduitutieU (14 vols.,
Rome, 1878-93); bioNnraphiea by O'Rxxllt (1886): T'Seb-
(XAXS (3 vols., Paris, 1894-1906); Schnbidbr (1901); Justin
McCabtht (London, 1896): Furbt (New York, 1903); Spahn
(1905)- Jkan d' Arras (Paris, 1902); Quilubrmin (Paris,
1902): BoTER d'Aqbn, La Jeunetse de L^on XIII (Toura, 1S96;;
Idbm. La PrUaturtde Lron XIII {iHd., 1900); de Germint,
LaPolUiguedeLfion XIII (Paris, 1902) ; Lefebvre de Blaine,
L^n X III el le prince Bismarck (Paris, 1898); Qeffken, Lton
X^IIdevarU VAlUnuiffne (Paris, 1896): de Cerarb, II conclave
di Leane XIII (3nl ed., Cittk di C.istello. 1887); Bonacxna.
ConlinuoMione dala Horia eccl. di Rohrbacher e di aaJan (Turin,
1899); DB Mebstbr, Lean*t XIII e la chieaa greca (Rome, 1905);
Pbotsner, Die Entufickeluno dee kirchlichen EherechU unler Leo
XIII (Salsburs, 1908). Cf. also The Great Encyclicals of Leo
XIII, ed. Wynne (New York, 1902).
U. Benign'i.
Leo, Brother, Friar Minor, companion of St. Fran-
eis of Assisi, date of birth uncertain; d. at Assisi, 15
Nov. J 1271. He appears to have been a native of
Aasisi and not of \ iterbo, as some later writers have
asserted. Although not one of the original twelve
companions of St. Francis, Leo was one of the first to
join mm after the approbation of the first Rule of the
Fiiars Minor (1209-1210) and perhaps was already a
priest. In the course of time he became the confessor
and secretary of the saint, and from about 1220 up to
tJie time of Francis's deatn Leo was his constant com-
panion, lie was with the " Pov-erello " when the latter
retired to Fonte Colombo near Rieti in 1223, to re-write
the rule of liie order and he accompanied him on his
subsequent journey to Rome to seek its approval.
The year following Leo was with the saint on Mount La
Vema when Francis received the stigmata and he has
left us a clear and simple account of that great mir-
acle. This statement ne wrote across the face of the
autograph blessing which St. Francis had given him on
La \^ma, as a talisman against temptation, and which
is still preser\'ed at S. Francesco in Assisi. The text of
a letter ^-ritten by the saint to Leo some time before
is also extant. It is a word of tender encouragement
and counsel to the **Frate Pecorollo di Dio" (little
brother sheep of God) as the Saint had named his
faithful disciple because of his simplicity and ten-
derness. And one of the most golden chapters in
the "Fioretti" (ch. vii) tells how St. Francis showed
to Brother Ix»o " which things were perfect joy ". Leo
nursed his master during his last illness and as the
saint lay djdng it was he, together with Angelo, an-
other favourite companion, who consoled Francis by
singing the "Canticle of the Sun ".
Leo had entered deeply into the bitter disappoint-
ments experienced by the saint during the last few
years of nis life, and soon after Francis's death he
came into conflict with those whom he considered trai-
tors to the Poverello and his ideal of poverty. Hav-
ing protested against the collection of money for the
election of the oasilica of San Francesco and having
actually smashed the vase which Brother Elias had
Bet up for contributions (sec Elias), Leo was whipped
by order of Elias and expelled from Assisi. lie there-
upon retired to some hermitage of the order and from
thenceforth we catch only occasional glimpses of him.
Thus we find him present in 1253 at the cfeath-bed of
St. Clare of whom ne was a life-long friend. Leo ap-
pears to have passed much of his latter years at the
rorziuncola and to have employed himself in writing
those works which exerted such a marked infiuenco
on Conrad d'OflSda. Angelo Clareno, Ll)ertino da Ca-
sale, and other ''Spirituals" of a later generation.
These writings, in which Leo set forth what he con-
sidered to be the real intention of St. Francis regarding
the observance of poverty, he is said to have confided
to the nuns at S. Cniara in Assisi in order to save them
to posterity. Leo died at the Porziuncola on 15
Nov.y 1271, at an advanced age and was buried in the
bmer church of San Francesco near the tomb of his
leraphio fisher. He is commemorated in the Fran-
ciscan Martyrology which gives him the title of
Blessed, and the cause of his formal beatification is
now (1910) pending with that of the other early com-
panions of St. Francis.
Considerable doubt still exists as to how much Leo
actually wrote. The famous " rotuli " and " ccduls "
which he deposited with the Poor Clares have not
come down to us, but these documents are believed to
have been the source from which the "Speculum Peiv
fectionis" and some other compilations of ''materia
seraphica'' were more or less directly derived. This
"Speculum Perfectionis " was first puolished as a sepa-
rate work in 1898 by Paul Sabatier, who called it the
"Legenda Antiquissima S. Francisci" and claimed
that it was written by Leo as early as 1227, as a mani-
festo against Elias and the other abettors of laxity
among the friars. This claim gave rise to a large con-
troversial literature. The majority of critics ascribe
the "Speculum Perfectionis" to a later date and re-
gard it as the work of different writers. However this
may be, the "Speculum Perfectionis" remains of the
utmost value and interest. In spite of its polemic
tone — which reflects the controversy raging within
the order between the zelanti and mitigaii m Leo's
day — and its shortcomings from a literary standpoint
if compared with the "Legends" of Thomas of Ce-
lano and of St. Bonaventure, the portrait of St.
Francis which the "Speculum" presents, and which
all admit to be substantially due to Leo, affords an in-
sight into the life of the Poverello such as no formal
biography contains and such as none but an intimate
could have given. Leo was moreover associated with
Angelo and Rufino in the composition of the cele-
brated "Legend of the Three Companions", a work
which has been the subject of scarcely less controversy
than the "Speculum Perfectionis"; he Is also credited
with the authorship of a life of Blessed Giles or iEgid-
ius of Assisi inserted in the "Chronicle of the XXIV
Generals ", and is thought to have collaborated in the
biography of St. Clare written about 1257.
No modem biogmphy of Leo cxiata, but Paul Sabatier has
been at paius to gatlier all the contemporary rcferenccn to him
[see jSpfcuZum Perfectionis ed. Sabatier (Paris, 1898), pp.
LXIl-LXXXV], and tlicro is a good sketch of his life by Anns
Macdqne.Xh Sons of Francis (London, 1902), pp. 95-112.
The earU* life of Leo contained in the Ckron. XX IV Generalium
[Anal. Francis., t. Ill (Quaracchi, 1897), 65 sq.] seems to be a
compendium of an older legend; the one inserted by Barthol.
PwANua in his De ConformitaU \Anal. Francis, IV (1906), 188
BO.] gives a list of miracles attributed to Leo not totmd ebe-
wticre. On the writings of Leo nee Lbmmens, Scripta Frairie
Leonis in Doc. Ant. Francis., I (Quaracchi. 1901). For a synop-
sis of the controversial literature to which the Speculum Perfect
tionis gave rise sec T)b Kerval in Bulletiino Critico di cose
Francescane (Dec. 1905^. 109, and Robinson, Introduction to
Franciscan Literature (New York, 1907), 12 Bq. See also
Clarenub, Ilisloria Tribxdntionum etc. ed. Ehble in Archiv. fiXr
Liu. und Kirchen, III, 55.'^-623; Wadding, Anruiles Minonun ad
an IglO, I. 91 n 32; Actus B. Francisci et Sociorum ejus. ed.
Sabatier (Paris, 1902), vii-ix and passim; Balfour, The
Seraphic Keepsake (London, 1905) passim; Carmichabl, />a
Benefiizione di San Francesco (Lc»;hom, 1900): Robinbon. The
Writings of SL Francis (Philadelphia, 1906), 130 sq.. and 146 8q.
Paschal Robinson.
Leocadia, Saint, virgin and martyr, d. 9 Decem-
ber, probably 304, in the Diocletian persecution. The
last great persecution gave the Church in Spain a suc-
cession of martyrs, who from 303 until 305 suffered
death for the Christian Faith. In the historical mar-
tyrologies of the ninth century, St. Leocadia of To-
ledo is honoured among these martyrs on 9 Decem-
ber. Her name is not mentioned by rrudentius in his
hymn on the Spanish Martyrs, but in very early times
there was a church dedicated to her at Toledo. In the
first half of the seventh centun' this church was men-
tioned as the meeting-place of the Fourth Synod of
Toledo in 633, as well as of the fifth in 636, and the
sixth in 638 (Concil. Tolctanum IV, mentions the
" basilica beatissimse et sanctae Confcssoris Leocadia) " ;
Mansi, "Concil. Coll.", X, 615). Long before that
date, therefore, I.«cocadia must have been publicly
honoured as a martyr. The basilica in question waa
LBODIGAB
174
LIO
evidently erected over her grave. There is no doubt
of t^e historic^ fact of her martvrdom, whilst the date
of 9 December for her annual commemoration ob-
viously rests on ^e tradition of the Church of Toledo.
More recently compiled Acts relate that Deocadia was
filled with a desire for martyrdom through the story
of the martyrdom of St. Eulalia. By order of the
governor, Decianus, who is described in the martyr-
ology as the most furious persecutor of the Christians
in Spain, she was seized and cruelly tortured in order
to make her apostatize, but she remained steadfast
and was sent back to prison, where she died from the
effects of the torture. A church was built over her
grave, besides which two others at Toledo are dedica-
ted to her. She is the patroness of the diocese, and 9
December is still given as her feast in the Roman Mar-
tvrology. She is represented with a tower, to signify
that she died in prison. ,
Fl6rez, Eapafla ^oiTnuia, VI, 315-17; La Fuente, Hidoria
ecUndalica de Espafla, 2nd ed., I (Madrid, 1S73). 335-7; Sn-
Rxus, Vita Sanctorum^ 9 December. XU. 199; Butler, Livea of
the SainU, 9 December.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Leodegar (Leger), Saint, Bishop of Autun, b.
about 615; d. a martyr in 678, at Sarcing, Somme.
His mother was called Sigrada, and his father Bobilo.
His parents being of higli rank, his early childhood
was passed at the court of Clotaire II. He went
later to Poitiers, to study under the ^idance of his
uncle, the bishop of that town. Havrng given proof
of his learning and virtue, and feeling a liking for the
priestly life, his uncle ordained him deacon, and asso-
ciated him with himself in the government of the
diocese. Shortly afterwards he became a priest and
with the bishop's approval withdrew to the monastery
of St. Maxentius in 650. He was soon elected abbot
and signalized himself by reforming the community
and introducing the Rule of St. Benedict. In 656
•he was called to the court by the widowed Queen
Bathildis to assist in the government of the kingdom
and in the education of her children. In reward for
his services he was named to the Bishopric of Autun
in 610. He again undertook the work of reform and
held a council at Autun in 661. It dealt a crushing
blow to Manichffiism and was the first to adopt the
Creed of St. Athanasius. He made reforms among
the secular clergy and the religious communities, and
he impressed on all pastors the importance of preach-
ing and of administering the sacraments, especially
baptism. For this purpose the bishop had three
baptisteries erected in the town. The church of
Samt-Nazaire was enlarged and embellished, and a
refuge established for the indigent. Leodegar also
caused the public buildings to be repaired and the
old Roman walls to be restored. The latter still
exist and are among the finest specimens preserved.
Serious trouble soon arose in tne state. The Aus-
trasian^ demanded a king and young Childeric II
was sent to them through the influence of Ebroin,
the mayor of the palace in Neustria. The latter was
practically a ruler and desired to ^et rid of all who
thwarted his plans. The queen withdrew from the
court to an abbey she had founded at Chelles, near
Paris. On the death of Clotaire III, in 670, Ebroin
raised Thierry to the throne, but Leodegar and the
other bishops supported the claims of his elder brother
Childeric, who, oy the help of the Austrasians and
Buiigundians, was eventualljr made king. Ebroin
was exiled to Luxeuil and Thierry sent to St. Denis.
Leodegar remained at court, guiding the young king.
When the bishop protested against the mamage of
Childeric and his first cousin, he also was sent to
Luxeuil, his enemies representing him to the king as a
conspirator. Childeric II was murdered at Bondi
in 673, by a Frank whom he had maltreated. Thierry
III now ascended the throne in Neustria, makine Leu-
desius hb mayor. Leodegar and Ebroin hastened from
Luxeuil to the court. In a short time Ebroin caused
Leudesius to be murdered, and became mayor. He
vowed vengeance on the bisnop, whom he looked on as
the cause of his imprisonment. About 675 the Duke
of Champagne and the Bishop of Chalons and Valence,
stirred up by Ebroin, attacked Autun. To save the
town, Leodegar surrendered to them. He was bru-
tally treated and his eyes put out, the sockets being
seared with red-hot irons. Ebroin's bloodthirsty
iiistincts were not yet satiated* he caused the holy
bishop's lips to be cut off and nis tongue to be torn
out. Some years later he persuaded the king that
Childeric had been assassinated at the instigation of
Leodegar. The bishop was seized again, and, after
a mock trial, was degraded and condemned. He was
led out into a forest by Ebroin's order and murdered.
His testament drawn up at the time of the council,
as well as the Acts of the council, are preserved. A
letter which he caused to be sent to his mother after
his mutilation is likewise extant. His relics, which
had been at Sarcing in Artois, were translated to the
Abbey of St. Maxentius at Poitiers in 782. Later
they were removed to Rennes and thence to Ebreuil,
which place took the name of Saint-L^er. Some of
them are still kept in the cathedral of Autun and the
Grand S^minaire of Soissons. In 1458 Cardinal Ro-
lin caused his feast day to be observed as a hohday
of obligation.
PiTRA.IIiaUnrede Saint LSger (Paris, 1846); Bennett in Diet.
Christ. Biog., e. v. Leodegariua; Fauriel, Histoire de la GauU
tnfridionale, II (Paris, 1836), 461-473; Guizot. CoUeclion dee
nUmoirea relalife a V histoire de France, II (Paris. 1823), 326;
GufcRiN, Vie dee eointe, XI (Paris, 1880), 619-47; Mabillon,
Acta SS. O.S.B., II (Paris, 1669), 680-705; P. L.. XCVI, 377-
84; CXIII, 373; CXXIV, 529; Analecta BoUandiana, XI (Bni»-
sels. 1892), 104-10; Kaulen in Kirchenlex., s. v.
A. A. MacEklean.
Leo DiaconuB, Byzantine historian, b. at Kaloe, at
the foot of Mount Tmolos, in Ionia, about the year 960;
the year of his death is unknown. In his early youth
he came to study at Constantinople and, as his name
tells, w^as ordained deacon. In 986 he took part in
the war against the Bulgars under the Emperor
Basil II (976-1025), was present at the siege of Tria-
ditza (Sofia), where the imperial army was defeated,
and barely escaped with his life. After the year 992
he began to write a history of the empire, presumably
at Constantinople. The work is incomplete. Appar-
ently he died before he could finish it. The history,
divided into ten books, covers the years from 959 to
975, that is, the reigns of Romanus II (959-963),
Nicephorus Phocas (963-969) and John Zimisces
(909-976) . It describes the wars against the Arabs in
which the fortresses of Cilicia and the Island of Cyprus
were won back (964-965), the conquest of Antioch
and Northern Syria from the Moslems (968-969), the
Bulgarian War (969) and the defeat of the Southern
Russians (971), one of the most brilliant periods of
the later Empire. For the reigns of Nicephorus
Phocas and Jonn Zimisces, Leo the Deacon is tne one
source, the only contemporary historian, from whom
all later writers have drawn their material. His
authorities are his own observation and the account
of eyewitnesses. He says: "The events as I saw
them with my own eyes (for eyes are more
trustworthy than ears, as Herodotus says) and
as I gathered them from those who saw them, these
things I write in my book" (Bonn edition, p. 5). Al-
though Leo is so valuable an authority for nis perlbd,
critics do not judce his manner of writing favourably.
He is affected ana dull, fond of foreign (JLatin) woros,
and has a mania for unusual and extravagant forms;
for simple words like "brother", or even the verb "to
be" he prefers absurd artificial synonyms. Krum-
bacher sums up his style as "tri^dal and pedantic".
Leo quotes IVocopius', Homer, and especially the
Bible (in the Septuagint). His loyalty to the em-
peror often prej udices his honesty. His nistory is con-
UOH 176 LBOH
tinued b^ Michad Psellus. Leo's book was not very Alfonso V rebuilt and repeopled the city, giving it its
popular in the following centuries. Other writers famous /uero, or charter, a collection of laws promul-
who drew their information from him, were preferred, gated in the Ck)uncil of Leon. This council which
e. g. Nicephorus Bryennius. A result of this is that opened 1 Au^st, 1020, had a politico-ecclesiastical
only one manuscript of his history is extant (cod. cnaracter similar to that of the Toledan councils of
Paris, 1712). the Visigothic period. Among other privileges, this
Fint complete edition in the Paris Corpu% edited with a com- fuero secured to the inhabitants of Leon mviolability of
?K^.S5 ^. ir^ThSI^^E^^l^ domicile and it estabUshed the rights of benefadaria
poblished Book VI with a Latin veraion and an analysis of the (whence the local term, be-hetria), by which a vassal
whole work in the Notices d, exiraiU de la bibliolhiqw naiionale, miirht bind himself to anv lord who WOUld protect
VIII (Paris. 1810), 2, 254-296; Fischer. BeUrUge zur histori- i^- * ^ *^
Air Oeaiemiehiache Oeachichiaforachung, VII (1886), 353-377; In the spnng of 1029 the City of Leon was the SCene
BcHLUMBSBOKB. NiUphore PHocoa (Paris, 1890) of a bloody event which was of transcendent impor-
Adrian Fortescub. tance in Spanish history. Don Garcia, C!ount of Gas-
Leon. See QuiMPER, Diocese of. * *?e, who was about to be manied to Dona Sancha.
sister of Bermudo III, King of Leon, was assassinated
Leon, Diocese and Givil Province of. — History, as he was entering the church of S. Juan Bautista. b^
— ^Probably before the time of Trajan, the Romans the Velas, a partv of Gastilian nobles, exiles from tneir
founded in the Asturias, in the neighborhood of the own country, who had taken refuge in Leon. Leon
ancient Lancia, a military colony to which they gave and Navarre disputed the succesaon to the 0)unt8hip
the name of Legio Septima Gemina. From Legio (ace. of Gastile thus left vacant. Ferdinand, son of Sancho
legionem) was formed, in accordance with the nature of the Elder (or the Great), of Navarre, married Sancha,
the Romance-Gastilian language, the name LedUy and sister of Bermudo III, of Leon, and received the title
the identity oi this name with that of the king of of King of Gastile, and when, the war being renewed,
beasts (ledn, from leo, ace. leonem) perhaps explains Bermudo was slain at the battle of Tamar6n, the
how, by what in German is called a Volksetimologiey united crowns of Leon and Gastile became the posses-
the Uon came to be considered the heraldic cognizance sion of Ferdinand I. From that time the hegemony
of the city and province of this name, and even of the which Leon had enjoyed began to pass to Gastue. The
whole Spanish people. Very soon the ori^nal mili- causes of this change, which left so deep an impression
tary colony admitted civilian colonists, as the ancient upon the history of Spain, may be summed up as fol-
epitaphs prove. Within a few years after its founds- lows: (I) Ferdinand, first King of Gastile, had van-
tion tne Z^a/u8 ilu9u«to/i« who governed the Asturias ouishea Bermudo; (2) Ferdinand I at his death,
was residing in this settlement. aivided his kingdoms between his sons; Sancho, King
Ghristianity must have been introduced very early, of Castile, then wrested the Kingdom of Leon from
for it had its bishops at least as early as the thira Alfonso, but, Sancho bein^ himself assassinated before
ooitury, and the names of Basiiides and Decentius are the walls of Zamora by Vellido Dolfos, Alfonso in his
known before the time of the Germanic invasions, turn obtained possession of both the kingdoms. (3)
These invaders do not seem to have established them- The Kingdoms of Gastile and Leon being once more
selves in Leon — a stronghold of the imperial power — separated upon the death of Alfonso VII (the Emperor
until Euri<r(466-84), or at least Leovigild (572-86), — see below) Alfonso VIII of Gastile notably advanced
drove out the imperial garrison. In the Roman per- the reconquest of Spain by saining the victory of Las
secutions Leon had numerous martyrs, among whom Navas de Tolosa (1212)^ while Alfonso IX of Leon
were Sts. Facundus, Primitivus, the husband and wife pursued a dastardly policy of fomenting civil strife.
Ifarcellus and Nonia, with their sons Glaudius, Vic- (4) Ferdinand III, the Saint — ^who inherited Gastile
toricus, and Lupercus, Vincent, and Ramirus. The through his mother, Dona Berenguela, and then, on
name of St. Facundus took, in the ancient dialect, the the death of his father, Alfonso DC, became King of
form Sorhagiln, which survives as a geographical Leon — transferred the centre of his activities to Cas-
name. A monastery was built, in the fourth century, tile. (5) Above all, Gastile led the van of the recon-
on the spot where (jlaudius and his brothers sufiferea quest beyond the Garpetan Moimtains (Sierras de
martyrdom. Leon fell into the power of the Mussul- Gata, de Gredos, de Guadarrama), while Leon^ by its
man mvaders, but they did not long retain it; it was separation from Portugal, found its expansion ar-
reconquered by Alfonso I, the Gatholic. Destroyed a rested at the boundaries of Estremadura.
second time by the Mussulmans in the time of Abder- The principal events which took place in Leon at
rahman II (846), it was again rebuilt by Ordofio I this period were the following: The translation of the
^850-866), who erected there a royal residence which relics of St. Isidore to the ancient church of S. Juan
Ordofio II afterwards transformed into a cathedral. Bautista, which was rebuilt and dedicated to the
Among the bishops of Leon at this period figure Sevillian Doctor, 21 December, 1063. Alvito, Bishop
Siuntila, Frunimius, Maurus, and Vincent, and the of Leon, went to Seville with an embassy to Ebn Abed,
jffeat St. Froilan (900-05), who was followed by Gix- to bring the body of St. Justa. but, not finding it,
Da and Frunimius II. brought that of St. Isidore. The Monk of Silos has
However^ as the Gourt remained at Oviedo during preserved the history of this religious expedition. On
all this period, Leon did not attain any great impor- 26 May, 1135, Alfonso VII was proclaimed, in the
tance. When Alfonso III (the Great) was dethroned basilica of Sta. Maria, Emperor of Spain (Ildephansus
by his sons (910), the eldest of them, Garcfa, took for plus totiu8 HispanuB impiraior). In 1176
himself the city of Leon, which then began to be the the Military Order of Santiago was installed in the
capital of a kingdom. Garcfa died early (914), and hospital of S.Marcos. In the minority of Ferdinand
Galicia, which had been Ordofio's share, was united to IV, the infante Don Juan was proclauned King of
Leon. Ordofio II, who vanquished the Moors at Leon; and in the minority of Alfonso XI, the parti-
S. Esteban de Gormaz, and was routed by them at sans of the infante brought his son Alfonso into the
Valdejunquera, reduced the Gounts of Gastile to city of Leon and fortified themselves in the cathedral,
submission and founded the cathedral of Leon wmch was almost destroyed by the attacking party
(914-24). Leon now attained the chief place among who tried to dislodge them. The Leonese opposed
the Ghristian States of Western Spain, but in the mid- Henry of Trastamare, who had killed his brother
die of the same century (the tenth) Gastile began her Pedro the Gruel (1368). After his triumph, never-
efforts to achieve her liberation from Leonese vassal- theless, Henry showed himself favourable to Leon,
age. Meanwhile Leon succumbed for a brief period confirming its privileges, and John I reformed the
to the irresistible power of Almanzor (983). But municipal government which had been established by
LBOH
176
LEON
Alfonso XI (1390). In the Cortes of 1406 and 1407 it
was declared that the representatives of Leon had the
second place in the order of voting (segundo asienio)
after those of Burgos. In 1493, Ferdinand the Catho-
lic, by his presence added solemnity to the translation
of the relics of St. Marcellus.
Geography. — ^The Province of Leon as it actually
exists, situated in the northern part of the ancient
kingdom of the same name, is hounded on the north
by the Asturias; on the east by the Provinces of
Santander and Valladolid; on the south by that of
Zamora; on the west by Galicia (Provinces of Orcnse
and Lugo). Its natural boundaries are: the Canta-
brian Mountains (which separate it from the Province
oi Oviedo on the north) from the peak of Guifia (G570
feet) to the Pena Vieja (8750 feet) ; its boundaries are
continued on the east by the range which separates
the basins of theCea and the Carrion and are prolonged
parallel to the course of both those rivers as far as
Saliagiin, tuniing thence to the south-east and fol-
lowing the course of the Cea, which bounds the
Province of Valladolid. The southern boundaries
are formed mostly by the range of the Pena Ncgra,
while the western, beginning from Pena Trevinca,
skirts Lake Bana, cros.ses the River Sil and follows
northward the heights which mark on one side the
basin of that river, towards the port of Piedrafita.
Most of the province is >\'ithin tne great Castilian
plateau, at an elevation of more than 1000 feet above
the sea level, rLsing towards the Cantabrian Moun-
tains on the north. From north to west it is drained
by the Sil and its tributaries, which receive the waters
flowing from the southern slope of the Cantabrian Moun-
tains, from the Pena Ilubia (6313 feet) onwards; from
north to south bv the Orbigo and the Berncsga, both
affluents of the fisla (which, in turn, is an alHuent of
the Duero), and by the Cea, wliicli forms the boun-
daries of the province on the east and south-east.
Verv mountainous in the north and north-west, it
becomes more level towards the south-cast, where it
marches with the celebrated ''Gothic Plains" (Camjn
GoUiici or Tierradc Camjwft). From north to soutli-
west it is traversed by the Mountains of Leon, which,
joining the Cantabrian Chain, enclose the district of
fel Vierzo, leaving no other opening but that through
which the Sil, a tributarv of the Slinho, parses.
The Province of Leon a'I)onnds in minend resources.
The carboniferous formation, which covers a wide
area in the east nms west wan 1 by the Valley of
Ponjos, penetrates into El Vierzo, and, extending
beyond Iguena, San Pedro de Mallo, and Villamartin,
reaches as far as Fal)cro. The hollows on both banks
of the I^rnesga contain deposits of coal, with vast
masses of carboniferous limestone, the exploitation
of which undoubtedly promisi»s great things for the
future of Leonesc industrv. There arc also iron,
copper, and co!)alt mines (e. g. the "Profunda", in
the municipal district of Canncnes), and a great abun-
dance of mineral waters — bicarljonate, sulphurous,
etc. The climate varies considerably — cold in the
moimtAins of the north, warm in the lowlands of the
south-cast. El Vierzo, sheltered by the mountains
from the north winds, is one of the mildest and mast
humid regions; there the vine, the olive, and fruits
of many kinds arc cultivated. In the south great
quantities of wheat and other cereals are grown, as
well as pulse, beans, esculent herbs, and excellent
silky flax. The forests are rich in l)eech, ilex, and
oak. The livestock amounts to more than a million
head of .'«heep. cattle, and swine. Tise mountainous
character of the country, rendering communication
difficult, is somewhat unfavourable to industry, which
is confinerl to that of ironworks, mills,, and the manu-
facture of flour. Leather and coarse cloth are pro-
duce<l: linseed oil is extrarterl. and cliocol:Ue and
delicious eheesi's are manufaetnnMl,
Statistics.— Lying between 12° 4' 30" and 42** 17'
north latitude, and between 1^ 6^ and 3° 2(f longitiide
east of Madrid (2® 35' 51' and 21' 5r west of Green-
wich), this provmcc lias an area of 15,377 square kilo-
meters (5934 square miles). The land under culti-
vation amounts to 937,399 hectares (2,316,313 acres),
of which 117,281 hectares (289^801 acres) are irrir
gated. The population, according to the ceiURis of
1900, was 401,172, whereas the census of 1887 save a
population of 388,830 — an increase of 12^342 inhab-
itants in thirteen years, and a proportion of 26.7
inhabitants to the sauare kilometre (about 10.31 to
the square mile). Tne Report of the Institute Geo-
graphico y Estadistico on the movement of population
for 1901 gives for the Province of Leon 14,784 birUia,
10,131 deaths, and 2987 marriages, showing that the
increase of population continues.
Civil Division. — ^The province is divided into ten
judicial districts and 234 subdivisions (ayurUamien-
tos). The judicial districts are: Astorga (an episcopal
see), La Baneza, Murias de Parcdes, Ponierrada,
Riano, Saliagiin, Valencia de D. Juan, La Vecilla,
Villafranca de Bierzo, and Leon. The capital has a
population of 17,022 inhabitants.
Ecclesiastical Division. — The Diocese of Leon
belongs to the ecclesiastical Province of Buri^os,
though that of Astorga, which is in the same avil
province, belongs to the ecclesiastical Provinoe of
Valladolid. It (Leon) consists of 345 parishes,
groui)cd in 37 archipresbyteries, and comprises pari
of the territory of the civil Provinces of Vallaoolid
and Oviedo. The lists of its bishops was interrupted
by the Arab conquest. It possesses two ecclesiastical
seminaries: that of S. Froilan and that of S. Mateo de
Valderas. The college of S. Isidoro at Leon, for poor
scholars, is incorporated with the seminary ol 8.
Froilan. There are two chapters in the diocese: that
of the cathedral, and the collegiate chapter of San
Isidoro, with an abbot and sixteen canons. The
y resent incuml)ent of the see, the Ri^t Reverend
uan Manuel Sanz y Saravfa, b. at Puebla de los In-
fantes, 30 March, 1848, was preconiscd 27 March,
1905.
Religious Communities in the Diocese, — ^At the cap-
ital there is a convent of Capucliins and a house of
Augustinians who have charge of the pupils of the
Instituto Provincial. There are also the Benedictine
nuns of Sta. Maria de Carvajal, Franciscan Conce|^
tionists, .Vugustinian nuns, and Disc^lced nuns of Sta.
Cruz, l:)esides other uncloistercil communities of
women, viz., the Sisters of Charity in the Hospital
Provincial and the Chapter Hospital and in the Asilo
Municipal, an a.sylum of the Little Sisters of the Poor,
a college of Carmelites of Charity, Servants of Jesus
for the aid of the sick, and a convent of Carmelite
Sisters. At Sahagiin three are Benedictines of Sta.
Cruz, and a hospital and college of Sisters of Charity;
at Mayorga (Province of Valladolid), a convent of
Franciscan Fathers occupied in teaching, Dominican
nuns, and a hospital of Sisters of Charity; at Castro-
verde de Campos (Province of Zamora), Franciscan
Fathers; at S. Pedro de Duenas and in the monastery
of La Vega, Bene<lictine nuns; at Villalpando, ViUa-
lobos, and Villafrechos there are Poor Clares; at
Grajal de Campos. Discalced Carmelites; at Cuenca
de Campos. Franciscan nunis; at Gradefes, Bemardine
nuns; at Villalnn, a hospital of Sisters of Charity;
at Boadilla de Rioscco. a college of Tertiarics of the
Sacrini Heart of Jesus anil Mar^-; at Saldaiia, a college
of Servants of Mary.
Education. — Besides the colleges of religious orders
already mentioned, t' ere are the Instituto Provincial
at Leon and a local institute at Ponferrada. Leon is
dependent upon the university district of 0\'iedo.
The Citif of Lrori, capital of the civil province and
also of the Dicx*ese of Leon, is situated on the River
Bernesga. at its junction with the Torio. It lias a
station on the Palencia, Conina, and Oviedo railroad
177
A part of the ancient city walls are still standing,
some of them being Roman fortifications dating from
the third centurv and decorated with tesserae. The
best preserved of these remains are in the *' Carrera de
los Cubos", on the north-west side of the city, be-
tween the cathedral and the Puerta del Castillo. The
modem city extends beyond this enclosure towards the
railroad . The most notable monuments are the cathe-
dral, the collegiate church of S . Isidoro, and the convent
of S. Marcos. The cathedral of Sta. Marfa is one of the
best examples of primitive Gothic in Spain. It is Bup-
posed to have been commenced in the middle of the
thirteenth century, in the episcopates of Nuno Alvarez
and Martin III (Femdndez) a245-80), and the fa^de
was completed at the end of the sixteenth century. Its
excessive weight caused the dilapidation which occa-
sioned repairs under the direction of Madrazo (d.
1881), Demetrio de los Rios (d. 1892), and Lazaro.
Its plan is a Latin cross, with three naves, a transept, a
choir of five naves, and a chevet of chapels. Above
the lateral arcade runs the triforium f^allery ^ and above
that again large ogival windows filled with stained
fflass of great value. The choir, in the middle of the
utrg^est nave, is magnificent Florid Gothic; the retro-
choir. Renaissance. In the centre of the space behind
the altar stands the mausoleum of Ordotio II. On the
Gospel side of the main chapel is the tomb of St.
Aivitus; on the Epistle side, that of Don Pelayo, the
Bishop; in the chapel of the Saviour, that of the
Countess Sancha; in the chapel of the Nativity, that
of Bishop Rodrigo. The cloister is in the Renaissance-
Transition ogival style. The exterior, uncovered in
front and on one side, is dominated by the spires
which crown the two lofty and massive towers; it is
sustained by pinnacles and buttresses, strengthened
with supports and abutments, and surrounded with
cornices and pierced parapets. There are two orders
of ogival windows and, opening to the west and south,
a tnple doorway which is profusely ornamented with
magnificent carvings, and gives access to a spacious
vestibule paved with marble and closed by an iron
grille. The two towers, of unequal height, stand
apart from the nave of the church from theu* bases up,
but are connected with it by means of abutments.
The northern tower, which is the less lofty, is crowned
with a parapet and an octagonal spire. Tne southern
is taller and more ornate; its octagonal spire is of
exquisite pierced work. Here, in lar^e Gothic charac-
ters, may be read: Maria — Jesiis Xps — Deus homo;
and higher up: Ave Maria — Gratia plena — Dns tecum.
The porch consists of three arcades, corresponding to
the three entrances; upon the pillar which bisects the
middle portal standis tne laiige and beautiful statue of
the Blessed Vi.^ called la Blanca (the White). To-
wards the north of the city is the basilica of S. Isidore,
predominantly Byzantine in architecture, but with the
addition of later constructions. The church has three
lofty naves. In the north transept may be read the
record of the consecration, performed by eleven bish-
ops, 6 March, 1149. In the crypt of this church is the
burial-place of the kings, which was desecrated by the
French of Napoleon's army. The convent of S. Marco
stands outsiae the city, to the west. It was once a
residence of the Knights of Santiago. Its rebuilding
was conmienced by Ferdinand the Catholic and was
completed in 1715. Its decoration is in the Plater-
esque style.
FiTA, Epigrafia romana de la ciudad de Ledn (Leon, 1806);
FL6Bas-Ri800, Etpafla Sagmda, XXXIV- VI, Memoriae de la
Sta, IgUwia exeiUa de Le&n (Madrid, 1784-86): Quadrado. Ee-
pa4a. 9ue montunentoe y ariee (Barcelona, 1S.S5): Ceneo de looo
and Movimienio de la poblacum en 1901 in Memoriae del Ineti-
Mo Geoffrdfico u Eeladtetico; Mu5^os y Romero, Fueroe munici-
poiee de Caetitta (1847); CoLBiBiRo. ConetUudun y gobiemo de
he reinoe de Le&n y CaetiUa (Madrid. 1855); Davila, Teatro
edeeideHco de Eepana, 1 (1618); LiAvina. La caledral de Leon
OCadrid. 1876); Bblloso, Anuario Ecleeidatiro de Eepaila
liAuOn Ruiz Amai>o.
Le6n, Diocese of (Leonensib), suffragan of Micho*
acan in Mexico, erected in 1863. In the early da^rt of
the discovery of Mexico the whole country was divided
into dioceses subiect to the Archbishop of Seville in
Spain as metropolitan. Among these was Michoacan,
erected as a bishopric in 1536. On 31 January, 1545,
at the request of Charles V, Paul III formed the
Archdiocese of Mexico, and Michoacan became one of
its suffragan sees, its bishop residing in what is now
the town of Morclia. In the Secret Consistory of 16
March, 1863, Pius IX divided the Diocese of Micho-
acan into the Sees of Michoacan, Zamora, Le6n, and
Queretaro. The Diocese of Le6n, which comprises
tne civil State of Guanajuato, about SOOO sq. miles
in area, and having a population of 968,163, is in
the heart of a rich agricultural country famous for
its cotton and woollen weaving. The richest silver
mines in Mexico are in the neighbourhood of Guana-
juato. The town of Guanajuato, situated 6(XX) feet
above the level of the sea, and 250 miles north-west of
Mexico, is famous also for its churches and monaster-
ies. It was founded by the Spaniards in 1554, and
has a population of 53,000, though under Spanish rule
the population exceeded 100,(X)0. Le6n, or Le6n de
los Aklamas, the chief town of the department of the
same name, is the residence of the bishop, Mgr Eme-
terio Valverde Telles. The town is situated on the
right bank of the Rio Tor bio, at a height of 50(X) feet
a}x)ve sea-level, and had a population of (>3,263 in
1900. It was founded in 1570. Another important
town in the same department is San Francisco del
Rinc6n. As an episcopal see Lc6n dates from 1863,
and its present bisiiop was elected on 7 August, 1909.
The cathedral chapter consists of 12 canons and 6 chap-
lains. There is a diocesan seminary with 24 profes-
sors, and the spiritual wants of the diocese are looked
after by 264 secular priests and 48 regulars (see Mex-
ico). Among former bishops may be mentioned Mgr
Tomas Baron y Morales, appointed 1882; Mgr Zam-
brano, appoint^^l 1886; and M^r Ruiz,appointed 1900.
Oerarehia Cattolica (1910); Ann. pont.calh. (I^IO)] Herdbb,
Konveraalion^Lcx.; Diccianario di Cieiiciaa eclesidaitcas.
J. C. Grey.
Le6n, Luis de, Spanish poet and theologian, b. at
Belmonte, Aragon, in 1528; d. at Madrigal, 23 August,
1591. lie came from an honourable bourgeois fam-
ily, his father being "king's advocate" at Madrid.
At fourteen the youth was sent to Salamanca to study
law. Six months later he entered the Augustinian
convent of that city. After completing his theolog-
ical studies and obtaining his university degrees
(1560) he was appointed to the chair of theology.
The decree of the (Jouncit of Trent as to the authen-
ticity of the Vulgate was then causing great dissen-
sion among the professors at Salamanca. Some of
them, Grajal, Martfnez, de Leon, and others continued
to use in their courses or in their exegetical writings
the Hebraic texts, the Septuagint, and even the ver-
sion of Vatable. Some, like Medina and Leon de
C^tro, saw in this a defiance of the coimcil's decree, and
eflfectively denounced their adversaries, whom they
called raljibinists. Early in 1572 Grajal and Martfnes
were arrested at Salamanca and accused of heresy.
On 27 March , de Leon met the same fate, and was in-
carcerated at Valladolid by order of the Inquisition as
l)eing their al)ettor. After examining liis ^Titings and
hearing the witnesses, the Inquisition summed up in
seventeen propositions the accusations urged against
him. In these propositions he was not charged with
heresy, but with imprudence and rashness, particu-
larly on account of his rather disrespectful apprecia-
tion of the Vulizjate. The tribunal atValladolia, after
a trial extending over nearly five years, declaI^&d
him guilty and asked that he be put to the rack and
rebuked. This sentence, however, had to be ratified
by the supreme coimcii at Madrid. But nine days later
LEOHABDI
178
T.ttnWAltTI
(7 December, 1576) this body reversed the sentence,
acquitted de Le6n, and ordered his chair to be given
back to him, but warned him to be more cautious in
his teaching. He renounced the chair, however, for
the time being, in favour of the professor who had
filled it during his absence, and was satisfied with pe-
cimiary compensation and supplementary teaching.
In 1582 he got into fresh difficulties with the Inquisi-
tion, having in some points opposed the doctrine of St.
Augustine on predestination. He was summoned be-
fore the high inquisitor at Toledo and warned to be
more circumspect. He was appointed by the Uni-
versity of Salamanca a member of the committee on
the reformation of the calendar, but in 1587 he re-
fused to act on the commission for correction of the
Vulgate, declaring that by comparing the present
version with the original one would get further away
from the Hebrew.
He was appointed provincial of his order a few days
before his death. lie left many works, published in
six volumes (Madrid, 1806-1816). The first five con-
tained his theological writings, of which the most im-
portant are BibUcal commentaries superior to any of
nis time (on Abdias, Jol), the Epistle to the Galatians,
and the Canticle of Canticles). The sixth volume
contains his vernacular writings; **La pcrfecta cas-
ada" (The Perfect Housewife); '^Delos nombres de
CYisto'^ a metrical version of the Canticle of Canti-
cles (employed against him on his trial), versions of
the Eclogues and the Georgics of Virgil, versions of
thirty odes of Horace, of forty psalms, and a few orig-
inal odes, the most cclebratect of which are: "The
Prophecy of the Tagus", "The Life of the Fields'*,
"The Serene Night", "Hymn on the Ascension".
"La pcrfecta casada", one of the gems of sixteenth
century pedagogical literature, has recently been ed-
ited by Elizabeth Wallace (Chicago University De-
cennial Publications, 1903); for a French version see
Jane Dieulafoy "La Parfaite Epouse" (Paris, 1904).
Despite a certain unevenness of style Luis de Le6n is
one of the greatest masters of Castilian lyric poetry.
His virile national spirit, at once religioas ana patri-
otic, and his rare classical purity, magnanimity, and
sure judgment conspire to save him from effeminacy,
affectation, and pedantrv.
Obraa del M. Fr. Luis de Iron (Madrid, 1804-16); Proc€«a
original nur la In'juiHcuin hizo al M. Fr. Luiz de Leon in Colrc-
ci^n tie Documentos in^diloa paro la historia de Espafta, X, XI
(Midrid. 1817): Gonzalrs de Tbjada, Vuia de Fray Luis de
Ledn (Madrid, 1863): Getino, Vida y processor del MaMtro F.
Lw'zde L6on (Salamanca. 1907) ; Ticknor, History of Spanish
Liteniturc (Benton, 1864); Ford, Luis de Let'm, the Spanish
Poet, Humanist, and Mystic in Public Mod. Lang, Assoc, of
America, XIV, no. 2; Hurtek, Nomenclator.
Antoine Degert.
Leonard!, Giovanni, Blessed. See Clerks Reg-
ular OF THE Mother of God of Lucca.
Leonardo da Vinci. See Vinci, Leonardo da.
Leonard of Chios, b. at an uncertain date on the
Island of Cliios, then under Genoese domination; d. in
Chios or in Italy, 1482. He himself savs he was of
humble parents. He entered the Dominican Order in
Chios, and after profesvsion was sent to Padua for his
philosophical ana theological studies. After ordination
ne taught at both Padua and Genoa, then at the re-
quest of Maria Justiniani returned to his native island,
and was made Bisnop of Mytileno on the island of
Lesboe by Eugene IV. Emperor Constantine Palae-
ologus had sent a request to the pope, asking that
efforts be made to effect a union between the Latin
and Greek Churches: for this purpose Leonard was
selected to accompany L«idorc, Cardinal-Bishop of
Sabina, to Constantinople. Some degree of success
was attained through tneir efforts, and a treaty was
ratified in December, 1452. However, the Greeks re-
fused the aid of the Latin troops, and in the follow-
ing year Leonard was a witness to the devastation of
the city by Mohammed II . Leonard and the cardinal
were miraculously spared from the slaughter which
ensued, the latter returning to Rome and Leonard to
his diocese. From Chios he wrote to the pope a de-
tailed account of the fall of Constantinople in a let-
ter, which is often reprinted by liistorians (" Historia
captse a Turcis Constantinopolis," Nuremberg, 1544;
P. G., CLIX, 923 sq.; Lonicer, "Chronica Turcica",
I, Frankfurt, 1578; "De capta a Mehemete II. Con-
stantinopoli Leonardi Chiensis et Godefredi Langi nar-
rationes," ed. L'Ecuy, Paris, 1823). He governed
his diocese for the next three years, until Lesboe also
fell and he was taken captive to Constantinople. He
obtained his freedom the following year, and imme-
diately wrote the pope a description of the sack of his
diocese (" Leonardi Chiensis de Lesbo a Turcis capta
epistola Pio Papa> II missa", ed. Hopf, Kdnigsb^f^
1866). His best-known writings are the two letters
mentioned above and an apologetical tract in answer
to the humanist Poggio. Both tracts with biograph-
ical sketches were edited by Michael Justinian (Avila,
1657). There is reason to believe that many of hia
letters remain unedited in the Vatican Library.
EoHARD AND Ou^iF, Scriptorcs O. p., II, 816; Strsbkb in
Kirchmlex.t s. v. Lconhard von Chios; Hopf, op. cit.
Ignatius S&aTH.
Leonard of Limousin, Saint. — Nothing abso-
lutely certain is known of his history, as his earliest
" Life ", written in the eleventh century, has no histori-
cal value whatever. According to this extraordinary
legend, Leonard belonged to a noble Frankish family
of the time of King Clovis, and St. Remy of Reims was
his godfather. After having secured from the king
the release of a great number of prisoners, and refusea
episcopal honours which Clovis offered him, he entered
a monastery at Micy near Orleans. Later he went
to Aouitaine and there preached the Gospel. Hav-
ing oI)tained, through prayer, a safe delivery for the
Queen of tlie Franks in her confinement, he received
as a gift from the king a domain at Noblac, near Li-
moges, where he founded a monastery. The veneration
paid this saint is as widely known as his history is ob-
scure and uncertain. It is true that there is no trace
of it before the eleventh century, but from that time it
spread ever^'where, and little by little churches were
aedicate<i to liim, not only in France, but in all
Western Europe, especially in England, Belgium,
Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, more partio-
utarly in Bavaria, and also in Bohemia, Poland, and
other countries. Pilgrims, among them kings, princes,
and high dignitaries of the Church, flocked to No-
blac (now St. Leonard). Numerous miracles are a^
trihutcd to him, and in one small town alone, Inchen-
hofen, Bavaria, from the fourteenth to the eighteenth
century, there are records of about 4000 favours
granted through his intercession. The saint wrought
the deliverance of captives, women in confinement,
those possessed of an evil spirit, people and beasts
afflicted with diseases. At the end of the eleventh
century his name had already become renowned
among the Crusaders captured by the Mussulmans.
He is generally represented holding chains in his
hands. His feast day is celebrated on 6 November.
PoNCELET in Ada S^., November, III, 139-209; see also
Chevalier, Bio-Bibl., s. v. A. PONCEUDT.
Leonard of Port Maurice, Saint, preacher and
ascetic writer, b. 20 Dec., 1676, at Porto Maurizio on
the Riviera di Ponente; d. at the monastery of S.
Bona Ventura, Rome, 26 Nov., 1751. The son of Dom-
enico Casanova and Anna Maria Benza, he joined, after
a brilliant course of study with the Jesuits in Rome
(Collegio Romano), the so-called Riformella, an off-
shoot of the Ref ormati branch of the Franciscan Order
(see Friars Minor, II, P, (2)]. On 2 October, 1697,
he received the habit, and, after making Ins no-
vitiate at Ponticelli in the Sabine mountains, he
completed his studies at the principal house of the
LEONIDAS
179
UBOMTIUB
Rifonnella, S. Bonaventura on the Palatine at Rome.
After his ordination he remained there as lector (pro-
feasor), and expected to be sent on the Chinese mis-
sions. But he was soon afterwards seized with severe
gastric haemorrhage, and became so ill that he was
sent to his native climate of Porto Maurizio, where
there was a monastery of the Franciscan Observants
(1704). After four years he was restored to health,
and began to preach in Porto Maurizio and the vicin-
ity. When Cosimo III de' Medici lianded over the
monastery del Monte (that on San Miniato near
Florence, also called Monte alle Croci) to the mem-
bers of the Riformella, St. Leonard was sent hither
under the auspices and by desire of Cosimo III, and
began shortly to give missions to the people in Tus-
cany, which were marked by many extraordinary
conversions and great results. Ilis colleagues and he
always practised the greatest austerities and most
severe penances during these missions. In 1710 he
founded the monastery of Incontro, on a peak in the
mountains about four and a quarter niih^ from Flor-
ence, whither he and his assistants could retire from
time to time after missions, and devote themselves to
spintual renewal and fresii austerities.
In 1720 he crossed the borders of Tuscany and held
his celebrated missions in Central and Southern Italy,
enkindling with zeal the entire population. Clement
XII and Benedict XIV called him to Rome; the latter
especially held him in liigh esteem both as a preacher
and as a propagandist, and exacted a promise that
he would come to Rome to die. Everywhere the saint
made abundant conversions, and was very often
obliged both in cities and country districts to preach
in the open, as the churches could not contain the
thousands who came to listen. He foundecl manv
ptous societies and confraternities, and exerted himself
especially to spread the devotion of the Stations of the
Croas — the propagation of which he greatly furthered
with the assistance of his brethren — the devotion to the
Sacred Heart of Jesus, the pcrptitual adoration of the
Most Blessed Sacrament, and devotion to the Inmiac-
ulate Conception. One of his most ardent desires
was to see the last-named defined as a dogma of
faith by the Holy See. Besides the celebrated stations
in the Colosseum at Rome, St. Leonard erected 571
others in all parts of Italy, while on his different mis-
sions. From May to November, 1744, he preached
in ^e Island of Corsica, which at that time belonged
to the Republic of Genoa and which was frightfully
torn by party strife. In November, 1751, when he
was preaching to the Bolognese, Benedict XIV called
him to Rome, as already there were indications of his
rapidly approaching end. The strain of liis mission-
ary labours and his mortifications had completely
exhausted his body. He arrived on the evening of 26
November, 1751, at liis beloved monastery of S. Bona-
ventura on the Palatine, and expired on the same
night at eleven o'clock at the age of seventy-five. In
the church of this monastery (which must soon make
way for the excavations of the ground occupied by the
palace of the Csesars) the partly incorrupt body of the
saint is kept in the high altar. Pius Vl pronounced
his beatification on 19 June, 170(5, and Pius IX his
canonization on 29 June, 1867. The Franciscan
Order celebrates his feast on 26 November, but out-
side this order it is often celebrated on 27 November.
The numerous writings of the saint consist of- ser-
mons, letters, ascetic treatises, and books of devotion
for the use of the faithful and of priests, especially
missionaries. The "Diary" (Diario) of his missions
is written by Fra Diego da Firenze. A treasure for
asceticism and homiletics, many of his writings have
been translated into the most diverse languages and
often repubUshed: for example his "Via Sacra spia-
nata ed illuminata" (the Way of the Cross simplified
and explained), "II Tesoro nascosto" (on the Holy
Mass); his celebrated *' Proponimenti ", or resolutions
for the attainment of higher Christian perfection. A
complete edition of his works appearea first at Rome
in tnirteen octavo volumes (1853-84), "Collezione
completa delle opere di B. Leonardo da Porto Mauri-
zio . Then another in five octavo volumes, " Opjerc
complete di S. Leonardo di Porto Maurizio " (Venice,
1868-9). In English, German etc., only single works
have been issued, but a French translation of the
entire set has appeared: "(Euvres completes de S.
Leonard de Port-Maurice" (8 vols., Paris and Tour-
nai, 185S), and "Sermons de S. Leonard de Port
Maurice" (3 vols., Paris).
Summarium processus beatificationis V. S, D. Leon, a P. M.
(Rome, 1781); IUpaello da Roma, Vita del P. Leonardo da
P. M. (Rome, 1754) ; Jos. i>e Masserano, Vita del B. Leonardo
da P. M. (Rome, 179C), written by the postulntor and dedi-
cated to the Duke of York, son of James [III] of EDgland; Sau-
VATORE DI Ormea, Vita del B. Leonardo da P. M. (Rome, 1851);
Heithauhen and Gehlen, Lcben dca ael. Leonhard von P. Af .
(Innabruck, 1869) ; L. de CnERANcfe, S. Leonard de Port-Maurice
(Paris, 1903) in Xouvelle Bibliothique Franciscaine (Ist seriee),
aIII. Chapter xx of this last-mentioned work had already ap-
peartMi in Etudes Franciscaines, VIII (Parifl. 1902) , 501-10.
Michael Bihl.
Leonidas (or Leonides), Saint. — ^The Roman
Martyrology records several feast days of martyrs of
this name in different countries. Under date of 28
January there is a martyr called Leonides, a native
of the Thebaid, whose death with several companions
is supposed to have occurred during the Diocletian
Krsecution (Acta SS., January, II, 832). Another
^onides appears on 2 September, in a long list of max^
tvrs headed by a St. Diomcdes. Together with a St.
Eleutherius, a Lconides is honoured on 8 August.
From other sources we know of a St. Leonidas, Bishop
of Athens, who lived about the sixth century, and
whose feast is celebrated on 15 April (''Acta SS. ", April
II, 378; "Bibliothecahagiographicapwca", 2 ed.,137).
Still another mart>T of the name is honoured on 16
April, with Callistus, Char>'sius, and other companions
(Acta SS., April, II, 402). The best known of them
all, however, is St. Lconides of Alexandria, father of the
great Origcn. From Eusebius (Hist. Eccles., VI, 1, 2)
we learn that he died a martyr during the persecution
under Scptimius Severus in 202. He was condemned
to death by the prefect of Egypt, Lactus, and be-
headed. His property was confiscated. Lconides
carefully cultivated the brilliant intellect of his son
Origen from the latter's childhood, and imparted to
him the knowledge of Holy Scripture. The feast of
St. Leonidas of Alexandria is celebrated on 22 April.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Leontias, Saint, Bishop of Fr^jus, in Provence,
France, b. probably at Nimes, towards the end of the
fourth century; d. in his episcopal town in 433, ac-
conling to some authorities, though others say 445
or even 448. The date of his episcopal ordination is
uncertain, but most likely it took place between the
years 400 and 419; indeed the obscurity surrounding
his life has not been entirely dissipated by the most
conscientious labours of historians. It is however,
indisputable that he was a man of eminent sanctity,
and nis episcopate was marked with important re-
sults, else ne would not have been from an early date
associated with the Blessed Virgin as patron of tlie
cathedral church of Fr^jus. A tenth-century docu-
ment mentions him in this connexion. There is reason
to believe that he was a brother of St. Castor, Bishop
of Apt, and that consequently like him he was a
native of Nimes. At times he nas been mistaken for
other persons of the same name, especially for Leon-
tius. Bishop of Aries, who lived at the end of the fifth
century. But besides the diflference in time, the im-
portant events associated with the name of the latter
Leontius render the identification impossible. The
principal occurrence during the episcopate of Leontius
of Frejus was the establishment of the monastery of
Lerins at the beginning of the fif^ century. Hienaine
UBOMTIUS
180
XAOHTIUB
of this bishop is inseparably united to that of Bono-
ratus, the founder of the monastery, and ho seems to
have played an important part in tne development of
the monastic life in the south-east of Gaul. Honoratus
called him his superior and his father, whilst Cassian,
who i^ovemed the numerous religious of the Abbey of
St. Victor at Marseilles, dedicated most of his "Con-
ferences '* to him.
The relations of the monastery of L^rins to the
diocesan bishop were most cordial and liberal. Some
writers believe that this was due merely to the com-
mon custom of the age, but others hold, and not with-
out reason it would seem, that it was the result of
special privileges granted by Leontius to Honoratus,
with whom he was intimately united in the bonds of
friendship. Be that as it may, these regulations,
which, while safeguarding the episcopal dignity, as-
sured the independence of the monastery, and were
confirmed by the Third Council of Aries, seem to have
been the beginning of those immunities, which hence-
forward were enjoyed in an increasing degree by the
religious communities. Moi-eovcr, the most conlial
relations existed between the saint and the sovereign
pontiffs. This is proved by the fact that St. Leo I,
after his memorable quarrel with St. Honoratus,
Bishop of Aries, deprived the latter of the preroga-
tives which j^ave him a kind of primacy over the
district of Vienne, and bestowed tncm on L<jontius.
It is true that this important event took place only in
445, whilst Leontius had been succeeded in the epis-
copate by Theodore in 4'Xi. That is why some author-
ities have held that these prerogatives were granted
to another Bishop of Frt5jus, likewise named leontius,
who would have been a successor of Theodore. To
this the supporters of a loved tradition reply that St.
Leontius abandoned his see in 432 to go and preach
the Gospel to the Teutonic tribes, and returned to his
diocese in 442, dying only in 445 or even 448. Un-
fortunately no very solid proof of this apostolat« can
be adduced. Consequently it is still quite uncertain
whether or not the Diocese of Fr^ius had more than
one bishop called Leontius. Another tradition, mak-
ing St. Leontius a martyr, does not seem older than the
beginning of the thirteenth centurv, and merits no
credence. Earlier and better authenticatoil docu-
ments give him the title of confessor, which alone
is accurate.
Antelmi, De initna Ecclcaia ForojultcnHis (Aix, 1080), «')a-
128; BouciiE, Deacription de /«i Frovcncr, I (Aix, 1664), 578-9;
DlSDiER, Recherches hiatorifiUfa sur Saint Lroncr, vvfqtie tie Fri-
jua rt jHitron du diociae in bull, dc In Soc. d'rtiuU-a acirnt. arvfuol.
de Draguignan (DraKiii«iian, 1S02-1.S65), IV, 204. 307: V. 71.
138; DU Four, S. Lconliua epiacopua et martur auia Forojulicntfi-
bua reatitutua (Aviffnon, 16158); Girardiv, lliatoire de la vxlle et
de ViglUe de Frcjua. II (Pans, 172U), 40-88. 131-152; Tillk-
MONT, Mem. pour aervir a Vhiatoire ecclea., XII (Paris, 1707;,
468-70. 476-77, 676-79.
L£oN Clugnet.
Leontiiis Byzantiniis (\e6mot Bu^it^iof), an im-
portant theologian of the sixth century. In spit« of
nis deserveil fame there are few Christian writers whose
lives have been so much dlscusse<l. Till quite lat<jly
even his period was not considered certain. Bellar-
mine and Labbe placed him before the fifth general
council (Constantmoi)le a. d. 553; cf. "Scriptores ec-
des.", Venice, 1728, VII, 204). He has been assigned
to the time of Gregory the Great (590-604; Mineus,
"Bibl. eccl.", Antwerp, 1639, 211); identified with
Origenist Leonti
of St. Sabas " by Cyril of Scythopolis (Canisius-Bas-
nage, "Thesaurus monum. eccles.", Antweri>, 1725, 529
and 533) . There is, or was, the same uncertainty about
his works; the authenticity of many books under his
name has been discussed continually. In short, Fa-
bridus said with some reason that (at his time) it was
Impoesible to come to any clear conception of who
Leontius really was, or what he really wrote (Fabriciua-
Harles, *'Biblioth. Graca"^ Hamburg, 1802, VIII,
310). In his account of hmiself, in a work whose
authenticity is undisputed (Contra Nest, et Eutych.),
he says that in his youth he had belonged to the
Nestorian sect, but was converted by "holy men who
cleansed his heart by the works of true theoloi;;ian8 "
(P. G., LXXXVI, 1358 and 1360). Other ^rorks
("Adv. Nest.", and "Adv. Monoph.") describe him In
their title as a monk of Jerusalem (P. G., LXXXVL
1399 and 1769). Friedrich Loofs has made a special
study of his life and works. As far as the Life is con-
cerned, his conclusion is accepted in the main by £hr-
hard and Krumbacher (Byzant. Litt., 55), Barden-
hewer (Patrologie, 50&-508), and to some extent
Riigamer.
According to Loofs, Leontius was the monk of that
name who came with others (Scythians) to Rome in
519, to try to persuade Pope Hormisdas (514-^523) to
authorize the formula (suspect of Monophysitism)
"One of the Trinity suflferea ", and was also the Ori-
genist Leontius of the " Vita S. Sabs ". He was bom,
probably at Constantinople, about 485, of a distin-
guished family related to the imperial general Vitalian.
He then joinc<l the Xestorians in Scythia, but was con-
verted and became a stanch defender of Ephesua.
Early in his life he became a monk. He came to Con-
stantinople in 519, and then to Rome as part of the
embassy of Scythiim monks. After that he was for a
time in Jerusalem. In 531 he took part in public dis-
putes arranged by Justinian (527-565) between Catb-
olics and the Monophysite followers of Sevenis of
Antioch (538). He stayed at the capital till about
538, then went back to his monastery at Jerusalem.
Later he was again at Constantinople^ where he died,
apparently before the first Edict agamst the "Three
Chapters (544). Loofs dates his death at "about
5-1.'] . His change of residence accounts for the va-
rious descriptions of him as "a monk of Jerusalem"
and "a monk of Constantinople". This theory, ex-
plained and defended at length by Loofs, supposes the
identification of our author with the "Venerable monk
Leontius and Legate of the Fathers (monks) of the
holy citv (Jerusalem) " who took part in Justinian's
controversy (Mansi, VIII, 818; cf. 911 and 1019);
with the Scythian monk Leontius who came to Rcnne
in 519 (Mansi, VIII, 498 and 499); and with the Ori-
genist Leontius of Byzantium, of whom Cyril of Scy-
thopolis writes in his "Life of St. Sabas" (Cotclerius,
"Ecclesiie gra>ci© monumenta", Paris, 1686).
Riigamer admits the period of Leontius's life de-
fende* i l)y Ix)ofs (this may now be considered accepted),
and the identification with the disputant at Constanti-
nople (Tjcontius von Byzanz, 56-58). He thinks his
identity with the Scythian monk to be doubtful.
Leontius himself never mentions Scythia as a place
where he has lived; he does not defend the famous
sentence "One of the Trinity suffered" with the ar-
dour one would expect in one of its chief patrons (ibid.,
pp. 54-56). Riigamer altogether denies the identifi-
cation with the Origenist Leontius. Had he been an
Origenist his name would not be so honoured in B^
zantine tradition, where he appears as "blessed ,
"all-wise", and "a great monk^' (ibid., pp. SS-GS).
According to Rugamer, Leontius spent his youth and
became a Nestorian at Constantinople at tne time of
the •Henoticon schism (482-519). lie went after his
conversion to Jerusalem and became a monk there. He
had never been a public orator, as some authors
(Nirschl, "Lehrbuch der Patrologie und Patristik",
Mainz, 1S85, p. 553) conclude from the title trxoXatfriipfc
(the common one for such persons; it is often given to
him). On the contrary, he shows no special legal or
forensic training, and never refers to such a career in
his youth . So a-xo\a(mKln in his case can only mean a
learned man. He came to Constantinople for the dis-
putation, went back to Jerusalem, was superior of •
UBOHTOPOLIS 181 LSPANTO
monaatery there, was an enemy of Theodore of Moi> physites, hus Aristotellanisin marks an epoch in the
Buestia, but yet aid not desire the condemnation of the history of Christian philosophy. He has been de-
"Three Chapters", and died after 5o3 (op. cit., pp. scribed as the first of the Scholastics (Krumbacher*
4^72). Ehrhard, " Byzantinische Litteratur", p. 54).
The works ascribed to Leontius Byzantinus are: Works m P. C., LXXXVI; Jjwrs, Das Lel^ und die pole-
(1) three books Agamst the Nestonans and Eutych- ^^^^ Leontius von Byzam (Wuraburg, 1894) ;Juncjlah. leontius
Ums (commonly quoted as ^Contra Nestonanos et von Byzam (PaderBom, lOOO); Krumbacber, GeschichU der
EutychianosV, P. G., LXXXVI, 1267-1396). This byzantinischm LiUeratur (Munich 189;). 54-56; Bardbn-
is cirtainly authentii (in other words, the person "^^^''' ^ "''^'*^' ''• ®"^'^'' ^^'^ a"S^^ F^^^
about whom they dispute is the author of thLs work).
It is his eariiest composition. Book I refutes the Leontopolis, a titular archiepiscopal see of Augus-
Oppodte heresies of Nestorius and Eutyches, and e»- tamnica Secunda. Strain) (XVII, 1, 19, 20) places it
tablishes the Faith of Chalcedon. Book II, in dia- near Mendete and DiospolLs, and savs (XVII, 1, 40)
logue form, refutes the heresy of the Aphthartodocetes that the inhabitants worshipped a lion, whence the
(mitigated Monophysites who made our Lord's human name of the town. In reality, the name comes, from
nature incorruptible during His hfe on earth— there- Horus. whoacconlingtoEgjptian mythology changed
fore not a true human nature) . Book III (the title of himself into a lion (Naville.'^'- Textes relat if s au mj'the
this book in Migne belongs really to Book II) accuses d'llonis ", XVIII, 2) . Ptolemy (IV, 5, 22) also men-
theNestorians of dishonest practices to make converts, tions the nome and the metropolis of Leontopolis.
and vehemently attacks Theodore of Mopsuestia. The The geographers Hierocles, George of Cyprus, and
whole work is full of well-selected quotations from the others call that locality Acon-cA, reserving the name of
Fathers, and shows great learning and controversial Leontopolis for a town in the province of iEg>T)ta Prima;
skill. All the other works have btH?n disput^'d, at similarly in the signatures of Vnshops collected by
least in their present form. (2) "Against the Mono- Le Quien (Oriens Christianus, II, 55,3) Leonto is al-
^ymtes" (*' Adv. Monophysitas", P. G., LXXXVI, wavs found. Leonto is the modem Tell Mokdam on
1709-1902), m two parts, but incomplete. Part 1 the right bank of the Nile (l)amietta branch), near
•igues philosophically from the idea of nature; part the railwav from Cairo to Damietta which follows the
II quotes the witness of the Fathers, and refutes text« left bank of the river. At Tell Mokdam may be seen
alleged to favour Monophysitism. (3) "Against the the remains of a temple of Osorkon II. the other
Nestorians" (*' Adv. Nestorianos ", P. G., LXXXVI, Leontopolis was situateil near Ueliopolis or Mataryeh.
ia»9^1768)^meiphtbooks.of which the last is wa^^^^^ Here in the reign of Ptolemy Philometor, the Jewish
lest Onias built a temple to Jahveh, afterwards
by Vespasian. Callinice in Syria was called
work " (Nirschl, op. cit., 555), explaining high priest Onias built a temple to Jahveh, afterwards
and defending all the issues against this heresv. Book closed by Vespasian. Callinice in Syria was called
title Theotokoa; book VII defends the Leontopolis, also a town in Isauria (Le Quien, " Oriens
of the Trinity suffered ". (4) '* Scho- Christianus ", II, 1021) not yet recognized.
«t8" ("De Sectis", P. G., LXXXVI, » , / j ^, VailhI:.
TV defends the
fonnula: *'One
lia" or "Of Sects
119^-1268); ten chapters called "Acts" (irp<l^«f)
r. G., LXXXVI, 1915-46). A refutation of Mono- inated in the traditional building of a fleet there by
I>hy8iti8m in dialogue form. It supposes a Monophy- the Ileraclidae (Stralw), IX, iv, 7). The site must have
site work (otherwise unknown) whose order it follows. Ix^n chosen on account of the strong position of the
(6) "Thirty chapters against Severus" ("Triginta hill, the fertile plains of the neighbourhood, and the
capita", P. 0., LXXXVl, 1901-16), a short work many streams. Situated on the coast of Locris, it
with many parallels to the preceding one. (7) originally belonged to the Locri Ozola; but was subse-
"Against the frauds of the ApollinarLst** " (**Adv. quently taken by the Athenians, who in 455 b. c, after
fraiuies Apollinaristarum", P. G., LXXXVI, 1947- tlie Third Messenian War, established there the Mes-
76), a very important work, the beginning of the senian helots, the bitter enemies of Sparta (Pausanias,
diBCOveiy of the works of Apollinaris of Laodicea IV, xxv, 7;X, xxxviii, 10). After the battle of ^Egos-
which still occupies the minds of students. It is an potami (404 b. c), the Spartans captured Naupactus,
examination of certain works attributed to Athana- drove out the Messenians. and restored the town to the
flius, Gregory Thaumaturgus, and I'ope Julius, which Locri Ozolaj. Sul)sequently, it pa-sseil in turn to the
are declaireci to be really by Apollinaris, and fraudu- Acha»ans, the Thel)an8, andto Philip of Macedon, who
lentlv attributed to these Fathers by his followers, gave it to tlie ^Etolians; hence it was sometimes called
(8) ''^Discussions of Sacred Things", by Leontius and the "City of the ^tolians" (Strabo, TX, iv, 7). For
John ("De^ rebus sacris", P. G., LXXXVI, 2017- two months Naupactus fiercely resisted the Romans,
2100). This is a recension of the second book of the who under M. Acilius Glabrio finally (191 b. c.) cap-
"SacniParallela" (collections of text^ of the P'at hers) tured the iovra. Pausanias (X, xxxviii, 1*2-13) saw
of which a version is also attributed to St. John Da^ there near the sea a temple of Poseidon, another of
Iiia8cene(c.760). (9) Two homilies by a priest Leon- Artemis, a cave dedicated to Aphrodite, ami the ruins
tius of Constantinople (P. G., LXXXVI, 1975-2004), of a temple of iEsculapius. During Jitstinian's reign
eertainly another person. Of these works, (1) is
eertainly genuine, (8) and (9) are certainly not. The
"De rebus sacris" was probably composed between _._ ,, , , ,
614 and 627. The Leontius of the title is a bishop of only ten of its Greek bishops, the first of whom took
that name of Salamis in Cyprus. Of the others, Loofs part in the Council of Ei)hcsus (431), but our manu-
thinks that (5) and (6) are fragments of a large work by script lists contain ninety-eight names. The metro-
LeontiusByzantinus, called ''Scholia"; (2), (.3), and (4) politan See of Naupactus deixinded on the pojw, as
ara later works founded on it. (7) is by anotlier (un- Western Patriarch, until 733, when Leo III the Isau-
known) author, written between 511 and 520. Ruga- rian annexed it to the Patriarchate of Constantinople,
mer, on the other hand, defends the authenticity in In the early years of the tenth century it had eight suf-
thelr present form of all these works, except (8) f ragan see's (Gelzer, " Ungedruckte . . . Texte der
and (9).^ Notitia? epLscopatuum ", Munich, 1900, p. 557); nine
LeoQtiuB of Bsrsantium is, in any case, a theologian about 1175 under Emperor Manuel Comnenus (Par-
ol great hnportaiice. Apart from the merit of his they, "Hieroclis Synecdemus", Berlin. 1866, p. 121),
OODUuvunial work against Nestorians and Moao- but only four at the close of the fifteenth century (Gel-
LEPROSY
182
LIPB08T
HBTf op. dt., 635). Annexed to the Greek Orthodox
Churcn in 1827, the see was suppressed in 1900, and
replaced h}r the See of Acamania and Naupactia,
whose seat is at Missolonghi; the limits of this diocese
are identical with those of the nome iBtolia and Aoar-
nania. As to the Latin archbiBhops of Naupactus
during the Frankish occupation, Le Ouien (Oriens
Christ., Ill, 995) and Euoel (Hierarchia catholica
medii »vi, I, 379; II, 222) mention about twenty in
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
Occupied by the Turks in 1498. Lepanto is chieflv
celebrated for the victory which tne combined panal,
Spanish, Venetian, and Genoese fleets^ under Don
John of Austria, ^ined over the Turkish fleet on 7
Oct., 1571. The latter had 208 galleys and 66 small
^ps ; the Christian fleet about the same numl)er. The
crusaders lost 17 ships and 7500 men; 15 Turkish
ships were sunk and 177 taken, from 20,000 to 30,000
men disabled, and fxom 12 000 to 15,000 Cluastian
rowers, slaves on the Turkisn galleys, were delivered.
Thougn this victory did not accomplish all that was
hoped for, since the Turks appeared the verj' next year
with a fleet of 250 ships before Modon and Cape Alata-
pan, and in vain offered battle to the Christians, it was
of ^at importance as being the first great defeat of
the infidels on sea. Held by the Venetians from 1687
to 1689, and thence by the Turks until 1827, it became
in the latter year part of the new Greek realm. To-
day Naupactus, chief town of a district in the province
of Acamania and iEtolia, has 4,500 inhabitants, all
Orthodox Greeks. The roadstead is rather small and
edited up; the strait connects the Bay of Patras with
the Gulf of Corinth.
S. Vailh6.
Z^sprosy. — Leprosy proper, or lepra tuberculosa, in
contradistinction to other skin diseases commonly
designated by the Greek word 'Khrpa (psoriasis, etc.),
is a chronic mfectious disease caused by the bacillus
lepras, characterized by the formation of growths in
the skin, mucous membranes, peripheral nerves, lx>nes,
and internal viscera, producing various deformities
and mutilations of the human body, and usually
terminating in death.
I. History op the Disease. — Leprosy was not
uncommon in India as far back as the fifteenth cen-
tury B. c. (Ctesias, Pers., xli; llerodian, I, i, 38), and
in Japan during the tenth century b. c. Of its origin
in these regions little is known, but Egypt lias always
been r^arded as the place whence the disease was
carried mto the \Vest<?m world. That it was well
known in that country is evidenced by documents of
the sixteenth century b. c. (Ebers Papyrus); ancient
writers attribute the infection to the waters of the
Nile (Lucretius, "De Nat. rer.", VI, 1112) and the
unsanitary diet of the people (Galen) . Various causes
helped to spread the disease beyond Egypt. Fore-
most amon^ these causes Manetho places Sbe Hebrews,
for, according to him, they were a mass of leprosy of
which the I^vptians rid their land (*'Hist. Grsec.
Fragm.", ed. Didot, II, pp. 578-81). Though this is
romance, there is no doubt but at the Exodus the
contamination had affected the Hebrews. From
Egypt Phoenician sailors also brought leprosy into
Syria and the countries with which they had commer-
cial relations, hence the name ''Phoenician disease"
given it by Hippocrat'CS (Prorrhetics, II); this seems
to be borne out by the fact that we find traces of it
alon^ the Ionian coasts about the eighth century b. c.
fHesiod, quoted by Eustathius in "Comment, on
Odyss.", p. 1746), and in Persia towards the fifth
century b. c. (Herodotus). The dispersion of the
Jews after the Restoration (fifth centur\') and the
campaigns of the Roman armies (Pliny, " Hist. Nat.",
XXVI) are held responsible for the" propagation of
the disease in Western Europe: thus were the Roman
colonies of Spain, Gaul, ana Britain soon infected.
In Christian times the canons of the early oounoils
(Ancyra, 314), the regulations of the popes (e. g., th«
famous letter of Gr^ory II to St. Boniface), the lawp
enacted by the Lombam King Rothar (seventh oen«
tury), by Pepin and Charlemagne (eighth century),
the erection of leper-houses at Verdun, Metx, Mae»>
tricht (seventh century), St. Gall (eighth century),
and Canterbur>' (1096) bear witness to -the existence
of the disease in Western Europe during the Middle
Ages. The invasions of the Arabs and/Iater on, the
Crusades greatly aggravated the scourge, which spared
no station in life and attacked even royal families.
Lepers were then subjected to most stringent regu-
lations. They were excluded from the church by a
funeral Mass and a symbolic burial (Mart^e, Da
Rit. ant.," Ill, x). In every important conmiunity.
asylums, mostly dedicated to St. Lazarus and attended
by religious, were erected for the unfortunate victims.
Matthew Paris (1197-1259) roughly estimated the
number of these leper-houses in Europe at 19,000,
France alone having about 2000, and England over
a hundred. Such lepers as were not confined within
these asylums had to wear a special garb, and cany
"a wooden clapper to give warning of their approaco.
They were forbidden to enter inns, churches, mills, or
bakehouses, to touch healthy persons or eat with
them, to wash in the streams, or to walk in narrow
footpaths" (Creighton). (See below: IV. Leprosy
in the Middle Ages.) Owing to strict legislation, lep-
rosy gradually oisappeareil, so that at the close of the
seventeenth century it had become rare except in
some few localities. At the same time it began to
spread in the colonies of .Vmerica and the islands of
Oceanica. ''It is endemic in Northern and East^n
Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, Persia, India, China and
Japan, Russia, Norway and Sweden, Italy^ Greece,
France, Spain, in the islands of the Indian and Pacific
Oceans. It is prevalent in central and South America*
Mexico, in the West Indies, the Hawaiian and Philip-
pine islands, Australia and New Zealand. It is alsa
found in New Brunswick, Canada. In the United
States, the majority of cases occur in Louisiana and
California, while from many other States cases are
occasionally reported, notably from New York, Ohio.
Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Missouri, the Carolinas ana
Texas. In Louisiana leprosy has been gaining foot-
hold since 1758, when it was introduced by the Acad-
ians" (Dyer). According to the statistics furnished
by delegates to the second international conference on
leprosy (at Bergen, Non^'ay, Sept., 1909), there are
approximately 200,000 cases of the disease throughout
the world: India, it is stated, coming first with 97,340
cases; the United States contributing 146 cases, and
the Panama Canal Zone the minimum of 7 cases.
II. Patholooy. — How leprosy originated is un-
known: bad nutrition, bad hygiene, constitutional
conditions (tuberculosis, alcoholism, probably hered-
ity, etc.) seem to favour its production and propaga-
tion. The disease is immediately caused by the in-
fection of the bacillus lejrrce, a small rod bacillus from
.003 mm. to .007 mm. in length and .0005 mm. in
diameter, straight or slightly curved, with pointed,
rounded, or club-shaped extremities, usually found
in short chains or beads. This bacillus, discovered
in 1868 by Hansen, has been described since 1880 by
many specialists, particularly by Byron, who suc-
ceeded in cultivating it in agar-agar (C«ylon moss).
It is present in all leprous tissues and the secretions
(urine excepted; Kobner claims to have seen it in the
blood), and has been repeatedly observed in the earth
taken from the graves of lepers (Brit. Lepr. Commission
of India). There is on record only one case — and
this somewhat doubtful — of leprosy communicated
by artificial inoculation. As to whether it is con-
tagious from person to person, this was for years a
much mooted question among specialists; although a
scientific demonstration of contagiousness is so far
LSP&OSY
183
ZJBPR0S7
impossible — ^the mode of contamination being as yet
unascertained, as well as the p>eriod of incubation of
the germ — still there are unimpeachable practical
prooid of contagion, such as the effect of isolation on
the spread of the disease, and cases of healthy persons
contracting the disease when exposed (Fathers Da-
mien and Boglioli, nurses, and attendants), even acci-
dentally, as in the instance of a medical student who
cut himself while making a post-mortem on a leper.
In the international conference at Borgen, these evi-
dences were deemed convincing enough to call for a
declaration that the disease be considered contagious.
The period of incubation is *^est;imated at from a
few weeks to twenty and even forty years" (Dyer).
Like most infections, leprosy has a preliminary stage,
uncertain in its character: there are loss of appetite,
dyspepsia, and nausea, neuralgia, rheumatic and ar-
ticular pains, fever, intermittent or irregular, unac-
countable lassitude and anxiety. Those premonitory
symptoms, which may last for months, arc followed
by periodical eruptions. Blotches, first reddish, then
brown with a white border, appear and disappear in
various parts of the body ; sooner or later small tumours,
filled with a veliowish substance fast turning to
a darker hue, rise sometimes on the joints, but oftener
on tl^ articulations of the fingers and toes. These
tumours, however, are not yet specifically leprous; at
the end they may leave permanent spots, pale or
brown, or nodules. Then the disease, manifested
by the apparition of specifically leprous formations,
diverges into different varieties, according as it affects
the skin and mucous membranes (cutaneous leprosy),
or the nerves (anaesthetic), or both (mixed, or com-
plete); each of these varieties, however, merges
frequently into the others, and it is sometimes difficult
to araw the line between cases.
Cutaneous leprosy is either macular or tulwi'cular.
The former variety is characterized by dark (L. inacu-
loaa nigra) y or whitish (L. m. alba) spots, usually form-
ing on the place of the old blotches; the eruption, at
first only intermittent, turns finally into an obstinate
ulcer with constant destruction of tissue; the ulcera-
tion usually begins at the joints of the fingers and
toes, which drop off joint by joint, leaving a well-
healed stump (L. mutilans); it is sometimes prece<led
by, and ordinarily attended with, anaesthesia, which,
starting at the extremities, ext^inds up the limbs, ren-
dering them insensible to heat and cola, pain, and even
touch. ,In the tubercular tvpe, no<losities of leprous
tissue, which may reach tbe size of a walnut, are
formed out of the blotches. They may occur on anv
part of the body, but usually affect the face (forehead,
eyelids, no.se, lips, chin, cheeks, and ears), thickening
all the features ami giving them a leonine appearance
{leonh'ams, satyr hr.ia). Tuljercular leprosy develops
rapidFy. and, when attacking the extremities, its des-
tructive process has the same effect of ulceration,
mutilation, and deformity as has l>een mentioned
above. Scarcely different from the prc^reding in the
period of invasion is the course of anaesthetic leprosy,
one of the characttjristic s>Tnptoms of which is the
antesthosia of the little finger, which may occur even
before anj' lesions appear. The ulcer, at first usually
localized on one finger, attacks one by one the other
fingers, then the other hand; in some cases the feet
are affected at the same time, in others their ulceration
follows that of the hands. Neuralgic psLins accompany
the invasion, and a thickening of certain nerves may
be observed; motor-paralysis gradually invades the
face, the hands, and the feet, ronsequent upon this,
the muscles of the face become contracted and dis-
torted by atrophy; ectropitm of the lower lids prevents
the patient from slmttinsc his eyes; the lips become
flabby, and the lower one drops. The sense of touch
and muscle-control being lost, the hands are unable to
msp, and the contraction affecting the muscles of the
forearm produces the claw-hand. In the lower ex-
tremities analogous effects are produced, resulting
first in a shuffling gait and finally in complete incar
pacity of motion. Then the skin shrinks, the hair,
teeth, and nails fall, and the lopping-off process of ne-
crosis may extend to the loss of tiie entire hand or foot.
The mixed variety of leprosy is the combination and
complete development of the two types just described.
In all cases a peculiar offensive smeH, recalling that of
the dissecting-room mixed with the odour of goose
feathers — the authors of the Middle Ages compared it
to that of the male-goat — is emitted by the leper, and
renders him an oi)ject of repulsion to all who come
near him. Add the torture of an unouenchable thirst
in the last stages of the disease, and, as the patient
usually preserves his mind unaffected to the end, the
utter prostration resulting from his complete helpless-
ness and the sight of the slow and unrelenting process
of decomposition of his bmly, and it is easy to under-
stand how truly, in the Book of Job (xviii, 13), lep-
rosy is called "the firstborn of death".
The average course of leprosy is about eight years,
the mixed type being more rapidly concluded.
" Death is the ordinary conclusion of everv case, which
may come (in 3S per cent of cases) from the exhaustive
effects of the disease, from an almost necessary septi-
caemia, or from some intercurrent disease, as nephritis
(in 22.5 per cent); from pulmonary diseases including
phthisis (in 17 per cent), diarrhoea (in 10 per cent),
anosmia (in 5 per cent), remittent fever (in 5 per cent),
peritonitis (in 2.5 per cent)" (Dyer).
So far leprosy has baffled all the efforts of medical
science: almost every conceivable method of treat-
ment has })een attempted, yet with no appreciable
success. Occasionally the treatment has been fol-
lowed by such long periods of remission of the disease
(fifteen or twenty years) as might lead one to believe
the cure altogether complete; still, specialists continue
to hold that in such instances the virulence of the
bacillus is, through causes unknown, merely sus-
pended, and may break forth again. It being ad-
mitted that the disease is l>oth contagious and pre-
ventible, there seems to he no doubt that means of
public protection should be provided. To answer this
purpose, several countries (Nonvay and Sweden in
{)articular) have by legislation ordered the isolation of
epcrs. In some other countries the Governments en-
courage, and, more or less generously, subsidize pri-
vate establishments. Of all the states of the Union,
Louisiana is the only one to have taken any definite
steps: it partly supports the leper-home at Carville
where some seventy patients are housed imder the
care of the Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul
(Emmitsburg). Some, not unwisely, think that if the
federal authorities do not deem it ri^ht to interfere, in-
dividual states, especially those which, like California,
are exposed to a constant danger of infection, should
take means of preventing the spread of the disease.
III. Leprosy in the Bible. — ^The foregoing sketch
of the patholog>' of lepros>' may serve to illustrate
some of the many paasages of the Bible where the dis-
ease is mentioned. From the epoch of the sojourn of
the people of God in the desert down to the times of
Christ, leprosy seems to have been prevalent in Pales-
tine: not onlv was it in some particular cases (Num.,
xii, 10; IV Ivings, v, 27; Is., liii, 4) looked upon as a
Divine punishment, but at all times the Hebrews be-
lieved it to be (contagious and hereditary (II Kings,
iii, 29); hence it was considered as a cause of defile-
ment, and involved exclusion from the community.
From this idea procee<led the minute regulations of
Lev., xiii, xiv, concerning the diagnosis of the disease
and the restoration to social and religious life of those
who were cleansed. All decisions in this matter per-
tained to the priest, before whom should appear per-
sonally both tnose who were suspected of leprosy and
those who claimed to l>e healed. If, at the first exam-
ination, the signs— coloured nodiile, blister, shining
LEPROSY
184
LSPB08T
spot (xiii, 2), discoloration of the liair (3) — ^^'ere mani-
fest, isolation was pronounced at once; but if some of
the signs were wanting, a seven-days quarantine was
ordered, at the term of which a new inspection had to
take place; should then the symptoms remain doubt-
ful, another week's quarantine was imposed. The ap-
pearance of "the living flesh" in connexion with
whitish blotches was deemed an evident sign of the in-
fection (10). White formations covering the whole body
are no sign of leprosy unless "Uve flesh*' (ulceration)
accompany them; in the latter case, the patient was
isolated as suspect, and if the sores, which might be
only temporary pustules, should heal up, he had to
appear again before the priest, who woulcl then declare
hun clean (12-17). A white or reddish nodule affect-
ing the cicatrix of an ulcer or of a bum would be re-
garded a doubtful sign of leprosy, and condemned the
patient to a seven-days quarantine, after which, ac-
cording as clearer signs appeared or not, he would be
declared clean or unclean (18-28). Another suspicious
case, to be re-examined after a week's seclusion, is
that of the leprosy of the scalp, in which, not leprosy
proper, but ringworm should most hkely be recog-
nized. In all coses of acknowledged leprous infection,
the patient was to ''have his clothes hanging loose,
his head bare, his mouth covered with a cloth and he
was commanded to cry out that he was defiled and un-
clean. As long as the disease lasted, he had to '' dwell
alone without the camp" (or the city). Like the
presence of leprosy, so the recovery was the object of
a sentence of the priest, and the reinstatement in the
community was solemnly made according to an elab-
orate ritual ^iven in Lev., xiv.
In connexion with leprosy proper, Leviticus speaks
also of the " leprosy of the garments" (xiii, 47-59) and
" leprosy of the house" (xiv, 34-53). These kinds of
leprosy, probably due to fimgous formations, have
nothing to do with leprosy proper, which is a specifi-
cally human disease.
Bennett, Diseases of the Bible (London, 1887); Dter,
LeproKu (New York, 1897); Hansen and Loopt, Leprosy in its
Clinical and Pathological Aspects (London. 1895); Report of the
Leprosy Commission to India (London, 1893); Thin, Leprosy
(London, 1891); Barthclinus, De morbis biblicis (CopGnhagen
1671); Pruner, Die Krankheiten des Orients (Erlongen, 1847);
Trusen, Die Siiten, Gebr&uche und Krankheiten der alien He-
briicr (Breslau, 1833); Lrloir, TraiU pratique et thforiqxie de la
Upre (Paris, 1886); Bauton, La Uprose (Paris, 1901).
Charles L. Souvay.
IV. Leprosy in the Middle Ages. — ^As a con-
fle(|uence of the dissemination of leprosv in Europe,
legislation providing against the spread of the dis-
ease (which was considereii to be contagious) and
regulations concerning the marriage of leprous per-
sons, as well as their segregation and detention in in-
stitutions— ^which were more charitable and philan-
thropic than medical, partaking of the character of
asylums or almshouses — graduallv came into opera-
tion. The historical researches of Virchow concerning
leper-houses (Icprosoria) have estabUshed the fact
that such institutions existed in France as early as the
seventh century at Verdun, Metz, Maestricht, etc., and
that leprasy must even then have been widespread.
In the eight n century St. Othmar in Germany and St.
Nicholas of Cor bis in France founded leper-houses, and
many such existed in Italy. (See Virchow in " Archiv
fi'ir pathologische Anatomic", XVIII-XX, Leipzig,
1860.) I^egislati ve enactments against the marriage of
lepers, and providing for their segregation, were made
and enforced as early as the seventh centurv by Ro-
thar, King of the Lombards, and by Pepin (757) and
Charlemagne (789) for the Empire of the Franks.
The earliest accounts of the founding of leper-houses
in Germanv is in the eighth and ninth century; in
Ireland (Innisfallen), 869; England, 950; Spain, 1007
(Malaga) and 1008 (Valencia); Scotland, 1170 (Ald-
nestun); the Netherlands, 1147 (Ghent). The found-
ing of these houses did not take place until the disease
had spread considerably and had become a menace to
the pubUc health. It is said to have been most preva-
lent about the time of the Crusades, assuming epi-
demic proportions in some locaUties: in France alone,
at the time of the death of Louis IX, it was computed
that there were some two thousand such houses, and
in all Christendom not less than nineteen thousand
(Hirsch, "Handbook of Geographical and Historical
Pathology ", tr. Creighton, London, 1885, p. 7, note.
Cf. Raymund, "Histoire de TEl^phantiasis ", Ljui-
sanne, 1767, p. 106). Mdzera^r (Hist, de France, II,
168) says: " II y avait ni ville ni bourgade, que ne fust
oblige de hktiT un hopital pour les (lepreux; retirer".
For Italy we have Muratori's statement (Antiq. Ital.
Med. i£vi, III, 5^i) , *' Vix ulla ci vitas quse non auquem
locum leprosis destinatum haberet.''
There is, however, good reason to doubt the accu-
racy of the above figures (19,(XX)) as estimated by our
medieval informants. Besides, "it would be a mis-
take", writes Hirsch (op. cit., p. 7). "to infer from
the multiplication of leper-houses, that there was a
corresponding increase in the number of cases, or to
take tne number of the former as the measure of the
extent to which leprosv was prevalent, or to conclude,
as many have done, that the coincidence of the Cru-
sades implies any intrinsic connexion between the
two things; or that the rise in the number of cases was
due to the importation of leprosy into Europe from
the East. In jud^ng of these matters we must not
leave out of sight the fact that the notion of ' leprosy'
was a very comprehensive one in the middle age, not
only among the laity but also among physicians; that
syphilis was frequently included therein, as well as a
variety of chronic skin diseases, and that the diagno-
sis with a view to segregating lepers was not made by
the practitioners of medicine but mostly by the
laity."
Simpson, in his admirable essay on the leper-houses
of Britain (Edin. Med. and Surg. Journal. 1841-42).
writes: "I have already alluded to special Orders ol
Knighthood having been estabUshed at an early pe-
riod for the care and superintendence of lepers. We
know that the Knights of St. Lazarus separated from
the general Order of the Ivnights Hospitallers about
the end of the eleventh or beginning of the twelfth cen-
tury (Index. Monast., p. 28) . They were at first desig-
nated: Knights of St. Lazarus and St. Mary of Jeru-
salem. St. Louis brought twelve of the Knights of
St. Lazarus to France and entrusted them with the
superintendence of the ' Lazaries ' (or leper hospitals)
of the Ivingdom. The first notice of their having
obtained a footing in Great Britain is in the reign
of Stephen (1135-54) at Burton Lazars (Leicester-
shire). I find that the hospitals of Tilton, of the
Holy Innocents at Lincoln, of St. Giles (London),
Closely in Norfolk, and various others are annexed to
Burton Lazars as 'cells' containing 'fratres leprosos
de Sancto Lazaro de Jerusalem '. Its [Burton'sjprivi-
leges and possessions were confirmed by Henry II,
King John and Henry VI. It was at last dissolved by
Henry VIII." (See Lazarus, St., Order of.)
As has already been stated, these institutions were
intended principally as houses to seclude the infected,
and not so much as hospices for the curative treat-
ment of the disease, which was considered then, aa
now, an incurable disorder. They were founded and
endowed as religious establishments, and as such they
were generally placed under the control and manage*
ment of some abbey or monastery by a papal Bull.
which appointed every leper-house to be provided
with its own churchyard, chapel, and ecclesiastics—
" cum cimutcrio ecclesiam construere et propriis gau-
dere presbyteris " (Semler, "Hist. Eccles. Select.").
The English and Scotch houses were under the full
control of a custos, dean, prior, and, in some
as in the hospital of St. Lawrence, Canterbury which
contained lepers of both sexes — a prioress. T^ eode-
185
LS PU7
riartioal oflSoen of the bo8i)ital8 and the leper inmates
were bound by the regulations laid down in the char-
ters of the institution, which they had to observe
strictly, especially as to offering up prayers for the re-
pose A the souls of the founder and his family. The
following extracts from the regulations of the leper-
hospital at lUeford (Essex), in 1346, by Baldock,
Bisnop of London, illustrate this point: ''We also
command that the lepers omit not attendance at their
ehurch, to hear divme service unless prevented by
previous bodily infirmity, and thev are to preserve
iQence and hear matins and mass throughout if they
are able; and whilst there to be intent on devotion and
prayer as far as their infirmity permit them. We ad-
vise also and command that as it was ordained of old
in the said hospital every leprous brother shall every
day say for the morning duty, an Our Father and Ilail
Mary thirteen times and for the otiicr hours of the
day . . . respectively an Our Father and a Hail
Ifarv seven times, etc. ... If a leprous brother se-
cret! v[oecti2te] fails in the performance of those articles
let lum consult the priest of the saiJ hospital in the
tribunal of penance (Dugdalc, " Monasticon Angli-
eanum", II, 390). There was generally a chaplain
under the prior and in some instances a free chapel
was attached with resident canons. The hospital at
St. Giles (Norwich), for instance, had a prior and eight
canons (acting chaplains), two clerks, seven choristers,
and two sisters (^lonast., Index, 55).
Matthew Paris has left us a copy of the vow taken
by the brothers of the leper-hospitals of St. Julian and
St. Alban before admission: "I, brother B., promise
and. taking my bodily oath by touching the most sa-
erea Gospel, amrm before God and all the Saints in this
church which is constructed in honour of St. Julian
(the Gonfessor), in the presence of Dominus R. the
archdeacon, that idl the days of my life I will \>e sub-
ttrvient and obedient to the commands of the Lord
Abbot of St. Albans for the time being and to his arch-
deacon, resisting in nothing, unless such things should
be commanded as could militate against the Divine
pleasure: I will never commit theft, or bring a false
accusation against any one of the brethren, nor in-
fringe the vow of chastity nor fail in my duty by ap-
propriating anything, or leaving anytiiing by will to
others, unless by a dispensation granted by the l)roth-
ers. I will make it my study wholly to avoid all kinds
of usury as a monstrous thing and hateful to God. I
will not be aiding or abetting in word or thought, di-
' reetly or indirectly in any plan by which any one shall
be appointed Gustos or I>ean of the lepers of St. Julians,
except the persons appointed by the Lord Abbot of
St. Albans. I will be content, without strife or com-
plaint, with the food and drink and other things given
and allowed to me by the Master; according to the
unoe and custom of the house. I will not transgress
the bounds prescribed to me, without the special li-
eense of my superiors, and with their consent and will;
and if I prove an offender against any article named
above, it is my wish that the Lord Abbot or his sul>
fltitute may punish me according to the nature and
amount of the offence, as shall seem best to him, and
even to cast me forth an apostate from the congrega-
tion of the brethren without hope of remission, except
through special grace of the Lord Abbot.'' It is in-
teresting to compare with the passage on usury in this
formula the statement of M(*zcray (Hist, de France),
that during the twelfth century two very cruel evils
(dsux maux Irha eruds) reigned in France, viz., leprosy
and usury, one of which, he adds, infected the oody
while the other mined families.
The C^urdi, therefore, from a remote period has
taken a most active part in promoting the wcllbeine
and care of the leper, both spiritual and temporal.
The Chder of St. Laiarus was the outcome of her
practiod gympatiiy^for the poor sufferers during the
long centuries when the pestilence was endemic in
Europe. Even in our own day we find the same
Apostolic spirit alive. The saintly Father Damien,
the martyr of Molokai, whose life-sacrifice for the bet-
terment of the lepers of the Sandwich Islands is still
fresh in public recollection, and his co-laIx>urers and
followers in that field of missionary work have strik-
ingly manifested in recent times the same apostolic
spirit which actuated the followers of St. Lazarus in
tne twelfth and two succeeding centuries.
See the workB of Mkzbray, Muratori. Virchow, and Sbm-
LBB, and the ea»ay of Simpaon in Edinb. Meti. ami Surg,
JounwU (1841-42;, all quoted in the body of this article.
J. F. Donovan.
Z«0ptis Magna, a titular see of Tripolitana.
Founded by the Sidonians in a fine and fertile country,
it was the most important of the three towns which
formed the Tripoli Confederation. The remains of
the ancient Phoenician town are still visible, with the
harbour, quays, walls, and inland defence, which make
it look like Carthage. This Semitic city subsequently
became the centre of a Greek city, Neapolis, ot which
most of the monuments are buried under sand. Not-
withstanding Pliny (Nat. Hist., V, xxviii), who dis-
tinguishes Neapolis from Leptis, there is no doubt,
according to Ptolemy, Strabo, and Scyllax, that they
should be identified. Leptis allied itself with the Ro-
mans in the war against Jugurtha. Having obtained
under Augustus the title of ciuitas it seems at that time
to have been administered by Carthaginian magis-
trates; it may have been a municipium during the first
century of the Christian Era and erected by Traian
into a colony bearing the name of Colonia iJlpia Tra-
iana, found on many of its coins. The birthplace of
Septimius Severus, who embellished it and enriched
it with several fine monuments, it was taken and
sacked in the fourth century by the Libyan tribe of
Aurusiani (Ammianus Marcellinus, XXVIII, vi) and
has never since completely recovered. It was at that
time the seat of the military government of Tripolitana.
When Justinian took ft from the Vandals in the
sixth century, leptis Maioia was largely in ruins and
buried under sand. It was rebuilt, and its walls were
raised, their extent l)eing reduced in order more easily
to protect the town a^siinst the attacks of the Berber
tribes dwelling lx?yond its gates. The duke, or mili-
tarv governor, who a^ain took up his residence there,
built public baths and several magnificent building?;
the Septimius Severus palace was restore<l, and five
churches were built (Procopius, "De a^dif.", VI-IV).
The massacre of all the Berber chiefs of the Le-
vathes, treacherously ordered by Duke Sergius at Lep-
tis Magna in 541^, provoked a terrible insurrection,
through which the Romans almast lost Africa. Taken
in the seventh century by the Arabs, who allowed it to
be invaded by the sands, Leptis Magna is now only a
majestic ruin calleil Lelxla, sixty-two miles east of
Tripoli. Besides vague traces of several large build-
ings, the remains of a vast circus, liSO yards by sixty-
six yards, are visible. Five bishops are recorded:
Dioga in 255, Victorinus and Maximus in 39'?, Salvi-
anus, a Donatist, in 4 11 , Calipcdcs in 18 1 . This town
must not be confounded with Leptis Minor, to-day
Lemta in Tunisia.
Ueoff.f s. v., which gives detailed sources.
S. Vailh6.
Le Pny, Diockse ok (Aniciensi.s), comprises the
whole Department of Haute Loire, and is a suffragan
of Bourges. The tcrritorv of the ancient Diocese of
JiG Puy, suppressed by llie Concordat of 1801, was
united 'W'ith the Diocese of Saint-Flour, and l)ecame
a diocese again in 1S23. The (list rict of Brioude, wliich
had belonged to the Diocei?e of Saint-Flour under the
old regime, was thenceforward included in the new
Diocese of Puy.
LS PUT
186
US PITT
The Martjnrology of Ado and the first legend of St.
Front of P^rigueux (written perhaps in the middle of
the tenth century, by Gauzbert, chorepiscopus of
Limoges) speak of a certain priest named George who
was brought to life by the touch of St. Peter's staff,
and who accompanied St. Front, St. Peter's mission-
ary and first Bishop of P^rigueux. A legend of St.
George, the origin of which, according to Duchesne^ is
not earlier than the eleventh century, makes that samt
one of the seventy-two disciples, and tells how he
founded the Church of Civitas Vetula in the County of
Le Velay, and how, at the request of St. Martial, he
caused an altar to the Blessed Virgin to be erected on
Mont Anis (Mons Anicius). After St. George, certain
local traditions of very late origin point to Sts. Maca-
rius, Marcellinus, Roncius, Eusebius, Paulianus, and
Vosy (Evodius) as bishops of Le Puy. It must have
been from St. Paulianus that the town of Ruessium,
now St. Paulien, received its name; and it was prob-
ably St. Vosy who completed the church of Our Lady
of Le Puy at Anicium and transferred the episcopal
see from Ruessium to Anicium. St. Vosy was ap-
prised in a vision that the angels themselves had dedi-
cated the cathedral to the Blessed Virgin, whence the
epithet Angelic given to the cathedral of Le Puy. It
is impossible to say whether this St. Evodius is the
same who signed the decrees of the Council of Valence
in 374. Neither can it be affirmed that St. Benignus,
who in the seventh century founded a hospital at the
gates of the basilica, and St. Agrevius, the seventh-cen-
tury martyr from whom the town of Saint-Aercve Chi-
niacum took its name, were really bishops. Duchesne
thinks that the chronology of these early bishops rests
on very little evidence and that very ill supported by
documents; before the tenth century only six indivicf-
uals appear of whom it can be saiil with certainty tliat
they were bishops of Le Puy. The first of these, Scu-
tarius, the legendary architect of the first cathedral,
dates, if we may trust the inscription which bears his
name, from the end of the fourth century.
Among the bishops of Le Puy are mentioned:
Adh6mar of Monteil (1087-1100), author of the an-
cient antiphon, "Salve Regina", whom Urban II,
coming to Le Puy in 1095 to preach the Crusade, ap-
pointed his legate, and who died under the walls of
Antioch; Bertrand of Chalencon (1200-13), who him-
self led the soldiers of his province against the Albi-
genses under the walls of Beziers; Guy III Foulques
(1257-59), who became pope as Clement IV; the theo-
logian Durandus of Samt-Pour^ain (1318-26); Le-
franc de Pompignan (1733-74), the great antagonist
of the philosopfies; De Bonald (1823-39), afterwards
Archbishop ot Lyons.
Legend traces the origin of the pil^mage of Le
Puy to an apparition of the Blessea Virgin to a sick
widow whom St. Martial had converted. No French
pilgrimage was more frequented in the Middle A^es.
Charlemagne came twice, in 772 and 800; there is a
legend tliat in 772 he established a foundation at the
cathedral for ten poor canons (dianoines de paupirie),
and he chose Le Puv, with Aachen and Saint-Gillcs, as
a centre for the collection of Peter's Pence. Charles
the Bald visited I^ Puy in 877, Eudes in 892, Robert
in 1029, Philip Aucustiis in 1183. Louis IX met the
King of Aragon there in 1245; and in 1254 passing
through Le Puy on his return from the Holy Land, he
gave to the cathedral an ebony image of the Blessed
Virgin clothed in pold brocade. After him, Le Puy
was visited by Philip the Bold in 1282, by Philip the
Fair in 1285, by Charles VI in 1394, by Charles VII in
1420, and by the mother of Blessed Joan of Arc in
1429. Louis XI made the pilgrimage in 1436 and
1475, and in 1476 halted three leagues from the city
and went to the cathedral barefooted. Charles VIII
visited it in 1495, Francis I in 1533. Theodulph,
Bishop of Orleans, brought to Our Lady of I^ Puy, as
an ex-voto for his deliverance, a magnificent Bible, the
letters of which were made of plates of gold and silver,
which he had himself put together, about 820, while in
prison at Angers. St. Mayeul, St. Odilon, St. Robert,
St. Hugh of Grenoble, St. Anthony of Padua, St.
Dominic, St. Vincent Ferrer, St. John Francis Regis
were pilgrims to Le Puy.
The Church of Le Puy received, on account of its
great dignity and fame, innumerable temporal and
spiritual favours. Concessions made in 9 19 by William
the Young, Count of Auvergne and Le Velay, and in
923 by King Raoul, gave it sovereignty over the whole
population of the town (bourg) of Ams, a population
which soon amounted to 30,000 souls. In 999, Syl-
vester II consecrated his friend Th^odard, a monk
of Aurillac, Bishop of Le Puy, to replace Stephen of
Gevaudan, whom his imcle Guy, Bishop of Le Puy, had
in his lifetime, designated to be his successor, and
whom a Roman council had excommunicated. Syl-
vester II exempted Thdodard from all metropolitan
jurisdiction, a privilege which Leo IX confirmed to
the Bishops of Le Puy, also granting them the right,
imtil then reserved to archbishops exclusively, of
wearing the palUum. "Nowhere , he said in his
Bull, " does the Blessed Virgin receive a more special
afld more filial worship." It was from Le Puy that
Urban II dated (15 August, 1095) the Letters Apos-
tolic convoking the Council of Clermont, and it was a
canon of Le Puy, Raymond d' Aiguilles, chaplain to
the Count of Toulouse, who wrote the history of the
crusade. Gelasius II, Callistus II, Innocent II, and
Alexander III visited Le Puy to pray, and witn the
visit of one of these popes must be connected the origin
of the great jubilee wnich is granted to Our Lady of
Le Puy whenever Good Friday falls on 25 March, the
Feast of the Annunciation. It is supposed that this
jubilee was instituted by Callistus II, who passed
through Le Puy, in April, 1119, or by Alexander III,
who was there in August, 1162^ and June, 1165, or by
Clement IV, who had been Bishop of he Puy. The
first jubilee historically known took place m 1407,
and in 1418 the chroniclers mention a Bull of Martin
V prolonging the duration of the jubilee. It todk
place three times in the nineteenth century — in 1842,
1853, and 1864 — and will take place agam in 1910.
Lastly, during the Middle Ages, everyone who had
made the pilgrimage to Le Puy had the privilege of
making a will in extremis with only two witnesses in-
stead of seven.
Honoured with such prerogatives as these, the
Church of Le Puy assumed a sort of primacy in respect
to most of the Churches of France, and even of Christ-
endom. This primacy manifested itself practically
in a right to beg^ estabhshed with the authorization
of the Holy See, in virtue of which the chapter of Le
Puy levied a veritable tax upon almost all the Chris-
tian countries to support its hospital of Notre-Dame.
In Catalonia this droit de qwte, recognized by the
Spanish Crown, was so thoroughly established that
the chapter had its collectors permanently installed
in that country. A famous "fraternity" existed be-
tween the chapter of Le Puy and that of Gerona in
Catalonia. The efforts of M. Rochet to establish his
contention, that this "fraternity" dated from the
time of Charlemagne, have been fruitless; M. Coulet
has proved that the earliest document in which it is
mentioned dates only from 1470, and he supposes that
at this date the chapter of Gerona, in order to escape
with the Church of Le Puy. In 1479 and in 1481
Pierre Bou\ner, a canon of Le Puy^ came to Gerona,
when the canons invoked against him certain legends
according to which Charlemagne had taken Gerona,
rebuilt its cathedral, given it a canon of Le Puy for
a bishop, and established a fraternity between the
chapters of Gerona and Le Puy. In support of tbcise
LS QUIXN 187 LI QXTZEN
legends they appealed to the Office which they chanted Benedictine monastery of the Chaise Dieu united in
for the feast of Charlemagne — an Office, dating from 1G40 to the Congregation of St-Maur, still stands, with
1345, but in which they had recently inserted these the fortifications which Abl^ot de Chanac caused to be
tales of the Church of Le Puy. In 1484 Sixtus IV built between 1378 and 1420, and the church, rebuilt
prohibited the use of this Office, whereupon there ap- in the fourteenth ccnturv by Clement VI, who had
peared at Gerona the "Tractatus de captione Ger- made his studirs here, and by Gregory XI, his nephew.
unde", which reaffirmed the Gerona legends about This church contains the tomb of Clement VI. The
the fraternity with Le Puy. Down to the last days of fine church of 8. Julien de Brioude, in florid Byzan-
the old regime the two chapters frequently exchanged tine style, dates from the eleventh or twelfth century.
courtesies; canons of Le Puy passing through Gerona Besides the great pilgrimage of Le Puy, we may men-
and canons of Gerona passing through Le Puy en- tion those of Xotrc-Dnme de Pradellcs, at Pradelles,
joyed special privileges. In 18815 the removal by the a pilgrimage dating from 1512; of Notre-Dame
Bishop of Gerona of the statue of Charlemagne, which d'Autoyrac, at Sorlhac, which was very popular be-
stood in that cathedral, marked the definitive col- fore the Revolution; of Notre-Dame Trouv<5e, at
lapse of the whole fabric of legends out of which the Lavoute-Chilliac.
hermandwi between Le Puy and Gerona had grown. Before the passage of the Law of Associations
The statue of Our Ladv of Le Puy and the other (1901) there were at Le Puy, Jesuits, Franciscans,
treasures escaped the pillage of the Middle Ages. Religious of St. Mary of the Assumption, and Little
The roving banditti were victoriously dispersed, in Brothers of Mary. Two important congregations of
1180, by the Confraternity of the Chaperons (Hooded men originated and had their mother-house, in the
Cloaks) founded at the suggestion of^ a canon of Le diocese. Of these the Brothers of the Sacred Heart,
Puy. In 1562 and 1563 Le Puy was successfully founded in 1821 with the object of giving commercial
defended against the Huguenots by priests and re- instruction, have their mothei>house at Paradis and
ligious armed with cuirasses and arquebusses. But important boarding-schools at Lyons, as well as in the
in 1793 the statue was torn from its shrine and burned United States (chiefly Bale Saint-Louis) and in Can-
in the public square. P^rc de Ravignan, in 1846, ada (chiefly at Athabaskaville). The Labourer Broth-
and the Abb6 Combalot, in 1850, were inspired with ers, or Farmer Brothers, of St. John Francis R^^s
the idea of a great monument to the Blessed Virgin were founded in 1850, by P^re de Bussy, a Jesuit.
OD the Rocher Comeille. Napoleon III placed at the and possess seven model farms for the education of
disposal of Bishop Morlhon 213 pieces of artiller>' poor children. A certain number of congregations of
tal^n by P^lissier at Sebastopol, and the colossal women originated in the diocese. The Dominicans
statue of "Notre-Dame de France" cast from the of Mt^re Agues, who taught and served as sick nurses
iron of these guns, amounting in weight to 150,000 and housekeepers, were founded in 1221; the teaching
kilogrammes, or more than 330,000 lbs. avoirdupois, Sisters of Notre-Dame, in 1618; the religious of St.
was dedicated 12 September, 1860. Charles, teachers and nurses, in 1624, by Just de Serres,
The saints specially venerated in the diocese are: Bishop of Le Puy; the hospital and teaching Sisters
St. Domninus, martyr, whose body is preserveil in the of St. Joseph, in 1650, by P6re M6daiUe, who were
cathedral; St. Julian of Brioude, mart\T in 304, and the iirst congregation placed under the patronage
his companion, St. Ferr^ol; St. Calminius (CarmerjO, of St. Joseph; the cont<?mplative religious of the
Duke ol Auvergne, who prompted the foundation of Visitation of St. Mary were founded in 1659; those
the Abbev of Le Monastier, and St. Eudes, first abbot of the Instruction of the Infant Jesus, for teaching,
(end of the sixth century); St. Theofredus (Chaffre), in 1667, by the celebrated Sulpician Tronson, parish
Abbot of Le Monastier and martyr under the Sara- priest of St. Georges, and his penitent. Mile Martel:
cens (c. 735) ; St. Mayeul, Abbot of Cluny, who, in the the Sisters of the Cross, for hospital service and
second half of the tenth century, cured a blind man teaching, in 1673.
at the gates of Le Puy, and whose name was given, in At the end of the nineteenth century the religious
the fourteenth century, to the university in which the congregations possessed in the Diocese of IjC Puy:
clergy made their studies; St. Odilon, Abbot of (luny 69 infant schools (('coles maternelles), 2 schools for
(962-1049), who embraced the life of a regular canon deaf mutes, 2 orphanages for boys, 6 orphanages for
inthemonastery of St. Julien de Brioude; St. Robert girls, 1 refuge for penitent women, 20 hospitals or
d'Aurillac (d. 1067), who founded the monastery of hospices, 1 hmatic asylum, 3 old men's homes, 57
Chaise Dieu in the Brioude district; St. Peter Cha- houses of religious women consecrated to the care of
▼anon (d. 1080), a canon regular, founder and first the sick at home. In 1905 (end of the Concordat
provost of the Abbey of P^brac. At the age of eigh- period) the diocese had 314,058 inliabitants, 33 par-
teen M. Olier, afterwards the founder of Saint-Sul- ishes, 24)? auxiliary parishes {succursales)^ and 195
781-82; tnafrum.,
, Le Puy, 1860);
r." '^'" "^"T^^. ;t "T 't> i~T-" ""tt T — IRUGHIE, Avosioiirttt' ac nguse au vaay (Jjb Puy, 1869);
tivee of this diocese: the Benedict me, Ilugues Lan- Duchesne, Fortes fpx9copaux, II. 55-58; 1H4-35; Rocher, Le»
thenas (1634-1701), who e<lited the works of St. Ber- rapjwU de IV-oluieduPuy avcelavilU de Girone cnEapaane et le
nard aM St. ^^iselm. ana \^as tlie lu^torun Ot tne i^^^^ ,y^ ^;,y^„„ (Barcelona. 1872); Coulet, Etude »ur Voffice de
Abbey of VendOme; the Bene<IlCtmc, JaCf|Ues Boyer. Girone en I'honneur de Saint Charlemagne (MoutpcUicr. 1907);
joint author of "Gallia Christiana" U\. v.); Cardmat CiiAKSAiNC., Cartulairedea hospitaliern du Vclay (Paris, 1888);
de Polignac (d 1741), author of the " Antih.crctius" [?-;i;';;;"';^^^„t.>^TK" d^'sVj^e '/j'Wi.S
The cathedral of I^ Puy, which forms the highest auivi de la rhronique de S. ISerre du Puy (Le Puy, 1882); LAfr
point of the city, rising from the foot of the Rocher com he. mp^rtoire g/mral dea hommage^ de Vrvechi du Puy,
gmeUte. exhibits architecture of every perio.! from '!^hl!Ki]fJ,^-{dZ%f^^^e,lr^^^^^^
the fifth century to the fifteenth, i ormerly, the vis- N. Lom» des Fron^aiH (1897); Arnaud, Hintoire dca Protettanta
iter passed through a porch Standin*]? well out from du Vivaraia et du Velay {2 vols., Paris. 18SS); Patrard, M^
4liA K»i1/liniy onri offor /lo«/»<»n*1iniy hnnt^'ith f lio n-iv«x_ rnoire »ur Ic jubiU de A. D. du Puy (Lc Puy. IHio); Chevalier,
the buiiumg and, alter descending heneatn tiie pa\e- fopo-bihl.. s. v. Puy-en-Velay .- Peyron. Ili^toire du juhiU de
ment, emerged by a stairway m front of the high N^re Dame du Puy (he Puy, I9i0.)
altar; the principal stairway is now covered by a bold Georges Gotau.
vaulting which serves as base for one half of the
church. The architectural effect is incredibly auda- Le Quien, Michel, French historian and theolo-
dousand picturesque. Thefour galleries of t heel ois- gian, b. at Boulogne-sur-Mer, department of Pas-de-
ter were constructed during a perio<l exteiuling from Calais, 8 Oct., IGGl; d. at Paris, 12 March, 1733. He
the Carlovingian epoch to the twelfth cent ury. The studie<l at Ple.ssis College, Paris, and at twenty entered
LEBAT If
the Domimean convent of St-Germain, where he m&de
his proCessioD in 1682. Excepting oocujonal short
abaenoes he never left Paris. At the time of his deatli
he was librarian of the coovent in Rue St-Honort, a
poaitioa which he bad filled almost all his life, lending
kindly assistance to the learned men who sought in-
formation on theology and eccIesiastLcal antiquity.
Under the supervision of the celebrated Pfire Marsol-
lier he mastered the classical languages Arab, and
Hebrew, to the detriment, it seems, of his mother-
toueue.
His chief works, in chronological order, are: (1) " De-
fense dutext« h^breuet de la version vulgate" (Paris,
1690), reprinted in Higne, "Scriptune Sacne Cursus",
m (Paris, 1861), 1525-84. It is an answer to " L'an-
tiquit^ des temps rftablie" by ^e Cistercian Pezron,
who took the text
of the Septuagint
sole basis for
chronology.
zroD repliei),
i was again an-
ered by Le
. ien. (2) "Jo-
hannis Damasceni
Greek text witJl
Latin translation
(2 vols, fol., Paris,
1712) in Migne,
"Patrologia
Gncca", XCIV-
VI. To this fun-
damental edition
he added excel-
lent dissertations;
a third volume,
which was to have
contained other
works of the great
Damascene and various studies on him, was never com-
pleted. (3) " Panoplia contra schiama Ura?corum ", un-
der the pseudonym of Stephanus de Altimura Ponti-
cencis (Paris, 1718), a refutation of the ll(pi <IpkS' f<»'
tliwa of Patriarch Xeetarius of Jerusalem, Lo Quien
maintained, with historical proofs derived chiefly from
the Orient, the primacy of the pope. {!) " La nulliti^
des ordinations anglicanea" (2 vols., Paris, 1725), and
"La nullity dcs ordinations anglicanes demontri'C de
nouveau" (2 vols., Paris, 1730), against Le C'ourayer's
apology for Anglican Orders. (5) Various articlra on
archjTology and ecclesiastical history, published by
Desmolets (Paris, 1726-31). (6) " Oriens chrislianus
in quatuor patriarchatus digcstus, in quo exhibentur
EccleaiiB patriarchie caeterique pnesules totius Orien-
tis", published posthumou-sly (3 vols., Paris, 1740).
I« (^ien contemplated issuing this work as early as
1722, and had made a contract with the printer Si-
mart (Revue do TOricnt latin, 1894, II, 190). In edit^
ing it, he used the notes of the Benedictine Sainte-Mar-
thes, who had projected an "OrhisChristianus", and
had obligingly handed him over their notes on the
Orient and .Africa. The "OriensChristianus", as pro-
jected by Le Quicn, was to comprise not only the hier-
archy iM the lour Greek and Latin patriarchates of
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem,
and that of the Jacobite, Melchitc, Nestorian, Maron-
ite.and Armenian patriarchates, but also the Greek and
Latin texts of the various "Notitim episcopatuum",
a catalogue of the Eastern and African monasteries,
and also the hierarchy of the African Church. The
last three parts of this gigantic project were set aside
by Le Quien's literary heirs. As to the " Notitiie cpis-
copatuiun", the loss is unimportant: the learned Do-
mmicnn had not a very clear concept of the work
called for by the editing of this text. His notes on
('hristian Africa and its monBMteries have never been
uaed.at leastintheirentirety. (7) "Abi^gtf del'bli-
toire de Boulogne-sur-Mer et de sea comtea " in Des-
molets, "lUmoirea de litt^ratuie", X (Paris, 1749),
36-112.
Qofcnr AND EcHjLBO.Senpi. onl. Pml^ II, 808: Jeunud dm
Sa«inU,a: Hicbiud, fiiwr. i.mwrKlle, XXIV. 241; Hcbtir.
NamtTKlaloT, II, lOM-fl; Stumb in Kinhtnttx., i. v.; ZCc«-
■ " ■ :Lfarprvl.Tka>l..:T.
6. VuLst.
Uilda, DiocEBB OP (Ilerdenbib), suffraran of
Tarragona. La Canal says it was erected in 600, but
others maintain it goes back to the third century, and
there is mention of a St. Lycerius, or Glycenus, as
Bishop of L^rida in a. d. 269. The signatures of other
bishops of L^rida are attached to various councils up
to the ycar716, when the Moors took pomeesion of the
town, and the see was removed to Roda; in 1101 it was
transferred to Bar1>astro. An unbroken list of bish-
ops of Wrida goes back to the year 887. _ L£rida, the
Roman Ilerda, or Herda, the second city in Catalonia,
is built on the right bank of the River Segrs, about
100 miles from Barcelona. During the FWic wan
it sided with the Carthaginians; near it Banno wu
defeated by Scipio in 216 b. c, and Juhus Cfsar dft-
fcated Pompey's forces in 49 b. c. The Hoors to(A
poi^ession of it in716, and in 1149 Berengerof Catft-
lonia drove them out, and it became the residence (rf
the kings of Aragon. During the Peninsular War the
French held it (1810), and in 182.'i Spain once more
obtained possession of it. Owing to its natural po«i-
Aei . -
ithic Cathedral, of which the r ._ __
the citadel, dates from 1203. During the Uid-
dle Ages the University of Lfrida was famous; in
1717 it was suppressed, and united with Cervara.
In 514 or 524 a council attended by eight bishops
passed decrees forbidding the taking up of arms or
the shedding of blood by clerics. A council in 54fi
regulated ecclesiastical discipline. Another in 1173
was presided over by Cardinal Giacinto Bobone,
who afterwards became Celestine III. A council in
1246 absolved James I oF Aragon from tbe sacrileee of
cutting out the tongue of tlic Bishop of Gcrona. The
cathedral chapter prior to the concordat consisted
of 6 dignities, 24 canons, 22 benefices, but after
the concordat (he number was reduced to 16 canons
and 12 beneficed clerics. The seminuy, founded
in 1722, accommodaU-3 500 students, lie Catholic
population of the diocese is 185,000 souls scattered
over 395 parishes and minist«red to by 598 prirats.
Besides 395 churches for public worship, there are in
the diocese five religious communities of men, six
of women, and several hospitals ui charge of nuns.
Former bishops of L^rida include Cardinal de Rom,-
Cardinal Ccrdan, and Inquisitor General Martinei d«
Villatoricl. The present bishop, Mgr J. A. Ruano y
Martin, was bom at Gijude del Barro, in the Diocese (M
Salamanca^ 3 Xov., TR48. appointed titular bishop of
Claudiopohs, and .\dmini-f1 rator of Barbastro, 3 Nov.,
1898, and transferrcil to Wrida, 14 Dec., 1905, when
he succeeded Mgr Josf Meseguer y Costa.
Bipa.ia Sa^rada (Madrid, 17S4); Billobo, Aniiatio' Kdaida-
tiai de EipaHa (Madrid, 1904).
J. C. Gbet.
Urins, Abbey of, situated on an island of the
same name, now known as that of Saint-Honorat,
about a league from the coast of Provence, in the De-
partment of the Maritime Alps, now included in tbe
Diocese of Nice, formerly in that of Grsase or of Ad-
tibcs. It was founded in the Ix^inning of tbe fiftli
eantuiy fay St. Bcmontus. This taint lived there &t
fint tne luo of a hermit, but foilowera booh Kfttbered
around him. They came from all parts of Itoimui
Qaul aod even from Brittany. During the fifth, eixtli,
and seventh centuries, the influence exerted by the
abbey was considerable. The presence of the Saracens
in Provence made the monastic life impossible or pre-
carious for two centuries. The abbey was restored in
the eleventh century, and a new era of prospenty
began. It was pven many estates and churches in
the neighbouring Dioceaea of Antibes, Aix, Aries, Fr£-
juB, Digne, Senei, Vence, Nice, Ventimi^lia, etc. The
popes, tlie eounta of Provence, and the kings of France
bestowed on it man^ privileges. The monks were
«bliged durins the Middle Ages to take an active part
in defending the coasts against incursions of the floors
of Algeria. A monumental tower, built as a place of
rsfuge, is still standing. The abbev was ao important
strst^c position in the sixteenth and seventeenth
oentunes during the Franco-Spanish wars. The eom-
wendam, was introduced at L^rins in I4&4. There was
a eryiiu need for reform. The monks were placed
under the Italian Congregation of St. Justina of Padua
(1515), which brought about for the monastery a long
era of prosperity, both spiritual aod matorial. The
niboequent union with the French Congregation of fit.
Ifaur (1637) was of brief duration. A century later
the monks were obliged to leave the Italian congrega-
tifn to become a part of Clun^. The decline Imd al-
leody commenced; it steadily mcreased until the time
During the first period of its historv', Urinsgave to
the Church celebrated bishops and writers. iTirough
them the abbey plaved an important rule. Such were
8t HonoratUB, his successor St. Hilary, and St. C^
MiiuB, Ajvhbishops of Aries; St. Maximus and FauB-
tUB, Btsbops of Riez; St. Euchcrius, Di»hop of Lyons;
Bt. Lupus, Bishop of Troyes ; St. Valerianus, Bishop of
Cimiei; 9t. Salvianus, Bishop of Ucneva; St. Vera-
Mteiy has given rise to the belief that i
logical school, which, however, it was not. Urinshad
areputation for learning, but it had no organized teach-
ing body. The part given to the monks of L^rins
in the editing ol certain legends h}( M. Dufourcq is
■Irongly contested. We find no writer of note from
theaeventh to the thirteenth century; after that came
the troubadour Raymond Ffraud; then Giovanni
Andres GrwmoCortese, who died in li>48f Dionysius
f^tueher, who died in 1562; the historian of the abbey,
Vincent Banalis, who died at the beginning of the
■eventeenth century.
1004): BaMUUS. C&ronoloein Hncforum . . . abhatnn (ocrtf
innfi* Lerxntiui* (LyoDi, IS13); Gocx. Ltnnt ou eaunatn*
liidt (Piiia, ISM); LiHABnoc, Dt SchOa Lerintnti (Paris,
Leros, titular sec of the Cvclades. sufTragan of
Rhodes. According to Strabo (XIV, i. 6), this island
mu$t have been a colony of Miletus; it next became
independent Itefore falling under the Roman domi-
nation. According to the poet Phocylides, the inhab-
itant,") of Leros had, without exception, an evil reputa-
tion (Stralx>, X, v, 12). It was here that Aristagoras,
the leader of the Ionian revolt against the Persians
(499 B. c). was advised to hide from the vengeance of
Darius. The island pos%s!<cd a famous sanctuary of
Artemis the Virgin, on the site of which the present
convent of Parthcnia and the Bd|oining church are
supposed to be built. Lequien (Onens Christianua, I,
945) mentions four of its uishops: John, in 553; Scr-
gius, in 787; Joseph, in869;CaJlistus, in tlie sixteenth
century. The list could lie completed, for Leros has
never ceased to be an episcopal s le, and there is still a
metropolitan of Leros and the neigliliouring island
Calj-mnos, dependent upon the Greek I'atriarchate of
Constantinople. Kubcl (" Hierarcliia eatholica mcdii
svi", MQnster, I. 315) also mentions two Latin bish-
ops of the fourteenth century. A pos-seasion ot the
Knights of Rhodes, the island sustained a siege in 1505,
and was taken by the Turks in 1523; it was recovered
by the Venetians, who razed its fortificntions, in 1648;
and it once more fell into the possession of the Os-
manli. IjCros now forms a caza of the sanjak of Chio,
in the vilayet of Rhodes. The Lsland ia alwut nine and
a (juarter miles long by seven ond a half wide. It is
barren, mountainous, anil rich only in marble quarries ;
and has about eight thousand inHabitants, all tireoks.
The Catholic inhabitants arc under the jurisdiction of
the Prefecture Apostoiic of Rhodes.
ruth. Initln,U. liO: Suitb,
.. 164; Lacroii. lla dt ta
Urice U-Bnii, 18*)), :iuo; tuiNET, La Tunpiit tTAtit (Pa™,
1882),!, 429-432.
S. VailhIc.
Le Sage, AluUN-Rbn£, writer, h. at Sarseau (Mor-
bihan), 1668; d. at Boulogne-sur-Mer, 1747. The .son
of a notary who died early in the youth's ' '
left the Jesuit col-
lege of VannoB
after the comple-
tion of bis studies,
and found himself
Be^dea these wnters and b
:, L^rins hod also
many m't^fc" of great sanctity; wi
Antoniua; the holy abbot ana martyr Aii^
tnduced the Botedictine Rule about 661; Abbot
r Aigulf, who it
. 3]CT.uie uuie aoout 661; Abbe
PorchariuB II, who was massacred with his monks by
the Saracens about 732. St. Patrick, the apostle of
Ireland, lived some time in the monastfrj', as wcU as
St. Cassiai), founder of the monasterj- of St. Victor at
Uaneilles.
The abbey was restored by the Congregation of
Sfoanque ia 1868. They preserved whatever re-
a of the ancient monastic buildings, that is to
guardian having
squandered h i s
fortune. He mar-
ried at the age
at firai
practised
law, but he rciin
nuislicil a profes-
sion which did not
proviile him with
for his needs, and
devoted himself
to literature. The ,
Abh6 dc Lvonne
settled a sin all
pension upon him
AUIN-RKKli T.R SaOB
» been devoted as that of L^'rins.
Jt Lirin: Hvioirt H Monummit (Pari
UN): IDBK, hVMiiliatt Smrnutrc dit arcAiivi d:-partmental
j_ I, — .y-_-^-_._. ». . ■■ ,>,!__ .=~~) fart-"-'
icournged him to study Spanish literature,
Lc Sage Imni'Iated a number of plays from that
language, uithout fimling favour in the public eye.
But a short oriEinal farce in |)rose, "CriMpin rival
de son maltre", won marked huccpks fl7t)7). lU
merits have kept it on the stage. Ia} Sage was
both a dramatist and a novelist, and was a prolific
writer of plays and romances. The enmity of the
LESBI
190
LB800T
actors forced him, like Piron, to go to the minor theatre
of the Foire, for which he coIIalx>rated in writing about
a hundred plays. Amidst the sorrows and mfirmi-
ties of age, he still wrote, hurriedly and incessantly, in
order .o make a living. He resided at Xhv, time with
one of his sons, a canon at Boulogne-sur-Mcr, at which
place he died, aged eighty.
Besides the short farce of " Crispin*', three works of
LeSage are worthy of special mention: *'Turcaret'*,
*'Le Diable Boiteux ", and ''Gil Bias ". '^Turcaret
ou le Financier" (1709) is a comedy in prose in which
the principal character is a financier. This upstart,
who has risen by theft and usury, is surrouncled by
people equally unscrupulous. It is an assemblage of
rogues. A coquette shares her favours between Tur-
caret, who loves her and pays her, and a fashionable
cavalier whom she loves. Frontin, the cavalier's
valet, sums up the play fairly well when he says to
his master: " We pluck a cocjuette; the coquette ruins a
financier; the financier swindles others, which makes
the most amusing ricochet of knavish tricks imag-
inable." The dialogue is spirited, the descriptions are
true to life, and the action is full of animation. Per-
haps no other play approaches so closely to Moliere's
great comedies. ' ' Le Diable Boiteux " ( 1 707) is based
on a story from the Spanish A\Titer Guevara (1641):
The demon Asmodeus removes the roofs of the hoiLscij
of Madrid, to show to a Castilian student the foibles
and vices within the buildings. Aside from this I^
Sage finds his inspiration in the Parisian himself; he
describes Parisian society with truth and pioturcsque-
ness in a series of detached adventures and scenes.
The success of the work was great. liC Sage's great-
est work, however, was '^Ilistoire de Gil Bias de San-
tUlane" (4 vols., 1715-35). The Spaniard Gil Bias,
hero of the romance, is in turn lackey, physician,
maior-domo of the great lord, secretary to an arch-
bishop, favourite of the prime minister. He is finally
given a title and an estate; he marries and peacefully
writes his memoirs. The moral of the book is that one
must constantly guard against the wiles of hypocrites
and impostors. The writer correctly paints, with art-
ful satire, French society as it was in the eighteenth
century, and in fact society in j^eneral. In apit« of
assertion, "Gil Bias" is not plagiarized from a Span-
ish novel. It is an original work, and in France is con-
sidered one of the masterpieces of romance.
Walter Scott, Mittcellaneoua Prose Works, III; Ticknor,
History of Spantnh Literature^ I; TjIntilhac, Lepage (Purls,
1893); Lb Brettos, Le Roman auXVIJInide (Paris, 1898).
Georcjks Bertrin.
Lesbi, a titular see in Mauretania Sitifensis, suffra-
gan of Sitifis, or S6tif , in Algeria. It is not, ajs is some-
times stated, the island of I^sbos, which never was
a titular bisnopric. and which, moreover, posseases
two titular arcnbisnoprics: Mytilene and Methjinna.
Of Lesbi we only know, from the " Itinerarium An-
tonini", that it was situated twenty-five miles from
Tupusuctu or Tiklat, and eighteen miles from Horrea
Amnici, now Ain-Roua, south of Bougie. The town,
therefore, was on the Sava, i. e. the Oued-Bou-Sellam,
but there are no remains to be seen. Two of its
bishops are recorded: Romanus, a Donatist, present
at the conventionof Carthage, 411; Vadius, a Catho-
lic, exiled by King Huneric, 484.
TOULETTK, Ofograpnie de VAfrique ehrHienne; MaurHanies
(Montreuil, 1894), 212. S. VailhI^:.
Lescarbot, Marc, French law^'er, writer, and his-
torian, b. at Vervins, between 15G5 and 1570; d. about
1629. Curiosity to see the Xew World and devotion
to the public weal prompted him to follow Poutrin-
court to Port-Royal, in Acadia, in 1606. His profi-
ciency in Cliristian doctrine enabled him to instruct the
Indians of the neighbourhocxl of Port-Royal. His
material aid to the settlers was not less efficient : he built
Bgristrinill for their wheat, a still to produce tar, and
ovens for making charcoal. After his return to France
(1607), he published (1609), under the title of "His-
toire de la Nouvelle-France", a narrative of his voy-
age which has made his name famous. Lescarbot
gives in this work a summanr of ail the attempts at
colonising made by the French in America, notaoly in
Florida, Brazil, and Acadia, where he hiinself played
an important part. He was long considered an excel-
lent authority, and is still often quoted as an exact,
alert, and faithful witness. This work underwent six
editions in the beginning of the seventeenth century
from 1609 to 1618, and a seventh in 1866. It was first
translated into English in 1609, and a translation, by
L. W. Grant, was published in 1907. Lescarbot also
wrote " Adieux k la France " (1606) ; " Les Muses de la
Nouvelle-France" (1609); "La d^faite des sauvages
amouchiquois par le Sagamo Membertou" (1609).
After a journey in Switzerland , he publishe*! (1G13),
in verse, "TahlcMMdes treize Cantons".
Dictionnaire de Jctl; Marcel, Une IfUre xnMite de Lf9carboi
(Puns, 1885): Grant, The History of New France (Toronto,
1007) (a tr. of Lescarbot *s work).
Lionel Ijni>say.
Lescot, Plerbk, one of the greatest architects of
France in the pure Renaissance style, b. at Paris about
1510; d. there, 157 1 . The ver>' improbable report that
he was never in Italy has been sufficiently' refuted.
Moreover, he was descended from the Italian family
of Alessi, Francis I took him into his service, and, by
this king and his successors, I^scot was rewarded with
many honours and witli a benefice. At his death he
was a conunendatory ablx)t as well as Lord (sicur) of
Clagnv. With the active support of Francis I, the
early kenaissance entered on a period of glorious proe-
perity, and in the later years of his reign display^ a
distinctive cliaracter. From that time it rivalled the
Italian Renaissance in its zenith, although, by meet-
ing the demands of French taste, it became somewhat
more ostentatious. Ixjscot proved its most brilliant
exponent. For the decorations of his buildings he as-
sociated himself with the sculptor, Trebatti, a pupil of
Michelangelo, and especially with the ablest plastic
artist of the pure style, Jean Goujon. The perfection
of their achievement depended to a ^eat extent upon
the harmonious combination of their mutual efforts.
It has been thought that, even in architectural mat-
ters, Lescot was very dependent upon his friend,
though the latter named him with Philibert de L'Orme
as the most eminent architects of France, and the ac-
counts for the building of the Louvre designate Lescot
as the archttect and (joujon as the sculptor. Francis I
appointed him architect of the Louvre in' 1546, and
with this building his fame will always be connected.
For remodelling tlie old Imstions of the fortress into
a residence, the celebrated Italian, Serlio, drew up a
plan which he himself afterwards put aside in favour
of Lescot's design. Three sides of a square court were
to \ye enclosed by living apartments of royal splendour,
while the fourth or east side was probably destined to
open with an arcade. Corner pavilions, remark^le
for commanding height and adorned by pillars and
statues, replaced the medieval towers.
The master was destined to finish only the west side
and part of the south side. The building was two
stories high with a richly ornamented attic crowned
by a tasteful roof. In the ground story the windows
were rounded; the small round windows over the
fortals (ceih de hcenf) afterwards became very popular.
n the second story the windows are square and fij>
isheil off with plain Renaiasance pediments. Shgfatly
f)rojecting memliers and slabs of coloured marble give
ife to the massive masonry. A peculiar effect was ob-
tained by the sparing use of rough-hewn stone in the
comer decorations. Goujon's noble sculptures and
the architectural ornaments, although numerous and
splendid, were cleverly subordinated to the construo-
tion. The style corresponded to the *' latest manner'*
«f Bnm«at«, aa it
» imitated in Italy by Sangallo,
no, etc.; it was now by Lescot,
Qoujon. de L'Onne, tad some others, succesBfiiUy
■daptea to French taste. The building of the Louvre
was carried on with greater or less ability by several
masten, and vas fiiuuly completed UDder Napoleon I.
Tbe oldest parts of the paJace are considered one of the
greatest arehiteotural achievements in France. "If
among all the worica of the French Renaissance we
wen to seek for tbe creations which possess in the
hi^iest degree qualities which were, so to say, the
aim at the Renaissance, i. e. perfect proportion of
members and details, we woula always be attracted
finally to Lescot a court n the Louvre (Geymitller)
The rest of Lescot a worta
peara not to have sought much
for opportunities to bu Id
Although, accord n^to a poem
of Ronsard, he bua ed h mself
■ealously in early youth w th
drawing and paint ng an t
after his twentieth year w th
mathematics and areh lecture
Ms wealth and the dut cs of
his offices appear subsequently
to have interfered with h s
artistic activity H s first
achievements (1540-45) were
the rood-screen in St-Oerma n
I'AuzerTois and the Hotel de
Ligneris (now Camavalot) n
Paris. Here and m the de-
mni of the Fountain of N ymphs
orlnnocents (1547 0) beagan
owes a great part of his moder-
ate success to Gou ion's assist-
ance. The dassiceJ simplicity
of this woric had the misfor-
tune to be undervalued during
tbe barocco and rococo period,
and received properrecognition
only from a rat«r ase.
HutTT. 'Ltt Qranat archi(€ctfa
(Puis, 1S60); Palubtbe. Archi-
UOun dt la RmaiuanH (PoHa,
ISM): □ethI'lleh in Handbuch
drr Artliilfklar ton Durm «c. II
(Station, ise8>. vi. 1.
U. GiBTllANN.
few in number he ap<
Dalmatia' includes the three
islands of Hvar (Lesina), tbe
ancient Pharia colonised by tbe Greeks in 385 b. c;
Braif.formerlyBrattiaorBmchia, also colonized by the
Greeks; and Lissa, formerly iHaa. The residence is at
Leeina, a small town on the iiiland of that name, said to
have been Sr^ evangelised by St. Doimus (Domnius), a
disciple of St. Peter. The diocese was probably founded
about 1145 by Lucius II; its first bishop was Mar-
tinus Hanzavim, elected in 1147. Its present binliop,
the fifty-first, is Jordanua Zanino^-ic, O.P., conse-
crated 19 April, 1903, by Leo XIII. The diocese in-
cludes 8 deaneries, 2 vice-deaneries. 28 parishes, 14
chaplaincies and 62,890 faithful. There are several
religious orders; Dominicans, Franciscans, Benedic-
tine nuns, Sistcre of Charity, and Sisters of the Third
Order of St. Francis. The cathedral (Lombard fa-
cade) was built in 1637, and contains a paintinj; by
the famous Giacomo Palma. In 1S99 the head of
St. Stephen, protomartyr, was given by Piu.s X,
then Patriarch of Venice, to the Franciscan Fulgen-
tiusCarev, Bishop of Lesinaand Archbishop of L^slcup.
Twb^nshtma of tiua diocese were created cardinals:
(^vaoni Battiata Pallsvieini in 1S24; and Zaccarias
n a gente Delphina in 1553. During the episcopate
Daimati* IPaila, 1900); Slatut ptrionalit
d lotalit dicecait PAarmtii. Brachimiit H /uctuu (Split. 190%
10l»): Bouud. Sltidi aarici lull' I'ula dc Lttirut, 1 (Zulu,
"*^3). Anthony Lawkbncb GanGbti(5.
Leolie, .John, Bishop of Ross, Scotland, b. 29 Sep.
tember, 1527; d. at Guirtenburg. near Brussels, 30
May, IMti. He was of the ancient House of Lcahe (rf
Balquhain, but apparently illegitimate, as in July,
15:^8, a dispensatioQ was granted to him to take
orders, notwithstanding thisdofeet. lie was educated
first at Aberdeen Un vera tv and afterwards in France,
etui ng at Po t ers Toulouse oi d Paris, and grad-
uating % Ix-torof laws. Re-
prof e^Mor cf canon law at
Abir pen was ordained in
15 S prf^ nted to the parson-
age of 0 ne, and appointed
offic I of the diocese. We
finlhn n 1560 named by the
Lor Is of the Con^gation to
discuss po nts of faith at Edin-
burgh aga st Knox and Wil-
lock In the following year
he went to Fmnce to bring
to Scotland the young Queen
Mary th whom he wea as-
sociated d uring t he years which
followed In 1565 she made
him a member of her privy
CO nc I and in the same year,
on the death of Henry Sin-
clair, he was nominated Bish-
op of Ross. He also held the
', or lord of sBs-
co-editor of the
" Actis and Constitutiounis of
the Realme of Scotland from
the Reigne of James I", the
work of a commission ap-
pointed by the queen, at lua
suggestion, to revise and pub-
lisn the laws of the kingdom.
On Mary's escape from Loch-
leven in 1568. she was joined
by Leslie, who never wavered
in his fidelity to her cause;
and he was her principal com-
missioner at thi^ abortive
conference with Queen
Eliiabeth's commissionera
■ct of JIxin,-'s mar^
. , . _.. -nprisoned
by "Elizabeth, first at Ely, and then in the Tofrer of
London. During his afecnce from Scotland he was
deprived of the revenues of his bishopric and was re-
duced til great poverty. Theiner prints an interesting
letter addressed by him to the pope in 15S0, showing
the efforts ho made, though absent from his diocese, to
conlirm those wavering in the faith, and recover those
who had fallen away. Iii)emted in 1573, but ban-
ished from the countrj', he visited various European
courts to plead the cause of hb gucen, and finally
bishop, hia mother's lifelong friend and champion, to
his former dignities, but he never returned to Scot-
land. In letters he is principally remembered as the
author of a Latin account of tbe history of Scotland^
"De origine, moribus, ac rebus gestis Scotije libn
decern " (Rome, 1578), aScottish version bvDom E. B.
Cody, O.S.B. It comes down to 1571, and in its laU
ter part presents a Catholic account of contemporary
IlTlM.
192
■ri.-/;.~~.-^i-:^^— ^- - ' n'-.' ?>.-,■ — -,-B—r.~i ation,i. e. that ft book writt«ii without the hdp of tbd
'Sb',fa°'.W!f '"«» iSrZ^jm Holy Oho« ™ht b«»«, Holy toipOjoJ/ tCe Holy
iTiiu}; Tttij:ii. HiHorv oiScoiiand (Ediobuixh. istM). GhoBt apparently declared that the said book did not
.tiadpaaim-.Ctro'i iaMrod. to Lt'lu'i HiMiyrvtlSrei' contain anythiiuc falae. The coodenuiationB issued
U."'.ffi„'&HiiS"'S;Ki:Ka<SSl5« ^ th. V.lio.n Counoa did not louoh thi. vi., otW
end of nrtiela Laiii in Did. Nat. Biop.. XXXlll, 93-99. Thu IDS- The doctrme of Leesius OD grace and pncuo-
BrticlB itaelf (by HespEHMiM) Li KnticQ irith prejudiw.ttnd tination, which was ftooused ot Semipelagianism,
d«« much leu ti.<m ,i«ti« u. nn able, pious, ud p.t™i« jaught predeatination "post pnevisa meriU". the
D. O. Hcntbr-BluUr. co-opetationof free will with grace in such a way as to
reject the "gratia peraeefficax"; in fact, this ddctrin*
LeSBina (Lets), Leonajui, a Flemish Jesuit and a was by no means peculiar to LesBius. Apologies, anti-
theologian of liigh reputation, b. at Brccht, in the theses, anti-apologies, succeeded on both aides; the
province of Antwerp, 1 October, 1554; d. at Louvain, Universities oiLouvain and Douaicensured the tbeseei
15 January-, 1623. His parents, honest people of the the faculties of theolo^ of Ingolatadt, Mains, aoa
fanningclass, died when he was but six years old. In Trier approved them; ^e eeneiul of the Jesuila and
1568 he entered the college of Arras in the University at hut the pope was appealed to. Finally Sistus V,
of Louvain, and there studied classics and philosophjy. who in a letter called the incriminated articles " arUo-
His brilliant talents enabled him to become doctor m ull sanx doctrins", chained his nuncio at Cologne,
philosophy at the age of seventeen years; and al- OctavioFrangipani, to brln^ the discussions to an end
though he did not leam Greek till later, ho master"* ■* '■" " t—.u i 1 i~j ti -.; — f :
BO vSW that he could mentally translate into that
guagc the reading he hpard in the refectory, and at
times wrote hia private - ^ . — .
vied with one another in seeking to . . . _ .. „ , - .
pupii. In 1572, and not. as tne date is sometimes which was publi^ed in 1005 and was dedicated U. ura
given, in 1573, he entered the Society of Jesus, and Archduke Albert. Many editions followed at Ant-
after two years' noviccship was sent toDouai to teach werp, Louvain, Lyons, Paris, and Venice. Thiswoi^
philosophy in the Jesuit College there till 1581. He composed with great accuracy, shows best Uie BOimd-
Btudied theology in Rome, where he had Francis . nessof judgment, thecommon sense, and tfaecleamesa
Suarez as his professor for two years. In 15S5he was of mind which distinguishes Lcssius. Thechapteraon
back again at Louvain as professor of theology in the interest and other commercial subjects are epocb-
Jeeuit College and held this cliair for fifteen years, making in the treatmetct of those difficult questions:
When he hod given up teaching, he was urged by his Lessius was especially consulted by the merchants of
superiors and companions to publish the lecturta on Antwerp on matters of justice. Archduke Albert bad
theology which he iiad delivered with such great sue- the book constantly on his desk and referred to it as ft
cess; this he did, yielding at last to their wishes. He guide. A good compendium of the work was pub*
was twice sent to Rome l>y the members of the Gallo- Fished at Douai in 1634. Pour years later a work of
Belgian province to the general congregations of his auil« a different nature was written by Lessius under
order in 1008 and 1615. Cardinal Bellarmine and tne title,"Quie fides et religiosit capessenda" (Ant-
other dignitaries of the Church endeavoured, though werp, 1609). It is a short t>ook of some 150 pages, on
unsuccessfully, to retain him in Rome and to attach controversy and apologetics, which brought about a
him to the Sacred Penile ntiarj-. He was consulted great many conversions, among them that of John
from all i^uarters, and corresponded on theological of Nassau. The book was oft«n repriatcd and was
matterswith the most learned doctors of the day, such translated into Flemish, German, Italian, Hungarian,
as Bellarmine, Suarei, V'ssquez, Molina, etc. But he Polish, and French. "Die work "De gratia efncaci",
longed to have done with studying and writing boolLS, on grace, liberty, predestination, etc., appeared in
that he might turn to prayer and contemplation to- 1010; with the" De just itia" it secures Lessius a place
wards the end of hia career. His remains are in the among the best theologians of the day in dogmatic aft
choir of the Jesuit church in Louvain. Leonard Les- well as in moral questions. Some writings of a con-
sius was a man of great virtue and of great science; troversial character were published between 1611 and
his modesty and humility were equal to his learning, 1619; "De Antichristo et ejus prffcursoribus"; "Do-
nor did he ever hesitate to give up his own opinion fenaio potestatis aummi pontificis", against the theo-
when f^d arguments against it were presented to riea put forward by James I, King of England, Bbp-
him; his charity, meekness, patience, and mortifica- clay, Blockwell, etc. A work on Providence and the
tion were remarkable throughout bis long life, in immortaiityofthesoul was printedin 1013, "De Pn>
epito of the trying disease he contracted when fleeing videntia Numinis ", and translated into dioerent lan-
trom 'Douai to escape the Calvinuits. Pope Url>an guages, even into Chinese. His " Ilygiaaticon" or
VIII, who had known him personally, paid a special plea for sobriety, a treatise on bow to preserve
tribute to bis sanctity; St. Francis of Sales also ea- streiigth and to live long, was published tn 1613, often
teemed him highly lor his virtue and his science, reprinted and translated into nearly all the languacea
After bis death, authentic inrormation was taken of Europe; it is a translation of a similar work oy
about hia life and virtucs:heia now ranked among the Cornaro (Luigi Comaro, an Italian hygienist, 1467-
venerablc,andthcproccssof Ills beatificationlias been 15C6), accompanied with the personal reflectiona of
intro4uccd. Lessius. Even now it is not without interest.
The literary activity of Lcssius was not confined to Among liis ascetical works, which are noted for tbs
dogmatic and moral matters; he wrote also on ascet^ scienec and piety thoy contain, must be mentioned
icism and controversy. We give here tlic most im- his "De summo bono'' (Antwerri, 1010); "De pei^
portant of hia works; the whole liiit may be seen in fectionibus moribusque divinia liliri XIV" {Ant-
Sommervogel. The first printed lines which came werp, 1620); and especblly his posthumous work, on
from the pen of Lessius. i.e. "Theses theologicie" the Divine names, " Quinqua^inta nomina Dei"
(Louvain, 15S0). provoked a fiery debate with the (Brussels, 1040), verj- often reprinted and translated,
doctors of the University of Ix)uvain; the theses of After his death was published his theological treatias
Lessius and Hamelius, both professors at the Jesuit on the sacraments, the Incarnation, etc. (De beati-
College, were attacked as containing dangerous opin- tudine, dc aetlbua humanis, de incarnations Verbi, da
ions on predestination, grace, inspiration in Iloly sacramcntis et censuris, etc., Louvain, 1645). Notft
Scripture, etc. As to the last point, Lessius hat! few of bis imprinted works are preserved at BruSMla
merely suggested an hypotbeeis on subsequent iuspir- and elsewhere; they are made up especially of thso-
1X8B01IS
193
LB880MS
logical treaiiaes, notes on morals, some letters and
documents on the discussion mentioned above, ans-
wers to various consultations, etc. No complete
edition of Lessius's works has ever appeared. The
books "De perfectionibus divinis", "De gratia effi-
caci", "De summo bono'^etc. were published in Paris
(1878-81); "De divinis nominibus and **De summo
bono" at Freiburg (1862 and 1869) ; Bouixmadea new
French translation of the "De divinis nominibus''
(Paris, 1882).
Db Ram, Vie ei EcriU de L. Leeeiua in Revue Catholique, XIX
(1861), 189; DC Block, Le Pbre Lesnus in Pride Hidoriquee,
XII (1863), 133. 188. 210; Hubtsr, Nomendiiior: Schoof8.
J}€ Vtta ei Moribue L. Lessii (Bnisseb, 1640); Soumervoqel.
BibL de la Comp. de Jistu, IV (BnuBebi, 1893), 1726. Bt6/»o-
gpaphie NatioruUe.Xlh 79; IV. 774; Wbrneb, Derhl. Thomae
van Aquino, III (Ratiabon, 1859), 382.
J. DE GhELUNCK.
Lassons in the Liturgy (exclusive of Gospel).
L History. — ^The reading of lessons from the Bible,
Acts of Martyrs, or approved Fathers of the Church,
forms an important element of Christian services in all
ntes since tne beginning. The Jews had divided the
Law into portions for reading in the synagogue. The
first part of the Christian synaxis was an imitation or
contmuation of the service of the synagogue. Like its
mredecessor it consisted of lessons from the Sacred
nookBj pealmHsinging, homilies, and prayers. The
Gbristians, however, naturally read not only the Old
Testament but their own Scriptures too. Among
these Christian Scriptures the most important were
the histories of Our Lord's life, that we call Gospels,
and the letters of the Apostles to various Churches.
So we find St. Paul demanding that his letter to the
Thessalonians ''be read to all the holy brethren'' (I
Theas., v, 27). Such a public reading could onlv take
place at the sjmaxis. Again, at the end of the Epistle
to the Colossians he tells the people to send the letter
to Laodicea to be read there, and to demand and read
his letter to the Laodiceans (Col., iv, 16). Here too
he seems to imply a public reading ("when this epistle
shall have been read with you"). That the public
reading of lessons from the Holy Books was a well-
known incident of Christian services in the first cen-
turies appears also from the common idea that the
" Gospel* to which St. Paul alludes as being " through
all the churches" (II Cor., viii, 18) was the written
Gospel of St. Luke read in the assemblies (Eusebius,
"Hist, eccl.", Ill, iv, 8; Jerome, "De viris illustr.",
vii). TTie famous text of St. Justin Martyr (I Apol.,
Ixvii, quoted in CxOSPel in the Liturgy) shows that
Biblical texts were read at the Sunday asseml)Iics. So
also Tertullian (d. about 240) says of the Roman
Church, that she ** combines the Law and the Prophets
with the Gospels and Apostolic letters" in her public
needing (De praescript. nser., 36). There is evidence
that at first, not only the canonical Scriptures, but
Acts of Martyrs, letters, homilies of prominent bish-
ops, and other edifying documents were read publicly
in the assemblies. St. Cyprian (d. 258) demands that
his letters be read publicly in church (e. g., Ep. ix, in
P. L., IV, 253, etc.). The first Epistle of Clement to
the Corinthians was used for public reading; it is in-
cluded (with II C'lem. ad. Cor.) in the Codex Alexan-
drinus. The Epistle of Barnabas and the ** Shep-
herd" of Hennas are in the Codex Sinaiticus. These
manuscripts represent collections made for public
reading. So fdso in the East, Acts of Martyrs were
read on their anniversaries. Even as lat4> as his time
St. John Chrjrsostom (d. 407) seems to imply that let-
ters from various Churches were still read in the Lit-
utgy (Horn. 30 on II 0>r., in P. G.. LXI, 605). ^ From
the third and fourth centuries, however, the principle
obtained that in the liturgy only the canonical
Scriptures should be read. The Muratorian Canon
(third century) expressl3r forbids the "Shepherd" to
be read publicly. The ideas of public reading and
oanonioity beeome aynonymousi bo that the fact that
DC.— 13
a l>ook is read at the Liturgy in any local Church is
understood to be evidence that tliat Church accepts it
as canonical. Headings during the Office (Matins,
etc.) outside the Liturgy have always been more free
in this regard.
Originally, as we see from Justin Martyr's
account, the amoimt read was quite indeterminate; the
reader went on " as long as time allowed". The pre-
siding bishop would then stop him with some sign or
formula, of which our clause, "Tu autem Domine,
miserere nobis", at the end of lessons (once undoubt-
edly said by the celebrant) is still a remnant. The
gradual fixing of the whole liturgical function into set
lorms naturally involved the fixm^ of the portions of
the Bible read. There was an obvious convenience in
arranging beforehand more or less equal sections to
be read m turn. These sections were called "peri-
copes" (xepiKOTilj), a fragment cut off, almost exactly
the Grcrman Abschnitt); they were marked in the
text of the Bible, as may be seen in most early manu-
scripts. An index (called Xwa^dpiop in Greek, capitu-
larium in Latin), giving the first and last words of
the pericopes for each Sunday and feast, made it
easier to find them. There are many remnants of the
practice of naming a pericope after its first words,
as in the capitularium. The Fathers preach on Gro&-
pels which they so call, as if it were a proper name (so
St. Bernard's "Homilies on the Mtssiis est** is on
Luke, i, 26-38, etc.). Eventually, for greater con-
venience the lessons are written out in their liturgical
order in a lectionarium, and later still they are inserted
in their place w^ith the text of the whole service, in
Breviaries and Missals (see Gospel in the Liturgy,
I)-
Meanwhile the number of leasons, at first undeter-
mined, became fixed and reduced. The reading of
the Gospel, as being the most important, the crown
and fulfilment of the prophecies in the Old Law, was
put in the place of honour, last. Every allusion to the
lessons read in churches implies that the Gospel comes
last. A further reason for this arrangement was that
in some Churches the catechumens were not allowed
to hear the Gospel, so it was read after their dismissal
(see Gospel in the Liturgy, I). We are concerned
here with the other lessons that preceded it. For a
time their number was still vague. The liturgy of the
Apostolic Constitutions refers to "the reading of the
Law and the Prophets and of our Epistles and Acts
and Gk)8pls" (VIII, v, 11). The Sj-riac, Coptic, and
Abyssinian Rites have several lessons before the Gos-
pel (Brightman, "Eastern Liturgies", Oxford, 1896,
pp. 76-8, 152-4, 212-5). In the Roman Rite we still
have Masses with a number of lessons before the Gos-
pel. Then gradually the custom obtains of reading
two only, one from the Old Testament and one from
the New. From the fact that the text read from the
Old Testament is looked upon as a promise or type of
what followed in Our Lord's life (vory commonly taken
from a Prophet) it is called the prophecy' . The
lesson of the New Testament (exclusive of the Gospel)
would naturally in most cases bo part of an Epistle of
St. Paul or another Apostle. So we have three lessons
in the Liturgy — prophetia, cpistMa (or aposU)lus)^evaf}n
gelium. This was the older arrangement of the lit-
urgies that now have only two. The Armenian Rite,
derived at an early date (in the sixth century) from
that of CJonstantinople, has these three lessons (Bright-
man, op. cit., 425-426). St. John Chrysostom also
alludes to three lessons in the Byzantine Rite of his
time (Horn. 29 on Acts. P. G., LX'218; cf. Brightman,
op. cit., 470). In the West, Gormanus of Paris (d.
576), describing the Gallican Rite, mentions them:
"The prophetic lesson of the Did Testament has its
place. . . . The same God speaks in the prophecy who
teaches in the Apostle and is glorious in the light of the
Gospels", etc. (Duchesne, "Origines du Culte", 185).
This Gallican use is still preserved in the Mozarabic
LESSONS
194
LBSSOMS
Litui^gy, which has three lessons iu the Mass. The
Ambrosian Rite has a prophetic lesson on certain days
only.
The Roman Rite also certainly once had these three
lessons at every Mass. Besides the now exceptional
cases in which there are two or more lessons before the
Gospel, we have a trace of them in the arrangement
of tne Gradual which still shows the place where the
other lesson has dropped out (see Gradual). The
church of St. Clement at Rome (restored in the ninth
centunr but still keeping the disposition of a much
older basilica) has a third ambo for the prophetic
lesson. A further modification reduced the lessons to
two, one from any book of the Bible other than the
Gospel, the second from the Gospel. In the Byzan-
tine Rite this change took place between the time of
St. John Chrysostom (d. 407) and the final develop-
ment of the liturgy. The Barberini manuscript
(ninth century, reproduced in Brightman, op. cit.,
309-344) still supposes more than one lesson before the
Gospel (ibid., 314). The Greek Liturgies of St.
James and St. Mark also have only one lesson before the
Gospel (ibid., 36, 118). This is one of the many ex-
amples of the influence of Constantinople, which from
the seventh century gradually byzantinized the older
Rites of Antioch and Alexandria, till it replaced them
in about the thirteenth century. In St. Augustine's
sermons we see that he refers sometimes to two les-
sons before the Gospel (e. g., Sermo xl), sometimes to
only one (Sermo clxxvi, clxxx). At Rome, too, the
lessons were reduced to two since the sixth centuiy
("Liber Pontificalis", ed. Duchesne, Paris, 1884, I,
230), except on certain rare occasions. These two
lessons, then, are our Epistle and Gospel.
II. The Epistle. — In no rite is the first of these
two lessons invariably taken from an Epistle. Never-
theless the preponderance of pericopes from one of
the Epistles m the New Testament is so great that the
first lesson, whatever it may be, is commonly called the
"Epistle'' (Epistola), An older name meaning the
same thing is ' Apostle " (Apostolus) . The Gregorian
Sacramentarv calls this lesson Apostolus; e. g.,
P. L., LXXVlII, 25;"deindesequitur Apostolus"; it
was also often called simply Lectio (so the Saint-
Amand Ordo, Duchesne, "Origines du Culte", 442).
The Eastern rites (Antioch, Alexandria, Constanti-
nople) in Greek still call the first lesson 6* Ar6<rTo\oi,
Originally it was read by a lector. The privileges of
the deacon to sing the Gospel and (in the West) of the
subdeacon to read the Epistle are a later develop-
ment (sec Gospels in the Liturgy). It seems that
in the West lectors read the Epistle as well as the
other lessons down to about the fifth century (Reuter,
"Das Subdiakonat", Augsburg, 1890, pp. 177, 185).
Gradually, then, the feeling grew that the Epistle be-
jongs to the subdeacon. This is apparently an imita-
tion of the deacon's right to the Gospel. When the
custom had obtained of celebrating High Mass with
two ministers only — a deacon and a subdeacon — in
place of the number of concelebrating priests, region-
ary deacons, and assistant subdeacons whom we see
around the celebrating bishop in the first centuries at
Rome, when further the liturgical lessons were re-
duced to two, and one of them was sung by the deacon,
it seemed natural that the subdeacon should read the
other. The first Roman Ordo (sixth-eighth century)
describes the Epistle as read by a subdeacon (I, 10).
But not till the fourteenth century was the subdea-
con's peculiar office of reading the Epistle expressed
and acknowledged by his symbolic reception of the
book of Epistles at his ordination. Even now the
Roman Pontifical keeps unchanged the old form of the
admonition in the ordination of subdeacons (Adep-
turi, filii dilectissimi, ofiicium subdiaconatus . . .
etc.), which, although it describes their dutios at
length, says nothing about reading the Epistle. In
the correBponding aamonition to deacons, on the other
hand, there is a clear reference to their duty of singing
the Gospel. In the time of Durandus (thirteenth cen-
tury) the question was still not clear to every one. He
insists that " no one may read the Epistle solemnly in
church unless he be a subdeacon, or, if no subdeacon
be present, it must be said by a deacon" (Rationale
Div. Offic, iv. 16) ; but when he treats of the duties of
a subdeacon he nnds it still necessary to answer the
question: "W^hy the subdeacon reads the lessons at
Mass, since this does not seem to belong to him either
from his name or the office given to him" (ii, 8). We
have even now a relic of the older use in the rubric of
the Missal which prescribes that in a sung Mass, where
there arc no deacon and subdeacon, a lector in a sur-
plice should read the Epistle (Ritus eel. Missam, vi,
8); in case of necessity at high Mass, too, a clerk, not
ordained subdeacon, may wear the tunicle (not the
maniple) and perform nearly all the subdeacon's
duties, including the reading of the Epistle (S. R. C.,
15 July, 1698). In the Eastern rites there is no pro-
vision for a subdeacon in the liturgy, except in the one
case of the Maronites, who here, too,^ have romanixed
their rite. In all the others the Epistle is still chanted
by a reader {dpaytnifrrii.)
The Epistle is the last lesson before the Gospel, the
first when there are only two lessons. In this case its
place is immediately after the Collects. Originally it
came between the two chants that we now call the
Gradual (see Gradual). It was read from an ambo,
the reader or subdeacon turning towards the people.
AVhere there were two or more ambos, one was uised
only for the Gospel. The common arrangement was
that of an ambo on either side of the church, between
the choir and the nave, as ma^ stUl be seen in many
old basilicas (e. g., S. Maria m Cosmcdin at Rome,
etc.). In this case the ambo on the north side was
reserved for the Gospel, from which the deacon faced
the south, where the men stood (Gospel in the Lit-
urgy). The north is also the right, and therefore the
more honourable, side of the altar. The ambo on the
south was used for the Epistle, and for other lessons if
there were only two. In the case of three ambos, two
were on the south, one for all other lessons, one for the
Epistles. This arrangement still subsists, inasmuch
as the Epistle is always read on the south side (sup-
posing the church to be orientated). Where there
was only one amix) it had two platforms, a lower
one for the Epistle and other lessons, a higher one
for the Gospel (Durandus, "Rationale", IV^ 16).
The ambo for the Epistle should still be used m the
Roman Rite where the church has one; it is used regu-
larly at Milan. In the Byzantine Rite the Apostle
may be read from an ambo; if there is none the reader
stands at the "high place", the solca (jnaXia), that
is, the raised platform m front of the iconostasis. Am-
bos were still built in Western churches down to the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries (see "Ambon " in Ca-
brol's ' ' Dictionnaire d'arch^'ologie chr^tienne "). Since
then they have disappeared, except in some old
churches. From that time the subdeacon as a rule
stands in the choir on the south side of the altar (to-
wards what the rubrics of the Missal call the comu
epistolw) , facing the altar, as he reads the Epistle. The
Byzantine reader, however, faces the people. The
Epistle has always been chanted to a simpler tone than
the Gospel; generally it is simply read on one note.
The answer "Deo gratias" after the Epistle is the
common one after the reading of any lesson (e. g., in
the Office too) . It was originally a sign f rOm the cele*
brant or presiding bishop that enough had been read.
The medieval commentators (e. g., Durandus, IV, 17)
note that the subdeacon, having finished his reading,
goes to make a reverence to the celebrant and kisses
his hand. During the Epistle in every rite the hearers
sit. The First Roman Ordo notes this (10) ; they also
cover their heads. This is the natural attitude for
hearing a lesson read (so also at Matins, eto.}; tO
LBSBOMS
195
LBSBOMS
stand at the Gospel is a special mark of reverence for
its special dignity.
in. Text of thb Various Epistles. — ^The reason
of the present order of Epistles in the Roman Rite
throughout the year is even more dilEcult to find than
the parallel case of the Gospels (see Gospel in the
LrruRGT, II). In the first period the Question does
not so much concern what we now call tne Epistle as
rather the whole group of Biblical lessons preceding
the Gospel. We may deduce with some certainty
that there was at first the principle of reading succes-
sive books of the Bible continuously. The second
book of the Apostolic Ck>nstitutions (third century)
says that " the reader standing on a hcieht in the mid-
dle shall read the Books of Moses and Jesus son of
Nave, and of the Judges and Kings, and of Paralip-
(nnenon and the Return [Esdras and Nchemias],
after these those of Job and Solomon and the sixteen
Prophets [these are the first lessons]. The lessons
havmg been read by two [readers], another one sliall
sing the hymns of David and the people answer back
the verses [this is the psalm between the lessons, our
Gradual]. After this our Acts [the Apostles are sup-
posed to be speaking] shall be read and the letters
of Paul, our fellow-worker, which he sent to the
Churches". ("Const. Apost.", II, Ivii, ed. Funk, Pa-
derbom, 1905, p. 161.) This then implies continuous
readings in that order. For the rest the homilies of the
Fathers that explain continuous books (and often ex-
plicitly refer to the fact that the passage explained has
just been read) show us certain oooks rcacl at certain
seasons. Thus, for instance, in Lent Genesis was
read in East and West. So St. John Chrysostom (d.
407), preaching in Lent, says: "To-day I will explain
the passage you have heard read'' and proceeds to
preach on Genesis, i, 1 (Hom. vii, de statuis, 1). His
nomilies on Genesis were held during Lent (Hom. i, in
Gen., i). It is also probable that St. Basil's sermons
on the Hexaemeron were held in Lent. In the Ro-
man Office still Genesis begins at Septuagesima (in
Matins) and is read in part of Lent. The reason of
this is apparentljr tliat the ecclesiastical vear was
counted as oeginning then in the spring. Other books
read in Lent were Job (e. g. , St. Am brose, ' 'ad Marcell. ' ',
Ep. xz, 14; P. L., XVI, 998), as an example of patient
giurering,and Jonas (ibid., 25; col. 1001), as a prepara-
tion for the Resurrection. During Eastertide the Acts
of the Apostles were read (St. Augustine, Tract, vi
in Joh. xviii, P. L., XXXV, 1433). For special feasts
and on special occasions suitable lessons were chosen,
thus breaking the continuous readings. In the Aiiddle
A^es it was believed that St. Jerome (d. 420), in obe-
dience to an order of Pope Damasus, had arranged the
lessons of the Roman Liturgy; a spurious letter of his
to tiie Emperor Constantius was quoted as the first
cornea, or list of lessons, for each day. Dom G. Morin
thinks that Victor, Bishop of Capua (541-554), was
the author (Revue B^n^ictine, 1890, p. 416 seq.) . The
letter is c^uoted in Beissel, " Entstehung der Perikopen
des Romischen Messbuches" (Freiburg, 1907), 54-5.
From the fifth century various lists of lessons were
drawn up. Gennadius of Marseilles (fifth century)
says of one Muscus, priest of Marseilles: "Exhorted by
the holy Bishop Venerius he selected lessons from
Holy Scripture suitable for the feast days of all the
year" (De viris illustr., Ixxix). The " Lectionarium
Gallicanum" published by Mabillon (in P. L., LXXII),
written in Burgundy in the seventh century, is an-
other scheme of the same kind. A codex at Fulda
contains the Epistles for Sundays and feast days ar-
ranged by Victor of Capua in the sixth century.
Probst ("Die filtesten romischen Sacramentarien und
Ordines", MOnster, 1892, p. 33) thinks that thev are
those read at Rome. All are taken from St. Paul (see
the list. loo. cit., and in Beissel, " Entstehung der Peri-
kopen'\ 57-8). From this time there are a number
of «Hiitlfli aznuifed for use in different Churches. Of
these one of the most famous is the cornea arranged by
Albinus (i. e., Alcuin^ by command of the Emperor
Charles. This contains only the Epistles; it is part of
the Roman Rite introduced by Charles the Great in
the Prankish Kingdom (published in "Thomasii Op-
era", ed. Vezzosi, V, 418, cf. Ranke: "Das kirchliche
Perikopensystem",1850, supplem. Ill; Beissel, od. cit.,
141). The " Liber comicus edited by Dom G. Morin
("AnecdotaMarcdsol.",1, 1893, cf. "Revue B6n6d.",
1892, 442) contains the full lessons of the old Moz*
arable use. Paul the Deacon composed a collection of
homilies between 786 and 797, from which one may de-
duce the lessons read on Sundays under Charles the
Great (P. L., XCV, 1159 sq., cf. Wiegand, "Das
Homilarium Karls des Grossen", Leipzig,- 1897, and
"Rev. Bdn^.", 1898, 400 seq.). Beissel (op. cit.)
has collected a great number of such comites, lection-
aries, and references in the early Middle Ages, from
which the set of lessons in the present Roman Missal
gradually emerges.
Of the arrangement one can onlv say that the spe-
cial suitableness of certain Epistles for the various
feasts and seasons soon quite disturbed the principle
of continuous reading. Of continuous readings there
is now hardly a*trace in the Missal. On the other
hand. Epistles obviously suitable for each occasion
may be traced back through a long list of comites.
Thus our Epistles from Romans at the beginning of
Advent recur in many lists: they are chosen obviously
because of their appropriateness to that season. In
some cases a connexion of ideas with the Gospel seems
to be the reason for the choice of the Epistle. In the
Missal as reformed by Pius V in 1570 about two-
thirds of the Epistles are taken from St. Paul; the
others are from other Epistles, the Acts, Apocalypse,
and various books of the Old Testament. A principle
observed fairly regularly is that on fast days the Epis-
tle is a lesson from the Old Testament. This applies
to all week-days in Lent except Maundy Thursdav,
which has, of course, a festal Mass. The Mass on Holy
Saturday is the first Easter Mass and has an Easter
Epistle (Col., iii, 1-4). So also on most of the ember-
days (which still have several lessons); but on the
Whitsun ember Wednesday the sense of Pentecost
predominates, so that it has two lessons from the New
Testament (Acts, ii and v). It may be a remnant of
the old system of reading Acts in East<;rtide that, ex-
cept Friday and Saturday, all the Masses of Easter
Week have lessons from Acts, though, on the other
hand, they are all in themselves appropriate. Practi-
cally all feasts and special occasions have Epistles
chosen for their suitableness, as far as such could be
found.
Occasionally, as on St. Stephen's feast and, to some
extent. Ascension Day and Whitsunday, it is the Epis-
tle ratner than the Gospel tliat tells the story of the
feast. The three Epistles for Cliristmas Day are
sufficiently^ obvious: St. Stephen has of course the
story of his martyrdom from Acts, vi and vii. Holy
Innocents the lesson from Aix>calyi)se, xiv. al)out the
immaculate first-fruit« of the saints. The Epiphany
has a magnificent lesson alx)ut the Gentiles seeing the
glory of the Lord in Jerusalem and the people who
bring gold and incense, from Isaias, Ix. Palm Sunday
in its Epistle tells of the olx?dicnce of Our Lord to the
death of the Cross and of His exaltation (Phil., ii), in
the tone of the " Vexilla Regis". The Easter Epistle
could Ixj no other than the one appointed (I Cor., v):
Ascension Day and AMiitsunday have their stories
from the Acts. The feast of the Holy Trinity has the
passage in Romans, xi, about the inscrutable mystery
of God. Corpus Christi brings, of course, St. Paul's ac-
count of the Holy Eucharist (I Cor., xi). St. John
Baptist has a lesson from Isaias, xlix, about vocation
ana sanctification in the mother's womb. St. Peter
and St. Paul have the story of St. Peter's imprison-
ment in Acts, xii. For All Saints we have the lesson
LS880H8
196
LS880H8
about the saints si^ed by God and the great crowd
around his throne m Apoc., vii. Most of Our Lady's
feasts have lessons from the Sons of Solomon or Eo-
clesiasticus applied mystically toner, as in her Office.
The commons of saints have fairly obvious Epistles
too. It will be seen, then, that a great proportion of
our pericopes are chosen because of their appro-
priateness to the occasion. With n^ard to the oth-
ers, in the Proprium de tempore, notably those for the
Sundays after Epiphany and Pentecost, it is not possi-
ble to find any dennite scheme for their selection. We
can only conjecture some underlying idea of reading
the most important passages of St. Paul's Epistles.
The fact that every Sunday except Whitsunday has a
pericope from an Epistle, that m nearly all cases it
IS from St. Paul (the Sundays after Easter, 1st, 2nd,
3rd, and 5th after Pentecost have Epistles of other
Apostles) still shows that this is the normal text for
the lesson before the Gospel; other lessons are excep-
tions admitted because of their special appropriate-
ness. Of the old principle of continuous readings it
is not now possible to nnd a trace. Our pericopes
represent a combination oT various comitea and leo-
tionaries, between which that principle has become
completely overlaid.
The epistle is announced as lectio, "Lectio epistoke
beati Pauli ad Romanos", "Lectio libri Esther", and
80 on. No further reference is given; when there are
several Epistles (e. g., those of St. Peter, St. John) the
title read out does not say which it is: "Lectio epis-
tolse beati Petri apostoli". It should also be noted
that all the five hooka attributed to Solomon and
known as the "Libri Sapient iales " (namely, Pro v.,
EccL, Cant., Wis., Ecclus.) are announced as:
"Lectio libri Sapienti®'*.
The Epistles read in Eastern Churches are arranged
in a way m which there is also no longer any trace of a
system. Here, too, the present arrangement is the re-
sult of a long series of Lectionaries between which
various compromises have been made. The Byzan-
tine Church reads from the Epistles, Acts, and Apoc-
alypse for the first lesson, called the Apostle (6 dT&rro-
Xof). These lessons are contained with their Prokei-
mena in a book also called 'Ax6<rroXof or IIpa|oT6<rroXo?.
The last part of this book contains a selection of les-
sons from the Old Testament for use on special occa-
sions (see the exact description in Leo Aliatius, "De
libris ecclesiasticis Graeconun^j Paris, 1645, 1, xv, 4).
We have noted that the Armenians stUl have the older
arrangement of three lessons in evenr liturgy, a
Prophecy from the Old Testament, an Epistle, and a
Gospel. The Copts have no Prophecy, but four New-
Testament lessons, one of St. Paul read from the
"Apostle", one from an Epistle by another Apostle,
read from another book called the " Katholikon ", then
one from the Acts and finally the Gospel (Brightman,
"Eastern Liturgies", 152^); the Abyssinian Church
follows the use of Egypt in this as in most liturgical
matters (ibid., 212-219). The Svrian Jacobites read
firet several lessons from the Old Testament, then one
from the Acts, an Epistle, and a Gospel (ibid., 77-80).
The Nestorians have an Old-Testament lesson, one
from the Acts, an Epistle and a Gospel (ibid., 256-60).
Between the lessons in all these rites are various frag-
ments of psalms, corresponding to our Gradual. The
reading ot the Apostle or other lessons before the Gos-
pel is a very simple affair in the East. A reader, who is
generally any layman, simply takes the book, stands in
the middle of the choir, and sings the text in his usual
nasal chant with a few enharmonic cadences which are
handed down by tradition and, as a matter of fact,
very considerably modified according to the taste and
skill of the singer. Meanwhile the celebrant turns
towards him and listens. lie does not also read the
text himself in any Eastern Rite. The Byzantine
reader first chants the Prokeimenon (UpoKtifupoy roO
iiro^6Xov— ^'placed before", understand W^ixoi-)
facing the altar. This is a short verse of a pealm cor-
responding to our Gradual (which once preceded the
Epistle: see Gradual). He then turns to the people
and chants the Apoatolos. Meanwhile the deacon is
incensing the altar (Fortescue, " Liturgy of St. John
Chiysostom", London, 1908, p. 75).
I V. Ritual of the Epistle in the Roman Rite. —
We have noted that for many centuries the reading
of the Epistle is a privilege of the subdeacon. While
the celebrant chants the last Collect^ the master of
ceremonies brings the book containing the Epistle
(a lectionarium containing the Epistles and Gospels,
verv often simply another Missal) from the credence
table to the subdeacon at his place behind the deacon.
The subdeacon turns towards him and receives it, both
making a slight inclination. He then goes to the mid-
dle and genuflects (even if the Blessed Sacrament is
not on the altar) and comes back to a place in pkmo at
some distance behind the celebrant. Standing there,
facing the altar, and holding the book with both hands,
he chants the title " Lectio •••'', etc., and goes on at
once with the text, to the end. He bows at the Holy
Name and genufiects, if the rubric directs it, at his
place towards the altar in front. The normal tone
for the Epistle is entirely on one note (do) without any
infiection, except that where a question occurs it sinks
half a tone (to si) four or five syllables before, and for
the last three syllables has the inflection la, si and a
podcUus si-do. The revised Vatican Missal gives a
rather more elaborate chant for use ad libitum in the
appendix (no. III). While the Epistle is read the
members of the choir sit with covered heads. Mean-
while the celebrant reads it (and the Gradual) in a low
voice from the Missal at the altar; the deacon stands at
his side, turns over the page, if necessary, and ans-
wers, " Deo gratias ", when tne celebrant has ended the
Epistle, To the Epistle chanted by the subdeacon
there is no answer. The last three or four syllables of
the Epistle are chanted more slowly, ritardando at the
end. The subdeacon, having finished, shuts the book,
goes to the middle and genuflects; then, still holding
the closed book in both hands, he goes round to where
the celebrant stands; here he kneels facing sideways
(north) on the step. The celebrant turns to him and
rests the right hand on the book. The subdeacon
kisses the hand and waits with bowed head while the
celebrant mJakes the sign of the cross over him in si-
lence. He hands the book back to the master of cere-
monies and then carries the Missal round to the other
side for the celebrant's Gospel.
A^.a sung Mass we have seen that the Epistle majr
be chanted oy a lector in a surplice (Ritus celebr., yi,
8; the text even says that this should be done: " Epis-
tolam cantet in loco consueto aliquis lector super-
peUiceo indutus''). In this case he does not go to
KISS the celebrant's hand afterwards (ibid.). C^er-
ally, however, the celebrant chants the Epistle him-
self at the comer of the altar, using the same tone as
would a subdeacon. "Deo gratias" should not bo
answered in this case either. At low Mass the Epis-
tle is read by the celebrant in its place after the last
Collect. The server answers, " Deogratias ".
V. Other Lessons at Mass. — There are a good
many occasions in the year on which one or more les-
sons still precede the Epistle, according to the older
custom. They are all days of a penitential nature,
conspicuously the embeivdays. The lessons are al-
wavs separated by Graduals or Tracts, generally by
Collects too. On the Advent ember Wednesday, after
the first Collect a lesson from Isaias, ii, is read, then
comes a Gradual, the Collect of the day followed by the
other two that are said in Advent (or by commemora-
tions), and a second lesson (the Epistle) from Is.,
vii, and lastly a second Gradual before the Gospel.
The Advent ember Saturday has four lessons from
Isaias, each preceded bv a Collect and followed bv a
Graduali th^ a lesson from Dan., iii (with its Otmet
I.I880HS
197
LESSOHS
before it), which introduces the canticle " Benedictus
ee, Domine"; this is sung as a kind of Tract. Then
come the usual Collects for the day and the Epistle.
The Lent ember Wednesday has two. the Saturday
five lessons before the Gospel. The Whitsun ember
Wednesday has two lessons from Acts, Saturday five
prophecies and an Epistle. The ember-days in Sep-
teniber have on Wednesdav two lessons, on Saturday
four lessons and an Epistle before the Gospel. Wednes-
day in Holy Week also has two lessons from Isaias.
In all these cases the arrangement is the same: a col-
lect, the lesson, a gradual or tract. The lessons
other than the last (technicaUv the Epistle) are
chanted by the celebrant to the Epistle tone; the dea-
con and subdeacon answer, ''Deo gratias", except in
the case of the lesson from Daniel that introduces the
canticle (de Uerdt, ''S. litur^ praxis '', I, 435).
Palm Sunday, in the missa sicca in which the pauns are
blessed, has a lesson from Exodus, xy and xiv, sung by
the subdeacon as if it were an Epistle, as well as a
Gospel. On Maundy Thursday the Gospel of the
Mass is sung again at the Maundy (washing of feet).
The Mass of the Presanctificd on Good Friday, as part
of its archaic character, begins with three lessons. The
first is the "Prophecy from Osoe, vi. This is sung
by a lector — ^the only occasion on which^such a person
is mentioned in the text of the Missal (apart from the
preface). A tract and collect follow. Then comes
the Epistle (in this case, according to the rule for
we^-days in Lent, a lesson from the Old Testament,
Ex., xii) chanted by the subdeacon in the usual way,
another tract, and the Gospel (the Passion from 8t,
John).
Hol]r Saturday and Whitsun eve keep a relic of very
early times in the long series of lessons (called here too
"Pfophecies") before the Mass. It is often said that
they represent the last instruction of the catechumens
before l>aptism. Mgr BatilTol ("Histoire du Br6-
viaire Romain", Paris, 1895, pp. 114-115) and Father
Thurston ("Lent and Holy Week", London, 1904)
see in them rather a renmant of the old vigil-office of
the type of the fourth-century vigil, but now despoiled
of the psalms that once alternated with the lessons.
Tlie nunier of the Prophecies on Holy Saturday
varied in different churches. Durandus, who ex-
plains them in the usual medieval way as instructions
for the catechumens, says: "In some churches four
lessons are read, in some six, in some twelve, and in
some fourteen", and proceeds to give mystic reasons
for these numbers (Rationale, vi, 81 ) . The number at
Rome seems to have been always, as it is now, twelve.
A tradition ascribes the arrangement of these twelve
to St. Gregory I. They were once chanted first in
Latin and then in Greek. As they stand in the Missal
th^ represent very well a general survey of the Old
Testament as a preparation for Christ; the Collects
which follow each emphasize this idea. The eighth
and ninth only are followed by Tracts. They are
chanted by readers (now practically anyone from
the choir) before the altar, while the celebrant reads
them in a low voice at the epistle side. They begin
without any title. The celebrant, of course, sinj^s the
CoUect that follows each. Their tone is given in the
appendix of the Vatican Missal (no. 11). It agrees
iimh that for lessons at Matins; namely, they are
chanted on one note (do) with a fall of a perfect fifth
(to fa) on the last syllable before each full stop, a fall
of half a tone (si) before a colon, and the same cadence
for questions as in the Epistle (see above). Only the
last cadence is different, being formed of the four notes
re, do, «>>, 81)^, on the last four syllables. The lessons
on YHiitsun eve are (like the whole service) an imita-
tion of Holy Saturday. It is supposed that the rites
of the Easter vigil, including the baptisms, were trans-
f emd to Whitsun eve in the North because of the cold
climate. Th^r then reacted so as to produce a dupli-
catkm, such tm is not uncommon in tne Roman Rite.
The whole rite follows that of Easter eve exactly; but
there are only six prophecies, being the 3rd, 4th, 11th
8th, 6th, and 7th of the Easter series.
VI. Lessons in the Office. — Lessons of various
kinds also form a very important part of the canonical
hours in all rites. The essential and original ele-
ments of the Divine Office in East and West are the
singing of psalms, the reading of lessons, and saying
of prayers. The Canons of flippolytus (second cen-
tury) ordain that clerks arc to come together at cock-
crow and "occupy themselves with psalms and the
reading of Scripture and with prayers" (can. xxi).
The history of these lessons is bound up closely with
that of the Office itself (oae Baumer, "ueschichte dee
Breviers", Freiburg, 1895, ch. ii, etc.; Batiffol^ "His-
toire du Br^viaireRomain", Paris, 1895, ch. i, etc.).
We may note here that in the Office, as in the Liturgy,
we see at first the principle of continuous readings from
the Bible; to these are added the reading of Acts of
Martyrs and then of homilies of approved Fathers.
In the West this idea ha« becYi preser\'ed more exactly
in the Office than in Ihe Mass. In the Roman and
indeed in all Western Rites the most important les-
sons belong to the night Office, the noctums that we
now call Matins. The Rule of St. Benedict (d. 543)
gives us exactly the arrangement still observed in the
monastic rite (chap. xi). The development of the
Roman Rite is described by Batiffol, op. cit. (chaps,
ii and iii especially). Till the seventh century the
ferial Noctum had no lessons, that of Sunday had
after the twelve psalms three lessons from Scripture;
the lessons followed from the text of the Bible so that
it was read through (except the Gospels and Psalms)
in a year. The distribution of the books was much
the same as now (Batiffol, op. cit., p. 93). In the
seventh century lessons began to be read in the ferial
Office too. The presiding priest or bishop gave a sign
when enough had been read; the reader ended, as now,
with the ejaculation, "Tu autem Domine miserere
nobis", and the choir answered, "Deo gratias".
A further development of the Sunday Office men-
tioned by St. Gregory I (d. 604) was that a second and
third noctum were added to the first. Each of these
had three psalms and three lessons taken, not from
the Bible, but from the works of the Fathers (Batiffol,
p. 96). For these lessons a hbrarj' of their works was
required, till the homilies and treatises to be read be-
gan to be collected in books called homilmria. Paul
the Deacon made a famous collection of this kind. It
was published by authority of Charles the Great, who
himself wrote a preface to it; it was used throughout
his kingdom. It became the chief source of our pres-
ent Roman series of les.sons from the Fathers (in P. L.,
XCV). Eventually then the arrangement of lessons
in the Roman Rite has bec^ome this: Tlie lessons
from Scripture are arranged throughout the year in
the proprium ternporis. They form what is called the
scriptura occurrens. The chief books of the Bible (ex-
cept the Gospels and Psalms) are begun and read for a
time. The shortening of the lessons, overlapping of
seasons, and especially the number of feasts that have
special lessons have produced the result that no book
is ever finished. But the principle of at least begin-
ning each book is mahitained, so that if for any re^ison
the scriptura occurrens of a day on which a book is be-
gun falls out, the lessons of that day arc read instead
of the normal ones on the next free day.
Although the ecclesiastical year begins with Ad-
vent, the course of the scriptwa occurrens is begun at
Septuagesima with Genesis. This is a relic of an older
calculation that began the year in the spring (see
above, II). The course of the continuous reading is
continually interrupted for special reiusons. So the
first Sunday of I^nt has lessons from II Cor., vi and
vii ("Now is the acceptable time"). The week-days
in Lent have no scriptura occurrni^ but a Gospel and a
homily, according to the rule for the feria) that were
LESSONS
198
LESSOmi
liturgical from the beginning and have a special Mass.
Genesis goes on on the second and third Sundays of
Lent; on the fourth comes a pcricope from Exodus.
Passion and Palm Sunday have lessons from Jeremias
.(beginning on Passion Simday) for a special reason
(the connexion of the Prophet of the destruction of the
temple with Our Lord's Passion). Easter Day and its
octave have only one noctum, so no scriptura occur-
tens. Low Sunday has special lessons (Col., iii) about
the Resurrection. The Acts of the Apostles begin on
the day after Low Sunday and are read for a fortnight
— according to the old tradition that connects them
with Eastertide. The Apocalypse begins on the third
Sunday after Easter and lasts for a week. On the
fourth Sunday St. James's Epistle begins, on th^ fifth
St. Peter's First Epistle. Ascension Day naturally
has its own story from Acts, i; but on the next day
II Peter begins. The Sunday following brings the
First Epistle of St. John; the next Wednesday, II
John; the Friday, III John; Saturday, the Epistle of
St. Jude. Pentecost and its octave, like Easter, have
no scriptura occurrens.
It will be noticed tliat, just as Lent has on its ferise
only lessons from the Old Testament, even in the
EpLstlcs at Mass, so Paschal time has only the New
Testament, even in the Office. The feast of the Holy
Trinitv has special lessons (Is., vi — the Seraphim who
cry: lloly. holy, holy); the next day we come back to
the normal course and begin the First Book of Kings.
II Kings begins on the fifth Sunday after Pentecost,
III Kings on the seventh, IV Kings on the ninth. On
the first Sunday of August (from which day till Ad-
vent we count by the months except for the Mass and
the lessons of the third nocturn) the Books of Wis-
dom begin with Proverbs; Ecclesiastes comes on the
second Sunday of August, Wisdom on the third, Ec-
clesiasticus on the fourth. Job comes on the first
Sunday of September, Tobias on the third, Judith on
the fourth, Esther on the fifth. October brings on its
first Sunday I Machabees, on its fourth II Maehabees.
The Prophets begin in November: Ezekiel on the first
Sunday, Daniel on the third, Osee on the fourth, and
then the other minor Prophets in very short frag-
ments, obviously in a hurry, till Advent. Advent has
Isaias throiighout. The mst Sunday after Christmas
begins St. Paul's Epistles with Romans; they con-
tinue to Septuagesima. I 0)rinthians comes on the
first Sunday after Epiphany, II Corinthians on the
second Sunday, Galatians on the third, Ephesians the
following Wednesdav, Philippians on the fourth Sun-
day, CJolossians on the next Tuesday, I Thessalonians
on Thursday, II Thessalonians on Saturday, I Tim-
othy on the fifth Sunday, II Timothy on Tuesday,
Titus on Thursday, Philemon on Saturday, Hebrews
on the sixth Sunday. We have here again the same
crowded changes as at the end of the season after
Pentecost. The arrangement then is one of continu-
ous readings from each book, though the books do not
follow in order, but are distributed with regard to ap-
propriateness. If we count the Pentateuch as one
book (that seems to be the idea), we see that all the
books of the Bible are read, in part at least, except
Josue, Judges, Ruth, Paralipomenon, and the Canticle
of Canticles. Cardinal (iuinones in his famous reformed
Breviary (issued by Paul III in 1535, withdrawn by
Paul IV in 1558) changed all thw and arranged the
reading of the whole Bible in a year (see Batiffol, on.
cit., 222-231). His proposal, however, came to notn-
inff ^nd we still use the traditional Office, with the de-
velopments time has brought.
The arrangement of Matins is this: On ferise and
simple feasts there is only one nocturn with its three
lessons. On ferias all three are from the scriptura oc-
currens: on simples the third lesson is an account of
the saint insteari of the Scriptural one. The exception
is when a feria has its own Mass. Such are the days
that were originally liturgical days — week-days in
Lenti ember-days, and vigils. In this case the lessons
consist of the fragment of the Gospel with a homily as
in the third nocturn of semi-douoles. On semi-dou-
bles and all higher feasts (Sundays are semi-doubles)
there are three noctums, each with three lessons.
Such days are the festa novem lectianum. The
first nocturn has always Scriptural lessons — ^those of
the scriptura occurreris, or on special feasts, a text
chosen for its suitability. The second nocturn has
lessons from a Father of the Church, here called sermo,
a life of the saint on his feast, or a description of the
event of the day. Thus, for instance, St. Peter's Chains
(1 August) tells the stoi^ of their finding and how they
came to Rome; S. Maria tit. Auxiliiun C^hristianorum
(24 May) in the sixth lesson teUs "ex publicis monu-
mentis the story of the battle of Lepanto. Some-
times papal Bulls are read in the second nocturn, as
the Bull of Pius IX (Ineffabilis Deus) during the Oc-
tave of the Immaculate Conception (8 December),
The second nocturn continually receives new lessons,
written by various people and approved by the Sacred
Congregation of Rites. Many of the older ones are
taken from the "Liber Pontihcalis". The third noc-
turn has for its lessons first a fragment (the first
clause) of the Gospel read at Mass followed by the
words, et reliqua^ then a sermon (called Homiha)
of a Father explaining it through the three lessons
(the 7th, 8th, and 9th). In cases of concurrence of
feasts, the feast commemorated (or the feria, if it be a
liturgical day) has its own lesson (the life of the saint,
or Gospel-fragment, and homily) read as the nintii
lesson.
The monastic Office differs only in that it has four
lessons in each nocturn (twelve altogether) and the
whole Gospel of the day read after the Te Deum.
This practice of reading the Gospel at the end of
Matins was common in many medieval rites. Thus at
(]?hristmas in England the genealogy of Our Lord from
St. Matthew was read at Christmas, and the one in St.
Luke at the Epiphany at this place. So in the By-
zantine Rite the Gospel of the day is read at the Orth-
ros.
The other canonical hours have short lessons called
capitula, ori^nally lectiunculce, sometimes camtdla.
The Ambrosian Breviary calls them epistolelus and
collectiones. These are very short passages from the
Bible, generally continuous throughout the hours,
connected with the feast or occasion. Very often they
are from the same source as the Epistle. At Lauds
and Vespers the capitidum is chanted by the officiat-
ing priest after the fifth psalm, before the hymn. At
Terce, Sext, None he chants it af t«r the psalm. Prime
and Compline (originally private prayers of monks)
are in many ways different from the other hours.
They have always the same capitula. Prime has I
Tim., i, 17 (omitting the word autem) chanted in
tile same place. Compline has Jer., xiv, 9b (adding
the word sanctum after nomen and the final clause,
Domine, Deus noster). This is sung after the hymn
by the celebrant. At Prime the officiating priest
chants a second lesson (called lectio hrevis) at the
end, after the blessing that follows the pTece9 and
the prayer "Dirigere et sanctificare". For the pro-
prium temporis thi«» is ^ven in the Breviary (in the
psalterium) ; on feastjj it is the capUulum of None, with
the addition of "Tu autem Domine miserere nobis".
0)mpline begins after the blessing with a lectio bretds
from I Peter, v, 8, 9a (with the additional word
Fr aires at the beginning and the clause, Tu aiUem,
ete., at the end). All these short lessons are
answered by the words Deo graiias, but the capit-
ula do not have the clause "Tu autem", ete. The
Roman Ritual has a few isolated lessons for special
occasions. The Office of the "Visitation and care of
the sick" has four Gospels from Matthew, Mark, Luke,
and John (all about healing the sick) , and the b^inning
of John. The " Order of commending a soul " has two
LESTaANOE
199
LESTRAliaE
Gospels — ^the high-priestly prayer in John, xvii, and
the Passion according to St. John. The exorcism has
three Gospels (about driving out devils). In the
Pontifical, a Gospel (Luke, ix) is appointed to be read
at the openine of 83mod8, before the Veni Creator, and
another one (Luke, x) is given for the end of the bless-
ing of bells. In some countries (Germany and Aus-
tria) it is the custom to sing the beginning of each
Gospel during the Corpus Cnristi procession at the
altars of repose, before the benediction.
All the Eastern rites in the same way have lessons
of various kinds as part of the canonical hours. They
constantly use psalms as lessons; that is to say. the
whole text of a psalm is read straight through by a
reader, as we read our lessons. The choral part of the
Office consists chiefly of verses, responses, and ex-
clamations of various kinds (the Byzantine SHchera,
Troparta, KorUakiay etc., etc.,) that are not taken
from the Bible, but are composed by various hymn-
writers. In the Byzantine Office three lessons, gener-
ally from the Old Test££ment (called irapoifdai) , are
read by a lector towards the end of the hesperinos,
soon after the singing of the ^(os l\ap6v. In the Or-
ihras the priest ree^is the Gospel of the day shortly be-
fore the Canon is sung. In the Canon at the end of
the sixth ode a lesson called avva^dpioyf describing the
life of the saint, or containing reflections on the feast or
occasion, is read. If several feasts concur the var-
ious synaiaria follow each other (see Fortescue,
"Canon dans le rite byzantin", in Caorol, "Diction-
naire d'arch^ologie"). The day-hours have no les-
sons, except that many troparta throughout the Office
describe tne mystery that is celebrated and give in-
formation to the hearers in a way that makes them
often venr like what we should call short lessons.
Lessons, Epistles, and Gospels are read at many spe-
cial services; thus the *' Blessing of the Waters" on the
Epiphany has three lessons from Isaias, an Epistle
(I Cor., X, 1-4), and a Gospel (Mark, i, 9-11). The
Byzantine synararia and menologia are described by
Leo Allatius (De libris eccl. Graec, I, xv).
DncHESNB, Orioinea du ndte chrHien (Paris. 1808); Gihr,
Da* heUioe Mesaopfer, II (Freiburg. 1897). $40. pp. 400-08;
BciasEL, EnUUhung der Perikopen des rdmiachen Measbuchea
(Fn&buTK, 1907); Baitmer, Geachichte dea Breviera (Freibure,
1895); BxTirFOL, Hiatoire du Br&viaire Romain (Paris, 1896);
Danibu Codez Liturgicua, I (Leipzig, 1847); Probst. Liturffie
dea IV. Jahrhundarta (Munster. 1893); Idem, Die a It eaten rom-
iachen SakramerUarien und Ordinea (MUnster, 1802) ; Maltzew.
Die Nachiwaehe, oder Abend und MorgenffottradienH der Orth.
Kath, Kirehe dea Morgenlandea (Berlin. 1802).
Adrian Fortescue.
Lastnuige, Louis-Henri de (in religion, Dom
Augustine), b. in 1754, in the Chiiteau de Colombier-
le-Vieux, Ard^che, France; d. at Lyons, 16 July, 1827.
He was the fourteenth child of Loui8-C6sar de Les-
trange, oflScer in the household of King Louis XV,
and Jeanne-Perrette de Lalor, daughter of an Irish
gentleman who had followed James II, King of Eng-
land, to France in 1688. He was ordained priest in
1778, and was attached to the parish of Saint-^ulpice.
In 1780, Mgr de Pompignan, Archbishop of Vienne, in
Dauphin^y chose him for his vicai^general, with the
ulterior determination of having him as his coadjutor
with the right of future succession. This prospect of
being made bishop alarmed the Abb^ de Lestrange.
and in the same year he severed all the ties that bound
him to the world, and entered the celebrated monas-
tery of La Trappe. He was master of the novices in
that monastery, when a decree of the National As-
sembly, dated 4 December, 1790, suppressed the re-
ligious orders in France. Dom Augustine with
twenty-four religious left for Switzerland, where the
Senate of Fribourg authorize<l them to take up their
residence in Val-Sainte, an ancient Carthusian mon-
astery about fifteen miles from the city of Fribourg.
From Val-Sainte, Dom Augustine estal)lished foun-
dations at Santa Susana« in Aragon, Spain, at Mont
Biac in Piedmont, Italy, at Westmallo, Belgium, and
at Lulworth, England. In 1798 the French troops in-
vaded Switzerland, and the Trappists were obliged to
leave the countrv. Some of them settled at Kenty.
near Cracow; others at Zydichin. in the Diocese of
Lusko, and in Podolia. In 1802 Switzerland recalled
them, and Dom Augustine took possession once more
of Val-Sainte, and in the following year he sent a col-
ony to America under Dom Urbain Guillet.
In 1804 Dom Augustine founded the monastery of
Cervara in the Republic of Genoa, and Napoleon not
only authorized the establishment, but granted it a
revenue of 10,000 francs. Moreover he desired that a
similar institution be founded on the Alps, at Mont-
Gendvre, to serve as a refuge for the soldiers who were
to pass to and fro between Italy and France. To se-
cure the success of this establishment he granted it
an allowance of 24,000 francs. This protection was
not, however, of long duration. The Republic of
Genoa was united to the empire, and there, as in all
the other states under the sway of Napoleon, an oath
of fidelity to the empire was exacted from ecclesiastics
and religious. The religious of Cervara, acting on tlie
advice of some eminent personages, and of some in-
fluential members of the ciergy who assured them that
the pope had allowed the oath, took the oath of fidel-
ity. Dom Augustine, who had received from Pius VU,
then prisoner at Savona, knowledge of the Bull of ex-
communication issued against the spoliator of the
States of the Holy See, commanded the Prior of Cer-
vara to make immediate retractation. The emperor
became furious. He caused Dom Augustine to be ar-
rested at Bordeaux and thrown into prison. At the
same time, by a sweeping decree of 28 July, he sup-
pressed all the Trappist monasteries throughout the
empire. The prefect of Bordeaux, upon the entreaties
of several of Dom Augustine's friends, gave him the
limits of the city for his prison. The abbot availed
himself of the Uberty thus accorded him to hasten the
departure of his religious for America; he himself ob-
tained from the police permission to go to Val-Sainte
and Mont-Gen^vre, where his presence was required.
Pursued again by the emperor, he crossed Germany
and arrived at Riga, whence he left for England and
America.
Dom Augustine arrived in New York in December,
1813. The Jesuits had just abandoned a building
which they had in that city, and which they had used
for a classical school. The edifice occupied the place
where now stands St. Patrick's Cathedral on Fifth
Avenue. Dom Augustine purchased the site for the
sum of $10,000, and in 1814, on the downfall of Nar
poleon, Dom Augustine returned to France and took
possession once more of his former monastery of La
Trappe. But his trials were not ended. He was ao-
cuseu of imposing extraordinary hardships on his re-
ligious; he was reproached with his frequent voyages
and long absences. The Bishop of S6ez, in whose dio-
cese is the monastery of La Trappe, deceived by un-
just insinuations, took the part of the detractors and
claimed over the monastery the authority of " direct
superior". Dom Augustine, to put an end to these
disputes with his bishop, abandoned La Trappe, and
sought refuge at Bellefontaine, in the Diocese of An-
gers. The complaints were carried to Rome and sub-
mitted to the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and
Regulars. Dom Augustine was summoned to Rome.
He returned justified, and loaded with favours by the
pope. Posterity has given Dom Augustine de Les-
trange the title of "Saviour of La Trappe". Ilis re-
mains repose in the monastery of Iia Trappe in the
Diocese of S^z alongside those of Ablx)t de Ranc<5.
RigUmenta de La Trappe et Uaa^ea de la Val-Sainte (2 vo1b»,
Fribourg, 1794); Odya^e Monaatique^ Dom Auguatin de Lea-
(range et lea Trappxatea pendant la Revolution (La Grande-
Trappe, 1898) ; VERrrA.Cftoour. La Trappe et Bellefontaine {Paiia,
1883); Gallardin, Lea Trappiaiea et VOrdre de Citeaux au
XIX' aiMe (2 vols., Paris, 1§44); Vie du R. P. Dom Urbain
Guillet (Chape)le>MontUgeon, 1899).
F. M. GiLOAs.
UESnEUB
200
LE TELUEB
Lesneur, Franpoib ikTSTxcHE, Jesuit missionary
and philologist, of the Abnaki mission in Canada;
b. (according to notes given by Thwaites, apparently
from official sources) near Coutances, Normand>r, 22
July, 1685 or 1686, though Maurault gives his birth-
place as Lunel, in Languedoc; d. at Montreal, 28 or
26 April, 1760, or (according to Maurault) at Quebec,
in 1755. Although the principal facts of his work ana
writings are well known, there is remarkable uncer-
tainty as to dates^ places, and even his proper name.
This imcertainty is probably largely due to the burn-
ing of the St. Francis mission, with all its records, by
the English in 1759. He entered the Jesuit novitiate
in 1704 or 1705, arrived in Canada in 1715 or 1716^
studied the language for some months at the Abnaki
mission of Sillery, and then began work at St. Francis,
the principal Abnaki mission, remaining there until
1727 or later. He was at Montreal in 1730 and dur-
ing 1749-54. According to Maurault, he arrived in
Canada in June, 1715, and after a short stay at Sillery
was sent to B^cancour, another Abnaki mission, on
the St. Lawrence, where, with the exception of occa-
sional parochial service, he remained until 1753, when
he retired to Quebec. The name is variously given
as Francois Eustache (Maurault), Jacques I^ran^ois
(Thwaites), and Jacques (Calumet Dance MS.). In
connexion with his study of Indian things, he wrote,
besides prayers, sermons, etc., in the Abnaki lan-
Siage, a valuable account of the celebrated Calumet
ance, which gave so much trouble to the early
missionaries. The original French manuscript is pre-
served at St. Francis mission, PierreviUe, Canada, and
was published in the "Soir^ Canadiennes" of 1864.
Bfanuscript copies are in St. Mary's College, Montreal,
and with the Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison.
According to Maurault, he compiled also a Dictionary
of Abnaki, of 900 pages, still in existence, but we are
not told where the manuscript is preserved.
Thwaites (ed.), The Jesuit Retationa and Allied Documenia,
LXIX (Cleveland, 1900); Madrault. Histoire de» AbenakU
(Sorel, 1866); Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Lan-
guagea iWaxAangbon, 1891).
James Mooney.
Lete, a titular see of Macedonia, know^n by its coins
and inscriptions, mentioned in Ptolemy (Ilf, xiii), the
S hunger Pliny, IV, x, 17, Harpocration, Stephanus
ycantius, and Suidas, and in the Middle Ages in
Nicephorus Brj'eimius (IV, xix). The spelling *' Lite"
is incorrect ana comes from iotaoism. Lete appears in
some "NotitiaB episcopatuum " of a late perioa as suf-
fragan of Thessaionica, later imited to the See of Ren-
tina. Lete and Rentina even had Greek bishops until
the eighteenth century. Lete is to-day the small vil-
lage ofATvati (1000 inhabitants) situated a little north
of Salonica.
DucHESNC in Revue archiologi^ (1875); Ideu, Archives dea
Mission* scientifiques^ 3rd series. III. 276 sq.; Deiotsas,
'Apyeua vcwypo^ia ri}c McuccSoWac (Athens, 1870), 250-52; Idem,
•H Moiteioi'ta, I (Athens, 1896), 666-74.
S. P^UDES.
Le Tellier, Cuarle»-Maurick, Archbishop of
Reims, b. at Turin, 1642; d. at Reims, 1710. The son
of Michel Le Tellier and brother of Ix)uvois (both
ministers of I^ouis XIV), he studied for the Church,
won the doctorate of theology at the Sorbonne, and
was ordained priest in 1G66. Provided, even before
his ordination, with several royal abl>evs, he nipidly
rose to the coadjutorship of Langres, then to that of
Reims, and became titular of that sec at the age of
twenty-nine. His administration was marked by
zeal and success along the lines of popular education,
training of clerics, parochial organization, restoration
of ecclesiastical discipline, extirpation of Protestant-
ism from the Sedan diKtrict, etc. The importance of
his see together with the roval favour brought him
to the front in the alTairs of the Church in France.
As secretary of the PeiUe AsaemWe of 1681, he re-
ported for the king and against th^ pope on all dis*
puted points: the extension of the royal claim called
rigale^ the forcible placing of a Cistercian abbess over
the Augustinian nuns of Charonne, and the expulsion
of the canonically elected vicars capitular of Pamiers.
The famous Galhcan Assembly of 1682 was convened
at his suggestion. Elected president with Harlay, he
caused the bishops to endorse the royal policy of en-
croachment upon church affairs, and even memori-
alized the pope with a view to noake him accept the
regale. His comparative moderation in the matter of
the four Gallican propositions was due to Boesuet, who
remarked that " tne ^lory of the regale would only be
obscured by those odious propositions." As presiaent
of the Assembly (1700) wnicn undertook to deal with
Jansen^m and Laxism already judged by the pope.
Le Tellier was imduly lenient with the Jansenists Anirj
severe with theologians of repute. The same holds
true of the various controversies in which he took
part: the "Version de Mons", the theory of philo-
sophical sin, Molinism, etc. In spits of grave emn
due less to lack of loyalty to the Holy See than to
e&Tly education, royal fascination, and dislike for the
Jesuits, Le Tellier is remembered as a successful ad-
ministrator, an orator of some merit, a promoter of
letters, a protector of Saint John Baptist de la SaUe,
Mabillon, Kuinart, etc., and a bosom friend of Bossuet,
whom he consecrated, and visited on his deathbed,
and whom he induced to write the "Oraison fun^brs
de Michel Le Tellier". His manuscripts, in sixty v<rf-
umcs, are at the Biblioth^ue Nationale of Paris, and
his library of 50, OCX) volumes at the Bibliotheque
Sainte-Genevidve.
GiLLET, Charles - Maurice Le TeUier^ with an exhausthrtt
bibliography (Paris, 1881), p. xii and pa«im; Str-Bsuyb,
Port-Royal (ed. 1900), index.
J. F. SOLLIBR.
Le Tellier, Michel, b. 16 October, 1643, of a peas-
ant family, not at Vire as has so often been said,
but at Vast near Cherbourg; d. at La F16che, 2 Sep-
tember, 1719. He was educated at the Jesuit College
in Caen, and at 18 entered the order, and became
grofessor, then rector of the College of Louis le
Irand. He was one of the founders of the " Journal
de Tr6voux", and opposed Jansenism in three works:
"Observations sur la nouvello ^ition de la version
fran^oise du Nouveau Testament" (1672); "Histoire
des cinq Propositions de Jansenius " (1699) ; " Le p^re
Quesnel s^klitieux et h^r^tique" (1705). In 1687 he
took part in the discussion then going on about Chi-
nese ceremonies, publishing a book entitled: "De-
fense des nouveaux chr6tieus et des missionaires de la
Chine, du Japon, et des Indcs". The tone of this
work was displeasing to Rome, but the General of
the Jesuits defended it before the Congregation of
the Holy Office. Greatly esteemed by the Jesuits,
no matter what Saint-Simon may say about him,
Le Tellier, after the death of Father Pdtau, was en-
trusted with the task of finishing his work, "De
theologicis dogmatibus''. From August 1709 he be-
longed to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-
Let tres. Le Tellier was provincial of his order in Paris
when Father La Chaise, the confessor of Louis XIV,
died, 20 January, 1709. Godet des Marais, Bishop oc
Chartres, and La Ch^tardie, rector of Saint-Sulpice,
had a determining part in Louis's choice of Le Tellier
as his new confessor. Saint-Simon, giving credence
to a story told b^ a surgeon, Mardchal, attributed this
choice to the king's fear of displeasing the Jesuits.
For two centuries the greater number of historians
have followed Saint-Simon's estimate of Le Tellier
and denounced that " dark, false, and dread-inspiring
countenance, which would have struck terror if met
in a lonely forest", that "coarse, insolent, impudent
confessor, knowing neither the world nor moderation,
neither rank nor consiclerations, making no allowance
for anything, covering up his purposes uy ^ thousand
LiToiminnjx 2r
winduiKi''. Scientific Iiistnry is revising Ihin hidg-
ment. Saint^imon dibIcco Le Tellipr rcBponsililr for
the dMtructioD o( Port-Royal. Father Bliard points
out that since 1695 Harlay de Champvailon, Arch-
bishop of Paris, and Louis XIV had contemplated
iU destruction; that the seiiure in 170;) of Qucs-
Ofll'a papers had drawn the king's attention to the
political dangers of Jansenism; that as early as
2G March. 1708, Clement XI at Mie request of King
IiOuis had united Port-Royal des Champa with Port-
Royal de I'aria and supproMed tlie title of the "Ab-
baye des Chainpe"; and that Cardinal dc Noaillee,
who for a year past hod iDtprdictrd the members of
Port - Royal des
Ch impH from re-
ceiving the sacra-
ments, was pre-
it-Kii
ckima that I^ Tel-
licr in advising
episcopal nomina-
tions, relentlessly
pursued all eccle-
siastics suHpceted
ommentling only
" barefooteil friare
iind men ready for
anything". Such
Blurs indicate the
iittitudeof the
sreat nobleman
■oinst priests who lackeil birth; hut a Idler from
Fikielon to which Father Bli:ir(! draws attention
proves that in reality it was F^iielon who, at the be-
pnning of I« Tellicr's influence, found him too len-
ient towards certain nrie^^ts with Jansenist tendencies,
and pointed out to nim ihc danger he would incur
hj allowii^ the Jansenist faction to predominate in
the episeopacy. 8ainl>^Simon, fotlowmc Marshal's
■tariea, aeeuBes I^ Tcllier of having brought to Louis
XIV an Opinion of the doctors of the Stirhonne in
order to prove that he could levy tithes upon his sub-
ieeta witn a clear conscience. Even atlmitting the
Mcuracy of Mardchal'ii assertions, it must be borne in
mind that the necessity of defending the kingdom
waa BO urgent that F^elon wrot« on 4 August, 1710,
"Money must be taken wherever it can he found",
ftod Ducloe in his "Mfmoires secrets", dcelarca that
"the imposition of the tithes was perhaps the salva-
tiOD oT the State."
Le Tellier is accused by Saint-Simon of having in
1713 laboured jointly with Madame de Malntcnon
and Biasy, Bishop of Meaux, aeainHt Cardinal dc
Noailles, Archbishop of Paris, and used bis influence
with CInnent XI, through the Jesuit Daul>cnton and
Cardinal Fabrom, to obtain the condemnation of
Quesnel. And again after the publication of the Bull
"Unigenitus" he wished to have Cardinal de Noaillea
imprisoned, and he increased the number of "lettrea
de cachet", in order to fill the prisonit with Jan^en-
ista. Father Bliard shows the capricious and exng-
cerated nature of th^se stories, and establishes from
Janaenist sourcefl that during the six years of Le
Tellicr's influence, only twenty-eight Jansenists
were punished more or less severely. Yiy the tcPti-
mony of the Jansenist Roslet and Da u lien ton's
report to F^neton, he shows that the Bull "Unige-
mtua" was the outeome of three long years of doc-
trinal ■tudy, and that the alleged letters from I^
TeHier to Chauvelin proving a plot for abducting
Cetdinal de NobHIm wen admitted to be apocryphal
1 LBTOUBHXUX
Ivy Diicloc, though he was hostile to the Jesuits.
t mally, certain investigations made by Father Brucker
lead to the conclusion, that a certain letter recom-
mending the destruction of the Oratory is certainly not
theworkof Le Tellier, who has been frequently blamed
for it, and that tiuch an accusation may have origi-
nat«d in an intrigue of Abb^ dc Margon agsjnst the
Jesuits. LouiH XIV in a codicil to his will had se-
lected Le Tellier as the confessor of the little Louis
XV, then seven years of age; but a few days after the
king's death the regent^ under the influence of Saint-
Simon and the Janscinats, informed the provincial
of the Jesuits that Le Tellier must leave Pads. He
was sent by his superiors to Amiens, and then to La
FIdche, where he died. The menolory of the Society
of Jes\is uncler the date of 2 September, repeats the
following remarks addressed by Louis XIV to the Due
d'Harcourt about Le Tellier; ''Do you see that man?
His greatest happiness would be to shed his blood
for the Church, and I do not believe there is a single
soul in my entire kingdom who is more fearless and
more saintly. "
Saint^Biuoji, Mtmoira: DnctiM. Mtmairtt tertti lur Im
Hit" dt IaivU XIV (Perw. 1701): D'Oihanhe. Journal (Rome,
1753. 6 vnh.) : Buahd, Lit mfmoim de Saittt-Simm H It piri Le
Trttirr (Paria, ITOl); BHV.iirn. Cn -DQeumenl B«-a.iv.^' Jaut-
trmentattribneavvhrLt Tritxrria EtudrM. LXXXVIII (Pun
1901): Bbou, La JitMila dt la Ugnde (Paiii, 1007).^
Latounieiix, Nicolas, well-known French preacher
and aecctical writer of Jsnscnislic tendencies, b. at
Rouen, 30 .^pril, IMO: d. at Paris, 28 November,
1686. His parents were poor, but the conspicuous
talents and the gift of eloquence he displayed even at
an early age attracted the attention of^some wealthy
benefactors, whow assistance enabledhini to study the
humanities at the Jesuit College in Paria, and later
philosophy at the Collj^ge des Grasaina. To Dr. Her-
sant, his teacher at the latter institution, may be
traced the jansenistic views which mar his writings.
Ordained priest at Rouen in 1662. he served for some
years as curate there. Abotit 1670 he removed to
Paris, Iwcamc closely associated with tlie Port-Royal-
ists, and l)cgan to eultii-atc Jansenistic asceticism.
He exehangefl his soutane for a coarse grey robe and
abstained from celebrating Mass, to expiate in this
manner what he esteemed his guilt in having accepted
ordination at so early an age (22). His intercourse
with Lemaltrc restored him to more normal views;
returning to pastoral duties, he acted as chaplain at
theColU^godcsGrassins. Hisscrmons at various Paris
churclies ijuicldy placed him in the front rank of the
preachers of his day, and in 1675 his work on the text
"Martha, Martha, thou art careful" (Luke, x, 41) won
the Balzac prize for clo(|Ucnce awarded by the French
Academy, In such esteem was he held by his spiritual
Royal, and also a member of the archiepiscopal com-
mission for the emendation of the Breviary. His re-
lations with the lending Janaenists, however, soon
awakened distrust., and he foimd it necessary to retire,
in Ifi82, to the Priorj- of Villieni-sur-Fi^re, a benefice
granted him by his patron, Cardinal Colliert of Rouen.
In this retirement he de^-oted the remainder of his
life to his ascetieal compositions. His principal writ-
ings are: "Histoirc de la vie dc Jfous-Christ ' (about
lera); "I* catdchisme de la p*nitencc" (1676);
"l/Aim^- rhrtticniie, ou les Messes des Dimaiiches,
Furies ct Fetes de f oiite I'ann^, on latin et en franjais,
ai-ec I'explicution dps Epitrea ct des EvangQes et un
abr^gi de lu Vie des Saints, dont on fait I'Oflice". Of
this last work I.*loumeux wrote nine volumes, and
two were adiled by the Belgian Jansenist, Ruth d'Ans.
Sue \-olunies were publL-hed Ijcfore 1686, when they
were condemned lor their Jansenistic views. The
work was placed on the Index on 7 Sept., 1895. Amoiig
the other works of Letoumeux may be mentioned:
LETTER
202
LETTERB
•* Principes et regies de la vie chr^tienne" (Paris, 1688) :
" Explication litt^raire et morale de T^pttre de S. Paul
aux Romains'' (Paris, 1695); '^Br^viaire Romain en
latin et franyais" (4 vols., Paris, 1687), condemned by
the archiepiscopal authorities because it was an in-
novation contrary to the spirit and practice of the
Church, and because it contamed much that was heret-
ical and much that was conducive to heresy and error.
Although the episcopal ban was subsequently re-
moved, and the work was never placed on the Roman
Index, the Jansenistic leanings of Ix^toumeux stand
conspicuous to-day in this as in the remainder of his
writmgs.
Diet, dea Hvrea Janainist., I, 63; II, 305: III. 307; Stb-
Beuve, Port-Ropal, V, vi, 2; Chaudon et Delandine, Diet,
untv. Hist., Cnt. et Bitliogr.; Mob£ri, Orand Did. Htstor.;
JuNOMANN in Kirchenlex., 8. v.
Thomas Kennedy.
Letter, Ccmmendatory. See Letters, Ecclesi-
astical.
Letterkenny. See Raphoe, Diocese of.
Letters, Apostolic. See Bulls and Briefs.
Letters, Dimissorial. See Dimissorial Letters.
Letters, Ecclesiastical (Litteile EccLEsiASTiCiG) ,
are publications or announcements of the organs of
ecclesiastical authority, e. g. the synods, more partic-
ularly, however, of popes and bishops, addressed to
the faithful in the form of letters.
I. Letters of the Popes in tfie Period of the Early
Church. — The popes began early, by virtue of the
primacy, to issue laws as well for the entire Church as
tor individuals. This was done in the form of letters.
Such letters were sent by the popes either of their own
will or when application was maae to them by synods,
bishops, or individual Christians. Apart from the
Epistles of the Apostle Peter the firat example of
this is the Letter of Pope Clement I (90-99?) to the
Corinthians, in whose community there was grave dis-
sension. Only a few papal letters of the first three
Christian centuries have been preserved in whole or
part, or are known from the works of ecclesiastical
writers. As soon, however, as the Church was recog-
nized by the State and could freely spread in all direc-
tions, the papal primacy of necessity began to develop,
and from this time on the number of papal letters in-
creased. No part of the Church and no question of
faith or morals failed to attract the papal attention.
The popes called these letters, with reference to their
legal character, decreta: statuta: decretalia constittUa,
even when the letters, as was often the case, were
hortatory in form. Thus Siricius, in his letter of
the year 385 to Himerius of Tarragona [JafF^,
"Regesta Pontificum Romanorum" (2na ed., Leip-
zig, 1885-88), I, no. 255]. Or the letters were called
sententiw, i. e. opinions (Svn. Tur., II, an. 567, c. ii);
prcDcepta (Syn. Bracar., 1, an. 501, praef.); auctori-
tates [Zosimus, an. 417; Jaffd, "Regesta", 2nd ed., I,
no. 3491. On the other hand more general letters,
especially those of doginatic importance, were also
called at times tomi; indicidi; commonitoria; epis^
tola tractoruB, or tractatorice. If the matter were
important, the popes issued the letters not by their
sole authority, but with the advice of the Koman
presbytery or of a synod. Consequently such letters
were also called epistolw synodicas (Syn. Tolet., Ill,
an. 589, c. i). By epistola synodica, however, is also
understood in Christian antiquity that letter of the
newly elected bishop or pope by which he notified
the other bishops of his elevation and of his agree-
ment with them in the Faith. Thus an ejnsiola
of this kind liad a certain relationship to the
liUera forrnaios by which a bishop certifiea. for pre-
sentation to another bishop, to the orthouoxy and
unblemished moral character of an ecclesiastic of his
diocese. Closely related to the liUera formaUe arc
the liUercB dimissoriiB (dimissorials) by which a
bishop sends a candidate for ordination to another
bishop to be ordained. While these names indicate
sufficiently the legal character of the papal letters, it
is to be noted that the popes repeatedly demanded in
explicit terms the observance of their decrees; thus
Siricius, in his letter of the year 385 to Ilimerius
(Jaff^, "Regesta", 2nd ed., I, no. 255), and Innocent
I in his letter of the year 416 addressed to Deccntius
of Gubbio (JafT6, "R^esta", 2nd ed., I, no. 311).
In the same manner they repeatedly required from
the persons to whom they wrote that these should
bring the letter in question to the notice of others.
Thus tigain Siricius, in his letter to Himerius (Jafif^,
''Regesta'', 2nd ed., I, no. 255); and Pope Zosimus,
in the year 418 to Hesychius of Salona (Jaff4. " Re-
gesta'', 2nd ed., I, no. 339). In order to secure such
knowledge of the papal laws several copies of the
papal letters were occasionally made and dispatched
at the same time. In this way arose the letters a
pari: a paribus uniformes, rd (ffa (Jaff^, "Regesta'^
2nd ed., I, nos. 331, 334, 373). FoUowing the ex-
ample of the Roman emperors the popes soon
established archives (scrinium) in whicn copies of
their letters were placed as memorials for further use,
and as proofs of authenticity. The first mention of
papal archives is found in the Acts of a synod held
about 370 under Pope Damasus I (Constant, "Epis-
tolaB Romanorum Pontificum '^^ Paris, 1721, 500).
Pope Zosimus also makes mention in 419 of the ar-
chives (Jaff^, " Regesta", 2nd ed., I, no. 350). Never-
theless, forged papal letters appeared even earlier
than this. By far the greater number of the papal
letters of the first millennium, however, have been lost.
Only the letters of Leo I, edited by the brothers Bal-
lerini, the "Registrum Epistolarum" of Gregory I,
edited by Ewalaand Ilartmann, and the "Rc^trum
Epistolarum" of Gregory VII, edited by Jaffd, have
been more or less completely preserved. As befitted
their legal importance, the papal letters were also soon
incorporated m the collections of canon law (Maassen,
''Gcscliichte der Qucllen und Literatur des kanon-
ischen Rechts im Abendlande bis zum Ausgang des Mit-
telalters". Graz, 1870, 281 sqq.). The first to collect the
epistles ot the popes in a systematic and comprehen-
sive manner was the monk Dionysius Exisuus, at the
b^inning of the sixth century (Maassen, Geschichte
der Quellen ", 422 sqq.). In this way the papal letters
took rank with the canons of the synods as of equal
value and of equal obligation. The example of Diony-
sius was followed afterwards by almost all compilers
of the canons, Pseudo-Isidore and the Gregorian can-
onists, e. g. Anselm of Lucca, Dcusdedit, etc.
II. Letters of the Popes in the Medieval Period, —
With the development of the primacy in the Middle
Ages the papal letters grew enormously in number.
The popes, following the earlier custom, insisted that
their rescripts, issued for individual cases, should be
observed in all analogous ones. According to the
teaching of the canonists, above all of Gratian, every
papal letter of general character was authoritative
for the entire Church without further notification.
The names of the letters of general authority were very
varied: constitutio (c. vi, X, De elect., I, vi); edictum
(c. unic, in Vlto, De postul., I, v); statutum (c.
XV, X, De sent, excomm., V, xxxix); aecretum (c. i, in
Vlto. De pra?b., Ill, iv); decretalis (c. xxix, in Vlto,
De elect., I, vi); sanctio (c. unic, in Vlto, De cler.
segrot., Ill, v). Decrees (decreta) was the name given
especially to general ordinances issued with the advice
of the cardinals (Schulte, *' Geschichte der Quellen und
Literatur des kanonischen Rechtes", Stuttgart, 1876,
I, 252 s(i.). On the other hand ordinances issued for
individual cases were called: rescriptcL^ responsa,
mandata. Thus a constitution was always under-
stood to be a papal ordinance which r^gulat^xl ec-
clesiastical conditions of a general character judi
LXTTSBS
203
LETTERB
ciallv, in a durable manner and form, for all time;
but by a rescript was understood a papal ordinance
issued at the petition of an individual tnat decided a
lawsuit or granted a favour. Compare the Bulls of pro-
mul|Dition prefixed to the *' Decretals'' of Gregory IX,
the^iber Sextus " of Boniface VIII, and the 'M^lemen-
tinss''; also the titles, " De constitutionibus" and ** Dc
rescriptis " in the * * Corpus Juris Canonici ' ' . Notwith-
standmg^Edl this, usage remained uncertain (c. x^v,
in Vlto, I)e praeb., Ill, iv) . The above-mentioned dis-
tinctions between papal documents were based on the
extent of their authority. Other names again had
their origin in the form of the papal dociunents. It
is true they all had more or less evidently the form of
letters. But essential differences appeared, especially
in regard to the literary form {stylus) of the docu-
ment and the method of sealing, these depending in
each case on the importance of the contents of the
respective dociunent. It was merely the difference in
the manner of sealing that led to tlic distinction be-
tween Bulls and Brieis. For Bulls, legal instnmients
almost entirely for important matters, the seal was
stamped in wax or lead, seldom in gold, enclosed in a
case, and fastened to the document by a cord. For
Briefs, instruments used, as a rule, in matters of less
importance, the seal was stamped upon the docu-
ment in wax. Curial letters (liUerce curiales or de
curia) denoted particularly letters of the popes in po-
litical affairs. During the Middle Ages, just as in the
early Church, the letters of the popes were deposited
in the P&pal archives either in tne original or by
copy. They are still in existence, and almost com-
plete in niunber, from the time of Innocent III (1198-
1216). Many papal letters were also incorporated, as
Jheir legal nature required, in the ''Corpus Juris Ca-
nonici . Others are to be found in the formularies,
many of which appeared unofficially in the Middle
A^es, similar in kind to the ancient official ''Liber
Diumus" of the papal chancery in use as late as the
time of Gregory Vll. The papal letters were for-
warded fay the papal officials, above all by the chan-
cery, for whose use the chancer^' rules, regulce can-
cdUuia ApoatolioBf were drawn up; these rules had
r^;ard to the execution and dispatch of the papal
letters, and date back to the twelfth ccnturj'. Is ever-
theless, the forcing of papal letters was even more fre*
2uent in the Middle Ages than in the early Church.
anocent III (in c. v, X, De crimine falsi, V, xx) refers
to no less than nine methods of falsification. From
the tJiirteenth century on to a few years ago it sufficed,
in order to give a papal document legal force, to post
it up at Rome on the doors of St. Peter's, of the Lat-
eran, the Apostolic Chancery, and in the Piazza del
Campo di Fiori. Since 1 January, 1909, they acquire
force by publication in the "Acta Apostolicee
Sedis".
III. Letters of the Popes in Modem Times, — In
the modem period also, papal letters have been and
still are constantly issued. Now, however, they pro-
ceed from the popes themselves less frequently than
in the Middle Ages and Christian antiquity; most of
thCTfi are issued by the papal officials, of whom there
is a greater number than m the Middle Ages, and to
whom have been granted large delegated powers, which
include the issuing of letters. Following the example
of Paul III, Pius IV, and Pius V, Sixtus V by the Bull
''Immensa jetemi** of 22 January, 1587, added to the
already existing bodies of papal officials a numl^er of
congre^tions of cardinals with clearly defined powers
of edmmistration and jurisdiction. Succeeding popes
added other congregations. Pius X, however, m the
Constitution "Sapienti consilio" of 29 June, 1908,
reorganized the papal Curia. Papal writinp are yet
divided into Constitutions, Rescripts, Bulls, Briefs,
and Apostolic Letters (Ldtterce ApostoHcw). The LU-
tertB ApostoUcoB are further divided into lAUercB ApostO'
UoB rimpUcet or BreoeUi, Chirographa, Encydicm (En-.
cyclicals), and Mot us Proprii, By LiJtterai Apostoliat
simplices are understood all documents drawn up by
virtue of papal authorization, and signed with the
pope's name out not by the pope personally. Docu-
ments signed by the pope personally are called Chiro-
grapha. Encyclicals are letters of a more hortatory
nature, addressed to all or to a majority of the higher
officials of the Church. A Motu Proprio is a dociunent
prepared at the personal initiative ot the pope, without
previous petition to him, and issued with a partial
avoidance of the otherwise customary forms of the
chancery. By Constitution is understood, as in the
Middle Ages, a papal document of general authority;
by Rescript, a similar document applicable td an in-
dividual case. Bulls and Briefs are distinguished from
each other by characteristics of form which have al-
ways remained essentially the same. The papal docu-
ments are still deposited in the Roman archives.
There are no official collections of them corresponding
to the medieval "Corpus Juris Canonici". The last
official collection is that of the Constitutions of Bene-
dict XIV (1740-1758). From the sixteenth century,
on the other hand, private collections have appeared,
some of which are called buUiiria, from the more im-
portant part of their contents. Many papal letters
are also found in the collections of tne Acts of the
Councils. The documents issue<l by the officials of the
Curia and the Congregations of Cardinals contain either
resolutions (decisions) for individual cases, or declara-
tions (exiensivce or comprehensivw) interpreting laws,
or decrees, which are entirely new laws. Some con-
gregations of cardinals have issued official collections
of their decisions.
IV. Collections of the Letters of the Popes and of the
Roman Officials. — Constant, "Epistoke Romanorum
Pontificum et quse ad eos scripto; sunt a S. Clemente
I usque ad Innocentium III (Paris, 1721), goes to
only 440; Schonemann, "Pontificum Romanonim a
Clemente I usque ad Leonem M. genuinse . . . epifh
tobe" (Gottingen, 1796) ;Thiel, " Epistolae Romanorum
Pontificum genuinse . . . a S. Hilaro usque ad Pela-
Flum 11" (Brunshyrg 1868). From 1881 the Ecole
ranyause of Rome has published, with particular
reference to France, the Registra" of Gregory IX,
Innocent IV, Alexander IV. Urban IV, Clement IV,
Gregor>' X John XXI ^ficholas III Martin IV,
Honorius IV, Nicholas IV, Boniface VIlI, and Bene-
dict XI. The " Registra" of the Avignon popes are
also in course of publication. Cf . " Melanges cParch6-
ologie et d'histoire"^ XXV, 443 sqq.; Hergenr6ther,
"Leonis X Pontificis Maximi Reg^ta" (Freiburg,
1884 — ); "Regesta dementis Papse V cura et studio
monachorum ordinis S. Benedicti" (Rome, 1885—);
Pressuti, "Registrum Ilonorii III" (Rome, 1888—).
There are innumerable collections of papal letters
issued from a partisan point of view. All Known papal
letters up to 1198 are enumerated by JaflFd in the "Ke-
gesta Rom. Pont." The papal letters of 1198-1304
are found in Potthast, " Regesta Pontificum Roman-
orum ab anno 1198 ad annum 1304" (Berlin, 1874).
Professor Paul Kehr is preparing a critical edition of
all papal letters up to Innocent III. See the " Nach-
richten", of the Gottingen Academy of Sciences, 1896,
72 sqq. ; " Pii IX acta " (Rome, 1854—) ; " Leonis XIII
acta^' (Rome, 1881); "Pii X acta" (Rome, 1907).
For the Bullaria, see Tomasetti, " BuUarum, diploma-
tum et privilegiorum s. Romanorum Pontificum Tau-
rinensis editio locupletissima" (Turin, 1857 — ); for
collections of the Acts of the Councils, Mansi, "Sa-
crorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio"
(Florence and Venice, 1759), goes to 1439. It is con-
tinued by "Collectio conciliorum recentioris ecclesifls
universae", ed. Martin and Petit (Paris, 1905); "De-
creta authentica S. Congregationis Indulgentiarum
edita jussu et auctoritate Leonis XIII" (Ratisbon,
1883) ; " Jus Pontificium de Propaganda Fide Leonis
Xni jussu recognitum" (Rome, 1888); "Decieta
LBUBITS
204
LITIBOTJX
auihentica Con^gationis S. Rituum • . . promul-
gata sub auspiciis Lconis XIII" (Rome, 1898).
V. Letters of Bishops. — Just as the popes rule the
Church largely by means of letters, so also the bishops
mi^e use of letters for the administration of their dio-
oeses. The documents issued by a bishop are divided
according to their form into pastoral letters, synodal
and diocesan statutes, mandates, or ordinances, or
decrees, the classification depending upon whether
they have been drawn up more as letters, or have been
issued by a synod or the chancery. The pastoral
letters are addressed either to all the members of the
diocese {litierce pastorales) or only to the cler©r, in this
case generally in Latin (liMerce encycUca:) . The man-
dates, decrees, or ordinances are issued either by the
bishop himself or by one of his officials. The synodal
statutes are ordinances issued by the bishop at the
diocesan synod, with the advice, but in no way with
the legislative co-operation, of the diocesan clergy.
The diocesan statutes regularly speaking, are those
episcopal ordinances which, because they refer to more
wei^ty matters, are prepared with the obligatory or
facultative co-operation of the cathedral chapter. In
order to have legal force the episcopal documents
must be published in a suitable manner and according
to usage. Civil laws by which episcopal and also papal
documents have to receive the approval of the State
before they can be published are irrational and out of
date (Vatican Council, Sess. Ill, De eccl., c. iii). (See
Exequatur.)
For the extensive literature on papal lctt«re see works on papal
diplomatics; Griaar in Kirchenfex., s.v. BuUen und Breven (to
18o4); Pttra, Analecta novissima bptcilegii Solesmenais. Altera
continuatio. Tom. I: Dc epistolis d, regiatris Romanorum Poniiii-
ctim (Paris, 1886); Brrhslau, Handhuch. derUrkundenlehrefQr
Deutschland und Italien (Leipzig, 1880), 65 sqq.; Gnir, Manuel
de diplomatique (Paris, 1804), 6ol sqq.; SrHMi-n-KALLENBERO,
Die Lehre von den Papsturkunden in Meister, Orundriss der
0eschichtsuns9en8thafl (Leipzig, 1906 — ), I, pt. I, 172 sqq.: cf.
also, Ptlugk-Harttuno, Die BtUlen der Papste bis turn Ende
deals. Jahrhunderis (Gotha, 1901); Stkin acker. AfiUei/un^en
dea Institute far oMcrreiehische Oeechichtsforachung, XXIII, 1
gaq.; Kehr, EroHnzungeband d. Alitteilungen, VI, 70 sqq.;
Wbrnk. Jua decrdalium, I (2nd ed., Rome, 1905 — ), 159 sqq.,
311 S9q., 350 sqq., 379 sqq.; Laurentius, InstittUionee juris
ecclesia8tici{2iul (h1., Freiburg im Br., 1908), no. 11 sqq., 23 sqq.,
288qq.: SXomOller. Lrhrbuch des katholischen Kxrmenrechts
(2nd ed., Freiburg. MH)0), 858qq.. 129 sqq., 153 sqq., 164 sqq.
Johannes Baptist SaomDlleb.
LeubuSy a celebrated ancient Cistercian abbey,
situated on the Oder, northwest of Breslau, in the
Prussian Province of Silesia. The year of foundation
is not quite certain, the deed of foundation of 1175,
formerly considered genuine, having been proved a
forgery, but the statement of the old Cistercian chroni-
cles and Polish annalists, that I^eubus was founded
16 August, 1163, by Duke Boleslaus the Tall, is the
most probable one. Formerly the Benedictines were
there. The Cistercians of Leubus have done a great
deal for tin? cultivation and Germanization of Silesia,
which was formerly wilderness, primeval forest, morass
and moorland, altliough their activity has been over-
rated. The mother-house of Leubus was Pforta. From
Leubus itself there sprang the houses of Mogila and
Klara Tumlm at Cracow, Heinrichau at Munsterberg,
and Kamcnz at Glatz. Leubus had extensive pos-
sessions. In the Hussite wars the monastery with
all the buildings was burned to the ground (1432).
When it had recovered from these misfortunes, it was
severely oppressed by the Dukes of Sagan and MOn-
sterberg, and was in their possession for seven years
(1492-98), the inmates of the convent having fled.
The abbot Andreas Hoffmann (1498-1534) infused
new life into the monastery. During the Thirty Years*
War it was occupied by the Swedes in 1632 and pil-
laged. All the treasures of the church fell into their
hands. A few years later they returned once more
and carried off the valuable library, which had taken
centuries to collect, to Stettin, where it was after-
wards destroyed by lightning. As long as the war
lasted, Leubus was practically a ruin, but after the
peace Abbot Arnold (1636-72) restored it in a com-
paratively short time and embellished the church and
Duildings. He called in the skilful painter Michael
Willmann, who was employed forty years at Leubus
(until his death. 1706). Under Arnold and Johann
IX (1672-91) theological and philosophical studies
also flourished. The monastery reached its zenith
under Ludwig Bauch (1696-1729), under whose rule
the. enormous and imposing building was erected,
which is considered the largest building in Germany
and one of the largest in Europe. The principal
facade is 225 metres long, the wings are 118 metres
long. Under Constantine (1733-47) the interior was
decorated, the hall of princes and the library being
adorned with extravagant magnificence. In the first
Silesian War. and in the Seven Years' War ^1740-42
and 1756-63), Leubus was terribly impoverished by
the Prussians and Austrians, so that it had a debt
of 200,000 Reichsthaler. On 21 Nov., 1810, it was
suppressed by the Prussian Government and confis-
cated with its 59 villages and 10 domains. Part of the
buildings are now used as a lunatic asylum, in con-
nexion with which the large and beautiful church is
utilized for Catholic worship.
BuscHiNo, Die Urkunden des Klosters Letdnts (Breslau, 1821);
Wattenbach, Monumenta Lu6e>tnd (Brealau, 1861); Thoma,
Die Kolonisatorische TUtigkeii des Klosters Leubus (Leipsi^
1894); ScHULTE, Die Anfdnge der deutschen Kolanisation %n
Schlesien in Silesiaca (Breslau, 1898;) Wintera, Letdms in iSfw*
dien und MitteUungen aus dem Benedictiner- und ZisUrzienstT'
prrfCTi (1904), XXy, 502-614; 676-697; Weub. JCtojter LeubuB
in Schlesien (Breslau, 1908).
Klemens LOfflbr.
Leuce, a titular see of Thrace, not mentioned by
any ancient historian or geographer. However, its
bishop, Symcon, attended the (Council of Constanti-^
nople (Lequien, " Oriens Christ.*', 1, 1 167). The " No-
titise cpiscopatuum'' of the tenth to the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries mention Leuce among the suf-
fragans of Philippopolis. It is probably the modem
village of CJopolovo, south of Philippopolis, or Plovdiv,
Bulgaria. g. PimuDfes.
Levadoux, Michaj:l, one of the first band of Sul-
picians who, owing to the distressed state of religion in
France, went to the United States and founded St.
Mary's Seminary in Baltimore; b. at Clermont-Fer-
rand, in Auvergne, France, 1 April, 1746; d. at Le-
Puy-en-Velay, 13 Jan., 1815. He entered the Sul-
Eician Seminary at Clermont, 30 Oct., 1769, where
e studied theology, then went to the " Solitude ",
or Sulpician novitiate, for one year. He was ap-
pointed, in 1774, director of the seminary at Limoges,
where he remained till 1791. In consequence of the
threatening aspect of affairs in France, Rev. J. A.
Emery, Superior-General of the Sulpicians, deemed it
prudent to found a house of their institute in some
foreign country, and at the suggestion of Cardinal
Dugnani, nuncio at Paris, the United States was chosen.
Negptiations were opened with Bishop Carroll, but
lately consecrated, and after some delay Rev. Francis
C. Nagot, S.S.^as named first director of the projected
seminary at Baltimore. With him were associated
MM. Levadoux, Tessier, Gamier, and Montd^sir, to-
gether with several seminarians. Rev. M. Delavau.
Canon of St. Martin of Tours, and Chateaubriana
joined the party, which sailed from St. Malo, 8 April,
1791, and after a tempestuous and roundabout voyage
reached Baltimore 10 July. For one year M. leva-
doux, as treasurer, assisted M. Nagot in organizing the
Seminary of St. ^Iary*s, and was then sent by the
latter to the Illinois mission, for which M. Emery had
at first destined M. Chicosneau, deeming M. Levadoux
a better administrator of temporal affairs. £m-
Sowered as vicar-general by Bishop Carroll, he took his
eparture for the West on 15 Jan., 1792.
His missionary labours centred around Cahokia and
Kaskaskia. The registers of the latter place bear his sig-
LSTAU 21
nature from Deo., 1792, and he seems to have spuit
most of his time from 1793 to 1 796 at Cahokia, though
after M. Placet left Vincemies in 1795 he visited that
poetalso. Meanwhileas the health of H.Nagot, supe-
rior of the SulpicianA in the United States, was failing
fast, he was desirous of having M. Levadoux near him
at Baltimore, that he nuEht be ready to succeed him in
ofBce; but fiiahop CairoU was no less anxious to secure
the services of the lealous miseionaiy for E)etroit . The
biabop'a wishes prevailed, and M. Levadoux became
pariiO priest of St. Anne's in 1796. It was he who
performed the obsequies of Rev. F. X. Dufaux, S.S.,
missionary to the Hurona at the pariah of the Assump-
tion opposite Detroit, who died at his post 10 Septem'
ber, 1796. After the demise of the latter, M. Leva-
doux had frequent occasion to minister to the spiritual
wants of the Indians and of other scattered Catholics
from Sandusky and Mackinaw to Fort Wayne. In
1801 M . Nagot recalled M. Levadoux to Baltimore, and
in 1803 he received orders from M. Emery to return to
France, where he was soon appointed superior of the
Seminary of St. Flour in Auvergne, and remained
there until the dispersion of the Sulpicians by Na-
poleon I, in 1811. When their institute was revived,
in 1814, the Rev. M. Duclaux, successor of M. Kmery,
placed M. Levadoux at the head of the Seminary of
Le-Puy-en-Velay. For years he had Ijeen suffering
from the stone, which disease was the cause of h^
death in the foltowijig year. He bore the intense pains
of his last iltnesB wiw exemplary fortitude and resig-
nation.
3m*. Hh(. o/Cort. Ch. in Ae V. S., II, 379. 407. 483, 486.
480-490, eoe: Ph^in de RivikBE. VU di M. Rvhard, S^.,
MS. in 81. Uoru'i Stmiiuirv ArcAitm. Buitiniorv, 369, note;
DiLBET. Elat di tialitt CatAaligiu du du diocite dii ElaU Unit;
ManvKrijjt rrauten of the Jmmaculale Conception Church,
KukukU, ud of MacluDBw. A. E. JONES.
Lerftn (Lb Vau), Louis, acontemporary of Jacques
Lemercier and the two Mansarts, and the chief archi-
tect of the firat decade of Louis XIV's independent
reign, b. 1612; d. at Paris, 10 Oct., 1670. Although
pOBterity has refused to consider him a genius, he de-
veloped a distinctive style which aimed at classic sim-
plicity of construction and el^ance in decoration. It
IS true, however, that he more often depended on Man-
sart's or Lendtrc's ptans. Of his life, wo have few par-
ticulars except as regards his works. He had two sons
who shared nis labours; of these I^uis died in 1661,
and of Francis we know nothing except that in 1656,
in the capacity of royal architect, he received a salary
of 600 livres. In 1653 the father became first royal in-
spector of buildinxs, and in 1656 received a salary of
3000 livres. In bis death certificate, he ia called
"king's councillor, general inspector, and director of
the royal buildine enterpriser. His Majesty's secre-
tary, and the pride of France. Le\'au won renown
by the erection of many handsome buildings in Paris
and elsewhere. The oldest are the Hdtel Lunbcrt and
the chAteau of Vaux-le-Vicomte. After 1651 he com-
pleted the south and north wings of the Louvre as
succesBor to Lescot and Lemercier, and then built the
east wiiu, thereby concluding the square up to the
coIonnaOG on the cast aide. His design for the latter
was rejected as being not sufficiently ornate, and that
of Claude Pcrrault aul>Btitute<l. In this work Levau
had a faithful assistant in his son-in-law, Dorbay.
He next directed some changes in the Tuileries. An-
other considerable achievement was the College dee
15 U TEBRIEB
(q. V.) , it was finished by Harduuin-Mansart and later
architects. But the first rough sketch and the sub-
stantial form are due to Iicvau. Versailles became a
standard, not only because of the imposing splendour
of the interior and the exterior simplicitv, but above
all through the fact that the court, instead of being en-
closed, lay in front of tbe facade. Levau extended the
so-called marble court of the old palace by the ad-
dition of side wings, and, by pushing these back lat-
erally, he gave to the court a greater breadth. He
proceeded in the same way with the widely extended
wings, which wore also pushed back sideways and en-
close the present so-called King's (^urt. Louis XIV
caused the long side wings to be extended still further,
thereby giving an immense width to the front. Levau
seems to be responsible for the monotonous garden
fagade, while the chapel, among other thines, consti-
tutes Mansart's claim to renonTi. The epoch-making
church of 8t-Sulpice, a counlcriwrt of St-Eustache,
was begun on Gamard's design in 1646. but it was
really carried on hy Levau in his own style until 1660.
when Gittard took his place. The cliurcb is planned
on a large scale, but the effect docs not correspond to
the vast design.
Las™, nin. del ardiilrrl't (Parin, 1873); Gcblitt, OfdL
da Barotkiiiit &utlsan, 1KS7): Geyih 1.UIK m Haadbuck dtr
ArchilrktoT ron Oarm, e,r.. 11 (StuttcBit. 1B98). vi. 1. For
further particulnn njTuiiill Archire, de Tart fmncait and Nou-
rdUt anJiiva dc I'ari fraa^ait. Q. GiBTMANN.
Le Vorrier, Thbais -Jean -Joseph, astronomer
and director of the observatory at Paris, b. at Saint
lid, the ancient Briodurum later called Saint-Laudi-
fanum, in north-
western France,
11 May, 1811; d.
at Pans, 25 Sep-
tember, 1877.
From 1831 tbe
talented youth
studied at the
Ecole Polytech-
nique with such
success that at the
end of his course he
was appointed an
instructor there.
While connected
with the school he j
showed a strong
predilection for
mathematical
lAH-JoRIFB Le VlRBIBB
Quatn
the ol
, __J church. The latter consisted
atructure: a cupola carried out without
over a cylinder which was not perfectly round, and
four Hurtoimdirw spaces, in one of which was the mon-
ument of the founder, Maiarin. During the entire
course of the next century, Levau's influence was felt
in palace-buQding on account of his work on the ex-
teiuion of VersaDlea. Begun in 1624 by Lemercier
the " Mfcanique
oileste". Le Ver-
rier soon received an appointment in the govern-
ment administration of tobaccos; later he became a
professor at the College Stanislas at Paris, and finally,
m 1646, he was appointed professor of celestial me-
chanics in the faculty of sciences at the University of
Paris. As eurly as 1839 he published a calculation of
the variations of the planetary orbits tor the period of
time from the year 100,000 a. c. to the year 100,000
A.D., in which lie proveiihyfigures thestabihty of the
solar sj'stem, which Laplace hiid only indicated. His
calculation of the transit of Mercur>' of 1845 and of the
orbit of Faye's comet demonstrated his ability in that
province in which he was soon to gain an almost un-
dreamed-of triumph from the discovery, by means of
theoretical calculation-s, of the planet Neptune. The
variations ol)scrved in I'miius, up to then the most
distant planet known, led iiim to look for tlie cause of
the disturbance outride of its ori)it. His calculations
enabled him to specify the very spot in the heavens
where the liody causing the |>crturi>ations in question
LEVITES
206
LEVITES
was to be sought, so that the astronomer Galle of Ber-
lin was able by the aid of his specifications to find the
new planet at once upon looking for it, 2.3 September,
1846. In this way Le Verrier gave the most striking
confirmation of the theory of gravitation propounded
by Newton. He now became a memljer of the Acad-
emy of Sciences, in 1852 wa»s made a senator, and after
Arago's death (1853) was appointed director of the
Paris Observatory, a position he held with a short in-
terruption (1870-73) until his death. Under his skil-
ful and prudent administration the observatory made
important progress both as to equipment in instru-
ments and, mort' particularly, as reganls pre-eminent
scientific achievements of which Le Verrier was the in-
spiration. He was the founder of the International
Meteorological Institute and of the Association Scien-
tifique de Franco, Ixjing tJic pennanent president of
the latter. lie also gave careful attention to tJie geo-
detic work wliich was iiit(*n<le<i to give the most comr
pletc presentation possil)lo of the configuration of the
earth. The instruments of precision with which, in
order to attain tliis end, he e(iuippetl the observers
were remarkably complete.
His most important work, however, was the con-
struction of tables representing the movements of the
sun, moon, and planets: "Tai)les du Soleil" (1S5S);
"Tables de Mercure" (1859); "Tables de Venus"
(1861); *'Tablosde Mars'* (1801); "Tables de Jupi-
ter" (1870); "Tables de Satume" (1870); "Th<5orie
d'Uranus" (1S70); "Th^wie de Neptune" (1876);
"Tables (I'l'nmus" (1877). All these publications
were preceded by theoretical investigations: "Theorie
du mouvcment apparent du Soleil" (1858); "Throne
de Mercure" (1859); "Th<5orie de V6nus" (1861);
"Th(f'orie do Mars" (1861), etc. Considerations simi-
lar to those which led to the discover^' of the planet
Neptune caused Le Verrier to infer the existence of a
planet l)etween Mercury and the sun. But far greater
difficulties both were and are here connected with
actual discovery than was the case with Neptune.
However, Le Verrier on this occa^^ion also showed his
masterly skill in handling the various problems of the
reciprocal perturbations of the planets and other
heavenly bodies, as is shown in his writings on the
subject: "Formules propres il simplifier le calcul des
perturbations" (1876); "Variations s^culaires des
orbitefl" (1876). etc.
With all his erudition Le Verrier was a zealous ad-
herent and true son of the Catholic Church; even as
deputy of the Assemblv he openly acknowle<lge(i and
delended his Catholic faith Ixjfore all the world. He
was also a ready speaker, one in no way discomposed
by the attacks of opponents, for he knew how l>y pro-
found and logical statements to convince his hearers'
quickly. When d ving he said in the words of t he aged
Simeon: "Nunc cfimittis servum tuum, Domine, in
pace". Thase who spoke at the funeral of this re-
markable man could tnithfuUy assert that the study
of the star-worlds stimulated in him the living l^lief of
the Christian to new fervour. Even in the sessions of
the Academv he made no concealment of his faith nor
of his childfike defXindence on the Catholic Church.
When, on 5 June, 1870, he presents! to the Academy
his completer! tables for Jupiter, the result of thirty-
five years of toil, he emphasized particularly the fact
that only the thought of the great Creator of the uni-
verse had kept him from flagging, and had main-
tained his enthusiasm for his task. He also on
this occasion spoke strongly, like his colleague Du-
mas, against the materialistic and sceptical tenden-
cies of so many scholars. To Lo \ errier is due
the organization of the meteorological ser\'ice for
France, especially the weather warnings for sea-
porU, by which t<Mlay the weather for the follow-
ing twenty-four hours can be announced with much
pn>bability, a matter of especial importance for agri-
eulture and shipping. The "Annales de I'C^bserva-
toire de Paris ", published during the adminiBtratioa
of Le Verrier, consist of thirteen volumes of theoreti-
cal treatises and forty-seven volumes of observations
(180Q-1876) . At the time of his death he was making
plans for equipping the obser\'atoiy with a large new
telescope, and it may be that the stunulating influence
exerteu in this direction contributed not a little tp the
result that everj'where, particularly in North America,
generous-minded patrons appeared who, each in his
own land, gave the money necessary to obtain larger
instruments. On 27 June, 1889, a statue of the dis-
tinguished savant which cost nearly 32,000 francs
($6400), was erected by subscription in front of the
observatory where he had laboured for so many years.
FiQUiER, L'annee acientifiqur tt indiuirieUe, XXI (Paris.
1877); Dknza, CommemoTozione Hi alcuni w^mini iUutiri nelia
sciema (Turin, 1877); Heuzeau, Vtidr-mfcum de Vaainmoniir
(Bnimeb. 18S2):Annuaire ((or 1K90) published by tho Bureau
aes Lon^tudes; Kneller, Dns Chrittentum und die Verireier dtr
Naturwissenschaft (2nd ed., Freiburg im Br., 1904).
AdOLPH Mt^LLER.
Levites (D^7, from ^yp, Jycvi, name of the ances-
tral patriarch, generally interpreted "joined" or "at-
tached to" — ^see Gen., xxix, 84, also Num., xviii, 2. 4,
Hebrew text), — the sulx)rdinate ministers appointed
in the Mosaic Law for the .stTvice of the TaDcmacle
and of the Temple. I-.evi was the third son Iwme to
Jacol:) by Lia, and full brother of Ruben, Simeon, and
Juda. Togetlier with Simeon he avenged the humilia-
tion of their sister Dina by the slaughter of Sichem and
his iKJople (Gen., xxxiv), for which deed of violence
the two brothers were reproved both in Gen., xxxiv.
30, and in the prophecy attributed to the patriarch in
Gen., xlix, 5-7. Waiving all critical discussion con-
nected with this incident as also with the other events
connected with the history- of the trilx?,.the next point
to l>e noticed is the connexion of Levi with the priest-
hood. According to the received Biblical account, all
the male descendants of the patriarch were set apart
bv Moses, acting under Divine command, for the ser-
vice of the sanctuary, a distinction which may have
lx»en due to the religious zoal manifested l>y the tribe
on the occasion of the idolatrous worship of the golden
calf (Ex., xxxii, 25-29). As it was also the tril>e to
which Moses himself belonged, it coidd probably be
rclie<l upon mort* than the others to sustain the legis-
lator in the establishment and promotion of his reli-
gious institutions among the people. The sacred calling
of the Levites is mentioned in various passages of the
Pentateuch. For instance, the author of the first
chapters of Numbers (P), after recalling (iii; cf. Ex.,
xxviii, xxix; Lev., \nii, ix) the names and sacred func-
tions of the sons of Aaron, adds the desi^ation of the
entire tribe of Levi who were to *' stand m the sight of
Aaron the priest to minister to him. And let them
watch, and observe whatsoever appertaineth to the
service of the multitude l^efore the tabernacle of the
testimony, and let them keep the vessels of the taber-
nacle, 8er\'ing in the ministry thereof." Thoujzh in
Num., xviii, 23, the special mission of the tnbe is
described broadly as a mediation between the Lord
and his people, and though the Levite mentioned in
the interesting and very ancient passage of Judges
(xvii, xviii) is represented as exercising without quali-
fication the functions of the priesthood, it is held by
many commentators that at an early date a distinc-
tion was made between the priests of the familv of
Aaron and the simple Levites — a distinction which
became ver>' pronounce<l in the later religious history
of the Chosen P(K)ple. The ceremonies with which the
simple Levites were consecrated to the service of the
Lord are descril>e(l in Num., viii, 5-22. Besides their
general function of a.<sir<ting the priests, the Levites
were assigned to carr>' the Tabernacle and its utensils,
to keep watch about the sanctuar>', etc. As most of
their duties required a man's full strength, the Levitea
did not eiit<T upon their functions before the age of
LftyiTIOUS
207
thirty. In the distribution of the Land of Chanaan
after the conouest, Josue, acting according to instruc-
tions receivea from Moses, excluded the tribe of Levi
from sharing like the others in the territory . " But to
the tribe of Levi he gave no possession: because the
Lord the God of Israel himself is their possession''
(Jos., xiii, 33.) It may be noted that a very different
reason for this exception is mentioned in Gen., xlix,
5-7. In lieu of a specified territory, the members of
the tribe of Levi received permission to dwell scat-
tered among the other tribes, special provision being
made for their maintenance. Besides the tithes of the
produce of land and cattle, and other sacerdotal dues
already granted by Moses, the Levites now received
from each of the other tribes four cities with suburban
pasture lands, or forty-eight in all (Jos., xxi). Among
these were included the six cities of refuse, three on
each side of the Jordan, which were set aside to check
the barbarous custom of blood revenge, still existing
among the Arab tribes, and in virtue of which the
kinamen^of a man put to death consider it a duty to
avenge him by the killing of his intentional or even un-
intentional slayer. It is probable, however, that these
administrative dispositions concerning the Levites
were not fully carried out until some time after the
conquest, for, during the long period of transition be-
tween the wandering life of the desert and the fully
organised civilization of later times, the priests and
Levites seem to have had a rather precarious mode of
existence. Taking the stoiy of Michas (Judges, xvii)
as illustrative of the condition of the Levitical order
durine that early period, it would appear that the
priestly functionaries were inadequately provided for
and had to wander about to secure a livelihood.
The elaborate and highly differentiated organiza-
tion of the priestly or Levitical system, described with
such abimaance of detail in the priestly writings of the
Old Testament, was doubtless the result of a long pro-
cess of religious and ritualistic development which at-
tained its fullness in the post-Exilic period. As else-
^ere in the history of ancient religions, there appears
in the beeinnin^ of Hebrew history a period when no
priestly class existed. The functions of the priesthood
were performed generally by the head of the family or
clan without need of a special 8anctuar>', and there is
abundant evidence to show that for a long time after
the death of Moses the priestly office was exercised,
not only occasionally, but even permanently, by men
of non-Levitical descent. The Deuteronomic legisla-
tion insists on tiie unity of sanctuary, and recognizes
the descendants of Levi as the sole le^timatc mem-
bers of the priesthood, but it ignores the sharply de-
fined distinction between priests and simple Levites
which appears in the later writings and legislation,
for the whole class is constantly referred to as the
"levite priests". This category excludes the purely
lay priest who is no longer tolerated, but if any Levite
be willing to leave his residence in any part of the land
and come to Jerusalem, *'He shall minister in the
name of the Lord his God, as all his brethren the Le-
vites do. that shall stand at that time before the Lord.
He shall receive the same portion of food that the rest
do; besides that which is due him in his own city, by
succession from his fathers" (Deut. xviii, 6-8)' In
the post-Exilic writings the detailed organization and
workings of the levitical system then in its full vigour
are adec|uately described, and a certain nunilx?r of the
regulations pertaining thereto arc a^crilwd to King
David. Thus, it is to the pc»rio<l of his reign that I Par.
refers the introduction of the system of counses where-
by the whole sacerdotal Ixxly waM divided into classes,
named after their respective chiefs and presided over
by them. They carried out their various functions
week by week, their particular duties beinR doter-
mine<l by lot (cf. Luke, i, 5-9). We road also that dur-
ing the reign of David the rt*a>t of the Lovites, to tlio
number of thirty-eight thousand, mnging from the
age of thirty years and upwards receive a special or-
ganization (I Par., xxiii-xxvi). Levites are men-
tioned only three times in the New Testament (Luke,
X, 32; John, i, 19; Acts, iv, 36), and these references
throw no li^ht on their status in the time of Christ.
Leqendris m Vio., Did. de la Bible, 8. v. I^vt, Tribu de (III);
Baudissin in Haat., Did. of the Bible, n. v. PrieHa and Levitet;
GiooT, Outline* ofJewith Hidory, vui, |2, etc.
James F. Driscoll.
Leviticus, the third book of the Pentateuch, so
called because it treats of the offices, ministries, rites,
and ceremonies of the priests and Levites (see
Pentateuch).
Lewis, David. See Baker, Charles, Venerable.
Lex (Law). — ^The etymology of the Latin word lex
is a subject of controversy. Some authorities derive it
from the Old Norse log, neuter plural of lagf which
would be the root of the English laWf signifying '* to put
in order", " put in place". Others derive it from the
Latin legere, "to reiad", thus giving it an exclusively
Latin origin (Br^l, "Sur Torigine aes mots d^ignant
le droit et la loi en latin" in "Nouvelle Revue his-
torique de droit franyais et stranger'', VII, Paris,
1883, 610-1 1). We shall not examine here the divers
meaning of the word laWf but merely treat of certain
expressions beginningwith the word lex or leges.
(1) Roman Use. — The word lex followed by a per-
sonal name in the feminine gender (Lex Julia, Lex
Papia Poppsa) signified, in Itoman Law, a lex rogakif
i. e. a legislative enactment that was the outeome of
an interrogation (from rogare) by the magistrate of the
Roman people: the magistrate proposed the law to the
citizens, and they declared tneir acceptance. The
law was called by the family name of the author or
authors of the proposal.
(2) Leges Romance of Teutonic Peoples. — ^While offi-
cial or priyate collections of Roman Law made under
the Empire are dalled codiceSf e. g. "Codex Theodosi-
anus", probably because they were written on parch-
ment sheets bound together in book form, the title lex
was given to collections of Roman Law made by order
of the barbarian kings for such of their subjects as fol-
lowed that legislation. When the Teutonic tribes
occupied territories that had once belonged to the
empire, the natives of these territories continued to
follow the Ronmn Law. It was for them that Alaric
II, King of the Visigoths, published, probably in 506,
the "l2x Romana Wisigothorum" (Roman Law of
the Visigoths) ; according to the most probable opin-
ion, he wished to reduce the number of sources that
the lawyers of those days had to consult for the Ra-
man Law, and which were too numerous for them to
understand thoroughly. This code was only one year
in force in Gaul, but it lasted in Spain till the middle of
the seventh century. So long as it continued to be
applied as the personal law of Romans under the
Giothic regime, it was the accepted form of Roman
Law in the West. It is also called " Breviarium Alar-
ici" (Rdsum6 of Alaric). or "Breviarium Aniani",
from the name of the referendary by whom the
copies of the "Lex Romana Wisigothorum " were
signed; even the name "Lex Romana" was some-
times given to it. The "Lex Romana Burgundi-
onum" is due to the initiative of (lundobad, King of
the Burgundians (d. 516). It was enactecl for the
Gallo-Roman subjects of his kingdom, and was not,
like the prece<ling oolUM'tion, a r^sum4 of the Roman
Law, but rather a kind of official instruction drawn up
for the use of judges, calling their attention to the
more im|)ortant i)oint8 of Roman legislation. This
collection is known also an "Papianus", or "Liber
Papiaiii". The "Lex Romana R^tica Curiensis" is
of a later date (middle of the eighth or beginning of the
ninth cenlury). and differs vory much in character
from the preceding **h*ges"; it is a collection contain-
ing extracts from the " Ixix Romana Wisigothorum"
LXX 208 UX
and enactments from Gennan law, drawn up for which it has reached ua, it canoot be older th&n the eTid
Rhtetia and the Griaons. With these miEht be men- of the seventh centuiy. It was modified by the Jus-
tioned the "Lex Dei quam precepit Oominus ad tinian Code and especially by the influence of Chris-
Moysen" (Law which God gave to Moses), now com- tisnity. The "Lex Allamanorum" (I^wof Ute Alla-
monly known as "Coliatio legum Mosaicanun et mani) was drawn up in its definitive form prolMbly
Romanarum", a comparison of Mosaic and Roman between the years 717 and 719 by Duke Lanfridus;
biWa made by a Christian between 390 and 438, to the "Lex Bajuwariorum " (Law of the Bavarians)
^ow the extent to which they agreed. The "Lex about 748-52; the "Lex Frieionum" (Iaw of the
Romana canonice compta" (i. c. concepla or compo- Frisians) dates back to the second half of the eighth
Mita) is a collection of Roman laws made in Italy in the century. Authorities attribute to the Synod of
ninth century (after 825). It comprises those enact- Aachen (802 or 803) tbe"LexSaxoniun" (I^wof the
eRomi -, -^ ...
mentsofthe
Iavi, and especially
of the Justinian
Code, which were of
special import to the
C3iurch.
(3)1
« Barbaro-
lis title
denotes the collec-
tions of laws drawn
up by the barbarian
kmgs for their Teu-
tonlo aubjecls. It is
difficult to assign a
precise date to each
of these collections;
several of them were
reissued at a later
period.and the earli-
est form has not
always been pre-
served. The most
ancient of these
compilations is the
"Lex Salica", the
earliest redaction of
which does not in-
dicate clearly a
Christian or a pagan
origin; it is believed
to date from the
reign of Clovis, be-
tween the years 486
and 496. The most
important new re-
daction is the " Lex
Salica emendata ' '
(a Carolo mogno
emendata), a prod-
uct of the Carlo-
vingian age, though
' apparently it cannot
be attributed to
Charlemagne. In
the fourteenth cen-
tury the Salic Law
was invoked to ex-
clude women from
theeuccession tothe
Vtench throne. The
''Lex Ribuariii'', or
"Ripuaria", reprodi
'mm
'y
BUTli
(«<««»
'■ cUrAd xafhn '
Fronioii Vlll-n
t the Salic Law, but
it is manifestly influenced by Christianity and the
Roman Law. It was drawn up bj- the authority of a officio judi
■'" — ■■""*ive form dates appar-
The "L<« Barbara
Saxons),
"Lex Angliorum et
Werinorum, hoc est
Thuringorum" pro-
mulgated for the in-
habit&nts of north-
eastern Thuringia.
The "Lex Chama-
vorum" (Lawofthe
Chamavi, identified
with the inhabitant*
of the Lower Rhine
and the Yssel and
the Netherlands ter-
ritory of Drenthe)
was composed about
the end of the eighth
or bezinnmg of the
(about 8027). The
firat version of the
" EdiotuB " , or " Lex
Longobardorum ' ' ,
enacted fortbeLom-
hards of Italy, be-
longs to the year
&43 . It was revised
by King Grimoald
in 668 and by ICiag
Liutprand between
713 and 735, while
additions to it wer«
made by King Rat-
cbis in 745-46 and
Km^Aiatulf in 755.
A critical edition ctf
the ' 'Leges Borbaio-
rum " and of certain
"Leges Romano-
rum" is published
in "Uon. Germ.
Hist.: Legea", III-
V (Hanover. I8ft3-
89), and "Legum
Sectio I", I-II
(Hanover, 1002).
(4) In the MiddU
. — ■ - .^^M' Aga. — In this peti-
ii-r OF THE Lei Sauca od fci Was employed
SliflHbibliolhPk, St-GiJI to denote a body ti
righte. The name t»
•tTop'<lil'i"n signified all the rights of a metropolitoo
■' .ffragan bishops of his province (c. xi, "De
lis ordinarii", X, I, xxxi): by the name far
c. ix, "De majoritate et obedientia", X. I,
., . lex ditgcemna juritdiclionit (c. ix, "Do
hecreticis", X, V, vii), was meant all the rights of a
However, a distinction ^""
1 c«.j.<L*i*
Burgundionum" belongs to the fifth century
attributed to King Gundobad, who promulgated the bishop in his diocese.
"Lex Romana Burpundionuin"; under the Carlo- drawn later Irath by law and by the doctore between
_-__-_... 7j^ ^^ ordinarily callml the "Lex Gunde- the Ifx dueresann a '
, __.w of Gomlcbauil, whrnce its French name. "De officio judicis i , , .
"Loi GombetteJ'. It in a collection of the ordinances dealing with the profitable rights of the bishop U. . ..
of that prince and his predcrcpsors. The first redac- tain fixed incomes like the procuratio, the col/iedro-
tion of llie "I,ex Barliara Wisigothorum " belongs to tieiim, etc., and the latter treating of the other righta
the reign of King Euric (40G-84), but it was reiisinl of the l)isiii)p. e. g. tlie exereise of jurisdiction in con-
by several of Iiih auecessors. In the complete forin in tentious matters, the mmistry of souls, l^e power and
lifiA of ordoiniiig. This distinotion waa made in
view of the exemntioiia which the religioua orders en-
joyed in their reUtione with the bishope. The defi-
oitiioQ given of these two kga by Benedict XIV does
not Beem accurate; according to that learned canonist
(De synodo diceceaana, I, iv, n. 3), the lex iurudic-
tioni* is the complexua of rights which a bishop has
over exempted r^ulara; the lex diacexaTia, the com-
Slexua of eplHcopal rights from which the rCKular oi^
ere are exempt (Schcrer, "Handbuch des Kirchen-
rechtes", I, Gra>, 1886, 560). This distraction is no
longer of any practical importance.
Uomuui. JUaniK) dei anliqutiit Tomaina, French tr. Girakd,
VI (Paiu. 1888). 1, 351 «)□.: KauoEH. ffiainn d« (dutch du
Onil nmaiK, French tr. BaraaiDD (Fncu. 1S94): Eiiueih,
Coun iUmailairt d'hiatoirt du droit ftanaiU (4th «(., Pnrig,
IMS); VioLur, HiMH'n du droit civil frantai* (Pniu. 1803}i
Bbvmmib, D«itodUSaAt«0acAieAU (Leipiig. 1887],
A. Van Hove.
Lsmu, JiTAN Bautista sg, theologian, b. at Mad-
rid, 23 Nov., 1586; d. in Rome, 29 March. 1659. He
took the habit at Alberca, in Old Castile, 18 Oct.,
IflOO, and made his profession at the house of the Car-
melites of the Old Observance at Madrid, in 1602;
studied philosophy at Toledo, theology at Salamanca,
partly at the college of the order, partly at the univer-
eit;^ under Juan Marquei, and finally at AIcaM under
Luis de Monteaion. For some yeara he was employed
as lecturer at Toledo and Alcal^, but having been sent
to the genetal chapter of 1625 as delegate of his prov-
ince, he remained in Rome as professor of theology.
At tne following chapter (1645), at which he assisted
in the (^lality of titular provincial of the Holy Land,
he obtained some votes for the generalship, but re-
ToaininK in the minority he was nominated assistant
geoenit; for some years he also filled the office of pro-
curator general. Inaddition to these dignities within
the Older, he filled for sixteen years the chair of meta-
phjrses at the Sapienza. and became consultor to the
Congregation of tne Index under Urban VIII, and to
that of Rites under Innocent X. Appointed to a bish-
opric, he requested a saintly nun to recommend an
important matter (the nature of which he did not dis-
olaae) to Our Lord m prayer, and received through her
the answer, which he acl«d upon, that it would be
more perfect for him to refuse the dignity.
Leaana was a great authority on canon law, dog-
matic theology, and philosophy, and his writings on
these subjects still cany weight. His historical works,
however, are not of the same high standard. A notice
on hie "Annals of the Carmelite Order" (four folio
vols, were published between 1645 and 1656. and
there remains another vol. in MS.) will be found m the
bibliography aeoompanying the article Carueute
Order. The foUowmg are the principal products of
his indefatigable pen: (1) "Liber apologeticus pro
Immaeulata Coneeptione " (Madrid, 1016). (2) "^De
regularium reformatione " (Rome, 1627), four times
reprinted and translated into French, although it is
doubtful whether tbe translation appfarcd in print.
(3) "Summa quteationum regularium , five vols., the
first of which appeared in Rome (1637), the last in
1647, most of Uiem were repoatedlv reprinted. (4)
and (5) Two works. "Columna immobilis , and "Tur-
ns Davidiea ", on tne Blessed Virgin del Filar, at Sara-
gossa (16.55 and 1656). (6) "Maria patrona" (Rome,
1648). (7) Life of 8t. Mary Magdalene de Pa«w, in
Spanish (Rome, 1648). (8) "Summa theologiiB sac-
tB" (3 vols., Rome, 1651 sqq.). (9) "Consulta varia
thetriogiea" (Venice, 1656). A^ some less important
works. B. KruMESMAN.
L'HaapitaL Michel de, b. at Aigucp^rse, al>out
1604; d. at -Courdimanche, 13 March. 1573. ^\'hile
very youtw he went to Italy to join his father, who had
been afoUower of the traitor, the^omitjible of Bour-
bon, in the camp of Charles V. He ncquirM Iiih ju-
ridical tiunlng first aa a student at Pa<luu and then aa
IX.— W .
19 L'HOSPZTIL
auditor of the Rota at Rome, and in 1537 became a
councillorof the Parliament of Paris. In 1547hewaa
charged hy Henrv II with a mission to the (Ecumen-
ical council, which had been transferred from Trent to
Bologna, returning after sixteen months to take liis seat
in the Parliament. He was next appointed chancellor of
Berry by Marguerite of France, the daughter of Fran-
cis I, in 1554 became first president of the court of ex-
chequer [chambre dct eomplei), and, upon the acces-
sion of Francis II (1559), entered the privy council
throutch the patronage of the Guises. Catharine de'
Medici appointed him chancellor in 1.560. On the one
hanrl, L'Hospital had written a culogv in Latin verse
on the Duke of (iuise and the Cardinal of I^rrainc; on
the other hand, he was the husband of a Protestant
wife, and had ha(i his children brought iip Protestants.
At the opening of bis career atJ chancellor his complex
personality is thus dcscriltcd by Brantome: " He was
neld to be a Huguenot, though he went to Maes; but at
court they said,
'God save Mr
from L' Hospital's
Mass!'" Tbfo-
dorc de B^ze had
had a portrait ot
L'Hospital made,
in which he was
represented with a
lighted torch be-
hind his back, a
way of indicatiiw
that the chancel-
lor had known the
"light" of the
Reformation, but
would not look
of fact, the policy
of tolerance, o!
which he was the
apostle in ('ranee,
was, perhaps, in-
spired by a certain scepticism; the dilTerenccB of re-
ligious 1>clief seemed to him leas serious and less pro-
found than they really were; he would have readily
classed in thesamecategorytheCouiicil of Trent and
certain Calvinistic manifestations, as equally embar-
rassing (o the State; and (he state of mind of which
he WFtt a representative was much nearer te tliat of
the i'ightccnth-century philosophers than it was to
that of men living in his own day, whether Protee-
tants or Catholics.
The Edict of Romorantin (May, 1560) gave to the
bishops criminal jurisdiction in cases of heresy, and to
the secular courts the function of punishing the offence
of holding Protestant meetings. This was L'Hospi-
tel's first efforts to draw the lino between spiritual and
temporal — between the religion of the kingdom and its
police regulation. His addre.ts at the opening of the
States General of Orifians (13 Decemlxr, 1560) is
summed up in these words: " The knife is worth little
against the spirit. Wc must camish ourselves with
virtues and good morals, and then assail the Protest-
Lutheran, Huguenot, Papist — names of factions and
sedit ions. Let us keep to the nanw of Christian, " To
this programme of tolrmnco he added some extremely
severe threats against Protestants who should stir up
seditions, while, on thf other hand, the religious arti-
cles of the Ordinance of Ori(!ans (31 January, 1561)
essayed to bring back the Church of France to the
Pragmatic Sanction of Boiirges, to restore to it certein
elective franchisca, and thus to do away with the ex-
clusive rights which the pojie and the king had exer-
cised over it since the concordat of Francis I, On Ifl
.\pril, 1561, li'Hospitalsent to thego\'emore, without
UAFWIH
210
previously submitting it to the Parliament, an edict
granting to aU subjects the right of worshipping as
they pleased in their own homes. In July, 1561, he
caused all prosecutions for religious opinions to be sus-
pended imtil a *' council'' should be assembled. This
" council", which was the Colloquy of Poissy, resulted
in nothing. By another edict (15 January, 1562) he
granted to the Protestants liberty of worship outside
of cities, and recognized their right to hold meetings in
private houses, even within the limits of cities. This
edict the Protestants always regarded as a kind of
charter of enfranchisement, and during the religious
wars they constantly demanded its restoration.
But other measures touching the Church, taken by
L'Hospital at the same time, gave the Holy See good
reason for uneasiness. He caused a thesis on the pope '
to be denounced before the Parliament, because it
seemed to him too ultramontane; he opposed the mon-
itorium by which Pius IV had invited Jeanne d'Al-
bret to appear in France before the Inouisition. At
last Pius IV in 1562 requested of the French Court
that the chancellor be dismissed. L'llospital, in fact,
was not present at the conclusion of the.coimcil which
decided on war against Cond^ and the Protestants; he
returned to court only after this first war of religion,
when the Edict of Amboise (19 March, 1503) restored
religious peace by guaranteeing certain liberties to the
Protestants. He agreed with Catharine de' Medici
that the cause of peace would be served by having
Charles IX declared of age, and by letting him make a
progress through the country. The declaration of the
king's majority took place m 1563, and from 1564 to
1566 L'Hospital caused him to make an extensive
journey through France. During this tour the Ordi-
nance ot Moulins (February, 1566) was promulgated
b^ the chancellor, to reform the administration of jus-
tice. But L'Hospital's plans failed; party violence
continued, and the Catholics blamed him for his indul-
gence towards the Protestants, all the more bitterly
because he refused to let the Council of Trent be pub-
lished in France. In February, 1504, he had declared
himself so strongly against the acceptance of the Tri-
dentine decrees that the Cardinal of Lorraine ex-
claimed : *' You should take off your mask and embrace
Protestantism." The same cardinal also, when he
appeared before L'Hospital at Moulins (February,
1566) to demand the abrogation of the Edict of Am-
boise, treated him as a worthless fellow {htlitre).
Meanwhile, suspicion of him continued to increase in
the Catholic camp, and after the Protestants had
made an attempt at Meaux (26-28 September, 1567)
to get possession of the kind's person, thus precipitat-
ing the second war of religion, Catharine ae' Medici
turned against the chancellor with the brutal words:
" It is you who have brought us to this pass with your
counsels of moderation ". From that day the policy
of moderation, which had been L'Hospital's clream,
was exploded; his repeated assurances of Huguenot
loyalty were belied by the conspiracy of Meaux, and
he retired, disheartened, to his estate at Vignay. Ir-
removable as chancellor, he had to give up the seals on
24 May, 1 568. He followed from a distance the events
which little by little brought Catharine de' Medici to
the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. His daughter, who
was in Paris at the time of the massacre, was saved
through the protection of Francois de Guise's widow.
L'Hospital himself and his wife were threatened by
the peasantry of Vignay, and a report was spread that
they had been killed; Catharine sent some soldiers to
protect him. On 1 February, 1573, the Court com-
pelled L'Hospital to resign the chancellorship, and he
died six weeks later. His Latin poems, which in the
seventeenth centur>' had passed into the hands of Jan
de Witt, grand pensionary of Holland, were published
in 1732, in a more complete edition than that of his
grandson (1585). His complete works, edited by
l)ufey, appeared at Paris, in 1824, in five volumes.
VniUBiiAiN, Etudea tTHiaUnre modeme (2nd ad., Paris, 1850);
Amphoux, Michel dt VHdpilal el la Ubert^ de conecienee au
XM' eUde (Paris. 1900); Atkinson, Michel de L'HoepHal
(London, 19€k)); Dupr^Lasalb, Miaiel de VHu^jntal avarU
eon iUvation au posle de chancelier de France (2 vols., Paris, 1S75-
1899); Shaw, Michel de VHoepital and Hie Policy (London.
1905).
Georges Gotau.
Liafwin (Liefwin), Saint. See Lebwin, Saint.
Liao-tnng. See Manchuria.
Libel (Lat. libeUuSf a little book), a malicious pub-
lication by writing, printing, picture, effigy, sign, or
otherwise than by mere speech, which exposes anv
living person, or the memory of any person deceasea,
to hatred, contempt, ridicule, or obloquy, or which
causes or tends to cause any person to be ashamed or
avoided, or which has a tenclency to injure any per-
son, corporation, or association of persons, in his, ner,
or its business or occupation. The use of the wonl
libel, as relating to defamatory WTitings, seems to have
originated early in the sixteenth century. Such a
writing then became known as a libellus famosuSf i. e.,
a scurrilous or defamatory pamphlet. Since the ear-
liest ages every civilized community has provided for
the protection of the citizen from defamation of char-
acter, and practically the same theories of redress and
penalties as exist to-dajr were held under the very
ancient laws. The Mosaic law provided penalties for
the offence (Ex., xxiii), and under the laws of Solon it
was punished by a severe fine. A libel may be either
a civil injury or a criminal offence. The theory upon
which it IS made the subject of criminal law is that it is
calculated to cause a breach of the public peace.
Libel differs essentially from slander, in that it may be
the subject of both criminal and civil litigation,
whereas slander is not a criminal offence.
Many statements may be actionable per se when
^Tittcn or printed, and published, which would not be
actionable if merely spoken, without claiming and
proving special damage. Thus, unwritten words im-
puting immoral conduct are not actionable per 96
unless the misconduct imputed amounts to a cnminal
offence, for which the person slandered may be in-
dicted. If the published matter holds a person up to
public scorn, contempt, and ridicule, it is libellous
per se. Libel per se embraces all cases which would be
actionable if made orally, and also embraces all other
cases where the additional gravity imparted to Uie
charge bv the publication can fairly be supposed to
make it damaging. The nature of the charge must be
such that the court can legally presume that the plain-
tiff has been degraded in the estimation of his acquain-
tances or of the public, or has suffered some loss, either
to his property, character, or business, or in nis do-
mestic or social relations, in consequence of the publi-
cation of such charges. Ck)mpensation for mentuU
suffering caused bv the libel may be included in the
damages recovered. In cases of libels upon the dead,
although no private injury in the ordinary sense re-
sults to anyon^, they are properly the subject of crim-
inal prosecution, as being likely to cause a breach of
the peace, on accoimt of the resentment of the surviv-
ing relatives.
In criminal prosecution in Great Britain, and in
many jurisdictions in America, for many years the
lury have been made judges of both the Law and the
fact (Fox's Criminal Libel Act, 32 George III, c. 60).
In such cases it is still the duty of the presiding rfidg/i
to inform and instruct the jury as to the law of evi-
dence, and to decide all questions arising in that re-
gard.
The law of libel is not limited to injuries done^ to
personal reputation, but also includes the protection
of the reputation of property; and this form of libel is
common ly called slander of tit le. Slander of title wbs
actionable at common law upon proof of special dam-
age. A claim of title made in good faith, however*
UBELLATIOI
211
UBELLATIOI
and ufion probable cause cannot be considered as
furnishing ^xpunds for a cause of action, but the prin-
ciple sustaining this form of actionable libel is well-
established. A corporation can maintain an action
for libel per «e.when the libel necessarily and directly
occasions pecuniary injury. A distinction between
criticism and defamation is, that criticism deals only
¥rith such things as invite public attention or call for
public comment, and does not follow a man into his
private life, or pry into his domestic concerns. It
never attacks the mdividual, but only his work. A
criticism of a public man, consisting of imputations
upon his motives, which arise fairly and legitimately
out of his conduct, is generally regarded as justifiable.
Publication. — To constitute a lilxjl there must be a
publication, as well as a writing. While a defamatory
writing is not libel if it remains with the writer unde-
liverea, yet if it goes t^^ other hands, even inadvert-
ently, there has been a publication. The writing
must go into the hands of persons who by a knowledge
of the language or of reading are able to becc<me ac-
quainted with its content,*!. In relation to criminal
libel, it has been adjudged that, even if the defama-
tory conununication has been seen by no one but the
person to whom it is addressed, a case has been made
out, as in such an event it is likely to cause a breach of
the public peace. [Barrow v. Lewellen, Hobart's (K.
B.) Reports, 62 a (152); Lyle v. Clason, 1 Caimes
(N. Y.), 581 J
Malice. — n is an essential ineredient in both \\\ye\
and slander that the defamation oe malicious. A dis-
tinction is made between malice in fact and malice in
law. Jn a le^al sense, any act done wilfully to the
preju^ce and injur>' of another, which is unlawful, is,
as against that person, malicious. The falsity of the
charge establishes a presumption of malice. It is not
necessary to render an act m law malicious that the
party be actuated by a feeling of liatred or ill-will
toward the individual, but if m pursuing a design,
even if actuated by a general good purpose, he wil-
fully inflicts a wrong on others which is not warranted
by law, such act is malicious.
Privileged Communications. — A communication
made to a person entitled to, or interested in, the com-
munication, by one who is also interested in or en-
titled to make it, or who stood in such a relation to the
former as to afford a reasonable ground for supposing
his motive innocent, is presumecl not to be malicious,
and is called a privile|2:ed communication. To sup-
port the claim of privilege there must be something
more than a social or moral duty, for. no matter how
praiseworthy the motive may be, unless the circum-
stances are such, in the opinion of the court, as to
come within the above definition, privilege cannot be
successfully pleaded. Two elements must exist: not
only must the occasion create the privilege, but the
occasion must be made use of bona fide and without
malice. Reports of proceedings in legislative assem-
blies and in judicial tribunals (where the published
matter is pertinent to any cause of which the court has
jurisdiction) are absolutely privileged.
Justification. — The truth of a charge is always a
justification and a complete answer to a civil proceed-
ing for libel. In criminal proceedings it is the general
rule that it must be sho\vn in addition that the publi-
cation was for the public benefit and for justifiable
ends. This has been the law in almost all of the
United States for manv years, and in Great Britain
since 1843 (6 and 7 Victoria, c. 96). Formerly in
criminal cases the truth of the charges constituting the
alleged libel was no defence, the rulf* lioing embodied
in tne maxim, "The greater the truth the greater the
libel". There was sulvitantial reason for this theory,
as it was deemed that a truthful dofamatorv stati»-
ment was more apt to cause a breach of the public
peace than one that was untrue. It is a well-estal>-
[ished and universal fact that courts will never assume
that there has been wrongdoing, and the burden in
both civil and criminal litigation is upon the person
making the charge to sustain it. Moreover, if the de-
famatory matter consists of charges involving moral
turpitude, and subject to crimimd prosecution, the
re<iuirpments as to the proof of the truth of the same
arc substantially as strict as if the person claiming to
have been defamed was on trial for the alleged of-
fences.
A striking and interesting illustration of the applica-
tion of this rule is to be found in the record of the case
of the Queen against Newman, the defendant being
Dr. (afterwards Cardinal ) Newman. This was a pro-
ceeding for criminal libel instituted by Giovanm G.
Achilli, who had formerly been a priest of the Cathohc
Church, but had been disciplined and suspended by
the ecclesiastical authorities. The complainant, prior
to the publication, had been delivering public ad-
dresses, attacking the Church and it^ institutions, and
giving a wrong impression as to the circumstances con-
nected with his suspension. Dr. Newman published
a statement setting forth the facts in relation to the
complainant's suspension, and making specific charges
of a number of instances of sexual immorality, in one
case a young girl of alx)ut fifteen years being involved.
The acts charged took place on the Continent of Eu-
rope, and the persons who could have supported the
statement by their testimonjr were beyond the juris-
diction of the English court in which the proceeding
was conducted. Dr. Newman was, therefore, unable
to prove the truth of the twenty-one charges made,
except the one in relation to the proceedings con-
ducted by the Church, and which was supported by
documentary evidence. He had pleaded the truth of
the alleged libel under the statuto of Victoria. The
court found him guilty and he was fined one hundred
pounds.
It may be generally stated that any circumstances
that would appeal to a reasonable person as being mit-
igating mav l)e introduced in evidence in either crim-
inal or civil litigation under a plea of mitigation, even
including a belief in the truth of the matter, or an at-
tempt subsequently to repair the alleged wrong by a
retraction or apoloj^y.
MuNROE, Engltsk Dictionary of Hi^orical Principles (Oxford,
19(Xi); Qoou&Y, Wrongs and their Remedies,!: Tor/a (Chica^,
1S88); New York Penal Code; Blaekstonc'a Commentartea;
^' EN DELL, Starkie on Slander and Libel (West Brookfield, Mas-
sachusetts, 1852).
EuGEXE A. Philbin.
Libellatici, Libelli. — The lihelli were certificates
issued to Christians of the third century. They were
of two kinds: (1) certificates of conformity, to attest
that the holders had conformed to the rehgious tests
require<l by the edict of Decius; (2) certificates of
indulgence, in which the confessors or mart.\Ts inter-
ceded for the lapsi (i. e. those who had apastatized).
The opprobrious term libetlatid is applied only to
holders of the former kind. The edict of Decius
(Dec., 240, or Jan. ,250), coming as it did after a com-
paratively long period of peace, frightened many
Christians into submission. But the methods and
extent of submission were of several kinds: the lapsi
might he: (a) apostates, who had entirely abandoned
their religion, or (b) sacrificati, thurifiooiti, who had
taken part in the pagan rites, or (c) libellaticij who
had secure<l certificates (libelli) of conformity from
the proper civil authorities. Three such libelli are
extant, all of them of Eg\'ptian origin ("OxjThyn-
chus Papyri", IV, 658; Gebhardt. "Acta Martyrum
Selecta"). Therein the petitioner declares that he
was ever conr^tant in sacrificing to the gods, and has
actually performed the test of conforrnity. in attesta-
tion of wnich he l>egs the pagan commissioners to sign
this certificate. However, it seems that the declara-
tion w«as sometimes accepted for the deed, or the deed
itself performed by proxy; and no doubt the docu-
XJBEKALISM
212
UBERALUM
ment might be bought from amenable commiBeioiiers
without any declaration of paganism.
It was in connexion with the reconciliation of these
libeUatici as well as other lapsi that the libeUi pads,
or letters of indulgence, were- introduced. The lapH
were in the habit of seeking the intercession of the
confessors, who were suffering for the Faith; and the
latter would address to the bishop libeUi pacts peti-
tioning for the reconciliation of the apostates. The
libeili were, however, more than mere reconmienda-
tions to mercy; the confessors were understood to be
petitioning that their own merits should be applied
to the excommunicated, and procure them a remission
of the temporal punishment due to their defection.
And this indulgence was not simply a remission of the
canonical penance; it was believed that it availed
before Goa and remitted the temporal punishment
that would otherwise be required after death (Cyprian,
"De Lapsis", ad fin.), luis custom does not seem
to have been established in Rome, but it was partic-
ularly prevalent in Carthage, and was not unknown
in Egypt and Asia Minor. Even in the time of Ter-
tullian, the lapsi of Carthage were in the habit of thus
appealing to the intercession of the confessors ("Ad
Mart.", i; "De Pudicitia", xxii). In the letters that
Saint Cyprian wrote from his place of exile he has
freauent occasion to complain of the abuse of the
libeUi. There was a party of laxists who ignored the
necessity of the bishop's sanction, and their leader
actually promulgated a general indulgence to all the
lapsi (Cyprian, "Epp.", xxxiv, 2.3). The confessors
themselves seem to have lacked discretion in the
petitions they presented. Cyprian's letter to them
(ep. xv), couched though it is in the tenderest of
terms, begs them to be more judicious, to avoid vague
petitions, such as " Let him and his people be received
mto communion ", and not to lend tneir services to the
schemes of the seditious or the avarice of traffickers.
The bishop's own method of treating the petitions for
indulgence varied according to circumstances. Ep.
xviii contains instructions that the lapsi who held
such letters should be reconciled in ease of sickness.
Subsequently, however, owing no doubt to the above-
mentioned abuses and the need for wider methods,
the libdli were not given any special mention in the
general conditions of reconciliation (African Councils,
I, 38).
See the Letters of St. Cyprian, e. g. in P. L., IV and V; and
notably his treatise De iMpsis; Vita S. Cypriani per Pontium
diaconum ejus acripta; Eusebius, Hist, eccl., IV, xfii; Beniion,
Cyprian (I/ondon, 1897): Allaro, Histoire des Persecutions, II
(2nd ed., Paris, 1896), \'iii.
James Bridge.
Liberalism, a free way of thinking and acting in
private and public life. I. — Definition. — The word
liberal is derived from the Latin liber, free, and up
to the end of the eighteenth century signified only
" worthy of a free man ", so that people spoke of " lib-
eral arts ", " liberal occupations ". Later the term was
applied also to those qualities of intellect and of char-
acter, which were considered an ornament becoming
those who occupied a higher social position on ac-
count of their wealth and education. Thus liberal
got the meaning of intellectually independent, broad-
minded, magnanimous, frank, open, and genial.
Again Liberalism may also mean a political system
or tendency opposed to centralization and absolutism.
In this sense Liberalism is not at variance with the
spirit and teaching of the Catholic Church. Since
the end of the eighteenth centur>% however, the word
has been applied more and more to certain tendencies
in the intellectual, religious, political, and economical
life, which implied a partial or total emancipation of
man from the supernatural, moral, and Divine order.
Usually, the principles of 1789, tliat is of the French
Revolution, are considered as the Magna Chartji of
this new form of IJI)eralism The most fundamental
Srinciple asserts an absolute and unrestrained free-
om of thought^ religion, conscience, creed, speech,
press, and politics. The necessaxy conseauences of
this are, on the one hand, the abolition of uie Divine
right and of every^ kind of authority derived from God;
the relegation of religion from the public life into the
private domain of one's individual conscience; the abso^
lute ignoring of Christianity and the Church as public,
legal, and social institutions; on the other hand, the
putting into practice of the absolute autonomy of
every man and citizen, along all lines of human activ-
ity, and the concentration of all public authority in
one ''sovereignty of the people'*. This soverei^ty
of the people in all brancnes of public life as l^isla-
tion, aaministration, and jurisdiction, is to be exer-
cised in the name and by order of all the citlsens, in
such a wa^', that all shottld have share in and a con-
trol over it. A fundamental principle of Liberalism
is the proposition: '.'It is contrarv to the natural,
innate, and inalienable right and liberty and dignity
of man, to subject himseS to an authority, the root,
rule, measure, and sanction of which is not in himself *\
This principle implies the denial of all true authority;
for authority necessarily presupposes a power outside
and above man to bind him morally.
These tendencies, however, were more or less active
long before 1789; indeed, they are coeval with the
human race. Modem Liberalism adopts and propa-
gates them under the deceiving mask of Liberalism
in the true sense. As a direct offspring of Humanism
and the Reformation in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, modern Liberalism was further developed
by the philosophers and liierati of England especiiuly
Locke and Hume, by Rousseau and the Encyclope-
dists in France, and by Lessing and Kant in Germany.
Its real cradle, however, was the drawing-rooms of
the moderately free-thinking French nobiOty (173(>-
1789), especially those of Mme Necker and her
daughter, Mme de StaSl. The latter was more thaya
anybody else the connecting link between the free-
thinking elements before and after the Revolution
and the centre of the modern Liberal movement
both in France and Switzerland. In her politico-
religious views she is intimately connected with Mira-
beau and the Constitutional party of the Revolution.
These views find their clearest exposition in her woric
''Considerations sur les princlpaux ^v^nements de la
Revolution frangaise*'. She pleads for the greatest
possible individual hberty, and denounces as absurd
the derivation of human authority from God. The
legal position of the Church, according to her, both
as a public institution and as a property-owner is a
national arrangement and therefore entirely subject
to the will of the nation; ecclesiastical property be-
longs not to the church but to the nation; the abolition
of ecclesiastical privileges is entirely justified, since
the clerg>' is the natural enemy of the principles of
Revolution. The ideal form of government is in
smaller states the republic, in larger ones the consti-
tutional monarchy after the model of England. The
entire art of government in modem times, consists,
according to Mme de Sta^l, in the art of directing
public opinion and of yielding to it at the right
moment.
II. — Development and Principal Types op Mod-
ern LiBERAUSM IN NON-EnOLISH-SPEAKING COUN-
TRIES.— Since the so-called Liberal principles of 1789
are based upon a wrong notion of human liberty, and
are and must forever be contradictory and indefinite
in themselves, it is an impossibility in practical life
to carry them into effect with much consistency.
Conseciuentlv the most varying kinds and shades of
LilK^ralism fcave l>cen developed, all of which re-
mained in fact more conservative than a logical appli-
cation of Lil>eral principles would warrant. Liber-
alism was first formulated by the Protestant Genevese
TRousseau, Necker, Mme de Sta^l, Constant, Guisot);
LZBIRALI8M
213
XJBSRALISM
neverthelesB it was from France, that it spread over
the rest of the world, as did its different representa-
tive types. These developed in closest connexion
with the different Revolutions in Europe since 1789.
The principal types are: —
(A) — AnHrecdesiaatical Liberalism. — (1) The old
Liberalism, first advocated by Mme de Sta^l and Con-
stant. It may be described as the drawing-room
Liberalism of the free-thinking educated classes, who,
however, did not condescend to become practical
politicians or statesmen; they were superior ooservers,
infallible critics, standing above all parties. In later
days some few of these old Liberals, animated by a
truly liberal chivalry, stood up for the rights of sup-
pressed minorities against Jacobin majorities, for
instance, Littr^ and Laboulaye in France (1879-
1880). (2) Closely connected with this old Lil)eral-
ism of Mme de Sta^l is doctrinaire Liberalism which
originated in the lecture -hall of Rover -Collard
and in the salon of the Due de Broglie (1814-1830).
It was the Liberalism of the practical politicians and
statesmen, who intended to re-est^iblish, maintain,
and develop, in the different states, the constitutional
form of government based upon the principles of 1789.
The most prominent representatives of this bo<ly were,
besides de Broglie, Royer-Collard, Guizot in Fnince,
Gavour in Italy, von Kotteck and his partisans in
Germany.
(3) BDurseois Liberalism, was the natural out-
growth of doctrinaire Liberalism. It adapted itself
more to the interests of the propertied ana moneyed
classes; for the cleigy and nobility having been dis-
possessed of their political power, these were the only
classes which could make use of the new institutions,
the people not being sufficiently instructed and organ-
iiea to do so. The rich industrial classes, therefore,
were from the very beginning and in all countries the
mainstay of Liberalism, and Liberalism for its part
was forced to further their interests. This kind of
bourgeois Liberalism enjoyed its highest favour in
France during the time of the citizen-king, Jjouis-
Philippe (1830-40), who openly avowed his dei)end-
enoe upon it. It flourisned in Germany, as '^na-
tHmal Liberalism", in Austria, as ''political Libor-
alism in generar', in France, as the Liberalism of
Gambettas Opportunist party. Its characteristic
traits are materialistic, sordid ideals, which care only
for unrestrained enjoyment of life, egoism in ex-
{doiting the economically weak by means of tariffs
which are for the interests of the classes, a systematic
persecution of Christianity and especially of the
Catholic Church and her institutions, a frivolous dis-
regpard and even a mocking contempt of the Divine
moral order, a cynical indifference in the choice and
use of means — slander, corruption, fraud, ete. — in
fighting one's opponents and in acquiring an absolute
mastery and control of everything.
(4) The Liberal "parties of progress" are in oppo-
sition to the Conservatives and the Liberals of the
bourgeois classes, in so far as these, when once in
power, usually care little or nothing for further im-
provements according to their liiberal principles,
whereas the former lay more stress on the fundamental
tenets of Liberalism themselves and fight against a
<nniical one-sided policy of self-interest; for this reason
Ukey appear to an outsider more fair-minded. (5)
Lil>cral Radicals are atUierents of progressive modem
ideas, which they try to realize without consideration
for tne existing order or for other people's rights,
ideas, and feelings. Such was the first Liberal polit-
ical party, the Spanish Jacobinos in 1810. This is the
Radicalism, which imder the mask of liberty is now
annihilating the rights of Catholics in France. (6)
Tlie Liberal Democrats want to make the masses of
the common people the deciding factor in public af-
fairs. Tliey rely especially on the middle classes,
^ibose interests they pretend to have at heart. (7)
Socialism is th^ Liberalism of self-interest nurtured by
all classes of Liberals described above, and espoused
by the members of the fourth estate and the proleta-
riat. It is at the same time nothing but the natural
reaction against a one-sided policy of self-interest.
It^ main branches are: (a) Communism, which tries to
reorganize the social conditions by alx)lishing all
i/rivate ownership; (b) Radical Social Democracy of
Marx (founded 1848), common in Germany and Aus-
tria; (c) Moderate Socialism (Democratic Socialistic
Federation in England, Possibilists in France, etc.);
(d) Anarchist parties foimded by Bakunin, Most, and
Krapotkin, after 1868, for some periods allied to So-
cial Democracy. Anarchism as a system is relatively
the most logical and radical development of the Lil>-
eral principles.
(B) — Ecclesiastical Liberalism (Liberal Catholicism),
— (1) The prevailing political form of modem Liberal
Catholicism, is that which would regulate the relations
of the Church to the State and modem society in ac-
cordance with the Liberal principles as expounded by
Benjamin Constant. It had its predecessors and pat-
terns in Gallicanism, Febronianism, and Josephinism.
Founded 1828 by Lamennais, the system was later de-
fended in some respects by Lacordaire, Montalembert,
Parisis, Dupanloup, and Falloux. (2) The more theo-
logical and religious form of Liberal Cathohcism had
its predecessors in Jansenism and Josephinism; it aims
at certain reforms in ecclesiastical doctrine and disci-
pline in accordance with the anti-ecclesiastical hberal
Protestant theory and atheistical "science and en-
lightehment " prevailing at the time. The newest
phases of this Liberalism were condemned by Pius
A as Modernism. In general it advocates latitude
in interpreting dogma, oversight or disregard of the
disciplinary and doctrinal decrees of the Roman Con-
gregations, sympathy with the State even in its enact-
ments against the liberty of the Church, in the action
of her bishojw, clcrjpr, religioas orders and congrega-
tions, and a disposition to regard as clericalism the ef-
forts of the Church to protect the rights of the family
and of individuals to the free exercise of religion.
III. Condemn ATioN of Liberalism by the
Church. — By proclaiming man's absolute autonomy
in the intellectual, moral and social order, Liberalism
denies, at least practically, God and supematural re-
ligion. If carried out k>gically, it leads even to a theo-
retical denial of (iwl, by putting deified mankind in
place of God. It has been censured in the condemna-
tions of Rationalism and Naturalism. The most sol-
emn condemnation of Naturalism and Rationalism
was contained in the Constitution "De Fide'* of the
Vatican Council (1870) ; the most explicit and detailed
condemnation, however, was administered to modem
Liberalism by Pius IX in the Encyclical "Quanta
cura" of 8 December, 1864 and the attached Syllabus.
Pius X condemned it again in his allocution of 17
April, 1907, and in the Decree of the Congregation of
the Inquisition of 3 July, 1907, in which the principal
errors of Modernism were rejected and censured in
sixty-five propositions. The older and principally po-
litical form of false Liberal Catholicism had been con-
demned by the Encyclical of Gregory XVI, "Mirari
Vos", of 15 August, 18:^2 and by many briefs of Pius
IX (see S^gur, '* nommagc aux Catholiques Lib^raux ",
Paris, 1875). The definition of the papal infallibility
by the Vatican council was virtually a condemnation
of Liberalism. Besides this many recent decisions
concern the principal errors of Liberalism. Of great
importance in this respect are the allocutions and en-
cvclicals of Pius IX, Leo XIII, and Pius X. (Cf.,
Recueil des allocutions consistorales encycliques . . .
cit^ dans le Svllabus", Paris, 1865) and* the encycli-
cals of I.eo XIII of 20 Januar\', 1888, **0n Human
Liberty"; of 21 April, 1878, **0n the Evils of Modem
Society*'; of 28 December, 1878. '*0n the Sects of the
Socialists, Commimists, and Ninilists"; of 4 August,
UBERA
214
LXBERA
1879, "On Christian Philosophy"; of 10 February,
1880, "On Matrimony"; of 29 July, 1881, "On the
Origin of Ci\'il Power"; of 20 April, 1884, "On Free-
masonry"; of 1 November, 1885, "On the Christian
State"; of 25 December, 1888, "On the Christian
Life"; of 10 January, 1890, "On the Chief Duties of a
Christian Citizen"; of 15 May, 1891, "On the Social
Question"; of 20 January, 1894, "On the Importance
of Unity in Faith and Union with the Church for the
Preservation of the Moral Foundations of the State";
of 19 March, 1902, " On the Persecution of the Church
all over the World". Full information about the re-
lation of the Church towards Liberalism in the differ-
ent countries may be gathered from the transactions
and decisions of the various provincial councils.
These can be found in the "Collectio Lacensis" under
the headings of the index: Fides, Ecclesia, Educatio,
Francomuratores.
Frbraje, Spiritualiame el libSraliame (Paris. 1887); Idsm,
TradUionaliame ei uUramontaniame ^Paris, 1880); d'Haussom-
viLXJB, Le aalon de Mme Necker (Pans. 1882) ; Ladt Bleni<7er-
BASSET, Frau wn Stail (1887-^); Laboulaye, Le iparti
liberal (Paris, 1864); Idem in the Introduction to his edition
of Coura de politique conetittUionelle de Bcnj. Constant (Paris,
1872); Constant, DetorcZiiTum (Paris, 1824-31); Bluntschu,
AllgemeineStaatslehre(St\ittKa.Tt,lS7o),472; Samuel. Liberal-
\9m (1902); Dbvas, Political Economy (London, 1901), 122,
531, 650 seq.j Viluers, Opportunity of Liberaliam (1904);
Rudel, Oeschtchte dea Liberatiamua und der deut«chen Reichaver'
faaaung (1891); Debidottr, Hvftoire dea rappoHa de VSgliae et de
Vitat 1789-1905 (Paris, 1898-1906); BrOck. Die Gehnmen
Oeaellachaftcn in Spanien (1881); Handicorlerbuch der Stoat a-
tpiasenachaften^ I, 296-327, s. v. Anarchismua ; Ferrer im
Lichte der Wahrheit in Oermania (Berlin, 1909); Meffert,
Die Ferrer- Bewegung ala Selbatentlarvung dea Freidenkertuma
(1909).
Works concerning ecclesiastical Liberalism: — (A) Protes-
tant Churches: — Gotau, L'AUemagne religieuse, le proteatan-
tiame (Paris, 1898); Sabatxbe, Religiona of Authority and the
Religion of the Spirit; Pollock, Religioua Equality (London,
1890); Re\ille, Liberal Chriaiianity (London. 1903); Idem,
Anglican Liberaliam (London, 1908). (B) Concerning Catho-
lic Liberalism: — Weill, Hiaioire du Catholiciame Itb&ral en
France, 1828-1908 (Paris, 1909). (C) Concerning Modern-
ism: Schell, Katholuiamua ala Primip des Forlnchritta (1897);
Idem, Dieneue Zeit und der neue Glaube (1898); MOuler,
Reformkatholiziamua (these three works are on the Index);
Stufler, Die Heiligkeit Gotlea in Zeit. fur kath. Theol. (Inns-
bruck. 1908), 100-114; 364-368.
Critique and condemnation of Liberalism: — Faoubt, Le
Liberaltame (Paris, 1906): Frantz, Die Religion dea Xntional-
libcnUiamua (1872). From the Catholic 8tandpK>int : —
Don at. Die Freiheit der Wiaaenachaft (1910); Von Ket-
TBLER, Freiheit, Autoritit und Kirche (Mainz. 1862); Idem,
Die Arbeiterfrage und daa Chriatenihum (Mains, 1864); De-
champs, Le liUraliame (1878); Donoso Cortks, Catholicism,
Liberaliam and Socialism (tr. Philadelphia, 1862); H. Pksch,
L^eraliamus, Sozialiamua und chriatliche Geaellschaftsordnung
(Fseiburg, 1893-90); Cathrein, Der Sozialiamua (Froiburg.
1906); Fallen. What f<» Liberalism f (St. Louis. 1889); Mort.l,
Somme centre le catholicisme liberal (Paris, 1876): Die Encyk-
lika Piua IX. vom 8 Dez. tSOA in Slimmen aua Maria-Laach;
Chr. Pesch, Theologische Zeiifragen, IV (1908); Heiner. Der
Syllabus (Pius IX.) (1905) ; Der Syllabus Pius X. und das Dek-
ret des hi. Ofhziums *' Lamentabili" vom 3 Juli, 1907 (1908);
Brown80N, Conversations on Liberalism and the Church (Now
York. 1869), reprinted in his Works, VII (Detroit 1883-87 ^
305; Ming, Data of Modem Ethics Examined (New York, 1897),
X, xi; M\Nv»NO, Lif>frty of the Press in Essays, third scries
(London, 1892); T^\lJMI:B, European Civilization (London, 1855),
xxxiv. XXXV, Ixvii; Idem, Letters to a Sceptic (tr. Dublin, 1875),
letter 7; Gibbons, Faith of Our Fathers (Baltimore. 1871). xvii,
Xvm\ The Church and Liberal Catholicism, pastoral letter of the
English bishops, reprinted in Messenger of the Sacred Heart
XXXVI (New York, 1901), 180-93; cf. also Dublin Review,nGW
series, XV HI, 1.285; XXV, 202; XXVh 204, 487; third series
X^y* 58. IIerm. Gruber.
Libera Me (Domine, de morte aetema, et<;.), the
responsonr sung at funerals. It is a responsory of re-
dundant form, having two versicles (''Tremens factus
sum" and *'Dieii ilia"). As in all the Office for the
Dead, the verse *' Requiem ffitemam" takes the place
of "Gloria Patri"; then all the first part, down to the
first versicle, is repeated. Its form therefore is ex-
ceptional, considerably longer than the normal re-
sponsory. It is a prayer in the first person singular for
mercy at the Last Day. This should no doubt he
understood as a dramatic substitution ; the choir speaks
for the dead person . A great part of our Office for the
Dead is made up of such prayers about the Last Day,
the meaning of which appears to refer rather to the
people who say them than to the dead (the sequence
''Dies irse", most of the Vespers, Matins, and I^uds).
Another dramatic substitution is involved in the
prayers of this responsory (and throughout the Office
for the Dead) that the person for whom we pray may
be saved from hell. That question was settled ir-
revocably as soon as he died. This is one instance of
the dramatic displacement or rearrangement of the
objective order of things that occurs continual];^^ in all
rites (compare for instance in the baptism service the
white robe and shining light given after the essential
form, in the ordination of priests the power to forgive
sins given after the man has been ordained and nas
concelebrated, the Epiclesis in Eastern liturgies, etc.).
The explanation of all these cases is the same. Since
we cannot express ever^'thin^ at one instant, we are
forced to act and speak as if things really simulta-
neous followed each other in order. And in the eter*
nity of God all things (including our consecutive
prayers) are present at once — nunc starts ceterniUu.
The responsory " Libera me" is begun by a cantor and
continued by the choir in the usual way (the cantor
alone sinking the versicles) at the begmning of the
** Absolution", that is the service of prayers for the
dead person said and sung by the bier mimediately
after the Mass for the Dead. As soon as Mass is over
the celebrant exchanges his chasuble for a (black)
cope (all the sacred ministers of course take off their
maniples) and cliant^ the prayer "Non intres in judi-
cium". Then "Libera me" is sung. MeanwhUe the
cetcbrant puts incense into the thurible, assisted by
the deacon. During the whole Absolution the sub-
deacon stands at the head of the bier, facing the altar,
with the processional cross.
The ninth responsory of Matins for the Dead also
begins with "Liljera me", but continues a different
text (Domine, de viis inferni, etc.). This is built up
according to the usual arran^ment (with "Requiem
seternam" instead of "Gloria Patri"). But on All
Souls' Day (2 November), and whenever the whole
Office of nine lessons is said, the "Libera mo" of the
Absolution is 8ubstitute<l for it. The Vatican Grad-
ual gives the new chant for the "Libera me" after the
Mass for the Dead.
Adrian Fortescub.
Libera Nos, the first words of the Embolism of the
Lord's Prayer in the Roman Rite. Most litui^ee
contain a prayer developing the idea of the last clause
of the Our Father (But deliver us from evil), and spec-
ifying various evils from which we pray to be deliv-
ered. This prayer, which always follows the Our
Father immediately, is called its Embolism {4fifio\ifffiAs,
insertion). In many rites (Antiochene, Alexandrine,
Nestorian) it is rather of the nature of an insertion
into the Our Father, repeating ap;ain and enlarging
on its last clauses (e. g. the Antiochene Embohsm:
"And lead us not into temptation, O Lord, Lord of
Hosts Who knowest our weakness, but deliver us from
the evil one, and from his works and all his might and
art, for the sake of Thy Holv Name invoked upon our
lowliness"). The Roman fenibolism is said secretly
by the celebrant as soon as he has added Amen to the
last clause of the "Pat<jr noster" sung by the choir
(or said by the server). In the middle (aft<?r omnxhtta
sajiclis) he makes th(» sign of the cross with the paten
and kisses it. During the last clause (Per eundem
Dominvm nostrum . . .) ho puts the paten under the
Host, he fat high Mass the deacon) uncovers the chal-
ice, genuflects, breaks the Host over the chalice, puts
a small fraction into the chalice and the rest on the
paten. This rite is the Fraction common to all litur-
gies. The last, words {Per omnia 8<FCtda scccularum)
are sung (or said) aloud, forming the Ecphonesis be-
fore the Pax). Only on Good Friday does he sing it
aloud, to the tone of a ferial Collect, and the choir
UBUULTORE 215 UBSE
answers Amen. In this case the Fraction does not garded b^ many as the greatest philosopher of his day.
take place till the Embolism is finished. In the Mi- It is a tnbute to his holiness of life ana deep religious
lanese and Mozarabic Rites he sings it, and the choir spirit that his brethren of the Society of Jesus were
answers Amen. For the Galilean Embolism (of Ger- less impressed by his varied talents and immense
mamis of Paris, d. 576) see Duchesne, ''Origines du learning than by the many virtues displayed during
Culte Chretien" (Paris, 1898), 211. The present Mi- his long and fruitful life as scholar, professor, writer,
lanese form is veiy similar to that of Rome. It will be academician, director of souls, and rector. His name
found with its chant in any edition of the Ambrosian will long be in blessed memory amone all those who
MieBal. Tlie Mozarabic Embolism with its chant is love the Church. The following are the best known,
in liie *'Missale Mistmn" (P. L., LXXXV, 659-60^. perhaps, of his works: " Institutiones Philosophic®":
In both rites the Fraction has preceded the Lords ^'Instructiones Ethical"; various compendiums of
Prayer. The Embolisms of the Eastern rites are logic, metaphysics, ethics, and natural law; "Delia
given in Brightman, ''Eastern Liturgies" (Oxford, Ck)noscenza intellettuale " ; *'Del Composto umano";
1896), namely: Antiochene, 60, 100; Alexandrian, 136, "Deir Anima umana "; "Dcgli Universali "; "Chiesa
182; Nestorian, 296; Armenian, 446. In all these the e Stato"; "Dialoghi filosofici"; "II Matrimonio";
Embolism is said secretly, with the last words aloud "Roma e il mondo " ; " II Matrimonio e lo Stato "; " Le
(£!cphonesis) ; thepeople answer Amen. The Byzan- Commedie filosofiche ": and * * Spicilegio ' '.
tine Rite has no Embolism of the Lord's Prayer, but Cxv^^^ Cattoli^, series XV. t. iv .152-36(5; Amerkan EccUn.
only the final clause: "For Thine is the kingdom and ^^t{\^ (December. 1892); boMMERvoGEL. BM. de la C.
the power and the glory, of the Father and the Son J. H. Fisher.
and the Holy Ghost, now and for ever and for ages of , ju^.4.^^ xt,^^ " .., a ^ a , J^.^r^ xt,^«^x'a
ages. R. Ahien" (ibid., 392 and 410). Tliat it once Lib^atore, Niccolo di. See Alunno, Niccolo.
had this prayer, like the parent Rite of Antioch, seems Liberatus of Oarthage (sixth century) , archdeacon.
certain from the fact that there is an Embolism in the author of an important history of the Nestorian and
Nestorian and Armenian Liturgies, both derived at an Monophysite troubles. In 535 he was sent to Rome,
eariy date from Constantinople. as legate of a great African national synod of two
Adrian Fortebcxjb. hundred and seventeen bishops, to consult Pope
Agapetus I (535-6) about a number of questions
the Jesuits at Naples m 1825, and a year later applied frequently employed by the African bishops as their
for admission into the Society of Jesus. His remark- ambassador in the disputes that arose from that ques-
able innocence, bnUiant talents, and strength of char- ^j^n. "Tired with the fatigue of traveling, and rest-
acter made him a most acceptable candidate, and he j^g t^e mind a little from temporal cares '^(introduc-
entered the novitiate on 9 October, 1826. The lone ^^^^ ^ his book), he used his leisure to compose a
course of studies was completed by him with unusual summary histor\' of the two great heresies of thejpre-
success, and resulted m his teaching philosophy for the ceding centurv.*^ His object in writing it was avow-
space of eleven years, from 1837 until the Revolution ^^ly to show how misjudged the emperor's condemna-
of 1848 drove him to Malta. On returning to Italy he ^ion of the Three Chapters was. The work is called
was appointed to teach theology, but gave up his pro- « ^ Short Account of the Affair of the Nestorians and
:^^?rl*R *° ^S" „ *"° assume charge in 1850 of the Rutychians" (Breviarium causse Nestorianorum et
"Civilt^Cattohca",apenodical founded by the Jesuits Eutychianorum). It begins with the ordination of
to defend the cause of the Church and the papacy, and Nestorius (428) and ends with the Fifth General Council
to 8i>read the knowledge of the doctrine of bt. Thomas (Constantinople II, 553). From the fact that the
Aquums. Indeed it is Libera tore s chief ^lory to have author mentions Thcodosius of Alexandria as being
brought about the revival of the Scholastic philosophy g^ju jjive (xx), it is evident that it was written before
of St. Thomas. This movement he inaugurated by 557 jq ^hich year Theodosius died. On the other
pubhshing his course of philosophy m 1840, at a time ij^nd, Liberatus records the death of Pope Vigilius
when the prevailmg methods of teaching that science, (jy^e, 555). His authorities are the "ITistoria tri-
cven among certain Cathohcs^ were, to say the least, partita" of Cassiodorus, acts of synods, and letters of
htUe calculated to provide solid foundation for Catho- contemporary Fathers. In spite of Liberatus's con-
?fL Sf!5?^* x7^ "^L-Y^-!°xu ^"PP®'!*^ *? ! ?" troversial purpose and his indignation against Mono-
._ X . . ± „. X X ■ abettors of the condemna-
short history is well and
.-, .,.-,- , , fairly written. It forms an important document for
extensive works, and also by his work as member of ^he history of the two heresies.
the Accademia Romana by appointment of Leo XIII. Libbratub, Bremarium cauaa Nestorianorum et Eutuchiano-
For more than half a century he was the tireless nmi in P. L., LXVIII. 903-1052; also in ^IAN8I, Sacrotwn
Altamninnrtf fnifk infliofiAlHa/if rkViilrko/^nhvonrl fliorki ConcUiorum nova et anipIiMtma coUectto, IX (Florence, 1759),
Cl»mpionottrummtneneldSOtpmiO«)phyandtneol- 659_7oo: FABRiciua-HARLE«, Bibliotheca Oraca, XII (Ham-
Ogy, and of the nghts of the Chureh. His pen was con- burg, 1809), 685-92. a liat of Libcratus's sources; KRfoER,
Stantly at work, analysing the vexed problems of Manophyntische StreUigkeiien {Jena, 1884): FEssLKR-JuNa-
Chnj^n Ufe, both theoretical and practical, marking ^'^^S^^^^.^t^^rS^^rfls^^^'!" ''*'' ""^^
out the relations between Chureh and State, and the Adrian Fortesctjb.
moral and social aspects of life. His watehfulness over
the foundations of the faith is attested by his success- Liber Diumus Romanonim Pontificum, a mis-
ful struggles with Rationalism, Ontelogism, and Ros- cellaneous collection of ecclesiastical formularies used
minianism. His literary activity may be estimated in the papal chancery until the eleventh century. It
from the fact that Sommervogel records more than contains models of the important official documente
forty of his published works, and gives the titles of usually premred by the chancery; particularly of let-
inore than mne hundred of his articles (including re- ters ana official documents in connexion with the
views) which appeared in the **CiviltiL" alone. The death, the election, and the consecration of the pope:
most prominent 'characteristics of his writings are the installation of newly elected bishops, especially or
keenness of judgment, strength of argument, breadth the suburbicarian bishops; also models for the profes-
"lium on areh-
and dispensa-
confirmationof
UBERU
216
UBS&tl.
ftctfl by which the Church acquired property, the es-
tablishment of private cliapels, and m general for all
the many decrees called for oy the extensive papal ad-
ministration. The collection opens with the super-
scriptions and closing formula) used in writing to the
emperor and empress at Constantinople, the Patricius,
the Exarch and the Bishop of Ravenna, a king, a con-
sul; to patriarchs, metropolitans, priests, and other
clerics. The collection is important both for the his-
tory of law and for church history, particularly for the
history of the Roman Church. The formulwies and
modcfs set down are taken from earlier papal docu-
ments, especiallv those of Gelasius I (492-6) and
Greeory I (590-604).
Tnis collection was certainly compiled in the chan-
cery of the Roman Church, but pronably a comparar-
ti vely small numl>er of the formularies contained in the
extant manuscripts were included at first, the re-
mainder being aadt»d from time to time. There is no
systematic arrangement of the formularies in the
manuscripts. In its final form, as seen in the two ex-
isting manuscripts (one codex in the Vatican Ar-
chives, and another, originally from Bobbio, in the
Ambrosian Library at Milan), the LilH?r Diumus dates
back to the eighth century. Concerning the more
exact determination of the date of its compilation,
there is even a still great diversity of opinion. Gamier
gives in his edition the vear 715. Zaccaria, in his
" Disscrtationes" (P. L., CV, 119 sqq.), attributes the
com()iIatiou to the ninth century ; Kozi^re, to whom
we owe the first good edition (see below), decides for
the period 685 to 751 — the former date, because Em-
peror Constantine Pogonatus (d. 685) is mentioned as
dead, and the latter, because in 751 Northern Italy
was conquered by the Lombanls and the Byzantine
administration at Ravenna came to an end (see Intro-
duction, pp. 25 sqq.). Nickel, however, in his "Prole-
gomena and in his researches on the Liber Diumus
(see below), has shown that the work possess^ by no
means a uniform character. He recognizes in it three
divisions, the first of whit^h he a-scribes to the time of
Honorius I (625-38), the second to the end of the
seventh centurv, and the third to the time of Hadrian
I (772-95). Duchesne (Biblioth^que de TEcole des
Chartes, LII, 1801, pp. 7 sqq.) differs from Sickel,
and maintains that the original version of most of the
formularies, and among tliem the most important,
must Imj referrt»d to the years aft«r 682, and that only
the last formularies (nn. lxxx\'i-xcix) were added in
the time of Hadrian I, though some few of these mav
have existed at an earlier dato. Hartmann defends
the views of Sickel (Mitteilungen des Instituts fOr
(jsterrcich. Gesch., XIII, 1892, pp. 239 s<jq.). Fried-
erich (Sitzungsbericht« der Imver. Akademie der
Wiss. zu MQnchen, Phil.-liist. Kl., I, 1890, pp. 58
sqq.) investigated more closely the case of some of the
fonnularies attributed by Sickel to one of the afore-
said periods, and attempted to indicate more nearlv
the occasions and pontificates to which they belonged.
These investigations have established Ijcyond doubt
that the collection had already attained its present
form towards the end of the eighth ccntun', though no
insignificant portion ha<l l)een compiled during the
seventh centur>'. The Lil)er Diurnus was used offi-
cially in the papal cliancer>' until the eleventh century,
after which time, as it no longer corresponded to tfie
needs of papal administration, it gave way to other
collections. Twelfth century canonists, like Ivo of
^'hartres and Gratian, continued to use the Liber
Diumus, i)ut suKMccjuently it censed to be consulted,
and was finally completely forgotten.
Lucas Holstenius (q. v.) was the first who under-
took to edit the Liber Diumus. He had found one
manuscript of it in the monastery of Santa Croce in
Gerusalemme at Rome, and obtained another from
the Jesuit College de Clermont at Paris; but as Hol-
stenius died in the meantime and his notes could not
be found, this edition printed at Rome in 1650 was
withheld from publication, by advice of tho ecclesias-
tical censors, and the copies put away in a room at the
Vatican. The reason for so doing was apparently
formula Izxxi v, which contained the profession of f a^
of the newly elected pope, in which the latter recog-
nized the Sixth General Council and its anathemas
against Pope Honorius for his (alleg^) Monothelism.
The edition of Holstenius was reprinted at Rome in
1658; but was again withdrawn in 1662 by papal
authority, though in 1725 Benedict XIII permitted
the issue of some copies. From the Clermont manu-
script, which has since disappeared, Gamier prepcured
a new edition of the Liber Diumus (Paris, 1680), but
it is very inaccurate, and contains arbitrary altera-
tions of the text. In his *' Museum Italicum" (I, II,
32 sqq.) Mabillon issued a supplement to tlus edition
of Gamier. From these materials, the Liber Diumus
was reprinted at Basle (1741), at Vienna (1762), and
by Migne (P. L.. CV, Paris, 1851). The first good
edition, as stated above, we owe to Eug. de Roiidre
(Liber Diumus ou Recueil des formules usit^es par la
Chancellerie pontificale du V® au XI® si^cle, Paris.
1869). In the interest of this edition Daremberg ana
Renan compared Gamier 's text with the Vatican
manuscript, then regarded as the only authentic one.
From this manuscript Th. von Sickel prepared a crit-
ical edition of the text: " Liber Diumus Rom. Pont, ex
unico codice Vatican© denuo ed." (Vienna, 1889).
Just after the appearance of this work, however, Ceri-
ani announced the discovery of a new manuscript,
originally from Bobbio, in the Ambrosian Library at
Milan; towards the end this was more complete -than
the Vatican manuscript. This text was published by
Achille Ratti (Milan, 1891).
PoTTHAST. BibL hiat, medii crvt, I, 734-5; Roniuu, Recher"
che» mr U Liber Diumua des PorUifet romaint (Paris,^ 1868):
SicKKL, Prolegomena rum Liber Diumus, I and II, in Sitguno*'
benchte der k.k. Akad. der Wiss. in Wien, Phil.-hist. KL, CXVU
(1888-9). nn. 7, 13, also edited separately; loxii. Die Vita
Hadriani Nonanlulana und die Diumusliandschriften in Neun
Archiv, XVIII (1893), 107 sqq.; cf. ibid., XV (1890). 22 so.;
Idem, Nouveaux Maircissements sur la premiere fditian du
Diumus |n MHanges Julien Havel (Paris. 1895), 14-38; CiioB-
ai, Storia eslema del codice Valicano del Liber Diumus Rom.
Pont, in Archivio della Societh Romana di storia patria, XI (1889!-.
641 sqq.; Ccriani. Notizin diun antico mantuiritto AmbrosiaMto
del Lwer Diumtis in Rendiconli del IsLituto lA>mbardo di scierut,
2nd series, XXVI, 376 sqq.: Duchkhnk, Le Liber Diumus H
les flections pontificales au VII* sifcle in Bibl. de VEeole dm
ChaHes, 111 (1891), 5-30; Hahtmann, Die Bntstehwufsgeit
des Liber Diumus in Mitteilungen de* Instituts fur OsUrr. Oeseh,,
XIII (1892). 239-64; Friedrich, Zur Entstehunq des Liber
Diumus in Sitsungaber. der k, layer. Akademie der Wiss., PAt'l.-
hisl. Kl, I (1890), 58-141.
J. P. K1R8CH.
Ziiberia, a republic on the west coast of Africa, be-
tween 4** 2(/ and 7** 2(/ N. lat ., extending from the Sher-
bro river on the north-west, near the south l>oundary of
the British colony of Sierra Leone, to the Pedro river on
the south-east, a distance along the coast of nearly six
hundred miles. It has enjoyed the status of a sove-
reign State since 1874, when its independence was for-
mallv recognized by England, France, and Germany,
The habitable region of the country is a strip from t^
to twelve miles wide along a slightly indente<i shore
line of 350 miles. The area over which the poUtical
jurisdiction of the republic extends is estimated at
9700 square miles. The interior is one of the wildest
and least visited sections of Africa.
Liberia had its origin in the scheme of the American
Colonization Society to found in Africa a place to
which free blacks and persons of African descent might
return from the United States. Charles Carroll, of
CarroUton, was at one time president of this society,
which sent out its first colony to Africa on 6 Feb., 1820.
They settled first onSherbro Island, but in April, 1822,
abandoned this site for the more promising location at
Cape Mesurado, between Sierra I^one and tho Ivory
CcMist. Here the colony became permanently estal>-
lisbed, and continued under the management of the
UBCRnni
217
UBEBIUS
Ccdcmuation Society until the. politioal exi^ncies of
commercial intercourse with other countnes, espe-
oially with England, forced Liberia, 26 July, 1847, to
make a declaration of independence as a sovereign
State. It is divided into tour counties, Mesurado,
Grand Bassa^ Sinou, and Maryland. The capital and
largest town is Monrovia, a seaport on Cape Mesurado,
called after James Monroe^ Inresident of the United
States, imder whose administration the colonizing
scheme was begun. There are no harbours, and ac-
cess to the most important rivers is prevented for ves-
ads of deep draught by a sand-bar. The temperature
Taries from 56 to 105 degrees Fahrenheit, with an
average of 80 degrees and a rainfall of about 100 inches
a year. The rainy season begins in May and ends in
November, the hottest month being December and the
coolest August. The climate is d^idly to white men,
African fever being prevalent.
Some 12,000 quasi- American negroes constitute the
governing class. With these are affiliated about 30,-
000 who are civilised, native bom^ and native bred.
The wflder tribes of the interior, estimated as number-
ing about 2,000,000, are the descendants of the ahor-
igmes. The Americo-Libcrian settlers are to be found
on the sea-coast and at the mouths of the two mast im-
portant rivers. Of the native tribes the principal are
the Veys, the Pessehs. the Barlines, the Bassas, the
Kroos, the Frebos, ana the Mandingos. Outside of the
negroes of American origin not many Liberians are
Christians. The converts have been made chiefly
among the Kroos and the Frebos. Methodist, Bap-
tist, Presbyterians, and Episcopalian missions have
been established for many years with scant results.
As a number of the first American colonists were Cath-
dio negroes from Maryland and the adjoining states,
the attention of Propaganda was called to their spirit-
ual needs and the second Provincial Coimcil of Balti-
more in 1833 undertook to meet the difficulty. In
accordance with the measures taken, the Very Rev. Ed-
ward Barron. Vicar-General of Philadelphia, the Rev.
John Kelly or New York, and Denis Pindar, a lay cate-
chist from Baltimore, volunteered for the mission and
saUed for Africa from Baltimore on 2 DecemWr, 1841.
They arrived there safe and Father Barron said the
first Mass at Cape Palmas on 10 Feb.^ 1842. After a
time, finding tnat he did not receive missionaries
enough to accomplish anything practical, Father Bar-
ron returned to tne United States, and thence went to
Rome where he was made on 22 Jan., 1842, Vicar Apo»-
totic of the Two Guineas, and titular Bishop of Con-
stantia. With seven priests of the Congregation of the
B[0ly Ghost he returned to Liberia, arriving at Cape
Palmas on 30 Nov., 1843. Five of these priests died
on the mission of fever, to which Denis Pindar, the lay
cateehist, also fell a victim, 1 Jan., 1844. Bishop
BaiTon and Father Kelly held out for two years, and
then, wasted by fever, they determined to return to
the United States, feeling that it was impossible to
vrithstand the climate any longer. Bishop Barron
died of yellow fever during an epidemic at Savannah,
Georma, 12 Sept., 1854, and after a long puxtorate Fa-
iher Kelly died at Jersey City, New Jei-wy, 28 April,
1866.
The Fathers of the Holy Ghost, who took uf) the
work, were also forced by the ciimato to abandon it in a
couple of years, and the permanent mission lapsed until
26 Feb., 1884. The Fathers of Montfort (Company of
Ifary), under Fathers Blanchet and Lorber, tlien laid
the foundation of another mission at Monrovia.
The president of the republic, Mr. Johnson, and the
people generally gave them a cordial welcome, but the
sectiArian ministcars organized a cabal against them,
and endeavoured to thwart all their efforts to spread
the Faith. They made some progress in spite of this,
and in the fdlowing year, having received reinforce-
ments from France, opened a school for boys and ex-
tended their operations Into other places. Father
Bourzeix learned the native language, in which he
compiled a catechism and translated a number of
hymns. Later, when he returned to France, he wrote
a history of Liberia. He died in 1886. Deaths among
the missionaries and the health of the others shattered
by fever forced these priests also to abandon the Li-
beria mission. After this it was visited occasionally
by missionaries from Sierra Leone until 1906, when
Propaganda handed its care over to the Priests of the
African Missions (Lyons), and three Irish priests, Fa-
thers Stephen Kyne, Joseph Butler, and Dennis O'Sul-
livan, with two French assistants, went to work with
much energy, and continue (1910) to make much
progress among the 2800 Catholics the vicariate is
estimated to contain (st»e .\fuica, subtitle The Cath-
olic Church). The British Colony of Sierra Leone on
the west, and the French colonies of the Ivory Coast to
the east, and French Guinea to the north have gradu-
ally l)ecn encroaching on its territory, and internal
troubles over deficits adding other complications, Li-
beria sent in 1908 an urgent appeal to the United
States Government for help to preserve its integrity.
To learn the. conditions there, and find out what as-
sistance could best be given, a commission of three
was appointed by the president; it sailed from New
York 24 April, 1909, and returned in the following
August. Tne diary kept by Father John Kelly dur-
ing his stay in Liberia was published in the United
States C-atholic Historical Society's " Records '^ (New
York, 1910).
Stock WELL, The Rejjuhlic of Liberia (New York, 1868); An-
nual Report Smithsonian Innt. (WiwhinRton, 1905); Piolet,
AfiiM. Cath., V (Paris, 1902). 172: Clakk, Liictt of Deceased
Bishops U. S., II (New York, 1872), npncnJix; Catholic Al-
manac (Baltimore. 1855): Shea, Hist. Cath. Ch. in U. S. (New
York. 1856)- KiRLiN, Catholicity in Philadelphia (Philadel-
phia, 1909); Fi,TNN, The Cath. Church in New Jersey (Moms-
town, 1904). 92 sqq.
Thomas F. Meehan.
Liberius, Pope (352-66). — Pope Julius died on 12
April, according to the " Liberian Catalogue ", and Li-
berius was consecrated on 22 May. As this was not a
Sunday, 17 May was probably tlie day. Of his pre-
vious life nothing is known save that he was a Roman
deacon. An epitaph preserved in a copy by a seventh-
century pilgrim is attribute*! to Liberius by De Rossi,
followed by many critics, including Duchesne. The
principal points in it are that the pope confirmed the
Nicene Faith in a council, and died in exile for the
Faith, unless we render "a martyr by exile". The
epitaph is attributed by Funk to St. Martin I. De
Rossi, however, declared tliat no epigraphist could
doubt that the verses are of tlie fourth antl not of the
seventh century; still it is not easy to fit the lines to
Liberius. The text is in De Rossi, "Inscr. Christ.
Urbis Romae", etc., II, S3, 85, and Ducliesne, "Lib.
Pont.", I, 209. See De Rossi in "Bull. Archcol.
Crist." (1SS3), 5-62; and Von Funk in " Kirchcugcsch.
Abhandl.", I (Padorborn, 1897), 391; Grisarin "Kir-
chenlex.", s. v.; Suvio, '* Nuovi Studi ", etc.
First Years of Pontikicatk. — By the death of
Constans (Jan., 350), (.^otLstantius ha<.I Ix-tcomo master
of the whole empire, and was l.)ent on uniting all
Christians in a mwlilicd form of Ariniiism. Liborius,
like his predecessor Julius, upheld the acijuittal of
Athanasius at Sardica, and uiatlo the decisions of
Nicapa the test of orthodoxy. After the final defeat of
the usurper Magnentius and his death in 3515, Lilxirius,
in accordance with the wishes of a large number of
Italian bishops, sent legates to the ein[x;ror in Gaul
l>egging him to hold a council. Constantius was press-
ing the bishops of CJaul to condemn Athanasius, and
assembled a number of them at Aries wht^re ho had
wintered. The court bisho[)s, who constantly accom-
?anied the emperor, were the rulers of the council,
'he poi)e's legat.es (of whom one was Vincent of Capua,
who nad l.)een one of the papal legates at the (Council of
Nicyca) w(^re so weak jw to consent to renounce the
LIBERIXTS
218
UBE&ZUS
cause of Athanasius. on condition that all would con-
demn Arianlsm. Tne court party accepted the com-
pact, but did not carry out their part; and the legates
were forced by violence to condemn Athanasius. with-
out gaining any concession for themselves. Lioerius,
on receiving the news, wrote to Hosius of Cordova of
his deep grief at the fall of Vincent; he himself desired
to die, lest he should incur the imputation of having
agreed to injustice and heterodoxy. Another letter in
the same strain was addressed by the pope to St. Euse-
bius, Bishop of Vercelli, who had formerly been one of
tho Roman clergjr.
Eailicr than this, a letter against Athanasius signed
by many Eastern bishops had arrived at Rome. The
emperor sent a special envoy named Montanus to Alex-
andria, where he arrived 22 May^ 353, to inform the
patriarch that the emperor was willing to grant him a
personal interview; but Athanasius had never asked
lor this; he recognized that a trap had been set for him,
and did not move. He quitted Alexandria only in the
following February, when George, an Arian, was set up
as bishop in his place, amid disgraceful scenes of vio-
lence. But Athanasius had already heli a council in
his own defence, and a letter in his favour, signed by
seventy-five (or eighty) Egyptian bishops, had ar-
rived at Rome at the end of May, 353. Constantius
pubhcly accused the. pope of preventing peace and of
suppressing the letter of the Easterns against Athanar
sius. Liberius replied with a dignified and touching
letter (Obsecro, tranquillissime imperator), in which
he declares that he read the letter of the Easterns
to a council at Rome (probably an anniversary coun-
cil, 17 May, 353), but, as the letter which ar-
rived simultaneously^ from Egypt was signed by a
greater number of bishops, it was impossiljle to con-
demn Athanasius; he himself had never wished to
be pope, but he had followed his pre lecessors in
all things; he could not make peace with the East-
ems, for some of them refused to condemn Arius, and
they were in communion wit h George of Alexandria,
who accepted the Arian priests whom Alexander had
long ago excommunicated. He complains of the
Council of Aries, and Ixjgs for the assemljling of an-
other council, by means of which the exposition of
faith to which all had agreed at Nicaea may be en-
forced for the future. The letter was carried by Luci-
fer, Bishop of Calaris (Cagliari), the priest Pancratius,
and the deacon Hilary, to the emjx^ror at IVIilan. The
pope asked St. Eusebius to assist the legates with his
mnuence, and wrote again to thank him for having
done so. A council was in fact convened at Milan,
and met there alK>ut the spring of 355. St. Euscl)ius
was persuaded to be present^ and he insisted that all
should begin by signing the N icene decree. The court
bishops declined. The military were called in. Con-
stantius ordered the bishops to take his word for the
guilt of Athanasius, and condemn him. Eusebius
was banished, t<)gether with Lucifer and Dionysius of
Milan. Liberius sent another letter to the emperor;
and his envoj-s, the priest Eutropius and the cleacon
Hilary, were also exiled, the deacon being besides
cruelly beaten. The Arian Auxentius was made
Bishop of Milan. The pope wrote a letter, generally
known as " Quamuis sub imagine ", to the exiled bish-
ops, addressing them as martyrs, and expressing his
regret that he had not been the first to suffer so as to
set an example to others; he asks for their prayers that
he may yet oe worthy to share their exUe.
That these were not mere words was proved, not
only by Liljerius's noble attitude of protest during the
preceding years, but by his subsequent conduct. Con-
stantius was not satisfied by the renewed condemna-
tion of Athanasius by the Italian bishops who had
lapsed at Milan under pressure. He knew that the
pope was the only ecclesiastical superior of the Bishop
of Alexandria, and he "strove with burning desire .
Bays the pagan Ammianus, "that the sentence should
be confirmed by the higher authority of the bishop of
the eternal city". St. Athanasius assures us that
from the beginning the Arians did not spare Liberius,
for they calculated that, if they could but persuade
him, they would soon get hold of all the rest, Con-
stantius sent to Rome his prefect of the bed-chamber,
the eunuch Eusebius, a very powerful personage, witii
a letter and gifts. " Obey the emperor and take this "
was in fact his message, a&ys St. Athanasius, who pro-
ceeds to give the pope's reply at length: He could not
decide against Athanasius, who had been acauitted by
two general synods, and had been dismissea in peace
by the Roman Church, nor could he condemn the ab»
sent; such was not the tradition he had received from
his predecessors and from St. Peter; if the emperor
desired peace, he must annul what he had decreed
against Athanasius and have a council oelebnted
without emperor or counts or judges present, so that
the Nicene Faith might be preserved; the foUowers of
Arius must be cast out and their heresy anathema-
tized; the unorthodox must not sit in a synod; the
Faith must first be settled, and then only could other
matters be treated; let Ursacius and VaJens, the oowt
bbhops from Pannonia, be disregarded, for they had
already once disowned their bad actions, and were so
longer worthy of credit.
The eunuch was enraged, and went off with his
bribes, which he laid before tne confession of St. Peter.
Liberius severely rebuked the guaniians of the ho^
Elace for not having prevented this unheard-of saon-
}ge. He cast the gifts away, which angered the
eunuch yet more, so that he wrote to the emperor that
it was no lon<i:cr a question of simply getting Liberine
to condemn .Vthanasius, for he went so far as formaDy
to anathematize the Arians. Constantius was per-
suaded by his eunuchs to send Palatine officers, nota-
ries, and counts, with letters to the Prefect of Rome.
Leontius, ordering that Liberius should be seized either
secretly or by violence, and despatched to the court.
There followed a kind of persecution at Rome.
Bishops, says St. Athanasius, and pious ladies were
obligcfl to hide, monks were not safe, foreigners were
expelled, the gates and the port were watched. **The
Ethiopian eunuch", continues the saint, "when he
understood not what he read, believed St. Philip;
wncreas the eunuchs of Constantius do not believe
Peier when he confesses Christ, nor the Father indeed,
when He reveals His Son '* — ^an allusion to the declain-
tions of the popes that in condemning Arianism tb^
spoke with tne voice of Peter and repeated his confes-
sion, "Thou art [the] Christ, the Son of the living
God ", which the Father Himself had revealed to the
Apostle. Liberius was dragged l>efore the emperor at
Milan. He spoke boldly, bidding Constantius cease
fighting against God, and declaring his readiness to go
at once into exile before his enemies had time to trump
up charges against him. Theodoret has preserved the
minutes of an interview between " the glorious Libe-
rius" and Constantius, which were taken down by
good people, he says, at the time. Lil)erius refuses to
acknowledge the decision of the Council of Tyre and to
renounce Athanasias; the Mareotic acts against him
were false witness, and Ursacius and Valens had con-
fessed as much, and had asked pardon from the Synod
of Sardica. Epict'Ctus, the young intruded Bishop of
CentumcelLT, interposes, saying that Liberius only
wanted to be able to boast to the Roman senators that
he had beaten the emperor in argument. " Who are
you ", adds Constantius, " to stand up for Athanasius
against the world?" Lil)erius replies: "Of old there
were found but three to resist the mandate of the
king." The eunuch Eusebius cried: "You compare
the emperor to Nabuchodonosor." Liberius: *'No,
but you condemn the innocent.** He demands that
all shall su!>scribe the Nicene formula, then the exiles
must be restored, and all the bishops must assemble at
Alexandria to give Athanasius a fair trial on tJie spot
usxRina
aa: "But the public convayfAicei will not be
mough UxMrrj to many." Liberius: "They will not
be needed; the eccleaiastics are rich enough to send
their trishtqM as far aa the sea." CouBtaiitiua: " Gen-
eml synods must not be too numerous; you alone holil
out against the judgment of thb whole world. He has
injuicd alt, and me above all; not content with the mur-
der of mv eldest brother, he iiet Constaus also against
me. I snould prize a victory over him more than one
€»ver Silvanus or Magnentius." Liberius; " Do not
employ bishops, whose hands are meant to bless, to
revenge your own enmity. Have the bishops restored
ftnd, if they agree with the Nicene Faith, let them con-
sult aa to the peace of the world , that an innocent
bo not emidemaed." Constantius: " 1 am willing
Arian Bishop Acadus oT Cssarea had been arranged
by Epictfltus at the emperor's order. The people of
Rome ignored the antipope. Constantius paid his
tirat visit to Rome on 1 April, 357, and was able to see
for iiimself the failure of his nominee. He was awaie
that there was no canonical justification for the exile
ot Li ijeri us and the intrusion of l''e]ix; in other cases he
bad always acted in accordance witli tlie decision of a
council. He was also greatly moved by the yrandeur of
the Ji]tenial City^o Ammianiis aaaures us. He was
impressed by tne praj-ers for the return of the pope
boldly addressed to him by the noblest of the Roman
ladies, whose husbands had insufhcient courage for the
venture. There is no reason to suppose that Felix
i outside Rome, unless
•end you back to Rome, if you
ion (x^the Church. Make peace, and sign the condc
nation." Liberius: "I have already bidden farewell
at Rome to the brethren. The laws of the Church are
more important than residence in Rome," The em-
peror gave the pope three days for consideration, oiid
then raniahed bim to Dercca in Thrace, sending him
five hundred gold pieces (or his e^gienscs; but he re-
fused them, saying Constantius ncpiled tliem to pay
bis soldiers. The empress sent him the same amount,
but he sent it to the emperor, sai-ins: " If he does
not need it, let him give it to Auxentius or Epictetus,
who want such things." Eusebius the eunuch
brought him yet more money: " Voii have \a\d waste
the Qiurches of the world ", the pope broke out, " and
do vou bring me alms as to a condemned man? Go
UHl fiiBt become a Christian."
Exile. — On the departure of Libciiii-i from Komi-.
all the clergy had sworn that they n-ouKI receive no
other bishop. But soon many of tliem accepted as
pope the ArchdeacOTi Felix, wbo-se consecration by the
by the court party and a few extreme Arians, and the
uncompromising attitude (if T.ibprius through at least
the greater part of hi.? biir.ishnicnt must have done
more harm to the cause the emperor had at heart than
his constancy had done when h'ft i>t Home in peace.
It is not surprising to find that Liberius returned to
Rome before tite end of 357, and that it was noised
abroad that he must ha\'e signed the condemnation of
Athanasius and perhaps some Arian Creed. His res-
toration is placed by some critics in 358, but this is
impossible, for St. .\thanaaius telts us that he endured
the rigours of exile for two s'cara, and the " fiesta inter
Lilierium ctFelicemepisconos". which forms the pref-
ace to the " Liber Preeum of Fausliniia and Marcel-
linue, t«lla us that be returned "in the thirdyear".
The cause of liia return is variously related. Tneodo-
ret says that Constantius wom moved by the Roman
matrons to restore him. but when his letter to Rome,
sayini: that Lil^rius and Felix were to lie bishops side
by side, was read in the circus, the Romans jeered at
it, and filled the air with cries of " One God, one Christ,
UBsanni 220 ubebius
one bishop *\ The Arian historian Philostorgius also mentions the presence of Western bishops, and this
speaks of the Romans having eagerly demanded the suits 357; he says that Eudoxius spread the rumour
return of their pope, and so does Runnus. St. Sulpi- that Liberius had signed the second Sirmian formula,
cius Severus, on tne other hand, gives the cause as se- and this suits 357 and not the time of Semi-Arian
ditions at Rome, and Sozomen agrees. Socrates is more ascendancy. Further, the formula "in all things
precise, and declares that the Romans rose against like" was not the Semir Arian badge in 358, but was
Felix and drove him out, and that the emperor was forced upon them in 359, after which they adopted it,
obli^ to acquiesce. The reading in St. Jerome's declaring that it included their special formula* 'like in
"Chronicle" is doubtful. He says that a year after substance". Now Sozomen is certainly following
the Roman clergy had perjured themselves they were here the lost compilation of the Maceclonian (L e.
driven out togetner with Felix, until (or because) Li- Semi-Arian) Sabinus, whom we know to have been
berius had re-entered the city in triumph. If we read imtrustworthy wherever his sect was concerned.
" until ", we shall understand that after Liberius's re- Sabinus seems simply to have had the Arian story be-
turn the forsworn clergy returned to their allegiance, fore him, but regarded it, probably rightly, as an in-
If we read "because", with the oldest MS., it will seem vention of the party of Eudoxius; he thinks the
rather that the expulsion of Felix was subsequent to truth must have been that, if Liberius signed a Sirmian
and consequent on the return of Liberius. St. Pros- formula, it was the harmless one of Sbl; if he con-
per seems to have understood Jerome in the latter demned the ** Homoousion", it was only in the sense
sense. The preface to the " Liber Precum " mentions in which it had been condemned at Antioch; he makes
two expulsions of Felix, but does not say that either of him accept the Dedication Creed (which was that of
them was previous to the return of Liberius. the Semi-Arians and all the moderates of the I^ut),
On the other hand, the Arian Philostorgius related and force upon the court bishops the Semi-Arian
that Liberius was restored only when he had con- formula of 359 and after. He adds that the bishops
sented to sign the second formula of Sirmium, which at Sirmium wrote to Felix and to the Roman clergy,
was drawn up after the summer of 357 by the court asking that Liberius and Felix should both be accented
bishops, Germinius, Ursacius, Valens; it rejected the as bishops. It is quite incredible that men like BasO
terms homoouaioa and homoiousios; and was some- and his party should have done this,
times called the " formula of Hosius", who was forced Later Years of Liberius. — At the time of his re-
to accept it in this same year, thoueh St. Hilary is turn, the Romans cannot have known that Liberius
surely wrong in calling him its author. The same had fallen, for St. Jerome (who is so fond of tellins us
story of the pope's fall is supported by three letters of the simplicity of their faith and the delicacy oftneir
attnbuted to him in the so-called "Historical Frag- pious ears) says he entered Rome as a conqueror. It
ments" (*' Fragmenta ex Opere Historico" in P. L., A, was clearly not supposed that he had been conquered
678 sqq.) of St. Hilary, but Sozomen tells us it was a by Constantius. There is no s^ of his ever having
he, propagated by the Arian Eudoxius, who had just admitted that he had fallen. In 359 were held the
invadea uie See of Antioch. St. Jerome seems to simultaneous Councils of Seleucia and RiminL At the
have believed it, as in his "Chronicle" he says that latter, where most of the bishops were orthodox, the
Liberius "conquered by the tedium of exile and sub- pressure and delay, and the underhand machinations
scribine to heretical wickedness entered Rome in of the court party entrapped the bishops into error,
triumpn". The preface to the " Liber Precum" also The pope was not there, nor did he send legates. After
speaks of his yielding to heresy. St. Athajiasius, the council his disapproval was soon known, and after
writing apparently at tne end of 357, says: " Liberius, the death of Constantius at the end of 361 he was able
having been exiled, gave in after two years, and, in publicly to annul it, and to decide, much as a council
fear of the death with which he was threatened, under Athanasius at Alexandria decided, that the
signed", i. e. the condemnation of Athanasius himself bishoi)s who had fallen could be restored on condition
(Hist. Ar.,xli); and again: "If he did not endure the of their proving the sincerity of their repentance by
tribulation to the end yet he remained in his exile for their zeal against the Arians. About 366 he received
two years knowing the conspiracy against me." St. a deputation of the Semi-Arians led by Eustathius; he
Hilary, writing at Constantinople in 360, addresses treated them first as Arians (which he could not have
Constantius thus: "I know not whether it was with done had he ever joined them), and insisted on their
greater impiety that you exiled him than that you accepting the Nicene formula before he would receive
restored him" (Contra Const., II). them to communion; he was unaware that many of
Sozomen tells a story which finds no echo in any them were to turn out later to be unsound on the ques-
other writer. He makes Constantius, after his return tion of the Divinity of the Holy Ghost. We learn also
from Rome, summon Liberius to Sirmium (357), and from St. Siricius that, after annulling the Council of
there the pope is forced by the Semi-Arian leaders, Rimini, Liberius issued a decree forbidding the re-
Basil of Ancyra, Eustathius, and Eleusius, to condemn baptism of those baptized by Arians, which was being
the " Homoousion" ; he is induced to sign a combina- practised by the Luciferian Bchismatica.
tion of three formulae: that of the Catholic Council of Forged Letters. — In the fragments of St. Hilary
Antioch of 267 against Paul of Samosato (in which are embedded a number of letters of Liberius. Frag-
homoousios was said to have been rejected as Sa- ment IV contains a letter, "Studens paci", together
bcllian in tendency), that of the Sirmian assembly with a very corrupt comment upon it by St. Hilary,
which condemned Photinus in 351 , and the Creed of the The letter nas usually been considered a forgery since
Dedication Council of Antioch of 341. These formula) Baronius (2nd ed.), and Duchesne expressed the corn-
were not precisely heretical, and Liberius is said to have mon view when he said in his "Histoire ancienne de
exacted from Ursacius and Valens a confession that TEglise" (1907) that St. Hilary meant us to under-
the Son is " in all things similar to the Father' ' . Hence stand that it is spurious. But its authenticity was de-
Sozomcn's story has neen very generally accepted as fended by Tillemont, and has been recently upheld by
giving a moderate account of Lit^rius's fall, admitting Schiktanz and Duchesne (1908), all Catholic writers,
it to Ixj a fact, vet explaining why so many writers Hermant (cited by Coustant), followed by Savio, be-
implicitly deny it. But the date soon after Con- lieved that the letter was inserted by a foi^gcr in the
stantius w^as at Rome is impossible, as the Semi- place of a genuine letter, and he took the first words of
Arians only united at the beginning of 358, and their St. Hilary s comment to be serious and not ironical:
short-lived influence over the emperor began in the "What in this letter does not proceed from piety and
middle of that year; hence Duchesne and many others from the fear of God?" In this document Liberius is
hold (in spite of the clear witness of St. Athanasius) made to address the Arian bishops of the East, and to
that Liberius returned only in 358. Yet Sozomen declare that on receiving an epistle against St. Atha*
XJBIRIin
221
UBSBICTS
nasius from the Oriental bishops, which iiad bceu sent
to his predecessor Julius, he had hesitated to condemn
that saint, since his predecessor had absolved him,
but he had sent legates to Alexandria to sunmion him
to Rome. Athaiuisius had refused to come, and
liberius on receiving new letters from the East had at
once excommunicated him, and was now anxious to
communicate with the Arian party. Duchesne thinks
this letter was written in exile at the beginning of 357,
and that Liberius had really sent an embassy (in 352-
3), sugeestin^ that Athanasius should come to Rome;
now inhis exue he remembers that Athanasius had ex-
cused himself, and alleges this as a pretext for con-
demning him. It seems inconceivable, however, that
after heroically supporting Athanasius for years, and,
having suffered exde for more than a year rather than
condemn him, Liberius should motive his present
weakness by a disobedience on the saint's part at
which he had testified no resentment during all this
stretch of time. On the contrary- , St. Hilar>''s com-
ment seems plainly to imply that the letter was forged
b^ Fortunatian, Metropolitan of Aquilcia, one of the
bishops who condemned Athanasius and joined the
court party at the Council of Milan in 355. Fortuna-
tian must have tried to excuse his own fall, bv pre-
tending that the pope (who was then still in Rome)
had entrusted this letter to him to give to the emperor,
*' but Potamius and Epictetus did not believe it to be
genuine when they condemned the pope with glee (as
the Council of Rimini said of them) , else they would
not have condemned him to exile, *'and Fortunatian
sent it also to many bishops without getting any ^in
by it". And St. Hilary goes on to declare that For-
tunatian had further condemned himself by omitting
to mention how Athanasius had been acquitted at
Sardica after the letter of the Easterns against him to
Pope JuUus, and how a letter harl come from a council
at Alexandna and all ^ypt in his favour to Liberius,
as earlier to Julius. Hilary appeals to documents
^iiiiich follow, evidently the letter "Obsecro" to the
emperor (already mentioned), in which Liberius at-
tests that he received the defence by the Egyptians
at the same time with the accusation by the Arians.
The letter "Obsecro" forms fragment V, and it seems
to have been immediately followed in the original
work by fragment VI, which opens with the letter of
Liberius to the confessors, "Quamuis sub imagine"
(l»roving how steadfast he was in his support of the
uiitJi), Allowed by quotations from letters to a bishop
of ^x>leto and to Hosius, in which the pope deplores
the iflJl of Vincent at Aries. These letters are mcon-
testably genuine.
There follows in the same fragment a paragraph
which declares that Liberius, when in exile, reversed
all these promises and actions, writing to the wicked,
prevaricating Arians the three letters which complete
the fragment. These correspond to the authentic
letters which have preceded, each to each: the first,
"Pro deifico timore is a parody of "Obsecro"; the
second, "Quia scio uos", is a reversal of cverj' thing said
in " QuamuLs" ; the thinl " Non doceo", is a palinode,
painful to read, of the letter to Hosius. The three are
clearly forgeries, composed for their present position.
They defend the authenticity of "Studens paci*',
which they represent as having been sent to the em-
peror from Rome by the hands of Fortunatian; the
genuine letters are not contested, but it is shown that
Liberius changed his mind and wrote the ''Studens
paci"j that in spite of this he was exiled, through the
machinations of his enemies, so he wrote *' Pro deifico
timore" to the Easterns, assuring them not only that
he had condemned Athanasius in "Studens paci",
but that Demophilus, the Bishop of Bercea (repro-
bated as a heretic in "Obsecro"), had explained to
him the Sirmian formula of 357, and he had willinglv
accepted it. This formula disapproved of the words
homoauHoi Bad kamoimuioa alike; it had been drawn
up by Germinius, Ursacius, and Valens. "Quia scio
nos" is addressed precisely to these three court bishops
and Liberius begs them "to pray the emperor for his
restoration, just as in "Quamuis" he had begged the
three confessors to pray to God that he too might be
exiled. " Non doceo' ' parodies the grief of Liberius at
the fall of Vincent; it is addressed U> Vincent himself
and be^ him to get the Campanian bishops to xneet
and wnte to the emperor for the restoration of Libe-
rius. Interspersed m the first and second letters are
anathemas *' to the prevaricator Liberius", attributed
by the former to St. Ililary. The forger is clearly one
of the Luciferians, whose heres\' consisted in denying
all validity to the acts of those bishops who had fallen
at the CJouncil of Rimini in 359; whereas Pope Libe-
rius had issued a decree admitting their restoration on
their sincere repentance, and also condemned the
Luciferian practice of rebaptizing those whom the
fallen bishops had baptized.
The aforesaid "Fragments" of St. Hilary have
recently been scrutinize by Wilmart, and it appears
that they belonged to two different books, the one
written in 356 as an apology when the saint was sent
into exile by the Synod of Edziers, and the other writ-
ten soon after the Council of Rimini for the instruction
(says Rufinus) of the fallen bishops; it was entitled
" Liber ad versus Valentem et Ursacium". The letters
of Liberius belonged to the latter work. Rufinus tells
us that it was interpolated — he implies this of the
whole edition — and that Hilary was accused at a coun-
cil on the score of these corruptions; he denied them,
but, on the book being fetched from his own lodging,
they were found in it, and St. Hilary was expelled ex-
communicate from the council. St. Jerome denied all
knowledge of the incident, but Rufinus certainly spoke
with good evidence, and his story fits in exactly with
St. Hilary's own account of a council of ten bishops
which sat at his urgent request at Milan about 364 to
try Auxentius whom he accused of Arianism. The
latter defended himself by equivocal expressions, and
the bishops as well as the orthodox Emperor Valen-
tinian were satisfied; St. Ililary, on the contrary, was
accused by Auxentius of heresy, and of joining with
St. Eusebius of Vercelli in disturbing the peace, and he
was banished from the city. He does not mention of
what heresy he was accused, nor on what grounds; but
it must have been Luciferianism, and Rufinus has in-
formed us of the proofs which were offered. It is in-
teresting tliat the fragments of the book against Valens
and Ursacius should still contain in the forged let^rs
of IJl)erius (and perliaps, also in one attributed to St.
Eusebius) a part of the false evidence on which a Doc-
tor of the Church was turned out of Milan and appar-
ently excommunicated.
It would seem that when St. Hilarj' wrote his l)ook
*' Ad versus Constant ium" in 360, just before his return
from exile in the East, he l)elievcd tliat Liberius had
fallen and had renounced St. AthanasiiLs; but his
words are not quite clear. At all events, when he wrote
his ** Ad versus Valentem et Ursacium" after his re-
turn, he showed the letter " Studens paci" to be a for-
gery, by appending to it some noble letters of the pope.
Now this seems to prove that the Luciferians were
making use of '* Studens paci" after Rimini, in order to
show that the pope, who was now in their opinion too
indulgent to the fallen bishops, had himself been
guilty of an even worse betrayal of the Catholic cause
before his exile. In their view, such a fall would un-
pope liim and invalidate all his subsequent acts. That
St. Hilary should have taken some trouble to prove
that the ** Studens paci" was spurious makes it evident
that he did not believe Liberius had fallen subse-
ouently in his exile; else his trouble was useless.
Consequently, St. Hilary becomes a strong witness to
the innocence of Liberius. If St. Athanasius believed
in his fall , this was when he was in hiding, and immedi-
ately after the euppoeed event; he waa apparently de-
LTBBRTUS
222
LIBEBIU8
ceived for the moinent bv the rumours spread by the
Allans. The author of the preface to the " Liber Pre-
cum'' of Faust inuB and MarcelUnus is an Ursinian
masquerading as a Luciferian in order to eet the ad-
vantage of the toleration accorded to the latter sect,
and he takes the Luciferian view of Libcrius; possibly
he followed Jerome's *' Chronicle", which seems to b!e
following the forged letters; for Jerome knew St.
Hilary 'a book *' Against Valens and Ursacius", and he
refused to accept the assertion of Rufmus that it had
been interpolated. In his account of Fortunatian
(De Viris Illust., xcvii) he says this bishop " was iji-
famous for having been the first to break the courage
of Liberius and induce him to give his signature to
heresy, and this on liis way into exile". This is in-
credible, for St. Athan:isius twice tells us that the
pope held out two whole years. Evidently St. Je-
rome (who was veiy careless about history) had got
hold of the story that Fortunatian had a letter of
Liberius in his hands after the Council of Milan, and
he concludeb that he must have met Liberius as the
latter passed through Aquileia on his way to Thrace:
that is to say, Jerome has read the forged letters and
has not quite understood them.
Rufinus, who was himself of Aquileia, says he could
not find out whether Liberius fell or not. This seems
to be as much as to say that, knowing necessarily the
assertions of St. Jerome, he was unable to discover on
what they were based. He himself was not deceived
by the forgeries, and there was indeed no pther basis.
Positive evidence in favour of Liberius is not want>-
ing. About 432 St. Prosper re-edited and continued
St. Jerome's "Chronicle", but he was careful to omit
the words Ujedio victtia exilii in relating the return of
Liberius. St. Sulpicius Severn* (403) says Lilxjrius
was restored ob seditiones Romanas, A letter of Pope
St. Anastasius I (401) mentions him with Dionysius,
Hilary, and Eusebius as one of those who would have
died rather than blaspheme Christ with the Arians.
St. Ambrose remembered him as an exceedingly holy
man. * Socrates has placed the exile of Lil^erius after
the Council of Milan, through too carelessly following
the order of Rufinus; unUke Rufinus, however, he is
not doubtful about the fall of Liberius, but gives as
sufficient reason for his return the revolt of the Ro-
mans against Felix, and he has expressly omitted the
story which Sozomen took from Sabinus, a writer of
whose good faith Socrates had a low opinion. To
Theodoret Liberius is a glorious athlete of the faith;
he tplls us more of him than any other writer has done,
ana he teUs it with enthusiasm.
But the strongest arguments for the innocence of
Liberius are a priori. Had he really given in to the
emperor during his exile, the emperor would, have
puolished his victory far and wide; there would have
Been no possible doubt about it; it would have been
more notorious than even that gained over Hosius.
But if he was released because the Romans demanded
him back, because his deposition had been too un-
canonical, because his resistance was too heroic, and
because Felix was not generally recognized as pope,
then we might be sure he would be suspected of having
given some pledge to the emperor; the Arians and the
Felicians alike, and soon the Luciferians, would have
no difficulty in spreading a report of his fall and in
winning credence for it. It is hard to see how Hilary
in banishment and Athanasius in hiding could dis}:>e-
lieve such a story, when they heard that Liberius had
returned, though the other exiled bishops were still un-
relieved.
Further, the pope's decree after Rimini, that the
fallen bishops could not be restored unless they showed
their sincerity by vigour against the Arians, would
have been laughable, if he himself had fallen vet
earlier, and had not publicly atoned for his sin. Vet,
ve oan her quite certain that he made no public conr-
fmiongfihftving fallen, no recantation, no atonement.
The forged letters and, still more, the strong words
of St. Jerome have perpetuated the belief in his guilt.
The " Lil>er Pontificalis " makes him return from exile
to persecute the followers of Felix, who becomes a
martyr and a saint. St. Eusebius, mart>T, is repre-
sented in his Acts as a Roman priest, put to death by
the Arianizing Liberius. But the curious "Gesta
Liberii ", apparentlv of the time of Pope Symmachus,
do not make any clear allusion to a fall. The Hiero-
nymian Martyrology gives his deposition both on 23
Sept. and 17 May; on the former date he is commem-
orated by Wandalbert and by some of the enlarged MSS.
of Usuard. But he is not in the Roman Martyrology.
Modern Judgments on Pope Liberius. — Histo-
rians and critics have been much divided as to the guilt
of Liberius. Stilting and Zaccaria are the best known
among the earlier defenders; in the nineteenth cen-
tury, Palma, Reinerding, Ilergenrdther, Jungmann,
Grisar, Feis, and recently Savio. These have been in-
clined to doubt the authenticity of the testimonies of
St. Athanasius and St. Jerome to the fall of Liberius,
but their arguments, though serious, hardly amount
to a real probability against these texts. On the other
hand, Protestant and Gallican writers have been se-
vere on Liberius (e. g. Mocller, Barmby, the Old-
Catholic Langen, and DoUinger), but they have not
pretended to decide with certainty what Arian for-
mula he signed. With these Renouf may be grouped,
and lately Schiktanz. A more moderate view is repre-
sented by Hefele^ who denied the authenticity of the
letters, but admitted the truth of Sozomen 's story,
looking upon the union of the pope with the Semi-
Arians as a deplorable mistake, but not as a lapse into
heresy. He is followed by Funk and Duchesne (1907),
while the Protestant Kriiger is altogether undecided.
The newest view, brilliantly exposed by Duchesne in
1908, is that Liljerius early in 357 (because the pre-
face to the " Liljer Precum makes Constantius speak
at Rome in April-May as though Liberius had al-
ready fallen) wrote the letter "Studens paci", and,
finding it did not satisfy the emperor, signed the in-
definite and insufficient formula of 351, and wrote the
three other contested letters; the Arian leader^ were
still not satisfied, and LilMjrius was only restored to
Rome when the Semi-Arians were able to influence
the emperor in 358, after Lil>erius had agreed with
them as Sozomen relates. The weak points of this
theory are as follows: There is no other authority
for a fall so early as the beginning of 357 but a casual
word in the document referred to above; the "Sttt-
dens paci" is senseless at so late a date; the letter
" Pro deifico timore *' plainly means that Liberius had
accepted the formula of 357 (not that of 351), and had
he done so, he would certainly have been restored at
once; the story of Sozomen is untrustworthy, and
Liberius must have returned in 357.
It should be carefully noted that the question of the
fall of Liberius is one that has been and can be freely
debated among Catholics. No one pretends that, if
Liberius signed the most Arian formuhc in exile, he
did so freelv; so that no question of his infallibility is
involved. It is admittecl on all sides that his noble
attitude of resistance lx?fore his exile and during his
exile was not belied by any act of his after his return,
that he was in no way sullied when so many failed at
the Council of Rimini, and that he acted vigorously
for the healing of orthodoxy throughout the West
from the grievous wound. If he really consorted with
heretics, condemned Athanasius, or even denied the
Son of God, it was a momentary human weakness
which no more compromises the papacy than does that
of St. Peter.
The letters of Liberius, together with his sermcm on
the occasion of the consecration of St. Ambrose's sis-
t<?r to virginitv (preserv'cd by that Father, " De Virg."
I, ii, iii), and^ the dialogue Vith the emperor (Theo*
doret, '^Hist. £ccl.'', II, xvi) are oolleotea in Coustanty
LXBEBBCAMN
223
UBEBBCAMN
"Epistoke Rom. Pont." (repnot in P. L., VIII). A
eiitical edition from MSS. of the three spurious epis-
tles of St. Hilary, 'Frag.' VI, in "Ilevue B6n6d."
(Jan., 1910).
Stilting in Acta 55., Sept., VI (1757), 572; Tillemont.
M*nnoireji, VI; Zaccaria, DUaeriatio de commentitio Liberii
lapni in Petaviub. Theol. dog., II, ii (1757); Palma, Pnrlec-
iione» Hv4. EccL, I (Rome, 1838); Reinerdino. Beitrdge zur
Honoriua und Libenusjrape (1865): Ls Paob Rbnouf, The
Condemnation of Pope Honoriua (London, 1868); Hefele,
ConeUienpcaehicfUet I (2nd od. and later ones; Eng. tr. lol. II.
1876): JuNOMANN, DiaaerUUionea atUcta, II (Ratiabon and
New York, 1881): Babmbt in Diet. ChrisL Biog., s. v.: IIer-
OBifBOTBER, Kirekengeach., I (1884) 374; Grisar in Kirchenhx.,
M. v.; Fbi8, Storia di Liberio Papa e deUo aciama dti Semiariani
iRome. 1894)jM(ELLBR-ScHUBBRT, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeach.,
(Leipiig..l902)^ Loofs in RealencykltmUdie fitr jiroleiUaniiache
Thoologie und /CtreAe. s. v. Hilariua ; Kruoer, ibid., fl. v. Lihe-
riwt; ScHiKTANS, Die Hilariua fragmerUcVBreaXfiM, 1905) ; Saltet,
La formation da la Ifgende dea papea Libire et Filix in BulUiin
de htf. eeesL (July. 1905) ; Idem, Fraudea littcrairea dea Luciferiena,
ibid, (Oct., 1906); Idem« Lea Itilrea du pape Libi.rede'S57, ibid.
(Dee., 1907); Wilmart, L'Ad Conatantium liber I de 5. Hilaire
m Revue BirUd. (April and July, 1907) ; Idem, Lea Fragmenta
huloriqvea et le aynodede BHiera, ibid. (April. 1008); Idem. La
queaiion du pape Libtre, ibid. (July, 1908); Duchesne, Libera
fl( Porlunatien in MSlangeade Vicole francaiaedeRome, XXVIII,
Mi <Jan.-April, 1908); Savio, La queatione di papa Liberio
(Rome, 1907; an answer to Schiktanz); Idem, Nuovi aiudi
mdia queatione di papa Liberio (Rome, 1909; in reply to Dv-
chbsne); Chapman. TKe eonteated lettera of Pope Liberiua in
Rewue BfrUd. (Jui^-* April, July, 1910; in reply to Duchesne);
Fedbr, Stwiien zu Hilariun von Poittera, I, in Siizungaber. der
K. Akad. Wiaa, von Wien (Vienna, 1910), follows Duchesne.
John Chapman.
Libermaim, Francis Mary Paul, Venerable,
founder of the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart
of Mary, which was afterwards merged in the Congre-
gation of the Holy Ghost (q. v.). The son of a Jewish
rabbi, he was born at Saveme in Alsace, 12 April,
1804; and he died at Paris, 2 February, 1852. He re-
ceived the name of Jacob at his circumcision, and was
the third youngest of seven children whom his mother
Lia Susanna Haller, bore to his father, Lazarus Liber-
mann. He was brought up according to the sternly
strict tenets of the Talmud, and his mind was early
imbued with a special horror of the "Goim", or
Christians. He lost his mother when he was nine
years old; and this^ together with the liarsh treatment
he received from his schoolmaster, caused his boyhood
to pass in much bitterness. The learned and univer-
sally esteemed rabbi of Saveme fixed his mind on his
son, Jacob, as his successor in the rabbinical office.
With this in view, he sent him to Metz to perfect Ids
studies in the Talmud, and in Hebrew and Chaldaic.
But God had other designs on the young man, who
was then in his twentieth year. During his stay at
Hetx, the Gospels, translatc^d into Hebrew came acci-
dentally into nis hands, and impressed him deeply.
Moreover, his eldest brother first, and afterwanls two
other brothers, embraced Catholicity. And, although
Jacob deeply resented their change of religion, he grad-
ually came to recognize their happiness and peace of
soul, which was in strong contrast with his own dis-
tracted frame of mind. Finally, he obtained from his
father permission to go to Paris; and there he came
under the influence of M. Drach, a convert from Juda-
ism, who had him received into the CoUoRe Stanislas,
where he was instructed in the truths of Faith, wliich
he embraced with ea^mess. He was baptized on
Christmas Eve, 1826, m the twenty-thin 1 year of his
age. At baptism he took the three-fold name of
Francis Mary Paul, the first two in gratitude to his
godfather. Baron Francois de Mallet, and to his f^-
mother, Comtesse Mane d'lleuse, and the last as a
mark of hb admiration of the great Apostle of the
Gentiles, whom, he was so closely to imitate in many
respects.
Immediaielv after his conversion, M. Libermann
displayed marked signs of a vocation for the ecclesias-
tical state. His protectors and friends found a place
for him, first, in the college of the Missions de France,
where he received tonsure five months after his
baptism, and later in the seminary of St. Sulpioe,
which he entered in October, 1827. On the very eve
of his promotion to subdeaconship, he was stricken
down by an attack of epilepsy which was to be his com-
panion for tlie next five years. During that time he
was kept by his charitable superiors at the seminary of
Issy. It was there that he was brought into close
apostolic relationship with two Creole seminarians,
M. I-.e Vavasseur, from Bourbon, and M. Tisserand,
from Santo Domingo, both of whom were filled with
zeal for the evangelization of the poor ex-slaves of
those islands. This acquaintanceship evoked the
first concept of a religious society for the conversion
of those abandoned souls. It took five years more of
prayer and patience to accomplish the foundation of
the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary,
for that purpose. Meanwhile, M. Libermann was
called away to become, though yet only in minor or-
ders, master of novices for the Eudist Fathers at
Renncs. After two years of devotion to that work
(1838-39), he felt a very positive call from God to unite
with MM. I^ Vavasseur and Tisserand in furthering
the apostolate to the negroes. At their suggestion, he
proceeded to Rome and laid his plans before the Holy
bee. The year of his sojourn at Rome (1840-41) was
Eassed in great obscurity and poverty. He profited
y the time he was kept waiting for a decision to write
the provisional rules of the proposed institute, as well
as a remarkable "Commentary on St. John's Gospel".
At last, after a year's waiting, the obscure and friend-
less ecclesiastic received the warm encouragement of
the Cardinal Prefect of Propaganda, to pursue his
project for the evangelization of the negroes. He re-
paired to the seminary of Strasburg to prepare for his
ordination, which took place at Amiens, 18 Septem-
ber, 1841. On the twenty-seventh of the same month
the novitiate of the Congregation of the Immaculate
Heart of Mary was opened in the neighbouring village
of La Neuville.
The first occupants of the novitiate were the foun-
der himself, his first associate. Father Le Vavasseur,
and a sub-deacon, M. Collin. Others filled with
apostolic zeal quickly joined them, among the number
beinp Rev. Ignatius Schwindemhaminer, who was
destined to wt the founder's, immediate successor.
Missions were soon offered to the infant society in
Alauritius, where Father Laval wrought wonders
which continue to the pn'sent day; in l3ourl)on and
Hayti; and, especially in Africa. Father Lil)ermann's
sons were, practically, the first since the downfall of
the African Church to penetrate the Dark Continent.
Most of the first missioners paiil for their heroism with
their lives; but others filled their places; and the
widespread prosperity of the Church in Africa, at the
present day is, in large measure, due to the initiative
and sclf-sacrilice of the first nurrnlx»rs of the Congre-
gation of the Immaculate Heart of Mar\'. The Vener-
able Libermann was the heart and soul, the father and
model of the nascent community during the seven years
of its indei)endent existence, 18-U-1818. By that
time it had IxH^ome numerous and flourishing; and
Divine Providence ordained that it should Ix? engrafted
on the Congregation of the Holy Ghost, which had a
similar object, but which had l)ecome almost extinct
during the Revolution (see Holy Ghost, Reugious
CoNCjREOATioxs OF THE, I). This difficult and deh-
cate task of uniting two congregations was successfully
accomplished, at the request of the Holy See, by Father
Libermann; an<l he was chosen superior general of the
united societies, a post he occupied till his death.
By the time of his death, the Venerable Libermann
enjoyed the reputation of the highest sanctity in the
minds of all who knew him ; and shortly after his death
there was a widespread desire to have the cause of his
beatification introduced. The usual ecclesiastical
tribunal was erected in Paris, in 18()7: its lal)Our8 were
continued till 1872, when the depositions of the wit-
nesses and the other documents bearing oa thA
UBSB 224 LIBIB
were forwarded to Rome. After mature examination Modem criticism deals chiefly with two points, the
and deliberation, the Sacred Congregation of Rites period in which the Liber Pontificalis, in its earliest
unanimously decreed the introduction of his cause, part, was compiled, and the sources then available to
This decree was ratified a few days afterwards, 1 June, the author of this oldest division of the Liber Pontifi-
1876, by Pius IX, who thus declared the holy convert calis. Duchesne has proved exhaustively and con-
from Judaism Venerable. Since that time, the cause vincingly that the first series of biographies, from St.
of his beatification has progressed through the usual Peter to Felix III [IV (d. 530)], were compiled at the
forms; and his spiritual sons throughout the world latest under Felix's successor, Boniface 11 (530-2),
expect to sec him ere long declared Blessed. and that their author was a contemporary oi Ana-
Several thousand of his letters have been preserved; stasius II (496-8) and of Symmachus (408-514). His
and these, together with all his other writings, have principal arguments are the following. A great many
been examin^ and approved by the Holy Sec. His oiographies of the predecessors of Anastasius II are
method of spiritual direction, was, like his life, a min- full of errors and mstorically untenable, but from
glingof sweetness and solfnienial, breathing peace and Anastasius II on the information on the ecclesiastico-
courage, in the midst of all manner of trials. His pub- political history of the popes is valuable and histori-
hshed writings are, *'I^ttrcs SpirituelIes'^ 2 vols, cally certain. In addition, some manuscripts ofTer a
(Paris, 1880); "EcritsSpirituels" (Paris, 1891); "Com- summary of the earlier part of the Liber Fontificalis
mentaire sur TEvangile de St. Jean" (Paris, n. d.). as far as Felix III (IV), whence the name "catalogus
PiTRA, Vtcdu 72. P. LiVrmonn, (Paris, 1872): V'lVfdu 72. P. Felicianus"; Consequently, the Liber Pcmtifioilii
l^ermann jyir un p rc de l^Cong.du s. Esnrit (Pans 1878); ^^ j^ave been accessible to the author of this sum-
GOEPFERT, Life of \ en. P. M,P. Libermann, (Dublin, 1880). *»*»«»' »***'^ •-'v.^u »v^/%^.v.«> vx* v*.^^ c»i«vi^^. -k,^ v^amo omm<-
JoHN T. MuHPHT. mary m a recension that reached to the above-men-
tioned Felix III (IV). This observation tallies well
T.o.^ •B^.A-A^^i: /T5 T> \ u» with the aforesaid fact that the biographies from
Liber Pontificalis (Book of toe Popes), a his- Anastasius II on exhibit accurate historical informih
tory of the popes l>cgianmg with St. Peter and con- ^^^^ Duchesne defended successfully this opinioQ
tinued down to the fifteenth century- m the form of ^^ ^aits and Mommsen, who placed the firat
biographies. The first complete collection of the papal ^j^j^^j^ ^^ ^j^^ Liber Pontificalis in the beginning of the
biographies in the origimil form of the Liber Pontifi- ^^^j^^y, century. To bear out this view they Appose
calls reached to Stephen \ (H8a-91) They were after- ^hat from the time of Anastasius II to that 5^he
wards continued in a difTerent style as far as Eugene author a genuine and reliable historical source, since
ry (d. 1440 and Pius II (d 14(>4). The individual i^ ^^s at his disposal. Since, moreover, thev can-
biographies are very unequal in extent and unpor- ^ot explain the summary ending with Felix III (IV),
tance. In mast ca^es they exhibit a definite symmetn^ ^ easily is done by the hypothesis of Duchesne, the
cal form, which in the old Liber Pontificalis is quite letter's opinion meets with the general approval of
uniform. These brief sket<ihes give the origin and historians, and has recently been perfected by investi-
birthplace of the pope, the length of hjs pontificate gators like Grisar. The first part, therefore, to the
the decrees issued by him on cjuestions of ecclesiastical death of Felix III (IV), i.e. to 530, should be considered
discipline and liturg>', civil and ecclesiastical events, ^ complete work, the compilation of some author who
the building and renovation of Roman churches, y,.^^ shortly after the death of Pope Felix; later
donations to churches of land, jiturgicaJ furniture biographies were added at different times in groups or
re iquanes, va uable tapcstnes and the like, transfer of separately by various authors.
relics to churches, the numlx^r of the principal ordmar %« compiler of the first parti made use of two
tions (bishops, priests, deacons) the bunal-place of the ancient catalogues or lists of the popes, taking from
pope, and the time duniig which the sec was vacant. them the order of succession, the chronological data»
Historical criticism has for a long time dealt with and also certain historical notes; these lists were: (a)
this ancient text in an exhaustive way, especially the so-called "Catalogus Liberianus", and (b) a list of
m recent decades after Duchesne liad begim the pubii- the popes that varies in length in the manuscripts, and
cation of hLs classic edition. In most of its manu- perhaps depends on the "Catalogus Liberianus^* for
scnpt copies there is found at the bcginnmg a spurious the period before the middle of the sixth century. The
correspondence l^etween Pope Dama^us and Saint " CJatalogus Liberianus" is so called because it termi-
ifT?^\ ^"^^ ^^^*^'"* ^'^***^ considered genume in the nates with Pope Liberius (352-66) . It has reached tia
Middle A(^s; conseciueutly, in those times St. Jerome in the so-called " Chronographus anni 354", an anciimt
was considered the author of the biographies as far as manuscript that contains the valuable lists of the
Damasus, at whose request it was l)elieved Jerome had "Depositio martyrum" and the "Deposltio episco-
written the work, the subsequent lives having been porum". In the "Catalogus Liberianus" there are
addeii at the command of each individual pope. When already short historical notices of some popes (Peter,
the above-mentioned correspondence was proved Pius, Pontianus, Fabianus, Cornelius, Lucius, Xystus,
entirely apocr\'phal, tlus view was abandoned. In Marcellinus, Julius), which were taken over by the
the sixteenth century Onof no Panvmio on quite in- author of the Liber Pontificalis. For its list of the
sufficient grounds attributed to Anast^ius Bibliothe- eariiest- popes the " Catalogus Liberianus" was able to
carius in the ninth ceiiturj' the continuation of the draw on the papal catalogue given by Hippolytus of
biographies as far a.s Aicliolas I. Although Baronius Rome in his "Liber generationis", thou^ even this
in great measure corrected this false impression, the list is not the oldest list of popes. It is probable that
earlier editions, which appeared in the seventeenth from the bcginnmg of the second century there was
qua; sub nomme Anastasu circumferuntur", Rome, [Lightfoot, "The Apostolic Fathers", Part I; "St.
1688), f?chelstnite ( 'Dissertatiode antiquis Romano- Clement of Rome*', I (2nd ed., London, 1890), 201
rum Pontificum catalogis , Rome, 1692), and other sqq.; Hamack, "Gesch.deraltchristl.Litt.", Partll:
scholars, disprove any possil^le claim of Anastasius to "Die Chronologic", I (I^ipzig, 1897), 70 sqq.; Segna,
the authorship of this work. The conclusive re- "De Successione Romanorum Pontificum^' (Rome,
searches of Ducliesnc have estabhshed l)eyond a doubt 1897)]. Such a catalogue of popes has reached us,
that in its eariier part, as f:ir as the ninth centur\', the as above stated, in the "Catalogus Liberianus", and
LilM>rPontificahswas gradually compiletl, and that the forms a basis for the eariiest recension of the work,
later continuations were added unsystematically. In The compiler of the Liber Pontificalis utilised abo
only a few cases is it possible to ascertain the authors, some historical writings (e. g. St. Jerome, ** De ViriB
XJBSR
225
LIBER
niustribus")) A number of apocryphal fragments (e. g.
the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions), the ''Con-
stitutum Silvestri", the spurious Acts of the alleged
Synod of 275 bishops under Silvester etc., and fifth
century Roman Acts of martvrs. Finally, the com-
piler distributed arbitrarily along his list of popes a
number of papal decrees taken from imauthentic
sources; he Ukewise attributed to earlier popes htur-
gical and disciplinary regulations of the sixth century.
The building of churches, the donations of land, of
churdi plate and furniture, and many kinds of precious
ornaments are specified in great detail. These latter
items are of great value, since they are based on the
records of tl^ papal treasurv {vesiiarium)^ and the
conclusion has Been drawn that the compiler of the
Liber Pontificalis in its earliest form must nave been a
derk of the treasurv. It is to be noted that the actual
Liber Pontificalis thaf/ we have was not the only work
of this kind. There existed a similar collection of
biographies, executed under Pope Hormisdas
l.~ 523), ol which a lengthy fragment has reached us
mtum Laurentianum) ; it gives the end of the
Bfe of Anastasius II (d. 49S) and the life of his sue-
eesBor Symmachus. The text of the early Liber
Pontificalis (first half of the sixth century), as found
in the manuscripts that exhibit the later continua-
tions, is not the original text. Duchesne gives a recon-
struction of the earliest text of tne work. After Felix
ni (IV) the Liber Pontificalis was continued by
various authors at intervals, each writer treating a
group of papal lives. Duchesne recognizes a first con-
tinuation as far as Pope Silverius (536-7), whose life is
attributed to a contemporary. The limits of the next
continuation are more difficult to determine; more-
over in its earliest biographies several inaccuracies are
met with. It is certain that one continuation ended
with Pope Conon (d. 687); the aforesaid summary
ending with this pope (Catalogus Cononianus) and
certain lists of popes are proof of this.
After Conon the lives down to Stephen V (885-91)
were regularly added, and from the end of the seventh
century usually by contemporaries of the popes in
question. While manv of the biographies are very
curcumstantial, their historical value varies mucli;
from a literary point of view both stvle and diction are,
as a rule, of a low grade. Nevertheless they are a vcrv
important historical source for the period coverea.
Some of these biographies were begun in the lifetime
of the pope, the incidents being set down as they
occurred. The authors were Roman ecclesiastics, and
some of them were attached to the papal court . In onl v
two cases can the author's name be discovered with
any probability. The life of Stephen II (752-7) was
probably written by the papal '* Primicerius " Christo-
Eher. Anastasius Bibliothecarius perhaps wrote the
fe of Nicholas I (858-67), a genuine, tnou^ brief,
history of this pope; this author may also have
worked at the lite of the following pope, Adrian II
(867-72), with whose pontificate the text of this Liber
Pontificalis, as exhibited in the extant manuscripts,
comes to an end. The biographies of the three follow-
ing popes are missing and that of Stephen V (885-91)
is moomplete. In its original form the Liber Pontifi-
calis reaclied as far as the latter pope. From the end
of the ninth century the series of the papal lives was
long interrupted. For the whole of the tenth and
eleventh centuries there are only lists of the popes
with a few short historical notices, that usually give
only the pope's origin and the duration of his feign.
After Leo IX (1049-54) detailed biographies of the
popes were again written; at first, however, not as
continuations of the Liber Pontificalis, but as occasion
offered, notably during the Investitures conflict. In
this way Boniso of Sutri, in his " Liber ad amicum" or
" De persecutione ecclesise", wrote lives of the popes
from Leo IX to Gregory VII; he also wrote, as an
introduction to the fourth book of his ''Decretals", a
"".—16
"Chronicon Romanorum Pontificum" as far as Urban
II (1088-99). Cardinal Beno wrote a history of the
Roman Church in opposition to Gregorv VII, ** Gesta
Romanse ecclesise contra Hildebrandum (Mon. Germ.
Hist., Libelli de lite, II, 368 sqq.). Important infor-
mation concerning the popes is contained in the
" Annales Romani", from 1044 to 1187, and is utilized,
in part, by Duchesne in his edition of the Liber Ponti-
ficalis (below). Only in the first half of the twelfth
century was a svstematic continuation again under-
taken. This is the Liber Pontificalis of Petrus Guil-
Icrmi (son of William), so called by Duchesne after the
manuscript written in 1142 by this Petrus in the
monastery of St. Gilles (Diocese of Reims). But
Petrus Guillermi merely copied, with certain additions
and abbreviations, the biographies of the popes writ-
ten by Pandulf, nephew of Hugo of Alatri. Following
the Imes of the old Liber Pontificalis, Pandulf had
made a collection of the lives of the popes from St.
Peter doi^Ti; only from Leo IX does he add any
original matter. Down to Urban II (1088-99) his
information is drawn from written sources; from
Paschal II (1090-1118) to Honorius II (1124-30),
after whose pontificate this recension of the Liber
Pontificalis was written, we have a Contemporary's
own information. Duchesne holds that all biographies
from Gregory VII on were written by Pandulf, while
earlier historians likeGicsebrecht ("Alfgemeine Monats-
schrift", Halle, 1852, 260 sqq.) and Watterich (Ro-
manorum Pontificum vito, I, LXVIII sqq.) had con-
sidered Cardinal Petrus Pisanus as author of the lives
of Gregory VII, Victor III, and Urban II, and had
attributed to Pandulf only the subsequent lives — ^i. e.
those of Gelasius II, Oallistus II, and Honorius II.
This series of papal biographies, extant only in the
recension of Petrus Guillermi, is continued in the
same manuscripts of the monastery of St. Gilles as far
as Martin II (1281-5); however, the statements of
this manuscript have no sp)ecial value, being all taken
from the Chronicle of Martinus Polonus.
On the other hand the series of papal lives written
by the cardinal priest Boso (d. about 1178), has inde-
pendent value; it was his intention to continue the
old Liber Pontificalis from the death of Stephen V
with which life, as above said, the work ends. For the
popes from John XII to Gregory VII Boso drew on
Bonizo of Sutri; for the lives from Gelasius II (1118-
19), to Alexander III (1179-81) underwhomBoso filled
an important office, the work has independent value.
This collection, nevertheless, was not completed as a
continuati(Hi of the Liber Pontificalis and it remained
unnoticed for a long time. Cencius Camerarius, after-
wards Honorius III, was the first to publish, together
with his "Liber censuum", the "Gesta Romanorum
Pontificum" of Boso. Biographies of indiNndual
popes of the thirteenth century were written by vari-
ous authors, but were not brought together in a con-
tinuation of the Liber Pontificalis. Early in the
fourteenth century an unknown author carried farther
the above-mentioned continuation of Petrus Guil-
lermi, and added biographies of the popes from Martin
IV (d. 1281) to John XXII (1316-34); but the infor-
mation is taken from the "Chronicon Pontificum" of
Bemardus Guidonis, and the narrative reaches cmly to
1328. An independent continuation appeared in the
reign of Eugene IV (1431-47).
From Urban V (1362-70) to Martin V (1417-31),
with whom this continuation ended, the biographies
have special historical value; the epoch treated is
broadly the time of the Great Western Schism. A
later recension of this continuation, accomplished
under Eugene IV, offers several additions. Finally,
to the fifteenth century belong two collections of
papal biographies, which were thought to be a con-
tinuation of the Liber Pontificalis, but nevertheless
have remained separate and independent collections.
The first comprises the popes from Benedict XII (1334r
UBER
226
LIBER
42) to Martin V (1417-31), and in another manuscript
to Eugene IV (1431-47); the second reaches from
Urban VI (1378-89) to Pius II (1458-64). For the
last popes in each case they exhil)it valuable historical
material. In consequence of the peculiar develop-
ment of the Liber Pontificalis as a whole, it follows
that, in onler to obtain the full value of the historical
sources used in the Liber PontificalLs, each particular
life, each larger or smaller group of lives, needs separate
critical treatment. The Liber Pontiticulis was first
edited by J. Busa^us imder the title " Anastasii biblio-
thecarii Vitce seu Gcsta Romanorum Ponlificum"
(Maina, 1602). A new edition, with the "Historia
ecclcsiastica" of Anastasius, was edited by Fabrotti
(Paris, 1647). The best of the older editions of the
primitive Liber Pontificalis (down to Hadrian II), with
edition of the life of Stephen VI, was done by Fr. Bian-
cliini (4 vols., Rome, 1718-35; a projected fifth volume
did not appear). Muratori added to his reprint of tliis
edition tne lives of later popes down to John XXII
(Scriptores rcrum Italicarum, III). The edition of
Bianchini with several appendixes is found also in
Migne (P. L., CXXVII-VIII). For a classic edition
of the early Liber Pontificalis, with all the above-
mentioned continuations, we are indel)ted to the tire-
less industry of Louis Duchesne, " Liber Pontificalis.
Tcxte, introduction et commentaire" (2 vols., Paris,
1886-92). Mommsen began a new critical edition of
the same work under the title " Gestorum Pontificum
Romanorum pars I: Liljer Pontificalis" (Mon. Germ,
hist.); the first volume extends to 715 (Berlin, 1S98).
On the plan of the Roman Liber Pontificalis, and in
obvious imitation, Agnellus, a priest of Ravenna,
wrote the history of the bishops of that city, and callea
it "Liber Pontificalis Ecclesia) Ravennatis". It be-
gan with St. Apollinaris and reached to about 485 (see
Agnellus of Ravenna). This history of the bishops
of Ravenna was continued, first by the unknown author
to the end of the thirteenth century (1296), and after-
wards to 1410 by Petnis Scordilli, provost of Ravenna.
Other medieval chroniclers have also left collections
of biographies of the bishops of particular sees, ar-
ranged on the lines of the Lilxjr Pontificalis. Thus in
1071-2, at the order of Bishop Gundecharus of Eich-
statt, the "Liber Pontificalis Eichstcttensis" (ed.
Bethmann in " Mon. (Jcrm. hist.. Script.", VIT, 242-
50). Many metlieval archiepiscopal and episcopal
sees possess, under the title of " (icsta", histories of the
occupants of these sees. Most of them offer very im-
portant original material for local diocesan history (for
a list of them consult Pott hast, " Bibliotheca historica
mcdii wvi", 2nd e<l., I, 511, 514-6).
Besides the learned Proltgomena to the editions of DucnESifE
and MouMSE.v, see DuchiiIHNK, Etude nur le Lihtr Pontificalis in
Bill, den Ecolcn franraiAes d'Atht^eA et dt- Rome (Ist serins, Paris,
1877); Idkm. La date H lea r> cennions du Liber Pont, in Revue de
quest, hist., XXVI (1879), 49.J-M0; Ii>em. Lt premier Liber
Pont., Ibid., XXIX (1881). 246-62; Idem. U nouvelle idUion
du LihrrPont. in Melanges d'arch/oL et d'hist., XVIII (1898).
J81-417; Grihar, Der Liber Pontif. in ZeitM-hr.Jur kath. Theol.,
XI (1887), 417-46; Idem. Analecta Romana. I (Home, 1899).
1 sqq.; Waitz, Vfbcr die italienischf-n Handschriften des Liber
Pont, in \ru*-s Archir, X (1S85). 455-65 Idem. Cefper den
sntjrnnanten Catalo<iu» Felicianus der P^Pf^r, ibid., XI (1886),
217-rn: Idem. Viber die verschiedenen Tcxte. des Liber Pont.,
ibid., IV (1879). 216-73; RuArKMANN, Reise nach Italien,
ibid., XXVI (lOOn, 209 -.147: Giohoi. Appunti intomo ad
alruni mnnoscritti drj Librr Pont, in Arehirxo ftrJln Sne. romniui
di ti,ria p^trin, XX (l*'97i. 247 son.: WATTKRicn. Vita
Pnntif. Roman. (2 vols.. I^ipxiK. 1862); LioimrooT, The
Aponiolir FnthrrK, Part T: S. (Irmeid of Rome, I (London.
1890). 303-25: Farrf. Etnd*- nur Ir Lihrr Cmsuum de VEQlise
romaine in Fiibl. dtn Ernirn frnn^aineM d'Athinrs et de Rome,
n. Ixii (1st Horio«. Paris. 1S<M»; (^lahhchrodrr. Des Lucas
Holxtmius Sammhing von Papnthbrn in Romische Quartfd-
itehr.. IV (1890), 125 sntj.; Idem. Vitce aliquot Pontificum sac.
XV. ibid., V (1891), 178 sqa.; Idem. Zur Quellenkunde der
Pavntarsrh. des XIV. Jahrhunaerts in Hi^orichrs Jahrhurh, XI
(1890). 240 !»qq.: IIaknack, Veher die Ordinationen im Papsf-
buch in Sitzunosher. der Akad. der Witts, zu Berlin (1897). 761
flqq.; Momm^en, Ordo et spnfia epiwojutrum Romanorum in
Libra Pontifirali in Neues Arrhiv, XXI (1894), 333 sqq^.; Sio-
mCi.i.kr I)i*tn'rh »v>n A'lVm und dtr Libt-r Pontifiralin in Hist.
Jahrbueh, XV (1894). 802 sqq.; Ro^exfeld. Ueber die Kom-
p09Uion des Liber Pcniifieatis bis zu Konstaniin, Dissert. (Mar-
hurg. 1896); ScmrttRBR. Der Verfasser der Vita Stephani It
752-757) im Liber Pontificalis m Hislor. Jahrbueh, XI (1890).
425 sqq.; Potthaht. Bibl. hist, medii avi, I, 737-0; de Smcdt,
Introaurtio generalis ad hislcriam eccl. critice traetandam (Ghent,
1876). 220 sqq.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Liber Sententiftmm. See Peteb Lombard.
Liber Septtmua. — ^Three canonical collections of
quite different value from a legal standpoint arc known
by this title. (1) The ** Constitutiones Clementis V" or
**Clementinaj", not officially known as "Liber Septi-
mus", but so designated by historians and canonists
of the Middle Ages, and even on one occasion by John
XXII, in a letter to the Bishop of Strasburg. in 1321.
This collection was not even considered a *' Liber".
It was officially promulgated by Clement V in a con-
sistory held at Monteaux near Carpentras (France) on
21 March, 1314, and sent to the Universities of Or-
l(Sans and Paris. The death of Clement V, occurring
on 20 Apr^l following, gave rise to certain doubts as to
the legal force of the compilation. Consequently,
John XXII by his Bull, ''Quoniam nulla", of 25 Octo-
ber, 1317, promulgated it again as obligatory, without
making any changes in it. Johannes Andrete compiled
its commentary', or gloam ordtnaria. It was not an
exclusive collection, and <iid not abrogate the previ-
ously existing laws not incorporated in it (see Corpus
Juris Can-qxici; Decretals, Papal). (2) A canon-
ist of the sixteenth centur\', Pierre Mathieu (Petrus
Matthffus), published in 1690, under the title of
"Septimus Liber Decretalium", a collection of canons
arranged according to the order of the Decretals of
Gregory' IX, containhig some Decretals of preceding
popes, especially of those who reigned from the time
of SLxtus IV (1464-71) to that of Sixtus V, in 1590.
It was an entirely private collection and devoid of
scientific value. Some editions of the "Corpus Juris
Canonici" (Frankfort, 1590; Lyons 1621 and 1671;
Bohmer's edition, Halle, 1747), contain the text of this
"Lilwr Septimus" as an appendix.
(3) The name has been given also to a canonical
collection officially known as "Decretales Clementis
Papaj VI 1 r ' . It owes t he name of ' * Liber Septimus"
to Canlinal Pinelli, prefect of the special congregation
apnointe*! by Sixtus V to draw up a new ecclesiastical
cooe, who, in his manuscript notes, applied this title to
it. Fagnanus and Benedict XIV imitated him in this,
and it has n'tained the name. It was to supply the
defect of an official coilification of the canon law from
the date of the publication of the" Clementinae" (ISIT),
that Ciregory XIII, al)out the year 1580 appointed a
Ixxly of cardinals to undertake the work. In 1587
Sixtus V established the congregation mentioned
alwvc. The printed work was submitted to Clement
VIII, in 1598, for his approbation, which was refused.
A new revision undertaken in 1607-08 had a similar
fate, the reigning pone, Paul V, declining to approve
the " Lil>er Septimus^' as the obligatory legal code of
the Church. It is divided into five books, siibdivided
into titles and cliapters, and contains disciplinary and
dogmatic canons of the Councils of Florence, Lateran,
and Tnmt, and constitutions of twenty-eight popes
from (;rogon' IX to Clement VIII. The refusalB of
approbation by Clement VIII and Paul V are to be
attributed, not to the fear of seeing the canons of the
Council of Trent glossed hv canonists (which was for-
bidden bv the Bull of Piilil IV. " Benedictus Deus".
confirming the Council of Trent), but to the politioal
situation of the <lay, several states having rel used to
admit some of the constitutions inserted in the new
collection, and also to the fact that the Coimcil of
Trent had not yet lM>en accepted by the French Gov-
ernment; it was therefore feared that the Govern-
ments would refuse to recognize the new code. It
seems a mistake, too, to have included in the work
decisions that were purelv and exclusively dogmatic
and as such entirely foreign to the domain of eanon
UBia 227 T.TBRARTTBS
law. This ooUection, which appeared about the cud we have any precise knowledge is tlmt of Tello io
of the sixteenth oentunr, was edited by Francis Sen- Mesopotamia, discovered through the excavations of
tiaC'ClementisPapfflVniDecretales",Freiburg,1870). M. de Saraec and now in great part removed to the
JrSS^J^irSt^T^^^ 9i?;iT;./,L^'^' toha^•e consistecl of more than
•qa.,277; ScaMUMR,HandbuchdeMKirchmreehu,l\GnLz,lS86), 20.0(K) tablets inscribed With cuneiform wnting and
2A3; ScHNMDSB. Die Lehre v. d. Kirchenrechtmjufllen (Rotis- belonging to the time of Gudcu, ruler of Laeash.
boo, 1002). 166 sqq., 177; text-booka of Wkhns, Uaoiii;lleb. -i---"-"'^- r..., .. o~ .»
•*c- A. Van Hovk.
. ¥^i *?**" ^^^^^^T* *i? ***!? ^^ ^r® ''^'}??; Ashiiix^blniiiaKeeS to 628 B.Tr'The Ktterl^MrSI
leal coUection coinpiied under order of Boniface VIII
byOuillai
of Siena, vice-chancellor of the ^pe. by whom it was tain that the collection comprised texts, impressed of
^T!^i^.^^Jt^^^!'''f'^ S""^ ^ i^« i'^*'!"^ "? n*"® «>""« "P«^ clay ^l^l^ts, dealing with eve^ branch
Bim 'Sacpoaanctffi ' of 3 March 1^8. Like the De- of learning and science known to the wise men of his
wetd^ofGregwylX the'I^berSext^^^^ day. More than twenty thousand of these tablets
five books, subc^yided into titl(^ and chapters. It have been brought to EGrope and are now preserved
COTtains in addition eighty-ei^t rul^ of law (r^^- in the British Museum. All the more important texts
lite j«n«)l»rrowed from the Roman law, and com- are marked with a formula attesting that they belong
piled probably by Dmo de Rossoni, professor of civil to the palace of Ashurbanipal, and the formula con-
law at tlw University of Bologna. It is an obli- eludes with an imprecation interesting to compare
Eitory code of b^ abrogating all previous general with those so often found in the manuscripts of medi-
uSL^i rV?™ ^®TJ?^*^fi *u Publication of the eval Ubraries: " Whosoever shall carry off this tablet,
"DcCTetals of Grego^r IX tdl the a«^ otBoni. or shaU inscribe his name upon it side by side ^itll
^■SS^Yl" ^^ September, 1234 to 24 Decem!>er, 1294), mineown,may Ashur and Belit overthrow him in wrath
inth the exception of those that were reserved (re- and anger, and may they destroy his name and pos-
•?T^""i'l^ ^ ^ ^*A ^i^^^irS^ y^ ^y^^^^r' ^"*y ^^ ^^^ land " (Wallis, Budge, and King, " Guide
eitlKar by decretals inserted in the "Sextus", declar- to Babvlonian and Assyrian Antiquities", 1908, p.
mgthattheeekwsTOre toremaminforce orb^^^ 41). In Eg>'pt collections of papvrus rolls must un-
IncipU bcmg included m the collection. 1 he Deere- doubtedl v have been made, though the more perish-
tals of GregOTy IX were revoked, m so far as they able nature of the material has not permitted any
were inconsistent with the new statutes. Although considerable remains to be preserved from the eariier
Win holds the contrary, we beheve that the eighty- ages of Egvptian historv. Of collections of books
GoBFUB Juris CANONia. oerning tlie holy gifts ^'
,r^. ®"^??i^,T^^"^l''^. ^"^^^f^^^ Boniface with regaixi to pagan Rome and Greece we have
Vm hiDMelf the Liber Swctus\ firstly, be^ ^^re precise evidence. Pisistratus is said to have*
continuation of the five books of the / Decretals of formed a library which was carried off to Persia by
^^^S?^ ^\j ^*f ^^!^H' ^^-^ «^^. *s a ^rfect Xerxes and afterwards restorefi. Aristotle, the phil-
number. This title will indicate, he says m the 3iill of osopher, as his writings prove, miLst certainly have
approbation (Sacrosancta), that the complete body haj some sort of libraVat his command, and this
of cancm law, henceforth collecteil into six b^^^ collection, after coming to Athens, is said to have
yjerfect number of books), will furnish a perfect rule been ultimately taken bv Sulla to Rome. But by
of Mtion and be a safe guide m morals. According farthe most famous libraries of the Greek workl were
to Euchd. the number six is perfect, Ixjcause it is ^hose of Pergamum and Alexandria. The former,
equal to the sim of aU its factors (1+2 + 3^.6). Ac- ^.i^j^.^ ^ad been formed bv the kings of the familv o^
cording to Boethius, a number is to be compared to an Attains from a])out the vear 2()0 b. r., must have been
organised body, aU the parts of which (factors, quo- ^ ^^^v remarkable collection. Modem archiuolog-
tients, or ahquot parts) represent the members. A " . - .
^.^»^ ... ^^ .-^ > :t :? — r—-— -~- --' - — — -; i5onm Acaaemv, iJ>;^-i, i.i;)'.;-/u;. -f\s lor ine dooks
Mem of virtue («rtu/w ^mii/ojor) and, caUing this themselves, we "learn from Plutarch that two hundred
newoompJation the Liber Sextus , the pope wished thousand volumes, or rather rolls, wore removed by
to ngnifv the happy effwts which tins collection of ^j^^k Anthon v to Alexandria and given to Cleopatra
^S2Sf ^S^^TlTt I'^S^^^mmluno Bonifm ^ f-P^^- the libn.ry which had U^^n accidentally
VUlTLSb. Sat. Decretal. Bonif. PP. VIII. in Archiv fiir kath. destroyed l)y fire in Julius C a>sar s Egyptian cam-
KirdkieHreehi. LXXXII (Mains, 1902), pp. 425 sqq.; Lauriv, paign. The I ibrarv so d<'st roved, which was known as
t!Z^'f*!i "^TLiZ:^ S?V^.vrw^'yJl?w/^- Voi.fVi' that of the Masaniin, was formed by Ptolemy Phila-
ScBDfUDBB, DiB Le/ure von aen KxrcnmrechtequeUirn (2n(l od., , i i i . Oi»rk Ti. • ^ ^i • ru _ li x ^u^
^tkboa. 1892), 151 m\.\ Werni. Ju9 DecrdlaUum, I (Rome! delphus about 200 H. c. It IS to this library that the
1808). 328 Mq.; Schxbxb, Handbuch dea Kirchenrechtn, I legend attaches of the origin of the Septuagint (q. V.),
(Gns, 188(9)t 252. A. Van Hove. as recorded in the apoorvphal, but verv ancient,
LibertlM. Gaujcan. See Galucanism. "Letter of Aristeas". According to this legend, De-
Aiui«wim, xjAAdtfVAi^. o^ v*Ai^u*v.Ai^io^. metrius Phalereus, the keeper of the librar>', advised
Ubniief, that is to say, collections of books ao- his master, King Ptolemy, to endeavour to obtain
cumulated and made accessible for public or private for it a translation of the Law of the Jews. Envoys
use, we» known to the ancients before the cominj^ of were accordingly despatched to the High Priest Elea-
Chiut. PrabaUy the meet ancient library of which zar of Jerusalem, who sent so'enty (or, more exactly.
UBBARISS
228
UBBARISS
aeventy-two) scholars to Alexandria to make the
Greek version required. The work was completed in
seventy days, and the translation was read aloud by
Demetrius and approved as final.
The " Musseum ' (i. e., building consecrated to the
Muses), which contained this, the older of the two
libraries, seems to have been located within the pre-
cincts of the palace, but the other, of later date,
was formed in connexion with the temple of Serapis,
hence called the Serapeum. Much havoc was wrought
among its treasures when Bishop Theophilus made his
attack upon pagan worship at Alexandria in a. d. 390,
and whatever remained of the library must have
perished after the incursion of the Arabs in 641. Al-
though Polybius, writing in the second century before
Christ, speaks (xii, 27) as though libraries would natu-
rally be found m any large town, it is only in the last
years of the Roman Republic that we hear much of
libraries in Rome itself. At first these collections were
in private hands— Cicero, for example, seems to have
taken much pains in acauiring booW—but, after an
unfulfilled project of Julius Csesar to form a library
for public use, C. Asinius PoUio carried this idea into
execution a little later by means of the spoils he had
obtained in his Illjyrrian campaign 39 b. c. The Em-
peror Augustus himself soon followed the same ex-
ample, and we hear of the collections both of Greek
ana Latin books formed by him, first in the Porticus
Octaviae, which he restored about the year 33 b. c.
and, secondly, within the precincts of the temple of
Apollo on the Palatine, dedicated in 28 b. c. From
this time forth public libraries multiplied in Rome
under the imperial patronage of Tiberius and his suc-
cessors, until they numbered, it is said, as many as
twenty-six in all. From allusions in such writers as
Ovid, Horace, and Aulus Gellius, it seems probable
that these libraries, for example that of the Palatine
Apollo, were furnished with copies of books on all
subjects, and that as soon as a new work of any well-
known writer was given to the world the Roman
libraries acauired it as a matter of course. We
also know tnat they were administered by special
officials, and that they served as places of resort for
literary men, while one or more of them — notably
the Bibliotheca Ulpia in the forum of Trajan — were
tised as depositories for the public archives.
At the time that Christianity appeared upon the
scene in Rome, it is interesting to leam from Seneca
how firm a hold the fashion of maintaining libraries,
either public or private, had taken of Roman society.
"What", asks Seneca, **is the use of books and li-
braries innumerable, if scaree in a lifetime the master
reads the titles? . . , Forty thousand books were
burnt at Alexandria. I leave to others to praise this
splendid monument of royal opulence. . . . Procure
as many books as will suffice for use, but not one for
show. . . . Why should you excuse a man who
wishes to possess book-presses inlaid with arbor-vits
wood or ivory, who gathers together masses of au-
thors either unknown or discredited, and who derives
lus chief delight from their edges and their tickets?
You will find, then, in the libraries of the most arrant
idlers all that orators or historians have written — book-
cases built up as high as the ceiling. Nowadays a
library takes rank with a bathroom as a necessaiy
ornament of a house. I could forgive such ideas, if
they were due to extravagant desire for learning. As
it is, these productions of men whose genius we revere,
paid for at a high price, with their portraits ranged in
line above them, are got together to adorn and Dcau-
tify a wall" (De Tranquil. Animi, ix).
These were the fashions that prevailed in the more
cultured circles of the Roman Empire at the time
when Christianity began ite life-andndeath stru^Ie
with paganism. The use of books, even if attended
with a certain amount of shallow affectation, was not
A weapon which the Church could afford to neglect.
In itself the accumulated learning of past i^ed was i
good influence, and the teachers of the new &ith wen
not slow in striving to enlist it on their side. In any
case some small collection of books was needed for tlie
church services which seem from the very b^rinning
to have consisted in part — as does the Divme Office (3
the present day — of readings from the Old and New
Testaments, and from worfi of Christian instruction
and edification. In this way every church that was
founded became the nucleus of a library, and we need
not be surprised to find St. Jerome counselline Pam-
machius (Ep. xlix, 3) to make use of these colkcti<mB
(ecclesiarum bibliothiBcia fruere), and apparently as-
suming that wherever there was a congregation of the
faithful suitable books would be available. But thm
must, of course, have been certain centres where, on
account of their position, antiquity, or the exceptional
generosity of benefactors, more important accumula-
tions existed. Of these the earliest known to us is the
library formed at Jerusalem, principally by Bishop
Alexander, about the year 250, and containing, as
Eusebius atteste, a number of letters and historioftl
documents (Hist. Eccles., VI, xxj. Still more im-
portant was the library of Csesarea m Palestine. This
was collected by the martyr Pamphilus, who suffered
in the year 308, and it contained a number of the
manuscripts which had been used by Origen (Jerome,
In Titum, III, ix). At about the same period again
we hear that, in the persecution which devastated
Africa (303-304), "the officers went to the church at
Cirta, in which the Christians used to assemble, and
despoiled it of chalices, lamps, ete., but when they
came to the library [bibliotn€cam]f the presses [oT'
niaria] were found empty " (see appendix to Optatus).
Julian the Apostate, in 362, demanded that the books
formerly belonging to George, the Arian Bishop of
Alexandria, including "many philosophical and rhe-
torical works and many of the doctnnes of the im-
pious Galileans'', should be sent him for a libraiy
lormerly established by (Ik>nstantiu8 in the imperial
palace (Julian, Epist. ix). On the other hand, when
St. Augustine was dying, "he directed that the li*
brary of the church and all the books should be care-
fully kept for posterity forever", and "he bequeathed
libraries to the church containing books and treatises
by himself or other holy persons" (Possidius, "Vita
Aug.", n. 31). In Rome it would seem that Pope
Dainasus (366-384) built a record-office (arckivum)
which, besides being the depository of official docu-
ments, served also as library and chancery. It was
connected with the Basilica of St. LAwrence, on the
facade of which was an inscription which ended with
the three following lines: —
Archivis fateor volui nova condere tecta.
Addere prsBterea dextra laevaque columnas.
Quae Damasi teneant proprium per ssecula nomen.
"V
(I confess that I have wished to build a new abode
for archives and to add columns on the right and left to
preserve the name of Damasus forever.) It is no
doubt this building which St. Jerome refers to as
"cliartarium ecclesise Romanse". De Rossi and
Lanciani conjecture that Damasus, following the
model of one of the great libraries of Rome, which in
its turn had imitated the arrangement of tne famous
library of Pergamum, had first Duilt a basilica dedi-
cated to St. Lawrence and then added on the north
and south sides a colonnade from which the rooms
containing the records would be readily accessible
(Lanciani, Ancient Rome, pp. 187-190). WheUier
this building did or did not ever strictly deserve tJia
name of a literary, we have evidence that Pope Aga-
petus (535-36) set about the erection of another buud-
ing on the Coelian Hill intended for the keeping of
books and aften^'ards known as the Library of St.
Gregory. There, at any rate, an inscription was to be
leadi in the ninth century speaking of the long amy
229 T.TBRARTM
cfportnits which adontied the walla and, amongst the clearly proved than in En^and. The whole h*fe of
rest, of that of Pope Agapetus: — the Venerable Bede might serve to illustrate this
Hob inter residens Agapetus jure sacerdos theme. But it is Bede who tells us from first hand
Codicibus pulchrum condldit arte locum. knowledge of Benedict Biscop, Abbot of Wearmouth,
(Mid these oy right takes Agapetus place, who who, having visited Rome in 671, ''brought home not
built to guud ms books this fair aoode.) The cele- a few books of aU-divine erudition, either bought for
brated Cassiodorus, who had been the friend of Aga- a fixed price or given him by the kindness of friends:
petus, withdrew from the world in his declining years and when on his return he came to Vienne he received
and gathered round him a religious community at those which he had bought and entrusted to his
Vivariimi, in Southern Italy, There he formed a li- friends there" (Hist. Abl>at., iv). In 678 he paid
brary as an adjunct of primary necessity for such an another visit to Rome and " brought home a multi-
institute. Further, he enjoined upon the brotliren tudo [tnnu7MeraWlem comawij of books of every kind ".
that if tiiey met with any book which he wanted they In liLs last illness Beneclict Biscop gave directions that
should make a copy of it, "that by the help of Go3 the very noble and complete hbrary which he had
and their labour the library of the monastery might brought from Rome as necessary for the instruction
be benefited" (De Inst. Div. Litt., viii). Cassiodorus of the Church, should be scrupulouslv preserved en-
abo tells us a good deal about his libraiy contrivances, tire and neither suffer iniury throi^n want of care
But at the break-up of the civilization of the Roman nor be dispersed (Hist. Aob., xi) . Further we learn
Empire the great influence which contributed more that this collection, which was divided between Wear-
than anything else to preserve in the West some scat- mouth and Jarrow, was doubled by the energy of
tered remnants of the learning of the classical period Ceolfrid his successor (Hist. Abb., xv). It was from
was undoubtedly monasticism, and in particular that this collection, which Ceolfrid enriched with three new
form of monasticism which was identified with the copies of the Vulgate and with one of the Itala, that
Rule of St. Benedict. Even in Africa, as the Rule of the famous Codex Amiatinus (q. v.) was taken, which
St. Pachomius and the writings of Cassian clearly Ceolfrid on a later occasion carried with him to Italy
show, the maintenance of the ideal of coenobitical as a present for the pope. This manuscript, now in
life was in some measure dependent upon the use of the Laurentian library in Florence, has been described
books. St. Pachomius, for example, enjoined that as " perha}>s the finest book in the world " (White in
the books of the house were to be kept in a cupboard "Studia Biblica," II, 273), but it seems not to have
in the thickness of the wall. Anv brother who w^antoil been tlie work of native scribes but of Italians brought
a book might have one for a week, at the end of which over to England.
he was bound to return it. No brother might leave a Although Jarrow had not itself a great scriptorium
book open when he went to church or to meals. In with a staff of trained copyists — such as, for example,
the evening the officer called the "second" — that is belonged to Lindisfame, which followed Irish tradi-
ihe second in command — ^was to take charge of the_ tions, and to Canterbury, where the dominant in-
books, count them, and lock tiiem up (see P. L.,* fluence was Italian — still, through Archbishop Egbert,
XXIII, 68, and cf. Butler, "Palladius", 1, 236). We whom Bede loved and visited at York, Ceolfrid's li-
know from a letter of St. Augustine's that at Hippo brarj' must have exercised a profound influence upon
even the nuns had a library, and that it was the duty Alcuin (q. v.), and through him again upon the
of one of the sisters to distribute and then to collect scholarship of all Western Christendom. Alcuin
the books at the hours set apart for reading. Nor was the librarian of the fine collection of books which
could the large place that study — but more particu- Egbert had formed in the monastery at York, and in
larly the stu^ of the Scriptures — ^played in tne lives one of his poems he gives a rather florid account of
of ascetic women at the close of the fourth century, be its contents (Migne, P. L., CI, 843) which has l)een
more clearly illustrated than in the story of St. Me- descril:)ed as the earliest catalogue of any English
lania the younger, the friend of St. Augustine and St. library. If we could trust this list, the collection
Jerome, who^ made it a rule to spend daily a pre- was really one of extraordinary range, including, not
scribed time in reading, and whose labours as a scribe merely the be-st-known of the Latin Fathers, but Atha-
were long renowned. But of all the written docu- nasius, Basil, and Chrysostom, among tne Greeks,
ments much have influenced the preservation of and l^esides these a certain number of historians,
books, the text of the Rule of St. Benedict is the most with philosophers like Aristotle and Boethius, with
important. Upon this is chiefly based that love of the most representative of the Latin classics and a
learning distinctive of the great monastic orders: fair sprinkling of grammarians. When Alcuin be-
" Idleness", says the Rule, "is an enemy to the soul, came the trusted adviser of Charlemagne, that great
and hence at certain times the brethren ought to oc-> monarch's influence was evcr^nvhere exerted to foster
GUpy themselves with manual labour and at others the spread of learning and the accumulation of books,
with holv reading . . ." And, after specifying the In an onlinance of 789. Charlemagne made provision
hours to be devoted to reading at various seasons, the for the setting-up of schools for boys in which he di-
Rule further lays down: " During Lent let them apply rected that " in every monastery and cathedral [epis-
themselves to reading from morning until the end of copium]" they were to learn '* the psalms and canti-
the third hoiir . . . And in these days of Lent let cles, plain chant, the computus [or regulation of the
each one receive a book from the library and read it calendar] and grammar''. And he adds, "Let them
all through in order. These books are to be given out also have Catholic books well corrected ".
at the beginning of Lent. Above all, let one or two ^ All this, directly or indirectly, must have given an
seniors be appointed to go round the monastery at the immense stimulus towards the formation of libraries
hours when the brethren are engaged in reading and in Western Europe. Neither can we leave out of ao-
aee that there be no slothful brother giving himself to count the great influence which had been exerted at a
idleness or to fooUsh talk and not applying himself to somewhat earlier period by St. Columban and the
his reading, so that he is thus not only useless to him- Irish missionaries who settled at Luxeuil in France,
self but a distraction to others. If such a one be found at St. Gall in Switzerland, at Bobbio in Italy, at Wi i rz-
(which God forbid) let him be corrected once and a burg in Gennany, and in many other places. Still, as
second time", and the Rule adds that if all this be in- at St. Gall, for example, the Benedictine Rule often
effectual, the delinquent is to be chastised in such a supplanted the Columoan, and it was in its Benedictine
way as to strike tem>r into others. days that the Swiss abbey attained its greatest re-
That these principles were fully taken to heart, nown as a centre of learning, and formed the library
and boie fruit in the respect shown for books and in which still exists. Many, however, of its most pre-
the leal displayed to acquire them, was nowhere more dons vohimes were at one time removed to Reich*
UBRARXn 230 LTBHAWltt
enau as a measure of safety, and they seem xx)t to same dhaptor put on record th* samM of tbe booli
have been all returned to tneir owners when quiet and of those wno receive them."
was restored. At the same time there is abundant J. W. Clark gives a summary of the airan^^ements
evidence for the existence of a system of lending peculiar to the different orders. Both the Ciuniacs and
manuscripts by one house to another among friendly Benedictines, he says, put the books in chaive of the
monastenes, lor the purpose of transcription and precentor, often also s^led armariuSf and there is to
collation. This latter process may often be traced be an annual audit and registration similar to that
in the copies which still survive: for example, two of just described. Among the later Benedictines we
our oldest manuscripts of Bede's *' Ecclesiastical His- also find a further regulation that the precentor is to
tory" have evidently been collated, and the readings keep all in repair and personally to supervise the
of one transferred to the other. ^ daily use of the manuscripts, restoring each to its
The most famous libraries of the Carlovingian proper place when done with. Among these later
period were those of Fulda, Reichenau, Corvey, and benedictine rules, as found, for exazbple, at Abing-
Sponheim in Germany, and those of Fleury, St-Ri- don at the end of the twelfth century, firet appears the
quier, Clunv, and Corbie in France. fThe library of important permission to lend booira to others outside
Fulda, under the great scholar Rhabanus Maurus, the monastery on receipt of an adequate pledge.
was regarded as the best equipped in Christendom, The Carthusians also maintained the principle of lend*
and a contemporary speaks of the books he saw there in|^. As for the monks themselves, each brother
as "almost countless . Even at the beginning of might have two books, and he is to be specially careful
the sixteenth century the abbey still possessed nine to keep them clean. Among the Cistercians a par-
hundred volumes of manuscripts, mast of which seem ticular official has charge oi the books, about the
to have been destroyed or scattered in the Thirty safety of which great care is to be taken, and at ccp-
Years' War. In the case of Reichenau we still pos- tain times of the day he is to lock the press. This
sess the catalogue made by the librarian, Rcginbcrt, last regulation is also observed by the i^remonstra-
before a. d. 831, wliich enumerates over 500 works tensians, who further require their librarian to take
contained in 256 volumes. All the libraries just note of books borrowed as well as books lent. Il-
mentioned owed directly or indirectly a good deal to nally, the Augustinians, who are very full in thdr
the support of Charlemagne. In southern Italy the directions regarding the use of the library, also permit
abbey of Monte Cassino, the cradle of Benedictine books to be lent outside, but insist much on the need
monasticism, well illustrates the perils to which books of proper security (see Clark, *' Care of Books ", 58-73).
were exposed owing to the wildncss of the times. The importance of the permission to lend consists.
After it nad been demolished by the Lombards in the of course, in this: that the monasteries thus became
sixth century, the monastery was rebuilt, and a new the public libraries of the surroimding district and
Ubrary painfully brought together. But in the ninth diffused much more widely the benefit afforded by
century came the Saracens, and when the abbey was -their own command of books. The practice no douM
despoiled the library perished in the flames. None involved much risk of loss, and there was a dispositkxk
the less, the monks set to work once more to acquire sometimes manifested to forbid the lending of books
books and to make new copies, and this collection of altogether. On the other hand, it is clear that there
manuscripts^ which still survives, is among the most were those who looked upon this means of helping
remarkable in Italy. their neighbours as a duty prescribed by the laws 5
In Spain, at an earHer date, we gain some insight charitv. Thus, in 1212, a synod held in Paris passed
into the ornamentation of a well-appointed library the following decree: "We forbid those who belong to
from certain verses written by St. Isidore of Seville a relicious order to formulate any vow against lenmng
(600-636) to inscribe upon the portraits which hung their books to those who are in need of them; seeing
over his book-presses. Upon tne door of the room that to lend is enumerated among the principal works
were also displayed another set of verses as a warning of mercv. After due consideration let some books be
to talkative intruders, the last couplet of which runs: retained in the house for the use of the brethren; but
Non patitur quenquam coram se scriba loquentem; let others according to the decision of the abbot be
Non est hie quod agas, gamile, perge foras. ^^nt to those who are in need of them, the rights of the
'a7k;«i, «,„,, K« ^^A^r.^\. house being safeguarded. In future no penalty of
Which may be rendered.- anathema fs to Be attached to the remo^ of any
A wnter and a talker CAut agree; book, and we annul and grant absolution from all
Hence, idle chatterer; 'tis no place for thee. anathemas of the sort" (Delisle in "Bib. de I'Ecole
Speaking of Western Kuropc as a whole, we may des Chartes", Scr. 3, 1, 225). It is noteworthy, aJso,
regard it as an undisputed principle throughout the that in this same thirteenth century many volumes
Middle Ages that a library of some sort was an essen- were bequeathed to the Augustinian house of St.
tial part of every monastic establishment. "Claus- Victor, raris, on the express condition that they
trum sine armario, castrum sine armamentario", ran should be so lent. Xo doubt most of the lending was
the adage; that is to say, a monastery without a li- for the benefit of other monasteries, either for reading
brary is a fort without an armourj'. In all the de- or, still more often, for the purpose of making a copy.
velopments of the Benedictine Rule, regulations of Against the dangers thus incurred it would seem that
some kind are laid down for the use of books. We some protection was soujjht by invoking anathemas
may quote, for example, the directions given by upon the head of the faithless borrower. How far
Lanfranc for the annual calling-in of librar}MX)oks on excommunications were seriously and validly enacted
the first Sunday of Lent. Tlie monks are bidden to against the unlawful detainers of such volumes is a
bring back all ]>ooks to the chapter house, and there- matter of some uncertainty, but, as in the case of
upon, "let the librarian read a document [breve] set- Asliur-])an-i-pars cuneiform tablets, the manuscripts
ting forth the names of the brethren who have had of medieval monasteries freouently contain on the
books during the past year; and let each brother fly-leaf some brief form of malediction against unjust
when he hears his oa\ti name pronounced, return the possessors or detainers. For example, in a Jumie^^
book which has Ixjcn entrusted to him for reading, and oook we find: "Should anyone by craft or any device
let him who is conscious of not having read the book whatever al)stract this book from this place [Jumi^
through which he has received, fall down on his face, gcs] may his soul suffer in retribution for what he has
confess his fault, and pray for forgiveness. And let done, and may his name be erased from the book of
the aforesaid librarian hand to each brother another the li\nng anrf not be recorded among the Blessed."
book for reading: and when the books have been dis- But in general such formulae were more compendious^
tributed in ordor, hi the aforesaid librarian in the as, for example, the following foimd in many B%,
231
Alban's books: "This book belongs to St. Alban. May
whoever steals it from him or erases his inscription
of ownership [titulum deleverit] be anathema. Amen.''
The high value set on books is also emphasized by
the many decrees enjoining care in their use. ** Wlien
the rcli^ous are enj^ud in reading'', says an order
of the Cieneral Benedictme Chapter, ** they shall, if p<^
Bible, hold the books in their left hands, wrapped in
the sleeve of their tunics and resting on their knees,
their right hands sliall be uncovered, with which to
hold and turn ^e leaves of the aforesaid books"
(Gasquet, "Old English Bible", 29). Numl)erless
other appeals recommending care, tenderness, and
even reverence, in the treatment of books might be
quoted from medic^ sources. In the ''Philobi1>
km" of Bishop Richard of Bury we have a whole
treatise upon the subject, written with an enthusiasm
which could not have been exccc<lcd by a nineteenth-
century bibliophile. lie says, for example (chap,
xvii): "And surely next to the vestments and vessels
dedicated to our liord's Bod}', holy books deserve to
be rightly treated by the clergy-, to which great iniury
18 done BO often as they are touched oy imclean
hands." This care naturally extended to the presses
in which the books were permanently lodged. The
Augustinians, in particukr, had a formal rule that
"the press in which the books are kept ought to be
fined mside with wood, that the damp of the walls
may not moisten or stain the books' , and de\ices
were further suggested to prevent the books from
being "packed so close as to injure each other, or
delav those who want to consult them" (Clark,
"Care of Books", 71).
Still, the monastic system did not until much later
make provision for any separate room to 1>e used as a
fibrary. It was in the cloister, in which little alcoves
called "carrels" were fitted up, securing a certain
amount of privacy for each student, that the literary
work of the house, whether in reading or transcribing,
was mainly done. The result of this system was that
the books were not kept all together but preserved in
presses in different parts of tlie building. At Dur-
nam, for example, "some were kept in the church,
others in the 'spendiment' or trea$ur>% and others
again in the refectory', and in more than one place in
the cloister" (Gasquet, "Old Eng. Bible", 10). This
Bcatterinff of the books was the more likely to happen
because, from the very nature of the case, a collection
of volumes written by hand and kept up only by
limited monastic resources could never be very vast.
Until the art of printing had lent its aid to multiplv
books and to cheapen them, a comparatively small
number of cupboards were sufficient to contain the
literary treasures of the very largest monastery. At
Christ Church, Canterbury, Henr>' de Estria's Cata-
logue of about the year loOO enumerates 3CKK) titles in
Bome 1850 volumes. At Glastonbury^ in 1247 there
were 500 works in 340 volumes. The Benedictines at
Dover in 1389 possessed 449, while the largest English
monastic library, so far as is known to us, viz., that
at Buiy St. Edmimds, at the l)eginning of the fif-
teenth century, contained 2000 volumes.
The practice just referred to, of scattering ]xx)ks in
different presses and collections, was prol>a})Iy also
much influenced bv the custom of lending, or allowing
outsiders to consuftj books, upon which something has
previously been said. Naturally, there will always
nave been volumes which any community, monastic
or collegiate, reserved for the exclusive use of its mem-
bers. Liturgical books and some asccticul treatises,
eicular copies of the Scripture, etc., will have he-
ed to this class, while there will have been divi.s-
ions even among the books to which the outside world
had access. The following passage, for example, is
Tery suggestive. Thomas CJascoigne says of the Fran-
ciscans at Oxford alx)ut the year 144o: "They had
two libnuries in the same house; tlio one oallod l h<^ con-
vent library, and the other the library of the Bchooh;
whereof the former was open only to graduates: the
latter to the scholars they called seculars, who lived
among those friars for the sake of learning ". All this
must have been very inconvenient, and it is not sur-
prising that in the course of the fifteenth century the
desirability of gathering their hbrary treasures into
one large apartment where study might be carried on
occurred to the authorities of many monastic and col-*
legiate institutions. During the whole of this period,
therefore, libraries of some pretensions began to be
built. Thus, to take a few examples, at Cluist Church,
Canterbury, a Ubrar>', 60 feet long by 22 broad, was
built by Archbishop Chichele, between 1414 and 1443,
over the Prior's Chapel. The library' at Durham was
constructed between 1416 and 1446, by Prior Wes-
syngton, over the old sacristy; that at Citeaux, in
1480, over the scriptoriumj or writing-room, forming
part of the cloister; that at Clairvaux, between 1495
and 1503, in the same position; that at the Augustin-
ian monastery of St- Victor in Paris, between 1501 and
1508; and tliat at St-Germain des Pr^ in the same
city, about 1513, over the south cloister.
The transformation of Clairvaux is easy to under-
stand on account of two descriptions left us at a later
date. A visitor in 1517 tells us: *' On the same side of
the cloister are fourteen studies [the carrels] where the
monks write and study; and over the said studies is
the new library, to which one mounts by a broad and
lofty spiral staircase from the aforesaid cloister. " The
description goes on to extol the beauty of this new
construction, which, adapting itself, of course, to the
shape of the cloister below, was 189 feet long by 17
wide. In it, we are told, "there were 48 seats [bavcsl
and in each seat four shelves [poulpitres] furnishea
with books on all subjects". These books, although
the writer does not say so, were probably chained to
the shelves after the custom of tnat |)eriod. At any
rate this is what the authors of the "Voyage htt^r-
aire", two hundred years later, say of the same li-
brary: "From the great cloister you pass into the
cloister of conversation, so called l^ecause the brethren
are allowed to converse there. In this cloister there
are twelve or fifteen little cells [the carrels], all of a
row, where the brethren fomicrlv used to wnte books;
for this reason they are still called at the present day
the writing rooms. Over these cells is the Library',
the building for wliich is large, vaulted, well lighted,
and stocked with a large numl>er of manuscripts fast-
ened by chains to desks, but there are not many
printed' books."
This, then, is a type of the transformation which
was going on in the last century of the Middle Ages, a
process immensclv accelerated, no doubt, by the mul-
tiplication of books consequent uiX)n the invention of
printing. The newly constructea libraries, whether
connected with imiversitics, or cathedrals, or religious
houses, were rooms of considerable size, generally
broken up into compartments or stalls, such as may
still be seen in Duke Humphrey's Librar\' in the Bod-
leian at Oxford. Here the books were chained to the
shelves, but they could l)e taken down and laid upon
the desk at which the student sat, and at which he
could also use his writing materials without incon-
venience. Some few survivals of this old arranRoment,
for example at Hereford Cathedral, and at Zutphen
(where, however, the diained books can only be con-
sulted standing), still exist. But it was not for very
many years that this system lasted, except as a per-
p(»tuation of old tradition.
Mode KM Libraries. — Foremost among the agen-
cies which have contributed to the collection and pres-
ervation of books in later times is the papacy. The
popes, as munificent puitrons of learning, have
founded a number of libraries and enriched them with
manuscripts and documents of the greatest value.
The most important of thc^se papal foundations is the
LIOniTIATE
232
U09FXILD
Vatican Library, which will be described in another
article (see Vatican Library). Indirectly, also, the
popes have furthered the establishment of libraries by
rounding and encouraging universities. Each of these
naturally regarded the library as the indispensable
means of research; and in modem times especially
these university collections have been enriched by the
ever-growing mass of scientific literature. It is inter-
esting to note that the nucleus of the library was often
obtained by taking over the books and manuscripts
which had been preserved in monasteries and other
ecclesiastical estaDlishments. A glance at the histoiy
of the universities will show how much they are in-
debted in this respect to the care and industry of the
monks (see, e. g., the brief accounts in "Minerva'*, II,
Stras'oUJg, 1893). From the same sources came, in
many instances, the books which served as the begin-
nings of the Ubraries founded by sovereigns, princes,
churchmen, national governments, municipalities, and
private individuals. In recent times, moreover, nu-
merous and successful attempts have been made to
provide the people at large with the facilities which
were once the privilege of the student. Among the
efficient means for the diffusion of knowledge must be
reckoned the public library which Is foundf in nearly
every town of importance. While this multiplication
of libraries is due chiefly to the advance in popular
education, it has led, on the other hand, to the creation
of what might be called a special art or science. Much
attention is now given to the proper housing and care
of books, and systematic instruction is provided for
those who are to engage in lil)rary work. It is not sur-
prising, then, that, along with tfie growing realization
of the value and iraportAnce of libraries, there should
gradually have come alx)ut a fairer appreciation of what
was done by the Church for the preservation of books.
The following list gives the founders and dates of
some famous libraries: —
Aml^rosian (q. v.), Milan; Cardinal Federigo Bor-
romeo, 1603-09.
Angelica, Rome; Angelo Rocca, O.S.A., 1614.
Bodleian, Oxford; Sir Thomas Bodley, c. 1611.
British Museum, London; George III and George
IV (largely with I^LSS. taken from monasteries by
Henry VIII), c. 1759.
Casanatense, Rome; Cardinal Girolamo Casanata
(q. v.)^ 1698.
Congressional^ Washington; U. S. Government, 1800.
Mazarine, Pans ; Cardinal Alazarin, 1643 ; public 1688.
Mediceo-Laurenziana, Florence; Clement VII, 1571.
Nationale, Paris; Charles V of France, 1367.
Royal, Beriin; Elector Fred. William, c. 1650.
Roval, Munich; Duke Albert V, c. 1560.
Vailioeliana, Rome; Achille Stazio, 1581.
Vatican. Rome (see Vatican Library).
Clark, The Care of Books (Cambridge, 1902), a work of the
very highest value and indispooBable to any fuller etudy of the
subject; Pohlb and Stahl in Kirchenlex. a. v. Bibliotheken;
ScuDAMORE in Diet, of Christ. Antiq.; Gasqubt, Mediaeval
Monastic Libraries in The Old English Bible and other Essays
i London, 1897), 1-42; Ehrlb, Jamba, and others in Fasciculus;
'oanni Willis Clark Dicatus (Cambridge. 1909); Gottlikb,
Ueber mitUlalterlicke Bibliotheken (Leipiig, 1890); Edwards,
Memoirs of Libraries, 2 vols., (London, 1895): Pauly-Winowa,
Realencykiopfidie der kla»aischen Altertumsicissenschaft (1893-);
Becker, Catalog Bihliothecarum antiqui (Bonn, 1885); James,
The Ancient Libraries of Canterbury and Dover (Cambridge.
19a'?); Macray, Annals of the Bodleian Library (Oxford, 1890);
RoBiMSo;? AND Jamba, Tne Manuscripts of \yeMminHer Abbey
(Cambi "
Mona
bridgt
34; Dblwle, in Bib. de I'EcoIe des Charles fl849). 21(V-31; In.,
CabinH des MSS. de la Bib. Xationale (3 vols., Paris. 1874-76);
Thomas, The Philobiblon of Richard of Bury (London, 1888).
Herbert Thurston.
Licentiate. See Arts, Master of; University.
Lichfield, Ancient Diocese of (Lichfeldensis).
This diocese took its rise in the conversion of Mercia
by St. Cedd [q. v.] and his three companions in 652 and
subsequent years. One of these was Diuma who was
made Bishop of Mercia about 656. Among the suc-
cessors of Diuma was St. Chad, who fixed his seat at
Lichfield, where he built a monastery. As time went
on other dioceses were carved out of the Mercian terri-
tory— the sees afterwards known as Hereford, Wor-
cester, and Dorchester. But Lichfield, though les-
sened in territory, grew in political imoortance until
the time of the ascendancy of Mercia under Offa, when
that king determined to raise Lichfield as a nval to
Canterbury. At the Council of Chelsea in 785 legates
from the pope invested Bishop Hi^bert of Lichfield
with the archiepiscopal pallium, giving him metro-
S>litan authority over Worcester, Leic^ter^ Lincoln,
ereford, and the East Anglian dioceses oi Tglmham
and Dunwich. On the death of OfTa the pope restored
the full power of Canterbur3r, and in 803 the Council of
Clovesho accepted the decision of the Holy See. Dur-
ing the ninth century the diocese suffered mudi from
the Danes, and the great Abbey of Reiiton was sacked.
The next step was the gradual conversion of the invad-
ers. In the anarchy that ensued in the MiHImmIi^ after
the Conquest, the estates of the see were devastated,
and lichfield it^f was so poor a place that alUar the
Synod of 1075, which directed the removal of all sees
to walled tow^ns, Bishop Peter fixed on Chester as his
cathedral city, and his successor, Robert de Lunesey,
transferred his seat to Coventry.
The chapter at Lichfield was neverthelesB main-
tained, ana one of the early Norman bishops. Ro^r
de Clinton, rebuilt its cathedral there, Te-<feaicating
it to St. Chad, whose relics he there enshrined. En-
mity and jealousy, however, marked for many yean
the relations between the Lichfield secular canons and
the Coventrv monks, and successive episcopal elec-
tions were tne occasions for fresh quarrels. Gregoiy
IX (1227-41) settled the dispute by arranging that
the elections should be made alternately l^ each
chapter. During the thirteenth and fourteenth oen-
tunes the building of the cathedral continued. Though
not one of the laiger cathedrals, it has many beauties^
including the west front and the Lady Chapel, and is
altogether exceptional in having three spires. When
the Reformation swept away au abbeys and monas-
teries, the great monastic cathedral church of Coven-
try was destroyed, and the diocese was robbed by the
king of many manors. The churches were plundered
and the shrine of St. Chad in Lichfield catbedral was
violated and stripped . The schismatical bishops, Ro-
land Lee and Ricnard Sampson, wasted the diocesan
property. The last Catholic bishop was Ralph Bayne,
who was deprived of the temporalities of his see by
Elizabeth and imprisoned in tne house of the Protec-
tant bishop, Grindal. There he died in November. 1559.
The following is the list of the bishops of Licnfield,
the dates of tne Saxon bishops being very doubtful: —
Bishops of Mercia: Diuma, 656; CeoUach, 658;
Thumere, 659; Jaruman, 663. Bishops of lAchMd:
St. Chad, 669; Winfred. 673; St. Sexwulf, 675; Headdi,
691: Aldwini (Wor.). 721; Witta, 737; Hemele, 752;
Cuthred, 765; Berhthun, 768; Higbert, 785; Aldulf,
801: Humbert, ; Herewin, 816; Higbert 11, ;
Aethelwald, 818; Hunbeight, 828; Tunberht, ;
Cineferth, 870; St.Cumbert. ; Tunbriht, 890: Wig-
mund,901 (?); Ella, 920; Alfgar,944 (al.935); Kynw,
960 (al. 949); Wynsy, 974 (al. 961 or 964); Elph^;e,
992 (al.973); Godwin 1002; Leofgar, 1020; Brihtmar,
1026; Wulsy, 1039; Leofwin, 10.')3; vacancy, 1066;
Peter, 1072; Robert de Limesey, 1086; vacancy, 1117.
Bishops of Coventry and Lichfield: Robert Peche, 1121;
Roger de Clinton, 1129; Walter Durdent, 1149; Rich-
ard Peche, 1161; vacancv, 1181; Gerard la Pucelle,
1183; vacancy, 1184; Hugh Nonant, 1188 (al. 1184);
Geofrey de Muschamp, 1198: vacancy, 1208; William
de Comhill. 1215; Alexander de Stavenby, 1224;
Hugh Pateshull, 1240; vacancy, 1242; Roger Wese-
ham, 1245; Roger de Meyland (Longespie), 1258;
Walter de Langton, 1296; Roger de Northbuigh, 1322;
LICHFIELD CATHEWIAL
LXOBTXliAU 233 UEBER
Robert Stretton^ 1360 ; Walter Skirlaw, 1386: Richard people increased unceasingly. In 1615 her relics were
Scroope. 1386; John de Buighill, 1398; John Catterick, conveyed to Brussels, but in 1871 they were returned
1415; William Heyworth, 1419: William Booth, 1447; to Schiedam. On 14 March, 1S90, Leo XIII put the
Nicholas Cloose, 1452;ReginalaBolars (Butler), 1453; official sanction of the Church upon that veneration
John Hales, 1459; William Smith, 1492; John Arun- which had existed for centuries.
del, 1496; Godfrey Blyth, 1503: Roland Lee, 1524; Coudurier, Vie de la bienheureuM Lidwine (Paris. 1862);
Richard Sampson, (elected schismatically), 1543; JRwADENyiRA, La wd««Luft«ne.w«ify«(V^
T» i_u T> ^ ^eeV <j/j f Thomas A Kempis, \ tta Lidevngxa mrfftnis in Opera Omnia, iv
Kalpb Basrne, 1004. . , . , o ,, . , , , (FVdburg. 1905); HuYSMANS. Sainie Lydwine de Schiedam
In Cathohc days the Diocese of Lichfield included (Paris. 1901).
the counties of Derby, Salop, Stafford, and most of P. Albers.
Warwickshire. It was divided into* four archdeacon-
ries: Derby. Shrewsbury, Stafford, and Coventry. Lieber, Ernst Maria; b. at Camberg in the Duchy
The arms of the see were: party per pale, gules and of Nassau, 16 Nov., 1838; d. 31 March, 1902. He was
argent, a cross potent and quadrate in the centre the principal leader of the Centre Party in the German
between four crosslets patee of the second and or. Imperial Parliament (Reichstag) and the Prussian Diet
».'ft".f^**''^"'^'?'?"\^v'**'^*'*^?^*^'^7T**'7*^ (Landtag) after the death of Dr. Windthorst. Lie-
i^if{fi:^s^rS'St^cJ'St^Jk (tfelf!?9&"2: ber•^ father Mont* Lieber CouncUlor of I^ation,
Short account of the City and Clone of Lichfield (Lichfield. 1819); had long endeared himself to his Catholic country-
?i?AT' M^***^ and AntiquiUea of Staffordshire (Londjm. 1798- men by boldly defending their rights against bureau-
1801): Harwood. Htatory of Lichfield (Gloucester, 1806): Brit- «^i.:« «««^«»oo;^«a ;« iliAVvn44-ir n^-^ar^ of n^Ao T?«.nc>f
Tos/ History ani Antiquities of Lichfield Cathedral (London, jratic aggressions m the petty German states. H-mst
1820) ; DuGDAUB. Monasticon Anglicanum, VI, pt. Ill (London, Maria was trained from his earnest vears to take an ac-
y^^^ \ 7!^^^^* Cathedral Churches of England and Wales (iKm- ti ve interest in public and especially Catholic, affairs.
don, I860): Ston«, Lichfield Cathedral (Birmmffham. 18/0): Af*«» ^».m.^.,o4^:.w* f«^m 4-U^ «*^rrv«v.«e;it*n V.^ o^-iiri:^^
BolVon, Statutes of the Cathedral Church of LichAtld (StafiFord. After graduatmg from the gymnasium, he studied
1871): BEKEflPORD. Lichfield (written with strong anti-Catholic law at W Qrzburg, Munich, Bonn, and Heidelberg, and
^^?^ *P^ ^j°*^!i 9*H**^ l^^ff ^^"^^^^P^^i^^li- Clifton, received the degree of Doctor of Civil and Canon Law,
^i!^U%''S!X^ V^^^^Jl^^ndlf^iiohTitl^^i 30 July, 1861 The next four years he devoted to a
Pkoob, Memoirs of Roger de Weseham (London, 1*61); Idem, profoimd study of philosophy, history, literature, and
Life of Robert Orossetsste (London, 1793). taw^ ^th the hope of becoming a university professor.
- Edwin Burton. He was obliged, however, to abandon his purpose and
Ifichtenaa, Conbad op. See Konrad op Lich- retired to his native town, where he established his
TBNAU. regular abode. In the meantime he became actively
Li^n. ROM^ EMPEBOH. See Co.stx.t.kk ^^^I'^oL^'o^fffi^lPs^t^'d^l^S^a^ys^^
• separate schools, such as existed in Prussia, instead of
Udwina, Saint, b. at Schiedam, Holland, 18 the mixed public schools where all were educated to-
April, 1380; d. 14 April, 1433. Her father, Peter gether without regard to creed. In the agitation car-
by name, came of a noble family while her mother ried on for this purpose Lieber was a zealous worker.
Petronella, bom at Kethel, Holland, was a poor When Garibaldi invaded (1868) the Papal States,
country ^rl. Both were poor. Very early in her life Liclxjr called a great mass-meeting in Walmerod to
St. Lidwina was drawn towards the Mother of God protest against this aggression. In 1870 the peas-
and prayed a great deal before the miraculous image anta of the WesterwaUi (West Forest) elected him
of Our Lady of Schiedam. During the winter of the their representative in the Prussian Diet, and later,
year of 1395, Lidwina went skating with her friends, when the German Empire was created (1871), in
one of whom caused her to fall upon some ice with the Reichstag. In this capacity he took an active
such violence that she broke a rib in her right side, part in founding the famous Centre Party, which was
This was the beginning of her martyrdom. No medi- organized at Berlin in December, 1870, by about fifty
cal skill availed to cure her. Gangrene appeared in Catholic members of the Reichstag. These deputies
the ^«round caused by the fall and spread over her en- had foreseen the conflict with the Church (Kvltur-
tire body. For years she lay in pain which seemed to kampf)^ and announced their intention to act on
increase constantly. Some looked on her with sus- purely constitutional lines. From 1870 to 1878 the
picion, as imder the influence of the evil spirit. Her members of the new party were mostlv engaged in the
pastor, Andries, brought her an unconsecrated host, great battle for the interests of the Church. During
but the^saint distinguished it at once. But God re- this time Lieber developed his talent as a parliamen-
warded her with a wonderful gift of prayer and also t^iry orator and popular speaker, though as yet he
with visions. Numerous miracles took place at her wielded no influence as a leader. The KuUurkampf
bed-side. The celebrated preacher and seer, Werm- was chiefly the work of the indiWdual states, the Em-
bold of Roskoop, visited her after previously behold- pire taking no great part in it, except in the matter of
ing her in spirit. The pious Arnold of Schoonhoven the expulsion of the Jesuits, carried out by virtue of an
treated her as a friend. Hendrik Mande wrote for imperial law. In 1878 a decided change took place in
her consolation a pious tract ^in Dutch. When Joan- the inner political situation of Germany. Bismarck
nes Busch brought this to her, he asked her what she was meditating a change of attitude toward the tariff
thought of Henarik Maude's visions, and she answered and needed the votes of the Centre to secure a major-
that they came from God. In a vision she was shown ity in the coming parliamentary contest. Windthorst
a rose-bush with the words, "When this shall bo in took advantage or the situation to win influence for his
bloom, your suffering will be at an end." In the spring party in the Reichstag. His diplomatic attitude on
of the year 1433, she exclaimed, " I see the rose-bush the social (question, and the abilities of many of his
in full bloom! " From her fifteenth to her fifty-third followers, aided him in the accomplishment of his pur-
year, she suffered every imaginable pain; she was one pose. Among these followers was Liel^er. For the
sore from head to foot and was greatly emaciated. On moment, however, he was too interested in the great
the morning of Easter-day, 1433, she was in deep con- Question of the relations between Church and State to
templation and beheld, in a vision, Christ coming to- acvote himself to social questions, though he fully
wards her to administer the Sacrament of Extreme realized what a prominent place the social programme
Unction. She died in the odour of great sanctity . At was to hold in the history of the German Empire. He
once her grave became a place of pilgrimage, and as also knew that the Centre might hope for great sue-
early as 1434 a chapel was built over it. Joannes cess, should it manifest a sincere interest in the cause
Brugmann and Thomas k Kempis related the history of social improvement. In the years that followed
of her life, and veneration of her on the part of the Lieber advocated unceashigly his party's programma
23-1 LIEBSS
for the protection of the labouring classes, a policy that hiin, especially the southern members, thereby con-
was gradually adopted by all other groups. stitutiug him unquestionable leader of the party and
The Centre did not, however, become identified with Windthorst's successor. The Reichstag was dissolved
the Government as a result of its temporary alliance, by the emperor and a new election took place amid
Though the KuUurkampf was gradually discontinued, great popular interest and enthusiasm. The Ccnti«
other difficulties with Bismarck succeeded, especially Farty returned to the Reichstag as the most numerous
in regard to the socio-political agitation. The ^reat and unportant political factor m Germany,
chancellor imderstood its importance, but lx?lieved Liebcr's great qualities as a leader were demon-
that the duty of the State in respect of social reform strated from 1893 to 1898, during which period his
was hmited to the insurance of labourers against sick- prominence became more and more manifest; at the
ness, accidents, and disability. The Centre, on the same time took place the greatest domestic develop-
other hand, paid more att(^nt ion to the legal protection ment of the Empire since 1870. In those years Ger-
of lalx)urers against extortion and overtaxation. In many so developed its political organization and be^
the meantime the chancellor's demands in the matter came so self-reliant that the imperial idea has ever
of the army led to a rupture between himself and the since dominated the popular mind, completelv over-
Centre. In the delates on the Army Bill (1887), the shadowing the local patriotism of the individual states,
so-called Septennate, Bismarck strenuously resisted This is primarily due to three main factors: the
the influence of the hated party. He even tried to Russo-German commercial treaty of 1894; the civil
diminish the power of the Reichstag, and to increase code of 1896 with its resultant commercial law; as
that of the Prussian Landtag, in order to cfTcct his well as the reform of the procedure in army cases and
object. During the heated debates which followed the law of 1898 concerning the navy, the foundation
it was Lieber who attacked Bismarck and his asso- of the actual German navy. These measures were so
ciates in the Landtag with the greatest vehemence, thoroughly discussed in Parliament as to bring home
In 1890 Emperor William II relieved Bismarck of the to the uerman people the full si^ificance of an united
chancellorship, and declared himself in favour of state Empire. It is to Liebcr's credit that he grasped this
protection for the lal)ouring classes. In succeeding idea fully and that he induced his party, and others in
years, almost ever>' bill for this purpose advocated by the Reiclistag, to forget their differences and finish
the Centre since 1877 has received imperial sanction, this great work in umon with the Government. At
The Prussian ministry and Landtag, however, re- the same time he re-organizcd his party. Its former
tained their power in local politics, notwithstand- organization, dating from the time of the Xw/ftiritawijoA
ing Bismarck s retirement. On 14 March, 1891, the owed its origin to a politico-religious condition oi
Centre lost its leader by the death of Windthorst. affairs, and it aimed at special legislation. Beginning
Several prominent memlxjrs of the party were of with 1890, a new organization had come into existence
opinion that they ijhould come to an understanding with social reform as its principal object, the Volksver-
with the Prussian Government and with the Conserva- einfiir das Koiholische Dcvischland (People's Union for
tive Party, in order to obtain more influence in Prus- Catholic Germany). Liel^er made numerous speeches
sian affairs. This policy met with Liebcr's approval, in many cities on Wialf of this association. He re-
but fell through temporarily, when, in the spring of garded it as the most important means of ensuring the
1892, the Government withdrew a bill in the interest continuance of the Centre bv giving it a wider sphere
ofChristian public schools. This bill endorsed the prin- of activity in the domain of politics than was attain-
ciples of Christian education, but failed owing to the able by a merely ecclesiastical party , also by reshaping
violent opposition of the Liberals. A few weeks later, it along such lines as would make it permanently in-
thc Prussian Liberals and Conservatives formed a coali- fluential as an imperial party, ejctending to all the
tion in order to cripple the Centre policy of extendhig states of the Empire, witn social reform for its chief
to the miners the advantages already granted to the object (eine sociaie mid foderaiive Reichspartei).
labourers. The Catholic party was hopelessly outvoted. Lieber was very active during these years; his great
The situation now l)ecame very critical for the speeches are full of vivid German patriotic sentiment,
Centre. Their failure to pass their bills was aggrav- and recall at once the pofitical romanticists of 1813-
ated by discord within the party itself, so serious as to 60 and the heroes of 1848. His idea was the political
jeopardize its existence. Its unity had suffered by unity of Germany, so established, however, as to pre-
the loss of Windthorst. The defence of the rights of serve the historical peculiarities of the different na-
the Church, on wliich his followers had hitherto been tionaUties, with German science and educational
as one man, no longer held the first place in the po- methods, German industrial life, and the .unifying
litical field, being overshadowed by the differences, power of a universal system of commerce. He was
mostly economical, which had arisen between North ever mindful of the prestige of the fatherland abroad,
and South Germany. To protect their diverging in- and was ever a sincere friend of universal peace and of
terests it appeared best to dissolve the partv. The an amicable rivalry in the pursuit and furtherance of
possibility of a split between the northern and south- civilization. He crossed the ocean three times to
em members of the Centre grew more threatening visit the United States. In his speeches he urged the
when, in 1893, a great agrarian agitation arose in Ger- preservation of the German racial characteristics,
many. This led the Catholic voters of Bavaria, He was anxious for this in proportion as he studied
nearly all farmers, to desert the Prussian followers of American institutions, and realized their value, espe-
the Centre, whose interests in this matter diverged from cially in their possible application to Germany,
theirs. The crisis was approaching its culmination, When the election for the Reichstag took place in
but was obviated when in December, 1893, the govern- 1898, Lieber's party returned to Berlin with its former
ment introduced a bill in the Reichstag to increase strength. New, and perhaps more difficult, problems
the army. This caused great excitement throughout awaited solution: the completion of the navy, the re-
the Empire. All the members of the Centre were newal of the commercial treaties), and the reform of the
united in their determination to grant only a part of financial affairs of the Empire. Prussia wa« also
the Kaiser's demands. The two most prominent, endeavouring to secure greater infiuenoe in German
ably led by
tees of the several state-governments. Lieljer learned Miquel, Minister of Finance, formerly Lieber'a friend,
that the governments would not give the required but now his intriguing opponent,
guarantees, and moved for the consideration of the Lieber now fell fatally ill. He continued his woA
estimates only. The majority of the Centre seconded without flinching, however, until January, 190Q,
USBEB 235 LIEBERMANN
Landtag. But the Canal bill, by means of which he its seasions held in 1840 at Breslau, and in 1S57 at Sabs-
hoped to achieve this end, failedf at the last moment; burg, the predecessors of the great Catholic congresses,
he himself prevented the financial reform which he and as president of the Breslau Congress he drew up
had desired only as a means of cancelling debt^, and the protest of the " Katholische Vercin Deutschlands
not as a measure for regulating the financial relations agamst the proposals for reform made by the Freiburg
of the Empire with the confederated states, that were professor, J. B. Ilirscher, in his work " Erdrterungen
ttt this time overburdened by their share of imperial uber die grossen religidsen Fragen dcr Gcgenwart " (3
taxation. In the Polish question, he went no further parts, Freiburg im Br., 1846-55). In the conflict be-
than to outline a positive programme, by no means tween the ecclesiastical Province of the Upper Rhine
committing his party to a policy of opposition. He and the Government, Licber interposed with a second
endorsed, however, the completion of tne.navy, and pamphlet, "In Sachen der oberrheinischen Kirchen-
emphaaixed the need of a united national spirit in provmz" (Freiburg im Br., 1853); and, especially in
Paniament by means of which such great resiilts had nis last years, as a member of the Upper Chamber of
been obtained in the former Reichstag. In a word, he Nassau he w^as an energetic champion of the interests
was the Catholic parliamentarian who attained the of the Church, for which he also used his personal influ-
most definite results for the nation in the Reichstag, euce with his duke, who had appointeii him counsellor
a skilled tactician, a politician ripe in knowl^ge ancl of legation. His philanthropy is evidenced by his
experience, discreet, shrewd and cautious, inspired erection of a hospital at Kambcrg, towards the founda-
by lofty aims and an enthusiasm for high ideids. He tion of which his father had left a rich bequest.
was a brave German citizen, unselfish, yet eager for , ?^S^' Gcxhichte der kfUholischcn Kirche im J9. Jahrhun-
«tion a true Catholic Christian both in principle and ^: ^jSlrfo^Scffijf dJ^'c^'^X^^mUS^'S^S^^
in conduct. Deutschlands (Colofnio ,19(K^>, 52 sq., 106i»q.. and passim; Histo-
Stonographio ReooidB of the Reichstag and T^andtag; Hrld, riseh-politisehe Blatter, XXIII (1849). 785 sq.; XXIV, 118
Bidooium (deUvenxl on 3 April. 1903), pp. 63; Spahn, ErMt sq.; Der Katholik, XLI (1861), I, 127 sq.
lAiber, a biographical essay (1906). Gregor ReinholD.
M. Spahn.
^, ^ ,, ,. . . , , ,. . , , Lieber, Thomas. See Erastus and Erastianism.
Ueber, Moriz, pohtician and publicist, b. at the
eastle of Blankenheim in the Eifel, 1 Oct., 1790; d. at Liebennann, Bruno Franz Leopold, Catholic
Kamberg, in Hesse-Nassau, 29 Dec, 1860; a man of theologian, b., at Molsheim in Alsace 12 Oct., 1759; d.
eminent ability, great learning, and the highest culture, at Strasburg, 11 Nov., 1S44. Having finished his hu-
from his youth to his death a true Christian and a manities in the college at Molsheim, he studied theol-
faithful son of the Church, and an intrepid champion ogy from 1776 to 1780 in the seminary at Strasburg,
oC her rights and interests. His earliest literary activ- after which, as he was too young for ordination, he was
ity was the translation of prominent Catholic works as subdeacon appointed teacher in the college at Mols-
mmi foreign tongues, seeking thus to combat the spirit heim. He became a deacon and a licentiate of theol-
of "ralightenment" and rationalism which had been ogy in 1782, and was ordained priest on 14 June, 1783.
rampant in Germany since the days of Joseph II. He lie shortly afterwards became professor in the Stras-
first published under the title " Die Werke des Grafen burg seminary, in 1784 preacher at the cathedral, and
Joseph von Maistre" (5 vols., Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 1787 pastor at Ernolshcim near Molsheim. During
1822-24), the three principal works of de Maistre: the Revolution he was obliged to take refuge across
"Du pape", "De TEgUse gallicane dans son rapport the Rhine (1792), and the 13ishop of Strasburg, Car-
avecfesouverainpontife", and "Lessoin»es de Saint- dinal Rohan, appointed liim rector of the seminary
P^terabourg". He also translated John Milner's which had been transferred for the time to the Abbey
"The End of Religous Controversy" under the title of All Saints, in the Black Forest. Here he taught
"Ziel und Ende religi5ser Kontroversen " (Frankfort, dogmatic theology and canon law, and wrote his un-
1828; new ed., Padertx>m, 1849) ; and Thomas Moore's published " Institutiones iuris canonici universalis ",
"Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a Reli- In 1795 he secretly returned to his parish at Emols-
gion": "Reisen eines Irlftnders um die wahre Religion heim, where he laboured in secret and in great dan-
lu suchen" (Aschaffenburg, 1834; 6th ed., 1852). In ger for the cure of souls until 1801, holding at the same
answer to the pamphlet " Bruchstiick eines Ge- time the office of extraordinary episcopal commissary
aprftches Qber die Pnesterehe" (Iladamar, 1831), in for this division of the diocese. lu 1801 he was called
which an anonymous "friend of the clergy and of to Strasburg as preacher at the cathedral and secretary
women" attacked the celibacv of the Catholic priest- of the diocese, but returned once more to Ernolsheim
hood, Lieber wrote " Vom Cftlibat " (Frankfort. 1831) . in 1803. On 12 March, 1804, he was there unexpect-
As a member of the Lower Chamber of Nassau, nepul> edly arrested, and, on the ^oundlcss suspicion tliat
liflhed " Blick auf die jOngste Session der Landesde- he was in secret communication with the royal family,
Sutierten «ur St&ndeversammlung des Herzogthums was held a prisoner in Paris for eight raontlis. When,
fassau" (Frankfort, 1832). Liel^r's name became through the intercession of Bishop Col mar of Mainz
known, however, throughout Germany by his manly with Napoleon, he regained his freodom, he was called
ehampionship of the Archbishop of Cologne, Clemens by this bishop to Mainjs in 1805 as rector of the
August von Droste-Vischering, who had been im- newly founded seminary there, and in 1806 became
prisoned by the Prussian Government. In his defence also a member of the cathedral chapter. In the
ne issued under the pseudonvmof "A Practical Ju- seminar}^ he lectured on canon law, church history,
rist" the powerful polemic, "Die Gefangennehmung pastoral theology, and, after 1812, also on dogmatic
des Erzbischofs von K6ln und ihre Motive " (3 parts, theologj'.
Frankfort, 1837-38). Effective as were his published Personally and through the clergy trained by him,
writings for the liberties and interests of the Church, Liel>ermann exerted a w^holesome and long-continued
even more valuable were his professional opinions and influence upon the revival of the ecclesiastical spirit in
advice. Thus he was entrusted by the assembly of Mainz and the adjoining dioceses. Among his pupils
biahope at WOrsburg in 1848 and by the first confer- were the future bishops Riiss, Weis, Geissel, and such
enoe of the bishops of the ecclesiastical Province of the other distinguished men as Klee, Ltift, Lennig, Rem-
Upper Rhine held at Freiburg in 1851, with the com- ling, and Nickel. After he had declined in 1823 the
miarion to draw up a memorial to the Government, appointment to the See of Metz, Bishop Tharin sura-
His greatest servioesi however, were rendered in the moned him as his vicai^general to Strasourg, where he
UIOI
236
XJEQI
continued his fruitful activity. Under Th&rin's suc-
cessor, Bishop Lepappe de Trevem, he withdrew more
from public me. His last years were spent in retire-
ment in the mother-house of the Sisters of Charity.
Liebermann's name will live in theological literature
through his well-known " Institutiones theologicfle",
first published in five vols. (Mainz, 1819-27; 6th ed.,
1844) and later m two (10th ed., Mainz, 1870). Ow-
ing to the correctness of its contents and its clear and
well-ordered style, this work w^as used as a textbook
for years in many theological seminaries in Germany,
France, Bel^um, and America. During the time of
the Revolution, Liebermann pubUshed several anonv-
mous pamphlets in defence of the rights of the
Church ana against the required oath of tne civil con-
stitution of the clergy. Of his sermons several have
been published separately, e.g." Lob- und Trauerrede
bei Uelegenheit des Hintrittes des hochwtirdigsten
Herm Joseph Ludwig Colmar, Bischof zu Mainz"
(Mainz, 1818). After his death appeared: — "Lieber-
mann's Predigten, herausgegeben von Freunden und
Verehrem des Verewigten " (3 vols., Mainz, 1851-3).
From 1825 to 1826 he was editor of the "Katholik".
GuERBER, Bruno Fram Leopold Liebermann (Freiburg im
Br., 1880): //M/.-poI. BlatL, IJCXXVI (1880). 735-57; Kalholik,
I (1881), 90-109, 201-12; Fei.der-Waitzrnegger. OeUhrten-
itnd Scnri/lsteller-Lcxikon der deiUachen kathol. GeistlicfikeU, III
(Landshut, 1822), 287-94; Guerber in Kirchenlex.^ 8. v.;
Reusch in Allgem. deut. Biog., XVIII. 578-80.
Friedrich Lauchert.
Lidge, Diocese op (Legdiensis). — ^Lidge (Virus
Leudicus; Leodium; Legia) is now the capital of a
Belgian province of the same name.
Tlie first capital of this diocese was Tongres, north-
east of Lidge; its territory originallv belonged to the
Diocese of Trier, then to Cologne; but after the first
half of the fourth century Tongres received autono-
mous organization. The boundaries were those of the
Citntas Tungrorum, and they remained unchanged
until 1559. These boundaries were, on the north, the
Diocese of Utrecht; east, that of Cologne; south, the
Dioceses of Trier and Reims; west, that of Cambrai.
Thus Tongres extended from France, in the neighbour-
hood of Cnimay, to Stavelot, Aachen, Gladbach, and
Venlo, and from the banks of the Semois as far as
Eeckeren, near Antwerp, to the middle of the Isle of
Tholen and beyond Moerdyck, so that it included both
Latin and Germanic populations. In 1559, its 1656
parishes were grouped m eight archdeaconries, and
twenty-eight coimcils, chritientcSj or deaneries. Some
trace the bishops of Tongres to the first century, but
the first Bishop was St.Servais, installed in 344 or 345,
assisted at the C^ouncil of Rimini (359-60), and died
in 384 (?) . The invasion of 406 shattered the diocese,
and its restoration required a long time. The conver-
sion of the Franks began under Falco (first half of the
sixth century) and continued under Sts. Domitian,
Monulphus,and Gondulphus (sixth and seventh centur-
ies) . St. Monulphus built oyer the tomb of St. Servais a
sumptuous church, near which liis successors often re-
sided. During the whole of the seventh century the
bishops had to struggle against paganism. St. Aman-
dus (647-50) abandoned the episcopal chair in dis-
couragement, and built monasteries. St. Remaculus
(650-60) did the same. St. Theodard (660-69), died
a martyr.
St. Lambert (669-705?) completed the conversion
of the pagans; probably about 705 he was murdered at
Vicus Leudicus, for his defence of church property
against the avarice of the neighbouring lords, and he
was popularly regarded as a martyr. His successor,
St. HuDcrt, built, to enshrine his relics, a basilica
which became the true nucleus of the city, and near
which the residence of the bishops was fixed.
Those bishops, nevertheless, continued to use the
style of Bishop of the Church of Tongres. or Bishop of
Tongres and of Lidgs. Agilbert (708-64), and Gei^
bald (785-810) were both placed in the see bv Charle-
magne. Hartgar built the first episcopal palace.
Bishop Franco, who defeated the Normans, is cele-
brated bv the Irish poet Sedulius. Stephen (903-20),
Richaire (920-45), Hugh (945-47), Farabert (947-63),
and Rathier were promoted from the cloister. To
Stephen, a writer and composer, the Church is in-
debted for the feast and the Office of the Blessed
Trinity. Rathier absorbed all the learning of his
time. Heraclius, who occupied the see in 959, built
four new parish churches, a monastery, and two col-
legiate churches. He inaugurated in his diocese an
era of great artistic activity.
The domain of the Church of Li6ge had been devel-
oped by the donations of sovereign princes and the ac-
quisitions of its bishops. Notger (972-1008), by se-
curing for his see the feudal authonty of a countship,
became himself a sovereign prince. This status his
successors retained until the French Revolution; and
throughout that period of nearly eight centuries the
Prince-Bishopric of Lidge, with a temporal jurisdic-
tion of less extent than its spiritual, succeeded in main-
taining its autonomy, though theoretically attadied
to the Empire. Tliis virtual independence it owed
largely to the ability of its bishops, under whom the
Principality of Lidge, placed between France and
Germany, on several occasions played an important
part in international politics. Notger, the founder of
this principality, was also the second founder of his
episcopal city. He rebuilt the cathedral of St. Lam-
bert and the episcopal palace, finished the collegiate
church of St. Paul, begun by Heraclius, faciliated Hoe
erection of Sainte-Croix and Saint-Denis, two other
collegiate churches, and erected that of St. John the
Evangelist. This bishop also strengthened the paro-
chial organization of the city. He was one of the first
to spread the observance of All Souls' Day, which he
authorized for his diocese. But the most notable char-
acteristic of Notger]s administration was the develop-
ment which, following up the work of Heraclius, ne
gave to education: thanks to these two bishops and to
Wazo, " Lidge for more than a century occupi^ among
the nations a position in regard to science which it has
never recovered". "The schools of Lidge were, in
fact, at that time one of the brightest literary foci of
the period." Balderic of Looz (1008-18). Walbodon
(1018-21), Dunindus (1021-25), Reginard (1025-38),
Nitard (1038-42), the learned WazOj and Theoduin
(1048-75) valiantly sustained the hentage of Notger.
The schools went on forming many brilliant scholars,
and gave to the Catholic Church Popes Stephen DC
and Nicholas II.
In the rei^ of Henr}' of Verdim (1075-91) a tribu-
nal was instituted (tribunal de la pair) to take cogni-
zance of infractions of the Peace of God. Otbert
(1091-1119) increased the territorv of the principality.
He remained faithful to Henry IV, who died as ms
guest. The violent death of Henry of Namur (1119-
21) won for him veneration as a martyr. Alexander
of Juliers (1128-34) received at Lidge the pope, the
emperor, and St. Bernard. The episcopate oi Raoul
of Zachringen was marked by the preacning of the re-
former, Lambert le B6gue, who is credited with found-
ing the brines. The time at length came when the
schools of Liege were to jneld to the University of
Paris, and the diocese supplied that university with
some of its first doctors — \Villiam of Saint-Thierry,
Gerard of Li^ge, Godfrey of Fontaines.
Albert of Lou vain was elected Bishop of Li^ge in
1191, but Emperor Henry VI, on the pretext that the
election was doubtful, gave the see to Lothair of
Hochstadt. Albert's election was confirmed by the
pope, and he was consecrated, but was assassinated at
Reims, in 1 192, by three German knights. It is prob-
able that the emperor was privy to this murder, the
victim of which was canonized. In 1195, Albert de
Cuyok (1195-1200) formally recognised the francMscs
UESBOBM
237
LZE8B0BN
of the people of Lidge. In the twelfth oentuiy the
cathedral cti&pter assumed a position of importance in
relation to the bishop, and began to play an important
part in the history of the principality.
The struggles between the upper and lower classes,
in which the prince-bishops frequently intervened,
developed through the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies, to culminate, in the fifteenth, with the pillage
and destruction of the episcopal city. In the reign of
Robert of Thourotte, or of Lan^s (1240-46), St.
Juliana^ a religious of Comillon, Lidge, was led by cer-
tain visions to the project of having a special feast es-
tablished in honour of the Blessed Sacrament. After
much hesitation, the bishop approved of her idea and
caused a special oflBce to be composed, but death pre-
vented his instituting the feast. The completion of
the work was reserved for a former prior of the Domin-
icans of Lidge, Hugh of Saint-Cher, who returned to
the city as papal legate. Hugh, in 1252, made the
feast one of obhgation throughout his legatine jurisdio-
tion. John of Troyes, who, after having been arch-
deacon at Liftge, was elected pope as Urban IV, caused
an office to be composed by St. Thomas, and extended
the observance of the feast of Corpus Christi to the
whole Church. Another archdeacon of Li(>ge, becom-
ing pope under the name of Gregory X, deposed the
unworthy Henry of Gueldres (1247-74) . The Peace of
Fexhe, signed in 1316, in the reign of Adolph of La
Marck (1313-44), regulated the relations of the prince-
bishop and his subjects; nevertheless the intestinal
discord continued, and the episcopate of Amould of
Homes (1378-89) was marked by the triumph of the
popular party. Louis of Bourbon (1456-82) was
placed on the throne by the political machinations of
the dukes of Burgundy, who coveted the principality.
The destruction of Dmant, in 1466, and of Liege, m
1468y by Charles the Bold, marked the ending of
democratic ascendancv.
Erard de la Marck brought a period of restoration;
he was an enlightened protector of the arts. He it was
who commenced that struggle against the Reforma-
tion, which his successors mamtaincd after him, and in
which Gerard of Groesbeeck (1564-80) was especially
distinguished. With the object of assisting in this
struggle, Paul IV, by the Bull "Super Universi" (12
May, 1559), created the new bishoprics of the Low
Countries. This change was effected largely at the
expense of the Diocese of Li^c; many of its parishes
were taken from it to form the entire Dioceses of
Ruremonde, Bois-le-Duc (Hertogenbosch), and Na-
mur, as well as, in part, those of Mechlin and Ant-
werp. The niunber of deaneries in the Diocese of
Lidffe was reduced to thirteen.
Host of the bishops in the seventeenth century
were foreigners, many of them holding several bish-
oprics at once. Their frequent absences gave free
scope for those feuds of the Chiroux and the Grignoux
to which Maximilian Henry of Bavaria (1650-88) put
a stop by the Edict of 1684. In the middle of the
ei^t^nth century the ideas of the French eyicydo-
pidistes be^ui to be received at Lidge; Bishop de
Velbruck (1772-84), encouraged their propagation and
thus prepared the way for the Revolution, which biu^t
upon the episcopal city on 18 August, 1789, during
the reign oi Bishop de Hoensbroech (1784-92). At
last the territory of the principality was united to
France, and thenceforwara shared the destines of the
other Belgian provinces. The diocese, too, disap-
peared in the Revolution.
The new diocese, erected 10 April, 1802, included
the two Departments of Ourte and Meuse-Inf^rieure,
with certain parishes of the Forest districts. In 1818
it lost a certain number of cantons, ceded to Prussia.
After the establishment of the Kingdom of the
NetherUuids, the diocese comprised the Provinces of
li^e and Limbuig. On 6 May, 1833. Mgr Van
BoHimel divided the Ftovince of Lidge into two dean-
eries. Th 1839 the diocese lost those parishes which
were situated in Dutch Limbuig. The present Dio-
cese of Lidge, suffragan to Mecnlin, consists of 670
parishes, grouped in 40 deaneries, and has (1909) a
population of 1,152,151, the majoritv (Walloons)
speaking French; the minority, Flemish or German.
Diocesan statistics (1909) : deaneries, 40; curacies, 44;
succursal parishes, 620; chapels, 30; vicariates paid by
the State, 307 ; annexes, 22. After the Concordat, the
diocese was governed by Zaepffcl (1802-08) ; after him,
Lejeas, nonunated in 1809 by Napoleon, failed to ob-
tain canonical institution, and tne diocese was ad-
ministered successively by the two vicars-capitular,
Henrard (1808-14) and Barrett (1814-29). The suc-
ceeding bishops have been: Comeille Van Boihmel
(1829-52), Th6)dore de Montpellier (1852-79), Victor
Joseph Doutroloux ( 1 879-1 901 ) . Mgr Martin-Hubert
Rutten, the present bishop was instituted in 1901.
On account of the Law of Separation, a number of
French religious communities have settled in the
diocese.
FisEN, Flares ecclencB Leodierma (Lille, 1647) ; Idem. Hialoria
eccUsict leodierutis (Li^ge, 1696); Foullon, HisUnia leodiensU
du dioctae etdela principauU de Lihge, Dea originea a 1879 (Libget
1868-92); Paquay, Lea originea chrfticnnea dana U diachae de
Tongrea (Tonsjres, 1909); Kurth, La cU6 de LUge au moyen
d*Art et d'Histoire du dioct'ae de Likge (Li^e, 1881—); Leodium
riiH^e, 1902 — ); Vtrksnk, BibliographiederhiatoiredeBeigiqiie
(Brussels, 1902), after that, in Archivea Belgea,
Joseph Bbassinne.
Liesbom, a former noted Benedictine Abbey in
Westphalia, Germany, founded in 815; suppressed in
1803. It was situated near Bcckum, in the south-
eastern part of the district of MUnster. According to
an old tradition the monastery was established in 785
by Charlemagne. More probably, however, it was
built in 815 by two laymen, Bozo and Bardo, whom
the register of deaths of Liesbom names as the found-
ers. At first Liesbom was a convent for women. As
time passed on the nuns mw more and more worldly,
so that in 1131 Bishop Egbert of Mttnster expelled
them, and installed Benedictine monks in their place.
It was several times besieged by enemies, and from the
thirteenth century ascetic life steadily declined as the
abbey increased in wealth. The monasteir became a
kind of secular foundation, into which the nobility
gained admittance through influence. In 1298 the
property of the abbey was divided into separate pre-
tends, tw^enty-two of them full prebends, and six for
boys. The Bursfeld Union successfully worked here
also (1 465) for the restoration of discipline. To the Un-
ion was due the flourishing condition of Liesbom in
the period of the excellent abbots Heinrich of Cleves
(1464-90), and Johann Smalel)ecker (1490-1522), who
restored the buildings and greatly improved the econo-
mic condition of the abbey. Monastic life, art, and
study flourished again. The zeal of Licsborn influenced
other Benedictine abbeys, and it succeeded in re-ea-
tablishing discipline and the cloister in several con-
vents for women. The beautiful altar-paintings with
which Abbot Heinrich adomed the church became
famous, but under French administration (1807) they
sold for a mere song. The artist is unknown, and
the best pictures are now in the National Gallery,
London.
The pious Bernard Witte, a warm friend of Human-
istic leaming, was a monk at Liesbom (1490 to about
1 534) . He wrote a history of Westphal ia and a chron-
icle of the abbey. The period of prospcritv, however,
did not last long. Abbot Anton Kalthoff (1522-32)
adopted the doctrines of the Anabaptists and was de-
posed; Gerlach Westhof (1554-82) favoured the Prot-
estants and involved the monastery heavily in debt|
UESBORN
238
under Johann Rodde (1582-1601) immorality and
economic decay again increased. Conditions were
still worse dming tne disorders caused by the wars of
the seventeenth century. It was not until the Peace
of Westphalia (1648) ttiat any improvement appeared,
and then it was only for a short time, for the wars of
the eighteenth century also laid waste Liesbom so that
at the time of the suppression there were still several
thousand thalers of aeot. The abbey was suppressed
2 May, 1803, and was declared the property of the
Prussian Crown. The Gothic church, rebuilt 1499-
1506, and several monastic buildings, are still
standing.
Studien und MiUeilungen aua dem Benediktiner- tend Zister^
gienaer-orden, XXV (1904), 738-744; Schmitz-Ka.llenbero,
Moruuticon West folia (MQnstcr, 1909), 41; Becker. Dw Wirt-
achaflaverhdUniaM de» Klofftera Liesbom am Ende dea MiUelaUera
(MOnater Dissertation, 1909).
KlEMENS L6FFLER.
Liesbom, Master of, a Westphalian painter, who
in 1465 executed an altar-piece of note m the Bene-
dictine monastery of Liesoom, founded by Charle-
magne. His name is not mentioned by the historian
of the monastery, who, however, declares that the
Greeks would have looked on him as an artist of the
first rank. Even in the fourteenth century the Cologne
school of painting found a rival in Westphalia, and in
the fifteenth century the latter could oppose the great
Liesbom painter to Stephen Lochncr. These two
have sometliing in common with each other and with
the Van Eycks in Flanders, and both in their work
rather reflect the past than look into the future. On
the suppression of the monastery in 1807, the chef
d'ceuvre of the Westphalian artist was unfortunately
sold, divided into parts, and thus scattered. The
principal parts, some of tnese purely fragmentary, are
now to be found in the National Gallery of London, in
the MUnster Museum, and in private hands. A fair
idea of the altar-piece may be formed from a copy in a
church at Lilnen. The altar had not folding wings,
the painting being placed side by side on a long panel:
in tne centre was the Redeemer on the Crass, while
Mary stood on one side with Cosmas and Damian, and
on the other Jolm, Scholastica, and Benedict. Four
angels caught the blood which poured from the
wounds. The touchingly beautiful head of the Sav-
iour is still preserved, as are the busts of the saints,
whose countenances are so full of character and no-
bility, and several angels \^ith golden chalices. The
background is also golden. Four scenes chosen from
Sacred History were reproduced on the sides.
The painting of the Annunciation represents a
double apartment with vaulted ceiling, the front room
being represented as an oratory and the other as a
sleeping chamber: the marble floor, the damask cur-
tains which surround the bed, a wardrobe, a bench,
some vases, and writing mat«rial,all are carefully drawn
and with due regard for perspective; the arched door-
way and the partition wall are adorned with figures
of Prophets and Christ, and a representation of the
world. The window looks out on a landscape. The
Blessed Virgin^ clad in a blue mantle over a robe of
gold brocade, is seen in the front room turning from
er prie-dieu towards the angel, who, richlv robed and
bearing in his left hand a sceptre, delivers his greeting.
Of the Nativity group, there still remain five l>eauti-
ful angels, who kneel on the ground around the efful-
gent form of the Child: there also remain two busts of
male figures which were probably part of this scene.
Of the '* Adoration of the Magi " there is but one frag-
ment left. The " Presentation in the Temple " shows
a venerable priest, to whom the Mother presents
her Child laid on a white cloth: three witnesses sur-
round the priest, while the mother is attendee! >)y two
maidservants carrying the doves. Several panels have
been lost. The Liesbom artist is not as skilfully
teah'stic as van Eyck, but his genius for delineation
becomes quite apparent when one obeervee the no-
bility of expression about the mouths of his figures, the
almond-shaped eyes, the looee curly ludr, and the
natural folds of the garments. But his most charac-
teristic claim to fame lies in the purity of his taste and
in his ideal conception of a sacr^ subject. The great
master's influence is evident in other works, but no
second work can be attributed directly to him.
NoBDHOPF, Die ChroninUn dea Kloatera Lieabom (MOnater,
1866); FuRSTER. Oeach. der deutachen Kunst, pt. II (Leipsif,
1853); Janitschxk, Geach. der deutachen Maleret (Berlin, 1890).
C. Gl£TlCANN.
Liessies, a Benedictine monastery near Aveanes, in
the Diocese of Cambrai, France (Nora), founded iU>out
the middle of eighth century and dedicated to St.
Lambert. The monastery appears to have been de-
stroyed twice in the wars of the ensuing centuries, and
was only finally established about the year 1110 by
Theodoric of Avesnes and his wife Ada. From this
time its continued history is on record, but without
any fullness of detail; a list of the abbots may be found
in " Galiia Christiana ". The chief glory of Liessies is
the famous Louis de Blois, who became a monk there
at the early age of fourteen. In 1530 he was made
abbot and at once inaugurated his well known series
of reforms, which were rendered necessary by the
gradual decline from strict monastic observance (see
Blosius). After the death of Abbot Blosius the next
six abbots seem to have maintained the high state of
observance inaugurated by him, but the forty-first ab-
bot, Lambert Bouillon, was of a different type. He is
said to have lived extravagantly, exhausted the mon-
astery exchequer with lawsuits, and diverted the rev-
enues to the advantage of his nephews and nieces.
The illustrious F6nelon, then Archbishop of Cambrai,
accordingly held a visitation of the abbey in the vear
1702 and left certain instructions of which the abbot
circulated a largely fictitious account. The arch-
bishop, however having secured the changes he de-
sired, refrained from any public disavowal of the ab-
bot's declaration. After Abbot Bouillon's death in
1708 the existence of the monastery continued
smoothly until the final suppression of rehgious houses
in France. In 1791 the la!st abbot. Dom Mark Ver-
dier, and his community signed a declaration, as or-
dered by the decree of 14 October, 1790, in which they
protested their earnest desire to remain in religion, but
the suppression followed nevertheless. The property
of the monastery was sold in 1791 and 1792 and tfaie
church pillaged and destroyed. The valuable paint-
ings for which the abbey was famous, which included a
series of "religious founders", were burned or dis-
persed, a few being still to be seen in neighbouring
churches.
Chronicon Ladienae. in Reiffenburo, Mon, HxeL Namwr.,
VII, 393; Ocdlia Christiana, III (Paris, 1725). 123-126; Ma-
billon. Annalea Bened., II. 190, 278; V. 522; Binbt. Abr(ig4
dea vifa dea principaux fondateura dea religiona ae VBgHee, repr^
aentez dans le chaeur de Vabbaie de a. Lambert de Lieaaiea ....
(/\jitwcrp, 1034). Blosiu'%, A Benedictine of the sixteenth om-
turj/f tr. LovAT (London. 1878).
G. Roger Hudlestdn.
Life ^Gk. r<^; Lat. vUa; Fr. La vie; Ger. ZXm Ltben;
vital prmciple; Gk. ^vx^; Lat. anima, via vitalis; Ger.
Ijehenskraft). — ^The enigma of life is still one of the
two or three most difficult problems that face both
scientist and philosopher, and notwithstanding the
progress of knowledge during the past twenty-three
hundred years we do not seem to have advanced ap-
preciably beyond the position of Aristotle in regard to
the main issue. Wliat are its characteristic manifes-
tations? WTiat are its chief forms? What is the in-
ner nature of the source of vital activity? How has
life arisen? Such are among the chief questions
whichpresent themselves with regard to this subject.
I. History. — A. Greek Period, — ^The early Greek
philosophers for the most part looked on movement as
un
239
un
the most esaential characteriatic of life, different
Bchools advocating different material elements as the
ultimate principle of life. For Democritus and most
of the Atomists it was a sort of subtle fire. For Di-
ogenes it was a form of air. Hippo derives it from
water. Others compound it ot all the elements,
whilst some of the Pythagoreans explain it as a har-
mony— ^foreshadowing modem mecuanical theories.
Aristotle caustically remarks that all the elements ex-
cept earth had obtained a vote. With him genuine
scientific and philosophic treatment of the subject be-
gins; and the position to which he advanced it is
amon£ the finest evidences of both his encyclopedic
knowledge and his metaphysical genius. His chief
discussions of the topic arc to bo found in his ircpi
i^vx^ and repl ^t^r yevdfftun.
For Aristotle the chief universal phenomena of life
are nutrition, growth, and decay. Movement or
change in the widest sense is characteristic of all life,
but plants are incapable of local movement. This
followB on desire, which is the outcome of sensation.
Sentiency is the differentia wliich constitutes the sec-
ond graae of life — tliat of the animal kingdom. The
highest kind of life is mind or reat^on, exerting itself in
thought or rational activity. This last properly bo-
longs to man. There are not in man three really dis-
tinct souls, as Plato taught. Instead, the hij^hest or
rational soul contains eminently or virtually m itself
the lower animal or vegetative faculties. But what
is the nature of the inner reality from which vital ac-
tivity issues? Is it one of the material elements? Or
is it a harmony, the resultant of the balance of bodily
forces and tendencies? No. The solution for Ari^
totle is to be found in his fimdamental philosophical
analysis of all Bensil)le Ixiing into the two ultimate
principles, matter and form. Prime Matter (nuitcria
jnima) is the common passive potential element in all
sensible substances; form is tne determining factor.
It actualises and perfects the potential element.
Neither prime matter nor any corporeal form can exist
apart from each other. They are called sul>stantial
principles because combined they result in a being;
but they are incomplete beings in themselves, incapa-
ble of existing alone. To the form is due the spe-
cific nature of the being, with its activities and prop-
erties. It is the principle also of unity. (Sec Fokm;
Matter.) For AristotJe, in the cast^ of living natural
bodies the vital principle, ^wxiJ» i« the form. His doc-
trine is embodied in his famous definition: ^^xi^ iartv
irrtkix^'h ^P^V (ffifJuiTOi 0i;<r(4(ou dvvdfiei ^V fx^^^^*»
(De Anima, II, i), i. e. the soul is therefore the first en-
telechy (substantial form or perfect actualization) of a
natural or organized body potentially possessing life.
The definition applies to plants, animals, and man.
The human soul, however, endowed with rationality
is of a higher ^rade. It is form of the body which it
animates, not in virtue of its rationality but through
the vegetative and sentient faculties which it also
possesses. The union of these two principles is of the
most intimate chfuracter, resulting in one individual
being. The form, or entelochy, is therefore not a
substance possessed of a distinct Ixiing from that of
the body; nor in the case of animals and plants is it a
reality separable from the body. The himian soul,
however, seems to be of a different kind {y^yos jircpop) ,
and separable as the eternal from the perishable.
Aristotle's conception of the soul differs fundamen-
tally from that of Plato for whom the vital principle
is related to the body only as the pilot to the ship; who
moreover distinguishes ' three numerically different
soulfl in the individual man.
B, Medieval Period. — ^The Aristotelian theory in its
essential features was adopted by Al))crtus Magnus
and St. Thomas, and the doctrine of the vital prin-
ciple as form of the body prevailed supreme through-
out the Middle Ages. The differences separating
the rational soul from the vital principle of the plant
or animal, and the relations between intellectual ao*
tivity and sensory cognition became more clearly
defined. The human soul was conceived as a spiritual
substantial principle containing virtually the lower
faculties of sensory and vegetative life. It is through
this lower organic capacity that it is enabled to inform
and animate the matter of the body. But the human
soul always remains a substance capable of sulxdsting
of itself apart from the body, although the operations
of its lower faculties would then necessarily be sus-
pended. Because of its intrinsic substantial union
with the material of the organism, the two principles
result in one substantial being. But since it is a
spiritual being retaining spiritual activities, intrinsi-
cally independent of the body, it is, as St. Thomas
says, noji totalUer immersa^ not entirely submerged in
matter, as are the actuating forms of the animal and
the plant.
Moreover, the vital principle is the only substantial
fonn of the individual being. It determines the spe-
cific nature of the living being, and by the same act
constitutes the prime matter with which it is imme-
diately and intrinsically united a hving organized
body. The Scotist School differed somewliat from
this, teaching that antecedently to its union with the
vital principle the organism is actuated by a certain
subordinate forma corporeitutis. They conceive<.l this
form or collection of forms, however, as incomplete
and requiring completion by the principle of life. This
conception of inferior forms, though not easy to recon-
cile with the substantial unity of the human being,
has never been theologically condemned, and has
found favour with some modern Scholastic writers, as
being helpful to explain certain biological phenomena.
With respect to the question of the origin of life
Aristotle, followed by Albcrtus Magnus, St. Thomas,
and the Schoolmen generally, believed in the spon-
taneous generation even of organisms comparatively
high in tlie animal kingdom (see Biogenesis). The
corruption of animal and vegetable matter seemed to
result in the spontaneous generation of worms and in-
sects, and it was universally assumed that the earth
under the influence of moisture and the sun's heat
coukl produce many forms of plant and animal hfe.
St. Augustine taught in the fifth century that many
minute animals were not formally created on the
sixth day, but only potentially in a seminal condition
in certain portions of matter; and subsequently sev-
eral Catholic pliilosophers and theologians admitted
this view as a probable theory (cf. St. Thomas, I, Q.
Ixix, a. 2: 1, Q. Ixxi, ad 1). Ilowever, the concurrent
agency oi a higher cause working in nature was as-
sumed as a necessarv factor by all Christian thinkers (cf .
Salis Sewis, "Vera ^ottrina di S. Agostino e di S. Tom-
maso contra la generazione spontanea ", Rome, 1S97).
C. Modern Period. — In respect to the nature of life,
as in regard to so many other questions, Descartes
(1596-1650) inaugurated a movement against the
teaching of Aristotle and the Scholastics which, rein-
forced by the progress of science and other influences,
has during the post two centuries and a half com-
manded at times considerable support among both
philosophers and scientists. For Descartes there are
but two agents in the universe — ^niatt^r and mind.
Matter is extension ; mind is thought . There is no pos-
sibilitv of interaction l^etwecn them. All changes
in bodies have to be explained mechanically. Vital
Erocesses such as "digestion of fowl, pulsations of
eart, nutrition, and growth, follow as naturally from
dispositions of the organism as the movements of a
watch". Plants and animals are merely ingeniously
constructed machines. Animals, in fact are merely
automata. In the "Traits de I'homme" (1664),
he applie<l the language of cogs and pulleys also to
human physiology. Thus muscular movement was
explained as dme to the discharge of "animal spirits"
from the brain ventricles through the nervca \^lo ^V>ft.
Lira
240
ura
muscles, the latter being thereby filled out as a glove
when one blows into it. This tendency to regard the
organism as a machine was also fostered by the rapid
advances made in physics and chemistry diuing the
eighteenth century and the earlier part of the nine-
teenth, as well as by the progress in anatomical re-
search of the Italian schools, and even by the dis-
coveries of such men as Harvey, Malpighi, and Bishop
Stensen. The earlier crude mechanical conceptions
were, however, constantly met by criticism from men
like Stahl. If the advance of science seemed to ex-
plain some problems, it also showed that life-phenom-
ena were not so simple as had been supposed. Thus
Lyonet's work on the goat-moth revealed such a mi«
croscopic complexity that it was at first received with
incredulity.
Stahl (1660-1734) himself advocated an exagger-
ated form of vitalism. Rejecting the mechamcal
theories of the Cartesian School, he taught that life has
its source in a vital force which is identical with the
rational soul in man. It is conceived as constructor
of the body, exerting and directing the vital processes
in a subconscious but instinctively intelligent manner
by what he calls X670S in contrast with \oyLffijM,
whilst it rather inhabits than informs the body. Oth-
ers separated the vital force from the sentient soul
and adopted ''didynamism". Notwithstanding the
growth of materialism, vitalism achieved considerable
success during the second half of the eighteenth cen-
tury. It was, however, mostlv of a vague and incon-
sistent charact<5r tinged with Cartesian dualism. The
entity by which the organic processes were regulated
was generally conceived as a tertium quid between soul
and body, or as an ensemble of the vital forces in an-
tagonism and conflict with those of inanimate matter.
Tms was substantially the view held by the Mont-
Ejllier school (e. g. Barthez, B^rard, Lordat) and by
ichat. Even to men like Cuvier life was simply
a tourbiUon, a vortex, a peculiar kind of chemical
gnroscope. The Bildungstrieb or nisus fonnativus of
Blumenoach (1752-1840), who judiciously profited by
the work of his predecessors, exhibits an improve-
ment; but succeeding vitalists still showed the same
want of philosophic grasp and scientific precision.
Even a physiologist of the rank of Claude Bernard
was constantly wavering between une idie creatrice —
whatever that may mean — and une sorte de force /<*-
gislatiye mais nuUemeni exi^cutive, and the meclianical
organism of Descartes. Von Baer, Treviranus, and
J. Mailer favoured a mild kind of vitalism. Lotze
here, as in his general philosophy, manifests a twofold
tendency to t-eleological idealism and to mechanical
realism. The latter, however, seems to prevail in his
view as to the nature of vegetative life. The second
and third quarters of the nineteenth century witnessed
a strong anti-vitalist reaction: a materialistic meta-
physic succeeded the idealistic Identilatfiphiloaophie,
Even the crude matter-and-motion theories of Mole-
schott, Vogt, and Biichner gained a wide vogue in
Germany, whilst Tyndall and Huxley represented pop-
ular science philosophy in England and enjoyed con-
siderable success in America.
The advent of Darwinism, too, turned men's minds
to " phyjpgeny ", and biologists were busy establishing
genetic relationships and tracing back the infiniU
varietv of living types to the lowly root of the genea*
logical tree. To such men life was little better than
the movements of a complicated congeries of atoms,
evolved from some sort of primitive protoplasmic
nebula. The continuous rapia advance both of phys-
ics and chemistry flattered the hope that a complete
"explanation" of vital processes was at hand. The
successful syntheses of organic chemistry and the es-
tablishment of the law of the conservation of energy in
the first half of the nineteenth century were pro-
claimed as the final triumph of mechanism. Ludwig,
Helmholtz, Huxley, Hftckel, and others brought out
new and improved editions of the seventeenth-centuiy
machine view of life. . All physiology was reduced to
processes of filtration, osmosis, and diffusion, plus
chemical reactions. But with the further advance of
biological research, especially from about the third
c^^uarter of the last century, there be^an to find expres-
sion among many investigators an mcreaaing convic-
tion that though physico-chemistiy might shed light
on sundry stages and operations of vitcu processes, it
always left an irreducible factor unexplamed. Phe-
nomena like the healing of a wound and even regular
functions like the behaviour of a secreting cell, or the
ventilating of the lungs, when closely studied, did not
after all prove so completely amenable to physical
treatment. But the insufiSciency of physico-chem-
istry became especially apparent in a new and most
promising branch of biolc^cal research, — experimen-
tal morphology, or as one of its most distinguished
founders, W. Roux, has called it, Entwicklungsm^
chanik. The embryological problem of individualistio
development had not been adequately studied by the
older vitalists — ^the microscope nad not reached any-
thing like its present perfection — and this was one
main cause of their failure. The premature success
of the evolution theory too, had led to a blind, un-
questioning faith in *' heredity", "variation", and
"natural selection", as the final solvents of all difiS-
culties, and the full significance had not yet been
realized of what Wilson styles " the key to all ultimate
biological problems" — ^the lesson of the cell. Recent
investigation in this field and better knowledge of
morphogenesis have revealed new featiures of life
which have conduced much towards a widespread neo-
vitalistic reaction.
Among the chief of these has been the increased
proof of the doctrine of epigenesis. Already in the
eighteenth century embryologists were sharply divided
as to the development of the individual organism.
According to the advocates of preformation or pre-
delineatwti, the growth of the embryo was merely
the expansion or evolution of a miniature organism.
This theory was held bv ovulista like Swanunerdam,
Malpighi, Bonnet, and ^allanzani, and by animalcu-
lists like I^eeuwenhoek, Hartsoeker, and Leibniz. In
this view the future organism pre-existed in the prim-
itive germ-oviun or spernmtazoon, as the flower m the
bud. Development is a mere " unfolding " , analogous
to the unrolling of a compressed pocket-liandkercnief.
Though not quite so crude as these early notions, the
views of men like Weismann are really reducible to
preformation. Indeed the logical outcome of all such
theories is the "encasement" of all succeeding genera-
tions within the first germ-cell of the race. Tne oppo-
site doctrine of "epigenesis", viz., that the develop-
ment of the embrj'o is real successive production of
visible manifoldness, real construction of new parts,
goes back to Aristotle. It was upheld by Harvey,
Stahl, BuiTon, and Bliunenbach. It was also advo-
cated by the distinguished Douai priest, J. Turber-
ville Needham (1713-1781), who achieved distinction
in so many branches of science. In its modem form
0. Hertwig and Driesch have l)een amongst its noost
distinguished defenders. With some limitations J.
Reinke may also l>e classed with the same school,
thougli his system of "dominants" is not easy to reo-
conrile with unity of form in the living being and leaves
liim what Driesch styles a "problematic vitalist".
The modem theory of epigenesis, however, in the form
defended, e. k. by Driesch, is probably not incompati-
ble with the hypothesis of prelocalized areas of spe-
cific cytoplasmic stuffs in the body of the germ-cells,
as recently advocated by Conklin and Wilson. But
anyhow the nio<lem theory of pre-delineation de-
mands a regulating fonnative power in the Mnbyro
just as necessarily as the epigenctic doctrine. More-
over, in addition to the difficulty of epigenesis, the in-
adequacy of mechanistic theories to account for the
Lzn
241
Lin
vqgeneration of damaged parts of the embiyo Is be-
ooming more clearly recogxuxed every day. The trend
of the best scientific thought is clearly evident in cur-
rent bioloffical literature. Thus I^fessor Wilson of
Columbia University in 1906 closes his admirable ex-
position of the course of recent research over the whole
held with the conclusion that "the study of the cell
has on the whole seemed to widen rather than to nar-
row the enormous gap that separates even the lowest
form of life from the inorganic world " (The Cell, 4.34).
In these words, however, ne is only affirming a fact to
which the distinguished Oxford biologist Dr. Haldane
also testifies: *'To any physiologist who candidly re-
views the progress of the last mty years, it must bo
perfectly evident that, so far from having advanced
towards a physico-chemical explanation oflife, we are
in appearance very much farther from one than we
were fifty years ago. We are now more definitely
aware of the obstacles to any advance in this direction,
and there is not the slightest indication that they will
be removed, but rather that with further increase of
knowledge and more refined methods of physical and
ehemicalinvestigation they will only appear more and
more difficult to surmount." (Nineteenth Centurv,
1898, p. 403). In Germany Hans Driesch of Heidcl-
beix is at the present day, perhaps, the most candid
and courageous advocate of vitalism among German
biologists of the first rank. Since 1899 he has pro-
claimed his belief in the "autonomy" and "dynam-
ical teleology " of the organism as a whole. The vital
factor he boldly designates "entelechy", or "psy-
choid", and recommends us to return to Aristotle for
the most helpful conception of the principle of life.
His views on some points are unfortunately and (piite
unnecessarily, as it seems to us, encumbered by Kan-
tian metaphysics; and he appears not to have adtv
quately grasped the Aristotelian notion of entclechy
as a constitutive principle of the living being. Still,
he has furnished valuable contributions Imth to science
and the philosophy of life.
Side by side with this vitalistic movement there
continues, of course, an energetic section of represen-
tatives of the old mechanical school in men like
H&ckel, Loeb, Le Dantec, and Verworn, who still at-
tempt physico-chemical explanations; but no new ar-
guments have been adduced to jastify their claims.
Many others, more cautious, aclopt the attitude of
agnosticism. This position, as Reinke justly olv
serves, has at least the merit of dispensing from the
labour of thinking. The present neo- vitalistic reac-
tion, however, as the outcome of very extensive and
thorough-going research, is, we venture to think, the
harbinger of a widespread return to more accurate
science and a sounder philosophy in respect to this
great problem. With ref^ard to the auestion of the
origin of life, the whole weight of scientiuc evidence and
auUiority during the past half centur\' lias gone to
demonstrate with increasing cogency Harvey's axiom
Omne vivena ex -vivo, that life never arises in this
world save from a previous living l)eing. It claims
even to have established Virchow's generalization
(1858) Omnia cdlula ex cdluUiy and even Flemming's
further advance (1882), Omnia nudeua e nncleo.
The history of vitalism, which we have thus briefly
outlined, shows how the advance of biological re-
search and the trend of the best modern scientific
thought is moving steadily back in the direction of
that conception of life to be found in the scholastic
phiioeophy, itself based on the teaching of Aristotle.
We shall now attempt a fuller positive treatment of the
dodnne adopted by the great body of Catholic phi-
kMophers.
II. Doctrine. — A. Science, — Life is that perfec-
tion in a living beinf^ in virtue of which it is capable of
self-movement or mmianent action. Motion, thus
understood includes, besides change of locality, all
alterations in quality or quantity, and all transition
IX.— 16
from potentiality to actuality. The term is applied
onl^ analogically to God, wno is exempt from even
accidental modification. Self-movement of a being
is that effected by a principle intrinsic to the nature of
the beinff, though it may be excited or stimulated
from without. Immanent action is action of which
the terminus remains within the agent itself, e. g.
thought, sensation, nutrition. It is contrasted with
transiejxt action, of which the effect passes to a being
distinct from the agent, e. g. pushing, pulling, warm-
ing, et<5. Immanent activity can be the property only
of a principle which is an intrinsic constituent of the
agent. In contrast with the power of self-movement
inertia is a fundamental attrioute of inanimate mat-
ter. This can only be moved from without. There
are three grades of life essentially distinct: vegetative,
sentient or animal, and intellectual or spiritual life;
for the capacity for immanent action is of three kinds.
Vegetative operations result in the assimilation of
inaterial elements into the substance of the living be-
ing. In animal conscious life the vital act is a modifi-
cation of the sentient organic faculty ; whilst in rational
life the intellect expresses the object by a purely spir-
itual modification of itself. IJfe as we know it in this
world is always bound up with organized matter, that
is, with a material structure consisting of orgaas, or
heterogeneous parts, specialized for different func-
tions and combined into a whole.
The ultimate units of which all organisms, whether
plant or animal, arc composed, are minute particles of
protoplasm, calle<i cells. But even in the cell there is
differentiation in structural parts and in function. In
other words, the cell itself living apart is an organism.
The complexity of living structures varies from that
of the single cell ama?ba up to the elephant or man.
All higher organisms start from the fusion of two germ-
cells, or gametes. When these are unecjual the smaller
one — the spermatozoon — is so minute in relation to
the larger, or ovum, that their fusion is commonly
spoken of as the fertilization of the ovum by the
si)ermatozoon. The ovum thus fertilized is endowed
with the power, when placed in its appropriate nu-
trient medium, of building itself up into the full-sized
living being of the specific tvpe to which it belongs.
Growth throughout is effected by a continuous process
of cell cleavage and multiplication. The fertilized
ovum undergoes certain internal changes and then di-
vides into two cells juxtaposed. Each of tlie pair
passes through similar changes and subdivides in the
same way, forming a cluster of four like cells; then of
eight; thcn>pf sixteen and so on. The specific shape
and different organs of the future animal only grad-
ually manifest themselves. At first the cells present
the appearance of a bunch of grapes or the grains of a
mulberry, the monda stage; the growth proceeds rap-
idly, a cavitv forms itself inside and the blasiosphere
stage is reached. Next, in the case of invertebrates,
one part of the sphere invaginates or collapses inwards
and the embr\'o now takes the shape of a small sac,
the gastrula stage. In vertebrates instead of invagi-
nation there is une<|ual growth of parts and the dfe-
velopment continuing, the outlines of the nervous
system, digestive cavity, viscera, heart, sense-organs,
etc. ajjpear, and the specific type becomes more and
more distinct, until there can lie recognized the struc
ture of the particular animal — the fish, bird, or mam-
mal. The entire organism, skin, bone, nerve, muscle,
etc. is thus built up of cells, all derived by similar
processes ultimatelv from the original germ cell. All
the characteristic features of life and the formative
power which constructs the whole edifice is thus jxw-
scssed by this germ-cell, and the whole problem of life
meets us here.
The chief phenomena of life can l>e seen in their
simplest form in a unicellular organism, such as the
amoeba. This is visible under the microsco|)e as a
minute speck of transparent jelly-like 5^ti^^Q\\'dSK^«
uns
242
Lxn
with a nucleus, or a darker spot, in the interior. This
latter, as Wilson says, may be regarded as "a con*
trolling centre of cell activity". It plays a most im-
portant part in reproduction, and is probably a con-
stituent part of all normal cells, though this point is
not yet strictly proved. The amoeba exhibits irrita-
bility or movement in response to stimulation. It
spreads itself around small particles of food, dissolves
them, and absorbs the nutritive elements by a process
of intussusception, and distributes the new material
throughout its substance as a whole, to make good the
loss which it is constantly undergoing by decompo-
sition. The operation of nutrition is an essentially
inmianent activity, and it 13 part of the metabolism,
or waste and repair, which is characteristic of living
organisms. The material thus assimilated into the
living organism is raised to a condition of chemically
imstablc equilibrium, and sustained in this state w^hile
it remains part of the living being. When the assimi-
lation exceeds disintegration the animal grows. From
time to time certain cnaiigcs take place m the nucleus
and body of the cell, which divides into two, part of
the nucleus, reconstituted into a new nucleus, remain-
ing with one section of the cell, and part with the
other. The separated parts then complete their de-
velopment, and grow up into two dist inct cells like the
original parent cell. Here we have the phenomenon
of reproQuction. Finally, the cell may be destroyed
by physical or chemical action, when all these vital
activities cease. To sum up the account of life in its
simplest form, in the words of Professor Windle: —
"The amoeba moves, it responds to stimuli, it breatlies
and it feeds, it carries on complicated chemical pro-
cesses in its interior. It increases and multiplies and
it may die." (What is Life?, p. 30.)
B. Philosophy. — These various phenomena consti-
tuting the cycle of life cannot, according to the School-
men, t)e rationally conceived as the outcome of any
collection of material particles. They are inexplica-
ble by mere complexity of machinery, or as a result-
ant of the physical and chemical propert ies of matter.
They establish, it is maintained, the existence of an
intrinsic agency, energy, or power, which unifies the
multiplicity of material parts, guides the several vital
processes, dominates in some manner the physical and
chemical operations, controls the tendency of the con-
stituents of living substance to decompose and pass
into conditions of more stable equilibrium, and regu-
lates and directs the whole series of changes involved
in the growth and the building-up of the living being
after the plan of its specific type. This agency is the
vital -principle; and according to the Scholastic phi-
losopners it is best conceived as the substantial form of
the body. In the Peripatetic theory, the /orm or cn-
telechy gives unity to the living being, determines its
essential nature, and is the ultimate source of its spe-
cific activities. The evidence for this doctrine can be
stated only in the briefest outline.
(1) Argument from physiological unity. — ^The phys-
iological unity and regulative power of the organism
as a whole necessitate the admission of an internal,
formal, constituent principle as the source of vital
activity. Tlie living Iwing — protozoon or vertebrate,
notwithstanding its differentiation of material parts
and manifoldness of structure, is truly 07ie, It exer-
cises immanent activity. Its organs for digestion, se-
cretion, respiration, sensation, etc., are organs of one
being. They function not for their own sakes but for
the service of the whole. The well-being or ill-being
of each part is bound up in intimate sympathy with
every otner. Amid wide variations of surroundings the
living organism exhibits remarkable skill in selecting
suitable nutriment; it regulates its temperature and
the rate of combustion uniformly within very narrow
limits; it similarly controls respiration and circula-
tion; the composition of the blood is also kept un-
changed with remarkable exactness throughout the
species. In faot, life selects, abeorbe, distributes,
stores various materials of its environment for the
good of the whole organism, and rejects waste prod-
ucts, spending its energy with wonderful wisdom.
This would not be possible were the living being
merely an aggr^ate of atoms or particles of matter in
local contact. Each wheel of a watch or engine — nay
each part of a wheel — is a being quite dist met from,
and in its existence intrinsically independent of every
other. No spoke or rivet sickens or thrives in sympa-
thy with a bar in another part of the machine, nor does
it contribute out of its actual or potential substance
to make good the disintegration of other parts. The
combination is artificial; the imion accidental, not
natural. All the actions between the parts are tran-
sient, not immanent. The phenomena of life thus
establish the reahty of a imifying and regulating prin-
ciple, energy, or force, intimately present to every por-
tion of the Jiving creature, making its manifold iparts
one substantial nature and regulating its activities.
(2) Morpho-genetic argument: Growth. — ^The tiny
fertilized ovum placed in a suitable medium grows rap-
idly by division and multiplication, and builds up an
infinitely complex structure, after the type of the
species to which it belongs. But for this something
more than the chemical and physical properties of the
material elements engaged is required. There must
be from the beginning some intrinsic formative power
in the germ to direct the course of the vast series of
changes involved. Machines may, when once set up,
be constructed to perform very ingenious operations.
But no machine constructs itself; still less can it en-
dow a part of its structure with the power of building
itself up into a similar machine. The establishment
of the aoctrine of epigenesis has obviously increased
indefinitely the hopelessness of a mechanical explana-
tion. When it is said that life is due to the organisa-
tion of matter, the c^uestion at once arises: W^hat is the
cause of the organization? What but the formative
power — the vital principle of the germ cell? Again,
the growing organism has been compared to the build-
ing up of the cr>'stal. But the two are totally different.
The crystal grows by mere i^gregation of external
surface layers which do not afl^ct the interior. The
organism grows by intussusception, the absorption of
nutriment and the distribution of it throughout its
own substance. A cr^'stal liberates energy in its for-
mation and growth. A living body accumulates poten-
tial energy in its growth. A piece of crystal too is not
a unity. A part of a crystal is still a crj'stal. Not so,
a part of a cow. A still more marvellous characteristic
of life is the faculty of restoring damaged parts. If
any part is wounded, the whole organism exhibits its
sympathy; the nonnal course of nutrition is altered,
the \ital energy economizes its supplies elsewhere uia
concentrates its resources in healing the injured part.
This indeed is only a particular exercise of the faculty
of adaptation and of circumventing obstacles that
interfere with normal activity, which marks the flexi-
bility of the universal working of life, as contrasted "
with the rigidity of the machine and the immutability
of physical and chemical modes of action.
The argument in favour of a vital principle from
growth has been recently reinforced in a new way by
the introduction of experiment into embryology.
Roux, Driesch, Wilson, and others, have shown that
in the case of the sea-urchin, amphioxus, and other
animals, if the embryo in its earliest stages, when con-
sisting of two cells, four cells, and in some cases of
eight cells, be carefully divided up into the separate
single cells, each of these may develop into a complete
animal, though of proportionately smaller sise. That
is, the fertilized ovum which was naturally destined to
become one normal animal, though prevented by arU*
ficial interference from achieving that end, has yet at-
taimnl its purpose by producing several smaller ani-
mals; and m doing so has employed the cells which ft
Lin
243
LIFE
podue«d to form quite other parte of the organion
ihan thoee for which they were normally designed.
This proves that there must be in the original cell a
flexible formative power capable of directing the vital
proceeaea of the embryo along the most devious paths
and of adapting mucn of its constituent material to
the most diverse uses.
(3) Pmfchical Argument. — Finally, we have imme-
diate ancf intimate knowledge of our own living con-
scious unity. I am assured that it is the same ulti-
mate principle within me which thinks and feels,
which originates and directs my movements. It is
this same principle which has eovcmed the growth of
aU my sense-organs and members, and animates the
whole of mv body. It is this which constitutes me
one rational, sentient, Uving being.
All these various classes of facts prove that life is
not explicable by the mechanical, physical, and chem-
ical properties of matter. To account for the phe-
nomena there is required within the living being a
principle which has built up the organism after a defi-
nite plan; which constitutes the manifold material a
single being; which is intimately present in every part
of it; which is the source of its essential activities; and
which determines its specific nature. Such is the
vital principle. It is therefore in the Scholastic ter-
minology at once the final, the formal, and even the
efficient cause of the livine being.
C. Unity of the Living Being. — In each animal or
plant there is only one vital principle — one substan-
tial form. This is obvious from the manner in which
the various vital functions are controlled and directed
to one end — ^the good of the whole being. Were there
more than one vital principle, then we should have
not one being but a collection of beings. Tlie prac-
tice of abstraction in scientific -descriptions and dis-
cussions of the structure and functions of the cell has
sometimes occasioned exaggerated notions as to the
independence and separateness of existence of the
individual cell, in the organism. It is true that cer-
tain definite activities and functions are exercised liy
the individual cell as by the eye or the liver; and we
may for convenience consider these in isolation : but in
concrete reality the cell, as well as the eye or the liver,
exerts its activity by and throueh llie Ii\ing energy of
the whole bein^. In some lowly organisms it is not
easy^ to determine whether we are in presence of an
individual being or a colony; but tliis docs not affect
the truth of the proposition that the vital principle
being the substantial form, there can only l^e one such
principle animating the living being. With res{)ect to
the nature of this unity of form there has been much
dispute among the adherents of the Scholastic phi-
losophy down to the present dav. It is agreed that in
the case of man the unity, which is of the most perfect
kind, is founded on the simplicity of the rational or
spiritual soul. In the case of the higher animals also
it has been generally, though not universally held that
the vital principle is indivisible. With respect to
1>lants and lower forms of animal life in which the parts
ive after division, the disagreement is considerable.
According to some writers tlie vital principle here is
not simpfe but extende<l, and the unity is clue merely
to its continuity. According to others it is actually
simple, potentially manifold, or divisible in virtue of
the nature of the extended organism which it ani-
mates. There does not seem to be much prospect of
a final settlement of the point. (Urraburu, "Psy-
chologia", bk. I.)
D. UUimaie Orimn of Li/p.— The whole weight of
the evidence from biological investigation during the
last fifty years, as we have already obsrrved, goes to
prove with constantly increasing force that life never
appears on the earth except as originating from a
previous living being. On tne other hand science also
proves that there was a time in the past when no life
ccndd have posribly existed on this planet. How then
did it begin? For the Christian and the Theist ths
answer is easy and obvious. Life -must in the first
instance have been due to the intervention of a living
First Cause. When Weismann says that for him the
assumption of spontaneous generation is a "logical
necessity" (Evolution Theory, II, 366), or Ivarl Pear-
son, that the demand for " special creation or an ultra-
scientific cause" must be rejected because "it would
not bring unity into the phenomena of life nor enable
us to economize thought (Grammar of Science, 353),
we have merely a psychological illustration of the
force of prejudice even in the scientific mind. A bet-
ter sample of the genuine scientific spirit and a view
more consonant with actual evidence are presented to
us by the eminent biologist, Alfred Russel Wallace,
who, in concluding his discussion of the Darwinian
theory, points out "that there are at least three stages
in the development of the organic world when some
new cause or power must necessarily have come into
action. The nrst stage is the change from inorganic
to organic, when the earliest vegetable cell, or the liv-
ing protoplasm out of which it arose, first appeared.
This is often imputed to a mere increase of complexity
of chemical compounds; but increase of complexity,
with consequent instability, even if we admit that it
may have produced protoplasm as a chemical com-
pound, could certainly not have produced living pro-
toplasm— protoplasm which has the power of growth
and of reproduction, and of that continuous process of
development which has resulted in the marvellous
varietv and complex organization of the whole vege-
table kingdom. There is in all this something quite
beyond and apart from chemical changes, however
complex; and it has been well said that the first
vegetable cell was a new thing in the world, possessing
altogether new powers — ^that of extracting and fixing
carbon from the carl)on dioxide of the atmosphere,
that of indofmite reproduction, and still more marvel-
lous, the ix)wcr of variation and of reproducing those
variations till endless complications of structure and
varieties of form have l)een the result. Here, then,
we have indicat ions of a new power at work, which we
may term vilalitt/, since it gives to certain forms of
matter all those characters and properties which
constitute Life" (*' Darwinism", London, 1889,474-5).
For a discussion of the relation of life to the law of
the conservation of energy, see Eneroy, where the
question is treated at length.
Having thus expounded what we believe to be the
teaching of the l)est recent science and philosophy
respecting the nature and immediate origin of life, it
seems to us most important to bear constantly in mind
that the Catholic Church is committed to extremely
little in the way of positive definite teaching on the
subject. Thus it is well to recall at the present time
that three of the most eminent Italian Jesuits, in phi-
losophy and science, during the nineteenth century.
Fathers Tongiorpi, Secchi, and Palmieri, recognized
as most competent theologians and all professors in
the Gregorian University, all held the mechanical
theor>' in regard to vegetative life, whilst St. Thomas
and the entire body of theologians of the Middle A^es,
like everylwdy else of their time, believed implicitly
in spontaneous generation as an evcr\'day occurrence.
If therefore these decay e<l scientific hypotheses should
ever l>e rehabilitated or — which does not seem likely —
lx> even established, there would l>e no insuperable
diflficulty from a theological standpoint as to tneir ac-
ceptance.
Many articles deal with questions toiirhr<l upon in the present
fluhjeot: Actus et Potentia; Bioc.enehis: Huhxkjy; Enerot;
Evoli'tion; Form: Matter. The iB;eneraI literature is solaiiKe
our selection must do somewhat nrbftrarj'.
Historical. — Aristotle, DeAnimn, tr. Hammond (Ix>ndon,
1902); also tr. Hk'kr; Idem, De Generations Animalium; De
Hifitoria Ammalium, tr. Ores well; St. Thomas. I, Q. Ixxvi,
and paasim; Uolfes, Die SubstanliaU' Form und der Begriffder
Sccle bri AridoUleH (Faderbom, 1800); Bouilurr, Du Prin-
cipe vital et de Vdme jfenaante (Pam, \Hfik^\ VJi^x-is^ca., \>rr
LIOAMEN
244
LIGHTS
Vitalitmua aJa QewhichU und dU Lehre (Leipzig, 1005) ; Fostbb.
Hiatorji of Phyaiology (Cambridge. 1901); Locr, Bioloffy ana
its M<Scer9 (New York. 1908).
8CISNCE AND PmiiOaOPBT OF LlFB. WlNDLW, Wfuit u Lifef
(London, 1008) : Driesch. The Science and Philoaophy of the
Organim (London, 1007-1008); Wilson, The Cell in Develojy-
ment and Inheritance (New York, 1006); Jennings, Contri-
btUiona to the Study of the Behaviour of Lower Organiema (Wash-
ington, 1004) ; Gerard, The Old Riddle and the Neweat Answer
(London, 1908) ; Maber, Psychology (New York and London,
1905) ; Dressel. Der belebte und tier unbelebte Stoff (Freibura:,
1883); GuTBERLET, Der Kampf um die Seele (Mainz, 1800);
fDnit, Naturphilosophie (Monster, 1003); KmiifKja, Philosophie
der Botanik (Leipzig, 1005) ; Wasmann, Die Modcme Biologie
und die Entwicfclungstheorie (Freiburg, 1006); Mercxer, La
difinUion phihsophique de la vie (Lou vain, 1808) ; Faroes, La
vie ei Vivolution des espkces (Paris, 19(X)) ; Grasbbt, Lea limites
de la biologie (Paris, 1906); La Gbiesa, La Biomeccanica^ il
n4ovit€UiainOt il vitalismo tradisionale (Rome, 1900); Carazzz,
Teorie e critiche neUa modema biologia (Padua, 1906) ; Gemelu,
L* enigma della vita (Florence. 1910).
Limited Mecbanicism. — Tongiorgi, Inslitxdiones Philoso*
phiccB (Brussels, 1869); Carbonelle, Les confins de la science
et de la philosophic (Paris, 1881); Seccbi, Lunith d€Ua forte
fisiche (Rome, 1860); Palmieri, Jnatitutionea Philosophies, II
(Rome, 1875); Materiaustio mecbanical views. — Weis-
MANN, Evolution T/ieory (Ixtndon and New York, 1004); Le
Dantec, The Nature and the Origin of Life (London, 1007);
Verworn, General Physiology; (tr. London and New York,
1800); Pearson, Orammar of Science (London, 1900).
Michael Maher.
Ligamen (Lat. for hond)^ the existing marriage tie
which constitutes in canon law a public impediment to
the contracting of a second marriage. As marriage is
monogamous and indissoluble, it follows that one who
is still united in valid marriage cannot contract an-
other vaUd marriage (Matt., v, 31 sq., xix, 4 sqq.;
Mark, x, 11 sq.; Luke, xvi, 18; I Cor., vii, 10 sq.).
The existence of a previous valid marriage at the mo-
ment of contracting a second entails of itself the in-
vahdity of the latter. The Church enforces the law
that no one can contract two or more marriages at the
same time. Protestantism on the contrary docs not
take this stand as is shown, among other cases, by the
action of Luther and other reformers in the case of the
double marriage of the I^andgrave Philip of Hesse
(Janssen, "History of the German People at the close
of the Middle Ages", VI (tr. London, 1908), book II,
xii, 75 sc^c^.; Rockwell, "Die Doppelehe des Land-
grafen Philipp von Hessen" (Marburg, 1904); Paulus,
"Cajetan ana Luther (ibcr die Polvgamie" in "His-
torisch-pohtische Blatter", CXXXV, 81 sqq.; Kohler
"Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen"
in " Histonsche Zeitschrift ", XCI V, 385 sqq.). Hence
he who has already contracted a marriage, in order to
proceed legally with another, must prove that the first
marriage tie {ligamen) no longer exists. Since mar-
riage, apart from " matrimonium ratum" wliich is dis-
solved for one party by religious profession, is regu-
larly dissolved by death alone, proof of this death
must be established before the second marriage can
validly be contracted (C. 19, X, de spousal., IV, I).
The proof of death required is either an official
death certificate, issued by the parish priest or other
authorized ecclesiastic, or by the proper civil official,
the directors of hospitals, the military commanding
officer, or satisfactory evidence from other public
records and reports. The decision of a secular judge
supported by a death certificate cannot ipso facto de-
cide the question for the ecclesiastical authorities;
they may, however, utilize the same. Death may be
proved by two credible witnesses on their oath; by one
witness of such rank or character that he is above sus-
picion; by hearsay witnesses, if their statements orig-
mate from unsuspected sources. Should such credible
evidence be unattainable directlv, and from eccle-
siastical sources, the bishop should try as far as possi-
ble to obtain at least a moral certainty regarding the
position of the contracting parties. He ought also to
consider the previous marital relations of the missing
eirty, his religious attitude, age, health, property re-
tions with the surviving spouse, etc.
Should the bishop be unable to obtain moral cer-
tainty or should the case be extraordinary, appeal
must be made to the Apostolic See (C. 8, X, qui filii
sint legit., IV, 17; Cong. S. Off., 13, Mai, 1868, L e. the
** Instructio ad probanaum obitum alicuius coniugis";
Sac. CJong. Inq., 18 Juli, 1900). Whoever, in spite of the
certaintv of an existing marriage, attempts to contract
a second, conmiits an act juridical]^ null and void, is
guilty of the sin of bigamy, mcurs the ecclesiastical pen-
alty of infamy, and is exconmiimicated with a conse-
quent refusal of the sacraments and Christian burial.
Should it prove, however, that in fact the first marriage
at the time of contracting the second, was really dis-
solved, then the second, despite bad faith, would be
valid. Should the second marriage have been con-
tracted in good faith, if only by one party, and it sub-
sequently appear that the first spouse still lived, then
the second marriage would not only be invalid but
the parties to it must be separated by the ecclesiasti-
cal authorities, and the first marriage re-established.
However, the second and invalid marriage would en-
joy the advantage of being putative marriage (C. 8,
5C, qui filii sint legit., IV, 17). This second marriage,
thouffh illegal during the lifetime of the first spouse,
may be validly contracted after his or her death; in-
deed, should the party who acted bona fide demand
it, the guilty one is then bound to contract marriage
validly with the petitioner.
Since monogamy and the indissolubihty of marriage
arc founded on the natural law, this impediment of
ligamen is binding also on non-Catholics and on the
unbaptized. If an unbaptizcd person hving in polyg-
amy become a Christian, he must keep the wife he had
first married and release the second, in case the first
wife is converted with him. Otherwise, by virtue of
the "Pauline privilege", the converted husband may
choose that one of his wives who allows herself to l>e
baptized (C. 8, X, de divort., IV, 19, Pius V, "Ro-
mani Pontificis ", 2 Aug., 1571 ; Gregory XIII, " Popu-
lis ac nationibus'*, 25 Jan., 1585). Polygamy is like-
wise forbidden by the civil law, though it is much
more indulgent tnan the Church in the dissolving of
marriages and granting divorces, and often permita
a new marriage where the first marriage still exists.
In this matter Catholics must not follow the civil law
where it confficts with the law of the Church.
WerKz, Jus decretaliumt IV iRomc, 1904 <, 520 saq.; Lau-
RENTius, Institutiones juris ccclesiastiei (Freiburg, 1908)^. 626
sqq.; Pauu, Archiv far kaiholisches Kirchenrecht^ LXXXVIIIr
273 BQQ-; Smith, Elements of Ecclesiastical Law (New York*
1877-89). Johannes Baptist SaqmCllek.
Lights. — Upon the subject of the litureical use of
lights, as an adjunct of tne services of tlie Church,
something has already been said under such head-
ings as Altar (in Liturgy), sub-title Altar-Candles;
Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament; Candles;
Candlesticks; Lamps and Lampadarii. The present
article will be concerned only with the more ^ncrai
aspect of the Question, and in particular with the
charge so often levelled against Catholicism of adopt-
ing wholesale the ceremonial practices of the pagan
world.
How far the use of lights in the daytime as an ad-
junct of the Liturgy can be traced back to the second
or third century a. d. is not quite easy to decide. On
tlic one hand, there seems to be some evidence that
the Christians themselves repudiated the practice.
Although Tertullian ("Apol.'S xlvi and xxxv; "De
Idololat.'', xv) does not make any direct reference
to the use of lights in religious worsnip, still he speaks
in strong terms of the uselessness of burning lamps
in the daytime as an act of piety towards the emper-
ors. This would be somewhat inconsistent, if the
Christians themselves had Ixjen open to the same re-
proach. Moreover, several of the Fathers of the
fourth century might seem to be more explicit in
their condemnation of a display of lamps. For ex-
ample, about the year 303, Lactantius writes:
'* Tney [the pagans] bum lights as to one dwelling in
LIOBtS
246
LZ0HT8
darkucss. . . Is he to bo thought in his right mmd
who offers for a gift the light of candles and wax tapers
to the author and giver of light? . . . But their
Gods, because the^ are of the earth, need h^ht that
they need not be in darkness" (" Institut. Div.", VI,
ii) . In like manner, St. Gregory of Nazianzus, towards
the end of the same century, observes: "Let .not our
dwelling-place blaze with visible li^ht and resoimd
with mmstrelsy, for this indeed is the custom of the
Greek holy-month, but let us not honour God with
these things and exalt the present season with unbe-
coming rites, but with purity of soul and cheeriuhiess
of mind and with lamps which enlighten the whole
body of the Church, i. e. with divine contemplations
and thoughts" (Orat., v, 35). The rhetorical char-
acter of such passages makes it dan^rous to draw
inferences. It may well be that the writers are
merely protesting against the illuminations which
formed part of the ordinary reU^ous cultus of the
emperors, and wish to state forcibly the objections
agSLinst a similar practice which was beginning to
find favour among Christians. It is, at any rate, cer-
tain that even earlier than this the hturgical use
of lights must have been introduced. The decree
of the Spanish Council of Illiberis, or Ehira (about
A. D. 305), is too obscure to afford a firm basis for
argument (see Hefele-Leclercq, **nist. des Conciles",
I, 212). Still this prohibition, "that candles be not
lighted in a cemetery during the day, for the spirits
of the saints ought not to be disquieted " (can. xxxiv),
at least shows that the practice — ^which we know to
have been long in use among pagans — of burning
lights, for some syml)olicaI or superstitious reason, even
in the daytime, was being adopted among the Chris-
tians also. To discuss in detail the perplexing and
seemingly inconsistent references of St. Jerome to
the use of lights would not be possible here. But
two facts stand out clearly: (1) that he admitted the
existence of a pretty general custom of burning can-
dles and lamps in honour of the martyrs, a custom
which he apologizes for without unreservedly ap-
proving it; and (2) that the saint, though he denies
that there is any general practice among the Christians
of burning lights during the davtime, still admits at
least some instances of a [lurely liturgical use of light.
Thus he says: "Apart from honouring the relics of
martyrs, it is the custom, through all the Churches of
the East, that when the gospels are to he read lights
are kindled, thoueh the sun is already shining, not,
indeed, to dispel darkness, but to exhibit a token of
joy . . . and that, under the figure of bodily light,
that light may be set forth of which we read in the
psalter ' thy word is a lamp to my feet and a light to
my paths'" (C. Vieilantium, vii). This testimony is
particularly valuable because it so clearly refutes any
exclusively utilitarian view of the use of lights in the
churches.
From Eusebius, St. Paulinus of Nola, the " Peregri-
natio iEtheris" (Pilgrimage of iEtheria), and other
authorities, we have abundant evidence that the
Christians of the fourth century, and probably earlier
still, upon Easter eve and some other solemn festivals,
made a great display of lamps and candles of all kinds.
Moreover, this does not seem to have been confined
to the nocturnal vigil itself, for St. Paulinus, in de-
scribing the feast of St. Felix to whom his church was
dedicated, tells us in verse how "the bright altars are
crowned with lamps thickly set. Lights are burnt,
odorous with waxed papyri. They shine by night and
day; thus night is radiant with the brightness, of the
day, and the day itself, bright in heavenly beauty,
shmes yet more with light doubled by countless
lampa" (" Poem.", xiv, " Nat. " iii, in P. L., LXI, 467).
Stillthis poetical language may very possibly mean no
more thain that in a rather dark church it was found
desirable to keep the hunps burning even in daytime
upon great festivalz, when there was a lurge concourse
of people. It tells us nothing of any use of lights
which IS liturgical in the stricter sense of the word.
The same may be said of various references to the
festal adornment of churches with lamps and candles
which may be found in the writings of the Christian
poet Prudentius (cf. P. L., LIX. 819, 829; and LX.
300). Still, when we find in the newly discovered
* * Testament of our Lord " (1. 19) an injunction regard-
ing church buildings, tliat " all places should be lighted
both for a type and also for reading", it seems clear
that St. Jerome was not alone in attaching a mysti-
cal significance to the use of lights. Henc« we may
infer that before the days (about a. d. 475) of the
liturgical homilist Narsai (see Lamps and Lampa-
DARU) the use of lamps and candles around the altar
during the Liturgy had become universal.
It imould be added that no great importance can be
attached to the mention by St. Paulinus of Nola, of
"a perpetual light" in the church ("continuum scy-
?hus argenteus aptus ad usum"; cf. P. L., LXI, 539).
his certainly cannot be assumed to have been in-
tended as a mark of respect to the Blessed Sacrament
reserved for the sick. In the days before the inven-
tion of matches the continuance of some source of fire
from wliich a light could ]ye readily obtained was a
matter of great convenience. Such a perpetual light
seems to Imve been usually kept up, then as now, in
Jewish synagogues (cf. Ex., xxvii, 20; Lev., xxiv, 2).
but it was only the later Talmudists who discovered
in this a purpose of honouring the Torah, or Books of
the Law, preserved in the Ark. The same utilita-
rian design probably underlay any Christian practice,
which, after all, is not very widely attested, of keeping
a light perpetually burning in the church.
But to return to the liturgical use of lights in the
stricter sense, there are not wanting many considera-
tions to suggest that, despite the lack of direct evi-
dence, this practice is probably of very much older
date than tiie fourth century. To begin with, the
seven-branched "candlestick", or more accurately
lamp-stand, was a permanent element in the Temple
ritual at Jerusalem and more than one Jewish festival
(e. g. the Dedication feast an<l that of Tabernacles),
was marked by a profuse use of lights. Moreover, the
Apocalypse (i, 12; iv, 5; xi, 4), in the prominence
wnich it gives to the mention of candlesticks and
lamps, is proha!>ly only echoing the more or less litur-
gical concpptions already current at the time. Again,
the fact tliat the Liturgy was at first no doubt cele-
brated in the evening (cf. I Cor., xi, 21), ^s also the
necessity that the faithful should often assemble by
stealth (as in the catacombs) or in the early hours of
the morning (cf. PHny, "Epp", X, n. 97 — ante hicem
convenire; and Tertullian, "De Cor.", iii — aiitclucanis
caHbus)y render it highly probable that artificial light
must have come to be regarded as an ordinary adjunct
of the Liturgy. Hence the use of lamps and can-
dles was probably continued even when not actually
needed, just as, in more modem days, the bishop^a
bugia, which in the beginning served an entirely practi-
cal purpose, has come in time to Ix? pun?ly ceremonial.
It is also noteworthy that early representations of the
Last Supper nearly always give prominence to the
lamp, while something of the same kind obtains in the
first rude sketches of Christian altars. In any caiMj,
lamps and chandeliers are conspicuous amongst tlio
earliest recorded presents to churches (see the " LiUfr
Pontificalis", ed. Duchesne, passim; and cf. the in vi*ri-
tory of Cirta, a. d. 303, in Morcelli, "Africa ChrJHif-
ana", II, 183; and Beissel, "Bilder aus der alU'Ur'mis
Kunst", 247).
Both in ancient and modem times, tlu* rt*\trtmrh
has l)een leveled against the Church tliiit in Imt I'v.rt^
monial use of lights she has taken over wit himi, K/Tupli?
the sensuous and often idolatrous itrwAlivrH ttl |i(i^Ar>-
ism. For this charge there is very liltl*? r«^l jjnii/i**-
tion. To begin with, it must In* ttwUU^ii that waA
LIGHTS
246
LZOHTS
simple eleiueutsa^ light, mudic, rich attire, procesaioiiK,
ablutions, aud lustrations, flowers, unguents, incense,
etc., belong, as it were, to the common stock of all
ceremonial, whether religious or secular. If there is
to be any solemnity of eictemal worship at all it must
include some at least of these things, and whether wo
turn to the polytheistic ritual of ancient Greece and
Rome, or to the nations of the far East, or to the com-
paratively isolated civilizations of the aborigines of
Mexico and Peru, human striving after impressiveness
is found to manifest itself in very similar ways. A
multiplicity of lights is always in some measure joyous
and decorative, and it is a principle taught by every-
day experience that marks of respect which are shown
at first with a strictly utilitarian purpose are regarded
in the end as only the more honorific if they are con-
tinued when they are plainly superfluous. Thus an
escort of torches or candle-bearers, which is almost a
necessity in the dark, and is a convenience in the twi-
light, becomes a formality indicative of ceremonious
respect if maintained in the full li^ht of day. Again,
since the use of lights was so familiar to Jewish ritual,
there is no sufficient ground for regarding the Chris-
tian Church as in this respect imitative either of the
religions of Greece and Rome or of the more oriental
Mitnra worship. At the same time, it seems probable
enough that certain features of Christian ceremonial
were directly borrowed from Roman secular usages.
For example, the later custom that seven acolytes
with candlesticks should precede the pope, when he
made his solemn entry into the church, is no doubt to
be traced to a privilege which was common under the
Empire of escorting the ^reat functionaries of the
State with torches. This nght is expressly recognised
in the '* Notitia Dignitatum , but it may also be found
in embryo at an earlier date, when the Consul Duilius
for his victory over the Carthaginians, in the third
century before Christ, obtained the privilege of being
escorted home by a torch and a flute player. But
granting, as even so conservative an historian as Car-
dinal Baronius is fully prepared to grant, a certain
amount of direct borrowing of pagan usages, this is no
subject of reproach to the Cathol ic Church. ' * WTiat ' ' ,
he savs, '* is to prevent profane things, when sanctified
by the word of God, being transferred to sacred
purposes? Of such pagan rites laudably adopted
for the service of the Christian religion we have
many examples. And with regard more especially
to lamps and candles, of which we are now speaking,
who can reasonably find fault if those same things
which were once offered to idols are now consecrat(Kl
to the honour of the martyrs? If those lamps which
were kindled in the temples on Saturdays — not as
though the gods needed light, as even Seneca points
out (Ep. XV, 66), but as a mark of veneration — are
now lighted in the honour of the Mother of God? If
the candles which were formerly distributed at the
Saturnalia are now identified with the feast of the
Purification of our Lady? What, I ask, is there so
surprising if holy bishops have allowed certain cus-
toms firmly rooted among pagan peoples, and so
tenaciously adhered to by them that even aifter their
conversion to Christianity they could not be induced
to surrender them, to be transferred to the worship of
the true God?" (Baronius, " Annales", ad ann. 58, n.
77).
With regard to the use of lights in direct connexion
with the Iioly Sacrifice of the Mass, we find the whole
system of portable lights elaborated in the earliest of
the "Ordines Romani". Indeed, St. Jerome's plain
reference, already quoted, to the carrying of lights at
the Gospel, seems probably to take the practice back
to at least three hundred years earlier, even if we may
not appeal, as many authorities have done, to the
words of the Act^ of the Apostles (xx, 7-8) : " And on
the first day of the week, when we were assembled to
break bread, Paul discoursed with them. . . . And
there were a great number of lamm in the upper
chamber where we were asscmblecf." It does not
seem to have been customary to place lights upon Uie
altar itself before the eleventh century, out the "Or-
dinos Romani" and other documents make it clear
that, many centuries before this, lights were carried in
procession by acolytes (see Acolyte), and set down
upon the ground or held in the hand while Mass was
being offered and the Gospel read. A decree of the
so-called Fourth Council of Carthage directs that in
the ordination of an acolyte a candlestick is to be
eiven him. but this collection of canons does not be-
long, as wckS once supposed, to the year 398, but to the
time of St. Csesarius of Aries (about a. d. 512). A
httle later, i. e. in 636, St. Isidore of Seville (EtymoL,
VII), xii, n. 29) speaks quite explicitly on the point:
" Acolytes ", he says, " in Greek, are called Ceroferarii
in Latin, from their carrying wax candles when the
Gospel is to be read or the sacrifice to be offered. For
then lights are kindled by them, and carried, not to
drive away darkness, as the sun is shining, but for a
sign of joy, that under the form of material li^ht may
be represented that Light of which we read in the
Gospel: That was the true light." It was only at a
later date that various synodal decrees required the
lighting of first one candle, and afterwaros of two,
during the time of the celebration of Mass.
The use of lights in baptism, a survival of which stiU
remains in the candle given to the catechumen, with
the words: " Receive this burning liffht and keep thy
baptism so as to be without blame , etc., is.a^ of
great antiquity. It is probably to be connected in a
ver^' immediate way with the solemnities of the Easter
vied, when the font was blessed, and when, after care-
ful preparation and a long series of "scrutinies", the
catechumens were at last admittod to the reception
of the Sacrament. Dom Morin (Revue B^n^ctine,
\^II, 20; IX, 392) has ^ven excellent reason for be-
lieving thai the ceremonial of the paschal candle may
be traced back to at least the year 382 in the lifetime
of St. Jerome. Moreover the term ^xaTiffd^yres (iUumi-
riati), so constantly applied to the newly baptieed in
early WTitings, most probably bears some reference to
the illumination which, as we know from many sources,
marked the night of Holy Saturday. Thus St. Am-
brose (De Laps. Virg., v, 19), speaking of this occasion.
mentions 'Hue blazing light of the neophytes", ana
St. Gregoi>' of Nazianzus, in his great ''Sermon on
Holy Baptism ", tells the candidates that ''the lamps
which you will kindle are a symbol of the illumination
with which we shall meet the Bridegroom, with the
lamps of our faith shining, not carele^y lulled to
sleep" (Orat., xl, 46; cf. xlv, 2).
Again, the pagan use of lights at funerals seems to
have been taken over by the Church as a harmless
piece of ceremonial to which a Christian colour might
easily be given. The early evidence upon this pomt
in the wTitings of the Fathers is peculiarly abundant,
beginning with what Eusebius tells us of the lyinc in
state of tnc body of the Emperor Constantino: "They
lighted candles on golden stands around it, and
afforded a wonderful spectacle to the beholders, such
as never was seen under the sun since the earth was
made" (Vila. Const., iv, 66). Similarly, St. Jerome
tells us of the ol:)semiies of St. Paula in 386: "She was
borne to the grave by the hands of bishops, who eyen
put their shoulders under the bier, while other pon-
tiffs carried lamps and candles Ixjfore her " (Ad Eus-
toch., ep. cviii, n. 29). So, again in the West, at the
funeral of St. Germanus of Auxerre, "The number of
lights beat back the rays of the sun, and maintained
their brightness even through the day'' (Constautius,
"VitaS. Gemmni", II, 21).
It is also certain that, from a very early period.
lamps and candles w^ere burnt around the bodies, and
then, by a natural transition, before the relics, of the
martyrs. How far this was merely a development
LXatJGE
247
ULIUS
of the use of lights in funerals, or how far it sprang
from the earlier pagan custom of displaying a number
of lamps as a tribute of honour to the emperor or
others, it is not easy to decide. The practice, as we
have seen, was known to St. Jerome, and is with some
reservation defended by him. This burning of lights
before shrines, relics, and statues naturally assiuned
great developments in the Middle A^es. Bequests
to various '' lights" in the churches which the testator
desired to benefit generally occupy a considerable
space in medieval wills, more particularly in England.
Upon the symbolism of ecclesiastical lights much
has Deen written by medieval litun^sts from Amala-
rius downwards. That all such lights typify Jesus
Christ, TVTio is the Light of the World, is a matter of
general agreement, wnile the older text of the "Ex-
ultet" rendered familiar the thought that the wax
produced by virgin bees was a figure of the human
Dody which Christ derived from His immaculate
Mother. To this it was natural to add that the ^nck
was emblematic of Christ's human soul, while the
flame represented His Godhead. But the medieval
liturgists also abound in a variety of other symbolic
expositions, which naturally are not always quite
consistent with one another.
Bauickr in Kirdunlex., s. v. Kme; Schrod, ibid., s. v.
Lieht; Hcddamorb in Did. Christ. Antia., s. v.; Barontus.
AnfMlet ad ann., 5S; Thalbofer, Liturgik, I (Freiburg, 1883),
665-S3: Mf-HLBAUER, Oeachichtc und Bedeuiung der WachJ^
Kchter hex den kinhlichen Funclionrn (Augsburg, 1874) ; Stalky,
Studif in Ceremonial (London, 1901), 169-04.
Herbert Thurston.
Ugug^y a Benedictine Abbey, in the Diocese of Poi-
tiers, France, was founded about the year a. d. 360,
bv St. Martin of Tours. The miracles and reputation
of the holy founder attracted a large number of disci-
f)le8 to the new monastery. When however, St. Martin
jecame Bishop of Tours and establishecl the monastery
of Marmoutiers a short distance from that city, the
fame of LigugS declined considerably. Among St.
Martin's successors as abbots of Ligu;^ may Ije men-
tioned St. Savin, who resigned the post of abbot to be-
come a hermit, and Abbot Ursinus, during whose
reign the monk Defensor compiled the well-known
"ScintUlarum Liber" printed m P. L., LXXXVHI.
The Saracenic invasion, the wars of the dukes of Aqui-
taine and the early Carlovingians, and lastly the Nor-
man invasion were a series of disasters that almast de-
stroyed the monastery. By the eleventh century it
had sunk to the position of a dependent priory at-
tached to the Abbey of Maill^ais, and finally reached
the lowest level as a benefice in commendam. One of
the commendatory priors, GeofTrey d'Estissac, a great
patron of literature and the friend of Ilabelais, built
ths existing church, a graceful structure but smrJler
by far than the ancient ba.silica which it replacc<l. In
1607 Ligug^ ceased to be a monastery and was an-
nexed to the Jesuit college of Poitiers to which institu-
tion it served as a country house until the suppression
c/ the society in 1762. At the French Revolution the
buildings and lands were sold as national property, the
diurch being used for some time as the Municipal
Council chaT]d>er. Eventually, when the upheaval of
the Revolution had subsided, the building was consti-
tuted a parish church.
In 1S49 the famous Mgr Pie, afterwards cardinal,
became Bishop of Poitiers. This prelate was the inti-
mate friend ot Dom Prosper Gu^ranger, re-founder of
the French Benedictine Congregation of monks, and in
1852 he established at Ligiigd a colony of monks from
Solesmes. In 1864 the priory was erected into an ab-
bey by Pope Pius IX, and Dom L6on Bastide was ap-
pcnnted first abbot. When, in 1880, the monks were
driven from their cloister as a result of the "Ferry
laws", many of them retired under Dom Bourigaucl,
the suooessor of Dom Bastide, to the monastery of
Sflot in Spain ▼^eh was saved from extinction by the
recruits thus received. Some ^^ears later the buildings
at Ligug^ were sold to a s}iidicate, civil in its constitu-
tion, by which they were leased to the abbot and
community who thus entered their monastery once
more. Novices now came in considerable numbers
and, in 1894, the ancient Abbey of St. Wandrille de
Fontenellc in the Diocese of Rouen was repeopled by a
colony from J^igiig^. In 1902 the community were
again driven out bv the " .Association Laws", and they
are now settled in Belgium at Chevetoigne, in the Dio-
cese of Namur. On Dom Bourigaiid's resignation, in
1907, Dom I^opold Gau^ain was elected a))l>ot. The
community now numlxirs about forty choir monks
and ten lay brothers. .
Gallia Christiana, II (Paris, 1720), 1222; CnA&iARDpiS^ Mar-
tin et wn vionnMire de Ligugi (I'aris, 1873); Ouiifp LiaugA
premier monaHirt des Gaules in Revue d'Aouitaine, I (lS7o),
467-478); Bk«mk, St. Martin* 8 Abbey Ligugi, in Doumside Re-
view, XVIII (1H99). 128-139).
G. Roger Hudleston.
Liguori, Alphoxsus. See Alphonsus Liguori,
Saint.
Lilienfeld, a Cistercian Abbey fifteen miles south
of St. Polten, Lower AiLstria, was founded in 1202 by
Leopold the Glorious, Margrave of Austria, the first
monks being supplied from the monastery of Heiligen
Kreuz near Vienna. The early history of the foumla-
tion presents no exceptional features, but as time went
on the monastery became one of the richest and most
influential in the empire, the abbots not infrequently
acting as councillors to the emperor. Perliaps the
most remarkable in the whole long series was Matthew
KoUweis (1 650-1 C95) who, when the Turks advanced
against Vienna, literally turned his monastery into a
fortress, instilling a j^arrison and gi\'ing shelter to a
large number of fugitives. In 1789 Emperor Joseph
II aecree<l the suppression of the ablx>y and the s]X)lia-
tion was actually l>egun. The arcliives, manuscripts,
and valuables of all kinds were carried away to Vienna,
the librar>' was dispersed, and the monuments in the
church mostly reniovetl or destroyed. Ijuckily, how-
ever, Joseph il died before the ruin was completed and
one of the first acts of his successor, Leopold II, was to
reverse the decree^ suppressing Lilicnfefd, which thus
preserveil its ancient territorial possessions. In 1810
a disastrous fire ravaged the abl>ey buildings, but the
church, considered one of the finest in the empire,
fortunately escaped damage. The ruined monastery
was aftcnvards restored at great expense and is now a
fine specimen of the Austrian type of abbey; vast,
somewhat heavy in style and suggesting in its out-
ward appearance the power and dignity of an institu-
tion which hiis survived from feudal times. In 1910
the community numbered forty-nine choir monks, the
abbot being Dom Justin Panscliab. The abbey l)e-
longs to the Austro-llungarian Congregation Com-
munis observant iiv in which the observance, both as
regards spirit and tradition, is allied far more closely
to that of the Black Monks of St. Benedict, than to the
reform of Abbot de Rancd, commonly known as the
Trappist Congregation.
Janauschek, Oriffines Cisfcrcicnsf.n I (Vioivia, 1877), 212;
Hanthaler, Fafti Campililienttcs (Linz, 1747-17r>4); Brun-
NBR, Cialerzienscrbuch (Wiirzburg, 1881), 139-205; Han-
THALEHt, Rcctmsus diplomatico-gcncalo'jicua archicii Campililien'
sis, 2 vols. (Vienna. 1819-1820); Tkhtz, Archiv., VI (1831),
185-186.
G. Roger Hudleston.
Lilius, Aix)i8ius, principal author of the Gregorian
Calendar, was a native of Cir6 or Zir6 in Calabria.
His name was originally Aloigi Giglio, from which the
Latinized form now used is derived. Montucla (His-
toire des Mathdmatiques, I, 678) erroneously calls him
a Veronese, and Delambre (Histoiro de I'Astronomie
moderne, 1SI2, I, 5 and 57) calls him Luigi Lilio
Giraldi, mixing up Aloigi with Lilius Gregorius Gi-
raldi, the author of a work *' De Annis et l^lensibua %
XJUUS
248
LILIU8
Of Lilius's life nothing is known beyond the fact that
he was professor of medicine at the University of
Perugia as early as 1552. In that year he was recom-
mended by Cardinal Marcello Cervini (afterwards Pope
Marcellus II) for an increase of salary as an eminent
professor and a man highly esteemed by the entire
university. This date may explain why Lilius did not
live to see his calendar introduced thirty years later.
The statement in Pog^endorff's " Handworterbuch",
that Lilius was a physician in Rome and that he died
in 1576, is apparently not supported by recent re-
searches. In that year, 1576, nis manuscript on the
reform of the calendar was presented to the Roman
Curia by his brother Antonius^ likewise doctor of arts
and m^icine. Antonius was probably many years
younger, as he survived the reform and owned the
copyright of the new calendar, until, by retarding its
introduction, he lost that privilege, and its printing
became free. Mention is made of a Mgr Thomas
Giglio, Bishop of Sora, as first prefect of the papal
commissions for the reform. If lie was a relative of
the two brothers, he was not guilty of family favourit-
ism, as he proved himself an obstruction to Aloigi's
plans. Lihus's work cannot be understood without a
Knowledge of wliat was done before him and in what
shape his reform was introduced.
Gbegorian Reform of the Calendab. — From the
Council of Niccea to that of Constance. — ^The reform of
the'calendar was from the start connected with general
councils, viz. those of Nicaea (325), of Constance (1414
-1418), of Basle (1431), the Fifth of the Lateran
(1512-1517), and that of Trent (1545-1563). The
double rule, ascribed to the first council, that the ver-
nal equinox shall remain on 21 March, where it then
was, and that Easter shall fall on the Sunday aft«r the
first vernal full moon, was not respected by all those
that planned reforms, but was stnctly adhered to in
the Gregorian Calendar. It was well known, at the
time of the Council of Nicaea, that both the Julian year
and the lunar cycle of Meton were too long; yet a
remedy could not be adopted until the errors were
more exactly determined. This state of knowledge
lasted throughout the first twelve hundred years of our
era, as is testified by the few representatives of that
period: Gregory of Tours (544-595), Venerable Bede
(c. 673-735). and Alcuin (735-804). Some progress
was made aurin^ the thirteenth centurv. In the
"Computus" of ^uigister Chonrad (1200) the error of
the calendar was again pointed out. A first approxi-
mation of its extent was almost simultaneously given
by Robert Grosseteste (Greathead, 1175-1253), Chan-
cellor of Oxford and Bishop of Lincoln, and by the
Scottish monk Joannes a Sacrobosco (Holvwood or
Halifax) . According to the former one leap day should
be omitted ever>' 300 years; according to tne latter 288
Julian years were just one day too long, and 19 Julian
years were one and one-third hours snorter than the
lunar cycle. While the latter error is estimated cor-
rectly, the other two numbers 300 and 288 should be re-
placed by 128. The Franciscan friar, Roger Bacon of
Ilchester (1214-1294), basing his views on Grosseteste,
recommended to the pope a series of reforms, the
merits of which he did not decide. Campanus (be-
tween 1261 and 1264) made to Urban IV the specific
proposition to replace the lunar cycle of 19 years by
two others of 30 and 304 years. The most important
step in the thirteenth centur}' was made by the ap-
pearance, in 1252, of the astronomical tables of King
Alplionsus X of Castile.
The fourteenth century is remarkable for an astro-
nomical conference held at the papal court in Avignon.
In 1344 Clement VI sent invitations to Joannes de
Muris, a canon of Mazi^res (Canton Bourges), who was
held to be no mean astronomer, and to Firminus de
Bella valle (Beauval), a native of Amiens, and others.
The result of the conference was a treatise written by
the two authors just mentioned: "I^istola super re-
formatione antiqui Calendarii''. It had four parts: the
solar year, the lunar year, the Golden Number, Easter.
A third author was the monk Joannes de Thermis.
Whether he was a member of the same conference or
not, certain it is that he was charged bv Clement VI to
write his ''Tractatus de tempore celebrationis Pas-
chalis'\ It appeared nine years after the conference
(1354) and was dedicated to Innocent VI, successor to
Clement VI. In the same centurv other treatises on
the errors and the reform of the calendar are recorded,
one of Magister Gordianus (between 1300 and 1320)
and one of a Greek monk, Isaac Argyros (1372-3).
The Councils of Constance and Basie, — ^The fifteenth
century marks an epoch in the reform of the calendar
by two scientific authorities, Pierre d'AiUy and Nico-
las de Cusa, both cardinals. Pierre d'Ailhr (1350-
1425), Bishop of Cambrai and Chancellor of the Sor-
bonne, followed the views of Roger Bacon. After
advising Pope John XXIII in 1412, he pointed out to
the Council of Constance, in 1417, the great errors of
the calendar. He suggested different remedies: first,
to omit one leap day every 134 years, thereby correct-
ing the solar year; second, to omit one day of the
lunar cycle every 304 years: or third, to abandon all
cyclical computation and follow astronomical observa-
tion. It must be noticed that the first and third
proposition of Cardinal d'Ailly are reiterated in our
own days (substituting for 134 the correct number
128). The first and second of d'Ailly's propositions
were elaborated and again proposed by Caniinal de
Cusa a401-1446) to the Council of Basle. The error
should be corrected by omitting 7 days in the solar
cycle (passing, in 1439, from 24 May to 1 June) and 3
days in the lunar cycle. His *' Reparatio Calendarii"
furnished much information to subsequent reformers.
He was the first to take into account differences of
longitude for various meridians. The two councils
wisely postponed the reform of the calendar to some
future time. The fifteenth century was not to cloee,
however, without considerable progress connected with
the names of Zoestius, John of Gmund, George of Pur-
bach, and John of Koenigsberg (Regiomontanus). A
treatise on the reform of the calendar by Zoestius ap-
peared after 1437. The first printed almanacs were
issued by John of Gmund (d. 1442), dean and chan-
cellor of the University of Vienna. His disciple was
Purbach, afterwards professor of mathematics at the
same university and teacher of John Milller, called
Regiomontanus aft^r his native place in Franken.
The latter (1435-1476) continued the work of the
chancellor in publishing calendars that served as
models for a century to come. The Golden Numbers
of the lunar cycle were retained, but the lunations
were taken from observation. This combination made
the errors of Easter more and more manifest. Regio-
montanus was called to Rome by Sixtus IV^ for the
purpose of reforming the calendar, but died shortly
after his arrival at the age of fortv-one.
The Councils of the Lateran and of Trent, — The two
councils of the sixteenth century were finally to pave
the way for the long desired reform. The efforts tnade
at the Lateran Council are described by Marsi. From
the twelve or more authors enumerated by him it will
suffice to mention the two that exercised a decisive in-
fluence: Paul of Middleburg, who started the proceed-
ings, and Copernicus, who brought them to a tempo-
rarv conclusion. The life of the former is described by
Bnldi in Appendix I to Marzi. Paul bom in 1445,
died as Bishop of Fossombrone in 1534. He was
called from Louvain to Italy by the Republic of Ven-
ice, became professor of mathematics at Padua, and
physician and astrologer to the Duke of Urbino. B^
tore the opening of the council in 1512 he asked JuliusII
to attend to the calendar. Leo X sent out briefs to
Maximilian I, the princes, bishops, and universities, to
obtain their opinion on the calendar, and appointed
the Bishop of Fossombrone as president of the oooi-
xjumi
249
LILIV8
mission for the reform. The treatise which Paul of
Bfiddelbuii; laid before the council is entitled: ''Pau-
lina sive de recta Paschse celebratione etc. '' (Fossom-
brone, 1513). He was against bringing the eauinox
back to 21 March, and opposed the idea of abandoning
the lunar cycle or putting Easter on a fixed Sunday
of the year. He proposedf, however, a change in the
^cle by reducing xhe seven cmbolismic months to five.
Emperor Maximilian charged the Universities of
Vienna, Tubingen, and Louvain, to express an opinion.
Vienna supported the first and thiru propositions of
Cardinal a'Ailly at the Council of Constance, viz. to
correct the Julian intercalation by omitting a leap day
every 134 years, and to abandon the lunar c^cle. Tu-
bingen was of the same opinion, and agreed with Bishop
Paw in leaving the equinox where it was.
Copernicus had be«n asked by the papal conmiis-
mon in 1514 to state his views, and his decision was, that
the motions of sun and moon were not yet sufficiently
known to attempt a reform of the calendar. The
commission was to make definite propositions in the
tenth session of the council. Although this was post-
poned from 1514 to 1515, no conclusion was reached.
After the Lateran Council considerable progress was
made. Copernicus had promised to continue the ob-
Bervations of sun and moon and he did so for more
thui ten years longer. The results laid down in his
immortal work " De Revolutionibus Orbium Cceles-
tium" (1543) enabled Erasmus Reiiihold to compute
the Prutenic Tables (Wittenberg, 1554), which were
afterwards made the basis of tne Gregorian reform.
The principal writers at the time are the following:
Albertus Pighius, magister at the University of Lou-
vain. who dedicated to Leo X, in 1520, a treatise in
whi(m he supported Cardinal d'Ailly's intercalation,
omitting a leap day every 134 years, out, on the other
hand, recommended the retention of the lunar cycle.
About the equinox he committed an error, reckoning
it from the constellation of Aries and advising the
omission of 16 days. The two Florentine monks,
Joannes Lucidus and Joannes Maria de Tholosanis,
may be mentioned in passing. The latter pleaded for
cyclic reckoning but was opposed to changing the date
ol the equinox. During the Council of Trent a num-
ber of plans lime written and proposed to the council
and to the pope. Cardinal Marcellus C-ervinus, presi-
dent of the council, summoned to Trent the Veronese
Girolamo Fracas toro, a physician and renowned as-
tronomer, and had several conferences with him on the
subject of the calendar. In 154S Bartholomscus Cali-
ganus, a priest in Padua, offered a memorandum to
the Bishop of Bitonto, wherein he based his plans on
Paul of Midddburg^ otoefflcr, and Joaimes Lucidus.
The Spanish Franciscan Joannes Salon, addressed a
proposition to Cardinal Gonzaga, first president of the
council under Pius IV. An abridgment of it he of-
fered, immediately after the council, in 1564, to Pius
IV, and, on the advice of Sirleto, also to Gregory XIIJ,
in 1577* His memorandum is remarkable for the rea-
sons he puts forth against an immovable Easter, and
for the advice that a leap day should be omitted by
the pope on the occasion of general jubilees.
Other memoranda were that of Begninus, a canon of
ReimB, which' was handed to Cardinal de Lorraine on
bis way to the council; that of Lucas Ciauricus, who
aimed himself Episcopua Civitatensis, and based his
"Cakndarium Ecclesiasticum " of IHS on Paul of
ICiddelburg; that of the Spanish priest Don Miguel of
Valencia, which was presented to Pius IV in 1564.
If ore important than all these was a plan proposed by
the Veronese mathematician Petrus Pitatus. Basing
his ideas likewise on Paul of Middelburg he wanted
the lunar Cyde retained and the equinox restored to
Gaesar's date, bv the omission of fourteen days, which
for two years should be taken from the seven months
having dl days each. His original idea, which took
final effect in the Gregorian reform, was to correct the
Julian intercalation of the solar year, not eveiy 134
years, h^ut by full centuries. No earlier writer seems
to have called attention to the fact, that ajpplying the
rule of 134 years three times comes, within a small
error, to the same thing as omitting three leap days in
400 years. His " Compendium " was published and
offered to Pius IV in 1564. The Council of Trent was
the first since that of Nicsea that took a positive step
towards a reform of the calendar. In the last session,
4 December, 1563, it charged the pope to reform both
Breviary and Missal, which included the perpetual
calendar.
After the Council of Trent. — Pius V published a
Breviary (Rome, 1568), with a new perpetual calen-
dar, which was faulty and soon discarded. Gregory
Xlll, the immediate successor of Pius V, charged
Carolus Octavianus Laurus, lector of mathematics at
the Sapienza, with working out a plan of reform. It
was completed in 1575, and it again recommended the
correction of the intercalations by full centuries. A
certain Paolo Clarantc also composed a calendarium
and offered it to the pope for examination. In 1576
the famous manuscript of the late Aloisius Lilius was
presented to the papal Curia by his brother Antonius.
Whether Antonius acted in response to the pope's
request is not known. Certain it is that Aloisius Lilius
commenced his work before the accession of Gregory
XIII to the throne and even before the publication of
the new Breviarj', spending ten years on it. Gregory
then organized a commission to decide upon the best
Elan of reform. During the many sessions the mem-
ers of the commission changed several times. From
the names of those who signed the report offered to
Gregory XIII it may be inferred that its composition
was intended to represent various nations, grades, and
rites of the Church. Besides four Italians there was
tlie French Auditor of the Hota Seraphinus Olivarius,
the German Jesuit Christoph Clavius, the Spaniard
Petrus Ciaconus, and the* Syrian Patriarch Nehemet
Alia. Religious Orders were represented by Clavius,
by the celebrated Dominican triar Ignatius Dantes
and, for a while, by the Benedictine monk Teofilus
Martins. The hierarchy we find represented by Vin-
cent ius Laureus, Bishop of Mondovi, by the Patriarch
of Antioch, and by Cardinal Sirleto. The laity was
represented by Antonius Lilius, doctor of arts and
medicine, and, as it seems, collaborator of his I^rother
Aloisius in the reform. Auout the Spaniard Ciaconus
or Chacon nothing seems to be known.
The first president of the commission, Bishop Giglio.
did not succeed in securing a majority. He favourea
the corrections suggested for Lilius's manuscript by
the two professors of the Roman Sapienza, the mathe-
matician Carolus Laurus and the professor of Greek,
Giovanni Battista Gabio. The commission, however,
condemned the corrections as false and addressed itself
directly to Gregory XIII. Thomas Giglio, being pro-
moted to the See of Piacenza in 1577, was superseded
as president by the learned and pious Cardinal Sirleto,
a native of Calabria like Lilius. Another disagree-
ment was caused by the Sienese Teofilus Martius, who
was mentioned above. He blamed the commission
for the spirit of innovation and for lack of reverence
towards the Council of Nicaja; he wanted the equinox
restored to the older Roman date 24 or 25 March; he
rejected the new cycle of Lilius, and wanted tlie old
cycle corrected; he accepted neither the Alphonsine
nor the Prutenic Tables and he desired a leap day to be
omitted every 124 years or ten years sooner than the
Alphonsine Tfables rccjuired. Teofilus put his dissent
on record in a " Treatise on the Reform of the Calen-
dar" (after 1578) and in a "Short Narration of the
Controversy in the Congregation of the Calendar".
This would seem to show that he was a member of the
commission; at least for a time, for he did not sign the
report of the latter to the pope. It was probably ow-
ing to his objections that the new cycle ol "Fa^^sJv&^^a
LXUnS 250 ULZUS
dianged at least twice and recommended by the com- the new cycle of Epacte in harmony with the year Yxy
mission in a third or even later form. two equations so called, the solar and the lunar. The
The opposition of the Sienese Teofilus against the solar equation diminishes the enacts by a unit when-
innovation of the Epacts was supported by Alexander ever a Julian leap day is omitted, as in 1900; the lunar
Piccolomini, coadjutor Bishop oi Siena. If he was not equation increases the epacts by unity every 300
a member of the commission, he was at least re- years, or (after seven repetitions, the eighth time) in
quested to express an opinion. He laid down his 400 years. The former eauation accounts for the er-
tneories in a " Libellus on the new form of the ecclcsias- ror in the Julian year and tne latter for the error in the
Tables he gave preference to Albategni's length of the that greater exactness could be reached by applying
year and advocated the correction of the Julian inter- the interval of 400 years the tenth time. It may hap-
calation once in every hundred years (thinking the pen that the two equations cancel each other and leave
error to amount to one day in 106 years). Piccolo- the epacts unchanged, as happened in 1800. The new
rius, Clavius, Ciaconus, Lilius, Dantes, all mentioned Kings of France, Spain, Portugal, from the Dukes of
above. The last mentioned, usually called Ignazio Ferrara, Mantua, Savoy, Tuscany, Urbino, from the
Danti, was afterwards made Bishop of Alatri. His Republics of Venice and Genoa, from the Universities
scientific reputation may l)e inferred from the praises or Academies of Paris, Vienna, Salamanca, Alcali,
given to him more than a himdred years later (1703) Cologne, Lou vain, from several bishops and a number
by Clement XI for his large solar instruments in of mathematicians.
Rome, Florence, and Bologna, which affirmed the cor- The Bull "Inter Gravissimas '*. — ^The contents of the
rectness of the Gregorian equinox. The instruments answers are not officially recorded, but in the Bull of
consisted of meridian lines and gnomons. The former Gregory they are called concordant. How the concord-
were usually strips of white marble inset in stone ance is to be understood may be illustrated by the
floors. The gnomon was sometimes replaced by a answers from Paris and from Florence. While the
small opening in a wall, which projccte<l the image of Sorbonne not only rejected the "Compendium" but
the sun on the meridian line. An arrangement of this condemned every change in the calencuir, the king's
description is visible in the old Vatican Observatory, Parlement fully adopted the reform proposed Dy
called the Tower of the Winds. It was on this line Lilius. The Duke of Tuscany forwardea to the pope
that, according to Gilii and Calandrelli, the error of ten the judgments of several Florentine mathematicians,
days was demonstrated in the presence of Gregory no two of which agreed among themselves, while he
XIII. himself gave full approval to the Gregorian reform.
The manuscript of Lilius was never printed and has The King of Portugal presented two professional
never been discovered. Its contents are known only answers without adding a judgment of his own. The
from the manuscript report of the commission and emperor also confined himself to forwarding the reply
from the "Compendium" of Ciaconus, which was from the University of Vienna. The answers from
printed by Clavius. The request of Clarante, that his Savoy, Hungary, and Spain were in approbation of
" Calendarium " be distributed together with the Lilius's plan. All the princes may have seen the ne-
" Compendium '*, was not granted by the commission, cessity of a reform and desired it. This is confirmed
The "Compendium" was sent out in 1577 to all Chris- by a letter of the Cardinal Secretary of State to
tian princes and renowned universities, to invite ap- Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, dated 16
probation or criticism. With Lilius, it left open the June, 1582, in which the statement is made that the
questions, whether the equinox should be placed on 24 reform of the calendar was concluded witi tiie appro-
March or 21 March, following the old Roman Calendar bation of all Catholic princes. The consent of the
or the Council of Nicspa; and if the latter (which princes had more influence with the pope than the
seemed preferable), whether the ten days should be opinion of scientists. To bring about an agreement of
omitted at once, in some suitable month of 1582, or the latter was utterly hopeless, and, in view of the
gradually by declaring all of the next forty years com- labours of the papal commission, unnecessary. The
mon years and thus completing the reform in 1620. variety of opinions, collected by Kaltenbrunner and
That the error from the Nica^an regulation of the equi- Schmid, bears testimony to this, quite apart from the
nox had amounted to ten days, was sufficiently known bitter polemics that followed the Gregorian reform
from various observers, like Toscanelli, Danti, Coper- and which does not concern us in this article,
nicus (Calandrelli, "Opuscoli Astronomici ", Rome, The propositions made in answer to the "Compen-
1822, 30). The motions of sun and moon were taken dium" may be summed up as follows. In regard to
from the Alphonsine Tables. \Vhether the Prutenic the solar year, the date ot the equinox should be 25
Tables of 1554 were at the time known to Lilius may March, where Julius Ca?sar had put it — this was the
be doubted. He could be no stranger, however, to wish of the Humanists — or 24 March, where it was at
Cardinal d'Ailly's " Exhortatio ad Concilium Con- the time of Christ's resurrection — this was the propo-
stantiense", in which the Julian intercalation was sal of Salamanca — or 21 March, where the Coimcil of
showTi to be one day in error everv 134 years, or to the Nicaea had put it, or finally should be left on 1 1 March,
proposition of the Veronese matbematician Pitatus, where it was at the time. Those who would not ac-
who wanted the correction applied by a cycle of four cept the correction of the Julian intercalation by full
centuries. Lilius considered fractions of centuries un- centuries wanted a leap day omitted as often as the
fit for all cyclic or non-astronomical reckoning and error amounted to a full day — ^by the Alphonsine
used centurial corrections for both solar and lunar Tables every 1'34 years — , or, as the theological fac-
motions. ulty of the Sorbonne demanded, no correction at all.
Lilius's masterpiece is the new "Nineteen Years' As to the lunar cycle, no university attempted an im-
C>'cle of Epacts ", by which he kept the Nica?an Easter pro vement on Lilius's epacts. Salamanca and Alcali,
regulation apace with the astronomical moon. The asweknowfromalctterofCla\'ius to Moleto in Padua,
old lunar cycle gave the lunations four or more clays fuUv approved Lilius's reform. Vienna rejected all
in error, and Easter could thus (by taking the Sunday cvclical computation, whi4c the theolo^cal faculty of
after Luna XIV) fall on Luna XXVI, within a few tne Sorbonne pleaded for the retention of the old
days of the astronomical new moon. liilius brought cycle, uncorrected. Tlie ans^^'ers from Louvaixi de-
T.TT.f.g
251
ULLE
8erv« special mention because of the full approval of
Lilius's calendar bv the famous astronomer Cornelius
Gemma, while Zeelstius (1581) sided with the Univer-
sity of Vienna. The answers from Padua were pe-
culiar. Biaciffni, in a letter to Sirleto (1580), accepted
the idea of tiio Spanish Franciscan Salon and pro-
posed that durine general jubilees a number of mathe-
maticians be calTed to Rome by the pope to decide
upon the date of the eauinox. Apparently the first to
aavocate an immovable Easter Sunday was Spcronc
Speroni, who calls himself a layman in mathematics.
According to him Easter shoukl be fixed on the Sun-
day nearest to the 25 March; or, as the Spaniard
Franciscus Flussas Candalla proposed, on the Sunday
nearest the er^uinox.
Thus, every imaginable proposition was made; only
one idea was never mentione<l, viz. the al>andonment
of the seven-day week. The answers delayed the
publication of the papal Bull from 1581 to 1582, and
some arrived even later. The consent of the Catholic
princes on the one side and the variety of scientific
opinions on the other left to the papal commission no
alternative, but forced it to follow its own judgment.
The final framing of the reform seems to have been in
great part the work of Clavius; for ho alone after-
wards took up its defence and furnished full explana-
tions (" Apologia", 1588; "Explicatio", lCO:i; see
Clavius). Sirleto writes of him that he was among
the foremost workers in the reform (cum jn-itnis egrc-
gie laboravil), and Clement VIII savs, in his Bull
"Quacunque" (17 March, 1603), that Clavius did
signal services for the calendar. The papal com-
mission decided, 17 ^larch, 1580, that out of reverence
for ecclesiastical tradition, the equinox should be re-
stored to the decree of the Council of Niciea. The
majority, under the leadership of the Bishop of Mon-
dovl, declared itself against astronomical lunations
and for the cycle of Epacts. Lilius's ccntur\' rule for
the omission of leap days was adopted, hut his lunar
cvcle was modified. The Prutenic Tables were made
tne basis, and the epacta were all diminished by
unity, in other words, Luna XIV was put one day
later, to remove all danger of Easter ever Ix'ing ccle-
Ixated on the day of the astronomical full moon, as
was forbidden by the old canons. It is known that the
month of October, 1582, was to have twenty-one d;iys
(not twenty, as Montucla says) and the ten days
should be expunged by passing from 4 October to 15
October. The reform, as recornmeniliMl by the com-
mission on 14 Septemlxir, 1580, rcc(^ive<l papal siinc-
tion by the Bull *' Inter Gmvisssinias", datorl 24 IVI>
ruaty, 1581. and published on 1 March, 15S2. The
decrees of the Council of Nicaja wtTe in this manner
mi on a cvclical basis that secured their correctness
or nearly four thousand years, a space of time more
than long enough for any human institution. The
original task of the papal commission seems to have
exceeded its strength and time. The dates of Eai^tcr
were actually computed for the next three thousand
years; the ''Liber Xov» Rationis Kestituendi Cal-
endarii", which was to accompany the reform, was
never written, and the Martyrolog>' did not appt^ar
unta 1586 under Sixtus V. In Um, Clavius was the
only surviving member of the impal commis.sion. It
was by command of Clement VIII that he composed
his "Explanation of the new Calendar".
For the technical part of the CIregorian reform see
Calendar,^ Reform of the; Chronology.
Clavius, Novi Calendarii Romani Apologia (Uoino, 1.S8S);
Idem. Romani CaUiuIarii a Oreoorio XI/I P. M. rrntUuti Kxpli-
eatio (Rome, 1603); Libri, HiMoire <Un .SViWirr.x Math/mutiquea
tn ludie, Iv (HaOc, 1865): Kaltrnrrinner. Die Vorae-
Khichie diT OrwgorianUchen KaUndrrrrfnrm in Siizungfberirhte
der Akademie pAilM. kiMor, Klanse, LXXXII (Vicnnii. 1876).
280; KALTBiiBBUmoEil, Die Polnrn'k uft*-r die GrrgorianiHche
KaUnderrtfbrm, ibidem, LXXXVII (1»<77). 48'); Kaltem-
BBintWER. BmtiQ9 *^f Oetchiehte drr (irraoriani/vhe Kahn-
dtmjtorm, ibidem, XCVII (lASO) T.7: RriTMin. Zur Gfuchirhu
der Urfgorianieehtn Kaltndfm form in (i rrf-'umtU-'choU, Jlis-
I
iorieche* Jahrfnich 188$ and 1884: Marzi, La queelume deOa
Ri/orma del Calendario nel Quinto Concilio Lateranenee 16 IM^
16 i7 (Florence. 1896j; DtpREZ, Ecole Franeaiae de Rome:
Milangea d" Archiologie et d'Hiatoire XIX (1S99) 131.
J. G. Hagen.
Lille, the ancient capital of Flanders, now the
chief town of the D^'partement du Nord in France.
A very important religious centre ever since the
eleventh century, Lille Ix^came in the nineteenth a
great centre of industrv- \N'ith a population of 12,818
in 1789, of 24.;5(X) in 1821, of 140,(X)0 in 18C0, and of
21 1, OCX) in 1905, it is to-day the fourth city of France
in population. (For the early history of Christianity
at Lille, see Cambkai, Auchdiockse of.) The le-
gend according to which the giant Finard was killed
m the seventh century, by Lideric, whose mother,
Enncngarde, he held prisoner, and according to which
Lideric founded the dynasty of the counts of Flanders,
was invented in the thirteenth ccnturj'. The first
Count of Flanders, as a matter of fact, was Baldwin
of the Iron Arm. in the ninth century (see Flanders),
and nothing certain is known of Lille Ix^forc the middle
of the eleventh centur\'. The citv seems to have been
founded alx)ut that time by Count Baldwin V, and in
lOoi it was already so well fortified that Henry III,
Emperor of Germany, did not dare to lx?siegc it. In
1055 Baldwin V laid the foundation stone of the colle-
giate church of St. Peter, which was detlicated in 1CK>6.
One of the oldest chronicles of Flanders says that
the foundation of this collegiate church was the be-
ginning of the prosperity of the town. St. Peter's
was served by forty canons and had verj- prosperous
schools as early as the end of the eleventh centur>\
About the same time Raiml>erts a Nominalist, who
tiiught philoso])hy in St. Peter's school, was in conflict
with Odo, a Realist, aftenvards Bishop of Cambrai,
but at that time profeKsor at the convent of Notre-
Dame de Touniai. llaimlx»rt's Nominalism, how-
ever, was never carried to the extremes which caused
Roscelin's condemnation in 1092. Another teacher
in St. Peter's school was the celebrate<i Gautier de
Chatillon (twelfth centur>')» the author of the " Alex-
andreis", a I/atin epic on Alexander the (.ireat. which
was used as a substitute for Virgil's work in some of
the meilieval schools. Connected with the same
school al>out the same time were Alain de Lille, sur-
named the Cniversal Dm-tor (see Alaix de l'Ihlk);
Adam de la Bas«6e, a canon of the collegiate church,
who composed l>eautiful liturgical chants; Lietlxirt,
Abbot of Saint-Ruf, author of a great eommentary
on the Psalms, "Flores Psalmorum". St. Thomas
of Canterbury and St. Bernard of Clairvaux visit*^
the collegiate church of Lille, and in it Philip the ( Jood,
Duke of I^urpundy, held, in 1431, the first chanter of
the Order of the Golden Fleece, founded by liim in
1430 for the defence of Christendom against the
Turks. In a neighbouring palace was held the fa-
mous " Feast of the Pheasant " (1453). in the nii<l.st of
which Religion, mounted on an elephant which was
led by a giant Saracen, entered the bancjuet hall to
b(»g aid from the Knights of the Golden Fleece. .lean
Mielot. a canon of St. Peter's at Lille, wrote for Philip
the (lood twenty-two works, including translations,
ascctical works, and biographies. The most iniixir-
tant of these* works. " La Vie de sainte Catherine d'A16-
xandrie", was printed later. Miniatures of that period
often represent this canon offering Philip a 1)ook. It
was he who, after the " Vani du Faisan", translate*! a
work of the Dominican Father Brochart.. "Advis
directif pour fain» le passage d'oultrtvmer", and a de-
scription of the Holy I^incl.
About this time the preacher Jean d'Eeckhout,
another canon of Lille, author of two celebrated as-
eetical tn^atises. on the espousals of God the Father
and the Virgin, and on the espousals of God the S<m
and the sinful soul, yielded to the pn»valent ini^julw.
towards pilgrimage* to t\w. WcA"^* Va.\v\, ^xA ^\sA. ^V^s^
LZLLE 202 LILLE
on his pilgrimage, in 1472. Influenced by the same Archbishop of Cashel in Ireland, and sufifered bitter
movement, Anselm and John Adomo, members of a persecution in that diocese. Until the sixteenth cen-
distinguished Genoese family settled at Bruges, made tury the school of St. Peter's was the only one in Lille
a visit to the Holy Land of which the narrative is pre- where Latin and the hmnanities were taught; the city
served in a manuscript at Lillc. John Adomo, on his then oi)ened a school which was entrusted to the
return, became a canon of Lille and devoted himself Jesuits in 1592, and where the humanist John Silvius
to spreading, throughout Flanders, the devotion to taught. The collegiate church of St. Peter disappeared
St. Catherine of Alexandria, whose relics he had seen with the Revolution.
on Mount Sinai — hence the large number of Flemish After having in medieval and modem times foUowed
works of art ha\ing St. Catherine for their subject. the destinies of Flanders, which passed from the
In the thirteenth century the statue of Notre-Dame House of Burgundy to the House of Austria, the city
de la Treille, which stood in the collegiate church of St. of Lille became French when it was conquered by
Peter, drew thither many pilgrims. The reputed Louis XIV in 1667 and fortified by Vauban. In 1792 it
miracles of 14 June, 1254, are famous. It is not cer- heroically resisted the Austrians. During the nine-
tain from what year of that same cxjntury the Confra- teenth century two manufacturers of Lille, Philibert
temity of Notre-Dame de la Treille dates; but it is Vrau (1829-1905) and Camille F^ron-Vrau (1831-
historically certain that in 1470 Margaret, Countess of 1908) laboured to form among the numerous working-
Flanders, decreed that every year, on the first Sunday men of the city a centre of Catholic activity. With the
after Trinity Sunday and for the nine days following, aid of the Abb^ Bernard, Phililxjrt Vrau founded, in
processions commemorating these miracles should 1863, the Lille Union of Prayer, the "Bulletin" of
be held in the city. The fragment of the True Cross which gradually increased its circulation to 22,000; in
which is still preserved at St-Etienne, LiJle, was given 1866 he established the **Cercle de Lille", which for
to the chapter of St. Peter's bv the Flemish priest, many years held the district Catholic Congress for the
Walter of Courtrai, who was chancellor of the Em- D^partement du Xord and the Pas de Calais, and in
peror Baldwin I at Constantinople. From the four- 1871 the lay association for buildine new churches in
teenth to the sixteenth century, the collegiate church the suburbs. Philibert Vrau and Camille F^ron-
of St. Peter was annually the scene of the curious elec- Vrau undertook to build a basilica for the statue of
tion of the " Bishop of Fools", on the Eve of the Epiph- Notre Dame de la Treille, hoping that the city of Lille
any, and, on the feast of the Holy Innocents, of the would some day be detached from the Diocese of Cam-
election by the choristers of a ** Bishop of the Inno- brai and become the seat of a new diocese with Notre
cents", who was solemnly carried in procession. An- Dame de la Treille as its cathedral. In 1885 they
other much frequented religious festival at Lille was established the Cor[X)ration ot St. Nicholas for spin-
that of the '^Epinette" (little thorn), the solemnities ners and weavers, with an employers' and a workmg-
of which Ijegan on Quinquagesima Sunday and lasted men's council, and a co-operative fund supported by
until Mid-Lent. The feast was instituted in the first monthly assessments on both employers and em-
half of the thirteenth centurv shortly after the con- ployees.
vent of the Dominicans at Lille had received from the The Catholic University of Lille, lastly, was the
Countess Jeanne a fragment of the Crown of Thorns; result of their continued and generous efforts. Tliis
it ceased in 1487, when the burghers began to find the scheme was presented by Phili&rt Vrau in 1873 at the
expense too heavy. The veneration of the Mater Catholic Congress of tte North; the Abb^ Mortier,
Dolorosa originated in Flanders in the fifteenth cen- later Bishop of Gap, and the Abb^ Dehaisnes, known
tury. The first treatise on this devotion, which dates for his writings on the history of Flanders, were ap-
from 1494, was the work of the Dominican Michel pointed to report on the question. In 1874, in the
FrauQois, Bishop of Selimbria, and confessor of Philip ancient hall of the Prefecture, which had been rented
the Fair, a native of Templemars, near Lille. The for the purpose by Philibert Vrau, law courses were
chapter of St. Peter's immediately combined this de- opened to tne public. The passing of the law on the
votion with that of Notre Dame de la Treille, and freedom of higher education (12 July, 1875) hastened
erected in the church of St. Peter the stations of the the success of the foundation. On 18 Nov., 1875, a
Seven Dolours, to be made in the same manner as the complete law course was organized; on 18 Jan..
Way of the Cross. 1877, the four faculties of law, sciences, letters, and
The collegiate church also originated some impor- medicine were inaugurated; on 22 Nov., 1879, the
tant charitable works. Among these were the Cour cornerstone of the universitv was laid. As early^ as
Gilsoriy a row of houses established by Canon Robert 1878 it was ascertained that tne hospital of St. Eueenia,
Gillesson in the sixteenth century, the rents of which attached to the faculty of medicine, had cared for as
were to be used for works of piety and charity, the many as 2448 patients, and that the contributions
orphanage of the Grange, founded in the sixteenth received for the university already amounted to
century by Canon Jean de Lacu; the ''marriage 6,473,263 francs (about $1,294,000). Philibert Vrau
burses ', or dowries for poor girls, instituted by Canon also took the initiative in establishing, in 1880, the
Etienne Ru^lin in the sixteenth century * the " preb- only professedly Catholic commercial school in France,
ends of the poor", a fund instituted by Hangouard, The school for higher industrial studies was estab-
dean of the chapter, to enable the a^»ci poor to live lished in 1885. A^ early as 1876 Philibert Vrau con-
with their children or kin without being a burden to templated the foundation of a Catholic school of arts
them; and an apprenticeship fund for the benefit of and crafts at Lille, but it was not until 1898 that the
young workmen, established by Provost Manare. institute was inaugurated under Father Lacoutre,
Very modem ideas of assisting the poor were devised S. J. In 1894 there was added to the faculty of Jaw a
and carried out as early as the sixteenth century by department of social and political science, and lectures
the canons of St. Peter's and through the liberality of are now given every year by the most distinguished
Jean de Lannoy, the collegiate scholasticuSf a mont-de- Catholic savants of France. The system of political
pi^t^ was established to lend money free of interest to economy opposed to the intervention of %he State in
the needy. The collegiate church, again, hospitably labour affairs — a system long favoured by the (Jatho-
received the English refugees, when the persecution of lie industriels of Lille — was gradually overthrown by
Catholics was raging in England. Among its English the teaching given in this department, and Professor
canonswereJohnMarshall (1534-68), Allen's auxiliaiy Duthoit's "Vers I'organisation professionelle", put
in the foundation of Douai, and Gilford (1554-1629), lished in the spring of 1910, finally confirmed the
who, in 1603, at the peril of his life performed a mis- victory of Catholic social ideas at LiDe.
sion in England for the Holy See, and who died Arch- In 1897, following the initiative taken by Cambridge
bishop of Reims: David Kearney, who in 1603 became and Oxford, the Catholic University of Lille established
ULLI8 253 LOLOOBT
a "XJniveraity Hlxteusion" for tbo orgaaiiation o{ LiUoo(!t,]iieaniiig"wiIdouion", thcuaioeby whkb
lectures by tne university profcsson tluougliout the they are commonly koowii, is properly the name of
maDufacturing centres in the vicinitv of LilJc. In one of their former settlements ncnr Pcmberton, and
1898 the univeisity organised higher education for the is also a tipeciol designation of the lower division.
Catholic eirla of Lille. In April, 1907, the Conseil They have no name for themselves as a tribe, but an
G&i&sl du Nord suggested the suppression by the known aa Stlatlimuq to the neighbouring Shuswap
State of the freedom of higher education and insisted and Thompson Indians, whom they closely resemble.
Upon ordinaaecB preventing physicians coming from Although it is known that the Lillooet and adjacent
tneCatholic facultvof Liite from attending paupers in tribes bad obtained some knowlcMlge of the Catholic
the lWpart«meat aa Nord at the expense of the Stat«. religion aa early at least as 1810 from the Canadian
Before the creation of district universities by the employees of the North-West Fur Company, the bo-
French Government, the Catholic University of Lille ginning of civilization and Christianity in the tribe
presented the first example of these institutions. As properly dateit from the advent of Father Modeete
early aa 1886, M. Lavisse, a professor at the Sorbonne, Demers, who canie out from Quebec in 1837, in com-
spoke in high terms of this unpressive group of facul- pany with Father Norbert Blanchet, and after several
ties, saying that in centralized France it was a dis- yearsof workintheColumbiaregion, inl812ascended
tinguished Honour to the University of Lille to have the Frascr Bivcr to Stuart l^ke, preaching and bap*
been incorporated in Flanders. The faculties of tizinp among all the tribes on the way. In 1845 the
higher education which the State controlled at Douai Jesuit Father John Nobili went over nearly the same
were transferred to Lille in 1888 and raised, six years ground on his way to the more northern I)Sn6 tribes.
later, to the rank of a state university. Mgr Baunard In 1 847 the first Ublate missionaries in the Columbia
resigned the rectorship of the Catholic University in region arrived at Fort Wallawalla, Washington, and in
Oct., 1908, and was succeeded by Mgr Margerin, who 1861 Father Charles Grandidier of that order was
bad disting^uidied himseif in 1888 at Foumics by preaching to the Lillooet. In the some year the Ob-
plaeing himself between the workmen and the fire of late mission of Saint Mary's was established on Froser
the soldierB. Among the noteworthy works of art River, thirty-five miles above New Westminster, and
possessed by the city of Lille is a wax head, preserved became the centre of mission work for the whole lower
m the museum, purchased in Italy by Wicar during Fraser country. In 1863 the industrial school was
the Revolution; it is ascribed by tliis connoisseur to added. The entire tribe of the Lillooet is now offi-
Raphael; Alexandre Dumas the younger attributed it ctally reported asCatlioUc, with the exception of about
to Leonardo da Vinci: Henry Thode claims that it twenty individuals attached to the Anglican form,
was an antique modelled after the head of a younz Twelve villaxcs have churches, while a number of
Roman girl whose remains were found in 1485; M. children are being educated at St. Mary's mission,
Frans WickhoS, on the other hand, is inclined to re- under charge of the Oblate Fathers and the Sisters of
Srd it as the work of one of the pupils of Victor of Saint Anne.
rtona (end of the seventeenth century or the be- For all that concerns the primitive condition of the
ginning or the eighteenth), and iaof opioion that it is Lillooet our best authority is Tcit. In habit and cere-
the head of a virgin and martyr. monial they closely resembled the cognate Okanagan,
Vis IIenoe, Hi'atoi're lU LilU dr eto h jsoi (LiBe, 1876); ShuBwap, and Thompson Indians, and a description of
f^^ yf!.^"HiJ^.^?1'XT^ T Wl/" wS;.iH",i t^" 0"e will answer fairly well for the others. They
iSl!ti^T8St?0'Lt^i«oiTl^;?fff^1j'jf=S(l"r^ lived hy fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wilS
Oft (uDa. 183S); HAirrciKira. Ooeuniimli lUuraitratt tl n/rm- roots and berries. Salmon fishing was their most im-
JMigiMidi f'ArfiH "IMnofe -It S.Pirrrt rf. LiUt lUlle, 1895); portant industn-, the fish being taken bv spearing, by
ra^f ?S!?r89S- '1"?.'^ ^iiSlrl'Jh^iJi;^ iH: Uk and Hn*, iy nets and bylveirs, at -favourite fish".
^/tapOn .1. Pitrre dt Lille (3 vob.. li\le, ISOfi-OO); LEHRiDUf, ing stations, and dried in the Hun or by smoking.
LaCAaMl>ri> di WWUllft lSB7i; LefEbvre, lyEj^dtiFmu Their Ordinary hunting implement was a highly doco-
l'*^l5^i''E^'*F;^fi"l^^::;t^d^'iX'<fe ratedflatl>ow;withsinew,£rd,andant,wstfppilwith
BiUHABD yin^-eiaa ann^fi ri< iwtoraf <ParB, IMO); BiODRii^ stone, copper, bone, Or beaver teeth. The principal
^i*^' ''.^T;!!^'™™' ^^jf^VS ''T? '^ ^"?^ ™''?"'?J!^n1* game animals were the deer, cariliou, bear, mountain
£■,
2ta*"/";K.';SK'.Tr.XSirWZ: 5~t, bigkora^.,>d bc,.r, h..id., th. n„,c
IBOl. ' ' ' its ouills. Traps, nooses, pitfalls, and deodfallB were
Geohoes Goyau. used. Dogs were carefully trained for hunting, and
lJlliB.THO»iAgF. g€»LBAVBNWon™,DiocE8EO*. were also a tavourito fowl article A great vanotv of
' *'•"— ~'"- "*-' I "^"^ " roots was gathered, some of which were roasted m
EdUooet Indiana, an important tribe of Salishan pits in the ground after the manner of camas. Ber-
linguistic stock, in fMuthem British Cohunbia, for- ries, particularly service berries, were dried in targe
merlv holding a mountainous territory of about one quantities, pressed into cakes, and used at home or
hunoredmileBinlengthfromnorth to south, including traded to other tribes. Provisions were stored in
the river and lake of the same name, with Bridge cellars for winter supply or sale.
River,Andetson,andSctonLake8,andapartof Harri~ The winter house was sometimes a double-lined
son lake, and extending on the north-east to beyond mat lodge, but more usually a semi-suliterranean
Fraser River, They are now settled upon rescrva- roundBtructure,fromeight4?cntofifty foctindiamcter,
tiona within the same territory, attached to Williams of logs lined with bark an<l co\'ered with earth. En-
I^ke and Fraser River agencies. They have several trance was by a ladder through a hole in the roof, the
bands grouped in two mam divisions distinguished by projecting ends of the ladder and of the house posts
slight dialectic differences, and commonly known being carved and painted with figures of the clan
respectively as Upper (Williams Lake agency) and totem, in the style of the tot-em poles of the coast
Lower (Fraser River agency). Their principal settle- tribes. The ordinary summer dwelling was a reetan-
ments are Fountain and Bridge River, of the Upper eular communal Etrurturc of li^ framework and cedar
band; and Pemberton, and Skookumchuck, of the boards.withharkroof, from thirty-rivetoseventy-fivo
Ltnrar band. Prom a population of perhaps four feet in length, with fire-places range<l along the centre
thousand souls a century ajijo they are now reduced by to accommodate from four to eight families. The
disease and former dissipation after the advent of the bed platform was next the wall. The furnishing con-
whites to about 1230, the most notable destruction sisted chiefly of baskets, bags, and mats. They were
having been the result of a amall-pox visitaticn which expert buket weavers, and liasket making is still a
■wept all the tribes of the Fraser River country in principal industry in the tribe. Large closely-wovea
1882. baskets were used for holding water in wbica to boil
ULLOOET
264
ULLOatT
food by xneaxis of heated stones. Matfi, blankets, and
ba^ werp woven from nu^es, bark fibre, twisted
Btnoa of skin, and various kinds of animal hair, in-
cluding that of a special breed of long-haired white dog
now extinct. Knives, hammers, scrapers, etc., were
of stone; bowls and dishes of wood. They were
skilled in the making and use of canoes, both bark and
du^-out, together with snowshoes for ^-inter travel.
Skms were dressed soft, but seldom smoked. Fire
was obtained by means of the fire drill. Housea and
much of their portable handiwork were adorned with
native paint.
The dress was of skins, or fabrics woven from wool
or bark fibre, and included caps, head bands, robes,
shirts, belts, sashes, aprons, G-strings, leggings, and
moccasins, with ornamentation of fringes, beads,
feathers, porcupine quills, dentalium and abalone
shells. Nose and ear pendants were worn by both
sexes. The hair was cut across the forehead, and
either hung loose or was bunched on top and beliind.
Youne women braided their hair, and that of slaves
was close cropped. The face was painted with sym-
bolic designs and tattooing was common with both
sexes. Head flattening was not practised, and was
held in contempt. Of weapons, besides the bow,
they had stone knives, stone-bladed spears, and vari-
ous kinds of clubs. Protective body armour of thin
boards, rods, or heavy elk skin was used, but shields
were unknown. Scalpine or beheading was imcom-
mon. Many villages and communal houses were in-
closed bv elaborate stockades. Captives were usually
enslaved and sometimes sold to other tribes. They
had many games, including dice, target games, throw-
ing at hoops, wrestling, horse racing and the nearly
universal Indian ball game. Some of these games had
song accompaniment.
They had the clan system, but without marriage
restriction or fixed rule of descent, the clan being
frequently identical with the village community.
There were hereditary village chiefs, each assisted by
a council, but no tribal head cliief. Most of the prop-
erty of a deceased owner went to his widow and chil-
dren, instead of being destroyed, as in some other
tribes. There was a great number of dances and
other ceremonials, including mask dances and the
great gift distribution kno^n as Potlatch among the
tribes of the North- West coast. Children and young
men at certain times were subjected to a whipping
ordeal to test their fortitude. Menstrual women were
rigorously secluded as in other tribes, and pregnancy,
birth, and puberty were attended by elaborate rites
and precautions. The puberty ritual for the young
woman was especially severe, involving seclusion, fast-
ing, prayer, and special training for a period of two
years, during which time she was allowed to go out
only at night, wandering through the forest masked and
shaking a rattle, and sitting alone in the puberty lodge
through the day, for the first month squatting in a
hole with onlv her head above the surface. The
Euberty ordeal for the young man continued for as
>ng a period, while for shaman candidates the tests
and training extended over several years. Young men
also fast«d and prayed in solitary places to obtain
visions of their guardian spirits. Marriage was pre-
ceded and accompanied by considerable ceremonial,
including processions and giving of presents. Com-
pulsion was not usual, but the girl was free to accept
the suitor or not as she chose, and in some cases was
herself the suitor or proposer. Polygamy was com-
mon. Widows and widowers were subj ec ted to a long
period of seclusion and purification. As in other
tribes, twins were dreaded as uncannv, being believed
to be the offspring, not of the husband, but of a grizzly
bear and partaking of the bear nature. Thev were
never buned in the ordinary way, but in deatn were
laid away in tree tops in the remote forest.
The dead were usually buried in a sitting posture
with best dress, weaix>ns, and smaller personal be-
longings, in graves lined ^Wth grass ana marked by
circles of stones. In some cases a canoe was inverted
over the grave. Among the Lower Lillooet the body
was sometimes placed sitting upon the ground, and
covered with a heap of stones, or deposited in a grave
box, in front of which were set up wooden figures rep-
resenting the deceased, and dressed in his clothes.
Funeral songs were sung about the grave. His head
Eillow, together with some food, were burned near by.
Lis dogs were killed and their bodies hung near the
grave. If he owned slaves, one or more were buried
with him, being either killed at the grave or buried
alive. Children were made to jump four times over
tho corpse of the dead parent, in order that they might
the sooner forget their loss. In Lillooet cosmogony
the East was associated with light and life, the West
with darkness and death. In the beginning the world
was peopled with beinss near akin to animals, many
of wnom were cannibals and evil magicians. These
were changed to animals, birds, and fishes bv super-
natural beings, who became the gods of the tribe, cnief
amon^ whom was Old Man, with nis messenger Coyote,
and his subordinate helpers. Sun, Moon, and otners.
The Haven brought death, daylight, and fire. Tlie
warm* 'Chinook wind'' was the result of the marriage
of Beaver and Glacier. Each clan had its own tradition
of origin and there is a story of a whole tribe trans-
formed into deer. The stars also were transfonned
beings, and thunder as usual was a bird. There were
giants, but apparently no dwarfs, in their supernatural
world. Sacred places were numerous, and sacrifice and
propitiation ceremonies frequent, including a special
rite by which the hunter asked pardon of the bear
which he had killed. They had the same ceremonial
feast at the beginning of the salmon fishing season
which Father De Smct described as he hau seen it
tfmong the Kutenai in 1S45, as also a solemn consecra-
tion of the first wild berries.
The spirit world was far in the West, over a weaiy
and dusty trail by which the soul travelled until it
crossed alog over a stream and reached the boundary
of the Land of the Dead, standing up like a wall of
rock, where, after passing the challenge of the sen-
tinels, it entered, to find a pleasant land and a wel-
come from former friends, wuo spent their time d&no*
sometimes to the same mother. As usual the shaman
was at once doctor, prophet, and master of rites. There
seem to have been no secret societies. Colours had
s>Tnbolic meaning, and four was a sacred number. Per-
sonal names were significant, and of four classes: he-
reditary family names, names derived from guardian
spirits, dream names, and common nicknames.
The official report of the condition of the Lower
bands in 190S is repeated almost in the same terms for
the Upper : ' ' Their ncalth has been fairly good tiiroiigh-
out the year. The sanitary condition of their villages
is good, and many of them have been vaccinated from
time to time. Their cliicf pursuits are hunting, fish-
ing, packing, and farming. They also act as guides
for mininj^ and timber prospectors, and the women
earn considerable money at basket making. Their
dwellings are mostlv all frame structures, and they
have good bams and outbuildings. They have a coii-
siderable number of horses and cattle, which are well
cared for during wint-cr. They are fairly well supplied
with farm implements, most of them owning; what
they have. They arc industrious and law abiding and
are making some progress. They are temperate and
moral."
H. H. Bancroft. Hint. Brit. Cdumhia (San Francisco, 1887)
Canadian Indian Reports AOtiawci, annually): Dawson, NoUt
on the Shusun People of Brit. Col. in Proe. and Traiu. Boyal Soc
Can. for J 891, IX (Montreal, 1892); Hiix-TouT^ Th4Suaaumk
of Brit. Col, in Jour, Anthrop, Insl. Great Britain and Jrdandf
XXXV (LoadoD
CoiHcb (Xontml. 1910): Tn , .
^M^ JtfiH, Kat. BitL (New Yoik. lW)6)i «ee >bo I:
Jaueb Mookkt.
(Limana).— The city of
lima, in the Department of the »aine name, ik the
capital of tbe Repubhc of Peru, South America. Af-
ter tho coaquest of the Incae in the sixteenth eenturj',
Puarra, coaiiinced of the uecciutity of arapital near the
coast, chose a 9it« about 6(M) feet above the sea level,
on the right bank of the River Rimac (of which name
Lima is probably a corruption), and the first atone of
the cathedral in the wide ptaza was laid by Piiairo. on
18 January, 1535. Cuzco had been the Inca capital,
and in 15^ Ftay Valvcrdc hod liecn named Bishop of
Ctueo. Lima continued to grow in importance, and in
1543 was mode the see of a diocese wliich became un
arehdioceBe in 1515. Its first bishop and archbishop
was the Dominican Loayso. He died in 1575 and
was succeeded by St. Torribio Mogrovejo, who died
of fever oontiaoted intheforests where he was visiting
and bwtixing the Indians, whose language (Quichua;
he had mastered. In 1551 tbe Univei^ity of ,Saii
Marco*, th« firat in the new world, was founded at
Lima, and t« this day it remains autonomous, and
outside all Government influence. It is an important
aeat of learning, having eight faculties, including
theology. In lo67 the Jesuilji arrived at Lima, began
founding schools and colleges, and introduced the
printing press. It is of interest that the first book
Srinted in the New World was a catechism issued
om the Jesuit press at Juli on Lake Titicaca in
1577.
Owing to its commodious harlx>ur at Collao, nine
milca distant, the town of Lima dcvelope<l rapidly aiid
was the centre of the Spanii<h trade monopoly, which
lasted until the Treaty of Utrecht (171^). Ita do-
mestic affairs followed the chtuiging fortunes of the
viceroys of Peru throughout tlie Colonial period
(1542-1816). San Slartin broke the Spanish power in
1821, and on 28 Feb., 1823, Riva Afciiero entered upon
office as first President of Peru, and took over tbe
government at Lima.
During the war with Chile, Limn was aF!^ultod and
fell, 14 January, 1881; its national library was turned
into a barrack, and many valuable books and MS3.
were destroved or sold as waste paper, works of art
were carried off or broken by the victorious Chileans,
who occupied the town for two years and nine months.
After the evacuation Lima suffered from the political
rivalries of Cdceros and Iglesins, and there wiw civil
discord until the presidency of Nicolas dc I'li'rola
(1895), who in 1898 yielded the office to Lduanio
Romaiia, a Stonyhurst scholar, who held it until 1903.
Everything now (1010) promises peace; political
discussions are kept within bounds, and party gov-
ernment is caniea on without bitterness or undue
friction.
There are thne ways of reaching Lima from Eu-
rope or North America; (1) by soiling to Colon, cross-
ing the Isthmus of Panama, and Inking Imat from
Panama to CaUao; (2) via, the Straits of Magellan;
(3) by going to the river port of louitos, 2500 miles
up the Amaion from the Atlantic, wiieneu, by steamer
and isil, the journey to Lima is aL>out 1200 miles.
The trade n-ith Lima and Callao is largely in the bands
of British merchants. The main *^xpons arc sugar,
cotton, olives, wool, and tol>acco. The city is built
in parallel and cross streets, with a central plaai, of
which the cathedral occupies one side, and the various
government buildings extend along another. At va-
rious times it has been damaged by earthquakes, the
most serious being that of 174G, when Callao was
swept away by a tidal wave, and Lima was almost
reduOBd to ruins. The public buildings are hand-
aoms, and indude the House of Congress and the
llxuusition Pork. Spanish arvliitfcture predominates,
and a n'alk through the streets is like a clupter in
st«no from old Siiajn. Among tbe monuments are the
statue of Columbus, the statue of Bolivar, the "Sec-
ond of Hay" monument (commemorating the defeat
of the Spaniards in 1866), and the Oologiiesi monu-
mcjit. The population is variously computed at
between 140,000 and 150,000. The press is ably
represented by two daily papers, the "Comercio"
and the " Prunsa". Education is free and obligatory
and the public exercise of refigion other than tlie
(.'atliolic, while allowed by courtesy, is not recogniied
The Cttthe<lral, dedicated to St. John the Evan-
gelist, was b^un when Pizorro founded Lima; it took
ninety years to build, and was consecrated in 1G25. .
It -suffered considprably from the earthquake of 1746,
and ui the restoration which followed the two great
towers were added. It is a handsome structure with
Li>u
and ten side chapels, one of which contains
is of Pizarro. Its artistic treasures are valt^
able, and its high altar is adorned with a ])ainting by
Murillo. Other churches of note in the town are San
Francisco, Santo Domingo. I^ Merced, and Sun Au-
gustin. SanPedroandSan Pablo formerly Ijelongcdto
the Jesuits; Satito Domingo was built by Pizorro, and
contains n relic of the True Cross. Tliert arc, more-
over, twcli-c conventH. including Sunta Rosa, where
the IxKly of Saint Rose, Lima's patron saint, is pre-
served. In all tlicre arc sixty-six religious houses or
estiibli.shmcntfl in tlic town.
'I'lie archdioccw ineluiica the Department of Lima,
having an area of 13,310 sq, mileia and a population
of 250.000, At the present time its sulTrugiin i^ccs arc
Arc(|itipa, Ciuco, Puno. IIudniic-o,Avuciichn, Iluanu,
Tnijillo, and Chacluipoyas. Tin- last Hpanish arch-
bisliop was Bartholome cle las Iloras, who was ex-
pelled by San Martin, in IS21. He retnmrd to Sjiain,
where he died at the age of eighty, in 1S2,1. Tlie See
of Lima remained vacant until Jmie, 1834, when a
native archbishop was installed. The pnsii'nt arch-
bishop, Pedro Manuel Clareia Naranjo, was Ixim at
Lima, 29 April, 1838, and was appointed 19 Decem-
ber, 1907.
Enoch, Fitu. Tin Preiiml ami Fnr
90S); \VTnoaT.Thrf}l.lan.llli,\n
IL-Jib. The iipniiith I-.oiilf (Lonrlo:
aU (leiOJi QtmrrhM Calbilica Ul>
^iliiatiim (Npw York.
""■"-'flphia, 1908):
mirr PoMi]i
ru (III
UMBO 256 LOSBO
Limbo (Late Lat. Iimbxi8)t a word of Teutonic de- to the penitent thief and in the parable of Laiarus
rivation, meaning literally " hem "or " border ", as of a clearly miply^ their condition was one of happiness,
garment, or anything joined on (cf . Ital. lembo; Eng. notwithstimdmg the postponement of the higher bliss
limb), (1) In theolo^cal usage the name is appli^ to which they looked forward. And this, substan-
(a) to the temporary place or state of the souls of the tially, is all that Catholic tradition teaches regarding
just who, although purified from sin, were excluded the umbus patrum.
from the beatific vision until Christ's triumphant as- II. Limbub Infaxtium. — ^The New Testament con-
oension into heaven (the Umbus patrum) ; or (b) to the tains no definite statement of a positive kind regarding
permanent place or state of those unbaptized children the eternal lot of those who die in original sin without
and others who, dying without grievous personal being burdened with grievous person^ guilt. But, by
guilt, are excluded from the beatific vision on account insisting on the ab^lute necessity of bein^ ''bom
of original sin alone (the limbtis infantium or puero^ again of water and the Holy Ghost" (John, iii, 6) for
rum). (2) In literary usage the name is sometimes entry into the kingdom of heaven (see Baptism, sub-
applied in a wider and more general sense to any place title Necessity of Baptism) ^ Christ clearly enough im-
or state of restraint, confinement, or exclusion, and is plies that men are bom into this world in a state of sin,
practically equivalent to '^ prison" (see, e. g., Milton, and St. Paul's teaching to the same effect is quite
" Paradise Lost ", III, 495; Butler, " Hudibras ", part explicit (Rom., v, 12 sqq.). On the other hand, it is
II, canto i, and other English classics). The not un- clear from Scripture ana Catholic tradition tJbat the
natural transition from the theologicad to the literary means of regeneration provided for this life do not re-
usage is exemplified in Shakespeare, '' Henry VIII , main available after death, so that those dying unre-
act V, sc. 3. In this article we snail deal only with the generate are eternally excluded from the supematural
theological meaning and connotation of the word. happiness of the beatific vision (John, ix, 4; Luke, xii,
1. Iaubxsa Patrum. — ^Though it can hardlv be 40; xvi, 19 sqq.; II Cor., v, 10; see also Apocatas-
olaimed, on the evidence of extant literature, that a tasis). The question therefore arises as to what, in
definite and consistent belief in the Umbus patrum of the absence of a clear positive revelation on the sub-
Christian tradition was universal among the Jews, it ject, we ought in conformity with Catholic principles
cannot on the other hand be denied that, more espe- to believe regarding the eternal lot of such persons,
oially in the extra-canonical writings of the second or Now it may confidently be said that, as the result of
first centuries b. c, some such belieffinds repeated ex- centuries of speculation on the subject, we ought to
pression; and New-Testament references to the sub- believe that these souls enjoy and will eternally enjoy
ject remove all doubt as to the current Jewish belief in a state of perfect natural happiness; and this is what
the time of Christ. Whatever name may be used in Catholics usually mean when they speak of the limbu9
apocryphal Jewish literature to designate the abode of infantium, the *^ children's limbo ".
the departed just, the implication generally is (1) The best way of justifying the above statement is to
that their condition is one of happiness, (2) that it give a brief sketch of the history of Catholic opinion on
is temporary , and (3) that it is to be replaced by a the subject. We shall try to do so by selecting the
condition of final or permanent bliss when the Messi- particular and pertinent facts from the general history
anic Kingdom is established. For details see Charles of Catholic speculation regarding the Fall and original
in " Encyclopedia Biblica", s. v. " Eschatology '*. sin, but it is only right to observe that a fairly full
In the New Testament, Christ Himself refers by knowledge of this general history is required for a
various names and figures to the place or state which proper appreciation of these facts.
Catholic tradition has agreed to call the limbus patrum. (1) Pre^Augustinian Tradition, — ^There is no evi-
In Matt., viii, 11, it is spoken of under the figure of a dence to prove that any Greek or Latin Father before
banquet ''with Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob in the St. Augustine ever taught that original sin of itself in-
kingdom of heaven" (cf. Luke, xiii, 29; xiv, 15), and volved any severer penalty after death than exclu-
in Matt., xxv, 10, under the figure of a marriage feast sion from the beatinc vision, and this, by the Greek
to which the prudent virgins are admitted, while in Fathers at least, was always regarded as beinff strictly
the parable of Lazarus and Dives it is called " Abra- supernatural. Explicit references to the subject are
hams bosom" (Luke, xvi, 22), and in Christ's words rare, but for the Greek Fathers generally the statement
to the penitent thief on Calvary the name parcMiisc is of St. Gregory of Nazianzus may be taken as repre-
used (Luke, xxiii, 43). St. Paul teaches (Eph., iv, 9) sentative: "It will happen, I believe", he writes,
tiiat before ascending into heaven Christ "also de- "... that those last mentioned [i. e. infants d^g
descended first into the lower parts of the earth", and without baptism] will neither be admitted by the just
St. Peter still more explicitly teaches that, " being put jud^e to the gloiy of heaven nor condemned to suffer
to death indeed, in the flesh, but enlivened in the punishment, since, though unsealed [by baptism], they
spirit ", Christ went and " preached to those souls that are not wicked. . . . For from the fact that one does
were in prison, which had been some time incredulous, not merit pimishment it does not follow that he is
when they waited for the patience of God in the days worthy of being honoured, any more than it follows
of Noe" (I Pet., iii, 18-20). that one who is not worthy of a certain honour de-
It is principally on the strength of these Scriptural serves on that account to 1x5 punished " ("Orat.", xl,
texts, harmonized with the general doctrine of the 23, in P. G., XXXVI, 389). Thus, according to
Fall and Redemption of mankind, that Catholic tra- Gregory, for children dying without baptism, ana ex-
dition has defended the existence of the limbus patrum eluded for want of the "seal " from the " honour " or
as a temporary state or place of happiness distinct gratuitous favour of seeing God face to face, an intcr-
from purgatory (q. v.). As a result of the Fall, heaven mediate or neutral state is admissible, which, unlike
was clos^ against men, i. e., actual possession of the that of the personally wicked, is free from positive
beatific vision was postponed, even lor those already punishment. And, for the West, Tertullian opposes
purified from sin, until the Redemption should have infant baptism on the ^und that infants are inno-
been historically completed by Christ's visible ascen- cent ("De Bapt.", xviii, in P. L., I, 1221); while St.
sion into heaven. Consequently, the just who had Ambrose explains that original sin is rather an in-
lived under the Old Dispensation, and who, either at clinatTon to evil than guilt in the strict sense, and that
death or after a course of purgatorial discipline, had it need occasioif no fear at the day of judgment (" In
attained the perfect holiness required for entrance into Ps. xlviii", 9, in P. L., XIV, 1169); and the Am-
glory, were oblieed to await the coming of the Incar- brosiater teaches that the "second death", which
nate Son of God and the full accomplishment of His means condemnation to the hell of torment of the
visible earthly mission. Meanwhile they were "in damned, is not incurred by Adam's sin, but by our own
prison", as St. Peter says, but, as Christ's own words ("In Rom.", v, 12, in P. L., XVII, 92). Thia
UHBO
257
UMBO
undoubtedly the general tradition Ixsfore St. Augut^
tine's time.
^2) Teadnng qf Sainl Auausline. — ^In his earlier
wntmgs St. Augustine himself agrees with the com-
mon teaditimi. This in ''De libero arbitrio" (III, in
P. L.y XXXIIy 1304), written several years before the
Ptolaglan controversy, discussing the fate of unbap-
tiied infants after death, he writes: " It is superfluous
to inquire about the merits of one who has not any
merits. For one need not hesitate to hold that hfe
may be neutral as between good conduct and sin, and
that as between reward and punishment there may be
a neutral sentence of the judge." But even before
the outbreak of the Pelagian controversy St. Augus-
tine had already abandoned the lenient traditional
view, and in the course of the controversy he himself
0(mdemned, and persuaded the Council of Carthage
(418) to condemn, the substantially identical Pelagian
teaching affirming the existence .of ''an intermediate
place, or of any place anywhere at all (idlus alicubi
locus), in which children who pass out of this life un-
baptised live in happiness" (Denzinger, 102). This
means that St. Augustine and the African Fathers
believed that unbaptised infants share in the common
positive misery of tne damned, and the very most that
St. Augustine concedps is that their punishment is the
mildest of all, so mild indeed that one may not say that
for them non-existence would be preferable to exist-
ence in such a state ("De peccat. mcritis", I, xxi, in
P. L., XLIV. 120; "Contra Jul.", V, 44, ibid., 809;
etc.). But this Augustinian teaching was an innova-
tion in its day, and the historyr of subsequent Catholic
speculation on this subject is taken up chiefly with
tne reaction which has ended in a return to the pre-
Augustinian tradition.
(c) Poarr-AuGUSTiNiAN Teachinq. — ^After enjoying
several centuries of undisputed supremacy, St. Augus-
tine's teaching on original sin was first successfully
challenged by St. Anselm (d. 1109), who maintained
that it was not concupiscence, but the privation of
orifldnal justice, that constituted the essence of the in-
herited sin (" De conceptu virginal! " in P. L., CLVIII,
431-64). On the special question, however, of the
punishment of original sin after death, St. Anselm was
at one with St. Augustine in holding that unbaptized
children share in the positive sufferings of the damned
(ibid., 457-61); and Abelard was the first to rebel
against the severity of the Augustinian tradition on
this point. Accoixling to him there was no guilt
(eulpdy, but only punishment (paina), in the proper
notion of original sm; and although this doctrine was
rightly condemned by the Council of Soissons in 1140
(Dens., 376), his teaching, which rejected material
torment (jxina senatts) and retained only the pain of
loss (pama damni) as the eternal punishment of
original sin (" Comm. in Rom." in P. L., CLXXVIII,
870), was not only not condemned but was generally
accepted and improved upon by the Scholastics.
Peter Lombard, the Master of the Sentences, popular-
ized it ("Sent.", II, xxxiii, 6, in P.L., CXCII, 730),
and it acquired a certain degree of official authority
from the letter of Innocent III to the Archbishop of
Aries, which soon found its way into the "Corpus
Juris ". Pope Innocent's teaching is to the effect tnat
those dying with only original sin on their souls will
suffer "no other pain, whether from material fire or
from the worm of conscience, except the pain of being
deprived forever of the vision of God " (" Corp. Juris ",
D^sret. 1. Ill, tit. xlii, c. iii — Majores), It should be
noted, however, that this pcena damni incurred for
origimd sin impHed, with Abelard and most of the
eu^ Scholastics, a certain degree of spiritual torment,
and that St. Thomas was the first great teacher who
broke away completely from the Augustinian tradi-
tion on this subject, and reljdng on the principle, de-
rived through the Pseudo-Dionysius from the Greek
Falhen, that human nature as such with all its powers
IX.— 17
ami rights was uiiaffected by the Fall {^tuod nahuratid
ttianent irUegra), umintnincil, at least virtually, what
the great majority of later Catholic theologians have
expressly taught, that the limbus infantium is a place
or state of perfect natural happiness.
No reason can be given — so argued the Angelic
Doctor — ^for exempting unbaptized children from the
material tonncnts of hell {pcsna senstu) that does not
hold good, even a fortiori, for exempting them also
from internal spiritual suffering (pcena damni in the
subjective sense), since the latter in reality is the more
grievous penalty, and is more opposed to the mitissima
mena which St. Augustine was willing to admit CDe
Malo, y, art. iii). Hence he expressly denies tnat
they suffer any " interior affliction ", in other words
that they experience any pain of loss (nihil omnino
dolebunt de carentia visionU divimB — " In Sent.", II, 33,
q. ii, a. 2). At first (" In Sent.", loc. cit.) St. Thomas
held this absence of subjective suffering to be con^
patible with a consciousness of objective loss or priva-
tion, the resi gnat ion of such souls to the ways of God's
providence being so perfect that a knowlecfge of what
they had lost through no fault of their own does not
interfere with the full enjoyment of the natural goods
they possess. Afterwards, however, he adopt^ the
much simpler ps>'chological explanation which denies
that these souls have any knowledge of the super-
natural destiny they have missed, this knowledge being
itself supernatural, and as such not included in what is
naturally due to the separated soul (De Malo, loc.
cit.). It should be added that in St. Thomas's view
the limbus infantium Ls not a mere negative state of
immunitv from suffering and sorrow, but a state of
positive happiness in which the soul is united to God
by a knowledge and love of Him proportionate to
nature's capacity.
The teaching of St. Thomas was received in the
Schools, almost without opposition, down to the
Reformation porioil. The very few theologians who,
^nth Gregory of Rimini, stood out for the severe Augus-
tinian view, were commonly designated by the oppro-
brious name of tortores infantium (see the brief list in
Noris, "Vind. August.", HI, v, in P. L., XLVII, 651
sqq.). Some writers, like Savonarola (De triumpho
crucis. III, 9) and Catharinus (De statu parvulorum
sine bapt. decedentium), added certain details to the
current teaching — for example that the souls of un-
baptized children will ht united to glorious bodies at
the Resurrection, and that the renovated earth of
which St. Peter speaks (II Pet., iii, 13) will he their
happy dwelling-place for eternity. At the Reforma-
tion, Protestants generally, but more especially, the
Calvinists, in reviving Augustinian teaching, added to
its original harshness, and the Jansenists followed on
the same line^. This reacted in two ways on Catholic
opinion, first by compelling attention to the true
historical situation, which the Scholastics had under-
stood very imperfectly, and second by stimulating an
all-round opposition to Augustinian severity regard-
ing the effects of original sin; and the immediate re-
sult was to set up two Catliolic parties, one of whom
either rejected St. Thomas to follow the authority of
St. Augustine or vainly tried to rt»coiicile the two,
while the other remained faithful to the Greek Fathers
and St. Thomas. The latter party, after a fairly pro-
longed struggle, lias certainly the balance of success
on its side.
Besides the professed advocates of Augustinianism,
the principal theologians who belonged to the first
party were Bcllannine, Petavius, and Bossuet, and
the chief ground of their opposition to the previously
prevalent Scholastic view was that its acceptance
seemed to compromise the very principle of the author-
ity of tradition. As students of history, they felt
bound to admit that, in excluding unbaptized children
from any place or state even of natural happiness and
condemning them to the hre of hell, St. Avi^\sl^^5k&^^2QS^
1
UMBO
258
UMBO
Council of Carthage, aiid later African Fathers, like
Fulgentius ("De fide ad Petrum", 27, in P. L., LXV,
701), intended to teach no mere private opinion, but a
doctrine of Catholic Faith; nor could they be satisfied
with what Scholastics, like St. Bonaventure and Duns
Scotus, said in reply to this difficulty, namely, that St.
Augustine, to whom the text of Fulgentius j ust referred
to was attributed, had simply been guilty of exaggerar
tion ("respondit Bonaventura dicens quod Augus-
tinus excessive loquitur de illis poenis, sicut frequenter
faciunt sancti" — Scotus, "In Sent.", II, xxxiii, 2).
Neither could they accept the explanation which even
some modem theologians continue to repeat: that the
Pelagian doctrine condemned by St. Augustine as a
heresy (see e. g., "De anima et ejus orig.", II, 17, in
P. L., XLIV, 505) consisted in claiming supernatural,
as opposed to natural, happiness for those dving in
original sin (see Bellarmine, ** De amiss, gratise , vi, 1;
Petavius, "De Deo", IX, xi; De Rubeis, "De Peo-
cat. Orig.", xxx, Ixxii). Moreover, there was the
teaching of the Council of Florence, tnat " the souls of
those dying in actual mortal sin or in original sin alone
go down at once (mox) into hell, to be punished, how-
ever, with widely different penalties" (Denz., 693).
It is clear that Bellarmine found the situation em-
barrassing, being imwilling, as he was. to admit that
St. Thomas and the Schoolmen generally were in con-
flict with what St. Augustine and other Fathers con-
sidered to be defide^ and what the Council of Florence
seemed to have taught definitively. Hence he names
Catharinus and some others as revivers of the Pelagian
error, as though their teaching differed in substance
from the general teaching of the School, and tries in a
milder way to refute what he concedes to be the view
of St. Thomas (op. cit.,vi-vii). He himself adopts a
view which is substantially that of Abelard mentioned
above; but he is obliged to do violence to the text of
St. Augustine and other Fathers in his attempt to ex-
plain them in conformity with this view, and to con-
tradict the principle he elsewhere insists upon that
" original sin does not destroy the natural but only the
supernatural order" (op. cit., iv). Petavius, on the
other hand, did not try to explain away the obvious
meaning of St. Augustine and his followers, but, in
conformity with that teaching, condemned unbap-
tized children to the sensible pains of hell, maintaining
also that this was the doctrine of the Council of Flor-
ence. Neither of these theologians, however, suc-
ceeded in winning a large following or in turning the
current of Catholic opinion from the channel into
which St. Thomas had directed it. Besides Natalis
Alexander (De peccat. et virtut, I, i, 12) . and Estius (In
Bent., II, XXXV, 7), Bellarmine's chief supporter was
Bossuet, who vainly tried to induce Innocent XII to
condemn certain propositions which he extracted from
a posthumous work of Cardinal Sf rondati and in which
the lenient scholastic view is affirmed (see propo-
sitions in Do Rubeis, op. cit., Ixxiv). Only professed
Aug^stinians, like Noris (loc. cit.), and Berti (De theol.
discip., xiii, 8), or out-and-out Jansenists like the
Bishop of Pistoia, whose famous diocesan synod fur-
nished eiphty-five propositions for condemnation by
Pius VI (1794), supported the harsh teaching of
Petavius. The twenty-sixth of these propositions
repudiated " as a Pelagian fable the existence of the
place (usually called the children's limbo) in which the
30uLs of those dj'iug in original sin are punished by the
pain of loss without any pain of fire"; and this, taken
to mean that by denying the pain of fire one thereby
necessarily postulates a middle place or state, in-
volving neither guilt nor penalty, between the king-
dom of Clod and eternal damnation, is condemned by
the pope as being "false and rash and as slander
on the Catholic schools" (Denz., 1526). This con-
denmation was practically the death-knell of extreme
Auf^iLstinianism, while the mitigated Augustinianism
of Bellarmine and Bossuet had already l^n rejected
by the bulk of Catholic theologianB. Suares, fof
example, ignoring Bellarmine's protest, continued to
teach what Catharinus had taught — ^that unbaptized
children will not only enjoy perfect natural happiness,
but that they will rise with immortal bodies at tbe last
day and have the renovated earth for their happy abode
(De vit. et penat., ix, sect, vi, n., 4); and. without
insisting on such details, the great majority oi Catholic
theologians have continued to maintain the general
doctrine that the children's limbo is a state of perfect
natural happiness, just the same as it would have been
if God had not established the present supernatural
order. It is true, on the other hand, that some Catho-
lic theologians have stood out for some kind of compro-
mise with Augustinianism, on the ground that nature
itself was wounded and weakened, or at least that cer-
tain natural rights (including the right to perfect felic-
ity) were lost in consequence of the Fall. But these
have granted for thp most part that the children's
limbo implies exemption, not only from the pain of
sense, but from any positive spiritual anguish for the
loss of the beatific vision; and not a few have been will-
ing to admit a certain limited degree of natural happi-
ness in limbo. What has been chieflv in dispute is
whether this happiness is as perfect and complete as it
would have been in the hypothetical state of pure na-
ture, and this is what the majority of Catholic theolo-
gians have affirmed.
As to the difficulties against this view which pos-
sessed such weight in the eyes of the eminent theolo-
gians we have mentioned, it is to be observed: (1) We
must not confound St. Augustine's private authority
with the infallible authority of the Catholic Church;
and (2), if allowance be made for the confusion intro-
duced into the Pelagian controversy by the want of a
dear and explicit conception of tne distinction be-
tween the natural and the supernatural order one can
easily understand why St. Augustine and the Council
of Carthage were practically boimd to condenm the
locus mediua of the Pelagians. St. Augustine himself
was inclined to deny this distinction altogether, al-
though the Greek Fathers had already developed it
pretty fully, and although some of the Pelagians had a
glimmering of it (see Coelestius in August., " De Pec-
cat Orig.", V, in P.L., XLIV, 388), they based their
claim to natural happiness for unbaptized children on a
denial of the Fall and original sin, and identified this
state of happiness with the "fife eternal" of the New
Testament. (3) Moreover, even if one were to admit
for the sake of argument that this canon of the Council
of Carthage (the authenticity of which cannot reason-
abhr be doubted) acquired the force of an oecumenical
definition, one ought to interpret it in the light of what
was undertood to be at issue by both sides in the con-
troversy, and therefore add to the simple locus medius
the qualification which is added by Pius VI when, in
the Constitution " Auctorem Fidei ", he speaks of lo-
cum ilium' et statum medium expertem culpse et poe-
nsB ". Finally, in regard to the teaching of the Coun-
cil of Florence, it is incredible that the Fathers there
assembled had any intention of defining a question so
remote from the issue on which reunion with the
Greeks depended, and one which was recognized at the
time as being open to free discussion and continued to
be so regarded by theologians for several centuries
afterwards. What the council evidently intended to
deny in the passage alleged was the the postponement
of final awards till the day of judgment. Those dying
in original sin are said to descend into hell, but this
does not necessarily mean anything more than that
they are excluded eternally from the vision of God. In
this sense they are damned, i. e., they have failed to
reach their supernatural destiny, and this viewed ob-
jectively is a true penalty. Thus the Council of Flor-
ence, however literally interpreted, does not deny the
possibility of perfect subiective happiness for those
dying in original sin, and tnis is all that is needed from
UMBOUBO
259
UMBOXTBO
the dogmatic viewpoint to justify the prevailing
Catholic notion of the children's limbo, while from the
standpoint of reason, as St. Gregroy of Nazianxus
pointed out long ago, no harsher view can he recon-
ciled with a worthy concept of God's justice and other
attributes.
Hamachi. De aninuibua judarum in nnu Abrakae ante Chruti
mortem (Rome. 1766); Boloeni, Siaio dei bamhini mortx aenza
batteeimo (Rome. 1787); Hurter, Theol. dogmat.^ 11th ed.. Ill
?nii8bruek. 1003); Plciiptrk, The Svirita m Primm (New
ork, 1884); Atsberger. QeHck. d. chrudlichen Eeehatologie
(Fnibuis. 1896); Pohle. Lehrb, d. Dogmatik, I. 513; II. 200
(Paderbom. 19Gt3'-7) ; Turmel. La descente du Christ aux en/era
CParis, 1905); Toner, Lot of Those Dying in Orioinal Sin in
hiah Theol. Quarterly (July, 1909) ; Braun in Kirchenlex, b. V.
Liu^M*. See also literature under Orioinal Sin.
P. J. TONEB.
Umboufg, Pol de, French miniaturist. With his
two brothers, he flourished at Paris at the end of the
fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth cen-
tury. It is believed that their family name was
Malouel, or Malwel, and that they were nephews of
that Jean Malouel who was employed at Dipu, at the
Court of the Duke of Burgundy, and whose " Vie de
St. Denis '*, in the Louvre, was painted for the Char-
treuse of Champmol and was nnished by Henri de
Bellechose. The surname de Limbourg makes it ap-
pear that they came from the region which borders on
the country of Van Eyck and was in those days de-
pendent on the Duchy of Burgundy. But it is prob-
able that they came to Paris at an early age, and that
it is they who are meant bv Guillebert de Metz in his
"Description de Paris", when he speaks of the " trois
fr^res enlumineurs". They must, therefore, have
been already famous at the date of this book (about
1395), although it is impossible to ascribe to them
with certainty any work previous to 1416. At the
latter date they worked for the Due de Berry (brother
of the Duke of Burgundy and uncle of Charles VI) on
the decoration of a manuscript which is still extant
and which forms part of the library of the Musto
Cond6. This famous book is universally celebrated
under the name of the "Tr^s Riches Heures" of
Chantilly (sometimes called the Book of Hours of the
Due de Berry).
Of the two hundred and odd paintings which adorn
the "Ti^ Riches Heures" only the first half are due
to the Limbourg brothers; the rest were done fifty or
sixty years later by a pupil of Fououet (q. v.) named
Jean Uolomb (brother of Michel Colomb, the sculptor
of the famous tomb of Nantes and of the Solesmes
"Saints"). Even in the first half of the "Heures"
it is impossible to determine the share contributed by
any one of the three Limbourg brothers. Judging by
the account given in the records, Pol must have been
the eldest, and head of the atelier. This being so, he
was probably the originator of the designs, or themes,
and nis pupus were restricted to executing them after
the copy set by him. At any mte, the designer,
whoever he may have been, was one of the greatest
artists of the Renaissance. It is a moot question
whether his art was learned in Italy: on the one hand
Italianisms abound in the "Tres Riches Heures" —
it would be easy to point out twenty examples of
Florentine or Sienese imitations; the buildings in
more than one scene strikingly recall the architecture
of Giotto and the taste of the Roman marmorari; the
" Presentation in the Temple " is an exact reproduc-
tion of the composition ot Taddeo Gaddi; there is a
plan of Rome identical with one on the ceiling of a
nail of the public palace at Siena. But such coinci-
dences are not conclusive that the artist of the " Tr^s
Riches Heures " travelled through Italy. Communi-
cation between the two countries was frequent; Paris
was already cosmopoUtan in the fourteenth century,
and what was called the ouvraige de Rome, or ouvraige
de Lan^Kordie was well known there. Besides, on
more than <me point the Limbourgs were far in ad-
of oontemporary Italy. From the time of
Charles V there had arisen in Paris an elegant natu-
ralism of which numerous traces appear in the work of
these three brothers. In the matter of drawing, the
''Adam and Eve in Paradise", and still more the
study of an "Astrologic Man", are examples of the
nude not to be paralleled in Italy earlier than the date
of the Carmine chapel (1428), nor in Flanders before
that of Van Eyck's retable (1432). Other pages
offer studies of contemporary costume or of amcoals
which were not surpassed by Gentile da Fabriano,
whose "Adoration of the Magi" dates from 1423.
The " Coronation of the Virgin " discovers a beauty of
design and a purity of sentiment which perhaps Beato
Angelico himself never equalled, while for genre and
the portrayal of contemporary manners, whether
peasant or noble, the early pages of the manuscript are
examples of an art until then without precedent and
as exquisite as anything produced in later ages. •
It had been usual to place at the beginning of a
Book of Hours a calendar giving the principal feasts,
the lunations, ete. A similar calendar was generally
carved on the porch of a cathedral (see Male, "L'Art
religieux en France au XIII® si^cle"). The months
are represented in these calendars bv the signs of the
zodiac above a small bas-relief showing the character-
istic occupations of the several seasons — for August,
e. g., the harvest; for September, the \dntage. These
sculptures, of a classic, almost Greek, style of art,
naturally did not admit of more than one or two
figures, with a landscape rather suggested than ex-
pressed. The calendars of the Books of Hours were
still thus conceived in the fourteenth century. For
this wholly ideal conception of things Pol de Lim-
bourg substituted one wholly naturalistic. He made
the subject over anew and, retaining only the poetic
theme, introduced a thousand novel developments, de-
picting, instead of the abstract conception of the
seasons, their real, concrete aspecte. Thus it is that
the "Tr^s Riches Heures" embodies in its calendar
(the month of November is by Jean Colomb) a new
theory of sesthetics and constitutes the definite begin-
ning of modern landscape art.
An innovation fraught w^ith such important conse-
quences for the art of painting naturally prompts the
question: Whence did the idea originate? In reply.
Henri Bouchat suggests this ingenious theory: It will
be noticed that each of these landscapes represents
one of the dwellings or chdteaux of the Due de Berry —
the Louvre, MchunR-sur-Ydvrc, Vincennes, ete. Each
of these landscapes is made to harmonize with one of
the signs of the zodiac — called the "houses" of the
sun. Hence it may be conjectured that the prince
himself commanded this amhitioiLs parallel. So, too,
under Louis XIV, the tapestry ot "The Months",
woven by the Gobelins after the cartoons of Le Brun,
represents the various chateaux of the roi soleil.
But whatever the origin of the idea, the Limbourgs
retain the merit of having, in its execution, given the
earliest and some of the most perfect models of mod-
em landscape art. The happiness rarely accorded an
artist, of Imving created a genre, belongs to them
more than to any others. Moreover, of all the se-
crets of this new art — even the resources of atmosphere
and of chiaroscuro — they hadj if not the developed
instinct, at least some presentiment. The poetry of
each season, its colour, its gaiety or melancnoly, the
transparency of the spring air, the winter torpor of
nature, are all suggested. The work of the Limoourg
brothers was epoch-making, a century later it was
still being imitated, and the Flemish artists of the
celebrated Grimani Breviary in the Library of St.
Mark confined themselves to copying it, wliile they
modernized it and made it dull. It has elsewhere
been said (see Eyck, Hubert and Jan Van) how
great is the historical importance of this admirable
manuscript; but^ even if it did not possess in this
respect a value impossible to ov^t^aXxswaXfc — «s«dl>5l
UBEBVBO 2e
ire could not trace in it the be^iuniugH at all Northern
painting:, from the MaUre dt la FlfmoUe to Jean Fou-
quet— it would still be, with ita extraordinary variety
of scenes and it^ perfect style, one of the most precious
monumenta of tne art of painting.
Rehah. Zturoura lur TAiU dfi arlt en Franee ou XIV'
witch (Fsria, 1843); MANTt, La Pei-lun en Frmct du JX- oit
XVI- aUcU (Paris, ■. d.); C'odrajoh. Lttont pnfutta h
I'HoU du Louvrr, U (IflOU: Dr.ii nitHse, HiHaire dt V AH dam
laFIandrr.l'ArUiitriltHaiHaiaavclt.,*:, Lille. 1886); !>■
Chauveaux AHii OAUdiEiir, Lra rnnBHi (Tori (B-f'mUf pour l«
due dt Bnrv (Poria, 1S94); Gui[.i.eb«iit de Uetx. DneripUm
dfPariiiKnaCharlaVI,p}ih]akvdbyl,tBxtai.xmi Lihct and
T18BBHAKD in Pant ti trt MHantnt aux XH- tt XV' liitltt:
Dblisi^. LfM LiTOL d'Heura du due de Btm, (Psria, l»84)i
Dvorak, Dot Haiti] dtr Bmdtr lun Eurk (VienDs. 19M): Ddh-
BiED. Ltt Hnrttde Turin IPario. IBOf); Lii Trri Iticha Beura
duducdtBernKF^™, lOW); Ltt BtlUi H runt du due dt Brrrj/
in Oaiitlr dtt Braui'Am [19061; Ln DibuU dti I'an Ei/ct in
Qiu. da Biaia-A. (lOlM).
, Louis Gillbt.
Limbnrg, Diocese or (LiMBirnaENsis), in the
KinRdom of Prussia, miffragan of Freiburg.
I. History. — This diocese dates from the end of the
eighteenth century. The city of Limburg then be-
longed to the Elector of Trier, but the north-eastern
part of the present ilioceae lay outside of any diocesan
territory, having been under Protestant rulers since
the Peace of Westphalia. It was administered in
Bpiritu.il matters from Trier, through the ecclesiastical
authorities at Coljlenz. When the latter city fell into
tiie hands of the French (1794), the administrator.
Archdeacon Joseph Ludwig Beck, was given ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction overthat part of the Diocese of Trier
which lav on the right bank of the Rhine, the setit of
his administration lieing Limburg. When, in 1801,
the left bank of the Rhine came into the possession of
the Frencli, the three rural deaneries of the Arch-
diocese of Trier on the right bank still continued to
exist, but in 1S03 passed to the princes of Nassau-
Weilburg, who allowed the vicariate-generai at Lim-
burg to continue, but diverted various ecclesiastical
revenues and, in the city of I,.imburg, suppresscil the
collegiate chapter which had existed since the truth
centurv. In 1802 tlie last Archbixhon of Trier, Kle-
niens Wenceslaus, appointed Beck sole vicar-general
for what remained of the archdiocese, and after the
death of the archbishop (1812) Reck was conlirmed in
this position by the pope (181^1). His ecclesiastical
admmistration was earned on under the most difficult
circumstances, in spite of which he did not fail to pro-
vide for a wcli-traincd priesthood, and to encourage
learning and virtue among hisclergy. Upon his death
(3 February, 1816), the primate, Dalbcrg, in his ca-
pacity as metropolitan and nearest bishop, appointed
Hubert Anton Corden, pastor of Limburg, to be a<l-
ministrator and director of the vicariate (15 Decem-
ber, 1816). Pius VII appointed him, 8 July, 1818,
vicar Apostolic for the Archdiocese of Trier. Prussia
di^ not recognize the new vicariate, and forbade Cor-
den to administ«r the parishes which were under
Prussian rule. A separate Diocese of Limburg was the
only possible solution of the difficulty. Long negotia-
tions, begun in 1S18 at Frankfort-on-the-Main, were
carried on lietwoen Rome and the tkivemments inter-
ested, with the result tliat the ecclesiastical I'rovince
of the Upper Rhine was establislied in 18*21, and, as a
part ot it, the Diocese of Limburg. The Bull "Pro-
vida Bolers<)ue", establishing the new diocese, was
issued 16 AngiLsl, IS21. but, on account of a dispute
between the pope and the Governments concerned,
the bee of Limburg was not filled for five yeara. The
first bishop waa Jacob Brand, parish priest of Wies-
kirchen (b. 29 January, 1776, at Mespellbninn in
Franconia), proposed by the Government, confirmed
by the pope, and consecrated 21 October, 1827.
The new di()Cese consisted of the fifty-seven par-
iahes of the Ducliy of Nassau that had formerly been
inder the Archbishop of Mainz and in 1S21 bad been
placed under the vicar Apostolic Corden, the free
imperial city of Frankfort-on-tlie-Main, fifty-one
parishes of the fonner Archdiocese of Trier, and
twenty-five pariahes in which no episcopal jurisdiction
had been exercised since the Peace of Westphalia, In
1828 the diocese was divided into fifteen deaneries.
The former collegiate and parish church of St. George,
at Limburg, which since the French Revolution )^
been in a dilapidated condition, became the cathedral.
The endowment was, as Pius VIII himself expressed
it, a "deplorable" one, and amounted only to 21,606
gulden for both the bishop and the entire cathedral
chapter. This endowment was administered by the
secular Government, as was also the Catholic central
fund (Zentrolkirehenjond') for the diocese, over which
the bishop had no control whatever. The position
of the first bishop, little worthy of his rank, suffered
from the ecclesiastical laws of Nassau in which he had
tooeasilyacquiesced before his appointment. In truth
he was only ap^d official dependent upon the nod of
the Government, put in charge of the purely religious
affairs of the Catholics of this territory. He issued a
number of excellent ordinances during bis brief term
of office. Having himself been a teacher, he devoted
special and enlignletied care to the founding of an
ecclesiastical seTninary, which was opened in 1829 in a
former Franciscan monastery granted for the purpose
by the (iovemment. He prepared the way for a
special theological seminary, hut did not live to see
it established, dving in 1835. The second biahop,
Johann Wilhelm 'Bausch (18:;o-40), was likewise un-
tral diocesan fund brought upon him and the cathe-
dral chapter a sharp rebuke.
In the appointment of the third biahop, Peter
Joseph Blum (1842-84), the diocese gained a man
who, aided by the change<l conditions of the times,
was able to curri' on a siiccejsfuj contest for greater
liberty in the administration of his see. He cared for
the religious quickening of his diocese by the intro-
duction and zealous tostf ring of Keneral confession, of
relipjious brotherhoods, and a Christian press, the dis-
semination of good books, and the practice ot spirit-
which he succeeded in eit«UiihIttg afMr
LZHBUBa 21
aome oppodtion fnHD the Oovernmeat. The year d
the RevolutioD, 1S48, brought to the Catholic Chuich
some freedom from the sygtem of state guardianship
until tbm in force, and permitted for toe first time
the holding of popular muaione, which the bishop in-
troduoed as early as 1850. In that year, also, he ol>
tuned poneasion of the former Francisran monastery
ol Bomhofen, a much-frequented pilgrimage, and
there founded a house of RedcmptoristB, in spit^ of
government oppoaitiou. The first house of the Poor
Ij^ndmaiiU of t'hrist was foundeii in 1S50 at Dern-
bach; it gradually developed into 'J. large mother-
house with numerous branches. In 1K55 followed ttie
house of the Brothern of Mercy at Montabaur; in 18G2.
the diocesan protectory at Marieustatt; in lK50. the
hospital of the Sisters of St. Vincent dc Paul at Liin-
burg, etc. Gradually the bishop roplaccd the olrl uii-
denominational schools with Catholic schools which he
obtained permission to establish. In 1851 a Catholic
normal school was founded at Montabaur; in 1852 a
college for boya was opened at Hadamar, and in 1872
another at Montabaur. From 1851 the bishop had an
ei^t years' struggle with the Government in regari!
to the filling of vacant parishes; it ended by the eti-
tablisbment in principle of the bishop's right to inde-
pendent administratioa of the diocese, and to the
Wpointment and training of the clergy.
The political independence of the Duchy of Nassau
>nd of the imperial free city of frankfortr^m-the-
Hain came to an end in the German war of 1860, after
which both were incorporated in the Kingdom of
Pnuaift. New religious houses, missions, and exer-
dna wen made possible by the introduction into the
new tarritoijr of the same legal freedom of action aa
tbe CftUuilio Church then enjoyed in Prussia, These
(uraunbte eireiunstances did not last long. The Kul-
tuAwmpf, beginning in 1872, destroyed at Limburg
the greater ptiirt of what had been created by long
yemnofwoTK. Several institutions were closed hv the
expnUim ot the RedemptnriHti, Jenuits. Poor Mand-
makU of Christ, the English LodieH, etc., while the
Old'Cft^olic legislation transferred a numl^er of Cath-
olio churches to this new sect. By the SpcrrKC!«-'ti, the
eferiy of Limburg found tliemsclvcs deprived of sal-
aries, while the bishop, after suffering fines and dis-
traints for filling parishes without giving to the Gov*
etnment the newly prcscrilied notification, wa^, in
1876, expelled from office by the civil authority, and
^dled. He administered his diocese, as well as possi-
ble, from Haid, in Bohemia, where Prince von Lowen-
Htem generously granted him an asylum. It wa« not
until 1883 that he was able to return to Limburg.
The spirit of Bishop Blum lived in his successors,
Juhann Christian Roos, who, after a short episcopate
(1885-86), was raised to tlie archiepiscopal S^ of
Freiburg, and Karl Klein (ISSti-DS), dean of the cntltc-
dral chapter, appointed by the pope. Dr. Klein had
been for many j-ears tlie tniste<l vicar-general of
Bishop Blum. IJiiring his episcopate the former Cis-
tercian Abbey of Marienstatt wai* restored (1888) by
Gstercianii from Mehrerau, near Constaocc. The
same bishop also founded a "JSchola Uregoriana" to
provide music for tlic cathedral, built a new seminar}-,
and made lealous efforts to i'e|>air the damage cauisod
by the Kulturkampf. He was succeeded by Domi-
nucus Willi, first abbot of the new Marienstatt.
IL Statisticb, — The Diocese of Limburg includes
the Prussian civil district of Wiesbaden in the Prov-
ince of Hesse- Xasftau, with the exception of that part
of the city of Frankforl^-on-the-Main which belongs to
the Diocese of Fulda and four touiis hi the Grand
Duchy of Hesse. There are, taken altoccther, 413,000
Catholic inhabiUnts. The diocese is divided into fif-
teen deaneries and the commissariat of Prunkfort-on-
the-Main (q, v.): it contains 210 parishes and cures of
souls, 29 benefices, 38 endowwl and 4!) non-endowed
chi^ilaincies, 48 other positions in the itdministration
1 LIMBTnUl
and the schools, and, at the close of 1909, there were
368 teoulor priests. The cathedral chapter consists of
a dean, 5 canons, 1 honorary canon, and 2 cathedral
vicars. The bishop in elected by the cathedral chapter
from a number of candidates who must be approved
by the ruler of Prussia; the members are appointed
alternately by the bishop and the chapter itself. The
institutions of the diocese are: the tneological semi-
nary at Limburg, with 18 students; the colleges for
boys at Hadamar and Montabaur, each having about
100 pupils; the St. Joseph school for hoys at Marien-
hausen; the as^'lum for idiots at .^.ulhausen; the
"Schola (.iregoriana" and the diocesan museum at.
Limburg. The monasteries for men in the dio
the Cistercian Abliey of Marienstatt, originally
founded in 121,'), suppressed in ISOit, re-cst«bli.thed in
1888, now (1010) numl>cring .i2 fathera and I't broth-
ers: 3 Franciscan monasteries (Maricntal, Bomhofen,
and Kelkheim), with 17 fathore ;md 20 lay brothers;
1 Capuchin moniksl^ry at Fraiikfort-on-the-.Main, S
fathers and 3 brotJiers: the chief house of the Mission
Society of the Pallottini at Limburg, l;l faUiers, 57
scholastics, and 90 lay brothers; the chief house of the
BrotJiers of Mercy at Montabaur and 5 other monastic
houses, 105 professed brotheri and 30 novices. The
female orders and congregations in the diocese are:
the Conere^tion of St, ^'incent de Paul, I house, 12
sisters; the Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ, 1 mother-
house and 86 dependent houses, 940 (.Liters; the Asso-
ciation of the Sisters of Divine Providence of Mainz, 6
houses, 3(i sisters; the Poor i^isters of St, Francis, 1
house, 31 sisters; the Sisters of the Christian Schools
of Mercv, 3 houses, 27 sistcrH; Ursuliiies, 3 houses, 80
sisters; Englisli Ladies, 2 houses, 48 sisters; Sisters (rf
Charity of the Good Shephcnl, 1 hoase, 32 Bistprs;
Ser\-ants of the Sncred Heart of Jesus. 2 houses, S
sisters; the Pallottine Nuns, a mother-house at I.im-
burs, (>5 sisters: the Benetlictinc Nuns, 1 abbey (St.
Hilaegard.at EibingerO.-iO.si.iters; Itenedictine Muns
of tlie Perpetual Adoration, 1 house, 20 sisters;
Alcxian Nuns, 1 house, 7 sisters.
The diocese has about 35 societies for bo;rs and
young men; 18 journeymen's unions; about 6(1 work-
men's unions; 10 merchants' associations; 7 societies
for sen'ants: the Biinifiitiiwi'crein; n Hi«iety tor the
support of prii>Ml4; the St. Rajihael Society; tlic Mw-
LXHUUOK
ian Society for the protectioa of ^rls etc. There are poeition ol the place for trade and commerce, they
20 charitable institutions under reli^oua admlois' settled there in the ninth centuiy, and from thia at
tration (orphanages, working-girlB' homes, hospitals, their etroDKhold they oppressed the natives around
etc.). Themoet important church of the diocese is the and plundered the religious establishments along the
cathedral at Limburg. It is in the transition style be- Sliannoji. They were severely pimishcd in the end of
tween Romanesque and Gothic, and was built in the
first third of the thirteenth centuiy, consecrated in
1235, and completely restored 1871-78. The cele-
brated treasure of tiie cathedral, containing costly
reliquaries of the Byzantine period, etc., is kept in the
church of the Franciscans. Other churches of the
diocese worthy of special notice are ; the Kaiserdom of
St. BartholomewatFrankfort^on-tbo-MQtn, formerly a
place of pilgrimage, and tiie church where the German
emperors were crowned (see FKANKFoaT-ON-THE-
Main), the Romanesque church of the former monas-
tery of Augustinian Canons at Dietkirchen near Lim-
burp, the oldest church of the diocese (ninth century),
the (jothic pilgrimafic church of Bomhofen (fifteenth
century); the church of Eltville (fourteenth century),
the pilgrimage church of Kiedrich (early fourteenth
century), Rudeslieim (1301-1400), the pilgrimage
^urch of St. Martin at Lorch (end of thirteenth cen-
tury), the abbey churches of Marienstatt and Ei-
bingen, and the Romanesque- Got hie Church of the
former Premonstratensian monastery of Amstein-on-
the-Lahn, etc.
BAiiL.£nlrA(reiurCi-KAicAlc/,tin6uKri(LimfaurB,18SH. ISW):
Ibach. Drr Dom lu Limbun (Umburg, 1S7U) : Luthhek. Du
Bav- un<^ Kvnttdmknuiicr att RtviervngabnirkB Wiabadm (H
vol!., Fnnkfort, 1002-07): H<)bt.eh. CfKl\'iehlt dtt Bii*M«n
lAmlmTB mit baonrlirrr liurktirhtnahme auf dm Lrbat unil
Wirktada driUm BiKholt Ptter Jetrph Blum (LimbuiB. 19081;
8dinnatUnn^drrDi<KiKLimbaTiillim\>\iit,]»i7\ BUpplemoi-
Uiyvol.,iBiO). Joseph Lras.
Umerlek, Diocgbc of (Liugricenbis), in Ireland,
includes the greater part of tbe County of Limerick
and a small portion at Clare, and has an area, approxi-
mately, of about 500,000 acres. It corresponds with
the ancient territory of Hy Fidheheinte. St. Patrick
visited the district, and was follo'K'ed in the work of
converting the natives by St. Senan, who lived in the
sixth century and who was at one time Abbot of
Scattery Inland. In the same century lived St. Mun-
cliin, Ihciwtron of the diocese, wlio established a mon-
St. John's Cati
astery and school at Munf^t. Tliis school )>ecamo so
famous tliat at one time it had ],.'iO0 students. An
olTKhoot from Mungret wan a hcnnitage at Kill-Mua-
cbin, near I.imerirk. Thither St. Munchin retired, and
Uiere he sjient hiu closing years, anil, no doubt, from
this licnnitagc anil from Mungrct the spiritual needs
of the surrouniliiig district were supplied. But as vet
then- wiiH no eitv uf f.imeriok, anil no dioi'i«e till iiftfr
the DniK'H came, (juick Hi discern the a<lvantiigi-nuH
the tenth century by Brian Boroihme, who expelled
them from the city, and they were readmitted only
as subjects and tributaries of the kings of Thomond.
Gradually they became Christians, though they still
disliked the Irish, and liad their bishops at Limerick
consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbuiy and
subject to him.
It is said there was a Bishop of Limerick about 1050,
but his name and acts are unknown. Wo do know,
however, that there was a bishop at Limerick about
1100, a remarkable man, Gillebert liy name. Edu-
cated at Bangor, be hod liccn abbot there, and then,
having travelled abroad, he met Anselm, Archbishop
and also Apostolic delegate. I'robablv it was under
Anscini's advice that he cndea\'ouroa to introduce
unity of liturgy in the Irish Church, instead of the be-
wildering diversity of Offices and M.is.scs which pre-
vailed. He presided at the Svnod of Rathbreasail
(1118), where tlie number and limits of the Irish dio-
ceses were determined, when Limerick itself, freed
from the jurisdiction of Canterbury, was made subject
to Caahel as the metropolitan See of .Munstcr. Gille-
hert resigned bis position as papal delegate in 1139 and
in the following year died. His immolate successois
in the See of Limerick were all Danes; then came
Donat O'Brien, of the royal House of Thomond, Dur-
ing his episconate (1I7!^1207) the cathedral of St.
Mary was built, a cathmlral thapler was set up, and
Scatter)' Island was united to Limerick. Meantime
the city of Limerick, altj.'rnately ruled by native and
Anglo-Norman, was in 1199 taken possession of by
de Burgh, who soon ruled with the power of an inde-
pendent prince. Under Anglo-Norman rule English
influencps pn'Vuiliif. ami for two centuriw l^ie bishops
apjioiiiteil Wire i:ri|tlif^!i, or of i:iigli>li descent. Dur-
LXMOOES
263
UMoaxs
ing tliat period the privileges of the diocesan chapter
were enlarged^ and tne diocese was divided into dean-
eries. One bishop of Limerick, in 1351, ruled Ireland
for a short period as lord deputy; and another had a
serious quarrel with the Arcnbishop of Cashel, wh6m
he drove out of Limerick by force. This militcuit prel-
ate resigned his see in 1400 and was succeeded by a
very able man, Cornelius O'Dea, a descendant of one
of the ancient Dalcassian chiefs. His mitre and
crosier, both beautifully ornamented, still exist. His
successors, like his predecessors, were of the Anelo-
Irish stock; nor did anything noteworthy occur dur-
ing their rule until the Reformation, and then, though
aLimerick priest, William Casey, accepted from Ed-
ward VI the position of Protestant bishop, both Irish
and Anglo-Insh united in rciecting the new doctrines.
During the wars of Elizabeth the diocese suffered
much, nor did any city rejoice more sincerely than
Limerick at the death of the queen. The city was
again prominent in the wars of the seventeenth cen-
tuiy. The nimcio was present in its cathedral, in
16&, when a Te Deum was simg for the victory of Ben-
burb; and when the city was captured, in 1651, by
Ireton, after a most heroic defence, one of those spe-
cially excluded from mercy was the Catholic bishop.
He manaeed, however, to escape, and died at Brussels,
in 1654. For nearly twenty years subsequently Limer-
iclc had no bishop; and then came the partiiu tolera-
tion under Charles II and the fleeting triumph under
James II, followed by the Jacobite war, which, in Ire-
land, was mainly a war of religion. The Treaty of Lim-
erick, which ended the war and was supposed to have se-
cured toleration for the CathoUcs, was soon shamefully
broken, and in the eighteenth century Limerick — city
and diocese — experienced to the full the horrors of the
peoal laws. From 1702 to 1720 there was no bishop,
out after that date the episcopal succession was regu-
larly maintained. Shut out from every position of
honour or emolument, the Catholics were prohibited
from dwelling within the city, unless registered, and as
late as 1744 there was no Catholic church within the
city walls. Gradually, however, the old religion eained
ffround. The Catholics, defying the law, settled in
Limerick and soon outnumbered the Protestants,
and being free to engage in trade, they amassed
wealth and built churches. In 1805, when the bishop.
Dr. Young, undertook the building of a diocesan col-
lege, he h^ no difficulty in getting sufficient funds for
the purpose. Dr. Young was one of those who refused
to subscribe to the episcopal resolution of 1799 favour-
ing the veto, and he denounced the project in 1808,
when it was sought to have it revived. His successor,
Dr. Tuohy, was equallv vigorous (1814) in condemna-
tion of the letter of Monsignor Quarantotti. One of
Dr. Tuohy 's most notable acts was to introduce the
Christian Brothers into the city. He died in 1828, and
was succeeded by Dr. Ryan, who died in 1864. The
long episcopate of the latter was marked by the erec-
tion of many churches, including the cathedral of St.
John, the foundation-stone of which was laid in 1856.
Convents, also, were multiplied, and where, in 1825,
there was but one convent for women throughout the
whole diocese, at Dr. Ryan's death there were in
Limerick City alone five convents, these including the
Good Shepherd, Presentation, and Mercy orders. And
the good work of building churches, convents, and
schools, was carried on with equal energy by Dr.
Ryan's successor. Dr. Butler (1864-86).
The present bishop is Dr. Edward Thomas O'Dwyer,
bom in 1842, ^ucated at Maynooth, ordained priest
in 1867, and consecrated bishop in 1886, an eloquent
and fearless man, always listened to with respect on
public questions. Among eminent persons connected
wit^ the diocese may be named the poets Gerald
Griffin, Sir Aubrey de Vere, Bart., ana his son Sir
Aubrey Thomas de Vere, the second baronet. In
1910 the <lior.cw containwl 4K pariBhos, 46 parish
priests, 2 administrators, 60 curates, 7 professors,
115 secular and 54 regular clergy, 94 district churches,
12 convents with 144 religious living in community,
4 monastic houses with 38 religious living in com-
munity. In 1901 the Catholic population of the
diocese was 111,170.
Leniuan, History of Limerick (Dublin, 1866); Bbglet,
History of the Diocese of Limerick (Dublin, 1906); Lanigan,
EecUstastical History of Ireland (Duolin, 1S22); Mac<'affret,
The Black Book of Limerick (Dublin. 1907); Irish Catholic
Directory (1910).
E. A. D* Alton.
Limoges, Diocese of (Lkmovicensis), comprises
the Departments of Haute Vienne and Crcuse in
France. After the Concordat of 1801, the See of
Limoges lost twenty-four parishes from the district
of Nontron which were annexed to the Diocese of
Perigueux, and forty -four from the district of Con-
folens, transferred to the Diocese of jVngouleme; but
until 1822 it included the entire ancient Diocese of
Tulle, when the latter was reorganized.
Gregory of Tours names St. Martial, who founded
the Church of Limoge:^, as one of the seven bishops sent
from Rome to Gaul in the middle of the tliird ccntuiy.
An anonymous life of St. Martial (Vita priraitiva), dis-
covered and published by Abl.>d Arbellot, represents
him as sent to Gaul by St. Peter. A fjreat dciil of
controversy has arisen over the date of this biography.
The discovery in the library at Carlsruhe of a manu-
script copy written at Reichenau by a monk, Rcgim-
bertus, wno died in 846, indubitably places the original
before that date. From the fact that it is in rhyth-
mical prose, Mgr Bellet thinks it belongs to the seventh
century. P6re de Smedt and Mgr Duchesne question
this conclusion and maintain that the "Vita primitiva"
is much later than Gregory of Tours. M. de Last eyrie
gives 800 as the date of its origin. In addition to the
manuscript already cited, the Abbey of St. Martial at
the beginning of the eleventh century possessed a cir-
cumstantial life of its patron saint, according to which,
and to the cycle of later legends dcrivetl from it, St.
Martial was one of the seventy-two disciples who
witnessed the Passion and Ascension of Our Lord,
was present on the first I'entecost and at tlio martyr-
dom of St. Stephen, after which he followed St. Peter
to Antioch and to Rome, and was sent to Gaul by the
Prince of the Apostles, wno assigned Austriclinian and
Alpinian to accompany him. The three were wel-
comed at Tulle ana turned away from Aliun. They
set out towards Limoges, where, on the site of the
E resent cathedral, St. Martial erected a shrine in
onour of St. Stephen. A pagan priest, Aurelian,
wished to throw St. Martial into prison, but was struck
dead, then brought to life, baptized, ordained, and
later consecratedhLshop by the saint. Aurelian is the
patron of the guild of^ butchers in Limoges. Forty
years after the Ascension, Our Lord appeared to
Martial, and announced to him the approach of death.
The churches of Limoges celebrate tliis event on 16
June. After labouring for twenty-eight years as a
niissionary in Gaul, the saint died at the age of fifty-
nine, surrounded by his converts of Poitou, Berri,
Auvergne^ and Aguitaine.
The writer of this "Life" pretends to be Aurelian,
St. Martial's disciple and successor in the See of Li-
moges. Mgr Duchesne thinks it not unlikely t liat the
real authorship of this *'apocryi)hal and lymg" work
should be attributed to the chronicler Adhemar de
Chabannes, noted for his fabrications; but ^L de
Lasteyrie is of opinion tliat it was written about 055,
before the birth of Adh^mar. Be that as it may, this
"Vita Aureliana" played an important part at the
beginning of the eleventh century, when the Al)bot
Hugh (1019-1025) brought before several coun-
cils the question of the Apostolic date of St.
Martial's mission. Before the Carlo vingian period
there is no trace of the story that St. Martial yi^jA
UMOGXS
264
UlCOOBS
sent to Gaul by St. Peter. It did not spread until the
eleventh century and was revived in the seventeenth
by the Carmelite Bona venture de Saint- Amable, in his
voluminous "Histoire de St. Martial". Mgr Du-
chesne and M. de Lasteyrie assert that it cannot be
maintained against the du-ect testimony of St. Gregory
of Tours, who places the origin of the Church of Li-
moges about the year 250. The most distinguished
bishops of Limoges are: St. Roricius (d. 507), who
built the monastery and church of St. Augustine at
Limoges; St. Roricius II (d. about 553), who built the
church of St-Pierre-du-Qucyroix and the Basilica of St.
Junianus at Limoges; St. Ferrdol (d. 597), the friend of
St. Yrieix; St. Lupus, or Loup (613-629); St. Sacer-
dos (Sardon), Abbot of Calabrum, afterwards bishop;
St. Cessa (740-761), who led the people of Limoges
against the Saracens under Charles Martel; Cardinal
Jean du Bellay (1541-1545). The ecclesiastics who
served the crypt of St. Martial organized themselves
into a monastery in 848, and built a church beside that
of St-Pierre-du-S6pulchre which overhung the crypt.
This new church, which they called St-Sauveur, was
demolished in 1021, and was replaced in 1028 by a
larger edifice in Auver^nat style. Urban II came in
person to reconsecrate it in 1095. In the thirteenth
century the chapel of St. Benedict arose beside the old
church of St-Pierre-du-S^pulchre. It was also called
the church of the Grand Confraternity of St. Mar-
tial. The different organizations which were grouped
around it, anticipated and solved many important
sociological questions.
Limoges, in the Middle Ages, comprised two towns:
one called the "City", the other the "ChAteau" or
" Castle ". The government of the " Castle " belonged
at first to the Abbots of St. Martial who claimed to
have received it from Louis the Pious. Later, the
viscounts of Limoges claimed tliis authority, and
constant friction existed until the l:)cginning of the
thirteenth century, when, owing to the new com-
munal activity, consuls were appointed, to whose
authority the abbots were forceu to submit (1212).
After two intervals during which the English kings
inoposed their rule, Charles V in 1371 united the
"Cfastle" with the royal demesne, and thus ended the
political r6le of the Abbey of St. Martial. Until the
end of the old regime, however, the abbots of St.
Martial exercised direct jurisdiction over the Combes
quarter of the city. In 1534, Abbot Matthieu Jou-
viond, finding that the monastic spirit had almost
totally died out in the abbey, thought best to change
it into a coUe^ate church, and in 1535 the king and
the pope gave their consent. It was suppressed in
1791, and early in the nineteenth century even
the buildings had disapp>eared. In the thirteenth
century^ the Abbey of St. Martial, possessed the
finest hbrary (450 volumes) in France after that
of Cluny (570 volumes). Some have been lost, but
200 of them were bought by Ix)uis XV in 1730, and
to-day are one of the most valuable collections in
the Bibhothdque Nationale at Paris. Most of these
manuscripts, ornamented with beautiful miniatures,
were written in the al^bcy itself. M. Emile Molinier
and M. Rupin admit a relation Ix^tween these minia-
tures of St. Martial and the earliest Limoges enamels,
but M. de Lasteyrie disputes this theory. The Fran-
ciscans settle<l at Limoges in 1223. According to the
chronicle of Pierre Coral, rector of St. Martin of
Limoges, St. Anthouv of Puduu established a convent
there in 1226 and departeil in the first months of
1227. On the iiight of Holy Thursday, it is said, he
was preaching in the churcn of St. Pierre du Quey-
roix, when he stopped for a moment and remained
silent. At the same instant he appeared in the choir
of the Franciscan monastery ana read a lesson. It
was doubtless at ('hilt<»aiinouf in the territory of
Limoges that took place the celebnited apptirition of
the Infant Jesus to St. Anthonv.
The diocese specially boaouFs the following: St.
Sylyanus, a native of Ahun, mart}rr; St. Adorator,
disciple of St. Ambrose, suffered martyrdom at Lu-
persac; St. Victorianus, an Irish hermit: St. Vaast, a
native of the diocese who became Bisnop d Ams
and baptized Clovis (fifth-sixth century); St. Pad-
modius, a native of Britain, died a hermit at Evmou-
tiers; St. Yrieix, d. in 501, chancellor to Tbeodebert.
King of Austrasia, and founder of the monastery of
Attaiium (the town of St. Yrieix is named after him);
St. Etienne de Muret (1046-1 126) ^ who together
with Guillaume d'Uriel, Bishop of Limoges, founded
the famous Benedictine monastery of Grandmont.
Mention must also be made of the following who were
natives of Limoges: Bernard Guidonis (1261-1313),
bom at La Roche d'Abeille, Bishop of Lod^ve and
a celebrated canonist; the Aubusson family, one of
whom, Pierre d' Aubusson (1483-1503), was Grand
Master of the Order of Jerusalem, and one of the
defenders of Rhodes; Marc Antoine Muret. called the
"Orator of the Popes" (1526-1596). Three popes
came from the Diocese of Limoges: Pierre Roi^,
born at Maulmont, elected pope in 1342 as Clement
VI, died in 1352; Etienne Albert, or d'Albret, bom
near Pompadour, elevated to the papacy in 1352 as
Innocent Vl, died in 1362; Pierre Roger de Beau-
fort, nephew of Clement VI, also bom at Maulmont.
As Gregory XI he reined from 1371 till 1378. Mau-
rice Bourdin, Archbishop of Prague, antipope for
a brief space in 1118, under the name of Gregory
VIII, also^ belonged to this diocese. St. Peter Ds^
mian came to Limoges in 1062 as papal legate, to com-
pel the monks to accept the supremacy of the Order of
Cluny.
The Council of Limoges, held in 1031, is noted not
only for its decision with regard to St. Martial's mis-
sion, but because, at the instigation of Abbot Odolric,
it proclaimed the "Truce of God" (q- v.) and threat-
ened with general excommunication those feudal lords
who would not swear to maintain it. It was at
the priory of Bourganeuf in this diocese that Pierre
d' Aubusson receiv^ Zizin, son of Mohammed II, after
he had been defeated in 1483 by his brother. Bajaset
II. The Gothic cathedral of St -Etienne, begun in
1273, was noted for a fine rood loft built in 1534; the
church of St-Pierre-du-Queyroix, begun in the twelfth
century, and that of St-Michel-des-Lions, begun in
1364, are worthy of notice. In 994, when the district
was devastated b}r a plague (mal des arderUs), the
epidemic ceased immediately after a procession
ordered by Bishop Hilduin, on the Mont de la Joie,
which overlooks the city. The Church of Limoges
celebrates this event on 12 November. The principal
pilgrimages of the diocese are those of: Saint Valeric
(hermit) at Saint-Vaubry (sixth century) ; Our Ladv
of Sauvagnac at St-Leger-la-Montagne (twelfth
century); Notre - Dame -du- Pont, near St-Junien
(fourteenth century) , twice visited by Louis XI ; Notre-
Dame^'Arliguet, at Aixe-sur-Vienne (end of the six-
teenth centurv); Notre-Dame-des-Places, at Crosant
(since 1664). '
Before the Associations Law of 1901, there were
in the Diocese of Limoges, Jesuits, Franciscans, Ma-
rists, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, and Sulpicians.
The principal congregations of women which origi-
natea here are the Sisters of the Incarnation founded
in 1639, contemplatives and teachers. They were
restored in 1807 at Azerables, and have houses in
Texas and Mexico. The Sisters of St. Alexis, nursing
sisters, founded at Limoges in 1659. The Sisters c2
St. Joseph, founded at Dorat in February, 1841, by
Elizabetn Dupleix, who, with other pious women, had
visited the prisons at Lyons since 1805. The Con-
gregation ot Our Saviour and that of the Blessed
Virgin, a nursing and teaching congregation, founded
at la Souterraine in 1835 by Josepliine du Bouq^.
Tlie Sist<jrs of the Good Shephenl (called Mane
UBfTRA
265
LINABE8
Tlifirtee nuns)^ nuninfi; sisters and teachers; their
mother-house is at Limoges. The religious orders
maintained in this diocese at the close of the nine-
teenth century 19 nurseries. 1 home for sick children,
2 orphanages for boys, 14 for girls, 1 for both sexes,
5 work rooms (ouvroira), 4 reformatories, 28 hospitids,
26 houses to care for the sick at their homes, 2
houses <^ retreat, 1 asylum for the insane. At the
end of the concordat period the Diocese of Limoges
contained 679,584 inhabitants; 70 canonical parishes;
404 suocursal parishes, and 35 curacies supported by
the Government.
Oonoeniinc the date of St. Martial's miaaion, aee Greoort or
Tours: Arbbllot, Elude hialorique 9ur Vancienne vie de Saint
Martial (Paris, 1892). ^vee the text of the Vita Primttiva;
Grat-Birsch. The life of St. Martial (LoDdon, 1877)* Vita AU
finiani in Labbb, Nova hibliotheca manuacnptorum, 11, 472.
Writers who place the missioa in Apoetolic times: Bonaten-
TURB DB Saint -Amable, Histoire die Saint Martial (3 vols.,
Parim 1676-1685); Arbbllot, Dieeerlation eitr VapoeloUit de
Sdni Martial et eur VarUuiuUi dee Eglieee de France (Paris.
1855); Bbi:j..bt, La proee ruthnUe el la critique hagiographique
(Parb, 1899).
Writers belonidng to the critical school: Duchesne. Faetee
ipiaeopaux, II, 47-54 and 104-117; de Lastetrib, L'^66ai/e
air Satnt Martial de lAmoffet (Paris, 1001): De Uiiedt. Analecta
BoOandiana^ XVI (1807). 501 ; XVII (1S98). 387.
For the histoiy of the (%urch of Limoges, see Gallia Chrieli'
ana [lumi, II (1720), 498-548. inetrumenta, 161-204]; Chroniquee
de Siuni Martial die Limogee, ed. Duplib-Auier (3 vols.. Paris,
1874); Lbroux, Lee eourcee de Vhieloire du Limouein (Lunofi:cs,
1805) ; Grbnibr, La eit^ de Limogee, eon ivfque (Limoges. 1007) ;
Guibbrt, Lee fvfquee de Limogee et la paxx eociale (Limoges.
1808); Lbclbr, PouOU du Diocree de Limogee (Limoges. 1887);
DouAiSfLef Friree Pricheure de Limogee (Toulouse. 1802); Ar-
bbllot, Saint'Pierre-Damien h Limogee (Limoe;e8, 1893); Ar-
bbllot, JVoCtoe eur Saint Anloine de Padoue en Limouein (Paris*
1805); Db Moussac, Une corporation d'autrefoie encore vivante
OHJpwyFhui: la corporation dee bourhere de Limogee in Revue de
Ltue, V (1892): Metnxeux, Le clergA du diochee de Limogn;
Veiuvre de riforme morale dee iv^quee d'aprie lee etatute eynodaux:
1976-1689 (Limoges, 1901); Aulaone, Im riforme cathclique du
XVI'^ eiMe dane le dioclee de Limogee (Paris, 1006); Lecler.
Martifre et eonfeeeeure de la foi du dioctee de Limogee pendant
la riiolvUon francaiee (4 von., Limoges. 1902-1904): Rupin.
Vetuvre de Limogee (Paris, 1800); Molinier, UimatUerie
(Paria. 1891); Cbbvalibr, Topobihl^ s. v.
Georges Goyau.
Umyra, a titular see of Lycia, was a small city on the
southern coast of Lycia, on the Lim^Tus^ and twenty
stadia from the mouth of this river. It is mentioned
by Strabo (XIV, 666J, Ptolemy (V, 3, 6), and several
Latin authors. Notning, however, is known of its
histoi^ except that Caius Csesar, adopted sonof Augus-
tus, died there (Velleiiis Paterculiis, II, 102). Limyra
is mentioned in the " Notitia) EpLscopatuum'* down to
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as a suffragan of
Ifyra. Six bishops are known: Diotimus, mentioned
by St. Basil (ep. ccxviii); Lupicinus, present at the
douncil of Constantinople, 381; Stephen, at Chalce-
don (451); Theodore, at Constantinople (553); Leo,
at Nicsa (787); Nicephorus, at Constantinople (879).
The ruins of Limyra are to be seen three or four miles
east of the villa^ of Fineka, in the sanjak of Adalla,
\-ilayet of Koma; they consist of a theatre, tombs,
sarcophagy bas-reliefs, Greek and Lycian inscrip-
tions, etc.
Lbquibn, Oriene chrietianue^ I, 971; T^.ake, Asia Minor
(Loodon, 1803), 180; Fbllowb, Journal of an Excursion in
Aeia Minor (London, 1859). 214; Idem, Acamnf of Difcoveriet
m Lucia (London, 1852), 205 so^ Smith, Dictionary of Greek
andlHoman Oeography, s. v.; Texxer, Asie mineure (Paris,
1802). 094.
8. P^rrRiDf:8.
Unacre, Thomas, English phvsician and clergy-
man, founder of the Royal Oollcge of PhysicLins,
London, b. at Canterburjr about 1400; d. in London,
20 October, 1524. Nothing is known of las parents,
but they seem to have been poor and obscure. His
preliminaiy education was obtained at the monastery
school of Christ Church, Canterbury, then presided
over by the famous William Selling, the first great stu-
dent of the ''new learning" in England. Through
Selling^s influence Linacre entered All Souls College,
Ozfora, about 1480, and in 14S4 was elected follow.
He distinguished himself in Greek under Comelio
Vitelli. When Selling was sent to Rome as ambassa-
dor by Henry VII, Linacre accompanied him, ob-
taining an introduction to Lorenzo de' Medici, who
welcomed him into his own household as a fellow-
student of his sons, of whom one was later to become
Pope Leo X. Here under Politian in Latin^ and
Demetrius Chalcondylas in Greek, Linacre obtameda
knowledge of these languages which made him one of
the foremost humanistic scholars in England. During
ten years in Italy, Linacre also studied medicine at
Vicenza under Nicholas Leonicenus, a famous physi-
cian of the time, and received his degree of M.D. at
Padua. Returned to England, Linacre became, after
years of distinguished practice, the royal physician to
Henry VIII and the regular medical attendant of
Cardinal Wolsey, Archbishop Warham. Primate of
England, Fox^ Bishop of Winchester, ana many of the
highest nobihtv of the country. He was also the
intimate friena of Sir Thomas More, Erasmus, and
Dean Colet. After some eleven years of a life which
brought him constantly in contact with the great
nobles and the best scholars of England, he resigned
his position as physician to the king in 1520 to be^me
a priest. He devoted the fortune which had come to
him from his medical practice to the foundation of
chairs in Greek medicine at both Oxford and Cam-
bridge, and to the establishment of the Royal College
of Physicians. This institution was for the regulation
of the practice of medicine, which had fallen into d\sn^
pute in consequence of the great increase of irregular
practitioners. After Linacre obtained his charter, no
one except a regular physician could practise in and
around Ix>ndon. The constitution of the colle^,
drawn up by Linacre, and still in force, is a standing
monument of his far-seeing judgment. The college is
an honoured English institution and the oldest of its
kind ia the world. Linacre's contributions to medi-
cine consist mainly of his translations of Galen's
works from Greek into Latin. Erasmus said Lin-
acre's Latin was better than Galen's Greek. He pub-
lished the "Mcthodus Medendi", "De Samtate
Tucnda ", " De Symptomatum Differentiis et Causis ",
and "De Pulsuum Usu". Linacre was greatly re-
spected by his contemporaries; Johnson, his biog-
rapher, says, " He seems to have had no enemies ", and
his reputation has lasted to the present day.
Johnson, Life of Thomae Linacre (London, 1835): Murray,
Livee of Britieh Phyeiciane (London. 1830); The Roll of the
Ccilege of Phyeiciane: Walsh, Catholic Chwrchmen in Science
(PhiladolphJa, 1006); Patnb, in DicL NaL Biog, (London.
1885), s. v.
James J. Walbh.
Linares (or Monterey or Nuevo L£6n), Arch-
diocese OP (db Linares). — In 1777, at the request of
Charles III of Spain, Pius VII erected the episcopal
See of Linares as suffragan of the Archdiocese of
Mexico. Its first bishop was Fra Antonio di Gesu,
O.F.M. For reasons of ecclesiastical administration
the see was raised to archiepiscopal rank by Leo XIII,
23 June, 1891, with San Luis Potosi, Saltillo, and
Tamaulipas, or Ciudad do Victoria, as suffragans.
Monterey, the cathedral town and residence of the
archbishop, is the capital of the State of Nuevo Le6n,
Mexico. It is situated about 1600 feet above sea-
level, and in 1900 it had a population of 62,206, rank-
ing as sixth city in the republic. Its streets are hand-
some, well navcd and clean, and the suburl>s are
famous for tne Ixjauty of their gardens wid orchards.
The principal buildings include the fine cathedral, a
spacious seminar>% schools of law and medicine, and
elaborate public schools where education is free and
compulsory, as it is throughout the republic, though
the law on this head cannot always be enforc^.
Owing to improved railway facilities the trade of
Monterey is very active, as it lies in the heart of a rich
agricultural district, and the ncighlwurhood abounds
LIKOOLK
266
LIHOOLH
in silver mines and metalliferous ores. The town was
founded by the Spaniards in 1581 and long bore the
name of Le6n. In September, 1846, during the war
between the United States and Mexico, General Taylor
with 6700 men assaulted Monterey, which was de-
fended by General Ampudia and 10,000 Mexicans. It
capitulated on 24 September, and the battle of Mon-
terey is famous owing to the very liberal terms of
capitulation granted by General Taylor. The town
of Linares from which the archdiocese derives its
ecclesiastical name is situated on the left bank of the
River Tigris about fifty miles from Monterey. The
population of the archdiocese is 327,937, and mcludcs
the whole of the State of Nuevo Le6n, an area of
23,592 sq. miles.
The chapter consists of a dean and four canons:
there are eighty secular priests, and seventy-five
churches: the seminary contains twenty stuaents.
The present archbishop is Rt. Rev. Leopold Ruiz y
F16rez, l)om at Amealco in the Diocese of Queretaro,
13 November, 1865, appointed to Le6n 1 October, 1900,
and transferred to Monterey 14 September, 1907.
lie succeeded Archbishop Garcfa Zamorano, a native
of Monterey who had occupied the see from 19 April,
1900. The See of Linares was orieinally in the hands
of the Friars Minor, and among the members of that
order who succeeded its first bishop, Fray Antonio de
Jesus, were Fray R. J. Verger (1782-1791); Andrew
Ambrose de Llanos y Valdes (1791-1801); Prima
Feliciano Marin di Tamaros (1801-1817); Jos. Ign. de
Aranciva (1817-1831) ; Jos. de Jesiis (1831-1843). In
the archdiocese there is 1 college with 50 students; 2
schools under the care of the Brothers of Mary with
250 boys; 2 schools (Christian Brothers), 400pupib;
3 academies (Sisters of the Incarnate Wora), 250
pupils; 2 academies (Salesian Sisters), 190 pupils; 1
academy, the Religious of the Sacred Heart, 50 pupils;
7 parochial schools; 2 orphan asylums; 1 hospital:
1 nom«j for the ageil. ropulatiou practically fdl
C.itliolic.
Ann. Pont. Caifi. (1910): Gerarchia Cattolica (1910); Ban-
cHoi-T, History of Mrxico, \ (Sim Francisco, 1885); Howard,
General Taylor (New York, 1892) ; Diccionario de Cienciaa Ede-
9itistica», 8, V. J. c. Grey.
Lincoln, Diocese of (Lincolniensis), suffragan of
Dubuque, erected 2 August, 1887, to include that part
of the State of Nebraska, U. S. A., south of the Platte
River; area 23,844 scpare miles. There were about
17,000 Cathohcs in tue section of Nebraska out of
which the diocese was formed, organized in 27 parishes
attended by 28 secular and 3 regular priests. Added
to tliese were 38 missions with churches, 40 stations
without churches, and 1 chapel. The Jesuit-s and
Benedictines had representatives working among the
clergy, and Benedictine Nuns and Sisters of the Holy
Child took charge of the three schools established, in
which about 290 children were enrolled. The Rev.
Thomas Bonacum, rector of the Church of the Holy
Name, St. Louis, Missouri, was appointed the first
bishop, consecrated 30 November, 1887, and took
formal possession of the see on 2 1 December following.
He was boni near Thurles, County Tipperary, Ireland,
29 January, 1847, and emigrated in infancv with his
parents to the United States, settling at St. Louis. He
studied at St. Vincent's College, Cape Girardeau, Mis-
souri, and at the University of AVtirzburg, Bavaria,
after which he was ordained priest at St. Louis, 18
June, 1870. He attended the Third Plenaiy (Council
of Baltimore as theologian for Archbishop Kendrick,
and wfus named by the fathers of that council as. the
first Bishop of the Diocese of Belleville which it was
propose<l to erect in Southern Illinois. The Sacred
Congregation of Propaganda deferred action on the
proposal of the Plenary Council, and in the meantime
Fatlier Bonacum was appointed to the Bishopric of
Lincoln, Nehni^ka, by Apostolic letters under aate of
9 August, 1887.
StcUiHics: — ^Religious commuiiities in the diocese—
Men: Lazarists, Benedictines, Franciscans, Oblates of
Mary Immaculate. Women ; Sisters of Charity, Ursu-
line Sisters, Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin,
Sisters of St. Francis, Sisters of the Third Order of St.
Dominic, Sisters of St. Benedict, School Sisters of
Notre Dame, Sisters of Loretto, Sisters of St. Dominic,
Sisters of the Most Precious Blood, Bemardine Sisters,
Felician Sisters. Priests, 77 (regulars, 11) ; churches,
with resident priests, 64; missions with churches, 72;
stations, 34; chapels, 5; academies for girls, 5; pupils,
400; parish schools, 27; pupils, 2235; hospitals, 3; or-
phanage, 1. Catholic population, 37,200.
Catholic Dtr<c/orv (Milwaukee, 1888-1910); Church Progrtt*,
and The Western Watchman (St. Louis), contemporary files:
National Cyd. of Am. Biog. (New York, 1904).
Thomas F. Meeilax.
Ziincoln, Diocese of (Ancient. — Lincolniensis).
This see was founded by St. Theodore, Archbishop of
Canterbury, in 678, when he removed the Lindiswaras
of Lincolnshire from the Diocese of Lindisfame. The
original seat of the bishop was at Sidnacester, now
Stow (eleven miles north-west of Lincoln), and for al-
most two hundred years the episcopal succession was
tJliere maintained, till in 870 the Northmen burnt the
church of St. Afary at Stow, and for eiehty years there
was no bishop. About the middle of the tenth cen-
tury the See of Sidnacester was united to the Mercian
See of Leicester, and the bishop's scat was fixed at
Dorchester-on-Thames. But this was situate in the
extreme comer of what was the laigest diocese in Eng-
land, so that the first Norman bbhop, Reraigius of F^
camp, decided after the Council of 1072, which or-
dered all bishops to fix their sees in walled towns, to
build his cathedral at Lincoln, a city already ancient
and populous. On the top of the steep hill the cathe-
dral and Norman castle of Lincoln rose side by side.
In 1075 Remigius signed himself "Episcopus Lincolni-
ensis ", so that the transfer took place at once. The
diocese then comprised no fewer tlian ten counties:
Lincoln, Northampton, Rutland, Leicester, Cam-
bridge, Huntingdon, Bedford, Buckine:ham, Oxford,
and Hertford. A striking part of the Norman church
still remains in the three deep arches of the west front
of the cathedral. It was so solid an edifice that dur-
ing the civil wars between Stephen and Matilda it was
used as a fortress, but it was ultimately captured and
plundered. In 1185 the cathedral suffered much
damage in the great earthquake, and when in the fol-
lowing year St. Hugh was made Bishop of Lincoln he
found it necessary to commence buildinj^ again from
the foundations. It was a momentous decision^ as it
resulted in the first English Gothic building and mtro-
duced the architecture of the pointed arch. The saint
had completed the whole eastern portion of the church
by the time of his death in 12(X). Of his work the
transepts alone remain. The nave was built during
the next half century, when the great scholar Robert
Grosseteste was bishop. His pontificate was marked
by many reforms in the monasteries of the diocese and
in the cathedral itself. In 1255 St. Hugh's choir was
pulled down to make way for the splendid "Angel
Choir ", which was designeid to hold his shrine, and is
one of the masterpieces of Gothic architecture. On 6
C)ct., 1280, the translation took place in the presence
of King Edward I and nearly all the English hier-
archy. During the fourteenth century the three tow-
era were raised to their present height, and the cathe-
dral attained its present form, one of the finest and
most remarkable in England. At the Reformation
the shrine of St. Hugh was destroyed (6 June, 1640).
In 1536 the Diocese of Lincoln was the scene of the
"Pil^mage of Grace ". an armed protest against the
religious changes which was followed by numerous
executions. Tne reformer. Bishop Holbeach, plund-
ered the cathedral during? the reign of Edward \ I, and
the restored Catholic bishops under Mary had litUe
LiHDAinn 2
time to repair the dainage. The line of bishops of LIP'
coin, which had includol two eeints, three cardinals,
and six chancellors (marked below *). waa brought to a
worthy close by Thoniaa Watson, wno died a prisoner
tor the Faith at Wisbech Castle on 27 Sept., 1584, be-
ing the last survivor on Ei^lish soil of the ancient
CathoUc hierarchy. The following is the complete
list of bishops: Remigius de Fteamp, 1067; "Hobert
Bloet, 1094; •Alexander 1123; Hobert de Cfaesney,
1148; vacancy, 1168; 'Walter de Coutances, 1173;
vacancy, 1184; St. Hugh of Lincoln, 1186; William de
Blois, 1201 (cons. 1203); vacancy, 1206; "Hugh do
Wells, 1209; Robert GroBeeteste, 1235; Henry de I^x-
inton, 1253; Richard de Gmvesend 1258; Oliver Sut-
ton, 1280; John dc Dslderhy {popularly regarded as a
«int), 1300; Henry Burghersh, 1320; Thomas Bek,
lorla); WoauswoBTH, Nulei on Mtdtmal Srrtiaivilh InJta
tl Linatn fwammim (London, 1808); Vehablbh akd Pukt,
ZiHcnln ia Diocaan Hiitoria Sirita (Loadon, 1880); Ilom,
Lincoln Culhrdral (Londan. 1808): BnAoaB/LW, StaluUt ef Lin-
coln Callialral (London. 1802-7): KsHnKICK, Un»In. Ihi Co-
Iktdni and Ser (London, 1H08): FAiiinAiHHii, CathtdraU a/
Enotand and Wala (Loniion, 1D07).
Edwin Bdrton,
LtndanaB (van Linda), Wiluam Bamabus, Bishop
of Ruremonde and of Ghent, b. at Dordrecht, in 1525;
d.atGhent. 2 November, 1588; he waa the son of Da-
masus van der Lint. He studied philosophy and the-
ology at Lou vain, and having during this time applied
himself also to Greek and Hebrew, went to Paris to pei^
feet hims^lF in these languages. In 1552 he won the
lieenriateat I,nu\ain, and the samp year was ordained
to the prieBthoo<l. Two years later, he was appointed
1341; John Gynwell, 1347; John Bokyngham, 1363;
(Cardinal), 1405; Richard Fleming, 1420;
1431; William of Alnwick, 1436; Marmaduke Lumley,
1450; vacancy, 1451 ; John Chadworth, 1452; *ThomaH
Rothei:hani(Scot), 1472; 'John Russell. 1480; William
Smyth, 1496;ThomflsWolsey (Cardinal), 1514; William
Atwater, 1614; John Longland, 1521; HeniyHolbeach,
1547 (schismatic); John Taylor, 1552 (Bcbiamatic) ;
John White, 1554; Thomas Watson, 1557. The
diocese included the counties of Lincoln, Leicester,
Huntingdon, Bedford, Buckingham, and part of Hert^
fordabire^ and was divided in to sixHrchdeaconriea: Lin-
coln, Leicester, Be<)for(l. Buckinpiham. Huntin^tdoii,
and Stow. From the diocese three other sees have
been formed: Ely, under Henry I; Oxford and Peter-
borough, under Henry VIII — yet the Anglican diocese
is to^y the largest in England. The ai
were; gules, two lions pns.^nt gaflant o
aiuTB Our Lady sitting with her Babe, croi
tre of the second.
s of the _
:i and scef*-
n, vol. VI. pt. Ill (London. 1848); Wm-
KU, CatiudnU Churchet af Em/land and Wain (I*indon. 18B0);
Ldud, SolurH OruKMk EpiHota, RalU Siria (Loadon, 1881 ):
W«MO*, Mtmoriaii of Lincoln (London, ISM); ' '^ --•' '
(LoDdaQ, 1879): — ^i . .
(LondDD, 1872): ArdMKlogia,
Fhite. 1
LIII (L
uii, loDDj^ iD(K, £mitu>li
HOtofv of lAnfolnlhirt
[irofessor of Saored Scripture at the University of Dil-
b^n. In 1S56, he took the doctor's degree at Lou-
vain, and was appointed vicar-general to the Bishop of
Utrecht and dean of the chapter at The Hague. Soon
afterwards he became a royal counsellor and inquisi-
tor in Friesland. In 1562, Philip II designated Lmda-
nus for the newly erected See of Ruremonde, and the
following year, on 4 April, he was consecrated in Brus-
aela by Granvelle. He was not, however, able to enter
his diocese until 11 May, 1569. Throughout tiie Low
Countries the erection of this bishopric had caused dis-
fil_e»su^e, especially in the country of Guelders, of which
uremonde was a part: where every act of the royf^
authority excited defiance. The heretics, moreover,
were dissatisfied with the appointment of Lindanus,
who was a staunch defender of the Faith. The new
bishop began at once to reform his diocese, assisted in
person at the Provincial Synods of Mechlin and of Lou-
vain (1570, 1573) and carried out the laws and regula-
tions of the Council of Trent.
In 1672, he was obliged U) flee for several months
from Ruremonde to the South of the Low Countries;
on hifl return to his see, he defended vigorously the
properties of the (llhurch against the civilauthorities.
In 1573, a violent conflict broke out between himself
and th* Duke of Alba; and the heretics obliged him to
flee on several occasions. In 1578, he journeyed to
LINDX
268
uxDXMAinr
8
Rome and to Madrid in order to obtain justice against
•the chapter of Maestricht, which had refused to execute
the regulations concerning the episcopal endowment,
as well as to confer with the Holy Father and the king
upon the measures necessary for the safeguarding of
the Faith in the Low Countries. Returning to Rure-
mondc, with the help of Philip II, he founded the royal
seminary or college at Lou vain, for the education of
yoimg clerics. Lmdanus went to Rome again in 1584
to treat of the interests of his diocese and of the state
of the Church in the Low Countries and in Germany,
and he insisted particularly upon the urgent necessity
of replying in a scientific way to the Centuriators of
Magaeburg. His work in Ruremonde was now brought
to a close by his elevation to the See of Ghent, where
he began his new episcopal duties on 22 July, 1588,
and where three montiis later, he passed away.
Among his nimierous works the following are especi-
ally worthy of mention: "De optimo scripturas inter-
{>retandi genere" (Cologne, 1558); **Panoplia evange-
ica" (ColcjKne, 1560); *' Stromatum libri III pro
defensione 0:>ncilii Tridentini (Colore, 1575); "Missa
apostolica" (Antwerp, 1589), and m a more popular
form, the dialogues, *'Dubitantius'* and " Ruwaroius "
(Cologne, 1562-3). He edited also the academic dis-
courses of Ruard Tapperus (1577-78), aad he wrote
many works in Dutch for the instruction of his flock,
in oraer to keep them from Protestantism and to refute
the Confession of Antwerp of 1566.
Havensius, De eredione novorum in Belgio epiacopatuum
CologDe, 1609); Kuippenberg, Historia eccUnoMlica ducatuM
'Helria (BruBscls, 1719); Holun, HiMoire chnmologique dea
ivfques de Gand (Ghent, 1772) ; Lamy in Annitaire de Vttnivernti
caiholique de Louvain (1860), 98; Claessens, ibid. (1871), 299;
WELTEifs in Publicationa de la SociHi hiMortgue et archiologiqtu
dana le duchi de Limbourg, XXVII (Maestricht. 1890), 225;
Brom. ibid., XXIX (1892), 277; Van Veen, ibid., XUV (1908).
149; Thus in De Katholiek, CXXV iheydea and Utrecht,
1904). 435. H. DE JONGH.
Linda, Justin Timotheus Balthasar, Freihebr
VON, Hessian jurist and statesman, b. in the village of
Brilon, Westphalia, 7 Aug., 1797; d. at Bonn during
the night of 9-9 June, 1870. His father, who was a
barrister, died when Justin was only three years old;
this occurrence, and the fact that the widow had to
support four children in war times, darkened in a meas-
ure the youth of the unusually talented boy. After he
had completed his gymnasium studies at Amsberg
(1816), he devoted himself with great zeal and success
to the study of jurisprudence at the universities of
Miinster, Gottingen, and Bonn. In the last-men-
tioned he received the doctorate (1820), and qualified
in 1821 as university tutor. Two years later he was
called to Giessen, where, as extraordinary (1823), and
subsequently as ordinary professor of law (1824-9), he
attracted numbers of students, and became distin-
guished through his learned publications. In 1829 he
was called to Darmstadt, as ministerial counsel {Minis-
terialrat), and was later (1832) named director of the
Board of Eklucation. The year 1883 found him Chan-
cellor of the University of (jiessen. Soon after (1836)
he was named pri\y councillor, and 1839 brought him
a patent of nobility. After repeated request*, he was
permitted to retire with a pension in 1847. In 1848 he
was a member of the Frankfort Parliament and in 1850
of the Parliament of Erfurt, and from the latter year
he acted as Prince Lichtenstein's ambassador to the
Carman Diet — from 1863 he also represented the elder
line of Reuss and Hesse-Homburg — until its dissolu-
tion in 1866. Tlie wTeck of his political ideals, es-
poused by him with preat warmth, was not without
effect upon Linde's mind and temper. His former al-
most inexhaustible capacity for work was broken, as
well as his wonderful cheerfulness. He withdrew al-
most entirely to his countrv seat, Dreys, and during
a visit to one of his sons at Bonn he was carried away
by a stroke of apoplexy in 1870.
In his younger days he was, in politics, friendly to
Prussia (cf. his " Rede Uber den Geburtstag dee Kdnigs
von Preussen ", Soest, 1816), and in religion somewhat
Josephinistic. Gradually, however, he developed into
a strong particulariat, as well as a Lealous chtunpion of
the rights and claims of the Church, although ne did
not succeed in winning the entire confidence of the
strict Catholic party. To Linde is due the establish-
ment of the Catholic theological faculty in the Univer-
sity of Giessen, in which many excellent men laboured
— ;among others the well-known ecclesiastical historian
Riff el (q. v.), who later quarrelled with Linde. For
the erection of a church in the same place especial
thanks are due to him. His orthodoxy is unqu^ion-
able. Linde's numerous official reports have still to
be collected from the archives; most of his pamphlets
are forgotten, although many are of permanent value.
The best collection of liis intellectual productions is
given by Schulte in the '' Allgemeine deutsche Biogia-
phie", s. V. "Linde" (XVIII, 671). The most mi-
portant and extensive of these works are: " Abhand-
Iimgen aus dem C^vilprozess'' (2 vols., Bonn, 1823-9):
"Lehrbuch des deutschen gemeinen Civilproxess^'
(7th ed., Bonn, 1850); "Archiv far das offentliche
Recht des deutschen Bundes'' (4 vols., Giessen, 1850-
63).
In addition to the works mentioned in the text, oooAilt
Linde in Kirchenlex.f b. v.; Short notices ai« also found in the
encyclopedias of Brockbaus, Pibrer, etc.
PlUB WlTTMANN.
•
Lindemann, Wilhelm, a (]!atholic historian of Ger-
man literature, b. at Schonnebeck near Essen, 17
December, 1828; d. at Niederkruechten near Erke-
lenz (Rhine Province) 20 December, 1879. He at-
tendeid the gymnasium at Essen; studied theology at
Bonn from 1848 to 1851, and was ordained in Colore,
2 September, 1852. He was rector of the municipal
high school of Heinsberg from 1853 to 1860, then
parish -priest at Rheinbreitbach, and later at Ven-
rath from 1863 to 1866, when he became pastor of
Nieder-Kruechten, and so remained till his death.
From 1870 to 1879 he served as a member of the Prus-
sian Diet as one of the Centre Party. His principal
literary work is the " Geschichte der Deutschen Litera-
tur'\ which first appeared in 1866 (eighth edition,
Freiburg, 1905). This was the first exhaustive treat-
ise made of the history of German literature from a
Gatholic point of view, and was an effort on the part
of the author to bring out into greater prominence
Gatholic poets and thinkers who theretofore had either
failed of recognition or had l)een treated with hostility.
It is a notable work. The author modeiled it on V^il-
mar's widely read and meritorious " History of Litera-
ture". Connected to a certain extent, as authorities,
with his history of literature, is the '* Bibliothek deut-
scher Klassiker" (1868-71) containing selections from
Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, Herder, from WTiters of the
Romantic school and poets of later times. To these are
to be added his *' Blumenstrauss von Geistlichen Ge-
dichten des deutschen Mittelalters" (1874), and a col-
lection of religious poems " Fiir die Pilgerreise" (1877).
Besides these Lindemann produced two biographical
works, the one on Angelus Silesius (1876) and the
other on Geiler von Ivayscrsl>erg, from the French by
Dacheux (1877), both of wliich appear in the " Samm-
lung historischer Bildnisse " 3rd series, vol. VIII, and
4th series, vol. II. Lindemann was also a contribu-
tor to the "Bonner Theologischer Literaturblatt",
and to other periodicals. Tne University of WUns-
burg recognized his literary achievements by confer-
ring on him, in 1872, the decree of Doctor of PhUos-
ophy. As a man he was simple and unassuming,
with an amiable manner and a spontaneous flow of
humour, a genuine son of the Rhineland.
HOlskamp, Literarieeher Handweieer (1880), 80; Genmmia
i24 Deoemberx_1879), eupplemfiot; Rbusgb in AQgtn%.
7eut$ehe bK^m XVIH, 680.
Klehenb LOftlbb.
LI1IDI8FABMS
269
LDTDISFABMS
Xdndiiftniet Ancient Diocese (Lindihfarnen-
tns) and Monastery of. — ^The island of Lindisfame
li^ some two miles off the Northumberland coast,
nine and one-half miles south-east of the border-town
of Berwick. Its length is about three miles aiid its
breadth about one and one-half. At low water it is
joined to the mainland. Twice each day it is accessi-
ble by means of a three-miles track from Beal across
the sands. The wet and plashy road is indicated by
wooden posts. The population does not exceed 700.
This island is now usually called Holy Island, a desig-
nation dating back to the eleventh century. Lindis-
fame is famous as being the mother-church and reli-
gious capital of Northumbria, for here St. Aidan, a
Oolumban monk-bishop from lona, founded bis see in
635. The resemblance of Lindisfame to the island
whence St. Aidan came has obtained for it the title
of the lona of England. Aidan's mission was started
at the reouest of King Oswald, who had been educated
by the Celtic monk, and who then resided on the main-
land at the royal fortress of Bamborough. Holy Isle
became the centre of great missionary activity ami also
the episcopal seat of sixteen successive bishops. The
influence of these spiritual rulers was considerable, ow-
ing in great measure to the patronage afforded hy kings
such as St. Oswald. Not only did St. Aidan fix his see
here, but he also established a monastic community,
thus conforming himself, as Bede says, to the practice
of St. Au^stine at Canterbury (Hist, eccl., IV, xxvii).
Fit)m this monastery were founded all the churches
between Edinbui^gh and the Humber, as well as several
others in the great midland district and in the country
of the East Angles. Among the holy and famous men
educated in Lmdisfarne were St. Ceadda (Chad) of
Lichfield and his brothers Cedd, Cynibill, Caclin, also
St. Egbert, St. Edilhun, St. Ethelwin, St. Os\*^y the
King, and the foyr bishops of the Middle Angles: Di-
uma, Cellach, Trumhere, and Jaruman. Bishop Eata
was one of the twelve native Northumbrian boys
whom Aidan had taken to Lindisfame *'to be in-
structed in Christ ". St. Adamnan visited the monas-
tery, and St. Wilfrid received his early training there.
Ttis original buildings were probably of wood. We
rsome notion of their unpretending character from
fact that St. Finan, Aidan's successor, found it
necessary to reconstruct the church so as to make it
more worthy of the see. This he did after the Irish
fashion, using hewn oak with a roof of reeds. A later
iHshop, Eadbert, removed the reeds and substituted
sheets of lead. This modest structure was dedicated
by Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury in honour of
St. Peter, and within it, on the right side of the altar,
reposed tne body of St. Aidan . Portions of this primi-
tive cathedral existed in 1082, when they disappeared
to make room for a more elaborate and lasting edifice.
Owing probably to a desire to guard against irregulari-
ties, such as had taken place at Coldingham, entrance
to the church was not permitted to women. For the
latter a special church was provided, called the Green
Church from its situation m a ^reen meadow. This
exclusion of women was for a tune observed at Dur-
ham.
Lindisfame owes much of its glory to St. Cuthbert,
who ruled its church for two years, and whose incor-
rupt body was there venerated during two centuries.
In 793 tne Danes invaded the island, pillaged the
church, and slaughtered or drowned the monks. In
875 they returned, bent on further destruction, but the
monks had fled, bearing with them St. Cuthbert's
shrine. This took place during the episcopate of
Bishop Eardulf. who was the last to rule the See of
Lindisfame. Tne half-ruined church, however, gave
temporary shelter to the relics of St. Cuthbert at the
time when William the Conqueror was engaged in sub-
duing Northumbria, but the see was never re-estab-
Hshed there. It was fixed for a time at Chester-le-
Street by Eaniulf, and in 995 transferred to Durham.
Here it remained till the change of religion in the siX'^
teenth century. The Anglican succession, however,
still continues. When the hierarchy was restored to
England by Pius IX in 1850, this venerable Catholic
bishopric was refounded under the title of Hexham
and Newcastle.
The ecclesiastical ruins on Holy Island date from
the eleventh century. By a charter of 1082 Bishop
Carileph bestowed the church of Lindisfame on the
Beneclictines, whom he had brought to Durham from
Wearmouth and Jarrow; and for them he began the
Norman church the remains of which still exist. His
successor, Bishop Fiambard, completed the work, the
architect l)eing a monk of Durham named ^Edward.
The succession of priors and monks was always ai>-
I>ointed hy the mother-church of Durham, and their
yearly accounts were rendered to the same parent-
house. From these statements, still extant, we gather
that in its best days the priory income was equal to
about £1200 of present money. During the priorate
of Thomas Sparke (1536) the house was dissolved, and
at his death, in 1571, the property passed into the
hands of the Dean and Chapter of Durham. Since
1613 the site of the priory has belonged to the crown.
The church, under the invocation of St. Cuthbert, was
a copy of Durham cathedral on a small scale. The
similarity is especially observable in the voluted and
chevroned columns of the nave. Its length was 150
feet. The tower was still standing in 1728. A pil-
grimage, consisting of 3000 persons, crossed the sands
to Holy Island in 1887 — the twelfth centenary of St.
Cuthbert's d^th. The following is a list of the bishops
of Lindisfame, with dates of accession:— (1) Aidan,
635; (2) Finan, 652; (3) Colman, 661; (4) Tuda^ 664.
(For fourteen vears Lindisfame was included in Diocese
of York under Chad and Wilfrid.) (5) Eata, 678; (6)
Cutbert, 685; (7) Eadbert, 688; (8) Eadfrid, 698; (9)
Ethelwold, 724; (10) Cynewiilf, 740; (11) Higbald,
780; (12) Egbert, 803; (13) Hcathored, 821; (14) Ec-
gred, 830; (15) Eanbert, 845; (16) Eardulf, 854.
The book called the "Lindisfame Gospels" ("St.
Cuthbert's Gospels" or the "Durliam Book") is still
preserved in the British Museum Library (Cotton MS.
Nero D. iv) . This volume must not be confounded with
a small copy of St. John's Gospel found in St. Cuth-
bert's coffin in 1104, and now at Stonyhurst. The
former was written at Lindisfame by Eadfrid "in
honour of St. Cuthbert " about 700. It consists of 258
leaves of thick vellum, 13^ X 9| inches, and contains
the Four Gospels in the Latin of St. Jerome's Version,
written in double columns with an interlinear Saxon
gloss — the earliest form of the Gospels in English.
It also contains St. Jerome's Epistle to Pope Damasus,
his Prefaces, the Eusebian Canons, arguments of each
Gospel, ana " Capitula ", or headings of the lessons.
The glossator, Aldred, states that the ornamentation
was the work of Ethelwold (724-40), and that the
precious metal cover was made by Bilfrid (Billfrith)
the anchorite. It is written in a splendid uncial hand,
and adorned with intricate patterns, consisting of
interlaced ribbons, spiral lines, and geometrical knots,
terminating sometimes in heads of birds and beasts.
The intervening spaces are filled with red dots in va-
rious designs. Before each Gospel is a representation
of the Eyangelist. A table of festivals with special
lessons seems to indicate that this manuscript was
copied from one used in a church at Naples. It is sur-
mised that the Neapolitan manuscript found its way
into England in the time of Archbishop Theodore,
whose companion, Adrian, was abbot of Nisita near
Naples. (For a fiiller treatment of the origin of the
manuscript, see Dom Chapman's "Early History of
the Violgate Gospels ", where he gives a slightly differ-
ent view of the subject.) The book remained at Lin-
disfame till the fiignt of the monks, about 878, when
it was carried away together with the relics. During
the attempted passage to Ireland, it fell into the sea^
LIND0RE8
270
UNQARD
but was miraculously rescued after four days. In 995
it was brought to Durham, and afterwards replaced
in Lindisfarne, when the chiurch there was rebuilt.
There it remained till the Dissolution in 1536. For
the space of 100 years it was lost sight of. In 1623 it
was m the possession of Robert Bowyer, clerk to the
House of Commons. He disposed of it to Sir Robert
Cotton, whence it passed to the British Museum.
Traces of its immersion in the sea have been detected
by experts. Its present precious binding was a gift of
Bishop Maltby. The codex was edited oy Stevenson
and Waring (i854-65), and by Skeat (1887).
Bbde, Hi9l. Ecd., I, 100; Eyre. History of St. Culhbert (Lon-
don, 1887); Raise, History and Antuiuttiet of North Durham
(London, 1852V, Montalembert, Momcs of the West^ the chap-
ter on Celtic Monks and appendix; Stmeon of Durham, Op.
omnia, ed, Arnold in RolU Series (2 vols., London, 1882);
O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, 31 August; Butler. Lives
of the SainLt^ 31 August. For LindUfame Gospels, see RUes of
Durham (Surtees Soc, 1902), 248- Revue Bfnidictine, for Nov.
and Dec., 1891; Chapman. Early History of the Vulgate Gospels
(Oxford, 1908) ; Kenton, Handbook to Textual Criticism of the
New Testament (London, 1901), 199; Bibliographical Papers on
Books (London, 1895); Robinson, Celtic Illuminative Art (Dub-
lin, 1908); Xtmms and Wtatt. Art of Illuminating (1860);
Wbstwood. Miniatures and Ornaments (1868) — several of fore-
going give facsimiles.
CoLUMBA Edmonds.
Lindores, Benedictine Abbet OF, on the R iverTay,
near Newburgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, founded by Da-
vid, Earl of Huntingdon, younger brother of King Wil-
liam the Lion, about 1191. Boece (Chronicles of Scot-
land) gives 1178 as the date, but his romantic storv of
the foundation (adopted by Walter Scott in "The
Talisman") is quite uncorroborated and almost cer-
tainly fictitious. The monks were Tironensian Bene-
dictines, brought from Kelso; Guido, Prior of Kelso,
was the first abbot, and practically completed the ex-
tensive buildings. The church, dedicated to the
Blessed Virgin and St. Andrew, was 195 feet long, with
transepts 110 feet long. Earl David richly endowed
the abbey, making over to it the ten parisn churches
which were in his gift, as well as tithes and other
sources of revenue, and asking nothing in return " save
only prayers for the weal of the soul". The monks,
by the foundation charter, were to be free of all secu-
lar and military service, and they gradually acquired
extensive powers and jurisdiction over the people liv-
ing on their property. Other churches were granted
by the Leslies and subsequent benefactors to the ab-
bey, which had finally as many as twenty-two belong-
ing to it. Dowden, in his introduction to the Lin-
dores chartulary, gives details of these endowments,
as well as of the privileges granted to the abbey by
successive popes: these do not seem to have differed
from those enjoyed by other great monasteries. Ed-
ward I of England, John de Baliol, David II, and James
III were ftmong the monarchs who visited Lindores
at different times. David, Duke of Rothesay, who
perished mysteriously at Falkland Palace, not far off,
was buried at Lindores in 1402. Twenty-one abbots
ruled the monastery from its foundation to its suppres-
sion. Lindores was the first of the great Scottish ab-
beys to suffer violence from the Protestant mob. being
sacked and the monks expelled by the populace of
Dundee in 1543. Knox describes a similar scene in
1559: "The abljey of Lindores we reformed: their al-
tars overthrew we; their idols, vestments of idolatrie
and mass-books we burnt in their presence, and com-
manded them to cast away their monkish habits".
The last abbot was the learned and pious John Leslie,
afterwards Bishop of Ross (d. 1596). The abbey was
created a temporal lonlship in 1600 in favour of Pat-
rick Leslie, in whose family it remained till 1741. It
now belongs to the Hays of Leys. The fragments of
the buildings which remain are mostly of the twelfth
century; they include the groined archway of the prin-
cipal entrance, and part of the chancel walls and of the
western tower of tne church.
Chartulary of the Abbey of Lindores, ed. Dowdkn from the
Caprington MS., with intxoduction and appendixes (Edinbui^K
Scot. Hist. 8oo.. 1903). The volume puSushed by the AbbotS'
ford Club (1841, tnoorreotly called Chartulariet of Balmermo
and Lindores, is really a sixteenth-century transcript of mis-
cellaneous documents relating to these abbevs. See also
Laino, Lindores Abbey and itsbitrgh of Newburgh (Edinbuivh,
1876); Gordon, Monattieon, III (Gfaseow, 1848), 639-650:
DuoDALE, Monasticon Anglioanum, VI (London, 1830), 1150.
Dowden, op. cit. gives some interesting reproductions of ancieb«
seals of the Chapter and various Abbots of Lindores.
D. O. Huntbr-Blaib.
Line, Mrs. Anne, English martyr, d. 27 Feb., 1601.
She was the daughter of William Heigham of Dun-
mow, Essex, a gentleman of means, and an ardent
Calvinist, and when she and her brother announced
their intention of becoming Catholics both were dis-
owned and disinherited. Anne married Roger Line, a
convert like herself, and shortly after their marriage
he was apprehended for attending Mass. After a brief
confinement he was released and permitted to go into
exile in Flanders, where he died m 15M. When Fa-
ther John Gerard established a house of refuge for
priests in London, Mrs. Line was placed in charge.
After Father Gerard's escape from tne Tower in 1G97,
as the authorities were begmning to suspect her assist-
ance, she removed to another house, which she made a
rallying point for neighbouring Catholics. On Candle-
mas day, 1601, Father Francis Page, S.J. was about to
celebrate Mass in her apartments, when priest-catch-
ers broke into the rooms. Father Page quickly un-
vested, and mingled with the others, but the altar
prepared for the ceremonv was all the evidence
needed for the arrest of Mrs . Line . She was tried at the
Old Bailey 26 Feb., 1601, and indicted under the Act
of 27 Eliz. for harbouring a priest, though this could
not be proved. The next day she was led to the gal-
lows, and bravely proclaiming her faith, achieved the
martyrdom for which she had prayed. Her fate was
shared by two priests, Mark Barkworth, O.S.B., and
Roger Filcock, S.J., who were executea at the same
time.
Roger Fil6ock had long been Mrs. Line's friend and
frequently her confessor. Entering the English Col-
lege at Reims in 1588, he was sent with others in 1590
to colonize the seminary of St. Albans at Valladolid.
and, after completing His course there, was ordainea
and sent on the English mission. Father Gamett
kept him on probation for two years to try his mettle
before admitting him to the Society of Jesus, and find-
ing him zealous and })rave, finally allowed him to en-
ter. He was just about to cross to the Continent for
his novitiate when he was arrested on suspicion of
being a priest and executed after a travesty of a trial.
Morris, Life of Fr. John Oerard; Challoner, Memoirs^ I,
396; FoLET, Records S.J. I, 405; VII, 264; Douay Diaries,
p. 219, 280; Hist. MSS. Com. Rep. Rutland CoU. Belvoir CaeOe,
1, 370; GiLLOW. Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.
Stanley J. Quinn.
Linen. See Alb; Altar, sub -title Altar- Lin-
ens; Amice; Corporal; etc.
Lingard, John, English priest and historian; b.
at Winchester, 5 February, 1771; d. at Hornby, 17
July, 1851. He was the son of Lincolnshire yeomen,
John Lingard and Elizabeth Rennell, whom poverty
and persecution had driven to mig^te from their
native Claxby, first to London, where they met again
and married, then, after a short return to their old
home, to Winchester, where he was bom. He in-
herited from a stock winnowed and strengthened by
the ceaseless oppression of two centuries the silent,
stubborn, almost sullen longing for the conversion of
his native land, that is so intimate a characteristic
of the pre-Emancipation Catholic.
The first step towards realizing this longing was
taken in 1779, when the Rev. James Nolan, Muner's
predecessor at Winchester, arranged with Bishop
Challoner the first preliminaries for his reception at
Douai. These were concluded by Mi)ner himself
ZJHaABD 2!
three jem later, and Ling&rd " entered the doors of
Douai m the afternoon of 30 September, 1782 ". His
career there was remarkably brilliant: only at one
examination in the whole of hia course did he fail to
lead hia class, and at the end of bis course in philoso-
phy he was retained as professor of one of the lower
humanity schools. Shortly before the linal catas-
trophe whidi the French Revolution brought upon
the house he escaped to England, in char;^ of two
brothers named Oliveira and of William, afterwards
I.OTd, Stourton. For nearlj" a year, he took charge of
the latter's education at his father's residence, till, in
Hay, 17M, Bishop William Gibson asked him to aid
in caring for a section of the Douai refugees who were
ateembled, first at Tudhoe, then at Pontop and Crook
Hall — all places within a few miles of Durham. Nom-
inally, he ncld the chair of philosophy: practically, be-
sides the duties of vice-president to the Rev. Thomas
Eyre, he undertook ia addition those of prefect of
studies, procurator, and of professor of church history-
It was in this last subject that he &rst found the true
bent of hia genius. The result was his "History of
the Anglo-Saxon Church", a development of conversa-
tions and informal lectures round the winter evening
fir«. IlM success suggested two further literary
schemes: a history of the Anglo-Xorman Church and
a school epitome of the history of England, of which
the former was finally abandoned about IS14. and the
latter about the same time be^n to expand into his
life's work. It had been impossible for him to accom-
plish anything during the interval, except in the way
of gathering materials. The labours antecedent to
and consequent upon the removal to Ushaw, in 1S08;
the post of viciwiresident which he held there; and
the sole charge of the house which dpvolved upon him
on Byre's d^th, in May, ISIO, effectually deprived
him qf leisure. He found time, however, for a few
controversial worka, the titles of which will be found
at the end of this article.
In 181 1 the Rev. Joiui Gillow wait appointed Presi-
dent of Ushaw, and Linaird, refusing the correspond-
ing position at Maynooui, which was olTercd him by
Bishop Moylan, retired in September to Hornby, a
country mission about eight miles from Lancaster.
Various controversial publications (one of which,
"A Review of (Certain Anli-Catholic Publications",
Mkraed him the formal thanks of the Board of Catho-
lics of Great Britain) were the first fruits of his leisure
here. The " HiBtoY"i however, still in the form of an
abridgement for schools, formed bis principal occu-
pation. By the end of 1815 he had buried Henry
VII and was returning to reviw." But the revision
proved a rewriting, and the work began to exceed the
bounds of a school-book. Two years more were de-
voted to the examination and comparison of original
authorities, for Lingard's new method of history? —
practically unlieard of till then— insisted on tracing
every statement back to its ori^nal author. He
journeyed to Rome in the spring of 1817, partly to
consult authorities in the Vatican archives, partly as
the confidential agent of Bishop Poynt«r; and in
this capacity he successfully concluded negotiations
for the reconstitution and reopening of the English
Ctflege at Rome. This wus by no means the first
or the last of similar delicate commissions with which
he was entrusted. Throughout his life he was in
the confidence of the English bishops; he exhorted,
he restrained, he advised, he was their authority on
procedure, he drafted their letters to Rome; indeed,
the moHt notable fact in his career, next to his power
' of writing bistof)', was the part which he took in
making it, in Cl^oUc England during the first half of
the nineteenth century.
In the winter after bis return from Rome he wua
ready to think of publication, and tiie first three
volumes, extendiug to the ileath of Henry VII, were
finally purchased by Mawniun of London for 1000
n UNQABD
guineas. These were published in May, 1819, and
met irith speedy and surprising success not only
among English Catholics, but among scholars of every
nationality and belief. A fourth volume was called
for as soon as it could be prepared, and a second
edition of all four was founa necessary before three .
years were out. A growing enthusiasm greeted each
successive volume till the work wus brought to what
proved its ultimate conclusion — the revolution of
1688 — by the eighth volume, which ajipearcil tn IS:10.
Meanwhile, a third edition had appcare<i in England;
two translations had been published in France (one
with a continuation to the nineteenth century, re-
vised and corrected by Lingard himself); another had
appeared in German, and yet another, in Italian, was
printed by the Propaganda Press. Honours from
every part of Eu-
rope confirmed the
general appreci-
ation of the His-
tory". Lingard's
triple doctorate
from Pius VII in
1821 , his associate-
ship of the Royal
Society of Litera-
ture, and many
other similar hon-
ours were finallv
crowned, in IS.'IO,
bv a grant from
the Privy Purse
of £aOO and hk
election aa a cor-
rei<ponding mem-
ber of the French
Academy. It had
also been gener-
ally, if not universally, believed — till Cardinal
Wiseman first traversed the tradition nearly forty
Crs later, in his "Last Four Popes" — that
XH. in a eoniiistory of 2 OctoI>er, 1826, had
created Lingard cardinalin pclto, deferringthe promul-
gation of the honour till the completion of the "His-
tory" should leave him free to come to Rome. A
somewhat heated controversy between Tii'mey and
Wiseman foilowe<l the publicarion of the "La->1 Four
Popes", and for a matter in wliich cerluinfy is now,
as then, almost impossible, Ticrney seems to have
had the better of the argument. Perhaps Lingnnl'B
own opinion is more likely to be right than any ol her,
and, though he affected to despise the nimour in the
autumn of 1826, we find him before the end of the
year asking and receiving advice on the ndvi^-^ibilitv of
allowing the offer to be made. Towonls (he enil of
his life he seems to have had no hesitation at all utiout
the question. "Ho maile me cardinal", is hie un-
?ualined assertion to a friend in a letter of 22 Au^nist,
B50.
Of course the " History" was criticized, but the very
sources of the criticism showed how successfully Lin-
gard had attained his ideal of unbiased accuracy.
Slilner attacked the tono of the work in "The Ortho-
dox Joum.il ", but the disagreement was rather one of
method than of anything else; Milner woulil have
converted England by the heavy bombardment of
hard-hitting controverHy; Lingard realized that hia
only chance of reaching the audience he desired lay in
a sober, unimpassioned statement of incontrovertible
fact. Dr. John Allen, then Muster of Dulwich School,
reached the other pole of criticism, and accused htm
of prejudiced distortion and supjireiwion of tacts in
his account of the Ma!<sacre of St Bartholomew. It
wa«thponlvatlaekof which Lingard ever took formal
notice, ami the publication of Siilvi:ini'« secret dis-
patches a few years later sciiree|j- addeil anything to
the weight of his tr ' — ' "^'' — '■ — •■ — " ' — '""^
a triumphant " Vindicatio
UNOI
272
LI1IU8
his essential accuracy on any leading point has seldom,
if ever, been called in question; and the mass of
historical material that has flooded our libraries since
his death has left unshaken not only his statements
of facts, but even their conjectural restorations, which
at times, prophet wise, he allowed himself to make.
Hence his work has lost little of its value, and, sixty
years after its author's last revision, still holds its
place as the standard authority on many of the
periods of which it treats.
The twenty years of life that still remained to him,
he spent in revision of his two principal works: "The
Anglo-Saxon Church", which was practically re-
written in 1846, and the "History'", of which every
succeeding edition (five were published in his lifetime)
bore evidence of liis unfailing zeal for impartial ac-
curacy; in the composition of many smaller works
and essays, some of which, Uke his " New Translation
of the Four Gospels", have scarcely met with the
recognition that their scholarship and literary merits
deserve; and in untiring vigilance for the interests of
the Church in England. His researches at home and
abroad had brought him into touch with friends in
every part of Western Europe, and only his extraor-
dinary energy and vitahty could have coped with
the ensuingcorrespondence, which would have crushed
most other men. He suffered too from a complica-
tion of nialadies that forbade him to travel more than
a few miles from home, yet, even in his isolation at
Hornby, he was to the end a centre of spiritual and
intellectual activity, a living force which still em-
ployed its every energy for the one ambition it had
always held — the advancement of Catholic, the con-
version of Protestant, En^and. In 1849 he said fare-
well to his books and to their readers in his pathetic
preface to the fifth edition of the " History ", and two
years later he died. He had always preserved an
active interest in the college at Ushaw, in whose be-
ginnings he had played so prominent a part. His
solid prudence was always at its service; the profits
of his writings were devoted to aiding its resources;
he even once found himself, by the death of his co-
trustees, its sole owner. In its cemetery cloister, there-
fore, by his own wish, he was buried, by the side of
its bishops and presidents, and Usliaw still remains
the shrine of his tody and of his memory.
His published works include: "Antiquities of the
Anglo-Saxon Church" (Newcastle, 1806 and 1810;
London, 1846); "Letters on Catholic Loyalty" (New-
castle, 1807) ; " Remarks on a Charge ... by Shute,
Bishop of Durham" (London, 1807); "Vindication
of the ' Remarks ' " (Newcastle, 1807) ; " General Vin-
dication of the * Remarks ' : Replies to Le Mesurier, and
Faber; and Observations on . . . Method of inter-
freting the Apocalypse" (Newcastle, 1808; Dublin,
808); "Remarks on . . the Grounds on which the
Church of England separated from Rome, recon-
sidered by Shute, Bishop of Durham" (London, 1809)
(these last four tracts have been collected and repub-
lished several times); "Introduction to Talbot's
Protestant Apology for the Catholic Church" (Dublin,
1809); "Preface to Ward's Errata to the Protestant
Bible" (Dublin, 1810, 1841); "Documents to ascertain
Sentiments of British Catholics in former Ages, re-
specting the Power of the Popes" (London, 1812);
Review of Certain Anti-Catholic Publications"
(London, 1813); "Examination of Certain Opinions
advanced by Dr. Burgess, Bishop of St. David's"
(Manchester, 1813); "Strictures on Dr. Marsh's Com-
parative View of the Churches of England and Rome"
^London, 1815); " Observ- ations on the Laws . .
in Foreign States relative to their Roman Catholic
Subjects" (London, 1817, 1851); "History of Eng-
land to the Accession of William and Marv " (London,
1819-30; 2nd e<i., 1823-30; 3rd eil., 182,'V-30; 4th ed.,
1837-39: 5th ed., 1849-51; 0th ed., 1854-55; 7th ed.,
1883); Charters granted . . to the Burgesses of
Rreston" (Preston, 1821); " Supplementum ad Bre
viarium et Missale Romanum, adjectis officiis Sanc-
torum AngliflB" (London, 1^3); "Vindication of
certain Passages m the Fourth and Fifth Volumes
of the History of England " (London, 1826, 4 editions;
1827); "Cdlectionof Tracts" (London, 1826); "Re-
marks on the ' St. Cuthbert ' of the Rev. James Raine "
(Newcastle, 1828); "Manual of Prayers for Sundays
and Holidays" (Lancaster, 1833); "New Version of
the Four Gospels" (London, 1836, 1846, 1851); "The
Widow Woolfrey versus the Vicar of Cansbrooke"
JLondon, 1839); "Is the Bible the only Rule?"
^Lancaster, 1839, 1887); "Catechetical Instructions"
.London, 1840) ; " Did the Church of England Reform
Herself? " (DubUn Review, VIII, 1840) ; " The Ancient
Church of England and the Liturgy of the Anglican
Church" (Dub. Rev., XI, 1841); 'Journal on a Tour
to Rome and Naples in 1817" (Ushaw Magaaine,
XVII, 1907).
GiLLOW. Biol. Did. Eng. Cath., s. v.; Turnbt, Memoir (Lon-
don, 1855) ; Reply to WxBeman (London, 1858): Wiseman. Recol'
loctiont of the Last Fottr Popes (London, I860); Idem, Reply to
Tiemey (London, 1858) : Bonnet, The Making of LinganTs His-
torp (Ushaw Mag., XIX, 1909); Bbaot, Annals of the English
Hierarchy, 111 (Rome. 1877): Butler, Records ana RecolUctions
of Uthaxc (Prtaion, 1889); C. Butler, Historical Memoirs, IV
(London, 1822); Hughes, John Lingard (Lancaster, 1907);
HuaENBETR. Life of Milncr (Dublin. 1862): Laino, Ushaw
Centenary Memorial (Newcastle, 1895); Dublin Review, XII,
295; Orthodox Journal, VII, 228, 266, 302. etc.; Tablet, XII,
466, 473. 484; Ushaw Mag., XI, 196; XVI, 1-29; Historical
Collections, MSS. and Correspondence preserved al Ushaw College.
Edwin Bonnet.
Linoe, a titular see of Bithynia Secunda, known
only from the ' * Notitise Episcopatuum " which mention
it as late as the twelfth and tnirteenth centuries as a
suffragan of Nicsea. The Emjseror Justinian must have
raised it to the rank of a city. It is probably the
modem town of Biledjik, a station on the H&idar-rasha
railway to Konia, with 10,000 inhabitants, 7000 of
whom are Mussulmans, and 30(X) Armenians, 600 of
the latter bcin^ Catholics. It is an important centre
for the cultivation of the silk-worm. Lequien (Oriens
christianus, I, 657) mentions four bishops of Linoe:
Anastasius, who attended the Ooimcil of Constanti-
nople (692); Leo, at Nicaea (787), Basil and Qml, the
one a partisan of St. Ignatius, Uie other of Photius,
at Constantinople (879).
Ramsay, Asia Minor (London, 1890), 15, 183.
S. FiTTBIDtB.
Linus, Saint, Pope (about a. d. 64 or 67-76 or 79).
All the ancient records of the Roman bishops which
have been handed down to us by St. Ireneeus, Julius
Africanus, St. Hippolytus, Eusebius, also the Liberian
catalogue of 354, place the name of Linus directly
after fliat of the Prince of the Apostles, St. Peter.
These records are traced back to a list of the Roman
bishops which existed in the time of Tope Eleutherus
(about 174-189), when Irenseus wrote his book " Ad-
versus haereses". As opposed to this testimony, we
cannot accept as more reliable TertulUan's assertion,
which unquestionably places St. Clement (De pra&-
scriptione, xxxii) after the Apostle Peter, as was also
done later by other Latin scholars (Jerome, "De vir.
ill. " , X v) . The Roman list in Ireneeus has undoubtedly
greater claims to historical authority. Tliis author
claims that Pope Linus is the Linus mentioned by St.
Paul in his II Tim., iv, 21. The passage by Irenssufl
(Adv. hsreses, III, iii, 3) reads: "Alter the Holy
Apostles (Peter and Paul) had founded and set the
Church in order (in Rome) they gave over the exer-
cise of the episcopal office to Linus. The same Linus
is mentioned by St. Paul in his Epistle to Timothy. *
His successor was Anacletus". We cannot be posi-
tive whether this identification of the pope as being the
Linus mentioned in II Tim., iv, 21, goes back to an
ancient and reliable source, or originated later on ao-
coiuit of the similarity of the name.
Linus's term of office, according to the papal lists
273
LDfZ
handed down to us, lasted only twelve years. The
Liberian Catalogue shows that it lasted twelve j^ears,
four months, and twelve days. The dates given m this
catalogue, a. d. 56 until a. d. 67. are incorrect. Per-
haps it was on account of these dates that the writers
of the foiurth century save their opinion that Linus
had held the position of head of the Roman commu-
nity during the life of the A])ostIe; e. g., Ruiinus in the
preface to his translation of the p8eu<io-Clementine
"Recognitiones". But this hypothesis has no his-
torical foundation . It cannot be doubted that accord-
ing to the accounts of Iren^eus concerning the Roman
Church in the second century, Linus was chosen to be
head of the community of Christians in Rome, after
the death of the Apostle. For this reason his pontifi-
cate dates from the year of the death of the Apostles
Peter and Paul, which, however, is not known for
certain. The " Lilxjr Pontificalis " asserts that Linus's
home was in Tuscany, and that his father's name was
Herculanus; but we cannot discover the origin of this
assertion. According to the same work on the popes,
Linus is supposed to have issued a decree *' in conform-
ity with tne ordinance of St. Peter**, that women
should have their heads covered in church. Without
doubt this decree is apocryphal, and copied by the
author of the *'Lil)er Pontificalis" from the first
Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians (xi, 5) and arbi-
trarily attributed to the first successor of the Apostle
in Rome. The statement made in the same source,
that Linus suffered martyrdom, cannot be proved and
is improbable. For between Nero and Domitian there
is no mention of any persecution of the Roman Church ;
and Irenieus (1. c, III, iv, 3) from among the early
Roman bishops designates only Telesphorus as a glor-
ious martyr.
Finally this book asserts that Linus after his death,
was buried in the Vatican beside St. Peter. We do not
know whether the author had any decisive reason for
this assertion. As St. Peter was certainly buried at
the foot of the Vatican Hill, it is quite possi})le that
the earliest bishops of the Roman Church also were
interred there. There was nothine in the litureical
tradition of the fourth-century Roman Church to
prove this, because it was only at the end of the second
century that any special feast of martyrs was insti-
tuted, and consequently Linus docs not appear in the
fourth-eentury lists of the feasts of the Roman saints.
Aocofxling to Torrigio (*'Le sacre grotte Vaticane**,
Viterbo, 1618, 53) when the present confession was
constructed in St. Peter's (1615), sarcophagi were
found, and among them was one which bore the
word Linus. The explanation given b^ Severano of
this discovery (*' Memorie dellc sette chiesc di Roma**,
Rome, 1630, 120) is that probably these sarcophagi
contained the remains of the first Roman bishops, and
that the one bearing that inscription was Linus's bur-
ial place. This assertion was repeated later on by
different writers. But from a MS. of Torrigio's we see
that on the sarcophagus in question there were other
letters beside the word Linus, so that they rather be-
longed to some other name (such as Aquuinus, Anul-
linus). The place of the discovery of the tomb is a
proof that it could not be the tomb of Linus. (Dc
Rossi, " Inscriptiones christianss urbis Romse*', II,
236-7). The feast of St. Linus is now celebrated on
23 September. This is also the date given in the *' Li-
ber Pontificalis ". An epistle on the martyrdom of the
Apostles St. Peter and Paul was at a later period at-
tributed to St. Linus, and supjx).se(lly was sent by
him to the Eastern Churches. It is apocryphal and
of later date than the histor\' of the martyrdom of the
two Apostka, bv some attri^juted to Marcellus, which
is also apocryphal ("Acta Apo»tolorum apocrypha**,
ed. Lipeius and Bonnet, 1, od. Leipzig. 189i, XIV
sqq.. I sqq.).
uLaBTWOOiT,Th€ApotiolieFather»,l; St. Clement of Rome, I
(London, 1800), 301 Mq.; IIarnack. Grtchirhte tier AUrhriat-
tkkm LUtraiut, 11: Die Chronolooxr I (Leipiig. 1807). 70;
IX.— 18
Ada SS. September. VI. 539 tqq., Liber PorUifieali$, ed.
DucBBSNB, I. 121: cf. Introductton, box; db Smedt, Du*
aerUUionea aelectw in primam cetatem hiat. eccl.t 1, 300 sqq.
J. P. KlKSCH.
Lini, Diocese of (Linciknsis), suffragan of the
Archdiocese of Vienna.
L History. — In the early Middle Ages the greater
part of the territory' of the present Diocese of Linz was
subji*ct to the bishops of Lauriacum (I-,orch); at a
later date it formed port of the great Diocese of Pas-
sau, which extended from the Isar to the Ijcitha. The
Prince-Bishop of Passau personally administered the
upper part or Upper Austria, while an auxiliary
bisliop, having his residence at Vienna and called the
Officitd, administered for him the eastern part or
Lower Austria. To do away with the political influ-
ence in his territories of the bishops of Passau, who
were also princes of the Empire, Joseph II decided to
found two new dioceses. These were Linz and St.
Polten, which in a certain measure were to renew the
old lauriacum, and the emperor only awaited the
death of Cardinal Firmian, then Bishop of Passau, to
carry out his plans. The cardinal's eyes were
scarcely closed (d. 13 March, 1 7S,3) , Ijcfore the emperor
on 16 March seized all the lanilcd property of the Dio-
cese of Passau hi his territoritjs. On the same day he
appointed the former Official for Passuu at Vienna,
Count von Herberstein, first Bishop of Linz. It was
the intention of the emperor tliat the new bishop
should at once assume his office. Against these acts
of the emperor the cathedral cha]>ter of Passau sent,
first, an appeal to the emperor himself, which natu-
rallv was rejected; then an appeal to the Imperial Diet
at i{atislx)n, from which body, however, nelp could
scarcely be expected. Assistance offerea by Prussia
was refused by Cardinal Firmian*s successor. Bishop
Auerspcrg, an adherent of Josephinism. The Bishop
of Passau and the majority of his cathedral ciiapter
finallv yielded in order to save the secular property of
the diocese. By an agreement of 4 July, 1784, the
confiscation of all the properties and rights belonging
to the Diocese of Passau in Austria was annulled, and
the tithes and revenues were restored to it. In return
Pas.««au gave up its diocesan rights and authority in
Austria, including the provostsnip of Ardaeger, and
bound it,self to pay 400,000 gulden (SiM)(),000)— after-
wanls reduced by the emperor to one-half — toward
the equipment of the new diocese. There was nothing
left for Pope Pius VI to do but to give his consent, even
tliough unwillingly, to the emperor's despotic act.
The papal sanction of the agrec^ment Iwtween V^ienna
and rassau was issued on 8 November, 1784, and on
28 January, 1785, appeared the Bull of Erection,
*' Roman us Pontifex ".
The first bishop (1785-8), Ernest Johann Nepomuk,
Imperial Count von Herberstein, formerly titular Bishop
of Eucarpia, had been the Official of the Prince-Bishop
of Passau and Vicar-General of Lower Austria. The
appointment was confirmed by the pope on 14 Feb-
ruary', 1785, and the bishop was enthrone<l on 1 May
1785. By order of the emperor the cathedral chapter
was to consist of a vicar-general, a provost, a dean, a
CHstoSf and thirteen simple eccler^iastics; the mcmlwrs
were appointed by the emp<Tor, before the approval
of the pope was recr'ived. The Hull of Erection as-
signed the ancient parish church of Linz as the ca-
thedral, but the former church of the Jesuits was,
without notification to the Papal Sec of the substitu-
tion, at once chosen in its place; it was not until 1841
that the change was sanct ioned by a Bull. In 1789 the
endowment of the diocese was fixeil at 12.000 gulden
(S4,8(K)), to which were added the revenues from the
proiKjrtv of several sui)pressed monasteries. The
territorial limits of the tliocese correspontlcd to thase
of the crownlan<l of Upper Austria with the addition
of several parishes of Salzburg, to tli«' srparatiow ol
which the Archbishop) o^ ^o\i\>\\i^^^N^iV\s ^^^pcctwcWa.
LIHZ 2
1786. At the time of Us found&tion, the dioceee in-
cluded 20 deaneries with 404 pariBbca.
The new diocese, like the whole of Austria at that
time, suffered much from the iiunicroiis, often precipi-
tate and reckless, ordinances of tlie governmeut
officials, who interfered in almost all domains of
Church hfe and often subjected i>ishop, clerg>', and
laity to petty n'giilations. As early iw 17Sj the Vien-
nese ecclesiastical order of services whs niailc obliga-
tory, "in accordance with which all musical litanies,
novenas, octaves, the ancient touchiDK devDtionti, also
processions, vespers, and similar ceremonies, were
done away with." Numerous churches ami chapels
were closed and put to secular uses; the greater part
of the old religious foundations and monast^'ries were
suppresse<l as early rm 17K1. In all these iniiovutiona
the Hi.shop of Linz and hLs chapter aided and sup-
1794. Another permanent service of the bishop was
the founding of a seminary for priests; for this he
bought in 1804 a house out of his own means, and
made the institution lieir to all his property. The
thinl Bishop of Linz, i^i^smund von Holicnwart
<lK09-25), had been a cathedral canon of Gurk and
Vicar-tieneral of KlaRenfurt.. lie was appointed Ijy
the emperor on 10 January, ISOD, liut the appoint-
ment did not receive papal approliution until I>ecenv-
bcr, 1814, on account of the imprisonment of the pope.
The bishop took energetic measures against the ^-wion-
ary followers of PdHchI and Boos, who wer« then
numerous in Upper Austria. His successor was the
Benolictine Gregor Thomas Ziegler (1S27-52), foi^
merly Bishop <^ Tarnov. Although the Church
throughout .\ustria at this date was still dependent
to a very greiit degn^e on the guveniment it " '
ported the government much too willingly,
in secular matters did the bishop ask for tut
of the provincial government at Liiw, he ;dso sought
to obtain the approbation of the civil authorities for
the statutes of hischaptiT, as well as for tlte episcopal
and consistorial seals. Nevertheless there cuuld be no
durable peace with the bureaucratic civil authorities,
and HerWrstein was rcimiteilly obligeit to complain
to the emperor of the tutelage in which the Church
was kept, but the conu>laints bore little fruit.
The next bishop, Joseph Anton Gali (1788-1S07),
had been of great serx'ice to the Austrian school system
as cathedral xcholatiicus and chief supervisor of the
nonnal schools. He was sn adherent of Josephinism,
and permitted the chancellor of the consistory, Cleorge
Rechliereer, a layman and Josephinist, to exercise
great influence over the ecclesiastical administration
of his diocese. Ecclesiastical conditions lecame more
satiiffactflry during his episcopate, but much of the
credit for this is due to Emjerors Leopold 11 and
Francis II who repeale<l mauy over-hasty reforms of
Joseph II. Tlic general scrniiiarics introduced in
1783 were set aside, and tlw- training of the clergj- was
again made the care of the l>ishops. Bishop Gall,
tneretore, exerted himself for years to establish a
Iheologicid institute for liis ilim-ose; it nas opened in
tical mntlem, the bishop knew how t<
strengthen tlie ecclesiastical spirit in his clergy and
people. Of great importance was the introtluction of
the Jesuits and their settlement on the Freinberg neal
l.iuK, which was accomplished by means of tlie vigor-
ous and generous aid of Archduke Maximilian of Este,
ami the foundatiim of numerous other religious estab-
lishments (Franciscans, f<alesiuns, Sisters of Mercy
The Revolution of 1S4S not only increased political
liberty, but also gave to the Church greater independ-
ence in its own province, and the bishop at once
made use of the regained freeiloni to revive popular
missions, which had been discontinued since the
reign of Slaria Tliercsa. In 1850 at his histance
a ten days' mission was held by the Re<lemptor-
ists, at which the numlier of communicants wat
reckoned at .W.DOO. In the same year the diocesan
theological iii.ititute w!n placed entirely under epis-
copal superviiion. ami an exaniiniilion of candidates
tor the pnsiiinn of parish priests was established; in
Octolior for the first time pxaminntions were held
by prosynmlal examiners. The session of the Third
(iumi an" Catholic Congre-w, held at. Lini in 1850, also
strengtlicrii'd I he Church in Ihe di<)eesp. A great de-
vclopiiifiil of n-liuiiMM lift' in tli- diow-*' resulted from
Lurz 2
tbe rastored liberties at the Church. Much tA the
credit for thia growth is due to the vigorous and un-
wearied labours of the fifth bishop, the great Franz-
Josef Rudigier (1853-K-l). His deep rehgious faith
and his pre-eminently ('alhulic principles, as wcU as
his unyieiiiinK will, nimic him for many yearn the in-
tellectual leader of the Austritm Catholics in their
struggle with Liberalism. .Austrian Liberalism, un-
tagoiiistic to tiie Church, controlled for decades the
destinies of the country. The bishop was the zealuus
friend and promoter of evcr^ expression of religious
life: Christian schools, religious associations, the
biulding of churches, the Catbulic press, tlie founding
of houses of the religious orders and congregations,
which greatly increased during hi.i episcopat«. Ever
memorable is the manly stand ho took on lx<half of
the Concordat of 1855. Thia Concorilat was bitterly
Mttagonized and much calumniated by the Lilierals,
and was annulled by the guvernnieiit in 1S6» and
1870 without consultation with the Holy See.
Equally memorable is his struggle against what arc
called the " Interoonfessional" laws of 25 May, 1W8,
which were hostile to tbe Church, and to the marriage
and school laws. The bishop's opposition to these
ordinances led to judicial proceedings against him and
to a tine, which was, however, at once remitted by the
emperor. His defence of the rights of tlie Church in
renid to the Christian schools hnti fur result that the
Liberal parliamentary majority in ISGt) confiscated
tbe lands forming the endowment of the diocese, and
withheld them until the downfall of Lil>eralism in
which he prepar««l the way by founding
■OBOciation for building the calbmlral. Hit
Enut Maria Midler, hod only a idtiirt. epiKcnpatc (1883
-8). In the next bisiiop, Franz Maria DojipttllMUcr
(1889-1908), the diocese reccivi-d a tnily apostolic
head, whose influence extended far Iwyinid his own
sphere of work. He wan a vii^orous patron and pro-
moter of every Catliolic interest in .Austria. As a
true modem bishop he gave sjieciol encouragement to
Catholic associations and the Catholic press, which,
even during his enrliest years on the mission, he had
done much to encourage, establishing personally a
'newspaper. He foundetl at Urfahr a msgiiificent
seminary for boyii, the Petrinum, as a fine training-
ground for the future clergy. The completion of the
cathedral (consecrated May, 1905) wHsalmidue to his
'5 LIKZ
and teachers, 8 prefects, 363 pupils), and 3 prepara-
tory semin&riea for boys.
The male orders in the diocese are: 2 monasteries of
Canons Regular of St. Augustine at St. Florian and
Reichersbcrg, with Xin 191U) IIJ fathers, 12 clerics, 0
lay brothers, and a theological Kchooi of tbe order at
St. Florian; 1 monastery of Fnemoiistratcnsian Can-
ons at Schlagl, 42 fathers, 3 clerics, I brother; 2 Bene-
dictine aliljeys at KremsmUtistcr and Lambach, 112
fathers, 10 clerics, 12 brothers; 2 Cistercian abbeys,
Schlicrbach and Wiihering, 60 fathers, 10 clerics, 1
lay brother; 7 Franciscan monasteries, 33 fathers, 31
brothers; 4 Capuchin monasteries, 33 fathcru, 20
brothers; I monastery of the Discolced Carmelites, 10
fathers, 4 clerics, 8 brothers; 1 nionastcry of the
Brothers of Mercy, 1 father, 19 brothers; 3 houses of
the Jesuits, 45 fathers. 14 lirolhers; 2 houses of the
B^ j.^'J!' *
pil
. - ■"■-%■
fiip*
^
of the monasteries in Austria by Joseph U. He
bom 24 July, 1S5D; appointed bishop 17 March, 1909;
coosecratcd 1 May, 1900.
JI. Statistics. — The Diocese of Lin* includes the
Duchy of Upper Au-stria and some townships in Lower
Austria. The Duchy of Upper Austria has an an>a of
nearly 4625 square miles; the population is 840,900.
According to the census of 1900, it possessed 810.246
inhabitants, of whom 7!H).270 were Calholics, H4.:{73
Pnttestants, 1280 Jews. The Diocese of Linz is divided
into 34 dcanerie.t. and. at tlic beginning of 1910, in-
cluded 419 parishes, 1 Bxpuxitur. 48 w.-ncfices, 718
secular priests, 479 regulars, 5fil Catholic schools, and
813,511 souls (20,506 non-Cut hoi icsj of pure Uemuui
descent. The bisliop is appointed by the cmi>eror,
lie cathedral chapter consists of a mitred provost,
who is appointed by the pope, a dean, a tchMiiAieua,
five canons (one appointed by the bishop, ttie Others
5{ the emperor), and six honorary canons. 'I'he ec-
esiastical schools and institutions for training anil
eilucation in the diocese are: the scininarj- for pricals
in connexion with the diocesan thtnlogicol school (7
professors, 84 students), the aforestid episcopal semi-
nary for boys (Collf^ium Pi'lrinurnl, e<iniieeti'd with
the episcopal private gyniiuu-iuin h( I'rfahr on tlie
bank of tbe Pauubeand opjiosili.' Linz (IKprofessura
(ThcNewGikthcdmb
Redemptorists, 14 fathers, 16 brothers; 2 houses of the
Congregation of Haiy (Brothers of Mary), 5 fathers,
SO brothers; 1 mission-house of tlie Ciblatcs of St.
Francis de Sales. 5 fathers, 2 clerics. 3 brothers; 1
house of the Society of the Divine Saviour (Salva-
loria.n'i), 5 fathers, 20 brothers; 1 institute of the
Brothers of the Christian Schools. 4 bmlhera. Total,
479 priests. 41 clerics, 205 brot hi.'rs. The female orders
and congregations have numerous houses in the dio-
ces«';_the memljers devote themselves mainly 1o the
training and education of girls in boarding-schools,
day schools, orphan asylums, etc., and also to nursing
the sick: Ursulmes, 58 Bisters;Sistcrs of St. Elizabeth,
46 sinters; Discalced Carmelites, 39 sisters in 2 houses;
Salesi:in Nuns, 38 sisters; Redemptorists. 41 sisters:
I^diesof Charity of the Good Shepherd, 5;); Sisters o(
Cliariiy of St. Vincent de Paul, 2!i7 iu 17 houses; Sis-
ters of Mercy of St. Cliarlcs Borromeo, 111 in 44
houses; SUters of the Holv Cross, 637 in 70 hoiisea;
ScbiKil Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis, 377 in
3U institutes; School Sisters of Notre Dame. 24 in 3
honses; Sisters of the Thirtl Onier of Mount t'nrmel.
1.'>3 in 20 insi iLutes; Obktes of St. Fmncls dc Salos. 25
listers; Sisti>ra of tlie Congregation of Christian Char-
ity. IS sisters. Total. ISO houses wiih 191 7 sisters.
Religious Ufe is ingeneral in a flourishing condition;
there are numerous religious associations and brother-
hoods. The Piiisvereiu, wiib its headquarters at Line,
has for its Bpeci:il iibjecl tlic encouragi-ment of the
Uatholic press. The most important church, iti IW
LIPARI
276
LIPPE
diocese is the new Gothic cathedral of the Immacu-
late Conception, built from the plans of the Cologne
architect, Vincenz Statz. It was begun in 1862 and
consecrated in 1905; the tower, 443 feet high, was
finished in 1902. The old cathedral, originally the
church of the Jesuits, was built in the Barocco style
between 1669 and 1682. There are several old col-
legiate churches (St. Florian, Kremsmiinster, Mond-
see, Lambach, Garsten, Reichersberg, Wilheringetc.),
originally built in the Romanesciue period and nearly
all rebuilt in the seventeenth ana eignteenth centuries
in the Barocco style. The most important churche^s
in the Barocco stvle of architecture are the collegiate
churches of St. f^lorian (1636-1745), and of Baum-
cartenberg (rebuilt 1684-1718). The most important
building of the Gothic period are the parish church at
Ste>T (begun in 1443), with a tower 263 feet high, and
the church of the hospital at Braunau on tne Inn
(1439-92), with a tower 300 feet high. A work of
sculpture celebrated in the history of art is the hi^h
altar at St. Wolfgang carved by Michael Pacher m
1481.
PiLLWEiN, Gesch., Gfoar. u. StaiUtik des Erzhenogtums Oetter-
reich ob der Enns (5 vols., Linz, 1827-39); Urkundenbuch dea
Landes ob der Enna (9 vols., Linz, 1852-1906); Hittmair,
Ouch, des Bistums Lira (Linz, 18i85); Die Oestcrreich-Un-
Sirische Monarchic in Wort und Bild, \1: Oberosterreich und
ahburg (Vienna, 1889); Kolb. Marianiaches Oberosterrrich
(Linz, 1889); Hittmaih, Der joaephipiache Kloeterslurm im
Lande ib der Enna (Freiburg, 1907); Pachinger, Dcia Linzer
Bistum (linz, 1907); Rettenbacher, Daa biaclUifiiche Priea-
teraeminar der Difictae Linz (linz, 1907); Archiv fiir Geach. dea
Bialuma Linz (Linz, 1904 — ), supplement to the diocesan news-
paper; SchenuUiamua der Geiatltchkeit der Didceae Linz fur 1910
(Luiz, 1910).
Joseph Lins.
Lipari. See Messina, Diocese of.
Lippe, one of the Confederate States of the German
Empire. The occasioiial use of the designation ' * Lippe
Detmold^' so called after the chief town, to distin-
guish it from Schaumberg Lippe, is legally inaccurate.
It comprises 469 sq. miles and consists of a larser divi-
sion lymg between the Prussian Provinces of . Westphar
lia and Hanover, including the ancient Countships of
Lippe, Schwatonbcrg, and Sternberg and, in addition,
of tne three exclaves of Grevenhagen, Lipperode, and
Cappel, lying in Prussian territory. The principalitv
origmated as an immediate suzerainty of the twelfth
century, belonging to the lords of Lippe who, in 1529,
were coimts of the empire. In 1807, by taking part in
the Rhenish Confederation the country achieved inde-
gendence and at the same time became a principality,
ince 1815 it had belonged to the German Confedera-
tion. In the German War of 1866 Lippe sided with
Prussia and became a part of the North German Con-
federation, and in 1871 of the German Empire. A
contest for the throne which had lasted for years was
finally settled in 1905, since when Leopold IV (b. 1871)
has bJeen reigning prince. In the census of 1 Decem-
ber, 1905, the returns showed 145,577 inhabitants, of
whom 5,481 were CathoUcs; 139,127 Protestants; 229
other Christians; 735 Jews, and five members of other
religions. The Catholics increased from 2.4% to
3.8% of the population between 1871 and 1905.
From the time of the Reformation the greater part
of the country has belonged to the Diocese of Pader-
bom, smaller portions to Muiden and Cologne. The
Reformation obtained its first foothold in Lemgo, at
that time the most important town in the principality.
The ruler, Simon V, in vain endeavoured to suppress
the new doctrines. His son and successor, Bernard
VIII (1536-63), a minor, was educated a Lutheran.
He forced a Lutheran ritual upon the country in 1538.
Simon VI (1563-1613) confirmed the reformed doc-
trines (Calvinism) in 1605, which ever since then have
prevailed in the countrj'. Only the city of Lemgo re-
mained Lutheran, in spite of a struggle carried on for
ten years with great oitteniess l>etween the princes
and the city. During the last decade of the nine-
teenth century, however, the number of Calvinists,
even in Lemgo, has exceeded that of the Lutherans.
After the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 by which reli-
gious matters were settled, the establishment of the
Reformation in Lippe was substantially accomplished.
In spite of the axiom ''cujus regio, ejus religio", and
of much persecution and many struggles, there re-
mained a small number of Catholics in Lippe all
through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
notably a convent at Falkenhagen established in 1228
and belonging first to the Cistercians,- then to the Wil-
liamites, and since 1432 to the Knights of the Ooss.
It was confiscated in 1596, though its possessions fell
to the Paderlx)m Jesuits and only after the Papal sup-
pression of the order, to the reigning house. W ith the
assistance of the Jesuits, particularly Father Tonne-
mann, the confessor of Charles IV, the reigning count
in 1720 obtained the rank of prince, but he did not as-
sume this title because the exchequer could not defray
the dues, notwithstanding the fact that, through Fa-
ther Tonnemann's exertions, they were reduced from
20,000 to 5773 gulden. The letters patent granting
the princely title were not redeemed until 1789.
A Catholic community grew up in Lemgo in the
eighteenth centur}^ Here in 1774 the Catholics were
^iven the right to practise their religion privately, and
m 1786 openly, though mider many restrictioitt.
After 1672, when the Catholics of the neighbouring
Countship of Ravensburg, which had belonged since
1609 to Brandenburg-Prussia, received their ridit to
public worship, the Franciscans from Bielef ela took
charge of the Catholics in Lippe, though able to per-
form religious duties only in secret. NominalK^ the
Catholics (as w^ell as Lutherans) were allowed free
practice of their religion and given full political and
civil rights, through their country's participatioii in
the Rhenish (1807) and the German (1815) Confedeia-
tions. As a matter of fact, the situation remained un-
changed. The control of livings exercised by the Gsl-
vinists continued in force. In 1821 the F^pal Bull
** De salute animarum'', made over to the See of Fsd-
erbom the Lippian parishes of Cappel, Lipperode, and
Lippstadt, which had pre viously oelonged to Cologne
without producing any ensuing agreement with the
State. As a result of this Bull, the Bishop of Fader-
bom continued as he had formerly done, in spite of
numerous protests from the Government, to interest
himself in all the Catholics of the coimtry, whose num-
ber had greatly increased through immigration.
In the sovereign edict of 9 March, 1854, owing in no
small degree to the fairmindedness of the first cabinet
minister, Laurenz Hannibal Fischer, the Catholic
Church was placed on an equality with the state Cal-
vinist religion. The Lutherans obtained the same
status on 15 March, 1854. The diocesan rights of the
bishops of Paderbom were recognized. The bishop pre-
sented the livings, though the sovereign could reject an
unacceptable candidate. The parish priest was obliged
to take the oath of allegiance to the prince and hisdy-
nastv. In mixe<l marriages the religion in which the
children were to be educated was settled l>y agreement
between the parents. Should nothing be aiscussed
or decided in the marriage settlements, the children
without regard to sex must be brought up in the fa-
ther's faith. In order to elucidate this measure be-
yond doubt, the State passed the ordinance of 7 Octo-
ber, 1857, which decreed that ant-e-nuptial agreements
or promises were, from a legal standpoint, null and
void. The mixed marriages liave resulted in a larger
numljer of Protestant than of Catholic children. In
other respects the legislation concerning marriage cor-
responds throughout to that in the civil code of the
German Empire. With regard to sepulture, the
Catholics are free to use the general cemeteries or to
open special ones fr)r themselves. If Catholics have
obtained right of sepulture in a non-Catholic ceme-
tery, the use of the liturgy of their Church is permitted
UPPI 2
' they have not thia right notice must be given to
vongelivul ministers, uiiil permiasion oBtained.
,e five parishes of Detmuld, with the subordinate
les of Horn, Cappei (founded in 784 by Cliarle-
e), Fallcenhageii, Lemfco, and Schwalenbcrg,
added in ISSS, the three parishes of La^e, Lippe-
and Satiuden. The entire cifcht wi're unitetl in
to the deanerj- of Dirtmold, presided over by ten
er and above itii obUxutioiis to the parish of Falk-
Kn, which ore bowRil on rivil pkinis, tJie Ktate
300 iiuirk!> udditionat salary' from the treiLsun' of
onfiscat^l mniiu>'(erie.s and institutionR to the
ilic rector ut I#nign onlv. Catholic church prop-
B fMiilati'il by till.' civil code of the (lermaii £m-
Hul the Lipirian common law. The only reli-
conununity m that of St. EUiabeth's Institute in
old, a combined sewing school and protecton'
ictcd by tlie Bisters of Charity- of St. Vincent de
(from Paderbom). Concerning orders and con-
tions therp in no provision made by the Ktst*'.
7 LIPPX
caMone, or marriage chest at Coaa Torrigiani, repTO
seating the history of Esther. He wiis only twenty
years old when he painted the picture of the " Vision
of St. Bernard", preserved at the Badia of Florence,
which ia periiapa the moat charming of all Florentine
altarpieces (1480). Itisanexmiiaitenpng of youth and
love. The chaste oeauty of the Virgin, her hands of
lilylike purity, the tenderly impassioned countenance
of the saint, the very realistit' and maulv portrait of
the donor (Frunccsco del Puglicse), the vast and
strange landscape where the apparition takes place —
all form an absolutely novel narmoiiy in Florentine
paintuig, and one wnicb Ijconardo da \'inci in his
" Virgin of the Rocks" did little more than embellish,
without allowing the beholder to lose sight of the
Having become famous through this picture, the
young master was couimissionea to complete in the
Carmelite churth the famous frescoes of the Brancacci
rhapel, before which the genius of his father had awok-
and which ha<l been iiiteiruptcd for n
irer, article 13 of the edict of 18.S1 provides that
lee of doubt concerning the application of the
lict or iinv conflieta over the Iwunds of episcopal
rity, shalf be determined by tho definitions of the
an Conatitutiou of 31 Jiiiiuanr, 1850. The
lie schools are private, but the fttatp furnishes
: the salaries and pensions of tho teachers. Tho
I of the eight Catholic school districts are exempt
payment of school assessments (I.<aw of :)0 De-
T, 1904). Two free Catholic schools (Falken-
and Grevenhogen) enjoy the priviit^es of public
ly schools. That of Cappel is a public school,
led by memhora of ditterent Churches, yet
tic in character as long sa the majority of the in-
inte of the school district «re flitholies.
CMAHV. Brilraar tur 0na*irUe 4rt fSnlmlum' TAppt
imai ItFtmoUI. IM7-19(UJ: Si'iiwanold. Dnt Furilm-
■ppe, d<u Ijiad tuut HiW Bimlmrr ([>nlupihl. ISMI):
1, GrtrAicW' rfn- nnn/'/rirf«r*'T. i'mnH«tnnn-,Wi-™i.i»
in, 18)t0>. A14 ■ni(., Sl!T Kin.', (iRuuEKR. Otichiehtt dtr
idun PJarrtirn in Lipnc (Puili.riwrn, IMH.'ii: Fhkwkh,
mH kalAolueht Klr--ht in dm dtulirhn SunJ.'»taal«i. t
att 1906), 1-SS3.
SacII
pl, FiUPPiN'o, Italian painter, son of Filippo
(see next article), b, at Prato, in 14,58; d. at
ice, 18 April, 1515. H[^^ father, leaving him
Jhon at the age of ten, confided him to the
F« Diamante, his best pupil and his friend,
laced the boy^ in Botticelli's studio. The eai^
'orka of Pilippino now extant are the panels of a
fifty years. On the two pilasters of the entrance lie
paint«d the " Visit of St. Paul to St. Peter in Prison"-
and the "Deliverance of St. Peter"; on the left wall
the "Resurrection of the Emperor's Son" (one group
of which composition had already been sketched by
MasBccio); finally, on Uie riebt wall, "Sts. Peter and
Paul before the Proconsul and the "Crucifixion of
1st. Peter". With marvellous sunpleiiess the young
artist adapted himself to the istylo of this grandiose
cycle, and composed in the sanut tone a contumation
not unworthy of the begitiuiiig. and in hanuoiiy with
the grave and classic senius of Mosaccio. But he
sought this harmonv only in the general outlines, and
(like his father, in the " Death of St. Stephen") he in-
trmtuee<t into scenes from the Acts of^ the Apostles
0 gallery of contemporary costumes and portraits.
AmimK these portraits Vasari mentions Soderini, P.
niiiccianlini (father of the historian), Francesco del
Puglicsc. the poet Luigi Puici, Soiidro Botticelli, An-
tonio Pollaijuolo, and, hi^tly. the author himself.
The young master was of a nervous, mobile, im-
Sressionable temperament, susceptible to every in-
ttcnce, as n'ell as inarvelloualv gilted and an artist to
hia finger tins; his face showed lively intelligence; his
genius was nospitalile to all types of beauty, however
(jiverae, welcoming all with n stranKe, youthful ardour.
Still, his Inter work never c<iuallcd the liappy grace of
his earliest efforts. His picture painted in 1-1S5 for
the altar of tlie Signory, the " Virgin between. 8»ji.
LlPPl Z
John the Baptist, Victor, Bernard, andZ&nobi" (Uf-
fiii) , shows an exaltation of tone and a metallic dryness
beyond the most glaring and the aharpcat of Botti-
ccUi's works. Shortly afterwards Fiiippino went to
Rome to paint," at the Minerva, the frescoes of the
"Life ofSt. Thomas Aquinas" (1487-931. Thu work
is very powerful, and enough has not been said of
Raphael's indebtedness to it for his first ideas for the
"School of Athens" and the"Dispufa". These fres-
coes mark an important period in the artist's develop-
ment. At Rome the antique inspired him, not as an
historian, a humanist, or a scholar, but as a painter
and a poet who discovered in it new elements of de-
light. The antique appeared to hirn as an inexhausti-
ble source of the picturesque' the rich ornamentation
ivith its foliage, garlands, nia.sks, trophies, was like a
ven enriched it still more
orphan at the age of two hi- was cared for by an aunt
who being too poor to rear him placed him at the age
of eight in the neighbouring Carmclit* convent, wheri
■■- educated. At the age of fifteen he r " '" '
Carmelite church those frescoes of the Brancacci
chape! (l-12;j-28), which brought about a revolution in
the Florentine school. This event decided Lippi's
vocation. Perhaps he even worked in the Brancacci
chapel under the direction of the two mastera but
nothing remains of the cameo frescoes which he exe-
cuted in the cloister.
A life of adventure was about to begin tor the young
a his hands, lie <
" to see the strange fancies which he has expressed in
his painting. He was always introducing vases, foot-
gear, temple-ornaments, head-dresses, strange trap-
pings, annour, trophies, seimitara, swords, togas,
cloaks, and an array of things BO various and so beauti-
ful that we owe him tonJay a great and eternal obliga-
tion for all the beauty and ornamentation that be thus
added to our art."
To these antique influences were soon added those
of German engraving, so widespread at that time.
The trace of them is visible in the " Adoration of the
Magi" (Uffiii), painted in 1495 for the Convent of
Scopeto. This is an astonl.'iliing picture, full of con-
fusion and oddities, eccentric, disjointed in composi-
tion, and crowded with admirable trifles and acces-
sories. Of all Filippino's works it is perhaps the most
hybrid and composite. At Prato, however, he aoms-
times recovered momentarily a pure inspiration as in
the "Virgin with" Four Saints", a fresco in a niche at
the market comer (149S); it is one of his simplest and
most delightful figures, llis last important work was
the decoration of the Strozzi chapel at Sta. Haria
Novella, completed in 154)2, which shows on the ceiling
figures of patriarchs, and on both walls episodes from
the lives of St. John and St. Philip. Nowhere else is
the strange, theatrical character of his imagination so
strongly shown as in this composition, in which there
is, nevertheless, much of grace, movement, and lyri-
cism. In the scene "St. I'liiiip forcing an exorcized
demon to enter the idol of Mars ", the Apostle uses so
Commanding a gesture that Raphael has reproduced
it in his " Preaching of St. Paul . Here the brilliant
and fantastic architecture sugsesta some dream city or
magic temple. Its glitter and profusion of ornament,
its waving lines and undulating surfaces, foreshadow
the stvle of Reniiui and IJorromini; and yet some of
tlie patriarchs, suth as the Adam and Jacob, possess
an ascetic and meditative grandeur which foresnadow
the Prophets of the Sistine Chapel, while some of the
female figures ore the closest approach to the "St.
Anne and the Virgin" of Leonardo.
Fiiippino had no pupib of distinction. It cannot
even be said that he founded a tradition; he himself
was too much dominated bv the influence of others.
But of the generation immediately preceding the great
works of Michelangelo and Leonanio, of that restless
and subtile, complex and nervous generation of Botti-
celli and Cosimo Roselli, he is perhaps the most varied,
the most gifted, and the most lovable.
Vabahi, ed. MiLAKEai. Viie. It. Ill (norence. 187SI ; Csowe
AND Cavalcabelu;, Hitl. 0/ Painiing in Ilatv (London.
l8«4-a6); ROMOB, Italinucht Fortchunem. II (Leinnie. — h
Ml'NTI, Hi*, dtVarlxtal\tnpmiinialaRniaitKtnct(Ps.Ta.—):
GooNCHENB.rHBcd'Or (Paris. 1891); Vi.ntio, Arthi<r<o HoHeo
drttarU (Florance, 1S88); Laiekestm. La Ptmlvre ilalimnt
(Puia). LOCIB GlLLbT.
Llppl, Fnjppo, Italian painter, b. at Florence . . . .
ftbout 1406; d. at Spoleto, 9 October, 1469. Left an forgery. Callistus III
Carmelite. Vasari's account of a journey to Ancona,
during which, in the cour^ of a sea-trip, he was seiiea
by Barbary pirates and held captive for two years, is
assuredly nothing but a romance. It is not likely that
he was at Padua in 1434; on the contrary everything
{roves that at that date he was not absent from
lorence, where he had already acquired a great
reputation. Cosmo de' Medici commanded him to
paint for his private oratory the charming "Madonna"
of the Uffiii, and for his wife's the "Nativity" of the
Acadfimie des Beaux-Arts. In 1438 he painted the
retable of San Spirito, now at the Louvre, and the
"Coronation of the Blessed Virgin", ordered by
Charles Marsuppini, and preserved at Rome in thie
Lateran Museum. In 1441 he painted a variation of
the same subject at the Academy of Florence for tlie
religious of S. Ambroeio, receiving 1200 livrea for it.
Lastly, in 1447 he painted for the Chapel of the Si-
CTioi^ the wonderful "Vision ot St. Bernard" now in
the National Gallery. Inthemidstofall these labours
the fiainter could not have taken long journeys. The
great artist lived in the continual embarrassments
caused by his deplorable morals. Never was anyone
less fitted for religious life. Mis portraits show us a
flat-nosedindividual with a jesting, but vicious lookinK,
thick-lipped, sensual face. To compel him to work
Cosmo de' Medici was forced to lock him up. and even
then the painter escaped by a rope made of his sheets.
His escapades threw bim into financial difficulties
from which he did not hesitate to extricate himself by
i obliged to deprive thia
•POHAXO 279 LZPPOHAHO
cttiy monk, "who perpetrated maay ncfuioua atlitude uf itutinct and spontaneity, and ie not at oil
tbe result of a system or a tlieory. It is e, great ple-
bcEan force, tumuituoufi antl unconaciouK, let loose
tliroiif>b art and life. Nothiiif; equals the ingenuity
and tlie sort of innocence of bis lovo of nature. This
monk withont rale or cloister possesses literally the
senses of a primiiif. He adores everything, the com-
Bagrant than elsewhere. It is significant and moneitt herb and tho least Rover. Certain of his
a ^ainly what were the ideas of the Renaissance pictures, such as the "Nativity", in the Louvre, con-
Lippi was not punished for his bad conduct, tain an amount of documents and a collection of
rorgcniua then constituted a soil of privilege and studies, birds, lizards, sheep, plants, stones, still'life,
Tsnt of impunity. Talent placed its possessor be- which equal the cont«nts of ten albums of a Japanese
<a", of a benefice. In 1462 the Carmelite ii
«t«d by the commons of Prato to paint the choir
! cathedral.
length, despite his evil reputation, Lippi suc-
>d in having bimself appointed chaplain of a con-
of Augustinians. Here his misbehaviq
f of the trater" (Letter of J. dc Medici, 27 May,
I, but Pope Pius II thought he could do no better
to release him from his vows and permit him t^
f. A son, Filippino I.ippi. had already been
to lUm. He afterwards had a daughter (1465).
« midst of these intrigues and .disorders Filippo
aued to paint his
eat works. From
period, indeed,
^-64) date, beside
■1 pictures of the
I Museum, his
I at the cathedral,
I txB perhaps the
woric of the sec-
nneistion of the
maoce, before the
fttions of the Sis-
chapel and the
wa of Ghirlandajo
A Maria Novella.
theme of these
Xja borrowed
lives of St.
Baptist and St.
len. The two most
nted scenes rep-
t the "Feast of
d with the dance
dome", and the
thof8t.8te[rfien'
dour of a child, as well as the eyes of a naturalist and
a miniaturist. Hence the extreme poetry of his early
pictures. The "Nativity", in Berlin, Is a eylvartrum
unequalled in art. Xo one lias ever done more to
bring art closer to life and to make it the complete
mirror of reality, which accoiuit.i for the good humour
and novel familiarity
of his touch. One can-
nut Ih* astonished at the
enthusiasm aroused by
his fervent works. His
art is like a window
looking out upon a
fliiner garden and ex-
hibiting all its beauties.
1-ilippo afterwards
lost .tomcthing of this
clianning freshness. A
mure scholarly gener-
ation, the school of
Castagno and Ucccllo,
began to appear. He
borrowed from it his
pas.ston for rigorous
form and for extreme
linear definition. By
dint of pursuing the
true he arrived at cru-
dity, sometimes at
griiimccand caricature.
bAve remained classics. In his " Salome" the vulgar than certain of Filippo'a angels, the mudels of
er has in fact created the leading type which which were taken from uinong the rabble of Morcncc.
nothing to the chastely observed formula) of Iliacolour t)egan todecomiNiscand tookonahardand
receding age, and which in its voluptuous grace, metallic reflection. ISirtthiswasonlyacrisis. AtPrato
lelicate and rare arabesques of its draperies, and 8po)eto,thoiiich under tiicinfluenccof pedantic theo-
the alfectfd arrangement of the coils of the rieshcrccoveredhimNelfiliutripencdandtrausformcd.
dress, became the favourite type of Botti- He regained even in the lalmur and exigencies of
I "Judith" and "Daughters of Jetbro". His fresco, the decorative sense and the great laws of
,tb of St. Stephen" on the other hand shows us a composition imparled by his first masters. Masarcio
liGcent architectural study, which reproduces the and Masoiino. His naturalism tempered bv artistic
les of tbe nave of S, Lorenzo, oae ol the earliest feeling inspired him with the most beautiful master-
pies of great monumental composition and pieces; and as his early and descriptive paintings were
itie symmetry in a portrait scene, such as those to l>c the inspiration of Benozzo Oozzoli, so the author
1 were latertoform the ^lory of Ghirlandajo. of the fre«:ocs of Prato and Spolcto was to inspire
is was the period at which Filijipo's talent grew Uhirlandajo and Botticelli. It will be readily under-
jroadened and seemed t« reach its even perfec- stood that his contemporaries did not rigorously con-
His last works, the " Death and the Coronation demn the errors of the poor Carmelite, since he was
! Blessed Virgin , at the cathedral of Spoleto arc alivays so great a painl«r and was in the end so per-
ils noblest and most strongly conceived. Ho did feet an artist.
&ve time to complete them. His pupils, espe-
' his friend Fra Diamante, finishnl the remainder
'work (an Annunciation anda Nativity) after his
I. He was buried in the cathedral "f Spoleto,
ohabitants of the city having refused to allow
nee to remove tbe ashes oiso great a man.
uo de' Medici erected his tomb at his own ex-
1 Angelo Poliziano composed his epitaph.
VuABi. cd. MiLAKEBi. II (FlorMio*. 18781: Cbowe
Cavalcahkllk, .Slorin .Mia Pill ' - ' "^
y.VI; Mdsti, HiJtoirrcirCHrfj
Fitippo Lippi nrt coto dflla ftitl
MitANESi u VAH (30 D«., IS; . .
DEL»OHs, Fra Filippo Lippi (Bfrlin, 1909),
in Ilalia (Flor_.._. . ____,,.
rioni: drill' pillurr £ Fra
t di Praia (Pratn, 1835);
'— ■■' '— 1878); Mm-
Lot'IB GlLLRT.
, n r [.— r— Lippomano, Luigi or Aloibius Lii-o-manus, cardi-
tbe evolution of the Renaissance Fra Filippo nal, hagiograpber, 1>. in 1500; d. 15 August. 1359. Of
d ft part of the utmost importance. This man a noble Venetian familv, he devoted himself from his
ry passions is one of the great workmen of art. youth to the study of the classical languages and later
the incarnation of the invincible naturalness of to the pursuit of the sacred sciences. Distinguished
period Hia power springs exactly from this forhisplety and integrity of character, he waHo-TOGic^
LIPSAHOTHKOA. 2
the first in Rome to join the " OruWrio delJa C&riti"
founded by St. Cajetan of Ticnc. and composed of
dutinguishcd men, who in the Roman Curiai were
the leaven of Chuich reform, and afterwards took a
prominent part in the Council of Trent. He waa
consecrated titular Bishop of Methone (1538), and
appointed coadjutor to his uncle Pietro Lippomano,
Bishop of Bergamo, who was also active in Catholic
reform. When Pietro was transferred to Verona
(1544), Luigi accompanied him and succeeded him in
that see in 1548, whence he waa transferred to Ber-
gamo in 1558. In 1542 Paul Iff sent him as nuncio
to Portugal to announce the convocation of the Coun-
cil of Trent, where he arrived in 1547 and was com-
missioned to present to the pope the reasons for trans-
ferrin the council to Bologna. In 1548 he was sent
with Bertano and Pighi to Germany. From 1651 be
waa one of the presidents of
the council until its suspension
(25 April, 1552); during that
period the dogmatic decri?es on
the Eucharist, penance, and
extreme unction were pub-
lished, OS well as several de-
crees on reform. In 1556 Paul
IV sent him as nuncio to Po-
land, where, on account of hia
lively opposition to the pre-
tensions of the Protestant no-
bility, his life was fre<|ueutly
threatened. After hia return
to Rome he remained in the
Curia until his death. Amid
his numerous of&cial duties, he
did not neglect his studies,
which, however, he directed
towards spiritual edifieatic)n.
Thus he wrote "Catena? in
Geneain" (Paris, 1546), "In
Exodum" (Paris. 1550)— both
works republished at Rome in
1557; " ConRrmazione e sta-
bitimento di tutti ti dop^ni
cattolici . . . contro i novatori''
(Venice, 1553). His chief work
was " Sanctorum priscorum
patrum \it(e" (8 vols., Venice,
1551-60; 2 vols., Louvam.
1564), for which lir cngagc<l
the services of many learned
men, and himself, on his
travels, searched libraries and archives. This collec-
tion gave a great impulse to scientific
and opened the way for Suriiis and the BolE
FosCMUKI. Ddla iBtleralura Hnifa (Venice. 1854); Uohelu,
JloJiuucra. IV(^nded.),4D7-U: iiinKSKnln Kirchenltx.. a. v.;
Diaria Cant. TVi'd.. I-II (Freiburg. 1901-4), pauim.
U. Benigni.
Lipsanotheca, a term sometimes used aynony-
Lipsius, Justus (Josse Lips), philologian ami
humanist of the Netherlands, b. at Overyssche, 13
Oct., 1547;d. at Louvain, 23 March, 1606. Descended
from an illustrious family, he studied first at Ath, and
afterwards at the Jesuit College, Cologne. He wished
to enter the Society of Jesus on 20 Sept., 1562, and
become a novice. But this displeased his fatlier, who
recalled him and sent him to study law and literature
at Louvain. In this university Pierre Nannius (Nan-
ninck) had established in the Collegium Trilingue a
fine seminary of philology-, which was at the time di-
rectetl by Valerius (Cormeille Woutcrs). There Lip-
■iuB found comiMinions such as Loujs Carrion, Jean
Douaa, Martin Delrio, Andrf! Schott. He ardently
0 UPSXQS
took up the emendation and critical examination of
Latin texts, especially of Cicero, Propertiua, and Varru,
and. as earl^ aB.1566, had collect«d three books of
"Varis Lectiones", which were published in 15G0 at
Antwerp, dedicated to Cardinal Gr&nvelle. The latter,
who was in Home, made bim his Latin sceretaiy
(1560-70). Lipsius returned to Louvain, but left it
aeainln 1571, alarmedby the government of the Duke
of Alba. He made a more or less prolonged stay at
Li^ge, Dole, Vienna, and Jena. In the last city he be-
came a Lutheran, and, all through tjie constant
changes of confessions of faith and religious ten-
dencies, he was careful to be constantly with the mas-
ters of the moment. On a visit to Cologne he met a
widow, a native of Louvain, and marriedher although
she was older than he (1573). She refused to accom-
pany him to Jena and he resided his profeaaorship
there in February, 1674. Set-
tled at Clologne he supervised
the publication of his "Taci-
tus '' (Antwerp, 1574). He
was the first scholar to diffo-
entiat« the "Annals" from the
"Histoid", and although he
did not have access to the prin-
cipal manuscripts — the two
Hedicean MSS . — he introduced
in bis text over 450 emenda-
tions, which have been ac-
cepted by all subsequent edi-
tors. It was ordy much later,
for his fourth edition (1605),
that he became acquainted
with these manuscripts through
thePichenaeclition(1600). He
also deserves commendation
forhis use of inscriptions in the
explanation of texts. At the
same time appeared " Antiqun
lectiones" (Antwerp. 1575),
miscellaneous criticisms de-
voted mainly to Plautus, to
the fragmentary works of
archaic authors, or to Pro-
Lipsius was lecturing at
Louvain during the following
years (1576-77), but the vic-
tory of Don John of Austria
forced him to go over to Lev-
den where he taught in the
newly founded university (1578-91). During this
period he publi^ed collections of his letters, new
conjectures, antiquarian dissertations, and two new
editions of Tacitus with an historical commen-
tary. Apart from the philological works, he composed
treatises on politics and etlucs; of these the treatise
on constancy (De Constantia, Antwerp, 15S4) is
the best known, and has had thirty-two editions,
without includin , the translations. However, Leydni
waa not favourable to his health, and he and hia wife
regretted their native town. He liad already made an
attempt to get away in 15S6. The States and the city
did their utmost to detain him. In 1590 Dirk Coom-
Iiert pubhcly called upon him to take sides irt the re-
ligious controversies. Lipsius ane^i-ered evasively and
tried to dissemble. Finally, he left the city and be-
came recr-'-iled with Catholicism in the Jesuit Chapel
at Maim (April, 1591). He went to Spain in search of
health, and during a sojourn at Li^e he prepar«d new
worka, drew from a pealter of the nmtn century
Frankish bIosscs of great interest, and was finally for-
given for his stay in an heretical country rebellious to
the KinK of Spain. From that time began a new per-
iod in Lipsius s life. Coldly received at first by tt~ ~
LISBON
281
LISBON
Latm at the Collegium Trilingue of Louvain (1503).
thea hiatoriographir to the King of Spain (1505), and
later honorary member of the State Coimcil (1605).
To ffive a proof of his piety, he wrote the " De Cruce"
(1593), in which confusion between patibtdum and
ertix often make the conclusions debatable.
Lipsius contemplated writing a general treatise on
Roman antiquities (Fax histonca), and, as a result of
his studies, produced treatises on the army (''De militia
romana ", Antwerp, 1595), and on the defence and at-
tack of fortified towns ("Poliorccticon", Antwerp, 1596),
a kind of statistical work on tlic Roman Empire ("A(l-
miranda," 1598), short dissertations upon libraries,
upon Vesta, and the Vestals (1602). However, everj-
now and then, his relie:ious wanderings wore recalloii
to the public mind. He succeeded in producing the
iinpression that one of his former discourses of Jena,
"lie duplici concordia'', published at Zurich in 1599,
was not his. He himself called forth the sneers and
and the refutations of the Protestants by describing
the veneration and the miracles of Our Lady of Hal
(1604) , and of Our Lady of Mont aigu ( 1 605) . His co-
religionists greatly respected and triLstcd him. In
15^ Archduke Albert and his wife Isabella, having
come on a visit to l/ouvain, expressed the wish to have
him prepare a I^atin oration, which he did within two
hours. He chose as a subject the greatness of a prince,
from a passage of Seneca (De Clementia, I, iii). Many
imaginary accoimts have been given of this speech.
Lipsius (ud not broach the subject of clemency, and
still less did he interrupt one of his lectures to luring it
up before the princes. The discourse was published
in 1600, with Pliny's panegyric of Trajan and a com-
mentary on this work. But Lipsius's most im]X)rtant
works of this period were on Seneca and Stoicism. He
wished to explain in detail the Stoic philosonhy, for
which he professed the greatest admiration, objecting
only to its toleration of suicide. He had time only for
a general outline of the system and of its place in an-
cient philosophy ("Manuductionisad stoicam philo-
sophiun libri III", 1604), and an analysis of the theol-
04^, the physics, and the cosmology of the Stoics
(nPhysiolo^sB stoicorum libri III", 1604); he had not
time to w^rite the ethics. Nevertheless these two
works are even to-day the most complete treatise ever
written on Stoicism as a whole. Tne "Seneca" was
published in 1605, with a dedication to Pope Paul V.
Unfortunately, Lipsius was misled by a poor manu-
script which he oelieved excellent, and the com-
mentary concema the Epistles to Lucilius only. His
last work was a description and history of I^uvain
(1605).
Before his death he gave solemn expression to his
faith. His manuscripts have lxH?n in the I^eydcn li-
brary since 1722. There liave bctm four editions of his
complete works (Lyons, 1613; Antwerp, 1614; Ant-
werp, 1637, a vciy nne one; Wesel, 1675). In religion,
for a lonff time, Lipsius held alooif from both parties.
His "PoRtica" (1589) were considerwl too severe in
Holland and too tolerant at Rome. He escaped being
placed on the Index only by accepting torture as a
k|^timate last resort to bring back heretics (1593).
He believed, however, in sorcerers, in charms and
spells, and in the commerce of witches with devils,
from which children were l)orn (Phys. stoic, p. 61).
His philological work is brilliant, but at times supcr-
ficiaL He knew little Greek, but was well acquainted
with Roman antiquity. His '* Tacitus" is a master-
piece of discernment and erudition. His I>atin style is
peculiar. He chose to imitate the style of Tacitus and
Apuleius, which caused him to })e criticised by Henr>'
Estienne (1595). Notwithstanding some imperfec-
tions, he is, with Joseph Scaliger, Casaubon, and Sau-
maise, one of the most eminent representatives of
classical philology between 1550 and 1650.
RoKiuiCH in Bitlioor, nationnU- puNife par VAcadAniie dr
fi«J|9igtt«, XII (Bruiwel^, 1802.>, LM»; van i>kr Hakoen, fiibliogr.
NoMffUM In BUM. btiffica (Ghent, 1886-6): autobiography of
lipsiufl in Epittolarvm eenturia mUceUCt 111, 87; Halm mABg,
de^iUehe Bioifr-* XVIII, 741: Nxsabd, Le iriumvirat litUrairt au
XV I* ttikcUt J. Lipte, J, Scaliger^ et Caaattbon (Paris, 1852);
Urucbb, Gesch, der kloM. AUrrtunuvpisscfuchaft in Muixeb,
Handbucht I (2nd ed., Munich, ISOl), 62: Sandys, A history of
classical acholarship, II (Cambridge, 1908), 301.
Paul Lejay.
Lisbon, Patriarchate OF ^Lisbonensis), includes
the districts of Lisbon and Santarein. The area of the
district of Lisbon is 3065 sq. miles; pop. 709,509
(1900). Area of Santarem 2,555 sq. miles; pop. 283,-
154.
Lisbon is said to owe its origin to Ulysses, and hence
its oldest name Ulissypo or Olissipo, which l:)ecame on
Phoenician lips Alisubbo, meaning the " friendly bay".
Its charm was acknowledged by the Romans in the
name they gave it, Feliciias Julm; and when the Moors
came they changed it back to Al Aschbuna, a variant
of the PhcEinician title. From Alisubbo and Al Asch-
buna we have the later name Lissalx)na, whence the
modem Portuguese Lisboa and the English Lis1)on.
It lies on the north bank of the Tagus, 12 miles from
the open sea, clustered around seven hills that rise
above one another, ending in the Serra of Cintra.
The town was taken by the Moors in 716 and re-
mained in their possession until 1145, when Affonso
Henriques with tne assistance of an anny of Crusaders,
English, Normans and Flemings bound for the Holy
Land, drove out the invaders, and removed the capital
of the country from Coimbra to Lisbon. An English
monk named Gin>ert who was with the expedition was
chosen Bishop of Lisbon at this time. On two occa-
sions the city sufFcrcd from disastrous earth<iuakes; in
1531 more than 1500 houses were destroyed, besides
many churches and palaces. On 1 Noveniber, 1755, a
second disastrous earthquake shook the city and more
than 30,000 of the inhaoitants i>erished. To add to
the misery, a fire broke out which lasted four da^-s.
Car\'alho, Marquis of Pombal, at that tinie Minister of
War, took charge of the panic-stricken city, and hav-
ing extinguished the flames, drew up plans for the re-
building of Lisbon. A bronze equestrian statue of
King Jos6 with a medallion of Pombal, was erected in
the new Pracja do Commcrcio to commemorate the re-
building. Except in this new cjuarter, around the
Pra^a do Commcrcio, the streets of Lisbon are irregu-
lar and steep, but there is an elaborate electric trolley
system connecting all parts of the town, and the as-
cenmres or giant lifts help to overcome the diflicultiesof
higli and low levels. Tnere are fountains everywhere
and the streets are lined by trees, of which the olaia or
i' udas-tree is the most common. The oldest portion of
jisbon is along the steep slopes of the Castello de 8.
Jorge, which had Ijcen the st ronghold of the Moors. In
the neighbourhood of the Cathedral or Se, Roman re-
mains have l)een found including the ruins of a Roman
Theatre. The S^ or Cathedral of Santa Maria is the
oldest church in Lisbon; it dates back to the year 300.
It served as a mosque for the Moors during their occu-
pation of the city, and the facade with its towers ami
massive portico was rebuilt during the fourteenth
centur^^ It has lx?en restorerl many times.
Outside what were the old walls of Lisbon stands
the church of S. Vincente da Fora (St. Vincent's with-
out) with a monaster^' attached, which is now the
residence of the Patriarch of Lisbon. The church con-
tains the mortuary chapel of the Kings of the House
of Braganza, and the great constable Nuno. Alvara
Periera lies buried here. St. Vincent is the patron
saint of Lisbon; he was martyred for the Faith under
Diocletian. Acconling to the legend, his brnly was
attached to a millstone and flung into the sea (330),
but was miraculouslv discovered on the sands at Val-
encia by some Christians of that place. In the eighth
oenturj'' the Moors took Valencia, and the inhabitants
fled by sea, taking the n'li(»s of St. Vincent with them.
They were driven ashon' on 1 lie c»iast of Aliturvo vvX^^
LISBON
282
LISBON
cape now known as Cape St. Vincent, and there they
remained until D. Alfonso Henriques had expelled the
Moors from Lisbon, when they were brought from
Cape Saint Vincent and deposited in the cathedral he
had just built. At this same time Alfonso began the
building of the Cistercian monastery of Alcobaca, in
fulfilment of a vow he had made to build a monastery
for St. Bernard's monks, if he were successful in his
war against the Moors. The Castello of S. Jorqe was
built in the time of Julius Caesar, and strengthened by
the Moors, who held out there against the assault of
Alfonso Henriques. It had three towers, known as
Ulysses^ Albarram, and Managem, but every trace of
them disappeared in the earthquake of 1755. It was
the royal residence until the Spanish kings of Portugal
chose the famous Paco do Terriero which was ruined
in 1755. Don Joflo I made St. George its patron
saint; he had married an English princess^ Philippa,
daughter of John of Gaunt. The procession on the
feast of Corpus Christi from the Castello to the church
of S. Domingo was a brilliant one in former years. St.
George, lance in hand and on horseback in heavy ar-
mour, was personated by one of the faithful and his
standard was borne before him by another rider. King
and court all took part in this procession, the patri-
arch carrying the sacred Host.
The Modern City. — ^The church of St. Roque looks
onto a square of its own name; it contains the chapel
of St. John the Baptist, built in Rome from designs oy
the architect Vaneteli. Its costly marbles and mo-
saic reproductions of paintings by Guido Reni, Ra-
phael, and Michelangelo took ten years to complete.
Close by is the Casa de Unisencordia^ a hospital and an
orphanage. Near at hand is the Graca church and
convent (now a barracks) facing the city. The church
contains a remarkable crucifix known as Nosser Senhor
dos Passos da Graca. The church of the Carmo, a
beautiful relic of Portuguese Gothic, is now a museum.
Belem, a suburb of Lisbon, contains the church and
monastery of Santa Maria, known locally as the Jero-
nymos. The old name of Belem was Restello, and it
was from here that Vasco da Gama set out to discover
a sea route to India. A chapel had been built on the
spot by Prince Henry the Navigator, and to it king
and court went in procession, 8 July. 1497. On that
same day Vasco da Gama embarked; he returned in
September, 1499, having rounded the Cape of Good
Hope. To immortalize the event King Manuel built a
monastery near Prince Henry's chapel, changed the
name of the locality from Restello to Belem or Beth-
lehem, and gave the new building to the monks of St.
Jerome; hence the name Jeron^inos. The first stone
was laid in 1500. The building is of white stone from
the quarries of Estramadura, and the foundations
were laid on piles of pine wood. The style of architec-
ture is pure Manuelme (a mixture of Gothic, Renais-
sance, and Moorish) and the doorway is exuberantly
decorated . The church is fast becoming a mausoleum
of celebrated men. It contains the tombs of Vasco
da Gama, of Camoes, the great poet, and of Almeida
Garrett, the chief Portuguese poet of the nineteenth
century. In the chapter house of the monaster^' is the
tomb of Alexundro Herculano, greatest of Portuguese
historians. The columned arches of the cloisters are
decorated with the twisted cable moulding so common
in Manueline buildings. High above Belem stands the
Ajuda Palace, built early in the nineteenth centur>' to
replace the royal palace which had been destroyed by
the earthquake of 1755. It is a conspicuous edifice
and is one of the first seen on entering the port of Lis-
bon. The actual residence of the royal family is the
Palace of the Necessidades. Since 18.'i4 the Cort«8, a
generic designation for the Constitutional Chambers of
peers and deputies, occupies the monastery of San
Bento. The actual number of deputies is 148, elected
by the people, whereas the chamber of peers consists
01 nominated memlxjrs appointed by the crown, and
none of them under 40 years of age. One of the most
remarkable monuments connected with the city is the
Aqueducto das Aguas Livras (built in 1713), whidi
reaches a distance of ten miles to Chellos.
Near the Estrella Gardens is a Protestant cemetery
containing the tomb of Henry Fielding, the En^ish
novelist, who died in Lisbon in 1754. Thispart of the
city also contains the Basilica of the SS. CorScao de
Jesus with its commanding cupola of white marble.
The old Franciscan convent has been turned into a
museum of fine arts; and a portion of the building
contains the National Library of Lisbon, where are
stored about 300,000 volumes, besides many rare
nianuscripts. The first book printed by Guttenberg
is shown there, and a Bible from the same press. It
also contains books from the Duke of Northumber-
land's library brought to Lisbon when the nuns of
Sion were dnven out of England during the Reforma-
tion. The largest church in Lisbon is S. Domingo in
the Pra^a do Rocio. It was dedicated in 1241 , and has
undergone many changes. The kings of Portugal are
usually married there, and it was the former church <^
the Inquisition. In 1761 it witnessed the auto dafi of
Father Malagrida the Jesuit, who was falsely accused
of complicity in a plot against Pombal's Ufe.
Except around the Pra^a do Commercio, nearly all
the important buildings of Lisbon are or have been
churches and monasteries. Since their suppression,
28 May, 1834, the monasteries have been mamly used
as barracks. The Catholic Faith is the State religion,
but all other forms of worship are tolerated, and in
government circles the feeling is anti-clerical if not
anti-religious. The press is represented by two able
journals, the "Diario dos Noticias" and "0 Seculo".
The population of Lisbon in 1900 was computed at
357,000. The present King of Portugal is Manuel
II, bom 15 November, 1889, who succeeded to the
throne on the assassination of his father and elder
brother 1 February, 1908. The reigning dynasty
belongs to the House of Braganza-Coburg: John IV of
Braganza having expelled the Spaniards from Lisbon
in 1640, and Maria II of Braganza, having married
Fernando, Prince of Coburg-Gotha, in the middle of
the nineteenth century.
The Avenida da Libertade is one of the new boule-
vards. It begins at the Praga do Restoradores, which
commemorates Portugal's Independence Day, 1 Dec,
1640, when the Duke of Braganza freed the land from
Spanish domination. The avenue is lined with trees
and subtropical plants and is divided by flower-beds
and rockeries into tliree arteries to facilitate trafiBc.
Twenty years ago all this district did not exist, and
as in the newer quarters in Rome, there has been some
overbuilding. Behind the Avenida lie the Botanical
Gardens with their leafy lanes and wealth of tropical
vegetation. The Praga do Principe Real, a few min-
utes* walk from the gardens, stanas on the site of the
S^ Patriarchal, built by JoSo V (170G-1750), as the
cathedral of Western Lisbon, and destroyed by fire
during the great earthquake. The port of Lisbon, one
of the safest and most commodious roadsteads in the
world, is annually entered and cleared by an average
of 60()0 vessels sailing under every flag. The chief
manufactures of the neighbourhood are potterj', wool-
lens, glass, preserved food, and fish. The wine trade of
Lisbon is also important. Besides the public build-
ings referred to, tne Academia Real, theEscola Poly-
technica (S'^O pupils) , and the Escola Medico-Cirur-
gica (224 pupils), as well as the observatory, deserve
mention. Lisbon has also a military school (339 stu-
dents), a school of fine arts (69 students), and a Coi>
servatorio (503 students). Lisbon was occupied by
the French in 1807, but the English took it m 1808
and made it a centre of operations against Napoleon
during the Peninsular War.
Ecclesiastical History. — ^The See of Lisbon dates
from early Cliristian t iiiies, and tradition hasen8hrine<l
Lisnuz
283
U8BC0BI
the names of its bishops as far back as the sub-Apos-
toUc epoch. It seems certain that a St. Potamius^ who
took part in the Council of Rimini (<^6), was Bishop
of Lisbon. Other bishops are mentioned up to the
vear 716 when Lisbon passed into the hands of the
Moors and the see remained vacant till 1147. Before
the Moorish conquest the diocese was suffragan of
B^rida; the liberation under Alfonso I took place in
1147, and in 1199 Lisbon was made suffragan of
Compostela. At the request of King John I, Pope
Boniface DC, by Bull dated 10 November, 1394, erected
Lisbon into an archdiocese and gave it as suffra-
gans, Coimbra, Leiria, Guarda, Evora, and Silves (in
1396, however, Evora was detached by the same pope)
and the first archbishop was John Anes. Among nis
more famous successors were Roderiguez da Cunha
(1636) and Cardinal Luiz da Souza (1676). As Portu-
^1 grew in political importance and colonial posses-
sions, the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan of Lisbon
expanded, and we leani from Stadel, "Compend.
Geogr. Eccles." (1712) that Coimbra, Ixiiria, Forta-
legre, Elvas, Funchal, Angra, Congo, St. James of
Cape Verde, San Thom6, and Baia of All Saints were
suffragans of Lisbon. As a reward for assistance
against the Turks, Clement XI in 1708 raised the
CSapel of the Royal Palace to Collegiate rank and
associated with it three parishes in the dioceses of Bra-
^nza and Lamego. Later in that same year, yield-
mg to the request of John V, he issued the Bull " In
Supremo Apostolatus Solio" (22 Oct., 1716), known
as the Golden Bull, because the seal or bulla was
affixed with gold instead of lead, giving the collegiate
chapel cathedral rank, with met ropolitical rights, and
conterring on its titular the rank of patriarch. The
town of Lisbon was ecclesiastically divided into East-
cm and Western Lisbon. The former Archbishop of
Lisbon retained jurisdiction over Extern Lisbon, and
had as suffragans Guarda, Portalegre, St. James of
Cape Verde, San Thomd, and San Salvator in Congo.
Western Lisbon and metropolitical rights over Leiria,
Lamego, Funchal, and Angra, together with elaborate
privileges and honours were granted to the new patri-
arch and his successors. It was further agreed be-
tween pope and king that the Patriarch of Lisbon
should De made a cardinal at the first consistory fol-
lowing his appointment. The first Patriarch of Lis-
bon was a saintly man, Thomas d'Almeyda, formerly
Bishop of Porto, and he was raised to the cardinalate
20 Dec, 1737. There thus existed side by side in the
city of Lisbon two metropolitical churches. To ob-
viate the inconvenience of this arrangement Benedict
XIV (13 Dec, 1740) united East and West Lisbon
into one single archdiocese under Patriarch d'Al-
meyda, who ruled the see until 1754. The double
chapter however remained until 1843, when the old
cathedral chapter was dissolved by Gregory XVI. It
was during tne patriarehate of Canlinal d'Almeyda
(1746) that the famous chapel of Saint John the Bap-
tist, now in the church of Sao Roque, was built m
Rome at the expense of King John V, and conse-
crated by Pope Benedict XIV.
At what oate the patriarchs of Lisbon began to
quarter the tiara with three crowns, though without
uie keys, on their coat of arms is uncertain and there
are no documents referring to the grant of such a
privilege. By Apostolic letters dated 30 Sept., 1881
the metropohtan of Lisbon claims as suffragans the
Dioceses of Angola, St. James of Cape Verde, San
Thom^, Egitan, Portalegre, Angra, Fimchiil. The
archdiocese comprises the civil districts of Lisbon and
Santarem, and has a Catholic population of 728,739.
The estimated number of Protestants and Jews is
5000. The total number of parishes is 341 , of priests
662, and of churches and chapels 1555. The present
Sitriarch is Antonio Mendes Bello, who was oom at
onvea in tho IMocese of Guarda in June, 1842, ap-
pcnnted Archbishop of Mitylene24 March, ISS*!, trans-
lated to Faro 13 Nov., 1884, and appointed patriarch
of Lisbon, 10 Dec, 1907, in succession to Cardinal
NetOj who resigned. The patriarch is assisted by an
auxiliary bishop, Mgr. Jqs6 Alves de Mattos, titular
Archbishop of Mitylene. Cardinal Neto, the ex-
patriarch, was bom at La^os in the Diocese of Faro, 8
Feb., 1841; was ordained m 1863; joined the Order of
Friars Minor in 1875; was appointed Bishop of Angola
and Congo in 1879; became Patriarch oi Lisbon in
1883; was named Cardinal of the Title of the Twelve
Apostles, 24 March, 1884, and at present ranks as
senior cardinal priest. He resigned his patriarchate in
November, 1907, and retired to a convent of his own
order in Lisbon. In 16?4 a college for English stu-
dents desiring to study for the priesthood and for mis-
sion work in England, was founded in Lisbon by Pietro
Catinho, a member of an illustrious family. It is
known as SS. Peter and Paul's and has the same ri^ts
and privileges as the English College, Rome. It axd-
iered severely from the earthquake of 1755, but con-
tinues its work to this day, and is now governed by
Monsignor Hilton, who was bom in 1825; educated at
Lisbon; ordained 1850; served some time on the mis-
sion in the Diocese of Shrewsbiuy, England ; made a
domestic prelate in 1881; and returned to Lisbon as
president in 1883. A college for Irish students was
founded by royal charter in 1593; it escaped all injury
from the earthquake, but was closed during the civil
wars in Portugal in the nineteenth century and has
never been reopened. A convent of Irish Dominican
monks and another of Irish Dominican nuns exist in
Iiisbon to this day.
Santarem. — ^The ancient Scalabis, the Prcesidium
Julium of the Romans, and capital of the district of
Santarem lies on the right bank of the Tagus about 46
miles from Lisbon. The population in 1901 was 9400.
It does a large trade in wine and oil, and is the vege-
table garden of Lisbon. In the sixteenth century it
was of more importance than nowadays, and its popu-
lation stood at 21,000. A long narrow bridge spans
the Tagus, and on a rock in the river stands the castle
of Almourel, a building in Gothic architecture. Ro-
man relics unearthed in the vicinity incline archaeol-
ogists to the opinion that the noted Nabantia of the
Romans and Goths stood there. The Franciscan
convent is now a barracks, and the convent of Santa
Iria or Irene is in ruins. Saint Irene (whence the
name of the town Santarem) is said to have been
the niece of the prior of the Benedictine monastery
when the Goths ruled that portion of Portugal.
Inchbold, LiMwn and Cintra (New York, 1908) ; Stephens,
Portugal (London, 1903); Adam, La patrie portuguaise (Paris,
1896); Crawford, Portugal Old and New (London, 1880);
Anniuiire Pontificale (1910); Gerarchia (1910).
J. C. Grey.
Lisieux. See Bayeux, Diocese of.
Lismore (Ireland). See Waterford, Diocese of.
Lismore, Diocese of (Lismorensis), extends over
a territory of 21,()00 square miles in the north-east of
New South Wales (Australia). It comprises a portion
of the Eastern Coast district, from Point Danger on
the Queensland border to the north of Mount Lindsay,
and from the western base of the latter to a point ten
miles south of Mount Seaview, thence to a point ten
miles south of Port Macquaric. The diocese is wa^
tered by the Macleay, the Clarence, the Richmond,
and other rapid rivers that rise in the New England
and Macpherson ranges, and contains a good deal of
rich pastoral, agricultural, and dair>'ing land. Among
its chief products are sugar and maize. In 1837 the
waters of the Clarence were first cleft by white men's
keels — two sailing vessels, one of which made a be-
ginning of the pastoral settlement of the district by
landing the first cattle that ever browsed upon the
banks of tliat fine river. The first Catholic family
(tlie llawthomes) arrive* I in Grafton, ou the Cl'A.^vijaRfc^
USMOBI
284
LX8M0BE
in 1841. Their first two children were taken to
Sydney (450 miles by sea) to be baptized. In 1859
Grafton (then with a population of about 1800) was
incorporated as a borough. There was no resident
priest in any part of the present diocese till 1862,
and the ruggea and sparsely populated North Coast
(as it is called) was visited occasionally from Sydney,
Ipswich (Queensland), and annually from Armidale,
from March, 1854, till 1862.
The first church on the North Coast was opened at
South Grafton ou 23 September, 1857, at a cost of
£100. Archbishop Folding paid his first visit to these
outl>dng parts of his see in 1860, and two years later
the first resident priest (Rev. Timothy McCarthy)
took up his quarters in the principal town, Grafton,
his parochial charge extending — till Tenterfield re-
ceived a resident priest in 1866--from Coff's Harbour
to the Tweed Heads, and from Tenterfield to Ballina.
In 1869 the territory of the present See of Lismore
was included in the newly formed Diocese of Armidale.
The pioneer religious of the Lismore diocese (the
Sisters of Mercy) reached Grafton in 1884. By
Brief of 10 May, 1887, Grafton was erected into an
episcopal see, and the Right Revr Jeremiah Joseph
I)oyle, then in charge of Lismore, was shortly
afterwards (28 August, 1887) consecrated its first
bishop in St. Mary's cathedral, Sydney. He chose
Lismore as his residence (later on, the name of the
diocese was changed to Lismore) . In 1878 there were
only three Catholic families and a scanty population
in Lismore, but, owing to the richness of its soil, the
district has since then progressed at a rapid rate.
The foundation stone of tne new cathedral was laid on
Rosary Sunday, 1892, and the edifice was completed
in 19(fe. Bishop Doyle died suddenly, 4 June, 1909.
Rev. John Carroll, of Moss Vale, Australia, bom at
Piltown. Kilkenny, Ireland, 1866, and ordained at
The College, Carlow, 1890, was consecrated bishop
4 April, 1910. There were in the Diocese of Lismore,
at the close of 1909, 19 parochial districts, 51 churches,
20 secular priests, 104 nuns, 6 boarding schools, and 6
superior day schools for girls, 11 primary parochial
scnools, 1907 children receiving Catholic education,
and about 19,500 Cathohcs in a total white popula-
tion of some 80,000.
MoRAN, Hilary of the Catholic Church in AuHralatia (Sydnov.
8. d.); Sj/dney Freeman's Journal i,&\e9); Australasian Catholic
Directory, HenBY W. CleaRY.
Lismore, School op. — As the School of Armagh in
the North of Ireland, and that of Clonmacnoise in the
centre, so the School of Lismore was the most celc-
brate<l in the South of Ireland. It was founded in the
year 635 by St. Carthach the Younger, in a most
Eicturesque site, steeply rising from the southern
ank of the Blackwater. Its founder had spent nearly
forty years of his monastic life in the monjistery of
Rahan on the southern borders of ancient Meatn, in
what is now King's County. He dearly loved that
monastery which he had founded, and which he fondly
hope<i would be the place of his resurrection ; but the
men of Meath — clerics and chieftains — grew jealous of
the great monastery founded in their territory by a
stranger from Munstcr, and they persuaded Prince
Blathmac, son of Aedh Slaine, of the southern Hy
Niall, to expel the venerable old man from the monas-
tic home wnich he loved so well. The eviction is de-
scribed by the Irish annalists as most unjust and cruel,
yet, under God's guidance, it led to the foundation of
Lismore on the beautiful margin of what was then
called Avonmore, " the great river", a site granted to
St. Carthach by the prince of the Desii of Waterford.
Lismore was founded in 635; and the founder survived
only two years, for he died in 637, but Providence
blesse*! his work, and his monaster^' grew to be the
greatest centre of learning and piety in all the South
of Erin. The "Rule of St. CartliacH" is the most mut-
able literary monument which the founder left behind
him. It is fortunateljr still extant in the ancient
Gaelic verse in which it was written. It consists of
135 four-lined stanzas, which have been translated b>
O'Curry — ^who has no doubt of its authenticity — and
is beyond doubt one of the most interesting and im-
portant documents of the early Irish Church.
But Lismore produced a still more famous saint and
scholar, the great St. Cathaldus of Tarentum. His
Irish name was Cathal, and it appears he was bom at
a place called Rathan, not far from Lismore. Our
Irish annals t«ll us nothing of St. Cathaldus, because
he went abroad early in life, but the brothers Morini
of his adopted home give us many particulars. They
tell us he was a native of Hibemia — bom at Rathan
in Momonia — that he studied at Lismore, and became
bishop of his native territory of Rathan, but that
afterwards, inspired by the love of missionary enter-
prise, he made his way to Jerusalem, and on his return
was, with his companions, wrecked at Tarentum — ^the
"beautiful Tarentum" — at the heel of Italy. Its
pleasure-loving inhabitants, forgetting the Goa)el
preached to them by St. Peter and St. Mark, had be-
come practically pagans when Cathaldus and his com-
panions were cast upon their shores. Seeing the city
given up to vice and sensuality, the Irish prelate
preached with great fervour, and wrought many mira-
cles, so that the Tarentines gave up their sinful ways,
and from that day to this have recognized the Irish
Cathaldus as their patron saint, and greatlv venerate
his tomb, which was found intact in the old cathedral
as far back as the year 1 140, with his name " Cathal-
dus Rachan" inscribed upon a cross therein. An-
other distinguished scholar of Lismore, and probably
its second abbot, was St. Cuanna, most likely the hatf-
brother and successor of the founder. He was bom at
Kilcoonagh, or Killcooney, a parish near Headford in
the County Galway which takes its name from him.
No doubt he went to Lismore on account of his close
connexion with St. Carthach, and for the same reason
was chosen to succeed him in the school of Lismore.
Colgan thought that the ancient but now lost " Book
of Cuanach", cited in the " Annals of Lister", but not
later than a. d. 628, was the work of this St. Cuanna of
Kilcooney and Lismore. It is also said that Aldfrid,
King of Northumbria, spent some time at the school
of Lismore, for he visited most of the famous schools
of Erin towards the close of the seventh century,
and at that time Lismore was one of the most cde-
brat«d. It was a place of pilgrimage also, and many
Irish princes gave up the sceptre and returned to Lis-
more to end their lives in prayer and penance. There,
too, by his own desire, was interred St. Celsus of
Armagh, who died at Ardpatrick, but directed that he
should be buried in Lismore — but we have sought in
vain for any trace of liis monument.
Two interesting memorials of Lismore are fortu-
nately still preserved. The first is the crosier of Lis-
more, fomicl accidentally in Lismore Castle in the year
1814. The inscription tells us that it was made for
Niall Mac Mic Aeducan, Bishop of Lismore, 1090-
1 1 13, by Neclan the artist . This refers to the making
of the case or slirine, which enclosed an old oak stick,
the original crosier of the founder. Most of the orna-
ments are richly gilt, interspersed with others of silver
and niello^ and bosses of coloured enamels. The
second is the "Book of Lismore" found in the castle
at the same time with the crosier, enclosed in a wooden
box in a built-up doorway. The castle was built so
long ago as 1185 by Prince John. Afterwards the
bishops of Lismore came to live there, and no doubt
both crosier and book belonged to the bishops and
were hidden for security in troublesome times. The
Book of Lismore contains a very valuable series of the
lives of our Irish saints, written in the finest medieval
Irish. It was in 1890 admirably translated into Eng-
lish by Dr. Whitley Stokes,
fruk Uvit in &ikinaii«i ME.; O'Hanujn. Licit of Iht IruA
SaintK HEA1.T. Iniand'i A«Hrnl Sriuiolt and .Sr^lon [5th ed.,
Dublin, 1908): LirtM of At Irinh Saintt from Ou Book of Li-
llian. idiWd by Weitlit Stoku (Oifonl, ISSO); O'Cdsbt,
Lactarti on Iht MB. MaUriatt of Ancitnt Hiilory of Inland
(DubHn. 1874). John Healt.
Liiter, aliaa Butlbb, Tbouas, Jesuit KTiter, b. in
Lkncashire, about 1550; d. in England, probably
shortly before 162S; was the son of Christopher Lis-
ter of Midhope, Yorks. He entered Douai College,
1576. Having occaaion to return to Eoglaod, he was
seised and imprisoned. He, however, obtained hie
release, and in 1579 was received into the English
College, Rome, liiere, three years later, he joined
the Society of Jeaua in P'ebruary, 15S2-3. He gradu-
ated in Divinity at Pont-^Mousson in 1592. la 1596
he went on the English
but was amsted m 11
endured a long incart
Just at this period difGcultiea
had broken outamong the Eng-
lish clergy, owing to the re-
fusal of certain amongst them
Dr. George Blackwell. Lister
was consulted by one of the
priests as to the conduct of
those who had refused obedi-
ence. While a man both of
piety and abihty, he was
tortunatelylacl ' ' ' '
3 repljf
a smai! treatise entitled, "Ad-
versus factioBOS in ecclesia",
in which their conduct was vigor-
ously censured. They are de-
clared to have ips-i Jaclii fallen
intoschisni.and to liavi^ incurred
excommunication and irregu-
larity. It is doubtful whether
this tractate was publi.ihdl; but
itwaswidelycirciilated in manu-
script, and aroused the decpc^^t
resentment. It certainly nerved
not a little to fan the l1anii>H
of the UDhappy dispute. To
the request of the clergy that
he would prohibit it, Blackwell
replied curtly (April, 15)17):
" Your request is that we should
call in thetreatise againnt your
schism; and this is unreasonable,
because the medicino ought not pban
to be removed before the »ore be
thoroughly cured. If it ^ieve you, I am not grieved
thereat.'' His conduct in regard to Lister's trai^
formed the firat of the sii grounds on which was based
the "Appeal of the thirty-three clergymen", against
Ida administration. The appellants obtained a fa-
vouiable hearing at Rome. Lister's tract was sup-
»nd Bla('"
to have resided continiiou-sly in England. Mix death
probably occurred shortly before 1628. The tri'atise
Adveisus factiosos" is incorporated in Christopher
Bagshaw's (q. v.) "Relatio compendiosa turl>arum";
a portion of it is printed in Iaw's work cited below.
VaBa.eA-Tltaxtt, Chunh Hiitory of Englmd.ltl (London.
IBM), ooniiimq.] GiLLow. Bf6I. Dtrt. Entf. Cntt.. 9, v.; Law,
HiMotical Skilch of Conflieli brlimn Jauila and Srculari in Mt
nuH of BlitaMhJloadon. 1880), opp«iiib[ D; MoHBia. Thi
TimMit of OUT CalhoUe Forrfalhrri. retalrd by lArmnrlvtii. 1
Usit, Frank, admitt«dly the greatest pianist in the
■.ni>»l« oif music, and a composer whose status in musi-
Ml lit«nture still fonos a debatable question, b, at
6 LUST
Raiding, Hungary, 22 OcIoUt, ISl 1 : .1. at Bayreuth,
Germany, 31 July, 188(i. His musical precocity was
early recogniied oy his parents, and his hrst teacher
was his father, Adam Liszt, a musical amateur of rare
culture. His first public appearance at Oedenburg at
the age of nine was of so startling a character, that '
several Hungarian magnates who were present at onoe
assumed the financial reaponsihillties of his further
musical education. Taken to Vienna by his father,
who devoted himself e.\c!uaiveiy to the development of
hin talented child, he studied the piano for six years
with Ciemy, and theory and composition with Salieri
and Handhartinger. His first public appearance in
Vienna (1 Jan., 1S2.3) proved a noteworthy event in
the annals of music. From Beethoven, who was
present, down to the merest dilettante, everyone forth-
with acknowledged his great
genius. His entry to the Paris
Conservatory, where his father
wished him to continue his
studies, anil which at the time
was under Cberubini, proved
unsuccessful on account erf' his
not beiilg a native of France.
His studies, however, under
Reicha and Paer. were of a
character that made the youth-
ful prodigy one of the conspicu-
ous figures of the French capi-
tal. His one act opera, "Don
Kanchc", as well as his piano
compositions, achie^'ed a flatter-
ing succe&i. Hi^ brilliant con-
cert tours in Switzerland and
England enhanced an already
esluiilished reputation. His
father's.lcath (1S27) madeLisrt
and his mother dependent on hia
own [)en<onal exertions, but the
temporary hardship d isappeared
when he liegan his literarj- and
teaching career. His charming
ffi^sonBlity, conversational bril-
ncy, and transcendent musi-
cal ability opened the world of
fasliion. wealtli, and intellect to
him. His Catholic sturdlneas
was temporarily shaken by the
" Nouveau Christian isme " <rf
Saint^Simon, to which, how-
ever, he never formally or even
tacitly subscribed, and by the
socialistic aberrations of Chev-
LiHtr alier and Pdreire. The un-
healthy atmosphere of his
associations with Alphonsc de Lamartinc, Victor
Hugo, Heinrich Heme, George Sand, and their coterie,
could not fail to weaken his religious moorings.
Fortunately the contravening influence of Laraen-
nais averted what mi^t have ended in spiritual ship-
wreck. His intimacy with Meycrlieer and his friend-
ship with Chopin, whose bioRrapher he subsequently
liceame,keptalivc and fostered his interest in his art.
The result of this environment led to the unfortu-
nate alliance (1S3+-44) with the Countess d'Agoult
(Daniel St«m), The fruit of it was three children — a
son who died early, Blanilina, who became the wife of
Emile01livier,Ministerof Justice to Napoleon III, and
Cosima. first the wife of Hans von Billow, then of
Richard Wagner, and now the owner of Villa WaJm-
fried, Bayreuth. The rupture of this liaison signal-
isHl the Ireginning of his dazzling career as a virtuoso,
scaling higher altitudes as years progressed, until his
Reputation, like that of Paganim on the violin, was
that of a pianbt without peer or rival. His concert
tours throughout Europe evoked an unparalleled
enthusiasm. Kings and national assemblies beatovred
UTANT 286 LXTANT
titles of nobility and decorations on bim ; universities my youth, i*d well as witb the development that my
honoured him with academic degrees; cities vied with work of musical composition has taken during the last
one another in granting him their freedom; audiences four years" (La Mara, " Letters of Franz Liszt", New
were thrilled as if by an hypnotic influence; public York, 1894, II, 100). His career of twenty-one yeara
demonstrations, torchlight processions, poetic greet- as an abbd was most exemplary and edifying. Func-
ings met him in all directions and made him the ob- tilious as he was in the penormance of his ecclesiasti-
ject of a hero-worship, that has seldom, if ever, fallen to cal duties, his interest in art continued unabated. His
the lot of any other artist. In all these intoxicating piano pupils followed him on his casual wanderings;
triumphs, he never lost his mental equipoise. His contemporaneous art was not neglected, but above all
remunerative concerts allowed him means to make the old ecclesiastical masters and the new movement
generous provision for his mother and children. His for the restoration of liturgical music, represented by
purse was open, his services at the disposal of every the Cudlienverein, found a devoted, enthusiastic, and
i^peal of philanthropy. No aspiring talent ever in- generous supporter in him. His own larger ecclesi-
voked his encouragement, no deserving charity ever astical compositions, though no doubt unwittin^y
appealed to his aid, in vain. The princely contribu- deviating from strict liturgical rec^uirements, are nev-
tion to the sufferers of the Danube inundation at ertheless imbued with deep, religious sentiment. It
Pesth (1837), and the completion of the Beethoven was while attending the marriage of his granddaugh-
monument at Bonn (1845), are but two striking ter, and coincidentally the '' Parsifal" performances at
examples. Having reached the pinnacle of success Bayreuth, that, after'receiving the rites of the Church,
and fame as a pianist, he now concluded to abandon he succumbed to an acute attack of pneumonia at th^
the career of a virtuoso, to devote his time and energy home of a friend, near Wagner's Villa Wahnfried. His
to creative work and the public fostering of higher wish, expressed in a letter (La Mara, I, 439) breath-
musical ideals. ing the most loyal devotion to the Church and humble
His twelve years at Weimar (1849-61), where he as- gratitude to God, to be buried without pomp or dis-
sumed the proffered position of court conductor, were play, where he died, was carried out by mtening him
years of devoted, unselfish, and intensive activity, m the Bayreuth cemetery.
His indefatigable supervision of the court concerts and Schiluno, Fram Liszt. Sein Leben u. Werke (Stuttgart,
operatic performances brought them to a perfection V£S''t ???^ ^^"^iiHf^ (London. 1887); Beaufort. The
rt 1 ATi ^^^^iV^ • • 1 X «^ » i^» ^^^^'vmw** Abb6 lAsxt (LondoQ, 1886): MtLLER, Franz Lxazt (Erlancen.
that made the small provmcial town of Weimar syn- 1886); Raman, Fram Liszt, A rtisl and Man (2 vols., London,
onymous with the highest achievements in tonal art. 1882), only reaches 1840; Nohl, Life ofLutzt (Chicago. 1888);
His gratuitous guidance and encouragement of talented Jj^ ^^^' Mutikalisfe Studienkopfe Of ipaiic. 1888). For a
,° I 'x- * . ., •^'^r "6^"«^»*vv» v»u.ui^ thematic catalogue of compositions and for his literary works,
and ambitious piano pupils raised the standard of aee Grove, Dirt. o/AffmcandA/ti«trian« (New York. 1908), s. v.;
pianoforte playing to a height never before attained, 'or criticism of Liszt as a pianist. Grove, loc. dt.; von Lens,
and Createda specific school of most brilliant virtuosos. Die prosaen Piano ViHuosm (BcrUn. 1872), 1-19; Fay, Music
»uv<x.m^»A^v.» h~^ ^o*.«vrv»v.» v»> v .^a .tu«»uv T u vu^A^vfo. gf^y ^^ Qfrmany (C!hica«;o. 1881), 205-2/2. For cntical re-
Durmg tms penod he also gave the world a senes of view and appraisement of his compositions: Grove, Mendel,
notable piano compositions, and even moi^ notable Mueikaliechea Convereationalexikon, VI (Berlin, 1876), 354-7;
choral and orchestral works, that have made their ^4?*^* ^^Vt ^'^^^}i ^«^7'«7»«^"»{T. (f«jP»i«,' l*g»>- ^o^"
j ^ wv,**™**** wTvin^, v»»«w A«»T^ uxavt^ vu^^ ^^1^ ^j^ j^ Maba, Letters of Fram Ltazt (2 vols.. New York,
rounds through the musical world. As he was the 1894); Hueffer, Correspondence of Wagner and Liezt (1841-
originator of the "piano recital", so now he became 1861) (2 vob., New York, 1889).
the creator of a new orchestral form, the "symphonic H. G. Ganss.
poem", which, as a tvpe of programme music, has
found a universal adoption. While directing the Utany (Lat. litania, Utdniay from Gr. Xir^, prayer
destinies of the Weimar musical world, he not only be- or supplication), a well-known and much aopreciated
came a daring pioneer in placing on its concert plat- form of responsive petition, used in public litur-
form and operatic stage the neglected masterpieces gical services, and in private devotions, for common
of classical art, but tried the more venturesome necessities of the CJhurch, or in calamities — ^to im-
experiment of introducing the most meritorious works plore God's aid or to appease His just wrath. This
of contemporary composers. Wagner forms a con- form of prayer finds its model m Psalm cxxxv:
spicuous example of his courageous propaganda. His "Praise the Lord, for he is eood: for his mercy en-
(Uiampionship of the great dramatic composer in con- dureth for ever. Praise ye the God of gods . . . the
versation and writing and by the production of his Lord of lords . . . Who alone doth ereat wonders
operas, not to allude to financial support (and all this . . . Who made the heavens", etc., with the conclud-
in the face of vehement protest and demonstrative ing words in eatjh verse, "for his mercy endureth for
antipathy), did more to advance that master's theories ever." Similar is the canticle of praise by the youths
and compositions and to give him a status in the world in the fiery furnace (Dan., iii, 57-87), with the re-
of art than all other agencies. sponse, 'Upraise and exalt him above all for ever."
It was an act of the same progressive intrepidity. In the Mass of the Oriental Church we find several
meeting with public manifestations of protest at the litanies in use even at the present day. Towards the
S3rf ormance of an opera of one of his pupils (" The end of the Mass of the catechumens the deacon asks
arber of Bagdad" by Peter Cornelius), tnat caused all to pray; he formulates the petitions, and all an-
him to resign his position as court conductor. After swer "Kyrie Eleison". When the catechumens have
his resignation (1861) he lived in turn at Rome, Buda- departed, the deacon asks the prayers: for the peace
pest, and Weimar. Religion which, in spite of his and welfare of the world, for the Holy, Catholic, and
earlier associations, was only temporarily over- Aix)stolic Church, for the bishops and priests, for the
shadowed, had for several years been again playing an sick, for those who have gone astray, etc., to each of
active part in his life. As early as 1856 or 1858 he be- which petitions the faithful answer " Kyrie Eleison",
came a Franciscan tertiary. The failure of the Prin- or " Grant us, O Lord", or " We beseech Thee." The
cess Caroline von Sayn- Wittgenstein, a most estimable litany is concluded by the words, " Save us, restore us
lady whose influence over him was most potent for again, O Lord, by Thy mercy." The last petitions in
good, to secure a dispensation to marry nim, only our Litany of the Saints, with the resix)nse8 ''Deliver
brought his religious designs to a more definite point, us, O Lord" and " We beseech Thee hear us", show a
He received minor orders from Cardinal Hohenlohe in great resemblance to the Mass Litany of the Greek
his private chapel at the Vatican on 25 April, 1866. Church. In the Ambrosian or Milanese Rite two lit-
This he did, " convinced that this act would strengthen anies are recited on the Sundays of Lent instead of the
n»«» in the right road", and therefore he " accomplished " Gloria in excelsis ". In the Stowe Missal a litany is
JL without effort, in all simplicity and uprightness of inserted l^etween the Epistle and Gospel (Duchesne,
intention", and as agreeing "with the antecedents of "Christian Worship", London, 1904, 190). The Ro-
UTAHT
287
UTANT
znaii Missal has retained the prayers for all classes of
people in the Mass of the Presanctified on Good Fri-
day, a full litanv on Hol^ Saturday, and the triple
repetition of "Kyrie Eleison", "Christe Eleison",
"Kyrie Eleison", in every Mass. The frequent repe-
tition of the "Kyrie" was probably the onginal form
of the Litany, and was in use in Asia and in Kome at a
veiy early date. The Council of Vaison in 529 passed
the decree : " Let that beautiful custom of all the prov-
inces of the East and of Italy be kept up, viz., that of
BJnyng with great effect and compunction the ' Kyrie
Eleison' at Mass, Matins, and Vespers, because so
sweet and pleasing a chant, even though continued day
and night without interruption, could never produce
disgust or weariness ". The number of repetitions de^
pended upon the celebrant. This litany is prescribed
m the Roman Breviary at the "Preces Fenales*' and
in the Monastic Breviary for every "Hora" (Rule of
St. Benedict, ix, 17). The continuous repetition of the
" Kyrie " is used to-day at the consecration of a church,
while the relics to be placed in the altar are carried in
procession around the church. Because the ** Kyrie "
and other petitions were said once or of tcner, litanies
were called plancej temcBj quince y sepienop.
When peace was granted to the (Jhurch after three
. centuries of bloody persecution, public devotions l^e-
came common and processions were frequently held,
with preference for aays which the heathens had held
sacred. These processions were called litanies, and in
them pictures and other religious emblems were car-
ried, in Rome, pope and people would go in proces-
sion each day, especially in Lent, to a different church,
to celebrate the Sacred Mysteries. Thus originated
the Roman " Stations '\ and what was called the
"Litania Major", or "Romana**. It was held on 25
April, on which day the heathens had celebrated the
festival of RobigaliOf the principal feature of which
was a procession. The Christian litany wh ich replaced
it set out from the church of S. Ix)fenzo in Lucina,
held a station at S. Valentino Outside the Walls, and
then at the Milvian Bridge. From thence, instead of
proceeding on the Claudian Wav, as the heathens had
aone, it turned to the left towards the Vatican, stopped
at a cross, of which the site is not given, and again in
the paradise or atrium of St. Peter^, and fuially in the
basilica itself, where the station was held (Duchesne,
288). In 590, when a pestilence caused by an over-
flow of the Tiber was ravaging Rome, Gregory the
Great commanded a litany which is called "Septi-
formis'*; on the preceding day he exhorted the people
to fervent prayer, and arranged the order to lie ob-
served in the procession, viz. that the clergy from S.
Giovanni Battista, the men from S. Marcello, the
monks from 8S. Giovanni e Paolo, the unmarried
women from SS. Cosma e Damiano, the married
women from San Stefano, the widows from S. Vitale,
the poor and the children from S. CoK^ilia, were all to
meet at S. Maria Maggiore. The "Litonia Minor '\
or "Gallicana", on theRogation Days before Ascen-
sion, was introduced (477) by St. Mamertua, Bishop of
Vienne, on account of the earthquakes and other car
lamities then prevalent. It was prescribed for the
whole of Franldsh Gaul, in 511, by the Council of Or-
leans (can. xxvii). For Rome it was ordered by Leo
III, in 799. In the Ambrosian Rite this Htany was
celebrated on Monday, Tuesdav, and Wednesday after
Ascension. In Spain we find a similar litany from
Thursday to Saturday after Whitsuntide, another
from the first to third of November, ordered by the
Coimcil of Gerunda in 517, and still another for De-
cember, commanded by the synod of Toledo in 638.
In England the Litany of Rogation Days (Gang-
Days) was known in the earliest periods. In Germany
it was ordered by a Synod of Mainz in 813. Owing to
the fact that the Mass Litany became popular through
its use in processions, numberless varieties were soon
made, espedally in the Middle Ages. Litanies ap-
peared in honour of God the Father, of God the Son, of
God the Holy Ghost, of the Precious Blood, of the
Blessed Virgin, of the Immaculate Conception, of each
of the saints honoured in different countries, for the
souls in Purgatory, etc. In 1 60 1 Baronius wrote tha4.
about eighty forms were in circulation. To prevent
abuse, Pope Clement VIII, by decree of the Inquisi-
tion of 6 Sept., 1601, forbade the publication of any
litany, except that of the saints as found in the litur-
gical books and that of Loreto. To-day the litanies
approved for pul>lic recitation are: of All Saints, of
Loreto, of the Holy Name, of the Sacred Heart, and
of St. Joseph.
Bishop in Journal of Theological Studies (1906), 133; Rih
mische Quartabiehrift (1904), 13; Punkes in Kirchenlex., 8. v,
Litanei; Thill in I*astor Bonus (1891), 217 sqq.: Kellner,
Hcortologie (Freiburg, 1906), 143 aqq.; Krieo in jKraus, Real'
Encyk., 8. v. Litanex; Binterim, Denkwardigkeiten, IV, I, 572
sqq.; Revue B/nedidine. Ill, \\\\ V, 152; Serarius, Liton«u-
tid Mu de iilaniis libeUi duo (Cologne, 1609).
Francis Mehshman.
Litany of Loreto. — Despite the fact that, from
the seventeenth century onwards, the Litany of Lo-
reto has been the subject of endless panegyrics and
ascetical writings, there is a ^reat lack of documentarv
evidence concerning its origm, the growth and devel-
opment of the litany into the forms imder which we
know it, and as it was for the first time definitely ap-
proved bv the Church in the year 1587. Some writers
declare that they know nothing of its origin and his-
tory; others, on the contrary, trace it back to the
translation of the Holy House (1294) ; others, to Pope
Sergius I (687); others, again, to St. Gregory tne
Great or to the fifth centur>'; while others go as far
back as the earliest ages of the Church, and even
Apostohc times. Historical criticism, however, proves
it to be of more recent origin, and show3 that it was
composed during the early years of the sixteenth cen-
tury or the closmg years of the fifteenth. The most
ancient printed copy hitherto discovered is that of
Dillingen in Germany, dating from 1558; it is fairly
certain that this is a copy of an earlier Italian one. but
so far, in spite of much careful research, the oldest
Italian copy that the writer has been able to discover
dates from 1576.
In form, the Litany of Loreto is composed on a fixed
plan common to several Marian litanies already in ex-
istence during the second half of the fifteenth century,
which in turn are connected with a notable series of
Marian litanies that began to appear in the twelfth
century and became numerous in the thirteenth and
fourteenth. The Loreto text had, however, the good
fortune to be adopted in the famous shrine, and in this
way to become known, more than any other, to the
many pilgrims who flocked there during the sixteenth
centur^'. The text was brought home to the various
countnes of Christendom, and finally it received for all
time the supreme ecclesiastical sanction.
Appendea is a brief r<5sum^ of the work published by
the present WTiter on this subject, the references being
to tne revised and enlarged French edition of 19(X),
supplemented by any new matter brought to light
since that time.
Sauren claims that the first and oldest Marian litany
is a pious laus to the Virgin in the " Leabhar Breac *' a
fourteenth-cent urv' MS., now in the library of the
Roval Irish Academy, and written "in the purest
style of Gaedhlic", according to 0'Curr>', who ex-
plained its various parts. This laus of fiftv-nine
eulogies on the Virgin occurs on fol. 121, and O Curry
calls it a lHanin, attributing it at the latest to about
the middle of the eighth century. But it has not at all
the fo.rm of a litany, being rather a sequence of fer-
vent praises, like so many that occur in the writings
of the Fathers, especially after the fourth century.
As a matter of fact, Dr. Sicking has shown that the en-
tire laus of the '* Leabhar Breac" is copied alxnj:^^
LITAHT 288 UTAHY
wonl for word from the first aud third of the "Ser- and of gradually shortening the text, it was not long
mones Dubii'* of St. Ildcphonsus. until the idea occurred of employing them for public
The earliest genuine text of a Marian litany thus far devotion, especiidly in cases of epidemic, as had been
known is in a twelfth-century codex in the Mainz the practice of the Church with thie litanies of the
Library^ with the title ''Letania de domina nostra Saints, which were sung in penitential processions and
Dei genitrice virgine Maria: oratio valde bona: cotti- during public calamities. Hence it must be empha-
die pro quacumque tribulatione recitanda est". It is sized that the earliest certain mention we have of a
fairly long, and was published in part by Mone, and in pubUc recital of Marian Litanies is actually related to
its entirety by the present writer. It opens with the A time of pestilence, particularly in the fifteenth oen-
usual '^ Kyrie Eleisou" ; then follow the mvocations of tury. An incunabulum of the Casanatensian Librarv in
the Trinity, but w^ith amplifications, e. g. ** Pater de Rome, which contains the Venice litanies referrea to
celis deus, qui elegisti Mariam semper virginem, mise- above, introduces them with the following words:
rere nobis"; these are followed by invocations of the "Oraciones devote contra imminentes tribulaciones
Virgin Mary in a long series of praises, of which a brief et contra pestem". At Venice, in fact, these same
selection will be enough: ''Sancta Maria, stirps patri- litanies were finally adopted for Uturgical use in pro-
archarum, vaticinium prophetarum, solatium aposto- cessions for plague and mortality and asking for rain
lonim, rosa martirum, predicatio confessorum, lilium or for fair weather. Probably they began to be
virginum, ora pro nobis benedictum ventris tui fruc- sung in this connexion during the calamities of the
tum"; " Sancta Maria, spes humilium^ refugium pau- fifteenth century; but in the following century we
perum, portus naufragantium, mediema infirmorum, find them prescribed, as being an ancient custom, in
ora pro nobis benedictum ventris tui fructum", etc. the ceremonials of St. Mark's, and they were hence-
This goes on for more than fifty times, always repeat- forth retained until after the fall of the republic, i. e.
ing the invocation "Sancta Maria", but varying the until 1820.
laudatory titles given. Then, after the manner of the In the second half of the fifteenth century we meet
litanies of the saints, a series of petitions occur, e. g.: another type of litany which was to be pubhcly chanted
" Per mundissimum virgineum partum tuum ab omni tempore pestis sive epydimie. The invocations are
immundicia mentis et corporis liberet nos benedictus very simple and all begm, not with the words "Sancta
ventris tui fructus"; and farther on, "Ut ecclesiam Maria", but with "Sancta mater", e. g.: Sancta
suam sanctam pacificarc, custodire, adunare et regere mater Creatoris; Sancta mater Salvatoris; Sancta ma-
dignetur benedictus ventris tui fructus, ora mater ter munditie; Sancta mater auxilii; Sancta mater con-
virgo Maria." The litany concludes with the "Ag- solationis: Sancta mater intemerata; Sancta mater in-
nus", also amplified, " Agne dei, filius matris virginis violata; Sancta mater virginum, etc. At the end.
Marie qui toUis peccata mundi, parce nobis Domine", however, are a few short petitions such as those found
etc. in the litanies of the saints.
Lengthy and involved litanies of this type do not Before going further, it may be well to say a few
seem to have won popularity, though it is possible to words on the composition of the litanies we have been
find other examples of a like kind. However, during considering. With regard to their content^ which con-
the two centuries that followed, many Marian litanies sists mainly of praises of the Blessed Virgm, it would
were composed. Their form remains uncertain and seem to have been taken not so much from the Scrip-
hesitating, but the tendency is always towards brevity tures and the Fathers, at least directly, 21s from popu-
and simplicity. To each invocation of " Sancta lar medieval Latin poetry. To be convinced of tnis,
Maria" it becomes customary to add only one praise, it suffices to glance through the Daniel and Mone
and these praises show in general a better choice or a collections, and especially through the '' Analecta
better arrangement. The petitions are often omitted H>Tnnica medii »vi of Dreves-Blume. In the earlier
or are changed into ejaculations in honour of the and longer litanies whole rhythmic strophes are to be
Blessed Virgin. found, ^en bodily from such poetry, and emploved
A Utany of this new form is that of a codex in the as praises of the Blessed Virgin. With regard to their
Library of St. Mark's, Venice, dating from the end of form, it is certain that those who first composed the
the tmrteenth or the beginning of the fourteenth Marian litanies aimed at imitating the litanies of the
century. It is found, though with occasional vari- Saints which had been in use in the Church since the
ants, in many manuscripts, a sure sign that this text eighth century. During the Middle Ages, as is well
was especially well known and favourably received. known,itwascustomarytorcpeatover and over single
It omits the petitions, and consists of seventy-five invocations in the litanies of the saints, and thus we
praises joined to the usual invocation, '^Sancta Maria", find that the basic principle of the Marian litanies ia
Here is a short specimen, showing the praises to be met this constant repetition of the invocation. ''Sancta
with most frequently also in other litanies of that or of Maria, ora pro nobis." And in order that this repeti-
later times: " Holy Manr , Mother and Spouse of Christ, tion might not prove monotonous in the Middle Ages
pray for me [other MSS. have "pray for us" — the recourse was had to an expedient since then univer-
"pray" is always repeated]; Holy Mary^ Mother in- sally used, not only in private devotions but even in
violate; Holy ^iary, Temple of the Holy Ghost; Holy liturgical prayer, that ot amplifying by means of what
Mary, Queen of Heaven; Holy Mary, Mistress of the are called tropes or farcUura, They had a model in the
Angels; Holy Mary, Stair of Heaven; Holy Mary, Kyrie of the Mass, e. g. "Kyrie, ?ons bonitatis, pater
Gate of Paradise; Iloly Mar\', Mother of True Coun- ingenite, a quo bona cuncta procedunt, eleison. It
eel; Holy Mar>', (late of Celestial Life; Holy Mary, was an easy matter to improvise between the "Sancta
Our Advocate; Holy Mary, brightest Star of Heaven; Maria" and the "Ora pro nobis", repeated over BnA
Holy Mary, Fountain of True Wisdom; Holy Mary, over, a series of tropes consisting of different praises,
unfading Rose; Holy Mary, Beauty of Angels; Holy with an occasional added petition, imitated however
Mar}', Flower of Patriarchs; Holy Mary, Desire of broadly from the Utanies of the saints. Thus the
Prophets; Holy Mary, Treasure of Apostles; Holy Marian litany was evolved.
Maiy, Praise of Martyrs; Holy Maiy , Glorification of Gradually the praises became simpler; at times the
Priests; Holy Mary, Inmiaculate Virgin; Holy Mary, petitions were omitted, and, from tne second half of
Splendour of Virgins and Example of Chastity", etc. the fifteenth century, the repetition of the "Sancta
The first Marian litanies must have been composed Maria" began to l>e avoided, so that the praises alone
to foster private devotion, as it is not at all prooable remained, with the accompaniment "Ora pro nobis",
that they were written for use in public, by reason of This made up the new group of litanies which we must
their drawn-out and heavy style. But once the now consider. The connecting link between the
custom grew up of reciting Marian litanies privately, litanies we have disouased and this new group may
UTANT
289
UTANT
Have been a litany found in a manuscript of prayers,
copied in 1524 by Fra Giovanni da Faleroiia. It con-
sists of fifty-seven praises, and the "Sancta Maria" is
repeated, but only at intervals of six or seven praises,
perhaps because the shape or size of the parchment
was so small that it held only six or seven lines to the
page» and the oop3ast contented himself with writing
the "Sancta Maria" once at the head of each page.
But, because of its archaic form, this litany must
be eoDsiderably anterior to 1524, and may have
been copied from some fifteenth-centurv MS. The
praises are chosen in part from previous fitanies, and
m part they are original. Moreover, their arrange-
ment is better and more varied. The first place is
given to praises bestowed on the name of "Mater";
then come those expressing the Blessed Virgin's ten-
der love for mankind; then the titles given her in the
creeds; then those beginning with "Regina", which
are identical with those we now have in the Litany of
Loreto. Two new titles are introduced: "Causa
nostne UetitisB" and "Vas spirituale", which are not
found in earlier litanies. Noteworthy also are three
invocations, "Advocata christianorum", "Refugium
desperatorum", ''Auxilium peccatonim", which
passed by an easy change into the " Ref ugium pecca-
tonim" and " Aoxilium christianorum" of the Litany
of Loreto. In a word, if we omit the petitions of this
older form, and its reiteration of the "Sancta Maria",
we have a litany which in the choice and arrangement
of praises comes very close to the Litany of Loreto.
Now there are many similar examples in which the
litany consists of praises alone without the re]3ctition
of the " Sancta Mairia", and in which arrangement and
form come nearer and nearer to the Litany of Lo-
reto. Such are: (1) a litany in a manuscript of the
Biblioteca Angelica in Rome (formerly. No. 392; sec-
ond half of the fifteenth century; fol. 123). Except
for light variants, it is identical with one printed at
Venice in 1561, and another printed at Capri in 1503;
(2) a litany found in a manuscript missal of the six-
teenth century; (3) a litany printed at Venice in two
different editions of the ''Officium B. Virginis" in
1513 and 1545; (4) a litany found in a codex of the
'^Gompagnia della Concezione di Maria SS." of Fiorcn-
suola a'Arda (Piacenza), founded in 1511 ; (5) a litany
found in a codex of the priory of Sts. Philip and James,
Apostles, at Montegranaro, m which the baptisms dur-
ing the years 1548-58 are recorded. This litany is the
shortest ^ all and the closest in similarity to that of
Loreto.
This form of litanv was widely circulated, both in
script and in print, during the sixteenth century. A
comparison ot the texts will show that they contain
the praises in the Loreto Litany, with two exceptions:
the "Virgo prudentissima" of the Loreto Litany is
found as *' Virgo prudens", and the " Auxilium chris-
tianorum", though it appears in no text before this
time, is, as remarked above, an easy variant of the
litany of 1524. So far no MS. of the Loreto Litany has
been discovered, but it cannot be doubted that it is
nothing more than a happy arrangement of a text be-
longing to the last group. And, moreover, it may be
laid down as probable that the Loreto text became
customary in tne Holy House towards the close of the
fifteenth century, at a time when in other places sim-
ilar litanies were being adapted for pul:)Iic use to ob-
tain deliverance from some calamity. It is only in
1531, 1547, and 1554, that the documents afford indi-
cations of litanies being sung in that sanctuary, though
ibe text is not given.
The earliest printed copy of the Litany of I^orcto
80 far known is that of Dillingen, which is undated,
and seems to belong to the end of 1557 or the begin-
nof 1558. As Dr. Paulus, following up a discovery
) by Gass, has observed, it was probably pul>-
Hshed and circulated in Germany by Blessed Canisius.
It is entitled: "Letania Loretana. Ordnung der
- DL— 10
Letaney von unser lieben Frawen wie sie zu Ix>reto
alle Samstaff gehalten" (Order of the Litany of Our
Lady as said every Saturday at Loreto). The text is
just the same as w^e have it to-day, except that it has
"Mater piissima" and "Mater mirabilis", where we
have "Alater purissima'' and "Mater admirabilis''.
Further, the invocations "Mater creatoris" and "Ma-
ter salvatoris" are wanting, though this must be due
to some oversight of the editor, since they are found in
ever>' manuscript of this group; on the other hand, the
"Auxilium chnstianorum " is introduced though it
does not occur in the other texts. We find this title in
a Litany of Loreto printed in 1 558. As already shown
in the writer's book on this subject. Pope Pius V could
not have introduced the invocation "Auxilium chris-
tianorum" in 1571 after the Battle of Lepanto, as
stated in the sixth lesson of the Roman Breviary for
the feast of S. Maria Auxiliatrix (24 May) ; and to this
conclusion the Dillingen text adds indisputable evi-
dence. •
The Litany of Loreto had taken root at Loreto, and
was being spread throughout the world, when it ran
frave risk of being lost forever. St. Pius V by Motu
•roprio of 20 March, 1571, pu' lished 5 April, had
prohibited all existing offices of the B. V. Alary,
disapproving in general all the prayers therein, and
substituting a new **Officium B. Virginis'' with-
out those prayers and consequently without any
litany. It would seem that this action on the part
of the pope led the clergy of Loreto to fear that
the text of their litany was likewise prohibited. At
all events, in order to keep up the old time custom
of singing the litany every Saturday in honour of the
BlesS(^ Virgin, a new text was drawn up containing
praises drawn directly from the Scriptures, and usu-
ally applied to the fil. Vii^gin in the Liturgy of the
Churcn. This new litany was set to music by the
choirmaster of the Basilica of Loreto, Costanzo Porta,
and printed at Venice in 1575. It is the earliest set-
ting to music of a Marian litany that we know of. In
the following year (1576) these Scriptural litanies
were printed in two different handbooks for the use of
pilgrims. In both they Iwar the title: "Litaniae dei-
parss Virginis ex Sacra Script ura depromptaj quie in
alma Domo laurctana omnibus diebus Sahhathi, Vig-
iliarum et Festorum decantari solent". But in the
second handbook, the work of Bemardine Cirillo,
archpriest of Loreto, the old text of the litxiny is also
printed, though with the plainer title, "Alice LitanisB
Beatse Marise Virgiuis", a clear sign that it was not
quite fc^otten.
On 5 Feb., 1578, the archdeacon of Loreto, Giulio
Candiotti, sent to Pope Gregory XIII the "Laudi o
Icttanie modeme della s°^ Verginc, cavate dalla sacra
Scrittura" (New praises or litanies of the most holy
Virgin, drawn from Sacred Scripture), with Porta?
masic and the text apart, expressing the wish tliat
Ilis Holiness would cause it to Ixj sung in St. Peter's
and in other churches as was the custom at Loreto
The pope's reply is not known, but we have the opin-
ion of the theologian to whom the matter was referred,
in which the composition of the new litany is praised,
but which does not judge it opportune to introduce it
into Rome or into church use on the authority of the
pope, all the more l)eoause Pius V "in reforming
the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin completely
abolished, among other things, some proper litanies
of the Blessed Virgin which existed in the old [office],
and which (if I remember rightly) were somewhat
similar to these ". The judgment concludes that the
litany might be sung at Loreto as a devotion proper
to that shrine, and if others wanted to adopt it they
might do so by way of private devotion.
This attempt having failed, the Scriptural litany
straightway began to lase favour, and the Loreto text
was once more resumed. In another manual for ^U
grims, published by Angelita in that same year 1578^
UTANT
290
UTANY
the Scriptural litanv is omitted, and the old Loreto
text appears with tho title: "Letanie che si cantano
nella Santa Casa di Loreto o^i Sabbato et feste delle
Madonna''. In a new edition (1580) of Angelita's
book, the Scriptural litany is restored but relegated to
a secondary position^ though included under the title
** Altre letanie che si cantano '\ etc. From this it is
clear that for a time both litanies were in use at
Loreto. But in subsequent editions of Angelita's
manual, and in other manuals of devotion, the Scrip-
tural litany is printed with the bare title "Litamse
ex S. Scriptura depromptffi", until the seventeenth
century wnen it disappears altogether. Meanwhile,
thanks to Angelita's manuals, the Loreto text was
introduced elsewhere, and even reached Rome, when
Sixtus V. who had entertained a singular devotion for
Loreto, by the Bull "Reddituri" of 11 July, 1587,
faVe formal approval to it, as to the litany of the Holy
^ame of Jesus, and recommended preachers every-
where to propagate its use among the faithful.
On the stren^h hf this impulse given to the Litany
of Loreto, certain ascetical writers oegan to publish a
rftt number of litanies in honour of the Saviour, the
Virgin, and the saints, often ill-advised and con-
taining expressions theologically incorrect, so that
Pope Clement VIII had promulgated (6 Sept., 1601) a
severe decree of the Holy Oflfice, which, while up-
holding the litanies contamed in the litur^cal books
as well as the Litany of Loreto, prohibited the publica-
tion of new litanies, or use of those already published
in public worship, without the approbation oi the Con-
gregation of Rites.
At Rome the Litany of Loreto was introduced into
the Basilica of S. Maria Maggiore by Cardinal Fran-
cesco Toledo in 1597; and Paul V, in 1613, ordered it
to be sung in that church, morning and evening, on
Saturdays and on vigils and feasts of the Madonna.
As a result of this example the Loreto Litany began
to be used, and is still lai^ely used, in all the churches
of Rome. The Dominicans, at their general chapter
held at Bologna in 1615, ordered it to be recited in all
the convents of their order after the Office on Satur-
days at the end of the customary "Salve Regina".
Before this they had caused the invocation ''Regina
sacratissimi rosarii'' to be inserted in the litany, and it
appears in print for the first time in a Dominican
Breviary dated 1614, as has been pointed out by
Father Walsh, O.P., in "The Tablet'\ 24 Oct., 1908.
Although by decree of 1631, and by Bull of Alexander
VII (1664), it was strictly forbidden to make any
additions to the litanies, another decree of the Congre-
gation of Rites, dated 1675, permitted the Confrater-
nity of the Rosarjr to add the invocation "Regina
sacratissimi rosarii", and this was prescribed for the
whole Church by Leo XIII (24 Dec., 1883). By de-
cree of 22 April, 1903, the same pope added the invoca-
tion "Mater boni consilii", which, under the form of
"Mater veri consilii*', was contained in the Marian
litany used for centuries in S. Mark's, Venice, as indi-
cated above. In 1766 Clement XIII granted Spain
the privilege o{ adding after " Mater intemerata' the
invocation "Mater immaculata", which is still cus-
tomary in Spain, notwithstanding the addition of
"Regina sine labe oriRinali concepta". This last in-
vocation was originalfy granted oy Pius IX to the
Bishop of Mechlin in 1946, and, after the definition of
the Immaculate Conception (1854), the congregation
by various rescripts authorized many dioceses to make
a like addition, so that in a short time it became the
universal practice. For these various decrees of the
Congregation of Rites, see Sauren, 27-29: 71-78.
De SAim. L« Litanie lauretane in Civitth Cfattoliea (Dec.,
:996-April. 1897): ibid. (Nov., 18Q9). 456-62; ibid, (Dcm;..
1899), 637-38; published in book form: Db Santi, Le Litanie
laurelane (Borne. 1897); French tr. Boudinhon. Les Litanie*
de la Saints. Vurgr (Paris, 1900); Germ. tr. NOrpbl, Die laure-
imniaehe Litanei (Paderbom. 1900); Vooel, De eccleeiit Re-
eanat. et Lauret., 1 (Recanati, 1859), 315-30; Sauren, Die
taunUmieche IManei (Kempten, 1895); Sxckxnq, Twm liianien
dn- n. Maagd in De KaihoUck (Leyden. 1900), 329-36; QaSB.
Daa A Uer der lauretaniechen Litanei in Straeeburifer DideemnMaU
(1901), 264-68; Paulds, Die Einfahrung der lauretaniaehen
Litanei in Deutachland dureh den aeiwen Caniaitu in Zeiiseh. far
kath. theol. (1902), 571-83; Waubh, Reffina SaeraHaeimi RoaarH
in The Tablet (24 Oct., 1908), 656; De Santi, Per la Horia ddU
Litanie lauretane in CtviUii CaUolica (Nov., 1909), 302-13.
Angelo De Santi.
Litany of the Holy Name, an old and popular
form of prayer in honour of the Name of Jesus. The
author is not known. Probably Binterim (DenkwQr-
digkeiten, IV, I, 597) is correct in ascribing it to the
celebrated preachers of the Holy Name, Saints Ber-
nardine of Siena and John Capistran, at the beginning
of the fifteenth century. At the request of the Car-
melites, Pope Sixtus V (1686-90) granted an indul-
gence of 300 days for its recitation (Samson, "Die
Allerheiligen Litanei", Paderbom, 1894, 14). Thou^
this was an implied recognition of the litany, reouests
made in 1640, 1642, and 1662, for formal approval were
rejected. In 1862 Pius IX approved one of the for-
mularies in use, and attached an indulgence of 300
days for the faithful of the dioceses whose bishops had
made special application. Leo XIII (16 Jan., 1886)
extended the privilege to the entire world (Beringer,
" Die Ablasse'S Paderbom, 1900, 142).
This litany is arranged on the plan of the Litanv of
Loreto, and begins with the invocation of the Holy
Trinity. The first part enumerates a list of praises
referring to Jesus as (jod and as man. Rememoering
the blessing bestowed on Peter's confession (MatUi.,
xvi, 16), we call Jesus, "Son of the Living God".
" Splendour of the Father ' *^ and " Brightness of Eternal
Light" (the true light, which cnlighteneth every man
that Cometh into this world — John, i, 9). He is the
"King of Glory" (Ps. xxiii, 10), the '^Sun of Justice,
rising for them that fear the name of the Lord " C^d.,
iv, 2). But, lest this splendour and glory maice us
fear, we turn to Jesus in His humanity^ and appeal to
him as "Son of the Virgin Mary", and, as such, "ami-
able" and "admirable"; and, though annihilating
Himself in taking the form of a servant (Phil., ii, 7),
He is still the " mighty God", " Father of the world to
come", "Angel of the great counsel" (Is., ix, 6).
Again, though "most powerful", he has become for us
"most patient" (led as a sheep to the slaughter —
Acts, viii, 32), "most obedient" (even to the death of
the cross — Phil., ii, 8)^ "meek and humble of hesart"
(Matth., xi, 29). He is the "Lover of chastity" and
"Lover of us", blessing the clean of heart (Matth., v,
8), and proving His love for us by giving His life to
procure that peace which the angels announced (Luke,
li, 14) and hfe everlasting, whence He is "God of
peace" and " Author of life". During His sojourn on
earth He was, and is to-day, " Model of virtues" and
" zealous for souls", " our God " and " our refuge" ; He
is " Father of the poor" and " Treasure of the faithful",
the " Good Shepherd" Who lays down His life for His
sheep (John, x, 11) ; He is the *^Tme Light", " Eternal
Wisdom". "Infinite Goodness", "our Way and our
Life" (John, xiv, 6); He is the "Joy of Angeb" and
"King of Patriarchs". Through Him all nave ob-
tained the knowledge and strength to accomplish
God's designs, for He is "Master of Apostles", "Tea-
cher of Evangelist*", "Strength of Martyrs", "Light
of Confessors", " Punty of Virgins", and "Crown of all
Saints". After again calling for mercy and the grant-
ing of our prayers, we, in the second part of the litany,
beg Jesus to deliver us from all evil tnat would keep us
from the attainment of our last end, from sin and
the wrath of God, the snares of the devil and the spirit
of uncleanness, from eternal death and the ne^^eet of
His inspirations. We adjure Him by the mystery of
His holy Incarnation, His nativity and infancy, Hia
most Divine life and labours. His agony and Paanoii.
His Cross and dereliction. His languor. His Death ana
burial, His Resurrection and Ascension, His loyt and
Glory. (Where sanctioned by the biibop, toe Invo-
UTANT
291
UTAHY
cation "Through Thine institution of the most holy
Eucharist" maybe added atter *' Through Thine Ascen-
sion"—S. R. C, 8 Feb., 1905). The litany closes with
the triple invocation of the Lamb of God, the petition,
''Jesus hear us", "Jesus graciously hear us", and two
prayers.
Sea under Litant; also Theol prakt, QuariaUchrift (1893),
gZ; (1902), 300. 621. FRANCIS MeRSHMAN.
Utmy of the Saints, the model of all other litanies,
of great antiquity. It was used in the " Litania Septi-
formis" of St. Gregonr the Great, and in the procession
of St. Blamertus. in the Eastern Churcn, litanies
with the invocation of saints were employed in the
days of St. Basil (d. 379) and of St. Gregory Thauma-
turgus (d. about 270) (Basil, Ep. Ixiii; Socrates, VI,
viii; Sosomen. VIII, vii). It is not known when or
by whom the litany was composed, but the order in
wnich the Apostles are given, corresponding with that
ol the Canon of the Mass, proves its antiquity (Walafr.
Strabo, "De Reb. Eccl.", xxiii).
The litany begins with the call for mercy upon God
the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost, in
tiie "Kyrie eleison", "Christe eleison", "Kyrie elei-
son". Then, considering Christ as our Saviour and
Mediator, we ask Him to hear us. In order to render
more secure the hearing of our prayers, we again ask
each <rf the Persons of tfie Holy Trinity for mercy, and,
adding those titles which give us a claim to Their con-
fflderation, we call upon the First Person: God, the
Father of Heaven, to whom we owe existence and life;
the Second: Redeemer of the world, to Whom we owe
our salvation; the Third: Holy Gnost, to whom we
owe our sanctification; and then on the Holy Trinity,
one God. To render God propitious, we, aware of our
own imworthiness, ask the intercession of those who
have become His special friends, through a holy life,
the saints in lasting communion with Him. Foremost
among these stands Mary, the chosen daughter of the
Father, the undefiled mother of the Son, tiie stainless
bride of the Holy Ghost — ^we call upon her with the
triple invocation: Holy Mary, Mother of God, Virgin
ol virgins. We then mvoke the blessed spirits who
remained firm in their allegiance to the Almighty
during the rebellion of Lucifer and his adherents:
IfichMl, prince of the heavenly host; Gabriel, "forti-
tude of God", the messenger of the Incarnation;
Raphael, "medicine of God", the trusted companion
of Tobias; and the other angels, archangels, and orders
of blessed "ministering spirits, sent to minister for
them, who shall receive the inheritance of salvation"
(Heb., i, 14). Next in our confidence is he of whom
Christ says "There hath not risen among them that
are bom of women a greater than John the Baptist"
(Matt., xi, 11), the precursor of the Lord, the last of
tiie Prophets cm the Old Law and the first of the New.
Next in order come St. Joseph, the foster-father of
the Incarnate Word ; and all the Patriarchs and Proph-
ets who saved their souls in the hope of Him who
was the expected of the nations. Then follow the
saints: Peter, prince of the Apostles, vice-gerent of
Christ; Paid, the Apostle of the Gentiles; Andrew,
who first heeded the csXL of the Master; James the
Greater and John the Evangelist, the beloved disciple,
who, with St. Peter, were most favoured by Christ;
Thomas, called Didymus, who received from Christ
signal proofs of His Resurrection; James the Less,
first Bishop of Jerusalem; Philip; Bartholomew;
Matthew, once (»lled Levi, the toll-gatherer, who
wrote the First Gospel; Simon the Zealot; Jude;
Thaddeus; Matthias, who was chosen to fill the place
of Judas Iseariot; Barnabas, called to the Apostolate
l^ the B[olv Ghost (Acts, xiii, 2) ; Luke, the physician,
writer of toe Third Gospel and the Acts; Mark, the
Evangelist, disciple of St. Peter; all the Apostles and
Evangelists; the holy disciples of the Lord; the Holy
InnooeQtSi tiie infant martyr-flowers, "Who, slain at
the command of Herod, confessed the name of the
Lord not by speaking but by dying" (Rom. Brev.). The
glorious martyrs are then invoked: Stephen the Dea-
con, protomartyr, stoned at Jerusalem whilst praying
for his executioners (Acts, vii, 58); Laurence, the
Roman archdeacon; Vincent, the deacon of Sara-
gossa in Spain; Fabian, the pope, and Sebastian, the
soldier; John and Paul, brothers at the Court of Con-
stantia, daughter of Constantine; Cosmas and Da-
mian, renowned physicians of iEgea in Cilicia; Ger-
vasius and Proteus, brothers at Milan; after which
follows a collective impetration of all the holy martyrs.
The litany now asks the prayers of St. Sylvester, the
pope who saw the triumph of the Crucified over pagan-
ism; of the Doctors of the Church; Sts. Gregory the
Great, pope; Ambrose of Milan; Augustine of Hippo,
in Africa; and Jerome, representing Dalmatia and the
Holy Land; of the renowned Bishops Martin of
Tours; Nicholas of Myra; of all the holv bishops and
confessors; of all the holy teachers; of the founders of
religious orders: Anthony, father of the anchorites of
the desert ; Benedict, patriarch of the Western monks ;
Bernard; Dominic; Francis; of all holy priests and
levites; of monks and hermits. We then invoke
Mary Magdalen^ the model of Christian penance and
of a contemplative life, of whom Christ said : " Where-
soever this gospel shall be preached in the whole world
that also which she hath done, shall be told for a
memory of her" (Matt., xx\a, 13); the virgins and
martyrs: Agatha, Lucy, Agnes, Ctecilia, Catherine, and
Anastasia the Younger; and in conclusion all the holy
virgins and widows; all the holy'men and women.
The second part of the litany benns with another
cry of " Be merciful to us, spare us OLord; Be merciful
to us, graciously hear us O Lord". We then enu-
merate the ills from which we hope to be delivered:
From all evils; from sin; the wrath of Grod; sudden
and unprovided death; the snares of the devil; anger,
hatred, and all ill will; the spirit of fornication; light-
ning and tempest; the scourge of earthquake; plague,
famine, and war; from everlasting death. To make
our prayers more effective, we present to CJhrist all
that He' did for us through the mystery of the Incar-
nation, through His coming, nativity, baptism and
holy fasting, cross and passion, death and burial,
holy resurrection, admirable ascension, the coming
of the Holy Ghost, the Comforter, and we conclude by
the petition, "In the day of judgment, O Lord, de-
liver us."
In the third part we humbly acknowledge our un-
wortliiness: " We, sinners, beseech Thee, hear us", and
add the list of favours that we wish to obtain: that the
Ix)rd spare us; pardon us; and bring us to true pen-
ance; tliat He govern and preserve His holy Church;
preserve our Apostolic prelate, and all orders of the
Church, in holy religion; humble the enemies of the
Church; give peace and true concord to Christian kings
and princes; peace and unity to Christian nations;
strengthen and preserve us in His holy service; raise
our minds to heavenly desires; reward with eternal
good all our benefactors; deliver us, our brethren,
kinsfolk, and benefactors, from eternal damnation;
give and preserve the fruits of the earth; and grant
eternal rest to the faithful departed. We ask all this
in calling upon the Son of Giod, thrice invoking the
Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world.
We repeat the '* Kyrie", as in the beginning, and add
the prayer taught bv Christ Himself, the Our Father.
Then follow psalm fxix, *'0 God, come to my assist-
ance", etc., and a number of verses, responses, and
pravers, renewing the former petitions. We conclude
with an earnest request to be heard, and all appeal for
the faithful departed.
Three forms of the Litany of the Saints are at
present in liturgical use. The form given above is
prescribed by the Roman Ritual at the laying of the
comer-stone of a new church, at the bleaaijag^^x twsssite-
LITERATURE
292
UTHUAHU
ciliatioQ of the same or of a cemetery, in the rito of
blessing the people and fields in virtue of a special
papal indult, for the major and minor Rogation D^s,
m the procession and prayers to obtain rain or fine
weather, to avert storms and tempests, in time of
famine or war, to escape mortality or in time of pesti-
lence, in any tribulation, during the translation of
relics, in solemn exorcisms of the possessed, and at the
Forty Hours* Devotion. The Roman Pontifical, be-
sides the occasions given in the Ritual, orders its reci-
tation in the conferring of major orders, in the conse-
cration of a bishop, benediction of an abbot or abbess,
consecration of vu*gins, coronation of a kin^ or queen,
consecration of a church, expulsion and readmission of
public penitenta on Maunay Thursday, and in the
^'Ordo ad Synodum".
Another form is given in the Roman Missal for
Holy Saturday and the Vigil of Pentecost. It is an
abbreviation of the other. Each verse and response
must be duplicated in this litany and in that chanted
on Rogation Days (S. R. C, 3993, ad 4).
A third form is in the "Commendatio" of the Ro-
man Ritual, in which the invocations and supplications
are specially chosen to benefit the departing soul
about to appear before its Maker (Holzhey, "Thekla-
Akten", 1905, 93). This and the preceding form may
not be used on other occasions (S. R. C, 2709, ad 1).
Formerly it was customary to invoke onlv classes
of saints, then individual names were added, and in
many places local saints were added (Rock, "The
Church of Our Fathers", London, 1903, 182; "Maii-
uale Lincopense", Paderbom, 1904, 71). To obtain
uniformity, changes and additions to the approved
were forbidden (S. R. C, 2093, 3236, 3313).
Romiaehe QuartaUchrift (1903), 333; Bykoukai. in Buch-
BERQCR, Kirchliehes Handler., a. v. Litanei; Punkeh in
Kirchenlex., a. v. Litanei; Samson, Die AUerheiligen Litanei
(Paderfoom, 1894); Pastor Bonus, III, 278.
pRANas Mershman.
Literatuze, Classical. See Latin Literature
IN THE Church.
Uthuania (Ger. Lilauen)^ an ancient grand-duchy
united with Poland in the fourteenth centunr.
The Lithuanians belong to the Indo-Germanic
family, of which they form with the Letts and the
extinct Borussians (Old Prussians) the Balto-Slavonic
group. Within the Russian Empire they dwell
principallv in the governmental districts of Kovno,
Urodno, Tchernigoff, and, in smaller numbers, in
some few districts of Russian Poland (total in 1897:
1,658,542, or, including the Letts, 3,094,469). In
Germany they are found in the northern part of East
Prussia and in West Prussia (total about 110,000).
Concerning their early history, even to-day little re-
liable information is available. In the twelfth cen-
tury of our era, we find them divided into various
clans and taking part in the wars between the princes
of Polozk, Novgorod, Tchernigoff, etc., now as allies
of the princes and again as enemies. From the end of
the twelfth century they were engaged in constant war-
fare with the Order of the Brethren of the Sword, who
were extending their conquests along the coast of the
Baltic into Livonia. The Lithuanians were divided
politically into numerous principalities, mostly heredi-
tary, and to a great extent independent of one an-
other.
The credit of having united them l)elongs to
Prince Mendog (or Mind owe), who, towards the
middle of the thirteenth century, succeeded in com-
pelling the lesser princes to recognize his supremacy.
With a view .to strengthening his position against ex-
ternal enemies, especially the Teutonic OiSer, Min-
dowe and his wife sought baptism in 1250 or 1251,
and received from Innocent TV the royal crown, with
which he was crowiied bv the Bishop of Kulm, in
1252 a253) in presence of the Master of the Teu-
tonio Order. As Mindowe desired a special diocese
for his territories, one Christian, a memoer of tbo
Teutonic Order, was by order of the pope conse-
crated Bishop of Lithuania by Archbishop Albert of
Riga. Notwithstanding Albert's efforts to secure
this new diocese as suffragan of his see, it was made
directly dependent on Rome. Of Christian's activity
in Lithuania little is known. At this period, however,
Christianity acquired no firm footing in Lithuania
proper; it was embraced only by Mindowe and his
immediate friends^ and bjr them purely for political
reasons, and it was also with an eye to political inter-
est that they reverted to paganism about 1262. As
Christian was coadjutor Bishop of Mainz as early as
1259, he cannot have long occupied the See of Lithu-
ania; his successor, John, also a member (A the Teu-
tonic Order, also appears as coadjutor Bishop of
Constance. The murder of Mindowe by his nephew
Traniate was followed by great political confusion
and a complete relapse into paganism. In the Rus-
sian territories, however, which were then and later
known as Lithuanian, Christianity was retained under
the Greek Orthodox form, these regions having been
evangelized from Byzantium.
The first step towards the restoration of Lithuanian
power was taken by Gedymin (arehduke from 1316),
when he introduced German colonists into his terri-
tories, and founded numerous cities and towns, grant-
ing them the privileges customary in Germany. TTie
most important of these cities was Wilna, afterwards
the capital of Lithuania. Gedvmin succeeded in
extending his kingdom to the east oy successful battles
with the Tatars, who had then made themselves
masters of Russia. From 1336 he was involved in
war with the Teutonic Order, and was slain while
besieging Welona, one of their fortresses, in 1340 or
1341. Two of his sons, Olgerd and Keistut, success-
fully defended the independence of their kingdom
against the order, while pushing their conquests fur-
ther into Russia. Vigorous champions of paganism,
they opposed the entrance of Christianity within
their frontiers, although Gedymin, while himself re-
maining a heathen, had granted entire freedom to U^
Christian religion. Thus, the Franciscan and Domini-
can monasteries founded at Wilna under Gedymin
were suppressed by his sons. Olgerd (d. 1377) was
succeeded by his son JageUo, who made overtures to
the Teutonic Order and concluded a secret treaty
with it. JageUo, however, awakened the suspicions
of his uncle, Keistut, who took up arms, surprised
him at Wilna, and made him prisoner for a time. In
the ensuing civil war, Keistut allowed himself to be
enticed into Jagello's camp under pledge of personal
safety, but on his arrival there he was at once seized,
thrown into prison, and eventually put to death
(1382).
In 1384, upon the death of Louis I of Hungary and
Poland, the Polish nobles, having crowned his daugh-
ter Hedwig, decided that as the new queen was but
fifteen years old, she must be provided with a consort
capable of protecting her dominions. Their choice
fell upon JageUo of Lithuania, whose hostility to the
Teutonic Order made him their natural aUy. More-
over, the Catholic Church in Poland saw in this union
the promise of glorious missiona^ activity in a land
stiU for the most part pagan. 'The Franciscan pro-
vincial, Kmita, wno enjoved JageUo's confidence,
was one of the foremost aclvojcates of union between
the kingdoms. JageUo, after formaUy suing for the
(lueen's hand, promised to embrace the CatliQl^r
laith, with his brothers and all his subjects, to unitf
his Lithuanian and Russian lands forever with thr
Polish Crown, to recover at his own expense the te^
ritory taken from Poland, and to pay Duke WilUaa
of Austria, who had been promised Hedwig's hand,
an indemnity of 200,000 gulden. Hedwig at lecigth
consented to the match. JageUo was Mptixed or
15 Feb., 1386, taking the name of Wladislaw, and m
LITTA 293 UTTA
4 Bfiaxt)h he ^raa married to Hedwig and crowned King Only the war against the Teutonic Order, in 14999
Consort and Regent of Poland. brought the two peoples together Once more. Eiren
Ab the result of this union between Lithuania and after the death ot Alexander, in 1501, there still re-
Poland, a mighty Christian kingdom arose in Eastern mained a powerful party in favour of independence:
Europe. Lithuania itself, three times as large as these found support m Russia, which, from tne time oi
Pdand, but far below it in culture, ceased to be inde- Ivan III (1462-1505), had been growing in power. The
pendent, but it was now for the first time brought threatened separation, however, and the daily increas-
mto immediate contact with Western civilization, ing evidence that Russia was to be the chief rival of
In 1387 Jagello returned to his home, accompanied by Poland in Eastern Europe, led to a reaction among the
missionaries. He won the good will of tne nobles Poles. Thev recognizcxi the ui*gent necessity of ex
{hayara) for Christianity by granting them, on 20 changing a deceptive union for a genuine unity of the
February, the same liberties as were tnen enjoved by whole Polish Einpire. Four previous diets having
the Catholic nobles in Poland. A see was established vainly sought a solution of the problem, that assem-
at Wilna, and Vasylo, a Polish Franciscan, appointed bled at Liiblin in 1569 at last affected the Union of
its first bishop. The Russian portions of Lithuania Lublin. The union was proclaimed in July of the
(Kiev, Tchemigoff, etc.) remained Greek Orthodox, same year, and confirmed on oath by both parties.
but the Samoghitians continued for some time longer Henceforth, Poles and Lithuanians formed one king-
to be pagans. To strengthen the internal union dom, with one king elected in common, with a com-
between the peoples, Polish law was conc(H:led only mon diet, a common mint, etc.; of its earlier indcpen-
to the Catholic Lithuanians in the Constitution (U dencc, Lithuania retained its own administration, its
1387y and marriage with the Greek Orthodox was own finances, and its own army. Thereafter, Lithu-
forbidden. At first the relation l>ctwe(m Lithuania ania i^ared the fate of Poland, although in 1648 one
and Poland was simply a personal union. Jagello section of the Lithuanians of Little Russia — ^the Uk-
retained for himself the princely dignitv^ but ap- raine — separated from Poland and, in 1C54, made
gointed a governor for Lithuania — first his brother their submission to the Tsar of Russia. The various
kirgello and then, from 1392 to 1430, his cousin partitions of Poland resulted in the larger portion of
Witold. His endeavour to maintain this relation of Lithuania being ceded to Russia, the smaller to Prufl-
independencc towards the Polish Crown was rendered sia.
abortive by his defeat at the hands of the Tatars in (Sec also Greek Catholics in America; Greek
1399, which compelled him to enter into closer rela- Church; Easterx Churches.)
tions with the Poles. In 1401 the political union of I'^o'* a complete biblicwraphy of Lithuania conault Beltra-
the kingdoms took place; Lithuania was to be inde- J|^i^^r™A'^«frpSA'a'^1'ior!^-ll^lt^'£,U21!
pendent as long as Witold lived, but W^as then to be Oesch. von LUauen ala rinm eigenen GroMfarstentum bis zum
annexed to the Crown of Poland: Witold and the J^^/e /ft5d CHaUe. 1785); Narbut, p«Anc«r^
Kovona *./>olr fhn oafh nf n11omnnr«f» «n«^1 fV»<» PrilUli Lilhuaman People (Vilna, 1835) (Polish); Theiner, VeUrQ
bOVara took tne oatn Ol allegiance, and the i'OllSh Monum, PoUmia et Lithuania hist, Ulw^rantia (3 vols.. Rome,
noblhty promised to support the Lithuanians, and, 1860-6.0; Antonwitsch, Historical Sketch of the Grand Duchy
after Jagello's death, to elect no king without first of Lithuania (Kiev, 1878) (Russian); BATiNBCHicow.FrAtte
j»^..<»«u;n(» 4liA*Yi RuMia and Lithuania (St. Petenbuix. 1890) (Russian) ; BrCck-
OOnsuiUng tnem. ...,,„.. ner AnoVnt LtV/* uama (Waraaw, 1904) (Polish); ToronArm.
Besides their common warfare against the TeutOmC Die Li'aurr unter drm Konio Mindowe hi* zum Jahre 1263 (Fii-
Order, the fusion of the two peoples was furthered by *>ou»K. iws); Lelkwel, //t^ rfe fa LtjAuanic (Paris, 1861);
«lia AooomKlv i\f T^ retf\A\e\ f\r\ ♦Vio Knir in ^±^'X «f itrKi'oVt AUaem. Ittauuche Rundschau (Tilsit, 1900 — ). See also works
tbe Assembly of norodlO on tne aug. m 14 1 .j, at ^v hich ^^ Polaml, wpecinUy Roepli.l and Caro, Gcech. Polma (5 vols.,
the earlier union was renewed, and a large numl)er Hjunbure and Ootha. 1840-88) (reaching to 1506);Schiemann,
of the Ldthuanian boyars were admitted into the Polish ?«f«''?,a<f' {>>'««<' "• ^^^J'^^pj'^ ''J* '^- '^J^T^- Q; ^'P^VoS^f^
noWBtv. receiving identical privileges. Furthermore iK.l^HS^^sC^l"" <^''<'"' »"<* '''- ^°*- ^»««>- -
both the Polish and the Lithuanian nobility received Joseph IjINS.
from the kin^ the right of convoking assemblies and
parliaments in the interests of the kingdom with the Litta,anoblo Milanese family which gave two dis-
permission of the prince. For the Lithuanians^ whose tinguishcd cardinals to the Church.
government had previously been absolute, this right L Ali-xjnso Litta, Archbishop of Milan, b. in 1608;
meant a constitution — even though oligarcliical — by (L at Rome, 22 Aug., 1679. Aft^r filling other im-
means of which they could readily make their influ- portant positions, he was appointed governor of the
ence felt in the affairs of the nation. . But the di\'ision Marches by Innocent X, was made Archbishop of
between Catholics and Greek Orthodox in the Little Milan in 1652, and received the pui-plo in 1640. He
Russian districts still continued. To heal this, Witold died shortly after the conclave whSch elected Innocent
laboured for ecclesiastical union between the two sec- XL He was a learned and charitable man and de-
tions of the people. In 1415 he summoned an Ortho- fended with courage the ecclesiastical immunities
dox synod at Nowohorodok, which declar'.'d the Lithu- against the officers of the King of Spain. His works
anian Orthodox Church, \i'ith its Metropolitan of Kiev, are enumerated by Argelati in tne "Bibliotheca
independent of the Patriarch of Moscow. In 1 41 8 he Scriptonim Mediolanensium'' TMilan, 1745); his life
sent Greggory Camblak (or Cemiwlak), Metropolitan of was written by M. Bardocchi (bologna, 1691).
Kiev, with eighteen suffragan bishops, to the Council XL Lorenzo Litta, b. at Milan, 25 Feb., 1756; d. at
of Constance to conclude a union with Rome, and to Monte FLavio, 1 May, 1820. A distinguished llU&a^
secure, in return for their recognition of papal suprem- teur, he plaved a prominent part in contemporary
acy, the retention of the Slavic Liturgy and Rite, ecclesiastical history. As a youth he was sent oy his
The mission failed, however, nor were the negotiations parents to the Clementine College in Rome, where he
at the Council of Florence in 1439 more successful. It made rapid progress in letters and law. Not long
was, indeed, only about 150 years later, at the S^nod of after the completion of his studies he was made pro-
Brest-Ldtovsk (1595-96), that the union of the Little thonotiry Apostolic bv Pius VI. In 1793 he was con-
Ruaaian, or Ruthenian, Church with Rome was ac- secrated titular Archbishop of Thebes, and sent as
oomplished (see Union op Brest). nuncio to Poland, where he arrived in March, 1794,
ReUgiouB divisions and the establishment of Polish shortly before the outbreak of the revolution Not-
garrisons in Lithuania, created a state of feeling which, withstanding the diflSculty of his own position, he used
after Witold's death, manifested itself in repeated re- his influence with Kosciuszko on Ix^half of the Church
bellions. The union was formally dissolved when, on a^id churchmen, and siivwl the life of Monsignor
the death of Casimir IV, in 1492, ♦he Lithuanians chose Skarzewski, Bishop of Chelm, already condemned to
his fourth son, Alexander, as their grand-duke, and death, thoug}i he was not so successful with regard to
the Poles dected his third son, John Albert, their king, the Bishop of Wilna and Livonia. In the negot iat ion«
LZnUB
294
XJTTLI
for the third partition of Poland, he used his utmost
endeavours to have the three States guarantee ^e
preservation of the Church oi^eanization and prop-
erty— guarantees which were disgracefully violated
by Catherine U. On the latter's death litta was sent
on an extraordinaiy mission to Moscow for the cor-
onation of Paul I, whence he was transferred as am-
bassador of Pius VI to St. Petersburg, to settle, ac-
cording to Paul's wish, the affairs of the Latin and the
Uniat Kuthenian church. He secured the erection, or
rather restoration, of six dioceses of the Latin Rite
and three of the Ruthenian (Polotsk, Lutsk, and Brest) .
The restoration of the See of Kiev was prevented by
the Holy Synod. Church property was only partly
restored, though the Government was obliged to es-
tablish suitable allowances for the clergy. Litta also
induced the nietropolitans of Gnesen (Posnania), and
Lemberg (Galicia) to renounce their jurisdiction over
the dioceses of the Latin Rite in Russian territory,
these being transferred to the new metropolis of Mo-
hileff. Through his efforts also the Basiliaii Order was
restored. In April, 1789, he had to leave Russia.
On the death of Pius VI he went to Venice to assist
at the conclave. When he returned to Rome he was
ffiven an office in the papal treasury which enabled
him to eradicate many abuses and introduce a better
administration. In 1801 he was created cardinal
and was made Prefect of the Congr^ation of the
Index and, later, of Studies. In 1809 he was ex-
pelled from Rome with Pius VII and sent to Saint-
Quentin on the Seine. During this exile he translated
^e Iliad, and wrote a series of letters containing a
brilliant refutation of the four GalUcan Articles of
1682, then the subject of much discussion. Some of
these letters were addressed to Napoleon himself,
and were later published anonymously. Returning to
Rome with Pius VII, Litta was made Prefect of Prop-
aganda, which, imder his administration, soon re-
covered its former status. In 1814 he became subur-
bicarian Bishop of Sabina, and in 1818 Cardinal Vicar
of Rome. He is buried at Rome in SS. Giovanni e
Paolo.
A biooraphy was published by Babuldx (Florence. 1828);
see abo Litta, Famiglie celebn italiane,
U. Beniqni.
Little Brothers of Mary« See Mart» LnrLB
Brothers of.
Little Office of Our Lady, a liturgical devotion
to the Blessed Virgin, in imitation of. and in addition
to, the Divine Office. It is first heard of in the middle
of the eighth century at Monte Cassino. According to
Cardinal Bona, who quotes from a MS. of Peter the
Deacon (twelfth century), there was, in addition to
the Divine Office, another " which it is customarv to
gerform in honour of the Holy Mother of God, which
achary the Pope [d. 752] commanded under strict
precept to the Cassinese Monastery." This would
seem to indicate that some form of the Office of Our
Lady was already extant and, indeed, we hear of an
Office in her honour composed by St. Ildephonsus,
who lived about the end of the seventh century. The
Eastern Church, too, possesses an Office of the B. V.
M., attributed to St. John Damascene (c. 730). But
though various Offices in honour of Our Lady were in
existence earlier, it is probable that the Little Office,
as a part of the liturgy, did not come into general use
before the tenth century; and it is not unlikely that
its diffusion is largely due to the marked devotion to
the Blessed Virgin which is characteristic of the
Church in England under the guidance of St. Dun-
Stan and St. Ethelwold. Certainly, during the tenth
century, an Office of the Blessed Virgin is men-
tioned at Au^burg, at Verdun, and at Einsiedeln;
while already in the following century there were at
least two versions of her "Hours" extant in England.
In the eleventh century we learn from St. Peter Da-
mian that it waa already commonly recited amongst
the secular clergy of Italy and France, and it was
through his influence that the practice of reciting it in
choir, in addition to the Great Office, was introduced
into several Italian monasteries. At Cluny the Office
of the B. V. M. was not introduced till the end of the
eleventh century, and then only as a devotion for the
sick monks. In the twelfth century came the foun-
dation of the Orders of Clteaux and Prdmonti^. of
which the latter onlv retained the Little Office in aadi-
tion to the Divine Office. Tlie Austin Canons also re-
tained it, and, perhaps through their influence, in the
coiu-se of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it de-
veloped from a private devotion into part of the dailv
duty of the secular clergy as well. By the fourteenth
century the recital of the Little Office had come to be
an almost universal practice and was regarded as
obligatory on all the clergy. This obligation re-
mained until St. Pius V removed it by the Bull ^ Quod
a nobis" of 156S. At the present time, however, it is
recited on certain days by several of the older oraers,
and it serves, instcaa of the Greater Office, as the
liturgical prayer of lay brothers and lay sisters in some
of the contemphitive orders, and of the members of
most of the congregations of women engaged in active
work.
Down to the Reformation it formed a large part of
the "Primer or Lay-folk's Prayer-laook", and was
customarily recited by the devout laity, by whom the
practice was continued for long afterwards among the
persecuted Catholics. To-day it is recited daily by
Dominican, Carmelite, Augustinian, and by large num-
bers of the Franciscan, Tertiaries, as well as by many
pious lay-folk who desire to take part in the liturgical
prayer of the Church. It is worth noting that the
form of the Little Office of Our Lady has varied con-
siderably at different periods and in different places.
The earlier versions varied very considerably^ chiefly
as regards the hymns and antiphons used: m Elng-
land m medieval times the main differences seem
to have been between the Sarum and York Uses.
Since the time of St. Pius V, that most conmionly
recited has been the version of the reformed Breviary
of Umt pope. In this version, which suffers some-
what from the classicism of the sixteenth century,
are to be found the seven "Hours", as in the Greater
Office. At Matins, after the versicles follow the
invitatory "Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus
tecum" with the "Venite"; then the hymn "Quern
terra, pontus, sidera"; then three groups of psalms,
each with their antiphons, of which one group ie
said on Sundays. Mondays, and Thursda^rs, the
second on Tuesdays and Fridays, the tnird on
Wednesdays and Saturdays. Next follow three les-
sons with responsories and (except in Lent and Ad-
vent) the "Te Deum". At Lauds, there are the
eight psalms of the Divine Office for Sunda3rs, sung
to five antiphons. Then the Little Chapter, and
the hymn " O Gloriosa Virginum". Next a versicle
and the canticle "Benedictus" with its antiphon.
Lastly, the prayer and commemoration of the saints.
In each of tne four Little Hours the hymn " Memento
rerum conditor" immediately follows the versicles;
then three psalms are recited, under one of the
antiphons of Lauds; then are said the Little Chap-
ter, versicles, and a prayer. At Vespers, after tne
versicles and five psalms with their antiphons, follow
the Little Chapter, the hymn "Ave Maris stella", a
short versicle, and the canticle "Magnificat" with its
antiphon; then the prayers as at Lauds. Compline
begins with special versicles, then follow three psisdms
without antiphons, then the hymn " Memento rerum
conditor"j a Little Chapter, a versicle, the cantide
"Nunc Dunittis", versicles, a prayer, and the Bene-
diction. After the hours are recited the "Pater
Noster" and the proper antiphon of Our Lady for the
season. This last, tne antiphons of the psalms and
UTTUB
295
UTTBi
oanticles and the Little Chapters are the only parts of
the office that vary with the seasons. Pope Leo XIII
granted (17 Nov., 1887), to those who recite the whole
Office of Our Lady^ an indulgence dail^ of seven years
and seven quarantmes, and a plenary indulgence once
a month: to those who recite Matins and Lauds only,
a daily indulgence of three hundred days: and (S Dec,
1897) to those who recite Vespers and Compline only,
and for each Hour, an indulgence of fifty days.
BATirroL, HUtoire du br&viairc remain (Paris, 1893): Bau-
MKti, Ge9chicMe des Brevierx (Freiburg im Br., 1895); Bishop,
On tke Origin of the Primer in Littlehalkr, The Prymer or lay
folk'a prayer book, II (Early English Text Society, Loadon,
1897): Dewicx, Facaimilea of Honx de Beata Maria Virmne
from. jBnqliah MSS. of the Eleventh Century (Henry Bradshaw
Dociety, London, 1902) ; Hoskins, Hora BealcB Maria Virginis,
or Sarum and York Primera . . . and Primers of the Reformed
Roman Uae (London, 1901); Taunton, The Little Office of Our
Lady (London, 1903).
Leslie A. St. L. Toke.
Little Bock| Diocese op (Petriculana). — The
State of Arkansas and the Indian Territory, parts of
the Louisiana Purchase, were formed, 1843, into the
Diocese of Little Rock. In the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries there was no significant church work
done in Arkansas. The white population in 1785 was
196 and in 1799 only 368. Bishop Duhourg (1820)
visited the Osage Indians and, after him, Father Croix.
Under Bishop Rosati, the Lazarists, from their semi-
nary at the Barrens, Missouri, did praiseworthy mis-
cdonary work (1824-30) among the Indians and
scattered whites. The most noted secular priest of
these times was Rev. Richard Bole, who estabh'shed
St. Mary's Mission, five miles below the present Pine
Bluff, and brought there, 1838, from St. Genevidve,
Missouri, five sisters of Loretto, who opened the first
Catholic school in Arkansas. Rev. Andrew Byrne,
pastor of St. James's Church, New York City, was
consecrated the first bishop, 10 March, 1844.
Bishop Byrne, bom in Navan, Ireland, 5 Dec., 1802,
and ordained by Bishop England at Charleston, South
Carolina, 11 Nov., 1827, brought from New York to
Arkansas Fathers Corry of Albany and Donohoe of
Troy, New York. All the priests of the earlier dajrs
had gone. The Catholic population of the diocese was
not more than 1000. Bisnop Byrne secured from
Naas, Ireland, thirteen Sisters of "Mercy, who estab-
lished, 1850, St. Mary's Academy at Little Rock, and,
1851, St. Ann's Academy at Fort Smith. An impos-
ing frame cathedral was erected in Little Rock, and
modest structures were built in sevcnil parts of the
State. During the Civil War, 1861-05, cliurch work
was paralyzed. Bishop Byrne died on 10 June, 1862.
The diocese remained sede vacante, with Very Rev. P.
O'Reilly, V.G., as administrator until 3 Feb., 1867,
when Rev. Edward Fitzgerald, pastor of St. Patrick's
Church, Columbus, Ohio, became bishop. Bishop Fitz-
gerald, preconized on 22 June, 1866, and consecrated on
3 Feb., 1867. was bom in 1833, at Limerick, Ireland.
He entered tne Lazarist Seminary at the Barrens, Mis-
souri, in 1850, and was sul>sequently a student at
Mount St. Blary's, Cincinnati, and Mount St. Mary's,
Ilnmiitsburg, where he was ordained in 1857 hy
Archbishop Purcell. Bishop Fitzgerald found in his
diocese four parishes, five priests, and a Catholic
popidaticm of 1600. He began work to secure Cath-
olic immigration for the State, sisters for schools
and jmests for missions. Benedictine monks from
St. Bieinrad, Indiana, came in 1876 to Logan County
and soon flotirishing German settlements arose. The
floly ^ Ghost Fathers of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania,
eBtaDlished in 1879 successful German colonies near
Mcnrrilton. A Polish settlement was made at Marche
in 1880, and Italians came later to Sunnyside, Tonti-
town, New Gascony, and Barton. Bishop Fitzgerald
dedicated, 27 May, 1894, the first church in Arkansas
for coloured people, at Pine Bluff, where there had
been established an excellent industrial school, now
in care of the Colored Sisters of the Holy Family.
Monsignor John B. Morris, V.G., of Nashville, Tennes-
see, was consecrated Coadjutor Bishop of Little Rock.
11 June, 1906,' and on the death of Bishop Fitzgerald
assumed full control.
Bishop Fitzgerald died in 1907. when there were
in the diocese: 41 churches witn resident priests;
32 missions with churches; 26 secular priests, and 34
religious; 272 sisters; a Catholic popluation of 20,000,
and good financial conditions. Tne Indian Territory,
since it was created a vicariate in 1801, ceased to be
part of the Diocese of Little Rock. Bishop Morris, who
assumed control of the diocese, 1907, was bom at Hen-
derson ville, Tennessee, 29 June, 1866. His theological
studies were made at the American College, Rome,
and he was ordained priest on 11 June, 1892, in the
Basilica of St. John Lateran, by Cardinal Parocchi.
After several years' rectorship of the cathedral, Nash-
ville, Bishop Byrne appointed him, 1901, vicar-
general, and in 1905 Pius X elevated him to the rank
of domestic prelate. In the three years of his incum-
bency Bishop Morris has opened Little Rock College
(1908) at a cost of $50,000, and St. Joseph's orphan
asylum on a tract of 720 acres, completed at a cost of
$150,000. The first diocesan synod was held on 16
Feb., 1909, at Little Rock, and the firs^ normal school
of instruction for Catholic teachers was inaugurated
at Little Rock, 11 June, 1909.
Gatarre. French Domination (New Oileans, 1845); Ideu,
Spanish Domination (New Orleuis, 1845); Idem, American
Domination (New Orleans, 1845); Pope, A Tour of the United
dciphia, 1821); Pope, Early Days in Arkansas (Little Rock,
1895); Washburn, Reminiscences of the Indians (Richmond,
1860) ; Parkman, works; Bancroft, History of the United States
(Boston, 1879); Reynolds, Alakcrsof Arkansas History (New
York and Boston. 1905); Hemrtead„ School History of Ar-
kansas (New Orleans. 1889); Suinn. ScJiool History of Ar-
kansas (Richmond, IQOO) ; Rozier, History of the Mississippi
Valley (St. Louis, 1800); Jewell, History of the Methodut
Church in Arkansas (Little Rock, 1898); Publications of the
Arkansas Historical Association, I, II (Little Rock. 1008) ; Hal-
liburton, History of Arkansas County ^ Arkansas (Dewitt,1909);
Shea, History of the Catholic Church (New York, 1892).
J. M. LUCET.
Littr^i pAUii-MAXiMiLiEN-EBnLE, French lexicog-
rapher and philosopher; b. at Paris, 1 February,
1801; d. there, 2 June, 1881. He studied at the Ly-
c^e Louis-le-Grand, Paris, and after graduating with
honours, he became secretary to Count Dam. He
then studied medicine and he was about to obtain his
degree, when his fatlier died and he was compelled to
abandon his studies to make a living for his mother, by
teaching Greek and Latin for a time. Although he
could not ])e a physician, he was interested in medical
studies throughout his life. His first publications deal
with medical subjects: *' Le cholera oriental" (Paris,
1832), "Les grandes 6pid6mies", an article published
in the " Revne des Deux Mondes" (Paris, 183G), " Les
opuvTes d'histoire naturelle de Goethe " (1838). He
founded with Dezeimeris a medical magazine, " L'Ex-
perience" (1837), and translated the "Natural His-
tory" of Pliny the Elder (Paris, 1848), the "Hand-
book of Physiology" by Miiller (Paris, 1851), and
issued a revised edition of Pierre N'vsten's "Diction-
naire de M4decine et do Chirurgie" (Paris, 1854).
From 1839 to lvS(51, he published a translation of the
works of Hippocrates. On acc^imt of his researches
in the scientihc field, he was elected to the Acad6mie
des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1839. While
pursuing his scientific studies, he was greatly inter-
ested in politics. In 1831, having been introduced to
Armand Carrel, he had l)ecome a regular contributor to
tlie newspaper "Le National" and retained tliat posi-
tion up to the Revolution of 184S. Realizing that the
political movement was no longer in accordance with
tiis own ideas, he severed his connexions with "Le
National" and devoted his entire time tQ l\\s«AiVi^\s»»
LTTUBQIOU.
UTUBOIOAL
It was towards 1S40 that he was initiated into the
Fositivist philosophy and got acquainted with Augusts
Comte, of whom ^e scion oecame an independent f ol-
"L' Application de la philoaophie positiv<
veniemettt Jes socifiMa" (Paris, 1849), "Conserva-
tion, Revolution et poaitiviame" (Paris, 1852), "Pa-
roles de philosop hie positive" (Paris, 1859), "Augustc
Oomteet laphilosophie positive" (1803), "Fragments
de philosopnie positive et de sociologie contempor-
aine" (ISTti). In ims, he was a candidate for the
French Academy,
but owing to tlie
Strong opposition
of Mgr Dupan-
loup, Bishop of
Orleans, who de-
nounced liis works
as immoral and
impious, he was
rejected, Uewas
afterwards ad-
mitted to the
Academy,inl87l,
and Ri^op Du-
panloup sent bia
resignation, to-
which, he thought,
"was a disgrace
to ttie illuBtrious
company".
Besides his nu-
and the
asked to be baptiied and he died i
Church.
du.V (Paris, 1863); C/lho, LiUri et le Fontivitme IFaiia. ISSi)]
PuTxua AHO Rehui. Ditamrt dt riptptian 6 raradfmie fraf
Sue (Parii, 1882); Saiht-Hiuiu, SBUvmiri perimntU lur
Itr^m Iji C'lrany/ue mfdiadc (im^): KnxtUB, DaiCttriilni-
iind die VertnUr dtr neucnn NalmvittmcAa/l (Ficibuit
19(M).
Locie N. DsLAUAsaE.
LituT^cftl Booka.^lTnder this name we under-
stand all the books, published by the authority of anjr
church, that contain the text and directiona for her
official (liturgical) services. It is now the book that
forms the standard by which one has to judge whether
a certain service or prayer or ceremony is official and
liturgical or not. Those things are liturgical, and those
only, that ore contained in one of the liturgical books.
It is also obvious that any church or religion or aect
is responsible for the things contained in its liturgical
books in (luite another sense than for the contents of
some private book of devotion, which she at moat only
allows and tolerates. The only just way of judging (rf
the services, the tone, and the elhoe of a religious body,
is to consult its liturgical books. Sects that have no
such official books are from that very fact exposed to
all manner of vazaries in their devotion, just as the
absence of an official creed leads to "
PADL-GumB IdTTBA
merous contributions to
publicatioa of his works, Littr£ founded, in IS6T,
a new magazine, "La revue de philosophic posi-
tive". All this work would have absorbed the
entire energy of another man; but this is only a part
of the tremendous production of LittrS. While he
was busily engaged in all these philosophical and
acicntific works, this indefatigable worker, in 1839,
became a member of the committee entrusted with the
duty of continuing the "Hiatoire litMraire de la
France", a vast undertaking begun in the eighteenth
century by the Benedictine monks of the Saint-Maur
CongreRation, and taken up by tJie French Institute,
after the Itevolution. Attracted by that subject, be
published a series of articlea od history and literature,
on comparative philology and study of languages,
which were afterwards gathered under the title of
"Hiatoire de la langue francaise", "Litt^ratuie et
bistoire" (Paris, 1878), "Etudes et glanures" (Paris,
1880). One of his most interesting contributions to
philolon' isatranslatioQof Booklof thelliad, inverse
and in the French language of the thirteenth century.
But by far the most important of all his works, which
will moke bis name live forever, is the " Dictionaairc
In 1871, Littre was elected to the Assembliie Na-
tionale by the Department of Seine and was made a
senator for hfe in 1S74. His fame was then exploited
by the Radicals who wentsofarasto induce him to Ix;
initiated a Freemason. Much to their surprise, he pro-
nounced, on the occasion of his initiation, a vcr^' con-
servative speech which disappointed the enemies of
the Church. In fact, he had never Ijeen an implacable
opponent to Catholicism. In 1878 he declined the
dedication of a certain book because of bitter attacks
short account is given of those of the other rites.
I. The Fihot Traces of LiTtmoiCAt Books.— Our
present convenient compendiums — the Missal, Bre-
viary, and so on — were formed only at the end of a long
evolution. In the first period (lasting perhaps tifl
about the fourth century) there were no books except
the Bible, from which leasons were read and p^hnB
were sung. Nothing was written, because nothing waa
fixed (see Litobgy). Even after certain forms hM be-
come so stereotyped as to make already what we
should call a more or less fixed liturgy, it does not
seem that there was at first any idea t&t they should
be written down. Habit and memory made the cele-
brant repeat more or lesa the same forma each Sunday*
the people answered his prayers with the accustomed
acclamatioos and responses — all without books.
It has been much discussed at what period we h&ve
evidence of written liturgies. Renaudot ("Litup-
giarura Orientalium CoUectio", 2nd ed., Frankfurt,
1847, I, pp. ix and xi) thought that no booka were
written even by the fourth century. He ai^uoa this
from a passage in St. Basil (d. 379), who distinguishes
between the written teaching of the Apostles (in the
Bible) and the unwritten tradition, and quotes litur-
gical functions as belonging to this: "Who", be asks,
"of the saints has written down for us the words of
the Sacred Invocation in the consecration of the bread
and chalice?" (De Spir. Sancto, c. xxvii, in P. G.,
XXXII, 187). Another argimient is that no mention
is made of liturgical books in the acts of martyn (who
the B , ,
Donatiata in the fourth century. Daniel ("Codex
the fourth century. Probst ("Die iilteetenrt
Sakramcntarien und Ordiiies", MOoater, 1892, pp.
1-19) tries to estabUsh that there were lituigicaJ booka
back to the time of the Apostolic Fathers. The argu-
ment from St. Basil may W dismissed at once. He is
only explaining the well-known distinetion between
the two sources of revelation. Scripture and tradition.
Tradition is distinct from Scripture: it may include
""lie. By"8ainte"
other written l>ooks, but a
UTUBGIOAL
297
LnUBGIOAL
he means 0D]3r the writers of Scripture, and therefore
hiB statement is that the Eucharistic Invocation is not
in the Bible. As for the Donatists, there is, on the
contrary, evidence that both they and the Catholics
had litureical books at that time. Optatus of Mileve,
writing about the year 370 against them, says: "You
have no doubt cleaned the palls" (linen cloths used in
Mass), " tell me what vou have done with the books?"
("De schism. Donat. , V, Vienna edition, 1893, p.
153.) What were these books? Both palls and books
had been taken from the Catholics, both were used in
the liturgy (ibid.). The books were not the Bible,
because ine Donatists thoueht them polluted (ibid.).
So there were other liturgicsu books besides the Bible.
Auf^ustine too reproaches the Donatists with being in
Bchism with the verv churches whose names they read
iu the " holy books ' (epp. lii and liii) . So also a synod
at Hippo in Africa (in 393) forbids anyone to write
down tne prayers of other Churches and use them,
until he Ims shown his copy to the more learned
brethren (can. xxv; Hcfele-Leclercq, "Histoire dcs
Conciles", II, Paris, 1908, p. 88; cf. Probst, op. cit.,
ia-14).
Hiat some prajrers were occasionally written down
from the first age is evident. Prayers are quoted in the
Apostolic Fathers (" Didache", ix, x; Clement, ** First
Epistle to the Corinthians", lix, 3 — Ixi. See Liturgy).
This does not, however, prove the existence of liturgi-
cal books. Probst thinks that the exact quotations
made by the Fathers as far back as the second century
prove that the liturgy was alreadv written do^-n.
Such quotations, he says, could only be made from
written books (op. cit., 15-17). This argument does
not seem very convincing. We know that formula),
especially liturgical formmse, can become very definite
and well-known before they arc put in a book. A more
solid reason for the existence of a written liturgy at
any rate by the fourth century is the comparison of
the liturrf of the eighth book of the Apostolic Fathers
with the Bysantine Kite of St. Basil. Proclus (d. 446)
says that basil (d. 379) modified and shortened the
liturgy because it was too long for the people. There
is no reason to doubt what he says (sec Constanti-
nople, The Rite of). The liturgy shortened by Basil
was that of Antioch, of which we have the oldest spec-
imen in the Apostolic Constitutions. A comparison
of this fespecially the Thank^iving-prajs^cr) with that
of St. Basil (Brightman, "Eastern Liturgies", pp.
14-18 and 321-3) shows in effect that Basil is much
shorter. It does not seem likely that, after Basil's
necessary shortening, anyone should have taken the
trouble to write out the discarded long form. There-
fore, the litiiigy of the Apostolic Constitutions was
written before St. Basil's reform, although it is in-
corporated into a work not finally compiled till the
early fifth century (Funk, *' Die apostolischen Konsti-
tutionen", Rottenburg, 1891, p. ',i6G; Probst, op. cit.,
12-13).
Our conclusion then is that at any rate by the mid-
dle of the fourth century there were written liturgies,
and therefore liturgical lx)oks of some kind, however
incomplete. How long before that anything was
written down we cannot say. We conceive portions
of the rite written out as occasion required. Evidently
one of the first things to be written was the diptychs
containing the lists of persons and churches for whom
f)rayers were to be said. These diptychs were used
ituigic^lv — the deacon read them — in all rites down
to the Micidle Ages. Augustine's argument against the
Donatists refers to the diptychs (epp. lii and liii
above). The diptychs were two tablets folded like a
book {Sit and rrvx'6)] on one side the names of the
living, on the other those of the dead were written.
They have now disappeared and the names are said
from memory. But tne Byzantine Rite still contains
the rubrics: "The deacon remembers the diptychs of
the departed"; ** He remembers the diptychs of the liv-
ing" (Brightman, op. cit., 388-9). No doubt the next
thmg to be written out was the collection of prayers
said by the celebrant (Sacramentaries and Euchologia),
then indications for the readers (Comites, CapituJaria,
Synaxaria) and the various books for the singers
(Antiphonaries, books of Troparia), and finally the
rubrical directions (Ordines, Typika).
II. HlSTOUY OP THE ROMAN LiTUROICAL BoOKS.
So far the development went on in parallel lines in
East and West. When we come to the actual books
we must distinguish between the various rites, which
have different groups and arrangements. In the
Roman Rite the first complete books we know are the
Sacramentaries (Sacramentaria), A Sacramentary is
not the same thing as a Missal. It contains more on
the one side, less on the other. It is the book for the
celebrant. It contains all and only the prayers that
he says. At the time that these books were written it
was not vet the custom for the celebrant also to re-
peat at tne altar whatever is sung by the ministers or
choir. Thus Sacramentaries contain none of those
parts of the Mass, no Lessons, no Introits, Graduals,
Offertories and so on, but only the Collects, Prefaces,
Canon, all that is strictly the celebrant's part. On the
other hand they provide for his use at otner occasions
besides Muss. As the celebrant is normally supposed
to be a bishop, the Sacramentary supplies him with
the prayers he wants at ordinations, at the consecra-
tion of a church and altar and many exorcisms, bless-
ings, and consecrations that are now inserted in the
Pontifical and Ritual. That is the order of a com-
plete Sacramentary. Many of those now extant are
more or less fragmentary.
The name Sacramentarium is equivalent to the other
form also used (for instance, in the Gelasian book),
Liber Sacramentorum. The form is the same as that
of the word Ilymnartum. for a book of hymns. Gen-
nadius of Marseilles (fifth cent.) uses both. He says
of Paulinus of Nola: "Fecit et sacramentarium et
hymnariiun" (De viris illustribus, xlviii). The word
sacramentum or sacramenta in this case means the
Mass. Sacramenta celebrare or facere is a common
term for saying Mass. So St. Augustine (d. 430) re-
marks that we say "Sursum corda" "in sacramentis
fidelium", that is at Mass (De Dono Persev., xiii, 33),
and two schismatics of the fifth century complain to
the Emperors Gratian and Thcodosius that Pope
Damasus (366-84) will not let them say Mass; but
they do so all the same, because " salutis nastne sacra-
menta facienda sunt" (Faust inus and Marccliinus,
"Lib. prec. ad Imp." in P. L., XIII, 98; cf. Probst,
" Die altesten rom. Sakram.", 20-1). A number ot
Sacramentaries of the Roman Rite are still extant,
either complete or in part. Of these the most impor-
tant are the three known by the names I^eonine, Gela-
sian, and Gregorian. Their date, authorship, place,
and original purpose have l>een much discussed. What
follows is a compilation of the views of recognized
scholars.
The so-called "Sacramentarium Leonianum" is the
oldest. Only one manuscript of it is known, written
in the seventh century. This manuscript was found
in the library of the cathedral chapter of Verona, was
published by Joseph Bianchini in 1735 in the fourth
volume of nis edition of Anastasius Bibliothecarius,
and was by him attributed arbitrarily to St. Leo I (440
-61). On the strength of this attribution the book
was included by the Ballerini in their edition of Leo
(Venice, 1753-7), and still bears the name Leonine.
It was reprinted by Muratori in his " Liturgia Romana
vetus" (Venice, 174S). Now the best edition is that
of C. L. Feltoe (Cambridge, 1896). The Leonine
Sacramentary represents a pure Roman use with no
Gallican elements. But it is not a book compiled for
use at the altar. The hopeless confusion of its parts
shows this. It is a fragment, containing no Canon
nor Ordinary of the Mass, bxit ^ ^siVtfsi^vaii. ^\^x<3^Kt^
UTUBGICAL
298
UTURGiaAL
(Collects, Secrets, Prefaces, Postcommunions, and
Orationes super populum), of various Masses with
ordination forms, arranged according to the civil year.
It begins in the middle of the sixth Mass for April, and
ends with a blessing for the font ** In ieiunio mensis
dedmi" (i. e. the winter Ember-days) . In each month
sroups of Masses are given, often very large groups,
^r each feajst and occasion. Thus, for instance, in
June we find twenty-eight Masses for St. Peter and St.
Paul, one ^ter another, each headed: "Item alia"
(Feltoe's ed., pp. 36-50); there are fourteen for St.
Lawrence, twenty-three for the anniversary of a
bishop's consecration (123-39), and so on. Evidently
the writer has compiled as manv alternative Masses
for each occasion as he could find. In many cases he
shows great carelessness. He inserts Masses in the
wrong place. Many of his Masses in natali episco^
porum have nothing at all to do with that anniversary,
and are really Masses for Sundays after Pentecost; m
the middle of a Mass of St. Cornelius and St. Cyprian he
has put the preface of a Mass of St. Euphemia (p. 104),
a Mass for the new civil year is inserted among tnose for
martvrs (XX item aliafp. 9) ; Masses for St. Stephen's
day (26 Dec.) with evident allusions to Christmas are
put in August (pp. 86-9), obviously through a con-
tusion with the feast of the finding of his relics (3
Aug.). Many other examples of the same confusion
are quoted bv Buchwald (''Das sogen. Sacramentarium
Leonianum . Vienna, 1908). That the collection is
Roman is obvious. It is full of local allusions to
Rome. For instance, one of the collects to be said by
a bishop on the anniversary of his consecration could
only be used by the pope of Rome: "Lord God . . .
who, although Thou dost not cease to enrich with
many gifts Thy Church spread throughout the world,
nevertheless dost look more favourably upon the see
of Thy blessed Apostle Peter, as Thou hast desired
that it should be most exalted, etc." (p. 127). The
Preface for St. John and St. Paul remembers that
they are buried within "the boundaries of this city"
(p. 34) ; the Masses of the Patrons of Rome, St. Peter
and St. Paul, continually^ allude to the city (so the
preface in the twenty-third Mass: "who, foreseeing
that our city would labour under so many troubles,
didst place in it the chief members of the power of the
Apostles", p. 47), and so on continually (cf. Probst,
op. cit., 48-53, etc.).
Mgr Duchesne (Originesdu Culte Chretien, 129-37)
thinks that the Leonine book is a private collection of
prayers copied without much intelligence from the offi-
cial books at Rome about the year 538. He arrives at
this date especially through an allusion' in the Secret
of a Mass placed in June (but really an Easter Mass),
which refers to a recent deliverance from enemies
(Feltoe, p. 73). This allusion he understands to refer
to the raising of the siege of Rome by Vitiges and his
Goths at Easter-time, 538 (see his other arguments,
pp. 131-2). Muratori considered that the book was
composed under Felix III (483-92; "Liturgia rom.
vetus", diss. xx\'^ii). Probst answers Duchesne's
arguments (Die altesten r6m. Sakram., pp. 56-61) ; he
attributes the allusion in the Secret to Alaric's in-
vasion in 402, and thinks that the compilation was
made between 366 and 461 . The latest theory is that
of Buchwald (Das sogen. Sacram. Leon., 62-7), who
suggests that the book is a compilation of Roman
Masses made in the sixth or seventh century for use in
Gaul, so that the composers of Roman books who were
at that time introducing the Roman Rite into Gaul (see
Liturgy) might have a source from which to draw
their material. He suggests Gregory of Tours (d.
694) as possibly the compiler.
The "Gelasian Sacramentary" exists in several
manuscripts. It is a Roman book more or less Galli-
canized; the various manuscripts represent different
stages of this Gallican influence. The oldest fonn
extant is a book written in the seventh or early eighth
century for use in the abbev of St. Denis at Paris.
This is now in the Vatican library (MS. Regins 316).
It was first published by Tommasi in his ''Codices
Sacramentorum nongentis annis vetustiores" (Rome,
168()), then by Muratori in " Liturgia romana vetus*'.
I. Other versions of the same book are the Codices of
St. Gall and of Rheinau, both of the eighth century,
edited by Gerbert in his " Monumenta veteris liturgw
alemmanicffi," I (St. Blaise, 1777). These three (col-
lated with others) form the basis of the standard
edition of H. A. Wilson (Oxfoixl, 1894). The book
does not in any old manuscript bear the name of Gelar
sius; it is called simply ''Liber Sacramentorum
Romana) ecclesise". It .is much more complete Uian
the Leonine Sacramentary. It consists of three books,
each marked with a not very accurate title. Book I
(The Book of Sacraments in the order of the year's
cvcle) contains Masses for feasts and Sundays from
Cfhristmas Eve to the octave of Pentecost (there are as
yet no special Masses for the season after Pentecost),
together with the ordinations, prayers for all the rites
of the catechumenate, blessing of the font at Blaster
Eve, of the oil, dedication of churches, and reception
of nuns (Wilson, ed., pp. 1-160). Book II (Prayers
for the Feasts of Saints) contains the Proper of Saints
throughout the year, the Common of Samts, and the
Advent Masses (ibid., 161-223). Book III (Prayers
and the Canon for Sundays) contains a great num-
ber of Masses marked simply "For Sunday" (i.e.
any Sunday), the Canon of tne Mass, what we should
cafi votive Masses (e. g. for travellers, in time of
trouble, for kings, and so on), Masses for the Dead,
pome blessings (of holy water, fruits, trees and so on),
and various prayers for special occasions (224-315).
An old tradition (Walafrid Strabo, ninth century,
"De rebus eccl.", XX; John the Deacon, "Vita S.
Gregorii'* II, xvii, etc.) ascribes what is evidently this
book to rope Gelasius I [492-6. Gennadius (lie vir.
illust., xcvi) says he composed a book of Sacraments].
Duchesne (op. cit., 121-5) thinks it represents tbe
Roman service-books of the seventh or eighth century
(between the years 628 and 731). It was, however,
composed in the Prankish kingdom. All the local
Roman allusions (for instance, the Roman Stations)
have been omitted; on Good Friday the prayers
read: "Let us pray for our most Christian Elinperor
[the compiler has added] or king" (p. 76), and again:
" look down mercifully on the Roman, or the Prankish^
Empire" (ibid.). There are also Gallican additions
(Duchesne, 125-8). Dom BSumer ('Ueber das sogen.
Sacram. Gelas." in " Histor. JahrbuchderGdrresgesell-
schaft", 1893, pp. 241-301) and Mr. Bishop ("The
earliest Roman Massbook" in " Dublin Review", 1894,
Ep. 245-78) maintain that it is much earlier than
►uchcsne thinks, and ascribe it to the sixth century,
at which time the Roman Rite entered Gaul (see Lit-
urgy) . Buchwald (Das sogen. Sacr. Leon., ibid., p. 66)
agrees with Duchesne in dating this Sacramentar\' at
the seventh or eighth century, and thinks that its
compiler used the Leonine collection.
We know most about the third of these books, the
so-called "Gregorian Sacramentary". Charlema^e,
anxious to introduce the Roman Rite into his kmg-
dom, wrote to Pope Adrian I between the years 781
and 791 asking him to send him the service-book of
the Roman Church. The book sent by the pope is the
nucleus of the Greeorian Sacramentaiy. It was then
copied a great number of times, so that there are many
versions of it, all containing additions made by the
various Bcribe»9. These are described by Probst (Die
ftltesten Sakr., pp. 303-13). The first edition is that
of Pamelius in his "Rituale SS. Patrum Latinorum",
II (O)lo^e, 1571). The standard edition is Muratori,
"Liturgia romana vetus", II. This is based on two
manuscripts, both written before 800, now in the Vat-
ican Library (Cod. Ottobonianus andCod.yaticftnus).
Migne (P. L., LXXVIII, 25-602) reprints the editioo
unmoioAL
299
LITUBOiaU.
of Nicholas Menard (P&ris, 1642). Probst maintains
that this is rather to be considered a Gelasian book,
reformed according to the Gregorian (Die <es. Sakr.,
pp. 165-0). In any case the elements are here com-
pfetely fused. The original book sent by Adrian to
Charlemagne is easily distinguished from the addi-
tions. The first who began to supplement Adrian's
book from other sources (Pamelius sa3r8 it was a cer-
tain Prankish Abbot named Grimold) was a conscien-
tious person and carefully noted where his additions
b^in. At the end of the original book he adds a
note, a frefatiuncula beginning with the word Huo-
usque: S6 far (Hucusaue) uie preceding book of
Sacraments is certainly tnat edited by the noly Pope
Gregory." Then come (in Pamelius's edition) two
supplements, one (according to Pamelius) by Abbot
Gnmold and the other by Alcuin. The supplements
vary considerably in the codices. Eventually their
matter became incorporated in the original book. But
in ^e earlier versions we may take the first p>art, down
to the prefatiunculaf as being the book sent by Ad-
rian. How far it is that of Gregory I is another Ques-
tion. This book then has three parts: (1) The Ordi-
narv of the Mass ; (2) the Propers for the year beginning
with Christmas Eve. They follow the ecclesiastical
year; the feasts of saints (days of the month in the
civil year) are incorporated in their approximate
places in this. The Roman Stations are noted. There
are still no Masses for the Simdays after Epiphany
and Pentecost; (3) the prayers for ordinations. There
are no votive Biases or requiems. For these reasons
Mgr Duchesne considers that the ** Sacramentary '' is
the "pope's book", that is the book used by the pope
himself tor the public papal services (Origines du Culte
Chretien, p. 117). Is its attribution to St. Gregory I
(690-604) correct? That Gregory did much to reform
ihe lituigy is certain. A constant tradition ascribes
such a work to him, as to Gelasius. John the Deacon
(ei^th century) in his life of Grc^ry expresses this
tradition: " He collected the Sacramentary of Gelasius
in one book" (we have seen that the two sets of
Propers in the Gelasianum are fused together in the
Gregorianum), ''leaving out much'' (this too is veri-
fied by comparing the books; numbers of Gelasian
Prefaces ana ritual elaborations are omitted in the
Gregorian book), "changing little, adding some-
thing " (II, xvii) . Pope Adrian himself, in sending the
book to Charlemagne, says that it is composed "by
our holy predecessor, the divinely speaking Pope
Gregory" (letter in Jafif6, "Cod. Carol.", p. 274).
That the essential foundation of this " Sacramentar\'^ "
goes back to St. Gregory, indeed to long before his
time, is certain. Nor need we doubt tlmt he made
such changes as are claimed for him by his biographer,
and that Uiese changes stand in this book. But it is
not his work untouched. It has additions made since
his time, for instance his own feast (12 March, in
Migne's edition, P. L., LXXVIII, 61) and other
feasts not kept at Rome before the seventh century
(Duchesne, op. cit., 118). Evidently then the book
sent by Pope Adrian has gone through the inevitable
development; succeeding centiu*ies since Gregory have
added to it. It represents the Roman Rite of the time
when it was sent — the eighth century. For this rea-
son Duchesne prefers to ciQl it the "Sacramentary" of
Adrian (op. cit., p. 119). We have said that, when it
arrived in the Prankish kingdom, it began to receive
suppleanents. It must be remembered of course that
the writers who copied it had not in view the future
needs o^ students. The books they made were in-
tended for practical use at the altar. So they added at
the end of Adrian's "Sacramentary" whatever other
ICasses and prayers were wanted by the churches for
which they wrote. These supplements are taken
partly from the (jelasian book, partly from Gallican
sources. We have also noted that the additions were
at first carefully distinguished from the original book.
eventuallv incorporated in it. Dom Bfiumer sees in
these additions a compromise made in carrying out
Charlemagne's orders that only the book he had re-
ceived from Rome should be used (see Litxtrgies;
and B&umer, "Ueber das sogen. Sacram. Gelasi-
animi", 295-301). He also thinks that the first
additions and the prefatiuncula were made by Alcuin
(d. 804). Between the ninth and eleventh centuries
the book so composed returned to Rome, took the place
of the original pure Roman Rite, and so became the
foundation of oiu* present Roman Missal. Besides
these three most important Sacramentaries there are
other fragments, the " Missale Francorum," written in
the seventh or eighth centur>', the " Ravenna Roll "
of doubtful date (sixth to eleventh century?), ete.
(see Duchesne, "Origines", pp. 128-9, 137-8).
At the same time as the Sacramentaries, books for
the readers and choir were being arranged. GraduiJly
the "Comes" or "Liber Comicus" that indicated the
texts of the Bible to be read developed into the " Evan-
felarium" and "Lectionarium" (see Gospel in thb
iiTCRGT and Lessons in the Liturgy). The hom-
ilies of Fathers to be read were collected in "Homil-
aria", the Acts of the martyrs, read on their feasts, in
"Martyrologia". The book of psalms was written
separately for singing, then arranged in order, as the
psalms were sung through the week, in the "Psal-
terium " that now forms the first part of our Breviary.
The parts of the Mass sim^ by the choir (Introit,
Gradual, Offertory, Commimion) were arranged in the
" Liber Antiphonarius" (or Gradualis), the Antiphons
and Responsories in the Office formed the 'uJber
Responsaiis", or "Antiphonarius Officii", as distinct
from the "Antiphonarius Missse". Two early collec-
tions of this kind, ascribed to St. Gregory I, are in
P. L., LXXVIII, 641-724, and 725-850. The same
tradition that attributes to him the Sacramentary at-
taches his name to these (e. g., John the Deacon,
"Vita S. Gregorii", II, vi). Throughout the early
Middle Ages such collections were copied with local
modifications all over Western Europe. Hymns (in our
sense) were introduced into the Roman Rite about the
fifth or sixth century. Those of the Mass were written
in the Gradual, those of the Divine Office at first in the
Psalter or Antiphonarj'. But there were also separate
collections of hymns, called " Hymnaria", and " Libri
Seouentiales " (or troponarii) , containing the se(]^uences
ana additions (farcing) to the Kvrie and Gloria, ete.
Other services, the Sacraments (Baptism, Confirma-
tion, Penance, Marriage, Extreme Unction), the Visi-
tation of the Sick, the Burial Service, all manner of
blessings, were written in a very loose collection of
little lx)oks called by such names as "Liber Agen-
dorum", "Agenda", "Manuale", "Benedictioruue",
"Pastorale", "Sacerdotale", "Rituale", the prede-
cessors of our Ritual. As examples of such books we
may quote the " Manuale Curatorum" for the Diocese
of Roeskilde in Denmark (ed. by J. Freisen, Pader-
bom, 1898) and the "Liber Agendorum" of Schlcs-
wig (ed. J. Freising, Paderbom, 1898). Their num-
ber and variety is enormous.
Finally there remained the rubrics, the directions
not about what to say but what to do. This matter
would be one of the latest to be written down. Long
after the more or less complicated prayers had to be
written and read, tradition would still be a sufficient
guide for the actions. The books of prayers (Sacra-
mentaries, Antiphonaries^ ete.) contained a few words
of direction for the most important and salient things
to be done — elementary rubrics. For instance the Gre-
eorian " Sacrament ar>' " tells priests (as distinct from
bishops) not to say the Gloria except on Easter Day;
the celebrant chants the preface excelsa voce^ and so on
(P. L., LXXVIII, 25). In time, however, the growing
elaborateness of the papal functions, the more com-
plicated ceremonial of the Roman Court, made it neces-
sary to draw up rules of what custom and ^va^^sfiO^
UTUBOICAL
300
UTUROIOAL
demanded. These rules are contained in the "Ordines* *
— precursors of our " Caerimoniale Episcoporum '*.
Mabillon published sixteen of the Ordines in his '* Mu-
sseum Itaiicum*', II (Paris, 1689). These are repro-
duced in P. L., LXXVIII, 937-1372. They are of
different dates, from about the eighth to the fifteenth
century. The first of them ("Ordo Romanus primus",
edited apart by E. G. C. Atchley with excellent notes,
London, 1905), which is the most important, was
?robably drawn up about the year 770 in the reign of
*ope Stephen III (768-72), but is founded on a sim-
ilar " Orclo " of the time of Gregory I (590-604). The
" Ordines " contain no prayers, except that, where nec-
essary, the first words are given to indicate what is
meant. They supplement the Sacramentary and
choir-books with careful directions about the ritual.
Since Mabillon other " Ordines '* have been found and
edited. A famous and important one, found in a
manuscript of the church of St. Amand at Puelle, is
published by Duchesne in the Appendix of his "Ori-
gines du Cmte Chretien" (pp. 440-63). It was comr
posed about the eighth or ninth century.
During the Middle Ages these books were rear-
ranged for greater convenience, and develop)ed event-
ufiJly into the books we know. The custom of Low
Mass changed the Sacramentary into a Missal. At
Low Mass the celebrant had to supplement personally
what was normally chanted by the deacon and sub-
deacon or sung by the choir. This then reacted upon
High Mass, so that here too the celebrant began to say
himself in a low voice what was sung by some one else.
For this purpose he needed texts that were not in the
old Sacramentary. That book was therefore enlarged
by the addition of Lessons (Epistle and Gospel, ete.)
and the chants of the choir (introit, Gradual, etc.).
So it becomes a MisscUe plenarium^ containing all the
text of the Mass. Isolated cases of such Miss^ occur
as early as the sixth century. By about the twelfth
century they have completely replaced the old Sacra-
mentaries. But Lectionaries ana Graduals (with the
music) are still written for the readers and choir.
In the same way, but rather later, compilations are
made of the various books used for saying the Divine
Office. Here too the same motive was at work. The
Office was meant to be sung in choir. But there were
isolated priests, small country churches without a
choir, that could not afford the library of books re-
quired for saying it. For their convenience com-
pendiums were made since the eleventh century.
Gregory VII (1073-85) issued a compendium of this
kind that became very popular.
First we hear of Lihri noctumales or matutinales,
containing all the lessons and responses for Matins.
To these are added later the antiphons and psalms,
then the collects and all that is wanted for the other
canonical hours too. At the same time epitomes are
made for people who recite the Office without the
chant. In these the Psalter is often left out; the
clergy are supposed to know it by heart. The anti-
phons, versicles, responsories, even the lessons are in-
dicated only by their first words. The whole is really
a kind of concise index to the Office, but sufficient for
people who said it day after day and almost knew it by
neart. Such little books are called by various names
— "Epitomata", '*Portiforia", and then especially
" Breviaria divini officii" (Abbreviations of the Divine
Office). They were used mostly by priests on jour-
neys. In the twelfth century the catalogue of the
library of Durham Cathedral includes "a little travel-
ling breviarj'" (breviarium parvum Uinerarium), In
1241 Gregory IX says in a Bull for the Franciscan
order: "You have (the Divine Office) in your Brevi-
aries" (see Batiffol, " Histoire du Br6viaire", chap, iv,
especially pp. 1 92-202) . The parts of these Breviaries
were fillea up eventually so as to leave nothing to
memory, but the convenient arrangement and the
name have been kept. It is curious that the word
Breviar>% which originally meant only a Iiandy epit-
ome for use on journeys and such occasions, has come
to be the usual name for the Divine Office itself. A
priest "says his breviary" that is, recites the canoni-
cal hours.
The development of the other books took place in
much the same way. The Missals now contained only
the Mass and a few morning services intimately con-
nected with it. Daily Mass was the custom Tor eveiy
priest; there was no object in including all the rit^
used only by a bishop in each Missal. So these rites
apart formed the Pontifical. The other non-Eucha-
nstic elements of the old Sacramentary combined with
the ^'Libri Agendarum'' to form our Ritual. The
Ck)imcLl of Trent (1545-03) considered the question of
uniformity in the liturgical books and appointed a
commission to examine the question. But tJbe conmiis-
sion found the work of unifymg so many and so varied
books impossible at the time, and so left it to be done
gradually by the popes. The Miss^ and Breviary
were reformed very soon (see next paragraph), the
other books later. The latest work was we produc-
tion of the ''Caerimoniale Episcoporum''. John Bur-
chard, Master of Ceremonies to Sixtus IV (1471-84),
combined the old ** Ordines Romani " into an Ordo «er-
vandus per sacerdotem tn celebrcUione missas (Rome,
1502), and arranged the rubrics of the Pontifical
Other editions of the rubrics were made at intervals,
tiUClement VIII (1592-1605) issued the " Casrimonialc
Episcoporum" (in 1600). All the books have been
constantly revised and re-edited with additions down
to our own time.
III. The Present Roman Liturgical Books. —
The official books of the Roman Rite are seyen — the
Missal, Pontifical, Breviary, Ritual, Cserimoniale
Episcoporum, Mcmoriale Rituum, and Martyrology.
These contain all and only the liturgical services of
this rite. Several repeat matter also found in others.
Other l>ooks, containing extracts from them, share
their official character inasmuch as the texts conform
to that of the original book. Such secondarj^ liturgi-
cal books are the Ijcctionary and Gradual (with musi-
cal notes) taken from the Missal, the Day Hours
(Hone diumae) of the Breviary, the Vesperal, Antiph-
onary and other choir-books (with notes), also ex-
tracted from thcBreviaiy, various Benedictionals and
Ordines taken from the Ritual or Pontifical.
(a) The Roman Missal (Missale Romanum), as we
now have it, was published by Pope Pius V by the
Bull '*Quo primum" of 14 July, 1570 (see Liturgies
and Roman Rite). A commission, opened by the
Council of Trent under Pius IV (1559-65), consisting
of Cardinal Beniardine Scotti, Thomas Gcddwell,
Bishop of St. Asaph (one of the last two English
bishops of the old Catholic line), Giulio Poggi. and
others, had then finished its task of rc\'ising the book.
Clement VIII (1592-1605) formed a new commission
(Baron ius, BelLarmine, and others) to restore the text
which printers had again corrupted, and especially to
substitute the new Vulgate (1590) texts for those of
the Itala in the Missal: he published his revision by
the Bull ''Cum Sanctissimum" on 7 July, 1604. Ui^
ban VIII (1623-44) again appointed a commission to
revise chieflv the rubrics, and issued a new edition on 2
September, 1634 (Bull "Si quid est"). Leo XUI
(1878-1903) again made a revision in 1884. These
names stand for the chief revisions; they are ihoee
named on the title-page of our I^Iissai (Misj^e Ro-
manum ex decreto SS. Concilii Tridentini restitutum
S. Pii V Pont. Max. iussu editum, dementis VIII, Ur-
bani VIII et Leonis XIII auctoritate recognitum). Bui
the continual addition of Masses for new feasts goes
on. There are few popes since Pius V who have mot
authorized some additions, made by the Sacred Con*
gregation of Rites, to the Missal or its various supple-
ments. The reigning pope, Pius X, has issuea the
chants of the Vatican edition in the GraduaL As far
UTUAGICAL 301 UTUaOICUL
these affect the Missal they have again produced Sanciorum), that is, general Masses for Apostke,
new editions of it. Moreover a commission now Martyrs and so on, that are very commonly used for
aittinj; is considering a further revision of the text. It saints of each class, often with proper Collect, Secret,
is believed that when the commission for restoring the and Posteommimion. Most saints' days give the
text of the Vulgate has completed its work, that text rubric: "All of the Common of a Confessor Pontiff
will be issued in the lessons of the Missal, thus making (or whatever it m&y be) except the following prayers",
again a new revision. But, in spite of all these modi- A collection of votive Masses of various kinds follows,
fications, our Missal is still that of Pius V. Indeed its ending with the Mass for a wedding (Pro Sponso et
text goes back to long before his time to the Gallican- Sponso), then thirtv-fivc sets of prayers (Oraiionea
ixed Gregorian "Sacramentary'^ of the ninth to eleventh diuersce) that may be used on certain occasions in
century, and, in its essential characteristics, behind Mass, according to the rubrics. The four Masses for
that to the Gelasian book of the sixth century, and so the dead come next, then twelve seU of prayers for
back into the mist that hangs over the formation of the the dead. Then the rite of blessing holy water and
Roman Rite in the first centuries. the Aspcrges ceremony. Eleven forms of blessings
Tlje Missal begms with the Bulls of Pius V, Clement (Sacramentals) used by priests, blessings of vestments,
VIII, and Urban VIII. Then come the approbation altar-linen, and the tal>ernacle or ciborium (used by
of the bishop in whose diocese it is printed and a few of bishops and by priest-s having a special faculty), and
the most import&nt decisions of the Sacred Congre^a- the prayers (Collect, Secret, Ilanc Igitur, Postcom-
tion of Rites. A long explanation of the Gregorian mumon) said at ordination Masses end the old part of
Calendar foUows, containing much astronomical in- the Missal. There follow, however, the ever-growing
formation. This is headed: *'De anno et eius parti- supplements. Of these first come a collecticn of
bus". The two Paschal tables follow (Julian and votive Masses appointed by Pius IX for each day of
Gregorian), a table of movable feasts for a number of the week, then spfccial Masses allowed for certain dio-
f uture years and the Roman Calendar of feasts. Then cescs (MUsoe aliquibus in locis celebranda) , now form-
come three sets of rubrics, first ''Rubrics gcnerales ing a second Proper of Saints nearly as long as the old
Blissfe", containing the more general rules in twenty one; and finally with the Missal is bound up another
paragraphs (these were made by Burchard, revised by supplement (paged with asterisks, I . , etc.) for what-
thecommiasionsofPiusV,ClementVIII,IJrbanyiII); ever country or province or religious order uses it.
then the *' Ritus servandus in celebratione misss ", The Missal contains all the music used by the celebrant
in thirteen paragraphs or chapters. Tliis latter at the altar (except the obvious chants of Dominus
gives exact directions for High or Low Mass, whether vobiscum. Collects, etc., that are given once for all in
celebrated by a bishop or priest. Third come the the "CierimpnialeEpiscoporum'') in its place. The
directions al>out what to do in case of various acci- new (Vatican) edition gives the various new chants at
dents or defects, headed ' * De def ectibus in celcbrat ione the end.
misssB occurrentibus*', in ten chapters. A private The Lectionary {Leclionarium Romanum) contains
preparation and thanksgiving for Mass follow ''to be the Epistles and Gospels from the Missal, the Gradual
made at the opportunity of the priest". The prayers (Graduule R^tnanum), all the choir's part (the Proper,
said while vestmg come at the end of the preparation. Inlroit, etc., and the common, Kyrie, etc.) with mu-
Lastl^, figures show the way to incense the altar and sic. Religious orders that have a special rite (Do-
oblation. Shorter and special rubrics for various minicans, Carmelites, Carthusians) nave of course
occasions are inserted (in red) in the text. their special Missals, arranged in the same way.
Then follows the text of the Missal. The first part (b) The Pontifical {Pontificate Romanum) is the
contuns the "Proper of the time" (Propriumteviporis) bishop's-book. It was issued by Benedict XIV (1740-
from the first Sunday of Advent to the last after Pente- 58) on 25 March, 1752, and revised by Leo XIII in
cost. The Proper of each Mass is given in order of the 1888. It has tliree parts and an appendix. Part I
ecclesiastical year, that is the Masses of each Sunday contains the rites of Confirmation, tnc tonsure, the
and other day (vigils, ember-days, ferise in Lent) that seven ordinations, the blessing of abbots, abbesses,
has a proper Mass. Only Cliristmas and its cvcle of nuns, coronation of kings and queens, and blessing of
feasts (to the octave of the Epiphany), although fixed a knight (milca). Part II contains the services for
to days of the civil year (25 Dec., etc.). come in this laying foundation-stones, consecrating churches, al-
part. Certain rites, not Eucharistic, but connected tars, chalices, many episcopal blessings (of vest-
closely with the Mass, are in their place in the Missal, ments, vessels, crosses, statues, bells, weapons, and
such as the blessing of ashes, canoles, and palms, all fiags), the seven penitential psalms, and the litany.
the morning services of Holy Week (except the Ves- Pa^ III contains the publication of movable feasts on
Ssrs of Thursday and FridayJ. After the service of the Epiphany, the expulsion of public penitents on
oly Saturday the whole Ordinary of the Mass with Ash Wednesday and their reconciliation on Maundy
the Canon is inserted. This is the (almost) unchang- Thursday, the order of s^oiods, degradations from
ing framework into which the various Propers are each order, excommunication and absolution from it,
fitted. Its place in the book has varie<l considerably of the Journeys of prelates (prayers to be said then),
at different times. It is now put here, not so much for visitation of parisncs, solemn reception of bishops,
mystic or symbolic reasons, as because it is a conveni- Ic^tes, emperors, kings, and such people down to a
ent place, aoout the middle where a book lies open best " Princess of great power ", the old episcopal scrutiny,
(see Canon of the Mass). The eleven proper Pref- a ceremony for the first shaving of a clerk s beard, and
aces, and all changes that can occur in the Canon (ex- a little rite for making or dcgrsuling a singer (pmlmista
cept the modifications on Maundy Thursday), are or cantor)' The appendix of the Pontifical contains
mnted here in the Ordinary'. Then follows Easter the various rites of oaptism by a bishop, the ordini^
bay and the rest of the year in order. The second tions without music, marrioec performed by a bishop,
port of the Missal contains the Proper of Saints (Pro- the pontifical absolution and blessing after the sermon
prium missarum de sanctU), that is, the feasts that at High Mass, the ''Apostolic Benediction", and a
occur on days of the civil year. It begins with the blessing of Holy Water to reconcile a church after it
Vigil of St. Andrew (29 Nov.), as occurring at about has been execrated (polluted). A supplement adds
the beginning of Advent, and continues (leaving out the consecration of a church with manv altars,
CSuristmas and it^s cycle) regularly through the months of an altar alone, and of a portable altar — all without
to the feaats of bi, Silvester and St. Peter of Alexan- the cliant. A uuml^er of extracts from the Pontifical
dria (26 Nov.). are made, the ordination rites, consecration of a
The third part is always paged anew in brackets, church, and so on. These are not specially authorized;
\J]g etc. It contains the Common Masses (Commiuie they are authentic if they conform to the original
LZTUBGICAL
302
LXTUBGIOAL
The revision of the plain song has not yet touched the
Pontifical. When it does, tms will necessitate a new
edition.
(c) The Breviaiy {Bremoriutn Romanum) contains
all the Divine Office without chant. It has been re-
vised by the same popes (Pius V, Clement VIII. Ur-
ban Vlll, Leo XIIl) as the Missal. It begins with the
Bulls, the chapter about the calendar, the paschal
tables, tables of movable feasts, calendar, like the
Missal. Then follow the general rubrics (RubrioB
?^enerale8 breviarii) in thirty-six chapters, giving
ull directions for the recital of the office, occurrence
of feasts, and so on. Further tables of occurrences,
pravers to be said before and after the office, and a
table of absolutions and blessings end the introduc-
tory matter. The actual text begins with the psalter,
that is the psalms arranged for the week, with their
normal antiphons and hymns. First come Matins
and Lauds for Sunday; then Prime, Terce, Sext, and
None, then Matins and Lauds for each weekday. Af-
ter Lauds for Saturday follow Vespers for each day,
then Compline. This ends the Psalteriimi. The offices
for each aay follow, arranged exactl^r as in the Missal
(Proper of the season, Proper of saints. Common of
saints, votive Offices and Offices for the dead, the
supplement for certain places, and a local supple-
ment). After the Office for the dead some extra-
neous matter is inserted, namely the Gradual psalms,
litany, prayers for the dying, blessing for the dying,
grace at meals, and prayers for clerics on a journey.
At the end of the whole book come the prayers before
and after Mass and two private litanies (of the Holy
Name and of the Blessed Virgin).
As the Breviary, in spite of its name, is now a very
laige and cumbersome oook, it is generally issued in
four parts (Winter, Spring, Summer, Autumn). This
involves a good deal of repetition; the whole Psalter
occurs in each part, and all feasts that may overlap
into the next part have to be printed twice. The first
volume only (Winter, which begins with Advent)
contains the general rubrics. It is now also usual to
reprint the psalms that occur in the Common of saints
instead of merely referring back to the Psalter. Many
other parts are also reprinted in several places. On the
number and judicious arrangement of these reprints
depends the convenience of any particular edition of
the Breviary. Already in the Miadle Ages the count-
less manuscripts of the Breviary are fond of promising
the purchaser that he will find all the offices complete
without references ("omnia exscripta sine recursu",
"tout le long sans recquerir")* a statement that the
writer, after examining a great number of them, has
never once found true. The chief book excerpted from
the Breviary is the "Day Hours" (HorcB diumce breviarii
romani), containing everything except Matins, which
with its lessons forms the main bulk of the book. For
singing in choir various books with music exist, repre-
senting still more or less the state of thines before
Breviaries were invented. The complete *' Liber Anti-
phonarius" contains all the antiphons, hymns, and
responses throughout the Office. From this again
various excerpts are made. For the offices most com-
monly sung m chtirches we have the Vesperal (Fes-
P^o^ Romanum) f containing Vespers and Compline.
The monastic orders (Benedictines, Cistercians, Car-
thusians, etc.), the Dominicans, Franciscans, Pre-
monstratensians, and several local dioceses still have
their own Breviaries. For the various attempts at re-
placing our Breviary by a radically reformea one (es-
pecially that of Cardinal Quifi6nez in 1535) see the
article Breviart and the histories of B&umer and
BatifToL
(d) The Ritual (Riiuale Romanum) contains all the
services a priest needs besides those of the Missal and
Brevianr. This book especially was the least uniform
in the Middle Ages. Almost every diocese had its own
Ritual, or Agenda. Paul V issued in 1614 a book
meant to be used everywhere; Benedict XIV revised it
in 1752. The Roman Ritual contains ten titles (tUuli)
and an appendix nearly as big again as all the rest.
Title I gives general directions for administering Sac-
raments; II gives all the forms for baptism; Hi for
penance; IV for the Holy Eucharist, V for extreme
unction and the care of the sick: VI relates to fu-
nerals and gives the Office for the aead from the Bre-
viary; VII relates to matrimony; VIII contains a laiKe
collection of blessi^^s for vanous objects; IX defus
with processions; A with exorcisms and forms for
filling up in the books of the parish (the books of bap-
tism, confirmation, marriage, the state of souls, and
the dead). The appendix (paged anew with aster-
isks) gives additional directions for the sacraments,
some decrees and prayers and a lai^ collection of
blessings, first "unreserved", thenJbhose to be used
only by priests who have a special faculty, those re-
served to certain religious orders, and many "newest
blessings". There is still a great want of uniformity
in the use of this book. M^y countries, provinces,
and dioceses have their own lutual or " Ordo admin-
istrandi Sacramenta", etc.
(e) The Ceremonial of Bishops (Ccerimoniale Ejm-
coporum) in spite of its title contains much mattef
needed by other people than bishops. It is entirely a
book of rubrical directions, succeeding the old ** Ordines
Romani ". Much of it is already contained in the ru-
brics of the Missal, Pontifical, ancl Ritual. It was first
issued by Clement VIII in 1600, then revised by Inno-
cent X (1650), Benedict XIV at various dates (finally
1752), and Leo XIII (1882). It has three books. The
first contains general directions for episcopal func-
tions, and for the bishop's attendants miaster of cere-
monies, sacristan, canons, and so on). Then come full
directions for everything connected with Mass. the
altar, vestments, ceremonies, etc. ; finally the oraer of
a synod. Book II is all about the Divine Office, its
chanting in choir and all the ritual belonging to it, as
well as certain special functions (the blessing of can-
dles, ashes, palms, the Holy Week services, proces-
sions, etc.). Book III is alx)ut various extra-uturgi-
cal functions, visits of bishops to governors of prov-
inces, solemn receptions and so on, finally conduct for
cardinals. The book continually gives directions^ not
only for bishops but for priests, too, at these fimctions.
It is also here that one finds some of the most ordinary
chants used bv any celebrant (e. g., the Dominus vo-
biscum. Collects, I, 27; Confiteor, II, 39). The " C«re-
moniale Episcoporum" is thus the official and indis-
pensable supplement to the rubrics of the Missal,
Breviary, Ritual, and Pontifical.
(f) The Memorial of Rites (Memoriale Riluum) or
Little Ritual {Rituale parvum) is the latest of these
official books. It gives directions for certain rites
(the blessing of canSes, ashes, palms, the Holy Week
services) in small churches where there are no minis-
ters (deacon and subdeacon). The Missal always sup-
poses the presence of deacon and subdeacon at these
lunctions; so there was doubt and confusion about
them when carried out by a single priest. Benedict
XIII (1724-30) published this book m 1725 to remove
the confusion in the smaller parish churches of Rome.
Pius VII (1800-23) extended it to all small churches
of the Roman Rite in 1821 . It is therefore the official
norm for all such services without ordained ministers.
(g) The Martyrology (Martyr ologium Romanum) is
an enlarged calendar giving the names and very short
accounts of all saints (not only martyrs) commemo-
rated in various places each day. The earliest known
martyrologies go back to the fourth century. In the
Middle Ages there were, as usual, many versions of the
book. Our present Roman Martyrology was arranged
in 1584 by Cardinal Baronius under Grgsory Xul,
and revised four times, in 1628, 1675, 16S), and (by
Benedict XIV) 1748. It is read m choir at Prime.
IV. LiTtJBGiCAL Books of Other Rites. — Of these
UTUBGiaU.
303
unmaioAL
little need be said here. 1>b^ are described in the
articles on the various rites. The other two surviving
rites in the West Tof Milan and the Mozarabic Rit^
have gone through the same development as the
Roman — from Sacramentariesi Lcctionaries, Psalters,
and Antiohonaries to Missals, Pontificals, and Bre-
viaries. Only of course their books contain their own
prayers and ritual. The latest editions of the Milanese
^Ambrosian) Missal, Breviary, Ritual etc., are pub-
bshed by Giacomo Agnelli at the Archicpiscopal Press
(Hpografia arcivesamle) at MUan. The classical edi-
tion of the Mozarabic books is that made by order of
Cardinal Ximcnes (Archbishop of Toledo, 1495-1517).
The Missal (Missale mistum [for mixtum] secundum
regulam beati Isidori dictum Mozarabcs) was printed
at Toledo in 1500 (reprmted in P. L., LXXX\0,
the Breviary {BreviaHum Gothicum) reprinted (with
Romanizing additions) at Toledo in 1502 (P. L.,
LXXX\^). None of the Eastern Churches has yet
made such compendiums of its books as our Missal
and Breviary. All their books are still in the state
in which ours were in the days of Sacramentarics,
Antiphonaries, and so on. One reason for this is that
in the East our reduplications are imkno\\^. There
Uie priest does not also say at the altar the parts sung
by tne readers and choir. Nor has there been any de-
velopment (except a rudimentary beginning, chiefly
among^ the Uniats) of private recitation of the OflSce.
So their books are only wanted for the choir; the var-
ious readers and singers use different volumes of what
in some rites is quite a lai^ge library.
The Byzantine Books are the Typikon, a kind of per-
gjtual calendar with directions tor all 8er\'ices, the
uchologion, containing all the priest wants for the
Holy Liturgy and other sacraments and rites (almost
exactly the old Latin Sacramentary). The Triodion,
Pentekostarion, Oktoechos, and Horologion contain
the choir's part of the Litur©r and Office throughout
the year. The Menaia and Menologion contain the
saints' offices; the Psalterion explains itself. The
Apostolos and Evangelion contain the liturgical les-
soas (these books are described in Constantinople,
The Rite of). There are many editions. In Greek
the Orthodox books are published at the Phoenix
Press (formerly at Venice, now Patras), the LTniat
books bv the Roman Propaganda. Each national
Church nas further its own editions in its liturgical
language. The books of other Eastern Churches cor-
respond more or less to these, but in most cases they
are more confused, less known, sometimes not even
yet edited. In the very vague state of most of their
books one can only say in general that these churches
have an indefinite collection, each service having its
own book. These are then collected and arranged in
all kinds of groups and compendiums by various edi-
tors. The Uniat compendiums have a natural tend-
ency to imitate the arrangement of the Roman books.
The most obvious cases of liturgical books are alwavs
the Lectionaries, then the Book of Liturgies. The
others are mostly in a very vague state.
The Nestorian Books (all in Syriac) are the Liturgy
(containing their three liturgies), the Gospel {Euanfje-
lion), Apostle (Shlicha) and Lessons {Kariane), the
"Turgama " (Interpretation), containing hymns sung
by deacons at the liturgy (our Graduals and So-
auenoes), the David (Dawtdha = Psalter), "Khu-
ahra " (= " cycle '*, containing antiphons, responsories.
hymns, and collects for all Sundays), "Kash Kol
(= " Collection of all " ; the same chants for week-days) ,
"Kdhamu-Wathar'' (="Before and after"; certain
prayers, psalms, and collects most often used, from the
other books)/' Gezza'' (" Treasury " scr^'ices for feast-
da^), Abtt-Hallm (the name of" tne compiler, con-
taming collects for the end of the Noctums on
Sundays), "Batitha d'Ninwaie" (=" Prayer of the
Ninevites", a collection of hymns ascrited to St.
Ephraem, iised m Lent) . The baptism Office (" Taksa
d'Amadha '') is generally bound up with the Liturgii
The "Taksa d'Siamldha'' has the ordination services.
The " Taksa d'Husaia ' ' contains the office for Penanoe,
the '* Kthawa d'Burrakha" is the marriage service,
the " Kahneita", the burial of clergy, the " Annldha
that of laymen. Lastly the " Khamis " and " Warda"
are further collections of hymns (see Badger, " The Nes-
torians and their Rituals". London, 1852, II, 16-25).
Naturally not every church possesses this varied col-
lection 01 books. The most necessary ones are printed
by the Anglican missionaries at Urmi for the heretics.
Tiie Uniat (Chaldean) books are printed, some at Pro-
paganda, some by the Dominicans at Mosul (" Missale
chaldaicum", 1845; "Manuale Sacerdotum", 1858;
"Breviarium chaldaicum", 1865) . A Chaldean " Brev-
viary" was published in three volumes at Paris in
1886-7, edited by Pdre Bedgan, a missionary of the
Congregation des Missions. The Malabar schismatics
uae the Nestorian books, the Uniats have books re-
vised (much romanized) by the Synod of Diamper
(1599; it ordered all their old books to be burned).
The Uniat Malabar '' Missal " was published at Rome
in 1774, the " Ordo rituum et lectionum " in 1775.
The Coptic Books (in Coptic with Arabic rubrics, and
generally with the text transliterated in Arabic char-
acters too) are the Euchologion (Kitfib al-Khulagi
almuqaddas}, very often (but quite wrongly) called
Missal. This corresponds to the Byzantine Eucholo-
gion. Then the Lectionary called "Katamftrus"(= *«'»'*
pJpot), the "Synaksar". containing legends of saints,
the "Deacon's Manual , an Antiphonary (called Di-
fndrt) , the Psalter^ Theotokia (containing offices of the
B.V.M.), Doxologia, collections of hymns for the choir
and a number of smaller books for the various other
offices. These books were first grouped and arranged
for the Uniats by Raphael Tuki, and printed at Rome
in the eighteenth century. Their arrangement is ob-
viously an imitation of that of the Latin service-books
("Missale coptice et arabice", 1736; "Diumum alex-
andrinum copto-arabicum", 1750; "Pontificale et
Euchologium^', 1761, 1762; "Rituale coptice et ara-
bice ", 1 763 ; " Theotokia ", 1764) . Lord Cyril II, the
present Uniat Coptic patriarch, nas published a "mis-
sal", "ritual", and "Holy Week book" (Cairo, 1898-
1902). The Monophysite Copts have a very sump-
tuously printed set of their books, edited by Gladios
Labib, m course of publication at Cairo ("Kata-
marus", 1900-2; "Euchologion", 1904; "Funeral
Ser\'ice^', 1905).
The Ethiopic service-books are (except the Liturgy)
t he least known of any. Hardly anythmg of them has
been published, and no one seems yet to have made a
systematic investigation of liturgical manuscripts in
Abyssinia. Since the Ethiopic Rite is derived from
the Coptic, one may conjecture that their books corre-
spond more or less to the Coptic books. One may also
no doubt conjecture that tneir books are still in the
primitive state of (more or less) a special book for
each service. One has not heard of any collections or
compendiums. Peter the Ethiopian (Petnis Ethyops)
published the Liturgy with the baptism service and
some blessings at the end of his edition of the Ethiopic
New Testament (Tasfa Sion, Rome, 1548). Various
students have published fragments of the Rite in Eu-
rope (cf. Chaine, "Grammaire 6thiopienne", Beirut,
1907; bibliography, p. 269), but these can hardly be
called service-books.
The Jacobite (and Uniat) Syrian Rite has never been
published as a whole. A fragment of the liturgy was
published in Syriac and Latin at Antwerp (1572) by
Fabricius Boderianus (D. Severi alexandrini . . . de
ritibus baptismi et sacne Synaxis). The Uniats have
an Euchologion (Syriac and Karshuni), published at
Rome^ in 1843 (Missale Sj'riacum), and a "Book of
cla-ks used in the ecclesiastical ministries " (Liber min-
iflterii, Svriac onh', Beirut, 1888). The Divine Office,
collected like a Breviary, was ^uhUabs^ %!^ ^<;3is^>s^
UTUBGIOAL
304
Lxnmatttiii
seven volumes (18S&-96), the ferial office alone at
Rome in 1853, and at Sharfl in the Lebanon (1808). A
Ritual—-" Book of Ceremony "—for the Syrian Uijiats
is issued by the Jesuits at Beirut.
The Maronites have an abundance of liturgical
books for their romanized Syrian Rite. The Maron-
ite Synod at Deir al-Luweize (1736) committed a uni-
form preparation of all their books to the patriarch
(Part II, Sess. I, xiii, etc.) These books are all re-
ferred to in Roman terms (Missal, Ritual^ Pontifical,
etc.). The Missal (in this case the name is not incor-
rect) was published at Rome in 1592 and 1710, since
then repeatedly, in whole or in part, at Beirut. Little
books containing the Ordinary of the Litiu-gy with the
Anaphora commonly used are issued by many Catholic
booksellers at Beirut. The "Book of the Minister"
(containing the deacon's and other ministers' parts of
the Liturgy) was published at Rome in 1596 and at
Beirut in 1888. The "Ferial Office", called Pard.
"Burden" or "Duty" (the only one Commonly used
by the clergy), was issued at Rome in 1890, at Beirut
in 1900. Tne whole Divine Office began to be pub-
lished at Rome in 1006, but only two volumes of the
cummer part appeared. A Ritual with various addi-
tional prayers was issued at Rome in 1839. All Mar-
onite books are in S>Tiac and Karshuni.
The Armenian Liturgical Books ai-e quite definitely
drawn up, arranged, and authorized. They are the
only other set among Eastern Churches whose arrange-
ment can be compared to those of the Byzantines.
There are eight official Armenian service-books: (1)
the Directory, or Calendar, corresponding to the Bv-
aantine Typikon, (2) the Manual of Mysteries of the
Sacred Oblation (= an Euchologion), (3) the Book of
Ordinations, often bound up with the former, (4) the
Lectionary, (5) the Hymn-book (containing the vari-
able hymns of the Litur^), (6) the Book of Hours
(contaming the Divine Office and, generally, the dea-
con's i)art of the Liturgy), (7) the Book of Canticles
(^containing the hymns of the Office), (8) the Mashdoiz^
or Ritual (containing the rites of the sacraments).
The books of both Gregorian and Uniat Armenians
have been published a great number of times; the
latest Gregorian editions are those of Constantinople
and Jerusalem, the Uniat ones have been issued at
Rome, Vienna, and especially Venice (at S. Lazaro).
There are many extracts from them, especially from
the Liturgy.
In conclusion it will be noticed that the Eastern and
the older Western liturgical books consider rather the
person who uses them than the service at which they
are used. The same person has the same book, what-
ever the function may l^e. On the other hand the
later Western books are so arranged that all the ser-
vice (whoever may be saying it) is put together in one
book; our books are arranged by services, not accord-
ing to their users. This is the result of our modem
Western prhiciple that every one (or at any rate the
chief person, the celebrant) says everything, even if it
is at tne same time said by some one else.
DucHEHNK, Origineadu cuUe chrctien (2ud ed., Paris, 1898);
Probst, Die iiUe«len rbmischen Sacramentarien und Ordinet
(Mimster, 1802); Idem, Die abendlundiache Messe vom 5. tis
Mum 8. JahrhundeH (3kIi;nstor, 1896); Cabrol, Inlroduction aux
Etudes lituroi<iuea (Paris, 1907); Baumer, Geach. dea Breviers
(FroibuiVj 1895) ; Batiftol, Hist, du Br^viaire rotnain (Parifl,
1895): Wealk, Bibliographia lituroica. Catalogus mis»iliuin
ritus lalini (Ixmdon. 1886); EBSKR.Quellen u. Forachungen zur
Geach. u. Kunatfle^ch. dea Miaaale Romanum (Freiburp, 1896).
The mcKlem Roman liturgical books are published in many
editions by all the well-known Catholic firms (Deacl<'«, Pustct,
Dessain, .Mame. etc.). The "typical" editions of the new books
with the Vatican chant are issued by the Vatican Frees. For
the other ritee see, besides the editions quoted in the text, the
Introduction o( BHioHTiAAN, Eastern Liturgies (Oxford, 1896).
Other works arc quoted in the text.
Adrian Fortescue.
I'
Liturgical Ohant.— Taking these words in • their
ordinary acceptation, it is easy to settle the meaning
of " liturgical chant ". Just as we say liturgical altar,
liturgical vestment, liturgical chalice, etc.^ to indicate
that these various objects correspond m material,
shape^ and consecration with the requirements of the
liturgical uses to which they are put^ so also a chant,
if its style, composition, and execution prove it suit-
able for liturgical use, may properly be called liturgi*
cal chant. Ever}rthing receives its specification from
the purpose it is to serve, and from its own gteatet- or
less aptitude to servo that purpose; n^VeHtjil^ss; it. is
necessary to pulque a fltt^i* &ilal)r^is in bMer to dis-
cover the many possible ways m which the words
" liturgical chant may be applied. In the strict sense
the word "chant" means a melody executed by the
human voice only, whether in the form of plain or har-
monized singing. In a wider sense the word us taken
to mean such singing even wh^ti lU^b&pkm^ oy in-
struments, provided the portion of honour is always
i^iained by the vocal part. In the widest though in-
correct sense, the wora "chant" is also applied to the
instrumental music itself, inasmuch as its cadences
imitate the inflexions of the human voice, that first
and most perfect of instruments, the work of God Him-
self. And thus, after the introduction of the organ
into churches, when it began to alternate with the
sacred singers, we find medieval writers deliberately
using the phrase "cantant organa" or even "cantare
inorganis .
Now, seeing that the Church allows in its liturgical
service not only the human voice, but an accotnpani*
ment thereof by the organ or other InstHitnents, and
even or^an and instruments without the hum&tl
voice, it follows that in the sense, in whicl]i ^^e h^ gbihg
to use it, liturgical chant m^ans liturgical thuSiCibi*^ to
employ the more Usual phitisej sacred tnUdic. tonse-
quently Wt tnay Consider sacred music as embody-
ing four distinct, but subordinate elements: (1) plain
chant, (2) harmonized chant, (3) one or other of these
accompanied by organ and instruments, (4) organ and
instruments alone. Wherein these elements are sub-
ordinate one to another we have to determine from the
greater or less aptitude of each for liturgical purposes,
and from the greater or less appropriateness of the
adjective "liturgical" when applied to them. We
shall start with some general observations, and by
elimination attain the end we have in view.
^1) Sacred music is music in the service of worship.
Tins is a generic and basic definition of all such musfo,
and it is both obvious and straightforward. When the
worship of the true God is in question, man ought to
endeavour to offer him of his very best, and in the way
it will be the least unworthy of' the Divinity. From
this root-idea there spring forth two qualities which
sacred music should have, and which are laid down
in the papal " Motu Proprio," 22 November, 1903.
namely — that sacred music ought to be true art, ana
at the same time holy art. Consequently we caimot
uphold as sacred music and suited for liturgical use,
any music lacking the note of art, by reason of its
povertv of conception, or of its breaking all the laws of
nsusica) composition, or any music, no matter how
artistic it may be, which is given over to profane uses,
such as dances, theatres, and similar objects, aiming
albeit ever so honestly at causing amusement (" Motu
Proprio," II, 5) . Sucn compositions, even though the
work of the greatest masters and beautiful in them-
selves, even though they excel in charm the sacred
music of tradition, must always remain unworthy of
the temple, and as such are to be got rid of as contrary
to the basic principle, which every reasonable man
must be guided by, that the means must be suited to
the end aimed at.
(2) Going a step farther in our argument it must be
borne in mind that we are not here dealing with wor-
ship of God in general, but with His worsJiip as prac-
tised in the True Church of Jesus Christ, the Catnolic
Church. So that for us sacred music primarUy means
music in the service of Catholic worship. Tnis wor-
Lnmu»icAL
305
LrruBaxoAL
^p has buflt itself up and has deliberately held itself
aloof from every other form of worship; it has its own
sacrifice its own altar, its own ntes^ and is directed in
all things bv the sovereign authonty of the Church.
Hence it follows that no music, no matter how much it
be employed in other worships that are not Catholic.
tioL (M ttiat ajCddtlnt, eVer be looked on by us as sacred
flzid liturgical. We iaeet at times witn indlvlduali
Who remind us of the music of the Hebrews, and quote
" Fmlae him tdth sound of trumpet: praise him with
pealteiy and nill^i Praise him with timbrel and
choir: praise him with striiigs and organs. Praise
biin dnnigh sounding cymbals: praise him on cymbals
ex joy:" and who seek by so domg to justify all sorts
of ioyousness in church (chants, instrumental music
aila d^ex^inA noises), even going so far as to plead
"omnia spiritiis laudet Dominum" as though that
verse should excuse all ilild everything their individual
-'spirit" suggested, no matter how tiovel and unusual.
If such a criterion were to be admitted, there &te many
other elements of Hebrew worship we should have to
accept, but which the Church rejected long ago as un-
suited to the sacrifice of the New Testament and to the
spirit of the New Law (cf. St. Thomas, II-II, Q. xci, a.
2| ad 4^^°^) . The same remarks apply to the music used
in Protestant worship. No matter how serious and
solemn, even though it belongs to the style of music the
Church recognises as sacred and liturgical, it ought
never be used as a pattern or model, at lea;jt exclu-
sively for the sacred music of the Catholic Church.
The warm and solemn dignity of Catholic worship has
tidthiilg id common with the pallid friizidity of Protes-
tant services. Hence our choice ought to be always
Abd solely guided by the specific nature of Catholic wor-
ship, and by the rules laid down by the Fathers, the
councils, the con^gatlons, and the pope, and which
have been epitomized in that admirable code of sacrerl
music, the M otu Proprio " of Pius X.
(3) Finally, the phrase "Catholic worship" must
here be ti^en in its fonnal quality of public worship,
the worship of a society or social organism, imposed by
Divine Law and subject to one supreme authority
which, by Divinely acquired right, regulates it, guards
it, and through lawfully appointed ministers exercises
it to the honour of God and the w^elfare of the com-
munity. This is what is known as " liturgical wor-
ship", so styled from the liturgy of the Church. The
Uturgy has been aptly defined as " that worship which
the Catholic Church, through its legitimate ministers
acting in accordance with well-established rules, pul>
licly exercises in rendering due homage to God".
From this it is clear that the acts and prayers p(>r-
Jormed by the faithful to satisfy their private devotion
do not form part of liturgical worship, even when per-
formed by the faithful in a body, whether in public or
in a place of public worship, and whether conducted
by a priest or otherwise. Such devotions not being
omoiaJly legislated for, do not form part of the public
worship of the Church as a social organ ism . Any one can
see the diiTerenoe between a body of the faithful going
in procession to visit a famous shrine of the Madonna.
and the Uturgical processions of the Rogation Days ana
of Corpus Christ:. Such popular functions are not
only tolerated, but blessed and fostered by the Church
authorities, as of immense spiritual benefit to the faith-
ful, even though not sanctioned as liturgical, and are
generally known as extra-liturgical functions. The
principu are the Devotion of the Rosary, the Stations
of the Cross, the Three Hours Agony, the Hour of
the Desolata, the Hour of the Blcssecf Sacrament, the
Month of Mary, the novenas in preparation for the
more solemn feasts, and the like. Wliat has been
said goes to prove that sacred music may fitly be de-
scribed as music in the service of the liturgy, and that
saCTed music and liturgical music are one and the same
thing. Pius X has a<imiral:)ly stated the relation be-
tween the liturgy of the C'hurch and the music it em-
IX.— 20
ploys: " It serves to increase the decor et splendor of the
ecclesiastical ceremonies '*, not as something accidental
that may or may not be present, such as the decora^
tions of the building, the display of lights, the numbei
of ministers, but "as an integrant part of the solemn
liturgy ", so much so that these liturgical functions
cannot take place if the chant l^e lacking. Further,
" since the main office of sacred music is to clothe with
fitting melody the liturgical text propounded for the
understanding at the people, so its chief aim is to give
greater weight to the text, so that thereby the faithful
may be more easily moved to devotion, and dispose
themselves better to receive the fruits of grace wiiich
flow from the celebration of the sacred mysteries "
("Motu Proprio," 1,1).
From this teaching it follows: (a) That no music can
rightly Ixj considered as liturgical, which is not de-
manded by the liturgical function^ or which is not an in-
tegrant part thereof, but which is only admitt-ed as a
discretionary addition to fill in, if we may use theex*
pression, the silent inter\'als of the liturgy where no
appointed text is prescribed to be sung, t Jnder this
head would come the motets which the " Motu Proprio''
(III, 8) permits to be sung after the Offertory and the
Benedictus. • Now, seeing tliat those chants are exe-
cuted during the solemn liturigy, it follows that they
ought to possess all the qualities of sacred music so as
to be in keeping with the rest of the sacred function^
(b) Among the various elements admitted in sacred
music, the most strictly liturgical is that which more
directly than any other unites itself with the sacred
text and seems more indispensable than any <7ther#
The playing of the organ by way of prelude or during
intervals can only he called liturgical in a ver>' wide
sense, since it is by no means necessary, nor docs it
form an integrant part of the liturgy, nor does it
accompany any chanted t-ext. But a chant accom-
Eanied by organ and instruments may very properly
e known as liturgical. Organ and instnunertts aro
permitted, however, only to support the chant, and
can never by themselves be considered as an integrattt
part of the liturgical act. As a matter of fact, theif
introduction is comparatively recent, and they are still
excluded from papal functions. Vocal music gener-
ally is the most, correct style of liturgical music, since
it alone has always Iwen recognized as the proper
music of the Church; it alone enters into direct touch
with the meaning of the liturgical text, clothes that
text with melody, and exi)ounas it to the understand-
ing of the people. Now, since vocal music may be
either renderca plain or polyphonic, tnie Uturgical
music, music altogether indispensable in the celebra-
tion of the solemnliturgy , is the plain chant, and there-
fore, in the Catholic Church, the Gregorian chant*
Lastly, since Gregorian is the solemn chant pro-
scribed for the cclel.)niut and his assistants, so that it
is never lawful to substitute for it a mclodv different in
composition from those laid down in the liturgical
books of the Church, it follows that Gregorian is the
sole chant, the chant par excellence of the Roman
Church, as laid down in the "Motu Proprio" (II. 'A)^
It contains in the highest dcgrcK> the finalities Pope
Pius has enumerated as characteristic of sacred mu-
sic: true art; holiness; universality; hence he has pro-
posed Gregorian chant as the supreme type of sacred
music, justifying the following general law: The more
a comix)sition resembles Gregorian in tone, inspira-
tion, and the impression it leaves, the nearer it comes
t^> l)eing sacred and liturgical ; the more? it differs from
it, the less worthy is it to be employed in the church.
Since Gregorian is the liturgical chant par excellence
of the Roman Church, it is erjuiilly true that the chant
handed down by tradition in other Ciiurches is en-
titled to l)e considered as truly liturgical; for instance,
the Ambrosian chant in the Ainbrosian Church, the
Mozarabic in the Mozarabic Church, and the Greek in
the Greek Church.
LZTUBGICAL
306
ZJTVROT
To round off the line of thought we have been pur-
suing, a few more observations are called for. (a)
The music which accompanies non-litiu*gical firno-
tions of Catholic worship is usually and accuratelv
styled extra-liturgical music. As a matter of fact,
legislation affecting the liturgy does not ipso facto ap-
ply equally to legitimate extra-litur^ical functions.
And consequently the more or less rigid jprohibition
of certain things during the solemn offices of the
Qiurch does not necessarily ban such things from de-
votions such as the Way of the Cross, the Month of
Mary, etc. To take an example, singing in the ver-
nacular is prohibited as part of liturgical functions.
As has been pointed out, music in liturgical functions
is an integrant and not a purely ornamental part
thereof, whereas in extra-liturgical functions *it is al-
together secondarv and accidental, never exacted by
the ceremony, and its main purpose is to entertain the
faithful devoutly in Church or to furnish them a
pleasing spiritual relaxation after the prolonged ten-
sion of a sermon, or whatever pravers they have been
reciting together. Hence the style of extrarliturgical
music IS susceptible of greater freedom, though within
such limits as are demanded by respect Tot God's
house, and the holiness of the prayer it accompanies.
As a sort of general rule it may be laid down that, since
extra-liturgical ceremonies ought to partake as much
as possible of the externals, as well as of the interior
spirit of litui^ical ones, avoiding whatsoever is con-
tr^try to the holiness, solemnity, and nobility of the
act of worship as intended by the Church, so true
extra^liturgical music ought absolutely to exclude
whatsoever is profane and theatrical, assuming as far
as possible the character, without the extreme se-
venty of liturgical music.
(b) Whatever music is not suitable for liturgical
or extra-liturgical functions ought to be banished
from the churches. But such music is not for that
reason to I e called profane. There is a distinction to
be drawn. There is a style of music that belong to
the theatre and the dance, and that aims at giving
pleasure and delij^ht to the senses. This is profane
music as distinct fix>m sacred music. But there is an-
other style of music, grave, and serious, though not
sacred because not used in worship, yet partaking of
some of the qualities of sacred music, and drawing its
ideas and inspiration from things that have to do with
rel^ion and worship. Such is the music of what are
known as sacred oratorios, and other compositions of a
religious character, in which the words are taken from
the Bible or at times from the liturgy itself. To this
class belong the mighty ''Masses'' of Bach, Havdn,
Beethoven, and other classical authors, Verdi's Re-
quiem", Rossini's "Stabat Mater", etc., all of them
works of the highest musical merit, but whicn, because
of their outward vehicle and extraordinary length, can
never be received within the Church. They are suited,
like the oratorios, to recreate religiously and artistic-
ally audiences at great musical concerts. By way of
special distinction, music of this nature is usually des-
ignated religious music.
De Santi, La musicd a serviqio dd euUo in CiviUh Caitolioa
(September, 1888), 652-671; Iokm, La Munea a aervigio dd
euUo CatioliooAhid. (October, 1888). 169-183; I dem. La mtMtca
a Bervigio deUa liturgia, ibid. (December. 1888), 670-688;
Obvaert. Let OrigineB du Chant Liturgique de VEglise Latine
(Ghent, 1800); Gastou^, Les origints du Chant Romain (Paris,
1907) ; Wtatt, SL Oregory and the Gregorian Music (London,
1904).
Anoelo de Santi.
Litargical Oolours. See Colours, Liturgical.
Liturgy. — ^The various CHiristian liturgies are de-
scribed each under its own name. (See Alexandrine
Liturgy; Ambrosian Liturgy; Antiochene Lit-
urgy; Celtic Rite; Clementine Liturgy, treated in
Clement I; CJonstantinople, Rite op; Galucan
Rite; Jerusalem, Liturgy of; Mozarabic Rite;
Sarum Rite; Syrian Rite; Syro- Jacobite Liturgy.)
In this article they are considered onlv from the point
of view of their relation to one another in the most
general sense, and an account is given of what is known
about the growth of a fixed lituigy as such in the early
Church.
I. Definition. — ^Lituiigy (X«Tov/>7fa) is a Greek com-
posite word meaning originiJly a public duty, a service
to the state undertoken bv a citizen. Its elements
are Xeirof (from Xe(6f =. XaM, people) meaninji; public,
and ipyta (obsolete in the present stem, used in future
Ip^*, etc.), to do. From this we have \wrovpy^, "a
man who performs a public duty", "a public ser-
vant", often used as equivalent to the Roman lietor;
then lUiTovpyha, "to do such a duty", \eiro6f>yif/taf its
performance, and \eirovpyta, the public dut^ itself.
At Athens the Xetrovpyla was the public service per-
formed by the wealthier citizens at their own expense,
such as the office of gymnasiarch, who superintended
the gymnasium, that of choreauSf who paid the singers
of a chorus in the theatre, that of the hesti€Uor, who
gave a banquet to his tribe, of the trierarchuSf who pro-
vided a warship for the state. The meaning of the
word liturgy is then extended to cover any general ser-
vice of a public kind. In the Septua^t it (and
the verb \eiTovpy4ta) is used for the pubhc service of
the temple (e. g., Ex., xxxviii, 27; xxxix, 12, etc.).
Thence it comes to have a religious sense as the func-
tion of the priests, the ritual service of the temple (e.
g., Joel, i, 9; ii, 17, etc.). In the New Testament this
religious meaning has become definitely established.
In Luke, i, 23, Zachary goes home when "the days of
his liturgy" (eU ijfUpai rfjt \eiTovpytas a^oO) are over.
In Heb., viii, 6, the high priest of the New Law "has
obtained a better liturgy ", that is a better kind of pub-
lic religious service than that of the Temple.
So in Christian use hturgy meant the public official
service of the Clitirch, that corresponded to the official
service of the Temple in the Old Law. We must now
distinguish two senses in which the word was and is
still commonly used. These two senses often lead to
confusion. On the one hand, liturgy often means the
whole complex of official services, all the rites, cere-
monies, prayers, and sacraments of the Church, as op-
posed to private devotions. In this sense we speak of
the arrangement of all these services in certain set
forms (including the canonical hours, administration
of sacraments, etc.), used officially by any local church,
as the liturgy of such a church — ^the Liturgy of Anti-
och, the Roman Liturgy, and so on. So liturgy means
rite; we speak indifferently of the Byzantine Rite or
the Byzantine Liturgy. In the same sense we distin-
guish the official services from others by calling them
fiturgical; those services are liturgical which are con-
tained in any of the official books (see Liturgical
Books) of a nte. In the Roman CJhurch, for instance,
Compline is a liturgical service, the Rosary is not. Hie
other sense of the word litur^, now the common one
in all Eastern (lurches, restricts it to the chief official
service only — the Sacrifice of the Holy Eucharist,
which in our rite we call the Mass. This is now prac-
tically the only sense in which \etrovpyta is used in
Greek, or in its derived forms (e. g., Arabic alr-litur^
giah) by any Eastern Christian. When a C^reek
speaks of the "Holy Liturgy" he means only the Eu-
cnaristic Service. For the sake of clearness it is per-
haps better for us too to keep the word to this sense, at
any rate in speaking of Eastern ecclesiastical matters:
for instance, not to speak of the Byzantine canonical
hours as lituracal services. Even in Western Rites
the word "oflacial" or "canonical" will do as well as
"liturgical" in the general sense, so that we too may
use Liturgy only for the Holy Eucharist. It should be
noted also that, whereas we may speak of our Mass
quite correctly as the Liturgy, we should never use the
word Mass for the Eucharistic Sacrifice in any Eastern
rite. Mass (niisaa) is the name for that service in the
Latin Rites on! v. It has never been used either in Lat«
LITX7RG7
307
LZTUBGT
in or Greek for any Sastem rite. Their word, corres-
ponding exactly to our "Masa, is Liturgy. The Byzantine
liturgy is the service that corresponds to our Roman
SCass; to call it the Byzantine (or, worse still, the
Greek) Mass is as wrong as naming any other of their
services after ours, as calling their Hesperinos Vespers,
or their Orthraa Lauds. When people go even as far as
calling their books and vestments after ours, saying
Missai when they mean Euchologion, alb when they
mean sticharion, the confusion becomes hopeless.
II. Thb Origin op the Liturgy. — At the outset of
this discussion we are confronted by three of the most
difficult questions of Christian archaeology, namely:
From what date was there a fixed and regulated serv-
ice such as we can describe as a formal Liturgy? How
Car was this service uniform in various Churches?
How far are we able to reconstruct its forms and
arrangement?
With regard to the first question it must be said
that an Apostolic Liturgy in the sense of an arrange-
ment of prayers and ceremonies, like our present ritual
of the Mass, did not exist. For some time the Eucha-
ristic Service was in many details fluid and variable.
It was not all written down and read from fixed forms,
but in part composed by the officiating bishop. As
for ceremonies, at first they were not elaborated as
now. All ceremonial evolves gradually out of certain
obvious actions done at first with no idea of ritual, but
simply because they had to be done for convenience.
The bread and wine were brought to the altar when
they were wanted, the lessons were read from a place
where they could best be heard, Ixands were washed
because they were soiled. Out of these obvious ac-
tions ceremony developed, iust as our vestments de-
veloped out of the dress of the first Christians. It
follows then of course that, when there was no fixed
Liturgy at all, there could be no question of absolute
uniformity among the different Churches.
And yet the whole scries of actions and prayers did
not depend solelv on the improvisation of the celebrat-
ing bishop. Wnereas at one time scholars were in-
clined to conceive the services of the first Ciiristians as
vague and undefined, recent research shows us a very
Btnking uniformity in certain salient elements of the
aervioe at a very early date. The tendency among
students now is to admit something very like a regu-
lated Liturgy, apparently to a great extent uniform in
the chief cities, hack even to tne first or early second
oentuiy. In the first place the fundamental outline
of ihe rite of the Holy Eucharist was given by the
account of the Last Supper. What our Lord had done
then, that same thing He told His followers to do in
memory of Him. It would not have been a Eucharist
at all if the celebrant had not at least done as our Lord
did the night before He died. So we have everywhere
from the very beginning at least this uniform nucleus
<rf a liturgy: bread and wine are brought to the cele-
brant in vessels (a plate and a cup) ; he puts them on a
table — ^the altar; standing before it m the natural
attitude of prayer he takes them in his hands, gives
thsuniks, as our Lord had done, says again the words of
institution, breaks the Bread and gives the consecrated
Bread and Wine to the people in communion. The
absence of the words of institution in the Xestorian
Rite is no argument against the universality of this
order. It is a rite that developed quite late; the
parent liturgy has the words.
But we find much more than this essential nucleus
in use in every Church from the first centurv. The
Eucharist was always celebrated at the end oi a serv-
ice of lessons, psalms, prayers, and preacliing, which
was itself merely a continuation of the service of the
eyiULgogae, So we have everywhere this double
function; first a synagogue service Christianized, in
which the holy books were read, psalms were sung,
prayers said by the bishop in the name of all (t)ie
people answering "Amen in Hebrew, as had tlicir
Jewish forefathers), and homilies, explanations of what
had been read, were made by the oishop or priests,
just as they had been made in the synagogues by the
learned men and elders (e. g., Luke, iv, 16-27). This
is what was known afterwanls as the Litur^ of the
Catechumens. Then followed the Eucharist, at which
only the baptized were present. Two other elements
of the service in the earhcst time soon disappeared.
One was the Love-feast (agape) that came just before"*
the Eucharist; the other was the sviritual exercises , in
which people were moved by tne Holy Ghost to
prophesy, speak in divers tongues, heal the sick by
prayer, and so on . This function — to which I Cor., xi v,
1-14, and the Didache, x, 7, etc., refer — obviously
opened the way to disorders; from the second century
it gradually disappears. The Eucharistic Agape
seems to have disappeared at about the same time.
The other two functions remained joined, and still
exist in the liturgies of all rites. In them the service
crystallized into more or less set forms from the be-
ginning. In the first half the alternation of lessons,
psalms, collects, and homilies leaves little room for
variety. For obvious reasons a lesson from a Gospel
was read last, in the place of honour as the fulfilment
of all the others; it was preceded by other readings
whose number, order, and arrangement varied con-
siderably (see Lessons in the Liturgy). A chant
of some kind would very soon accompany the entrance
of the clerg3' and the beginning of the service. We also
hear very soon of litanies of intercession said by one
person to each clause of which the people answer with
some snort formula (see Antiochene Liturgy; Alex-
andrine Liturgy; Kyrie Eleison). The place and
number of the homilies would also vary for a long time.
It is in the second part of the service, the Eucharist it-
self, that we find a very striking crystallization of the
forms, and a uniformity even in the first or second cen-
tury that goes far beyond the mere nucleus described
above.
Already in the New Testament — apart from the
account of the Last Supper — ^there are some indexes
that point to liturgical forms. There were already read-
ings from the Sacred Books (I Tim., iv, 13; I Thess.,
V, 27; Col., iv, 16), there were sermons (Act., xx, 7),
psalms and hymns (I Cor., xiv, 26; Col., iii, 16; Eph., v,
19). I Tim., ii, 1-3, implies public liturgical prayers
for all classes of people. People lifted up their hands
at prayers (I Tim., li, 8), men with uncovered heads
(I Cor., xi, 4), women covered (ibid., 5). There was a
loss of peace (I Cor., xvi, 20; II Cor., xiii, 12; I Thess.,
V 26). There was an offertory of goods for the poor
(Kom., XV, 26; II Cor., ix, 13) called by the special
name " communion" {Koiwvia). The people answered
"Amen" after prayers (I Cor., xiv, 16). The word
Eucharist has already a technical meaning (ibid.).
The famous passage, I Cor., xi, 2Q-9, gives us the out-
line of the breaking of bread and thanksgiving (Eucha-
rist) that followed the earlier part of the service.
Heb., xiii, 10 (cf. I Cor., x, 16-21), shows that to the
first Christians the table of the Eucnarist was an altar.
After the consecration prayers followed (Acts, ii, 42).
St. Paul "breaks bread" (= the consecration), then
communicates, then preaches (Acts, xx, 1 1). Acts, ii,
42, gives us an idea of the liturgical Synaxis in order:
They "persevere in the teaching of the Apostles"
(this implies the readings and homilies), "communi-
cate in tne breaking of bread" (consecration and com-
munion) and " in praj'ers". So we have already in the
New Testament all the essential elements that we find
later in the organized liturgies: lessons, psalms,
hvmns, sermons, prayers, consecration, communion.
(For all this see F. Probst: "Liturgie der drei ersten
christl. Jahrhunderte", Tubingen, 1870, c. i; and the
texts collected in Cabrol and Ixjclereq; "Monumenta
ecclcsia; liturgica", I, Paris, 1900, pp. 1-51.) It has
Nh'ii fhouj^ht that there are arc in tne New Testament
even actual fornuila> useil in the liturgy. The Ativww
LITURGY
308
LITUBQY
is certainly one. St. Paul's insistence on the form
" For ever and ever, Amen" (c/i rods alQvas tQp al'Jbvtov
ifi^p. — Rom., xvi, 27; Gal., i, 5; I Tim., i, 17; cf.
Heb., xiii, 21; I Pet., i, 11; v, 11; Apoc., i, 6, etc.)
seems to argue that it is a liturgical form well known
to the Christians whom he addresses, as it was to the
Jews. There are other short hymns (Rom., xiii, 1 1-2;
Eph., V, 14; I Tim., iii, 16; II Tim., ii, 11-3), which
may well be hturgical formulae.
In the Apostolic Fathers the picture of the early
Christian Liturgy becomes clearer; we have in them a
definite and to some extent homogeneous ritual. But
this must be understood. There was certainly no set
form of prayers and ceremonies such as we see in our
present Missals and Euchologia; still less was anything
written down and read from a book. The celebrating
bishop spoke freely, liis prayers being to some extent
improvised. And yet this improvising was bound by
certain rules. In the first place, no one who speaks
continually on the same subjects says new things each
time. Mo<lem sermons and modem extempore
Erayers show how easily a speaker falls into set forms,
ow constantly he repeats what come to be, at least
for him, fixed formulaj. Moreover, the dialogue form
of prayer that we find in use in the earliest monuments
necessarily supposes some consta,nt arrangement. The
people answer and echo what the celebrant and the
deacons say with suitable exclamations. They could
not do so unless they heard more or less the same
prayers each time. They heard from the altar such
phrases as: "The Lord be with you", or "Lift up
your hearts", and it was because they recognized these
forms, had heard them often before, that they could
answer at once in the way expected.
We find too very early that certain general themes
are constant. For insta nee our Lord had given thanks
just before Ho spoke the words of institution. So
it was understood that every celebrant began the
prayer of consecration — the Eucharistic prayer — by
thanking God for His various mercies. So we find
always what we still have in our modem prefaces — a
prayer thanking God for certain favours and graces,
that are named, just where that preface comes,
shortly before the consecration (Justin, " Apol.," I, xiii,
Ixv). An intercession for all kinds of j>eople also
occurs very early, as we see from references to it (e. g.,
Justin, "Apol.," I, xiv, Ixv). In this prayer the
various classes of people would naturally be named
in more or less the same order. A profession of faith
would almost inevitably open that part of the ser\'ice
in which only the faithful were allowed to take part
(Justin, ''Apol.", I, xiii, Ixi). It could not have been
long before the archtype of all Christian prayer — the
Our Father — was said publicly in the Liturgy. The
moments at which these various prayers were said
would very soon become fixed. The people expected
them at certain points, there was no reason for chang-
ing their order, on the contrary to do so would dis-
turb the faithful. One knows too how strong con-
servative instinct is in any religion, especially in one
that, like Christianity, has always looked back with
unliounded reverence to the golden age of the first
Fathers. So we must conceive the Liturgy of the
first two centuries as made up of somewhat free
improvisations on fixed themes in a definite order;
and we realize too how naturally under these cir-
cumstances the very words used would be repeated —
at first no doubt only the salient clauses — till they
became fixed forms. The ritual, certainly of the sim-
plest kind, would become stereotyped even more
easily. The things that had to Ix? done, the bringing
up of the bread and wine, the collection of alms and
80 on, even more than the prayers, would l^e done al-
ways at the same point. A change here would be
even more disturbing than a change in the onier of
the prayers.
A last consideration to be noted is the tendency
of new Churches to imitate the customs of the oldet"
ones. Each new Christian community was formed
by joining itself to the bond already formed. The
new converts received their first missionaries, their
faith and ideas from a mother Church. These mis-
sionaries would naturally celebrate the rites as they
had seen them done, or as they had done them them-
selves in the mother Church. And their converts
would imitate them, carry on the same tradition. In-
tercourse between the local Churches would furthei
accentuate this uniformity among people who were
very keenly conscious of forming one body with one
Faith, one Baptism, and one Eucharist. It is not
then surprising that the allusions to the Liturgy in
the first Fathers of various countries, when compared
show us a homogeneous rite at any rate in its main
outlines, a constant type of ser\'ice, though it was
subject to certain local modifications. It would not
be surprising if from this common early Liturgy one
uniform type had evolved for the wnole Catholic
world. We know that that is not the case. The
more or less fluid ritual of the first two centuries crys-
tallized into different liturgies in East and West;
difference of language, the insistence on one point in
one place, the greater importance given to another
feature elsewhere, brought about our various rites.
But there is an obvious unity underlying all the old
rites that goes back to the earliest age. The medieval
idea that all are derived from one parent rite is not so
absunl, if we remember that the parent was not
a written or stereot3T>ed Liturgy, but rather a gencsrai
type of service.
III. The Liturgy in the First Three Centu-
ries.— For the first period we have of course no com-
plete description. We must reconstruct whiit we
can from the allusions to the Holy Eucharist in the
Apostolic Fathers and apologists. Justin Mart3T
alone gives us a fairly complete outline of the rite that
he knew. The Eucharist described in the "Teaching
of the Twelve Apostles'* (most authorities now put
the date of this work at the end of the first century)
in some ways lies apart from the general development.
We have here still the free "prophesying" (x, 7), the
Eucharist is still joined to the Agape (x, 1), the refer-
ence to the actual consecration is vague. The like-
ness between the prayers of thanksgiving (ix-x) and
the Jewish forms for blessing bread and wine on the
Sabbath (given in the "Berakoth" treatise of the
Tahnud; cf. Sabatier, "La Didache", Paris, 1885. p.
99) points obviously to derivation from them. It has
been suggested that the rite here described is not our
Eucharist at all; others (Paul Drews) think that it is
a private Eucharist distinct from the official public
rite. On the other hand, it seems clear from the
whole account in chapters ix and x that we have here
a real Eucharist, and the existence of private cele-
brations remains to be proved. The most natural
explanation is certainlv tnat of a Eucharist of a very
archaic nature, not fully described. At any' rate we
have these liturgical points from the book. The " Our
Father" is a recognized formula: it is to be said
three times every day (viii. 2-3). The Liturgy is a
eucharist and a sacrifice to be celebrated by breaking
bread and giving thanks on the "Lord's Day" by
people who have confessed their sins (xiv, 1). Only
the oaptized are admitted to it (ix, 5). The wine is
mentioned first, then the broken bread; each has a
formula of giving thanks to God for His revelation in
Christ with the conclusion: "To thee be glory for
ever" (ix, 1, 4). There follows a thanksgiving for
various benefits; the creation and our sanctification
by Christ are named (x, 1-4) ; then comes a prayer for
tfie Church ending with the form: "Maranatha.
Amen"; in it occurs the form: " Hosanna to the God
of David" (x, 5-6).
The First Epistle of Clement to tlie Corinthians
(written probably between 90 and lOOj contains an
ZJTUROT
309
LITUBQT
abuiulaaoc of liturgical matter, much more tliau is
apparent at the first glance. That the long prayer
in chapters lix-lxi is a magnificent example of the
kind of prayers said in the liturgy of the first century
has always been admitted (e. g.. Duchesne, "Ori-
gines du Culte", 49-51); that the letter, especially in
this part, is fuU of liturgical forms is also evident.
The writer quotes the Sanctus (Holy, holy, holy Lord
of Sabaoth; all creation is full of his gior\') from Is.,
vi, 3, and adds that '* we assembled in unity cry (this)
as with one mouth" (xxxiv. 7). The end of the long
praver is a doxology invoking Cluist and finishing
with the form: "now and for generations of genera-
tions and for ag» of ages. Amen" (Ixi, 3). This
too is certainly a liturgical formula. There are many
others. But we can find more in I Clem, than merely
a promiscuous selection of formulae. A comparison
of the text with the first known I^iturgy actually
written down, that of the '' Eighth Book of the Apos-
tolic Constitutions " (written long afterguards, in the
fifth century in Syria) reveals a most startling likeness.
Not only do the same ideas occur in the same onler,
but there are whole passages — ^just those that in I
Clem, have most the appearance of liturgical f ormuke
— that recur word for word in the "Apast. Const."
In the "Apost. Const." the Eucharist ic prayer be-
gins, as in all liturgies, with the dialogue: "Lift up
your hearts ", etc. Then, beginning : ' 'It is truly meet
and jast ", comes a long thanksgi ving for various bene-
fits corresponding to what we call the preface. Here
occurs a detailed description of the nrst l)enefit we
owe to God — ^the creation. The various things
created — ^the heavens and earth, sun, moon and stars,
fire and sea, and so on, are enumerated at length
("Apost. Const.", VIII, xii, 6-27). The prayer ends
with the Sanctus. I Clem., xx, contains a prayer
echoing the same ideas exactl\% in which the ver>' same
words constantly occur. The order in which the
creatures are mentioned is the same. Again " Apost.
Const.", VIII, xii, 27, introduces the Sanctus in the
same way as I Clem., xxxiv, 5-6, where the author
actually says he is quoting the Liturgy. This same
Preface in Apost. Const." (loc. cit.), remembering the
'atriarchs of the Old Law, names Abel, Cain, Both,
Henoch, Noe, Salmon, Lot, Abraham, Mclchisedech,
Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Josue. The parallel passage in
I Clem, (ix-xii) names Enoch, Noe, Lot, Salmon,
Abraham, Rahab, Josue: we may iiot« at once two
other parallels to this list containing again almost the
same fist of names — ^Heb,, xi, 4-31, and Justin, " Dia-
logue", xix, cxi, cxxxi, cxxxxaii. The long prayer
in I Clem, (lix-lxi) is full of ideas and actual phrases
that come again in '' Apost. Const.", VIII. Compare
for instance I Clem., lix, 2—4, with ** Apost. Const.",
VIII, x, 22-xi, 5 (which is part of the celebrant's prayer
during the litany of the faithful : Brightman, ''Eastern
Lituisies", p. 12), and xiii, 10 (prayer during the litany
iha,% follows the great intercession. Brightman, p.
24). Other no less striking parallels may be seen in
DiewB, " Untersuchungen Uoer die sogen. clement.
Lituigie," 14-43. It is not only with the Liturgy of
" Apost. Const." that I Clem, has these extraordinary
resemblances. I Clem., lix, 4, echoes exactly the
clauses of the celebrant's prayer during the int«r-
cessioQ in the Alexandrine I^te (Greek St. Mark.
Briffhtman, 131). These parallel passages cannot
all be mere coincidences (Lightfoot realized this, but
suggests no explanation. ''The Apostolic Fathers",
London, 1890, I, II, p. 71).
The question then occurs: What is the relation be-
tween I Clement and — in the first place — the Liturgy
of " Apost. Const." ? The suggestion that first presents
itself is that the later document ("Apost. Const.") is
quotinff the earlier one (I Clem.). This is Hamack's
view ("Gesch. der altchristl. Litteratur", I, Leipzig,
1893, pp. 42-43), but it is exceedingly unlikely. In
that case the quotations would be more exact, the
order of I C'leiii. would Ijc kept ; the prayers in tbe
Liturgy have no appearance of being quotations or con-
sc'ioiLs coniiH)sitions of fragments from earlier books;
nor, if the * 'Apost. Con.st." were (luoting I Cloro.,
would there be reduplications such as we have seen
alx)ve (VIII, xi, 22-xi, 5, and xiii, 10). Years ago
Ferdinand Probst spent a great part of his life in try-
ing to prove that the Liturgy of the " Apostolic Con-
stitutions " was the universal primitive Liturgy of the
whole Church. To this enueavour he applied an
enormous amount of erudition. In his "Liturgie der
drei ersten christlichen Jahrhundertc*' (Tubingen,
1870) and again in his "Liturgie des vierten Jahrhun-
derts und deren Reform" (Munster, 1893), he ex-
amined a vast number of texts of Fathers, always with
a view to find in them allusions to the Litui^gy in
question. But he overdid his identifications hope-
lessly. He sees an allusion in ever}' text that
vaguely refers to a subject named in the Liturgy.
Also his books are very involved and difficult to study.
So Probst's theory fell almost entirely into discredit.
His ubiquitous I-.iturg}'' was rememl^red only as the
monomania of a very learned man; the rite of the
" Eighth Book of the Apostolic Constitutions " was put
in what seemed to be its right place, merely as an
early form of the Antiochene Ijturgy (so Duchesne,
*'Origines du Culte", 55-6). Ijately, however, there
has come again to the fore what may be dcscril^ed as
a modified form of Probst's theory. Ferdinand Kat-
tenbusch ("Das apostolische Svmbol", Tubingen,
1900, II, 347, etc.) thought that after all there might
be some foundation for Probst's idea. Paul Drews
(Untersuchuu^en tiber die sogen. clementinische
T^iturgie, Tubingen, 1906) proposes and defends at
lengtli what may well be the germ of tnith in Probst,
namely that there was a certain uniformity of type
in the earliest Liturgy in the sense described above,
not a uniformity of detail, but one of general outline,
of the ideas expressed in the various parts of the ser-
vice, with a strong tendency to uniformity in certain
salient expressions that recurred constantly and be-
came insensibly liturgical formulae. This type of
liturgy (rather than a fixed rite) may be traceil back
even to the first centurv. It is seen in Clement of
Rome, Justin, et<?.; perhaps there are traces of it even
in the Epistle to the Hel)rews. And of this type we
still have a specimen in the ''Apostolic Constitutions ".
It is not that that rite exactly as it is in the " Constitu-
tions" was used by Clement and Justin. Rather the
" Constitutions " give us a much later (fifth century)
form of the old Liturgy written down at last in Syria
after it bad existed for centuries in a more fluid state
as an oral tradition. Thus, Clement, writing to the
Corinthians (that the letter was actually composed
by the Bishop of Rome, as Dionysius of Corinth savs
in the second century, is now generally admitted. Cf .
Bardenhewer, "Gesch. der altkirchl. Litt-eratur",
Freiburg, 1902, 101-2), uses the language to which he
was accustomed in the Liturgy; the letter is full of
liturgical ideas and reminiscences. They are found
again in the later crystallization of the same rite in
the "Apostolic Constitutions". So that book gives
us the best representation of the Liturgy as used in
Rome in the first two centuries.
This is confirmed bv the next witness, Justin
Martyr. Justin (d. ar)out 104). in his famous account
of the Liturg}', descril^es it as he saw it at Rome
(Bardenhewer, op. cit., 206). The often quoted
passage is (I Apologj*)' LXV. 1. "We load liim who
nelieves and is joinecl to us, after we have thus bap-
tized him, to those who are called the brethren, where
they gather together to say prayers in common for
ourselves, and for him who has been enlightened,
and for all who are everywhere. ... 2. We greet
each other with a kiss when the prayers are finished.
3. Then bread and a cup of water and wine are brought
to the president of the brQthi^Tv., ^\A\\RV"Si.xvcv^i^'«*
LITUROT
310
UTUBQT
ceivcd them sends up praise and glor>' to the Father
of all through the name of his Son and the Holy Ghost,
and makes a long thanks^ving that we have been
made worthy of these thmgs oy him; when these
prayers and thanksgivings are ended all the people
present cry 'Amen'. ... 5. And when the presi-
dent has given thanks (e^opurrijtroi^of, already a
technical name for the Eucharist) and all the people
have answered, those whom we call deacons give the
bread and wine and water for which the 'thanks-
giving' (Eucharist) has been made to be tasted by
those who are present, and they carry them to those
that are absent. LXVI. This food is called by us
the Eucharist" (the well-known passage about the
Real Presence follows, with the quotation of the
words of Institution). LXVII. 3 " On the day which
is called that of the Sun a reunion is made of all those
who dwell in the cities and fields; and the conmien-
tarics of the Apostles and writings of the prophets are
read as long as time allows. 4. Then, when the reader
has done, the president admonishes us in a speech
and excites us to copy these glorious things. 5. Then
we all rise and say prayers and, as we have said above,
when we have done praying bread is brought up and
wine and water; ana the president sends up prayers
with thanksgiving for the men, and the people ac-
claim, saying 'Amen', and a share of the Eucharist
is given to each and is sent to those absent by the
deacons."
This is by far the most complete account of the
Eucharistic Service we have from the first three cen-
turies. It will be seen at once that what is describod
in chapter Ixvii precedes the rite of Ixv. In Ixvii
Justin begins his account of the Liturgy and repeats
in its place what he had already said above.
Putting it all together we have this scheme of the
service:
1. Lessons (Ixvii, 3).
2. Sermon by the bishop (Ixvii, 4).
3. Prayers for all people (Ixvii, 5; Ixv, 1).
4. Kiss of peace (Ixv, 2).
5. Offertory of bread and wine and water brought
up by the deacons (Ixvii, 5; Ixv, 3).
6. Thanksgiving-prayer by the bishop (Ixvii, 5;
bcv, 3).
7. Consecration by the words of institution (?
bcv, 5; Ixvi, 2-3).
8. Intercession for the people (Ixvii, 5; Ixv, 3).
9. The people end this prayer with Amen (Ixvii, 5;
bcv, 3).
10. Communion (Ixvii, 5; Ixv, 6).
This is exactly the order of the Liturgy in the " Apos-
tohc Constitutions" (Brightman, " Eastern Liturgies",
3-4, 9-12, 13, 14-21, 21-3, 25). Moreover, as in the
case of I Clement, there are manv passages and phrases
in Justin that suggest parallel ones in the Apost.
Const." — not so much in Justin's account of the Litui^gy
(though here too Drews sees such parallels, op. cit.,
68-9) as in other works in which Justin, like Clement,
may be supposed to be echoing well-known liturgical
phrases. Drews prints many such passages side by side
with the corresponding ones of the " Apost. Const.",
from which comparison he concludes that Justin
knows a dismissal of the catechumens (cf. "I ApoL",
xlix, 5; xiv, 1 ; xxv, 2, with "Apost. Const.", VIII, vi, 8;
X, 2) and of the Energumens (Dial.,xxx; cf. "Apost.
Const.", VIII, vii, 2) corresponding to that in the Lit-
urgv in question. From " I Apol. ' , Ixv, 1 ; xvii, 3 ; xiv,
3; deduces a prayer for all kinds of men (made by the
conmiunity) of the tj'pe of that praver in "Apost.
Const.", VIII, X. " I Apol.", xiii, 1-3, Ixv, 3; v, 2, and
Dial., xli, Ixx, cxvii, give us the elements of a preface
exactly on the lines of that in " Apost. Obnst.'', VIII,
xii, 6-27 (see these texts in parallel columns in Drews,
•*op. cit.", 59-91).
We have, then, in Clement and Justin the picture
of a Liturgy at least remarkably like that of the "Apos-
tolic Constitutions ". Drews adds as sinking paralleifl
from Hippolytus (d. 235), "Contra Noetum", etc.
(op. cit., 95-107) and Novatian (third cent.) "De
Trlnitate" (ibid., 107-22), both Romans, and thinks
th^t this same type of lituiYy continues in the known
Roman Rite (122-66). That the Liturgy of the
" Apostolic Constitutions " as it stands is Antiochene,
and is closely connected with the Rite of Jerusalem,
is certain. It would seem, then, that it represents one
form of a vaguer type of rite that was in its main
outline imiform in the first three centuries. Tlie
other references to the Liturgy in the first age (Igna-
tius of Antioch, d. about 107, "Eph.", xiii, xx,
" Phil. ", iv, " Rom.", vii, " Smym.", vii, viii; Iremeus,
d. 202, "Adv. haer.", IV, xvii, xviii: V, ii, Clement of
Alexandria, d. about 215, "Psed.' , I, vi; ll, ii, in
P.G., VIII, 301, 410; Origen,d. 254," Contra Cels.",
VIII, xxxiii, "Hom. xix in Lev.", xviii, 13; "In
Matt.", xi, 14; "In loh.", xiii, 30) repeat the same
ideas that we have seen in Clement and Justin, but
add little to the picture presented by tJiem (see Cabrol
and Leclercq, "Mon. Eccles. Liturg.", I, passim).
IV. The Parent Rites, from the Fourth Cen-
tury.— From about the fourth centuir our knowledge
of the Liturgy increases enormously. We are no
longer dependent on casual references to it: we have
definite ntes fully developed. The more or less imi-
form type of Liturgy used everywhere before crystal-
lized into four parent rites from which all others arc
derived. The four are the old Liturgies of Antioch,
Alexandria, Rome, and Gaul. Each is described in a
special article. It will be enough here to trace an
outline of their general evolution.
The development of these liturgies is very like what
happens in tne case of languages. From a general
imiformity a number of local rites arise with charac-
teristic differences. Then one of these local rites,
because of the importance of the place that uses it,
spreads, is copied oy the cities around, drives out its
rivals, and becomes at last the one rite used through-
out a more or less extended area. We have then a
movement from vague uniformity to diversity and
then a return to exact imiformity. Except for tie
GalHcan Rite the reason of the final survival of these
liturgies is evident. Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch
are the old patriarchal cities. As the other bishops
accepted the jurisdiction of these three patriarchs, so
did they imitate their services. The Liturgy, as it
crystallized in these centres, became the type for the
other Churches of their patriarchates. Only Gaul and
north-west Europe generally, though part of the
Roman Patriarchate, Kept its own rite till the seventh
and eight centuries.
Alexandria and Antioch are the startins-points of
the two original Eastern rites. The earliest form of the
Antiochene Rite is that of the "Apostohc Constitu-
tions " written down in the earlv fiftn century. From
what we have said it seems tliat this rite has best
preserved the type of the primitive use. From it is
derived the Rite of Jerusalem (till the Council of Chal-
cedon, 451, Jerusalem was in the Antiochene Patri-
archate), which then retiuned te Antioch and became
that of the patriarchate (see Antiochene Ltturgt
and Jerusalem, Liturgy of). We have this liturgy
(called after St. James) in Greek (Bright man, " East-
em Liturgies", 31-68) and in Syriac (ibid., 69-110).
The Alexandrine Rite differs chiefly in the place of
the great intercession (see Alexandrine Liturgy).
This too exists in Greek (Brightman, 113-43) and
the language of the country, in this case Coptic (ibid.,
144-88). In both cases the original form was cer-
tainly Greek, but in both the present Greek forms
have been considerably influenced by the later Rite
of Constantinople. A reconstruction of the original
Greek is possible by removing the Byzantine additions
and changes, and comparing the Greek and 8)rriao
or Coptic forms. Both these liturgies have giv^i^
LirmtoT
311
UTUBGT
rifle to numerous derived forms. The Roman Rite
is thought by Duchesne to be connected with Alexan-
dria, the Gallican with Antioch (Ormnes du Culte, p.
54). But, from what has been said, it seems more
correct to connect the Roman Rite with that of An-
tioch. Besides its derivation from the •type repre-
sented by the Litux^ of the Apostolic Constitutions
^ere are reasons for supposing a further influence
of the Liturgy of St. James at Rome (see Canon of
THE Mabb, and Drews, "Zur Entstehungsgesch. des
Kanons in der rOmischen Messe", TQbingen, 1902).
The Gallican Rite is certainly S3rrian in its origin.
There are also very striking parallels between Antioch
and Alexandria, m spite of their different arrange-
ments. It may well oe, then, that all four rites are
to be considered #8 modifications of that most an-
cient use, best preserved at Antioch; so we should
reduce Duchesne's two sources to one, and restore to
a great extent Probst's theory of one original rite —
that of the "Apostolic Constitutions".
In any case the old Roman Rite is not exactly that
now used. Our Roman Missal has received consider-
able additions from Gallican sources. The original
rite was simpler, more austere, had practically no
ritual beyond the most necessary actions (see Bishop,
" The Genius of the Roman Rite" in"' Essays on Cere-
monial", edited by Vernon Staley, London, 1904, pp.
283-307). It may be said that our present Roman
lituiigy contains all the old nucleus, has lost nothing,
but has additional Gallican elements. The original rite
may be in part deduced from references to it as early
as the fiftn century (" Letters of Gelasius I " in
Thiel, "Epistolse Rom. Pontificum", I, cdlxxxvi,
"Innocent I to Decennius of Eugubiiun", written in
416, in P. L., XX, 651; Pseudo-Ambrose, *'Dc Sacn^
mentis", IV, 5, etc.); it is represented by the Leonine
and Gelasian "Sacramentaries", and by the old part of
the Gregorian book (see Liturqical Books). The
Roman Rite was used throughout Central and South-
em Italy. The African use was a variant of that of
Rome ^see Cabrol, " Dictionnaire d'arch^ologie chr^
tienne , s. v. Afrique, Liturgie postnic^nne). In the
West, however, the principle that rite should follow
patriarchate did not obtain till about the eighth cen-
tury. The pope was Patriarch of all Western (Latin)
Europe, yet the greater part of the West did not use
the Roman Rite. The North of Italy whose centre
was Milan, Gaul, Germanjr, Spain, Britain, and Ire-
land had their own Lituigies. These Liturgies are all
modifications of a common type; thcv may all be
classed together as formis of what is known as the
Gallican Rite. Where did that rite come from? It
is obviously Eastern in its origin: its whole construc-
tion has the most remarkable conformity to the An-
tiochene type, a conformity extending in many parts
to the actual text (compare the Milanese litany of
intercession quoted by Duchesne, "Origines du
Culte". p. 189, with the corresponding litany in the
Antiocnene Liturgy* Brightman, pp. 44-5). It used
to be said that the Gallican Rite came from Ephesus,
broujdit by the founders of the Church of Lyons, and
f romXiVons spread throughout North- Western Europe.
This weory cannot be maintained. It was not
brought to the West till its parent rite was fully
developed, had alreeuly evolvca a complicated cere-
monial, such as is inconceivable at the time when the
Church of Lyons was founded (second century). It
must have been imported about the fourth century, at
which time Lyons had lost all importance. Mgr
Duchesne therefore suggests Milan as the centre from
which it radiated, and the Cappadocian Bishop of
IGlan, Auxentius (355-74), as the man who introduced
this Eastern Rite to the West (Origines du Culte,
86-^). In spreading over Western Europe the rite
naturally was modined in various Churches. When
we speak of the Gallican Rite we mean a type of
9Hiti^ rather than a stereotyped service.
The Milanese Rite still exists, though in the course
of time it has become considerably romanized. For
Gaul we have the description in two letters of St.
Germanus of Paris (d. 576), used by Duchesne "Gri-
gines du Culte", ch. vii: La Messe Gallicane. Original
text in P. L., LXXIIL Spain kept the Gallican Rite
longest; the Mozarabic Liturgy still used at Toledo
and Salamanca represents the Spanish use. The Brit-
ish and Irish Liturgies, of which not much is known,
were apparently Gallican too (see F. E. Warren, "The
Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church", Oxford,
1881; Bfiumer, "Das Stowe Missale" in the "Inns-
bruck Zeitschrift fUr kath. theol.", 1892; and Bannis-
ter, "Journal of Theoloeical Studies", Oct., 1903).
From Lindisf ome the Gallican Use spread among the
Northern English converted by Irisn monks in the
sixth and seventh centuries.
V. The Dkrived Litubgies. — ^From these four
types — of Antioch, Alexandria, Rome, and the so-
called Gallican Rite — aU liturgies still used are de-
rived. This does not mean that the actual liturgies
we still have under those names are the parents; once
more we must conceive the sources as vaguer, they are
rather types subject always to local mocuhcation, but
represented to us now in one form, such as. for in-
stance, the Greek St. James or the Greek St. Mark
Litur^. The Antiochene type, apparentlv the most
archaic, has been also the most prolific of daughter
liturgies. Antioch first absorbed the Rite of Jerusa-
lem (St. James), itself derived from the primitive
Antiochene use shown in the ''Apostolic Constitutions"
(see Jerusalem, Liturgt of). In this form it was
used throughout the patriarchate till about the thir-
teenth century (see Antiochene Liturgy). A local
modification was the Use of Cappadocia. About the
fourth century the great Byzantme Rite was derived
from this (see CJonstantinople, Rite op). The Ar-
menian Rite is derived from an early stage of that of
Byzantium. The Nestorian Rite is also Antiochene
in its origin, whether derived directly from Antioch, or
Edessa, or from Byzantium at an early stage. The
Liturgy of Malabar is Nestorian. The Maronite Use is
that of Antioch considerably romanized. The other
Eastern parent rite, of Alexandria, produced the
numerous Coptic Liturgies and those of the daughter
Church of Abyssinia.
In the West the later history of the Liturgy is that
of the gradual supplanting of the Gallican by the
Roman, which, however, became considerably gal-
licanized in the process. Since about the sixth oenr
tury conformity ^ith Rome becomes an ideal in
most Western Churches. The old Roman use is repre-
sented by the " Gelasian Sacramentary ". This book
came to Gaul in the sixth century, possibly by way
of Aries and through the influence of St. CsBsarius
of Aries (d. 542-cf. B&umer, "Ueber das sogen.
Sacram. Gelas." in the " Ilistor. Jahrbuch der GSrres-
Gesellschaft", 1893,241-301). It then spread throu^-
out Gaul and received Gallican modifications. In some
parts it completely supplanted the old Gallican books.
Charles the Great (768-814) was anxious for uniform-
ity throughout his kingdom in the Roman use only.
He therefore procured from Pope Adrian I (772-795) a
copy of the "Roman Sacramentary ' ' . The book sent
by the pope was a later form of the Roman Rite (the
" Sacramentarium Gregorianum' ' ) . Charles imposed
this book on all the clergy of his kingdom. But it was
not easy to carry out his orders. The people were
attached to their own customs. So someone (possi-
bly Alcuin — cf. B&umer, loc. cit.) added to Adrian's
book a supplement containing selections from both
the older Grelasian book and the original Gallican
sources. This composition became then the service-
book of the Prankish Kingdom and eventually, as we
shall see, the Liturgy of the whole Roman Churoh.
In Spain Bishop Profuturus of Braga wrote in 538
to Pope Vigilius (537-55) asking his advice about
trnmot 312 utu&ot
certain liturgical matters. The pope's answer (in arrived atthepresentstate of things. Itremainatosay
Jaff^, " Regest. Rom. Pont.'\ no. 907) shows the first a word about the various medieval uses the nature of
influence of the Roman Rite in Spain. In 561 the which has often been misunderstood. Everyone has
national Synod of Braga imposed Vigiiius's ritual on heard of the old English uses— Sarum^ Ebor, etc. Peo-
all the kingdom of the Suevi. From this time we have pie have sometimes tried to set them up in opposition
the " mixwi" Rite (Roman and Gallican) of Spain, to what they call the " modem " Roman Rite, as wit-
Later, when the Visigoths had conquered the suevi nesses that m some way E^land was not ''Roman"
(577-5S4), the Church of Toledo rejected the Roman before the Reformation. Tnis idea shows an aston-
elements and insisted on uniformity in the pure Galli- ishing ignorance of the rites in c^^uestion. These medi-
can Rite. Nevertheless Roman additions were made eval uses are in no sense really mdependent rites. To
later; eventually all Spain accepted the Roman Rite compare them with the Gallican or Eastern Liturgies is
(in the eleventh century) except the one comer, at absurd. They are simply cases of what was common
Toledo and Salamanca, where tne mixed (Mozarabic) all over Eurone in the later Middle Ages, namely slig)it
Rite is still used. The great Church of Milan, appar- (often very slight) local modifications of the parent
ently the starting-point of the whole Gallican Use, was Rite of Rome. As there were Sarum and Ebor, so
able to resist the influence of the Roman Liturgy, there were Paris, Rouen, Lyons. (Jologne, Trier Rites.
But here too, in later centuries the local rite became All t^ese are simply Roman, with a few local peculiari-
considerably romanizcd (St. Charles Borromeo, d. ties. They had their own saints' di^, a trining vari-
15S4), so tmit the present Milanese (Ambrosian) use is ety in the Calendar, some extra Epistles, Gospels,
only a shadow of tne old Gallican Liturgy. In Britain sequences, prefaces, certain local (^nerally more exu-
St. Augustine of Canterbury (597-605) naturally berant) details of ritual. In such msienificant details
brought with him the Roman Liturgy. It received a as the sequence of liturgical colours ttiere was diver-
new impetus from St. Theodore of Canterbury when sity in almost every diocese. No doubt, some rites (as
he came from Rome (668), and gradually drove out the the Dominican use, that of Lyons, etc.) have rather
GallicanUseof Lindisfame. more Gallican additions than our normal Roman
The English Church was very definitely Roman in Liturgy. But the essence of all these late rites, all the
its Liturgy. There was even a great enthusiasm for parts that really matter (the arrangement. Canon of
the rite of the mother Church. So Alcuin writes to the Mass^and so on) are simply Roman. Indeed they
Eanbald of York in 796: " Let your clergy not fail to do not differ from the parent rite enoueh to be called
study the Roman order; so that, imitating the Head derived propcdy. Here again the parallel case of lan-
of the Churches of Christ, they may receive the bless- gua^es will make the situation clear. There are really
ing of Peter, prince of the Apostles, whom our Lord derived languages that are no longer the same Ian-
Jesus Christ made the chief of his flock"; and again: gua^ as their source. Italian is derived from Latin,
"Have you not plenty of books written according to and Italian is not Latin. On the other hand, there are
the Roman use?'' (quoted in Cabrol, '' L'Angleterre dialectic modifications that do not go far enough to
terre chr^tienne avant les Normans", Paris, 1909, p. make a derived language. No one would describe the
297). Before the Conquest the Roman service-books modem Roman dialect as a language derived from
in England received a few Gallican additions from Italian; it is simply Italian, with a few slight local
the old rite of the country (op. cit., 297-298). modifications. In the same way, there are really new
So we see that at the latest by the tenth or eleventh litur]^ies derived from the old ones. The Byzantine
century the Roman Rite has driven out the Gallican. Rite is derived from that of Antioch and is a different
except in two sees (Milan and Toledo), and is used rite. But Samm, Paris, Trier, etc. are simply the
alone throughout the West, thus at last verifying here Roman Rite, with a few local modifications,
too the principle that rite follows patriarchate. But Hence the justification of the abolition of neariy all
in the long and gradual supplanting of the Gallican these local varieties in the sixteenth century. How-
Rite the Roman was itself ancctcd by its rival, so that ever jealous one may be for the really independent
when at last it emerges as sole possessor it is no longer liturgies, however much one would regret to see the
the old pure Roman Rite, but has become the galli- abolition of the venerable old rites that share ihe edle-
canized Roman Use that we now follow. These giance of Christendom (an abolition by the way tiiat is
Gallican additions are all of the nature of ceremonial not in the least likely ever to take place), at an^ rate
ornament, symbolic practices, ritual adornment. Our these medieval developments have no special claim to
blessings of candles, ashes, palms, much of the ritual of our sympathy. They were only exuberant inflations of
Holy Week, sequences, and so on are Gallican additions, the more austere ritual that had better not have been
The original Uoinan Rite was very plain, simple, touched. Churches that use the Roman Rite had bet-
practical. Mr. Edmund Bishop says that its charac- ter use it in a pure form; where the same rite exists at
teristics were "essentially solxjmess and sense" ("The least there uniformity is a reasonable ideal. To con-
Genius of the Roman Rite", p. 807; see the whole ceive these late developments as old compared with
essay). Once these additions were accepted at Rome the original Roman Liturgy that has now again taken
they oecame part of the (new) Roman Rite and were their place, is absurd. It was the novelties that Pius
used as part of that rite everywhere. V abolished ; his reform was a return to antiquity. In
When was the older simpler use so enriched? We 1570 Pius V published his revis^ and restored Roman
have two extreme dates. The additions were not Missal that was to be the only form for all Churches
made in the eighth century when Pope Adrian sent his that use the Ronmn Rite. The restoration of this
"Gregorian Sacramentary" to Charlemagne. The Missal was on the whole imdoubtedly successful; it
original part of that book (in Muratori's edition; wa.s all in the direction of edminating the later infla-
"Liturgia romana vetus", II, Venice, 1748) contains tions, farced Kyries and Glorias, exul^rant sequences,
still the old Roman Mass. They were made by the and ceremonial that was sometimes almost grotesoue.
eleventh centurj', as is shown by the " Missale Ro- In imposing it the pope made an exception for otner
manum liateranense" of that time, edited by Azevedo uses that had been m possession for at least two cen-
(Rome, 1752). Dom Suitbert Baumer suggests that turies. This privil^ was not used consktently.
the additions made to Adrian's book (by Alcuin) in Manylocalusesthat had a prescription of at least that
the Prankish Kingdom came back to Rome (after they time gave way to the authentic Roman lUte; but it
had become mixed up with the original book) imder saved the Missals of some Churches (Lyons, for in-
the influence of the successors of Charlemagne, and stance) and of some religious orders (the DominicanSy
there supplanted the older pure form (Ueber das sogen. Carmelites, Carthusians). What is much more im-
Sacr. Gelas., ibid.). portant is that the pope's exception saved the two
VI. Later Medieval LiruRGiES. — ^We have now remnants of a really independent Rite at Milan and
UUTP&AIID
313
UUTP&AND
Toledo. lAter, in the nineteenth century, there was
again a movement in favour of uniformity that abol-
ished a number of surviving local customs in France
and Germany, Ihough these affected the Breviarjr
more than the Missal. Wc are now witnessing a simi-
lar movement for uniformity in plainsong (the Vati-
can edition). The Monastic Rite (used by the Bene-
dictines and Cistercians) is also Roman in its orif^in.
The differences between it and the normal Roman Rite
affect chiefly the Divine Office.
7. Table of Litxtrgies. — We are now able to draw
up a table of all the real liturgies used throughout the
Cnristian world. The various Protestant Prayer-
books, Agend^i Communionnservices. and so on, have
of course no place in this scheme, because they all
break away altogether from the continuit^r of liturgi-
cal development; they are merely compilations of ran-
dom selections from any of the old rites imbedded in
new structures made by various Reformers.
In the First Three Centuries: —
A fluid rite founded on the account of the Last Sup-
per, combined with a Christianized synagogue service
showing, however^ a certain uniformity ot type and
gradually crystallizing into set form8. Of this type
we have |>ernaps a specimen in the I.ituigy of the sec-
ond and eighth books of the "Apostolic Constitutions".
Since the Fourth Century: —
The original indetermined rite forms into the four
mat liturg^ies from which all others are derived
These liturgies are:
I. Antioch.
1. Pure in the "Apostolic Constitutions" (in Greek).
2. Modified at Jerusalem in the Liturgy of St. James..
a. The Greek St. James^ used once a year by the
Orthodox at Zacynthus and Jerusalem.
b. The Syriac St. James, used by the Jacobites
and Syrian Uniats.
c. The Maronite Rite, used in Syriac.
3. The Chaldean Rite, used by Nestorians and Chal-
dean Uniats (in Syriac).
a. The Malabar Rite, used by Uniats and
Schismatics in India (in Synac).
4. The Byzantine Rite, used py the Orthodox and
Byzantine Uniats in various languages.
5. The Armenian Rite, used by Gregorians and
Uniats (in Armenian).
n. Alexandria.
1. a. The Greek Liturgy of St. Mark, no longer used.
b. The Coptic Liturgies, used by Uniat and
schismatical Copts.
2. The Ethiopic Liturgies, used by the Church of
Abyssinia.
ni. Rome.
1. The original Roman Rite, not now used.
2. The African Rite, no longer used.
3. The Roman Rite with Gallican additions used
(in Latin) by nearly all the Latin Church.
4. Various later modifications of this rite uscii in the
Middle Ages, now (with a few exceptions)
abolished.
IV. The Gallican Rfte.
1. Used once all over North-Westem Europe and in
Spain (in Latin).
2. The Ambrosian Rite at Milan.
3. The Mozarabic Rite, used at Toledo and Sala-
manca.
Cabrol and Lkclercq, Monumenta Ecchsia Liturgica, I,
Rdiquim LUwrgiem vttuMianma (Paris, 1900-2); Bhigiitman,
hUwrgie* EaUem and Wedem, 1. Eastern Lituroiea COxford.
1890) J DAKiEZi* Codex lAtwrgieu^ Ecclence vniveraa (4 vols.,
Leipsag, 1847-63); Rauschkn, Florilegtum Patrifaicum, VII.
Montinunta eueharidiea d liturgica vftiutissima (Bonn, 1909);
Funk. Patrea ApoaMiei (2 \-ols., Tiibingen, 1901), and Didai^
eaiia H ConsUtutioneg ApoBlolorum (Paderbom, 1905), the quo-
tatiotm in this article are made from these editions: Probst,
lAturgie der drei eralen ckriMl, Jahrh. (Tubingen, 1870); Idem,
L«fvrv<« det vierien Jahr. u. deren Reform (MCnnter, 1893);
Drewb, Unierauehungen tibrr die M>genannte cUrmcntin. Litunjie
(TitbiuoeD. 1906); DucnEHNu:, Oriuinea <lu Culte chrH. (Pafw.
1898;; Kaubchen, EucharidU una Buis-mkramcnt in dm crs'
ten aeeha Jahrh. der Kirche (Freibuiig, 1908); Cabrol, Tjen On-
J lines litwrgigues (Paria, 19()6); Idem, Jntroduction aux Etudca
iturgiauea (Paris, 1907). For further bibliography see articlcA
on each iitunpr. For liturgical langu.igcs, a-.t well as liturgtcnl
Bcionce, treating of the regulation, history, and dogmatic value
of the Liturgy, eee Rites. AdiuaN FoRTESCUE.
Liutprand of Oremona (or Luidprako), bishop
and historian, b. at the beginning of the tenth century:
d. after 970. Liutprand belonged to a distinguished
Lombard family in Northern Ituly and at an earlv ago
went to the Court of Pavia, during the reign of Iving
Hugo of Aries (926-45), whose favour he won by his
wonderful voice. He received a sound education at
the court school, and became a cleric; later he was
deacon of the cathedral of Pavia. At lirst Liutprand
stood in high favour with Berenger II of Ivrea and his
consort, Willa. Berenger made him chancellor, and
in 949 sent him as ambassador to the Emperor Con-
stantino VII Porphyrogenitus. As both Liutpraud's
father and stepfather had l)een sent as ambassadors to
the Byzantine capital, and had formed many friend-
ships there, he seemed well fitted for a mission of that
kind. He took this opportunity to learn Greek, and
made himself familiar with the history, organization,
and life of the Byzantine Empire as his writings prove.
Shortly after his return he (luarrelled with Berenger,
and then went to the Court of Otto I of Germany.
Otto joyfullv took Liutprand into his service, as
a most useful agent in carrying out his plans regard-
ing Italy. In 950 Liutprand met Bishop Kecemund
of Elvira (Spain) at the German Court, and was
asked by him to write a history of his time. In
058 he began this work at Frankfort, and though
often interrupted by public business was occupied
with it until 962. Wnen Otto Ix^camo King of Lom-
bardy (961) he made Liutprand Bishop of Cremona,
as a rewani for his services. After Otto had received
the imperial crown at Rome (2 P'cbruary, 962) Liut-
prand was often entrusted with important commis-
sions, e. g., in 963 when he was sent as ambassador
to John All at the beginning of the quarrel between
the pope and the emperor, owing to the former's
alliance with Berenger's son Adelbert. Liutprand
also took part in the assembly of bishops at Home, 6
Novem])er, 963, "which deposed John XII (rj. v.).
Liutprand describes from his point of view these
events of 960-(>4, and sides entirely with the emperor,
condemning the Komans very liarshly. After the
death of the anti-pope, Leo VIII (965), Liutprand
again went to Rome with Bishop Otgar of Si)ever, as
the emperor's envoy, to conduct the election of a new
pope, on which occasion John XIII was chosen. The
Bishop of Cremona undertook another mission to
Constantinople by order of the emperor in the summer
of 968 to ask the Byzantine Emperor to Ix^stow his
daughter in marriage on Otto's son, later Otto II.
In the autumn of 969 Liutprand carried letters
to a sj'nod at Milan, from the emperor and the
Roman synod in May of that year. Tlie last aiithcn*
tic information we have about him is in April, 970; he
appears to have been pn^sent in Cremona, 15 April, 970
(Illst. patriae monumental. XXI, 36). A later account
of the transfer of the relics of St. Hinicrius (Mon.
Germ. Hist.: Script., Ill, 266) makes him take part in
an embassy to Constantinople in 971 for the imix?rial
princess, Theophano, bride of Otto II, and says that
lie died during the journey. This is not ver>' credible.
Liutprand wrote three historical works on the occa-
sions already mentioned: (1) ** AntapKjdosis sive Res
per Europam gestas'*, embracing from S87 till 950,
dealing cnicflv with It^ilian historv (ed. Pertz, in
"Mon. Genn.' Hii>t. : Script.". Ill, *264-339; P. L.,
CXXXVI, 787-898). (2) "Historia Ottonis sive
Lil)er de rebus gestis Ottonis imp. an. 96(V-964"
(ed. Pertz, op. cit.. 340-46; P. L., CXXXVI. 897-
910; Watterich. "Vita3 Roman. Pont.*', 1. 49-6.3),
an account of the journey of (!>tto I to Italy, the
LXTXaPOOL 31
imperial coronatioD, and tbe depo«itioQ of John
Xn. (3) "Relatio de lemUone Constantiiiopolitana
ad Nicephorum Fhocam , the account of bia misEion
in 968 {ed. Pert*, op. cit., 347-63; P. L., loc. cit.,
909-38). nisworkswereeditoibyDanimler, "Liut-
prandi opera omnia" (Hanover, 1877). Liutprand's
writings are a. very important historical source for
the teath century, but it is necessary to eift his nar-
rativea cautiously; he ia ever » Htning partisaa and is
freqiictitiy unfair tov;it' ■ ■ i
I (Btrlin, 1004). ■174-Wl: K. . . ■-, ;■ . .-. r.jKis Liud-
pralnir (Iterlin, 1842); U'.w-: .>,- .■ , ■■ M , . t \<. Litulprand
urn Cnmma inxf «iW Ouri/r™ in Di disosr. (/"nlmnMAurwm
nr miUltrm GrtchieMe, I (Leipiic, ISilJ; i>t'MMi£B in Bi^.
ZbHAtHI, XXVI, Z73-8I1 KWnHum.flrfraw mr Tgnkraik
UiulDnMdlvonCrcndiwIii Ntim Arcki* On. f. OU. d.Onicli.,
^irClBSS). W-Sai Hj^ttucb, Uibtr Lludorand vm Crtmona
(Leabea. ISSB); Bauahi, £< ertmaclit itaJiatu dt! media mo
liiOaa. 188*>, 112-129; CfiLIKI B*IJ>Eac7Hr, Liudpranda w»-
COM d> Crnnnna {Cinm. ISSUI; Hoyjl-ti. fintuato dil penrirro
lolino K-pra la cinll,ilalirmaddmtdi« mi {iViUii. 1800); Furr-
BABT, Bibliolheca liiaL mrdii sn*. I, 742-743 ; Mamh, 7/ii(Drno/
lAi/'rifKainfuifarivMidclb^^H, IV (LoadoD. lUOO).
J. P, IviRBCH.
of Mercy at Idverpool: and of the Holy Child Jeens at
PreetoQ and Blackpool. The great training oolle^ of
the Bisters of Notre Dame at Mount Pleasant, Lirer-
under the Irish Christian Brothers, and St. Francis
Xavier's College imder the Jesuit Fathers, who have
also a Catholic College in Preston, whilst in St. Helen's
there is a Catholic Grammar School under the aecutsr
clergy and lay masters. St. Pet«r's College, Freah-
fieloT trains boys in the humanities, before tiiey enter
the Foreign Missionan College eetabliahed by the late
Cardinal Vaughan at Mill HiU, London. The ecclMJ-
aaticol students for the dioceae make their preparatory
studies at St. Edward's CoUece, Liverpool (estabtished
IJTsrpool (Liverpolium), DiorESE of (Livxrpou-
tana), one of the tiurteon dioceses into which Pius
IX divided Catholic England, 28 September, 1850,
when he re-established tbe Catholic hierarchy. In
addition to the Isle of Man it contains all North Lanca*
shire (Amounderneas ajid Lonsdale Hundreds), and
the weatem portion of South Lancashire (Weat Derby
and Leyland Hundreds), whilst the eastern portion of
South Lancashire (Salford and Blackburn Hundreds),
constitutea tbe Diocese of Salford. The dioceae at
present (1910) has a Catholic population of 366,611
souls. There are 1S4 public churches and chapela
and 172 public elementary schools containing 74,100
children and 1720 teachers. There are 458 priests,
332 secular and 126 regulars including 59 Jesuits, 36
Benedictines, 10 Redcmptorists, 7 Passionists, 7
members of St. Joaeph's Society for Foreign Missions,
4 Fathers of the Holy Ghoat, and 3 Oblat«a of Mary
Immaculate. There are also the Irish Christian
Brothers and the Brothers of Charity and in some 70
convents there are 1000 nuns belonging to the various
orders or congregations of tlie Sisters of Mercy,
Faithful Companions of Jesus, Sisters of Notre Dame,
Good Shepherd Sistera, Sisters of Charity, Little Sis-
ters of tjie Poor, Sisters of Nocarcth, Carmelites, eto.
In various institutions provision ia made for the blind,
the aged poor, unemployed servants, penitents and
fallen women, whilst for boys and girls there are or-
phanages, homes and refuges, poor-taw achoola, in-
dustrial and reformatory schools, etc. The following
table contains statistics of the principal towns of the
■1=
^a
2
1
1
■is
11
t-
«&
h
&
"£
o
C
Uwrpoo
760,000
143,000
140
39
29
PraOon
117.000
34,000
2a
7
et. Helt-n'i
24,000
Wi*«i
saiooo
Waniflitoa
73.000
Boolli'
14
Blukpwt
B^,ooo
5.000
6
48.000
2,000
3
7,000
4'l!(XI0
Chorlry
71000
7
Edvcalian. — Elcmentarv education is provided in
172 Catholic schools attended by 74,000 children.
Higher education for girls is given in the convents of
the Slaters of Notre Dame in Liverpool, St. Helen's.
Birkdale, and Wiean ; of the Faithful Companions of
Jesus in Livcrpod and Preston; of the Siaters erf the
Hutory since 18^.— From 1688 to 1840 Lancashire
was subject to the Vicar Apostolic of the Northern
District of England. In 1S40 the Northern District
was divided into three districts: tbe Northern District
f Northumberland, Cumt>crtand, Westmoreland, and
)urham, now the Diocese of Hexham and Newcastle),
the Yorkshire District, now the Dioceses of Middles-
brough and Leeds, and tbe Lancashire District contain-
ing with all Lancaster, the Isle of Man, and C3ieshire.
The first Ticar Apostolic of thenew Lancashire Diatrict
waa Bishop George Hilary Brown (b. 13 Jan., 1786),
who after being for twenty-one years rector of St.
Peter's, Lancaster, was consecrated on 24 Auguat,
' 1840, at Liverpool, by Bishop John Brie^, with the
title of Bishop of Bugia in partibut, whicDin 1842 was
changed to Bishop of Tloa in parlibut. In 1S43 Dr.
James Sharpies was consecrated coadjutor, but died in
August, 1850. The following month the Lancashire
District was broken into three parts, Cheshire became
Crt of Shrewsbury Diocese, South-eastern Lancashire
came the Salford Diocese, and the rest of Lancaahire
with the Tale of Man became the Liverpool Diocese, of
which Bishop Brown remained bishop. In 1853 he
obtained another coadjutor. Canon Alexander Gosa,
of St, Edward's College (b. 5 July, 1814, atOrmskirk),
who was consecrated by Cardinal Wiseman aa Bishop
of Gerra. Bishop Brown died, 25 Januan*, 1856, and
waa succeeded by Bitthop Gobs, who rulea as ordinary
for seventeen years and died, 3 October, 1872. After
an interval of five months Canon Beniard O'Reilly (b.
10 January, 1824, at BallybejC, County_ Meath, Ire-
land), was consecrated by Cardmai Manning 19 March,
1873. During his long episcopacy of twenty -one
years he opened some twenty-two churchea in Liver-
pool city and the immediate neighbourhood, but his
special work was the dioceean seminary of St. Joaeph,
at Upholland, of which the foundation stone was laia
on tbe feast of the Pfflronage of St. Joseph, 18 April,
1880, the college being ready to receive the students
on 22 Septera!>er, 1883. Two years hiter, on Trinity
eve, 30 May, 1886, the first body of students were
raisied to the priesthood within its walls. It« second
rector,Mgr Jonn Bi Is borrow, was taken from it in 1892
to become Bishop of Salford. Bishop O'Reilly died
on 9 April, 1894, and was buriedin the seminary.
Canon 'Thomaa Whiteside (b. at Lancaster on 17
April, 1857; ordained priest in Rome, 30 May, 1885),
who was the third president of the seminary, waa, at
the age of thirty-seven years, consecrated fourth Bidiop
ofLiverpool by Cardinal Vaughan. Tbcinoreaseinthe
number of clergy since bis accession baa made possible
more thorough pastoral work. During Uie years 1S90
to 1905, the numlKr approaching Eaater Communion
increased from 146,000 to 186,000; those attending
Sunday school from 138,000 to 180,000. some 16,000
non-Catbolica were received into tie Church, whilst
about two million communions are received in tbe
course of the year by about 250,000, who have made
LZVIAS
315
LLANDAFF
their first oommtmion. A very laii^ proportion of the
Catholics of the diooese, especially in the towns, are of
Irish lurth or descent, though in the country parts and
in North Lancashire many old Lancashire Catholic
families remain which during the ages that have
dapeedfrom the Reformation have never lost the faith.
Originally Lancashire belonged to the Kingdom of
Korthumbria and the Diocese of York, but in 642
Southern Lancashire became part of Mercia and of
the Diocese of Lichfield. Henry VIII, in 1542, made
Chester, including South Lancashire, into a se{)arate
diocese (see Chester). In Queen Elizabeth's time it
18 the Protestant Bishop of Chester who complains
that there is a confederacy of Lancashire Papists, and
that "from Warrington all along the sea-coast of
Lancashire, the gentlemen were of that faction and
with<hraw themselves from religion'' (i. e., from at-
tending the Protestant service). For tliis crime fifty
Lancawire Catholic gentlemen were arrested in one
night, and in 1587 six hundred Catholic recui>ants were
prosecuted. A yearly fine of £260 was the penalty
paid in some cases for twenty years for refuisiug to at-
tend the Protestant service, and aft<)r death refusal of
Christian burial. At Rossall, in North Lancashire,
was bom Cardinal Allen, the founder of the Seminary
of Douai, which in five years sent a hundred priests to
face the martyr's death in England. Amongst the
Lancashire mart3rrs were the Yen. George Hay dock,
b. 1556 at Cottam Hall, Preston, and martvred in 1589
at the age of 28 at Ty borne; Yen. John l*hulis, b. at
Upholland, near Wigan, and martvred at Lancaster in
1616, Yen. Edmund Arrowsmith, b. at Hay dock, near
St. Helens in 1585, and in 1628, at the a^e of 43,
martyred at Lancaster. His *' holy hand" is still de-
vout^ kept in the church of Ashton-in-Makerfield.
In addition to the manliness of the Lancashire char-
acter and the example of sacrifice given by the Lan-
cashire gentnr, the Gerards, Blundells, ^lolyneuxes,
Andertons, CfUftons, Scarisbricks, Gillows, the close
connexion which Lancashire has always had with Ire-
land has done much for this preservation of the faith.
TxHces of this coimexion are seen in the old St. Pat-
rick's Cross of Liverpool which was supposed to mark
the spot where St. Patrick preached before sailing to
Ireland, and in the prc-Reformation chalice still pre-
aerved at Femyhalgh, near Preston, which bears the
date of 1529 and an inscription testifying that it was
given by "Dosius Maguire, Chieftain of Fermanagh".
Again the Irish famine of 1847 filled the Lancashire
towns with Irish exiles so tliat hardly one can be
found without its church of St. Patrick to mark their
devotion to him who brought them their Catholic Faith.
Tks Catholic Directory. 1850-1910; Liverpool Catholic Annual.
188O-1910: Hughes, Liverpool Quaranf Ore Guide, 1895-1910;
HuoHKS, Ctttholic Guide to Liverpool, 100.'); Liverpool Catholic
Tiwuta and Catholic Firetnde; Gibson, Cavalier s Note-book;
Tnuuaeliona of the Hittoric Society of lAincaehire and Cheshire;
Cheetham Society. — Norrie Papem and Chauntrica of Ijancasltire;
Haydodk Papers: Burkr. HxtAory of Catholic Liverpool, 1910;
Blundbll, Croeby Reeorde; Challoner, Afiiunonaru PrieM»:
Camm* Enalieh Martyrs; Crosby Records. — Harkxrke Burial
RegiMer; Fishwick, History of Lancashire; Picton, Memorials
of Liverpooi and Liverpool Municipal Records; Camdkn, Bri-
tannia; Lbland, Itinerary; Mdir, History oj Liverpool, 1907;
BAiifBSf Commerce and Town of Liverpool; Brooke, Liverpool
aa n Waa; Dixon Soorr, Liverpool; Qillow, Bibl. Diet. ting.
Caih,t fKUvtm. JaMEH Hughes.
XiviaSf a titular see in Palestina Prixna, suffragan
of Ceaarea. It is twice mentioned in the Bible
(Num., xxxii, 36; Jos., xiii, 27) under the name of
Betharan. About 80 b. c. Alexander Jannaoiis cap>
tured it from the King of the Arabs (Joiscphus, ''Ant.
Jud.", XIV. i, 4); it was then called Betharamphtha.
Somewhat later Herod Antipas, Tctrarch of (ialilce,
fortified it with strong walls and called it Livias after
the wife of Augustus; Josephus calls it Julias also,
because he always speaks of the wife of Augustus as
Julia r Ant.", XVni, ii, 1; "Bel. Jud.", IT, ix, 1).
Nero gave it with its fourteen vilkigus t^ AKrii)pa the
■Younger (Josephus, " Ant. Jud.", XX, viii, 1), and tU©
Roman general Placidus captured it several yean
later (Josephus, "Bel. Jud.", IV, vii, 6). From the time
of Eusebius and St. Jerome the natives always called
it Bethramtha. Lequien (Oriens Christ., Ill, 655) men-
tions three bishops: Letoius, who was at Ephesus in
431; Pancratius, at Chalcedon in 451: Zacharias, at
Jerusalem in 536. To-day Livias is kno\%ii as Tell-
er-Rameh, a hill rising in the plain beyond Jordan,
about twelve miles from Jericho.
Reland, PaloBstina, 1 OJtrecht, 1714), 496; Heidbt in
VioouBoux, Diet, de la Bible, a. v. Betharan,
S. VAILHf .
Livonia. See Mohileff, Diocese of.
Llancarvan, Glamorganshire, Wales, was a college
and monasterj' founded apparently about the midcfle
of the fifth century. Most Welsh writers assign it to
the period of St. Germanus's visit to Britain in a. d. 447,
statme further that the first principal was St. Dubric,
or Dul>ricius, on whose elevation to the episcopate
St. Cadoc, or Cattwg, succeeded. On the other hand
the Life of St. Germanus, WTitten by Constantius, a
priest of Lyons, alx>ut fifty years after the death of the
saint, says nothing at all of any school founded by him
or under his auspices, in Britain, nor is mention made
of his presence in Wales. The other tradition, sup-
ported uy the ancient lives of St. Gadoc, assigns the
foundation of Llancarvan to that saint, which would
place it about a century later than the former date. As,
nowevcr, these lives confound two, or possibly three,
saints of the same name, nothing really certain can be
gathered from them. In the ** Liber Landavensis"
the Abbot of Llancarvan appears not infrequently as a
witness to various grants, out none of these is earlier
than the latter part of the sixth century. The Abbot
of Llancarvan assisted at a council held at LlandafT in
560, which passed sentence of excommunication upon
Meurig, King of Glamorgan.
Cresst, Church Historjf of Brittany, or England (Rouen, 1068),
davmsis,ed. Rees (Ix>n(ioQ, 1840); Rkes, Essay on the Welsh
Saints (London, 18.'i6), 176; Lives of the Cambro- British SainU,
(h1. Reeh (Ix>ndon, 1853), 395; Williams, Biog. Diet. ofErriin'
ent Welshmen (I>on(ion, 1852), 69; Nkdelec. Cambria Sacra
(London. 1879), 376-116. G. RoGER HUDLESTON.
Llandaff, Ancient Diocese of (Landavensis).
— ^The origins of this see are to be foimd in the
sixth century monastic movement initiated by St.
Dubricius, who presided over the monastery of Mo-
chros. The saint made his disciple, St. Teilo, abbot of
the daughter monastery of Llandaff, which after the
retirement of Dubricius to Bardsey came to be the
chief monastery. The abbots of Llandaff were in
episcopal orders and SS. Teilo and Dubricius are re-
ferred to as archbishops. The territory in which
Llandaff was situated belonged to the kinc:s or chiefs
of Morganwg or Gwent, who presented gifts of lands
to the Church of Llandaff. The early title ''arch-
bishop " implied only rule oyer other monasteries, and
as the episcopate became diocesan it gave way to the
usual style of bis^hop. The successors of St. Teilo
long maintained absolute independence within their
own territories, and the rights and privileges of the
Church of Llandaff were extensive. The early history
of the see, the chief authority for which is the "Boot
of Llandaff" (Llyfr Teilo ^ leilo's book), is very ob-
scure, and the oraer of the bishops uncertain, when
St. Au^stine began the conversion of the Saxons in
597 he invited the British bishops io co-operate, but
they refused and there was no communication be-
tween the Celtic clergy and the Roman missionaries.
Unfortunately this resulted in long enmitv between
the Churches in Wales and in England. It was not
till 768 that the Welsh clergy adopted the Roman use
of Easter. From this time Welsn bishops and kings
went on frequent pilgrimage to Rome, and reUtv^v^
LLANTH0N7 316 LOAISA
with the Saxon episcopate became more friendly. Af- of the priory was a^. follows. About the year 1 100 a
ter the Conquest the archbishops of Canterbury exer- retainer of the Baron of Herefordshire, named Wil-
cised their jurisdiction over Wales, and St. Ansclm liam, whilst hunting in the neighbourhood, discovered
placed Bishop Herwald of Llandaff imder interdict. I^e ruins of a chapel and cell, supposed to have been
Herwald's successor Urban was consecrated at Can- once occupied by St. David, and he thereupon decided
terbury, after taking an oath of canonical obedience to to quit the world and become a hermit there himself,
thearchbishopyandfrom that time Llandaff became a He was afterwards joined by.Emisius, chaplain to
suffiagan of Canterbury. A standing difficulty was Queen Maud, wife of Henry 1. The fame of the two
the admixture of race and language due to the En- anchorites reached the ears of William's former lord,
glish settlements, also to the iniorance and inconti- Hugh de Lacy, who in 1107 founded and endowed a
nence of the Welsh clergy, who nad ceased to observe monastery for them, dedicated to St. John the Baptist,
celibacy and gave scandal to the Normans and En- The rule of the Canons Regular of St. Augustine was
glish . A reform was gradually effected, chiefly by the adopted. In course of time the severity of the climate,
establishment of new monasteries. The Benedictines the poverty of the soil and thejpersecution of the Welish
had houses at Chepstow, Abergavenny, Goldcliff, natives combined to make life there impossible. In
Bassalcg, Usk, Llangyran, Ewenny, and Cardiff; the 1134 the entire conununity, nimibering about forty,
Cistercians, at Neath, Tintem, Margam, Grace Pieu, abandoned the monastery and took refuge in the
Caerlcon, and Llantamam; Cluniacs at Alalpas: Pre- palace of Robert, Bishop of Hereford. After two yeare
monstmtensians at St. Kynemark; Dominicans, Fran- a new monastery was ouilt for them near Gloucester
ciscans, and Carmelites were settled in Cardiff. by Milo, Earl of Hereford, which was called Uanthony
The cathedral, begun in 1120, was enlarged at the Secunda. Only a few canons lived from time to time
close of the twelfth century. It was regarded as a fine in the original monastery, and both houses were
specimen of Early English architecture, but after the governed by one prior, who resided at Gloucester.
Reformation was allowed to fall into a ruinous state, The buildings at Llanthony fell gradually into de-
from which it was restored during the nineteenth cen- cay and passed into private hands at the dissolution
tuiy. In the following list of bishops of Llandaff, the in 1539. In 1807 the property was bought by Walter
order and dates of all before the tenth century are un- Savage Landor. It still belong to his descendants,
known. St. Dubricius (Dyfrig) is sometimes given as the habitable portion of it having been added to ana
the first bishop, but more correctly the episcopal sue- converted into an inn. The church is in ruins, but
cession begins with St. Teilo, who was succeeded by the western towers, part of the central one, and some
Oudoceus. After him came Ubilwynus, Aidanus, of the nave piers and arches are standing.
Elgistil, Lunapeius, Comegem, Argwistil, Gurvan, ^Tanner, Notitia Moruuiiea (U>ndon, 1744); Dugdalk,
Guodloin, Edilbinus, Grccielus, all of doubtful au- ^^ISJ^fLSnXSaWT?.^ * ^* Robots, lion-
thenticity. More historical are Berthguin. Trychan, * ' q^ Cyprian Ai^ton.
Elvog, Catguaret, Edilbiu, Grecielis, Cerennir, Nobis,
and Nud. Cimeilliauc, Libiau, Marchluid, Pater, Gul- Lloyd, John, Venerable, Welsh priest and martyr,
frit, Gucaun (consecrated in 982), Bledri (983), Joseph executed at Cardiff, 22 July, 1679. He took the
(1022), Herw-ald (1056). Urban (Worgan) (1107), missionary oath at Valladolid, 16 October, 1649, and
vacancy (1134), Uchtiyd (1140), Nicholas ap Gwr- was arrested at Mr. TurbervUle's house at Penllyne,
^ant (1148), vacancy (1183), William Saltmarsh Glamorganshire, 20 November, 1678, and thrown into
1186) J Henry of Abereavennv (1193), William of Cardiff gaol. There he was joined by Father Philip
joldcliff (1219), Elias de Radnor (1230), vacancy Evans, S.J. This venerable martyr was bom in Mon-
fl240), William de Burgh (1245), John de la Ware mouthshire, 1645, was educated at St-Omer, joined
(1254), William de Radnor (1257), William de Braose the Society of Jesus, 7 Sept., 1665, and was ordained
(1266). vacancy (1287). Jonn of Monmouth (1296), at Lidge and sent on the mission in 1675. He was
John de Eglesclif (1323), John Pascal (1347), Roger arrest^ at Mr. Christopher Turberville's house at Sker,
Cradock (1361), Thomas Ruchook (1383), William Glamorganshire, 4 December, 1678. Both priests
Bottlesham ( 1 386) , Edmund Bromfield ( 1 389) , Tide- were brought to the bar on Monday, 5 May (not 3 May) ,
man de Winchcomb (1393), Andrew Barrett (1395), 1679, and charged with being priests and cominginto
John Burghill (1396), Thomas Peverell (1398)^ John the. principality contrary to 9ie provisions of 27 Klis.,
de la Zouche (1408), John Wells (1425), Nicholas c. 2. The chief witness agiinst Father Evans was an
Ashby (1441), John Hunden (1458), John Smith apostate named Mayne Trott. He was deformed,
(1476), John Marshall (1478), John Ingleby (1496), and had been a dwarf at the Spanish and British
Miles Sallcy (1500), George de Athcqua (1517), Rob- Courts, but was at this time in the service of John
ert Holgate (1537), Anthony Kitcnin (1545), who Arnold of Abergavenny, an indefatigable priest-
alone of the English episcopate fell into schism under hunter, who had offered £200 for Father Evans's
Eliza Ixjth and died in 1503. The ancient diocese com- arrest. Both were found gLiilty and put to death.
prised the Counties of Glamorgan and Monmouth ex- Matthews. Cardiff Records Oilardiff, 1898-1905), II, 17&-8,
cept a few parishes in each. It contained but one lYil^^tn' nii^X* ^nLP^ ^I'JJSI^piS^J^Y^;^'
*^i_ 1 /T 1 A iT\ mt. 11* A- rj.1 xu LooPER m Dxet. Plat. tiioQr., s. v. hvans, fhtltp; StauntoRi
archdeaconry (Llandaff). The dedication of the cathe- Menoioov (London. 1887). 351; Chaljx)ner. Memaira,U.
dral was to SS. Peter, Andrew, Dubricius, Teilo, and John B. Wainewriqht.
Oudoceus, and the arms of the see were sable, two
crosiers in saltire, or and argent, in a chief azure three Loaisa, GARciA de, cardinal and Archbishop of Se-
mitres with labels of the second. ville, b. in Talavera, Spain, c. 1479; d. at Madrid, 21
t-^?* »*• ^ Survey of the Cathedral Church of Uandaff (London, April, 1546. His parents were nobles; at a very early
171»); Rees. Liber Landavenata (Llandovery, 1840); Ddgdale, ^^ t * ««*«««^ 4l,«rk^«, ;«:««„ -,^«,™* «4. a i zL
Monasticon Anolieanum,\l, pt. Hi (London. 1846 ; Winkle; Jgc he entered the Dommican convent at Salamanca.
Cathedral Churches of England and Wales (London. 1800); Its severe discipline, however, affected his dehcate
Evans. The Text of tje Book of LUin Day (Oxford, 1893); constitution and he was transferred to the convent of
Newell, Z/(aruia/f in Diocesan Hxsiorxeii Series iljonaoi\AQQ2)\ «, t>„,,i :« ■d^.-x^i;*! „,k»»» u« «,«- .^...r.^.^^ :«. i^ioc
Digest of theparvih registers unthin the Diocese of Uandnff (Car- St. Paul m Pefiafiel where he waS professed m 1495.
diff, 1905); Fairbairns. Cathedrals of England and Wales (Lon- On the completion of his Studies m Alcal^, and later
^/J^'j-S^L^x*** ""^ '^ ^^""^^"^ of I'londnff, ed. by Bradnby ^t St. Gregory's College, Valladohd, he taught philoe-
(Cardiff. 1908). Edwin Burton. ^p^y and theology. About the ^me tiie he was
Llanthony Priory, a monastery of August inian appointed regent of studies and for two terms filled
Canons, situated amongst the Black Mountains of the office of rector in St. Gregory's College. In 1518
South Wales, nine miles north-east of Abergavenny, he represented his province at the general chapter
St . David is said to have live(l some time here as a her- held at Rome where his accomplishznents. Ids soimd
init, hut the tradition lacks confirmation. The origin judgment, and piety secured for him by unaoi-
LOAMBA
317
LOAVKS
moufl vote the generalship of the order in succession
to Cardinal Cajetan. After visiting the Dominican
houses in Sicily and other countries he returned to
Spain. Here he made the acquaintance of King
Charles V who, recognizing in him a man of more than
ordinary ability, chose him for his confessor and later,
with papal sanction, offered him the See of Osma, for
whicn he was consecrated in 1524. Subsequently he
held several offices of considerable political impor-
tance. In 1530 Clement VII created him cardinal and
transferred him to the See of Siguenza. The following
year he was made Archbishop of Seville^ and Commis-
sary-General of the Inquisition. G. Haine found, in
the royal library at bimancas, Garcfa's letters to
Charles V written in the years 1530-32. They con-
tain information of the greatest importance for the
history of the Reformation as well as for the religious
and political history of Spain during that period.
Tbey manifest, moreover, the accomplishments of the
authoi^ the honour in which he was neld and the un-
Umited confidence the emperor placed in him. His
writings are limited to a few pastoral letters.
Qcimr and Echabd, Scriptores Ortlinia Pradicatorum^ II,
89; ToDRON, Huloire dea hommea illuatres de I'ordre de <S.
Dominique, IV* 03.
Joseph Schroeder.
Loandft. See Angola, Diocese of.
Xiomngo, Vicariate Apostouc of (Lower French
Congo). — Formerly included in the great Kingdom of
Conffo, Loango became independent towards the end
of the sixteenth century, at which time it extended
from the mouth of the Kwilou to that of the River
Congo. By the treaties of 1885 all this country, over
which Portugal had till then exercised a somewhat
uncertain sway, became part of French Congo, except
the enclave of Cabinda which still remained under
Portuguese control. The transference of civil domin-
ion ^fected the ecclesiastical distribution of the terri-
toi^. By decree of 24 Nov., 1886, the Vicariate Apos-
tolic of Irench Conffo, or Lower Congo, more properly
LoangOy was detachea from that of Gaboon; and in
1800, as a result of further division, the Vicariate of
Upper French Con^o. or Ubangi, was erected. The
tluee vicariates whicn make up French Congo — Ga-
boon, Loango, Ubangi — embrace an area, approxi-
mately, of one million square miles. The official re-
turns (1908) for French Congo and its dependencies
are given in the ''Annuaire Pontifical Catholique"
(1909), 342, note.
Hie Vicariate Apostolic of Loango lies to the south
of that of Gaboon; on the west, it is bounded by the
Atlantic; on the south, by the Massabi river, Cabinda,
and Belgian Congo; to the east is the Vicariate of
Ubangi, from which it is separated by the Dj u^ as far as
the upper reaches of that river, and thence onward by
a line clrawn to meet the head waters of the Alima.
The natives are known by the generic appellation of
Ftots, i. e. "Blacks'', and belong to the groat Bantu
family. Of the numerous dialects the most important
is the Kivili. Amongst those who have contributed
to the knowledge of uie language are Mgr Carrie, the
first Apostolic vicar, and Mgr Derouet, now in charge.
The revival of missionary enterprise followed a grie-
vous lapse on the part of the tribes from a relatively
high degree of culture; fetichism, in its grossest forms,
was everywhere rampant. The work ofChristianiza-
tion has been attended with serious difficulties, but in
one year (1901) more than one thousand conversions
were registeredf to the mission of Loango alone. The
vicariate, entrusted to the Congregation of the Holy
Ghost, numbers about 1,500,000 inhabitants, of whom
more than 5,000 are Catholics and 3000 catechumens.
Hiere are 24 European missionaries, 1 native Driest,
46 catechists, 15 brothers, and 11 sisters. Of the
minion stations— 8 resident al, 62 secondary' — Loango.
at the head of the Niari-Kwilou portage route, ana
ftarting-point of the "route des cara vanes'' to Bra-
zavillc. is the most important. Its fitness for serving
as chief French port and railway depot of the territory
has received serious attention of late. In this place
(now a mere group of factories), which is the residence
of the vicar, the fathers have their own printing estab-
lishment. The seminary and house of novices are at
Mayumba, where P. Ignace Stoffcl founded the mission
in 1888. There are established in the vicariate 6
parochial schools, with 750 boys; 6 orphanages, with
650 inmates, and 1 religious institute of men, with 6
houses.
The present vicar Apostolic is Mgr Jean Derouet, of
the Congregation of the Iloly Ghost and of the Immac-
ulate Heart of Mary, titular Bisliop of Camachus. He
was bom at Saint-Denis-de-Villenette, Diocese of
S<Sez, Department of Orne, France, 31 Jan., 1866.
Ordained in 1891, he went as missionary to the Congo,
and in 1904 was named pro- Vicar Apostolic of Loango.
He w^as chosen bishop on 19 Deceml)er, 1900; conse-
crated 3 Feb., 1907, in the chapel of the Holy Ghost, at
Paris; preconized on 18 April of the same year; and
appointed Vicar Apostolic of Lower French Congo.
Ann, Pont. Cath. (1910): AfMWonM Catholica (Rome, 1907);
PioLET, I^n Miasions, V (Paris, 1902), ix, 265-271; Geranhta
Cattolica (1910); Reinhold in Buchberqbr, Kirchlichea Hand-
lex., 3. V. Kongo (2); db BimiUNE, Lea Miaaiona Catholiqwn
(TAfrique (Lille, 18S0); Guiral, Le Congo Franeaia (Paris,
1889); Renooard, L'Oueat-Africain et lea Miaa. Cath.: Congo
el Oubanghi (Paris, 1904). See also Ix)rin, Lea progria r^centa
du Congo Fran^rautin Revuedca Deux Mondea (Aug., 1907); Idem
in Revue Economique Internal. (Aug., 1909).
P. J. MacAuley.
Loaves of Proposition, Heb. D^DH nrh, "bread of
the faces", i. e. " bread of the presence [of Yahweh]"
(Ex., XXXV, 13; xxxix, 35, etc.), also called cnp Dfl^,
"holy bread" (I Kings, xxi, 6), n31j;on Orh, "bread
of piles " (I Par., ix, 32 ; xxiii, 29) , l^nn Dnf), " continual
bread" (Num., iv, 7), or simply Dn^, "bread" (Ileb.
Version, Ex., xl, 23). In the Greek text we have
various renderings, the most frecjuent being Aproi r^i
Tpo6(<r€(as^ "loaves of the setting forth" (Ex., xxxv,
13; xxxix, 35, etc.) which the Latin Vulgate also
adopts in its uniform translation panes proposUionis,
whence the English expression "loaves of proposi-
tion ", as found in the Douay and Reims versions (Ex.,
xxxv, 13, etc.; Matt., xii, 4; Mark, ii, 26; Luke,
vi, 4). The Protestant versions have ''shewbread"
(cf. Schaubrot of German versions), with the marginal
" presence-bread ".
In the account of David's flight from Saul, as found
in I Kings, xxi, 6, we are told that David went to Nobe,
to the high priest Achimelech, whom he asked for a
few loaves of bread for himself and for his companions.
IIa\ing been assured that the men were legally clean,
the high priest gave them "hallowed bread: for there
was no bread there, but only the loaves of proposition,
which had been taken away from the face of the Lord,
that hot loaves might be setup". The loaves ot
bread spoken of here formed the most important
sacrificial offering prescril)ed by the Mosaic Law.
They were prepared from the finest flour, passed
through seven sieves, two-tenths of an ephod (about
four-fifths of a peck) in each, and without leaven (Lev.,
xxiv, 5; Josepnus, "Antiq.", Ill, vi, 6; x, 7). Ac-
conling to Jewish tradition they were prepared in a
special room by the priests who were appointed every
week. In I Par., ix, 32, we read that some of the
sons of Caath (Kohathites) were in charge of preparing
and baking the loaves. The Bible gives us no data
as to the form or shape of the individual loaves, but,
according to the Mishna (Men., xi, 4; Yad, Tamid, v,
9), they were ten fingers in length, five in breadth, and
with rims or upturned edges of seven fingers in length.
Twelve of these loaves were arranged in two piles, of
six loaves each, and while still hot placed on the
"table of proposition" (Num., iv, 7) or "most clean
table" (Lev., xxiv, 6) made of setim-wood and over-
laid with gold. Tbft d\TCk&i\^Qii^ ^\ >(XiRi \ak\^^^\«k\:^^
LOBBIS 31
cubits (three tcet) long, one oubit broad and one and
a half cubit high (Ex., xxv, 23. Cf. Ill Kings, vii, 48;
I Par., xxviii, 16; 11 Par,, iv, If); xiii, 11). The table
with the IcMives of bread waa then placed in the taber-
nacle or temple before the Ark of the Covenant, there
to remain " always" in the presence of the Lord (Ex.,
XXV, 30; Num., iv, 7), According to the Talmud,
the loaves were not allowed to touch one another,
and, to prevent contact, hollow golden tubes, twenty-
eight ia number, were placed between them, which
thus permitted the air to circulate freely between
the loaves. Together with the loaves of proposition,
between the two piles or, according to otners, above
them, were two vessels of gold filled with frankia-
cense and, according to the Septuagint, salt also (Lev.,
xxiv, 7; Siphra, 263, 1). The twelve loaves were to
be renewed every Sabbath; fresh, hot loaves taking
the place of the stale loaves, which belonged "to
Aaron and his hods, that they may eat them in the
holy place" (Lev., xxiv, S, 9. Cf. I Par., xxiii, 29;
Matt., xii, 4, etc.). According to the Talmud four
priests removed the old loaves together with the in-
cense every Sabbath, and four other priests brought
in fresh loaves ■with new incense. The old loaves
were divided among the incoming and outgoing
priests, and were to be consumed by them within
the sacred precincts of the sanctuary. The old in-
cense was burnt. The expense of preparing the loaves
was borne by the temple treasury (I Par., ix, 26 and
32). Symbolically, the twelve loaves represented
the higher life of the twelve tribes of Israel. Bread
was the ordinary symbol of life, and the hallowed
bread aigniiied a superior life because it waa ever in
the presence of Yotiwch and destined for those spe-
cially consecrated to His service. The incense was a
symbol of the praise due to Yahweh.
EDEnsnEiu, TS. Tmple and }i„ Smirrt (Ltmdon, 1874),
152-57; KBHNSDTin Hastinos. />»«. o/tAe HiWr, «. v. .S*™-
JTttuJ.' IiUlTSE ia Vioouitocx, Did. dc la Bibli, IV, 1957;
Geftcht in Ji\ciah Encj/cJopfdia, s. v. Shtirbrtad,
Francis X. E. Albeht.
Lobbes, Besedictise Abbey oi^ Hainault, Bel-
gium, founded about 650, by St. Landclin, a con-
verted brigand, 80 that the place where his criincs had
been committed might benefit by his conversion. As
the number of monks inct«ased rapidly the saintly
founder, desiring to consecrate his lire to austerities
rather than to discharge the duties of abbot, resigned
his post. He waa succeeded by St. Ursmer, who
gave most of his energies to preaching Christianity
among the atill pagan Belgians, Jlore fortunate than
most monasteries, Lobbespreserved its ancient annals,
so that its history is known in comparatively minute
detail. The "Annales Laubicenses", printed in
Pertj. "Mon. Germ, Hist.; Scriptorea", should be con-
sulted. The fame of St. Ursmer, his successor St.
Ermin, and other holy men soon drew numbers of dis-
ciples, and Lobbes became the most important mon-
astery of the period in Belgium, the abbatial school
rising to special fame under Anson, the sixth abbot.
About 864 Hubert, brother-in-law of Lothafr II, be-
came abbot, and, by his dissolute life brought the
monastery into a state of decadence, both temporal
and spiritual, from which it did not recover until the
accession of Francon. By him the Abbacy of Lobbes
was united to the Bishopric of I.i^ge, which he already
held, and this arrangement continued until 960, when
the monastery regained ita freedom. The reigns of
Abbota Folcuin (96.T-990) and Heriger (990-1007) were
marked by rapid advance, the scnool especially at-
taining a great reputation.
From this peri«l, although the general observance
seems on the whole to have continued good, the fame
of the abbey gradually declined until the fifteenth
century, when the great monastic revival, originating
in the congregation of Bursfeld, brought fresh life into
it. In 1569 Lobbes and several other abbeys, the
most important being that of St. Vasst or Vedast at
Arras, were combined to form the "Benedictine Gal-
lon of Exempt Monasteries of Flanders ", some-
called the ■'Congregation of St. Vaast". In
1793 the last abbot, Vulgise de Vignron, was elected.
Thirteen months later both abbot and community
were driven from the monastery by French troops,
and the law of 2 September, 1796, decreed their final
expulsion. The monks, who numbered forty-three
at that date, were received into various monasteries
in Germany and elsewhere; and the conventual build-
ings were subsequently defltroyed, with the e^cpptlon
of the farm and certain other portions that have been
incorporated in the raiiwav station.
AnnaiaLatdiiairueiinFsHTZ.iff^.Oerm. HiH.:SeTipl. .I-IV,
XXI: flmx ChnMiam lanbiaum in M^rkXE. TANuurvi Set.
Anted.. Ill (Fans. 1717). I40S-I431: EpvUeia Lobientium
mimacliorum in i,'AciitBT, SpKil-vium. VI (Furis. IBM), 588-
AOI: U«Bi:.i»K. Annaltt Bmtd. (Pu». IS—), 11. V; OaUia
CMiliana. Ill (Paris, 1735). 79-80: BebuIibb. JTmhuIw*
Belac. I (Bnigcs, 1900-67). 179-238: LuEDira, McnuanmMt
drfaTKiennt^bbaufdrSI.PitrTedeLoNiallioia.lS^: Tos,
Lobbei, Km obbaj/trtHmchapiirii (2 mb.,Jjoa'irmo.l8aS): Bn-
ukKK.NoHctswrabbavxIt Leb'-eiiB Rmu BinMiftiiu.V.aCa.
370.392,
G. Roger Hudlebtom.
Lobara, Ann (tetter known as Venbrablb Ann of
Jesus), Carmelite nun, companion of St. Teresa; b.
at Medina del Campo (Old CastUe), 25 November,
1645; d. at Brussels, 4 March,_ 1621. The daughter of
Diego de Lobera of Plasencia, and of Francisca de
Torres of Biscay, Ann was a deaf-mute until her
seventh year, I-cf t an orphan, she went to live with her
father's relatives. Havmg made a vow of virginity
while in the world, she took the habit in St. Teresa s
convent at Avila. in 1570. While still a novice St.
Teresa called her to Salamanca and placed her over
the other novices. Ann made her profession on 22
Octoljer, 1571, and accompanied St. Teresa in 1575 to
the foundation of Beas, of which she became the firat
Krioress, Later she was sent by the saint to establish
nr new convent at Granada. One of the greatest
difEcuIUes consisted in a misunderstanding between
St. Teresaand Ann, which drew from the former sharp
reprimands, in a letter dated 30 May, 1 582. With Uie
help of St. John of the Cross, Ann made a foundation at
Madrid (1586), of which she became prioress. She
also oolleeted St. Teresa's writings for publication.
While at Madrid Ann came into conflict with her
superior, Nicholas a Jesu-Maria (Doria), who, by
rendering the rules stringent and rigid in the extreme,
and bv concentrating ail authority in the hands of a
committee of permanent officials (eonsuUa), sought to
guard the nuns against any relaxation. It was an
open secret that the constitutions of the nuns, di&wn
up by St. Teresa with the assistance of Jerome Gratian
(q. v.), and approved by a eliapter in 1581, were to be
brought into line with the new principles of adminis-
tration. Ann of Jesus, determined to preserve intact
St. Teresa's work, appealed (with the knowledge of
Doria) to the Holy Sec for an Apostohc confirmation,
been acting over the head of their superiors, Philip II
twice forbade the meeting of a chapter for the recep-
tion of the Brief, and the nuns, ana their advisers and
supporters, Luis de Lefin and Dominic Bafiei, fell into
di^raee. Furthermore, for over a year no friar was
allowed to hear the nuns' confessions. At last Philip
having heard the story from the nuns' point of view
commanded the consiilUi to reaume their government,
and petitioned the Holv See for an approbation of the
constitutions. Accordingly Gr^ory XIV by a Brief
of 25 April, 1591, revoking the Acts of bis predeceaor,
took a middle course between an uncontutional eon-
firmation of the constitutions and an approbation of
tbe principles of the eonauffa. These coiuititutions ara
still in foree
Dree in a large number ot Carmelite convents,
resumed the government of the nuns, hut hit
LOOOXJM
319
LOOHMER
first act was to punish Ann of Josus severely for liaving
appealed to the Holy See; for three years she was de-
prived of daily communion, of all intercourse with the
other nuns, and of active and i)assive voice. At the
expiration of this penance she went to Salamanca,
where she became prioress from 1596 to 1599. Mean-
whfle a movement had been set on foot to introduce
the Teresian nuns into France. Blessed Mary of the
Incamation, warned bv St. Teresa and assisted by de
Br^tiffny and de B^ruUe (q. v.), brought a few nuns,
moet^ trained by St. Teresa herself, with Ann of
Jesus a€ their heads, from Avila to Paris, where they
established the convent of the Incarnation, 16 October,
1604. Such was the number of postulants that Ann
was able to make a further foundation at Pontoise, 15
January, 1605, and a third one on 21 September at
Dijon, where she took up her abode; otner founda-
tioDS followed. Nevertheless difficulties arose be-
tween her and the superiors in France, who were
anxious to authorise certain deviations from the strict
rule of St. Teresa; the situation had become strained
and painful, when Mother Ann was called to Brussels
by the Infanta Isabella and the Archduke Albert, who
were anxious to establish a convent of Carmelite nuns.
She arrived there on 22 January, 1607, and besides the
Brussels house she made foundations at Louvain (4
November), and Mons (7 February, 1608) ; and helped
to establish those at Antwerp, and at Krakow in Poland.
She, moreover, obtained leave from the pope for the
Discalced Friars to establish themselves m Flanders.
The Spanish Carmelites having decided not to spread
outside the Peninsula declined the offer, but the
Italian congregation sent Thomas a Jesu with some
companions, wno arrived at Brussels, on 20 August,
1610. On 18 September, Ann of Jesus and her nuns,
in the presence of the nuncio, rendered their obedience
to the superior of the Itah'an congregation. She re-
mained prioress at Brussels to the end of her life.
Numerous miracles having followed upon her death,
the process of canonisation was introduced early in the
seventeenth century, and in 1878 she was declared
Venerable.
KANRiQUVt Vida de la V, Mtidre Ana de Jesue (Bruasels,
1032); Bbrtbou>b-Iona.cb db Stb. Anne* Vie de la Mire Anne
dtJinu (HechUn, 1876) .
B. Zimmerman.
Loeeum (Lucca, Locken, Lockween, Ltke,
Ltcxo), Cistercian abbey in the Diocese of Minden,
formeriy in Brunswick but now included in Hanover,
was founded by Count Wilbrand von Hallermund in
1163. The first monks under Abbot Eccardus came
from Vbllrenrode in Thuringia, through which house
the foundation belongs to the Morimond line of descent
from Clteauz. An ancient writer describes Loccum as
being "in loco horroris et vastse solitudinis et prse-
donum et latronum commorationis"; and adds that,
after sufferini^ much from want and from the barbar-
ity of their neif;hbourB, the monks in time brought the
land into cultivation, and the people to the fear of
God. The history of the abbey presents nothing to
call for special notice.^ It filled its place in the life of
the Church in Brunswick until the tide of Lutheranism
swept the Catholic religion from the country. The
chief interest of Loccum lies in its buildings, which still
exist in an almost perfect state, being now a Protestant
seminary of higher studies. The group, which is con-
sidered inferior in beauty to Mambronn and Beben-
hausen alone amongst German abbevs, consists of a
cruciform church alwut 218 feet long by 1 10 feet wide,
built between 1240 and 1277, and restored with great
care about sixty years ago; a quadrangular cloister of
remarkable beauty; the ancient refectory, now used
as a library; the chapter-house, sacristy, dormitory,
and lay-brotiiera' wizig (domus conversorum), all practi-
eaOy m their ori^inarstate. fiy ac odd survival the
^.^. . ,^. - igpy^ ^ ^jjg Yiesd of the present estab-
lishment, and the abbatiul mitre, crosier, et<?., are pre-
served, and apparently still used on occasion.
461: Ahrens, Zur dUesten Oewhirhte dee Kloetere Loccum hi
Archiv. d. hist. Ver. /Qr Nieder-Sachacn (1872), 1; Wittb,
Kloeter Loccum in Die Katol. Welt (1904) ; Bbunnkr, Zietef
gieneerbuch (WOnbuig, 1881), 32.
G. Roger Hudleston.
Lochleyen (from leamhan, an elm-tree), a lake in
Kinross-shire, Scotland, an island of which, known as
St. Serf's Island (eighty acres in extent), was the seat
of a religious community for seven hundred years.
Brude, King of the Picts, is recorded to have given the
island to the Culdees about 840^ perhaps in the life-
time of St. Serf (or Servanus) himself, and the grant
was confirmed by subsequent kings and by several
bishops of St. Andrews. In the tenth century the
Culdee community made over their island to the
bishop, on condition of their being provided by him
with food and clothing. The Culdees continued to
serve the monastery until the reign of David I, who
about 1145 granted Lochleven to the Canons Regular
of St. Andrews, whom he had founded there in the
previous year. Bishop Robert of St. Andrews, him-
self a member of the order, took possession of the is-
land, subjected the surviving Culdees to the canons,
and added their possessions to the endowments of the
priory at St. Andrews. An interesting list of the
books belonging to the Culdees at the time of their
incorporation with St. Andrews is preserved in the St.
Andrews Register. From the middle of the twelfth
century until the Reformation, Lochleven continued
to be a cell dependent on St. Andrews. The most
noted of the pnors was Andrew Wyntoun, one <rf the
fathers of Scottish history, who probably wrote his
"Orygynale C^onykil of Scotland" on the island.
Patrick Graham, first Archbishop of St. Andrews, died
and was buried there in 1478. The property passed
at the Dissolution to the Earl of Morton. A few frag-
ments of the chapel remain, and have been used in
recent times as a shelter for cattle.
Mack AT. Fife and Kinroaa (Edinburgh. 1896), 12, 82; Chai/-
MER8. Caledonia (Paialey. 1887-90), I. 409 etc.; II, 748; VII,
108, 142; Lyon, Hiat. of St. Andretca, I (Edinbui^h, 1843), 44;
Gordon, AfonoA/tcon (London. 1875), 90-9; Ordnance Gaxetteer,
Scotland, IV (London, 1874), 320, 321.
D. O. Hunter-Blair.
Lochner, Stephan, painter, b. at Meersburg, on
the Lake of 0)nstance, date of birth unknown; d. at
Cologne, 1452. He came to Cologne about 1430 from
Meersburg. His style of painting resembles more that
of " Master Wilhelm" of the fourteenth century, than
that of the unknown painters who followed him, who,
though they lived at Cologne, betray a certain Dutch
influence. He seems to have brought with him from
his home in Upper Germany, the more viWd realism
of Moser and Witz. His principal work was destined
for the altar in the town hall, but was removed in 1810
to the choir chapel of the cathedral. This is the bril-
liant triptych wnich, in the centre piece, shows in al-
most life-size figures the worshipping of the Ma^, and
the side panels of which represent St. Ursula with her
companions, and Gereon with his warriors. In the
middle, seated on a throne, appears the Madonna with
the Child, humble and yet majestic, clad in the tradi-
tional ideal garments. The miraculous star shines
al)ove, and angels appear overhead. On each side one
of the kings prays and tenders his offering, while tlie
third stands beside the throne. To the right and the
left their followers crowd into view. A wealth of tone
and colour transfigures the scene. The figures, save
the Virgin, are all clad in the costumes of the time;
their bearing is free and bold, and each individual in
the group stands out in marked relief. This is espe-
cially true of the warriors of Gereon on the right lateral
panel. Their leader is seen, virile and resolute, ad-
LOCI
320
LOOI
vancing with the flag; his costume is richlv embroid-
ered, and his armour bears a large cross. His follow-
ers are similarly clad and bear battle-axe^. On the
left side are the women, of delicate mould and some^
what less pronounced individuality; a pope and a
bishop appear among them, both of whom play a part
in the legend of St. Ursula. The sumptuous garments
of the maidens are trimmed with royal ermine, and
their long flowing sleeves hang down at their sides.
The slender arms and tapering lingers of the Madonna,
as well as the somewhat awkward movements of some
of the other figures, remind us of an earlier period; but
there is a keen sense of nature and an earnest aim at
reality in the treatment of the costumes as well as in
the expression of the faces, which are flnishcd and life-
like.
The Annunciation, done in more subdued tones, is
represented at the outer end. Great care is shown in
the handling of the room, with its wall-hangings and
its compartment ceilings, the desk, chair, and lily.
The whole work reminds one of Van Eyck's altar
painting at Ghent; the artist has achieved at Cologne a
magnificent monument to the patron saint of the city.
Similar in technic Ls the " Virgin among the Rose-
bushes" (Maria am Rosenhag) in the Cologne museum.
Tliis is an enchanting picture of the Blessed Mother
with the Child, surrounded by angels who discourse
celestial music. Indeed one might view it as a scene
in heaven, a glimpse of wliich is vouchsafed mortals by
the two angels who part the mystic veil. God the
Father appears alx)ve, His hand raised in benediction,
while over them hovers the Dove, symbol of the Holy
Ghost. Tlie ** Madonna of the Violets" is ascribed to
an earlier period of Lochiier, and is in the archiepisco-
pal museum. This charming work is done in the style
of "Muster Wilhelm". The youthful Mother stands
there, more than life-size, with the Infant Jesus on her
arm; her left hand holds a bunch of violets; above are
seen the Heavenly Father, the Holy Ghost, and an an-
gel; Mother and Child look dowTi upon a woman in
prayer, who represents the donor of the painting. The
**Last Judgment", which hangs in the museiun of
Cologne, seems at first glance to be in an entirely dif-
ferent style. Certain experts have contended against
Master Stephan's authorship of this work, because of
the realistic fonns of the damned, and the distorted
faces of the demons. Other critics have assumed that
his pupils contributed the lost souls, and have recog-
nized m the remainder of the work the hand of Loch-
ner himself. Another painting, which is more likely
to have emanated from his brush, is of " The Presentar
tion of Jesus in the Temple ", with saints portrayed on
the side panels; it is the famous central picture at
Dannstaxit, so much admired by visitors. Tne youths
standing Ix'fore Simeon, and the maidens grouped be-
hind Anna, make an array of figures full of grace and
charm.
ScHEiBLF.n AND Aldenhovkn, Gesch. der Kolner MalerachuU
nAiheck, 1S94); Meklo, Firmenich-Ri(;hartz. and Keussen,
Kolnische KunMlcr in alter urid neuer Zeit (DUascldorf. 1895).
G. GlKTMANN.
Loci Theologiciy or hci communes , are the common
topics of discussion in theology. As theology is the
science which places in the light of reason the truths
revealed by God, its topics are, strictly speaking, co-
extensive with the whole content of revelation. Usage,
however, and circumstance have restricted the loci to
narrower l)ut ill-defined limits. Melanchthon, the
theologian of Lutheran Germany, published in 1521
"Hypotyposes theologicie seu loci communes", a
presentation of the chief Christian doctrines drawn
from the Bil)le as the only rule of faith. His avowed
intention was to improve on similar works by John
Damascene and Peter Ix)mbard. Leaving aside undis-
pute<l dogmas which do not bear directly on the salva-
tion of man, he expounds with scanty commentary, or
none at all, the state of fallen man, free-will, ein,
the law of God, the law of man, the Gospel, the power
of the Law and the power of the Gospel, grace, justifi-
cation, faith, hope, and charity, the difference between
the Old and New Testament, the abolition of the Law
through the Gospel, the sacraments of Baptism, Pen-
ance, and the Eucharist, authority, and scandal.
Melanchthon's "Loci" became the textbook for Lu-
theran theology' and the author has rightly been styled
the prccceptor 6ermantoB, Like Peter Lombard, he had
his'imitators and conmientators, who formed a goodlv
bodv of Protestant Schoolmen. The greatest work
of this kind is "Loci communes theologici", by John
Gerard, professor at Jena, published in nine volumes
(1610-1622); it is the greatest and also the last. After
Gerard the loci theology gives place to systematic
theology; the unconnectecT exposition of "topics" in
the light of the Bible gradually disappears. €^ the
Catholic side Melanchthon's " Loci" were countered bv
the ' ' Enchiridion locorum communium" of Johann Eck
(q. v.), which between 1525 and 1576 ran through
fort\'-five editions. It was dedicated to Henry Vfil
of England. The topics which Eck expounds and de-
fends against the Reformers are: the Churcii ajid her
authoritv, the councils, the primacy of the Apoetolic
See, Holy Scripture, faith and works, confirmation,
ordination, confession, conmiunion under both kinds,
matrimony, extreme unction, human laws, feasts,
fasts, the worship of saints and their images, tne Mass,
vows, clerical celibacy, cardinals and legates, excom-
munication, wars against the Turks, inununities and
temporalities of the Church, indulgences, pursatory,
annates, the burning of heretics, discussion with here-
tics, and infant baptism. Other Catholic writers fol-
lowed on the track of the Ingolstadt professor; e. g.
Franciscus Orantes (d. 1584), Konrad Kluig (d. 1566;,
Joseph V. Zambaldi (d. 1722), and Cardinal Bellar-
mine (q. v.), whose " Disputationes de controversiis
fidei" (1581-92) are still the chief arsenal and strong-
hold of Catholic controversy. But, whilst Protestants
concentrated their best theological effort on the locij
Catholics soon retiuned to the systematic methods of
the older Summce,
Cano (d. 1560) applied the term loci iheoHogiei to
a treatise on the f unciamental principles or sources of
theological science. On the threshold of every science
there stands a complex of preliminary principles, pos-
tulates, and questions, which must be elucidated bcaore
progress is possible. Some are conmion to all sciences,
some are peculiar to each. Before Cano the questions
preliminary to theology had never been treated as a
science apart, general dialectics being deemed a suffi-
cient introduction. Cano observes tiiat the "Queen
of sciences" draws its arguments and proofs <micfly
from authority, and only calls in reason as the han<i-
maid of faith. Accorciingly he sets up ten loci —
sources of theology — without, however, pretending to
limit them to that number. They are: the authority
of Holy Scripture, of Catholic tradition, of general
councils, of the Roman Church, of the FatherSy of the
Schoolmen; natural reason, the authority of philoso-
Ehers and doctors in civil law, and tiie authority of
istor>\ The first seven are the proper places in
which theology moves, the last three are uaerul auxili-
aries. Mclchior Cano's work save a new turn to
theological teaching. Much that before his time
had l)een taken for granted, or, at best, only loosely
investigated, became the favourite theme of the
schools. The foundations of theology, which had
lain eml)edded in the Christian mind, weie laid bare,
examined, strengthened, and rendered safe both for
the believer inside the Church and against the foe
without. The scientific method which takes nothing
for granted, but investigates and probes to the very
root every item of knowledge, is not a thing of yester-
day, much less a child of anti-Catholic tendencies:
Bishop Mclchior Cano introduced it as the beet wea-
pon ot offence and defence in religious warfaie. The
MADONNA WITH THE VIOLET
toou 3:
"Loci theologici" wai fint publuihed in 1563, three
years After the author'8death,bv the Grand Inquisitor
V»ldes. Twenty-six editions followed the first : eight
in Spain, nine in Italy, seven in Germany, and two in
Franco. Numerous writers during the followins cen-
turies produced works on the same lines: Scraphinius
Ractiua (Raiii) {d. 1613), Petnis de Lorca (d. IB06),
Dominicus a S. Trinitnte (d. 16S7), Ch. du Plessis
d'A^entrfe (d. 1740), FrancLicus Kmni, and many
more. Gradually the subject-matter of the loci en-
tered the body of theology imdcr the title of "Prole-
gomena", general dogmatics, fundamental theolofn',
or apologetics. In "A Manual of Catholic TheoloRy ,
by Wilhplm and Seanncll (I,ondon, l!(fMJ). the hria.re
treated in the first liook under the foUowintjhfadinKs:
the sources of theoloEical knowledge; Divine revela-
tion; transmission of revelation; the Apostolic de-
posit of revelation; ecclesiastical tnuiitions; the rule
of faith; faith; faith and undomtandinR.
Tbe necessity of meeting attacks on the Faith at the
precise point on which they are directed has, of recent
years, led to a modiliration in apoloeetic methods.
Existing textbooks draw their proofs from Scripture,
tradition and, when possible, from reason. The au*
thority of these loci, or sources, having Ixwn previ-
ously proved, the demonstration ia considered com-
plete. But since evolutionLim has taken hold of the
modem mind and filled it with a never-sotisifieJ desire
to know the origin and the zrowth of all Ihinji;!! in the
Kalms of nature and of mind, the liici thcmaelves have
been submitted to fierce criticism liy men who will 1«
convinced by nothing but fact^ and cxperimrntn.
They proceed by the positive, or liiatoricul. method
which eliminates all supernatural factors, and retains
only the bare facts linked together in an unbroken
chain of causes and effects. The Bible to them is no
longer the Word of God, but a mere collection of docu-
menta of various merit; the Church in an institution of
bumar) origin. It must be eonfcssral that the histori-
cal method is fraught with danger even U> those who
use it in defence of the Church. Tlio ilangcr is real
but.BO ia the necessity of facing it, for it in usclp$.s to
argue from authority with men who acknowledge
no auUiority. What is wanted is that the Catho-
lic apoloeist keep a steady eye on the landmarks lixe<l
by tneCnurch,and dci-iate neither to the right nor to
the left. With that precaution, the historical methoil
is likely to become an abundant source of light an<l
understanding on points of doctrine and discipline
hitherto viewed out of their historical frame and in a
borrowed light. Thus the discovery of the Didache
{q. v.) has been a revelation which' has upset many
fond calculations, and the excavations in Palestine.
AssiTia, Egypt, and other places, where they liear on
Bible history, have done more good tlian harm to the
traditional views. The French are at the present doy
the pioneers of the historical treatment of doema; one
need only point to the splendid series of "Studies in the
History of Dc^mas " published by Ijecoffre in Paris.
Wekheii, Gtteh. d. ajietoQ. u. juArm. !,Urralvr (Rntinhon.
1880): Ga». Gfich. d. prof. Daamalik <18S4): Hkppk. Dim-
wiatik d. dtiUKim FmaUnlumtu ((.olhu, 1K5TJ: Skniiti' (n
JCtrctoilei.. ■. v.: HtHTKH, XomntlaUir; tee abo bibliunniphy
nndcr AraLoasncB and TaeoLOOT.
J. WiLHELU.
1 LOOXHAKT ,
Davcnant'fl version of "The Tempeat", produced
7 November, 1667. His "Melothesia" (ItiiSj was a
good theoretical treatise. Of greater interest is the
"Macbeth" music, composed in 1672, but it ia almost
certain that the well-known score was really the work
of Henry Purcell. The ascription of it to Locke was
based on an error due to Dr. Boyce. but it must be
noted that Purcell'a music — the so-called " Locke's " —
ivalof"Macl)Cth" in 1GS9. Locke
mpoi
ed the
for Shad-
well's " Psvche "
in 167.1, anil sev-
eral anthems and
Latin hymns.
From 1672 to 1674
he was engaged
Thomas ^Imon,
who advocated
the writing of all
music on one clef.
still upheld, while
phlets are for-
gotten. He was
" De|iutv Master
of the King's Mu-
sick" for the
Lock», MATTtiEW, composer; b. at Exeter, in 1629;
d. August, 1677. HewasacborisUTof ExeterCathe-
dral from 1638 to 1641. His first effort was as part-
composer of music for Shirley's masiiue "Cupicf and
Death" (26 May, 1653). In 1654, he iWame a Catho-
lic, and, in 1656. furnished some of the music for I>ave-
nant's opera ""The Siege of Rhodes", In addition to
aome minor orchestral works he scored the proeessional
march for the coronation of Charles II, in April, 1001.
and was appointed composer to the king b private
band at a aala^ of forty pounds a year. He com-
posed incidental instrumental music for Drvden's and
IX.— 21
376-77, but hia salary at Court v
lid that on 24 July, lli76, he asaign
throe years' and three quarters' Balar>- due to him —
to one of his creditors. He was buried in the Savoy,
in which parish he spent his last
Hubs in Ghovb, /)id. of Maiii^ o
lOOfl): I. v.; Matthhw, Hmdimk n. __ _ ,,
don. 18081; Waliek, HiHoni 'if Munc in England (Oxtord.
10O7); DK LinjNTAiMi;, The King't Munkk (Loudon, IMOB).
W. H. (.iHATTAN-1'I.OOD.
Lockhart, William, son of tlie Rev. Alexander
Lockhart of Waringhiim, Surrev; b. 22 Aug., 1S20; d.
at St. Etlieldre<iii'.s IVion-. Elv Place, Holhorn, Lon-
don, 15 May. 1X02. IIeVii« ii eousin of .1. (J. Lock-
hart, the well-known biogm[>her of Sir A\'ultcr Scott.
After sturlying first ut Beilford Grammar School and,
afterwanla under various tutors, be entereil Exeter
College, Oxford, in IKIS. Ho there made the ac-
quaintance of t^lward Douglas, afterwanis hiMil <)t
the RedemptoriHtJi at Rome, Father Ignatius Grant,
the well-known JcNuit, and John Ruskin. Like so
many others whose early life has been poxsed in a
purely I*roteHtanl :ilmo«phere, Locklwrt had hitlierto
taken it for granted that Protestant iom represented
the religion of the ApOHtles. and that to the title
ChriKHan Catholics could, properly Ki>eaking, lay no
claim. The rending of Iroude's "Kemains" nnd
Fnber's "Foreign ('hurches" showed him how mi»-
taken this q>inion was. To set his iloubts nt rest, he
visited Manning at I.jivingtnn. but felt aouwed in the
archdeacon's presence that he di<l not dare to enter
into o controversy. SiilM«'i[ueullv. Miinninc urged
Lockhart to accept Newman's kind invitation to stay
with him at Litllenxire anrl prepare for (,\nglican)
ordination. After griduating Bachelor of .-\r(s in
1842, he rejoined Newman at Litllcniore. and was as-
signal the task of translating a portion of Fleury's
"History of the Church", and of writing a life of St.
Gilbert of Setiipringham for the OxfonI Series (see N ew-
HAN, JoKN' Hendv). In lliia retirement hia weak-
ened faith in the Anglicjin Church was rudely xhaken
by the perusal of Milner's " End of Religious Contro-
versy" given him by Grant, who liad Iwcome n ('nth-
olicin 1S41. Lockhart now realized for the first time
what (Tatholie doctrine was, and he saw all his doubta
confirmed in the irresolution of Newman, at thiji tima
LOCKWOOD
322
LODX
vainly seeking his Via Media between Catholicism ami
Anglicanism. After a few weeks' hesitation, he de-
clared to Newman that he could not go on for An-
glican ordination doubting its validity as he did.
Newman sent him to W. G. Ward, who persuaded him
to return to Littlemore for three years.
About a year later, however, his meeting with
Father Gentfli of the newly-founded Order of Charity,
at Ward's rooms, brougnt matters to a crisis. In
August, 1843, he visited Father Gentili at Loughbor-
ou^, intending to stay only a few hours, but his visit
resulted in a three days' retreat and his reception into
the Church. On 29 August he was received into the
Rosminian Institute; he made his simple vows on 7
April, 1844, and his solenm profession 8 Sept., 1845.
He was the first of the Tractarians to become a Cath-
olic, and his conversion greatly afTected Newman, w^ho
shortly afterwards preached at Littlemore his last
sermon as an Anglican, "The Parting of Friends".
All communication between Lockhart and his mother
ceased at first, by Maiining's orders, but mother and
son were soon reconciled, and in July, 1846, Mrs.
Lockhart followed her son into the Catholic Church.
In November, 1844, he was included in the new com-
munity at Calvary House, RatcLffe — the first Ros-
minian foundation in En^nd. He was ordained
subdeacon at Oscott on 19 December, 1845, and dea-
con on 5 June, 1846, and on 19 Dec. of the same year
was raised to the priesthood at Ratcliffe Colle^.
After some months devoted to the preaching of mis-
sions, Lockhart was entrusted with the pastoral
charf^ of Shepshed, on 5 June, 1847. He w^as still
occasionally employed for mission work, and in 1850
was definitely appointed for this duty. After some
years' successful preaching in various part^ of England
and Ireland, he was compelled, owing to ill-health, to
spend the winter of 1853 at Rome. On his return
t'oumey he paid a memorable visit to the celebrated
talian philosopher, Abbate Rosmini, at Stresa. In
1854 he was deputed to select a suitable place in Lon-
don for the establishment of a house and church of his
order. At the suggestion of Manning, he chose Kings-
land, and imtil 1875 had to bear the burden of anxiety
in connexion with this foundation. In Dec, 1873, he
Purchased at his own expense St. Etheldreda's out of
hanccry, and thus restored one of London's oldest
churches (thirteenth century) to Catholic worship.
Removing to St. Etheldreda's in 1879, when the work
of repair was completed, he established himself there
until his death, altnough he continued for many years
to give missions and retreats. After 1881 he spent
the winters in Rome as procurator general of the con-
gregation, and was there frec^uently called upon to
give a series of sermons in English. His death, of syn-
cope, occurred very unexpect<?dly.
lie was perhaps best known as the foremost En-
glish disciple of llosmini, founder of the Institute of
Charity. Several volumes of that philosopher's works
were translated either by him or under his supervision,
and in 1886 he wrote the second volume of the "Life
of Antonio Rosmini-Serbati ", of which the first vol-
ume had ^x^en written by G. S. MacW^alter in 1883.
He was an able polemic and was closely connected
with two well-known Catholic periodicals, " Catholic
Opiliion ",'which he founded and conducted until it was
merged in "The Tablet", and "The Lamp", to which
he was for twenty years the principal contributor.
Besides his numerous contributions to these papers he
wrote: "The Old Religion" (2nd ed., London, 1870);
"Review of Dr. Pusev's Eirenicon" (2nd ed., London,
1866) , reprinted from* " The Weekly Register " ; " Com-
munion of Saints" (London, 1868); "Cardinal New-
man. Reminiscences of fifty years since by one of his
oldest living Disciples" (London, 1891). For some
years before his death he had been engaged on a seo-
ond volume to form a sequel to "The Old Religion",
the best-known of his polemical works.
Hirst. Biography of Father LockhaH (RatcUfFe OoUefe, 1808);
Weekly Reaitter, LXXXV. 657-58. 091; Cath. New i2\ May,
1892) ; CaOi. Tinier (20 and 27 May. 1892) ; The TimeB (LoDdon.
18 May, 1892); Tht ilMcmnim (London, 21 May. 1892); Tki
Tablet (21 May, 1892); Gillow, BibL Did. EngTCath,, s. ▼.
Thomas Kennedy.
Lockwood, John, Venerable, priest and martyr,
b. about 1555; d. at York, 13 April, 1642. He was
the eldest son of Christopher Lockwood, of Sowerby,
Yorkshire, by Clare, eldest daughter of Christopher
Lascelles, of Sowerby and Brackenborough Caistle.
Yorkshire. With the second son, Francis, he arrivea
at Reims on 4 November. 1579, and was at once sent to
Douai to study philosopny. Francis was ordained in
1587, but John entered the English College, Rome, on 4
October, 1595, was ordained priest on 26 January, 1597,
and sent on the mission, 20 April. 1598. After suflfer-
ing imprisonment he was banisned in 1610, but re-
turned, and was again taken and condenmed to death,
but reprieved. He was finally captured at Wood
End, Gatenbv, the residence of Bridget Gatenby, and
executed witn Edmund Catherick.
GiLLOw, BM. Diet. Eno. Cath., b. v.; Challokkr, Memoind
Missionary Priests, II. No. 188; Knox, Diaries of the BngUsk
College, Douay (London. 1878), 157; Fostbr. ViaiiaUon of rM-
«Air« (London, privately printed. 1875). 61, 549; Catholic Record
Society's Publications (London, privately printed. 1905. etc.),
V. 384.
John B. Wainewbight.
Loddve. See Montpellier, Diocese of.
Lodi, Diocese of (Laudensis), sufifra^^an of Milan.
Lodi, the capital of a district in the Province of Milan,
and situatou on the right bank of the Adda, is an im-
portant commercial centre for silk, wool, majolica
ware, and works in cement. Noteworthy amonjz the
sacred edifices is the Lombard cathediral, buut in
1158 by the Cremonese Tito Musio de Gata. The
interior was restored in the sixteenth and eighteenth
centuries. The high altar belongs to the Seioenio,
There is also a subterranean crypt. The pictures are
bv Campi (the choir) , CaUsto, Procaccini. etc. A not-
able monument is that of the Pontani, husband and
\^ife. The cathedral treasure possesses valuable
miniature codices, a large silver ostensorium of the
QuaUrocentOj and ornaments of the same period. The
church of the Incoronata, a gem of Renaissance archi-
tecture, was built by the city on the plans of Giovanni
Batto^. Other beautiful churches are: S. Francesco
(Gothic facade), S. Bassiano, and the Abbey of Cer-
reto with an octagonal tower. Among the secular
buildines are the bishop's residence, the great hospi*
tal, ana the castle, erected by Bamabo Viscontiy ani
converted into a barrack by Joseph II.
About four miles distant is Lodi Vecchia, the an*
cient Laus Pompeia, at first a city of the Gauls, and
later colonized by the father of Pompey. In the Middle
A^es its inhabitants were in frequent conflict with the
Milanese, bv whom it was destroyed (in 1025 under
the Archbishop Ariberto d'Antimiano; again in 1111;
also in 1158 for its hostility towards Frederick Bar-
barossa). The Marchioness Adelaide of Turin cap-
tured and burned the city to avenge herself on Henir
IV. In 1 160 Barbarossa built the modem city, which
always remained faithful to him. Under Frederick
II, however, Lodi joined the second Lombard League.
It was then absorbed in the Duchy of Milan. In 1454
the peace between Milan, Venice, and Florence was
confirmed at Lodi. The city is noted for the brilliant
cavalry operations of 1796, when Napoleon took the
bridge over the Adda, ooposed by the Austrians under
Beaulieu. Under Diocletian, according to the local
legend, 4000 Christians with their bishop, whose name
is unknown, were burned alive in their church.^ St.
Bassianus. the patron of the city, was certainlv bishop
in 378. Other bishops were: Titianus (474), whose
relics were discovered in 1640; St. Venantianus, a oon-
temporarv of St. Gregory the Great; Olderico (1024):
Alberico di Merlino (1160); S. Alberto Quadrelli
LOOXA
323
LOOIA
(1168); Blessed Leone Palatini (1318), peacemaker
between the Guelphs and Ghibellines; raolo Cada-
mosto (1354), legate of Urban VI in Hungary; Car-
dinal Gerardo di Landriana (1410), who discovered
the "De Oratore" of Cicero: Cardinal Lodovico
Simoiietta (1537), who presided at the Council of
Trent; Antonio Scarampi (1568), founder of the
seminary and friend of St. Charles Borromco; Carlo
Amlnrogio Meuabarba (1725), Apostolic visitor for
China and the Indies; Gian Antonio della Beretta
(1758), who suffered exile for his opposition to the
oath of the (Cisalpine Constitution. The diocese has
102 parishes, with 200,000 souls: 4 religious houses of
men, and 37 of women; 4 schools for boys, and 23 for
girls.
OkPFBLUDm^ L« Chie»6 ff Italia, XXI (Venice); Hiatoria
rentm Laudennumt ed. Pebtb in Man. Germ, Hist.: Script.t
Vni; ViGNATi, Codiee diplonuUico laudense (2 vols., Milan*
lS83-«0); Arehivio di Lodi (1905), XXIV. U. Benigni.
•
Logia Jetii, or " Sayings of Jesus ", found partly in
the Inspired Books of the New Testament, partly
in uninspired writings. The '' Sayings ' ' transmitted in
works not inspired are also called Agrapha (q. v.), i. e.
''not written" (under inspiration). The present
article is confined to the canonical Logia Jesu. Even
this title comprises a larger area than is technically
covered by the term Sailings of Jesus, StrictI v speak-
ing, all tlie words of Cnrist contained in the Inspired
Books of the New Testament are canonical Logia Jesu,
while the technical expression comprises only the
"Sayings of Jesus" of which Papias speaks in a pas-
aage preserved by Eusebius (Hist. EccL, III, xxxix,
16).
The question concerning the Logia Jesu, taken in
this restricted meaning, has become important on
account of its connexion with the so-called " Synoptic
Problem". Lessing (Neue Hypothesen tiber die
EvangeUsten, ed. Lachmann, XI, § 53) considered the
" Gospel of the Hebrews " as the source of the three Sy-
noptic Gospeb canonically received. Eichhom (Ein-
leitung in das Neue Testament, 1804-) admitted a
primitive gospel, containing the forty-two sections
common to the Synoptics, as their source; composed
by the Apostles shortl^r after Pentecost, in Aramaic,
and later on translated into Greek, it gave a summary
of Christ's ministry, and served as a guide to the early
Evangelists in their preaching. Blcek and de Wette,
in th^ "Introductions", substituted for Eichhom's
** Gospel of the Hebrews " a gospel composed in Galilee
which was the source of Matthew ana Luke; in our
Second Gospel we have, then, a compendium of the
First and the Third Gospel. A host of other writers
endeavoured to solve the Synoptic Problem by the
theory of mutual dependence of tnc first three Gospels;
others again^ by a recourse to unwritten traditions.
It was at this luncture that Schleiermacher ('' Ueber
die Zeugniase des Papias von unscren beiden ersten
EvangeBen" in "Studien und Kritiken", 1832, iv)
tried to show that the texts of Papias concerning
Ifatthew and Mark do not refer to our First and
Second Gospels, but to a primitive Matthew and a
primitive Mark. Shortly afterwards, Credner (Ein-
leitung, 1836) found in tne primitive Mark the source
of all ue historical matter contained in the Synoptics,
and in the primitive Matthew the source of the dis-
ooiueee in the First and Third Gospels. Wcisse
r Evangelisohe Geschichte ", 18.38; " Die Evangelien-
nage", 1856) agrees with Cre<iner, but substitutes our
emoniqJ Mark tor Credner's proto-Mark.
Credner's hypothesis was followed with slight modi*
ficationsbyReuss ("Geschichte der heil. Schrift N.T.",
Srd ed.. 1860), Holtsmann (" Die synoptischen Evan-
gel]ea",1863),Weixsftcker(^'Unter8uchungenaberdie
evang. Gesch.'', 1864), Beyschlag (''Die apostolLsche
Spnichflammlung" in ^'Studien und Kritiken", 1881,
hn, de Preasensd (" J^sus-Christ, son temps", etc., 7tn
ea., 1884)^ and ouien, all of whom accepted the Logia
and the proto-Mark as the sources of the S^nioptics.
The Logia and our Mark have been considered as the
sources of the first three Gospels, though with various
explanations, by such scholars as G. Meyer ('' La ques-
tion synoptique ", 1878), Sabatier (in Encycl. des
sciences religieuses, XI, 781 sq.), Keim (Geschichte
Jesu, I, 72, 77), Wendt (Die I-ichre Jesu, 1), Nosgen
(cf . Stud. u. Krit., 1870-80), Grau (Entwicklungsge-
sdiichte des N. T. Schrifttnums, 1871), Lipsius (cf.
Peine, " Jahrb. f. prot. Theol.", 1885), and B. Weiss
("Jahrb. f. deutsch. Theol.", 1864; "Das Markus-
evang. u. seine synopt. Parallelen", 1872; "Das Matt-
hausevang.", 1876; " Einl. in das N. T.", 1886).
As to the contents of the Logia, the work must have
contained most matter common to Matthew and Luke,
excluding that which these Gospels share with Mark.
This material amounts to about one-sixth of the text
of the Third Gospel, and two-elevenths of the text of
the First Gospel. In these portions, the First and the
Third Evangelists depend neither on Mark nor on
each other; they must have followed the Logia, a
document now denoted by " Q". When Eusebius (loc.
cit.) copied the words of Papias that " Matthew com-
posed tlie Logia in Hebrew [Aramaic], and each one
mterpreted them as he was able ", he probably under-
stood them as referring to our First Uospel. But the
critics insist that Papias must have understood his
w^ords as denoting a collection of the "Sayings of
Jesus", or the Logia (Q). This hypothetical docu-
ment Q has been much w^ritten about and investigated
by Weiss, Iloltzmann, Wendt, Wemle, Wellhausen,
and recently by Ilamack (" New Testament Studies ",
II: "The Sayings of Jesus", etc.; tr. Wilkinson, New
York and London, 1908), and Bacon ("The Beginning
of Gospel Story", New Haven, 1909). A reconstruc-
tion of the Logia is attempted in Resch's " Die Logia
Jesu nach dem griechischen und hebr&ischen Text wie-
derhergest<^llt", 1898 (cf. also his "Aussercanonische
Parallcltexte z\x den Evangelien" in "Texte und
Untersuchungcn", X, i-v, 1893-90), and in Hamack's
work already quoted.
A numljer of questions has been raised in this in-
vestigation, but no altogether satisfactory answer has
been forthcoming. Is it possible to settle the text of
the il source of the First and Third Gospels, seeing that
one Gospel may have been corrected from the other?
Did St. Matthew and St. Luke use the same transla-
tion or recension of Q? Did either Evangelist pay
attention to the Aramaic original? In which of the
two Gospels is Q best reproduced both in regard to
extent and arrangement? How much of the materisd
peculiar to either the First or the Third Gospel has
keen taken from Q? Again, was the original form of
Q a gospel, or was it a collection of real Logia? These
are some of the fimdamental questions which the
critics must answer. Then come the further Questions
as to the authorship of the Logia; the time and place of
their origin, their relation to St. Paul, their influence
on St. Mark, the cause, manner, and time of their
disappearance, and other similar prol^lems. The an-
swer to manv, if not to all, of these questions is thus
far not satisfactory.
The student of the Eusebian record of the words of
Papias will have his doubts as to the sense of XA7ta
advocated by the critics. (1) In several other ancient
writers the word has not the narrow meaning of mere
"sayings": Rom., iii, 2, applies it to the whole Old
Testament; Heb., v, 12, to tlie whole body of Christ's
doctrine; Flavius Josephus makes it equivalent to tA
Icpd ypdftnara (Bel. Jud., VI, v, 4); St. Irenseus uses rd
TiAyia toO Kvplov of the Gospels; other instances of a
wider meaning of X^Yta have been collected by Funk
(Patres Apostol., II, 280), and Schanz (Matthfius, 27-
31). (2) The \iyta of Papias at least may refer to the
Gospel of St. Matthew. Eu8e])ius (Hist. Eccl., Ill,
xxxix, 16) understands the words in this sense. The
context of Papias, too, suggests this interpretation;
lOOIO
324
LOOIO
for, speaking of St. Mark, Papias says that the Evange-
list recorded " what had been said and done by Christ",
and what he had heard from Peter, and not "as if he
were composing an orderly account of the X67U1 ", so
that the X67to are equivalent to the recorded " words
and deeds " of Christ. Again, the title of Papias's work
is Aoylay KvpiaKutw 'E^ifyiya-ti, thou^ the writer does
not confine himself to the explanation of the "say-
ings " of the Lord. (3) The X67ta of Papias must refer
to the Gospel of St. Matthew: (a) No writing of St.
Matthew except his Gospel was generally known in the
second century; (b) there is no record of a work of the
Evan^list that contained the Lord's words only; (c)
even Eusebius found no trace of the 'K6yia m/pioicd,
though he diligently collected all that had been writ^
ten about Christ by the Apostles and the disciples; (d)
all antiquity could not have remained ignorant of a
work of such importance, if it had existed; (e) the
First Gospel contains so many discourses of the Lord
that it might well be called \6yia KvpiaKd (cf . Hilgen-
feld, "EinL", 456; Lightfoot in "Contemp. Review",
Aug., 1867, 405 sqq.; Aug., 1875, 399 sqq., 410 sq.).
The Logia, or the document Q of the critics, rests
therefore on no historical authority, but only on
critical induction.
See literature under Agrapua; also the works quoted in this
article. A. J. Maas.
Logic is the science and art which so directs the
mind in the process of reasoning and subsidiary pro-
cesses as to enable it to attain clearness, consistency,
and validity in those processes. The aim of logic is to
secure clearness in the definition and arriingement of
our ideas and other mental images, consistency in our
judgments, and validity in our processes of inference.
I. The Name. — ^The Greek word XA70J, meaning
** reason", is the origin of the term logic — \oyiK'^ (j^x^t
vpayfrnrela, or ixurr'^fifjf understood), as the name
of a science or art, first occurs in the writings of the
Stoics (see Stoic Philosophy). Aristotle, the foim-
der of the science, designates it as "analytic ", and the
Epicureans (see Epicureanism) use the term canonic.
From the time of Cicero, however, the word logic is
used almost without exception to designate this
science. The names dialectic and analytic are also
used.
II. The Definition. — ^It is a curious fact that, al-
though logic is the science which treats of definition,
logicians are not agreed as to how logic it«elf should be
defined. There are, in all, about two hundred differ-
ent definitions of logic. It would, of course, be im-
possible to enumerate even the principal definitions
here. It will be sufficient to mention and discuss a
few typical ones.
A. The Port Royal Lopic ("L* Art de penser", pub-
lished 1662) defines logic as **ihe art of using reason
well in the acquisition of the knowledge of things, both
for one's own instruction and that of others *'. More
briefly, " Logic is the art of reasoning ". The latter is
Amauld's definition. Definitions of this type are con-
sidered too narrow, both because they define logic in
terms of art, not leaving room for its claim to be con-
sidered a science, and because, by the use of the term
reasoning^ they restrict the scope of logic to one class
of mental processes.
B. He^el (see Heqelianism) goes to the other ex-
treme when he defines logic as " the science of the pure
idea ". By idea he understands all reality, so that for
him logic includes the science of subjective reality
Gogic of mental concepts) and the science of objective
reality Oo^c of being, metaphysics). In like manner
the definitions which fail to distinguish between logic
and psychology, defining logic as the science of men-
tal processes , or "the science of the operations of the
mind ", are too wide. Definitions which characterize
logic as " the science of sciences ", " the art of arts ", are
0SO too wide : they set up too large a claim for logic.
C. 8U Thotnas, in his commentary on Aristotle's
logical tr^itises (" In Post. Anal.", lect. i, Leonine ed.,
I, 138), says: "Ars qusedam necessaria est, qu» sit
directiva ipsius actus rationis, per quam scilicet homo
in ipso actu rationis ordinate faciliter et sine errore
procedat. Et hsec ars est logica, id est rationaliB
scientia." Combining those two sentences, we m&j
render St. Thomas's definition as follows: "Logic is
the science and art which directs the act of the reason,
by which a man in the exercise of his reason is enabled
to proceed without error, confusion, or unnecessaiy
difficulty ". Taking reason in its broadest sense, so as
to include all the operations of the mind which are
strictly cognitive, namely, the formation of mental
images, judgment, and ratiocination, we may expand
St. Thomas definition and define logic as *' t£te science
and art which so directs the mind in the process of
reasoning and subsidiary processes as to enable it to
attain clearness (or order), consistency, and validity
in those processes". Logic is essentially directive.
Therein it differs from psychology, which is essentially
speculative, or theoretical, and which concerns itself
only in an incidental and secondary manner with the
direction of mental processes. Logic deals with pro-
cesses of the mind. Therein it differs from metaphy-
sics, which has for its field of inquiry and specula-
tion the whole universe of being (see MirrAPHTSics).
Logic deals with mental processes in relation to truth
or, more particularly, in relation to the attainment
and exposition of truth by processes which aim at
being valid, clear, orderly, and consistent. Therein it
differs from ethics, which treats of human actions,
external deeds as well as thoughts, in relation to man's
final destiny. Validity, clearness, consistency, and
order are logical qualities of thought; goodness and
evil are ethical qualities. Finally, logic is not to be
confoimded with rhetoric. Rhetoric, in the old meanr
ing of the word, was the art of persuasion; it used all
the devices, such as emotional appeal, verbal arrange-
ment, etc., in order to bring about a state of mind
which had reference to action primarily, and to con-
viction only in a secondary sense. Logic is the science
and art of conviction ; it uses only arguments, discard-
ing emotional appeal and employing merely words as
the symbols of thoughts.
The question whether logic is a science or an art is
now generally decided by asserting that it is both. It
is a science, in so far as it not merely formulates rules
for ri^ht thinking, but deduces those rules from general
principles which are based on the nature of mind and
of truth. It is an art, in so far as it is directly and im-
mediately related to performance, namely, to the acts
of the mind. As the fine arts direct the painter or the
sculptor in tlie actions by which he aims at produc-
ing a beautiful picture or a beautiful statue, so logic
directs the thinker in the actions by which he aims at
attaining truth, or expoimding truth which he has
attained.
III. Division op Logic. — The traditional mode of
dividing logic, into " formal " and ** material "^ is main-
tained in many modem treatises on the subject. In
formal logic the processes of thought are studied inde-
pendently of, or without consideration of, their con-
tent. In material logic the chief question is the truth
of the content of mental processes. An example from
arithmetic will serve to illustrate the function of for-
mal logic. When we add two and two, and pronounce
the result to be four, we are dealing with a process of
addition in its formal aspect, without paying attention
to the content. The process is valid whatever the
content may be, whether the "two and two" refer to
books, horses, trees, or circles. This is precisely how
we study judgments and arguments in logic. From
the judgment "All A is B" we infer "Therefore some
B is A"; and the process is valid whether the original
proposition be "All circles are round" or " All umis
are carnivorous "• In material logic, on the oontrwy,
Loaio
325
LOGIO
inquire into the content of the judgments or
premltoB and endeavour to determine whether they
are truc^or false. Material logic was styled by the old
writers ''major logic'^ "critical logic", or simply
"criticism". In recent times the word epistemoiowj
(science of knowledge), meaning an inquiry into tne
value of knowledge, has come into general use, and
designates that portion of philosophy which inquires
into tiie objective value of our concepts, the import
and value of judgments and reasoning, the criteria of
truth, the nature of evidence, certitude, etc. When-
ever this new term i^ adopted there is a tendency to
restrict the term logic to mean merely formal logic.
Formal logic studies concepts, and other mental images,
for the purpose of securing clearness and order among
those contents of the mind. It studies judgments for
the purpose of showing when and how they are con-
sistent or inconsistent, that is, when one may be in-
ferred from another (conversion), and when they are
opposed (opposition) . It studies the two kinds of rea-
soning, deductive and inductive, so as to direct the
nund to use these processes validly. Finally, it studies
sophisms (or fallacies) and method for the purix)sc of
showing what errors are to be avoided, and what
arrangement is to be followed in a complex series of
reasoning processes. But, while it is true in general that
in aU these tasks formal logic preserves its purely for-
mal character, and docs not inquire into the content of
thought, nevertheless, in dealing with inductive
reasoning and in laying down the rules for definition
and division, formal logic does take accoimt of the
matter of thought. For this reason, it seems desirable
to abandon the old distinction between formal and
material, to designate as logic what was formerly called
formal logic, and to reserve the term epistcmology
for that portion of philosophy which, while inquiring
into the value of human knowledge in general, covers
the ground which was the domain of material logic.
There remain certain kinds of logic which are not
included under the heskdafontial and material. Trans-
cendental logic (Kant) is the in(}uiry into human
knowledge for the purpose of determining wliat ele-
ments or factors in human thought are a priori, that is,
independent of experience. Symbolic logic (Lam-
b^, Boole) is an application of mathematical methods
to the processes of thought. It uses certain conven-
tional symbols to represent terms, projjositions, and
the relations among them, and then, without any
further reference to the laws of thought, applies the
rules and methods of the mathematical calculus (Venn,
"Symbolic Logic", London, 1881). Applied logic, in
the narrower sense, is synonymous with material logic ;
in the wider sense, it means logic applied to the study
of the natural sciences, logic applied to education,
logic applied to the study of law, etc. Natural logic
is that native power of the mind by which most persons
are competent to jud^e correctly and reason validly
about the affairs and mterests of everyday life; it fs
osntrasted with scientific logic, which is logic as a
science and cultivated art.
IV. HiSTORT OP Logic. — ^The history of logic pos-
a more than ordinary interest, because, on the
one hand, every change in the point of view of the
metaphysician and the psychologist tended to produce
a corresponding change in logical' theory and practice,
while, on the other hand, changes in logical method
and procedure tended to affect the conclusions as well
as the method of the philosopher. Notwithstanding
th^ tendencies towards variation, the science of logic
has undergone very few ra<lical changes from the be-
ginning of its history.
A. The Nyaya, — A system of philosophy which was
studied in India in the fifth century b. c, though it is,
perhaps, of much older date, takes its name from the
word nyaya, meaning logical argument, or syllogism.
This philosophy, like all tlie Indian Hystems. f)usied it-
self with the problem of the deliverance of the- soul
from bondage, and its solution was that the soul is to
be freed from the trammels of matter by means of
systematic reasoning. This view of the question 1^
naturally to an analysis of the methods of thinking,
and to the construction of a type of reasoning whicn
bears a remote resemblance to the s\'lIogism. The
nyaya, or Indian syllogism, as it is sometimes called,
consists of five propositions. If, for instance, one
wishes to prove that the hill is on fire, one begins with
the assertion: "Tlie hill is on fire." Next, the reason
is given: "For it smokes." Then comes an instance,
"Like the kitchen fire"; which is followed by the
application, * ' So also the hill smokes." Finally comes
the conclusion, "Therefore it is on fire." fietween
this and the clear-cut Aristotelean s>^lIogism, with its
major and minor premises and conclusion, there is all
the difference that exists between the Oriental and the
Greek mode of thinking. It is hardly necessary to
say that there is no historical evidence that Aristotle
was in any way influenced in his logic by Gotama, the
reputed author of the nyaya,
B. Pre-AHstotelean Logic in Greece. — ^The first
pliilosophers of Greece devoted attention exclusively to
the problem of the origin of the imiverse (see Ionian
School of Philosophy). The Eleatics, especially
Zeno of Elea, the Sophists, and the Megarians devel-
oped the art of argumentation to a high degree of
perfection. Zeno was especially remarkable in this
respect, and is sometimes styled the Founder of Dialec-
tic. None of these, however, formulated laws or rules
of reasoning. The same is true of Socrates and Plato,
although the former laid great stress on definition ana
induction, and the latter exalted dialectic, or dis-
cussion, into an important instrument of philosophical
knowledge.
C. Aristotle, the Founder of Logic. — In the six trea-
tises which he devoted to the subject, Aristotle ex-
amined and analysed the thinking processes for the
purpose of formulating the laws of thought. These
treatises are (1) "The Categories", (2) "Interpreta-
tion", (3) " Prior Analytics", (1) " Posterior Analytics",
(5) " Topics", and (G) " Sophisms". These were after-
wards given the title of " Organon", or " Instrument of
Knowledge"; this designation, however, did not come
into common use until the iifteenth century. The
first four treatises contain, with occasional excursions
into the domain of grammar and metaphysics, the
science of formal logic essentially the same as it is
taught at the present day. The "Topics" and the
"Sophisms" contain the applications of logic to argu-
mentation and the refutation of fallacies. In con-
fonnity with the fundamental principle of his theory
of knowledge, namely, that all our knowledge comes
from experience, Aristotle recognizes the importance
of inductive reasoning, that is to say, reosonmg from
particular instances to general principles. If he and
nis followers did not develop more fully this portion of
logic, it was not l>ecause they did not recognize its
importance in principle. His claim to the title of
Founder of Logic has never been seriously disputed;
tlie most that his opponents in the modem era could
do was to set up rival systems in which induction was
to supplant syllogistic reasoning. One of the devices
of the opponents of scholasticism is to identify the
Schoolmen and Aristotle with the advocacy of an ex-
clusively deductive logic.
D. Post-Aristotelean Logicians Among the Greeks. —
Among the immediate disciples of Aristotle, Theo-
phrastus and Eudemus devoted special attention to
logic. To the former is sometimes attributed the in-
vention of the hypothetical syllogism, although the
same claim is sometimes made for the Stoics. The
latter, to whom, probably, we owe the name logic,
recognized this science vls one of the constitutive parts
of philosophy. They included in it dialectic and
rhetoric, or the science of argumentation and the
science of persuasion. They busied themselves also
Loaio
326
Loazo
with the question of the criterion of truth, which is
still an important problem in major logic, or. as it is
now called, epistemology. Undoubtedly, tney im-
proved on Aristotle's logic in many points of detail;
but to what extent, and in what respect, is a matter of
oonjectme, owing to the loss of the voluminous Stoic
treatises on logic. Their rivals, the Epicmeans (see
Epicureanism) professed a contempt for logic — or
"canonic", as they styled it. They maintedned that
it is an adjunct of physics, and that a knowledge of
physical phenomena acquired through the senses is the
only knowledge that is of value in the pursuit of happi-
ness. After the Stoics and the Epicureans came tne
commentators. These may, for convenience, be
divided into the Greeks and the Latins. The Greeks,
from Alexander of Aphrodisias, in the second, to St.
John of Damascus in the eighth century of our era,
flourished at Athens, at Alexandria, and in Asia Minor.
With Photius, in the ninth century, the scene is shifted
to Constantinople. To the first period belong Alexan-
der of Aphroaisias, known as "the Commentator",
Themistius, David the Armenian, Philoponus, Simpli-
cius. and Porphyrv, author of the Isagoge (Eurayuyiff) ,
or "Introduction to the logic of Aristotle. In this
work the author, by his explicit enumeration of the
five prcdicables and his comment thereon, flung a
challenge to the medieval logicians, which they took
up in the famous controversy concerning universals
^ee Universals). To the second period belong
Photius, Michael Psellus the younger (eleventh cen-
tuir), Isicephorus Blemmydes. George Pachymeres,
and Leo Magentinus (thirteenth century). All these
did little more than abridge, explain, and defend the
text of the Aristotelean works on logic. An exception
should, perhaps, be made in favour of the physician
Galen (second century), who is said to have introduced
the fourth syllogistic figure, and who wrote a special
work, " On Fallacies of Diction".
E. Lalin Commentators, — ^Among the Latin com-
mentators on Aristotle we find almost in every case
more originahty and more inchnation to add to the
science of logic than we do in the case of the Greeks.
After the taking of Athens by Sulla (84 b. c.) the works
of Aristotle were carried to Rome, where they were
arranged and edit^Ml by Andronicus of Rhodes (see
Aristotle). The first logical treatise in Latin is
Cicero's abridgment of the "Topics". Then came a
long period of inactivity. About a. d. 160, Apuleius
wrote a short account of the "Interpretation". In
the middle of the fourth century Marius Victorinus
translated Porphyry's " Isagoge". To the time of St.
Augustine belong the treatises ^'Categoria? Decem"
and " Principia Dialectica". Both were attributed to
St. Augustine, though the first is certainlv spurious, and
the second of doubtful authenticity, rf hey were very
often transcribed in the early Middle Ages, and the
logical treatises of the ninth and tenth centuries make
very free use of their contents. The most popular,
however, of all the Latin works on logic was the
curious medley of prose and verse "De Nuptiis Mer-
curii et Philologiaj' by Marcianus Capella (about a. d.
475). In it dialectic is treated as one of the seven
liberal arts (see Arts, The Seven Liberal), and that
portion of the work was the text in all the early medie-
val schools of logic. Another writer on logic who
exerted a widespread influence during the first period
of Scholasticism was Boethius (470-524), who wrote
two commentaries on the " Isagoge" of Porphyry, two
on Aristotle's " Interpretation", and one on the " Cate-
«>ries' ' . Besides, he wrote the original treatises, " On
Categorical Syllogisms", "On Division", and "On
Topical Differences", and translated several portions
of Aristotle's logical works. In fact, it was princi-
pally through his translations that the early Scholastic
writers, who as a rule, were entirely ignorant of
Greek, had access to Aristotle's writings. Cassiodorus,
a contemporary of Boethius, wrote a treatise, " On the
Seven Liberal Arts", in which, in the portion devoted
to dialectic, he gave a summary and analvsis of the
Aristotelean ana Porphyrian writings on logic. Isi-
dore of Seville (died 636), Venerable Bede (673-735),
and Alcuin (736-804), the forerunners of the Scholas-
tics, were content with abridging in their logical works
the writings of Boethius and Cassiodorus.
F. The Scholastics. — ^The first masters of the schools
in the age of Charlemagne and the century immedi-
ately following were not acquainted at first hand with
Aristotle's works. They used the works and transla-
tions of Boethius, the pseudo-Augustinian treatises
mentioned above, and the work by Marcianus Capella.
Little by little tneir interest became centred on the
metaphysical and psychological problems suggested
in those treatises, especially on the problem of univer-
sals and the conflict between ReaUsm and Nominalism.
As a consequence of this shifting of the centre of inter-
est, very little was done towards perfecting the technic
of logic, and there is a very noticeable dearth of
original work during the ninth and tenth centuries.
John Scotus Eriugena, Eric and Remi of Auxerre, and
the teachers at St. Gall in Switzerland confined their
activity to glossing and commenting on the traditional
texts, especially Pseudo-Augustine and Marcianus
Capella. In the case of the St. Gall teachers we have
however, by way of exception, a work on logic (pub-
lished by Piper, " Die Schriften Notkers", I, Freiburg,
1895), which bears evident traces of the influence of
Eriugena, and a collection of mnemonic verses con-
taining the nineteen valid syllogisms (published from
ninth-century MS. in the "Philosophical Review",
Sept., 1907, XVI, 5).
Roscelin (about 1050-1100), by his outspoken pro-
fession of Nominalism, concentrated the attention of
his contemporaries and immediate successors on the
problem of universals. In the disciission of that
problem the art of dialectical disputation was devel-
oped, and a taste for argumentation was fostered, but
none of the dialecticians of the twelfth century, with
the exception of Abelard, contributed to the advance-
ment of the science of logic. This Abelard did in
several ways. In his work to which Cousin gave the
title "Dialectica", and in his commentaries, he strove
to widen the scope and enhance the utility of logic as a
science. Not only is it the science of disputation, but
also the science of discovery, by means of which the
arguments supplied by a study of nature are examined.
The principal application of logic, however, is in the
discussion of rehgious truth. Here Abelard, citing
the authority of St. Augustine, contends that the
methods of dialectic are applicable to the discussion of
all truth, revealed as well as rational; they are appli-
cable even to the mysteries of faith. In -principle he
was right, although in practice he went further than
the example of St. Augustine would warrant him in
going. His subsequent condemnation had for its
ground, not the use of dialectic in theology, but the
excessive use of dialectic to the point of rationalism.
Abelard, it should be noted, was acquainted only with
those treatises of Aristotle which had been translated
bv Boethius, and which constituted the logica vetus.
ilis contemporary, Gilbert de la Porr^e (q. v.), added
to the old logic a work entitled "Liber Sex Princi-
piorum", a treatise on the last six of the Aristotelean
Categories. Towards the middle of the twelfth cen-
tury the remainder of the Aristotelean "Organon"
became known, so that the logic of the schools,
thenceforth known as logica nova, now contained: (1)
Aristotle's "Categories" and "Interpretation" and
Porphyry's " Isagoge" (contents of the logica vetus) ; (2)
Aristotle's "Analvtics", "Topics", and "Sophisms";
(3) Gilbert's "Liber Sex Pnncipiorum". This was
the text in the schools when St. Thomas began to
teach, and it continued to be used until superseded by
the logica modemay which embodied the contributions
of Petrus Hispanus. The first writer of importance
LOOIO
327
LOOZO
who reveals an acquaintance with the Aristotelean
"Organon" in its entirety is John of Salisbury (died
1182), a disciple of Abelard, who explains and defends
the legitimate use of dialectic in his work " Metalogi-
cus".
The definite triumph of Aristotelean logic in the
schools of the thirteenth century was influenced by
the introduction into Christian Europe of the com-
plete works of Aristotle in Greek. The occasioti of
this was the taking of Constantinople by the crusaders
in 1204. The Crusades had also the effect of bringing
Christian Europe into closer contact with the Arabian
scholars who, ever since the ninth century, had culti-
vated Aristotelean logic as well as the neo-Platonic
interpretation of Aristotle's metaphysics. It was the
Arabians who distinguished logica docens and logica
tUens, The former is logic as a theoretical science;
the latter is lo^c as an applied art, practical logic.
To them also is attributed the distinction between
first intentions and second intentions. The Arabians,
however, did not exert a determining influence on the
development of Scholastic logic; they contributed to
that development only in an external manner, by
helping to make Aristotelean literature accessible to
Chnstian thinkers. St. Thomas Aquinas and his
teacher. Blessed Albertus Ma^us (Albert the Great),
did signal service to Scholastic logic, not so much by
adding to its technical rules as by defining its scope
and determining the limits of its legitimate applica-
tions to theology. They both composed commen-
taries on Aristotle's logical works and, besides, wrote
independent logical treatises. The work, however,
whicn bears the name "Summa Totius Logicffi", and
is found among the " Opuscula" of St. Thomas, is now
judged to be from the pen of a disciple of his, Herv6 of
Nedellac (Hervaeus Natalis). John Duns Scotus was
also a commentator on Aristotle's logic. His most
important original treatises on logic are " De Univer-
sahbus", in which he goes over the ground covered by
Porphyry in the " Isa^oge", and " Grammatica Specu-
lativa". The latter is an interesting contribution to
critical logic.
The tecnnic of logic received special attention from
Petrus Hispanus (Pope John XXI, died 1277), author
of the * ' SummulaB Logicales' ' . This is the first medie-
val work to cover the whole eround of Aristotelean
logic in an original way. All its predecessors were
merely summaries or abridgments of Aristotle's works.
In it occur the mnemonic Tines, " Barbara, Celarent",
ete., and nearly all the devices of a similar kind which
are now used in the study of logic. They are the first
of the kind in the history of logic, the lines in the
ninth-century MS. mentioned above being verses to
aid the memory, without the use of arbitrary signs,
such as the designation of types of propositions by
means of vowels. And the credit of havingintroduced
them is now almost unanimously given to Petrus him-
self. The theory that he borrowed them from a Greek
work by Psellus (see above) is discredited by an
examination of the MSS., which shows that the Greek
verses are of later date than those in the " Summul®".
In fact, it was the Bvzantine writer who copied the
Parisian teacher, and not, as Prantl contended, the
Latin who borrowed from the Greek. William of
Occam (1280-1349) improved on the arrangement
and method of the " Summul®" in his " Summa Totius
Logicae". He also made important contributions to
the doctrine of supposition of terms. He did not,
however, agree witn St. Thomas and Bl. Albert the
Great in their definition of the scope and application of
logic. His own conception of the purpose of lo^ic was
simSciently serious and dignified. It was his followers,
the Occamists of the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies, who, by their abuse of dialectical methods,
brought Scholastic logic into disrepute. One of the
most original of all the Scholastic logicians was Ray-
mond Lully (1234-1315). In his " Dialegtica" he ex-
pounds clearly and concisely the logic of Aristotle, to*
f ether with the additions made to that science by
'etrus Hispanus. In his " Ars Ma^na", however, he
discards all the rules and prescriptions of the formal
science, and undertakes oy means of his "logical
machine" to demonstrate in a perfectly mechanical
way all truth, supernatural as well as natural.
Scholastic logic, as may be seen from this sketeh.
did not modify the logic of Aristotle in any essential
manner. Nevertheless, the logic of the Schools is an
improvement on Aristotelean logic. The School-
men made clear many points which were obscure
in Aristotle's works: for example, they determined
more accurately than he did the nature of logic and its
place in the plan of sciences. This was brought about
naturally by the exigencies of theological controversy.
Moreover, the Schoounen did much to fix the technical
meanings of terms in the modem languages, and.
though the scientific spirit of the ages that followea
spumed the methods of the Scholastic logicians, its
own work was very much facilitated by the efforts of
the Scholastics to distinguish the significations of
words, and trace the relationship of language to
thought. Finally, to the Schoolmen logic owes the
various memory-aiding contrivances bv the aid of
which the task of teaching or learning the technicali-
ties of the science is greatly facilitated.
G. Modem Logic. — ^The fifteenth century witnessed
the first serious attempts to revolt against the Aris-
totelean logic of the Schools. Humanists like Ludo-
vicus Vico and Laurentius Valla made the methods of
the Scholastic logicians the object of their merciless
attack on medievalism. Of more importance in tiie
history of logic is the attempt of Ramus (Pierre de La
Ram6e, 1515-72) to supplant the traditional logic by
a new method which he expounded in his works Aris-
totelicse Animadversiones and "Scholae Dialecticae".
Ramus was imitated in Ireland by George Downame
(or Downham), Bishop of Deny, in the seventeenth
century, and in the same century he had a most dis-
tinfuiaied follower in England in the person of John
Milton, who, in 1672, published " Artis Logicse Plenior
Institutio ad Petri Rami Methodum CSoncinnata".
Ramus 's innovations, however, were far from receiving
universal approval, even amonjg Protestants. Me-
lanchthon's *^ Erotemata Dialectica", which was sub-
stantially Aristotelean, was extensively used in the
ProtestaJit schools, and exerted a wider mfluence than
Rjunus's "Animadversiones". Francis Bacon (1561-
1626) inaugurated a still more formidable onslaught.
Profiting by the hints thrown out by his countryman
and namesake, Roger Bacon (1214-1294), he attacked
the Aristotelean method, contending that it was utterly
barren of results in science, that it was, in fact, essen-
ti^y unscientific, and needed not so much to be re-
formed as to be entirely supplanted by a new method.
This he attempted to do m his "Novum Or^anum",
which was to introduce a new logic, an inductive logic,
to take the place of the deductive logic of Aristotle and
the Schoolmen. It is now recognized even by the
partisans of Bacon that he erred in two respects. He
eired in describing Aristotle's logic as exclusively de-
ductive, and he erred in claiming for the inductive
method the ability to direct the mind in scientific
discovery and practical invention. Bacon did not
succeed in overthrowing the authority of Aristotle.
Neither did Descartes (1596-1649), who was as desir-
ous to make logic serve the purposes of the mathemar
tician as Bacon was to make it serve the cause of
scientific discovery. The Port Royal Logic (' 'L' Art de
penser", 1662), written by Descartes's disciples, is
essentially Aristotelean. So, though in a less degree,
are the logical treatises of Hobbes (1588-1679) and
Gassendi (1592-1655), both of whom underwent the
influence of Bacon's ideas. In the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. Father BufiSer, Le Clero (Clericus),
Wolff, and Lambert strove to modify the Aristotelean
LOOOS 328, LOOOfl
logic in the direction of empiriciam, BenBism, or Leib- his people", vliile rationalism on the other side set m
nizian inoatisin. In the treatises which they vrote bounds to the use of lo^c, going eo far as to place it tin
on logic there is nothiog that one might consider of a plane with Divine faith. Out of this conflict issued
primary importance. toe Scholasticism of the thirteenth century, which
Kant and the other Gorman Transcendentalism of gave due credit to the mystic contention in so far as
the nineteenth century took a more equitable view that contention was sound, and at the same time
of Aristotle's services to the science of logic. As a acknowledged freely tbe claims of rationalism within
rule, they recognized the value of what he hod accom- the limits of orthodoxy and of reason. St. Thomas
pliBh^and,insteadof tryingtoundohiswork, theyat- and hia contemporaries looked upon logic as an in-
tempted U) supplement it. It is a question, however, strument for the discovery and exposition of natuia]
whether they did not do as much hium to logic in one truth. They considered, moreover, that it is the
way as Bacon and Descartes did in another. By with- instrument by which the theologian is enabled to ex-
drawing from the domain of logic what is empirical, pound, systematise, and defend revealed truth. This
and confining the science to an examination of " the view of the theological use of logic is the basis for the
necessary laws of thought", the Transcendentalists charge of intcUcctualism which Modernist philoso-
gave occasion to Mill and other Assoc in tionists to phers imbued with Kantism have made aj^amst the
accuselogicot being unreal, and out of touch with the Scholastics. Modernism asserts that the logical nexus
ni>eds of an ago which was, above ail things, an age of is "the weakest link" between the mind and spiritual
Lpirical science. Most of the recent German litera- truth. So that the contest waged in the twelfth
re on logic is characterized by the amount of atten- century is renewed in slightly different terms in our
in which it pays either to historical inquiries, or to own day, the application of logic to theology being
inquiries into the value of knowledge, or to investiga- now, as then, the principal point in dispute.
tion of the philosophical foundations of the laws of In every Hystem of logic there is an underlying
logic. It has added verv little to the technical por- philosophical theorj-, though this is not always formu-
tion of the science. In England, the most important lated in explicit terms. It is impossible to explain
event in the history of logic in the nineteenth century and demonstrate the laws of thought without falling
was the publication, in 1843, of John Stuart Mill s back on some theoiy of the nature of mind. For this
"System of Logic". Alill renewed all the claims put reason CathoEc philosophers and educators, as well as
forward by Uacon, and with some menaure of sue- those who by Iheir position in the Church are respon-
cess. At least, he brought about a change in the siblcfor the purityofdoctrinein Catholic institutions.
method of leachuig logic at the great English seats of have recognized that there is in logic the Catholic ana
leaniing. Carrj'ing Locke's empiricism to its ultimate the non-Cathohc point of view. Our obiection to a
conclusion, andadopting the association theory of the gooddealof recent logical literature is not nased on an
human mind, he rejected all necessary truth, dis- unfavourable estimate of its scientific quality; what
carded the syllogism as not only useless but fallacious, we object to is the sensism, subjectivism, agnosticism,
and maintained that all reasoning is from particulars or other philosophical doctrine, which underlies the
to particulars. He did not make many converts to logical theories of the author. Works on logic written
these views, but he succeeded in giving inductive by Catholics generally adhere very closely to the
logic a place in every textbook on Icwic published traditional Anstotelean logic of the schools. Yet,
since his time. Not so successful was the attempt of that is not the reason why they are approved. They
r William Hamilton to establish a new liwic (the are apprtvcd because they arc free from false philo-
lew analytic"), on the princifile that the predicate as sophical assumptions. In many non-Cathohc workson
well as the subject of a proposition should be (juanti- logic the underlying philosophy is not only erroneous,
fied. Nor, indeed, was ne quite original in this: the bjt BubvLra:\e tf thp nhile t>ody of natural sptntuaj
idea had been put forward in the seventeenth ccnturj- tn ih iihi I thi Cath 1 Church guards as carefully
by the Catholic philosopher Caramuel {1606-*25. \
Recent logical literature in English has striven above
all tilings to attain clearness, intelligibility, and
of Induin Philn-ajhv (Lon I
^raeticalutility inits expositionofthelawsof thought, tor Arutotoliao l«io Latmtna etc _.
(henever it indulges in speculalion as to the nature totu: Wartt I (SBrBn jSl-l8T0) inuiBUtions o! the Of-
of m.„l1 ™».,, it ij, o( com«, colorad by the fT »',.5^"£™™' iSS -"§;»"'(£=-»;
various philosoplues of the time. TiiE.-iDEi.KNBOiia, Loruchi Unlertadiwietrt p vols.. L«pii(.
Indeed, the history of logicisinterestingand profit- IS60}; St-Htuihe, La looirpu iTAriaoii: (Parin. 1838). For
able chieav because it shows how the philosophical f^iT"??^ '^. i^^iSif Tsai- ™rthe"L^e Slufat
theories influence the method and the doctrine of the Roma, 1882—1; Pethos Hibpanub. Summula Logiraitt eSi
logician. The empiricism and sensism of the English Frr-joniPorMirnraEiponWoiif (Venire. 15B01.
kSooI, <le,ce»linB from Hobta ll,jou|jh Locte, Hum., ^^^ J-^ S.i"!^"^,™' ,S, SSS- «^
andtheAssociationistfi, could lead m logic to no Other (London, 1808); TinmiiB.i^i™ in toineCWfahington, 1910).
condition than that to which it does lead m Mil! S Inolltbo Latin Icitbooksof pJiilosoptiyllie traditjoQalkiBicti
^i,oti.„ of .;„ .»itogi.„jm<i of f o.o=™jT i™th. s'VdSoS.T^va^s.'iw z's-i^sssa
On the other hand, Descartes s exaltation ol deduction h (Freiburg. lOOB) . and in Frenth, Mebcieb. tomjucr (Lmivaia.
and Leibniz's adoption of the mathematical method 1902). (21 Non^C^lholic: Hn-t, Suilrm of uiie JlaadaB,
lav. their origin io U»t.doclrin. of innotijn whi.h i, iiJ^^SSSffl™ lioW.iS&S^i'SJSi
the opposite of empiricism. Again, the domination jon. 1870); BAni, iwic. Indt-dint and DaliKlirr (Now York,
of industrialism, and the insistence for recognition on 1883); Hyslop, Eltmenu of Looje {Neit Voris, 1802); Mnmi,
the part of the social economist, have had in our own ^^i^ ^Jl^'t^ ^^'^^%\^}^^^^
day the effect of pushing logic more and more towards ^j ^ogic (New VWk. I894)V Wiltom, ' Mtmml o} Loiic a
the position of a purveyor of rules for scientific dis- vols., London, 1904).
covery and practical invention. The materialism of '^J' "f^J^l'f ■^™'^^i'"Jl."f^i."' ''!ll^^w"J5
li \ -^ , ^ i(*f<.i * *i_ i_^j _jji.UA wealth of detail la rBAJITL. UeKh. der Logde im Aomdlande i4
the last half of the mneleenth centmy demanded that mi,., Leipiig, 1855— ;aBooniJe<l., LMptig, 1885). The useful-
logic prove its utility in a practical way. Hence the nera of the wnrk ia, bawover. very mucb impaired by ibr au-
premE,.oc. mon to induction. But, of. II tlecri^. S^JSS'SSlfi'" TbTtSib'S."!;":.! S
through which logic has passed, the most interesting is year leooT
that which is known as the "Storm and Stress of Wiluam Turner.
Scholasticism", in which mysticism on the one side
rejecteddiaIecticas"thedevii'sart",andmaintainBd LogOK. Th» fOr. A*t»«; Lat. Verfcum — Word). —
Uutt " God did not choose logic as a meaps of sfiving The word Logot u the term by which Christian thenf- ^
X0008
329
LOGOS
ogy in the Oreek language designates the Word of God,
or Second Person of the Ble^d Trinitv. Before St.
John had consecrated this term by adopting it, the
Greeks and the Jews had used it to express religious
eoncept'ons which, under divers titles, have exercised
a certain influence on Christian theology, and of which
it is necessary to say something.
I. Tbe Logos in Hellenism. — ^It is in Heraclitus
that the theory of the Lo^os appears for the first time,
and it is doubtless for this reason that, first among the
Greek philosophers, Heraclitus was regarded by St.
Justin (Apol. I, 46) as a Christian before Christ. For
him the Logos, which he seems to identify with fire, is
that univenal principle which animates and rules the
world. This conception could onlv find place in a ma-
terialistic monism. The philosophers of the fifth and
fourth centuries before Cnrist were dualists, and con-
ceived of God as transcendent, so that neither in Plato
(whatever may have been said on the subject) nor in
Aristotle do we find the theory of the Logos.
It reappears in the writings of the Stoics, and it is
especially by them that this theory is developed. God,
according to them, " did not make the world as an ar-
tisan does lus work, but it is by wholly penetrating all
matter that He is the demiurge of the universe''
(Galen, "De oual. incorp." in Fr. Stoic", ed. von
Amim, 11, 6) ; He penetrates the world '* as honey does
the honeycomb" (Tertullian, *'Adv. Hermogenem",
44); this God so intimately mingled with the world is
fire or ignited air; inasmuch as He is the principle con-
trolling the universe. He is called Logos; and inasmuch
as He IS the g^erm from which all else develops, He is
called the seminal Logos (AAyos aTrtpfiarucdt) . This Logos
is at the same time a force and a law, an irresistiole
force ^diich bears aJong the entire world and all creat-
ures to a common end, an inevitable and holy law
from which nothing can withdraw itself, and which
every reasonable man should follow willingly (Clean-
thus, " Hymn to Zeus" in " Fr. Stoic", I, 527-cf. 537).
Conformably to their exeeetical habits, the Stoics
made of the different gods personifications of the
Logos, e. g. of Zeus and aoove all of Hermes.
At Alexandria, Hermes was identified with Thoth,
the god of Hermopolis, known later as the great Her-
mes, "Hermes Tnsmegistus", and represented as the
revealer of all letters and all religion. Simultane-
ously, the Logos theory conformed to the current Neo-
platonistic dualism in Alexandria: the Logos is not con-
caved of as natiu^ or immanent necessity, hut as an
intermediary agent by which the transcendent God
governs the world. This conception appears in Plu-
tarch, especially in his " Isis and Osiris " ; from an early
date in tne &rst centiuy of the Christian era, it influ-
enced profoundly the Jewish philosopher Philo.
II. THE Word in Judaism. — Quite frequently the
Old Testament represents the creative act as the word
of (3od (Gen., i, 3;Ts. xxxii, 9; Ecclus., xlii, 15) ;. some-
times it seems to attribute to the word action of itself,
although not independent of Jahvch (Is., Iv, 11 ; Zach.,
V, 1-4; Ps. ovi, 20; cxlvii, 15). In all this we can see
only bold figures of speech: the word of creation, of
salvation, or, in Zacharias, the word of malediction, is
personifiedi but is not conceived of as a distinct Divine
nypostasis. In the Book of Wisdom this personifica-
tion is more directly implied (xviii, 15 sq.), and a par-
idlel is established (ix, 1, 2) between wisidom and the
WonL ,
In Palestinian Rabbinism the Word (Memra) is very
often mentioned, at least in the Targums: it is the
Memra of Jahveh which lives, speaks, and acts; but, if
one endeavour to determine precisely the meaning of
the ezpressiony it appears very often to be only a para-
Sihraae substituted by the Targumist for the name of
ahveh. The Memra resembles the Logos of Philo as
little as the workings of the rabbinical mind in Pales-
tine rosembled the specxilations of Alexandria: the
ntbbiB are ohiefly concerned about ritual and observ-
ances; from religious scruples they dare not attribute
to Jahveh actions such as the Sacred Books attribute
to Him; it is enough for them to veil the Divine Maj-
esty imder an aratraot paraphrase, the Word, the
Glory, the Abode, and others. Philo s problem was of
the philosophic order; God and man are infinitely dis-
tant from each other, and it is necessary to establish
between them relations of action and of prayer; the
Logos is here the intermediary.
Leaving aside the author of the Book of Wisdom,
other Alexandrian Jews before Philo had speculated
as to the Logos; but their works are known only
through the rare fragments which Christian authors
and Philo himself have preserved. Philo alone is
fully known to us; his writings are as extensive as
those of Plato or Cicero, and throw light on every as-
pect of his doctrine; from him we can best learn the
theory of the Logos, as developed by Alexandrian Juda-
ism. The character of his teaching is as manifold as
its sources : sometimes, influenced by Jewish tradition.
Philo represents the Logos as the creative Word of Grod
(**De Sacrific. Ab. et Cain", ed. Cohn and Wendland,
65— cf. '' De Somniis". 1. 182; " De Opif. Mundi", 13);
at other times he describes it as the revealer of Grod,
symbolized in Scripture by the angel of Jahveh (** De
Somniis", 1, 228-39; "De Cherub.^ 3; "De Fuga", 5;
* * Quis rer. di vin. hseres sit " , 201 , 205) . Of tener again
he accepts the language of Hellenic speculation; the
Lo^os is then, after a Platonistic concept, the simi total
of ideas and the intelligible world C De Opif. Mundi",
24, 25; "I.eg. Alleg.", I, 19; III, 96), or. agreeably to
the Stoic theory, the power that upholds the world,
the bond that assures its cohesion, the law that deter-
mines its development (" DeFuga", 110; " DePlantat.
Noe," 8-10; "C^uis rer. di vin. haercs sit", 188,217;
"Quod Deus sit immut.", 176; "De Opif. Mundi",
143).
Throughout so many diverse concepts may be recog-
nized a nindaniental doctrine: the Logos is an inter-
mediary between God and the world; through it God
created the world and governs it; through it also men
know God and pray to Him ("De Cherub.", 125;
"Quis rcrum divin. hajres sit ", 205-06. In three pas-
sages the Logos is called God ("Leg. Alleg.", 111,207;
"De Somniis", I, 229; "In Gen.'" II, 62, cited by
Eusebius, "Praep. Ev.", VII, 13); but, as Pliilo him-
self explains in one of these texts (De Somniis), it is an
improper appellation and wrongly employed, and he
uses it only oecause he is led into it by the Sacred Text
which he comments upon. Moreover, Philo does not
regard the Logos as a person ; it is an idea, a power, and,
though occasionally identified with the angels of the
Bible, this is by symbolic personification (cf. Drum-
mond, " Philo Judseus", II, London, 1888, 222-73).
III. The Logos in the New Testament. — ^Tho
term Logos is found only in the Johannine writings: in
the Apocalypse (xix, 13), in the Gospel of St. John, i,
1-14, and in his First Epistle (i, 1; cf. v, 7-Viilg.).
But already in the Epistles of St. Paul the theology of
the Lo^os had made its influence felt. This is seen in
the Epistles to the Corinthians, where Christ is called
" the pov.'er of God, arfd the wisdom of God" (I Cor., i,
24; cf. Lightfoot, "Notes on Epistles of St. Paul from
Unpublished Commentaries", London, 1904, 164),
" the ima^e of God" (II Cor., iv, 4) ; it is more evident
in the Epistle to the Colossians (i, 15 sqc}.) ; above all in
the Epistle to the Hebrews, where the theology of the
Logos lacks only the term itself, that finally appears in
St. John. In this epistle we also notice the pro-
noimced influence of the Book of Wisdom, especially
in the description which is given of the relations be-
tween the Son and the Father: "the brightness of his
glory, and the figure of his substance" (cf. Wis., vii,
26) . This resemblance suggests the way by which the
doctrine of the Logos entered into Christian theology;
another clue is furnished by the Apocalypse, where the
term Logos appears for the first time (xix, 13), and not
LOGOS
330
LOGOS
k propos of any theological teaching, but in an aix>ca-
lyptic vision, the content of which has no suggestion
of PhiJo but rather recalls Wisdom, xviii, 15.
In the Gospel of St. John the Logos appears in the
very first verse, without explanation, as a term famil-
iar to the readers; St. John uses it at the end of the
prologue (i, 14), and does not mention it again in the
Gospel. From this Hamack concludes that the men-
tion of the Word was only a starting-point for the
Evangelist, and that he paj^ed directly from this Hel-
lenic conception of the Logos to the Christian doctrine
of the only Son ("Uel^er das Verhaltniss des Prologs des
vierten Evangeliums zum ganzen Werk" in "Zeit-
schrift fttr Theol. und KircTie", II, 1892, 189-231).
This hypothesis is proved false bv the insistence with
which tne Evangelist comes back on this idea of the
Word; it is, moreover, natural enough that this techni-
cal term, employed in the prologue where the Evan-
gelist is interpreting the Divine mystery, should not
reappear in the sequel of the narrative, the character of
which might thus suffer change.
WTiat is the precise value of this concept in the writ-
ings of St. John? The Logos has not for him the Stoic
meaning that it so often had for Philo: it is not the im-
personel power that sustains the world, nor the law
that regulates it; neither do we find in St. John the
Platonistic concept of the Logos as the ideal model of
the world; the Word is for him the Word of God, and
thereby he holds with Jewish tradition, the theology
of the Book of Wisdom, of the Psalms, of the Prophet-
ical Books, and of Genesis; he perfects the idea and
transforms it by showing that this creative Word,
which from all eternity was in God and was God, took
flesh and dwelt among men.
This difference is not the only one which distin-
guishes the Johannine theology of the Logos from the
concept of Philo, to which not a few have sought to
liken it. The Logos of Philo is impersonal , it is an idea,
a power, a law; at most it may be likened to those half-
abstract, half-concrete entities, to which the Stoic
mythology had lent a certain personal form. For
Philo the incarnation of the Logos must have been ab-
solutely without meaning, ouite as much as its identifi-
cation with the Messias. For St. John, oh the con-
trary, the Logos appears in the full light of a concrete
and living personahty; it is the Son of God, the Mes-
sias, Jesus. Equally great is the difference when we
consider the r61e of tne Logos. The Logos of Philo is an
intermediary: "The Father who engendered all has
given to the Logos the signal privilege of being an in-
termediary {luShpwt) between the creature and the
creator ... it is neither without beginning {iyivtirot)
as is God, nor begotten (tcmtt^i) as you are [mankind!,
but intermediate {fjJ<rot) l>etween these two extremes
rQius rer. divin. hseres sit, 205-06) . The Word of St.
John is not an intermediary, but a Mediator; He is not
intermediate between the two natures. Divine and hu-
man, but He unites them in His Person; it could not be
said of Him, as of the Logos of Philo, that He is neither
6rf4rriTos nor 761^7x6?, for He is at the same time one
and the other, not inasmuch as Ho is the Word, but as
the Incarnate Word (St. Ignatius, *'Ad Ephes.", vii,
2).
In the subsequent history of Christian theology
many conflicts would naturally arise between these
rival concepts, and Hellenic speculations constitute a
dangerous temptation for Cnristian writers. They
were hardly tempted, of course, to make the Divine
Logos an impersonal power (the Incarnation too defi-
nitely forbaac this), but they were at times moved,
more or less consciously, to consider the Word as an
intermediary being between God and the world. Hence
arose the subordinationist tendencies found in certain
Ante-Nicene writers; hence, also, the Arian heresy (see
Nic^A. CouNaL op).
IV. The Looob in Anctent Christian Literature.
—The Apostolic Fathers do not touch on the theology
of the Logos; a short notice occurs in St. Ignatiuf-
only (Ad Magn., viii, 2). The Apoloeists, on the con-
trary, develop it, partly owing to meir philoeophie
training, but more particularly to their desire to state
their faith in a way familiar to their readers (St. Jus-
tin, e. g., insists strongly on the theology of the Logos
in his Apology'' meant for heathens, much less so in
his ' ' Dialogue with the Jew Tryphon") . This anxiety
to adapt apologetic discussion to the circumstanceB <h
their hearers had its dangers, since it was possible that
in. this way the apolo^i^ might land well inside the
lines of their adversaries.
As to the capital question of the generation of the
Word, the orthodoxy of the ApologSts is irreproach-
able: the Word was not created, as the Arians held
later, but was bom of the very Substance of the Father
according to the later definition of Nicaea (Justin,
"Dial.", 128; Tatian, "Or.", v; Athenagoras, "Legat.",
x-xviii; Theophilus, "Ad Autolyc", II, x; TertuUian,
" Adv. Prax.' , vii). Their theology is less satisfactory
as regards the eternity of this generation and its neces-
sity ; in fact, they represent the Word as uttered by the
Father when the Father wished to create and in view
of this creation (Justin, " II Apol.", 6— cf . " Dial.", 61-
62; Tatian, "Or.", v, a corrupt and doubtful text;
Athenagoras, " Legat.", x; Theophilus, " Ad Autolyc",
II, xxii; Tertullian, " Adv. Prax.", v-vii). WTien we
seek to understand what they meant by this "utter-
ance", it is difficult to give the same answer for all;
Athenagoras seems to mean the role of the Son in the
work <n creation, the ayncatabasis of the Nicene
Fathers (Newman, "Causes of the Rise and Successes
of Arianism" in "Tracts Theological and Ecclesiasti-
cal", London, 1902, 238); others, especiaUv The-
ophilus and Tertullian (cf. Novatian, "De Trinit.",
xxxi), seem quite certainly to imderstand this "utter-
ance" as properly so called. Mental survivals of
Stoic ps>xhology seem to be responsible for this atti-
tude: the philosophers of the Portico distinguidied
between the innate word (MidBerot) and the uttered
word (xpoiftopiKSs); bearing in mind this distinction,
the aforesaid apologists conceived a development
in the Word of God after the same fashion. After
this period, St. Irenajus condemned very severely
these attempts at psychological explanation (Adv.
Hffires., II, xiii, 3-10; cf. II, xxviii, 4-6^, and later
Fathers rejected this unfortunate distinction between
the Word MidOtrot and vpwpopuc&s [Athanasiua (7),
"Expos. Fidei", i, in P. G., XXV, 201— cf. "Orat.",
II. 35, in P. G., XXVI, 221; Cyril of Jerusalem,
"Cat.", IV, 8, in P. G., XXXIII, 465— cf. "Cat.", XI,
10, in P. G., XXXIII, 701— cf. Council of Siimium,
can. viii, in Athan., "De Synod.", 27— P. G., XXVI,
737].
As to the Divine Nature of the Word, all apologists
are agreed, but to some of them, at least to St. Justin
and Tertullian, there seemed to be in this Divinity a
certain subordination (Justin, "I ApoL", 13— cf. "II
Apol.", 13; Tertullian, "Adv. Prax.^', 9, 14, 26).
The Alexandrian theologians, themselves profoimd
students of the Logos doctrine, avoided the above-
mentioned errors concerning the dual conception of
the Word (see, however, a fragment of the"Hypoty-
poses", of Clement of Alexanckia, cited by Photius, m
P. G., cm, 384, and Zahn, "Forachungen cur Ge-
schichte des neutest. Kanons", Erlangen, 1884, xiii,
144) and the generation in time; for Clement and for
Origen the W^rd is eternal like the Father (Clement,
"Strom.", VII, 1, 2, in P. G., IX, 404, 409; and
" Adumbrat. in Joan.", i, 1, in P. G., IX, 734; Origen,
"De Princip.", I, xxii, 2 sqq., in P. G., XI, 130 sqq.:
"In Jer. Hom.", IX, 4, in P. G., XIII, 357; "In Jo>,
ii, 32, in P. G., XIV, 77; cf. Athanasius, "De decret.
Nic. syn.", 27, in P. G., XXV, 465). As to the nature
of the Word their teaching is less sure: in Client, it
is true, we find only a few traces of Bubordinationism
("Strom.", IV, 25, in P. G., VIU, 1366; "Strom.",
LOGBOSO
331
LOHEL
VII, 3, in P. G.. IX, 421; cf. "Strom.", VII, 2,
in P. G., IX, 408) ; elsewhere he very explicitly
afiBims the equally of the Father and the Son,
and the unity (** Protrtpt.", 10, in P. G., VIII,
228: "Paedag.", I, vi, in P. G., VIII, 280; I, viii, in
P. a, VIII, 326, 337; cf. I, ix, in P. G., VIII, 353;
III, xii, in P. G., VIII, 680). Origen, on the con-
trary, frequently and formally defended subordina-
tionist ideas (*' De Princip.'\ I, iii, 5, in P. G., XI, 150;
IV, XXXV, in P. G., XI, 409, 410; **In Jo.", ii, 2, in
P. G., XIV, 108, 109; ii, 18, in P. G., XIV, 153, 156;
▼i, 23, in P. G., XIV, 268; xiii, 25, in P. G., XIV, 441-
44; xxxii, 18, in P. G., XIV, 817-20; " In Matt.", xv,
10, in P. G., XIII, 1280, 1281; "De Orat.", 15, in P.
G., XI, 464; " Contra Gels.'', V, xi, in P. G., XI, 1 197) ;
his teachin^concemin^ the Word evidently suffered
from Hellenic speculation: in the order of religious
knowledge and of prayer, the Word is for him an inter-
mediarybetween God and the creature.
Amid these speculations of apologists and Alexan-
drian theologians, elaborated not without danger or
without error, the Church maintained her strict dog-
matic teaching concerning the Word of God. This is
particularly recognizable in the works of those Fathers
more devoted to tradition than to philosophy, and
especially in St. Irensus, who condenms eveiy form of
the Hellenic and Gnostic theory of intermediary' beinf^
(Adv. Hser., II, xxx, 9; II, ii, 4; III, viii, 3; IV, vii,
4; IV, XX, 1), and who affirms in the strongest terms
the full comprehension of the Father by the Son and
their identity of nature (Adv. Haer., II, xvii, 8; IV, iv,
2; IV, vi, 3, 6). We find it again with still greater
authority in the letter of Pope St. Dionysius to his
namesake, the Bishop of Alexandria (see Athan., ** De
decret. Nic. syn.", 26, in P. G., XXV, 461-65) : " They
lie as to the generation of the Lord who dare to say
that His Divine and inefifable generation is a creation.
We must not divide the admirable and Divine unity
into three divinities; we must not lower the dignity
and sovereign grandeur of the Lord by the word crea-
tion; but we must believe in God* the Father omnip-
otent, in Christ Jesus His Son, and in the Holy
Ghost; we must imite the Word to the God of the
universe, for He has said: 'I and the Father arc one',
and again : 'I am in the Father, and the Father in me'.
Thus we protect the Divine Trinity, and the holy
avowal of the monarchy [unity of Gotl]." The Council
of Nicsa (325) had but to lend official consecration to
this dogmatic teaching.
V. Analoot between the Divine Word and
Human Speech. — ^After the Council of Nicsea, all
danj^er of Subordinationism being removed, it was
possible to seek in the analogy of human speech some
fight on the mystery of the Divine generation; the
Greek Fathers especially refer to this analogy, in
order to explain how this generation is purely spiritual
and entails neither diminution nor change: Dionvsius
of Alexandria (Athan., *' De Sent. Dion.", 23, in P. G.,
XXV, 513); Athanasius C'De decret. Nic. syn.", 11,
in P. G., XXV, 444); Basil ("In illud: In principio
enU VeHmm", 3, in P. G., XXXI, 476-77) ; Gregor\' of
Naiiansus (*' Dr.", xxx, 20, in P. G., XXXVI, 128-29) ;
Cyril of Alexandria (" Thes.", iv, in P. G.. LXXV, 56—
cf. 76, 80; xvi, ibid., 300; xvi, ibid., 313; *'De
Trinit.", dial, ii, in P. G., LXXV, 768-69); John
Damasc. ("De Fide Orthod.", I, vi, in P. G., XCIV,
804).
St. Augustine studied more closely this analogy
between the Divine Word and human speech (see
espedaUy "De Trinit.", IX, vii, 12 sq., in P. L., XLII,
967; XV, X, 17 sq., ibid., 1069), and drew from it
teachings long accepted in Catholic theolog>'. He
compares the Word of God, not to the word spoken by
the ups, but to the interior speech of the soul, whereby
we mav in some measure grasp the Divine mystery;
engmdieTed by the mind it remains therein, is equal
thereto, is the source of its operations. This doctrine
was later developed and enriched by St. Thomas, espe*
cially in "Contra Gent.", IV, xi-xiv, opusc. "De
natura verbi intellectus" ; "Qusest. disput. de verit."
iv; "De potent.", ii; viii, 1; " Summa Theol.", I-I,
XX vii, 2; xxxiv. St. Thomas sets forth in a very
clear way the identity of meaning, already noted by
St. Augustine (De Trinit., VII, ii, 3), between the
terms Son and Word: "eo Filius quo Verbum, et eo
Verbum quo Filius" ("Summa Theol.", I-I, xxvii,
2; "Contra Gent.", IV, xi). The teaching of St.
Thomas has been highly approved by the Church,
especially in the condenmation of the Synod of Pistoia
by Pius VI (Denzinger, "Enchiridion^ 1460). (See
Jesus Christ; Trinity.)
On tho Logos thooriea in jseneral see: A/iix, Geachichte der
Logondee^ I: In der griechxBchen Philoaophie; II: In der
christlichm Littcratur (Lcipsiff. 1896-99); Lebreton, Lea
ortgineft du dogme de la Trtni<<? (Paris, 1910). On the Hellenic
theories: Heinze, Die Lchre vom Logon in der grieehiachen
Philosophie (Oldenburg, 1872). On the Memra of Palestinian
Judaism: Webkr, JiidvKfte Theologie (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1897),
l8(>-84; KoHLER in The Jewish Encyclopedia, s. v. Memra;
OiNBBUROER, Die Anthropomorphiemen in den Targumim
(Brunswick, 1891), 7-20. On the Alexandrian and Philo-
nian theory of tho TiOgos: Drummond, PhiloJudttiUt II (London,
1888), 15CP-273; Brkhirr, I^a iddea philoeophiquee et reliqieuMa
de Philon d^Alexandrie (Paris. 1908), 83-112. On the Johan-
nine theory of the Ix>gos: Prat in Vio., Diet, de la Bible, s. v.;
Calmes, UEvangile selon a. Jean (Paris. 1904), 92-100; LoiST,
Le quatrihrne Evangile (Paris, 190:0, 98-101; 151-^; Scott.
The Fourth Gospel (Edinburgh, 1900), 145-76; Grill, Unter-
auchungen iiber die Enitiehung dea vier'en Evangdiuma (Til-
bingen, 1902), 105-206. On the Ante-Nicene theol9gy of tho
liOgos: Petavius, Dogmata Theologica, preface, ii-vifl, iii-vi;
Newman, Causes of the Rise and Sueceaaea ofArianiam in Tracta
theological and ecclesiaatical (London, 1902), 137-3(X); Fedeb,
Justins des Milrtyrfrs I^hre von Jeaua Christua (Freiburg im Br..
1906), 7^154; Poyiunicn,Dea ApologetenTheophxluaQoUee- una
Logoslehre (Dresden. 1002); D'ALfes, Aa Theologie de TertuUien
(Paris. 1905), 67-104: loEaf. La ThMogie de s, Hippoli/te
(Paris, 1906), 8-35. (Jn tho Nicene theology of the logos:
Atzbbroer. Die Logoslehre des hi. Athanaaiua (Munich, ISiSO);
Zahn, Marcellua von Ancyra ((Jotha, 1867); db R^qnon,
Etudes de thtologie poaitivc aur la aainte TrinitS, III (Paris, 1898),
381-463. On the Augustinian theology of the Logos: Gangauf,
Dea hi. Auguslinue speculative Lehre von OoU aem dreieinigen
(Augsburg, 1865), 209-95; see also Auoubtine or Hippo,
Saint.
J. Lebreton.
Logrrofto. See Calahorra and La Calzada, Dio-
cese OF.
Logue, Michael. See Ar>lagh, Archdiocese of.
Lohel (LoHKLius), Johann, Archbishop of Prague,
b. at Eger, Bohemia, 1549; d. 2 Nov., 1622. Of poor
parent£^e, he was piously brought up; at fifteen he
was engaged as a domestic in the Norbertine Abl)ey of
Tepl, but was allowed to follow the classes in the ab-
bey school; he soon surpassed his fellow students, and
in 1573 received the Norljertine habit. After a two-
veArs novitiate, Lohelius went to studv philosophy at
I'rague. He was ordained in 1576 ancl was recsdled to
the abbey. The Lutheran lieresy having made inroads
into Bohemia, he gave a course of sermons at Tepl,
in which he gained the hearts of the heretics, and
brought many back to the Church.
In 1579 he became prior of Mount Sion Abbey, at
Strahov. The abl)ot and he strove, with some suc-
cess, to lift the abbey out of the unfortunate state into
which it had fallen; but Lohelius was soon called back
to Tepl. However, he was in 1583 allowed to resume
the office of prior of Strahov.
Lohelius was elected Ablx)t of Strahov in 1586.
With him a new era of progress and prosperity dawned
on the sorely tried Abl)ey of Strahov. The emperor
and the magnates of Bohemia generously assistea him
in restoring the church and abbey buildings; the ab-
bot-general, John Despruets, named him his vicar-
feneral and visitor of the circles of Austria, Bohemia,
[ungar}', and Poland. In 1604 he was consecrated
Bishop of Sebaste inpartibus, as auxiliary to the Arch-
bishop of Prague. During the illness of Archbishop
von Lamberg, Paul V created Lohelius coadjutor in
May, 1612. At the death of von Lamberg on 18
Sept., 1612, Lohelius became Archbishop of Prague.
LOBHXB
332
LOJTA
The rescript of Rudolph in 1609 had emboldened
the Protestauits; having gained the upper hand in
Prague, they persecuted the clergy and expelled manv
priests, regular and secular. The cathedral was al-
tered to suit the Calvinistic worship; the altars were
demolished, and the painting and statues destroyed.
Lohelius had taken refuge in Vienna, where he re-
mained imtil 1620. After the battle of the White
Mountain, the archbishop and his chapter, as well as
the Jesuits and other religious, returned to Pra^e. The
cathedral, cleansed and refurnished, was agam conse-
crated on 28 Feb., 1621. Lohelius died soon after, of
a slow fever; he was buried in the church of Strahov.
Dlabacz, Lfben . . . Lohelius . . . (Prague, 1704); Lachen,
LaiukUio FunebrU (Antwerp, 1625}: Goovaerts, who gives the
best description of letters, etc., pnnted or MSS.. of Lohelius in
his Dictionnaire Bio-bibliooraphique . . . de lOrdre de Pre-
montrit part I (Brussels, 1901), 523-531; van Cratwinckel,
Lenens . . ,de WiUe Orde van den H. Norbertus, pt. II (Antwerp,
1665), 651-671; Chorherrenbuch (Warxbui«. 1883), 565 sq.,
606 sq.
F. M. Geudens.
Lohner, Tobias, b. 13 March, 1619, at Neudtting
in the Diocese of Salzburg; d. 26 (probably) May,
1697. He entered the Society of Jesus on 30 August,
1637, at Lansberg, and spent his first years in the class-
room, teaching the classics. Later at Dillingen he
was professor, first of philosophy for seven years, then
of speculative theology for four years, and finally of
moral theolof^. He was rector of the colleges of
Lucerne and Dillingen and master of novices. His
zealous sermons won for him the reputation of a great
preacher, and his versatility made him a remarkable
man in many ways. His chief claim, however, to the
gratitude of his contemporaries and of posterity is
based mainly on the many works which he wrote, both
in Latin and German, on practical questions, especially
of asceticism and moral theology. More than twenty
years before he died, his literary activity received
nattering recognition in the " Bibliotheca Scriptorum
Societatis Jesu", a work begun by Father Peter Riba-
deneira, S.J., continued by Father Philip Albegambe,
S.J., and brought up to date (1675) by Father Na-
thanael Sotwel, S.J. Of Father Lohner's many pub-
lished works, those which have secured him most last-
ing remembrance are the " Instructissima bibliotheca
manualis concionatoria" (4 vols., Dillingen, 1681 — ),
and a series of volumes containing practical instruc-
tions, the more important of which are the following:
" Instructiopractica dess. Missse sacrificio"; " Instruc-
tio practica de officio divino" ; " Instructio practica de
conversatione apostolica"; "Instructio practica pas-
torum continens doctrinas et industrias ad pastorale
munus pie, f ructuose et secure obeundum" ; " Instructio
Sractica de confessionibus rite ac fructuose excipien-
is" (complete edition of these instructions, in eleven
vols., Dilhngen, 1726 — ). He published many other
similar wor& on preaching^ on catechizing, on giving
exhortations, on the origm and excellence of the
priesthood, on the various states of life, on consoling
the afflicted, on questions of polemical, ascetical,
speculative, and moral theology, on the means of over-
coming temptations, on the foundations of mystical
theology. These and other works of like nature
testify to his untiring zeal; almost all of them were
printed in separate volumes, ran through many edi-
tions, and some of them are used and prized even at
the present day.
Thobuen, L^entbUder atta der Gesch. der deuttichen Ordens-
provinx der GeaeUschaft Jesu; SommeRvooel. Bibl. de la C. de J.,
IV (1901): Herder, Konveraatuma-Lexikon, s. v.; Hurter,
Nomendator.
J. H. FiSHEB.
Loja, Diocese of (Lojana), suffragan of Quito.
Ecuador, includes the greater part of the Provinces of
Lojaand El Oro. It thus occupies the south-west-
em portion of Ecuador, lying between the summit of
the Andean CordillafM and the Pacific Oooan. Ithaa
an area of about 10.000 square'miles. The city of Lojs.
which has a population of ten thousand, is situated
some 270 miles S3.W. of Quito, in the Val de Can-
bamba. It was established about the year 1546 to
Protect travellers on the royal road from Quito to
eru against the attacks of the Indians, and is thus
one of the oldest towns in the state. In 1580 the
First Provincial Coimcil of fkniador was held there; at
which time the city contained, in addition to its parish
churchy a Franciscan convent and a Dominican pri-
ory. It was at Loja that the valuable prpperties of
the cinchona-bark, the source of quinine, were first
discovered by a Spanish soldier who, having acciden-
tally experienced its antipyretic qualities, by means of
it cured the vice-reine of rem, the Countess of Chin-
chon (a quo cinchona), of a fever, and thus made it
known to the world. Loja suffered much from earth-
quakes and Indian inroads. In 1861 it possessed a
Jesuit church, a college, a consistorial house, and an
hospital. Five years later a bishopric was erected at
Loja, Mgr Checa being the first occupant of the see;
he was succeeded by Mgr Riofrio, afterwards Arch-
bishop of Quito; the third prelate was Mgr Jos^ Madi,
O.F.M.; bom on 14 January, 1815, at Montroi|L
in Tarragona, Spain, he was consecrated Bishc^ m
Loja on 16 September, 1S75. This illusU-ious prdate
died in 1902 in Peru, a glorious exile for the Faith.
After an interregnum of several years, Mgr Juan
Jos^ Antonio Eguiguren-Escudero, the present or-
dinary, was appointed. Mgr Egui^uren was bom
at Loja on 26 April, 1867; he studied at the semi-
nary of Quito, where he was ordained on 11 June,
1892. Shortly afterwards he became a professor in
his Alma Maier; in 1901 he was named an honorary
canon, and three years later was made Administrator
Apostolic of Loja; on 6 March, 1907, he was elected to
fill the vacant see and was consecrated at Quito on 28
July, 1907. The Diocese of Loja contains 61 secular
priests, 20 regulars, 84 churches or chapels, and 36
Earishes. There are two colleges, and in the town of
loja a convent fcjr the higher education of women.
The Cathohc population is about 81,000.
With the exception of individual cases, there is no
religion professed in the diocese but Catholicism (and
Saganism among some of the Indians) ; manv of the
atholics however, are lukewarm and the Church is
suffering from the increasing hostility of the advanced
Liberal or Radical party at present m power in E^eua-
dor. The following remarks will help to make known
the present (1909) position of the Church. The State
and the Church have been separated^ and all religions
are now equal before the law; there is no interference
with communications between the clergy and the Holy
See. The secular priests were formerly supported by
tithes, and later b^ a percentage of the import duties;
now they are entirely dependent on the voluntary
contributions of the faithful. Clerics are exempted
from military service, but they may not hold any civil
public office; they are forbidden to preach against
enactments of the legislature, or against the political
parties, under a maximum penalty of a fine of 100
sucres (florins) and imprisonment for 30 days. None
but a native-born Ecuadorean may be preferred to any
ecclesiastical dignity. So far ecclesiastical property
has not been confiscated by the secular power, tbou^
it is tmder state control. A religious organization has
to obtain permission from the Government before it
can legally receive and hold gifts or legacies. En-
closed orders are to disappear gradually, being for-
bidden to accept any more novices; but teaching and
charitable institutes may receive postulants provided
they are over eighteen years of age; these bodies, how-
ever, are not allowed to found new houses in the State.
Civil marriage alone is recognized by the State, and
must precede the religious ceremony if there be any.
Priests who violate this provision of the law are liable
to a fine of 500 sucres and impriaomnent for three
LOUUkBDS 333 LOLLARDS
«"9"th* for a first ofiFenoe, and 1000 sucres and six lish fla^ or in the Free Companies, brought home an
month* for a second. Education, to which the secu- evil spirit of disorder, while the military system helped
lax authorities were until recently indifferent, and to produce an ''over-mighty", greedy, and often anti-
which was therefore provided for by the energy of the clerical nobility. In the lower ranks of society there
dergy, is now compiusory and gratuitous for children was a similar growth of an intemperate and subversive
between the ages of six and twelve. The Liberal Gov- independence. The emancipation of the peasant class
ermnent testified offici^y (in 1900) to the great zeal had proceeded normally till the Black Death threw
displayed by the religious teachers and the success into confusion the relations between landlord and ten-
that attended their efforts; since then, however, the ant. By gi^'ing the labourer an enormous economic
State has established godless schools; yet parents are advantage in the depopulated country it led the land-
free to send their children to the churdi scnools. The lords to fall back upon their legal rights and the tradi-
public authorities are forbidden to contribute to the tional wages.
support of the latter. In the Church there was nearly as much disorder as
Only a very small proportion of the population of in the State. The pestilence had in many cases disor-
tbe diocese is of pure white ori^, the remamder being eanized the parish clergy, the old penitential system
a hybrid race of mixed Spanish, Indian, and Ne^ro had broken down, while Tuxiny, at least among the few,
blood, known as cholos, zambos, or mestizos, with was on the increase. Preachers, orthodox and hereti-
many pure-blooded Indians. The climate of the dio- cal, and poets as different in character as Langland,
oese varies from a mean of 18° C. in the higher regions Gower, and Chaucer are unanimous in the gloomy pic-
to torrid heat on the slopes of £1 Oro to the ocean, ture they give of the condition of the clergy, secular and
Trade consists mostly in cerealS) coffee, sugar, cin- regular. However much may be allowed for exag-
chona, and mules; there \a considerable mining at geration, it is clear that reform was badly needed, but
Zaruma. The principal towns are Machala (5000 in- unfortunately the French A\'ignon popes, even when
babitCLnts), Santa Rosa, Zaruma, and Loja. they were reformers, had little influence in England.
Daouin. Etude 9ur U rigime dea cultes dana la ripublique de Later On, the Schism gave Englishmen a pope with
rSquaUrurin the BuUHin merumel de laMcieUdrlcgiMion whom their patriotism could find nO fault, but this ad-
SZ^ ^^SU^'^'^&i i^2)f B^i;*;^?.^: vantage was dearly purcha^ at the cost of weakening
Aimiia«ivponA(/!cafo(Pam, 1010); Gir6nyArcas. La iSi/uacu5n the spuritof authonty in the Church. It IS to these
Juridical la Idesia Catdli^^ en Europa y Arnica (Madrid, social and religious distempers that we must look for
1905), 302-26: Izaouirre, BxograHa del IluMrlgimo y Rmo. P. . l _ «ft„«^«, «p ♦ Ko Pfta«ATi+ Povnlf onri f Vin T^llorH ttiova.
Ft. Joa4 Maria Meuid, Olnspo de Loja (Barcelona. 1904). ^^^ causes Ol the i^eaS^t Kevolt and the iX>llarcl move-
A. A. MacErlean. men. Both wece mamfestations of the discredit of au-
thority and tradition. The revolt of 1381 is unique in
LoUardfli the name given to the followers of John English history for the revolutionary and anarchic
Wyclif , an heretical body numerous in England in spirit which inspired it and which indeed partially sur-
the latter part of the fourteenth and the first half of vived it, just as Lollardy is the onlv heresy which
the fifteenm century. The name w^as derived by con- flourished in medieval England. The disorganized
temporaries from loUiunif a tare, but it had been used state of society and the violent anti-clericalism of the
in Flanders early in the fourteenth century in the sense time would probably have led to an attack on the dog-
of " hypocrite '\ and the phrase *'Lollardi seu Deum matic authonty and the sacramental system of the
laudantes" (1309)point6 to a derivation from loUcji, Church, even if Wyclif had not been there to lead the
to sing Boftlv (cf. En^. lull). Others take it to mean movement.
*' idlers " and connect it with to loll. We first hear of it The Beginnings of LoUardu. — During the earlier part
aa referring tothe Wycliffites in 1382, when the Cister- of his public career Wyclif had come forward as an
cian Henry Crumpe applied the nickname to them in ally of the anti-cIcrical and anti-papal nobility, and es-
public at Oxford. It was used in episcopal documents pecially of John of Gaunt. lie liad asserted the ri^ht
in 1387 and 1389 and soon became habitual. An ac- of temporal lords to take the goods of an imdcserving
count of Wyclif 's doctrines, their intellectual parent- clergy and, as a necessary consequence, he had at-
a^, and their development during his lifetime will be tacked the power of excommunication. He was popu-
given in his own biography. This article will deal lar with the people, and his philosophical and theologi-
with the general causes wnich led to the spread of Lol- cal teaching had given him much influence at Oxfora.
lardy, with the doctrines for which the Lollards were His orthodoxy had been frequcntlv impeached and
individually and collectively condemned by the au- some of his conclusions condemned by Gregory XI,
thorities of the Church, and with the history of the but he was not yet the leader of an obviously heretical
sect. sect. But about 1380 he began to take up a position
Causes of the Spread of LoUardg. — Till the latter of more definite hostility to the Church. He attacked
part of the fourteenth century England liad been the pope and the friars with unmeasured violence, and
remarkably free from heresy. The Manichean move- it was probably about this time that he sent out from
ments of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries which Oxford the "poor priests" who were to carry his
threatened the Church and society in Southern Europe teaching to the country folk and the provincial towns.
and had appeared sporadically in Northern France and The necessity of giving them a definite gospel may well
Flanders had made no impression on England. The have led to a clearer expression of his heretical teach-
few heretics who were heard of were all foreigners and ing, and it was certainly at this date that he be^an the
they seem to have found no following in the country, attack on transubstantiation, and in this way inaugu-
Yet there was much discontent. Popular protests rated the mo8t characteristic article of the Lollard
against the wealth, the power, and the pride of the heresy. Wycliflism was now no longer a question of
cfeixy, secular and regular, were frequent, and in times scholastic disputation or even of violent anti-clcrical-
of (uaorder would express themselves in an extreme ism; it had become propagandist and heretical, and
form. Thus, during the revolution which overthrew the authorities both of Church and Stete were able
Edward II in 1327, mobs broke into the Abbey of for the first time to make a successful assault upon it.
Bury St. Edmunds and attacked that of St. Albans. In 1382 a council in London presided over by Arch-
As the century proceeded there were many signs of na- bishop Courtenay condemned twenty-four of Wy-
tional disoiganiJEation and of religious and social dis- clif's 'Conclusions": ten of them as heresies, four-
content. Tiie war in France, in spite of the glories of teen as ' ' errors ". [For the Acts of this council and the
CMcy and Poitiers, was a curse to the victors as well as documents connected with the subsequent proceed-
to die vanquished. The later campaigns were mere ings at Oxford, see Shirley, *' Fasciculus Zizaniorum"
ravaging expeditions and the men who inflicted such (Itolls Series), pp. 272-334.]
untold miseries on the French, whether under the Eng- Though little was done against Wyclif himselfi a
L0LL4BD8
334
LOLLABBS
determined effort was made to purge the university.
Chdord, jealous as ever of its privileges, resisted, but
ultimately the leading WycliflStes, Hereford, Reping-
don, and Ashton, had to appear before the archbishop.
The two latter made full abjurations, but their subse-
quent careers were very different. Repingdon be-
came in course of time Abbot of Leicester, Bishop of
Lincoln, and a cardinal, while Ashton returned to his
heretical ways and to the preaching of Lollardy.
Nicholas Hereford must have been a man of an un-
common spirit, for at Oxford he had been much more
extreme than Wyclif , justifying apparently even the
murder of Archbishop Sudbury by the rebels, yet he
went off to Rome to appeal to the pope against Cour-
tenay, was there imprisoned, found himself at liberty
again owing to a popular rising, returned to England
and preached Lollardy in the West, but finally ab-
t'urea and died a Carthusian. Though the Wycliffite
lold upon Oxford was broken by these measures, the
energy of the Lollard preachers, the extraordinary lit-
erary activity of Wyclif himself in his last years, and
the disturbed conditions of the time, all led to a great
extension of the movement. Its chief centres were
London, Oxford, Leicester, and Coventry, and in the
Dioceses of Hereford and Worcester.
Lollard Doctrines. — In the fourteenth century the
word "Lollard" was used in a very extended sense.
Anti-clerical knights of the shire w^ho wished to dis-
endow the Church, riotous teijants of an unpopular
abbey, parishioners who refused to pay their tithes,
would often be called Lollards as well as fanatics like
Swynderby, the ex-hermit of Leicester, apocalyptic
visionaries like the Welshman, Walter Brute, and what
we may call the normal Wycliffite who denied the au-
thority of the Church and attacked the doctrine of
the Holy Eucharist. Never was Lollardy so wide-
spread as in its early days; the Leicester chronicles
wrote that every second man was a Lollard. But this
very extension of the name makes it difficult to give a
precise account of the doctrines connected with it,
even in their more extreme form. Probably the best
summary of Lollardy, at least in its earlier stages, is to
be found in the twelve "Conclusions" which were pre-
sented to Parhainent and affixed to the doors of W est-
minster Abbey and St. Paul's in 1395 (see for a Latin
form "FasciculusZizaniorum", pp. 360-8: the original
English form is analyzed in Dr. uairdner's "Lollardy
and the Reformation," I, pp. 43-6; see also H. Cronin,
"The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards" in "Eng.
Hist. Review", 1907, 292-304). They complain of
the corruptions by appropriations etc. from Rome, "a
step-mother"; they attack the celibacy of the clergy
ana the religious orders, the "feigned miracle of tne
sacrament", the "feigned power of absolution", and
"feigned indulgences ; they call the sacramentals jug-
glery, and declare that pilgrimages are "not far re-
moved from idolatry". Prayers for the dead should
not be a reason for almsgiving, and beneficed clergy-
men should not hold secular offices. There is no al-
lusion in these conclusions to Wyclif's doctrine that
"dominion is founded on grace", yet most of the early
Lollards taught in some form or another that the va-
lidity of the sacraments was affected by the sinfulness
of the minister.
This refusal to distinguish the official from the pei^
Bonal character of the priesthood has reappearea at
different epochs in the history of the Church. It is to
be found, for instance, among the popular supporters of
ecclesiastical reform in the time of Pope St. Gregory
VII. Reforming councils forbade the faithful to ac-
cept the ministrations of the unreformed clergy, but
the reforming mobs of Milan and Flanders went much
further and treated with contumely both the priests
and their sacraments. Wyclif gave some kind of
philosophic basis to this point of view in his doctrine of
dominion", though he applied it more to the property
and authority of tne cler^ than to their sacramental
powers. To make the validity of baptism or the oon-
secration of the Holy Eucharist depend on the vir-
tue of the priest could only be a stepping-stone to a
complete denial of the sacramental system, and this
stage had been reached in these conclusions of 1395.
Thus the doctrine of transubstantiation became the
usual test in trials for Lollardy, and the crucial ques-
tion was usually, "Do vou believe that the subsUmee
of the bread remains after consecration?" The here-
tics were often ready to accept the vaguer expressions
of the orthodox doctrine, but at times they would de-
clare quite frankly that "the sacrament is but a
mouthful of bread". Pilgrimages and other pious
practices of Catholics often came in for very violent
abuse, and Our Lady of Walsin^ham was known
among them as the " Witch of Walsmgham ".
There is at least one striking omission in the " Con-
clusions " of 1395. Nothing is said of the Bible as the
sole rule of faith, yet this doctrine was probably
the most original which the movement produced. As
the chief opponents of Lollardy in the fifteenth century,
Thomas of Walden and Richard Pecock both pointed
out that the belief in the sufficiency of Scripture lay at
the basis of Wycliffite teaching, for it provided an al-
ternative to the authority of the Churcn. It occupied,
however, a less important position among the earlier
than among the later Lollards, for there was at first
much confusion of mind on the whole question of au-
thority. Even the most orthodox must have been
Cuzzled at the time of the Schism, as many were later
y the struggle between pope and coimcils. The un-
orthodox were still more imcertain, and this may
partly account for the frequent recantations of those
who were summoned by the bishops. In the fifteenth
century the Lollards became a more compact body
with a more definite creed, or rather with more definite
negations, a change whicn can be explained by mere
lapse of time whicn confirms a man in his beliefs and
by the more energetic rem^ession exercised by the
ecclesiastical authorities. The breach with the tradi-
tion of the Church had now become unmistakable and
the Lollard of the second generation looked for support
to his own reading and mterpretation of the Bible.
Wyclif had already felt the necessity of this. He
had dwelt in the strongest language on the sufi&ciency
of Scripture, and had maintained that it was the ulti-
mate authority even in matters of civil law and poli-
tics. Whatever may have been his share in the work
of translating it into English, there is no doubt that he
urged all classes to read such translations, and that he
did so, partly at any rate, in order to strengthen them
in opposition to the Church authorities. Even the
pope, he maintained, should not be obeyed unless his
commands were warranted by Scripture.
As the Lollards in the course of the fifteenth century
became less and less of a learned body we find an in-
creasing tendency to take the Bible in its most literal
sense and to draw from it practical conclusions out
of all harmony i^ith contemporary life. Objections
were made for instance to the Christian Sunday or to
the eating of pork. Thus, Pecock urged the claims of
reason and common sense against such narrow inter-
pretations, much as Hooker did in a later age against
the Puritans. Meanwhile the church authorities had
limited the use of translations to those who had the
bishop's licence, and the possession of portions of the
English Bible, generally with Wycliffite prefaces, by
unauthorized persons was one of the accepted evi-
dences of Lollardy. It would be interesting, ddd space
permit, to compare the Ix)llard doctrines with earlier
medieval heresies and with the various forms of six-
teenth-centurv Protestantism; it must, at least, be
pointed out that there are few signs of any construc-
tive system about Ix)llardy, little beyona the belief
that the Bible will afford a rule of faitii and practice.
Much empha.sis was laid on preaching as compared
with liturgy, and there is evident an inclination
LOMAN 335 LOMAN
towards the supremacy of the State in the externals of hand and be in a position to persecute the Catholics,
religion. This unquiet condition lasted during the earlier part of
Outline of the Hislory of the LoUarde. — ^The troubled the reign of Henry VI. There were many rccanta-
days of Richard II at the close of the fourteenth cen- tions though few executions, and in 1429 Convocation
tury had encouraged the spread of Lollardy, and the lamented Uiat heresy was on the increase throughout
accession of the House of Lancaster in 1399 was fol- the southern province. In 141.3 there was even a
lowed by an attempt to reform and restore constitu- small rising of heretics at Abingdon. Yet from this
tional authority in Church and State. It was a task date Lollaray Ijegan to decline and when, about 1445,
which proved m the long run beyond the strength of Richard Pecock wrote his unfortunate " Repressor of
the dynasty, yet something was done to remedy the overmuch blaming the Clergy", they were far less of a
worst disorders of the previous reign. In order to put menace to Church or State than they had been in Wal-
down religious opposition the State came, in 1401, to den's day. They diminished in numbers and import-
the support of the Church by the Act " Do Haeretico ance, but the records of the bishops' courts show that
Comburendo"^ L e. on the burning of heretics. This they still survived in their old centres, London, Coven-
Act recited in its preamble that it was directed against tr>', Leicester, and the eastern counties. They were
a certain new sect ''who thought damnably of the sacra- mostly small artisans. William Wych, a priest, was
ments and usuiped the office of proacliing". It em- indeed executed, in 1440, but he was an old man and
powered the bisnops to arrest, imprison, and examine belonged to the first generation of Lollards,
offenders and to hand over to the secular authorities The increase in the number of citations for heresy
such as had relapsed or refused to abjure. The con- under Henry VII was probably due more to the re-
denmed were to be burnt "in an high place" before the newed acti\'ity of the bishops in a time of peace
pMBople. This Act was prol)ably due to the authorita- than to a revival of Lollardy. There was such a re-
live Archbishop Arundel, but it was merely the appli- vival, however, under Henry VIII, for two heretics
cation to England of the common law of Christenaom. were burnt on one day, in 1511, and ten years later
Its passing was immediately followed by the burning there were many prosecutions in the home counties
of tne first victim, William Sawtrey, a ]x>ndon priest, and some executions. But though Lollardjr thus re-
He had previously abjured but had rcla{)Kcd, and he mained alive, ''conquered but not extinguished", as
now refused to declare his lielief in transubstantiation Erasmus expressed it in 1523, until the New Leuning
or to recognize the authority of the Church. was brought into the country from Germany, it was a
No fresh execution occurred till 1410, and the Act movement which for at least half a century had exer-
was mercifully carried out by the bishops. Great cised little or no influence on English thought. The
pains were taken to sift the evidence when a man de- days of its popularity were long passed and even its
nied his heres}^^ the relapsed were nearly always al- martyrdoms attracted but little attention, llie little
lowed the benefit of a fresh abj urat ion, and as a matter stream of English heresy cannot be said to have added
of fact the burnings were few and the recantations much to the Protestant flood which rolled in from the
many. Eleven heretics were recorded to have been Continent. It did, however, bear witness to the
burnt from 1401 to the accession of Henry VII in existence of a spirit of discontent, and mav have pre-
1485. Others, it is true, were executed as traitors for pared the ground for religious revolt near London and
being implicated in overt aSts of rel)ellion. Yet the m the eastern counties, though there is no evidence
activity of the Lollards during the first thirty years of that any of the more prominent early reformers were
the fifteenth centuiy was great and their influence Lollards before they were Protestants.
spread into parts of the coimtry wliich had at first The authoritiea for the life and teaching: of Wyclif Dv-ill be
been unaffected. Thus the eastern counties l>ecame, found at the close of his biography; many of the Enslish tracts
»d ^ loM to remain «n important Lollard centre. !^<l,JL™l?M."^"X'^^rur
Meanwhile the ecclesiastical authorities COntmued the fhe English Worka of John Wydiffe hitherto unjninted cd. by
work of repression. In 14()7 a svnod at Oxford under Matthew, in EaHy Englinh Text Society Publications (1880)
Anindel'spi^idencypassedani^berofc^^^^^ ^t^Td'^SSL^IT/JS^SS'^J^'S.^lS^^^^
to regulate preaching, the translation and use of the RoIU Scries, collected by Thomas op Wau>f.n contains a num-
Scriptures, and the theological e<iucation at schools berofimr)ortant documents: much infonnation about the Lol-
and the university. A bodv of Oxford censors con- fe."^« ^"^^ be found in the chronicles of the time, «jpecially>
J J . ,]^Trt "^1 xi-^rt/j-» v/ »^vv.*iK.vy s» ^v/i* Thomas of Walsinoham. Chronxcon Angha m Rolls Senes,
demnedm 1410 no less than 26/ propositions collected and inthecontinuatorof KNioHTON»'CA«)nirtmin/2o//«.SmM
out of Wyclif's writings, and hnaDv the Council of Foxe, Book of Martyrs includes the records of a number of
Constance, in 1415, solemnlv declared him to have ^",?"i *"A^' ^"^ »^ must^naturally be u8«l with the Krcatert
r^ i! x» rm- j'« "j. J. 1- caution. Of modem works Lechijer, J oAann twi ^ tcUf (2
been a heretic. These different measures seem to nave vob., Leipzlflr, 1873), contjiins what is probably the most
been successful at least as far as the clergy" were con- complete account of the movement, while Gairdner, Lollardy
cemed, and Lollardy came to be more ancl more a lay "l^ i^^. Reformation in England (2 vols., Lon(k)n. 1908) is an
' . £. ^ .J -Al I-4,- 1 J- J. I ailmirable study of its character and aims. Bncfcr sketches
movement, often connects with political discontent, ^iu be found in Poole, WycUJ[e and Movements for Reform in
Its leader during the reign of Henrv V was Sir John Epochs of Church History Sencs (Ix>ndon, 18S9), and in Cam'
Oldcastle, commonly known as Ix)rd Cobham, from ^' r^^^F ?^ ^Vi^ rh'^Vf'^'^A' '''?ko-J- T«S^'=^\^^•
,. .' -._ r< Vu u • Tj* T 11 J u J England %n the Age of Wych ffe {ljon<\oii,\^^ I ) ^R-WQWyKTiXijea
his marriage to a Cobham heu^s. UlS Lollardy had and useful, but it is murkctf by a frank hostility towards and
long been notorious, but his po.sition and wealth pro- by a ^:ood deal of i^onmcc of medieval and Catholic ideas and
tected him and he was not proceeded against till 1413. P'^*^« ^^ &^ Zimmermann in Kirrhenlexicon, s. y LtA-
.-- „ J 1 u - * I ^ • 1 J larden: Bonet-Maury, Les pncurseurs de la R^forme (ParuL
After many delays he was arrcst<Hl, tried and sen- 1904); Hvuiana, LoUarda of the ChiUem HiUa (London, 19(W.
tenced as a heretic, but he escai>ed from the Tower and F. F. Urquhart.
organised a rising outside I^ndon early in 1414. The
young king suppressed the movement in person, but Loman, Saint, Bishop of Trim in Ireland, nephew
Oldcastle again escaped. He remained in liiding but of St. Patrick, wa« remarkable as l)eing the first placed
seems to have inspired a number of sporadic disturb- over an Irish see by the Apostle of Ireland. This was
ances, especially during Henry's alj.sence in France, in the year 433. St. Loman ha<l convertoii lx)th Fort-
He was finally captiu-ed on the west border, con- chem, the Prince of Trim (grandson of Laeghaire,
demned by Parliament, and executed in 1417. His King of Meath), and his father Foidilmid, and was
personality and activity made a great impression on given Trim for an episcopal see. Some say that he
hiB contemporaries and his poorer followers put a was a bishop before he came to Ireland, but this
this time, expected that they would get the upper that he was only a simple priest, but consecrated by
St. Pfttrick for Trim. St. Lonuui did not long survi^
his promotion to the episconite, and after a brief visit
to iia brother Broccaid at Emlach Ech in Connacht,
be resigned hia see to hia princely convert Fort«hem,
with the permission of St. Patrick. Fortchem, how-
ever, through humility only ruled tor three days after
the death of St, LomaJi, and then ceded hiB of&ce to
Cathlaid, another British pilgrim, St. Loman is not
to be confounded with St. Loman of Loch Gill, County
Sligo, but he ia said to have founded Port Loman in
County Westmeath,
0'ir*NLO(f, titwt of I
Lift o/SL Polrick (Du
Bt. Pmnek (toodan. 1S8T).
W. H. GRATTAN-FnOOD,
fold, and otheia gained
literature, among
ihe latter being
the famous Fran-
ciscan, Luke Wad-
ding. After re-
ceiving his early
education at Wat-
erford, young
Lombard was sent
to Wpstmineter
School, whence,
after some years, ho
went to Oxtotd.
AtWestminater
School one of Ida
Erofessors was the
istorian Camden,
and pupil and i
16 LOHBASIVT
ment. Aimagh was thus left without an aichbishop
for nearly a quarter of a century. There was however
an adnumstrator in the pemm of tlie weU-known
David Kothe. He had for a time acted at Rome ■■
act in this capacity even after 161S, whwi he was made
Bishop of Ossory. The Northema bitteriy cMnplained
of being left so long without an archbishop. In anr
case they disliked being ruled by a Hunsteiman, still
more bein^ ruled by one unwilling to face the dangen
of his position. At Rome Lombard wrote "DeRe^Ki
HibemiBB sanctorum insula commentarius" (Louvoin,
1632; re-edited, Dublin, 1868 with prefatory memoir,
by Bishop, now Cardinal liloran). This work ^ve
such offence to Charles I that he gave special direc-
tions to his Irish viceroy, Strafford, to nave it sup-
pressed, Lombard also wrote a httle work on the ad-
ministration of the Sacrament of Penance, and in 1604
a yet unedited work, addressed to James t, in favour
of religious Uberty for the Irish (Belleaheim, "Gesch.
dc KaUi. Kirtihe in Irland", 11 (Maim, 1890), 323-25,
ter (
. have
Camden's Irurning
wasKreatandlA>m-
ArohUihop at Anuch ( lflOl-35)
of his master for hie gentli ^. . _
also takes credit for having made his pupil a good
Protestant. But the change, if it ixrciirrcd at all, did
not last, and Ijombanl, after leaving Oxford, went to
Louvain, passed through his philasojihic and theolog-
ical cla^'scs with great distinction^ graiiiuted as Doctor
of Divinity, and was ordained priest. Appointed pro-
fessor of theology at Louvain University he soon at-
tracted notice by the extent o( his leammg. In 1594
he was made provost of the cathedral at Cambrai.
When he went to Rome, a few years later, Clement
VIII thought so highly of his leaminp and piety that
he appointed him, in IGOl. Archbishop of Armagh.
He also appointed him his cTomeslic prelate, and thus
secured him an income, which in the condition of
Ireland at (he time, there was no hope of gelling from
Armagh.
Henceforth till his death I^mbard lived at Rome.
He was for a tJine presidem iif the "Congregatio ile
Auxiliia " (((. v.) cliargeij with ilie duly of pronouncing
ai Stolina's work and settling the controversy on pie-
destination and grace which followed its publication
(Schnecman, "Conlroversiarum dcdivinie gratiiE libcr-
Ique arbitrii concordia initia et progressua ", Fr^ihurg,
18811. Lombard was active and lealous in providing
for tne wants of tlie exilcil Earls of Tyrone and Tyr-
oonnel, and was among those who publicly welcomed
them to Rome. He was not however able to go Ui
Ireland, for the penal laws were in force, and to set
foot in Ireland would b« to invito the martyrdom of
(yDevanny and others. This would certainly have
boBti Lomoatd's fate, for James I personally disliked
liim and publicly attacked him in the English Parii»-
lin, 1880); Smciligium Oisorirni (DubUn, 1874-84}; REHaHU,
Iri^ ArJU/Mopi (Dublin, 1861).
E. A. D'Alton.
Lombard, Petkr. See Peter Lombard.
Lombardy, a word derived from Longobardia and
used during the Middle Ages to designate the country
ruled over by the Longobards, which varied in extent
with the varying fortunes of that race in Italy. Dur-
ing their great^t power it included Northern Italy,
part of Central Italy, and nearly all Southern Italy ex-
cepting only Calabria (inaccessible because of its
mountainous character), anil a narrow strip of land
along the west coast including the cities of Naples,
Ciacta, Amalli, and TermAna. Geographically it was
divided into eight regions: — Austria, to the north-east;
Neustria, to the north-west; Flaminia and a portion of
Emilia; I^mi>ar(l Tuv;ia; the Duchy of 8poleto; the
Duchies of lieucvi-jitu and Salerno; Istria; the Ex-
archate of Ravenna, and the Pentapolia, a late oon-
qucst which did not remain long in the hands of tha
Longobards. Sometimes the country was divided
into Greater Lombardj', including Northern, or Trans-
tiherine, Italy with Pavia as its capital, and Lesser
Lombardy, or Cistiberine Italy, namely the Duchies of
Benevento and Spoleto. In the ninth centu^ the
name Lombardy was synonymous with Italy, Politi- ■
cally the country was divided into thirty-six duchie^
of which we know with any certainty the names of
only a few; these are: Pavia, Milan, Brescia, Bergamo,
Verona, Vicenza. Treviso, Friuli, Trent, Istria, Asti,
Turin, Panna, Piacenxa, Chiusi, Rc^o, Lucca, Fl<w«
ence, Fermo, Rimini, Spoleto, and Benevento. After
the kingdom had passed into the hands of the Franks
and the frontier duchies hod asserted their independ-
ence, and new principalities had been set up, e. g. the
Venetian territory in the east, Piedmont in the west,
the States of the Church in the south, the old name
shrank untii it came to signify that extent of country
comprised more or lees witlun the Duchy of Milan,
bordered on the north by the Swiss cantons; on the
west by the River Ticino and Lake llaggiore, which
separate it from Piedmont; on the south Dy the Biver
Po, which separates it from Emilia ; and on the east by
the lUver Mrncio and I&ke Garda, which separate it
from the Venetian territory. These are its bounda-
ries at the present time.
Actually, Lombardy is one of the thirteen regJooB
into which Italy is divided and it contuns eight prov-
inces: Bergamo, Brescia. Como, Cremona, Maotua,
Milan, Pavia, SondHo. It is the most popidous prov-
moe of Italy, with 4,300,(XX) inhnbitanta and an ana
of 8973 sq. miles. The wealth of tbo eountrjr oi
LOHBAKDT 3i
in the fertility of the mil, which in the m&in liea within
the basin of the Po valley. Only on its northem
reaches ii it conterroinous with the Alpine chain,
where the Bernese Alps keep watch over the Provinces
of Sondrio and Bergamo, and advance among the
wooded valleys of Ctunonlca, Seriana, Brembsra, and
Vallellina. In these mountains many streams have
their soureea, the principal ont;8 lieine the Ticino, the
Olona, the Adda, the Oslio, and the Mincio, all tribu-
taries of the Po onitsleft bank; while the Trebbia, fed
from the Appennines, fluH-s in on the right bank. Sev-
ml of these rivere during their long course spread out
into lakea famous for the oeauty of their shores, rich in
V^etation, and bordered by picturetique villages and
lovely villas, the favourite summer batmts of the great
sod tiie wealthy. Sueb for instance is Lake Klaggiore,
or Verbano, formed by the Ticino; Lake Como, or
Lftrio, formed by the Adda; Lake Isco formed by the
Aglio; Lake Garaa, or Dcnaco, from which the Mincio
flows. Other similar lakes like Lake Varcsc and those
Of Italy".
The climate of Lomltardy varies with itji elevation;
it i^ cold in the mountain districts, wann in the plains.
At Stilan, the mean annual temperature is US" t . The
chief products are grain, maize, rice. The pasture
lands are many and the flocks numcroiia. Ever since
the fifteenth century the greater part of Iximliardy has
been artifically irrigated. Innlunemlile ranalh liranch
offfromtheriversandcany their waters over the fields
on a gentle slope, so skilfully arranged that a thin
' it of water can be made t« pa.iK lightly over the sur-
e. g,, the Naviglio Grande (known also im the Ticinello,
bMause it flows from the Ticino). the Naviglio della
Marteaana (so called from tlie ilistrict it passes
through), are navigable by means of locks or phuiea
which overcome the differences of level cif the country
they pass through. The mean annual crop of rice
from 1900 to 1905 was 4,615,000 quintals (a quintal
{•about 220 lbs.). Milk is so plentiful that butter
and cheese are among the chief exports: about 230,000
quintals of cheese, and 90,000 of butter are produced
annual>y. The more famous cheeses are tiic Grana
(wrong^ called Parmigiono or Parmesan), Gorgon-
■ola, and Stracchini.
With the introduction of the mulberrj-lrec during
the Middle Ages the feeding of silkworms begun anil
has gone on prospering, so t^t it now fomiH one of the
staple sources of income, the average output per an-
num being about 1S,000,000 kilos of cocoons. The
■ilk is woven on tbc spot and givt^i emploj-ment (ac-
cording to statistics for 1906) to 126. [MM persons of
both sexes who work 1,400,000 spindles for straight
■ad twisted eilk, feeding 16,000 looms that turn out
10,000,000 kilos of grey or unbleached silk. There are
moreover in activity 36,000 looms, and 900,000 spm-
dies for cotton and 10,000 looms for flux, hemp, jute,
etc. Other industries are moulding wood and iron for
machinery, carriage-building, railway works, furniture
maldng, bleaching works, tailoring establishments,
and printing. The country does not lioast of great
mineral wealth although there are iron pyrites and
capper pyrites in the valleys of Tlcrguino and Brescia;
lineolcnde and carbonate of sine in Val Scriana; lig-
nite in the some valley; and peat In the Varese valley
and along Lake Garda. There arc rich granite ((Uur-
the need of means of rapid communication to l)e felt.
and besides the public liighwaj'.'', there are about
850,000 miles of splendid roads in I^mbardy, railways
wne aoon opened, that from Jtfilan to Monza in 1840
IX.— 23
17 LOMBARDT
beine the second in Italy. At present a network of
1 ,1 1S,000 miles of railway Ibes and more than 600,000
miles of steam- tramways cover tbc surface of Lom-
Reuoiocs Division. — In its ecclesiastical divisions
Lombardy naturally exhibits the influence of its civil
history. When the Longohards swarmed down from
the Alps the peoples in tliat region had lon^ been evau'
gcliEed and the Church hod a hierarchy m the chief
cities. Among tbexe Milan is certainly the moat an-
cient of all Xorthem Italy; Aquileia comes next; then
Verona and Brescia and the other sees that sprang up
rapidly after peace had been given to the Church by
Constantine. Milan was the metropolitan see of the
region and its bishop took the title of archbishop as
early as the middle of the eighth century. Within this
jurisdiction Vere Alba, Alessandria, Asti, Turin, Tor-
Brescia, Lodi. It is doubtful whether Pavia belonged
to Milan in ancient times, but from a very remote date
mitil the beginning of the nineteenth century it de-
t>enil('d directly on the Holy See. In tlie seventh con-
tiiry Como wosscparated front Milan and became sub-
ject to Aquileia hut was joined to Milan when the
Patriarchate of Aijuileia was supprcs^sed. The juris-
diction of Milan was gradually restricted. Genoa be-
came iin archdiocese iu 1133withSavona, Ventimiglia,
unil Tortonu as suffragan sees. Likewise, in 151S
Turin became an archdiocese with Asli, Albi, and
Ai-<|ui as suffragans. Finallv, Vcrcelli in 1817 was
nioile an archdiocese with Alessandria, Caxule. Vige-
vano, and Novara an suffragans. At the present time
Loinljardy is divided into nine dioc<'M.-s: Bergamo,
Brescia, Como, Pavia. Cremona, Crema, Lodi, Mantua,
under Milan as metropolitan. A noteworthv peculiar-
ity in the liturgy is the special rite in use tliroughout
all the Diocese of Milan with the exception of a few
parishes, a rite that goes back to vcrj' primitive times,
and known as the Ambrosian Itite (q. v.).
IliSTORT. — When the IjOngoliards arc first men-
tioned by I^tin hi^florians they lire dcscrilx^d as the
fiercest of the Ciemian barbarians 1 VcUeius Paterculus)
while Tacitus praises them for theh intrepidity. It
would seem their original name was Winniii, an<l that
they were called Longoljards from the length of the
liea'rds they wore. It is quite true tliat in German
mythology the name I^ngoljard {lungbiMr) was
given to Udin, their chief god. We first mei:t them
along the Klbc near tbc Baltic; accoriLing to Bluliimc
Ihey came from Jutlacid. The " I>jngiii.Nird Chroni-
cle' tliat precedes the edict of Kiiip Rotari (630) save
"origo gentis nostne Scaiidanan' . i. e., (he .Vortli.
Their quarrels with the \'andals were of ancient date;
afterwards thev took possession of the lands of the
Heruli when thesie tnbes jKiurrd into Italy under
Odoocer. Empcmr Justinian ^iive them lands in
Pannonia and Noricum on condition that they would
LOMBABDY
338
LOMBA&DY
not molest the Empire and that they would assist in
the wars against tne Gepid®. They did make war
against the Gepidse, and under Alboin, who wanted to
carry off Rosamunda, daugliter of Cimimund, King of
the Gepidse, they succeeded with the help of the Avars
in completely routing them. Alboin slew Cunimund,
and as was the custom of his race, fashioned a drinkinir
cup from the king's skull . Then, gathering together all
the barbarians he could muster, Saxons, Suevi, Ostro-
goths, the remnant of the Gepidse, Saramati, Bulgars, and
Thuringians, he set out from Pannonia towards Italy
on 1 April, 568. Ill-defended, and torn by the rival-
ries of the Greek leaders or generals, Italy fell an easy
prey. Alboin met with no resistance either in Friuli
or in Vcneta; he advanced as far as the Adda, taking
possession of all the towns on his way, witii the excep-
tion of Padua, Mantua, and Monselice. Many of tne
inhabitants fled for refuse to the islands in the lagoons.
The following year, finding none to bar his proeress, he
pushed forward, occupied Milan, and invaded Liguria
meeting resistance only in Pa via and Cremona. The
inhabitants fled, even as far as Genoa. Pavia held
out for three years, then fell, and became the capital of
Alboin's short-lived kingdom. Rosamunda, whom
the barbarian forced to drink out of her father's skull,
in revenge had him assassinated, and then fled with
her accomplices to Ravenna. The Longobards chose
as his successor Clefi, chief of the troops which had
remained at Bergamo; he was more cruel even than
Alboin in oppressing the conquered, driving them
from their lands and putting them to death under any
pretext. During all this time the exarch, Lonffinus, sent
from Constantinople to replace Narses, haa been un-
able to defend Italy, and snut himself up in Ravenna,
leaving the people to their cruel fate. The Longo-
bard invasion of Italy, the last stage in the Germanic
invasion of the West, marks the end of the Roman
world and the beginning of a new historical epoch,
which was to bring about deep changes in the social
life of those peoples, who, hitherto, under the domina-
tion of Heruli and Goths, had indeed changed their
masters but not their customs or their manner of
life.
With the new conquerors it was quite otherwise.
At their head was a king usually chosen by the chiefs
of the tribe nearly always from the stock of the same
family. He was the civil and military head of the
nation, but his power was shared with the leaders
{heerzoge) chosen by him for life, one for each toTTi-
torial division, and subject to him de jure, though de
fcxlo independent and even hereditary, as was the case
in Friuli, Spoleto, and Beneventum. Those nearer
at hand, however, found it more difficult to escape his
authority, but outbreaks were not infrequent and
were the cause of weakness and decay from within.
Viceroys pure and simple were the gastaldi nominated
and dismissed by the King, administering his posses-
sions and representing him in the various territories to
which they were appointed. On the other hand the
gasindi were part of his household and members of his
Court. By playing off the one against the other, and
by increasing their power the royal authority was
augmented and the throne consoliclated. Then again
the dukes had their gasindi and shuldahis to assist them,
and among those nobles and favourites the conquerea
lands were distributed. Whether these lands wore
part of the imperial domain or belonged to private
mdividuals who had been slain or who fled, they were
parcelled out in fiefs or given away in freehold. The
conquered became tributary, and had to pay thirds of
all fruits and in most cases they seem to have been
reduced to the state of aldii, or villains, who passed
from owner to owner with the land. Only one citizen-
Bhip was recognized, the Longobardic, and all had to
belong to it, the barbarian auxiliaries, the Romans
who remained freemen, and later the priests and the
guargangi, or strangers who came to settle in Longo-
bard territory. Tlie Quality of being a freeman (frn)
was inseparable from that of soldier {heermann: exar-
citalis) and the nation itself in the royal edicts is styled
the exercUus,
^ We can form an idea of the social and l^al condi-
tion of the conquered peoples from the voxe&r-gtM^ or
fine imposed for a muitier or any damage done by one
inhabitant to another. The fine was always increased
when a Longobard was the injured party. TTie Ro-
man was cut off from all government positions and
was always looked upon as an inferior. Amone the
list of offices and honours, and even in the public docu-
ments of the Longobards, there never once appears
the name of an Italian inhabitimt. The main conse-
quence of this antagonism was that the two peoples re-
mained politically apart. In spite of the neavy dis-
advantages under which they laooured it must not be
imagihea that the conauered were civilly dead. The
Longobards numbered nardly more than 1^,000 souls
without a code of laws, and without imity of govern-
ing methods to oppose to those already m existence,
and which it was only natural they should go on using
in their dealings with the Italians on all points not
foreseen by their own barbarian customs. That this
was the case is seen from the fact that hardly had the
oppression come to an end when we find the Roman
municipium once more arising and thriving in the
comune. But the preservation of the tramtions of
Rome was due to another cause — religion . The Longo-
bards at the time of the invasion were for the most
part pagan; a few had imbibed Arianism, and henee
their ferocity against priests and monks whom they
put to deatn. They destroyed churehes and monas-
teries; they huntea and killed many of tlfe faithful
who would not become pagan; they laid waste their
groperty, and seized Catholic places of worship, to
and them over to the Arians. The holy pontiff,
Gregory the Great, does not cease to l^nent the desola-
tion caused by the Longobard slaughter throughout
Italy. Slowly however the light of faith made way
among them and the Chureh won their respect and
obedience. This meant protection for the conquered.
Gradually the Church's constitution and customs
spread among the barbarians the ideas of Roman
civilization, until at last, in defence of her own liberty
and that of the people which the Longobards con-
tinued to imperil, she was foreed to call in the aid of
the Franks, and thus change the fate of ItaJy. This
occurred only after two centuries of Longobardic
domination. The succession of the Longobard kings
is as follows: — Alboin from 561; Clefi, 573; interreg-
num, 575; Autari from 584; Agilulf, 591; Adaloala,
615; Ariovald, 625; Rothari, 636; Rodoald, 652; Ari-
bert, 653; Gondibert and Pertarit, 661; Grimoald,
662; Garibald, 671; Pertarit (a second time), 671;
Cunibert (as co-ruler), 678; Cunibert (alone), 686;
Luitpert, 700; Regimbert, 701; Aribert, 701; Aus-
prand, 702; Liutprand, 712; Hildebrand, 744; Rat-
chis, 744; Astulf, 749; Desiderius, 756 till 774. In
this list of kings prime importance attaches to the
civil and religious influence of Queen Theodolinda, a
Frank by birth, a Catholic in faith, the wife of Autari,
and afterwards of Agilulf whom she won over from
barbarism and converted to Christianity. To her is
due the foundation of many churehes and monasteries,
among others St. John's at Monza, where tiie iron
crown was kept and protection granted to the Irish-
man, St. Columbanus, foimder of Bobbio (q. v.), and
apostle of the religious life in Gaul, Britain, Switser-
land, and Italy. Agilulf had much trouble with his
dukes, who had grown haughty in their independence,
and were perhaps angered at his conversion to the
religion of the conquered.
The son of Adaloald was deposed and his place
taken by an Arian, Ariovald, Duke of Turin. Rothari
was also an Arian; during his reign the first Lombaid
code was published. With much carnage aad deya»-
LOMBABDY
339
LOBUABDY
teticm he overthrew Genoa and conciuercd the Ligur-
ian ooMt. For sixty years following Rothari and until
the time of Liutprand intense anarchy prevailed.
Durimr this periodf control was in the hands of Grim-
<iald, Dukeoi Beneventum, converted through the zeal
of Saint Barbatus, bishop of that toij^n. Grimoald
enlaiiged Rotari's code by the addition of laws con-
cerning prescription and voting, in which the influence
of Roman law is manifest, as such ideas were alto-
gether foreign to Teutonic legislation. Liutprand
finally overcame this anarchy. He was the greatest
and perhaps the best of the Ijombard pruiees. His
legislation bears increasing traces of Ch^i^}tian and
Roman influences. He to^Iy suppressed paganism,
introduced the right of sanctuary in churches, and for-
bade marriage among blood relations, etc. He was
more or less mixed up in the politics of the Greek Em-
pire against Rome; but his moderation was most
pnuseworthy, and his quarrel was never against the
pope as head of the Chmtsh, but as head of the govern-
ment of Rome.
Liutprand and his successor Rachis were sincere and
pious Catholics; Rachis even renounced the tlm)ne in
favour of his brother Astulf and retired as a monk to
Bfonte Cassino. But Astulf was of a different stamp;
he aeiied the exarchate and the Pentapolis. and in-
vaded the Duchy of Rome, whereupon the popes were
ccmstrained to seek aid for themselves and for the peo-
ple who looked to them for protection. Constanti-
nople was appoUed to in vain; then the popes turned
to the Franks. King Pepin went down into Italy and
laid siege to Pavia; Astiuf came to terms, but hardly
had Pepin retired before Astulf was tr\'in^ once more a
coup de main M^ainst Rome (755) ; he besieged the city
for two months, putting monks and farm-hands to
death until Pepin return^ once more (75G) and again
laid siege to Pavia, forcing the perjured king to pay
tribute to Rome and to restore the territory' he had in-
vaded. His death forestalled further perjury, but the
struggle was continued by his successor DesideriiLs
who placed more faith in diplonuicy than arms, and
sought to win the good graces of Charlemagne, Pepin's
successor, l^ giving him in marriage his daughter Desi-
derata. When she was sent back to him he declared
war on the pope, seized Comanchio, and hastened
towards Ravenna and Rome. Charlemagne, setting
the evident dishonesty of the Longobards, went down
into Italy, captured Chiusi, and Ix^sieged Desiderius in
Pavia and his son in Verona. Pavia fell after a ten
months' siege, Desidcrius was sent to France where he
was shut up in a monastery, but his son succeede<l in
tn Airing good hls escapc to Constantinople. Thus
ended the Longobard Kingdom in 774. Barbarous
and daring by nature, their government always re-
mained barbarous, even after Christianity had taught
their rulers some gentleness.
Treacherous and overl.)earing towards those they
conquered the fierce warrior Longo})ards never united
with the Italians until both had to I)eur together a
common yoke. The popes did all they could to pre-
•vent their domination so as to rescue what reniamed
of liberty and the culture of Rome: to them it is due
that in this period Italy did not utterly perish. Char-
lemagne took the crown and the title of King of the
Longobaids, and later at the division of his empire he
assigned their kingdom to his eldest son, Pepin. In
the constitutions he drew up each nation or people
was left the use of its own laws; gradually the ducmes
were divided into coimtships, the counts Ibeing vassals
of the king, and having in turn valvu-ssori (vassi-vaa-
aorum) who looked up to them as liege-lords, while
ranking over all were the misn domiuwi who in the
king's name saw to it that justice was meted out to
ever3rone. Such was the feudal hierarchy. The gov-
ernment of the towns was in the hands of tlu; local
count, who exercised it through his representat i ves, to
whom were added later scnhini, or assessors, chosen
from among the more worthy citLeens. The old Lom«
bard law, set down originally in the edict of King
Rothari (636) and enlaced under later kings, was
later kno^n as the ' * Liber Langobardorum " or " Liber
Papiensis", and eventually as "Lombarda" (L/ex)
was taught and commentea at Bologna. The bishops
ranked as vassals of the king, by reason of the church
fiefs {weichbild) they held from him, but they were ex-
enipt from any other subjection.
For two centuries Lombardy followed the fortunes
of the Carlovingian Empire, and eventually under
Otho (964) it fell under the direct sway of the Saxon
emperors. The Lombard Duchy of Beneventum, after
various divisions, was conquered by the Normans in
the eleventh century, while the city of Beneventum
passed (1051-52) under papal sway. Dtu'ing this
long lapse of time, however, and throughout im the
struggles that marked that epoch, the sap of a new
life was working in the cities of Loml>ardv, destined
})efore long to take their fitting place in the story of
Italy. Two main forces were at work ; one the prerog-
ative of honour that by universal consent the oishops
cnjoyeil over the laity. WTien fiefs began to become
here<iitarj' in families it was to the emperor's interest
to increase the number of ecclesiastical lords, seeing
that they could not assert independence and that the
imperial authority had some weight in the selection of
their successors. The other cause was frequency of
immunities and franchises. In the long struggle be-
tween the Church and the Empire concerning investi-
tures, and during the disputed elections of popes and
bishops, the opposing parties were liberal m conces-
sions to win over the various towns to tlieir side, and
the towns were not slow in claiming payment for the
obedience and loyalty thev renderecTto a master some-
times absent and often Joubtful. At times too, the
emperors, detained by affairs in Germany, did not con-
cern themselves with Italy, and the cities drew up their
own code of laws, without, however, shaking off the im-
perial yoke; the emperors, either through love or
necessity, when they could not do otherwise, re-
mained satLsfitKl. Thus the cities multiplied their
privileges and their population increased with the
privileges on account of the security they afforded
over the less protected country. In this way the
cojuune took the place of the countship of the feudal
lord. It is only too true that the communes made bad
use of their early li!)erty, and of their budding civil and
commensal life, waging war against one another
through sheer greed of power, until they mutually de-
stroved their power.
The part pla>'ed by Milan in these troubles was the
most important of all. Its conflicts with Como,
Pavia, and Lodi furnished pret«3^t for the uitervention
of Frederick I who led two expeditions into Italy. The'
first brought about the destruction of Asti, Chieri, and
Tortona; in the second Milan itself was besieged,
forced to surrender and to renoimce its claims over
Ixxli and Como. and to submit the names of its consuls
for approval to the emperor, to whom they had to take
an oath of fealty. In the Diet of Roncaglia (1158)
Fre<lerick constrained the Bolognesc jurisconsults to
acknowledge his supreme authority over the empire.
This autocracy which destroyed the constitutions of
the communes rallied the towns of Lombard v for a life
and death struggle: Milan was again l^esieged, razed to
the ground, and itis inhabitants dispersed throughout
the neighlx)uring villages (1161). But while Frederick
persisted in making war on Rome, and creating anti-
popes, Verona, Vicenza, and Padua in 1163 formed
what is known as the League of Venice, and in 1167
the Lombard League, or the League of Pontida, was
set on foot between Bergamo, Brescia, Cremona, and
Mantua to oppose the inroads of Gernumy and to de-
fend their own civil and religioiLS liberties, as well as to
assort their loyalty to the legitimate pope. Milan was
rebuilt and in 1168, Alessandria (called after Alexan-
der III) was founded in opposition toPsvia, which per~ Emperor Wencesl&us the title of duke. He Rtve hk
sistently sided with the emperor. FinaJlj^in 1176 at dauKhter, ValeDtina, in marriaKe to Louis I, Duke of.
Lc^aiio,thcMi]anesea5siatedby theBrescianB,Nav&- Orl&DS, brother of Charles VI of France, and as a
rase, Verccllese, and Piacentians, defeated tlie imperial dowry he gave her the cities of Aati and Cherasco,
troops; andFrcderickwasgladtomakepeacewiththe which later formed the basis of the pretensionB of
pope and the Lombards. At Venice a truce of six France to ri^ts over the country around Milan. At
years was concluded, and confirmed bv the Treaty of the death of Filippo-Maria in 1447 without heirs other
Constance (1183), which recogniied the franchises of than a daughter, married to Sforca, a condottiere of
the communes, their right to free elettion of consuls, mercenary troops, of whom there were many in Italy,
to administer justice acconling to their own laws, and Sforza succeeded him in 1450 and thus began a new
to assess taxes, so that they came to be a*! it were Tas- d^asty that lasted nearly a century. About tiis
sal states, which recognized the supreme overlordship time France began to aaaert its claims- Louis XII
of the emperor. Once the struggle for freedom was and Francis I occupied the duchy, driving out Lud-
over, the communes beftan once more their unfortu- ovico il More and Maximilian lus eon. Emperor
nale rivalries, and they found only too ready an occa- Charles V drore back France at the battle of Favia,
don in the endless struggles between Guclnhs and and restored Milan to the Sforzas, but only for a short
Ghibcllines. Milan, Brescia, and nearly all the com- time, as Francis, the last son of Ludovico, died with-
mimes in which the burghers held control, were on the out issue in 1535. Then the duchy became a fief of
Quelph side; those wherein the nobles and the classes Spain, and as such it remained till 1706 when it passed
privileged by the emperors had the upper hand, like to Austria, which took possession of it durinz the War
Fbvia and 'Cremona, declared tor tlie Ghiliellincs. of Succession, at the death of Charles IL A few
From these civil dissensions u few changes in the con- years later 1 he death of Emperor Charles VI of Austria
Btitution of the communes arose, the principal one be- reopened the War of Succession, and Milan fell into
ing the creation of the podesla, or chief magistrate, the hands of the Spaniards (1745); at the peace of
necessitated by the urgency of putting an end to the 1748 it was K'ven back to Austria, which held it until
dispute arising from the political and judicial powers the outbreak of the French Revolution, when Boaa-
exercised by the consuls. parte eataljlished there the Cisalpine Republic and
The podesta was elected by the general assembly of later the Kingdom of Italy. At tne fall oJ Napoleon
the people, and had to be a foreiEucr, that i3,.a citizen it went back to Austria and together with the terri-
from some other commune; he belonged to the same tory of the Venetian Republic it made up what was
politicalcolourandha<l to be of knightly family. He known as the Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom- The
sat in judgment in all criminal cases, saw that sen- warsof Piedmont, allied with France in 1^9 and with
tences were carried out, commanded the arm j;, and Prussiain 1866, tookawayLombardyaadVenicefrom
declared war or peace. Hence arose the prominence Au-itria, and helped to make the present Kingdom of
of certain families, especially when the same citizen Italy.
was chosen by more llian one town, and this led to The eulisb historiau of lombaidy ia Padli
dictatorships which gave rise to the sigrwriaB, to be SSii?''Jd"'"hl?^nM' ot °W^ DHid^t*'" Wfa 'sVi^
found in the towns of Lombardy and elsewhere. The Langobardoram is nn importftnt authority for the traditioB*,
leacue of the communes was a thorn for the empire cuslome, and poUtieal hisloiy of hia wople to the aid of ibn
andinmOFredcricklltriedoncemoretobreakitand gSSSi^E^riit. 'iWsj- ^ il^iw'cijadiri™'i^
to conquer the Guelph republics of Lomliardy. To iar£ (SbpIbs, 1832), t^d haada tb. hliiorin of Leo* HaS-
preventasiault, when Freuerickcameinl225toholda mahi), Cjirrri', Bchhidt. and othen. the valusble wock of
diet at Cremona, the cities of I^mlmrdy formed an- f°^^''^/^^%^!;S,^"J^tenAi^'AlnM?;m^^
other league at San Zeno di Mosio in the neighbour- i907); 'loEy", InMil. poUl. Hadm.da]iT<r>cip.hmbarrltt(Pi,na',
hood of \lantiia. The emperor placed the confederate 1907). For the ndatlooi of the Bonan Churth ttiih the Lum-
towns under a ban, anil with the help of a Saracen ^'^^^^^'''f^'Si^^-J'^J^'S',.'^"^-^^^-^;^^
armv, which he brought from bicily, and of the troops jiffl,^„ d-omUoI. n iThiM.. XXIII. XXIV (Paris. 1903): atao
of the Ghibelline cities, despite the interposition of CaiYHi-Lnoci. Lt Matt cattoliebe ed i Lumbardi ariani in Stud*
Honoriua III and Gregorv IX, he laid waste the coun- A"''™. 'V (8'. »"-, O" »■'• J'^t^fS communes aee Dij-
tiy of the League, and in 1247 defeated it at Cortenova. ^^Z>^^ SX^,? i/^ X i.*;™!^ yXfa^i^
But his victory was of small avail. In vain did be be- Univ. Hit. Sludiea (BallimorB, ISei). The medieval cbrooi-
Mcee Brescia; Genoa and Venice rallierfto the League, ^^i'^iS^^^l^^S^?i^S^l'^S'^-^'^'''f,'Z- '^i
which had its revenge at Parma and elsewhere, until )ii„_ fairia Motm™^. mk the Arrslvo Sb^'umbiirda-
Jrederick died excommunicated in 1250, and the Lorn- FmA) {MIIu. i874.Baq.). ForLombord jin nee M.i.v»iii, t*
hards could draw breath. In the period that follows »i™ ^f^ "'«". ^tj^^^h'^fe '^'' ^*™''?*Ji'''*° '^ ih "
we find the more powerful families quartering them- „jdwSjs'n™LJ o^niAont of'the L^i.Sris'Urpm.c. Ut
sclvesin the various cities. The Torriani and the Vis- Ijimbanit m Fnmoi a -i f orii (18»2). and nil oconomi™! his-
contiat Milan; the San Bonifacios and the Scaligers jpfwa of the Middle Ag™, e.g.. CunKiHaHAH. WeMtmCitiliia-
at Verona; the Vitali and the Ruaconi at Como; the """• p.nm «ii«.
Este at Ferrara; the Bonaceoisi at Mantua; the *^*''"* ^ *■
Correggeschi at Parma, etc.
Among these the Visconii quickly became the moat LomCnie de Brlanne, Ettennb-Ckahlkb db,
CcrfuTand tor two centuries were lords of Lom- French cardinal and statesman, b. at Paris, 1727; d.
ly. At first Ihey sought to have themselves atSens, 17W. He was of noble lineage, studied at the
appointed imperial vicars whenever the emperors were College d'Harcourt and then at the Sorbonne, where,
formidable or were coming into Italy, as did Henry in spite of certain suggestions of unorthodoxy, he was
VII and Louis the Bavarian; but afterwards they ^ven the doctorate of theolo^. Ordained priest in
cared little for the emperor and acted as though intle- 1752, ho became euccessively \ icar-General of Rouen
pendent lords. Matthew 1, styled the Great, was (1752), Bishop of Condom (1760), and Archbishop of
created lord in perpetuity in 1295, had himself made Toulouse (1762). Forced by tlie philosophers upon
count in 1311, placed himself at the bead of the Ghi- Louis XVI, who feared his ambition and despised his
bellines and sdded to his dominions Pavia, Bergamo, private life, he was made in 1788 minwire principal
Piaccnia, and Tortona. Seventy years later Gian and Archbishop of Sens, the second richest see in
Galeazzo ruled over the whole of Lombardv including Fiance. As a minister, he was popular with the As-
Farma and Riggio, to which he added Verona and sembly of the Notables, but failed to win the Parle-
Vicenia which he took from the Scaligers, and Bolo- ment over to his financial schemes, and fell after
gna, Siena, and Pisa, and then he purchased from the announcing the convocation of the States General for
LOITDON 3^
1 Hll)^ 1789. la order'to o?Kt bia dowufall, he suc-
ceedM b^ otever intrigue id Kaioing for biDtself the
cardinal's hat, and in hsiving his nephew, Martial de
Lom^nie. appointed coadjutor ot Sens. The influence
and wealth attached to his see he used to have Sens
made the seat of the new ecclesiosticaJ department of
Yonne — instead of Auxerrc, the natural metropolis.
Having taken the conatitutiiinal oath on 30 Jan., 1791,
be drew after him a large portion of hia clergy, bu1>-
nutted to popular election, and, being returned both
in Toulouae and Sens, chose the latter place because of
its being near the French capital.
When Pius VI, by a Brief of 23 Feb., 1791, severely
rebuked him for hie disloyalty, he replied bv renouncing
the cardinalate, and was foriaally deposed at the Con-
sistory of 2R Sept.,
1791. He then re-
tired with his fam-
ily to St.-Pierre-
le-Vif, a confifi-
calod abl>ey which
he had tiurchased
from tne spoli-
ators and shame-
fully desecrated,
and there awaited
to his nobility,
wealth, and ec-
clesiastical rank,
he was naturally
made the object
of denunciations.
bribing the local
authorities saved
him from harm.
On 1.5 Noi'ember.
I at its fiercest, and
danger, he apoata-
neverthelc
1793, when the Conventir
denunciations meant
tiled for safety's sake, but
rested on IS Feb., 1794. The following day lie
found dead in bis prison — some say from suicide,
and some from a stroke of apoplexy. His nephew
and former coadjutor. Martial de Lom^nie, who
bad also apoetatized, w.is sentenced to death on
10 May, 1794, but the Christian fortitude of Madame
Elisabeth and the warm exhortations of the dean ot
Sens, both of whom were in the same van with him,
softened his heart, and he died repentant. Lomf iiie de
Brienne was a member of the French Acadeniy. The
"CanaldeBrienne" which connects the river Garonne
with the Canal du Midi, is called after him. He wrote
the "Oraison fundbre du Dauphin" (Paris, 177S),
"Compt« rendu au Roi" {Paris, 1788), and, in colbb-
oration with Turgot, "LeConciliateur" (Paris, 1754).
Pbbbih. U card. LonUnie de Brienne (Sxnu. IMIIG); Fimuet
in Pranet poBlifieaiK: MUropate dt Smt iKria. ■. d.): PiiuHr ><<
RfptrtifirK bwaraphiout dt t'^oiacopat cone/itu/ionnd (Pal
IWl). a. v.; MoMinia La GraTide Enni • -
n La GraTide Enruclopfdie.
J. F. SOLLIER.
-, --'stor
adminiBtrative purposes: — (i) The City of London,
with a population of 26,923, occupying an area of 668
■tktut« acres, little more than one' si't'^are mile, (ji)
London, as defined by the Metropolis Local Manaeo-
ment Act, now the County of London, with a ponuTa-
tioB (last census 1901) of 4.530,541 and an area of 73,-
462 statute acres, or about 117 square miles. London
district as refeired to in the Registrar-General's
Tables of Mortality coincides very nearly with this.
(iii) London, in reference to the Parliamentary Bor-
oughs, has a population of about 4^ millions and an
'aofS0,126Btatuteai
ndon, as the Metrop<
with the Citv has a population of 6,.581,372 and a
area of nearly 700 square miles. It extends over a
radius of 15 miles from Charing Cross, (-v) I.«ndon,
as an Anglican diocese, comprises Middlesex, Essex,
and part of Hertfordshire. London will here be
trcatcil underthe following heads: I. General History.
II. Ancient Catholic Diocese. HI. London Catholics
aft^r the Reformation. IV. Modem Ci^il Adminis-
tration.
I.^ Gbhbral HisToHr. — Pre-Norman Timta.—Tbti
origins both of the name and tbc very existence of the
"great burh, Lunduuaborg, which is the greatest and
mo?t famous of all liurhs in the northern lands" (Rag-
iiar Lodbrog Saga) lie hidden in antiquity. Boui
name and town alike are popularly accounted for in
the wonderful legend of GeoffrM' of Monmouth which
found wide credence in the Middle Ages. According
to this, Brutus, a dosceudant of lEncas who was the
son of Venus, founded this city after the fall of Troy,
eleven huTidred vcars before Cnrist came, and called it
Troy no van t, or New Troy. And after a thousand years
there reigned King Lud who built walls and ton^ers to
his citv, and whose name y<tt lives in Ludgate; so
tliftt the town was calle.1 Cfler Lud. Thus Lud/s-Town
liecam? I^oiidon. But in the light of to[x>graphy this
legendary explanation must ei\'e way to the nattu^
derivation from Lb/n-din, tJie I.>ako-fort. For the
nucleus of Ixtndoii, the ground which the city proper
still occupies, was compoi^eil of two hills rising with
steep sloping sides from tlio north hank of the Thames,
separated from each other by the stream known later
as Walbrook, and shut in on the north by the great
moor and fen the memory of which survives in the
names Moorfields an<l Finsbury.
The river Fleet bounded the western hill on its
western side, and all around lay the marshes tiirough
which the Thatnes flowed, not shut in by eml>ai£-
fcw iflef s known ctill to us byplace-names in " ey" or
"ea" such as Bermondsey, ITiorney, Battersca, and
Chelsea. The western island, that lictwccn the rivers
Walbrook and Fleet with the eminence now crowned
by St. Paul's cathedral, was the site of a British
settlement wliich exi^^ted Ix-fore the coming of
the Romans. Tlie discovery of prehistoric remains
and some inscribed coins of Cymlicline have estab-
lished the fact of this jirc-Ronmn city against the
theoriesof J. R. Green (MakingofKiigland). Dr. Guest
(Orirines Ccltico?), and some others. It proliablv was
a collection of round thal«hp<l cottages built of clay
and branches and surrounded by an earthwork whicn
encloscdalioutonehutidredacres. In time the Thames
brought the iKiats of tnuh;rs and it Itccanic a place of
primitive trade and commerce. This was probably
its condition when the Romans arrivcil in a, d. 43.
Unless it hod alreadv been establiilied as a known
mart it is difficult to believe that bv the year a. d. 61
when it finds its first mention in history in the "An-
nals" of Tacitus it could lie descril)ed as " Loiidinium,
not dignified with the name of a colony but celelnnted
for the gathering of dealers and commodities ". (An-
nals, \. n. 61.)
The Roman settlement seems to have been first
ma<le on the eastern hill, to the east of Walbrook.
Here they built their fortress, a walled enclosure such
as that still surviving at Richlmrough. Under the
Erotection of this the town grew in size and became a
usy mercantile centre, with the villas of its wealthier
citizens, traces of which ore still discovered, lying
round its citadel. For nearly four hundred years it
formed the Roman city of Augusta, though the old
Celtic name still survived. During this period it was
capture<l by Doadicea who massacred the inhabitants
(a. D. 6 1 ), wBs restored by the Romans, was the scene o(
LONDON
342
LONDON
the successive usurpations of (,'araui?ius (28()) and Al-
lectus (293), and of tho defeat in battle of the last
named. During the latter part of the Roman occu-
pation it was Christianized. The fact that all the
churches ia Thames Street, the oldest part of the city,
were dedicated to the Apostles and not to later saints,
suggests that they occupied the sites of early Christian
churches. In 314 Resti tutus. Bishop of London, was
E resent at the Council of Aries, and Wend purports to
ave preserved the names of several of his predecessors
and successors (Geoffrey of Monmouth), a claim which
the modem historian, Dr. Stubbs (Episcopal Succes-
sion), treats with respect.
When the Saxons drove out the Romans and Britons
during the fifth century, London was one of the few
places which preserved a continuous existence. Prob-
ably it had fallen into the hands of the East Saxons be-
fore 571 (Lethaby, op. cit. inf., 29-31). In 604 St.
Mellitus was sent by St. Augustine to be the first
Bishop of London of the restored hierarchy, and w^ith
him begins the line of bishoi>s that lasted nearly a
thousand years (see list of bishops below). In the
time of St. Mellitus the cathedral church of St. Paul
and the abbey church of St. Peter at Westminster were
founded. But little is known of London during early
Saxon times. It suffered much from fires and much
from the Danes, being sacked by the latter in 839 and
again in 895. Under Alfred however the Londoners
defeated the Danes and enjoyed a period of prosperous
tranquillity, so that by the time of Athelstan, his
grandson, London required as many as eight money-
ers, to produce the necessary coinage. But in the
eleventh century the Danes again harassed it and it
suffered much in the struggle between Canute and Ed-
mund Ironside, though it retained its wealth, as during
the reign of Canute one-seventh of his entire revenue
came from London. From this time it disputed with
Winchester the priority among English cities. St.
Edward the Confessor during his reign (1042-1066) re-
sided chiefly at Westminster where he rebuilt West-
minster Abbey, in which his relics are still enshrined.
In this minster the coronation of all English sovereigns
takes place, and it is the national burying place for
great men, statesmen and warriors lying in the north
transept, "Poets* comer" occupying the south tran-
sept, while nearly thirty kings and queens rest in the
choir and side chapels.
London under the Normans, — After the Battle of
Hastings the citizens of London, after an indecisive en-
gagement with the troops of William the Conqueror
in Southwark, submitted to him at Berkhamstead
(Herts), and he was crowned in Westminster Abl)ey.
in a charter of four and a half lines addressed to the
bishop, the portreeve, and the burgesses, he declared
that: " I grant them all to be law-worthy as they were
in the days of King Edward, and 1 erant that every
child shall be his father's heir after his father's days
and I will not suffer any man do you WTong." Not
trusting the citizens, however, William built the White
Tower, the keejp of the Tower of London, to overawe
them, and also Baynard's Castle at the western extrem-
ity of the city. London at this time consisted of a col-
lection of low wooden houses thatched with reeds or
straw, thus affording combustible material for the nu-
merous and destructive fires which frequently broke
out, as in 1087 when the greater part of the city, in-
cluding St. Paul's, was burnt. Bishop Maurice inune-
diately began a new cathedral which was one of the
largest churches in Europe being 600 feet long. It
contained the shrine of St. Erconwald to which great
crowds of pilgrims journeyed, reaching the cathedral
by the thoroughfare still called Pilgrim Street.
At this time a period of building activity set in dur-
ing which London was enriched with many churches,
reiiffious houses and public buildings erected in stone.
William Rufus built Westminster Hall, the Tower ram-
parts and a new Ix>ndon Bridge to replace that which
was washcil away by the great floods in 1091. In
1 100 the citizens obtained a new charter from Henry I,
which was confirmed by Stephen in 11 35. In Henry's
reign many religious houses were built, including the
Priory of St. John of Jerusalem at Clerkenwell, and the
Priory of St. Bartholomew founded by Habere -in
Smithfield, the noble church of which still survives.
The ICnights Templars established themselves in Hol-
bom in 1 1 18, removing to Fleet Street later in the cen-
tury, where the Temple church (consecrated 1185) yet
remains. Another great fire broke out in 1136, de-
stroying the city from Ludi^te, then the west end
of the town, to St. Paul's. The Civil War between
Stephen and Matilda with which the Norman period
was brought to a close marked the epoch at whicn Lon-
don rose to the position of a capital. For unlike Win-
chester it did not suffer in the war, and when Matilda
deprived it of its charters the citizens rose and drove
her from their city.
London under the PlarUagenets. — Under Hemy II,
who viewed the Londoners with disfavour owing to
their repulse of his mother, we have our first contem-
porary account of London, the vivid description of
Fitzstephen, monk of Canterbury, and friend and
biographer of St. Thomas. He tells us of a city walled
round with the White Tower on the east and Mont-
fichet and Baynard's Castle on the west where Black-
friars now is. There are seven double gates, Aldsate,
Bishopsgate, Cripplegate, Aldersgate, NewgBkte, Lud-
gate, and the Bnage. Two miles up the river lay the
Royal Palace and Abbey of Westminster connected
with the city by the riverside thoroughfare called the
Strand. He describes the wealth and power of the
citizens, and grows enthusiastic over the plenty in the
markets, the Chepe — ^now Cheapside — ^Eastcheap, Bil-
lingsgate, and Dowgate. The various trades were as-
signed their own localities as the ancient surviving
names tell us, — ^Milk Street, Bread Street, Wood
Street, Fish Street, Poultry Street, and others. Friday
Street was the market for Friday fare— dried fish. In
the Chepe were the mercers, goldsmiths, armourers,
glovers, and many others. He lingers with delight on
the sports of the youn^ citizens, himting in Middlesex
Forest, wrestling, leapmg, and playing at ball: and in
winter skating and sliding on frozen Moorfields. He
describes the beautiful garden and houses occupied by
the prelates and barons when they were smnmoned to
great councils by the king. Above all he bears wit-
ness to the orderly government and careful social ob-
servance practised. *' I do not think that there is any
city with more commendable customs of church at-
tendance, honour to God's ordinances, keeping sacred
festivals, almsgiving, hospitality, confirming, be-
trothals, contracting marriages, celebration of nup-
tials, preparing f caste, cheering the guests, and also m
care for funeral and the interment of the dead. The
only pest of London are the immoderate drinking of
fools and the frequency of fires" (**Descriptio nobi-
lissimsB civitatis Londinia" in preface to "Vita St.
Thomie").
The city then contained thirteen larger conventual
churches and one hundred and twenty-six parish
churches. In 1176 Peter of Colechurch, a priest, be-
gan the rebuilding of London Bridge ¥rith stone. It
took thirty-three years to build and lasted for seven
hundred years. At this time the city was governed by
a portreeve, two sheriffs, and the alcfermen of the van-
ous wards. In 1189 Henry Fitz-alwyne became Uie
first Mayor of London under the title of '' bailiff" and
he held the office till 1212. During his tenure of office
the citizens obtained from King John a charter em-
powering them to elect a lord mayor annually. They
nad previously obtained from Richard I Jurisdiction
over and conservancy of the Thames. In llfiHd the
court of aldermen decreed that in future houses ahoidd
be built of stone instead of wood so as to check the dis-
astrous fires, but wooden houses continued to be builty
LOKOOH 3^
though hy thi> time tixtsy were pla8t«i:«d and whib>-
wMbed. During the thirteenth century the conven-
tual eBtabhshmente were increased by the coming of
the friuB, who unlilca the Benedictines and Aucustin'
iana, prtSemd to live in the midst of cities. The Oo-
nniniw^tun eatabliafaed themselves in Holbom (1221),
and in the district still bearing tbetr popular name,
Bkckfrian (1276), on which occasion the city boun-
daries were enlarged so as to include their property.
The FranciBoana (Grey friars) settled in Farringdon
Without in 1224; the Carmelites (White Friars) near
Fleet Street (1241) ; the Austin friars in Broad Street
Ward (12A3); the Crutcbed friars (1298). The same
poriodwitnaied the rebuildingof Westminster Abbey.
beKun hy Henrv III in 1245 and finished in 1295, and
of St. Paul's wnere a new Gothic choir was b^wi in
1240, and other additions including a tower were
madetillinI316thecathedralwascoropIet«. Another
In 1411 the Guildhall was rebuilt, and duruw
the century the walls and gates were strengthened.
That this was a wise precaution in a disturbed age is
shown by the failure of the attack on London during
the Wars of the Roses when Thomas Neville assaulted
each gate in successioa and was repulsed at every oi
Wbrde, Pynson, and other great printers, . ._
pation of Richard III and the murder of Edward V
and his brother in the Tower (14S3) were the last
events in the history of London under the Planta-
London under the T'udnrt. — The opening of this pe-
riod was marked by repeated outbreaks ofthe " Hweat-
ing sickness" which was so common in England that it
was known as the Sudor Anglicanui. Taia £iBt ap>
noteworthy church of this period was St. Saviour's,
Southwark (1250). In 1285 the citizens were de-
prived by Edward I of their right of electing the lord
mayor and they did not regain it till 1297. In 1290
the Jews, who since the time of William the ConC|Ueror
had lived in what is still called Old Jewry, were ex-
pelled from England.
The fourteenth century was signalized by the great
^ague of 1349 which carried oS one-half of the entire
popalBt«m of England. Close to the spot where many
of the vicUms were buried Sir Walter Manny built tl^
ChartertuHue in 1371. The remains of this Carthu-
•ianhoueeare the only extensive monastic buildings of
medievsl London which have survived the Reformo-
tioD and the Great Fire. In 1381 the peace of London
was disturbed by Wat T>'lcr's relielhon when much
damage was done in the city till the citizens arrayed
themselves in arms against the rebels and for the de-
fence of the king. The close of the century witnewed
the first mayoralty of Sir Richard Whittington, the
papular hero of London and a muniliccnt benefactor
to the city. He fiUed the office three times (1397,
1406 and 1419) and built Newgate, Christ's Hospital
and » coDiiderable part of St. Ikirtholomew's hospital
aa well oa the chapei and library at the Guildhall. Con-
tanpoiary with him was one of London's greatest
Bona, Geoffrey Chaucer, who died at Westminster
(1400). Tbe fifteenth century witnessed little devel-
opment in London. Repeated attacks of plague, es-
1607-1677)
peared in 1485 and broke outagainin 1500, 1517, 1528,
and 1551, carrying off thousands at each visitation;
while in 1500 tnirty thousand Londoners fell victims
to the plneue. Nevertheless the city continued to
prosper under the finn Tudor rule, and frequent royal
paEcants were seen in its streets. Henry Vll added
to Westminster Abbey the finest building in the Per-
pendicular Style in £jigland. His chapel was bceun
in 1502andflnishedin 1517. In 1512 ttie royal palace
at Westminster was burnt, and Henry VIIl was left
without a London residence until in 1529 he took pos- -
session of Wolsev's palace, York Place, and renamed it
Uliitchall. In 1530 he began to build St. James's
And now a great change was in store for London,
though it came about little by little. In 1534 Heniy
obtained the scbismatical Act of Parliament abolish-
ing the authority of the pope, and in the following
year the Act of Supremacy gave him the title "Su-
preme Head of the Church in l^ngland." London was
reddened with the blood of martyrs; the Carthusians
of the London Charterhouse, Blessed John Fisher and
Blessed Thomas More suffered in the summer of 1535.
Others followed in succeeding years. In 1536 the
smaller religious bouses were suppressed; in 1539 the
ercater monasteries fell. The Benedictine Abbeys of
Westminster and Bennondsey; the Cistercians of St.
Mary Graces; the Augustiniacs of the Priories of St.
Bartholomew, Smithfield, Holy Trinity, Aldgate, and
LONDON
344
LONDON
St. Mary Overy, Southwark; the convents at Clerken-
well, Hoiywell, St. Helen's Bishopsgate, Kilburn, and
Stratford, and all the houses of the friars were seized
by the king and the religious were dispersed. On
Henry's death (1547) things went from bad to worse.
Protector Somerset and the Reformation party were
in the ascendant, the substitution of Englisn for Latin
was ordered in all the churches, and crucifixes and
images were pulled down. All property belonging to
colleges and chantries was seized for royal uses, and
even the great city guilds, which held lands for the pur-
poses of providing stipends for priests, obits, and lights,
had to redeem such lands at a total cost of £20,000,
and to apply the rents arising therefrom to other char-
itable purposes.
The Catnolic life of London thus received blow after
blow. There can be Httle doubt moreover that a con-
Biderable]section of the populace was in sjrmpathv with
the Reformers, a fact wnich was largely due to the fre-
quent communication between London and the Conti-
nent. The brief Catholic revival under Mary met with
considerable opposition in London, and comparatively
little had been aone in the way of restoration when the
accession of Elizabeth, in 1558, led to the complete
overthrow of the Catholic religion. From the feast of
St. John Baptist on 24 June, 1559 the Mass was for-
bidden and the Holy Sacrifice ceased to be offered in
London churches; St. Paul's cathedral under the ener-
getic influence of Bishop Bonner being one of the last
where Mass was said. The bishop himself and many
of his clergy were imprisoned and after the excom-
munication of Elizabeth^ in 1570, the martyrdoms be-
gan again, reaching their hei^t in point of numbers
in 1588, the year of the Spanish Armada. From this
time forward London became a Protestant city and
the history of the dwindling number of Catholics will
be described later.
It is at this time that the first maps of London were
produced. Anthony van den Wyngaerde produced
nis panorama between 1543 and 1550. Probably the
first actual map is that of Hoefnagel, sometimes known
as Braun and Hog;enberg's map from the work in which
it appeared. It is dat^ 1572. Others give priority
to tne undated map, attributed to Agas, which must
have been noAde between 1570 and 1600. The citv at
this time was at the height of its prosperity. The bril-
liant Court of Elizabeth attracted men of action and
men of letters, so that there never was a time when
London held more distinguished Englishmen. Thea-
tres now began to be built, though always outside the
city boundaries: the ''Theatre" and the ** Curtain" at
Shoreditch; the " Globe", " Rose" and '' Hope" on the
Bankside. There was also a theatre at Blackfriars.
In 1566 the Royal Exchange was founded by Sir
Thomas Gresham, receiving its name from Elizabeth
in 1571. Attempts were now made to restrict the
growth of London, but in vain, for its ever-increasing
material prosperity made it a centre which drew men
from all sides. Moorfields was drained and laid out as
a pleasure-ground. The wealthier citizens be^an to
build country houses, while courtiers built mansions in
the neighbourhoods of Westminster, Whitehall, The
Strand, and Lincoln's Inn Fields. This extension of
the city led to the beginnings of a regular water-sup-
{)ly, the water being conveyed from the Thames m
eadcn pipes. The river itself was then the great high-
way of London, the streets being unmade and often
foul and muddy. Drainage and refuse alike poured
ipto the river and the question of a fresh water supply
became an urgent one, especially in view of the rapid
CTOWth of London. To meet the want, Sir Hugh Myd-
dleton devised and executed a wise scheme by which
he provided London with a canal which brought water
from Hertfordshire. This was completed in 1613.
The population of London in the last years of Eliza-
beth was estimated at 145,000.
Lmidan under the Stuarts. — Between 1603 and 1714
a very great change came over London, for during tliifl
period the centre of social life slowly passed from the
City to the west end of the town, leaving the City as
the centre of municipal and commercial me only. The
suburbs grew until tney became a vast town encircling
this centre, and many times larger and more populous.
Little by little the old walls were pulled down and
many of the open spaces were covert with a network
of streets many houses in which were now built of
brick. Pavements for foot-passengers were also in-
troduced. During the Civil War, London was the
strength and mainstay of the Parliamentarians, and
new fortifications consisting chiefly of earthworks
were necessary. The execution of Charles I, which
took place at the banqueting hall of the royal palace of
Whitehall, in presence of vast crowds of Londoners,
was a memorable event in London history. It was
followed by the Commonwealth, during which Jews
were allowed by Cromwell to return to London, and in
1660 by the R^toration when the separation between
the fashionable court life of the West End and the
commercial life of the City was completed. In 1664
London was stricken by the Great Pla^e, last and
worst of the pestilences, which raged with increasing
violence throughout the following year. The number
of victims is not known for certain. Nearly 70,000
deaths from plague were actually registered, but in
this time of horror the registers could not be efficiently
kept, and it is probable that at least 100,000 persona
perisned. A year after the plague had ceased, in
1666, the Great Fire occurred when for three days the
whole city was in flames. It is not easy to overesti-
mate the damage caused by this conflagration in which
almost all the remains of medieval London were de-
stroyed. The great Gothic cathedral and eighty-six
of the old Catholic churches perished, together with
the palaces and mansions of the City and the dwellings
of tne citizens. One good result ensued: the seeds
of the plague were d^royed and the old insanitary
streets were no more. In rebuilding the City a great
opportunity was lost. For Wren's noble plan was not
adopted and the old lines of streets were adhered to,
though the new houses were all of brick. Owing to
this decision, many of the ancient topographical and
historical associations have been preserved, it is true,
but at the cost of both appearance and convenience.
In 1675 Wren began the rebuilding of St. Paul's
which was not finally completed till 1711. Built in
the classical style its beauty lies in its proportions and
in the noble and massive simphcity of^the great dome
which lifts the cross 404 feet above the pavements
of London. In it lie buried Nelson. Wellington, and
others chiefly of military and naval renown, though
many famous painters and musicians are also interred
there. Besides this masterpiece Wren designed thirty-
five of the new City churches all distinguished by their
fine steeples or towers and the harmonious propor-
tions of their interiors, enriched as they are also by
the noble carving of Grinling Gibbons. In 1671 tl>e
Monument was erected to commemorate the fire; it is
a noble column 202 feet high, originally disfigured by
an inscription explaining that the fire waa " begun and
carried on by the treachery and malice" of the Catho-
lics, a calumny which was deservedly pilloried in
Pope's lines: —
" Where linden's column, pointing to the skies,
Like a tall bully lifts its head, and lies."
The offensive inscription was removed during the
reign of James II, but having been replaced after the
Revolution was finally obliterated in 1831, consequent
on the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act of
1829. By the time of the Revolution London was
acknowledged as the greatest capital in Europe and
boasted half a million inhabitants. In 1694 the Bank
of England was founded, and in 1698 the old peJaoe of
Whitehall was burnt down. The rebuilding of London
was still proceeding when the century drew to a close.
LOHDOX 3'
London fn the Eighteenth Cmtury. — London under
the HAnorerun kinga lost the beauty it formerly had
and became a vast collection of houses, plain but com-
fortable, a condition from which it la only now success-
fully emerging. There was a great extension of build-
ing in tlic West end and in the neighliourhoods ot
Bloomsbury, Marylebone, and May Vair, but unfortu-
or rebuilt to meet the nants of the increasing numbers
of the poor. Among these were Westminster Hos-
pital (founded 1719), Guy's (1725), St. Bartholomew's
(rebuilt 17:J0-1733), St. Thomas's (1732), the I-onHon
Hospital (instituted 1741), and the Uiddleaex Iloapital
(1745). Besidea these, that noble charity the Found-
5 LOHDOX
Relief Act (1778). During the same ^riod new»
papers began to appear, sevoral of which still ex-
ist: the "Morning Post" (1772) '"nmea" (1788), "Ob-
server" (1781), "Morning Advertiser" (1794), and
" Globe" (1803). This century also witnessed the rise
of the British Museum (1753), the Royal Academy
(1768), and the Royal Institution (1799).
lAtndon in the Nineteenth Ccn/un/.— In 1801 the first
census was taken and showed that the total popula-
tion of London was 900,000 and of the city, 78,000.
As the population in 1901 wsa returned os 4J millions
it will be seen how rapid has been the growth of I.011-
don during the past hundred years. .\noIhcr fact
illustrating this is that during uic period 1S79-1909
more than 1500 miles of new streets were built. It
^a^.
■'--■-^^^>i'b-jA#^',fe^j;.it
;i
fing Hospital, was institutod in 1738 and was moved
to the present building in 1754.
Till this time I-ondon had only one bridge, but in
1738Westminst«r Bridge was liegun and in 17.'>()itwas
opened. Blackfriars Bridge followed in 17St). In
1758 the houses on London Bridge had lx«n doniol-
idted and shortly after, five of the old city Gat«s,
Howgate, Aldersgate, Aldgale, Cripplegate, and Lud-
cate, were pulled down. The Westminster Paving
Act, passed in 1762, introiluced many improvements
in tne Uioroughfares; pavements were laid, and ob-
structions removed from the streets. About this time
people commenced to place their names on their doors
and the system of numbering houses began. There
was, however, indescribable squalor and filth in many
Eirts of the town, as may be seen in the pictures of
logartb, and the moral corruption of the people was
indescribable. The term " Rookery" was by no
means unapt. The city bad many troubles to en-
counter during the latter part of the century, such aa
the Silk-weaveiB riota (1765); the auarrel with the
Court and Pariiament about the election of John
Wilkes (1708), and the terrible Gonlon Riots (171*0)
[<j. V.) which were the outcome of the first Catholic
is clearly impossible within these limits to give any
but tlie most snlieut facts. In ISOl the fir^t ntteinpts
at steam navigation were made on the Thauies. "The
London docks were begun four years later. They
cover an area ot 120 acres and e0.1t four million pounds.
In 1806 three great fiinerals took place in London,
Nelson being buried in St. Paul's, Pitt and Fox in the
Abbey. In 1807 gas was first used to light the public
streetfl, and five years later a charter was granted f«
the Gas Light and Coke Company, the oldest of the
lighting companies. Once more tnere was activity in
bridge l)uildmg; Old Vauxhall Bridge was opened In
1811, Waterioo Bridge in 1817, Southwark Bridge in
1819, and new London Bridge, a little farther west
than its predecessor, was begun in 1825 and finiiihed
in 1831. The bridges at Westminster and Blackfriare
have since been rebuilt, anrl the magnificent To«-er-
Bridge was opened in 1S94, bo that the .seven chief
London bridges are ot nineteenth-century construo-
fion. Among the new buildings of this period were
the Mint (1811), Regent Street (1813). the British
Museum (1823), General Post Office (1H24), while .
others were necessitated by the fjre.'i wliirli destrovefl
the Old Housf« of Pariiament in 1><M and the Royal
UMDOM 3
ExchADge in 1S38. The new Houses of Pariiament,
designed by Barry vith much assistance from the
Catholic architect Pugin, were be^a in IS40, the
House of Lords being opened in 1847, the House of
Commons in 1852.
In the great revolutionary year of 1848 London was
threatened by the Chartists, and extensive prepara-
tions were made for defence, but the movement came
to nothing. Two great international exhibitions
took place in the years 1851 and 1862 with useful re-
sults to the commerce of the capital. This was fur-
ther helped by the development of the railways, which
brought about further alterations in London and
neccBsitatcd the erection of the great terminal railway
stations: Euston, L. & N.W.R.; King's Cross, G.N.R.;
St. Pancras, M.R.; Paddinrton, G.W.R.; Maiylebone,
G.C.R.; Waterloo, L. and S.W.R,; Liverpool St.,
G.E.R.; Holbom, S.E. and C.R.; Cannon St., S.E. and
C.R.; Charing Cross, S.E. and C.R. ; Victoria, S.E. and
C.R., and L.B. and
S.C.R.1 London
Bridge, L.B. and
8.C.R.; Fenchurch
St., London, Tilburv
and Southend Rail-
way. One of the
immediate results of
the facilities offered
by railways has been
the desertion of the
City as a residential
ir, and the
ness people now live,
going into town daily
for business and rc-
turning home at
night. This sepa-
ration of the com-
mercial man's home
from his business has
considerably altered
the nature of London
family life. New in-
ventions also helped in accentuating thiscbange. The
first London tele^ph from Paddington to West Dray-
ton was opened m 1830, and a year later penny post-
age was introduced. In 1S43 the Thames tunnel Irom
Wapping to Rotherhithe was opened. In 1860 the
volunteer movement arose under public apprehension
of a, French invasion. Many other additions to the
buildings and thoroughfares of London were made dut^
ing Queen Victoria's reign, among them being South
Kensington Museum and the Public Record Office
(1856); theHolbomViaduct(1869); the Thames Em-
bankment (1870); the Albert Halland Burlington House
(1871); the New Law Courts (1882); the Imperial In-
Btitute{1893) and theNationalPortraitCaliery (1896).
The important changes which took place during this
time in the administration of London, the formation
firet of the Metropolitan Board of Works and then of
the London County Council, and the creation of nu-
merous boroughs will be de-wriljcd later (see Modern
Civil Administration). Since the death of Queen
Victoria, in 1901, London has added but little to its
history, though street improvements, such as the
opening of Kingsway and Aldwych and tic Ti-idening
of the Strand, continue to add to the convenience and
beauty of the metropolis. The opening of the cathe-
dral at Westminster m 1903 was not only noteworthy
to Catholies, but lias enriched London with one
more impressive arcliitecturai feature, remarkable as
being the only building in the Byiantine style in the
capital.
Some few historical notes on matters which have
""* ^-een included in this outline of London's history
From a drawlag in
16 LOMIMX
may here be added, as falling more conveniently tmdar
separate heads.
The Citu Corporation and Otiildt. — In the Middle
Ages the Merchant Guilds and Craft Guilds (see Guildb,
" ' I and powerful in London.
city T _ . .._
exist: Alder . „ . ^^ .
Bishop^te, Bread Street, Bridge, Bridge Without^
Broad Street, Candlewick, CastJe Bavnard, Cheap,
Coleman Street, Cordwainer, Comhill, Cri^egate,
Dowgate, Farringdon Within, Farringdon without,
Langboum, Lime Street, Fortsoken, Queenbitbe,
Tower, Walbrook, and Vintiy. Each of ttiese wards
and is represented by an alderauui originaDy
' ^ -'---- the vear 13M for life.
EtxAi aldemiaa ii,
by virtue of his office,
a judge and magia-
trate tor the miile
city. T^e aldeimcn
were assisted i^ oam-
mon councillora^ who
were fint appointed
in the leign of Ed-
ward I, and in 1384
they were fomwd
into ttu
council.
each ward
two counoillon, but
the number has been
increased and now
the wards elect vari-
ous numbers from
four to sixteen. In
1840 the number (rf
common oouneihnen
wasfbcedBt206. They
L»m«™b PA..*e> ^n^^ annually,
ic British MuMum ihough the com-
mon council bas suc-
ceeded to tlie powers of the ancient " Folk Hole ", that
assembly is also represented by the Court of Common
Hall, composed of the lord mayor, four ^dermen and
the liverymen of the city guilds. This body formerly
elected the sheriffs of London and Middlesex, but since
1888 the election of the sheriff of Middleeez has been
vested in the London County Council, and the Cor-
poration elects two sheriffs of London. The Court of
Common Hall also annually elects two aldermen who
have served as sheriffs from whom the Court of Alder-
men chooses the lord mayor for the conaingyear. Thus
even now some power remains vested in the nkembets
of the guilds or, as they are now called. City Companies.
Twenty-six of these companies still survive. They
have but little connection with the crafts or trades
their charities, Kir many of thtm are very wealthy and
contribute largely to benevolent objects, technical in-
struction and the like. Twelve of these guilds are
known as the Greater Companies. They are: — Gold-
smiths (founded in 1327), Skinners (1327), Grocers
(1345), Vintners (1363), Fishmongers (1363), Drapers
(1364), Mercers (1393), Habcrdashera (1448), Iron-
mongers (1464), Merchant Taylors (1466), aotbwork-
erB(14S0),andSaltcra(1530}. .Other important com-
panies are Saddlers (1364), Cordwainers (1410), Ar-
mourers (1452), Barbers (1462), Stationers {1566),aod
Apothecaries (1615). Of these the Hracers, the first
in order of civic precedence, have an inetnne of £111,-
000 a year, and fifteen of the compaoiea have over
£10,000 a year.
LOVDOS ^
Hw city meetiogB are held in the Guildhall (erected
141 1 , rebuilt 1789, wiUk B Gothic facade added in 1867) .
It contains the great ball UBed for Danquet« and other
oercnKMiial occosioDa, the common council chamber
and some oourts of justice. The official residence of
tJhe lord mayor, known as the Mansion House, was
built m 1740. The chief cine officials are the recorder
(first appointed in 1298), the chamberlain or treiLStirer,
the town clerk, and the common serjeaiit. The juris-
diction and aaminiatnition of the corporation is re-
stricted to the ancient limits of the City of London
which cover about one square mile. As London grew
beyond these in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nine-
teuith centuries, the corporation rnadc no effort to ex-
tend its activites. So greater London has now its own
the ancient church in nhich the Romano-British bish-
already referred to. Theanus Eluanus, Cadar, Obi-
nus, Cimanus, Palladius, Stephanus, lltutua, Theo-
dwinua, Theodredua, and Hilarius are said by vague
tradition to have been predecessors of Rcstitutus who
attended the Council of Aries in 314, while he, it is
said, was succeeded by Guitelinus, Fastidius, Wodinua,
and Theonus. A century and a half had elapsed be-
tween the flight of the lost British bishop and the com-
ing of MclUtus, aad after his death nearly half a cen-
tury- elapses l>efore we find the name of St, Cedd (q. v.)
as Bishop of the East SaxonsexereisingepiMCopaljuriB-
diction, though he does not seem to have been called
Bishop of London. After him the line is unbroken:^ —
government, and the "City of London" is a city within
a city, retaining ite autonomy, hut in no way con-
trolling the rest of the metropolis. The arms of the
city are argent, a cross gules charged on the first quar-
of the corporation from the earliest (lays of tlieir
office exercised military command, luid the corpora-
tion has always been reudy to contribute grants of
■hipe, men and money in moments of national omei^
aeoey. The trained-Sands formed for the defence of
the citywerc originally divided into six regiments con-
sisting of eight companies each. These regiments
known as the Blue, Yellow, Green, Orange, Whitc.and
Bed n^iments, included at their full strength ten Ihou-
Mnd men. From them cmanal^t^d five regiments
which bold the privilege of marching (hroueh the city
with " the pomp of war ", colours fiving and bayonets
fixed, liieae were 3rd Battalion Orenodier Guards,
3n) East Kent (Bufts), Royal .Marines, Royal West
London Militia, and Royal Kast Ix>ndon Militia. The
two last namedf were united in 1820 as the lioval Lon-
don Militia which about 1880 vtan made the 4th Bat-
talim Royal Fusiliers.
II. AjfCiKNT Catholic Diocese. — The consecra-
tion of St. Hellitus as Bishop of London by St. Angus-
tine in 604 has aiready l>een mentioned. Vcnerul>le
Bede adds that "when this province n-n-ivMl the wonl
of truth by the ptvaching of Mellit u.s. King V.I helliert
built the churcli of 9t. Puiil in (lie <'ity of London
wbere be and his succesaont should have their episcu-
Wine, 66Q
St. Erkcnwald, 075
Waldhere, 693
Ingwald, 705
Eggwulf, 745
Sighaeh, 772
Eadbert, 774
Eadfmr, 785 or 789
Coenwalh, 789 or 791
Eadbald, 793
Heathobert, 794
Osmund, 802
iCthilnotb, 811
Coelberht, 824
Deorwulf, 860
Swithwulf, 861
Hcahstan, 898
Wulfsige, 898
Theodred, 926
Bj-rrthelm, 953
St. Dunsten, 958
jElston, 961
Wulfatan, 996
^Ifhun, 1004
MKvdg, 1014
iElfward, 1035
Robert, 1014
William the Norman, 1051
HughdeOrivalle, 1075
Maurice, 1085
Richard deBelmeis 1, 1108
Gillwrt the Univeisal,l 128
rnmncp/, 1135
Rol>ert dc Sigillo, 1141
Richard dcBelmeiall, 1152
Gillwrt Foliot, 1103
Richard de Ely (Titz-
neale), 1189
William dc S. Maria, 119S
Eustace de Fauconberg,
1221
Roger Niger, 1229 ---
Of this long list two stand out as eanoniicd samts.
St. ErkenwakI (14 Nov.), whose shrine was the centre
of devotion in the catliwlral, and St. Dun.itan (19
May). Another, Roger Niger, was popularly vener-
ated as a saint. Six of the bi.ihops became archbish-
ops of Canterbury; St. Dunstan, Itol>crt of Jumteges,
Simon de Sudbury, Courtenay, John Kempe, and
Wareham. The Saxon cutheiiral was burnt in 9(J2
and rebuilt to I* destroyed again in the tire of 1087.
Bishop Maurice thenerectal a great Nonnan eatlwdral,
scn-e<l like its predecessors by secular canons. By the
end of the twelfthcentur\' there were 30 en(lov,-ed preb-
ends and the chapter held 24,000 acres of lanii us its
corporate property. The Norman nave ^vas again re-
built after tlulflre of 1136. Here il was tliat John r^
signed his kingdom to the pope and received itback
trSm Pandulph as a vassoT. In St. Paul a. t«.. Vos,
Pulk Basset, 1242
Henry dc Wingham, 1259
Henry de Sandwich, 1263
John de Chishul, 1274
Richard de Gravesend,
1280
Ralph <le Baldoek, 1306
Gilbert de Segra\-e, 1313
Hichard de Nen-port, 1317
Stephen de Gravesend,
1310
Richard de Bcntwoith,
1338
Ralph de Stratfoid, 1.340
Michael deNorlhburg, 13a
Simon de Sudbury, 1362
William Courteniiv, 1375
Robert Bravbrookc, 1381
Roger Walden, 1405
Nicholas Bubbewich, 1406
Richard Clifford, 1407
John Kcnipc, 1422
William Grey, 1426
Robert Fitzhugh, 1431
Rol)ert Gilbert, 1436
Thomas Kempe, H50
Richard Hill, 1489
Thomas Savage, 1496
William Wareham, 1501
William Barnes, l.'iOl
Richard Fitz James, 1506
Cuthbert Tunstall, 1522
John Stokesley, 1530
Etimund Bonner, 1539
schismatical
Nicholas Ridley, 1550
sehismalical
Edmund Bonner, 1553,
with whose death on 5
Sept.. 15R0. the linr of
Catholic bisliops of Lon-
[lon ended.
LOKBOH it
nobles offered the kingdom to Louia the Dauphin in
1216. In 1232 the Council of St. Paul's was held,
when Otho, the papal legate, published the Constitu-
tions which funned so important a part of English ec-
clesiastical law until the Reformation. During this
time the new choir was being built and this was conse-
crated in 1240 in the presence of King Henry III, St.
Edmund, ArchbiEhop of Canterbury, and Cardinal
Otho the I^egate. The cathedral was completed early
in the fourteenth century by the erection of a very
high steeple surmounted by a cross containing relics of
the saints. In 1262 a long-standing dispute between
the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Chapter of St.
Paul's concerning jurisdiction aede tiacante was settled,
tbe agreement being that the archbishop shoula
appoint one out of
sent«d by the chap-
ter to rule the dio-
cese till the election
of the new bishop.
In the fourteenth
century Bishop Bray-
brooke vainly en-
deavoured to sup-
press the abuBc by
which the na^'e of St.
Paul's was used us a
market and coiinnon
resort for business
n tor a
mcnts. Abundant
references in Eng-
Ush literature show
that this evil prac-
tice continued till
the destruction of the
cathedral in lt>66.
Up to the early
years of the fif-
teenth century St.
Paul's had presented
its own liturgicd
use, known as Usiu
Sancli Pauli, but on
15 Oct., 1414, the
Sarum Rite, then
commonly used
through the greater
part of England, was
substituted for it, in"
and remained in use irt!'™'?«a'"i^
tiU the Reformation. '"^ » "«■ "
The bishop presided at the greater festivals, the dean on
ordinary days. The deanwith the precentor, the treas-
urer, the chancellor, and the prebendaries formed the
chapter. Nert came the twelve petty canons and six
vicars choral, while there were fifty chantry priests at-
tarfied tothecathedral. The diocese, divided into the
four archdeaconries of London, Essex, Middlesex, and
Colchester, included the counties oC Middlesex, Essex,
and part of Hertfordshire. Thefoundationof St. Paul's
School by Dean Colet,in 1512, was the onlyotherimpoi^
tant event concerniitg the cathedral church of London
until the reign of Henry VIII. When the religious
troubles began none of the cathedral clergy made any
stand against the king. In August, 1538, the Great
Rood and the statue of Our Lady of Grace were re-
moved; in 1547 all the altars were demolished and the
church plate and vestments were sold by the Protes-
tant Dean May. Under Mary, Bishop Bonner was re-
stored to his see and the Mass was again celebrated til!
the first year of Elisabeth. With the imprisonment
of the Bishop and the deprivation of the London
clergy' who remained faithful to the Holy See the his-
tory of London as a Catholic diocese closes.
111. l.u.NOrtS CAniOl.H-S AFTER THK Refohmatios.
g LONDON
— For the firat few years of Elizabeth's reign the exist-
ing clergy, who became known as "Marian" priests,
administered to the needs of the Catholics, saying
Mass and giving the sacraments in secret. Wlien they
began to die out their numbers were reinforced by tl»
"seminary priesta" sent from the college founded hy
Cardinal Men at Douai (1568), from the Enghsh Col-
lege at Rome and from later foundations at Valladolid,
Seville. Lisbon, and elsewliere. Under Elizabeth
more than eighty priests and laymen went to martyr-
dom in London alone, and a far larger number perished
in tbe various prisons. Mie.r the death of Bishop
Bonner as a prisoner in 1569 there was no episcopal
government, and the priests did as best thev coiiH . not
onlyinLonoon but throughout England. In 1598 the
Holy Sec appointed
an aj-chpriest, Geor^
BlackwelljWithj urio-
diction over all Eng-
land. He was suc-
ceeded in turn by
Ueorge Birkhead
(1608-1614) and
William Harrison
(1615-1621). Dur-
ing this period a
fierce controvenre
divided English
Catholics, some de-
siring and othen op-
posing the appoint-
ment of 'a bishop as
vicar ApoatoUc. The
pope decided this in
3 by appt
William 1
that same year there
the " Fatal Vespers '"
when a large body of
Catholics and otbera,
who were assembled
at the French Em-
bassy to hear a ser-
mon by Father
Drury, 8.J., were
precipitated from tbe
upper floor to the
ground, and very
many of them killed.
Abo'
priests then secretly resident in London. As there were
probably others he knew nothing of, the number of
Catholics must sttll have been very considerable,
though we have no means of estimating tjieir num-
bers at this period.
In 1624 Dr. Bishop died and was succeeded by
Dr. Richard Smith, Bishop of Chalcedon, Gut his
position became so difficult that in 1631 he with-
drew to Pari?, where he lived till his death in 1655.
From that time till the accession of James II -no
vicar Apostolic was appointed and jurisdiction con-
tinued to be exercised bv the chapter, a body ap-
pointed by Dr. Bishop and which was chosen from the
most experienced priests from all parts of England.
The chapter held delil)erativc assemolies from time to
time in London. In the reign of Charles 1 martyr-
doms had ceased altogether m London, though after
the king's departure they again commenced and four-
teen pncsts were executed then and under the Com-
monwealth. The Restoration brought another respite,
but the Titus Oalcs Plot of 1678 caused a fresh out-
break of jierfwiition and fointctii more prieata and
LONBOy 3
lAyineu won; niartj'rcd at Tvlmrti or Tower UiU' in-
cluding Ven.Wiiliam Howard, Viscount Stafford, an<i
Ven. Oliver Plunket, Archbishop of ArmaKh. wlio was
the last martyr to Biiller in London (1 July, 1681).
The accession of James 1 1 raised new hopes among the
Catholics of the metropolis and the presonee of a papal
envoy, Mgr d' Adda, and the public attendance of the
king and queen at Moss were evident si^B of tolera-
tion. Cliapels and schools wero opeTied sjid Catholic
wTitcra and printers readily seized the opportunity of
producing devotional and controversial works in tn-
crmaed numberB. Once more the Holy See appointed
» vicar Apostolic of England, Bishop John Leybum
(q. v.), whowBBCOnaecrateil 9 Sept., 1685.
Two years later the jurisiliction was divided between
him and Bonaventure GlSard, but almost immedi-
ately a fresh arrangement ivas made and on 'iO Jan.,
1688, Pope Innocent XI created four vicariates, I,on-
doti, Jtidland, Northern and Western. Binhop Leybum
become the first vicar Apostolic of the London District,
whichincluded tlie counties of Kent, Middlesex, Fsscs.
Surrey, yusaex, Hants, ncrks, Bedford, Bucks, and
Hertford, and the islands of Wight, Jersey, and (luem-
sey; while in process of time they acijuired jurisdic-
tion over all British possessions in North America, of
which Maryland and Pennsylvania and Bome of the
West Indian islands contained moat Catholics. Un-
fortunately the Revolution in the same year put a
audden and complete end to the short-lived hopes
ot Catholics. Chapels and schools were closed, one
chapel and a print ing-pres.^ were wTccked by the mob,
tuidCatholics had to withdraw once again into conceal-
ment. A penal system was now devised to cru-sh
Catholicism without bloodshed by civil and political
disabilities. With this aim fresh persecuting statutes
were passed under William and Mary, under which
common informers were entitled to a reward for pro-
curing convictions, a provision which was a fruit fill
Bource ot trouble for nearly a century t*i come. One
of these laws (I William & alary, c. B, s. 2) rei|uired all
Catholics, with certain exceptions, to take the oath of
allegiance, which was bo phrased as to he unlawful i[i
conscience, or in default to l)e convicted of recu-suncy.
This act, however, was not very rigorously eiifdrced,
but the penal code as a whole weighed heavily on Catho-
lics, especially after the alxirtive Stuart rising in 1745.
The vicars Apostolic of the Tjorxlon District during
the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were: —
John Leybum 11188-1702
Bonaventure Giffard 17(i;i-17:(4
Benjamin Petre 17:14-1758
Richard Challoner 1758-1781
James Talbot 1781-1790
John Douglass 1790-1812
William Poynter 1812-1827
James Yorke Brumston I827-1S36
Thomas Griffiths 18^0-1847
(Nicholas Wiseman, pro-vicar-
Apostolic 18-17-1848)
Thomas Walsh 184.S-1 SIS
Nicholas Wiseman 1840-1850,
when he became first Archbishop of Westminster.
The chief events concenung Loiulim Catholics dur-
ing the eighteenth century were the long episcopate
of the Venerable Bishop Challoner {r|. v.); the petty
persecution carried on by common infonners (1767-
177S); the First Catholic Relief Act (1778), and the
Gordon Riota which broke out in consequence thereof
(1780); the Second Catholic Relief Act (1791); the
dissensioDB arLiing from the action of the Catholic
Committee, and the Influx of French fmigrf clergy and
laity during the French Revolution, fliapels and
schoolsuowbcgan to be oTwned without concealment.
TTie refugees from Pouai went to Old Hall, in Hert-
fordshire, where a small school had secretly existed
nnce 17fi9, and there Bishop Douglass established St.
Kdmund's College .ih llie )>lii'-i- iif ediiealioii for tho
clergy of the London District. His successor opened
the large church at -Moorlields, which long served as
the Pro-tatheflral of London (I820-I86.5). In 1829
the Catholic Emancipation Act removed from Catho-
lics nearly all their remaining restrictions and since
then they have taken their places in Parliament, on
the judicial bench, and at the bar. Among ministers
of tlic Crown there ha\'e been Sir C'harles Russell
(afterwards Ixird Russell of Killowen), Attorney
General (1892-1894), Mr. Henrv Matthews, now Lord
LlanHaff, Home Secretary (1885-18<)2), the Duke of
Norfolk, Postmaster General (1885-1000), and the
j
AbdbT (Wur Fboht) k:
> Brr, HABOAiUT'a
Coiimics (1892-189.-.), \x,n\ Privy Seal (1905-1908).
In the High t.'ourt of Jui^licc then- have l>een five
Catholic judges:— Sir William Shee (186:1-1808), Sir
James Mathew (ISSl-lMMl), Sir John Dav (1882--
1901), Lord Russell of Killowen, Ix)rd Chief Justice ot
of England(1895-1900).and Sir Joseph Walton (1901).
Two Catholics, father and son, have attained the posi-
tion of Lord Mavor of London. Sir Stuart Knill (1892-
1893) and Sir John Knill (19(t9-1910). Since the
EmancijMilion Act there has lieen an extraordinary
development of Catliolic life in every ilireclioii, gn>atly
hcl[>eil by two movements, the large Iri.'ih immigra-
tion in 1847 and the conversions resulting from the
Oxford Mo\fment, Tlie increase in nimil«rs ia
shown by the episcopal reports to Proi)aganda previ-
ous to the restoration of the hierarchy.
In 1810 Pope Gregory XVI rediHtributed England
into eight vicariates, on which occasion the London
District lost Bedfordshire and Buckinghamsliire.
Ten years later Pope Pius IX restored the hierarchy;
the London District ceased to exist and its place was
taken by the new Dioceses of Westminster and South-
Tolol
(ilinH In thr Cslljoli.-
Lundon
LOMDOH
IV. Mooehn C.'n"ii. Admihihtiiathin. — Lorat Gov-
iriiment. — It has ulnsody l>eeii bucii that the extent of
the city of London, properly po-called, was limitol by
the ancient walla, and that there grew up a vast npw
citysurroundiii^ the ancient one and gradually absorb-
ing all the outlving villogejt. Until 1855 the city if self
waa governed by ancient charters, and the rest of the
metropolia by »xrochial systems under various Acts of
Hertford, the latter embracing London south of the
Thames and the rest of the old vicariate. The prog-
ress of Cathol-cism since 185(1 will be found under
Westmixstkh and SiiiiTiiivAiut. The jirclatcs hav-
inx jurisdiction over IjOnilon sinee that date have
been: — Arefdn'shups u/ Weitminster: — Cardinal Nicho-
laii Wiseman, 1850-18C5; Cardinal Henry Edward
HanntnK. im5-l^S2; C^ardinal Herbert Vaughan,
1892-190:); Francis Bourne, 1903. Buhops >•/ fioulh-
uwrA-.— Thomas (Irani. 1851-1870; JamcH Danell,
1871-1881; Rolwri Coffin, C.SS.R., 1882-1885; John
Butt, 188.'>-1897; Francis Bourne, 1897-19a3; Peter
Amigo, 1904, Tlie following figures refer to London
itself, including only the postal district: —
I No
ofc
,v
<,( prl^t„
w
ffminrtcr
thwiirk
1
02
64
-
■Mi7
ToliU
wa
Tlicrc ore no means of iisccrtaining even approxi-
mately the total nuinlxT of CalhotirH now in l.oridon,
but it is estimated variously from SOO.IKK) to 40(1.000.
All other particular* will be found uuder Westmins-
ter and fk)UTHWAHK.
45 memlxrrs of which were electeil by thirty-nine ves-
tries, or district Ixmrds. Originally established for the
construction of sewers, it was entrusted by later Acta
with very many other duties and powers, including all
street improwments, tlie care of parks and open
, and the maintenance of the fire-brigade. But
[W l(ody in noway affected the City corporation,
which preserved all its original rights within the City
boundaries. This state of tilings continued until 1889,
when the Local Government Act of 1888 came into
operation. Tliis Act created an administrative
county of London, which covers an area of 121 square
miles. The City of Loudon was very slightly affected
by the Act and is still governed by the City corpora-
tfon. For non-administrative purposes, Huchaaauar-
ter-sessions and justices, the City and the rest ol the
metropolis form two counties, "known respectively as
the County of the City of Ix>ndon and the County of
London.
(a) The City of I^ondon. — The government of the
City properbv the lord mavor, aldermen and common
coiincilmen iaa alreadv been descriLied. The lord
mayor is elected annuafly on 29 Sept. from the alder-
men who have serve<l as sheriffs. The electors are the
■'livery" consisting of the freemen of London. The
new lord mayor is sworn into office on 8 Nov., and on
the following day makes his final declELration of office
before the Lord Chief Justice of England. The state
Eicession on this occasion is popularly known as the
rd Mayor's Show. The City corporation retains
within iti» proper limits its civil and criminal jurisdic-
tion and full rights of local govemment. It returns
two members to Parliament.
(bVThe I/)ndon County Council.— The Countv of
London consists of twenty-eight boroughs, each of
which is ruled by a mayor and corporation — Etatt«^
sea; Bermondsey; Bethnal Green; Camberwell; Chel-
sea; Deptford; Finsburj-; Fuibam; Greenwich; Hack-
ney; Hammersmith; Hampsiteatl; Holbom; Islington;
Kensington; lAmlM^h; Ijcwisham; Paddington; Pop-
lar; St. Mnr>-leI>one: St. Pancras; Shorcditch; South-
wark; Stepney ; Stoke Ncwiugton ; Wandsworth ;
Westminster, City of; Woolwich. These boroughs
form the locnl admin ist^ati^'e authorities, and act as
local .sanilarj- authorit ies, arc the overseers of the poor,
collect, the rates, are responsible for making, lighting,
and regulating the slrectif, and providing public baths
and libraries. But the central administration remains
in theIx>ndon County Council, consisting of ISSmeni-
liers. viz., a chairman, 1!) aldermen, and tl8 council-
lors. The powers of this council are vcr>- wide, includ-
ing all duties formerly liclonging to the MetropohtAo
BtKird of Works in connexion with drainage, parks
and open spaces, fire-brigade.-?, street improvementa,
tramways, artisans' dwellings, infant life protection,
etc. Secondly, those transferred from the former
eouiity-just ices with regard to reformatorj- and indus-
trial schools, lunatic asylums, music and dancing
licences, coroners, etc. Thirdly, powers as to high-
ways, supervision of common lodging-houses and
licensing of slaughter-liousi's. Fourthly, new powers
conferred by recent Actfi of Parliament as to registra-
tion of electors, public healtli. historic buildings and
monuments, suppression of nuisances, refonnatoriea
for inebriates, and the n dm inist ration of Acts such as
the Shop Hours Art, Employmentof Giildren Act.and
MidwivM Act. Fifthly, under the Fiducation (Loo-
lohdoh 3i
don) Act 1903, the CouncLl became the authority (or
all public edue&tion in the county. Sixthly, powers
coDneoted with the raising and loaning of money and
the aaactioiiiiig of loans required for all the local ati-
UuMities in the county. Moat of the business is done
by eommitteee and the Council meets weekly to con-
aider their reports. Its annual expenditure ia about
£16,000,000, of which £5,000,000 are spent on educa-
tion. The outlay is met by two main sources of sup-
ply, capital money raised ay the issue of stock, and
current income raised by a county rate. The rating
for the yew 190S-9 amounts to three shillings in the
pound (15 per cent), and the assessable value of the
County of London, on fl April. 1908, was £44,332,025.
Bdutation, — (a) London University, — This univep-
sitjr WM instituted in 1836 aa an examining body for
medical schools ai
lectures in law ar „
Incorporated Law Society; music is taught at the
Royal Academy of Music (founded 1822), Royal Col-
lege of Music (18S3), Guildhall School of Music and
elsewhere; art at the Koyal Academy Schools of
Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, as also at the
London Univereity.
(c) Secondary Education, — The chief London
schools arc St. Paul's and Westminster, The former
was established by Dean Colet in 1512, and was re-
moved about 1880 from St. Paul's church-yard to
Hammersmith, The latter was endowpd by Queen
Elizabetb in 1500, and provides for forty king's schol-
ars on the foundation in addition to the day bova.
Christ's Hospital, the Blue Coat School, founded oj
\,i.Pli^^ ' <_,».,^r-\-C
^"^^^^^^
, jitfcML-.^<rMWT(f^p^
^.
Tbb TawKR Bbid,
eoDfnring dMroes, and was reconstituted in 1900.
Snee then it nas possessed an "academic" depart-
ment for the organisation and control of higher educa-
tion, and an "external" department for continuing
its fonner fimctions of examining students and confer-
ring decrees. Its teaching is conducted (i) by the
»i 1,. :i-„i(. f;:\ i»y jfjg several "Schools of the
i ill which there
^ __i Teachers of the University". In
IBOO UniverBity College (Gower Street), an institution
founded in 18^ on undenominational principles, was
madea"School of the University" in the faculties of
arts, law, medicine, science, engineering, and eco-
somiee, and on 1 Jan., 1907, it was transferred to the
university of which it ia now an integral part. The
nuivenity also maintains the Physiological Labora-
tory at South Kensington and Goldsmiths' College at
New Cross.
(b) Huher Education. — Other institutions for
hi^er education are King's College, founded as a
Cbiuch of England establishment in 1828, also a
"Sdiool of the London University", in the same facul-
ties a> Univeraity Colln^, with the adilition of thcol-
onr, and Oreaham College, founded in 1507 by Sir
"ninnaB Gresbam, niiere lectures are given in divniitv.
Edward Vf in 1533 with nearly 1200 children on the
foundation, is now situated at Horsham; and the
Cliartcrhouse School, established by Sir Thomas Sut-
ton in 1611, ha;s been removed to Godalming. the site
of the old school being now occupied by the Merchant
Taylors School, a medieval foundation. Mention
must also be made of the City of London School
(founded 1835), University College School, King's
College School, Dame Owen's School. Islington, the
Mercers' Grammar School, anil St. Olave's School,
Southwark. Catholic schools include the college of
the Brothers of Mercy at Highgulc, the Benedictine
School at Ealing, St. lenatius's (College, Stamford Hill,
and the Sacred Heart College at Wimidedon, both oon-
cluet«d by the Jesuits and the Salesian school at Bat-
and the National Society (1811). Under the Educa-
tion Act 1903. the London Coimty Council became the
authority for all public education, both secondary and
elementary. The Education committee consists of
thirty-eigl'it memliers of the council and twelve co-
opted members. The estimates for the vear 1908-9
amounted to £5,437,908, of which £4,442,007 is for
LOHDOK 352 LOMDOK
elementary aiid £995,901 for higher education. In toes, and a central council. Its object is to direct into
addition to the council schools there are a large num- the most effectual channels the forces of benevolence,
ber of "provided '* schools established by Catholics or All agencies and persons interested in charity in each
by the (Snurh of England. In 1905 there were 554,- Poor Law Union are invited to the local district com-
646 scholars in the coimcil schools, 205,323 in the mittee. These committees form centres of informa-
" provided '' schools. tion, and investigate and deal with cases brought before
Civil and Criminal Jurisdiction, — ^The High Court them on the twofold principle that thorough inves-
of Justice for the whole of England is situate in tigation should precede relief, and that rehef given
The Strand. It includes the Appeal Court and the should be suitable and adequate. Cases to which ade-
Chancery, King's Bench, and Probate, Divorce, and quate relief cannot be supplied are left to the Poor
Admiralty Divisions. For the special requirements of Law. The various organizations which, in co-opera-
London tnere is the Central Criminal Court at the Old tion with this society, or independently, relieve digress
Bailey, the Court of Quarter Sessions held at Newing- may be divided into several classes: (1) Relief in afflio-
ton and Clerkenwell, the Police Courts presided oyer tion, involving the care of the blind, deaf, dumb, crip-
by metropolitan police magistrates, and for civil pies, lunatics, inebriates, idiots, imbeciles, the men-
causes of minor importance tSe County Courts. The tally defective, epileptics, and incurables. (2) Retiefin
City of London has its own Court of Quarter Sessions, sickneaSf which embraces the work of the general ho»-
and the Lord Mayor, sitting at the Mansion House or pitals, special hospitals, siu^cal aid societies, medical
Guildhall, has the powers oi justices in petty session of and surgical homes, convalescent homes, dispensaries,
a police magistrate. and nursing institutions. (3) Relief in permanent di^
Trade ar^ Commerce, — The position of London fre«jf, which includes homes for the aged and incapaci-
and its intercourse with every part of the world have tated, pensions, homes for the employed (wondng
combined to make it financiidly rather than commer- boys, etc.), homes for children, and day nurseries.- (4^
cially the world's metropolis. Being a market far re- Relief in temporary distress, affording shelter of various
moved from any great manufacturing centre, there is a kinds, relief m money, and relief in kind. (5) R^ormo"
ereat excess of imports over exports. The port of tory relief, including reformatories, certified inaustrial
London in spite of some drawbacks is still the n-eatest schools, prisoners' aid societies, and institutions for
port in the world in respect of the amount of shipping fallen women. (6) Miscellaneoris relief, under whidi
and goods which enter it. In 1907 the tonnage of head may be grouped the various emigration societies,
British and foreign vessels engaged in the foreign life protection societies, traininig farms for the unem-
trade entered and cleared was n, 160,367 tons en- ployed, and social and p»hysical improvement societies,
tered and 8,598,979 tons cleared, as against Liver- Purely Catholic charities are very numerous. The
pool's record of 8,167,419 tons entered and 7,257,869 Aged Poor Society (founded in 1708), and the Benevo-
tons cleared. The total shipping entering it is about lent Society for the Aged and Infirm Poor (established
one-fiflh of the total shipping of tne United Kingdom ; 1761 ) both give pensions. At Nazareth House, Ham-
the value of imports one-third, and the value of ex- mersmith, and tne convent of t£e Little Sisters of the
ports one-fourth of the total value of the national im- Poor at Notting Hill, there are homes for t^e aged
Sorts and exports. Steps are now bein^ taken for poor. There are almshouses at Brook Green, Chelsea
ock extension and a reconstitution of the port and and Ingatestone. Homes and orphanages for boys and
dock authorities. girls are very numerous, and a great work is done by
London Charities. — ^Even a bare enumeration of the "Crusade of Rescue and Homes for Destitute Cath-
the various charitable agencies which labour for the olic Children", which now maintains over a thousand
relief of distress in London would be beyond the limits children. The visiting and relief of the poor is chiefly
of this article. For detailed information reference inthehandsoftwosocieties, the Society of St. Vincent
should be made to the " Annual Charities Register and de Paul, and the LBtdies of Charity. There are four
Digest ", which is a classified register of chanties in or Catholic hospitals: that of St. John and St. Elisabeth,
a\^ilable for the metropolis, together with a digest of in St. John's Wood, under the Sisters of Mercy; l^e
information respecting the legaH voluntary, and other French hospital, under the Servants of the Sacred
means for the prevention and relief of distress, and the Heart; the Italian hospital, under the Sisters of Chs^-
improvement of the condition of the poor. For Catho- ity ; and the Hospital for the Dying, at Hackney, under
lie charities see the * ' Catholic Social Year Book ", and the Irish Sisters of Charity. There is a home lor epi-
the "Handbook of Catholic Charitable and Social leptic children, under the Daughters of the Cross, at
Works", both published by the Catholic Truth Soci- Much Hadham. There are industrial schools for boys
ety. As^ in addition to non-sectarian organizations, at Manor Park; for girls, at Isleworth* a reformatory
every relij^ious body has its own agencies, and the pub- school for boys at Walthamstow; and the Prisoners'
lie authorities are now empowered by statute to exer- Aid Society visits Catholic prisoners and helps them on
cise responsibilities which narrow the field of charity, release. The charitable ciubs for Catholics are too
there is considerable overlapping. At the present mo- numerous to recapitulate.
ment there is a crying need for systematic co-ordina- The books written about London, its institutioiis, buildinfs.
tion amone the various charities, and could this be intoi^ts and many ^ided life are without number. Only some
^4T^ *.,„ii.. «««««««j A0;^;»n»,r J^A <«A»»^*»^r «*^.,M o' t*»c more important and more recent works are mentKmed
effectually arranged, efficiency and economy would here. The divisions of the above article are repeated and aU
gain alike. Turmng first to statutory provision for books here named were published in London, except where
charitable relief, this is divided among various bodies, otherwise stated. Ample though not ei^ustive listo ofbooks
an;« „ j.«:^:o4.««/:^« ^t "Drx^. T ««, ^^mJt ;« ■^,^^4'^A ;« ♦!,« about London are given m Lowndes, Btblwgraphert Manual
The admmistration of Poor Law relief is vested in the (igeo) ; Anderson, jBooJfc of British TopoorapHy (1881). and the
Board of Guardians, subject to the direction and con- Subject Index of the London Library (1909).
trol of the Local Government Board ; the Metropolitan „ Hibtort of Ixjndon — FrrzsTEPHEN. Detention of iMfon
A«, i„.^c n^A.^ :« »no»>^^»;Kia r^. *i.J :..a«»» ««;! a»n^» (temp. Henry II): first detailed accoimt repnnted m Stow,
Asylums Board is responsible for the insane, and some ]^^^ ^f ij;^^ (the first history-:— 1598; continued by Muw-
classes of the sick, and the Loudon County Council has day, 1618. 1633 ; and by Strype. 1720, 1755. New editions, 1842
also certain duties, especially with regard to the suit- ^d 1890)- Hatton, -'Veir V'i^ o/L<mdan (I70g; M^
able housing of the pJ»or. the ChanV Comrni^ion. %^.^{^iRiZ^L7k'^^^^^
ers have large statutory powers over endowed chan- A Nexe History of London nT7Z)\ Pennant, Lomion (1st edition,
ties, but much remains to be done in the direction of 1790; frequently reprinted); Hdnter H«rforv<^Lon4«m(1811):
remodeUing some of these charitable trusts on wise i'i5^27l^7-lt29lr iSJ?oS^^^
principles. by Walpord. 1876-1877); CJunninoham, Handbook of Urn-
Turning to voluntary charities, a very important f>»».* ^'Vf«2J{' §:""»* (2 vols.. 1849); LorgE. Bitfmoj
«-»«* :« «lt„^^ u„ .*u« T^^j^w* nL^^^^T Aw*« «;:<>« ^.'^.^ Lomion (1884); Wheatlby, London Pati and Present (3 ▼oh^
part is played by the London Chanty (Jrgamsation ^ggi^. ^mj^t, London (1892); Idem. HiMorv of LonSSi
Society, a federation of thirty-eight district commit- (189d); Idem. Survey of London (1902-1908); SBABm, Lm-
L02n>0K
353
LONDON
4m (1804); THOHNBuitT, Old and Nvw London (1808); Ton-
aosr, London Hiitorienl and Deacriptive (190A) I^rthaby.
London be/oro the Sorman Conquest (1902); Heniiam and
Wblch, medieval London (1901) ; Nicx>la4 and Tyrrkl, A
Chronide of London from 1089 to 1A86 (1827): Hilet, Chronicle
of the nuHfore and ehtriffa ill88-l27i) (1863); Annates Lon-
dinitnaee: Annalee Paulmi (temp. Edwani I and Edward II)
(1882); RiLET, Memorials of Ixmdon and London Life in fhe
tkiHeenth, fourieenth and jiUeenlh centuries, etc. (1868);
Liber AlbuM of the City of London, fUteenth cent. (1861); the
Camden Societv has included in ita'puolications many London
chronicles. Munimmta Oildhallv Lortdinienntt in Rolls Seriee
(4 vole.. 1859-1862); Shar^k, Calendar of WiUa proved in the
Court ofHuetinga I25is- /6««(1880-90) ; Sharpk. Calendar of Git y
of London Letter bookafrcm tS75 f8 vols., 1900-190S, in rirogross^ ;
Ideic, Calendar ofLetten from the mayor and corporation of the
Ciiy ofljondon ISSO-ISTO (1885); Bbbant. London in the Time
of the Tudore (1904); Idem. Ijondon in the Time of the StuarU
(1003); Idbic London in the Eighteenth Century (1902) ; Gommk,
London in the Reion of Victoria (1898); Kincmford, Chroni-
cle* of London (1905); Hare, Wcatminder (1894); Besant,
We^mineter (1895); Ideu, South London (1899); lDE!ki, Eaal
London (1901); Idem. Holbom and Bloomebury (1903); Idem,
The Thamee (1903); Besant and Milton, We^stminater (1902);
Idem. Strand District (1902); Ltsons, Environa of London
i 1702-96); Idem, Pariahes in Middlraex not included in the
Invirona (1800); Howitt, The Xorthcm Heighta of London
(1800); Thorne, Handbook to the Environa of tendon (1870);
Walford. Greater London (1901); Wylue. London to the Sore
il905); SxirrH, Antiquitiea of London and it a Environa (1791-
800); Idem. Anliquitiea of the City of Westminater (1807);
Idem, Ancient Topography of London (1815); Malcolm, Lon-
dinium Redivivum (1803-7) ; Idem, Anvcdotea of the Mannera and
Cuetome of London from the Roman Invasion to the year 1700
(London* 1811); Idem. Anee. of the Man. and CuM. of Jjondon
dwingthe 18lhCent.{ih\il.^ 1807); Wilkinkon, lAmdina Flluatrata
C1810); Clarke. Arehitectura Ecclea. Londini ( 1820) ; Thomson,
ChronwUe of London Bridge (1827); Brayley, Juondiniana
(1820): Lbioh Hunt, The Tovm. (1848); TnonNnunY and Wal-
ford, CaaaeWa Old and New London (1873-78) ; Hark. Walka in
London (1878; 7th ed., 1901); Birch, Hiatorical chnrtera and con-
Mitutional documenta of the City of Londtm (1884; revised ed..
1887); HuTTON, Literary Landmarka of f^ondon(\S92) ', Welch,
Hiataryo/the London Monument [containing a bibliography of the
Gnat rirel (1803): Birch, London on Thameain Bygone Daya
(10^); Barton, Familiar London (1904); Nohman, London
Yani^ed and Vaniahing (1905); Black, Slapa of Old London
O008); Tranaadione of the London and Middleaejr A rchaological
Sodeiy (1860-00); London Topographical Society, London
Topographical Record (5 vols., 1001-1908, in progress), nUo
annual publications of old maps and sur\'eys; I)ickkna, Dic-
tionary of London (1880).
AirciRNT Cathoijc Diocese.— Gams, Seriea Episcopnrum
(Ratisboa, 1873) ; Brady, Episcopal Surceatdon in England etc.
J400-1875 (Rome. 1877); Wharton, Hi^toria de Epiaropia et
Deeanie Ijondinienaibua (1695); Anon. London parish ra, con-
iaininff the eituation, antiguiiy and rebuilding of the churchea
0824): Godwin, The Churchea of Lmilon (1830); Wood,
Ecdeaiaatical Antiquiiiea of London and ita Suhurba (1S74);
Hennessey, Novum Repertorium Ecclrmnaticum Parochiale
Londinenee, giving the London diocenan clergy succession from
the earliest time to the ycttr 1 808 i 1 898) ; Bibliography of London
Churches in Notea and Qurrie«, 9th series, vol. IV. (1890);
DiMOCX, The Cathedral ChurcJi of St. Paid (1900); Beniiam,
Old SL Patd'a Cathedral (1902); Danfkll, Ijondon City Churchei
(1907); Sinclair, Memorials of St. Paul'a Cathedral (1909).
London Catholics after the Reformation. — Besides the
usual works dealing with the martyrs and the persecution the
following are useful:— Gee. A Foot out of the Snare (1624) ; Seh-
oeant. An Account of Ute Chapter (1706; reprinted 1853);
DoDD* Church Historji (Brussels. 1739-1742); BEniN<;TON,
State and Behaviour of English Catholics from the Ri formation to
the Year 1781 (1st. ed., 1780; 2nd, 1781); Idem. Memoirs of
Pantani (1703); Butler, Historical Memoirs of English Catho-
lics (2 vols., 1810; 4 vols.. 1822); Anstev, A Guulc to the Lawa
of England affecting Roman Caifiolira (1842); Maddk.n', The
niaiory of the Penal Lava (1847); Flanagan, History of the
Catholic Church in England (1857); Morkih, TrotdAea of our
Catholic Farefathera (3 vols., 1872-77); Foley, Records of Eng-
liah Province S.J., especiallj' vols. I and V (scries XII, 1877-
83) ; Birt, The Elizabethan Rdigioua Settlement ( 1 907 ) ; C\>r kson
CondUion of Engliah Catholics under Charles II (1800); Kirk,
Biographies of English Catholics in the Eighteenth Century ( 1 909 ) ;
Burton. Life and Times of Bialujp Challoner, 1091-1 781 ( 1000 ) ;
Ward, Wilfrid, The Daunt of the Calfiolic Rei^'i^, 1781-1803
The Catholic Directory (1773 to present date) .
Modern Civil Administration. — Fiktii, Municipal Lon-
don (1876); Webb, The lA>ndon Proommmc. (I8iil); Hake,
Sufferina London (1892); Jay. A Story of Shortditch (1K90);
HuiTT, London Local Government (1897); Shekwell, Life in
West London (1897); Richards and Payne, London Water
Supply (1899): Seager, Oovemment of London iinrhT the Lon-
don Government Act 1899 (1899) ; Booth, Life and Labour of the
People in London (9 vols., 1889-1897); Idem. Summary of "Life
Labour, etc**: Rdigioua Infuencea (1002); Hopkins. The
Bonumg of the Mebropolia (1900) ; Neve. L'adminietratiun d'une
IX.— 23
grantle ville (Lou vain, 1901) : Philpott. London at School (1004) (
GoMME, The Governance of London (1907); Whitaker'a Alma^
nack (annual publication); The London ManiuU (annual publi-
cation).
Miscellaneous. — Herbert, History of the Twelve Great
Livery Companies ofI.Mndon (1K37); Larwood^ The Story of the
Ijondon Parka (1872); Hazlitt, Ixmdon Lxvery Companies
(1890); Marshall, Ixmdon Libraries (1890); Cripps, Position
of the London Water Companiea (1892); Written, London i^
Song (1898); Hudson, Birds in Ixmdon (1898); Marshall
AND MiTTON, Scenery of London (1905); Hueffer, The Soul of
London (1905).
Edwin Burtox.
London, DiocEfiE op (Londinensis), in Canada,
est-ablishc<l, 21 February, 1855; sec tran:!}f erred to
Sandwich, 2 February, 1S59, traiLsf erred back to
London, I] ()ctol)er. 1869; comprises Middlesex, Elgin.
Norfolk, O.xford, Perth, Huron, I.ambion, Kent-^ ana
Essex CJounties in the south-western section ol On-
tario, Canada. The incorporation of the city of
London ami its selection as the see of a new diocese
in 1S56 were almost contemporaneous. It then had
a population of about 10,000, a fifth of w^hom were
Catholics. As first bishop tlie Rev. Pierre-Adolphe
Pinsonnault, a Sulpicianr was chosen. He was bom
at Saint-Philippe, (Juebec, T,i Xovemljer, 1815, made
his studies in Montreal and iu Paris, and was or-
dained in the latter citv in 1840. lie was conse-
crated in Montreal, 13 ^iay, 1856. On 2 Februanr,
1S59, he procured a pontifical Brief altering the
title of the* diocese to Sandwich, and authoriz-
ing the change of residence to that location. He
resigned the see on 18 December, 18<56, and died at
Montreal, 30 January, 1SS3. As his successor, the
Very Reverend Jolm Walsh, V.G., Toronto, was
chosen and consecrated on 10 November, 1S67. Bom
in Mooncoin, Co. Kilkenny, Ireland, 21 May, 1S30, he
was ordained priest on 1 Noveml^er, 1854, and spent
the years previous to his elevation to the episcopate in
parish work. He was promoted to the Archl)ishopric
of Toronto (q. v.), 25 Julv, 1SS9, and died there on 31
July, 1S98. In October, 1809, he transferred his
residence from Sandwich to London, and on 15 Novem-
l>er procured from Rome a decree making London
once more*, the name of tlie diocese. lie began the
erection of a new cathedral Mav, ISSl, and largely
increased the number of churclies and institutions
throughout the diocese.
The thinl bishop was the Rev. Denis O'Connor,
ossjiasilian, and suf>erior of the Assumption (.'ollege,
Sandwich, consecrated on 19 Octolxir, 1890. lie was
born at Pickering, Onturio, 28 March, 1841, and or-
dained prit^st on 8 DecemlnT, 1803. Like his prede-
cessor, he was elevat^Ml to the Archbishopric of
Toronto, 24 January, 1899. To fill the vacancy thus
created the Rev. Fergas Patrick McEvay, Vicar-
(Jeneral of the Diocese of Hamihon, waa named and
consecrated on 6 August, 1899. Bishop McEvay
was born at Lindsay, (hitario, on 8 DecemlwT, 1852,
an<l ordained priest on 9 July, 1S82. Again, Toronto
made a vacrancy in the See of London, for Archbishop
O'Connor resigned and Bishop McEvay was trans-
ferred to Toronto, ant.1 took possession on 17 June, 1908,
As fifth Bishop of London, the pope apiK)intod on 14
December, 1900, the Very Rev. Alichael M. F. Fallon,
provincial of the American province of the (Jblatcs
of M ary I m macula t e. He was 1 >ori i at K i i igst on , Can-
ada. 17 May, 1807, and entered tlie Oblate congre-
gation at the conclusion of his course at Ottawa
University. His theological studies were complet<?d
at Rome, after which he became professor an(l vice-
rector of his Alma Mater. At the end of three years
he In'gan parisli work at Ottawa continuing it at
Buffalo. In 1903 he was chosen provincial of the
Oblates.
The religious communities now established in the
diocese are: — men : i^asilians. Franciscans; women:
Religious of the Sacrc<l Heart, Sisters of the Holy
Names of Jesus and Mary, Sisters of Loretto Cb\%\j*x^fc
of the Blesaed Virein Mary), Sifltera of St. Joseph,
Ureulincs, Hospitaller Xuns of St. Joseph at Hotel
Dieu, Windsor. Statistics: Priests 70 (religiouB 18);
there arc 45 churches with resident priests, and aJso
29 missiona with churches, totaJ number of churches
78; 1 college, 150 students; 4 academics, 4T0 pupils;
85 parochial schools, 11,500 pupils; 1 ontlian osvlum,
75 inmates; 3 hospitals. Catholic population 60.000.
CorrcT. The City anil Jiioeru of Ijindim, OiHaria (Loaiion,
Ontniici, 1SS5): CaUiolie Rtcord a^on'lon). Gkq; l-' Canada
jMln(M(i9iH(Mi>iitre»l. 1010); CulAo/icDirreloni tMilwnukee,
1910).
TlIOMAB F. MtEIi.i.V.
Longlliiu, Saint. See Laste, The Hoi.y.
Longatreet, James, soldier, convert, b. S Januaryr
1821, at Edgefield, South Carolina, U. S. A.; d. at
Gainesville, (icur^La, 2 January, 1D04. In 1831 ho
moved to Alabama with hiw parents, and wiia thence
•ppointed to the U. S. Mditary Acudcniy ;it Wei^t
Point, where he
iduaWdinlS42.
r his services
a the Me:
!?;
AVoj
diers. He received at
■ctled major and
miiisionedca pta in .
At theoiitbreakof
the C'ivil War he
rcsiRne<l Ills eom-
18fil, and entcied
the (.'onfederatc
he afterwards af-
taineil thcdistino~
tionoflicingoneof
its greatest fight-
ers and ofwinninc
the unbounded
confidence andaf-
feet ion of Mm mi-
ra nk of hrigad ier-general .
A un
While aboftrd of his vessel, be spent his spare time MOW
pOBJog his poem "Ang^hca", a continuation of tbt
adventures of that capricious lady already lelated fav
the Italian poet Ariosto in his "Orlando Furioao .
Married by 1590 to Isabel de Urbina. he returned to
the service of the Duke of Alba, witn whom he had
been prior to the time of the Annad&. His first wife
died in 159T, and then, after some amorous adventure,
he contracted a second marriage, \bout 1600, with
Juana del Guardo. By this time he had become the
acknowlcdgedarbitcrof theiSpaniah stage, and such he
remained until shortly before Lis death. His second
wife died in 1G12 or 1G14, greatly saddened, doubtleM,
by the immorality of her husband, constantly intrigu-
ing with this or tliat actress. The result of one of
these liaisons, tJiat with llaria de Lujdn, was the birth
of a son. Lope Fi'lix, who bode fair to become a good
poet. About 1610 Lone had made his home at Ma-
drid. For some time before that vear, he bad led >
wandering life, in Valencia, Toledo, Seville, etc.,
cverynhere stimulating dramatic composition, lliil
roving was in part due to a decree of banishment
issued against htm in punishment of a base Ubel pub-
lished by him upon a certain actress and her family.
After tlie death of his second wife, L<^ became a
priest, with the express purpose of oonecting the dil-
ordcrs of his life. Unfortunately it cannot be said
tliat the taking of Holy orders led to impraremeBt;
his alterrations continued, and he intensified U* bM^
ncss by playing the part of a poetical pandererforUi
patron*, the Duke of Scssa. Lope was wdl awam «f
the vijeness of llis own behaviour, as his coinjsuuad-
cure clearly shows; but he was too weak to main.
Retribution, however, came upon him befoi« hia nd,
for his heart W'bs broken by the early deMth of Ul
l)rilli:int son Lope and the elopement of bis datu'''"
Antunia Clara with a court noble. His n
rindows of the
IS to pan befon the
another dau^iter of
, . js made a majur-geneml .._
1802, At Anticlam (17 Sept., 1S62) hccommiindecl the
right wing of I^^'s army, and wllh the rank of lieuten-
ant-general hewasatthcbeadofacorpi^at (lellv:<burg
(2-3 July. 18G3). In the battle of the Wildeniciw on
B -May, 18C4, ho was severely woimde<l. but resumed
his commnnd during the si<-gc of I'etcrsbur);. At the
close of the war he engaRcd in business in New Or-
leans, and accepted the political Kiluntion. l>ceominga
republican in politics. President Gnmt appointed
him surveyor of custonui at -Vew Orleans, anJ later he
was made supervisor of internal revenue and post-
master. In ISi.'i he removiil to (ieorgia, and in ISSO-
81 W08 sent a.n U. S. Jlinister U> Turkey. In 1S9S he
was appointed U. B. railway commissioner. lie left a
valuable chapter of war history in "From Mnnasses
to .\ppomattox" (Phila<lclpliia, 1901). He became
a Catholic in .Vew Orleans, 7 Mareb. 1877.
I.hv.hitbei:t, I^ngUrM and Lrt at Hifh Tidr (rininnivflle.
GtorKin. IW*>; Dift. Am. liioB..*. v.; UorniiKi Ubir {i\ct Qiew
OrloauH).
T1IOMA8 V, Me EUAN.
Iiopa de Vega Oarpio, Fi^lix. poet and dramatist,
b. at Madrid, l.if.2; <l. 2^ Aug.. 1G35. With Lope de
Vega IiegiM the era of drnmiitic glor>' in ilpanish
Uterature of the Colden Age. He seems to have lx«n
an extraordiniirily precocious cliilil, whence the term
"monsfruo de la nafurale^a", " fteak of nature",
which clung to him throughout liLs life. At the age of
fourteen he wnrte a play. Like Cervantes, he saw
service in the Spanish navy, and even took part in the
disastrotis expedition of tbe .\rmada against England.
surpasses belief. PracticaJIv all forms of litenuycc _
position were attempted by nim. In the epic he tried
nis fortunes with the " Angelica", already mentioned;
he repeated the experiment in "Jenis^en Conquie-
tada ' , in which he sought to rival Tasso as prevknudy
ho had emulated Ariosto. Mor^successful than tbeae
attempts «-aa the "Gatomaquia", which revives the
spirit of the ancient "Battle of the Frogs and Mice",
and therefore belongs to the catwor^ of the mock-
heroic. The mythological prevails m five poems:
"Circe", "Andromeda , "Pnilomela", "Orfeo", and
"Proserpina". He wrote several historical poem^
among them the "SsJi Isidro Labrador", celeMating
the patron saint of Madrid, and the "Dragontea", an
attack on the English adventurer. Sir Francis Drake.
He essayed the didactic in an errs poetica, or code of
literary principles, which he entitled the " Arte nuev»
de hacer comcdias". In this he reveals his acquaint-
ance with the strict .\ristotelean rules of dramatic com-
position, the unities, etc., but acknowled{|eB that, in
order to cater to the popular craving of his tune, be di^
regards those classic precepts. Furthermore, we have
from him a mass of snnncts, romances (lyrjca in the
ballad metre), odes, elegies, verse epistles, and ao on.
of which Home are relit^ious in their inspiration ana
Others profane. Thus it is that in 16u2 there ap-
peared, as port of hia "Rimas", some two hundred
sonnets, a number of which give expression to the
poet's genuine sentiments. In 1612 there was pub-
lished the "Quatro Scliloquios", full of devout ex-
pressions in verse which contrast sharply with the au-
thor's mode of life. To that same year belongs the
Eublication of his beautiful sacred pastoral, perfaapa
ismostftnislied work in point of style, the" Aistorea
de Belf n". Of this he himself said: " I have written a
book, which I call the 'Shepherds of Bethlehem', in
unz-oiat
36S
aacnd proM and vecae, After tha pUn of the ' Arcadia.' "
Hie laatrnaxaed ia ilia partleular contribution to the
output of peatoral ronumcea, which bad begun in
Spun with the "Diana" of Hontemayor, and had
been oairiad on by Cervantes in his " Guatea". Like
all the poataral nunanccd, tho "Arcadia" of Lope
barks back eventuaUy to the " Arcadia " of the Neapol-
itan Sannauaro, which cetabliuhcd the faahion of com-
bining prose and verse. The paatonil lovos celebrated
in the works of this category are conventional: tho
riiepherda and shepherdeaees are gentlemen and ladiee
of Uihioa masqucradinK- Tlie whole genre ia very
•rtifidal, and Lom'h work ie certainly so. The " Pas-
tana de Belfo" nas in it the beautiful Iidlaby to the
Infant JemiB,"Puesandai3 en Ian palni&s"; the whole
work waa dedicated to his son CotIoh, who soon died.
Of Lope's otber ctmipOHitionB, bctiidca Km plays, tliere
nuyMn>en^)nedthe"Filomena" (ll)2n,the"Triun-
fndivinos" (religious lyricsj, the "Corona tr^ica"
(1627 — an epic in five cantos celeliratiiig llarv, Queen
ofSoota), the" laurel deApolo" (16:iO~a rhymed re-
view aTid eulogy
of about three
hundred poets,
like Ccrvanten's
and partisan), EUid
the " Riiuos de
licenciado Tom 4
deBurguillos"
(1634). The"Fi-
lomena", the first
of the works just
mentioned, is in
part Lope's poetic
defence of hunsclf
and his methods
aKaiimt the at-
tacks of a certain
Torres Rjimila.
The defence oc-
cupies its second
part ; the first con-
wastoUowed ^ter by three others: " 1 A desdicha por la
faonra", "La prudente venganza", and "Gusm^ el
Bueno", all published in Ui2i, along with the poem
"CSrco and Ulysses". Certain "Epfstoiaa" found in
the "Fllomena" {rive information regarding Lope's
^e and woric, and also give utterance to an attack
npon tiie school of Gongora.
Among the prose work.**, besides tho talcs already
lilted, are the "Fercgrino en su patria" (1604), the
"Triunfo de Ja fe en el Jap6n" (1618), and the " Doro-
tea" (1632). The "Peregrino is a somewhat tedious
imnanee C^ adventurous travel. It is interesting,
however, for the lyrics and autus (religious plays) con-
tained in it, and also for the list of over two hundred
of his plays which the author indicates as already
iMiFiMMwed The "Triunfo" deals with tho Xavcrian
nuamonsin Japan, and is devout in tone. Thc"Doro-
tea" is a diamatjc novel in form. Begun in I^ope's
early yean, it was kept by him throughout his life,
and receiTed final emliellishmcnts in his old age. It
is nractieally an autobiography.
The real Lope of fame, however, is the dramatist,
for it wae as dramatist that he dominated the whole
Qolden Age (sixteenth and nevent^^enth centuries).
Aoeoiding to his own account, he composed 1500
omMdMt, Le.,moi« than 5,000,000 ver^a of o.'t.sonance
and rhyme in all the nstEve and the borrowed Italian
im. Besides the comedias he nTOtc hundreds of
looa (pndaguea, curtain-raisers), and entremttet
(interludes). Of the comeditu some MO remain, and
they are mode the subject of treatment in the great
edition published under the auspices of the Spanish
Academy by MenSndei y Pelayo, Among the con-
venient groupings devised by this eminent scholar are
these: pkys oa^ upon matters of the Old and the
New Testament; plays on lives of the saints: plajrs
dealing with legends or devout traditions; mythologi*
cal plays; plays treating of classical history; playa
treating of foreign history; plays dealing with the na-
tional history; pastoral plays; chivalrous plays; ro-
mantic plays; and plays of manners. No attempt
ma>; licro 1>e made to gi^'e an idea of the nature and
subject-matter of even the more striking among
Lope's dramatic masterpieces. It may be said defin-
itively that in uualities of style his dramas are defi-
cient; they lack ttiu finish and the pvenness that only do-
lilieration and slowlv matured execution can give to a
work of art. Lope s theatre is mainly one of impro-
visation. He wrote hoatily, Ui answer an imperious
and never sated popular demand for something new.
It is remarkable tliat bo remained ever inventive. His
dramatic imagination was agift oF nature, and did not
fail him no matter how much he abused it. In depth
of thought he is all too often lacking; and with good
sense he avoided philosophical themes, for he would
have failed tn the treatment of them. Lope had the
people at large in mind when he wrot«. Iliis is seen
especially in nis plays of manners and intrigue {Corn*-
diat de cava y eipada), which represent his best dra-
matic achievement. The peculiarly Spanish puno-
tilio, or Ppint of honour, receives full consideration in
these. To the part of the clown he gives great promi-
nence. But it is the wonuin that Leconies all impor-
tant in Iadc's plays; as Fitimauricc-Kclly has said:
" He placed her in her true setting, as an ideal, as the
mainspring of dramatic motive and of cliivolrous con-
duct. A^ leading examples of Lope's skill in the
tragedy there may De mentioned " El Castigo sin Ven-
gania (on the same subject as Byron's "Pariaina"),
and "Pnrfiar hosta Morir"; in the historical drama,
"I^ F^trella de Scvilla" and "El mejor Alcalde el
ney";iii the use of the old Spanish heroic legend, "Ia
fucrsa]a3timosa";andin the conietly of manners, "El
Acero de Madrid", "Amar sin Saber & Quien", "I*
Moza del Clnlaro", etc. TjOpe has had many unita-
rs. Those who imitated him ii
be recorded especially the Frenchmen Hardy a
Rotrou, and, in more recent times, the Austrian
GrillpariKr,
CMmm, M, MENfiNnEl t PsuTO for tha AcsdemU Eapariola
(Madriil. ISBO — ) ; CBnirdia4 fcoaidaa la Hitiliotrra rf* aiifarM
oiudolM, XXIV, XXXIV, XU. LII, LVIII; Obnt iuUm
(21 vob.. Mndrid, lT7fl-0i: mratno<Irtim4iia,tin BiMitI,- '-
aulorrt rtpni-oln. XXXVIII; Poitim ~ ' —
XXXVI, and LII; Tdiiiija and Pti
LoptdeVrea: FeiieiP.' '- "
xvr, XXXV,
[ ^adl
Madrirl, I'ntg), SW;' ti>i
:i Pastor, Pnem dt
raMmimlaiiFtlaiio,
. ,-._ Jthu (MadiM, IMl)—
Ptm Ptmtm niDBiiw on* of th* lisM anthoritii* on tba Ufa and
worki of Lopr da Veen — HBm nr. TAr /,ifr of Lapt dt Vw
(Gliuwov. London, vul PUIadclphis. 1901}; lutai. TU 3ft»-
%ih Slaiir in llir Tlmf of fJi^t ii Vron <Th<) Hlnpniiio 8od*^,
Nrw York. IfllO); Pinu*t:NiCE-KKi.t.v, LilUralm dpadwib
(Parifi, 11IU4). npcdally 35U iiqq. and tha full bibliosnipliy oo
pnsca 47S-8U.
J. D. M. Ford.
Juan de I^as Uoclaa, the painter of the great altai^
piece in tlw church of St. Isidore in Seville, of the
"Martyrdom of St. Andrew" in the museum at Se-
villi', and of the pictures in the university chapel. C^
his pupil we know exceedingly little, save that with in-
different success he practised the art of painting in
Seville until alxiut 1660, when he went to Madrid
where he spent the remainder of his life, and died in
1662. His works were moinlp' portraits, some of
which are in private collecttons lIiUwit^&,^-^
LORD'S PRATSE
356
LOBD'8 PRJLTSE
Granada, and SevillCi but nono of them is now con-
sidered of specially hi^h merit.
I^'rancibco Cako, his eon and pupil, b. at Seville in
1627; d. at Madrid in 1667; he entered the studio of
Alonzo Cano in Madrid, and considerably surpassed his
father in ability and slcill. His most important works
are those representing scenes from the life of Our
Lady, which adorn the chapel of St. Isidore in St. An«
drew's church in Madrid; but his largest work refers to
the indulgence of the Portiuncula and the jubilee of its
grant. It was painted for the Franciscan convent at
Segovia, and contains the portraits of the donor of the
picture and of his wife, Seiior and Scfiora de Contreras.
Both father and son are spoken of in Palomino's work
with high praise on account of their devotion to their
faith and the serious way in which they made use of
their artistic abilities.
PAiX)ifiNO DE Cabtro y Veij^sco, El Musfo Pictorico y Bacala
^Madrid, 1715): Maxwell. Annala of the Artists of Spain (Lon-
aon, 1848); Qi-illiet, Dictiunnaire des Printrca Espagnola
(Paris, 1816); Huakd, Vie Complete des Pcintres Espagnola
(Paris, 1839). .
George Charles Williamson.
Lord's Prayer. — ^Although the Latin t^rm oratio
dominica is of early date, the phrase "Lord's Praver"
does not seem to liave been generally familiar in Eng-
land before the Reformation. During the Middle
Ages the " Our Father" was always said m Latin, even
by the uneducated. Hence it was then most com-
monly known as the Pater noster. The name * ' Lord's
prayer" attaches to it not because Jesus Christ used
the prayer Himself (for to ask forgiveness of sin would
have implied the acknowledgment of guilt) but because
He taugnt it to His disciples. Many points of interest
are suggested by the history and employment of the
Our Father. With regard to the English text now in
use among Catholics, we may note that this is derived
not from the Rheims Testament but from a version im-
posed upon England in the reign of Henrv VIII, and
employed in the 1549 and 1552 editions of the " Book
of Common Prayer ". From this our present Catholic
text differs only in two very slight particulars: " Wiich
art" has been modernized into who art", and "in
earth" into "on earth". The version itself, which
accords pretty closely with the translation in Tyndale's
New Testament, no doubt owed its general acceptance
to an ordinance of 1541 according to which "his Grace
perceiving now the great diversity of the translations
(of the Pater noster etc.) hath willed them all to be
taken up, and instead of them hath caused an uniform
translation of the said Pater noster, Ave, Creed, etc.,
to be set forth, willing all his loving subjects to learn
and use the same and straitly commanding all parsons,
vicars and curates to read and teach the same to their
parishioners". As a result the version in question be-
came universally familiar to the nation, and though
the Rheims Testament, in 1581, and King James's
translators, in 1611, provided somewhat different ren-
derings of Matt., vi, 9-13, the older form was retained
for their prayers lx)th by Protestants and Catholics
alike.
As for the prayer itself the version in St. Luke, xi,
2-4, given bv Christ in answer to the request of His
disciples, differs in some minor details from the form
which St. Matthew (vi, 9-15) introduces in the middle
of the Sermon on the Mount, but there is clearly no
reason why these two occa^^ions should be regarded as
identical. It would ]xi almost inevitable that if Christ
had taught this prayer to His disciples He should have
repeated it more than once. It seems probable, from
the form in which the Our Father appears in the
*'Didache" (a. v.), that the version in St. Matthew
was that whicn the Church adopted from the beginning
for liturgical purposes. Again, no great importance
can be attached to the resemblances which have been
traced between the petitions of the Lord's prayer and
those found in prayers of Jewish origin which were
current about the time of Christ. (See on this Golts,
" Dm Gebet", 40-41, and Chase, " Lord's Prayer ", 3L)
There is certainly no reason for treating the Christian
formula as a plagiarism, for in the first place the rs-
semblances are but partial and, secondly we have no
satisfactory evidence that the Jewish prayers were
really anterior in date.
Upon the interpretation of the Lord's Prayer, much
has Deen written, despite the fact that it is so plainly
simple, natural, and spontaneous, and as sucm pre-
eminently adapted for popular use. In the quasH
official ''Catechismus ad parochos", drawn up in 1564
in accordance with the decrees of the Council of Trent,
an eIal)orate commentary upon the Lord's Prayer is
Srovidcd which forms the basis of the analysis of the
^ur Father found in all Catholic catechisms. Many
points worthy of notice are there emphasized, as, for
example, the fact that the words " On earth as it is in
Heaven" should Ixj understood to qualify, not only the
petition "Thy will be done", but also the two preced-
ing, "hallowed be Thy name" and "Thy Kingdom
come". The meaning of this last petition is idso very
fully dealt with. The most conspicuous difficulty in
the original text of the Our Father conoems the inter-
pretation of the words d/^rot hruiOaws, which in ac-
cordance with the Vidgate in St. Luke we translate
"our daily bread", St. Jerome, by a strange incon-
sistency, changed the pre-existing word qut^ianwn
into supersubstantialem in St. Matthew but left qtu)H-
dianum in St. Luke. The opinion of modem scholars
upon the point is sufficiently indicated by the fact
that the Revised Version stul prints "daily" in the
text, but suggests in the margin " our bread for the
coming day", while the American Committee wished
to add "our needful bread". Lastly may be noted
the generally received opinion that the rendering of
the last clause should be " deliver us from, ihe evil
one", a change which justifies the use of "but" in
stead of "and" and practically converts the two last
clauses into one and tne same petition. The doxology
" for Thine is the Kingdom", etc., which appears in the
Greek textiis recepUis and has been adopted in the later
editions of the " Book of Common Prayer", is un-
doubtedlv an interpolation.
In the liturgy of the Church the Our Father holds a
very conspicuous place. Some commentators have
erroneously supposed, from a passage in the writings
of St. Gregory the Great (Ep., ix, 12), that that doc-
tor believed that the bread and wine of the Eucharist
were consecrated in Apostolic times by the recitation
of the Our Father alone. But while this is probably
not the true meaning of the passage, St. Jerome as-
serted (Adv. Pelag., iii, 15) tnat "our Ix)rd Himaelf
taught His disciples that daily in the Sacrifice of His
Body they sliould make bold to say *Our Father' 4c."
St. Gregory gave the Pater its present place in the
Roman Mass immediately after tne Canon and before
the fraction, and it was of old the custom that all the
congregation should make answer in the words '*Scd
lil)era nos a nialo". In the Greek Liturgies a reader
recites the Our Father aloud while the priest and the
people repeat it silently. Again in the ritual of bap-
tism the recitation of the Our Father has Jrom tne
earliest times been a conspicuous feature, and in the
Divine Office it recurs repeatedly besides being recited
both at the l^eginning and the end.
In many monastic rules, it was enjoined that the
lav brothers, who knew no Latin, instead of the Divine
office should say the Lord's Prayer a certain number of
times (often amounting to more than a hundred) per
diem. To count these repetitions they made use of
pebbles or l:)eads strung upon a cord, and this appara*
tus was commonly known as a "pater-noster", a name
which it retained even when such a string of beads was
used to count, not Our Fathers, but Hail Marys in
reciting Our Lady's Psalter, or in other words in say*
ing the rosary.
LORD'S &DFP1£
LOBUrZXTTX
ScsBOD, In KirditnittiJum ....
10 priirt tn Sciena rt Rfligion. 404 (Fi
LmiTi Proiwr tn U< EaWv '" ' .-..-.>.-■
Ooun, Dot OtM in der nurum (.nruinincu
\AOWVrwyr.Ona FrtA Revision, 3rd ed. (Lot
Hou in Wcf. 0/ ChHU. Antiqm'
(stutton, i88i)i "
47Bh
Lord's Supper, See Euchasist.
^?iS^'?S^'- ^JE2"' ■?t?" " tis expense by the Spanish Jeeuit, Artv»lo: "S. Isi-
™(n^bria™'i89»!'V™ «",; Jo" HispaJeMis Opera Omnia" (R«me, 1797-1803).
■im cKntimiieii (i^eiixii. 101)11: Along with these Scientific pursuits he actively
Fiirried on social work, foiindinK hospitals and asy-
luma and extending a helping hand to the needy.
During the French Revolution he was ageneroua beno-
factor of the exiled French clergy, over five hundred
of whom he received into his owe diocese. In 1789 lie
was created cardinal !iy Pius VI, and in 1797 v
IR, Lituraik, 1 (Frei
Herbert Thurston,
LoiM, titular ee« in the province of Arabia, suf- appointed envw extraordinary irom Spam to the
fragan of Bostra. The city figures in the different ■?™>;.Sfe. In this capacity he supported thepope in
manuscripM ot the ".\otitiffl episcopaluum " of An- the difficulties attendant on the trench mvasion. On
tioch in tfie tenth century under the namea ot Lourea, * 'e death ot Pius VI be made possible the holding of
Dourea, and Lores {Echoa d'orieiit, II, 170; X 05). ^"^ conclave at Venice {1 Dec., 1799) by providing
This is all that ia known concerning the city, which ia travelling expenses tor some of the cardinals who were
not mentioned by any geographer, and the location utterly penniless. He accompanied the newly elected
of which is unknown. P"P<-'. Pms VII, to Rome and in order \a remain at his
S. VAiutf; ^^°'^ resigned in 1800 his archiepiscopal see. No lees
active at Rome than at Mexico or Toledo, he was in
LoreiuUlfti Francisco Antonio de, Cardinal, b. 1801 one of Ihp founders ot a new Catholic Academy
22 Sept., 1722, at Leon in Spain; d. 17 April, 1804, at in the Eternal City. An inheritance of 25,000 s<
After the
completion of his
studiee at the Jesuit
College of his native
eity, ne entered the
ecclesiMtical state
and WBB appointed,
at an early date, to
a caoonry in Toledo.
In 17S5 he was
named Bishop of
Plasencia (not Pa-
lenci*, OS sometimes
erroneously stated).
The following year
he was called upon
to assume the diffi-
cult charge of the
vast Archdiocese ot
Mexico. He dis-
played great enerey
inadvancingnot only
the religious, but also
the s
As t
which fell to him he
aaiigned to the poor.
whom he designated
..jlor, 2nd ed.. Ill,
N. A. Weber.
Loieniettl, Pietro
Their dated
works extend over a
period of thirty years,
from line to 1.348.
Pietro was the elder.
He wa.s the pupil ot
Simonc di Martino,
some of whose for-
muke lie has pre-
served tniihfully;T>ut
he wns profoundly
influeneeif by Giotto,
He introducer! the
monument of his Iwneficcnce may be mentioned an dramatic into the Sienese school. Unfortunately he
asylum for foundlings which he established at bis own could not control biK wonilerful feeling for the lifelike
expense. He collected and published the acts of the and in the end he sometimes failed to distinguish his-
first three provincial councifa of Mexico held respQC- toryfromthepassingeventsof eveo'dny life. Hisfirst
tively in 1655, 1665, and 1585: "Concilios provin- known work is the "Iliatoiy of St. Humilitas", a
cialea, I, II, IIL de Mexico" (Mexico. 1769-70). In relifiiouaot Vallombrosa (d. 1310). The picture dated
1771 he himself held the fourth Mexican provincial 1316 at the Academy of Florence liears tne impress cS
eynod. Unfortunately its decrees, which he tor- theliveli'cst sense of reality. It .iboundsinsmall, but
warded toMadrid for confirmation, were buried in the often delightful genre scenes. In his Assisi frescoes,
royal archives. He also brought together valuable whore he continued Giotto's "Life of Jesus", this
historical documents relating to the profane and re- realism strangely loses tone. In the "Cenocle", for
ligious history of Mexico and published them in a example, Pietro devotes an entire piece to a kitchen
nchly illustrated work under the title, "Historia de interior where lads wash the dishes while a dog licks
Nue>-a Espaila" (Mexico, 1770). In 1772 the inde- the plates. This lack ot dignity is perhaps mere
fatigable archbishop was recalled to Spain and placed familiarity coupled with gooil humour. Fondness for
at me head of the Archdiocese of Toledo. He built a this sort i>f picture is in part the cause of our liking for
great library for this city and collected the works of the creations of the Dutch school; it cannot even Ije
toe principal writers of the Church of Toledo. These said that details of thLs kind mny not 1» impressive as
writmgs appeared in a magnificent edition, "SS. is seen in Veronese's "Marriage utCana". ButPietro,
Patnun Toletanorum opera'' (Madrid, 1782-93). He likemostof theartistsof tlieMiddleAges,istoolacking
likewise published a new and very beautiful edition instylennd In art. Or rather he has only an intermit-
cf the Gothic or Moaarabic Breviary, "Brevlarium tent sense of them. Some of his nieces at least show
Qotbicum" (Madrid, 1775), and Mozarabic Missal, ot what he was capable; such as tne admirable paints
"Hissale Gothicum" (Rome, 1804). In the intro- ins at .\ssisi, which represents the Blessed Virgin in
duetiona to these publications he discussed with great half-life size between St. John and St. I,oui3, and in
erudition the Moiarabic lit ur^-. Editions of Spanish which the fresco work attains the beauty of enamelling
eoneiliar decrees, ihe Roman Catechism, and theCan- and of the goldsmith's art. while the countenance of
onaof tbeCouncilofTrentalsoengngedhisattention, the Virgin, tearfully regarding the Divine Child, ox-
•od the works of Isidore of Seville were published at presses mait Iwautitully maternal anguish, remindr
ing ua of the tM^vdiF -ytXifsffa of Bomer. In
presenoe of such & canvaa it is tmpoaaible Dot to de-
plore the frivolity of a maater who sacrificed hia lofty-
plastic facultiea and gift of moral expression to the
painting of ao many trivicil lealities and insignificant
emotioDB.
Though still more gifted than his brother, Ambro^o
ftlso wasted bis talents, but owing to a different error,
via., a creae for the allegoric and didactic. He wsa
however one of the most delicately poetic minds of hia
generation, and no one at Florence could rival the
aerious and dreamy beauty of bis female faces, as in
the "St. Dorothy'' of the Academy of Siena (1326),
in whidi seems to be revived the soul of the adorable
saints of Simone di Uartino. There is not in the art
of the fourteenth century a more impressive canvaa
than that of the Academy of Florence in which St.
Nieiiolaa of Ban, on the snore of a cliff-bordered sea,
contemplates the sunset (1332). He excelled in lyric
" "Niects but he attempted painting in a grand pmio-
sophical
the Palazzo delta
Bignoria of Siena,
the allegory of
"Good and Evil
Govermnent"{133$
-40). The taste of
the Middle Ages for
these "morJitiea"
and psychomacbiea
is well-luto wn . There
is hardly a French
cathedral in which
ve do not find sculp-
tured representa-
tions of the contest
between vice and
virtue, allegories of
the virtues, the
parable of the wise
and foolish virgins,
the figures of the
Church and the
:. Already
I painted
ftt Assisi the allegor-
ies of the Franciscan
^itues, and Petrarch
His most important work la that at his contradictory talents
one, which i> more int«llf|^ble, sufllon to eonvey u
idea of the painter's method. The length of the paint'
iog is divided into two halves, one of which shows the
dty and the other the country. And in each of these
parts is a host of episodes, a great oolleetion of Uttle
pictures of maimers, which anuyse in a thousand ways
the condition of a happjy society. The general idea is
resolved into a multitude of aneodotea. We see dances,
banquets, children at school, weddings, some peasants
leading tneir asses to market while others ore tilling
the ground; in the distance is a port whence veesels
are sailing away. All these various scenes are most
entertaining and furnish much information about
Sieoeae life and customs in the Middle Agee. But one
is lost in the complexity of this chronicle and the eon-
fusion of this journal. The result is an extremely
curious work, though one almost devoid of artistic
To sum up, Ambrogio remains one of the moet in-
teresting minds of his time by the very variety ol
id tl
ntora
.''nf T.r
his "Triumphs of Love, Glory, Time, and Eternity.
For the past sixty years the Republic of Siena had
been at the summit of its fortunes. It was desirous
of immortalizing the memory of its greatness. From
this point of view the frescoes of Ambrogio are of great
interest; this is perhaps the first example of lay
painting and of art used to represent ideas and life,
without any religious conception. It was a course in
Aristotelean philosophy and at the same time a hymn
to the city. The composition is developed on tnree
walls, forming a sort ol triptych. The middle fresco
displays under a dogmatic form the ideal of democ-
racy. The Virtues which direct the State are seated
on a platform ; this is the tribunal or the legislative as-
sembly. The most famous of these figures is that of
Peace, which, reclining on her throne in magnificent
drapery and resting on her arms, is certainh imitated
from an antique medal or statue (such imitations are
not rare in the thirteenth century cf the sculptures
of Capua, the work of Giovanm Pisano and some
■tatues at Reims). But the other figures are little
more than abstractions and can Ik. identified only
with the adventitious aid ofamultituJe of mscrip-
tions, devices, and phylacteries.
On the other two walla are siimlarlj de^ eloped the
effects of good or evil social hygiene Uter the theory
follows tbe application. The left wall (Evil Govern-
ment) is unfortunately almost ruined Buttheopponto
the turn of mind at
once idealistic and
realistic which be
displayed, without,
unfortunately, suc-
ceeding in bringing
them into unity. As
a whole the work of
the Lorenietti
(starting from very
diflerent pmnta of
view) consists in an
attempt to reconcile
art with observation
and familiar reaUty.
Pietro's aim is to
move, Ambrc^o's
rather to instruct.
The former is a dram-
atist, the latter a
moralist. Both tend
equally to genre
painting. Unfortu-
nately fresco, espe-
cially in their day,
was the mode of ex-
pression least suited
to this. They re-
quired tbe minia>
ture, or German engraving, or the small familiar picture
of the Flemish or tbe Dutch. Their talent remained
isolated and their premature attempt was doomed to
failure. In spite of everything they remain the most
lifelike painters of their generation; and some fifteenth-
century painters, such as Sassctta or Sano di Pictro,
owe them much in this respect. Besides, AmbroKio,
was the first who attempted in Italy philoBopiuc
painting and the pictureaijue expression of general '
ideas. His " Sermons " in pictures have not been loaL
tated a tradition to which we owe two ol the
nost important works of tbe fourteenth centuiy,
be anonymous frescoes of the "Anchorites " and of tbe
Triumph of Death " at the Campo Santo of Pisa and
ofth -- - ■ ■- '
Militant and the Teaching Chur
the Spanish chapel. In fact it is from tbeee that the
finest conceptions of the Renaissance are derived, and
the honour of hav mg indirectly inspired R^hael with
the "Camera della Segnatura' cannot be disputed
with Ambrogio Lorenietti It is a ^ory
greatest artiits mav well env\ him.
! disputa
which th
&'"
-,. f?^or..
BiANOHi iViKFM daeit-
•torn ofSwia (LdDdao.
mchtn Maleni C8tn»
iD AnwTtor. far Kiwi-
(l-.'-s Miii>nrHo i ml mgw LormttUi (ZaiUb.
Peru..* TJi VaMtrpxati of AnhnQJe LsrWMiW
359
LOBXHZO
fa BwUtiai&n MaaoMins (London, before 1904); Vbnturi.
Staria dMatU UiManaiY (Milan, 1907).
Louis Gillet.
Loranio d* Brinditi, Saint, b. at Brindisi in
1560; d. at Lisbon on 22 July, 1619. In baptism he
reoeived the names of Julius Csesar. Gughelmo de
Rossi— or Gughelmo Russi, according to a contempo-
imry writer — ^was his father's name; his mother was
E^isabetta Masella. £k>th were excellent Christians.
Of a precocious piety, Lorenzo gave early evidence of
a religious vocation. The Conventuals of Brindisi were
intrusted with his education. EUs progress in his
studies was very rapid, and, when barely six, he had
already given indication of his future success in ora-
tory. Consequently, he was always the one chosen to
address, in accordance with the Italian custom, a
short sermon to his compatriots on the Infant Jesus
during the Christmas festi\ntics. When he was twelve
years of age his father died. He then pursued his
studies at Venice with the clerics of St. Mark's and
under the supervision of one of his uncles. In 1575 he
was reoeivea into the Order of Capuchins under the
name of Brother Lorenzo, and, after his profession,
made his philosophical ana theological studies at the
University of Padua. Owing to his wonderful mem-
ory he mastered not only the principal European
languages! but also most of the ^mitic toneues. It
was said be knew the entire original text of the Bible.
Such a knowledge, in the eyes of many, could be ac-
counted for only oy supernatural assistance, and, dur-
ing; the process of beatification, the examiners of the
aamt's writings rendered the following judgment:
^'Vere inter sanotos Ecclesis doctorcs adnumerari
potMt."
Such unusual talents, added to a rare virtue, fitted
Brother Lorenzo for the most diverse missions. When
still a deacon he preached the Lenten sermons in
Venice, and his success was so great that he was called
successively to all the principal cities of the peninsula.
Subsequently, thanks to his numerous journeys, he
was enabled to evangelize at different periods most of
the countries of Europe. The sermons he left fill no
leas than eight folio volumes. He ad opted t he met hod
of preachii^ in favour with the great Franciscan mis-
aionarieSi or rather with apostolic workers of all times,
who, aiming primarily to reach men's hearts and con-
vert them, always adapt their style of discourse to the
spiritual needs of their hearera. Brother Lorenzo held
successively all the offices of his order. From 1596 to
1002 he had, as general definitor, to fix his residence in
Rome. Clement V III assigned him the task of instruct-
ing tlML.Jews; thanks to his knowledge of Hebrew
and his powerful reasoning, he brought a great num-
ber of tnem to reco^ize the truth of the Christian
religion. His saintlmess, combined with his great
tdndliness, completed the preparing of the way for the
grace of converaion. His success in Rome caused him
to be called to several other cities, where he also bap-
tized numerous Jews. At the same time he was com-
missioned to establish houses of his order in Germany
and Austria. Amid the great difficulties created by
the heretics he founded the convents of Vienna,
Prague, and Graz, the nuclei of three provinces. At
the chapter of 1602 he was elected vicar-general. (At
that time the Order of Capuchins, which liad broken
away from the Observants in 152S and had an inde-
pendent constitution, gave its first superior the title
of viear-geneTal only. It was not until 1618 that
Pope Paiu V changed it to that of minister general.)
The very year of his election the new superior began
the visitation of the provinces. Milan, Paris, Mar-
■eflles, Spain, received him in turn. As his coming
was preceded by a great reputation for holiness, the
peopW flocked to hear him preach and to receive his
blessing. His administration, characterized by wise
and fatherly tenderness, was of great benefit
to the order. At the Chapter of 1605 he refused to
undertake for a second term the government of his
brethren, but imtil his death he was the best adviser
of his successors.
It was on the occasion of the foundation of the con-
vent of Prague (1601) that St. Lorenzo was named
chaplain of the Imperial army, then about to march
agamst the Turks. The victory of Lepanto (1571)
mid only temporarily checked the Mussulman inva-
sion, and several battles were still necessary to secure
the final triumph of the Christian armies. 9Elohammed
III had, since his accession (1595), conquered a large
part of Hungary. The emperor, determined to pre-
vent a further advance, sent Lorenzo of Brindisi as
deputy to the German princes to obtain their co-
operation. They responded to his appeal, and moreover
the Duke of Mercceur, Governor of Brittany, Joined
the imperial army, of which he received the effective
command. The attack on Allie-Royal (now Stuhl-
weissenburg) was then contemplated. To pit 18,000
men against 80,000 Turks was a daring undertaking
and the generals, hesitating to attempt it, appealed to
Lorenzo for advice. Holding liimself responsible for
victory, he communicated to the entire army in a
glowing speech the ardour and confidence with which
he was himself animated. As his feebleness prevented
him from marching, he mounted on horseback and,
crucifix in hand, took the lead of the army, which he
drew irresistibly after him. Three other Capuchins
were also in the ranks of the army. Although the
most exposed to danger, Lorenzo was not wounded,
which was universally regarde<i as due to a miracu-
lous protection. The city was finally taken, and the
Turks lost 30,000 men. As however they still ex-
ceeded in numbers the Christian army, they formed
their lines anew, and a few days later another battle
was fought. It was always the chaplain who was at
the head of the army. " l^'on^'ard I *' he cried, showing
them the crucifix, " Victory is ours ". The Turks were
again defeated, and the honour of this double victory
was attributed by the general and the entire army to
Lorenzo.
Having resigned his office of vicar-gencral in 1605,
he was sent by the pone to evangelize Germany. He
here confirmed the faith of the Catliolics, brought back
a great number to the practice of virtue, and con-
verted many heretics. In controversies his vast
learning always gave him the advantage, and, once he
had won the minds of his hearors, his saintlincss and
numerous miracles completed their conversion. To
protect the Faith more otficacioiisly in their states, the
Catholic princes of Genuany formed the alliance called
the '*Catnolic league". Emjxjror Rudolph sent Lor-
enzo to Philip III of Spain to jwrsiiaile him to join the
League. Having dischargerl this mission successfully,
the saintly ambassador receive<l a double mandate
by virtue of which he was to represent the inter-
ests of the pope and of Ma«lri(l at the court of Maxi-
milian of Bavaria, head of the League. He was thus,
much against his wislies, coini)elled to settle in Mu-
nich near Maximilian. Besides lx*ing nuncio and am-
bassador, Lon.»nzo Wiis also commissarv general of
his order for the provinces of Tyrol and havaria, and
spiritual director of the Bavarian army. lie was also
cliosen as arbitrator in the disi)uto which arose be-
tween the princes, and it w:l'< in fulfilment of this role
that, at the request f)f the emperor, he rCvStorcd har-
mony between the Duke of Mantua and a German
nobleman. In addition to all these occupations he
undertook, with the as^^sistance of several Capuchins,
a missionary campaign throughout Germany, ana
for eight months travelled in Bavaria, Saxony, and the
Palatinate.
Amid so many various undertakings Lorenzo found
time for the practices of personal sanctification. And
it is perhaps the greatest marvel of his life to have
combined with duties so manifold on unusually intense
LORBTO
360
LOBBTTO
inner life. In the practice of the religious virtues St.
Lorenzo equals the great^t saints. He had to a high
degree the gift of contemplation, and very rarely cele-
brated Hohr Mass without falling into ecstasies.
After the Holy Sacrifice, his great devotion was the
Rosary and the Office of the Ble^ed Virgin. As in the
case of St. Francis of Assisi, there was something
poetical about his piety, which often burst forth into
canticles to the Blessed Virgin. It was in Mary's
name that he worked his miracles, and his favourite
blessing was: "Nos cum prole pia benedicat Virgo
Maria". Having withdrawn to the monastery of
Caserta in 1618, Lorenzo was hoping to enjoy a few
days of seclusion, when he was requested by the lead-
ing men of Naples to go to Spain and apprise Philip
III of the conduct of Viceroy Ossima. In spite of
many obstacles raised by the latter, the saint sailed
from Genoa and carried out his mission successfully.
But the fatigues of the journey exhausted his feeble
strength. He was unable to travel homeward^ and
after a few days of great suffering died at Lisbon in the
native land of St. Anthony f22 July, 1619), as he had
predicted when he set out on his j oumey . The process
of beatification, several times interrupted by various
circumstances, was concluded in 1783. The canoni-
sation took place on 8 December, 1881. His feast is
kept on 6 July. The known writings of St. Lorenzo
of Brindisi comprise eight volumes of sermons, two
didactic treatises on oratory, a commentary on
Genesis, another on Ezechiel, and three volumes of
religious polemics. Most of his sermons are written in
Italian, the other works being in Latin. The three
volumes of controversies have notes in Greek and
Hebrew.
Annalea Min. Capuc., Ill (Lyons, 1676); Anal. Ord. Min.
Capuc., Ill, IX. XII sq.; Acta SS.^ 6 July; Erardo da Rad-
KXRSPUROO, Vila del heato Lorenzo da Brindiai (Rome, 1783);
NoRBERT Stock, Lorem von Brindisi, Ft. tr. Rungo (Paris,
1881). Cf. (Euvrea de S. Fr. de Sales: Eloge funkhre du Due de
F. Candide.
Loreto. See Recanati and Loreto, Diocese of.
Loreto, Holy House op. See Santa Casa.
Lorette, full name, Notre-Dame de la Jeune
Lorette, **Our Lady of New Loreto"; an Indian
village occupied by the principal remnant of the an-
cient Huron tribe on the east bank of Saint Charles
River, about eight miles north-west from the city of
Quebec in Canada. Population in 1908, not including
fifty-five Indians of other tribes under the same
agency jurisdiction, four hundred and seventy-four
souls. According to Father Jones, the historiog-
rapher of the Huron missions, the Indians of Lorette
are the true representatives of the original Hurons,
while the modem Wyandot of Ontario and Oklahoma
are descended from the kindred Tionontati, or Petuns.
On the dispersion of the Hurons and their allies by
the Iroquois in 1648-9 a considerable body of fugitives
was gathered by the missionaries upon St. Joseph,
now Christian, Island, off the shore of Nottawasaga
Bay. Wasted by famine and the lurking Iroquois
their stay here was short, and in the summer of 1650,
to the number of about three hundred Indians, besides
sixty French, including the missionaries and their as-
sistants, they removed to Quebec and were quartered
by the Jesuits at Beauport adjoining the city, where
other Huron refugees nad been settled the previous
year. In the spring of 1651 they removed to Orleans
Island, near Quebec, where they were joined by other
fugitives, including a large party of Huron exiles from
the distant western Islancf of Manitoulin. In 1656
they numbered altogether between five hundred and
six nundred, but in July of that year, in consequence
of a sudden destructive inroad of the Mohawk, they
again fled to Quel^ec, whence they sent deputies to the
whawk begging for peace. This was granted on con-
dition that the Hurons would remove to the Mohawk
country and incorporate with that or some other Iro-
quois tribe, as a considerable part of the Hurons had
already done in the earlier wars. Of the three Huron
sub-tnbes then represented at Quebec, two, the Rock
and the Bear, accepted the terms, and were incorpo-
rated with the Iroquois. The third sub-tribe, the Cord,
of the old mission town of Teananstaya^, or Saint
Joseph, refused to leave the French and continued at
Quebec. In 1659 a party of forty of their warriors to-
gether with twenty-three French and Algonkin, was
cut off by an overwhelming force of Iroquois, after
holding out for ten days, at the Long Sault of Ottawa
River, above Montreal . In 1666 peace came for a time
and the distressed Hurons once more ventured outside
the walls of Quebec. In 1669 they were established
by Father Chaumonot in a new mission settlement
which received the name of Notre-Dame de Foye (now
Sainte Foye) about five miles outside the city. Hie
mission itself was dedicated to the Annunciation. The
village grew, being now considerably recruited by
Christian Iroquois, until, finding themselves cramped
for both land and timber, they removed in 1673 to a
new site about nine miles west of Quebec. Here was
built a chapel modelled after the Holy House of Lo-
reto and the village took the name of Notre-Dame de
(Vieille) Lorette. In 1697 the final remove was made
to their present location.
In 1794 the last Jesuit missionary in charge died and
was succeeded by a secular priest. In 1829 the last
fiUl-blood Indian died and a few years later the laneua^
itself became extinct in the settlement, all the iimabi-
tants now speaking French. The population for 1870,
1880, 1890, 1900, and 1908 was officially reported re-
spectively at 329, 280, 293, 449, and 474. Of their
present condition the agent in charge re^rts (1908):
The special industry of the Hurons, that is to say, the
making of snow-shoes and moccasins, during the first
part ofthe twelve months just passed was not flourii^
mg. The demand has decreased and the trade this
year is almost nil. The heads of families on the re-
serve are obliged in order to support their families to
go off to a distance in order to earn money in the sur-
rounding towns. The Indians engage but little in
fishing, as fish have not been abundant. On the other
hand they have done a good deal of hunting and this
has been both successful and remunerative. The
prices of fur are very hi^h. The Hurons cannot be re-
proached with uncleanhness. Nothing but praise can
oe given in regard to temperance. As for morality, I
observe that the Hurons do not deserve any reproach.
(The preceding is a condensation of the report.) An
eflEicient and appreciated school is in charge of the
Sisters of Perpetual Help. All but seven are Catho-
lic. (See Hurons.)
Canadian Indian Reports (Ottawa) ; Jesuit Relations (French
ed.. (Quebec; English cd., Tuwaitbs. Cleveland); Shka, CoCA.
Jnd. Missions (New York, 1855).
James Moonet.
Loretto, Sisters of, at the Foot of the Cross. —
The Sisters of Loretto at the Foot of the Cross were
foimded in Kentucky, in 1812, by Father Charles Ne-
rinckx, who first called them "The Little Society of
the P>iends of Mary at the Foot of the Cross of Jesus".
The Holy See approved the institute under the title:
The Sisters of Loretto at the Foot of the Ooss. The
special work to which the Sisters devote tJieir lives is
Cihristian education. Amid the rude conditions of life
in Kentucky during the first decade of the nineteentii
century, the pioneer missionaries, Fathers Stephen
Theodore Badin and Charles Nerinclcc, realized the
necessity for schools conducted by trained Christian
teachers. It was practically impossible for them to
brin^ such teachers from Europe or elsewhere, but the
possibility remained of finding the means to establish
such schools without going abroad. The Catholic
colonists in Kentucky were in general good people,
some of them eminently virtuous. Strong practu^
LOBZTZ
361
LOBBAIN
faith and unwavering attachment to Catholic truth
marked their earnest religious character and sustained
their solicitude for the Christian training of their
children. Notine these traits Fathers Badm and Ne-
rinckx cherished hopes of establishing a religious com-
munity. In 1812 their hopes were realized when
Loretto sprang into existence with no other provision
for its subsistence than an abiding trust in Divine
Providence.
Miss Mary Rhodes, educated in Baltimore, opened a
school in a log cabin near St. Charles's church. Two
companions, Miss Christina Stewart and Miss Anne
Havem, soon joined her. Father Nerinckx, seeing a
ray of promise for realizing the hope he had cherished
so long, encouraged their desire to aedicatc themselves
to the service of God and instructed them in the duties
of the religious life. With the approval of the Right
Rev. Benedict Joseph Flaget, first Bishop of Bards-
town, he clothed them with the religious nabit on 25
April, 1812. This date is, therefore, commemorated
by the sisters as their foundation day. Two other
young ladies, Miss Anne Rhodes and Miss Sarah Hav-
em, tnen asked for the habit and received it on 29
June, 1812. The little society then organized and
Miss Anne Rhodes was chosen the first superioress.
They were soon joined by Miss Nellie Morgan wiio had
been a successful teacher. She received the hubit on
12 August, 1812. The health of Mother Anne soon
failed; she pronounced her vows on the Feast of the
Immaculate Conception, and died on 11 December,
1812. Biary Rhodes Was then chosen superioress.
Mother Manr and her four companions pronoimced
their vows of perpetual poverty, chastity, and olxjdi-
ence on 15 August, 1813. Postulants continued to
seek admission and Father Nerinckx w^atched over and
encouraged the first efforts of the aspirants and directed
them till his death (12 August, 1824) in the practices
of the spiritual life and in their efforts to acquire
greater proficiency as teachers. The life of the sis-
ters edined all who knew them. Their austere rule
breathed the purest spirit of Christian perfection, and
though some of the regulations were found by experi-
ence to be too rigid for observance in this country and
were subsequently omitted, the spirit has been fully
S reserved and still animates the society. After the
eath of Father Nerinckx, Bishop Flaget moved Lor-
etto from the place of its first foundation to St. Ste-
phen's, so called from the fact that Father Badin had
Duilt a small log church near his residence and dedi-
cated it to St. Stephen. The convent and church
erected here by the sisters, dedicated in 1826 and de-
stroyed by fire in 1858, have been replaced by more
spacious buildings, and here the mother house of the
^ters of Loretto at the Foot of the Cross still re-
mains.
In the transfer of Loretto te this now location, noth-
ing was lost of the primitive spirit of the society. The
growth of the society rendered branch establishments
necessary during the first decade of its existence. The
first was founded in 1816, near Holy Mary's church;
the second, in 1818, at the place where the great Cis-
tercian Abbey of Gethsemani now stands; three
others in Kentucky, and one in Missouri were founded
before the death of Father Nerinckx. His zeal ani-
mated the sisters and led them westward to labour
and establish schools among the Indians and pioneers,
where no provision had been made for their su{)port;
these early foundations were for education what the
early missionary churches were for religion. Incor-
porated by Act of the Legislature of Kentuckv, in 1829,
under the title, "The I-ioretto Literary and Benevo-
lent Institution", the Sisters of Loretto at the Foot
of the Cross have maintained their academic courses
abreast with current progress in education, and when
the episcopate advocated the establishment of paro-
chial schools, thev were among the first to support the
movement aiid devote themselves to the work. In
1816 Father Nerinckx submitted their rules and con-
stitutions to Pius VII for approval. The Holy Fa-
ther, well pleased with its spirit, placed the new insti-
tute under the protection of the Sacred Congregation
of the Propaganda and granted it many favours.
Again in 1851, Right Rev. Martin John Spalding,
after^'ards Archbishop of Baltimore, presented the
constitutions to the Holy See for the encouragement
and blessing of Pius IX. At the l>eginning of the
twentieth century the Sisters of Loretto at the Foot of
the Cross turned again to the Holy See for guidance.
In 1904 Mother Praxedes Carty presente<l the consti-
tutions which Pius X fully and nnally confirmed in
1907.
The general government of the society is vested in
the mother general and her councillors residing at the
mother house. Each establishment is presided over
by a local superior and her two assistants. The society
is conif)Osed of but one class of sisters, no distinctions
being made in the manner of training to the prac-
tice of religious virtues, all are subject to the same reg-
ulations of the religious state. Tlie novitiate lasts one
full year, at the completion of which the sisters pro-
nounce the three simple vows which they renew annu-
ally, mitil at the expiration of the fifth year, they
make perpetual vows. The young professed sisters
pass an examination and thasc having proper qualifi-
cations for teachers are placed in the normal training
school of the society. Whatever educational advan-
tages a sister may have had before entering the society,
she is required to apply herself to the special line oi
studies chosen by her superiors and to follow a course
of pedagogical training in the normal school. In 1909
the Sisters of Ix)retto at the Foot of the Cross conducted
schools in the Archdioceses of St. Louis and Santa F^,
and in thci Dioceses of Louisville, Covington, Columbus,
Cleveland, Mobile, Bellville, Kansas City, Lincoln,
Denver, Tucson, and Dallas.
The A rch ives of the Society,
Edwin Drurt.
Loriti, IIeixrich. See Glarean, Henry.
Lorrain, Claudk de (Claude Gillke or Gelli^),
French painter and etcher, b. in IGOOat Chamagncon
the banks of the Moselle in Lorraine; d. in Rome, 21
Nov., 1G81 (or 21] Nov., 1682). Ilis parents, Jean
Gell^e and Anna Padosc, poor and with a large family,
gave Claude little schooling. Left an orphan at the
age of twelve, he lived with an elder brotlier, a wood
carver, at Freiburg, and there learned to draw orna-
ments and arabesques. Sandrart-, a writer on art and
Claude's friend, says that the l.)oy was apprenticed to a
pa<?try-cook; but piston may have been a misprint for
pictori (a painter) . About i 6 1 3 a relative took Claude
to Rome, where he appears to have abandoned the
boy. Claude wandered to Naples seciking Gottfried
Wals, a Cologne artist, whose pictures he greatly ad-
mired. For two yeiirs Wals taught him architectural
perspective and landscape painting. In lOlo Claude
returned to Rome, and became a member of the house-
hold of Agostino Tassi, who was painting a scries of
decorations for Pope Paul V. Claude was half domes-
tic servant and lialf artistic assistant to Tassi, who
mentions him as a co-worker in decorating Cardinal
Montalto's palace. In 1025 Claude went to Venice, a
city which deeply impressed him and his future work,
and made a pilgrimivge to the IIolv Virgin of Lo-
retto for devotion and meditation, lie then roamed
tlu-ough the Tyrol, Bavaria, the Black Forest, and to
Nancy where he worked for a year on architectural
painting. These wanderings impoverished his purse
and his health, and he longed for Rome, to wliich he
returned in 1627 to reside there until his death. The
Eternal City welcomed him, and commissions from
the illustrious of all Europe f)Oured in upon him.
Among them were Popes Innocent X, Urban VIII,
Clement IX (Cardinal Rospigliosi), and Alexander
VII, Emperor Leopold I, Philip IV <il ^\»ncn.^ *<5oa
toBunr 34
Duke of Bouillon (conmumder of tbe papal forces),
the Constable ColoEuta (Claude's patron of later
years), and Cardinals Crracensio, Poll, Giorio, and
Spada.
Claude vaa not only a faithful and absorbed student
of nature but a tireless and rapid worker; in 1644 he
completed seventeen important canvasea. It is uold
that he took extraordinary core in pointing one pic-
ture composed of trees of many kinos, a study he al-
ways kept beside his easel, aiul that he refused to sell
it even to his best friend, Cardinal Kospigliosi, who
leered to cover its surface twice over with gold pieces.
Claude was the first original French painter, the first
original modern painter, and the first to paint eSecta
instead of thinf!^. While his landscapes are thor-
oughly classic, tiley are above all ideal; "there ore no
landscapes in Nature like those of Claude" (Goethe).
He would contemplate for hours— even days — one
Bubject in nature, to which he would rttum in other
weathers and con-
ditions. Herein he
resembled the
modem Impres-
sionists, one of
whom, Pissaro, re-
gards Claude as the
forerunner of their
school. Claude
"effected a revolu-
tion in art by set-
ting the Bun m the
heavens" (Rus-
kin); and in the
pic torial treat-
ment of aerial per-
spective, in depth
of background, and
in delicate col-
Ci.*^-,. ». LoKHAiH i n g s u n 1 i gh t ' s
myriad effects,
he is unsurpassed. His earlier painting was cool,
bluish, and silvery; but he soon abandoned these tones
for a rich, warm, and golden treatment of both land-
scape and marine. In figure painting he did not ex-
eel; he sold his landscapes, he said, and gave away his
Claude united the lofty poetic feelings of the Italians
with a Flemish correctness and mastery of perspec-
tive; his compositions are symmetrica!, yet free; and
if he had a fault it was exaggerated gracefulness. In-
spired by Callot, whom perhaps he Knew, Claude be-
gaa etching about 1S20, and within a decode wrought
the greater number of his (forty-two) plates. These
are freely needled, carried to completeness, tuU of
wonderful atmosphere, and su^estivc of the colour
and light pervading his oil paintings. Hamerton says
that" there is an ineffable l«ndcmcas in his handling ,
and that his "Ilerd.sman" is "the finest landscape
etching in the world for technical nualitv". In 16G2
Claude's interest in etching rcviveu, anJ he executed
two large plains, "Mercury and Argus" and "Time,
Apollo, and the Seasons". Claude was one of the few
great artists to be anpreciatcd during his life; and such
ademand arose for tiis paintings tliot numerous forger-
ies of them were passed off as "Claudes". To frus-
taate such frauds he mode drawings, washed with
sepia or bistre, of all his paintings; and these, about
two hundred in all, constitute the "Liber Veritatia"
6t treasure now possessed by the Duke of Devonshire).
This eoUectionj however, is far from containing all of
Claude's drawings. Claude was of a reserved, con-
temj)lative, and religious temperament, kindly in dis-
position and generous. His favourite relaxation was
music. During the last twenty years of his life he was
in precarious Eealth and tormented with attacks of
gout. At his death he provided liberally for hia
2 tOftftAm
nephew and his ward, Agnes, and bequeathed nobis
fiicturea lo various Roman cburchesj alao to his
riend and patron Cardinal Roepiglioei "for the
good advice he has always ^ven me". Claude
was buried in tbe church of Tnnit& del Uonti; but,
on the recommendation of H. Thiers, his lemaini
were transported to the French church of San Luici
in 1S40.
Of the one hundred and seventy-five eanvMee in
Ekigland, the "Bouillon Claudes", Nuptials of iMae
and Rebecca", and "Embarcation of tbe Queen of
Sheba" are world-famed, and became conspicuous
under the terms of Turner's will. The HermibiBe
possesses twelve fine examples, among them the
great series; "Morning", "Noon", "Evening", and
Night". Rome has seventeen, Hunich six, and tbe
Vanderbilt collection four fine canvases. In Dresden
is the " Dido and Mneaa", His best-known etehinp
ore the "Herdsman", the "Ford", and the "Fin-
BROW-iELL. Frtnci Art (Now York. 1B08); Pattuoh.
Cloud* Lrtraine. « Vit rt ws (Buitm (Pujij. 1884): LtrnB,
HiHan, of Art (.! vnli.. Ncir York. ie64); Hi^id, Suforv «/
Snojamn-i and EUhinj CLonilon. 1008); Dcllea, CtowkOifU*
Ee lorrain (Ncir \aA. 1S3T): Samdrart. Acadtmia NatOif
lima Artii Piclorvw (Nuremburf. 1SS3}.
Ljeioh Hunt.
Loiraioe. I. Orioin — By the Treaty of Verdun,
in 843, tbe empire of Charlemagne was divided [n
three parts: Ludwig the German leeeived Earteni
Franconia; Charles the Bakl, Western Franeonia;
witii Italy in addition. After the death of Lothoir I,
in 855, Italy prissed to his son Lothair II, who gave
his name to the district henceforth known as Lotiia-
Hi Regnum — Lotharingen, Lothringen, or Lorraine.
Lorraine did not fonn a geographical unit, like the
two great neighlwuring kingdoms, complete in them-
selves and by their natural formation. Ita bound-
aries were uncertain for though the Iteuse was on tbe
west, the Rhine on the east, and the sea on the north,
yet to the south it was completeVy exposed. The
population, which in the eastern kmcdom was Ger-
manic, and in the western Roman, nere combined
both elements. Lorraine^ moreover, included within
its boundaries the original home of the Austra-
sian dynasty, with Aacnen, Charlema^ie's capital,
and the most important centres of. ancient culture:
two archbishoprics (Cologne and Trier), many bidiop-
rics (Metz, Toul, Verdun, eto.), abbeys and royal
castles. From the beginning it was coveted by the
neighbouring princes, who succeeded, one after ao-
other, in seizing parts or the whole of its territory.
The composite character of ita ori^ also led to end-
less internal v
domination. Missionaries came thither frcxn Trier
whose lir^t bishop was St. Euchorius (about 2£0).
One of his successors, Matemus (313-14), founded tbe
See of Cologne. About 811 Trior be(»Jne an arch-
bishopric, the episcopal Sees of Meti, Toul, and Ver-
dun being suffragan to it. From 511 Heta was the
capital of Austrosia, and became a bishopric in
the sixth century, one of its first Insbom being
St. Chrodegaog (742-661. Toul and Verdun ham
been bishoprics since tne fourth century. UndOT
Bishop Ilildebold, in 799, Cologne received from St.
Boniface metropolitan jurisdiction over LUrb and
Utrecht. The two great archbishoprics early bi
temporal lordships. Trier obtained its ten_^
power in 893, under Radbod, through Duke Zuente-
bulch of Lorraine; Bruno, Archbishop of Cokipie
(9&3-6&), himself obtained the dignity ot Ouka of
LCMUUXMI
363
LORRAZHE
Lomioe. Both arehbishopries became imperial
principalitiea. Mets and Verdun were later raised
to the same dignity. With the close of the sixth
century began tBe foundation of the numerous mon-
asteries which spread from the Vosges, and to which
Lorraine owed its advanced culture. Its people were
remarkable through the Middle Ages for their reli-
E'ous leal. The most ancient of these monasteries is
uzeuil founded by St. Golumba, whoee example was
followed by Amatus, Romarich, Deodatus, Go<ieIbert,
Hidulf, azui Chrodegang, who founded the abbeys of
Remiremont, St. Die, Senones, Moyen-Moutier, St.
Ifichiel, and Goose. There were other famous monas-
teries in the different bishoprics, such as those of St.
MaximinuB at Trier. St. Epure of Toul, Symphorian,
Glossinda, and St. reters at Metz. Under the Gar-
lovingiana the number increased. Ricliilde, wife of
Charles the Bald, foimded Juvigny near Stenay about
874; Bishop Adventius of Metz, Ncumunster; while
St. Germain, St. Martin on the Meuse, and Gellamont
near Dieulouard also date back to this period. In
these ecclesiastical abodes and in the bishops' resi-
dences celebrated schools flourished, among which
St. Mathiaa near Trier, the Abbey ot PrOm, famous
for the historian Regino, and Verdun with its Bertiv-
rius attained great prominence. The councils of
Meaux, in 845, of Valence, in 855, and of Savonnidres.
near Toul, in 859 improved these schools and f oundea
new ones.
^ For poUtical reasons, Lothair II ceded smaU por-
tions of his domains to his neighbours: to his brother
Charies, the Diocese of Belley and Mouticrs; to Loui^
of Ital^, provinces in the Upper Jura and the Vaud;
to Louis the German, Alsace. After his death, in
860, war immediately broke out, as alniost alwavs
occurred upon the death of a ruler of Lorraine. The
Kings of France and Germany, as well as Louis of
Italy, wished to seize the country; Louis the German
was victorious, and, by the Treaty of Meersen, in 870,
far the greater part was awarded to him — all the ter-
ritory east and north of the Meuse and the territory
and cities on the Moselle, on both sides of the Rhine,
and in Jura, that is to say Friesland, the country of
the Ripuarian Franks the original lands of the House
of Lorraine, Alsace, and a part of Burgundy. Charles
the Bald received the countries on the left bank of
the Meuse and the Moselle. After the death of Louis
the German (876) Charles tried, but failed, to recon-
3uer Ijorraine. Louis the Younger, in 879, after the
eath of Louis the Stammerer, repossessed himself
of the Frendi^ western, half of Lorraine, and thus
once more umted the entire Regnum Lotharii under
German rule. Under Charles the Fat, a natural son
of Lothair II named Hugo disturbed the peace by
calling in to his aid the Norman Godfrey, who ac-
quired Friesland as a fief. Both, however, were
severely defeated m 888. King Arnulf (887-99) ex-
pelled the Normans, gaining a victory at Louvain
(891^, and improved the religious situation by sum-
momn|| the great Council of Tibour (895). At the
same tmoe, in order to secure Lorraine as a part of
Westmark, he gave it to his natural sou, Zucntcbulch,
who surrendered the management of state affairs to
Archbishop Radbod of Trier, as his chancellor. Zuen-
tebnlch was overthrown in an insurrection raised bv
the mightiest nobles of the country, Gerard, Matfried,
and Reginar, on 13 August, 900. Gradually the
supremacy passed over to Reginar of Ilainauit and
Hasoei^u, who, after the death of Louis the Child
(912), Drought Lorraine under the allegiance of
Charies the Simple of France and in return received
from him the dignity of margrave (Lord of the
Marches) and duke. To these titles his son Giselbcrt
succeeded in 015. Under Gisclbert, the disputes
about the succession to the throne of France gave rise
to internal divisions among the people of Lorraine.
Hsonr I (011M6) was cafied by one party to its
assistance and, after repeated invasions, recovered
all oi Lorraine for Germany (025). He confirmed
Giselbert in the Duchy, and, m 028, gave him his own
daughter Gerberga in marriage . In spite of this, Gisel-
bert once more allied himself with the King of France,
Louis IV, against the German Emperor Otto I (936-
73). But when Gisellx^rt was drowned near Ander-
nach in 933, during his flight from the loyal Counts
Udo and Conrad. Otto once more obtained the upper
hand and gave Lorraine to his brother Henr^. The
latter was driven out by the people of Lorrame, and
Otto made Count Otto of Verdun, son of Richwin,
duke. In 943 he constrained Louis IV of France to
make a final renunciation of the rights of the Carl-
ovingians over Lorraine. After Count Otto's death
(044), the lordship passed to Coimt Conrad the Red
of Franconia, who had married the emperor's dauj^
ter Liutgarde. But Conrad, too, was faithless, and,
while Otto I was absent on an expedition to Italv
(953), he called in the Hungarians. He was deposed,
however, and replaced by St. Bruno, Archbishop a
Cologne (953-65).
Bruno was the first to succeed in placing German
supremacy on the firm basis which lasted until the
twelfth century. This he accomplished bv training
an austere and learned clergy, whom he deeply im-
bued with the national sentiment to such an extent
that the bishops whom he appointed (such as Heino of
Verdun, Adalbcro of Metz, Iiegelo and Bruno of Toul,
Wazo of Li^ge) became the princiiml supports of the
imperial power. In order to control its continual
unrest, he divided the country. The northern part
(Lower Lorraine), from the Ardennes to the sea, com-
prised the Arehbishopric of Cologne with the Bishop-
rics of Utrecht and Li6ge. The southern part. Upper
Lorraine, or the Land of the Moselle, extended to the
south-east of the Vosges and to the Sichelbeig, witii
the Arehbishopric of Trier and the Bishoprics of Mets,
Toul, and Verdun. Subject to the supreme direction
of Bruno, Lower Lorraine was assigned to Count
Gottfried, Upper Lorraine to Count Friedrich, bro-
ther of Bishop Adalbcro of Metz. The German Em-
peror exercij?cd suzerainty over both. Aachen be-
came the capital in 905.
II. LowEK I-iORRAiNE. — ^Thc historj' of Lower
Lorraine is connected with that of Upper Lorraine for
only a few more centuries. In 977 Emperor Otto II
granted it to Charles, brother of Lothair of France, as
a German fief. Lothair's subsequent invasion was
repelled by Otto's famous march to Paris (078). After
Charles's son Otto had died childless, the dukedom
passed to Godfrey of Verdun, whose son Gozelo I re-
united the upper and lower duchies under his rule in
1U33. Of his sons, the elder, Godfrey the Bearded,
succeeded him in Upper Lorraine and Gozelo II (d.
1046) in Lower Lorraine. After the latter's death,
Lower Lorraine was conferred upon Count Frederick of
Luxemburg and, immediately after, upon Godfrey the
Bearded ( 1 065-69) . H is son Godfrey the Hunchback
was the last ruler of this district who was loyal to the
empire. As the bishops, after the triumph of the Cluniac
Reform and the struggle over investitures, ceased to
support the German emperors, the province soon re-
solved itself into small feudal estates. These gradually
withdrew from the German allegiance. Part of the
country became known as the Netherlands, or Low
Countries, and in 1214 reverted finally to P'rance, whilst
the remainder took the name of Brabant. Godfrey
adopted his nephew Godfrey de Bouillon, who was en-
feoffed in 1088 by Henry IV. Upon his death at
Jerusalem Henry v gave the duch^' to Godfrey the
Bearded, Count of Brabant. In 1155 the Lords of
Limburg severed themselves from Lower Lorraine and
became independent dukes. After Henry V (1186-
1235) the dukes of Lower Lorraine were known as
dukes of Brabant. In 1404 the duchy was united to
Burgundy.
III. Upper Lorraime. — After Lower Lorraine re- mnted to the former King of Poland, StatiuUiu
eeived the name of Brabant, Upper Lorraine becama Leciineki, after whose death in 1766 it re\-ert«i tn
known simply as Lorraine. The latt«r was split France. In the ecclesiastical jurisdiction a »
up amonK numerous small countsbips and the changes took place. In 1598 Duke Charles had tried
dioceses of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which from to erect a biahoprio at Nancy for his duchy; but in
early times had been immediate fiefs of the empire. 1602 only a collegiate chapter was established there.
The histoiT of these bishoi^rics is the history of the In 1 778 tne episcopal See of Nancy was really founded,
Church in Lorraine, Ueti being the centre and head of and the bishop received the title of Primate of Lor-
the whole ecclesiastical organization. The larger, raine. At the same period the See of Saint-Die was
southern, half was under the jurisdiction of the See of founded, while that of Toul was abolished in 1790.
Toul, The secular power was conferred by Emperor By the division of France into departments, in 1790,
Henry III, in 1048, upon the wealthy Count Gerhard tho"ProvinceoftheThreeBishoprics", asithadbeen
of Alsace, ^Thoae descendants reigned there for seven known since 1552, with the Provinces <M^ Lorraine and
hundred years. Under Emperor Otto I Uie mona»- Bar, were divided into the depart.mente of Hoaelle,
teries were reformed by Bishop Albero I (928-C3). Meurtbe, Vosges. and Heuse. The juriedictiona of
Stephen, of the powerful house of Bar, Bishop and Saarwerden, Hcroitzhcim, and Diemeringen, for the
Carainal of Hets l]20-fi3, brought the newly-founded most part Protestant, became incorporated with the
Premonstratensian and Cistercian Orders into the denartmentsof the Lower Rhine in 1793.
country. Complete political rest never really ejtist«d. IV. Aitbr 1871, — By the Peace of Frankfort, 10
When not repelling the attacks of France, Lorraine May, 1871, France was obliged to cede to Gennaoy
was occupiea with intestine wars, either among the from this Province the Department of Heurtiie and
spiritual principalities mentioned above or among the the arrondissements of Saarburg and Ch&teau Salins.
Counts of Bar, Bitsch, Vaudemont, and other tern- The German Lorraine of to-day comprises, of the old
poral lords. Besides, the dukes were, as a rule, in- province of that name: Metz, with the Pa^ Ueasin,
volved in the quarrels of the German suzerain and also the temporal possessions ot the old Bishopnc of Heta;
took part in the Crusades; for piety and devotion to E^rts of the Duchy of Luxemburg; parts of the upper
the Church distinguished most of them, in Bpit« of Rhine district; the former imperial Margravat^ t^
their warlike character. Pont-a-Mousson and Nomency: the imperial Prind-
Duke Theobald 11 (1304-12) at a meeting of the paiilies of Pfalzburg and Lbdieun; half of the Count-
Diet settled the rights of inheritance upon his female ship of Salm; the jurisdiction of the Abbey of Gone;
H well as male descendants. Isabella, daughter of ^e Lordship of Bitsch; further, the royal fiefs ao>
Charles I, accordingly mounted the throne m I43I, (luired from the See of Metz; Blamont, Saarburg,
and, with her, her consort Reai of Anjou and Bar, Saareck, Soaralben, Hombui^, cl«. In order to bii^
who brought the lastr-named duchy to Lorraine, the ecclesiastical into harmony with the political
'When thisfemale line becameeztinctm 1473 themoie boundaries, Nancy, in 1874, surrendered eishty- three
line of Vaudemont succeeded under Ren^ II (1473- parishes of the district of Chfiteau-Salina and one hun-
1508). HesuccessfuUy defended his country against dred and four of the Saarburg district (aggregatiiig
Charles the Bold of Burgundy (1477), and to his 106,027 souls) to the Diocese of Mets. In 1871 the
maternal inheritance of Lorraine, Bar, Pont-A-Mou^- new limits of Lorraine included 451,633 Catiiolics,
eon, and Guise he united the dignities received from 13,407 Protestants. 176 other Christians, and 629 who
his father — Vaudemont, Joinville, Aumale, Mnyenne, profo?-- other religions.
and Ellxeilf— and kept up Anion's pretensions to „('"Ev«iEr, ;/M(f,(Ve ii< iorrpme (Bnisaela, ■. d.): Ciurar.
Naples and Sicily Ren^lf, by/orcmetheejectionof ^^Jtl'lfril^'^/r'^'^'^.^^rrXV^^'^^ri^^^^^
his uncle Henry II as bishop m 1484, brought the ad- Sumux (4 volg., Nnncy. 177e-S3): Wilui-r. Dit EnutehmtQ
ministrationoftheSeeof Metz to the House of Lor- da HrnogiumM Loihnnam (Gouiu™, isp)' BimofT. ia
r»ine,andBishopJohniyofVaudemont(1518^3and ^i^^i^^ttn-^A^^^W^i^di
1548-50), as Cardinal of Lorrame and papal legate for Laminr it da trail dirMi (Niaey.
that country, united in his own hands Bar and the "Jf.<>f''i'''"^"^''_^'!^^'?r"™'
prindpalitJM of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, the episcopal ^^*'' f,t™. />« *«(™A,i.^.
power over Toul, Terouannc, Narbonne, Die- Valence,
Verdun, Lucon, Reims, Alby, Lyons, Agen, and ip~y;^;^V"^ •^""•i"- "■ y,-T;""-'^l ^■„"i""j''-
N«te; ..„1 ™ Abbot of Go.. F&, 6my, |Jjri,'SS|.' teKSA^?^"™^
Uarmoutier, Samt-Oucn, and Saint-Mansuy. GiaJiichttLatliriniienal2 voli., wirabuJoi, lOOi). — Feriodimta;
The Reformation, after being forcibly averted by AnnaietderEif{S»BeT'ad¥tayi.\887~-h VAuilrant (ileti.
p»k, Anton (1K«M41, obt.inrf . tr.n.itoy. f«*. iS^li/SS^^^°ai'SUSfS'riT,'fiiri;J-
hold only m a few ot the eastern districts, and m the moiVei t* OucumeWj dt h Sac tfArrh. Li,rr, (Nancy, 3849-73):
seventeenth century it was constrained to give way -R<T«e'«''n''«(wi«iIe Af(i«(JIeii, 1890 — ).
entirely to Catholicism. In 1552 the great French ^^^^ l"l>l«'B'op>"*a "'"I" A.a*cE-LoRnAiNK; Wrrx;
encroachments recommenced, when Henry II, as the Otto Haittio.
ally of the German Protestant princes, annexed Metz,
Toul, and Verdun, and Lorraine itself was occupied LOTBCb Abbe? (Lacrebhamense HoNASTERimi),
until 1559. At that time the spiritual life received a called also Laurissa and LAtmESHAM, one of the most
new stimulus under Bishop Henry III of Metz (1G12- renowned monasteries of the old Franco-German Em-
K) through the erection of monflflteriesof Benedictines pire, is situated aliout ten miles east of Worms in the
atSaint-BarbeiCfumelitesatMclz; Minims at Dieuze, Grand Duchy of Hesse, Germany. This abbey woa
Nomeny,ond BQssing;CapuchinsatVic,Dicdenhofcn, founded in 764 by Count Cancor and his widowed
Saarburg, and Bitsch; and Jesuit houses at Metz and mother Williswinda. Having built a chureh and
Buckenheim. St. Vincent de Paul interested himself monastery on their estate, J.aurissa, they entrusted its
inthedistrictswhichaufferedsoscverelv in the Thirty government to the care of Chrodegang, Arehbishop^
Years' War. By the Peace of Wcstpnalia, in 1648, Metz. This well-known and saintly prelate dedicated
Bfetz, Toul, and Verdun were formally ceded to the church and monastery in honour of St. Pet«r
Franco, which had rcHx;cupicd the Duchy of Lorraine the Apostle, and became its first abtxit. The pious
in 1632, and by the Treaty of 1661 territory was ceded founders enriched the new abbey by further aona-
to Louis XIV, which thus secured to him a passage tions. In TOGChrodeRangresicned the office of abbot
■cross Lorraine to Alsace, In 1697, by the Peace of owing to his other imfwrtent duties as Arehbishop of
Ryswick, he gave the duchy to Duke Leopold Joseph Metz. He then sent his brother Gundeland to Lorsdi
(1S07-17Z9). Inl738, by the Peace of Vienna, it was aa his successor, with lourteenBenedictiDemonka. To
U>BTMA 3f
nuke the abbev popul&r as a Bhrine and a place of pil-
KHmAge, Cbrooe^ang obloitied from Pope Paul 1 the
body oiF St. Naianua, vho with three other Roman sol-
dien had won the crown of martyrdom mider Diocle-
tian. On 11 July, 765, the Bftcred relice arrived, and
were with gi«at solemnity depoeited in the basilica of
Uie monastery. The abbey and basilica were then
named in honour of St. Nasariua, instead of St. Peter
aa heretofore. Many miracles were wrought through
the intercession of St. Nazarius, and from all ^rts of
Europe piigrims in lar|;c numbers came to visit the
ahrine. Having grown into prominence aa a nursery of
learning and ouTture, the monastery become no less
celebrated as a centre of virtue and piety. Popes and
r
!
i
« JBi
ancient entrance hall, built in the ninth century by
Emp>eror Ludwi^ III, is the oldest and pro^bly the
moat beautiful monument of Franconian architecture.
This hall, though the property of the Grand Duchy of
Hesse, is now tued as a chapel where Maaa is occasion-
ally celebrated.
Cadti diplamaliau UmaUerii LauriKntit, ed. Klein <Ta-
ffflnifl. 1708); Dahl, Hutoriteh-topoonipkiKh-Matitiitche Bt-
KhrnbuiiB drt FtiramUum. LotkSi (Damutndl, 18121 ; Aiwire
ftir httnteke Gach. u. AUertiainukunde (Dnmutodt, 1S36>;
Falk, OrKh. dii cAimaliirai KluMttn LotkA an dtr Btrg^mtn
(iiaiDi, isea).
Lbander M. Roth.
Lotyma, a titular see of Caria, small fortified town
and liarbour on the coast of Caria, not far from Cape
1, at the western extremity of Rhodian
Cheraonesua,
opposib
) anil twenty Roman milee
emperora repeatedly favoured the abbey with special
Sivileges. The transfer of many estates and the ad-
tion of small towna to its possessions soon raised the
abbey to the position of a principality, so that in
a abort time it became not only immensely rich, but
also a seat of pohtical influence.
It was, however, this verj- influence of its wealth
and political ascendency that caused its decline and
final ruin. The ablxrr, enjoying state rights, become
implicated in several local feiids and in a number of
ware. After forty-six abbots of (he Order of St. Bene-
dict hod governed the abbey more or less successfully,
Conrad, the last of the abltots, was deposed bv Pope
Gregory IX in 1226, and through the influence of the
GeiTDon Emperor Frederick II, I^rach came into the
poBsmsion of Archbishop Siegfried III of Iktaini. In
1248 Premonstratetisiaii moiwts were given charge of
the monastery with the sanction of Pope Celestine IV,
ftnd they remained there till 1554!, when, after a glori-
ous existence of 800 years. Lorsch ami the surrounding
country passed into the haniU of Lutbcnui and Culvin-
istic prmccs. The princes allowed the rcligiouB a pen-
sion tor life, and then sent them adrift in tiie world. In
Lorsch itaelf, first the Lutlieran, and later the CaKin-
istic religion was introduced. During the Thirty
YeoiB War Lorsch and its neiphlMiurhood suffered
greatly, but, having again come into the possession of
Haini, it returned to the Catholic Kaith. The most
dretuy period for Lorsch wo^ during the war between
Fiance and Germany from 167S and 1697. Whole
villages were laid in ruins, the homes of the peasantry
were destroyed by fire, and the French 8()ldiers liurneil
the old buildings whose associations had made them
■aered to ttie inhabitants. One portion, which was
left intact, now aerves as a tobacco warehouse. The
from Rhodes (Strobo, XIV, 652, Ptolemy, V, 2, 8; Tit.
Liv., XXXVII, 17; XLV, 10). Nothing is known of
its history, but Leake (Asia Minor, 223) mentions its
niins: towers, toml>8, and ramparts, west of Port Aplo-
thiki, vilayet of Smyrna. The " Notitiie episcopa-
tuum " mentions Loryma among the suffragan sees of
Stuuropolis up to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Lequien (One na christian us, I, 915) names three biah-
ops: George, present ut the Council of Constantinople,
680, AnthimuB at Niciea, 787, and Joseph at Coostanti-
rople. 879.
SuiTH. Itidionary ojOrttk and Ronan Geoffntphg.
S. PirrBiDl».
Lob Angeles. See Monterey, Diocese or.
LOBsen, Kahl Aucl'ht, Cierman petrologist and
geologist, b. at Kreuznach (Rhine Province), 5 Janu-
ary, JS41;d. at Beriin, 24 February, 1803. Afterfin-
ishing his studies at the gymnasium of Kreuznach in
1859 Lessen became a mining engineer; he began by
twoan<l a half years of practical work, then studied at
the tlniver^ties of Berlin and Halle, where he grodu-
ate<l in 1866; in the same year he became assistant
geologist of the I'russian national geological survey and
as such began immediately his famous petrolographic
studies of the Hara Mountains, which lasted till his
death. In 1870 he became instructor in petrology at
the Berlin mining academy, and at the same time Ico-
tunrat the university: in 1873 ho was made a member
of the newly founded Prussian .Vational Geological In-
stitute, and in 1S82 recei\Td the title of professor; be
was a fellow of the GOrres Society from itsfoundation.
In IHSI) ho became extraordinary professor in the uni-
versity. He published the results of his investigation
in over one luimlred treatises and noticci which ap-
peared for the most part in the " Zeitschrift der deut-
sehcn geologischen Oeaellsciiaft " of 1867-1891 and
were much valued by his fellow scientists. The work
of his youth, "De Tauni montia parte transrhenana"
(Halle, 1867), appeared independently; then in 1877
followe<l the mam of the geologicid survey of the Hara
Mountains and later many special maps of the Han
district, and the exhaustive work, " Boilen der stadt
Bcriin ". Of great importance are his papers on the
contact and dynamomctamorphosis of mmerals. So
hichly w:ia L<rasen con3idere<l as an authority on this
subject that the committee in charge of the programme
tor the International Geological Congress in London
refiucsted him to present a paper on the origin of crys-
tallized slate (printed in 18S8). He was made a mem-
ber of Bclginn, French, and English learned societies.
The mineral losscnite is named after him : it is a hy-
dntted lend-iron sulpharsenate from the mines of Lau-
rion In Attica. Lossen was a man of noble character,
loyal, dutiful, kinil-liearted, full of good humour and
with very strong convictions of faith and decided
views for church authority.
Kati4ri( ill Ntuft JiifiHtjifn far Minfraloirif. Geohffie vnd
Palaeonliilogie. II (Stutlsnrt, ISftt); voH HKRTLUia in John*-
UT
366
LOTTZ
herieht d&rOsm9om$Utehaft far 1895 (Cologne. 1896); Rnbllbb.
Dm Chrititmtum vnd die YtrirtUr dm iMuem Naturwiaamuchafi
(FreibuxB. 1904).
J. H. ROMPBL.
Lot (Heb. tDl^; Sept. A(6r), son of Abraham's
brother Aran (Gen., xi, 27), therefore Abraham's
nephew (his "brother": xiii, 8, 11; xiv, 14, 16) and
grandson of Thare, father of Abraham (xi, 31). Lot
was among those whom Thare took with him out of
Ur of the Chaldees, to go to the land of Chanaan.
When Thare died in Haran, Lot continued the journey
with Abraham. It may be inferred that Lot accom-
^mied his uncle to Sichcm, to the mountain between
Bethel and Hai, and then to the south (xii, 6, 8, 9).
Whether Lot went to Egypt with Abraham at the time
of the famine (xii, 10-^) is not explicitly stated, but
is implied in xiii, 1 : '^ And Abraham went up out of
E^ypt, he and his wife, and all that he had, and Lot
with him into the south. " After their return, they
once more settled between Bethel and Hai (xiii, 3).
Lot and Abraham had numerous flocks and herds, so
niunerous that the pasture and watering places proved
insufficient for them. Strife ensued between the
herdsmen of Abraham and of Lot. Abraliam, in the
interest of peace, proposed to his nephew that they
should live apart, and even allowed Lot to t^ke his
choice of the surrounding countr>'. Lot chose the wa-
tered and fertile region " about the Jordan " (Kikkar),
and fixed his abode in the citv of Sodom, whereas
Abraham dwelt in the land of Chanaan (xiii, 6-12).
The next incident in the life of Lot is related in con-
nexion with the expedition of Chodorlahomor against
tiie five cities **alx)ut the Jordan", including Sodom
(xiv, 1 sqc^.). The kings of the Pentapolis were de-
feated, their cities pillaged, and among those carried
away by the victorious kings was I^t, who lost all his
possessions (xiv, 12). Lot's predicament was made
Known to Abraham, who at once chose three hundred
and eighteen of his best men and set out in pursuit of
the retreating victorious kings. He overtook them
in Dan, where he surprised them at night, and route<l
them completely. Lot and his possessions were res-
cued by Abraham, who brought all back safely to
Sodom (xiv, 13-16; see Abraham).
Again we read of Lot in connexion with the mission
of the angels who had been sent by God to destroy the
five cities in the valley of the Jordan. These angels,
three in number, were first entertained by Abraham in
the vale of Mambre (Gen., xviii, 2 sq(i.), and then two
of them made their way towards Sodom, where they
arrived in the evening (xix, 1). Here they met Ix)t,
who, sitting in the gateway of the city — a common
place of meeting in the East — ^arose and greeted the
strangers, at the same time offering them the hospital-
ity of his house. The strangers at first refusecl, but
finally accepted the pressing invitation of Ix)t, who
then prepared a feast for them (xix, 2, 3). That night
the men of Sodom revealed their degradation by,
attacking Lot's house and demanding liis two guests
for their vile purpose (4, 5). Lot interceded in behalf
of his guests in accordance with his duties as host,
which are most sacred in the East, but made the mis-
take of placing them al)ove his duties as father by of-
fering his two daughters to the wicked designs of the
Sodomites (6-8). The latter, however, refused the
substitution, and just as thev were about to inflict vio-
lence upon Lot the two angels intervened, dra\*'ing Lot
into the house and striking the men outside with blind-
ness, thus preventing them from finding the ddor of the
house (9-11). The angels then made known to JjOt
the object of their visit to Sodom, which they were
sent to destroy, and advised him to leave the city at
once with his family and belongings. Lot imparted
the news to his prospective sons-in-law, who, however,
refused to consider it seriously. The next morning,
the angels once more admonished Ix)t to leave Sodom,
And when he still hesitated they took him, his wife, arxl
two daughters, and brought them out of the city, warn-
ing them not to look back nor to remain in the vicin-
ity of the doomed city, but to flee into the mountains
(1 2-1 7) . The mountains, however, seemed too far dis-
tant to Lot, and he requested to seek shelter in a small
city nearer by. The request was granted, and Lot fled
to Segor (Heb. Zo 'ar)^ which is also promised protec-
tion (18-23). Sodom, Gomorrha, and the other cities
of the Pentapolis were then destn^ed. Lot's wife, dis-
regarding the injunction of the angels, looked back,
and was converted into a pillar of salt (2i-26). Lot,
seeing the terrible destruction of the five cities, feai«d
for his own safety in Segor, and therefore fled with his
two daughters into the mountains, where thejr dwelt in
a cave (30). It was here, according to toe Sacred
Text, that Lot's two daughters were guilty of incestu-
ous intercourse with their father, the outcOToe of which
was the birth of Moab and Ammon, the fathers of Is-
rael's future most bitter enemies (31-38). This last
incident also closes the history of Lot. His name,
however, occurs again in the expression *' the children
of Lot", meaning the Moabites (Deut., ii, 9), and the
Ammonites (Deut., ii, 19), and both (Ps., ixzxii, 9).
In the New Testament, Christ refers to the destruction
of Sodom *'in the days of Lot" (Luke, xvii, 28, 29),
and St. Peter (II Pet., ii, 6-8) speaks of the deliver-
ance of the ''just Lot". The fate of Lot's wife is re-
ferred to in Wis., X, 7; Luke, xvii, 32. Accordinf; to
Jewish and Christian tradition, the piUar of salt mto
which she was converted was preserved for some tame
(Josephus, *'Antiq.", I, xi, 4; Clement of Rome, "I
Cor.", xi, 2; Irenseus, " Adv. Haer.", IV, xxxi). Vari-
ous explanations are given of this phenomenon. Ac-
cording to von Hummelauer ("Comment, in Gen.",
Paris, 1895, 417), Lot's wife could easilv have been
overtaken by the salty waters of the Dead Sea and lit-
erally covered with salt. Kaulen had already ad-
vanced a similar explanation, accounting for the coat-
ing of salt by the heat of the flames releasing the salt
fumes from the soil.
F. X. E. Albert.
Lottery is one of the aleatory contracts and is com-
monly defined as a distribution of prises by lot or by
chance. Each person who joine. in the lottery buys a
numbered ticket and at a certain fixed time lots are
cast by some method, as by drawing the numbers out
of a hollow wheel, to decide to what numbers the priie
or prizes are to be assigned. Some winners get much
more than they contributed, some less, while others
get nothing. It is obviously a kind of gambling if con-
sidered from the point of view of the contributories; by
the directors it is sometimes used as a means of raising
money. Morally it is objectionable if carried to ex-
cess as it t^nds to develop the gambling spirit and dis-
tract people from earning a livelihood by nonest work.
However, if there is no fraud of any sort in the trans-
action, and if there is some sort of proportion between
the price of a ticket and the value of a chance of ^n-
ing a prize, a lotter\' cannot be condemned as in itself
immoral. In the tJnited States they were fonneriy
permitted, but in 1890 Congress forbade the mails to
oe used to promote any lottery enterprise, and now
they are generally prohibited by state legislation. In
England lotteries have long been forbidden by law un-
less conducted by art unions carr^'ing on business by
royal charter or under a constitution and rules ap-
proved hv the Privv Council.
Ballehini, Opua Morale, III (Prato, 1892); Oftmoor.
Theologia M oralis (DnDincls, 1909) ; SuiTKit, A Manual of
Moral Theoloffu, I (New York. 1908).
T. Slater.
Lotti, Antonio, composer, b. at Venice in 1667; d.
there, 5 Januar}', 1740 and studied under Legrensi,
producing an opera, *'I1 Giustino", in his sixteenth
vear. On 31 May. 1092, he was appointed second or-
'gsnist of St. Mark's, and on 17 August, 1704, he sue-
SAINT LOUIS
(1887)
I Hia
"V
B^NEl^P
SCHE or CASTIIX
ANT H Son
SUBJECTS
A
CRUS
A PER IV
PALESTJNE
LOTTO 3l
CMded 8p«d& H first otfttuist. On 3 April, 1736, he
was daoted moutro di cappdla, though Pollorolo, Por-
pm, and Porta were formidable rivals for the much'
eoveted post, with a salary of 400 ducats. Between
tlw TMIS 1703 and 1730 he composed numeroua
HiaiiM II and motets, especially his "Miserere", which
supplantod the vmsion of Legrenii and is still sung at
St. Mark's on Holy Thursday. Lottl also comp^ed
twHity-nven operas (1693-1717), and he spent two
years at Dresden, producing various works. After his
return to Venioe, in November, 1719, be gave up secu-
lar writing, and devoted himself solely to church and
diMnber musie. Had he continue<l at operatic writ-
ing his financial success would have been considerable,
but hs preferred his post as maetiro at St. Mark's. One
inddent in his career was the controversy over a mad-
rigal which Bononcini claimed and which, it is said,
led to that eminent composer leaving London, but it ia
now genenUly believed that Bononcini was wronged in
the matter, as
iiaally there was
7 LDUCBEDZ
many Rapbaelistio characteristics. He first reached
Bergamo, the place with which his name is so closelv
connected, in 1513, spent some five years there, ana,
after a visit to Venice in 1523, returned sgain to the
same place. In 1512 and in 1526 he was painting at
Jesi, ttic two works executed in the latter year being
of high importance. A wonderful picture is the
great "Crucifixion", painted at Monte San Giusto in
1531. In the following year he was in Venice, and
a couple of years afterwards af!;ain in Bergamo.
Manv of his finest pictures were painted for small
rural towns, puch as Cingoli, Mogliano, Trescoire, and
Jeai. Fortunately most of his works are dated, and
he left behind bim an account book, which ho com-
menced in 1539, and in which he records the names
of his later pictures. This book he kept down to
within a few months of his death. There are a few
of hiA drawings in existence, notably at (Thatsworth,
Wilton House, the Uflizi, and Vienna. Almost all his
latest productions
are at Loreto, but
during the last
three years of his
life, he appears to
have laid aside
his brush.
London far
a jear receiving
ro^ patronage.
Lotti was an ex-
oellmt teacher, as
is evident from his
many famous pu-
[rila,e.g.,Blarcello,
Alberti, °
Gasparini
Galuppi. ne was
taken seriously ill
in 1736, but lin-
gered until 5 Jan-
uary, 1740, aikd
was interred in
the ehunh of St.
The
{Altributed by U
ID Lotlo. Piui Pulare.
H destroyed with the church in 1851.
Quo*!, Dia. oj Jfwie and Afuncioni. new ed. (LondoD,
1B06>; EmiBR, ChttUraitxilioa (IDOO-Ol); Bdhnkt, Onitral
BUon 'I MiUK Ooniloa, 1789).
W. H. GRAlTAN-FLOOn.
Lotto, LoBEKZO, Italian portrait painter, b. at
Veniee, 1480; d. at Loreto, l.'i5G. This eminent
artist was one of the best portrait painters who ever
Uvad, and occupies an ahnost unique position, es-
pseiallT amongst Italian artists^ for his extraordinary
skill in detectmg the pecnlianties of personal char-
aetv and his power of setting tbcm forth in full ac-
eord with the temperament and mood of his sitters.
He was a great oolourist, and posse»>ed of a passionate
admiration for the beautiful, with a somewhat definite
tendency towards the ecstaticandmystieal, in religion.
He appears to have Iteen a man of strong personal
Eaith, and had a sincere devotion to I^orcto and its
fntit relic, the Holy House, spending his final years
and from that place he went to Ifecanali in 1508 to
paint an important altar-piece. We do not know
who was his master, but his work rei'cals affinity with
that of Alvise Vivarini. He is belic^'ed to have
painted some frescoes in the upper floor of the Vatican
m 1509, but, whether or not these were executed, he
evidently studied the work of Raphael when in Rome,
as in his own paintings from 1512 to 1525 there arc
(BeniDmu.lTU:iliVA-
MiLANEHi (Flomico,
Louchenx, the would-be Kuchin of some ethnol-
of^ists, and the Tukiulh of the Protectant missionaries;
Richardson called them Quarrellers. They call them-
selves generally Dindjyc (men) and form an aggregate
of closely related triht-s. a sort, of ethnographic con-
federation, the most north-western of all the Wa6
divisions. Their habitat extends from Anderson
River in the east to the western extremity of Alaska.
Eiaat of the Rocky Mountains their soutliern frontier
is to-day al>oiit 67" N. lat., and we^t of thai range
their territory reaches somewhat more to the south.
Practically the whole interior of Alaska h claime<i by
them. In the north they lave for neighlmurs the
E.-!kimns, They are, or were originally, divided into
fourt<*n trflies, via. the 'Kaiytdi-kho- tcnne, or Peo-
ple of the Willow River, conterminous with the Eski-
mos of Norton Sound, an important sul)di\'i6ion of
more or less mixed blood more commonly known by
its Eskimo name, Ingalcte; the Koyu-kukh-o 'tcnne,
or royukonp. farther up the (treat Alaskan stream and
along the Coyukuk River; the Yuna-kho'-tenne, still
higher ut> on the left bank of the Yukon, as far as
Tanana River; the Tiinana, along the river called after
them; the Kut'qa-ktit'ciin, at the eonfltieneo of the
Porcupine; the Gcnx liu Lnrffc, or JTatee-kut'nin, from
the Porcupine to the Romanoff Mountains; the Vocn-
kut'qin, or People of the Lake; the Tsa-'ke-kut'qio.
LOUIS 368 LOUIS
or Cros9-Eyed Ones, being the particular tribe, be- braced Protestantism eventually resulted in the Cath-
tween the headwaters of the Porcupine and Fort olic Loucheux having to leave Fort McPherson (wha%
McPherson, which gave rise to the French name of the priest's house was burnt down by their Protestant
Loucheux now applied to all those related Arctic ab- compatriots) for the environs of the Arctic Red
origines; the Han-kut'qin, or River People, above the River, where a Catholic mission was built for Lou-
Kotlo River, on both banks of the Yukon; the utsone- cheux and Eskimos. An Episcopalian clenryman,
kut'qin, or Crow People, from the sources of the Por- Rev. W. W. Kirkby, had already crossed the Rockies
cupine and the Peel to those of the Liard; the to prosel>i;i3se amone the western Loucheux. In 1862
Tehanin-kut'qin, from the upper branches of the Yu- and 1870 respectively, P athers Seguin and Petitot fol-
kon almost to the Pacific coast; the Thet'Iet-kut'qin, lowed him tnither, going as far as Fort Yukon, but
on Peel River; the Nakotco-ondjig-kut'ciin,or People without any appreciable results, owing to the calum-
of the Mackenzie, and the Kwit'(^a-kut qin, who in- nies disseminated by the minister, who had preceded
habit the dreary steppes bordering on the Arctic them in every village. Two years later. Bishop Glut,
Ocean, barring a strip of land along the coast between O.M.I., accompanied bv Father Lecorre, walked in
the Mackenzie and the Anderson Rivers. The desin- their footsteps and reached the Pacific, meeting along
ence -kiU^qin in these tribal names means inhabitants the Yukon with some slight success. Father Lecorre
of (as well as *tenne in other D6n6 denominations) even remained on that stream until 1874, when he
and not men, as American ethnologists have freely learned that Alaska had been entrusted to the Bishop
stated. of Vancouver Island. The latter advanced in 1877
The total population of the Loucheux tribes is to- as far as Nuiato from the coast, but in Nov., 1886, he
day about 5500 souls. They are as a rule superior, was murdered in the course of another apostolic tour
physically and mentally, to the majority of the north- in the valley of the Yukon (see Seghers, Charles).
ern D^nds. Tall and of a rather pleasing appearance, Nevertheless the efforts of the two .bishops had not
they are more manly than their southern neighbours, been in vain. They paved tiie way for the establish-
Owing to the large extent of their habitat, their man- ment by the Jesuits of a mission in 1887 among the
ners and customs cannot be represented as uniform, westernmost Loucheux. The following year a little
East and west of the Rocky Mountains they were band of Sisters of St. Anne arrived there, who im-
originally remarkable for their fine beaded and be- mediately opened a school for the Loucheux and
fringed leather costume, the most conspicuous part of Eskimo girls, while lay brothers of the Society of
which was a coat with a peaked appendage in front Jesus were doing the same on behalf of the boys of
and behind. Their footgear was made of one piece both nations. Most of the eastern Loucheux are now
with the leggings, the counterpart among most Ameri- excellent Catholics.
can aborigines of the white man's trousers. During Richardson. Arctic Searching ExvediHon, 2 vob. (London,
the winter they lived in semi-spherical skin lodges, not 1851 ) ; Hoopbr, Ten Months among the Tents of the TuMki (Lon-
unlike those of the Tuskis of the eastern Asiatic coast, ^1?^*}^^ • 7"^*??^^ ^'S'^ and. Adventure %n the Territory oj
uu^xn.^ wixvo^vi vi*^ xvwi^»vrx t/u^«;«wt/^t«» ^oM»vi^/^vrc»v, ^i^gf^a (London, 1868); Petitot, op. c%t., and Monographu
and m summer they replaced these by shelters usually des Dfnf-Dindii^ (Pans. 1876); Dall, Tribes of the Extreme
aiiu III ouimnci i,iicv icpinvcu t;uc»c uj oucii^cio uauaiijr tf„ tjene-utnottf (rans, i»7fj;; LiALL. Trtoes Of uie JSxtreme
made of coniferous boughs, generally erected in pairs of North-west (WashiniKton, 1877); Scbwatka, AUmg Alaska's
face to face dwellings so that a single fire on the out- S"^ 5**^ ^^^^^ .X?^^- ^^i* ^?"?c^^ -K"tS!LP^^'i
*»Y^ w i»vv. v*»»-t»»* i(^o ^vi^w <*o.ug<^ ****. v»* VKE.K. v^^iT" ^j^^^ MonncTS and Ctutoms (Toronto, 1890); The Oreat Deni
Side served for both. Their tribal organization varies Race (in cooxae of publication. Vienna. Austria); Dzvinb.
according to their environment. While east of the Across Widest America (New York, 1906).
Rocky Mountains they have preserved the original A. G. Morice.
patriarchy of the D^n^ in all its primitive simplicity,
some of the western tribes have adopted a sort of Louis IX, Saint, King of France, son of Loiiis VIII
matriarchy, with chiefs, clans, totems and other con- and Blanche of Castile, b. at Poissy, 25 April, 1215; d.
sequent institutions. Their religion originally con- near Tunis, 25 August, 1270. He was eleven ^ears of
sisted in the shamanism common to all the northern a^e when the death of Louis VIII made him king, and
D^n^s, and their traditions clearly point to the west, nineteen when he married Marguerite of Provence
that is, Asia, as the region whence they migrated, by whom he had eleven children. The regency of
Their wars were, as usual, series of ambuscades and Blanche of CJastile (1226-1234) was marked by the
massacres, of which the Eskimos were often the vie- victorious struggle of the Crown against Raymond
tims. Several of these are on record, as for instance VII in Languedoc, against Pierre Mauclerc in Brit-
the treacherous slaying of five or six Eskimos on the tany, against Philip Hurepel in the He de France, and
Lower Mackenzie, in the spring of 1850, and, in Octo- by indecisive combats against Henry III of England,
ber of the same year, the murder by the (Doyukons of In this period of disturbances the queen was power-
Lieutenant Barnard with his body servant,* and then fully supported bythe legate Frangipani. Accredited
the destruction bv fire and arrows of an almost entire to Louis VlII by Honorius III as early as 1225, Frangi-
village of the Nuiato Indians, on the Yukon. Early wini won over to the French cause the sympathies ©f
the following spring the same party likewise encom- Gregory IX, who was inclined to listen to Ilenry III,
passed the death of the Russian commander with one and through his intervention it was decreed that all
of his men, whereby we see that the assertion of the chapters of the dioceses should pay to Blanche of
Father Petitot that ** the Loucheux never imbrued Castile tithes for the southern crusade. It was the
their hands in the blood of Europeans" (Traditions legate who received the submission of Raymond VII,
Indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest, p. 14) is unreliable. Count of Languedoc, at Paris, in front of Notre-Dame,
The Loucheux are of all the northern D6n^ tribes and this submission put an end to the Albigensian war
that which has been the least influenced by CathoH- and prepared the union of the southern provinces to
cism. The Catholic missionaries had secured a firm France by the Treaty of Paris (April, 1229). The in-
footing among their neighlx)uring congeners when the fluence of Blanche de Castile over the government ex-
Protestant preachers reached the Mackenzie and tended far beyond St. Louis's minority. Even later,
directed their steps towards the Ix)ucheux, especially in public business and when anibassadors were offi-
those whose habitat lav west of the Rocky Mountains, cially received, she appeared at his side. She died in
who had not as vet l)een visited. There being no 1253. In the first years of the king's personal govem-
priests to oppose them, thev practicallv had the field ment, the Oown had to combat a fresh rebellion
to themselves. East of that range, the Oblate Fath- against feudalism, led by the Count de la Marche, in
ers Seguin and Petitot, liailing from the Missions of league with Henry III. St. Louis's victory over this
Good Hope antl Fort McPherson. long devoted them- coalition at Taillebourg, 1242, was followed by the
selves to the salvation of the Loucheux, not without Peace of I^rdeaux which annexed to the French realm
success. But the fanaticism of those who had em- a part of Saintonge.
XdOUXS
369
LOUIS
It was one of St. Louis's chief characteristics to
cany on abreast his administration as national sover-
dgn and the performance of his duties towards Chris-
tendom; and taking advantage of the respite which
the Peace of Bordeaux afforded, he turned his thoughts
towards a crusade. Stricken down with a fierce
m^ady in 1244, he resolved to take the cross when
news came that the Turcomans had defeated the
Christians and the Moslems and invaded Jerusalem.
(On the two crusades of St. Louis [1248-1249 and
1270] see Crusades.) Between the two crusades he
opened negotiations with Henry III, which, he thought
would prevent new conflicts between France and Eng-
land. The Treaty of Paris (28 May, 1258) which
St. Louis concluded with the King of England after
five years' parlev, has been very much discussed. By
this treaty St. Louis gave Henry III all the fiefs and
domains belonging to the King of France in the Dio-
ceses of Limoges, Cahors, and Pdrigueux; and in the
event of Alphonsus of Poitiers dying without issue,
Saintonge and Agenais would escheat to Henry III.
On the other hand Henry III renounced his claims
to Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, Maine, Poitou, and
promised to do homage for the Duchy of Guyenne. It
was generally considered, and Joinville voiced the
opinion of the people, that St. Louis made too many
territorial concessions to Henry III; and many histon-
ans held that if, on the contrary, St. Louis had carried
the war against Henry III further, the Hundred
Years' War would have been averted. But St. Louis
considered that by making the Duchy of Guyenne a
fief of the (>own of France he was gaining a moral
advantage; and it is an undoubted fact that the
Treaty of Paris, was as displcasine to the English as
it was to the French. In 1263, St. Louis was chosen as
arbitrator in a difference which separated Henrv III
and the English baxons: by the *'Dit d' Amiens (24
January, 1264) he declared himself for Henry III
against Uie liarons, and annulled the Provisions of Ox-
ford, by which the barons had attempted to restrict
the authority of the king. It was also in the period
between the two crusades that St. Louis, by the
Treaty of ()orbeil, imposed upon the King of Aragon
the aoandonment of his claims to all the fiefs in Lan-
euedoc excepting Montpellier, and the surrender of
his rights to Provence (11 May, 1258). Treaties and
arbitrations prove St. Louis to have been alx)ve all a
lover of peace, a king who desired not only to put an
end to conflicts, but also to remove the causes for
fresh wars, and this spirit of peace rested upon the
Christian conception,
St. Louis's relations with the Church of France and
the papal Court have excited widely divergent inter-
pretations and opinions. However, all historians agree
that St. Louis and the successive popes uuitecT to
protect the clergy of France from the encroachments
or molestations of Uie barons and royal officers. It is
equally recognized that during; the absence of St.
Louis at the crusade, Blanche of Castile protected the
clergy in 1251 from the plunder and ill-treatment of
a mysterious old maurauder called the "Hungarian
Master " who was followed bv a mob of armed men —
call^ the *' Pastoureaux ". 'the ' ' Hungarian Master "
who was said to be in league ^lith the Moslems died in
an engagement near Villaneuve and the entire Imnd
Eursued m every direction was dispersed and annihi-
kted. But did St. Louis take measures also to defend
the independence of the clergy against the papacy?
A number of historians once claimed he did. They
attributed to St. Louis a certain '^pragmatic sanction^'
of March, 1269, prohibiting irregular collations of
ecclesiastical benences, prohibiting simony, and inter-
dicting tlie tributes wmch the papal Court received
from me French clergy. The Gallicans of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries often made use of this
measure against the Holy See; the truth is that it was
« foigeiy fabricateil in the fourteenth centur>' by juris-
IX.— 24
consults desirous of giving to the Pragmatic Sanction
of Charles VII a precedent worthy of respect. ITiis
so-called pragmatic of Louis IX is presented as a royal
decree for the reformation of the Church; never would
St. Louis thus have taken upon himself the right to
proceed authoritatively with this reformation. When
m 1246, a great number of barons from the north and
the west leagued against the clergy whom they accused
of amassing too great wealth and of encroaching upon
their rights. Innocent IV called upon Louis to dis-
solve this league; how the king acted in the matter is
not definitely known. On 2 May, 1247, when the
Bishops of Soissons and of Troyes, the archdeacon of
Tours, and the provost of the cathedral of Houen,
despatched to the pope a remonstrance against his
taxations, his preferment of Italians in the distribution
of benefices, against the conflicts between papal juris-
diction and the jurisdiction of the ordinaries. Marshal
Ferri Past^ seconded their complaints in the name of
St. Louis. Shortly after, these complaints were reit-
erated and detailed in a lengthy memorandum, the
text of which has been preserved by Mathieu Paris, the
historian. It is not known whether St. Louis affixed
his signature to it, but in any case, this document was
simply a request asking for the suppression of the
abuses, with no pretensions to laying aown principles of
public right, as was claimed by the Prannatic Sanction.
Documents prove that St. Louis did not lend an ear
to the grievances of his clergy against the emissaries
of Urban IV and Clement IV; he even allowed Clement
IV to generalize a custom in 1265 according to w^hich
the benefices the titularies of which died while so-
journing in Rome, should be disposed of by the pope.
Docile to the decrees of the I^ateran Council (1215),
according to which kings were not to tax the churches
of their realm without authority from the pope, St.
Louis claimed and obtained from successive popes,
in view of the crusade, the right to levy quite heaiy
taxes from the clergy. It is a^ain this fundamental
idea of the crusade, ever present m St. Louis's thoughts,
that prompted his attitude generally in the struggle
between the empire and the pope. While the Em-
peror Frederick II and the successive popes sought
and contended for France's support, St. Louis's atti-
tude was at once decided and reserved. On the one
hand he did not accept for his brother Robert of Ar-
tois, the imperial crown offered him by Gregorv IX in
1240. In his correspondence with Frederick he con-
tinued to treat him as a sovereign, even after Fred-
erick had been excommunicated and declared dis-
possessed of his realms by Innocent IV at the Council
of Lyons, 17 July, 1245. But on the other hand, in
1251 , the king compelled Frederick to release the French
archbishops taken prisoners by the Pisans, the em-
geror's auxiliaries, when on their way in a Genoese
eet to attend a general council at Rome. In 1245, he
conferred at length, at Cluny, w^ith Innocent IV who
had taken refuge in Lyons in December, 1244, to
escape the threats of the emperor, and it was at this
meeting that the papal disi>ensation for the marriage
of Charles Anjou, brother of Louis IX, to Beatrix, heir-
ess of Provence was granted, and it was then that
Ijouis IX and Blanche of Castilo promisoil Innocent
IV their support. Finally, when in 1247 Frederick II
took steps to capture Innocent IV at Lyons, the meas-
ures Louis took to defend the pope were one of the
reasons which caused the emperor to withdraw. St.
Louis looked upon ever}' act of hostility from either
power as an ol)stacle to accomplishing the crusade.
In the quarrel over investitures, the king kept on
friendly tenns v;ith Iwth, not allowing the emperor to
harass the pop^ and never exciting the pope against
the emperor. In 1262 when Urban offered St. Louis,
the Kingdom of Sicily, a fief of the Apostolic See, for
one of his sons, St. Louis refused it, through consitlera-
tion for the Swabian dvTiasty then reigning; but when
Charles of Anjou accepted Urban IV's offer and went
LOUIS 370 LOUZB
to eomquer the Kingdom of Sicily, St. Louis allowed LOQls ZI, King of France, eldest son of CharleB
the bravest knights of France to join the expedition VII and Marie of Anjou, b. at Bouigee 3 July, 1423;
which destroyed the power of the Hohenstaufens in d. at Plessis-les-Tours, 30 August, 1483. Maving
Sicily. The king hoped, doubtless, that the possession married Margaret of Scotland in June, 1436, he to^
of Sicily by Charles of Anjou would be advantageous part in two mtrigues against his father, Charles VII,
to the crusade. the first in 1440, when he organised the revolt of the
St. Louis led an exemplary life, bearing constantly Praguerie, the second in 1446, when he withdrew into
in mind his mother's words: " I had rather see you Dauphiny and later to the Court of the Duke of Bur-
dead at my feet than guilty of a mortal sin." His gundy. Succeeding to the throne, 21 July^ ^^h ^
biographers have told us of tne long hours he spent in had t^ make lar^e concessions, by liie Treaties of Uon-
prayer, fasting, and penance, without the knowledge flans and Saint-Maur (1465), to the feudal lords, who
of his subjects. The French king was a great lover had organized against him the League of the Public
of justice. French
judgments under
mg his reign that the
was organized into a regular court of justice, having Bold, Duke of Burgundy, as the heaid of -the feudal
competent experts, and judicial commissions acting organization; he had to treat with him or subdue
at regular periods. These commissions were called him. The Conference of P^ronne (1468) ended with
parlements and the history of the "Dit d' Amiens" an act of treachery on the part ot Charles, who re-
E roves that entire Christendom willingly looked upon tained Louis a prisoner, forced him to sign a disad-
im as an international justiciary. It is an error, vantageous treaty, and took the king with him on an
however, to represent him as a great legislator; the expedition against the revolted burgbnv of Li^.
document known as '' Etablissements de St. Louis" But on the return of Louis to France preparations
was not a code dravvn up by order of the king, but were begun for a decisive struggle between the king,
merely a collection of customs, written out before who, in 1474, had formed an aluance with the Swiss
1273 by a jurist, who set forth in this book the cus- cantons, and the duke, who was an ally <A the King
toms of Orleans, Anjou, and Maine, to which he added of England. Charles the Bold having fallen at Nancy,
a few ordinances of St. Louis. St. Louis was a patron 5 January, 1477, Louis took possession of the Duchy
of architecture. The SainteChappelle, an architectural of Burgundy, of Artois, and of Hainaut. Maripiret.
gem, was constructed in his reign, and it was under daughter of Charles the Bold, married Maximihan of
his patronage that Ilo))ert of Sornonne founded the Austria, in August, 1477; the result of this marria^
"College de la Sorbonne", which l)ecame the seat of would have been to place Burgundy and Artois m
the theological faculty of Paris. He was renowned the hands of Philip the Handsome, grandson of
for his charity. The peace and blessings of the realm Charles, and it was to provide against such an un-
come to us througli the poor he would say. Beggars desirable eventuality that Louis affianced his son
were fed from his table, he ate their leavings, washed Charles (afterwards Charles VIII) to the daughter of
their feet, ministered to the wants of the lepers, and Margaret and Maximilian. (The marriage of Charies
daily fed over one hundred poor. He founcied many VIII to Anne of Brittany, in 1491, after Louis's
hospitals and houses: the liouse of the Filles-Dieu for death, frustrated this precaution.) Louis passed
reformed prostitutes; the Quinze-Vingt for 300 blind his last years in his castle of Plessis-les-Tours, sur-
men(12.S4), hospitals at Pontoise, Vernon, Compi^gne. rounded by persons of low estate, very suspicious.
The " Enseignements " (written instructions) wliich very irascible. His character was contemptible,
he left to his son Philip and to his daughter IsabeL though he was a clever politician; he was fond of
the discourses preserved by the witnesses at judicial pilgrimages and pious practices, but he had a narrow
investi<i;ations preparatory to his canonization, and idea of God; his religion was based on morbid fear,
Joinville's anecdotes show St. Louis to have been a his Christianity never displayed itself in kind deeds.
man of sound common sense, possessing inde- His perfidy and cruelty were notorious; he kept
fatigable energy, graciously kind and of plaj'ful Cardinal Balue (q. v.) a prisoner for eleven years m
humour, and constantly guarding against the temp- an iron cage.
tation to be imperious. The caricature made of him The relations of Louis XI with the Holv See are
by the envoy of the Count of Gueldre: "worthless worthy of special study, for they definite^ shaped
devotee, h>7)ocritical king" was very far from the the reli^ous policy of the French monarchy. From
truth. On the contrary, St. Louis, through his per- the begmniiig of nis reign there were two questions
sonal qualities as well as his snintliness, increased for that necessitated continued communication oetween
many centuries the prestige of the French monarchy Louis and the pope: the question of the PTagmatic
(see France). St. Louis's canonization was pro- Sanction and the Italian question. Pius II, at the
claimed at Orvieto in 1297, by Boniface VIII. Of Council of Mantua, in 1459, had protested onoe more
the inquiries in view of canonization, carried on from against the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. and the
1273 till 1297, we have only fragmentary reports Bull ^'Execrabilis" (18 June, 1460), by wliich Pius
published by Delaborde (M^'moires de la soci6t6 de II condemned appeals to future councils, was directed
I'histoire de Paris et de I'lle de France ", XXIII, against it. Again, Louis was always anxious to form
1896) and a series of extracts compiled by Guillaume ^^ olTensive and defensive alliance with Uie irnijiHyr
de St. Pathus, (Jueen Marguerite's confessor, under the Italian States, to reduce the revolted Genoese, and
title of "Vie Monseigneur Saint Loys" (Paris, 1899). bring the north of the peninsula under his sway by
means of the possessions of the house of Orleans in
Svjie ae oi. ixmw iraris, im/-ou; i? acre, Htstoire de St. Louis i • i r i. • tI T'
xna, 1865); Wallon. St Louis et »on irmpa (Paria, 1875)- ^ kmd of hegemony m Italy
COT DE LA Mahche. La France Boun Si. Louis (Paria, 1894); He began his reign by suppressinff the Praffmatie
Kxna (New York, 1901); Berger. St. Tx>uia H Innocent l\\ hunself in opposition to the policy of his father— ftn
HwUiniTUarnjypoH*delaFrnnceetduSaintSiae(VtinnASm)\ attitude which he waS aiudoUS tO emphasise— «nd
VKYim, The Jnvaaum of Egypt bifLouia IX of France, and a Hia- of the same time he took nwnv fmm thA AnloMmAl
fpry of the Contemporary Sultana of Egypt (London. 1898); **. \"*^ same lime ne TOOK awav irom Ue eplSCOpal
UONGNON. Documenta pariaiena aur riconographie de St Louia anstocracy, the feudalism of the ChUTOh, a Weapon
(Fans, 1882): Chkyauucr, Biobibi. 2873-83. which they very much desured to keep. And thus the
Georges OoYAr. same measure which won him the favour of Rome
Lorns 3
■1m «nt(md bto the plao of his eampaiga K^lnat
feudalism. He even restored the Duchies of Die and
Vslentmois to Piue 11. But when he saw that the
pope ma unwilliiv to aid him in recapturing Genoa,
and su[>port«d the Neapolitan claims of Ferrante,
the candidata hostile to the House of Anjou, Louia
ehanged bb attitude, and, in 14G3, t>egan a religious
mr. It waa marked tw the ordinance of Paria (17
Felmiary, 1163) which forbade the giving of any of
the property of deceased ecclesiastics to the poatificnl
collectors; by the ortlinancca of Murct [24 May. 140:t)
ftndLuzieu(19June, 1464), by which the king claimed
the diapoaal of all vacant benefices aa a right of the
Crown (r^lida) and revived the Pragrantic Sanction
in DauphinT by the ordinance of Dampierre (June,
14A4), whion prohibited the raising of undue sub-
ndies established by Rome; by the ordinance of
RuA (7 September, 1464), which Buppresacd the
grtten tepealativea (reversion-
aiT rij^ta to beneficea). Theae
orainauoes were so displeas-
Uoreover, Louis, at the begin-
lungof the reign of Paul II,
refused to allow the collection
^ tithes for the orusades, and
entertained the proposals of
Fodiebrad of Bohemia, for a»-
•embling aa anti-papal coun-
eil. But the discontent of
Uie Glergy with Louis helped
to develop the League of the
Public Weal (1465), the mem-
bers of which askel Paul II
to release them from their
_ .. _.e friendly
policy towards Roroe ; he sent
thither aa hia ambassador,
Balue, Biahop of Angera, and
by the ordinance of Etampea
(24 July, 1467) revoked the
edicts cuttailiuK the papal
authority. But when, in
1468, the kmg wished to try Cardinal Balue for trea-
son, ft eoofliet aroae between Louis and Paul II, who
did not wish the cardinal to be tried by civil judges.
During Uw three years' struggle, Ixiuis could not in-
duce tbe Holy See to reet^mze the supremacy of the
lay magiatraoy. He impneoned Balue and the other
prelat«B. for whose liberty the Holy See was contend-
ing. There aeemed to be no way of coming to terms,
Wtan, in 1471, Paul II waa Buececded by Sixtus IV.
The Dew pope sent Cardinal Bcssarion to France to
preach the oruaade against the Turks. Louis sent
<MrarddeCninol,Biahopof Valence, to Rome. This
misHon resulted in the Concordat of Amboise (31
October, 1472), by the terms of which the pope
agreed uat no priest should be raised to any dignity
until he hod fint obtained royal letters att«:sting tlmt
he waa ptnona grtOa to the kinc- I'lie altrmative
KJtibeia was to be adooled in beatowinj; l>enefices: the
pope waa *a diR>uM> of them only during sva months
ot *J>e jear. Ol the reversionarv righta reserved to
tbe pope, two out of six were to be at the disposal of
the royal family and the parliamentary courts. The
pope made other conoeaaions in matters of taxation
ana Juriadiction, Thiaconcordat marks the fir^t sue-
eearful attramtt on the part of the French kings to
aecniire the nght of intCTfcring in the nomination to
w <ilwyiiitifal <Acea. Soon both parties were dis-
aatiified with the ooncordat. Moreover, the political
^fsqiatliiaa of the pope and hia legates with the cause
of ChailM the Bold irritated Louis, who L
self by oocupyiiiK Avignon, hf ordering (8 Januajr',
1475) pontifical Bulls to be verified before being puo-
lialied m France, and by convoking a general council
at Lyons.
Louis, however, did not wish to go the length cf
causing a schism' bis policy from that time was
directed against the pope as a temporal sovereign.
The conspiracy of the Fazzi (1478) gave him an im>.
portunity. Lorenso do' Medici asked his help; he
intervened, and charged Commines with diplomatic
missions to Florence and Rome. Soon he became
the undisputed arbiter of Italy, The pope's attcinpt
to win the support of Austria was unsucceaful. On
the otlier hand, as Louis needed the help of tbe p<^
to bring about peace with Majdmilian. he and SixtUB
IV were reconciled, thanks to the diplomatic skill o(
the legate, GiuUano della Rovere, later Julius II,
who also obtained the re-
lease of Balue. A certain
amount of coquetting between
France and the papacvmarked
the last months of Louis's
life. Sixtus IV oiTered the
Dauphin of France the in-
vestiture of Naples; and Louis,
who acted aa arbiter between
tbe pope and Venice, decided
in favour of the Holy See.
The results of this rdgn were
twofold: on the one hand, the
moral hegemony which France
had gained in Italy, and which
made Louis XI in the words
of the Florentine Government
"the preserver of peace in
Italy", inaugurated the policy
that gave nse to the waia of
Italy; on the other hand, the
manifold negotiations between
the king and the pope, and
tbe concordat of 1472, had
prepared for the Church of
Prance the coming of a regime
in which the pope and the
king, without consulting the
bishops and the clergy, di-
between them the gov-
XI died in the amis of St. Francb of Paula, and was
buried in the church of Notre- Dame -de- ClSrj^, near
Orldans, whither ho had frequently gone aa a pilgrim.
Bauk. Hittoire de CharUt VII d it Louit XI, «L QnicHEUT
(Paris, IS.'M-'J): ConuiNEB, Uimoirn. ei. Dummt IPsiia,
1840-T>; VoFMs ct Ch*r*vat. LcIIth dt Louii XI (fuk,
lSS5-ID(XJ):DccLOB. //ti'vt'ratfaLDuii.T/ (Psm, 17M); Tbi-
MULT. Im ffUTUue de Lout* XI CPtrit. I90S): Coubbt, Zdwi
XIHleSainl-SHat (Paris, 1903); Rbt. Lovii XI it In Halt pm-
■ (ft f rowf oa -Vl'- n/fle CGnsDohli:, 1890); Pi-rroH. Hit.
1,pfth
lO-l).
wf aa XV litcU CGnsnohli:, 1890); Pimm. Hi*.
n from Ihe Clone el Uu UiddU Aga. Ill, IV (St.
Geokgeb Goyau.
LoniB XIT, King of France, b. at Soint-Ciermajn-
en-La_vc, IC Septenilier, 11)38; d. at A'crsailles, 1 Sep-
tember, 1715; was the son of Louis XIII and Anne of
Austria, and liecumc king, upon the death of his fa-
ther, 14 May. lC4:t. Until 1(>01 the real master of
France waa Cardinal Masorin (q. v.), under whose
government his countrv, victorious over Austria
(1643-18) and Spain (1643-59), acquired by the
Treaties of Westphalia (1684) and the Pyrenees (1659)
Alsace, Artois, and Roussillon, which had already
been occupied by French troops since the days w
Richelieu. As a result of the marriage between
Louis XIV and Maria Theresa of Austria, Louis XIV
also acquired tights over the Low Countries. When
Louis's personal government began (1661) France
LOUIS
372
UUIS
was the arbiter of Europe: she had re-established
peace among the Powers of the North (Sweden, Bran-
denburg, Denmark, and Poland); she protected the
League of the Rhine, and her authority in Germany
was greater than the emperor's. At that period the
power of France, established upon the firmest founda-
tions, was perhaps less imposing, but was assuredly
more solid, than it iDecame during the most glorious
days of Louis XIV's personal government.
The n^emory of those dangers with which the par-
liamentary Fronde and the Fronde of the nobles
(1648-53) had threatened the power of the Crown per-
suaded the young king that he must govern in aoso-
lute fashion, reganlless of the still existing provincial
relics and local rights. The nobility Ixjcame a court
nobility and, the nobles instead of residing on their
estates where they were influential, became mere
ornaments of the Court. The Parliaments, which had
hitherto used their right of registration (droU d^enre-
aUiremerd) of edicts to revise, to some extent, the
kings decrees, were trained to submission. The
whole power of the State, represented in the provinces
by intendants at once docile and energetic, was gath-
ered up in the hands of the king, who consulted, in
his council, certain assist-ants chosen by himself —
Colbert, for finance and justice; Louvois, for war;
Lionnc, for foreign affairs. Colbert (q. v.) desired
that France should rule the sea. He did much to
develop French colonial power; but before the end
of the reign that power was to enter upon its period of
decadence. Coll)ert*s plans, were inaeed, constantly
embarrassed by the Continental wars which Louis
undertook. No doubt, the king was forced into some
of these wars: it was necessary to strengthen the
French frontier at certain points. But his lust of
fame, the flattery of his courtiers, and his desire to
humiliate Europe led him to prefer the glories of war-
fare to the wiser and more durable triumphs which a
great maritime development would have secured for
France. His European policy continued those of
Richelieu and of Mazarin in the struggle against the
House of Austria, but it differed, too, from the poli-
cies of the two cardinals in being a jjolicy of religious
creecl, confronting Protestantism in Holland and
England.
The war against Spain (1667-68) undertaken to
enforce the claim of the queen, Maria Theresa, to the
sovereignty of the Low Countries {giterrc de d('vol'Ur-
tion)f in which the king in person accomplished the
conquest of Flanders and made a militarv promenade
in Franche-Comt6 ; the Dutch War (1672-78), in which
Louis distinguished himself by that passage of the
Rhine, of which contemporary poets sang by the
siege of Besan<^on, the definitive conquest of Franche-
Comt^* (1674), and two campaigns in Flanders (1676-
78) ; the judiciary and police measures by virtue of
which, without any declaration of war, he occupied
Strasburg (1681), a free and imperial city, as well as
several other places on the banks of the Rhine — all
these brought Louis XIV to the apogee of his glory, the
date of which is commonly assigned as the year 1685.
But these very successes, the king's habit of not con-
sidering himself bound by treaties, and the pride
which led him to commemorate by insulting medals
his triumplis over various nations, combined to arouse
in Euroi>? a sort of uprising against France which
found expression in numerous pamphlets, on the one
hand, and, on the otlier, in diplomatic coalitions.
The soul of these coalitions was the Protestant William
of Orange. The Ix?ague of Augsburg, formerl in 1688
between the emperor, Spain, Holland, and Savoy, set
on foot a war during which Louis himself, in 1691 and
1692, made two campaigns in Flanders. In spite of
the victories of Luxembourg and Catinat the war was
ruinous for Louis XIV, and ended in a peace less
gorious than those which had preceded it (Peace of
yswick, 1697), forcing him to restore Lorraine and
all the cities of the empire outside of Alsaoe, and to
recognize William as ICmg of England. Thus, at the
opening of the eighteenth century, Louis stood face
to face with England, a Protestant power, a power
in which insteadf of the monarchy or Divine right
the Parliament held sway, and, lastly, a power al-
ready stronger on the sea than France was — three
circumstances which made the prestige of that nation
all the more galling to the King of France.
In consequence of the testament of Charies II,
King of Spain, the Spanish Throne passed from the
Halwburgs to the Bourbons. The Duke of Anjou,
the king's grandson, became Philip V of Spain. Hence
resulted the W^ar of the Spanish Succession, a long and
ruinous war, and yet glorious, thanks to the triumphs
of Vendome and Villars, though it brought France to
the brink of destruction. At one time, in 1712, the
king thought of placing himself at the head of his
brave nobility, and burying himself beneath the ruins
of his throne. The victory of Villara at Denain (1712)
saved the country. The Treaties of Utrecht and Ba-
den (1713 and 1714) maintained Philip V on the
throne of Spain, but gave to the emperor Spain's
ancient possessions in Italy, doomed the maritime
power of France to destruction, and made a breach
m her colonial power by the cession of Newfoumlland
and Acadia to England, thus firmly establishing Eng-
land in North America at the same time that she
was established, at Gibraltar, in the Mediterranean.
The close of nis reign, saddened by these reverses
and by financial catastrophes, also brought a series
of personal griefs to Louis XIV: the death of the
Dauphin (1711), of the Duke of Burgundy, the king's
grandson, and the Duchess of Burgundy (1712), of
their eldest son (1712), and of his other grandson,
the Duke of Berry (1714). He left his throne to Louis
XV, then five years of age, the son of the Duke of
Burgundy. Thus did all the glories of the reign end
in the dangers of a regency. Such as he was, Louis
XIV left a great memory in the soul of France. Vol-
taire calls the seventeenth century the Age of Louis
XIV, Warriors like Turenne, Cond4, Luxembourg,
Catinat, Vend6me, and Villars, navigators Hke Du-
quesne, Trouville, and Duguay-Trouin, preachers like
Bossuet, Boiudaloue, and Massillon, engineers like
Vauban, architects like Perrault and Mansart, painters
hke Poussin, Le Sueur, and Le Brun, sculptors like
Puget, writers fike Comeille, Racine, Moli^re, Boileau,
La Fontaine, La Bruy^re, F^nelon^ Madame de
S^vign6, gave to France a glory by which Louis XIV
profited, and the "M6moires" of Saint-Simon, in
which the reverse of that glory is often exhibited,
have rather enriched the history of the reign than
damaged the prestige of the king.
LoriB XIV AND Reugion. — Louis XIV was mucli
occupied with rcfigion and rcli^ous Questions. His
reign is generally considered as ai\idea into two peri-
ods: (1 ) that of libertinage, during which his heart was
ruled by Mile de la Vallidre, Madame de Montespan,
and other favourites; (2) that of devotion, coincioing
with the influence of Madame de Maintenon, the
widow of Scarron, who, when Maria Theresa died (31
July, 1683), secretly married the king, and who, for a
quart<?r of a centuf\' assisted him in ruling the king-
dom. The second of these two p>eriods was also that
of the influence of Pi^rc Le Tellier (q. v.). This divi-
sion is natural and accounts for certain developments of
religious policv ; but it must not be exa^eratcd. Even
dunng his ix'riod of libertinage, Louis jQV took a jm?-
sionate interest in religious questions: and durine his
devout period, he never altogether abandoned those
Gallican principles wliich incessantly exposed him to
conflicts with Rome. Certain pamphlets, publisheii
in tlie days of the Fronde, opposed to the doctrines of
royal absolutism the old theological doctrine of the ori-
gin and the rcsixjnsibilities of power. "Le Th^lo-
gien Politique" declares that obedience is due only to
Loms 3!
thme kingB who denuuid what is jubt and reaMiiahlc;
Ibetre&tiao "Chretien et Politique'' asserts that kings
do not make peoples, but that peoples have made
kin^ But the doctrine of the Di^-ine right of kings
succeeded in establishing itself upon the ruiiis of the
Fronde; according to that doctrine Louia XIV had to
reckon only with God, and the same doctrine ser^'cd aa
one of the supports of the dictatorship which he pro-
tended to exercise over the Church of France.
In the"iHmoires" of Louis XIV a whole theory of
the lolationa between Church and State is expounded.
He seta forth that the king is the proprietor of the
Church's wealth, in virtue of the maxim that there is
no other proprietor in the kingdom but the king. He
holds that all the faithful, "whether lav or t<ni!iiired".
are the sovereign's subjects; that'^hc clerey ^i^ bound
to bew their part pecuniarily in the public burdens,
and that they "should not excuse themselves from
that obligation by alleging that their pos!*c»sions are
for B particular purpoiie, or that the employment (A
thoM poBsestuons muBt be regulated by the intention
of the donors". The oascmblioit of tliu clergy, which
discuss the amounts la be contributed by the cler^',
ate, in the eyes of Loui.^ XIV, only tolerated; he con-
aidets that, as sovereign, he would be within bis rights
in laying imposts upon the clerjo'i and that " the popes
who have wished to contest that right of royalty tiave
made it clearer and more incontcstal>lG by the ilistinct
withdrawal of their ambitious pretensions which they
have been obUged to make"; he declares it to be inad-
missible that ecclesiastics, "exempt from the dangers
of war and the burden of families", should not con-
tribute to the necessities of the State. The Minims of
Provence had dedicated to Louis XlVa thesis in which
they compared him to God; Bossuet declared that the
loDg could not tolerate any such doctrine, and the Sor-
bonne condemned it. But at Court the person of the
kii^ was the object of a sort ot religious worship, in
which certain courtier bishops loo easily acquiesced,
and the consequence of which became perceptible in
the relations between the Church and thn Slate.
From these principles resulted bis attitude towards
the assemblies of the clergy. He shortened the dura-
tion of their sessions and caused them to l)c watched
by his ministers, while Colliert, who detested the finan-
semblies which the wisest politicians have alwi
aidered dineases of the body politic", l-'rom tnese
principles, too, arose the fear of cvcrj'thing by wliich
churchmen could aci^uire pohtlcul influence. Unlike
his predecessors, Louis XlV employed few prelates in
the service of the State.
The Concordat of Francis I placed a large number of
benefices at the disposal of Louis XIV; he felt that the
appointment of bishops wa.1 the most critical part of
bis kingly duty, and the bishops whom he appointed
were, in general, very well chosen. He erred, how-
ever, in the readiness with whieh ho dispensed them
from residence in their dioceses, while, as to abliacies,
he too often availed himscir of them to reward services
rendered by laymen, and gave them an means of sup-
Ert to impoverished nobles, Tothef'omteduVexin,
I SOD by Madame de MonteNpaii, he gave the two
creat Abbacies of Saint- Denis and Suint-CIcrmain-des-
Frte.
Louie XIV was particularly fond of taking a hand
in doctrinal matters; and those who surrounded him
ended by believing that the king could supervise the
Church and supply it with information on religious
Juestiooa. Daf^esseau, on 14 August, 1699, went so
ir as to proclaim that the King of France ought
reprimanded (or neglecting to report three preaches
of Paris who were in the haiiit of speaking of grace in a
Jansenistic manner.
IvOUIS XIV ANB THE Papacy. — There was always a
certain inconsistency in Louis's policy towards the
Holj[ Sec. On the one hand, he called forth the inter-
vention of Alexander Vll against the Jan.senists (see
below), which would have 1)ecn anomalous if the king
had believed that the Bishop of Rome was no more in
the Church than any Otiier bishop. On the other
hanil, he set himself up as the head of his Church
(thougl„atthesame time, not wishing to Iwsohismati-
eal), and the Gallicaiiism of his inagistral«s " — ' ='■•"'•
. ..if Augsburg,
Louis was careful to have a report prepared for him on
a catechism which was suspected of Jansenism; and
to, again, in 171 5, he caused a lieutenant of police to lie
of his bishops found support in him. Full submission
to Rome and rupture with Rome wi're e<|Ually distaste-
ful to him. The humiliation which he inflict«d on
Alexander VH when C'r^iui, his amliaasailor, hod to
complain of tho pope's (?orsican guard (August, 1662)
was inspired rather by the need of displaying his un-
limited power than by any feeling of hostility to the
Ilolv Hee (see Alexakdkr VII). In IfiTii^, a papal
Bull having condemned the censure whieh the Sor-
bonne had passed against the doctrine of infallibility,
I.x>uis, after inviting the procurator-general to appoil
against it cvmme d'abii», desisted from furtlier action.
In 166fi, when Colbert, in order to diminish the num-
l.>er of priests and monks, wished to put lioek the legal
age for ordination, the nuncio declared to Pi-re Aunat,
the king's confessor, that there would be a scliisni if
the king continued to consult only laymen on spiritual
affairs; Louis thought these words "horrible'', and
('olljcrt's project was abandoned. In short, Louis
XlV held that, as he expressed it. it was "an advan-
tage that (he Roman Curia should be favourable to
him rather than unfavourable".
In 1673 the conflict of the rfgaU broke, tw*.. "ff^ae.
LOUXB
374
unm
tenn r^oZtf WM applied to that right by which the king
upon the death of a bishop, drew the revenues of the
see and made appointments to benefices imtil the new
bishop had registered his oath in the Court of Excheq-
uer (Chambre des comptes), Louis XIV claimed, in
1673 and again in 1675, that the ri^ht of r^ale was his
in all the bishoprics of the kingdom. Pavilion,
Bishop of Alet, ana Caulct, Bishop of Pamiers, refused
to submit. These prelates, both Jansenists, alleged
that the Jesuits had stretched the right of r^ale so as
to increase the number of benefices in the collation of
which Pdre La Chaise, the king's confessor, might
exert his influence. In 1677, Caulet, having refused
to give the cure of souls within his diOcese to priests
whom the king had nominated in virtue of the r^aie,
was deprived of his temporalities. Three Briefs of In-
nocent XI ^arch, 1678, and January and December,
1679) sustained Caulet and threatened Louis with the
pains of conscience before God's tribunal and the ru-
mour was current that the king was about to be ex-
communicated.
In Jul^, 1680, the assembly of the clergv, in a letter
to the king, identified themselves with tne king and
threatened the pope. Upon the death of Caulet, the
Diocese of Pamiers was contested between the vicar
capitular nominated bv the chapter, who was hostile
to the r^alCf and another vicar capitular, nominated
by Uie Archbishop of Toulouse and installed by the
roysd officers. The former of these two vicars was re-
moved by the king's order, the latter was excommuni-
cated by the pope. A third vicar capitular, nomi-
nated by the chapter, remained in hiding while he
administered the diocese, was condenmed to death, and
was executed in effi^ by the king's command. A
rupture between Louis and the Holy See appeared to
be imminent; the king, in convoking the assembly of
the cler^ for November, 1681, threw out some mnts
of a schism. This was an attempt to frighten the
pope. In fact, neither side wished for any schism.
Louis made the concession that priests provided by
him in virtue of his right of rigale should be obliged to
first receive canonical mission, and this concession was
offset by the passage of the Declaration of the Four
Articles, which showed the "wish to humilate Rome".
The very animated correspondence between the pope
and the assemblv was a disouieting circumstance, but
Louis prorogued the assembly on 29 June, 1682 (see
Bossuet; Assemblies of the French Clebgt). In
this way he made his escape from the advisers who, to
use his own words, would nave liked to "invite him to
don the turban ". He had, in the words of the Jesuit
Avrigny, "a foundation of religion which would not
allow him to face these di\'isions without emotion ".
Again, when Innocent XI steadfastly rcfuse<l to ac-
cept bishops, who, as priests, had participated in the
assembly of 1C82, Louis went through a series of ma-
noeuvres which had the appearance ofacts of contrition.
Innocent remained insensible to all this and, on the
other lumd, refused to maintain the right of asylum
and the franchises which the ambassador of France
claimed at Home. Tliis new incident made an im-
mense stir in Europe; there was talk of the conquest of
Avignon and Civitavecchia by France; the Bull of 12
May, 1G87, excommimicatin^ the ambassador and his
accomplices, was pronounced abominable by the par-
lementaires of Pans, who had in \iew the assembling of
a nation^ council and declared that the pope, by rea-
son of his infirmities, could no longer support the
weight of the papacy. Alexander VIII (1089-91),
dunn^ his short pontificate, induced Louis to surren-
der his claim in tne matter of the franchises and also
published a Bull, until then reserved, by which Inno-
cent XI had condemned the Declaration of 1082. In-
nocent XII (1691-1700) made but one concession to
Louis XIV: he declared his readiness to grant Bulls
without delay to all bishops nominated by the king,
provided they had taken no part in the assembly of
1682, and provided that th^ made a profession of
faith before the nimcio. Louis, on 14 September,
1603, declared that, to show his veneration for the
pope, he ordered the declaration of 1682 to be held
without effect in regard to religious policy. The Gal-
ileans in France and the I^testants abroad pointed to
this decision of the king as a desertion of his principles.
The good understanding between Louis and the
papacy, while they fought side by side against Jan-
senism (see below), was ag^n momentarily clouded
during the War of the Spanish Succession. In a very
long and very cordial Brief dated 6 February, 1701,
Clement XI had recognised Philip V as Kin^ of Spain.
Political conditions, threats made against him by the
Emperor Joseph I, brought the pope to recognise
Charles III as king, lO October, 1709. The diploma-
tic representatives of Louis XIV and Philip V at Rome
had done everything to prevent this; the extremehr
reserved tone and the laconic style of the Brief aa-
drcssed to Charles III did not sufiiciently console them
and Cardinal de la Tr^mouille, on 13 October, 1709,
protested in the name of Louis XIV against the public
recognition of Charles III, which was to take pliu^ in
Consistory on the next day.
Louis XIV AND THE HERESIES. — His care to main-
tain a certain orthodoxy, and the conception which he
had formed of the religious unity of his kingdom, ex-
pressed themselves in nis policy towards the Jansen-
ists, the Quietists, and the Protestants.
A. Louis XIV and «/an«ent9m.— Since the days of
Mazarin Louis had felt *Hhat the Jansenists were not
well-disposed towards him and the State''. A certain
niunber of them had been implicated in the I^tmde:
they wished to obtain, in spite of Mazarin, the recall of
Cardinal de Retz, Archbishop of Paris, who had es-
caped from his prison at Nantes and gone to Rome;
some of them applauded the triumphs over Louis's
armies won by Cond^, who was in alliance with the
Spaniards. Louis, in September, 1660, caused the
*'Provinciales" of Pascal to be examined hy a com-
mission, and the book was burned. His desire, ex-
pressed in December, 1660, to the president ot the
assembly of the cleigy, induced that body to draw up,
in February, 1661, a formula condemning "the doc-
trine of the'nve propositions of Jansenius contained in
the '' Augustinus", which formula was to be signed by
all ecclesiastics; and the superiors of the two monas-
teries of Port-Royal received orders to dismiss their
pupils and their novices. Mazarin, on his death-bed,
m March, 1661, told the king that he must not "toler-
ate either the sect of the Jansenists or even so much as
t heir name' ' . The vicars-general, who govamed the Dio-
cese of Paris in the absence of de Retz, explained, in a
charge published in May, 1661, that the signature re-
quired was compatible with reserves on the question of
fact — i. e., the question whether the five propositions
were in fact contained in the ' ' Augustinus' . Tiie royal
council and the pope condemned this chaigc, and in
1664, Archbishop Hardouin dcP^r^fbce made two visits
to Port-Royal (9 June and 21 August) and demanded
of the religious their signatures without reserve. The
religious of Port-Royal refused, and thereupon, on 26
Au^t, the police expelled those of Port-Royal de
Paris, and, in November, those of Port-Royal des
Champs. Later, in 1665, lest they might have a dis-
turbing effect on the various convents in which they
had found shelter, thev were all coUected in the des
Champs convent and placed under a police guard.
The concern felt by Louis on the subject of Jansen-
ism was so px^at that, in 1665, he appealed to Pope
Alexander VII to break down the opposition of Pavil-
ion, Bishop of Alet, w^ho did not recognise the right of
assembly of the clergy to legislate for the Qiurch, and
was carrying on a campaign against the formula
drawn up bv that assembly and against the obligation
to sign it. France was presented with the speetacle of
a joint effort of the pope and the king; the royal ooim*
LOtJtt
376
Loxns
dl annulled a chane in which Pavilion, after having
S'ven the reauired signature to another formula
awn up by the pope, developed some new Jansenis-
tie theones on grace; the pope, without arousing any
feeling on the king's part, hmisclf appointed a com-
misaion of French bisnops to try Pavilion and three
other bishope who refused to make the unreserved
Bubnussion. Presently, in December, 1667, nineteen
bishops wrote to the king that the appointment of
such a commission by the pope was contrary to the
Gallican liberties. The difficulties appeared insiu--
mountable; but the nuncio, Bargcllini, and the foreign
secretanr, Lionne, found a wav. The four bishops
signed the formulary and caused it to })q signed, at the
same time explaining their action in a letter expressed
with such intentional ambiguity that it was impossible
to make out whether their signatures had' been given
pyre et rimpliciier or not; the pope, in his reply to them
tbok care not to repeat the words pure et simpliciter
and spoke of the signatures which they had given
tineere. It was Lionne who had suggested to the
pope the employment of this word sincere. And
thanks to these artifices, "the peace of the Church''
was restored.
The question of Jansenism was revived, in 1702, by
the case oi conscience which the Janscnist^s presented
to the Archbishop of Paris: *' Is a respectful and silent
submission to the decision of the Cliurch sufficient in
regard to the attribution of the five propositions to Jan-
aeniusT" Agairv the pope and the king were imani-
mous against Jansenism. In February and April,
17(X3, Clement XI called upon Louis XIV to intervene,
and in June, 1703, Louis aI V asked Clement XI for a
Bull against Jansenism. To k(>ep peace with tlie
Jansenists, however, the king at the same time begged
the pope to particularly mention in the Bull that it
was issued at the instance of the French Court. Cle-
ment, not wishing to yield to this Gallican suggestion,
temporised for twenty-six months, and the Bull
" Vmeam Domini" (15 July, 1705) lacked the rhetori-
cal precautions desired b^ Louis. The king, never-
theless, was glad to take it as it was. lie lioped to
make an end of Jansenism. But Jansenism from that
time forward maintained its resistance on the ground
not of dogma but of ecclesiastical law; the Jansenists
involrod Gallican liberties, asserting that the Bull had
been issued in contravention of those lilxirties. More
and more plainly the king saw in Jansenism a political
danger; he thoueht to destroy the party by razing the
oonvent of Port-Ko^al des Champs, dis()en«ing the re-
ligiousand disintemng the buried Jansenists (1 709-1 1 );
and he sacrificed his Gallican ideas to the pope when
he forced an extraordinary assembly of the clerg>',
in 1713, and the parliament, in 1714, to accept the
Bull " UnigcxiltUB which Clement XI had published
against Quesnel's book. But at the time of nis death
he wished to assemble, for the trial of Noailles, Arch-
bishop of PariSi and the bishops who resist<Kl the Bull,
a national council to which ne was to dictate, and
Cement XI, naturally, scouted this idea, as bearing
the marks df Gallicanism. Thus was Louis XIV ever
anxious for an understanding with Rome against
Jansenism, and in this alliance it was he wh» dis-
played the greater furv against the common enemy.
At the same time, he brought to his warfare against
Jansenism a Gallican spirit, making concessions and
displays of politeness to the Holy See when the con-
duct of the struggle required, but on other occasions
using methods and terms to which Home, rightly
impatient of Gallican pretensions, was obliged to take
exception (see Janbbnius and Jansenism).
B. LtmU XIV and Quietism. — His personal interest
in the question of Quietism was shown in 1604, when,
at the suggestion of Madame de Maintenon, he ordered
three coDunisBioners — Noailles, Bossuet, and Tronsr o
— to draw up the Issy articles for the signature of
|fa4f«i^ Ouyon and Ftoelon. In July, 1697, he
asked the pope, in a personal letter, to pronounce as
soon as possible upon the book " Maximes des Saints"
(see F±nelon); in 1698 he again insisted, threatening
that, if the condemnation were deferred, the Arch-
bishop of Paris, who was already causing the "Maxi-
mes" to be censured by twelve professors of the
Sorbonne — should take aiction. Here again, as in the
matter of Jansenism, Louis evinced a great zeal for
correctness of doctrine and, on the other hand, an
obstinate Gallicanism ready at every moment to prose-
cute a doctrine apart from and without the pope, if the
pope himself hesitated to proceed against it.
C. iMuis XIV and Protestants.-— 4iinct jutttice, strict
application of the Edict of Nantes, but no favour —
such was Louis's policy towards the Protestants after
1661. It was a policy based on the hope that the union
of all his subjects in one faith would sooner or later l)c
easily accomplished. From 16<U to 1679 means were
sought to limit as much as possible the application of
those concessions which Henry IV had niade to the
Protestants by the famous Edict, and Pellisson, a con-
vert from Protest an ism, organized a fund to aid Hu-
guenots who should come over to the Catholic Church.
From 1679 to 1685 a more active policy was followed:
Protestants were excluded from public office and from
the liberal professions, while tne police penetrated
into Protestant families in order to keep watch upon
them. Ix)uvois'8 idea of quartering soldiers in Protes-
tant households to bring them to reason was applied,
after 1680, in Poitou by the intendant Marillac in the
cruel fashion which has remained famous under the
name of dragannades. The king blamed Marillac, but
in 1684, at the instigation of Louvois, the dragannades
recommenced in Poitou, B(6am, Guyenne, ond Lan-
suedoc, with more excesses than the kin^ knew of.
Misled by the letters of Louvois and the mtcndants
(see Lamoignon), Louis Ix-lievcd that there were no
more Protestants in France, and the Edict of 18
October, 1685, revoked the Edict of Nantes and
ordered the demolition of places of worship, the clos-
ure of Protestiint schools, the exile of pastors who
refused to bo converted, and the baptism of Protestant
children by Catholic parish priests. On the other
hand, article xii of the eiiict pro\'ided that subjects
could not Ix; molested in their liberty or their property
on account of the ''alleged reformecf" religion, so that,
in theorj-, it was still permitted to anyone to be in-
dividually a Protestant. By these measures Louis
imagined himself to l)e only Registering an accom-
51islie<l fact — the extinction of the heresy. Innocent
^I, while praising the king's zeal, in the consistorical
allocution of 18 March, 1686, expressed satisfaction
with those French prelates who had censured the
dragonnadeSf and b(^e<l James II to use his good
offices with Louis to obtain gentler treatment for the
Protestants.
The fufiitive and proscril^ Protestants thought
of retuniing to France, even in spite of Louis. Jurieu,
in his "Avis aux Protestants de I'Europe " (1685-86)
and Claude in his "Plaintes des Protestants" (1686),
gave utterance to the idea of a union of all the Pro-
testant powers to force upon the King of France the
return of the exiles. In the success of William of
Orange, in 16S8, Jurieu saw an indication that Eng-
land would soon reinstate Protes-tanism in France,
and that an aristocratic government would be sub-
stituted there for the monarchical. These prognos-
tications were developed in the "Soupirs de la France
esclave ", which was issue<l in parts by subscription.
In 1698, when the peace of Ryswick was being ne-
gotiated l)etween Louis and William, two Protestant
committees, at the Hague, made an attempt to com-
mit Holland and England to the demand of liberty
for French Protestants, but William confined himself
to vague and politic approaches to the question in
his dealings with Louis, and these were ill received.
In a letter to Cardinal d'Estr^ (17 January, \fiSft\^
L0X7IS
376
LOUIS
Louis liad flattered himself that, out of from 800,000
to 900,000 Protestants, only from 1200 to 1500 re-
mained. The collective abjurations were generally
far from sincere; the new converts were not practising
Catholics, and the policy of the authorities, in regard
to those new converts who remained too tepid, varied
strangely in the several provinces. Was it still lawful
in France for an individual, as an individual, to re-
main a Protestant? Article xii of the edict of revo-
cation implicitly said "Yes"; Louis and Louvois, in
their letters, said "No", explaining that all, even to
the very last individual, must be converted, and that
there ought no longer to be any religion but one in
the kingdom.
In 1698 intendanis and bishops were consulted as
to the measures to be taken in regard to the Protest-
ants. Bossuet, Archbishop Noailles, and almost all
the bishops of northern and central France declared
for a purely spiritual propaganda animated by a spirit
of gentleness; Bossuet maintained that Protestants
must not be forced to approach the sacraments. The
bishops of the South, on the contrary', leaned to a
policy of constraint. As r result of this consultation
the edict of 13 December, 1698, and the interpreting
circular of 7 January, 1699, inaugurated a milder
regime and, in particular, forbade anyone to compel
Protestants to approach the sacraments. Lastly, at
the end of his reign, Louis ordered a new inquiry into
the causes and the persistence of the heresy, and de-
creed, by the declaration of 8 March, 1715, that jUl
Protestants who had continued to reside in the king-
dom since 1685 were liable to the penalties of relapsed
heretics unless they became Catholics . This amounted
to an implicit admission that the edict of 1685 had
meant to command all Protestants to embrace
Catholicism. The alliance between the revolted
Protestants of the Cevcnnes (the Camisards, 1703-06)
and England, the enemy of France, had driven Louis
to adopt this policy of sternness.
The attitude of Innocent XI in regard to the perse-
cution of Protestants and the grave and mature dehb-
pration with which Clement XI proceieded against the
Jansenists prove that, even at those very moments
when the religious policy of Louis XIV was resting
upon, or was invoking, Rome, the full responsibility
for certain courses of precipitancy, of violence, and
of cruelty must rest with tne king. Aspiring to be
master in his Church, he chastised Protestants and
Jansenists as disobedient subjects. Though there
may have been a parallelism of action and a reciproc-
ity of services between Louis and the Holy See, still
the ideas which inspired and guided the religious
policy of the king were, in fact, alwavs unlike those
of the contemporary popes. "Louis XlV", says the
historian Casiniir Gaillardin, "assumed to direct the
conversion of his subjects at the whim of his pride, and
by ways which were not those of the Churcn and the
sovereign pontiff."
Documenth: — (Euvrca de Louis XTV, ed. Grimoard et
Grouvelle (Paris. 1806); Mhnoires de Ixtuis XIV pour Ttn-
ttruciion du Dauphin, ed. Dretss (Paris, I860): Deppino,
Correspondance admintstralive nous le rigne de Louis XJV (Paris,
1850-52); Hanotaux. Rrrurils des Instructions aux ambassa-
deurs h Rome (Paris, 1888); Vast, Les grands traiirs du rf-ffne
de I^uis XIV (Paris, 1898); Mention, Documents relatifa
aux rapports du clergr avec la roj/autf de 168S a 1705 (Paris,
1893) ; Lkmoine, Memoirts des &t>f^ques de France sur Ja conduits
a tenir h Vi'gard des rfformis en 1698 (Paris, 1903); Dangeait,
Journal U 684-1 720), (Paris, 1854-61); de Sodrches, Me-
moires sur le rigne de Louis XIV (1681-1712), ed. Cosvac;
Saint-Simon, Mhnoires, ed. Boisliblb (Paris, 1871-1909);
Spanheim, Relation de la cour de France en 1690, ed. Bourgeois
i Paris, 1900); de Maintenon, Correspondince gintrale, ed.
jAVALLtE (Paris, 1865-1866); Correspondence de la Princesse
Palatine, trad. Jaegl^ (Paris, 1890); the numerous Mi-moires
included in the collection of Michaud and Poujoulat should
be consulted.
B. Historical Writinos. — Voltaire, SiMe de Louis XIV,
ed. RtBELLiAU, (Paris, 1894); Gaillardin, Histoire du r'gne
ds lA>uis XIV (Paris, 1877-79); Phiupp»on, Das ZeitaUer
Ludwigs des Vienehnien (Beriiu, 1870); Hassall, Louis XIV
and the Zenith of the French Monarchy (New York, 1895);
LATiflsii, Histoire de France, VII-VIIT (PAiia, 1907-06);
Ch^^rot, La premiere jeunesse de Louie XIV (Lille, 1802);
Lacour-Gatbt, Uiducation politique de Louie XTv (PaiiB,
1898) ; CHiRUBL, Histoire de France pendant la minoriti de
Louie XIV (Paris, 1879-^); Reynold. LouU XIV el
GuiUaume III (Paris, 1883): Valfret, Huguee de Uonne
(Paris, 1877 and 1881); De Boisusle. Lee Coneeile eoue Louie
XIV (Paris, 1891); Haggard, Louie XIV in Court and Camp
(London, 1904) ; Farmer, Vereaillee and the Court under Louu
XIV (London, 1906); De MoOt, L'Ambaseade du due de Cri-
qui (Paris, 1893); Michadd, Louie XIV el Innocent XI (Paris.
1882-83); G±«nf, Recherchee sur Vaseemblie de 1682 (Paris.
1870); IDEIK, Lottie XIV et le Saint Sii'm (Pans, 1894); Idem.
Le pape Innocent XI etla rH>ocation de I Edit de Nantes in Reeue
des Questions historiques, XXIV (1878); Douen, La R&voeation
a Paris, et dans Vile de France (Paris, 1894); Landau, Rem,
Wien und Neapel wAhrend dee spaniechen Erhfolgekriege (Ldp-
ziff, 1885); D'Haussonville, La duchesse de Bourgogne (Fans.
1898-1908); Lb Rot. La France et Rome de 1700 a 1716 (Paris,
1892).
Georges Goyau.
Louifl Allemandy Blessed, Cardinal, Archbishop
of Aries, whose name has been written in a great vari-
ety of ways (Alamanus, Alemanus, Almannus, Ala*
mandus, etc.), was bom at Arbent in the Diocese of
Belley in 1380 or 1381 (Beyssac, p. 310) ; d. 16 Septem-
ber, 1450. Through the influence of a relative, Fran-
9oi8 de Conzi^, who was papal chamberlain, AUemand
soon l>ecame prominent in the ecclesiastical world.
He was named Bishop of Maguelonne in 1418 by Mar-
tin V, who entrusted him with important missions, re-
garding for example the transference from Pavia to
Siena of the council which was convoked in 1423. In
December, 1423, he was made Archbishop of Aries and
in 1426 Cardinal. Later on and espepiaUy after 1436
he began to play a most important part in the Coimcil
of Basle, where he made himself the head of the party
which maintained the supremacy of the council over
the pope (a doctrine already much ventilated at Con-
stance where Allemand haa been present), and which
eventually proceeded to the deposition of Eugeniua
IV.
In 1439 Allemand was primarily responsible for
the election of Felix V, the antipope, and it was AUe-
mand who, sometime later, consecrated him bishop
and crowned him as supremepontiff . During the con-
tinuance of the assembly at Bask the cardinal showed
heroic courage in tending the plague-stricken. He
was also a diligent promoter of the decree passed by
the council in favour of the Immaculate Conception of
Our Lady. In the years which followed Allemand dis-
charged several diplomatic missions in behalf of FeUx
V, while he op^ly disregarded the decrees of Eugenius
IV, which pronounced him ''excommunicated and
deprived him of his dignity as cardinal. After the
resignation of Felix V, brought about by the assembly
of bishops which met at Lvons in 1449, Allemand was
reinstated in his dignities by Nicholas V. His violent
action at Basle seems to have resulted from an earnest
desire for the reform of the Church, and having made
his submission to Nicholas V, he is believed to have
done penance for his former disloyal and schismatical
conduct. He died shortly after in the odour of sanc-
tity. His private life had always been a penitential
one, and many miracles were reported to nave been
worked at his tomb. In 1527 a Brief of Clement VII
permitted him to be venerated as Blessed.
Ada SS., Sep., V; Schmid in Kirchenlexieon 8. ▼. AUman,
Ludwig; Beyssac in the Rexme du Lyonnaie, Nov., Dec, 1809;
Alban^.b and Chevalier, Gallia Christiana Notieeima (Aries,
1901). 787-830, 1312-79; Pastor, History of the Popee, I (tr.
London, 1891); Hefele, Camn'/MtH^eacAtcAte, VII,803; SAXiua,
Pontificium AreUUense CA\x, 1629), and, moat important of all
Pekouse, Le Cardinal Louie Aleman, (Paris, 1904).
Herbert Thurston.
Louis Bertrand, Saint, b. at Valencia, Spain, 1
Jan., 152G; d. 9 Oct., 1581. His parents were Juan
Bertrand and Juana Angela Exarch. Through his
father he was related to the illustrious St. Vincent
Ferrer, the great thaumaturgus of the Dominican
Order. The boyhood of the saint was unattended
by any of the prodigies that frequently forecast
heroic sanctity. At an early age be eonoeiiFied the
LOUIS 377 L0UI8B
idea of beooming a Friar Preacher, and despite the Church by St. Louis. Turon places the number of
efforts of his father to dissuade him, was clothed with converts in Tubera at 10,000. What gr^tlv enhances
the Dominican habit in the Convent of St. Dominic, the merit of this wonderful achievement is that all had
Valencia, 26 Aug., 1544. After the usual probation, been adequately instructed in the teachings of the
in which he distinguished himself above all his asso* Church before receiving baptism, and continue stead-
dates in the qualities of an ideal religious, he pro* fast in their faith.
nounced the vows that irrevocably bound him to the From Tul^era the Apostle bent his steps in the dlrec-
Hfe of perfection. The profound signiiicanoe of his tion of C*ipacoa and Paluato. Ilis success at Uie for*
religious profession served as a stimulus to the in- mer place, the exact location of which it is impossible
crease of virtues that already gave evidence of being to determine, was little inferior to that of Tubera. At
cast in heroic mould. In demeanour he was grave, Paluato the results of his zealous efforts were some-
and apparently without any sense of humour, vet what disheartening. From this imfruitful soil the
withal possessed of a gentle and sweet disposition that saint withdrew to the pro\incc of St. Martha, where
greatly endeared him to those with whom he came in his former successes were repeated. This harvest
contact. While he could lav no claim to the great yielded 15,000 souls. While labouring at St Martlia,
intellectual gifts and ripe scholurship that have dis- a tribe of 1500 Indians came to him u'om Paluato to
tingmshed so manv of the saints oi the Dominican implorethcgraceof l)aptism, which 1x;fore they had re-
Order he a{)plied himself assiduously to study, and jectoid. The work at St. Martha finished, the tireless
storedf his mind with the sacred truths expounded in missionary mulertook the work of converting the war-
the pages of the "Summa". In 1547 he was ad- like Caribs, probably inliabitaiits of the I..eeward Is-
vanoed to the priesthood by the Archbishop of Valen- lands. Ilis efTorts amone these fierce tril)esmen seem
cia, St. Thomas of Villanova. not to liavc been attended with any great success.
The extraordinary sanctity of the young Domini- Xeverthcless, the apostolatc among the Caribs fur-
can's life, and the remarkable influence he exercised nished the occasion again to make manifest the Divine
on those about him, singled him out as one peculiarly protection which constantly oversliadowed the minis-
fitted to lead others along the path of perfection. tr>' of St. Louis. A deadly draught was administered
Consequently, he was appointed to the most responsible to him ])y one of the native priests. Through Di\'ine
office oif master of no\ices. in the convent at \ alencia, interposition, the virulent poison failed to accomplish
the duties of which he discliarged at different inter- its purpose, thus fulfilling the words of St. Mark: " If
vals for an aggregate of thirty years. The plague they shall drink anj' deadly thing, it shall not hurt
that decimated t)^ inhabitants of \'ulencia and the them" (xvi, 18). Tenerifte next became the field of
vicinity in 1557, afforded the saint an excellent op- the saint's apostolic labours. Unfortunately, how-
portunity for the exercise of his charity and zeal, ever, there arc no records extant to indicate what was
Tirelessly he ministered to the spiritual and physical the result of his preaching. At Mompox, thirty-seven
needs ot the afflicted. With the tenderness and do- leagues south-cast of Carthagena, we are told, rather
votion of a mother he nursed the sick. The dead indefinitely, that many thousands were converttnl to
scope , .
ready large ministry into the apostolate of preaching. After an apostolatc the marvellous and enduring
Though possessed of none of the natural qualities fruits of which have richly merited for him the title of
deemed essential for a successful career in the pulpit, Apostle of South America, he n'turncd under obcdi-
he immediately attracted attention as a preacher of ence to his native Spain, which he had left just seven
great force and far-reaching influence. The cathe- vears before. Duriiig the eleven remaining vears of
dral and most capacious churches were placed at his his life many offlces of honour and responsibility were
disposal, but proved wholly inadequate to accom- imposed upon him. The numerous duties that at-
modate the multitude that desir^ to hear him. tachcd to them were not ix'rniitted to interfere with
Eventually it became necessary for him to resort to the exacting regime of his holy life. The ever increas-
tbe public squares of the city. It was probably the ing fame of his sanctity and wis<lom won the admira-
fame of his preaching that brought him to the atten- tion and confidence of even the officials of the Govem-
tion of St. iferesa, who at this time sought his coun- ment, who more tlian once consulte<l him in affairs of
ael in the matter of reforming her order. State. With the heroic natience tliat characterized
Unknown to his brethren, St. Louis liad long cher- bis whole life he endured tiie ordeal of his last sickness,
fields of tlie New He was canonized by Clement X in 1C71. His feast
ished the desire to enter the mission
World. The hope that there he might find the coveted is observed on 10 Octolx?r.
crown of martyrdom contributed not a little to sliarp- _ Wilberforck, The Life of St.
emng the ed^ of his desire. Possessed of the neces- Dominique (r.-iris. 1747), IV, 4S5-5l»0; Kozk. I.es Dominicnxn%
nry permission he sailed for Amenca m 1562, and m AnUrique {Pans, 187S), 2<k)-:uo; Byusk, i>kticht8 of hIu^-
landed at Cartagena, where he immediately entered ^ribtt«Z)om»nk:on«CBo3tou, 1884). 1-95. ^
upon the career of a missionary. The work thus be- John' B. O C onnor.
gun was certainly fruitful to an extnvordinary degree, Louis de Blois. See Bi/^sius, Fran^^ois-Louis.
and bore unmistakably the stamp of Divine approba-
bation. The process of his canonization bears con- Louise, Sistkr, educator and organizer, b. at
vincin^ testimony to the wonderful conciuest which Bergen -op -Zoom, Holland, 14 Nov., l!Sl3; d. at
the saint achiev^ in this new field of kljour. The Cincinnati, Ohio, 3 Dec., ISfSC). Josephine Susanna
Bull of canonisation asserts that, to facilitate the work Vanderschriek wiw the tenth of the twelve children of
of converting the natives to Gml, the apostle was Cornelius Vanderschriek, advocate, and his wife Clara
miraculously endowed with the gift of tongues. From Maria Wecnan. Soon after her birth her father re-
Cartagena, the scene of his first lalxjiu^. St. I^uis was moved with lus family to Antwerp, gave up the prac-
sent to Panama, where in a comparati) J.y short tinie tice of the law, and engaged in what had l)ecn the
he converted some 6,000 Indians. His next mission family businetf>s for generations, the manufacture and
wis at Tubera, situated near the sea-coast and mid- exportation of woolen cloths, in which he amassed a
way between the city of Cartagena and the Magdalcna large fortune. From her father Josephine inherited
Riyer. The success of his efforts at this place is wit- remarkable skill in the management of affairs, finnness
nened by the entries of the baptismal registers, in the in whatever involve<l principle, and unswerving fidel-
■aint'B own handwriting. These entries show that all ity to duty; from her mother, a gentle and amiable
tbe inhabitantB of the place were received into the disposition which endeared her to all. Sho. ncvic^ <^\br
LOUZftimA
878
hoxnuiJUL
eated by the Sisten of Notre-Dame, at their mother-
house at Namur, Belgium, and by private tutors at
home. Her desire to enter the novitiate being
thwarted for some years, she busied herself in works of
piety and charity, until in 1837 she was permitted
to return to Namur. Clothed in the reli^ous habit,
15 Oct., 1837, under the name of Sister Xouise, her
fervour was such that her time of probation was
shortened, and ^e pronounced her vows on 7 May,
1839.
That same year Bishop, later Archbishop, J. B.
Purcell, of Cincinnati, visiting Namur, asked for sis-
ters for his diocese : and Sister Louise was one of eight
volunteers chosen for the distant mission. The sisters
hmded in New York, 19 Oct., 1840, and proceeded at
once to Cincinnati, where, after some delay, they set-
tled in the house on East Sixth Street, which still
forms the nucleus of the large convent and schools.
Sister Louise's knowledge of the English language, her
great mind, but still more her edifying life, caused her.
although the ^^ouneest of the community, to be named
in 1845 superior of the convent at Cincinnati, and in
1848 superior of all houses which might branch out
from that, a responsibility she bore until her death.
During these forty years the institute spread rapidly,
owing to her zeal and prudence. She founded houses
at Cincinnati (Court Street), Toledo, Chillicothe, Co-
lumbus, Hamilton, Reading, and Dayton (Ohio);
Philadelphia (Pennsylvania); Washington (D. C);
Boston f4), Lowell, Lawrence, Salem (2), Cambridge,
Somerville, Chelsea, Lynn, Sprinefiela, Worcester,
Chicopee, Milford, Holyoke, and W^bum (Massachu-
setts). In many of these cities the sisters, residing in
one convent, teach in the schools of several parishes ;
so that in 1886 the number of pupils all told was
23,000, while the pupils in Sunday schools and the
members of sodalities for women counted as many
more. The institute itself increased in the meantime
from eight members to nearly twelve hundred. From
the outset the rule was kept in its integrity. Strict
\mlbn has always been mamtained with the mother-
house at Namur; but it was early recognized that if
the supply of teachers was to keep up with the de-
mand, a no\'itiate must be established in America.
This was accordingly done, and the first to be clothed
by Sister Louise in the New World (March, 1846) was
Sister Julia, destined to be her successor in the office
of provincial, after she had been her trusted counsellor
for years. In 1877 a second novitiate was opened at
Roxbury, in the suburbs of Boston, Massachusetts,
which was later transferred to Waltham. Up to that
time, colonies of sisters had occasionally been sent
from Namur, and the ranks had been increased by
some of the sisters exiled from Guatemala in 1859.
On the other Iiand, Sister Louise was able to send
some help to the province of California, established
in 1851.
The mere recital of these facts as the outline of one
woman's life-work implies her possession of uncom-
mon talents and of administrative power of a high
order. Sister Louise was a perfect religious; yet her
sanctitv was so free from any singularity of manners
or conduct, so true to the rules and spirit of her insti-
tute, that what was said of St. Teresa by her sisters
might also be said of her, "Thank God, we have seen
a saint just like ourselves ". From her zeal for God's
glory and the salvation of souls sprang love of prayer,
open-handed generosity in adommg the house of God,
reverence for priests and religious. From her spirit of
faith sprane trust in God, humility, charity to the poor
and the suffering, and the thoughtful motherly tender-
ness for all her sistors with which her great heart
overflowed. She sedulously prepared her teachers to
impart an education, simpfe, solid, practical, progres-
sive, full of the spirit of taith, capaole of turning out
good Catholic young women for the upbuilding of the
home and the naUoiL She had no patience with the
superficial, the showy, in the training cf giris. She
visited every year the convents east and west, saw all
the sisters privately, inspected the aehods, and con-
sulted with the reverend pastors. It was therefore
with full knowledge of her wide field of labour thai she
uttered as her last advice to her community, and un-
consciously therein her own best eulogy: " Inank God,
there are no abuses to be corrected, individual faults
there are, for that is human nature, but none of com-
mimitv. Keep out the world and its spirit, and God
will bless you."
SisTSR OF NoTRB Dame, Life oJSider Smerwr LouUe; Maw-
nix, Memoiru oJSUter Louise; A nnaU of the Iio%U€ ofCimeinnati ;
Conference* of Sitter Louise to her Communiiy; see also JuuB
BiuxAST, BLE88SD, and NoTRB Dame de NAifint, fosrsm or.
Sister of Notre Dams.
Louisiana. — I. Colonial — ^The history of Louisiana
forms an important part of the history ci the United
States, and is romantic and interesting. It is closely
connected with the history of France and of Spain,
somewhat with that of Enuand, and for this reason is
more picturesque than the history of any other state of
the American Union. Alvarez de Pineda is said to
have discovered the Mississippi River in 1519. but his
Rio del Espiritu Santo was probably the Mobile River,
and we may leave to Hernando de Soto the honour of
having been in 1541 the discoverer of the mighty
stream into which his body was projected by his
companions after the failure of his expedition, under-
taken for the conouest of Florida. Some time before
the discovery by De Soto, Pamphilo de Narvaes had
perished in endeavouring to conquer Florida, but five
of his followers had succeeded m reaching Mexico.
One of them, Alvar Nufiez Cabeza de Vaca, described
their wanderings, in which they must have crossed the
Mississippi. Many years after de Soto the great
Mississippi was rediscovered in 1673 by the Canadian
trader Louis Joliet, and by the saintly missicHiary,
Father Jacques Marquette, forerunners of Robert
Cavelier de La Salle, the celebrated Norman explorer.
The latter floated down the Illinois River in 1682.
and, entering the Mississippi, followed the course or
the river to its mouthjana on 9 April toc^ possesion,
in the name of Louis AlV, of the country watered by
the Mississippi and ite tributaries. To that vast
region he gave the name of " Louisiane" in honour of
the King of France, who carried royal power to the
highest point, and who was always firm, energetie, and
courageous. Among La Salle's compsmons were the
chivalric Henry de Tonty and Fathers Z6nobe Mem-
bra and Anastase Douay. ^ The name Louisiane is
found for the first time in a grant of an island
to Frangois Daupin, signed by La Salle, 10 Junew
1679.
Louis XrV wbhed to colonise Louisiana and to
unite it to his possessions in Canada by a chain of
posts in the Mississippi valley. England would thus
De hemmed in between th«) Atlantic Ocean and the
Appalachian range of mountains. La Salle endea-
voured to carry out this scheme in 1684, but Mi
colony, Fort Louis, established by mistake on the
coast of what is now Texas, periled when its founder
was murdered on the Trimty River by some of his
own men on 19 March, 1687. In 1688 James II was
expelled from England, and the war which ensued
between Louis XIV and William III lasted until 1697.
When there was peace, the King of France thoujdit
once more of settlmg the land discovered by La SaUe,
and his minister Maurepas chose Pierre Le Ifoyne
d'Iberville as the man best fitted to aooomplish that
task. Iberville was the third son of Charles Le If osmeu
a Norman established in Canada. He was a native of
Villemarie (Montreal) , was " as military as his swoid '%
and was a brave and able marine officer. He left
Brest on 24 Oct.. 169S, and that date is of great im-
portance in the history of the United States, for oo
board the small frigates, the Badine and the Maitab
L0UX8XAIUL 379 lOUIUAlU
wwe the seeds from which was to grow Louisiana, and the Indians had to be subdued. It was only then
the province which was to give to the American Union that the work of civilization coidd be begun, and the
thirteen states and one territory and to exert a great admirable culture of the French extended to the
influence on the civilisation of the United States. In Mississippi Valley. The ele^nce and refinement of
Fefaruaiy, 1600, Iberville and his young brother Bien- manners of Pans in the 'eighteenth century were
ville saw the beautiful coast of the Gulf of Mexico, found in New Orleans from the very foundation of the
where are now Biloxi and Ocean Spring, and after city, and the women of Louisiana are mentioned by
having found the mouth of the Mississippi on 2 March, the early chroniclers with great praise for their beauty
1009, and explored the " hidden" river, they built and charm. Thev owed, to a great extent, their
Fort liaureDas and laid the foundation of the French mental and moral training to the instruction and
oc^ony on the Gulf Coast, on the Ocean Springs side education which they received at the convent oi the
of the Bay of Biloxi. Iberville ordered a fort to be Ursidine nims. The sons of wealthy colonists were
built fifty-four miles from the mouth of the Mississippi, sent to France to be educated or were taught at pri-
This was the first settlement in the present State of vate schools at home, such as the one kept in 1727
Louisiana, and was abandoned in 1705. On 4 May, by Father C^ile, a Capuchin monk. As girls could
1600, Iberville sailed for France on board the Badine, not be sent to Europe to obtain an education, a schoc^
with the Count de Surg^res who commanded the for them was absolutely necessanr in New Orleans,
Miarin. Sauvole, a young French officer, had been and Bienville, at the suggestion ot the Jesuit Father
given command of the fort at Biloxi. and Bienville de Beaubois, asked that six Ursuline nuns be sent
bad been appointed lieutenant (second in command), from France to attend to the hospital and to open a
Sauvole, who may be considered the first Governor of school for girls. The nuns arriveu in July, 1727, and
Irfniisiana, died on 22 Aug., 1701, and Jean-Baptiste were received with great kindness by Governor P^rier,
Le Moyne de Bienville succeeded him in the command his wife, and the people of the town. In her letters
of the colony. Iberville ordered Bienville to remove to her father Sbter Madeleine Hachard gives an
the seat of the colon3r from Biloxi and form an estab- interesting: account of New Orleans in 1727, speaks of
liahment aa Mobile Kiver. This was done in January, the magnificent dresses of the ladies, and sayis that a
1702, when Fort Louis de la Mobile was constructed song was publicly sung in which it was said that the
at a pmnt eighteen leagues from the sea. In 1711 city had as much ''appearance" as Paris, and she
the settlement was moved to the site which is now adds quaintlv: "Indeed it is very beautiful, but be-
oeeufided by the city of Mobile. In 1704 the devoted sides that I have not enough eloquence to be able to
friend <rf La Salle, Henry de Tonty, died at Mobile, persuade ^'ou of the beauty which the song mentions,
and on 0 July, 1706, Iberville, the founder of Louisi- I find a difference between this city and that of Paris.
ana« died at Havana of yellow fever. It might persuade people who had never seen the
Tiie founders of Louisiana had made the mistake of capital of France, but 1 have seen it, and the song
oeglectixig the banks of the Mississippi, when the fort will not persuade me of the contrary of what I believe.
on tile river was abandoned in 1705, and, although It is true that it is increasing every day, and later may
there were Old Biloxi and Mobile, the settlement coiud become as beautiful and as large as the principal
not proq>er as long as it was limited in its site to the towns of France, if there still come workmen, ana it
laxKl on the gulf. The colony might not have been become peopled according to its size." Sister Made-
permanent, had not Bienville in February, 1718. Icine was prophetic, as Father Charlevoix had be^i
twelve years after the death of Iberville, founded in his letter quoted above (in 1722). In 1734 the
New Orieans, so admirably situated between the UrsuUnes occui)ied the convent, built for them by the
deep and broad Mississippi and beautiful Lake Pont- Government, which is still stanciing on Chartres street.
chartrain. In 1722 the seat of the colony was trans- They remained there until 1824, when they moved to
ferred from Xew Biloxi, which had l)een founded in another building do;^^ the river. Their services as
1710, to New Orleans, and the future of Louisiana was educators of the girls of Louisiana in colonial times
assured. It was then directed by the Western Com- were invaluable.
pany, had received for a time the aid of the bank of The Province of Louisiana had been divided on 16
John Law, and from 1712 to 1717 had been conceded May, 1722, into three spiritual jurisdictions. The
to another banker, Crozat, who had agreed to develop first, comprising all the countiy from the mouth of the
the resources of the colony but had failed in his enter- Mississippi to the Wabash, ancf west of the Mississippi,
prise. On 10 January, 1722, Father Charlevoix, in a was allotted to the Capuchins, whose superior was to
letter dated from New Orleans, says: "This wild and be vicar-gencral of the*Bi:3hop of Quebec and was to
desert place, which the weeds and trees still cover reside in Xew Orleans. The second extended north
almost entirely, will be one day, and perhaps that from the Wabash and belonged to the Jesuits, whose
day is not distant, an opulent city and the metropolis superior, residing in the Illinois country, was also to be
of a rich and great colony." The distinguished his- vicar-general of the Bishop of Quebec in that depart-
torian baaed this hope "on the situation of this town ment. The third comprised all the country east of
thirty-three leagues from the sea, and on the bank the Mississippi from the sea to the Wabash, and was
of a navigable river, which one can ascend to this given to the Carmelites, whose superior was also
plaoe in twenty-four hours; on the fertility of its vicar-general and resided usually at Mobile. The
soU, on the mildness and goodness of its climate, at a Capuchins took possession of their district in 1722.
latitude of thirty degrees north; on the industiy of The Jesuits had already been in theirs a long time,
its inhabitants; on the proximity of Mexico, where The jurisdiction of the Carmelites was added to that of
one can go in two weeks by sea; on that of Havana, the Capuchins on 19 December, 1722, and the former
which is still closer, of the most beautiful islands of returned to France. In December, 1723, the juris-
America and of the English colonics." diction of the Capuchins was restricted to the country
It was no easy matter to establish a successful on both sides of the river from Natchez south to the
colony in the New World, and the French under sea, as the Capuchins were not very numerous. It
Iberville and BienviUe, and the descendants of these was, however, decided in 1725 that no monks or
men, were just as energetic as the Englishmen who priests could attend to churches or missions within
settled Virginia and Massachusetts. There were on the jurisdiction of the Capuchins without the consent
the banks of the Mississippi primeval forests to be cut of the latter. A little later the spiritual care of all the
down,^ in order to cultivate profitably the fertile land savages in the province was given to the Jesuits, and
deposited by the Jgeat river in its rapid course to- their superior was allowed to reside in New Orleans,
^mds the gulf. Tlie turbulent waters of the river provided he performed no ecclesiastical functions
were to be held in their bed l>y strong embankments, ^-ithout the consent of the Capuchins. Several Jesuits
LOUISIAHA
380
LOxnaiAlTA
anived in New Orleans with the Ursuline nuns, and
Father de Beaubois soon became their superior. It
was the Jesuits who in 1751 introduced the sugar cane
into Louisiana from Hispaniola. They cultivated on
their plantation the su^r-cane, indigo, and the
myrtle-wax shrub.
The tribes with which the early colonists had princi-
pally to deal were the Natchez, the Chickasaws, and
the Choctaws. The last named were very numerous
but not warlike, and were generally friendly to the
French, while the Natchez and the Chickasaws were
often at war with the colonbts, and the former had to
be nearly destroyed to ensure the safety of the colony.
The village of the Natchez was the finest in Louisi-
ana, and their country was delightful. The men and
women of their tribe were well-snaped and very cleanly.
Their chief was called the Great Sun, ancf inherit-
ance of that title was in the female line. The^r had a
temple in which a fire was kept burning continually
to represent the sun which they adored. Whenever
a Great Sun died, or a female Sun, or any of the'in-
ferior Suns, the wife or the husband was strangled
together with the nearest relatives of the deceased.
Sometimes little children were sacrificed by their
EarenU. The Natchez were defeated by P^rier and
y St. Denis, and what remained of the tribe were
adopted by the Chickasaws. The name of the Nat-
chez as a nation was lost, but it will live for ever in
literature on account of tne charming pages devoted
to them by Chateaubriand. Bienville wished to com-
pel the Chickasaws to surrender the Natchez who had
taken refuge among them, and his ill-success in two
campaigns against that powerful tribe was the cause
of his asking in 1740 to be allowed to go to France to
recuperate his exhausted health. He left Louisiana
in May, 1743, and never returned to the colony which
he and Iberville had founded. He had endeavoured
to establish in New Orleans a school for boys, but had
not been successful. La Salle, Iberville, and Bien-
ville are the greatest names in the history of French
Louisiana.
Pierre Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, arrived in
Louisiana on 10 May, 1743. He was known as the
"Grand Marquis'*, and his administration was very
popular. In 1752 he became Governor of Canada,
where he was not as successful as he had been in
Louisiana. The time had come to settle forever the
question of supremacy on the American continent
between France and England, and the brave Mont-
calm and his able lieutenant L^vis could not prevent
the British from capturing Quebec and Montreal. On
the Plains of Abraham in 1759, where both Wolfe and
Montcalm fell, the fate of Canada was decided, and
the approaching independence of the English colonics
might nave been foreseen. By the Treaty of Paris in
with the exception of New Orleans and the Island of
Orleans. Spain, in her turn, ceded to Great Britain
the Province of Florida, ana all the country to the
east and south-east of the Mississippi. Already, by
the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (3 Nov., 1762),
the wretched Louis XV had made to Charles III of
Spain a gift of *'the country known by the name of
Louisiana, as well as New Orleans and the island in
which that city is situated." This was the province
which was retroceded to France in 1800, and ceded by
France to the United States in 1803. Although the
Kin§ of Spain had accepted on 13 Nov., 1762, the gift
of his gracious cousin, the Treaty of Fontainebleau
was announced to the Louisianians only in 1764 by a
letter from the King of France to Director-General
d'Abbadie, dated at Versailles, 21 April. The selfish
monarcli, who cared nothing for liis suDJects in Europe,
in India, or in America, ended his letter with these
hypocritical words: "Hoping, moreover, that His
Catholic Majesty will be pleased to give to his subjecta
of Louisiana the marks of protection and good-will
which they have received under my domination, and
which only the misfortunes of war have prevented
from being more effectual.'' The Loubianians were
remote from France and were attached to their
sovereign, whose defects they really did not know.
They wished, therefore, to remain Frenchmen, and
sent Jean Milnet as their delegate to beg Louis X V not
to give away his subjects to another monarch. It
was in vain that Bienville went to see Minister Choi-
seul with Milhet. They were kindly received, but
were told that the Treaty of Fontainebleau could not
be annulled. In the meantime Don Antonio de
Ulloa had arrived in New Orleans on 5 March, 1766,
as governor, and the Spanish domination had begun.
The rule of the Spaniards was more apparent 3ian
real, for Ulloa came with only two companies of in-
fantry, and did not take possession omciallv of the
colony in the name of the King of Spain. Indeed the
Spanish banner was not raised in the Place cTArmes
in New Orleans, the capital of Louisiana, and the
orders of Ulloa were issued through Aubry, the
French commandant or governor. The colonists
should have been treated with gentleness at the very
beginning of a change of regime, but Ulloa, who was
a distinguished scientist, lacked tact in his dealings
with the Louisianians, and issued unwise commercial
regulations. Jean Milhet returned from France at the
end of 1767, and the colonists were greatly excited
by the narrative of the failure of lus mission. The
inhabitants of Louisiana resolved to expel the foreign
governor, and held a meeting in New Orleans, where
It was decided to present a petition to the Superior
Council on 28 Oct., 1768. The colonists said that
they would "offer their property and blood to preserve
for ever the sweet and inviolable title of French
citizen." Nicolas Chauvin de Lafr^nidre, the attor-
ney-general, who had been the principal speaker at
the great meeting in Npw Orleans, addressed the
council in favour of the petition and delivered a bold
and eloquent discourse. On 29 Oct . , 1768, the council
rendered a decree in compliance with the demands of
the inhabitants and the conclusions of Lafrdnidre.
Aubry protested against the decree, but the council
ordered its enforcement, and on 31 October Ulloa
embarked on board a Frcneh ship which he had
chartered. The next day the cables of the vessel were
cut by a Louisianian named Petit, and the foreigner
was expelled. It was a real revolution. The colo-
nists were actuated by the highest and most patriotic
motives, resistance against oppression and love of
country. They endeavoured oy all means in their
power to induce the King of France to keep them as
his subjects, and, not succeeding in their enorts, they
thought of proclaiming a republic on the banks of the
Mississippi in New Oneans. This contribution of a
spirit of heroism and independence to the civilization
of the future United States is of the greatest impor-
tance, and deserves to be carefully noted.
^ The Louisianians were not successful in the Revohi-
tion of 1768, for the Spanish Government sent power-
ful troops to subdue the insurgents. General Alexan-
der O'Reilly arrived in New Orleans with 3000 soldiers
on 17 Aug., 1769, and raised the Spanish flag in the
Place (TArmes. At first he treated the chiefs of the
insurgents with great politeness, and led them to be-
lieve that he would take no harsh measures in regard
to the event of Octol)er, 1768. He acted, however,
with great duplicity, and caused the principal insur-
gents against Llloa to be arrested while tney were
attending a reception at the govemor'shouse. Viller^
who was a planter on the German coast and one oi the
leaders of the revolution, was killed while resisting
arrest, and Lafr^niiire, Marquis, Noyan, Carresse, and
Joseph Milhet were condemned to be hanged. No
one was found in the colony to act us executioner, and
LOUISIAIU
381
LOUISIANA
tlie five heroic men were shot by Spanish soldiers on
25 Oet.. 1769. Six others of the insurgents were con-
demned to imprisonment in Morro Castle at Havana.
Among them was Jean Idilhet, the patriotic merchant.
O'Reilly acted with impardonable severity, and his
victims are known as the Martyrs of Louisiana".
Although the Spanish domination began with cruelty,
it was afterwards mild and paternal, and at one time
^orious. Most of the officials married Creole wives,
women of French origin, and the influence of charming
and gentle ladies was most beneficial. Unzaga, who
succeeded O'Reilly in the ^vemment of Louisiana,
acted with great tact in dealmg with the Louisianians.
and Bernardo de Calves gave them prosperity ana
glonr and reconciled them to the rule of Spain. In
1779 the war between the United States and Great
Britain was at its height. France had recognized the
independence of the new republic, and Lafayette had
offered his sword to aid Washington in his great work.
Spain came also to the help of the Americans, and
dedaied war against En^nd on 8 May, 1779. On
8 Julv Charles III authorized his subjects in America
to take part in the war, and Galvez, who had thus far
acted as provisional governor, received his commission
as governor and intmidant. He resolved immediately
to attack the British possessions in West Floricfa, and
refused to accept the advice of a council of war, that he
should not begm his operations before he had received
reinforcements from Havana. He had already aicled
the cause of the Americans by furnishing ammunition
and money to their agent in New Orleans.
He called a meeting of the principal inhabitants in
the city and told them that he could not take the oath
oi office as governor, unless the people of Louisiana
promised to help him in waging war against the Brit-
ish. This was assented to with enthusiasm by all the
men who were at the meeting, and Galvez made
preparations to attack Baton Rouge, which the British
nad named New Richmond, and which for a time hod
be^i called Dironville by the French from Diron
d'Artaguette, an early official in the colony. On
27 Aug., 1779, Galvez marched with an army of 670
men against Baton Rouge, and sent his artillery by
boEitB on the river. On 7 September lie took by
storm Fort Bute at Manchac, and on 21 Septem-
ber, captured Baton Rouge. It was agreed that Fort
Panmura at Natchez should capitulate also. The
campaign of Galvez was glorious, and the greater part
of his army was composed of Louisianian Creoles of
French origin, and of Acadians who wished to take
vengeance upon the British for their cruelties against
them, when they were so ruthlesslv torn from their
homes in 1755. The heroism of Galvez and his army
in 1779 inspired Julien Poydras to write a short epic
poem, ''La Prise du Mome du Baton Rouge par
MoDseigneur de Galvez ", a work which was published
in New Orleans in 1779, and was the first effort of
French literature in Louisiana. In 1780 Galvez
attacked Fort Charlotte at Mobile and captured it,
and in 1781 he resolved to make the conquest of
Pensacola and to expel the British entirely from the
country adjoining New Orleans. He went to Havana
and obtained men and a fleet for his expedition. Among
the ships was a man-of-war, the '' San Ramon ", com-
manded by Commodore Callx> de Irazabal. When
an attempt was made to cross the bar and enter the
harbour of Pensacola the ** San Ramon " ran aground.
Irasabaly thereupon, refused to allow the frigates of
his fleet to cross the bar. Galvez, who understood
how important it was that the fleet should enter the
port, in order that the army should not l)e left with-
out means of subsistence on the island of St. Rosa,
resolved to be the first to force entrance into the port.
He embarked on board the brig " Galveztown", com-
manded by Rousseau, a Louisianian, and which was
directly under his orders, and, followed by a schooner
and two gunboats, he boldly entered the port. He
had caused his pennant to be raised on the " Galves-
town", that his presence on board might be known,
and acted with'such valour that the Spanish squadron
followed the next day and crossed the bar. After a
siege of several months Fort George and Fort Red
CliBf in the Barrancas were captured, and Pensacola
surrendered on 9 May, 1781. For his exploits against
the British the King of Spain made Galvez a lieuten-
ant-general and captain-general of Louisiana and West
Florida, and allowed him to place as a crest on his
coat of arms the brig " Galveztown" with the motto,
" Yo Solo " (I alone). The campai^ of Galvez gave
the Louisianians the right to claim the honour of
ha\'ing taken part in the war for American independ-
ence, and the help given the Americans by the Spaniards
was acknowledged by Washington in letters to Galvez.
The heroic Governor of Louisiana became Viceroy of
Mexico in 1785 and died in 1786, aged thirty-eight.
During the Spanish domination, besides the ex-
ploits of Galvez, we may mention as being of impor-
tance in the history of the United States the attempts
made by Governor Mir6 of Ix>uisiana in 1788, and
Governor Carondelet in 1797, to separate the western
country from the United States and join it to the
S]:)am6n possessions in the south. The Mississippi
River was absolutely necessary to the people in the
West for their exports, and the right of deposit of
their products at New Orleans was guaranteed to
them l)y a treaty between Spain and the United
States in 1795. In 1800, however, Louisiana became
French again by treaty, and the Americans seemed
destined to have much more powerful neighbours
than the Spaniards had ever been. France was at
the time under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte. He
wished to revive the colonial empire of !• ranee, lost
during the wretched reign of Louis XV. He easily
obtained that province from Charles IV. By the
secret Treaty of St. Ildefonso, 1 Oct., 1800, connrmed
by that of Madrid, 21 March, 1801, Louisiana was
retroce<led to France, and Bonaparte made great
plans for the administration and development of the
Province. He wished it to be a kind of storehouse for
anto Domingo, which he mtended to reconquer from
the blacks, and he appointed as captain-general of
Louisiana one of his most distinguished officers, Victor,
who later Ix^came Duke of Bellunc and Marshal of
France.
The plans of Bonaparte in regard to Louisiana were
fnistrated by the subsequent outbreak of hostilities
between France and England. Victor never reached
the province he was given to govern, and when Pierre-
Clement de Laiissat, the colonial prefect, arrived in
New Orleans in March, 1803, Louisiana was on the
point of becoming American. The right of deposit in
New Orleans had been twice withdrawn by the Span-
ish intendant, and the people of the West feared they
would lose the natural outlet for their products.
There was great agitation on the subject in C'ongress,
and President Jefferson sent James Monroe to France
in March, 1S03, to co-operate with Rolxirt R. Livings-
ton in the negotiations concerning the cession to the
United States of New Orleans and of the Island of
Orleans. Bonaparte, meanwhile, made up his mind
to offer the whole province to the American negotia-
tors, and on 30 April, 1803, Monroe, Livingston, and
Barb^-Marbois signed the 'treaty of Paris, by which
Louisiana was ceded to the United States for about
$15,000,000. Bonaparte himself prepared the tliird
article of the treaty, which reads as follows: "The
inhabitants of the ceded territor>' shall be incorporated
in the Union of the United States and admitted as
soon as possible, according to the principles of the
Federal Constitution, to the enjo^Tnent of all the
rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens of the
United States, and in the mean time they shall be
maintained and protected in the free enjojTnent of
their liberty, prosperity, and the religion which they
LOnniAiu Si
profen." In the old Cabildo building b New Orleans
the pravinM was traoBferred on 30 Nov., 1S03, br the
Spanish oonunissionera Casa Calvo fTnd Salcedo to
IdiUBsst, the representative of France; and the latter,
at the same place, transferred the sovereignty of
Louisiana on 20 Dec., 1803, to the Amcricau Com-
tniaaiDnera, Wilkinson and Claiborne. There was no
longer a colonial Louisiana. In 1804 the territory of
Orleana waB organiied, which became on 30 April,
1812, the State of Louisiana.
FVffioh and Spmniih nunuscripta in &rchiv« of LoiiauuiA
Hlsloric^ SodeC]', New Otieuu: tnuucripb tmm Freacb and
BnuiUiu-chJvcs.aiDoocwbicharePiiRilEMABOBi'Bnacufnnili
turlaLemtimt: Manuteript Memcir ol TxAsciaco Boouanr,
UiHtuy Oovcnior of Louinuuia in 1T99 (1776): officiiiL roytl
orden. regubtiDiu, and edicB, in archiva oC Louisiana Higlori-
oal Society: ^ Mmitrur de ta lAtuinani (1794 lo 1803). Con-
sult Hasokt. Oriffinet fran^itet det Payt tTOutrc-Mer (0 vols.,
Puia, 1S8I): BiHARD oi La. Harpe, Journal HiUonaat dt
raaUiMtmeni da Frantaii h la Lauitianr (Nsn Orleans, Ir31):
Ij Paqi dd Pkatt, HitloiTe di la Louiiinnt ([i vob.. PHtia.
1TS8): Dauom, Mimoiret HitUrrmtn tor la iMviaiant (PariB,
1783); CBARLKVoti.Joumal d'wi VoMogt daoi iAmfrumc Sty-
laitnonaU. VI (Paris, 1744): Gratieb. RrtalUm du Voyagt dn
CAvuIiiwi (Paris. 1872): LAnivMT. M^motnn (Pmi. IS.^)); Mar-
m, Hitani ot Louitiana (Z vob.. New Orlrani, ltt27) : Monetti.
Bilart oj A^ VaUtu at Ou, Mutisnpj}! (2 voh.. New York,
1846) ; GATAaai, HMom dt la Louiiianr {i vols.. Sew Orleans.
1846-7): Idem, HiHoiy of Loauiana (4 vola.. New OrlHua,
1864-a): Kaa. Sieur it BienpUU (New York. 1893): Hauii^
TOM, Colonial MobiU (BoatoD, 1S9S): Fobtieh. Louitiana
Sluiui (New Orleana, 1894): Ideu, Huloni of Louuiana (4
voh.. Now York. 1004).
Alc6b Forties.
II. The State or Louisiana, lying at the mouth of
the HissisBtppi River, was so named in honour of
LouiaXIVinieSZ. Louisiana of the seventeen Ui cen-
tury extended from the Miasissippi River to the Rocky
Mountains, and from the Rio Grande and Gulf of
Mexico to British
America. The pres-
ent 8tat« of Louisi-
ana is bounded on
the Boulh by the
Gulf of Me.xi.
the east
SUte
sippi; on the west
by the State of
Texas, and on the
north by the State
oF Arkansas. The
thirty-third par-
allel of latitude
forms the boundary
between Louisiana
and Arkansas.
-The area of the state is
46,4K) square miles, of which 232S are wa't«r surface.
There is no very high IsJid in the state. The Red
River enters the state from Texas a few miles south of
tlie northern boundary, and traverses the whole state
in a south-easterly direction, emptying itself Into the
Mi^isaippi River at the thirty-nret parallel of lati-
tude. The northern portion of Louisiana is mainly
forest area with numerous small farms, but in the
eastern portion, north of Red River an<l for some dis-
tance south of its mouth, therearc large cottuu planta-
tions on alluvial soil, while below the mouth of Red
River stretches the sugar countr}', all the south-eastern
portion of Louisiana with small exceptions being de-
voted to sugar cultivation. In Che south-wcstcm
portion are the great salt and sulphur mines, oil-wells,
and rice fields. With means of communication from
one part of the state to another, Louisiana is probably
better provided than any other state in the Union.
Within the borders of the state are 3771 miles of navi-
gable water, and 6163 miles of railroad (including 2000
mites of side-tracks). The alluvial lands along the
rivers and larger streams are protected by 1430 miles
of embankments, locally called /eoees and r '
by the state.
*of Misi
BmJJ. or LODUIIHA
Phytieal Characterwtia
2 Lounuiu
/luItutnM.— Agriculture is the chief naouro of
Louisiana, although of late salt, oil, and sulphur an
beginning to produce large retunu. The leport of the
Louimana State Board of Afrioulture for ISOS, givei
the agricultural output as foUows:
Total area undw cultintioD 4,730,148 mam
Cottrai fil7,7(Mbalai 1.84US0 **
Com 20.303.717 builuib 1,637,185 **
Suaar. 444,241.800 poondi 401,461 '
HoUaMa 31.M9/)S0 salkina
Clsuisd Rica. 170.096,700 pooDdi 37aj6B '
Sweat Potatoes.... 3.010.615 bualieh M.S21 "
Irish " .... 739345 " J7 J33 "
Orancea 100,440 tMiOi 2.900 "
The mineral products are chieBy sulphur, nit, and
petroleum. The largest sulphur deposit in tils worid
laat Sulphur Citv, whence 1000 tons daily are shipped.
It is eatunated that there are forty million tons ofsut
phur in this deposit. At Aveiy s Island is found ft
deposit of pure salt, 5(X) tons daily being mined. Id
this section the au^er went down l^W feet through
salt. Large quantities of petroleum aie piped out of
wells in the south-western and nortb-weotem peKe of
the state.
History.— The history of Louisiana as a colony bns
already been traced from the first settlemeote, and the
growth of the population up to its admission to the
Union. The cession of Louisiana W France to the
United States took pl^ on 20 December, 1803, and in
1804 Congress organised the Territory of Orieans,
which comprised a portion of the great district of
Louisiana. In 1806 there were but 350 English cnieak*
ing white men in New Orleans. Between 1806 and
1809, 3100 Americans arrived. In 1809-10 come the
immigration from the West Indies, due to' the Santo
Domingo and Haitian negro uprisings. In 1810 the
Irinh l>cgHn to come, and they kept coming steadily for
over forty years. The Civil War (1861^ stopped'aU
immigration until about 1900, since which time Ital-
ians are arriving in great numbers. The fint steam-
boat, the "Orleans , from Pittsburg, Pennsylvania,
arrived in New Orleans, 10 January, 1812,
In 1811 Congress authoriied the uihabitants of the
territorv to draw up a constitution, witji a view to
establish a state government. This constitution was
adopted in 1612, and immediately thereafter, on 30
AprU, 11^12, (^n^as admitted Louisiana into the
Union. Almost simultaneously with her admission,
the war with England broke out, and on 8 Janoary,
1815, the famous battle of New OrleBas, between
12,000 English soldiers under P&kenham and 6000
American recruits under General Andrew Jackson,
was fought within a few miles of the oitv of New Of
leans, resulting in the overwhelming oefeat of the
British. The commercial position of New Orieans
being very advantageous^ her ^wth was phenomenaL
In 1840 she was the third city in popubtion in the
United States, the Mississippi and its tributaries poui^
ingereat coramercialwealtnintoLouiaianB. However,
as the railroads lie^n to be built, much of this river
commerce was carried by them to northern and eastern
marts. On 26 January, 1861, an ordinance of seoes-
sion was passed, withdrawing Louisiana from the
Union, and on 21 March, ISGl, the Convention of
Louisiana ratified the Confederate Constitution and
joined the Ck>nfederacy. The Civil War laid waste
Louisiana in common with her sister states cit tbs
south. In April, 1862, the city of New Orieans was
captured by the Union forces. In 1864, under the
auspices of the Federal troo^, a convention was held
to draw up a new constitution for the state, prepara-
tory to its re-admission to the Union Under Pedctal
auspices it was ratified by a vote of the people in Sep-
tember, 1864. This constitutbn, althou^ adopted
under the auspices of the United States Government,
was not satisfactoiy to that government, and in D^
cember, 1867, another convention was oalled and pre-
pared a constitution that was adopted on 6 Hareh,
1868, whereby Louisiana was again admitted to ttM
XOUXBXAXA 383 LOXHSXAXi
XJhloii upon oondition of ber ratifying the Fourteenth tions and chapels; 1 preoaiatory seminary with SO
Amendment to the Federal Constitution. This was students; 11 colleges ana academies for Do^rs with
done on 9 July, 18d8, and on 13 Jul^ the state was 2253 students; 29 academies for young ladies with
transferred from the military to the civil powers. 3519 students; 111 parishes have parochial schools.
Then began the period of reconstruction, which was The Catholic population is 550,431, but no statistiea
prmeticaUy a seven years' orgy. Adventurers from are available to uiow its racial classification; the bap-
the north, oamp-followers left oehind by the Union tisms of 1908 were 15,853. Of the 3935 marriages
armies, and renegade southerners, under the proteo- onlv 472 were mixed.
tion of Federal bayonets, welded the recently emand- Laws affecting Religion and Religious Work. — ^There
pftted negro slaves into a political party, and the is, of course, absolute freedom of worship recognized
difligraceful scenes, which form that blot upon Amen- by law and practically carried out throughout the
ean history known as the "Reconstruction Era ''. cost state. There is a Sunday Law prohibiting the opening
Louisiana millions of treasure and himdreds of lives, of any place of business, except of certain classes, such
In September, 1874, a revoltoccurred which overthrew as drug-stores, barber-shops, etc. All liquor saloons
the state government and placed the intelligent people are kept closed. Theatres, however, are permitted to
€i the state in office. Three days afterwaros the open on Sunday. In all the courts the oath is admin-
United States troops expelled the popular govern^ istcred on the 6ible to all witnesses. Blasphemv and
ment, and replaoect the negroes and adventurers in profanity are prohibited by law. The Legislature
office. In the election of 1876, the Democratic party opens each session in each house with prayer, cleigy-
oanied the state both for state offices and for presi- men of different denominations officiating. Among
dential electors. Then began the national dispute in the 1^1 holidays prescribed by law, on which all pub-
Congress which resulted in a compromise being made, lie offices are closed, etc., we find New Year's Day,
whereby the vote of Louisiana for President and Vice- Shrove Tuesday, Good Friday, All Saints' Day. Christ-
President of the United States was counted for the mas, and of course every Sunday. The Catholic
Republican party, and the vote for state offices and churches of the state are not all incorporated. For in-
knlatuxe was counted for the Democratic party, stance^ in the northern diocese called the Diocese of
The oarr3rmg out of this compromise by the seating of Natchitoches, all parochial property vests in the
President Hayes in the White House, and the forming bishop; whereas, in the southern portion of the state,
of a Democratic or white man's government in Louis- in the Archdiocese of New Orleans, every church is in-
iana, mariced the end of the lon^ period of misrule, corporated. There is a separate corporation for each
The great moral movement against the Louisiana church, the directors being the archbishop, the vicar-
State Lottery, ending in its abolition in 1892, is prob- general, the pari.^h priest, and two laymen from the
ably the most creditable event in the history of the con^gation, and tnis corporation holds title to all
state. ^ parish property. Church property used for the pur-
Frinapal Rdigious Denominations. — The latest pose of public worship, the actual residence of the pas-
available statistics of religious denominations are tor, the parochial school buildings and ^unds, and,
given in the U. S. Census Bulletin for 1906, from which of course, all asylums, hospitals and chantable institu-
we take the following table, except that the number of tions are exempt from all taxation. Cemeteries and
Jews is taken from the *' Jewish Year Book " for 1907: places of public burial are exempt from all taxes and
Catholics^ 477,774; Baptists, 185,554; Methodists, from seizure for debt.
79,4d4; Jews, 12,000; Protestant Episcopalians, 9070; All clergymen are exempt from jury and military
Presbyterians, 8350; Lutherans, 5793; German Evan- service, and in fact from every forced public duty,
gelicals, 4353; Disciples, 2458; Congregationalists, The supreme court has held that, while public funds
1773; all other denominations, 4222. It must be cannot be given to religious institutions, yet the gov-
bome in mind that these figures do not give us a emmcnt may contract with religious institutions for
proper comparative view, because the bases of various the care of the sick or the poor, and for such pay them
denominations are different. For example, most compensation. In all prisons and reformatories cler-
Protestant bodies count as members only those per- gymen of all denominations are welcomed and ^iven
sons officially enrolled as members. And, in counting access to the inmates, and in most of the large insti-
Githolkx, the Census Bureau counts only those over tu tions, where there arc many Catholic inmates, Mass
nine ytm of age;^ whereas, in the figures given else- is celebrated every Sunday. Beouests made to priests
where in this article we count all those who have for Masses have been held as valid, and, although there
been baptised. ~ is an inheritance tax levied on inheritances in Louis-
Caiholieifm. — Because of her Latin origin. Catholics iana, yet legacies, made eo nomine to churches and
and Catholic influences have always been predominant charitable institutions, are exempt from this tax, al-
io Louisiana. Her first governor, Clairbome, was a though a legacy left to a priest in his own name would
Protestant from Virginia, but nearly all his descend- be subject to the inheritance tax. Under the first
ants were Catholics. With few exceptions the gover- Constitution of Louisiana (1812) no clergyman could
nore of the state were Catholics. Amongst noted hold a public office. The second Constitution (1845)
Louisianians of the Catholic Faith we may include cxcludeil them onlv from the legislature. The third
F. X. Martin, presiding justice of the Supreme Court Constitution (1852) abolislied tlie restriction, which
for forty yean, Bermudez, one of his successors, has not l)ecn re-enacted in the subsequent Constitu-
Breaux, the present (1909) incumbent, Thomas J. tions of 1868, 1879, and 1898.
Semmes, the eminent jurist and Confederate sen- Marriage and Divorce. — ^The marriage and divorce
BioT, Alexander Dinutry, who in 1847 oi^anized the laws of Louisiana are not so loose as those of some
pubuc school QTstem of the state, Adricn Ilouquette, other states. Marriage between whites and blacks is
the poet-priest and Indian missionary, Charles Ga- prohibited by law. Any clergyman has the power to
yarre, the historian, Justice E. D. White, now on the perform a marriage ceremony, but, before doing so, he
United States supreme bench, Paul Morphy, the fa- must be handed a license issued by the local secular
nious chess-player, Father Etienne Vial, the first na- authorities authorizing the marriage, and must have
tave-bom GathoUc priest (b. 1736). the marriage registered within ten days after its
The state comprises the Arehdiocese of New Orleans solemnization. Absolute divorce is permissible for the
ithe southern half), and the Diocese of Natchitoches following causes: (1) adultery; (2) condemnation to
the northern half). The ''Catholic Directory" for an infamous punishment; (3) habitual intemperance
1909 gives the following figures: 1 archbishop; 1 or cruelty of such a nature as to render living together
Ushop; 1 abbot; 181 secular and 132 regular pnests; insupportable; (4) public defamation of the other by
152 enuxches with resident priests; 212 missions, sta- husl^nd of wife; (5) desertion; (6) attempt of one
L0UZ8-BCABIS
384
LOmS-MAEIX
q)ouse to kill the other; (7) when husband or wife is a
fugitive from j ustice, chained with an infamous offence.
but proof of ^It must be made. For the first ana
second mentioned causes immediate divorce is
granted. For the other causes only a separation, which
ripens into a divorce at the expiration of one year on
the application of the plaintiff, provided no reconcilia-
tion has taken place, or also at the expiration of two
years on the application of the defendant.
Population. — ^The growth of population, as shown
by the United States Census, is as follows: —
1810
1820
1830
1840
1850
1860
76,556
153.407
215,739
352,411
517.762
708.202
1870
1880
1890
1900
1906 (U. S.
Census Est.)
726,916
940.236
1.118.587
1.381,625
1.539.449
Education. — ^The educational system of Louisiana is
under the control of the State Board of Education, and
subordinate boards in the various parishes (such being
the Louisiana name for counties):
Educable youth: white 275,087; coloured 221,714;
total 490,801.
Enrolment in schools: white 163,603; coloured
80^28; total 243,731.
Teachers employed in public schools: white 4812;
coloured 1168; total 5980.
Teachers employed in private schools 1125.
Pupils in private schools: white 36354; coloured
8646; total 45,000.
Number of public schools: white 2316; coloured
1167; total 3483.
Number of private schools: white 274; coloured 154;
total 428.
Receipts from Public School Funds in 1907 (in-
cluding $563,153.24 on hand, 1 January, 1907),
$3,856,871.09; disbursements, $3,481,275.59.
At the head of the system is the Louisiana State
University in Baton Rouge, the state capital, with 57
instructors and 657 students. Tulane University, in
New Orleans, is a semi-official institution, with an
endowment of $5,454,423.83, 225 instructors, and
1600 students. The public school system, besides pri-
mary, grammar and nigh schools, includes the follow-
ing institutions: — State Normal School, with 32 in-
structors and 700 students; Audubon Sugar School
for instruction in sugar making; three experimental
stations for agricultural instruction; Ruston Indus-
trial Institute, with 31 instructors and 500 students:
Lafayette Industrial Institute, with IS instructors and
250 students; State Institute for Deaf and Dumb;
State Institute for the Blind; Gulf Biologic Station,
located on Gulf Coast; Southern University for col-
oured youth J with 397 students.
FoRTiER, Htstqry of Louisiana (Paris. 1904); Report of Louis-
iana Slate Superintendent of Education (1907); Report of Louis-
iana Commissioner of Agriculture (1908); Bulletin No. 103 U. S.
Census Bureau (1909); Jewish Year Book (1907); Catholic Di-
rectory (1909): UATABR^, History of Louisiana (New Orloans,
1903).
James J. McLoughlin.
Louis-Marie Orignion de Montfort, Blessed,
missionary in Brittany and Vendue; b. at Montfort, 31
January, 1673 ; d. at Saint-Laurent-sur-Scvre, 28
April, 1716. From his cliildhood, he was indefati-
gably devoted to prayer before the Blessed Sacrament,
and,'whcn from his twelfth year he was sent as a day
pupil to the Jesuit college at Rennes, he never failed
to visit the church before and aft«r class. He joined
a society of young men who during holidays ministered
to the poor and to the incurables in the hospitals, and
read for them edifying books during their meals. At
the age of nineteen, ho went on foot to Paris to follow
the course in theology, gave away on the journey all
his money to the poof, exchanged clothing ^ith t£em,
and made a vow to subsist thenceforth only on alms.
He was ordained priest at the age of twenty-seven, and
for some time f ulnlled the duties of chaplain in a hos-
pital. In 1705, when he was thirty-two, he found his
true vocation, and thereafter devoted himself to
preaching to the people. During seventeen years he
preached the Gospel m countless towns and villages.
As an orator he was highly gifted, his language being
simple but replete with fire and divine love. His
whole life was conspicuous for virtues difficult for
modem degeneracy to comprehend: constant prayer^
love of the poor, poverty carried to an unheara-of de-
gree, joy in humiliations and persecutions. The fol-
lowing two instances will illustrate his success. He
once gave a mission for the soldiers of the garrison at
La Rochelle, and. moved by his words, the men wept,
and cried fdoud tor the forgiveness of their sins, in
the procession which terminated this mission, an
officer walked at the head, barefooted and carrying a
banner, and the soldiers, also barefooted, followed,
carrying in one hand a crucifix, in the other a rosary,
and singing hymns. Grignion's extraordinary influ-
ence was especially apparent in the matter of the
calvary at Pontch&teau. When he announced his de-
termination of building a monumental calvary on a
neighbouring hill, the idea was enthusiastically re-
ceived by the inhabitants. For fifteen months be-
tween two and four hundred peasants worked daily
without recompense, and the task had iust been com-
pleted, when the king commanded uiat the whole
should be demolished,and the land restored to its former
condition. The Jansenists had convinced the Governor
of Brittany that a fortress capable of affording aid to
persons in revolt was being erected, and for several
months five hundred peasants, watched by a com-
pany of soldiers, were compelled to carry out the work
of destruction. Father de Montfort was not disturbed
on receiving this humiliating news, exclaiming only:
"Blessed be God 1"
This was by no means the only trial to which Grig-
nion was subjected. It often happened that the Jan-
senists, irritated by his success, secured bv their in-
trigues his banishment from the district, in which he was
giving a mission. At La Rochelle some wretches put
poison into his cup of broth, and, despite the antioote
which he swallowed, his health was always impaired.
On another occasion, some malefactors hid in a narrow
street with the intention of assassinating him, but he
had a presentiment of danger and escaped by going by
another street. A year before his death. Father de
Montfort founded two congregations — the Sisters of
Wisaom, who were to devote themselves to hospital
work and the instruction of poor ^rls, and the Com-
1>any of Mary, composed of missionaries. He had
ong cherished these projects but circumstances had
hindered their execution, and, humanly speaking, the
work appeared to have failed at his death, since tliese
congregations numbered respectively only four sis-
ters and two priests with a few brothers. But the
blessed founder, who had on several occasions shown
himself possessed of the gift of prophecy, knew that
the tree would grow. At the beginning of the twen-
tieth century the Sisters of Wisdom numbered five
thousand, and were spread throughout every- country;
they possessed forty-four houses, and gave instruction
to 60,000 children. After the death of its founder,
the Company of Mary was governed for 39 years by
Father M ulot. lie had at first refused to join de Mont-
fort in his missionary labours. "I cannot become a
missionarv ", said he, ''for I have been paralysed on
one side ior years ; I have an affection of the lungs
which scarcely allows me to breathe, and am indeed so
ill that I have no rest day or night." But the holy
man, impelled by a sudden inspiration, replied, ^As
soon as you begin to preach you will be completely
cured." And the event justified the preaictioo.
Grignion de Montfort was beatified by Leo XIII in
1888.
unm 385 LOUIS
^^_ , .. ®*^ (T/onHon, 1892); Jac, Vie, lated into the various European Iar\guaees and several
1903); Lavwujb, \ le, etc. <»;»ri». 11J07 ^ j^^^q Turkisli and Japanese. The best known of his
AUSTIN rouLAiN. agcetical writings, and the one that achieved the
LooIb of Ouoiia. Venerable, Friar Minor and greatest measure of success, is "The Sinner's Guide"
founder of the Frati Bigi; b. at Casori^, near Naples, C^a ^uia de Pecadores). This work was pubUshed at
11 March, 1814; d, at Pausilippo, 30 March, 1885. Badajoa m looo. It is inarked by a smooth, har-
Hia name in the world was Archangel© Piihnentiere. moiuoiw style of purest Spanwh whom which has
On 1 July, 1832, he entered the Order of Friars Minor, mented for it the reputation of a classic, and by an
ftnd shortly after the completion of the year's no viti- unctuous eloquence that has made it a perennial source
ate was appointed to teach philosophy and mathemat- o[ religious msmraUon. It has been most {a^x>ur.
ies in the ftinciscan convent of San Pietro in Naples. aWy compared with A Kempis s " Inutation of C hnst^
FoOowing the advice of his superiors, he instituted a ^^ ^^hm a comparatively short time after its first
bfmch of the Third Order at San Pietro from the mem- appearance it was translated into Italian, Latin.
bers of which he formed later a reUgious institute, Irench, German Pohsh, and Greek. A new and
eommonly known as the Frati Bigi on account of the revised Enghsh tnmslation was published at New
grayish or ashen colour of their habits. Louis in- ^ or^ ^ 1889. His Memonal of the Christian Life
stituted likewise a congregation of religious women, (Memorial de la vida Christiana) is almost equally
known as the Suore Bi5e, whom he placed under the ^'^^^ known. In 1576 he published at Lisbon a
protectionofSt.EUsabeth of Hungary. Abouttheyear ^^}^ ^ork on the principles of pulpit oratorv(Rhe-
1862 he opened a school for the education of African ^^ncae Ecclesiastics, sive de ratione concionandi). It
bcOT and girls redeemed from slavery. Ten years enjoyed an extensive vogue, not only m Spain, but in
before his death he was attacked with a serious and ^^* ^^ *^e countries of Europe; new editions ap-
painful iUness, from which he never completely re- P?2j;p4i"^,^?.^'y, ** X^^i^^?^)i.^^^^^ Q^^^'
covered. The numerous works of charity in Naples, ^^2, loll), Milan (1585), and Fans (1635). A bpan-
Rome, Assisi, and Florence which owe their origin to '^^ translation was published at Madrid in 1585. To
Louis of Casoria, as well as the fame for sanctity which illustrate the principles embodied in this work, a
he enj<^ed even during his lifetime, account for the volume of the author's sermons, marked by great pu-
veneratKm in which he was held by all classes, high "^y of style and deep religious feeling, was published
and low aHke. The cause of his beatification was seven years after his death. In all, some twenty-
introduced in Rome in 1907. seven works are attnbuted to his pen. A Latin edi-
Ada OrdinU Minorum (BCay, 1907), 156-158- The CaiMie tion of all his wntmgs was published by Andrew Schott
SS? iSwrSSlS. ^®®*^' *^^^* ^*^ ^* '^'"*'' ^'»^*<> and Michael of Isselt at Cologne in 1628-29. A com-
(juQr* iwi7>« 23-20. -m* TA olcte edition of his ascetical works was brought out at
Stephen M. Donovan. gf^^d, in 1679, by Dionysius Stoche. Moif no, O.P.,
Lonla of Oranada, theologian, writer, and preacher; and^ a complete edition of his sermons, m French, at
b. of very humble parentage at Granada, Spain, 1505; ^^^f iu 1868. . » , ., . „, ,, , ,o.„v
d, at libon. 31 Dec^. 1588 At the aRe of (t^^^^A^S'^^^rk'^^^'^UlTkZ-^!^'^]
nineteen he was received into the Dominican Order hommes iUtutresdeVOrdrede Saint Dominique, IV IVuns, 1743-
in the convent of Santa Cms, Granada. With a *«)• 5^592; Hurteii, Nomenciator liurariug, I. Tlie firet
«wiam4-aK^v r»/ 4-1«a l«Bf*kAa4- y^imlUtr A««rl ♦ka mTi- ^9 »»•»_ TiBTt oi Tm Stntiera QuMie entitled Counseiaon Homu:vt of Life,
mentahty of the hi^est quality and the gift of unre- £J. Shiplkt in The Ascetic LUmiry, Vlll (London, isoq/, con-
nutting apphcation he united a profoundly spintual uins a brief sketch of the author's life.
character which promised a brilliant and fruitful J. B. O'Conxor.
career in the service of the Chureh. His philosophical
studies finished, he was chosen by his superiors to Louis of Toulouse, Saint^ Bishop of Toulouse,
represent his convent at the College of St. Gregory at generally represented vested in pontifical garments
Valladolid,. an institution of the Dominican Order and holding a book and a crosier, b. at Brignoles, Pro-
reserved for students possessed of more than ordi- vence, Feb., 1274: d. there, 19 Aug., 1297. lie was
nary ability. Here he acquitted himself with rare the second son or Charles II of Anjou. called the
distinction, not only in the regular ecclesiastical Lune, King of Naples (1288-1309), and nephew 61
courses, but in the humanities, to which he gave St. Louis IX of Franco; and of Marv of Ilungary.
special attention at the request of his superiors. His whose great-aunt was St. Elizabeth of Hungary, it
studies completed, he at once entered upon the career in some and even early sources (/Vnalecta FrancLscanar
of a preacher, in which he continued with extraordi- IV, 310) he is called primogenitus^ it is only because he
naiy success during forty years. The fame of his succeeded to the rights of his eldest brother, Charles
preaching spread b^ond the boundaries of his native Martel (d. 1295). In 12.S8 Louis was sent with two of
land, ana at the request of the Cardinal Infante, Dom his brothers to the Kingdom of Anigon as hostage
Henrique of Portugal, son of King Manuel, he was forhisfather,whohadl>eon(Iofoatc(Ian(lcapture(lina
transferred io the latter ooimtnr, where he became naval battle off Naples by the Sicilians and Aragonians
provincial of the Portuguese Dominicans in 1557. (1284). During the seven years of their captivity
His extraordinary sanctity, learning, and wisdom soon ( 1288-95) in the castle of Sciurana, Dioc^so of Farra-
attracted the attention of the queen regent, who ap- gona^ and partly in Barcelona, tlie education of the
B minted ^ him her confessor and counsellor. The three princes was entrusted to some Franciscan friars,
ishopric of Viseu and the Archbishopric of Braga were amon^ whom were Ponzius Carbonelli (Analecta
successively offered to him only to be courteously, but Franciscana, IV, 310), Peter of Falgar, and Richard of
firmly, renised. The honours of the cardinalate, Middleton (.Vnalecta Bollandiana, IX, 205). Peter
offered to him by Pope Sixtus V, were also declined. John 01i\'i, the groat Franciscan Spiritual, was also
Among the hundreds of eminent ascetical writers one of their friends, who on 18 May, 1295, wrote them a
of Spain, Louis of Granada remains unsurpassed in the long letter, published by Elirle in " Archiv f. Litt. u.
beauty and purity of his style, the soliditv of his doc- Kirchengesch.", III^ 531-40 (see ibid., 430-41).
trine, and thiB popularity and influence of nis writings. Louis outstripped his brothers both in holiness anfl
Besides asoeticaf theology, his published works treat learning, and, during a severe illness, made the vow
of Scripture, dogma, ethics, biography, and histery. to become a Friar Minor.
He is best known, however, for ms ascetical writings. He was still in captivity when Celestine V entrusted
The appreciation of their worth extended throughout to him the administration of the Archbishopric of
Europe, and later to America, and their popularitv still Lyons, on 7 Oct., 1294 (Bullar. Franc., IV, 332) , hav-
remains but little impaired after the passage ot four ing pre\nousIy granted Francis of Apt, 0.1'\M., the
hundfed years. Neariy all of thesa works were trans- saint's confessor, the faculty of giving him the clerical
IX.— 25
LOUISVILLE
386
LOUISVILLE
tonsure and minor orders (cf . Bullar. Franc, IV, 332) .
Neither Bull s^ms to have been carried out. From
.Tolm of Orta (Anal. Boll., IX, 292) it appears that he
was tonsured only on 1 Nov., 1295, after his release.
Louis then returned to Naples. After renouncing s^L
the rights of succession in favour of his brother
Robert, he was ordained subdcacon in Home by
Boniface VIII, and in 1296 deacon and priest at
Naples (Anal. Boll., IX, 314). Boniface VIII ap-
pointed the saintly young priest Bishop of Toulouse,
out Louis, wishing first to Decome a Friar Minor^ re-
ceived the Franciscan habit in Rome from the minis-
ter general. Jolm Minio of Murro, on 24 Dec., 1296,
and immccliately made solemn profession. He was
consecrated Bishop of Toulouse by Boniface VIII on
29 (30?) Dec, 1296 ("Bullar. Franc", IV, 422; cf.
"Anal. Boll.", IX, 297). After the Feast of St. Agatha
(5 Feb.), 1297, on wliich day he appeared for the
first time publicly in the Franciscan nabit, he betook
himself to Toulouse, where his mild figure and his
virtues were admired by everybody. He was the
father of the poor and a model of administration . But
his episcopate was very brief, for on his return journey
from a visit to his sister, the Queen of Aragon, he was
seized by fever and died at Brignoles.
We have scarcely any record of literary work of St.
Louis. Recently, however, Amelli, O.S.6., published
iu the "Archivium Franciscanum Historicum", II
(Quaracchi, 1909), 378-83, a small treatise on music
written by the saint, and from this it appears that he
is also the author of a " Liber de Musicae Commenda-
tione". Sbaralea ("Suppl. ad Script.", Rome, 1806,
p. 498) ascribes to him also some sermons. His canon-
ization, promoted by Clement V in 1307 (Bullar.
Franc, V, 39), was solenmized by John XXII on 7
April, 1317 (loc. cit.. 111). His relics reposed in the
Franciscan church at Marseilles till 1423. when they
were taken by Alfonso V of Aragon to the cathedral
church of \^alencia, of which towp Louis became
patron saint. His feast, celebrated in the Franciscan
Order on 19 Aug., was decreeil by the general chapter
held at Marseilles in 1319 (Anal. Franc, III, 473).
and the rhytlmiical office, beginning Tecum^ composed
by the saint's brother^ King Robert of Naples, was in-
serted in the Franciscan Breviary by the General
Chapter of Marseilles in 1343 (loc. cit.^ 539), but seems
to have been abolLshed by the Tridentme reform of the
Breviary imder Pius IV, 1568 (cf. Acta SS., Aug.,
in,80o)
Tho best contemporary life Is by the saint's chaplain, John
DE Orta in Anal, BoU., IX (Paris and Brussels. 1890). 27&-340:
ibid., 341-51 (miraclcfl); and in Anal. Ord. Min, Cap., XIII
(Rome, 1897), 338-51, 360-72; XIV (1898), 16-27, 83-92:
some appendixes, ibid., 92-4, 120-6, 150-8, 181-3. A second old
life is by Peter Calo, of which extracts are given ia Acta SS.,
Aug., Ill, 781-97, passim; a compendium edited by Presuti
in Archiv. Franc. Hist.,! (Quaracchi. 1908), 278-80: cf. ibid.,
669-76 (miracles). Bartholomew of Pisa in Anal. Franc.,
IV (Quaracchi. 1906), 309-17; Chronicle of the XXIV Generals
in AnaL Franc, III (Quaracchi. 1897), 447-52; Blume and
Dreyer, Anal, Ilymmca Medii JSvii, XXVI (Leipzig. 1897),
265-74,^ve three riiytbmical offices formerly used in Franciscan
Breviunes. For some samples of notable nymns see EuBfesB
(aLOP, Cantua varii tn usu apud nostraiea (Toumai. 1902).
177-88. Leon, Lives of the Saints and Blessed of the Three
Orders of St. Francis (Taunton. 1886). 20-49. tr. from the Au- •
rSole S^raphique, III. The best modem life b: Vbrlaque,
Saini Louis, prince royal, H'ique de Totdouse (Paris, 1885) ; da
pALBfA, Vita di S. Lodoxico d^Angib (Naples, 1855). On the
Iconography, see Salter. Franciscan Legends in Italian Art
(London, 1905), 180-1S2; Bertaux, Les saints Louis dansVart
italien in Reime drs Deux Afow/«, CLVIII (Paris. 1900), 616-44;
Klein'Rchmidt, St. Lwlwig tnm Toulouse in der Kunst m Archi-
vium Franc. Hist., II (Quaracchi. 1909) 197-215. Oonceming
the sixth centenary see the richly illustrated work, S. Lodovico .
d'Angio , . , e Siui SantUh Leone XIII, Ricordodel VlCente-
nario della morte del Santo 1S97-1897 e del LX Anniversario dd
Giubileo Sacerdotale di Sua Saniit<'i 18S8-1898 (Rome. 1«98).
LlVARIUS OlJGEB.
Louisville, Diocese of, comprises that part of
Kentucky west of the Kentucky River and western
boTvlora of Carroll, Owen, Franlklin, Woodford, Jes-
samine, Garrard, Rockcastle, I^aurel, and Whitley
C-ouutics, embracing an area of 22,714 square miles.
Prior to the erection of the Covington Diocese (29 July,
1853), it embraced all the State of Kentucky with an
area of 47,0(X) square miles. Ori^nally it was called
Diocese of Bardstown, and its bishop administered
spiritually a territory now divided into over twenty-
eight dioceses (five of which are archdioceses). The
first Catholics who are known to have settled in Ken-
tucky were William C^mes and family (Mrs. CToomes
was not only the first white female settler, she was also
the first school-mistress) and Dr. Hart the first resident
physician. They were among the first white settlers
at Ilarrod's fort (Spring, 1775). Catholic settlers
soon followed from Maryland, and in a short time
their niunbers were greatly increased by an influx of
Irish-bom immigrants. The latter were probably
more numerous at Hardin Creek station than at anv
other, with the sole exception of the wholly Irish
settlement at Lower Cox's Creek (seven miles north of
Bardstown), where the Irish language was almost ex-
clusively spoken (see Kentucky). Dr. Carroll was
unable to send a priest before the vear 1787^ and re-
ligion suffered greatly thereby. The first missionary
sent (1787) was Father Whelan, an Irish Franciscan,
succeeded by Fathers Badin, de Kohan, and Barridres,
Foumier and Salmon. The nrst American-bom priest
assigned to Kentucky was Father Thayer, a converted
Congregational minister. He remained four vears,
only two of which were spent in missionary cluties.
Father Nerinckx arrived at St. Stephen's on IS July,
1805, and remained there with Father Badin till 1811.
He was a tireless and energetic worker, and erected ten
churches. He founded the Sisterhood of Loretto (see
LoRETTO, Sisters of). A colony of Trappists, under
Fr. Urbaji Guillet, came to Kentucky in 18()5, and
settled on Pottinger's Crock, about one zbile from Holy
Cross church, and established a school for boys. Fr.
Guillet, however, withdrew his monks from Kentucky
in the spring of 1809. The Dominicans under Father
Fenwick came to Kentucky in 1806, and settled on a
farm (now St. Rose's Convent near Springfield). A
brick church was immediately begun but not finished
until 1808. This was the cradle of the Dominican
Order in the United States. Upon the resignation of
Father Fenwick, Father Wilson was appointed pro-
vincial and under him the foundation became prosper-
ous and permanent. A novitiate opened in 18(^ was
soon filled with candidates from the school.
Erectiok of the Diocese op Bardstown. — ^Pius
yil ("Ex debito", 8 April, 1808) erected Baixistown
into an episcopal seat and appointed Rev. Benedict
Joseph Flaget, a Sulpician, as its first bishop. The
new diocese embraced the States of Kentudcy and
Tennessee, and its bishop was given spiritual juris-
diction, not only over his own diocese proper, but also,
until other dioceses might prudently oe formed, over
the whole north-western territory (states and terri-
tories) of theUnited States hnng between 35® N. latitude
and the Great Northern I^akes, and between the states
bordering on the Atlantic Ocean and the Rocky Moun-
tains, thus including the present States of Buchigan,
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee,
about half of Arkansas, Wisconsin, and Iowa. From
this mother-see of the West were formed ten dioceses
(including that of Little Rock) in the life of its first
sainted bishop. Though the Bulls for Flaget's conse-
cration readied him in September, 1808, the consecra-
tion did not for several reasons take place until 4
November, 1810, when Bishop Caixoll, assiBted by
Bishop Cheverus (Boston) ana Bifi^op Egan rPhila-
delphia) consecrated him at St. Patridc's cnureh.
Fell's Point.
Bishops. — (1) Bishop Flaget, aooompanied by
Fathers David and Savine, and three semiDiurians (one
of whom, Guy I. Chabrat, was afterwards the second
coadjutor to Flaget) reached Louisyille from Pitts-
burg on 4 May, and arrived on 9 May, 1811, at Banto*
Luuisvnus
387
LOUISVnUB
towiu Until a residonoe aud church could be built,
Bishc^ Flaget resided at St. Stephen's. The bishop
found twenty-four stations and ten churches all built
of logs, except the Danville church wliich was built of
brick upon ground donated by an Irishman, named
Daniel McElroy, and with monies mainly given by the
Irish in the vicinity, attended by six priests. The
Catholics of Kentucky then numberecl about 6000
souls. Outside of Kentud^ he had one priest at De-
troit, Michigan, one at Keiskaskia. The congrega-
tion at Vincennes. Indiana, had no priests, and was
indifferent. Caholda had no pastor, but was anxious
for one. The bishop sent Fr. Savine. There was no
priest in Ohio. He had ten priests for a territory
over which before his death ten bishops wielded the
crosier. Father David removed on 11 November,
1811, to the Howard house and farm and began to
erect a log seminary and brick church. On Christmas
Day, 1811, Bishop Flaget ordained in St. Rose's
church Girf Ignatius Chabrat, first priest of the semi-
nary and nrst priest ordained west of the Alleghanies.
With the help of the seminarians who cut wood, burned
the brick, and mixed and carried the mortar, a small
brick church was built in 1816. Then (1817) followed
the erection of a brick seminary. The first diocesan
B3mod in the west was held on 20 February, 1812.
According to the bishop's report to Pius VII (11 April,
1815) the Catholics had increased to 10,000 souls, minis-
tered to by 10 priests, there were 6 subdcacons (5 of
them Dominicans), 6 in minor orders, and 6 tonsured
clerics, 5 brick and 14 log churches; Tennessee had
about 25 Catholics; Ohio 50 families without a priest;
Indiana 130 families attended occasionally from Ken-
tacky; Illinois about 120 families; and Michigan 2000
souls. The seminary from its beginning until 1819
had given eleven diocesan priests to the missions.
Vocations were numerous, out on account of the
poverty of parents and bishop, almost as many were
turned away as were received . Burdened with episco-
pal labours too heavy for one, Bishop Flaget applied
tor a coadjutor with right of succession, and Kev.
Father David, president of the theological seminary,
was appointed m the autumn of 1817, but the conse-
cration was put off until 15 August, 1819, one week
after the completion and consecration of the cathedral
at Bardstown, which had been begun on 16 Julv, 1816.
Bishop Flaget was relieved of Ohio and North- West-
em Territory by the erection of Cincinnati (19 June,
1821) and the consecration of Father Fen wick as its first
bishop (13 Janiuuy, 1822). A community of religious
women under guidance of Dominican Fathers was
started (1822) near St. Rose's church. The bishop
initiated (1823) a religious society called the Brother-
hood of die C^stian Doctrine, but it survived only
three years. The year 1826 is notable for a wonder-
ful renewal of faith as the fruit of a series of missions
all through the diocese. The missions were successful.
Six thousand received the Sacraments of Penance and
the Eucharist, 1216 were confirmed, and many con-
verts were baptised. In 1828 Bishop Flaget conse-
crated Most Rev. James Whitfield, fourth Archbishop
of Baltimore. In September, 1828, he attended the
First Council of Baltimore. Soon after his return to
Kentucky he consecrated Dr. Kenrick (6 June, 1830).
A new church, a replica of Bardstown cathedral, was
built on Fifth street by the Rev. Robert A. Abell, and
consecrated in 1830. The Sisters of Charity started a
school for ffirls near the St. Louis's church. The Jesu-
its, invited in 182^ arrived in 1832, and were pre-
sented with St. Mary's Colle^ by its founder and
owner. Rev. Wm. Byrne. Whilst at St. Louis, Bishop
Flaset received news from Rome that his resignation
of tne Bishoprio of Bardstown had been accepted, and
that his coadjutor. Father David, would be his suc-
(2) *Rt. Rev. John Baptist Mary David, b. in 1761,
Nantee, France, educated and ordained there on
24 Septemlx^r, 1785. Having joiniHl the Sulpicians,
he taught philosophy and theology in France, and, in
1792, came to the United States. He laboured on the
Maryland missions for twelve years with indefatigable
zeal; and after teaching some years at Georgetown
College and St-Mary's, Baltimore, in 1810 he went
west with Bishop Flaget, and established the theo-
logical seminary of St. Thomas at Bardstown. He
was a strict disciplinarian and an able and lucid pro-
fessor. He foimued the religious institute of Sisters
of Charity of Nazareth (November, 1812), and was
their ecclesiastical superior almost to the end of his
life. Appointed coadjutor to Bishop Flaget in a-u-
tumn, 1817, his consecration was delayed for almost
two years by reason of his reluctance to accept the dig-
nity. After his consecration, he continued at the
head of the seminary, discharging at the same time
the duties of professor and pastor of the cathedral
parish. The priests trained mider him numbered
forty-seven, of whom twenty-three were either natives
of the diocese, or had been raised in it from childhood.
Four of them became bishops: Chabrat (coadjutor to
Bishop Flaget), Reynolds (Charleston), McGill (Rich-
mond, Va.), Martin John Spalding (Louisville, and
later Archbishop of Baltimore). Ujwn succeeding to
the bishopric early in December, 1832, his first act was
to appoint the former bishop, the Rt. Rev. B. J. Flaget.
vicar-general with as ample faculties as he could, and
then forward his resignation to Rome. Rome ac-
cepted the resignation (May, 1833), and reappointed
Bishop Flaget to the See of Bardstown. Declining
health compelled Bishop David, towards the end of
1841, to retire to Nazareth, where he died 12 July,
1841, aged 80, in the fifty-sixth year of his priesthood,
and twenty-second of his episcopate.
(3) Bishop Flaget, reappointed to Bardstown, thus
became its third bishop. Dr. Chabrat was named his
coadjutor (29 Jmie, 1834). After consecrating him
(20 July, 1834), Flaget left to him the details of the
administration. In September, of the same year, a
small church and orphan asylum were erected in Cov-
ington, thus laying the foundation of the Covington
Diocese. Indiana, and the eastern portion of Ilhnois,
were removed from Bishop Flaget's jurisdiction by the
erection of the Diocese of Vincennes, 6 May, 1834.
Bishop Flaget, in 1835, visit^'d France, and made his
episcopal visit to Rome. The first weekly Catholic
paper, *'The Catholic Advocate", was published in
Bardstown in 1836, succeeding a month!}' magazine,
the " Minerva", founded and edited by the faculty of
St. Joseph's College, in October, 1834. During the
years 18;»6-7 sevend churches were erected and dedi-
cated, among them one at Ixixington, Fancy Farm,
Lebanon, and Ijouisville (St. Boniface was the first
erected for German Catholics). In April, 1837, Dr.
Chabrat attended the Third Provincial Council of Bal-
timore, and made known Bishop Flaget's desire to have
Tennessee formed into a new diocese. Gregory XVI
established the Diocese of Nashville on 25 July, 1837.
Father Napoleon Joseph Perch6 (afterwards Arch-
bishop of New Orleans) organized a new city parish.
Our Lady's of the Port. The diocese numbered at
this time forty churches, seventy stations, fifty-one
priests, two ecclesiastical seminaries, and nine acade*
mies for young ladies. Bishop Flaget returned to
Bardstown in September, 1839, and new churches
were erected at Taylor3\dlle and Portland. Louisville
had in 1841 a population of 21,210. Owing to its in-
creasing population, and the development of its Catho-
lic institutions, the episcopal seat was transferred to it
from Bardstown in that year, and Flaget became
Bishop of Louisville and Bardstown.
Diocese op Louisville. — La Salle, a Catholic ex-
plorer, was the first white man who visited the Falls
of Ohio and the site upon which the city of Louisville
is built. Thomas Bullitt and party arrived at the
Falls on 8 July, 1773, and marked oft \3K»«^u&<AViosv
LOUISVILLE
388
LOtnSVILLl
city in August of the sjime yt^ar. Louisville was
establish^ by Act of the legislature of Virginia
on 1 May, 1780, on 1000 acres belonging to one
John Connolly. Three French priests, Revs. Flaget,
Levadoux. and Richard, met in Louisville and prob-
ably said M&Ba there for the first time in 1792. It is
not certain that any professing Catholic was resident
before 1791. Several Catholic families of Irish and
American birth settled there between 1805 and 1825.
In 1806 a large colony of Frenchmen, with their fami-
lies, settled about one or two miles south of the city
limits, and upon the southern bank of the Oliio, and
though but very few of them were practical Catholics
they aided Father Badin liberallv. A church was
erected on the comer of Tenth and Main streets, and
opened on Christmas Day, 1811, but not finished until
1817. Father Philip Hosten attended it occasionally
from Fairfield until 17 August, 1822, when he was ap-
pointed pastor of Louisville. Typhoid fever was
carrying off hundreds of the population when he ar-
rived, and he ministered night and day to the sick and
dying. He fell a victim to the fever and died, 30 Oc-
tober. He was succeeded in 1823 by Father Robert
A. Abell, who attended the Catholics in the town
proper, and the villages of Shippingport and Portland,
St. John's, Bullitt county, on tne southern, and those
of New Albany and Jefifersonville on the northern
bank of the Ohio. Father Abell was succeeded by
Rev. J. I. Re>'nolds, who had for assistants Fathers
George Hay den, McGill, and Clark. Father Stahl-
smidt replaced Father Clark, and gathered together
the Catholic Germans in the basement chapel, and
thus laid the foundation of the first German congrcga-
tioQ in the city.
Bishops, — (1) Rt. Rev. Benedict Joseph Flajjct, on
the removal of the see from Bardstown to Louisville,
appoint^ Father Reynolds vicar-general, and Rev.
Dr. Martin J. Spalding, pastor of the old cathedral at
Bardstown. A colony of five sisters of the Good Shep-
herd, from Angers, France, arrived in Louisville m
1842, and were installed in a home on Eighth street
near Walnut purchased for them by Bishop Flaget.
This was the cradle of this religious community in the
United States. The confraternity of the Immaculate
Heart of Mary for the Conversion of Sinners was es-
tablished on 21 March, 1843, by Bishop Flaget. The
coadjutor bishop, Dr. Chabrat, being tnreatened with
the loss of sight, tendered his resignation, which was
at length (1847) accepted, and Dr. Martin J. Spalding
appointed in his place. Two Franciscan Brothers
from Ireland opened the first free school in Louisville
in 1847. The year previous the Jesuit Fathers, in
charge of St. Mary's College for fourteen years, left the
diocese. About Alay, 1848, negotiations between the
bishop and the Jesuits of St. Louis were completed, by
which the fathers took chai^ of St. Joseph s College,
at Bardstown, and the Catholic free school founded by
the Irish Franciscan Brothers. Soon after the Jesuite
arrived in Louisville, they erected a spacious edifice as
a college adjoining the free school. The college at-
tendance was from 100 to 200, and that of the free
school about l^OO boys. Late in December, 1848, a
colony of Trappists from Melleray, France, arrived at
and settled on a farm of about 1600 acres formerly
belonging to the Loretto Sisters, and named Gethse-
xnanL Bishop Fkiget d on 11 February, 1850 (see
Flaget, Benedict Joseph).
Coad j utor Bishop Guy Ignatius Chabrat, b. at Cham-
bre, France, on 28 December, 1787; d. at Mauriac,
France, on 2 1 November, 1868. He came to Kentucky
in 1800 and was ordained on 25 December, 181 1. He
did missionary duty at St. Michael's, Fairfield, St.
Clare's, and Louisville. He had charge for a short
time (1823) of St. Pius's, Scott County. Upon the
death of Father Nerinclu, Father Chabmt succeeded
/t//o as superior of the Loretto sisterhood till 1 8 16. IIo
ooaaecr&ted (20 July, 1834) Biahop of Bolina and
coadjutor of Bardstown. Wlien Bishop Chabrat was
forced to resign by reason of his approucliing blindness
he retired (1847) on a comfortable pension to his old
home in France. He died in the thirty-fourth year of
his episcopate.
(2) Rt. Rev. Martin John Spalding, b. 23 May, 1810,
was one of the first pupils of Father Byrne's College,
afterwards of the diocesan seminary of St. Thomas,
thence he passed to Rome and was ordained on 13
August, 1834; became vicar-general of the diocese in
1844, caidjutor bishop on 10 September, 1848, and
bishop on the death of Dr. Flaget, 11 February, 1850.
Upon the death of Dr. Kendrick, Bisliop Spalding was
elevated, 11 June, 1864, to the Archdiocese of Balti-
more. He appointed his brother. Rev. Dr. Benedict
Joseph Spalding, administrator of the diocese. In
1848 Bishop Spalding found 30,000 souls in the whole
state, cared for by 40 priests, and at his departure
there were 70,000 souls with 51 diocesan and 24 re-
ligious priests in the Diocese of Louisville. There
were but 43 Catholic churches in the state in 1848; in
1864 there were 80 in the Diocese of Louisville. Dui^
ing the administration of Dr. B. J. Spalding the Jesuit
Fathers of St. Joseph's College left the diocese (see
Spalding, Martin John).
(3) Rt. Rev. Peter Joseph Lavialle, b. in 1820 at
Laviallc near Mauriac, in Auvergne, France, made his
preparatory studies in France, and came to Kentucky
with his relative, Bishop Chabrat, in 1841; he was or^
dained pnest in 1844, and assigned to work at the
cathedral. In the year 1849 he was appointed pro-
fessor of St. Thomas's Seminary where ne remained
until Bishop Spalding, in 1856, made him president of
St. Mary's College, which office he held until he was
consecrated Bishop of Louisville on 24 September,
1865. He invited the Dominican Fathers to locate
in the episcopal city in Decenil>er, 1 865. The following
year St. Joseph's and St. Micliael's churches, Louis-
ville, were dedicated, and a temporary frame church
(St. Louis Bertrand's) built and tlie convent of the
Dominican Fathers commenced. Thougli exhausted
from continued labours and mortifications, he at-
tended the Second C-ouncil of Baltimore in October,
1866, and on his return resumed the diocesan visita-
tion, but had to retire to St. Joseph's Infirmary, and
thence to Nazareth Academy where he died on 11
Mav, 1867. He was buried in the crypt of Louisville
cathedral. Very Rev. B. J. Spalding was again ap-
pointed administrator of the diocese, but he soon
died (4 August. 1868). Archbishop Purcell then ap-
pointed Very Rev. Hugh I. Brady administrator seoe
vacante,
(4) Rt. Rev. William George McCloskey; b. on 10
November, 1823, in Brooklyn, N. Y. He studied law
in New York City, but abandoning his worldly career
he was ordained priest by Archbiishop Hugnes on 4
October, 1852. After acting as assistant for one year
to his brother, Rev. John McCloskey, pastor of the
Nativity church. New York, he was appointed pro-
fessor of Latin and after^-ards of holy Scripture and
moral theology at St. Mary's College, Maryland, and in
1857 was chosen as director of Mount St. Mary's
Seminary, which office he held until he was appointed
(8 December, 1859) by Pius IX first rector of the
recently established American College at Rome. Upon
the death of Bishop Lavialle the Pope named Dr.
McCloskey to the vacant see, and he was oonaecrated
bishop by Cardinal Reisach in the American College
on 24 May, 1868. Bishop McCloskey ruled the dio-
cese for forty-one years and died at Preston Park Sem-
inary on 17 September, 1909. Very Rev. James P.
Cronin, former vicar-general, was appointed adminia-
trator of the diocese by ArchbishopldoeUer of Cincin-
nati. The Right Rev. Denis Ol>onaghue, Titular
Bishop of Pomario (25 April, 1900) and Bi^op Auxiliaiy
of Inclianapolis, was chosen as the new Bishop of Louia-
villc and took possession of hia see on 29 Mareh^ 191flL
L0UBDI8 3!
STATumos. — Frieata 204 (142 (Hooesan, 62 rcgulur);
ehurdiea Ifij; seminary 1; colleges 3, pupils 718;
academies 16, pupils 1621; purochial schools 70,
pupils 11,225; Ifknaergartens D. pupils l-ir); industrial
andnformsdiools'l, ininates225; orplian asylums :j,
orphans 272; hospitals 4; homes for &geil poor i;
inm»t«t 301; Catholic population 135,421. The
coloured Catholics number 4251, and have 4 churches
and 7 achoi^ with ,S65 pupiU.
Rdigunu Comtnurtities. — (Men); Benedictines 2;
Dominioana 17 (14 priests}; Franciscan Friiira Minor,
professed 24, clergy 18; Mi nor Conventual, professed Ci
priests; Passionists in community 24; Fathers of the
Resurrcotion, professed 5, total 12; Refortned Cis-
tercian, profe^ed 32, total 87; Brothers of Mary 7;
Xaverian Brothers 21) professed.
(Women); Sisters of Charity; mother-house at Nai-
areth, Ky 22 houses in the diocese and establish-
ments in States of Ohio, Teniiessce, Arkansas, Miit-
sisaippi, Maryland, Virginia and Massocbuaetts; total
relinMi9,800. Sisters
of Lointto at the
Foot of the Cross:
mother-house at Ne-
riockx. Nelson Co.,
Ky., 700 members,
conducting 23 acade-
mies and 42 parochial
schools in the Dio-
ceses of Louisville,
Covington, Cleve-
land, Columbus,
lL[obik, Belleville,
l^t. Louis, Kansas
City, Lincoln, Den-
veT, Dallas, Tucson,
and Santa P6. Sis-
ters 0* Third Order
of St. Dominic:
mother-house, St.
Catherine near
Springfield, Ky., pro-
fessaa nsters, 04,
total number, 79.
Good Shepherd Sisters: 2 convents, professed choir
sisteta 24, 18 lay, 9 out-door sisters having in charj^
55 professed magdalcnes, 39 penitents, 170 in reform-
atory class, and 170 children from 5 to 12 years of age
in St. Philomena's Industrial School. Ursuline nuns:
mother-house irt Louisville, local houses, 7. academics,
3, 20 parochial schools, and 1 orphan asylum, and
establishments in Maryland and Indiana, total sub-
ject to mother-house, 247. Sisters of Mercy; mother-
Douse at Louisville, academy hi)u.se and parochial
scliool, professed tiO. Franciscan Kistcra; St. Anthony's
hospital, 23 sisters. Little Sisters of the Poor: home
for the ageil, iH sisters in charp: of 225 aeed poor.
H. J. Spaldiho, Life. Timet anrf rtiaranrr of Uentdict Joiph
naoet (Louisville, 1852); Idkh, Ukrlrhn ol.Ar Earlu CtUMie
Wiwioiu in Ktntucku. ITaT-lSlT (LouJBvillc. IftM): Shea.Hu-
MalCaAalie ClmrA in aeUniuaSlaUtltivti York, 1886-03);
. SPALDmo. lAfiof ArehbiiAop liaaUinii (N«w York. 1873);
Wen, Cailtmm of CaOatieUy in Kmtvtkfi (Loiiiaville, 18S4) ;
Dbtun, LmiMSt Ouiilt lloimvUh, IHSTj ; CatMie OrjAm'a
Smmmir (Uxiuvilla. IBOl): SIm of Catholtc Admaate, CaOoUe
(hmtimt mud CatMie Rtard.
P. M. J. Rock.
ZiOurdas, BROTnERSOFOriiLADY or (abbreviation
C.N.D.L. — Corigr^ationde Not re-Damp dcI.ourdcH),
a community devoted to the education of youth ami
the care of the sick and intirtu. 1r wdm fijiindcil at
Renaix, Flanders, in 1830, l)y Etieiuic Moilcste Glo-
rieux, a Belgian prieet, and approval in 1S02 by Leo
XIII. The cor^regatioo, numbenn" 51S members,
has its mother-house at Ooetacker, lielgium, and 30
HliaJ houses, ona in tiie United StatM and tlie
othen in Beleiiim and Holland. The Amprican house
is at South Park, in the Diocese of Seattle, Washing-
ton, where there arc 13 Brothers in charge of a house
of studies and day- and boardinf;-school for boys.
Heiubucheii, nitOrdmundKonarroiUianm. Ill a>a(Ierbinii,
10O8), 360; Catholic Dirtdorv (Milwaukee, IBIO).
Leo a, Kkllt.
Lourdes, NontK-DAMt: de, in the Department
of llautos Pyrenees, France, is far-famed for the pil-
Krimafte of which it is a cnntro and for the extraordi-
nary- events that have occurrcii and still occur there.
Hijttori^The pilErimagc of Lourdes is founded on
the apparitions of the Blessed Virgin toa poor, four-
teen-year-old girl, Bemudctte Soubiroux. The first
apparition occurred 11 February, 18.">S. There were
eighteen in all; the lu-'st took iilacc IQ July, of the
same year. Bemailette often fell into an ecstasy. The
myslcrious vision slie saw in the hollow of the rock
Massabiellc was that of a young anil iicautiful lady.
" Loi-e!icr thin I have ever seen" said the child.
But the girl was the only one who saw the vision,
although sometimes many stood there witbher. Now
and then the appa-
rition spoke to the
seer who also was the
only one who hoard
the voice. Thus, she
one d!iv told her to
drink of a mj'stcrious
fountiiin, in the grot-
I to itnelf. the existence
of which was un-
known, and of which
there witsnosign, but
which immediately
gushed forth. On
another occasion the
appuri tion bade
Bemadctte go and
tell the priests she
wished 11 chapel to
be built on tike spot
and procctwioos to
be made to this
grotto. At first the
clerpj' were incredu-
lous. It was onlv four j-ears later, in 1802, thiit the
bishop of the ■liocese drciared the faithful "justi-
fied in lielieving the reality of the apparition . A
tiasilica was built upon tlie rock of MassaMclle by
M. PeyraniolCj the parish priest. In 1873 tlie great
"national" French pilKrimagcs were inaugurated.
Three yea'rs later the liasilicu was consecrated and the
statue solemnly crownetl. In l.S8,'i the foundation
stone of another church was laid, as the Rnt was no
longer large enough. It was built at the foot of the
basilica and was consecrated in 1001 and called the
Church of the Rosiiry- Pope Leo XIII authorized
a special office and a Mass, in commemoration of the
apparition, and in 1907 I'iua X extended the observ-
ance of this feast to the entire Church; it is now
observed on 1 1 Ichruary.
Never has a sancluarv attracted such throngs.
At the end of tlie year VMS, when the fiftieth anni-
versary of the apparition was celebrated, althou^
the rMord really only licgan from 1867, 5297 pil-
grimages had been repstcred and these had brought
4,019,000 pilgrims. Inilividiuil pilgrims arc more
numerous by far tlian those who come in groups. To
their numl)er Toast lie added the \Tsitor8 who do not
come OS pilitrinis. but who are attracted by a religious
feeling or sometimes merely by tlic desire to see this
far-famed spot. The Company of the Chernins de
Per du Midi estimates that the I>ourdes station re-
ceives over one million travellers per annum. Every
nation in the world furnishes its contingent. Out of
the total of pilgrimages given n1>ove, four hundred and
sixty-four c:inii' fiimi coiiiitrieH other tlv?L^ 'S^wss*-
They arc sent by ttt t;\i:\\.«ii'^W\«^»,'-',«TOiS!.-o^v'%^-
LOU&DES
390
UV&DES
nuni, AuHtria, Hungiiry, Spain, Portugal, Italy, fulatudy: "Onreadingit, unprejudiced minds cannot
England, Ireland, Canada, linizii, Bolivia, otc. The but be convinced that the tacts stated are authentic."
bisbopa lead the way. At the end of the year of the Tlieir Cause, — There cxiBta no natural cause capable
^ftietli annivcnsarv, 201.1 jirclates, includJne .'ilii of proiiucing the cures witnessed at Lourdee which dia-
archbishopB, 10 priniatps, 19 patriarchs, 60 cardinal, penBeanunbittssed mind from tracing them back to the
had made the pilgrimaKe to Lourdca. But more jmrticularagencyotGod. ThoBewhorefuBedtobeiievr
remarkable still than the crowd of pilgrima la the in a miraculous intervention Bought at first the Hr~
I of wonderful
occurrences which
take place under
the protection of
the celebrated sauc-
tuary. Passing over
upiritual cures, which
more often than not
escape huniau oli-
eervance, we shall
confine ourselves to
bodily <liseascs. The
writer of tliis article
has recorded every
recoverj', whether
partial or complete,
and in the firat half-
century oF the
shrine's existence hs
has counted 3962.
Notwithstanding
very careful statis-
tics which give the
titic interpretation of
the chemical compo-
dtton of the water
of the Crotto. But
it was then declared
by an eminent chem-
ist officially ap-
pointed tu make the
analysis, and his
stateiuent has since
been corn ihora ted,
that the H-alcr eon-
tains no curative
properties of a nat-
ural chancier. Then
the incredulous snid,
perhaps it ope rotes
through ils temper-
ature, or the results
obtained at I^ourdes
may be accounted
for "by the bathing in
i of the patients who have re- cold water. However, every one knows thnt hydro-
covered, the (late of the cure, ttie name of the disease, therapy is practised elsewhere thnn iit Lourdes, and
and generally that of the physician who had charge of that it docs not work the miracle of curing every
the case, there are inevitably doubtful or mistaken kind of disease, from cancers to troubles which bring
cases, attributable, as arule,totheexcitedfancyof the on blindness. Besides, many ailing ones are cured
afflicted one and which time soon dispels. But it is without ever bathing in the basins of the Grotto;
only right to note: first, that these unavoidable errors this deciiles the question. Therefore, those who deny
re^ud only secondary oases which have not like the eupematuraJ intervention attribute the wonderful
others been the object of special " ' ' ->--•-• -i—
studv; it must also be noted that the
Dumber of such cases is equalled and
exceeded by actual cures which are
not put on record. Tlie afflicted
who nave reco\-erod are not obliged
to present tliemselves, and half of
thenl do not presenttfiemselves, at
the Btiieait dea Constatations M(di-
ooles at Lourdes, anil it is frorn
this bureau's official reports that the
list of cures is druwn up.
The eEtiniale that about 4000
cures have lx>en obtained at Lounlea
within the first fifty ycan< of the
pikrima)^ is tmdoubtcdiy eonsid-
OTSDly leas than the actual numlier,
Tbe uurea u des Constatations stands
oear the shrine, and there arc re-
corded anil checked the certificates
ofmalaities.and also the certifimtes
of cure; it is ftec to all ph>'siciHua,
whatever their nationality or re-
ligious belief. Consci'iuentlv, on an
aversKe, from two to three liuiidred
plrveicians annuallv visit this niar-
veUous clinic. As to the nature of BuujiDmrEflonBiHonx,
the diseases which are cured, ncr- ^"""' "'"lourb"
VOUB disorders so frequently men-
tionnl, do not fumisli even the fourteenth part of eua
the whole; 27H have lieen counted, nut of a total of the ,, ,^_._ _ . .
3962. The present writer has publislied the number gressively, while the complete cures of Lourdes
' "" B of each disease or infirmity, among them stantaneous. Therefore curative suggesti
results seen at Lourdes to two otbei
causes. The first is suggestion.
To this we answer unhesitatingly
that suggestion is radically power-
less to furnish the hoped-for ex-
t I lunation. Omitting ner\'ous or
unctional diseases, wnce they are
in the minority among those regis-
tered as cured at the Medical Office
of the Grotto, and the tact we are
now establishing does not require
them to lie taken into account,'
we may confine our attention to
organic diseases. Can suggestion
be nued efficaciously in diseases of
this nature? The most learned
and daring of the suggest iouists of
the present day, Bemheim, a Jew,
head of tlie famous school of Naniy ,
the mote advanced rival of the
Ecole de la Salpitriire, answers in
the nepti\-e in twenty passages
of tlie Look in which tie has re-
oonled tlie result of his observa-
tions: "Hypnotisme, Suggestion,
Psychothcrapic" (Paris, 190.1,2nd
eiiition). Studj-ing this work, we
find also that in the very cases
where suggestion has a chance of
■tain functional diseases, it requires
operation of time, it cures slowly and pro-
tubercuiosis. tumours, sores, cancers, deafness, blind- explanation,
nees, etc. The "Annales des Sciences Physiques", Lourdes: ti
a sceptical review who.se ehict editor is Doctor Ch. is infinitely
Itiehet, l*rotessor at the Mediciil I'aeultv of Paris, said There
io till, rmlisi- ,.|- :■ Ic.ilk ;irticlf, a|..-..,>c« .if (lij., I:iilli- mme ilti
the CI
It i!
ns the lost resource of having re
1 ItiW and of saying, for instance, " How
XAUtB 3f
do we know that some natural force of which we &rc
still ignorant doea not openite the marvellous cures
which are attributed directly to GodT" How do we
knon'? In the firat place, if a law of thia nature did ex-
. ist, the pilgrima of Lourdes would not be coKniiant of
it any more than the rest of mankind; neither would
the}' know anv better than others how to set it in mo-
tion. Why Bhouid this law operate for them and not
tor others? la it because they deny ita existence and
the others beUeve in it? Moreover, not only there
does not exist, but there cannot exist, and conse-
quently will never exist, a natural law producing in-
stantaneously the regeneration oF tissues affected with
iMion, tjiat ia to say, the cure of an oi^anic disease.
Why soT Because any growth and consequently any
restoration of the tissues of the organism
plishcd— and thia is a scientific fact— by tli
and growth of the protoplasms and cells which
]Miae every living body. Every existing protoplasm
comes from some former protoplasm, ana that m)m a
previous one and so on, back to the very banning;
Ihese generations (the fact is self-evident) are neoce-
Karily successive, that is, they require the co-operation
of tune. Therefore, in order that a natural force
should be able to operate a sudden cure in an organic
disease, the cssentiul basis of life aa it ia in the present
creation would liave to be overthrown: nature as we
Imaw it would have to be destroyed and another
created on a. different plan. Therefore, the hypothe-
sis of unknown forces of nature cannot be brought for-
ward to explain the instantaneous cures of tjourdes.
It ia logically untenable. Aa a matter of fact, no nat-
ural cause, known or uiiknown, is sufficient to ac-
count for the marvelloits cures witnessed at the foot
of the celebrated rock where the Virgin Immaculate
deigucd to appear. They can only be from the inter-
vention of God.
IfjJWEHRE. tfatrt-Dame de Lourdts: Bouwahie, L'teuvn dt
Lmtfrte^i Bertiuh, Ui/doir* critigut dta ivfnfm^nU da Lourdet.
appanliont rf auMmu (Pnria. 1900), tr. (liBin; Idsh, Un mi-
nuUd-avjiiunr/iuiaiteuiuj-idiovr'iilne tPaiB, 190B).
UEORoes Bektrin.
II LOUVAZV
Louth. See Clooher, Diocese of.
Lonvain, Univehsitv of. — In order to restore the
splendour of Louvain, capital of bis Duchy of Brabant,
Llohn IV of the Hou.se of Burgundy petitioned the
papal authority for the estabhsbment of an educa-
tional institution called at the time sludium generaU.
The Bull of Martin V, dated 9 December, 1425, waB
the result, Thia Bull, in founding the university, pre-
scril>ed also that the prince should give it advantages
and privileges. In its early days, however, the uni-
versity wa.s incomplete. It was only in 1'131 that Eu-
gene IV created the faculty of theology. Louvain had
the character of a sludium generaie, i. c., it bad the
right to receive students from all parts of the world,
and the degree of doctor wliich it conferred gave the
right to (4^ach anywhere. Popes and princes vied with
one another in granting the university imiw)rt.aut priv-
ileges and estalilishing endowments to provide for ita
needs and development. The organization of the uni-
versity and its history have been recorded by many
aiiiialista. TheMSS. preserved in the archives amply
complete the hterary sources, although the entire his-
tory of the university has not yet been written. From
any ptunt of view tlut may bo token, the history and
description of the university admit of an important
division, the H^iime from 142S to 1797 being quite dif-
ferent from that adopted at the time of the restoration
Firii Period (I4«5-/7ff7).— The ancient university
constituted a juridical body enjoying a large measure
of autonomy. The arrangement of the programme of
studies ana the conferring of degrees were among its
prerogatdves; it had jurisoiction and disciplinary pow-
ers over ita merobere. Ita constitution was elective;
the authority of the rector was conferred for three
months, then for six, by delegates of the faculties,
each one h<dding in turn the rectoral office. The facul-
ties organised after the foundation of the theologi-
cal faculty oomprised those of law (civil and canon),
medicine, and arts. The scope of the latter was
very broad, including the physical and mathematical
sdences, jwiloeopby, literature, and history. It cov-
ered everything contained in the trivium and quadri-
vium of the Middle Ages; it was an encyclopedic
faculty. The university profited by the increasing
power of the sovereigns of Brabant, dukes of Bur-
fimdy, afterwards princea of Habsburg, Austria, and
pain. TTie imperial splendour of Charles V contrib-
uted greatly to its prosperity, owing to the important
position of the Netherlanda among the nations of Eu-
rope. Doubtless, too, it felt the effects of the civiland
foreign wars, which devastated these provinces; its
material and scientific intereals suffered considerably,
but for ail that, during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, it was one of the strongcat intellectual cen-
tres of the West. The princes had contributed to tie
influence exerted by Louvain liy giving it a imiveraity
monopoly; for, fearing the influence of the doctrines
taught in other coimtrics, the FuniCHO Government
forbade yoiuig Helgiaim to study in foreign uiiii-ersi-
tiea, as manv of them liad lieen iloiiig until th.it time.
It ia true tnat this rule permitted exceptions for
worthy motivea. On the other hand, to provide for
the southern provinces, Philip II hod brought about
the establishment of an affiliated university at Douai,
which was soon to rival the parent institution and
share its privileges. The faculties of Ixiuvain did not
confine themselves to oral teaching in optional courses.
Various institutions sprang up about the university.
-More tlian forty colleges received Ktiidents of various
groups provided with spci'iul means, flpecial chairs
were created, for instance, in the Mixf«enth century,
the celebrated "College of the Tlircc Languages'
founded by Busleiden. In these colleges (I-ya, Pore,
(Tifiloau, Faucon) courses were given and a very keen
competition fi)r ncademic lioriours sprang up among
them. Tlie students were also grouped according to
LOUVAm 3!
nationalities, c. g., the Geiman nation, the Braluntine
Diition, etc.
In the ancient university the faculty of law ciccu-
pied a dominant position. Its course of studies, how-
ever, offers no features characteriaiic of that period.
Founded at the time when Roman law viae be^nning
to assert its supremacy in Europe, the faculty of Lou-
vain remaine<l a stanch exponent of ito principles.
Here as iii France, it is possible t« distinguish various
periods, but the ivsction brought about in IJiat coun-
try by the school of Cuja.'* was not equally strong in
Bel^um with Mudde and his disciples in the sixteenth
century. Roman law reigned almost suptvmc in the
lecture-halls; even during the formation of national
law, while the up-buildinR of this law Wiis everywhere
in process, it found no place in the teaching of the uni-
versity. It was only in exceptional cases that certain
subjects succeeded in obtaining recognition. The
junsts of Lou vain, however, exercised a tremendous
influence. Indeed they soon nUcd the tribunals and
the councils. Admimstration and judiciary drew
their jurisprudence from the sources in the university;
mogistratcH and officials studied under the teachers at
Louvain, and sometimes the teachers themselves were
called to tliese high positions. And thus the bw de-
veloped under their mspiration. When the period of
compilations (such as those of customary and princely
Uwb) began in the seventeenth century, the jurists i^
Louvain la vished on the work the i^csuft of their learn-
ing and experience. The perpetual edict on the re-
form of justice isjiucd in iiill, murks a memorable
epoch in this respect. The situation liecame still more
tense when in 1617 a rule was adopted lequiring for
eligibility to nieinlwrsliip in the councils of justice, and
even for adcnission io tlie bar, the completion of a
course of studies in a university of the Netherlands.
In this Mcbcitic, the tencliing of Roman law had a large
place; it was re>E:iriled as the scicniilic clement, hut
It Ben'itl in iiraetice to mould and cimnlinate, not to
destniy tliP li^iiiK law of ii:iti.Hial inisU.rii. Wliile one
prvserviil the tlieoretical priiuney, the other was in
xciaai conlnA, and it is from tliiiir union realized in
12 LOUVAIN
studies and edicts that the written national Ian' came
forth. Influential in all that pertained to law as such,
the jurists of Louvain had also a strong political
influence. Under the old regime justice and admin-
istration were not divided. Then, the highest govern-
mental offices were almost always entrusted to ex-
perienced jurists who held diplomas from Louvain.
The jurisla of Louvain, brought up in the spirit of
Byiantme law, were somewhat imbued with royalist
theories; however, although aerving the prince, they
showed a decided preference for the limited monarchy.
They certainly consoUdated and enlarged the princely
power, but they did not favour an aljsolute monarchy.
The national opposition to the royal power, which had
become too foreign in character, undoubtedly met
among the leasts adversaries so far as these helped
powerfully to create the mechanism of the princely
Btate;but if anumber were hostile to the old privileges
of the provinces, the theory of absolute royalty found
Qo representative among them even in the seventeenth
century. It is only in the eighteenth century that
royalist conceptions took on greater importance at
Louvain, without, however, becoming predominant.
The history of these conceptions has been sketched in
a volume of the faculty of law indicated below. If
the faculty of law exercised a far-reaching influence in
the inner ufe of the university, the faculty of arts shetl
a more brilliant light. There we find the illustrious
group of Humanists whofora century and a half give
Louvain an international fame; it t>ecomes one of the
scientific centres of the litcrar}- Renaissance which so
largely developed the knowledge of letters and history
and gave a new impetus to many branches of learning,
but which was also marked by the ferment of many
dangerous germs and hasardouB ideas. I'Ouvain isin
the very heart of this literary movement, and, apart
from the subtle trifling with ideas which endangered
orthodoxy, reference must be made, and often with
well-deserved praise, to the brilliant phalanx of lin-
guists, jihilotogists, and historians gathered at the
university. There we find a succession of names
which adorn the literary annals of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, and the history of which has
been written in part by Fflix NSve ("La Renais-
sance des lettres en Belgique", Louvain, 1K90), a
work which is being gradually brought Xa completion,
especially by the writings of Professor Roersen, of
Ghent. The ancient languages ruled over this do-
main, theOrientalandGra.-co-Latinstudies occupying
a prominent place. It is particularly through this
faculty that Louvain stied its lustre beyoiiil the
Netherlands. If its jurists were well knowii, its phi-
lologists were even more famous. Besides, literary
Humanism formed a vast international association
for fine cultural study, and intercourse l)etween
teachers was supplemented by the journeys of their
disciples. Louvain hail a distinguished reputation
in this world of letters; it was the Athens of Bel-
gium. The English Catholic Humanists, such as
Thomas More, found tlicre a hapny refuge during
the persecution. At the end of tne eixtecntli cen-
tury, the name of Justus Lipsius, poor as a philos-
opher and statesman, but great as a philologist,
sums up this prestige of classical lore, of which he
stands out as the culminating point, forming with
Caaaubon and Scaliger the "triumvirate" of European
Humanism. Distin^ished names abound, but that
of CWnard, the ,\rabLst, is entitled to special mention.
Thomiaaen and Roeisch have written tlie life of this
indomitable scholar. Moreover, the study of Icttera
permeated the other sciences and the professors of law
were Humanists as well.
But, as we know, the faculty of arts does not con-
sist wholly of linguistic anil pbilolo^cal studies; it in-
cludes the natural and inatheiiiatical sciences in close
connexion witli philosophy. Without attempting to
treat its tiistor}' and controversies, it may suffice to
LOUTAIV 3(
note thftt in the sixteenth century, ^metiy, astron-
may, and geography found at Louvain celebrated pro-
feeaote who paved the way for the practical achieve-
ments of Antwerpian cartography. Adrian Romaniw
and Gemma Frisius are ita accredited representatives.
The Cartesian disputes of the seventeenth century
gave rise to heated controversies, the stirring history
of which has been related by Georges Hinchamp (Le
Cart^sianisme en Belgique, I8S6). The same is true
of the system of CopemicuB and the trials of Galileo
(Monchamp, " Galilfe et fa Belgique", Brussels, 1892).
The eighteenth oentury brings the name of Minckelers,
who Jnveated illiuninatinii; gas. Within the last few
years several monuments have been erected tu him at
teutsmcht and at Louvnin, and Professor Dcwalque,
of Louvain, has written his biogranhy. The history
of each science will not be related here, as it should
properly be left to specialists. This in particular is
true as regards the faculty of medicine. It may be
stated, however, that although few in number this
faculty grouped in its midst and about it powerful
elements of progress. Vesalius and Van Helmont
worked at Louvain; R^ga was an authmity in surgery
in the eighteenth century, and there are many I '
Belonging to a very different order in virtue of its
high mission stands the faculty of theology. The
ta^ of treating its doctrines hes lieyond the scoi>e of
this article. As a whole its history is one of fruitful
activity to which its numerous productions bear wit-
ness. It was disturbed by the currents of thought
which agitated religious doctrine throu^out the
world, but it vigorously resisted Protestantism. The
errors which sprang from ita bosom throu^ the teach-
ings of Balus and Jansenius cauaed senous anxiety
during the entire seventeenth centui?. In the eigh-
teenth century the influence of Febronianism and
Josephinism was strongly felt, without, however, ever
becoming predominant m the faculty. The theolog-
ical teaching, from the end of the seventeenth century
onwards, was based upon that of the scholastics, tho
writings of St. Thomas Aquinas having replaced those
of Peter Lombard, Special scholastic chairs were
added through the initiative of the princes. Among its
illustrious teachers we shall name but one: Adrian
Floris, tutor of Charles V, later Cardinal of Utrecht,
and finally pope under the name of Adrian VI (1522).
To him is due the foundation of a university college
which still bears his name.
The statutes of the university had been modified
several times, but the laura doeUiralis was throughout
the crowning feature of the studies. The doctorate
ceremonies were not ahke in all the faculties nor were
they the only onee observed in the university; but the
conferring of d^rees was always a considerable event
accompanied with festivities academical, gastronomi-
cal, and public. Not only did solemn processions
pass through the town, but these were repeated in
each community according to a traditional ntuaJ both
comphcated and onerous. These functions were
conmnemorated in verse, tableaux, stories and are
perpetuated in the nation's memory. Except for well-
)ustified retrenchments, the custom has been main-
tained in certain doct«ratea, the conferring of which
atill preserves the festive form and the public proces-
sion. Certain competitions in the faculty of arts
roused great interest. At the conclusion of each com-
petition the candidates were graded; the " Primus" In
the first "line" became from that fact an important
personage, an honour to hia family and city.
It goes without saying that the student body of
Louvain was not given exclusively to study. The
dee of the university and the rect«ral tribunal who
jurisdiction over the entire academic body occa-
sionally had very difficult cases to handle. During
3 LOUVAIN
the civil wars the habits of the young men had not be-
come any more peaceful. If it happened that in the
sixteenth century they rrndcred Ixjuvain the great
service of saving it from being taken and pillaged by
armed bands, on the other hand their rapiers often en-
dangered public peace. Unfortunately we have but
few tacts concerning the student life of the period,
although one of our historians, Poullet, has written
an interesting sketch (see "Revue catholique", Lou-
vain, 1867). Certain articles of the statutes con-
stituted the disciplinary code relating to the viola-
tion of university regulations, and during the
stormy times of civil struggles and general warfare,
the academic tribunal had all it could do to keep the
restless student throng in order. Studies at the uni-
versity went through various phases. For a long time
they were under the exclusive jurisdiction of the uni-
versity body itself. But in the midst of civil disturb-
ances, certain weaknesses and defects of organisation
became apparent, and these the authorities endea-
voured to remedy. -At the beginning of the seven-
teenth century an important fact is to be noted: tbs
iM_
P
^Wfcl-
VasTiBiTU or thi Ukitibsitt o
' LoOTAtH
investigation and reform of 1617. In union with
Paul V, and after a careful examination tlie sovereign
archdukes published new university statutes. Thence-
forth the programme of studies and the conferring of
degrees were minutely provided for. Moreover, the
diploma of studies and examinations was generally
required for the professions of law and of medicine.
There was still free acientific activity, but the profes-
sional r^ulating tendencies were much in evidence in
the faculties of law and of medicine. The new regula-
withstanding the complaints of the Gover
the score of discipline.
The seventeenth century cunnot be looked upon ns
a period of decay for the university, as there ore noted
names and numerous scholarly productions. True,
ancient literature no longer liad the brilliancy given it
by Justus Lipsius up to 1606, but there were very dis-
tinguished jurists, noted Humanists (like Putiamus).
The attraction exerted by Louvain was still very
great. In fact it was only towards tlie middle of the
seventeenth century that the niitio germaniea, which
comprised a succession of distingushed names from
various parts of the empire, was officially establisbed-
Louvain was celeltrated and many studied there in
preference to the Protestant universities of Germany
and Holland (Wils, "L'illustre nation germnnique ,
Louvain, 1909). Publications, Belgian bibliographiea
of various kinds flourished-, the '' ftvyiiWOM^si. ""i^ii-
xirtant anil
volumes (liti honour
piitilinF! Iioiisc of Phintiu anil Morelus at Antwerp.
Through ils tpachcrs nml its influence, Louvain had a
vcr^- large spliere in their activity. Even more than
the acveiilponth century the eighteenth, hithert*
acurcely known, lias been represented ns one of de-
cadeiiee tor tlie uniiersity. Odc niuy lie Miirprised
at thii', since from 17.10 at le,ist, owing to the recon-
ciliation of the HaljslnirRS an<i tlie Bourbons, the
country enjoyed ^jcrfect peace under the apparently
easy-goini: iulmi>nstr;ition of Prince Charles of Lou-
vain, But in reality, it there were some aliortcom-
ings, the iniputiilion of decay gt>t its principal em-
phasis [rum llie Austrian (iovernment itself. The
prineely inithoTitie« followed a policy which met with
strong opposition, esneclilly in ecclesiiistical matters.
The nuni.'ftura from A'ieima exjiocted to linil [mlilical
tools hi the nnirerHity famlltert ami did not succeed.
Oq the other hanil, there was reason to regard the
programme of studies as out of ifalc in some re.>i|>ecls.
There was a certain
The faculty of law
especially confined
itself to the teacli-
ing of Roman law,
ami this was clearly
no louf^r Huflicient
for the training of
youngjuristM. And
aueh was the case
in otlter hranches.
It is certainly a
matter of regret
that the two ques-
tions, the xLCadeniic
an<l the poliiieal,
were linked to-
gether.
In seeking to im-
pregnate the uni'
-:— -ithcentral-
nd )
i LOWAIH
erlands were occupied by the French KcpuMican
troops and offipially annexed by tlie t'onvention in
17H5. The exiutonce <rf the universityj its privileges
and ita teachings were incompatilile with the regime
of the new leaehcra. In 1797 the university was sup-
pressed; iti scientific property fell into the hands of
the spoilers; the whole insiitution was ruined for a long
time by this fiiry ot liHstruclion.
Secmid Prt-toi—lS:j4-19()l). — After an int#r\ai
marked by the eslablishinent of a state university un-
der tlie Dutch (ioi'emment of 1-Slu, the episcopate of
Belgium decided to create afreeCatholic institution for
hiKheredueation. TheConstitution of independent IJel-
giumhaitprocloimedfrecdom of C<lucntion, and ad van-
tage was taken of this wilhdaring initiative. Gregory
XVI s.inct ioned the project. First opened at Mechlin,
the university, at the request of tlie city of Louvain, was
transferreii the following year to the buildings of the
old Alma Mater and thus took up again the historical
GUCcesKion. The t>ope of 1S34 revived the work of his
j)redecessor of H25. The restored university is a
Its administration,
its teaching, attd
its budget are inde-
pendcnt of the
state. The episco-
pate controls the
mstitulion and ap-
point.'; its head, the
HirtiH- Magnijiciw.
The latter governs
with I he a.'isistaiiee
ed of
eil conijiosed ol
deans ol the livt
faculties (thetilo^',
Liw, medicine, phd-
os,ii.hv. letters)
iind of a few other
The
lung am J Jirvaiiau ^^
ideas tlie Auiiirian GouAoi
ministers an<l piirlicularly tlie Marciuis of Nonv. the
commissionerattaehciltotheunii'ersily, practically de-
feated the attempt toreform the programme of stuilies.
Itwasrightiyeoii.uidei'eil that warwiisdeclared against
theuniverMtyprivileges, the national tiMditions, and the
relii^ous riglits of the Church. It was ou this account
and also Iweause of the opinions of the professors ap-
ptantcd that I lie creation of a course in public law, so
Oscful in itself, t»iee failed. Verluiegen, in his "His-
toire dcs cin<[iiuntc demi^res annCes de I'ancieniie
uiuvcrsiti^" (l!iS1) has shown how, even in the eigli-
tecnth century', tlie university had ntill a creditable
scientific existence, and, on the other hand, how
bravely il n'siMliil llie eiieroachincnts made upon it
by the (lovenimcnt. 'Hie conflict lietween tlu- Gov-
ernment and till' university re,aclieil an acute crisis
under the reigu of Emix^ror .fosenh II, who wisheil to
force the professors to adopt his royalist theories.
Some of them yiylded, but many resisted, particularly
when the emperor, on his own authority and in dis-
regard of tlii^ right of the Church, altcmjtted to im-
pose a general seminary on the iiniversitj^. Thi.s
Htruce'^ re.-'ulled in the suspeniuoii and exile of a
uumlier of piufcssuni, whilst tniisc who supjiurfed the
Ciovenmient tv-gan teaching in Bnis.sek, as they could
not remain at Louvain. ^le crisLi was consefjiicntl;'
a viotcnl niir and eiitirelv to tlie creilit of the univer-
sity. It ceasivl only with the end of the -losephini.st
repme. The National Consen'ative Government re-
miciierl ihe university in 1700 and recalled tlte exiles.
UnfrirtuiiMlelv (his teni]M'sl was but the forerunner of
anolhvT wliicti was to la:iit longer. In 1792 (he Xeth-
charge i:
irs are ap-
Coinied by the
ishops on presen-
tation of (he rec(or;
facidtics they elect their ilean for one
or (.wo. The vie^'-rector, whose special
(o watch over the students, also assists
and takes his place when necessarj'; within
recent years the latter hasalso lieen given an assistant.
In principle the univeniity organizes its teacliing and
regulates its scientific degrerK as it sees lit. Pinctical
necessittes have w-t limit.s not to its riglit^, but to the
use of those rights. While respecting the freedom of
teaching, the State has proscrilx^ examination re-
quirements for the practice of certain jirofeasions; the
programroc of these examinations is fixed by law.
The state universities must necessarily conform to it;
the free universities comply with il in oriler to secure
the legal professional advantages for Iheir diiilouias.
The (ioveniment, moreo\er. faithfid in iw interpre-
tation of liberty, deals uith the free universities just
ns it <leals with its own. The dinloiiias awanled have
the same value on tlie same conditions; vii., elflciency
in the ]>rescril>cd minimum ot academic work, this
cflicieney Iieing gwiranteed through the supervision
of a eomniLssion specially appointed tor the purpose.
In no cii-v docs this supcrvisiiin operate as a control or
restriction on the methiKls or lendencies ot the teach-
ing itself, tor that would suppress lil)erty. Under
these minimum reiiuiremeiits tlie universities them-
selves confer (he le^l tlegrces. Until 1876 it was the
work ot a j ury, either central or mbced. Since then the
freedom of teaching has liern made complete and baa
been extended to the conferring of degrees. The uni-
versity, therefore, has free action guarantee<l by the
ronntttutionanditsexernseisaanctiotieil by lliclaw&
LOUVAIN 3!
Besides the official profcramme of legal studies, the
university develops aa it best plesBes tlic various
branches of special teachine. This development has
been conHidcrable. The Utiiver^lty of Louvaiii has
had a large ahare in the scientific movement of the
country. "LeMouvement scientifique on Belgique",
a recent and importtwnt pubhcatioii from the <lopiirt-
jnent of Bciences aiid arbt, enalilos one to judge of the
prominent place it occupies in all the brandies. Tho
University of Louvain is the only one in Belgium that
has a theological faculty, and this fai^ulty ix Cutholio
in virtue of the fundantentol principle of the inutitu-
tjon itself. The doctorate, which requires six years ot
extra study after the completion of the seminary
course, is an academic event. It is not conferred every
year, but the scries of dissertations is alreaily impoi^
tant. The Amaricaa College, treated in another arti-
cle of this "Encyclopedia , is connected with this
faculty. The non-ecclesiastic faciihies have also
grown considerably and numerous foundations of in-
eUtutes and special choirs have been added. As a
5 LOUVAIN
guish t\^o groups of studies niid diplomas. Some on
primarily professional; they pave the way to n lucra-
tive careor. They liave a scitntilic biBis and the
worli Is serioTis; out among the auditors there are
niuilc a numiier who wiiih to du tho least amount of
wiiric [lossilile. Then there are the special scientific
courses, among which may l>e ranked certain pro-
fes.'iional courses, for instance those preparaloi? to
teaching. The profe:^-'ioiial diploinuA regulated by
stale hiwa are chii'lly those of doi-tor in mwiicine, sur-
gery, a[i({ obstetrirK, pharmacy, doctor in law, notary,
tlic doctor ill pjiilosophy and letters (especially with a
view to teaching iuiiguagcs aiid history), in nature
»<cienc<«, m:itliumati('^, mining and civil eneineeriiig.
It i^ not possible to analyse here the courses leadiiie to
these diplomas, as this would involve the entire his-
tory of higher professional teaching. Side by side
witD these pro);rammc9 is a series of specialties, the
importance of which is indicated by the titles: doctor-
ate iu social and political, or poUtical and diplo-
matic sciences, commercial or colonial sciences; higher
and the ancient faculties of law and philosophy have
shared in the development.
Before giving an outline of the work of the univer-
sity it is well to say a word regarding its character.
For a long time, as was everywhere else the cose, the
auditive, receptive meUiod prevailed. This is no
longer so. Hie constant effort is to stimulate love of
woMc and petsoiutl initiative, especially among the
students who show ability. These earnest workers
are inraeuiDg in number, for they fmd within their
reftch both iiiBtrumenta and methods. The prefer-
ence for research has thus become <(uite marke<l, par-
ticularly during the past twenty-five years. I'nivcr-
sity work is not at OU, then, a mere preparation for a
profesnon. On the {Mut of the profrxiiors it is serious
scientific investigation; and so it i» with the students
who are being carefully directed along the samii lines.
As a consequence, the courses of ntu<ly, the institut«B,
the special courses, the seminaries (in the German
■eneeof the word, practical courses), the publications,
competitions, collections are steadily increasing. The
list of university institutes a:id the bibliocraphy are
very important. On various occasions, and especially
in 190Oand 1908, there has been publishcda ver>- com-
plete and instructive account n-hicli makes up a large
volume. Activity on the part of the professors and
personal collaboration of student and teachers arc
therefore characteristic features of ^e present con-
(lltion of university life.
As we liave already pointrrt out, one must distin-
philoi^pliv: mural and historical scii-nces; urchK^logy;
Oriental literature and loiigiiagcs (Semitic or Indo-
Eurojican). The historical and linguistic doctoratea
are. a^ aforementioned, professional also. I''urther,
there is a doctorate in natnnil seieiices, mathematics,
(ui<l their special branches. Then there are a few free
profes-sional diploma-i, not regiilate<l by law: agricul-
t un', engineering, nrchitceture. arts and manufactures,
electricity, ete.
As will be readily nnilcrstood, this development of
the work hiiii brought aboiitacorrespondingincrease in
the teaching si alT niulupiircellingoul of specialties into
a lurRcnuniiier of institutes. Iloubtle.ss, loo. the unifi-
cation of all bmnches of study is advant;igeou-i in the
way (^contact ami co-o)>i-ration; ami while each of the
various lirjnclies prescn'en its nutunumy, the work of
tlie university as a whole is also vei^- fniitful. These
institutes art' <iuite nunierous; it will Ix; sulhcient to
name a few. The higlier philoHoiiliical inslilute (In-
stitut sup'-rieur de i)liilosopliie), due to the initiative
of Pope Irf'o XIII, is hase<l on tlie teaching of St.
Thomas of A(|uin. It wiis organized by I'rofessor
Mercier, lieod of tho school of nco-scholnstic philoso-
phy, and now Cnrdinnl .Archbishop of tieehlin. Hia
works are known tlie world over, among them "La
Revue Xi''0-McolaHtiquf: ", of which he is tlie founder.
The school of political and social sciences (I/Ecole dee
seieiiccs polili(|ues et sociales) annexed to the faculty
of Liw mid line to the initiative of the minister ot
State, Professor van den licuvel, has produced an im-
portant series ot publications, a.r«l taa tt&&s^^^»^^
courses eonteivwces i-S vi \>Ta.t\wi\ s\\a.-^'W**^ - "vt»'™^
LOUTAIH 3t
atituteot a^culture (L'Institut aup^rieur d'agrono-
tiiie),aawcllaM the cuiiuiiurcial, consular, and cotuiiiul
■ehool (L'Ecole commerciale, consulaire et colomale),
OTeparea students for careers in these several lines.
The historical and linguistic lectures Imvo grown
Bteadily in importance, thnoks to professors such as
Jungmann, MocUer, Collard, and Cauchie. The latter
IB ptiblishing, with the preaent rector, P. Ladeuze, the
well-known " Revue d'Histoire Eccl^siastique ". Par-
ticular mention must be made of abmnch of teaching
which is not or^niial in a. distinct school, but which
hiu here an important development; it is that of the
Oriental languages (Hebrew^ byriac, Arabic. Coptic),
distributed in various faculties, and for which there is
a special diploma.
The various schools and institutes, provided with
libraries, apparatus, etc., familiarize the student with
methods of study under the immediate supervision of
masters. They are also centres of scientific produo-
tim: we have alreadv mentioned the importance of
the bibliography of the university (Blbliagraphie des
travaux univetsitaires), the catalogue of which has
been published. These publications include a series
of periodicals which carry abroad the work of Louvaill
ana bring back in exchange the productions of the out-
Bde worid. There are about tnirty of these periodi-
cals published by the professors of Louvain, and more
than one thousand are received in exchange from
other sources. Among these reviews may be men-
taoned : " Iji Revue Ndo-Scolastiquc " and " La Revue
d'Histoire EccWsiastique", whicli have already been
noticed; "La Revue Sociale C'atholigue" and "La
Revue Catholique de Droit" (all four from the philo-
aophical institute); "La Revue Miklicale" (double);
"La Cellule" (review of biology, founded by Camoy) ;
"La Nfvrose (review of neurology, founded bv Van
Gehuchten); the "Bulletins" of tlie schools of engi-
neering, commerce, agriculture, and electricity . "Le
Husfe Beige" (pedagogy'); "I-a MusCon" (philology
and Oriental sciences) ; " Revue des Socifit^s ( 'omraer-
oiales", etc. To the above might be added collec-
tions that do not appear regularly, but which form im<
portant series, such as the historical and philological
conferences; and the publications of the school of polit-
ical sciences; the collection of the ancient pluloso-
^rs of Belgium (M. de Wulf), and that of the old
English dramas (Bang). Frequently, too, the pro-
[cMors bring out their students' work in foreign maga-
■ines not under their direction, and in the bulletins of
various academies. The list of these is to lie found in
the university bibliography. An idea may thus be
fanned of the activity of men like Louis Henry (chem-
iMry) and J. Denys (bacteriology), who prefer this
mode of publication.
Besides these lines of work, there are others in which
professors an(! students do not work absolutely side by
^^A?.-0/^/:*/n vhich the leacher'srAle censes t«l>e that
K LOUVAIN
of Immediate instruction, and becomes one of assist-
ance and su|>ervisioii. TItc conferences on history
and social economy are really courses of teaching,
where the students work under the constant supervi-
sion of the professor with an increasing amount o( in-
dividuality. The "circle" in apologetics created by
the present rector comprises expositions by profes-
sors, at times by studentt— along with questions and
solutions of the difSculties presented by the study of
reli^ous subjects. Elsewhere the student does his
work independently, and submits his results for dis-
cussion by his comrades. The role of the preying
professor becomes a very uneven one and is, at times,
purely exlernal. It then becomes rather a matter of
exercises tetween students, verv useful and very com-
mendable, but of quite another kind. There are quite
a numljer of clubs in the various faculties, where the
professor plays a very active part as inspirer, guide.
adviser. Among the other ones which have rendered
^eat services are; " Le cercle industriel " " L'f mula-
tion'V'Lecercled'^tudea sociales", the Flemish soci-
ety "Tyd en Vlyt", and, more rccently,"La soci^t^
pniloeopbique ", "Le cercle agronomique", and vari-
ous literary and social clubs.
Since Belgium gained its independence, Louvain
has almost always been represented in Parliament
and very often in the Cabinet Councils. Professor
Delcour and Professor Thonissen were ministers of
the Interior on which depended the department of
Education; and to-day Professor Baron Descamps is
minister of science; several had other portfolios: not-
ably Nyssens, who in 1897 established the depart-
ment of labour. But Louvain docs not seek merely to
turn out professional men and scientists; it aims at
making men and Christians of its students ; that is one
of its fundamental characteristics. The influence
over the spirit and mode of living of its young men is
far-reaching. Itisexerted through the teaching itself,
without departing from scientific accuracy, but on the
contrary proving by it the harmony between science
and faith. It is extended by the action of different
groups and by personal initiative. Furthermore,
there are many societies of a distinctly moral and re-
ligious nature ap-
pealing to the life
and cliaraeter of
youth: reUgious
reunions, organ i -
aationsforinst^uo-
tion, apostleship,
pious and chari-
table enterprises,
such as the Lucha-
ristic adoration,
Catholic missions,
the Christian
Press, Society of
St. Vincent de
Paul, school for
adult working-
men. Nor is phys-
ical development
overlooked, " '
the
equipments
the various sports.
The university has a strong bond of unity; its moral
force is incontest ably the most powerful element of ita
vitality. The rebti<ms between professorsandstudents
MaltT. The Alumni associations are one of the out-
ward signs; the permanence of personal relations is
To complete t£is sketch of Louvain something must
be said about the student life. Owing to the fimit«d
territory of the countiy to the many easy and inex-
X^OVE
397
LOVE
pexMive meanB of oommunication, many students are
enabled to return home every day. They are called
navetUa in the college slang. The others live at Lou-
vain, some (about 200) in the university colleges (am*
vietus), supervised by one of the professors as presi-
dent, where for a moderate sum (about 700 francs)
they are given full board. Others live with citizens of
the town, usually occup3ring two rooms.^ A very large
number go away and spend Sunday with their fami-
lies, and this is encouraged. The academic year al-
lows for quite a number of vacations. It begins about
the third week in October with the Mass of the Holy
Ghost. There is a fortnight's vacation at Christmas,
three weeks at Easter: the lectures cease on 25 June.
The month of July ancl the first part of October are de-
voted to examinations. During their soioum at Lou-
vain the students lead a life which thougn serious may
be varied and agreeable. There are the numerous
dubs previously mentioned; also, friendly societies
grouped by cities and provinces, and it is easy for the
students to have daily reunions. Notwithstanding
all the sources of distraction it seems that the work ol
the average student is improving. It is quite evident
also that the better class of students is becoming more
and more select, while social gradations are more clearly
and more securely defined.
This sketch of the university life of Louvain would
be incomplete if we did not add a few statistical ele-
ments. L'Aimuaire ", a valuable volume published
regularly by the university authorities, records the
events and achievements of each year and is indis-
pensable as a means of studying the activity and
growth of Louvain. Number of students in 18^, 86;
1854, 600^ 1874, 1160; 1894, 1636; 1904, 2148: Dis-
tiibution m 19(^: theology, 125; law, 491; medicine,
475; philosophy, 313; sciences, 286; special schools,
570: total. 2260. In this total were 'Zo2 foreigners:
29 from tne United States. 5 from Canada, 13 from
South America, 7 from England, 6 from Ireland. The
corps of instructors numbered 120 in active service
holding various positions: full professors, associates,
lecturers, substitutes. Among the eminent profes-
sors of the university since the restoration in IHM
we select for mention the following deceased: In
theology: Beelen (Oriental languages, Scripture),
Jungmann (ecclesiastical history), Malou (Bishop of
Bruges), Lamy (Oriental languages, Syriac, etc..
Scripture), Reussens (archaeology-, histor>'). In law:
de Coux and P^rin (political economy), Thonisscn
(criminal law), Nyssens (conunercial l:iw). In phi-
losophy and letters: Arendt^ David, Mo(»llcr, PouHet
(history), N^ve, de Harlez (Oriental literature), Wil-
lems (philology and history) . In physical sciences and
mathematics: (jilbert (mathematics), de la Valine
Poussin (geology). Van Beneden (zoologj), Camoy
(bicdogy). In medicine: Schwann, Cranincx, Mi-
chanx, van Kempen, Hubert, Lefcbvre. Charles
Cartuyvels, vice-rector for over twenty-five years,
was far-famed for his pulpit elociuence. The rectors
during the modem period were seven in nunilx^r:
P. J. de Ram, a very prolific historian; N. J. Laforet;
A. J. Nam^he, Belgium's historian; C. Pienierts;
J. B. Abbeloos, orientalist; Ad. nebl)el>'nk, another
orientalist who has recently l)ecn succeeded in the
rectorate by a colleague of the same department, P.
Ladeuse. appointed in July, 1909.
The bibliography of the university in very extensive and it is
impoasible to quote it in full. There arc both uncient sources
and recent writings with regard to the old university, among the
former being the works of Molanuh; Valekius-An ureas;
VsRNULiKUs; Van Lanoendonck; Van de Veldk, and nu-
merous M8S. documents, notably a portion of the "Acta" of
the faculties. Tliese sources are tndirat c<l in the modem works
mentioiied bdow, although unfortunately ageneral history of
the univenity has not yet been written. Tiie chief source of
the history of the restored university is its own A nnwiire; since
%e
1000 there has also been published ref^ulnrly the BibJiographv
d* rUni9traUit in which there is a section indicating the contri
butiom to the history of the institution, rnivrrsil^ Catholique
iMLmnavHf Annyaire (73 vols., I^ouvain, 1837-1909); Uniwr-
mi C€0kahq¥€ <U Louvain, Biblioffraphie de CUnivernti (Lou-
vain, 1000-^), VVniveniU de Louvain, Coup d^ail tur ton
hivloire H vev invtihUions (Brussels, 1900); Vbrrabobn, Lm
cinquanU demiirev aniUea de Vaneienne univeraili de Louvakt
(Ghent, 1884) ; Bbants. La factUU de droit h Ijouvain h trawn
einq eiMee (Louvain, 1906); NkvE, Reussens, and de Ram
numerous works mentioned in the BibHographif of the univenity
under their names; Liber memorialie, or report of the jubilee
celebrations of the restoration of the university in 1884 and
1909 (Loavain, 1884, 1909). V. BraNTS.
Loye, Theologicaii Virtue of, the third and
greatest of the Divine virtues enumerated by St. Paul
(I Cot., xiii, 13), usually called charity , and defined: a
Divinely infused habit, inclining the human will to
cherish (jrod for His own sake above all things, and
man for the sake of God. This definition sets ofiF
the main characteristics of charity: — (1) Its origin,
by Divine infusion. "The charity of God is poured
forth in our hearts, by the Holy Ghost" (Rom., v, 6).
It is, therefore, distinct from, and superior to, the in-
born inclination or the acauired habit of loving God in
the natural order. Theologians agree in saymg that
it is infused together ^ith sanctifying grace, to which
it is closely related either by way of real identity, as
some few hold, or, according to the more conmion
view, bv way of connatural emanation. (2) Its seat,
in the human will. Although charity is at times in-
tensely emotional, and frequently reacts on our sen-
sorv faculties, still it properly resides in the rational
will, a fact not to be forgotten by those who would
make it an impossible virtue. (3) Its specific act, i. e.,
the love of benevolence and friendship. To love (lod is
to wish Him all honour and glory ana every good, and
to endeavour, as far as we can, to obtain it for Him.
St. John (xiv, 23; xv, 14) emphasizes the feature of
reciprocity which makes charity a veritable friend^p
of man with God. (4) Its motive, i. e., the Divine good-
ness or amiability taken absolutely and as made
known to us by faith. It matters not whether that
goodness be viewed in one, or several, or all of the
Divine attributes, but, in all cases, it must be adhered
to, not as a source of help, or reward, or happiness for
ourselves, but as a good in itself infinitely worthy of
our love; in this sense alone is God loved for His own
sake. However, the distinction of the two loves: con-
cupiscence, which prompts hope; and benevolence,
which animates charity, should not be forced into a
sort of mutual exclasion, as the Church has repeatedly
condemned any attempts at discrediting the workings
of Christian hope (q. v.). (5) Its range, i. e., bothG^
and man. While (jrO<l alone is all loval^lc, yet, inas-
much as all men, by grace and glory, cither actuidly
share or at least are capable of sharing in the Divine
goodness, it follows that supematurallove rather in-
cludes than excludes them, according to Matt., xxii,
39, and Luke, x, 27. Hence one and the same virtue
of charity terminates in both Go<l and man, (jrod pri-
marily and man secondarily.
I. Love of God. — Man's paramount duty of loving
God is tersely expressed in Deut., vi, 5; Matt., xxii, 37;
and Luke, x, 27. Quite obvious is the imperative
character of the words 'Hhou shalt". Innocent XI
(Denziger, noa. 1155-57) declares that the precept is
not fulTilled by an act of charity performed once in a
lifetime, or cver>^ five years, or on the rather indefinite
occasions when justification cannot be otherwise pro-
cured. MonUists urge the obligation (1) at the be-
girming of the moral life when reason has attained its
full development; (2) at the point of death; and (3)
from time to time during life, an exact count beinjg
neither possible nor necessary since the Christian habit
of daily prayer surely covers the obligation. The vio-
lation ot the precept is generally negative, i. e., by
omission, or indirect, i. e., implied in every grievous
fault; there are, however, sins directly opposed to the
love of God: spiritual sloth, at least when it entails a
voluntary loathing of spiritual goods, and the hatred
of God, whether it l>e an al)omination of God's restric-
tive and punitive laws or an averavoYv ^^'^ ^S!»5^^«br»^
Person (sea SuyiB.\^MYiax.\i^,
LOVE
398
LOVE
The qualifications, " with thy whole heart, and with
thy whole soul, and with thy whole mind, and with thy
whole stren^h'', do not mean a maximum of inten-
aily, for intensity of action never falls under a com-
mand; still less do they imply the necessity of feeling
more sensible love for God than for creatures, for
visible creatures, howsoever imperfect, appeal to
our sensibility much more than the invisible God.
Their true significance is that, both in our mental
appreciation and in our voluntary resolve, God
would stand above all the rest, not excepting fa-
ther or mother, son or daughter (Matt., x, 37). St.
Thomas (II-II, Q. xliv, a. 5) would assign a special
meaning to each of the four Biblical phrases; others,
with more reason, take the whole sentence in its cumu-
lative sense, and see in it the purpose, not only of rais-
ing charity above the low Alatcrialism of the Saddu-
oees or the formal Ritualism of the Pharisees, but also
of declaring that "to love God above all things is to in-
sure the sanctity of our whole life" (Le Camus, "Vie
de Notre-Seigneur Jfeus-Christ", III, 81).
The love of God is even more than a precept binding
the human conscience; it is also, as Le Camus observes,
"the principle and goal of moral perfection".
As the principle of moral perfection in the supemat-
aral order, with faitn as foimdation and hope as incen-
tive, the love of God ranks first among the means of
salvation styled by theologians necessary, * ' necessitate
medii". By stating that "charitv never fallcth
away" (I Cor., xiii, 8), St. Paul clearlv intimates that
there is no difference of kind, but only of degree, be-
tween charity here below and glory above; as a cons^
auence Divine love becomes the necessary inception of
uiat God-like life which reaches its fullness in heaven
only. The necessity of habitual charity is inferred
from its close communion with sanctifying grace. The
necessity of actual charity is no less evident. Apart
from the cases of the actual reception of baptism, pen-
ance, or extreme unction, wherein the love of charity,
by a special dispensation of God, admits of attrition as
a substitute, all adults stand in need of it, according to
I John, iii, 14: " He that loveth not, abideth in death ".
As the goal of moral perfection, always in the super-
natural order, the love of God is called "the greatest
and the first commandment" (Matt., xxii, 38), "the
end of the commandment" (I Tim., i, 5), " the bond of
perfection" (Col., iii, 14). It stands as an all-impor-
tant factor in the two main phases of our spiritual life,
E* "ication and the acquisition of merits. The justi-
power of charity, so well expressed in Luke, vii,
[id I Pet., iv, 8, has in no wav been abolished or
reduced by the institution of the Sacraments of Bap
tism and Penance as necessary means of moral rehabil-
itation; it has only been made to include a willingness
to receive these sacraments where and when possible.
Its meritorious power, emphasized by St. Paul (Rom..
viii, 28), covers both the acta elicited or commanded
by charity. St. Augustine (De laudibus caritatis)
oalls charity the "life of virtues" (i*ita virtntum); and
St. Thomas (II-II, Q. xxiii, a. 8), the " form of virtues"
(forma virttUum). The meaning is that the other vir-
tues, while possessing a real value of their own, derive
a fresh and greater excellence from their union with
charity, which, reaching out directly to God, ordains
all our virtuous actions to Him. As to the manner
and degree of influence which charity should exercise
over our virtuous actions in order to render them
meritorious of heaven, theologians are far from being
agreed, somerefiuiring only the state of grace, or habit-
ual charity, others insisting upon the more or less fre-
quent renewal of distinct acts of di^^ne love. Of
course, the meritorious power of charity is, like the
virtue itself, susceptible of indefinite growth. St.
Thomas (II-II, Q. xxiv, 24 a. 4 and 8) mentions three
principal stages: (1) freedom from mortal sin by stren-
uous rf'sistanco to temptation; (2) avoidance of delil>-
entte vmial sins by the assiduous practice of virtue;
(3) union with God through the frequent recurrence of
acts of love. To these, ascetic writers like Alvarez de
Paz, St. Teresa, St. Francis of Sales, add many more
degrees, thus anticipating even in this world the
"many mansions in the Father's house". The prerog-
atives of charity should not, however, be construed
so as to include inamissibility. The saying of St. John
(I Ep., iii, 6), "UTiosoever abideth in'^him [God], sin-
neth not", means indeed the special permanence of
charity chiefly in its higher degrees, but it is no al)so-
lute guarantee against the possible loss of it; while the
infused habit is never diminished by venial sins, a
single grievous fault is enough to destroy it and so end
man's union and friendship with God.
II. Love of Man. — While charity embraces all the
children of God in heaven, on earth, and in purgatory
(see Communion of Saints), it is taken here as mean-
ing man's supernatural love for man, and that in this
world ; as such, it includes both love of self and love of
neighbour.
(1) Love of Self.— St. Gregory the Great (Hom. XIII
in Evang.) objects to the expression " charity towards
self ", on the plea that charity requires two terms; and
St. Augustine (De bono viduitatis, xxi) remarks that
no command was needed to make man love himself.
Obviously, St. Gregory's objection is purely grammat-
ical; St. Augustine's remark applies to natural self-
love. As a matter of fact, the precept of supernatural
love of self is not only possible or needed, but also
clearly implied in Christ's command to love our neigh-
l>our as ourselves. Its obligation, however, bears in a
vague manner on the salvation of our soul (Matt., xvi,
26), the acquisition of merits (Matt., vi, 19 sqq.), the
Christian use of our body (Rom., vi, 13; I Cor., vi, 19;
Col., iii, 5), and can hardly be brought down to prac-
tical points not already covered by more specific
precepts.
(2) Love of Neighbour, — The Christian idea of
brotherly love as compared with the pagan or Jewish
concept has been touched upon elsewhere (see Charitt
AND Charities). Briefly, its distinctive feature, and
superiority as well, is to be found less in its commands,
or prohibitions, or even results, than in the motive
which prompts its laws and prepares its achievements.
The faithful carrying out of the "new commandment"
is called the criterion of true Christian discipleship
(John, xiii, 34 sq.), the standard by which we shall
be judged (Matt., xxv. 34 sqq.), the best proof that
we love God Himself (I John, iii, 10), and the fulfil-
ment of the whole law (Gal., v, 14), because, viewing
the neighbour in God and through God, it has the
same value as the love of God. 'The expression "to
love the neighbour for the sake of God " means that we
rise above the consideration of mere natural solidarity
and fellow-feeling to the higher view of our common
Divine adoption and heavenly heritage; in that sense
only could our brotherly love be brou^t near to the
love which Christ had for us (John, xiii. 35), and a
land of moral identity between Christ ana the neigh-
bour (Matt., xxv, 40), become intelligible. From this
high motive the universality of fraternal charity fol-
lows as a necessary consequence. Whosoever sees in
his fellow-men, not the human peculiarities, but the
God-given and God-like privileges, can no longer re-
strict his love io members of the family, or co-rehgion-
ists, or fellow-citizens, or strangers within the borders
(Lev., xix, 34), but must needs extend it, without dis-
tinction of Jew or Gentile (Rom., x, 12), to all the
units of the human kind, to social outcasts (Luke, x,
33 son.), and even tp enemies (Matt., v, 23 sq.). Very
f oroiDle is the lesson wherein Christ compels His hearers
to recognize, in the much despised Samaritan, the true
type of the neighbour, and truly new is the command-
rnent whereby He urges us to forgive our enemies, to
be reconciled with them, to assist and love them.
The exercise of charity would soon become injudi-
cious and inoperative unless there be in this, as in all
LOW
399
LOW
the moral virtues, a well-defined order. The wdo
caritcUis, as theologians term it, possibly from a wrong
rendering into Latin of Cant., li, 4 (ordinavit in me
eharUatem)^ takes into account these different factors:
(1) the persons who claim our love, (2) the advantages
which we desire to procure for them, and (3) the
necessity in which they are placed. The precedence is
plain enough when theise factors are viewed separately.
Regarding the persons alone, the order is somewhat as
follows: self, wife, children, parents, brothers and
sisters, friends, domestics, neighbours, fellow-country-
men, and all others. Considering the goods by them-
selves, there is a triple order: the most important
spiritual goods appertaining to the salvation of the
soul should first appeal to our solicitude; then the in-
trinsic and natural goods of the soul and body, like life,
health, knowledge, libertv, etc.; finally, the extrinsic
goods of reputation, wealth, etc. Viewing apart the
various kinds of necessity, the following order would
obtain: first, extreme necessity, wherein a man is in
danger of damnation, or of death, or of the loss of other
goods of nearly equal importance and can do nothing
to help himself; secodd, grave necessity, when one
E laced in similar danger can extricate himself only by
eroic efforts; third, common necessity, such as af-
fects ordinary sinners or beggars who can help them-
selves without great difficulty.
When the three factors are combined, they give rise
to compUcated rules, the principal of wnich are these:
(1) The love of complacency and the love of benefac-
tion do not follow the same standard, the former being
guided by the worthiness, the latter by the near-
ness and need, of the neighbour. (2) Our personal
salvation is to be preferred to all else. We are never
justified in committing the slightest sin for the love of
any one or anything whatsoever, nor should we expose
ourselves to spiritual danger except in such cases and
with such precautions as would give us a moral right
to, and guarantee of, God's protection. (;^) We arc
bound to succour our neighbour in extreme spiritual
necessity even at the cost of our own life, an oljligation
which, however, supposes the certainty of the neigh-
bour's need and of tne effectiveness of our service to
him. (4) Except in the very rare cases dc^cril)ed
above, we are not bound to risk life or limb for our
neighbour, but only to undergo that amount of incon-
venience which is justified by the neighbour's n?ed and
nearness. Casuists are not agreed as to the right to
give one's life for another's life of equal importance.
TanquerisV, De virtuteairiiaHs in Sj/nopsUTheohgia Moralin,
II (New York, 1906), 426; Slater, A Manual of Moral The-
oloffUt I (New York, 1909), 179 eqq.; Batiffol, U Enseignement
de Jiaua (Paris, 1905); Northcote, The Bond of Perfection
(London. 1907); GArrRE, La Lot d' Amour (Paris, 1908); de
Salxs, TraiiS de Vamour de Dieu: Pksch, Pralectionea Dogmor
Ucm, VIII (Freiburg im Br., 1898), 226 aqq.; Dublanchy,
in Diet, de Thiol. Cam., a. v. CharitS, with an exhaustive biblio-
hy of the theologians and mystics who have dealt with this
gnwby
matter.
J. F. SOLUER.
Low Ohiirch, the name given to one of the three
parties or doctrinal tendencies that prevail in the
Established Church of England and its daughter
Churches, the correlatives being High Church and
Broad Church. The last of these names is not a cen-
tury old, but the other two came into use simulta-
neously at the beginning of the eighteenth century.
Their invention was due to the controversies stirred
up by William Ill's endeavour to undo the Act of
Uniformity of 1662 and concede to the Dissenters all
that they had demanded in the Savoy Conference,
(^uite a war of pamphlets was carried on at the time
in which the terms High Church and Low Church were
bandied to and fro. To cite one w^itness out of many,
Bishop Burnet, in his "History' of his o^ti Time"
(VII. 347), writes: "From these disputes in Convoca*
tion divisions ran through the whole body of the
dergy, and to fix. tliem new names were found out.
They were distinguished by the names of High and
Low Church. All that treated the Dissenters with
temper and moderation, and were for residing con-
stantly at their cures . . • were represented as secret
favourers of presbytery^ and as disaffected to the
Church, and were called Low Churchmen. It was said
that they were in the Church onlv while the law and
preferments were on its side, but tliat they were ready
to ^ve it up as soon as they saw'a proper time for de-
claring themselves."
^ Naturally the Low Churclimen resented an appella-
tion with which this suggestion of unworthy motives
was associated. Still the term has passed into general
usage, nor, if we forget, as the world has forgotten, an
implication which is by no means essential to it, can it
be denied that it and its correlative indicate fairly
well a root-difference which throughout their various
stages has characterized the two parties. What is the
nature of the visible Church? Is it a society whose or-
ganization with its threefold ministry has been pre-
ordained by Jesus Christ, and is therefore essential, or
is it one in which tliis organization, though of Apos-
tolic precedent, can be departed from without for-
feiture of church status? The High Churchmen have
alwiiys stood for the former of these alternatives,
the Low Churchmen for the latter. Moreover, round
these central positions more or less consequential con-
victions have gathered. The High Churchmen, in
theory at least, emphasize the principle of church au-
thority as the final court of doctrinal appeal ; whilst the
Low Churchmen appeal rather to the Bible, privately
interpreted, as the decisive judge. The High Church-
men exalt ecclesiastical tradition as the voice of
church authority, regard the Holy Eucharist as. in
some sense a sacrifice and the sacraments as effica-
cious channels of grace, and they insist on rites and
ceremonies as the appropriate expression of external
worship; whilst the Low Churchmen are distrustful
of what they call human traditions, regard the Holy
Eucharist as a s>'mbolic meal only, hold firmly that
the grace of justification and sanctification is imparted
to the soul independently of visible channels, and dis-
like all rites and ceremonies, save those of the sim-
plest kind, as tending to substitute an external form-
alism for true inward devotion. In short, the one party
attaches a hiRher, the other a lower degree of impor-
tance to the visible Church and it^ ordinances; and this
may suffice to justify the retention of the names —
though it must always be borne in mind that they
state extremes between which many intermediate
grades of thought and feeling have always subsisted in
the AngUcan Church.
Of the pre-Revolution period, although the two
names were not as yet coined, it may be said that Low
Church ideas were in the ascendant ail through the reign
of Elizabeth, but that under James I religious opinion
began to grow high, imtil, mainly through the action
of ArchbiSop Laud, it obtained a firm footing in the
national Church; and, the lapse of the Rebellion not-
withstanding, retained it throughout the Caroline pe-
riod, and even through the reigns of William and Anne
— although William filled the episcopal sees with Low
Church prelates. With the advent of the Hanoverian
djTiasty a deep spiritual lethargy settled down on the
country. The bishoprics were now openly given as
rewards for political service, the lesser benefices were
mostly filled by pluralist^ of good familv. The chief
soUcitude of the clergy was to lead comfortable lives,
their highest spiritual effort, if such it could be called,
taking the form of sermons on the reasonableness of
Christianity directed against the Deists, or vapid
laudations of moral virtue. Then, in the forties of the
eighteenth century, there broke on this season of tor-
por an intense revival of religious fervour which stirred
the country to its foundations, and gave a new and
much improved complexion to the Vvikvel "mx^ ^'"^J^
of the liow CU\xt<iVv^\x\V^ . "Sv^^ ^\>^\^t^^>r^^v2^^-
LOW 400 LOW
tion was resented, the adherents of the transformed His second period Bishop Moule names the Shafi«s-
party churning to be colled, as their deacmdants do bury period, after the tnil^ venerable noblcniBD who
sdll. Evangelicals. The name, however, has attached devoted his life to the protection and elevaiion of the
to tnem, and is applicable in so far as they share the poorer claHsea. He was a fervent Evaneelical, and as
doctrine about the Church which has been described, a great layman bore to the party someUung of tjie re-
The Evangelicals of the eighteenth century insisted lation which William Wllberforce had borne to it in
that they were not introducing any new doctrines into the earlier part of the century, its members in their
their Church but only calling on people to take its doo- tum_ co-operating with him energetically in his many
trines to heart and apply them seriously to their lives, charitable undertakings. Through his mfluence with
Still thcrewcrepointsof doctrine to which they gave a Lord Falmerston he obtained the promotion of scveml
construction of their own, and on which they laid conspicuous Evangelicals to posts of responsibility,
special stress. It is by these that their party is char- Thus Villiera, Barmg, Waldegrave, Wigram, and Fel-
acteriied. They insisted on the total depravity of ham were promoted to bishoprics, and Close to the
human nature in God's eyes as the consequence of the deanery of Carlisle. Other names of note during tJiis
Fall; on the vicarious, sacrifice of Christ as the subeti- period were John Bird Sumner, Archbishop of Canter-
tute for fallen man; on the imputed righteousness of bury, Edward Bickersteth, John Charles Ryle, Hugh
Christ as the sole formal cause of justification; on the McNeile, Hugh Stowell. This too was the flourishing
necessity of a conscious conversion to God which must period of the May_ meetings held annually at Exeter
be preceded by conviction of sin (not of sinsonly), and Hall, and it was in 1876 that the Keswick conven-
which involves a species of faith whereby the tund is, tions, which have since become annual events, were
as it were, stretchcii out with firm assurance to appro- first commenced. His third period, to which lie a»-
priatethe justification offered, the witness of the Spirit ngns the last two decades of the nineteenth century,
whereby the soul is interiorly certified that it is in a Bishop Moule calls the Church Itlissionary Society pe-
state of salvation, and the commencement of a process riod, m view of the immense advance wnich that pet
<A interior sanctification wrought in the heart by the child of the party has made during recent years. As
Holy Spirit. This doctrine, which in its earliest form did Evangelicalism to the old Low Church ideas, so
is traceable to Luther, is in reality due to a false anal- has Tractarianism, which rose up in the middle of
yais of some fundamental Catholic truths, and it is this the nineteenth century, given a new interpretation to
intermixture of truth with error which renders intelli- the old High Church views, which since then have lieen
^ble the rich harvest of edifying conversions and holy carried in the direction of Catholic doctrine far beyond
hves. chequered, however, by not infrequent instances what the old Caroline divines ever dreamt of. This
erf regrettable extravagances, which marked the begin- movement has also struck root in the country, and has
nings of the new spiritual movement. The foremost aoextendeditself that of late years people have begun
name among its leaders was that of John Wesley, who, to ask it the Evangelical party is not dying out.
it must be remembered, if somewhat restive to its dis- There are, indeed, appearances which may seem to
dpline, never himself forsook the Anglican communion, point that way, but as an evidence to the contrary the
though the main body of his followers did shortly Evangelicals may reasonably point to their Qhurch
after nis death. Missionary Society, which is supported entirely by
But siile by side with the Wesleys and Whitefield, their contributions. Its annual income of late has
the Anf;1ican Church of that time had other leaders in fallen little short of £400,000, which is more than
whom the same species of spiritual impulse was active, double that of the society that comes next to it.
but in whom it was kept freer from emotional ex- Surely it is a fair inference from this impressive fact
cesses and manifested no tendency to stray oS into that EvanKeticalism is still a living force of great
separatism. It is these who must be recognized as the power; and it must be added that, though this is not
trucFathersofthemodem Low Church or Evangelical bvan;^ means it^ exclusive privilege, it can still as of
puty. William Romaine may be regarded as thetr old point to numberless bright examples of holy living
forerunner, but he was soon followed by Henry Venn amongthose who take its teaching U> heart.
n followed by Henry Venn amongthose who take its teaching U.
erf Huddersfield, John Newton of OIney, William Cow- Hiaiuiu la u—TAi prindptca o/ Loa-Churiji-Mcn fairly rcp-
per, the poet, with their younger colleagues, Thomas ""^ ""^ ''f^S^^- j^" ? '"W""" "™''"y'j' ""wmmo 'o
&t, tirc«n,me.Ut«,, J~Ph Miher thar hij 'SSiTt^'^^ISkSkiSf.^'ZSriiil.'il
t«>rian, and Isaac Miloer his brother, also Richard ^reUMop Tan (tandon, 1BS8>: Otehton, Thr Evajierlifal
Cewl, their intellectual chief. These were the leaders R«™^ « «• ?«™™* «^"* t'™J " Cre'ohtoi.. E^rh>a/
in the second half of the eirfiteenth century .In the ^-^J'^ gSl7^f S^lf^Jfl^Vir-tSS^
nineteenth century Bishop Handley Moule, their most Mmrmmti of RrKj/ioiu TViouoW ui Bnelatia during Ihe Nine-
.B»th™peri<xj.o(Ev.n„lio.ll,rkorr Of th« ':SJS^^S;?S£f^lASi^i^rSS-Jt
the Iir:<t lasted till about the middle of the century, tiaaical Biographg (ljiadaa.lS49t-. Stock, UiitirrvvfchrChvrh
He names it the period of Simeon and Wllberforce, af- .Jf«i»a™.5on^ (London, ispoj; Heath, rt* Waning aj
ter the cleric anj the kyman whose influence contrib- nJ^RoSeX J? bSU^ESSL rfSS;»^iMj '
uted the most of all to its progress and development. Doctnxtiu.' r-tnt Dbvotionu.— Vimk. Tkt CampUr Du^ of
At the commencement of this period one remarkable '^'HSl'.^,'!^ "^H'^ «bMnii»it edlttoiu)! WiLBERrDH<;K,
<„., II .1 : .C I t T-r ii. A fhwdml Vita a/ O^prrpatlnv nltinout ivirm «/ rmfe'trd
effect of their intimate association with one another Yo«, 1909),
was seen in the important works to which their leat sydnbt F. Suith.
Bive birth. Tliey fouwied the "Christian Observer"
(for three-quarters of a ccnturj-, the organ of their Low Soilday, the first Sunday after E^ter. The
party), of which Joeiah Pratt and Zachary Macaulay origin of the name is uncertain, but it is apparently iu-
werc the first editors. The v were mainly instrumental tended to indicate the contrast between it and the
in founding the Church Stissionary Society in IT99, great Easter festival immediately preceding, and also,
had much to do with the founding of the Bible Society perbapSj to signify that, being the Octavo Day of
in 180t, and collaborated actively, to their eternal Easter, it was considered part of that feast, though in
credit, with Wilberiorce and Henry Thornton in their a lower degree. Its liturgical name is iJomiitiea tn
Baceeaaful crusade agaiast the slave trade. aUrii deporitia, derived from the fact that <ai it the
LUBSGK
401
LUBBOK
neophytes, who had been baptized on Easter Eve, then
for the first time laid aside their white baptismal robes.
St. Augustine mentions this custom in a sermon' for
the day, and it is also alluded to in the Eastertide Ves-
per hymn. ''Ad regies Agni dapes" (or, in its older
torm, " Aa c<Bnam Agni providi ), written by an an-
cient imitator of St. Amorose. Low Sunday is also
called b/some liturgical writers Pascha dausumf signi-
fving the close of the Easter Octave, and "Quasimodo
Sunday", from the Introit at Mass — "Quasi modo
geniti infantes, rationabile, sine dolo lac concupiscite",
— ^which words are used by the Church with special ref-
erence to the newly baptized neophytes, as well as in
general allusion to man's renovation through the
Resurrection. The latter name is still common in
parts of France and Gennany.
DuRAND, Rationale Divini Officii (Venice. 1568): MARrkwE,
De Antiquit Monaehorum RitibuM CLArons, 1700); UuiiRANaER,
L'Ann^e liturgigue, tr. Shkpherd, The Liturgical Year (Dublin,
1867); Leroset, Histoire et aumbolisme de la IMurffie (Paris,
1889); BxTirFOL, Hietoire du Briviaire Romaine (Paris, 1803).
G. Cyprian AxfiTON.
Lttbeck, a free imperial state and one of the Hanse
towns, is in area the second smallest and in popula-
tion the twentieth state in the German Empire. The
state, which includes the city of Ltibeck ana its neigh-
bourhood, has an area of al)out 115 sq. m. and a popu-
lation (1905) of 105,857 inhabitants, of whom 101,724
were Lutherans, 2457 Catholics, and 638 Jews. Of
the three Hanse towns which still remain — Hamburg,
Bremen, and LQbeck — LObeck was the last founded.
It was first established in the eleventh century, below
the site of the present town, and in the midst of the
Slavic tribes dwelling on the coast of the Baltic, and
a church was erected there under the protection of
Henry the Proud. This settlement, however, proved
too weak to withstand the attack of the pagan Slavs,
and was destroyed early in the twelfth century. In
1143 Count Adolf II of Holstein founded a new colony
above the site of the former, at the junction of the
Trave and the Wakenitz, and introduced settlers
from Flanders, Holland, Westphalia, and Friesland.
The rapid development of the town awakened at first
the envy of Duke Henry the Lion, and he only b^^in
to favour it after its submission to him in 1157. He
gave the town a municipal constitution, established
a mint there, and made Bishop (Jlerold transfer to
ijObeok the seat of the Bishopric of Oldenburg,
oimded by Otto I for Wagria. In 1173 Henry him-
self laid the foundation-stone of the Romanesque
cathedral, which was completed in 1210. To the
east of the town the Johanneskloster was founded in
1177, and occupied by Benedictines from Brunswick.
On the downfall of Henry, the bishopric became,
immediately subject to the Holy See, while the*
town itself voluntarily submitted to Frederick
Barbarossa, who, in 1188, confirmed its liberties
and its territorial boundaries. The commerce of
the town developed rapidly, and its ships traversed
the whole Baltic Sea. This prosperity by no
means diminished with the advent of the Danes,
who, under Cnut VI, brought Holstein and Lttbeck
into subjection in 1201. The victory of the Hol-
steiners over the Danes at Yomhood, in 1227, re-
stored to Lttbeck its complete independence. In
1226 it had been already raised by Frederick II to the
rank of a free city of the empire, altnou^h the emperor
had not availed himself of his authority to appoint
a protector for its territories. Even the bishop, who
resided at first in the area capUuli (the Thum or Dom-
hof) — but after the middle of the thirteenth century
in Eutin, while his chapter remain^ in the cathedral
area — ^had no secular jurisdiction over the town,
whose privileges were ratified by Popes Innocent TV
and Alexander IV. What great prestige Lttbeck ac-
quired throughout Northern Germany by its vigorous
preservation of its independence, may be inferred
DC— 2^
from the fact that numerous North German towDfl
adopted the municipal law of Lttbeck as the model
for their own. The prominent position which Lttbeck
held in Baltic commerce from the thirteentii centu^ry
resulted naturally in her taking the leading part in
the Hansa, or great conf ederacv of Low German cities,
formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
As head of the Hansa, the importance of Lttbeck in-
creased enormously in Northern Europe, until finally
it stood at the head of over 100 towns and cities which
had adopted its statutes. At times, however, it
had to Dear the burden of defending the Hansa
unassisted, especially against its hereditary foe,
Denmark.
In the war of 1362-70, Lttbeck captured Ck>penha-
gen (1368), and, by the Peace of Stralsund, was ap-
B)inted arbitrator of the dispute concerning the
anish Crown. The following decades constitute the
era of Lttbeck's greatest prosperity. In 1372 its
burgomaster was appointed by the emperor. Do-
mestic strife between the patricians ana the ^Ids
broke out in Lttbeck as elsewhere, but resulted in its
case in the maintenance of the rule of the merchant
patricians, from whose families were chosen through-
out the Middle Ages the four burgomasters and the
twenty councillors. The power of Lttbeck in the
fifteenth century is shown by the emperor's request,
in 1464, that it should arrange peace between the
Teutonic Order and the Poles, although the mission
of the burgomaster, Castorp, was none too successfuli
He met with greater success in preventing his city
from being drawn into the disputes of the nei^bourinff
Scandinavian lands. In the war between (Jnristian I
of Denmark and Sweden (1499 — ), however, Lttbeck
could not remain neutral; it afforded protection and
shelter to the exiled Gustavus Vasa, formed the cotk^
federacy of the Wendish towns and Danzig against
Christian, in 1 521 , asserted once more the might of the
Hansa in the Baltic, and dispatched with Gustavus
Vasa a fleet to blockade Stockholm in 1522. In 1523
Stockholm had to surrender to the Lttbeck admirals,,
and from their hands the newly elected King Vasa
of Sweden received the keys of his capital.
The Reformation found a later ent ranee into Lttbeck
than into other North-German towns. The initiative
in introducing the new doctrine wa.s taken by the mid-
dle classes, while the municipal authorities, on account
of their friendship for the emperor and the bishop,
strongly opposed the innovation. After 1529, how-
ever, in consec}uence of the pecuniary demands of
the council, a citizens' committee of forty-eight mem-
bers was formed to enquire into the finances of the
town. This committee procured a petition of the
citizens for the introduction of Lutheran preachers.
On 5 June, 1530, pursuant to a decree of the citizens
which the council could not oppose, Lutheran ser\'ices
were introduced into all the cnurches of Lttbeck ex-
cept the cathedral, which was under the territorial
jurisdiction of the chapter, and all clergymen were
forbidden to celebrate Mass until further notice. In
consequence of the supineness of the chapter, Lu-
theran services were held even in the cathedral in
July, and it was only in the choir, and at certain
hours that Catholic worship was tolerated. The
reigning bishop, Heinrich III Bockholt (1523-35),
could offer no effective resistance to the Reformation
in liie town, but he exerted himself to the utmost.
After his death, the cathedral chapter, desiring the
friendship of the neighbouring Protestant princes lest
their property should be confiscated, elected bishops
of Lutheran views — Detlef von Reventlow (1535) and
Balthasar von Rantzow (1536-47). These were suc-
ceeded by four Catholic bishops: Jodokus Hodfilter
(1547-53). who, however, lived away from his diocese;
Theodoricn von Reden, who resigned in 1555; AsssixswBi
von Barby (1557-79), >n\\o d\vVxv<ci\: ^\38:vsi.vs5^^«^-
LTJBIOK 402 LUBSOK
Tiedemann (d. 1561). Eberhard von Holle (1564- trade for the first two decades of the eighteenth cen-
86) openly espoused Protestantism in 1565, intro- tnry, the prosperity of Ltibeck gradually increased,
dvksed the Reformation ahnost completely into the although the town was far removed from the great
cathedral chapter, and, in 1571, surrendered even trade-routes of the world. The Imperial Delegates'
the choir of the cathedral to the preachers. Enactment of 1803 (see Germany) brought it a small
With the eleven-year-old Johann Adolf, who was increase of territory by assigning to it the portion of
the first Bishop to many (1596), beean the succession that diocese (the area capituli) which lay within its
of bishops from the House of Holstein-Gottorp, in boundaries ; the remainder fell to the Duchy dfOlden-
whose possession this bishopric — the only Lutheran burg, to which the episcopal line of the House of Got-
bishopric of Germany — remained, even after the torp had succeeded in 1773, and forms to-day the
Peace of Westphalia, until the secularization of 1803. Oldenburg principality of Liibcek. As the imperial
Most of the canonries also fell into the hands of the del^ates nad also guaranteed Lubeck perpetual neu-
Protestants: on 1 Jan., 1624, the Catholics still occu- traUty, and the citizens had begun to level the fortifi-
pied 6 canonries. 13 vicarships, and 4 prebends in the cations, they were unable to offer any rcs^i.stance to the
cathedral; at tne end of the seventeenth century French, who, after the Battle of Jena, in 1806, pur-
they held only four canonries. It was owing to the sued Bluchcr northwards. Occupie<l by the French
continued existence of a remnant of Catholic property on 5 November, the town was pillaged for three days,
within the city that Catholicism did not utterly perish and remained in their possession until 1813. For the
in Ltibeck. The care of the few Catholics there (in 1709, Catholics, who then numbered between 500 and 600,
fourteen families with sixty members within the city the foreign occupation brought, in some measure, aii
and about forty outside) was entrusted to a missionary equality of rights with the Prot<istants, and the liberty
paid by the canons. This missionary was, as a rule, — never since contested — of baptizing and marrying
one of the Jesuits who, from 1651, were permanently their co-religionists according to Catholic rites, with-
established within the cathedral domain, or area, out outside interference. The Congress of Vienna rec-
Tbe Catholics of LQbeck repeatedly received imperial ognized Ltibeck as a free member of the German
letters of protection in favour of the free practice of League. Subsequently the town devoted itself with
their religion. In 1683 the Catholic clergy were great energy to removing all the obstacles impeding
granted the right of holding service within the cathe- the development of its commerce and navigation,
oral area and administering the sacraments, and the These were due principally to the opposition of Den-
right of the Catholics of the city to attend these ser- mark, which still occupied. Holstein.
vices and receive the sacraments was never after- The Liberal Constitution of 1848, which guaranteed
wards disputed. Concerning the right to administer to the middle classes a ^eat measure of influence in
the sacraments of Baptism and Matrimony, disputes the government of the city side by side with the Sen-
afterwards arose, ana, for the periods 1705-14 and ate, contributed -very p^tly to foster the pubUc
1775-1805, the Catholic priests did not dare to bap- spirit of the citizens and initiated a new period of pros-
tine or many in public. The Jesuits resided with the perity for the old Hanse town. Its inclusion in the
canons until 1702, when thev founded a separate German Customs Union (Zollverein) opened to Lii-
CBtablishment in which they held Catholic worship beck, in 1868, a great field of commercial activity. In
until 1773. On the suppression of their order, the 1866 Ltibeck had imhesitatingly taken the side of
fathers at first continued their pastoral duties as Prussia. In the new German Empire its position as
secular priests, but other secular priests succeeded a free city is miimpaired: under the protection of the
them in course of time. It was the French domina- Empire, and during the lon^ epoch of peace since 1871.
tion, in 1811. which first brought an extension of it has developed, not precipitately, but steadily and
reU^ous freeaom for CathoUcs. surely, and its population has more than doubled
In the sixteenth centuiy the political importance of (1871 : in the city, 39,743, and witliin the state boun-
LQbeck declined. The rash efforts of Burgomaster daries, 52,158; 1905: in the city, 91,541, and in the
JQigen Wullenweber (1533-35) to oust Dutch trade state, 105,857).
from the Baltic, to revive LQbeck*s hegemony there, The Catholics of Lubeck, whom immigration has in-
and, in union with Count Christopher of Oldenbui^, creased almost threefold since 1871, are subiect to the
to restore the exiled Christian II of Denmark to his Vicar Apostolic of the Northern Missions. The priests
throne, ended, after some initial successes, unfortu- of the parish of Lubeck (1 pastor and 3 assistants)
nately, and led to the decay of Ltibeck. Once more did minister to all the Catholics ot the free state, the Cath-
it appear as an important pofitical factor, when war olics of the Principality of Lubeck, who live nearer to
broke out between Denmark and Sweden in 1563, and Labeck than to Eutin, and a portion of the Catholics
LObeck sustained, in union with the former, a vigor- of Ratzeburg, Lauenberg, Holstein, and Mecklenburg-
ens and successful naval conflict against Sweden. The Schwerin. The Catholic soldiers are spiritually sub-
Peace of Stettin, in 1570, guaranteed the town many ject to the armv provost at Berlin, who entrusts them
of its claims, but the heavy cost of the war had im- to the care of the pastor at Lubeck.
posed such a burden on it that it was henceforth with- By the Regulation of 18 March, 1904, which deter-
out the resources for carrying on war. With the mines its relations towards the Catholic Church, the
diminution, through various causes, of the power and state has reserved to itself the jus circa sacra. The
influence of the whole Hansa, in the sixteenth and names of the clerey appointed by the Bishop of Osna-
seventeenth centuries, that of Ltibeck also declined, brilck must be submitted to the Senate with copies of
especially as Hamburg and Bremen were now gradu- all their certificates of studies. Religious orders and
ally outstripping it in commerce. The town finally congregations may at any time be excluded by the
sank into tne position of a port of call between the Senate. Catholic citizens, who are taxed on an in-
transatlantic and northern commerce. The Thirty come of more than 1000 marks, must pay a church
Years' War imposed grievous burdens on the defence- tax; otherwise, the ecclesiastical revenue is derived
less citizens in consetiuence of the repeated cjuartering from the general church and school funds, and — since
of soldiers in the town. When, after its last diets in this is insufficient to meet the expenditure — ^from the
1630 and 1069, the Hansa was finally dissolved and voluntary contributions of the Catholics, who are
there was formed a defensive alliance — Ltibeck, Ham- mostly poor, and from the Bonifatiusverein. To the
buig, and Bremen, the Council of LObeck still retained assistance of this association is also due the erec-
Che directorship as the sole remnant of its former posi- tion of the parish church of the Sacred Heart in the
tkm of eminence. town (1888-91) and of the chapel-of-ease in the indus-
there
a
/ijBJOIi
Ikin'n/^ t}ie lonf^ period of peace, following the con- trial district of Kiickiiitz (190€t-10). Since 1850 thei
ton of the Northern War which crippled Baltic lias l>een a Catholic school, which is conducteil by
LTJBLXK
403
LTJBLXK
religious directOFi and has received since 1905 a grant
from the state. In 1874 an establishment of the Sis-
ters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, from the
mother-house at Breslau, was foimded to teach and to
care for the sick. The Catholic associations of LUbeck
include those of the Christian Familv, the Holy Child-
hood, Guardian Angels, St. Elizabeth, St. Charles Bor-
romeo, and one for the adornment of poor churches,
an association for Catholic business men and offi-
cials, a men's association; an association for journey-
men, one for youths, ani! a Sodality of Mary for
unmarried women. The Catholic press is represented
by the " Nordische Volksaeitung".
Bbckbr, UnuMndliche GesehichU der kaiaertichen und dea
Heiliatn RGmiachen Reichea freyen Stadt Liiheck (3 vols., Ltibeck,
1782-1805): Petersen, Auifiihrlxche GeachichU der LUbeck-
iachen KirckenrefomuUion 1629-1531 (Ltibeck, 1830) ; Diecke,
Die FreU und Hanseatadt Lubeck (4th ed., Lilbeck, 1881);
Urkundenbueh dex^Stadt Liibeck (11 vols., Labeck, 1843-1904);
Urkundenbueh dea Biatuma Liibeck (Oldenbunr. 1856); Die
Freie und Hanaeatadi Liiheck (Ltibcck, 1890); HomiAN,
Oeachichte der Freien und Hanaeaiadt Liiheck (LObeck, 1889-93);
Iluoens, Der Olauhe der V&ter dargeatelU in den kirchlichen
AUerlUmem LHhecka (Padertx>m, 1895); Idem, GeachicMe der
Lnbeckiaehen Kirche von t6SO'1896^ Geachichte dea ehemalyfen
kathoHaehen Bialufnat der nunmehnoen katholiachen Gemeinde
(Paderbom, 1896); Liibeck f aeine Bauten und Kunatwerke
(Lnbeck, 1897) ; Holm, Liiheck, die Freie und Hanaeatadt (Biele-
feld, 1900) ; Dfie Bau- und KunatdenkmUler der Freien una Han-
aeatadt Liibeck (2 vols.. Lubeck, 1906); Kobter, Nachrichien
uber die rdmiache-kaiholiache Pfarrgemeinde Liiheck (LObeck,
1908); Zeitachrift dea Vereina fiir lHheckiache Geachichte und
AUertumakunde (II vols., Ltibeck, 1860-1910); Hanaiaehe
GeachuMa-bUUter (1871—) ; HantiaeheGeachichtaQuellen (1875—),
Hanaereceaae (1876 — ), Hanaiachea Urkundenbueh (1870 — ),
Hanaiaehe Invenlare (1876). JoSEPH LiNS.
Lublin, Diocese of (Lublinensis). — ^The city of
Lublin is in Russian Poland, capital of the Govern-
ment of Lublin, lies on the Bistrzyca, a tributary of
the Vistula, and in 1897 had a population of 50,152,
of whom 30,914 were Catholics. It is the seat of a
Catholic bishop, a governor, and an army corps. Con-
spicuous among the eleven Catholic churches of the
town are the cathedral, dedicated to St. John the
Baptist and St. John the Evangelist, which was built
by Bemhard Maciejow.ski (afterwards cardinal) be-
tween 1582 and 1600, remained till 1772 in the pos-
session of the Jesuits, and since 1832 has been the
cathedral; also the church of St. Stanislaus, erected in
1342 by King Casimir for the Dominicans; the church
of the Assumption of Mary *'de triumphis", built
during 1412 and 1426 by King Wladislaw Jagello, in
memory of the victory gained over the Teutonic
Order; the parish church of the Conversion of St. Paul,
erected in 1461, and till 1864 the church of the Fran-
ciscans, etc.
Lubhn was foimded in the eleventh century, and
soon began to flourish. In the events arising out
of the relations between Poles and Lithuanians,
the town on various occasions played an impor-
tant r61e. From the (liets which assembled there,
the so-Hcalled union of diets of 1569 came to l)c of de-
cisive importance to the fortunes of both kingdoms.
The alliance between Lithuanians and Poles was al-
wajrs more or less loose (see Lithuania); only the
hostility, coniinon to both of them against the Teu-
tonic Older, obviated a separation more than once.
Following the downfall of the onier, a much more
dangerous enemy arose in the East in the upward-
struggling empire of the Muscovites under Ivan III.
When he had got rid of the Tatars he set about build-
ing up a centralized state. And as he had designs on
Polish territory, he sought to rouse up enemies
agidnst the Poles. His successor followed a like
policy. It became obvious that there would have to be
a fight with Russia over the supremacy in the East.
That could only be done with any success if, in place
of the looser auianoe, a uniform incorporation of the
states took place. King Sigismund (1548-1572)
showed himself strenuously in favour of a closer union.
Nevertheless when the united .tliots finally met at
Lublin in 1569, the Lithuanians, although their Greek
Orthodox nobles had in 1563 by roval decree become
possessed of the same rights as the Catholic tiobility of .
Poland, stoutly opposed a closer union between Lith-
uania and Poiana. Their representatives demanded
absolute independence in all home questions, and the
maintenance of their own constitution and adminis-
tration. Only in the case of war were Lithuanians and
Poles to meet in diet, while the monarch was not to be
common to both, but to be separated from both coun*
tries, and to be freely elected. A passionate confliot
ensued with the Polish nobility. These latter were so
much the stronger that they had the king on their side,
and could also reckon on the lower Lithuanian nobles,
who were much oppressed by princes and senators, and
were not possessed of the same independence as the
higher nobility. The king cleared away the last l^gal
obstacle by renoiincing his hereditary nghts as Grand
Duke of Lithuania, and thus placed both divisions in
the same relation to his person. When, then, Sigisr
mund Augustus by virtue of his royal authority com-
manded the Lithuanians to consent to the union, they
left the diet, in order to prevent the uiiion, and made
every preparation to defend their independence by
the sword. The Poles, however, broke tne opposition
by inducing the king to imite one by one to tne Polish
crown the Lithuanian territories, such as Podlaohia.
Volhynia and others, in which his authority remainea
unshaken. Only the use of the Russian language in
the courts was guaranteed to them. The few who re-
fused to submit to this arrangement were declared to
have forfeited their lands and dignities, and thus
Lithuania was robbed of its richest province. The
Lithuanian magnates, who had also the smaller no-
bility opposed to them, had nothing to do but submit.
They joined the diet at Lublin again, and on 27 June,
1569, announced their willingness to acknowled^ the
union. On 1 July the union was solemnly proclaimed.
Lithuania thus ceased to be a self-dependent state. Ih
retained however at least some marks of independence:
Lithuanian offices, its own seal, and the title of grand
duchy.
Under Kmg Stephen Bdthori (1576-86) Lublin be-
came the scat of five of the highest law courts, which
the king, under the renunciation of his old right,
established to pronoimce judgment as courts of appeal
for the several combined territories. King John
Sobieski, the conqueror of the Turks at Vienna (1680),
summoned a synod at Lublin, to put an end to the
controversies among Roman Catholics and those of
other confessions and to win over the small number of
schismatics, who after the Union of Brest remained in
Lithuania; but the synod had no success. In the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Lublin still re-
mained one of the most important towns in Poland.
At the Partition of Poland the town went first to
Austria; in 1809. after the victory of Xapoleon, to the
Grand Duchy of Warsaw, on the disruption of which
by the Congress of Vienna Russia obtained it. During
the period of Austrian rule Pius VII, on the petition
of Enij)oror Francis II, established at Lublin a sep-
arate bishopric. Adallx^rt. Skarszewski was appointed
first bishop in 1807. When, during the reorganization
of the Catholic Church in Russia, Pius VII, by the Bull
"Militantis Ecclesiie", of 12 March, 1817, elevated the
Bishopric of Warsaw into an archbishopric, Lublin
with other dioceses was placed under it as suffragan
and at the same time a oishopric was instituted for
Po<lIachia, with the seat in Janow. In 1868 both dio-
ceses were in a way united, the Bishop of Lublin being
likewise permanent Vicar Apostolic of Podlachia.
Josephus Marcellinus Dziecielsti (1828-39) succeeded
the first bishop, who was elevated in 1825 to the Arch-
bishopric of W arsaw, then, after a long vacancy, Vin-
centius a Paulo Pienkowski (1853-63), Valentinus
Rarenowski (1871-79), Casimirus Jo€e^\\»9. ^^3Iwsbb««w
Wi lorowski (I88:i-S5^^ , «aA N^Wi v^^sy5KvV^\NScv^\»>^^^
LUa4
404
LUOAS
0IS0U9 Jaczewski (since 1889) . The brief history of the
bishopric exhibits many vicissitudes, particularly since
. Tsar Nicholas I took up the plans or Catharine II, to
bring over to the Orthodox Church those who were in
oommunion with Rome, and carried them through by
the most violent methods. Thousands of Catholics in
oommunion with the Church in the Diocese of Lublin
were " converted " by force to Orthodoxy, and a ereat
number of religious buildings were taken from them.
The appointment of an auxiliary bishop for this large
diocese has for along time been consistently frustrated
by the Russian Government, and the long-continued
oppression in many parishes hinders the care of souls
and does great injury to the Church. Since the issue
of the ^ict allowing religious toleration, in 1905, the
conditions have somewhat improved, though the offi-
cials put all the obstacles they can in the way of a
return to Catholicism by those who were formerly
compelled to join the Orthodox Church. In spite of
•yerything, many thousands have returned to the
Catholic Church since 1906.
The diocese includes the greater part of the Oovem-
ments of Lublin and Siedlcc, and numbers 19 dean-
eries, 427 parishes, 403 secular priests (205 administra-
tors, 28 curates, 145 vicars, and 25 other priests), and
1,532,300 Catholics. The cathedral chapter has 4
(Mrelacies and 8 canonries; there is also a collegiate
chapter with 3 prelacies and 4 canonries at Zamosd.
The diocesan seminary for priests at Lublin has 1
regent, 1 viceregent, 6 professors, and 108 students.
The Sisters of Cnarity have 6 establishments with 29
flisters.
TaoAtKh de» Unionsreichdaot tu Lublin (St. Peterabun^,
1868); Catalogtu EccUaiarum H utriuaque Cleri tarn tacuUxrxa
OMom reotdarxa Dioecewoa Lublinenais pro anno Domini 1909
(Lublin, 1909). Joseph Lins.
Lnca, Giovanni Battibta de, Cardinal and Italian
canonist of the seventeenth century, b. at Venusia,
Southern Italy, in 1614; d. at Rome, on 5 February,
1683. Bom of humble parentage, he studied at
Naples, but owing to ill-health he nad to return to
his native place. In 1645 he went to Rome, where
he soon won a high reputation for his legal ability,
thereby stirring up much enmity and jealousy. At
an advanced age he became a pncst and enjoyed the
patrcmage of Innocent XI, who made him successively
referendary UtriuaqueSignaturcBfSMditoroi the Sacred
Palace and finally in 1681 raised him to the cardi-
nalate. His writings, which arc eminently practical
in character, are most important for a proper under-
standing of the jurisprudence of the Roman Court and
especially of the Rota in his time. We may mention
his "Relatio Curiae Romanae" (Cologne, 1683),
"SacrsB RotfiB decisiones" (Lyons, 1700) "Annota-
tiones praticae ad S. Conciluim Tridentinum" (Cologne,
1684). His complete works were published under the
title "Theatrum veritatis et justitiaj (19 vols., Rome,
1669-77; 12 vols., Cologne, 1689-99).
Shbber in Kirchenlex., 8. v.; Schulte, Die Oetchichte der
QudUH und LiUratur des canoniachen RechtB, III (Stuttgart,
1875-80), 487; Wrrnz, Jua Decretalium, I (Rome, 1898), 415;
HUBTER, NomenckUor lilierariuat II, 364.
A. Van Hove.
Lqcm, Frederick, Member d Parliament and
journaUst, b. in Westminster, 30 March, 1812; d. at
Staines, Middlesex, 22 Oct., 1855. He was the second
son of Samuel Hayhurst Lucas, a London com-mer-
ohant who was a member of the Society of Friends.
Educated first at a Quaker school in Darlington, then
at University College, London, he gave early proof of
bk abilities, particularlv in essa^r-writing and a$ a
speaker in tne college deoating societv. Even at this
time he was an ardent supporter of Catholic £manci-
Etion, which was then being much discussed. ()n
iving college he began to study for the law at the
MJdd)e Temple, and was called to the bar in 1835.
TWo Jecttur^ on education which he delivered at
Staines in 1838 showed that he felt that attraction to
the Christianity of the Middle Ages which was then
influencing so many minds. Yet ruled by the preju-
dices of his early education it was to the Oxford
School rather than to the Catholic Church that he
was first led. But early in 1839 an end was put to his
doubts and difficulties: his intimate friend Thomas
Chisholm Anstey (q. v.), himself a recent convert,
persuaded him to examine the Catholic claims, and
the perusal of IMilner's "End of Controversy" con-
vinced him of their truth. He was received mto the
Church by Father Lythgoe, S.J. In a letter to the
Kingston monthly meeting of Friends he resigned his
membership of tne Society and announced his con-
version (18 Feb., 1839). In 1840 he married Miss
Elizabeth Ashby of Staines, who, like two of his
brothers, followed him into the Catholic Church.
In the same year he determined to^tart a weekly
Catholic paper, *'The Tablet", the first number of
which appeared on 16 May, 1840. After two years
his origmal supporters, Messrs. Keasley, failed in
business, and he was left without the resources neces-
sary for continuing the paper. But he had many
Catholic friends who put great confidence in his
courage, abilitjr, and broad scholarship, and they
came to his assistance. A claim on the part of the
printers, which he regarded as unjust, led to a struggle
between him and them for the possession of the prem-
ises, and during the year 1842 rival publications were
issued — the *' Tablet^' by the printers, and the "True
Tablet" by Lucas. By the end of the year he was
victorious, and in January, 1843, he was able to begin
the fourth volume of the "Tablet" without a rival.
He conducted the paper on such fearless lines that he
alarmed some of the old English Catholics, who had
been trained in a school of the utmost prudence and
circumspection, and who looked askance at the uncom-
promising boldness with which he asserted Catholic
rights and defended the Catholic position. He re-
ceived, however, the hearty suppwrt of many Irish
priests with whose political aspirations he was thor-
oughly in sympathy. This led nim in 1849 to transfer
the publishing offices of the "Tablet" from London
to Dublin, and from this time forward he took a keen
interest in Irish (>olitics.
Returned to Parliament in 1852 as one of the mem-
bers for Meath, he quickly won for himself a position
in the House of Commons, and was recognized as one
of the leading Catholic politicians. Questioning the
sincerity of some of the Irish Nationalist members,
he did not shrink from denouncing them, and before
long he became involved in a conflict with the Arch-
bishop of Dublin, Dr. CuUen^ who prohibited his
priestiB from interference in politics. Lucas attacked
this action of the archbishop in the "Tablet", and in
1854 he went to Rome to lay his case before the pope.
Pius IX received him kindly, and requested him to
draw up a memorial on Irish affairs and the differences
between himself and the archbishop. Though in
failing health he set about this task, which occupied
him tnrough the winter. In May, 1855, he returned
to England hoping after a few weeks to go back to
Rome, but his health grew worse and he died on 22
October in the house of his brother-in-law at Staines.
His death was regarded as a public loss by Catholics
both in England and Irclanci, who realized that he
had breathed a new spirit of independence into Catho-
lic journalism and set an example of high principle in
pohtical life. "As a father, a husband, a journalist
and member of Parliament he had a high ideal of duty
— an ideal such as rarely, if ever enters into the minds
of ordinary men" (Life, II, 468).
Lucas, The Life of Frederick Luoatt, M, p, (London, 1886):
AnoNm a Memoir of Frederick Lucaa (Derby, 1857); Rieth-
mCller, Frederick Lvcaa: A Biography (London, 1862); 7\i6-
let, 27 Oct, 3 Nov.. ID Nov., 185.5; Gillow, BibL Diet, Eng
Cath,, 8. v.; Ck>oPER in Diet. Nat, Biob., s. v.
Edwin Burton.
LUOOA 4
Lucca, ARcniwocKHK i)K (Lvcensis). — Lucca, tbc
CApital of the tike nstueil pruvincc in TuKcuiiy, L'ciitrul
Italy, ia situated on the Hivctr fk^rcliio in ii fertile oulti-
vRted pl&in. Ita clilcf imlustriGs arc the ([Uorrying
and dnssing of niorble, luid tlie production of nilk,
wool, flax, and hemp. Itn olive oil etijoya a world-
wide fame. Not«wortliy among the church buildingB
ia the cathedral, which dat«s hock to the sixth cen-
tury; it was reliuilt in the Homanutyle in the eleventh
century, consecrated !>y Alexander II IM'O), and
a^n restored in the quattrocento, when the IxMUtiful
columns of the upiper archen were added. In the ajxtc
are three large windowH painted by UkoIiiio da Piui.
Of the Bculptural adornments wc may mention Civi-
taJi's equestrian statue of ^t. Martin dividinK his clouk
with the beggar, the Deposition by Nicold PiMiiio, and
the Adoration of the Ma^i by (iiovojini da ]'ii<a — ull
three on the fa<(ade. Within are pictun-H by Tinto-
retto and Parmigianino, and n Madonna by l''n\ Barto-
lommeo. But the most ct-lcbrated work in thi< Viillii
Santo, an ancient crucifix carvetl in wood, with CliriKt
clothadinthe"colo-
bium" , a long
eleevelesa garment.
Throughout the
Middle Agea this
image was regarded
as a palladium by
the Lucchcai, who,
on their journeys to
every country, dis-
tributed facsimileB,
I4bcrata and Kt.
Wil^fortis, of the
"hcdifre Kummer-
niii" of the Germans
and the "Ontkom-
mer" of the Dutch;
Professor Schnurer
of the University of
Fribourg (Switscr-
land), MB in prep-
aration a study on
this subject. San
Frediano is the only example of Iximbarriarchitpcture
firescrved without notable aitomlion, excepting tin-
acade, which is of the year laXI. H. Maria foris Por-
tam, S. Michelc, S. Romano, and the other churches
(fully eighty in nutalier), all possess valuable works of
art. In the church of S. Francesco (ijuattroceiito) is
the tomb of the Lucchcse poet, (luiiliccioni, Amoni;
the profaneedifices isthc Palazzo Pubblico. formerly
the ducal palace, liegun by Ammarati in lf>7S. con-
tinued by Piniin 1729, and further I'nlargi-d by Print*
Bacciochiintheninet^nthcfnlury; .vljoitiingare the
library, with many valuabli- nianuwrif>t9>. and a |)ieture
galleiy. The Manzi palticoali'o cont-uitiMii collection of
pointings. There is i\ niugtiiliccnt aipie«Iuct nf 450
arvhes, constructed by Nattolini (ili'2:t :t2). Tlie ar-
chives of the Capitol and the archiepiscopiil palace
are important for their many private dm'umenta of
the early Middle Afnst. Ruins of a Ronian amphi-
theatre of imperial timcfl still exist. The t^rritorv of
Lucca is rich m mineral and thermal sprinKs. The
celebrated taths of Lucca are al>out fifteen miles from
the city.
Lucca was a city of the Ligurians. and is first men-
tioned in 218 B.C., when the Roman general St^mpro-
nius retired thither after an unsucceKsful I>altlc with
Hannibal. InlTTB.c.aRomancolonywaHestahliKhed
there. In 56 b. c. Ctesar, Pompey, and Crassus re-
newed the triumvirate at Lucca. Durinjt the (lOthic
wars the city was besieged and taken by Totila (550).
Hoping for aBBistance from the Franks, the Lucchesi
obstinately reaiflt«d the attack of Names, surrendering
5 LUOOA
onlyafterattiegcof st^vcii montbs (5S3). Itloterfdl
into the hands uf the Ijumliunis, wao thenceforward a
place (if great importance, and became the favourite
scat of the Manjueaiies of Tuscany. In 981 Otto be-
Htowcd on its bisitop civil jurisidictioii over the entire
diocesan tcrritorj'; but in 1081 Henry IV made it a
free city and conferred other favours upon it, espe-
cially in the way of trade. This was the origin of the
Republic of Lucca, which lasted until 1799. From
1088 to 1144 Lucca was continually at war with her
rival Pistt, and either by conquest or purchase in-
creased her possesHious. In 1160 the Guelph mar-
SuesH linally surrendered all right of jurisdiction.
lUcea was generally on the side of the pope against the
emperor, and hccire joined the league of ^. (linesio
(I1!I7). In the thirteenth century, despitt her wars
wilh Pisa, >1orence, and the imperial cities, Lucca in-
creased her pow(T and commerce. But in 1313 the
city was taken by I'j^ucciono della Faggiuola, Lord of
Pisa. The I.uecheHi, however, under the most dra-
niutii' circumstances, freed themselves and chose for
captain their fellow-
citizen, Castrucdo
degli Antelminelli,
known as C'astracaoe
(131G), the restorer
of the military art,
who had been im-
prisoned by UgUD-
cione. L'astruccio
drove out the Pisans,
obtained for life the
title of Defender of
the People, and re-
ived from Louis
the Uavai
title <
the
from tlie Magra to Pistoia a
hereditarj'
Duke of Luc
descendants, how-
ever, were deprived
of the title by the
same prince (1.^8-
9j. CaNtruccio
adomciland fortified
tiie city whose ter-
ritory now extended
id Vol terra.
On the death of f;astruccio, Louis conferred Luoca
on Francesco, a relative aiul enemy of Castruecio.
The Luccliesi, hon'ever, jilaced themselves under John
of Bohemia; tlie latter, in i:i:i3, pawned the city to
the Rossi of Parma, who ceded it to Mastino della
Kcala (i:t:tr>), bv whom it was sold to the Florentines
for KMI.IXMflonns (i:t4I). This dispiea.sed the I>isanB,
who occuuieil tlie city (1;J42). It was liberated by
Charles IV (i:{<tO). who gave it an imperial vicar.
From l:i7l) it was free. In 1-100 Paolo Ouinigi ob-
tained the chief (lowt-r, which bo cxerciseil willi mod-
eration and justice. .At the instigation of the Flur-
entinet), who .soueht iKisM'ssion of tlie cit v, ( jiiinigi was
lietrayed into (lie fiaiids uf Filipjiv Maria Visconti
(U30), who causoii him to l« munlcrcd at Pavia.
With the aid of Picciiiino, Lucca maintained her free-
dom aguinst tlie I-'loren tines. After that the security
of this littlo state, governed by the people, was undia-
turlieil except by the revolt of the n/racnoni (the low-
est dass^ in ir>'2l, :in<l the conspiracy of Piciro Fati-
nelli (1512), who aspire<l to power. But in 1556 the
Martinian law (Martino Bernardini) restricteti partici-
pation in the ciA'cmmeut to the sons of citizens, and
in 1li28 thin limitation was furtlter accentuated, until
in 17S7 only eichty families enjoyed the right to public
office. Among the institutions of this republic the
discolaln descr\-ea mention. It was similar to the
ostracism of the .Athenians. If a citizen, either through
wealth or merit, obtained excessive favour among tAe
people, twenty-five signatures were auffic!*s&.\B\«ii«-
LUOERA
406
LUOSRNE
ish him. In 1799 Lucca was joiucd to the Cu>aipiue
Republic. In 1805 Xapoleon made it a dukedom for
his cousin Felice Bacciochi. In 1814 it was occupied
by the Neapolitans, and later by the Austrians. In
1817 it was given to Maria Luisa, widow of the King of
Etniiia, whose son Carlo Ludovico ceded it to Tus-
cany in 1847. Illustrious citizens of Lucca were Pope
Lucius III (Allucingoli) ; the jurist, Bonagiunta Ur-
bidani (thirteenth century); the physician, Teodoro
Borgognoni; the historian, Tolomeo de' Fiadoni; the
women poets, Laura Guidiccioni and Chiara Matraini;
the philologist, L. Fomaciari (nineteenth century);
the painters, Berlinghieri and Orlandi (thirteenth
century); the sculptor, Matteo Civitali (first half of
the fifteenth century).
There is a legend that the Gospel was preached at
Lucca by St. Paulinus, a disciple of St. Peter, and the
discovery in 1197 of a stone, recording the deposition
of the relics of Paulinus a holy martyr, apparently con-
firmed this pious belief. On the stone, nowever, St.
Paulinus is not called Bishop of Lucca, nor is there any
allusion to his having lived in Apostolic times ("Ana-
lecta Bollandiana ", 1904, p. 491; 1905, p. 502). The
first bishop of certain date is Maximus, present at the
Council of Sardica (343). At the Council of Rimini
(369), Paulinus, Bishop of Lucca, was present. Per-
haps the above-mentioned legend arose through a
repetition of this Paulinus. Remarkable for sanctitv
ami miracles was St. Fridianus (560-88), son of Ul-
tonius. King of Ireland, or perhaps of a king of Ulster
(Ultonia), of whom in his "Dialogues" (IIL 10) St.
Grejgory the Great relates a miracle. On St. Fridianus
see Colgan. "Acta Sanct. Scot.", I (1645), 633-51;
"Diet. Christ. Biog.", s. v.; Fanucchi, "Vita di San
Frediano" (Lucca, 1870); O'Hanlon, "Lives of Irish
Saints", under 18 Nov.; "Analecta BoUand.", XI
(1892) 262-3, and " Bolland. Bibl. hagiogr. lat."(1899),
476. In 739, during the episcopate of Walprandus,
Richard, King of the Angles and father of Saints
Willibald, Wunibald, and Walburga, died at Luocaand
was buried in the church of S. Frediano. Under
Blessed Giovanni (787) it is said the Volto Santo was
brought to Lucca. Other bishops were Anselmo
Badagio (1073), later Pope Alexander II, who was
succeeded as bishop by his nephew Anselm of Lucca,
a noted writer; Apusio (1227), under whom Lucca was
deprived of its episcopal see for six years by Gregory
Ia; the Franciscan Giovanni Salvuzzi (1383), who
built the episcopal palace; Nicold Guinigi (1394), ex-
iled by his relative Paolo Guinigi, Lord of Lucca. In
140S Gregory XII went to Lucca to come to a personal
agreement with the anti-pope, Benedict XIII, and
was there abandoned by nis cardinals. Worthy of
moition also are the writer, Felino Maria Sandeo
(1499), nephew of Ariosto; Cardinals Sisto della
Kovere (1508), Francesco Sforza Riario (1517), and
Bnrtolommeo Guidiccioni (1605), under the last-
named of whom the Diocese of San Miniato was formed
and separated from Lucca; Cardinal Girolamo Bon-
visi (1657); Bernardino Guinigi (1723), the first arch-
bishop (1726); the learned Gian Domenico Mansi
(176^9) ; and finally the present cardinal archbishop,
B^iedetto Lorenzelli (1904), last nuncio to Paris l)e-
fore the separation. The Archdiocese of Lucca lias no
suffragans; it has 246 parishes with 230.000 souls.
Mansi, Diaric aacn ddla Ckieta di Lucra (Venice, 1753);
Tmihaai. Sommario deUa ttoria di Lucca (1847): Cappellktti,
U Chi€M d' Italia, XV (Venice, 1857). See. for further bibiiog-
imphy, Chevauer, Tcpo-hM., 8. v. Lucquea.
U. Benigni.
Lneera, Diocese of (Lucerinensis). — Lucera is a
very ancient city in the province of Foggia in Apulia,
Southern Italy. It originally belong^ to Daunia.
In 320 B. c. it was taken by the Romans, n Roman
odony being established there in 314. The Samnites
defeated the Romans near Lucera in 294. During the
w&rffetween Coisarnm] Pompey it was an important
point of defence for the latter. In a. d. G6J it was
captured from the Lombards and destroyed by Con-
stantius II. Lucera attained great importance when
Frederick II transferred thither the Saracens of Sicily
whom he had shortly before subjugated, and who from
enemies became his most faithful and trusted support-
ers in his wars against the popes and the great barons
of the Kingdom of Naples. The royal treasury' was also
located at Lucera. During the invasion of Charles of
Anjou Lucera made the longest resistance. The re-
maining Saracens were converted at masse in 1300;
their mosque was destroyed by Charles II, and upon
its ruins arose the present cathedral, S. Maria della
Vittoria. Local tradition traces the origin of the
episcopal see to the third century (St. Bassus). The
first historically certain bishop is Marcus (c. 743).
Among other noteworthy bishops were Nicold, papal
legate at Constantinople in 1261; the Dominican
A^ostino Gasotti (1318), formerly Archbishop of Zaga-
bria; Tonmiaso de Acemo (1378), author of "De
creatione Urbani VI opusculum"; Scipione Bozzuti
(1582), killed in a sack of the city by some exiles in
1591. In 1391 the Diocese of Lucera was increased by
the addition of that of Farentino, or Castelfiorentino,
a city founded in 1015 by the Byzantine catapan,
Basileios. It was the place of Frederick II's death.
After 1409 the See of Tortiboli (Tortibulum) created
before 1236, was united to Lucera. Finally in 1818,
the united Diocese of Montecorvino and Vulturaria
were added to Lucera. Montecorvino became an
episcopal see in the tenth century, and among its
bishops was St. Albert (d. 5 April, 1(K^7). Its union
with Vulturaria, a town now almost deserted, took
place in 1433. Noteworthy among the later bishops
was Alessandro Gerardini d'AnicIia (1496), a Latm
poet, authorof many historical, educational, and moral
works, and one of the cJiief supporters of the expedi-
tion of Columbus; in 1515 he was transferred to San
Domingo in America, where he died in 1521. The
Diocese of Lucera has 17 parishes with 75,000 souls;
4 religious houses of men and 6 of women ; 1 school for
boys and 3 for girls. In March, 1908, the Diocese of
Troia was united with Lucera. It was established in
the eleventh century, and has 9 parishes with 26,200
souls, one Franciscan convent, and three houses of
monks.
Cappelletti, Le Chiene d^ Italia, XIX (Venice, 1867);
d'Ameu, Storia della citih di Lucera (1861).
U. Benigni.
Lucerne, chief town of the Canton of Lucerne in
Switzerland. The l^eginnings of the town, as wcU as
the derivation of its name, are obscure; the supposi-
tion of iEgidius Tschudi, that Lucerne was once the
chief town of the Burgundian kings in Aargau, is
legendary. It is safer to assert that, in the eighth
centur>', there stood at the place where the Reuss
flows out of the Lake of the Four Cantons a small
Benedictine monastery de<licated to St. Leodegar,
which, as early as the reign of King Pepin, belonged
to the Abbey of Murbach in Alsace. It is doubtful
whether there was a previous settlement here, or
whether the place was only an accretion of the monas-
tery. The earliest mention of Lucerne is in a charter
of Emperor Lothair I, 25 July, 840. With the flour-
ishing church community a civil community also dc-
velo^d, and the buildings of the two graduallv com-
bined to make a small town, which appears in German
documents of the thirteenth century as Lucerren, or
Luzzemon. The Abbot of Murbach exercised feudal
fiscal rights through a steward or bailiff; twice a 3'ear
the abbot himself administered justice from the steps
in front of the Hofkirche, with twelve free men beside
him as aldermen. Each newly elected Abbot of Mur-
bach had to promise fideHty to the law in Lucerne.
The paramount jurisdiction over the settlement be-
longed to the landgrave of the Aargau (after 1239,
LUOSRHS
407
LUOBBHE
the Count of Habsburg), who exercised it through
pinioreSf or bailiffs. The rapid rise of the town in the
thirteenth century was chiefly due to the opening of
the road over the St. Gothard, and the consequent
increase of traffic between Italy and Western Ger-
many. Lucerne thus became an important mart, and
the citizens aspired to make themselves entirely inde-
pendent of any overlord. To this end they exploited
the financial embarrassments of the abbots topurchase
one pri vilege after another. In the so-called Ueschuxtr-
enen Brief of 1252, the council and the citizens of the
town already appear as quite independent of the ab-
bot, who was theoretically their feudal lord, and as a
community possessing a seal and its own tribimals.
As tihe abbots of Murbach were often at odda with
the Counts of Habsburg, who were also Landgraves in
Alsace, in regard to their estates in Upper Alsace,
Rudolf of Habsburg, after his election as emperor,
confirmed all the privileges of the town, and declared
that the citizens of Lucerne were received as a fief
of the Empire. In order to conciliate the town, he
bought, in 1291, from the Abbot of Murbach the
estates of the abbey in Lucerne and in the Forest
Cantons (Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden) for 2000
silver marks and five villages in Alsace. Although the
town looked very unfavourably on this change of
ownership, it was nevertheless obliged to swear alle-
giance to Rudolf's son Albrecht for the confirmation
of its liberties. But the Habsburg supremacy did not
last long. By the renewal of the league of the above
three Forest Cantons, which had revolted from Aus-
tria, the foundation of a Swiss natioiialitv was laid.
In the wars which now broke out. Lucerne had to fight
against its own countrymen; still it was faithful to its
Austrian suzerain until after the Battle of Morgarten
(1315). The victor}' gained there by the Swiss encour-
aged the friends of liberty, and two parties were formed
in Lucerne, an Austrian and a Swias. When the town
was transferred, in 1228, from the jurisdiction of
Rothen))urg to that of Baden, twenty-six citizens
formed an association for five years to maintain the
city's privileges; in 1330 this association was joined
by the burgomaster and the council, and on 7 Novem-
ber, 032, Lucerne entered into a perpetiial league
with tne three Forest Cantons. Althoufijn this alliance
did not contemplate complete independence, still the
struggle with the House of Habsburg could not be long
delayed.
After 1336 several campaigns were carried on, and
the city's liberties were sometimes increased, some-
times curtailed; but Lucerne was still Austrian. In
1361 it obtained exemption from the St. Gothard toll;
in 1379 Wenceslaus granted it the judicial jurisdiction
of first instance over property, and in 1381 penal ju-
risdiction also was granted. While the Austrian su-
premacy was thus dwindling, the city's territory was
augmented by the accession of Krienz, Horw, and
other neighbouring towns. In consequence of a dis-
pute about tolls, the Lucerners stormed Rothenbtirg,
on 23 Dec, 1385, destroyed the castle, took Entle-
buch, and assisted in the destruction of the castle of
Wolhusen. The war with Austria ended with the
Battle of Sempach (9 July, 1386), in which the Burgo-
master of Lucerne^ Peter von Gunoldigen, met a hero's
death, and the city was rid of the Austrian yoke.
Lucerne henceforward had free scope for develop-
ment. In 1394 it acquire'd the lordships of Wolhusen,
Rothenburg, and Sempach; in 1406 of Habsburg, in
1407 the countship of Willisau. The village of Meren-
schwand voluntarily placed itself under the protection
of Lucerne in 1397. About this time the city was en-
circled with strong fortifications, of which the "Mu-
segg", to the north, with its nine towers, still exists.
When the Austrian Frederick " Empty-purse " was
gut under the ban of the Empire at the Council of
bnstance (1415), by Emperor Sigismund, on account
of his relations with Pope John XXIII, and the Swiss,
allied with the emperor, prepared to conquer the Aar-
gau. Lucerne conquered Sursee and occupied the Cis-
tercian monastery of St. Urban at Bonnwalde, the
monastery at Beromilnster, and other places. The
whole territory was now divided into thirteen baili-
wicks. Lucerne took a considerable part in the nu-
merous Italian campaigns of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, especially in the victorious campaigns of the
Swiss against Charles the Bold of Burgundy, which
brought rich spoils to the city. By tl^ war of the
Swiss against Maximilian in 1499, known as the Swa-
bian War, the bond between Lucerne and the German
Empire was entirely severed in fact, though this fact
was finally recognised only in 1648, by the Peace of
Westphalia.
The fifteenth century brought important internal
changes: the Council, which had governed somewhat
arbitrarily, was forced to stipulate that, without the
consent of the entire community, it would begin no
war, enter into no alliance, purclmse no lordships, and
impose no new taxes. As m politics, so also in learn-
ing, Lucerne took a leading part in Switzerland; in the
Hofschule, dating from 1290, it possessed the oldest
teaching institution of Switzerland; in addition, there
was a school at the Minorite convent. The latter was
famous for the production of religious dramas, which
reached their zenith in the second half of the fifteenth
century and attracted audiences numbering as many
as 30,000. The Benedictine foundation, which had
fallen into decay, was in 1456 changed into a founda-
tion of canons, wnich existe to this day. In the course
of the sixteenth century an aristocratic constitution
was formed, which survived every political storm and
lasted till the dissolution of the canton.
The Reformation divided Switzerland into two
camps. Besides the four Forest Cantons (Schwyz,
Uri, Unterwalden, and Lucerne), Fribourgand Soleure
formed the Catholic part. The new teaching found no
great following in the city, although a few scholars like
Myconius and Textorius, tried at first to obtain ad-
mission. A zealous defender of the Faith arose in
the Franciscan Thomas Mumer, who came to Lucerne
in 1524. The authorities also actively interposed
against the followers of the new teachmg. As the
most important of the Catholic cities, Lucerne took
the leading part in the conflict, notabljr at the Battle of
Kappel, which strengthened the position of the Cath-
olic Church in Switzerland, under her burgomasters.
Hug and Golder. Also it was at the head of all the
alliances which the Catholic cantons made with
France or with the pope. St. Charles Borromeo, who
visited Lucerne in 1570, rendered great services to the
Catholic Church in Switzerland (see Charles BoBt
ROMEO, Saint). At his suggestion, on 7 Aug., 1574,
the first Jesuits entered Lucerne, two fathers and a
lay brother; in 1577 they receivea the Rittersche pal-
ace for a college. Tlieir sptecial protector was the
burgomaster, the famous Swiss soldier, Ludwig Pfyf-
fer, who had fought at Jamac and Monteontour
against the Huguenots, and who, from 1571 to his
death in 1594, as "Iving of the Swiss "^ was the prin-
cipal leader of Catholic opinion in Switzerland. His
assistant for many years was the learned town clerk
Renward Cysat, who collected valuable materials for
the history of his native city.
In 1583 the Capuchins obtained an establishment
in the city, and a permanent papal nunciature was
erected there, Giovanni Francesco Bonhomini. Arch*
bishop of Vercelli, being the first nuncio. The alli-
ances of the Swiss with warlike popes of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries had resulted in active inter-
course with Rome. At the instance, and in the pres-
ence, of the third nuncio, Battista Santorio, there was
concluded (15 Oct., 1586), in the Hofkirche of Lu-
cerne, the so-called Borromean, or Golden, Alliance, in
which the four Forest Cantons, together with Zuc%
Fribourg, and Soleure, swore <» V*^ Vs!bS^>^ \i5fc ^^kj^
LVOXRNE
408
LUOBBHE
Catholic Church, to strive for the conversion of any of
their number who niiglit full away, and to protect the
Faith to the best of their ability. As the capital of
Catholic Switzerland, Lucerne made many sacrifices,
and rendered great services, at the beginning of the
seventeenth century to maintain the Faith in the
Oanton of Valais. At the same time the Council
atrongl^ insisted upon its ancient spiritual rights, in
opposition to the nuncio, and this lea to the sharp dis-
putes which eventually, in 1725. caused the nuncio,
Fassionei, to abandon Lucerne tor many years. In
domestic affairs the ascendency of the patricians in-
mased ; eligibility to office was limited to a few fami-
lies, and the hereditary principle even invaded the
Council. Trials for witchcraft cast a deep shadow on
this period, and corruption was rife among pubUc
officials and members of the Government.
The eighteenth century wore on in a generally
peaceful course, after its stormy beginning in the un-
fortunate participation (1712) of Lucerne in the
quarrel of the Abbot of St. Gall with the rebellious
Toggenbuig. Signs of decay showed themselves little
by nttle in the Ixxly politic. The embezzlement of
state funds and the wrangles of certain families, who
dragged the State into their private feuds, added to
the im jx)pularity of the twenty-nine *' ruling families *\
The ideas of "enlightenment", emanating from
France in the eighteenth century, found in Lucerne
sealous literary champions in Councillor Felix Bal-
thassar, whose work "De Helvetiorum iuribus circa
sacra", appeared in 1768, and in Coimcillor Valentin
Mever. Thus the Revolution found a well-prepared
soil at Lucerne. After the entr>' of the French into
the Waadtland (Vaud), and the Revolution at Basle
in 1798, Jjuceme could no longer remain unaffect'Cd:
without anv popular upheaval, the high Council, quite
unexpecteJly, on 31 Jan., 1798, promulgated the abo-
lition of aristocratic government, and ordered the con-
vocation of delegates from the country, to consider a
new constitution founded upon the principle of legal
equality. Before this project could be realized, the
entry of the French into Bern, in March, 1798, ended
the old confederation. Under orders from France
the "Helvetian Republic" was formed, and the terri-
tory of the confederation was divided into uniformly
administered subordinate provinces. The Act of
Mediation of Napoleon (19 Feb., 1803), which restored
the old federal constitution of the republic, also
brought to the people of Lucerne a larger share of self-
government. Witn the fall of Napoleon an d the entry
of the allies into Lucerne, the old constitution was re-
established there (Feb., 1814), with the patrician re-
gime. At the same time Jjuceme became, alternately
with Berne and Zurich, the seat of the National Diet.
In the following twenty years much feeling was
aroused by the question arising out of the secu&riza-
tion of the Bishopric of Constance. A vicar-general-
ship, imder the Provost Ciiildlin von Beromtinster.
was created for the part of Switzerland that had
belonged to Constance. In 1821 the Bishopric of Con-
stance was entirely abolished, and it being left to Lu-
cerne to decide w-hat should take its place, the city
wished to be itself the new see. After years of nego-
tiation, however, the Diocese of Basle was erected
(1828), with the see at Soleure. The liiberal Democratic
movement, which began in that year, destroyed the
Ocmservative Government. The Revolution of July
in France helped on the Radical victor>% and at the
end of March, 1831, a Lil)eral Government came into
power, whose leaders were the Burgomaster Amrh3m
and the brothers Pfyflfer. Josephinism thereupon be-
eame dominant in the relations of Church and State.
On the advice of the burgomaster, Edward Pfyflfer, the
Government called a conference, on 20 Jan., 1834, at
Baden, wliich agreed upon a number of articles de-
fining the 8tat<»'s right* over the Church, and to in-
Au^jRite certain ccclosiastical reforms. After the
High Council had adopted these Baden articles (which
the pope condenuied by the Bull of 18 May, 1835) the
Government began to carry them out; the schools
were laicized; the Franciscan monastery at Lucerne
and others were abolished; property of foundations
considered superfluous was inventoried; obnoxious
clergjy were called to account. The Government even
considered the idea of expelling the nuncio, but hc>
forestalled them, and transferred his residence to
Schwya. Those of the people who remained faithful
to the Church organized themselves under the leader-
ship of the worthy peasant Joseph Leu of Ebersoll.
Their first steps, such as the proposal to recall the
Jesuits, were mdeed without result. But when the
High Council of the Canton of Aarj^au, on 20 Jan.,
1841, on the proposal of Augustin Keller, director of
seminaries, had suppressed all the monasteries of the
canton, and the Liberal party at Lucerne had openly
expressed their sympathy with these hostile measures,
the Liberal regime was overturned by the Conserva-
tives in the election of 1 May, 1841, and a new consti-
tution was formed, which safeguarded the Church's
rights. Under Joseph Leu, Siegwart Miiller, and
Bemhard Meyer, Lucerne was again at the head of thi^
CathoUc cantons, the Baden Articles were declared
null and void, and the nuncio reinstated at Lucerne.
In 1844 the recall of the Jesuits was decided upon by
70 votes to 24, an act which caused much bitterness of
feeling and loud protests among the liberals. Tlui
more thoughtless of them even had some idcui of ob-
taining their ends by force; guerilla warfare was or-
gaziized in the Cantons of Basle, Soleure, and Aargau,
which in 1844 and 1845, imited with their Lucerne
sympathizers, to the number of 3C00, and marched
against the city of Lucerne, but were easily van-
quished by the city's forces. The victories of t\w
Radicals in several cantons and the murder of Leu
(20 July, 1845) caused Lucerne to conclude a separate?
alliance (Sonderbund, 11 Dec., 1845) with Uri, Schwyz,
Unto^'alden, Fribourg, Zug, and Valais, in oppo-
sition to the alliance of the liberal cantons of lH^i2.
Civil war was now almost inevitable. On 20 July the
Swiss Diet decided on the dissolution of the Sonder-
bund, and on 16 Aug. accepted a revision of the alli-
ance: on 2 Sept. the expulsion of the Jesuits was de-
cided on. Wnen, on 29 Sept., a proposal of the seven
cantons for an arrangement was refused by the liiberal
majority, who wished to ensure an extension of the
federal power and a curtailment of the sovereignty of
the individual cantons, the delegates of the Sander-
bund left the Diet, and the war desired by the Liberal
majority broke out. With the superiority of the alli-
ance, the result could scarcelv be in doubt. On Vi
Nov., Fribourg was conquered; on 23 Nov., the Son-
derbund troops were beat^^n in the Battle of Gislikon ;
on 24 Nov., Lucerne was forced to surrender, where-
upon the other Sanderbund cantons also surrendered
one by one. The campai^ was decided in twenty
days.* Under the protection of the troops of the
Confederation, a Lit)eral Government was elected at
Lucerne, the Jesuits expelled, a few monasteries sup-
prrased, notably the rich foundation of St. Urban, and
the remaining ones burdened with levies. The new
constitution (1848) of the Confederation substantially
curtailed the rights of the cantons, as also did tlie
Revision of 1874.
After several decades of religious peace, the Old-
Catholic movement brought fresh discord into the
canton. The reckless proce^ngs of the Confederation
in favour of the Old Catholics, the deposition of Bishop
Lachat of Basle by the diocesan conference of 29 Jan.,
1873, the bigoted suppression of the nunciature by the
national Government, which had the approval of the
Lucerne Liberals, goaded the Catholics. Their \ac-
tory at the election of 1871 led to the establishment uf
the Conservative Government (then headed by Pliilipp
A. von Segesser) which since then has held its own at
LnOUHUTS 400 Luon)
evciy election. Under it Lucerne eJIorded a refuge ciled with tbe Church early in the epiecopate at
to the exiled bishop, Lachat, until the dispute was Cyril (i)erhK{jeRbout286)thanintiuktofhiseucceeBOr;
settled after protracted negotiations in which Lu- otherwise it is hard to understand how bishops in the
ceme took a cooeiderable part. Since the opening of Orient could have received his pupils. Very Uttle ia
the St. Gothaid railway, the town, owing to its noble known about the life of Lucian, though few men have
situation on the lake, and as the gateway opening into left such a deep imprint on the history of Christianity,
the heart of Switzerland, has rapidly aeveloped and The opposition to the allegorizing tendraiciee of the
has become one of the centres of Swiss travel. Aleranorines centred in liim. He rejected this
The canton of Lucerne, at the census of 1900, num- system entirely and propounded a s^tem. of Ut«nl
bered 146,519 inhabitants, 134,020 of whom were interpretation which dominated the Eastern Church
Catholics, 12,085 Protestants, and 414 of other de- for a long period. In the field of theology, in tha
nominations; the city, 29,255 inhabitants (23,955 minds of practically all writers (the most notf^ile
Catholics, 4933 Protestants, 299 Jews). Of the ci^ht modem exception being Gwatkin, in bis " Studies of
Catholic churches and seven chapels, tha most im- Arianism", London, 1900), hchaathetmenviablerepu-
portant is the collegiate church called the Hofkirche, Uttion of being the real author of the opinions which
which was rebuilt after the fire of 1633; the two afterwards found expression in the heresy of Arius.
towers of the old Gothic building atill remain. The In his Chrislological s^tem — a compromise between
former church of the Jesuits was built in 1667-73. Hodalismand Sulmrdinationism — the Word, though
The earlier Franciscan church has one of the oldest Himself the Creator of all sul>sequent beings, was a
architectural monuments of the city in its thirteentb- creature, thouah superior to all other created tl^ga
century Gothic choir. Lucerne is the scat of the semi- by the wide gulf between Creator and creature. T&B
nary for the Diocese of Basle, with six professors. F^^'' loaders in the Arian movement (Arius himself.
Besides the collegiate foundation in the city of Lu- Eusebius. the court Bishop of Nicomedia, Maris, ana
ccrne, with eleven canons and four chaplains, there Theognis) received their training under him and aU
has existed since the end of the tenth century the ways venerated him as their master and the foundw
foundation of Beromilnstcr, with a provost, eighteen of their system.
canons, and ten chaplains. Of religious establish- Despit« his heterodoxy, Lucian was a man of the
ments there are at present three Capuchin houses most unexceptionable virtue (Eusebius, H. E., VIIl,
(Lucerne, Sursee, and SchUprbeim), a house of Capu- xiii, 2); at tne height of the Arian controversy his
chinesses at Gerlisheim, one of Cistereianesses at fame for sanctity was not less than his reputation as
Eschenbaeh, whose abbess has the right of bearing the a scholar. During the persecution of Maximinua
crosier; the Sisterhood Of St. Martha in the hospital at Doia he was arrested at Antioch and sent to Nicome-
Luceme and the society of the Baldcgger Sisters, with dia, where he endured many tortures and, after de-
ft branch house and a seminary for governesses. The . livering a long oration in defence of his faith, was
"Vat«rland", the most important Catholic newspaper finally put to death. The most enduring memorial
in Switaerland, appears at Lucerne, also the excellent of the life of Lucian, next to the Christological contro-
" Schweizerische Katbolische Kirchenzeitung". ver»^ which his teachings aroused, was hia influence
PrmBK.Otichuiiieder ShidtuTuidcf Karao<uLuteni(,2voia., on Biblical study. Receiving the literal sense alone,
Zunoh, lBSO-sl)\ Idem, UnlomiA^fotiraphiKli-itaiuiiiAei ],„ |_:j -.—.a _„ t\.„ „oj^ „f tm,t,,nl aj.r.ti,-ai.<, ami
OmMldr dci Kanlom Liutn (2 vola.. Lucerne. 1851-58); yon ™ l*",*; S'"f* °", ""^ '^^ °' ,tettual accuracy antt
BBoessER, ArcAiwucAicUa dir Sladt umJ Bepuilik Liutrn himself undertook to revise the Septuagmt on the
U vob., Lucerne, I(i5i--58): Idxu is John in tiaerniiAm original Hebrew. His edition was Widely used in the
&aa<y/,™( (Bern. iS87)i W=r„. ^^^^J^^^^.-f^^]^^ fourth centuiy (.Jerome, De Vir. III., bcxvi;; Pnef.ad
f/nrrfcinJleiuaoB*! twdijor' ■ ' ■• ■■■ - ° '■'-• ■ '•'-■ Tr..l:„..^ .,.,«. fm= IriKl II. „1„
,, ^_nn fl.ucnmB. lOOSI: Kfjmei
Vimraidmiaeri
Dit Stirit- -and Plarrkirdie z-u Satikl Lrndtoariia told Mavrltiti* Parahp.; Adv. Rufinum XXvl; Lpis., l(>b). He also
iBHo/iu^Lmem (Lucerne, ^1008); KTmK.J.ufm ^ad dff published a recension of the New Testament. St
_f ™S T^;_i t (a;;i„.i;.._; liuiai. ii_JA jerome I Lie vir. iii., / / Kinaaaitioniot
, id OachicMt dtrkallt. Kirdti in drr Inner- the Bible, speaks of 'Libelll de Fide , .
•cAkwb, I (Lucerne, 1909); Dtr GeieliuJitifrewtd. MiUeibirvm are extant. He is also Credited with the composition
mldm and Zuj (Eiiaiedelii Bud Staia. 1843 ). °\ ?, ^"^l E"^? o "* a J^'^<"'.''I Antiocn m Ml
Joseph Lins. (Athan., Ep. do Synod. Arim. et Seleuc. , xxm),
- , . . c ,, ,, but his authorship is doubtful: in fact it is certain be
LucianiBta. See Makcion and Mabcionites. ^^ ^^ compose it in its present form. Rufinus (H.
Lncian ot Antioch, a priest of the Church of An- E., IX, vi) has preservea a translation of his apolo-.
lioch who suffered martyrdom {7 January, 312) getic oration. There are epistles mentioned by Sui-
duriiiK the reign of Maximinua Dazo. Acoordiog to das; a fragment of one announces the death of Anthi-
a tradition preserved by Suidas (s, v.), Lucian was mus, a bishop ("ChroniDon Paschale", in P. G..
bom at Samosata, of pious parents, and was educated XCII, 689)
in the neighbouring city of Bdessa at the school (rf a Roith www-"- ■■^■"^'"- 1^'' '■ '': ■I"" ^f^- T"" '■ ■'■]!■ S5;
certain Macarius. Not much faith can be attached ^^F'']l"^^jr;X'D''v^'^^^
to these statements, which are not corroboiated by f ; j^i JSj^.^^m., Sfudt Jftwwrawu. anmnt; La Pmsioa dt
anv other author; Suidas very probably confounded ' TJl'liilri 1' ' '■■■***^' ^r.mi,rm^,^,ie„... .-.^
the history of Lucian with thrtot hisTamoua n«i^ ■Sfl^^^ltlT^^^l^'k'^-^i^i'U^i.^^,
sake, the pagan satirist of a century enrlloif. liw aRbm of tht Fourth Cenium; BAHDEvnEWEB, Poiroloro.tr.
confusion is easily pardoned, however, as both ex- Srahiin (St. Louia, 1908).
hibited the same intellectual traits and the same love Patmck J. Uealt.
for cold literalism.
Early in life Lucian took up his residence at An- Lndc (m- Locids), John, Croatian historian, b.
tioch, where he was ordained presbyter, and where early in the seventeenth century, at Trojir, or Tragur-
he soon attained a coramandinf; position as head of ion, in Dslmatia; d. at Rome^ 11 January, 1679. He
the theologirni school in that city. Though he can- was descended from an ancient and noble Croatian
not be accused of having shared the uieolo^cal family. After making his college course at his birth-
views of Paul of Samosata, he fell under suspicion place,hetookupthestudyoflaw,first at Padua (1620)
attbetimeofPaul'scondemnationiandwas compelled and later at Rome, where he received the degree trf
to sever his communion with the Church. Thia Doctor Utriumrue Juna. RetumingtoTrojir in 1633,
breach with the orthodox party lasted during the he resided there until 1654, and there discovered the
episcopates of three hiBbo])^, Domnus. Timeus, and nisnuacript of the "Ctena Trimalchionis", known as
C^ril, wliose oilministratinn estendwl from 268 to tlie "Traguriensis", which was afl«rwa.rds published.
303. It seems more likely that Lucian was recon- byStatilifiatPadua, IBM. At'C^'a\.t'w.\»^>as.'is»,-»-
LUOXnBB 410 LUOIMA
searohes into the history of his native country, to Vercelli. Both were exiled, Lucifer beiug sent to
which he chiefly devoted the rest of his life, and wnich Gennanica, in Syria, and thence to Eleutheropolis in
gained for him the title of "Father of Croatian His- Palestine; he was finally relegated to the Thcoaid.
tory". When, in 1654, he returned to Rome to con- In the course of this exile Lucifer wTote an ex-
tinue his historical studies, he gained the friendship tremely virulent pamphlet entitled "Ad Constant ium
and protection of many men of eminence, among them Augustum pro sancto Athanasio libri II", an elo-
several cardinals. To Ughelli, the author of " Italia quent defence of Catholic orthodoxy, but in such
Sacra", he furnished much of the material relating to exaggerated language that it overshot the mark and
Croatian history. In April, 1663, he was named presi- injured the cause it was meant to serve. Lucifer
dent of the " Congregatio S. Hieronymi nationis Illyii- boasted of his work, and Constantius, tyrant that he
corum de Urbe '*, by Cardinal Julius Sacchetti. Lucid was, refrained from further revenge. After the death
also wrote various works on ecclesiastical history, of Constantius, Julian allowed all the exiles to return
most of which are lost. A few of them are still pre- to their cities. Lucifer went to Antioch, and at
served in the Vatican Library. once meddled in the diajcnsions which divided the
Lucid was never married. He resided at Rome un- Catholic party. He prolonged and embittered them
til his death, and was buried there, in the church of St. by coa«5ecrating a bishop who iippeared to him ca-
Jerome, where a monument was erected to his mem- pable of continuing the opposition to the bishop and
ory in 1740. The following are his principal published I>arty which he judged the weaker under the circuni-
works: " De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatia? libri sex " (6 stances. Incapable of tact, he aggravate*! the dissen-
vols., Amsterdam, 1666 and 1668; Frankfort, 1667); ters, instead of dealing cautiously with them in order
"Memorie storiche di Tragurio ora detto TmCi" (6 to win them, and displayed special severity towards
vols., Venice, 1673); " Inscriptiones Dalmatica?, notiB those Catholics who had wavered in their adherence
ad memoriale Pauh de Paulo, notas ad Palladium Fus- to the Xicene Creed. About this time a Council of
cum. addenda vel corrigenda in opere de regno Dal- Alexandria presided over by St. Athanasius decreed
matiHJ et Croatiie, varia; lectiones Chronici Ungarici that Arians renouncing their heresy should be par-
manuscripti cum editis " (Venice, 1673). doned and that bishops who, by compulsion, had tcm-
Klai<5, P(w/M<ffnw/o, I (Zagreb, IKW), 3-6; RAcici,Par/i-/rf- porized with heretics shoukl not be disturbed.
mk Ivan Luci6-U Rmdu Jugoalavenske Akademije (Zagrob, Against this indulgence Lucifcr protested, and went
ISSii^ CVi^i^uSSr '^"^'^ '^'* '^*'** *^'"''" ^''^ so far as to anathematize his former friend, Eusebius
Anthony-Lawrence GANCEVid. of Vercelli, who carried out the decrees of the Coun-
cil of Alexandna. Seemg that his extreme oninions
Lucifer (Hebr. hHH; Septuagint ^w<^0V^ Vulgate won partisans neither West ndt East, he withdrew to
Ztici/er) originally denotes the planet Venus, emphasiz- Sardinia, resumed his see, and formed a small sect
inir itq hrillianev. The Vuleate emnlovs the worrl jil«o Called the Luciferians. These sectaries pretended
had participated in Arianism
^ their dignity, and that bishops
(Ps., cix, 3).' Metaphorically, the word is applied to who recognized the rights of even repentant heretics
the King of Babylon (Is., xiv, 12) as pre-eminent should be excommvmicated. The Luciferians, being
among the princes of his time; to the high priest Simon earnestly opposed, commissioned two priests. Mar-
son of Onias (Ecclus., 1, 6), for his surpassing virtue; to cellinus and Faustinus, to present a petition, the well-
the glory of heaven (Apoc., ii, 28), by reason of its ex- known ''Libellus precum", to the Emperor Theo-
oellency; finally, to Jesus Christ himself (II Petr., i, dosius, explaining their grievances and claiming
19: Apoc.. xxii, 16; the " Exultet *' of Holy Satuniav), protection. The emperor forbatle further pursuit of
the true light of our spiritual life. The Syriac version them, and their schism seems not to have lasted be-
and the version of Aquila derix^e the Ilebrew noun yond this firet generation.
hlfa fi*nm fhA vnrh liflltil "fr» latnpnf "• Si- TAmm*» Hartel in Corp. script. cccUa. lat., aIV (1886); Ukkner,
laUi from tne verU yaiai .^*\™®^J^^'?\- Jerome ^^y^ ^^ CagliaH wtdsein Latein in Archiv far hilein. Lexi-
agrees with them (In Is., l, 14; P. L., AAl V , 161), and kogr. und Gramm., HI (1886). 1-58; KrCqeb. Lucih-r Bisi'hof
inakes Lucifer the name of the principal fallen angel, von Calaria und daa Schiama der Lwnferiancr (Leipzig, 1886);
who must lament the loss of his original glory bright as Vlt^^T^hi^^r^i^^ s\ ^^ ' ^^' ^^'*"^'*' '^^ '^'
the morning star. In Christian tradition this mean- jj Leclercq
ing of Lucifer has prevailed ; the Fathers maintain that
•Lucifer is not the proper name of the devil, but denotes • ««•«« r»««,«, ^« *i... *-« j •*• i * '^i r xi
only the state from which he has fallen (Petavius, " De "cma. Crypt op, the traditional title of the most
^^eeUs" III iii 4). ancient section of the catacomb of St. Callistus. Ac-
Tfte principal'commenUries on the foreming texts of Sacred CO^ling to the theory of De Ilossi, St. Lncina (hon-
Scripture and LesLtre in Diet, de la BibUriV, 407 sqq. oured at Rome on 30 June) , after whom this port ion of
A. J. ]VU AS. the cemetery is called, was the original donor of the
area, and at the same time identical with the noble
^Lndfer of Oagliari (Lucifer Calabttanus), Roman matron, Pomponia Greecina, wife of the con-
jbnihop, must havcbeeo-bora^ mJJbQ early v^jjT^ queror of Britain, Aulus Plautius. Lucina is l)elieved
the foUlCb fldlitury; d. in 371. His bu^npia^Mv to have been the baptinrqal name of Pomponia Gnc-
the circumstances of his youth are unknown. lie cina. De Rossi's hypothesis, which is gencniUy ac-
fint appears in ecclesiastical history, in full ma- cepted, rests on a passage of the "Annals" of Tacitus
turity of strength and abilities, in 3^4 when he was (XIII, xxxii), and on certain inscriptions discovered
deputed by Pope Liljerius, with the priest Pancratius in the Crypt of Lucina. According to Tacitus, *' Pom-
ana the deacon Hilarj", to request the Enaperor Con- ponia Grsecina, a distinguished lady, wife of the Plau-
Btantius to convene a council, to deal with the ac- tins who on his return from Britain received an ova-
Alexandria with much passion and in very violent the presence of kinsfolk, mvolving, as it did, her le^al
language, thus furnishing the adversaries of the great status and character, and he reported that she was in-
Akmndrian with a pretext for resentment and nooent. This Pomponia lived a lone: life of unbroken
further violence, and causing a new condemnation of melancholy. After the murder of Julia, Dnisus's
Athanasius. Constantius, unaccustomed to inde- daughter, bv Messalina's treachery, for forty vears
pendence on the part of the bishops, grievously she wore only the attire of a mourner with her heart
nu/treati'*l LucUor and his colleague, Eusebius of ever sorrowful. For tbi»« during the reign of Claudius,
LV0IU8
411
Luoixrs
she escaped unpunished, and it was afterwards
counted a glory to her." ^ The "foreign superstition"
of the Roman historian is now generally regarded as
probably identical with the Christian religion. When
de Rossi first conjectured that this might be the
case, he announced his view mcfrely as a more or less
remote probal)ility, but subsequent discoveries in the
cemeteiy of St. Callistus confirmed his supposition in
the happiest manner. The first of these discoveries
Section of the Chypt of Lucina
was the tomb of a Pomponius Grekeinos, evidently a
member of the family of Pomponia, and possibly her
descendant; the inscription dates from about the be-
ginning of the third century. A short distance from
this, the tomb of a Pomponius Bassus was also found
— another member of tne family to which belonged
the mysterious lady of the reign of Claudius. Thus the
conversion to Christianity of this noble lady is estab-
hshed with a degree of probability that approaches
certainty.
NoRTHcoTB AND Brownlow, Roma SoUerraneOt I (2nd ed.,
London, 1879), 82-3, 270-81; Stokes in Smith and Wace,
Diet. Christ, Biog.^ IV (London, 1887), s. v. Pomponia Gracina.
Maurice M. Hassett.
Lucius I, Saint, Popb (253-^54); d. at Rome, 5
March, 254. After the death of St. Cornelius, who
died in exile in the summer of 253, Lucius was chosen
to fill his place, and consecrated Bishop of Rome.
Nothing is Known of the early life of this po|3e before
his elevation. According to the " Liber Pontificalia ",
he was Roman born, and his father's nanae was Por-
phyrins. Where the author obtained this information
IS not known. The persecution of the Church under
the Emperor Callus, during which Cornelius had been
banished, still went on. Lucius also was sent into ex-
ile soon after his consecration, but in a short time, pre-
sumably when Valerian was made emperor, he was al-
lowed to return to his flock. The Felician Catalogue,
whose information is found in the "Liber Pontifica-
lis ", informs us of the banishment and the miraculous
return of Lucius: " Hicexul fuit et postea nutu Dei in-
columis ad ecclesiam reversus est. ' St. Cyprian, who
wrote a (lost) letter of congratulation to Lucius on his
elevation to the Roman See and on his banishment,
sent a second letter of congratulation to him and his
companions in exile, as well as to llic whole Roman
Churcli (ep. Ixi, ed. llartel, H, (iO') sciq.).
The letter begins: "Beloved Brother, only a short
time ago we offered you our congratulations^ when in
exalting you to govern His Church God graciously be-
stowed upon ^ou the twofold glory of coiifessor and
bishop. Agam we congratulate you, your compan-
ions, and the whole congregation, in that, owing to the
kind and mighty protection of our Lord, He has led
you back with praise and glory to His own, so that the
flock can again receive its shepherd, the ship her pilot,
and the people a director to govern them and to show
openlv tnat it was God's disposition that He permitted
your banishment, not that the bishop who had been
expelled should l>e deprived of his Church, but rather
tliat he might return to his Church with greater
authority.*' Cyprian continues, alluding to the three
Hebrew children in the fiery furnace, that the return
from exile did not lessen the gjory of the confession,
and that the persecution, wliich was directed only
against the confessors of the true Church, proved
wliich was the Church of Christ. In conclusion he d^
scriljes the jov of Christian Rome on the return of its
shepherd. When Cyprian asserts that the Lord by
means of persecution sought " to bring the heretics to
shame and to silence them," and thiLs to prove where
tlic Church was, who was her one bishop chosen by
God's dispensation, who were her presbvters bound up
with the bishop in the glory of the priesthood, who were
the real people of Christ, united to His flock oy a pecu-
liar love, who were those who were oppressed by their
enemies, and at the same time who those were whom the
Devil protects as his own, he obviously means the
Novatians. The schism of Noyatian, through which
he was brought forward as antipope, in opposition to
Cornelius, still continued in Rome under Lucius.
In the matter of confession and the restoratioa of
the " Lapsi " (fallen) Lucius adhered to the principles
of Cornelius and Cyprian. According to the testi-
mony of the latter, contained in a letter to Pope Ste-
phen (ep. Ixviii, 5, ed. Hartel, II, 748), Lucius, like
Cornelius, had expressed his opinions in writing: "Uli
enim pleni spiritu Domini et in glorioso martyrio con-
stituti dandam esse lapsis pacem censuerunt et poeni-
tentia acta fructum communicationis et pacis negan-
dum non esse litteris suis signaverunt. " (For they, filled
with the spirit of the Lord and confirmed in glorious
martyrdom, judged that pardon ought to be given to
the Lapsi, and signified in their letters that, when these
had done penance, they were not to be denied the en-
joyment of communion and reconciliation.) Lucius
died in the beginning of March, 254. In the " Depositio
episcoporum'' the "Chronograph of 354" gives the.
date of his <ij}^h afi B March, the ^' Martyrologium Hier-
onymiap^ei'/jo^.4 March. The first^ate is probably
rights. ^ i^>j|p Lucius died on 4 March and was
burlAewMcn. According to the '' Liber Pontificar
lis" tro^pope was beheaded in the time of Valerian,
but this testimony cannot be admitted. It is true
that Cyprian in the letter to Stephen above mentioned
(e|>, Ixviii, 6) gives him, as well as Cornelius, the hon-
o^iry title of martvr: "servandus est enim anteces-
s^'|im nostrorum Tbeatorum martyrum Comelii et
Lt^ Jii honor gloriosus " (for the glorious memoiy of our
predecessors the blessed martyrs Cornelius and Lucius
IS to be preserved) ; but probably this was on ac-
count of Lucius's short banishment. Cornelius, who
died in exile, was honoured as a martyr by the Romans
after his death ; but not Lucius. In the Roman calen-
dar of feasts of the " Chronograph of 354 " he is men-
tioned in the " Depositio episcoporum ", and not under
tlie head of "Depositio martyrum". His memory
was, nevertheless particularly honoured, as is clear,
from the appearance of his name in the " Martyrolo-,
gium Hieronymianum". Eusebius, it is true, main-
tains (Hist. EccL, VII, 10) that Valerian was tavour-
able to the Christians in the early part of his reign.
The emperor's first persecution edict appeared onlv wl
257.
LWIT 41
fdeven reli|;iout) coniiiiuuitirat of woinpn. At 11 ic
doae of the niDeteenth ceDtury the dioceue could
boast of the following establiBhrnentB conducted by
nligious: 42 infant schools, 1 boys' orphanage, 5
giria' orphanages, 1 alms-house, 15 hospitals or hos-
pices, and 13 communitiea for the care of the sick in
their homes. At the end of 1907 the Diocese of Lugon
had a population of 441,311, 36 canonical parishes,
262 "succursalca" parishes, 154 curacies, 12 chapels-
of-ease, and 633 priesta.
L* F0HTE[
BttQiiti dt Zuc"" (Foalenay-lv-
Cqmlc. 1847:|; nn Trew* !.»>•-
■ JlDNTA
dt Lveon, I
BUB Di V
la CtMcepti
tittit (ViiE___. ..
I^nmdri dr< fom- — ,
dt Viglite dr Luton (Fontriu
le-Comle. 1SB2); LabadlKb
RecMtreAea hiatar-igue* fvt Lu^'
(Lueon, 1907): 1-irEioix, Ricl
Ut» A iufon (Puris. 1M90): I.
CDBiB, Uuioifp de I'abbnuf
Mu'IlBaif (FoDleDsy-lp-dimL. ,
I8B2); CHEv*i.irH, T->pabibl.. :•.
Georqbs Goyau.
Lae7, Saint, a virgin and
nuutTT of Syracuse in Sici-
ly, wnosc feast is celebrated
ay Latins and Greeks alike
on 13 Dec. According to
the traditional ston', she
waa bom of rich and noble
nsrents about the yedr 283.
Her father was of Roman
origin, but his early death
left her dependent upon her
mother, whose name, Euty-
chia, seems to indicate that
Bhe came of a Greek stock.
Like BO many of the early
martyrs, Lucy had conse-
crated her virginity to God,
and she hoped to devote all
her worldly goods to the
service of the poor. Her
mother was not so single-
minded, but an occasion
offered itself when Lucy
could carry out her gener-
ous resolutions. The fame
of the virgin-martyr Agatha,
who haa been executed
fifty-two years before, in the
Decian persecution, was at-
tracting numerous visitors
to her relies at Catania, not
fiftr miles from Syracuse,
ana many miracles had been
wrought through her intercession. Eutychia was
therefore persuaded to make a pilgrimage to Catania,
in the hope of being cured of a luemorrhage, from
which she had been suffering for several veara. There
ahe was in fact cured, and Lucy, availing herself of
the opportunity, persuaded her mother to allow her
to distribute a great part of their riches among the
poor. The largess stirred the greed of the unworthy
youth towhom Lucy had been unwillingly betrothed,
and he denounced her to Paschaaius, the Governor
of Sicily. It was in the year .303, during the fierce
persecution of Diocletian. She wa? first of all con-
demned to suffer the shame of prostitution; but in the
strei«1h of fiod she stood immovable, so that they
mniJcniot cirag her away to the place of shame. Fag-
giMv wire then heaped about }>eT and net on fire, and
4 LtlOT
again Goil saved her. Finally, she mot her death by
the sword. But before she died she foret«td the p<mish-
ment of Paschasiua and the speedy termination of
the persecution, adding that Diocletian would reign
no more, and Ma;dmian would meet his end. So,
strengthened with the Bread of Life, she won her
crown of vir^iuty and martyrdom.
This beautiful story cannot unfortunately be ac-
cepted without criticism. The details may be only
a repetition of similar accounts of a virgin martyrs
life and death. Moreover, the prophecy was not
realiied. if it required that Maximian "should die
immediately after the termination of his reign. Pas-
chasiua. dJso, is u strange
name for a pagan to bear
(see Schill in Kraus, "Real-
Encyc", s, v. "Namefi").
However, eince there is no
other evidence by which
the story may l>e tested, it
can only he suggested that
the (acts peculiar to the
saint's stor)' deserve special
notice. Among these, the
place and time of her death
can hardly be questioned;
for the rest, the most nota-
^ith
blea
Rt. Agatim and the n
bus cure of lihityehia, and
it is to l>e hojied that these
have not been introduced
by the pious compiler of
(he saint s Btory or a popu-
lar instinct to link together
two imtional saints. The
story, such as we have
eiven if, is to l>e traced
Fmck to the Acta, and these
protiably lieloiig to the fifth
century. Though they can-
not be regarded as accurate,
there can be no doulrt of the
(treat veneration that was
.thowii to St. Lucy by the
early Church. She is one
of those few female sninta
1 the
Tlepolo, Church
if St. Gregory, and
" arc special prayers
< :i^n|ih<ms for her in his
:iir;iinentan'" and "An-
^ honary". SheisaJsocom-
me>noratert in the ancient
Roman Martvrology. St.
Aldhrlni (d 709) is the first
es her Acta
logiveaiiii] account of her
life and death. This he does
in prose in the "Tractatua
de Laudibus \'irginitatis"
(Tract. x!ii, P. L., LXXXIX, 142) and again, in
verse, in the poem " De Laudibus Virginum (P. L.,
LXXXIX, 26B). Following him, the Venerable
Bede inserts the story in his Martj'rologj-.
With regard to her relics, Sigebert (1030-1112). a
monk of GemNoun, in his "serrao do Sancta Lucia",
says that her liody lay undisturbed in Sicily tor 400
years, until Faroald. Duke of Spoleto, captured the
island and transferred the s^nt s body to Corfiniimi
in Italy. Thence it was removed by the Emperor
Otho I, 972, to Mete and deposited in the church of
St. Vincent. And it was from this shrine that an arm
of the saint was taken to the moniujterj- of I.uitburg
in the Diocese of Spires — an incident celebrated by
Sigeltert himself in verae. The .subsequent history of
the relics is not clear. On their capture of Oonstamti-
LUDDBI
415
LUBLAlk
nople in 1204, the French fomid some of the relics in
that city, and the Doge of Venice secured them for the
monastery of St. George at Venice. In the year 1513
the Venetians presented to Louis XII of France the
head of the saint, which he deposited in the cathedral
church of Bourges. Another account, however, states
that the head was brought to Bourges from Rome
whither it had been transferred during the time when
the relics rested in Corfinium.
The lives, by Be AUGRAifD (Paru, 1882, It. tr., Mantua. 1896) ;
by Cbdbbicoki (Ck>rtoiia» 1888} ; by Siuonbllx (Caserta, 1803) ;
BiGEUCAZRinBucHBEBOBR, K%reMich€aHandlex.,8. v. Luciail).
James Bridqe.
jjodden, Patrick A. See Syracuse, Diocese of.
Ludger (Lt)DiGER or Liudoer), Saint, missionary
among the Frisians and Saxons, first Bishop of Mtin-
ster in Westphalia, 'b. at Zuilen near Utrecht about
744; d. 26 March, 809. Feast, 26 March. Repre-
sented as a bishop reciting his Breviary, or with a
swan at either side. His parents, Thiadgrim and
Liafbure, were wealthy Frisians of noble lineage. In
753 Ludger saw the great apostle of Germany, St.
Boniface, and this sight and the subsequent martyr-
dom of the saint made deep impressions on his youth-
ful mind. At his urgent request he was sent to the
school which St. Gregory had founded at Utrecht, and
made good progress. In 767 Gregory, who did not
wish to receive episcopal consecration liimself, sent
Alubert, who had come from England to assist him in
his missionary work, to York to be consecrated bisho|>.
Ludger accompanied him to receive deaconship and
to study under Alcuin, but after a year returned to
Utrecht. Some time later he was granted an oppor-
tunity to continue his studies in the same schooly and
here contracted a friendship with Alcuin which lasted
throughout life. In 773 a friction arose between the
Anglo-Saxons and the Frisians, and Ludger, to provide
for nis personal safety, left for home, ta^ng with him
a number of valuable books. In 775 he was sent to
Deventer to restore the chapel destroyed by the
heathen Saxons and to find the relics of St. Lebwin
(Liafwin), who had laboured there as missionary,
had built the chapel, and had died there. Ludger
was successful in his undertaking, and then taught in
the school of Utrecht. He and some others were next
sent north to destroy the heathen places of worship
west of the Lauwers Zee.
and built a Christian temple. The well onoe saored i^
the heathen gods became his baptismal font. ^ On hia
return he met the bUnd bard Berulef, cured his blind-
ness, and made him a devout Christian.
In 793 (Hist. Jahrb., I, 282) Charlemagne wished to
make Ludger Bishop of Trier, but he declined the
honour, while declarmg himself willing to imdertake
the evangelizing of the Saxons. Charlemagne gladly
accepted the offer, and North-western Saxony was
thus added to Ludger's missionary field. To defray
necessary expenses the income of the Abbey of Leuce,
in the present Belgian Province of Hainaut, was given
him, and he was told to pick his fellow-labourers from
the members of that abbey. As Mimigemaford
(Mimigardeford, Miningaidvaixl) had been designated
the centre of the new district, Ludger built a monas-
tery (jnonaaterium) there, from which the place took
its name MUnster. Here he lived with nis monks
according to the rule of St. Chrodegang of Metz, whidi
789 had been made obligatory in the Frankish
m
After Ludger had been ordained at Colog^^i^s^v . >
the missions of Ostergau (Ostracha, i. e., EsAt^i Frie&-
land) were committ^ to his charge, anid Dokkum, the
place of the martyrdom of St. Bcvniteuoe, was made the
centre. During each autumn he came to Utrecht to
teach ab the cathedral school. In this manner he
toiled for about seven years, imtil Widukind, the in-
domitable leader of the Saxons, induced the Frisians
to drive out the missionaries, bum the churches,
and return to the heathen gods. Ludger escaped with
his disciples. In 785 he visited Rome, was well re-
ceived by Pope Adrian, and obtained from him good
counsel and special faculties. From Rome he went
to Monte Cassino, where he lived according to the rule
of St. Benedict, but did not bind himself by vows.
The news of Widukind's submission, and the arrival of
Charlemagne at Monte Cassino in 787, put an end to
liud^er's peaceful retirement. He was appointed
missionary to the five districts at the mouth of the
Ems, which was still occupied almost entirely by
heathens. With his usual enei^gy and unbounded
confidence in God he began his work; and, knowing
the language and habits of the people, he was able to
turn to advantage many national traits in effeetins
their conversion . H is zeal knew no bounds ; the islana
of Bant, long since swallowed by the sea, is mentioned
as the scene of his apostolic work. He visited Heligo-
land (Fossitesland), where St. WiUibrord had preaehed ;
he destroyed the remaining vestiges of heathenism,
territories (Schmitz Kallenberg, '' Monasticon West-
phaliie"^ MQnster, 1909, p. 62, places the date of
foundation between 805 and 809). He also built a
chapnel on the left of the Aa in honour of the Blessed
Virgin, besides the churches of Billerbeck, Coesfeld.
Herzfeld, Nottuln, and others. Near the church of
Nottuln he built a home for his sister, St. Gerbur^,
who had consecrated herself to God. Many pious vir-
gins soon gathered about her, and so arose the first
convent in Westphalia (c. 803). At the request of
Charlemagne, Ludger received episcopal consecration
some time between 13 Jan., 802, and 23 April, 805, for
on the first date he is still staled abbot, while on the
latter he is called bishop (Hist. Jahrb., I, 283). His
Sincipal care was to have a good and efficient clergy,
e, to a great extent, educated his students personal^,
and generally took some of them on his missionary
tours. Since his sojourn at Monte Cassino Ludper
had entertained the idea of founding a Benedictine
monastery. During the past years he had been ac-
quiring propertjr and looking for a suitable location.
At lengtn he decided upon Werden; but it was only in
799 that building began in earnest, and in 804 that he
consecrated the church.
On Passion Sunday, 809, Ludger heard Mass at
Coesfeld early in the morning and preached, th^
TPirent to Billerbeck, where at nine o clock he again
/preached, and said his last Mass. That evening he
'*^U^ired peacefully amidst his faithful followers. A
dilute arose between MOnster and Werden for the
possessioti of his body. His brother Hildegrim being
appealed to, after consultation with the emperor, de-
cided in favour of Werden ^ and here the relics nave
rested for eleven centuries. Portions have been
brought to MUnster and Billerbeck. From 22 June to
4 July, 1909, the Diocese of MUnster celebrated the
eleventh centenary. ''Bishop Hermann Dingelstad,
the present successor of the apostle, celebrated the
Jubilee, uniting it with the golden jubilee of his own
priesthood. A most touching scene was witnessed
when thousands of men, who had come from far and
near, after a stirring sermon of the orator-bishop of
Treves, Mgr Felix Korum, renewed their baptismal
vows at t& same well from which St. Ludgerus had
baptized their forefathers. A Benedictine abbot and
eleven bishops, among them the archbishop of the
saint's Frisian home, Utrecht, and Cardinal Fischer of
Cologne, took part in the sacred oelebr^tions "
("America", 1, 381).
BcTLKR, Lives of the Saints; Revue Benedictine^ III. 107; Vll,
412; &i\i>\XRjHeuioenlex.\ ScBWAm'm Kirchenlex.: Oeaehiehtt'
quellen der Dioaeee MOnaier. IV: PmosMAMN, Der hi. Ludotnu
(FreibuiKi 1879); BteER, Am Cfrabe dee hi, Ludger (MOnstei;
1906).
Francis Mebshman.
Ludluiiy Robert, Vensrablb. See Garuci:^
Nicholas, Venerable,
LUDBULLA
416
LUDOVIOITS
LudnuUa (Lidmilla), Saint, wife of Boriwoi, the his principal work. This is not a simple biography
first Christian Duke of Bohemia, b. at Mielnik, c. 860; as we understand such to-day, but at once a history,
d. at Tetin, near Beraun, 15 September, 921. She a commentary borrowed from the Fathers, a series of
and her husband were baptized, probably by St. dogmatic and mond dissertations, of spiritual in«
Methodius, in 871. Pagan fanatics drove them from structions, meditations, and prayers, in relation to
their country, but they were soon recalled, and after the life of Qirist, from the eternal birth in the bosom
reigning seven more years they resigned the throne in -' ^^' ^-^^ ^ •"• '^ •'' ^ - - -
favour of their son Spitignev and retired to Tetin.
Spiti^ev died two years later and was succeeded by
Wratislaw, another son of Boriwoi and Ludmilla.
Wratislaw was married to Drahomira, a pretended
Christian, but a secret favourer of paganism. They
had twin sons, St. Wenceslaus and Boleslaus the
Cruel, the former of whom lived with Ludmilla at
of the Father to His Ascension. It has been called a
summa evangelica, so popular at that time, in which
the author has condensed and resumed all that over
sixty writers had said before him upon spiritual
matters. Nothing shows better the great popularity
of the "Vita ChriSii" than the numerous manuscript
coi)ies preserved in libraries and the manifold editions
of it which have been published, from the first two
Tetin. Wratislaw died in 916, leaving the eight-year- editions of Strasburg and Cologne, in 1474, to
old Wenceslaus as his successor. Jealous of the great
influence which Ludmilla wielded over Wenceslaus,
Drahomira instigated two noblemen to murder her.
She is said to have been strangled by them with her
veil. She was at first buried in ttee church of St.
Biichael at Tetin, but her remains were removed to the
church of St. George at Prague before the year 1100,
the last editions of Paris (folio, 1865, and 8vo,
1878). It has besides been translated into Catalo-
nian (Valencia, 1495, folio, Gothic), Castilian (Alcald,
folio, Gothic), Portuguese (1495, 4 vols., folio), Italian
(1570), French, "by Guillaume Lemenand, of the
Order of Monseigneur St. Francois", under the title
of the "Great Life of Christ"^ (Lyons, 1487, folio,
probably by St. Wenceslaus, her grandson. She is man^ times reprinted), and more recently by D.
venerated as one of the patrons of Bohemia, and her Mane -Prosper Augustine (Paris, 1864) and by D.
feast is celebrated on 16 September. Florent Broquin, Carthusian (Paris, 1883). St.
The chief "ource is Vita el poMio a.Wencedai d a, LuAniUB Teresa and St. Francis de Sales frequently quote from
S3? r&r^^5£?Lrffi£^.'S'.^ro'f"^ilk^: it. fnd it 1^ not ceased to. affork delight to pio,^
Until recently this work was considered a fori^ory of the 12-14 SOUls, who find m it instruction and edincation, food
ceoturv. But Fekar, Die WemeU- und LudmtllO'Leoenden und for both mind and heart.
fef'^Tf^ ^P^^ (Prague. 1905). and Voigt. Die vondem Qufcmr and Echard. Scriptorea Ordinis Pnedicaiorum, I.
Premyaltden Chrxdum verfaaate and AdalbeH^von ggfl^<JJ«fJ,'»^ SeSiBupQms.Inirodutipru Noticejo^ his tr. of the Vita Chriati, t
Biographie dea heil. Wemel und ihre GeachiehtadarateUung
(Pracue, 1907), have adduced grave reasons for its genuineness.
Acta SS., IV, 16 Sept.; Dunbar, Dictionary of Saintly Women,
1 (London. 1904), 475-7.
Michael Ott.
Lndolph of Saxony (Ludolph the Carthusian),
an ecclesiastical writer of the fourteenth century,
date of birth unknown; d. 13 April, 1378. His life
(Paris, 1883), i-zxvii; Dorean. Ephemeridea of the Carihiiaian
Order, IV (MontreuU-Sui>Mer, 1900). 384-93.
Ambrose Mougel.
LndoviciiB a 8. Oarolo (LuDOvicnB Jacob), Car-
melite writer, b. at Chdlons-sur-Mame (according to
some at Chalon-sur-Sa6nc), 20 Aug., 1608; d. at Paris
10 ICarch, 1670. The son of Jean Jacob (whence he
is as Uttle known as his works are celebrated. We is also commonly known as Ludovicus Jacob) and
have no certain knowledge of his native country; for Claudine Mareschal. he entered the Order cf C'ar-
in spite of his surname, *'of Saxony", he may weU, melites of the Old Observance in his native to^^n, and
as Echard remarks, have been bom eiUier in the Dio- made his profession 11 June, 1626. While in Italy
cese of Cologne or in that of Mainz, which then be- (1639) he took great interest in epigraph}^, regretting
longed to the Province of Saxony. He first joined the wholesale destruction of inscriptions in the cata-
the Dominicans, passed through an excellent course combs. A lasting fruit of his sojourn in Rome was
of literary and tneological studies, and may have the completion and publication of the "Bibliotheca
loumt tJie science of the spiritual life at the school c^^^^tificia", begun by Gabriel Naudd (1600-53, librar-
the celebrated doctors Tamer and Suso, his contempo^^^iL^ Cardinal Mazarin). Though not free from
raries and companions in religion. After about thif^fi^HlM^d mistakes, the work met with fully deserved
vears spent in the active life, he entered the Charter- succcssr^On^ his return to France he obtained the
house of Strasburg towards the year 1340. Three post of librarian to Cardinal de Retz, and later on the
years later he was called upon to govern the newly dignity of royal cotmcillor and almoner. At a later
founded (1331) C^rterhouse of Coblentz: but scru- period he became librariaji to Achille de Harlay, first
plee of conscience led him to resign his office of prior president of the parliamenf , in whose house he lived
in 1348; and, having again become a simple monk, and finally died.
first at Mainz and afterwards at Strasburg, he spent Besides the work already mentioned, and some
^e last thirty years of his life in retreat and prayer, twelve books which he edited for their respective
and died almost an octogenarian, universally esteemed authors, he left, according to the '^ Bibliotheca Car-
for his sanctity, although he never seems to have been melitana'' (II, 272), twenty-seven printed works and
honoured with any public cult.
Ludolph is one of the many writers to whom the
authorship of "The Imitation of Jesus Christ"^ has
been assigned; and if history protests against this, it
must nevertheless acknowledge that the true author
of tiiat book has manifestly borrowed from the Car-
sixty manuscripts, of which the following deserve
notice: A relation of the procession held 17 July,
1639, at the church of Sts. Sylvester and Martin at
Rome in honour of Our Lady of Mount Carmcl (Paris,
1639). Catalogue of authors proving Ren^ Gros de
Saint^Joyre, the poet, to have been related to Pope
ihusian. Other treatises and sermons now either Clement IV (Lyons, 1642). The panegyric of Yen.
lost or very doubtful have also been attributed to him.
Two books, however, commend him to posterity:
(1^ A "Commentary upon the Psalms ", concise but ex-
cellent for its method, clearness, and solidity. He
especially developed the spiritual sense, according to
the interpretations of St. Jerome, St. Augustme,
Caasiodorus, and Peter Lombard. This commentary,
which was very popular in Germany in the Midcue
Jeanne de Cambry, of Toumay, Augustinian nun
(Paris, 1644). He it was who published the first
yearly lists of printed books, an undertaking which
speedily found favour with the world of letters as
wedl as with the book trade, and in which he has found
numerous imitators down to the present time. We
have from his pen the lists of Paris publications for
1643-44 and 1645, and the list of French publications
Ages, has pa^ed through numerous editions, of for 1643-45. Among his manuscript notes were col-
which the first dates from 1491, and the last (Mon- lections of bibliographical notices concerning his order,
iJvuiJ-0ur-Mer) from 1891. (2) The "Mta Christ!'', which were utilized by Martialis a S. Johanne Bap-
LUBOSB
417
LUOO
tista (Bordeaux, 1730), and Villiers de S. Etienne
(Orleans, 1752).
Bin. Carmdit., II, 272-600.
Benedict Zimmerman.
Lnegor, Kabl, burgomaster of Vienna, Austrian
political leader and municipal reformer, b. at Vienna,
24 October, 1844 v d. there, 10 March, 1910. His
father, a custodian in the Institute of Technology in
Vienna, was of a peasant f amilv of Neustadtl in Lower
Austria, his mother, the daughter of a Viennese cab-
inet maKcr. After completing the elementary schools,
in 1854 he entered the Theresianiun, Vienna, from which
he passed in 1862 to the University of Vienna, enrolling
in me faculty of law^ taking his degree four years later.
After serving his leeal apprenticeship from 1866 to
1874, he opened an office of nis own and soon attained
high rank in his profession by his sure and quick
judgment, his exceptionallv thorough l^al knowledge,
and his cleverness and eloquence in handling cases
before the court. His generosity in giving ms ser-
vices gratuitously to poor clients, who flocked to him
in great numbers, was remarkable, and may account
largely for the fact that, although he practised law
until 1806, he never became a we»Bklthy man.
In 1872, having decided upon a political career, he
joined an independent Liberal political organization,
the Citizens' Ciub of the Landstrasse, one of the dis-
tricts, or wards, of Vienna. Liberalism, which had
guided Austria from aristocracy to democracy in
government, was at this period the one political creed
uie profession of which offered any prospect of suc-
cess m practical politics. But Liberalism nad come to
mean economic advancement for the capitalist at the
cost of the small tradesman, the capitalist being
usually a Jew. The result was an appalling materi^
moral degradation and a regime of political corruption
focussed at Vienna, which city in the seventies of the
last century was the most backward capital in Europe,
enormously overtaxed, and with a population sunk in
a lazy indifference, political, economic, and religious.
The Jewish Liberalism ruled supreme in city and
country ; public opinion was moulded by a press almost
entirely Jewish and anti-clerical; Catholic dogmas
and practices were ridiculed; priests and religious in-
sult^ in the streets. In 1875 Lueger was elected to
Liberal party, the back-bone of which was the imioii
of Christians called variously the Christian Socialist
Union and, in Vienna especially, the United Chris-
tians. This union developed later into the present
(1910) dominant party in Austria, the Christian So-
cialists. In 1895 the United Christians were stronjg
enough to elect Lueger burgomaster of Vienna, but his
majority in the council was too small to be effective
and he would not accept. His party returning after
the September elections with an increased majoritv,
Lueger was once more elected burgomaster, but lib-
eral influence prevented his confirmation by the em-
peror. The coimcil stubbornly re-elected him and
was dissolved. In 1896 he was again chosen. Not,
however, imtil the brilliant victory of his partjr, now
'definitely called the Christian Socialist pa[rty, in the
Reichsrat elections in 1897, when he was for the fifth
time chosen bui^^omaster, did the emperor confirm
the choice.
Lue^er's subsequent activity was devoted to
mouldmg and guiding the policy of the Christian
Socialist party and to the re-creation of Vienna^ of
which he remained burgomaster until his death, his
re-election occurring in 1903 and 1909. The political
ideal of the Christian Socialists is a German-Slav-
Magyar state imder the Habsburg dynasty, f eder^ in
plan. Catholic in religion but justly tolerant of other
beliefs, with the industrial and economic advance-
ment of all the people as an enduring political basis.
The triumph of the party has conditioned an ever-
increasing revival of Catholic religious life and organi-
zation Of every kind. Under Lueger's administration
Vienna was transformed. Nearly trebled in size, it
became, in perfection of mimicipal organization and
in success of municipal ownersnip, a model to the
world. In beauty it is now imsurpassed by any Euro-
pean capital. A bom leader of the people, Lueger
joined to a captivating exterior a fiery elocjuence ta-
pered by a real Viennese wit, great organizing power,
unsullied loyalty to the Habsburg dyimstVj and unim-
peachable integrity. Among all classes his influence
and popularity were imbounded. A beautiful char-
acteristic was his tender love of his mother; he was
himself in turn idolized by children. He was anti-
Semitic only because Semitism in Austria was po-
litically synonymous with political corruption and
the Vienna city coimcil for one year. Re-elected ijf loppressive capitalism. Lueger never married. Afear-
Lill term of three years, he resigned hissg^ ^ less outspoken Catholic, the defence of Catholic rights
Sas ever in the forefront of his programme. His
leerfulness, resignation, and piety throughout his last
illness edified the nation. His funeral was the most
imposing ever accorded in Vienna to anyone not a
royal personage.
Stadracz, Dr. KaH Lueger, Zehn Jahre BUrgermeieter (Vi-
enna, 1907) ; Idem J[)r. Lueger'a L^hen und Wirken (Klagenfurt);
Dublin Review, CXLII, 321; Drum in the Meewnger, 1906;
Ahkrn in America^ III, 5, 33.
M. J. Ahern.
1876 for a f uU
in consequence of the exposure of corrupti
city administration. Having now become '^SttTl^deir
of the anti-corruptionist movemen^. he was again
elected councillor in 1878 as an ixioependent candi-
date, and threw himself heart coid soul into the battle
for purity in the municipal government.
In 1882 Lueger's party, called the Democratic was
joined by the Keform and by the German National
organizations, the three uniting imder the name ^ti-
Semitic party. In 1885 Lueger associated Imnself
with Baron Vogelsang, the eminent social-political
worker, whose influence and principles had great
weight in the formation of the future Christian So-
cialists. The year 1885 witnessed, too, Luegcr's
election to the Reichsrat, where, although the only
member of his party in the house, he quickly assimied
a leading position. He made a memorable attack on
the dual settlement between Austria and Hungary,
and against what he bitterly called "Judeo-Mag-
yarism" on the occasion of the Aiugleich between
Austria and Hungary in 1886. A renewal of this at-
tack in 1891 almost caused him to be hounded from
the house. At his death there were few members of
the Austrian Reichsrat who did not share his views.
In 1890 Lueger had been elected to the Lower Aus-
trian Landt^; here again he became the guiding
spirit in the struggle against Liberalism and oormp-
tion. In municipal, state, and national polities he
was now the leader of the Anti-Semitic and Anii-
IX.— 27
Luffano. See Bable-Lugano, Diocese of.
Logo, Diocese of (Lucensis), in Galicia, Spain, a
suffragan of Santiago, said to have been founded (by
Agapitus) in Apostolic times. The see certainly ex-
isted in the fifth century, as the authentic catalogue of
its bishops begins with Agrescius (a. d. 433), who is
ranked as a metropolitan; Lugo, however, became a
suffragan of Braga somewhat later. In 561 it was
restored to its ancient dignitv, Orense, Iria, Astorga,
and Britonia being its depenaent sees. Councils were
held at Lu£o in 569, 572, and perhaps 610 (see Baro-
nius, 1597; Uardouin, Cone, II, 373). In 666 it a^ain
lost its metropolitan rank. The see is now occupied by
Mgr Emmanuel Basulto y Gimenez, elected 4 Septem-
ber, 1909, in succession to Mgr Murua y L6pez; the
diocese embraces all the province of Lugo and part of
Pontovedra and Corufia. It contains 1102 parishes.
gerujo says 647, infra), 1108 priests, 649 chapels, and
oratories. There are 5 religious houses for mecL^^a^^
LUGO
418
Titroo
S convents of women. The population is about 366,-
000, practically all Catholics. The diocese takes its
name from the capital of the province (19,000 inhab-
itants) which is situated on the Rio MiAo. The city is
surrounded by an immense Roman wall, 36 feet meh
and 10 feet broad. It possesses a fine cathedral dedi-
cated to ^t. Froilano, built about 1129, though the
actual main facade and towers date only from 1769.
Its elegant stalls were carved by Francisco Monro
(1624). This cathedral enjoys the extraordinary priv-
ilege of having the Blessed Sacrament perpetually
exposed, a privilege which is commemoratea in the
annorial bearings of the town. The seminary of San
Lorenzo, Lugo, with 400 students, was founded in
1591; it is incorporated with the University of Sala-
manca.
Perujo and Angulo, Dice, de Cieneian Edesidtt., b. v.;
Fl6rbe, Espana aacrada, XL (1706), XLI, (1708).
A. A. MacErlean.
Logo, Francisco de, Jesuit theologian, b. at
Madrid, 1580; d. at Valladolid, 17 December, 1652. He
was the elder brother of Cardinal de Lugo, and, like
him, a distinguished member of the Society of Jesus,
which he entered at the novitiate of Salamanca in
1600. In answer to his request for the foreign mis-
nous, he was sent to Mexico, where, quite apart from
any desire of his own, he was appointed to teach
theology, a task which his rare talent enabled him to
perform with much success. Being recalled to Spain,
be sailed in company with others imder the protection
of the Spanish fleet: but unfortimately cluring the
voyage tne Spanish fleet encoimtered the Dutch, and
in the ensuing struggle Francisco de Lugo, although
he succeeded in saving his life, could not save the
greater part of his commentary on the entire Summa
of St. Thomas. He subsequently taught both philos-
ophy and theology in Spain, was censor of books, and
theclogian to the General of the Societv of Jesus at
Rome. Having been twice rector of the College of
Valladolid, he died with the reputation of being a
brilliant theologian and a very holy man, being espe-
cially remarkable for humiUty. His published works
are : " Theologia scholastica ; "Decursus prsevius ad
thedogiam moralem^'; '^De septem Ecclesise sacra-
mentis, praxim potius quam speculationem attendens
et intendens '' ; " De sacrainentis in eenere ''. -
H.XJBTJiTt,Nomenelator literariua^ I, 373: soMMMiyoGKL, Bibiy
dslaC.deJ.,Y,75,
J. H. Fisher.^
Logo, John de, Spanish Jesuit and Cardinal, one of
the most eminent theologians of modem times, b. at
Madrid in November, 1583, though he used to call
himself "Hispalensis'*, because his family seat was
at Seville; d. at Rome, 29 August, 1660., Both his
father, John de Lugo, and his mother, Teresa de Quiro-
ga, whose family name he bore for a time, as was the
custom for the second son, were of noble birth. Such
was de Lugo^s intellectual precocity that at the age of
three years he could read printed or written books ; at
ten, he received the tonsure; at fourteen, he defended
A public thesis in logic, and about the same time was
ap^inted by Philip II to an ecclesiastical benefice
wmch he retained till his solenm profession in 1618.
Like his elder brother Francis, he was sent by his
father to the University of Salainanca to study law;
but Francis having entered the Society of Jesus where
he became a distinguished theologian, John soon de-
sired to imitate him and, having vainly asked his
father's permission, in two letters, he entered without
it in 1603. After completing his studies, he was ap-
pointed professor of philosophy at Medina del Campo,
m 1611, and later of theology at Valladolid, where
he taught for five years. His fame as a professor of
theology atti-acted the attention of the General of the
Jesuits/Af utius Vitelleschi. and de Lugo was summoned
to Rome, where he arrivea early in June, 1621.
The teaching of de Lugo at Rome was brilliant ; hla
lectures even before being printed were spread by
copyists in other countries. When the General of the
Society ordered him to print his works, he obeyed and
without help had the material for the first three vol-
umes prepared within five years (1633, 1636, 1638).
When the fourth volume, "De justitia et jure", was
about to be published, his supenocs thought it proper
that he should dedicate it to urban VIII ; de Lugo had
to present it himself to the pope, who was so much sur-
prised and delighted by the theologian's learning and
judgment that he frequently consulted him, and in
1643, created him a cardinal. This put an end to de
Lugo's teaching; but several of his works were pub-
lished after 1643. As cardinal he took part in the
Congregations of the Holy Office, of the Council, etc.
and often had occasion to place his learning at the
service of the Church. He die4 aged seventy-seven,
being assisted by Cardinal Sf orza Fallavicini, one of his
most devoted disciples, also a Jesuit. Accoixling to his
wish, he was buried near the tomb of St. Ignatius that
"his heart might rest where his treasure was'', as is
said in his epitaph. De Lugo was a man not only of
great learning, out also of great virtue; obedience
alone induced him to publish nis works and he always
retained the simplicity and humility w^hich had led
him to refuse, but for the pope's order, the cardinali-
tial dignity; the fine carriage sent by Cardinal Bar-
berini to brine him as a cardinal to the pope's palace,
he called his hearse. His generosity to the poor was
venr great, and although his income was small, he
daily distributed among them bread, money, and even
remedies, such as quinquina, then newly discovered,
which the people at Rome used for a time to call
Li^'s powder.
llie works of John de Lugo, some of which have
never been printed, cover nearly the whole field of
moral and dogmatic theology. The first volume " De
Incamatione Domini" (Lyons, 1633), of which the
short preface is well worth reading to get an idea of de
Lugo's method, came out in 1633. It was followed by:
" De sacramentis in genere ; " " De Venerabili Eucha-
ristis Sacramento et de sacrosancto Missas Sacrificio"
(Lyons, 1636); "De Virtute et Sacramento poeni-
tentise, de Suffragiis et Indulgentiis " (Lyons, 1638) ;
id "De justitia et jure " (Lyons, 1642), the work on
' [ch de Lugo's fame especially rests. In the com-
of this important treatise, he was greatly
' ^' knowleage of law acquiied in his younger
days afi^M^anca, and it was this work which ne
dedicated and presented to the pope in person and
which may be said^ have gained for him a cardinal's
hat. De Lugo wrote two other works: "De virtute
fidei divinffi^ (Lyons, 1646), and "Responsorum
moralium libri sex" (Lyons, 1651), published by his
former pupil and friena. Cardinal Storxa Pallavicini.
In these six books de Lugo gives, after thorough dis-
cussion, the solution of many difficult cases in moral
theolo^; this work has a very high value both from a
theoretical and a practical standpoint, as in the main
it consists of questions proposed to him for solution
during long years. The seventh volume, " De Deo, de
AngeuB, de Actibus humanis et de Gratia " (Cologne,
1716), was published over fifty years after the author's
death; the idea, as we find it expressed on the title
page, was to complete his printed course of lectures.
Other works on theology and especially on philosophy:
"De Anima", "Philosophia", "Logica", "De Trini-
tate", "De Visione Dei", etc. are still preserved in
manuscripts in the libraries of Madrid, Salamanca,
Karlsruhe, Mechlin, etc.
Among the imprinted works, the analysis of Ar-
nauld's book "De frequenti Commimione" and the
"Memorie del conclave d'Innocenzo X: Riposta al
discoiso . . . che le corone hanno jus d'eschiudcre b'
cardinali del Pontificato" may be of special interest;
they are the only controversial works of de Lugo.
Ltroos 419 Limn
What ho Intended in his writings was not to give a re^jident priest, 14 without priest, 85 primary schools
lone treatise, exhaustive from every point of view; he with an attendance of 67<iO. The diocese has no
wished only " to open up a small nver, to the ocean", seminary, but twenty-two ecclesiastical students are
without repeating what others had said before him being trained elsewhere. The city of Lugos itself
and without giving a series of opinions of previous has 16,000 inhabitants, 1030 Uniat-Rumanians, 7440
writers or fumishine authors and quotations in num- Latins, 4760 Orthodox Rumanians; the remainder
ber; he aimed at adding what he had found from his Protestants or Jews. Situated on the right bank of
own reflexion and deep meditation on each subject, the Temes, a tributary of the Danube, in Kras86-
Other important features of his theological concep- Szdi^ny ooimty, it has a church built by Etienne
tions are the union he always maintains between moral Bathory, a Franciscan monastery, and several other
and dogmatic theology, the latter being the support of objects of interest. It was the last place of resort of
the former, and the same treatnient TOing applied to the Hungarian Government of 1849. Its trade is fairly
both, discussing thoroughly the principle on wnich the important; in the suburbs are fine vineyards,
main points of the doctrine rest. From this point of ,„^eher in iTu^^/er. b. v. Fogaraa; Mwumes <:athol%ca
«-;»«» 4^A lao4-i;r>Aa#\^k;ciT>«»f«AA«'nA ;iia^;f:o Af^;ii«M>" (Rome, 1907), 787-8; Dteeesa Luooshului Shematxam xstonc
View the last hnes of his preface De JUStltia et jure , \ux^^ 1903). containi all the oflScial documente ooncemm« the
are instructive. creation of the Diocese of Lugoe and detaUed statistics.
All his writings, whether on dogmatic or moral S. Vailhi^.
theology, exhibit two main qualities: a penetrating . ,
critical mind, sometimes indulging a little too much Luini, Bernardino, Milanese pamter, b. between
in subtilities, and a sound judgment. He may be 1470 and 1480; d. after 1530. The actual facts known
ranked among the best representatives of the theo- respecting the life history of this delightful painter are
logical revival of the sixteenth and seventeenth oen- very few. We are not even certain that his name was
turies. The small river he wished to open up, is in- Luim, as he himself uses the Latin form Lovinus, and
deed one of the most important which empties its Vasari calls him in one place, del Lupino, and in another
waters into the ocean of theology, so that m many di Lupino. As Luini he has, however, been generally
dogmatic or moral questions, the opinion of de Lugo known, and his birth is stated to have taken place at
is of preponderating value. In several problems he Luino, where there still remain certain frescoes of
formed a system of his own, as for instance about simple work, said to have been amongst his earliest
faith, the Eucharist, the hypostatic union, etc., and productions. All we do know about him is that in
owing to the thorougii discussion of the question at 1507 he was a master with many commissions, that m
issue, his opinion is always to be taken mto account. 1512 he was worldnK at Chiaravalle and Milan, that
In moral uieology he put an end, as Ballerini re- ^e is referred to in the archives of Legnano in 1516,
marks, to seveml disputed points. St. Alphoiiflus t^^ ^^ ^^ ** "WQirk in the Great Monasteiy at Milan
de Liguori does not hesitate to rank him immediately for Cou^t Bentivoglio between 1522 and 1524, that he
after St. Thomas Aquinas, "post S. Thomam faSfe was at Saronno in 1525, that in 1529 and 1530 he was
princeps", and Benedict XIV calls him "a Udbt of at work at Lugano and in the side chapel of the Great
the Church". Two complete editions of Lugo's Monastery at Milan, and that he is said to have died,
works were published at Venice in 1718 and 1751, according to one authority in 1532, and according to
each edition containing seven volumes. Another edi- another m 1533, whilst a manuscript preserved at
tion (Paris, 1768) was never completed. The last Saronno seems to imply, although it does not actu-
edition is that of Foumials (Paris, 1868-69), in seven ally state it as a fact, that Luini was alive and residing
volumes, to which an eighth volume with the "Re- at that place in 1547. Beyond these facts everything
sponsa moralia" and the "Indices" was added in is conjecture-. The inhabitants of Luino point to an
1^91 . old house in an open space at the top of a steep road as
HoRTER. Nomenclaior, III (Innsbruck, 1907), 91 1 ; Sommer- his birthplace. They have called two of the streets of
^S^]F.^\SH^^S?^tl^ ^ ^ Campagnie 4$ JUnu.^ V (Brussels, the town after his name, and there are three trades-
1896). 176: IX. 619; Andradid, y^^^'^^;^^^^;^^};^^^ men in the place bearing the same name, and claiming
^^^■•■1^^^^^ direct descent from the painter.
Logos, Diocese op, in Hungary ,^£^jii!^^^Wlfcs^ The frescoes in Luino are characteristic of the
garas and Alba Julia of the Uniat-RujJKanian Rite, was painter's work in many respects, exemplifying his
erected in November, 1853, with th^ of Armenopolis, strange faults of composition, out possessing a general
or Szamos-Ujvdr, out of parishes taken away from sense of immaturity, and there seems considerable
Fogaras and Grosswardein (Najgy-Vdrad) ; it had then probability that the Luino traditions respecting them
90 parishes and about 47,(X)0 faithful. Its first bishop, and the birth of the painter, are accurate. We have
Mgr Dobraj 1854-70, was also the first of all the Aus* no evidence that he was a pupil of Leonardo. Influ-
tro-Hunganan clergy of the Byzantine Rite to obtain enced, of course, he was by the great painter, and in
the title of Doctor; m spite of countless difficulties, he certain respects — more particularly m his *' Christ
contributed by his learning and holy life to bring crowned with Thorns'' at Milan, and in certain pic-
several thousand Orthodox back to Catholicism, tures of the Virgin and Child, notably those at Saronno
As his diocese had no foundation, Mgr Dobra estab- — he comes exceedingly close in style to Leonardo,
lished the Rudolph foundation for poor students and while in colouring, design, effect of relief, and depth ot
another for aged priests or widowers. After him feeling, he approaches more nearly to that master than
the diocese was administered by Mgr John' Olteanu, any otner artist of the period. His works, however,
transferred to Grosswardein in 1873; Mgr Victor Mi- show a sweetness and an intense fervour of devotion
hdlyi de Apsia, 1874-96, subsequently transferred marking them out from those of Leonardo. There is
to the archiepiscopal See of Fogaras, and during no sign of the mysterious Leonardo smile, nor of the
whose episcopacy a diocesan synod was held in No- semi-pagan quality which at times is so marked in
vember, 1882; Mgr Demetrias Radu, 1896-1903, Leonardo's female figures. Luini was evidently not a
to-day occupying the See of Grosswardein; finally, philosopher nor a man of deep intellectual diiscem-
Mgr Basil Hosszu the present bishop* This venr ment, but one of sweet disposition, simple mind, and
extensive diocese comprises the Counties of Krasso- lofty religious belief. He lacked, no doubt, coherence
8z6r6ny, Torontal, Temes, HunyacL and a part of and skill in composition where many figures are r^
Arad; it contains about 98,000 Uniat-Rumanians, quired, but he possessed to a supreme degree the
552,000 Catholics of the Latin Rite, 1,002,000 Ortho- power to create emotion, and to produce upon those
dox Rumanians, several thousand Protestants and who looked at bia pictures the still, quiet, religious
Tews. There are 15 unmarried priests, 139 married, quahty at which he aimed. His earliest fresco work
and 1^ widowers; 163 parishes, 149 churches with was orobably that done for the Casa Polufij^sb.
Ltns a.
MoDza, now to be seen either in the Brertt, the Louvre,
or in one or two private collections, one fragroaat onl^
Twwaining at the villa itseU. Some of his moet beauti-
ful frescoes were included in this scheme of decoration.
Probably after this work came the various frescoes
done for churches and monasteries at Milan, now to be
Men in the Brera, because the religious houses in ques-
tion have either been closed or destroyed. One of the
most important ia the Hadonna with St. Anthony and
St. Barbara, wgned with the Latin signature and
dated 1521.
Another scheme of decoration he carried out was
that for the Casa Litta, the frescoes from which ate
now to be seen in the Louvre. They include the
life-«ise, h^-lenKth Christ, one of Luini's most im-
portant works. Lees known than these works, how-
ever, are those which Luini did at Chiaravalle near
Ro^oredo, executed in 1512 and 1515, concerning
vluch one or two documents have been recently dis-
covered, ^vins us the stipend paid to the artist for the
work. The largest
fresco, however, of "^^^^^
this period is the
magnificent ' ' Coro-
nation of Our Lord ",
inted for the Con-
is by frrsco work that the artist will always be
natem
be seen in the Am-
brosian Library. The
document concern-
ing it tells us dis-
.tinctly that the work
was commenced on
12 October, 1521,
and finished on 22
March, 1522— a ver-
itable Unir de Joret.
as the fresco is oi
huge site, crowded
with figures, evident.
lymoet of them por-
traits, and contains
in the figure of the
Redeemer one of the
greatest works LuinI
ever produced , TJn-
fortunatelv, the dig-
nity of tne central
figure is rather di-
nunished by the statu I'-'^iue grandeur of the six kneel-
ing figures representing the mpmbera of the confra-
ternity who commissioned the work.
By far the most notable work, however, which Luini
ever executed was the decoration in ttie church of St.
Maurice, known aa the Old Monastery, commenced
for Giovapni Bentivoglio and his wife, and commem-
orative of the fact that their daughter took the veil in
this church, and entered the monastery with which it
was connected. The whole of the nist end of the
church, including the high altar, was decorated by
Luini, and the eflect ia superb. He returned to the
8Une church in I52S to aecorate the chapel of St.
Maurice for Francesco Besoui, and the whole of the
interior of this chapel is oovered with his exquisite
wori^ the Flaeellation scene and the two frescoes of
St. (^therine oeinp of remarkable beauty, and the
entire chapel a shrme to the great jMinter. It is im-
posnble to recount here all Luini's importaot worica,
Dut his frescoes in the sanctuary at Saronno
belongs to the fresco with its greater breadth and
strength and its lower scheme of colouring. Nothing
in the fresco work can be finer than the 1530 lunette at
Ij^inano, showing the Madonna, the Divine Child, and
St. John the Baptist. Fortunately, the entry in the
books of the convent concerning the payment for tbis
fresco can still be seen ; it waa spread over a long time,
and was trifling at the best. In that payment we
have our last authoritative statement concerning the
painter. True, Salvatori, a Capuchin monk, said that
m a convent near Milan there was a picture dated
1547, which Luini commenced, and his son Aurelio
finished, while Orlandi, in the Ahecedario, definitely
states that the painter was alive in 1540 — to the Sa-
ronno document we have already referred— but from
153!} Luini vanishes
into silence, and we
can only conjecture
Concemini; any later
years. He was the
supreme ma.iter of
fresco work, and had
an exquisite feeling
forlovelinessof fonn,
with a deep sense of
the pathos, sorrow,
and suffering of life.
He was not subtle
or profound, his
archaic, as were
those of Foppa and
those of Braniantino,
although from all
three men he doubt-
less derived impres-
uons. His composi-
tion is not always
well-balanced and
tiiatof Sodoma. His
ij^ colouring is neither
" luscious nor volup-
?pe*i^\Iy in liis frescoes, quiet, simple,
and at (inips pnle oiul cold, iiut his pictures invari-
ably, like a note of music, draw a corresponding chord
from the heart — a chord which is, at the will of the
' painter, bright with joy or tremulous with sorrow
and grief . He appeals notably to those who pray, and
to those who weep, and reveals by hia work that he
waa a man of intense personal feeling, and had an
intimate knowledge of the mysteries alike of great joy
and bitter sorrow,
WiLUAu*ON, Luini (London, IBOO); Qauthiei. Luini |P»™,
1906); I.ccA. Sacrid Lomiard Art (Uilu. ISST); Obunui,
Abradario (Venice, 176.1): Lohauo. TraOala ddV Arlr della
PiUiira (MiUn, I684h Rio, De VArt Chraien (Phcu, 1S74|:
Roomi, Slaria d^ia PiUura Ilaliaiui (Pisa, IS17); docuraenu
laap«etAl by tha vriter at Lesnano, Luffano, Luino, Milan and
Georoe Charles Williaubon.
Lake, Gospel (
Saint. — ^The subject will b«
tbeir way almost as ereat aa the decontion at the
Qreat Monastery, ana perhaps the polj^tych
tLq.-
e important than eitber of them, so
nuaptuoua is it in its colouring and so erquisite in its
teUgious feeling.
Of bis other work in oil, perhaps the chief and finest
Mbinet picture is the " Hadonna of the Rose Hedge ",
Saint Luke; IT. Authenticity of the Gospel;
tegrity of the (joepel; IV. Purpose and Contents;
V. Sources of the Gospel; Synoptic Problem; VI.
Saint Luke's Accuracy; VII. Lvsanias, Tetrarch of
AUIene; VIII. Who Spoke the Magnificat? IX. The
Ccnsua of Quirinius; X. Saint Luke and Josephus.
I. BiooRAFHT or Saint Luke. — The name Imcos
(Luke) is probably an abbreviation from Lucanus. liko
LUSK
421
LUSK
Annas from Ananus, ApoUos from ApoUoniuSi Arte-
mas from Artemidorns, Demas from Demetriuisi etc.
(Schans, "Evang. des heiligen Lucas", 1, 2; Light-
foot on "Col.", iv, 14; Plummer, " St. Luke", introd.)
The word Lucas seems to have been unknown before
the Christian Era; but Lucanus is common in inscrip-
tions, and is found at the beginning and end of the
Qospel in some Old Latin MSS. (ibid.). It is gener-
ally held that St. Luke was a native of Antioch.
Eusebius (Hist.^ Eccl., Ill, iv, 6) has: AovkSls 9i t6 fdw
yivot &p tQp dv 'Arrcoxc^f, t^ip iwtaTi^/ifiP larpbtf rd
irXcMrra avYyeyopClts rtp HaCXtp, Kal rots \oivois 8i oi
TopdpyvtrQif dwoarhXup &fu\pK(&t — ''Lucas vero domo
Antiochenus, arte medicus, oui et cum Paulo diu con-
junctissime vixit, et cum reliquis Apostolis studiose
versatus est." Eusebius has a clearer statement in
his "Qusestiones Evangelic®", IV, i, 270: 6 di Aovirat
t6 iikp y4pos d,w6 rijf Potifidpiis 'Ayrcox<^f 4" — "Luke
was by birth a native of the renowned Antioch"
(Schmiedel, " Encore. Bib."). Spitta, Schmiedel, and
Hamack think tms is a quotation from Julius Afri-
can us (first half of the third century). In Codex
Bexce (D) Luke is introduced by a "we" as early as
Acts, xi, 28; and, though this is not a correct reading,
it represents a very ancient tradition. The writer of
Acts took a speciiu interest in Antioch and was well
acquainted with it (Acts, xi, 19-27; xiii, 1; xiv, 18-21,
25; XV, 22, 23, 30, 36; xviii, 22). We are told the
locality of only one deacon, "Nicolas, a proselyte of
Antioch", vi, 5; and it has been pointed out by Plum-
mer that, out of eight writers who describe the Kussian
campaign of 1812, only two, who were Scotchmen,
mention that 'the Russian general, Barclay de Tolly,
was of Scotch extraction. These considerations seem
to exclude the conjecture of Renan and Ramsay that
St. Luke was a native of Philippi.
St. Luke was not a Jew. He is separated by St.
Paul from those of the circumcision (Col., iv, 14), and
his style proves that he was a Greek. Hence he can-
not be identified with Lucius the prophet of Acts, xiii,
1, nor with Lucius of Rom., xvi, 21. who was coanatus
of St. Paul. From this and the prologue of the Gospel
it follows that Epiphanius errs when ne calls him one
of the Seventy Disciples ; nor was he the companion of
Cleophas in the journey to Emm^us after the Resur-
rection (as stated bv Theophyla^t ancL^^e Greek
Menol.). St. Luke had a great kno^C^^^^fj^he
Septuagint and of things Jewish, whPP!Pim^a9ii¥Hi
either as a Jewish proselyte (St. JenOTie) or after he
became a Christian, through his close intercourse with
the Apostles and disciples. BflMes Greek, he had
many opportunities of acquiring Aramaic in his native
Antioch, the capital of S^^ia. He was a physician by
profession, and St. Paul calls him ''the most dear
physician" (Col., iv, 14). This avocation implied a
liberal education, and his medical training is evidenced
by his choice of medical language. Plummer suggests
that he may have studied medicine at the famous
school of Tarsus, the rival of Alexandria and Athens,
and possibly met St. Paul there. From his intimate
knowledge of the eastern Mediterranean, it has been
conjectured that he had lengthened experience as a
doctor on board ship. He travelled a good deal, and
sends greetings to the Colossians, which seems to indi-
cate that he had visited them.
St. Luke first appears in the Acts at Troas (xvi, 8
sqq.), where he meets St. Paul, and, after the vision,
crossed over with him to Europe as an Evanselist,
landine at Neapolis and going on to Philippi, ** being
assured that God had called us to preach the Gospel to
them" (note especially the transition into first person
plural at verse 10). He was, therefore, already an
Evangelist. He was present at the conversion of
Lydia and her companions, and lodged in her house,
m, together with St. Paul and his companions^ was
recognized by the pythonical spirit: ''This same fol-
lowing Paul and us, cried out, saying: These men are
the servants of the most high God, who preach unto
ybu the way of salvation" (verse 17). He beheld
Paul and Silas arrested, dragged before the Roman
magistrates, char^^ed with disturbing the city, " being
Jews", beaten with rods, and thrown into prison.
Luke and Timothy escapea . probably because they did
not look like Jews (Timotny's father was a gentile).
When Paul departed from Pnilippi, Luke was left be-
hind, in all probability to canv on the work of Evan-
gelist. At Thessalomca the Apostle received highly
appreciated pecuniary aid from Philippi (Phil., iv, 15,
16), doubtless through the good offices of St. Luke.
It is not imlikely that the latter remained at Philippi
all the time that St. Paul was preaching at Athens and
Corinth, and while he was travelling to Jerusalem and
back to Ephesus, and during the three years that the
Apostle was engaged at Ephesus. When St. Paul re-
visited Macedonia, he agam met St. Luke at Philippi,
and there wrote his Second Epistle to the Corinthians.
St. Jerome thinks it is most likely that St. Luke is
" the brother, whose praise is in the gospel through aJl
the churches" (II Cor., viii, 18), and that he was one
of the bearers of the letter to Corinth. Shortly after-
wards, when St. Paul returned from Greece, St. Luke
accompanied him from Philippi to Troas, and with
him made the long coastine voyage described in Acts,
XX. He went up to JerussJem, was present at the up-
roar, saw the attack on the Apostle, and heard him
speaking " in the Hebrew tongue" from the steps out-
side the fortress Antonia to the silenced crowd. Then
he witnessed the infuriated Jews, in their impotent
rage, rending their garments, yelling, and flinging
dust into the air. We mav be sure that he was a con-
stant visitor to St. Paul during the two years of the
latter's imprisonment at Csesarea. In that period he
might well become acquainted with the circumstances
of the death of Herod Agrippa I, who had died there
"eaten up by worms" (<r#cwXi;jr6/9p<iin-of ) , and he was likely
to be better uiformea on the subject than Josephus.
Ample oppK)rtunities were given him, "havins dili-
gently attained to all things from the banning", oon-
ceming the Gospel and early Acts, to write in order
what had been delivered by those "who from the be-
ginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word"
(Luke, i, 2, 3). It is held bv many writers that the
Gospel was written during tnis time; Ramsay is of
opinion that the Epistle to the Hebrews was then
composed, and that St. Luke had a considerable share
in it. When Paul appealed to Csesar, Luke and Aris-
tarchus accompanied him from Csesarea, and were wiUi
him during the stormy voyage from Crete to Malta.
Thence they went on to Rome, where, durins the
two years that St. Paul was kept in prison, St. Xuke
was frequently at his side, though not continuously, as
he is not mentioned in the greetings of the Epistle to
the Philippians (Lightfoot, "Phil", 35). He was
present when the Epistles to the Colossians, Ephesians,
and Philemon were written, and is mentioned in the
salutations given in two of them: "Luke, the most
dear physician, saluteth you" (Col., iv, 14); "There
salute thee . . . Mark, Aristarchus, Demas^ and
Luke my fellow labourers" (Philem., 24). St. Jerome
holds that it was during these two years Acts was
written.
We have no information about St. Luke during the
interval between St. Paul's two Roman imprison-
ments, but he must have met several of the AposUee
and disciples during his various journeys. He stood
beside St. Paul in his last imprisonment; for the
Apostle, writing for the last time to Timothy, says:
"1 have fought a good fight, I have finished my
course. . . . Make naste to come to me ouickly. For
Demas hath left me, loving this world. . . . Only
Luke is with me" (II Tim., iv, 7-1 1) . It is worthy of
note that, in the three places where he is mentionea in
the Epistles (Col., iv, 14; Philem., 24; IITim.,ivAt\
he is named with St, MwVl(s.1X^.;v^ A^>*^^^i5^«»
LUSK
422
LUXX
Ehrangelist who was not an Apostle (Plummer) ; and
it is ctear from his Gospel that he was well acquainted
witii the Gospel acconiing to St. Mark; and in the
Acts he knows all the details of St. Peter's delivery —
what happened at the house of St. Mark's mother, and
the name of the girl who ran to the outer door when St.
Peter knocked. He must have frequently met St.
Peter, and may have assisted him to draw up his
First Epistle in Greek, which affords many reminis-
cences of Luke's style. After St. Paul's martyrdom
practically all that is known about him is contained
m the ancient "Prefatio vel Areumentum Luccb",
dating back to Julius Africanus, who was bom about
A. D. 165. This states that he was unmarried, that he
wrote the Gospel, in Achaia, and that he died at the
age of seventy-four in Bithynia (probably a copyist's
error forBoeotia), filled with the Holy Ghost. Epi-
phanius has it that he preached in Dalmatia (where
there is a tradition to tnat effect), Gallia (Galatia?),
Italy, and Macedonia. As an Evangelist, he must
have suffered much for the Faith; but it is contro-
verted whether he actually died a martyr's death. St.
Jerome writes of him (De Vir. 111., yii): "Sepultus est
Constantinopoli, ad quam urbem vigesimo Constantii
anno, ossa ejus cum reliquiis Andrc^e Apostoli trans-
lata sunt [de Achaia?]." St. Luke is always repre-
sented by the calf or ox, the sacrificial animal, because
his Gospel begins with the account of Zachary. the
priest, tnc father of John the Baptist. He is called a
painter by Nicephonis Callistus (fourteenth century),
and by the Menology of Basil II, A- d. 980. A picture
of the Virgin in S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, is ascribed to
him, and can be traced to a. d. 847 It is probably a
cppv of that mentioned by Theodore Lector, in the
rixtn century. This writer states that the Empress
Eudoxia foimd a picture of the Mother of God, at
Jerusalem, which she sent to Constantinople (see
"Acta SS.", 18 Oct.). As Plummer observes, it is
certain that St. Luke was an artist, at least to the ex-
tent that his eraphic descriptions of the Annimciation,
Visitation, Nativity, Shepherds, Presentation, the
Shepherd and lost sheep, etc., have become the in-
spirme and favourite themes of Christian painters.
St. Luke is one of the most extensive writers of the
New Testament. His Gospel is considerably longer
than St. Matthew's; his two books are about as long
as St. Paul's fourteen Epistles; and Acta exceeds in
length the Seven Catholic Epistles and the Apocalypse.
The style of the Gospel is superior to any N. T. writ-
ing except Hebrews. Renan says (Les Evannles, xiii)
that it is the most literary of the Gospels. St. Luke
is a painter in words. "The author of the Third
Gospel and of the Acts is the most versatile of all
New Testament writers. He can be as Hebraistic as
the Septuagint, and as free from Hebraisms as Plu-
tarch. . . He is Hebraistic in describing Hebrew
society and Greek when describing Greek society"
glummer, introd.). His great command of Greek
IB dbown by the richness of his vocabulary and the
freedom of his constructions.
11. Authenticity of the Gospel. — A. Internal
Evidence. — ^The internal evidence may be briefly
summarized as follows: The author of Acts was a
companion of Saint Paul, namely. Saint Luke; and
the author of Acts was the author of the Gospel. The
arguments are given at length by Plummer, "St.
Luke" in "Int. Crit. Com." (4th ed., Edinburgh,
1901); Hamack, "Luke the Physician" (London,
1907); "The Acts of the Apostles" (London, 1909);
etc.
(1) The Author of Acts was a companion ot
Samt Paul J namely. Saint Luke. — ^There is nothing
more certain in Biblical criticism than this proposi-
tion. The writer of the "we" sections claims to l)e
tt companion of St. Paul. The "we" begins at Acts,
xvi, lOj and coiitiriuos to xvi, 17 (the action is at
Jfu/ippi) It renppcnrs at xx, 5 (Philippi), ami con-
tinues to xxi, 18 (Jerusalem). It reappears again at
the departure for Rome, xxvii, 1 (Gr. text), and con-
tinues to the end of the book.
Plummer argues that these sections are by the same
author as the rest of the Acts: (a) from tne natural
way in which they fit in; fb) from references to them
in other parts; and (c) from the identity of style.
The change of person seems natural and true to the
narrative, but tnere is no change of language. The
characteristic expressions of the writer run through
the whole book, and are as frequent in the " we " as
in the other sections. There is no change of style
penseptible. Hamack (Luke the Physician, 40)
makes an exhaustive examination of every word and
phrase in the first of the "we" sections (xvi, 10-17),
and shows how frequent they are in the rest of the
Acts and the Gospel, when compared with the other
Gospels. His manner of dealing with the first word
(wf) will indicate his method: "This temporal ws is
never found in St. Matthew and St. Mark, but it
occurs forty-eight times in St. Luke (Gospel and
Acts), and that in all parts of the work." When he
comes to the end of nis study of this section, he is
able to write: "After this demonstration those who
declare that this passage was derived from a source,
and so was not composed by the author of the whole
work, take up a most diflicult position. What may
we suppose the author to have left unaltered in tlie
source r Only the 'we'. For, in fact, nothing else
remains. In regard to vocabulary, syntax, and style,
he must have transformed everj-thing else into his
own language. As such a procedure is absolutely
unimaginable, we are simply left to infer that the
author is here himself speaking." He even thinks it
improbable, on account of the uniformity of style,
that the author was copying from a diary of his own,
made at an earlier penod. After this. Harnack pro-
ceeds to deal with the remaining " we ' sections, with
like results. But it is not alone in vocabulary, syn-
tax, and style, that this uniformity is manifest. In
"Tne Acts of the Apostles", Hamack devotes many
pa^ to a detailed consideration of the manner in
which chronological data, and terms dealing w^ith
lands, nations, cities, and houses, are employed
throughout the Ac^, as well as the mode of aealing
with r^rnttrjC'j^^t*" ^^"" * and he everywhere shows
!vj£w, Jteorship cannot be denied except
l?i^9n the facts. This same conclusion
is corroboratedlSjr the recurrence of medical language
in all parts of the^Acts and the Gospel.
That the compamol^^f St. Paul wno wrote the Acts
was St. Luke is the unanimous voice of antiquity.
His choice of medical languStge proves that the author
was a physician. Westein, in his preface to the Gospel
("Novum Test. Graecum", Amsterdam, 1741, 643).
states that there are clear indications of his medical
profession throughout St. Luke's writings; and in the
course of his commentary he points out several tech-
nical expressions common to the Evangelist and the
medical writings of Galen. These were brought to-
gether by the Bollandists (" Acta SS.", 18 Oct.) . In the
"Gentleman's Marine" for June, 1841, a paper ap-
peared on the medical language of St. Luke. To tne
instances given in that article, Plummer and Hamack
add several others; but the great book on the subicct
is Hobart, "The Medical Language of St. Luke"
(Dublin, 1882). Hobart works right through the
Gospel and Acts, and points out numerous words and
phrases identical with those employed by such medi-
cal writers as Hippocrates, Arcta?us, Galen, and
Dioscorides. A few are found in Aristotle^ but he was
a doctor's son. The words and phrases cited are
either peculiar to the Tliird Gospel and Acts, or are
more frequent than in other New Testament writings.
The argument is cumulative, and does not give way
with its weakest strands. When doubtful cases and
expressions common to the Septuagint, are set aside, a
Lwa
423
LUSK
large number remain that seem auite unassailable.
Hamack (Luke the Phvsician^ 13) says: "It is as
good as certain from tne subject-matter, and more
especially from the style, of this great work that the
author was a physician by profession. Of course, in
making such a statement one still exposes oneself to
the scorn of the critics, and yet the arguments' which
are alleged in its support are simply convincing. . . .
Those, however, who have studied it [Hobart's book]
carefully, will, I think, find it impossible to escape the
conclusion that the question here is not one of merely
accidental linguistic colouring, but that this great
historical work was composed by a writer who was
either a physician or was quite intimatelv acquainted
with medical language and science. And, indeed,
this conclusion holds good not only for the 'we' sec-
tions, but for the wh^e book." Hamack gives the
subject special treatment in an appendix of twenty-
two pages. Hawkins and Zahn come to the same con-
clusion. The latter observes (Einl., 11, 427): "Ho-
bart has proved for everyone who can appreciate proof
that the author of the Lucan work was a man prac-
tised in the scientific language of Greek medicme —
in short, a Greek physician" (quoted by Hamack, op.
cit.).
In this connexion, Plummer, though he speaks more
cautiously of Hobart's argument, is practically in
agreement with these writers. He says that when
Hobart's list has been well sifted a considerable num-
ber of words remains. " The argument", he goes on to
say, "is cumulative. Any two or three instances of
coincidence with medical writers may be explained as
mere coincidences; but the large number of coinci-
dences renders their explanation unsatisfactory for all
of them, especially where the word is either rare in the
LXX, or not found there at all" (64). In "The Ex-
positor" (Nov, 1909, 385 sqa.), Mayor says of Hamack's
two above-cited work^" fie has, in opposition to the
Tubingen school of crit ^jOjccessf ully vindicated for
St. Luke the authorship^T^S^e two canonical books
ascribed to him, and has further proved that, with
some few omissions, they may be accepted as trust-
worthy documents. ... I am glad to see that the
English translator . . . has now been converted bv
Hamack's argument, founded iiBj>art, as he himself
confesses, on the researches of Euied Ififibsi^rs, espe-
cially Dr. Hobart, Sir W. M. R JLfTKIjp^^itti tfiyn
Hawkins." There is a striking JK^^^flblance blSween
the prologue of the Gospel and ^n^preface written by
Dioscorides, a medical writer wbw^tudied at Tarsus in
the first century (see Blass, "Philology of the Gos-
pels") . The words with which Hippocrates begins his
treatise "On Ancient Medicine" snould be noted in
this connexion: *OK6<Tot iirtxeipriffav xepl IrjrptK^t X^ir 1j
ypd4>€iy, K. r. X. (Plummer, 4). When all these con-
siderations are fully taken into account, they prove
that the companion of St. Paul who wrote the Acts
(and the Gospel) was a physician. Now, we learn
from St. Paul that he had such a companion. Writ-
ing to the Colossians (iv, 11), he says: "Luke, the
most dear physician, saluteth you." He was, there-
fore, with bt. Paul when he wrote to the Colossians,
Philemon, and Ephesians; and also when he wrote the
Second Epistle to Timothy. From the manner in
which he is spoken of, a long period of intercourse is
implied.
(2) The Author of Acts was the Author of the Go€h
pel.— "This position", says Plummer, "is so generally
admitted by critics of all schools that not much time
need be spent in discussing it." Hamack may be
said to be the latest prominent convert to this view,
to which he gives elaborate support in the two books
above mentioned. He claims to have shown that the
earlier critics went hopelessly astray, and that the
traditional view is the right one. This opinion is fast
gaining ground even amongst ultra critics, and Har-
uack declares that the others hold out because there
exists a disposition amongst them to ignore the fact!
that tell against them, and he speaks of "the truly
pitiful history of the criticism of tne Acts". Only the
oriefest summary of the arguments can be given here
The Gospel and Acts are both dedicated to Theophilus,
and the author of the latter work claims to oe the
author of the former (Acts, i, 1). The style and ar-
rangement of both are so much alike that tne supposi-
tion that one was written by a forger in imitation of
the other is absolutely excluded. The required power
of literary analysis was then unknown; and, if it were
possible, we know of no writer of that age who had the
wonderful skill necessary to produce such an imita-
tion. It is to postulate a literary miracle, says Plum-
mer, to suppose that one of the books was a forgery
written in imitation of the other. Such an idea would
not have occurred to anyone; and, if it had, he could
not have carried it out with such marvellous success.
If we take a few chapters of the Gospel and note down
the special, peculiar, and characteristic words, phrases
and constmctions, and then open the Acts at random,
we shall find the same literary peculiarities constantly
recurring. Or, if we begin with the Acts, and proceed
conversely, the same results will follow. In addition
to similarity, there are parallels of description, ar-
rangement, and points of view; and the recurrence of
medical language, in both books, has been mentioned '
under the previous heading.
We should naturally expect that the long intercourse
between St. Paiil and St. Luke would mutually in-
fluence their vocabulary, and their writings show that
this was really the case. Hawkins (Horse Synopticse)
and Bebb (Hast., "Diet, of the Bible", s. v, "Luke,
Gospel of) state that there are 32 words found only
in St. Matt, and St. Paul ; 22 in St. Mark and St. Paul:
2rin St. John and St. Paul; while there are 101 found
only in St. Luke and St. Paul. Of the characteristic
words and phrases which mark the three Synoptic
Gospels a little more than half are common to St.
Matt, and St. Paul, less than half to St. Mark and St.
Paul, and two-thirds to St. Luke and St. Paul. Sev-
eral writers have given examples of parallelism be-
tween the Gospel and the Pauline Epistles. Among
the most striking are those given by Plummer (44),
The same author gives long lists of words and ex-
pressions found in the Gospel and Acts and in St. Paul,
and nowhere else in the New Testament. But more
than this, Eager in "The Expositor" (July and Au-
gust, 1894), in his attempt to prove that St. Luke
was the author of Hebrews, has drawn attention to
the remarkable fact that the Lucan influence on the
language of St. Paul is much more marked in those
Epistles where we know that St. Luke was his con-
stant companion. Summing up, he observes: "There
is in fact sufficient ground for believing that these
books, Colossians, II Corinthians, the Pastoral Epis-
tles, Firat (and to a leaser extent Second) Peter, pos-
sess a Lucan character." When all these points are
taken into consideration, they afford convincing
Eroof that the author of the Gospel and Acts was St.
luke, the beloved physician, the companion of St.
Paul, and this is fully home out by the external
evidence.
B. External Evidence, — The proof in favour of the
unity of authorship, derived from the internal char-
acter of the two books, is strengthened when taken
in connexion with the external evidence. Every
ancient testimony for the authenticity of Acts tells
equally in favour of the Gospel ; and every pa;ssage
for the Lucan authorship ot the Gospel gives a like
support to the authenticity of Acts. Besides, in
many places of the early Fathers both books are
ascrioed to St. Luke. The external evidence can be
touched upon here only in the briefest manner. For
external evidence in favour of Acts, see Acts of the
Apostles.
The many ^^ssaj^^ss^ vcw ^V ^^^lws^^^^^J^iw^^^^5fi.^ >>sssw
LUKl 424 LUSX
Origen. ascribing the books to St. Luke, are important from all four. Westcott shows that there is no trace
not only as testifying to the belief of their own, but in Justin of the use of any written dociunent on the life
also of earlier times. St. Jerome and Origen were of Christ except our Gospels. '^He [Justin] tells us
great travellers, and all three were omniverous that Christ was descended from Abraham through
readers. They had access to practically the whole Jacob, Judah, Phares, Jesse, David — ^that the Angel
Christian literature of preceding centuries; but they Gabriel was sent to announce His birth to the Virgin
nowhere hint that the authorship of the Gospel (and Maiy-*-that it was in fulfilment of the prophecy of
Acts) was ever called in question. This, taken by Isaiah • . . that His parents went thither [to Bethle-
itself, would be a stronger argument than can be hem] in consequence of an enrolment under Cyrinius —
adduced for the majority of classical works. But we that as they could not find a lodging in the village they
have much earlier testimony. Clement of Alexan- lodged in a cave dose by it, where Christ was bom,
dria was probably bom at Athens about a. d. 150. andlaid by Mary in a manger'', etc. (Westcott, "Can-
He travelled much, and had for instructors in on", 104). There is a constant intermixture in Jus-
the Faith an Ionian, an Italian, a Syrian, an Egyp- tin's quotations of the narratives of St. Matthew and
tian, an Assyrian, and a Hebrew in Palestine. St. Luike. As usual in apologetical works, such as the
" And these men, preserving the true tradition of the apologies of Tatian, Athena^ras, Theophilus, Tcr-
blessed teaching airectly from Peter and James, John tullian, Clement of Alexandria, Cyprian, and Euse-
and Paul, the holy Apostles, son receiving it from bins, he does not name his sources because he was
father, came by God's providence even unto us, to addressing outsiders. He states, however, that the
dei>osit among us those seeds [of tmth] which were memoirs which were called Gospels were read in the
derived from their ancestors and the Apostles", churches on Sunday along with the writings of the
(Strom., I, i, ll;cf. Euseb., "Hist. EccL* , V, xi). Prophets; in other words, they were placed on an
He holds that St. Luke's Gospel was written before equal rank with the Old Testament, in the ''Dia-
that of St. Mark, and he uses the four Gospels just loffue", cv, we have a' passage peculiar to St. Luke.
as any moflem Catholic writer. Tertullian was bom ''Jesus as He cave up His Spirit uoon the Cross said,
at Carthage, lived some time in Rome, and then re- 'Father, into tny hands I commena my Spirit' [Luke,
turned to Carthage. His quotations from the Gofr- xxiii, 46], even as I learned from the Memoirs of this
pels, when brought together by Ronsch, cover two fact also." These Gospels which were read ever>'
Hundred pages. He attacks Marcion for mutilating Sunday must be the same as our four, which soon
St. Luke's Gospel, and writes: " I say then that among after, in the time of Irenaeus, were in such lone estab-
them, and not only among the Apostolic Churches, lished honour, and regarded by him as inspired by the
but amons all the Churches whicn are united with Holy Ghost. We never hear, says Salmon, of any
them in Christian fellowship, the Gospel of Luke, revolution dethroning one set of Gospels and replacing
which we earnestly defend, has been maintained them by another; so we may be sure that the Gospels
from its firot publication" (Adv. Marc., IV, v). honoured by the Church in Justin's day were the same
The testimony of St. Irenaeus is of special impor- as those to which the same respect was paid in the days
tanoe. He was bom in Asia Minor, where he heard of Irenseus, not many years after. This conclusion is
St. Polycarp jgive his reminiscences of St. John the strengthenednotonhrby the nature of Justin's quota-
Apostle, and in his numerous writings he frequently tions, but by the evidence afforded by his pupil Tatian,
mentions other disciples of the Apostles. He was the Assyrian, who hved a long time with him in Rome,
priest in Lyons during the persecution in 177, and was and afterwards compiled his narmony of the Gospels,
the bearer of the letter m the confessors to Rome, his famous " Diatessaron", in Syriac, from our four
His bishop, Pothinus, whom he succeeded, was Gospels. He had travelled a great deal, and the fact
ninety years of age when he gained the crown of mar- that he uses only those shows that they alone were
tyrdom in 177, and must have been bom while some recognised by SWJustin and the Catholic Church be-
or the Apostles and very many of their hearers were tween 130''HWr This takes us back to the time when
still living. St. Irenseus. who was bom about a. d. n^Miy^lhe hearers of the Apostles and Evangelists
130 (some say much earlier), is, therefore, a witness weTciicill alive ,^^^ it is held by many scholars that St.
for tne early traditicm of Asia Minor, Rome, and Gaul. Luke lived till tomrds the end of the first centuiy .
He quotes the Gospels just as any modem bishop Ireiueus, Clemei^, Tatian, Justin, etc., were in as
would do ; he calls them Scripture ; bene ves even in their good a position for forming a j udgment on the aut hen-
verbal inspiration* shows now congruous it is that ticity of the Gospels as we are of knowing who were
there are four and only four Gospels; and says that the authors of Scott's novels, Macaulay's essays,
Lvike, who begins with the priesthood and sacrifice Dickens's early novels, Longfellow's poems, no. xc of
of Zachaiy. is the calf. When we compare his quo- '^Tracts for the Times" etc. But the argument does
tations with those of Clement of Alexandria, variant not end here. Many of the heretics who flourished
readings of text present themselves. There was al- from the beginning of the second century till a. d. 150
readv established an Alexandrian type of text diffei^ admitted St. Luke's Gospel as authontative. This
ent from that used in the West. The Gospels had proves that it had ac<|uired an unassailable position
been copied and recopied so often, that, through long before these heretics broke away from the Church,
erron oi copying, etc., distinct families of text had The Apocryphal Gospel of Peter, about a. p. 150,
time to establish themselves. The Gospels were so makes use of our Gospels. About the same time the
widespread that they became known to pagans. Cel- Gospels, together with their titles, were translated into
BUS in his attack on the Christian religion was ac- Latm; and here, again, we meet the phenomena of
quainted with the genealogy in St. Luke's Gospel, and variant readings, to oe found in Clement, Irenseus, Old
his quotations show the same phenomena of variant Syriac, Justin, and Celsus, pointing to a long period of
readings. previous copying. Finally, we may ask, if the author
The next witness, St. Justin Biartyr, shows the posi- of the two books were not St. Luke, who was he ?
tion of honour the Gospels held in the Church, in the Hamack (Luke the Physician, 2) holds that as the
early portion of the century. Justin was bom in Ciospel begins with a prologue addressed to an indivi-
Palestme about a. d. 105, and converted in 132-135. dual (Theophilus) it must, of necessity, have contained
In his "Apology" he speaks of the memoirs ot the in its title the name of its author. How can we ex-
Lord which are called Gospels, and which were writtcai plain, if St. Luke were not the author, that the name
by Apostles (Matthew, John) and disciples of the of the real, and truly great, writer came to be com-
Apostles (Mark. Luke). In connexion with the disci- pletely buried in oblivion, to make room for the name
pies of the Apostles he cites the verses of St. Luke on of such a comparatively obscure disciple as St. Luke?
tho Sweat of Bloody and he baa numerous quotations Apart from his connexioni as supposed author, with
LinCB
425
LUSK
the Third Gospel and Acts, he was no more prominent
than Aristarchus and Epaphras; and he is mentioned
only in three places in the whole of the New Testa-
ment. If a false name were substituted for the true
author, some more prominent individual would have
b€«n selected.
III. Intbgritt op the Gospel. — ^Marcion rejected
the first two chapters and some shorter passages of the
Gospel; and it was at one time maintained bv rational-
istic writers that his was the ori^al Gospel of which
ours is a later expansion. This is now universally re-
jected by scholars. St. IrensBUS, Tertullian, and
Epiphamus charged him with mutilating the Gospel;
and it is known that the reasons for his rejection of
those portions were doctrinal. He cut oilt the ac-
count of ihe infancy and the genealosy, because he
denied the human birth of Christ. As he rejected the
Old Testament all reference to it had to be excluded.
That the parts rejected by Marcion belong to the
Gospel is clear from their unity of style with the re-
mainder of the book. The characteristics of St.
Luke'sistyle run through the whole work, but are more
frequent in the first two chapters than an3rwhere else;
and they are present in the other portions omitted by
Marcion. No writer in those days was capable of suc-
cessfully forging such additions. The first two chap-
ters, etc.y are contained in all the MSS. and versions,
and were known to Justin Martyr and other compe-
tent witnesses. On the authenticity of the verses on
the Bloody Sweat, see Agont of Christ.
IV. Purpose and Contents. — ^The Gospel was
written, as is gathered from the prologue (i, 1-4), for
the purpose of giving Theophilus (and othei:s like him)
increased confidence in the unshakable firmness of the
Christian truths in which he had been instructed, or
*' catechized" — ^the latter word being used, according
to Hamack, in its technical sense. The Gospel natur-
ally falls into four divisions; (1) Gospel of the infancy,
roughljr covered by the Joyful Mysteries of the Rosary
(ch. i, li) ; (2) miiustrjr in Galilee, from the preaching
of John the Baptist (iii, 1, to ix, 50); (3) joumeyings
towards Jerusalem (ix, 61-xix, 27); (4) Holy Week:
preaching in and near Jerusalem, Passion, and Resur-
rection (xix, 28, to end of xxi v). We owe a great deal
to the industry of St. Luke. Out of twenty miracles
which he records six are not foimd in the other Gos-
pels: draught of fishes, widow"?!'**}''
with dropsy, ten lepers, Malc?*"®^
firmity. He alone has the foUo^^l^, ^.^.-w^.* ^.^«,v^^.
good Samaritan, friend at mid^i^^, rich fool, servants
watching, two debtors, barrA fig-tree, chief seats,
great supper, rash builder, rash king, lost groat, prodi-
gal son, unjust steward, rich man and Laxarus.
unprofitable servants, imjust judge, Pharisee ana
publican, pounds. The account of the loumeys
towards Jerusalem (ix, 51-xix, 27) is found onlv in
St. Luke; and he gives special prominence to the duty
of prayer.
V. Sources op the Gospel; Synoptic Problem. —
The best information as to his sources is given by
St. Luke, in the beginning of his Gospel. As many
had written accoimte as they heard them from "eye-
witnesses and ministers of the word", it seemed ^ood
to him also, having diligently attained to all tmngs
from the beginning, to write an ordered narrative.
He had two sources of information, then, eyewitnesses
(including Apostles) and written documents taken
down from the words of eyewitnesses. The accuracy
of these documents he was in a position to test by his
knowledge of the character of the writers, and by com-
paring them with the actual words of the Apostles
and other eyewitnesses.
That he used written documents seems evident on
comparing his Gospel with the other two Synoptic Gos-
pels, Matthew and Mark. All three frequently agree
even in minute details; but in other respects there is
often a remarkable divergence, and to explain these
's
ik»t^
phenomena is the S^^noptic Problem. St. Matthew
and St. Luke alone give an account of the infancy of
Christ; both accounts are independent. But when
they begin the public preaching they describe it in
the same wav, here agreeing with St. Mark. When
St. Mark ends, the two others again diverge. They
a^pree in the main both in matter and arrangement
within the limits covered by St. Mark, whose order
they generally follow. Frequently all agree in the
order of the narrative, but, where two agree, Mark
and Luke agree against the order of Biatthew, or Mark
and Matthew agree against the order of Luke; Mark
is always in the majority, and it is not proved that
the other two ever agree against the order followed
by him. Within the umits of the ground covered by
St. Mark, the two other Gospels have several sections
in common not foimd in St. Mark, consisting for the
most part of discourses, and there is a closer resem-
blance between them than between any two Gospels
where the three go over the same ground. The whole
of St. Mark is practically contained in the other two.
St. Matthew and St. Luke have large sections peculiar
to themselves, such as the different accoimts of the
infancy, and the joume3rs towards Jerusalem in St.
Luke. The jMurallel records have remarkable verbal
coincidences. Sometimes the Greek phrases are
identical, sometimes but slightly different, and again
more divergent. There are various theories to ex-
plain the fact of the matter and language common to
the Evangelists. Some hold that it is due to the oral
teaching of the Apostles, which soon became stereo-
typed hom. constant repetition. Others hold that
it IS due to written sources, taken down from siioh
teaching. Others, again, strongly maintain that Mat*
thew and Luke used Mark or a written source ex-
tremelv like it. In that case, we have evidence how
very closely they kept to the original. The agree-
ment between the discourses given by St. Luke and
St. Matthew is accounted for. by some authors, by
saying that both embodied tne discourses of Christ
that had been collected and originally written in
Aramaic by St. Matthew. The long narratives of
St. Luke not found in these two documents are, it is
said, accoimted for by his employment of what he
knew to be other reliable sources, either oral or writ-
ten. (The question is concisely but clearly stated by
Peake "A Critical Introduction to the New Testa-
ment". London, 1909, 101. Several other works on
the suDJect are given in the literature at the end of
this article.)
VI. Saint Lttke's Accuracy. — ^Very few writers
have ever had their accuracy put to such a severe test
as St. Luke, on account of the wide field covered by
his writings, and the consequent liabihty (humanly
speaking) of making mistakes; and on account of the
fierce attacks to which he has been subjected.
It was the fashion, during the nineteenth century,
with German rationalists and their imitators, to
ridicule the "blunders" of Luke; but that is all beinjg
rapidly changed by the recent progress of archsologi-
cal research. Hamack does not hesitate to say
that these attacks were shameful, and calculated to
bring discredit, not on the Evangelist, but upon his
critics; and Ramsay is but voicing the opinion of the
best modem scholars when he cans St. Luke a great
and accurate historian. Very few have done so much
as this latter writer, in his numerous works and in his
articles in "The Expositor", to vindicate the extreme
accuracv of St. Luke. Wherever archsBology has
afforded the means of testing St. Luke's statements,
they have been found to be correct; and this gives
confidence that he is equally reliable where no such
corroboration is as yet available. For some of the
details see Acts of the Apostles, where a very full
bibliography is given.
For the sake of illustration, one or two examples
may here be given: — (1) Sergius Paulus, Proconsul
426 LUXE
in Cyprus. — St. Luko says, Acts, xiii, 7, that when St. never makes a false step amid all the many details as
Paul visited Cyprus (in the reign of Claudius) Sergius the scene changes from city to city; and that is the
Paulus was proconsul (dwBdiraTot) there. Grotius conclusive proof that it is a picture of real life" (Rani-
asserted that this was an abuse of language, on the say, op. cit., 238). St. Luke mentions (Acts, xviii, 2)
part of the natives, who wished to flatter the governor that when St. Paul was at Corinth the Jews had been
by calling him proconsul, instead of propnetor (dim- recently expelled from Rome by Claudius, and this is
tfTpdriryot), which he really was; ana that St. Luke confirmed dv a chance statement of Suetonius. He
used the popular appellation. Even Baronius (An- tells us (ibid., 12) that Gallio was then proconsul in
nales, ad Aim. 46) supposed that, though CVprus was Corinth (the capital of the Roman province of Achaia).
only a prsetorian province, it was honoured by being There is no direct evidence that he was proconsul in
ruled by the proconsul of Cilicia, who must have been Achaia, but his brother Seneca writes that Gallio
Sergius Paulus. But this is all a mistake. Cato cap- caught a fever there, and went on a voyage for his
tured Cyprus; Cicero was proconsul of Cihcia and health. The description of the riot at Epnesus (Acts,
Cyprus in 52 b. c; Mark Antony gave the island to xix) brings together, in the space of eighteen verses,
Oieopatra; Augustus made it a prsetorian province an extraordinary amoimt of knowledge of the city,
in 27 B. c, but in 22 b. c. he transferred it to the that is fully corroborated by numerous inscriptions,
senate, and it became again a proconsular province, and representations on coins, medals, etc., recently
This latter fact is not stated by Strabo, but it is men- discovered. There are allusions to the temple of
tioned by Dion Cassius (LIII). In Hadrian's time it Diana (one of the seven wonders of the world), to the
was once more under a proprietor, while under Sev- fact that Ephcsus gloried in being her temple-sweeper,
ems it was again administered by a proconsul. There her caretaker (»€<aK6pos), to the theatre as the place of
can be no doubt that in the reign of Claudius, when assembly for the people, to the to^^ni clerk (ypafifuiTcOs)^
St. Paul visited it, Cyprus was under a proconsul to the Asiarchs, to sacrilegious (UpoaOXot) , to procon-
(iwO&waros), as stated by St. Luke. Numerous coins sular sessions, artificers, etc. The ecclesia (the usual
have been discovered in Cyprus, bearing the head and word in Ephesus for the assembly of the people) and
name of Claudius on one side, and the names of the the grammateus or town-clerk (the title of a high
proconsuls of Cyprus on the other. A woodcut en- official frequent on Ephesian coins) completely puzzled
graving of one is given in Conybeare and Howson's Cornelius a Lapidc, Baronius, and other commcnta-
"St. Paul", at the end of chapter v. On the reverse tors, who imagined the eccleaia meant a synagogue, etc.
it has: EHI KOMINOT HPOKAOT ANeXIIATOT: (see Vigouroux, "I^ Nouveau Testament et les D6-
KTIIPION — ^" Money of the Cyprians imder Cominius couvertes Arch^logiques", Paris, 1890).
Proclus, Proconsul." The head of Claudius (with his (6) The Shipwreck. — The account of the voyage and
name) is figured on the other side. General Cesnola ship'WTeck described in Acts (xxvii, xxvii) is regarded
discovered a long inscription on a pedestal of white by competent authorities on nautical mat tors as a mar-
marble, at Solvi, in the north of the island, having the vellous instance of accurate description (see Smith's
words: EIII HATAOT ANeXIIATOT — *' Under Paulus classical work on the suljject, " Voyage and Shipwreck
Proconsul." Lightfoot, Zochler, Ramsay, Knaben- of St. Paul" (4th ed., London, 18^). Blass (Acta
bauer. Zahn, and Vigouroux hold that this was the Apostolorum, 186) says: ''Extrema duo ca,pita ha-
actual (Seigius) Paulus of Acts, xiii, 7. bent descriptionem clarissimam itineris maritimi quod
(2) The PoUtarchs in Thessalonica. — ^An excellent Paulus in Italiam fecit: quse descriptio ab homine
example of St. Luke's accuracy is afforded by his state- harum rerum perito judicata est monumentum om-
ment that rulers of Thessalonica were called "poH- nium pretiosissimum, quae rei navalis ex tota antic^ui-
tardis" (roXtrdpxoi — ^Acts, xvii, 6, 8). The word is tate nobis relicta est. V. Breusing, 'Die Nautik der
not found in the Greek classics; but there is a large Alten' (Bremen, 1886)." See also Knowling, "The
stone in the British Museum, which was found in an Acts of the Apostles" in "Exp. Gr. Test." (Ix^iidon,
arch in Thessalonica, containing an inscription which 1900). ^^
is supposed to date from the time of Vespasian. Here Vll. Lrsi^a^yi^IvniAiiCH of Abilene. — Gfrorrcr,
we find the word used by St. Luke together with the B. BaiMwr^flilgenfeld, Keim, and Holtzniaim assert
names of several such pohtarchs, among them being thalt*^^ J£ail« |x;«Mtnited a gross chronological hhm-
names identical with some of St. Paul's converts: So- der of sixty years Sl^making Lysanias, the sou of
pater, Gains, Secundus. Burton in "American Jour- Ptolemy, who hved SlflvB. c, and was put to death
nal of Theolog>'" (July, 1898) has drawn attention to by Mark Antony, tetrard^of Abilene wlien John the
seventeen inscriptions proving the existence of poH- Baptist began to preach (iih 1). Strauss says: *'He
tarchs in ancient times. Thirteen were found in Mace- [Luke] makes rule, 30 years after the birth of Christ, a
donia, and five iKcre discovered in Thessalonica, dat- certain Lysanias, who had certainly been slain 30
ing from the middle of the first to the end of the eecond years previous to that birth — a sli'i^ht error of 60
century. years." On the face of it, it is highly improlxable that
(3) The geographical, municipal, and political knowl- such a careful writer as St. Luke would have gone out
edge of St. Luke, when speakipg of Pisidian Antioch, of his way to run the risk of making sucli a blunder, for
Iconium, Lystra, and DNerbe, is fully borne out bv the mere purpose of helping to fix the date of the pub-
recent research (see Ramsay, *' St. Pam the Traveller , Uc ministry. Fortunately, we have a complete rcf u-
and other references given in Galatianb, Epistlb to tation supplied by Schttrer, a writer by no means over
tee). friendly to St. Luke, as we shall see when treating of
(4) He is equally sure when speaking of Philippi, the Census of Quirinius. Ptolemy Menna'us was King
a Roman colony, where the duumviri were called of the I tureans( whose kingdom embraced the Lebanon
"pnetors" (trrpta^fYol — ^Acts, xvi, 20, 35), a lofty title and plain of Massvas with the capital Chalcis, between
wnich duumviri assumed in Capua and elsewhere, as the Lebanon and Anti- Lebanon) from 85-40 b. c.
we learn from Cicero and Horace (Sat., I, v, 34). They His territories extended on the east towards Damascus,
also had hctors (papBovxoi), after the manner of real and on the south embraced Panias, and part, at leant,
pnstors. of Galilee. Lysanias the older succeeded his father
(5) His references to Ephesus, Athens, Corinth, are Ptolemy about 40 b. c. (Josephus, " Ant.", XI\', xii,
altogether in keeping with everything that is now 3;"Bel.Jud.", I, xiii, 1), and is sty led by Dion Cassius
known of these cities. Take a single instance: "In "King of the Itureans" (XLIX, 32). After reigning
Ephesus St. Paul taught in the school of Tyrannus, about four or five years he was put to death by Mark
in the city of Socrates ne discussed moral questions in Antony, at the instigation of Cleopatra, who received
the market-place. How incongruous it would seem a large portion of his territory (Josephus ," Ant.", XV,
if the methods were transposed! But the narrative iv, 1; "Bel. Jud.", I, xxii, 3; Dion Cassius. op. cit.);
LUXS
427
LUXS
A3 the latter and Porphyry call him "kuig'\ it is
doubtful whether the coins Ix^ring the superscription,
" Lysanias tetrarch and high priest '* belong to him, for
there were one or more later princes called Lysanias.
After his death his kingdom was gradually divided up
into at least four districts, and the three principal ones
were certainly not called after him. A certain Zeno-
dorus took on lease the possessions of Lysanias, 23
B. c, but Trachonitis was soon taken from him and
given to Herod. On the death of Zenodonis in 20
B. c, Ulatha and Panias, the territories over which he
ruled, were given by Augustus to Herod. This is
called the tetrarchy of Zenodorus by Dion Cassius.
" It seems therefore that Zenodorus, after the death of
Lysanias, had received on rent a portion of his territory
from Cleopatra, and that after Cleopatra's death ihJk
' rented' aomain, subject to tribute, was continued to
him with the title of tetrarch '' (SchOrer, I, II, app., 333,
i) . Mention is made on a monument, at HeliopoUs. of
*' Zenodorus, son of the tetrarch Lysanias ". It has
been generally supposed that this is the Zenodorus
i'ust mentioned, but it is uncertain whether the first
jysanias was ever called tetrarch. It is proved from
the inscriptions that there was a genealogical con-
nexion between the families of Lysanias and Zeno-
dorus, and the same name may have been often
repeated in the family. Coins for 32, 30, and 25 b. c,
belonging to our Zenodorus, have the superscription,
"Zenodorus tetrarch and high priest. After the
death of Herod the Great a portion of the tetrarchv
of Zenodorus went to Herod's son, Philip (Jos., " Ant. ,
XVII, xi, 4), referred to b;^ St. Luke, "Plulip being
tetrarch of Iturea" (Luke, lii, 1).
Another tetrarchv slic^ ofif from the dominions of
Zenodorus lay to tne east between Chalcis and Da-
mascus, and went by the name of Abila or Abilene.
Abila is frequently spoken of b}r Josephusas a tet-
rarchy, and m *' Ant. , XVIII, vi, 10, he calls it tiie
"tetrarchv of Lysanias". Claudius, in a. d. 41, con-
ferred " Abila of Lysanias" on Agrippa I (Ant., XIX,
V, 1). In A. D. 53, Agrippa II obtained Abila, "which
last had been the tetrarcny of Lysanias" (Ant., XX.,
vii, 1). "From these passages we see that the tet-
rarchy of Abila had belonged previously to a. d. 37
to a certain Lysanias, and seeit^^hat Josephus no-
where previously makes any )iiBtiD{6 ot if another
Lvsanias, except the contempotoalk^JlllilittDy and
Cleopatra, 40-36 b. c. . . . criticti
in various ways to show thawRre had not after-
wards been any other, and piat the tetrarchy of
Abilene had its name from tlie older Lysanias. But
this is impossible" (Schilrer, 337). Lysanias I inher-
ited the Iturean empire of his father Ptolemy, of
which Abila was but a small and very obscure por-
tion. Calchis in Coele-Syria was the capita of^his
kingdom, not Abila in Abilene. He reigned only
about four years and was a comparatively obscure
individual when compared with his father Ptolemy,
or his successor Zenodorus, both of whom reigned
many years. There is no reason why any portion
of his kingdom should have been called after his name
rather than theirs; and it is hiehlv improbable that
Josephus speaks of Abilene as callca after him seventy
years after his death. As Lysanias I was king over
the whole region, one small portion of it could not be
called his tetrarchy or kingdom, as is done by Josephus
(Bel. Jud., II, xii, 8). "It must therefore be as-
sumed as certain that at a later date the district of
Abilene had been severed from the kingdom of Cal-
chis, and had been governed by a younger Lysanias
as tetrarch" (SchUrer, 337). The existence of such a
late Lysanias is shown by an inscription found at
Abila, containing the statement that a certain Nym-
phaios, the freedmian of Lysanias, built a street and
erected a temple in the time of the "August Emper-
ors". Augusti (Z€/3(MToO in the plural was never
used before the death of Augustus, a. d. 14. The
first contemporary Sc^curro/ were Tiberius and hia
mother Livia, i. e. at a time fifty years after the first
Lysanias. An inscription at HeliopoUs, in the same
region, makes it probable that there were several
pnnces of this name. "The Evangelist Luke is
thoroughly correct when he assumes (iii, 1) that in
the fifteenth year of Tiberius there was a Lysanias
tetrarch of Abilene" (Schiirer. op. cit., where fuU
literature is given; Vigouroux, op. cit).
VIII. Who Spoke the Magnificat? — ^Lately aa
attempt has been made to ascribe the Magnificat to
Elizabeth instead of to the Blessed Virgin. All the
early Fathers, all the Greek MSS., all the versiona,
aU the Latin MSS. (except three) have the reading in
Luke, i, 46: Kal eJirev Maptd/i — Et ait Maria [And Mary
said]: MagwUicat anima mea Dominunif ete. Three
Old Latin lifSS. (the earliest dating from the end of
the fourth cent.), a, b, 1 (called rhe by Westcott ana
Hort), have Et ait Elisabeth, These tend to such
close agreement that their combined evidence is single
rather than threefold. They are full of gross blunders
and palpable corruptions, and the attempt to pit
their evidence against the many thousands of Greek,
Latin, and other MSS., is anything but scientific.
If the evidence were reversed. Catholics would be
held up to ridicule if they ascribed the Magnificat to
Maiy. The three MSS. gain little or no support from
the internal evidence of the passage. The Magnificat
is a cento from the song of Anna (I Kings, li), the
Psalms, and other places of the Old Testament. If it
were spoken by Elizabeth it is remarkable that the
portion of Anna's sone that was most appUcable to
her is omitted: "The barren hath borne many: aad
she that had many children is weakened." See, on
this subject, Emmet in "The Expositor" (Dec., 1909);
Bernard, ibid. (March, 1907); and the exhaustive
works of two Catholic writers: Ladeuze, "Revue
d'histoireeccl^iasticiue" (Louvain, Oct., 1903); Bar-
denhewer, "Maria Verkundigung" (Freiburg, 1905).
IX. The Census of Quiriniub. — ^No portion of the
New Testament has been so fiercely attacked as
Luke, ii, 1-5. Schiirer has brought together, under
six heads, a formidable array of all the objections
that can be urged against it. There is not space to
refute them here; but Ramsay in his "Was Christ
bom in Bethlehem?" has shown that they all fall to
the groimd: —
(1) St. Luke does not assert that a census took
place all over the Roman Empire before the death of
Herod, but that a decision emanated from Augustus
that regular census were to be made. Whether they
were carried out in general, or not, was no concern oi
St. Luke's. If history does not prove the existence
of such a decree it certainly proves nothing against it.
It was thought for a lone time that the system of In-
dictions was inaugurated under the early Roman eaoor
perors; it is now known that they owe their origin to
Constantine the Great (the first taking place mteen
years after his victory of 312), and this m spite of the
fact tliat history knew nothing of the matter. Keor
yon holds that it is very probable that Pope Damasus
ordered the Vulgate to be regarded as the only author-
itative edition of the Latin Bible; but it would be
difficult to prove it historically. If "history knows
nothing" ot the census in PoJestine before 4 b. c,
neither did it know anything of the fact that under the
Romans in Egypt regular personal census were held
every fourteen years, at least from a. d. 20 till the
time of Constantine. Many of these census papers
have been discovered, and they were called iiroypa^til,
the name used by St. Luke. They were made without
any reference to property or taxation. The head of
the household gave his name and age, the name and
age of his wife, children, and slaves. He mentioned
how many were included in the previous census, and
how many bom since that time. Valuation returoB
were made every year. The fourteen. Ti^assf ^g:^^^*.
LUSS 428 LULE
Quirinius et le Reoensement de S. Luc *' (Rome, 1897).
Vigouroux, "Le N. T. et lea D^couvertes Modemes"
did not originAte in Egypt (they had a different s^rs-
tem before 19 b. c), out most probably owed its
origin to Augustus, 8 b. c, the fourteenth year of his (Paris, 1890), has a good deal of us^ul information.
triSunUia potestas, which was a ^reat year in Rome, it has been suggested that Quirinius is a copyist's
and is called the Year I in some mscriptions. Apart error for Quintilius (Varus).
from St. Luke and Josephus, history is eqxially igno- X. Saint Luke and Jobephus. — ^The attempt to
rant of the second enrolling in Palestine, a. d. 6. So prove that St. Luke used Josephus (but inaccurately)
many discoveries about ancient times, concerning nas completely broken down. Belser successfuily
which history has been silent, have been made during refutes Ivrenkel in "Theol. Quartalschrift", 1895,
the last thirty years that it is surprising modem au- 1896. The differences can be explained only on the
thors should brush aside a statement of St. Luke's, supposition of entire independence. The resem-
a respectable first century writer, with a mere appeal blances are sufficiently accounted for by the use of the
to the silence of history on the matter. Septuagint and the common literary Greek of the
(2) The first census in Palestine, as described by time by both. See Bebb and Headlam in Hast.,
St. Luke, was not made according to Roman, but "Diet, of the Bible", s. vv. "Luke, Gospel of" and
Jewish, metiiods. St. Luke, who travelled so much, "Acts of the Apostles", respectively. ScnQrer (Zeit.
could not be ignorant of the Roman system, and his far W. Th., 1876) brushes aside the opinion that St.
deecription deliberately excludes it. The Romans Luke read Josephus. When Acts is compared with
did not run counter to ihe feelings of provincials more the Septuagint and Josephus, there is convincing evi-
than they could help. Jews, who were proud of being dence that Josephus was not the source from which
able to prove their descent, would have no objection the writer of Acts derived his knowledge of Jewish
to the enrolling describea in Luke, ii. Schtirer's history. There are nimierous verbal ana other coin-
aiguments are vitiated throughout bv the supposition cidences with the Septuagint (Cross in " Expository
that the census mentioned by St. Luke couldi^be made Times", XI, 538, against Schmiedel and the exploded
only for taxation purposes. His discussion of im- author of "Sup. Religion"). St. Luke did not get
penal taxation is learned but beside the mark (cf. the his names from Josephus, as contended by this last
practice in Egypt). It was to the advantage of writer, thereby making the whole history a concoction.
Aiiffustus to know the number of possible enemies in Wright in his "Some New Test. Problems" gives the
Pakstine, in case of revolt. ^ names of fifty persons mentioned in St. Luke's Gospel.
(3) King Herod was not as independent as he is Thirty-two are common to the other two Synoptics,
described for controversial purposes. A few years and therefore not taken from Josephus. Only five of
before Herod's death Augustus wrote to him. Jo^ the remaining eighteen are found in him, namely.
Augustus Csesar, Tiberius, Lysanias, Quirinius, ana
Annas. As Annas is always called Ananus in Josephus,
the name was evidently not taken from him. This is
B^hus, "Ant.", XVI, ix, 3, has: "Caesar [Augustus]
• . . grew very angry, and wrote to Herod sharply.
T^ sum of h^ epistle was this, that whereas of old he
used him as a friend, he should now use him as his corroborated by the way the Gospel speaks of Caiphas.
subject." It was after this that Herod was asked to St. Luke's employment of the otner four names
number his people. That some such enrolling took shows no connexion with the Jewish historian. The
place we gatner from a passing remark of Josephus, mention of numerous countries, cities, and islands in
"Ant.", A VII, ii, 4, " Accordingly, when all the peo- Acts shows complete independence of the latter writer.
1^ of ^e Jews gave assurance of their good Will to St. Luke's preface bears a much closer resemblance to
OBsar [Augustus], and to the kinf^'s [Herod's] govern- those of Greek medical writers than to that of Jose-
ment, these very men [the Pharisees] did not swear, phus. The absurdity of concluding that St. Luke
being above six thousand." The best scholars think must necessarily be wrong when not in agreement
thqr were asked to swear allegiance to Augustus. ^ witih Josephus is apparent when we remember the
(4) It is said there was no room for Quirinius, in frequent intTadietions and blunders in the latter
fyiia, before the death of Herod in 4 b. c. C. Sentius writeL^g^^^v
Gn^Ts^x^ — %llt;-r^ thi best critical commentaries, in Eng-
lish, is that hyPhXQ^iaM'm Int. Cril. Com. (Edinbunsh, 1906).
8aturmnus was governor there from 9-6 B. c; and . «-rn.i • w . ^ . ry .r^^ t u .rv.^^
Aiii«i4ii;iiQ Vi^rtta frratt Ann fill itftAr fhft dpAth of li»l>, la that by FLiA^fAOOim JtU. CrU. Com. (Edmburgh, 1906).
UuintUlUS Varus, from b B. C. tUI alter tne aeatn OI ^ fJnrt-rate CathoUc cofimentaiy is Schanz. Commcntar iiber
Herod. But m turbulent provinces there were some- ^^ Evangel, d. h. Luawlffobingen, 1883)— cf. also Maldona-
times two Roman officials of equal standing. In the tub, Knabenbaubr. Fiijjdn, McEvilly. Ward (London.
tbne of Caligula the administration of Africa was 18|7^j^Wiuoht. TA* (7o*pete ^►-G'nMA (Ix>ndon, i900)Mc/a 5^^
<UTided in such a way that the military power, with AuTHEimcmr.— Plummkr, op. cit.; Harnack, Lvke the
the foreign policy, was under the control of the Ueu- Phyincian; Idem, The Acts of the Apottles (tr. London, 1907,
tenant of the emperor, who could be called a In^t^^ i!^^i^c}^SS:^?*{:tSf^^^
5r^T^ o Y T 1 \ *^i.»i xu • i.>v 1 ..iy»:.w, ^.^.1.^ 1.»Ja« 8UcnasLoRNELT;jACQUiER,iV. Tew., H (Fans, 1906); Belsek;
(bb m St. Luke), while the mtemal affairs were under 2ahn, etc.; WEaroorr, The Canon of the New Test. (London!
the ordinary proconsul. The same position was held 1906); Liobtfoot. Eaeaue on Supernatural Religion (London.
by Vespasian when he conducted the war in Palestine, {^^^^882?"* ^^^^ Language of Sl Luke (Dublin and
Which belonged to the province of Sjrria— a province Sources: Synoptic Problem.— Buonaocorm, CrUica Lit-
COVemed by an officer of equal rank. Josephus speaks tenma (Bologn&, 1905); Peaks, Critical Introd. to the N. Tent.
of VolumniUS as being KaUrapos In^^^, together with (L«mdon, 10^); Webtcott. Introd. to Ih^ Study of the GoMvelB
5? T vj w«****^ €» ^.^^ ^ a7Il:« fna « J? \ . «<T«k*«M» (London* 1881); Salmon, op. ett.; Idem, The Human Elenimt %n
C. Sentius SaturmnUS, m Syria (9-6 B. C.): Ihere IheChepeU (London, lOOT); Rubhbrooke, Synopticon (London
, . ,^ i. _- «_x • ^_j ir^i V „ « , • Oxford, 1909); Idem in
Wright, op. cit.
Paul tne Traveller, and
Galattans, Kpistle
ZZVii, 1, 2. Corbulo commanded the armies of Syria to the; Idem, Woe Chritt Bom in BethUhemf (3rd ed., London,
•gunst the ParthiiinB, while Q^tua ««d Gall™ iggf); ^^f" ^.o^TlrA^.Tei.""^'' fi'SV^r'^.f ^fo^^^^
were successively governors of Sjma. Inougn Jo- ^aHe. 1890) ;Knowlino. XcU in rxpo«tor'«GrwA T^ar. (Lon-
Bephus speaks of Gallus, he knows nothing of Corbulo; don, 1900). See Aero or the ApoexLEs.
but he was there nevertheless (Mommsen, "Rbm. C. Aherne.
Gesch.", V, 382i. A similar position to that of Cor- j^^^^^ ^g^^ Blessed. See William Filbt,
bulo must have been held by Quinmus for a few years gu^uu,
between 7 and 4 b c
The best treatment of the subject is that by Ramsay L11I6 Indiazui.— A name which has given rise to
**Was Christ Bom in Bethlehem?" See also the valu- considerable confusion and dispute in Ai^entine
able essays of two Catholic writers: Marucchi in "II ethnology, owing to the fact, now established, that it
BeiMarione" (Rome, 1897); Bour, "L'Insoription de was applied at differeat periods to two very different
peoples, neither of which now exists under that name,
while the vocabulary which could settle the affinitj; of
the earlier tribe is now tost. The name itself, meaning
"inhabitants", convey^B no ethnic siniiflcance, being
a term applied indiscriminately bv the invading HA-
taeo from the East to the tribes which they found al-
ready in occupancy of the country.
The Lul£ of the earlier period appear to have been
the tribe more definitely known under their Quichua
name of Cacana, "mountaineere", occupying the hill
ranges of the upper Salodo Kiver in the provinces of
Catamarca and Western Tucunuui, Argentina. They
were of the stock of the Calchaqui, the southemmOBt
tributaries of the historic Quichua of Peru, from whom
they had absorbed a high dEsree of aboriginal culture.
Owing to their relations with the Quichua on the one
hand and with the neighbouring Toconot4 (also Touo-
cot^), or Matard, on the other hand, they were fa^
miliar also witb those languages as well as with their
own, afoct which has served much to increase the con-
fusion. By the Jesuit missionary Alonso Bircena
(or Barsana) the LM (Cacana) were gathered, in
1589, into a mission settlement on the Salado, near
the Spanish town of Talavera or Bateco. The Ha-
tar4, or Tooonot^, were evangelised at the same time.
Here, within the followiuK twenty years, they were
visited also hy St. Francis Solano. In 1692 the region
was devastated by a terrible earthquake which de-
Str^od tjie towns of £!ateeo and Concepcidn, together
wiUi the missions, in consequence of which the terror-
stricken neophyt«e fled into the forests of the great
C^aco wilderness north of the Salado, and became lost
to knowledge, while the grammar and vocabulary
which Father Bircena had composed of the Toconot^
language disappeared likewise.
'HieLiil^of tne lutcrperiod are better known, being
the principal of a group of cognate tribes constituting
the Lulean stock, formerly ranging over the central
and west«m Cbaco renon in Aigentlna, chiefly be-
tween the Salado and the Vermejo, in the Province of
Salta. Although the classification of the Argentine
dialects is still mcomplete and in dispute, the follow-
ing existent or extinct tribes seem to come within the
Lulean Einguistic group: LuM proper (so called by the
Mfttaco), calling themselves PeU, "men", and be-
lieved by Hervaa to be the Oristin^ of the earliest
missionary period; Toconot^, called MakarA hy the
Quichua, and incorrectly identified by Machoni with
^e Mdtaco of anotiier stock; Isistini; Toijuistin^;
Chulupf, Cbunupf or Cinipf ; Vilelo, called Quiatiu by
the Mdtaco, witn sub'tribea Guamaica ana Tequete^;
Omoampa, with sub-tribes lya and Yeconoampa;
Juri ; Pasain^.
In general the Lulean tribes were l>elow medium
stature, pedestrian in tiabit, peaceful and unwarlike,
except in self-defense, hving partly by hunting and
partly by agriculture, contrasting strongly with the
athletic and predatory equestrian tribes of the eastern
Chaco represented by the Abipone and Mitaco. The
Still wild Chulupf of the Pilcomayo, however, ro-
semble the latter tribes in ph>-sique and warUke char-
acter. In consequence of the ceaseless inroads of the
wild Chaco tribes upon the Spanish settlements. Gov-
ernor Urizar, about the year 1710, led Sfainst them
a strong expedition from Tucuman which for a time
brought to submisai on those sa voges who were unable to
escape beyond liia reach. As one result, the Lul^ were,
in 1711, gathered into a mission called San Estjban,
at Miraflorca on the Salado, about one hundred miles
below Salta, under the charge of the Jesuit Father
Antonio Machoni. Machoni nrepsj^ a grammar and
dictionary of their language (Madrid, 1732), for which
reason it is sometimes luiown as the " Lu]£ of Ma-
choni ", to distinguish it from the Cacana Luld of the
earlier period. Son Jos^, or Petoca, was established
among the Vilelo in 1735. In consequence of the
inroads of the wild tribes, these uisskme w^e Uaa-
!0 LULLT
porarily abandoned, but were re-established in 1751-
52. In 1751 the cognate Isistini and Toquistin^ wen
gathered into the new mission of San Juan Bautista
atVolhuena, a few miles lower down the Salado Hi ver.
In 1763 Nuestra Seilora del Buen Consejo, or Ortc^,
was eetabUshed for the Omoam^ and their sub-
tribes, and Nuestra SeiJora de la Columna, or Mae*-
Sillo, for the Fasain^, both on the SaUdo below ICra-
ores, and all five being within the province of Salta.
In 1767, just before the expulsion of the Jesuits, t^
five missions of the cognate Lulean tribes had a pop«i-
lation of 2346 Indians, almost all Cbristians, Ber^d bjr
eleven priests, among them being Father Job6 lorn,
autiior of a history ot the Chooo.
Notwithstanding the civihzing eSorts of the mi^
sionaries, the Lul£ shared in the general and swift de-
chne of the native tribes consequent upon the advent
of the whites, resulting in repeated visitations of ttio
smallpox scourge — previously unknown — the whole-
sale raids of Portuguese slave-hunters (Afamelucos) , and
the oppressions olthe forced-labour syetem under tiia
Spaniards. The mission Indians were the special
prey both of the slave-huntois and of the predatory
wild tribes. On the withdrawal of the Jesuits, toe
slavery fled into the forests. At present the comate
Lulean tribes are representod chieflv by some vUelD
living among the M&taco on the miadle Vermejo and
by the unciviiized Chulupf on the Pilcomayo.
Brimtoh, Amenatn Rati (N«ir York. IBBl): DoBRiiHOFm,
.4ftiponej,tr., Ill (London. 1822); Hehvas, CoMivo ite to* Im-
evni, I (Mndrid. leoo) (pmic[pal authority): PAOt.LaPbda
(New York, lSW)i Qviytno. La Lengua Vilda a ChMlapt lai
othar piip«n in Boletin dd ImtitMio Qiognifico AroaOmo, XVI-
XVU (Buenos Ai™, ISflS-M). JaMEB Moonbt.
Lully, Jean-Baftibte, composer, b. near Florence
in 1633; d. at Paris, 22 March, 1687. He was
brought to France when quite a child by Mile da
Montpensier, Having great natural gifts as a vio-
linist, he w
lets, and was appointed composer to the Idn^
and music master to the royal family. After his
marriage in 1662, he became on very intimate
terms with Moli^, with whom he collaborated
in ballets until 1671. A clever diplomatist and
thorough courtier, he completely won the ro^ol
favour, and in March, 1672, he succeeded in oustmg
Abbi Perrin from the directorship of the Academy
of Music, Thenceforward his success as founder M
modern French apeia was unquestioned, althou^
Combert, in 1671, paved the way. From 1672 to
1686 Lully produrad twenty operas, showing himself
a master of various styles. His "Isis", "Thtefa",
"Annide", and "Atyv" are eXKii;g«iciaiiREB.^«^r^
LULLT 4'i
atie work, and he not only improved recitative but
invented the FreDch overture. Nor did he concen-
trate hie abilities wholly on the stage: he wrote much
church muaic. As an artiat he was in the firet rank,
though as a man his ethical code was not of the strict^
wL Hie death was cauecd while conducting a "Te
Deum" to celebrate the king's recovery, as, when
beatiugtime, he struck his foot inadvertently, causing
an afascesB which proved fatal. At his decease he left
four houses, and property valued at £14,000, and he
occupied the coveted post of Secri'lairt du Roi, as well
as Svrintendant to IjOuis XIV.
Fens, Biognphit Univmtlli da tfiuiciVni (Psru, ISaO-
IBM): EiTNEH, Quetlm teruton (I^jiiiK, 1000-1804); Ohovb.
Did. a/ Mwnr. new ed. (Loadon, IWflT: LcR. HIary of Optra
LoU;, Raymond. See Raymond Lullv.
lamBn Ohrlati, the versicle chnntedby the deacon
on Holy Saturday as he lights the triple candle. After
the new fiie has been blessed outside the church a
light is taken from it by an acolyte. The procession
then moves up the church, the deucon in a whit«
dalinatic corr^-inK the triple candle. Three timeit the
procession stops, the deacon lights one of the candles
uom the taper and sings, "Lumen Christi", on one
note (fa), dropping a minor third (to re) on the last
syllable. The choir answers, "Deo gratias", to the
ume tone. Each time it is sung at a higher pitch.
As it is Bimg, all genuflect. Arrived .it the alt.ir, the
deacon begins the blessing of the Piischal Candle
{ExuUet). Themcaningof this rite is obvious; alight
miut be brought from the new fire to the Paschal
Candle; out of this the ceremony grew and attracted
to itself symbolic meaning, as usual. The triple candle
wasat first, no doubt, merely a precaution agninst the
light blowing out on the way. At one time there were
only two lights. The Sarum Consuetudinary (about
the year 1210) says: " I.et the candle upon the reed be
lighted, and let another candle be lighted at the same
time, 8o that the canille upon the reed can be rekindled
if itdiould chance to be blown out" (Thuislon, "Lent
and Holy Week", 418). A miniature of the eleventh
century shows the Paschal Candle being lighted from
a double taper (ibid., 419). The triple candle appears
fint in the twelfth and fourteenth Roman Ordines
(P. L., LXXVIII. 1076, 1218), about the twelfth
oentury. Father Thuiston sug^eKts a possible con-
nexion between it and the old custom of procuring tlic
new fire on three successive days (p. 41li). But pre-
caution against the light blowing out account.s for
several candles, and the inevitable mystic symbolism
U LUMIVARE
with which we find the root of the passages and cham-
bers of the Catacombs occasionally pierced for the
admission of light and air. These cnimney-like open-
ing have in many cases a considerable thickness of
soil to traverse before they reach the surface of the
ground. They generally broaden out betc)W, but con-
tract towards the summit, being sometimex circular
but more frequently square in section. As a rule they
reach down lo the second or lower story of the cata-
comb, passing through the lirst. tiomelmies tliey are
so contrived as to give light to two'or even more
chambers at once, or to a chamber and gallery to-
gether.
Of the existence of these light^shafts we have hiBtor<
ical as well as arehceological evidence. For example,
St. Jerome, in a well-known passage, writes of his
experience in Rome when he was a boy, about a. d.
360. "I used", he says, "every Sunday, in company
with other i>oys of my own age and tastes, to visit the
toiniis of the Apostles and martyrs and to go into the
crj-pta exc.ivat«l therein thebowclsuf Iheearth. The
walls on either side as you enter are full of the Irodies
of the dead, and the whole place is so dark ns (o ri'cidl
the words of the prophet, ' let them go down alive into
Hades'. Here and there a little light admitic<l from
above suffices to give a momentiirv relief to ( lie horror
of darkness" (In I'jech., Ix). This "littte hglit" un-
doubteilly was admit t I'd through the Ivmhmn'n.
Again, less tlian half a century later we have tin- (est i-
monj- of the poet I'rudentius, whose language is mure
cxphcit. "Not fur from the city walls", lie informs
UN, ''among the well-trimnie<l orchards there lies a
crj-pl buried in darksome pits. Into its secret rece.-ises
a Bleep path with winding stairs directs one, even
though Ihe turnings shut out the light. The light of
day, indeed, comes in through the doorwav, and
illuminates the threshold <tf the portico; and w)ien, as
you advance further, the darkness as of night seems to
get more and more obscure throughout the mazes of
the cavern, there occur at intervals apertures cut in
the roof which convey the bright radiance of the sun
down into the cave. Although the recessea, winding
at randiim this way and that, form narrow chamliers
with darksome g.illeries, yet a considentble quantity
of hght finds its way through the piercc<l vaulting
down into the hollow bowels of the mountain. And
thus throughout (he subterranean crypt it if possible
lo perceive the brightness and enjoy the ligh( of tlio
alisent sun" (Prudentius, Peristeph., xi). Although
the word lutnirmre itself is not employed by either of
these writers, it is not a term of- modern coinage. In
the Cemetery' of St. Callistus we have a rather famous
inscription set up by the Deacon Severus which begins
thus: —
Cubiculum duplex cum arcosolils et luminare
.„ > JusHu jiiiiw sui Marcellini di.icomu isle
Angular tuminarium) is tlie name applied to tlie shafla Hevenis lecit manajonen in pace quietam . . .
(Bationaie, VI, SO), docs not mention the triple can-
dle. In the Sanim Kite only one candle was lighted.
While it was carried in procession to the I'aBcbal
Candle, a hymn, "Inventor rutili dux bone luminis",
waa sung by two cantors, the choir answering the first
verse after each of the others ("Missale Sarum",
Burntisland, 1861-83, 337). In the Mozarabic Rite
*bB bishop lightB and blesses one candle; while it is
fiTOu^ht to the altar an antiphon, " Lumen venim
illumtnaus omnem hominem , etc., is sung (Mieaale
Mixturo, P. L., LXXXV, 459), At Milan, in the mid-
dle of the Exultct a subdeacon goes out and brings
back a candle lit from the new fiie without any further
eeiemonv. He hands this to the deacon, who lights
the Pascual Candle (and two others) from it, and then
goes on with the Exultet (Missale AmbroHianum,
editio tjTiica, Milan, 1902, Rcpertorium at end of the
book, p. 40).
TmmfTon, Ltm and Holy Wrrk (London. Ifi041. 414-17.
Auriax Fortf-scue.
LUMBCt
431
Linu
(The Deacon Severus made this double oubiculum,
with its arcosoli^ and luminare by order of his Pope
Blaroellinus as a quiet abode in peace for himself and
his family.) Pope Maroellinus hved from a. d. 206 to
308, and we may be fairly sure that the date of this
construction preceded the Diocletian persecution of
303. Again, m the crypt of St. Eusebius in the same
Cemetery ot Callistus was discovered an inscriptioa
in these terms: —
Fortunius et Matrona se vivis fecerunt bisomiun ad
luminare
(Fortunius and Matrona constructed this double
tomb for themselves in their lifetime beside the light-
shaft). This is how De Rossi (Roma Sotterranea, II,
162; Illy 109) reads the lettering on the broken slab,
and, though several of the other words are wanting
and are supplied by him conjecturally, the lasty vis.,
luminare, is perfectly unmistakable.
The majonty of the luminaria as we find them exist-
ing in the Catacombs to-day were constructed after
the age of persecution was over, during the course of
the fourth and early fifth century, when the tide of
devotion still set strongly towards the Catacombs as
the favourite burying-places of the Christian popula-
tion of the city, but tnere were also other luminaria
of earlier date. ^ Occasionally the Acts of the Martyrs
speak of poor victims being thrown down these aper-
tures and stoned by the pagans. (See Acts of Marcel-
Unus and Petrus in A. SS., 2 June, n. 10.) At the later
period the existence of a large and well-constructed
light^hafi constitutes a tolerably safe presumption
that the chamber into which it opened contained the
last resting-place of martyrs specially honoured by
popular de votion. The fact that these tombs attracted
a concourse of people made it desirable, when the need
for secrecy had passed away, that more provision
should be made for lighting the chamber. A large
shaft was accordingly constructed communicating
with the outer air, and a certain amoimt of decoration
in the way of frescoes was often applied to it internally.
On the other hand these orifices upon the surface of
the ground, unless they were protected by a pampet
and constantly looked after, became the channels by
which soil and rubbish of all kinds were washed into
the chambers below. In some cases this accumulation
of earth and sand has protected and hidden that por-
tion of the catacomb which' is verticalljr underneath
and thus rescued many precious memorials from the
ill-considered attentions, or outrages, of earlier ex-
plorers. De Rossi (Rom. Sott., Ill, 423) has left an
interesting account of his patient opening-up of the
luminare which was the only means of access to the
original burial-chamber of St. Cecilia. Often, again,
when churches were built over portions of the 6ita-
combs, as in the time of Pope Damasus or earlier, it
would seem that a sort of luminare or fenestra was
made, through which it was possible for the devout
worshippers in the church above to look down into the
crypt where the martyr was buried. A story told by
St. Gregory of Tours about the crypt of Sts. Chry-
santhiis and Darius (De Glor. Mart., 37) seems dearly
to illustrate some such arrangement.
(The Crypt of St. Cecilia, with its large luniinare,
will be found figured among the illustrations in the
article Catacombs, Roman.)
De Waal in Kraus. Real Encyclovadie, XI (Freibuxg, 1886),
345-^7; Maruochi. EUmenU d: ArctUologU, II (Rome, 1002),
158 aad pasnim: North cote and Brownlow, Roma Softer'
ranea, I (2Qd ed., London, 1870), 0-10, 340-350 and passim:
De Rossi, Roma Sotterranea, III (Rome, 1876), 423 sq. And
of. bibliography to the arUcles Cemeteries; Catacoicbs.
Herbert Thurston.
Luxnmi Indians (abbreviated from Nuglummi,
about equivalent to "people", the name iised by
themselves), the principal one of more than twenty
small Salishan tribes originally holding the lower
shores, islands, and eastern nintcrliuid of Puget Sound,
Waahinston; bv the Treaty of Pomt Elliott (1855),
gathered upon nve reservations within the same terri-
tory under the Jurisdiction of Tulalip Agency. The
Lummi occupied several villages about the mouth of
Lummi river, Whatcom County. Their lan^ajge is the
same as that spoken, with dialectic vanations, by
the Samish and Klalam to the south, the Semiamu on
the north, in British Columbia, and the Songiah,
Sanetch, and Sooke of Vancouver Island, B. C. To-
gether with the other tribes of the Tulalip Agency,
they have been entirely Christianized througn the
labours of the Rev. Casimir Chirouse and later Oblatee
beginning about 1850. In 1909 the Indians upon the
Lummi reservation, including several smaller bands,
numbered altogether 435 souls, a decrease of one*
half in forty years. (See Tulalip.)
James Moonst.
Lumper, Gottfried, Benedictine patristic writer,
b. 6 Feb., 1747, at Fussen in Bavaria; d. 8 March, 1800
(Hefele says 1801), at the Abbey of St. Geoi^ge at Bil-
lingcn in the Black Forest. At an early age he com-
menced his education at the abbey school, received in
the course of time the habit of the order, made his
solemn profession in 1764, and was ordained priest in
1771. After this he never left the monastery except
for occasional assistance in the sacred ministry. He
was appointed director of the gymnasium, and pro-
fessor of church history and dogmatic theology. Later
he was made prior of his monastery. He was a man of
irreproachable character, whom nothing could move
from the path of duty, and at the same time possessed
profound learning and untiring diligence. All his
spare time he employed in the study of early Chris-
tian literature, and Catholic Cermany owes him grate-
ful remembrance esi^ecially for his great work, ^'His-
toria theologico-eritica de vita, scriptis atque doo-
trina SS. Pat rum alionimciue scriptorum eccl. trium
priorum sseculorum ", whicn he published in thirteen
volumes at Augsburg between 1783 and 1789. Of less
importance are his smaller works: A translation of
** Historia religionis in usum prtelectioniun catholica-
rum " of Matthew SchrOckh, of which two editions ap-
peared at Augsburg in 1788 and 1790; also the two
works in German, *'Die r5misch-kath. hi. Messe in
dcutscher Sprache ".with various additional prayere
(Ulm, 1784), and "Der Christ in der Fasten, d. L die
Fasten-Evangelia nach dem Buchstaben und sitt-
lichen Sinne ''^(Ulm, 1 786) . He also gave valuable as-
sistance in the publication of the periodical "Nova
Bibliotheoa Eccl. Friburgensis ".
KlCpfbl, Nearotog, aodal. et amtc, Ut. (Freibuiv, 1809), p.
250; AUgem, deuL Bioff.. XIX, 835; Hbfelb in Kircherdex^ B. v.;
HusTER, NomencUUor, III (Innsbruck, 1895), 341.
FnANas Mebshman.
Luna, Pedro de, antipope under the name of
Benedict XIII, b. at Illueca, Ara^on, 1328; d. at the
Pefiiscola, near Valencia, Spain, either 29 Nov., 1422,
or 23 May, 1423. He was elected 28 Sept., 1394,
deposed at the Council of Constance 26 July, 1417.
Pedro Martini bdonged to the family of de Luna; he
studied law at Montpellier, where he obtained his
doctor^s degree, and later taught canon law at that
university. On 30 Dec., 1375, Gregory XI made him
cardinal deacon of S. Maria in Cosmedin. The pope
was attracted to him by his noble lineage, his austere
life, and great learning, as well as by his untiring
energy and great prudence. Cardinal Pedro de Luna
returned to Rome with Gregory XI, after whose death
in 1378 he took part in the conclave which was at-
tacked by the Romans, and which elected Urban VI,
for whom he voted. He showed great coiu^e at the
unexpected attack upon the coneLave, and would not
take flight, declaring "Even if I must die, I will fall
here". He was among the first cardinals to return to
the Vatican on 9 April, in order to continue the eleo*
tion of Urban VI. At first be d\&^A»R«c5 vs^^^^^v^^^^n
Lini4 432 LUMA
took rides for this pope (Valois, " La France et le grand the French court met with mater success at the for-
schisme d'occident", 1, 72-74). About 24 June, 1378, eign courts. However, neither the pope of Rome nor
he joined the other non-Italian ciurdinals at Aiiagni, the pope of Avignon would consent to this way, so
where he became convinced of the invalidity of the that the schism remained as heretofore, while general
vote for Urban* VI. He took part in the election of discontent reigned in all Christian countries. An em-
Rob^ of Geneva (Clement VI^ at Fondi on 20 Sept., bassy undertaken by Pierre d'Ailly, Bishop of Cam-
1378, and became a zealous adherent of this antipope brai, to Benedict, by order of Charles VI of France,
wfaoee legality he energetically defended, and to whom and Wenceslaus of Germany, accomplished nothing.
he rendered sreat service. In May, 1398, a third assembly of the French clergy
Clement VII sent him as legate to Spain for the took place, and they resolved to withdraw from the
Kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal, obedience of Benedict. This resolution was published
in order to win them over to the obedience of the 27 July, 1398, and immediately took effect. On 1
Avignon pope. Owing to his powerful relations, his Sept., two royal conmiissioners publicly announced
influence in the Province of Aragon was very great, the withdrawal of the obedience at Villeneuve, near
In 1393 Clement VII appointed him legate to France, Avienon, inviting all the French clergy to leave Bene-
Brabant, Flanders, Scotland. England, and Ireland, diet s curia, under penalty of the forfeiture of their
As such he stayed principally in Paris, but he did benefices in France. ^ Also those who were not French
not confine his activities to those countries that lost their benefices in France if they still remained
belonged to the Avignon obedience. He did not with the pope at Avignon. On 2 Sept. seventeen
then oppose the union; on the contrary, he famil- cardinals left Avignon and took up their abode at
larized himself with the endeavours of the Univer- Villeneuve, on French territ»r}'. They sent an envoy
rity of Paris, which strove to suppress the schism, to Benedict, summoning him to agree to the via ce^
in consequence of which, on his return to the Curia stonia. But he declared that he would rather suffer
at Avignon, a coolness arose between Clement VII death. Then ei/jhteen cardinals left him and with-
and himself. When the latter died, 16 Sept., 1394, drew their obedience; only five cardinals remained
Pedro de Luna was unanimously chosen, 28 Sept., to faithful to him.
succeed him. His desire to put an end to the schism, Geoffroy Boucicout occupied Avignon with troops,
even if he had to renounce the papal dignity (via and besieged the pope in his p^ce, out failed to take
ceaHonis) was a strong inducement for the cardinals the papal fortress by storm. Benedict was at last
of the Avignon obedience to unite their votes in his obliged to treat with his enemies; in an understanding
favour. After his election he solenmly renewed his with his cardinals he pledged himself to renounce the
promises given during the conclave, to work for the papacy if the Roman pope would do likewise. Never-
re-establishment of unity, and if necessary to renounce theless on 9 May, 1399, the pope had a notar>', in the
the papacv in order to put an end to the schism. As presence of two witnesses, draw up a protest oppos-
he was only a deacon, he was made a priest on 3 Oct., ing these stipidations as obtained from him by force,
and on 11 Oct. was consecrated bishop and enthroned w£uch proceedings he repeated later on. The negotia-
as pope. He took the name of Benedict XIII. tions as to the custodians of the pope in his palace at
The choice of Cardinal de Luna was welcomed by Avignon were long drawn out, owing to Benedict's
theFrenchcourt, and by the University of Paris; they clever policy; at laat Louis of Orleans was chosen.
hoped that the new pope, who was much esteemed be- Meanwnile a change took place in the public opinion
cause of his austere life and personal ability, would by in favour of the pope who was considered to be ill-
his own efforts restore Church unity. Nevertheless used. Advances were made between the latter and the
Benedict XIII sought to preserve entire freedom of cardinals, and many theologians, among them Gerson
action in his relations with the King of France and the and Nicholas de Clemanges, began to attack as unlaw-
University of Paris. The assembly of the French ful the aforesaid withdrawal of the French obedience.
clenpr wluch took place 3 Feb., 1395, and lasted until The negotiations which France had carried on with the
18 Feb., in order to confer on a means of putting an different princes in order to end the schism met with no
end to the schism, agreed that the only way was for success. On 12 March, 1403, Benedict secretly took
hotb. popes to abdicate (via cessionis), and the French flight from Avignon, and reached territory belonging
court behoved it could arbitrarily put this expedient to Louis II of Anjou, where he was safe. Avignon
in practice. A brilliant embassy, headed bv three of immediately submitted again to him, and his cardinals
the most powerful French princes, brought this resolu- likewise recognized him, so that in a short time bis
tion to Benedict XIII, ana sought to gain his consent, obedience was re-estabhshed in the whole of France.
But the pope obstinately opposed it, in spite of the Benedict XIII now renewed the interrupted ncgo-
fact that the cardinals sidea with the embassy. He tiations with the Roman pope, and in 1404 sent four
insisted that personal negotiations between both popes envoys to Rome, to suggest to Boniface IX that some
was the best course to pursue (via discussionis)^ and safe spot should be chosen for a meeting between the
tenaciously clung to his opinion. Upon which the two pcmes and both colleges of carclinals, and thus b^
French court and the University of Pans sought to win mutual agreement put an end to the schism. To t liis
over the secular princes to the support of the via proposition Boniface would not listen. After the lat-
ceBsionis, But the different embassies of the year ter's death (1 Oct., 1404) Benedict's envoys continued
12^ met with Uttle success. Meanwhile Benedict to parley with the Roman cardinals. THese however
XIII sought to enter into an alliance with the Roman on 17 Oct., elected Innocent VTI, who also declined
po]3e Boniface IX. Ambassadors were sent from any further negotiations. Meanwhile Benedict XIII
Avignon to Rome and vice versa; but Boniface IX was trying to strengthen his position through exten-
refused to entertain the idea of resigning, being as sion of his obedience. In May, 1405, he went to
finnly convinced as Benedict that he was the legiti- Genoa, in order to enter into new negotiations with
mate pope. Innocent VII, but apain without results. Benedict
The Avignon pope had possessions in Italy, which understood how to ^in new adherents, and now hope<l
he held on to with all his power; seeking not only to with their aid to drive his adversary from Rome and
prejudice the kings ^nd princes of Scotland, Castile, thus keep the field as the only ]iope. However, hisposi-
A&a Aragon who l^longea to his obedience against the tion in Italy again became critical. While his a ttitudo
action of the French court-, but to win them oyer to in France caused great dissatisfaction, partly because
his own cause; he also tried to win back the King of of his taxation of benefices, and partly because of his
France. Another assembly of the French clergy met indifference to the restoration of ecclesiastical unity;
16 Aug., 1396. They again dcK^ided in favour of the also because of his departure from Avignon. He rV-
Al>dicationof both popes; this time the ambasaadon of turned to Marseilles by way oi Nice, and declared
J.VMD 433 LITHD
Umaelf leadjr to aaoemble a ootmcil of the Avisncm Land [Luhda; LoKDimtjy (Lomdinuu) Ooibobom
obfxlieaoe. Another usembl/ of the French t&Tgy (Scanobuu, Scakdinorttu w Danoruk)] Jn the LU
took plaoe at the end of 1406; thev wished to revtJce of MalmSbua — knciant Catnolio diocese. The dty is
the pope's right to tax the French benefices. Though now the capital of the former Danish province Sluuuie
Benedict waa severely censured, he also found lealous (Scania), and is situated oa an elevated nooded site
partisans. But no palpable results were obtained. in a fertile country, about eight miles from the Sound
When Innocent VII died, 6 Nov., 1406, it was and twenty-four miles east of Copenhagen. It hoi
tL<^>ed, in case a new pope was not chosen at Rome, a university with a large Ubruy contaJiiing about
that Benedict would at last fulfil his promise of abdi- 200,000 volumes, and over 2,000 manuscripts, a high
_.; — i n the way for a new and unanimous school, and a school of languages, arts, and sciences.
election; but as t^ gave only evasive answers to such astronomical observatory, T)otanical gardens, histor-
suggestions, Gregory XII was chosen pope 30 Nov., ical museum, several hospitals, insane asylum, im-
atRome. The tatter wrote immediately to Benedict, portant industries, brewenee, and numerous factories
and amiounoed that he was ready to abdicate on lorthemanufactureof cloth, linen, leather, hardware,
condition that Benedict would do Kkewise, and that bricks, and tJles. ItisnowaProtestantsee. Itasuperb
afterwards the cardinals of Avignon would unite with Romanesque cathedral (its crypt dates from the elev-
" e of Rome for a unanimous papal election. Bene- enth or twelfth century) was restored in 1833--78. "*
diet replied 31 Jan., 1407, acceptm^ the proporition. the other numerous medieval churches (31 parish, 9
Further endeavours were now made, m oraer to induce monastic churches) there now remains only St. PetOT'a
planned at Savona between Benedict and Gregory, from the middle of the twelfth century.
But It never took place. Benedict, indeed, arrived at Saints' churchwaa built in 1888-1891. The city has touf
Savona, 24 Sept., but Gregory did not appear. The large pubhc squares and many small irregular streets,
positioa of the Avignon pope grew worse; on 23 Nov.. the names of which occasionally recall the Catholic
1407, his principal protector in France, Louis at past. Of especial interest are the cathedral square
Orleans, the king's brother, was murdered. Thepc^ and the adjoining "Lundagaard", so called after ths
no longer received any revenues from French bene- former royal castle which stood there, its ancient
fiees, and when he wrote a threatening letter to King tower alone remaining. In the Middle Ages Lund
Charles VI, the tatter tore it up. On 25 Hay, 1408,' was famous as the principal city of the norm (nwfro-
the king declared that France was neutral towards potig Dania, caput ipnua re^t). Through the cen-
both papal pretenders. Soon a number of cardinals tunes (1172, 1234, 12S3, 1287, IS78, 1711) the city
belonging to both obediences met for the purpose at suffered much from Tire and the devastations of war;
convening a universal coundl (see Pisa, Council or), the kings in their quarrels with the archbishop ex-
Benedict XllI fled to Roussillon, and on his side called hibiting the temper of Vandals. In 1452 Lund was
a councilatPerpignanwhichopened oa21 Nov., 1408. destroyed by the Swedish kin^, Charles Knutsaon,
Both popes were deposed at the Council of Pisa. The and never recovered from this disaster. Tlie city d»-
delegation that Benedict sent thither arrived too late, clined steadily from the beginning of the Reformation
In spite of this, the Avignon pope was still reconiiiod and had well ni^h lost all its importance when by the
by Scotland, Aragon, Castile, and the Island of Sicily, Treaty of Roakilde (165S) Denmark was obliged to
The territory ^ Avignon was seited in 1411 for the cede the Provinces of Sksane, Halland, and Blekinge
Pisan pope (Alexander V). Since 1408 Benedict had to Sweden. Even the establishment (1066) and en-
resided at Perpignan. Emperor Sigismundwent there, dowment of a university (1668) did not raise Lund to
19 Sept., 1415, from the Council of Constance, in order its former infiuentJaJ position. In the beginning tA
to urge the abdication of Benedict, but without avail, the eight«enth century the population had decreased
Later it was decided to hold a conference at Narboime to six hundred and eighty souls; thenceforth it grew
in Dec., 1415, between the representatives of thoee slowly until towards the end of the century it num-
countries who until then had acknowledged Bene- bcred three thousand souls. In the nineteenth oen-
diet, for the purpose of withdrawing their obedience tury trade, commerce and industries jp^atty increased,
on account of his obstinacy. Thereupon, Benedict and the population grew from 8,385 m 1858, to 19,464
retired to the castle of Pefiiscola (near Valencia, in in 1908, nearly alLLutherane.
Spain) which belonged to his family. An embassy to Hibtorx. — Lund brings us back to the heathen and
him from the Council of Constance failed to soften bis fabulous period of Scandinavia. Nothing autbentio
stubbornness, and he was deposed by the council 36 is known about the origin of the city but it is certain
July, 1417. He never submitted to the decision of the that as early as the ninth century Lund was a plaoe
council, but continued to consider himself the only of great commereial importance. The insignificant
legitimate pope, and compared Peiliscola to Noah s stream Hajeaa which now flows near Lund and emp-
Ark. Four cardinals who remained with him, later ties into the Lomma Ba^ in the south-west was for
acknowledged &Iartin V as rightful pope. B^edict one thousand years navigable by large vessels. The
maintained thaC in 1418 one S the tatter's ambassa- name Lund (a tunall wood or grove) is derived from ft
dors had tried to poison him. The date of Pedro de heathen sacrificial grove which lay to the east of the
Luna's death has never been ascertained. It is diffl- city, and where the deities of the North, Odin, Thar,
cult to decide between 29 Nov., 1422, and 33 Hay, Fnma, were honoured. Lund is first mentioned in
1423; the date generally given [1424] is incorrect, the Icelandic saga, which tells us that the city, eut-
His few adherents gave mm a sucoessor, MuSos, who rounded by a wooden rampart, was plundered and
e — ,; 'lued the schism, Pedro ae Luna wroto burnt in 940 by the Vikings. "The converaion of the
n law ("Dec<xiciIio gene- North to Christianity was Degun a century earlier by
rB!i";"Denovoschismate")editedonlyinpart(Ehrle Archbishop Ebbo of Reims and St. Anschar, Arch-
in "Archiv fUr Literatur- und Kirchengescfaiohte dea bishop of Hamburg-Bremen, his successor in this
Mittela Iters ", VII, 515 sqq.). apostolic work; both worked here personally and also
Baloie. Vila papamn Afmianrnriam (Pfttia, Ifl03); de sent missionaries. But the results were neither nota-
4^f'^'v'''*""f",i>'^'^"""",JC?!'^" ''".'"■ ^"''^'''' ble nor lasting, at least in Sweden. Heathenism was
aSiS^'ii ?j:i^^im]]i^r3-/LuJS'J"^ •>"» ^^y uprooted, and in many places was strong
KinkmauAitlilt da MiUtlaUirrt. V, 387-402). Idiu. Neue enough to prevent the bmlding of churches and the
Mattrialin lurpacAiMtP^, T*/"?" ''^itr"*,"*^'*^ ■ foundation ot sees. The missionaries succeeded only
F™' « rf ii7rV!^ilS^-!l!^%7MXrtitoi'^^l: m^}SiM '^. •I"*'*"', where they eatabUshed the sees of Sohle*.
■ee bibliugrsptiy. Constahce, Couhcil or. ' wig, Ribe, and Aarhus (946) as suffragans of I^g--
J. P. KnwcH. bwg-Brenwa. Ibwa&w^i >xg>&^~'£C:£|^%^«>^''>^^'**^
IX.— 28
LUHD 434 LUHD
kfl^ (960-1014) and his son Canute (Knud) tho Great owing to the new ecclesiastical autonomy and inde^
(1014-1035) that Christianity made any headway in pendence of the Scandinavian countries, formeriy
Denmark. They reiifned over England also, hence under the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen. By
the growing English mfluence in reli^on, education, several papal Bulls missionary work m the heathen
and conmierce. Svend obtained English missionaries North had been originally assigned to the Archbishop
for Skaane, among them was Gotebald(d. about 1021), of Hamburg-Bremen, also the jurisdiction over those
first Bishop of Roskilde. Besides other religious countries when converted to Christianity. Later,
houses and monasteries in Denmark Svend erected however, several sees were created in Denmark which
also the first church in Lund, and dedicated it to the had already endeavoured to estabhsh a direct union
Blessed Trinity. During his reign the See of Odense with Rome and to do away with a foreign and trouble-
was established on the Island of FOnen (988). some intermediary authority. This was all the more
Canute did still more for the Scandinavian countries, reasonable from the moment that the Bremen prel-
especially for the development of Lund; he encouraj^ed ates^ as worldly princes, began tc be occupied with
industries and trade and erected at Lund the ^rst affau^ of State to the neglect of their duties as spir-
mint in Scandinavia. Perhaps Adam of Bremen was itual shepherds. They undertook to consecrate their
right when he said: "Cuius (sc. Sconise) metropolis dependent suffragan bishops, or at least reserved to
civitasLundonaquam victor AngliaeChnudBritannicae themselves the right of ratification of those bishops
Londonse aemulam jussit esse" (Pertz, "Monum. when named bv the king.
Germ.", VII, 371), i. e.. Canute desired to make Scan- For Denmark the danger wa^ imminent that the pow-
dinavian Lund the rival of English London. At least he erful Bremen Metropolitan might misuse his influence
laid the foundation for the growing importance of Lund and by interference in the internal affairs of the coim-
as the medieval metropolis of Scandinavia. In later try endanger its political Uberty and independence,
centuries Lund was a^ain a royal residence and even Canute had already planned the establishment of
more important than Koskilde and Ringsted. Canute a Scandinavian church province; but it was only
VI celebrated at Lund in 1 1 77 his marriage with Ilenrj' under his successor Svend Estridaen (" cuius industria
the Lion's daughter, Gertrude of Saxony; Waldemar Dania in octo eniscopatus divisa est"^ Langebek,
the Victorious was crowned there in 1202 and it was "Script, rer. dan. '. Ill, 444) that negotiations were
there in 1409 that took place the marriage between begun at Rome. Adalbert of Bremen opposed the in-
Eric of Pomerania and Philippa of England. Soon dependence of these northern sees, except on condition
alsoit became a place of great ecclesiastical importance, that his own metropolitan see were promoted to the
. The first Bishop of Lund was Bernard, who liad Ixjcn dignity of a patriarchate over the whole North. After
for five years in Iceland and was sent by Canute to the death of Adalbert (1072) his successor Liemar
Lund in 1022. Canute also filled other sees in Den- sided with Henry IV in the Investitures conflict and
mark with men who had been consecrated bishops in Gregory VII invited Iving Svend to resume the former
England, in violation of the right of the Metropolitan negotiations. Svend died^ however, about 1075 and
of Uambui^; therefore when Gerbrand, consecrated the Northern Church question rested for some time till
Bishop of Roskilde at Canterbury, repaired- to Den- EricEjegod,thesecondsucoessorofSt.Canute, tookup
mark, he was seized by Archbishop Unvan of Ham- the affair anew and brought it to a close. Apparently,
burg-Bremen and set free only on submitting to tho at the Svnod of Bari in which Anselm of Canterbury
archbishop as his metropolitan (1022). The king now also took part, Eric obtained from LJrban II two re-
saw that he was oblige<l to recognize the privileges of quests: the establishment of an archbishopric, and the
the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, and in this he canonization of his brother Canute. Under Paschal
was followed by the Kings of Sweden and Norway. II (1100) the efforts of Eric were crowned with suc-
Adam of Bremen concluded from this that the su- oess, and the canonization of Canute was solemnized
premacy of the See of Hamburg was respected as a in Odense, all the bishops of the country being pres-
matter of fact in all Scandinavian countries; every ent. Shortly after this Eric died in the Island of
Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian bishop, he says, was C3rprus (1103), while on a pilgrimage to the Holy
obliged to report to Archbishop Libentius II (1020- liand. At the same time Cardinal Alberich repaired
32) the progress of Christianity in their respective to Denmark as papal legate to select an appropriate
countries (Pertz, "Monum. Germ.", VII, 328). see for the new metropolitan. His choice fell on Lund,
Lund, however, was not properly a see until Svend and the local bishop, Asger (Adzer), a friend of Anselm
Estridsen^ the successor of Canute, separated Skaane of Canterbury^ receivetl the pallium and the archi-
ecclesiastically from Roskilde (1048) and created two episcopal dignity (1104). In this way the Northern
sees, liund and Dalby. After the death of the un- Cnurcn was freed from its dependence on Bremen-
worthy bishop, Henry of Lund, Dalby and Lund were Hamburg. Adalbero of Bremen, after the Concordat
united (1060) but there still remained at Dalby a col- of Worms (1128), was very anxious to revive the old
lege of reguLir canons with a provost. The Province metropolitan rights in their plenitude, and for this
of Skaane must have numl)ered at that time about purpose did not shrink from forging papal Bulls.
three himdred churches (Pertz, " Monum. Germ.", VII, iSnperor Lothair III, in the hope ot gaining politi-
370). The building of a new stone cathedral which callv by the civil war which in the meanwhile had
was to he dedicated to St. Lawrence was zealouslv broken out inDenmark, supported at Rome Ada Ibero's
f urthered by the saint Iv King Canute (1086). Through request. In fact Innocent II restored the authority
richly endowed foundations he sought to maintain of the Archbishop of Bremen over all the northern
God's service worthily, and can therefore rightlv be sees, as is shown by several contemporary letters to
called the founder of the cathedral. His deed of gift Adalbero, to Archbishop Asger, and to the Kings of
for this (21 May, 1085) was done apparentlv on the Sweden and Denmark. Asger, however, held fast to
occasion of the consecration of the church and is liis rights, encouraged by his nephew Eskil, then
the oldest extant Danish royal deed on record in the provost of the cathedral of Lund, w-ho sent Hermann,
original. a canon of Lund, and a Rhinelander, to Rome where
Later donations were so numerous that the cathe- he defended successfully the rights of the Metronolitun
dral became the richest church in the North. Lund of Lund guaranteed fully to him thirty years Wf ore.
was also the foremost-, though one of the most re- This ended for all time tlie ambitious plans of doniina-
cent, sees in the Scandinavian Church, only Viborg tion long cherished by the Prelate of Bremen; the
and BOrglum in Jutland being later foundations lofty dream of a Patriarchate of the North toppled;
(1065). (Contemporaneously there ))epan for Den- even the authority of a Frederick Ha rbarossa (U/iS)
mark ;jjj epoch of great prosperity, which is still the could not revive it. Later Hermann became Bishop of
natlonuJ pride. This prosperous development was Schleswig; he is buried in the crypt of the cathedral at
LUNETTE
435
LUHSTTB
Lund. In 1134 Asgcr was confirmed in his dignity by
Innocent II, through the papal legate Cardinal Mar-
tin. In 1139 his successor Eskil (q. v.) held at Lund
the first Northern National Council under the presi-
dency of Cardinal Theodignus. The high altar of the
cathedral was solemnly consecrated by Eskil in 1145,
making in all with those of the crypt sixty-four conse-
crated altars. When in 1152 a separate ecclesiastical
province was established at Tronohjem (Nidaros) for
Is'orway with bishops of the Faroe Islands, Iceland,
and Greenland as suffragans, the Archbishop of Luna
received the honour of papal legate with the title of
Primate of Denmark and Sweden, Under Eskil's
reign the ecclesiastical law of Skaane (1162) and Zee-
land (1171) was codified, numerous monasteries
founded and the Archbishopric of Upsala established
(1164). After the conauest of Rugen (1169) the See
of Roskilde was divided and the jurisdiction of Limd
was enlarged. Later the North German sees of Lil-
beck, Hatzeburg, Schwerin, and Cammin were added
to Lund as suffragans.
Under Archbishops Absalon (1177-1201) (q. v.),
and Andreas Sunesdn, 1201-23, Lund was at the
zenith of its power. Absalon was equally prominent
as prince of the Church and as statesman and con-
tinues to he reckoned one of the most prominent men
of medieval Denmark. Both he and Eskill encour-
aged monastic life and were patrons of the arts and
sciences. During his reign the famous historian Saxo
Gramma ticus was provost of Roskilde (1208). Ab-
salon rendered service to the Church by strict disci-
pUne and the introduction of celibacy among the
clergy. His successor Andreas was a zealous and
saintly man highly educated and the most learned
medieval theologian of Denmark. The epic "Hexa-
(jmeron" and several hymns testify to his gifts as a
classical scholar. He took part personally in the
crusades against the heathens m Livonia and Esthonia
and established three new suffragan sees in Reval,
Leal, and Virland which were lost by the sale of Es-
thonia to the Teutonic Order (1346). Under him the
first Dominican monastery was established in Lund
(1221). He was probably present at the Lateran
Council and is said to have been the only Dane who
ever received a cardinal's hat. He ilied in 1228 after
he had resigned about 1223 on account of ill-health; it
has been suggested on account of leprosy.
The second half of this century was saddened by
weary strifes between the archbishops and Kings
Christopher I and Eric Mcnved. Archbishops Jacob
Erlandsen and Jens Grand were cruelly imprisoned
and the country fell under an interdict. Jens Grand
escaped from his prison to Rome and Boniface VIII
removed the interdict from Lund. The archbishop
lived several years in Paris, received in 1307 the See of
Bremen and died at Avignon, 1326. The disorders of
the time were responsible for the decline of Lund in
secular and ecclesiastical affairs. The Province of
Skaane passed (1332-1360) to Sweden, was recon-
quered and was definitely lost by the Peace of Rc»-
kilde (1658). At the same time the Archbishop of
Lund's influence disappeared for the Archbishop of Up-
sala assumed complete authority over Lund, thereby
depriving the dignity of Primate of Sweden of all
meaning. During the time just preceding the Refor-
mation church affairs were in a very bad way in Den-
mark. Archbishop Birger (1519) rendered valuable
service 1 )y having the "Missale lun dense' ^ the "Breviar-
ium ccclesiaj lundcnsis", the^Statuta pro vincialia "
as well as the " Historia danica" of Saxo Grammaticus
printed at Paris. After his death there were com-
plications and dissensions between Christian II and
the cathedral chapter. The originally elected Aage
Sparre who was withdrawn to favour tfie king's choice,
Jiirgen 8kodl)org, succeeded (1523) in occup>dng the
archiepiscopal chair but resigned in 1532, powerless
to stay the advances of the Reformation. The last
Catholic archbishop, Torben Bills, who, however, was
never consecrated, was imprisoned by command of
Christian III in 1536, church property was confiscated
by the crown, and the Reformation was established.
A superintendent took the place of the archbishop
and tne incumbent has had the title of bishop since the
incorporation with Sweden in 1658.
Eight years later, Charles X founded a university,
solemnly opened in 1668. In 1676 the Danes gave
bloody battle near Limd and made in 1709 ano^er
fruitless attempt to reconquer Skaane. Charles VII
made Lund his head-quarters after his return from
Turkey in 1716-1718. In the course of its existence
the university has been threatened in several ways,
but since the beginning of the nineteenth century it
has not been imperilled. It comprises four faculties
and received in 1878-82 the gift of a new building from
the State. In 1908 there were about one hundred
professors stationed there, the number of students
being three hundred and twenty-two. A new library
was built m 1907. The famous poet, Esaias Tegn^,
lived there several years (1812-24) as professor of
esthetics and Greek and died in 1846 as Bishop of
Vexio.
Langebek, Scriptorea rerum danicarum, I-VII (Copenha|[eBi«
1772-02); Necrologium Lundenae, III, 422-73; Liber dameua
lundmnn. III, 473; III, 473-579; IV. 26-68; SaxonU Oram"
matiei historia Danicat ed. M()ller (Copenhugen, 1839);
Pertz, Mag, Adami Gesta hammerdfurgensia ecclesio! PonUfieum,
in Mon. Germ, hint., VII (Hanover, 1846), 267-^92; Sommb-
LI US, De initiis archiepiaeopatna lundenaia (Lund, 1767); Neu-
mann, De fatia Primaiua lundenaia (Ck>penhacen, 1799) ; Thriob*
De bremiake Erkebiakoppera Be^nxbelaer for at vedligeholde dem
Hdjhed over den nordiake Kirke (Copenhagen, 1S45) ; Cawalun.
Lunda Stifta Herdaminnetl (Lund. 1854), 1-15; Beruno, Luna
(Lund. 1859-68); Joroensen, Den nordiake Kirkea Orundlmih
qelae og /orate Udvikling, I, III (Copenhagen, 1862); AHLBNixra*
Sverige. Geografiak, Topqgrafiak, atatiatiak Beakri/ning, I (Stook-
holm. Upsali, 100S>, 261-83: HuiTTELnr, Danmarka Rigia
Krimike, I, II (Copenhagen, 1652): Oernhjelm, Hiatorica Sve-
onum Gothorumgue eccleaiaatica libri quatuor priorea (Stock-
holm, 1689); Pontoppidan, Annalea eccUaia danica. I-IV
(Copenhagen, 174 1 , sq.) ; iSuRic, Hiatorie af Danmarkt II-XIV
von Uanemar/c una isorxvegen ^L<eipzig, lodl;; keuterdahl,
Svenaka kyrkana hifiorie (till 1633), I-IV (Lund, 1836-66);
Lappknberg, Hamburaiadie UrkunderUtuch (Hombuiig, 1842J:
Helveo, Den danake Kirkea Hialorie til Refonnationen I, II
(C!openhagen, 1862); JOroensen, Hiatoridte Afhandlinger^ I
(Copenhagen, 1828), 5-58, 86-179, 202-234; Olrik, Konge og
Prctateatand (Copenhagen, 1898); Idem, Den eaULAe Danmark*'
krimike (0>penhagen, 1898).
Philipp von Kettenbuhq.
Lunette, known in Germany as the lunula and
also as the melchisedech, is a crescent-shaped clip
made of gold or of silver-gilt which is used for holding
the Host in an upright position when exposed in the
monstrance. The crescent wliich holds the Host is
securely attached to a small stand or frame and the
receptacle of the monstrance is usually provided with a
{px>ovo into which the stand fits so as to be held firmly
m its place. Most commonly, however, nowadays as a
precaution against accidents, the Host is not merely
fixed between twocresc«ntrshaped strips of metal but
is enclosed in a pyx with two glass faces and this
pyx is itself inserted bodily into the receptacle of the
monstrance. The lunette was certainly in use before
the Reformation and it is to be found in many of the
monstrances of the fifteenth century which are still pre-
served to us (see the list in Otte-Wemicke, "Hand-
buch", I, 243). Already in 1591 Jakob Muller in his
" Kirchengeschmuck" gives a detailed description of
the lunette, or "monlein", and points out the desira-
bility that the two strips of metal that form the clip
shoidd be separable so as to permit of their being
tlioroughly purifietl when the Host is changed. If a
glass pyx is used it ought to be possible so to fix the
Host that it does not remain in contact with the glass
(Decree of S. Cong, of Rit^s, 4 Feb., 1871).
Sen HOD in KirchenUxikon, s. v. MonslranM; Ottb-Webnicb^
Handburh der kirchliehen Kunt^-Arrftfiologie, I (T/eipzig, 1883),
240- 4: liAiiBiEU de Montm'Lt, Traits pr'ttiquf lie I'ameubie-
inftif ih< erli-^f*. 1 n'arw. 1S7"S), X'il-3; Mf ixkk, Kirchtmife'
fdimuck ^Munich, 1 jUI;, 30. HeubIuKC Xwv^-'iasrtvs^a.m
LUNI-aARZAKA-BRnOllATO 436 LUPUS
Loni-Sanana-Bnignato, Diocese of, in the 10 religious houses of men, and 25 of women, 6 schools
province of Genoa. Luni (originally Luna) was an for boys and 8 forjprls, and a Catholic periodical.
Etruscan city, but was seized by the Ligurians. At CAFPBLLmrn, U Chiete dTItaUa (Venice, 1857), XIII: Pro-
aa uncertain «iate it was token by the Romans under SSii'r25!rXiS(JSS.~ (cJi.^ ^""^
DomitiusCalvmus. In 177 b.c, and under the Second U. Benigni.
Trimnvirate, Roman colonies were established there.
The port, though far from the city (the modern port of Lupna (Servatus Lupus, Loup), Abbot of Fer-
Spesia), was very important even in antiqmty, and rfdres, French Benedictine writer, b. in the Diocese
the marble of Luna, known to^y as Carrara marble, of Sens, about 805; d. about 862. He assumed the
was veiy renowned. In the fiftii century Luna was surname of Servatus in commemoration of bis miracu-
»cked by the Vandals, and m 650 by the Lombards, lous escape from danger either in a serious illness or on
From the ninth century onwards it suffered the depre- the battlefield. He began his education at Ferri^res
dations of the Saracens, the last tune m 1016 under under Aldric and completed it at Fulda under Ra-
Mocehit, who, however, was conquered the same year banus Maurus. During his residence at Fulda (c. 830-
(8 June) by the Genoese and Pisan fleets. The city 35) he became an intimate friend and disciple of the
never recovered, however, and m 1058 the inhabitants learned Emhard. Even before he returned to his na-
cmigrated to the modem Sarzana. Rmns are stiU tive land he had become favourably known at court
visible of an amphitheatre, a semicircular theatre, a and was especially esteemed by the Empress Judith,
circus, and an aquanum. Numerous sixth century in- the second wife of Louis the Pious. To her and her son
scnptions, some of which are Oinstian. have been found Charles the Bald, whose political interests he always
at Luni. The sole record of its ancient importance defended, he owed his nomination as Abbot of Fer-
survives m the name of Lumgiana. Sarzana (sup- n^^ros (22 November, 840). Subsequently he took a
posed to be dcnyed from Semana) is a smaU city on prominent part in contemporary political and eccle-
the nrfit bank of the River Magrw, nearly four miles siastical events, even assuming active command on the
from the 8^. It is first mentioned in 963. The tem- battlefield several tunes. During the war between
poral junsdiction of Sar^a was vested m the bishops Charles the Bald and Pepin of Aquitaine he was cap-
of Luni, though it was often cont^ted by the Malas- tured and held prisoner for a short time (844). The
pina marquesses. Later it passed to the Pisans and game year he was sent to Burgundy to cany out the
to the Genoese. In 1353 a congress of princes and monastic reforms decreed by the Synod of Germigny
representatives of the republics of Italy was held at (843), and attended the Council of Vemeuil on the
Sarzana. In the Middle Ag^ it was an important oise, the Acts of which have been written by him.
stoategic point; the walls and bastions are still visible. He was also present at several other councils, notably
while the citadel, which was erected in 1263 bv the that of Soissons in 853, and played an important part
Pisans and destroved and rebuilt by Lorenzo de Medici in the contemporary controversy regarding predesti-
(1488) and by C^les VIII (1496), serves to-day as a nation. He believed in a twofold predestination, not
prison. The cathedral was built after 1200, and was indeed in the sense that God predestined some men to
aevenU timCT restored (1355, 1474, and in 1664 by Car- damnation, but that he foreknew the sins of men and
dbnalCa^dnm). It con tains picture ^^ foreordained consequent punishment. The closing
Fie^lla (called II Sarzana ), BaJletti (Coronation of yeara of the life of Lupus were saddened by the threats
Fredenck III), and sculptures by Baratta. The ceiling ened devastation of his monastery by the invading
m carved wood is the work of Pietro Giambelli. In a Normans. He occupies a prominent place in medieval
precious rehquary is preserved a lacnmatory in which, literary history, being one of the most cultured and
according to a pious legend, Nicodemus collected some refined men of the ninth century. His letters, of which
drops of the Blood of Christ. The arehives of the we possess 132, are distinguished for literary elegance
cathedral contain the precious '*Codex Pallavicinus ", and valuable historical information. As a hagiogra-
a collection of notarial documents and deeds made in pher he has left us a "Life of St. Maximin ", Bishop of
1226 by Bishop Guglielmo Pallavicino. The church trier (d. 349) and a "Life of St. WiglM?rt'', Abbot of
of S. Francesco is also important. Fritzlar in Hesse (d. 747). In the controversv on prc-
The episcopal see dates at least from the fifth century, destination he wrote his "De tribus quwstionibus^', a
In the sixth century St. Tercntius and St. Venantius, work which treated of the threefold question of free
a friend of St. Gregory the Great, flourished. Under will, predestination, and the universality of redemp-
Bishop Felerandus the above-mentioned relic of the tion. To illustrate the teaching of the Church on these
Blood of Christ is said to have l^een brought to Luni. topics he brought t<^ther pertinent passages from
St. Ceccardus (892) was murdered by barbarians, the Fathers in his "<%llectaneum de tribus quaestio-
When Luni was abandoned, the episcopal see was fixed nibus."
at Sarzana, then at Sarzanello, and finallv at Castel- The fint complete scientifie edition of the works of Lupus
nuovo. In 1202 Innocent III transferred the see to ^^•■l«*>lfefe?U^y.5^^P^^^*™'i.?^*^^T®'^'A^^^^» roprint
SM«na Gualtiero being the bishop In 1306 Dante &^.^rf&^ip*!tS~f>SS;.:^nitB?rS„?VK
went to Sarzana, and succeeded m setthng a dispute Li/« if Si. Maxtmin, ibid.. Script. Rer. Merov. (ed. Krusch),
between Bishop Antonio Camulla and the Marquess ni (Hanover. 18W), 74-83: Ljr« of St. Wva^^ i^.. Scrips
lff«1«<i*v;«iA 'Tk^k rkrwk4-'«> arxi^ttw^ \>M^m^ ;»oy%:~wl a f <>«r toTtt (ed. HoLDBR-Eoowi)t XV (Hanovef, 1887), 3« -43. Seoabo
Malaspina. Tne poet s sojourn here inspired a few spbotte. Biographic dB%AUf Serrate Lupu» (iutisbon. 188O);
" temne of the " Lh vine Comedy ". In 1 355 (Jharles Lkyillain , EtuJk rar U» UUrt» <f« Loup de Ferrih-e* m Biblioth.
and the church of S. Maria delle Grazie. Other illus- N. A. Weber.
trious bishop were Cardinal Simone Pasqua (1561);
Giovanni Selvaco (1590), the founder of the seminair; Lupna (Wolf). Christian, historian, b. at Ypres
Giulio Cesare Lomellino (1757), the reformer of the (Flanders), 23 Julv, 1612; d. at Louvain, 10 July,
diocese; Vincenzo M. Maggioli (1795), put to flight by 1681. He ioined the Auffustinian Order at the age of
tito Jacobins. In 1787 the Diocese of PontremoTi. and fifteen, ana on the completion of his studies, was ap-
in 1821 that of Massa Ducale were separated from Luni- pointed lecturer in theolcgv, to the younger members
Sarzana, but the Diocese of Brugnato, separated from of the order at Ck>lofi;ne. While occupying this position
Limi by Innocent II in 1133, was added in 1822. The he won the confidence of the nuncio, Fabio Chigi,
diocese of Luni-Sarzana is directly subject to the afterwards Alexander VII. In 1640 Lupus was ap-
Holy See, but Brugnato is a suffragan of G«ioa; the pointed professor of theology at Louvain, but, owing
united diocese has 107 parishes with 165,000 souls, to his zeal for the teaching of St. Augustine, was su6-
LtlSATXA
437
LirSSY
pected of Jansenism. The nuncio at Brussels acciised
mm of it, and would not permit the University oV
Louvain to confer a doctors degree upon him; only
after the pope's mediation was it given to him. When
the accusation was renewed, Alexander VII called him
to Rome, where for the next five years he devoted
himself under papal protection to the study of ecclesi-
astical history. He returned to Louvain in 1660, and
was elected provincial of the Belgian province; in
1667 he returned to Rome, accompanied by several
professors of the theological facul^ of Louvain, to
obtain tiie censure of a number of erroneous moral
doctrines. Innocent XI condemned sixt^-five of the
propositions denounced by him. On his return to
Louvain he was appointed r^us professor of the-
ology, the first time a religious had ever held this office.
His writing were published in thirteen parts, the first
twelve at Venice, 1724-1729, in six folio volumes, the
thirteenth at Bologna, in 1742. The first six under
the title ''Synodorum generalium et provincialium
statuta et canones cum notis et historicis disserta-
tionibus'' (1665-1673) contain a detailed history of
the councils, with many learned dissertations. The
seventh part contains: ''Ad Ephesinmn concilium
variorum patrum epistolas, item commonitorium
Coelestini papte, titulos decretorum Hilarii papse''
(Louvain, 1682). He also wrote critical replies to
Quesnel, Boileau, and Gerbais. His writing^, how-
ever, are mostly collections of historical materials,
usually but little elaborated by him.
HuRTER, Nomenclatar, II (1893)* 514-521.
Patricius Schlaoer.
Lnsatla. See Saxony, Vicariate Apostolic of.
Lusdnius (Nachtgall), OmiAR, an Alsatian
Humanist, b. at Strasburg, 1487; d. at Freibuig, 1537.
After receiving instruction at Strasburg from Jacob
Wimppheling, he went in 1508 to Paris, where he
studied Latin under Faustus Andrelini and Greek
under Hieronymus Aleander. He then studied canon
law at Louvain, Padua, and Vienna, and in the last city
music also under Wolfgane Grefineer. Subsequently,
he travelled in Greece and Asia Minor, returning to
Strasburg in 1514. Here he became associated with
Wimppheling and Sebastian Brant and mingled in
literary circles. In 1515 he was appointed organist at
the church of St. Thomas, and also received a vicar-
iate, as he was a priest. In addition he taught both in
the school of the Knights Hospitallers and in the cathe-
dral school. He spread in Strasburs his own enthu-
siasm for the Greek language and literature, and
published Greek manuals, collections of examples, and
an edition of Lucian with a translation. In 1515 he
also published a book on the elements of music (Insti-
tutiones musics), and in 1516 issued a revised edition
of the ''Rosella'' of Baptista Trovamala's compen-
dium of cases of conscience. The most important of
his later works are: (1) an edition (1518) of the Com-
mentary on the Pauline Epistles, then ascribed to
Bishop Haimo of Halberstadt. In the introduction
Luscinius condemns Scholasticism and champions the
study of the Bible; (2) an exposition and translation
of the Psalms (1524) ; (3) a harmony of the Goepeb in
Latin and German (1523-25) ; (4) the dialogue " Grun-
nius sophista'' (1522), a defence of Humanistic
studies; (5) a collection of anecdotes called ''Loci ac
sales mire festivi " (1524), written chiefly for scholarly
circles and intended rather to entertam than to b!e
satirical. It contains extracts from Greek and Roman
authors, quotations from the Bible and the Fathers
of the Church, and moral applications which consort
but ill with the many coarse jests.
Luscinius went to Italy and there received the de-
gree of Doctor of Law. Iii 1520 he lost his position at
St. Thomas's, and failed to obtain a prebend which he
had expected, but he was soon made a canon of St.
Stephen's at Strasburg. In 1523 he w^it to Aug»buig,
and there became a teacher of the Bible and of Greek
at the monastery of St. Ulrich. Although a aealouB
Humanist and an opponent of Scholasticism, Luscinius
did not become a supporter of the Reformation. For
a time, however, he certainly seems to have been
friendly to it. and to have approved of the doctrine of
salvation by taith alone. But disputes, which he held
to be specious quibbling over words, were distasteful
to him, and thus at the beginning he avoided taking
sides. After 1525, however, he was regarded as a reli-
able adherent of the ancient Church. The Fugeer
made him preacher at the church of St. Moriz, andne
became the most important champion of Catholicism
at Augsbuig, his sermons arousing the ill-will ol tJie
Evangelical party. In 1528, after he had repeatedly
callea the Evangelical preachers heretics, he was ar-
rested and confined to his own house. In 1529 he was
made cathedral preacher at Freiburg im Breisgau.
Towards the end of his life he wished to enter the
Carthusian monastery near Freiburg, but he was pre-
vented by death. Luscinii^ was a very talented and
versatile man — theologian, jurist, musician, and a
widely known scholar in "the three languages".
f ScHMiiyr. Hitl. litUraire de VAUace, II (Paris. 1879). 174-208,
412-8, where a list of his 33 publications and editions is jnvea;
GcioER in Atkfem. deutsche Biogr., XIX (Leipzig, 1884), 065-7;
Knepper, Dcm SchiU- u. UrUerrxchtsweaen in EUcus (Strasbuig,
1905), passim; Schb6der, Beiir&ge turn Leberubilde Dr, Ottmar
NaehigaUB in Hidtyr. Jahrb. der OdrresgeaelUchaft, XIV (1893).
83-106; Roth, Auoaburga RefomuUionageseh. 1617-SO (2xid
ed., Munich. 1901), 16. 130-2. 306-9.
Klemens LOffleb.
Lusij^an, Jean-Baptiste-Alphonse, a French-
Canadian writer, b. at St-Denis on the Richelieu, P.
Q., 27 September, 1843; d. 5 January, 1893; son of
Jean-Baptiste Lusisnan, a merchant, and On^sime
Masse. He was educated at St-Hyacinthe CoUegei
and studied theology there and at Montreal Seminary.
Judging after three vears that he was not called to tne
Church, he studied law at St-Hyacinthe and at LaviJ
University, Quebec, and practised in the former city
for a few years. He contnbuted to several newspapens
and was chief editor (1865-^) of "Le Pays^', the
principal organ of the French-Canadian Liberal party
at the time, a paper the attitude of which in poutico-
religious questions, notably the so-caUed undue influ-
ence of the clergy in politics, was frequently at
variance with the views of ecclesiastical authority.
Lusisnan published (1872), as a continuation of a
simiuir wonc by Judge Ramsay, a '^ Digest of Reported
cases"; "Coups d'ceil et coups de plume" ^1884).
He was an ardent patriot and a thorough student of
the French tongue, ever jsealous b)r his criticism and
b^ his example to preserve its purity. All his Cana-
dian contemporaries looked upon him as a master of
the language, his lexicographical erudition being un-
rivalled in Canada. All the delicacies and intricacies
of French grammar and phraseology were familiar to
him. His style, remarkably deft and fluent, would
have given him a foremost rank had he been placed in
a more favourable field. He was elected (1885) a
member of the Royal Society of Canada.
Maclkan Rose. CucUmedia of Canadian Biography (Toro&tOb
1886); A la nUmoireaAlphonae Ltuignan (Montreal. 1892)..
Lionel Lindsay.
Lussy. Melchior, statesman, b. at Stans, Canton of
Unterwalden, Switzerland, 1529; d. there 14 Nov.,
1606. Even in his youth he filled various offices, took
part in the campaigns of 1557 and 1573, and was after-
wards ten times high bailiff of his native canton. He
was often an emissary of the Confederacy at Stans, as
well as in France, Spain, etc. In particular he repre-
sented, along with Abbot Joachim Eichhom of Ein-
siedehi, the Catholic cantons of Switzerland at the
Council of Trent. He arrived there 16 March, 1562,
and stayed till June, 1563. He promised on oath, in
the name of the Catholic confederates, to adopt and
maintain the decisions and regulations of tK^^ ^jCi^s)sS&k.
LUST
438
IiUTHEB
Always mindful of this and filled with zoal for the im-
provement of the Church's condition, he was from
thttt time tirelessly engaged in bringing about the full
accomplishment of the council's decrees in Switzer-
land. Already in 1564 he resolutely made himself
responsible for them; and afterwards he never lost
sight of these matters, and never failed to raise a
warning voice. Lussy was a friend of St. Charles
Borromco, with whom he had much correspondence,
and who also invited him in 1570 to Stans. Lussy
lealously arranged the establishment of a papal nun-
ciature to Switzerland, and when Bishof) Giovaimi
Francesco Borromeo of Vercelli arrived in 1579 as
nuncio and visitator, Lussy \ngorously supported him.
He aJso always gave hesjrty support to subsequent
nuncios. In 1583 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem,
of which he published an account. Lussy founded the
Cftpuchin monastery at Stans. After 1596 he retired
from active office and piously prepared himself for death.
Mater, Dot Konxil von Tritnt und die Gegenreformation in
derSehveiz, II (Stans, 1903). 295 sq.; Feller, RitterM. Luavy
(Stans, 1908-09). '
F. G. Maykr.
Last, the inordinate craving for, or indulgence of,
the carnal pleasure which is experienced in the human
organs of generation. The wron^ulness of lust is
reducible to this: that venereal satisfaction is sought
for either outside of wedlock or, at any rate, in a man-
ner which is contrary to the laws that govern marital
intercourse. Every such criminal indulgence is a
mortal sin, provided, of course, it l)e voluntary in
itself and fully delilwrate. This is the testimony of
St. Paul in the Epistle to the Gala tians, v, 19: " Now
the works of the flesh are manifest, which are fornica-
tion, uncleanness, immodesty, luxury, ... Of the
which I foretell you, as I have foretold to you, that
they who do such things shall not obtain the kingdom
of God." Moreover, iJF it be true that the gravity of
the oflences may be measured by the liarm they work
to the individual or the community, there can be no
doubt that lust has in this respect a gravity all its
own. Transgressions against virtues other than purity
frequently admit of a minor degree of malice, and are
accounted venial. Impurity has the evil distinction
that, whenever there is a direct conscious surrender to
any of its phases the guilt incurred is always grievous.
This judgment, however, needs niodifying'when there
18 question of some impure gratification for which a
person is responsible, not immediately, but l)ecause he
Dad posited its cause, and to which he has not delil)er-
ately consent<*d. The act naay then be only venially
sinful. For the determination of the amount of its
wickedness much will depend upon the apprehended
proximate danger of givmg way on the part of the
agent, as well as upon the known capacity of the thing
done to bring about venereal pleasure. This teaching
applies to external and internal sins alike: ''Whoso-
ever shall look on a woman to lust after her, hath
alnNMly committed adultery with her in his heart''
(Matt., V, 28) . However the case may stand as to the
extent of the obligation under which one lies to refrain
in certain circumstances from actions whose net result
18 to excite the passions, moralists are at one as to the
counsel they give. They all emphasize the perils of
the situation, and point out the practical dangers of a
failure to refrain. It matters not that there is not, as
ife suppose, any initial sinful intent. The sheerest
Snidence and most rudimentary self-knowledge alike
emand abstinence, where possible, from things which,
though not grievously ban in themselves, yet easily
fan into flame the unKoly fire which may be smoulder-
ing^ but is not extinct.
Lust is said to l)e a capital sin. The reason is
obvious. The pleasure which this vice has as its
object is at once so attractive and connatural to
human nature as to whet keenly a man's desire, and
so lead him into the commission of many other dis-
onlers in the pursuit of it. Theologians ordinarily
distinguish varioas forms of lust in so far as it is a
consummated external sin, e. g., fornication, adultery,
incest, criminal assault, abduction, and sodomy. E:ich
of these has its own specific miilice — a fact to be borne
in mind for purposes of safeguarding the integrity of
sacramental confession.
RxcKABY. The Moral Teachino of St. Tkoman (London. 1896);
Slater, Moral Theology (New York, 1908); Ballekini, Opua
Theologicum Morale (Prato. 1899).
Joseph F. Delany.
Lather, Martin, leader of the great religious revolt
of the sixteenth century in Germany, b. at Ei8lel)en,
10 November, 1483; d. at Eisleben, 18 February,
IFAQ. His father, Hans Luther, was a miner, a rugged,
stem, irascible character. In the opinion of many of
his biographers, it was an exhibition of uncontrolled
rage, an evident congenital inheritance transmitted to
his eldest son, that compelled liim to flee from Mohra,
the family seat, to escape the penalty or odium of
homicide. This, though first charged by Wicelius, a
convert from Lutheranism has found admission into
Protestant history and tradition (May hew, "German
Life and Manners in Saxony", I, London, 1865, 7-113;
Bottcher, "Germania Sacra", 1874, 174; Thierisch,
" Luther, Gustav Adolf u. Maximilian I von Bavem ",
Nordlingen, 1869, 165; Schenkel, "Martin Luther",
Berlin, 1870, 7; Thou, "Schloss Wartburg", Gotha,
1792, 133; Kat\ Luther, " Geschichtliche Notizen ul>er
M. Luther's Vorfahren", Wittenberg, 1869, 30; Ort-
mann, "Miihra, Der Stammort D. M. Luthers",
Salzung, 1S44; Bayne, "Martin Luther", I, London,
1887,92; in explanation: Kostlin,"Stud. u. Kritik.",
1871,24-31; Kiistlin-Kawerau, "Martin Luther", I,
Berlin, I9a3, 15; *Am. Cath. Quart., Jan., 1910.
"Was Luther's Father a Homicide?", also publishccl
in pamphlet form; *Histor. polit. Blatter, CXX,
415-25). His mother, Margaret Ziegler, is spoken
of by Melanchthon as conspicuous for "modesty,
the fear of God, and prayert ulness " ("Corpus Re-
formatorum", ed. Bret Schneider, VI, Halle, 1834,
156) . Extreme simplicity and inflexible severit v char-
acterized their home life, so that the joys of childhood
were virtually unknown to him. His father once lx?at
him so mercilessly that he ran away from home and
was so "embittered a^inst him, that he liad to win
me to himself again " (Tischreden, Frankfort, 1567, fol.
314 a). His mother, "on account of an insignificant
nut, beat me till the blood flowed, and it was this
liarshness and severity of the life I led with them that
forced me sul)«e(iuently to run away to a monastery
and become a monk " (ibid . ) . The same cruelty was the
experience of his earliest school-days, when in one
morning he was punished no less than fiftetm times
(Kroker, "Luthers Tischreden", Leipzig, 1903, 627).
The meagre data of his life at this period make it a
work ol difficulty to reconstruct his childhood. His
schooling at Mansfeld, whither his parents had re-
turned, was uneventful. He attendea a Liitin school,
in which the Ten Commandments, "Child's Belief",
the Lord's Prayer, the Latin grammar of Donatus
were taught, and which he learned " industriously and
Quickly" (>Iathesius, " Historien ... I). Martin Lu-
thers', Nuremberg, 1588, fol. 3 a). In his fourteenth
year (1497) he entered a school at Magdeburg, where,
in the words of his first biographer, like many children
" of honourable and well-to-do parents, he sang and
begged for bread— T>an«m propter Deum" (Mathesius,
op. cit.). In his fifteenth year we find him at Eise-
nach. At eighteen (1501) he entered the University
of Erfurt, with a view to studying jurispnidence at the
request of his father. In 1502 he rectnved the degree
of Bachelor of Philoeoph v. being the thirteenth among
fifty-seven candidates. On Epiphany (6 Jan.^ 1505),
he was advanced to the master's degree, being sec-
ond among seventeen applicants. His philosophical
studies were no doubt made under Jodocus Trutvetter
LOTHXR
43d
LUTHSK
von Euenach, then rector of tbo university, and nuide ciirpfut nriiPiircii, foHtnt'ing Duvanu (Brvnr), a
Bartholomaus Amoldi von Udngen (q. v.). Tbe pupil lA Luther, goeu u Htep further, collinK tliix im-
former waa pre-eminently the Doclor Er/oTdi^rtsig, and known friend Alexius, and ascrilieit Ium dcutli U> a
Btood without an admitted rival in Germany. Luther thunderbolt (SecLendorf, " Ausfiihrltchc UiHtorie des
addresses him in a letter (1518) as not only "tbe first Lutherthunis",Leipii(i, 1714,nl). D'Aubign^ chusges
theologian ahd philosopher ", but also the first of con- this Alexiua into .\lexi8 and has him 0EsiisGinat«d at
temporary dialecticians ('KaTOpechultfl, "DieUniver- Erfurt (D'Aubign*, "History ot the Reformation",
aitflt Erfurt", I, Trier, 1858, 43). Usingen was an NewYork,B.d.,I,186).Oerger("VomjungenLuther",
Augustinian friar, and second only to Trutvetter in Erfurt, 1899, 27-41} has proved the existence of this
learning, but sutpaasing him in literary productivity friend, his name of Alexius or Alexis, hia death by
(ibid.). Although the tone of the university, especially lishtmng or aasassination, a mere legend, destitute M
that of the students^, waa prouounoedly, ev^ enthuBi- aU historical verification. KOstLin-Kuwcrau (I, 45)
astically, humanistic, and although Erfurt led the states that returning from bis" Mansfeld home he was
movement in Gemiany, and in its theologicat t«n- overtaken by a terrible storm, with an alarming light-
dencies was supposedly "modem", nevertheless "it ning flash and thunderbolt. Terrified and over-
nowise showed a depreciation <rf the currently pre- whelmed he cries out: 'Help, St. Anna, I will be a
vailing [Scholastic) syst^" '"'" "'^'-- ■ "---
(ibid.,I, 37). Luther him-
self, in spite of an acquaint-
ance with some of the
moving spirits of human-
ism, seems not to have been
appreciably affected by it,
hved on its outer fringe,
and never qualified to enter
its "poetic circle.
Luther's sudden and un-
expected en
1505. The motives that
prompted the step are vari-
ous, contUcting.and tbe sub-
Sct of considerable debate,
e himseif alleges, as above
stated, that the brutality
of his home and school life
drove him into the monas-
tery. Hausrath, his latest
biographer and one of the
most scholarly Luther spe-
cialists, unreservedly in-
clines to this belief. The
" house at Mansfeld rather
repelled than attracted
him" (Beard, "Martin Lu-
ther and the Germ. Kef.",
London, 1889, 140), and to
" the question 'Why did Lu-
ther go into themonastery 7'
the reply that Luther him-
self gives is the most satis-
factory" (Hausrath, " Lu-
thers Leben", I, Berlin,
1904, 2, 22). He liimselt
again, in a letter to his
flit tier, in explanation of
his defection from tbe
old Church, writes, "when
tory of the change is far less
easy to narrate. We have
DO direct contemporary
evidence on which to rely;
while Luther's own remi-
chietiy depend, are neces-
sarily coloured by his lat«r
experiences and feelingi"
(Beard, op. cit., 146).
Of Luther's monastic
hfe we have little authentic
information, and that ia
based on his own utterances, ^
which his biographers
frankly admit are highly
exsiggc rated, frequently
contradictory, and com-
monly misleading. Thusthe
alleged custom by which he '
WOM forced to chan^ hia
baptismal name Martin into
the monastic came Augus-
tine, a proceeding he de-
zes as "wicked" and
iltgious", certainly
bad ]
: the
Augustinian Order (Oei
op. cit., 75; Kolde, "'
deutscbe Augustiner C^-
I V
His accidental dis-
covery in the Erfurt mon-
astery library of the Bible,
" a book he had never seen
in his life" (Mathesius, op.
cit.,fol. 5a),orLutber'8a»-
sertion that he hod "never
Been a Bible uiitil he was
twenty yearsofage" (t«u-
terbach, " Tagebuch",
- . . Dresden, 1872, 36), or his
terror-Btncken and overwhelmed by tbe fear stillmoreemphaticdecIarationthatwheDCarlstadtwaa
mpending death, I made an involuntary ajid
forced vow " (De Wetle, " Dr. Martin Luthers Briefe ",
II, Berlin, 1825. 101). Various explanations are
given of this episode. Melanchthon ascribes his
step to a deep melancholy, which attained a critical
Eoint "when at one time lie lost one of bis conirades
y an accidental death" (Corp. Ref., VI, 156). Cocb-
licus. Luther's opponent, relates " that at one time he
was so frightened in a field, at a thunderbolt, as
commonly reported, or was in such anguish at the loss lays especial stress
of a companion, who was killed in the storm, that in a " read the Scripture . .._ .
short time to the amazement of many persons he !eamitfervently"("ConBtitutione80rdiniBFratr.'Eie-
sought admission to the Order of St. Augustine" mit. Sti Augustini', Rome, 1551, cap. xvii) At this
(•Cochlitus, "HistoriaD. M.Luther8",Dimngen, 1571, very time Biblical studies were in a flourishing condi-
2). Mathesius, his first biographer, attributes it to the tion at the university, so that its historian states that
fatal "stablang of a friend and a terrible storm with a " it is astonishing to meet such a great number of
thunder clap" (op. cit., fol. 4 b). Seckendoff, who Biblical commentaries, which force us Ijj conclude. <k^>
promoted to the doctorate " he had as yet never seen a
Bible and I alone in the Erfurt monastery read the
Bible" (Bindseil, " D. Martini Luthori Colloquia", II,
1863-66, 240), which, taken in their literal sense, are
not only contrary to demonstrable facts, but have
perpetuated misconception, bear the stamp of im-
probability written in such obtrusive characters on
their face, that it ia hard, on an honest assumption, to
account for their longevity. Tbe Augustinian rule
1 the monition tliat the iio«oo
(siduously, hear it dcvoully, and
LQTHEB
440
LUTHER
there was an active study of Holy Writ" (♦Kamp-
Bchulte, op. cit., I, 22). Protestant writers of repute
have abandoned the legend altogether (K5hler, *^Ka-
tholizismus u. Reformation", Giessen, 1905; Walther,
** Die deutschen Bibelilbersetzungen des Mittelalters/'
Brunswick, 1892; Geffken, ''Der Bilderkatechismus
des fOnfzehnten Jahrhunderts ", Leipzig, 1855;
Grimm, ''Kurzgefasste Gesch. der luther. BibelQber-
setzung", Jena, 1884; Thudichum, ''Die deutsche
Reformation", I, Leipzig, 1907, 225-235; "Cam-
bridge History: The Reformation", II, 164; Dob-
BchQtz, "Der deutsche Rundschau" CIV, 61-75;
Maurenbrecher, "Studien u. Skizzen", 221; Kolde,
op. cit., 161; Kropatscheck, "Das Schriftprincip der
luther. Kirche", 163 sq.). Parenthetical mention
must be made of the tact that the denunciation
heaped on Luther's novice-master b^ Mathesius,
Ratzeberger, and Jiirgens, and copied with uncritical
docility by their transcribers — ^for subjecting him
to the most abject menial duties and treating him
with outrageous indignitv — rests on no evidence.
These writers are "evidently led by hearsav, and fol-
low the early legendary stories that have been spun
about the person of the reformer" (Oerger, op. cit.,
80). The nameless novice-master, whom even Lu-
ther designates as "an excellent num, and without
doubt even under the damned cowl, a true Christian"
(Beard, op. cit., 151), must "have been a worthy
representative of his order" (Oerger, dp. cit.).
Luther was ordained to the priestnood in 1507.
The precise date is uncertain. A strange oversight,
runnm^ through three centuries, placed the date of
his ordmation and first Mass on the same day, 2 May,
an impossible coincidence. KostUn, who repeated it
(Luther's Leben, 1, 1883, 6^) drops the date altogether
in his latest edition. Oerger (op. cit., 90) fixes on 27
February. This allows the unprecedented interval of
more than two months to elapse oetween the ordination
and first Mass. Could he have deferred his first Mass
on account of the morbid scrupulosity, which played
jnich a part in the later periods of his monastic life?
'*' There is no reason to doubt that Luther's monastic
career thus far was exemplary, tranquil, happy; his
heart at rest, his mind undisturbed, his soul at peace.
The metaphysical disquisitions, psychological disser-
tations, pietistic maundering about his interior con-
flicts, his theological wrestlings, his torturing ascet-
icism, his chafing under monastic conditions, can
have little more than an academic, possibly a psycho-
« pathic value. Thev lack all basis of verinable data.
unfortunately Lutner himself in his self-revelation
can hardly be taken as a safe guide. Moreover, with
an array of evidence, thoroughness of research, full-
ness of knowledge, and unrivalled mastery of monas-
ticism. scholasticism, and mysticism, Denifle has re-
moved it from the domain of debatable ground to that
of verifiable certainty (*Lutheru. Luthorthum, Mainz,
1904). " What Adolf Hausrath has done in an essay
for the Protestant side, was accentuated and con-
toned with all possible penetration by Denifle; the
voung Luther according to his self-revelation is un-
historical; he was not the discontented Augustinian,
nagged by the monastic life, perpetually tortured by
his conscience, fasting, praying, mortified, and ema-
ciated— no, he was happy in the monastery, he found
peace there, to which ne turned his back only later"
(Kdhler, op. cit., 68-69).
During the winter of 1508-1509 he was sent to the
University of Wittenbei^, then in its infancy ^founded
2 July, 1502), with an enrolment of one hundred and
seventy-nine students. The town itself w^as a poor
insignificant place, with but three hundred and nfty-
six taxable properties, and accredited the most bibu-
lous town of the most bibulous province (Saxony) of
Germany (Beard, op. cit., 168). While teaching phi-
losophy and dialectics he also continued his theoiO|;-
ical studies. On 9 March, 1509, under the deanship
of Staupitz, he became Baccalaureus Biblicus in the
theoloflpcal course, as a stepping-stone to the doctor-
ate. His recall to Erfurt occurred the same year.
His mission to Rome, extending over an estimated
period of five months, one of wmch he spent in the
city of Rome, which played so important a part in his
early biographies, and even now is far from a negli-
gible factor in Reformation research, occurred in 151 1 ,
or, as some contend, 1510. Its true object has thus
far baffled all satisfactory investigation. Mathesius
makes him go from Wittenberg on "monastic busi-
ness"; Melanchthon attributes it to a "monkish
squabble"; Cochlseus, and he is in the main followed
by Catholic investigators, makes him appear as the
delegated representative of seven allied Augustinian
inonasteries to voice a protest against some innova-
tions of Staupitz, but as deserting his clients and siding
with Staupitz (♦Paulus in " Histor. Jahresbuch ", XVI,
73; XXII, 110-113; XXIV, 72-74; ♦"Hist. pol. Blat-
ter", CXLII, 738). Protestants say he was sent to
Rome as the advocate of Staupitz (Kosthn-Kawerau, I,
89-05; Kawerau^"Von Luther's Romfahrt", Halle,
1901; Else, "Luther's Reise nach Rom", Breslau,
1889; Hausrath, "Martin Luther's Romfahrt", Beriiu,
1894^. Luther himself expressly states that it was a
pilgrimage in fulfilment ot a vow to make a general
confession in the Eternal City (Bindseil, "Colloquia",
III, 169; Jtligens, "Luther von seiner Geburt", II,
Leipzig, 1846, 271). The outcome of the mission, fike
its object, still remains shrouded in mystery (Kolde,
op. cit., 241). What was the effect of this Roman visit
on his spiritual life or theological thought? Did
"this visit turn his reverence for Rome into loathing"?
Did he find it "a sink of iniquitv, its priests infidels,
the papal courtiers men of shsmaeless lives? " (Lindsav,
"Luther and the German Reformation", New York,
1900). "He returned from Rome as strong in the
faith as he went to visit it. In a certain sense his so-
journ in Rome even strengthened his religious con-
victions" (Hausratii, op. cit., 98). "In his letters of
those years he never mentions having been in Rome.
In his conference with Cardinal Cajetan, in his dispu-
tations with Dr. Eck, in his letters to Pope Leo, nay,
in his tremendous broadside of invective and accusa-
tion against all thinss Romish, in his ' Address to the
German Nation ana Nobility', there occurs not one
unmistakable reference to his having been in Rome.
By every rule of evidence we are bound to hold that
when the most furious assailant Rome has ever known
described from a distance of ten years upwards the in-
cidents of a journey through Italy to Home, the few
touches of light in his picture are more trustworthy
than its black breadths of shade" (Bayne, "Martin
Luther", I, 234). His whole Roman experience as
exprened in later life is open to question. " We can
reuly cjuestion the importance attached to remarks
which in a great measure date from the last years of
his life, when he was really a changed man.' Much
that he relates as personal experience is manifestly the
product of an easily explained self-delusion " (Haus-
rath, op. cit., 79). One of the incidents of the Roman
mission, which at one time was considered a pivotal
point in his career, and was calculated to impart an
inspirational character to the leading doctrine of the
Reformation, and is still detailed by his biographers,
was his supposed experience while climbing the Scala
Santa. According to it (Kostlin - Kawerau, I, 98,
749), while Luther was in the act of climbing the stairs
on his knees, the thought suddenly flashed through
his mind: "The just shall live by faith", whereupon
he immediately discontinued his pious devotion.
The story rests on an autograph insertion of his son
Paul in a Bible, now in possession of the librar>' of
Rudolstadt. In it he claims that his father told him
the incident. Its historic value may be gauged by the
considerations that it is the personal recollections of an
immature lad (b. 28 Jan., 1533) recorded twenty years
LUTHIB 441 LXJTHU
after the event, to which neither his father, his early for five weeks at one time, but threatened to drive him
biographers, nor his table companions before whom into insanity fSeckendort, op. cit.. I, fol. 21 b). The
it is claimed the remark was made, allude, though it prescribed and regulated ascetical exercises were ar-
the (theological) attitude of the Reformer back into of singularity in his communit^r. Like every victim of
the days of his monastic faith "(Hausrath, op. cit., 48). scrupulosity, he saw nothing in himself but wicked-
Having acquitted himself with evident success, and ness and corruption. God was the minister of wrath
in a manner to please both parties, Luther retiuned to and vengeance. His sorrow for sin was^ devoid of
Wittenberg in 1512, and received the appointment of humble charity and childlike confidence in the par-
sub-prior. His academic promotions followed in quick doning mercy of God and Jesus Christ. This anger of
succession. On 4 October he was made licentiate, God, which pursued him like his shadow, could only be
and on 19 October, under the deanship of Carlstadt — averted by his own righteousness ", by.the ''efficacy
successively friend, rival, and enemy — he was ad- of servile works". Such an attitude of mind was
vanced to the doctorate, being then in his thirtieth necessarily followed by hopeless discouragement and
year. On 22 October be was formally admitted to the sullen despondency, creating a condition of soul in
senate of the faculty of theology, and received the which he actually *' hated God and was angry at him",
appointment as lecturer on the Bible in 1513. His blasphemed God, and deplored that he was ever bom
further appointment as district vicar in 1515 made (Jurgens, op. cit., I, 577-585). This abnormal con-
him the official representative of the vicar-general in dition produced a brooding melancholy, physical.
Saxony and Thuringia. His duties were manifold mental, and spiritual depression, which later, by a
and 1^ li^e busy. Little time was left for intellectual strange process of reasoning, he ascribed to the teach^
pursuits, and the increasing irregularity in the perform- ing of the Church concerning good works, while all the
ance of nis religious duties could only bode ill for his time he was living in direct and absolute opposition to
future. He himself teUs us that he needed two secre- its doctrinal teaching and disciplinary code,
taries or chancellors, wrote letters all dav, preached at Of course this self-willed positiveness and hypochon-
table, also in the monastery and parochial churches, driac asceticism, as usuallV happens in cases of mor-
was superintendent of studies, and as vicar of the bidly scrupulous natures, f ouna no relief in the sacra-
order had as much to do as eleven priors; he lectured ments. His general confessions at Erfurt and Rome
on the Psalms and St. Paul, besides the demand made did not touch the root of the evil. His whole being was
on his economic resourcefulness in managing a monas- wrought up to such an acute tension that he actually re-
tery of twenty-two priests, tweWe young men, in all gretted his parents were not deadL that he might avail
fort^-one inmates (De Wctte, op. cit., I, 41). His himself of tne facilities Rome afforded to save them
official letters breathe a deep solicitude for the waver- from purgatory. For religion's sake he was ready to
ing, gentle sympathy for the fallen; they show pro- become " the most brutal murderer", — " to kill all who
found touches of religious feeling and rare practical even by syllable refused submission to the pope"
sense, though not unmarred with counsels that have (Sllmmuiche Werke.XXXX, Erlangcn, 284). Such a
unorthodox tendencies. The plague which afflicted tense and neurotic physical condition demanded a re-
Wittenberg in 1516 found him courageously at his action, and, as frequently occurs in analogous cases, it
post, which, in spite of the concern of his friends, he went to the diametric extreme. The undue importance
would not abandon. he had placed on his own strength in the spiritual pro-
But in Luther's spiritual life significant, if not omi- cess of justificatioiu he now peremptorily and com-
nous, changes were likewise discernible. Whether pletely rejected. He convinced himself that man. as a
he entered " the monastery and deserted the world to conseauence of original sin, was totally depraved, desti-
fiee from despair" (JOrgens, op. cit., I, 522) and did tuteot free will, that all works, even thougn directed to-
not find the coveted peace; whether the expressed ap- wards the good, were nothing more than an outgrowth
prehensions of his father that the ** call from heaven '. of his corrupted will, and in the judgments of God in
to the monastic life might be ''a satanic delusion' reality mortal sins. Man can be saved by faith alone,
stirred up thoughts of doubt; whether his sudden, Our faith in Christ makes His merits our possession,
violent resolve was the result of one of those ** sporadic envelopes us in the garb of righteousness, which our
overmastering torpors which interrupt the circulatory guilt and sinfulness hide, and supplies in abimdance
system or indicate arterial convulsion" (Hausrath, every defect of human righteousness. "Be a sinner
" Luthers Leben". I, 22), a heritage of his depressing and sin on bravely, but have stronger faith and rejoice
childhood, and a cnronic condition that clung to him to in Christ, who is the victor of sin, death, and the world.
the end of his life ; or whether deeper studies, for which Do not for a moment imagine that this life is the abid-
he had little or no time, created doubts that would not ing place of justice: sin must be committed. To you
be solved and aroused a conscience that would not be it ought to be sufficient that you acknowledge the
stilled, it is evident that his vocation, if it ever existed. Lamb that takes away the sins of the world, the sin
was in jeopardy, that the morbid interior conflict cannot tear you away irom him, even though you corn-
marked a drifting from old moorings, and that the very mit adultery a hundred times a day and commit as
remedies adopted to re-establish peace all the more many murders" (Enders^ " Brief wechsel", III, 208).
effectually banished it. This condition of morbidity The new doctrine of justification by faith, now in its
finally developed into formal scrupulosity. Lifrao- inchoate stage, gradusJly developed, and was finally
lions of the rules, breaches of discipline, distorted fixed by Luther as one of the central doctrines of
ascetic practices followed in auick succession and with Christianity. The epoch-making event connected
increasing gravity; these, followed by spasmodic, con- with the publication of the papal Bull of Indulgences
vulsive reactions^ made Ufe an agony. The solemn in Germany, which was that of Julius II renewed in
obligation of reciting the daily Office, an obligation adaptable form by Leo X, to raise funds for the con-
binding imder the penalty of mortal sin, was neglected struction of St. Peter's Church in Rome, brought his
to allow more ample time for study, with the result spiritual difficulties to a crisis,
that the Breviary was abandoned for weeks. Then in Albert of Brandenburg was heavily involved in debt,
paroxysmal remorse Luther would lock himself into not, as Protestant and Catholic historians relate, on ac-
his cell and by one retroactive act make amends for all count of his pallium ('"Pastor, ^'History of the Popes ",
he neglected; he would abstain from all food and drink, VII, 19CK3. 330), but to pay a bribe to an imknown
torture himself by harrowing mortifications, to an ex- agent in Home, to buy off a rival, in order tba^^Sssa
tent that not only made him the victim of insomnia archbishop mi^^ht ^uyyj ^ ^^Jwra&x-^ ^ ^-^^^^^as^^a^-
LTTTHSB
442
LTTTHEB
offices. For this payment, which smacked of simony,
though the Protestant historian, Kalkoff ("Archiv.
fQr Reform. Geschichte", 1, 381), claims such a charge
to be untenable, the pope would allow an indemnity,
which in this case took the form of an indulgence
(Kawerau,**Stud.u.Kritik", 1898, 584-85; Kalkoff,
op. cit.; * Schulte, " Die Fugger in Rom.", Leipzig, I,
1904 , 93 , 1 40) . By this ignoble business aim ngement
with Rome, a financial transaction unw^orthy of both
pope and archbishop, the revenue should be partitioned
m equal halves to each, besides a bonus of 10,000 gold
ducats, which should fall to the share of Rome. John
Tetzcl, a Dominican monk with an impreasive per-
sonality, a gift of popular oratory, and the repute of a
successful indulgence preacher, was chosen by the
archbishop as general-subcommissar}'. History pre-
sents few characters more unfortunate and pathetic
than Tetzel. Among his contemporaries the victim of
the most corrosive ridicule, eveiy foul c4iarge laid at
his door, every blasphemous uttemnce placed in his
mouth, a veritable literature of fiction and fable built
about his personality, in modern history held up as
the proverbial mountebank and oily harlequin, denied
even the support and sympathy of his own allies —
Tetzel had to await the light of modem critical scru-
tiny, not only for a moral rehabilitation, but also for
vindication as a soundly trained theologian and a
monk of irreproachable deportment (*Paulus, " Johann
Tetzel", Mainz, 1899; *Ilormann, "Johann Tetzel",
Frankfort, 1882; *Grdne, "Tetzel und Luther", Soest,
1860). It was his preaching at JQterbog and Zerbst,
towns adjoining Wittenberg, that drew hearers from
there, who in turn presented themselves to Luther for
confession, that made him take the step he had in
contemplation for more than a year. It is not denied
that a doctrine like that of indulgences, which in some
aspects was still a disputable subject in the schools,
was open to misunderstanding and misconception by
the laity; that the preachers in the heat of rnetorical
enthusiasm fell into exaggerated statements, or that
the financial considerations attached, though not of an
obligatory character, led to abuse and scandal (*Jans-
sen, "Geschichte des deutsch. Volkes", II, Freiburg,
1892, 78; *"IIist. Jahresbuch", XII, 320. 321). The
opposition to indulgences, not to the doctrine — which
remains the same to this day — but to the mercantile
methods pursued in preaching them, was not new or
silent. Duke George of Saxony prohibited them in
his territory, and Cardinal Ximenes, as early as 1513,
forbade them in Spain (Ranke. " Deutsche Gesch. im
Zeit. der Reformation", I, Berlin, 1839, 307).
On 31 October, 1517, the vigil of All Saints*, Luther
affixed to the castle church door, which served ti» the
" black-lx)ard " of the university, on which all notices
of disputations and high academic functions were dis-
played (Beard, op. cit., 213), his Ninety-five Theses.
The act was not an open declaration of war, but
simply an academic challenge to a disputation. " Such
disputations w^ere regarded in the universities of the
Miadle Ages partly as a recognized means of defining
and elucidating truth, partly as a kind of mental
eymnastie apt to train and quicken the faculties of the
disputants. It was not understood that a man was
always ready to adopt in sol)er earnest propositions
which he was willing to defend in the academic arena;
and in like manner a rising disputant might attack
orthodox positions, without enclangering hi-* reputa-
tion for orthodoxy" (Beanl, op. cit.). The same day
he sent a copy of the Theses with an explanatory letter
to the archbishop. The latter in turn submitted them
to his councillors at Aschaffenburg (*Pa.'*tor, op. cit.,
242) and to the professora of the University of Alainz.
The councillors (*Pastor, op. cit.) were of the unani-
mous opinion that they were of an heretical character,
and that proceeriings "against the Wittenberg Augus-
tinian should Iw taken. Tliis report, with a copy of
£&e Tbejses, was then transmitted to the pope. It will
thus be seen that the first judicial procedure against
Luther did not emanate from Tetzel. His weapons
were to be literary.
Tetzel, more readily than some of the contemporary
brilliant theologians, divined the revolutionary import
of the Theses, which while ostensibly aimed at the
abuse of indiilgences, were a covert attack on the
whole penitential system of the Church and struck at
the veiy root of ecclesiastical authority. Luther's
Theses impress the reader " as thrown together, some-
what in haste", rather than showing 'carefully di-
gested thought, and deliberate theological intention " ;
they "bear him one moment into the audacity of
rebellion and then carry him back to the obedience of
conformity" (Bcaid, 218, 219). Tetzel's anti-theses
were maintained partly in a disputation for the doc-
torate at Frankfort-on-the-Oder (20 Jan., 1518), and
issued with others in an unnumbered list, and are
commonly known as the One Hundred and Six Theses.
Tliey, however, did not have Tetzel for their author,
but were promptly and rightfully attributed to Conrad
AV impina, his teacher at Leipzig. That this fact argues
no imorance of theology or unfamiliarity with Latin
on tbe part of Tetzel. as has been generally assumed,
is frankly admitted by Protestant writers (Lammer,
"Die vortridentinische katholische Theologie". Ber-
lin, 1858, 8). It was simply a legitimate custom
pursued in academic circles, as we know from Melanch-
thon himself (Hausleiter, "Aus der Schule Melanch-
thons", Griefswald, 1897, 5; Beard, op. cit., 224).
Tetzel's Theses — for he assumed all res|)onsibility —
opposed to Luther's innovations the traditional teach-
ing of the (.-hurch; b«t it must be admitted that they
at times gave an imcompromising, even dogmatic,
sanction to mere theological opinions, that were hardly
consonant with the most accurate scholarship. At
Wittenberg they created wild excitement, and an un-
fortunate hawKer who offered them for sale, was
mobbed by the students, and his stock of about eight
hundred copies publicly burned in the market square
— a proceeding that met with Luther's disapproval.
The plea then made, and still repeated, that it was
done in retaliation for Tetzel burning Luther's Theses,
is admittedly incorrect, in spite of tne fact that it has
Melanchthon as sponsor (Beard, op. cit., 225, note;
♦Paulus, op. cit., 52). Instead of replying to Tetzel,
Luther carried the controversy from the academic
arena to the public forum by issuing in popular ver-
nacular form his " Sermon on Indulgences and Grace ".
It was really a tract, where the sermon form was aban-
doned and -twenty propositions laid down. At the
same time his Latin defence of the Theses, the " Reso-
lutiones ", was well under way. In it« finished form,
it was sent to his ordinary, Bishop Scultetus of Bran-
denburg, who counselled silence and abstention from
all further publications for the present. I^uther's
acouiescence was that of the true monk: " I am ready,
ana will rather obey than perform miracles in my
justification" (Kfistlin-Kawerau, I, 170).
At this staeB a new source of contention arose.
Johann Ekjk, Vice-Chancel lor of the University of
Ingolstadt, by common consent acknowledged as one
of the foremost theological scholars of his day, en-
dowed with rare dialectic skill and phenomenal mem-
ory, all of which Luther (De Wette, op. cit., I, 100)
candidly admitted before the I..eipzig disputation took
place, innocently became invoh'ed in the controversy.
At the request of Bishop von Kyb, of Eichstiitt, he
subjected the Theses to a cla*<er study, singled out
eighteen of them as concealing the germ of the Hussite
heresy, violating Christian charity, subverting the
order of the ecclesiastical hierarchv, and breeding
sedition. These "Obelisci" ("olx^lisks", the old
printer's device for not ing doul)tf ul or spurious pa.s-
sages) were submitted to the bishop in manuscript
form, passed around among intimates, and not in-
tended for publication. In one of their transcribed
LUTHER 443 LUTHBB
forms, thev reached Luther and wrought him up to adjust the theological difficulties. But the audiences
a high pitch of indignation. Eck in a letter of explana- were doomed to failure. Cajetan came to adjudicate,
tion sought to mollify the ruffled tempers of Carlstadt Luther to defend ; the former demanded submission^
and Lutner and in courteous, urgent tones begged the latter laimched out into remonstrance; the one
them to refrain from public disputation either by showed a spirit of mediating patience, the other mis-
lecture of print (Ldscher, ''Reformations Acta", II, took it for apprehensive fear; the prisoner at the bar
Leipzig, 1723, 64-65; De Wette, op. cit., I, 125). In could not refrain from bandying words with the judge
spite of the fact that Carlstadt forestalled Luther, the on the bench. The l^ate, with the reputation of " the
latter gave out his " Asterisci'' (10 Au^., 1518). This most renowned and easily the first tneologian of his
skirmish led to the Leipzig Disputation. Sylvester age "t could not fail to be shocked at the rude, discour-
Prierias, like Tetzel, a Dommican friar, domestic theo- teous, bawline tone of the friar, and having exhausted
logian of the Court of Rome, in his official capacity as all his efforts, ne dismissed him with the injunction not
Censor Librorum of Rome, next submitted his report to call again until he recanted. Fiction and myth nad
" In prsraumtuoeas M. Lutheri Conclusiones Dialo- a wide sweep in dealing with this meeting and have
gus '*. In it he maintained the absolute supremacy of woven such an inextricable web of ot»curity about it
the pope, in terms not altogether free from exaggera- that we must follow either the highly coloured narra-
tion, especially stretching his theory to an unwarrant- tive of Luther and his friends, or be guided by tbs
able pomt in dealing with indulgences. This evoked more trustworthy criterion of lexical conjecture.
Luther's "Responsio ad Silv. Pnerietatis Dial(^m". The papal Brief to Cajetan (23 Aug.), which was
Hoogst raten, whose merciless lampooning in the Epis- handed to Luther at Nuremberg on his way home, in
tolsB Obscurorum Virorum" was still a living m^m- which the pope, contrary to all canonical precedents,
ory, likewise entered the fray in defence of papal pre- demands the most summary action in regard to the
rogatives, only to be dismissed by Luther's * Scheaam uncondemned and unexcommunicated '* child of in-
contra Hochstratanum", the flippancy and vulgarity iquity", asks the aid of the emperor, in the event of
of which one of Luther's most ardent students apolo- Luther's refusal to appear in Rome, to place him under
getically characterizes as being " in tone with the pre- forcible arrest, was no doubt written in Germany, and
vailing taste of the time and circumstances, but not to is an evident forgery (Beard, op. cit., 257-258 ; Hanke.
be commended as worthy of imitation " (Ldscher, op. " Deutsche Gesch.", VI, 97-98). Like all forged papal
cit., II, 325). documents, it still shows a surprising vitality, ana is
Before the " Dialoeus " of Prierias reached Germany, found in every biography of Luther,
a papal citation reached Luther (7 Aug.) to appear in Luther's return to Wittenberg occurred on the anni-
person within sixty davs in Rome for a hearing. He versary of his nailing the Theses to the castle church
at once took refuge in the excuse that such a trip could door (31 Oct., 1518). All efforts towards a recanta-
not be undertaken without endangering his life; he tion having failed, and now assured of the sympathy
sought influence to secure the refusal of a safe-conduct and support of the temporal princes, he followed his
through the electorate and brought pressure to bear appeal to the pope by a new appeal to an oecumenical
on the Emperor Maximilian and Elector Frederick to council (28 Nov., 1518), which, as will be seen later, he
have the hearing and judges appointed in Germany, again, denying the authority of both, followed by an
The university sent letters to Rome and to the nuncio appeal to the Bible.
Miltitz sustaining the plea of "infirm health" and The appointment of Karl von Miltitz, the young
vouching for his orthodoxy (De Wette, op. cit., 1, 131). Saxon nobleman in minor orders, sent as nuncio to de-
His literary activity continued unabated. His '* Reso- liver the Golden Rose to the Elector Frederick, was
lutiones ", which were already completed, he also sent unfortunate and abortive. The Golden Rose was not
to the pope (30 May) . The letter accompanying them offered as a sop to secure the good graces of the elector,
breathes the most loyal expression of confidence and but in response to prolonged and importunate agita-
trust in the Holy See, and is couched in such terms of tion on his part to get it (Hiusrath, ** Luther ", 1, 276).
abject subserviency and fulsome adulation (De Wette, Miltitz not only l£K;ked prudence and tact, but in his
op. cit., 119-122), that its sincerity and frankness, fol- frequent drinking-bouts lost all sense of diplomatic
lowed as it was by such an almost instantaneous revul- reticence; by continually borrowing from LuthCT's
sion, is instinctively questioned. IMoreover before this friends he prnced himself in a position only to inspire
letter had been written his anticipatory action in contempt. It is true that his unauthorized overtures
preaching his "Sermon on the Power of Excommuni- drew from Luther an act, which if it "is no reoanta-
cation " (16 May), in which it is contended that visible tion, is at least remarkably like one" (Beard, op. cit.,
union with the Church is not broken by excommimica- 274). In it he promised : (1) to observe silence if his
tion, but by sin alone, only strengthens the surmise of assailants did the same; (2) complete submission to
a lack of good faith. The inflammatory character of the pope; (3) to publish a plain statement to the public
this sermon was fully acknowledged by himself (De advocating loyalty to the Church; (4) to place the
Wette, op. cit., I, 130). whole vexatious cause in the hands of a delegated
Influential intervention had the effect of having the bishop. The whole transaction closed with a ban-
hearing fixed during the Diet of Augsburg, which was quet, an embrace, tears of joy, and a kiss of peace —
called to effect an alliance between the Holy See, the only to be disregarded and ridiculed afterwards by
Emperor Maximilian, and King Christian of Norway, Luther. The nuncio's treatment of Tetzel was severe
Denmark, and Sweden, in the war against the Turks, and unjust. When the sick and ailing man could
In the oflicial instructions calling the Diet, the name not come to him on account of the heatedj)ublic senti-
or cause of Luther does not figure. ment against him, Miltitz on his visit to Leipzig sum-
The papal legate, Cajetan, and Luther met face to moned him to a meeting, in which he overwhelmed
face for the first time at Augsburg on 11 Oct. Cajetan him with reproaches and charges, stigmatized him as
(b. 1470) was "one of the most remarkable figures the originator of the whole unfortunate affair, threat-
woven into the history of the Reformation on the ened the displeasure of the pope, and no doubt has-
Roman side ... a man of erudition and blameless tened the impending death of Tetzel (11 Aug., 1519).
life " (WeizsScker) ; he was doctor of philosophy and While the preliminaries of the Leipzig Disputation
theology before he was twenty-one. at this early age were pending, a true insight into Luther's real atti-
filling chairs with distinction in botn sciences at some tude towarcts the papacy, the subject which would
of the leading universities; in humanistic studies he form the main thesis of discussion, can best be gleaned
was so well versed as to enter the dialectic arena from his own letters. On 3 March, 1519, he writes
against Pico dolla Mirandola when only twenty-four. Leo X: "Before God and all his croatu.^^.^ \ V«»k^
Surely no better qualified man could be detailed to testimony that I \«\^Vftx ^\^ ^^'^\\^,\\«^ ^^ ^^>cc^
LUTHSB
444
LUTHSB
to touch or by intrigue undermine the authority of
the Roman Church and that of your hoUness"
(De Wette, op. cit., I, 234). Two days later (5
March) he wntes to Spalatin: "It was never my in-
tention to revolt from the Ronuui Apostolic chair"
(De Wette, op. cit., 1, 236). Ten days later (13 March)
he writes to the same: "I am at a loss to know
whether the pope be antichrist or his apostle'' (De
Wette, op.cit., I, 239). A month before this (20
Feb.) he thanks Scheurl for sending him the foul
"Dialogue of JuUus and St. Peter", a most poisonous
attack on the papacy, saying he is sorely tempted to
issue it in the vernacular to the public (De Wette, op.
dt., I, 230). "To prove Luther's consistency — ^to
vindicate his conduct at all points, as faultless both in
veracity and courage — under those circumstances,
may be left to m3rth-making simpletons " (Bayne, op.
cit^I, 457).
The I^ipzig disputation was an important factor in
fixing the alignment of both disputants, and forcing
Luther's theolo^cal evolution. It was an outgrowth
of the "Obelisci" and " Asterisci", which was taken
up l^ Carlstadt during Luther's absence at Heidel-
berg in 1518. It was precipitated by the latter, and
certainly not solicited or sought after by Eck. Every
obstacle was placed in the way of its taking place,
onlv to be bruished aside. The Bishops of Merseburg
and Brandenbiu^ issued their official mhibitions; the
theological faculty of the Leipzig University sent a
letter of protest to Luther not to m^dle in an affai r that
was purely Carbtadt's, and another to Duke Georee
to prohibit it (Seidemann, "Leipziger Disputation ',
Dresden and Leipzig, 1843, 126). Scheurl, then an
intimate of Luther's, tried to dissuade him from the
meeting; Eck, in terms pacific and dignified, replied
to Caristadt's offensive, and Luthers pugnacious
letters, in fruitless endeavour to avert all public con-
troversy either in print or lecture (Loscher, op. cit., II,
64r-65); Luther himself, pledged and forbidden all
public discourse or print, oeg^d Duke Frederick to
make an endeavour to bring about the meeting (De
Wette, op. cit., I, 175) at the same time that he
perBonally appealed to Duke Geoi^e for permission to
allow it, and this in spite of the fact that he had al-
readv given the theses against Eck to the public. In
the face of such indent pressure Eck could not fail to
accept the challenge. Even at this stage Eck and
Carlstadt were to 1^ the accredited coml^tants, and
the formal admission of Luther into the disputation
was only determined upon when the disputants were
actually at Leipzig.
The disputation on Eck's twelve, subsequently
thirteen, theses, was opened with much parade and
ceremony on 27 June, and the university atUa being
too small, was conducted at the Pleissenburg Castle.
The wordy battle was between Carlstadt and Eck on
the subject of Divine grace and human free will. As is
well known, it ended in the former's hiuniliating dis-
comfiture. Luther and Eck's discussion, 4 July, was
on pApal supremacy. The former, though gifted with
a brilliant readiness of speech, lacked — and his warm-
est admirers admit it — the quiet composure, curbed
Belf-restraint, and imruffled temper of a good dispu-
tant. The result was that the imperturbable serenity
and unerring confidence of Eck had an exasperating
effect on him. He was " querulous and censorious ' ,
"arbitrary and bitter" (Mosellanus), which hardly
contributed to the advantage of his cause, either in
aigumentation or with his hearers. Papal supremacy
was denied by him, because it found no warrant in
Holy Writ or in Divine right. Eck's comments on the
"pestilential " errors of Wiclif and Hus condenmed by
tlie Council of Constance was met by the reply, that,
80 far as the position of the Hussites was concerned,
thare were among them many who were " very Chris-
tian and evangelical ". Eck took his antagonist to
/aedt forp)sic'\ng the individual in a position to under-
stand the Bible better than the popes, councils, doc-
tors, and universities, and in pressing his argument
closer, assenting that the condemned Bohemians would
not hesitate to hail him as their patron, elicited the
ungentle remonstrance "that is a shameless lie". Eck,
undisturbed and with the instinct of the trained de-
bater, drove his antagonist still further, until he finall v
admitted the fallibuity of an oecumenical council,
upon which he closed the discussion with the laconic
rema^: "If you believe a legitimately assembled
council can err and has erred, then you are to me as a
heathen and pubUcan" (Kostlin-Kawcrau, op. cit., I,
243-60). This was 15 July. Luther returned sullen
and crestfallen to Wittenberg, from what had proved
to him an inglorious tournament (De Wette, op. cit., I,
284-89; 290-306; "Lutheri 0pp. Lat.; Eri.", Ill, 487;
Scheurl. "Briefbuch", II, Potsdam, 1867, 92).
The disastrous outcome of the disputation (Mauren-
brecher, "Gesch. der Kath. Reform", Nordlingen,
1880, 171; Kohler, "Denifles Luther'' 9) drove
him to reckless, desperate measures. He did not
scruple, at this stage, to league himself with the most
radical elements of national humanism and freeboot-
ing knighthood, who in their revolutionarv propa-
ganda hailed him as a most valuable ally. His com-
rades in arms now were Ulrich von Hutten and Franz
von Sickingen, with the motley horde of satellites
usually found in the train of such leadership. With
Melanchthon, himself a humanist, as an intermediary,
a secret correspondence was opened with Hutten
(De Wette, I, 451)^ and to all appearances Sickingen
was directly or indirectly in frequent communication
(op. cit., I, 451, 460). Hutten, though a man of un-
common talent and literary brilliancy, was^ never-
theless, a moral degenerate, without conscience or
character (Maurenbrecher, "Geschichte der katho-
lisch. Reformation", 199; Menzel, "Neuere Gesch.
der Deutschen", II, Breslau, 1826, 255; Paulsen,
" Gesch. des gelehrten Unterrichts ", Leipzig, 1885, 51 ;
Vorreiter. "Luthers Ringen mit den anti-christl.
Prindp. aer Revolution ", Halle, 1860, 55) . Sickingen.
the prmce of condoUierif was a sordid mercenarv ana
political marplot, whose daring deeds and murderous
atrocities form a part of German legendary lore. With
his three impregnable fastnesses, Ebemburg, Land-
stuhl, and Hohenburg, with their adventurous sol-
diery, fleet-footed cavabry, and primed artillery, " who
took to robbery as to a trade and considered it rather
an honour to be likened to wolves" (Cambridge Hist.,
II, 154), a menace to the very empire, he was a most
useful adjunct. With Luther thev had little in com-
mon, for Doth were impervious to all religious impulses,
unless it was their deadly hatred of the pope, and the
confiscation of church property and land (op. cit.,
155). The disaffection among the knights was par-
ticularlv acute. The flourishing condition of industry
made the agrarian interests of the small landowners
suffer; the new methods of warfare diminished their
political importance; the adoption of the Roman law
while it strengthened the territorial lords, threatened
to reduce the lower nobility to a condition of serfdom.
A change, even though it involved revolution, was
desired, and Luther and his movement were welcomed
as the psychological man $md cause. Hutten offered
his pen, a^ofmidabte weapon: Sickingen his fortress,
a haven of safety; the tormer assured him of the
enthusiastic support of the national humanists, the
latter "bade him stand firm and offered to encircle
him with . . . swords" (Bayne, op.cit., II, 59). The
attack would be made on the ecclesiastical princes, as
opposed to Lutheran doctrines and knightly privileges.
In the meantime Luther was saturating himself with
published and unpublished humanistic anti-clerical
literature so effectually that his passionate hatred of
Rome and the pope, his genesis of Antichrist, his
contemptuous scorn for his theological opponents, his
effusive professions of patriotism, his acquisition of
LtrraiK
445
LUtHEB
the literary amenitiesr of the *' Epistolse Obscurorum
Virorum", even the bodily absorption of Hutten's
arguments, not to allude to other conspicuous ear-
marks of his intercourse and association with the
humanistic-political agitators, can be unerringly
traced here (Hausrath, op. cit., I, 341 ; Kampschulte,
op. dt.f II, 73-105) . It was while living in the atmos-
pnere surcharged with these influences, that he issued
his first epochal manifesto, '' Address to the German
Nobility . It is in ** its form an imitation of Hutten's
circular letter to the emperor and German nobility ".
and the greater part of its contents is an abstract ot
Hutten's "Vadiscus or Roman Trinity", from his
''Lament and Exhortation", and from his letters to
the Elector Frederick of Saxony (Meiners, "Lebens-
beschreib. berQhmter Mftnner.", Zurich, III, 1797,
371). This seems to be admitted by competent
Lutheran specialists (Maurenbrecher, "Studien u.
Skizzen", Leipzig, 1874, 254; Werckhagen, "Luther
u. Hutten ", Wittenberg, 1888. 44-87 ; Kolde, " Luthcrs
Stellung zu Konzil u. lurche ' , 69; Benrath, " An den
christl. Adel deutsch. Nation", No. 4, "Schrift fttr
Reform. Gesch.", 1884). He steps from the arena of
academic gravity and verbal precision to the forum
of the public in "an invective of dazzling rhetoric".
He addresses the masses: his language is that of the
populace; his theolo^cal attitude is abandoned; his
sweeping eloquence fairly carries the emotional nature
of his hearers — while even calm, critical reason stands
aghast, dumbfounded; he becomes the hieratic intex^
preter, the articulate voice of latent slumbering
national aspirations. In one impassioned outburst,
he cuts from all his Catholic moorings — the merest
trace left seeming to intensify his fury. Church and
State, religion and politics, ecclesiastical reform and
social advancement, are handled with a flaming, peer-
less oratory. He speaks with reckless audacity; he
acts with breathless daring. War and revolution do
not make him quail — has he not the pledged support
of Ulrich von Hutten, Franz von Sickmgen, Sylvester
von Schaumburg? Is not the first the revolutionary
master spirit of his a^e — cannot the second make even
an emperor bow to his terms? The " gospel ", he now
sees " cannot be introduced without tumult, scandal,
and rebellion"; "the word of God is a sword, a war,
a destruction, a scandal, a ruin, a poison " (De Wette.
op. cit., I, 417). As for pope, cardinals, bishops, "ana
the whole brood of Roman Sodom ", why not attack
it " with every sort of weapon and wash our hands in
its blood" (Walch, XVIII. 245).
Luther the reformer haa become Luther the revo-
lutionary; the religious agitation had become a po-
litical rebellion (Maurenbrecher, op. cit., 155, 394;
Treitschke, " Preussische Jahrbttcher ", LII, 476; Paul-
sen, op. cit., 173; Weizsackef, " G6ttingen Gelehrt. An-
zeigen", 1881, 846; Droysen, "Gesch. der preuss.
Politik", I, 145, 178; Barkhausen, "Gesch. der
Philosophic", III, 258; Hansen, "Sind wir noch
Lutheraner", Copenhagen, 1885, 9, 10, 13, 86; "Ath-
enaeum ", 2 Feb., 1884, 146 ; " Academv ",26 Jan., 1884,
54; Creighton, "Hist, of the Papacy**' Vl, 1891, 169;
Bayne, op. cit., II, 165; " Cambridge Hist.", II, 166).
Luther s theological attitude at this time, as far as
a formulated cohesion can be deduced, was as follows:
The Bible is the only source of faith; it contains the
plenary inspiration of God; ite reading is invested
with a quasi-sacramental character. Human nature
has been totally corrupted by original sin, and man,
accordingly, is deprived of free will. Whatever he
does, be it good or dp d, is not his own work, but God's.
Faitn alone can work justification, and man is saved
by confidently believing that God will pardon him.
Tiiis faith not only includes a full pardon of sin, but
also an unconditional release from its penalties. The
hierarchy and priesthood are not Divmely instituted
or necessary, and ceremonial or exterior worship is not
essential or useful. Ecclesiastical vestments, pilgrim-
ages, mortifications, monastic vows, prayers for the
dead , intercession of saints, avail the soul nothing. All
sacraments, with the exception of baptism. Holy Eu-
charist, and penance, are reiected, but their absence
may be supplied by faith. Tne priesthood is universal ;
every Christian may assume it. A body of specially
trained and ordained men to dispense the mysteries
of God is needless and a usurpation. There is no
visible Church or one specifically established by God
whereby men may work out their salvation. The
emperor is appealed to in his three primary pamph*
lets, to destroy the power of the pope, to confiscate
for his own use all ecclesiastical property, to abolish
ecclesiastical feasts, fasts, and holidays, to do away
with Masses for the dead. etc. In his "Babylonian
Captivity"^ particularly, ne tries to arouse national
feeling against the papacy, and appeals to the lower
appetite of the crowd by laying down a sensualized
code of matrimonial ethics, little removed from pagan-
ism, which " again came to the front during the French
Revolution" (Hagen, "Deutsche literar. u. religidse
Verhaltnisse '' II, Erlangen, 1843, 235). His third
manifesto, "On the Fre^om of a Christian Man",
more moderate in tone, though uncompromisingly
radical, he sent to the pope.
In April, 1520, Eck appeared in Rome, with the
German works, containing most of these doctrines,
translated into Latin. They were submitted and dis-
cussed with patient care and critical calmness. Some
members of the four consistories, held between 21 May
and 1 June, counselled gentleness and forbearance, but
those demanding summary procedure prevailed. The
Bull of excommunication, "Exsurge Domine", was
accordingly drawn up 15 July. It formally ccm-
demned forty-one propositions drawn from his writ-
ings, ordered the destruction of the books containing
the errors, and summoned Luther himself to recant
within sixty days or receive the full penalty of ecclesi-
astical punishment. Three dajrs later (18 July) Eck
was appointed papal prothonotary with the commis-
sion to publish tne Bull in Germany. The appointment
of Eck was both unwise and imprudent. Luther's
attitude towards him was that of implacable perscmal
hatred; the dislike of him among the humanists was
decidedly virulent; his unpopularity among many
Catholics was also well known. Moreover, his personal
feelings, as the relentless antagonist of Luther, could
hardly be effaced, so that a cause which demand^ the
most untrammelled exereise. of judicial impartiality
and Christian charity would haitily find its best ex-
ponent in a man in whom individual triumph would
supersede the pure love of justice. Eck saw this, and
accepted the duty only under compulsicm (Wiedmann^
op. cit., 153). His arrival in Germany was signaliiea
by an outburst of popular protest and academic re-
sentment, which the national humaniste and friends
of Luther lost no time in fanning to a fierce flame.
He was barely allowed to publish the Bull in Meissen
r21 Sept.), Mersebur^ (25 Sept.), and Brandenburg
(29 Sept.), and a resistance almost uniform greeted
him in all other parts of Germany. He was subjected to
personal affronte, mob violence. The Bull itself became
the object of shocking indignities. Only after protracted
delays could even the bishops be induced to show it
any deference. The crowmng dishonour awaited it
at Wittenberg (Stud. u. Krit., 1901, 460), where (10
Dec), in response to a call issued by Melanchthon, the
university students assembled at the Elster Gate, and
amid the jeering chant of "Te Deum laudamus", and
" Requiem setemam ", interspersed with ribald drink-
ing songs, Luther in person consigned it to the flames.
The Bull seemingly affected him little. It only
drove him to further extremes and gave a new momen-
tum to the revolutionary agitation. As far back as 10
July, when the Bull was only under discussion, ke
scornfully defied it. ''As for me, the die is cast: I
despise iJike the favour and fury of Baiba\ ^^ks^^^sK
LUTHER
446
LUTHfiB
wish to 1)0 rccoiicilod with her, or over to hold any
communion with her. Let her condemn and bum
my books; I, in turn, unless I can find no fire, will con-
d^nn and publicly bum the whole pontifical law, that
swamp of neresies" (De Wette, op. cit., I, 466).
The next step, the enforcement of the provisions of
the Bull, was the duty of the civil power. Tnis was done,
in the face of vehement opposition now manifesting it-
self, at the Diet of Worms, wnen the young newly-crowned
Charles V was for the first time to meet the assem-
bled German Estates in solemn deliberation. Charles,
though not to be ranked with the greatest characters
of histoi^, was *'an honourable Christian gentleman,
striving in spite of physical defect, moral temptations,
and political impossibihties, to do his duty in that
state of life to which an unkind Providence had called
him " (Armstrong, ** The Emperor Charles V ", II, Lon-
don, 1902, 383). Great and momentous questions,
national and religious, social and economic, were to
be submitted for consideration — but that of Luther
easily became paramount. The pope sent two legates
to represent him — Marino Camcioli, to whom the
Solitical problems were entrusted, and Jerome Alean-
er, who should grapple with the more pressing re-
ligious one. Aleander was a man of brilliant, even
phenomenal, intellectual and linguistic endowments
(Hausrath, "Aleander u. Luther", Berlin, 1897, 49),
*'a man of the world almost modem in his progressive
ideas" (Armstrong, op. cit., 1, 61), a trained statesman,
not altogether free from the '' zeal and cunning " which
at times enter the game of diplomacy. Like his
staunch supporter, the Elector George of Saxony, he
was not only open-minded enough to admit the de-
plorable corruption of the Church, the grasping cu-
pidity of Roman curial procedure, the cold commer-
cialism and deep-seated immorality that infected many
of the clerg>', but, like him, he was courageous enough
to denounce them with freedom and point to the pope
himself. His problem, by the singular turn of events,
was to become the gravest that confronted not only the
Diet, but Christendom itself. Its solution or failure
was to be pregnant with a fate that involved Church
and State, and would guide the course of the world's
history. Germany was living on a politico-religious
volcano. All walks of life wore in a convulsive state
of unrest that boded ill for Church and State. Luther
by his inflammatory denunciation of pope and clergy
let loose a veritable hurricane of fierce, uncontrollable
racial and religious hatr^, which was to spend itself
in the bloodshed of the Peasants' War and tne orgies of
the Sack of Rome; his adroit juxtaposition of the rela-
tive powers and wealth of the temporal and spiritual
estates fostered jealousy and fed avarice; the chican-
ery of the revolutionary propagandists and pamph-
leteering poetasters lit up tne nation with rhetori-
cal fireworks, in which seoition and impiety, artfully
garbed in Biblical phraseology and sanctimonious
platitudes, posed as *' evangelical " liberUrand pure
patriotism; the restive peasants, victims of oppression
and poverty, after futile sporadic uprisings, lapsed
into stifled but sullen and resentful malcontents; the
tmredressed wrongs of the burghers and labourers in
tJ^e populous cities clamoured for a change, and the
viotuns were prepared to adopt any method to shake
off disabilities daily l)ecoming more irksome; the in-
creasing expense of living, the decreasing economic ad-
vancement, goaded the impecunious knights to desper-
ation, their very lives since 1495 being nothing more
tlum a struggle for existence (Maurenbrecher, '*Stu-
dien u. Skizzen", 246); the territorial lords cast en-
vious eyes on the teeming fields of the monasteries and
the princely ostentation of church dignitaries, and did
not scruple in the vision of a future German autonomy
to treat even the "Spanish" sovereign with dictato-
rial arrogance or tolerant complacency. The city of
Worms iti^'lf was within the grasp of a reign of lawless-
ness, debauchery, and murder (^Janssen, op. cit., 11,
162). From the bristling Ebemburg, Sickiugen's
lair, only six miles from the city, Huttcn was hurling
his truculent philippics, threatening with outrage and
death the legate (wnom he had failed to waylay), the
spiritual princes and church dignitaries, not sparing
even the emperor, whose pension as a bribe to silence
had hardly Wsen received. Germany was in a rei^ of
terror; consternation seemed to paralyze all mmds.
A fatal blow was to be struck at the clergy, it was
whispered, and then the famished knights would
scramble for their property. Over all loomed the
formidable apparition of Sickingcn. He was in Ale-
ander's opinion "sole king in Germany now; for he has
a following, when and as large as he wishes. The
emperor is improtccted, the princes are inactive; the
prelates quake with fear. Sickingcn at the moment is
the terror of Germany before whom all quail " (Brie-
ger, "Aleander u. Luther", Gotha, 1884, 125). "If
a proper leader could be found, the elements of revolu-
tion were already at hand, and only awaited the sigpal
for an outbreak (Maurenbrecher, op. cit., 246).
Such was the critical national and local ferment,
when Luther at the psychological moment was pro-
jected into the foreground by the Diet ot W^orms,
where "the devils on the roofs of the houses were
rather friendly . . . than otherwise" (Cambridge
Hist.y II, 147), to appear as the champion against
Roman corruption, which in the prevailing frenzy be-
came the expression of national patriotism. " He was
the hero of the hour solely because he stood for the
national opposition to Rome" (ibid.. 148; cf. Strobel,
"Leben Tnomas Miinzers ", Nuremoerg, 1795, 166).
His first hearing Ijefore the Diet (17 April) found him
not precisely in the most confident mood. Acknowl-
edging his works, he met the further request that he
recall them by a timid reply, "in tones so subdued
that they could hardly be heard with distinctness in
his vicinity ' ' , that he be gi ven time for reflection . His
assurance did not fail him at the second hearing (18
April) when his expected steadfastness asserted itself,
and Ins refusal was uttered with steady compK)sure and
firm voice, in Latin and German, that, unless convinced
of his errors by the Scriptures or plain reason, he
would not recant. * * I neitner can nor will recant any-
thing, for it is neither safe nor right to act against
one's conscience ", adding in German — " God help me,
Amen." The emperor took action the next day (19
April) by personally writing to the Kstates, that true
to the traditions of his Catholic forefathers, he placed
his faith in the Christian doctrine and the Roman
Church, in the Fathers, in the councils representing
Christendom, rather than in the teaching of an in-
dividual monk, and orders Luther's departure. "The
word which I pledged him", he concludes, "and the
promised safe-conduct he will receive. Be assured, he
will return unmolested whence he came" (Forst^mann,
" Neues Urkundenbuch", I, Hamburg, 1842, 75). All
further negotiations undertaken in the meantime to
bring about an adjustment having failed, Luther
was ordered to return, but forbidden to preach or
publish while on the way. The edict, drafted (8
May) was signed 26 May, but was only to be promul-
gated after the expiration of the time allowed in the
safe-conduct. It placed Luther under the ban of the
enipire and ordered the destruction of his writings.
It may not be amiss to state that the historicity of
Luther's famed declaration before the assembled Diet,
" Here I stand. I can not do otherwise. So help me,
God. Amen ", has been successfully challenged and
rendered inadmissible by Protestant researches. Its
retention in some of the larger biographies and his-
tories, seldom if ever without laborious qualification,
can only be ascribed to the deathless vitality of a
sacred fiction or an al>sence of historical rectitude on
the part of the writer (Burkhardt, " Theologische
Studien und Kritiken", 1869, 517-531; Archiv ftir
Refonnationsgeschichte, VI, 248; Elter, "Luther und
LOTHXB
447
LUTHER
der Wormser Reichstag", Bonn, 1885, 67-72; Mau-
renbrecher, *'Geschichte der katholisch. Reforma-
tion'*, I, 398; Wrede, ** Deutsche Rcicbsakten unter
Kaiser Karl V", II, Gotha, 1896, 555, note; Kalkofif,
"Die Depeschen des N. Aleander," Halle, 1897, 174,
note 2; Kostlin-Kawerau, op. cit., I, 419; Kolde,
"Luther in Worms", Municn, 1897, 21; Hausrath,
* ' Aleander und Luther ", 27 1 . The latter three make
only tacit admissions).
He left Worms 26 April, for Wittenberg, in the
custody of a party consistmg mainly, if not altogether,
of personal friends. By a secret agreement, of which
he was fully cognizant (De Wette, op. cit., I, 588-89),
being apprised of it the night before his departure by
the Elector Frederick, though he was unaware of his
actual destination, he was ambushed by friendly hands
in the night of 4 May, and spirited to the Castle of
Wartburg, near Eisenach.
The year's sojourn in the Wartburg marks a new and
decisive period in his life and career. Left to the
seclusion of his own thoughts and reflections, undis-
turbed by the excitement of political and polemical
agitation, he became the victim of an interior struggle
that made him writhe in the throes of racking anxiety,
distressing doubts and agonizing reproaches of con-
science. With a directness that knew no escape, he
was now confronted by the poignant doubts aroused
by his headlong course : was he justified in his bold and
unprecedented action; were not his innovations dia-
metrically opposed to the history and experience of
spiritual and human order as it prevailed from Apos-
tolic times; was he, "he alone", the chosen vessel sin-
gled out in preference to all the saints of Christendom
to inaugurate these radical changes; was he not re-
sponsible for the social and pohtical upheaval, the
rupture of Christian unity and charity, and the conse-
quent ruin of immortal souls (De Wette, op. cit., II, 2,
10, 16, 17, 22, 23) ? To this was added an irrepressible
outbreak of sensuality which assailed him with un-
bridled fury (De Wette, op. cit., II, 22), a fury that
was all the more fierce on account of the absence of
the approved weapons of spiritual defence (* Deniflc,
op. cit., I, 377), as well as the intensifying stimulus
of his imprudent gratification of his appetite for eat-
ing and drinking. And, in addition to this horror,
his temptations, moral and spiritual, became vivicl
realities; satanic manifestations were frequent and
alarming; nor did they consist in mere verbal encoun-
ter but in personal collision. His disputation with*
Satan on the Mass (Walch, XIX, 1489-1490), has
become historical. His life as Juncker George, his
neglect of the old monastic dietetic restrictions, racked
his body in paroxysms of pain, "which did not fail to
give colour to the tone of his polemical writings"
(Hausrath, op. cit., I, 476), nor sweeten the acerbity
of his temper, nor soften the coarseness of his speech.
However, many writers regard his satanic manifesta-
tions as pure delusions (* Denifie- Weiss, " Luther u.
Luthertum", II, 1909, 215 sq.).
It was while he was in these sinister moods that his
friends usually were in expectant dread that the flood
of his exhaiistiess abuse and unparalleled scurrility
would dash itself against the papacy, Church, and
monasticism. " I will curse ana scold the scoundrels
until I go to my grave, and never shall they hear a
civil word from me. I will toll them to their graves
with thunder and lightning. For I am unable to pray
without at the same time cursing. If I am prompted
to say: ' hallowed be Thy name \ I must add: * cursed,
damned, outraged be the name of papists'. If I am
prompted to say: *Thy Kingdom come', I must per-
force add: 'cureed, damned^ destroyed must be the
papacy \ Indeed I pray thus orally every day and in
my heart without intermission " (S&mmtl. W., XXV,
108). Need we be surprised that one- of his old ad-
mirers, whose name figured with his on the original
Bull of excommunication, concludee that Luther
"with his shameless, ungovoniable tongue, must liave
lapsed into insanity or been inspirecl by the Evil
Spirit" (Pirkheimer, ap. *D6llinger, ''Die Reforma-
tion", Ratisbon, I, 1846-48, 533-34)?
While at the Wartburg, he published his tract " On
Confession", which cut deeper into the mutilated
sacramental system he retained by lopping off pen-
ance. This he dedicated to Franz von bickingen.
His replies to Latomus of Louvain and Emser, his old
antagom'st, and to the theological faculty of the Uni-
versity of Paris, are characterized by his proverbial
spleen and discourtesy. Of the writings of nis antag-
onists he invariably "makes an arbitrary caricature
and he belabours them in blind rage ... he hurls at
them the most passionate replies (Lange, "Martin
liUther, ein religioses Characterbild ", Berlin, 1870,
109) . His reply to the papal Bull " In ccena Domini ",
written in colloquial German, appeak to the grossest
sense of humour and sacrilegious banter.
His chief distinction while at the Wartburg, and one
that will always be inseparably connected with his
name, was his translation of the New Testament into
German. The invention of printing gave a vigourous
impetus to the multiplication of copies of the Bible,
so that fourteen editions and reprints of German trans-
lations from 1466 to 1522 are known to have existed.
But their antiquated language, their uncritical revi-
sion, and their puerile glosses, hardly contributed to
their circulation. To Luther the vernacular Bible
became a necessary adjunct, an indispensable neces-
sity. His subversion of the spiritual order, abolition
of ecclesiastical science, rejection of the sacraments,
suppression of ceremonies, degradation of Christian
art, demanded a substitute, and a more available one
than the "undefiled Word of God", in association
with "evangelical preaching" could hardly be found.
In less than three months the first copy of the trans-
lated New Testament was ready for the press. As-
sisted by Melanchthon, Spalatin, and otners whose
services he found of use, with the Greek version of
Erasmus as a basis, with notes and comments chained
with polemical animus and woodcuts of an offensively
vulgar character supplie<l by Cmnach, and sold for a
trivial sum, it was issued at Wittenlxirg in September.
Its spread Wiis so rapid that a second edition was
called for as early as December. Its linguistic merits
were indisputable; its influence on national literature
most potent. Like all his writings in German, it was
the speech of the people ; it struck the popular taste
and charmed the national ear. It unfolded the afflu-
ence, clarity, and vigour of the German tongue in a
manner and with a result that stands almost without
a parallel in the history of German literature (Pietsch,
"M. Luther u. die hochdeutsche Sprache", JBreslau,
1883; Kluge, "Von Luther bis Lessing", Strasburg,
1888; Franks, **Grundzuge der Schriftsprache
Luthers", G6rlitz, 1888). That he is the creator of
the new High German literary language is hardly in
harmony with the facts and researches ofmodem philo-
logical science (*Janssen, II, 530-75). While from
the standpoint of the philologist it is worthy of the
highest commendation, theologically it failed in the es-
sential elements of a faithful translation . By attribution
and suppression, mistranslation and wanton garbling,
he made it the medium of attacking the old Church, and
vindicating his individual doctrines (*D6llinger, op.
cit.. Ill, 139-73; "Cambridge Hist.", II, 164-65).
A book that helped to depopulate the sanctuary and
monastery in Germany, one that Luther himself con-
fessed to be his most unassailable pronouncement, one
that Melanchthon hailed as a work of rare learning,
and which many Reformation specialists pronounce,
both as to contents and results, his most important
work, had its origin in the Wartburg. It was his
" Opinion on Monastic Orders ". Dashed off at white
heat and expressed with that whirlwind impetuosity
that made him so powerful a leader, it made thAVssAsJk
LVTHXE
448
LUTUER
proclamation of a new code of ethics: that concupi-
scence is invincible, the sensual instincts irrepressible,
the gratification of sexual propensities as natural and
inexorable as the performance of any of the physio-
logical necessities of our beine. It was a trumpet call
to priest, monk, and nun to oreak their vows of chas-
tity and enter matrimony. The ''impossibility" of
successful resistance to our natural sensual passions
was drawn with such dazzling rhetorical fascination
that the salvation of the soul, the health of the body,
demanded an instant abrogation of the laws of celi-
bacy. Vows were made to Satan, not to God; the
devil's law was absolutely renounced by taking a wife
or husband. The consequences of sucn a mond code
were immediate and eeneral. They are evident from
the stinging rebuke of his old master, Staupitz, less,
than a year after its promulgation, that the most
vociferous advocates ot his old pupil were the fre-
quenters of notorious houses, not synonymous with a
high type of decency (Enders, op. cit.. Ill, 406). To
us the whole treatise would have nothing more than
an archaic interest were it not that it inspired the
most notable contribution to Reformation history
written in modem times, Denifle's ''Luther una
Lutherthum " (Mainz. 1904) . In it Luther's doctrines,
writings, and sayings have been subjected to so search-
ing an analysis, his historical inaccuracies have been
proved so flagrant, his conception of monasticism such
a caricature, nis knowledge of Scholasticism so super-
ficial , his misrepresentation of medieval theology so un-
blushing, his interpretation of mysticism so erroneous,
and this with such a merciless circumstantial mastery
of detail, as to cast the shadow of doubt on the whole
fabric of Reformation history.
In the middle of the summer of this year (4
Aug.) he sent his reply to the "Defence of the Seven
Sacraments " by King Henry VIII. Its <mly claim to
attention is its tone of proverbial coarseness and scur-
rility. The king is not only an "impudent liar", but
is delueed with a torrent of foul abuse, and every
unworthy motive is attributed to him (Walch, XIX,
295-346) . It meant, as events proved, in spite of Lu-
ther's tardy and sycophantic apologies, the loss of Eng-
land to the German Reformation movement (PlancE,
"Gesch. des protest. I^hrbegriflfs", II, Leipzig, 1783,
102; Hausrath, op. cit., II, 71; Thudichum. op. cit.,
1, 238) . About this time he issued in Latin ana German
his broadside, " Against the falsely called spiritual state
of Pope and Bishops", in which his vocabulary of*
vituperation attains a height equalled only ^himself,
and then on but one or two occasions. Seemingly
aware of the incendiary character of his langua^, he
tauntingly asks: "But they say, 'there is fear that a
rebellion may arise against the spiritual Estate'.
Then the reply is ' Is it just that souls are slaughtered
eternally, that these moimtebanks mav disport them-
selves quiethr '? It were better that all bishops should
be muraered, and all religious foundations and monas-
teries razed to the ground, than that one soul ediould
Krish, not to Bpe& of all the souls ruined by these
)ckheads and manikins" (S&mmtl.W.,XXVin, 148).
During his absence at the Wartbure (3 Apr., 1521-
6 March, 1522) the storm centre of the reform agita-
tion veered to Wittenberg, where Carlstadt took up
the reins of leadership, aided and abetted by Melanch-
thon and the Augustinian Friars. In the narrative of
conventional Reformation history Carlstadt is made
the scapegoat for all the wild excesses that swept over
Wittenberg at this time; even in more critical nistory
he is painted as a marplot, whose officious meddline
almost wrecked the work of the Reformation. Still,
in the hands of cold scientific Protestant investigators,
his character and work have of late undeigone an
astounding rehabilitation, one that calls for a re-
appraisement of all historical values in which he
figures. He appears not only as a man of " extensiye
learning, fearless intrepidity . . . glowing enthusiasm
for the truth " (Thudichum, op. cit., 1, 178), but as the
actual pathbr^dcer for Luther, whom he anticipated
in some of his most salient doctrines and audacious
innovations. Thus, for example, this new appraisal
establishes the facts: that as early as 13 April, 1517,
he published his 152 theses against indulgences; that
on 21 June, 1521, he advocated and defended the ri^ht
of priests to many, and shocked Luther by includmg
monks; that on 22 July. 1521, he c^ed for the re-
moval of all pictures ana statuary in sanctuary and
church ; that on 13 May, 1521, he made pulDlic protest
against the reservation of the Blessed Sacrament, the
elevation of ^e Host, and denounced the withholding
of the Chalice from the laity; that so early as 1 March,
1521, while Luther was still in Wittenberg, he in-
veighed a^iinst prayers for the dead and demanded
that Mass oe said in the vernacular German (Barge,
"Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt", Leipzig, 1905,
I-II, passim; Thudichum, op. cit., I, 178-83; Bar^e,
" Frtthprotestant. Gemeindechristentum '\ Leipzig,
1909). While in this new valuation he still retains
the character of a disputatious, puritanical polemist,
erratic in conduct, surly in manner, irascible in tem-
per, biting in speech, it invests him with a shrinking
reluctance to aaopt any action however radical with-
out the approval of the congregation or its accredited
representatives. In the lignt of the same researches,
it was the mild and gentle Melanchthon who prodded
on Carlstadt until he found himself the vortex of the
impending disorder and riot. " We must begin some-
time ", he expostulates, " or nothing will be done. He
who puts his hand to the plough should not look back "
(Ba^ge, op. cit., I, 323).
The floodgates once opened, the deluge followed.
On 9 October, 1521, thirty-nine out of the forty Augus-
tinian Friars formally declared their refusal to sav pri-
vate Mass any longer; Zwilluig, one of the most rabid of
them, denounced the Mass as a devilish institution;
Justus Jonas stigmatized Masses for the dead as sacri-
legious pestilences of the soul; Communion under two
kmds was publidy administered. Thirteen friars (12
Nov.) doned their habits, and with tumultuous
demonstrations fled from the monastery, with fifteen
more in their immediate wake; those remaining loyal
were subjected to ill-treatment and insult by an in-
furiated rabble 1^ by Zwilling; mobs prevented the
saying of Mass; on 4 Dec., forty students, amid
derisive cheers, entered the Franciscan monastery and
demolished the altars; the windows of the house of the
resident canons were smashed, and it was threatened
with pillage. It was clear that these excesses, uncon-
trolled by the civil power, unrestrained by the religious
leaders^ were symptomatic of social and religious
revolution. Luther, who in the meantime paid a
surreptitious visit to Wittenberg (between 4 and 9
Dec.), had no words o£ disapproval for these proceed-
9 Dec., 'Ilpleases me immensely (Enders, op. cit.. Ill,
253). The collapse and disintegration of religious life
kept on apace. At a chapter of Augustinian Friars
held at Wittenberg, 6 Jan.^ 1522, six resolutions, no
doubt inspired bv Luther himself (Reindell, " Doktor
Wenseslaus Linck " . I, Leipzig, 1902, 162) , were unani-
mously adopted, wnich aimai at the subversion of
the whole monastic system: five days later the Augus-
tinians removed all altars but one from their church,
and burnt the pictures and holy oils. On 19 Jan.,
Carlstadt, now forty-one years of age, married a young
giri of fifteen, an act that called forth the hearty en-
dorsement of Luther (De Wette, op. cit., II, 123); on
9 or 10 Feb., Justus Jonas, and about the same time
J<^nn Lange, prior of the Augustinian monastery at
Erfurt, followea his example. On Christmas Day
(1521) Carlstadt ."in civilian dress, without any vest-
ment", ascended the pulpit, preached the "evangeli-
LUTBIE 449 LUTHBB
flal liberty" of taking Communion under two kinds, tolerated no rival, brooked no contradiction. Thia
held up confession and absolution to derision, and was constantly in evidence, but now comes into ob-
railed against fasting as an unscriptural imposition, trusive eminence in his hectoring course pursued to
He next proceeded to the altar and said Mass in Ger- drag Erasmus, whom he long watched with jealous eye,
man. omitting all that refened to its sacrificial charae- into the controversial arena (De Wette, op. cit., II.
ter, left out the Elevation of the Host, and in condu- 199^201, 352-353). Erasmus, like all devotees ot
sion extended a general invitation to all to approach humanistic learning, lovers of peace and friends of re-
and receive the Lord's Supper, by individually taking ligion, was in full and accordant sympathy with Luther
the Hosts in their hands and drinking from the Chalice, when he first sounded the note of reform (Stichart,
The advent of the three Zwickau prophets (27 Dec), "Erasmus yon Rotterdam", Leipzig, 1870, 308-326).
with their communistic ideas, direct personal commu- But the bristling, imgoverned character of his apo^
nicaticm with God, extreme subjectivism in Bible inter- dictic assertions, the bitterness and brutality of nis
pretation, all of which impressed Melanchthon forci- ^leech, his alliance with the conscienceless politi(»U
bly (''Corp. Ref .", 1, 513, 514,515,534; Barge, op. cit.^ I, radicalism of the nation, created an instinctive repul-
401), only added fuel to the already fiercely Dummg sion, which, when he saw that the whole movement
flame. The^ came to consult Lutbier, and with ^ood " from its very beginning; was a national rebellion, a
reason, for " it was he who taught the universal pnest- mutiny of the German spirit and consciousness against
hood of all Christians, which authorized every man to Italian despotism" (Thudichum, op. cit., I, 304; Sti-
preach; it was he who announced the full liberty of all chart, op. cit., 351-382) he, timorous by nature, vacil-
the sacraments, especially baptism, and accordingly lating in spirit, eschewing all controversy, shrinkingly
they were justified m rejecting infant baptism" (Thu- retired to his studies. Popular with popes, honoured
dichum, op. cit., 1. 220). That they associated with by kings, extravagantly extolled by humanists, re-
Carbtadt mtimately at this time is doubtful; that he spected h}[ Luther's most intimate friends, he was in
fully subscribed to their teachings improbable, if not spite of ms pronounced rationalistic proclivities, hia
impossible (Barge, op. cit., I, 402). withering contempt for monks, and wnat was a con-
What brought Luther in such hot haste to Witten- vertible term. Scholasticism, unquestionably the fore-
berg? The character given Carlstadt as an instigator most man of learning in his day. His satiric writings,
of rebellion, the leader of the devastating '* iconoclas- which according to Kant, did more good to the worki
tic movement", has been found exaggerated and un* than the combined speculations of all metaphysicians
true in spite of its universal adoption (Barge, op. cit., and which in the minds of his contemporaries laid the
Ij 398-405; ''Corp. Ref.", 1, 545, 553; Thudichum, op. egg which Luther hatched — gave him a great vogue
cit., Ij 193, who Drands it ''as a shameless lie"); the in all walks of life. Such a man's convictions were
assertion that Lu ther was requested to come to Witten- naturally supposed to run in the same channel as
berg by the town council or congregation, is dismissed Luther's — and if his co-operation, in spite of alluring
as " untenable" (Thudichum, op. cit., 1, 197). Nor was overtures, failed to be secured — his neutrality was at
he summoned by the elector, ''although the elector had all hazards to be won. Prompted by Luther's oppo*
misgivinf^s about his return, and inferentially did not nents, still more goaded by Luther's militant attitude,
consider it necessary, so far as the matter of bringing if not formal challenge, he not only refused the per-
the reformatory zeal of the Wittenbergers into the sonal request to refrain from all participation in the
bounds of moderation was concerned ; he did not for- movement, and become a mere passive " spectator of
bid Luther to return, but expressly permitted it" the tragedj^" (De Wette, op. cit., II, 498-501; En-
(Thudichum, op. cit., I, 199; Bar>Ee, op. cit., I, 435). ders, op. cit., IV, 319-323), but came before the
Did perhaps information from Wittenberg portend public with his Latin treatise " On Free Will". In it
the ascenclancy of Carlstadt. or w^as there cause for ne would investigate the testimony afforded by the
alarm in the propaganda oi the Zwickau prophets Old and New Testament as to man's " free will' , and
(Barge, op. cit., 1. 434-35)? At all events on 3 March, to establish the result, that in spite of the profound.
Luther on horscoack, in the costume of a horseman, thought of philosopher or searchmg erudition of theo-
with buckled sword, full grown beard, and long hair, logian, the subject is still enshrouded in obscurity^ and
issued from the Wartburg. Before his arrival at that its ultimate solution could only be looked for in
Wittqnberg, he resumed his monastic habit and ton- the fulness of light diffused by the Divine Vision. It
sure, and as a fully groomed monk he entered the was a purely scholastic question involving philosophy
deserted monastery. He lost no time in preaching on cal and exegetioal problems, which were then, as they
eight consecutive davs (9-17 March) sermons mostly are now, arguable points in the schools. In no single
in contravention of Carlstadt's innovations, every one point does it antagonise Luther in his war with Rome
of which, as is well known, he subsequentl^r adopted. CThudichum, <^. cit., I, 313). The work received a
The Lorci's Supper again became the Mass; It is sung in wide circulation and general acceptance. Melandn
Latin, at the high altar, in rubrical vestments, though thon writes approvingly of it to the author and Spala-
all allusions to a sacrifice are expunged; the elevation tin (Corp. Rei., I, 675, 673-^674). After the lapse of a
is retained ; the Host is exposed in the monstrance; year Luther gave his reply in Latin " On the Servitude
the adoration of the congregation is invited. Com- of the Will". Luther 'never in his whole life had a
muni on under one kind is administered at the high purely scientific object in view, least of all in thia
altar — but under two kinds is allowed at aside altar, writing" (Hausrath, op. cit., II, 75). It consists of
The sermons characterized by a moderation seldom "a torrent of the grossest abuse of Erasmus" (Thudi-
found in Luther, exercised the thrall of his accustomed chum, op. cit., I, 315; Walch, op. cit., XVIII, 2049-*
elociuence, — but proved abortive. Popular sentiment, 2482 — gives it in German translation), — and evokes
intimidate! and suppressed, favoured C-arlstadt. The the lament of the hounded humanist, that he, tbe
feud l)ctween Luther and Carlstadt was on, — and it lover of peace and quiet, must now turn gladiator and
showed the former "glaringly in his most repellent do battle with "wild beasts" (Stichart, op. cit., 370).
form" (Barge, I, op. cit., VI), and was only to end His pen portraiture of Luther and his controversial
when the latter, exiled and impoverished through methods, ^ven in his two rejoinders, are masterly, and
Luther's machinations, went to eternity accompanied even to this day find a general recognition on the part
by Luther's customary benediction on his enemies. of all unbiassed students. His sententious characteri-
Liither had one prominent trait of character, which zation that where " Lutheranism flourishes the sciences
in the consensus of those who have made him a special perish"^ that its adherents then, were men "with but
stud}^, overshadowed all others. It was an over- two objects at heart, money and women", and that
weening confidence and unbending will, buttressed by the " Gospel which relaxes the reins" and allows eyery*
an inflexible dogmatism. He recognized no superior, one to do as he pleases (Epist. 1006, London, 1901-04)
IX.— 29
450 LUTHSB
Amply proves that something more deep than Luther's 44; " S&nmitl. W.'S XXIV, 287-294). His advice was
contentiousness (Stichart. op. cit., 380) made him an literally followed. The process of repression was
alien to the movement. Nor did Luther's subsequent frightful. The encounters were more in the character
efforts to re-establish amicable relations with Erasmus, of massacres than battles. The undisciplined peasants
to which the latter alludes in a letter (11 April, 1526), wil^ their rude farming Implements as weapons, were
meet with anything further than a curt refusal. slaughtered like cattle in the shtunbles. More than
The times were pregnant with momentous events 1000 monasteries and castles were levelled to the
for the movement. The humanists one after the other eround, hundreds of villages were laid in ashes, the
dropped out of the fray. Mutianus Rufus, Crotus harvests of the nation destroyed, and 100,000 killed.
Rubianus, Beatus Rhenanus, Bonifacius Amerbach, The fact that one commander alone boasted that ** he
Sebastian Brant, Jacob Wimpheting, who played so hanged 40 evangelical preachers and executed 11,000
prominent apart in the battle of the Obscure Men. revolutionists and heretics" (Keim, *' Schwabische
now formally returned to the allegiance of the Ola Reformations Geschichte'', Stuttgart, 1855, 46), and
Church (Hausrath, op. cit., II, 68, 88). Ulrich Zasius, that history with hardly a dissentmg voice fastens the
of Freiburg, and Chnstoph Scheurl, of Nilmbei^, the origin of this war on Luther, fully shows where its
two most illustrious jurists of Germany, early friends source and responsibiUt^r lay (Schreckenbach, op. cit.,
and supporters of Luther, with the statesmen's pre- 5, 44: Thudichum, op. cit., II, 1-64; Bezold, ''Ucsch.
vision cietected the political complexion of affairs, der deutsch. Reform.", Berlin, 1890, 447; Maurcn-
could not fail to notice the growing relidous anarchy, brecher, "Gesch. der kath. Reform.", I, 527; See-
and, hearing the distant nmiblings of the Feasants' War, bohm, *'The Protestant Revolution", London, 1894,
abandoned his cause. The former found his preaching 148; Bavne, op. cit., II, 264; Creighton, ** Hist, of the
mixed with deadlv poison for the German people, the Papacy' , VI, 303-305; Bax, "The Peasants' War in
latter pronounced Wittenberg a sink of error, a hot- Germany", London, 1899, 278-279; Beard, "The
house of heresy (Ke^stlin-Kawerau, I, 652-653). Reformation", London, 1883, 199-200; Armstrong,
Sickingen's last raid on the Archbishop of Trier (27 "The Emperor Charles V", I, 207, 215; "Cambridge
Aug., 1522) proved disastrous to his cause and fatal to Modem Hist.", II, 192-194; Planck, "Gesch. des
himself. Deserted by his confederates, overpowered protest. Lehrbegriffs", II, 176-177; Bar^e, "Karl-
by his assailants, his lair — the fastness Landstuhl — statt", II, 357; Idem, "FrOhprotestantisches Ge-
f^ into the hands of his enemies, and Sickingen him- meindechnstentum . . .", 332-335).
self horribly wounded died after barely signing its While Germany was drenched in blood, its people
capitulation (30 Aug., 1523). Hutten, forsi3cen and paralyzed with horror, the cry of the widow and wail
soutary, in poverty and neglect, fell a victim to his of the orphan heard throughout the land, Luther then
protracted debauchery (Aug., 1523) at the early age of in his fortynsecond year was spending his honeymoon
thirty-five. The loss siistained by these detections withCatharine von Bora, then twenty-six (married 13
and deaths was incalculable for Luther, especially at June, 1525), a Bemardine nun who had abandoned
one of the most critical periods in German nistoiy. her convent. He was regaling his friends with some
The peasant outbreaks, which in milder forms were coldblooded witticisms a^ut tne horrible catastrophe
previously easily controlled, now assumed a magnitude (De Wette, op. cit.. Ill, 1) uttering confessions of self-
and acuteness that threatened the national life of Ger- reproach and shame (De Wette, op. cit., Ill, 3), and
many. The primary causes that now brought on the ^ving circimistantial details of his connubial bliss
predicted and inevitable conflict (Cambridge Hist., II, irreproducible in English (De Wette, op. cit.. Ill, 18).
174) were the excessive luxury and inordinate love of Melanchthon's famous Greek letter to his bosom friend
pleasure in all stations of life, the lust of money on the Camerarius, 16 June, 1525 f^'Kirsch, "Melanchthons
utat of the nobility and wealthy merchants, the un- Brief an Camerarius", Mainz, 1900) on the subject,
bushing extortions of commercial corporations, the reflected his personal feelings, which no doubt were
artificial advance in prices and adulteration of the shared by most of the bridegroom's sincere friends,
necessities of life, the decay of trade and stagnation of This step, in conjimction with the Peasants' War,
industiy resulting from the dissolution of guilds, above marked the point of demarcation in Luther's career
aU, the long endured oppression and daily increasing and the movement he controlled. "The springtide of
destitution of the peasantry, who were the main su^ the Reformation, had lost its bloom. Luther no lon-
ferers in the unbroken wars and feuds that rent aild ger advanced, as in the first seven years of his acfi vity,
devastated Germany for more than a century. A fire from success to success . . . The plot of a complete
of repressed rebellion and infectious unrest burned overthrow of Roman supremacy m Germany, by a
throughout the nation. This smouldering fire Luther torrential popular uprising, proved a chimera ' (Haus*
fanned to a fierce flame by his turbulent and incen- rath, op. cit., II, 62). Until after the outbreak of the
diary writings, which were read with avidity by all, social revolution, no prince or ruler, had so far given
and by none more voraciously than the peasant, who his formal adhesion to the new doctrines. Even the
k)okea upon "the son of a peasant" not only as an Elector Frederick (d. 5 May, 1525), whose irresolution
emancipator from Roman impositions, but the pre- allowed them imhampered sway, did not, as yet sepa-
eursor of social advancement. " His invectives poured rate from the Church. The radically democratic drift
oil on the flames of revolt" (Cambridge Hist., II, 193). of Luther's whole agitation, his contemptuous allu-
True, when too late to lay the storm he issued his "Ex- sions to the Grerman princes, "generally the biggest
kortation to Peace ", but it stands in inexplicable and fools and worst scoundrels on earth " (W alch, op. cit.,
ineffaceable contradiction to his second, unexampled X, 460-464), were hardly calculated to curry favour or
blast " Against the murderous and robbing rabble of win allegiance. The reading of such explosive pro-
Peasants". In this he entirely changes front, " dipped nouncements as that of 1523 " On the Secular Power "
his pen in blood" (Lang, 180), and "calls upon (Walch, op. cit., XXII, 59-105) or his disingenuous
the princes to slaughter the offending peasants like "Exhortation to Peace" in 1525 (Idem, op. cit.,
mad dogs, to stab, strangle and slay as best one can, XXIV, 257-286), especially in the light of the events
and holds out as a reward the promise of heaven. The which had just transpired, impressed them as breath-
few sentences in which allusions to sympathy and ing the spirit of insubordination, if not insurrection.
mercy for the vanquished are contained, are relegated Luther, although the mightiest voice that ever spoke
to the background. What an astounding illusion lay in the German language, was a vox etpraterea mhil"
in the fact, that Luther had the hardihood to offer as (Cambridge Hist., II, 162), for it is acunitted that he
apology for his terrible manifesto, that God com- possessed none of the constructive qualifications of
manded him to speak in such a strain!" (Schracken- statesmanship, and proverbially lacked theppidential
bach, "Luther u. der B^uemkrieg",Qldenbuig, 1895, attribute of cons&Btency. His championship of the
LITTHXE 451 LtJTBXB
*' masses seeins to have been limited to thoae occasions sterili^ which marked Germany during the Utter
when he saw in them a useful weapon to hold over the part of the sixteenth cefntury '' (ibid.)» and just as
headsof his enemies ''(ibid., 193). The tragic failure of naturally we find "as many new Churches as there
the Peasants' War now makes him underso an abrupt were pnndpAlities or republics " (Menzel, op. cit. , 739).
transition, and this at a moment when wey stood m A tneological event, the first of any r^ magnitude,
helpless discomfiture and pitiful weakness, the especial that had a marked influence in shapmg the destiny <h
objects of counsel and sympathv (Meniel, ** Gescn. der the reform movement, even more than the Peasants'
Deutschen", 581). He and Melanchthon, now pro- War, was caused by tne brooding discontent aroused
claim for the first time the hitherto unknown doctrine by Luther's peremptory condemnation and suppres-
of the unlimited power of the ruler over the subject; sioq of every umovation, doctrinal or disciplinary, that
demand unquestioning submission to authority: was not in tne fullest accord with his. Tnis weakness
preach and formallv teach the spirit of servility ana of character was well-known to his admirers then, as it
d^potism (Tliudichum, op. cit., II, 60-61; fieard, isfully admitted now (Planck, op. cit., II. 131). Carl-
'^ The Reformation ", 101). The object lesson which stadt, who by a strange irony, was forbidden to preach
was to bring the enforcement of the full rigour of the or publish in Saxony, from whom a recantation was
law to the attention of the princes was the Peasants' forced (Thudichum, op. dt., 11^ 68-69), and who was
War. The masses were to be laden down with burdens exiled from his home for his opmions — ^to the enforce-
to curb their refractoriness; the poor man was to be ment of all which disabilities Luther personally gave
*' forced and driven, as we force and drive pigs or wild his attention — now contumeliously set them at de-
cattle " (S&mmtl. W., XV, 276). Meluichthon found fiance. What degree of culpability there was between
the (Annans such ''a wild, incorrigible, bloodthirsty Luther doing the same with even greater recklessness
people" (CoTD. Ref., VII, 432-433) that their liberties and audadty while under the ban of the Empire, — or
should by all means be abridged and more drastic CarLstadt domg it tentatively while imder the ban of a
severity measured out (Cambridge Hist.', II, 193). territorial lord, did not seem to have caused any
The same autocratic power was not to be confined to suspicion of incon^ruitv. However, Carlstadt pre-
mere political concerns, but the "Gospel" was to be- cipitated a contention that shook the whole reform
come the instrument of the princes to extend it into fabric to its very centre. The controversy was the
the domain of religious affairs. first decisive conflict that changed the separatists'
Luther by the creation of his " universal priesthood camp into an internecine Imttleground of hostile com-
bf all Christians", by delegating the auuiority "to batants. The casxis belli was the doctrine of the
judge a}\ doctrines" to the "Christian assembly or Eucharist. Carlstadt in his two treatises (26 Feb. and
congregation", by empowering it to appoint or dis- 16 March, 1525), after assailing "the new Pope", gave
miss teacher or preacher, sought the overthrow of the an exhaustive statement of his doctrine <^ tne Lcra's
old Catholic order. It did not strike him, that to ea- Supper (see Barge, "Karlstadt", II, 144-296; Thu-
tablish a new Church,to ground an ecclesiastical orj^ani- dicnum, op. dt., II, 65-68; Hausrath, op. cit., II, 198r-
zation on so precarious and volatile a basis, was m its 201). The literal interpretation of the institutional
very nature impossible (Maurenbrecher, "Studien u. woids of Christ "this is my body" is rejected, the
Skizzen", 334-336). The seeds of inevitable anarchy bodily presence flatly denied. Luther's doctrine of
lay dormant in such principles. Momentarily this was consubstantiation, that the body is in, with, and under
clear to himself, when at this very time (1525) he does the bread, was to nim devoid of all Scriptural support,
not hesitate to make the confession, that there are Scripture neither says the bread "Ib" my body, nor
" nearly as many sects as there are heads" (De Wette, " in the bread is my bodv, in fact it says nothing
op. cit.. Ill, 61). This anarchvin faith was concomit- about bread whatever. The demonstrative pronoun
ant with the decay of spiritual, charitable, and educa- " this", does not refer to the bread at aU, but to the
tional activities. Of this we have a fairly staggering body of Christ, present at the table. When Jesus said
array of evidence from Luther himself (BeiEird, op. cit., " this is my boay", He pointed to Himself, and said
145; "^Dollin^er," Die Reformation ",1,280-348). The "this body shall be offered up, this blood shall be shed,
whole situation was such, that imperative necessity for you." The words " take and eat" refer to the prof-
forced the leaders of the reform movement to invoke fered bread, — ^the words " this is my body" to the cxxl v
the aid of the temporal power. Thus "the whole of Jesus. He goes further, and maintains that "this is'
Reformation was a triumph of the temporal power reallymeans" this signifies". Aoc(»xlingly grace shoukl
over the spiritual. Luther nimself, to escape anarchy, be sought in Christ crucified, not in the sacrament,
placed all authority in the hands of the princes" Among all the arguments advanced none proved more
(Menzel, op. cit., 623). This aid was all tne more embarrassing than the deictic "this is". It was the
readily given, since there was placed at the disposition insistence on the identical interpretation of "this"
of the temporal power the vast possessions of the old referring to the present Christ, that Luther used as his
Church, and only involved the pledge, to accept the most dendiing argument in setting aside the primacy
new opinions and introduce them as a state or territo- of the pope (Matt., xvi, 18) at the Leipzig Disputa-
rial religion. The Free dtiea could not resist the lure tion (Ldseher, "Reformations Acta , III, 369;
of the same advances. They meant the exemption Hausrath, "Luthers Leben", II, 200). Carlstadt's
from all taxes to bishops and ecclesiastical corpora- writings were prohibited, with the result that Saxony,
tions, the alienation of chureh property, the suspen- as well as Strasburg, Basle, and now Zurich forbade
sion of episcopal authority, and its trieinsfer to the their sale and drculation. This brought the leader of
temporal power. Here we find the foimdation of the the Swiss reform movement. Zwingli, into the fray, as
national enactment of the Diet of Au^pBburg, 1A65, the apologist of Carlstadt, tne advocate of free speech
" eternally branded with the curse of history" (Men- and unfettered thought, and ipao facto Luther's adver-
zel, op. cit., 615) embodied in the axiom Cujua ffffio, sary.
ejus religiOf the religion of the country is determined 'The reform movement now presented the speo-
by the religion of its ruler, "a foundation which was tade of Rome's two most formidable opponents,
but the consequence of Luther's well-known politics" the two most masterful minds and authoritative ex-
(Idem, loc. cit.). Freedom of religion became the ponents of contemporary separatistic thought, meet-
monopoly of the ruling princes, it made Geimany ing in open conflict, with the Lord's Supper as the
"little more than a geographical name, and a vague gage of war. Zwingli shared Carlstadt's doctrines in
one withal" (Cambridge Hist., II, 142); naturSly the main, with some further divergencies, that need no
"serfdom lingered there longer than in any civiliied amplification here. But what gave a mystic, semi-
country save Russia" (ibid., 191), and was "one of inspiraticmal importance to his doctrine of the Lord's
the causes of the national weakness and inteUeotual Supper, was the account he gave ol V2t&&<^^«SSN5tN^^6^&^%s^
LUTHEE
452
LUTBXE
dMibto oonoeming the institutional words finding their
restful solution in a dream. Unlike Luther at the
Wartburg, he did not remember whether this appari-
tion was in black or white [Monitor iste ater an aUma
fiierit nikU memini (P4anck, op. cit., II, 256)]. Whether
Xutber followed his own custom of never reading
tiirough " the books that the enemies of truth have
written against me" (Morikofer, ''Ulrich Zwingli".
n, Leipzig, 1869, 205), whether there was a tinge of
jealousy " that the Swiss were anxious to be the most
prominent'' in the reform movement, the mere fact
that Zwingli was a confederate of Carlstadt and had
an unfortunately dubious dream, afforded subject
matter enough for Luther to displav his accustomed
dialectic methods at their best. A "scientific dis-
cussion was not to be conducted with Luther^ since he
attributed every disagreement with his doctnne to the
devil" (Hausrath). This poisoned the controversy at
its source, because, ''with the devil he would make no
truce" (Hausrath, op. cit., II, 188-223). That the
^es of the masses were turning from Wittenberg to
Zurich, was only confirmatory evidence of devilish
delusion. Luther's replies to Zwingli 's unorthodox
private letter to Alber (16 Nov., 1524) and his nettling
treatises came in 1527 (Walch, op. cit., XX, 950-1118)
and 1528 (Idem, op. cit., 1118-1386). They showed
that ''the injustice and barbarity of his polemics"
(Hiumack, "Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschicnte", III,
Freiburg, 1890, 733) was not reserved for the pope,
monks, or religious vows. "In causticity and con-
tempt of his opponent [they] surpassed aU he had ever
written", " they were the utterances of a sick man, who
had lost all self-control". The politics of Satan and
the artful machinations of the Prince of Evil are
traced in a chronological order from the heretical in-
cursions into the primitive Chureh to Carlstadt, (Eco-
lampadius, and Zwingli. It was these three satanic
agencies that raised the issue of the Lord's Supper to
frustrate the work of the " recovered Gospel' . The
professions of love and peace held out by the Swiss, he
curses to the pit of hell, for they are patricides and
matricides. '^Furious the reply can no longer be
called, it is disgraceful in the manner in which it drags
the holiest representations of his opponents throu^
the mire." Indiscriminate and opprobrious epithets
of pig, dog, fanatic, senseless ass, " go to your pigsty and
lollin your filth" ("Sftmmtl. W/',XXX, 68; Hausrath,
op. cit., II, 218; Thudichum, op. cit., II, 79; Lange,
''M. Luther", 216-249) are some of the polemical
coruscations that illuminate this reply. Yet, in few
of his polemical writings do we find more conspicuous
glimpses of a soimdness of theological knowledge,
appositeness of illustration^ familiarity with the
Fathers, reverence for tradition — remnants of his old
training — than in this document, which caused sorrow
and consternation throughout the whole reform camp.
I'The hand which had pulled down the Roman Chureh
in Germany made the first rent in the Chureh which
was to take its place" (Cambridge History, II, 209).
The attempt made by the Landgrave Philip, to
bring the contending forces together and effect a
compromise at the Marburg Colloquy, 1-3 Oct., 1529
(Hausrath, op. cit., II, 229-256; Sohirrmacher, " Briefe
u. Acten . . . Religiongespr&che zu Marburg", Gotha,
1876; M6rikofer, " Zwingfi", II, 226-246) was doomed
to failure before its convocation. Luther's iron will
refused to ^eld to any concession, his parting sahitti/-
ti<xi to Zwingli, "your spirit is not our spirit" (De
Wette, op. cit., IV, 28) left no further hope of negotia-
tions^ and the brand he aflixed on this antagonist and
his disciples as " not only liars, but the very incarna-
tion of lying, deceit, and hjrpocrisy" (Idem, op. cit.)
dosed the opening chapter of a possible reunion.
Zwingli returned to Zunch to meet his death on the
battlefield of Kappel (11 October, 1531). The dam-
nation Luther meted out to him in life " accompanied
his hated rival also in death" (Mdrikofer, op. dt., 11,
420; Mensel, II, 420). The next union of the two re«
form wings was when they became brothers in arms
against Rome in the Thirty Years War.
While occupied with his manifold pressing duties,
all of them performed with indefatigable zeal and con-
suming energy, alarmed at the excesses attending the
upheaval of social and ecclesiastical fife, his reform
movement generally viewed from its more destructive
side, he did not neglect the constructive elements de-
signed to give cohesion and permanency to his task.
These again showed his intuitional apprehension of
the racial susceptibilities of the people and his oppor-
tune political sagacity in enlistmg the forces of the
princes. His appeal for schools and education (" An
die Bargermeister und Rathsherren", 1524; "S^m-
mtl. W.'\ XXIV, 168-199) was to counteract the in-
tellectual chaos created by the suppression and deser-
tion of the monastic and chureh schools (*Schulmann,
"Die Volksschule vor und nach Luther", Trier, 1903;
♦DdlUnger, "Die Ref.", I, 425^49); his invitation to
the congregation to sing in the vernacular German in
the liturgical services ("SammlunggeistlicherGesftnge
u. Psahnen", 1524; '^Sftmmtl. W.", LVI, 291-366)
in spite of the record of more thafi 1400 vernacular
hymns before the Reformation (Wackemagel, "Das
deutsche Kirchenlied", Leipzig, 1867, II, 1-1168)
proved a masterstroke and gave him a most potent
adjimct to his preaching; the Latin Mass, which he re-
tamed, more to chagrin Carlstadt (Lang, 151) than for
any otner accountable reason, he now abandoned, with
many excisions and modifications for the German
("Deutsche Messe u. Ordnungdes Gotteadienstes", 1526;
"Sftmmtl. W.",.XXII, 226-244). Still more impor-
tant and far-reaching was the plan which Melanchthon,
under his supervision, drew up to supply a workable
regulative machinery for the new Church ("Unter-
rioht der Visitatoren u. die Pfarrherren im Kurfiirst-
lichen Sachsen", 1527). To introduce this effectively
" the evangelical princes with their territorial powera
stept in" (Kastlin-Kawerau, op. cit., II, 24). The
Elector of Saxony especially showed a disposition to
act in a summary, drastic manner, which met with
Luther's full approval. " Not only were priests, who
would not conform, to lose their benefices, but recalci-
trant laymen, who after instruction were still obsti-
nate, had a time allowed within which they were to sell
their property and then leave the country" (Beard,
op. cit., 177). The civil power was invoked to decide
controversies among preachers, and to put down
theological discussion with the secular arm (Corp.
Ref« 1, 819). The publication of a popular catechism
[" Kleiner Katechismus", 1529(Sammtl. W.,XXI,5-
25); "Grosser Katechismus"^ 1529 (op. cit., 20-155)]
in simple idiomatic, colloquial German, had an in-
fluence, in spite of the many Catholic catecnetical works
already in existence ('^'Moufang, " Katholische Kathe-
chismen des Sechzehnten Jahrhunderts in deutscher
Sprache", Maims, 1881; ♦Janssen, op. cit., I, 42-52)
iD&t can hardly be over-estimated.
The menacing religious war, between the adherents
of the " Gospel" and the fictitious Catholic League (15
May, Breslau), ostensibly formed to exterminate the
Protestants, which with a suspicious precipitancy on
the part of its leader, Landgrave Philip, had actually
gone to a formal declaration of war (15 May, 1528),
was fortunately averted. It proved to be based on a
rather clumsily forged document of Otto von Pack, a
member of Duke George's chancery. Luther, who
first shrank from war and counselled peace, by one of
those characteristic reactions "now that peace had
been established, began a war in real earnest about the
League" (Planck, op. cit., II, 434) in whose existence,
in spite of unquestionable exposure, he still firmly be-
lieved (* Janssen, op. cit., Ill, 128-130, note).
The Diet of Spe/er ^1 Feb.-22 April, 1529), pre-
sided over by Kmg Ferdinand, as the emperor's
deputy, like that held in the same city three years
453
LXJTBBB
•arlier, aimed at a religious compromise. The two
"Propositions" or "Instructions (Waldi, op. oit.,
XVI, 31^-323) submitted, were expected to accom-
plish this. Tbe decree allowed the Lutheran Estates
the practice and reform of the new religion within
their territorial boundaries, but claimed the same
rights for those who should continue to adhere to the
Catholic Church. Melanchthon expressed his satisfac-
tion with this and declared that tney would work no
hardship for them, but even "protect us more than the
decrees of the earUer Diet" (opeyer, 1526; Corp. Ref.,
I, 1059). But an acceptance, much less an effective
submission to the decrees, was not to be entertained
at this juncture, and five princes most affected, on 19
April, handed in a protestation which Melanchthon in
alarm called "a terrible affair" (Corp. Ref., 1, 1060).
This protest has become historic, since it gave the
specific nomenclature Protestant to the whole opposi-
tional movement to the Catholic Church. " The Diet
of Speyer inaugurates the actual division of the Ger-
man Nation" (^Janssen, op. cit., Ill, 51).
In spite of the successful Hungarian invasion of the
Turks, political affairs, by the reconciliation of pope
and emperor (Barcelona, 29 June, 1529) , the peace with
Francis I (Cambrai, 5 Aug., 1529), shaped tnemselves
so happily, that Charles V was crowned emperor by
his wnilom enem^^, Clement VII (Bologna, 24 Feb.,
1 530) . However, in Germany, affairs were still irritant
and menacing. To the hostility of Catholics and Prot-
estants was now added the acrimonious quarrel be-
tween the latter and the Zwin^ians; the late Diet of
Speyer was inoperative^ practically a dead letter, the
Protestant princes pnvily and publicly showed a
spirit that was not far removed from open rebellion.
Charles again sought to bring about religious peace
and harmony by taking tl^ tangled skein into his own
hands. He accordingly summoned the Diet of Augs-
burg, which assembled in 1530 (8 April-19 November),
presided over it in person, arranged to have the disaf-
fected religious parties meet, calmly discuss and sub-
mit their differences, and by a compromise or arbitra-
tion, re-establish peace. Luther being under the ban
of the Empire, for "certain reasons" (De Wette, op.
cit., Ill, 368) did not make his appearance, but was
harboured in the fortress of Coburg, about four days
journey distant. Here he was in constant touch and
confidential relations with Melanchthon and other
Protestant leaders. It was Melanchthon who. under
the dominant influence of Luther and availing himself
of the previously accepted Articles of Marburg (5 Oct.,
1529), Schwabach (16 Oct., 1529), Torgau (20 March,
1530), and the Lar^ Catechism, drew up the first
authoritative profession of the Lutneran Church. This
religious charter was the Au^burg Confession (Cotj/ss-
810 Avgustana^y the symbolical book of Lutheranism.
In its original form it met with Luther's full
endorsement (De Wette, op. cit., IV, 17). It consists
of an introduction, or preamble, and is in two parts.
The first', consisting of twenty-one Articles, gives an
exposition of the principal doctrines of the Protestant
creed, and aims at an amicable adjustment; the sec-
ond, consisting of seven Articles, deals with " abuses",
and concerning these there is a "difference". The
Confession as a whole is irenic ((>orp. Ref., II, 122)
and is more of an invitation to union than a provoca-
tion to disunion. Its tone is dignified, moderate, uid
pacific. But it allows its insinuating coooessions to
carry it so far into the boundaries of the vague and
indefinite as to leave a lurking suspicion of artifice.
Doctrinal differences, fundamental and irreconcilable,
are pared down or slurred over to an almost irreducible
degree (Hamack, " Dogmengesch.", Ill, 584-585;
Hausrath, op. cit., II, 273-274; Ranke, op. dt., Ill,
244-245; ♦Ddllinger, "Die Reform.", Ill, 277-296).
No one was better qualified by temper or training to
clothe the blunt, apodictic phraseology of Luther in
the engaging vesture of truth than MelanohthoQ. The
Articles on original fin, justification b}[ faith alooe.
and free will — ^though perplexinglv sinoilar in sound
and terminology, lack the ring of the true Catholic
metal. Again, many of the conceded points, some of
them of a surprising and startling cnaracter, even
abstracting from their suspected ambiguity, were in
such diametric conflict with the past teaching and
preaching of the petitioners, even m contradiction to
their written and oral communications passing at the
veiy moment of deliberation, as to cast suspicion on
the whole work. That these suspicions were not un-
founded was ampler proved by tne aftermath of the
Diet. The correction of the so-called abuses dealt
with in Part II under the headings: Communion
under both kinds, the marriage' of priests, the Mass, *
compulsory confession, distinction ot meats and tradi-
tion^ monastic vows, and the authority of bishops, for
obvious reasons, was not entertain^, much less agreed
to. Melanchth(Hi's advances for still further conces-
sions were promptly and peremptorily rejected by Lu-
ther (De Wette, op. cit., IV, 52, 54) . The ^* Confession "
was read at a public session of the Diet (25 June) in
German and liitin, was handed to the emperor, who
in turn submitted it to twenty Catholic theologians,
including Luther^s old antagonists £ck, Cochlsus,
Usingen, and Wimpina, for examination and ref uta-
tion. The first reply, on account of its prolixity, and
bitter and irritating tone, was guickly rejected, nor
did the emperor allow the " Confutation of the Augs-
burg Confession " to be read before the Diet (3 Aug.)
imtfi it had been pruned and softened down by no kos
than five revisions. Melanchthon's " Apology for the
Augsburg Confession", which was in the nature of a
reply to the "Confutation", and which passes as of
equal official authority as the "Confession" itself
("Realencyclqp. Protest. Theol. u. Kirche", Leipzig,
1897, II, 249 ; Winckehnann, "Der Schmalkald. Bund ",
Strasburg, 1892, 197-204), was not accepted by the
emperor. All further attempts at a favourable out-
come proving unavailing, the imperial edict condemn-
ing the Protestant contention was published (22 Sept.).
It allowed the leaders until 15 April, 1532, for recon-
sideration (Kolde. "Die Augsburg. Konfession",
Gotha, 1896; Plitt, "Einleitung ... die Augus-
tana ", Erlangen, 1867 ; ROckert, " Luthers Verhiiltniss
8. Augsb. Bekentniss", Jena, 1854 ; Hcppe, " Die Kon-
fess. Entwickol. der altprot. Kirch. Deutschlands ",
Marburg, 1854; Kalinich, "Luther u. die Augsb.
Konfession", Leipzig, 1861; Knaake, "Luthers An-
theil . . . der Au^. Konfession", Berlin, 1863;
*Pastor, " Die kirchuche Reunionsbestreb. ", Freiburg,
1879, 17-90; Hausrath, op. cit., II, 257-332; Thudi-
chum, op. cit., II, 315-333; ^Janssen, op. cit., Ill, 173-
220; Schaff, "Creeds of Christendom", I-III, New
York, 1887; "Cambridge Hist.", II, 211-224; Arm-
strong, op. cit., I, 232-259).
The recess was read (13 Oct.) to the Catholic
Estates, who at the same time formed the Catholic
League. To the Protestants it was read 11 Nov., who
rejected it and formed the Smalkaldic League (29
March, 1531), an offensive and defensive alliance of
all Lutherans. The Zwinglians were not admitted.
Luther, who returned to Wittenberg in a state of great
irritation at the outcome of the Diet, was now invoked
to prepare the public mind for the position assumed by
the princes, wnich at first blush looked suspiciously
like downright rebellion. He did this in one of his
paroxysmal rages, one of those ruthless outpourings
when calm deliberation, religious charitv, politick
prudence^ social amenities are openly and flagrantly
set at denance. The three popular publications were:
"Warning to his dear German People" (Walch, op.
cit.. XVI, 1950-2016), "Glosses on the putative Im-
perial Edict" (Idem, op. cit., 2017-2062), and, far
outstripping these, "Letter against the Assassin at
Dresden" (Idem, op. cit., 2062-2086), which his chief
biographer characterises as " onft ^ ^»Vfc ^aa>5Ji^ ^mm-^^^
LDTHSR
454
LDTHSR
and Tiolent of his writines" (Ktetlin-Kaweraii, op.
oit., II, 252). All of them, particularly the last, indis-
putably established his controversial methods as being
^'literally and wholly without decorum, conscience,
taste or fear" (Mosley/' Historical Essays", London,
1892, I, 375-378). His mad onslau^t on Duke
George of Saxony, "the Assassin of Dresden", whom
history proclaims ''the most honest and consistent
character of his age" (Armstrong, op. cit., I, 325),
" one of the most estimable Princes of nis age " (Cam-
bridge Hist., II, 237), was a source of mortification to
his friends, a shock to the sensibilities of every honest
man, and has since kept his apologists busy at vain
attempts at vindication. The projected alliance with
Francis I, Charles's deadly enemy, met with favour.
Its patriotic aspects need not be dwelt upon. Henrv
VIII of England, who was now deeply concerned with
the proceedings of his divorce trom Catharine of
Anigon, was approached less successfully (Gairdner,
"Lollaniy and the Reform, in England", London,
1008, I, 315-316). The opinion about the divorce,
asked from the universities, also reached that of Wit-
tenberg, where Robert Barnes, an English Augustinian
friar who had deserted his monastery, brought every
influence to bear to make it favourable. The opinion
was enthusiastically endorsed by Melanchthon (Corp.
Ref., II, 520, 552), Osiander, and (Ecolampadius.
Luther also in an exhaustive brief maintained that
''before he would permit a divorce, he would rather
that the king took unto himself another queen " (De
Wette, op. cit., IV, 296). However, the memorable
theological passage at arms the kin^ had had with
Luther, the latter's subsequent cringmg apology, left
such a feeling of aversion, if not contempt, in the soul
of his rival reformer, that the invitation was to all
Intents ignored. ^
In the beginning of 1534, Luther after twelve years
of intermittent labour, completed and published m six
parts his German tnmslation of the entire Bible.
For years the matter of a general council had been
agitated in ecclesiastical circles. Charles V constantly
appealed for it, the Augsburg Confession emphatically
demanded it, and now the accession of Paul III (13
Oct., 1534), who succeeded Clement VII (d. 25 Sept.,
1534), gave the movement an impetus, that for once
made it loom up as a realizable accomplishment. The
pope sanctioned it, on condition that the Protestants
would abide by its decisions and submit their credenda
in concise, intelligible form. With a view of ascertain-
ing the tone of feeling at the German Courts, he sent
Vergerius there as legate. He, in order to make the
study of the situation as thorough as possible, did not
hesitate, while passing through Wittenberg on his way
to the Elector of Brandenburg, to meet Luther in per-
son (7 Nov., 1535). His description of the jauntilv
groomed reformer " in holiday attire, in a vest of dark
oalmet, sleeves with gaudy atlas cuffs . . . coat of
serge lined with fox pelts . . . several rings on his
fingers, a massive gold chain about his neck " (KOstlin-
Kawerau, op. cit., II, 370-376; Hausrath, op. cit., II,
665), shows him in a somewhat unusual Kght. The
presence of the man who would reform the ancient
Church decked out in so foppish a manner, made an
impression on the mind of tne legate that can readily
be conjectured . Aware of Luther's disputatious cluiiv
acter, he dexterously escaped discussion, by disclaim-
ing all profound knowledge of theology^ and diverted
the interview into the commonplace. Luther treated
the interview as a comedy, a view no doubt more
fully shared b^r the keen-witted Italian (Sixt. " Petnis
Paulus Vergerius", Brunswick, 1855, 36-45).
The question was raised as to what participation the
Protestants should assume in the council, which had
been announced to meet at Mantua. After consider-
able discussion Luther was commissioned to draw up a
document, giving a summary of their doctrines and
cspjnions. This he did, after which the report was sub-
mitted to the favourable consideration of the elector
and a specially appointed body of theologians. It
contained the Articles of Smalkald (1537; Walch,
op. cit., XVI, 2326-2390) ''a real oppositional record
against the Roman Church" (Guericke), eventually
incorporated in the ''Concordienformel" and accepted
as a symbolical book. It is on the whole such a
brusque rejection and coarse philippic against the
S»pe as "Antichrist ", that we need not marvel that
elanchthon shrank from affixing his unqualified
signature to it (Walch, op. cit., XVI, 2366).
Luther's serious illness during the Smalkaldic Con-
vention, threatened a fatal termination to his activi-
ties, but the prospect of death in no way seemed to
mellow his feelings towards the papacy. It was when
supposedly on the brink of eternity (24 Feb., 1537)
that he expressed the desire to one of the elector's
chamberlains to have his epitaph written: "Pestis
eram vivus, moriens ero mors tua. Papa" Hiving I was
a pest to thee, O Pope, dying I will bo thy death (Kost-
Un-Kawerau, op. cit., II, 389)]. True, the historicity
of this epitaph is not in chronological a^precment with
the narrative of Mathesius, who maintains he heard it
in the house of Spalatin, 9 Jan., 1531 (Kostlin-Kawe-
rau, op. cit., II, 244), or with the identical words found
in his '^ Address to the Clergy assembled at the Augs-
burg Diet" (7 Jan., 1530; " Skmmtl. W.", XXIV, 369),
in which he hurled back the gibes flung at the priests
who had enrolled under his banner and married.
Nevertheless it is in full consonance with the parting
b^iediction the invalid gave from his wagon to his
assembled friends when about to start on his home-
ward journey: "May the Lord fill you with His bless-
ings and with hatred of the pope'' (Kostlin-Kawerau,
op. cit., II, 390), and the veroatim sentiments chalked
on the wall of his chamber, the ni^ht before his death
(Ratseberger, "Luther u. seine Zeit'', Jena, 1850, 137) .
Needless to add, the Protestant Estates refused the
invitation to the coimcil, and herein we have the first
public and positive renunciation of the papacv.
" What Luther claimed for himself against Catholic
authority, he refused to Carlstadt and refused to
Zwingli. He failed to see that their position was
exactly as his own, with a difference of result, which
indeed was all the difiference in the world to him"
(Tulloch, "Leaders of the Reformation", Edinburgh
and London, 1883, 171). This was never more mani-
fest than in the interminable SSacramentarian warfare.
Bucer, on whom the weight of leadership fell, after
Zwingli's death, which was followed shortly by that of
(Ecolampadius (24 Nov., 1531), was unremitting m
bringing about a reunion, or at least an understanding
on the Lord's Supper, the main point of cleavage be-
tween the Swiss and German Protestants. Not only
religiously, but politically, would this mean a step to-
waras the progress of Zwinglianism. At its formation
tiie Swiss Protestants were not admitted to the
Smalkaldic League (29 March, 1531); its term of six
years was about to expire (29 March, 1537) and they
now renewed their overtures. Luther, who all the
time could not conceal his opposition to the Zwing-
lians (Hausrath. op. cit., II, 353-363; De Wette, op.
cit., IV, 207-208, 222-223, 224, 235-236). even going
to the extent of directing and begging Duke Albrccht
of Prussia, not to tolerate any of Munzer's or Zwingli 's
adherents in his territory (De Wette, op. cit., IV. 349),
finally yielded to the assembling of a peace conference.
Knowing their predicament, he used the covert threat
of an exclusion from the league as a persuasive to
chrive them to the acceptance of his views (Thudichum,
op. cit., II, 485). This conference which, owing to his
sickness, was held in his own house at Wittenberg, was
attended by eleven theologians of Zwinglian proclivi-
ties and seven Lutherans. It resulted in the theolog-
ical compromise, reunion it can hardly be called,
known as the Concord of Wittenberg (21-29 Mav,
1636; Walch, op. cit., XVII, 2629-2532). The re-
455
monstrants, technically waiving the points of differ-
ence, Bubecribed to the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's
Supper, infant baptism, and absolution. That the
Zwinglian theologians *'who subscribed to the Con-
cord and declared its contents true and Scriptural,
dropped their former convictions and were trans-
formed into devqut Lutherans, no one who was ac-
ouainted with these men more intimately' can believe"
(rhudichum, op. cit., II, 489). They simply vielded
to the unbending determination of Luther, ana "sub-
scribed to escape the hostility of the Elector John
Frederick who was absolutelv Luther's creature, and
not to forfeit the protection of the Smalkaldic League;
they submitted to the inevitable to escape still ereater
dangers" (Idem, op. cit.). As for Luther, the poor,
wretohed Concord" as he desiniates it, received nttle
recognition from him. In 1539, he coupled the names
of Nestorius and Zwingli (Sftmmtl. W., XXV, 314) in
a way that gave deep offence at Zurich (Kolde, ** Aiia-
lecta^', 344). At Wittenberg, Zwingli and (Ecolam-
padius beca^me convertible terms for heretics (Sfimmtl.
W., XXXV, 46), and with Luther's taunting remark
that ' ' he would pray and teach against them until the
end of his days'^ (De Wette, op. cit., V, 687), the rup-
ture was again completed.
The internal controversies of the Lutheran Church,
which were to shatter its disjointed imity with the
force of an explosive eruption after his death, and
which now only his daimtless courage, powerful will,
and imperious personality held witmn the limits of
murmuring restraint, were cropping out on all sides,
found their way into Wittenberg, and affected even
his bosom friends. Though unity was out of the
question, an appearance of uniformity had at all
hazards to be maintained. Cordatus, Schenck, Agri-
cola, all veterans in the cause of reform, lapsed into doc-
trinal aberrations that caused him much uneasiness.
The fact that Melanchthon, his most devoted and loyal
friend, was under a cloud of suspicion for enterts^-
ing heterodox views, though not as yet fully shared by
him, caused him no little irritation and sorrow (Kostr-
lin-Kawerau, op. cit. II, 445-473). But all these
domestic broils were trivial and lost sight of, when
compared to one of the most critical problems that
thus far confronted the new Church, which was sud-
denly sprung upon its leaders, focussing more espe-
cially on its nierophant. This was the double mar-
riage of Landgrave Philip of Hesse.
Philip the Magnanimous (b. 23 Nov., 1504) was
married before his twentieth year to Christina, daiu^-
ter of Duke George of Saxony, who was then in her
eighteenth year. He had the reputation qf bdng
'* the most immoral of princelines' , who ruined him-
self, in the language of his court theologians, by ''unre-
strained and promiscuous debaucherv (Kolde, " Ana-
lecta", 354). He himself admits that he could not
remain faithful to his wife for three consecutive weeks
(Lenz, " Brief wechsel . . . Philippe und Bucer",
Leipzig, 1880-1887, 1, 361). The malignant attack of
venereal disease, which compelled a temporary cessa-
tion of his profligacy, also directed his thoughts to a
more ordinate gratification of his passions. His
affections were already directed to Margaret von der
Saal, a seventeen year old lady-in-waiting, and he con-
cluded to avail himself of Luther's advice to enter a
double marriage. Christina was "a woman of excel-
lent qualities and noble mind, to whom, in excuse of
his infidelities, he [Philip] ascribed all sorts of bodily
infirmities and offensive habits" (Schmidt, *' Melanch-
thon," 367). She had borne him seven children. The
mother of Margaret would only entertain the proposi-
tion of her daughter becoming PhiUp's ''second wife"
on condition that she, her brother, PhiUp's wife,
Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, or at least, two
prominent theologians be present at the marriage,
Bucer was entrusted with the mission of securing we
ooDsent of Luther, Melanchthon, and the Saxon piinoe*.
In this he was eminently successful. All was to be
done under the veil of the profoundest secrecy. This
secrecy Bucer enjoined on the landgrave again and
again, even when on his journey to Wittenberg (3
Dec., 1539) that ''all might redound to the glory of
God" (Lenz, op. cit., I, 119). Luther's position
on the question was fully known to him. Hie
latter's imfailinff opportunism in turn grasped the
situation at a gumee. It was a question of expedi-
ency and necessity more than propriety and legality.
If the simultaneous polygamy were permitted, it
would prove an imprecedented act in tne history of
Christendom; it would, moreover, affix on Philip the
brand of a most heinous crime, punishable under
recent legislation with death by beheading. If re-
fused, it threatened the defection of the landgrave,
and would prove a calamity beyond reckoning to the
Protestant cause (Hausrath, op. cit., II, 398).
Evidently in an embarrassing quandary, Luther and
Melanchthon filed their joint opinion (10 Dec., 1530).
After expressing gratification at the landgrave's last
recovery, ** for the poor, miserable Church of Christ is
small and forlorn, and stands in need of truly devout
lords and rulers ", it goes on to say that a general law
that a *' man may have more than one wife' could not
be handed down, but that a dispensation could be
granted. All knowledge of the dispensation and the
marriage should be buried from the public in deadlv
silence. ''All gossip on the subject is to be ignorecL
as kmg as we are ri^t in conscience, and this we hold
is right", for "what is permitted in the Mosaic law, is
not forbidden in the (jospel" (De Wette-Seidemann, VI.
239-244; "Corp. Ref.", Ill, 856-863). ThenuUity and
impossibility of the second marriage while the legality
of the first remained untouched was not mentioned or
hinted at. His wife, assured bv her spiritual director
"that it was not contrary to the law of God" (Corp.
Ref., Ill, 884), gave her consent, though on her aeatn-
bed she confessed to her son that her consent was
feloniously wrung from her (Rommel, "Gesch. von
Hessen", GotharKassel, 1852-1858, V, 20-21). In
return Philip pledged his princelv word that she would
be "the first and supreme wife and that his matri-
m«nial obligations "would be rendered her with more
devotion than before". The children of Christina
"should be considered the sole princes of Hesse"
(Rommel, op. cit.). After the arrangement had al-
ready been completed, a daughter was bom to Chria-
tina, 13 Feb., 1540 (Rockwell, * ' Die Doppelehe Phillip's
von Hessen", Marburg, 1904, 32). The marriage took
£lace (4 March, 1540) in the presence of Bucer,
Lelanchthon, and the court preacher Melander who
performed the ceremony. Melander was "a bluff
agitator, surly, with a most unsavoury moral reputa-
tion" (Hausrath, op. cit., II, 397), one of his moral
derelictions being the fact that he had three living
wives, having dei^rted two without going through the
formality of a legal separation (Idem, op. cit., II, 396).
Philip lived with both wives, both of whom bore him
children, the landgravine two sons and a daughter,
and Margaret six sons (Mensel, " Neuere Geschichte
der Deutschen", II, 191). How can this "darkest
stain" (Bezold) on the history of the German Refor-
mation be accounted for? Was it "poUtics, bibli-
dsm, distorted vision, precipitancy, fear of the near
approaching Diet [Ratisbon] that played such a
role in the sinful downfall of Luther?' (Hausrath, op.
cit., II, 400) . Or was it the logical sequence of premises
he had maintained for vears in speech and print
(" 0pp. Lat. " Erlangen, V, 95, 100; De Wette, op. cit.,
II, 459; IV, 241, 296; VI, 243), not to touch upon
the ethics of that extraordinary sermon on marriage
(Sammtl.W., XX 57-86)? He himself writes defiantly
that he "is not ashamed of his opinion" (Lauterbaoh,
op. cit., 198). The marriage in spite of all precautions,
injunctions, and pledges of secrecy leaked out, caused
a nftt?ny?ftl sensation and soandal^ a3xd«i^\s^\&s:S*Q£s^%sw
LITTHIE
456
LUTHER
extensive correspondence between all intiinately con-
cerned, to neutralise the effect on the public mind.
Melanchthon "nearly died of shame, but Luther
wished to brazen the matter out with a lie" (Cam-
bridge Hist., II, 241). The secret "yea" must "for the
sake of the Christian church remain a public nay"
(De Wette-Seidemann, op. cit., VI, 263). "What
harm would there be, if a man to accomplish better
things and for the sake of the Christian Cnurch, does
tell a good thumping lie" (Lenz, " Brief wech8el"| I,
382; Aolde, "Analecta", 356), was his extenuating
plea before the Hessian counsellors assembled at
l^senach (1540), a sentiment which students familiar
with his words and actions will remember is in full
agreement with much of his policy and many of his
assertions. " We are convinced, that the papacy is the
Beat of the real and actual Antichrist, ana believe that
against its deceit and iniauity everything is permitted
for the salvation of souls" (De Wette, op. cit., 1, 478).
Charles V involved in a triple war, with a depleted
excheciuer, with a record of discouraging endeavours
to establish religious peace in Germany, found what he
thought was a gleam of hope in the concession half-
heartedly made by the Smalkaldie assembly of Prot-
estant theologians (1540), in which they would allow
episcopal jursidiction provided the bishops would
tolerate the new religion (" Corp. Ref .", Ill, 188). In-
dulging this fond, but delusive expectation, he con-
vened a religious colloquy to meet at Speyer (6 June,
1540). The tone of the Protestant reply to the invrta-
tion left little prospect of an agreement. The deadly
epidemic raging at Speyer compelled its transference
to Hagenau, wnence after two months of desultory
and ineffectual debate (1 June-28 July), it adjourned
to Worms (28 Oct.). Luther from the banning had
no confidence in it, it "would be a loss of time, a waste
of money, and a neglect of all home duties " (De Wette,
op. cit., V, 308). It proved an endless and barren
word-tilting of theologians, as may be inferred from
the fact tlmt after three months constant parleying,
an agreement was reached on but one point, and that
Immacled with so many conditions, as to make it
absolutely valueless (^Pastor, " Die Kirchl. Reunions-
bestrebungen ",217). The emperor's relegation of the
poUoquy to the Diet of Ratisbon (5 April-22 May),
in^ch he, as well as the papal legate uontarini, at-
tended in person, met with the same unhappy result.
Melanchthon, reputed to favour reimion, was placed
by the elector. John Frederick, under a strict police
surveillance, during which he was neither allowed
private interviews, private visits, or even private
walks ("Ck)rp. Ref.^ IV, 123-132; Schmidt, "Me-
lanehthon", 385; Hausrath, op. cit., II, 410). The
elector, as well as King Francis I, fearine the political
ascendancy of the emperor, placed every oarrier in the
way of compromise (^Pastor, op. cit., 251), and when
the rejected articles were submitted by a special Prot-
estant embassy to Luther, the former not only warned
him by letter against their acceptance, but rushed in
hot haste to Wittenberg, to throw the fuU weight of
his personal influence into the frustration of all plans
of peace.
Luther's life and career were drawing to a close.
His marriage to Catharine von Bora, was on the whole,
as far as we can infer from his own confession and pub-
lic appearances, a happy one. The Au^ustinian mon-
astcr\', which was given to him after his marriage by
ihe elector, became his homestead. Here six children
were bom to them: John (7 Jime, 1526), Elizabeth
(10 Dec., 1527; d. 3 Aug., 1528), Magdalen (4 May,
1629), Martin (9 Nov., 1531), and Paul (28 Jan., 1533),
and Maiyaret (17 Dec. , 1 534) . Catharine proved to be
a plain, frugal, domestic housewife; her interest in her
fowls, piggerj', fish-pond, vegetable ^rden, home-
brewery, wore deeper and more absorbmg than in the
most gijBcantic undertakings of her husmmd. Occa-
jEtosoJ bickerings with her neighbours and the enlist-
ment of her husband's intervention in personal inter-
ests and biases, were frequent enough to engage the
tongue of public censure. She died at Torgau (20 Dec. ,
1552) in comparative obscurity, poverty, and neglect
(Hoffmann, '^'Catharina von Bera", Leipzig, 1845,
126-138; Kroker, "Katharina von Bora", Leipzig,
s. d., 117, 250-264), having found Wittenbere cold and
xmsympathetic to the reformer's fainily. This he had
predicted, — ^" after my death the four elements in Wit-
tenbeiv will not tolerate you after all." Luther's
ruggedhealth began to show marks of depleting vital-
ity and imchecked inroads of disease. Prolonged
attacks of dyspepsia, nervous headaches, chronic ^n-
ular kidney disease, gout, sciatic rheumatism, middle
ear abscesses, above all vertigo and gall stone colic
were intermittent or chronic ailments that gradually
made him the typical embodiment of a supersensi-
tively nervous, prematurely old man (Kuchenmeister,
"Luthers Krankengesch.", Leipzig, 1881). These
physical impairments were further aggravated by his
notorious disregard of all ordinary dietetic or hygienic
restrictions. Even prescinding from his congenital
heritage of inflanmiaole irascibihty and uncontrolla-
ble rage, besetting infirmities that grew deeper and
more acute with age, his phvsical condition in itself
would measurably account for his increasing irrita-
tion, passionate outbreaks, and hounding suspicions,
which in his closing days became a problem more of
pathological or psychopathic interest, than biographic
or historical importance.
It was this "terrible temper" (Boehm) which
brought on the tragedv of ahenation, that drove from
him his most devoted friends and zealous co-labourers.
Every contradiction set him ablaze (Ranke, op. cit.,
II, 408-415). ;* Hardly one of us", is the lament of
one of his votaries, " can escape Luther's anger and hi.s
public scourging" (Corp. Ref., V, 314). Carlstadt
parted with him in 1522, aft^r what tlireatened to be
a personal encounter (Walch, op. cit., XV, 2423);
Melanchthon in plaintive tones speaks of his passion-
ate violence, self-will, and tyranny, and does not mince
words in confessing the humiliation of his ignoble
servitude ("Corp. Ref.", III. 594; VI, 879); Bucer,
Srompted by political and diplomatic motives, pru-
ently accepts the inevitable "just as the Ix)rd be-
stowed him on us"; ZwingU "has become a pagan,
(Ecolampadius . . . and the other heretics have in-
devilled, through-devilled, over-devilled corrupt hearts
and lying mouths, and no one should pray for them ",
all of them "were brought to their death by the fiery
darts and spears of the devil" (Walch, op. cit., XX,
223) ; Calvin and the Reformed are also the possessors
of "in-devilled, over-deiilled, and through-devilled
hearts"; Schurf, the eminent jurist, was changed
from an ally to an opponent, with a brutality that
defies all explanation or apology; Agricola fell a prey
to a repugnance that time did not soften; Schwenk-
feld, AmSdorf, Cordatus, all incurred his ill will,
forfeited his friendship, and became the butt of
his stinging speech. "The liUther, who from a dis-
tance was still honoured as the hero and leader of the
new church, was only tolerated at its centre in con-
sideration of his past ser\nces" (Ranke, op. cit., II,
421). The zealous band of men, who once clustered
about their standard-bearer, dwindled to an insignifi-
cant few, insif^ificant in number, intellectuality, and
personal prestige. A sense of isolation nailed the days
of his decline. It not alone affected his disposition,
but played the most astonishing pranks with his
memory. The oftener he details to his table com-
panions, the faithful chroniclers who gave us his
"Tischreden", the horrors of the papacy, the more
starless does the night of his monastic life appear.
" The picture of his youth grows darker and darker. He
finally becomes a msrth to himself. Not only do dates
shift themselves, but also facts. When the old man
drvps into telling tales, the past atUins the plasticity
LQTBXB 457 LOTHlB
of wax. He ascribes the aame words protniseuously mann), were isaued the nine celebrated caricatures of
now to this, now to that friend or^emj'" (Hauar»th, Ibe pope by Lucae Cranach, with eipowtory verses hg
op.cit., 11,432). Luther. These "the coarsest drswings that the hi»-
It was this period that gave birth Ut the incredi- tory of caricature of all times has ewr produced"
bilities, exaggerations, diBton ions, contradictions, in- (Lange, "Der Papstesel", Gitttingen, 1891, 89), were
consistencies, that moke his later writing an inextri- soinexpressibl^vilethatacommonimpulseof decency
cable w^b to untangle and for three hundred years dem&nded their sununaiy suppression by his friends,
have supplied uncritical historiography with the His last act was, as he predicted and prated for, an
cork-and-bull fables which unfortunately have been attack on the papacy. Summoned to Eisleben, his
accepted on their face vaJue (Idem, op. cit., II, native place, a short time after, to act as an arbiter in
430-449). Again the dire results of the Heformation a contention between the brothers Aibtecht and Geb-
causedblm"unspeakableBolicitudeand grief". The hard von Monsfeld, death came with unexpected
sober contemplation of the incurable inner wounds of speed, but not suddenly, and he depBrt«d tliis lifs
the new Church, the ceaseless quarrels of the preachers, aitout three o'clock in the morning ISFebruary. 1546,
thegallingdespotismof the Unnporal rulers, the ^w- in the presence of a njimber of friends ('Paulus,
ingcontemptfortheclergy, theservilitytothepnnces, "Luthers Lebensende", Freiburg, 1899, 96). Tl»
Dude him fairly writhe in an^ish. Above all the dis- body was taken to Wittenberg for mterment, and was
integration of moral and social Ufe, the epidemic raV- buned on tl^ 22 Feb., in the castle church, where
ages of vice and immorality, and that in the very it now lies with that of Melanchthon.
cndle of the Reformation, even in his very household in Uiu uticls th« dutlou an nuinly from Frotcstut
(Kostlin-Kawerau, op. cit,, II, 595), nearly drove him suthoiitiea. C»tholic»uUKiritiB«iireindic«t(idbyan««l«tiik.»
frantic. '■ We live in Sodom and Babylon, affairs are ,^t""(n'iS°X^^aa™lslS'«'tX°'^^^^
growing daily worse", is his lament (De Wette, op. oadTLatio; li) Jt^fid. (ISSS^lsaS), lafol. vols'.; SGenuin.
cit,, V, 722), In the whole Wittenberg district, with 4Lntin a-upulemenWry vola,(Eiileb«i.lSM-lS65): (3).4«™-
its two cities and fifteen pamehial village,, he can find ^JriS^^fri'i^l^iSl; A'^&tmT^E4%'?^
only one peasant and not more, who exhorts his i7ss>, 3* quBrto toIb,, tr. into Gennwi, edited, und pul)lisliid
domestics to the Word of God and the catechism, the byj, G. Walch. a reprint olUii* edition, in oouncotpubii™-
"Tagchuch", 113, 114, 135; *rWllmger, "Die Refor- iota, in Germttni Opera atatticalMim. 31 vol..; Opera latina
mation", I, 293-438). Twice be was on the verge of tarii ormmmtt, 7 voi». Thu aeries inciudwEHoEiui, Br. JKai^
deserting this "'Sodom", having commiseioneJ his 'l^jd^^.'^^y^^^t^x'-y^^T'^i^'S^f^-/ --'■'•"
wife {28 July, 1545) to seU all their effects (De Wette, ^ 1SS3- in ™ '' '"^ ■' '
op. cit., V, 753). It required the combined efforts of vol. XXXVI.
the university, Bugenhogen, Melanchthon, and the .hJIJ:^^L ^'n^SS^ f'^^iin'S-Rot^; ^"fu* r^-£i
, 1 I r \y^ L 1.- - J /T^.._.i- bmaathfriAm u. Hatenkm (uerlin. laJ5-6aJ, 0 vols.: Uuni-
burgomoster to make mm change bis nund (Koetlin~ baudt. L^heri Bnefaaht^ (Leipiii, ISae).
[(aweraii, op. cit., II, 607). And again in December, TABi.ET.u[;Z.KtA*r'»7'ail«raltinIm.£-<»i.flft,(100ai,l-18,
only the powerful intervention ot the elector prevented i" '^"S'?"?' jS^ ?Fi'w^"T'Sii 'V^J^"!'; ik^T
him carrj-iHK out his design (Burkhardt, "Luthera tort. 1587. 1568. 15«i):F0BBTEi«ANHiuid BiNDBtii,.Ti«Ji™fcB,
Briefwcchsel",475-476;482). Then again came those ew. (Betlm. l»44-184a). 4 vols,: Latin tr. (Lem^, 1S«3-
„ul.lorturi„B™ult.olth.D.«l which H. "no KVblSSi.uf (S.-iS?); &.tS;±S-afi5;
rest for even a single day . His nightly encountera [Qotha. 1^2); Kbokkh. Uahtn Tiichrtden (LeipiiH, 1903),
"exhausted and martyred him to an intensity, that he «''*' Mathaiua; WomiBicB. Taorbuch us3s> (Dreeden,
was barely able to gasp or take breath". Of all the {fjo 'a^.^h' amrthtaSSi^tSl^ "'""
a33aults"none were more severe or greater than about Broompni: ThobicgraphiMOf MatAHCHTHOH.MATHEains,
my preaching, the thought coming to me; All this R*TTEBiHQBH.Ki)it,Ucii:RT,aFi™iirT,I.iDr>KRHoacjPnzBn,
confusion was caused by you" (Sftmmtl. W., LIX, ^,i?i*"%h,''E^'"ri..i^i^™;il!^'*^^/™'h!^lnv h?^
f^r.a TV AS ao tr.o iru\ «ii rt¥T ArvA\ r^-' pToLong the UBt. have been aupeneded, and can hardly be ao-
296; LX, 45-46; 108-109, 111; LXII, 494). His cepted on their ungupported atatfuneota The more mixtani
last sermon in Wittenberg (17 Jan., 1546) is in a vein biograpliiea ot Koloe, Morfin LiMtr (Gotha. 1884-1893), 2
nt rlHTinnilsncv nnrl Hnanair "TTmin/ Hmnlronni™* vol*.; the last edition ot KaarUN, MOrtin Luarr.atin Lrbm H.
oi tiesponaency ana aespair. usury, arunitennew, ,„.„, sdiriften tBeriin. 1903)^2 ™ia., edited by K^naKAD;
adultery, murder, assassination, oil these can be Haobhath, LiOhert Libtn (BerUn. 19CM), 2 voLa.. sro Uw
noticed, and the world understands them to be sins, axmt importoot. The Kfiatlin-Kawerau li/e is miperbiy docu-
but the devil's bride, reason, that pert prostitute SrtW«i%^wh iD^.™r»™S^av.id^tht?'prtS
struts in, and will be clever and means what she says, imtortiinately ia d«titul« of all ctlationi The norka ol (ba
that it is the Holy Ghost" (op. cit., XVI, 142-148). Tiibin«en profwmr TBOoionxPH, Die Relnrmatim lsn-ISS7
Thn soTiiD itav )id nona tho nBthotir Unoa "T am nlil (LeipiU, 1907-1909}, 2 voU., oC BtMat, Andrnu Bodemlrm toit
ine same aayne pens tne patiieiic anes i am old, ^„Y^ {Lfflp.tz, 190S). 2 vols,, and the Uitar'a FrtApn-
decrepit, indolent, weoir, cold, and now have the latoHliidia GmtvuiiehTtlmtim in WiUenbtn, <,. OHanamU
sight of but one eye" (De Wette, op. cit., V, 778), tLep'ia. 19l»). are indiipoiuble in the Tisht ot recent »■
Nevertheless peace was not his. '^T''^i JPv ^h^*". ^1i„T«H",?1'?v^if^JiSfl?-,i^''
■r. ..r ■ .1 ■ r i_ J I * ^ p '8 dpcidediy the b»t. Unfottunately it mmauu an uncDm'
It was while in this agony of body and torture of pleted fragment, and only reacha lSi2i Lihobai. LvlJitr and
mind, that his unsurpassable and irreproducible coarse- ''^ Grmnan ntlomtainm CSev York. 1900). ia Bophomorio and
ness attained its culrninating point of virtuosity in his S™^([S:ov..Sm-.^'5 X^rXZhR.,"^Vj^
antl-SemitlC and untipapal pamphlets. Against the UnL^aher [London. 1887). 2 vols,, a a briUianl literary parfonu-
Jews and their Lies" was followed in quick succession luwe, but Kbtoncallj- o( no acoounl; Jacobs. Mnrtm hvlKir,
by Us even more frenzied fusillade 'l On the Schem J^uTent"^^ ^™ "tte° cS^V'^^tiSd'^T'^'o^l^SE
Hamphoras" (1542) and "Against the Papacy estab- •ULKHBBRo,'"EvBiiB,etc.,thDmh iiseful in part, ean hnidlyb*
iished bv the Devil" (1545), Here, especiallv in the '■a-lied tme biographiea. However, no butter life ot Luthw
Utto ,11 coherent th™ht and uttjr.n« i, lmri«l in a SiU"«'rFS.S"SB,.r SiirSjiS'!?'^
torrential deluge of vituperation for which no pen, loruaj ikt Grnrvm Pcoplt (St. Loub, 1898—1, The portrai-
muchlesBaprintingpressshouldhaveeverbecnfound" 'n™ "f iwuin aapecu and jjerioda of Ludier • lite by •Dan-
(Menvpl nr. fit II '1^91 HijimnBtnrv in hia rhnnrn rLC. Lfillicr u. L-ulAertti%m (Maim, lB04),n. ed. Wriss (Mnlni,
tiuennel, op. cit., ii,.i&ii). MiBmastepr n his ohowiii igoj-iooo; mipplementwV vol.'ll, • Waisa (Main., 1909):
method of controversy remamed unchallenged. His ' UBsiTi.t. Du abtmilandudim SiAriliatuUgrrUt Lvihrr ai^r
friends had "a feeling d sorrow. His scolding re- Jutiitia Dei md JutHfitalio (Maim, 1905); losii. LiUifr, in
mainrf "J.™er«l, but .I.0 ™no.i«d" (Ruk., op. SSS!lSfc;S,$Si&aSa.iSS;,iS
Cit., II, 421). Accompanying this last volcamc enip- iboo); •DOLUNOsa. Dw aifannalion (R«li.bon, 184«-ia4a) 3
tion, as a sort of illustrated commentary "that the vola., alill remairu an unanaweiwl and unaniwamble arraien-
nnixmnn mon nrhn ID iiTialilli tn mirl mow aiui on.) meUt of Lulherand hia WOflt. The dataphfid ar*'-!— "' •"■■—"-
common man wno is uname to reaa, may see and ^^^ Paui,d«, piobabiv th. n.«t mnmtt^nt ■
understand what he thought oi the papacy (FOrsI^- Ketonnatlon tdstoiii
LtrrHSRANISM
458
LUTHSaANISM
tppeared, and continue to appear in various Gennan magaslnes
and publicati<»i8. are iA a most scholarly character.
Ca. Maurbnbrxchbr, Zur LtUheriiteratur in Studien u. Skit-
Wtn, 205-238; LtUher and hit Protestant Bioffraphers in Am.
Cath, Quart. Rev, (1901). 682-601. H. G. GanBS.
Lntheranism, the religious belief held by the old-
est and in Europe the most numerous of the Prot-
estant sects, foiuded by the Wittenberg reformer,
Martin Luther. The term Lutheran was first used by
his opponents during the Leipzig Disputation in 1519,
and afterwards became imivereally prevalent. Lu-
ther prefened the designation " Evangelical ", and to-
day the usual title of the sect is ''Evangelical Lu-
theran Church". In Germany, where the Lutherans
and the Reformed have united (since 1817), the name
Lutheran has been abandoned, and the state Church
is styled the Evangelical or the Evangelical United.
I. DisTiNcnvB TEAcmNGs. — In doctrine official
Lutheranism is part of what is called orthodox Prot-
estantism, since it agrees with the Catholic and the
Greek Churches in accepting the authority of the
Scriptures and of the three most ancient creeds (the
Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, and the Atha-
nasian Creed). Besides these formulse of belief, Lu-
theranism acknowledges six specific confessions which
distinguish it from other churches: (1) the unaltered
Au^burg Confession (1530), (2) the Apology of the
Auipburg Confession (1531), (3) Luther's Large Cate-
chism (1529), (4) Luther's Catechism for Children
(1629), (5) the Articles of Smalkald (1537), and (8)
the Form of Concord (1577). These nine symbolical
books (including the three Creeds) constitute what is
known as the '"Book of Concord", which was first
Sublished at Dresden in 1580 by order of Elector
.ugustus of Saxony (see Faith, Protestant Con-
fessions of). In these confessions the Scriptiu^s are
declared to be the only rule of faith. The extent of
the Canon is not defined, but the bibles in common use
among Lutherans have been generally the same as
those of other Protestant denominations (see Canon
OF THE Holy Scriptures). The symbols and the
other writings not contained in Scripture do not pos-
sess decisive authority, but merely show how the
Scriptures were understood and explained at partic-
ular times by the leading theologians (Form of Con-
cord). The chief tenet of the Lutheran creed, that
which Luther called " the article of the standing and
faUing Chureh", has reference to the justification of
sinful man. Original sin is explained as a positive
and total depravity of human nature, which renders
all the acts of the unjustified, even those of civil
righteousness, sinful and displeasing to God. Justifi-
cation, which is not an internal change^ but an exter-
nal, forensic declaration by which God imputes to the
creature the righteousness of Christ, comes only by
faith, which is the confidence that one is reconciled to
God through Christ. Good works are necessary as an
exercise of faith, and are rewarded, not by justifica-
tion (which they presuppose), but oy the fulfilment
of the Divine promises (Apology Aug. Conf .).
Other distinctive doctrines oi the Lutheran Church
are: (1) consubstantiation (although the symbols do
not use this term), i. e. the real, corporeal presence
of Christ's Body and Blood during the celebration of
the Lord's Supper, in, with, and under the substance
of bread and wine, in a union which is not hypostatic,
nor of mixture, nor of local inclusion, but entirely
transcendent and mysterious; (2) the omnipresence
of the Body of Christ, which is differently explained
by the commentators of the Svmbolical Books. Since
the official formulae of faith claim no decisive author-
ity for themselves, and on many points are far from
harmonious, the utmost diversity of opinion prevails
among Lutnerans. Every shade of oelief may be
found among them, from the orthodox, who holcl fast
to the confessions, to the semi-infidel theologians, who
deny the authority of the Scriptures.
II. History. — Lutheranism dates from 31 Octo-
ber, 1517, when Luther affixed his theses to the
church door of the castle of Wittenberg. Although he
did not break with the Catholic Church until three
vears later, he had already come substantially to his
later views on the plan of salvation. The new teach-
ings, howeverMmderwent a great change after Luther's
return from Wartburg (1521). Before he died (18
Feb., 1546), his teacfings had been propagated in
many states of Germany^in Poland, in the Baltic
Provinces, in Hungary, 'Transylvania, the Nether-
lands, Denmark, and Scandinavia. From these Eu-
ropean countries Lutheranism has been carried by
emigration to the New World, and in the United States
it ranks among the leading Protestant denominations.
(1) The Lutherans in Germany. — (a) First Period:
From the appearance of Luther's Theses to the
adoption of the Formula of Concord (1517-80). —
Favoured by the civil rulers, Lutheranism spread rap-
idly in Northern Germany. After the Diet of Speyer
(1526) the Elector of Saxony and other princes estab-
lished Lutheran state Churches. An alliance between
these princes was concluded at Torgau in 1526,
and again at Smalkald in 1531. The Protestant
League was continually increased by the accession of
other states, and a religious war broke out in 1546,
which resulted in the Peace of Augsburg ( 1 555) . 'This
treaty provided that the Lutherans should retajn
permanently what they then possessed, but that all
officials of ecclesiastical estates, who from that time
forth should go over to Protestantism, would be de-
posed and replaced by Catholics. Tnis latter pro-
vision, known as the Reservatum Ecclesiasticum ",
was very unsatisfactory to the Protestants, and its
constant violation was one of the causes that lead up
to the Thirty Years War (1618-48). At the time of
the Peace of Augsburg Lutherans predominated in the
north of Germany, while the ZwingUans or Reformed
were very numerous in the south. Austria, Bavaria,
and the territories subject to spiritual lords were Cath-
olic, although many of these afterwards bMecame Prot-
estant. Several attempts were made to effect a re-
union. In 1534 Pope Paul III invited the Protestants
to a general council. Emperor Charles V arranged
conferences between Catholic and Lutheran theolo-
gians in 1541, 1546, and 1547. His successor. Ferdi-
nand I (1556-^), and many private individuals, such
as the Lutheran Frederick Staphylus and Father
Contzen, laboured much for the same end. All these
efforts, however, proved fruitless. Melanchthon, Cm-
sius, and other Lutheran theologians made formal
proposals of union to the Greek Church (1559, 1574,
1578), but nothing came of their overtures. From
the beginning bitter hostility existed between the Lu-
therans and the Reformed. This first appeared in the
Sacramentarian controversy between Luther and
Zwingli (1524). They met m conference at Marburg
in 1529, but came to no agreement. The hopes of
union created by the compromise formula of 1536,
known as the Concordia WittenbergensiSy proved de-
lusive. Luther continued to make war on the Zwing-
lians imtil his death. The Sacramentarian strife
was renewed in 1549, when the Zwiuglians accepted
Calvin's view of the Real Presence. 'The foUoiivers of
Mebmchthon, who favoured Calvin's doctrine (Phil-
ippists, Crypto-Calvinists), were abo furiously de-
nounced by the orthodox Lutherans. During these
controversies the state Church of the Palatinate,
where Philippism predominated, changed from the
Lutheran to tne Reformed faith ( 1 560) . From the be-
ginning Lutheranism was torn by doctrinal disputes,
carried on with the utmost violence and passion.
They had reference to the questions of sin and grace,
i'ustification by faith, the use of good works, the
jord's Supper, and tne Person and work of Christ.
The bitterest controversy was the Crypto-Calvinistic.
To effect hannony the Form of Concora, the last of the
LUTHXBAMI8K
4fid
LUTHUUBnSM
Lutheran symboLs, was drawn up in 1577, and ac-
cepted by the majority of the state Ghurohes. The
document was written in a conciliatory spirit, but it
secured the triumph of the orthodox party.
(b) Second Period: From the Aaoption of the
Form of Concord to the Beginning of the Pietistic
Movement (158Q-1689). — During this period LuUier-
anism was engaged in bitter polemics with its neigh-
bours in Germany. Out of these religious discords
grew the horrors of the Thirty Years War, which led
many persons to desire better relations between the
churches. A ' ' charitable colloquy ' ' was held at Thorn
in 1645 by Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist theolo-
gians, but nothing was accomplished. The proposal
of the Lutheran professor, Georse Calixtus, that the
confessions ors^nize into one church with the con-
sensus of the tirst five centuries as a common basis
(Syncretism), aroused a storm of indignation, and, by
way of protest, a creed was accepted by the Saxon
universities which expressed the views of the most
radic^ school of Lutneran orthodoxy (1655). The
Lutheran theologians of this period imitated the dis-
orderly arrangement of Melanchthon's *'Loci Theo-
logici", but in spirit they were with few exceptions
loyal supporters of the Form of Concord. Although
the writings of Luther abound with diatribes against
the speculative sciences, his followers early perceived
the necessity of philosophy for controversial purposes.
Melanchthon developea a system of Aristoteleanism,
and it was not long before the Scholastic method,
which Luther had so cordially detested, was us^ by
the Evangelical theologians, although the new Scho-
lasticism was utterly different from the genuine sys-
tem. Lutheran dogmatics became a maze of refined
subtleties, and mere logomachv was considered the
chief duty of the theologian. The result was a fanati-
cal orthodoxy, whose only activity was heresy-hunting
and barren controversv. New attempts were made to
unite the Evangelical Churches. Conferences were
held in 1586, 1631, and 1661 ; a plan of union was pro-
posed by the Heidelberg professor Pareus (1615); the
Reformed Synod of Ch^nton (1631) voted to admit
Lutheran sponsors in baptism . But again the doctrine
of the Lord s Supper proved an obstacle, as the Luther-
ans would agree to no union that was not based upon
perfect dogmatic consensus. By the Peace of West-
phalia (16&) the concessions which had been made to
the Lutherans in 1555 were extended to the Reformed.
(c) Third Period: From the Beginning of the Pie-
tistic Movement to the Evangelical Imion (168d-
1817). — Pietism, which was a reaction against the cold
and dreary formalism of Lutheran orthodoxy, orig-
inated with Philip Spener (1635-1705). In sermons
and writings he asserted the claims of personal hoU-
ness, and in 1670, while dean at Frankfort-on-the-
Main, he began to hold little reunions called collegia
pietcUis (whence the name Pietist), in which devotional
passages of the Scriptures were explained and pious
conversation carried on by those present. His fol-
lower, August Francke, founded in 1604 the Univer-
sity of H£ule, which became a stronghold of Pietism.
The strict Lutherans accused the Pietists of heresy, a
charge which was vigorously denied, although in {act
the new school differed from the orthodox not only in
practice, but also in doctrine. The first enthusiasm of
the Pietists soon degenerated into fanaticism, and
they rapidly lost favour. Pietism had exercised a
beneficial influence, but it was followed by the Ration-
alistic movement, a more radical reaction against
orthodoxy, which effected within the Lutheran, as in
other Protestant communions, manv apostasies from
Christian belief. The philosophy of the day and the
national literature, then ardently cultivated, had
gradually undermined the faith of all classes of the
people. The leaders in the Church adiusted themselves
to tne new conditions, and soon theological chairs and
the pulpits were filled by mm who re]pMled not only
the dogmatic teaching of the Symbolical Books, but
every supernatural element of religion. A notable
exception to this growing infideUty was the sect of
Hermhuters or United Brethren, founded in 1722 by
Count von Zinzendorf , a follower of the Pietistic
school (see Bohemian Brbthben). The critical state
of their churches caused many Protestants to long for
a union between the Lutherans and the Reformed.
The royal house of Prussia laboured to accomplish a
union, but all plans were frustrated by the opposition
of the theologians. There were for a time prospects of
a reconciliation of the Hanoverian Lutherans with the
Cathohc Church. Negotiations were carried on be-
tween the Catholic Bisnop Spinola and the Lutheran
representative Molanus (1691). A controversy on the
points at issue followed between Bossuet and Leitmifl
(1692-1701), but no agreement was reached.
(d) Fourth Period: From the Evangelical Union
(1817) to the Present. — ^The chief events in the Luth*
eran Churches in Germany during the nineteenth
century were the Evangelical Union and the revival
of orthodoxy. During the celebration of the tercen-
tenary of the Reformation in 1817, efforts were made
in Prussia to unite Lutherans and Reformed. Fred-
erick William III recommended the use of a common
Utui^ by the two churches, and this proposal grad-
ually won acceptance. There was much opposition,
however, to tne service-book published by royal
authority in 1822. John Scheibel, deacon in Breslau,
refused to accept it, and, being deposed from oflice,
founded a separatist sect known as the *'01d Luther*
ans" (1830). The Government used very oppressive
measures against these nonconformists, but in 1845
the new king, Frederick William IV, recognized them
as an independent Lutheran sect. In 1860 the Old
Lutherans were greatly reduced in numbers by the
defection of Pastor Diedrich, who oiganized the inde-
pendent Immanuel Synod. There were also separatist
movements outside of Silesia. Free Lutheran Churches
were established by dissenters in Hesse, Hanover,
Baden, and Saxony. A supematuralist movement,
which defended the Divinely inspired character of the
Bible, started a reaction against the principle of ra-
tionalism in theology. The centenary lubilees of 1817
and the following years, which recalled the early days
of Lutheranism, brought with them a revival of former
orthodoxv. The theological faculties of several uni-
versities became strictly Lutheran in their teachings.
Since then there has been a persistent and bitter strug-
gle between rationalistic and Evangelical tendencies
m the United and Free Churches.
(2) The Lutherans in Denmark and Scandinavia, —
(a) Denmark. — By the Union of CJalmar (1397),
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark became a united kuij^
dom under the King of Denmark. The despotic Chris-
tian II (1513-23) endeavoured to introduce the
Reformation, but was overthrown bv his barons.
Frederick I of Schleswig-Holstein, his successor,
op^ly prof^teed Lutheranism in 1526. At the Diet
of Odense (1527) he obtained a measure which guar^
anteed equal rights to his coreligionists, and two years
later he proclaimed Lutheranism the only true reU-
S'on. Under his successor. Christian III (1533-59).
le Catholic bishops were deprived of their sees, ana
the Lutheran Church of Denmark was organized with
the king as supreme bishop. The Diet of Copenhagen
(1546) enacted penal laws, which deprived Catholics
of civil rights and forbade priests to remain in Dcai-
mark under pain of death. The opposition of Iceland
to the new religion was put down by force (1550).
German rationalism was propagated in Denmark fay
Clausen. Among its opponents was Grundtvig, leader
of the Grundtvigian movement 0824), which advo-
cated the acceptance of the Apostles' Creed as the sole
rule of faith. Freedom of religious worship was
granted in 1849.
(b) Norway, which was united wvtK ^^^Kssasa^K.
LUTHl&AMISM
460
LUTH1RANI8M
eame Lutheran during the re^pis of Frederick I and
Omstian III. Rationalism, mtroduced from Den-
mark, made great progress in Norway. It was op-
poeea by Hauge and by Norwegian followers of
Qrundtvig. A Free Apostolic Churcn was founded bv
Adolph Lammers about 1850, but later reunited with
ibe state church. Norway passed laws of toleration
in 1845, but still excludes the Jesuits.
(c) Sweden was freed from the Danish yoke by
Guistavus Vasa in 1521, and two years later the
liberator was chosen king. Almost from the outset of
hiB reign he showed himself favourable to Lutherans,
and by cunning and violence succeeded in introducing
the new religion into his kingdom. In 1529 the Refor-
mation was formally estabQshed by the Assembly of
&ebro, and in 1544 the ancient Faith was put under
the ban'6f the law. The reign of Eric XI V (1560-8)
was marked by violent conflicts between the Luther-
ans and the Cal vinists. The latter party was favoured
hy ibe king, and their defeat in 1568 was followed by
^c's detlm)nement. His successor, John III (1568-
92), conferred with Gre^oiy XIII on a reimion of
Sweden with the Cathohc Church, but, as the pope
oould not grant all the concessions demanded by the
Idng, the negotiations were unsuccessful. The next
king, Sigismund (1592-1604), was a Catholic, but, as
he fived in Poland (of which he was king from 1587),
the Government of Sweden was administered by his
uncle Duke Charles of Sudermanland, a zealous Luth-
eran, who used the power at his command to secure
his proclamation as King Charles IX in the Assembly
of Nordkoeping (1604). The successor of Charles was
the famous general and statesman, Gustavus Adol-
phus (1611-32). For the nart he took in the Thirty
Years War, he is venerated by Lutherans as the reli-
gious hero of their Church, but it is now admitted that
reasons of state led Gustavus into that conflict. He
was succeeded by his only daughter Christina, who
became a Catholic and abdicatea in 1654. By a law
of 1686 all persons in the kingdom were required under
severe penalties to conform to the state Church. A
law pa^ed in 1726 against religious conventicles was
rigidly enforced against the Swedish Pietists (Ldaare)
from 1803 till its repeal in 1853. The law against reU-
e'ous dissidents was not removed from the statute
M)ks till 1873. The Swedish Church is entirely con-
tndled by ^e state, and the strict orthodoxy which
was enforced prevented at first any serious inroads of
RationaJism. But since 1866 there has formed within
the state Chm-ch a *' progressive partv'', whose pur-
pose is to abandon all symbols and to laicize the
church. The two universities of Upsala and Lund are
ortjiodox. The Grand Duchy of Finland, formerly
united to Sweden, but now (since 1809) a Province of
Russia, maintains Lutheranism as the national
Church.
^3) Lutheranism in Other Countries of Europe, — (a)
P<Maiid. — Lutheranism was introduced into Poland
during the reign of Sigismimd I (1501-48) by young
men who had made their studies at Wittenberg. The
new teachings were opposed by the king, but had the
powerful support of tne nobility. From Danzig they
spread to the cities of Thorn and Elbing, and, during
tne reign of Sigismund II (1548-72), steadily gained
eround. A union symbol was drawn up and sizned
by thie Protestants at Sandomir in 1570, and three
years later they concluded a religious peace with the
Catholics, in which it was agreed that all parties
should enjov equal civil rights. The peace was not
lasting, and dining two centuries there was almost
continual religious strife which finally led to the down-
fall of the kingdom. With the connivance of Poland,
Lutheranism was established in the territories of the
Teutonic Order, East Prussia (1525), Livonia (1539),
and Courland (1561).
(b) Hungary, Transylvania and Silesia. — ^Theteach-
ingp of Luther were first propagated in these countries
durihjg the reifli of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohe*
mia (1516-26;. The king was strongly opposed to
religious innovation, but after his death civil discords
enabled the new doctrine to gain headway. In Silesia
Lutheranism was protected by the dukes, and in 1524
it was established in Breslau, the capital, by the
municipal council. Freedom bf worship was granted
in Transylvania in 1545, and in Hungary in 1606.
The Lutherans were soon involved in quarrels with
the Calvinists. The German element among the
Protestants favoured the Augsburg Confession, but
the Reformed faith had more adherents among the
Hungarians and Czechs. In Silesia the Lutherans
then^dives were divided on the doctrine of justifica-
tion and the Eucharist. Caspar Schwenkfeld (d.
1561), one of the earliest disciples of Luther, assailed
his master's doctrine on these points, and as early as
1528 Schwenkfeldianism had many adherents among
Lutherans. The memory of Schwenkfeld is still held
in veneration in Silesia and in some Lutheran com-
munities of Pennsylvania. Lutheranism made some
gains in the hereaitary states of Austria and in Bo-
hemia during the reigns of Ferdinand I (1556-64) and
Bfaximilian II (1564-76). The Lutherans of Bo-
hemia rebelled against the imperial authority in 1618,
but were defeated, and the Catholic Faith was pre-
served in the Hapsburg dominions. (See Aubtro-
HuNGARiAN Monarchy; Hungary.)
(c) Holland was one of the first countries to receive
the doctrines of Luther. Emperor Charles V, anxious
to avert the disorders which foUowed the Reformation
in Germany, used great severity asainst those who
prop>ajKated Lutheranism in the Netherlands. His
son, Philip II of Spain (1556-98), was still more rig-
orous. Tne measures he employed were often des-
potic and unjust, and the people rose in a rebellion
(1568), by which Holland was lost to Spain. Mean-
while the relations between the Lutherans and Cal-
vinists were anything but cordial. The Reformed
party gradually gained the ascendancy, and, when
the republic was established, their political suprem-
acy enabled them to subject the Lutherans to many
annoying restrictions. The Dutch Lutherans fell a
prey to Rationalism in the eighteenth century. A
number of the churches and pastors separated from
the main body to adhere more closely to the Augsbui^
Confession. The liberal party has a theological semi-
nary (founded in 1816) at Amsterdam, while the
orthodox provide for theological training by lectures
in ^e university of the same city.
(4) Lutherans in America. — (a) Period of Founda-
tion (1624-1742). — Lutherans were among the ear-
liest European settlers on this continent. Their first
representatives came from Holland to the Dutch col-
ony of New Netherlands about 1624. Under Governor
Stuyvesant they were obliged to conform to the Re-
formed services, but freedom of worship was obtained
when New Amsterdam (New York) was captured by
the English in 1664. The second distinct body of
Lutherans in America arrived from Sweden in 1637.
Two years later they had a minister and organized at
Fort Christina (now Wilmington, Delaware), the first
Lutheran congregation in the New World. After
1771 the Swedes of Delaware and Pennsylvania dis-
solved their union with the Mother CJhurch of Sweden.
As they had no English-speaking ministers, they chose
their pastors from the Episcopalian Church. Since
1846 tnese congregations nave declared full commun-
ion with the Episco(MJians. The first colony of Ger-
man Lutherans was from the Palatinate. They ar-
rived in 1693 and founded German town, now a part of
Philadelphia. During the eighteenth century large
numbers of Lutheran emigrants from Alsace, the
Palatinate, and WOrtemberg settled along the Hudson
Riv^r. Gn the Atlantic coast, in New Jersey, Vir-
ginia, North and South Carolina, were many isolated
groups of German Lutherans. A colony of Lutherans
LUTHERAHIBM
461
LUTHSKAnsBI
from Salzburg founded the settlement of Ebeneser,
Georna. in 1734. In Eastern Pennsylvania about
30,000 German Lutherans had settled l>efore the mid-
dle of the eighteenth century. Three of their congre-
^tions applied to Europe for ministers, and Count
Zimsendorf became pastor in Philadelphia in 1741.
(b) Period of OrMiization (1742-87) .—In 1742
Rev. Henry Muhlenberg, a Hanoverian, who is re-
garded as the patriarch of American Lutheranism, ar-
rived in Philadelphia and succeeded Zinzendorf in the
pastorate. Durine the forty-five years of his min-
istry in America, Muhlenberg presided over widely
separated congregations and erected many churches.
He began the work of oivanisation among the Lu-
therans of America by the foundation of ^e ^rnod of
Pennsylvania in 1748. He also prepared the con-
fregational constitution of St. Micnaers Church,
Philadelphia, which became the model of similar
constitutions throughout the country. His son. Rev.
Frederick Muhlenberg, afterwards speaker in the first
House of Representatives, was ^e originator of the
Ministerium of New York, the second S3rnod in Amer-
ica (1773).
(c) Period of Deterioration (1787-1817).— Muhlen-
berg and the other German pastors of his time were
graduates of the University of Halle. The generation
that succeeded them had made their studies in the
same institution. But the Pietism of the founders of
Halle had now made way for the destructive criti-
cism of Semler. The result was soon manifest in the
indifferentism of the American Churches, llie Penn-
sylvania Ministerium eliminated all confessional tests
in its constitution of 1792. The New York ministe-
rium, led by Dr. Frederick Quitman,' a decided Ration-
alist, substituted for the older Lutheran catechisms
and hymn-books works that were more conformable
to the prevailing theology. The agenda, or service-
^ book adopted by the Pennsylvania Lutherans in 1818,
was a departure from the old type of service and the
expression of new doctrinal stanoards. The transition
from the use of German to English caused splits in
many congregations, the German partv bitterly op-
posing the introduction of English in the churcn ser-
vices. They even felt that they had more in common
with the German-speaking Reformed than with the
English-speaking Lutherans, and some of them ad-
vocated an Evangelical Union such as was then pro-
posed in Prussia.
(d) Period of Revival and Expansion (1817-60).—
To prevent the threatened disintegration, a union of
all tne Lutheran synods in America was proposed. ^
1820 the General Synod was oiganised at Hagerstown.
Pennsylvania, but a few of the district synods stooa
aloof. The new organisation was regarded with sus-
picion by many, and in 1823 the mother synod of
Pennsylvania itself withdrew from the general body.
From the beginning there was a considerable element
within the General Synod which favoured doctrinal
compromise with the Reformed Church. To strengthen
the conservative party, the Pennsylvania Synod re-
turned to the General Synod in 1853. Meanwhile
the Greneral Synod had established the theological
seminary at Gettysburg, Penn^lvania (1^), and
societies for home and forei^ missions. In the West
several ecclesiastical oiganizations were formed by
Lutheran emi^nts from Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria,
and the Scandinavian countries. The Mifflouri Synod
was founded by Rev. Carl Walther in 1847, and the
same year opened a theological seminary at St. Louis.
A band of Old Lutherans, who resisted the PnuBian
union, emimted from SuEony in 1839, and two srears
later founded the Buffalo Synod. At first a miion
between the Missouri and the Buffalo synods was ex-
pected, but instead their leaders were soon engaged in
doctrinal controversies which extended over many
years. In 1854 a party within the Missouri §ynod,
dissatisfied with what it regarded as the extreme <xm-
gregationalism of that body and its denial of open
ouestions in theology, seceded and fonned the lows
erynod with its theological seminary at Dubuque.
Ever since there has been conflict between these two
synods. Travelling preachers of the Pennsylvania
Ministerium founded in Ohio a conference in con-
nexion with the mother s3rnod in 1805. This confer-
ence was reorganized in 1818 into a synod which since
1833 has been known as the Joint Synod of Ohio.
The earliest synods formed by Scandinavian emi-
grants were: (1) the Norwegian Hauge Synod (1846),
(2) the Norw^an Synod (1853), and (3) the Scandi-
navian Augustana Synod (1860), all in the states of the
Middle West.
(e) Period of Reorganization (since 1860). — At the
beginning of the Civil War the General Synod num-
bered two-thirds of the Lutherans in the United
States, and hopes were entertained that soon all
the organizations would be unit^ in one body.
These anticipations, however, were doomed to ds^
appointment. In 1863 the General Synod lost the
five southern district 83rnods, which withdrew and
formed the ''General Synod of the Confederate
States '\ A more serious break in the General Sjmod
occurred three years later. The disagreements be-
tween the liberal and the conservative elements in that
body had not abated with time. In 1864 ^e Minis-
terium of Pennsylvania established in Philadelphia a
new seminary, thereby greatly reducing the attend-
ance at the Gettysburg seminary of the Ueneral Synod.
At the next convention (1866) it was declm^ that the
Pennsylvania Synod was no longer in practical union
with the General Synod. The Pennsylvania Minis-
terium at once sent out an invitation to all American
and Canadian synods to join with it in forming a new
general body. In response to this invitation a ood-
vention assembled at Reading the same year, and
thirteen synods were consolidated into the ''General
Council". With the close of the Civil War tbe
Southern Lutherans might have returned to fellow-
ship with their Northern brethren, but the contro-
versy between the Northern synods determined them
to perpetuate their own organization. In 1886 they
reorganized their general body, taking the name of the
"United Synod in the South", and stating their doc-
trinal position, which is essentially the same as that of
the General Council. A fourth general body was
formed in 1872, the "Synodical Conference", at
present the strongest organization among the Lu-
theran Churehes of America. It takes as ito basis the
Formula of Concord of 1580, and comprises the Mis-
souri and other Western synods. A controversy on
predestination led to the withdrawal of the Ohio
Synod in 1881, and of the Norw^an Synod in 1884.
Tnere are still many independent synods not affiliated
with any of the several oiganizations. Tlius iibe Lu-
therans of the Imited States are divided into various
conflicting bodies, each claiming to be a truer expo-
nent of Lutheranism than the others. The memlwr-
ship of the four principal organizations is almost
exclusively of German descent. The main cause Of
separation is diversity of opinion regarding the impor-
tance or the interpretation of the official confessicms.
ni. Organization and Worship. — In Uie early
days of the Reformation the prevalent form of gov-
ernment was tiiat known as the episcopal, which trans-
ferred the jurisdiction of the bishops to the civil ruler.
It was followed by the territorial system, which recog-
nized the sovereign as head of the church, in virtue of
his office, both in administiative and doctrinal mat- •
ters. The oolleffial eystdm of Pfaff (1719) asserts the
sovereignty and independence of the congregation,
which may, however, delegate its authority to the
State. In the Lutheran state Churehes the secular
power is in fact the supreme authority. The praotieal
determination of religious questions rests with |ihe
natioxial legislatiire, or with a <»w&>&tfii6oQBs^ ^<^^^sm^
LUTHXBAHISM
462
LUTHS&AVISM
members jure appointed by the g^vermnent. No Di-
vinely constituted hierarchy is reoognixedi and in
orders all the clergy are considered as equals. The Lu-
theran bishops of Sweden and Denmark, like the
"general superintendents'' of Germany, are govern-
ment officials entrusted with the oversight of me pas-
tors and congregations. In Holland and the United
States, as among the Free Churches of Germany, the
form of oiganization is synodical, a system of church
polity which in its main features has been derived
from the Reformed Church. According to this pl^i,
purely congregational matters are decided by the vote
of the congregation, either directly or through the
church council. In the United States the church
ooimcil consists of the pastor and his lay assistants,
the elders and deacons, all chosen by the congres^.
tion. Affairs of more general importance and dis-
puted questions are settled by the district synod,
composed of lay and clerical delegates representing
Buch congregations as have accepted a mutual congre-
gational compact. The congr^ations composing a
district synod may unite with other district synods to
form a more general body. The powers of a general
oiganization of this kind, in relation to the belies of
wmch it is composed, are not, however, in all cases the
same. The constitution of the Old Lutheran Church
in Germany makes its General Synod the last court of
appeal and its decisions bindmg. In the United
States a different conception prev^ls, and in most in-
stances the general assemblies are regarded simply as
advisory conferences whose decisions require the rati-
fication of the particular organizations represented.
Lutheran pubUc worship is based on the service-
book which Luther published in 1523 and 1526. He
retained the first part of the Mass, but abolished the
Offertory, Canon, and all the forms of sacrifice. The
niain Lutheran service is still known as "the Mass'*
in Scandinavian coimtries. The singing of hynms be-
came a prominent part of the new service. Many
Catholic sequences were retained, and other sacred
sones were borrowed from the old German poets.
Luther himself wrote hymns, but it is doubtful
whether he is really the author of any of the melodies
that are usually ascribed to him. Luther wished to
retain the Elevation and the use of the Latin language,
but these have been abandoned. The Collect, Epistte,
and Gospel vary according to the Sundays of the year.
The Creed is followed by a sermon on the Scripture
lesson of the day. which is the principal part of the
service. Ordinarily the Lord's Supper is administered
only a few times during the year. It is preceded,
sometimes the day before, by the service of public
confession and absolution, which consists in the prom-
ise of amendment made by the intending communi-
cants, and the declaration of the minister that such as
are truly penitent are forgiven. Only two sacraments
are recognized by Lutherans, Baptism and the Lord's
Supper; but Confirmation, Ordination, and C<xifes-
non as just described are regarded as sacred rites.
There are also ceremonies prescribed for marriage and
burial. Christmas. Easter, Pentecost, the feast of the
Twelve Apostles, the Commemoration of the Reforma-
tion (31 Oct.) are observed with religious services.
Pictures are permitted in the churches, and in Den-
mark vestments and light^ candles are used at the
communion service. The first complete ritual or
agenda was that prepared for the Duchy of Prussia in
1625. There is no uniform liturgy for the churches.
In the United Evangelical Church of Germany the
agenda of Frederick William III (1817) is the official
form. The services of the American Lutherans were
for many years chiefly extemporaneous, but since 1888
a common service based on the liturgies of the six-
teenth century has been used by almost all English-
i^peaking Lutherans in this country. It includes, be-
sides the main service, matins and vespers.
IV. Vabious Lutheran Activituds. — (1) Foreign
MiaiioM and BenevoUni OrganuaUons. — ^Foreign mis-
sionary activity has never been a very prominent
diaracteristic of the Luthenm Church. Its pioneer
missionaries went from the University of Halle to the
East Indies (Tanquebar) at the invitation of Fred-
erick IV of Denmark in 1705. During the eighteenth
oentuiy Halle sent about sixty missionaries to Tanque-
bar. In later years the mission was supplied by the
Leipzig Lutheran Mission. Another Danish mission
was tfa^t of Pastor Hans Eg^e among the Green-
landers in 1721. During the nineteenth century sev-
eral societies for foreign missions were founded: the
Beriin Mission Society (1824), the Evangelical Lu-
theran Missionary Association of Leipzig (1836), the
Hermansburg Society (1854), and a number of similar
organisations in the Scandinavian countries. In the
United States a German Foreign Missionary Society
was founded in 1837. The first Lutheran missionary
from the United States was Dr. Heyer, who was sent
to India in 1841. At present missions to the heathen
in Oceania, India, and East Africa, are maintained
under the auspices of various American synods. The
sisterhood, known as the Lutheran Deaconesses, was
founded by Pastor Fliedner at Kaiserwerth in 1833,
its objects being the care of the sick, instruction, etc.
They are now very numerous in some parts of Ger-
many. They were introduced in the United States
in 1849.
(2) Sacred Learning and Education. — ^The study of
exe^tics, church history, and theology has been much
cultivated by Lutheran scholars. Among the exegetes
the following are well known: Solomon Glassius (Phi-
lologia Sacra, 1623); Sebastian Schmid (d. 1696),
translator and commentator; John H. Michaelis
(Bibha Hebraica, 1720); John A. Bengel (Gnomon
Novi Testamenti, 1752) ; Havemick (d. 1845), Heg&-
tenberg (d. 1869), and Delitzsch (d. 1890), commen-
tators. Among the more important church historians
may be mentioned: Mosheim (d. 1755), sometimes
cidled the "Father of Modem Church History",
Schrockle (d. 1808), Neander (d. 1850), Kurtz (d.
1890). Haae (d. 1890). The "Magdeburg Centuries"
(1559) of Fladus lUyricus and his associates, the firet
church history written by Protestants, is very biased
and has no historical value. Numerous dogmatic
works have been written by Lutheran theologians.
Among the dogmaticians most esteemed b}r Lutherans
are: Melanchthon, whose "Loci Theologici" (1521)
was the first Lutheran theology; Martin Chemmtz (d.
1586) and John Gerhard (d. 1637), the two ablest
Lutheran theologians; Calovius (d. 1686), champion
of the strictest Lutheran orthodoxy; Quenstedt (d.
1688)^ Hollaz(d. 1713); Luthardt (d. 1902) ; Henry
Schmid, whose dogmatic theology (1st ed., 1843) in
its En^ish translation has been much used in the
United States. The Lutheran Church still produces
many dogmatic works, but very few of the modem
divines hold strictly to the old formula; of faith.
The Lutheran Churches deserve great credit for the
importance they have always attached to religious
instruction, not ovly in their many universities, but
also and especiallv in the schools of elementary in-
struction. In Lutheran countries the education of the
children is supervised by the religious authorities,
since Lutherans act on the principle that religious
training is the most important part of education . The
catechism. Biblical study, and church music have a
Prominent part in the everyday instruction. In the
fnited States the parochial school has been developed
with great success among the congregations that still
use the German and Scandinavian languages. The
Lutherans of Wisconsin and Illinois co-operated with
the Catholics in 1890 in an organized resistance
against legislation which would have proved injurious
to the parochial schools.
V. Influence op Rattonausbc in the Lutheran
CHUBCHS8.-r-The popular faith had been overthrown
LUTOXiF
483
in the eighteenth century by the philosophy of Wolff
(d. 1754) and the criticism of Semler (d. 1791). The
principle of the supremacy of reason was used to tear
down belief in the inspired character of Holy Writ.
The literature and philosophy of the time show how
n^eat a blow was dealt to orthodox Lutheranism.
Theology, now become the handmaid of philosophy,
eagerlv accepted amid the prevailing doubt and nega-
tion the system of Kant (d. 1804), which made the
essence of reUgion and the whole value of Scripture
consist in the teaching of the morality of reason or
natural ethics. Against this rationalistic theologv
there arose about the beginning of the nineteenth
century two reactionary movements — Supernatural-
ism, which declared in favour of the undivided su-
premacy of faith, and the system of Schleicrmacher
(d. 1834), which made sentiment or the feelings of the
heart the criterion of religious truth. The teachings
of Schleiermacher recast the existing theology, and
gave it the bent which it afterwards followed. A still
more thoroughgoing rationalism appeared in the writ-
ings of the Hegelian Strauss (d. 1874) and of the
Tubingen school, which aimed at the utter destruction
of the Divine basis of Christian faith by explaining all
that is supernatural in Scripture as merely natural or
mythical. These bold attacks were met by many able
scnolars, and they have long since been discredited.
Since the days of Strauss and Bauer (d. 1860), the
method known as Higher Criticism (see Criticism,
Biblical) has found favour in Germany, both with
the rationalistic and the orthodox Protestant. Much
that is of permanent value as an aid to the scientific
study of the Bible has been accomplished, but at the
same time Rationalism has been making constant
gains, not only in the universities, but also amongst
the masses. The strictly confessional theology of the
orthodox revival (1817), the neo-Lutheran movement,
whose leanings toward the Catholic Faith gave it the
name of German Puseyism, the Compromise Theology,
which endeavoured to reconcile behevcrs and Ration-
alists— all these more or less conservative systems are
now to a great extent superseded by the modem or
free theology, represented by Pfleiderer (d. 1906),
Wilhelm Hermann, Trdltsch, Hamack, Weinel, and
others, which teaches a religion without creed or
dogma. In Germany, especially in the cities, the
Evangelical faith has lost its influence not only with
the people, but in ^reat part with the preachers them-
selves. The same is true to some extent in the Scan-
dinavian countries, where Rationalism is making in-
roads on Lutheran orthodoxy. In the United States
the Lutherans have been more conservative, and thus
far have preserved more of their confessional spirit.
VI. Statistics. — ^The number of Lutherans in the
world is about fifty millions, a membership which far
exceeds that of any other Protestant denomination.
The chief Lutheran coiutry to-day, as from the begin-
ning, is Germany. In 1905 the Evangelicals (Luther-
ans and Reformed) in the German Empire numbered
37,646,852. The membership of the Lutheran churches
in other European countries is as follows: Sweden
(1900), 5,972,792; Russia, chiefly in Finland and the
Baltic Provinces (1905), 3,572,653; Denmark (1901),
2,400,000; Norway (1900), 2,197.318; Hungary
(1906), 1.288,942. Austria and Holland have about
494 ,000 and 1 1 0,000 Lutherans respectively. Accord-
ing to a bulletin of the Bureau of tiie U. S. Census the
total membership of the 24 Lutheran bodies in the
Unite<l States in 1906 was 2,112,494, with 7841 min-
isters, 11,194 church edifices, and church property
valued at $74,826,389. Dr. H. K. Carroll's statistics
of the Churches ot the United States for 1909 credits
the Lutherans with 2,173,047 communicants.
I. Jacobs. The Book of Concord (Philadelphia. 1893); Scbait.
The Creeds of Chrittendom (6th etl.. New York, 1890), I, II;
ScHMiD, Dort. Theol. ofBvang.Luih. Church (PhiUdclphia, 1889).
II. For the history of Lutheranism in Europe consult the
bibliographies under the religious histoiy of the yarknu oowi-
tnes. For the histoxy of Lutberaniam in the United Stottf:
Jacobs, History of the Evanq. LtUheran Church in the U. S, (New
York. 1893) in American Chweh History Seriee, IV (with eztes-
sivebiblloc.); WoLF,The LtUheran* in America (New York, 1889).
III. 2. HoKN. OutUnea of Li$wraiea (Philadelphia. 1890).
V. Hurst, Hist, of Rationalism (New York, 1865): Vxoou-
Roux, Les Litres Saints el la Critique Ratumaliste^ II (Pails*
1886), 311-566.
VI. XtrcAitcAef/oArfrucA (published at Gatersloh); Luthmtm
Church Annual; Lutheran Year Book. J. A. McHuGH. ^
Ltltolf , Alots, ecclesiastical historian, b. 23 July,
1824, in Gettnau near Willisau (Switzerland); d. at
Lucerne, 8 April, 1879. He made his early studies at
the Jesuit College of Schwyz, and at the Lyceum at
Lucerne, where he became an enthusiastic student of
history. But as the political situation at that time
did not permit of serious study, Latolf , with a number
of students of like youthful ardour, placed themselves
in 1847 at the disposal of their country. For a tima
Lfttolf was employed as private secretary at Lucerne,
and also took part in the expedition of the Sonderbuna
army into the Canton of Ticino. From 1847 to 1849
he studied theology and history at Freiburg in Baden
and at Mum'ch, and in 1850 was ordained priest at
Solothum. After serving on the mission for a time, he
taught history from 1852 to 1856 at the Catholic can-
tonal school of St. Gall. On the suppression of this
school, Lutolf became parish priest at Lucerne. In
1864 he was appointed vlcercgent of the clerical semi*
nary at Solothum, in 1858 professor of church history,
and shortly afterwards canon of St. Leodegar's chap-
ter at Lucerne. In 1859 he began to publish his
investigations made at St. Gall. The most im-
portant arc '* Sagen, Gebrauche und Legenden aus den
tUnf Orten" (Lucerne, 1865) and " Glaubensboten der
•Schweiz vor St. Gallus" (Lucerne, 1870), a valuable
contribution to the ancient history of Switzeriuid.
His *' Leben und Bekenntnisse des I. L. S. SchiflFmann"
(Lucerne, 1861) is a creditable memorial to his former
master. Father Schiffman; the book also contains
important information about the famous pedagogue,
Bishop Sailer, and his school in Switzerland. He also
has a work on the historian Kopp, ** Jos. Ant. Kopp als
Professor, Dichter, Staatsmann und Histonker"
(Lucerne, 1868). The latter had shortly before his
death given him his historical manuscripts, and com-
missioned him to complete his partly nnished work,
''Geschichte der eidgenOssischen BOnde".
Schmidt, Erinnenmgsn an Dr. Al. LQtolf (Lucerne. 1880).
Patricius Schlageb.
Lutik, Zhitomir, and Kamenati, Diocesb of
(LucEOBiENSis, Zytomuuensis, XT Camenecensis),
in Little Russia. Its present territoiy extends over
the Governments (provinces) of Volhynia, Kieff, and
Podolia. Originally it formed three separate dioceses,
but they were eventually united, through successful
Russian pressure upon the Holy See, intended to pro-
mote governmental authority over the Catholic Church
in Russia. The jsee is theoretically governed by the
diocesan bishop, w^ho resides at Zhitomir, assisted by
three auxiliary bishops, for the cities of Lutzk, Zhito-
mir, and Kien; but at present two are vacant.
Originally this portion of Russia was entirely of the
Greek Rite, but with the conquest of Volhynia and
Podolia bv the Lithuanians in 1320, and the Later con-
ouest ana union of Lithuania bv the Poles in 1560,
tne Latin Rite became well established, and accord-
ingly Latin bishoprics were founded. Lutzk, in the
western part of Volhynia, is perhaps the oldest one;
it is said to have been foimded in 1358, but the se^ was
then placed further west at Vladimir. In 1428 Bishop
Andrew Plawka transferred the see to Lutzk, then one
of the principal cities of Volhynia. This occasioned
some confusion in 1439 at the Council of Florence,
when the Bidbop of Lutzk (Luck in Polish) was di-
rected to give up the name Lueensis and to write his
diocese Luceoriensis, to distinguish him from, tlw^^
Bishop of Lugp. S\x^T^rnj«saiiL«'swa^\s«^ "
464
in this diocese: in 1607, 1621. 1641, 1684, 1720, and
.1726; and in the eighteenth century it had 183
•churches. The city of Lutsk itself 0>e8 back to the
time of Vladimir the Great in 1000. It was made the
see of an Orthodox bishop in 1288, and it was Cyril
Terletzki, Exarch and Bishop of Lutzk, who afiBxed
the first s^nature to the act of union at the Synod of
Biest on 24 June, 1590, and who went to Rome to
make his profession of union. In 1350 Lutzk was
taken by the Lithuanians, and became a flourishing
city. It was afterwards annexed to Poland, and in
1600 the Jews took possession of the city and have
ever since held it. At present it has 19,000 inhabi-
tants, of whom 12,000 are Jews. Volhynia was an-
nexed to Russia in 1792, at the Second Partition of
Poland, and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lutzk was
suppressed. It remained however a Greek Catholic
diocese until 1839. Under Emperor Paul I in 1798
the Diocese of Lutzk was restored, and embraces the
whole of the Province of Volhynia, although Zhitomir,
the capital city, lies at the eastern border, near the
Province of Kieff. The see has been kept vacant for
long intervals during the past centunr. The statistics
of &e Diocese of Lutzk (1909) are: Catholics, 279.157
(Orthodox, 2,106,960); secular priests, 84; regulars,
6; parish churches, 81.
Zhitomir is situated on the River Teterev, about ten
miles from the frontier of the Government of Kieff.
It is ^id to have been founded by Zhitomir, one of the
followers of Rurik. In the thirteenth centurv it was
taken by the Tatars and was afterwards subject to
Lithuania and Poland. It was annexed to Russia in
1778. The city now has a population of 65,000. The
Diocese of Zhitomir is really that of Kieff. Whep
Kieff and Zhitomir were annexed to Russia, the Cath-
olic diocese was suppressed, and the Bishop of Kieff
was expelled, but in 1798 when Pius VI, in the Bull
"Maximis undique press!'*, re-established the Diocese
of Kieff, it was transferred by the request of the Rus-
sian authorities to Zhitomir, and then later united to
Lutzk, in order that no Latin bishop should dispute
the See of Kieff with the Orthodox bishop. Theoret-
ically, an auxiliary bishop may- reside at Kieff, but
none has been allowed for many decades. The dioc-
esan bishop of the united sees resides at Zhitomir.
'Hie present (1909) statistics for the Diocese of Zhito-
mir, which includes a slight strip of Volhynia and the
whole of the Government of Kieff, are: Catholics,
220,893 (Orthodox, 2,988,694), with one regular and
105 secular clergy, 70 parish churches, and one semi-
nary. The Latin Bishopric of Kieff is first mentioned
in 1321, just after the Lithuanians conquered this part
of Little Russia, when Pope John XaII made Hein-
rich von Porvalle, a Dominican, its first Hshop. The
next bishop was Jacob, also a Dominican. Naturally
the earlier Xatin bishops of Kieff were travelling mis-
sionary bishops, establishing churches and ecclesias-
tical institutions of the Latin Rite throughout the
land. Clement (d. 1473) is said to have been the first
Latin bishop to fix his see permanently within the city
of Kieff, where he built a cathedral. In the previous
century the Dominicans had built a fine monastery in
the lower portion of Kieff called Podol, which was for
a long time the finest Roman church in that part of
Russia. Bishop Alexander Sokolowsky (1613-1645)
had great success in establishingLatin churches, and
in 1640 established a deanery atTchernigoff . In 1626
Bishop John Osga commenced to build an additional
cathedral in Zhitomir, which was consecrattod by his
successor Gaetan Soltyk in 1751, and it is the present
cathedral. Two provmcial fi^ods were held in this
diocese: one in 1640 at Kieff, and the other in 1762
in Zhitomir.
The city of Kieff, "the mother of all the cities of
Russia", is really the cnuile of Christianity in the
Bussian Empire. It is said to have been founded by
ISii 3Dd his PT0t]i^T9 Sbcbek and Khbriv, who w^re
Poli^ni, the forefathers of the modem Poles; and was
taken in conquest by the followers of Rurik in their
search for a southern kingdom. Oleg, the successor of
Rurik, came to Kieff in 882 and made it his capital.
St. Olga was here converted to Christianity, although
she was baptised in Constantinople. Later, her suc-
cessor St. Vladimir, on his conversion to Christianitjr,
married Anna^ the sister of the Greek emperors, Basil
and Constantme, and on his return from Constanti-
nople in 988 actiyelv set about the conversion of the
inhabitants of Kieff, who threw their heathen idols,
Perun and the others, into the Dnieper and were bap-
tised as Christians, thus founding the first Christian
community within the present confines of Russia.
Kieff became under him and his successors the great
capital of Russia; it possessed the first Christian
church, the first Christian school, and the first library
in Russia. It passed through great vicissitudes; for
three hundred and seventynsix years it was an inde-
pendent Russian city, for eighty years it was subject
to the Tatars and Mongols, for two hundred and f wty-
nine years it belonged to the Lithuanian Principality,
and for ninety-eight years it w^as a part of the King-
dom of Poland. It was finally annexed to the present
Russian Empire in 1667. Under the Lithuanian rule
it rose to great prosperity, and obtained the Magde-
b\urp; rights of a free city in 1499, which it enjcnred
until they were abolished in 1835. Naturally Kieff
became the see of the first Christian bishop in Russia.
Michael, who baptized Vladimir, 'was sent as the chief
missionary to the Russians, and became the first Met-
ropolitan of Kieff (988-992) . His successors, Leontius,
Jonn I, and Theopempt, were also Greeks, but in 1051
Hilarion, the first Russian bishop, was advanced to
the dignity of metropolitan, with seven bishops under
him. In 1240 the Tatars took the city of Kieff, pil-
laged it, and established Moslem rule in one of the
great shrines of Christendom. The taking of Kieff by
the Tatars drove the Russians northwai^s and cast-
wards; in 1316 the Metropolitan of Kieff changed his
see to Moscow, and thereafter the Church of Russia
was ruled from that city. In 1414, after the change
of the metropolitan see to Moscow, the seven Russian
bishops of the south chose a new Metropolitan of Kieff,
who ruled over these southern dioceses. Thus the
Russian Church was divided into two great jurisdic-
tions: Moscow and Kieff. Kieff, being of the Greek
Rite, was naturally dependent upon Constantinople,
the Church of its origin, and gradually followed it into
schism. Yet for a long time after the break between
Rome and Constantinople it remained in unity with
the Holy See. The first four metropolitans of Kieff
were Catholics and in union with Home. Hilarion
embraced schismatic \'iews strongly tinctured with na-
tionalism, but his successor George was in correspond-
ence with Pope Gregory VII, while Ephraem (1090-
1096) was the Metropolitan of Kieff who established in
Russia the feast of the translation of the relics of St.
Nicholas (9 May) w^hich was instituted bv Pope Urban
II, but which was indignantly rejected ty the Greeks
of Constantinople and the Eaist . During the following
century the metropolitans of Kieff followed the schism
more closely, yet three or four of them remained in
close relation with the Holy See. Maximus (1283-
1305) was a Catholic metropolitan, Cyprian (1389;-
1406) also had close relations with the Roman authori-
ties, while Gregory I (1416-1419) was strongly inclined
towards imion with Rome. From 1438 to 1442 the
Council of Florence was held for the reunion of Chris-
tendom. Isidore, Metropolitan of Kieff (1437-1448),
with five other Russian bishops, attended the council,
signed the act of union^nd became one of its greatest
advocates. Gregory 11 (1458-1472), his successor,
was consecrated m Rome in the presence of Pope Pius
II. and was also an earnest supporter of the union.
Misael (1474-1477) and Simeon (1477-1188) were
also Catholics. Joseph II (1498-1517) likewise ad-
LUXKBDURO
465
LUZEBSBURO
hered to the union, and ^as nicknamed " the Latin '*
by the Moscow Ortnodox Greeks. Then followed sev-
eral metropoUtans who renounced the union and ad-
hered to the schism, until the time of Michael Ragosa
(1588-1599), who took a definite stand for union with
Rome, and who signed the act of union of 2 December.
1 594 , addressed to the Holy See. It was consummatea
the following year, and the Ruthenian Greek Catholic
Church thus constituted has ever since been in union
with Rome. Then follows a line of Catholic metropoli-
tans of Kieff of the Greek Rite: Hypatius (1600-
1613), Joseph IV (1614-1637), and Raphael (1637-
1641). Then came the great champion of Russian
Orthodoxy, the Metropolitan Peter Mogila, who f ou^t
the union and turned the Russians awa]^ from the
Holy See, and who strove to undo the entire work of
the united Churches. His task was finally acoomr
plished within the confines of Russia by his successors
after the annexation of Kieff in 1667 to the Russian
Empire by means of the successive forced " reunions"
of the Greek Catholics to the Russian Orthodox
Church (see Russia). The city of Kieff (250,000 in-
habitants) is beautifully situated upon the River
Dnieper, and is divided naturally and historically into
three parts: Petchersk^ or the city of the grotto-caves;
Podol, or the plain, which is now the commercial part;
and Staro-KieflF, or old KiefT, upon the heights over-
looking the river. The early monks who brought
Christianity to Kieff were hermits dwelling in the
caves on the hill-sides. Subsequent! v these ¥rere en-
larged and others were made, like the catacombs at
Rome. The great Petchersky monasterv is situated
above one of the series of caves, while the church of
the Exaltation of the Holy Cross stands above the
entrance to the grottoes of St. Anthony, which are a
series of catacombs dating back to 1100, when the
monk Anthony came from Mount Athos to Kieff. In
these catacombs the remains of the monks are en-
shrined, and there are numerous altars on which Mass
according to the Greek Rite is said every day. The
grottoes of St. Theodosius are somewhat similar. On
a hill fronting the Dnieper is a huge bronze statue of St.
Vladimir, who brought Christianity to his subjects at
Kieff. The cathedral of St. Sophia, built in 1037 by
Jaroslav, is a building remarkable for its mosaics and
ancient frescoes in the Byzantine style, some of which
date back to the eleventh century. As a counterfoil
to this there is the cathedral of St. Vladimir, built at
the end of the nineteenth centuiy, containing a mag-
nificent interior riohlv decorated m the modem Russo-
Greek style by the best Russian artists. There are
two Roman Catholic churches and one Greek Catholic
church in Kieff.
Kamcnetz, usually called Kamenetz-Podolski to dis-
tinguish it from Kamenetz-Litevsk, is the capital of
the Government of Podolia and lies in a beautiful
situation upon the River Smotrich near the extreme
western border of the Russian Empire, only a few
miles from the Austrian frontier. It goes back to the
thirteenth century. 1 1 grew to considerable importance
under the Polish conquest. The Turks held it for
twenty-seven years, but the Poles recaptured it in
1699. It was annexed to Russia at the Second Parti-
tion of Poland in 1793. Kamenctz is mentioned to-
gether with Kieff as a Latin bishopric in 1373. The
first Bishop of Kamenetz was Wiluam, a Dominican
(1375), and the second was Roskosius (1398). Alex-
ander, Bishop of Kamenetz (1411), and his successor
Zbigniew (1413) promoted the idea of union with the
Greeks. Dominicans and Franciscans comprised the
principal Latin clergy of the time, and in tne follow-
mg century the Jesmts were also introduced. When
the Latin hierarchv was re-established in Russia by
Pius VI in December, 1798, Kamenetz was made a
separate diocese, comprising the whole of Podolia.
In that same year it was also created an Orthodox see
by t^e Russian Government, unditr the title of Podo-
IX.— 30
lia and Bratslav. In 1815 it was placed under the
jurisdiction of the Bishop of Lutzk and Zhitomir, and
on 3 June, 1866, it was entirely abolished as a separate
diocese, and annexed directly to Lutzk and Zhitomir.
The city of Kamenetz itself has about 45,000 inhabi-
tants, of whom one-fifth are Catholics. The statistics
for the annexed diocese of Kamenetz (1909) are:
Catholics, 317,235 (Orthodox, 2,359,630); secular
priests. 111, regulars, 3; parish churches^ 96. In the
whole of the three united dioceses the religious orders
have been killed off by the simple process of not allow-
ing any new candidates to enter, while the secular
priesthood thrives with extreme difficulty because
only natives and Russian subjects are permitted to
enter the seminary or to take charge of parishes.
Catholic schools and charitable institutions are prac-
tically non-existent, owing to the restrictions of the
Russian authorities.
RoHRBACHER, Htstotre Univeraelle de VEglxM (I^ons, 1872),
XI, XII; Peless, QeaehidOe der Union, I (Vienna, 1878);
ToLflToi, Romaniam in Rtuaia (London, 1874). very anti-Catb-
olic; Pravo^vniya Encyclopedia, X (St. Peteraburg, 1909);
Lescceur, UBgliw Catholiqtte et le Gouvemement Ruaw (Para,
1903); Urban. SUUyaka katolicytmu v> panatwie romvAim
(Krakow, 1906); Battanoier, Annuaire PonUfieaU (Paris,
1®10). Andrew J. Shifman.
Luxemburg, the small renmant of the old duchv of
this name and since 11 May, 1867, an independent
neutral grand duchy, comprising 998 so. miles of
territory, lying principally between 49* 27' and
5(y 12' N. lat., and 5<> 45' and 6*» 32' E. long. It is
bounded by Belgium on the west, Prussia on the east,
Lorraine and (for a short distance) France on the south.
It is well wooded, having over 190 sq. miles of forest,
and well watered (Mosefle, Sure, Our, and Alzett, the
first two being navigable to a greater or less extent);
it is situated at an elevation of about 1000 feet above
the sea level, is mountainous and possesses a temper-
ate healthy climate. The arable lands, including al-
most half the country, vield abundant crops of grain,
and splendid pastures feed niuncrous herds of cattle
and horses. The vine produces annuallv more than
1,300,000 gallons of wine and the fruit harvest is no
less generous. There is an inexhaustible supply of fine
building-stone. Especially important are the exten-
sive beds of excellent iron ore (10,000 acres), which are
extensively worked. Trades and industries flourish,
thanks to the fine network of roads and railways. The
population, which numbers about 250,000 souls, is
almost entirely of Germanic origin and a dialect is
in use which sugjgesta the German of the Palatinate.
In one or two oustricts onlv WaUoon is spoken. In
administration and justice, French predominates. In
the churches and schools, sermons and instructions
are given in High German.
Amiost all of Luxemburg is Catholic. Only in
the capital citv and in the industrial centres (Esoh,
Dudehngen, uififerdingen, Rodingen, Rimmelingen)
there are Protestant communities whose entire mem-
bership scarcely numbers 3000. Nevertheless they
enjoy the same rights as the hundred-times more
numerous native inhabitants. Of Jews there are
only about 1200, but their number is increasing. The
Catholics have had a bishop of their ovm to preside
over them since 1870 (officially recognized in 1873).
Orif^inall^^ Luxemburg belonged to various sees
(Tner, Li^ge, Metz, Kieims, Verdun, (IJologne), from
1795 to 1801 it belonged to Mctz, then to Namur.
From 1840-70 it was a vicariate Apostolic; in that
year it was raised to the dignity of a bishopric, the first
bishop being Nicholas Adames. Since 1883 his suc-
cessor Joseph Koppes has been assisted by a chapter of
nine dignitaries (cathedral provost and eight canons)
in the administration of the diocese. The former
Jesuit church of Our Blessed Lady in the city of
Luxemburg is the present cathedral. Parochial duties
are performed by 260 priests with 2(X) additional cha^^
laina asaisted by regulac cUt^ ^ ^s&^c^s&^i ^^^t^^ssc^^.
LUXXUBUBO
The diocese bIso poBsesseH several institutions for
the sick and for educational purposes, and for those
preparing to enter the priesthood there is a semi-
nary in the capital. For higher education there
is in the same city a flourishing athenteum in which
the more advanced classes give the usual univer-
sity instruction; o'mnasia and similar institutions
enst in Diekirch, Echtemach, et«. Common school
education haa been oblieatory since 1881. The
schools (700, with 32,000 children) are non-sectarian
and priests are allowed merely to give religious in-
struction. Children may begin their secondary educa-
tion only at the age of twelve years. The line which
in most states divides the educated from the non-
educated has been in this way bridged over, and social
distinctions arc less marked in Luxembui^ than else-
where. Of Catholic organisations we will mention
here only the Bonifatius-Verein, which since its es-
tablishment in 1850 has collected 200,000 marks
which has been almost entirely handed over to Ger-
man mission stations. The riEhts of the Church and
Hut people have been upheld (since 1847) by the
rolendidly conducted journal "Luxemburger Wort "■.
JUlong Uie lesser newspapers the " Hoselseitung,"
which appears in Grevenmacher, has a large circula-
tion. The editors of the well-known periodicals
"Btimmen aus Maria Lasch" and "Die Katholischen
Uissionen" (Fathers Frick and Huonder, S.J.) direct
them from Luxemburg.
The grand duchy is a constitutional monarchy, the
eovereiRntv being vested in the House of Nassau, the
eo-callcd Walramic line, according to the law of
primogeniture. As the present grand duke, William,
baa no son by his marriage with Maria Anna of Bra-
gansa, the crown will re\-ert on his death {according to
the law of 1907) to his eldest daughter, who likelier
sisters belongs to the Catholic Church. The parlia-
ment consists of 51 members elected for six years,
Ulrt of which is chosen every three years. The
Government consists of a president (minister) and
three directors general, and is responsible to theCham-
ber, but submits bills only after obtaining the opin-
ions of fifteen councillors of state, nan^ by the
LUXUCBUBQ
muneB. Justice is administered by a supreme court,
two circuit courts and a criminal court in every canton.
The armed force (one company of volunteers, one com-
pany of gendarmes) is concerned merely with the mun-
t«nance of order. The financial system (modelled on
the French both as to the coins and the weights and
measures) is in flourishing condition. The national
debt is small. Receipts and expenditures balance, bo
that there is no lack of means for promotion of culture.
The national tnlours are red, white, and blue. There
are several orders, the most widely distributed being
theOrderoftheCrownofOak(6classes,2medals). The
capital of the grand duchy, ajso tslled LuxembuK, is
very ancient, and was formerly stronrly fortified, but
is now dismantled, and beautifully laid out. It is rich
in fine ecclesiastical and secular buildings (churches,
castles, government buildings, etc.), as well as in
scientific institutions and industrial pluitfl. It has
over 25,000 inhabitants. Among the other towns
that of Echtemach is interesting for its primitive
basilica, which contains the tomb of the Frisian
apostle, St. Willibrord. The procession that takes
place annually is luiioue and is the last of the
Springing processions , the origin of which seems
doubtful.
The first written account of this country and people
is found in the fifth book of Cs^sar's "Commentariide
Bello Gallico". On the Lower Moselle and its tribu-
taries dwelt at that time (53 b. c.) the powerful race of
the Treviri, who, in alliance with the people under
their protection (for example the Eburones under
Ambiorix), at firat gave the Romans great trouble,' but
tbev were soon compelled to yield to superior numberv
andgraduallyattainedtbehighestciviluation. Under
Emperor Constantine (323-337) Trier (Augusta Tn-
virorum) became the capital of the province Belgica
prima, and later the residence <rf the prefects of Gaul.
The Christian Faith was introduced at a very early
period. Since 316 the town was the see of a Dishop.
As more than half ai the subsequent Duchy of Lor-
reine belonged for centuries to the Diocese of Trier, it
is a logical conclusion that the Christianization of the
Ardennes proceeded principally from there. During
the Germanic migration the north-eastern provinces
<rf the Roman Empire suffered greatly. Devastated
and depopulated, they were occupied by the victori-
ous Franks. In the division of Charlemagne's em-
pire (843) the provinces in question fell to the share
of the Emperor Lothair. In the middle of the
tenth century (963?) the feudal lord, Siegfried, who
held rich possessions in the Forest of Ardennes,
acquired the Castcllum Lticihni (supposed to have
been built by the Romans) with tne lands in its
vicinity, and styled himself Graf von LUtselburg.
From the mamage of this pe&i and good man de-
scended Empress Saint Cumgunde, wife f^ Henry II,
the Saint.
The last of Siegfried's male descendants, Conrad II,
died alwut 1126. His dominions passed first to the
counts of Namur and subsequently to Ermesinde, who
reined from II96 to 1247. She was especially noted
for the impulse she gave to religious life by the foun-
dation of monasteries. Her son and successor, Henry
V (1247-81), showed the influence of his noble mother.
He took part in Saint Louis's crusade against Tunis.
His successOT, Henry VI, remained until nearly 1288
at war near Woringen. His wife, Beatrice, had borne
him two sons, both of whc»n attained the highest
honours and excellence: Baldwin, afterwards Arch-
bishop of Trier, and Henry, who obtained the Roman
imperial crown as Henry VII (1309). The advance-
ment of the reigning tamily brou^t no advantage to
the country, as the counts wandered farther and
farther from home, and concerned themselves only
with the affaits of tha Empire or the Kingdom of Bo-
LUXXXriL
467
LUZEUIL
hernia. They endeavoured to compensate for this in
a measure by raising Luxemburg to a duchy, but could
not prevent part of it from crumbling away and the
whofe (1444) falling to Burgimdy by conquest. From
the House of Valois, which became extinct on the
death of Charles the Bold, in 1477, the country passed
to Austria, and was subject to the Spanish Habsburgs
(155^1714); then to the German Habsburgs (1714-
95), and finally to the French (until 1814). The last
rule was attended with pernicious results, e^secially as
regards religion and morals, the brutalities of the
French to the Chmt;h and her servants left sad
memories. Even the worship of the goddess of rea-
s(Hi prevailed for a time in place of the Catholic re-
ligion.
After the overthrow of Napoleon, better times be-
gan for Luxemburg. The Congress of Vienna decided
that as an appendage of the newly created Kingdom of
the Netherlands with the rank of grand duchy^ it should
become a part of the German Confederation. The
Belgian revolution of 1830 soon exercised a momen-
tous influence on the territorial stability of the country.
The entire western (Walloon) part (larger in extent,
but more sparsely populated and less fertile than the
remainder) was separated from the German Confeder-
ation and annexed to the new Belgian Kin^om. The
King of Holland established a regency m the part
which remained to him (only under personal union)
and in 1842 as Lord of Luxemburg joined the German
Zollverein, Until 1866 the country enjoyed quiet aiid
increasing prosperity. The garrisoning of the city
and castle of Luxemburg by Prussian &ooi>8 for the
first time introduced Protestants into the grand
duchy. After the Prussian victories in Bohemia
(1866) and the foundation of the North German Con-
federation, Luxemburg was drawn into the political
whirlpool. Napoleon III thought of annexing the
little country and the King of Holland declared him-
self ready to discuss the matter. Even Bismarck
favoured the plan. But when the German nation de-
clared unanimously against it, and the danger of a
Franco-German war became imminent, i& great
powers interfered and regulated the "LuxembuiK
Question" at a conference assembled in London, which
decreed that the fortress of Luxemburg should be
abandoned and dismantled and the ** country declared
neutral and under the protection of Europe ". Lux-
emburg, however, remained a member of the German
Zollverein. On the death of William III of Holland,
Luxemburg passed, as the result of a family agree-
ment made by the two Nassovian houses in 1783, to
the Nassau Walram branch. The old Duke of Nas-
sau, Adolf, who had l)ecn deposed in 1866 by Prussia,
assume<l the regency on 23 iNovember, 1890, as grand
duke. It has l)een settled in detail that in case his
son and successor leaves no male heir, the crown will
descend to the eldest daughter.
PiKKNNB, Bibliooraphie de VhiM. de Bdgimte . . . ju^fli*tn
I8S0 (Ghent, 1902) ; Moliniek, Lea source* de VhisUnre de France
(Paris, 1901 aqq.); 8oh6tteh, Geach. dea Ltixemburger Landea
(Luxemburg, 1882); Glaxsknkk, Le orand-duchi de Lwcetn-
quantenoAre _
1892); VAN nuK Eltz, Aua Luxemburga V ergangenheit und
(iegenwaH (Trior, 1891); Himly, Hiat. de La Jummiion territoriale,
dea ekUa de V Europe cerUrale (Paris, 1894); Lavishk and Ram-
baud, Hiatoire ginertUe, X (Paris. 189S), 334, 367; Klrin-
CLAUSK, Hiatoire de Bourifogne (Paris, 1909); Kuppcrt, Lea Utia
et reglementa aur Vorganiaation polUiguet jttdiciaire tt {Mdminia-
Iraiive du Grand-Duchii de Luxembottrg (LuxemburR, 1885);
Bertholet, HiM. eccl'8. et civile du duchf dt L. (Luxembuig,
1741-3); Peters in Kirchenlex., s. v.; HKBiiE.NB-KoHLSCHiiiiyr,
Protest. TaachenhucJi (Leipsig, 1905); Makciial, La ttculjuture
et lea chefa^ctuvre de Vorfi-vrerie belgea (Bmsoels, 1895); Beis-
8KL, Geach. der Marienveraehrung in Deutachland wdhrtnd dea
MiUelaltera (Freiburg. 1909); Kefter, Kath. Lit. Kal. CEmea,
1910); Ders. Handhuch der kath, Preaae (EBsen, 1910): Klkff-
NER-WoKER, Der Bonifaiiu'*verein (Paden>om, 1899): Eyschbn,
Staatarecht dea Groaaherxogthuma 1*. in Handhuch dea i'§. RediU
(Freiburg. 1890). ^
Plus WlTXMAim..
Luzeuil, Abbey of, situated in the Department
of Haute-8a6ne in Franche-Comt<5, in the Diocese of
Besan^on. It was founded in 585 by the great Irish
monk, St. Columbanus, on the ruins of the Gallo-
Roman castle of Luxovium, about eight miles from
Aunigray. It was dedicated to St. Peter and soon be-
came the most important and flourishing monastery
in Gaul. The community was so large, that choir
followed choir in the chanting of the Office, and here
for the first time was heard the laus perennis, or un-
ceasing psalmody, which went on day and night.
Whether St. Columbanus gave this monaster}r and
others dependent on it an oral or a written rule is un-
certain. We know it to have been borrowed mostly
from that observed in the great Irish monasteries.
But for many reasons this rule was not destined to
prevail for long. St. Columbanus had all the force
and impetuosity of the ardent Irish temperament,
great powers of physical endurance, intellectual and
moral strength. He seems to have lacked the discre-
tion of St. Benedict. His rule, moreover, did not leg-
islate concerning the abbot's election, his relations
with his monks, and the appointment of monastic
officials with delegated power. For long the two rules
were observed together, St. Benedict's supplying what
was lacking in the other, but by the end of the eighth
century the rule of St. Columbanus had given way to
what had then become the great monastic code of the
West. Driven into exile by King Thierry and his
grandmother Queen Brunehaut, St. Columbanus was
succeeded as abbot by St. Eustace whom he had placed
oyer the schools oi Luxeuil. During the abbacy of
St. Eustace and that of his successor St. Waldebert,
these schools grew to great fame. There came to
them many of the young nobles of Gaul, and youths
from such cities as Autun, Strasburg, and Lyons.
They sent forth many who l^ec^me great bishops in
Gaul and other parts of Europe, and to Luxeuil is
largely due the conversion and renewal of the Bur-
gundian empire. It would be difficult to give an ade-
2uate account of the monastic colonization for which
lUxeuU was responsible. Among its affiliations were
such great houses as Bobbio, between Milan and
Genoa, of which St. Columbanus himself became ab-
bot, and the monasteries of Saint- Val^ry and Remire-
mont. To Luxeuil came such monks as Conon, Ab-
bot of L^rins, before setting about the reform of his
somewhat degenerated monks, and St. Wandrille and
St. Philibert who founded respectively the Abbeys of
Fontenelle and Jumi^ges in Normandy, and s|)ent years
in studying the rule observed in monasteries which
derived their origin from Luxeuil.
In 731 the Vandals in their destructive career of con-
quest through western Gaul, took possession of Luxeuil
and massacred most of the community. The few
survivors rebuilt the abbey, and later, under the
government oi the eighteenth abbot, St. Ansegisus, it
appeared as if it were about to recover its former great-
ness and prosperity. He received the abbey from
Louis le D^bonnaire, restored the church and monastic
buildings, and reformed discipline. Many were the
privile^s and exemptions accorded by popes and
sovereigns of France, but as time went on, it had also
to contend with much tribulation and misfortune.
Such were tlie incursions of the Normans and other
savage hordes, which were accompanied by the usual
pillage and destruction. But it was not till the fif-
teenth century that the worst evil of all came, namely
the institution of commendatory Abbots of Luxeml
and the sure and swift decline of monastic discipline
consequent thereon. But this state of things came to
an end in 1634. The commendatory' abbots ceased,
and Luxeuil was joined to the reformed congre^tioQ
of Saint - Vamie . From the report of the " Commission
des R^gulicrs", drawn up in 1768, the community ap-
pears to have been numerous and flourishing, and
discipUne well kept. At the Ftwwsfe. ^^iN^i«s&i«s5>.'"^3fc
LDXOB
LTIKIATI
mooks were dispersed ; but the abbey ohureh, built in held it until the coming of Pompey to Judea (I HmL,
the purest French Gothic of the fourteenth eentuir, xi, 34, 67; Joeephua, "Antiquities", Xlv, x, 6).
was not destroyed; neither were the cloister* and eon- Julius CaeArin 48 b. c. gave Lydda to the Jews, but
ventual buildings. Until the passing of the recent Casaius in 44 sold the inhabitants, who two years later
laws against the Church in France these building were set at liberty by Antony (Joeephus, "Jewiah
were being used as a grand s^truiire for the Diocese of War", I, xi, 2; " Antii^uities", XIV, lii, 2-6).- The
Besan90n. They are now either empty or turned to city also experienced civil ware and the revolt of the
some secular use. The church itself haa fi" ' — ' ' .. ., -n. ..
used as the parish church of Luxeuil.
Gallia ChriHiatia XV. ISeO: Besbe. Let Jtf «
FrWKc (Psni, 1B06I: Lbcistse. Abbauu n
IS for long been Jews against the Romans in the first century of our
1 und KoBBmoatioiiBn, I (Ptdt , —
T, Quid Luxovienta monachi dudpjdi S. Coium^n
ngulan monatUriorvm contuUTiiU (Faris, ISOSi.
Urbak Butlis.
LnzoT. See Thebes, Diocese ow.
Lwow. See Lsubbrg, Diocese of.
I^copoUs, a titular »
of Aiitinoe. As Siout o
in Egyptian history.
After &o fall of the
afarth dynasty, its
princes, freed from
the supremacy of
Memphis, bore ol-
"e Christians in this locality from the first, and St.
Peter, having come to visit them, there cured the
paralytic Eneas (Acts, ix, 32-6). The earliest known
bishop is Aetius, a friend of Arius; the episcopal title
of Lydda has existed since that time in the Greek
Patriarchate of Jerusalem. In December, 415, acoun-
cil was held here which absolved the heretic Pelagiua,
at the same tinie condemning his errors. Lydda has
c in Thebais Prima, suffragan been sumamed Georgiopolis m honour of the martyr
Siaout it played a minor r61e St. George, who is said to have been a native of
1^^,^ this town. The pil-
\V^^ ^im TheodoaiuB is
ll^.ll the 6rBt to mention
(about 630) the tomb
of the martyr. A
magnificent church,
erected above this
tomb, was rebuilt ^
the Crusaders, and
partly restored in
modem times by the
Greeks, to whom the
sanctuary belongs.
On the arrival of toe
Crusadetfi in 1099
Lydda became the
seat of a Latin see,
many of whose titu-
lars are known. At
present the city con-
tains 6800 inhabi-
tants, of whom 4800
arc Mussulmans, 2000 -
schismatic Greeks.
and a few Protes-
tants. The CathoUcs
have a parish of 2S0
faithful in the neigh-
bouring town of
ItamlA.
cleopolis or Thebes.
The principal object
of worship was the
jackal Apouaitou,
whence the Greek
Lycopolis, or city of
tiie wolf. It subse-
quently became the
oapital of the Prinei-
piuity of Terebinthos,
and mter of the nome
of that name. Among
the ancient bishops
of Lycopolis (Le-
quien, " Cniens Chris-
tianus". II, 697)
were Alexander, au-
thor of a treatise
against the Mani-
C^ans; Heletius,
author of the (Egyp-
tian) Meletian schism, -
and opponent of Peter of Alexandria; Volusianus,
who attended the Council of Nictea in 325, and others.
It is now the see of a Coptic schismatic bishop.
TTieodosius the Great threatened to destroy the
town after a fratricidal war, and it was savef* — '"
by the intervention of St. John of Lycopoli., . ._
of its most celebrated citizens. Flotinus, the third-
century neo-Platomc philosopher, was bom at Siout.
Under the Arabs the town was very prosperous,
became the capital of Said, and the rendezvous
of caravans for Darfur. It also possessed a flour-
ishing slave market. To-day it is the capital of
DiKTiplion dc la Patatin
lucu lu uraiiu. uuc — , OewA-dM ;11(1 Fottu, I audi
,d it was save/ only «* <*« J" iK«* »■ '■
_.^: II (1901), 196;
r Judie, I. 323-34;
, panm; Vioooaocv,
S. VAILBfc.
Lydgate, John, b. at Lydgato, Suffolk, about 1370;
d. probably about 1450. He entered the Benedictine
abbey at Bury when fifteen and may have lieen edu-
cated! earlier at the school of the Benedictine monks
^ _... _ __ __^ there and have been afterwards at the Benedictine
province, numbers 40,000 inhabitants, a tew trf whom house of studies at Oxford. It is possible, as Bale
are Catholics, and is chie9y noted for
Arabian cemetery, and its ancient necropolis.
AutuNLiTi.Lagiotpiipliitde I'Eouple h V(poa\u cople <P«ria,
1893), 462-3: JotHMB, L'EavpIt (Faru), 422-6.
8. VAiMfe.
I^dda, a titular see of Paleetina Prima in the
Patriarchate of Jerusalem. The town was formariy
called Lod, and was founded by Samad of the tribe *
Benjamin (I Par., viii, 12). Some of ' " ' ' '
were taken in captivity to Babylon, an
rotumed later (I Esd- " ""'"-■
asserts, that he studied at both Oxford and Cambridge,
and it is fairly certain that he travelled in FraDce,and
perhapsinltaiy. He was ordained priest in 1397. Bale
(Soriptonim Summarium) says he opened a school
for sons of the oobility probably in the monastery of
Bury. His verses seem to have been much in request
by noble lords and ladies, and having been court poet
ha wrote a ballad for the coronation of Henry VI.
For eleven years (1423-1434) he was prior of Hatfield
inhabitants Broadoak, but is said not to have busied himself much
of them with his duties there. He then returned to Bury. At
rewards for his poetry
About the middle of the second century b. c, the city some land and a pension. Many of these details of his
— -lagjvenbytbekingsofSyriatotbeludiabeee.wbo cai^eer can only be vaguely asserted, but his poetic
LYnia
469
LYnm
work is not vague. It is certain that he was a learned
and industrious poet who wrote much verse on varied
subject-matter. His poetry, however, though inter-
esting from other points of view than the poetical,
never rises much above mediocrity. A blight seemed
at that period to have fallen upon poetry in England,
though m Scotland the Chaucerian tradition was fol-
low^ still with dignity and force. The writings of
Lydffate are very numerous. Ritson, in his "Biblio-
graphica Poetica", numbers 251 poems, some of them
of enormous length, such as the Troy Book of 30,000
lines. It is fairly certain, too, that much of what he
wrote has been lost. A eood deal of his existing work
is still in MS. He is said to have written one piece of
prose — an account of Csesar's wars and death. Most
modem critics agree as to the general mediocrity of his
work, but Lydgate has not wanted admirers in the
past such as Chatterton, who imitated him, and Gray,
who was impressed by the carefulness of his phrase-
ology and the smootnness of his verse. Among his
poetical compositions may be mentioned: —
" Falls or Princes," " Troy Book ", " Story of
Thebes", narrative poems; "The Life of Our Lady"
and "The Dance of Death", devotionalpoems; "The
Temple of Glass", and imitations of Cnauccr. The
well-Kiiown poem of " London Lackpenny ", which has
been for long reckoned as Lydgate's, is now almost
certainlv proved not to be by him.
Lee in^J^tc*. Nat. Biog. 0. v. (London, 1909); Schick., Prefitee
to the Temple ofGlaea in Eaxiy English Text Soc. Series (Lon-
don, 19 — ); Mac^'katken. The Lydgate Canon m Philolooieal
Soe. Traneaeliona (Ix>ndon, 1908); Saintsbury in Cambridge
Hid, Eng. LU., voL II, art. I^ydgate (Cambridse. 1908.)
K. M7 Warren.
Lying, as defined by St. Thomas Aquinas, is a
statement at variance with the mind. This definition
is more accurate than most others which are current.
Thus a recent authority defines a lie as a false state-
ment made with the intention of deceiving. But it is
possible to lie without making a false statement and
without any intention of decei\'in^. For if a man
makes a statement which he thinks is false, but which
in reality is true he certainly lies inasmuch as he in«
tends to say what is false, and although a well-known
liar may have no intention of deceiving others — for he
knows that no one believes a word he says — yet if he
speaks at variance with his mind he does not cease
to He. FoUowing St. Augustine and St. Thomas,
CathoUc divines and ethical writers commonlv make
a distinction between (1) injurious, or hurtful, (2)
officious, and (3) jocose lies. Jocose lies are told for
the purpose of affording amusement. Of course what
is said merely and obviously in joke cannot be a lie:
in order to have any malice in it, what is said must be
naturaUy capable of deceiving others and must be said
with the intention of saying what is false. An offi-
cious, or w^hite, lie is such that it does nobody any in-
jury: it is a lie of excuse, or a lie told to benefit
somebody. An in j urious lie is one which does harm.
It has always been admitted that the (juestion of
lying creates great difficulties for the morabst. From
the dawn of ethical speculation there have been two
different opinions on the question as to whether lying
is ever permissible Aristotle, in his *' Ethics ", seems
to hold that it is never allowable to tell a lie, while
Plato, in his '* Republic *\ is more accommodating; he
allows doctors and statesmen to lie occasionally for the
good of their patients and for the common weaL
Modem philosophers are divided in the same way.
Kant allowed a lie under no circumstance. Paulw^
and most modem non-Catholic writers admit the law-
fulness of the lie of necessity. Lideed the pragmatic
tendency of the day, which denies that there is such a
thing as absolute truth, and measures the mondity of
actions by their effect on society and on the individual,
would seem to open wide the gates to all but injurious
Ues. But even on the ground of pragmatism it is well
for us to bear in mind that white lies are apt to prepare
the way for others of a darker hue. Tnere is some
difference of opinion among the Fathers of the Chris-
tian Church. Oripen quotes Plato and approves of
his doctrine on this point (Stromata, VI). He says
that a man who is under the necessity of lying should
diligentlv consider the matter so as not to exceed.
He shoufd gulp the lie as a sick man does his medicine.
He should be guided by the example of Judith, Esther,
and Jacob. If he exceed, he will oe judged the enemy
of Him who said, " I am the Truth ". St. John Chry-
sostom held that it is lawful to deceive others for their
benefit, and Cassian taught that we may sometimes lie
as we take medicine, driven to it by sheer necessity.
St. Augustine, however, took the opposite side, and
wrote two short treatises to prove that it is never law-
ful to tell a lie. His doctrine on this point has been
generally followed in the Western Church, and it has
been defended as the common opinion by the School-
men, and by modem divines. It rests in the first
pku^ on Holy Scripture. In places almost innumer-
able Holy Scripture seems to condemn lying as abso-
lutely and unreservedly as it condemns murder and
fornication. Innocent III gives expression in one of
his decretals to this interpretation, when he says that
Holy Scripture forbids us to lie even to save a man's
life. If, then, we allow the lie of necessity, there
seems to be no reason from the theological point of
view for not allowing occasional murder and fornica-
tion when these crimes would procure great temporal
advantage; the absolute character of the moral law
will be undermined, it will be reduced to a matter of
mere expediency. The chief argument from reason
which St. Thomas and other theologians have used to
Erove their doctrine is drawn from the nature of truth,
lying is opposed to the virtue of truth or veracity.
Truth consists in a correspondence between the thing
signified and the signification of it. Man has the
power as a reasonable and social being of manifesting
nis thoughts to his fellow-men. Right order demands
that in doing this he should be truthful. If the ex-
ternal manifestation is at variance with the inward
thought, the result is a want of right order, a mon-
strosity in nature, a machine which is out of gear,
whose parts do not work together liarmoniously. As
we are dealing with something which belongs to the
moral order and with virtue, the want of right order,
which is of the essence of a lie, has a special moral turpi-
tude of its own. There is precisely the same malice in
hypocrisy, and in this vice we see the moral turpitude
more dearly. A hsrpocrite pretends to have a good
quality which he knows that he does not possess.
There is the same want of correspondence between the
mind and the external expression of it that constitutes
the essence of a lie. The turpitude and malice of hy-
pocrisy are obvious to everyoody. If it is more diffi-
cult to realise the malice of a lie, the partial reason, at
least, may be because we are more familiar with it*
Truth is primarily a self-regarding virtue: it is some-
thing which man owes to his own rational nature, and
no one who has any regard for his own dignity and
self-respect will be guilty of the turpitude of a he. As
the hypocrite is justly detested and despised, so should
the liar be. As no honest man would consent to play
the hypocrite, so no honest man will ever be guilty
of a he.
The absolute malice of l^ing is also shown from the
evil consequences which it has for society. These are
evident enough in lies which injuriously affect the
rights and reputations of others. But mutual confi-
dence, intercourse, and friendship, which are of suoh
great importance lor society, suner much even from
officious and jocose lying. In this, as in other monl
questions, in order to see clearly the moral quality of
an action we must consider what the effect would be if
the action in question were regarded as perfectly ri^t
and were commonly practised. Applying tibi& iMdw^
LTINO
470
LYINO
we can see what mistrust, suspicion, and utter want of
confidence in others would be the result of promiscuous
lying, even in those cases where positive mjury is not
inflicted. Moreover, when a habit of untruthfulness
has been contracted, it is practicailv impossible to
restrict its vagaries to matters which are harmless:
interest and habit alike inevitably lead to the violation
of truth to the detriment of others. And so it would
seem that, although injury to others was excluded
from officious and jocose hes by definition, yet in the
concrete there is no sort of lie which is not injurious to
somebody. But if the common teaching of Catholic
theology on this point be admitted, and we grant that
lying is always wrong, it follows that we are never
justified in telling a lie, for we may not do evil that
good may come: the end does not justify the means.
What means, then, have we for protecting secrets and
defending ourselves from the impertinent prying of the
inquisitive? What are we to say when a dying man
asks a question, and we know that if we tell him the
truth it will kill him outright? We must say some-
thing, if his life is to be preserved: he would at once
detect the meaning of silence on our part. The great
difficulty of the question of lying consists in findmg a
satisfactory answer to such questions as these.
St. Augustine held that tne naked truth must be
told whatever the consequences may be. He directs
that in difficult cases silence should be observed if
possible. If silence would be equivalent to giving a
sick man unwelcome news that would kill him. it is
better, he says, that the body of the sick man snould
perish rather than the soul of the liar. Besides this
one, he puts another case which became classical in the
schools. If a man is hid in your house, and his life is
sought bv murderers, and they come and ask you
whether he is in the house, you may say that you
know where he is, but will not tell: you may not deny
that he is there. The Scholastics, while accepting the
teaching of St. Augustine on the absolute and intrinsic
malice of a lie, modified his teaching on the point which
we are discussing. It is interesting to read what St.
Raymund of Pennafort wrote on the subject in his
"Summa", published before the middle of the thir-
teenth century. He says that most doctors agree
with St. Augustine, but that others say that one should
tell a lie in such cases. Then he gives his own opinion,
speaking with hesitation and under correction. The
owner of the house where the man lies concealed, on
being asked whether he is there, should as far as pos-
sible say nothing. If silence would be equivalent to
betrayal of the secret, then he should turn the ques-
tion aside by asking another — How should I know? —
or something of that sort. Or, says St. Raymund^ he
may make use of an expression with a double meanmg,
an equivocation, such as: Non est hie, id est, Non
comedit hie — or something like that. An infinite num-
ber of examples induced him to permit such equivoca-
tions, he says. Jacob, Esau, Abraham, Jehu, and the
Archangel Raphael made use of them. Or, he adds,
you may say sunply that the owner of the house ought
to deny that the man is there, and, if his conscience
tells him that this is the proper answer to give, then
he will not go against his conscience, and so he will
not sin. Nor is this direction contrary to what Au-
gustine teaches, for if he gives that answer he will not
fie, for he will not speak against his mind (" Summa ",
Kb.I, "DeMendacio").
The gloss on the chapter, "Ne quis" (causa xxii,
q, 2) of the Decretum of Gratian, which reproduces the
common teacliing of the schools at the time, adopts
the opinion of St. Raymund, with the added reason
that it is allowable to deceive an enemy. Lest the
doctrine should be unduly extended to cases to which
it does not apply, the gloss warns the student that a
witness who is bound to speak the naked truth may
not use equivocation. When the doctrine of equivo-
cation had once been introduced into the schools it
was difficult to keep it within proper bounds. It had ,
been introduced in order to furnish a way of escape
from serious difficulties for those who held that it was
never allowed to tell a lie. The seal of confession and
other secrets had to be preserved, this was a means of
fulfilling those necessary duties without telling a lie.
Some, however, unduly stretched the doctrine. They
taught that a man did not tell a he who denied that he
had done something which in truth he had done, if he
meant that he had not done it in some other way, or
at some other time, than he had done it. A servant,
for example, who had broken a window in his master's
house, on being asked by his master whether he had
broken it, might without lying assert that he had not
done so, if he meant thereby that he had not broken
it last year, or with a hatchet. It has been reckoned
that as many as fifty authors taught this doctrine, and
among them were some of the greatest weight, whose
works are classical. There were of course many others
who rejected such equivocations, and who taught that
they were nothing but lies, as indeed they are. The
German Jesuit, Laymann, who died in the year 1625,
was of this number. He refuted the arguments on
which the false doctrine was based and conclusively
proved the contrary. His adversaries asserted that
such a statement was not a lie, inasmuch as it was not
at variance with the mind of the speaker. Laymann
saw no force in this argument; the man knew that he
had broken the window, and nevertheless he said he
had not done it; there was an evident contradiction
between his assertion and his thought. The words
used meant that he had not done it; there were no
external circumstances of any sort, no use or custom
which permitted of their being understood in any but
the obvious sense. They could only be understood in
that obvious sense, and tnat was their only true mean-
ing. As it was at variance with the knowledge of the
speaker, the statement was a lie. Laymann explains
tnat he did not wish to reject all mental reservations.
Sometimes a statement receives a social meaning
from use and custom, or from the special circumstances
in which a man is placed, or from the mere fact that he
holds a position of trust. When a man bids the ser-
vant say that he is not at home, common use enables
any man of sense to interpret the phrase correctly.
When a prisoner pleads " Not guilty '* in a court of
justice, aU concerned understand what is meant. When
a statesman, or a doctor, or a lawyer is asked imperti-
nent questions about what he cannot make known
without a breach of trust, he simply says, " I don't
know", and the assertion is true, it receives the special
meaning from the position of the speaker: " I have no
communicable knowledge on the point." The same
is true of anybody who has secrets to keep, and who is
unwarrantably questioned about them. Prudent men
only speak al>out what they should speak about, and
what they say should be understood with that reserva-
tion. Catholic writers call statements like the fore-
going mental reservations, and they qualify them as
wide mental reservations in order to distinguish them
from strict mental reservations. These latter are
equivocations whose true sense is determined solely by
the mind of the speaker, and by no external circum-
stance or common usage. They were condemned as
lies by the Holy See on 2 March, 1679. Since that
time they have oeen rejected as unlawful by all Cath-
olic writers. It should be observed that when a wide
mental reservation is employed the simple truth is
told, there is no statement at variance witn the mind.
For not merely the words actually used in a statement
mus^ be considered, when we desire to understand its
meaning, and to get at the true mind of the speaker.
Circumstances of place, time, person, and manner
form part of the statement ana external expression* of
the thought. The words, "I am not guilty", derive
the special meaning which they have in the mouth of a
prisoner on his trial from the circumstances in wliich
LYMOB 471 LYNDWOOD
he is placed. It is a true statement of fact whether in Owen Roe O'Neill. The date at which he became
reality he be guilty or not. This must be imderstood archdeacon of Tuam is uncertain. Driven from Gal-
of all mental restrictions which are lawful. The virtue way after the capture of the city by the Puritans in
of truth requires that, imless there is some special 1652, he lived the remainder of his life in exile in
reason to the contrary, one who speaks to another France. During these years he wrote a biography of
should speak frankly and openly, in such a way that his uncle Dr. Kuwan, Bishop of Killala, and a work
he will be understood by the person addressed. It is called "Alithonologia", givmg an account of the
not lawful to use mental reservations without good Anglo-Irish under Elizaoeth. But his greatest work
reason. According to the common teaching of St. is "Cambrensis Eversus", published in 1662. Writ-
Thomas and other divines, the hurtful lie is a mortal ten in vigorous Latin and characterized by great
sin, but merely officious and jocose lies are of their leamingand research, its declared objectwas to expose
own nature venial. the calumnies of Gerald Barry about Ireland, and
The doctrine which has been expounded above re- without doubt L3mch completely vindicates his coun-
produces the common and universally accepted teach- try "against the aspersions of her slanderer."
mg of the Catholic schools throughout the Middle , f^?"»J''«r»*»« ,Sf7fV«»,S^«v^^^ (Dublin, 1848); Wabb,
Ages until recent tunes. From the middle of the (Bd^i^lg^)!^^^* ^^®^^' H^"^» ^"'^ ^/ ^'^'^
eighteenth century onwards a few discordant voices * * E. A. D'Alton.
have been heard from time to time. Some of these, as
Van der Velden and a few French and Bel^an writers, Lyndwood, William, Bishop of St. David's and the
while admittmg that m general a lie is mtrinsically greatest of Enghsh canonists, b. about 1375; d. in
wrong, yet argued that there are exceptions to the 1446. He had a distinguished ecclesiastical career,
r^®*,*^®/*'^ .^V^^¥^^*"?^^^^"^^7^®^^^?*it®? being appointed "Official" of the Archbishop of
in self-defence it is lawful to tell a lie. Others wished Canterbury (i. e. his principal adviser and representar
to change the received definition of a he. A recent ti ve in matters of ecclesiastical law) in 1414, and Dean
writer m the Pans series, ''Science et Rehgion , wishes of the Arches in 1426, while holding at the same time
to add to the common definition some such words as several important benefices and prebends. In 1434 he
* made to one who has a nght to the truth". So that ^^g niade Archdeacon of Stow in the Diocese of Lin-
a false statement Imowingly made to one who has not coin, and in 1442, after an earnest recommendation
a nght to the truth will not be a he. This, however, from King Henry VI himself, he was promoted by the
seems to ignore the malice which a he has m itself, hke pope to the vacant See of St. David's. During these
hypocnsy, and to denve it solely from the social con- years many other matters besides the study of canon
sequence of lying. Most of these wnters who attack Ja^ had occupied Lyndwood's attention. He had been
the common opinion show that they have very imper- closely associated with Archbishop Henry Chichele in
fectly grasped its true meamng. At any rate they his proceedings against the Lollards. He had also
have made little or no impression on the common several times acted as the chosen representative of the
teaching of the Catholic schools. Enghsh clergy in their discussions with the Crown over
(S^ also Mental Reservation.) subsidies, but more especially he had repeatedly been
Summa (Rome, 1603): Latmann, ^heologia moralU (Munich sent abroad upon diplomatic missions-^, g., to FortU-
1634); Newman, Apologia, Appendix 8 (London, 1864); Wat- gal, France, the Netherlands, etc. — besides actmg as
FEi^ERT. Disaertatian awr u MeMonge (Brugw. iMMi); Slatm. the king^s proctor at the Council of Basle in 1433 and
A Manual of Moral Theoloffy, I (New York, 1908); and the ♦«!,;««« ^zLr^.^:^^^* ^««4. „« »,w.^4.:»4.^. :« Aw-on<^«%«*
moraliata genemlly. taking a promment part as negotiator m arranging
T. Slateb. political and commercial treaties Despite the fact
that so much of L3nidwood's energies were spent upon
Ljmch, John, historian, b. at Galway, Ireland, purely secular concerns nothing seems ever to have
1599; d. in France, 1673^ was the son of Alexander been said a^nst his moral or religious character. He
Lynch, who kept a classical school at Galway. In was buried m the crj'pt of St. Stephen's, Westminster,
such repute was this school held that there were no where his body was found in 1852, wrapped in a cere-
less than 12(X) students, nor were they confined to cloth and almost without signs of corruption.
Connaught alone but came from every province in Lyndwood, however, is chiefly remembered for his
Ireland. For a Catholic to keep a public school in great commentary upon the ecclesiastical decrees
those days was a serious offence, and when Ussher enacted in English provincial councils under the presi-
visited Galway in 16152 calling Lvnch before him he dency of the Archbishops of Canterbury. This elabo-
severely reprimanded him. compelled him to close his rate work, commonly known as the *'Provinciale'*,
school at once, and boimd him under heavy bail not follows the arrangement of the titles of the Decretals
to reopen it. Young Lvnch received his early educa- of Gregory IX in the "Corpus Juris ", and forms a com-
tion from his father and from him imbibed his love of plete gloss upon all that English l^islation witii
classical leamii^. Feeling a call to the priesthood which, in view of special needs and local conditions,
he left Galway for France, pursued his studies under it was found necessary here, as elsewhere, to supple-
the Jesuits there, in due time was ordained priest, and ment the common law (jus commune) of the Church,
returned to his native town in 1622. He established Lyndwood's gloss affords a faithful picture of the
a classical school, which like his father's was attended views accepted among the English clergy of his day
by many students. Penal legislation compelled hkn upon all sorts of subjects. In particular, the much
to exercise his ministry by stealth, and to say Mass vexed question of the attitude of the Ecdesia Anglir
in secret places and private houses. But after 1042 cana towards the jurisdiction claimed by the popes
the churches were ojien and he was free to say Mass there finds its complete solution. Prof. F. W. Maii-
in public, and exercise his ministry in the hght of land some years ago produced a profound sensation by
day. More of a scholar and of a student than of a appealing to Lyndwood against the pet historical fig-
politician. Lynch took no prominent part in the stirring ment of modem Anglicans, that the "Canon Law of
events of the next ten years. His opinions however Rome, though always regarded as of great authority
were well known. Like so many others of the Anslo- in England, was not held to be binding on the English
Irish, though he abhorred the penal laws against Iub ecclesiastical courts" (Ene. Hist. Rev., 1896, p. 446).
creed and had suffered from them, he was loyal to How successfully Maitland, armed with the irrefraga-
England. He therefore condemned the rebeluon of ble evidmce which Lyndwood supplies, has demol-
1641, viewed with no enthusiasm the Catholie Con- i^ed lliis legend, may be proved by a reference to one
federation, approved of the cessation of 1643 and of of the most authoritative legal works of recent date,
the peace of 1646 and 1648, and entirely disapproved vii., "The Laws of England" edited by Lord Chw-
of the pohcy of the nuncio and of tne oonouet of cellor Halsbury (vol. XI, 1910, p. 377). *'In. ig«ftr
LTOKS
472
LTOm
Reformation times '\ we there read, "no dignitary of
the Church, no archbishop, or bishop could repeal or
vary the Papal decrees"; and, after quoting Lynd-
wood's explicit statement to this effect, the account
continues: ''Much of the Canon Law set forth in
archiepiscopal constitutions is merely a repetition of
the Papal canons, and passed for the purpose of mak-
ing them better known in remote localities; part was
ttJ^a vires, and the rest consisted of local regulations
which were only valid in so far as they did not contra-
vene the 'jus commune', i. e. the Roman Canon
Law."
Lyndwood's great work was frequently reprinted in
the early years of the sixteenth century, but the best
edition is that produced at Oxford in 1679.
Rioo in Did. of Nat. Btog., a. v. Lyndwood; Mattland,
Roman Canon Law in the Church of England (London, 1898) ;
Arehctoloffia, XXXLV (London,) 406 sq.; Thurston in Am.
Cath. Q. (April. 1899), 120-141: Galante. L'Efficaeia del
Diritto Canonico in InghiUerra in Melanges Federico Ciccaglimu}
(Catania, 1909).
Herbert Thurston.
I^yonSy Archdiocese of (Lugdunensis), com-
prises the Departments of the Rh6ne (except the Can-
ton of Villeurbanne, which belongs to the Diocese of
Grenoble) and of the Loire. The Concordat of 1801
assigned as the boundaries of the Archdiocese of Lyons
the Departments of the Rh6ne, the Loire, and the Ain
and as suffra^ms the Dioceses of Mende, Grenoble, and
Chamb^iy. The Archbishop of Lyons was authorised
by Letters Apostolic of 29 November, 1801, to unite
with his title the titles of the suppressed metropolitan
Sees of Vienne and Embrun (see Grenoble; Gap).
In 1822 the Department of Ain was separated from the
/^"chdiocese of Lyons to form the Diocese of Belley;
the title of the suppressed church of Embrun was trans-
feired to the Archdiocese of Aix, and the Archdiocese
of Lyons and Vienne had henceforth as suffragans
Langres, Autun, Dijon, St. Claude, and Grenoble.
History, — It appears to have been proved by Mgr Du-
chesne, despite tne local traditions of many Churches,
that in all three parts of Gaul in the second century
there was but a single organized Church, that of Lyons.
The "Deacon of Vienne^', martyred at Lyons during
the persecution of 177, was probably a deacon instidled
at vienne by the ecclesiastical authority of Lyons.
The confluence of the Rhone and the Sa6ne, where
sixty Gallic tribes had erected the famous altar to
Rome and Augustus, was also the centre from which
C^stianity was gradually propagated throughout
Gaul. The presence at Lyons of numerous Asiastic
Christians and their almost daily communications
with the Orient were likely to arouse the susceptibili-
ties of the Gallo-Romans. A persecution arose under
Marcus Aurelius. Its victims at Lyons numbered
forty-eight, half of them of Greek origin, half Gallo-
Roman, among others St. Blandina (q. v.), and St.
Pothinus, first Bishop of Lyons, sent to Gaul by St.
Polycarp about the middle of the second century.
The legend according to which he was sent by St. Cle-
ment dates from the twelfth century and is without
foundation. The letter addressed to the Christians of
Asia and Phrygia in the name of the faithful of Vienne
and Lyons, and relating the persecution of 177, is con-
sidered by Ernest Renan as one of the most extraor-
dinary documents possessed by any literature; it is
the baptismal certificate of Christianity in France.
The successor of St. Pothinus was the illustrious St.
Irenaeus (q. v.), 177-202.
The discovery on the Hill of St. Sebastian of ruins
of a naumachia capable of being transformed into an
amphitheatre, andf of some fragments of inscriptions
app>arently belonging to an altar of Augustus, has led
several archseologiste to believe that the martyrs of
Lyons suffered death on this hill. Very ancient tra-
dition, however, represents the church of Ainay as
erected at the place of their martyrdom. The cr3rpt
of St. Pothinus, under the choir of the church of bt.
Nisier was destroyed in 1884. But there are still re-
vered at Lyons tne prison cell of St. Pothinus, where
Anne of Austria, Louis XIV, and Pius VII came to
pray, and the crypt of St. Irensus built at the end of
the fifth century by St. Patiens, which contains the
body of St. Irensus. There are numerous funerary
inscriptions of primitive Christianity in Lyons; the
earliest dates from the year 334. In the second and
third centuries the See of Lyons enjoyed great renown
throughout Gaul, witness the local legends of Besan-
5on (q. v.) and of several other cities relative to the
missionaries sent out by St. Irensus. Faustinus,
bishop in the second half of the third century, wi:pte
to St. Cyprian and Pope Stephen I, in 254, regarding
the Novatian tendencies of Marcian, Bishop of Aries.
But when Diocletian by the new provincial organi-
zation had taken away from Lyons its position as
metropolis of the three Gauls, the prestige of Lyons
diminished for a time.
^ At the end of the empire and during the Merovin-
fldan period several saints are coimted among the
Bishops of Lyons: St. Justus (374-381) who died in a
monastery in the Thebaid and was renowned for the
orthodoxy of his doctrine in the struggle against Arian-
ism (the church of the Machabees, whither his body
was brought, was as early as the fifth century a place
of pilgrimage imder the name of the collegiate church
of St. Justus), St. Alpinus and St. Martin (disciple
of St. Martin of Tours; end of fourth century); St.
Antiochus (400-410); St. Elpidius (410-422); St.
Sicarius (422-33); St. Eucherius (c. 433-50), a monk
of L^rins and the author of homilies, from whom
doubtless dates the foundation at Lyons of the "her-
mitages'' of which more will be said below; St.
Patiens (456-08) who successfully combated the fam-
ine and Arianism, and whom Sidonius ApoUinarus
praised in a poem; St. Lupioinus (491-94); St. Rusti-
cus (494-501); St. Stephanus (d. before 515), who
with St. Avitus of Vienne, convoked a council at
Lyons for the conversion of the Arians; St. Viven-
tiolus (515-523), who in 517 presided with St. Avitus
at the Council of Epaone; St. Lupus, a monk, after-
wards bishop (538-42), probably the first archbishop,
who when signing in 438 the Council of Orleans
added the title of *'metropolitanus"; St. Sardot or
Sacerdos (549-542), who presided in 549 at the Council
of Orleans, and who obtained from King Childebert
the foundation of the general hospital; St. Nicetius or
Nisier (552-73), who received from the pope the title
of patriarch, and whose tomb was honoured by mira-
cles. The prestige of St. Nicetius was lasting; his
successor St. Priscus (573-588) bore the title of patri-
arch, and brought the council of 585 to decide that
national synods should be convened every three years
at the instance of the patriarch and of the king; St.
JStherius (588-603), who was a correspondent of St.
Gregory the Great and who perhaps consecrated St.
Augustine, the Apostle of Encland; St. Aredius (603-
615); St. Annemundus or Cnamond (c. 650), friend
of St. Wilfrid, godfather of Clotaire III, put to death
by Ebroin together with his brother^ and patron of the
town of Saint-Chamond; St. Genesius or Genes (660-
679 or 680), Benedictine Abbot of Fontenelle, grand
almoner and minister of Queen Bathilde: St. Lam-
bertus (c. 680-690), also Abbot of Fontenelle.
At the end of the fifth century Lyons was the capital
of the Kingdom of Burgundy, out after 534 it passed
under the domination of the kings of France. Rav-
aged by the Saracens in 725, the city was restored
through thejiberality of Charlemagne who established
a rich library in the monastery of lie Barbe. In the
time of St. Patiens and the priest Constans (d. 488) the
school of Lyons was famous; Sidonius ApoUinaris
was educated there. The letter of Leidrade to
Charlemagne (807) shows the care taken by the em-
peror for the restoration of learning in Lyons. With
the aid of the deacon Florus he made the school so
LYONS
proBperoua that in the t«nth century „ .
went thither to atudy. Under Charlemsigne and
his immediate successois, the Bishops of Lyons, whose
ascendancy was attested bv the number of councils
over which tliey were called to preside, played an im-
portant theological part. Adoptionism had no more
active enemies than Leidrade (7QS-S14) and Ago-
bard (814-840). When Feliit of Urge! continued re-
bellious to the condemnations pronounced against
Adoptionism from 791-799 by the Councils of Ciutad,
Friuli, Ratisbon, Frankfort, and Rome, Charlems^e
conceived the idea of sending to Urgcl with Nebridius,
Bishop of Narbonne, and St. Benedict, abbot of the
monastery of Aniane, Archbishop Leidrade, a native
of Nuremberg and Charlemagne's libiarian. They
preached against Adoptionism in Spain, conducted
Felix in 799 to the Council of Aachen, where he seemed
to submit to the arguments of Alcujn, and then brought
him back to his diocese. But the submissjon of F^x
was not complete; Agobard, "Chorepiscopus" of Lyons,
convicted him anew of Adoptionism in a secret confer-
ence, and when Felix died in 815 there was found
among his papers a treatise in which he professed
Adoptionism. Then Agobard, who had became Arch'
bishop of Lyons in 814 after Leidrade'a retirement to
the monastery of St. M^dard of Soissons, composed a
long treatise which completed the ruin of that hereey.
J^^bard displayed great activity as a pastor and a
publicist in his opposition to the Jews and to various
superstitions. llis rooted hatred for all superstition
led him in his treatise on images into certain expres-
sions which savoured of Iconoclosm. The five his-
torical treatises which he wrot« in 833 to justify the
deposition of Louis the Pious, who had been his bene-
factor, are a stain on his life. Louis the Pious having
bwn re.otored to power, caused Agobard to be deposed
in 835 by the Covineii of Thionvillo, but three years
Inter gave him back his sec, in which he died in 840.
During the exile of Agobard the See of Lyons had berai
for a short time administered by Amalarius of Meti,
whom Ihp deacon Florua charged with heretical opin-
ions regarding the " triforme corpus Chri.itti ", and who
took part in the contro\'ersiea with Gottschalk on the
Hubject of predestination. Amolon (841-852) and St.
Bemy (852-75) continued the struggle against the hereey
of Gottschalk. St. Remy presided over the Council
of Valence, which condemned this heresy, and also
was engaged in strife with Hincm&r, From 879-1032
Lyons formed part of the Kingdom of Provence and
aftcrwanlsofthesecond Kingdom of Burgundy. When
Lyons situated on the left bank of the Safins became,
at least nominally, an imperial city, FinaJly Arch-
bishop Burchani, brother of Rudolph, claimed rights
of sovereignty over Lyons aa inherited from his
mother, Mathilde of France; in this way the govern-
ment of Lyons instead of being exercised by the dis-
tant emperor, became a matter of dispute between the
counts who claimed the inheritance and the successive
archbishops.
Lyons attracted the att«ntion of Cardinal Hilde-
brand, who held a council there in 1055 aeainst the
simoniacal bishops. In 1076, as Gregory VlL ho de-
posed Archbishop Humbert (1063-78) for simony.
Saint Gebuin (Jubinus), who succeeded numbert was
the confidant of Gregory VII and contributed to the
reform of the Church by the two councils of 1080 and
1082. at which were excommunicated Manasaea of
Reims, Fulk of Anjou, and the monks of Marmoutiers.
!! under the epiHCopat« of Saint Gebuin that
Tours, and Sens, which primacy was specially
firmed by Callistua II, despite the letter written to him
in irJ6 bv I.,ouls VI in favour of the church of Sens,
Aa far as it regarded the Province of Rtraen tUs letter
3: LTOHa
was later suppresaed by a decree of the king's council
in 1703, at the request of Colbert, Arclibishop of
Rouen. Hugh (1081-1100), the successor of St. Ge-
buin, the friend of St. Anselm, and for a while legate of
Gregory VII in France and Burgundy, hod diflerences
lat«ronwithVictorIli, who excommunicated him for
a time, also with Paschal II, The latter pope carae to
Lyons in 1106, consecrated the basilica oF Ainay, and
dedicated one of its altars in honour of the Immacu-
late Conception. The Feast of the Immaculate Con-
ception was solemnized at Lyons about 1 128, perhaps
at the instance of St. Anselm of Canterbury, and St.
Bernard wrote to the canons of Lyons to complain
that they should have instituted a feast without eon-
Tn Cathidbai, or Baint^i
suiting the pope. As soon as Thomas d Becket, Arch-
bishop of Canterbury, had been proclaimed Blessed
(1 173), his cult was instituted at Lyons. Lyonsof the
twelfth century thus haw a glorious place in the history
of Catholic liturgy and even of dogma, but the twelfth
century was also marked by the hereay of Peter Waldo
and the Waldenaea, the Poor Men of Lyons, who were
opposed by Jean de Bell^me (U81-1193), and by an
important change in the political situation of Vbe
archbishops.
In 1157 Frederick Barbaroasa confirmed the sov-
ereignty of the Archbishopsof Lyons; thenceforth there
was a lively contest between them and the counts. An
arbitration effected by the pope in 1107 had 110 result,
but by the treaty of 1173 Guy. Count of Forez, ceded
to the canons of the primatial church of St. John his
title of count of Lyons and his temporal autliority.
Then came the erowth of the Commune, more iiclated
in Lyons than m many other cities, but in 1193 the
archbishop bod to make some con ceiusion to the citizens.
The thirteenth century, was a period of conflict. Three
times, in 1207. 1369, and 1290, grave troubles brokeout
between the partisans of the archbishop who dwelt in
the chateau of Pierre Seiic, tho.sc of the count-canons,
who lived in a separate quarter near the cathednl,
and those of the townstollc. Gregory X attempted,
but without success, t« restore peace bv two Acts, 2
April, 1273, aud 11 Nov., 127-1. Ttekswe-'^-'^'^'**'
LYONS
474
LYONS
were always inclined to side with the commune; after
the siege of Lyons by Louis X (1310) the treaty of 10
April, 1312, definitively attached Lyons to the King-
dom of France, but, until the beginning of the fif teenm
century the Church of Lyons was allowed to coin its
own money.
If the thirteenth century had imperilled the politi-
cal sovereignty of the archbishops, it had on the other
hand made Lyons a kind of second Rome. Gregory
X was a former canon of Lyons, while Innocent V,
as Peter of Tarantaise, was Archbishop of Lyons from
1272 to 1273. The violence of the Hohenstai^en to-
wards the Holy See forced Innocent IV and Gregory
X to seek refuge at Lyons and to hold there two general
councils (see Lyons, Councils of). A free and inde-
pendent city of the Kingdom of France as well as of
the Holy Empire, located in a central position between
Italy, Spain, France, England, and Germany, Lyons
possessed in the thirteenth century important monas-
teries which naturally sheltered distingiiished guests
and their numerous followers. For several years
Innocent IV dwelt there with his court in the buildings
of the chapter of Saint Justus. Local tradition re-
lates that it was on seeing the red hat of the canons of
Lyons that the courtiers of Innocent IV conceived the
idea of obtaining from the Council of Lyons its decree
that the cardinals should henceforth wear red hats.
The sojourn of Innocent IV at Lyons was marked by
numerous works of public utility, to which the pope
gave vigorous encouragement. He granted indul-
gences to the faithful who should assist in the con-
struction of the bridge over the Rhdne, replacing that
destroyed about llOO by the passage of tne troops of
Richard Coeur de Lion on their way to the Crusade.
Tlie building of the churches of St. John and St.
Justus was pushed forward with activity; he sent dele-
gates even to England to solicit alms for this purpose
and he consecrated the hieh altar in both churches.
At Lyons were crowned Cfement V (1305) and John
XXII (1310); at Lyons in 1449 the antipoi)e Felix
V renounced' the tiara; there, too, was held in 1512,
without any definite conclusion, the last session
of tiie schismatical Council of Fisa against Julius
II. In 1560 the Calvinists took Lyons by sur-
prise, but the)r were driven out by Antoine d^bon,
Abbot of Savigny and later Archbishop of Ly^ons.
Again masters of Lyons in 1562 they were driven
thence by the Mar^cnaJ de Vieuville. At the command
of the famous Baron des Adrets they committed
numerous acts of violence in the region of Montbrison.
It was at Lyons that Henry IV, tne converted Cal-
vinist king, married Marie de Medicis (9 December,
1600).
The principal Archbishops of Lyons during the
modem perioa were: Guy III d'Auverene, Cardinal de
Bologne (1340-1342), who as a diplomat rendered
great service to the Holy See; Cardinal Jean de Lor-
raine (1537-1539); Hippolyte d'Este, Cardinal of
Ferrara (1539-1550), whom Francis I named protec-
tor of the crown of France at the court of Paul III, and
a patron of scholars; Cardinal Francois de Toumon
(1550-1562), who negotiated several times between
Francis I and Charles V, combated the Reformation
and founded the College de Toumon, which the
Jesuits later made one of the most celebrated educa-
tional establishments of the kingdom; Antoine d'Al-
bon (1562-1574), editor of Ruiinus and Ausonius;
Pierre d'Epinac (1573-1599), active auxiliary of the
League; Cardinal Alphonse Louis du Plessis de Riche-
lieu (1628-1653), brother of the minister of Louis XIII;
Cardinal de Tencin (1740-1758); Antoine de Mon-
tazet (1758-1788), a prelate of Jansenist tendencies,
whose liturgical works will be referred to later, and
who had piiblishcd for his seminary by the Oratorian
Joseph Valla, six volumes of " Institutiones theolo-
gicai ' known as **Th6ologie de Lyon", and spread
throughout Italy by Scipio Ricci until condemned by
the Index in 1792; Marbeuf (1788-1799), who died in
exile at Ltibeck in 1799 and whose vicar-general
Castillon was beheaded at Lyons in 1794; ^toine
Adrien Lamourette (1742-1794), deputy to the Con-
stitutional Assembly, who brought about by a curious
speech (7 July, 1792) an understanding between all
parties, to which was given the jesting name of ** Rai-
ser Lamourette", and who was constitutional Bishop
of Lyons from 27 March, 1791, to 11 January, 1794,
the date of his death on the scaffold. Among the arch-
Inshops subsequent to the Concordat must be men-
tionea: Joseph Fesch (q. v.) under whose episco-
pate Pius VII twice visited Lyons, in Nov., 1804, and
April, 1805, and in 1822 the Society for the Propaga-
tion of the Faith was founded; Maurice de Bonald
(184(>-1870),8on of the philosopher; Ginoulhiac (1870-
1875), known by his " Histoire du dogme catholique
pendant les trois premiers sidcles *\
Chapters and Colleges. — At the end of the old regime
the pnmatial chapter consisted of 32 canons, each able
to prove 32 degrees of miUtary nobihty; each of these
canons bore the title of Count of Lyons. The Chapter
of Lyons has the honour of numbering amon^ its
canons four popes (Innocent IV, Gregory X, Boniface
VIII, and Clement V), 20 cardinals, 20 archbishops,
more than 80 bishops, and finally 3 persons of officially
recognised sanctity, St. Ismidon of Sassenage, later
Bisl^p of Die (d. about 1116), Blessed Louis Aleman
(q. V.) and Blessed Frangois d'Estaing, later Bishop of
liodez (d. in 1501). The city of Lyons numbered 5
collegiate churches and the diocese 14 others. There
were 4 chapters of noble canonesses. The Jesuits had
at Lyons the Collie de la Trinity, founded in 1527 by
a lay confraternity which ceded it to them in 1565, the
Colfege Notre Dame, foimded in 1630, a house of pro-
bation, a professed nouse, and other colleges in the
diocese. Convents were perhaps more numerous here
than in any other part of France. The Petites Ecoles
founded in 1670 by D4mia, a priest of Bourg, contrib-
uted much to primary instruction at Lyons. Since the
law of 1875 concerning higher education Lyons pos-
sesses Catholic faculties of theology, letters, sciences,
and law.
Principal Saints. — The Diocese of Lyons honours as
saints: St. Epipodius and his companion St. Alexan-
der, probably martyrs under Marcus Aurelius; the
priest St. Pere^nus (third century); St. Baldonor
(Galmier), a native of Aveizieux, at first a locksmith,
whose piety was remarked by the bishop, St. Viven-
tiolus; ne became a cleric at the Abbey of St. Justus,
then subdeacon, and died about 760; the thermal re-
sort of "AqufiB Segest» *\ in whose church Viven^iolus
met him, has taken the name of St. Galmier; St. Via-
tor (d. about 390), who followed the Bishop, St. Jus-
tus, to the Thebaid; Sts. Romanus and Lupicinus
(fifth century), natives of the Diocese of Lyons
who lived as solitaries within the present territory of
the Diocese of St. Claude; St. Consortia, d. about 578,
who according to a l^end, criticized by Tillemont,
was a daughter of St. Eucherius; St. Rambert, soldier
and martyr in the seventh centurj', patron of the town
of the same name; Blessed Jean Pierre N^l, b. in 1832
at Ste Catherine sur Riverie, martyred at Kay-Tcheou
in 1862.
Among the natives of Lyons must be mentioned
Sidonius Apollinaris (430-489); Abb^ Morellet, ht-
terateur (1727-1819); the Christian philosopher Bal-
lanohe (1776-1847); the religious painter nippolyte
Flandrin (1809-1864) ; Puvis de Chavannes, painter of
the hfe of Ste Genevieve (1824-1898). The diocese of
Lyons is also the birthplace of the Jesuit P^rc Coton
(1564-1626), confessor of Henry IV and a native of
Ndronde, and Abbd Terray, controller general of fi-
nance under Louis XVI, a native of Boen (1715-
1778). Gerson, whose old age was spent at Lyons in
the cloister of St. Paul, where he instructed poor chil-
dren, died there in 1429. St, Francis de Sales died at
LTOm 41
Ljrotu, 28 Deoonber, 1622. The Curt Colombet de
St. Amour was celebrated at St. Etienne ia the seven>
teentb century for the cenerMity with which he
founded the HAtel-Dieu (Uie chanty hospital) , alao
free schools, and fed the workmen during the famine
of 1693.
were distinctive of the ascetical life of Christian Lyons
in the Middle Ages; these were cells in which persons
diut themselves up for life after four yean of trial.
The system of hermitafes aloox the lines described by
GrimalaiuB and Olbredus in the ninth century floar-
ished especially from the eleventh to the thirteenth
century, sad disappeared completely in the sixteenth.
These hermitaees were the private property of a
neighbmirin^ church or monastery, which installed
therein for life a male or female recluse. The general
almshouse of Lyons, or chant; hospital, was founded
in 1632 oifter the great famine of 1531 under the super-
vision of eight administrators chosen from amon^ tbe
more important citisena. The institution of the jubt'
lee of 8t Nizier datee beyond a doubt to the stav of
Innocent IV at Lyons. This jubilee, which had all
the privileges of the secular jubilees of Rome, was cele-
brated each time that Low Thursday, the feast of St.
Niiier, coincided with 2 April, i. e. whenever the feast
ater itael*
paschal cycle,
lime this coincidence oocurred, the feast of St. Niner
was not celebrated. But the cathedral of St. John
also enjoys a great jubilee each time that the feast of
St. John, the Baptist, coincides with Corpus Christi,
that is, whenever the feast of Corpus Chiisti falls on 24
June. It is certain that in 1451 the coincidence of
these two Feasts was celebrated with specisJ splendour
by the population of Lyons, then emei^nff from the
troubles of the Hundred Years' War, but tnere is no
document to prove that the jubilee indulgence existed
at that date. However, Lyonnese tradition places the
first great jubilee in 1451 ; the four subsequent jubilees
took place in 1546, 1666, 1734 and 1886.
Liturgy. — Some authors have held that the Gaili(
Duchesne considers that during the two centuries
after Emperor Constantine tbe prestige of the Church
of Lyons was not such that it could dictate a htuigy
across the Pyrenees, the Channel and the Alpe, and
lure from Rtunui influence half the Churches of Italy.
In his opinion it was not Lyons, but Milan, which was
the centre of the diffusion of the Qallican Liturgy.
Under Leidrade and Agobard the CSiurch of Lyons,
although fulfilling the task of purifying its Ututgical
texts exacted by the Holy See, upheld its own tradi-
tions. " Among the Churches of France", wrote St.
Bernard to the canons of Lyons, "that of Lyons has
hitherto had ascendancy over all the others, as much
for the diniity of its see as for its praiseworthy insti-
tutions. It is especially in the Divine Office that ^s
judicious Church has never readily acquiesced in un-
expected and sudden novelties, and has never sub-
mitted to be tsjniahed by innovations which are be-
coming only to youth". In the Beventeenth century
Cardinal Bona, in his treatise "Dedivinapsalmodia,
renders similar homage tfl the Church of Lyons. But
in the eighteenth century Bishop Montaset, contniy
to the Bull of Pius V on the Breviary, changed tlie
text of the Breviary and the Hissal, from which there
resulted a whole oentury of troubles for the Church of
Lyons. The efforts of Pius IX and Cardinal Bonald
to suppress thetnnovations of HODtaset provoked gteftt
resistance on the part of tbe eanons, who fearM an
attempt against the tradiUonal Ljonneae ceremonies.
This culminated in 1861 in a prot^ on the pajrt of the
clergy and the laity, as much with regard to the civil
pow^aslotheVfttioai). IlntUr, on 4 Feb., ISM, «t
5 LTom
a reception of the perish priests of Lyons, Pius IX de-
clared his displeasure at this agitation and assured
them that nothing should be changed in the ancient.
Lyonnese ceremonies; by a Brief of 17 March, 1864, he
ordered the progressive introduction of the Roman
Breviary ana lussal in the diocese. The primatial
church of Lyons adopted them for public services 8
December, 1869. One of tiie most touching rites of
the ancient Gallican liturgy, retained by the Church of
Lyons, is tbe blessing of the people by the bishop at
the moment of Communion.
Churches. — The cathedra] of St. John, b^un in tbe
twelfth century on the ruins of a sixth centut? church.
NoTBa-Duu DB FocKVikacs, IirONS
was completed in 1476; worthy of note are the two
crosses to right and left of the altar, preserved sinoa
the council of 1274 as a symbol of the union of t^
churches, and tbe Bourbon chapel, built by Cardinal
,de Bourbon and his brother Pierre de Bourbon, son
in-law of Louis XI, a masterpiece of fifteenth centufy
sculpture. The church of Ainay, dating from the
tentli and eleventh centuries, is of the Bysantine style.
The doorway of St. NiEieHs [fifteenth oentury) was
carved in the sixteenth century by Philibert Delorme.
The coUc^ate church of St. John Baptist at St. Qia-
mond, now destroyed, presented a smgular arrange-
ment; the belfry was situated beiow the church, to
which those coming from the city could only gain ao
cess by climbing two hundred steps; the roof »rf the
church served as pavement for tbe courtyard of tiie
fortress, the circuit of which might be made in a car>
Pilarimaget.—The chief pilgrimages of the diocese
are Notre Dame de Fourvi^res, a sanctuary dating
from tbe time of St. Pothinus, on the site of a temfde
of Venus. In 1643 the people of Lyons consecrated
themselves to Notre Dame de Fourvi^res and pledged
themselves to a solemn procession on 8 September of
each year; the new basilica of FourviSres, consecrated
in 1896, attracts numerous pilgrims. Notre Dame de
Benoite-Vaux at Saint-Btienne, a i2\1^icadet.^.cs<a:ii»i^
LT0N8
476
LTOMB
in 1849 by the Marists who had been miraculously
preserved from a flood; Notre Dame de Valfleury, near
Saint Chamond, a pilgrimage dating from the eighth
century and re-estabushed in 1629 after a plf^e;
Notre Dame de Vemayj near Roanne.
Religious Congregations. — In 1901, before the appli-
cation of the Airaociations Law to congregations the
Diocese of Lyons possessed Capuchins, Jesuits, Camil-
Hans, Dominicans, Carmelites, Oblates of Mary Im-
maculate, Redemptorists, Sulpicians, Clerics of St. Via-
tor, and three great orders native to the diocese: (1)
ITie Marists, founded by Ven. Colin and approved by
Gregory XVI in 1836; they had their mother-house at
Lyons, which governed a number of establishments
in England, Ireland, Belgium, Spain, America, New
Zealand, and Australia, and they were chained with
the Vicariates Apostolic of New Caledonia (since
1847), of Central Oceanica (since 1842), Fiji (since
1844), Samoa, and the Prefecture ApostoUc of the
Solomon Islands. (2) The African missionaries (Mis-
donnaires d'Afrique), an association of secular priests
founded in 1856 by Mgr de Marion-Bresillao and
charged with the Vicariate Apostolic of Benin (1860),
with the five Prefectures ApostoUc of Ivory Coast
0895), Gold Coast (1879), Nigeria (1884), Dahomey
(1882), and the Delta of the Nile. This congregation
has two Apostolic schools, at Clermont-Ferrand and
at Cork, Ireland; and two mieparatory schools at
Nantes and Keer-Maestricht, Holland. (3) The Lit-
tle Brothers of Mary, founded 2 Januarv, 1817 by
Ven. Marcellin Champa^at, vicar at Valla, d. 1840.
The mother-house at Samt Genis-Laval, near Lyons,
governs 7000 members, 14 novitiates, 25 juniorates,
and about 800 schools, either elementary, agricultural
or secondary, in France, Belgium, Denmark, Spain,
Great Britain, Italy, Switzerland, Tmrkey, Canada,
Mexico, Brazil, the United States, Colombia, Egypt,
Cap Haitien, Seychelles, Syria, i^rabia, China, Austra-
liiL New 2iealand, New Caledonia, Central Oceanica.
The Brothers of St. John of God have their mother-
house for France at Lyons. The Society of the Priests
of St. Iremeus is engaged in teaching and giving dio-
oesan missions^ In 1901 the Diocese of Lyons had a
diocesan "grand s^nunaire'' and a university semi-
nary at Lyons, a seminary of philosophy at Alix and
five " petits s^minaires " at St. Jean de Lyon, Dueme,
St. Jcxiard, Vemidres, and Montbrison; the first of
these was founded under Charlemagne.
The female congregations native to the Diocese of
Lyons are numerous ; the following deserve special men-
tion : The Sisters of Notre Dame de Fourvidres, founded
1732 at Usson, for teaching and nursing, with the
mother-house at Lyons; the Sisters of St. Charles,
founded 1680 by the Abb6 D^mia, teaching and nurs-
ing, with mother-house at Lyons; the Religious of the ^
Perpetual Adoration of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and '
Blanr, founded 1820 by the Cur6 Ribier, with their
mother-house at Lajarasse; the Religious of the Five
Wounds of Our Lord, founded at Lyons in 1886 as a
contemplative, nursing, and teaching order, which
has houses in Canada; the Sisters of the Child Jesus,
teaching, with their mother-house at Claveisolles, the
origin of which dates from the opening of a little school
in 1830 by Josephine du Sablon; the Franciscan Sis-
ters of the Propagation of the Faith, founded in 1836
by Mother Moyne for the care of incurables with
mother-house at Lyons; the Reli^ous of Jesus-Mary,
a teaching congregation, founded m 1818 by the priest
Andr6 Coindre and Claudine Thevenet, whose mother-
house installed at Lyons governs a number of houses
abroad; the Ladies of Nazareth, teaching, founded in
1822 at Montmirail (Mame) by the Duchesse de La
Rochefoucauld Doudeauville, whose mother-house re-
moved to Oullins in 1854 governs several establish-
ments in Palestine and at London; the Religious of
Our Lady of Missions, founded at Lyons in 1861 for the
missions of Oceanica; the abbey of the Benedictines of
the Holy Heart of Mary, founded 1804, the first house
of this conmgation to be restored after the Revolu-
tton; the Religious of the Holy Family, founded in
1825 by the Cur6 of St. Bruno les Chartreux for mis-
sion work among workmen; the Sisters of St. Francis
of Assisi, founded in 1838 by pious working women for
education and nursing, with mother-house at Lyons;
the Sisters of St. Joseph, founded 1620 at Puy, by
Bishop Maupas, reconstituted in 1807 in the Diocese
of Lyons for hospital and teaching work, with mother-
house at Lyons, also sends subjects to the missions of
Armenia and America.
Statistics. — At the end of the nineteenth century
the religious congregations maintained in the Diocese
of Lyons 2 maternity hospitals, 3 da}r nurseries, 193
nurseries, 2 children's hospitals, 9 hospitals for incura-
bles, 1 asylum for blind ^Is, 4 asylums for deaf mutes,
5 boys' orphanages, 49 girls' orphanages, 4 workrooms,
3 inaustrial schools, 2 schools of apprentices, 5 institu-
tions for the rescue of young women, 1 house of cor-
rection for young women, 1 house of correction for
boySj 3 institutions for the reform of adults, 61
hospitals, infirmaries, or asylums for the aged, 19
houses for the care of the sick in their homes, 2 homes
for convalescents, 5 houses of retreat, 2 insane asylums.
In 1908, three years after the Separation Law w^nt
into effect, the Archdiocese of Lyons had 1,464,665
inhabitants, 74 parishes, 595 branch churches, 585
vioariates
OtUlia Christiana (nova) IV (1728). 1-211. indrum. 1-40;
DucHESNB, Fades Epiacopaux, I, 38-59; II. 156-73; Fisquet,
La France pontificale: Lyon (Paris. 186S); Charlety, Hidoire
de Lyon (Lyons. 1903); Condamine. Le premier bereeau de
rApodolai lyonnaia Hdela propagation de la fox: la prison de 8L
Pothin (Lvons. 1890) ; Hirschfeld. Zur Qeschichte des Chridenr
thums in Luadunum vor Constantin in Sitzungab. A kademie Wis-
senst^ften (Berlin. 1895), 381-409; Leblant. Inscriptions ehrf»
tiennes de la OatUe, 3 vob. (Paris. 1856. 1865, 1892); Mabtin,
Conciles et btUlaires du dioctse de Lyon (Lyons. 19()5); Idem,
Hidoire des iqlises et des ehapdles de Lyon (Lyons, 1909);
Mbtnib, Orands souvenirs de Ciglise de Lyon (Lvons. 1886);
FoBRSTBR. Drei Erzbisehdfe vor tausend Jahrhundertem: Aqo'
bardits voh Lyon (Gutersloh. 1874); Martin. Vnc manifestalton
thSologique de Valise de Lyon; Vadoptionisnie d les arcnevfques
Leidraa d Agobard (University Catnolique, 1898); Bernard,
L'iglise de Lyon d VimmacuUe Conception (Lyons. 1877); Per-
RIN. La culture des lettres d les dablissements dindruction h
Lyon [Memoires de VAcademie des Sciences, Bdles lettres d
Arts de Lyon (1893)]; Guioub. Recherches sur les reduseries de
Lyon, leur origine, leur nombre d le genre de vie des rectus (Lyons,
1887); Idem. CaHulaire des fiefs de Vfglise de Lyon 1175-1621
(Lyons, 1893) ; Sachet. Le grand jubiU siculaire de S. Jean de
Lyon (Lyons. 1886); Begule. Monographic de la cathfdraU de
Lyon, (1880); Briqhtman. Liturgies, Eastern and Western
(OiBford, 1896); Duchesne. Origines du culte chrdien, (a study
of Christian liturgy prior to Charlemagne) (2 ed. Paris, 1898):
tr. McClurb (London, 1906); Bouix. La hturgie de Lyon au
point de vue de Vhidoire d du droit in Revue des sciences eccUsv-
adiaues VI (1862); Pothier, Le chant de Viglise de Lyon du
Vin au XVIII eiede in Revue de VAH Chrdien XV (1881);
CMmonial Romain Lyonnais, published by order of the arch-
bishop (Lyons, 1897); Bbybsac, Les prMis de Fourviirss,
(Lyons, 1908); Cheyaubr, Topo-bibl. (1788-93).
Georges Goyau.
hyonB, Councils of. — Previous to 1313 the Abb^
Martin counts no less than twenty-eight S3rnods or
councils held at Lyons or at Anse near Lyons. The
Eretended colloquy between the Catholic and Arian
ishops of Biirgundy, said to have been held in 499,
is regarded, since the researches of Julien Ilavet, as
apochryphal. This article deals only with the two
general councils of 1245 and 1275.
I. (General Council op 1245. — Innocent IV,
threatened by Emperor Frederick II, arrived at Lyons
2 December, 1244, and early in 1245 summoned the
bishops and princes to the council. The chronicle of
St. Peter of Erfurt states that two hundred and fifty
prelates responded; the annalist Mencon speaks of
three patriarchs, three hundred bishops, and numerous
prelates. The Abb<^ Martin without deciding between
these figures has succeeded in recovering to a cer-
tainty the names of one hundred assistants, prelates
or lords, of whom thirty-eight were from France,
thirty from Italy, eleven from Germany or the coun*
LTOm 477 LTOMb
tries of the North, eight from England, five from council were James I, King of Aragon, the ambas-
Spain, five from the Latin Orient. Baldwin II, sadors of the Kin^ of France and Elngland, the
Latin Einperor of Constantinople, Raymond VII. ambassadors of the Emperor Michael Palffiolegus
Count of Toulouse, Raymond Berenger IV, Count ot and the Greek clergy, the ambassadors of the Khan
Provence, Albert Rezats, Latin Patriarch of Antioch, of the Tatars. The conquest of the Holy Land
Berthold, Patriarch of Aquileia, Nicholas, Latin and. the union of the Chiu'ches were the two ideas
Patriarch of Constantinople, came to the council^ for the realization of which Gregory X had convoked
which opened 28 June at Saint-Jean. After the '' Vem the council.
Creator^* and the litanies. Innocent IV preached (1) The CrtMCkfe.— ^Despite the protest of Richard
his famous sermon on the five wounds of the Church of Mapham, dean of Lincoln, he obtained that during
from the text "Secundum multitudinem dolorum six years for the benefit of the crusade a tithe of all
meorum in corde meo, consolationes tusB ketifica- the oenefices of Christendom should go to the pope^
verunt animam meam *\ He enumerated his five but when James I, King of Aragon, wished to organise
sorrows: (1) the bad conduct of prelates and faitb- the expedition at once the representatives of the
ful; (2) the insolence of the Saracens; (3) the Greek Templars opposed the project, and a decision was
Schism; (4) the cruelties of the Tatars in Hungary: postponed. Ambassadors of the Khan of Tataiy
(5) the persecution of the Emperor Frederick; ana arrived at Lyons, 4 July, to treat with Gregory A,
he caused to be read the privilege granted to Pope who desired that during the war against IsUm the
Honorius III by Frederick when the latter was as Tatars should leave the Christians in peace. Two of
yet only King of the Romans. Thaddeus of Suessa, the ambassadors were solemnly baptized 16 July.
Frederick's ambassador, arose, attempted to make (2) Union of the ChurckBS.-^regory X had pre-
excuses for the emperor, and cited numerous plots pared for the imion by sending in 1273 an embassy to
against the emperor which, he said, had been insti- Constantinople to Michael Palseol^us and b^ indu*
gated by the Church. On 29 June at the request of cing Charles, Kin^ of Sicily, and Philip, Latm Em-
the procurators of the Kings of France and England, peror of Constantmople, to moderate their political
Innocent IV granted Thaddeus a delay of ten days ambitions. On 24 June, 1274, there arrived at L^ons
for the arrival of the emperor. as representatives of PaUeologus, Gennanus, Patriarch
At the second session (5 Jidy) the Bishop of Calvi of Constantinople^ Theophanes, Bishop of Niccea,
and a Spanish archbishop attacked the emperor's Georgius Acropohta, senator and great logothete,
manner of life and his plots against the Cnurch; Nicholas Panaretus, president of the ward-robe,
again Thaddeus spoke in his behalf and asked a delav Berrho^ota, chief interpreter, and Georgius Zinuchi.
for his arrival. Despite the advice of numerous prel- The letter from Palseologus which they presented
ates Innocent (9 July) decided to postpone the third had been written in the name of fifty archbishops
session until the seventeenth. On the seventeenth and five hundred bishops or s3mods. On 29 Jime,
Frederick had not come. Baldwin II, Raymond the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul, Gregory X cele-
yil, and Berthold, Patriarch of Aquileia, interceded brated Mass in the church of St. John^ the Epistle,
in vain for him; Thaddeus in his master's name Gospel, and Creed were read or sung m Latin ana
appealed to a future pope and a more general council; Greek, the article ''qui a pa ire filioque procedit " was
Innocent pronounced the deposition of Frederick, sung three times by the Greeks. On 6 Jul^, after a
caused it to be signed by one hundred and fifty sermon by Peter of Tarentaise and the pubhc reading
bishops and charged the Dominicans and Francis- of the letter of Palffiologus, Geomus AcropoUta and
cans with its publication everywhere. But the pope the other ambassadors promised fidelity to the Latin
lacked the material means to execute this decree; Church, abjured twenty-six propositions which it
the Count of Savoy refused to allow an army sent denied, and promised the protection of the emperor
by the pope against the emperor to pass through his to the Christians of the Holy Land. Gregory A in-
territory, and for a time it was feared that Frederick toned the *'Te Deum", spoke on the text *' Desiderio
would attack Innocent at Lyons. The Council of desideravi hoc pascha manducare vobiscum ", and on
Lyons took several other purely religious measures; 28 July wrote joyful letters to Michael, to his son
it obliged the Cistercians to pay tithes, approved the Andronicus, and forty-one metropoHtans. Three
Rule of the Order of Grandmont, decided the institu- letters dated February, 1274, written to the pope by
tion of the octave of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin, Michael and Andronicus, in which they recognized his
prescribed that henceforth cajxiinals should wear a supremacy, exist as proofs of the emperor's good
red hat, and lastly prepared thirty-ei^t constitu- faith, despite the efforts to throw douot on it by
tions which were later inserted by Boniface VIII in means of a letter of Innocent V (1276^ which seems
his Decretals, the most important of which, received to point to the conclusion that Georgius Acropolita,
with protests by the envoys of the English clergy, who at the council had promised fidelitv to the Koman
decreed a levy of a twentieth on every benefice for Church, had not been expressly authorized by the
three years for the reUef of the Holy Land (Constitu- einperor.
tion " Afllicti corde") and a levy for the benefit of the The Council of Lyons dealt also with the reform of
Latin Empire of Constantinople of half the revenue the Church, in view of which Gregory X in 1273 had
of benefices whose titulars dia not reside therein for addressed questions to the bishops and asked of
at least six months of the yeaf (Constitution ''Arduis Hubert de Romans, the former general of the Friars
mens occupata negotiis"). Preachers, a certain programme for discussion and of
II. General Council op 1274. — ^The second John of Vercelli, the new general of the order, a draft
Council of Lyons was one of the most largely attended of formal constitutions. Henri of GOlder, Bishop of
of conciliar assemblies, there being present five hun- Li^^ Frederick, Abbot of St. Paul without the Walls,
dred bishops, sixty abbots, more than a thousand the Bishops of Rhodes and of WUrzburg were deposed
prelates or procurators. Gregory X, who presided, for unworthiness, and certain mendicant ordere were
had been a canon of Lyons; Peter of Tarentaise, who suppressed. The council warmly approved the two
assisted as Csurdinal-Bishop of C^tia, had been Arch- orders of St. Dominic and St. Francis. Fearing the
bishop of Lyons. It opened 7 May, 1274, in the opposition of the King of Spain who had in his king-
churcii of St. John. There were five other sessions dom three religious military; orders, the idea was
(18 May, 7 June, 6 July, 16 July, 17 July). At the abandoned of forming all military orders into one.
second session uregory X owing to the excessive Gregory X, to avoid a repetition of the too lengthy
numbers rejected the proxies of clutpters, abbots, and vacancies of the papal see, caused it to be decided that
unmitred priors, except those who had been sum- the cardinals should not leave the conclave till the
moned by name. Among those who attended the pope had been elected. This constitution ^hink.
LTBBJl
478
LTinUL
inflicted certain material privations on the cardinals
if the election was too long delayed, waS suspended
in 1276 by Adrian V, and a few months later revoked
by John XXI, but was re-established later in many
of its articles, and is even yet the basis of legislation
on the conclaves. Lastly, the Council of Lyons dealt
with the vacancy of the imperial throne. James I
of Aragon pretended to it; Gregory X removed him
and on 6 June Rudolph I was proclaimed King of the
Romans and future emperor. Such was the work
of the coimcil during which died the two greatest
doctors of the Middle Aces. St. Thomas Aquinas,
summoned by the pope, died at Frosinone (7 March,
1274) on his wajr to Lyons. St. Bonaventure, after
important interviews at the Council with the Greek
ambassadors, died 15 Jul^r, at Lyons, and was
praised by Peter of Tarentaise, the future Innocent
V, in a touching funeral sermon.
Martin. BuUaire et ConeUet de Lyon (Lyon, 1906) (excellent) ;
Mansi. CoU. Conciliorum, XXIII, 606-82, XXIV, 37-136;
HBrsLB, HxHory of Christian Councils, tr. Clark: Havbt,
Biblioth^que de VEcoU des Charles, XLVI. 1885, 233-60; Bxr-
OSH, Riffisitres d*InnocerU /K (in oounie of publication); Gux-
BAUD AND Cadisr, BSffi^Tss de Grigoire X d, Jean XX J (in ooune
of pubUcation).
Georqes Gotau.
Lyrba, a titular see of Pamphylia Prima, known by
its coins and the mention made of it by Dionysius,
Berieg. 868, Ptolemy, V, 5, 8, and Hierocles. Its exact
situation is not known, nor its histor]^ ; it may be the
modem small town of Seidi Shehir. in the vilayet of
Konia. The " Notitise episcopatuum mentions Lyrba
as an episcopal see, suffragan of Side up to the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries. Two of its bishops are
known: Caius, who attended the Council of Constan-
tinople, 381, and Taurianus at Ephesus, 431 (Le Quieh,
"Onens christianus ", I, 1009); Zeuxius was not
Bishop of Lyrba, as Le Quien states, but of Syedra.
S. PfemiDES.
Lsrsias, a titular see of Phrygia Salutaris, men-
tioned by Strabo, XII, 576, Pliny, V, 29^ Ptolemy, V,
2, 23, Hierocles, and the "Notitiae episcopatuum",
probably founded by Antiochus the Great about 200
B. c. Some of its coins are still extant. Ramsay
(Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, 754) traces its
original site from still existing ruins between the
villages of Oinan and Aresli in the plain of Oinan, a
little north-east of Lake Egerdir, m the vilayet of
Konia. Lequien (Oiiens christianus, I, 845) names
three bishops of Lysias suffragans of Synnada: The-
agenes, present at the Council of Sardica, 344; Philip,
at Chalcedon 451; and Constantine, at Constanti-
nqple, 879. S. PirrRioKS.
I^yster, John. See Achonbt, Diocese of.
Lystra, a titular see in the Province of Lvcaonia,
suffragan of Iconium. On his first visit to this town
St. Paul healed a lame man, upon which the populace,
filled with enthiffiiasm, wished to offer sacrifice to him
and to Barnabas, whom they mistook respectively for
Jupiter and Mercury. The two Apostles restrained
them with difficulty. These same people, stirred up
by Jews from Iconium, afterwards stoned St. P&ul
(Acts, xiv, 6-19: II Tim., iii, 11). On at least two
other occasions the Apostle returned to this city (Acts,
xiv, 20; xvi, 1-3), established there a Christian com-
munity, and converted his future disciple Timothy,
the son of a Jewish mother and a pagan father. The
Jews were imdoubtedly numerous, though they had
no s3magogue. Pliny (Historia Naturalis, V, 42),
places Lystra in Galatia, Ptolemy (V, 4) locates it in
Isauria, and the Acts of the Apostles in Lycaonia.
The Viilgate (Acts, xxvii, 5) also mentions it, but the
reference is really to Myra in Lycia. Some coins have
beesi found there belonging to a Roman colony
foimded by Augustus at Lystra "Colonia Julia Felix
Gemina Lystra''. The exact site of the town has
been discovered at Khatum Ser&I, twelve miles south
of Iconium; it is marked by some ruins on a hill
about one mile north of the modern village. Lequien.
(Oriens Christ., I, 1073-76) mentions five bishops of
Ljrstra between the fourth and the ninth centuries,
one of whom, Eubulus, about 630 refuted Athanasius,
the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch.
Stbrrbt, The Wolfe Expedition to Asia Minor fBoeton, 1888),
142, 219; Lbakb, Jovamal of a Tour in Asia Minor (London,
1824), 101, 103; Ramsat, The Church in the Roman Empire
(London. 1894), 47-54; Idem, St. Paul the Travdler, and the
Roman Citizen (London, 1895), 114-9; Blass, Ada Apostolorwn
(GOttingen, 1895), 159-61; Bkusubr in Vxo., Diet, de la Bible,
8. V. Ljjletre,
S. VailhI:.
M
1, Friedsicr Bbbhabd Cbbistian, profes- MuiMcht. Bee Likan, Diocese of
•or of law, b. 24 Sept., 1823, at Wismar (Hecklen- »,.vii t t> j- .■ , , , „
burg): d. 6 April, 1900, at ivUten near Innsbnick ""Jlon, Jean, BenedicUne monk of the Congre-
(Tyrol). After completing the humanities in his ^t-on <rf S^J-Maur, b. at Samt-Pierremont, between
native dty, he studieS jurisprudenoe at Jena, Beriin, ""jf'*^^''^*' ""^ v , i^^^"^ .H? "^"i^-V" ^'^™'
Kiel, and :ftoetock, b«4me, in 1849, an advlxsate ii; P?^' 23 November 1632; d. at Pans. 27 Deeejnber,
the Wt named place, and took hia degree at the uni- i™'- /^*v*^-T- t^'i!"''* °J ^J'^"^? Ma''?"'"'. »
veraity there in TsSl. He wm active E the constitu- P«««»°t who died m 1692 aged 101 aad of hia wife,
tional conflict of 1848 between the Grand Duke of i.^f^ bufinn, dejoended, through her mother a famr
Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Diet, defended the ''y' V°"\ " '"^"' "^ ^« .««'Kaeura of Samt^Pierre-
rights of the repreaentativet in three pamphlets, and, '°'™*j Jean was a precocious chid, and easily sur-
wrSi Frans von Florencourt, founded the anti-revolu^ P?^ *»* ^°°^ companions m Uieu- studies, while
tionar3^ " Norddeutscher Korrespondent"'. Shortly awple^nt disposition made him a general favounle.
after his graduation he became a convert to the Catb- . tne age ol
die Faith, and, realising that, as a Catholic, he was "^fi ** '".^ f^"'
not eligible for public office in his native place, betook ^ T- ,T ' ,^^
himself to Bonn, where he devoted himself to aca- "npilion, then
demic leaching. The work by means of which he ^™7 P^^st at .
proved his great teaching ability, "Der Primal dea _u _ l ^•
Bischofs von Rom und dw alten Patriarehalkirchen" 5^"?"" ^^ ^
(Bonn, 1853) dealt with the two important questions: ^f^*' ,
whether the Roman primacy existed in the firat cen- ru(iim«ni
turies, and whether the much-discussed sixth canon
of the Council of Niraea bears witness to the primacy.
This work won immediale recognition among scholars, , ,-
and Count Thun invited him to Festh in 1855 as pro- ™ continue
fewff extraordinaniu of Roman Law. A few months ^'■"'•^- '"
later he was given a professorship of Roman and canon
law at Innsbruck, one at Grai in 1860, and one in 1871
at Vienna, where, until he was pensioned in 1894, he
attracted many pupils.
In 1873 he became a member of the Vienna Acad- ■, i,
emy ot Sciences, in 1885 a life member of the Upper H"''''?''iV^' ^
House, and from 1882 tiU 1897 was a member of the u™d, half as pupil.
Supreme Court of the Empire. During the Vatican ih" "^^i™ J5
Council he adhered to DOUinger, but was ' ' " iMiao n
--- « an Old Catholic, and in 1882 explicitb
rudiments ", and
from whom Ite
received a dona-
tion to enable him
studies. In 1644
Jean was sent to
the College des
Bona Enfanta at
Reims. Here, while
itudying at the
aU
utterances in favour of that sect. Incited by ^iw Ttiit™*™?^"^^""™!!!^?^!!!:?^'^^^
Savigny's important work on the history of Roman ^'es^patron.mlfiSO, procured himadmissL.
taw m the Middle Ages, Maassen began a history of "^ diocesan ^minary, where he remained tor three
r-anoniawonthesai^h'nes. But of this woric, which X^J?' IiJ653, however, the scandalous conduct and
«a8 to have numbered five volumes, he published only feath of the iwclc who had befriended him m^
the first, " Geschichte der <>uellen und^der Literatii J'"..^«*''S V^ -'"{f , ^""j^' priesthood distasteful
des kanonisehen Reehts imlbendiande bis .urn Aus- t^T'^^ ^^Ti'^'J.^l^ i'■^!^^„T?: ..^«^
gang des Mittelalleis" (Gra*, 1870). Several of bis l!!L'''^ ^^°?^\ J^^v [t'^"''»2'? ^^ August he
articles in the Reports (Sitein^sberifAte) of the Vienna ^"P* " P°^^^ "> f^,^^^ "IS*:^.?' "* J'^""*:
,„„j -ere practically complements of this This house had, sin« 1627, belonged to the reformed
"Neiii Kapitel Qber treie Kirehe uod »«""**, Congregation (see Maubistb, Congrboa-
Academ;
Gewisaenfreiheit'
(Grax, 1876) is written ii
TioiJ or). He was clothed on 5 September, and, after
Prussian Kulturkampf. An amplification of the first 1™.' "» devotion to th. , ^ ,_, -
chapter appeared un&er the title: " Ueber die GrQnde "'t*"^^. ** "^T^'l '^^ s^F^at that hia supenoi.
des KarapfS^iwischen dem heidnischen Staate und entrusted hun mth the direction and teachmg of the
demChristentum" (Vienna, 1882). In many respects "o"^- But the eagerness with which he endeav-
Pseudoisidoratudien" (Vienna, 1885) is a^- «"™? *° f"'^' \^^'^ T^ ^T '^? J"^ *f^»f'
tion of his masterpiece. He alio edited in mas- '^^ «™"": he began to suffer from violent head-
teriy style one volumS of the great "Monumenta a^ and ajxin became incapable even of recitmg hu
GeiiianL Historiea: Leges", III fHar ^'*- Tnlfi.W h,- -,™r,r.r, ,„ .--
being_the"Concilia(eviMerovmgensis". NotCT^orthy,
also, is his "Zwei Synoden unterChilderio II" (Grai,
1867). Maassen often displayed in politics an aggres-
sive activity. He was an adherent of the so-called
Federaiismut, and strove energetically tor the foniai-
tion of a Catholic Conservative party
where he belonged for a time to the Diet.
HMariKhn JaArhvch, XXI (Honleb, 1900). eaO-i2: Bii
trafhUctuiJaliriMh, V (BtrUn, 1M3). 242-14.
pATRICnn ScHLAOEB.
Office. In 1656, his superiors, in the hope tbat entire
rest might restore hia health, sent him to Nogent,
whence in July, 1958, he was transferred to the fa-
mous Abbey of Corbie. Here, as at Nogent he occu-
pied his time in the study of antiquities, while holding
lively the offices of porter, of depofUarius, and
irer. He was ordained at Amiens in 1690. T'
tranquil life restored his health and, in 166.'1, he w,„
tron^erred to the Abbey of St--Denis, where he becanw
treasurer. But his superiors had already noticed
his great giftA and, in 1994, at the request of Doio.
MABHION 480 MABUXOH
D'Achiry (q. v.), he was removed to the Abbey of prelate the king, ia 1685, required Mabilloa to make
St-Germain-des-Prts, where he remained for the a tour through the libraries of Italy for the purpoao
rest of his life. erf acquiring books and manuscripts for the Royal
When Mabillon Erst entered its precincts, the Libraiy. More than 3000 rare and valuable volumes
commendatory abbot was Jolm Casimir, King of were procured. During his travels Mabillon waa
Poland, an eccentric person whose irregular life had everywhere received with the utmost honour. Soob
but little effect on his aliliey; the claustral prior was after his return he began his famous controversy with
Dom Ignatius Philibert, and D'Achi?ry was custodian De Ranc^, Abbot of La Trappe, who had denied that
of i\a wonderful library. The society to which the it was lawful for monks to devote themselves to study
young monk was introduced at St-Germain was, rather than to manual labour. Mabillon's" Traits dea
perhaps, the most learned of its time in Europe, ^tudos monaatiqvies" (1691) was a noble defence t£
Every week, on Sundays after Vespers, there met in monastic learning and laid down the lines that it
D'AcWry'sroomagroupof savants that included men idioukl follow. De Itanc^ replied, and Mabillon wsa
likeDuCange, Baluze,d'nerbe!ot,Cotelier,Henaudot, forced to publish further "RiiflexionB sur la Rfiponse
Fleury, Lamy, Pagi, Tillemont. Mabillon soon be- de M, TAbbf de la Trappe" (1692). De Rancti would
came a brilliant member of this group o( noted work- have carried the dispute further, but Cardinal ie
ers. D'Ach£ry had asked for him to help him in his Camus interfered, and tlie general opinion seems to
projected "Lives of thfe Benedictine Saints", but the have been that both parties to the dispute were really
first work entrusted to his care was that of editing the in substantial agreement; Mabillon beinfj an instanoe
works of St. Bernard. This was published within '^ -" — ' — ■I'.—.t:^-, - — i.: — .■> — ;ti. 1 — : — i
, three years (1667), and was at once recognized as a
masterly edition. Meanwhile Mabillon had been ar-
ranging the materials already brought together by
D'Ach^ry, and the first volume of the " Acta Sancto- In 1698 a storm n
rum, O.S.B." was published in 1668. A second vol- cation by Mabillon, under the name of "Euaebius
ume appeared the following year, a third in 1S72. Romanus", of a protest against the superstitious ven-
The scnolarly conscientiousness and critical methods eration of the relics of "unknown saints" from the
(rf Mabillon were a source of scandal to some of his less catacombs. This work was denounced to the Holy
instructed fellow-monks, and in 1677 a petition, vio- Office, and Mabillon was compelled to explain and
lently attacking the "Acta Sanctorum O.S.B. ", was modify certain passages. InlTOOaroseanotnerstorm.
presented to the general chapter of the congregation, The Maurists, mspite of the difficulties arising from
demanding the suppression of the work (as harmful to the current controversies on Jansenism, bad deter-
ibe interests of Benedictinism) and an apology from mined to publish a critical edition of St. Augustine,
its author. Mabillon defended himself with such To the last volume of this edition Itfabillon was re-
bumility combined with firmness and learning that quired to furnish a preface, defending the methods
all oppDsitionwas overcome, and he was encouraged to and critical conclusions of it« editors. His first draft
oontinue. Meanwhile, in 1672, he had already made was submitted to various critics, and, after receiving
the first of those "literary journeys" (this time into their annotations, was rewritten and sent to Bossuet
FlanderB),in search of documents and materials for his for his opinion. It was largely amended by Bossuet
work, that were so marked a feature of the latter half and returned to Mabillon to be rewritten. The result
of his life, and which had such fruitful results for his- is the " Preface " of the eleventh volume as we now
tory and liturgy. In 1075 was published the first of have it. Mabillon now relireJ to Normandy to avoid
four volumes til "Vetera Analecta" in which he col- the clamour that, as he expected, was aroused by its
lected the fruito of his travels and some shorter works publication. But the Holy See supported the Maur-
of historical importance. ists, and though the extremists eudeavouretl to tax
But 1675 saw also the occasion of his greatest work, the more moderate with heresy they were silenced by
To the second volume of the "Acta SS." for April the supreme authority. Mabillon did not lack ene-
Daniel Papebroch had prefixed a "Propylteum an- ' ' '' ' ..i...i_j
tiquarium , which was really a first attempt to for-
mulate rules for the discernment of spunous from - „ , „
genuine documents. Therein he had instanced as his hfe drew to a close, ail men came to recognize his
spurious some famous charters in the Abbey of St- genius and integrity. In 1701 the king appointed him
Denis. Mabillon was appointed to draw up a defence one of the first members of the new Academic Royale
of these documents, ana he made his defence the occa- des Inscriptions. Two years later appeared the first
■ion of a statement of the true principles of doeumen- volume of the" Annales O.S.B.", on which he had
tary criticism. This is the volume, "De re diplo- been engaged since 1693. He lived to see but four
matica" (1681), a treatise so masterly that it remains volumes published. In 1707, as he was on his way to
to-day the foundation of the science of diplomatics. Chelles. he fell sick. He was carried back to Paris and
Papebroch himself readily admitted that he had after three weeks' illness, on 27 Decemlior, having
been confuted by this treatise, though an attempt was beard Mass at midnight and received Holy Com-
made some time later by Germon to disprove Mabil- munion, he died. He was buried in the Lady chapel
Ion's theory, thereby provoking a reply from Mabillon at St-Germain, At the Revolution in 1768, when the
in his "Supplementum" of 1704. Tiie admiration ex- iWy chapel of St-Germain was destroyed, the simple
ei(«d amongst tlie learned by Mabillon's great book tomb of the great historian was removed tothegaraen
was widespread. Colbert offered its author a pension of the Mus^ des Petits-.\ugustins, At the Restora-
of 2000 livres, which Mabillon declined, while request- tion, however, it was carried back to St-Gemiain,
ing Colbert's continued protection for his monasteiv. where it still remains behind the high altar.
In 16S3 Mabillon was sent by Colbert into Burgundy An alomt complete liit oF Mahillon's norks wiil be fouod in
to examine certain ancient documents relative to the DbLah., B>6l»(fc(i.«<ir.^m™inHdf fciConBrL-^iDndf 5din(-
TO-.1 h.»; .nd i„ 1» h. .a. «nt with Dom S.^.S^^i^h'Si^iuoi^SiTAl^S^IS
Hiehel Germain, at the king s expense, on a journey i^aiins to U^biUon will be found ia Mtianact ttiiuc\untna
throughout Switzerland and Germany in seareh of ' pl^ly^ft|^>.;™n'o^ JuS-crnirnaiVidf ^7mnri<Vi A/ir^iVI,^^^^
maten'als for the histon- of the Churei or of France. i?S!'„-^X^^\l^™;^l1S":'fl^i.";,r,7.'J M^?;
Dunng this expedition, which took five months to Mabillon in D<J>lin fi™™. (Bopwnibrr, iS40i; lii kukbk,
accomplish, Colbert died and was succeeded as min- MabiJion n laBiUiweia /imj* MaiiUon.n' (Pari*. iW) <-
to by Le Mi.;. Archblahop ol Heim., who .l.o 'i' SSt~^uSsi^\?X'nmr^"TJ£Xlt
gnatiy admired Mabillon. At the instance of this t><i\Bniidt Km ""' "' ' ■"- ~ " "
MABnOOION
481
MAOAO
MahitUm el la aocUU de Vabbaye de Sainl/Jermttin-^eB'Prfe,
ieeJrl707 (Paris, 1888); Didio, La QuerelU d§ MabiUtm ti de
VahbS De Rand (Amiens. 1892) ; Jadart, Dom Jean MabiUon
iteSi-1707) In Trav. de VAcad. de Reims, LXTV (Reims, 1877-
8). 49-324; Kckula, Die Mauriner Aueoahe dee Ati^uaUnue in
SiUunaeberiehU dee Kais. Akad. der Wieeenech. in Wten, CXXI,
CXXII, CXXVIL CXXXVIII (Vienna, 1890-8); Laubmann
in Hbrzoo and Hauck, Real-encyklopddiet s. v.; Pes, BMia-
theea BenedieUno-Mauriana, I (AugsburK; 1716), 98-217;
Ruin ANT. i46r^ delaviede Dom Jean MabxlUm (PAris, 1709);
Tabsin, Hietoire LitUraire de la Congriqation de Saint-Maur
(Brussels, 1770), 205-209; Weiss m mzchaud, Biographie
UnivereeUe, a. v.
Leslie A. St. L. Toke.
Mabinogion, a collection of medieval Welsh tales in
prose. The word is a derivation of mab, "son"^
rnabinogy "a student in the bardie caste", mabinogi
(pi. mabinogion), "a tale belonging to the mabinog's
repertoire'*. The Mabinogion are found in the " Red
Book of Hergest", a large fourteenth-century manu-
script kept at Jesus College, Oxford. The stories were
probably drawn up in their present shape towards the
end of the twelfth century, but the legends themselves
are of much greater antiauity, some belonging even to
the more distant past ot Celtic jpaffanism and to the
period of (jaelo-Breton unity. (Jnly four of the tales
m the collections are properly called Mabinogion, but
the name is commonly given to the others as well.
The •* Four Branches of the Mabinogi" (i. e. the Mab-
inogion strictly so called), consisting of "Pwyll",
"Branwen", "Manawyddan", and"Math", belong to
the earliest Welsh cycle and have preserved, though in
a lat<^ and degraded form, a large amount of the my-
thology of the British Celts. In the " Four Branches"
there is no mention of Arthur. Besides these four
tales, the Mabinogion includes two from romantic
British history, two more interesting ones ("Rhona-
bwy's Dream ^' and "Kulhwch and Olwen"), "Talie-
sin", and, finally, three tales: "Owen and Lunet",
"Gereint and Enid", "Peredur ab Evrawc", which,
though clearly of Anglo-Norman origin and showing a
marked kinship with certain medieval French tales,
were undoubtedly worked on a Celtic background. It
was formerly believed that the Mabinogion were noth-
ing more than children's stories, but it is now known
that they were intended for a more serious purpose
and were written by some professional man of letters,
whose name we do not know, who pieced them
together out of already existing material. They are
admirable examples of story-telling and are of the
greatest interest to the student of romantic literature
and Oltic mythology.
The Welsh text has been printed in a diplomatic
edition, "The Red Book of Hergest", by J. Rhys and
J. Gwenogfryn Evans (Oxford, 1887), also in the three-
volume ^ition (with English translation) by Lady
Charlotte Guest (Llandovery, 1849); the translation
alone appeared in an edition of 1879. Lady Guest's
translation has been re-edited with valuable notes by
Alfred Nutt (London, 1902). This is the most con-
venient translation ; the fullest translation is in French
by J. Loth, "Cours de litt^rature celtigue", vols. Ill
and IV (Paris, 1889). The study by I. B. John, " Pop-
ular Studies in Mythology, Romance and Folklore",
no. 11, 1901, is an excellent introduction to the sub-
ject.
Joseph Dunn.
Macao, Diocese of (Macaoensis), suffragan of
Goa, founded 23 January, 1575, by the Bull, ''Super
Specula Militantis Ecclesiae ", of Gregory XIII, with
its see in the Portuguese settlement of Macao (or
Macau), on the island of Heung-Shan, adjacent to the
coast of the Chinese Province of Kwang-tung (see
China, Map) . The name b>[ which this settlement nas
long been currently Imown is supposed to be of Chi-
nese origin, compounded of Ma, the name of a lo^
divinity, and gau, "harbour"; for this native name
the Portufoiese vainlv attempted to substitute the
IX.— 31
more Christian, but more unwieldiv, form, "ACidade
do Santo Nome de Deus de Macau ". The commercial
prosperity of Macao, once very considerable, has been
almost extinguished in modem times by the rival
British settlement of Hong Kong, planted, about 40
miles to the east, in the vear 1842. The ecclesiastical
lurisdiction of Macao, taken from the earlier Diocese of
Malacca, at first included the whole of the Chinese and
Japanese Empires. This vast territory was reduced by
the creation (1588) of the Diocese of Funay for Japan,
and in 1676, after the Dioceses of Peking and Nan-
king and the Vicariate Apostolic of Tonking had been
created, the jurisdiction of Macao did not extend
beyond the Chinese Provinces of Kwang-Si and
Kwang-Tung. This territory has since been still more
curtailed, while the jurisdiction of the see has been
extended in Malaysia and Further India. The present
effective jurisdiction of Macao comprises (1) the city of
Macao and some small islands adjacent to it; (2) the
District of Heung-Shan and part of that of San Ui;
(3) the Prefecture of Shiu-Hen^ (twelve districts):
(4; part of the Christian populations of Malac<^ aixi
Singapore; (5) all the Portuguese part of the island
of Timor.
At the end of the sixteenth century Christianity was
making rapid progress at Macao, which city had be-
come an important centre of missionary activity in the
Far East, llere the Jesuits, the pioneers in this field,
established the two great cvUeges of St. Paul and St.
Joseph; the former — famous in missionary annals as
" a seminar}' of martyrs " — ^was the principal college of
the Province of Japan; the latter, of the Vice-
Province of China. The Franciscan and Dominican
friars, the Poor Clares, and the Augustinians soon had
convents at Macao, the last-named founding the her-
mitage of Nossa Senhora da Penha (Our Lady of the
Peak) . Other churches dating from this golden age of
religion in Macao are the Cathedral, the Santa Casa de
Misericord ia, the hermitage of Nossa Senhora de Guia,
the sanctuary of St. James at the mouth of the har-
bour, and the parish churches of St. Anthony and St.
Lawrence. A severe blow was dealt to missionary
enterprise in these regions by the Portuguese expulsion
of the Society of Jesus (1762), in spite of which, how-
everj and in the face of bitter persecutions, the Chinese
missions, of which Macao had been the original point
of departure, still numbered some 100,000 Christians
at the end of the eighteenth century. Since that pe-
riod the Portuguese Government while continuing its
padroadOf or patronage of the Church, in the Asiatic
possessions of Portugal, has at various times adopted
a policy hostile to the religious orders in general, wnieh
have been, in consequence^ expelled from Macao, as
from other Portuguese temtory (see Pombal, Sebas-
TiXo Jos^ DE Carvalho, Marques de; Portugal).
Of the twenty-one bishops of this see, perhaps toe
most distinguished was the first, Melchior M. Cameiro,
who was also one of the eariiest fathers of the Society
of Jesus. He had been confessor to St. Ignatius I^oy-
ola, rector of the college of Evora, and, after holding
several other important posts in his order, was made
titular Bishop of Nicsa. coadjutor to the Patriarch of
Ethiopia, and (1566) administrator of the missions of
C^na and Japan. He occupied the See of Macao from
its foundation, in 1575, to 1583, during which period
he establishea the Santa Casa de Misericordia, the
hospital of St. Raphael, and the leper-house (k St.
Lazarus. Among his successors, Dom Jofto do Caaal
(1690-1736), who lived ninety years and occupied the
See of Macao for half his lifetime, assisted in the
events which led up to the visit of Toumon, the papal
legate, and his death at Macao (see Benedict XiV;
China, The Question of Riiee; Riccr^ Matthew).
Bishop Francisco Chacim (1805-28), a Franciscan,
founded at Macao several important charitable institu-
tions, reformed the capitular statutes of the see, and
made a collection of its valuable dnfi^aBSd«^3^. ^^^
iSAOAxrm
482
MAdAftnni
cathedral was rebuilt and consecrated b;)r Bishop
Jeron3rmo d& Matta (1S45-59), who also founded a
convent for the education of girls and committed the
diocesan seminary' to the care of the Jesuits. Manuel
B. de S. Ennes, Fellow of the University of Coimbra,
Bishop of Macao from 1874 to 1883, was noted in his
time for the doctoral thesis in which he refuted the
soeptieEd Christology of Friedrich Strauss; it was his
task to execute the Letter Apostolic, " Universis Orbis
Ecclesiis " , giving new boundaries to the diocese. This
bishop did much for the missions in the island of
Timor, as did also his successor, Jos^ M. de Carvalho
(1897-1902), who divided that mission into two vica-
riates, one of which was entrusted to the Society of
Jesus. The present (twenty-first) Bishop of Macao.
Dom J. P. d'Azevedo e Castro, formerly vioe-rector ot
the seminary of Angra, was installed in 1902. During
his incumbency of the see. the change of territory be-
tween his diocese and tne Prefecture Apostolic of
Kwang-Tung, ordered by the pope, has been accom-
Slished in spite of serious difficulties; the Franciscan
[issionary Sisters of Mary have been placed in charge
of the convent of St. Rose of Lima, the CoUegio de
Perse veranda has been founded for homeless women,
under the Canossian Sisters (who have also opened a
school for girls at Malacca), and an industrial school
fm* Chinese boys has been opened by the fathers of the
Salesian Society.
With an aggregate population of about 8,000,000,
of whom only about 50,000 are Christians, the spiritual
activities of this diocese necessarily take the form, to a
great extent, of preaching to the heathen. In the city
of Macao, which is divided into three parishes, the
diocesan seminary, under the direction of Jesuit
fathers, educates some 120 ecclesiastics, Portuguese
and natives. The Society of Jesus and the Salesian
Society are the only religious institutes for men now
il910) established in the diocese; religious institutes
or women are represented by the Franciscan and
Canossian Sisters, the total number of sisters being
about 100. There are at present 70 priests in the dio-
cese, including, besides Europeans, a certain number of
Eurasians, Chinese, and even natives of India. In
Macao itself the race most largely represented is still
the Chinese; in Malacca and Singapore^ also^ many
Chinese are still to be found side by side with the
native Malays and the other races, including Euro-
peans, collected in those great commercial centres.
The missionaries in Timor have to deal, mainly, with
two races, the Malay and the Papuan. The full-
blooded Malay is usuall^^ a Mohammedan, and is rarely
converted to Christianity; the Papuan is far more
tractable in this direction. A serious difficulty for the
missionaries is the vast number of languages and
dialects spoken in Timor. The Catholic being the state
religion of Portugal, the prisons and the five govern-
ment hospitals at Macao and in Portuguese Timor are
idl open to the ministrations of Catholic priests and
sisters; three of these hospitals have chaplains of their
own. The government also maintains on the islands
of Coloane and Dom Jodo, near Macao, two leper-
houses, which are frequently visited by missionaries
and .sisters.
Besides the " League of Suffrages", to aid the souls
of those who have departed this life in the service of
the missions, numerous pious associations flourish in
the diocese — the Sodality of Our Lady, for students;
the Sodality of Our Lad}r of Sorrows, for married
women; the Confraternities of the Holy Rosary,
Nossa Senhora dos Remedies, the Immaculate Con-
eeption, St. Anthony, and 0 Senhor dos Passos; the
Third Order of St. Francis. The Apostle^hip of Prayer
has been canonically erected and is busily engaged at
Macao and in many of the missions. Lastly, the pious
association of the Bread of St. Anthony is devoted to
relieving the sufTerings of the poor.
Jo£o Pauuno d'Azeveix) b Castbo.
Macftrios. Saint, Bishop of Jerusalem (212-^).
The date of Macarius's accession to the episcopate la
foimd in St. Jerome's version of Eusebius's "Chron-
icle" (ann. Abr. 2330). His death must have been
before the council at Tyre, in 335, at which his suc-
cessor, Maximus, was apparently one of the bishops
present. Macarius was one of the bishops to whom
St. Alexander of Alexandria wrote warning them
a^nst Anus (Epiph., "Haer.", LXIX, iv). The
vigour of his opposition to the new heresy is shown
by the abusive manner in which Arius speaks of him
in his letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia (Theodoret,
*'H. E.", I, 4). He was present at the Council of
Nicffia, and two conjectures as to the part he played
there are worth mentioning. The first is that there
was a passage of arms between him and his metro-
politan, Eusebius of Cssarea, concerning the rights
of their respective sees. The seventh canon of the
council — ** As custom and ancient tradition show that
the bishop of iEHa [Jerusalem] ought to be honoured,
he shall have precedence; without prejudice, however,
to the dignity which belongs to tne Metropolis'' — by
its vagueness suggests that it was the result of a
drawn battle. The second conjecture is that Ma-
carius, together with Eustathius of Antioch, had a
good deal to do with the drafting of the Creed finally
adopted by the Council of Nicsa. For the grouncis
of this conjecture (expressions in the Creed recalling
those of Jerusalem and Antioch) the reader may
consult Hort, "Two Dissertations", etc., 58 sqq.;
Hamack, '^Dogniengesch.", II (3rd edition),* 231;
Kattenbusch, ''Das Apost. Symbol." (See index in
vol. II.)
From conjectures we may turn to fiction. In the
"History of the Council of Nicsea" attributed to
Gelasius of Cyzicus there are a niunber of imaginary
disputations between Fathers of the Council and
philosophers in the pay of Arius. In one of these dis-
putes where Macarius is spokesman for the bishops he
defends the Descent into Hell. This, in view of the
Question whether the Despent into Hell was found in
tne Jerusalem Creed ^ is interesting^ especially as in
other respects Macarius's language is made conform-
able to that Creed (cf Hahn, "Symbole". 133). Ma-
carius's name appears first among those ot the bishops
of Palestine who subscribed to the Council of Nicsea;
that of Eusebius comes fifth. St. Athanasius, in his
encyclical letter to the bishops of Egypt and Libya,
places the name of Macarius (who had been long dead
at that time) among those of bishops renowned for
their orthodoxy. Sosomen (H. E., II, 20) narrates
that Macarius appointed Maximus, who afterwards
succeeded him. Bishop of Lydda, and that the ap-
pointment did not take effect because the people of
Jerusalem refused to part with Maximus. He also
gives another version of the story, to the effect that
Macarius himself changed his mmd, fearing that, if
Maximus was out of the way, an unorthodox bishop
would be appointed to succeed him (Macarius).
Tillemont (M6m. Eccl^s., VI, 741) discredits this
story (1) because Macarius by so acting would have
contravened the seventh canon of Niccea; (2) because
Aetius, who at the time of the council was Bishop of
Lydda, was certainly alive in 331, and very probably
in 349. Of course, if Aetius outlived Macarius, the
story breaks down; but if he died shortly after 331, it
seems plausible enough. The fact that Macarius was
then nearing his end would explain the reluctance,
whether on his part or that of his flock, to be deprivea
of Maximus. Tillemont's first objection carries no
weight. The seventh canon was too vague to secure
from an orthodox bishop like Macarius very strict views
as to the metropolitan rights of a Semi-Arian like
Eusebius. St. Theophanes (d. 818) in his " Chronog-
raphy" makes Constantine, at the end of the Council
of Nicaea, order Macarius to search for the sites of the
Resurrection and the Passion, and the True Cross. It
UAQAxan
483
MAOAEIUS
is likely enough that this is what happened, for exca-
vations were begun very soon after the council, and,
it would seem, under the superintendence of Macarius.
The huge mound and stonework with the temple of
Venus on the top, which in the time of Hadrian had
been piled up over theHolySepulchre, were demolished,
and ''when the original surface of the ground appeared,
forthwith, contrary to all expectation, the hallowed
moniunent of our Saviour's resurrection was dis-
covered" (Euseb., Vit. Const., Ill, 28). On hearing
the news Constantine wrote to Macarius giving lavish
orders for the erection of a church on the site (Euseb.,
lb., Ill, 30; Theodoret, H. E., I, 16). Later on, he
wrote another letter " To Macarius and the rest of the
Bishops of Palestine " ordering a church to be built at
Mambre, which also had been defile by a pagan shrine.
Eusebius. though he gives the superscription as above,
speaks oi this letter as ''addressed to me'\ thinking
pMerhaps of his metropolitan dignity (Vit. Const., Ill,
51-53). Churches were also built on the sites of the
Nativity and Ascension.
(For the story of the finding of the True Cross see
Cross and Crucifix, I, 4.)
Ada 83., 10 March; Venabljcs in Diet. Christ. Biog., s. v.
Francis J. Bacchus.
MacariiiB Magnes, a Christian apologist of the end
of the fourth century. Some authorities regard the
words Macarius Magnes as two proper names, while
others interpret them to mean either the Blessed
Magnes or Macarius the Magnesian, but he is almost
generally considered identical with Macarius, Bishop
of Magnesia, who at the "Synod of the Oak" (Chal-
cedon, 403), accused He*acudes, Bishop of Ephesus,
of Origenism. He is the author of a work called
"Apocritica", purporting to be an accoimt of a dis-
pute between Macarius and a pagan philosopher, who
attacks or ridicules passages from the New Testament.
There are also extant fragments of an exposition of
Genesis which are ascribed to Macarius. Four hun-
dred years after the ** Apocritica" was written it was
made use of by the Iconoclasts to defend their doc-
trines. This caused an account of it to be written by
Nicephorus (see **Spicilegium Solesmense", I, 305),
who until then had evidently never heard of Macarius
and only secured the work with great difficulty. It
developed that the passage quoted by the Icono-
clasts had been distorted to serve their ends, Macarius
having had in mind onlv heathen idolatry.
Sul^quent to this Macarius was aeain forgotten
until the end of the sixteenth century, ^en the Jesuit
Turrianus quoted from a copy of the " Apocritica "
which he had found in St. Mark's Library, Venice, his
quotations being directed gainst the Protestant doc-
trines concerning the Holy Eucharist, etc. When this
copy was sought it had disappeared from St. Mark's,
and it was only in 1867 that it was found at Athens.
Blondel, a member of the French school at Athens,
prepared it for publication, but he died prematurely,
and it was published at Paris in 1876 oy Blenders
friend, Foucart. In 1877 Duchesne published a dis-
sertation on Macarius, to which he added the text of
Macarius's Homilies on Genesis.
Salmon in Did. Christ. Biog., s. v.; Bardenhewbr, Po^rol-
ogu, tr. SuAHAN (St. Louis, 1908); Idem in Kirchenlex., a. v.;
Duchesne, De Mcuxirio Magnde d scriptis ejus (Paris, 1877);
Bernard, Macarius Magnes in Journal ofTheol. Studies (1901).
Blanche M. Kelly.
Macarius of Antioch» Patriarch, deposed in 681.
Macarius's dignity seems to have been a purely hono«
rary one, for his patriarchate lay under tne dominion
of the Saracens, and he himself resided at Constanti-
nople. Nothing is known of him before the Sixth
General Councifwhich deposed him on account of his
MonotheUtism, and after the council he disappeared
in a Roman monastery. But he has left his mark on
ecclesiastical history by bringing about the condem*
nation of Honorius. In the first session of the counc3
the Roman legates delivered an address, in the course
of which they spoke of four successive patriarchs of
Constantinople and others as having "disturbed the
peace of the world by new and unorthodox expres-
sions". Macarius retorted, " We did not publish new
expressions but what we have received from the holy
and Gccumenical synods and from holy approved
fathers". He then went through the namesgiven by
the legates, adding to them that of Pope Honorius.
In this and the following session Macarius came
to grief over a passage from St. Cyril of Alexandria
and St. Leo, in which, after the manner of a man who
sees everything through coloured glasses, he tried to
find Monothelitism. In the third session some docu-
ments which he produced as emanating from Mennas
and Pope Vigilius were found to be forgeries, surrepti-
tiously introduced into the Acts of the fifth general
council. In the fifth and sixth sessions he and his
adherents produced three volumes of patristic testi-
monies which were sealed up for examination later on.
In the eighth session he read his ecthesiSf or "profes-
sion of faith", in which the authority of Honorius was
appealed to on behalf of Monothelitism. In answer to
questions put to him by the emperor he declared that
he wotild rather be cut to pieces and thrown into the
sea than admit the doctrine of two wills or operations.
In this same session and the following one his patristic
testimonies were found to be hopelessly garbled. He
was formally deposed at the close of the ninth session.
But Macarius had left the council more work to do.
The papal legates seemed determined that Monothe-
litism shotild be disposed of once and for all, so, when
at the eleventh session the emperor inquired if there
was any further business, they answered that there
were some further writings presented by Macarius and
one of his disciples still awaiting examination. Among
these documents was the first letter of Honorius to
Sergius. The legates, apparently without any reluct-
ance, accepted the necessity of condemning Honorius.
They must have felt that any other course of action
would leave the door open for a revival of Monothe-
litism. Their conduct in this respect is the more
noteworthy because the Sixth General Council acted
throughout on the assumption that (it is no anachron- •
ism to use the language of the Vatician Council) the
doctrinal definitions ot the Roman Pontiff were wre-
formable. The council had not met to deHberate but
to bring about submission to the epistle of Pope St.
Agatho — an uncompromising assertion of papal in-
fallibility— addressed to it (see Hamack, " Dogmen-
gesch.", II, 408; 2nd edition). At the close of the
council Macarius and five others were sent to Rome
to be dealt with by the pope. This was done at the
request of the council ana not, as Hefele makes it
appear, at the request of Macarius and his adherents
(History of Councils, V, 179; Eng. trans.). Macarius
and three others who still held out were confined in
different monasteries (see Liber Pontif., Leo II).
Later on Benedict II tried for thirty days to persuade
Macarius to recant. This attempt was quoted in the
first session of the Seventh General Ck>uncil as a prece-
dent for the restoration of bishops who had fallen from
the Faith. Baronius gives reasons for supposing that
Benedict's purpose was to restore Macarius to his
patriarchal dignity, the patriarch who had succc^^
nim having just died (Annales, ann. 685). Before
taking leave of Macarius we may call attention to the
profession of faith in the Eucharist, in his " Ecthesis",
which is, perhaps, the earliest instance of a reference
to ihia doctrine in a formal creed. To Macarius the
Eucharist was a palmary argument against Nestorian-
ism. The flesh and blood of which we partake in the
Eucharist is not mere flesh and blood, else how would
it be life-giving? It is life-giving because it is the own
flesh and blood of the Word, which being God is by
nature life. Macarius develops this ar<cam.ewt >a^%
McAVLST
484
MacOAETBT
manner which shows how shadowy was the line which
eeparated the Monothelite from the Monophysite.
(See HoNORius I; Constantinople, Councils op, A.
III.)
See the Acta of the Sixth General Council in Hardouin,
ConciUa, III; Manbi, XI; Hefele, History of Church CounciU,
V (Eng. trans.) ; Chapman, The Condemnation of Pope Honoriua^
reprinted from Dublin Review, July, 1906 (January, 1907), by
the English Catholic Truth Society.
F. J. Bacchus.
McAuley, Catherine. See Merct, Sisters of.
McOabe, Edward, cardinal, b. in Dublin, 1816; d. at
Kingstown, 11 Feb., 1885; he was the son of poor par-
ent^ educated at Father Doyle's school on tne Quays
and at Maynooth College, and was ordained priest in
1839. After his ordination he served successively as cu-
rate in Clontarf and at the pro-cathedral, Marlbiorough
St. in Dublin; and such was the zeal and energy he dis-
played, joined to intellectual capabilities far beyond
the ordinary, that he was selected, in 1854, for the See
of Grahamstown in South Africa. He was reluctant,
however, to take upon himself the burden of the ep)is-
copate in an unknown land, and in 1856 became parish
pnest of St. Nicholas Without, in Dublin. In 1865 he
was transferred to the more important parish of Kings-
town, and became a member of the chapter and vicar-
general. For the twelve following jrears his was the
ordinary life of a zealous, hard-working pastor, ambi-
tious of nothing but to serve the spiritual and temporal
needs of his people. Cardinal Cullen had always held
him in the nighest esteem, and when, in 1877, the
burden of years compelled him to seek assistance he
selected Dr. McCabe, who was in due course conse-
crated titular Bishop of Gadara. The following year
Cardinal Cullen died, and in 1879 Dr. McCabe became
Archbishop of Dublin. Three years later he received
the cardinal's hat. These were troubled times in Ire-
land, the years of the Land League and of the National
League, of violent agitation and savage coercion, when
secret societies were strong in Dublin, and the Pha?nix
Park murders and many others of less note were com-
naitted. Like his predecessor, Cardinal McCabe had a
distrust of popular movements. Brought up in the
city, he was unacc|uainted ^th agrarian conditions and
unaole to appreciate the wron^ which the Irish ten-
ants suffered, and he too readily identified with the
political movement under Pamell and Davitt the
many outrages committed by the people. In pas-
torals and public speeches he rangea himself against
agitation and on the side of government and law, with
the result that Nationalist newspapers and public men
attacked him as a "Castle" bishop, who favoured
coercion and was an enemy of the people. His life
was threatened and for a time he was under the pro-
tection of the police.
The Times SLadThe Freeman's Journal, 12 Feb., 1885; Davftt,
FaU of Feudalism (London, 1904).
E. A. D'Alton.
Maccabees. See Machabees.
MacOaghwell (Cavellus), Hugh, archbishop and
theologian, b. at Saul, Co. Down, 1571; d. 22 Sept.,
1626. He received his earliest education in his native
Slace and then passed to a famous school in the Isle of
[an. On his return to Ireland he was selected by
Hugh, Prince of Tyrone, as tutor to his sons Henry and
Hugh. He was sent by the prince as special messen-
ger to the Court of Spain to solicit aid for the Ulster
forces. During his stav at Salamanca, where the
Court then resided, he frequented the schools of the
university and took doctor's degrees in divinity. Soon
afterwards he gave up all worldlv greatness to enter the
Franciscan order. He enjoyecl a ^at reputation sa
a theologian, and his commentaries on John Duns
Scotus were held in high repute. Vemulaeus sajrs
that he was conspicuous for his virtues and that his
holiness of life and profound learning made him the
jBirade of his time. It was principally due to his
m&t influence at the Spanish Court that the Iri^
Franciscan College of St. Anthony was founded at
Louvain. After his entry into the order, Hugh taught
for some time in the University of Salamanca, tli^n he
was appointed superior and lecturer at St. Anthony's,
Louvam. Among his pupils were John Colgan, Pat-
rick Fleming, Hugh Ward, Anthony Hickey, etc. He
was summoned to Rome to lecture in the convent of
Aracoeli; but his energies- were not limit^ to his work
as professor. He was employed by the pope on
several commissions. He gave substantial help to
Father Luke Wadding in founding and developing St.
Isidore's and the Ludovisi colleges for Irish students.
On 17 March. 1626, Urban VIII, passing over all the
other candidates, nominated Hugh MacCaghwell
Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of all Ireland;
the consecration took place on 7 June^ in the church
of St. Isidore. Thomas Walsh, Archbishop of Cashel,
was consecrated at the same time. The consecrating
prelate was Gabriel, Cardinal de Trejo, a great friend
of the Irish. His health had been much weakened by
his manifold duties and the great austerities he prac-
tised. In making the visitations of the provinces of
the order he always travelled on foot, and passed
much time in prayer and fasting. While making
preparation for nis departure for his arduous mission
ne was seized with fever and died. He was buried in
the church of St. Isidore, and his friend Don John
O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, had a monument placed over
his grave. Nicolaus Vemulaeus delivered an oration
before the university commemorating the virtues and
learning of the archbishop, which was published at
Cologne, 1657.
MacCaghwell's principal works are: "Scoti Com-
mentaria in quatuor litros Sententiarum", 2 vols.,
folio, Antwerp, 1620 (to this work is prefixed a life of
Scotus) ; " Scoti Commentaria seu Reportata Parisien-
sia"; "QusEstiones quodlibetales"; **Quffistiones in
libros de anima"; *' Quajstiones in metaphysicam" ;
etc. He also wrot43 a work in Irish, which was printed
at the Irish press in the college of St. Anthony, Lou-
vain, in 1018. entitled "Scathaiu sacramuinthe iia
Aithrighe", that is, "The Mirror of the Sacmment
of Penance ".
Wadding -Sbarale A, Scriptores Ord. Mtn. (Rome, 1806);
Joannes a S. Ant., Bibliotheca Univ. Franciscana (Madrid,
1732); Vernuljkus, Acad. Lovaniensis; Idem, Rhetorum Coll.
Parcensis (Cologne, 1657); Wabb's works, ed. Hariub (Dublin.
1764); O'Reilly, Irish Writers (Dublin, 1820); Stdart, Hist,
o/ Armagh; Rbnehan, Collections on Irish Cath. //wtorw (Dub-
lin, 1861); MoRAN, Spicilegium Ossoriense, Ist series; Brady,
Episcopal Succession xn England, Scotland and Ireland (Rome,
1876) ; Bbenan, Ecclesiastical Historu of Ireland CDublin, 1866) ;
Meehan, Irish Hierarchy in the 17th Century (Dublin, 1877);
Webb, Compendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878). Many
important aoouments and letteis relating to Hugh MacCagh-
well are presorved in the archives of the Franciscan convent,
Dublin. Gregory Cleary.
MacOarthy, Denib Florence, well-known Irish
poet of the nineteenth century, b. in Lower O'Connell
Street, Dublm, 26 May, 1817; d. at Blackrock, Dub-
lin, 7 April, 1882. His early life, before he devoted
himself to literary pursuits, calls for little remark.
From a learned priest, who had spent much time in .
Spain, he acquired that intimate knowledge of Span-
isn, which he was later to turn to such good advan-
tage. In April, 1834, before he was yet seventeen, he
contributed his first verses to the "Dublin Satirist".
He was one of that brilliant coterie of writers whose
utterances through the "Nation" influenced so pow-
erfully the Irish people in the middle of the last cen-
tury. In this organ, started by Charles Gavan Duffy
in 1842, appeared over the pseudonym of Desmond
most of his patriotic verse. In 1846 he was called to
the Irish bar, but never practised. In the same year
he edited "The Poets and Dramatists of Ireland",
which he prefaced with an essay on the early history
and religion of his countrymen. He also edited about
this time "The Book of Irish Ballads" (by varioua
McOABTHT
485
MoOLOSKiT
&uthc»«), with an introductory essay from his pen
on ballad poetry in general. In 1850 appeared his
" Ballads, roems, and Lyrics ", original and trans-
lated. His attention was first directed to Oalderon
by a passage in one of Shelley's essa^rs, and thencefor-
ward the interpretation of the " Spanish Shakespeare "
claimed the greater psirt of his attention. The first
volume of his translations, containing six plskyBf ap-
peared in 1853, and was followed by further instal-
ments in 1861, 1867, 1870, and 1873. His version of
" Daybreak in Capacabana " was completed only a few
months before his death. Until 1864 he resid^ prin-
cipally on Killiney Hill, overlooking Dublin Bay. The
delicate health of some members of his family then
rendering a change of climate imperative, he paid a
prolonged visit to the Continent^ and on his return
settled in London, where he published, in addition to
his translations, "Shelley's Early Life", which con-
tains an interesting account of that poet's visit to
Dublin in 1812. He had already for some months
resettled in his native land, when death overtook him
»n Good Friday, 1882.
His poems are distinguished by a noble sense of har-
mony and an exquisite sympathv with natural beauty.
One of the most gracef \J of Irish lyrists, he is entirely
free from the morbidity and fantastic sentiment so
much affected by modem poets. Such poems as " The
Bridal of the Year", "Summer Longmgs", and his
long narrative poem. "The Voyage of St. Brendan",
seem with the ye&rs out to increase in general esteem.
The last-mentioned, in which a beautiful paraphrase
of the "Ave Maris Stella" is inserted as tne evening
song of the sailors, is not more clearly characterized
by its fine poetic insight than by that earnest religious
feeling which marked its author throughout life. But
it is by his incomparable version of Calderon that he
has most surely won a permanent place in English
letters. For this task-^-always beset with extreme
difficulties — of transferring the poetry of one language
into the poetry of another without mutilating the
spirit or form of the original, he was qualified by the
sympathy of his countrymen with the Catholic spirit
of the Latin races, and especially with Spain as the
mythical cradle of the Irish race. His success is suffi-
ciently testified by Ticknor, who declares in his " His-
tory of Spanish Literature" that our author "has
succeeded in giving a faithful idea of what is grandest
and most effective in his [sc. Calderon 's] genius . . .
to a degree which I had previously thought impossible.
Nothing, I think, in the English language will give us
so true an impression of what is most characteristic of
the Spanish cframa. and of Spanish poetry generally".
Freeman's Journal (Dublin. 10 April, 1882); Nation (DubUn,
15 April. 1882); Read, CabinH of Irish Literature, IV, 154;
O'DoNOGHUE, Poets of Ireland (Dublin), 140; Clerks in Dublin
Review, XL (1883), 260-93.
Thomas Kennedy.
McCarthy, Edward J. See Halifax, Abcudio-
CESE OF.
MftcOarthy, Nicholas Tuite, called the Abb^
de L^vignac, b. in Dublin on 19 May, 1769; d. at
Ann^cy, Savoy, 3 May, 1833. He was the second
son of Count Justin MacCarthy, by Mary Winefrid
Tuite, daughter of Nicholas Tuite. Chamberlain to
the King of Denmark. At the age of four he was taken
by his parents to Toulouse, where, disgusted with
English law as administered in Ireland, they took up
their permanent abode. Later he was sent to the
College du Plessis in Paris. At the age of fourteen he
received tonsure at the seminary of St-Magloire. He
had nearly completed his course of theological studies
at the Sorbonne when the Revolution forced him to
leave. He retired to Toulouse. His ordination to
priesthood was j)ostponed until his forty-fifth vear
(1814), partly owing to the Revolution, and partly to
a weakness of the loins which rendered it imposBible
for him to stand for any considerable tim^. Having
sufficiently recovered from this infirmity, he entered
the seminary of Ohamb^ry, in Savoy, in 1S13, and was
ordained to priesthood in June, 1814. Toulouse was
the scene of his first missionary labours. In a short
time he became famous as a preacher. In 1817 he was
offered the Bishopric of Montauban, which he refused.
He entered the Society of Jesus in 1818, and made his
simple vows two years later. He was reserved exclu*
sively for preaching. So noted was his talent in this
respect that he was ap{>ointed during his novitiate to
preach the Advent Station before the Court of France.
The fame of his preaching spread throughout the king«
dom, and accordingly he was invited to preach in all
the principal cities of the countrv, as well as in Swit-
zerland. He was admitted to the solemn profession
of the order in 1828. The Revolution of 1830 led him
to retire to Savoy, whence he was summoned to Rome,
arriving in October of the same vear. While in Rome
he preached every Sunday before the most distin-
guished personages there. After a short time, how-
ever, his health,' never robust, became greatly im-
mired; but not even this lessened his spiritual zeal.
On leaving Rome he settled in Turin, at a college ol
his order. At the request of the King of Sardima —
whose brother Charles Emmanuel was a novice in the
Society of Jesus — the Abb4 MacCarthy conducted a
retreat for the Brigade of Savoy, and did much good
amongst the military, his time oeing completely de-
voted to the pulpit and confessional. He preached
the Lenten course of sermons at Ann^cy, but beings
soon afterwards taken ill, expired there, in the bishop'c
palace, and was buried in the cathedral. As a
preacher, he was in eloquence inferior only to such
men as Bossuet and Massillon; but whilst they spoke
principally for a special class of hearers, the Abb^
MacCarthy's sermons are for all countries and for all
time, and are to \:>e regarded even at the present day,
for depth of thought, for piety, and for practical appli-
cation, as among the best contributions to homuetio
literature.
Dkplace, Biographical Sketch prefixed to Sermons (Lyom,
1834) ; Mahonet, Biographical Notice to tr. of Sermons (DubUnf
1848); Dictionary of htatxorwil Biography (London. 1803).
P. A. Beecher.
McOloskey, John, fourth Bishop and second Arch-
bishop of New York, and first Amencan Cardinal, bom
in Brooklyn, N. Y., 20 March, 1810; died in New York,
10 October, 1885. His parents, Patrick McCloskey
and Elizabeth (Hassen), natives of Dungiven, Co.
Deny, Ireland, came to America in 1808, soon after
their marriage. John McCloskey was sent to the
leading classical school in New York kept by Thomas
Brady, father of James T. and Judge John R. Brady.
In 1822 he entered Mt. St. Mary's College, Emmits-
burg, Md. Here under the care of two French priests,
Dubois and Brut4, he passed the next twelve years.
He was ordained priest in St. Patrick's Cathedral,
New York, 12 January, 1834, the first native of New
York State to enter the secular priesthood. His
studious temperament, his thorough and elegant cul-
ture, and gentle bearing destined him for the profes-
sor's chair. In February, 1834, he was named pro-
fessor of philosophy in the new college just opened at
Nyack-on-the-Hudson. At this early period he gave
promise, afterwards so fully realized, of being an elo-
3uent and graceful pulpit orator. The college was
estroyed by fire in its nrst year.
'This accid.ent and the desire of Father McCloskey to
build up by travel a much impaired constitution, as
well as an ambition to pursue a higher course of rcsad-
ing in Rome, determined him to visit Europe. He
saBed from New York 3 November, 1834, for Havre,
and reached Rome, 8 February, 1835. A carefully
kept diary of the incidents of the journey tells of a man
of Keen observation and calm practical judgment of
men and institutions. He was fortunate in bearing
with him letters of introduction to e(Q\x^Ri^^JoRi^«6»^«ss|J
McOLOSKEY
186
McOLOSKET
ecclesiastics of the Eternal City, which brought him
into personal relations with men ^ho were making
history. Amongst his lifelong friends were Cardinals
Fesch and Weld, and others who were raised to the
Eurple later, as Monsignori Keisach, Angelo Mai,
[ezzofanti, Wiseman, and Dr. Cnllen. He saw much
of the young P6re Lacordaire during this time, for
whom he formed a warm friendship. His delicate
health would not permit him to enter any of the col-
leges, but he took rooms in the Convent of the Thea-
tines at S. Andrea della Valle and entered as a student
of the Gregorian University under the Jesuits. Here
he had as professors men like Perrone and Manera
and others worthy to sit in the chairs of Bellarmine
and Suarez. His health did not prevent hard study,
as he has left reams of written notes and comments
on class lectures and the monuments of Rome during
ihe two years of his stay in the centre of the Christian
world. From these manuscripts one sees that no
influence of that "city of the soul'' failed to leave its
impression on him; its Christian monuments and
pagan ruins, its city and country life, the influence of
foreigners on the people of Italv — not always for good
— ^he has left iudiciotisly noted in letters and diaries.
"Each day", he writes in a letter to a friend, "affords
new sources of pleasure and an intellectual banquet, of
which one can never partake to satiety. . . . Oh,
what cannot one enjoy who comes to this great classic
and holy city with a mind prepared to appreciate
its historic and religious charms!'' The balance of
three years of absence he passed in travel through
Italy, Germany, Belgium, France, England, and Ire-
land.
In Rome his love for and devotion to the Holy See
was deepened and became a cult of his after years.
As an Ainerican he was naturally broad and capable
of taking a wide view of peoples and institutions. This
was balanced by the events of the time and made him
the conservative force he proved to be later on. A spirit
of renewed loyalty to the Church was strongly moving
European centres of thought. Lacordaire had in 1835
begun his Notre Dame "Conferences", which com-
manded the attention of all France and drew around
his pulpit the sceptical youth of Paris; Dr. Wiseman,
as rector of the English College in Rome, was giving
his "Lectures on the connexion between Science and
Revealed Religion", which gained him the ear of all
England; DolTinger bv the first and second parts of
his "History of the Church", Gorres by his "Chris-
tian Mysticism", and Mohler by his "Symbolism"
had begun to fix the attention of Germany on the
power of the Church to hold men of ability. The Cath-
olic Movement under Newman had be^un at Oxford;
Montalembert had succeeded in forming a Catholic
SLrty in France with himself as president. Father
cCloskey's intimate knowledge of all these forces,
focussed as they were in the Eternal City, gave him
ever after a broader and more intelligent interest in
the affairs of the Church, especially in Europe, and
made his forecast of things singularly accurate m after
life. These advantages were enjoyed by few other
American cler^nien of his time, so that, on his return
to his native diocese in the autumn of 1837, his posi-
tion was determined. Although only twenty-seven
and without any experience in administration, he was
placed in charge, as pastor, of one of the most im-
portant parishes of tne diocese, St. Joseph's, Sixth
Avenue, New York. Hero was one of the strongholds
of what was known as " Trusteeism ", a form of church
government which made bishop and pastor subordi-
nate in all matters not purely spiritual to the laity.
Father McCloskey now found a field for the exercise of
a marked featiu^ of the man — self-control, the key to
the successful control of others with the minimum of
friction which distinguished him all through his life.
The trustees of St. Joseph's refused to receive him,
tlemanding a pastor of their choice. The pews were
riven up. " Sunday after Sunday for nine months did
preach when there were not a dozen persons between
pulpit and porch in the centre aisle ", said the cardinal
m telling of those early days. The trustees refused to
pay him any salary, and, unwilUng to beUeve that he
was the writer of Ins forcible and eloquent sermons^
said they were composed by an older and abler priest.
To all this he paid no heed, never even making a pass-
ing allusion to it from the pulpit. ' * Father MdDloskey
wul not fight, but he will conquer", said an old college
companion at the time. He did overcome by that
"charity which seeketh not its own"; his opponents
became his best supporters, and he was wont to say
in his old age that the. years that followed in St.
Joseph's were the happiest of his life.
In 1841 Father McCloskey was appointed hy Bishop
Huffhes first president of St. John's College, Fordham,
still retaining charge of St. Joseph's, to which he re-
turned in 1842 after organizing the new college. At
the petition of Bishop Hughes for an assistant in
his advancing years, Gregory XVI appointed Father
McCloskcjy, and on 10 March, 1844, he was consecrated
titular Bishop of Axiere and Coadjutor of New York
with the right of succession. During the three years
that followed, the young bishop lent efficient aid to the
head of the diocese in making the visitations of the
vast territory then comprising the whole State of New
York and most of New Jersey. The steady ^wth of
the Church in this territory called for a division of the
diocese, and the two new sees of Albany and Buffalo
were erected, to the former of which Bishop McCloskey
was transferred 21 May, 1847. Here his great life-
work began, for which he was well prepared by his
priestly zeal and scholarship, his eloquence and suc-
cessful experience in administration. It was no small
work to organize a diocese of 30,000 square miles in
extent, containing less than 25 churches and 34 priests,
2 orphan asylums and 2 free schools (Shea, voL 4, p.
126; and " Cath. Ahnan.", 1848). The Catholics, scat-
tered and poor, numbered 60,000. After seventeen
years of his administration of Albany he left behind as
a result a noble cathedral, eighty-four priests, one hun-
dred and thirteen churches, eight chapels, forty-four
minor stations, eighty-five missionaries, three acade-
mies for boys, one for girls, six orphan asylums, fifteen
parochial schools, and St. Josepn's Provincial Semi-
nary, Troy, which he, with Arcnbishop Hughes, was
largely instrumental in securing and equipping. He
also introduced into the diocese several religious
communities, amongst others, the Augustinians, the
Jesuits, the Franciscans, the Capuchins, and Oblates.
For the care of the young ^irls under his charge, he
provided by inviting the Religious of the Sacred Heart
to Kenwood-on-the-Hudson ; the Sisters of Charity,
the Sisters of Mercy and the Sisters of St. Joseph ; and
for the boys the Christian Brothers were also intro-
duced.
In January, 1864, the Metropolitan See of New York
became vacant by the death of its first Archbishop,
John Hughes, and all looked to the Bishop of Albany
as the successor. His name was placed first on the
tema sent to Rome by the bishops of the province.
Amongst the bishops, priests and laity, there was only
one dissenting voice, that of Bishop McCloskey him-
self. An impression obtained very generally at the
time and for years afterwards as to the bishop's atti-
tude. It was said that, having been consecrated coad'
jutor with the right of succession to the see of New
York, twenty years before, he claimed the right on the
vacancy of the see. The injustice of such a suspicion
will appear from the following extract of a letter writ '
ten by him to one of the most influential members of
the Congregation of the Propaganda, Cardinal Reisach,
the friend of his youth: "I write to implore your
Eminence ", he says, " in case there should be any dan-
ger of my appointment or of my being transferred
from Albany to New York, to aid roe in preventing
HoOLOBKXT
4S7
HgOLOSKXT
h, and to save me from the humiliation and miseir been to him. la the council-chamber, BUTfS Caiduul
ttt bein^ placed in a position for the duties and re- Gibbons, his colleagues always listened with marked
•poDsibihties of which I feel myself both physically attention and respect to bis words, and rarely, if ever,
and moislly unequal and unfit. After having been did anv of them dissent from the views that he ex-
appointed and consecrated coadjutor of the Bishop pressed. He attended the Vatican Council during it
length and was a member of one of the moat
imporlAnt commissions — that on Discipline. Cardinal
Capalti, who presided over this commission, spoke of
the wisdom o( the Archbishop of New York in terms of
the highest admiration. It has been erroneouslj
turn by the high officials, and
the letter was signed by the
most noted citisens, amongst
whom were Governor Sey-
mour,Erastu3 Corning, Rufus
Kingj^Thurlow Weed, Philip
Ten Eyck. and different mem-
bers of tne Van Rensselaer
ilsel^ but declared hirnserf
of New York, with the right of succession, I re-
signed both coadjutonihip and right of suceesaion
to come to Albany. I then resolved, and still hold
to the resolution, that, as far as it depended on any
free will or consent of my own, I should never again „
return to New York. Having been relieved from stated that Archbishop McCioskey was opposed to
the prospect of succession, I never thought of after- Infallibility. Nothing could be further from tne truth,
wards aspiring or being called to it. J speaji only Cardinal Gibbons, who attended tlie Vatican Council,
from the deepest sincerity of heart and from tl» writes:"] haveamostdistinctrecollectionoftheatti-
strongest conviction of conscience when I say that I tude of the different prelates in regard to Hie question
possess neitberthe learning, nor prudence, noreneru, of Infallibility, and I recall most distinctly that Arch-
Dor firmness, nor bodily health or strength which are bishop McClcukey was not opposed to the InfalUbilitr
requisite for such an arduous '■
and highly responsible office
as that of Archbishop of New
York. I recoil from the very
thought of it witbsbuddering,
and I do most humbly trust
that such a crushing load will
not be placed upon my weak
and unworthy shoulders."
This soul-revealing letter tells
that theChurch still haswith-
in her hierarehy men of the
stamp of Chiysostom, Basil,
and Gregory Naiienzeu, men
who strained every nerve
to avoid bonoure as much as
men of the world strive for
them. He was the choice at
the Holy See and was pro-
moted to New York, 6 May,
JoHM Oaxmnal HcOLoscn
_ , an opinion held
by many at the Council,"
The Archbishop was present
at the closing session and
voted for the definition with
the hundreds of other bishops.
His attitude on this question
is clearly set forth in the fol-
lowing extract from a letter
to Piua IX: "Through the
grace of God, the Catholics of
the United States of North
America are one and un-
divided in an orthodox faith,
in an \inwavering fideUty to
all Catholic doctrines and
loyalty and allegiance to the
infallible and sovereign au-
thority of the Roman Church,
and in .irdent filial love ana
devotion to your Holiness.
It is our glory and our joy
that we are preserved from
error and directed in the sure
way of temporal and eternal
happinessbyoursubjectionto
the infallible teaching and si
and Townsend famihes. The bishop declined the premeauthoritjroftheMotherandMistressoFChurches,"
honour; he loved the city where he was the most During his visit to Rome at the Vatican Council he
distinguished citizen, but with his usual modesty mode the final impression which resulted in his eleva-
ebrank from any public demonstration. He was in- tion to the cardinalate. Pius IX said c^ him: "He is
stalled in St. Patrick's Cathedral, Mott St., New a man of princely mien and bearing." He was pre-
York, 37 August, 1864. The text of his first sermon to conized cardinal in the Consistory of 15 March, 187S.
his new cha^ was the key to his whole after admin- The news of the first American cardinal was received
istration: "^ace be to ^ou." He was not given to with universal applause; Catholic and Protestant, all
controversy; in fact the time for this hod passed away, felt that no one was more worthy as a representative
He was evidently a man of I^vidence. destined to of the American Church to receive the highest honour
garnerandgiveincreasc to the fruits of his valiant f*e- in the gift of the pope. It was the passing away for-
(Iccossor's conquests. The first of these fruila was the ever of old-time prejudice, and pointed attenlioa to
unfinished new cathedral, begun in 185S, but suspended the proverbial wisdom of Rome. His in\'estiture took
onaccountofthc breaking out of the Civil War. After place in the cathedral, Mott St., 27 April, 1875. The
fifteen years of collecting funds, looking after the con- hireit-a was imposed by the Arehbiahop of Baltimore,
struction, visiting Kurope to procure windows and James Roosevelt Bayley, as dele^te of the Apostolic
altars, and after ^vini; evervthlng he poaiessed to See. The bearers of toe insignia from Rome were
hasten its completion, he had the consolation on 25 MonsignorRoncetti,Dr.UbeIdi,andCountMarafDschi.
May, 1879, of dedicating it to the service of God, It was one of the most memorable events in the history
Distin^iuished for his eloquence in the pulpit and of the Church in the United States. The cardinal vis-
wisdom in the council-chamber, Archbishop lloCIos- ited Rome that year in August, where he was received
key was much sought after on great occasions as a by Pius IX with great affection. He then took poe-
preacher and heard in consultation with deep rever- ses8ionofhistitularcburch,SantaMariasopraMinerva.
encc by his brethren. He was present at the Beoond In 1878 be again visited Rome and assisted at the
and Third Plenary Councils of Baltimore, at the coronation of Leo XIII, from whom he received tlie
latter of which he preached the opening sermon. On cardinal's hat in Consistory, 28 March,
enteringthepulpitne received a telegram announcing The growth of the diocese and the increasing in-
tbe dentructioQ of his cathedral by fire. During the firmities of age called for the aid of an assistant, and
■ermoiiliegiiveuoevidenceof tbeshoclcitinqst Dave on 1 October, 1880, Rt. Rev. Michael A. Conri^^piv,
HoOLOSKIT 4
Kihop of Newark, was Darned coftdjutor of New
York with the right of sucoeasion, with the title of
Archbishop of Petra. The Uat notable public ap-
pearance of Cardinal McCloskey waa on the occasion
of the fiftieth anniversary of lus ordination, 12 Jan-
uary, 1884. His reply to addressee on that day waa
yery suggestive; "On this occaaion I cannot but con-
trast the scene of to-day with that of fifty years ago
in old St. Patrick's Cathedral. There were only one
bJBhop and two priests and not many people in the
ohurcn. To-day, the fiftieth anniversarv of that
event, I behold this aanctuair filled with me bishops
of my province and the faithful clergy of my diocese,
and this great cathedral crowded to overflowing with
my devoted people. For all this I have only to thank
God Who has spared me in His goodness to witnesa
the glory of this day and the wonderful fruits of the
mustaniseed. As to all you have said with r^ardta
promotions that have followed one after another. I
can onlysay that not one of them was ever sought oy
me." These last words reveal the true character of
America's liM cardinal better than volumes could do.
The last public act of Cardinal HcCloskey is one for
which the American Church will ever feel deeply
grateful. The Italian Government's act of spoliation
of ecclesiastical property threatened, in March, 1834,
to expropriate tlie American College at Rome. At
once the Cardinal laid the matter before President
Arthur, appealing for the protection of this institu-
tion as the property of American citiiens. The Secre-
tary of State, Mr. Frelinghuysen. through the American
HinlatcrtotheQuirinai, brought the ca3c to the notice
of the Italian Government, and the college was saved.
Tile twenty-one years of his administration as arch-
bishop covered all the sees of New York, New Eng-
land, and most of New Jersey, his suffragans being
All«Jiy, Boston, Brooklyn, Burlington, Buffalo,
Hartford, Newark, Portland, Sprin^eld, and the
territory later apportioned off for the Dioceses of Fall
River, Ogdensburg, Syracuse, and Trenton. To pro-
vide for the wants of thin vast territory, he held the
Fourth Provincial Council of New York m September,
1883, havioK also held the Third and Fourth Diocesan
Synods of T^w York. Considering his strength, he was
perhaps the most hard-working man in his diocese. "To
minister to the rapidly growing wants of his people,
which now numbered 600,000, the priests having grown
from 150 to 400. the churches and chapels from 85 to
229, schools and academies from 53 to 97, the pupils in
the CathoUc schools from 16,000 to 37,000, was a t«sk
that called for more than ordinary energy and seal.
The New York Catholic Protectory will ever stand as
a striking monmnent of his foresight in making pro-
vision for a class of children much neglected, l«sides
adding to the number of hospitals, homes, and asylums
as the growing wants demanded. But perhaps the
work which will ever stand out as evidence of his
wonderful energy and ical, no less than of his refined
and elevated taste, are the three cathedrals built by
him: the Immaculate Conception, Albany; St. Pat-
rick's, Mott St., rebuilt ftftcrtne fire, and St. Patrick's,
Fifth Avenue, New York, which last was solemnly
consecrated 5 October, 1910.
Cardinal McCloskey has often been compared with
his predecessor by those who knew them both.
Father Hewitt wrote: "During hia [Archbishop
Hughes'] time of warfare, he wielded the battle-axe of
Coeur de Lion, while hia successor [Cardinal McClos-
key], whose characteristics were in marked contrast to
dinsi Gibbons said: "These two prelates had each his
predominant traits of character. The one [McCloskey]
recalls the Prince of the Apostles, blending authority
with paternal kindness; the other reminding us of the
Apostle of the Gentiles, wielding the two-edged swotd
01 the spirit, the tongue and the pen." Each prelate
waa a tnan of Providence, rused up by God for hia
time. StonnywerethedayawhenArchbishopHughea
took the helm, and he was equal to the emergency.
Peaceful the times of Cardinal McCloskey, no great
crises calling for striking evidences of ptower. He gave
himself unreservedly to the work his hands found
ready to do; to conserve and build up, to increase the
work of him who went before him. He waa a ripe
scholar, more erudite than prominent. If his profi-
ciency in sacred science was not generally accorded the
prominence it might well have commanded, we must
attribute it to his modesty and humility, of which we
find so many unmistakable signs in his letters. In fact
he never lost an opportunity of denying himself what
natural ambition might honestly take. As a young
Eriest in Rome he declined the degree of Doctor of
livinity; he strove with all his might to avoid promo-
tion to the Metropolitan See of New York, and no one
was more surprised than himself when the news flashed
aCTOn the ocean of his elevation to the cardinalate.
He delighted to conoeal the gifts which, if allowed to
display themselves, would have secured the applause
of all men. His written and impromptu sermons and
diaooutses showed his cultured mind and strong nat-
ural gifts to the beet advantage The dignity and
grace of manner, the quiet but persuasive style of
matory that carries conviction to every hearer were
particularly his. "But all these endowments were as
nothing compared to the beauty of hia soul which waa
the seat of all those virtues that render a man accept-
able before Godand dear to his fellow-men. If we had
to mention only one trait of character, we ahould select
what perhapa was the most conspicuous, certainly the
most edifying — the admirable blending in him of dig-
nity which repelled none with a. sweetness whicu
attracted all, a rare blessing —
' Non bene convcniunt nee in una sede morantur
Hajestos et amor. . .' "
Ja the soul of Cardinal McCloskey, where Christian
virtue had solid roots, they co-existed in a wonderful
manner. In him were coupled the majesty of a
prince, which inspired no fear, but exacted the rever-
ence of all, with the simphcity and amiablencss of a
child. Wellmay we say of him that he was "Beloved
of God and men."
McClohkht, MB. — Diaruanil JUaerary of JoMmtu to Rom*
(1835} in Cad^rya Arehvoa of Ntw Yorki Cl^hke. ti™ o/
Dtceaied Prelain (New York. 1S88): Pablet. HiUoni of St.
Palriri'i Calkrdral (Ne« York, !908): She*. History of Oie
Catholic CAtirth in the UnilBd Statei (N«u York. lSe21: Hit-
il RetonU and Studia
[/nil
'• Calhali
'iff A^aria.'JaCI.Be?- CaW^olw Quarlerlj/' Rivirai
■— ■--; Tht MoniA.XXW']. Ill tieAea.iOi.
JoH.V M. Fahlet.
17 September, 1909. He was the youngest of five
brothers. Two of his older brothers also became
priests: John, tor years president of Mount St. Mary'a
College, Emmitaburg, Md.; and George, pastor of the
ordained subdeacon at that aeminary by Arch-
bishop Eccleston of Baltimore, and 6 Oct., 1852, was
ordained priest by Bishop Hughes in St. Patrick's
Cathedral, New York. He said his first Mass in the
basement of the Church of the Nativity, of which his
brother George was then pastor, and remained there
ten months as assistant. Then, from a dcsirctotive
in the aeminary eloiBter, he returned with the consent
of his superiors to Mount St. Mary's, where he taught
moral theology, Scripture, and Latin for about six
years. He was appointed, 1 Dec, 1859, the first rec-
tor (rf the American College at Rome, being the unani-
mous choice of the American bishops. He reache<l
Rome March, 1880. Georgetown University li^nl
sboKly before c<mferred on him the degree lA Doct or ot
MacDOXALD 489 IftAGDOnUi
Divinity. He was rector until his promotion to the of Glenaladale are the senior cadet branch of the Ma<V
See of Louisville in May, 1868, being consecrated Donalds of Clanranald, and Captain MaoDonald waa
bishop in the chapel of the college on 24 May of that chosen "Tanister" or second in command to, and
year by Cardinal de Reisach, Archbishop of Munich, representative of, his chief. It was an evil time for
Bavaria, assisted by Monsignor Xavier de M^rode, Jacobite Scotland, especially for Catholic Jacobite
minister of Pius^lX, and by Monsignor Viteleschi, Scotland. The Catholic Jacobite was cruelly perse-
Archbishop of Osimo and Cmgoli. Dr. McCloskey's cuted, and Alexander MacDonald of Boisdale, south
administration of the American College saw the crisis Uist, a former Catholic, outdid others in severity bv
in the history of its affairs, an echo of the crisis in compelling his tenants either to renounce their faith
American political life. He was rector during our or lose their land and homes. Thev chose to emigrate
Civil War. In spite of all his efforts and diplomatic to America, but, being utterl^r destitute, found this
skill the spirit of faction affected the college, Southern impossible. Hearing of their pitiable condition, C^p-
Catholics being as loyal to the South as the Northern- tain MacDonald went to investigate. What he saw
ers were to the North. Moreover, some of the bishops moved him to an act of heroic abnegation. It is said :
could at the time send neither students nor support, and ''As a nursery for the priesthood, no old Highland
the very existence of the institution was threatened, house can rival that ot Glenaladale, from the time
But Dr. McCloskey stood loyally to his post, and Laird Angus became a priest in 1676, to Archbishop
cheerfully bore adversity. Angus, Metropolitan of Scotland, in 1892 ". Captain
He arrived in Louisville as its bishop towards the MacDonald proved himself a worthy son of his house,
end of summer, 1868. The following facts attest the when he decided to mortgage his estates to his cousin
energy of his character and the zeal of his administra- in order to aid his distressed compatriots. With the
tion. He found sixty-four churches and left in his dio- money thus obtained he purchased (1771) a tract
cese at his death one hundred and sixty-five. He was of land in Prince Edwara Island. The following
zealous to provide chapels for the small settlements of year the South Uist tenants with other Catholics
his jurisdiction. From •eighty, the number of his from the mainland of Scotland embarked for Canada,
priests grew to be two hundred. He introduced many Glenaladale, who had from the first resolved to exile
religious orders into the diocese, the Passionists, the himself with them, came a year later. In the Revolu-
Benedictines, the Fathers of the Resurrection, the Sis- tionary War he and General Small raised the 84th
ters of Mercy, the Little Sisters of the Poor, the (Royal Highland Emigrant) Regiment. Captain Mao-
Franciscan Sisters, and the Brothers of Mary. The Donald and his men fought so well for the king that
growth of the parochial schools was chiefly the prod- he was offered the governorship of Prince Edwsuxl Is-
uct of his zeal. The number of children attending land, but the Test Act being still in force, he could
them increased from 2000, in 1868, to 12,000, in 1909. not, as a Catholic^ comply with the statutory con-
In 1869 he established the diocesan seminary known as ditions. From this time until his death he was ao-
Preston Park Seminary. He was present at the Vat- tively engaged in the service of the new colonists, both
ican Council in 1870. He also attended the Second in regard to their temporal and spiritual affairs. His
Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1866, and the Third, in kindness and generosity knew no bounds and, extend-
1884, strongly advocatingin the former the cause of ing to those of other faiths, did much to create
the American College at Rome. He had a splendid a feeling, rare enough in thase days, of mutual tolera-
physique and was a man of talent and eultureo taste, tion and esteem. He himself never became wealthy,
He had a strong will, and held tenaciously to any view and his Scotch estates eventually passed to the cousm
or plan of action that he had once entered on. Of to whom they had been mortgagee!. His people, how-
strong Christian faith, of exemplary priestly life, he ever, increased richly in numbers and in fortune. He
was especially charitable to the very poor and to the gave his tenants nine hundred and ninety-nine year
unfortunate classes of society. He will never be for- leases at a trifling rental, and from this came much
gotten by the unfortunate magdalens of the House of of their prosperity.
the Good Shepherd at Louis viUe. Every Sunday, Captam MacDonald married, first. Miss Gordon of
unless stormy weather prevented, he visited, in- Baldomie, aunt of Admiral Sir James Gordon; sec-
structed and consoled them, listening to each one's ondj Marjory MacDonald of Ghemish (Morar). Many
tale of woe and showing to this fallen class that charity of his descendants embraced the religious life, notably
of which Christ set the Divine example. He wrote a his two grandsons, John Alaistir MacDonald and Allan
life of St. Mary Magdalen (Louis^olle, 1900). His McDonell, both of the Society of Jesus,
love for the poor, whom he visited in their homes even „ MacDonald. SketcfuM ofHighiand^n (St. Jolm, N. B., 1848);
in Viiq nlH aitp rtiH f/^ whom Ha iravo •arhAf^voi* Tnnnfiv MacMillan, Early Hx9U>ry Of the Catholte Church m Prme9
in ms oia age, ana to wnom ne gave wnatever nioney ^^^^d Itiand (Quebec. i§06); MacDonald. A Knight of the
he owned, so that he died a poor man, lllummated the Eighteenth Century in The Messenger (January. Id^): Mao-
city in which he wielded the crosier with force and Donell, SkHAee, OUngarry in Canada (Montreal. 1893). note,
mprrv for Almost half a cpnf nrv Ha w«a KoIovaH Kv 130; BIacKbnub, History of the MacDonalde and Lords of the
mercv lor aimosi; nau a century. ±ie was Delovea by j,^ (Invem«. 1881); Records, ScoU Colleges at Douai, R4me,
all who knew him. Madrid, VaUadolid, and Ratisbon (Aberdeen. 1906).
This sketch of his life is founded on letters of his atoter. Mart Anna SpRAGUB MacDonaLD.
McCloskgt. and of his chancellor. Rev. Dr. Schuhmann: The
Aeeorc^ the diocesan organ of Louisville, files; Brahv, Htstory m*-«j^«^« 4— /s-x-d-i. e rr*
of the American College at Rome {If ewYork/l9lO), M»Cd0Iieil, ALEXANDER, first Bishop of King»-
Henrt a. Brann. ton, Ontario, Canada, b. 17 July, 1760, at Inchlaggan
^^ ^ ,. ,, in Glengarry, Scotland; d. 14 January, 1840, at
MacDonald, Alexander. See Victoria, Dig- Dumfries. Scotland. His early education was received
CESE OP. at Bourblach on Loch Morar. He attended the Scots
McDonald, James Charles. See Charlotte- CoUeges at Parte, and Valladolid, Spai^^
TOWN Diocese of. darned pnest at the latter place 16 February, 1787.
' * Returning to his native land he exercised the ministnr
MacDonald, John, Laird of Glenaladale and Glen- for five years m the Braes of Lochaber. In 1792 his
finnan, philanthropist, colonizer, soldier, b. in Glenala- people were evicted from their homes, and their lands
dale, Scotland, about 1742; d. at Tracadie, Prince were converted into sheepwalks. Despite the bitter
Edward Island, Canada. 1811; he was the son of Alex- feelings a^inst Catholics, lately intensified by the
ander and Margaret (MaoDonnell of Scotus). He Gordon Riots, and disregiuxiing the fact that, being a
entered the Scots College, Ratisbon, Bavaria, in 1756, Catholic priest he was ipso /ado an outlaw, imdauntod,
and there completed his education. Returning to he led his clansmen to the city of Glasgow, where he
Scotland, his high personal character and distinguifuied secured employment for them, acting as their devoted
mentality were quickly recognised. The MacDonalds pastor and laiCnfnlguflurdian^ a &lula«(\sw^}cv^^
ICACaMlOLL 490 MAODOHELL
Indeed lie continued to be for fifty years. Within tera for twenty-five years, though his home was every-
two years after the Highlanders' arrival in Glasgow, where in the province. On his arrival he found three
the Kevolution on the Continent ruined the export priests in the province, the Rev. Roderick Macdonell
trade of Glasgow and deprived them of their Uveli- (Leek) at St. Andrew's and St. Resis, the Rev. Fran-
hood. The only avenue open to the unemployed was cis Fitzimmons in Glengarry, ana the Rev. Father
service in the militia, but even this was closed to the Richard at Sandwich.
Glengarrymen, who, oeingCatholics, could not declare The Rev. Roderick Macdonell* died in 1806 and
themselves Protestants, as required for enlistment. Father Fitzimmons removed shortly afterwards to
The genius for organization possessed by Father New Brunswick; this left Father Macdonell in chaise
Macdonell, which was destined to make a great name of the whole province for the next ten years without
for him on two continents, and render valuable ser- any assistance. Father Richard being unable to speak
vice to Church and State, quickly showed itself. He English. He was obliged to travel over the country
boldly offered to organize his clansmen into a Catholic from the province line of Lower Canada to Lake
regiment. The pressing need of strengthening the Superior, carrying the requisites for Mass, and the
forces made the offer acceptable, and in 1704 the administration of the sacraments, sometimes on horse-
"Glengarry Fencible Rc^imenf was raised, and back, sometimes in Indian birch canoes, and some-
Father Macdonell, though it was contrarv to the times on foot, living among the savages with such
existing law, was appointed chaplain, thus becoming fare as they afforded, crossing the great lakes
the first Catholic chaplain in the British Army since and rivers, and even descending the rapids of the St.
the Reformation. The regiment was despatched to Lawrence in their dangerous craft. Equal hardships
the Isle of Guernsey in 1795, then threatened by the and privation he endured among the new settlers.
French, and on the breaking out of the Rebellion, they Thus he spent those years in travelling about, offering
were sent to Ireland in 1798. Bernard Kelly in the the Holy Sacrifice in rude huts, teachmg the children,
"Fate of Glengarry'', writing of their sojourn in the administering the sacraments and preaching to the
latter country says: "They everywhere won golden widely separated settlers throughout the great prov-
opinions by their humane l)ehaviour towards the van- ince, now Ontario. During the War of 1812 his power-
quished, which was in striking contrast with the fiog- ful infiuence was successfully used in rousing the mar-
kings, burnings, and hangings which formed the daily tial spirit of his countrymen, and indeed ot the other
occupation of the rest of the military. Father Mac- inhabitants, in defence of their adopte<l land. With
donell, who accompanied the regiment in all their the reorganized" Glengarry Fencibles" he was present
enterprises, was in.strumental in fostering this spirit in several engagements against the American forces,
of conciliation, and his efforts contributed not a little His civil and military services were recognized by the
to the extinction of the Rebellion. The Catholic British Government in 1816 by an addition to his own
chapels in many places had been turned into stables government allowance, and by an annual grant of
by the yeomanry, and these he caused to be restored £100 each, to three clerg3nnen and four school-masters.
to their proper use. He often said Mass himself in In 181 7 Upper Cana£. was set apart from the See of
these humble places of devotion, and invited the in- Quebec as a vicariate Apostolic, and two years later
habitants to leave their hiding places and resume once Father Macdonell was appointed vicar Apostolic, his
more their wonted occupations, assuring them of the consecration as Bishop of Khosina taking place in the
king's protection, if they behaved quietly and peace- Ursuline chapel, Quebec, on 31 December, 1820. A
ably. Such timely exhortations had an almost magi- significant incident was the gift to Bishop Macdonell
oal effect, though the terror-stricken population could of a magnificent episcopal ring by King George IV.
scarcely believe their eyes when they beheld a regi- Six years later, 14 February, 1826, the vicariate was '
ment of Roman Catholics, speaking their language, raised to a bishopric by Leo 5CII, and Bishop Macdonell
and among them a aoggarthj a priest, assuring them of then became the first Bishop of Upper Canada with
immunity from a government immemorially associ- his see at Kingston. Advancing age caused him to
ated with every species of wrong and oppression." ^P^Y ^^^ ^ oo-adjutor. Father Weld of Lulworth
An American bishop, lately deceased, has given this Ciastle, England, was appointed and consecrated
testimony to the chaplain s services and to the Irish Bishop of Amycla, and co-adjutor of Upper Canada,
people's gratitude: "The memory of Father Macdonell 1 August, 1826, but his health becoming impaired he
IS as green in those regions as the fields they ctiltivate. never assumed office. Bishop Macdonell's thorough
That holy, chivalrous priest saved the lives of many knowledge of the country and its people and his great
innocent Irishmen and restored the chapels to their administrative ability made his counsel desirable to
original purpose." At the close of the Rebellion the government, and on 12 October, 1831, he was
Father Macdonell was called to London in the interest called to the Legislative Council, and thereafter was
of the regiment, and was at the same time commis- accorded the title "Honourable". In a letter to a
sioned by the Bishops of Ireland to make known to the friend he writes of his appointment as follows: "The
British government their sentiments in regard to the only consideration that would induce me to think of
proposed legislative union of Great Britain and accepting such a situation, would be the hope of being
Ireland. The Fencibles were disbanded in Glasgow in able to promote the interests of our holy religion more
1802. effectually, and carrying my measures through the
The next two years found Father Macdonell in ne- Provincial Legislature with more facility and cxpedi-
gotiation with the government for the immigration of tion than I could otherwise do."
is people to Canada. Powerful forces were arrayed Five voyages to Europe, an average travel of two
against him, both at home and in the government, thousand miles per year through Ontario, the personal
but he eventually triumphed, and brought out in 1803 selection of church sites, in nearly all the places now
and 1804 large numbers of Catholic Highlanders to marked by cities and to>vn8 in the province of Ontario,
Glengarry in Upper Canada, where many of his faith untiring and successful efforts to obtain a fair share
and race were already exiled on account of persecution of government grants in money and land for church
in their native land. Father Macdonell arrived at and school purposes (the first grant of public money
Ywk, now Toronto, 1 November, 1804, and proceeded for a Catholic school in Ontario was obtained for St.
to settle the people on the lands granted by tne British Andrew's, Stormont County, in 1832), are all evi-
govemment. The whole of the present Dominion was dences of an unusually active life. His zeaJ for the
then the vast Diocese of Quebec. Father Macdonell formation of a native priesthood is abundantly shown
with authority of vicar-general was assigned to the in the establishment of the Seminary of lona at St.
mission of St. Raphael's in Glengarry, "the Cradle of Raphaers, in 1826, and of Rc^iopolis College at I^ngs-
the Church in Ontario ", which he made his headquar- ton, in 1838, not to speak of l£e many priests educated
MacDOKCLL
491
MAOSXM)
at his own expense. There is a statement left among
his papers showing that he expended £13,000 of his
private funds for tne furthering of religion and educa-
tion.
His volimxinous letters reveal the master mind of
the organizer and ruler, and the singleness of purpose
of the great churchman. His life was a striking exam-
ple of the truth that in the Catholic Church piety and
patriotism go hand in hand. In the year 1840 he died
in his native Scotland, whither he had gone with the
hope of interesting Irish and Scotch bishops in a
scheme of emigration. In 1861 his remains were
brought to Kingston by Bishop Horan and were in-
terred beneath the cathedral. Bishop Macdondil in
1804 found three priests and three churches in Upper
Canada. By his energy and perseverance he induced a
considerable immigiation to the province, and left at
his death forty-eight churches attended by thirty
priests. The memory that survives him is that of a
great missionary, prelate, and patriot — the Apostle of
Ontario.
Letters of Biehop MaedoneU: Macoonell, Reminiscencea of
the Hon. and Rt. Rev. Alexander Macdonell; Kelly, Tfie Fate
q[ Qlengarry; Moroak, Bioaraphiea of Celebrated Canadians;
i, Pro
trime S. ThomaB ct Scoti" (Padua, l67l, 1673, 1680),
3 vols, in folio; "Scholao theologicae positivae ad . . .
confutationem haereticorum" (Rome, 1664) copied in
part in Roccaberti, "Bibliotheca Maxima Pontificia",
XII (Rome, 1696) 221-48; "De davibus Petri '^
(Rome, 1660) partially reprinted in Roccaberti, XII.
113-37; " Controversiae selectae contra hsereticos'
(Rome, 1663). "Assertor romanus ad versus calum-
nias heterodoxorum Anglorum prajsertim et Scoto-
rum in academiis Oxoniensi, Cantabrigiensi et Aber-
doniensi" (Rome, 1667); "Tessera romana auctori-
tatis pontificis ad versus buccinam ThomaB Angli"
(London, 1654), also in Roccaberti, XII^ 164-220.
He also took an active part in the Jansenist contro-
versy, being at first inclmed to Jansenism; but after-
wards he defended St. Augustine's teaching with
regard to Grace in the most decided manner. "Scru-
tinium divi Augustini" (London, 1644; Paris, 1648;
Hopkins, Progress of Canada,
D. R. Macdonald.
MftcDonell, Wiluam A. See Alexandria, Dio-
cese OF.
McDonnell, Charles Edward. See Brooklyn,
Diocese op.
McDonnell, Edmund. See O'Donnell, Edmund.
Mace. — (1) A short, richly ornamented staff, often
made of silver, the upper part furnished with a knob
or other head-piece and decorated with a coat of arms,
usually borne before eminent ecclesiastical corpora-
tions, magistrates, and academic bodies as a mark and
symbol of jurisdiction.
(2) More properly, the club-shaped beaten silver
stick (mazza) carried by papal mazzieri (mace-bearers),
Swiss Guards (vergers), in papal chapels, at the conse-
cration of bishops, and by the cursores apostolici (papal
messengers). When in use the mace is carried on the
right shoulder, with its head upwards. Formerly car-
dinals had mace-bearers. Mazzieri, once called servi-
erUes armorum, or halberdiers, were the body-guard of
the pope, and mazze (dai^, virgce) date back at least to
the tweltth century {virgarii in chapter xl of the Ordo
of Cencius).
Die Katholische Kvche, I (Berlin, 1899). 317.
Joseph Braun.
Macedo, Francisco, known as a S. Augustino,
O.F.M., theologian, b. at Coimbra, Portugal, 1596; he
entered the Jesuit Order in 1610, which however he
left in 1638 in order to join the Discalced Franciscans.
These also he left in 1648, for the Observants. In
Portugal he sided with the House of Braganza. Sum-
moned to Rome by Alexander VII he taught theology
at the College of the Propaganda, and afterwaras
church history at the Sapienza, and as consultor to
the Inquisition. At Venice in 1667, during the week
beginnmg 26 Sept., he held a public disputation,
against all comers, on nearly every branch of human
knowledge, especially the Bible, theology, patrcdogy.
history, law, literature, and poetry. He named
this disputation, in his quaint and extravagant style,
" Leonis Marci rugitus litterarii " (the literary roaring
of the Lion of St. Mark) ; this obtained for him the
freedom of the city of Venice and the professorship of
moral philosophy at the University of Padua. He
died there 1 May, 1681.
Rather restless, but a man of enormous erudition,
he wrote a number of books, of which over 100 ap-
peared in print, and about thirty are still imprinted.
The following may be mentioned: "CoUationes doo-
centii X." (Louvain, 1655); " Commentationes du»
ecclesiastico-polemicae" (Verona, 1674), concerning
Vincent of Lerins and Hilarius of Aries, against whom
H. Norisius wrote his *' Ad ventoria " in P. L., XL VII,
538 sq. "Medulla historiap ecclesiasticaj " (Padua,
1671); " Azy mas Eucharist icas", Ingolstadt (Venice,
), 1673, against Cardinal Giovanni Bona, and
at once placed on the Index (21 June, 1673), until
it is corrected'*, which was done in the neW edi-
tion (Verona, 1673). Mabillon also wrote against
this. "Schema S. congregationis s. officii" (Padua,
1676).
Sbaralea., Supplem. ad Script.Ord. 3fm. (Rome, 1806), 260-3;
2nd ed. (Rome, 1908), I, 276-9; Joh. de S. Antonio, BibL
univ. francuHc.t I (Madrid, 1732), 362; Nickron, Mim. pour
servir a Vhist. des homines Ulust., XaI, 317, 333; Hurter,
Nomenclator; Sommervogel, Bibl. de la c. de J., V, 244 sq.
Michael Bihl.
Macedo, Josfc Aqostinho de (1761-1831), Portu-
guese controversialist, preacher, and poet, was bom at
Beja and educated by the Oratorians. Entering the
Augustinian Order, he made his profession in 1778, but
lived in perpetual strife with his superiors and finally
abandoned the monastic life and habit. In 1792 he
was unfrocked, but appealed against the sentence and
obtained a papal Brief which secularized him and con-
served his ecclesiastical status. He now laid the foun-
dations of a vast though superficial learning, while, as a
means of livelihood, he devoted himself to writing and
preaching. He founded, or contributed to, a large
number of newspapers and in these, and in politioal
gamphlets, defended the absolute monarchy and the
hurch against liberaUsm in politics and religion,
though he changed his views more than once in accord-
ance with his interests or sympathies. His fiery seal
was equalled bjr a brilliancy of invective and mordant
satire which gained him bitter foes and warm admir-
ers. From 1824 to 1829 he served as diocesan censor
and his critical analyses of the books submitted to him
reveal his versatility, though this, and his fecundity,
are best seen by the catalogue of his writings which
occupies thirty pages in Vol. 4 of the "Diccionario
Bibliographico" of Innocencio da Silva. As early as
1802 he Decame one of the royal preachers and his
sonorous voice and discourses seasoned by political
allusions made him the most popular pulpit orator of
the daj^. He introduced didactic poetry into Portu-
gal, writing rhetorical poems devoid of inspiration,
ana sought to rival CamoSns by a lifeless epic " Ori-
ente".
In that decadent period Macedo was able to en-
throne himself as dictator of letters, but this involved
him in numerous literary duels with rival bards whom
he chastised in " Os Burros ", the most libellous poem
in the language. His political and erotic odes reach. «^
high level, but he gave thft b«^\ftw&. ^\sax'»x^'''«!S^i^
MACEDONIA
492
McGEB
lectual powers in the philosophical treatise " A demon*
stration of the existence of God *\ while his tract " On
the state of Portiijgal " (1808) shows a sound percep-
tion which is lackmp in his later prose work. A man
of immense vanity, irregular life, and atrabilious tem-
per, he yet had an affable manner and kindly heart
ana contributed generously to charities. These quali-
ties and his rare talents earned him a great position
and much esteem so that, when he passed away, part
of the population mourned his death as a national
loss.
DA SiLVA, Memories para a vida de Josf Agoatinho de Macedo
(Lisbon, 1899); Braqa, Obraa Inediku de JoaS Agodinho de
Macedo, 2 vols. (Ldsbon, 1900-1).
Edgar Prestage.
Macedonia. See Paul, Saint, Apostle; Roman
Empire; Saloniki; Turkish Empire.
MacedonianB. See Pneumatomachi.
Macerata and Tolentino, United Sees of^ in the
Marches, Central Italy. Macerata is aprovincial cap-
ital, situated on a hill, between the Cnienti and the
Potenza rivers, from wnich there is a beautiful view of
the sea. Its name is derived from maceries (ruins) , be-
cause the town was built on the ruins of Hel via Recina,
d city founded by Septimus Severus, and destroyed by
Alanc in 408, after which its inhabitants established
the towns of Macerata and Recanati. The former is
mentioned apropos of the Gothic wars and of Deside-
rius, King of the Lombards, after which time it fell
into decadence. Nicholas IV restored it and, in 1290,
established there a university renewed by Paul III in
^540; this pope made Macerata the residence of the
governors cw tne Marches, and thenceforth it was one
of the towns most faithful to the papacy. Gregory XI
.gave the city to Rudolf o Varani di Camerino, a papal
general; the people, however, drove him away, wish-
mg to be governed airectly by the Holy See. In the
fifteenth centurv, the families of Malatesta of Rimini
and Sforza of Milan struggled for the possession of
Macerata, from which the latter were definitely ex-
pelled in 1441. Later, the town became part of the
Duchy of Urbino. In 1797 it was pillaged by the
French. It has a fine cathedral, in which there is a
mosaic of St. Michael by Calandra and a Madonna by
Pinturicchio. There are, also, the beautiful churches
of Santa Maria della Pace (1323) and of the Madonna
delle Vergini (1550), the latter designed by Galasso da
Carpi. The university has only the two faculties of
law and medicine.
The episcopal see was created in 1320, after the sup-
pression of that of Recanati, which was re-established
m 1516, independently of Macerata, to which l£ist
Sixtus V, in 1586, united the Diocese of Tolentino (a
very ancient city in the province of Macerata), de-
stroyed by the barbarians. Tolentino had bishops in
the fifth century, and the martyrdom of St. Cater\'us,
the apostle of the city, is referred to the time of
Trajan. Besides its fine cathedral, this town contains
Hie beautiful church of St. Nicholas of Tolentino,
which belongs to the Augustinians, and in which is the
tomb of its patron saint (1310). Tolentino is famous
as the place where was signed the treaty between
Napoleon and Pius VI, which gave Bologna, Ferrara,
ana Romagna to the Cisalpine Republic. In 1815 was
foujght between Macerata and Tolentino the battle in
which the Austrians defeated Murat and which cost
the latter the throne of Naples.
Among the distinguished men of Macerata are G. B.
Crescimbeni, a poet of the thirteenth century, and
Mario Crescimbeni, a man of letters of the seventeenth
century and one of the founders of the Roman Arcadia;
Father Matteo Ricci, S.J., astronomer, and missionary
to China; the architect Floriani, who constructed the
fortifications of Malta. The united sees are suffragan
of Fermo and contain 25 parishes, with 46,200 inlmb-
Itants; within their territory are 4 religious houses of
men, and 9 of women; they have 4 educational insti-
tutes for male students, and 4 for girls, and a monthly
theological publication.
Cappelletti, Ckiese d' Italia, III (Venice, 1857); FAOLiETn,
Confereme suUa etoria anlica maceraUse (Macerata, 1884) ; Conr-
fereme ndla tioria medioevaU macenUeee (Macerata, 1885).
U. Benigni.
McEyay, Fergus Patrick. See Toronto, Arch-
diocese OF.
McFarland, FRAxas Patrick, third Bishop of
Hartford (q. v.), b. at Franklin, Pa., 16 April, 1819; d.
at Hartford, (5onn., 2 October, 1874. liis parents,
John McFarland and Mary McKeever, emigrated from
Armagh. From early childhood Francis had a predi-
lection for the priestly state. Diligent and talented,
he was employed as teacher in the village school, but
soon entered Mount St. Mary's (]k>llege, Emmitsburg,
Md., where he graduated with high honours and was
retained as teacher. The following year, 1845, he
was ordained, 18 May, at New York by Archbishop
Hughes, who immediately detailed the young priest
to a professor's chair at St. John's College, Forcfham.
Father McFarland, however, longed for the direct
ministry of souls and from his college made frequent
missionary journeys among the scattered Catholics.
After a year at Fordham he was appointed pastor of
Watertown, N. Y., where his zeal was felt K)r many
miles around. On March, 1851 , he was transferred by
his new ordinary, Bishop McCloskey of Albany, to St.
John's Church, Utica. For seven years the whole
city was edified by his "saintly labours", and the
news of his apostolic achievements reached as far as
Rome. He was appointed Vicar-Apostolic of Florida,
9 March, 1857. He declined the nonour only to be
elected Bishop of Hartford. He was consecrated at
Providence, 14 March, 1858, and resided in that city
until the division of his diocese in 1872 (see Provi-
dence, Diocese of). Failing health prompted him,
while attending the Vatican Council, to resign his see.
His confreres of the American episcopate would not
hear of such a step. They had learned to regard him
as the embodiment of the virtues of a bishop and one
of the brightest ornaments of their order. By divid-
ingthe diocese it was hoped that his burden would be
sufficiently lightened. lie left Providence for Hart-
ford 28 Feb., 1872. After reorganizing his diocese he
immediately set about the erection of a catheiiral, and
to his enlightened initiative is owing the splendid edi-
fice of which the Catholics of Connecticut are so justly
proud. Bishop McFarland displayed rare wisdom in
the administration of his see. His zeal and self-sacri-
fice carried him everywhere, preaching, catechizing,
lecturing, moving among priests and people as a saint
and scholar. He was a man of fine intellect and com-
manding presence. Austere and thoughtful, he al-
ways preserved a quiet dignity and the humility of the
true servant of Christ. He collected a valuable theo-
lo^cal library which he beaueathed to his diocese.
His death at the early age of nfty-five was mourned as
a calamity. His name is still a household word among
the Catholics of Connecticut.
HiMory of the Catholic Church in New England (Boston, 1899) ;
The Connecticut Catholic Year Book (Hartford, Conn.); The
Catholic Transcript (Hartford, Conn.), files.
T. S. DUGGAN.
MacFarlane, Angus. See Dunkeld, Diocese of.
McFaul, James A. See Trenton, Diocese of.
McGavick, Alexander J. See Chicago, Arch-
diocese OP.
McGee, Thomas D'Arcy, editor, politician, and
poet, b. at Carlingford, Co. Louth, Ireland, 13 April,
1825; assassinated at Ottawa, Canada, 7 April, ISCkS.
He was a precocious youth and emigrating to the
United States at seventeen a speech he made soon
after at Providence, Rhode Island, on the Repeal of
MacGEOOHBOAN
493
BiAOHABESS
the Union between England and Ireland, brought him
an offer of employment on the Boston *' Pilot . His
editorial and other contributions to this paper and
public addresses attracted the attention of O ConneU
who called them " the inspired utterances of a young
exiled Irish boy in America''. After this McGee re-
turned to Dublm to take a place on the editorial staff
of "The Freeman's Journal , but his advocacy of the
advanced ideas of the Young Ireland Party caused
him to leave that paper for a position on Charles
Gavan Duffy's " Nation", in which many of his poems
and patriotic essays were printed. In the subsequent
revolutionary episodes of 1848 he figured as one of the
most active leaders, being the secretary of the Irish
Confederation, and was arrested and imprisoned for a
short time because of an unwise speecn. When the
government began to suppress the movement and to
arrest its leaders McGee escaped to the United States
during these years he wrote a " History of Ireland ". It
was written m French and published at Paris in 1758.
It was dedicated by the author to the Irish Brigade,
and he is responsible for the interesting statement that
for the fifty years following the Treaty of Limerick
(1691) no less than 450,000 Irish soldiers died in the
service of France. MacGeoghegan's * * History " is the
fruit of much labour and research, though, on account
of his residence abroad, he was necessarily shut out
from access to the manuscript materials of history in
Ireland, and had to rely chiefly on Lynch and Colgan.
Mitchel's " History of Ireland professes to be merely
a continuation of MacGeoghegan, though Mitchel is
throughout much more of a partisan than MacGeo-
ghegan.
MacGrooheqan, History of Ireland, tr. 0*Kbllt (Dublin,
1831); O'CcRRY, MS8. Materials of Irish Historj/ (Dublin,
1861) ; Boyle, The Irish CoUeffe of Paris (London. 1901).
E. A. D' Alton.
disguised as a priest. In New York he started a paper m*ni-ii_T otv ta
caUed •' The l^ation ", but soon got into trouble Xh McQolnck, James. See Duluth, Diocese or.
Bishop Hughes over his violent revolutionary ideas
and diatribes against the priesthood in their relation
to Irish politics. Changing the name of the paper to
"The American Olt" he moved to Boston, tnenoe to
Buffalo and again back to New York.
In 1857 he settled in Montreal where he published
another paper, " The New Era '*, and entering actively
into local politics was elected to the Canadian Parlia-
ment, in wiiich his ability as a speaker put him at once
in the front rank. He changed the whole tenor of his
political views and, as he advanced in official promi-
nence, advocated British supremacy as loyally as he
had formerly promoted the revolutionarj^ doctrines of
his youth. Tne Confederation of the British colonies
of North America as the Dominion of Canada was due
largely to his initiative. In the change of his political
ideas he constantly embittered and attacked the revo-
lutionary organizations of his fellow countrymen, and
so made himself very obnoxious to them. It was this
that led to his assassination by an overwrought fan-
atic. His literary activity in his earlier years brought
forth many poems full of patriotic vigour, tenderness
and melody, and a number of works, notably: "Irish
Writers of the Seventeenth Century" (1846); "His-
toiy of the Irish Settlers in North America" (1854);
" History of the Attempt to establish the Protestant
Reformation in Ireland" (1853); "Catholic History
of North America" (1854); "History of Ireland^'
(1862).
Sadlirr, T. D. McOee's Poems with Introduction and Bio-
graphical Sketch (New York, 1889) : McCarthy, Historu of Our
Own Times. I (New York. 1887); Fitsgerald, Ireland and Her
People, II (Chicago, 1910), s. v.; Dufft. Younq Ireland (Lon-
don, 1880); Idem, Four Years of Irish Htstory (London, 1883).
Thomas F. Meehan.
MacOeoghegan, Ja.me8, b. at Uisneach, West-
meath, Ireland, 1702; d. at Paris, 1763. He came of a
family long settled in Westmeath and long holding a
high position among the Leinster chiefs, and was re-
lated to that MacGeoghegan who so heroically de-
fended the Castle of Dunboy against Carew, and also
to Conncll MacGeoghegan, who translated the Annals
of Clonmacnoise. Early in the eighteenth century
the penal laws were enacted and enforced against
the Irish Catholics, and education, except in Protest-
ant schools and colleges, was rigorously proscribed.
Young MacGeoghegan, therefore, went abroad, and
received his education at the Irish (then the Lombard)
College in Paris, and in due course was ordained priest.
Then for five years he filled the position of vicar in the
parish of Poissy, in the Diocese of Qiartres, "attend-
mg in choir, hearing confessions and administering sae-
rameiits in a laudable and edifying manner". In 1734
he was cIect<Ml one of the provisors of the Lombard
College, and subsequently was attached to the church
of St-Merri in Paris. He was also for some time chap-
lain to the Irish troops in the service of France; and
Mftchabees, The (Gr. 'Oi Maicjca/Saibi; Lat. Macha-
baei; most probably from Aramaic Nnpb, maqqSbd*=
jammer ")> a priestly family which under the leader-
ship of Mathathias initiated the revolt against the
tyranny of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, King of Syria,
and after securing Jewish independence ruled the com-
monwealth till overthrown by Herod the Great. The
name Machabee was originally the surname of Judas,
the third son of Mathathias, but was later extended to
all the descendants of Mathathias^ and even to all who
took part in the rebellion. It is also given to tJie
martyrs mentioned in II Mach., vi, 18-vii. Of the
various explanations of the word the one given above is
the most probable. Machabee would accordingly mean
"hammerer*' or " hammer-like ", and would have been
given to Judas because of his valour in combating
the enemies of Israel. The family patronymic of the
Machal)ees was Hasmoneans or Asmoneans, from
I^hmon, Gr. *A<roiua»Katof, an ancestor of MathathiaB.
lliis designation, which is always used by the old Jew-
ish writers, is now commonly applied to the princes of
the dynasty founded by Simon, the last of the sons of
Mathathias.
Events leading to the Revolt of Mathathias. — ^The ris-
ing under Mathathias was caused by the attempt of
Antiochus IV to force Greek paganism on his Jewish
subjects. This was the climax of a movement to
hellenize the Jews, begun with the king's approval by
a party among tne Jewish aristocracy, wno were in
favour of breaking down the wall of separation be-
tween Jew and Grentile and of adopting Greek customs.
The leader of this party was Jes«is, or Josue, better
known by his Greek name Jason, the unworthy
brother of the worthy high-priest Onias III. By
promising the king a large sum of money, and b^
offering to become the promoter among the Jews of his
policy of hellenizing the non-Greek popidation of his
domains, he obtained the deposition of his brother
and his own appointment to tne high-priesthood (174
B. c). As soon as he was installed he be^an the Work
of hellenizing and carried it on with considerable suc-
cess. A gymnasium was built below the Acra (cita-
del), in close proximity to the temple, where the
youths of Jerusalem were taught Greek sports. Even
priests became addicted to the games and neglected
the altar for the ^mnasium. Many, ashamed of what a
true Jew gloried in^ had the niarks of circumcision
removed to avoid being recognized as Jews in the baths
or the gymnasium. Jason himself went so far as to
send money for the games celebrated at Tyre in honour
of Hercules (I Mach., i, 11-16; II Mach., iv, 7-20).
After three years Jason was forced to yield the pontin-
cate to Menelaus, his agent with the king in money
matters, who secured the office by outbidding his em-
ployer. To satisfy his obligations to the king, this
man, who was a Jew only in name, appropriated sacred
vesseb, and when the former high-priest OQia& 5^^^^
BiAOHABEES
494
BfAOHABEES
tested against the sacrilege he procured his assassina-
tion. The following year Jason, emboldened by a
rumor of the death of Antiochus, who was then war-
ring against Egypt, attacked Jerusalem and forced
Menelaus to take refuge in the Acra. On hearing of
the occurrence Antiocnus marched against the city,
massacred many of the inhabitants, and carried off
what sacred vessels were left (I Mach., i, 17-29;
II Mach., iv, 23-v, 23).
In 168 B. c. Antiochus undertook a second campaign
against Egypt, but was stopped in his victorious
progress by an ultimatum of the Roman Senate. He
vented his ra^e on the Jews, and began a war of exter-
mination against their religion. Apollonius was sent
with orders to hellenize Jerusalem by extirpating
the native population and by peopling the city with
strangers. Tlie unsuspecting inhabitants were at-
tacked on the Sabbatn, when they would offer no
defence; the men were slaughtered, the women and
children sold into slavery. The city itself was laid
waste and its walls demolished. An order was next
issued abolishing Jewish worship and forbidding the
observance of Jewish rites under pain of death. Ji
heathen altar was built on the altar of holocausts.
Tdiere sacrifices were offered to Olympic Jupiter, ana
the temple was profaned by pagan orgies. Altars were
also set up throughout the country at which the Jews
were to sacrifice to the king's divinities. Though
many conformed to these orders, the majority re-
mained faithful and a number of them laid down their
lives rather than violate the law of their fathers. The
Second Book of Miichabees narrates at length the
heroic death of an old man, named Eleazar^ and of
seven brothers with their mother. (I Mach., i, 30-67;
II Mach., V, 24-vii, 41.)
The persecution proved a blessing in disguise; it
exasperated even the moderate Hellenists, and pre-
pared a rebellion which freed the country from the
corrupting influences of the extreme Hellenist party.
The standard of revolt was raised by Mathathias, as
priest of the order of Joarib (cf. I Par., xxiv, 7), who
to avoid the persecution had fled from Jerusalem to
Modin (now El Mediyeh), near Lydda, with his five
sons John, Simon, Judas, Eleazar and Jonathan.
When solicited bjr a royal oflScer to sacrifice to the
sods, with promises of rich rewards and of the
King's favour, he firmly refused, and when a Jew
approached the altar to sacrifice, he slew him to-
gether with the king's officer, and destroyed the
altar. He and his sons then fled to the mountains,
where they were followed by many of those who re-
mained attached to their religion. Among these were
the 5asldlm, or Assideans, a society formed to oppose
the encroaching Hellenism by a scrupulous observance
of traditional customs. Mathathias and his followers
now overran the country destroying heathen altars,
circumcising children^ driving off aliens and apostate
Jews, and gathering m new recruits. He diea, how-
ever, within a year (166 b. c). At his death he ex-
horted his sons to carry on the fight for their religion,
and appointed Judas military commander with Simon
as adviser. He was buried at Modin amid great lamen-
tations (I Mach., ii).
Judas Machabeus {166-161 b. c.).^— Judas fully jus-
tified his father's choice. In a first encounter he de-
feated and killed Apollonius, and shortly after routed
Seron at Bethoron (I Mach., iii, 1-26). Lysias, the
regent during Antiochus's absence in the East, then
sent a large army under the three generals Ptolemee,
Nicanor and Gorgias. Judas's little army unexpect-
edly fell on the main body of the enemy at Emmaus
(later Nicopolis, now Amw&s) in the absence of Gorgias,
and put it to rout l^efore the latter could come to its
aid; whereupon Gorgias took to flight (I Mach., iii, 27-
iv, 25; II Mach., viii). The next year Lysias himself
took the field with a still larger force; but he, too, was
defeated at Bethsura (not Bethoron as in the Vulgate).
Judas now occupied Jerusalem, though the Acra still
remained in l^e hands of the Sjrrians. The temple was
cleansed and rededicated on the day on whfch three
years before it had been profaned (I Mach., iv, 26-^81;
II Mach., X, 1-8). During the breathing time left to
him by the Syrians Judas imdertook several expedi-
tions into neighbouring territoiy, either to punish acts
of aggression or to bring into Judea Jews exposed to
danger among hostile populations (I Mach. , v ; 11 Mach. ,
X, 14-38; xii, 3-40). After the death of Antiochus
Epiphanes (164 b. c.) Lysias led two more expeditions
into Judea. The first ended with another defeat at
Bethsura, and with the granting of freedom of worship
to the Jews (II Mach., xi). In the second, in which
Lysias was accompanied by his ward, Antiochus V
Eupator, Judas sunered a reverse at Bethzacharam
(where Eleazar died a glorious death), and Lysias
laid siege to Jerusalem. Just then troubles concerning
the regency required his presence at home; he there-*
fore concluded peace on condition that the city be sur-
rendered (I Mach., vi, 21-63; II Mach., xiii). As the
object for which the rebellion was begim, had been
obtained, the Assideans seceded from Judas when
Demetrius I, who in the meanwhile had dethroned
Antiochus V, installed Alcimus, *'a priest of the seed
of Aaron", as high-priest (I Mach., vii, 1-19). Judas,
however, seeing that the danger to religion would
remain as long as the Hellenists were in power, would
not lay down his arms till the country was freed of these
men. Nicanor was sent to the aid of Alcimus, but was
twice defeated and lost his life in the second encounter
(I Mach., vii, 20-49; II Mach., xiv, 11-xv, 37). Judas
now sent a deputation to Rome to solicit Roman in-
terference; but before the senate's warning reached
Demetrius, Judas with only 800 men risked a battle
at Laisa (or Elasa) with a vastly superior force under
Baccides, and fell overwhelmed by numbers (I Mach.,
viii-ix, 20). Thus perished a man worthy of Israel's
most heroic days. He was buried beside his father
at Modin (161 b. c).
Jonathan (161-143 b. c). — The handful of men
who still remained faithful to Judas's policy chose
Jonathan as their leader. John was soon after
killed by Arabs near Madaba, and Jonathan with his
little army escaped the hands of Bacchides only by
swimming the Jordan. Their cause seemed hopeless.
Gradually, however, the number of adherents in-
creased and the Hellenists were again obliged to caD
for help. Bacchides returned and oesieged the rebels
in Betnbcssen; but disgusted at his ul success he
returned to Syria (I Mach., ix, 213-72). During the
next four years Jonathan was practically the master
of the country. Then began a series of contests for the
Syrian crown, which Jonathan turned to such good
account that by shrewd diplomacy he obtained more
than his brother had been able to win by his general-
ship and his victories. Both Demetrius I and his op-
ponent Alexander Balas, sought to win him to their
side. Jonathan took the part of Alexander, who ap-
pointed him high-priest and bestowed on him the
insignia of a prince. Three years later, in reward for
his services, Alexander conferred on him both the civil
and military authority over Judea (I Mach., ix, 73-x,
66) . In the conflict between Alexander and Demetrius
II Jonathan a^ain supported Alexander, and in return
received the gift of tne city of Accaron with its terri-
tory (I Mach., X, 67-89). After the fall of Alexander,
Demetrius summoned Jonathan to Ptolemais to an-
swer for his attack on the Acra; but inst<*ad of punish-
ing him Demetrius confirmed him in all his dignities,
and even granted him three districts of Samaria.
Jonathan having lent eflRcient aid in quelling an insur-
rection at Antioch, Demetrius promised to withdraw
the Syrian garrison from the Acra and other fortified
places in Judea. As he failed to keep his word, Jona-
than went over to the party of Antiochus VI, the son
of Alexander Balas, whose claims Tryphon was press-
MAOHAWKM
495
MAOHABUS
ing. Jonathan was confirmed in all his possessions
and dignities, and Simon appointed commander of the
seaboud. While giving valuable aid to Antiochus the
two brothers took occasion to strengthen their own
position. Tryphon fearing that Jonathan might inter-
fere with his ambitious plans, treacherously invited
him to Ptolemais and kept him a prisoner (I Mach., xi,
19-xii, 48).
Simon (143-136 b. c). — Simon was chosen to take
the place of his captive brother/ and by his vigilance
frustrated Tryphon's attempt to invade Judea. Try-
phon in revenge killed Jonathan with his two sons
whom Simon had sent as hostages on Tryphon's prom-
ise to liberate Jonathan (I Mach., xiii, 1-23). Simon
obtained from Demetrius II exemption from taxation
and thereby established the independence of Judea.
To secure communication with the port of Joppe,
which he had occupied immediately upon his appoint-
ment, he seized Gazara (the ancient Gazer or Gezer)
and setUed it with Jews. He also finally drove the
Syrian garrison out of the Acra. In recognition of his
services the people decreed that the hign-pricsthood
and the supreme command, civil and miiitajy, should
be hereditary in his family. After five years of peace
and prosperity under his wise rule Judea was threat-
ened by Antiochus VII Sidetes, but his general Cende-
beus was defeated at Modin by Judas and John,
Simon's sons. A few months later Simon was mur-
dered with two of his sons by his ambitious son-in-law
Ptolemy (D. V. Ptolemee), and was buried at Modin
with his parents and brothers, over whose tombs he
had erected a magnificent monument (I Mach., xiii,
25-xvi, 17). After him the race quickly degenerated.
The Hasmoneans. — JohnHyrcanua {135-106 b. c).
— Simon's third son John, suniamed Hyrcanus, who
escaped the assassin's knife through timely warning,
was recognized as high-priest and chief of the nation.
In the first year of his rule Antiochus Sidetes Ix^ieged
Jerusalem, and John was forced to capitulate though
under rather favourable conditions. Renewed civil
strife in Syria enabled John to enlarge his possessions
by the conauest of Samaria, Idumea, and fiome terri-
tory beyond the Jordan. By forcing the Idumeans to
accept circumcision he unwittingly opened the way
for Herod's accession to the throne. In his reign we
first meet with the two parties of the Pharisees and
Sadducees. Towards the end of his life John allied
himself with the latter.
ArUtobulus I (106-104 b. c). — John left the civil
power to his wife and the high-priesthood to his oldest
son Aristobulus or Judas. But Aristobulus seized the
reins of government and imprisoned his mother wiUi
three of his brothers. The fourth brother, Anti^onus,
he ordered to be kiUM, in a fit of jealousy instigated
by a court cabal. He was the first to assume the title
King of the Jews. His surname ^iXAXijir shows his
Hellenistic proclivities.
Alexander JannoBus (104-78 b. c). — Aristobulus
was succeeded by the oldest of his imprisoned broth-
ers, Alexander Jannseus (Jonathan). Though gener-
ally unfortunate in his wars, he managed to acquire
new territory, including the coast towns except Asca-
lon. His reign was marred by a bloody feud with the
Pharisees.
The Last Machabees (78-37 b. c). — Alexander be-
queathed the government to his wife Alexandra Sa-
lome, and the high-priesthood to his son Hvrcanus II.
She ruled in accordance with the wishes of the Phari-
sees. At her death (69 b. c.) civil war broke out be-
tween Hyrcanus II and his brother Aristobulus II.
This brought on Roman interference and loss of inde-
pendence (63 b. r.). Hyrcanus, whom the Romans
recognized as ethnarch, was ruler only in name. Aris-
tohulus wa.s poisoned in Rome by the adherents of
i'ompey, and his son Alexander was l)cheaded at An-
tioch by order of Pompey himself (49 b. c). Antigo-
nus, the son of Aristobulus, was made king by tae
Parthians; but the next year he was defeated by Herod
with the aid of the Romans, and beheaded at Antioch
(37 B.C.). With him ended the rule of the Machabees.
Herod successively murdered (a) Aristobulus III, the
grandson of both Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II
through the marriage of Alexander, the son of the
former, with Alexandra, the daughter of the latter
(35 B. c); (b) Hyrcanus II (30 b. c.) and his daughter
Alexandra (28 b. c); (c) Marianme, the sister of Aris-
tobulus III (29 B. c); and lastly his own two sons by
Mariamne, Alexander and Aristobulus (7 b. c). In
this manner the line of the Machabees became extinct.
JosBPHUA, Antxq., XII, v-XV, vii; XVI, iv. x, xi; ScbOrer,
Hist. oftheJevcuhPeopU, I (New York, 1801). i, 186 eq.; GrAti,
Hitl. of the Jews, I (Philadelphia, 1891), 435 sq.: II. i sol; ^tan-
x^T, Lectures on the Hist, of the JewMi Church, III (London*
1876); DE Qavucy, Hist, des MachaMes (PariB. 1880); Derbn-
BOURO, Hist, de la Palestine (Paria, 1867); Wbllhausen, Isradir
Hsche undJudischeOeschichU (Berlin, 1894) ; ChjRTiss, The Name
Machabees (Leipaig, 1876).
F. Bechtel.
Machabees, The Books of. — ^The title of four
books, of which the first and second only are regarded
by the Church as canonical; the third and fourth, as
Protestants consider aU four, are apocryphal. The
first two have been so named because they treat of the
history of the tebellion of the Machabees, the fourth
because it speaks of the Machabee martyrs. The
third, which has no connexion whatever with the
Machabee period, no doubt owes its name to the fact
that like tne others it treats of a persecution of the
Jews. For the canonicity of I and II Mach. see Canon
OF THE Holy Scriptures.
The First Book of Machabees (MaKKafiaTuw A;
Liber Primus Machabajorum) .—Contente. — ^The First
Book of the Machabees is a history of the struggle of
the Jewish people for religious and political libertv
under the leadership of the Machabee family, with
Judas Machalx)us as the central figure. After a
brief introduction (i, 1-9) explaining how the Jews
came to pass from the Persian domination to that of
the Seleucids, it relates the causes of the rising under
Mathathias and the details of the revolt up to his
death (i. 10-ii) ; the glorious deeds and heroic death of
Judas Machabeus (iii-ix, 22) ; the story of the success-
ful leadership of Jonathan (ix, 23-xii), and of the wise
administration of Simon (xiii-xyi, 17). It concludes
(xvi, 18-24) with a brief mention of the difficulties
attending the accession of John Hvrcanus and with a
short summary of his reign (see Machabees, The).
The book thus covers the period between the years
175 and 135 b. c.
Character. — ^The narrative both in style and manner
is modelled on the earlier historical books of the Okl
Testament. The style is usually simple, ^et at times
becomes eloquent and even poetic, as. for instance, in
Mathathias's lament over the woes ot the people and
the profanation of the Temple (ii, 7-13), or in the eu^
logy of Judas Machabeus Tiii, 1-9), or again in the
description of the peace ana prosperity of the people
after the long years of war and suffenng (xiv, 4-15).
The tone is calm and objective, the author as a rule
abstaining from any direct comment on the facts he is
narrating. The more important events are carefidbr
dated according to the Seieucid era. which began with
the autunm of 312 b. c. It should be noted, however,
that the author begins the year with spring (the month
Nisan), whereas the author of II Mach. begins it with
autumn (the month Tishri). By reason of this differ-
ence some of the events are dated a year later in the
second tlian in the first book. (Cf . Patrizzi, " De Coi^
sensu Utriusque Libri Mach.", 27 sq.; Schurer, " Hist,
of the Je\^'i8h People ", I, i, 36 sq.)
Original Langxtaae. — ^The text from which all trans-
lations have been derived is the Greek of the Septua-
gint. But there is little doubt tliat the Septua^nt is
itself a translation of a Hebrew or Aramaic onginal,
with the probabilities in favour of Hebrew. Not onl^
ICA0HABSE8
496
MA0HABF,F.8
Ib the structure of the sentences decidedly Hebrew (or
Aramaic), but manv words and exp^ressions occur
wlidch are literal renderings of Hebrew idioms (e. g., i,
4, 15, 16, 44; ii, 19, 42. 48; v, 37, 40; etc.). These
peculiarities can scarcely be explained by assuming
that the writer was little versed in Greek, for a number
of instances show that he was acquainted with the
niceties of the language. Besides, there are inexact
expressions and obscurities which can be explained
only in the supposition of an imperfect translation or a
misreading of a Hebrew original (e. g., i, 16, 28; iv, 19.
24; xi, 28; xiv, 5). The internal evidence is confirmea
by the testimony of St. Jerome and of Origen. The
former writes that he saw the book in Hebrew: " Machr
absBorum primiun librum Hebraicum repjeri" (Prol.
Galeat.) . As there is no ground for assuming that St.
Jerome refers to a translation, and as he is not likely
to have applied the term Hebrew to an Aramaic text,
his testimony tells strongly in favour of a Hebrew as
against an Aramaic original. Origen states (Eusebius,
" Hist. EccL", vi, 25) that the title of the book was
Sarbeth Sarbane el (Sap/3^ Xappavi A), or more cor-
rectly Sarbeth Sabanaiel (2. 2o/3a wiiA) . Though the
meaning of this title is uncertain (a number of differ-
ent explanations have been proposed, especially of the
first reading), it is plainly either Hebrew or Aramaic.
The fragment of a Hebrew text published by'Chwolson
in 1896, and later again by Schweitzer, has little claim
to be considered as part of the original.
Author and Date of Composition. — No data can be
found eitlrer in the book itself or in later writers
which would give us a clue as to the person of the author.
Names have indeed been mentioned, but on ground-
less conjecture. That he was a native of Palestine is
evident from the language in which he wrote, and
from the thorough knowledge of the geography of
Palestine which he possessed. Although he rarely
expresses his own sentiments, the spirit pervading his
work is proof that he was deeply religious, zealous for
the Law, and thoroughly in sympathy with the Mach-
abean movement and its leaders. However, strange
to say. he studiously avoids the use of the words
" God '^ -and "Lord'^ (that is in the better Greek
text; in the ordinary text "God" is found once, and
"Lord" ihree times; in the Vulgate both occur re-
peatedly) ; but this is probably due to reverence for
the Divme names, Jahweh and Adonai, since he often
uses the equivalents "heaven", "Thou", or "He".
There is absolutely no ground for the opinion, main-
tained by some modem scholars, that he was a Sad-
ducee. He does not, it is true, mention the unworthy
hi^-priests, Jason and Menelaus; but as he mentions
the no less imworthy Alcimus, and that in the severest
terms, it cannot be said that he wishes to spare the
priestly class.
The last verses show that the book cannot have
been written till some time after the beginning of the
reign of John Hyrcanus (135-105 b. c), for they men-
tion his accession and some of the acts of his adminis-
tration. The latest possible date is genersdly ad-
mitted to be prior to 63 b. c, the year of the occupation
of Jerusalem by Pompey; but there is some difFerenqe
in fixing the approximately exact date. Whether it
can be placed as early as the reign of Hyrcanus de-
pends on the meaning of the concluding verse, " Be-
nbld these [the Acts of Hyrcanus] are written in the
book of the days of his priesthood, from the time
(^ oO, "ex quo") that he was made high priest after
his father". Many understand it to indicate that
Hyrcanus was then still alive, and this seems to be the
more natural meaning. Others, however, take it to
imply that Hyrcanus was already dead. In this
latter supposition the composition of the work must
have followed close upon the death of that ruler. For
not only does the ^nvid character of the narrative sug-
gest an early period after the events, but the absence
of even the slightest allusion to events later than the
death of Hyrcanus, and, in particular, to the conduefc
of his two successors which aroused popular hatred
against the Machabees, makes a much later date im-
probable. The date would, therefore, in any case, be
within the last years of the second century b. c.
Historicity, — In the eighteenth century the two
brothers E. F. and G. Wemsdorf made an attempt to
discredit I Mach., but with little success. Mc^em
scholars ol all schools, even the most extreme, admit
that the book is a historical document of the highest
value. "With regard to the historical value of I
Blach.", says CormU (Einl., 3ni ed., 265), "there is but
one voice; in it we possess a* source of the very first
order, an absolutely reliable account of one of the
most important epochs in the history of the Jewish
people." The accuracy of a few minor details con-
cerning fordgn nations has, however, been denied.
The author is mistaken, it is said, when he states that
Alexander the Great divided his empire among his
generals (i, 7), or when he speaks of tne Spartans as
akin to the Jews (xii, 6, 7, 21) ; he is inexact in several
particulars regarding the Romans (viii, 1 sq.); he
exaggerates the numbers of elephants at the battle of
Magnesia (viii, 6), and some other numbers (e. g., v,
34; vi, 30, 37; xi, 45, 48). But the author cannot be
charged with whatever inaccuracies or exaggerations
may be contained in viii, 1-16. He there merely sets
down the reports, inexact and exaggerated, no doubt,
in some particulars, which had reached Judas Macha-
beus. The same is true with regard to the statement
concerning the kinship of the Spartans with the Jews.
The author merely reproduces the letter of Jonathan
to the Spartans, and that written to the high-priest
Onias I by Arius.
When a writer simply reports the words of others, an
error can be laid to ms cnarge only when he repro-
duces their statements inaccurately. TTie assertion
that Alexander divided his empire among his generals
{to be understood in the light of w. 9 and 10, where it
is said that they " made fAemseZves kings . . . and put
crowns on themselves after his death"), cannot be
shown to be erroneous. Quintus Curtius, who is the
authority for the contrary view, acknowledges that
there were writers who believed that Alexander
made a division of the provinces by his will. As the
author of I Mach. is a careful historian and wrote about
a century and a half before Q. Curtius, he would de-
serve more credit than the latter, even if he were not
supported by other writers. As to the exaggeration of
numbers in some instances, in so far as they are not
errors of copyists, it should be remembered that
ancient authors, both sacred and profane, frequently
do not give absolute figures, but estimated or popu-
larly current numbers. Exact numbers cannot be rea-
sonablv expected in an account of a popular insurrec-
tion, like that of Antioch (xi,45,48), because they could
not be ascertained. Now the same was often the case
with regard to the strength of the enemy's forces
and of the number of the enemy slain in battle. A
modifying clause, such as "it is reported", must be
supplied in these cases.
Sources. — ^That the author used written sources to a
certain extent is witnessed by the documents which
he cites (viii, 23-32; x, 3-6, 18-20, 25-45; xi, 30-37;
xii, 6-23; etc.). But there is little doubt that he also
derived most of the other matter from written records
of the events, oral tradition being insufficient to ac-
count for the many and minute detaib. There is
every reason to beheve that such records existed for
the Acts of Jonathan and Simon as well as for those of
Judas (ix, 22), and of John Hyrcanus (xvi, 23-24).
For the last part he may also liave relied on the re-
miniscenses of older contemporaries, or even drawn
upon his own.
Greek Text and Ancient Versions. — ^The Greek trans-
lation was probably made soon after the book was
written. The text is found in three uncial codices,
MAOHABCTft 497 MAOHABXIS
namely the Sinaiticus, the Alexandrinus, and the events of the period with which he is dealing. He
Venetus, and in sixteen cursive MSS. The iexttia recep^ writes history with a view to instruction and edifica*
tus is that of the Sixtine edition, derived from the Co- tion. His first object is to exalt the Temple of Jeni-
dex Venetus and some cursives. The best editions are salem as the centre of Jewish worship. Tnis appears
those of Fritzsche (" Libri Apocryphi V. T.", Leipzig, from the pains he takes to extol on every occasion its
1871, 203 sq.) and of Swete ("O. T. in Greek", Cam- dignity and sanctity. It is "the great temple" (ii.
bridge, 1905, IIL 694 sq.), both based on the Cod. 20), "the most renowned" and "the most holv in all
Alexandrinus. The old Latin version in the Vulgate the world" (ii, 23; v, 15), "the great and holy tern-
is that of the Itala, probably unretouched by St. pie" (xiv, 31); even heathen princes esteemed it
Jerome. Part of a still older version, or rather recen- worthy of honour and glorified it with great gifts (iii,
sion (chap, i-xiii), was published by Sabatier (Biblior. 2-3; v, 16; xiii, 23) ; the concern of the Jews in time
Sacror. lAtinse Versiones Antique, II, 1017 sq.), the of danger was more for the holiness of the Temple than
complete text of which was recently discovered in a for their wives and children (xv, 18) ; God protects it
MSo. at Madrid. Two ^yriac versions are extant: by miraculous interp>o8itions (iii, xiv, 31 scj.), and
that of the Peshitto, which follows the Greek text of punishes those guilty of sacrilege against it (iii, 24 sq.:
the Lucian recension, and another published by Cer- ix, 16; xiii, 6-8; xiv, 31 sq.; xv, 32) ; if He has allowed
iani ("Translatio Syra photolithographice edita", it to be profaned, it was because of the sins of the
Milan, 1876, 592-615), which reproduces the ordinary Jews (v, 17-20). It is, no doubt, with this design that
Greek text. the two letters, which otherwise have no connexion
The Second Book of Machabees (Mo/c/cojSatlwi' B; with the book, were prefixed to it. The author appar-
Liber Secundus Machabseorum). — Contents, — The ently intended his work specially for the Jews of the
Second Book of Machabees is not, as the name Dispersion, and more particularly for those of Egypt,
might suggest, a continuation of the First, but coy- where a schismatical temple had been erected at Leon-
ers part of the same ground. The book proper (ii, topolis about 160 b.c. The second object of the author
20-xv, 40) is preceded by two letters of the Jews of is to exhort the Jews to faithfulness to the Law, by
Jerusalem to tneir Egyptian coreligionists (i, 1-ii, 19) . impressing upon them that God is still mindful of His
The first (i, 1-lOa), dated in the year 188 of the Seleu- covenant, and that He does not abandon them unless
cid era (i. e. 124 b. c), beyond expressions of good- they first abandon Him; the tribulations they endure
will and an allusion to a former letter, contains noth- are a punishment for their unfaithfulness, and will
ing but an invitation to the Jews of Egypt to celebrate cease when they repent (iv, 17; v, 17, 19; vi, 13, 15,
the feast of the Dedication of the Temple (instituted 16; vii, 32, 33, 37, 38; viii, 5, 36; xiv, 15; xv, 23, 24).
to commemorate its rededication, I Mach., iv, 59; II To the difference of object corresponds a difference in
Mach., X, 8). The second (i, lOb-ii, 19), whicn is un- tone and method. The author is not satisfied with
dated, is from the " senate" (yepovala) and Judas (Mach- merely relating facts, but freely comments on persons
abeus) to Aristobulus, the preceptor or counsellor of and acts, distributing praise or blame as they may
Ptolemy (D.V.Ptolemee)(Philometor), and to the Jews* deserve when judged from the standpoint of a true
in Egypt. It informs the Eg^'ptian Jews of the death Israelite. Supernatural intervention m favour of the
of Ant iochus ( Epiphanes) while attempting to rob the Jews is em phasized . The style is rhetorical, the dates are
temple of Nanea^ and invites them to join their Pales- comparatively few. As has been remarked, the chron*
tinian brethren in celebrating the feasts of the Dedi- ology of II Mach. slightly differs from that of I Mach.
cation and of the Recovery of the Sacred Fire. The Author and Date. — II Mach. is, as has been said, an
story of the recovery of the sacred fire is then told, and epitome of a larger work by a certain Jason of Cyrene.
in connexion with it the story of the hiding bv the Nothing further is known of this Jason except that,
Prophet Jeremias of the tabernacle, the ark and the al- judging from his exact geographical knowledge, he
tar of incense. After an offer to send copies of the books must have lived for some time in Palestine. The
which Judas had collected after the example of Nehe- author of the epitome is unknown. From the promi-
mias, it repeats the invitation to celebrate the two nence which he gives to the doctrine of the resurreo-
feasts, and concludes with the hope that the dispersed tion of the dead, it has been inferred that he was a
of Israel might soon be gathered together in the Holy Pharisee. Some have even maintained that his book
Land. was a Pharisaical partisan writing. This last, at ilnv
The book itself begins with an elaborate preface rate, is a baseless assertion. II Mach. does not spetuc
(ii, 20-33) in which the author after mentioning that his more severely of Alcimus than I Mach., and the fact
work is an epitome of the larger history in five books of that it mentions the high-priests, Jason and Menelaus,
Jason of Cyrene states his motive in writing the book, by name no more proves it to be a Pharisaic partisan
and comments on the respective duties of the historian writing, than the omission of their names in I Mach.
and of the epitomizer. The first part of the book (iii- proves that to be a Sadducee production. Jason must
iv, 6) relates the attempt of Heliodorus, prime minis- nave finished his work shortly after the death of Ni«
ter of Seleucus IV (187-175 b. c), to rob the treasures canor, and before disaster overtook Judas Machabeus,
of the Temple at the instigation of a certain Simon, as he not only omits to allude to that hero's death, but
and the troubles caused by this latter individual makes the statement, which would be palpably false if
to Onias III. The rest of the book is the history he had written later, that after the death of Nicanor
of the Machabean rebellion down to the death of Jerusalem always remained in the possession of the
Nicanor (161 b. c), and therefore corresponds to I Jews (xv, 38). The epitome cannot have been written
Mach.^ i, 11-vii, 50. Section iv, 7-x, 9, deals with earlier than the date of the first letter, that is 124 B.C.
the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (I Mach., i, 11-vi, As to the exact date there is great divergence. In the
16), while section x, 10-xv, 37, records the events of very probable supposition that the first letter was sent
the reigns of Antiochus Eupator and Demetrius I with a copy of the book, the latter would be of about
(I Mach., vi, 17- vii, 50). II Mach. thus covers a the same date. It cannot in any case be very much
period of only fifteen years, from 176 to 161 B. c. But later, since the demand for an abridged form of Jason'i
while the field is narrower, the narrative is much more history, to which the author alludes in the preface (ii,
copious in details than I Mach., and furnishes many . 25-26), must have arisen within a reasonably short
particulars, for instance, names of persons, which are time after the publication of that work. The second
not found in the first book. ^ letter must have been written soon after the death of
Object and Character. — On comparing the two Books Antiochus, before the exact circumstances concerning
of Machabees it is plainly seen tiiat the author of the it had become known in Jerusalem, therefore about
Second does not, like the author of the First, write 163 b. c. That the Antiochus there mentioned ia
history merely to acquaint his readers with the stining Antiochus IV and not Antiochus II I « as msja.^ C^^k^sScaL
IX.--32
yAOHABgWB 498 MAfiFABKKft
commentators maintain, is clear from the fact that his the events grouped together in chap, v took place in
death is related in connexion with the celebration of rapid succession; (3) The two accounts of the aeath of
the Feast of the Dedication, and that he is represented Antiochus Epiphanes differ, it is true, but l^ey fit very
as an enemy of the Jews, which is not true of Anti- well into one another. Omsidering the chiUBCter of
ochus III. Antiochus and the condition he was in at the time, it
' Original Language. — ^The two letters which were ad- is not at all improbable that he wrote a letter to the
dressed to the Jews of Eg^t. who knew little or no Jews; (4) There is no reason to doubt that in spite of
Hebrew or Aramaic, were m all probability written in the rhetorical form ihe story of the martyrdoms is
Greek. That the book itself was composed in the substantiallv correct. As the place where they oc-
same language, is evident from the style, as St. curred is unknown, it is hard to see on what nt>undtiie
Jerome already remarked (Prol. Gal.). Hebraisms presence of Antiochus is denied It should be noted,
are fewer than would be expected considering the sub- moreover, that the book betrays accurate knowl-
ject, whereas Greek id ioms and Greek constructions are edge in a multitude of small details, and that it is often
very numerous. Jason's Hellenistic origin, and the supported by Josephus, who was imacouainted with it.
absence in the epitome of all signs that would mark it Even its detractors admit that the earlier portion is of
as a translation, are sufficient to show that he also the greatest value, and that in all that relates to Syria
wrote in Greek. its knowledge is extensive and minute. Hence it is not
Historicity. — ^The Second Book of Machabees is likely that it would be guilty of the gross errors im-
much less thought of as a historical document by non- puted to it.
Catholic scholars than the First, though Niese has Authenticity of the Two Letters, — ^Although these let-
recently come out strongly in its defence. The objec- ters have a clear bearing on the purpose of the book,
tions brought against the two letters need not, how- they have been declared to be palpable forgeries,
ever, concern us, except in so far as they affect their Nothing, however, justifies such an opinion. The glar-
authenticity, of which nereafter. These letters are on ing contradiction in the first letter, which represents
the same footing as the other documents cited in I and the climax of affliction as having been experienced
II Mach.; the author is therefore not responsible for under Demetrius II, has no existence. The letter does
the truth of their contents. We may, then, admit that not compare the sufferings under Demetrius with those
the story of the sacred fire, as well as that of the hiding of the past, but speaks of the whole period of affliction
of the tabernacle, etc., is a pure legend, and that the including the time of Demetrius. The legend of the
account of the death of Antiochus as given in the sec- sacred fire etc., proves nothing against the genuine-
ond letter is historically false; the author's credit as a ness of the second letter, imless it be shown that no
historian will not in the least be diminished thereby, such legend existed at the time. The false account of
Some recent Catholic scholars have thoueht that the death of Antiochus Epiphanes is rather a proof in
errors could also be admitted in the book itself without favour of the authenticity of the letter. Such an ac-
casting any discredit on the epitomizer, inasmuch as count would be quite natural if the letter was written
the latter declines to assume responsibility for the soon after the first news, exaggerated and distorted as
exact truth of all its contents. But though this view first news often is, had reached Jerusalem. There
may find some support in the Vulgate (ii, 29), it is remains only the so-called blunder of attributing the
hardly countenanced by the Greek text. Besides, building of the Temple to Nehemias. The very im-
there is no need to have recourse to a theory which, probability of such a gross blunder on the part of an
while absolving the author from formal error, would educated Jew (the supposed forger) should have made
admit real inaccuracies in the book, and so lessen its the critics pause. Nenemias put the last touches to
historical value. The difficulties urged against it are the Temple (II Esdr., ii, 8; Josephus, *' Antiq.", XI, v,
not such as to defy satisfactory explanation. Some 6) which justifies the use of olicodofi^ffat. Codex 125
are based on a false interpretation of the text, as when, (Mosquensis) reads olKoyofii/j<rat "having ordered the
for instance, it is credited with the statement that service of the temple and altar"; this would remove
Demetrius landed in Syria with a mighty host and a all difficulty (cf. II Esdr., x, 32 sq.; xiii sqq.).
fleet (xiv, 1), and is thus placed in opposition to I Greek Text and Versions. — ^The Greek text is usually
Mach., vii, 1, where he is said to have landed with a found in the same MSS. as I Mach.; it is wanting, how-
few men. Others are due to subjective impressions, ever, in the Cod. Sinaiticus. The Latin version in the
as when the supernatural apparitions are called into Vulgate is that of the Itala. An older version was
Question. The exaggeration of numbers has been published by Peyron and again by Ceriani from the
ealt with in connexion with I Mach. Codex Ambrosianus. A third Latin text is found in
The following are the main objections with some real the Madrid MSS. which contains an old version of I
foimdation : (1) The campaign of Lysias, which I Mach., Mach. The Syriac version is often a paraphrase rather
iv, 26-34, places in the last year of Antiochus Epi- than a translation.
phanes, is transferred in II Mach., xi, to the reign of The Thibd and Fourth Books of Machabees.-;—
Antiochus Eupator; (2) The Jewish raids on neigh- III Mach. is the story of a persecution of the Jews in
bouring tribes and the expeditions into Galilee and Egypt under Ptolemy IV Philopator (222-205 b. c),
Galaadj represented in I Mach., v, as carried on in rapid and therefore has no right to its title. Though the
succession after the rededication of the temple, are work contains much that is historical, the story is a
separated in 1 1 Mach. and placed in a different histori- fiction. IV Mach. is a Jewish-Stoic philosophical
cal setting (viii, 30; x, 15-38; xii, 10-45); (3) The treatise on the supremacy of pious reason, that is reli-
account given in II Mach., ix, differs from that of I gious principles, over the passions. The martyrdom
l^ch., vi, regarding the death of Antiochus Epiphanes, of Eleazar and of the seven brothers (II Mach., vi, 18-
who is falsely declared to have written a letter to the vii) is introduced to illustrate the author's thesis.
Jews; (4) The picture of the martyrdoms in vi, 18-vii, Neither book has any claim to canonicity, though the
is highly coloured, and it is improbable that Antiochus furst for a while received favourable consideration in
was present at them. some Churches.
To these objections it may be briefly answered: q^^^ g^ec. Introd., I (New York. 1901). 365 sq.; Cornelt.
(1) The campaign spoken of m II Mach., xi, is not the Jntrod., II (Paris, 1897), i, 440 sq.; Knabenbaubr, Comm. in
same as that related in I Mach., iv; (2) The events ^. Mach. (Paris, 1907); Patrimi, De Conaenau Vtnuaq.Lib.
mentioned m ^hi,^^0 and x, 15 sq. are not nairated j^^ Mach. (Vienna. 1746); Khell. Auctontas UtnuJq. Lib.
la I Mach., v. Before the expedition into Galaad (XU, Mach. (Vienna, 1749); Herkknne, Die Briefe zu Beqinn dea
10 sq.) can be said to be out of its proper historical ^^,^,}f^^°^J^^^* (Freibure, 1904); Gillkt. ^fMa-
R/»ffin<y it wnnUl ImvA fr» h<» nrnvrvl fhnf T lUa^h cAofi^ers (Pans, 1880); BEURUERin K^. />ic<. rff?/a BiWf, I\ , 488
betting It ^on\<\ nave to De provou tnat l Macn. . LESfeTRE. Jntrod., II (Paris, 1890); Vigouroux. Man.
mvanably adheres to chronological order, and that BibL, II (Paris, 1899), 217 aq.; Idem, La BibU el la Critupf
MacHALE 499 MaoBJOM
slytising Kil-
^^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^ *,.«„„, Government
kr5ik''der Mden'ifaASaMi^^ unjustifiably gave countenance. He also attended the
KungefiufUsExM.Handbuchzu den A^ annual meeting of the Irish bishops, and gave evi-
a^'-d&iP^: '& ^EiSS?- ^.1sSS^.^.^)f^ denoe at .Maynopth CpUege .before t^he Parliamentary
AjwkrvphmtmdP»eudepi(raphende9 A. T.iTQhb^S^, 1900). Comnussioners then mquirmg mto the condition of
F. Bechtel. education in Ireland.
About this time he also revised a theological manual
MacHato, John, b. 6 March, 1791, at Tubbema- "On the Evidences and Doctrines of the Catholic
vine, Co. Mayo, Ireland; d. at Tuam, 4 November, Church", afterwards translated into German. With
1881. He was so feeble at his birth that he was his friend and ally, Daniel O'Connell, MacHale took a
baptized at home by Father Conroy, who, six vears prominent part in the important question of Catholic
later, was unjustly hanged during the Irish Rebellion. Emancipation, impeaching in unmeasured terms the
Thou^ Irish was always spoken by the peasants at severities of the penal code, which branded Catholics
that time, the MacHale children were all taught Eng- with the stamp of inferiority. During 1826 his zeal
hsh. When he was old enough John ran barefoot with was omnipresent; "he spoke to the people in secret
his brothers to the hedge-school, then the sole means and in public, by night and by day, on tne highways
of instruction for Catholic peasant children, who on and in places of public resort, calling up the memories
fine days conned their lessons in a dry ditch under a of the past, denouncing the wrongs of the present, and
hedge, and in wet weather were gathered into a rough promising imperishable rewards to those who should
bam. John was an eager pupil, and listened atten- die in their struggle for the faith. He called on the
tively to lives of saints, le^nds, national songs, and Government to remember how the Union was carried
historical tales, related oy his elders, as well as to the by Mr. Pitt on the distinct assurance and implied
accounts of the French Revolution given by an eye- promise that Catholic Emancipation, which had oeen
witness, Ws uncle. Father MacHale, who had just denied by the Irish Parliament, should be granted by
escaped from France. Three important events hap- the Parliament of the Empire" (Burke, "The History
pen^ during John's sixth vear: the Irish Rebellion of of the Catholic Archbishops of Tuam").
1798; the landing at Killala of French troops, whom In two letters written to the prime minister. Earl
the boy, hidden in a stacked sheaf of flax, watched Grey, he described the distress occasioned by starva*
marching through a mountain pass to Castlebar; and a tion and fever in Connaught, the ruin of the linen
few months later the brutal execution of Father Con- trade, the vestry tax for the benefit of Protestant
roy on a false charge of high treason. These occur- churches, the tithes to the Protestant clergj% which
rences made an indelible impression upon the child's Catholics were obliged to pay as well as their Protest-
singularly acute mind. After school hours he betook ant countrymen, the exorbitant rents exacted by ab-
himself to the study of Irish history, imder the guid- sentee landlords, and the crying abuse of forcing the
ance of an excellent old scholar in the neighbourhood, peasantry to buy seed-corn and seed-potatoes from
Being destined for the priesthood the boy was sent to landlords and agents at usurious charges. No atten-
a school at Castlebar to learn Latin, Greek, and Eng- tion was vouchsafed to these letters. Dr. MacHale
lish grammar. In his sixteenth year the Bishop of accompanied to London a deputation of Mayo gentle*
Killala gave him a bursarship in the ecclesiastical men, who received only meaningless assurances from
college at Maynooth. Earl Grey, After witnessing the coronation of Wil-
The emigrant French priests who then taught at liam PV at Westminster Abbey, the bishop, requiring
Maynooth, appreciated the linguistic aptitude of the change of air on account of ill-health, went on to Home,
young man and taught him not only French, but also but not before he had addressed to the premier an-
Latin, Greek, Italian, German, Hebrew, and the Eng- other letter informing him that the scarcity in Ireland
lish classics. After seven years of hard work, having " ¥Cis a famine in the midst of plenty, the oats being
acquired a profound knowledge of theology, he wasap- exported, to pay rents, tithes, etc., and that the Eng*
pomted in 1814 lecturer in that science, altnough only lish people were actually sencQng back in charity what
a sub-deacon. Before the end of the year, however, had grown originally on Irish soil plus freightage and
at the age of twenty-four, he was ordained apriest by insurance". It may be observed that Dr. MacHale
Dr. Murray, Archbishop of Dublin. Father MacHale never blamed the English people, whose generosity he
continued his lectures at Maynooth until 1820, when he ever acknowledged. On the other hand he severely
was nominated professor of theology. He was much condemned the Government for its incapacity, its in-
esteemed by his students, whom he strove to render as difference to the wrongs of Ireland, that aroused ia the
zealous, earnest, and sincere as himself, and he never Irish peasantry a suUen hatred unknown to their more
failed to give them very practical advice about their simple-mindea forefathers. During an absence of six-
duties and studies. ^ teen months he wrote excellent descriptive letters of
Dr. MacHale was then above medium height, of all he saw on the Continent. They were eagerly read
rather an athletic figure. Dignified and reservea in in "The Freeman's Journal", while the sermons he
demeanour, his simple unassuining manners and at- preached in Rome were so admired that they were
tractive conversation procured him many admirers, in- translated into Italian. Amid the varied interests <^
cluding'the Duke of Leinster, who often invited him to the Eternal City he was ever mindful of Ireland's woes
Carton, where he had frequent opportunities of meet- and forwarded thence another protest to Earl Grey
ing men capable of appreciating his intellect and char- against tithes, eess, and proselytism, this last grievance
acter. About this period he commenced a series of being then rampant, particularly in Western C<m*
letters signed " Hierophilus ", vigorously attacking ^e naught. On his return he became an opponent of the
Irish Established Church. They attracted the notice proposed system of National Schools, fearing that the
of Daniel O'Connell and led to a very sincere friendslup oill as originally framed, was an insidious attempt to
between these two Irish patriots. In 1825, Leo XII weaken the faith of Irish cl^ldren.
appointed him Bishop of Maronia, inpartibus, and Dr. Kelly, Archbishop of 'Tuam, died in 1834, and
coadjutor to Dr. Waldron, Bishop of lullala. After the clergy selected Dr. MacHale as one of three candi«
his consecration in Maynooth College chapel, the new dates, to the annoyance of the Government who de-
prelate, who was wamuy received by Dr. Waldron and spatcned agents to induce the pope not to nominate
nis people, devoted himself to his sacred duties. He tne Bishop of Maronia to the vacant see. Gregorv
preached Irish and English sennons, and superizi- XVI dryly remarked " that ever since the Relief BiU
tended the missions given in the diocese for the Jubi- had passed, the English Government never failed to
lee of 1825. The next year Dr. MacHale joined Bishop intenere about every appointment as it fell v^sso^!*
MacHALE 500 MacHALS
(Greville, " Memoirs ", pt. II). Disregarding their re* sry children and people too weak and infirm to seek
quest, the pope appointed Dr. MacHale Archbishop of for food in Tuani. The enormous donations sent to
Tuam. He was the first prelate since the Reforma- him were punctiliously acknowledged, accounted for,
tion, who had received his entire education in Ireland, and promptly disbursed by his cleigy amon^ the vio*
The corrupt practices of general parliamentary eleo- tims of fever and famine. The death of Daniel O'CJon-
tions and the Tithe war caused frequent rioting and nell (1847) was a deep sorrow to Dr. MacHale. He
bloodshed, and were the subjects of no little denuncia- was also much grieved at the dissensions of the Re-
tion by the new archbishop, imtil matters were tardily Dealers, and the violent tactics of the Young Ireland
settled by the passing of a Tithes Bill in 1838. In rarty, who would not listen to his wise and patriotic
spite of the labours of his diocese, which he always advice. In 1848, he visited Rome and by his represent
zealously fulfilled, Archbishop MacHale now began in tatious to Pius IX inflicted a deadly blow upOn the
the newspapers a series of open letters to the Govern- Queen's Colleges. He also succeeded in preventing
ment, whereby he frequently harassed the ministers diplomatic intercourse between the British Govem-
into activity in Irish affairs. During the Autumn of ment and Rome. The Synod of Thurles, held in 1850,
1835, he visited the Island of Aehill, a stronghold of emphasized the different views entertained by the
the Bible Readers. In order to offset their prosely- hierarchy respecting the education question. On that
tism. he sent thither more priests and Franciscan occasion Dr. MacHale strongly protested against giv-
monks of the Third Order. Although Dr. MacHale ing any countenance te a mixed system of education
had strong views as to the proper relief of the poor and already condemned by the pope. During the recru-
the education of youth^ he condemned the Poor Law, descence of "No Popery" in 1851, on the occasion of
and the system of National Schools and Queen's Col- the re-establishment of the English Catholic hierarchy,
leges as devised by the Government. He founded his and the passing of an intelerant Ecclesiastical Titles
own schools, entrusting those for boys to the Christian Bill that inflicted penalties upon any Roman Catholic
Brothers and Franciscan monks, while Sisters of prelate who assumed the title of his see, Dr. MacHale
Mercy and Presentation Nuns taught the girls. But boldly signed his letters to Government on this sub-
the want of funds naturally restricted the number of ject "John, Archbishop of Tuam'\ This act of defi-
these schools which had to be supplemented by the ance so startled the Cabinet that it was considered
National Board at a later period, when the necessary more prudent not to attempt a prosecution and to
amendments had been added to the Bill. allow the Bill to remain a dead letter.
The Repeal of the Union, advocated by Daniel As to the Catholic University, though Dr. MacHale
O'Connell, enlisted his ardent sympathy and he as- had been foremost in advocating the project, he dis-
sistod the Liberator in many ways, and remitted agreed completely with Dr. Cullen, Archbishop of
subscriptions from his priests for this purpose. We Dublin (afterward Cardinal), concerning its manage-
are told by his biographer O'Reilly, that Uke his ment and control, and the appointment of Dr. New-
friend, the prelate ''was for a thorough and universal man as rector. The want of concord among the Irish
organisation of Irishmen in a movement for obtaining bishops on this question, and the honest but totally
by legal and peaceful agitation the restoration of Ire- wrong opinions of Dr. MacHale, handicapped the new
iMid's legislative independence ". The Charitable Be- university. The archbishop approved of Tenant Right
queste Bill, formerly productive of numerous lawsuits and also of the Irish Tenant League. He wrote to
owing to its animus against donations to religious O'Connell's son that it ** was the assertion of the prim-
orders, was vehemently opposed by the archbi^op. ibive right of man to enjoy in security and peace the
In this he differed consideraoly from some other Irish fruit oi his industry and labour". At a conference
prelates, who thought that each bishop should exer- held in Dublin, men of all creeds supported his views
cise his own judgment as to his acceptance of a com- on " fixity of tenure, free sale, and fair rent''. Though
missionership on the Board, or as regarded the partial it is impossible to relate all the events of a life which
application of the Act. The latter has since then been the " Freeman's Journal *' described as the history of
so amended, that in its present form it is quite favour- Ireland for the greater part of the nineteenth century,
able to Catholic charities and the Catholic poor. In enough has been written to show how by pen, word,
his zeal for the cause of the Catholic religion and of and deed, "the Lion of Juda'' endeavourea to benefit
Ireland, so long down-trodden. Dr. MacHale fre- his covmtry. Toward the end of his life he withdrew
quently incurred from his opponents the charge of very much from active poUtics, though he was happy
intemperate language, something not altogether un- enough to live to see tne dawn of more prosperous
deserved. He did not possess that suavity of manner days for Ireland.
which is so invaluable to leaders of men and public Notwithstanding his very advanced years, Dr. Mac-
opinion, and so he alarmed or offended others. In his Hale attended the Vatican Council in 1869. With
anxiety to reform abuses and to secure the welfare of several distinguished prelates of various nationalities,
Ireland, by an uncompromising and impetuous zeal, he thought that the favourable moment had not ar-
he made many bitter and unrelenting enemies. This rived for an immediate definition of the dogma of
was particularly true of British ministers and their papal infallibility; consequently, he spoke and voted
supporters, by whom he was dubbed "a firebrand", in the council against its promulgation. Once the
and "a dangerous demagogue". Cardinal Bamabd, dogma had been defined, Dr. MacHale instantly sub-
Prefect of Propaganda, who had serious disagreements mitted his judgment to the Holy See, and in his own
with Dr. MacHale, declared he was a twice-dyed Irish- cathedral he declared the dogma of infallibility '* to
man, a good man ever insisting on getting his own way. be true Catholic doctrine, which he believed as he
This excessive inflexibility, not suflSciently tempered believed the Apostles' Creed", a public profession
by prudence, explains his more or less stormy career, that further raised John of Tuam in the estimation of
During the calamitous famine of 1846-47, nothing all who admired his great genius and virtue. In 1877,
could exceed his ener^ and activity on behalf of the to the disappointment of the archbishop who desired
afflicted people. He vainly warned the Government as that his nephew should be his co-adjutor. Dr. Mc-
to the awful state of Ireland, reproached them for their Evilly, Bishop of Galway, was electee! by the clergy
dilatoriness in coming to the rescue, and held up the of the archdiocese, and was commanded by Leo XIII
uselessness of relief works expended on high roaas in- after some delay, to assume his post. Although the
stead of on quays and piers to develop the sea fisheries, aged prelate haa opposed this election as far as possi-
From England as well as other parts of the world, car- ble, he submitted to the papal order, without protest or
goes of food were sent to the starving Irish. Bread resentment. In private life Dr. MacHale never wasted
and soup were distributed from the archbishop's own time, for he was always employed in study, business
kitehen, and he drove about regularly to relieve hun« and prayer. He was noted for his charity to the poor.
HAOHUTILU .<]
his Hirict fulfilment of every sarrcfl iluly,iu)it llie uffcc-
tioiiute considerat ion and hoBpitality uver displayed U>-
wardB his clcrg^'. His intense n^-ipect for Baucnlotal
difRiitynnidercdliimslowto reprimand, though tic was
iiiflexinle in matters of faithaiid principle. Eveiy Sun-
day he preached a sormon in Iriah at the cathedral,
and during his dioeenaii visitations lie alwa^'s ad-
drpiwcd the poor people in their native tongue. On
jounieya he usually conversed in Irish with his atten-
dant chaplain, anil never addresxcl in any other
tongue the poor people of Tuam or the l)cKgar8 who
greeted him whenever he went out. He always en-
eourajn'd the preservation of the Irish langiiagp, and
compiicl in it a catechism and a praycr-l)ook. More-
over, he made translations int« Irish of portioiis of the
Holy Seriptures as well as the magnificent Latin
hymns, "Dies Inn" and "Staliat Mater". He trans-
lated into Irish Moore's "Melodies" and Honier'M
" Iliad". In the preface to his translation of the first
bonk of Iha "Iliad" he
wrote that "there is no
European tongue Ijetter
adnptnd than ours (Irish)
to a full or perfect version
of HomiT". The^p Irish
works of Dr. M.^IInlc ex-
cited ihesinccn' admiral ion
of all Celtic scholars wlio
were alile to appreiiate the
I leaul y of h is c lasficn 1 ( ioel ie.
He celehrateil the golden
jubilee of his episcopacv in
- — The vcnerahli. old
liv
d for !<
ng his
usual mmlc of life an for oh
hi.t strength piTmiltcd and
niuking the visitations i if liin
diiK-esc. He prcach<-d lii.-t
last Irisli sermon after his
Sunday Uoss. April, IKXt
Heilii-dartrr a short illness,
ntid is buried in Tuaru Ca-
thedral.
0'Reii,ly. Lifir «! John .»■
Halt. ArrkhMop «/ Tuam. _
viiIh. (Nxw Yiirk): Moork in Dul.
Xat. Biaa.. ». v.; Bubku, Ltti of
Ihe IMIulir. Arehbi^hap, «l
Hachianlli, XicoLb, historian and sintcsnian,
li. lit Florence, .1 Moy, UOfl; d. there. 22 June, 1627.
Ilisfnmily is Kjiid to have lieen descended from the dd
niiirquesses of Tuscany, and tii hiive diven Florence
thirteen fonfalunien of instiee. His fat Iter, Bemanio,
was n. Ia»-j-cr, and acted as treasurer of the Marches,
liul W!iM far from wealthy. Of Nieol'I's studies we
only know that he was a pupil ot Mareello Vireilio.
In UftS he was elected secretary ot the Lower (^an-
ciTy of I he Signorv, and in later j-oars he heW the
name pn«t under the Ten. Thus it chanced that tor
fiuirteen years l»e had cbar0> ot the home and foreign
eiirrcspondencc of the republic, the registration ot
triids, the keening of the miniiles of the couneiU. and
the dnifting di agreements with other states. Mote-
over he Wiis sent in various cnpacilies to one or other
lucidity within the Stale of Tuscany, and on twenty-
tliriH,' occasions he acted as legate on important em-
iKissies to foreign princes, e. g. to Catherine Sforsa
(1499), to France (1500, 1510, 1511), to the emperor
II HAOHIAVKLU
(1507, 1509), to Rome (1.">0:{, 1500), to C.-esnr llorgb
(1502), to (iian I'aohi Buglione at I'erugiu, to the
Petrucei at t^iena, and to Piomhino. On these em-
bassies he gave evidence of wonderful keenness of ob-
Ber^'ntioa and insight into the hidden thoughts of tlie
men he was denhiig with, r.ither than ot any great
diplomatic skill, .\fter the defeat of France in Italy
(1512) the Medici once motv olitained conirol m
Florence; the secretary was dismissed ami exih-d tor
one year from the citv. On the discovery ot the
Capponi and Bnsc<ili plot against Cardinal (.liovanni
de Medici, Mitchiavclu was aceu-sed as an accomplice,
and tortureil, hut he was set free when the eaitlinai
beciime Pope Leo X. Thereupon Iw retired to wniie
Eroperty he had at Slni<la near ,San Casciano, when
e gave himself up to the study lA the classics, espe-
ciidly Livy, and to the writing of his political and
literary histories. Both I^eo X and Clement VII
sought his advice in pulitic:d matters, and he was
ofteu employed on partic-
ular missions affecting
matters of state, as, for in-
stance, when he was sent to
Francesco Guiccardini, the
pupal leader in the Koma-
gna and general of the army
of the League, concerning
I he fort ifica lion of Florence,
lie maile vain efforta t«
secure a public post under
the Mciliei, bemif ready
even to s.icrifiee lus politi-
cal opinions for the purpose.
He returned home after the
sack of Home (12 May,
l.')27) when the power ai
the Mediei had I>een once
more overthrown, but his
old political pnriy turned
^igiiinsl him as one who
fiiwneil on tyrant.s. He
Miu'l
attern
velli":-
■ilii
-llhl-r
foUowiiig
... -ich goes
from Ihefall of iJicKrupirR
to 1402, deilicaledloClem-
eiil VII, al whose tequest it
hiid lieen written. "IJescri-
ziniie del modo tcnuto dal
ihica Valentino nclloanunas-
VitelloKito \'itelli. elc."; '" Vila di Castruccio Ca»-
ine '; "Diseiiniisopni la prima decstdi Tito Livio";
Uescrisione drlla jiestc di FirenEC dell' anno 1527";
to this group belong uUo his letters from his embassies
us well us hw min<ir writings concerning the afTaira of
Pisa, Lucca, France, (iemiany. Political: — "II Prin-
cipe", "Discorso sopra il KiEormarv lo Stato di Fi-
ren«e"; " Deirartc della guemi", and other military
works. lAtfTaTij: — "Dialogo sulle linguo"; five
comedies: "Mnndragola"; "Cliiiu"; a eoniedy in
prose; "The Antlria" of Terence, a translation; a
comedy in verse; " I Decennaii" (a metrical history
of theyears H9.^i-1504): "Pell' Asinod'oro", writin(^
on moral subjects; 'La sereiiata"; "Canti Camas-
eialeschi"; anovel, ''Belfagor", etc.
Machiavelli's eliaraeter as a man and a. writer has
been widely disousseil, and on Iwh heads his merits
and dements have been exuggerati-d, but in such a
way that his demerits have iireponderatcd to tlie det-
riment of his mctnury. MachiavellLsni has I>6eoine
synonymous with trcaeliery, intrigue, subterfuge, and
tyranny. It has been ei-en siiirl that " Old Kick", the
popular name of the Devil among Ancl()-Sason races,
derives its origin from that <if Nicolo Machiavelli.
This dubious fame he haawao,U-j 'NaV«»j*.'<s*i'-'iTa»
MAOHttua m
dpe", and the theories therein esploil«d were further
eUborated in his "Discorsi aopra Livio". To under-
stand the " I'riiicipe" ri^t it must be borne in miod that
tlie work ia Dot a treatise on foreign politics. It aims
solely at examining how a kingdom may be best built
upandeatabliabed; nor is it a mere abstract diacuBaion,
but it Is carried oa in the light of on ideal long held by
Machiavelli, that a United Italy waa poesible, and in
the last chapter of tiie work he exhorta the Medici of
Florence (Giuliano and Lorenzo] to its reaJination.
Hia aim was to point out the beat way for bringing it
about; he did not deal with abstract principles and
arguments, but collected examples from classical an-
tiquity and from recent events, especially from the
career of CKsar Borgia. 80 that the " Principe" is a
political tract with a definite aim and intended for a
particular locality. To gain the end in view results
are to be the only criteria of the methods employed,
and even the teach-
ings of the moral
law must give way
to secure the end
in view. Good
faith, clemency,
and moderation
boa
e. Flop
, but he
teaches thai the
interests of the
atate are above
all individuiil vir-
tues. These vir-
tues may be use-
ful, and when tbey
arc a prince ought
to exercise them,
but more often in
dealing with an
opponent they are
a nindranoe, not in
themselves, but
by reason of the
crookedness (rf
others.
Whosoever would prevail against the treacheiy,
crime, and cruelty of others, must himself be before-
hand in misleading and deceiving his opponent and
even in getting rid of him, as Cssar Borgia had done.
WUle on the other hand Gian Paolo Ba^ione made a
tniatoke, by omitting to imprison or put to death
Julius II, in I50S, on the occasion of his unprotected
entry to Perugia {Discorsi aopra Livio, I, xxvii).
Again, a prince must keep clear of crime not only when
it is hurtful to his interests but when it is useless. He
should try to win the love of hia aubjecta, by aimulat-
icg virtue if he doea not possess it; he ought to en-
courage trade so that his people, busied in getting rich,
may have no time for politics; he ought to show con-
cern for religion, because it is a potent means for keep-
ing his people submissive and obedient. Such is the
general teaching of the "Principe", which has been
often refuted. As a theory Machiavellisra may per-
haps be called an innovation ; but as a practice it is as
on as political society. It was a most immoral work,
in that it cuts politics adrift from all morality, and it
was rightly put on the Index in 1559. It is worth
noting that the " Principe" with its glorification of
■bsolutism is totallv opposed to its author's ideas of
democracy, which led to his ruin. To explain the
difficulty It is not necess.iry to claim that the book is a
satire, nor that it is evidence of how easily the writer
could change his political views provided he could
itand well with the Medici. Much as Machiavelli
loved liberty and Florence he dreamed of a "larger
Italy" of the Italians. As a practical man he saw ttot
his (Ireara could be realized only through a prince of
eharacter and energy who would walk in the steps of
CECsar Borgia, and be conceded that the individual
when be deals with what happened under his eyes at
the various embaasies; but it should be remen^>ered
that he gives everything a more or less unconscious
what he had heard or read, and serves to explain the
discrepancies in the letters he wrot« during his em-
bassies to Cffisar Borgia, the "DescriEione", etc., the
ideal picture he drew S affairs in Germany, and his life
of Castruccio Castracane, which is rather an historical
romance modelled on the character of Agathocles in
Plutarch. He knew nothing of historic^ criticism,
yet he showed how events in history move in obedience
to certain general laws; and this is his great merit as
an historian. His natural bent was politics, but in his
dealings with mihtary matters he showed such skill as
would amaze us even if we did not know be had never
been a soldier. He recognized that to be strong a
state must have its standing army, and he upholds uiis
not only in the " Principe" and the "Discorsi'i but ia
his vanous military writings. The broad and stable
laws of military tactics he lays down in masleriy
fashion ; yet it is curious to note that he lays no great
stress on firearma.
His style is always clear and crisp and his reasomng
close and onierly. What poetry he has left gives no
proof of poetic talent; rather, the comedies are clever
and successful as compositions and only too often bear
undisguised traces of the moral laxity of the author
(this is shown also in hia letters to his friends) and of
the a^ in which he lived. His " Mandragola" and
"Cli«ia" are notlung more or less than pochades and
lose no opportunity of acorinif against religion. Machia-
velli did not disguise his dislike for Chriatianity which
bjr exalting humility, meekness, and patience had, he
said, weakened the social and patriotic instincts of
moiJrind. Hence, he mocked at Savonarola though
he waa the saviour of democracy, and he had a special
dislike for the Holy See as a temporal power, as he saw
in it the greatest obstacle to ItaUan unity; to use bis
own expression, it was too weak to control the whole
peninsula, but too strong to allow of any other state
bringing about unity. This explains why he has no
words of praise for Julius II and his Italian policy. It
was merely as an opportunist that he courted the
favour of Leo X and Clement VII. On the other
hand, when death came bis way he remembered that
he was a Christian and be died a Christian death,
though his life, habits, and ideals "bad been pagan,
and himself a typical representative of the Itt^an
E MlLlMBSI
Maahiautlli, ed. FAaaEWNi F*nf
^ ols,, Florence, 1873-771; Tl<r WorkiofNie
Faithfullii Englulicd (Laodon. 1685); Lrltrre famigliari. ed.
Alvibi (FlorEDce, 1SS3): NlTa.Mati/iiavelli neUa vUa e ndU
ofurt (Naples. 1878); VitLABi, MocfcinnrfJi and Au Tima (tr.
London, 18B21 ; Hanke, Znr Kntili nrutnr aarhithUnhTe^rr
(1824); Macaulay. CnJi^aiulAudiruiiJfiHviCEdinbuiBli.
1827); UoHi. Die AfoeeAwivIfi LiUerofur in OtKhichtr and
Littratur dtr BlaaUmttenicliaflen. Ill (Erlanno, 1855-8)^
Pabtoh, Hulorv of thi Poprt, tr. Atitrobub. V. VI (SI. Louis.
1902), pasaiffl; T)tza, ilackiattlli and thr Madtm ^ati (Bos-
ton, ims): VaO(ihan, Nicoll, Uachxav^li in DiMirt Rrricw
(April. IWW): UORLET, MiKtUaniei (London, 1907). Works
MDunM MnahiavelU were written by: CAimniAL Polk; Cata-
HIHo; the Calvinirt Oentil,lbt. DtuDur) iFEilal. , , . eonire
Nicol. Machiavd (1578); OeoBiUB, De nobililali cftnjdono
(Home, 15921; Forsevino, JuiHrium de mmlm/r acTiplnrrbiu
(Rome. 1593): Fheoerick II of Phusiua. wtione Anli-Mae)ii-
mti wu e<lit«ii by Voltaire (Amsterdam. 1711). Machiavelli
N. H. Thoiibon has ttaoslaied into English The Pnnet (Oifoidi
1BS7) and Maehiaveni'i Diieovrm (London, 1883).
U. Beniqni,
HkchMUb, the burial-place in the vicinity of an-
cient Hebron which Abraham bought from Ephron
liAOUUTUS
r>()3
MAOHUTtTS
was later Abraham himself (xxv, 9). The words of
the dying Jacob inform us that Rebecca and Lia were
also buried in this cave (xlix, 31), and, lastly, Jacob
found there his last resting place (1, 13). According to
the Hebrew text, which always uses the word Mcxh-
pdah with the article, the Machpelah \b the place in
which the field with the cave is to be found. Thus we
read *' the cave in the field of the Machpelah" in Gen.,
xxiii, 17, 19; xlix, 30; 1, 13, "the cave of the Mach-
pelah" is twice mentioned (xxiii, 9; xxv, 9). But in
the Greek text the word is rendered "the double
cave " — by derivation from the root kafalf * ' to double ".
This meaning is admitted into l^e Targum, into the
Syrian translation and into the Vulgate.
In the later books of the Old Testament Machpelah
is not mentioned. Josephus, however, knows the
tomb of Abraham and his descendants in the district
then known as Hebron (Antig., I, xiv, 1; xxii, lj,xxi,
3). According to this historian (op. cit., 11, viii, 2),
the brothers of Joseph were also interred in their
ancestral burial-place — a hypothesis for which there
is no foundation m Holy Wnt. A Rabbinic tradition
of not much later date on the strength of a misinter-
pretation of Jos., xiv, 15 (Hebron-Kiriath Arba —
''City of Four") wouJd place the graves of four
Patriarchs at Hebron, and, relying on the same pas-
sage, declares Adam to be the fourth Patriarch. St.
Jerome accepted this interpretation (see "Oiio-
masticon des Eusebius ", ed. Klostermann, lieipzig,
1904, p. 7), and introduced it into the Vulgate. Ac-
cording to Rabbinic legends, Ksau also was buried in
the neighbourhood. Since the sixth century the grave
of Joseph has been pointed out at Hebron (Itinerar.
Antonini), in spite ot Jos., xxiv, 32, while the Moham-
medans even to-day regard an Arabian building joined
to the north-west of the Haram as Joseph's tomb.
The tomb mentioned by Josephus is undoubtedly the
Haram situated in the south-east Quarter of Hebron
(£1-Khalil). The shrine facing north-west and south-
east forms a spacious rectangle 197 feet long by 111
feet wide, and rises to a height of about 40 feet. The
mighty blocks of limestone as hard as marble, dressed
and closely fitted (" beautiful, artistically carved mar-
ble ", Josephus, " Bell. Jud.", IV, ix, 7), have acquired
with age almost the tint of bronze. The monotony of
the long lines is reheved by rectangular pilasters, six-
teen on each side and eight at the top and bottom.
Of the builder tradition is silent; Josephus is ignorant
of his identity. Its resemblance in style to the Haram
at Jerusalem has led many to refer it to the Herodian
period, e. g., Conder, Benzin^er. Robinson, Warren,
and Heidet regard the building as pre-Herodian.
Since Josephus tradition has no doubt preserved the
site correctly. Eusebius merely mentions the burial-
place (" Onoraasticon", ed. Klostermann, s. v." Arbo",
p. 6) ; the Pilgrim of Bordeaux (333) speaks explicitly
of a rectangidar building of magnificent stone \" Itin-
era Hieros.", ed. Geyer, "Corpus Script. Eccl. Lat,",
XXXIX, Vienna, 1898, p. 25). In his version of the
" Onomasticon ", St. Jerome unfortunately does not
express himself clearly; it is doubtful whether the
church, which he declares to have been recently built (a
nostru ibidem jam ezstructa), is to be sought in the mau-
soleum or at Haram Ramet el Khalil, half an hour's
journey north of Hebron. The "Itinerarium" of St.
Antoninus (c. 570) mentions a basihca with four halls
(perhaps four porches about the walls) at the graves
of the Patriarchs, possessing an open court, and eoually
venerated by Christians and Jews (" It. Hieros. , ed.
Geyer, 178 sq.}. About 700, Adamnan informs us.
on the authority of Arculf, that the burial-place of
the Patriarchs is surrounded by a rectangular wall,
and that over the graves stand monuments, but there
is no mention of a basilica ("De Loois Sanct.", II. x,
Geyer, 261 sq^. The following centuries (Mukka-
dasi, Saewulf, Daniel— 985, 1102, 1106) throw no new
light on the question. In 1 1 19 a Christian diurch was
undoubtedly to be found there, either the old feyzaii-
tine or the Crusader's church, which, to iudge from
the style, apparently dates from the middle of the
twelfth century. Remains from early times are still
perceptible, but they do not enable one to form any
judgment concerning the old basilica; what still re-
mained of it at the period of the Crusades is uncer-
tain. According to a rather improbable statement of
Benjamin of TudeLa, a Jewish synagogue stood in the
Hamm before the re-establishment of Christian domi-
nation. After the downfall of the Prankish kingdom,
the Latin church was converted into the present
mosque. This is built* in the southern section of the
Haram in such a position as to utilize three of the
boundary walls. The interior is seventy feet long and
ninety-three feet wide; four pillars divide it into three
aisles of almost the same breadth, but of unequal
length. The entrance to the Haram is effected by
means of two Rights of steps, a specimen of Arabian
art of the fourteenth century.
According to a late and unreliable Mohammedan
tradition, the tombs of the Patriarchs lie under six
monuments: to Isaac and Rebecca are assigned those
within the mosque itself; to Abraham and Sara the
next two, in front of the north wall of the mosc^ue in
two chapels of the narthex; those of Jacob and Lia are
the last two at the north end of the Haram. Concern-
ing the subterranean chambers we possess only inex-
act information. The Jewish accounts (Benjamin of
Tudela, 1160-73; Rabbi Petacchia, 1175^80; David
Reubeni, 1525) are neither clear nor uniform. An
extensive investigation was undertaken by the Latin
monks of Kiriath Arba (D. V. Cariath-Arbe-Hebron)
in 1 1 19, but was never completed. After several days
of laborious work, they disclosed a whole system of
subterranean chambers, in which it was believed that
at last the much-souglit-f or " double cave " with the
remains of the three Patriarchs had been discovered.
In 1859, by means of an entrance in the porch of the
mosque between the sarcophagi of Abraham and Sara,
the Italian Pierotti succeeded in descending some
steps of a stairway hewn in the rock. According to
Pierotti's observations, the cavity extends the whole
length of the Haram. Owing to tlie intolerance of the
Mohammedans, all subsequent attempts of English
and German investigators (1862, 1869, 1882) have led
to no sati^actory results. Concerning the plan of and
connexion between the underground chambers no
judgment can be formed without fresh investigation.
Robinson, BibHcal Researchee in PaleMins, U (Boston, 1841),
76 sqq.; Memoirs on the Surveu of Weetem Palestine, III (Lon-
don. 1883), 333 sqq.; Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly
Statement (1882), 197 sqq. (1897). 53 sqq.; lb Stranob, PoIm-
tine under the Moslems (London, 1890). 309 sera.; Ada SS., IV,
Oct.. 688 sqq.; Riant, Archives de V Orient latin, II (Grenoa,
1884), 411 sqq.; PiERom, MaepSla ou tombeaux des patiriar^ies
rLausanne, 1809); Heidet in Vzgouroux, DieC de la Bible, a. v.
MacpHaK,
A. MSRK*
MachutUB, Saint (Maclovius; Malo), b. about the
year 520 probably in Wales and baptized by St.
Brendan. Machutus became his favourite disciple
and was one of those specially selected by that holy
man for his oft-described voyage. No doubt he may
have remained some years in Llancarrven Abbey,
when St. Brendan stayed there, and it was from there
that St. Brendan and his disciple, St. Machutus, with
numerous companions set forth for the discovery of
the "Island of the Blest". He then put to sea on a
second voyage and visited the Island of September,
in the seawara front of St. Malo, known as Chzembra,
where he tarried for some time. It was on the occa-
sion of his second voyage that he evangelized the
Orkney Islands and the northern isles of Scotland.
At Aleth opposite St. Malo he placed himself under a
venerable nermit named Aaron, on whose death in 543
(or 544), St. Machutus succeeded to the spiritual rule
of the district subeequently known aa ^t. '^&&k^^ vksi^^
MAOKSNZIK
504
hulcmaboh
was consecrated first Bishop of Aleth. It is remark-
able that St. Brendan also laboured at Aleth, and had
a hermit's cell there on a precipitous rock in the sea,
whither he often retired. In olcl age the disorder of the
island compelled St. Machutiis to leave, but the people
soon begged the saint to come back. On his return
matters were put right, and the saint, feeling that his
end was at hand, determined to spend his last days
in solitary penance. Accordingly he proceeded to Ar-
chambiac. a village in the Diocese of Santes, where
he passea the remainder of his life in prayer and
mortification. His obit is chronicled on 15 Nov., in
the year 618, 620, or 622.
O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints (Dublin, s. d.); O'Dono-
OHXTE, St. Brendan the Voyager (Dublin, 1895); Moran, Irish
SainU in Great Britain (Callan. 1903).
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
Mackensie, Vicariate Apostolic op. — ^This vicar-
iate which was detached from the Athabaska-Macken-
zie Vicariate in 1901 and intrusted to Mgr Gabriel
Breynat, Titular Bishop of Adramytus, consecrated 6
April, 1902, is bounded on the west by the Rocky
Mountains, on the south by 60® latitude, on the east
by the water-shed and is unlimited on the north tow-
ards the pole. It comprised the Yukon, which was not
erected into a prefecture Apostolic until 1908.
Through this immense territory, which has an area of
over half a million square miles, are scattered six
nomad tribes:^ the Montagnais, tne Slave, the Flat-
dog-side, the Hare Indian, the Loucheux, and the
Eskimo, making a total population of 6000 souls.
Leaving out the Eskimo tribe which is still pagan and
nearly four hundred Protestant red-skins, all the other
tribes embraced the Catholic Faith which was intro-
duced by the Oblates^ who began mission work here
in 1858. The difficulties of Chnstianizing this land of
perpetual snow and long winters, when the thermom-
eter sometimes falls to 68® below zero, are readily
understood when one knows that the only means of
travel are dogs trained to harness and that the heavens
are the only roof. Means of commumcation are so
poor that from September to July there is but one mail
delivery in Lower Mackenzie and provisions are
brought by steamboat but once a year. Hence the
difficulties of travel, the absolute lack of local re-
sources, the severity of the cUmate contribute to make
this vicariate the poorest in the wjiole world, living on
charity, more especially on pecuniary help sent from
France by the Propagation of Faith. Owing to this
assistance the vicar Apostolic with his twenty Oblate
fathers and twenty-one brothers can maintain twelve
missions where the Indians gather every year. In
1867 the Montreal Gray Nuns came and shared the
hardships of the missionaries, establishing an orphan-
age at the Providence ^fission, where they are now
teaching seventy-six children under their care. In
1903 they opened another orphanage at the St. Joseph
Mission, Fort Resolution, the vicar Apostolic's resi-
dence, where forty-five children are being instructed.
There are twenty-one nuns working in the mission.
PiOLET, Les missions cathoHques, VI (Paris. 1903), 51-130;
TxcHi:, Vingt annSes de missions dans le Nord-Ouest de VAmS-
rique (Montreal, 1866); Idem, Eaquisse sur le nord-ouest ds
VAmirique (Montreal, 1869), tr. Cameron (1870); Annates des
missions de la congrigation des Oblats de Marie- ImmacuUe
(1862-1910); Catholic Directory (Milwaukee, 1910).
C. H. A. Gmoux.
McLoTi£fhliii, Jopf, phvsician and pioneer, b. in
the parish of La Riviere du Loup, Canada, 19 Oct.,
1784; d. at Oregon City^ 3 Sept., 1857. He is the
great hero of Oregon's pioneer period. His paternal
grandfather was bom m the parish of Desertegney,
Jjeland. He emigrated to Canada and married there,
and his son John was the father of Dr. John McLough-
Hn. The maiden name of the mother of the latter was
Angelique Fraser, bom in the parish of Beaumont,
Canada. Her father was Malcolm Fraser, a Scotch
Ilighlandor, who went to Canada in 1769 with the
army of Wolfe. Dr. McLoughlin's father died while
his son was a lad. He was brought up in the home oi
his maternal grandfather, and educated in Canada and
Scotland. He became a physician while quite young,
but did not practise long. He became a partner of the
North-West Company. When that compimy coalesced
with the Hudson Bay Company in 1821, he was in
charge of Fort William on Lake Superior, which was
then the chief depot and factory of the North- W^est
Company. In 1824 Dr. McLoughhn was sent to Fort
George [Astoria] near the mouth of the Columbia River.
He soon moved the head-quarters of the company to
Fort Vancouver, on the northern side of the Columbia
River, There he ruled for twenty-two years as the
absolute but kindly autocrat of what is known as the
Oregon Country. He had no military force, but by
his own personality and the aid of his officers and
employes, he estabushed order and maintained peace
so' that persons unaccompanied by escort could travel
over the country without danger from formeriy hos-
tile Indians. There were no Indian wars in the Ore-
gon Country until after he resigned from the Hudson
Bay Company. The Methodist. Presbyterian, and
Catholic missionaries he aided ana protected, although
at that time he was an Anglican. In 1842 he joined
the Catholic Church, and became a devoted Catholic,
being created a Knight of St. Gregory in 1846. In 1843
the first of the Oregon home-buildmg immigrants ar-
rived in Oregon. Dr. McLoughlin fed and clothed them
and cared for the sick, he supplied them with seed and
farming implements, and loaned them domestic ani-
mals. He gave similar assistance to the immigrants of
1844 and 1845. As he furnished most of this aid on
credit, and did not discourage the settlement of Ore-
gon by citizens of the United States, he was forced
to resign by the Hudson Bay Company in 1846. For
the rest of his hfe he resided at (Jregon City. Prior
to 1840 he had taken up a land claim, but there was
no legal way to acouire ownership of land in Oregon
before the Oregon land law of 27 Sept., 1850. This
land claim was at Oregon City, which he founded and
named, and where there is a fine water power. He de-
veloped this power, and erected flour and saw mills
which he personally operated. It was asserted that
as he was a British subject, he was not entitled to take
up a land claim. But tnis was merely a pretext, for un-
til 1846, when the treaty between the United States
and Great Britain settled the ownership of the Oregon
Country, a convention between the two countries ex-
isted, providing for the joint occupancy of the Oregon
Country by Americans and British, both having equal
rights. Some of the Methodist missionaries and their
f(Sowers-~all of whom had been befriended by Dr.
McLoughlin — started this action against him. It was
continued until in the donation land law a section was
inserted which deprived him of his land claim, and
gave it to the territory of Oregon for the establishment
and endowment of a university. It was restored to his
heirs by the legislature of Oregon five years after his
death. The effect of this law was that Dr. McLough-
lin lost nearly all of the large fortune which he had
accumulated. He died a broken-hearted man, the vic-
tim of mendacity, and ingratitude. He was buried in
the churchyard ot St. John's Catholic church in Oregon
City, where his body has lain ever since. By com-
mon consent he has become known as the Father of
Oregon.
Frederick V. Holman.
MacMahon, Marie-Edm^-Patrice-Maurice de,
Due de Magenta, Marshal of France, President of the
French Republic; b. at Sully, Sa6ne-et-Loire, 13 July,
1808; d. at Montcresson, Loiret, 16 October, 1893.
BUs ancestors were Irish, and had been settled in
France since the time of James II, having applied for
naturalization in 1749. MacMahon took part in the
eiq>edition to Algiers in 1830 as aide-de-camp to Gen-
MoMAHOH
505
McMAHON
eral Achard. His military career in Algeria lasted
twenty years (1834 to 1854), and he there gained ex-
oeptioniu distinction in the assault on Constantine.
In the Crimean War he led the attack on The Malakoff
(8 Sept., 1855); in the Italian War he effected the
decisive movement of the victory of Magenta (4 June,
1859), and was created a marshal and Due de Magenta
on the field of battle. On 1 September, 1864, he was
appointed Governor-General ot Algeria, and in that
position became involved in a controversjr with Arch-
oishop (afterwards Cardinal) Lavigene which attracted
much attention at the time. Mkr Lavigerie, then Arch-
bishop of Algiers, having just fotmded the Soci^td des
Missionnaires d'Algers, had collected more than a
thousand Ajnab chudren in his orphanages, to save
them from typhus fever and starvation. MacMahon
protested publicly against a letter dated 6 April, 1868,
m which tne archbishop, announcing his intention of
founding a nursery of Arab Christians, concluded with
the declaration: " France must either let the Gospel be
given to this people or drive them into the desert, away
from the civilfzed world." In a letter dated 26 April,
1868. MacMahon accused Lavigerie of wishing to push
the Arabs back into the desert. Lavigerie explained
that his meaning had been misunderstood, and refused
the coadiutorship of Lyons, which the emperor, to
satisfy MacMahon, offered him. The incident was
closed by a letter from Marshal Xicl, the minister of
war (28 May, 1868).
At the beginning of the Franco-German War Mac-
Mahon's advance guard was beaten at Wissembourg
(4 Au^st, 1870), and his own corps was outnumbered
at Reischoffen (6 August, 1870); he commanded the
retreat on Chalons, and then, obeying the orders of
Palikas, the minister of war, led the army to Sedan,
where he was wounded, and where Napoleon III was
obliged to capitulate (1 September). On 28 May,
1871, MacMahon completed the victory of the Ver-
sailles Army over the Paris Commune^ and effected
the entry ot the regular troops into Pans. His splen-
did military career won general admiration. " A per-
fect military officer" (officier de guerre complet), Samt-
Amaud called him; and Thiers, the "chevalier sans
peur et sans reproche" (the fearless, blameless knight).
Upon the fall of Thiers in the session of 24 May, 1873,
the National Assembly elected MacMahon president
by a majority of 390 to 2, the Left abstaining from
voting. In his message of 26 May he promisedf to be
"energetically and resolutely Conservative" (iTter-
giquemerU et riaolilmerU canservateur) , and to be "the
sentinel on guard over the integrity of the sovereign
power of the Assembly'*. These expressions define
the spirit in which he exercised his omce as president.
Being determined to devote himself loyally to "the
integrity of the sovereign power of the Assembly", he
refused to associate lumself with any projects looking
to the restoration of the Comte de Chambord and the
White Flag.
The Assembly having (9 November, 1873) fixed his
term of office at seven years, he declared in a speech
delivered 4 February, 1874, tnat he would know how to
make the legally established order of things respected
for seven years. Preferring to remain above party, he
rather assisted at than took part in the proceedings
which, in January and February, 1875, led up to the
passage of the fundamental laws finally establishing
the Republic as the le^l government of France. And
yet MacMahon writes m his still unpublished memoirs:
" By family tradition, and by the sentiments towards
the royal house which were instilled in me by my early
education, I could not be anything but a Legitunist."
He felt some repugnance, too, in forming^ in 1876, the
Dufaure and the Jules Simon cabinets, m which the
Republican element was represented.^ When the epis-
copal charges of the Bishops of Poitiers, Ntmes, and
Nevers, recommending the ease of the oaptive Pope
Pius IX to the sympathy of the French Govemn\ent,
were met by a resolution in the Chamber, proposed by
the Left, that the Government be requestea "to re-
press Ultramontane manifestations" (4 May^ 1877),
AfacMahon, twelve days later, asked Jules Simon to
resign, summoned to power a Conservative ministry
under the Due de Broglie, persuaded the Senate to
dissolve the Chamber, and travelled through the coun-
try to assure the success of the Conservatives in the
elections, protesting at the same time that he did not
wish to overturn the Republic. However, the elec-
tions of 14 October resulted in a majority of 120 for
the Left; the de Broglie ministry resigned 19 Novem-
ber, and the president formed a Left cabinet under
Dufaure. He retained his office until 1878, so as to
allow the Exposition Universelle to take place in polit-
ical peace, and then, the senatorial elections of 5 Jan-
uary, 1879, having brought another victory to the
Left, MacMahon found a pretext to resign (30 Janu-
ary, 1879), and Jules Gr^vy succeeded him.
This soldier was not made for politics. " I have re-
mained a soldier", he says in his memoirs, "and I can
conscientiouslv say that I have not only served one
government after another loyally, but, when they fell,
have regretted all of them with the single exception oi
niy own. ' ' In his voluntary retirement he earned with
liim the esteem of all parties: Jules Simon, who did
not love him, and whom he did not love, afterwards
culled him "a great captain^ a great citizen, and a
righteous man " (un grand capitaine, un grand citoyen
et un homnie de bien). Ilis presidency may be
summed up in two words: on the one hand, he allowed
the Republic to establish itself; on the other hand, so
far as his lawful prerogatives permitted, he retarded
the poUtical advance of parties hostile to the Church,
convinced that the triumph of Radicalism would be
to the detriment of France. The last fourteen years
of his life were passed in retirement, quite removed
from political interests. In 1893 he was buried, with
national honours, in the crypt of the Invalides.
Laforoe, Histoire compUie de MacMahon (3 vols., Paris,
1898); Chkrot, Figures de Soldata (Lille, 1900): Lebrun,
Souvenirs des Guerres de Crimee el d'ltalie (Paris, 1890); Ban-
NARD, Le cardinal Lavigerie. I (Paris, 1896), 234-264; Daudbt,
Souvenirs de la prrsidmce de MacMahon (Paris, 1880); Hano-
TAUX, Hiatoxre de la France eontemporaine, II, III, IV (Paris,
1904-1908): Dk MAKckRU, UassembUe Nationale de 1871, 11
(Pariis, 1007); Idem, Le seize Mai et la fin du Septennat (Paris,
1900); Idem, Hist, de la R/Tfublique de 1876 h 1879 (2 vols.,
Paris, 1908 and 1910).
Georges Goyau.
McMahon, Martin Thomas, soldier, jurist; b. at
Laprairie, Canada, 21 March, 1838; d. in New York.
21 April, 1906. His parents took him to the Unitea
Stateis when he was three weeks old and eventually
settled in New York. He attended St. John's College,
Fordham, where he was graduated in 1855. To study
law he went to Buffalo, thence as a special agent on the
post-office to the Pacific coast and was admitted to the
oar at Sacramento, Cal., in 1861 . When the Civil War
broke out he raised the first company of cavalry of the
Pacific coast, but resigned its captaincy when he found
it would not go to the front and went east to Wash-
ington where he was appointed an aide-de-camp to
G^eral McClellan. He served with the Army of the
Potomac all through the war, and at its close had at-
tained the rank of brevet Major-Greneral of Volun-
teers. For bravery at the battle of White Oak Swamp
he received the medal of honour from Congress. In
1866 he resigned from the army and was appointed
corporation counsel of New York City (1866-67) and
then was sent as Minister to Paraguay ( 1 868-69) . On
his return he practised law until 1881, he was made
Receiver of Taxes, U. S. Marshal, State Assemblyman
and Senator. In 1896 he was elected Judge of the
Court of General Sessions which office he held at this
death.
His brothers, John Eugene, and James Power, were
also lawyers and soldiers and both hftVl^^ ^^^^sissikss^
M coionela of the 164th New York Volunteera durins
the Civil War. John waa bom in Wsterford, Ireland,
in 1834, waa educated at St. Jobn'e College, Fordhani,
and died at Buffalo, New York, in 1863, Irom injuries
received in the army; James was bom ia Waterford,
1836, and was Idllea while leading his regiment at the
battle of Cold Harbor, Va.
MuKncer (New York. March. 1006J: CalAnlie Ntui Wev
the pope oo the outlook in European politics in a letter
fn RFOBmnnn tO Tktid 1fUR- ' ' TTn tnou trat in imiwl
to Bro
B&g..i
Thouah p. Meehan.
HcHutflT, James Alphonsus, editor, convert, b.
at Duanesburg. New York, U. S. A., 1 April, 1820; d.
in Brooklyn, New York, 29 December, 1886. Hia
father, a promineot Presbyterian minister, sent his son
to Union College, but he left before graduating and be-
came a private
tutor. It was the
era of Tractari-
anism and Brook
Farm, and Mc-
Moster became a
Catholic in 1845.
Believing he had
priesthood , he was
accepted as a nov-
ice in the Rcdemp-
torist Congrega-
hia superiors to
Belgium. Here he
ouickly found that
uie life of a reli-
able for him, and
returning to the
United States he
adopted t he profes-
sion of journal iam.
iured him an opening in
and his contributions
"Tlie New York Freeman'a Jour-
Hisvi
his oioral power — it will add to it"; but after the
events of 1870, in season and out there waa no stronger
or more valiant champion of the rights of the Holy See.
In behalf of Catholic education he was eaually stren-
uous and uncompromising, and w^ged a long warfare
against the attendanoe oiF Catho&c children at the
public schools.
With the advent of modem newspaper methods and
the decline of the old-fashioned "personal journalism",
a new generation with new ideals tired of HcHast^r's
hterary violence, and his once wide-spread prestige
and influence waned. The whims and idiosyncrasies
o( the old man, who grew more and more diffi-
cult to manage aa the end of his curious and stormy
career drew to a cloee, still crsjnped and hampered the
paper, and when he died it had little inSuence and
scant circulation. Of his three children one daughter
became a Carmelite and another a Siater of the Holy
Child.
Fretnan-i Journal (New York), fila: CaUudu: Ntv» (Ntw
York, April 11. 1008); CaUiolic Home Almanac (New York.
!88S); BRoWKsoK,MHWJ.ti/e (Detroit. 1896); Id.. LaUtr Lift
(Detroit. 1900); Cve. Am. Bios., n. v.
Thomas F. Ueehan.
HcMdl, Neil. See St. Georob's, Diocese of.
MacNeveii, William James, distinguished Irish-
American physician and medical educator, b. at Bally-
nahowna, near Aughrim, Co. Galway, Ireland, 21
March, 1763; d. at New York, 12 July, 1841. Hisau-
cestors were driven by Cromwell from the North of
Ireland where they held large possessions to the wilds
of (Jonnaught. William James MacNeven was the
eldest of four sons. At the age of twelve he was sent
by his uncle Baron MacNeven, to receive his educa-
tion abroad, for the penal laws rendered education im-
possible for Catholics in Ireland. Thia Baron Uac-
Neven was William O'Kelly MacNeven, an Irish exile
ihyeician, who for hia me<fical skill in her service hod
tn created an Austrian noble by the Empress Maria
phyai
were also printed
nal",thenownedby Biahop John Hughes. In 1848 he
thought of atarting a semi-monthly magazine and then
a semi-weekly independent Catholic paper, but aban-
doned both ideas, and, with money loaned him by
George V.Hecker, bought "The Freeman's Journal" in
June, 1848, from Bishop Hughes. He at once assumed
ita editorial management, which he retained up to the
time of his death. Letters he wrote then to Orestes A.
Brownson clearly show that even at this early date lie
was dominated by the aversion to episcopal supervi-
sion and a determination to propound his own views
which was such a characteristic feature of his later
Sound on fundamental issues and principles, fault-
finding was one of his weaknesses. He spared no one,
high or low, who differed from him. and his invective
was as bitter as an unlimited vocabulary could make
it. He quarrelled almost immediately with Risliop
Hughes on the Irish question and with Brownson on
hia philosophy. In polities he waa a States Rights
Democrat ana Anti- Abolitionist and tooka very active
and influential part in the great national controversies
that raged before the Civil War. After the conflict
began, his editorial assaults on President Lincoln and
his adroinistratitHi resulted in hia being arrested, in
1861 , and confined for eleven months in Fort Lafayette
ua disloyal citizen. "The Freeman's Journal waa
Buppressed by the Government and did not resume
Kbiication until 19 Anril, 1862. In national politics
then adopted a milder tone, but for the rest the old
style remained. In European politics Louia Veuillot
aiidbis"Univers"(i-ere the conalant models of "The
FrvetOAD'a Journal". Tliei« is record of his saying of
waa a favourite
pupil of thediatin-
Snshed professor
estel and took
his degree in 1784.
The same year he
returned to Dublin
opened before him
in medicine, but he
became involved
in the revolution-
ary disturbances
of the time with
such men as Ixtrd
Edward Fitzger-
ald, Thomas Ad-
dis Emmet, and
his brother Rob-
ert. He was ar-
rested in March,
1798, and confined
in Kilmainham
Jail, and after-
wards in Fort
George, Scotland, until 1802, when he was hberated
and exiled. In 1803, ho was in Paris seeking an in-
terview with Bonaparte in order to obtain French
troops for Ireland. Disappointed it ~
MactJeven can ' ' - - "
4July, 180Q,
e to America, landing at New York on
MiOON 507 McQUAID
In 1807, Dr. MacNeven delivered a course of lectures 1435 Charles VII of France, by the Treaty of Arras,
on clinical medicine in the recently established College ceded it to Philip, Duke of Burgundy, but in 1477 it
of Physicians and Surgeons. Here in 1808, he re- reverted to France, upon the death of Charles the
ceived the appointment of professor of midwifery. In Bold. Emperor Charles V definitively recognized the
1810, at the reorganization of the school, he became Mdconnais as French at the Treaty of Cambrai( 1529).
the professor of chemistry, and in 1816 was appointed The wars of religion filled M&con with blood; it was
in addition to the chair of materia medica. In 1826 captured on 5 May, 1562, by the Protestant d'En-
with six of his colleagues, he resigned his professorship tragues, on 18 August, 1562, by the Catholic Tavan-
because of a misunderstanding with the New Yoik nes, on 29 Sept., 1567, it again fell into the hands
Board of Regents, and accepted the chair of materia of the Protestants, and on 4 Dec, 1567, was recovered
medica in Rutgers Medical College, a branch of the by the Catholics. But the Protestants of M&con were
New Jersey institution of that name, established in saved from the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, prob-
New York as a rival to the College of Physicians and ably by the passive resistance with which the bailifif,
Surgeons. The school at once became popular be- Philibert de Laguiche, met the orders of Charles IX.
cause of its faculty, but after four years was closed by Odet de Coligny, Cardinal de ChAtillon, who eventu-
legislative enactment on account of interstate difficul- ally became a Protestant and went to London to
ties. The attempt to create a school independent of marry under the name of Comte de Beauvais, was
the rodents resulted in a reoi^anization of the Univer- from 1554 to 1560 prior, and after 1560 provost, of 8t-
sity of the State of New York. Dr. MacNeven's best Pierre de M&con. The Abbey of Cluny, situated
known contribution to science is his '* Exposition of within the territory of this diocese, was exempted
the Atomic Theonr" (New York, 1820), which was from its jurisdiction in the eleventh century, in spite
reprinted in the French "Annales de Chimie". In of the opposition of Bishop Drogon. There is still
1821 he published with emendations an edition of preserved in the archives of the city a copy of the
Brande's "Chemistry'' (New York, 1829). Some of cartulary of the cathedral church of St-Vincent, re-
his purely literary works, his *' Rambles through Swit- built in the thirteenth century, but destroyed in 1793.
zerland" (Dublin, 1803), his "Pieces of Irish ffistory" Of the six councils held at MAcon (579, 581— or
(New York, 1807), and his numerous political tracts 582—585, 624, 906, 1286). the second and third, con-
attracted wide attention. He was co-editor for many voked by command of King Gontran, are worthy of
years of the "New York Medical and Philosophical special mention. The first, in 681 or 582, which
Journal **. sembled six metropolitans and fifteen bishops, enacted
»;r"A~r'ii^'?^Ki;hl.ir?86ih''o^°/^^^^^ penalties agamat luxj^jmonz «» dergy, «;amrt
Medical GazeUe (1841), 65; Byrne. Afemoira of MUea Byrne clencs WhO summoned Other ClenCS befOTB lay tn-
(Paris, 1863); MKunns, Lxvea of the United Irishmen, aeiies iit bunals, and against religious who married; it also
l?tt (LoidSn"*" 892^037*®^' *'"*'*^™«' 'S**=^«' ^«^« '"»^ regulated the relations ofChristians with Jews. The
j^jjgg J "Walsh second, in 585, at which 43 bishops and the representa-
tives of 20 other bishops assisted, tried the bishops
M&con, Ancient Diocese of (Matisconensis), in accused of having taken part in the revolt of Gon-
Burgundy (q. v.). The city of Mdcon. formerly the debaud, fixed the penalties for violating the Sunday
capital of the Maconnais, now of the Department of rest, insisted on the obligation of paying tithes, estal>-
Sa!6ne-et-Loire, became a civitcts in the fifth century, lished the right of the bishop to interfere in the courts
when it was separated from the .£duan territory, when widows and orphans were concerned, determined
Christianity appears to have been introduced from the relative precedence of clerics and laymen, and de-
Lyons into this city at an early period, and Hugh, creed that every three years a national synod should
Archbishop of Lyons, in the eleventh century, called be convoked by the Bishop of Lyons and the king.
MAcon " the eldest daughter of the Church of Lyons ". ^^^H^ Chrieiiana (Nota), iv (1728). I038j-i i lO;. TnstrumerUa,
TU^ui^u,^^^^ u^«r»<.^»« ^«.«A;n4-x>^^;a4^«A<,.«.^»l;»««u«4. 263-90; Duchesne, Faales Epxacopatu, U (Pans), 1U5-198:
rhe bishopnc, however, came mto existence somewhat d^ la Rochbtte. Hietoire dee &vique» de M.icon (2 vols. MAcon.
later than might have been expected: in the latter 186e-67); Chavot, Le Mdconnaie, giooraphie historioue (Paris,
part of the fifth century it was still a Bishop of Lyons if?^); Raout and Chavot, CaHidairede Saint-Vincent de
«.u^ K«^.,»k4. <,..^»r««» ♦X ♦K«. r«.«;»A cri-^'^L^^JT .%^>^«vi» ^t M&con. connum>u9 lenomdelivre enchainS {Mkcon, 1864): Jean-
who brought succour to the fanune-stncken people of dbt, uddcon au XVI* sOcU (MAcon, 1892); Rameau. La kevolw
MAcon. At the end of that same century CloviS S OCCU- tion dona randen diocese de Mdcon (MAcon, 1900) ; Chaumont,
pation of the city both foreshadowed the gradual ^*^^^5J^^"§2[JSf*e«^ ^o^
establishment of Prankish supremacy and broiight JS^oon. 1903); VirSt. VA^Seeture ronume daniTandeTdio^
with it the utter rout of Ananism. Duchesne thinks ekee de Mdcon (Paris, 1892); Chevauer, Topobibl., 1799-1800.
that the Bishopric of Mslcon, suffragan of Lyons, may Georges Gotau.
have ori^nated in an understanding between the
Merovuigian princes after the suppression of the Bur- * McQuaid, Bernard John, first Bishop of Roches-
§undian state. The separate existence of M&con as a ter, U. S. A. ; b. in New York City, 15 December, 1823:
iocese ended at the French Revolution, and the title d. at Rochester, 18 January, 1909. His father, Bernard
of M&con is now borne by the Bishop of Autun. McQuaid, from Tyrone, Ireland, settled in Powel's
The first bishop historically known is St. Placidus Hook (now Jersey City), New Jersey. It was in the
(538-55). The authentic list of his successors, as re- McQuaid home that Mass was first said in Powers
constructed by Duchesne, comprises several bishops Hook, by Father John Conron, on the first Sunday in
venerated as saints: St. Florentinus (c. 661); St. Cselo- Advent, November, 1829. After his college course at
donius, who assisted at the Council of Lyons in 570: C^mbly, Quebec, young McQuaid entered St. John's
St. Eusebius, who assisted at two councils, in 581 ana Seminary, at Fordham, and was ordained in old St.
585. Tradition adds to this list the names of Sts. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, 16 January. 1848.
Salvinius, Nicetius (Nizicr), and Justus, as bishops of Most of the State of New Jersey was at that time in-
MAcon in the course of the sixth century. Among eluded in the Diocese of New York, so Father Mc-
other bishops of later date may be mentioned St. Quaid was sent as assistant to the pastor at Madison.
Gerard (886-926), who died in a hermitage at Brou When the Diocese of Newark was created in 1853,
near Bourg-en-Bresse, and Cardinal Philibert Hugonet Bishop Bayley made Father McQuaid rector of his
(1473-84). For many centuries the bishops seem to cathearal church, and later, in 1866, his vicar-genenJ.
have been the only rulers of MAcon; the city had no With the bishop he founded Seton Hall College, and,
counts until after 850. From 926 the countship be- without giving up his parochial charge or his diocesan
came hereditary. The MAconnais was sold to St. office, was its president for ten years. He helped to
Louis ill 1230 by Alice of Vienne, granddau^ter of establish the Madison, New Jersey, foundation of the
the l(Vit count, and her husband, Jean de Brame. In Seton Sisters of Charity. When th.e Cvv^lH4<^^^\^«s^
out he was the fiist clergyman at Newark to espouse
publicly the cause of the Union; he also volunteered
asa chaplain and accompanied the New Jersey Brigade
to the seat of war, dunng which service he was oap-
tured by the Confederates. On the creation of the
Diocese of Rochester in 1S68, Father McQuaid was
appointed its first bishop and was consecrated in St.
Patrick's Cathedral, New York, 12 July, 1868. He
wae installed in Rochester, on July IS. A man of
strong character and untiriog as a worker, he espe-
cially devoted himself to the cause of Catholic edu-
cation. In Rochester within ten years Ifc completely
organized a splendid parochial school system. tauf;ht
bv nuns, and affiliated it with the State university.
3 years after he took charge of the diocese he
^^^ opened St. An-
drew's Preparatory
ary
the
proniisinK students
of which ne sent to
the Roman and
other famous Euro-
C°.u
constantly extend-
ing the pari^lies
tlJoughoutthe dio-
cese; founding new
works ot charity, or
Btrengtheii i i le t hose
already establialied ;
securing freedom ot
worship a] id their
constitutional rights
for the inmates of
the state institu-
BiBMAHD J. McQc*iD tions, of whjch there
are four in the diocese. The crowning event ot
his career was the opening, ,in 1893, of St. Bernard's
Stnninary. which he lived' to sec expanded to an
institution patronized by students from twenty-six
other dioceses, regarded by the whole country as a
model of its kind. Bishop McQuaid attended the
Vatican Council in 1870. In 1905 he asked for a co-
adjutor, and Bishop Thomas K. Ilickey
Tht dtpublic ^Burton, 2.1 JanuiLty, 1909) : Cntholic Sim (Sym-
SUM, 22 jknuaiy. 1009): CatKolie New (New York. 23 Januaiy.
1009): Fltbb. CaHiolic ChunJi in Ncai Jerieu (MorriaUiwo.
1904); Rbdm. Bioa. Cyclo. Valh. Hitrarrhv a! U. S. (Milwaukw,
1B79); CaUioiic DirrdoTV <1S40-1009).
TtioMAB F. Meehan.
Uacri (or Macrab?), a titular see in Mauretania
Sitifiensis. This town figures only in the "Notitia
Africse"andthe"ItinerariumAntoniiu". It flourished
for a long period, and Arabian authors often mention
it in eulogistic terms. It was situated on the Oued-
Hagra which still bears its numc, near the Djcbcl
Maira, in the plain of Bou Megueur, south-west of
Setif (Algeria). In 411 Macri had a Donatist bishop,
Maximus, who attended the Carthage Conference. In
479 Huneric banished a great many Catholics from
^is town and from many other regions of the desert.
Id 484 Emeritus. Bishopof Maori, wa^ one of the mem-
bers present at theCartnageAH-scmbly; likelheothers,
he was banished by Iluneric.
TouunTE, Qfoffraphie de VAfrique chrHimnt^ Uaurttanit
(llcnitreuil.sur-mBr. 1S94). p. 212.
S. PbTRID^S.
Hodina, the name of two saints, grandmother and
granddaughter. They beloneed to the family of the
Ct Cnppadocian Fathers, 8ts. Basil and Gregory of
- »*■
St. Machina the Elder. — Our knowledge of the
life ot the elder Mocrina is derived mainly from the
testimony of the above-mentioned Fathers ot the
Church, her grandchildren (Basil, Ep. cciv, 7;cuxxiii,
8 BKaoBHIBBT
3; Gregory of Nyssa, "Vita MadinsJuuioris"), aod
the panegvrio of the third great CappadoaiAn, St.
Gregory m NoEianiua, on St. Basil (Gregory N&a.,
Oratio xliii). She was the mother of the elder Basil,
the father of Basil, Gregory, and other children whoee
names ore known to us, including Blacrina the
Younger. Her home was at Neocnearea in Pootus.
In her childhood she was acquainted with St. Greg-
0r^ThaumBturKUs,&rstbiBhopof hernativetowu. As
this venerable doctor, who had woo Neocnaarea al-
most completely for Christianity, died between 270
and 275, St. Macrina must have been bom before 270.
During the Diocletian persecution she fled from her
native town with her husband, of whose name we are
ignorant, and had to endure many privations. She
was thus a confessor of the Faith during the laat vio-
lent storm that burst over the early Church. On the
intellectual and religious training of St. Basil and his
elder brothers and aiaters, she exereised a great in-
fluence, implanting in their minds those seeds of pietv
and that ardent desire for Christian perfection whicn
were la1«r to attain so glorious a growth. As St. Basil
was probably bom in 331, St^ Macrina must have died
early in the fourth decade of the fourth century. Her
feast is celebrated on 14 January.
St. Macrina thb Yocnger, b. about 330; d. 379.
.She was the eldest child of Basil and the Elder Entme-
lia, the granddaughter of St. Macrina the Elder, and
the sister of the Cappodocian Fathers, Sts. Basil and
Gregory of Nyssa. The last-mentioned has left us a
hiographv of bis sister in the form of a pansyric
(■'Vita Slacrinffi Junioris" in P. G., XLVI, 960
sq.). She received an excellent intellectual training,
though one based more on the study of Holy Writ
than on that of profane literature. When she waa but
twelve years old, her father had already arranged a
marriage for her with a young advocate of excellent
family. Soon afterwards, however, her affianced hus-
iiand died suddenly, and Macrina resolved to devote
herself to a life of perpetual virginity and the pursuit
of Christian perfection. She exercised great influence
over the religious training of her younger brothers,
especially St. Peter, afterwards Bishop of Sebaste, and
through ner St. GrMory received the greatest intellec-
tual stimulation. On the death of their father, Basil
took her, with their mother, to a family estate on the
River Iris, in Pontus. Here, with their servants and
other companions, they led a life of retirement, conse-
crating themselves to God. Strict asceticism, eealous
meditation on the truths of Christianity, and prayer
were the chief concerns of this community. Not only
the brothers of St. Macrina. but also St. Gregory of
Naxianius and Eustathius of Sebaste were associated
with this pious circle and were there stimulated to
moke still further advances towards Christian perfec-
tion. After the deathofhermotherEmmelia, Macrina
became the head ot this community, in which the truit
of the earnest Christian life matured so gloriously.
On his return from a synod at Antioch, towards the
end of 379, Gregory of Nyasa visited hia deeply ven-
erated sister, and found her grievously ill. In pious
discourse, the brotiier and sister spoke of the lite
beyond and of the meeting in heaven. Soon after-
wards Macrina paased blissfully to her reward. Greg-
ory composed a " Dialogue on the Soul and Resurrec-
tion" (rtpl •i'l'xvi ""' iraariaem), treating ot his
pious discourse with hia dying sister. In this, Macrina
appears aa teacher, and treats ot the soul, death, the
J. P. KlRSCB.
McSHS&RT
509
lAADAOASOAR
McSherry, James, author; b. at Liberty Town, Fred-
erick County. Maryland, 29 July, 1819; d. at Fred-
erick City. Maryland, 13 July, 1869, was the son of
James MoSherry and Anne Ridgely Sappington, and
grandson of Patrick McSherry, who came from Ireland
in 1745 to Lancaster County, Pa., and removed later to
Maryland. He graduated from Mount St. Mary's Col-
lege, Emmitsburg, Md., in 1838, studied law, and was
admitted to the bar in 1840. He began the practice of
his profession in Gettysburg, Pa., but returned to
Maryland in 1841, marrying Eliza Spjiurier on 30 Sep-
tember of that year. Of his fiye children the oldest,
James, became chief justice of Maryland. He con-
tinued in the practice of law at Frederick until his
death. Mr. McSherry was always of a literary turn,
his writings showing a strong Catholic spirit, and is
best known for his " History of Maryland (Baltimore.
1849) . He was a frequent contributor to the " United
States Catholic Magazine", and also wrote "P6re
Jean, or the Jesuit Missionary" (1849) and " Willitoff,
or the Days of James the First : a Tale " ( 1851) , repub-
lished in German (Fn^fort, 1858).
Lamb. Biog. Diet, of Ike U. <S., V, 312; Soharf. History of
Western Maryland, I (Philadelphia, 1882). 412-13.
J. P. W. McNeal.
McSherry, James, jurist, son of the aboye, b. at
Frederick, Marj-land, 30 December, 1842; died there
23 October, 1907. He received a collegiate education
to the year before graduation at Mount St. Mary's
College, Emmitsburg, Maryland, but was compelled to
leave there in 1861 on account of his outspoken South-
ern sympathies, being arrested and confined for a time
at Fort McHenry. Baltimore. He studied law in his
father's office and was admitted to the bar on 8 Feb-
ruary, 1864. On 26 February, 1866, he married Miss
Clara Louise McAleer^ by whom he had six children.
In 1887 he was appointed chief judge of the circuit
court for Frederick and Montgomery Counties and, as
such, a meml)er of the court of appeals of the State,
and was elected for the full term on 8 November, 1887,
without opposition. Judge McSherry was appointed
chief justice of the court of appeals on 25 January,
1896, which position he filled witn distinction until ms
death. The degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred
upon Judge M^heny by Mount St. Mary's College
in 1904 and by the University of Maryland in 1907.
The Sun (Baltimore, 34 October, 1907); Nat. Cyc. of Amer.
Biography, a. v.
J. P. W. McNeal.
McSherry, Richard, physician; b. at Martinsbiirg,
Va. (now \V. Va.), 21 November, 1817; d. Baltimore,
Md., 7 October, 1885, son of Dr. Ricliard McSherry.
He was educated at Georgetown College and at the
University of Maryland, and received the degree of
M. D. at the University of Pennsylvania in 1841. Being
appointed assistant surgeon on the medical corps of
the U. S. Army on 21 August. 1838, he served under
General Taylor in the Seminole War and resigned his
commission on 30 April, 1840. He married in 1842 a
daughter of Robert Wilson of Baltimore. From 1843
to 1856 he served as assistant surgeon in the U. S.
Navy, and after that practised medicine in Baltimore
until 1883. He was the first president of the Balti-
more Academy of Medicine, of which he was also one
of the founders. Dr. McSherry contributed to medical
journals, and was also the author of " El Puchero, or a
Mixed Dish from Mexico" (1850); "Essays" (1869),
and "Health and How to Promote It" (1883).
Lamb, Biog. Diet. ofU. S., V, 312.
J. P. W. McNeal.
Mactarifl, a titular see of the Byzantine Empire.
This town is not spoken of by any ancient geographers;
the " Notitia Afric® " mentions it amon^ the towns of
the Byzantine Empire. It is now the village of Mae-
tar, headquarters of the civil administration between
Kairouan and the Kef, in Tunisia, sitiv!*«d 950 metres
above the sea-level, in a well-watered region. Punic
civilization lon^ flourished here, as is attested by sev-
eral interesting inscriptions. It was counted a Roman
town until the year 170 at least, having become a col-
ony during the last years of Marcus Aurelius, under
the name of ^Elia Aurella Mactaris, as we see from
other Latin inscriptions. In the vicinity of Mactaris a
numl)er of enormous dolmens majr be seen. The re-
mains of the Roman city are very important; among
them are two triumphal arches, an amphitheatre, pub-
lic baths, a temple, an aqueduct, tombs, etc. The
ruins of a basilica have furnished several Christian
epitaphs, among others those of two bishops. There
has also been found an altar covering the remains of
two martyrs, one of whom was named Felix. Six
bishops are known, from 255 to the sixth century,
among them Victor, a contemporary of Cassiodorus,
who tells us that this Victor revised the books of
Cassian.
TouLOTTE, Oi'ographie de VAfrigue chrHienne, Bytactne H
Tripolitaine (Montreuil-sur-Mer, 1894), 127-133.
S. Pi^TRIDES.
Madagascar. — On the second day of March, 1500,
a fleet of thirteen ships, commanded by Pedro Alvarez
Cabral, sailed from Lisbon to explore the Indian
Ocean. On 10 August, one vessel of .this fleet, com-
manded by Diego Dias, having been parted from the
rest by stress of weather, came in signt of a point of
land on the east coast of a large island. To this island
the name of St. Lawrence was given, the day of its
discovery being the feast of that martyr; it is now the
island of Madagascar, situated to the south-east of
Africa, between 11° 57' 30^ and 25*» 38' 55* S. latitude,
and between 43° 10' and 50° 25' East long. Many
small islands of less importance are adjacent to it in
^e Indian Ocean and the Mozambique Channel, the
principal being St. Mary, Mayotte, and No8si-B4.
The island of Madagascar is, on the whole, very
thinly populated, the population averaging little more
than thirt'een to the square mile; but this population
is unequally distributed, dense in the central regions
and sparse in other parts. The principal ethnological
divisions are the Hova, the Betsileo, the Sakalava,
the Betsimisaraka, the Sihamaka, the Antaimoro. the
Antano8}r. Since the French conquest of the island
these various peoples, or tribes, have been distributed
in provinces, circuits, and districts, all under the ad-
ministration of a governor-general who resides at the
capital, Tananarivo. Divers opinions have been put
forward by the learned as to the origin of the peoples
of Madagascar. M. Alfred Grandidier, who is an
acknowledged authority in such matters, thinks, and
the greater number of anthropologists think with him,
that this population is of the black Indonesian race,
and is therefore one of the chief groups of the Malayo-
Polynesian'countries. Malagasy (the native language)
seems to be related to the Nlalayo-Polynesian lan-
guages, is, like them, agglutinative^ and has a gram-
mar apparently based on general pnnciplcs analogous
to theirs. It is very rich on the material and physical
side, and poor in the expression of abstract ideas.
The religion of the Malagasies appears to be funda-
mentally a kind of mixed Monotneism, under the
form of a Fetishism which finds expression in nu-
merous superstitious practices of which these people
are very tenacious. Even those who have received
Christian instruction and baptism retain a tendency
to be guided, in the various circumstances of their
lives, rather by these superstitious prescriptions than
by the dictates of reason and faith. Tliey admit the
existence of the soul, but without, apparently, formr
ing any very exact notion of it; in their conception, it
is not so much a spirit made in the image of the
Creator as a double of the man, only more subtile than
the visible corporeal man. The Malagasy is naturally
prone to lying, cupidity, and sexual Ususs&inl^^^^
lUBAOiLSOAR 5
which ia for him bo far from lieing a (lelcstable vice
tiiAt parents are the first to iDtroduce their children to
debsurliery. This immorality and the lack of sta-
bility and fidelity in marnoge are the fcrcat obstacles
to the development of t\if f&mily and of the diristiaii
reliKion in Madngiutcar.
The first priests to hrinK the Gospel of Jesus Christ
to Madagascar aft«r tho discovery of the island, came
with the PortuKucac. Old doeumorti mention reli-
^OUH who, about the year 1540, at'componted a, colony
of emigrants to the south-east«rn part of the islona,
where they were all massacred together during the
oelebratioD of a feast. Then again, alxiut 1685, Frey
J(4o de S. Thomri, a Dominican, appean to have been
0 lUD&aiSQiA
seven pcnmns had received baptism. It was not
until four years later that MM. Hounier and Bourdaise
come to continue the missionary work which bad been
initiated at such cost; but they, too, succumbed to the
severity of their task. A reinforcement of three mis-
sionaries sent to their assistaTicc never reached them;
one diml at wa. the other two on the inland of St.
Mary, where they liad landed. KevertheJeaa, St.
Vincent dc Paul was not discouraged.
In 160.1, M. Alm^ras, the successor of St. Vincent de
Paul in the government of the CongreKation of St.
Laiare. obtained the appointment of M. Etienne as
Vow or Tanahabito, MiiDAOAacu
poisoned on the coast of the' island. In the Beran-
teenth century two Jenuits came from Ooa with Ra-
maka, the young son of the King of Anosy. This
youth had been taken away, in 1615, by a Portuguese
ship, to Goa, where the viceroy hod mtrueted him to
the care of the Jesuits; he had been instructed and
baptized. Ramaka's father permitted these two
Jesuits to preach Christianity in his dominions. But
soon, when they were beginning to wield some power
for good, tho king, instigated by his ombiastj (sorcer-
ers) forlnide his subjects to either give or sell anything
whfltMoevor to the fathers. One of the two died, but
the other succeeded in returning to India. Some
yearn after this, tlie I.azariHis, sent by St. Vincent dc
Paul, essayed to conquer Mailagascar for the Faith.
The Socift* de i'Oriont had then recently taken pos-
Bession, hi the name of France, of a tract of territory
on the south-eastern litoral, and had named its prin-
7il establishment Fort-Dauphin. Tlie first superior
this Lazarist mission was M. Nacquart: he left
France with the Sieur de Flucourt. who represented
the Soci^tfi de I'Orient, and one of his associates, M,
Gondn^e. Arrii-ing at Fort'Duuphin in Decemljer,
1648, M. Nacquart dcvotnl himself most zealously,
amid difTieulties of ei-erj- kind, to the evangeliHition
of the natives, until he was carried off by a fever, 29
May, l(l.")0. M, riondn'-<- hod dii-d the year Ijefore.
During these fourteen months of a|>ostolatc seventy-
mas Day M. Etienne baptized fifteen little children
and four adults. But it was not long before he,
too, fell a victim to his zeal. On T March, 1665, foiu
new missionaries set out, and on 7 January, 1667, they
were followed by five priests and four lay brothers,
with two Recoll^t fathers. But in 1671, the Com-
pa^ie dcs Indes, which had succeeded to the Soci£t£
de I'Oriect, having resolved tp nuit Mad^ascar, M.
Jolly, M. Alnrfras' successor, recalled his missionaries.
Only two out of thirty-seven who had been sent to the
ialaiid, were able to return to France, in June, 1876-
all the rest had died in harness. From the forcea
abandonment of the Madagascar mission in 1674 until
the middle of the nineteenth century, there were cmly
a few isolated attempts, at long intervals, to resume
the evangel iaation of the great African Island: we
may mention tho^ of M. Iioinviile de Gl^fier, of the
Missions Etrang£rcs of Paris, and of the Lazarists
Monet and Durocher. The last^-namcd even sent
some natives to the Propaganda Scniinar>' at Borne
with the view of training tliem for the apostolate in
their own countrv.
In 1S32 MM. de Solaces and Dalmond laid the first
foundations of the new Madagascar Mission. But by
this time some English Methodists, supported by the
Government of their country, had already succeeded
in establishing themselves in the centre of the inland.
The Rev. Mr. Jones hud obtained authorization from
the Court of Imerina to open a school at Tananarive,
the capital. Other English Protestant missionaries
followed him, and by 1830 they had thirtV'two schools
in Imerina, with four thousand pupils. When, more-
over, it was learned at Tananarive that the new prefect
Apostolic, M. de Solagca, a Catholic priest, was on his
way to the capital, everj'thiug was done to arrest his
progress, and he died of misery' and grief at Ando-
voranto. M. Dalmond took up the work begun by M.
dc Sotage?. After preaching the Gospel in the small
islands o(T the coast until about 1S43, he returned
to France in order to recruit a large missionary force.
The aid which he so much needed be obtained from
Father Roothan, the general of the Jesuits, who au-
thorized him to take six fathers or brothers from the
Lyons province. Two priesta from the Holy Ghost
Seminary went with them. After a fruitless attempt
at Suint-Aucustin, the Jesuit fathcn set themselves to
evangelize the adjacent islands of St. Mary. Noesi-Bi^,
and Mnyotte. Assisted by the Sisters of St. Joseph of
Cluiiy, they also made earnest efforts towards the in-
struction and education of the Malagasy boys and
girls in the island of Ri^union (or Bourbon^. Tney did
not, however, by any means lose sight of the great
island, and again endeavoured to establish themselves
on its littoral, but wore once more compelled to aban-
don their brave enterprise.
It was only in 1855 that P&re Finaz, disguised, and
under an assumed name, wa.s able to penetrate as far
as the capital. "At last", he exclaimed in the joy of
his heart, "I am at Tananarivo. of which I take pos-
session in the name of Catholicism. " Waiting for the
time when he should be able to freely announce the
Gospel to the Hova, he used all his eoorta to prolong
his stay at the capital without arousing suspicion.
MiIUaA80A&
511
MADAOUOAft
making himself uitcful and agreeable to the queen and lay brothers, 8 Brothers of the Christian Schools, 20
the great peraonagea of the realm. He seat up a bal- Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny (besides 'i native poatu-
loou before the awe-stricken populace assembled in the lant« and 3 novices), 34G native male, and 181 native
holy place of Mahamasina; he contrived theatrical female, teachers, 20,000 pupilfi, a laity amounting to
perFormonces on a stage conntructcit and set by him- 80,000, 152 churcben and 120 chapels completed, and
self; he made them a telegraphic api^aralus, a. minia- 11 churches and 43 chapels in course of constnietion.
turo railroad, and other things wonilerful in their eyee. In the year ending July. 1882, there were IKil bap-
Mcanwhile, Fathere Jouen and Welier, mider assumed tiama of adults, 1882 infart baptisms, 55,41)G con-
names, joined Father Final at Ta:ianarivo, coming as tesslons, 680 first communions, 45,466 ordinary corn-
assistants to a surgeon, Dr, Milhet^Fontajahie, who munioiis, 800 confirmBtiDna, and 190 marriages. Sir
had been sununonM from Reunion by the Queen of Gore Jones, a British admiral, whose testimony can-
Hadagoscar, Ranavalona I, to perform a rhinopiastic not be suspected of favourable bias, declared in 1883,
operation on one of her favourites. But this state of in a report to his Government after a visit to tbo
affaim was not to last long; Ranavalona soon grew island made by its orders, that the Catholic mission-
suspicious and ordered the expulsion of the few £u- aries, "working silently in Madagascar", were plant-
ropeans who resided at Tananarive. The fathers, ing in that land "a tree far superior to all others",
however, had managed, during their brief stay at the On 17 May, 1883, Admiral Pierre took poesessioa of
capital, to conciliate the favour of the heir preeump- Majun^ in the name of Frunce, and on II June ot
tive, Ranavaloua's son. And so it was that, in 1861, Tamatave. A formal order of the queen expelled all
when thie same prince, on the death of his mother, the Catholic missldiianes and all French citizens,
succeeded to the throne as Radama II, FatherB Jouen " Do not resist the queen's word ", was the answer of
and Weber could return to Tananarive, bringing^ with the more responsible among the native Catholics when
... .. i._j ^i '- the course to be pup-
sued. "To do 80
would be to com-
promise our future
and, perhaps, to
bring upon u
Cluny, and witnout
I«ing oblieed, this
time, to dissemble
their object in com-
Radam
1 II gave
lun authorisation
for the teaching of
the Cathohc religion
in his dominions ;
and tfaia much hav-
ing been conceded
to the French Cath-
similar concessions
liad to be made to
the English Trotea-
ta:its of the London
Missionary Society.
Wliat with the large
subventions fur-
nished by this organ-
ization to its emis-
saries, and the clever
manceuvres of aome of them^porticularly
lisfortur
If you submit now,
you will the more
easilv return later
on." They left the
centre of the island
leaving the native
Catholics to their
own resources — and
went down to the
coast. For two years,
more or less, while
hostilities ktsted, the
Malfl(!asy r.itholics,
left wiihout priesta,
were able to main-
tain their religion —
thanks to the devo-
tion and energy of
Victoire Rasoamanarivo, a 1a<ly related to the prime
....„ . minister, of thenative Brother Raphael of tbeCongre-
liah missionaries acquired considerable influence wiUi gation of the Christian Schools, and of some members
the new queen, Rosoherina, and her chief adviaer, of the Cathohc Union. This organiiation, conaiating
Rainilaiarivony. to the detriment of the Catholic mia- of };oung Malagasies, ahows a tmly wonderful leal in
aionaries. The latter, moreover, were few in number — their efforts to make up tor the absence of the fathers.
six fathers and five lay brothers at Tonanarivo, with Both in the city parishes and at Che country sCationa,
two small schools for boys and one, under the Sisters they made themselves ubiquitous, instructing and
of St. Joseph ot Clunv, for girls; and at Tamatave, three encouraging the neophytes. ■ At Tananarivo they sang
fathers.onelaybrottier, and two sisters. Nevertheleas, the choral parts of high Mass every Sunday, just as u
in spite of all difficulties, the number of neophytes the prieat had been at the altar; and the native Gov-
increased, and, especially after the arrival of the erament, compelled to admire their fidelity, permitted
Christian Brothers in 1866, the schools took on this exercise of demotion. On the fiist Sundav after
fresh vigour. Already four parishes were in operation the departure of the fathers, when the Cathofica at/-
within the capital city, and the missionaries thought tempting to enter the cathedral were w'amcd away,
of extending their efforts oulaide. Father Fjoaa Rasoamanarivo said to the guards at the door: "If you
opened the missionary station at Antanetibe on 12 must have blood, begin by shedding mine; but fear
September, 1868; by the end of 1869, thirty-eight shall not keep us from assembling for prayer." After
groups of neophytes had been formed, twenty-two that she entered, followed by all the faithful. The
chapels built, and twenty-five schools opened. Bet- Franeo-Hova struggle came to an end, and the mi»-
sileo was occupied in 1871, then Ampositra and Vak- sionariea returned to resume their work. Madagascar,
inankaratra. A propaganda periodical, "Resaka", until then a prefecture Apostolic, was made a vicariate
i founded. A leper-houae was built to receive under its former prefect, who became a titular bishop.
about one hundred f
nedies to the h
The sisters g
at their dispensary. A fine lai __ ___
stone was erected in the centre of Tananarivo. When
the war between France and the Hova bn^e out in
18S3, tfie Catholic miaaion numbered 44 priests, 19
Mgr J. B. Cazet. Under his wise and firm administra-
tion the mission continued to progress. After a visit
to the island, in 1892, the Rev. Kenelm Vaughan, an
EngUsh priest, was most favourably impressed by the
mission work he saw.
In 1891 there was a new rupture between t.bft^i«s<i3^
MUAOftm 5
Bepublic and the Court of Tananarivo. The French
ffliaaiooaries onoe more had to abandon their vork,
which then mcluded one college, 9 normal schools, 443
schools and miaaion stations, S3 churches, 287 chapels,
2 leper-houses, an observatory^ a printing press, and
various workshops. The staff of the mission com-
prised: one bishop (the vicar Apostolic), 72 priests, 4
acholastics (one of them a Malagasy), 17 lay brothers,
16 Brothers of the Christian Schools, 29 Sisters of St.
Joseph of Cluny, 819 native teachers of both seites.
There were 26,839 pupils and 136,175 converts, of
whom 41,133 had been baptized. During the military
operations a great many of the Catholic missionaries
Krved as chaplains in the expeditionary coipa, and
several paid for their devotedness with their lives.
Aft«r the conquest came the insurrection of the Taha-
valo, in which Father Berthieu sacrificed his life for
his Christians, whom he would not forsake : he was
barbarously slaughtered by the insurgents. But his
blood was the seed
counted something
like thrice as manv
adherents and. pupiu
in its schools as it
had before the war.
As to the question
whether all these
new converts to the
Faith were sincerely
convinced, it must
be said that the
number of defections
tends to show the
eziat«nce of political
or other human mo-
tives. Many con-
verts went over to
Catholicism as they
would have gone over
toProteslantism had
Eingland conquered
the island, or as some
went over to Metho-
dism when the prime
queen, by their ad- i
berence to it, made that a
K Mgr Cazet
1 2 MinttW*
eran Mission of America (United Chvirch) ; also those
oC the Free.Church and, lastly, of the Soci£t£ des Mia-
sions Evangfliques of Paris. At present (1906) these
different societies number about 115 representatives,
men and women, in Madagascar, wtule the working
staff of the three Catholic vicariates exceeds 300.
Navertheless about nine-tenths of the inhabitants of
Madagascar remain pagans. Progress is slow owing to
the perplexity arising from a variety of Christian sects.
I'd any pagan the spectacle of Christian preachers
attributing contradictory doctrines to the same Hoo-
ter must prove confusing.
FucocHT, HiMoire de ta Brand' Ut de Madagatair fPmiifc
I6S8)l Mimo-iret de la Corarigation dt la Mittion. IX (Paris,
E, HiMom dt Madaffttacar (Pari
tSS4): RouviBi), Loin i
natofficiel di MadapfiK
<. 1902);
.Mr^ dit
the burden
sort of state religion,
o longer able to sustain
. . n of his vast and heavy responsibility for the
whole island. At his petition, two new vicariates Apos-
tolic were created. That of Southern Madagascar, ex-
tending from the l^wenty-second parallel of south
latitude to the southern extremity of the island, was
entrusted to the Laiarists, who, under Mgr Crouiet.
resumed the work of theii'brethrcn after an interrup-
tion of 200 years. That of Northern Madagascar,
extending from the northern extremity to the eight-
eenth parallel, was given to the fa^er^ of the Congre-
Stion of the Holy Ghost, under Mgr Corbet. Mer
zet kept the territory between 18° and 22° S. lati-
tude^ forming the Vicariate of Central Madagascar.
In view of (he development of his more densely popu-
lated vicariate and, consequently, of its needs, Mgr
Caiet asked and obtained the help of the Missionary
Fathers of Our Lady of La Salette and the Sisters of
Providence of Corenc, to whom he committed the
Vakinankavatra district, while Betsileo was confided
to the Jesuits of the Champagne province. Mgr Henry
de Saune was appointed his coadjutor.
In the meantime tlie Protestants also liave multi-
plied. To the missionaries and material resources of
the London Missionary Society have, for some time
past, been added those of the Friends' Foreign Mission
Association and the Society for the Propagation of the
Oatpe}, the Norwegian Mission, the Norwegian Luth-
'the Catholic Kmoa
uiEn, La bUAioQvuphie d»
MadatatcaT, 1B00-IB05
tPstis, IBOS. 3 vola.).
Padl Caubou6.
Hadaurus, or
Madadra, a titular
see of Numidia. It
was an old Numidiau
town which, having
once belonged to the
Kingdom of Syphax.
was annexed to that
of Massinissa at the
close of the second
Punic War. It be-
came a Roman col-
ony about the end of
the first century and
was famous tor its
schools. It was the
native town irf Apu-
leius, author of "The
<AN*Bivci, Madaoabcab Goldeu Ass", and
of the grammarians
Nonius and Maximus. Bt. Augustine studied there;
through a tetter which he addressed later to the in-
habitants we learn that many were still pagans.
Madaurus, however, had many martyrs kaowp by
their epitaphs; several are named iu the Roman
martyrolo^ on 4 July. Three bishops are known:
Antigonus, who attended the council of Carthage,
349; Placentius, the council of 407 and the Confer-
ence of 411; Pudentius, sent into exile by Hunerio
with the other bishops who had been present at
the Conference of 484. The niins <A Madaurus are
seen near Mdaouroch, department of Constantine
(Algeria); a fine Roman mnuaoloum, vast baths, a
Byzantine fortress, a Christian basilica are note-
worthy and have furnished several Christian inscrip-
Sunn. Zlvf. of Qr^ and Roman Geofff. fl. v.; Toulottx.
OtaamphU de CAfnnui cAn'lwnnc; Ntimtdie (It«in«, 1804>,
201-200.
S. VifTBiTtta.
Hadenut, Cahlo (1656-1629), known principally
by his extension of St. Peter's, at the command of the
Kpe, from the form of a Greek to that of a Lalui cross.
!gard for ecclesiastical tradition and other causes
made the long nave preferable, notwitlistandin^ that
the effect of the cupola was thus much diminished.
Madema began his task in the year 1605, forty years
after the death of Michelangelo. By bringing the col-
umns nearer ti^jether, he sought to lessen the un-
BCADEBMO 513 BCADIAMITES
favourable effect produced, but in so doin^ obstructed 1599. Before closing the tomb again, Clement VUI
the former unbroken vista in the side aisles. How- summoned Mademo, the most skilful artist of his da^
ever, notwithstanding the extension, the great basilica to make an exact reproduction of the figure. His
has not lost its sublime grandeur. statue represents a delicate, rather small body, lying
The new facade was widened . It is an ornamental face downward,with the knees drawn together, the arms
structure independent of the building itself, and its extended along the side and crossing at the wrists, the
impressive size does not harmonise with the character head enveloped in a veil. A gold fillet marks the
of the decorations. The length measures 112 metres wound in the back of the partly-severed neck. The
(367 ft. 4 in.) and the height 44 metres (144 ft. 4 in.^. form is so natural and lifelike, so full of modesty and
£ight gigantic columns, 27 metres (88 ft. 6i in.) m grace, that one scarcely needs the sculptor's testimony
height, stand in two divisions, on both sides of which graven on the base: '^ Behold the body of the most
are pillars and imbedded pillars. Above Ijliese extends holy virgin Cecilia whom I myself saw lying incorrupt
an entablature with balustrades, and an arch sur- in her tomb. I have in this marble expressed for thee
mounts the portals. Upon this entablature stand thesamesaintinthe very same posture of body". If
•statues of Christ and the Apostles, 5 to 7 metres (16 it were art alone, it would be consummate art, but
to 22 ft.) high. Massive comer-pieces were intended Cico^nara bears witness that in the nerfect simplicity
for bell-towers, the lack of which at the present day of this work, more unstudied and nexuous than his
weakens the effect of the facade. In the arran^ment other productions, the youthful sculptor must have
of the foreground and background, and in the different been guided solelv by the nature of the object before
effects of intercolumniation. much freedom is used, him, and followed it with unswerving docihty.
not without many happy shadow effects. Between Stefano is supposed to have assisted in the construe-
the building, which was itself lengthened by 50 metres tion of the Pauline Chapel of Sta Maria Maggiore,
(164 ft.), and the facade, there is a vestibule 71 metres where two of his reliefs are to be found: one in marble
(nearly 233 ft.) wide, 13 metres (42 ft. 6 in.) deep, aiid representing a battle, the other, the story of the
20 metres (65 ft. 6 in.) high, leading into the five snow-fall in August, the origin of the basilica. Also
entrances. The interior of this vestibule is the finest attributed to Stefano, but quite without importance,
work of the master, and it has even been rated one of are: the figure of St. Peter for the facade of the
the most beautiful architectural works of Rome, on Quirinal Palace: a statue of St. Charles Borromeo
account of the lordly proportions, the svmmetrical in the church of S. Lorenzo in Damaso, decorative
arrangement, and the simple colouring, the relief on figures of children in the Sixtine Chapel of Sta.
the ceiling being painted in white and aark yellow. l£iria Maggiore, angels of the Madonna di Loreto and
The two fountains in the open space {piazza) before Sta Maria sopra Mmerva and the allegories of Peace
St. Peter's are also much admired. The faQade of St. and Justice at Sta Maria della Pace. Count Gaspare
Susanna and that of the Incurabili, as lesser works, Rivaldi, for whom Mademo executed various commis-
were better suited to the genius of Madema. He also sions, having sought to reward him by procuring for
grovided Sta. Francesca Romana with a f&^Ade in the him a lucrative position at the excise offices of the Ga-
iaroque style. In all these works, the want of har- belle di Ripetta. the sculptor's time became unfortu-
mony between the fapade and the main body of the nately engrossed by his new duties to the exclusion of .
church was an inheritance from the Renaissance. But his art. He died in Rome in 1636.
it was partially through the influence of Fontana. Cicoonaka, gtona <irfte Scuttura (V<pice^
his uncle, that Madema was even then dominated by f'J^'^ ^^ew York, 1890); Grande Encydop^die (Pans. 1886).
the freedom of the Baroque style, which, in its later M. L. Handlby.
development, broke loose from all restraint. The
serious dignity of the facade of the GesiX is not inter- Madianites (in A. V. Midianiteb), an Arabian
fered with by its charming rhythm, varying shadow tribe: Heb. D'^HO Sept. Mo8«;witbt and MaJiawfrcu,
effects and nch decoration; and there is no lack of Lat. Madianitse). Comparison of Gen., xxxvi, 35,
harmony of the whole, or of symmetry. The interior with xxxvii^ 28, 36 proves that the Biblical authors
of Sant' Andrea della Valle, majestic and rich in tone, employ indifferently the simple form Madian (Heb.
gives us even now a true idea of the artistic taste of jno Sept. Maduii', Lat. Madian) instead of the
Madema. He built a part of the Palasso Mattel (the tribal jHural. The collective Madian appears in
court, with lofty loggias) and, with Bernini, the Jrai- Judges, vi-viii, and seems to have been subsequently
a2zo Barberini (the central building, with three orders preferred (cf. Is., ix, 3; Xj 26; Ps. Ixxxiii, 10). In I
of columns and an open arcade). He co-operated, be- ICings, xi, 18, and Hab., iii, 7, for example, if Madian
sides^ in many works at Rome, for example, the denotes a country, it is by transposition of the name of
Quinnal Gardens. At Ferrara, he designed tne forti- the people, which was not the primitive usage. By
fications. a specious, but inconclusive, argument, P. Haupt
QuATREii|Ri! De Quinct, Hm*. d<MpiuB cfUbtM archOectea ("Midian und Sinai" in "Zeitschrift der Deutschen
L&V^ew"^^."(^cfe morgenlftndischenGe^llschaft", bciii, 1909, p. 506)
G. GiETMANN. *M^8 evcnreoently sought to prove that Madian was an
abstract term denoting a religious association such
Mademo, Stefano ^1576-1636), a sculptor of the as the Gredu called an Amphictyony (dfjupucTvowia),
Roman School and of the era just preceding Bernini. The term Madianites must, m tmit case, have been
his contemporary. He is believed to be of Lombard used somewhat as we say Muastdmans,
origin from the neighbourhood of Como; probably he The Madianites were mtroduced into history in the
was related to Carlo Madema, the architect and sculp- texts of Gen., xxv, 1-4 and I Chron., i, 32 sq. which
tor, who was also bom near Como, at Bissone. Ste- aasign as their ancestor an eponym called Maaian, the
fano's works are found frequently in churches upon son of Abraham by Qetourah (D.V. Cetura), which
which Carlo was engaged. Stefano began by copying signifies " incense ** or conveys the idea of incense and
the antique and made several highly esteemed models aromatios (cf. Beut., xxxiii, 10). Of the five other
in bronze. His fame rests, however, upon the statue sons which Abraham had by Cetura the only other one
of St. Cecilia over her tomb in the church of St. Ce- who can now be identified is Shii^ fD.V. Sue). For a
cilia in Trastevere, Rome. He never surpassed, or long time Delitzsch had suggested a connexion be-
even equalled this, which he executed in hia twenty- tween this name and that oTSuhu, a country, men-
third year. The body of the martyr, discovered by tioned in the Ase^rrian documents (" Wo lag das Para-
Pope Paschal I (fourth century) in the Catacomb of dies", Ldpzig, 1881, 297 sq.), which is the desert
St. Callistus and brought by him to the church which region between the Euphrates and Syria (see Ed.
had been her dwelling, was viewed anew unchanged in .Meyer "Die Israeliter und ihre NachbaxstAx&ssAf >
IX.— .3
MADIAMITE8
614
MADIAKITES
flalle, 1906, 314. — DadaUy too, inay probably be
oonsidered as a geographical name in tne region of
Teim&) . The continuation of the genealogy settles its
character and permits a better identification of the
Madianites: Madian must have had five sons, 'Epha,
*£ph6r, H&nOk, AbtdA*, and '£ld&h. The last two are
used as proper names in the Sabeo-Minean inscrip-
tions, but are otherwise unknown. The first thr^,
which occur in later Israelitish genealogies (see Num.,
xxvi, 5; I Chron., ii, 47; iv, 17), have b«Bn rightly
compared with local and ethnolo^cal designations in
soutnem Arabia (see the more important citations
from Arabian authors collected in DiUmann, "Die
Genesb erklart ", 6th ed., Leipzig, 1892, 308 sq.). For
'Epha in particular there is the valuable witness of the
Assyrian texts. The annals of Tiglath-Pileser (D. V.
Theglathphalasar) ; (d. 727 b. c.) mention among the
tribes of Teim& and Saba a tribe called Hayapa which
is philologically the equivalent of the Hebrew HB^y (cf .
Schrader, " Die Keilenschrif ten und das A. T.", 3rd ed.,
Berlin, 1903, 58). — It may be inferred from these in-
dicatiohs that the genealogy of Madian is a hterary
process bv which the Bible connects with the history
of the Hebrew people the Arabian tribes of the regions
which we now call Nejd and Jddf. Madianites \a,
then, to be regarded as the generic name of an im-
mense tribe divided into several clans of which we
know at least some of the names.
This notion established, there will be scarcely any
difficulty in tracing through sacred history the rdfe
played by the Madianites, without having recourse, as
nas too often been done, to alleged contradictions in
the sources. Some of these — e. g.. Gen., xxxvii, 28,
36 (cf. Is., Ix, 6) — represent them as merchants en-
gaged cbiefiy in the transportation of aromatics by
&eir camel caravans. Otners — e. g., Ex., ji, 16 sq.;
iii, 1— depict them as shepherds, but somewhat seden-
• tary. In one place (v. g., Ex., xviii, 7-12, and Judges,
L 16; see the commentaries of Moore^ Lagrange, etc.,
for the exact reading) the Madianites m general, or the
special clan of the (^nites (D.V. Cinites), appear as
tne friends and allies of Israel; in another (v. g..
Judges, vi-viii, and Num., xxv, xxxii) they are irrecon-
cilable enemies; Hab., iii, 7, manifestly localizes them
in southern Arabia, by parallel with JK^3 which
designates a country of eastern K(^h, most certainly
distmct from Ethiopian Nubia. (This distinction,
first established by Glaser. then by Winckler and
Hommel, has been discussed by Lagrange in " Les in-
scriptions du sud de 1' Arabic et Tex^gdse biblique " in
"Revue Biblique"^ 1902, 269 sqq. Ed. Meyer, who
denies the distinction, in "Die Israeliten", 315 sqq.,
does not bring forward any solid argument against it.)
Num.. xxii, 4, and especially Gen., xxxvi, 35, place
them oeyond contradiction in almost immediate rela-
tion with Moab. so that Winckler (" Geschichte Israels
in Einzeldarsteilungen "^ I, Leipzig, 1895, 47 sqq.) as-
signs to them as habitat, according to the most
ancient tradition, the country later occupied by the
Moabites.
It is evidently a matter for Biblical criticism to ex-
amine the particular point of view of the various ac-
counts in which the Madianites occur, and to explain,
for instance, why Madianites and Ishmadites are em-
ployed in apparent equivalence in Gen., xxxvii, 25, 28,
and Judges, viii, 24, 26. For the rest, much light is
shed on the history of this ancient and powerful tribe
by analogies with what we know concerning the great
Arabian tribes, their constitution, their division, their
habitat, their relations with the neighbouring tribes or
sedentary peoples . As we find them in the Pentateuch
the Madianites were an important tribe in which were
lathered the chief clans inhabiting Southern Aralna.
The area wherein these nomads moved with their
flocks stretched towards the west, probably to the
frontiers of Egypt, and towards tne north, without
well-defined limits to the plateaux east of the Dead
Sea and towards Hauran. (Compare the modefm
tribe — much less important, it is true — of the Qawei-
t&te.) It was with them that Moses sought refuge
when he was fleeing from E^n>t (Ex., ii, 15), as did the
E^rptian officer in the weU-known account of Sino-
uhit. His welcome to the tribe and the alliance which
subsequently resulted therefrom^ when Moses and his
people were marching towards Sinai, are like common
occurrences in the history of modem tribes. But the
Madianites were not all, nor exclusively, shepherds.
Masters of the eastern desert, if not also of the fertile
countries oi southern Arabia, they at least monopo-
lized the traffic between Arabia and the Aramean
countries^ on the north, or Egypt, on the west . Their
commercial caravans brought them into contact witl^
the regions of culture, and thus, as always happens
with nomads, the spectacle of the prospenty of more
settled peoples aroused their covetousness and
tempted them to make raids. When Israel was form-
ing Its political and religious organizations at Mount
Sinai, it was in peaceful contact with one of the Madi-
anite clans, the Cinites. TOne considerable school in
recent times has even undertaken to prove that the
religion of Israel, and especially the worship of Jahve,
was borrowed from the Uinites. Lagrange nas shown,
in "Revue Biblique", 1903, 382 sqq., that this assump-
tion is without foundation.) It has even been estaD-
lished that a portion of this clan united its fortunes
with those of Israel and followed it to Chanaan (cf .
Num., xxiv, 21 sq.; Judges, i, 16; iv, 11. 17; v, 24; I
Sam., XV, 6 sq.). However, other Madianite clans
scattered through the eastern desert were at the same
time covetously watching the confines of the Aramean
country. They were called upon by the Moabites to
oppose the passage of Israel (Num., xxii, sqq.). As to
these "Mountains of the east", (HdrerB Q^dSm) of
Num., xxiii, 7, whence was brought the Madianite
diviner Balaam, cf . " the east country " of Gen., xxv, 7,
to which Abraham relegated the offspring of his con-
cubine Getura; cf. also the modem linguistic usage of
the Arabs, to whom " the East " (Sherq) indicates the
entire desert region where the Bedouin tribes wander,
between Sjrria and Mesopotamia, to the north, and be-
tween the Gulf of Akabah and the Persian Gulf to the
south.
Nothing is to be concluded from this momentary
alliance between the Moabites and a portion of the
Madianites, either with regard to a very definite hab-
itat of the great tribe on the confines of Moab, or with
regard to a contradiction with other Biblical accounts.
In the time of Gedeon, perhaps two centuries after the
events in Moab, the eastern Madianites penetrated the
fertile regions where Israel was for a long time settled.
This was much more in the nature of a foray than of
a conquest of the soil. But the Madianite chieftains
had exasperated Gedeon by slaying his brothers. The
vengeance taken was in conformity with the law of the
times, which is to this day the Arabian law. Gedeon,
as conqueror, exterminated the tribe after having slain
its leacfers (Judges, viii) . From this time the tribe dis-
appeared almost entirely from the history of Israel and
seems never to have regained much of its importance.
The installation of the eastern Israelitish tribes forced
these Madianites back into the desert; the surviving
clans fell back towards the south, to Arabia, which
had been their cradle, and where some portions of the
tribe had never ceased to dwell. This was their centre
in the time of Isaias (Ix, 6), probably also in the time
of Habacuc (iii, 7; about 600 b. c.) ; here, at any rate,
all the Assyrian documents of Theglathphalasar (745-
27) and Sargon (722-05) make mention of one of their
clans. Howeve?, the conflict between the South-
Arabian tribes increased, and new waves of popula-
tion, flowing northwards to the regions of culture,
were to absorb the remains of the ancient decayed
tribe. According to the testimony of Greek geo^-
phers and, later, of Arabian authors, the MadianitM
HAOaAS 51
would (teem to have taken mi) their nenimiient abode
OD the bonlerH of the Gulf uf Akabah, since there ex-
isted there a town called Mb)i4hi (Ptolemy, "Geogr."
VI, vii, 2; but' according to Flavius, Josephus, and
Eiuebiua, MaSutr^), whose ruins have been described
by the otplorer RQppel and, more recently, by Sir R.
Burton (''The Gold Mines of Midinn " and "The Land
of Midian revisited", London, 1878 and 1876) now
known as MdghdJrShuaib, not far from the abandoned
harbour of Maqna, on the eaat«m shore of the Gulf of
Akabah. If, as there is every reason to believe, it was
the Hadianit«s whom Procopius had in mind under
the somewhat distorted name of MnoSiiiwf (Peraian
War, I, xix; ed. Niebuhr, Bonn, 1833, p. 100), the
tribe still exiat^ exactly in the region mentioned un-
der the reign of Justinian. But this document shows
us in a manner the death-throea of the tribe which was
then dependent on the Himyarites and doubtless Was
soon tendered wholly extinct by absorption in the
Islamite hordes.
WiHnuR sad Bdrtoh id works atcd sbovs in the body of
tba Ktticte. Also Bo-
il accohsi in ViooD-
ROCX, Diet, dr la BMt.
TIHCS. Diet. 0/ lilt Bibli,
a.v. Mvlia«. Mulianilt:
Hug DBS Vincent.
Madras (Madras-
PATAM), Archdio-
cese OP (Madras-
Its area h about
40,350 square miles,
and the Catholic
population about
50,000 out of a total
of 0
lions. The diocese
is under the caie of
secular clergy (Euro-
pean and native)
aftd the missionaries
of St. Joseph, Mill
Hill. There are in
the archdiocese 47
churches and 135
chapels in charge of 99 priests (of whom 39 are Euro-
peans, 18 nativea and 2 Eurasians), assisted by the
BrotheiB of St. Patrick and of St. Francis of Assisi.
Nuns of the Orders of the Presentation and the Good
Shepherd, the Sisters of Jesus, Mary, and Joeeph,
and the Native Sisterhoods of St. Anne, of St. Francis
of Assisi, of St. Fancis Xavier, numbering in all 262.
From the year 1606 the districts covered by the
present Diocese of Madras belonged to the Padroado
See of San Thom4. In 1642, however, a Capuchin
mission was started at Madras and erected mto a
prefecture Apostolic under Propaganda. This mis-
sion was kept up by the same order until the sub-
stitution of a vicariate Apostolic in 1832. The fre-
quent vacancies of the See of San Thom6 and other
reasons led the Holy See in 1832 to erect a new
vicariate Apostolic in place of the old prefecture Apos-
tolic, and, by the brief "Multa Prwclare" of 1838, to
withdraw entirely the jurisdiction of San ThomS as
well OS the other Padroado suffragan sees, transferring
this portion of it to the new Vicar Apostolic of Madras,
the other portions being assigned to the Vicars Apos-
tolic of Madura, of Bengal, and of the Coromandel
Coast (Pondicherry), eto. The Vicariate of Madras
was at first very eictensive, but was reduced by the
erection of new vicariates — those of Viiagapatam in
1849 and Hyderabad in 1851. On the eetablishment
of the hierarchy in 1886, Madras was made into an
archdiocescj with Viza^patam and Hyderabad as
suffragan dioceses, and the following year a third suf-
Wgan see was added at Nagpur by a nibdivision of
the territory of Viiagapatam. Subsequently the
Doab of Haichur wax ceded to Hydcral^ad, and thus
the present boundaries were arrived at. Within the
conbnes of the archdiocese there are five exempted
churches in Madras belonging to the jurisdiction <tf
San Thonu5, and on the other hand Adyar in the
Mylapore confines is under the jurisdiction of Madras.
The list of Capuchin prefects Apostolic from 1642 to
1832 is not accessible. Vicars Apoetolic; Joiin Bede
Poiding, O.S.B., nominated in 13^2, but declined;
Pedro D'AIcantara, O. Carm. Disc., Vic. Ap. of Bout-
bay, appointeii ad inimm 18ii4-35; Daniel O'CooneU,
O.S.A., 1835-^0: Patrick Joseph Carew, 1840-42; Joba
Fennelly, 1842-68; Stephen FenneUy, 1868-80; Joseph
Colgan, 1882, became archbishop in 1886, still living;
present coadjutor-bishop, John Aeten, since 18^.
The Mill Hill Fathers, who first entered the diocese in
1882, have St. Mary's European High School, Madras,
founded 1906,with 130 European pupils; St. Gabriel's
High School, Madras, founded 1839, with 200 native
pupils; St. Joseph's European School, Bellary, with
65 boarders and 20
day-scholara; Native
Higher Secondary
School, Bellary,with
100 Tftlugu pupils.
The Brothers of St.
Patrick, established
1875, have St. Pat-
rick's Orphanage,
Adyar, with 90 or-
tolans, also European
Boarding School with
60 pupils. TheTeiv
tiary Brothers of
St. Francis of Assisi,
founded 1889,estab-
lished at Bellary,
1899, have a school
with 52 boarders and
primary school with
117 boys.
The Presentation
Nuns, established
1842, have the Pres-
entation Convent
College, Madras, with 200 boarders and 225 day
scholar?, besides a branch school at Rovapuram,
with 104 pupils; at Vepery, a convent school with
40 boarders and 91 day scholars, an orphanage
with 22 inmates, and St. Joseph's High School
(founded 1884) with 20 pupils. The Good Sbegy-
herd Nuns, estabUshed in 1875 at Bellary: novi-
ciate of the order, and also of Native Sisters of St.
Frands Xavier; St. Philomena's High School for
Europeans, with boarders and day-scholars (total
135); military orphanage; St, Joseph's Orphanage for
European Girls, with 65 inmates; St. Xavier's Or-
phanage, for native children, with 28 inmates; Mag-
dalene asylum and widows' home opened in 1896, with
19 inmates. Sisters of Jesus, Mary and Joseph, estab-
lished in 1904: dispensaries at Guntur and Vetapalem,
and schools with about 140 pupils; novitiate with 6
novioea. Native Sisters of St. Anne, established at
Kilacheri in 1863 (T^lugu caste nuns) : school with 03
pupils; school at Rovapuram, foundai 1885, with 148
pupils; school at N. George Town, founded 1900,
with 150 pupils. Native Sisters of St. Francis Xavier:
day-school at Phiranghipuram, with 120 pupils, and
prtmaiy school, with 180 boys; teachers' training-
school, orphanage and widows' home; school at Ren-
tachintta, with 180 pupils, and at Patibandla, with
100 puptia; lower secondary school at Bellary. with
65 pupils; orphanage, with 20 inmates. Native Sisters
of St. Francis of A^isi, founded 1884; fourschoobat
Vepery, with 250 pupils; oiphanage, with 18 inmataa^
and foundling as}-lum.
MAni^TTI
S16
MAni^Tn
Leaving aside the larger high schools, convent
schools, and European and native orphanages, there
are in the archdiocese 3 English schools for boys, 2 for
giris, and 4 mixed; 16 Tamil schools for boys, 6 for
giris, and 5 mixed; 38 Telugu schools for boys, 6 for
fLrlBf and 15 mixed. The Tamil Catholic population
IS strong in Bladras and neighbourhood, where there
are many churches, while in the outlying parts there
are three Telugu mission groups in the Guntur, Bellary
and Chingleput districts. As regards indications of
missionary progress, the estimated Catholic popula-
tion in 1888 was 43,587, as compared with 49,290 in
1908. The finest building in Madras^ is the old cathe-
dral, Armenian Street, bmlt in 1775 f but several fine
churches have been erected in the districts.
Local publications include the Madras "Catholic
Watchman", a weekly paper started in 1887; the
"Madras Catholic Directory", published annually
since 1851, and covering the whole of India, Burma.
Ceylon, and Malacca, with an appendix on Siam ana
China; the "Nalla Ayan", a Tamil monthly.
Madras Caikolie Directory for 1909 and previous ^ears, espe-
cially the year 1867, which oontaina a spejual histonciU account
of the Capuchin Mission: Bombay Examiner^ 11 May, 1907, on
Bdlary district. A history of the Telugu Missions is '
ration by Father Kboot.
in prepa-
"Ebnebt R. Hull.
Madrid-Alcal&f Diocese of (Matritensib-Ala-
CHENSis, or-CoMPLTJTENSis: Complutum being the
name eiven by the Romans to the town called in later
years Alcald by the Moors). Madrid is the name of a
province and town in Spain.
Province. — Madrid is one of the five provinces into
which New Castile is divided: area 3084 square miles;
pop. (in 1900), 775,036. It lies in the basin of the
Ta^us; other rivers of the province being the Jarama,
the Henares, the Logasa and the Manzanares, all
tributaries of the Tagus. The soil is clayey and
sandy, and on the whole treeless, except alon^ the
mountain slopes of the Guadarrama. The quames of
the Guadarrama contain granite, lime, iron, copper,
and lead. The chief manufactures are cloth, paper,
porcelain, bricks, and glass. In the neighbourhood of
Madrid gardening is carried on extensively, and wine
and oil are a source of wealth throughout the province.
Commerce is mainly carried on with the town of
Mia^rid, and of late years an improved railway system
18 developing the economical condition of country
places. The great plain of Madrid lies in the heart
of the province, an immense desert flanked by the
Guadarrama mountains, and resembling the wide
campagna in which Rome stands.
Town. — ^The early history of Madrid is largely
conjectural. Roman tablets and remains have l^n
discovered in the neighbourhood, but nothing definite
ia known until the Moors took possession of the sur-
rounding country and established a fortress called
Bfajrit. Tradition relates that there were Christians
in the town and that during the Moorish occupation
they concealed an image of tne Blessed Virgin, known
as Our Lady of the Almudena, in a tower of the city
walls, where it was found in after years. The Moors
were driven out by Don Ramiro II of Leon in 939,
the Moorish Alegar became a royal palace, and the
mosque a Christian church. The new cathedral, begun
in 1885, and still unfinished, stands on the site of the
mosque. Under the kings of Castile, Madrid attained
no great prominence. In the fourteenth century the
Cortes met there twice; John II and Heniy iV re-
Bided occasionally in the royal palace, and Charles V
visited it in 1524. In 1525 Francis I of France was
imprisoned in Madrid, and in 1526 he signed the
Treaty of Madrid by which he abandoned his rights
over Italy. On regaining freedom, however, he re-
fused to be boimd by its terms. There were twa other
Treaties of Madrid, that of 1617 between Spain and
Venice, and that of 1800 between Spain and Portugal.
PhiJjp II by decree dated 1561 declared the town of
Madrid to be the tmica corte, thereby establishing it aa
capital of all Spain, over the older and more historic
towns of Valladolid, Seville, Toledo, etc., capitals of
the kingdoms into which Spain had been divided.
From this time dates the expansion of Madrid;
Philip II built the E^orial palace and monastery In
the vicinity; PhiUp III, the Plaza Mayor; Philip IV,
the Buen Retiro; Charles III, the Prado Museum and
the AlcaU Gateway. In 1 789 Madrid had 18 parishes,
39 colleges, 15 gates, and 140,000 inhabitants. In
1808 it raised the standard of independence against
the French invaders and the monument of the Dos de
Mayo (2 May) commemorates the heroism of the
Madrilefios when the French assaulted the Puerta del
Sol. The Duke of Wellington restored the town to
Spain in 1812. In 1878 the wails were taken down
and the urban boundaries enlarged and its population
in 1900 was 539,835. After the abdication of King
Amadeo (1873), of the House of Savoy, who accepted
the crown on the assassination of General Prim, the
town was for a time in a state of anarchy owing to
the rival political passions of Carlists, Republicans,
and Socialists. Eventually a republic was instituted
which lasted till 1875 when the House of Bourbon re-
turned to Madrid in the person of Alfonso XII, father
of the present sovereign Alfonso XIII.
Madrid is built on the Manzanares (a narrow river
crossed by imposing bridges, the principal of which
are Puente de Tolecfo and Fuente de Segovia), on low
irregular sandhills in the centre of a bleak plateau
2150 feet above sea-level to the south of, but unpro-
tected by, the Sierra Guadarrama. The temperature
ranges from 18^ to 105° F.; the climate while not
unhealthy is treacherous; the winter cold is intense
and the summer heat pitiless. The dust of the sand-
hills is a source of discomfort to the inhabitants, and
baffles all the efforts of the municipality to overcome
it. Modem improvements are to be seen everywhere.
The streets are a network of electric cars; the tele-
phone system is excellent; transportation facilities
aie provided for by the nulways which give direct
communication with Paris. Lisbon, etc.; water is
supplied from the Logasa, by an aqueduct 47 miles
long conveying 40,000,000 gallons of water daily to
Madrid: this aqueduct was erected at a cost of $11,-
000,000. The working classes are well organized to
defend their interests; the masons' and bricklayers'
union has 15,000 members. Socialistic ideals find
some favour among the working men, and May Day
demonstrations are sometimes troublesome. Fublic
peace is looked after by gendarmes and civil guards.
The State maintains a savings bank, and the P&wn-
broking of the town is in Government hands. There
are 3 foundling institutions, 6 orphanges, 20 hospitals,
including the Princess Hospital, Hospital of St. John
of God, military hospital, and a lunatic asylum. The
birthrate is 37.5 per 1000; the mortality 37.4. The
principal manufactures are tobacco (the tobacco
monopoly employs over 4000 women and girls), metal
ware, leather, gloves, and fans. It is a town of small
traders, a frugal, industrious community reflecting
the political ioeals of the country. Barcelona, while
commercially more important, has strong affiniUes
with France; Burgos, Salamanca, and Cordova live in
their past greatness, but Madrid is a thriving state (y
town, well fitted to be the capital of modem Spain.
The arms of the town are a tree in leaf with a be^r
climbing the trunk, and the escutcheon is surmounted
by a crown. Madrid has never been officially granted
the title ciudad or city.
Monuments, — Old Madrid ended on one side at the
Puerta del Sol, now the centre of the town, whence the
chief thoroughfares radiate: the Calle de Alcald, the
Calle del Arenal, the Calle Mayor, and the Carrera de
San Joronimo, or Fifth Avenue of Madrid. The Buen
Retiro and Parque de Madrid are recreation groimds.
In the Plasa Mayor is a bronze equestrian statue of
WiPKTP
517
]yi4nnTT>
Philip III, the work of Juaa de Bologna. The MinU- a handsome building, badly lighted, and c
trv of State dates from Philip IV and the town hall masterpieces of nearly ali the Bchools of painting aiul
with itfl fine staircase is a aeventeenth'Century etruc- sculpture of Europe. The early Spanish School is
turo. The Palacio del Congreso, where the deputies represented by Gallegoa; Pedro Berruguete, Motalei.
meet, is a Corinthian building dating from 1860. The El Greco, and Ribera (predecesaor of Velasquez and
Plaza de Oriente, the largest square in Madrid, has a Murillo) are also represented. Velasquea, a native o(
handsome fountain adorned with bronie Uons. This Seville, went to Madrid in 1623 where ne died in 1660,
squaredateefromthereignof JoeephBonapart«(1808). and his maflterpieces are to be seen in a aaia of the
Tlie Royal Exchange and Bank of Spain are modern Prado: "Las Menifias", "The Forge of Vulcan", "Los
but impoBinx buildings. The R^af Palace, a laise Barrachos'', "Laa Laneas". The Prado contains
rectan^dar building designed by Sacchettj, overlooks Murillo's "Holy Family", " The penitent Magdalen",
the Manianares and commands a view of the whole "TheAdorationof theSiepherdB .etc. ^mongltalian
town. Before the twelfth century a moonsh AlcAiar ^intors there are works by Fra Angelico, Mantegna,
Ltood there and a palace was built on the site by Raffaele, Del Sarto, Corregio, Tintoretto, Veronese,
HeniT IV from designs by Herrera. This structure T5ti8n. There are examples of Van Eyck, a Van der
was destroyed by fire in 1738, and the present build- Weyden, aMemlinc, aHolbeia.andaboutSOpaintinHi
ine was then erected at a cost of 115,000,000. It is b_y Rubens, who visited Madrid in 1628. The colleo-
biult of granite and faces the south. The main stair- tion of paintings in The Prado rivals even that of The
case is of black and white marble; the throne room Louvre, and artists from every country are to be seen
has paintings by Tiefolo; there is a hall by Gasparini; studying or copying its masterpieces. Its treasures
and the royal chapel has painting by Mengs aiui con- include twoecore Murilloe, ~'~~ ~
tains the font j
which St. Dominic
was baptiBcd. An-
other royal palace
is La Grsnja (4000
feet above sea-
level), the grange or
farm, astunmer resi*
dence in view of the
Guadarrama moun-
tains. It was built
from the
brush of El Greoo.
much of the work oi
Ribera {a decidedly
though he Uved be-
tween 1588-1656),
and a whole »aia
devoted to Velaa-
quez. There too is
to be seen the woik
of Antonio MoTo,
Camcn or Sax JbbAmiu
of the
Spanish School of
portraiture, wfaoae
Minting of Mary
Tudor of Englaoa,
wife of Philip II of
Spain, is of pecuUar
interest. Among
other glories of The
Prado are Rubens
and Goya . This as-
semblage of canvases
of all the great
masters of painting
of the most famous
cially as San Ilde-
fonso. Its park and
fountains are fa-
mous. £1 Pardo, a
royal shooting box,
6 miles from Madrid
has Gobelin tapes-
tries after designs by
Teniers and Goya.
Aranjuei, 30 miles
from Madrid, is an-
other royal pabce,
famous for its gardens (Garden of the Primavera) and makes The Prado collection o . .
for its paintings by Mengs, Maella, and Lopei. (See and valuable in the world. The Museo do Arte Mo-
also EacoRiAi,.) dema has many pictures by conl«mporary artists, and
In the neighbourhood of the Royal Palace, Madrid, much statuary. The Real Academia de Bellas Ariee,
is the upper house of the Cortes, the House of Senators, built in 1752, has also a valuable picture gallery.
The Senate consists of 80 members who are senators There are moreover Academies of History (1738),
m their own right, 100 membeis nominated by the Science (1847), and Medicine (1732), and a Naval
crown, and 180 members elected by state cotpoTations, Museum (1S56).
including ecclesiastical bodies, for 10 years, one half The fint public libmry in Madrid was the Saa
renewable every S years. The House of Deputies is Isidro, founded by the Jesuits, and containing 60 000
nominally composed of one deputy to every 50,000 volumes. The National Library was built m 1712;
inhabitants; he must be over 25 years of age, and is it has many editions of "Don Quixote", a Visi^othie
elected for a term of 5 years. In all there are 406 work of the tenth century and the "Siete Partidas"
deputies. Neither senatois nor deputies are paid for of Alfonso the Wise. The library of the Royal
their services to the nation. Sulirage is the ri^t Academy of History has many valuable books &ad
of every male adult who has arrived at the age <A MSS.
35 years (Law of 26 June, 1890), and who has re- Francisco de Quevedo Villegas, poet and pron
sided witlun a munidraUtyforat least 2 years. The writer, was bom in Madrid in 1580, and studied
king's civil list is Sl,900,000; and the queen has a at Alt^^ His works have been collected in 3 vtAa.
state allowance of $90,000 annually. in "BibUoteca de Autoree EspaQoles". His "Vi-
Adjoining the Royal Palace is the Royal Armoury sions" were translated into English in 1688 and re-
where the student can view if not the evolution at publisliedin 1715. Calderon lived in the Calle Mayor,
least the highest expression of the armourer's craft, or Calle de Almudena, and Lope de Ve^ was lionl
It contains the masterpieces of the Caimans of Augs- there (1562). There is a monument to Calderon by
burg and the Negrolis of Milan. Historically, per- Figuiras in the Plaza de Santa Ana. The first part
hapw less valuable than that of the Tower of Lon- of Cervantes' masterpiece, " Don Quixote ", was pub-
don, in magnificence the Madrid coUection is rivalled lishcd in Madrid in 1605. He died in 1616 and there
onlyby that of the Imperial Armoury at Vienna. The is a monument to him in the Plaza de las Cortes. The
National Muaeum known as Museo del Prado from first newspaper was the " Gaceta de Madrid " printed
deKignt by Villanueva, dates from tlie reign of Charles in 1661 : at first it appeared annually, but in 1667
III, and was completed under Ferdinand VII. It is every Saturday; later it was issued twioe a w«^
published in Madrid are "Lectura", "Ateneo", "Es-
pafia Modema", "Nuestra Tiempo", and "Razon
MADRID 518 MADEID
and in 1808 it was made a daily. The "Diario" sept. The Church of the Atocha contams the tombs
was started in 1758. and its title afterwards be- of Palafox, hero of the war against Napoleon, and
came "Diario oficial de Avisos de Madrid''. In of Prim, leader of the insurgents in 18&, who was
1825 it became the government newspaper. "Im- shot in 1870.
Sarcial" began in 1806; and "El Imparcial", "La Ecclesiastical Histort.;— The Diocese of Madrid
orrespondencia", and "El D(a" were pubhshed in which includes the civil province of Madrid ; area 3084
1867. " La Epoca " dates from 1848; and " El Uni- s(|. miles; is suffragan ot Toledo, and while its founda-
verso" is newer in the field. Among the reviews tion dates from the Concordat of 1851, it was not
canonically erected until the issuing ^f the Bull of 7
March, 1885, which united Alcald and Madrid. The
y Fe. " first bishop, Mgr Narciso Martinez Izquierdo, took
The Plaza.de Toros or bull ring dates from 1874. possession of the see, 2 August, 1885; and the Cathe-
It seats about 15,000 persons, and cost 3,000,000 dral chapter, erected 24 November, 1885, consists of
reales. It is in the Moorish st^le of architecture, with 20 canons and 8 beneficed ecclesiastics. The total
a very imposing arch. Madnd remains the Mecca of population of the Diocese in 1900 was 775,034 souls,
the toreros, and the corrida is one of the chief institu- divided into 240 parishes (of which 21 are in the town
tions of the national capital. of Madrid), containing 776 churches or chapels and
The national Church of Spain is the Catholic Church, the diocesan cler^ numbers 664. The principal
A restricted liberty of worship is allowed to Protestants towns within the Diocese of Alcald with their popiua-
of whom there are about 3000 in the whole kingdom: tions in 1904, are as follows: — ^AlcaU (10,300), Col-
statistics for Madrid are lacking. The first Protestant menar de Oreja (3694), Colmenar Viejo (4758), Chin-
Bishop of Madrid was appointed in 1895. There is chon (4200), Escorial (4570), Getafe (3820), Leganes
a Protestant cemetery, and schools are conducted by (5412), Morata (4000), Navalcamero (3788), Pinto
Protestants of various denominations in the town. (2396), San Martin de Valdeiglesias (3290), San Se-
A project of law for extending greater liberty to non- bastian de los Reyes (1477), Tetuan (2825), Torrejon
Catholic fofms of religion is at present (1910) in con- (3081), Valdemoro (2726), Vallecas (5625).
templation. The total non-Catholic population of In the town of Madrid there are 67 houses of re-
the country was 30,000 in 1900, of whom 4000 were ligious women (including 18 homes or institutes for
Jews, 3000 Protestants, the remainder being Ration- orphans or old and infirm people under the care of the
alists etc. The chief religious restrictions complained Sisters of St. Vincent of Paul), and 14 monasteries for
of are the forbidding of the ringing of service bells men, Dominicans (Orator del Olivar; Nuestra Sefiora
and the prohibition of non-Catholic houses of wprship de la Rosario), Augustinians (San Roque and E^pfritu
with doors abutting on to the streets of the town. A Santo), Jesuits (San Miguel), Trinitarians (San I^nacio)
letter from Mr. William Collier, U. S. minister at Redemptorists(San Justo),andServites(SanNicol^).
Madrid to the Secretary of State^ Washington, 17 Besides the Hospital of San Rafael in Madrid, the
Februanr, 1906, contains the following passage : '' The Brothers of St. Jonn of God have hospitals at Pinto and
study of the statutes [of Spain] which I have made Ciemposuelos; the Capuchins have a house at £1
and the advice of counsel lead me to the opinion that Pardo; the Jesuits a college at Chamartin; the Piarist
non-Catholics who are Spanish subjects may by com- Fathers a college at Alcaic and another at Getafe,
plying with the provisions of the law, form legal associ- where the Trappists also have a farm ; the Augustin-
ations vested with a legal personality, subject of course ians have a coue^ and monastery at Escorial and the
in their ceremonies and religious observances to the Fathers of the Mission a house at Valdemoro. There
restrictions of the constitutional provisions.'' The are Carmelite nuns at Loeches, Boadillaand Alcald;
province of Madrid is mainly a region of small Dominican nuns at Loeches and Alcal^; Capuchin
agriculturists, large towns are few, and the peasant nuns at Pinto; Franciscan nuns at Valdemoro, Cara-
does not love to be taxed for educational purposes, banchel Bajo, Cubas, Chinchon, Ciempucuelos. Grifion
That education is making rapid progress in Spain is and AlcaM; Augustinian nuns at Coleniar de Oreja
proved by statistics. In 1860, about 75 per cent, of and at Alcald, where the Sisters of St. Vincent of Paul
the people could neither read nor write; m 1880 the -maintain a hospital. The total number of convents,
numoer stood at 68 per cent.; in 1900 the illiterates hospices, and hospitals in the hands of religious is 145.
had been reduced to 30 per cent. In other words the Tlie present bishop, Mgr Salvador y Barrera was
young generation is growing up well educated. The bom at Marchena in the Diocese of Seville, 1 Octo-
public schools of the country are in the hands of lay ber, 1851 ; appointed Bishop of Tarasona, 16 Deoem-
teachers appointed after competitive examination, ber, 1901 ; transferred to Madrid, 14 December, 1905,
while the teaching orders of the Church conduct where he succeeded Mgr Guisasola y Mendes. The
private schools and institttios or high schools in which holydays of the Diocese are Christmas, Epiphanv,
about one-fifth of the children of the country are Purification, Ash Wednesday, Annunciation, Holy
educated. Thursday, Good Friday, Ascension^ Corpus Christi,
Churches. — San Pedro in the Calle de Segovia, is a All Saints, and Immaculate Conception,
building in Moorish architecture and dates from the AlcalX on the Henares, 21 miles from Madrid, at
fourteenth century. It is the oldest church in Madrid, a height of 2000 feet above sea level is a town of
San Jer6nimo el Real, a liandsome Gothic building, historic importance and one of the first bishoprics
dates from 1503 and has been much restored. In this founded in Spain. Cervantes was born there, and
church the heir-apparent takes the Constitutional baptized in the Church of Santa Maria in 1547, and
oath, and in the convent close by, Charles of England the unhappy Catherine of Aragon, wife of Henry VIII
stayed when he visited Madrid, in 1623, on the oc- of England, was a native of the place. The name by
casion of the contemplated "Spanish Match". San which it was known to the Romans was Complutuni,
Francisco el Grande, the finest church in Madrid is but under the Moors it became a fortified to^Ti and
modelled on the Pantheon at Rome, and was built in was known as AlcaU, the stronghold or castle. In the
1784. Cervantes, Lope de Vega, and Velasquez are Middle Ages it was famous for its universitjr founded
buried there. San Isidro, the church of the patron by Cardinal Ximenez, which stood on the site of the
saint of Madrid, an ornate building, dates from 1626- modem Colegio de San Ildefonso. The bishop's
51, and has paintings bv Rizi and Morales. It serves residence is now used for preserving historical archives,
as pro-cathedral to the diocese. The Ermita de It was designed by Bemiguete. and has a famous
San Antonio de la Florida has a frescoed dome by staircase. The umversity diapel dedicated to Saints
Goya. Santa Barbara dates from the reign of For- Just and Pastor has a monument to Cardinal Ximenez
dinand VI (1746-59), who lies buried in the tran- by Fancelli, an Italian sculptor. The surroundings of
ISABELLA THE CATHOLIC
KnECTED BY MADRID MUNiriPALlTY (I8S5)
^
ICADBUZZI
519
BIADUR4
the town are austere and bleak^ but it is protected by
hdlls on the north side. The University ouildings are
in ruins, and the town which at one time had a popula-
tion of 60,000, numbered in 1900 about 10,000 in-
habitants. At Alcald was printed under Cardinal
Ximenez' care the polyglot Bible known as the Ck>m-
plutensian Bible, the first of the many similar Bibles
produced during the revival of Biblical studies that
took place in the sixteenth century.
University of lifADRiD. — A; school was founded in
Madrid in 1590, known as the College of Dofla Maria of
Aragon, which may in a sense be considered as the
foundation of the modem Tlniversity of Madrid,
but Madrid had no university previous to 1836. A
university had been established at Alcald in 1508 by
Cardinal Ximenez, which in 1518, owing to disputes
between the students and the townsfolk it was resolved
to remove to Madrid. The plan fell through, though
it was again discussed in 1623. In 1822 the Alcaic
University staff did actually open their lectures in
Madrid, but 1823 found them once more at AlcaU. It
was not until 1836 that 'the final transference of the
Alcald University to the Calle de San Bernardo, Ma-
drid, was accomplished (see AlcalX, University op).
At the time of its transference the university includcKi
a theological faculty, but this was suppressed in 1868.
In 1906 there were 5300 students (550 philosophy; 900
science; 1600 law; 1500rr.ed»cine, and 102 professors).
The rector is Sefior Raf '^1 Conde y Luque. The li-
brary contains 204,000 volumes and 5500 MSS. Its
endowment in 1906 amounted to $180,000. Affiliated
to it is the College of San Isidro founded in 1770.
Shaw, Spain of to-day (New York, 1909); Seymour, Saunter-
inos in Spain (London, 1906); HnrroN, Cities of Spain (Lon-
don, 1908); Calvert, Madrid (London, 1909): Annuaire Ponti-
fical (1910); Qerarchia (1910); Stateeman'e Year Botk (1910);
Anqulo in Dice, di Ciencuis Eclea,^ a. v.; Anuario Edesidetieo
de Eapaiia, 1909.
J. C. Grey.
MadniZEi, Christopher, of a noble family of Trent,
b. 5 July, 1512; d. at Tivoli, Italy, 5 July, 1578. He
studied at Padua and Bologna, received m 1529 from
his older brother a canonicate at Trent and the parish
of Tirol near Meran, was in 1536 a canon of Salzburg,
in 1537 of Brixen, and in 1539 became Prince-Bishop
of Trent. Being only a subdeacon at the time, he was
promoted to the deaconship, priesthood, and episco-
pate in 1542. In January, 1543, he was appointed
administrator of the See of Brixen, and shortly after-
wards, during the same year 1543, he was raised to the
dig;nity of a cardinal by Paul III (1534-49). Having
resigned his bishopric at Trent in 1567, he spent the
latter years of his Ufe in Italy, and became Cardinal-
Bishop successively of Sabina, Palestrina, and Porto.
A few years after his death his remains were entombed
in the family chapel, in the church of St. Onofrio,
Rome. Madruzzi was a man of great intellectual gifts,
well versed in secular and ecclesiastical affairs. Clmrles
V (1519-56) and his brother, ICing Ferdinand I, after-
wards emperor (1556-64), esteemed him very highly
and employed him in many important and delicate
missions. In the controversies between Catholics and
Protestants, at the time of the incipient Reformation,
he always proved himself a ready champion of the
Church. He took an active part in the imperial Diet
of Ratisbon (1541) as representative of the emperor,
and upheld strenuously the Catholic teaching against
the heresy of Luther.
As cardinal. Bishop of Trent, and temporal ruler of
that principality he naturally played a prominent part
in the Council of Trent. Among other things he ii^
sisted that the reform oi the Church should be taken
up in earnest, a matter much desired by Charles V,
and by which it was hoped to win the Protestants back
to the Church. It was largely due to his efforts, that
this subject was discussed and enactments of that
character wsre passed in each session together with
decisions on doctrinal matters. He was also intent
upon promoting a truly religious and Christian life
amon^ both the people and the ecclesiastics under his
jurisdiction. For the first he recommended chiefly
yeariy confession and communion; and for the second
an edifjring, chaste, and temperate conduct, and an
exact fulfilment of all the obhgations connected with
their high office. He was himself cultured and learned,
and patronized with great munificence the liberal arts
and learning. One stain attaches to his memory, the
accumulation of several benefices in his hands'. Men-
tion was made of the smaller ecclesiastical holdings;
in addition to his two sees he received in 1546, by the
favour of Charles V, a yearly allowance of 2000 ducats
from the Spanish Archbishopric of Compostela. He
may be somewhat excused in view of the usage of the
time, and of the financial burdens imposed on him
during the sessions of the Council of Trent; moreover,
in 1567, he gave up one of his two sees.
Pallavxcini, Hist. Cone. Trident, lib. V-VIII; Bonblli,
Mon. Bed. Trident., Ill (Treat. 1765).
F. J. SCHAEFEB.
Madura, Diocese of. See Trichinopoli, Dio-
cese OF. . " .
Madura Mission. — As shown in the "Atlas Geogra*
phicus S.J.'\ the ancient Jesuit missions in India
under the Portuguese were divided into two provinces
— that of Goa comprising the west coast down to Cali-
cut exclusive, and the interior districts of the Deccan
and Mysore, while the Malabar province occupied the
south of the peninsula, that is the Malabar coast oa
the west, and the Coromandel coast on the east as far
north as the River Vellar, including Cochin, Travan-
core, Madiuti, Tanjore, San Thome, and other con-
tiguous districts. The term "Madura Mission" re-
fers to that Jesuit missionary movement which had its
starting point at Madura and extended thence over the
eastern half of the peninsula. At the outset it may be
remarked that the districts comprised under the Ma-
dura Mission were totally removed from Portuguese
political or state influence, so that even the prestige of
the Portuguese name can hardly be regarded as hav-
ing reached there, to say nothing of the machinery of
the State. The fact is a stancung refutation of the
unhistorical charge that the spread of the Gospel in
India was due to poUtical influence and the use
of coercion, for in no part of the country did the
efforts of the missionanes meet with greater success
than in Madura.
The Madura Mission owes its origin to Robert de
NobiU, who commenced at Madura, in 1606, that pecul-
iar method of propagating the faith which has made
his name famous. "This policy consisted in conform-
ing to the ways of life in vc^ue among the Brahmins,
in order to remove their prejudices against him; to ex-
hibit himself as noble, as learned, as ascetical as they:
by this means to excito their interest and esteem, and
to draw them into ready intercourse with himself; then
by degrees to progress from indifferent subjects to re-
ligious matters, beginning with those points which
were common, and gradually passing to those which
were distinctively Christian; showing how Christianity
offered to Hindus a purified and pertect religion, with-
out requiring the abandonment of native social usages
or the loss of racial rank and nobilitv." (" East and
West", Dec., 1904.) (See Malabar Rites.) Shortly
afterwards Father Antony de Vico, and Father Manoel
Martins began imitating his mode of life and working
on the same lines with considerable success Father
Vico died in 1638 and was succeeded by Fr. Sebastian
de Maya, who in 1640 was imprisoned at Madura in
company with de Nobih, wliile Father Martins re-
mained at Trichinopoli. In 1640 a new departure was
made by Father Balthasar da Costa who began working
specially for the lower castes. The success was such
tnat in 1644 the total numl>er of converts in the Ma-
MAXDOO
520
BCAXLBUBHA
dura, Trichinopoli, Tanjore, and Satiamangalam dia-
tricts rose to 3500, that is to say 1000 of the higher
castes, and 2500 pariahs. At that time there were
five priests worlung on the mission. Subsequent
progress was still more gratifying, for in 1680 the num-
ber of converts altogether was reckoned at no less than
80,000. The numl^r of workers, however, did not in-
crease in proportion; they generally amounted to
seven, eight, or ten, and only as late as 1746 reached to
fourteen. Among these the most successful were Fa-
ther Balthasar da Costa and Manoel Martins already
mentioned, Andrew Freyre, Bl. John de Britto, Fran-
cis Laynes, Venance Bouchet, Peter Martin, and Fa-
ther Beschi. The last named, who worked from 1711
to 1740, found himself in conflict with the Lutheran
pioneers of Protestant missionary enterprise who
started work at Tranquebar in 1706, and against
whom he wrote several controversial works.
The expulsion of the Jesuit Order from Portuguese
territory m the year 1759 put an immediate check on
the supply of nussionaries, but the fathers already in
the mission, bcin^ outside the Portuguese dominions,
were able to contmue their work though with dimin-
ishing numbers. The entire suppression of the Order
in >773, however, brought ttie Jesuit regime to an end.
Three years later (1776) a new mission of the Kamatic
was established by the Holy See, under the Paris
Seminary for Foreign Missions, which, taking Pondi-
cherry as its centre, gradually extended its labours in-
wards as far as Mysore, and to the old Madura Mission.
Under the Forei^ Mission Society the remaining Jes-
uit Fathers contmued to work till they gradually died
out. Not much in the way of missionary work was
done by the Groan clergy, who took the place of the
Jesuits in certain stations, and the results previously
gained were in prospect of being almost totally lost.
In the year 1836 the Kamatic mission was erected into
the Vicariate Apostolic of the Ck>romandel Coast; and
as the Foreign Mission Society could not for want of
men come to the rescue of Madura, they willingly ac-
cepted the appointment of the Jesuits in the same
year — the Society having been restored in 1814. In
1846 the Madura Mission was in turn made into a vi-
cariate Apostolic with Mgr Alexis Canoz as its first
vicar Apostolic; but the portion north of the Cauvery
was retained by Pondicherry. In 1886, on the estab-
lishment of the hierarchy, the Madura Vicariate was
made the Diocese of Trichinopoly. In 1893 Tanjore
was taken away and given to the Padroado Diocese of
Mylapore. In the same year the Trichinopoly Dio-
cese was finally made sufTragan to Bombay (see
T^iicHiNGPOLi, Diocese op).
Bertrand. La Mission du Maiduri, 4 vols. (1847-54); Idem,
LtUres des nouvelles missions du Madurf, 4 vols. (1839-47);
Idem, Lettres Mifiantes et curieuses de la nouvelle Mission
du MadurS, 2 vols. (1866); Saint Ctr, Lts nouveaux J ^suites
d^aens VInde (1866); Writeheau, India: a Sketch of the Madura
Mission (London, s. d.);' Guchkn, Cinquanle ans au Maduri, 2
vols. (1889); Launay, Histoire des Missions de VInde. 6 vols.
il898): CotTBfc, Au pays des Castes (1888); Strickland, TAe
^esuits in India (Duolin, 1852); Idem, TheGoa Schism (Dub-
lin, 185.3); Strickland and Marshall, Catholic Missions in S,
India (London, 1865); Suan, Monseigneur Carloz (1891); de
BusBiKRE, Histoire du Schisms Portuguais dans VInde (1856).
Ernest R. Hull.
Maedoc (Moedhoo, Mogue, Aeddan Foeddog,
AiDUS, Hugh), Saint, first Bishop of Ferns, in Wex-
ford, b. about 558, on an island m Brackley Lough,
County Cavan; d. 31 January, 626. He was the son
of Sedna, a chieftain of Connaught, and of his wife,
Eithne. Even in his early years the fame of his sanc-
tity was widespread and, when many came to the
young man and desired to become his disciples, he fled
from Ireland to Wales. Here he became the pupil of
St. David and is named as one of his three most faith-
ful disciples. Many miracles are recorded of St.
Maedoc, both in his childhood and during his sojourn
in Wales. After many years he returned to Ireland
"'■ '«M)anied by a band of disciples, and settled at
Brentrocht in lieinster. He foimded several monas-
teries in that district, the greatest being Ferns, which
was built on land given to him by Brandubh, King of
Leinster. Here a synod was held, at which he was
dected and consecrated bishop, about 598. St. Mae-
doe of Ferns must not be confounded either with St.
Madoc (or Maidoc), the son of Gildas (28 Feb.), who
also lived in the sixth century and was the founder of
Llanfadog in Wales; or with St. Modoc the Culdee,
who lived in the third or fourth century.
Atia 88., Jan., II, 1111-20; Boasb in Diet, Christ. Biog., a. v.:
KlLMADocx, St. Mogue's or St. Ninian's Island in Notes and
Queries^ 8th series, IV, 421; Lives of the Cambro- British Saints,
ed. Ree8 (Llandoveiy. 1853), 232>50; McGovern, St. Mogue*M
or St. Nintan's Island in Notes and Queries, 8th series, V, 151-2;
QrtAHTOft, Menohqu of England and Wales (London, 1887). 42;
Vita Sanctorum HibemuB, cd. Pluikmer (Oxford, 1910), I»
facxv-bcxviii; II, 141-03, 295-311.
Leslie A. St. L. Tokb.
Maelruan (Maolruain, Melruan, Molruan),
Saint, founder and first Abbot of Tamlacht (Tallacht),
in the County of Dublin , Ireland . Nothing seems to be
known of .St. Maelruan before the foundation of Tam-
lacht, which took place in the year 769. The church,
which was dedicated to St. Michael, w^as built on land
given by Donnohadh, King of Leinster. It was to this
monastery that St. Aengus, the Culdee, came, during
the abbacy of Maelruan and, concealing his name,
served for some time at mei ^ manual work. His iden-
tity, however, was revea I'^d -lirough assistance that he
gave to a backward schol ir St. Maelruan sought him
at once and, gently reproaching him, gave him an hon-
oured place in the community. The two saints are
joint authors of the " Rule of the C^lidhd D^ " (see
Culdees), of which a copy is preserved in the library
of the Royal Irish Academy. "It contains", says
O'Curry, " a minute series of rules for the regulation of
the lives of the C^lidh4 D6, their prayers, their preach-
ings, their conversations, their confessions, their com-
munions, their ablutions, their fastings, their absti-
nences, their relaxations, their sleep, their celebrations
of the Mass, and so forth". St. Maelruan is called a
"Bishop and soldier of Christ" in the "Annals of
Ulster , where his death is recorded under the year
791. In the "Annals of the Four Masters", however,
wherein also he is styled "Bishop", his death is as-
signed, probably incorrectly, to the year 787. His
feast is on 7 July.
Ck>LUAN, Acta Sanctorum vetcris et maioris Scotiep (Lou vain,
1645-7); Gammack in Did. Christ. Biop.,n. v.; Healy, Insula
Sanctorum et Doctorum, or Ireland's ancient Schools and Scholars
(Dublin, 1890). 407-9; Laniuan, Ecclesiastical History of Ire-
land, III (Dublin, 1822), 232; O'Cvrhy, Lectures on the manu-
script materials of ancient Irish History (Dublin. 1861), 364, 375.
Leslie A. St. L. Toke.
Maelmbha (Ma-rui, Molroy, Errew, Summar-
RUFF, also Saoart-Ruadh), Saint, abbot and martyr,
founder of Abercrossan, b. 642; d. 21 April, 722. He
was descended from Niall, King of Ireland, on the side
of his father, Elganach. His mother, Subtan, was a
niece of St. Comgall the Great, of Bangor. St. Mael-
mbha was bom in the County of perry and was edu-
cated at Bangor. When he was in his thirtieth year
he sailed from Ireland for Scotland, with a following
of monks. For two years he travelled about, chiefly
in Argyll, and founded about half-a-dozen churches,
then settled at Abercrossan (Applecross), in the west
of Ross. Here he built his chief cnurch and monastery
in the niidst of the Pictish folk, and thence he set out
on missionary journeys, westward to the islands of
Skye and Lewis, eastward to Forres and Keith, and
northward to Loch Shinn, Durness, and Farr. It was
on this last ioumey that he was martyred by Danish
vikings, probably at Teampull, about nine miles up
Strath-Naver from Farr, where he had built a cell.
He was buried close to the River Naver, not far from
his cell, and his grave is still marked by "a rough
cross-marked stone". The tradition, in the "Aber-
deen Breviary ", that lie was killed at Urquliart and
MAXBLAKT 521 MtABSTEO
buried at Abercrossan is jprobably a mistake arising Martijn" (third Martin). Other poems of this kind
from a confusion of Gaekc place-names. This error are "Van ons Heren wonden'', a translation of the
had been copied by several later hagiologists, as has hymn "Salve meal opatrona''; "DieClausule vander
also the same writers' confusion of St. Maelrubha with Bible '^ an allegorical poem in praise of the Blessed
St. Rufus of Capua. Biaelrubha was, after St. Co- Virgin; the "Disputacie van onser Vrouwen ende van
lumba, perhaps the most popular saint of the north- den helighen Cruce'', which bewails the sad situation
west of Scotland. At least twenty-one churches are of the Holy Land. Maerlant's last poem "Van den
dedicated to him^ and Dean Reeves enumerates about Lande van Oversee" was written after the fall of Acre
forty forms of his name. His death occurred on 21 (1291) and is a stirring summons to a crusade against
April, and his feast has always been kept in Ireland on the infidels, with bitter complaints about abuses m the
this day; but in Scotland (probably owing to the con- Church. The "Gees ten'' were edited by Franck
fusion with St. Rufus) it was kept on 27 August. On (Grdningen, 1882); the " Heimlicheit, etc.'*, by Clar
5 July. 1898, Pope Leo XIII restored his feast for the risse (Dordrecht, 1838) and by Kausler (1844) ; " Der
Churcn in Scotland, to be kept on 27 August. Naturen Bloeme" by Verwijs (Gr5ningen, 1878); the
^a^i^"^ ""^ • w^^of'^r ^l*^7^,2f*• OPS'OVAH (Dublin. "Rijmbijber' by David (Brussels, 1858-^9); the Life
1856), ad ann. 671,722; Annabo/(/{«(«r» ed. HsNNESST (Dub-, ^f a* irto««ia K,r T ^\A^^».^ fJ^^,A^r^ i<Lie\. +1*^
lin. 1887). ad ani. 670. 672, 7^1; Barrett. Early 8eotti»h ^t O'i. Francis by J. TidemMl (Leyden, 1848); the
Sainu in Dublin Revieto, XV (18W), 348-72; BARRrrr. CaUn- "Spiegel Histonael" by de Vnes and Verwijs (Ley-
dar ofScoOUh SainU (Fort Augustus. 1904), 64-7; BMvatheea den, 1857-^3). Complete editions of the strophic
Hagtoffraphtea Laivna, ed. Bollanduts (Bniaseu. 1900).771: rww»w»o «»»»» <*:„»,« K,r i? VA««r;;o /r'-x-»;«««« iQQrk\
Cajmpbelu St. Maolrybka in Scottish Historical Review, vf POems were given by E. VerwijS (Gromngen, 1880)
ii909), A42S; FoHBiM, Kalendars of Scottish Saints (EdinbvLTgh, and by J. Franck and J. Verdam (Groningen, 1898).
1872). 382-4; Gammack in Diet. ChriM. Biog., s. v.; Mitchell. Serrure, Jacob van Maerkmt en zijne ioerken (2nd ed., Ghent,
On various superthttons in the Norih-west Highlands and 1867); te Wis Ktiu MaerlantswerkenbeschouivdaU Spiegel van
1&^,^£.^^**^^^^V!P^ ^f^^ Sact€fi/ of Antiquaries of Scotland, de IS. eeuw (2nd ed.. Ghent. 1892); Jonckbloet, Oeschichte der
V' 2^i*' Y^^^^^r^,^.^^ Maeln^ monacho et marhrre in NiederlAndischen Literatur, German tr. by Berg. I (Leiprig.
AcUiSS.,\\i^.,\l,13l-2inKK\EB,SqintAi(^rubha,hishisU^ 1870). 216-263; te Winkkl. Oeschichte der ni^derUindischen
f'^j^V?^^o*^«f''^^*^*'S??i'^^?r*'.*'^/'\!^*?^^^^?^^ I'^'teraiur in Paul. Orundriss der germanischen PhUologie, II
^^' lli',^%:^kS!^A ^^' Afao'ru6Aa m Scottish Historical Re- (2nd ed., Strasburg. 1902), pp. 437-40.
^. VI (1909). ieCHSO. ^^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^ ABTHUB F. J. Remt.
.. , , , „, . , . Maes, Camillus Paul. See Covington, Diocese
Maerlant, Jacob van, the greatest Flemish poet of of
the Middle Ages, b. about 1235; d. after 1291. Of his '
life little is known. His name he seems to have de- Maestro di Oamera del Papa.— In former times
rived from Maerlant on the ishind of Voome, where he
lived for some time employed as a sexton, whence his . . . .
surname " de Coster". Later he resided at Damme, (3) the Auditor to the pope; and (4) the Master of the
near Bruges, where, according to tradition, he held the Sacred Palace. As the position of auditor had been
position of town-clerk. Maerlant's earliest works were allowed to remain vacant during the later years of Leo
chivalrous romances, such as were in vogue at that XIII's pontificate, it was abolished as being superflu-
time in courtly circles, and were adapted from French ous at the beginning of Pius X's reign. And when the
or Latin sources. Such are "Alexanders Geesten" major domo, Mgr.Cagiano de Azevedo, was raised to
there were four so-called palace prelates Qsrelo/i palor'
Hni) : (1) the J^iajor Domo; (2) the Maestro di Camera;
ly transferred to His Excellency
was little to his taste, which inclined to the didactic Monsignor Major Domo". This state of affairs stUl
and useful. So he turned his bade on the lying continues, so that there are now only three palace
romances, as he called these works in his "Rijmbij- prelacies and (as one official discharges the duties
bel", and devoted his talent to poems of a didactic attached to two of these) only two palatine prelates,
and moralizing character. Among the most note- All three prelates have the right of residence in the
worthy of these poems are " Heimlichejit der Heim- Apostolic palace,
licheden", a treatise on politics, adapted from the The maestro di camera is the real chief chamberlain.
Pseudo-Aristotolcan "Secreta Secretorum": "Der His authority extends over all matters concerning the
theim-
^ clerical
Anticamera
translated from the '^Scholastica " of Petrus Comestorl as regards the four acting clerical privy chamberlains*
with a continuation "Die Wrake van Jherusalem", he informs the orderly officer of the Noble, Swiss, and
adapted from the history of Josephus. He also trans- Palace Guards respectively, of the hours of duty for
lated a " Life of St. Francis" (Leven van St. Francia- the next day; he summons the privy and honorary lay
cus) from the Latin of Bonaventure. Biaerlant's most chamberlains to their period of weeklv service, and
extensive work is the "Spiegel Historiael", a rhymed dismisses them at the end of it. All petitions for
chronicle of the world, translated from the " Speculum audiences are lodged with him, whether tney are pre-
historiale " of Vincent of Beauvais. It is dedicated to sented to him immediately, or whether they are pre-
Count FlorLs V and was begun in 1283, but was left sented to him (in diplomatic language) mediaidy, by
unfinished at the poet's death. Continuations were the Secretary of State. He issues the summonses to
given by Philip Utenbroeke and Lodewijc van Vel- audiences, and regulates all occasional, unusual, or un*
them, a Brabant priest. official ceremonies, such as the reception of pilgrim-
Maerlant is also the author of a number of strophic ages and the like. Being in daily personal touch with
poems, which date from different periods of his life, the pope, he receives his orders concerning tliu Anti-
Of these the best known is the "Wapoie Martijn" camera of the next day, and makes arranKKtiiutntii
(Alas! Martin) so called from the openmff words. It accordingly. As supernumerary Prothonotary AfKM-
is a dialogue on the course of events held oetween the tolic he is always at the head of thb colleip) of pn*laltNi.
poet himself and a character named Martin. Alto- irrespective of the date of his appoint irumt. At|iii|Mu
gether there are three parts, of which the above-men- audiences and on other occasions wlmri Uk* \H9tm dite
tioned is the first. The other two parts are known as upon his throne without pontifical vtiMiiit<«iiUi, the iimf>
" Dander Martijn " (the second Martin) and ' ' Derden jor domo stands on the right, the mmiaiim iliLiaMBBHc%.wiL
the left, both on the second atep of Ihe throne. The
extent of thte prelate's jurisdiction ia limited exclu-
sively to the reception rooms of the pope, from the first
anticamera to the private apartments. He has also
someancient privileges, whicn may be read of in Hum-
phrey, "UrbB et OrbiB".
flee old workfl on the Ronun Curia; also OrrarvAia CoUQlicai
Hdhpbret. Urbi tl OrMs (lAQdon. 18»9), 124-31; Die KalAo-
titclu Kirche muerer ZeU, 1 (Bcriiu. IBBO) , 278.
Paul Hasia. BADuaASTEN.
Hftfld, Bernardino, poet, orator, and antiqua-
rian, b.at Bergamo, 27 Jan., 1514id.atRonie, 1 Aug.,
1649. He studied juriapnidenco at Padua, and dur-
ing the frequent absence of Dandino act«d as seere-
tary to Cardinal Atcesandro Fameae, and later to
Paul III, On 12 March, 1547, he was made Bishop of
Masaa Maritima, then Archbishop of Chieti, and on S
April, 1549, raised to the purple. Hewason intimate
t«nns with St. Ignatius Loyola and was highlv es-
teemed by Juliuslll. His commentary on the Let-
ten of Cficcro" is one of the best. He also wrote:
" De inscriptionibus ct tmaginibus veterum numisma-
PF0LriaXireAmIsr..».v,;CiAcOKiD»,Vii»rfHMS.KaP.P.,
in, 737; Ram.Quar1alKliA/t (1007), SO; Bvami.NanencJiUor:
Francis Mersbuan.
HaSol, Fkancehco, Italian painter, b. at Vicensa;
d. at Padua, 1660. His influence upon the art of his
own and later times bos not been sufficient to attach
much interest to the details of his life. Hts celebrity
Is due to the lar^ number of ^nerally pleasing pic-
tures by him, atiJI to be seen in the churches of his
native Viccnza and many towns of Lombard;
15IS), an encyclopedia of all subjects known at that
time, prepared with great care, but not always with
the b^t judgment. It ooosist^ of three parts; in the
first, "Geography", he writ«a extensively of the Span-
iards and of the
Portuguese; the
especially, to the
contemporaneous
history of tiiat
time; the third
part is devoted
to "Philology",
HalTci's lives of
Sixtus IV, Inno-
cent Vm, Alex-
ander VI, and
Pius III, which
appear .
p«ndix
"£
rdy.
if Peranda, but modelled his work u]
that of Veronese, which shows itself in a certain opu-
i a pupil of F
it of Veronese
lence of colouring. Unfortunately his work has been
very ill preserved, whether as the result of hurried ex-
ecution, or of faulty methods in the mixing of his
^gments. Thisisparticularlyapparent in his"Para-
aise" in the church of San Francesco at Padua. His
"St. Anne" at San Michele, Vieenia, is probably
one of the best expressions of his poetical fancy
and colour-sense. He was among those painters of
bis period who gave an impetus to the still young
art of engraving by copying his own work in that
mediimi.
EL Macpherbon.
Haffel, Raffaelo, humanist, historian, and theo-
logian, b. 17 February, 1451; d. 25 January, 1522,
f& was a native of Volterra, Italy, and therefore is
called Raphael Volaterranus. From earliest youth he
devoted himself to the study of letters, and in 1466
was called to Rome, with his brothers, by their father,
Qherardo MafFci, whom Pius II had appointed pro-
fessor of law at the University of Rome, and had
taken later for his secretary, which position he held
also under Paul II and Sixtus IV. At Rome, Raffaelo
hdd himself aloof from the court, devoting his time to
the practice of piety and to the study of philosophy, of
theolo^, and of the Greek language, the latter under
George of Trebiiond. In 1477, he went to Hungary
with Cardinal I»uis of Aragon, on the latter's mission
to Matthias Corvinus. Upon his return, RaSaelo was
persuaded by the Blessed Gaspare da Firenie not to
become a Minor Observant, as Raffaelo intended to
do; whereupon he married, and established his resi-
dence at Volterra. The remainder of his life was spent
in study, in the practice of piety and of penance, and
in the exercise of works of chanty; in his own house,
he established an accndemia, in which he gave lec-
tures on philosophy and on theology, while he founded
the Clarisse monastery of Volterra. He died in the
odour of sanctity: and, contrary to his desire, his
brother erected to his memoi? a splendid monument,
the work of Fra Angeb da Hontorsolt.
i'iat
which wer<
published s
rately (Ve:
1518), are taken from the "Commentarii"; in them,
Maffei blames unsparingly V>e disordered life of
the Roman court. At Volterra, he wrote a compen-
dium of philosophy and of theology, "De institu-
tione Christiana" and "De prima philosophia"
(Rome, 1518) in which he rather follows Scotus. He
translated, from the Greek into Latin, the "Odys-
sey" of Homer, the "(Economics" of Xenophon, the
"Gothic War" of Procopius, "Sermones ct tractatus
S. Basilii", some sermons of St. John of Damascus and
of St. Andrew of Crete; he also wrote the "Vita B.
Jacobi de Certaldo". On the other hand, he was in
epistolary communication with popes, cardinals, and
other learned men. The manuscript of the work which
be called "Peristromata" remained incomplete; it
went to the Biblioteca Barlieriniona.
The elder brother of Mallei, Antonio, was involved
in the conspiracy of the Pazii. Another brother,
Mario, was a man of great culture. He was nuncio to
France and, later, prefect of the building of St. Peter's
(1507), regent of tne penitentiaries, and Bishop, first,
of Aquino (1516) and then of Cavailion; he died on
23 June, 1537.
FAI.CONC1NI,- Vita dtl nebU uomo e gran imn di Dio, BagofHo
Maffri (Home, 1T22); OiBmalr dilla LeUmUura Irol.. XXIX.
*49»q. (under Mario Magri).
U. Bbnigni.
Hagand, ANTomE-DouiNiovF, French painter, b.
at Marseilles 1817; d. there. 18<J9. He studied in
Paris under I>6oii Cogniet. The most important of
his works are at Marseilles, where he presided over the
Ecole des Beaux Arts so successfully that he was en-
titled to be called its second founder. Magaud's tal-
ent was universal; his portraits, and especially that of
himself, are remarkable; then be took up landscape
painting, and has left us among others " A view taken
from St. Martha's" near Marseilles; his genre paint-
ing include a famous " Bashi-Baiouk caUing up
Spirite ". But it is principally ia his decorative com-
positions that his real greatness is shown. In Mai^
seillee he decorated the Cafg de France, the Chamber
of Commerce, the Library, the Grand-H6tel, the Pre-
fecture. His masterpiece in work of this kind is the
historical ^llery of the Marseilles Religious Associa-
tion. This gallery comprises fifteen canvases, four
metres by two, and a ceding nine metres. The sub-
ject to be treated was a pictorial glorification of the
benefits of Christian civiliiation. The main theme ia
MAODALA
523
MAQDALA
set forth on the ceiling in a vu^t Hvmbulical compo-
sition representing Religion as the inspiration of
Learning. Science and Art. On the side walls of the
gallery the following subjects appear: Philosophy,
personified by St. Justin endeavouring to prove to
the Jew, Tryphon, the superiority of Christianity;
Theology is represented by St. Thomas Aquinas on a
visit to St. Bonaventure; mnguages and Literature by
the Palatine School of Charlemagne and Alcuin;
Justice by St. Louis seated under the oak of Vincennes;
Eloquence by St. Bernard preaching the second cru-
sade at V^zelay; Poetry by Dante in rapt contem-
Slation of the heavens. Then comes Christopher
olumbus landing at San Salvador and thanking
God for having given him the grace "of carrying His
name and His holy religion beyond the confines of the
known stars''; next, Michelangelo, submitting plans
for St. Peter's Basilica to Pope Paul III; Palestrina
on his knees before Pius IV, pleading the cause of
sacred music; Father Cataldmo evangelizing the In-
dians during the conquest of Paraguay ; Cond^ thank-
ing God for the victory of Rocroi; Mgr de Belzunce
ministering to the plague-stricken; Volta in his labo-
ratory at Como among his alembics and his retorts
giving thanks to the God of Science; finally Bossuet
teachmg historv to the Dauphin.
This ensemble of painting is assuredly one of the
most beautiful works of Christian Art during the nine-
teenth century. Without going to Marseilles we can
form some idea of it by turning over tJie leaves of the
album in which Sirouy has skilfully reproduced the
various subjects of this vast epopee. Magaud has
shown in many other less important paintings, that he
could treat artistic subjects with the mind of an en-
lightened Christian. For instance, ''The Probatica
Pool"; "The Slaughter of the Innocents"; "The
Christians in the prisons, aided by their brethren " ;
"The Holy Family" in St. Lazarus's Church, Mar-
seilles; eight decorative compositions for the chapel
of the " Carmehns " foimded m 1621 by the officers of
the Confraternity of the Scapular; "Jeremias re-
proaching the Jews with their iU-deeds".
Servian, Magattd, VariisU, Uchefdlcole, Vhomme, 36 etchin^p
apart from the text (Paris, 1908) ; Sirouy. i4/6tim de la Oalene
hx8(orique du CercU reliffieux de MareeiUs (Paris, s. d.).
Gaston Sortais.
Magdala (Hebr. Migdal = tower, fortress; Aramaic
Magdala; Greek Ma75d\tt). — It is perhaps the Migdal-
El mentioned in the Old Testament (Jos., xix, 38; be-
longing to the tribe of Nephtali. St. Jerome in his
version of Eusebius's "Chronicle" supposes the place
to be in the neighbourhood of Dor (Tanturah) on the
sea-coast; Kiepert, on the contrary, identifies it with
'Athlit (Caatellum Peregrinorum), The territory of
Nephtali, however, never extended so far to the west.
According to Matt., xv, 39, after the second multipli-
cation of loaves, Jesus went with His Apostles into the
country of Macedan, the name given in various forms
(by many of the best authorities, H, B, D, Old Lat.,
Old Syr. , Vulg. ) . Very many earlier authorities, how-
ever, give Magdala instead of Maeedan (15 Greek un-
cials, the Minusculi, 1 Old Lat., Armen., Boh., Mth,,
Syr., Hex.). The parallel passage in Mark, viii, 10,
reads in most recensions Dalmanutha (only D, Syr.
Sin. Old Lat. with one exception, Goth., and some
Minusculi agree with the name in Matthew). A solu-
tion is rendered difficult by the fact that the situation
is unknown, and the direction cannot be inferred from
the Gospel. The most plausible suggestion is that of
van Kasteren who thinks Dalmanutha is the modem
El-Delhamiye, about four miles south of the southern
end of the lake near the Jordan, north of the inBux of
the Yarmuk. He also thinks that Magedan is repre?
sen ted by Ma*ad, still more to the south (the change of
gkimd to ayin offers no difficulty). In sound the
transition from Magdala to Biagadan is not imposBible
in palfiBOgraphy; it is indeed easily intelligible.
The existence of a Galilean Magdala, the birthpluoe
or home of St. Mary Magdalen (i. e. of Magdala), is in-
dicated by Luke, viii, 2 ; Mark, xvi, 9; Matt„ xxvii, 56,
61; XX viii, 1, and in the parallel passages, John xx, 1,
18. The Talmud distinguishes between two Magdalas
only. One was in the east, on the Yarmuk near
Gauara (in the Middle Ages Jadar, now Mukes), thus
acquiring the name of Magdala Gadar; as a much fre-
quented watering place it was called Magdala Ceba
*ayya (now El-Hammi, about two hours' journey trom
the southern end of the lake to the east, near a railway
station, HaifarDera*a). According to various pas-
sages in the Talmud, there was another Magdala near
Tiberias, at a distance from it of about tliree and
three-quarter miles. Only one mile being given in the
Palestinian Talmud, several different places have been
identified with it; wrongly, however, for according to
the parallel passages in the Babylonian Talmud and
the context of the passage, the reading must be con-
demned as an error. This Magdala, perhaps to dis-
tinguish it from the place similarly named east of the
Jordan, is called Magdala Nunayya, "Magdala of the
Fishes", by which its situation near the lake and plen-
tiful fisheries appear to be indicated. According to
the Talmud, Magdala was a wealthy town, and was
destroyed by the Romans because of the moral de-
pravity of its inhabitants. Josephus gives an account
(Bell, jud.. Ill, x) of the taking of a town in Galilee,
which was situated on the lake near Tiberias ana
which had received its Greek name, TarichcfiB (the He-
brew name is not given), from its prosperous fisheries.
Plinv places the town to the south of the lake, and it
has been searched for there. But a due regard for the
various references in Josephus, who was often in the
town and was present at its capture, leaves no doubt
that Taricheae lay to the north of Tiberias and thirty
stadia from it (about three and three-quarter miles;.
The identity of Taricheae with Magdala Nunayya is
thus as good as established.
After the destruction of the Temple, Magdala Nu-
nayya became the seat of one of the twenty-four
priestly divisions, and several doctors of law sprang
trom the town. Christian tradition sought there the
home of Mary Magdalen. If we are to believe the
Melchite patriarch, Euthychius of Alexandria, the
brother of St Basil, Peter of Sebaste, knew of a church
at Magdala in the second half of tne fourth centuiy,
which was dedicated to the memory of Mary Magda-
len. About the middle of the sixth century, the pil-
grim Theodosius reckoned Magdala's distance from
Tiberias in the south and Heptap^on (now 'Ain
Tabgha) in the north at two miles. At all events the
reckoning as to the relative distance between the two
places is approximately right. At the end of the
eighth century St. Wilubald went as a pilgrim from
Tiberias past Magdala to Caphamaum. In the tenth
century the church and house of Mary Magdalen were
shown. The Russian abbot Daniel (11(%) and the
Franciscan Quaresimus (1616) give the place the name
of Magdalia. The small, poverty-stricken village, El-
MeJdel, has kept the name and situation to this dav.
It lies about midway between Tabaryya and 'Am
Tabgha, at the south end of the little fruitful plain of
Genesareth, and rests on the declivities of tiie moun-
tain which projects over the lake. Towards the west
the connexion with the inner country of Galilee is
effected through Wadi Hamam, pa^t Qam Hattin.
In the caverns of Wadi Haman,' about half an hour to
the west of Magdala, the Galilean robber bands dur-
ing the time of the first Herod used to find a safe
refuffe. Later the caves were occupied by hermits,
until finally a stronghold was established there by the
Arabs. JVfejdel, with its few dirt^ huts and single
palm tree, is all that is left of luxunous Magdala. No
ruins of any importance have yet been imcovered.
Beskiei the usual diotionaries of the Bible, oonsult Oe
Di§ Oritchafttn u, Ortnam OalUlUu nach jQu^i^k^^^'UidjAm
MAODALIRS
524
BCAODSBtmO
dmdsehen PalAsHnavereins, XXVIII (1005). 11-20: Klcin.
BeiMtgexurOeogr. u. Geaeh. Go/Oeuu (Leipsig, 1909), 76-84; van
Kabterbn in Revue bibl., VI (1897), 93-9.
A. Merk.
Maffdatona, the members of certain religious com-
munities of penitent women who desired to reform
their lives. As time went on, however, others of
blameless reputation were also admitted, until many
communities were composed entirely of the latter, who
still retained the name of Magdalens, or White Ladies
fit>m the colour of their garb. It is not known at what
period the first house was established, the date of foim-
oation of the Metz convent, usually given as 1005, be-
ing still in dispute. Rudolph of Worms is the tradi-
tional foimder of the Magoalens in Germanjr (Mon.
Germ. Script., XVII, 234), where they were m exist-
ence early in the thirteenth xsentury, as attested by
Bulls of Gregory IX and Innocent IV (1243-54),
granting them important privileges. H^lyot quotes
fetters ^dressed by Otto, Cardinal of the Title of St.
Nicholas in Carcere Tulliano, Apostolic Legate in Ger-
many, granting indulgences to those contributing to
the support of the German Magdalens. Among the
earliest foundations in Germany were those at Naum-
burg-on-the-Queis (1217), and Speyer (1226). Greg-
ory IX, in a letter to Rudolph, prescribed for the
penitents the Rule of St. Augustine, which was
adopted by most of the Magdalens, though many of
the German houses later aflouiated themselves to the
Franciscan or Dominican Orders. Institutions of
l^dalens still exist, e. g. at Lauban (founded 1320)
ana Studenz, for the care of the sick and old. Few of
the German convents survived the Reformation.
Houses of the Maedalens were soon founded in
France, Belgium, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. The
first foimdation in France was made at Marseilles
about 1272 by Bertrand, a saintly man who associated
with himself in his work of rescuing fallen women
oUier zealous men, later constituted a religious con-
gr^ation by decree of Nicholas III, under the Rule
of St. Augustine. In 1492 the eloquence of the Fran-
ciscan P^re Jean Tisserand influenced a number of
women to turn from evil ways and embrace a life of
penitence. Five years later Jean-Simon, Bishop of
P&ris, prescribed for them the Rule of St. Augustine
and drew up special statutes for their direction. From
the beginning of the seventeenth century these Mag-
dalens of Rue St-Denis were all women of stainless
fives. Among other prominent communities of Mag-
dalens were those at Naples (1324), Paris (15921,
Rome, where Leo X established one in 1520, Seville
(1550), Rouen, and Bordeaux.
The MadeUmnetteSf members of another Order of St.
Mary Magdalen, were founded in 1618 by the Capu-
chin P^re Athanase Mol6, who, assisted by zealous lay-
men, gathered a number of women who desired to
reform their lives. Two years later some of these were
admitted to religious vows by St. Francis de Sales,
and were placed successively under Religious of the
Visitation, Ursulines. and Sisters Hospitallers of the
Mercy of Jesus, and trom 1720 under Religious of Our
Lady of Charity. The constitutions, drawn up in
1637, were approved by the Archbishop of Pans in
1640, and the house was erected by Urban VIII into a
monastery. Two branch foundations were made at
Rouen and Bordeaux. The order comprised three con-
gregations, (1) the Magdalens proper, who had been
deemed worthy of being admitted to solemn vows, (2)
the Sisters of Saint Martha, who, for some reason,
could not undertake the obligation of solemn vows,
and were bound by simple vows only, and (3) the Sis-
ters of St. Lazarus, public sinners confined against
their will. Each congregation had a separate building
and observed a different rule of life. Sisters of St.
Martha were admitted to the ranks of the Magdalens
after two years novitiate. This order la no longer in
H^LTOT. Diet, drs ordrea rrl. (Paris, 1859); FEHn in Kirehm-
Ux.t s. v.; Wadding, Annul. Min.
Florence Rupoe McGahan.
Magdeburg, capital of the Prussian Province of
Saxony, situated on the Elbe; pop. 241,000; it is
noted for its industries, particularly the production
of sugar, ite trade, and its commerce. From 968
until 1552 it was the seat of an archbishopric.
History. — ^The town was one of the oldest emporia
of the German trade for the Wends who dwelt on the
right bank of the Elbe. In 805 it is first mentioned
in history. In 806 Charlemagne built a fortress
on the eastern bank of the river opposite Magdeburg.
The oldest church is also credited to this epoch.
Magdeburg first played an important part in the his-
tory of Germany duringthe reign of Otto the Great
(936-73). His consort Editha had a particular love
for the town and often lived there. The emperor also
continually returned to it. On 21 September, 937,
Otto founded a Benedictine monastery at Magdeburg,
which was dedicated to Sts. Peter, Maurice, and the
Holy Innocents. The first abbots and monks came
from St. Maximin's at Trier. Later on Otto conceived
the plan of establishing an archbishopric at Magde-
burg, thus making it a missionarv centre for the Wends
on the eastern bank of the Elbe. He succeeded in
carrying out his idea after various changes and diflS-
culties. The glory of the archbishopric increased rap-
idly, the town also became more important. The so-
called Magdeburg Righte were also adopted by many
towns in eastern and north-eastern Germany in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (in Pomerania,
Schleswig, and Prussia) . The local tribunal of Magde-
burg was the superior court for these towns. Magde-
burg was also a member of the Hanseatic league of
towns, and as such was first mentioned in 1295. -The
town liad an active maritime commerce on the west
(towards Flanders), with the countries of the Baltic
Sea, and maintained traffic and communication with
the interior (for example Brunswick).
The Reformation found speedy adherents in Magde-
burg where Luther had been a schoolboy. The new
doctrine was introduced 17 July, 1524, and the town
became a stronghold of Protestantism, being known
among Protestants as " The Lord God's Chancellery ".
In 1526 it joined the Alliance of Torgau, and in 1531
the Smalkaldic League, and was repeatedly outlawed
by the emperor. Because it would not accept the
"Interim " (1548), it was, by the emperor's commands,
besieged (1550-51) by the Margrave Maurice of Saxony;
it defended itseli bravely and retained its religious
liberty when peace was declared. Here Flacius Illyri-
cus and his companions wrote their bitterest pam-
Shlets and the great work on church history, *The
[agdeburg Centuries", in which they tried to prove
that the Catholic Church had become the kingdom
of Anti-Christ. The town met with a terrible fate
during the Thirty Years' War.
The Elector Christian Wilhelm of Brandenburg, who
had been administrator of the archbishopric since
1598, exercised a policy which was hostile to the em-
peror, and on this account he was deposed by the
cathedral chapter in 1628, the latter having remained
strictly neutral. He now hoped to regain posses-
sion of the country, by means of an alliance with
Gustavus Adolphus, and succeeded in forming the
alliance 1 August, 1630, with the help of the Evan-
gelical clergy and part of the citizens. Gustavus
Adolphus sent his equerry. Colonel Diedrich von
Falkenburg, to defend the town against the emperor's
army. On 15 December, Tilly, commander-in-chief of
the imperial army, ordered Field Marshal Pappenheim
to advance upon the town. Tilly himself followed in
March. The help which Was expected from Sweden,
however, was not forthcoming; Falkenburg had 2400
soldiers, and Tillv 24,000. In spite of this the town did
not siurender. It was besieged on the morning of 20
Hmrch, 1631. Falkenburg was killed. The blood- ceived the palliun at Rome, and at the end of the
■bed and pillage were frightful; and the misery woe ytM woa solemnly enthroned in HagdebuTK.
only increased by the fire which broke out from some The Diocese of Magdeburg itself w '
org.
oall: ito
blowinfi, so that in twelve hours the whole town was which Halberetadt resigned. Posen was added t
in ashes with the exception of the cathedral, the con- the suffrogan bishoprics later on (from 970 until the
vent of the Blessed Vii^n, the parish churcncs where twelfth century, when it fell to Gnesen), also Lcbua,
the fire had been extinguished, and some two hundred and, for a time, Kammin. The cathedra! school espe-
small houses. Most of the inhabitants (nl)out 30,1)00) cially fiaincd in importance under Adclbert's efficient
were smothered in the cellars and granaries where ad mmist ration. The tehoUitticug Othrieh was con-
they had taken refuge. sidered the most learned man of his times. Muiv
Much has been written about tho question as to who eminent men were educated at Magdeburg. Othricn
was renponsible for the fire. There Was formerly a was chosen archbishop after Adelbert's death (081).
Protestant tradition that Tilly was responsible tor the Gisiler of Merseburg by bribery and fraud obtainwi
destruction of the tonti. It is true that Pappcnheira possession of the See of Magoeburg, and alBO_ suo-
for tactical reaKons caused two houses to l>e set on lire, ceeded temporarily in grasping the Bishopric <A
and it ie possible that the soldien ignited more, in Merseburg (until 1004). Among successors worthy
;out theorder. But for I'appenheim ' ' ' ' ' ' ~ " " '
a and his of
soldiers to have <lelil)erntelypLtnne<l to reduce the .
to ashes, iis hiwlieen suggested, would have been down-
right fully, for it robl>ed tho imijerialiHts of all the
profits of ihc siege, .\sopposed to this, Karl Witlich's
theory gained many adherents; he held that Falkea-
burg and his faction (-■"=— *—**—• ' • ■'-■
fallinginiotbclmnds
of tite I>»i>isu. Von
Zwiedinccic Sudcii-
horst in also of this
opinion in UlUtein's
"Weltgeschiehto
Pflug", edited by
inllartlung(l.>(H)-
antlientic. Ilecently
the opinion has h<n-n
einphuMied tluit un-
fortunate circum-
BtanccH, such hh the
epriiicing up of I lie
Dortli-euKt wmd, i.'on-
trilnited towanl* it.
After lliNOtheton-n
belonged to I'ruwiim
Bmndenhurg. In
re: theicalousGero (1012^23); Werner,
Kleist in a cowardly
(106.1-78), who was 'killed in battle with Henry I V
(see Invkhtitubbs, (Conflict op) ; St. Norbert, prom-
inent in the twelfth centur>' (112&-:i4), the founder
of the Prcmonstratensian order; W'ichman (1152-
iKi) wa.s more important as a sovereign and prince
topreventits of llie Holy lloman Kiiipirc than as a bishop; Al-
brecht II (120i-
32) quarrelled with
the Emperor Ottoll
(1198-1215), be-
cause he had pro-
nounced the pope's
b.'kn against the lat-
ter and this unfor-
tunate war greatly
damaged the arch-
bishopric. In 1208
be began to build the
present cathedral,
which Waa only con-
Becnitediol263,and
never entirely fin-
iNlietl; (liintherl
(1277-70) hardly
cscupe<l a serious
war with the Mar-
grave Otto of Bran-
denburg, who was
inccn-icd ^ - - -
Tut CatUEDBIL, .MlGUtUUHU
North .Side .„„,^,^„
r surrendered the fortress to the French, and his brother Erich had not been elected archbishop,
itbclonged toWestphaiiauntil 18U. Since that time And the Brandenburgera actually succeeded to
it has Wonged to Prussia. forcing GUnthcr and Bemhaid (1279-1281) to resign
The Archbishopric— After the wars of the years and in makingErichanjhbishop (1283-1205). Cordi-
940 and 9ii4, when the Slavs, as fur as the Oder, had nal Albrecht of Brandenbui^ (1513-45), on account
been brought into subjection to German rule, Otto the of his insecure position, as well as bemg crippled by »
(ireut.inO.^.i.scttoworktoestablLHhanarchbiiihoprio perpetual lack of funds, gave some occasion for the
in Magdeburg, for the newly acquired territory. He spread of Lutheraniam in his diocese, although him-
wisheil to transfer the capital (A the diocese from self opposing the Reformation. It is not tnio that be
Ilallierslacit to Magdeburg, and make it an arch- became a Lutheran and wished to retain his see oa »
diocese. But this was strenuously opposed by the secular principality, and just aa untrue that in lite
.Archbishop of Mains who n-as the metropolitan of Kalbe Parliament in 1541 he consented to the intro-
Hallierstailt. When, in 062, Jolm XII sonctioned the duclion of the Reformation in order to have his debt«
establishnM-nt of an archbishopric, Otto seemed to paid. His succcsBors were the lealous Catholics John
havcalwDdoned hisplanof a IransfcE. Tho estates Albert of Bwndenburg (1545-15o0), who however
belonging to the convents mentioned above (founded could accomplish very little, and Frederick IV of
in 037) were converted into a mensa for the new Brandenburg, who died in 1352,
arehbishopric, and the monks transferred to the Administrators who were secuUr princes now took
Berge Convent. The archie piscopol church made St. the place of tho orehbiuhop, and they, as well as the
Maurice its jKitron. and in addition received new dona- majority of the cathedral chapter and' the inhabitants
tions and grants from Otto. The following bishoprics of the diocese, had become Evangelical. They be-
wcro made suffmgans: Havelberg, Brandenburg, bnged to the House of Brandenburg, Christian Wil-
Merseburg, Zeili, and Meissen. Then, on 20 April, helm (seealwvc) was taken prisonerin 1631, andwent
9<ir, the archbishopric was sotemnly established at the over to the Catliolic Church in Vienna. At the time
Synoil of Ravenna in the presence of the pope and the of the Peace of Prague, this country tell to the than
emperor. Tlie first arehbishop was Adelbcrt, a former of Prince August of Saiconv, and after his death (IflSO)
monk of St. Maximin's at Trier, aflern-ards mission- it waa publicly assigned liy the Peace of Westpbalitt
arj- bislnip to the Russians, and Abbot of Weissenburg to Brand en burg-Pnissia (1048), to which it luia since
in Alsace. He was elected in Ihe autumn of OftS, re- l(elanged,withtlie exception of the intuvo.'.tA ^-rsc^tL
BIAODEBVRO
526
MAOBLLMT
rule (1807-1814). At the time of the secularization
(1803) there remained only the convent of St. Agnes
in the Neustadt Magdeburg, Marienstuhl near ESeln
andMariendorf, and the monastery at Althaldensleben.
Catholic parishes took their places. Before the reign
of Frederick the Great (1740) no Catholics were ad-
mitted to Magdeburg. In modem times the League
of St. Boniface has established mission parishes in the
suburbs of Ms^deburg as well as in other places.
MuLVERBTBDT, Regesta archiepiaeopatua Magdeburgmsia,
I-rV (Magdebuis, 1876-1899) ; Uhijrz, GeschichU de» Erzbia-
tum* Magdeburg urUer den Kaiaem aua dem SAchnschen Hausa
(MagdebuJiS. 1887); Rathmann, OeaehichUderStadt Magdeburg,
I-IV (ibid.. 1886-1886); Hoffmann. Chronik von, Magdeburg,
I, II (2nd ed.. ibid., l885-«6): Wolter, QeschichU der Stadt
Magdeburg (ibid., 3rd ed., 1901); Hauck, Kirchengeachichte
Deutschlandii, III, IV (Leipzig, 1903-06); Urkundenhuch der
Stadt Magdeburg, ed. von Hkrtel (Halle, 1892-06); Tbitob.
Die Frage nach dem Urheber der Zeratdrung Magdeburga (Halle.
1904).
Klemenb LOffler.
Magdeburg, Centuriatobs of. See Cbntubia-
TORs OF Magdeburg.
Mageddo, Chanaanitc city, called in HebreWj Me-
giddo' in Sept., Ma7eW(i(y); in Assyrian, Magiddu,
Magaadu; in the Amama tablets, Magidda and
Makida; and in Egyptian, Maketi, IkiaJdtu, and
Makedo.
Derivation. — Gesenius (Thes., p. 265) derives from
root GDD which is in Hithpahel — "collect in crowd"
(Jer., V, 7), and from whicn gedud — *' troop", is de-
rived. Hence Megiddo — locus turmarum. Others de-
rive from gdd — ^"'cut", and compare with #c«KoxroAievoj
of Sept. at Zach., xii, 11. This suggests a survival of
the name in the Nihr-ul-Miiqdttd', the ancient Cison
(cf. Smith, "Historical Geography of Holy Land",
p. 387).
History. — Mageddo, situated on the torrent Qina,
on the east of the Plain of Esdraelon opposite Jezrahel,
commanded the central of the three passes that join
the plain with the seaboard. This pass, which offered
the Best and shortest route from Egypt and the south
to Northern Syria, Phoenicia, and Mesopotamia, was
that commonly followed by the Assyrians, Egyptians,
Philistines, Greeks, and Romans, and in modem times
Napoleon's passage slightly to the north was feasible
only because no lirlag^do threatened his rear. The
Bame route served for caravans from the days of the
"Mohar, the Egyptian traveller" under Rameses II
("Records of the Past", II, 107 sq.; Max Mailer,
*' Asien und Europa", 195 sq.) and ol St. Paula, a. d.
382 ("Life" by St. Jerome, IV).
As the key to so important a pass, Mageddo must
have been fortified long before the invasion of Thotmes
I, about 1600 B. c. Thotmes III after a vigorous forced
march, defeated the Syrian princes rallied there under
the prince of Cades, and on the following day stormed
^e place, which he declared to be "worth a thousand
cities". Traces of his assault are still visible on the
ruins of the citadel (Mailer, "Asien", 275; "Rec-
ords", I, II, pp. 35-47). On the arrival of the Israel-
ites Mageddo nad a kmg of its own; they slew him,
but the town proving impregnable was later subjected
to tribute (Jos., xii, 21; xvii, 12, Judges, i, 27-28).
Though situated in the territory of Issachar it was
assigned to Manasses. The position chosen by Sisara
for battle with Barac shows tnat Mageddo was friendly
to him (Jud., v, 19). Solomon, who rebuilt the walls
(III Kings, ix, 15; Jos., "Ant.", VIII, vi, 1), assigned
this with other cities to Bana, the fifth of his governors
{hi Kings, iv, 12). In the fifth year of Roboam
Mageddo was captured by Sesac (Shoshenq, I-XXII
Dyn.), as seen from lists at Kamak (Maspero, "His-
toire", II, 774; Winckler, "Geschichte Israels", I,
160, but cf. "Encyc. Bibl.", s. w. "Egypt" and
"Shishak"). Following IV Kings, ix, 27, Ochozias
died at Mageddo (but contrast II Par., xxii, 9).
Finally early in the seventh centurv Josias tried to bar
Dear Mageado the advance of the Plmrao Nechao
itda Mesopotamia and "was slain when he had
him" (IV Kings, xxiii, 29-30; II Par., xxxv, 22;
towards Mesoi
seen
Jos., "Ant.", X, v,"i; Max Mmier, "MittheU. d. Vor-
deras. Gesell.", ill, 1898, p. 54; but against cf. Zim-
memand Winckler, "Die Keilin. und A. T.", 106, who
follow Herodotus, II, clix). The mourning for thit
calamity became proverbial (Zach., xii, 11). The
warlike reputation of Mageddo is perhaps confirmed
by Apoc, xvi, 16.
Idtniification. — ^Mageddo is identical with Tell-el
Mtitesellfm at the extremity of a projecting ridge of
Carmel, commanding the pass seawards, ioMi miles
west of Thanach (^or connection of Mageddo and
Thanach cf. Jos., xi, 21; xvii, 11; Jud., i, 27; v, 19;
HI Kings, iv, 12; I Par., vii, 29). The ruins of citadel,
gates, and walls, may date from 2500-2000 b. c. and
are of extraordinary strength. At the foot of the Tell
was the Roman fortress of Legio (sixth legion), now
LejjCln. St. Jerome implicitly identifies Legio with
Mageddo, for he calls Esaraelon now Campus Legionis
(P. L., XXIII, "De Situ et Nom.", s. v. "Arbela",
"Gabathon", etc.), now Campus Mageddon (P. L.,
"In Zac.", xii). YA*q<lt (tenth-eleventh cent.) ex-
pressly identifies them [Kft&b Mii'j^m n-BiUdan,
wastenfeld (Leipzig, 1860), 351], Lastly the stream
at el-Leijiin is still called " the source (R4s) of Cison"
and perhaps is the "Waters of Mageddo" (Pal. Ex.
Funa Memoirs, XI, 29; Jud., V, 19; Pseudo-Jerome
in P. L., XXIII, 1327).
For strat^cposition: — Sioth, UiMorical Geography of tha
Holy Land, aCl (New York, 1908) ; Napoleon, M&motrea die-
tSea par lui-mime: Guerre de V Orient (Paris, 1847) ; Schumacher
in Mittheilutmen und Nachrichten dea Deut. PalAat. Vereina
(1903), 4-10.
Identification: — Robinson, Biblical Reaearchea, II (Boston.
1841), 329: Moorb, Judgea (Edinbureh, 1901), 45, 47.
Breasted, Proceedinga of Society of Bib. Archeology (1900, 95-
98); Paleatine Ezplor. Fund Quarterly (1880), 223 and vaa.;
Buhl, Geographic dea Alien PalAHina (Freiburg in Br., 99);
Socin. Zeitach. dea Deut. PalAat. Vereina, IV, 150-151; Schlat-
ter, Zur Topographic und Geaehichte PalAatinaa, 295-299.
For site near Jordan: — (Bonder, Tent Work in PaleMine, 6^
68, 232. (6th ed., London); BiRtH, Paleat. Explor. Fund Quar-
teny (1881), 232 etc.; Lb Stranob, Paleatine under the Moalema
(London, 1890), 492.
Psewhere:— RAUMBR. PalAatinaa 446-448 (4tb ed.) ; Maps
of Mari Sanuto in Zaiteahr, dea D, PalAaL Vereina (1891. 1895.
1808).
For excavations at Tell el-MtiteBelllm: — Schumacher, Teli
OrMOleaeUdn, I (Leipng, 1908).
• J. A. Hartigan.
Magellan, Ferdinand (Portuguese Fem&o Man
galhdes)f the first circumnavigator of the world; b.
about 1480 at Saborosa in Villa Real, Province of
Traz OS Montes, Portugal; d. during his voyage of dis-
covery on the Island oT Mactan in the Philippines, 27
April, 1521. He was the son of Pedro Ruy de Ma^-
h&es, mayor of the town, and of Alda de Mezquita. He
was brought up at the Ck>urt of Portugal and learned
astronomy and the nautical sciences under good
teachers, among whom mav have been Martin Be-
haim. These studies filled him at an early age with
enthusiasm for the great voyages of discovery which
were being made at that period. In 1505 he took
part in the expedition of Francisco d' Almeida, which
was equipped to establish the Portuguese viceroyalty
in India, and in 1511 he performed important ser-
vices in the Portuguese conquest of Malacca. He re-
turned home in 1512 and took part in the Portuguese
expedition to Marocco, where he was severely wounded.
On account of a personal disagreement with the
commander-in-chief, he left the army without per-
mission. This and an unfavourable report that nad
been made upon him by Almeida led to his disgrace
with the king. Oondemned to inactivity and checked
in his desire for personal distinction, he once more de-
voted himself to studies and projects to which he was
mainly stimulated by the reports of the recently dis-
covered Moluccas sent by his friend Serrio. Serrfio
so greatly exaggerated the distance of the Moluccas to
the east of liuiXacca that the islands appeared to lie
within tiie baiS of the world granted by the pope to
SpAin. HaKellan therefore resolved to seek the
Moluccaa bv Bailing to the west around South America.
Ab he could not hope to arouse interest for the oaiTV-
ing out of his pl^s in Portugal, and was hims^,
moreover, misjudged and ignored, he renounced his
nationality and offered his services to Spain. He r»-
ceiv«d much aid from Diego Barbosa, warden of the
castle of Seville, whoae dai^ter he married, and from
the influential Juan de Aranda, agent of the Indian
ofGce, who at once desired to claim the Moluccas for
Spain. King Charles 1 of Spain (afterwards the Em-
peror Charlea V) cave his consent as early as 22 March,
1518, being largely influenced to do this by the advice
of Cardinal Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca. The king
made an agreement with Ma^Ilan which settled
the different shares of ownerehip in the new discOT-
eries, and therewards to be granted the discoverer, and
appointed him commaoder of the fleet. This fleet
consisted of five
vessels granted by
the government;
two of 130 tons
each two of 00
tons each and one
of 60 tons. They
were provisioned
for 234 persons for
two years Magel-
the chief ship, the
Trinidad; Juan de
Cartagena, the Sam
Antonio; Caspar
de Quesoda, the
Ckm cepcion ; Luis
do Mendoxa, the
Victoria; Juan Serrano, the Santiago. The expedition
also included Duarte Barbosa, Barbosa's nephew, the
cosmo^pher Andres de San Martin, and the Italian
Antonio Pigafetta of Vicenia, to whom the account of
the voyage is due.
Hagellaa took the oath of all^iance in the church
of Santa Maria de la Victoria de IViana in Seville, and
received the imperial standard. He also gave a large
sum of money to the monks of the monastery in order
that theymight pray for the successof the expedition.
The fieet salted 20 September, 1519, from San Lucar
de Barameda. They steered by way of the Cape Verde
Islands to Cape St. Augustine m fimiil, th^i along the
coast to the Bay of Rio Janeiro (13 December),
thence to the mouth of the Plata (10 January, 15201.
In both these bodies of water a vain search was maae
for a passage to the western ocean. On 31 March
Magellan decided to spend the winter below 49° 16'
south latitude, and remained nearly five months in the
harbour of San Julian. While in winter quarters here
a mutiny broke out, so that Magellan was forced to
execute Quesada and Mendoza, and to put Cartagena
The voyage was resumed on 24 August, and on
21 October tne fleet reached Cape Virgenea and, with
it, the entrance to the itrng-aought straits. Thooe
straits, which are 373 mites lone, now bear the name of
the daring discovemr, though ne himself called them
Canal de Todos ios Sant^ (All Saints' Channel).
The San Antonio with the pilot Gomei on board se-
cretly deserted and returned to Spain, while Magellan
went on vrith the other ships. He entered the straits
on 21 November and at the end of tjuee weeks reached
the open sea on the other side. As he found a very
favourable wind, be gave the name of Mar Paeifico to
the vast ocean upon which he now-sailed for more than
three months, suffering great privation during that
time from lack of provisions. Keeping steadi^ to a
northwesterly course, be reached the equator 13
February, 1521, and the Ladronee 6 March,
On 16 March Magellan discovered the Arcfai-
peit^o of San Laiaro, afterwards called the Philip-
pines. He thought to stay here for a time, safe from
the Portuguese, and rest hjs men and repair his ships,
so as to arrive in good condition at the now not distant
Moluccas. He was received in a friendly manner by
the chief of the island of CebiJ, who, after eight days,
was baptised along with several hundred other natives.
Mueltan wished to subdue the neighbouring Island
of Macton and was killed there, 27 April, by the poi-
soned arrows of the natives. After both Duarte Bar-
bosa and Serrano had also lost tb^ir lives on the island
of Cebi^, the ships Trinidad and Victoria set sail under
the guidance of Carvalho and Gontalo Vai d'Espinoaa
Mid reached the Moluccas 8 November, 1521. Only
the Victoria, with Sebastian del Cano as captain, and
a crew of eighteen men, reached Spain (8 September,
1522). The ship brought back 533 hundredweight of
cloves, which amply repaid the expenses of the voy-
age.
Magellan hinuelf did not reach his goal, the
Spice Islands; yet he had accomplished the most
difficult part of his task. He had been the first to
undertake the circwnnavigation of the world, had
carried out his project almost completely, and had
thus achieved the most difficult nautical feat of all
the centuries. The voyage proved most fruitful for
science. It gave the firat positive proof of the earth's
rotund it v and the first true idea of^ the distribution of
land and wat«r.
Auoacrn, Primo viapffio intono dl globo Urraequeo CAOIkn.
ISOO) (a publication ot the original H8S. of PitafMta's aceouDt,
pnMTVed in the Ambtogiaa libmy, HlUn. tba Bibl. Nttjraiala,
Puis, and T. Fitirov-Fcawick's— (oinMiiy Sir T. Phllippa'i —
libtuy, Cheltanliun ) ; Pioafbtta, tr. aiid ed. Rosrbtsoh,
MagrUiai'i Cow' around tht World, Originai and Compltle Text
BfAe Oldal and Bet MS. (the Ambrof-" "« -' M"-" -> ">-
— ^ _.^ — .L j(g,- . .
■. Ohio ,
_ , e gvoffrapkia dot na^HtM
nuUM (8 vol«.. LiiboQ, 1S3)), (icM ui extrHCt from the
t uiother monber of the expedition. Hcatio BsutMU;
Uaadlan adcr dit trale Rat urn die Erdt (Leipiis,
Rarhaji Ahaua. Vida y naret dt MaoeUantM fwitiuo.
, Tht Fint Vavave Round du World (Loadoo,
_ i« (Leipii^
k. Vida y najet dt MageUantM CwitiuiK
Fint Voyage Round the World (Loadoo,
-,, atti- MagtUhAttttnute u. AitMrai-Canlauiit (Inik^
bruok IS81)- OuilxuuRD. Wao/ Perdmand UaoeUan (Lai-
donriS90); BurrEHwaHTH, The Story of Mat^lm and tilt
DitantTyBflhiPhilippi*et(titniYoik.ia09}: KClukeb, £>u
Iw^STd
Otto Habtio.
of fact, supporting their interpretation with the evi-
dence of all MSS. and versions, and patristic citations.
All tliis evidence rationalists pronounce irrelevant:
they class the story of the Ma^ with the so-called
" legends of the chiklhood of Jesus ", later apocryphal
additions to the Gospels. Adroittmg only internal
evidence, tbe^ say, this evidence does not stand the
test ot criticism. (1) John and Mark are silent. —
This is because they begin their Gospels with the pub-
lic life of Jesus. That John knew the story ot the
Hogi may tie gathered from the fact that Irensus
(Adv. Haer. Ill, ix, 2) is witness to it; for Irenaiua
B'ves us the Johannine tradition. (2) Luke is silent. —
aturally, as the fact is told well enough by the other
Sn^tics. Luke tells the Annunciation, details of the
ativity, the Circumcision, and the Presentation of
Christ in tJie Temple, facta of the childhood of Jesus
which the silence of the other three Evangelists does
not render legendary: (3) Luke contradicts Matthew
and returns the ChUd Jesus to Nazareth immediately
after the Preeentation (Luke, ii, 39). This return to
NaiarelJi may have been either before the Magi came
BCAOI
528
2CA0Z
were; II. The Time and Cireumstanoee of their
Visit.
I. Who the Magi were. A. NonrBibltcal Evi-
dence,— We may form a coQ|ecture by non-Biblical
evidence of a probable meanmg to the word Myo*.
Herodotus (I, ci) is our authority for supposing that
the Magi were the sacred caste of the Medes. They
provided priests for Persia, and, regardless of d3rnastio
vicissitudes, ever kept up their dominating religious
influence. To the head ol this caste, Nergal Sharesar.
Jeremias gives the title Rab-Mag, ''Chief Magus
(Jer., xxxix, 3, 13, in Hebrew original — Sept. and Vulg.
translations are erroneous here) . After the downfall of
Assyrian and Babylonian power, the religion of the Magi
hela sway in Persia. Cyrus completely conquered the
sacred caste; his son Cambyses severely repressed it.
The Bdagians revolted and set up Gaum&ta, tneir chief,
as King of Persia under the name of Smerdis. He was,
however, murdered (52 1 b . c.) » and Darius became king.
This downfall of the Magi was celebrated by a national
Persian holiday called tMyo4>6wta (Her., Ill, Ixiii, Ixxiii,
bdcix). Still the religious influence of this priestly
caste continued throughout the rule of the Aclueme-
nian dynasty in Persia (Ctesias, ' Tersica " , X-XV ) ; and
it is not unlikely that at the time of the birth of Christ
it was still flourishing under the Parthian dominion.
Strabo (XI, ix, 3) says that the Magian priests formed
one of the two councils of the Parthian jEmpire.
B. Biblical EiHdence. — The word fxdyoi often has
the meaning of " magician "^ in both Old and New Tes-
taments (see Acts, viii, 9; xiii, 6, 8; also the Septuagint
of Dan., i, 20; ii, 2^ 10, 27; iv, 4; v, 7, 11, 15). St. Jus-
tin (Tryph., Ixxviii), Origen (Cels^ I, bt), St. Augus-
tine (Serm. xx, De epiphania) and St. Jerome (In Isa..
xix, 1) And the same meaning in the second chapter of
Matthew, though this is not the common inteipreta-
tion.
C, Patristic Evidence. — No Father of the Church
holds the Magi to have been kings. Tertullian (" Adv.
Marcion.", Ill, xiii) says that they were wellnigh
kings {fere reges) , and so agrees with wnat we have con-
cluded from non-Biblical evidence. The Church, in-
deed, in her litiu^, applies to the Magi the words:
** The kings of Tharsis and the islands shall offer pres-
ents; the kings of the Arabians and of Saba shall bring
gifts: and allthe kings of the earth shall adore him
(Ps. Ixxi, 10). But this use of the text in reference to
them no more proves that they were kings than it
traces their journey from Tharsis, Arabia, and Saba.
As sometimes happens, a liturgical accommodation of
a text has in time come to be looked upon by some
as an authentic interpretation thereof. Neither were
they magicians: the good meaning of /tiyoi, though
found nowhere else in the Bible, is demanded by the
context of the second chapter of St. Matthew. These
Magians can have been none other than members of
the priestly caste already referred to. The religion
of the Magi was fundamentally that of Zoroaster
and forbade sorcery ; their astrolo^ and skill in inter-
preting dreams were occasions of their flnding Christ.
(See AvESTA, The, Theolooical Aspects of.)
The Gospel narrative omits to mention the number
of the Magi, and there is no certain tradition in this
matter. Some Fathers speak of three Magi; they are
very likely influenced by the number of giits. In the
Orient tradition favours twelve. Early Christian
art is no consistent witness: a painting in the ceme-
tery of Sts. Peter and Marcellinus shows two; one in
the Lateran Museum, three; one in the cemetery of
Domitilla, four; a vase in the Kircher Museum, eight
(Biarucchi, "Elements d'arch^olojrie chr^tienne", Paris,
1899, 1, 197). The names of the Magi are as uncertain
as is their number. Among the Latins, from the
seventh century, we find slight variants of the names,
Caspar, Melchior, and Balthasar; the Martyroloey
mentions St. Gaspar, on the first, St. Melchior, on the
joxth^ and St. Balthasar, on the eleventh of January
rActa 88., 1, 8, 823, 664). The Syrians have Larvan-
dad, Hormisdas, Gushnasaph, etc.; the ArmenianB,
Kasba, Badadilma, etc. (cf. Acta Sanctorum, May,
I^ 1780). Passing over the purely legendary no-
tion that they represented the three families
which are descended from Noe, it appears they all
came from ''the east" (Matt., ii, 1, 2, 9). East of
Palestine, only ancient Media, ^ersia, Asi^yria, and
Babylonia haa a Magian priesthood at the time of the
birth of Christ. From some such part of the Parthian
Empire the Blagi came. They probably crossed the
Syrian Desert, lying between the Euphrates and
Syria, reached either Qaleb (Aleppo) or Tudmor
(rahnyra), and journeyed on to Damascus and south-
ward, by what is now the great Me^ca route (darb el-
hajf *'the pilgrim's way'0> keeping the Sea of Galilee
and the Jordan to their west till they crossed the ford
near Jericho. We have no tradition of the precise
land meant by ''the east ^'. It is Babylon, according
to St. Maximus (Homil. xviii in Epiphan.) and Theo-
dotus of Ancyra (Homil. de Nativitate, I, x) ; Persia,
according to Clement of Alexandria (Strom., I, xv) ana
St. Cyril of Alexandria (In Is., xlix, 12); Arabia, ac-
cording to St. Justin (Cont. Tryphon., Ixxvii), Ter-
tullian (Adv. Jud., ix), and St. Epiphanius (Expos,
fidei, viii).
II. Time and Circumstances op their Visit. —
The visit of the Maei took place after the Presentation
of the Child in the Temple (Luke, ii, 38). No sooner
were the Magi departed than the angel bade Joseph
take the Child and its Mother into Egypt (Matt., ii,
1 3) . Once Herod was wroth at the failure of the Magi
to return, it was out of aU question that the presenta-
tion should take place. Now a new difficulty occurs:
after the presentation, the Holy Family returned into
Galilee (Luke, ii, 39). Some think tnat this return
was not immediate. Luke omits the incidents of the
Maffi, flight into Egypt, massacre of the Innocents,
and return from Egypt, and takes up the story with
the return of the Holy Family into Galilee. We pre-
fer to interpret Luke's words as indicating a return
to Galilee immediately after the presentation. The
stay at Nazareth was very brief. Thereafter the
Holy Family probably returned to abide in Bethlehem.
Then the M&gi came. It was "in the days of king
Herod " (Matt., ii, 1), i. e. before the year 4 b. c. (a. u.
c. 750), the probable date of Herod's death at Jericho.
For we know that Archelaus, Herod's son, succeeded
as ethnarch to a part of his father's realm, and was
deposed either in his ninth (Joscphus. Bel. Jud., II,
vii, 3) or tenth (Josephus, Aiitiq., aVII, xviii, 2) year
of office during the consulship of Lepidus and Airun-
tius (Dion Cassius, Iv, 27), i. e., a. d. 6. Moreover,
the Magi came while King Herod was in Jerusalem
(w. 3, 7), not in Jericho, i. e., either the beginning of
4 B. c. or the end of 5 b. c. Lastly, it was probably a
year, or a little more than a year, aft«r tne birth of
Christ. Herod had found out from the Magi the time
of the star's appearance. Taking this for the time of
the Child's birth, he slew the male children of two
years old and under in Bethlehem and its borders (v.
16). Some of the Fathers conclude from this ruthless
slaughter that the Magi reached Jerusalem two years
after the Nativity (St. Epiphanius, "Haer.", LI, 9;
Juvencus, '* Hist. E\'ang.", I, 259). Their conclusion
has some degree of probability; yet the slaying of
children two years old may possibly have been due to
some other reason — for instance, a fear on Herod's
part that the Magi had deceived him in the matter of
the time of the starts appearance or that the Magi had
been deceived as to the conjunction of that appear-
ance with the birth of the Child. Art and archaeology
favour our view. Only one early monument repre-
sents the Child in the crib while the Magi adore; in
others Jesus rests upon Mary's knees and is at times
fairly well grown (see Comely, "Introd. Special, in
N. T.", p. 203).
time between three and twelve
eideB the time of travel, there were probably many
weeks of preparation. The Hagi could scarcely have
reachedJeniWem till a year or more bad ekpaed from
the time of the appearance of the star. St. Augustine
(De Consensu Evan^., II, v 17) thought the date of
the Epiphany, the sixth of January, proved that the
Magi reached Bethlehem thirteen days after the Na-
tivity, i. «., after the twenty-fifth oif December. His
argument from liturgical dates was incorrect. Neither
liturgical date is certainly the historical date. (For
Buai
seen a *(tJla no'oa. a star which suddenly iiiui
magnitude ai^ orilliancy and then fades b. .
Thrae theories all fail to explain how " the sfar whii^
they had seen in the east, went before them, until it
came and stood over where the child was " (Matt., ii,
9). The poeitioD of a fixed star in the heavens varies
at moat one degree each day. No fixed star could
have so moved before the Magi as to lead them to
Bethlehem; neither fixed star nor comet could have
disappeared, and reappeared, and stood still. Only a
miraculous phenomenon could have been the Star of
Bethlehem. It was like the miraculous pillar of fire
which stood in the camp by night during Israel's Exo-
dus (Ex., xiii, 21), or to the "brightness of God" whiidi
an explanation of the chronological difficulties, see
Chronolouy, Bibucal, Dale of the Nativity of Jesu»
Chrht.) In the fourth centuiy the Churches of the
Orient celebrated the sixth of Januarv as the feast
of Christ's Birth, the Adoration by tne Magi, utd
Christ's Baptism, whereas, in the Occident, the Birth
of Christ was celebrated on the twenty-fifth o! Decem-
ber. This latter dat« of the Nativity was introduced
into the Church of Antioch during St. Chrysostom's
time (P. C, XLIX, 351), and still later into the
Churches of Jerusalem and Alexandria.
That the Magi thought a star led them on, is clear
from the words (itSoiur yip afrroiJ rir imtpa) which
Matthew uses in ii, 2. Was it really a star? Ration-
alists and rationalistic Protestants, in their efforts to
escape the supernatural, have elaborated a number of
hypotheses; (1) The word ior^p may mean a comet;
the star of the Magi was a comet. But we have no reo-
oord of any such comet. (2) fhe star may have been
a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn (7 B. c), or of
Jupiter and Venus (6 b. c.)- (3) The Blagi may have
IX.— 34
shone round about the shepherds (Luke, ii, 9), or to
" the light from heaven " which shone round about the
stricken Saul (Acts, ix, 3).
The philosophy of the Magi, erroneous though it
was, led them to the journey by which they were to
find Christ. Ma^an astrology postulated a heav-
enly counterpart to complement man's earthly self
and make up the oompEcte human -personality. His
"double" (the /rattuAt of the Parsi) developed to-
gether with every good man until death umted the
two. The sudden appearance of a new and brilliant
star suggested to the Magi the birth of an important
person. They came to adore him— i, e., to acknowl-
2; Origen, "in Num.", homil. xiii 7) think the
Alagi saw in " his star " a fulfilment of the prophesy of
Balaam: "A star shall rise out of Jacob and a sceptre
shall spring up from Israel" (Num., xxiv, 17). Birt
from the parallelisra of the prophesy, the "star" of
Balaam ia a great prince, not a heavenly bodj; it ik
MAOIO
530
BfAOUABSOHI
not likely that, in virtue of this Messianic prophesy,
the Magi would look forward to a very special star of
the firmament as a sign of the Messias. It is likely,
however, that the Magi were familiar with the great
Messianic prophesies. Many Jews did not return from
exile with Nwiemias. When Christ was bom, there
was undoubtedly a Hebrew population in Babvlon,
and probably one in Persia. At any rate, the Hebrew
tradition survived in Persia. Moreover, Virgil, Hor-
ace. Tacitus (Hist., V, xiii), and Suetonius (Vespas.,
iv) bear witness that, at the time of the birth of Christ,
there was throughout the Roman Empire a general
unrest and expectation of a Golden Age and a great
deliverer. We may readily admit that the Magi were
1^ by such hebraistic and gentile influences to look
forward to a Messias who should soon come. But
there must have been some special Divine revelation
whereby they knew that " his star ** meant the birth of
a king, that this new-bom king was verv God, and that
they should be led by "his star" to the place of the
God-King's birth (St. Leo, Serai, xxxiv, "In Epi-
phan."IV,3).
The advent of the Magi caused a great stir in Jem-
salem; everybody, even King Herod, heard their quest
fv. 3). Herod and his priests should have been glad-
dened at the news; the^ were saddened. It is a
striking fact that the priests showed the Magi the
way^ but would not go that way themselves. The
Mac now followed the star some six miles southward
to Bethlehem, "and entering into the house [e/j t^p
olxlawlf they found the child" (v. 11). There is no
reason to suppose, with some of the Fathers (St. Aug.,
Sertn. cc, "In Epiphan.", I, 2), that the Child was
still in the stable. The Magi adored hrpoffeicOpriaap) the
Child as God, and offered Him gold, frankincense, and
myrrh. The giving of gifts was in keeping with Ori-
ental custom. The purpose of the gold is clear; the
Child was poor. We do not know the purpose of the
other gifts. The Magi probably meant no symbolism.
Tlie Fathera have found manifold and multiform syrn-
bolic meanings in the three gifts; it is not clear that
any of these meanings are inspired (cf . Knabenbauer,
"inMatth.", 1892).
We are certain that the Magi were told in sleep not
to return to Herod and that " they went back another
way into their country " (v. 12) . This other way may
have been a way to the Jordan such as to avoid Jeru-
salem and Jericno; or a roundabout way south through
Beersheba, then east to the neat hi^way (now the
Mecca route) in the land of Moab and beyond the
Dead Sea. It is said that after their return home, ihe
Magi were baptized by St. Thomas and wrought much
for the spread of the Faith in Christ. The story is
traceable to an Arian writer of not earlier than the
sixth century, whose work is printed, as " Opus imper-
fectum in Matthseum " among the writings of St. Cnry-
sostom (P.G., LVI, 644). This author admits that he
is drawing upon the apocryphal Book of Seth, and
writes much about the Magi that is clearly legendary.
The cathedral of Cologne contains what are claimed
to be the remains of the Magi; these, it is said, were dis-
covered in Persia, brought to Constantinople by St.
Helena, transferred to Milan in the fifth century and
to Cologne in 1163 (Acta SS., I, 323).
Standard Commentariea on St Matthew; Laoranoe, La rtli-
ffion des Per sea in Rev. Bibl., 1004; Curci. Lexioni aopra iquattro
•mnqeli (Florence, 1874), Fouard, La vie de ^. S.J.-C., I, 88
(Pans — ), De Broolie, Coura d'histoire des cuUea non-ckrft.
(Parifl. 1881); Bezold, Die Schatthole (Leipn«, 1883).
Walter Drum.
Magic. See Occult Arts.
Magin Oatal&, b. at Montblanch, Catalonia, Spain,
29 or 30 January, 1761 ; d. at Santa Clara, California,
22 Nov., 1830. He received the habit of St. Francis at
Barcelona on 4 April, 1777, and was ordained priest
probably in 1785. After obtaining permission to de-
vote himself to the missions in America, he sailed
from Cadiz in October, 1786, and joined the famous
missionary college of San Fernando in the City of
Mexico.
In 1793 he acted as chaplain on a Spanish ship which
plied between Mexico and Nootka Soimd (Van-
couver). In the following year he was sent to the
Indian mission of Santa Clara, California, where in
company with Father Jos^ Viader he laboured most
zealously until his death. All through his missionary
life Fatner Catald suffered intensely from inflamma-
tory rheumatism, so that in his bust years he could
neither walk nor stand unassisted. He nevertheless
visited the sick, and preached in Indian and Spanish
while seated in a chair at the altar-rail. Despite his
infirmities he oteeryed the rule strictly, used the dis-
cipline and penitential girdle, tasted nothing till noon,
and then and in the evening would eat omy a gruel
of com and milk. He never used meat, fish, eggs, or
wine. The venerable missionary was famed far and
wide for his miracles and prophecies, as well as for his
virtues. In 1884 Archbishop J. S. Alemany of San
Francisco instituted the process of his beatification.
Tins, in 1908-9, was followed by the process de non
cuUu pxjiblico.
ESnoblhardt, TIu Holy Man of Santa Clara (San Francisoo*
1009); Santa Clara Miaaion Records.
Zephtbin EInoelhardt.
Magisterium of the Ohurch. See Church; In'
falubility; Pope.
Magistris, Simone de, b. in 1728: d. 6 October,
1802; a priest of the Oratorio di S. Filippo Neri, at
Rome, wnom Pius VI created titular Bishop of C^rene
and provost of the Congregation for the correction of
the liturgical books of Oriental Rites. He was very
well ver^ in Oriental lan^ua^, and often received
from Clement XIV and Pius Vl commissions of re-
search on points of ecclesiastical antiquity. He was
more especiidly devoted to the*8tudy of the Sacred
Scriptures, and among his publications on that sub-
ject are (1) ''Daniel secundum Septuaginta ex tetra-
plis Origenis nunc primum editus" (Rome, 1772), from
the sole codex in the Chigi library, accompanied by
five diseertations (one of them on the chronolo^ of
Daniel), by the commentary of St. Hippolytus, oy a
comparison between the version of tne Septuagint
and that of Theodotion, a few pieces from tne Book
of Esther, in Chaldean, a fragment of Papias on the
canon of the Sacred Scripture, etc. (2) ''^Acta Mar-
tyrum ad Ostia Tiberina" (Rome, 1795). (3) "S.
Dionysii Alexandrini episcopi . . . opera'' (Rome.
1796), with a learned mtroduction on the life and
writings of the saint. (4) "Gli atti di cinque martin
della ODrea", with a notice on the origin of the Faith
in that country (Rome, 1801), etc.
U. Benigni.
Magliabechi, Antonio, Italian scholar and libra-
rian, b. 29 Oct., 1633, at Florence; d. there, 4 July,
1714. He was the son of Marco Magliabechi , burgher,
and Ginevra Baldorietta. He was apprenticed to a
goldsmith, and worked in this capacity till his fortieth
year. His real inclination was, however, from the be-
^ning towards study, and he was in the habit of buy-
mg books out of his small resources and reading them
at night. Michele Ermini, librarian to Cardinal de*
Medici, recognizing his ability, taught him Latin,
Greek, and Hebrew. Magliabechi had an astonishing
memory, and thus acquir^ an unusually large knowl-
edge. In 1673 he became librarian to Grand Duke
Cosimo III of Tuscany, thus attaining the ambition of
his life.
He became the central figure of literary life
in Florence, and scholars of every nation sought his
acquaintance and corresponded with him. He was
always ready to give a friendly answer to questions on
scholarship, and was thus the unacknowledged collab-
lUGHA S.
Diutor on many worka and publications. Strangers,
visitinKFlorence, atared at him as something miracu-
lous. He not only knew all the volumea m the li-
bpiry, as well ae every other possible work, but
oould also t«U the pa^ and paraxraph in which
any
the page and paraxrapn m wtuch
;uiTea. In private Ufe Hagliabechi
was an eccentric
old bachelor, negli-
gent, dirty, slov-
enly, always reek-
ing with tobacco,
engBfed in study
at all hours, even
at his meals, a
Diogenea in hia re-
quirements. Ef^ry
room in hia house,
and even the cor-
ridors and stairs,
were crowded with
books. He died
at the monastery
of Sta. Maria No-
\-ella. He left hia books (30,000 volumea) to the Grand
Duke to be used as a public librarj'i his fortune went
to the poor. The Magiiabtdnana was combined with
the grand-ducal private library {PaJaHna) by Kin^
Victor Emmanuel in 1861, the two forming the Bibh-
oteca Nationtdt.
Salvini. DtUe todi di Antonio Mofliabrrhi (Flatcnce. 1715);
Clarorum Bdoarum. Omnonorum, Vtntlonim ad A. Maelia-
bechium nonnitUoe^ue aliot fjjiMola, I-V (Fldrenc?. I745-Q), ed,
TABRlOKI-ToMETn: Cololoew codicum saculo XV. impreuo-
rum. Qui m bibliotht&t Maotiabechiana Fiorentur adsrrvanlur,
I-III (FlotBDce. 1703-5): J^cnin. Alia. Gddijtmlfx.. Ill
(Leipiia. 1751). 38-0; Valert, Corrapcndanrc infditc dt
Mabaion d dt: Mmttdium opm rilalic.l-IU |Psru, 1847):
Nauv, Biogr. Bfnirale, ». v.; Buck in ZenlralblaU filr fiiUio-
tliek'urtrn. XV (Lcipiis. 1608), 97-101; Lctira dr MtnoQt A
MaglUUirchx (Paris. 18U1), with Lntroductioa by Pei,
Axon, AnlntiiB MagliabKhi ia ''"'- '■' ' •■■•■' —
V (Londmi. 1003). 59-78.
Klgmbns Luffleb.
modifications by Hem? Ill in 1216, 1217, and
1225.
The Magna Carta has long been considered by the
English-speaking peoples as the earliest of the great
constitutional documents which give the history of
England so unique a character; it has even been
apf^en of by some great authorities as the "founda-
tion of our liberties". That the charter enjoyed an
exaggerat«d reputation in the days of Coke and of
Blackatone, no one will now deny, and a more accu-
rate knowledge of the meaning of its different provi-
siona baa shown that a number of them used to be
interpreted quite erroneously. When allowance, how-
ever, has been made for the mistakes due to aeveral
centuries of indiscriminating admiration, the charter
remains an astonishingly complete record of the limi-
tationa placed on the Crown at the beginning of
the thirteenth century, and an impressive illustia-
tion of what ia perhaps a national capacity for put-
ting resistance to arbitrary government on a legal
The memories of feudal excess during the reign of
Stephen were strong enough and universal enough to
give Henry 11 twenty years of internal peaoe for the
establishment of bis masterful administration, and,
even when the barons tried to "wrest the club from
Hereulea " in 117:S-i, they trusted largely to the odium
which the king had incurred from the murder of St.
Thomas. The revolt failed and the Angevin system
was stronger than ever, so strong indeed that it was
able to maintain its existence, and even to develop its
operations, during the absence of Richard I. The
heavy taxation of his reign and the constant encroach-
ments of royal justice roused a feeling among the
barons which showed itself in a demand for their
" ri^t8"put forward at John's accession. It is indeed
obvious that, quite apart from acts of individual injus-
tice, the royal administration was attacking in every
direction the traditional rights of the barons, and not
theira oidy. St. Thomas had aaved the independence
of the Church, and it now remained for the other seo-
Angevins, for to them feudalism ia the enemy; and
the increase of the royal power, to be checked later
on by a jiarliamentary system, is tbc clear line of
constitutional development; but, however satisfac-
tory we may think the ultimate result, there Was the
immediate danger of a rule which was arbitrary and
might be tyrannical. The king had acquired a power
which he might abuse, and the acts of the reign of John
are sufficiently on record to show how much a bad lung
could do before he became intolerable. Those who
drew up the Great Charter never pretended to be for-
mulating a syllabus of fundamental principles, nor
was it a code any more than it was a declaration of
rights. It was a rehearsal of traditional principlea and
practices which had been violated by John, and the
universality of its scope is the measure of the king's
misgovern ment .
During the early part of John's reign the loss of the
greater part of his French possessions discredit«d him,
and led to constant demands for money. Scutage,
which had originally been an alternative for military
service occasionally permitted, became practically a
new annual tax, while finea were exact^ from indi-
viduals on many pretexts and by arbitrary means.
Any sign of resistance was followed by a demand for
a son as a hostage, an intensely irritating practice
which continued throughout the reign. The quarrel
with Innocent HI and the interdict (1206-13) followed
hard on the foreign collapse, and during ttiat period
John's hand lay so heavily on churchmen that Uie lay
barons had a temporary respite from taxation, though
not from ill-government. When peace was finally
made with the pope, the king seems to have thought
that the Church would now support him against
the mutiuouB barons of the North; but he counted
without the new archbishop. Langton showed from
the first that he intended to enforce the clause in
John's submission to the pope which promised a gen-
eral reform of abuses, and nia support provided the
cause with the statesmanlike leaderanip it had hitherto
lacked.
The discontented barons met at St. Albans and
St. Paul's in 1213, and Langton produced the Char-
ter of Henry I to act as a model for their demands.
Civil war was deferred by John's absence abroad, but
the defeat of Bouvines sent him back still more dis-
credited, and war practically broke out early in 1215,
Special charters ^nted to the Church and to London
failed to divide hia enemies, and John had to meet the
"Army ctf God and Holy Church" on the field of
Ruimymede between Staines and Windsor. He gave
way on nearly every point, and peace was concluded
probably on 19 June. The charter which was then
sealed was really a treaty of peace, though in form it
was a grant of liberties.
The clauses, or chapters, of the Magna Carta are
not arranged on any logical plan, and a number of
systems of classification have been suggested, but,
without attempting to summariie a document ao com-
plex, it may be sufficient here to point out the general
character erf the liberties which it guaranteed. In the
openine clause the "freedom" of the Church was
secured, and that vague phrase was defined at least in
one direction by a special mention of canonical elec-
tion to bishoprics. Of the remaining sixty clauses the
largest class is that dealing directly with the abuses
from which the baronage had suffered, fixing th«
amount of reliets, protecting heira and ^tWssw^^as^
H&aiu, 5;
the Crown and from Jewish creditors, preserving the
feudal cour1.-< from the invaaions of royal juatice, and
securing the rights of baronial founders over monas-
teriea. The cl^use^ enforcing let^l reforms were of
more general interest, for Henfy II's "posscssoiy
aSEizcs" were popular amoDK all classes, and all suf-
fered from arbitrary amercements and from ineufli-
ciently controlled officials. These assLzeu were to be
held four times a year, and
.ed bv the oath
hood. _ _
great and very unpopular latitude, and many clauses
of the charter were direcle<i to the control of the sher-
iffs, constables of roval caatles, and eapccially of the
I forest officials. The commercial classea
r^ ^
^K^H^' 1' -^ '
^"' y?
**^':"^'
llistBbMaconimeiiiornti-themGPtingotthflbaroaB. 20 Novem-
ber, HH. whpD('ar>liniil Laiiirton. ilBnOmgat the hiih
»ltar. T^d out tlio (jnipoavl I'hnrter of Llbrrlin.
M'l|'ni-l''by™iScJoh?'5.121s' ""^
wer« not IlltofCl^lhcr ncjilceted. London and the other
boroughs were to liavc tlieir ancient liberties, and
an effort was made tn secure unifomuly of weights
and meusui-ex. The clause, however, which prot'ecicd
foreign iiK-rclianla, was more to the advantage
of the consumer than lo that of the English com-
petitor.
There is little in the clwrter which can ly called a
statement of cnnstitiitionid jirinciple; two articles
have, however, Iiccti lifiited, not without reason, an
Buch by succeeding geni'nitions. Cluptcr xii, whldi
declares thai n
itiige or aid shall be
impoxeil except by common counsel of the kingdr
may Im' taken as an assertion of the principle " no ta.t-
at ion without consent ". llow the coiinBetof the king-
dom was to lie tiiken is expbineil in chapt4.>r xiv which
descriliesthncmnpositionof tlieCrciit i'ouncil. Ohap-
t«rxxxix pn-scribes that ■' no freeman shall be arrested
ordetained in prison or deprivcil of his freehold . . .
or in any wiiy molested , , . unless by the Liwful
judgment of bis pctTs :inil by the l:iw of the land".
;2 BUOHA
The chief object of this clause was to prevent execu-
tion before trial, and bo far it is certainly the assertion
of a far-reaching constitutional principle, but the last
two phrases liave been the subject of much wild inter-
pretation. "Judgment by his peers" was taken to
mean "trial by jury", and "the law of the land" to
mean "by due process of law"; as a matter of fact,
both taken together expressed the preference of the
barons for the older traiiitional and feudal forms of
trial rather tlinn for judgment by the court of royal
nominees instituted by Henry II and abused by John.
The principle asserted b^ this clause was, therefore,
of great constitutional importance, and nod a long
future before it, but the actual remedy proposed was
reactionary. The final chapter was in a sense the most
important of all for the moment, for it was an effort to
secure the execution of the charter by establishing a
luronial committee of twenty-five with the admitted
right to tnake war on the king, shoukl tbey consider
that he had violated any of the liberties he had guar-
antceil.
Two chief criticisms have been brought against the
Magna Carta, that of being behind the times, reac-
tionary, and that of being concerned almost entirely
with the "selfish" interests of tlie baronage. Reao-
tionary the charter certainly was: in many inspects
it was a jtrotcst agamst the sp-stem established by
Henrj- II, and, evini wlien it adopted some of the re-
Hult-s of his reign such as tht' pi>s«es.sory asHises and the
distinction between greater anu lesser barons, it neg-
lcct(?d the latest constitutional developments. It said
[lothing on taxation of personatt}' or of the spirituali-
ties of the clergy; it ga\-c no hint of the introduction
of the principle of representation into the Great Coun-
cil: yet the early stages of all tliese financial and
constitutional mca-surcs can !« found in the reign of
Bishop Stubbs expres.sed in a pregnant phrase this
characteristic of the charter when he called it "the
translation into the language of the thirteenth centurj-
of the ideas of the eleventh, through the forms of the
twelfth ". It is a reproach, howei-er, which it bears in
good company, for all the constitutional documents of
English history are in a sense reactionary; they are in
the main statements of princiiiles or rights acmiired in
the pa."!!, but recently violated. The dtorgc of " baro-
nial selRshncss" is a more serious matter, for one of
the merits claimed for the ctiartcr, even by its more
solier admirers, is Ihat of being a nalioiial document.
It must l>c ailmitte<l tJiat many of the clauses are
directed solely to the grievances of the liarons; that
some of the measures enforced, such as the revival of
the baronial courts, would l)e injurious to tJie national
interests; tliat, even whi'n the rights of freemen were
protected, little sccuritv if any was given to the nu-
merous villein class. Nor aiv these criticisms di»-
allowed by ch.ipter Ix, which declares hi general tcrmB
that lilicrties gruntcil by the king to his men eliall in
turn be granteil by them to their vassals. Such a
statement is so general that it need not mean much.
It is more important to notice that all the numeroua
clauses directed to the controlling of the royal officials
would licncfit directl.v or indirectly all cla.-!»es, that
after all what the comitri- hail been suffering from waa
ro.val and not baronial tyranny, and that it was the
barons and the clergy who had liceu, for the most part,
the immediate victims. Finally the word "selfish"
must lie xiKOil cautiously of an age when, \iy universal
i^onS(<Tit, eoch class hail its own Uberlicg, and might
quite legitimately contend for them.
Thoueh in form a free grant of liljcrties, the charter
had really l>een won from John at the swonl's point.
It could not in any sense be lo«ikeil u|m>ii a.-) an act of
legislation. He ha<l acccptt-d the Icrms detnHU(l<-<l by
the barons, but he would ilo ."O only wi long as he was
eomix'lled tii. He had already taken measures to
aeijuire lioth juridical and phynieal weapons against
SIGNING OF THE MAGNA. CfcS.TK.
MAOMBSZA
533
MAGNISH
his enemies by appealing to his suzerain, thepoDe, and
sending abroad for mercenary troops. By a Bull dated
24 Au^^ist at Anagni, Innocent III revoked the charter
and later on excommunicated the rebellious barons.
The motives of Innocent's action are not far to seek.
To begin with, he was probably misled as^to the facts,
and trusted too much to the king's account of what
had happened. He was naturally inclined to protect
the interests of a professed crusader and a vassal, and
he took up the position that the barons could not be
judges in their own cause but should have referred the
matter to him, the king's suzerain, for arbitration.
But, more than this, he maintained quite correctly
that the king had made the concessions under compul-
sion, and that the barons were in open rebellion
against the Crown. It is indeed manifest that the
charter could not have b^n a final settlement; it was
accepted as such by neither extreme party, and, even
before the gathering at Rimn3rmede had separated,
the archbishop and the moderates had grown suspi-
cious of the executive committee of twenty-five. War
broke out almost at once, the revolted barons brought
over the French king's son, and, during the sixteen
troubled months that intervened between the signing
of the charter and the end of the reign, John had on
the whole the advantage.
Shortly after the accession of the yoimg Henry III, the
charter was reissued by the regent, William Marshall.
This Charter of 1216 differed in a good many respects
from that accepted by John at Runnymede. To begin
with, the clauses dealing with the royal forests were
formed into a separate charter, the Charter of the
Forests; the other clauses were considerably modified,
points were more accurately defined, matters of a
temporary nature, including naturally the old execu-
tive clause, were left out, but the chief change was to
restore to the Crown a number of powers which had
been abandoned during the previous year. Amongst
these the most important was the right of taxation,
chapters xii and xi v being omitted. On the other hand,
there is this all-important difference that the new char-
ter was a genuine grant by the Crown. It may be
called a piece of honest legislation ; and to this charter
the papal legate gave the fullest consent. A few fur-
ther changes were introduced in 1217, and for a third
time the Magna Carta was reissued in 1225. The
form it then received was final, and the charters which
the Crown was so repeatedly asked to confirm for
many years to come, meant the Charter of Liberties of
1225 and the Forest Charter.
In time the Charters became almost symbolical; the
precise meaning of many of the clauses was forgotten,
and much more was read into some of them thtm their
authors had ever intended to imply. They came to
represent, like the *'Laws of Good King Edward" in
an earlier age, the ancient liberties of Englishmen,
and, when in Stuart days men looked behind the
Tudor absolutism to a time of greater independence,
lawyers like Sir E. Coke continual the process of ideal-
ization which had been begun even in the thirteenth
century. This symbolical use of the Great Charter has
Elayed a great part in English constitutional history,
ut it would have been impossible, had not the original
document in its original sense been a thorough, an
intelligent, and, in the main, a moderate expression of
the determination of Englishmen to be ruled by law
and tradition and not by arbitrary will. The most
convenient text of the Great Charter is that printed in
B^mont's "Chartes des Libert^s anglaises" (Paris,
1892), but it will also be found in Stubbs's "Select
Charters "and similar compilations. W. S. McKechnie
(" Magna Carta ", Glasgow, 1905) has published a very
thorough commentary J clause by clause, together with
an historical introduction and a discussion of the criti-
cisms brought against the Charter. His book also
contains a bibliography.
The ordinary histories of the period natunJIy contaioi much
on the subject, espeoi&IIy Stubbs. Constitulional History (Ox-
ford. 1883); lonut hUrodiu^iona to the RoUa Series; Noroatb,
John Lackland (London, 1905). and Davis, Norman and An-
gevin England. See also Petzt-Dutailus, notes to the FrKidi
translation of Stubbs, Comtitutional History. These notes
have b6en translated and published separately as Studies Sup-
plementary to Stubbs ConstittUional History ^ I, in Manchester
University Historical Series (1908).
F. F. Urquhart.
Magpesia, a titular see in Lydia, suffragan of Ephe-
sus, l3nng about 40 miles north-east of Smyrna and
supposed to have been founded by the Ma^eti of
Thessalv in the fifth century f. c. Lucius Scipio de-
feated Antiochus, King of Syria, there in 190 b. c. It
was ruined by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius,
but recovered and prospered. It is now known as
Manisa, a flourishing town of 35,000 inhabitants in the
sanjak of Sarakhan, containing twenty mosques, and
a Greek and an Armenian church. The following
bishops are known: Eusebius, at Ephesus (431) ; Alex-
ander, at Chalcedon (553) ; Stephen at Constantinople
(680); Basil at Nicsea (787); Athanasius at Con-
stantinople (869); Luke at the synod held there in
879.
There was another see in Asia called Magnesia ad Msd-
andrum, which was situated on the Meaider in Ionia.
Said to have been built by Leudppus, it was the site
of the celebrated temple of Diana Leucophryne,
erected by Hermogenes, which was granted the privi-
lege of asylum by Scipio, on account of the fidekty of
the inhabitants. Eight of its bishops are known:
Damasus (second century); Eusebius at Philoppolis
(343); Macarius, contemporary of St. ChrysbstCHn;
Daphnus at Ephesus (431) ; Leontius at the Robber-
Council (449) ; Patritius at the synod in Trullo (692) ;
Basil at Nic«a (787) ; Theophilus at Constantinople
(879) ; Basil and Eusebius may be those referred to in
speaking of the Lydian Magnesia.
Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, I, ©97, 736.
A. A. MacErlean.
Magnien, Alphonse, educator of the clergy, b. at
Bleymard, in the Diocese of Mende, France, 9 June,
1837; d. 21 December, 1902. As a student of classics
at Chirac, and of philosophy and theology at Orleans
(1857-1862), he was distinguished for sound and bril-
Uant talents and a noble, attractive character. He had
become affiliated to the Diocese of Orleans in response
to Mgr Dupanloup's appeal for clerical recruits. In the
seminary he developed a Sulpician vocation; but the
bishop postponed the fulfilment of his desire, employ-
ing him for two years after his ordination in 1862 as
professor in the preparatory seminary of La Chapelle
St-Mesmin. He then became successively, under the
direction of his Sulpician superiore, professor of
sciences at Nantes (1864-65), and professor of theol-
ogy and Holy Scripture at Rodez (1866-69). At
length, in the fall of 1869, Father Magnicn began the
work at Baltimore which made him so well known to
the priests of America. He soon revealed himself at
St. Mary's as a bom teacher, first in his course of phi-
losophv and, later, of Holy Scripture and dogma. He
seemed instinctively to grasp the vital part of a auies-
tion and rested content only when he nad founa the
truth.
After the death of Dr. Dubreul, superior of the
seminary, in 1878, Father Magnien was appointed to
the succession. As superior of St. Mary's Seminary dur-
ing a quarter of a century. Father Magnien exercised
the widest influence on the formation of the American
clergy. He was richly endowed for his predestined
work. He was a naturally upright, frank, manly
character; and above all he was a true priest, de-
voted to the Church and supremely interested in the
spread of religion. He spoke to the seminarians out
of the abundance of a priestly heart and from a full
knowledge of priestly life. Nowhere was he so much,
at home as on the rostrum. Tci ^'^fcsSs.^JicaNss^^flapi <s^
BUGMinOAT 5i
spiritual topics witLout becoming tireuomti b a task of
rare difiiaulty; few men, indeed, could stand the test
so well as Father Magnien. In the adrninistration of
hia office there was nothing narrow or harah. He had
& keen knowledge of conditions in this country. He
used to Bay at the close of his life " I have trusted very
much aod been sometimes deceived; but I know that
had I trusted leas I would have been stiii oftener de-
Thia generous and wise sentiment cbaracteriies the
' ■'"" °ala the secret of hia influence.
loved and revered. He had
strong affections;
he had also strong
dislikes, but not
so uncontrollable
as to lead him into
an injustice. His
personality con-
tributed, in no
small degree, to
the growth and
prosperity of St.
Mary'aSeminary.
Under his ad-
ministration St.
Austin's College
was founded at
the Catholic Uni-
ington, for the
recruiting of
American voca-
tions to St. Sul-
pice. His abilities as a churchman and a theologian
were conspicuously revealed at the Third Plenary
Council of Baltimore.
Throughout his life, bis wise counsel was frequently
sought and highly valued by many members of the
hierarchy, and he waa a father to many of the clei^.
He frequently preached retreats to the clergy; during
the retreat at St. Louis in 1S97, he was seized with an
Attack of a disease from which he had sulTered for
years. SomemonthaJsterhe went to Paris tor special
treatment, where he underwent a veiy dangerous
operation, and returned to his post at Baltimore. Hia
health, however, was never entirely regained and after
two or three ycara began to fail markedly, and in the
summer of 1902 he resigned bis burden. The good be
wrought in the Church in America can never be told.
In my love and veneration for his memory, I may be
permitted to add that he was to me, for more than a
quarter of a century, a moat affectionate, devoted,
and faithful friend, and a wise and able counsel-
lor.
F01.BT, Very Rrv. Alphonae L. MoonU
(Nsw York,M(in;h. 1«13), pp. SI4-822i
day oC tbe funeral;
'L7Magnitnia Tht CalholicSv^
Jambs Cardinal Gibbons.
giiam Marict, the " Gospel of Mary ". In the Roman
reviary it is entitled (Vespers for Sunday) Caniicum
B.M.V. (Canticle of the Bleaaed Virgin Mary). The
"Magnificat", "Benedictua" (Canticle of Zachary —
Luke i, 68-73), and "Nunc Dimittia" (Canticle of
Simeon — Luke, ii, 29-32) are alao styled " evangelica]
eanticles", as they are found in the Gospel (Evan-
^itim) of St. Luke.
FoaM AND Content. — Commentators divide it into
14 KiaNiriUT
three or four atansas, of which easily accessible 31us-
tratioQS may be found In McEviUy, "Exposition of tbe
Gospel of St. Luke" (triple division; verses 46-49, BO-
SS, 54-55) ; in Maas, " Life of Jesus Christ " (also triple,
but slightly different: vv. 4ft-50, 51-53, 54-55);
and in SchaFF and Riddle. "Popular Commentai?
on the New Testament" (division into foiu' stan-
■as: vv. 46-48, 49-50, 51-52. 53-55). The Magnifi-
cat is in many places very aimilar in thought and
phrase to the Canticle of Anna (I Kings, ii, 1-10), and
to various psalms (sxxiii, 3-4; xxxiv, 9; cxxivii, 6;
Luc, 19;cxxv, 2-3;cx, 9;xcvii, l;cxvii, 16;x3utii, 10;
cxii,7;mxiii. ll;xovii,3;cxxxi, 11). Similarities are
found with Hab., iU, 18; Mai., iii, 12; Job, v, 11; Js.,
xli, 8, and xlix, 3; Gen., xvii, 19. Steeped thus ia
Scriptural thought and phrascoli^y, summing up in
its mspired ecataay the economy of God with His
Choeen People, indicating tbe fulfilment of the olden
prophecy and prophesying anew until the end of time,
the Magnificat is the crown of the Old Testament
singir^i the la^t canticle of the Old and the tirat of the
New Testament. It was uttered (or, not improbably,
chanted) by the Blessed Virgin, when she viait«d her
cousin EUzabeth under the circumstances narrated by
St. Luke In tile finit chapter of hia Goapel. It ia an
ecstasy of praise for the inestimable favour bestowed
by God on the Virgin, for the mercies shown to Israel,
and for the fulfilment of the promiaes made to Abra-
ham and to the patriarchs. Only four points of
exegesia will be noted here. Some commentators dis-
tinguiah the meaning of "soul" (or "intellect") and
"spirit" (or "will") in the first two veraea; but, in
view of Hebrew usage, probably both worda mean
the aame thing, " the aoul with all itAfacuItlea", In v.
48, "humility" probably means the "low estate" or
"lowliness", ratner than the virtue of humility. The
second half of v. 48 utters a prophecy which has been
fulfilled ever since, and which adds to the over-
whelming reasons for rejecting the Elizabethan au-
thorship of the canticle. Finally the first half of v.
55 (-4b he spoke to our father^t) ia probably parcnthet-
Maiuan AoTHOHsmp. — The past decade lias wit-
ncBsed a discussion of tbe autborsliip of the Mag'
nificat, based on the fact that three ancient codices
(Vercellcnais, Veronensis, Rhedigerianus) have; "Et
ait Elisabeth: Magnificat anima mea", etc. (And
Eliiabethsaid; My aoul doth magnify, eto.); and also
on some very alight patriatic use of the variant read-
ing. Hamack in Berliner Sitzungsberichte " (17
May, 1900), S.'iS^Se, announced his view of the Eliza-
bethan authorahip, contending that the original read-
ing is neither "Mary" nor "Eliiabeth", but merely
"sne" (said). About two years previously, Durand
hadcriticized, in the "Revue Biblique", the argument
of Jacobs for a probable ascription to Elizabeth. Dom
Morin had called attention (''Revue Biblique", 1897)
to the words of Nicetas (Niceta) of Remeslana, in a
Vatican MS. of his "De psalmodiae bono": "Cum
Helisabeth Dominum anima nostra magnificat " (With
Elizabeth our aoul doth magnify the Lord). The
works of Nicetas have been edited recently by Burn,
and give (De psalmodla bono, ix, xi) evidence of
Nioetas's view (see note 4, p. 79, ibid.). In the intro-
duction to Bum's volume, Burkitt rejects the reading
" Et ait Eliaabeth " as wholly untenable In view of the
contradictory testimony of TertuUian and of all the
Greek and Syriac texts, but contends for the original
reading "she" (said) and for the Elizabethan author-
ship. He is answered by the Anglican Bishop of Salis-
burv, who supports the probability of nn original
reading " she ", but rejecla the ascription to Elliateth
(pp. clv-clviii). The witness of the codices and of the
Fathers is practically unanimous for the Vulgate read-
ing: "Etait Maria "; but, apart from thia, the attribu-
tion of the Magnificat to Elizabeth would, in St .Luke's
cont«;(t, be highly abnormal. Long before the recent
BuanrioAT 5;
discuBgion, Wcsfcott and Hort, in the uppeudix (52)
to their " Introduction to the New TestameDl in the
Original Greek" (New York, 1882), had briefly dis-
cusaed and rejected the reading "EliBabeth; and
this rejection is summarily confirmed in their revised
text of the "N. T. in the Original Greek" (London,
1S95), 523.
LiTUBGicAL Use. — Whilethecanticles taken by the
Roman Brei-iary from the Old Testament are located
with the psalms, and are so distributed as to be sung
only once a week, the Magnificat shares with the other
two "evangelical canticles" the honour of a daily reci-
tation and of a sin-
gularly prominent
location immedi-
ately before the
Oratio, or Prayer of
the daily OfBce (or,
if there be preces,
immediately Wore
these). The " Mag-
nificat" is assigned
to Vespers, the
"Benedietus" to
Lauds, and the
"Nunc Dimittis"
to Compline. Six
reasons are given
byDurandusforthe
assignment of the
Magnificat to Ves-
pers, the first being
that the world was
tide by the assent
of Mary to the Di-
vine plan of Re-
demption, Another
reason is found by
Cdvenarius in the
probabibty that it
ing when Our Lndy
arrived at the house
of St. Elizabeth.
However this may
be, in the Rule
(written before 502)
of St. Cssarius of
Aries, the earliest
extant account of
its liturgical use, it
isassignedtoLauds,
as it is in the Greek
Churches of to-dny.
The ceremonies at'
tending its singing
in the choir at soU
emn Vespers are notably impressive. At the intonation
"Magnificat", all who are m the sanctuary; arise, and
tlie celebrant (having first removed his birretta "in
htxiour of the canticles") goes with his assistants to
the altar, where, with the customary reverences, etc.,
he blesses the incense and incenses the altar ^^ ^^ ^
beginning of solemn Mass. In order to permit the
elaborate ceremonv of inccnang, the Magnificat is
sung much more slowly than the psalms. A similar
ceremony attends the singing of the Benedietus at
solemn Lauds, but not of the Nunc Dimittis at
Compline.
At the first word of the Magnificat and td the
Benedietus (but not of the Nunc Dimittis, save
where custom has made it lawful) the Sign of the
Cross is made. In some churches the Magnificat is
sung at devotions outside of Vespers. Answering a
question from Canada, the "Ecclesiastical Review"
O^XIII, 74) declares that the rubrics allow such a
UAOKIFIOAT
Keparalion, but forbids the incensing of the altwr te
such a case. The same review (XXIII, 173) remarka
that " the practice of making the Sign of the Cross at
the opening of the Magnificat, the Benedietus, and the
Nunc Dimittis in the Office is of very ancient usage.
and is sanctioned by the very best authority", aita
refers to the Congregation of Sacred Rites, 20 Decem-
ber, 1861 r
Musical Sbttinob. — Like the canticles and psalms,
the Magnificat is preceded and followed Viy an anti-
phon varying tor ine feast or ferial Office, snd is sung
to the eight modes of plain song. The first verse has,
however, no medi-
ation, because of
the brevitv (the
one word Mamti-
eit) of tlie first
If. The Canticles
of Mary and of
Zachary sha re (even
in the Ofiice of the
I>ead) the peculiar
honourof commenc-
ing every verse with
an initium or intiv
nation. This into-
varying modes; and
the Magnificat has
a special solemn in-
tonationfor the sec-
ond, seventh, and
eighth modes, al-
though in this case
the usual festive
intonation applies
m the second and
eighth modes, to all
the verses except
thefirst. The"mu-
sical.", as distin-
gui.ahed from the
" plain song", treats
ing of the canticle
has been very va-
ried. Sometimes the
chanted verses al-
ternated n-ith har-
moniaed plain song,
sometimes with
faho bordone having
original melodies
in the same mode
as the plain song.
But there are in-
numerable settings
which -are entinJv
original, and whicL
run through the whole range of musical expres-
sion, from the simplest harmonv up to the most
elaborate dramatJc treatment, witli orchestral accom-
paniment of the text. Almost every great church
composer has worked often and zealously on this
theme. Palestrina published two settings in each itf
the eight modes, and -left in. manuscript almost as
many more. Fifty settings bv Orlando di Lasso are
in the Royal Library at Municu, and tradition credits
him with twice as many more. In our own days,
C^sar Franck (1822-00) is said to have completed
sixty-three out of the hundred he had planned. In
addition to such names as Palestrina, cfi Lasso, Joa-
quin des Pr^s, Morales, Goudimal, Animuccia, Vitto-
na, Anerio, Gabrieli, Suriano, who with their contem-
poraries contributed innumerable settings, the modem
Cecilian School has done much work on the Magnificat
both as a separate canticle, and as one of the numben
iu a "CknnpUte Vespers "tn many feasts. la.k:
BUOMUS 5f
serrioeB the Magnificat receives a musical treatment
not different from that accorded to the other canticles,
and therefore quite Jiasimilar to that for Catholic
Vespers, in which the length of time consumed in
incensing the sJtar allows much greater musical elabo-
ration. A giance through the pages of Novello's cata-
logue of "Services" leads to tne estimate of upwards
of one thousand settings of the Magnificat !dt Anglican
services by a single publishing house. Altogether, the
eatimnte of Krchbie! that this canticle "has probably
been set to music oftener than any hymn in the lit-
UTKy" seems well within the truth.
"Jtf'WnutaU'^,
i.S. Pair
(Ranie. IBM), a. i
atlStributed tt ■-
M
827double-
f^
, OOf^BBA.. .,
a; Cote siDOB.rftiA'iinMonMjfT'A* Life d/Ow lord
lAa Wamb) (Lonilon, 1885), iei-334, u) eMended Eommeota:
under itielHle. The Canticle of Man: liicoLj,t. La ViergtUarie
fapri, fEmntile (Faris. ISSOj, 243-ST. arpin that Om Ham-
uificat uloiie " pmvce the divinity of ChriatiBiiity and evea the
exutanoeof dad"; DEiaiMitt, L'BxIimde Marie, m It Magnifl-
oai (Paris, 1802); M'Swjset, TTantlatitmt of the Peatme and
Cantiitcii u:ilh Canuntnlary (SB. Loab, 1901), sivenbi oolumaar
tnni. from the Vulgate uid PeaUlD, with oommentary; a
I.1P1UI:, 51. Liike'e Oaipel. tr. Moeeuxn (Lonilon, 18B2}, 4l-£7;
McEvTLLT. £zpanlKma/(A<OD>p>l«/fi(.Z.u*r<NawYork.lBS8),
37-33: Bbxem, A HannaniiedExpawUion of ihe Four Ooepde,!
(Booheater, New York, lS9e), 13S-45: ARinNio in Btclenali-
«at/ini>u,VUI(3Sl-2T),aderotioDiJeBBmy:SHEeaAM,eTim(M>
1^ (A* Magnificat (Noire Dune, lad.. IQOO} , > poetio mwliUtiaD
1- ».. h...j_j ..■_Hm_j «„.....- Baohsawe, TkePnlmtaiid
j).lW3),|ivM<3E3]aiiutrlDal
— '" "^ -imposes miMTioa] ve^
2Dd >"
Be by Cat!
in ^Hipi
r.i.Cur.
. rent of tbe Masolficat — thu vxilume givefl other po«ma ib
English dealiog either with Ihe caoticlee or with the VieitatioD
(17, 3^1,490); cf. also Cortnina, HtBerien (London, 1803), 78,
MO. For DOD-Catholic metrical vemions in EnEUsh.see Joi.uh.
Diet, ol Hum-milomi, Znd ed. (London, 1907), 711 (Mi
801, coll (MewVenion); 1034, ooL 1 (Scottish Tn-
IMl.ool. l(OldVenioD);U«iiBACH,Car7n>TM^m)M>
JStrnBhurn, 1907). 430-33, givflB in sreat detui th(
..je Uasnifit
a of the Ml
S^^ii
1908). flO-69 thfl various
B. Out. ofUiuie and Mu>
£[^fie
a. V. Magnifieat: SlnaEHBlROEB, Guult la Catiiolic Chwri
Miuic (St. Fmocig, Wis.), cive> (14S-150) * liat of one hundred
upnvedaettinn; KnEHBlELin^cu Jf unc Rtvira (Feb., 1910),
147: ¥ia.KO,VBtUiftiqutdeJtan'SihailimBath (Psris, 1907),
_: — ...^ , , jjig, ^ luthor'a views o( Bach's
H. T. Hbnbt,
HkfDtu (Maonoaldds, HAoiNALoua, popularlv
known as St. Mano), Saint, apoatle of the A%au, d.
about 750 (655?). The history of St. Magnus is
shrouded in obscurity. The only source is an old
"Vita S. Magni", which, however, contains so many
manifest ariachronisms that little reliance can be
idaced on it. It relates that two Irish missionaries,
Columbanus and Gall, spent some time with Willinuu-,
& priest at Arbon. Here Gall fell sick and was put in
charge of Magnus and Theodore (Moginald and Thc-
odo), two clerics living with Willimar, while Colum-
banus proceeded to Italy and founded the monastery
of Bobbio. When Gall had been miraculously in-
they followed his rule. After the death of Gull, Mag-
nus succeeded him as superior of the cell.
About this time a priest of the Diocese of Augsburg,
named Tozzo, came as a pilgrim to the grave of St,
Gall and invited Magnus to accompany him ia the
eastern part of Algitu. Magnus proceeded to Epla-
ticus (Epfach), where Bishop Wichbert of Augsburg
received him and entnia1«d him with the Christ ianiza-
tion of Eastern Algiiu. He penetrated into the wil-
derness, then crossed the River Lech at a place which
is still known as St. Mangstntt (footstep of St. Mag-
nus) and built a cell, where afterwards the monastery
of Filssen was erected, and where he died.
The "Life" is said to have been written by Tbeo*
6 HAamn
dore, the companion of Magnus, and ^aoed in tha
gsve under the head of St. Magnus. When in 851
iBhopIantotranaferredthercUcstothenewiy erected
church of FOsaen, this "Life" is said to have been
found in a scarcely Ic^ble condition, and to have been
emendated and rewritten by Ermenrich, a monk of
Ellwangen. It was re-edited with worthless additions
in 1070 Dv Othloh of St. Emmeram. A manuscript is
preBerved at the Monastery of St. GaU (Codex 565).
The chief inconsistencies in the "Life" are the follow-
ing: St. Magnus is made a disciple of St. Gall (d. 627)
and at the same time he is treated as a coniemponuy
of Wichbert, the first historically established Bishop
, _, 339 sq.), and others, to reject the whole
Life" BS a forgery of ft much later date, while
Steichele (Bistum Augsbui^, IV, 338 sq.), Baumann
(Qescbichte des Allg&us, I, 93 sq.), and many others
conclude that the first part of tbe "Life , where
Magnus is made a companion of St. Gall, is a later
ad£tion, and that the second part was written in S51
when the relics of the saint were transferred. The
opinion of Stf ichele and Baumann is the one generally
followed at present. They maintain that a monk Oi
Ellwangea (probably not Ermenrich, as Goldast a»-
(Wrtfl without any authority) wrote the " Life" in 851,
when the body of Magnus was transferred. To attach
more weight to the ''Life", the story was given out
that it h&d been written l^ Theodore, the companion
of Magnus, and was found with the body of the saint,
but in a scarcely legible condition; that therefore s
monk of Ellwangen was ordered t^ rewrite it. (This
was acommoncustomoftheearly Middle Ages.) The
"Lite", as it was written by the monk of EQwangcn,
cated a church in honour of St. Magnus at the monas-
tery of St. Gall, he received a relic and the "Lite"
from the monks of FUssen. The monks of St. Gall
had a tradition of another Magnus, who was a com-
panion of St. Gall and lived 100 years before the Apos-
tle of the Algau. They now wrote a new " Life'', in
which they blended the tradition of the earlier Magnus
with the "Life" which they had received from FUs-
sen. This accounts for the historical discrepancies.
His feast is celebrated on 6 Sept.
AdaSS., Sept., II. 700-81; Steichele, Biadim Auffjiurv, IV
(Auaibun. IS&b), 33S-36D; Bacuahn, GocJiicMn de> Atigiu^ I
(Sempteti, 1883), 03-98; Sepp, Zur Moffniuleumde in Brilaae
tur Auoiburatr PojUodmo. no. 38 (29 Junp, 1901). 283-86;
BABtHBTUBBR, S(. Moffnut Aiffoiorum AjXffitolut (Tc^ernsee,
1721): TBArtuTnSBarER, Dtr hi. Maanui. Apo<rl dct Algauet
(Kemplfn, 1842)1 Matek von Knunau in KealoKuk. fJr
nniMtanJucAe Theolatit vnd Kirchr, XII (Leipii«, 19(13),
Michael Ott.
Hu[niu, Olaub, Swedish historian and geographer,
b. at Steninge, Sweden, 1490; d. at Rome, 1 Aug,, 1558.
He belonged to the old and noble family of Store (i. e.
great, mnortijsj.and pursued his studies from 1510 to
1517 in Germany. lie was then, like his l>rother
John Magnus, taken into the higher ecclesiastical
service, and made cathedral provost at Strengnas.
In 1523 King Gustave I named John Archbishop irf
Upsala, and sent Olaus to the pope to have the ap-
pointment confirmed. After vain efforts to prevent
the king from introducing the new doctrines into
Sweden, John went to Rome in 1537, and Olaus ac-
companied him as secretary, having by his fidelity to
Catholicism lost his property in the confiscation of
church goods. When John died ui 1544, Olaus was
appointed his successor in Upsala. but never entered
into office, spending the rest of his life in Italy, for the
most part in Rome. From 1545 to 1549 he attended
the Council of Trent, having been commissioned to
MAGHUB 537 MAHONY
tbat duty by Paul III. He was buried by the side of urgent request of Emperor Ferdinand III. He was
his brother in St. Peter's. apparently on his way to Rome when in the same
His works, which mark him as one of the most im- ^ear death overtook mm at Salzbui^. His writings
portant geographers of the Renaissance period, were mclude, in addition to many other polemical and phu-
publishea in Italy. His knowledge of the North, osophical works: ''Judicium de catholicorum et
which was so extensive that he was uie first to suggest acatholicorum regula credendi'' (Prague, JL628), a
the idea of a north-east passage, enabled him to pro-' much attacked work which he defended in his '' Judi-
duce after years of labour a CTeat map of the lanos in ciiun de catholicorum regula credendi''. '^De infal-
the North. It appeared at Venice in 1539 with the libilitate cath. reg. credendi" (Prague, 1641); "Or-
title, "Carta manna et descriptio septentrionalium ganum theologicum" (Prague, 1643), i. e. defence of
terrarum ac mirabihum rerum ' ' , and included the area CathoUc theolojgy with reasoned arguments ; ' * Metho-
from the south coast of Greenland to the Russian dusconvinoendietrevocandihareticoe" (Prague. 1643).
coasts of the Baltic, including Iceland, the northern ,rP^^^^f^ 9^^^^^^\ Bibliotheca Scri^rum 0. Cap.
Se1<>a QwA/^An ISI/xi-t^oxr nonmarlr (inHFinlftnH Tn (Gonpa, 1591), 306 sqq. J ed. Bernardus DE BoNONiA (Venice,
isles, Sweden, Norwaj^ I>enmark, ana l-mianO. in 1727), 241 eqa.; HvaoAsek-^UHKhe Bl&Uer, CXVIl, 556 aqq.;
this map we have the first general fairly detmite rep- Rbusch in AUff, detUscKe Btog., XX. 92-4; de Backer. BiBl.
resentation of the North, surpassing every attempt ^*'- .?•. <^v« • ^^^\§22n"^S;a Sbahalea, Supplem. ad Script,
contained in the Ptolemaic editions. The work was ^"^ ^»'»- (K^°^«' 1806).^2 aq.; HuRTER.^^enrtotor
regarded fora long time as lost, and a single copy, pro- Mito-fto- q^ n^^n A*rn Mxnr^r, JmcHAEL, uihl.
c^d in the sixt^th century and pre^rved In the ^^^^e- See Goo and Magog.
Royal and National Library, Munich, was only found Magrath, John Macrory; b. in Munster, Ireland,
in 1886 by Oscar Brenner. The Munich University li- in the fifteenth century; date and place of death
brary has a rough copy done by hand. Niccol6 Zeno, unknown. Like man^^ of his ancestors, he was chief
the younger, in 1558, used the exact data ^ven by the historian to the O'Briens, princes of Thoraond and
map to publish an accoimt of a northern journey sup- chiefs of the Dalcassian clans. To the same family
posed to have been undertaken bjr his ancestors m belon^d the celebrated Miler Magrath, Protestant
1400. This work created a sensation, and was not Archbishop of Cashel. Magrath's fame rests on his
imtil some time later recognized as a fiction. Sebastian one work, "Cathreim Thoirdhealbhaigh'\ It was
Monster, Gastaldi, and Ortelius also turned the map written in Irish, but has been translated into English
to good account. Olaus Magnus likewise compiled an by S. H. O'Grady. It is a history of the wars of Tho-
important work dealing with history, geography, and mond from 1194 to 1318, and for the period covered is
natural history: ''Historia de gentious septentrion- of great value. Magrath has necessarily much to say of
alibus" (Rome, 1555; Antwerp, 1558; Basle, 1567: the Anglo-Normans, especially of the de Clares, and
Frankfort, 1618. Translations: German (Strasburgand of the efforts made dv the Dalcassians to repel their
Basle, 1567) ; Italian (Venice, 1565) ; English (London, attacks. He has much also to say of the internal strife
1658); Dutch (Amsterdam, 1665). It is divided into in Thomond, and he gives full particulars of the at-
twenty-two books, and d^ls picturesquely and sue- tempt of O'Brien and O'Neill in the thirteenth cen-
ccssively with the manners ana customs, the commer- tury to make common cause against the invaders,
cial and political life of northern nations, the physical But as neither chief would serve under the other the
proportions of the land and its minerals and zoology, result waa the victory of the Angjo-Normans at the
Olaus also published a life of Catharine, daughter of battle of Downpatrick in 1259. We have also an ao-
the Swedish St. Bridget, "Vita Catharinae", as well as count of the final overthrow of the de Clares at the
another work, "Vita abbreviata S. Brimtse". He battle of Dysert O'Dea, in 1318. Magrath's work is.
edited the following works of his brother John: *' His- not a mere chronicle of events, but an historical com-
toriaGothorumSuccorumlibrisXXIV" (Rome, 1554), position in which motives and causes are examined,
and the "Historia Metropolitana, seu Episcoporum battles are described, and the characters of men are
et Archiepiscoporum Upsaliensium'' (Rome, 1557). estimated. There is also much about the Dalcassian
"Biit^ssKK, Die &e?Ue Kartedes 0lau8 Magnus vomJahre 15S9 chiefs, and of the topography of the districts over
nadidemEx^pUr^Mufuihener^^^ which they ruled. In these respects the work is
VidenwabB^eUkaa Forhanmtnmnr {lSo6)f no. 15; Sgbdmachbb, ,.„i..^ui« A^ ~u :* ^r*^ 1 -.1 \\j: 1. r _a ^ j.
Olaua Magnus u. die dUesten Karten der Nordlande in Zeitsehri Valuable, though it often lacks sobnetv of statement.
der Oesellsch. f. Erdkunde zu Berlin, XXUI (1893). 167-200; S^^^^^J* ^^3. MatenaU of Ancient Irish History (Dublin,
Metblka in SiUunqsber. der k. bdhmischen OeselUch. der Wis^ 1861). 0*RBnj.T. Irish Writers (Dublin. 1820).
senschaften, Philol.-hist.KUisse(\SW /in "Bohemian; AHLxanuB, E. A. D'Alton.
Olaus Magnus och hans framstellning a^Nordens geografi (Upsala,
1895); NiEiAEN, Kirkeleksikan for Norden (Aarhus, 1909). MagUQlOime. See MoNTFELLIER, DiOCESE OF.
Otto Hartig. Maguire, John Alotsius. See Glasgow, Arch-
Magnus (Magni), Valerianus, b. at Milan, 1586, ^'^^^ ^^- ^ ,. «
presumably of the noble family of de Magni: d. at Magsrdus, a titular see of Pamphyha Secunda, suf-
Salzburg, 29 July, 1661. He received the Capuchin ^ragan of Perea. It was a small town with no history,
habit at Prague. He was also provincial there, and in <>» t^^e coast between Attaleia and Perga, occasionally
1626 was appointed Apostolic missionary for Gtermany, mentioned by ancient geographers, and on numerous
Hungary, and Poland. He was greatly respected by coins of the imperial era. Its site was probafclv Laara
Emperors Ferdinand 11 and III, as well as by Kmg ^ the vilayet of Konia, where there are rums of a small
Wladislaw IV of Poland, who employed him on diplo- artificial harbour. The See of Macydus figures in the
matic missions. Landgrave Ernst of Hesse, who had " Notitia episcopatuum " until the twelfth or thir-
been converted at Vienna on 6 Jan., 1652, and who teenth century. Five bishops are known: Aphrodisius,
knew Father Valerian, summoned Capuchins to St. present at the Nicene Council (325) ; Macedo, at Chal-
Goar on the Rhine, and was present at the religious cedon (451); Conon, at Constantinople (553); Platonat
disputation between Valerian and Haberkom ofGiea- C<»stantinople (680 and 692) ; Marinus, at Nicsea (787).
sen at Rheinfels in 1651. The Jesuit Johann Rosen- c/^i^l 1^; ^^^^^ *^ ^"""^ ^"^- »• ^- ^ ^"^^^ ^^^'^
thai having attacked certain assertions of Valerian's t # . ^ PirrmDijB.
at this debate, the latter was drawn into the sharp
literary controversy between dJajpuchins and Jesuits, Mahony, Charles, Venerable, Irish Franciscan
which extended even to Rome. On the appearance of martyr; b. after 1639; d. at Ruthin, Denbighshire, 12
his pamphlet "Contra imposturas Jesuitarum" in August, 1679. The British Museum has a copy of a
1659. he was cited to appear at Rome. As he did not sin^e sheet entitled "The Last Speeches of Three
obey the summons, he was arrested at Vienna in 1661 Priests that were Executed for Religion, Anno Domini
at the instance of the nuncio, but was hberated at the 1679", from which the following transcript ia mad^\ —
MAI
538
^An Account of the words spoken by Mr. Charlee Ma-
hony, an Irish Priest of the Holy Order of St. Francis,
who was Executed in his Habit at Ruthin in North
Wales, August IS, 1679.
Now God Almighty is pleased I should suffer Mar-
tyrdom, his Holy Name b« praised, since I dye for mv
Religion. But you have no Right to put me to death
in this Country, though I confessed myself to be a
Priest, for you seized me as I was going to my Native
Country Ireland^ being driven at Sea on this Coast,
for I never used my Function in England before I was
taken, however God forgive you, as I do and shall
always pray for you, especially for those that were so
good to me in my distress, I pray God bless our King,
and defend him from his Enemies, and convert him to
the Holy Catholick Faith, Amen.
His Age was under Forty, He was tryed and Con-
demned at Denby [i. e. Denbigh] Confessirvg himself to
he a Priest,"
Bishop Challoner bases his account of our martyr
on the above-mentioned single sheet, but appears
to have had access to another authority now lost,
for he writes: "He suffered with great constancy,
being cut down alive and butchered according to the
sentence, as I remember to have read in a manuscript,
which I could not since recover." Subsequent writers
add npthing to Bishop Challoner's narrative.
Challoner, Mernoirt of Missionary Priests, II, no. 206;
QiLLOW, Bibl, Diet. Eng. Cath..lV, 392; Stanton, Menology of
England and Walts (Loadon, 1887); Hope, Franciscan MaHi/rs
in England (London, 1878), 240; Oliver. Collections illustrating
the History of the Catholic Religion (London, 1857), 565; Thad-
DEUS, Franciscans in England (London and Leamington, 1808),
82,71,101. , « „r
John B. Wainbwmght.
Mai, Angelo, Roman cardinal and celebrated phi-
lologist, b. at Schilpario, in the Diocese of Bergamo, 7
March, 1782; d. at Albano, 9 September, 1854. At an
early aee he entered the Society of Jesus (he was a
novice in 1779), was sent to the residence in Naples
(1804) and was also stationed at Orvieto and Rome.
However, on account of his proficiency in palaeography
he was appointed in 1811 to a position in the Ambro-
sian Library, Milan. This lea to his initial discov-
eries: Cicero's orations: "Pro Scauro", "Pro Tullio",
"Pro Flacco", "In Clodium", and "In Curionem"
(1814) ; the correspondence of Fronto, Marcus Aure-
Uus, and Verus (1815); the speech of Isseus, "De h»-
reditateCleonymi" (1815); a fragmentof the " Vidu-
laria" of Plautus, and commentaries on Terence
(1816); Philo, "De Virtute"; a discourse of Themis-
tius; a fragment of Dionvsius of Halicamassus (1816);
a Gothic version of St. raul; the "Itinerarium Alex-
andri*'; a biography of Alexander by Julius Valerius
(1817); and an Armenian version of the "Chronicle"
of Eusebius (1818). So many new texts, almost all
of which were found in palimpsests, not to mention
some editions of already known texts, drew world-
wide attention to Mai. In 1819, his superiors decided
that he could render greater service in the ranks of the
secular clergy; he therefore left the Society and was
called by the pope to the Vatican Libranr. He then
worked with increased zest in a richer field. His most
brilliant find at this time was the " Republic" of Cicero
(1822). To insure the regular publication of his dis-
coveries, he began large series of Anecdota: "Scrip-
torum veterum nova collectio" (10 vols., 1825-
38); "Classici auctores" (10 vols., 1825-38); "Spici-
legium Romanum" (10 vols., 1839-44); "Nova Pa-
trum bibliotheca" (7 vols., 1852-54), published by Mai
hunself. The profane authors who profited by Mai's
labours are: Diodorus of Sicily; Polybius; Oribasus;
Procopius; Cicero (especially the Verrine orations),
and tne Roman jurisconsults. Important discov-
eries were made likewise with regard to the works of
the Fathers: Saints Augustine, Hilary, Cyprian, Jer-
ome, Ambrose, Athanasius, Cyril, Basil, and Ori^n,
Iroujeua, Eiisohiiis of Cirsarea, etc. To these ancient
writers must be added the Italian Humanists, the Latia
poets of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Poli-
ziano, Sannazaro, Bembo, Sadoleto, and others, whose
works he printed for the mist time in the " Spicile^um
Romanum". He gave to the world unpubushed
pages of more than 350 authors. Finally, he did not
overlook the Bible. After long delays, inspired by
timidity, he was as last authorized to make known one
of the most important Greek MS. of the Bible (Vetus
et Novum Testamentum ex antiauissimo codice Vati-
cano, 1 858) . It has been stated tnat the gall nut used
by Mai to revive the writing of the palunpsests half
destroyed them. The truth is that all reagents injure
parchment. Soon little will remain of the palimpsest
of Plautus in the Ambrosian Library. But the work
of Studemund, Mai's successor, will insure its perpet-
uitv. Mai's brilliant discoveries won him the homage
and affection of many. He was an intimate friend of
Leopardi, the poet of New Italv, a friendship equally
honourable to both. Mai was blamed for his great un-
willingness to allow the learned to share in the trea-
sures he guarded so jealously. He wished to enjoy
them all alone. In 1838, the pope named him cai^
dinal; but he continued his researches, and his publi-
cations were interrupted only by his death.
SoifMBRVOOEi., Bibliothique de la compagnie de J^sus, V, 323,
till 1819; BoNNBTTY, Table aiphabHique analytique et raiscmnie de
tous les atUeurs aacrls et profanes qui ont Hi adcouverts et fdiUM
rAcemment dans les 4S voU publiSs par le cardinal Mai (Paris,
1850}; PoLBTTO, PRINA, and others. Net primo centenario da
oardiriale Angela Mai, atti deUa solenne Accademia tenuiasi in suo *
onore il 7 Marzo t88B (Bei]samo, 1882) \ Poletto, Del cardinals
Angela Mai e d^ suoi stiuH e scoperte (Siena, 1886) \ Chatelain,
Les palimpsestes latins in Annuaire de VEoole prtUique des hautes
Hudes (1904), 5.
Paul Lejay.
.Jaignan, Emmanuel, French physicist and theo-
logian; d. at Toulouse, 17 July, 1601 ; d. at Toulouse, 29
October, 1676. His father was dean of the Chancery
of that city and his mother's father was professor of
medicine at the University of Toulouse. He studied
the humanities at the Jesuit college. At the age of
eighteen he joined the Order of Minims. His instruc-
tor in philosophy was a follower of Aristotle, but
Maignan soon o^an to dispute and oppose all that
seemed to him false in Aristotle's teachings, especially
of physics. He preferred Plato to Aristotle. He mas-
tered the mathematics of the day, practically without
aid from any one. At the end of a few vears his ability
was recognized by his superiors and he was given
chs^e of the instruction of novices. In 1636 he was
called to Rome by the general of the order to teach
mathematics at the convent of the Trinity dei Monti.
There he lived for fourteen years, engaged in mathe-
matics and in physical experiments, and publishing
his work on gnomonics ana perspective. In 1650 he
returned to Toulouse and was maae provincial. When
his three years were up, he was glad to devote himself
entirely to his studies. When Louis XIV, having seen
his machines and curiosities at Toulouse, invited him
to Paris, in 1660, through Cardinal Mazarin, he begged
to be aUowed to pass his life in the seclusion ofthe
convent. His published works are: "Perspectiva
horaria, sive de horologiographia, turn teorica, tum
practica" (4 vols., Rome, 1848); "Cursus philoso-
phicus" (Ist ed., 4 vols., Toulouse, 1652; 2nd ed. with
changes and additions, Lyons, 1673); "Sacra philo-
sophia entis supematuralis" (Lyons, 1662, 1st vol.,
and 1672, 2nd vol.); "Dissertatio theologica de usu
licito pecuniae" (Lyons, 1673). This dissertation
seemedf to authorize usury and was therefore censured
by a number of bishops.
Saouens, De Vita, moribus et scriptis R. P. E. Maignani el e26-
gtum (Toulouse, 1697); NicIjron, Mhnoires ... E. M., XXXI
(Paria, 1736), 346-353.
William Fox.
MaiUa (Maillac), Joseph-Ann a-M.uue de Movria
PB, Jesuit missionary; b. 16 Dec, 1669, at Chateau
MAILLARD fi39 MAnj.AKlD
Maillao on the Is^re; d. 28 June, 1748, at Peking, whose influence wrou^t an immediate change. In
China. After finishing his studies he joined the So- recognition, he was invited to Halifax, where a church
ciety of Jesus in 1686, and in 1701 was sent on the was Duilt for him, and he received a pension of £200.
mission to China as a member of the order. In June, the free exercise of the Catholic Faith being conceded
1703, he arrived in Morocco and thence set out for to all his coreligionists, Irish as well as Acadian and
Canton, where he acquired a thorou^ knowledge of Indian. From Halifax he addressed to the scattered
the Chinese language and style of writing, and devoted groups letters that were read with veneration like the
himself particularly to the study of Chinese historical Epistles of St. Paul. At death's hour, after thirty
works. _When the Emperor Khang-hi entrusted the years of laborious ministry, being without any priest
Jesuit missionaries with the cartographical survey of to administer the last rites, he was visited by the An-
his empire, the provinces of Ho-nan, Kiang-nan, Tshe- glican parson, Thomas Wood, who offered his mini»-
kiang, and Fo-kien, and the Island of Formosa fell to tration. Calmly and gently MaiUard refused, saying:
the lot of Father Mailla along with Fathers Regis and " I have served God all my life, and each day I nave
Hinderer. As a mark of his satisfaction, the emperor, prepared for death by offering up the Holy Sacrifice
when the work had been completed, conferred on of the Mass." Thus vanishes the legend of his re-
Father Mailla the rank of mandarin. When he was quest to Wood to read the prayers for the sick from
fifty years old he began the study of the. Manchurian the English ritual. His booy alone could the Protea-
tongue, and made such progress that he was able to tants claim, and they interred it with great demote
translate into French the "Thoung-kian-kane-mou", strations of honour. He is justly named the Apostle
an extract from the great Chinese annals, which the of the Micmacs, by whom he is still held in great ven-
emperor had had prepared in the Manchurian langunee. eration, and who, in spite of many trials and tempta-
He finished the translation in several volumes in tne tions, have preserved, with their language, the Faith
year 1730, and in 1737 sent it to France, where it lay he tau^t them.
for thirty years in the library of the college at Lyons, Soirie* Canadiennea (Quebec, 1863); Canada-Francaia (Que-
Ferret, who purposed publishing it, having died. On ^,' ^^>J CxspRyN, Aup^«<r£:»ana<?/mc (P Lea
♦v»« cJ^^^^Iir^^^e 4U« ^^.] ♦u^ \.^n ^,.4^u -:*t - Sulvtciens en Acadxe (Quebec, 1897); O Brien, Memotra oj
the suppression of the order the college authorities Rijht Rev, Edmund Bwke (Ottawa, 1894); Plesms, Jownti
gave the manuscript to the Abbd Grotsier on condition dea vtaitea pastoraUa de 1816 et 1816 (Quebec, 1903).
that he would see to the publication of the work, which Lionel Lindsay.
had long been awaited with interest by the learned
world. Not long after, the work appeared under the MaiUard, Olivier, celebrated preacher, b, at
title: "Histoire g^n^rale de la Chine, ou Annales de Juignac (?), Brittany, about 1430; d. at Toulouse, 22
cet Empire; traduit du Tong-kiere-kang-mou par de July, 1502. He took the Franciscan habit with the
Mailla, Paris, 1777-1783", in 12 volumes, with maps Observants, apparently in the province of Aquitaine.
and plans. In 1785 a thirteenth volume followed. He was there the vicar provincial of the Observants
Besides Grosier, the Orientalists Deshauterayes and when on 2 June, 1487, he was elected Vicar General of
Colson were mainly responsible for the publication, the Ultramontane Observants (i. e. those north of the
Mailla's work even to this day j:)rovides the most im- Alps) at the general chapter of the Observants at
portant foundation for any connected presentation of Toulouse. After his first term of office (1487-90), he
the history of China. Mailla is also the first European was twice re-elected (149^-6 and 1499-1502). Re-
scholar to whom we owe a detailed knowledge of the tiring from office at the General Chapter of 15 May,
"Shukin^", the classic historical work of the Chinese, 1502, he went to Toulouse, where he died at the mon-
most of it^ books being included in his translation, astery of St. Mary of the Angeb. As miracles soon
Mailla, also, in order to promote the work of the mis- occurred at his grave, the General Chapter of Barcelona
sion, compiled some edifying books in Chinese; the in 1508 ordered that his remains should be translated
most important being lives of the saints, and medi- to a chapel built specially for them, where for some
tat ions on the Gospels of the Sundays throughout the time he enjoyed a certain amount of puljlic venera-
whole year. In **Lettres ^difiantes" there are some tion. He is specially celebrated as a forceful, popular
interesting letters from him on the persecution of the preacher, who preached inspiriting and profitable
Christians which took place in China during his time. Lenten sermons in both churches and public places.
When he died, in his seventy-ninth year, he was buried His manner and style were indeed often rather
at the expense of the Emperor Khiang-lung, many bluntly plebeian, but by no means so rough as the later
people being present at the obsequies. classicists have proclaimed them to be. Of a fearless
LeOrea idifianiea. Series XXVIII (Paris, 1758), Hx-facx; Bio* nature, he did not abstain from Well-merited attacks
Sxiphie ^veraeUe^XXWh 120; RicHTHopN, China (1877); db ^^^ ^he abuses of his time, and upon the crimes of
▲CKKR-SOMMERVOGEL, V (1894), 330-34. upv** 11*^ i»*^wo«, V. ^ v* x^ c» v» ^pv#u vm^ v«<^ftu^ v«
Otto Haktio. those m high places (e. g. the cruelties of Louis XI).
He abo espoused the cause of Jeanne de Valois, the
MaiUard, Antoine-Simon. missionary, b. in repudiated wife of the Duke of Orleans. On the other
France (parentage, place and date of birth unknown) ; hand, Maillard, who was highly respected by all classes^
d. 12 August, 1762. He was sent to A(»Klia by the confirmed Charles VIII in his plan of restoring Rous-
French Seminary of Foreign Missions in 1735. In sillon and Cerdagne to Aragon. Innocent VIII asked
1740 he was appointed vicar-^neral to the Bishop of Maillard in 1488 to use his best endeavours with the
Quebec, and resided at Louisbourg imtil its fall in French king for abolishing the Pragmatic Sanction:
1745. after which he retired to the woods and minis- but in this task he was unsuccessful, like many others,
terea to the dispersed Acadians and Indians of Cape Of his works, nearly all of which are sermons, there
Breton, St. John's (Prince Edward J Island, and the is no complete collection; they appeared in detached
eastern coast of Acadia (Nova Scotia). He was the fashion, many in various editions and in both French
first to acquire a complete mastery of the extremely and Latin. The most important are: **Sermones de
difficult language of the Micmacs, for whom he com- adventu, quadragesimales et dominicales " (3 vols.,
posed a hieroglyphic alphabet, a grammar, a diction* Paris, 1497-8, 1506, 1522, etc.; Lyons, 1498, etc.);
ary, a prayer-b(K>k, a catechism, and a series oi ser- "Sermones de adventu, quadragesimales, dominicales"
mons. Although credited with the gift of tongues, he and "De peccati stipendfio et gratiae jjraemio " (Paris,
had devoted over eight years to hS task. Maillard 1498 , 1515, etc.; Lyons, 1503), dehvered at Paris in
was the only Catholic priest tolerated by the Endish 1498; "Quadragesimale", delivered at Bruges in 1501
in Acadia. When the Indians, to avenge British oar- (Paris, s. d.); printed with the author's notes and the
barity towards the Acadians and their missionaries, edition of his ''Sermon fait Tan 1500 ... en la ville
massacred every English subject that strayed within de Bruges" (2nd ed., Antwerp, s.d.); "Chanson piteuse
their reach, the Government appoale<l to Maillard, , , , chant^e & Toulouse 1502" (2nd ed., Paris» 182(a\%
'HiBtoiredelapaMion . , . denoetredoulxsauveur"
(I^ris, 1493); "La conformitS et correspoDdanoe
trie devote dea . . . mystSres de 1& mease & la pas-
■ioii . . ." (PariH.1562),i«print«da8aliterftryiiionu-
inent (Paris, 1828) ; " L'inetruction et conaoUcion de la
VM contemplative" (Paris, a. d.), containing various
treatises; La confession de Frire Olivier MaiUard"
{Paris, a. d.; Paris, 1500), frequently edited.
8xuotm.lAli,BI\ultiHir la chain . . , fmncaittattXV' i^d*.
OlivUr MaiUard (Bordeaux, Tauloiue, sad Puis. ISSl); BoK-
DBHrB.fEuVTH /mncaiiFi d'Oliv. M.: Sermont H po4tia (n notes,
1877)j Puarr in Aanala du Midi. V (TouIouk. 1863). 315
iqq.: Wadoino. Xmuilu Ord. Frat. Vinorum. XIV (Rome,
mS), 270; (2nd ed.. Rome, 1808), 1S4: Hrd ed.. 1906), 181;
Sbaruka. Suppltn. ad Script. 0. M. CRome, 1806)_, 671;
!, J90T), «,^
MiCIUBL BiHL.
Halmbomg, Louis, French church lustorian, b. at
Nancy, 10 .Tanuary, 1610, d. at Paria 13 August,
1686. In 1626 he entered the Society of Jesus, taught
rhetoric and humtinities tor six years, and suMe-
quently won coiiaid enable fame as a preacher. He is
now known, how-
ularly as a prolific
historic^il writer,
an opponent of
Protestantism,
nnd a defender of
"the Liberties of
the Gallican
Church" against
the Apostolic See.
Owing to hia de-
fence of Gallican-
cent XI ordered
his expulsion from
the Society of
Jesus (1681).
When he left the
order, in 1682,
Louis XI Vgranted
him a pension, and
until ■■ ' ■■
he continued his
literary pursuits in the Abbej of St. Victor, Paris.
His works, remarkable for their elegant diction, are of
little value, becausesomewhat untrustworthy. Among
the most important of them are: (1) "Histoire de
I'Arianisme" (Paria, 1673); (2) "Histoire de I'hei^sie
des Iconoclast«s" (Paris, 1674)- (3) "Histoire des
Croisades" (Paris, 167&); (4) ''Histoire du scbisme
dwGrecs" (Paris, 1678), The following works by him
were placed on the "Index of Forbidden Books ": (1)
"Histoire de la decadence de I'empire depuis Charle-
magne" {Pari^l676); (2) " Histoire duarindschieme
d'Occident" (Paris, 1678); (3) "Histoire du Luth6-
raniarae" (Paris. 1680); (4) "Trait* historique de
r^tablissement et des pt^rogatives de I'^glise de Rome
et de aes dv&ques" (Paris, 1685); (5) "Histoire du
Pontifical deS.Grfgoirele Grand "(Paris, 1686). He
is the author of histories of Calvinism, of the League,
and of Leo the Great. His collect«d historical worka
were published at Paris, 1686.
" "blioAiquc dt la Compounie it Jltm, V
SiooiDpA
N. A. Weber.
Haimonides, Mobeb, Teacbino of. — Moaes ben
Maimun (Arabic, Abu Amran Musa), Jewish com-
mentator and philosopher, was bom ffl Spanish Jew-
ish pan-nta at Cordova in 11.% After sojourning with
Ills parents in Spain, Palestine, and Northern Africa,
HAUIONICES
Egypt, devoted himself to the exposition of the Tal-
mud. He died at Cairo, 13 December, 1204, and waa
buried at Tiberias in Palestine. His wntin^ in-
clude: (1) Commentaries: (a) "Kitftb al-Siraj", a.
commentary on the Hishnah, written in Arabic and
translated mto Hebrew (first published, H92), Latin
(Oxford, 1654), and German (Leipsig, 1863); (b)
" Mishneh Torah", or " Yad ba-Haaakah", written in
Hebrew, and many times published (first ed. in Italy,
1480: latest, Vihia, 190(^; translated in part into
Enghsh in 1863 by Bernard and Soloweyczik; (2)
PhfloBopycal Worka: (a) " Dalalat ai-Ha'irln", trans-
lated into Hebrew as ''Moreh Nebflklm" (1204), and
into Latin as " Doctor Peiplexorum", " Dux Dubitan-
tium". The Arabic original was published, with a
French translation entitled "Guide des ^garfis"- by
Munk (13 vols., Paris, 18.56-66). An English transla-
tion of portion of it by Townley appeared aa "The
Reasons of the Laws c^ Moees" (London, 1827), and a,
version of the whole work under the title " The Guide
of the Perplexed'" by FriedlSnder (London, 1889):
(b) Minor Philosophical Works: "On the Unity of
God", "On Happiness", "On the Terminology of
Lo^c , "On Resurrection" etc.; (3) Medicaland
As&onomical Works: Several treatises on poisons, oa
hygiene, a commentary on Hippocrates, on the astro-
nomical principles of the Jewish calendar etc.
Through the "Guide of the Peiplexed" and the
philoaopbical introductions to sections of lus com-
mentanes on the Mishna, Maiaionides exerted a very
important influence on the Scholastic philosophers,
especially on Albert the Great, St. Thomas, and Duns
Scotus. He was himself a Jewish Scholastic. Edu-
cated more by reading the works of the Arabian
philoaophera than by personal contact with Arabian
teachers, he acquired through the abundant philo-
sophical Ut«rature in the Arabic language an intimate
acquaintance with the doctrines of Aristotle, and
strove earnestly to reconcile the philoaophy of the
Stagjrite with tne teachings of the Bible. The princi-
ple which inspired all his philosophical activity waa
identical with the fundamental tenet of Scholasticism:
there can bo no contradiction between the truths
which God has revealed and the findings of the human
mind in science and philosophy. Moreover, by sci-
ence and philosophy he understood the science and
Ehilosophy of Aristotle. In some important points,
owever, he departed from the teaching of the Aris-
tolelean text, holding, for instance, that the world
is not eternal, as Aristotle taught, but was created ex
dent care extends only to humanity, and not to the
individual. But, whUe in these important points,
Maimonides forestalled the Scholastics and undoubt-
edly influenced them, be waa led by his admiration for
the neo-Platonic commentators and by the bent of ins
own mind, which was essentially Jewish, to maintain
many doctrines which the Scholastics could not ac-
cept. For instance, he pushed too far the principle of
negative predicationin regard to God. The Scnolaft-
tics agreed with him that no predicate is adequate to
express the nature of God, but they did not go so far
as to say that no term can be applied to God in the
affirmative sense. They admitted that while "eter-
nal", "omnipotent", etc., aa we apply them to God,
are inadequate, at the same time we may8ay"GodiB
etemar' etc., and need not stop, as Moses did, with the
ne^tive " God is not not-eternal", etc.
The most characteristic of all his philosophical doc-
trines is that of awiuircd immortality, lie distin-
guishes twokindsof intelligence in man, the one mate-
ria/in the sense of being dependent on, and influenced
by, the body, and the other imntalcrial, that is, iude-
pendeatof tbebodilyor^aniem. Thelatteris adireot
emanation from the uDiversal sctive intellect (this ia
bia interpretation of the »ui ToiirruEit of Aristoteleon
intelligence of God. The knowledge of God is, them-
fore, the Icnowledge which, so to speak, develops in us
the immaterial intelligence, and tnus confers on man
an immaterial or spiritual nature. This immateriality
not only confers on tin soul that perfection in which
human happiness consists, but also endows the soul
with immortahty. He who has attained a knowledge
of God has reached a condition of existence which ren-
ders him immune fr<Hn all the accidents of fortune,
from all the allurements <rf sin, and even from death
itself. Man, therefore, since he has it in his power to
attain this salutary knowledge, ia in a position not
only to work out liis own salvation, but also to wo^
out his own immortality. The resemblance between
this doctrine and Spinofa's doctrine of immortality is
so striking as to warrant the hypothesis that there is a
casual dependence of the later on the earlier doctrine.
The difference between the two Jewish thinkers is,
however, as remarkable as the resemblance. While
Spinoza teaches that the way to attain the knowledge
which confers immortality is the proKress from sense-
knowledge through scientific knowledge to philosophi-
cal intuition of all things sub apede aUmUatia, Hosm
holds that the road to perfection and immortality ia
thepathoFduty as described in the I^awoF God.
Among the theological questions which Moses dis-
cussed were the nature of prophecy and the reconciU-
ligence beine one in the series of intelligences emana-
ting from God, the prophet must, by studr and
m, lift himself up to the degree of perfec
that perfection is reached, there is required the free i
of God before the man actually becomes the prophet.
In his solution of the problem of evil, ha follows the
neo-Platonista in laying stress on matter as the source
of all evil and imperfection.
(Bnalau, 18Ul)i Beer. LAn u. Wnkm du Maintmuia
(Profiue, 1B50): GEiaEK, tfoaet ben ilaimim CBnxIsu, ISSOI;
Barccs. run loXurra on Mairmmida (Loadoa, 1S4T): JtmiA
Encydoprdia, t. v. Mont Bm Maimm: Gutthahh, Dii Scho-
Iait3c in ihrCT Ba. cum Jiidattum (Bnalau. 1902); ai^ccL,
Qach, dtr Plia. in MiUela!Urt,n (Muui, 1805), 265 iiqq.;
TuHMen, HiMary aj PhiUjiojiliii CBortonj 1903), 316 ff.
the Harafl6n below the junction of the Santiago, es-
tablished by themselves and their successors from ^e
Quito province, a series of missions extending down
the river on both sides. In 1682 Rodriguez enumer-
ates three missions of the Maina proper, in proximity
to Borja, and one each of the Chayavita Coronados,
Faranapura, and Roamaina, besides others in the sur-
rounding tribes. In 1798 Hervas names San Ignacio,
San Juan, Concepti6n, PreBentaci6n, and presumably
San Borja, as missions occupied by Maina tribes. Mi
the missions were then far on the decline, which he
ascribes chiefly to the repeated inroads of the Brasil-
ian slave hunters (see Mameluco) . The mission p<n>-
ulation is now either extinct or assimilated with the
general civilized population, but a few untamed bands
Btill roam the forests.
Catdloffo de fat Lfncuas, I (h
James Moonbt.
WlUJAM TdENKB,
ing alongthe north bank of the Maiw^6a. Their earlier
habitat is supposed to have been on the upper waters
of the Morona and Pastaza, Ecuador. Brintm gives
them six tribes, or dialects, viz.: Cahuapana, C^pa,
Chayavita, Coronado, Uumurano, Haina, Roamaina.
Hervas gives them two languages in six dialects, via.:
Maina (Chapo, Coronado, Humurano, Roamaino dia-
lects) and Chayavita (Cahuapano and Parsnapuro dia-
lects). The Maina are notable as having been the first
tribM of the upper Amazon region to be evangelized, so
that they gave their name to thewhole nussion jurisaio-
tion of the region and to the later province of Mainas,
which included the larger part (rf tJie present Ecuador
and northern Peru, east oi the main Cordillera, includ-
ing the basins (£ the Huallaga and ITca^iti. In this
missionary province of Mainas, according to Hervas,
there laboured from 1638 to the expulsion in 1767, 167
Jesuit missionaries of Quito, who founded 152 mift-
sioas, and eight of whom won the palm ot mar^rdom.
The work was begun in 1638 by the Jesuit Patl^ts
Gaspar de Cuxia and Lucas de la Cueva, from Quito,
who, beginning their labour at the new town cJ S&a
Francisco de Borja (now Borja) on the north bulk of
Halna. — Maine is commonly known as the Pine
Tree State, but is sometimes called the Star in the East
GBOORAPiir. — It lies between 43° 6' and 47° 27' N.
lat., and 66° Se* and 71° 6' W, long., bounded on the
north by the Provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick;
on the east by New
Brunswick ; on the
south-east and
south by the At-
lantic Ocean; on
the west by the
State of New
Hampshire and ^
the Province of
Quebec. It has an
area of 3 3,0 4 0
square miles, in-
cluding some 3000
square miles of
water. The coast
of Maine has nu- ^_^^_— --
merous indenta- ^"^^^^^^
tions; withacoast- Seal or Mime
line of 218 miles^
when measured direct, it has a sea-coast of 2500 miles.
As a result, it has beautiful bays sucli as Penobecot
and Pasamaquoddy; a number of fine harbours, Port-
land harbour on Cosco Bay being one of the best on
the Atlantic. The islands oS the coast of Maine are
very numerous. In Penobscot Bay alone there an
some five hundred. The principal nvers of Maine are
the Saco, Androscoggin, Kennebec, Penobscot, and St,
Croii, which flow south, and the St. John, flowing at
first northerly and gradually turning and flowing m a
south-easterly direction through New Brunswick into
the Bay of Fundy. These rivers and their tributariei.
which are in general rapid streams, afford many great
and valuable souroea of water-power, estimated to
represent some 3,000.000 available horse-power. By
the Treaty d Washington, also called the Ashburtcu
Treaty, nmde in 1 842 to end the dispute relative to the
S roper location of the nortik-eastem frontier, the St.
□hn River was constituted the northern boundary of
Haino for a distance of 72 miles, and the St. Croix for
a distance of 100 miles or more. Unfortunately, it
failed in part at least to accomplish its purpose, for at
the present time (1910) a Jomt International Com-
mission is endeavouring to harmonize the differences
concerning the use of the river which have arisen, and
are liable to arise in the future between citizens of
Maine on the northern border and British subjects
living on the lower St. John.
The number of lakes in Maine is about 1580. Tba
largest and most celebrated is Mooeehead Lake near
the centre of the state, drained by the Kermebeo,
Than art tifflfingmfmnlyill mnpwmMavnj.^-A.'Cplia^
MAIME
542
MAm
iff a general elex'utiou which extends from the north-
east boundan' at Ma/s Hill to the sourcesi of the Magal-
loway River in the ^lest, and constitutes a divide
between the streams flowing south, and those flowing
north or east. There are seveml mountain peaks, the
principal being Mount Katahdin (5:iS5 feet), near the
geographical centre of the state. Sad<ileback Mountain
(4000 teet), Mount Blue (3900 feet), Mount Abraham
(3387 feet), and Green Mountain on Mount Desert
Island (ISOO feet>. The soil of Maine is for the most
part hard, drj*, and rockv, but along the river vallej's,
and in low lands originally covered by water, there is
considerable fertile land, while in the northern portion
of t lie state, in the valleys of the St. John and its trib-
utarv, the Aroostook, the soil is equal in fertility to
anv in the world.
IxorsTRiEs. — ^The following compilation will con-
vev a fair idea of the leading industries as they stood
in*1905.
Xo. of
Establish-
Value of pro-
n.»:«.i ducts ^including
Capital custom work
ments
and repairing)
Boots and shoes
50
$4,450,939
$12;35i;>93
Canning and presen'-
inc &»h
141
2.144.690
5.055.091
Flour and grist -mill
products
161
1.422.671
3,932,SS2
Foundo' and machine
1
shop products
99
5.191.274
4.767.025
Leather, tanneii. cur^
ried and finishc^l
27
1.464.735
2.500.146
Lumber and timber
products
752
15.0Vi.n95
17.937.6S3
Lumber, planing mill
■
products, indudins
aash. doors and
blinds
84
2,003.304
2.223,956
Marble and stone
!
work
42
2.S07J215
2,3S2.1S0
Paper and wood-pulp
Pnntins and publish-
37
41.273.915
22.951.124
ShipDuilding.wooden.
206
2,107.149,
3.372;i;n
1
including boat-
1
building
138
1.221.691
3.038.016
Cotton goods
15
21.642.675
15.405.S23
WooUen gocxis
66
14.990.211
13.969.600
Worsted goods
6
. 2.562.193
.$11S.456.057
3,609.990
1S24
$113,497,140
SBxty-eigfat other in-:
.
dustries ,
1321
3145
25.149.693
30.623.051
Total '
|$143.605.750
$144,120,191
Besides the al>ove specifietl inilustries, large amounts
are derived from otners of which no accurate report
can be readily obtained!. A brge sum is derived each
year from the tislieries. ap:irt from what results from
the canning indust rv. The man\if act ure of lime in t he
vicinity of Rocklant^ is carrieil on on a ver>- large scale.
The granite quarries at Vinalhaven Weld a large re-
turn. A \"er>' considerable amount is obtaine^i t hrough
the mining industries, the niimerous mineral springs.
located chiefly in Androscoggin County, and numerous
lesser industries of which no report b made to the
labour commissioner. A verj- conser\-ative estimate
places these at six millions or more.
Agriculture. — Finally, and most important by far as
the source from which the livelihooil of the vast major-
ity of the population is drawn, come the agricultural
products. Tne County of Aroostook was reported a
rew years sinee as ranking second in the Union in the
value of its agricultural products, and there has been
a great increase in the quantity and ^-alue of its prod-
ucts since then. The potato crop of that eoimtv in
19as brought nearly $15,000,000. Taking then'tte
state as a whole, and reckoning potatoes, hay^ OKti^
wheat, buckwheat, bariev, lye, oom for ennni
poaes, apples (of which there were ^owm VmQ
narrols m 1907), \-e9ptables nnd dnuqr ] — "■"
last a >-enr large and important itani)*n
jrure the agricultunk pWMluBl% ^^^'^
which are akin to them, at more than $50»0U0,OOO in
an average year. In brief, Maine produces through its
varied industries some S275 to $300 annually for each
inhabitant.
Flora and Fauna. — ^The forests of Maine cover the
greater part of the state, and the \^lue of its standing
woods is immense. Spruce is first in quantity, as it is
also in greatest demand. Aft«r spruce comes hem-
lock; next, white birch used in the manufacture of
spools; poplar for pulpwood; cedar for shinglcss, and
bu'ch for tne manufacture of furniture. The pine is
also found, but no longer in large quantities. In addi-
tion to these are found the maple, ajsh, beech, and
other varieties. Owing to the large extent of forest,
game is so plentiful that Elaine is called the " hunter's
paradise ". During the open or hunting season, which
m general covers the penod from 1 October to 1 De-
cember, the woods are filled with hunters from all
parts of the Union. The hunter from abroad is in
pursuit of the moose, caribou, or deer, but the local
nunter adds to these the fox, beaver, marten, sable,
mink, and wild cat. Along the coast especially, and
to some extent in the lake regions, wild fowl abound.
The various lakes, ponds, and streams abound with
landlocked salmon, trout, and togue, for which the
close time extends from 1 October until the ice has left
the pond, lake, or river. Many other varieties of fish
are also found, making Maine as attractive to the
angler as to the hunter.
Climate. — ^The climate of Maine, as its Jatitude
indicates, is cold during a considerable portion of the
yea r. I n t he ext reme nort h t he ground is covered wit h
snow from the middle of November to the first of April
(and even later) in the average year. But the climate
is most healthful at all seasons. Tens of thousands of
people from all parts of the count r>' have their summer
nomes in Maine, or at least spend several months of
each >*ear in the state. Not at the famous summer re-
sorts of Old Orchard and Bar Harbor only is the sum-
mer x-isitor found, but ever^-where along the coast, in
the interior of the state in the vicinity of some of its
many lakes, and even at the northernmost extremity
of the state in the St . John \*alley. The mar\'ellousiy
beautiful scenery, which every successix-e season at-
tracts people in increasing numbers to Maine, enjo\'s
so wide a renown that anything more than a passing
reference to it is unnecessary here.
PoprL-VTioN. — ^The population of the territory of
Maine according to the census of 1790 was 96,540: it
was 151,719 in ISOO: 22S,705 in ISIO; 29S.269 in 1820,
when it became a state ^15 Mareh^; .'J99.455 in 1S30:
501. 79A in 1S40: 5S3.aU in 1S50; 62S.279 in 1S60;
6*26,015 in 1S70; 64S.9:^ in 1S80: 661.086 in 1890;
694,4S0 in 19lX\ The Catholic population is 123,517.
It will be obser\ed that, while the growth of popula-
tion has not been rapid, it has been steady and regular,
one decade only from 1S60 to 1S70 showing a sli^t
decrease. Tliis is acci^unted for by t he fact that Mame
fumishevl 70,107 soldiers to the Federal army in the
Civil War, of whom 9S9S died during the waV. It is
safe to preiiict tiiat the census now being taken (1910)
will add fully ten per cent to the figures of the last
census, making the population about 765.000.
CONSTITITIOX AND tio VERS MEN T. ItS OOnStituUon
was moiielled after that of the Federal go\'eninient.
The legislative power is veste^i in a senate composed of
thirty-one members and a house of representatives of
one liundred and fifty-one members, both senators and
feprescntatives being chosen for a period of two jrears.
Tbe election is heU on the second Mondax of Septem-
ber in the cvai yniBy and the official tenn begins on
thidaj beion the fin* Wcdaeiday of Janoaiy f oUow-
*~ "^ ^ * ^ ~ MB eriewlvc pa—d li sub"
,biii»ahonkibe
SSSAi
^:
MAIMB
543
BtAMB
Initiative and Referendum, — An amendment to the
Constitution, which came into effect in the first Wed-
nesday of January, 1909. established " a people's veto
through the optional referendum and a direct initia-
tive by petition and at general or special elections *\
Executive Department. — In the executive depart-
ment of the government, the governor has associated
with him seven executive councillors, each represent-
ing one of the seven councillor districts into which the
state is divided. These are chosen by the legislature
in joint convention at the be^nning of the session;
and to this board the nominations made by the gov-
ernor are submitted for confirmation. Under the state
government, the following are the principal heads of
departments: state auditor, chosen by popular vote
at the September election; attorney-general; secre-
tary of state; state treasurer; three state assessors,
chosen by the legislature; superintendent of public
schools; highway commissioner; auditor of state
printing; land agent and forest commissioner; insur-
ance commissioner; bank examiner; state liquor
commissioner; pension clerk; commissioner of inaus-
trial and labour statistics; commissioner of agriculture;
inspector of workshops, factories, and mines; three
railroad commissioners; three enforcement commis-
sioners; state librarian; three commissioners of inland
fisheries and game; three commissioners of sea and
shore fisheries; keeper of the state arsenal; three com-
missioners of harbours and tidal waters; three cattle
commissioners; three commissioners of pharmacy;
agent of the Penobscot Indians; agent of thePassama-
quoddy Indians; three inspectors of prisons and jails;
two inspectors of steamboats; inspectors of dams and
reservoirs.
There are also appointed eight medical men to con-
stitute a state board of health; six medical men to
constitute a board of registration; five lawyers to
make up a board of legal examiners; three veterinary
surgeons to form a board of veterinary examiners, and
five dentists to constitute a board of dental examiners.
Besides these there are numerous boards of trustees to
supervise the management of state institutions . A 11 of
these are nominated bjr the governor and confirmed
by the council. The principal ones are: Maine Insane
Hospital at Augusta; Eastern Maine Insane Hospital
at Bangor; state prison at Thomaston; State School for
Boys at South Portland; Maine Industrial School for
Girls at Hallowell; Military and Naval Orphan Asylum
at Bath; the University of Maine at Orono; College of
Law of the University of Maine at Bangor; state nor-
mal schools at Castine, Farmington, Gorham, Presque
Isle, and Calais; the Madawaska Training School at
Fort Kent, and the Maine School for the Deaf at Port-
land. In this connexion, although not immediately
under state authority, may be named certain institu-
tions of a public nature, such as the Maine General
Hospital at Portland, Central Maine General Hospital
at Lewiston, Eastern Maine General Hospital at
Bangor, the Eye and Ear Infirmary at Portland,
Maine State Sanitorium Association and Maine Insti-
tution for the Blind — all of which have received assist-
ance from the state.
Judicial Department. — ^The judicial department is
composed in the first place of a supreme court of eight
justices, viz. a chief justice and seven associate jus-
tices. These sit individually in the several coimties of
the state to hear cases at nisi prius, and as a court of
law to hear cases brought before them on exceptions
at three different places, namely Portland, Bangor,
and Augusta. These judges are also vested with full
equity powers to hear and determine cases in equity
with or without the inter\'ention of a jury. Besides
these, superior courts have been established in the
counties of Cumberiand and Kennebec with a jurisdic-
tion fixed by the acts establishing them, and broad
enough to enable them to hear and decide the vast
majority of cases arising within their respective couDr
ties. Each city and a number of the larger towns have
municipal courts of limited jurisdiction in both civil
and criminal matters, and fijmlly in every county in
the state are trial justices having jurisdiction in petty
civil and criminal cases subject to an appeal to a
higher court, and authority to issue warrants for the
apprehension of offenders in all crises, and to bind over
the party accused for trial at the Supreme or Superior
Court as the case may be. The municipaHties are
divided into three classes: cities, towns and planta-
tions. Augiista is the capital of the state. Portland,
the largest city in the state, is one of the most beauti-
ful residential cities in the whole country. Maine has
21 cities, 430 towns, and 73 plantations.
Religion. — ^The declaration of rights prefixed t©
the Constitution of Maine, article 1, section 3, reads a£
follows: — "All men have a natural and unalienable
right to worship God according to the dictates of their
own consciences^ and no one shall be hurt, molested or
restrained, in his person, liberty or estate, for wor-
shipping God in the manner and season most agreeable
to the dictates of his own conscience, nor for his reli-
gious professions or sentiments, provided he does not
disturb the public peace nor obstruct others in their
religious worship; and all persons demeaning them-
selves peaceably as good members of the state shall be
equally under the protection of the laws and no sub-
oixlination nor preference of anyone sect or denomina-
tion to another sliall ever be established by law, nor
shall any religious test be required as a qualification
for any office or trust under the state; and all religious
societies in this state whether incorporate or unincor-
porate shall at all times have the exclusive right of
electing their public teachers and contracting with
them for their support and maintenance." The fore-
going is the only constitutional provision having refer-
ence to religious opinions or practices.
Lord's Day. — ^Tne statute provides penalties for
"whoever on the Lord's Day or at any other time,
behaves rudely or indecently within the walls of any
house of public worship; wilfully interrupts or dis-
turbs any assembly for public worship within the place
of such assembly or out of it"; for one "who on the
Lord's Dav, keeps open his shop, workhouse, ware-
house or place ot business on that day, except works
of necessity or charity " ; for an innholder or victualler
who, " on the Lord's Day, suffers any person, except
travellers or lodgers to abide in his house, vard or field,
drinking or spending their time idly at play, or doing
any secular business except works of charity or neces-
sity. " " No person conscientiously believing that the
seventh day of the week ought to be observed as the
Sabbath, and actually refraining from secular business
and labour on that day, is liable to said penalties for do-
ing such business or labour on the first day of the week,
if he does not disturb other persons." Service of civil
process on the Lord's Day is also forbidden, and, if in
tact made, is void.
Administration of Oaths. — Oaths may be adminis-
tered by all judges, justices of the peace, and notaries
public m the form prescribed by statute as follows:
the person to whom an oath is administered shall hold
up his right hand, unless he believes that an oath ad-
ministered in that form is not binding, and then it may
be administered in a form believed by him to be bind-
ing; one believing any other than the Christian Reli-
gion, may be sworn according to the ceremonies of his
religion. Persons conscientiously scrupulous of taking
an oath may affirm.
Blasphemy and Profanity. — ^The statutes provide
that "whoever blasphemes the Holy Name of God, by
denying, cursing or contumeliously reproaching God,
His creation, government, final judgment of the work),
Jesus Christ, the Holy Gnost, or the Holy Scriptures
as contained in the canonical books of the Old and
New Testament or by exposing them to contempt and
ridicule, shall be punislied by imprisonment for not
BCAINB
544
BCAINB
more thaa two years or by fine not exceeding two hun-
dred dollars ". A fine of five dollars is provided for one
who " profanely curses or swears. "
Use of Prayer in Legislature. — ^There is no statute on
this subject, but since Maine became a state it has
been customary for the president of the senate and the
speaker of. the house of representatives to invite in
turn the several clergvmen of Augusta, Hallowell, and
Gardiner, to open each day's session in their respective
branches with prayer. Until some twenty years ago,
Protestant clergymen alone were invited, but since
that time Catholic priests are invited and officiate in
their turn.
Recognition of Rdigious Holidays. — ^The statutes
provide that "no person shall be arrested in a civil
action, or mesne process or execution or on a warrant
for taxes, on the day of annual fast or thanksgiving,
the thirtieth dav of May, the fourth day of July, or
Christmas. '' The Legislature of 1907 passed an act
abolishing the annual fast day and substituting Pa-
triots' Day therefor.
Seal of Confession, — ^There is no record of any at-
tempt to obtain from any priest information acquired
by him through the confessional, by any tribunal of
this state or by any one practising falefore the same.
Incorporation of Churches. — ^The statutes provide
that " any persons of lawful age, desirous of becoming
an incorporated parish or religious society, may apply
to a justice of the peace", and full provision is made
for their incorporation into a parish, and further that
" every parish may take by gift or purchase any real or
personal property, until the clear annual income
thereof shall amount to three thousand dollars, convev
the same and establish by-laws not repugnant to law. "
By Act of the Legislature approved 27 February, 1887,
the Roman Catholic Bishop of Portland was created a
corporation sole.
Exemption of Church Property from Tcixation, — ^The
statutes provide that "houses of religious worship,
including vestries and the pews and furniture withm
the same, except for parochial purposes; tombs and
tights of burial; and property held b>[ a religious
society as a parsonage, not exceeding six thousand
dollars in value and from which no rent is received,
are exempt from taxation. But all other property of
liny reli^ous society, both real and personal, is liable
to taxation, the same as other property."
Exemption of Clergy from certain Public Duties. —
Settled ministers of the gospel are exempt by statute
Ifrom serving as jurors, and by the constitution ' minis-
ters' are among those entitled to be exempted from
military duty.
Marriage and Divorce. — ^The statutes provide that
•'every justice of the peace, residing in the State; every
drdained minister of the gospel and every person
hcensed to preach by an association of ministers, re-
ligious seminary or ecclesiastical body, duly appointed
and commissioned for that purpose by the governor,
may solemnize marriages within the hmits of his ap-
pointment. Jhe governor with the advice and con-
sent of Council, may appoint women otherwise eligible
under the constitution to solemnize marriages." An-
other section safeguards the rights of those contract-
ing marriage in good faith by making it valid, al-
though not solemnized in legal form, and although
there may be a want of jurisdiction or authority in
the justice or minister performing the ceremony.
The statutory grounds for divorce are prescribed
in the following section: "A divorce from the bonds
of matrimony may be decreed by the Supreme Judi-
cial Court in the Coimty where either party resides at
the commencement of procedings for cause of adul-
tery, impotence, extreme cruelty, utter desertion
continuea for three consecutive years next prior to
the filing of the libel, gross and confirmed habits of
intoxication, cruel and abusive treatment, or, on the
libel of the wife, where the husband being of sufficient
ability, grossly or wantonly and cruelly refuses Of
neglects to provide suitable maintenance for her;
provided that the parties were married in this state
or cohabited here after marriage; or if the libellant
resided here when the cause of cQvorce accrued or had
resided here in good faith for one year prior to t^e
commencement of the proceedings. But when both
parties have been guilty of adulteiy, or there is col-
lusion between them to procure a divorce, it shall not
be granted." Either party may be a witness.
Education. — ^The law makes liberal and ample
provision for a system of common schools covering
the entire state. The number of school children in
the state according to the report of the state superin-
tendent for the year 1909 was 212,329, and the
amount expended for school purposes was $2,368,890.
The statutes relating to public schools contain no
reference to religion or religious teaching. Free high
schoob are encouraged by reimbursing any town
establishing one a certain proportion of the amount
expended in connexion therewith. Such schools have
been established in all of the cities and in more than
half of the towns, and scholars from other towns are
admitted without charge for tuition, the amount being
chaiged to the town in which thev reside. Under the
heacT of normal schools we find the following statute:
** Said schools, while teaching the fundamental truUis
of Christianity and the great principles of morality,
recognized by law, shall be free from all denomina-
tional teachings and open to persons of different re-
ligious connections on terms of equaUty." The higher
education is furnished by the University of Maine at
Orono; Bowdoin College at Brunswick; Bates College
at Lewis ton; Colby College at Water ville; St. Mary^s
College at Van Buren. Concerning the Catholic
schools, which are attended by 12,274 pupils, see
Portland, Diocese of.
Charitable Institutions. — The statutes provide
a method of organizing charitable societies, and there
is also a provision exempting them from taxation.
''The real and personal property of all literary insti-
tutions, and all benevolent, charitable and scientific
institutions incorporated by the state, corporations
whose property or funds in excess of their ordinary
expenses are held for the relief of the sick, the poor
or the distressed, or of widows and orphans, or to bury
the dead, are benevolent and charitable institutions
within the meaning of this specification, without re-
gard to the sources from whicn such funds are derived,
or the limitations in the classes of persons for whose
benefit they are applied, except that so much of the
real estate of such corporations as is not occupi^ bj
them for their own purposes, shall be taxed in the
municipality in which it is situated."
Sale of Liquor. — On the first Wednesday of Jan-
uary, 1885, the following provision became a part of
the constitution: *'The manufacture of intoxicating
liquors, not including cider, and the sale and keeping
for sale of intoxicating liquors, are and shall be for-
ever prohibited, except, however, that the sale and
keeping for sale of such liquors for medicinal and
mechanical purposes and the arts and the sale and
keeping for sale of cider, may l)e permitted under such
regulations as the legislature may provide. The leg-
islature shall enact laws with suitable penalties for the
suppression of the manufacture, sale and keeping for
sale of intoxicating liquors, with the exceptions hereic
specified.''
Prohibitory Legislation. — Beginning with 21 June,
1851, the date of the approval of the first act, the
legi^ture has passed fifty-six acts intended to pre-
vent the sale of intoxicating liquors. The law in its
§ resent state covers twenty pages of the Revised
tatutes and is in substance as toUows: (1) A law pro-
hibiting the manufacture or sale by any one of such
intoxicating liquors (except cider); (2) prohibiting
peddling intoxicating liquors; (3) against the trana-
MAXm
645
MAIMS
portation from place to place of intoxicating liquors
with intent to sell; (4) prohibiting any sale of intox-
icating liquors by self, clerk, servant, or agent; (5)
to punish the offence of being a conunon seller; (6) to
punish the keeping of a drinicing house and tippling
shop; (7) against keeping intoxicating liquors in one's
possession mtended for unlawful sale; (8) a law pro-
viding for a search and seizure of intoxicating lic^uors
intended for unlawful sale, and for their forfeiture;
(9) against advertising sale or keeping for sale of in-
toxicating liquors in newspapers. The penalties
range, according to the gravity of the offence, from a
fine of fifty doUiars and costs to a fine of $1000 and
costs, and imprisonment from thirty days to six
months. For a second or subsequent offence the pen-
alties are to be increased. Formerly the duty of en-
forcing the prohibitory law rested upon certain county
officers, such as the sheriff and his deputies and the
county attorney, and upon certain municipal officers.
In addition to these, by act approved on 18 March,
1905, the governor was authorized to appoint a com-
mission of three persons, who in turn may appoint
such number of deputies as in their judgment may
be necessary to enforce the laws against the manu-
facture and sale of intoxicating liquors.
State and Town Agencies. — A ^te agency exists "to
furnish municipal officers of towns and cities with pure,
unadulterated mtoxicating liquors to be kept and sold
for medicinal, mechanical and manufacturing pur-
poses'*. The municipal officers are authorized U> ap-
point ''some suitable person, agent of said town or
city", who is authorized to purchase liquors from the
state agent and " to sell the same^ at some convenient
place therein, to be used for medicmal, mechanical and
manufacturing purposes and no other." "No such
agent shall have any interest in such liquors or in the
profits of the sale thereof."
Prisons and Reformatories. — ^Thcre is a state
prison located at Thomaston, the Reform School be-
ing situated at Cape Elizabeth. There is a county iail
in each county except Piscataquis, which uses the Pe-
nobscot jail at Bangor, and every citv and large town
has its police station or lock-up. There is also the
Industrial School for Girls at Hallowell.
Wills and Testaments. — ^The statutes provide
that " a person of sound mind and of the age of twenty-
one years, may dispose of his real and personal
estate by will m writing signed hy him, or by some
person for him at his request and m his presence, and
subscribed in his presence by three credible attesting
witnesses not beneficially interested under said will.
Charitable Bequests, — ^There is no statute on this
subject, but a bequest, for any purpose not against
public policy, will be sustained, provided there be a
person or persons or corporation empowered to accept
and receive the same.
Cemeteries. — ^The statutes provide as follows:
"Section 1. Towns may raise and assess money, nec-
essary for purchasing and suitably fencing land for a
burying ground. Section 2. Persons of lawful age
may incorporate themselves for the purpose of pur-
chasing land for a burying ground." Another section
requires that ancient cemeteries belonging to anv
town, parish, or religious society shall be fenced;
still another exempts lots in pubuc or private ceme-
teries from attachments and levy on execution.
HisTORY.-j-So conspicuous were the islands and the
coast of Maine, that it is beyond question that they
were known to nearly all of the early explorers. In
990 Biame sailed from Iceland for Greenland and,
driven by storms from his course, discovered an un-
known land to the south, covered with forests. The
account of his voyage leads one to believe that he
passed in sight of the Maine coast. After him came
other Northmen; the sons of Eric the Red sucoe^
sively made voyages to the coast of New England,
Leif in 1000, Thorwald in 1002, <SDd Thomstein in
IX.— 35
1004. The last named came in search of the body of
hb brother Thorwald, slain in battle by the natives
in the vicinity of what is now Boston Harbour; he
remained through the winter, returning in 1005.
After these atmc Thorfinn Karlsefne in 1006; Thor-
hall the hunter in 1008, who beyond question was
actually upon the coast of Maine, and Thorfinn Karl-
sefne, who came again in 1009 in search of Thorhall the
hunter, but probably did not quite reach the coast of
Maine. Durmg the period which elapsed until the time
of Columbus (1492), while many voyages were made
from Denmark and Iceland to "vineland", which
comprised the coast of Maine and New Hampshire,
and to Markland, which was identical with Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick of to-day, there is no cer-
tainty that any of the vessels of the Northmen landed
on the coast of Maine proper. The prevailing opinion
was that this region formed a part of Europe, and it
is so set down in the maps of that period. Later it
was believed to be a part of Asia. Columbus in voy-
aging westward was in search of a passage to India.
The first voyage of John Cabot and his son Sebas-
tian in 1497, in which the land of North America was
observed, left them under the impression that it was
the coast of Eastern Asia. In 1498 Sebastian Cabot
passed along the entire length of the coast of Maine
going and returning. Then for the first time and to
his disappointment, Sebastian Cabot discovered that
this land stood as an apparently impassable barrier
between him and "far-off Cathay". In 1624 the
Italian, Verrazano, for the French Government, ex-
plored the coast bordering "on the gulf of Maine",
and describes it very minutely. In 1525 Estevan
Gomez, in behalf of the Spanish Government, made a
voyage to the New World, and entered many of the
ports and bays of New England. For a long time
afterwards, the territory of which Maine forms a part
was known on Spanish maps as the "Country of
Gomez". In 1527 John Rut, on an English vessel,
visited the coast, being the first Englishman to set
foot upon American soil. It was at this time that
the territory of Maine became known as Norupa-
be^, called after an imaginary city located in the in-
tenor on the banks of the Penobscot. All of these ex-
peditions were sent out in the hope of discovering a
north-west passage to India. In 1541 Diego Maldo-
nado visited the coast of Maine. He was in charge of
a Spanish expedition sent out in search of Ferdinand
De Soto, who had explored the southern coast of
North America to take possession of it for the Span-
ish Government.
In 1556 Andr^ Thevet, a passenger on board a
French vessel, landed with others on the banks of the
Penobscot. This traveller has ^yen a very complete
and interesting account of his visit. In 1565 Sir John
Hawkins explored the coast, and Sir Humphrey Gil-
bert perished on the way to establish an English
colony at Norumbega on the Penobscot. In 1602
Bartholomew Gosnoid appears to have landed in the
vicinity of the city of Portland, and in 1603 Martin
Pring entered Pi nobscot Bay, the mouth of the Ken-
nebec, and Casco Bay.
The first attempt at founding a colony within the
territory of Bifaine was made by Pierre du Guast,
Sieur de Monte, who, having received authority from
Henrv IV of France in 1603 to colonize "Acadia"-,
by wnich was meant all of the territory between the
fortieth and fifty-sixth degrees of north latitude,
sailed from Havre in company with the still more
famous Samuel de Champlain m the spring of 1604,
with two vessels carrying one hundred and twenty
persons. After stopping at several places, among
others at the mouth of the river which he named and
which is still known as the St. John, he sailed into
Passamaquoddy Bay, as it is now called, up the 9t.
Croix River, as he named it, and landed on an island
to which he gave the same name. This is now known
MAIMB
546
MAIMB
t0 De Monts Is]and, and is within the limits of the
parish of the Immaculate Conception, which includes
the citv of Calais. Here, in a small chapel, quickly
erectecf, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass was offered for
the first time on the soil of New England by Rev.
Nicholas Aubry of Paris in July, 1604. From this
little colony the Gospel spread amon^ the Indians, the
Abenakis being the first on the continent to embrace
the Faith; this they did in a body, and they have
ttood steadfast in the Faith to this aay. The colony
was transferred near the close of the following year to
a new location at Port Royal on Annapolis Bay. In
July, 1605, Captain George Weymouth landed on the
ooaist of Maine within the limits of the town of St.
George.
On 10 April, 1606, James I of England grated a
charter, called the Charter of Virginia, providing for
two colonies, one between the thirty-fourth and
thirty-eighth and the other between the forty-first
and forty-fifth degrees of latitude, the latter including
flubstantiallv the whole of the Maine coast, and extend-
ing a considerable distance into the interior. Under
this charter a small colony was established in 1607
on the peninsula of Sagadahoc on the spot now com-
memorated by Fort Popham. This settlement ap-
pears to have been broken up. It was renewed, how-
ever, after a few years andf has continued down to
the present time. These settlements, the one made
by De Monts on St. Croix Island, and that made at
lort Popham, have formed respectivelv the basis of
the claim made by the French and the English to
tiie territory of Maine — a controversy long, and bit-
ter, and bloody, in which the religious element was
ever present. The French king claimed as far west
as the Kennebec; the English claimed as far east
as the present line of the state. The English oc-
cupancy spread from the mouth of the Sagadahoc
in ooth directions, so that in 1614, when Captain John
Smith visited the coast, he found a few settlers on the
island of Monhegan and around Pemaquid Bay. The
history of the English settlement from 1616 until
1677 consists of the doings of Sir Ferdinando Gorges,
his son Robert, and his nephew. Ferdinando Gorges
in 1622 received from the English kin^ a patent of the
land between the Merrimac and the Kennebec, and in
^e next year sent his son Robert as governor and
lieutenant-general of the Province of Maone. He was
accompanied by a minister of the Church of England
and several councillors. The first court was con-
vened tst Saco on 21 March, 1636. In 1639 he received
a charter which made of the Province of Maine a pal-
atinate of which Sir Ferdinando Gorges was lord pala-
tine. This is the only instance of a purely feudal
possession on the American continent. In 1641 the
first chartered city in the United States, Gorgiana,
now York, was established. In that period (1630-2)
settlements were begun in Saco, Biddeford, Scarboro,
Gape Elizabeth, and Portland, which progressed fairly
well until the Indian war in 1675, during which they
were almost destroyed.
In 1677 Massachusetts purchased the interest of the
Gorges in the Province of Maine, and in 1691 it be-
came definitively part of "The Royal Province of
Massachusetts Bay'', and so continued until 1820.
The Maine men in the Revolutionary War were reck-
oned as Massachusetts troops, and a r^^ent of
Maine men fought at Bunker WU. The first naval
battle was that at Machias, in which Jeremiah O'Brien
and his five sons captured the British ship, Marga-
retta (11 July, 1775). The French occupancy con-
sisted of a few missions, the principal being the one at
Pentagoet (Castine) on the Penobscot and another
at Narantsouac (Norridgewock) on the Kennebec.
Hie history of the Frencn occupancy is accordingly
the history of the Catholic missions. In 1611 Jean de
Biencourt, Sieur de Poutrincourt, having succeeded
to the title of De Monts, landed on an idand at the
mouth of the Kennebec. He was accompanied
among others by Father Biard. This is believed to
have oeen the second nlace in Maine in which the
Holy Sacrifice of the Mass was celebrated. In 1613
another attempt was made at founding a Catholic
colony on the coast. Antoinette de Pons, Aiarchioness
de Guercheville, sent out imder the command of
Sieur de la Saussaye an expedition which sailed from
France on 12 March, 1613, and landed on the south-
eastern shore of Mount Desert. Here the missionaries
planted a cross, celebrated Mass, and gave the place
the name of St. Sau veur. This settlement was destined
to be short-lived. Captain Samuel Argall from Vir-
ginia, in a small man-of-war, attacked the colony,
took, and destroyed it. Father Masse, with fourteen
Frenchmen, was set adrift in a small boat, and the
others were carried prisoners to Virginia. Soon after,
the governor of Virginia sent Argall to destroy the
remnant of the St. Croix and Port Royal colonies,
which he did, burning such buildings as had been
erected.
In 1619 the Recollects of the Franciscan Order were
given charge of the territory, which included Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, and Maine. Tliey ministered
to the spiritual wants of Indians and whites alike, and
so continued in charge imtil the year 1630. The Capu-
chins, another branch of the Franciscan Order, suc-
ceeded them three years later. .From Port RoyaJ as a
centre, they had missions as far as the Penobscot and
the Kennebec, the principal one in Maine being that at
Pentagoet on the Penobscot. In 1646, at the request
of the Indians of the Kennebec, the superior ot the
Jesuit mission in Canada sent Father Gabriel Druil-
lettes, who founded the mission of the Assumption.
He returned to Quebec the following year, but in 1650
was back at his post, being stationed at Norridgewock.
He appears to have liv^ alternately there and at
Quebec until 1657, when he returned finally to Que-
bec. The Capuchin mission at Pentagoet was broken
up about this time by an expedition sent by Cromwell,
and the missionary. Very Rev. Bemadine de Crespy,
was carried off to England. In 1667, Pentagoet hav-
ing been restored to France by the Treaty of Breda,
Catholic worship was restored. Rev. Lawrence Molin,
a Franciscan, was placed in charge, and from this
point visited all the stations in the state. The Baron
ae Castine, from whom Castine (Pentagoet) derives its
name, was a strong supporter of this mission at this
period. After Famer Molin came Father Morain in
1677 to minister to the Penobscots and Passama-
quoddies. In 1684 Rev. Louis P. Thury was sent by
Bishop Laval, and settled at Castine. In 1688 he
built the church of St. Ann at Panawaniski (Indian
for Oldtown), which exists to this day and is the old-
est parish in New England. Baron de Castine appears
to have been the chief promoter of this church, and
also offered to maintain the missionary at his own ex-
E3. The baron had married the daughter of the
more Modockewando. About 1701 he returned
■ance; but his half-breed son, Anselme, Baron de
Castine, was long a prominent figure in the wars which
were continually waged between the French and their
Indian allies and the New Englanders, representing
British interests. In the same year (1668) Father
James Bigot built a chapel at Norridgewock. His
tMX)ther, Rev. Vincent Bigot, also served the mission
for some little tiire, leaving it in 1699. Besides these,
and during the same pericd, the Jesuit fathers, Peter
Joseph de la Chasse, Julien Binnetau, and Joseph Au-
bery, served the missions in Maine. Rev. Jacques
Alexis de Fleury d'Eschambault succeeded Father
Thury, who had oeen called elsewhere. Father d'Es-
chambault died in 1698, and was succeeded by Rev.
Philip Rageot and Rev. Father Guay until 1701, and
by Rev. Anthonv Gaulin until 1703. Rev. Sebastian
Kale was also located at Norridgewock during the
same period, and continued there for thirty yeans.
MAIKB
547
MAINE
In 1704-5 expeditions were sent from Massachusetts
to destroy the mission stations in Maine. Those on
the Penobscot were ravaged, and the church and all
of the wigwams were burned. In 1722 another expe-
dition sent out by the Governor of Massachusetts
burned the church on the Penobscot. The same ex-
pedition in January, 1722, had proceeded to Norridge-
wock for the purpose of capturing or killing Father
Rale. On this occasion, being warned in time, he and
his flock escaped by taking to the woods. At last the
end came. The frequent attempts, all more or less
successful, to destroy the Maine mission stations,
forced the Indians to prepare to defend themselves.
After several battles between the Massachusetts
forces with their Indian allies and the Indians of the
Kennebec, a small force attacked the village of Nor-
ridgewock on 23 August, 1724. Father Rale, well
knowing that he was the one whose life was sought,
and apparently anxious to divert the attack from his
people, went forth to meet the enemy and fell
pierced by many bullets. After the death of Father
Rale, the only missionaries in Maine appear to have
been Fathers De Syresm and Lanverjat, and these
remained only until 1731. In 1730 a chapel had been
erected on the Kennebec, but for fifty years or more
the Indians had to content themselves with occa-
sional pilgrimages to certain places in Canada, notably
Becancour ana St. Francis on the Chaudidre River.
They were occasionally visited by Father Charles
Germain from St. Anne's mission, now Fredericton,
New Brunswick. At the beginning of the Revolu-
tionary War, the Abenakis having taken the side of
the patriots, all persecution for religious or other
reasons ceased, and the General Council of Massachu-
setts desired to furnish them a priest, but were unable
to obtain -one at that time. At the close of the war.
Rev. Father Ciquard, a Sulpician, was sent to Old-
town and remained there until 1794, whence he went
to Fredericton.
The foundation of the Catholic Church in Maine
practically dates from the arrival of Father (after-
wards Bishop) Cheverus from Boston in July, 1797, to
take charge of the two Indian missions at Pleasant
Point. The few white Catholics scJattered here and
there claimed his attention equally with the red
men. The progress made was slow, but on 17 July,
1808, he had the satisfaction of dedicating St. Pat-
rick's church at Damariscotta. Fully two-thirds of its
cost had been contributed by two gentlemen partners
in business, Messrs. Kavanagh and Cottrill. it is a re-
markable circumstance that the two most distinguished
Catholic laymen of the past century in Maine were
of their descendants. Edward Kayana^, son of the
senior partner, represented his native district in the
twenty-second and twenty-third congresses, and after
his second term was appointed by President Jackson
minister to Portugal. In 1842 he was elected to the
state senate, and was chosen president of that body.
Governor Fairfield having been elected to the United
States senate, Kavanagh became acting governor.
A monument to the sterUng Catholic principles of the
Kavanagh family, exists in the splendid " Kavanagh
School ", wliich stands near the cathedral in Portland,
erected with means contributed by a sister of the
fovernor. James C. Madigan (b. in Damariscotta, 22
uly, 1821; d, in Houlton, 16 October, 1879) was the
grandson of Matthew Cottrill. He was sent by Gov-
ernor Ivavanagh to establish schools in the Madawaska
territory in 1843, and made his home for a number of
years at Fort Kent. He later removed to Houlton,
where he spent the remainder of his days. He was the
most conspicuous Catholic In New England for many
ye&n. A gentleman of noble presence, of rare cul-
ture, elegant manners, and high character, he was
well fitted to adorn the highest office in the land.
He Was one of the five members of the commission ap-
pointed in 1875 by Governor Dingey to revise tne
constitution of the state. He was an able and
learned lawyer, and an eloquent and powerful advo-
cate. He was a devout Catholic and probably no lay-
man in the entire country in his time stood so high m
the estimation of the clergy. At Whitefield, Rev.
Denis Ryan being pastor, a church was built and dedi-
cated in June, 1822. Rev. Benedict Joseph Fenwick
having been chosen to succeed Bishop Cheverus, who
had returned to France, he was consecrated Bishop
of Boston on 1 Nov., 1825. During his government
of the Diocese of Boston, St. Dominic's church in
Portland was built, and was dedicated on 11 August,
1833. In 1834 Bishop Fenwick, having secured a half
township of land in Aroostook County, established
the prosperous Catholic colony of Benedicta. In
1835 St. Joseph's Church in Eastport was dedicated;
on 4 August, i838, one in Gardiner; on 10 Nov., 1839,
St. Michael's in Bangor.
Knownothin^m. — The growth of the Catholic
Church in Maine and New Hampshire was such that
in 1853, these states were taken out of the Diocese of
Boston to form the Diocese of Portland. On 22 April.
1855, Rev. David William Bacon was consecratea
bishop. It was just after the outbreak of Know-
nothin^sm which resulted in the tarring, feathering,
and riding on a rail of the saintly Father John Bap^
at Ellsworth. This was on 15 October, 1854. On the
preceding 8 July, the Knownothings had burned the
church at Bath. Subsequent events appear to justify
the belief that this persecution was the herald of the
remarkable growth and development of the Catholic
Church in Maine. It is not easy to foresee to what
lengths this anti-Catholic agitation might have gone,
had not events of national importance begun to loom
on the horizon. The Civil War, in which so many
Catholics of Maine and of all parts of the IJnion took
Eart, and so many greatly distinguished themselves
y their courage and valour, put an end to this perse-
cution— it is to be hoped, for ever. An attempt
was made during the period from 1890 to 1895 to
establish an order of the same nature, under the name
of the " American Protective Association ", but it soon
died a fitting death.
Early Catholic Settlers. — The State of Maine,
although settled a few years earlier than Massachusetts,
is peopled for the most part by inhabitants who claim
descent from settlers from Massachusetts and other
parts of New England. The Catholics of Maine are of
either Irish or French extraction, the French-Cana-
dians and Acadians constituting a majority. With
the possible exception of a few Irishmen to be found
here and there within its borders, the Acadians were
first in point of time. At the period of the exportatnon
of the Acadians from Grand Pr^ and other places in
Acadia, a few escaped and formed the mission of St.
Ann. at, above, and below the site of the city of
Freaericton, N. B. ^ Here they remained until the
close of the Revolutionary War and the arrival of the
Loyalists, otherwise called the Tories. Driven out of
the United States by the patriots, these latter came
to the St. John valley, lanaing in the city of St. John
about 11 May, 1783. Compelled to yield up their
possessions to the new-comers, the Acadians went a
second time into exile, and settled in 1784, with the
consent of the British authorities, on the upper St.
John, oocupying the territory now included in Mada-
waska County, New Brunswick, and so much of
Aroostook County as is within tne St. John valley.
Until 9 August, 1842, the date of the Treaty of Wash-
ington, both sides of the St. John were under British
rule. Hardly had the Acadians established themselves
in their new homes, before they were visited by mis-
sionaiy priests, espeHwally by Rev. Father Ciquart
from St. Ann's mission, their former pastor, ooon
after, in 1791 ^ they applied to the Bishop of Quebec
for leave to build a church; the church of ot. Basil was
built and dedicated on 7 July, 1793.
MAIKB
648
MADfTSNON
Rev. Father Paquet was in charge of the parish
until the church was dedicated, but was succeeded
soon afterwards by Father Cicjuart, whose name ap-
pears in the parish records until the end of 1798. in
1838 the first church on the American side of the St.
John River, St. Bruno's Church in Van Buren, was
built, and Rev. Antoine Gosselin appointed its first
pastor. At this time that region was in the Diocese
of Quebec; after 1842 it was in the Diocese of St. John,
and in 1870 it became portion of the Diocese of Port-
land. On the Maine side oi the St. John River there
are at present eleven churches, a college, seven convents
(six with schoob), and two hospitals. Soon after the
Acadians settled in this region, they were joined by a
few Canadians from the province of Quebec, and a
few Irish immigrants. The population to-day is made
up for the most part of Acauians and Canadians in
about equal proportions. By the year 1800 there was
a fair sprinkling of Irish immigrants within the bor-
ders, and they continued to arrive at intervals and in
Bmall numbers during the greater part of the past
century. Probably the period of the Irish famine of
1847 would mark the date of the coming of the larger
number. ThQ Canadians came, for the most part, to
the manufacturing centres during the building up of
the manufacturing industries in Lewiston, Bidde-
ford, Brunswick, Augusta, Waterville^ Skowhegan,
and Westbrook. This was chiefly during the period
from 1860 to 1880. A large number had established
themselves in Old town at an even earlier period.
When one considers the poverty of the Catholic
immigrants, their achievements seem truly marvel-
lous. Their zeal and devotion, as evidenced by the
churches and religious institutions built up by an able,
aealous, and pious clergy with their assistance, arc
beyond all praise. They have been most fortunate
in ^eir bishops and priests, and at no period have
the growth and development of the Church and its
interests been more rapid than at the present time.
During the past century, many Catholics of Maine
have ranked among the first in ability, endowments,
and character. Several were eminent in the profes-
sions, and many in business. But the conditions were
such as did not admit of any considerable political
advancement. Times have changed, however, and
to-day there is no perceptible difference in the support
given to Protestant and Catholic candidates for pub-
c office.
At the session of 1907, by a unanimous vote, an
appropriation to help to erect an additional building
for St. Mary's College, was granted by the legislature,
showing that in Maine, at least, no trace of the old-
time bieotry now exists. That conditions are as they
are, is due lareely to the high character of the Cath-
olic clergy, aided by many able and zealous laymen.
CoUecttons of Mains Historical Society, I— (Portland, 1869—);
Hannat, History of Acadia (St. John, 1879); Youno, HisUny
of ths Cath. Church in the New England States, I. Diocese of
Portland (Boston, 1899); Ftttos, Sketches of the Establishment
of the Church in New England (Boston, 1872); Stetson, Hi»-
torjf and Oovemment of Maine (New York); Official Cath.
Directoru and Clergy List for 1910; Maine Register (Portland,
1909); Ltons, Report of Industrial and iMbor Statistics (Portr
land); Statement of the case of the United States in matter
re/erred to King of the Netherlands for Arbitration by Convention
of Sept. 29, 1827 (Washington. 1829); Raymond, History of the
St. John River (St. John. 1905); Maine Historical Society,
Tercentenary of Martin Pring's landing (1903), of De Monts* set-
tlement on De Monts Island (1904), of Weymouth's landing at
8L George (1905) (Portland); Gov. Chamberlain's Address at
ths Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, 1876, in Laws of
Maine (Portland, 1877); Shea, The Cath. Church in the
United States (New York, 1856); Spraode, Sebastian Rale
(Boston); Baxter, Historical Manuscripts.
Peter Charles Keeoan.
Maine de Biran, Francois- Pierre -Gonthier,
philosopher; bom at Grateloup near Bergerac, Dor-
doflpie, France, 29 November, 1766; died at Paris, 16
July, 1 824. He studied at P^rigueux, join^ the army,
but after a few years resigned and entered politics. In
April, 1797, he was one of the Conseil des Cinq Cents;
howevel", as he incurred the hostility of the Directory
by his roy^ist sympathies he withdrew to Grateloup
where he devoted himself to philosophy. His consti-
tution was delicate and sensitive and his philosophic
bent had already manifested itself by his observations
on the influence of the physical state on the moral.
As an ideologist he won the prize at the Institut with
his essay "Sur Thabitude" (1802); but his "Decom-
position de la pens^e'* (1805) shows him deviating
from the theory of that school, and in " La perception
immediate'' (1807), and " Rapports du physique et du
morale de Thomme'' (1811), ne is an opponent of the
eighteenth-century philosophy. He then re-entered
the political arena and was elected to parliament in
1812, 1815, and 1820. In his latter days his tendency
to mysticism grad\ially brought him back towarcfs
practical Christianity, and he died a faithful child of
the Church. Three stages mark the development of
his philosophy. Up to 1804, a stage called by Naville
"the philosophy of sensation", he was a follower of
Condillac's sensism, as modified by de Tracy, which he
soon abandoned in favour of a system based on an
analysis of internal reflection. In the second stage —
the philosophy of will — 1804-18, to avoid materialism
and fatalism, lie embraced the doctrine of immediate
apperception, showing that man knows himself and
exterior things by the resistance to his effort. On re-
flecting he remarks the voluntary effort which differ-
entiates his internal from his external experience, thus
learning to distinguish between the ego and the non-
ego. In the third stage — the philosophy of religion —
after 1818, we find de Biran advocating a mystical
intuitional psychology. To man's two states of life:
representation (common to animals), and volition
(volition, sensation, and perception), he adds a third:
love or 'life of imion with Gcxi, in which the life of
Divine grace absorbs representation and volition.
Maine de Biran's style is laboured, but he is reckoned
by Cousin as the greatest French metaphysician from
the time of Malebranche. His genius was not fully
recognized till after his death, as the essay " Sur Thabi-
tude" (Paris, 1803) was the only book that appeared
under his name during his lifetime; but his reputa-
tion was firmly established on the publication of his
writings, partly by Cousin ("(Euvres philosophiques
de Maine de Biran", Paris, 1834-41), and pMtly by
Naville ('^(Euvres in^dites de Maine de Biran", Paris,
1859).
Naville, Maine de Biran, sa vie et ses pensSes (Paria, 1877);
Cousin, Preface to hia edition of the works (Paris, l£^4-41);
Turner, History of Philosophy (Boston, 1903). 606-7: Ubbbr-
WEO, HiHory of Philosophy, tr. Morris, II (New York, 1903),
340-1; Truman, Maine de Biran's Philosophy of Will (New
York, 1904) *f Q^rard, PhUosophie de Maine de Biran, an essay
with unpublished fragments (Paris, 1876); Matonade, Pensies
et pages irUdites de Maine de Biran (Pdrigueux, 1896) ; Couail-
HAC, Maine de Biran (Paris, 1905), an excellent study of his
philosophy.
A. A. MacEIrlean.
Maintenon, Fran{?oise, Makqihse de, b. at Niort,
28 November, 1635; d. at Saint-C)yr, 15 April, 1719.
She was the granddaughter of the celebrated Protest-
ant writer, ^rippa d'Aubign^. Constant d'Aubignd,
son of Agrippa, imprisoned in the Chateau Trompette
at Bordeaux on suspicion of intriguing with the Eng-
lish, had married in 1627 Jeanne de Cardillac, daugh-
ter of his gaoler. Again imprisoned at Niort on a
chaise of conspiring against Cardinal de Richelieu, he
was accompanied into prison by his wife, and it was in
this prison at Niort tnat Fran9oise was bom. She
was oaptized a Catholic, her father having been al-
ready received into the Church. In 1639 the family
went to Martinique, but came back tp France in 1645.
Fran9oise was then placed under the care of Mme de
ViUette, a Protestant aunt, who undermined the child's
faith. An order of the court transferred Fran^oise to
tlie care of a Catholic relative, Mme de Neuillant, but
for a time neither the kindness nor the subsequent
KAXSmiON 549 MAIMTENON
Btrictnees the latter employed, nor the efforts of the by the " M^moires ^ of Saint^imon, who hated her, by
Ursulines of Niort. who kept Frangoise gratuitously the letters of the Princess Palatine, which are bitterly
for some time, could counteract the influence of Mme antagonistic to her, and by the interpolations and for-
de Villette. She was finally converted at the Sj^e of series of La Beaumelle, the first editor of Mme de
foiuteen tiiroush the influence of the Ursulines oi Rue Maintenon's letters. As a result of the labours of La-
Saint-Jacques, Paris. In June, 1652, Frangoise, having vall^, no importance is now attached to La Beaum-
lost her mother and finding herself reduced almost to elle's publications, and history passes on her a more
poverty, consented to marry the celebrated burlesque equitable judgment. The letters written to her by
poet, Sc^rron, who was a cripple. She took great Louis XI V during his military campaigns show how
care of him, was faithful to him, and gatnered around ardently and patriotically she was mterested in the
him a group of celebrated writers. As she read Latin, destinies of France. She supported Marshal de Vil-
and spoke Italian and Spanish, she had little difficulty lars against his enemies, who treated him as a mad-
in attaching them to her circle. man, and it was largely owine to the advice of Mme de
Scarron died on- 7 October, 1660. Frangoise, who Maintenon that he was placed at the head of the army,
had preserved her virginity during this odd marriage, and was thiis enabled to save France by Uie victory of
was then a pretty widow of twenty-five years; she ob- Denain. But Mme de Maint^ion's influence was felt
tained from the queen-mother a pension of 2700 livres most in the matters of religion ; and that is why she in-
(approximately $540), and withdrew to the convent of curred the hatred of the Protestants and the Jansen-
the Hospitaller Sisters (rf Our Lady. Having received ists The extraordinary character of her destinv was
the entrie into the Albret and Richelieu circles, she represented to her by many of her advisers as a mar-
there became acquainted with Mme de S6vign^, Mme vellous vocation'', which by ''a kind of miracle'' had
de La Fayette, and Mme de Montespan. She was placed her beside the most powerful monarch in the
called "la charmante malheureuse", and society be- world. She was anxious that the king should not f or-
gan to take an interest in her. In March, 1670, Mme get his spiritual responsibilities. It may be said that,
de Montespan invited her to undertake the education but for tne influence of Mme de Maintenon, the end of
of the children she had borne to Louis XIV. Fran- Louis XIV's reign would probably have resembled, by
9oise accepted and imdertook the work in a house situ- its depravity and excesses, the subsequent reign of
ated in Rue de Vaugirard, devoting herself enthusiast!- Louis XV. It was largely owing to her that Louis was
cally to the young children, and the Duke of Maine brought back to the right path, and it was due to her
especially was alwavs very grateful to her. When in influence that the courtiers came to recognise that im-
July, 1674, the children were legitimized, Francoise piety, blasphemy, and licentiousness were obstacles to
followed them to Court: it was the beginning ol her advancement.
fortune. At first, as she herself relates, sne dis- Her great anxiety was for the conversion of the
pleased the king very much; he considered heras a!>ci Court. This explains how it happened that, in her
esprit, interested only in sublime things. Soon, how- zeal for religion, she favoured some of the officials who
ever, he gave her 200,000 livrea ($40,000); with this displayed the greatest severity towards the Protest-
she bought the lands of Maintenon, and at the end of ante; out "it is an error", writes M. Lavisse, "to
January, 1675, the kin^ in full Court named her Mme blame Mme de Maintenon for the revocation of the
de Maintenon, by which title she was thenceforth Edict of Nantes." After having authorized Mme
known. A silent struggle, the det-ails of which may be Guyon to come and lecture at Saint-Cyr, Mme de
found in the letters of Mme de S^vign^, began between Mam tenon, warned by des Marais, triwi to arrest the
her and Mme de Montespan. AbW Gobelin, Mme de spread of Quietism; the opposition which she met
Maintenon 's confessor, represented to her that the sal- with on the part of F^nelon and Mme de la Maisonfort,
vation of the king required her to remam at Court. was terminated in 1698 by the lettres de cachet, ordei^
In 1680 she was appointed lady of the bed-chamber ing the withdrawal of Mmes de la Maisonfort, du Tour,
to the Dauphiness. The affection of the king for Mile de and de Montaigle to convcnte. It was Mme de Main-
Fontanges showed that Mme de Montespairs influence tenon, who in August, 1695, had Louis-Antoine de
was waning. The earnest efforts of Mme de Main- Noailles, Bishop of Ch&lons, appointed to the See of
tenon to reconcile the king and the queen, Marie- Paris; but from 1699, under the influence of dee
Th^rdse, were facilitated by the death of Mile de Fon- Marais, she detached herself from Noailles, who was
tanges (1681), and brought about the disgrace of Mme too much inclined to Jansenism. Mme de Maintenon,
de Montespan. The cjueen died, however, on 30 July, whose r61e was oftentimes so difficult and who was not
1683, and from that time was verified the witticism of unfrequently placed in very delicate situations, was
certain courtiers who, speaking of Mme de Maintenon wont to confess that she spent many a wearisome
in 1680, called her "Mme de Maintenant". Louis hour; she would compare herself to the fish in the
XIV used to say to her: "We address popes as 'Your ponds at Marly, which, languishing in the sparkling
Holiness', kings as * Your Majesty'; of you we must waters, longed tor their muddy homes. But she al-
speak as ' Your Firmness ' ( Voire Soliditi) . " In the be- ways tried to shake off this lonesome feeling by engag-
ginning of 1684 Louis XIV married Mme de Mainte- ing in teaching and charitable works. Her charity
non secretly. This marriage is proved, principally: was celebrated, and at Versailles she was called the
(1) by two letters which Godet des Marais, Bishop of " mother of the poor". Of the 93,000 livres ($18,600).
Chartres and spiritual director of Mme de Maintenon, which the king gave her annually, she distributed
wrote to the kmg and Mme de Maintenon in 1697; (2) from 54,000 to 60,000 in alms. Not only did she not
by the marriage contract of the Comte de Choiseul, a profit by her i>06ition to enrich herself, but she did not
contract on which there may be seen, in the comer of make use of it to favour her family. Her brother,
the page, where the king and the Grand Dauphin had Comte d'Aubign^ and formerly lieutenant-general,
also signed, the signature "la marquise d' Aubign6 ". never became a marshal of France.
Mme de Maintenon was to play a prominent part in Mme de Maintenon's great glory is her work in
politics for the next thirty-one years: the king used to the cause of education. She c^ored children. She
come with his ministers to work in her room; she re- brought up her nieces, the Comtesse de Caylus and the
ceived foreign princes, generals, and ambassadors. It Duchesse de Noailles, and attended to the education
was not unusual for Louis XIV to remain with her of the Duchess of Bummdy, who seemed likely to be-
from five to ten o'clock in the evening. She did not come one day Queen of France. When the Court was
thrust herself on the public, but the more she endeav- at Fontainebleau, Mme de Maintenon loved to go to
oured to efface herself, the more her power grew. the little village of AVon to teach catechism to the chil-
For a long time historians have formed an erroneous dren, who were dirty, ragged, and covered with vei>
opinion of &Ime do Maintenon ; Uiey judged her sdely min. She also organized Ok «A\^sy\^^st ^^sox. \^NS^^
MAIMZ
560
MAinz
she had fifty ^oung girls educated at Rueil by an Ursu-
line, Mme de Brinon. Her zeal for education increased :
the boardingHschool at Rueil was transferred in Feb-
ruary, 1684, to Noisy-le-Sec, where 124 girls were edu-
cated; then, in 1686, to Saint-Cyr, to the magnificent
buildings which Mansart had begun to construct in
June, 1685. The house at Saint-Cyr, called the *' Insti-
tut de Seunt-Louis ", was intended to receive 200 young
ladies, who had to be poor and also able to prove four
degrees of nobility on their father's side; on leaving
this house each one was to receive a dowry of 3000
crowns. Mme de Maintenon took an active interest
in everything at Saint-Cyr; she was the stewardess
and the servant of the house, looking after the pro-
visions, knowing the number of aprons, napkins etc.
The primary idea connected with the foundation of
Sain^Cyr was very original. "The object of Saint-
Cyr'', wrote the Jesuit La Chaise, the king's confessor,
" 18 not to multiply convents, which increase rapidly
enough of their own accord, but to give the otate
well-educated women ; there are plenty of good nuns,
and not a sufficient number of good mothers of fami-
lies. The young ladies will be educated more suitably
by persons living in the world." The constitutions of
the house were submitted to Racine and Boileau, and
at the same time to P^re La Chaise and Abb4 Gobelin.
F^elon came to Saint-Cyr to preach ; Lulli composed
the music for the choirs; Mme de Brinon developed
among the pupils a taste for declamation, Racine nad
the young ladies play Esther (January and February,
1689) and Athalie (5 April, 1691). But the very suc-
cess of these pieces, at which Louis XIV and the Court
assisted, finally disturbed many minds; both the Jes-
uits and Jansenists agreed in blaming the development
of this taste for the tneatre in young eirls. At the in-
stigation of des Marais, Mme de Maintenon trans-
formed Saint-Cyr: on 1 December, 1692, the pensiatv-
not became a monastic boarding-school, subject to the
Order of St. Augustine. This transformation, how-
ever, did not change the end for which the house was
founded: of the 1121 ladies, who passed through Saint-
Cyr from 1686 to 1773, only 398 became nuns, 723
remaining in the world. And, even after the trans-
formation of Saint-Cyr, the course of instruction
remained, in the opinion of M. Gr^rd, incomparably
superior, by its comprehensiveness and duration, to
that of any other house of instruction in the eigh-
teenth century. The " Entretiens ", the "Conversa-
tions", and the "Proverbes" of Mme de Maintenon,
by which she formed her students, hold a unique
position in the contributions of women to French lit-
erature.
Mme de Maintenon left Versailles on the evening of
30 August, 1715, thirty-six hours before the death of
the king, who recommended her to the Due d'0rl6ms,
and said of her finally: " She helped me in everything,
especially in saving my soul." She went to live at
Saint-Cyr in deep retirement, which was interrupted
only by the visit paid to her on 10 June, 1717, by Tsar
Peter the Great of Russia. The news of the imprison-
ment at DouUens of the Duke of Maine, who was com-
promised by the conspiracy of Cellamare (1718-9),
saddened and perhaps shortened her closing years. In
January, 1794, her tomb was desecrated by the revo-
lutionaries, who stripped her corpse, mutilated it, and
cast it into a large hole in the cemetery. As for the
Institut de Saint-Louis, it was closed in 1793.
Besidea the memoiiB of the period (see biblioffraphy to Louis
XrV), consult Mme dk Maintenon, (Euvret, ed. Lavall^e (12
vols., Paris, 1854); GRfcARD, ExtraiU de Mme de Maintenon sur
Education (Paris. 1884); Godet de« Marais, Lettrcs h Mme de
Maintenon, ed. Berthier (Paris, 1907); Souvenirs aw Mme
de Maintenon, published by Haussonvillk and Hanotaux
(3 vols., Paris, 1902-4): Due de Noaillks, Hist, de Mme de M.
(4 vols., Paris, 1848-59): Lavall^e, Mme de M. ei la Mai9on
royale de St-Cyr (Puns, 1862); Read, La petite- fille d'Agrippa
d'AubifrnA in Bulletin de la Soc. de Vhiat. du protestantisme,
XXXVI-VII; DE Boiau.sLE, Scarron et Fran^oise d'Avhiffne
(Paris, 1804); Geftrov, ^rme de M. d'aprH m, correejMndance
(2 voIb., Puna, 1887); Baudrillart, Mme de M. et son role
politique in Revue dea Queations hietor,, XLVUI (1800); Bbu-
NETZkRE, Queetiom de critique (Paris, 1889); D&LUNamR, DU
einfiuureiehaie Frau der frantdneehen Oeach, in Akadem. Vor-
Mkge (Munich, 1889) ; Maintenon, Secrti correepondenem wiik
the Princeee dee Ursine (tr., London, 1827); Bilungton, Mme
de Maintenon and St-Cvr in Irish Monthly. XXXVII (Dublin,
1904) , 524 3 1 : 608-15; Morrison, Mme de Maintenon, une Hude
(New York, 1886) ; Montbspan, Triumph of Mme de Maintenon
in Classic Memoirs, 1 (New York, 1901). 180-202; Dyson, Mme
de Maintenon (London, 1910).
Georgbs Gotau.
Mains, (jlerman town and bishopric in Hesse; for-
merly the seat of an archbishop and elector.
History. — (1) UntU the Suppression of the Former
Archdiocese. — ^Near the site of the modem Mains there
existed some centuries before the Christian era a Celtic
settlement. Here, about 38 b. c, Agrippa establii^hed
a Roman camp (Moguntiacum), which, under Drusus,
became the centre of the Roman province of Upper
Germany. About the camp gradually developed a
considerable town. According to St. Irensus, whose
statement received valuable corroboration from the
excavations of 1907-8, Mainz possessed a Christian
community in the second century. Cr^centius,
whom legend identifies with the disciple of St. Paul, is
mentioned as first bishop. Of the bishops before
Boniface, however, little is known. Bothardus built
a basilica in honour of St. Nicomedes; Riuthardus
was imprisoned, when the Alamannian prince Bando
sacked the town in 368, and Bishop Aureus was put
to death by the Alamannian Crocus in 406. In 451
Mainz was pillaged by the Huns. Under the Prankish
domination the town began again to prosper. Bishop
Sidonius, who lived early in the sixth century, restored
the old churches and built new ones. The Frankish
king Da^obert surrounded Mainz with walls and estab-
lished his residence there. Under him the AltmUns-
terkloster was erected by St. Bithikiis. Bishop
Ceroid, who fell* in battle against the Silicons, was
succeeded in 743 by his son Gewilio.
The ecclesiastical and secular importance of Mains
may fitly be dated from the accession of St. Boniface
(q. v.). Strictly speaking, however, Mains was not
then raised to metropolitan rank: Boniface was him-
self an archbishop as formerly^, before he occupied any
see in Germany, but the archiepiscopal dignity did not
descend immediately to his successor, St. Lul or Lul-
lus. The long quarrel between Lullus and the Mon-
astery of Fulda ended in the complete exemption of
the latter from the episcopal authority. Lullus there-
upon built the Monastery of Hcrsfeld, in which he was
later buried. In 780 or 782 Mainz was elevated to
metroiK)litan rank. The dioceses of LOttich. Colore,
Worms, Speyer, and Utrecht were fiirst maae subject
to ib, together with the sees of Erfurt, Buraburg, and
Eichstatt, as dioceses founded by Boniface; then the
Swabian dioceses of Augsburg, Strasburg, Constance,
and Chur. The dioceses of Erfurt and Buraburg,
however, lapsed on the death of their first occupants,
and in 798 Cologne was made a metropoUtan see with
Luttich and Utrecht among its suffragans (see Co-
logne). With the spread of Christianity in Saxony,
the dioceses of Paderborn, Halberstadt, Hildesheim,
and Verden were, on their erection, added to the suf-
fragans of Mainz, and under Archbishop Willigis the
newly-created sees of Prague and Olmiitz were made
subject to it. The ecclesiastical province then pos-
sessed fourteen suffragans, and extended from the Elbe
to the Grison Alps and from the Vosges to the Thurin-
gian Saale, thus representing the greatest ecclesiastical
administration of the Middle Ages after the papacy.
The actual power of the archbishops over their suffra-
gans was, however, small. Mainz lost Prague and
Olmiitz during the fourteenth century, and Halber-
stadt and Verden through the Peace of Westphalia.
In 1752 the addition of the newly-created Diocese of
Fulda raised the numl)er of suffragans to eleven.
Among the immediate successors of Lullus, Arch-
MAnrZ 551 ICADTZ
bishop Richulf (787-813), who built the Monasteiy of never to elect an archbishop who would not take the
St. Alban (famous for its school), and esijeciallv Ka- same oath as Si^ried. Thus originated the election
banus Maurus (a. v., 847-56) deserve mention. Under capitulations, which were later used by the chapter to
Liutbert (863-89) the dienity of Archchancellor of the secure new rights and privileges from the canaidates
German Empire was nrst associated with Mainz, for the see. It was also under Siejgfried (1244) that
Hatto I (q. v., 891-913) exercised a great influence on the government of the town passed into the hands of a
the fortunes of the whole empire. Hildebert (928-37) mumcipal council elected by the citizens,
successfully upheld against Cologne and Trier Mainz's As a free town of the empire, the prosperity of
claim to crown the Cferman king. The precedence of Mainz steadily increased, its hnen and woollen Indus-
Mainz in the German Ghurch was strongly emphasized tries being the most important alons the Rhine. It
by Frederick (937-54), when he sought the office of thus became known as tne "Golden Mainz". Under
vicar Apostolic for Gtermany. William (954-68), natu- its leadership was farmed in 1254 the " League of the
ral son of Otto I, acquired for himself and his succes- Rhenish Towns", supported by most of the Rhenish
sors the office of Archchancellor of the Empire. About towns and princes. A great architectural activity
Hatto II (968-70) is related the l^nd ot the Mftuse- also manifested itself; the glorious cathedral was then
thurm near Bingen. Willi^ (976-1010), who saved built, and numerous monastic institutions were estab-
the empire from disintegration durinc the minority of lished. The discovery of printing by Gutenberg (q.
Otto III, fostered the commerce of Mainz; he built a v.) extended the fame of the town, while the limitation
cathedral, which was burned down on the day of its of the right of voting to the seven electors had greatly
consecration, and obtained from the pope the right of increased the influence of the archbishops. At the
presiding over all synods held within tne empire and end of the interregnum Werner von Eppstein (1259-
of crowning the newly^-elected kinjg. Aribo (q. v.) 84) secured the election of Rudolf of Hapsburg, whose
glayed the chief rdle in the election of Ck>nrad II. support he hoped for aeainst the Landgrave of Hesse,
lardo von Oppertshafen (1031-51) completed the new In the growing power of Hesse, Werner rightly saw the
cathedral by Willigis (1037). most £ngerou8 menace to the safety of Mainz. Ger-
In the investiture strife (q. v.) the archbishops of hard II von Eppstein (1289-1305) likewise played the
Mainz, as the foremost spiritual princes of the empire, chief part in tne election of Adolf of Nassau, but, not
could not remain neutral. Count Siegfried I von Epp- receiving the expected assistance in his domestic poU-
stein (1059-84) espoused the cause of the pope, pro- tics, went over with King Wenzel of Bohemia to
mulgated the celibacy law of Gregory Vll, and Adolf's rival, Albert of Austria. Under Peter von As-
crowned Henry's two rivals, Rudolf of Swabia and pelt (q. v., 1305-20) Mainz attained the pinnacle of its
Hermann of Luxemburg. Wezilo (1084-8), however, power. In opposition to Count Henrv III of Vime-
supported the emperor and his anti-pope. In Ruth- tui^ (1328-46), appointed by John XXII, the chapter
ara (1089-1109) and Adalbert I von Saarbriicken unanimously elected Baldwin of Trier, who granted to
( 1 109-37) the emperor again found opponents ; for his it or confirmed a scries of important privileges. It was
fidelity to the papal cause, the latter was imprisoned only on Baldwin's resignation that Henry could enter
by Henry V for tnree years in the fortress of Trifels, on his administration, having previously, in order to
until the citizens of Mainz secured his release by confhi- secure the chapter's recognition, granted it an impor-
ing the emperor in their town until he guaranteed the tant influence in the government of the archdiocese,
archbishop s liberation. In recognition of this assist- As a partisan of Louis the Bavarian, he came into
ance, Adalbert granted the town a charter, which was sharp conflict with Clement VI, who separated F^Bgue
engraved on the bronze doors of the Liebfrauenkirche. and Olmutz from Mainz (1343), and deposed the arch*
At Adalbert's proposal the richt to participate in the bishop (1346). However, Henry managed to retain
imperial election was confinea to certain princes, the the see until 1353, when Gerlach of Nassau (1346-71),
foundation of the college of electors being thus laid, appointed by the pope, entered into possession. By
The popularity enjoyea by him and his brother and means of his personal property Gerlach greatly in-
successor Adalbert II (1138-41) was not shared by creased the power of the archdiocese. On his aeath
Arnold von Selenhofen (1153-60), who alienated the Charles IV, fearing to see one of the powerful Nassau
good-will of the citizens by his sternness and bis taxa- family in possession of the first see of the empire, se-
tion to further Barbarossa's campaign against Italy, cured the appointment of Count John I of Luxembui^
and was murdered by them in the Mon^tery of St. in 1371, ana of Margrave Louis of Meissen in 1375.
Jacob during a riot. To punish the citizens, Barba- The chapter, however, unanimously chose Adolf of
rossa deprived the city of its charter and levelled its Nassau, who took possession of the see. The fiercely
walls. The rebuilding of the fortifications was begun contested war which ensued greatlv weakened the
by Conrad von Wittelsbach (1161-77): althoiigh ap- power of Mainz, and increased the influence of Hesse.
pointed by Barbarossa, he refused to recognize the in 1381 an agreement was arrived at, Louis abdicat-
anti-pope Pascal, and had in consequence to fly from ing Mainz. Adolf founded the University of Erfurt in
his see. Count Christian I von Buch (1165-83) was 1^9. Conrad II von Weinsbere (1390-6) was sue-
thereupon named archbishop by Barbarossa. On his ceeded by Adolf's brother, John II (1397-1419), who
death, Conrad, who had meanwhile become Arch- took a prominent part in the deposition of King Wen-
bishop of Salzburg, returned to his old see (1183- zel and the elevation of Rudolf of the Palatinate.
1200), now supported the emperor, and, at the Diet of Under Conrad von Daun (1419-34) Cardinal Branda,
Gelnhausen, persuaded the German bishops to espouse commissioned by Martin V, investigated the existing
the emperor's cause against Rome. Count Siegfried election capitulations, which he ordered to be replaced
II von Eppstein (120(F-30) received in 1228 the right by a capitulation drafted by himself,
to crown the King of Bohemia — a right retained oy The contest between the rival archbishops, Diether
Mainz until 1343. Siegfried exhausted the depleted von Isenberg and Adolf II of Nassau (the "Mainzer
exchequer of the see, and burdened the territory with Stiftsfehde ", 1461-3), resulted in great loss of men,
a heavy debt. His nephew, Siegfried III von Epp- money, and territory. To punish the guilds for sup-
stein (1230-49), supported Innocent III against the ' porting Diether, Adolf, having captured the town.
Swabians, ratified the deposition of the emperor, and deprived it of its charter. Diether (1475-82) foimdea
crowned two of his rivals. In 1233 the chapter theUniversityof Mainz in 1477, which continued imtil
granted him the twentieUi part of the ecclesiastical 1798, but the town never regained its former pros-
revenue for the liquidation otthe archiepiscopal debts perity. To retrieve the dangerous financial conmtioQ
on his swearing in the presence of the clergy to incur of the archdiocese by an alliance with a powerful fam-
no debts thereafter ana to impose no further burdens ily, the chapter petitioned the pope in 1480 to appoint
on the clergy. The canons lK>und t hemschTs by oath Albert of Saxony archbishop. During his short cel^
musz
552
VUJKZ
(1482-4) Albert brought Erfurt again into submission.
However, even BertEold of Henneberg (q. v., 1484-
1504), perhaps the greatest Archbishop of Mainz, was
unable to stem the decline of its secular power, under
Jacob von Liebenstein (1504-8) the loss of Erf urt to
Saxony seemed imminent. In open opposition to the
Saxon house, the chapter chose, on the death of Uriel
of Gemmingen (1508-14), Albert of Brandenburg arch-
bishop, althougn he already held the sees of Magdeburg
and Halberstadt (see Albert of Brandenburg and
Germany). The mdulgent attitudii at first adopted
by Albert towards the innovators, allowed the Refor-
mation to spread fairly widely through the archdiocese
which w^as soon convulsed by this and the Peas-
ants' War. In preserving the Catholic Faith, Lorenz
Thuchsess von rommersfelden^ the cathedral dean,
performed ever-memorable services. Albert's reign is
also important on account of the administrative re-
forms introduced by him. Electors Sebastian von
Hausenstamm (1545-55) and Daniel Brendel of Hom-
burg (1555^82), strove indefatigably to heal the scars
of the Reformation; the latter summoned the Jesuits
to Mainz. Wolfgang von Dalberg (1582-1601), how-
ever, gave such lukewarm support to the Counter-
Reformation that he was suspected of conspiring with
the Protestants. In the election capitulation the
chapter imposed on his successor. John Adam von
Bicken (1601-4), the obligation ot founding a semi-
nary, which, however, he failed to accomplish during
his snort reign. John Schweickhard von Cronenberg
(1604-26) restored the Catholic religion in Eichsfeld
and Bcrgstrasse, and adjusted the quarrel between
Emperor Rudolf and his brother Matthias.
Mainz suffered grievously during the Thirty Years*
War. Under George yon Greifenklau (1626-9), who
had a prominent share in the Restitution Edict, Mainz
escaped practically unaffected, but Anselm Casimir
von Wambold (1629-45) had to fly before Gustavus
Adolphus in 1631. When the imperial troops reoccu-
piecl Mainz in 1636, the retiring Swedes committed
many atrocities. Frightful ravage was also wrought
by the French, when they later occupied the town
(1644-8). The very existence, indeed, of tlie princi-
pality seemed threatened, as the Swedes demanded in
the peace negotiations the secularization of the arch-
diocese. Its escape from dissolution was entirely due
to the energetic protest of Saxony and the activity of
John Philip von Sch6nbom (q. v., 1647-73). As its
situation left Mainz most exposed, after Cologne, to
French attack, Lothaire Frederick von Mettemich-
Burscheid (1673-5), to save the archdiocese, adopted
a friendly attitude towards France during the wars
between the emperor and Louis XIV. In 1688 his
third successor, Anselm Franz von Ingelheim (1679-
95), had to surrender Mainz to the French, who were,
however, driven out of the town in the following year.
Lothaire Francis von Sch6nbom (1695-1729). who
supported the emperor in the War of the Spanisn Suc-
cession, reorganized the universitjr, founded the Hos-
pital of St. Roch, and showed himself a cultivated
patron of the arts and sciences. Under him the town
enjoyed a return of prosperity, testified even to-day
by the numerous ecclesiastical and civil buildings
dating from that period.
On the death ot Franz Ludwig von Pfalz-Neuburg
(1729-32), who was also Bishop of Worms and Breslau
and Archbishop of Trier, Philip Charles von Eltz-
Kempenich (1732-43) was elected hastily to forestall
the mterierence of the ruHng houses. During the
Seven Years' War, which occurred imder Frederick
Charles von Ostein (1743-63), the archdiocese was laid
waste on various occasions. Emmerich Joseph von
Breitbach-Burresheim (1763-74) associated nimself
with the " enlightened ** movement to foimd a national
German Church, as far as possible independent of
Rome. In 1766 he al)olished many holy days, and
itsued decrees concerning the "reform" of the monas-
teries, the accumulation of real property in the " dead
hand '', etc. On the suppression of the Jesuits in 1 773.
he employed their property for the improvement of
elemental education. Fr^erick Charles Joseph von
Erthal (1774-1802), the last Elector of Mainz, laboured
at first m the spirit Of the Church, but later, going over
to the Enlightened, formally renounced Austria and
associated himself with Prussia (q. v.). During the
French Revolution Mainz encountered varying for-
tunes. In 1792 the Confederation of the German
Princes was founded in the town, which, after the first
inglorious campaign of the German army, fell into the
huids of the French during the same year. Though
recovered by the Germans in 1793, it was ceded to
Franoe by the Treaty of Campo-Formio in 1797, and,
after the Peace of Lun^ville, became the capital of
the French Department of Mont Tonnerre. During
the negotiations of the Imperial Delegates the elector
died on 25 July, 1802. By the Enactment of this
assembly of 25 Feb., 1803, the greater part of the
electorate was secularized. About five Aem/er (ad-
ministrative districts) remained ecclesiastical prop-
erty, and were assigned to the coadjutor of the last
elector, Theodore von Dalberg (q. v.), who was named
electoral chancellor, metropohtan, and primate of
Germanv. The primatial see was transferred to Ratis-
bon. under French rule, Mainz was changed into a
simple diocese in Oct., 1802, and made subject to
Mechlin, its jurisdiction being confined to that portion
of the old archdiocese which lay on the left bauK of the
Rhine.
(2) From the Foundation of the Modem Diocese of
Maim to the Present Day.—^he new diocese corre-
sponded to the Department of Mont Tonnerre, and in-
cluded portions of the earlier dioceses of Mainz,
Worms, Speyer, and Metz . Under Ludwig Colmar (a,
v., 1802-18) was accomplished the delimitation of the
diocese. On his death the diocese, which was again
under German rule, was left vacant and administered
by a vicar general. On the reorganization of ecclesi-
astical affairs in Germany^ which resulted in the erec-
tion of the Ecclesiastical Province of the Upper Rhine
(c|. v.). the Diocese of Mainz was made conterminous
with the Grand Duchy of Hesse, and constituted suf-
fragan of this newly erected province. Joseph Vitus
Burg (1830-3), appointed by Pius VIII, had taken a
prominent part in the negotiations concerning the
erecftion of the new province; he was. however affected
by Josephism, and defended the oroinanoes (Kircken-
'pra^matik), which the Upper Rhine governments, in
opposition to their earlier aeclarations, imposed on the
bisnops, although they had already been condemned
by Rome. Burg also entered a very feeble protest
wnen the seminary, founded bv Colmar, was partially
suppressed and it-s theological faculty transferred to
the University of Giessen. On the death of John
Jacob Humann (1833-4), Peter Leopold Kaiser (1835-
48) found himself greatly hampered by government
interference; while in the matter of the reopening of
the seminary his action in parliament was not suffi-
ciently energetic, he opposed unflinchingly the " Ger-
man Catholic " movement of the followers of Ronge
in his diocese, and was in his later years greatly in-
fluenced by the zealous Lennig (q. v.).
On Kaiser's death the chapter chose Professor Leo-
pold Schniidt of Giessen, but Rome refused to confirm
the election on account of the candidate's practically
indifferentist religious and philosophical views. As
the chapter, dispensing with a new election, then re-
ferred tne selection to the Holy See, Pius IX appointed
Wilhehn Emmanuel von Ketteler (q. v.) bbhop on 15
March, 1850. Ketteler's closing years were clouded by
the outbreak of the Kulturkampf in Uessc (q. v.), and,
after his death, the see was left vacant in consequence
of the attitude of the government, the payment of the
episcopal dotation was suspended in 1880 and numer-
ous parishes (about one fourth) left without a pastor.
BtAZPUBX 5
The diooeae was meanwhile ad miniate red by Christo-
pher Moofang (a. v.). Id 1S86 an agreement was
arrived at, and Paul Leopold Haffner, who had ac-
quired a reputation as aphiloaophcr and apolopat,
was appointed bishop. Tlie eemiaary and diocesan
colleges were reopen^ in 1887, and the task of filling
the vacant pariahes undertaken. In 1895 religious
orders, whicn devoted themselves to education and
the care of the sick, were readmitted. HafTner was fol-
lowed by Heinrioh Brilck (q. v., 1899-1903). The pres-
ent bishop, George Heinrich Haria Kirstein, was elected
on 20 Nov., 1903 and consecrated on 19 March, 1904.
Statistics. — The jiresont Diocese of Mains coin-
cides tenitorialty with the Grand Duchy of Hesae
(q. v.), except that three places belong to the Diocese
of Limburg. Divided into 19 deaneries and ISS par-
ishes, it possesses 186 parish priests and beneficiaries,
I rector, 80 curates, 43]priest8 in other positions, 20 on
leave or pensioned. The Catholics number 372,600;
the non-CatholicB 830,000. The chapter consists of
the cathedral dean, 7 canons, 3 cathedral preben-
daries; the oniinanatc of a vicar general and 6 epif'
itual councillors; the o^icialiU^ of the official and 7
counsellors. The bishop ta elected by the chapter from
a liat of candidates, which must first be submitted to
the government. The public authorities may erase
the names of the less acceptable candiiiatcs, provided
that enough be left (o render a canonical election pos-
sible. The members of the chapter are selected alter-
nately by the bishop and the chapter itself. Tlie dio-
cesan institutions include the seminary (S professors
and 50 students); 3 diocesan colleges; 4 episcopal
boarding-schools and orphanages, delusively Cath-
olic high-schools for boys are forbidden by the Hessian
school laws, and the activity of the female orders in
instructing girls is veiyrestncted. There are very few
houses of the male orders; the Capuchins have 2 mon-
asteries (Mains and Dieburg) with 12 fathers and 10
brothers; the Brothers of Mercy I house with 12
brothers; the Brothers of St. Joseph parent house in
Kleiniimmem with 8 brothers; the Schulhrilder 1
house with a middle school in MainiE. The female
orders are: theSistersof Mercy from the mother-house
at Trier, 2 houses with 26 sisters; the English Ladies,
_ 7 houses with 165 sisters; the Franciscan Sisters from
' Aaclwn, 3 houses with 27 sisters; the Franciscan Sis-
ters of the Perpetual Adoration, 1 house with 35
sisters; the SisWrs of Divine Providence, mother-
house at Mainz and 72 filial houses with 534 sisters;
the Sisters of the Most Sacred Redeemer from the
mother-house at Niederbronn, 19 houses with 66 sis-
with 120 sisters. Among the Catholic orfrans of the
diocese the "KathoHk" and the "Archiv EOr katho-
lisches Kirchcnrecht" deserve special mention.
The principal churches of the diocese are; the
Romanesque Cathedral of St. Martin at Maim, one of
the most interesting monuments for the history of
architecture in Germany; the Early Gothic Church ot
St. Stephen (1237-1328); the Baroque Ignazkirche
(1763-74) ; the cathedral and late Gothic Liebfiauen-
kirche at Wormsj the basilica of the former Benedic-
tine abb^ at Sehgcnstadt (Carlovingian) ; the former
church of the Dominicanesses (thirteenth century).
ConcflmiDR tba town, see StmvHCK, BeittOat tur It. Ofch.
mil UTkmdm (3 vols., Msini and Frankfort. ITSS-QO);
Werner, Arr bom xa M. H vols.. Mami. 1g£r-36)i Schaab,
Onrh. dn- SlaiU. M. H toK, Mttini. 1S41-51:) HuEt. Chrm.
der mitutriitin. StadU. II (I^p»(. 1882); BdRCKEL. It. Qt-
KkidiltlnidiT (Maioi, IStM): Schneider, Drr Dmn n> U. u.
iciaeDenkmnUr ftiaJoit, 1903); BeilTiQe ivr GtKk. dtr Vnivtrti-
Utlt. u. Oieaen (Oicssoi. 1007); Neeb. M. u. Umatlnma (3rd
ed.. Btotlnrt. 1908); HdLin, Dot toUmt M . 1 (Maini. 1910).
For the aldnr litaratun ini tha See of Uaii^i, .«u Chevalier.
Tapo-B&t.. B, V. Jfavnuv: consult tiao Bcbeppliu, Coda wclu.
MBDwU-naviii. (AachaItenbiirc,18(K);jArF£.Af<>>iitn. Mogiint
(BerliD, \9aK);RwQtitmwaT0tidi.iBBnbiKhiilcvoitM„b^pai
by BdHUKH mo Wiu, (from BauIfMe to VIW; lacsbmck,
JB77-86), and conlmued Sy VogT ksd VtUBNEE (from 1280 to
Marburi. 1907—); Hehhes, Die Enbixlu,/e mn U. (3r1
lalni, ISTB)- "— "-'-— " -«-:— .=™. •— -
liBNaLE, Ver/datung u. Varwailuiw i*
(mra«bujs, I90b); Golpscrhliit, ZentraLocnoroen u. oeonuen-
tum im Kurturit. M. aim 18, fc« lum 18. Jahth. (Berlin abd
Leipiig. IMS): anuKlna, Die WahOtapO^ dtr Bnb, u. Ktaf,
mm M, (Qattlunn, IWW); WBHCi,Cu<f(rMuiio rfu Ertetiflei It,
<m Oaiu der deuUc/tm OawA. (Kand. IBOS); Btdte. Cu U.
EnbitcAefiu.diedtuUcAeKonlfrahlCKeiiBat. 1010); ZntvAr.
duitf, .4Urrtumnirrnn((Mauu, 1903— ); SchenuuiemUi der Di^
am U. (Uaini, 1909). See aba under Hebse: Upper RioNk,
EcCLEBiAancAL Province of the, and tbe todividuai bisboiia.
Joseph Lins.
Maipnre Indluis (Mayfqre), a former important
group oi tribes on the Upper Orinoco River, from
above the Meta about to the entrance of the Casai*
quiare, in Venezuela and Colombia, speaking dialects
of the Arawakan stock. The tribes were the Maipure
propBT; Meepure; Cavere, or Cabre; Avane, or
Abaui; Parenij Gutpuiiave, or Guaypunavi, and
Chirupa, or Quirupa, The Achagua, on the middle
Meta, Colombia, were sometimes regarded as be-
longing to the same group. The Maipure tribes re-
mained practically unknown up to the middle of
the eighteenth century. Their chief and constant
enemies were the cannibal Caribs of the Lower Orinoco.
In the early part of the seventeenth century the
Portuguese ala\'e hunters of Brazil (see Maueluco)
extended their inroad.i into the Upper Orinoco region
through the assistance of the Cuipuiiave on the Ini-
rida, who, though ferocious, were superior to the sur-
rounding (ribcs, having clothes and palisaded forts
with stores of extra weapons. These incursions at
last became BO threatening that in 1744 FatherRoman,
superior of the Jesuit missions of the Lower Orinoco,
took the desperate resolution of ascending the river,
without an escort of soldiers to tiy and arrange terms
withlheGuipufiuve, Taking a few Indians, with a
crucifix erected at the bow of his boat, he advanced to
the Alabapo and then to Brazil by the Negro, return-
ing to the Carichana misiiion after seven months'
travel. He was thus the first to discover the con-
nexion of the Amazon and the Orinoco by means of
the rivere Cassiquiare and Negro. As a result the
Guipuilave ceased their inroads, and some of the tribe
settled at tbe cataract of Maipures, in 1744, the new
mission being called San Jos^ de Maipures. It in-
cluded Guipufiai-e and Pareni, with some remotely
cognate Guariquena from theCasaiouiare. In 1748 the
Jesuit Francisco Gonzales established the mission of
San Juan Nepomuceno de loa Atures, now Atures,
Vcnesuela, gathering into it Ature (Salivan stoc^,
Maipure proper, Meepure, Abani, and Quirupa. In
1749 arrived Father Gilii, the historian of the Jesuit
missions of the Orinoco, to whom, according to Her-
v&B, is due the conversion of the Maipure tribes.
When the Guipufiave ceased their warfare on the
missions another neighbouring cannilial tribe, the
Maoitivitano, continued the work of destruction for
the rewards neld out by the Portuguese and Dutch.
When in 1756 Solano, commander of the boundary ex-
pedition, reached the confluence of the Atabapo wi^
the Orinoco he found there a settlement of Guipu-
ilave, whose chief, won over by Roman years before,
not only consented to the ealablishment of a garrison
and mission, San Fernando de Atabapo, hut also
promised to enter the mission with all his people.
This mission, practically of government origin, was
placed in charge of the Observanlines. About the
same time the mission at Atures had 320 Indians
and that at Maipures 600, where Humboldt in 1800
found only 47 and 60 respectively. Besides religion,
the fathers taught their neophytes habits of regular-
ity and industry, suppressed the more barterouB
practices and, the Jesuits especially, introduced cattle,
goats, and European fruits and vegetables. But not-
BCAISTRE
554
MAISTRE
withstanding the greater security and plenty of the
mission, the Venezuelan savage preferred the life of
the forest. His superstition also made him fear to
stay near the «pot where one of his friends had died.
Unsanitary habits, secret abortion, and frequent fever
epidemics from periodical river floods, made a high
death rate, especially among the children.
The expulsion of the Jesuits from Spanish America
in 1767 meant the ruin of most of the missions on the
Orinoco. The Jesuit establishments were placed un-
der civil officers who appropriated all movable prop-
erhr, leaving the rest to decay and destruction, in
1785 the missions were placed in charge of the Obser-
vantines. It was too late, however, to repair the ruin.
Of the Indians, only a small fraction remamed, the rest
having returned to their forests or perished of disease
and starvation. The missionaries tnemsel ves were no
lonj^er free, but constantly subject to the annoying in-
terterence of government officials. In 1800 hardly a
hundred Indians were left in the two principal Maipure
missions. By the shifting of tribes the Atures mission
was then occupied, not by descendants of its ori^nal
inhabitants, but by Guahibo and Maco, of entirely
alien stocks. San Fernando de Atabapo had suffered
less than the rest and was still a station of importance
with its Indian fields and neat priest's house, although
the former hcnis of cattle had disappeared. To-day
the missions are extinct. Of the Maipure proper only
a few half-breeds keep the name.
Except for a scant oreech-cloth, the Maipure went
entirely naked, but painted their whole bodies usually
with a bright red obtained from vegetable dyes.
Their chief diet was cassava bread, bananas and nsh.
They used very little meat, which they seasoned with
a few drops of a mineral solution which took the place
of salt. Their favourite exhilarant was the chicha, or
chiza, fermented from com or bananas. Their huts
were open structures roofed with palm or banana
leaves, with simple furniture of reed mats, earthen
pots, fishing nets, and sleeping hammocks. Their
weapons were the bow and arrow, and the blowgun
with arrows tipped with the deadly ciirari poison.
The men were expert canoeists. AH the Maipure
tribes were especially noted for tlie pottery manufac-
tured by their women, which excelleu in execution and
in colour, artistic design and glazing. They were all
cannibals. Their government was rather patriarchal
than tribal, eight or ten families usually living to-
gether, and combining in larger numbers only for war
purposes. Polygamy was the rule, and polyandry
among brothers was common with the Maipure.
They oelieved in nature gods, and ridiculed the i^a of
churches, saying their gods would not be confined in
houses. The missionaries met this by holding ser-
vices in the open air. Their cult centred around a
sacred earthenware trumpet, called hotuto, which was
periodically sounded in elaborate ceremonial proces-
sions under the palm trees to insure abundant fruit,
was consulted as an oracle, and for a woman to ap-
proach within sight of it, the penalty was death.
Qxux, Soffffio di Storia Americana (Rome, 1784); Gumii^la,
Bl Orenoco lluatrado (Madrid, 1745); Hdmboldt, TraveU to
th§ Equinoctial Regions of America (London, 1881); HeryXs,
Caidlogo de laa Lenguaa, I (Madrid, 1800); Brinton, American
Races (New York, 1891).
James Mooney.
Maistre, Joseph-Marie, Comte de, French philo-
sophical writer, b. at Chamb^ry, in Savoy, in 1753,
when Savoy did not belong to France; d. at Turin, 26
Feb., 1821. His family, which was of French origin,
had settled in Savoy a century earlier, and had at-
tained a high position, his father being president of the
Senate. Joseph, the eldest of ten children, was a pupil
of the Jesuits, who, like his parents, inspired him with
an intense love of religion and detestation of the eigh-
teenth-century philosophical rationalism, which the
ji}wAy» resolutely opposed. In 1774 he entered the
magistracy; in 1780 he was assistant fiscal advocate
general; in 1788 he was appointed senator, being then
thirty-five years old. Four years later, he was forced
to fly before the invading French, and discharged
for four years at Lausanne a confidential mission for
his sovereign, the I^^ng of Sardinia. That monarch
having lost tJie capital of his kingdom, de Maistre
lived m poverty at Venice, but, on the restoration
of the king, went to Sardinia as keeper of the great
seal (1799) and, three years later, to St. Petersbui^,
aaplenipotentiary. This mission lasted fourteen years,
till 1817. Though weakly supported by his Govern-
ment, which was at times displeased with his frank-
ness, poor amidst a lavish aristocracy, he never-
theless successfully defended the interests of his coun-
try with the Czar Alexander, who, like most of the
leading personages at St. Petersburg, highly appre-
ciated his character and his ability. He afterwards
returned to Turin, to fill the post of minister of State
and keeper of the ereat seal until his death.
The writings of Joseph de Maistre (as well as those
of his younger brother — q. v., below) were all in
French, then the literary language of Piedmont. Jo-
seph's first important work was written during his so-
journ in Switzerland. He was then forty years of
age. He had previously composed some speeches and
a few comparatively unimportant essays. We may
mention '*LV'loge de Victor AmM^e III", attacking
the intolerance which had lighted the fires of the
stake, and glorifying the war of the Americans against
their oppressors. After the outbreak of the French
Hevohition, he published some writings on current
events, e. g. ''Discours k M. le Marquis Costa de
Beauregard sur la vie et la mort de son fils'^ and
"Cinq paradoxes k la Marquise de Nav ..." (1795).
In the following year appeared his "Considerations
sur la France" (London and Lausanne, in folio);
although its dissemination was rigorously forbidden
by the French authorities, several editions were ex-
hausted within a year. The author maintains the
thesis that France lias a mission from God: she is the
principal instrument of good and of evil on earth.
De Maistre looks on the Revolution as a providential
occurrence: the monarchy, the aristocracy, the whole
of the old French society, instead of turning the power-
ful influence of French civilization to benefit man-
kind, had used it to foster the doctrines of the
eighteenth-century philosophers: the crimes of the
Reign of Terror were the punishment thus merited.
The author added that the foreign nations were dupes
of a foolish dream, in undertaking the dismeml^r-
ment of France, "the most beautiful kingdom after
that of heaven ". Finally, he predicted a speedy resto-
ration, and disappearance of the abuses of the past.
In connexion with this work must be mentioned a
little book composed in 1809, under the title "Essai
sur le principe g^n^rateur des constitutions politiijues
et des autres institutions humaines". Its main idea
is, that constitutions are not the artificial products of
the study, but come in due time and under suitable
circumstances from God, who slowly brings them to
maturity. After the appearance in 1 81 6 of the treatise
"Sur les deiais de la justice divine dans la punition des
coupables", translated from Plutarch, with additions
and notes, Joseph de Maistre published at Lyons in
1 81 9 his masterpiece " Du Pape . The work (2 vols, in
8vo.) is divided mto four parts. In the first the author
proves that in the Church the pope is sovereign , and that
it is an essential characteristic of all sovereign power
that its decisions should be subject to no appeal.
The doctrinal declarations of the pope are binding on
.man without right of appeal. Consequently, the pope is
infallible in his teaching, since it is by his teaching that
he exercises his sovereignty. And in point of fact ' ' no
sovereign pontiff, speaking freely to the Church, has
ever made a mistake in the matter of faith". In the
remaining divisions of his work the author examines
SAAISTftfi
655
MAtTLAttD
the relations of the pope and the temporal powers;
civilization and the welfare of nations; the schionatical
Churches. He establishes that nations require to be
guaranteed ajgainst abuses of the power to which they
are subject by a sovereignty superior to all others;
now, tms sovereignty can be none but the papacy,
which, even in the Aliddle Ages, had, in fact, already
saved European civilization from the barbarians. As
to the schismatical Churches, the writer thinks that
they will inevitably fall into Protestantism, and from
Protestantism through Socinianism into philosophic
indifference. For "no religion can resist science,
except one. "
The treatise, "L'Eglise Gallicane dans ses rapports
avec les souverains pontifes" (Paris, 1821, in 8vo),
formed, in the original plan of the author, the fiiih
part of the precedmg work. De Maistre at the last
moment resolved, on the advice of his friends, to make
it a separate work. He discusses vigorously, and at
times, from the Galilean standpoint, harshly, the cele-
brated Declaration of the Assembl^c of 1682. Besides
a voluminous correspondence, Joseph de Maistre left
two posthumous works. One of these, " L'examen de
la philosophic de Bacon " (Paris, 1836, 2 vols, in 8vo),
is an attack on Locke and Condillac, and in general on
the French philosophers of the eighteenth centur>', in
the person whom tne author considers as the father of
their system. This work is not among the most highly
esteemed of De Maistre's writings. The "Soir6es
de St. Pdtersbourg" (Paris, 1821, 2 vols. 8vo) is a
reply in the forpa of a dialogue to the objection
against Providence drawn from the existence of evil
in the world. For Joseph de Maistre, the existence of
evil, far from obscuring the designs of God, throws a
new light on them; for the moral world and the physi-
cal world are inter-related. Physical evil exists only
because there has been, and there is, moral evil. All
wrong must be expiated. So humanity, w^hich has
always believed in the necessity of this expiation, has
had recourse, to accomplish it, not only to prayer, but
to sacrifice, that is, the shedding of blood, the merits
of the innocent being applied to the guilty — a law as
mysterious as it is inaubitable, and which, in the opin-
ion of the author, explains the existence and tlie per-
petuity of war. The fame of Joseph de Maistre has
been enhanced, too, by his **Correspondance". Al-
most six hundred of his letters have been preserved.
In them one finds the tender father, the loving, de-
voted friend, and at the same time a keen, ingenious,
unaffected, joyous writer. His complete works were
published in fourteen volumes, 8vo, at Lyons, 1884-87.
To appreciate de Maistre in his writings as a whole,
one may remark that his ideas are bold and penetrat-
ing, and his views so clear and accurate that at times
they seem prophetic. An enthusiastic believer in the
principle of authority, which the Revolution tried to
aestroy, he defends it everj'where: in the State by
extolling the monarchy; in the Church by exalting
the privileges of the papacy; in the world by glorifying
the rights and the conduct of God. His style is strong,
hvely, picturesque; animation and good humour tem-
per his dogmatic tone, and he might even be deemed
eloquent. It is true he does not disdain paradox in his
thinking or violence in his language: he has neither
the moderation nor the serenity of Bossuet. But he
possesses a wonderful facility in exposition, precision
of doctrine, breadth of learning, and dialectical power.
He influenced the age that followed him: he dealt
Gallicanism such decisive blo^ that it never rose
again. In a word, he was a great and virtuous man,
a profound thinker, and one of the finest writers of
that French language of which his works are a distin-
guished ornament.
Raymond, Eloge du Cotnte Joseph de Maistre (Chamb^ry,
1827) ; DE Margerie, Le ComU Joseph de Maistre (Paris, 1882) ;
Descottes, Joseph de Maistre avant la Rivoliition (Paris, 1803);
CoQORDAN, Joseph de Maistre (Paris, 1894).
Gboroes Bebtrin.
Maistre, Xavier de, French romance-writer,
yoimger brother of the preceding, b. at Chamb^ry,
Savoy, in 1763; d. at St. Petersburg, 12 June, 1852.
Being an oflScer in the Sardinian Araiy when Savoy
was reunited to France in 1792, he became expatriated
like his brother. In 1799 he was in the Austro-Russian
army in Italy. He followed General SuvarofT to Rus-
sia, but, his protector having fallen into disgrace, was
reduced to earn his living by painting, being a land-
scape artist of great ability. Tne arri val of his brother
Joseph as envoy extraordinary of the King of Sardinia,
changed his situation. He entered the Admiralty
Office and became, in 1805, librarian of the Admiralty
Musevun; he was then named to the staff of the army,
took part in the Caucasian War, was made a general,
and married a lady-in-waiting of the empress. From
that time he looked on himself as a Russian subject.
He did not visit Savoy again till 1825. After a snort
stay in Paris in 1839, he returned to St. Petersburg,
where he died at the age of eighty-nine.
It may be said that de Maistre became a writer by
chance. When a young officer at Alexandria, in
Piedmont, he was arrested for duelling. Having been
sentenced to remain in his quarters for forty-two days,
he composed his "Voyage autour de ma chambre".
He added some chapters later, but did not judge the
work worthy of being published; but his brother,
however, having read the manuscript, had it printea
(1794). It is a delightful chat witn the reader, filled
with delicate observations, in which an artless grace,
humour, and spontaneous wit are wedded to a
gentle and somewhat dreamy philosophy. In 1811
appeared "Le L^preux de la cit6 d'Aoste". This
little dialogue, of about thirty pages, between an iso-
lated leper and a passing soldier (the author), breathes
a touching spirit of resignation, ahid unites an im-
pressive simplicity of form with suppressed emotion
and exalted moral and religious ideas. It is a little
gem, a masterpiece. The same must be said of the
two novels published some years later: "I^s prison-
niers du Caucase*' and "La jeune Sib^rienne". In
the former the author relates the vicissitudes of the
captivity of Major Kascambo, who has fallen, with
his ordnance, into an ambuscade. " La jeune Sib^ri-
cnne" is the story of a young girl who comes from
Siberia to St. Petersburg to ask for the pardon of
her parents. It is the Tact round which Madame
Cottm has woven her romance "Elisabeth, ou les
exilds de la Sil>6rie"; but the story of Xavier de
Maistre is by far the truer to life and more pathetic.
In 1825 de Maistre wrote, as a pendant to his first
work, in the same vein and with the same charm, the
" Expedition nocturne autour de ma chambre".
Xavier de Maistre, it is true, has written only book-
lets, but these booklets are masterpieces of their Idnd.
His style is ingenious, graceful, and brilliant, while its
simplicity, lucidity, and rhythm wonderfully enhance
its charm for reaciers. He may be regarded as one of
the first among French authors of the second rank.
Sainte-Beuve, Portraits coniemporains.
Georqeb Bertrin.
Maitland, Diocese of (Maitlandensis^, in New
South Wales. Maitland, the principal settlement on
Hunter River, was chosen as the title for a bishop in
1848, when Dr. William Henry Davis, O.S.B., was sent
as coadjutor to the Right Rev. Dr. Folding, O.S.B..
Archbishop of Sydney, with the title of Bishop oi
Maitland. However, it did not become a residential
see until some twenty years later, when the first suffra-
gan dioceses of New South Wales were established :
Goulbum in 1864, and Bathurst and Maitland in 1865.
The Right Reverend James Murray, then secretary to
Cardinal Cullen, was appointed Bishop of Maitland.
and, after being consecrated in the pro-cathedral ot
Dublin by Cardinal Cullen on 14 November, 1865, pro-
ceeded to his distant diocese, of which ha tflfik^^^Rfc-
AIAJANO
556
AIAJOEDOMO
ftesBion on 1 November, 1866. The Diocese of Mait-
land, which served as an episcopal title to Bishop
Davis, 0. S. B., consisted of the borough of East Mait-
land only. The diocese, as constituted by Papal Brief
of 1866. was very extended, and in 1887, at Bishop
Murray s request in the first Plenary Council of Syci-
ne^, a considerable reduction in its territory was made,
bnneing it to its present limits. The present Diocese
of Maitland comprises that portion of New South
Wales, which lies between Camden Haven and Red
Head, stretching west as far as Wollar and Cassilis and
north as far as Murrurundi. It thus lies between 31^
31' and 33° 7' S. kt., and between 149** 5(/ and 152^
51' £. long. The area is about 12,000 sq. miles. The
rainfall ranees from 30 to 40 inches annuallv in the
parts near tne coast, and from 20 to 30 in tne other
parts. The mean annual temperature is 63°. The
diocese contains a large area of coal-measures in the
vicinity of Maitland and Newcastle ; large stretches of
rich arable land lie on the banks of Hunter and Man-
ning Rivers, and fine pastoral tracts throughout.
Among its population of some 150,000, Maitland
has a Catholic population of 30,000. The Catholics
are for the most part of Irish descent, but in a few
places those of German descent are fairly numerous.
There are twenty parochial districts, each possessing a
church and presbytery with one or more resident secu-
lar priests (m all 40), and in nearly every district are
one or more convents of teaching sisters (in all 30
convents and 250 sisters). Catholic parochial schools
unaided by the state have been established in every
district, and are attended by about 4000 children.
There is a Redemptorist monastery at Waratah, which
is the centre of popular missions. The Marist Broth-
ers have boys' scnools at Maitland and Newcastle.
The Dominican Nuns from Kingstown, Ireland, have
boarding and day schools, and are engaged in both
secondary and primary education. The Sisters of
Mercy, from Ennis ana Callan, Ireland, have a large
number of primary schools, besides boarding and se-
lect schools. The Sisters of St. Joseph from Bathurst
have several day schools and a boarding-school — all
for primary education. The only Catholic Institute
for Deaf Mutes in Australasia is conducted at Wara-
t^ by the Dominican Nuns. The Sisters of Mercy
conduct an orphanage for girls at West Maitland. The
building and maintenance of the churches is carried on
entirely by charitable offerings; schools are also de-
pendent on the small fees paid and on the charitable
support of Catholics. Maitland's first bishop. Right
Rev. James Murray, d. in 1909. He was succeeded oy
Right Rev. Patrick Vincent Dwyer, the first Austra-
lian-bom bishop, ordained a priest in 1882, and conse-
crated coadjutor-bishop Ip. 1897.
P. V. Dwyer.
Majano, Benedetto da, a well-known Florentine
sculptor and architect of the Renaissance, b. at Ma-
jano, Tuscany, 1442; d. at Florence, 24 May, 1498.
During his early life he cultivated the art of wood-
mosaic, at which he was sin^larly expert. King
Corvinus of Hungary invited him to his court, and it
is said that the destruction on the journey of some pre-
ciously executed inlay work he was taking to his royal
patron induced the artist to seek more durable material.
In 1471-72 he carved the monumental altar for the
Duomo of Faenza dedicated to San Savino; in 1474,
the bust of Pietro Mellini, shrewd and life-like, in the
Bargello ; in 1480, the framework of the doorway at the
Palazzo Vecchio, a delicate piece of chiselling still in
place. Also in 1480, with nis brother Giuliano, he
Duilt and made the sculptures for the little oratory of
the Madonna dell'Olivo, outside Prato. The charm-
ing adolescent St. John of the Bargello is ascribed
to the year 1481. In 1489 Benedetto designed the
Strozzi Palace at Florence which still stands (contin-
ued by Cronaca), one of the most picturesque memo-
rials of its day. It is believed he went to Naples in
1490> and there executed various sculptures, amoiu;
others an Annunciation at^the church of Monte Oli-
veto. The tomb of Filippb Strozzi, with its lovely
roundel of Mother and Child supported by cherubs (S.
Maria Novella, Florence), dates trom about 1491. In
1493-94 he made carvings at San Gimignaao in the
chapel of the child-patron, Santa Fina; a bust of
Onofrio Vanni in the sacristy; and the beautiful tomb
of San Bartolo in the church of Sant' Agostino; the
circular high-reHef in the arch of the Madonna Bjad
Infant Blessing is one of his most exquisite creations.
Benedetto's best-known and most esteemed produc-
tion is the pulpit at the JPranciscan church of Santa
Croce, Florence (about 1495). Minor works are the
group of the seated Madonna and Child at the oratory
of the Misericordia, Florence; the bust of Giotto at
the Duomo, and of Squarcialupi in the BargcJlo; in
Siena, the reliefs of the Evangelists at the Duomo, and
a marble ciborium in the church of S. Domenico; a
fine bust of Filippo Strozzi in the Louvre, Paris, and
another in Berlin; and a door found at Boi^o San
Sepolcro, now in a private collection at Palermo. The
portico of S. Maria delle Grazie, at Arezzo, is his. He
waj3 buried in the crypt of S. Lorenzo. Bode is of the
opinion that he was the Florentine who most nearly
approached the German School, but, in his best works,
he retains the subtilty and distinction, the fineness
and ner\'ous beauty of Donatello and of Rossellino.
Vabari, Lives, tr. Foster (London, 1887); LObke, Outlines of
the Hislorjl of Art (New York. 1879); Perkins, Historical Hand-
book of Italian Sculpture (New York, 18^); Bode, Florentins
Sculptors of the Renaissance (London, 1008).
M. L. Handley.
Majorca and Iviza, Diocese of (Majoricensis et
Ibusensis), suffragan of Valencia, with the episcopal
residence at Palma on the Island of Majorca. The see
is said to have existed in the fifth century, there being
mention of a Bishop Elias of Majorca in 480. The
first historical reference is in 898, at which time Pope
Romanus placed Majorca and Minorca under the juris-
diction of the Bishop of Gerona. The episcopal suc-
cession was interrupt^ by the Moorish invasion, but
in the eleventh century the Moorish king, Mi^geyd,
authorized the Bishop of Barcelona to exercise juris-
diction over Majorca. Don Jaime I of Aragon over-
came the Moors in 1229 and caused Mass to be said in
the ancient mosque at Palma. Gregory IX re-estab-
lished the see in 1230, and the first bishop was Rai-
mundo de Toirelles (1237-66). The cathedral, begun
in 1230, is dedicated to the Assumption of the Blessed
Virgin. The cathedral chapter dates from 1244, and
was confirmed by Innocent IV, 5 April, 1245. By the
BuU " Ineflfabilis Dei benignitas " (30 April, 1782) Pius
VI made Iviza and Majorca a joint diocese. It was
suppressed by the Concordat of 1857 and is now gov-
erned by a capitular vicar. The present Bishop of
Majorca and Iviza is Pedro Campins y Barcelo, b.
at ralma, 14 Jan., 1859, ordained m 1882, appointed
Bishop of Majorca 21 April, 1898, and consecrated
7 July following. There are in Majorca and Iviza
326,000 Cathohcs, 61 parishes, 656 priests, 2U
churches and chapels.
Blanche M. Kelly.
Majordomo (Latin, Major domus; Italian, Maggior-^
domo). — ^The majordomo or chief steward of the house-
hold of the pope is one of the three (formerly four)
palatine prelates (prelati palatini), concerning whom
particulars have been given in the article Maestro di
Camera. He belongs also to the four " prdaii di fioc-
cheUo"j so called because they have the right to or-
nament the harness of their horses with violet and
peacock-coloured feathers. The four prdatea di fioC"
chetto are, first the Governor of Rome in his quality of
Vice-Chamberlain, and after him the Auditor and the
Treasurer of the Apostolic Chambrr, and then comes
MAJORrnr
657
MAiUNXS
the Major-domo. In the ''Introitus et Ebdtufl Cam-
ene Apostolicse" of the Vatican Archives, which be-
gins with the year 1295, the officials of the Apostolic
Household are given in regular order according to
their stipends. But^ although even at this date
there undoubtedly existed a supreme steward of the
papal palace, the name and duties attached to the
office of a maiordomo were not strictly defined until
later. The alterations in the domestic administra-
tion of the papal household, necessitated under Clem-
ent V and John XXII by the transition from the " nat-
ural economy" to the "economy of money", were
of a far-reaching nature; but it was only after the
return of Martin V from Avignon in 1418 that the
present offices were graduaUy evolved, to attain
subsequently during the Renaissance a full devel-
opment. In the sixteenth century a maestro di ccaa
stood at the head of the whole administration of
the papal household. Towards the end of that cen-
tury the same official was accorded the title of prefetto
del Sacro Palazzo Apostolico, and under Urban VlII
(1623-44) he was first granted the title of Mag^ior-
domo Pontificio. It was then his duty, on the acces-
sion of a new pope, to form the papal /ami^iia, that is,
to suggest candidates for the various household offices
and then to direct the whole household. ' In so far as
this duty necessitated expenditure^ the Treasurer of
the Holy Roman Church, the minister of finance for
the time being, exercised sharply defined control over
the majordomo and his assistants. This circumstance
did not, however, constitute the treasurer a househcHd
official, or the Prcpfectus Sacri PalaHi an administra-
tive official; the Majordomo is, and has always been,
exclusively a household official. A complete list of the
occupants of the office from 1534 is preserved. The
general rule recognized by the Curia at the close of the
Middle Ages, that the head of any important depart-
ment should have jurisdiction over all his assistants,
extended to the Majordomo. Not merely in civil mat-
ters, but likewise in criminal charges, seaebat pro tribtin
nali — he pronounced judgment on all officials of the
papal palace. In the course of time his duties as
majordfomo were sharply distinguished from those
which he performed as Prefect of the Palace, so that
the majordomo was said to be simultaneously Prefect
of the Palace. To the prefecture belonged the man-
agement of the museums and of all establishments of a
special kind existing in the palaces — provided they
were not autonomous. The keeping of the palace
accounts also fell to the prefect.
After 1870 there was a great change in these condi-
tions. The important office of the prefect was sepa-
rated from that of the maiordomo, and entrusted to
the commission of cardinals appointed to administer
the business affairs of the Holy See. The arrange-
ment of Leo XIII was so far altered by Pius X, maX
the Secretary of State was made Prefect of the
Apostolic Palaces. Subordinate to him are the sub-
prefect, the forriere maegiore, the cavallerizzo ma^-
giore, the segreteria delm prefettiora, the computis-
teria, the architetto and the juristic counsellors, who
form, in their corporate capacity, the divisional
boards of direction of the palace administration. The
museums and galleries are also entrusted to this
body. The above-mentioned alteration by Leo XIII
took place on 29 Dec, 1891, after the prefecture had
been separated bv a Molus propritis of 7 Dec. The
present rights of the Majordomo are briefly as follows:
He enjoys his old privilege of accompanying His Holi-
ness, and remains Governor of the Conclave. In this
capacity he has the general control of the personnel of
the palaces, and is responsible for the quiet and good
order therein during tne Conclave. In the Congresso
Palatino (Palatine Commission), should it be here-
after convened, he has a seat and a vote. He con-
ducts the Congregation of the Apostolic Hospice, and
is director of the Cappella Siatinaj the musical direc-
tion of which is (1910) entrusted to Maestro Perosi.
All ordinaiy and extraordinary religious functions, in
which the pope and papal court participate, are under
his arrangement ana direction. The appointments of
papal chamberlains are forwarded by hun at the pope's
order, and he distributes the annual medals to the
members of the papal household. His earlier duty of
issuing cards of admission to the galleries and museums
for purposes of study and copying is now withdrawn
from him. The Majordomo is the chief Prelate of the
Household, has a distinctive dress, and enjoys a free
official residence in the papal palace.
In addition to the veiy numerous references in Moroni,
Ditionario di Erudix. Storico-EocUt.t consult Galbttz, Memarie
di tre atUiche chieae di Rieti (Rome, 1765) : Sickbl, Ein Ruolo di
Famiqlia dea Papatea Pius /K in Mitteil. dea IhaHl.far eaterreieh.
Oeaekichtahrachung, suppl. vol. IV; Die kathol. Kir^ae u. ihra
Diener in WoH u. Bild, I (Berlin, 1899), 277-8. There is a short
reference in Humphrey. Urba et China (London, 1899), 122-4.
For the officials themselves the various series Oerarchia CaUO'
lica, Notisie di Roma, and the old Relalioni delta Corie di Roma,
should be consulted.
Paul Maria Baumgarten.
Majority (Lat. majoritas), the state of a person or
thing greater, or superior, in relation to another person
or thing. In canon law the expression has three prin-
cipal acceptations: (1) In the elections or delibera-
tions of any assembly, majority signifies a higher num-
ber of votes. There is an " atisolute majority ", when
the number of votes exceeds half the number of the
voters; a "relative majority" when the votes for the
one candidate, or party, numerically exceed those
given to any other. There are also certain special
majorities required in certain cases, such as that of
ti?ii^thirds required for pontifical elections (see Con-
clave; Election) ; (2) In reference to persons, majo-
rity is the state of persons who have reached the age
required for such and such definite acts; in particular,
for acts of civil life. As a rule, the age of majority is
fbced at twenty-one years (see Minors); (3) In the
hierarchical sense, majority is the superiority of cer-
tain persons over certain others by reason of the
charge or dignitv held by the former. It connotes
authority, or at least precedence; and its correlative
is obedience when there is question of jurisdiction,
deference and respect when there is question of dig-
nity. Thus, in the Church, the clergy are superior to
the laity; amon^ the clergy, individuals are ranked
according to their jurisdiction, their Holy orders, etc.
In a certain sense, even church buildings have a hier-
archical precedence, the first of churches being St.
John Lateran's, the pope's cathedral, "mother and
head of all the churches of Rome and of the world":
next come the "major" basilicas, then the primatial
churches, the metropolitan, cathedral, collegiate, etc.
(cf. Decretal, I, tit. xxxiii, "De majoritate et obedi-
entia").
A. BOUDINHON.
Major Orders. See Orders, Holt.
Majnnko^ Paul, Catholic journalist, b. at Gross-
Schmosrau m Silesia, 14 July, 1842; d. at Hochkirch
near Glogau, 21 May, 18W. He entered the Univer-
sity of BresLau in 1861, and devoted four yearn to the
study of civil and canon law and Catholic theology.
In 1867 he was ordained priest, and from 1869 to 1870
was editor of the "KClnische Zeitung". From 1871
to 1878 he was editor-in-chief of the ^'Germania"; m
1874 he was elected member of the Reichstag, and in
1878 also of the Prussian House of Deputies, attaching
himself to the Centre party. He encouraged Catholic
journalism and, during the KuUurkampf, was a most
zealous and fearless champion of the Catholic cause,
at the cost of great personal sacrifices. Unfortunately,
his uncompromising zeal frequently incited him to
give expression to ill-timed utterances in both the
public press and Parliament, and these led to an
estrangement between him and the leading Catb^V^^^.
of the day. In 1874 1« ^«» ^swcAmoscdr^ \Rk «cvfc ^^rs^ "^
HK^^Am^A
558
Imprisonment for violation of the press laws. Even
a motion in his favour carried by the Reichstag failed
to secure the remission of his sentence. From 1878
to 1884 he was editor of the " Korrespondenz der
Zentrumsbl&tter'\ After his appointment as parish
priest of Hochkirch in 1884, he withdrew from but
still continued his activitv in joi^malism. His prin-
cipal works are: "Geschichte des Kulturkampfs''
(1886; 3rd ed., 1902); '^GeschichtslQgen'' (1884;
17th ed., 1902), in collaboration with Galland and
other friends. Some of his works — e. g., "Louise
Lateau" (2nd ed., 1875) — ^awakened surprise by their
pronounced mystical and prophetic stram. In ''Lu-
ther's Selbstmord" (1892) he attempted to establish
the untenable theory of Luther's suicide (concerning
this question see Faulus, ''Luther's Lebensende' ,
1898).
BxTTELHEXM, Btograph, Jahrbuch, IV (1900), 258 sq.
Thomas Kennedy,
Makarska. See Spalato, Diocese of.
Makil, Mathew. See Changanacherby, Vicar-
iate Apostolic of.
Malabar. — In its narrower application Malabar is
the name of a district of British India stretching about
145 miles along the west coast, south of Mangalore, and
belonging to the Madras Presidency, bounded on the
north by South Canara, on the east by Coorg, Mysore
State, the Nilgiris and Coimbatore, and on the south
by the Native State of Cochin. Its chief towns are
Cannanore, Tellicheri, Calicut (the capital), and Pal-
ghat. In its older, wider, and popular significance the
Malabar Coast includes, not only the district of Mala-
bar, but also the Native States of Cochin and Tra van-
core down to Cape Comorin — in fact the whole south-
west comer of India as far back as the ghaut line. The
ancient form of the name was Afa/e, " where the pep-
per grows", whence the name A/criayaZam for the pre-
vailing language. Ecclesiastically, British Malabar
belongs to the Diocese of Mangalore; the Cochin State
comprises the Padroado, Diocese of Cochin, the Arch-
diocese of Verapoly, and the three Vicariates Apostolic
of Trichur, Changanachery, and Ernaculani; while
the Travancore State is covered by the Diocese of
Quilon, the divisions being in each case approximate.
'The name Malabar is used in the connexion with the
"Syrian Christians of Malabar", chiefly found at the
present day in the three vicariates just mentioned.
The so-called " Malabar Rites " had nothing to do
with Malabar proper, since the scene of the dispute
was at Madura, on the opposite side of the peninsula.
The term seems to have arisen from the fact that the
Madura mission was part of the Malabar Province of
the Society of Jesus. (See Malabar Rites; Thomas
Christians; and the various dioceses above men-
tioned.)
Ernest R. Hull.
Malabar Rites. — ^A conventional term for certain
customs or practices of the natives of South India,
which the Jesuit missionaries allowed their neophytes
to retain after conversion, but which w-ere afterwards
prohibited by the Holy See. The missions concerned
are not those of the coast of south-western- India, to
which the name Malabar properly belongs, but those
of inner South India, especially those of the former
"kingdoms" of Madura, Mysore and the Kamatic.
The question of Malabar Rites originated in the
method followed by the Jesuits, since the beginning
of the seventeenth century, in evangelizing those coun-
tries. The prominent feature of that method was a
condescending accommodation to the manners and
customs of the people the conversion of whom was to
be obtained. But. when bitter enemies asserted, as
some still assert, that the Jesuit missionaries, in Ma-
dura, Mysore and the Kamatic, either accepted for
themselves or permitted to their neophytes such prac-
tices as they knew to be idolatrous or supentitioua,
this accusation must be styled not only unjust, but
absurd. In fact it is tantamount to aiffinnmg that
these men, whose inteUigenoe at least was never ques-
tioned, were so stupid as to jeopardize their own sal-
vation in order to save others, and to endure infinite
hardships in order to establisn among the Hindus a
corrupt and sham Christianity.
The popes, while disapproving of some usages hith-
erto considered inofTensive or tolerable by the missioii-
aries, never charged them with having adulterated
knowingly the purity of religion. On one of them, who
had observed tne " Malabar Rites " for seventeen years
previous to his martyrdom, the Church has conferred
the honour of beatiflcation. The process for the beati-
fication of Father John de Britto was going on at
Rome during the hottest period of the controversy
upon the famous " Rites " ; and the adversaries of the
Jesuits asserted beatification to be impossible, because
it would amount to approving the " superstitions and
idolatries " maintained by the missioners of Madura.
Yet the cause progressed, and Benedict XIV, on 2
July. 1741, declared "that the rites in question had
not been used, as among the Gentiles, with rehgious
significance, but merely as civil observances, and that
therefore they were no obstacle to bringing forward
the process " . (Brief of Beatification of John de Britto,
18 May, 1852,) There is no reason to view the " Mala-
bar Rites ", as practised generally in the said missions,
in any other light. Hence the good faith of the mis-
sionaries in tolerating the native customs should not
be contested; on the other hand, they, no doubt,
erred in carrying this toleration too far. But the bare
enumeration of the Decrees by which the question
was decided shows how perplexing it was and how
difficult the solution.
Father deNobUi's Work. — ^The founder of the missions
of the interior of South India, Roberto de Nobili, was
bom at Rome, in 1577, of a noblS family from Monte-
pulciano, which numbered among many distinguished
relatives the celebrated Cardinal Roberto Bellarmine.
When nineteen years of age, he entered the Society
of Jesus; and, after a few years, the young religious,
aiming at the purest ideal of self-sacrifice, requested
his superiors to send him to the missions of India.
He eraoarked at Lisbon, 1604, and in 1606 was serving
his apostolic apprenticeship in South India. Chria-
tianity was then flourishing on the coasts of this coun-
try. It is well known that St. Francis Xavier baptized
inany thousands there, and from the apex of tne In-
dian triangle the faith spread along both sides, espe-
cial! v on the west^ the Malabar coast. But the interior
of the vast pemnsula remained almost untouched.
The Apostle of the Indies himself recognized the in-
superable opposition of the "Brahmins and other
noble castes inhabiting the interior " to the preaching
of the Gospel (Monumenta Xaveriana, I, 64). Yet his
disciples were not sparing of endeavours. A Portu-
guese Jesuit, Gonsalvo Fernandes, had resided in ihe
city of Madura fully fourteen years, having obtained
leave of the king to stay there to watch over the
spiritual needs of a few Christians from the coast; and,
though a zealous and pious missionary, he had not
succeeded, within that long space of time, in making
one convert. This painful state of things Nobili wit-
nessed in 1606, when together with his superior, the
Provincial of Malabar, he paid a visit to Pernandes.
At once his keen eye perceived the cause and the
remedy.
It was evident that a deep-rooted aversion to the
foreign preachers hindered the Hindus of the interior,
not only from accepting the Gospel, but even from
listening to its message. But whence this aversion?
Its object was not exactly the foreigner, but the
Prangui. This name, with which the natives of India
designated the Portuguese, conveyeil to their minds
the idea of an infamous and abject class of men, with
ff^T-APAB
559
whom no Hindu could have any intercourse without
degrading himself to the lowest ranks of the popular
tion. Now the Prangui were abominated oecause
they violated the most respected customs of India, by
eatmg beef, and indulging in wine and spirits; but
much as all well-bred Hindus abhorred those things,
they felt more disgusted at seeing the Portuguese,
irrespective of any distinction of caste, treat freely
with the lowest classes, such as the pariahs, who, in
the eyes of their countrymen of the higher castes,
are nothing better than the vilest animals. Accorrl-
ingly, since Femandes was known to be a Portuguese,
that is a Prangui, and besides was seen living habit-
ually with men of the lowest caste, the religion he
preached, no less than himself, had to share the con-
tempt and execration attending his neophytes, and
maae no progress whatever among the better classes.
To become acceptable for all, Christianity^ must be
presented in quite another way. While Nobili thought
over his plan, probably the example just set by his
countryman Matteo Ricci, in China, stood before his
mind. At all events, he started from the same prin-
ciple, resolving to become, after the motto of St. Paul,
all thin^ to all men, and a Hindu to the Hindus, as
far as might be lawful.
Having ripened his design by thorough meditation
and by conferring with his superiors, the Archbishop
of Cranganore and the provmcial of Malabar, who
both approved and encouraged his resolution, Nobili
boltll}^ began his arduous career by re-entering Ma-
dura in the dress of the Hindu ascetics, known as
saniassy. He never tried to make believe that he was
a native of India; else he would have deserved the
•name of impostor, with which he has sometimes l^een
unjustly branded; but he availed himself of the fact
that he was not a Portuguese^ to deprecate the oppro-
brious name Prangui. He mtroduced himself as a
Roman raja (nobleman), desirous of living at Madura
in practismg penance, in praying and studying the
sacred law. He carefully avoided meeting witi Father
Femandes arid he took his lodging in a solitaiy abode
in the Brahmins' quarter obtained from the oenevo-
lence of a high officer. At first he called himself a
rdja, but soon he changed this title for that of brah-
mm, better suited to his aims. The rdjas or ksha-
tryas, being the second of the three high castes, formed
the military class; but intellectual avocations were
almost monopolized by the Brahmins. They held
from time immemorial the spiritual if not the political
government of the nation, and were the arbiters of
what the others ought to believe, to revere, and to
adore. Yet, it must be noted, they were in no wise a
priestly caste; they were possessed of no exclusive
right to perform functions of reli^ous cult. Nobili re-
mained tor a long time shut up m his dwelling, after
the custom of Indian penitents, living on rice, milk,
and herbs with water, and that once a day; he re-
ceived attendance onlv from Brahmin servants. Curi-
osity could not fail to be raised, and all the more as the
foreign saniassy was very slow in satisfying it. When,
after two or three refusals, he admitted visitors, the
interview was conducted according to the strictest
r ules of Hindu etiquette. Nobili charmed his audience
by the perfection with which he spoke their own lan-
guage, Tamil; by the quotations of famous Indian
authors with which he interspersed his discourse^ and,
above all, by the fragments of native poetry which he
recited or even sang with exquisite skill.
Having thus won a benevolent hearing, he pro-
ceeded step bv step on his missionary task, labouring
first to set right the ideas of his auditors with respect
to natural truth concerning God, the soul, etc.^ and
then instilling by degrees the dogmas of the Christian
faith. He took advantage also Of his acquaintance
with the books revered by the Hindus as sacred and
divine . These he contri vea , the first of all Europeans,
to read and study in the Sanskrit originals. For this
purpose he had engaged a reputed Brahmin teacher,
with whose assistance and by the industry of his own
keen intellect and felicitous memory he gained such a
knowledge of this recondite literature as to strike the
native doctors with amazement, very few of them feel-
ing themselves capable of vying with him on the point.
In this way also ne was enabled to find in the Vedas
many truths which he used in testimony of the doc-
trine he preached. By this method, and no less by the
Erestige of his pure and austere life, the missionary
ad soon dispelled the distrust and prejudices of many,
and before tne end of 1608, he conferred baptism on
several persons conspicuous for nobility and learning.
While he obliged his neophytes to reject all practices
involving superstition or savouring in any wise of
idolatrous worship, he allowed them to keep their
national customs, in as far as these contained nothing
wrong and referred to merely political or civil usages.
Acconiingly, Nobili 's disciples continued, for example,
wearing the dress proper to each one's caste; the
Brahmins retaining their codhumH (tuft of hair) and
cord (cotton- string slung over the left shoulder) ; all
adormng, as before, their foreheads with sandalwood-
paste, etc. Yet, one condition was laid on them,
namely, that the cord and the sandal, if once taken
with any superstitious ceremony, be removed and re-
placed by others with a special benediction, the form-
ula of which had been sent to Nobili by the Archbish(^
of Cranganore.
While the missionary was winning more and more
esteem, not only for himself, but also' for the Gospel,
even among those who did not receive it, the fanatical
ministers and votaries of the national gods, whom he
was going to supplant, could not watch his progress
quietly. By their assaults, indeed, his work was al-
most unceasingly impeded, and barely escaped ruin on
several occasions; but he held his ground in spite
of calumny, imprisonment, menaces of dedth and
all kinds of ill-treatment. In April, 1609, the flock
which he had gathered around him was too numerous
for his chapel and required a church; and the labour
of the ministry had become so crushing that he en-
treated the provincial to send him a companion. But
then fell on nim a storm from a part whence it might
least have been expected. Femandes, the missioner
already meiitioned, may have felt no mean jealousy,
when seeing Nobili succeed so happily where he had
been so powerless; but certainly ne proved unable
to understand or to appreciate the method of his col-
league: probably, also, as he had lived perforce apart
from the circles among which the latter was working,
he was never well informed of his doings. However
that may be, Femandes directed to the superiors of
the Jesuits in India and at Rome a lengthy report, in
which he charged Nobili with simulation, m declining
the name of Pranp;ui; with connivance at idolatry, in
allowing his neophjrtes to observe heathen customs,
such as wearing the insignia of castes; lastly, with
Bchismatical proceeding, in dividing the Christians into
separate congregations. This denimciation at first
caused an impression highly unfavourable to Nobili.
Influenced by the account of Femandes, the provin-
cial of Malabar (Father Laerzio, who had always
countenanced Nobili, had then left that office), the
Visitor of the India Missions and even the General of
the Society at Rome sent severe warnings to the
missionary innovator. Cardinal Bellarmine, in 1612,
wrote to his relative, expressing the grief he felt on
hearing of his unwise conduct.
TU^ps chan^d as soon as Nobili, being informed
of the accusation, could answer it on every point.
By oral explaaiations, in the assemblies of missionaries
and theologians at Cochin and at Goa, and by an
elaborate memoir, which he sent to Rome, he iustified
the manner in which he had presented himself to the
Brahmins of Madura; then, he showed that th«
national customs he allowed his converts to keep wev%
HffAT.AHAfc
660
TUrAt.AHAl^
such as had no religious meaning. The latter point,
the crux of the question, he elucidated by numerous
quotations from the authoritative Sanskrit law-books
of the Hindus. Moreover, he procured affidavits of
one hundred and eight Brahmins, from among the
most learned in Madura, all endorsing his interoreta-
tion of the native practices. Ho acknowledgea that
the infidels used to associate those practices with
superstitious ceremonies; but, he observed, "these
ceremonies belong to the mode, not to the substance
of the practices; the same difficulty may be raised
about eating, drinking, marriage, etc., for the hea-
thens mix their ceremonies with all their actions. It
suffices to do away with the superstitious ceremonies,
as the Christians do.'' As to schism, he denied hav-
ing caused any such thing: "he hod founded a new
Christianity, which never could have been brought
together with the older: the separation of the churches
hi^ been approved by the Archbishop of Cranganore;
and it precluded neither unity of faith nor Christian
charity, for his neophytes used to greet kindly those
of F. Femandes. Even on the coast there are dif-
ferent churches for different castes, and in Europe the
places in the churches are not common for all." No-
bili's apology was effectually seconded by the Arch-
bishop of Cranganore, who, as he had encouraged the
first steps of the missionary, continued to stand
firmly by his side, and pleaded his cause warmly at
Goa before the archbishop, as well as at Rome.
Thus the learned and zealous primate of India, Alexis
de Menezes, though a synod held by him had pro-
hibited the Brahmin cord, was won over to the cause
of Nobili. And his successor, Christopher de Sa, hav-
ing thought fit to take a contrary course, remained
almost the only opponent in India.
At Rome the explanations of Nobili, of the Arch-
bishop of Cranganore^ and of the chief Inquisitor of
Goa brought about a similar effect. In 1614 and 1615
Cardinal Bellarmine and the General of the Society
wrote a^ain to the missionary, declaring themselves
fully satisfied. At last, after the usual mature exam-
ination by the Holy See, on 31 Janua^, 1623, Greg-
ory XV, by his Apostolic Letter, "Roman® Sedis
Antistes'', decided the question provisionally in
favour of Father de Nobili. Accordingly, the co-
dkumbif the cord, the sandal, and the baths were per-
mitted to the Indian Christians, "until the Holy See
provide otherwise"; only certain conditions are pre-
scribed, in order that all superstitious admixture and
all occasion of scandal may be averted. As to the
separation of the castes, the pope confines himself to
*' earnestly entreating and beseeching (etiam cUmie
eiiam oblestamur et obsecramiia) the nobles not to de-
spise the lower people, especially in the churches, by
hearing the Divine word and receiving the sacraments
apart from them". Indeed, a strict order to this
effect would have been tantamount to sentencing the
new-bom Christianity of Madura to death. The pope
understood, no doubt, that the customs connected
with the distinction of castes, being so deeply rooted
in the ideas and habits of all Hindus, did not admit an
abrupt suppression , even among the Christians. They
were to be dealt with by the Church, as had been
slavery, serfdom, and the hke institutions of past
times. The Church never attacked directly those in-
veterate customs; but she inculcated meekness, hu-
mility, charity, love of the Saviour who suffered and
§ave His life for all, and by this method slavery, scrf-
om, and other social abuses were slowly eradicated.
While imitating this wise indulgence to the feeble-
ness of new converts, Father de Nobili took much care
to inspire his disciples with the feelings becoming true
Christians towards their humbler brethren. At the
very outset of liis preaching, he insisted on making all
understand that " religion was by no naeans dependent
on caste; indeed it must be one for all, the true God
being one for all; although Pie added] unity of religion
destroys not the civil distinction of the castes nor the
lawful privileges of the nobles ". Explaining then the
commandment of charity, he inculcated that it ex-
tended to the pariahs as well as others, and he ex-
empted nobody from the duties it imposes; but he
mi^t rightly tell his neophytes that, for example,
visiting pariahs or other ^ople of low caste at their
houses, treating them fannliarly, even kneeling or sit-
ting by them in the church, concerned pe^ection
ratner than the precept of charity, and that accord-
ingly such actions could be omitted without any
fault, at least where they involved so grave a detri-
ment as degradation from the higher caste. Of this
principle the missionaries had a n^ht to m^e use for
themselves. Indeed charity required more from the
pastors of souls than from others; yet not in such a
way that they should endanger the salvation of the
many to relieve the needs of the few. Therefore
Nobili, at the beginning of his apostolate, avoided
all public intercourse with the lower castas; but he
failed not to minister secretly even to pariahs. In the
year 1638, there were at Tiruchirapalu (Trichinopoly)
several hundred Christian pariahs, who had b^n se-
cretly taught and baptized oy the companions of No-
bili. About this time he devised a means of assisting
more directly the lower castes, without ruining the
work begun among the higher.
Besides the Brahmin samassy, there was another
grade of Hindu ascetics, called pandcaranij enjoying
less consideration than the Brahmins, but who were
allowed to deal publicly with all castes, and even hold
intercourse witn the pariahs. They were not ex-
cluded from relations with the higher castes. On the^
advice of Nobili, the superiors of the mission with the'
Archbishop of Cranganore resolved that henceforward
there should be two classes of missionaries, the Brah-
min and the pandaram. Father Balthasar da Costa
was the first, in 1540, who took the name and habit of
pandaram, imder which he effected a large number of
conversions, of others as well as of pariahs: Nobili
had then three Jesuit companions. After the com-
forting decision of Rome, he had hastened to extend
his preaching beyond the town of Madura, and the
Gospel spread by degrees over the whole interior of
South India. In 1646, exhausted by forty-two years
of toiling and suffering, he was constrained to retire,
first to Jafnapatam in Ceylon, then to Mylapore,
where he died 16 January, 1656. He left his mission
in full progress. To give some idea of its develop-
ment, we note that the superiors, writing to the gen-
eral of the Society, about the middle and during the
second half of the seventeenth century, record an an-
nual average of five thousand conversions, the number
never being less than three thousand a year even when
the missioners* work was most hinderecf by persecution.
At the end of the seventeenth century, the total num-
ber of Christians in the mission founcied by Nobili and
still named Madura mission, though embracing, besides
Madura, Mysore. Marava, Tanjore, Gingi, etc., is de-
scribed as exceeding 150,000. Yet the number of the
missionaries never went beyond seven, assisted how-
ever by many native catechists.
The Madura mission belonged to the Portuguese
assistance of the Society of Jesus, but it was supplied
with men from all provinces of the Order. Thus, for
example. Father Beschi (c. 1710-1746), who won so
high a renown among the Hindus, heathen and Chris-
tian, by his writings in Tamil, was an Italian, as the
founder of the mission had been. In the last quarter
of the seventeenth century, the French Father John
Venantius Bouchet worked for twelve years in Ma-
dura, chiefly at Trichinopoly, during which time he
baptized about 20,000 infidels. And it is to be noted
that the cat<»chumens, in these partes of India, were ad-
mitted to baptism only after a long and careful prepa-
ration. Indeed the missionary accounts of the time
bear frequent witness to the very commendable
MALABAR
561
qualities of these Christians, their fervent piety, their
steadfastness in the sufferings they often had to endure
for religion's sake, their charity towards their breth-
ren, even of the lowest castes, their seal for the con-
version of pagans. In the year 1700 Father Bouchet,
with a few other French Jesuits, opened a new mission
in the Kamatic, north of the River Kaveri. Like
their Portuguese colleagues of Madura, the French
missionaries of the Kamatic were very successful, in
spite of repeated and almost continual persecutions by
the idolaters. Moreover several of them became par-
ticularly conspicuous for the extensive knowledge they
acquired of the literature and sciences of ancient In-
dia. From Father Cceurdoux the French Academi-
cians learned the common origin of the Sanskrit,
Greek, and Latin languages ; to the initiative of Nobili
and to the endeavours of his followers in the same line
is due the first disclosure of a new intellectual world in
India. The first original documents, enabling the
learned to explore that world, were drawn from their
hiding-places in India, and sent in large numbers to
Europe by the same missionaries. But the Kamatic
mission had hardly begun when it was disturbed by
the revival of the controversy, which the decision of
Gregory XV had set at rest for three quarters of a cen-
tury.
The Decree of Tournon. — ^This second phase, which
was much more eventful and noisy than the first, ori-
ginated in Pondicherry. Since the French had settled
at that place, the spiritual care of the colonists was in
the hands of the Capuchin Fathers, who were also work-
ing for the conversion of the natives. With a view
to forwarding the latter work, the Bishop of Mylapore
or San Thom6, to whose jurisdiction Pondicherry be-
longed, resolved, in 1699, to transfer it entirely to the
Jesuits of the Kamatic mission, assigning to them a
parochial church in the town and restricting the min-
istry of the Capuchins to the European immigrants,
French or Portuguese. The Capuchins were dis-
pleased by this arrangement and appealed to Rome.
The petition they laid before the pope, in 1703, em-
bodied not onlv a complaint against the di\4sion of
parishes made oy the bishop, but also an accusation
against the methods of the Jesuit mission in South
India. Their claim on the former point was fhially
dismissed, but the charges were more successful. On.
6 November, 1703, Charles-Thomas-Maillard de Tour-
non, a Piedmontese prelate, Patriarch of Antioch,
sent by Clement XI, with the power of legatue a latere^
to visit the new Christian missions of the East In-
dies and especially China, landed at Pondicherry.
Being obliged to wait there eight months for the oppor-
tunity of passing over to China. Toumon institutea an'
inquiry into the facts alleged by the Capuchins. He
was hindered through sickness, as he hmiself stated,
from visiting any part of the inland mission ; in the
town, besides the Capuchins, who had not visited the
interior, he interrogated a few natives through intei^
pret^rs; the Jesuits he consulted rather cursorily, it
seems.
Less than eight months after his arrival in India, he
considered himself justified in issuing a decree of vital
import to the whole of the Christians of India. It con-
sisted of sixteen articles concerning practices in use or
supposed to be in use among the neophytes of Madura
and the Kamatic; the legate condemned and pro-
hibited these practfces as defiling the purity of the
faith and religion, and forbade tne missionaries, on
pain of heavv censures, to permit them any more.
Though dated 23 June, 1704, the decree was notified to
the superiors of the Jesuits only on 8 Jnly, three days
before the departure of Toumon from Pondicherry.
During the short time left, the missionaries endeav-
oured to make him imderstand on what imperfect in-
formation his decree rested, and that nothing less than
the min of the mission was likely to follow from its
execution . Thev succeeded in persuading him to taiw
off orally the threat of censures appended, and to sus-
pend provisionally the prescription commanding the
missionaries to give spiritual assistance to the sick
pariahs, not only in the churches, but in their dwell-
ing.
Examination of the Malabar Rites at Rome. — ^Tour-
non's decree, interpreted by prejudice and ignorance as
representing, in the wron^ practices it condemned, the
real state of the India missions, affords to this day a
much-used weapon against the Jesuits. At Rome it
was received with reserve. Clement XI, who perhaps
overrated the prudence of his zealous legate, ordered,
in the Congr^ation of the Holy Office, on 7 Janu-
ary, 1706, a provisional confirmation of the decree to
be sent to him, adding that it should be executed '' un-
til the Holy See might provide otherwise, after havinz
heard those who might have something to object .
And meanwhile, by an oracidum vivce vocis granted to
the procurator of the Madura mission, the pope de-
clared the missionaries tabe obliged to observe the de-
cree, " in so far as the Divine glory and the salvation
of souls would permit". The objections of the mis-
sionaries and the corrections they desired were pro-
pounded by several deputies and carefully examined
at Rome, without effect, during the lifetime of Clem-
ent XI and during the short pontificate of his succes-
sor Innocent XIII. Benedict XIII grappled with the
case and even came to a decision, enjoining '' on the
bishops and missionaries of Madura, Mysore, and
the Kamatic " the execution of Toumon's decree in all
its parts (12 December, 1727). Yet it is doubted
whether that decision ever reached the mission, and
Clement XII, who succeeded Benedict XIII, com-
manded the whole affair to be discussed anew. In
four meetings held from 21 January to 6 September.
1733, the cardinals of the Holy Office gave tneir final
conclusions upon all the articles of Toumon's decree,
declaring how each of them ought to be executed, or
restricted and mitigated. By a Brief dated 24 Au-
gust, 1734, Clement XII sanctioned this resolution;
moreover, on 13 May, 1739, he prescribed an oath, by
which every missionary should bind himself to obey-
ing and making the neophytes obey exactly the Brief
of 24 August, 1734.
Many hard prescriptions of Toumon were mitigated
by the regulation of 1734. As to the first article, con-
demning the omission of the use of saliva and breath-
ing on the candidates for baptism, the missionaries,
and the bishops of India with them, are rebuked for
not having consulted the Holy See previously to that
omission; yet, they are allowed to continue for ten
years omitting these ceremonies, to which the Hin-
dus felt so strangely loath. Other prohibitions or
precepts of the legate are softened by the addition of
a Quantum fieri potest, or even replaced by mere coim-
sels or advices. In the sixth article, the taty, ''with
the image of the idol Pulleyar", is still interdicted, but
the Congregation observes that *Hhe missionaries
say they never permitted wearing of such a taly*\
Now this observation seems pretty near to recognizing
that possibly the prohibitions of the rather over-
zealous le^te did not always hit upon existing abuses.
And a similar conclusion might be drawn from several
other articles, e. g. from the fifteenth, where we are
told that the interdiction of wearing ashes and em-
blems after the manner of the heathen Hindus, ought
to be kept, but in such a manner, it is added, " that the
Constitution of Gregory XV of 31 January, 1623, ' Ro-
mans Senis Antistes', be observed throughout '\ By
that Constitution, as we have already seen, some signs
and ornaments, materially similar to those prohibited
by Toumon, were allowed to the Christians, provided
tnat no superstition whatever was mingled with their
use. Indeed, as the Congregation of Propaganda
explains in an Instruction sent to the Vicar Apostolie
of Pondicherry, 15 February, 1792, **thc Decree of
C^urdinal de Toumon and the Conatvtv\.t\a^ ^<o:t«i5sri
lULUU Bi
XV agree in this way, tliat both absolutely forbid any
aign Marine even tne least semblance of aupentition,
but allow those which are In general use for the sake of
adornment, of good manners, and bodily cleannees,
without any respect to religion."
The most difficult point retained was the twelfth
article, commandinK the miwionaries to administer
the sacraments to the sick pariahs in their dwellings,
publicly. Though submitting dutifully to all pre-
cepts of the Vicar of Christ, the Jesuits In Madun
could not but feel distressed, at esperlencing how the
last, especially, made their apostolate difficult and even
impossible amidst the "JPPer classes of Hindus, At
their raqueat, Benedict xlV consented to try a new
Bolution of the knotty problem, by forming a oand of
iniBsionaries who should attend only to the care of the
^iriahs. This scheme became formal law through the
Constitution "Omnium sollicitudinum", published 13
September, 1744. Except this point, the document
confirmed again the whole regulation enacted by Clem-
ent XII in 1734. The arrangement sanctioned by
Benedict XIV benefited greatly the lower classes of
Hindu neophytes; whether it worked also to the ad-
vmntl^ of the mission at large, is another question,
about which the reports are less comforting. Be that
M it may, after the suppreasion of the Society of Jesua
(1773), the distinction between Brahmin and pariah
inisBiuiBries became extinct with the Jesuit roission'
arie*. Henceforth conversions in the higher castes
were fewer and fewer, and nowadays the Christian
Hindus, for the most p^, belong to the lower and
lowest classes. The Jesuit missionaries, when re-
entering Madura in the year 1838, did not come with
the dress of the Brahmin saniaisy, Uke the founders of
the mission; yet they pursued a design which NobiU
bad also in view, though he could not carry it out, as
they opened their college of Negapatam, now at Tri-
ohinopoly. A wide breach has already been made
into the wall of Brahminic reserve by that institution,
where hundreds of Brahmins send their sons to be
taught by the Catholic miasionaries. Within recent
years, about fifty of these young men have embraced
the faith of their teachers, at the cost of rejection from
theircaste and even from their family; such examples
are not lost on their countrymen, either of high or low
Bbrthand, La Uittion du Uadurt ^aprtt da docwnetU
imidih (4 vols., PuiB.184S-S4): JevEHcics. HUloHa SoriaaHs
Jesu Pan Quinla, 11 (Rome. 1710). 403-500; Cordara, A<*-
H.™ Socirtatii Jriu Fare Sala, I (Rome, 1750). 198-lflB, 310-
814; LdtmiM^ateirtcurirutitimtea da Million' Etrangtra
i>ar DiM^ouM MianttrvtaireK lie la Uompagnv de Jitua, 5"* Hbrics
tPan8,1705).Z,rtfr(i7uP. Mailin. I j^nt. ;700(on Nobilietr.):
«* acrioi (Paris, 1707J, L^Tt duP. Mauduil. I Jan.. nOB (od
tlu uo mistiou of the Kamatic); Prat. Hii^in du B. Jain
rfiBnllo (Puris,lSS31; 8uad, ^u Wodure: Brahma H Pariahi
in Eludci (20 Iilsrch. 1909J, B53-Sa:i. this paper hivcs some
wdracUi from the Annual LriJtri of the mission of Madura,
1843-40; tomtitution Romana Scdit AniiMn in J<^rit FoiUi-
Jlci'i dt Propa(/anda Fide euro R. de Martinii, I, t. I (Home.
ISSS), 15-17; DE Backkh-Somiiehvodei., Bibtiothi^ue det
mrivaim de la Compagnie de Jttat. v, 1770-1780. s. v. NobUi.
CorutitutioD Omnium loUicUadinum tit BbnedictXIV, oou-
tainiDg also the Decree of TorRSOHUxlthedeouiDiuof Cleu-
imtXT.Bbnedict XIII. and Clement XII in Jwi* PoiH. de
Prop. P., pt. I, t. HI. I IS, and in CoUectanea S. Congreeationit
de Propaganda Fide (Rome. 1893), 714-734; «*e bI»0 in the
latter coflectioa the anEweri and instmctiotiB of the Prapa-
aanili on the name matter; Lainei, Dtlentio Indiearam
miieiimum. Madumifi, ncmpe. Maueuren^ rt Camilmri.,
«Iilo or-rationt Dtcrtii ab III-' D- Patriareha AnHadieno D.
CanlBMai/larddrTavmonVitilalorrApaeloIicoinlndiieOrien-
taJiftai (linme, 1707); Bbanuouni. Giialificaiione drl praticalo
tin- era da' Reliaiosi della Compaania di Gtaii arUe Mimiani del
Madunv. Jl/nuMur e Camate fBome. 1724): Lt;cino. Ragioni
propoile td enaminaii a /avare dtt Derrelo pMicalo dal Sig" Car-
diaale di Tournnn, Committario ri Virilaiiire Anaelolifo nm
polrit/i di Ltaalo a latere, in FuduKtH. li i Luglia. 170i. per
U MieeiBni di Madurf. Mayteur t Camale! lu It falH conJiMli
dal Padre Laynez c i*i( Padre Brandotini della Conpagnia di
<ii'mu.- apQBte per commando delta Contrrrgmione particolore
tmula nmnit CE~ Sig- Cardinnle Imperiali (Rome, 1725);
IiiFii. Eiame a Difrea del Decrelo pubblicalo in Puducitni da
Momianor Carlo Tommaio di To^mon . . . (Rome. 1728):
IBitANj..,i.iM), Ri.,.o«(o atti aetute doit al praticato tin' ora da'
R'bgion delta C" diOirtfi. nelle Mietioni d*J Madurt^.Mayitur
tCanale. in duelibtidirtrti dal S— P. Fta Luigi Matia LvciM,
18^3; Erphealiin
ie, nt6)\ IVillehuaiilib), Antcdolet tur ftlal J* la
ma la Chine.. Cotd^natit I' huloire da Supeniiiion* da
'■' (Parts. 1734), 1-17; Dicrtl de Mar. de Tovnum.
■ m dii dirrt de U. U Card, de Townonjiar wi
»._..„..,.„...„.. Sndri,SA-lMi;Biirttildii livre intiiiM: Eiamen
M dijen.'v da Dttrii He. par te I. R. P. Laiti* Maria Lueino. The
AhkcUh. a Juueaiat work, b e^ce«dinsly btaaed acainrt the
Jesiiil^i and still more tbe vaaXA-bt Htilone Utmmrm ol Cubel
Pahisot ialiai Abb£ Puatbi, sometime Fatsbe NnEBBiT.
Capdchin), which cams out, under vbivIiir tttlos, Hirt to cat
valume (Luecs. 1742). then In 2. 4. 8 volumn, id Fimeb and in
Italian (Luoca, 1744, 174S, 1760) , lut in utdq voIuidm (Liiboo.
17061 ; (PatODii-lktI, LeUrti k M. rEttme de siir le ti'tn
duP.Norbert (17451; Itnl. tr. la RaccoiCa d'Apoloaic luBa dol-
ttina • conduUa dfRk. PP. deOa C^ di OetH. t. Vn (17a0). »d.
info], 1, 10-50(1782); FrOL* In Kin*enlexikim.a. v. PariKH:
KiRBca, £ur OeaehicMe dir Ctnturiervng da P. S'orberl in
TiroIoguchB QuarlolKhrifl. LXXXVI (TQIlirinn. IB04). S^ir-
378; IDBU, Pap^ BenaM XIV imd snne BilSn baO^ith drr
ehinteieektrt md fialaliariKJun (MrducAt In Th. QwaUcA.
LXXXUI (TatHDOBi, 1901), 374-388. (3n the Ute(t period;
LAUMAt, ffJatoiiiiaM mis»toMder7n<fe,PondicWnr. ifafi-
Catnbataur. I (Paris, 189S1: LMra ■-
(02); D,
). 320-3
by Dbhtband (Paris. I8M};
, , , ftSfl-lflOl); SOAD. VIndi
ButANN. tndiicht Pahrten, It (Fwl-
iO.
Joseph Bbockzb.
Mtlucft, DiocESB OF (Malacensis), comprises the
southern portions of tbe Malay Peninsula, otherwise
known as the Straits Settlements. It includes Singa-
pore Island, the Malacca territory nroper. Province
Wellealey and Penang Island, the Negri Sembilon,
Seluigor, Perak, Kedan, Fohang, KelautBxi,aDd Treog-
ganu difltricts— -an area of about 400 miles north to
south, and 200 east to west. Although outside India
proper, the See of Malacca is suffragan to Pondicberry.
The CalhoHc population is reckoned at about 28,000
out of a total ot about 1,800,00(}. Both bishop and
cler^, as in all the other dioceses of the Pondicheiry
province, belong to the Paris Society of Foreign His-
sions. The priests number forty-two, having charge
of fifty-seven churches and chapels. Beaides those
there are five rehgious communities for men (Brothers
of the Christian Schools) , and seven for women (Dames
de St-Mam\} The cathedral is at Singapore (Cathe-
dral of the Ciood Shepherd). There Is a college for the
education of native clergy at Penang. The mission
possesses 49 schools, in which 6660 children are edu-
HisTORT. — Malacca was erected by Pa.ul IV into a
diocese under the Portuguese Patronage in 1557, and
so continued till 1838, when, by the Brief "Multa
Prfflclare"iuriedictiorfwa8withdrown from tbe see and
transferred to the Vicariate Apostolic of Avs and
Pegu (Burma), But the clergy of this vicariate bdng
insufficient to cope with the work, the whole Malay
Peninsula was in 1840 placed under the jurisdiction of
the Vicar Apoatohc of Siam, with a view to its erection
into a separate vicariate. This was effected by the
Brief "Universi Doniinici Gregis" ot 10 September.i
1841. First called Western Siam, and then the Vicari- '
ate Apostolic of the Malay Peninsula, it was on 10
August, 1888, elevated into a diocese, the old See of
Mabcca being revived by Leo XIII, and by a subse-
quent decree made suffragan to Pondicberry. Rt.
Rev. Edouard Gasnier, who had been vicar ApostoUc
from 1878, was appointed the first bishop. He was
succeeded in 1896 by Rt. Rev. Ren« Fte (1896-1904).
The present bishop is Rt. Rev. Emil Barrilon.
WadnuCoMoiieDiVtttorvdOOO); Ladnat. Htit eftiAttled*
la Boc dee Mitnom-Elrangfra (3 vols.. Paiu. 1894); Idem,
AeatdaMiai<me(fiaia). „ „
Ernest R. Hull.
UalMbiw (Hebrew M^'aiMi, one of the twelve
minor prophete.
I. pEBeoNAOB AND Na*! E.— It IS the Ust book of Um
collection of the twelve Minor Prophets which is in-
scribed with the name of Mnlachias. As a result, the
author has long been regarded aa the last of the ca-
nonical prophets of the Old Testament. All that is
known of him, however, i9 summed up in the_t«nor of
his preaching and the approximate period of bis uuuis-
WAT.AnWTAft
563
KALA0HXA8
tiy. The Jewish schools identified him quite earty
with the scribe Esdras. This identification, which is
without historical value and is based according to St.
Jerome on an interpretation given to Mai., ii, 7, was at
first probably suggested by the tradition which be-
held in Esdras the intermedianr between the prophets
and the *' great synagogue '', wnose foundation was at-
tributed to him and to which he was considered to
have transmitted the deposit of doctrine handed down
by the prophets (Pirqe Abhdth, I, 2). The position
of intermediary fully belonged to Esdras on the hypo-
thesis that he was the last of the prophets and the mst
member of the * ' great synagogue * * . The name MaXa-
xioLs figures at the head of the book in the Septuagint.
The ^exandrine translator, however, did not under-
stand Mai., i, 1, to contain the mention of the author's
proper name; he translates the (Passage: ''The word of
the Lord by the hand of his Angel/' so that he has evi-
dently understood the Hebrew expression to be the
common noun augmented by the suffix; he has, more-
over, read Mdl'Qkkd instead of Mdl'akht. We cannot
say whether this reading and interpretation should not
be considered as an effect of Jewish speculations con-
cerning the identity of the author of the book with
Esdras, or whether an interpretation of this kind
was not at the foundation of the same speculation.
However that may be, the interpretation of the Sep-
tuagint found an et:ho among the ancient Fathers and
ecclesiastical w^riters, and even gave rise, especially
among the disciples of Origen, to the strangest
fancies.
A large number of modern authors likewise refuse to
see in MiM'akhi the proper name of the author. They
Eoint out that in Mai., iii, 1, the Lord announces: *' Be-
old I send my angel (rndl'&kht) . . . ". According
to them, it is from tiiis passage that the name MdVdkhi
was borrowed by a more recent author, who added
the inscription to the book (i, 1). But, in the first
place, this epithet Mdl'&khl could not have the same
value in i, 1, as in iii, 1, where it is the noun aug-
mented by the suffix {my angel). For in i, 1, the Lonl
is spoken of in the third person, and one would expect
the noun with the suffix of the third person, as in fact
is given in the Septuagint (his angel). The messenger
of the Lord is moreover announced in iii, 1, to arrive
thereafter (cf. iv, 5; Hebrew text, iii, 23); conse-
quently no one could have imagined that this same
messenger was the author of the book. There would
remain the hypothesis that Mdl'akhi in i, 1, should be
understood as a qualifying word signifying angdicus —
i. e. he who was concerned with the angel, who prophe-
sied on the subject of the angel (iii, 1). This explana-
tion, however, is too far-fetched. It is at least more
probable that Mdl'&khi in i, 1, should be understood as
the proper name of the author, or as a title borne his-
torically by him and equivalent to a proper name. We
are no doubt in presence of an abbreviation of the
name MdVokhiyah, that is " Messenger of Y^".
II. Contents op the Book. — ^Irie Book of Mala-
chias in the Hebrew comprises three chapters. In the
Greek Bible and in the Vulgate it contains four, chap-
ter iii, 19 sqq., of the Hebrew forming a separate
chapter. The book is divided into two parts, Uie first
extending from i, 2, to ii, 16, and the second from ii,
17, to the end. In the first the prophet first in-
veighs against the priests guilty of prevarication in
their discharge of the sacrificial ritual, by offering de-
fective victims (i, 6-ii, 4), and in their office of
doctors of the Law (ii, 5-9). He then accuses the
people in general, condemning the intestine divisions,
the mixed marriages between Jews and Gentiles (ii,
10-12), and the abuse of divorce (ii, 13-16). The
second part contains a discourse full of promise. To a
first complaint concerning the impunity which the
wicked enjoy (ii, 17), Yahweh replies that the Lord and
the angel of the New Testament are about to come for
the purpose of purifying the sods of Levi and the en-
tire nation (iii, 1-5): if the people are faithful to their
obligations, esp^ialW with respect to the tithes, they
will oe loaded with Divine blessings (iii, 6-12). To a
second complaint concerning the aSOdctions that fall to
the lot of the just, while the wicked succeed in every-
thing (iii, 13), Yahweh gives answer that on the day of
his justice the good will take a glorious revenge (iii, 14
sqq.). Tlie book closes with a double epilogue; the
first recalls the remembrance of Moses, and the laws
promulgated on Mount Horeb (iv, 4; Hebrew text, iii,
22) ; the second announces the coming of Elias before
the day of Yahweh (iv, 5-6; Heb., iii, 23-24). The
unity of the book taken as a whole is unquestionable;
but many critics consider as the addition of another
hand either both the epilo^es or at least the second.
There is indeed no connexion between these passaj^
and what goes before, but from this consideration
alone no certain conclusion can be drawn.
III. Date op Composition. — ^The opinion brought
forward some time ago, that the book ot Malachias was.
composed in the second centurv b. c, has received no
support. Critics are practically agreed in dating the
book from about the middle of the fifth century
B. c. The text itself does not furnish any explicit
information, but many indications are m favour
of the assigned date: (a) in the first place the
mention of the Peha (i. 8), as the pohtical head of
the people takes us back to the Persian period; the
title of reha was indeed that borne h}r the Persian
governor especially at Jerusalem (Agg., i, 1 ; I Esd., v,
14; II Esd., V. 14-15); (b) the book was not com-
posed during tne first years that followed the return
from the Babylonian captivity, because not only the
Temple exists, but relaxation in the exercise of wor*
ship already prevails (Mai., i, 6 sqq.) ; (c) on the other
hand it is hardly probable that the discourses of Mala-
chias are of later date than Nehemias. In the great
assembly which waa held during the first sojourn of
Nehemias at Jerusalem, among other engagements,
the people had taken that of paying the tithes regu-
larly (ll Esd.. X, 38), and history testifies that in this
respect the adopted resolutions were faithfully carried
out, although in the distribution of the tithes the Le-
vites were unjustly treated (II Esd., xiii, 5, 10, 13).
Now Malachias complains not of the injustice of which
the Levites were the object, but of the negligence on
the part of the people tnemselves in the payment of
the tithes (iii, 10). Again, Malachias does not regard
mixed marriages as contrary to a positive engagement,
like that which was taken under the direction of Ne-
hemias (II Esd., X, 30); he denounces them on ac-
count of their unhappy consequences and of the con-
tempt which they imply for the Jewish nationality
(Mai., ii, 11, 12); (d) it is not even during the sojourn
of Nehemias at Jerusalem that Malachias wrote his
book. Nehemias was Peha, and he greatlv insists upon
his disinterestedness in the exercise of his functions,
contrary to the practices of his predecessors (II Esd.,
V, 14 sqq.) ; but Malachias gives us to understand that
the Peha was severely exacting (i, 8) ; (e) the date of
oompositioQ can only fall withm some short time be-
fore the mission of Nehemias. The complaints and
protestations to which this latter gives expression (II
Esd., ii, 17; iv. 4 sq.; v, 6 sgq., etc!) are like an echo of
those recorded by Malachias (iii, 14, 15). The mis-
fortune that weighed so heavilv upon the people in
the days of Malachias (iii. 9 sqq.) were still felt during
those of Nehemias (II Esd., v. 1 saq.). Lastly and
above all, the abuses condemned by Malachias, namely,
the relaxation in relij^ous worship^ mixed marriages
and the intestine divisions of which they were the
cause (Mai., ii, 10-12; cf. II Esd., vi, 18), the negU-
gence in paying the tithes, were precisely the principal
objects of the reforms imdertaken by Nehemias (II
Esq., x^ 31, 33, sqq.. 38 sqq.). As the first mission of
Nehemias falls in tne twentieth year of Artaxerxes I
(II Esd., ii, 1), that is in 445 b. c, it CQUA^%^\iab&.««2Q5^
MALAOHIAS
564
MALAOHIAS
composition of the Book of Malachlas may be placed
about 450 b. c.
IV. Importance op the Book. — ^The importance
lies (1) in the data which the book furnishes for the
study of certain problems of criticism concerning the
Old Testament, and (2) in the doctrine it contains.
^1) For the study of the history of the Pentateuch,
it IS to be remarked that the Book of Malachias is
directly connected with Deuteronomy, and not with
any of those parts of the Pentateuch commonly desig-
nated under the name of priestly documents. Thus
Mai., i, 8, where the prophet speaks of the animals un-
fit for sacrifice, brings to mind Deut., xv. 21, rather
than Lev., xxii, 22 sq.; the passage in Mai., ii, 16, re-
lating to divorce by reason of aversion, points to
Deut., xxiv, 1. What is even more significant is that,
in his manner of characterizing the Tribe of Levi and
its relations with the priesthood, Malachias adopts
the terminology of Deuteronomy; in speaking of the
priests, he brings into evidence "their origin not from
Aaron but from Levi (ii, 4, 5 sqq.; iii, 3 sq.). Conse-
quently, it would be an error to suppose that in this
respect Deuteronomy represents a pomt of view which
in the middle of the fifth century was no longer held.
Let us add that the first of the two epilogueSj with
which the book concludes (iv, 4; Hebrew, text, hi, 32),
is likewise conceived in the spirit of Deuteronomy.
The examination of the Book of Malachias may
be brought to bear on the solution of the question as
to whether the mission of Esdras, related in I Esd.,
vii-x, falls in the seventh year of Artaxcrxes I (458
B. c.), that is to say, thirteen years before the first
mission of Nehemias, or in the seventh year of Artaxer-
xes II (398 B. c.)j and therefore after Nehemias. Im-
mediately after his arrival in Jerusalem^ Esdras under-
takes a radical reform of the abuse of mixed marriages,
which are already considered contrary to a positive
prohibition (I Esd., x). He tells us also that, sup-
ported by the authority of the King of Persia and with
the co-operation of the governors beyond the river, he
laboured with full success to give to rehgious worship
all its splendour (I Esd., vii, 14, 15, 17, 20— viii, 36).
And nothing whatever justifies the beUef that the
work of Esdras had but an ephemeral success, for in
that case he would not in his own memoirs have re-
lated it with so much emphasis without one word of
regret for the failure of his effort. Can data such as
these be reconciled with the supposition that the state
of affairs described by Malachias was the immedi-
ate outcome of the work of Esdras related in I Esd.,
vii-x?
(2) In the doctrine of Malachias one notices with
good reason as worthy of interest the attitude taken
by the prophet on the subject of divorce (ii, 14-16).
The passage in question is very obscure, but it appears
in V. 16 that the prophet disapproves of the clivorce
tolerated bjr Deut., xxiv, 1, viz., for cause of aversion.
The Messianic doctrine of Malachias especially ap-
peals to our attention. InMal.iii, l,Yahweh announces
that he will send his messenger to prepare the way be-
fore Him. In the second epilogue of the book (iv, 5.
6; Heb., text, iii, 23 sq.), tnis messenger is identifiea
with the prophet Elias. Many passages in the New
Testament categorically interpret this double prophecy
by applying it to John the baptist, precursor of our
Lora (Matt., xi, 10, 14; xvii, 11-12; Mark, ix^ 10 sqq.;
Luke, i, 17). The prophecy of Malachias, iii, 1, adas
that, as soon as the messenger shall have prepared the
way, "the Lord, whom you seek, and the Angel of the
testament J whom you desire, " will come to His temple.
The Lord is here identified with the angel of the testa-
ment; this is evident from the construction of the
phrase and from the circumstance that the description
of the mission of the angel of the testament (w. 2 sq.)
is continued by the Lord speaking of Himself in the
first person in v. 5.
A particularly famous passage is that of Mai., i, 10-
11. In spite of a difficulty in the construction of the
phrase, which can be avoided by vocalising one word
otherwise than the Massoretes have done (read miq-
Par, Sept. Bv/Uafxa^ instead of mti^r in v. 11), the
literal sense is clear. The principal question is to
know what is the sacrifice ana pure ofiferin|^ spoken of
in V. 11. A large number of non-Cathohc ex^etes
interpret it of the sacrifices actually being offered
from east to west at the time of Malachias himself.
According to some, the prophet had in view the
sacrifices offered in the name of Yahweh by the
proselytes of the Jewish religion among all the nations
of the earth; others are more inclined to the belief
that he signifies the sacrifices offered by the Jews
dispersed among the Gentiles. But in the fifth cen-
tuiy B. c. neither the Jews dispersed among the Gen-
tiles nor the prosel^-t^ were sufficiently numerous to
justify the solemn utterances used by Malachias; the
prophet clearly wants to insist on the universal diffu-
sion of the sacrifice which he has in view. Hence others,
following the exampleof Theodore of Mopsuestia, think
they can explain the expression in v. 11 as referring to
the sacrifices offered by the pagans to their own gods or
to the Supreme God; those sacrifices would have been
considered by Malachias as materially offered to Yah-
weh, because in fact Yahweh is the only true God.
But it appeara inconceivable that Yahwen should, by
mean& of Malachias, have looked upon as ** pure " and
"offered to his name" the sacrifices offered by the
Gentiles to this or that divinity; especially when one
considers the great importance Malachias attaches to
the ritual (i, 6 sqq., 12 sqq.; iii, 3 sg.) and the attitude
he takes towards foreign peoples (ij 2 sqq.; ii, 11 sq.).
The interpretation according to which chap, i, 11, con-
cerns the sacrifices in vogue among the Gentiles at the
epoch of Malachias himself fails to recognize that the
sacrifice and the pure offering of v. 11 are looked upon
as a new institution succeeding the sacrifices of the
Temple, furnishing by their very nature a motive
sufficient to close the doors of the house of God and
extinguish the fire of the altar (v. 10) Consequently
v. 11 must be considered as a Messianic prophecy.
The universal diffusion of the worship of Yahweh
is always proposed by the prophets as a character-
istic sign of the Messianic reign. That the phrase
is construed in the present tense only proves that
here, as on other occasions, the prophetic vision con-
templates its object absolutelv without any regard to
the events that should go before its accomplishment.
It is true that Mai., iii, 3-4, says that after the conrung
of the angel of the testament the sons of Levi will offer
sacrifices in justice, and that the sacrifice of Juda and
Jerusalem will \xi pleasing to the Lord. But the new
institutions of the Messianic reign might be considered,
either inasmuch as they were the realization of the
final stage in the development of those of the Old
Testament (and in this case they would naturally be
described by the help of the images borrowed from the
latter), or inasmuch as they implied the cessation of
those of the Old Testament in their proper form. In
Mai., iii, 3-4, the religious institutions of the Messianic
reign are considered from the former point of view, be-
cause the language is consolatory; in Mai., i, 10, 11,
they are considered from the latter point of view, be-
cause the language here is menacing.
Certain authors, while admitting the Messianic
character of the passage, think that it should be
interpreted not or a sacrifice in the strict sense of
the word, but of a purely spiritual form of devo-
tion. However, the terms employed in v. 11 express
the idcA of a sacrifice in the strict sense. Moreover,
according to the context, the censured sacrifices were
not considered impure in their quality of material sacri-
fices, but on account of the defoctM with which the
victims were affected; it is consequently not on ac-
count of an opposition to material Siiciificos that the
offering spoken of in v. 1 1 is called i)ure. It is an alto-
aSALAOHT
565
MALAGRIDA
cethcr difiPerent question whether or not the text of
Malachias alone permits one to determine in a certain
measure the exact form of the new sacrifice. A large
number of Catholic exegetcs believe themselves ius-
tified in concluding, from the use of the term minhah in
V. 11, that the prophet desired formally to signify an
unbloody sacrince. The writer of the present article
finds it so much the more difficult to aecide on this
question, as the word minhah is several times em-
ployed by Malachias to signify sacrifice in the generic
sense (i, 13; ii, 12, 13; iii, 3, 4, and, in all probability,
i, 10). For the rest, the event has shown how the
prophecy was to be realized. It is of the Eucharifr-
iic sacrifice that Christian antiquity has interpreted
the passage of Malachias (cf . Council of Trent, Sess.
XXfl, 1).
ToRRST, The Prophecy ofMalachi in Journal of Soe, for BtbH-
cat Lit. (18Q8), pp. 1 sqq.; Perownb, Book of Malachi (Cam-
bridge. 1896); Rkinkb. Der ProphH Maieaehi (ISM). Oon-
luH also (^mmentaries on the Bfinor ProphetB by Sioth (1900) ;
Drivsr (Nahum-Malaehi; Century Bible): Knabenbausr
(1886); WCLLHAU8EN (1898); Nowacx (1904); Marti (1904);
Van Hoon acker (1908); auo Introductions to the Old Teeta-
jnent. (See Aoosus.)
A. Van Hoonacker.
Malachy, Saint, whose family name was O'Mor-
gair, b. in Armaeh in 1094. St. Bernard descril^es him
as of noble birth. He we:8 baptised Maelmliaedhoc
(a name which has been Latinized as Malachy) and
was trained under Imhar O'Hagan, subsequently
Abbot of Armagh. After a long course of studies he
was ordained priest by St. Cellach (Celsus) in 1119.
In order to perfect himself in sacred liturgy and theol-
ogy, he proceeded to Lismore, where he spent nearly
two years under St. Malchus. He was then chosen
Abbot of Bangor, in 1123. A year later, he was con-
secrated Bishop of Ck)nnor, ana, in 1132, he was pro-
moted to the primacy of Armagh. St. Bernard gives
us many interesting anecdotes regarding St. Malachy,
and highly praises his zeal for religion lx)th in Connor
and Araiagh. In 1127 he paid a second visit to Lis-
more and acted for a time as confessor to Cormac
MacCJarthy, Prince of Desmond. Whiie Bishop lof
Connor he continued to reside at Bangor, and when
some of the native princes sacked (jonnor, he brought
the Bangor monks to Iveragh, Co. Kerry, where they
were welcomed by King (Jormac. On the death of
St. Celsus (who was buried at Lismore in 1129), St.
Malachy was appointed Archbishop of Armagh, 1132,
which dignity ne accepted with great reluctance.
Owing to intrigues, he was unable to take possession
of his see for two years; even then he had to purchase
the Bachal Isu (Staff of Jesus) from Niall, the usurp-
ing lay-primate.
During three years at Armagh, as St. Bernard
writes, St. Malachv restored the discipline of the
Church, grown lax during the intruded rule of a series
of lay-abbots, and had the Roman Liturgy adopted.
St. Bernard continues: '^ Having extirpated barbar-
ism and re-established Christian morals, seeing all
things tranquil he began to think of his own peace".
He therefore resigned Annagh, in 1138, and returned
to dlonnor, dividing the see into Down and Connor,
retaining the former. He founded a priory of Austin
Canons at Downpatrick, and was unceasing in his
episcopal labours. Early in 1139 he journeyed to
Rome, via Scotland, England, and France, visiting St.
Bernard at Clairvaux. He petitioned Pope Innocent
for palliums for the Sees of Armagh and Cashel, and
was appointed legate for Ireland. On his return visit
to Clairvaux he obtained five monks for a foundation
in Ireland, imder Christian, an Irishman, as superior:
thus arose the great Abbey of Mellifont in 1142. St.
Malachy set out on a second joumev to Rome in 1148,
but on arriving at Clairvaux he fell sick, and died in
the arms of St. Bernard, on 2 November. Numerous
miracles are recorded of him, and he was also endowed
with the gift of prophecy. St. Malachy was canonized
by Pope Clement (III), on 6 July, 1199, and his feast
is celebrated on 3 November, in order not to cladi
with the Feast of All Souls.
An account of the relics of St. Malachy will be foimd
in Migne, '* PatrologisB cursus completus", CLXXXV.
For a discussion of the "prophecies'' concerning the
popes, known as "St. Malachy 's Prophecies'*, the
reader is referred to the article rROPHEctfes.
O'Hanlok, Life of St. Malachy (Dublin, 1854); LanioaN{
Bed. Hist, of Ireland (Dublin, 1829); O'Lavertt, Life of St,
Malachy (Belfast. 1899); He alt, Ireland'e Ancient SehooU and
Scholar* (4th ed., Dublin, 1902).
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
Malaga, Diocese of (Malacitana), Spain, by the
Concordat of 1851 made a suffragan of Granada, hay-
ing previously l)een dependent on Seville. Malaga
was the MdXaim of Strabo and Ptolemy and the Mar
lata feeder atorum Of Pliny. It was important during
• the (Carthaginian period, because a municipium under
Roman rule, and under the Visigoths was made an
episcopal see. The earliest known bishop was Patri-
cius, consecrated about 290, and present at the Coun-
cil of Eliberis. Hostegesis governed the see from 845
to 864. After the battle of Guadalcte the city passed
into the hands of the Arabs, and the bishopric was sup-
pressed. Malaga then became for a time a posses-
sion of the C-aliphate of Cordova. After the fall of
the Oinayyad dynasty, it became the capital of a
distinct kingdom, dependent on Granada. In 1487
Ferdinand and Isabella besieged the city, which after
a desperate resistance was compelled to surrender;
and^ with the Christian religion, the episcopal see
wa£ restored. The first bishop after the restoration
was Pedro Diaz. The see was vacant from 1835 to
1848. The present incumljent is Bishop Juan Munoz
y Herrera, oorn at Antequera, in the Diocese of
Malaga, 6 October, 1835.
The city of Malaga is the capital of the maritime
province of the same name and, next to Barcelona, is
the most important seaport on the Spanish Mediter-^
ranean coast. It lies at the southern Base of the
Axarqua hills, on the left bank of the Guadalmedina.
The Climate is mild and equable, the mean annual
temperature being about 66° Fahrenheit. For its
clear sky and broad expanse of bay the city has been
compared to Naples. Since 1892 the harbour, which
had been obstructed, has been cleared and improved,
and from it are shipped the quantities of produce —
grapes, oranges, alinonds, oil, and wine — for which
this district is famous. The cathedral, in the Grseco-
Roman style, stands on the site of an ancient Moor-
ish mosque. It was begun in 1528 and completed
in 1719. Since the Concordat of 1851 the C^tnedntl
Chapter has numbered 20 canons and 11 beneficed
clerics. There are in the diocese (1910) 520,000 Cath-
olics, a few Protestants; 123 parishes, 481 priests,
and 200 churches and chapels. The Augustinian Fa-
thers have a college at Ronda; the Piarists are engaged
in teaching at Archidona and the Brothers of St. John
of God have schools at Antequera, at which place there
is also a (}apuchin monastery. In the town of Malaga
there are convents for women, including Bemardines,
Cistercians, Augustinians, Poor Clares, &rmelites, and
Dominicans. The Little Sisters of the Poor maintain
homes for the aged and infirm at Malaga, Antequera,
and Ronda. Blanche M. Kelly.
Malagrida, Gabriel, a Jesuit missionary to Brazil,
b. 18 Sept., or 6 Dec, 1689, at Menaggio, in Italy, d.
21 Sept., 1761, at Lisbon. He entered the Jesuit order
at (jenoa in 171 1 . He set out from Lisbon in 1 72 1 and
arrived on the Island of MaranMo towards the end of
the same year. Thenoe he proceeded to Brazil, where
for twentv-eight years he imderwent numerous hard-
ships in the Christianization of the natives. In 1749
he was sent to Lisbon, where he was received with great
honours by the aged King John V. In 1751 he ie«
S66 iiALCBXJi
turned to Brazil, but was recalled to Lisbon in 1753 tyrants of the Renaissance, without fear of Cod of
upon the request of the queen dowager, Marianna man. At the same time, he shared to a high degree in
of Austria, mother of Joseph, who had succeeded the Renaissance cult of art; and letters, and many
to the Throne upon the deatn of his father John V. humanists and poets foimd shelter at his court. The
The great influence which he exerted at the Court of wonderful temple of San Francesco at Rimini, the
Lisbon was a thorn in the side of Pombal, the prime most pagan of all professedly Christian churches, was
minister. By intrigues and calumnies he induced the built for him by Leon Battista Albert! ; Piero de'
young king, Joseph I, to banish Malagrida to Setubal, Franceschi painted him as kneeling before St. Sigis-
Nov., 1756, and to remove all the Jesuits from the mund, and Pisanello cast his portrait in a splendid
Court. An attempt upon the life of the royal chamber- medal which is a masterpiece of its kind. Sigismondo
lain Tei^eira, dunng which the king was accidentally is accused of the murder of his two wives, Ginevra
wounded, was amplified by Pombal into a conspiracy d'Este and Polissena Sforsa. He afterwards married
headed bv Malagrida and other Jesuits. Without his mistress, the famous Isotta degli Atti, in whose
Eroof. Malagrida was declared guilty of high treason honour he composed poems which are still extant,
ut, oeing a priest, he could not be executed with- In 1465 he commanded the Venetian army in the un-
out the consent of the Inquisition. Meanwhile the successful campaign undertaken against the Turks in
officials of the Inquisition, who were friendly towards the Morea, ana on this occasion he discovered the re-
Malagrida^ were replaced by tools of Pombal, who con- mains of Gemisthus Pletho (the Byzantine scholar who
demned him as a heretic and visionary ^ whereupon he introduced Platonism into Italy), which he brought
Was strangled at an aulfMia-f^. and his body oumt. back with him to Rimini and solemnly emdirineain
The accusation of heresy is based on two visionary trea- San Francesco. Pius II, who held him in peculiar
tises which he is said to have written while in prison, abhorrence, partly because of his treachery towards
His authorship of these treatises has never been Siena, had begim by degrees to deprive nim of his
proved, and they contain, such ridiculous statements dominions, and Paul II continued the same course
that if ne wrote them he must previously have lost his until only Rimini itself remained. Infuriated at a
reason in the horrors of his two and a half years' im- demand to surrender Rimini also, Sigismondo went to
prisonment. That he was not guilty of any conspiracy Rome in 1468, with the intention of slaying the pope
against the king, is admitted even by the enemies of with his own hands. Either opportunity or resolution
the Jesuits. A monument in his honour was erected failed him. Paul seems to have pardoned him and
in 1887 in the parochial church of Menaggio. even confirmed him in the possession of Rimini, but
MuRT, Hiooire de Oabriel MaUxgrida (Paris, 1864: 2n(i ed., Sigismondo returned home a broken man, and died a
StraBburg, 1899; German tr. Salzbung* 1890); Un monumento al *«,«, Tr»ftr»fVia la*oi»
P. Malagrida in La CxvOUl CaUolica, IX, series XIII (Rome, '^W moni,ns later.
1888). 30-43, 414-430, 658-679; Sommervogel, Bibliothi'Xtue de ROBERTO MaLATESTA (d. 1482), an illegitimate SOn
la Compaanxe de JSsut, V (BniMela, 1894), 394-5; Butina, of Sigismondo, possessed himself of Rimini by treach-
Fuia Aj JlfoAK^rute (Barcelona. 1886). j^^^^^^^ ^^ ery on his father's death. He murdered his two half-
MiCHAEL UTT. brothers, the sons of Sigismondo by Isotta, and is said
Malalas, John. See John Malalas. to have poisoned Isotta herself. In 1475 he was
invested with the vicariate of Rimini by Sixtus IV.
Malatesta, House of, an Italian family prominent Roberto inherited his father's military talent, and
in the history of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, recovered some of the territory that he nad lost. His
famous alike in the poetry of Dante and in the annals great achievement was the liberation of Rome by the
of the early Renaissance. The founder of their power victory of Campo Morto, 21 August, 1482, when, at
was Malatesta da Verrucchio (d. 1312), the leader of the head of the Venetian and papal forces, he com-
the Guelphs in Romagna, who in 1295 made himself pletely defeated the royal army of Naples under the
mas^r of Rimini by the slaughter of the chief mem- command of Duke Alfonso of Calabria. He died of
bers of the rival Ghibelline family, the Parcitati. fever, while pursuing the campaign, in the following
Thenceforth the Malatcsti ruled over a number of month. His son, Pandolfo, a cruel and contemptible
cities in Romagna and the March of Ancona, including tyrant, was expelled from Rimini by Cesare Borgia in
Rimini until 1500, Pesaro until 1446, Fano, Cesena, 1600, and, after several brief restorations of the Mal-
Fossombrone, and Cervia, sometimes with papal inves- atestj, the city was finally incorporated into the Papal
titures, sometimes merely by the sword. While many States in 1528.
of the family were notorious for their crimes and ^ S»^M«N™*f». /2aa»fto wtorico d«Ma /ondai^^ e
(d. 1429), a staunch supporter of the Church, who 1882); Ywarte, Un CondoUiere au XV* Si^de (Paris, 1882);
represented Gregory Xllat the Council of Constance, P4»»«"^' .^,^^^^^\ ^*'"„*'l* feHR*®??^* ^ Litta, Fawi-
AnH rialiv^ffr^ PnK«»rf/^ (A ^±'V>\ whn VkAPamo a Pr«n ^**« cet^^TX vtaluine) (Milan. 1869-1870) ; ^yuonus, Sketchei and
Mia UaleOttO KObertO (d. 14d^;, wno became a l^ran- studies in Italy and Greece, II (London, 1898); HOTTON. 5tbt»-
Ciscan and shortened his life by his austenties. mondo Pandolfo MalaUsta (London, 190d).
Giovanni Malatesta (d. 1304), known, from his Edmund G. Gardner.
lameness, as Gianciotto, or Giovanni, lo Sciancato was Malchion of Antioch. See Paul op Samosata.
the eldest son of Malatesta da Verrucchio. From 1275
onwards he played an active part in the Romagnole Malchus (MdXxof), Greek form of Malluch (i. e.
wars and factions.. He is chieflv famous for the do- counsellor), a name common in the Semitic langua^
mestic tragedy of 1285, recorded in the '* Inferno" of and of special interest as being that borne by the Jewish
Dante, when, having detected his wife, Francesca da servant whose ear was struck off by St. Peter. The
Polenta, in adultery with his brother Paolo, he killed incident is described by all the Evangelists (Matt.,
them both with his own hands. He captured Pesaro xxvi, 51 ; Mark, xiv, 47 ; Luke, xxii, 50; John, xviii, 10),
in 1294, and ruled it as podest^ imtil his death. though St. John alone furnishes us the names of the
Sigismondo Malatesta (b. 1417; d. 1468) was a son servant and the disciple, and only St. Luke mentions
of Pandolfo di Galeotto Malatesta, the descendant of a the miraculous healing of the injurjr. According to
half-brother of Gianciotto. On the abdication of his the Fourth Gospel, Judas, accompanied by a band of
half-brother, Galeotto Roberto, in 1432, he succeeded soldiers and servants sent out by the high-priests and
to the lordship of Rimini, Fano, and C^na, as papal Pharisees, set out from the city to apprehend Jesus,
vicar. From nis childhood he was a skilful and durmg After the meeting, when the soldiers were about to
soldier, and throughout his life was regarded as af seize Jesus, St. Peter drew his sword and cut off the
most the first captain in Italy. An appalling picture right ear of a servant of the high-priest. We may
of his character is given by Pope Pius II in his * Com- conclude that Malchus was in the van of the hostile
mentAriea", He was undoubtedly one of the worst party and showing particular zeal, for St. Peter would
MALDOWADO 567 MALDOWADO
hardly have sinded him out without reason. Christ ing discourse. Acquaviva, having been elected gen«
at once healed the wound and took occasion to teach eral, ordered him to remain at Rome, and Gr^orj
His followers a lesson of peace. Later in the evening XIII appointcjd him to the commission for revlsine
a servant, related to Maldius, wrung the second denial the text of the Septuagint, to the excellence of which
from St. Peter (Jolm, xviii, 26-7). Since St. John revision Maldonado largely contributed. In 1583,
alone gives the name of the servant, we may conclude fifteen davs before his death, when he had not yet
that he himself was the disciple known to the high completed his fiftieth year, he delivered to the general
priest (John, xviii, 15). The silence of the other his unfinished commentaries. He was a man of emi-
sacred writers with re^trd to Peter's identity may be nent virtue, of subtle intellect, excellent memory,
ascribed to a motive of prudence, for at the time they immense reading and erudition, and was consulted by
wrote the Jews might have punished the disciple, had the most illustrious personages of France, and sought
they known his name. after by the King of Poland for the good of his do-
JosBFH v. MoLLOT. mlmons. fie has been accused, but upon insufficient
grounds, of certain rash utterances and of inordinate
Maldonado (Maldonatus), Juan, theologian and attachment to his own opinions,
exesete; b. in 1533 at Casas deHeina, in the district His Teaching, — ^Theology in Paris had fallen into
of Llerena, 66 leagues from Madrid; d. at Rome, 6 decay, through the prevalence of philosophical quib-
Jan.. 1583. At the age of fourteen or fifteen he went bles and barbarous Latin; this Maldonado remedied,
to the University of Salamanca, where he studied giving due precedence to Scripture, the Fathers, tra-
Latin with two blind professors, who, however, were dition and the theologians, relegating the philosophers
men of great erudition, Greek with Feman Nufiez to the lowest place, and keeping useless questions
(el Pinciano), philosophy with Toledo (afterwards a within boimds; he spoke Latin elegantly, and drew
cardinal), and theology with Padre Domingo Soto, up a scheme of theology more complete than that
He declared, as late as the year 1574, that he had which had been in use, adapting it to the needs of the
forgotten nothing he had learned in grammar and Church and of France. The lecture-room and, after it,
philosophy. Having finished his course of three years the refectory were found to be too small; Maldonado
m the latter of these two studies, Maldonado would therefore carried on his classes, when the weather
have devoted himself to jiurisprudencc with a view to permitted, in the college courtyard. Nobles, magis-
the exalted offices of the magistracy; but, persuaded trates, doctors of the Sorbonne, college professors, prcl-
by one of his fellowHstudents, though to the disgust of ates, religious, and even Huguenot preachers went to
those upon whom he was depenoent, he turned his hear hfm, engaging their places in advance, and some-
attention to theology — a choice of which he never r»- times arriving three hours before the beginning of the
pented. Having studied the sacred sciences for four lecture. Bishops and other great personages living
years, and passed through the examination and exer- away from Paris employed copyists to transmit his
cises of the doctorate, he taught philosophy, theology, lectures to them.
and Greek for some time in the University of Sala- In 1674 the imiversity accused him of impugning
manca. The register of the Salamanca College of the the Immaculate Conception of Mary. This was un-
society states that he was admitted there in 1558 and true; he only held that the doctrine was not as yet an
sent to Rome to be received. He took the Jesuit articleof faith, but that one might properly take a vow
habit in the Novitiate of San Andrea, 10 August, to defend it; Mgr Goudy, Bishop of Paris, decided in
1562, was ordained priest in the following year, and his favour (January, 1575). Again, he was accused of
for some months heard cases of conscience in the teaching that the pains of purgatory last ten vears at
Roman College. most. What he really taught was that the d.uration
The Collie de Clermont having been opened in of those pains is unknown and it would be rash to
Paris, Maldonado was sent thither in the autumn of attempt to determine it; however, he favoured the
1563. In February, 1564, he commenced lecturing on opinion of Soto, that in some cases purgatory did not
Aristotle's " De Anima". From 1565 to 1569 he lee- last longer than ten years.
tured in theology. His health beginning to fail, a Being an exceUent theologian well grounded, at
year of rest followed, during which (1570) he gave Salamanca, in Latin and Greek, having also learned
missions in Poitou, where Calvinism was prevalent, Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldaic, and Arabic m Paris, and
and he was so successful that the people of Poitiers knowing aU that was then known of ancient history,
petitioned for a Jesuit College. From 1570 to 1576 he the Fathers, and the false interpretations of the here-
again lectured in theology, also delivering conferences tics. Maldonado became, according to the opinion of
to the court, by royal command, and effecting the con- Kunn, superior to most exegetes of his time, and in-
version of various Protestant princes. At the in- ferior to none. In Comely's opinion, his " Commen-
stance of the Due de Montpensier, he proceeded to taries on the Gospels" are the best ever published.
Sedan, to convert the Duchess de Bouillon, the duke's He excelled, according to Simon, in explanation of the
daughter, who had become a Calvinist. He held, in literal sense; according to Andres, in nis comprehen-
her presence, some very notable disputations with sion of the text and in gathering the aptest ana truest
Protestant preachers. During the absence of the sense, leaving no difficulty unexamined,
provincial, he also acted for some months as vice- His Works. — "Commentarii in quatuor Evange-
provincial, when his uprightness was vindicated in an listas", early editions: Pont-a-Mousson. 2 vols., folio
action brought against him by the heirs of the Presi- 1596-97 (Lyons, 1598, 1607, 1615); (Mainz, 1602,
dent de Montbrun de Saint- Andr6, and in the case of 1604); (Paris, 1617, 1621); (Brescia, 2 vols., 4°,
the novice Jannel, who entered the Society in oppo- 1598); (Venice, 1606); modem editions: (Mainz, 5
sition to his parents* wishes. The Parliament pro- vols., 8<*, 1840; 2 vols., 1853-63; id., 1874); (Bar-
claimed his innocence. celona, 10 vols.. 1881-82); "Commentary on St.
In conseouence of rivahies on the part of the pro- Matthew" in Migne, "Curs. Script." Maldonado's
fessors of the university, the pope assigned him to "Commentaries" have been translated by G. I. Davie
teach theology at Toulouse, but this was prevented by (London, 1868). Five of the fathers at Pont-a-Mous-
the Calvinists, who blocked the roads leading thither, son completed the "Commentaries", chief among
and he withdrew to Bourges to write his "Commen- them being Dupuy and Fronton le Due who substi-
tary on the Gospels". In 1678-79 he was visitor of tuted, except where the text would not have corre-
the French Province of the Sodety, and then returned sponded with the exposition, the Clementine version
to continue his labours at Bourges. The province forthat of Plantin, which Maldonado had used. Until
chose him, in 1680, as elector at the fourth general 1607 the editions agree with the first (Prat), which,
congregation, at Rome, where he delivered the open- according to Calmet, is rare, but is the best. TVa^
lOHE 5(
other oditiimB vuy, and contain the ClemeDtine text
exclusively; that oF Lyons (1616), with notes and
indexea by Madur, came out uncorrected; the Mains
1853 ^ition Was adapted to actual necessities. "Com-
mentarii in Propbetas IV yeremiaSj Baruch, Eiecbiel,
Daniel): ExpoeitioFsalmilX: Epiatola de Collatione
Sedanenm" (Lyons, 1609; Paris, 1610, etc.). "Eie-
chiel" is in Migne, "Curs. Script.", XIX, 654-1016,
and since 1693 "Commentarii in pnecipuos Sacra
Scripturs libroa V. T." have been added. "Disputa-
tionum ac controversiarum decisanim et circa septem
Ecclesite RomaMS Sacramenta " (2 vols., Lyons, I6I4).
This Work is incorrect and wasplaced on the Spanish
Index in 1667; but not on the Roman Index. Dubois
and Faure published a corrected edition in "Opera
varia theolo^ca " (3 vols., folio, Paris, 1877), together
with "De libero arbitrio, gratia, peccato orii^oali,
providentia, justitia, justificatiooo ; a disputation
■' De Fide ", the existence of which is doubted W Som-
inervogel; "De Cffiremoniis Tractatus", I-CCXj in
Vol. Ill of Zaccaria'a " Biblioth. rituaL" Simon gives
extracts in "Lettres choisies", Apocrypb*' *™-
"Traict^des anges et demons", a translation of some
of Maldonado's expositions collected by one of his
pupils, and "Summula R. P. Maldonati , a compila-
tion made by Martin Codognat, placed on the Index,
16 December, 1605. Manuscnpts, cxegetical and
theological. altribut«d to. Maldonado, are preserved
in many libraries of France {especially the National),
Switierland, Italy, and Spain; many of them are
copies made by his pupils.
Phat, Maldonal H rOnireriiU dr Parii au XVI' tiidi: (Pa™,
18M>; Salvuni. La Vie da P. Jran Maldcmat in AptTid. aux
Utmoira du Pirt BroH {Le Puy, 1885); Nieheubkbq, Honor
Jtl Oran Fatriarta S. lanarHa de Loyola (Madrid. 1640). 4 J3-S5;
Htveh. MaUonat H U> comxifnrcmrtUi dp fUnit^iiti dc Paal-
a-MouHon (Nancy. 1873]; Alcuah, Chrono-HiOoria de la
Camlia*iadeJaiiMcnlaPn>vinTiadeTeUdi>,n (Madrid, 1710).
42-4A; Baktuktes, Apttraio BibiioorJfico pom la HxtLoria de
Bxtrtmadura (Madrid, I8TS}, 460-408: Astrain, HiMoria de lo
CompaAia de Jet^i m la itaiifFncia dt Etparia.^ll (Modri '
gnie de Jine en
r^,,.- —A Foc<iVTn/Li, HietoiredetaCompoffni
. .met. I (Paris, IBIO), 572 etc.; Hdktbb, >feiTi«i..„ _
nu> (Inoabruck, 1802), 1-80; Sokhehtoqil. BibtioMoue de
la Cimpatnie de Jitut, V (Pbim, 1894). col. 403-4J2; IX. ml.
031: Diu T Peru, Diccumario de BMnmeAoi Ihulree, II
(Miidrid, 1884), e.
A. I'^REZ GOTBNA.
Holebianctae, Nicolas, philosopher and theolo-
pan.priestof tlieOratoryofSt.PhihpNeri; b. at Paris,
e Aug., 1638; d. 13 Oct., 1715. He was the youngest
child of NicolasMalebmncbe, secretary to Louis XIII;
being slightly deformed in person and of a weak consti-
tution, he received his early education from a domestic
tutor, until he was old enough to enter the course ot
philosophy at the College de La Marcbe, whence he
passed to the Sorbonne tor the study of theology. On
the completion of his studies, declining a canonry at
Notre-Dame, he joined the Paris houise of the Oratory,
1660. There he was first engaged on ecclesiastical
historv, but neither his talents nor his taste lay in thia
direction, and on the recommendation of Richard
Simon he turned to the study of Scripture, only to find
this study equally uncongenial. A chance reading of
Descartes' "Traits de I'bomme on de la formation du
fcelus" determined his future careor, and he became
an enthusiastic Cartesian. He published "Recherche
dela V^rit4"in 1674, and his suDsequenl works repre-
aent developments or special aspects ot the same doc-
Sensation and imagination, he maintains, are
produced not by the objects but by God, and ate
intended to serve man's practical needs only, and not
to reveal the nature of things, the essence of matter
being extension and its only real property motion.
'The real nature of the external world must be found
in ideas. Now in accordance with Deficartcs' divorce
of mind and matter, matter cannot act on mind; and
mind cannot produce its own ideas, for thoy are spirit-
ual bein|[s whose creation requires a greater power
18 ItALKBEAMOBX
evui than the creation of thin^ material. Tberefora
we see all things in God. God Himself, he argues, sees
all thin^ in His own perfections, and lie is so closely
united to the soul b^ His Presence that He may be said
to be the place of spirila, as space is the place of bodies.
Aad so tne mind may see in God all the woi^ of
God, supposing God willing to reveal them. That God
should so will seems more m accord with His economy
in Datuie, where He works by the most direct and
simple methods. But the strongest proof of all, Male-
brancbe finds in the idea we have ot the Infinite; for
it must be prior to tbe idea of the finite, and all partie-
ular ideas are participations of that general idea of the
Infinite, just as God derives not His Being from crea-
tures but all creatures ha ve their subsistence f romHim.
Thus of all the things that come under our knowledge,
we know none but
God in Himself
wit bout the media-
tion of any idea'
bodies and tiieir
properties are seen
m God and by
their ideas. As for
our own soul, he
adds, it is known
onlyoy conscious-
ness, that is, by
that, though we
knowtheexist^nce
of our soul better
than the existence
of our body or of
the things about
perfect a knowl-
edge of the nature
of the soul. As for
the souls of other
men, we know
them only by con-
iecture(Recherehe,
bk.lll,pt.ii,cc. 1-S). ItisobviousthatMalebranche's
occasionalism not only makes our certainty of the ex-
temalworlddcpenduponGod'srevclation; it suggests
the objection that there is no purpose in a material uni-
verse which is out of all contact with human thought
and volition. WhBtispcculiar,however, to his system
is its Ontolof^sm, and its consequences ; for (jod is
made not only the immediate cause of our sensations,
but also the "place of our ideas", and moreover our
first idea is of the infinite. From this it would appear
to follow that we see God's Essence, though Male-
branche protested explicitly against this consequence.
And, if, as Malebrancne maintains, the essence of mimd
consists only in thought, as the essence of matter oon-
aista only in extension, there is at least a suggestion of
the Pantheism which he so vigorously repudiated.
With regard to free-will also, the desire of Male-
branche to emphasise tbe union of the soul with its
Creator exposed him to many objections. The soul,
he says, has the capacity of withholding its consent t<i
a particular abject, so that the intellect may recognise
the lower a.s tl^ higher good. But volition, according
to him, being an effect of God's action on the soul, it
was objected that God was thus the author of mn.
To this Malebranche answered that sin was due to an
intermission of activity; therefore sin is nothing and
though Goddoes all He is not the author of sin. This
account of evil Malebranche utilizes to maintain asort
of Optimism in his account of creation. Finite crea-
tion as such would be unworthy of God; it is made a
worthy object of God's will by the Incarnation; and
as for the evil that is in creation, it is due to particular
wills, and it does actually enhance the real good.
Antiune Amauld waa the first to attack Male*
MALXDZOTZOM
569
MALHERBE
branche's system, and he was supported by Bossuet
who styled the system '' puichra, novOf falsa " . Natu-
rally a chief topic of discussion wasthe Question of grace,
though the Jansenist and the Oratorian both claimed
the authority of St. Augustine. The discussion grad-
ually became verv bitter, and ended not altogether to
the credit of Malebranche's orthodoxy, for it was Male-
branche who had been on his defence, and his work
had b^n censured at Rome. Among other opponents
of Malebranohe were Pierre Silvain Regis and Dom
Francois Lamy, who attacked bis explanation of
pleasure and of good. His answer in ''Traits de
I'amour de Dieu'' was well received in Rome and had
the further good fortune of reconciling him with Bos-
suet. His "Entretiens d'lm philosc^he chr^tien et
d'un philosophe ohinois sur Texistence de Dieu", in
which he accused the Chinese of Atheism, drew from
the Jesuits, Fr. Toumemine and Fr. Hardouin, a coun-
ter charge of Spinosism and Atheism against his own
system. There can be little question of the novelty
and dangerous character of his publications. But his
own loyalty, his zeal, and piety are still less question-
able. He led a simple and austere life, giving hinujelf
but little rest from his studies, and finding his chief
relaxation in the company of little children. He was
of an affable disposition, always ready to converse
with the numerous visitors who called to see him.
And diuing his lifetime his reputation as a thinker and
writer was remarkably high. The following are his
principal works: — "Recherche de la V^rit^" (1674):
two English versions; "Conversations chr^tiennejs "
(1677); "Traits de la nature et de la grace" (1680);
"M^itations chr^tiennes et m^taphysiques" (168«'{);
"Traits de morale" (1684) ; " Entretiens sur la m^ta-*
physique et sur la religion" (1687); "Traits de
I'amour de Dieu" (1698); "Rdponses" (to Amauld),
published together, 1709, etc; two editions of his
works by Jules Simon, 2nd (1871) not complete.
BouiLUBR, Hitl, de la Philoa. CartSnenne; Blampiunon,
Ettide 8w Malebranehe (Tapres des documenU manuscrita, suivie
d'une corretpondance inf^ite (Paris, 1862); OUiK-LAPHi^E, Ija
Philoaopkie de Malebranehe (1870); Jolt, Malebranehe in
Orande PhUoeophee seriee (Paru, 1901); Gaonach, La thiorie
dee idiee done la philoeophie de Maldminche (Brest, 1908);
Cairo, Eaeaye on Literature and PkUntophy (New York, 1892).
James Bridge.
Malediction (in Scriiture). — Four principal words
are rendered maledictio in the Vulgate, "curse" in
Douay Version: (1) 118 the most genenal terra, used
more often perhaps of men than of God. (2) ppp lit-
erally " to treat lightly", but also used in the sense of
"cursing", whether of God, Dent., xxi, 23, or of men,
Prov., xxvii, 14. It frequently expresses no more
than "to revile", II Kings, xvi, 6-13; and so perhaps
I Pet., ii, 23, in Sept. hnKaTapdofuu. (3) n{)«,"tO
curse", Deut., xxix, 19-20, more correctly "to take
an oath", apparently from the root rpH and meaning
"to call God to witness", Gen., xxvi, 28; Lev., v, 1;
Deut., xxix, 13, also in the sense of " calling God down
on any one ". Job, xxxi, 30, hence in margin of R. V.
"adjuration**, in Sept. dpo, or SpKos, (4) Din "to
devote a thing", the thing may be devoted to God,
Lev., xxvii, 28, or condemned to destruction, Deut.,
ii, 34. The Sept. seems from the MSS. to use di^BiifjM
of the thing devoted to God, but dpdde/ia of a thing
doomed to destruction, cf. Luke, xxi, 5; and Thack-
eray, " Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek ", p.
80. The accepted translaticxi of Din is " ban ", signi-
fying that something is interdicted and hence ao-
ciu-sed, cf. Deut., vii^ 26; Mai., iii, 24.
Amongst the Semitic peoples cursing was a religious
act ; and the Sinaitic legislation was rather of the nature
of a purification of already existing usages than a
newly-bestowed religion; as appears from the Code of
Hammurabi. For tn^ Semites the tribal deity was
the protector of liis pec^le (III Kings, xx, 23, and cf .
the Moabite Stone 11,4,5, 14), and to " curse " was but
to call down his vengeance on their opponents. A gain,
the Hebrews were a chosen people, they were set apart,
and in this seclusion lay tneir defence; hence at the
conquest we find the cities and peoples of Chanaan de-
clared to be Din, or under a "ban"; their religion
was to bring salvation to the world, so it required the
highest sanction and needed to be ned^ about with
anathemas against all who infringed its regulation.
Again, the curses of the O. T. must be interpreted in
the light of the times, and those times were hard, the
"lex talionis" was the rule not only in Palestine but in
Babylonia as well, cf . the Code of Hammurabi, nos.
196, 197, 200. It was the specid feature of the New
Testament that it abolished this spirit of retaliation,
Matt.. V, 38-45; the abuse of cursing was, however,
forbiaden by the Old Law as well. Lev., xx, 9; Prov.,
XX, 20. At the same time there are passages where
the use of curses is hard to explain. The so-called com-
minative psalms must always remain a difficulty; few
would be now prepared to defend St. Augustine^s view
that they expressied not a desire but a real prescience
of what would happen ("Contra Faustum'^, xvi, 22,
and " F^narr. in Ps. cix.'* ; see Psalms). Similarly the
curse of Eliseus on the little boys, IV Kings, ii, 23-24,
is at first repellent to modem ears, but it is to be
viewed " in speculo aitemitatis ", as St. Augustine says
expressly (Enarr. in Ps. Ixxxiii, 2, and in Ps. Ixxxiv,
2). But though cursing plavs a very prominent part
in the Bible, we rarely find irrational curses in the
mouths of Biblical characters. Nowhere do we find
in the Bible curses on those who shall violate the
tombs of the dead, such as we find everywhere in
Egypt and Babylonia, or on the sarcophagus of
Eshmunazar at Sidon.
We referred above to the Din, or "anathenia".
This is the most import^int of the O. T. curses in its
bearing on N. T. doctrines. The doctrine enshrined
in tliis word lies at the root of S. Paul's expressions
touching the Atonement, c. g. in Gal., iii, 10-14; and it
is the precise meaning of the word " cherem " which en-
ables iiim to treat of our redemption from sin as he
does; cf. II Cor., v, 21. The same idea is manifested
in the words of the Apocalj^jse, xxii, 3: "And there
shall Iw no curse any more." Of. also I Cor., xii, 3, and
xvi, 22.
Sci{()Rt:R. A HiHory of the Jewi-ih People in the time of Jesua
Christ, II, ii, 61; Gikolkstone, Synonyms of the O. T. (Lon-
don, 1871): RoBKRTSON -Smith, Religion of the Semites iEtlin-
hxiTgh, 1907), 180. Hugh Pope.
Malherbe^ Fkan^ois, French poet, b. at Caen,
Normandy, m 1555; d. at Paris, 16 October, 1628.
He was the eldest son of Francois Malherbe, councillor
of the inferior court of judicature at Caen, and of
Louise de Valois. It was the elder Malherbe's wish
that FranQois should follow his profession and succeed
him in his office, and with this end in view, he sent his
son, after his early studies at Caen and Paris, to com-
Slete Kis education at the Universities of Basle and
[eidelbei^. But the natural bent of his mind was
not towaras the law, and when he was barely twenty
Francois entered the service of Henri d^Angoul6me,
Sana prieur of France and Governor of Provence,
alherlxj's earliest experience in Provence was his in-
fatuation for a young woman of the country, whose
S raises he sang under the name of N6r6e; out on 1
kitober, 1581, he married Madeleine de Coriolis, and
the union seems to have been a happy one. He re-
mained ten years in Provence, Dccomin^ known
throiiffh his "Larmes de St. Pierre", an imitation of
Tansulo's verses and at best a puerile production. In
1586 Henri d'Angoul6me was slain in a duel by Philip
Altoviti, and M^herbe returned to Caen. He ad-
dressed an ode to Henry IV on the capture of Mar-
seilles in 1596, and in 1600 presented to Maria de'
Medici, who stopped at Aachen on her way to become
the queen of Henry IV, verses which show his tal-
ent to have reached it« maturity «
Du Perron about this time recouuQended Bfalherbe
t« the favour of the king, and when in 1605 he came to
Paris, Heniy had him remain near him. The Duke of
Bellegarde received the poet into his household, settled
on him a pension, and made it posaible for him to live at
Court. At this
time began his ac-
quaintance with
Kacan, who be-
came hia first dis-
ciple, and a little
lat«r he etartad
ence with Peiresc.
Since his arri val at
Court Halherbe
had assumed tht>
rfile of literary
master and re-
former. He made
relentless war on
the provincial ex-
pressions, neolo-
gisms, and defects
of style in the
prose writers and
Siets of the time.
egatheredabout
him a select body
of followers, to
id he was pitiless
taste. He himself henceforth wrote few verses, his
most touching lines being on the tragic death of the
king m 1610. His son's death in a duel in 1627 did
much to brin^ about Malher1>e's own end, which came
in the following year, and he was buried in SaintMSer-
main-l'Auxerrois. Mslherbe has been chained with
having "slain lyricism" and the reproach has been
made aeainst him that his crusade produced only
Maynard, but the French language and its litera-
ture are indebted to him for a service which could
hardly have been rendered by a man of ereater genius.
ALIfHfenAN. RtcherchfabioffTapKvmMmr Maiherfie ft aa famine
(IMD); HippBin, La icrimint aarmamici (CtuD. 1S58);
Brdhot, La dodrim dt Maihrrbt (Paris. 1890) ; Aluaib, ilfal-
Ab** (Pari., 18B2). Bi^NcHi; M. Kelly.
Malines. See Mechun, Diocese of.
HaUseet Indians, also Malecite, Marebchitb,
and AuALEciTii, the last being the official Canadian
form, a tribe of Algonquian stock, occupying territory
upon the lower St. John River, St. Croix River, and
Passamaquoddy Bay, in western New Brunswick and
northeastern Maine, and closely connected Imguisti-
cally and historically with the Abnaki (Penobscot,
ete.) of Maine. Their chief settlement was Medoct«c,
on the St. John, about ten miles below the present
Woodstock, N. B. The name by which they are.com-
monly known is of disputed origin, but may be derived,
as claimed by one autnority, from their Micmac name,
meaning "broken talkers . To the French explorers
they were known as Etchcmin, also of uncertain origin
and meaning. Those about the bay are usually diatm-
guished as Passamaquoddies.
The acouaiutance of the Maliaeet with the French
began probably even earlier than the voyage of Carticr
in 1535, through the medium of the fishing fleets which
frequented the coast. The St. John River was known
to ttie French as early as 1558, but the tribe is first
mentioned, under the name of Et«hemin, in 1604, by
Champlain, who entered the mouth of the river and
was welcomed by the Indians with feasts and dances.
They seem at this period to have been enemies to the
Abnaki, who were afterward their closest allies. In
the same year de Monts made a tempora^ settlement
on an island in the bay and shortly afterward the
French fort I* Tour was built on the St. John. By
on whose side they fought in all the lat«r colonial wars.
In 1W6 they were at war with the Gaspesiens, a Mic-
mac band about Cape Gasp£ at the mouth of the St.
Lawrence, but in general they were in alliance with
the Hicmac (q. v ) and Abnaki, and like them m
deadly hoetility witji the Iroquois of New York.
The hrst mission teacher among the Maliseet was
the Jesuit Pierre Biard, who visited them from his ata-
tion among the Hicmac in Nova Scotia in 1611-12.
He estimated them at about 2500 souls.
In 1677-8 the Jesuit father Jean Morain established
the mission of Bon Pasteur at Rivifere du Loup, on the
south bank of the lower St. Lawrence, P. Q., jointly
for the Gaspesien Micmac and the M^iseet, who raneed
over that territory. The former were already imder
missionary influence, but the latter, as yet unin-
structcd, were opposed to Christianity, and given to
drunkenness, superstition, and polygamy. ' They
were nomadic and depended entirely upon hunting
aod fishing. Their houses were light structures of
poles covered with bark, and their beds were skins
spread upon the ground. Until the nomad habit was to
some extent overcome, the missionaries found it neces-
sary to accompany their flock in its wanderings.
In 168S the Recollect Fr. Simton established a mis-
at Medoct«c, which was soon aft«r abandooed,
consequence of the outbreak of King WU-
. ... About the same time others of the tribe
attended the Aboaki mission at Sillery. In 1701 the
Medoct«c mission was re-established by the Jesuit Pr.
Joseph Aubeiy, noted for his later work in Abnaki
linguistics. Under his successors the tribe has long
smce been completely Christian iied, being all condst-
erd) Catholics with a high reputation for morality and
law-abiding qualities. Medoct«c was finally aban-
doned about the year 1765, Except about 100 at
Viger, P. Q., the Maliseet are all in New Brunswick,
(totributed upon small reserves, of which the most
important is Tobique, with nearly 200 souls. The
entire tribe, according to official report for 1909, num-
bers 843, with probably a few others in eastern Maine.
Jit. RfI., ed. TnWAiTEg, npecially I (.LticarbDt). It and III
(Biard). LX lUorain). LXI-XXVf^ Ratmdnd. "
*■ ■ N.B. Hilt. Sot. CoUt..r
probably in
Atmaai Repli. (Canadian) Depl. Aid.
.96). DO. 2 ISain
Aft- (Ottawa).
Jamrb Moc
Mallard, Ehnebt-Francois, French mineralogist,
b. i February, 1833, at Chftteauneuf-eur-Cher; d. 6
July, 1894, in Paris. From 1872 he was professor of
mineralogy at the Ecole des Mines, from 1890 mem-
ber of the Academy of Science. Mallard has accom-
plished much of importance in mineralogy by his
u[itiring and suocessful research. Numerous scien-
tific reportsappwired year after year in the "Bulletin
de la SocitSbS miniralogique de France" and in the
"Annalee des Mines", several also in the "Compt.
Rend." By far the greater number of these discuss
difficult problems in crystallography, especially the '
phyncal attributes of crystals. Tlie so-cailed optical
anomalies of some crj-stals ho endeavoured to grasp
clearl^in their actual relationship and then to explain
ingeniously by a hypothesis which supposes that tiie
highly symmetrical form of these crystals is caused by
a great number of smaller crystals with a smaller num-
ber of sjmunctrical planes, which are arranged in a
certain manner. The best general explanation he ad-
vanced in his lecture "Crystallic Groupings" which
appeared in the "Revue Scientifique " in 1887. Hia
hypothesis found many defenders, and, of course, also
many dissenters; especially his German colleagues
drew him frequently into controversies. Equally
known are Mallard's writings about isomorphism
which be discovered in chlorates and nitrates, and
about isomorphic mixtures, especially feldspars, the
optical quftUtiea of which he traced mathematically
MAUJXOKBdm
671
MAIJJNOKEODT
from the proportions in which the components were
mixed. His reports about different ciystallographical
instruments, as well as those regarding the production
of thin sections of crystals for microscopic study, are
important for the science of crystallography. His
investigations of the combustion of explosive gas mix-
tures, of mine explosions, and the safety lamp, have
great scientific out even greater practical value.
Worth mentioning is his participation in the geological
cartographing of France. His chief work is the volu-
minous Treatise on Geometrical and Physical Crys-
tallography " (Paris, 1879 and 1884) ; the third volume
has never appeared. His religious opinions were ex-
pressed by himself during a lecture in 1872: "Man
has been created in the image of the Lord and there-
fore he is capable of penetrating by the power of his
reason into tne plans and thougnts of the Creator of
all things; that must be his highest ambition here
below. '* These words contain Mallard's programme
of life during the following two decades.
Db Lapparbnt in Annales des mtn«a* (Paris. 1895).
M. ROMPEL.
Mallinckrodt, E^skmann von, German parlia-
mentarian; b. 5 Feb., 1821, at Minden, Westphalia;
d. 26 May, 1874, at Berlin. His father, Detmar von
Mallinckrodt, was vice-governor at Minden (1818-23)
and also at Aachen (1823-29) ; and was an Evangelical,
his highly accomplished and pious mother (nie Bern-
hardine von Hartmann) was a Catholic, and the chil-
dren followed her creed (see Mallinckkoot, Pauline
von). Hermann von Mallinckrodt attended the gym-
nasium at Aachen and studied law at Berlin and Bonn.
He became auscuUalor in the district court of Pader-
bom in 1841, referendar at Miinster and Erfurt in 1844.
and government assessor in 1849. As such he worked
at ^ilnden, ^rfurt. Stralsund, and Frankfort-on-the-
Oder. At Erfurt ne was also for a time commissary
to the first burgomaster, and in recognition of his ser-
vices he received the freedom of the city. In 1859
he was appointed assistant in the Ministry of the
Interior, and in 1860 was appointed government
councillor at DQsseldorf. In 1867 he was sent to
Merseburg against his will, and was pensioned oft at
his own request in 1872.
As earlv as 1852 the Westphalian constituency of
Beckum-Ahaus had elected him to the Prussian House
of Representatives, and he took part in the founding
of the "Catholic Fraction'* for the defence of the
rights and liberties of the Church, which since 1859
h^ been called the Centre. When the House of Rep-
resentatives was dissolved in 1863, owing to the
debate on the military law, Mallinckrodt lost his man-
date. In 1867, however, he was elected to the Con-
stituent Diet of the North German Confederation, and
in 1868 returned to the Prussian Lower House. In
the North German Diet he was the leading member of
the federal constitutional union. In 1867 he made a
speech condemning the war against Austria (1866) and
tne annexation of Hanover and Hesse, and attacked the
idea of substituting a single (federal) government for
the confederation of states. From 1870 till his death
he stood at the head of the new Centre Party, in both
the Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag, that party
gaining strength during the Kulturkampf (q. v.). ae
' shared this leadership with the brothers Reichen-
spergerand, after 1872, also with Ludwig Windthorst.
Mallinckrodt was an unrivalled parliamentarian.
" Never", to repeat the words of a colleague, "was so
much force and dignity, energy and learning, strength
of character and prudence, piety and vigour, imited in
one person as in Hermann von Mallinckroat. " Dis-
tinguished and dignified in appearance, as tactful as
he was winning in society, clear in his tnou^ts, hon-
ourable in his dealings, of spotless life, and moreover
u strong and highly cultivated mind, a mature and
grave, though good-natured and friendly, character,
and an orator who carried his audience with him by
his force, lucidity^ and fire — with all this he could not
but be eminent m every sphere upon which he en-
tered. Whatever he believed to be right, that he ad-
vocated with all his power; and he won tne esteem of
even his most determined opponents. Even Herr
Falk, the Minister of Worship, with whom he had
often enough been in conflict, called lum "the most
honourable member of the Centre Party, a man who
had only lived and fought for his convictions. " And
the President of the Prussian Diet, von Bennigsen, also
a vigorous antagonist, said: "In spite of his resolute
party attitude, he succeeded in gaining and retaining
not only the confidence of his pohtical friends, but also
the high regard of his political opponents." While he
was always an energetic orator, willingly listened to,
he rose to the height of his eloquence in the Kultur-
kampf. Mallindcrodt took the leading part in the
defence of the Church, to which he entirely devoted
himself. Windthorst's sparkling wit and Reichen-
sperger's Ciceronian swing he had not. His speeches,
on the other hand, are distinguished by a full com-
mand of the subject, lucidity of form, and strictly
logical argument. Reichensperger said of him that
in a parliamentary experience of forty years he had
never known a parliamentarian as serious and con-
scientious in the preparation of his speeches as Mal-
linckrodt. The keen force of his woras was lauded by
his opponents. He spoke for the last time on 19 May,
1874, and concluded with the poetical words: Per
crucem ad lucem (Through the cross to light). Death
carried him away only a few days after. During all
the years of 1^ parliamentary career hardly a bill of
leading importance had been debated without his
taking a distinguished part in the debate.
A deeply religious man, whom his faith ever refined
and ennobled, Mallinckrodt also led a truly Christian
family life. His first wife, Elizabeth (nie von Bern-
hard), bore him seven children, of whom two died
young; his second wife, her half-sister, had but three
months of married life with him, and when his children
had grown up, she became a religious.
FriJvr. Hermann v. Mallinckrodt (Freiburg, 1892; 2nd ed.,
1901); MERTENS, Die Totenklage um Hermann v. Mallinckrodt
(Paderfoom, 1880) (with newspaper articles and obituaries).
KlEMENS L6FFLER.
Mallinckrodt, Pauline, a sister of the Catholic
political leader Hermann Mallinckrodt (q. v.), and
foundress of the Sisters of Christian Charity; b. at
Minden, Westphalia, 3 June, 1817; d. at Paderbom,
30 April, 1881. Before she became a religious she had
charge of an institution for the blind and an infant
school at Paderbom. After the death of her father
she went to Paris to induce Mother Barat (q. v.) to
ieke the Paderbom institution for the blind under the
care of her congregation. As, however, the Prussian
Government would not permit a French congregation
in Prussia, Pauline founded the Congregation of the
Sisters of Christian Charity, 21 Aug., 1849, and be-
came its first superioress. The congr^ation was ap-
proved by Pius IX, 21 Feb., 1863. It increased so
rapidly that before the Kulturkampf, which tempo-
rarily annihilated it, it numbered 20 establishments
and 250 members in various parts of Germany.
On 1 May, 1873, the first sisters of this congregation
arrived in tiie United States and took charge of the
school in St. Henry's Parish, New Orleans. On 7
Jime, Pauline herself arrived, and made preparations
for the foundation of a mother-house at Willcesbarre,
Pa. She then retumed to Europe and temporarily
tnmsferred the European mother-house to Mont
Guibert near Brussels. In 1879 she went to South
America, visiting her recent foundation in Chili.
Thence she travelled by way of Panama to revisit the
United States, where numerous houses of her institute
had sprung up since 1873. (See Christian Charity,
SI8TB9B or.^
MALL0R7 572 aiAUaSBITBT
HuwER. Paviine von MoZKnc^yA (Mflngt«r,.i892; 2nd ed., don as the British, Ingleboum as the English caUed it,
1002); KBT.H. Paultn€ van MaUmehnxU (Eg^d^ 1^). ^^s then a border secernent between the Welsh and
xKucHA£ia VTT. EngUsh, and on the confines of the kingdoms of Wee-
Mallory. Stephen Russell, American statesman; ff^l^AJf^^ltai^^^
. in the Island of Trinidad, W. I., 1813; d. at Pcnsal ff^^Slr^d^^nli ^wLT^^/o^SIT;. "t^*
^1- T?i^«-j« TT«:*^ a*«*J- a at^« iqtq tj« ™«- stfonghoid or castle still further defended it. The
b
Bar of the State of Florida in or about the year 1839. wl^^ \UhJrr.Ja<. ^* V«i«l i^ Po«f^,,^ ^
T-. 4.U-V c^*»:^»u iii7«- /iQOK_^o\ k« c>A.«r.Nri ao o ^r^iiin Wcssex. Alanelm was sent twice to Canterbury to
In the Seminole War (1835-42) he served as a volun- ^ . j g^ ^^^ ^ African, then abbot of the
teer through anany arduous campaigns. After serving „„„Lt*„ „f a«, Pot^^onA.T^if^™.^. Rfi^!
theSta
States
iwflnd .;S!^l3ki'l857: Tt the bi^kin'g o7t of tEwii.^t'hlril^TH^f'^^
the diva War he followed the fortunes of his o^ state, hf'^V ^JCtl^^irS^^^i}^ ™«^* t^^^l
S^»i^^^^ ^r^^n^ tV^kTthem^C^ ^rvis'Sn ^thTwS S^S, Kel^Wa,"^:
S^i^ ^1^?^S^™^ TiV^f ^^hf^ h^m fi«t Bishop of Sherborne, in Dorset, while Daniel,
teS^ „n^^K.^vi^f rt?B ^fX,^^nf^«,^ 'ao'* °f M&mesbuiy, becime Bishop of Wincheeter
???®^o2(n j Sr^i « SouOiem Confederacy ,j^ j retained 4e management of Makneebury
^.^hik ^^**nf*?S«'^r.Iv^ HpZfl'St^t^^ ^<i the monasteries of Frome^d Bradf ord-on-Av^
^.?°rS:n?^he?ot%f1he rnKSwa^t -^ich ^e h|^ J-^ded^^ Jhe ho^f^ere^^
his'g^rywasonthepointofbreakin.out.withoutany i^y^Iy w^L^'i^ffiy KnTfeTow" ^Ed!
^;Si3**'t^o^Xhit'^iw'^i^J^f?vlrof tS. Iw ward the^Confessor sanctioned a proposal if ^Bishop
™«& St?^^n^^h»^i whh IhM, ^Z Herman of Wilton to transfer his Jee toMaknesbunrj
matenal. History records the suc<^with which thw j,^ ^ j j, j q^^ opposed this, and OM
te?Jf^"*Whrthf.„^f^ n^ f^TIf^ Sarum was chosen instead. Like'mng Athelstan and
S^^^n^^nTnZi^n n^l^h^ffli^rL^R^Vlf o^cr Saxon monarchs, so did William the Conqueror,
accomp^ied Jefferson Davis m his flight from Rich- j j^ Richard II, Heiry IV, and Henry V bSfriend
mond. He then went to La Grange, Georgia, where rr, u„.,=«;r^i»*«- *:„__' **«»"/ » «w.w.«x
his family were residmg, was arrested there (20 May, ^^IrnS^/ri^^fu'*'"?^ „ . „ v^ K„ b k«^ -
1865), and was kept a prisoner for ten montli ia Fort „ Under John the place was attacked by Robert, .«
Lafayette, on a sioaU island in New York harbour. ^"^I'.'^S If^^f ^'f.^had gained possession of Devi-
ReleLed on parole in 1866, he returned to Pensacola, ???£^^*iSt±'r^",*!'^'?^"^^^^
Florida, whe^ he practis^ilaw untU his d^th. ^^^^^^^^^^''^^^^f'^^t^'^r'Sf^r
Smtansa, Memom ofSermee Afioat during the War bttween the f V • i. ^ t _l i= ^Sl .
Staff (Baltimore. 1689) ; RebeUion BawntoTWashiniton, D. C.) ; enclosure, which covered forty-five acres. The town
The Freeman' t Journal (New York, Nov., 1873) files; Encycl. of Malmesbury was Walled and had f OUr gates, au DOW
NiABiog. a. v.; Avt>UUm-$Cvchp.^ American B<oirraphy,B.v. vanished. A preceptory of Knights of St. John of
iHOUAS i<. MEEHAN. Jerusalem, three churches, and one or two nunneries,
m«.ii. _ i-i 1 t /-.•!• • T> • tt t ^ mint, an important merchjuit's guild, and a large
MaUttS, a titular see of Cihm Prima, suffragan of population marked the prosperity of the place. TEe
Tarsus. According to legend, Mallus was founded by J^bbey church waa a valt ai5 noble buiialng with a
the soothwyers Ajnphilochus and Mopsus sons of ^^t^^, ^ ^^^ ^ ^^t,^ t„^^^ ^j i*^ ^^^
ApoUo. It was situated at the mouth of the Pyra- ^^ y 1,^^ ^y^^ that of Salisbury Cath^ral. Be-
miM, on a hill opposite Jlagarsus which served as its ^ygg the above-named, the abbey was connected with
I»rt. It IS to-^y the place known as Ka»Ta8h,m ^^^^^^ celebrated men: Pecthelm, firet Bishop of
the vilayet of Adana. The distnct was called from it, whithom (Galloway); Ethelhard, Bishop of Win-
Mallotis. Alexander bmlta bndge there and ex- chesterand Archbishop of Canterbury; .Elfec, Bishop
empted the town from paymg taxes It aUied Itself ^f Crediton; John ^otus ErigeA^; Faricius A
witli Tarsus agamstAntiochus IV Epiphanes who j^ physician and monk, latlr A^bot of Abing-
hadpresentedbothcitiestohi8ConcubmeAntiochi8(U ^on^ Oliver or Elmer, mechanician, astronomer, and
^L,iv, 30,31). Numerous coms from Mallus have aer<;naut; an anonyi^ous Greek monk who piloted
been preserved, and those of the third century b^ vineyards here; Godfrey, and one or two anonymous
the inscnphon MaUusCoUmtn or Colonu, Melropolts ^^^ ^^j ^^t f^^^i^ ^j ^„ William Somerset.
Ma«««. ^e city is mentioned by numerous ancient knownks William of Malmesbury (d.aboutll43),who
authors, and in the Middle Agesjby Arabian, Arme- „yj„ ^f^^^ ^^^ ^ the greatest of the English m^i«^
"•^' fu *^ i** '"^ ^i.*^'!:i * Tr .^- ^•^'"' ?'s?PP<»'^ val historians. Of the aPbots who ruled the house and
jnth the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia "figures m jj^ dependency, Pilton Priory, Devonshire, in the last
the various revisals of tlie Antiochene ' Notitias Epis- ^^^ hundred yWre of ite existence, few attained any
copatuum" as suffragan of Taraus Six bishops are special celebrity. On the whole they seem to havi
^^T^/^77^?vTf J^' Pltl?! i* f^Q^ ." i ° ri^' been good administrators and great builders. One or
t"'«^. .,(^77) ; Valentine, ft Ephosus (431) and at Tar- ^wo cSme under censure from the English Benedictine
8U8(434); Chrysippus at Chalcedon (451) Le Quien 3^, ^ ^^^ f„^ ^^cir negligence in sending the
^•^"l w SwSD^^.mU^f lio?"/"^.*^? ??^" P- M*** due proportion of their junior monks to the universi-
another bishopnc^Mallusor Malus, situated m Pisidia. ties. tC monastery, which had an annual revenue of
Smitr. Dtct. of Or, and Rom, Oeogr., s. v.; Bburlier in rotvx <Rr»o ^^yr.r>^r^AJLA ;« i f;QO Kxr i*a loef oKKoi
VioouRoux.Dtrt.de to Bi6i«.B.v.AfaMate«; Aushan. Stwovan *^3> w^. surrendered in 1539 by ite last abbot,
(Veim», 1899). 420 Bq.; Vailh^ in Echoa (T Orient, X (1907). 90. Robert Selwyn, or Frampton, and twenty-one of the
139, 363. S. Petrides. monks, who received pensions. Of the whole abbey
only five bays of the nave are standing; the cloisters,
Malmesbury, a small decayed market town in Wilt- etc., which were to the north of the church, have
shire, England, ninety-five miles west of London, for- entirely disappeared.
merly the seat of a mitred parliamentary abbey of Dugdale, MonaHioon Anglicanum rLondon. 1846); St«*
Benedictine monks. It owed its origin to Maildubh or vbns. History of the Ancient ilW)ry« (Ix)ndon, 1722); Ret»
Mfiildiilf Jin Trifih monk and t.<»nrhflp wVin «Af f 1<v^ in f V»a ^^^* Apostolatua Benedictinorum in Anglia (UoxiBi, 1626)|
wauauii, an insn monK ana leacner wno settlea m tlie moffat, HiHoru of the town of MalmesburuiTtithuTy, 1806)t
pl&ce about the middle of the seventh century, Bla- Leb in Diet. Nat. Biog. (Loqdon. 1900); Browne. SL Aldr
MALME8BURT 573 MALPIGHI
*^»^*; %K'^*****iiJS'^^°'*' ^®^^' WiLDiiAN. Lift o! himself in his "Reply to Mr. James Ussher his An-
at. ^Idhdm (Sherborne, 1906). Gitbe«t Dolan swere, wherein it is discovered how Answerlesse the
ui-AN. said Mr. Ussher retumeth. The uniform consent also
Malmesbnry, The Monk op, supposed author of a ?/ Antiquity is declared to stande for the Roman Re-
chroniTaS the Cottoniail mIT^ the British fejln^^ ^hn^^iTL^ TZ'''^r^LT^}^fl'l
Museum {Vesp%. IV. 73) which Tanner states to be t^^1^m^.':^^J^!^T:i'^^^^
only
cording to Sir Thoma* Hardy, is almost entirrfy based KIX.1^^'^' wK,VK"K~o*fc«n*^iliV
on thS of Geoffrey of Monmouth. It is a vilueless ^^J^2,A w^if v Tvli^f Lr^-^^w. «„,„.*■>..•.
Ss^bSrs^h^nZ^^'arid^eMato^b^*"^^^ S^KS^S^^-^^IT Zs4t' ^tls'l^e^iS
s TbbLJ'rjfa&s^ML'^XfoSdS T^''^^:^^fdi''''d±''^^^^^
the library of that abbey he was regarded as a man of ^?? wrote aprnst the book. Itis the only work
literary SLtes, but his aithorshipTthe MS.^ "S'^«%o=' Sl^ K te^S*^ V iU
Ciently disproved, apart from its identity with Alfred Bnoluh Province S. J. (London, 1882), vii; UasHER. Wo7k%
of Beverley, by the fact that his death took place in or (Dublin, 1847); Gii^ert in Diet. Nat. Biog., b. v.; Sommcr-
before 1107, when Edulf became abbot. Probably the ^«'«'- Btbltath^<iue de la Compaonu de JSsu, (Pana^ 1894)
si^pature merely indicates previous ownership. It is olater.
said that a fifteenth-century Italian writer, Baptista Malory, Sir Thomas.— Of Malory no single bio-
Fulgosus, includes the work of Gotfredus Angliw graphicafstatement is beyond con jecture save that he
Histoncus' among the authonti^ he had consulted, ^^g a knight, that his '*booke was ended in the 9th
Tanner, Btbliotheca BrU.-Htbemtca (London, 1748): Hardt, --^^_ ^t ♦W« ,»«r«»«A rv* ir:«» i?>rlnr«..^ +u« i?a«i.4^1i '» ««,i
Catalogue if Documents iUuMtrating British History. I (London; V^^ ?I ^^ reygne of Kmg EawBM the Fourth , and
1862), 667; Kxnospord in Diet. Nat. Biog., s. v. Godfrey of that it was not pnnted Until 1485 when Caxton, the
Malmeabury. • first of English printers, published it with an illu-
liiDWiN Burton. minating preface from his own hand. Upon an
M.IO.S..NT. See M.OHxm,B, SMST. e"^rl^S^Ta**l,S'SSTurir!^"'lSo"$
Malone, William, Jesuit missioner and writer; b., **»« gratification of identifying the birthplace of the
according to the best authorities, in 1586; d. at Se- romancer with the s6ene8 of the Arthurian epic. It
ville, 1655. His father, Simon Malone, was a Dublin **«« remained for modem scholarship to advance the
merchant, and his mother was Margaret Bexwick, a more probable conjecture tiiat Malory was a gentleman
native of Manchester. William entered the Society of o* an ancient house of Warwickshire and that, as a
Jesus at Rome in 1606, and, after studying there and young man, he served in France in the retinue of that
in Portugal, was sent as a missioner to Ireland in 1615. estimable " Father of Courtesy ", Richard Beauchamp,
In 1635 he was summoned to Rome, where he was Eari of Warwick. (See " WTio Was Sir Thomas
made rector of the Irish College, a post which he held Malory?" by G. S. Kittredge, in " Studies and Notes m
for many years. He was again sent to Ireland in Philology and Literature^', V, Boston, 1897.) The
1647 as superior of the Irish Mission of the Society, obscurity of the author is in somewhat dramatic con-
His term of oflBce fell in most difficult times. In a ^rast to the unfailing clarity of appreciation which his
letter dated from Waterford, 15 March, 1649, he savs '*Morte Arthure" lias aroused for the past four cen-
that the burden was heavier on his shoulders than turies. WTiile the *'Morte" is a compilation, or mo-
Mount Etna, so that he could say with the AposUe sa»c, of the French romances of Merlin. Lancelot and
that he was weary even of life. He was at Waterford Tristan, and the English version of the " Morte Ar-
when the town was taken by the Parliamentarians, thure"fromGeoflfreyof Monmouth, Malory succeeded
and being captured he was banished. On reaching "^ changing the episodical character of his material
Seville his talents for government were again utilised, '^^ J*s mtuitions of varying racial points of view into
and he was made rector of the Jesuit a)llege of St. unvaryhig ideals of conduct in epic conflict of fate,
Gregory in that city. Dr. Oliver says of Malone that ideals that were to affect profoundly subsequent ar-
during nearly a quarter of a century he rendered good t*8tic conceptions, the poetry of Spenser, Milton, Ten-
service to the Irish Mission by his splendid talents, nyson, Arnold, Morris, and Swinburne, the painting of
apostolic zeal, and extraordinary prudence. Dodd, Rossetti, Watts, axU Bume-Jones, and the lyric drama
in his ''Church History of England'^ testifies that "he ^^^^^I-
was a person of learning and conduct, and well es- ^^ addition to being a permanent contribution to
teemed not only by those of his own order, but by all *he content of artistic expression, the " Morte Arthure"
others that had any knowledge of him". lays claim to being the earliest production of EngUsh
As a writer he is well known from his controversy prose, the matter of Pecock and Fortescue having
with Ussher, the famou3 Protestant Archbishop of given as yet no hint that the prose of the vernacular
Armagh. Malone himself tells us how the contro- could be fashioned into a medium of adequate literary
versy arose. At the request of his friend. Sir Piers expression. "Malory's prose is conscious without the
Crosby, not long after Malone had come to Ireland in jawing egoism of the younger prose; it adopts new
1615, he wrote a " Demand concerning the idteration words without the risk of pedantry and harshness; and
of Faith and Religion in the Roman Church." Al- >* expresses the varying importance of the passages of
though both Dodd and Sommervogel put this paper ^^^ s^ory in corresponding fluctuation in the intensity
down as one of his " Works", it was in reality nothmg ^^J^ ^'^gV^g®/.'/,. .^ , ,. .
more than a thesis, pro,x^ition, or brief statement o] ,„SSltX''%,,SSSfF^^f X^Xi^Si.'tr^
the Cathohc position m the relimous controversy. It tee also Morlet. English Writers, vol. VI: Ker. Essay in Me-
was hurriedly drawn up by MaJone at the request of dieval Literature (London, 1905); Sinrn. The Transition Period
his Protestant friend, who said that he was convinced j^iS'jAvL^h^^d^^''' Flourishing of Romance and
that it could be answered by Ussher, then Dean of uegory , . Jarvis Keiley
Finglas. The thesis was printed both bv Ussher, in
his "Answer to a Challenge made by a Jesuit in Ire- Malpighi, Marcello, founder of comparativephys-
land ", published in London, 1626, and also by Malone idogy, b. at Crevalcore, 10 March, 1628; d. at Rqoda^
UALU 5'
30 Sept., 16M. llie year of his birth was that of the
Eublicstion of Harvey's book on the circulation of the
lood. a work which Malpighi was destined to com-
{>iete tiy his obeervations on the capillaries. Brought
up on tlie paternal farm, he became at the Sfe of about
seventeen a student at the University of Boliwna.
He devoted himself t« philosophy, but during the last
jfear of his undereraduate course his father, mother,
and paternal grandmother died. As he was the eldest
of the children, and the next three were girls, he bad
to leave the university to settle the financial affairs of
the family. It was more than two years before he
eould resume his studiee, and then he had to take up
a profession that would enable him to help the family.
In the medical school Malpighi attracted the attention
of Professor Massari, who was not only a teacher but
an investigator, and in 1653 obtained the d^ree of
doctor in medicine and philosophy. The foUowinc
!'eftr he married Francesca Massari, younger and
avourite sister of
his distinguished
professor, who died
the year after. Mal-
pighi's independence
of thought, and hia
refusal to follow Ga-
len blindly, aroused
opposition. Still, he
was offered in 1656
the chair of medical
practice at the uni-
versity, and , towards
tiie end of the same
year, a special chair
of theoretical medi-
cine was created for
him at the recently
established Univer-
sity of Pisa. After
three years' woric at
Pisa he returned to
Bologna, and two
years later was
Sicily. Here he remained four years, and,
return to Bologna, was greeted as one of '
citisens.
on human tissues with such good effect that one of the
layers of the skin is still called the rete Malpighi; cer-
tam bodiM in the spleen and in the kidneys are called
by his name, and important discoveries in the liver are
due to him. The (irst good comparative study of the
liver, from the snail through the fishes, reptiles, and
mammals up to man, is due to Malpighi, and he was
the first to give an adequate description of the forma-
tion of the chick in the egg. Chie day he studied the
jagged bark of a green branch, and found little vessels
m the wood. His study of the capillary circulation in
man gave him an interest in this, and the result was
his book on the anatomy of plants, nhich was pub-
lished by the Royal Society of England ("Anatome
planlarum idea", London, 1675). The Royal Society
suggested his study of silk-wonns. This liook is still
consulted, though Malpighi had few aids tor such mi-
nute anatom vat that time. When he was about six^-
four and at the height of his fame. Pope Innocent XH,
who had been his personal friend, invited him to Rome
as papal physician and professor of medicine in the
Papal Medical School. He was held in high honour
during his last years, and died there of apoplexy in the
sixly-aeventh year of his age.
Soliiif Biografielu inionto 0 MarctUo Malpighi, RaccoUe did
D- Frmlt Fimrfa (Milan, 1860): JounnAur in Bioomphit:
Uidiaile (Pari*. 1824); Walsh. Malrnalii in Tht Mmmger
(New Vofii,Au«., 1905); lli<du.Bumlohiu BopkiAi BiJiriin
HftltK. — ^The group of Maltese islands, mduding
Ualta (91i sq. m.), Gok) (24} sq. m.), Comine (1 aa.
m.) andafewinconuderable tslets, lies 68 miles soutli
of Sicily and about 180 miles S.E. by E. of Cape Bon
in Tunisia. Malta is the headquarters of the British
Mediterranean fleet, and the prmcipal coaling station
in the Mediterranean. Owing to the prosperity con-
sequent upon its important position, tfae isWd isable
to BupiHsrt a population out of all proportion to ita
siie. The estimated civil population of the islaiids
was 205,059 on 1 April, 1906. If about 18,000 be
added forthegarrison and the Royal Navy, we reacha
total of over 223,000. Without reckoning the fluo-
tua ting population of the harbours, the density of the
population in Malta itself works out at over 2000
persons per sq, mile.
Of the civil popula-
tion over 99% are
Cathohcs. In 1901
there were in the
civil population 696
lunaUce,41Sbliud,80
lepers, 211 lawyers,
and 190 doctors. In
the same year the
secular clergy con-
siiited of 698 priests
and 251 clerics; the
n'pilar clergy of 249
pnesla, 151 clerics
and novices, and 140
lay brothers. There
were 470 reiigioua
women inc luding nov-
ices and lay-sisters.
In Malta and Goio
there arc 27 reiigioua
i of I
_[ 36 convents and ii.
~Vii.irr* Ualta stitutes of religious
' ' women. There are
about 190 schoob, in which some 20,000 persons are
being educated. Besides the univeraity (about 120
students), the Lyceum (400) , and 79 government ele-
mentary schools, there are 53 other government
schools, 2 seminaries (312), 22 schools under icli^ous
direction, the rest under the direction of private mdi-
viduals. The overflow of the papulation is mainly to
other Mediterranean ports. In 1901, 33,948 MaUesa
returned as residing in countries bordering on the
Mediterranean. Of these, 15,208 were in Tunis and
6984 in Egypt.
The government consists o( an Executive Council
of eleven members besides the governor, who is usu-
ally a distinguished general, and of a Legidativ«
Council consisting of ten ofncial and eight elected
memliers. All the judges and most of the other gov-
ernment olRcials are Maltese. Italian and En^h
are the languages of the educated in Malta. Both are
taught in every school but only a small percentage of
the population s|)eak cither fluently. The revenue
[or the year 1903-04 was £464 590, of which £274,251
came from the customs. Under this latter head the
duty on imported grain amounted to £97,210. Id
1879 proposals were made to reduce the grain duty,
which weighs heavily on the poorer classes. Strangely
enough, both the people and their representative*
stoutly opposed the reduction. There Is ug diieot
ta-Kation m Malta and strictly speaking no public debt.
The higher education at the university is paid for by
public tax. In 1902-3 the total expenditure under
this head was £3950, of which £3674 was paid out of
the treasury. In 1904, 38,748 acres, i.e. 601 sq. miles.
UllTA
575
MAtTA
were under cultivation in the Halt«sc islands. Of
these 6546 belong to Government, 0682 to tlte
Church and wous institutionB, and 25,520 to private
individuals. Wheataud barley, potAtoes. cotton, and
grapes fonn the chief produce of the land. The Hal-
teae honey, from the superior quality of which the
island was supposed to derive its name of Helita (i, e.
Greek (lAi, gen. /iAiToi= honey )^ now lives mostly
oo its rsputatioa. Agriculture m Malta has been
starved by trade. A peouliariy national industry la
the Maltese lace, chiefly made in Goto.
Civil History. — There can be no doubt that, at a very
early date, Malta waa colooixed by the Phcenicians.
Numerous megalithic and other remains, as well as
inscripttona, testify to this fact. It is even probable
that the PtuBnicians gave the island it« name, which
seems to be derived from the verb "malat (Heb.
oi>D), "to take refuee" and to mean, therefore, "the
Slaoe of refuge". It is often asserted that Malta,
uring the eighth century b. c, passed into the pos-
session of the Greeks and was held by them for three
centuries, but there is little evidence to support this
view. It is clear, however, that the Carthagimaas
became masters of the island, probably in the fifth
century b. c, at a time when the weaker Phcmician
states united, for mutual protection, under the leader-
ship of Carthage. It is certain, too, that Malta, about
the time of the Second Punic war. though the pteinse
date of its capture cannot be fixed (cf. Livy, xxi, 51),
became a Roman possession and, after the destruction
of the Roman power in the West, remained subject to
pears, they were, as in Sicily and elsewhere, welcomed
as deliverers from the hated Byzantine yoke.
The principal and almost the only monument of the
Arab dominion is said to be the Maltese langua^,
which is Semitic and has much in common with
Arabic. The weight of the beet authority seems, how-
ever, to incline decjdedlv to the vieW that the present
Malt«se language is airectly descended from the
Phtenician with but little modification by the Arabic.
The Arabs, in fact, seem to have left the Maltese very
much to themselves and to have interfered with their
language aa little aa they interfered with their religion
ana their popular customs. The account of the cap-
and philology alike point to the conclusion that the
Maltese, m spite of powerful outside influences, are
still, subatantially, a PhisniDian pe^le. Count Roger
of Sicily, who landed in Malta in 1090, was welcomed,
it seems, not as a deliverer from an oppressive yoke,
but because the iaiandere naturally preferred a Chris-
probabiy during this period that the aMence of a
national hterature, the need of employing foreign
notaries, and other causes, forced the Maltese to adopt
ture of Malta by the Normans, as given by Matat«rra,
thesecretary of Count Roger, does not, certainly, con-
vey the idea that the Saracens were sufficiently numer-
ous to offer any serious resistance to the invaders. If
the Arab influence had prei^ed so far as to make a
complete change in the hnguage of the iijandera, this
could only have been the sequel t« a process of dena-
tionalisation which had no counterpart in the neigh-
bouring island of Sicily and which would have implied
the presence of a strong army of occupation. History
lidlian as their written language. Later on, when the
more fuUv developed Italian aasert«d itself in Sicily
it naturally beisame the medium of legal and com-
mereial transactions in Malta. Its influence on the
spoken language was confined to the vocabulary,
which contains a number of Italian words, the struc-
ture remaining unaltered. At least conjointly with
Latin and other languages, Italian has remained the
literary language of the island right down to our
In llflO Malta, along with Sicily, passed into the
hands of the Swabian emperors, but, after the battle
of Beneventum (1266) in which Charles of Anjou put
an end to the Swabian rule in Apulia and Sicilv, it
remained for seventeen years in the possession of the
French. In 1283. the vear after the "Sicilian Ves-
pers", the island, which had fared badly under the
Swabians and worse still under the French, once more
changed masters and became the property ot King
Peter III of Aragon. Under the Spanish rule, which
lasted two centuries and a half, Malta made consider-
able progress in civiliaation. This was very lately
owing to the influence of the religious orders, especially
the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Auguatinians, but
partly also to the influx of foreign beneliciarieB who,
if they lived on the wealth of tiie land, made some
return in the higher culture which they helped to
diffuse. Early in 1523, the Knights of St. John, after
the fall of Rhodes, left that island with the honours of
war, and being unable, for nearly seven years, to find a
lodgment that was convenient to all parties concerned,
they were at length established in Malta, which was
conferred upon them by the Enipei-or Charles V in the
year 1530. The earlier period of their rule was the
golden age of the history of the island, for during that
time Malta was one of the chief bulwarks of Christen-
dom against the power of the Turks. The successful
defence of the isliuid by the Grand Master La Vallette,
in 1565, ranks as high as the Battle of Lepanto among
the feats of Christian chivalry. The invaders, num-
bering over 40,000 men, must have considerably out-
numMred the total population of the island which
contained but 8500 men bearing arms, including the
592 members of the order. Yet such was the spirit
which the brave islanders iralubfid.(w^ '' ■-■■--'
UALTA 5:
that tlisy compelled the enemy to retire, with heavy
loas, after a ei^ of nearly fom- moDths.
The decline of the Ottoman power meant the decay
of the Order of St. John. By the end of the eighteenth
centuiy, so rife was the apirit of the Revolution, so
powerful the clique of traitors among the Knights, and
so great the disaffection of the people, that, when
Napoleon Bonaparte appeared before Malta in June,
1798, he found that there waa littJe left for him to do
but to take quiet possession of the island. After a few
days' sojourn, during which he drew up a new scheme
of government and made French the national Ian-
guage, he departed on his fatal expedition to Egypt,
oanying with him a great part of the loot which , to the
value of £250,000, had been taken from the churehes
Uid palaces of Malta. Shortly after his departure the
Fttnch ^rrison, out off by Nelson's fleet from all
chance <M reinforcements, was shut up in Valetta by
the Maltese who were aided, at the last, by EIngliah
Bod NeapoUton troops, and was compelled to surren-
der in Sept«mber,
ISOO, after a siege
of two veare. Im-
mediately after this
event the Maltese,
who had no reason
for desiring the re-
turn of the Knights
and still leas of fall-
ing into the power
of France or Russia,
offered to place the
island underthe pro-
tection of the British
flag. The offer was
accepted on the dis-
tinct understanding
that their religion
Lituti
should he rcspecteil.
The British sover-
eign ty was con firmed
at the treaty of Paris
(1814). The popula-
tion of Malta and AiiSEROE he (Jabti
Goto was over 25,-
000 in 1535; over 40,000 in 1621 ; 54,463 in 1632, and
114,000 in 1798. Since this last date it haa nearly
doubled.
EccUsiaatical Hwlory.~Thc Church in Malta was
founded by St. Paul, and St. Publius, whose name is
mentioned in the Acts, was its first bishop. After
ruling the Maltese Church for thirty-one years he was,
we are told, transferred in a. n. 90 to the Bee of Athens,
where he was martyred in 125. Though a complete
list of bishops from the days of St. Paul to Constantine
has been made out, its authenticity is more than
doubtful. Still there seems no reason to suppose that,
during the early days of persecution, the flock was
long without a shepnerd. In 451 there was an Aca-
ciUB, Melitenus Episcopua, whose name is subscribed
to the Acta of the Council of Chalcedon. In .501 Con-
atantin US, Episcopua Melitenensis, was present at the
Fifth General Council. In 588 Tucillus, Miletin» civi-
tatis episcopua, was deposed by St. Gregory, and his
successor Trajan elected by the clergy and people of
Malta in 599. The last bishop before^c Saracen con-
?uest was the Greek Manas. After the Council of
halcedon in 868, he was unable to return to his see,
which was bein^ invaded by the Arabs, and not long
after we find him in chains in a Saracen prison at
Palermo. Of successors of his under the Arabs there
are no records, though probably such were appointed.
Hence, if probable breaks in the episcopate be no bar
to their ckim, the Maltese can boost of belonging to
the only extant Apostolic see, with the single exception
of Rome. EjcceptunderCharleaofAnjou, who caused
6 U<KST
Maltese prelates to be appointed, the Bishop of Ualta
was commonly a Sicilian. There was one Malt«w
bishop under the poniards, one Maltese and one half
Maltese under the Knights. Since 1808 all the Usbop^
have been natives of the island. No Maltese was al-
lowed to t>eeome a knight of St. John. This arrange-
ment was made with the purpose, among others, of
preventing the existence, within theorder, of a faction
supportea by the native population. Ecclesiastical
grades, however, were open to natives, and we find the
rames of three Maltese who were grand priors of the
The clerKy in Malta have always beat the natural
leaders of the people. It was apriest, Goetano Manna-
rino, who headed an abortive revolt aeainst theEOv-
emment of the Knights in 1775. In 1788 Canon F.X.
Caruana acquired a more enviable reputation by ac-
cepting the leadership of the people in their insurrec-
tion against the French invaders. It was he too who
demanded the annexation of Malta to Great Britain.
He became bishop in
1831, Bincel864the
island of Goao has
had its own bishop.
Hence, with their
two bishops aitd
nearly a thousand
priests, the Blalteee
islands are more
plentifully provided
with pastors than
any other country
in the worid. The
place occupied by
religion in.tnelifeof
the people is be-
tokened not only by
the targe number of
the secular clergy
and of religious men
and women, but also
by the frequent fes-
the constant ri
ehurehes. The chureh of the v". ...
the third largest dome in the world. Canon law pre-
vails in Malta as the law of the land. Hence mixed
marriages are illegal unless performed by a Catholic
priest. The large number of clerics in Malta is due, in
some measure, to the smallness of the patrimony fixed
as a condition for receiving the priesthood. The
necessary minimum is £10. Ekjuivalent to this is a
benefice of £5 rental. In 1777 Pius VI, in order to
lessen the excessive number o( clerics in the islatuJ,
raised the minimum patrimony from '45 Maltese
ducats or scudi (abt. S19) to 80 (abt. S34).
The eariior history of HalU lu* still to be wiltt<B. anil the
it m&y yet be foimd ■mong: the Simlisn end other
IB UolteM wtitws ASBU (IfaUa /IttuCnsM. 1M7)
(Wa^ /UK^raU,,lT80) have bu
archives. The 1
until Isteiy, the commtnily aeccpted
worit bM bank done reenUv by CfatiAN*. SkIT
Ltngua MalUtt (Melts, imj. 04sr wotks *n -, _-
kw« dt Mallt (Paris. 1B41) : Vasballo. ^Mio H Wab Pl^
1SM)i Fraina, Storia EixUtiaitua di Maim nUO^ ISTT);
TxntAvmccat. Ultimo ptriodo Mia HoHa di WaUa OWU,
Prna'di Jf aba '(Malta, ISSO): Ran'bijit. AmoJu) H BIocco iH
Uatta.
Jameb Ken DAI..
Malta, Kktohts op. See Hospitallehs of St.
John or Jerusalem.
Malthnslaa Theory. See Pofulation, Thkoribb
OP,
Haltnt or Maltrait, Claude, French Jesuit, b.
at Fuy, 3 Oct,, 1621; d. at Toulouse, 3 Jan., ie74.
IftALVEKDA 577 HALTEBK
He entered the Society of Jesus, 12 Oct., 1637. On age to Jerusalem and began a monastery at Malvern,
the completion of his studies, he was engaged for eleven the saint promiaine him that the place would be won-
years in teaching belles-lettres and rhetoric and became derf ully favouied by God. A convent of thirty mOnks
widely known as a classical scholar. He was then ap- gathered there under Aldwyn's direction (1135) ; the
(Kunted to a professorship in Sacred Scripture, a po- usual number was twentynsix (and thirty i>oor men),
sition which he held for the next nine years. In 1662 and four at the dependent cell, Avecot Priory, War-
he was made rector of the College of Moiitauban. In wickshire, estabUsned by William Burdet in 1159.
the following year he brought out his greatest and Aldwyn was succeeded byWalcher, a Lorrainer, a man
best-known work, an edition of the histories of Pro- celebrated as an astronomer, divine, and philosopher,
copius, with a critical commentary. This work went He was probably one of those sent by Abbot Gilbert
throu^ many editions, being edited and augmented of Westminster to establish a regular community at
with notes by other scholars, and was included in the Malvern on land previously given for the purpose by
^'Sjmopsis Historic Byzantins", published at Yen- Urso D'Abitot and Edward the Confessor. William
ice. From 1672 to 1674 Father Maltret was rector the Conqueror confirmed these grants and was himself
of the novitiate of Toulouse. His principal works are a benefactor, as also was Henry I. This connexion
the following: (1) " Procopii Csesariensis Historianun with Westminster led later on to a famous and pro-
Libri VIII"; (2) " Procopii Cssariensis Arcana His- tracted conflict between the bishops of Worcester and
toria. Quiest hbernonusHistoriarum". This is an the Abbot of Westminster. For a lon^ time the
edition^ with criticed notes, of the Latin translation of bishop's right of visitation over Great Malvern had
Procopius, made by Nicolaus Alemannus. In the been unquestioned : on the election however of a prior
preface of this work Father Maltret promised a trans- John in 1242, the aobot opposed the bishop's action in
lation^ with comments, of a Greek poem by Paulus confinning and installine the new superior. Under his
Silentiarius entitled: Descriptio Ecclesise Sanct® successor, William de Ledbury, matters came to. a
Sophi^e ". This translation, however^ was never pub- head. Ledbury was accused of serious crimes by some
lished, and it is not known whether it was ever com- of his monks and was promptly deposed by l^ishop
pleted. (3) ''Procopii Csesariensis Ilistoriarum sui Godfrey Giffard. On this the monks chose instead the
temporis de bello Gotnico libri quatuor ". bishop^ nephew, William de Wykewan, prior of Ave-
Tnere seems to be some doubt as to the correct cot. Wykewan proceeded to Shrewsbury, where the
spelling of Father Maltret 's name. Sommervogel gives Abbot of Westminster was then on a visit, for confirma-
it as "Maltrait", while Hurler, in his "N^menclator tion in his new office. The abbot arrested him and
Litterarius ", spells it '' Maltres '*. his followers and sent them in chains to Westminster.
SouuiiKvoaEh, Biblioth^ d€ Ui C. de J.; oB Backer, The bishop retaliated by suspending and excommu-
BtbitotK^<iuedes^cnvatn9 delaC.de «^j Humtr. ^;^;~«»^- nicating I^bury and his adherents, and the whole
ooimtryside was m^de to feel the inconveniences of a
Malvenda, Thomas, ex^ete and historical critic, disputed jurwdiction. Wwtminster claimed exemp-
b. at JAtiva, Valencia, 1566 ; d. 7 May, 1628. He en- tion by i^pal grant for iteelf and all its dependencies,
tered the Dominicans in his youth; at the age of andmthwwassupTOrtedbytheking; the bishop was
thirty-five he seems to have already taught philosophy supported by the Archbishop of Canterbury, and to
and theology. His criticisms on the " Annales'* of some extent by other bi^ope. , ^ „
Baronius, embodied in a letter to the author (1600), An appeal to the Holy See led to fuller enquiry, wid
discovered so much ability that Baronius used his for some time thmgs went as the bishop wished ; but
influence to have Malvenda summoned to Rome. ^^ harsh dealing with the monks went so far that
Here he was of material assistance as a critical ad- they, the unfortunate victims of all this litigation,
viser to the cardinal, while also employed in revising were taken imder the king's protection. Finally an
the Dominican Breviary, annotating Brasichelli's end was put to a long andintricate process, wherein
"Index Expurgatorius", and writing certain annals all powers and parties m Church and State were in-
of the order. These last were published against his yolved, by a truce agreed to at Acton Burnell. Led-
wishes and without his revision. To this period also bury wa^ remstated and then deposed by his abbot;
belong his " De Antichristo libri XI" (Rome, 1604), the monks gave the bishop the manor of Knichtwick,
and *^De paradiso voluptatis" (Rome. 1605). and he on his part released them absolutely from his
Returning to Spain in 1608, Malvenda undertook a own jurisdiction, " m accordance with pnyileg^ here-
new version of the Old Testament in Latin, with com- tofore granted by divers Roman ppntifiFs . The epis-
mentaries. This he had carried as far as Ezech., xvi, copal jurisdiction was retained only over their pansh
16, when he died. It gives the closest possible ren- churches. Peace was wnyed at. and all was amicably
dering into Latin of every word in the origmal; but settled in 1314, when Bishop Walter Maydeston gave
many of the Latin words employed are intelligible the monks the church of Powyke to reimburse them
only through equivalents supplied in the maigin. The ^or all their losses, and ccmfirmed the grant to them
work was published at Lyons in 1650 as **Commen- of that of Laneley, for the maintenance of the great
taria in S. Scripturam, una cum nova de verbo in charity shown by them to the poor and pilgrims. A
verbum ex hebraeo translatione " etc. long period of prosperity followed. The church was
HuRTER, Nomenclator. E. Macphebson. magnificently rebuilt (c. 1460) ; it is cruciform with a
central tower — Sir Reginald OT&y^ designer of Henry
Malvern, Worcestershire, England, a district cov- VII's chapel, Westminster, is beheved to have been
ered by a lofty range between tne Severn and Wye, the architect. It is 171 feet long, 63 wide and high,
known as the Malvern Hills. On its eastern side were Its stained glass is famous, as are its ancient tiles,
formerly two houses of Benedictine monks, the prior- made at the priory. Both are memorials of many
ies of Great and Little Malvern. royal and noble benefactors. The church, St. Mar3r's,
(1) Great Malvern began soon after the death of was purchased hv Richard Beides and others at the
St. Werstan, a monk of Deerhurst, who, flving from dissolution, and the <^ parish church (St. Thomas the
the Danes and taking refuge in the woods of Muvem, Apostle) has now diaappcAred. The priory rental was
was there slain, and afterwards honoured as a saint. £308 (Duffdale) or £375 (&k>eed). Latimer pleaded in
A hermitage was established there before the Norman vain for the preservation of the monastery as a refuge
Conquest; one Aldwyn, who had been made a monk for learned and studious men.
at the cathedral prionr of Worcester by St. Wulstan, (2) Lfttlb Malvkrk Priort (Our Lady and St.
bishop of that see, ana a companion called Guy, were Giles), three miles south of the former, was a small
apparently the first to settle here. Aldwyn, by St. monastery founded from Wereester cathedral about
Wubtan's advice, gave up his contemplated pilgrim- 117L Ine ehoir and tower of its church alone remniiLv
IX. -37
XAKiXIRI
678
KAMSLTTOO
portaoDS of the monaBtery are incorporated in TheCourt,
an old Catholic mansion, the seat of the Beringtons.
DuoDALE. Mofuutioon Anglicanum (Loodoo, 1846); Thomab,
AnHquitate* Prioraiu^ Majorin Malvemia (London, 1725);
Parsons, Hist, of the Priory of Little Malvern (London, s. d.);
NoAKB, Guide to Woreeaierehire (London, 1S68); Gasqubt,
Hmry VIII and tKe Engluih Monaeterise (London, 1888).
Gilbert Dolan.
Mamachi, Thomas Maria, Dominican theolodan
and historian, b. at Chios in the Archipelago, 4 De-
cember, 1713; d. at Cometo, near Montefiascone,
Italy, 7 June, 1792.' At the age of sixteen he en-
tered the convent of Chios and passed later to St.
Bfark's at Florence and the Minerva at Rome. In
1740 he Was appointed professor of physics in the
Sapienza, and in 1743 taught philosophy at the Propa-
ganda. His residence at Florence and Rome brought
him into contact with brilliant men of his order, e. g.
Ohrsi, DivelU, and Concina, and greatly facilitated
his progress m his studies. He collaborated with Orsi
in his De Romani pontificis in synodos oecumenicas
et earum canones potestate ". Soon Benedict XIV ap-
pointed him prelect of the Casanatensian Libraiy,
master of theology and consultor of the Congregation
of the Index. Owing to his office he had to take part
in the controversy between the Appellants (Jansenists)
and the Jesuits, and displayed an impartiality which
greatly increased the difficulties of nis anxious and
laborious |>o6ition. He engaged in lively theolo^cal
controversies with Mansi and Cadonici. He had, like-
wise, to intervene in the controversy concerning the
beatification of Blessed Palafox. In a published
writing on this question, he dealt severely with the
Jesuit party who opposed the beatification; but he
was not less energetic in dealing with their opponents,
the Appellants and the Jansenist Church of Utrecht.
He was director of the ecclesiastical journal of Rome
(1742-85), and established at his residence a reunion
of the learned Roman society.
Mamachi was a zealous supporter of the power of
the Roman Pontiff. Involved in all the controver-
sies of the day, he was one of the first to take issue
with Febronius. Pius VI made him secretary of the
Index (1779) and afterwards Master of the Sacred
Palace, and frequently availed himself of his advice
and of his pen. Mamachi 's ^reat work was to have
been his "Christian Antic^uities'*, but his labours in
the field of dogma and jurisprudence absorbed so
much of his time that he pubushed onlv four of the
tvirenty books that he had planned. Moreover, he
lived m an age when the good method inaugurated by
Bosio had been abandoned, and, considered as an
archsBological work, the syntnesis which he had pro-
jected is valueless. A second edition^ however, ap-
peared in 1842-1851. His chief writings are: "De
ratione temporum Athanasiorum deque aliquot sy-
nodis rV s»culo celebratis" (Florence, 1748); "Origi-
num et antiquitatum christianarum libri XX" (4
vob.^ Rome, 1749-55); "Dei costumi dei primitivi
cristiani" (3 vols., Rome, 1753 sqq.); "Epistolae ad
Justinum Febronium de ratione regendse christianse
reipublicse (2 vols., Rome, 1776-77).
HuBTXB, Nomenclator; Hefcls in Kirehenlex^B. v.
K. Maere.
Mame, Alfrbd-Hbnbi-Amand. printer and pub-
lisher, b. at Tours, 17 Aug., 1811 ; a. at Tours, 12 April,
1893.
The founder of the Mame firm, Charies Mame,
printed two newspapers at Angers in the last quarter
of the eighteenth century; General Hoche had at one
time hoped to marry his daughter. His eldest son,
bookseller and publisher in Paris, under the First
Empire, edited Chateaubriand's famous opuscule,
"Buonaparte et les Bourbons", also Madame de
Stag's works; and the persecutions directed against
these books by the Napoleonic poUoe caused the finan-
cial ruin of the editor. But the third son, Amand
Bfame, came to Tours and founded there a firm which,
under the management of Alfred Mame, son of Amand,
was destined to become ver^r important. After hav-
ing edited, together with ms cousin Ernest Mame.
from 1833 to 1845, some classics and a few devotional
books, Alfred conceived and carried out, for the first
time, the idea of uniting in the same publishing house,
a certain number of workshops, grouping all the in-
dustries connected with the making <n lxK>ks: print-
ing, binding,' selling, and forwarding. By analogy with
the great iron workis of Le Creusot, the Mame firm has
been called the literary "Creusot". Mame was also
one of the principal owners of the pa{)er-mil]s of La
Haye-Descartes; and it could thus be said that a book,
from the time when the rags are transformed into
paper up to the moment when the final binding is put
on, passed through a succession of workers, all of whom
were connected with Mame. Daily, as eari^ as 1855,
this interesting and enterprising publismng-house
brought out from three to four thousand kilograms of
books; it employed seven himdred workers within and
from four hundred to five hundred outside. While it
put into circulation numberless books of devotion, it
was also publishing the " Biblioth^ue de la jeunesse
chr^tienne ", a rich series of books destined for priie
distributions, the religious tone of which was guaraiir
teed by an express approval given by the Archbishop
of Tours. On the other hand, the Alfred Mame Press
issued splendid publications: "Ia Touraine", exhib-
ited at tne Universal Exhibition of 1855, whicn was in
its da]^ the finest of illustrated books; the "Bible"
with illustrations from Gustave Dor€; V^tauH's
"Charlemagne"; Wallon's "St. Louis"; the authori-
tative collection of " Chefs d'oeuvres de la langue fran-
caise". Quantin, the publisher, calculated that, in
1883, the Mame publishing-house issued yearly six
million volumes, of which three million were bound.
Inspired by the social Catholic ideal, Alfred Mame
established for his employees a pension fund which
allowed an income of six hundred francs to those
over sixty vears, and this fund was wholly main-
tained by the head of the firm. He opened schools
for the labouring classes, which caused nim to receive
one of the ten thousand franc awards reserved for the
"^tablissements modeles oil r^gnuient au plus haut
degr^ rharmonie sociale et le bien-6tre des ouvriers".
During the Vatican Council at Rome, Bishop Ket-
teler, meeting Alfred Mame at Spithoever's library,
interviewed him earnestly on his pnilanthropic efforts
for the benefit of the working-men of Tours. In 1874
Mame organized a system by which his working-men
shared in the profits of the firm. His d ving woixis were
recalled by Cardinal Meignan, Archbishop of Tours, in
his funeral oration: "Mv consolation is that I never
published a single line that might grieve religion and
virtue." At one time he tried but unsuccessfully to
enter political life; at the election of 14 Oct., 1877, he
presented himself in the first district of Tours as candi-
date for the Chamber of Deputies, on the conservative
side, against Belle, the republican deputy who had
founded in Tours tne first Lay school for girls. Mame
was defeated, having 7456 votes, against 12,006 ob-
tained by Belle.
Paul Mame (1833-1903), a son of Alfred, was the
head of the firm until 1900.
Meignan, Diecoura aux funiraUlee de M. Alfred Mame (Toun
1893); Quantin, M. Alfred Mame et la Mataon Mame (Paris,
1883); Paul Mame, 1 883-1903 (Tours, 1903).
Georges Gotau.
Mameluco (from the Arabic, tnemluk, *' slave**, the
household cavalry of the former sultans of Egypt, re-
cruited chiefly from the children of Christian slaves),
the general term applied in South America to designate
the mixed European-Indian race, and more specifi-
cally applied in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies to the organized bands of Portuguese slave-
himters who desolated the vast interior of South
< .
BCAMsann
679
MABCSETim
America from the Atlantic to the slopes of the Andes,
and from the Paraguay to the Orinoco. The enslave-
ment of the Indians by the conquerors began almost
wi^ the discovery of America, being recommended
and put m practice by Columbus himself as early as
1493, occasioning his first serious rebuke by Isabella.
In 1511 the Donunicans throughout Hispaniola (Haiti)
publicly preached against it, and sent one of their
number to Spain to protest against it at coiurt; their
actions resulted in a royal edict against the abuse, and
the official appointment of the celebrated Dominican
father, and later bishop, Bartolome de Las Gasas, as
" Protector of the Indians''. In 1531 Paul III issued
a Bull redtoring liberty to all enslaved Indians. • In
1543, largely ttirough the effort of Las Casas, the
Spanish Government published a code of new laws for
the government of the Indians, limiting the existing
power of holding slaves, and prohibiting all future en-
slavement of Indians. The law appU^ only to the
native Indians, not to negroes. It served as a check
upon the worst abuses and was carried out strictly
wherever the watchful eye of the viceroy could reach,
but elsewhere it was treated with contempt.
The Portuguese who colonized Brazil in the sixteenth
century were already the professional slave-dealers of
Europe, and their settlements along the coast soon
became a rendezvous for a lawless class of slavers,
pirates, and other desperadoes. Intermarrying with
the women of the wild tribes, the}^ produced the mixed
breed of Mamelucos, which combined the courage and
persistence of the white race, and the woodcraft and
linguistic faculty of the Indian, with a cruelty im-
tempcrcd by any restraining influence whatever. SSo
Paulo on the South Brazilian coast, and Par£ at
the mouth of the Amazon became tneir two great
hcadauarters, from whidi, beginning about 1560, for a
period of nearly two centuries, regular armies of slave-
hunters, sometimes a thousand strong, fully armed
and equipped with horses, guns, and blood-hounds,
set out periodically, year after year, to slaughter and
capture the helpless natives. In this work uiey were
encouraged botn by the Brazilian colonists, who wanted
slaves for the plantations and the mines, and by the
Portuguese Government, which favoured them as a
formidable barrier to the Spanish colonization, of
which the Jesuit missions were considered outposts.
Among all the Mamelucos, those of SSo Paulo, the
Paulistas as thev were call^, were most noted.
The first of the Guaranf missions of the Paraguay
territory was established in 1610. In 1629 the Pamista
armies invaded the territory, and within two years had
destroyed all but two of the twel ve prosperous missions,
plundering and desecrating the churches, slaughtering
thousands of the inhabitants, and carrying on 60,000
Christian Indians for sale at SSio Paulo and Rio de
Janeiro. The result was the entire abandonment of
these first missions and the exodus of the survivors,
led by Father Montoya, into the remote southern
province of Corrientes, Eastern Argentina, where the
work was begun anew. The slave-hunters followed,
and again the outlying missions were abandoned until
at last, in 1638, Fathers Montoya and Tafio sailed to
Europe and personally obtained from Urban VIII a
letter threatening the church penalties upon the en-
slavers of the mission Indians, and from Philip IV per-
mission for the Indians to be furnished with guns and
drilled in their use by Jesuit soldier veterans. This
was done and at the next invasion, in 1641, the Chris-
tian Guaranf. armed with guns and led by their own
chief, inflicted such a defeat on the Biamelucos as kept
them aloof for ten years. Then in 1651, taking ad-
vantage of the war between Spain and Portugal, the
MameTuco army advanced ag&hi, but was scattered
by the neophytes led by the Fathers themselves.
Thenceforth to the close of the Jesuit period the
Guaranf missions were protected by an army of drilled
and equipped Christian Indians.
Defeated in one direction, the Mamelucos turned in
another, and began a series of raids upon the flourish-
ing Chiquito missions of Southern Boh via, of which the
firet had been established by the Jesuits in 1691.
Whole villages were swept away one aftec. another,
until Father Aro6 gathered his people together, drilled
and armed them, and then with a few Spaniards led
them against the Mamelucos, whom he defeated and
drove across the Paraguay, never to appear again on
its western bank. On the Upper Amazon, according
to Hervis, the principal cause of the ruin and disper-
sion of Hie numerous tribes gathered into the Mamas
missions was the repeated raids of the Portuguese
slave-hunters, who in several attacks from 1CS2 to
1710 carried off moro than 50,000 Indians, besides the
thousands butchered. .Of the Omagua alone more
than 16,000 were taken. Of those who escaped the
majority fled to their original forests and reverted to
barbarism. In the Orinoco missions the same de-
struction was wrought by slavers from Pard, ascend-
ing the Rio Negro and engasinff the wild cannibal
txibes as their alEes, until checkedby the heroic enter-
prise of Father Roman in 1744, and finally made im-
possible by the establishment of Spanish frontier
earrisons aoout 1756. The entire number of Indians
slaughtered or enslaved by the Mamelucos from the be-
Cung of their career for a period of about 130 years
been estimated by Father Muratori at two millions.
(See also GuaranI; Maina; Maipure.)
Bancroft, ffiaC. CerU. Am., I (San Frandaoo, 1886); Dobbzi*
BorrKn,H%9t.Abij>onibuM (tr. London, 1822); Grabam, A Fon*
i^ied Arcadia (London, 1901). HervXs, Catdlogo de las Lengucu,
I (Madrid, 1800); Humboldt, TravOatotheBquinocHalRegiafu
of Am, a79»-1804), (London, 1881); Page, La Plata, etc. (New
York, 1869). JamES Moonet.
MamATtiiiA PrUon. — The so-called "Mamertine
Prison'', bMcneath the church of S. Giuseppe dei Fale-
snami, via di Marforio, Rome, is generally accepted as
being identical with 'Hhe prison . . . in the middle of
the city, overlooking the forum'', mentioned by Livy
(I, xxxiii). It consists of two chambers, one above
the other. The low^r, known as the TuUianumf was
probably built originallv as a cistern, whence its name,
which is derived from the archaic Latin word tuUitis, a
jet of water — ^the derivation of Varro from the name
of King Servius Tullius is erroneous. The Tulliapum
is a circular chamber, partly excavated from the rock,
and (Mirtly built of tufa blocks, each layer of masonry
projecting a little over that immediately below so as to
form a conical vault. When the upper chamber was
constructed, the top of the cone was probablv cut o£f,
and the present roof, consisting of a flat arch of tufa
blocks, substituted. The upper chunber is an irrepi-
lar quadrilateral, and contains an inscription reoorduig
a restoration made in a. d. 21. Sallust describes the
Tullianum, or lower chamber, as a horrible dungeon,
"repulsive and terrible on account of neglect, damp-
ness, and smell" (Gat., Iv). In the floor of the Tulli-
anum is a well, which, according to the l^end, mi-
raculously came into existence while St. reter was
imprisoned here, enabling the Apostle to baptise his
jailers, Sts. Processus and Martinianus. The well, how-
ever, existed prior to this date, and there is no reliable
evidence that the Chief of the Apostles was ever im-
prisoned in the TuUianum. The Acto of Sto. Proces-
sus and Martinianus are of the sixth century. The
two chambers are at present connected by a stairway,
but originally there was no means of communication
between them save a hole in the floor of the upper
chamber, through which such famous prisoners as
King Jugurtha and the Catiline conspirators were
thrown into the lower dungeon, where thev died of
starvation or were steanjgled. The name Mamertine
Prison is medieval, and is probably derived from ihm
temple of Mars Ultor in the vicinity. The medieval
"Itinerary" of Einsiedcdn alludes to the "foimtain of
St. Peter, where also is his prison ". From the eighth
ItABOBTirs
580
%Mkn
century the tradition of the Acts of Sts. Processus and
ICartinianus relative to the imprisonment of St. Peter
in the Tullianum was universally accepted ; the earliest
allusion to the prison in the character of a church is that
of Maffee V^gio, in the fifteenth century, who speaks
of it as "8. PS<rus in carcere" (St. Peter in pnson).
MiDDUETON, Ancient Rome (Edinburgh, 1885): BIaruccsi,
KUmenU d'AreMolooieehrHienne, III (Rome, 1902).
Maurice M. Hassett.
Mamertna, Saint, Bishop of Vienne, date of birth
unknown; d. shortly after 4/5. Concerning the life of
Mamertus before his elevation to the See of Vienne,
nothing certain is known. The fact that his brother,
Claudianus Mamertus, the theological writer, re-
ceived in his youth a sound training in rhetoric, and
enjoyed the personal acquaintance of Bishop Euehe-
rius of Lyons (434-50), suggests that the brothers
belonged to a wealthy Gallic family from the neigh-
bourhood of Lyons. Like his brother, St. Mamertus
was distinguished for his knowledge of profane sub-
jects as well as of theology, and, before nis elevation
to the episcopate, appears to have been married. His
election and consecration took place shortly before
462. As bishop he enlisted the services of his brother,
who had withdrawn to a cloister, and ordained him
priest of Vienne. The activity of the brothers is de-
scribed in a letter of Sidonius Apollinaris (Epist., IV,
xi^, another of whose letters (VII, i) is addressed to
Bishop Mamertus. In 463 Mamertus was engaged in a
dispute with Pope Hilarius on the question of the
privileges of the Bishop of Aries. Pof)e Leo I had
regulated the boundaries of the ecclesiastical provinces
of Aries and Vienne: under the latter he left the Dio-
oeses of Valence, Tarentaise, Geneva, and Grenoble,
but all the other dioceses in this district were made
subordinate to Aries. Regardless of this decision and
infringing on the rights of his colleague of Aries,
Blamertus consecrated in 463 a bishop for the city of
Die (Dea). King Gundiac of Burgundy complamed
to Pope Hilary of this action, whereupon the latter
wrote to Bishop Leontius of Aries on 10 Oct., 463,
bidding him summon a synod of bishops from the dif-
ferent provinces to enquire into the matter. In a
subsequent letter to the bishops of the provinces of
Lyons, Vienne, Narbonnensis I and II, and Alpina. he
abo refers to the matter, and directs them to ooey
Leontius's summons to a regularly constituted synod
(Thiel, "Epist. Rom. Pont.". I. cxlvi, cli; Jaff^,
•^Regesta Rom. Pont.", I, 2nd ed., dlvi, dlbc). The
synod decided against Mamertus, as we learn from
another letter of the pope dated 25 February, 464
(Tliiel, op. cit., I, cxlviii; Jaff^, op. cit., I, dlvh). In
this Hilary declares that Mameitus and the bishop
unlawfully consecrated by him should really be de-
posed; desiring, however, that clemency be used, he
oommissioned Bishop Veranus to inform Mamertus
that, if he did not recognize and submit to the regula-
tions of Pope Leo, he would be deprived also of the
four suffragan dioceses, still subject to Vienne. The
bishop invalidly installed by Mamertus was to be con-
firmed in his office by Leontius, after which he might
retain the bishopric. Mamertus evidently subnutted,
since we find no subsequent reference to the incident.
During his episcopate, the remains of St. Ferreolus
were discovered, and were translated by Mamertus to
a church in Vienne, built in honour of that holy martyr
(Gregory of Tours, "De gloria mart.", II, ii). St.
ILimertus was the founder of the Rogation Proces-
sions (see RooATioN Days)^ as we learn on the testi-
monvof Sidonius ApoUinans (Epist., V, xiv; VII, i).
and his second successor, .\vitus (" HomiliadeRogat.
in P. L., LIX, 289-94) . In connexion with these inter-
cessory processions, Mamertus summoned a synod at
Yienne between 471 and 475. About 475 he attended
a synod at Aries, which dealt with the predestination
teaching of Lucid us, a Gallic priest. As this is the
latest information we possess oonoeming him, we iDBy
assume that he died shortly afterwards. After bis
death he was venerated as a saint. His name stands
in the " Martyrologium Hieronymianum" and in the
"Martyrologium" of Florus of Lyons under 11 May,
on which day his feast is still celebrated (Quentin,
**Les martyrologes historiques", 348).
DvcBWSHm.Ftutee invKopata de Vaneienne OatUe^ I (Paris,
1804), 147; HBrBUs, Konsaienoetch., II (2nd ed.). 580 aqq.,
606t 507; Acta SS., IL, S20 aq.; TnxsifONT. Mhnoirea pour
wrvir & rhiet. eccl., XVI, 104; Tbrrxbasse, Notice ewr U
kmbeau de St. Mameri rScemment dioouvert dans TMirn de St-
Fiene h Vienne (Vienne. 1861). J. P. KlBSCH.
Mamertus, Claudianus. See Claudianus BiA-
MERTUS.
Mimmon, Mommmi ; the spelling Ua/Atutpd is contrary
to the textual evidence and seems not to occur in
printed Bibles till the edition of Elsevir. The deriva-
tion of the word is uncertain, perhaps from pD as seen
in pDt3D> though the Targums, which use the word
frequently, never regard it as the equivalent oijtotSO,
which the Greek always renders 0^a^poi, cf. Job,
iii, 4; Pro v., ii, 4. But cf. also Hebrew Ecclus., 3dii,
9, ipB^ niODD 2tO nn where the margin reads pODD,
** to the father his daughter is as ill-gotten treasure.
In N. T. only Matt., vi, 24, and Luke, xvi, 9, 11, 13,
the latter verse repeating Matt., vi, 24. In Luke, xvi,
9 and 11 Mammon is personified, hence the prevalent
notion, emphasized b^' Milton, that Mammon was a
deity. Nothing defimte can be adduced from the Fa-
thers in support of this ; most of their expressions which
seem to favour it may be easily explained by the per-
sonification in Luke; e. g. "Didascalia^', "De solo
Mammona cogitant, quorum Deus est sacculus '' ; simi-
larly St. Augustine, Lucrum Punice Mammon dici-
tur (Serm. on Mt., ii); St. Jerome in one place goes
near to such an identification when (Dial, cum Ludf .,
5) he quotes the words: ** No man can serve two mas-
ters'*, and then adds, " What concord hath Christ with
Belial?'' But in his " Commentary on Matt , " and in
Ep. xxii, 31, he lends no countenance to it: '" Ye can-
not serve God and Mammon.' Riches, that is; for in
the heathen tongue of the Syrians riches are called
Mammon. " But Mammon was commonly regarded as
a deity in the Middle Ages; thus Peter LomSard (II,
dist. 6) says, ''Riches are called by the name of a
devil, namely Manunon, for Mammon is the name of a
devil, by which name riches are called according to the
Syrian tongue." Piers Plowman also regards Mam-
mon as a deity.
The expression "Mammon of iniquity" has been
diversely explained, it can hardly mean riches ill-got-
ten, for they should of course be restored. If we ac-
cept the derivation from pK we may render it " riches
in which men trust", and it is remarkable that the
Sept. of Ps. xxxvii, 3, renders nj1Dfc< by irXAirrv or
" nches ", as though hinting at such a derivation. The
expression is common in the Targums, where |)00 is
ofUn followed by "ip^ corresponding to the dSudat of
Luke, thus see on Fro v., xv, 27; but it is noteworthy
that Ecclus., V, 8 (10, Vulg.) "goods unjustly gotten''
Xjy^fMffip dSlKoiSf reads in Hebrew 1pfi^-p3J and not
ppbo. For the various explanations given by the
Fathers see St. Thomas, II-II, Q. xxxii, a. vii, ad 3«ni.
Trench, Notea on the Parablee of oitr Lord (15th ecL, Loadoo,
1886) i DASMAini,DieWorteJeau (tr., Edinburgh, 1002).
Hugh Pope.
Man (Anglo-Saxon nian=a person, human being;
supposed root man=to think; Ger., A/ann, Mensch).
I. The Nature of Man. — According to the common
definition of the School, Man is a rational animal. This
signifies no more than that, in the system of classifica-
tion and definition shown in the Arbor Porphyriana,
man is a substance, coiporeal, living, sentient, and ra-
tional. It is a logical definition, having reference to a
metaph^rsical entity. It has been said that man's ani-
mality is distinct in nature from tiis rationality^
ICAH 581 MAN
any substantial existence of its own. To be exact we The theories of the nature of man so far noticed are
should have to write: "Man's animality is rational"; purelv philosophical. No one of them has been ex-
f or his " rationality " is certainly not something super- plicitlyr condemned by the Church. The ecclesiastical
added to his '' animality ", Man is one in essence. In definitions have reference merely to the " union '* of
the Scholastic sjmthesis, it is a manifest illogism to ''body" and "soul". With the exception of the
hypostasise the abstract conceptions that are neces- words of the Council of Toledo, 68^8 (Ex libro responi-
sary for the intelligent apprehension of complete phe- onis JuUani Archiep. Tolet.), in which "soul" and
nomena. A similar confusion of expression may be "bod^r" are referrea to as two "substances" (expli-
noticed in the statement that man is a " compound of cable in the light of subsequent definitions only in the
body and soul". This is misleading. Man is not a hypothesis of abstraction, and as "incomplete" sub-
body vlus a soul — ^which would make of him two indi- stiuioes), other pronouncements of the Church merely
viduals; but a body that is what it is (namely, a hu' reiterate the doctrine maintained in the School. Thus
man body) by reason of its union with the soiu. As a Lateran in 649 (against the Monothelites), canon ii.
special appUcation of the general doctrine of matter " the Word of God with the flesh assumed by Him ana
and form which is as well a theory of science as of in- animated with an intellectual principle shall come
trinsic causality, the "soul" is envisaged as the sub- .'.."; Vienne, 1311-12, "whoever shall hereafter dare
stantial form of the matter which, so informed, is a to assert, maintain, or pertinaciously hold that the ra-
human "body". The union between the two is a tional or intellectual soul is not per se and essentially.
" substantial " one. It cannot be maintained^ in the ihi& form of the human body, is to be regarded as a
Thomistic system, that the " substantial union is a rela- heretic " ; Decree of Leo X. in V Lateran, Bull " Apos-
tion by which two substances are so disposed that they tolici Regiminis", 1513, ... with the approval of
form one ". In the general theory, neither " matter*' this sacred council we condemn all who assert that the
nor "form", but only the composite, is a substance, intellectual soul is mortal or is the same in all men... for
In the case of man, though the "soul" be proved a the soul is not only really and essentially the form of the
reality capable of separate existence^ the " body " can human body, but is also immortal; and the number of
in no sense be called a substance in its own right. It souls has been and is to be multiplied according as the
exists only as determined by a form; and if that form number of bodies is multiplied"; Brief ''Eximiamtuam"
is not a human soul, then the " body " is not a human of Pius IX to Cardinal ae Geissel, 15 June, 1857, con-
body. It is in this sense that the Scholastic phrase demning the error of GOnther, says: " the rational soul
"incomplete substance", applied to body and soul is per ae the true and immediate form of the body",
alike, is to be understood. Though strictly speaking In the sixteenth century Descartes advanced a
self-contradictory, the phrase expresses in a conven- doctrine that again separated soul and body, and com-
ient form the abiding reciprocity of relation between promised the unity of consciousness and personality,
these two " principles of substantial being ". To account for the interaction of the two substances —
Man is an individual, a single substance resultant the one "thought", the other "extension" — **Occa-
from the determination of matter by a human form, sionalism" (Malebranche, Geulincx), "Pre-established
Being capable of reasoning, he verifies the philosophi- Harmony" (Leibniz), and "Reciprocal Influx"
cal defimtion of a person (q. v.) : " the individual sub- (Locke) were imagined. The inevitable reaction from
stance of a rational nature". This doctrine of St. the Cartesian division is to be found in the Monism of
Thomas Aquinas (cf . I, Q. Ixxv, a. 4) and of Aristotle Spinoza. Aquinas avoids the difficulties and contra-
is not the only one that has been advanced. In Greek dictions of tne " two substance" theory and, saving
and in modem philosophy, as well as during the Pa- the personality, accounts for the observed facts of the
tristic and Scholastic periods, another celebrated unity of consciousness. His doctrine: (1) disproves
theory laid claim to pre-eminence. For Plato the the possibility of metempsychosis^ (2) establisnes an
soul is a spirit that uses the body. It is in a non- inferential, though not an apodictic argunient, for the
natural state of union, and longs to be freed from its resurrection of the body; (3) avoids aU difficulties as
bodily prison (cf. Republic, X, 611). Plato has re- to the "seat of the soul", by asserting formal actua-
course to a theory of a triple soul to explain the union tion; (4) proves the immortality of the soul from the
— a theory that would seem to make personality alto- spiritual and incomplex activity observed in the In-
ge ther impossible (see Matter). St. Augustine, fol- mvidual man; it is not my soul that thinks, or my
lowing him (except as to the triple-soul theory) makes body that eats, but " I " that do both. The particular
the "body" and "soul" two suostances; and man "a creation of the soul is a corollary of the foregoing,
rational soul using a mortal and earthly body" (De This doctrine — ^the contradiction of Traducianism
Moribus, I, xxvii). But he is careful to note that by and Transmigration — ^follows from the consideration
union with the body it constitutes the human being. St. that the formal principle cannot be produced by way
Augustine's psychological doctrine was current in the of generation, either directly (since it is proved to be
Middle Ages up to the time and during the perfecting simple in substance), or accidentally (since it is a
of the Thomistic synthesis. It is expressed in the subsistent form). Hence there remains only creation
"Liber de Spiritu et Anima" of Alcher of Clairvaux as the mode of its production. The complete argu-
(?) (twelfth century). In this work "the soul rules ment may be founa in the "Contra Gentiles" of St.
the body; its union with the body is a friendly union. Thomas^ II, Ixxxvii. See also Summa Theologica, L
though the latter impedes the fuU and free exercise of Q. cxviii, aa. 1 and 2 (against Traducianism) and a. 3
its activity; it is devoted to its prison" (cf. de Wulf, (in refutation of the opinion of Pythagoras, Plato and
" History of Philosophy", tr. Coffey). As further in- Ori^n — ^with whom Leibniz might be grouped as pro-
stances of Augustinian influence may be cited Alanus fessmg a modified form of the same opinion — the crea-
ab Insulis (but the soul is united by a apiriius phyti- tion of souls at the beginning of time).
ctis to the body) ; Alexander of Hales (union ad mo- II. The Origin of Man. — ^This problem may be
dum forma cum materia); St. Bona venture (the body treated from the standpoints of Holy Scripture, the-
united to a soul consisting of "form" and "spiritual olo^, or philosophy. A. The Sacred Writings are
matter"— /orma completiva). Many of the Francis- entirely concerned with the relations of man to God,
can doctors seem, by inference if not explicitly, to and of God's dealings with man, before and after the
lean 1K> the Platonic Augustimian view; Scotus, who, Fall. Two accounts of his origin are given in the Old
however, by the subtlety of his " formal distinction a Testament. On the sixth and last day of the crea-
parU rei**, saves the unity oC the individual while ad- tion " God created man to Ida qsr\x S5»»^\ nr^ '"^5^^
MAN
582
MAN
image of God he created him" (Gen., i, 27); and "the
Lord God fonned man of the shme of the earth: and
breathed into his face the breath of life, and man be-
came a living soul" (Gen., ii, 7; so Ecclus., xvii, 1:
"God created man of the earth, and made him after
his own image "} . By these texts the special creation
of man is established, his high dignity and his spiritual
nature. As to his material part, the Scripture de-
clares that it IB formed by God from the "slime of the
earth ". This becomes a " living soul " and fashioned
to the "image of God" by the inspiration of the
"breath of life ", which makes man man and differen-
tiates him from the brute.
B. This doctrine is obviously to be looked for in all
Catholic theology. The origin of man by creation (as
opposed to emanative and evolutionistic Pantheism)
is asserted in the Church's dogmas and definitions.
In the earliest symbols (see the Alexandrian: SI o^
r& vdirra fy^ycro. r& ip oipapoU Kal firl yijt^ dpard re Kal
d^para, and the Nicene), in the councils (see especially
rV Lateran^ 1215; " Creator of all things visible and in-
visible, spiritual and corporeal, who by this omnipotent
power . . . brought forth out of nothing the spiritual
and corporeal creation, that, is the angelic world and
the universe, and afterwards man. forming as it were
one composite out of spirit and boay "), in the writing
of the Fathers and theologians the same account is
given. The early controversies and apologetics of St.
Clement of Alexandria and Origen defend the theory
of creation against Stoics and neo-Platonists. St.
Augustine strenuously combats the papan schools on
this point as on that of the nature and immortality of
man^ soul. A masterly synthetic exposition of the
theological and philosophical doctrine as to man is
given in the "Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas
Aquinas, I, QQ. Ixxv-ci. So again the "Contra Gen-
tiles", II (on creatures), especiaUy from xlvi onwards,
deals with the subject from a philosophical stand-
point— ^the distinction between the .theological and
the philosophical treatment having been carefully
drawn in chap. iv. Note especially chap. Ixxxvii,
which establishes Creationism.
C. Scholastic philosophy reaches a conclusion as to
the origin of man similar to the teaching of revelation
and theologv. Man is a creature of God in a created
universe. All things that are, except Himself, exist
in virtue of a unique creative act. As to the mode of
creation, there would seem to be two possible alterna-
tives. Either the individual composite was created
ex nihilOf or a created soul became the informing
principle of matter already pre-existing in another
determination. Either mode would be philosophi-
cally tenable, but the Thomistic principle of the suc-
cessive and graded evolution of forms m matter is in
favour of the latter view. If, as is the case with the
embryo (St. Thomas, I, Q. cxviii, a. 2, ad 2uin)^ a suc-
cession of preparatory forms preceded information by
the rational soul, it nevertheless follows necessarily
from the established principles of Scholasticism that
this, not only in the case of the first man^ but of all
men, must be produced in being by a special creative
act. The matter that is destined to become what we
call man's " body " is naturally prepared, by successive
transformations, for the reception of the newly created
soul as its determinant principle. The commonly held
opinion is that this determination takes place when
the organization of the brain of the foetus is sufficiently
complete to allow of imaginative life ; i. e. the possibility
of the presence of phantasmata. But note also the
opinion that the creation of, and information by, the
soul takes place at the moment of conception.
III. The End of Man. — In common with all
created nature (substance, or essence, considered as
the principle of activity or passivity), that of man
tends towards its natural end. The proof of this lies
in the inductively ascertained principle of finality.
77fe imtur»! end of imn may b^ conriaered from two
points of view. Primarily, it is the procuring of the
f^or^ of God. which is the end of all creation. God's
intnnsic perteetion is not increased by creation, but
extrinsicaliy He becomes known and praised, or
glorified by the creatures He endows with intelli-
gence. A deoondary natural end of man is the attain-
ment of his own beatitude, the complete and hierar-
chic perfection of his nature by the exercise of its
faculties in the order which reason prescribes to the
will, and this by the observance ot the moral law.
Since complete beatitude is not to be attained in this
life (considered in its merely natural aspect, as neither
yet elevated by grace, nor vitiated oy sin) future
existence, as proved in psycholorv, is postulated by
ethics for its attainment. Thus the present life is to
be considered as a means to a further end. Upon the
relation of the rational nature of man to his last end —
God — is founded the science of moral philosophy,
which thus presupposes as its ground, metaphysics,
cosmology, and psychology. The distinction of gooa
and evil rests upon the consonance or discrepancy of
human acts with the nature of man thus considered;
and moral obligation has its root in the absolute ne-
cessity and immutability of the same relation.
With regard to the last end of man (as "man" and
not as "soul"), it is not universally held by Scholas-
tics that the resurrection of the body is proved apo-
dictically in philosopher. Indeed some (e. ^. Scotus,
Occam) have even denied that the immortahty of the
soul is capable of such demonstration. The resurrec-
tion is an article of faith. Some recent authors, how-
ever (see Cardinal Mercier, "Psycholo^e", II, 370),
advance the argument that the formation of a new
bodv is naturally necessary on account of the perfect
final happiness of the soul, for which it is a condition
sine qua non, A more cogent form of the proof would
seem to lie in the consideration that the separated soul
is not complete in ratione naturce. It is not the human
being; and it would seem that the nature of man
postulates a final and permanent reunion of its two
mtrinsic principles.
But there is de facto another end of man. The
Catholic Faith teaches that man has been raised to a
supernatural state and that his destiny, as a son of
God and member of the M3rstical Body of which
Christ is the Head, is the eternal enjoyment of the
beatific vision. In virtue of God's infallible promise,
in the present dispensation the creature enters into
the covenant by baptism; he becomes a subject
elevated by grace to a new order, incorporated mto
a society by reason of which he tends and is brought
to a perfection not due to his nature (see Church).
"The means to this end are justification by the merits
of Christ communicated to man, co-operation with
grace, the sacraments, pra^rer^ good works, etc. The
Divine law which the Christian obeys rests on this
supernatural relation and is enforced with a similar
sanction . The whole pertains to a supernatural provi-
dence which belongs not to philosophical speculation
but to revelation and theological dogma. In the light
of the finalistic doctrine as to man, it is evident that
the "purpose of life" can have a meaning only in
reference to an ultimate state of perfection of the in-
dividual. The nature tending towards its end can be
interpreted only in terms of that lend ; and the activi-
ties by which it manifests its tendency as a living
being have no adequate explanation apart from it.
The theories that are sometimes put forward of the
place of man in the universe, as destined to share
m a development to which no limits can be assigned,
rest upon tne Spencerian theory that man is but "a
highly-differentiated portion of the earth's crust and
gaseous envelope ", and ignore or deny the limitation
imposed by the essential materiality and spirituality
of numan nature. If the intellectual faculties were
indeed no more than the developed animal powers,
there would seem to be no possibility of limitin|( th^U
MAN 583
progress in the future. But sinoe the soul of man is KmK^BuimQfiK€H<dfMW9,n (tr..Lcttdan, ISM); Sobba*
the xBsult, not of evolution, but of creation, it is im- ">«*. if «'»we*rt/r«i unddMAluTett.MiSeAn. IWO), 204.
possible to look forward to any such advance as would w awbr ukuu.
mvolye a change in man's specific nature, or any MMiahan (Mamijr), Saint, a member of the Church
essential difference m its relation to its material en- of Antioch, foster-brother, or household-friend (<r6p.
vironment, m the physiolo^cal conditions under rpo4>ot, Vulg. coUactaneua), of Herod Antipas (who
which It at present exi^, or m its "relation/' to its had St. John the Baptist put to death) a£d one of
Dmne Creator The Herrenmoralit&t ' of Nietzsche those who, under the influence of the Holy Spirit, laid
— the " transvaluation of values' which is to revolu- hands upon Saul and Barnabas and sent the two
tionixe the present moral law, the new morality which Apostles on the first of St. Paul's missionary joumeys
man's chan^g relation to the Absolute may some (/ets, xiii, 3). As St. Luke was an Antiochene (see
day bnng mto existence— must, therefore, be consid- Eusebius, " Hist, eccl.". Ill, iv), it is not at all unlikely
ered to be not less mconsistent with the nature of that this influential member of "the prophets and
man than it is wantmg m historical probabilitv. doctore" of the Church of Antioch was one dfthe " eye-
St. Thomas Aquina», Opera (Panna, 1862-72); Braolbt, wif nA«iaft« onH minicif^ranf fhA vofvl" ^T iilr« i 9^ wKa
Appearance and Reality (London. 1890); Cathrwn. PkQoao- WltpesSM ana ministers Of tne Word {^^f, », ^), WHO
phw MoralU (TTeibiiTii, 1895), D^YfxjLr^Hxatoriede la Pkihm>' dehvered unto Luke the details which that sacred
pkie MidUvaU (Louvain. 1905). tr. Oowwvr (London, 1900); writer has in regard to Antipas and other members of
fc^S S.»^J»^a&te?1i^' «« Herodum family.(«« LuCe iii, 1, 19, 20; viii, 3; ix,
TheoloouB Dogmatiea Compendium (Innsbruck, 1896); Lodge, 7-9; XlU, 31, 32; xxm,8-12; Acts,Zll). St. Manahen
Subt^Buice of Faith (London, 1907); hynE.Mierohomoe (Edin- may have become a disciple of Jesus with "Joanna,
bursh. 1885); Mahbr, P«i/cAo2o0V in o<anvAur«<iSene« (London, fhnmfe^ nif C^huan TTpmH'« Rtj^ward" /'T hIta viii W
1890): Merctbr. Peychologie (Louvain, 1908); NiirwscH*. Jen- "^6 5"® , *A'?'^ neroa S Stewam (l.uJte, Vlll, 6).
aeite von Out und Bdae (Leipsic, 1886); Nts, Coemologie (Lou- Antljpas left for Rome, A. D. 39, m order tO obtain
vain, 1906); RxcKABT, Moral Ph%lo9f>phy m Sumykurjd Senet the favour of Caligula, and received instead condem-
S^h^^n^^r^^l ^^ii/oT^^^ISS^ nation to.perpetual exfle (Joe " Aaf ', XVIII^^ 2).
Metaphysicarum Di^putationum tomi duo (Mains, 1605); Wm- At this time, the Church of Antioch Was founded by
DBLBAND.tr. Torre, «i«toryo/PAito«ogfcy (New York, 1893). Jewish Christians, who "had been dispersed by the
Francis Avkling. persecution that arose on the occasion of Stephen and
Man, Antiquity op. See Race, Human. ^ taught the Gospel also to the Greeks <rf Antioch,
(Acts, XI, 19-24). It IS quite likely that St. Manahen
Manahem (DH^O), "the consoler"; Septuagint, was one of these founders of the Antiochene Church.
Ma wij/i, Aquila, Mam-^p, was kine over Israel, according His feast is celebrated on 24 May.
to the chronology of Kautsch (Hist, of O. T. Litera- Ada SS., May, V, 273. Walter Drum.
l^K'-rK^a^' ^"^"Vl^^ K ""J '^P^'^l'l^ Schrader, from Manaos. See Amazones, Diocese op.
745-736 B. c. The short reign of Manahem is told m «»— ^v— *^'^ "^ ^-^^ «*o, ^ vro
IV Kings, XV, 13-22. He was "the son of Gadi", Manassas, the name of sev^n persons of theBible^
mavbe a scion of the tribe of Gad. Josephus (Antiq. a tribe of Israel, and one of the apocryphal writings.
Jud., ix, xi, 1) tells us he was a general ot the army of The Individuals. — (1) Manabses (Heb. nfi^JO;
Israel. The sacred writer of Iv Kings is apparently Sept. Maracrcr^), eldest son of Joseph and the Egyptian
synopsizing the ''Book of the Words (Hebrew, Aseneth (Gen., xli, 50-51; xlvi, 20). The name
' Deeds ') of the Days of the Kings of Israel ", and gives means " he that causes to forget" ; Joseph assigned
scant details of the ten years that Manahem reigned, the reason for its bestowal: " God hath made me to
When Sellum conspired against and murdered Zacha* forget all my toils, and my father's house" (Gen., xH,
rias in Samaria, and set himself upon the throne of the 51) . Jacob blessed Manasses (Gen., xlviii) ; but gave
northern kingdom, Manahem refused to reco^se the preference to the younger son Ephraim, despite the
usurper; he marched from Thersa to Samana, about father's protestations in favour of Manasses. By this
six miles westwards, laid siege to Samaria, took it, blessing, Jacob put Manasses and Ephraim in the
murdered Sellum, and set himself upon the throne. He same class with Kuben and Simeon (verses 3-5), and
next destroyed Thapsa, which has not been located, gave foundation for the admission of the tribes of
put all its inhabitants to death, and treated even preg- Manasses and Ephraim.
nant women in the revolting fashion of the time. The (2) ManasbbSj Judith's husband, died of sunstroke
Prophet Osee (vii, 1-xiii, 15) describes the drunken- in Bethulia (Judith, viii, 2-3).
ness and debauchery implied in the words "he de- (3) Manasses, a character in the story of Ahikar
parted not from the sins of Jeroboam." (not in Vulg.^ut in Sept.) told by Tobias on the point
The reign of this military adventurer is important of death. The Vatican MS. mentions Manasses
from the Tact that therein the Assyrian first entered (Maro^^^) as one ** who ^ve alms and escaped the
the land of Israel. ' ' And Phul, king of the Assyrians, snare of death" : the Sinaitic MS. mentions no one, but
came into the land, and Manahem gave Phul a thou- dearly refers the almsgiving and escape to Achia-
sand talents of silver" (IV Kings, xv, 19). It is now charus. The reading ot the Vatican MS. is probably
generally admitted that Phul is Tiglath-Pileser III of an error ("Rev. Bibl.", Jan.^ 1899).
the cuneiform inscriptions. Phul was probably his (4) Manasses, son of Bam, one of the companions
personal name and tne one that first reached Israel, of Esdras who married foreij^ wives (I Esd., x, 30).
nis rei^n (745-728 b. c.) had begun at most two years (5) Manasses, son of Hasom, another of the same
before Manahem's. The Assyrians may have been in- oompanions of Esdras (I Esd., x, 33).
vited into Israel by the Assyrian party. Osee speaks (6; Manasses (according to k'thibh of Massoretic
of the two anti-Israelitic parties, the Egyptian and Text and Sept.), ancestor of Jonathan, a priest of the
Assyrian (vii, 11). The result of the expedition of tribeof Dan (Judges, xviii, 30). The Vulgate and k'ri
TigLath-Pilcser was an exorbitant tribute imposed of the Massoretic Text give Moses, the correct reading,
upon Rezin of Damascus and Manahem of Samaria (7) Manasses, thirteenth King of Juda (692-6&
(Mi-ni-hi-im-mi Sa-mi-ri-na-ai). This tribute, 1000 B.C.— cf. Schrader, "Keilinschr.imd das A. T."), son
talents of silver (about $1,700,000) was exacted bv and succeraor to Esechias <rV Kings, xx, 21 sq.).
Manahem from all the mighty men of wealth. Eacn The historian of IV Kings tells us much about the
Caid fifty shekels of silver — about twenty-eight dol- evil of his reign (xxi, 2--10), and the punishment
irs. There were, at the time, then, some 60,000 thereof foretold by the Prophets (verses 10-15), but
"that were mightv and rich" in Israel. In view of practically nothing about the rest of the doings of
this tribute, Tiglath-Pileser returned to Assyria. Manasses. He brought back the abominations of
Manahem seems to have died a natural dcfttb* His Achas; imported the adoration of ''all the host of
son Fhaceia reined in his steiMl, heaven", seemingly the astral, solar, and lunax tsLt^esi^
584
MANOHSBTEB
of Assyria; introduced the other enormities mentioned
in the Sacred Text; and "made his son pass through
fire" (verse 6) in the worship of Moloch. It was
probably in this f rensy of his varied forms of idolatrv
that " Manasses shed also very much innocent blood,
tin he filled Jerusalem up to the mouth" (verse 16).
The historian of II Par. tells much the same storv,
and adds that, in pimishment, the Lord brought
the Assyrians upon jTuda. They carried Manasses to
Babylon. The Lord heard his prayer for forgiveness
and deliverance, and brought him again to Jerusalem,
where Manasses did his part in stemming the tide
of idolatry that he had formerly forced upon Juda
(xzxiii, 11-20). At one time, doubt was oast on the
historicity^ of this narrative of II Par., because IV
Kings omits the captivity of Manasses . Schrader (op.
cit., 2nd ed., Giessen, 1883, 355) gives cuneiform
records of twenty-two Idn^ that submitted to Asar-
haddon during his expedition against Egypt; second
on the list is Mi-nansi-i sar ir Ya-u-di (Manasses, king
of the city of Juda). Schrader also gives the fist m
twenty-two kings who are recorded on a cuneiform
tablet as tributaries to Asurbani]>al in the land of
Qatti; second on this list is Mi-in-si-i sar mat Ya-u-di
(Manasses, king of the land of Juda). Since a Baby-
lonian brick confirms the record of the historian of
II Par., his reputation is made a little more secure in
rationalistic circles. Winckler and Zimmem admit
the presence of Manasses in Babylon (see their re-
vision of Schrader's " Keilinschr. und das A. T.". I,
Berlin, 1902 274). Conjectures of the Pan-Baby-
lonian School, as to the causes that led to the return of
Manasses, the groundwork of the narrative in IV
Kings, etc., do not militate against the historical
worth of the Inspired Record.
The Tribe. — Deriving its naftie from Manasses
(1^, son of Joseph, this tribe was divided into two half-
tnbes— the eastern and the western. The tribe east
of the Jordan was represented by the descendants of
Machir (Judges, v, 14). Machir was the first-bom of
Mainasses (Jos., xvii, 1). The children of Machir took
Qalaad (Num., xxxii, 39); Moses gave the land of
Qalaad to Machir (verse 40). Two other sons of
Manasses, Jair and Nobe, also took villages in Galaad,
and gave thereto their own names (verses 41-42). The
territory of the western half-tribe is roughly sketched
in Jos., xvi, 1-3. It was that part of Samaria which
lay between the Jordan and tJie Mediterranean, the
plain of Esdrelon and the towns of Jericho^ Sichem,
and Samaria. The eastern half-tribe occupied north
Galaad, all Basan, and Argob (Jos., xiii, 30-31; cf.
Deut., iii, 13) — an immense tract of land extendingeast
of Jordan to the present Mecca route (darb d~haj) and
far beyond, so as to include the Hauran.
The Writing. — ^The Prayer of Manasses is an
aprocryphal writing which puiports to give the prayer
referred to in II Par., xxxiii, 13, 18-19. Its original
is Greek. Nestle thinks that the prayer and other
legends of Manasses in their present form are not
earlier than the " Apost. Const. , xi, 22; and that the
prayer found its way into some MSS. of the Septuagint
as part, not of the Sept., but of the "Apost. CJonst."
(see "Septuaginta Studien", III, 1889). The prayer
is not in the canon of Trent, nor has there ever seemed
to have been any serious claim to its canonicity.
Walter Drum.
Mance, Jeanne, foundress of the Montreal H6tel-
Dieu, and one of the first women settlers in Canada, b.
at Nogent-le-Roi Champacne, 1606; d. at Montreal,
19 June, 1673. Bom of a family who belonged to the
magistracy, she lived with her father, Pierre Mance,
procureur du roi (king's attomgr) until his death in
1640. In this year she met M. de La Dauversi^re,
who, with M. Olier, was actively interested in the foun-
dation of Montreal. For the first time Mile Mance
heard of New Prance (Canada) and of the women who
were going there to consecrate themselves to the
spreadmg of the Faith. She embarked at La Ro-
cneUe in June, 1641, with P^re Laplace, a dozen men,
and a pious young Dieppe woman. The following
(probably 24) August sne reached Quebec, and de-
voted herself durine the entire winter to the care of the
settlers. Thev wisned to retain her at Quebec, but on
8 May, 1642, she w«it up the river with M. de Maison-
neuve and her early companions, and reached Mon-
treal on 17 May. It was she who decorated the sJtar
on which the first Mass was said in Montreal (18 May,
1642). The same year she founded a hospital in her
own home, a very humble one, into which sne received
the sick, settlers or natives. Two vears later (1644)
she opened a hospital in Rue St-Paul, which cost 6000
francs — a gift ot Mme de Bullion to Jeanne on her
departure for Canada — and stood for fifty vears. For
seventeen years she had sole care of this hospital.
In 1650 she visited France in the interests of the
colony, and brought back 22.000 livres of the 60,000
set apart by Mme de Bullion tor the foundation of the
hospital. On her return to Montreal, finding that
without reinforcements^ the colonists must succumb
under the attacks of the Iroquois and the many hard-
ships of their position, she lent the hospital money
to M. de Maisonneuve, who proceeded to France and
organized a band of one hundred men for the defence
of the colony. In 1659 Jeanne made a second trip to
France to secure religious to assist her in her wqrk.
She had for twentv months been suffering from a
fractured wrist badly reduced, but in Paris, w^hile
praying at Saint-Sulpice where M. Olier's heart was
preserved, she was suddenly cured (2 Feb., 1659).
She was so fortunate as to secure three Hospital Sis-
ters of St. Joseph from the convent of La Fl^che in
Anion, Judith Moreau de Br^oles, Catherine Mac6.
and Marie Maillet. They had a rough passage ana
the plague broke out on board. On their arrival,
Mgr de Laval vainly tried to retain the three sisters at
Quebec in the community of the Hospital Sisters of
St. Augustine. Every obstacle having been over-
come, they reached Montreal on 17 or 18 Octob^.
Jeanne's good work being now fully establishedi she
lived henceforth a more retired life. On her aeat^
after a long and painful illness, she was buried in the
church of the H6tel-Dieu, the burning of which in
1695 destroyed at once the remains of the noble
woman and the house that she had built. Her work,
however, was continued, and two centuries later (1861)
the hospital was transferred to the foot of Mount
Royal, on the slope which overlooks the city and the
river. The Hdtel-Dieu still flourishes, and in 1909
the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the arrival
of the first three Hospital Sisters (1659) was solemnly
celebrated. On the mitiative of Mgr Bnich^si, Arch-
bishop of Montreal, a fine monument in bronze on a
granite base, by the sculptor Philip Hubert, repre-
soiting " Jeanne Mance soignant un colon bless^ '', has
bc«n decided on. The hospital contains more than
300 beds. It is estimated that the hospital cared for
82,000 patients between 1760 (dat« on which Canada
was ceded to England) and 1860; 128,000 patients
have been receivea between 1860 and 1910. A street
and a public park in Montreal bear the name of Mance.
Annalea de la Sctur Morin (MS), from 1697 to 1725 and con-
tinued by other annalists; Faillon, Vie de Mile Mance et Atj-
toirede VH6tek-Dxeude Ville-Marie (2 vols., Paris, 1864); Bru-
MATS, Vie de Mile Mance d commencements de la colonie de
Montreal (Montreal, 1883); Ladnay, Hifttoire den religieueea hoe-
pitalti-ree de St-Joeeph (2 vols., Paris, 1887) ; Auclair, Lea /He*
de VHOtd-Dieu en 1909 (Montreal, 1909). illustrated.
Elie-J. Auclair.
Manchester, Diogebe of (Manchesteriensis),
suffragan of the Archdiocese of Boston, U. S. A. The
city of Manchester is situated on the Merrimac River,
in the Stiite of New Hampshire, and was granted its
charter 10 July , 1846. Its population is about 70,000,
nearly three-fifths of which is Catholic. There are in
lAAHCHURIA 585 BfA«OHUBU
the city nine large Catholic churches with flourishing official organ of the diocese, of which he was editor
parish schools. There are also two small churches, a till his elevation to the episcopate (6 July, 1904). His
succursal chapel of the cathedral, and a Ruthenian consecration tookplace .8 Sept., 1904.
Catholic church. George Albert Guertin, tiurd Bishop of Manchester
The Diocese of Manchester was established 4 May, and present (1910) incumbent of the see, b. 17 Feb.,
1884, by a division of the Diocese of Portland which 1869, in Nashua, New Hampshire, was educated ia the
had included both Maine and New Hampshire. It parochial schools of his native city, after which be
comprises the entire State of New Hampshire, an area went to St. Charles College, Sherbrooke, Province of
of 9305 sq. miles. The total population of the diocese Quebec, and St. HyacintheOolkge, Province of Quebec,
is 412,000, of which 126,034 are Catholics. to pursue his classical studies. He then entered St.
Much of the earl v history of Manchester is bound up Jomi's Seminary, Brighton, Massachusetts, and was
in the records of the Diocese of Portland, of which it the first graduate of that institution who became a
formed a part for twenty-nine years. Mass was first bishop. He was ordained on 17 Dec., 1892. Having
celebrated in New Hampshire as early as 1694, but the displayed seal and abilitv in parochial work, he was
real history of Catholicity can hardly be said to begin appointed third Bishop of Manchester, 2 Jan., 1907, and
until a century and a quarter later. So few were consecrated 19 March, 1907. Under his guidance the
Catholics at first, that up to 1822 there were not diocese continues to stow steadily and healthily. It
enough families in the entire state to warrant the ap- has a well-eauipped educational S3rstem. There are 38
pointment of even one resident priest. The firat parochial scnools, with a corps of 309 teachers and an
priest to be permanently located in New Hampshire enrolment of 13,100 pupils. Hiere are: one boarding
was Rev. Virgil Barber, whom Bishop Cheverus in school conducted by the Sisters of Mercy, and three
1822 sent to C&remont, his native town, there to form academies presided over by the Sisters of Jesus and
the first Catholic parish in the state. Eight years Mary, Sisters <^ Providence, and Presentation Nuns
later a small church was built at Dover. Two mission- respectively. A boarding college for boys and yoisog
ary priests. Fathers Cana van and John B. Daly, cared men is imder the supervision of the Benedictine
for the spiritual interests of the Catholics scattered Fathers. There are also five hish schools for boys,
throughout the state. In 1848 Manchester, with a There are 4 hospitals; 7 orpnan asylums, with 710
Catholic population of 300, was given its first resident orphans; 1 infant asylum: 1 night refuse for girls; 5
pastor, Rev. William McDonald, notable on account homes for working girls; 4 homes for aged women; and
of his personal character and his establishment of 1 for old men. T^ Sisters of Mercy do most of this
religious, charitable, and educational institutions. eood work, and the Grey Nuns and Sisters of Provi-
Denis Mary Bradley, the first bishop, was bom in dence care for three hospitals and orphanages.
Castle Island, County Kerry, Ireland, 23 Feb., 1846; There are 118 secular and 19 re^plar priests labour-
d. 13 Dec., 1903. At the aee of eight he came to ing in the diocese. The Benedictine Fathers, the
the United States, settling at Manchester. His early Cm*istian Brothers, the Brothers of the Sacred Heart,
education was obtained at the parochial schools of Man- the Marist B]:others, and the Xa verian Brothers have
Chester and at Holy Cross College, Worcester, Massa- communities, as have also the Sisters of Mercy, Sisters
chusetts. On the completion of his academic course of Jesus and Mary, Sisters of the Holy Cross, the Grey
he entered St. Joseph's Seminary, Troy, New York, Nuns, the Benedictine Nuns, Presentation Nuns, Sis-
where, on 3 June, 1871, he was ordained. He was ters of Providence, Sisters of the Precious Blood, and
assigned duties in Portland, Maine, and three years the Felician Sisters,
later Bishop Bacon appointed him chancellor of , Dweem Anhivev Hu^ of Caj^^
the diocese and rector of the cathedral, which offices t^^i^^^^'S^^^^L^fSi^.^'^S^^^^SSb'^ii
he filled until June, 1880, when he came to Manches- Dxreeuny (Milwaukee).
ter as pastor of St. Joseph's Church. This appoint- Thomas M. O'Leary.
ment proved to be the first step towards the formation
of the Diocese of Manchester, as four years later (4 Manchuria, a north-eastern division of the Chinese
May, 1884), Father Bradlev was appointed Bishop of Empire and the cradle of the present imperial d^oiasty.
the newlv-erected See of A&nchester, and selected his It hes to the north-east of tne Eighteen Provmoes of
parish church for the cathedral. His consecration China, and extends from 38® 40^ to 49° N. lat. and froip
took place 11 June, 1884. Bishop Bradley was a man 120^ to 133** E. long. It is bounded on the north by
of tireless activity and rare sanctity. For almost the Amur and Russian territory, on the east by toe
twenty years he devoted his best efforts to the cause Usuri, on the south by Corea (Yalu River), the Gulf pf
of religion in New Hampshire, and with wonderful sue- Liao-tun^, and the Yellow Sea, and on the west by the
cess. At his consecration the diocese comprised a Nonni River and the line of palisades (Liuoh'tog)y
Catholic population of 45,000. The number of priests running from the sea to the Great Wall of China. Ob
enj^aged in parish work and missionary labours was 37, account of its situation, its southern portion is some-
officiating in as many churches. There were 3 orders times called Shanrhairkwanrwai Man-chou Mn-shenq,
of women with 89 members. At the bishop's death the that is, the three Manchou provinces beyond Shan-hai-
Catholic population was 104,000, and the priests num- kwan. and also Kwan4ung, or the Country East of the
bered 107. There were resident pastors in 65 parishes, Pass (Shan-hai-kwan) . Tlie maricets opened to foreign
67 missions were regularly attended, and there were 8 trade are New-ohwang, Ngantun^ (Jaoanese Antoken)
orders of women, and 4 of men, engaged in the Christian Dalny (Jap. Dairen) , and Harbm : Port Arthur (Liu
education of children and in charitaDle work. Shun-k'ou), being the terminus of the Siberian rail-
John Bernard Delany, second Bishop of Manches- wa^^ ^ & poi^ ^ great importance. Manchuria ia
ter, b. 9 Aug., 1864, in Lowell, Massachusetts; d. 11 divided into three^ provinces, Tung-san-sbeng (the
June, 1906; pursued his classical and philosophical three eastern provinces); F^ng-tien, also known as
studies at Holy Cross College, Worcester, Massachu- Sheng-king (Holy Court) from its capital Mukden, witji
setts, and Boston College, from which he was graduated 6/u and 2 fing (prefectures), 4,000,000 inhabitants;
in June, 1887. He studied for the priesthood at St. lurin or Ki-lin, with six prefectures^ 6,500,000 inhab-
Sulpice, Paris, where he was ordained 23 May. 1891. itants: and He-hmg-kian^ or Tsitsihar (Amur), with
He served as curate at St. Anne's Chureh, Manchester, 5 prefectures, 2,000^000 inhabitants. The northern
and the Immaculate Conception Church, Portsmouth, part of the country is watered by the Simgari and its
and in 1898 came to the cathedral at Manchester as affluent the Nonni, belonging to the Amur region; the
chancellor of the diocese and secretary to Bishop southern part is watered by the Liao-ho and its afflu-
Bradley. While serving in this capacity he founded ent the Kara-muren, which empty themselves into the
the *' Guidon", a Cathonc monthly magazine and the Gulf of Liao-tung. The country is generally moun-
lAlMOHimiA 586 MAJrOHUEX4
lamouSy but it includes two plains, the Liao-ho and fleet anchored at Port Arthur was attacked by Ad-
the Central Sungari. The two chief ranges are the miral Togo. The culminating point of the defence was
Hhig-ngan-ling in the west, ^nd the Ch'ang-peshan or Port ArUiur, which surrendered on 2 Jan., 1905.
6han-a-lin, the " long white mountain ", in tne east. Manchuria was the field of the action between the two
The Chinese administration was reorganised by an contending armies, the chief battles being those of
Imperial Decree of 20 April, 1907» and, instead of a Liao-yanff (25 Aug.-3 Sept., 1904) between Kuropat-
Tatang-kiun (military governor), a Taung-iu (gov- kin and Oyama, ofSha-ho (9-14 Oct.), and of Mukden
emor general and imperial high commissioner) with (1-9 March, 1905). By the Treaty of Portsmouth
residence at Mukden, is placed at the head of the three both Russia and Japan agreed to evacuate simultane-
provinces. The present (1910) occupant of this office ously Manchuria, with the exception of the portion of
18 Siu ChUi-ch'ang. He is assisted by the three Siurirfu the Liao-tung pcminsula leased to Russia and surren-
(governors) of the provinces, a senior and a junior see- dered to Japan, and to retrocede the administration
retary to the government (Tso Ts'an-tsan and Yu of the province to China.
Ts'an-tsan) and conmussioners of education, of ju»- Railways. — On 8 Sept., 1896, an agreement was
tioe^ for foreign affairs, for banner affairs, for internal sigoed between the Chinese Government and the
affairs, of finance, for Mongolian affairs. The Eight Russo-Chinese Bank for the construction and manage-
Banners (Pork'i) of the Manchu army are divided into ment of a line called the Chinese Eastern Railway, and
two classes, the three superior and five inferior ban- running from one of the points on the western borders
ners, distinguished by their colours: (1) Bordered of the province of Heh Lung Kiang to one of the points
yellow; (2) plain yeflow; (3) plain white; (4) bor- on the eastern borders of tne province of Kirin; also
dered white; (5) plain red; (6) bordered red; (7) for the connexion of this railway with those branches
plain blue; (8) bordered blue. There aje eight ban- which the Ixnperial Russian Government was to con-
ners of each of the following nationalities: Manchu, struct to the Chinese frontier from Trans-Baikalia and
Mongolian, Chinese (Han-kiun), consisting of the the Southern Usuri lines. An agreement between
descendants d the natives of northern China who Russia and China with regard, to Manchuria was
helped the Manchu invaders in the seventeenth cen- signed at Peking on 26 March (8 April), 1902, by
turv. Each nationalitv is called Ku 9ai (Ku shan), which Russia agreed to the re-establishment of the
and as each has eight banners or k'i, the whole force authority of the Chinese Government in that region,
thus includes twenty-four banners. At the head of which remains an integral part of the Chinese Empire,
the banners is a Chu-fang THang-kiun or general, with By the regulations for mines and railways, approved
an assistant (7*«*an-tean-ta-te^'en) ; then come tne Tu by the Emperor of China on 19 Nov., 1893, it had been
T*ungt Fu Tu-tung, etc. They are ^rrisoned not stipulated that mining and railway questions in the
only at Peking, but also iri various provmcial towns. three Manchurian provinces, in Shan-tung, and at
History. — ^The Liao (K'i-tan) and the Kin (Niu- Lung-chou, being anected by international questions,
chen), two Tatar tribes which governed northern shall not hereafter be invoked as precedents by the
China from the tenth to the thirteenth century, sprang Chinese or foreign authorities. The Russian line from
from Manchuria. The present imperial Manchu dy- the Lake Baikal to Vladivostok passes via H&ilar,
nasty of China, the Ts'mg, comes from the Ngai-sm Tsitsihar, and Harbin, whence a line branches south-
family, and is related closely to the Kiu. both being wards to Port Arthur via Ch'ang-ch'un and Mukden,
descend^ from a common stock, the Su-snen of Kirin. A short line runs from Port Arthur to Dalny ; another
Tlie Manchu chieftains, ancestors of the present dy- from Tashi-li-k'iao to Yinffk'ou(New-chwang); another
nasty, bear the dynastic title {miao-hau)) of Chao Tsu from Liao-yang to the Yen-t'ai mines; another from
Yuan, Hing Tsu Chih, King Tsu Yih, Hien Tsu Yih, Mukden to Ngantung at the mouth of the Yalu River.
Hien Tsu Siuan (1683), T'ai Tsu Kao, and T'ai Tsung The Peking-Tientsin line is extended through Shan-
Wen; the two last have the title of reign ornien-Aoo of hai-kwan to Sinmint'un and Mukden, and has a
T'ien Ming (1616) and T'ien Tsung (1627), the latter branch line which diverges to New-chwang. Express
changed in to Ts'img Teh (1636). These kings are buried trains with Pullman cars began running towards the
at Mukden. The firet emperor at Peking was Shun-che end of October, 1908; a train leaves Dalny every
(1644),with the dynastic title of She Tsu Chang. Dur- Monday and Friday morning, connecting with the
ing the war between China and Japan, after the severe Russian express at Kwan-cheng-tze, and returning on
eneagementatPingYang(16Sept., 1894) and the naval Tuesdays and Saturdays.
fight at the mouth of the Yalu River (17 Sept., 1894). Trade. — We give the revenue of the various cus-
the Japanese crossed the river, entered Manchuria, ana toms districts according to the statistics of 1908, the
marehed on Feng-huang-cheng and Ha!-cheng, whilst last published (1 Haikwan tael = 65 cents) : — Gross
another army under tl^ command of Count Oyama value of the trade in taels: Ngantung, 6,941,986;
landed at lun-chou and captured Ta-Lien-Wan and Tatungkau, 353,517; Dahiy, 32,688,186; Suifenho,
Port Arthur (21 Nov., 1894). Under Article II of the 12,754,878; Manchouli, 4,078,788; New-chwang, 41,-
treaty of peace signed between China and Japan at 437,041. Net value of the trade: Ngantung, 6,1^,799;
Shimonoseki on 17 April, 1895, China ceded to Japan Tatungkau, 350,850; Dalny, 32,258,461; Suifenho,
in perpetuity full sovereignty over the southern por- 11,985,705; Manchouli, 3,829,785; New-chwane» 41,-
uon of the province of Fdng-tien, including all the 199, 027. Suifenho and Manchouli form the Harbin
iislands belonging to it, which are situated in the east- District. On 11 Sept., 1908, the Japanese and Chinese
em portion or the Bay of Liao-tung and in the north- commissioners signed at Mukden the detailed working
em part of the Yellow Sea. By a new convention regulations of the Sino-Japanese Yalu Timber Corn-
signed at Peking on 8 Nov., 1895, Japan retroceded panv, the re-establishment of which was first provided
this portion of F^^-tien to China for a compensation for by Article X of the Komura Agreement signed at
of 30,000,000 Kuping taels; this gain to China was Peking on 22 Dec., 1905, and later made the subject
obtained through the action at Tokio of Russia, of a more definite compact when the Yalu Forestry
France, and Germany. Russia was to reap the bene- An-eement was concluded at Peking on 14 May, 1908.
fit of it. By A convention signed at Peking on 27 vicariates Apostolic. — ^The Vicariate Apostolic
Mareh, 1898^ China agreed to lease to Russia Port of Manchuria was created in 1838 at the expense of the
Arthur, Ta-Lien-Wan, and the adjacent waters, while Bishopric of Peking, and the first vicar Apostolic was
an additional agreement, defining the boundaries of Emmanuel-Jean-Frangois Verrolles, of the Society of
leased and neutral territory in the Liao-tung penin- Foreign Missions, Paris (b. 12 April, 1805; created
sula, was signed at St. Petersburg on 7 May, 1898. Bishop of Colombia, 8 Nov., 1840; d. 29 April, 1878).
Six years later, war broke out between Russia i^d The names of his successors, who all belonged to the
Japan. In the night of the 8^ Feb., 1904, the Russian same congregation, are: Constant Dubail, Bishop of
MAHDJUm 5S7 ICAMDSTILLE
Bolina, d. 7 Deo., 1S37; Joseph Andr£ Borer, Bishop traveller. Prince Maximilian, and the artist Catlin,
of Myrina, coadjutor to Hgr Ouboil, d. 8 Ibrcb, 1SS7; both of whom, like Levis and dark, have much to an
ArjBtide Louis Hippolyte Raguit, Bishop of Trajanop- of their peculiar ceremonies, manly character atra
oUs, d. 17 May, 1889; Laurent Guillon, Biehop of friendly aispoeition. In 1837-8 a great epidemic (^
Eiunenia, d. 2 July, 1900. By Decree of 10 May, 1898, smallpox which swept the whole northern plains al-
Manchuna was divided into two vicariates Apostolic; most exterminated the tribe, leavinK alive only about
Northern Manchuria and Southern Manchuria, which 130 out of 1600 souls. A few vears later (1S45-1S58)
Mgr Guillon retained. The present vicars Apostolic the survivors followed the Hioatso up to a new utua-
are Pierre Marie Lalouyer, Bishop of Raphanea, for tjon about the former Fort Berthold, where a reserva-
Northem Manchuria (1898), residing at Kirin, and tion was later established for the three tribes. The
Marie Felix Choulet, Bishop of ZeU, for Southern Mandannownumberabout 260, the Arikara 405, aral
Manchuria (1901), residing at Mukden. This mission the Hidatsa 460, a total of about 1125, as compared
suffered dreadfully during the Boxer rebellion: not with perhapa 9000 about 1780. Excepting for some
only missi<Hiaries like Emonet were massacred, but trouble wiui the Arikara in 1823. all three tribes have
Bisnop Guillon himself was burnt to death at Mukden, maintained friendly terms with the whites.
Southern Manchuria (Mukden) includes 32 European With the possible exception of the priests who ac-
and 8 native priests, 23,354 Christians, and 8406 companied La Verendrve, the first regular mission
cateobumens; 4 churches and 86 chapels; 32 schools teacher amon^ the Manoan and associated tribes was
for boys and 31 for girls; IJ orphanages; 15 sisters Father Francis Craft, best known for his work among
of Providence of Portieux and 30 native sisters, the Sioux, who with the help of some of his Sioux
Northern Manchuria (Kirin) includes 25 European Indiansisterhoodibeean what is now the Sacred Heart
and 8 native priests, 19,350 Christians; 21 churches mission, at Elbowoods, McLean Co., N. D., on the east
and 66 chapels; 74 schools for boys and 49 for girls; side of the Missouri and within the reservation, whii^
9 orphanages; 35 native sisters of the Immaculate claimsnowover 500 communicanta in the three tribes,
Heart of Mary and 135 native sisters. served by a secular priest. Plane are completed for ft
Henri Cordier. Benedictine mission house to be in operation before
Handeans. See Nasorbanb.
the close of 1910. The Mandan and associated tribo«
e equestrian in habit and depended about equolljr
' ' " '" ' e fields m
Handan Indiana — A formerly important, but now on hunting and agriculture, cultivating large >i<^itu> »>
reduced, tribe occupying jointly with the Hidatsa com. beans, pumpkins, and sunflowers (for the edible
(Minitari or Grosventre) and Ankara (Ree) the Fort seeda),whichthey tradedto the Plains tribes forhorses
Berthold reservation, on both sides of the Miaaouri, and buJTalo robes. According to Maxmilian the Man-
near its conjunction with the Knife River, North Da- dan were vigorous, well made, rather above medium.
kots. The Mazidan and Hidatsa are of Siouan hnguia^ stature, many of them being broad-shouldered and
tic stock, the latter speaking the same language as the muscular. They paid the greatest attention to their
Crows. The Mandan call themselves Numaflkaki, headdress. Tattooing was practised to a limited ex-
"people", the name bv which they are commonly tent, mostly on the left breast and arm, with black
known — Mawatani in tne Sioux form — being said to parallel stnpes and a few other figures. Some of the
be of Cree origin. According to the Mandan genesis women were robust and rather tall, though usually
myththeyoriginallylivedunderground.bcsideasubter- they where short and broad-shouldered, and were
ranean lake. Some of the more adventurous climbed adept potters. Their houses were large circular
up to the surface by means of a grapevine and were communal structures of stout logs covered witjl
delighted with the sight of the earth, which they earth, and their villages were sometimes palisaded.
found covered with buffalo and rich wiw every kind They had the same organization of military societies
of fruits;retumingwith thegrapestheyhadgsthered. common to the Plains tribes generally. Polyramy
their countrvmen were so pleased with the taste id was common. Besides the Sun ana the Biwalo,
them that trie whole nation resolved to leave their they Invoked a number of supernatural personages,
dull residence for the charms of the upper region; among whom was the "Old Woman who Nev«r
men, women, and children ascended by means of the Dies' , who presided over the fields and harvests,
vine; but when about half the nation had r^ched and in whose honour they performed ritual danOM
the surface, the vine broke, and the light of the and sacrifices at planting and gathering. The^
sun was lost to the remainder. When the Mandan had numerous shrines ana sacred places, and their
die they expect to return to the original seats of their great palladium was a sacred "ark", which WU
forefathers, the good reaching the ancient village by connected with theif genesis myth, and which i ~~
the wicked will not enable them to cross. It is poa- ceremony of the SunOance — descrit)ed by Catlin under
sible that the tradition regarding the " ground-house" the name of Okeepa — exceeded that of sJl other tribe*
Indians who once lived in that section and dwelt in in the extent of narbaroua self-torture practised t^
:ular earth lodges, partly undergroimd, applies to the participants. Sketches of the language are given
this tribe. Their traditional migration was up the by Hayden and Maxirnitiun. 0k-c also .Sicux.)
Missouri, and the remains of their former viUsftne Catum. .VortA Am. /nrfi, (Np* York. ifnH: liif«. Otwjw. a
can be traced as lar down as White Klver, 8. U. rm-mMBOBmof /-ui.^jToir.,.A™i«.iBfp(..<WMluiwU>n);Doa:
The earliest white explorer to visit them was the iii.y,3iaityol8iauanCuliii,inlliMii:Bi..Bjir,Eihi^liv»(WaA-
French La Verendrye in 1738, but their villaaes inaion. i&«; HATDD^EitaM.r™imwom,o/i»./nd. TH6f»
were even then the trading rendeivous and taul "d^,oi^'l/'rS'^^^m^lT\sk-5yM^iSk^
centreforall the tribes of the upper Missouri. About Hidain /ndiowr (Wuhinctno, 1S7T)' Maxiuiuu^, Prince <w
"- """ -■-— '-"' "-— ' "- — ' Wieu, rrawl- (Cobleni. 1830-111; Eng. tr. (London, 1843)!
Ciraclor. Bur, Calh. Ind. Miitiont, Annual RfporU (Wiuhiiic-
tonl. Mabobi, DicouverUi. eto., VI (Paris. iSftfll (U Veraa-
dryeropoti). James Moo.'^EV.
numU'I^"h^"a^u't3'60o'souta?'""B^^t^^^ Mwdthim. See HoLT Wmk; Maunbt Thubs-
and the visit of the American explorers, Lewis and "*''•
Clark, who wintered among them in 1804-4, they had UanderiUa (Maumdeviixb, Hontevilla), Jean
been reduced by smallpox (1 780-2) and wars wioi the de, author of a book of travels much read in the Hid-
Sioux to about 1200 souls in two villages on opposite die Ages, d. probably in 1372. The writer describea
sides of the Missouri, below Knife river. Here they himself as an English knight bom at St. Albans. In
were visited between 1832 and 1837 by tlie German 1322, oa the feast of St. Michael, he set out on a joup-
iCAHU 588 ICAHaALOBB
n^ that took him first to Egypt where he participated 1256 not far from the ruins of the ancient Sipontum,
as mercenary in the 8ulta?^B wars against the Bed- destroyed by an earthquake in 1233. Sipontum was a
ouins. He next yisited Palestine, then, by way of flourishing Greek colony; haying fallen into the hands
India, also the interior of Asia and China, and seryed of the Samnites, it was retaken about 335 b. c. l^
for fifteen months in the army of the Great Khan of King Alexander of Epirus, unde of Alexander tlie
Mpngolia. After an absence of thirty-four years he Great. In 189 b. c. it becsune a Roman colony^ and
returned in 1356, and at the instance and with the in a. d. 663 it was taken and destroyed by the Slays,
help of a physician, whose acquaintance he had made In the ninth century, Sipontum was for a time in the
in Egrpt at the court of the sultan, he wrote in Lot- power of the Saracens; m 1042 the Normans made it
Uch an account of his experiences and obseryations. the seat of one of their twelve counties. The latter
Jn the manuscripts 1372 is giyen as the year of his won a decisive victory there over the Byzantine gen-
death. Later investigation, however, made it clear eral Argyrus in 1052. According to legend, the Gospel
that the real author was Jean de Bourgoigne, or & la was preached at Sipontum by St. Peter and by St.
Barbe, a physician from Lttttich, to whom several Mark; more trust, however, may be placed in the tra-
medical works are also attributed. He really lived for dition of the mart3rrdom of the priest St. Justin and
some time in E^ypt, and during his sojourn may have his companions under Gallienus and Maximian about
conceived the idea of describing a journey to the 255. The first bishop, whose date may be fixed, was
Orient. Having visited no foreign country except Felix, who was at Kome in 465. In the time of
Eig^rpt, he was compelled to make use of the descrip- Bishop Lawrence, during the reign of Gelasius I (492-
tions of others and to publish his compilation under a 496), took place on Mt. Gargano the apparition of St.
pseudonym. He discloses, in the situations borrowed BGchael, in memory of which the famous Monasteiy
often word for word from various authors, an extraor- of the Archangel was founded. About 688 Pope Vi-
dinarily wide range of reading, and he unaerstood how talian was obhged to entrust to the bishops of Bene-
to present his matter so attractively that the work in vento the pastoral care of Sipontum, which was al-
manuscript and print had a wonderful popularity. most abandoned, but the see was re-established in
His chief sources are the accounts of the travels of 1(^, and under Bishop Saint Gerard (1066) it became
the first missionaries of the Dominican and Franciscan an archdiocese. The ancient cathedral remained still
orders (see Geography and the Church), who were at Sipontum, but, with the building of Manfredonia,
the first to venture into the interior of Asia. He de- thearchiepiscopal see was transferred to the latter city,
scribes Constantinople and Palestine almost entirely Among the other bishops were Matteo Orsini (1327),
according to the " Itinerarius'* of the Dominican Will- later cardinal; Cardinal Bessarione (1447), adminis-
lam of Boldensele written in 1336; he made use more- trator; Niccol6 Pecotto (1458), a Greek scholar and
over of the *'Tractatus de distantiis locorum terrae theologian; Giovanni del Monte (1512). subsequently
sanctae^of Eugesippus,the*'DescriptioterraB8anctaB" popne under the name of Julius III; Domenico Gin-
of John of WQrzburg ^c. 1165), ana the " Libellus de nasio (1586), who suppressed the use of the Greek Rite
locis Sanctis'' of Th^)aoricus (c. 1172). He was able at the high altar of the cathedral of Sipontum, a cus-
out of his own experiences to give particulars about tom which had obtained until his day; Antomo Mar-
Efert- What he nas to say about the Mohammedan cello (1643) who founded the seminary and restored
is taken from the work "De statu Saracenarum*' the cathedral destroyed by the Turks in 1620; Vin-
(1273) of the Dominican William of Tripolis. His cenzo Orsini (1675), afterwards pope under the name
account of the Armenians, Persians, Turts, etc., is of Benedict XIII. In 1818 the Archbishop of Man-
borrowed from the **Historia orientalis" of Hay ton, fredonia was made perpetual administrator of the
the former Prince of Armenia and later Abbot of Diocese of Viesti, a see that dates at least from the
Poitiers. For the countiy of the Tatars and China he eleventh century. The archdiocese is divided into
made use almost word for word of the '^Descriptio 16 parishes; contains 101,800 faithful, 1 religious
orientalium'' of the Franciscan Odoric of Pordenone, house of men and 4 of women, and 4 educational in-
and in parts of the "Historia Mongolorum" of the stitutes for girls.
Franciscan John of Piano Carpini. Apart from books Cappeixbtti, Le Chiese d^ Italia, XX (Venice, 1857).
of travels he plagiarised from works of a general U. Bbnigni.
nature, the old authors Pliny, Solinus, Josephus Fla-
vius, and the comprehensive ** Speculum Historiale " of Mangalore, Diocese op (Manqalorensis) , on the
Vincent of Beauvais. The numerous manuscripts and west coMEist of India, suffragan of Bombay. It com-
printed editions are enumerated by Rohricht ("Bib- prises the whole collectorate of South Canara, and a
hotheca Geographica Palestinse", Berlin, 1890, pp. portion of Malabar from Ponany to Mount Deli; it
79-85). The oldest impressions are : in French (Lyons, stretches inland as far as the Ghauts, a distance vary-
1480); German (Augsburg, 1481, 1482); English ing from 40 to 60 miles. The total Catholic popula-
(Westminster, 1499). Modem editions: "The voiage tion is reckoned at about 93.028. South Canara is
and travaile of Sir Mandeville", with introd. by J. O. divided into four ecclesiastical districts, each with its
Halliwell (London, 1839) ; "The Buke of John Maun- Vara (almost equivalent to rural dean), in which there
deuill", ed. by G. F. Warner (Westminster, 1889), in are thirty-three churches with resident priests besides
Roxburghe Club, Publications, No. 30; "Travels of a number of chapeb; while in Malabar there are
MandeviUe. The Version of the Cotton Manuscript in churches at Cannanore, Tellicherry and Calicut. The
Modem Spelling" (London, 1900). clergy are partly of the Venetian province of the So-
Oonsult SchOhborn, Bibliogr. Unterauchungm aJber die Reiae- ciety of Jesus, and partly native secular clergy, the
JSfSr5riSiJ;;«<1? ^^v"^'8.^»S'^!gSk,?.T8il^ f«^ernumbenng41andthe latter 56. Jhere is also
- - - — 3 of the Convent of the Carrr- —
lalabar rite, besides Carm*
ieiner ReuteSeachreibuno in Zeittchr. der Om. E. Erdkuhde tu oioi««of Charity. The episcopal
Berlin, XXIII (Berlin. 1888), pp. 177-306; Murray. John de nary are at Man^lore.
Burdens or John de Burpundia otherwise Sir John de Mandeville History. — Originally the South Canara portion be-
and the pestilence (Lon<fon. 1891). \ong^ to the Archidocese of Goa, while the Malabar
--.^^. o xr hartig. portion belonged to the Archbishopric of Cranganore.
Manes, bee MANiCHiBiSM. §^ Francis Xavier was at Cannanore for a few hours,
Manfredonia. Archdiocese op (Sipontina). The but there is no evidence for the popular tradition that
dty of Manfredonia is situated in the province of he missionised Canara. The pioneer work seems to
Foggia in Apulia, Central Italy, on the borders of have been done by the Franciscans, who early in the
Mount Gargano. It was built by King Manfred in sixteenth century had founded several stations along
MANOAH
589
MAMOAH
the coast; and the number of Christians was aij£-
mented by immigrations from Salcete near Goa. In
the seventeenth century, on account of the decline of
the Portuguese supremacy in India, Canara seems to
h^ve become destitute of resident clergy. In conse-
quence the Holy See placed the country' under the al-
ready existing Carmelite vicar Apostolic of Malabar —
an arrangement which soon gave rise to rivalry and
disputes with the Goa authorities. Between 1685 and
1712 some Oratorians were working in the districts, of
whom the chief was the Ven. Joseph Vas. In 1764
Canara fell under the dominion of Hyder Ali of My-
sore, whose attitude towards the Christians was fav-
ourable. But his successor Tipu Sultan (1782-1709)
showed himself so fanatical and violent that the
Christians were for the most part seized and reduced to
captivitv. A few were suffered to remain immolested
round about Mangalore, while others escaped to Coorg
and certain parts of the Camatic. Meanwhile the
country still remained under the Carmelite Vicar
Apostolic of Verapoly (Malabar) whose domain com-
prised not only South but also North Canara (Sunkery
or Carwar mission) while Coorg fell to the lot of the
vicar Apostolic of the Great Mogul at Bombay. In
1838, in consequence of the brief " Multa Praeclare ",
and its definitive restriction of the Padroado jurisdic-
tion, great rivalry and discord was renewed between
the Propaganda and Padroado parties. In 1840 the
people of Canara hoped to put an end to these dissen-
sions by petitioning for a separate vicariate; but the
movement was opposed by tne Carmelite vicar Apos-
tolic. In 1845 the Vicariate of Verapoly was divided
into three parts (Quilon, Verapoly and Mangalore)
and the pro-vicar Apostolic appointed for Mangalore
was a Carmelite, Father Bernardine of St. Agnes. In
1853 South Canara was made into a separate vicariate
but remained under Italian Carmelite rule until 1858.
when it was transferred to the French Carmelites, and
finally in 1878 to the Jesuits. On the formation of the
hierarchy in 1886 Mangalore became a bishopric, which
in 1893, together with Trichinopoly, was made suffra^
gan to Bombay.
Succession of Prelates. — Previous to 1845, sec Ve-
rapoly, Archdiocese of.
Pro-Vicar Apostolic. — Bernardine of St.* Agnes,
O. C. Disc, 1845-52.
Vicars Apostolic. — Michael Anthony of St. Aloy-
sius, O. C. Disc, 1853-71.
Mary Ephrem Garrelon, O. C. Disc, 1868-73. ^
Nicholas Pagani, S. J., 1885-95 (became first bishop
in 1886).
Abundius Cavadini, S. J., 1895-1910 (see vacant).
InstiUdiona. — St. Aloysius's College, Mangalore,
8Lfl5liated to Madras University, the only First Grade
College on the Malabar Coast, with 1000 pupils.
Classes from elementary to B. A. taught by Jesuit
Fathers and lay-teachers: boarding house with 80
boarders, and hostels for Hindu students. About 350
non-Christian pupils of various castes and creeds are
among the pupils. St. Joseph's Seminary, Jeppoo,
with 43 clerical students under Jesuit professors; Sa-
cred Heart House of students of the Carmelite Congre-
gation; St. Anne's High School under Tertiaiy Car-
melite Sisters, for Eurasian and Indian girls, with 449
pupils, prepares for matriculation and teacher's certif-
icate examination; Victoria Caste Girls' School with
159 pupils, and St. Mary's School, Milagres, with 175
pupils, both conducted by the same Sisters; St. An-
thony's Boys' and Girls Schools with 200 pupils;
schools at Cannanore with 686 pupils, at TeUicherry
with 132 pupils, at Calicut with 139 pupils; European
Boys School at Calicut with 164 pupils, besides 70
other schools scattered over the district. Boarding
bouses attached to four schools; Catechumenates at
Mangalore, Cannanore and Calicut; St. Joseph's Asy-
lum work-shops at Jeppoo, Manfinlore; three orphan-
ages at Mangalore, and two at Cannanore andTCali'
cut. Fr. Mailer's establishments at Kankanady oom-
prise: (1) Homoeopathic Poor Dispensary, where the
medicines dispensed to about 100 out-patients a day
are the Solen-Bellotti specifics, of which Fr. Mdller
possesses the secret; (2) St. Joseph's Leper Asylum; (3)
Our Lady's Home, with male and female wards, each
containing 36 beds: (4) Plague Hospital for cases of
bubonic plague. Fr. Miiller is assisted by a qualified
doctor and a number of infirmarians and nurses.
There is a hospital at Jeppoo under the Sisters of
Charity, and another is situated at Calicut imder
Carmelite Tertiaries. New mission stations have
been opened at Suratkal and Narol, each served by
a Jesuit. Other establishments are St. Vincent 8
Society, Calicut; Catholic Union Club^ Milagres; The
Provident Fund with its office at Codialbail; Codial-
bail Press, at which the "Mangalore Magazine" is
published and the Cloistered Carmelite Convent at
Kankanady with 16 choir-nuns, 5 lay-sisters, and 4
touriires. The finest buildings in the diocese are St.
Aloysius's college and chureh; St. Joseph's seminary,
and the (Gothic) convent of Cloistered Carmelite
nuns.
History of the Diocese of Mangcdore, ed. Moork (1905);
Madras CoMolic Directory for 1909; The Mangalore Maoaxine;
Status Missionis Mangalorensis (1909).
Ernest R. Hull.
Mangan, James Clarence, Irish poet, b. in Dub-
lin, 1 May, 1803; d. there, 20 June, 1849. He was the
son of James Mangan, a grocer, and of Catherine
Smith. He attended a school in Saul's Court, but
when still young he had to work for the support of
his family. For seven years he was a scnvener's
clerk and for three years earned measre wages in
an attorney's office. Mitchel accepts the story, re-
lated by Mangan himself, but which O'Donaghue is
inclined to make light of, that he passed through
an unhappy love affair, which infused the bitter and
mocking note into his subsequent verses, and even
drove him to that intemperance which clouded the
remainder of his days. In 1831, as a member of the
Comet Club, he contributed verses to the club's jour-
nal, to which he sent his first German translations.
His connexion with "The Dublin University Maga-
zine" was terminated because his habits rendered him
incapable of regular application. When Charles Ga-
van Duffy inauguratea "The Nation", in 1842, Man-
ean was for a time paid a fixed salary, but, as on
former occasions, these relations were broken off,
though he continued to send verses to "The Nation",
even after he had cast in his lot with Mitchel, who in
1848 began to issue "The United Irishman". Forthese
journals, as well as for "The Irish Tribune", "The
Irishman", and "Duffy's Irish Catholic Magaaine",
Mangan wrote under various fantastic sijg;natures.
In his clerical positions his eccentricities of manner
and appearance nad made him the object of persecu-
tion on the part of those employed with him, and his
f rowing habits of intemperance gradually estranged
im from human society. There are many descrip-
tions of his personal appearance at this time, all of
them dwelling on his spare fifi;ure, his tight blue cloak,
his witch's hat, his inevitable umbrella. Still, there
were distinguished men who recognized his ability and
pitied lus weaknesses, among tnem Anster, Petrie,
Todd, O'Curry, O'Daly, and the various editors who
printed his contributions. O'Donoghue thinks he has
traced all of ^^jogan's poems and ascribes to him be-
tween 800 and 90ir. In these there is necessarily j^reat
inequality, but, at his best, it is difficult to gainsay
Mitchel's enthusiastio estimate of him. His verses
ranjge from the passionate lament of the patriot to the
whimsical satire and the apocryphal translation. He
knew little or nothing of the languages from which
his translations affect^ to be made. He was depend-
ent for his renderings of Irish themes on the ntersl
prose tmoslations made by O'Curry and Q'XV^ «
ICAHaAH 500
Mangan fell an easy victim to the cholera which for the forty dajrs ci Lent. They likewise opposed
laged in Dublin in 1849. Before his death he was at- text-books recently brought into the schools, which
tended bv the Rev. C. P. M^han, who appreciated were not Christian in tone, and finally they com-
and loved him, and who, in 1884, edited a collection of bated the vaccination of children, as an offence against
his poems. A shabby stone marks his grave in Glas- faith, and for this additional reason reproached
nevm Cemetery. The chief editions of his poems are the clergy with countenancing and supporting this
MitcheFs (New York, 1859), Miss Guiney's( 1897), and state regulation. A spell of apocalyptic extra va-
the centenary edition (Dublin and London, 1903). gance took hold of the Manharter about this period,
McCaj^U Life of James Clarence Mtrngan (Dublin. 1887); when they united with the so-called "Michael Con-
^%i'^t^n^. ff'JZS'FJ^li^n ?I^bS2; fraternity "or the Order of the Knighta of .Michael.
1897). This was a fanatical secret society founded m Cann-
Blanche M. Kelly. thia by the visionary, Agnes Wirsinger, and by a
mc^.^^.- T^„*r e^ Tr«„»^ ^^rr. kr^TTAT^^^ T^,^ prfcst, Johauu Holzer of GmUnd. Its adherents
J^^ ' Aghadoe, Dio- ^^^^ ^^g impending destruction of the wicked by
CBBE OF. ^ ^ the. Archangel (jiabriel, at which time they, the unde-
Manharter, a politico-religious sect which arose in filed, were to be spared and to receive the earth in
Tyrol in the first half of the nineteenth century. Its heri^ge. The heads of the Manharter began their
founder was a priest, Kaspar Benedict Hagleitner of relations with this society in the autumn of 1815, and
Aschau, who was the only one of the clergymen of in 1817 Hagleitner secured their formal admittance
Brixenthal to refuse to take the oath of allegiance into it. One phase of this society's apocalyptic ex-
prescribed by Napoleon's edict of 30 May. 1809, for pectations led its members to regard Napoleon as
the ecclesiastical and secular authorities of the prov- Antichrist already come upon the earth,
ince of Salzburg, of which Brixenthal was then a part. In vain did the new administrator of the Archdio-
His notion was that priests who took this oath were cese of Salzburg, Count Leopold von Firmian, exert
by that act excommunicated jointly with Napoleon, himself on his pastoral visitations during the summer
It was not long before zealous supporters rallied to of 1819 to convince the Manharter of their error,
him from among Austrian sympathizers and patriots The latter questioned the genuineness of his episcopal
in the Brixenthal villages of Westendorf, Bnxen im character and refused to hear anyone but the pope.
Thai, Hopfgarten,Itter, and from Unter-Innthal.prin- The efforts of Bemhard Galura, spiritual counsellor
dpally m the villages of W5rgl and Kirchoichl. to the Government, remained equally fruitless. Even
There were two laymen also with Hagleitner at the punishments inflicted by the civil authorities for the
head of this movement, Thomas Mair, a tanner, and nolding of secret reunions and for continued dis-
Ha^eitner's brother-in-law, and Sebastian Manzl, the obedience failed to accomplish any result. The Man-
pansh magistrate of Westendorf. The latter was sur- barter persisted in their request that they be permitted
named Manhart after his estate, the "Untennan- to sena a deputation to Rome to obtain a decision
hartsgut", and it was from him that the sect derived from the pope in person, but this the Government re-
its name. Hagleitner himself lost his cure, and in fused to allow. 'The majority of the members of the
1811 went to Vienna, where he was appointed curate sect were at last brought back into the fold of the
in Wiener-Neustadt. He kept in touch, however, Church under the distinguished Archbishop of Salz-
with his partisans in Brixenthal, and on 'Tyrol being burg, Augustin Gruber. It is true that nis endea-
restored to Austrian rule, he was given once more a vours to correct them in the course of a pastoral tour
cure in Wdrgl in November, 1814. But new in- made through Brixenthal in 1824, and his appeals to
trigues again resulted in his removal the following them in a pastoral letter of 25 May, 1825, bore no di-
Bummer. He thenceforth lived a private life in and rect fruit; out he obtained their promise to believe in
around Innsbruck until the summer of 1818, when he and to obey him, provided the pope himself should de-
was ordered by the Government to repair to Vienna, clare that he was their lawful bishop. Archbishop
He was named Kaplan shortly after in Kalksburg Gruber then secured leave from the emperor for
near Vienna, and died there as parish-priest in 1836. Manzl, Mair, and Simon Laiminger, to make the jour-
The schism reached its full development at Easter, ney to Rome with an interpreter. They started in
1815, when for the first time Manzl and his househola September, 1825, were received affectionately in the
refused to receive the sacraments from the vicar of Eternal City, and, by order of the Holj^ Father, were
his home parish of Westendorf. Tlwnoeforth Hag- given a long and exhaustive course of instruction by
ileitner was looked upon by the Manharter as the only Sie Camaldolese abbot, Mauro Capellari (afterwards
priest of that region who had the power" to confess Gregory XVI). Finally, on 18 December, they were
and to administer Holy Communion. As a rule they received in private audience by Leo XII, who con-
no longer attended public Catholic worship, but held firmed eve^hing to them and received their sub-
independent reunions of their own. They refused mission. The three deputies returned home in Jan-
even to receive the Last Sacraments. Thus the Man- uary, 1826, appeared oef ore the archbishop, and
barter first of all cut themselves off from their priests, declared to him their allegiance. Two canons, sent
because they considered them to have been excom- into Brixenthal as representatives of the archbishop,
municated. They went further and proclaimed that received the profession of allegiance of the remaining
the majority of French and German bishops and Manharter. However, while this brought back into
Sriests, as supporters of Napoleon in the estaolished the Church the majority of the sect, which disap-
hurch, had severed themselves from the supreme peared entirely from Brixenthal, a certain minority
pontiff, and therefore from the Catholic Church itself, m Iimthal, led by a fanatical woman, Maria Sillober
Consequently, they were now devoid of sacerdotal of Kirchbichl, refused to submit and continued to per-
powersj all of their ecclesiastical functions were null sist in their sectarianism. These fanatics extended
and void; they could neither consecrate nor absolve their opposition even to the pope himself, declaring
validly. The Manharter thus believed themselves to that Leo XII, having set himself in contradiction to
be the only genuine Catholics in the land, and they Pius VTI. was not a lawful pope, and that the Holy
professed to be true adherents of the pope. As See was tor the time vacant. Thus the sect endured
strictly conservative champions of traditional custom, still a few dozen years with a restricted following until
they protested likewise against a series of innovations at last it disappeared completely with the death of its
which had been introduced into the Austrian Church, last adherents.
against the aboHtion of indulgences and pilgrimages, p,^^^ ^>^ Manharter. Bin BeUrag zur Gesch. TiroU im 19.
the abrogation of.feaet-days, the abohticm of the /oAr^ (izuubnick, I8fi2).
SBturday fast, and ihe mitigation of that prescribed Friedbich Lauchebt.
BCANIOHiBISM
591
UAmOUMOM
MaxiichiBiam is the religion founded by the Persian
Mani in the latter half of the third century. It piyr-
port^d to be the true synthesis of all the religious
systems then known, and actually consisted of Zoroas-
trian Dualism, Babylonian folklore, Buddhist ethics,
and some small and superficial addition of Christian
elements. As the theory of two eternal principles,
good and evil, is predominant in this fusion of ideas
and eives colour to the whole, Manichseism is classified
as a form of religious Dualism. It soread with extraor-
dinary rapidity both in East ana West and main-
tained a sporadic and intermittent existence in the
West (Africa, Spain, France, North-Italy, the Balkans)
for a thousand years, but it flourished mainly in the
land of its birth (Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Turkestan)
and even further East in Northern India, Western
China, and Tibet, where, c. a. d. 1000, the bulk of the
population professed its tenets and where it died out
at an uncertain date.
I. Life of the Founder. — Mani (Gr. Mdwyt, gen.
usually, Md^TTOf, sometimes Mdi^rrof, rarely Mdrov; or
MavixoMt; Lat. Manes, gen. Manetis; in Augustine al-
ways ManichcBus) is a title and term of respect rather
than a personal name. Its exact meaning is not quite
certain, ancient Greek interpretations were ffKeOos and
6fu\ta, but its true derivation is probably from the Baby-
lonian-Aramaic MdnA , which among the Mandseans was
a term for a light-spirit, mdnd rabl^ being the ** Light-
King". It would therefore mean "the illustrious".
This title was assumed by the founder himself and so
completely replaced his personal name that the precise
form of the latter is not known; two latinized forms
however are handed down, Cubricus and Ubricus,
and it seems likely that these forms are a corrup-
tion of the not unusual name of Shuraik. Although
Manias personal name is thus subject to doubt, there is
no douDt concerning that of his father and family.
His father's name was Ffi,tdk BAb&k (Par^/wof, or the
** Well-preserved"), a citizen of Ecbatana, the an-
cient Median capital, and a member of the famous
Chascanian Gens. The boy was bom a. d. 215-216
in the village of Mardinu in Babylonia, from a
niother of noble (Arsacide) descent whose name is
variously given as Mes, Utdchtm, Marmarjam, and
Karossa. The father was evidently a man of strong
religious propensities, since he left Ecbatana to join
the South-Babylonian Puritans (Menakkede) or Man-
dseans and had his son educated in their tenets.
Manias father himself must have displayed consider-
able activities as a religious reformer and have been a
kind of forerunner of his more famous son, in the first
years of whose public life he had some share. It
IS not impossible that some of Patekios's writing lies
embedded in the Mandsean literature which has come
down to us. Through misunderstanding the Aramaic
word for disciple {Tarbithaf stat abs. Tarbt), Greek
and Latin sources speak of a certain Tepi^pdos, Tere-
binthus of Turbo, as a distinct person, whom they con-
found partially with Mani, partially with Patekios, and
as they also forgot that Mani, besides being Patekios'
great disciple, was his bodily son, and that in conse-
quence the Scythian teacher, Scvthianus, is but Fatak
Babak of Hamadam, the Scythian metropolis, their
account of the first ongins of Manichseism differs con-
siderably from that given in Oriental sources. Notwith-
standing Kessler's ingenious researches in this field, we
cannot say that the relation between Oriental and
Western sources on this point has been suflSciently
cleared up, and it may well be that the Western tradi-
tion going back through the *' Acta Archelai " to within
a century from Mani's death, contains some truth.
Mani's father was at first apparently an idolator, for,
as he worshipped in a temple to his gods he is sup-
posed to have heard a voice urging him to abstain
trom meat, wine, and women. In obedience to this
voice he emigrated to the south and joined tiie Mugb-
tasilah^ or Mandsean Bapt^ts, taking the boy Mani,
with him, but possibly leaving Mani's mother behind.
Here, at the age of twelve Mani is supposed to have
received his first revelation. The aneei EUtaum
(God of the Covenant; Tamiel, of Jewish rabbinical
lore?), appeared to him, bade him leave the Mandseans
and live chastely, but to wait still some twelve years
before proclaiming himself to the people. It is not
unlikely that the &)y was trained up to the profession
of painter, as he is often thus designated in Oriental
(though late) sources.
Babylon was still a centre of the pagan priesthood;
here Mani became thoroughlv imbued with their an-
cient speculations. On Sundav, 20 March, a. d. 242,
Mani first proclaimed his Gospel in the royal residence,
Gundesapor, on the coronation day of Sapor I, when
vast crowds from all parts were gathered together.
" As once Buddha came to India, ^roaster to Persia,
and Jesus to the lands of the West, so came in the
present time this Prophecy through me, the Mani, to
the land of Babylonia", sounded the proclamation of
this ** Apostle of the true God". He seems to have
had but little immediate success and was compelled to
leave the country. For many years he travelled
abroad, founding Manichsean communities in Turkes-
tan and India. When he finally returned to Persia he
succeeded in converting to his doctrine Peroz, the
brother of Sapor I, and dedicated to him one of his
most important works, the *'Shapurakan". Peroi
obtained for Mani an audience with the king and Mani
delivered his prophetical message in the royal presence.
We soon find Mani again a fugitive from his native land ;
though here and there, as in Beth Garmia, his teaching
seems to have taken early root. While travelling. Mam
spread and strengthened his doctrine by epistles or
encyclical letters, of which some fourscore are known to
us bv title. It is said that Mani afterwards fell into
the hands of Sapor I, was cast into prison, and only
released at the king's death in 274. It seems certain
that Sapor's successor, Ormuzd I, was favourable to the
new prophet; perhaps he even personally released
him from his dungeon, unless, indeed, Mani had al-
ready effected his escape by bribing a warder and
fleeing across the Roman frontier. Ormuzd's favour,
however, was of little avail, as he occupied the Persian
throne only a single year, and Bahram I, his successor,
soon after his accession, caused Mani to be crucified,
had the corpse flayed, the skin stuffed and hune up at
the city gate, as a terrifying spectacle to his followers,
whom he persecuted with relentless severity. The
date of his death is fixed at 276-277.
II. System of Doctrine and DisaPLiNE. — Doctrine.
— ^The key to Mani's ^rstem is his cosmogony. Onee
this is known there is little else to learn. In this
sense Mani was a true Gnostic, as he brought salvation
by knowledge. Manich£eism professed to be a religion
of pure reason as opposed to Christian credulity; it
professed to explain the origin, the composition, and
the future of the universe; it had an answer for
everything and despised Chnstianity, which was fuU
of mysteries. It was utterly unconscious that its
every answer was a mystification or a whimsical in-
vention; in fact, it gained mastery over men's minds
by ^e astonishing completeness, minuteness, and
consistency of its assertions.
We are giving the cosmogony as contained in Theo-
dore Bar Khoni, embodying the results of the study of
Francois Ciunont. Before the existence of heaven
and earth and all that is therein, there were two Princi-
ples, the one Good the other Bad. The Good Principle
dwells in the realm of light and is called the Father
of Majesty (Grandeur or Greatness, TAiytBot, Abba
D'rabbutna), or the Father with the Four Faces or
Persons (rerpairpd<n#ror), probably because Time.
Light, Force, and Goodness were regarded as essential
manifestations of the First ^ein^ oy the Zervanites
(see Cosmogony : Jranian) . ' Outside the Father then
are^is^fyeTabern^efeQ.^t '^'"
Tr\
KAHIOHJUfllC
592
ICANIOHJUSM
Reason, Thought, Reflection, and Will The designa-
tion of *' Tabernacle" contains a play on the sound
Shechina which means both dwelling or tent and *' Di-
vine glory Of presence'' and is used in the Old Testa-
ment to designate God's presence between the cheru-
bim. These five tabernacles were pictured on the
one hand as stories of one building — Will beine the
topmost story — and on the other hand as limbs of God's
body. He indwelt and possessed them all, so as to be
in a sense identical with tiiem, yet aeain in a sense to
be distinct from them. The^r are abo designated as
CBons or worlds, beata scBcula in St. Augustine's writ-
ings. In other sources the five limbs are; Longanim-
ity, Knowledge, Reason, Discretion, and Understand-
ing. And again these five as limbs of the Father's
spiritual body were sometimes distinguished from the
five attributes of his pure Intelligence: Love, Faith,
Truth, Highmindcdness, and Wisdom. This Father
of Light together with the light-air and the light-
earth, the former with five attributes parallel to his
own and the latter with the five limbs of Breath, Wind
Light, Water, and Fire constitute the Manichsean
Pleroma. This light world is of infinite extent in five
directions and has only one Hmit, set to it below bv
^e realm of Darkness, which is likewise infinite in all
directions barring the one above, where it borders on
the realm of light. Opposed to the Father of Grandeur
is the King of Darkness. He is never actually called
Qod, but otherwise, he and his kingdom down below
are exactly parallel to the ruler and realm of the light
above, "the dark Pleroma is also triple, as it were
firmament, air, and earth inverted. The first two
(Heshuha and Humana) have the five attributes,
members, aK>ns, or worlds: Pestilent Breath, Scorch-
ing Wind, Gloom, Mist, Consiuning Fire; the last has
the following five: Wells of Poison, Columns of Smoke,
Abysmal Depths, Fetid Marshes, and Pillars of Fire.
This last five-fold division is clearly borrowed from
ancient Chaldean ideas current in Mesopotamia.
These two Powers might have lived eternally in
peace, had not the Prince of Darkness decided to in-
vade the realm of light. On the approach of the
monarch of chaos the five seons of light were seized
with terror. This incarnation of evil, called Satan or
Uivdevil {AiitfioKot irpdrot, Iblis Kadim, in Arabic
sources), a monster, half fish, half bird, yet with four
feet and lion-headed, threw himself upward towards
the confines of light: The echo of the thunder of his
onrush went through the blessed seons till it reached
the Father of Majesty, who bethinking himself said: I
will not send my five sons, made for blessed repose, to
engage in this war, I will 90 myself and give battle.
Hereupon the Father of Maiesty emanated the Mother
of Life and the Mother of Lite emanated the First
Man. These two constitute with the Father a sort of
Trinity in Unity, hence the Father could say: *' I my-
self will go". Mani here assimilates ideas already
Imot^ from Gnosticism (q, v., subtitle The Sophia
Myth) and resembling; Chnstian doctrine, especially
when it is borne in mmd that *' Spirit" is femmine in
Hebrew- Aramaic and could thus easily be conceived as
A mother of all living. The Protanthropos or *' First
Man" is a distinctly Iranian conception, which like-
wise foimd its way mto a number of Gnostic systems
(q. v.), but which became the oentral figure in Mani-
chsism. The myth of ihe origin of the world out of
the members of a dead giant or Ur-man is extremely
ancient, not only in Iranian speculations but also in
Indian mytholo«y (Rig-Veda, A, 00). Indeed if the
myth of Giant Ymir In Norse Cosmogonies (see Coa-
MOOony) is not merely a medieval mvention, as is
sometimes asserted, this legend must be one of the
earliest possessions of the Aryan race.
According to Mani the First-Man now emanates
sons as a man who puts on his armour for the combat.
These five sons are the five elements opposed to the
Ave moM of dMrkaow: C^ear Air, Eefseehing W^d,
Bright Li^t, Life-giving Waters, and Warmin£[ Fire.
He put on first the aerial breeze, then threw over himself
light as a fiaming mantle, and over this li^ht a cover-
ing of water; he surrounded himself with gusts of
wind, took light as his lance and shield, and cast him-
self Qownward towards the line of danger. An angel
called Nahashbat (?), carry ine a crown of victory,
went before him. The First-Man projected his light
before him, and the King of Darkness seeing it, thought
and said: *' What I have sought from afar, lo; I found
it near me". He also clothed himself with his five
elements and engaged in combat with the First-Man.
The struggle went m favour of the King of Darkness.
The Firs^f an, when being overcome, gave himself and
his five sons as food to the five sons of Darkness, " as a
man having an enemy, mixes deadly poison in a cake,
and gives it to his foe ' . W^hen these five re^lendcnt
deities had been absorbed by the sons of Darkness,
reason was taken a%vay from them and they became
through the poisonous admixture with the sons of
Darkness, like unto a man bitten by a wild dog or ser-
pent. Thus the evil one conquered for a while. But
the First-Man recovered his reason and prayed seven
times to the Father of Maiesty, who being moved by
mercy, emanated as second creation, the Friend of the
Light, this Friend of the Light emanated the Great
Ban, and the Great Ban emanated the Spirit of Life.
Thus a second trinity parallel to the first (Father of
Light, Mother of Life, First ManJ comes into existence.
The first two personages of the latter trinity have not
yet been explained and particularly the meaning of
the Great Ban is a puzzle, but as in the former trinity, it
is the third person, who does the actual work, the Spirit
of Life (Tb ZQw liveO/xa), who becomes the demiui^
or world-former. Like the First-Man he emanates five
gersonalities: from his intelligence the Ornament of
plendour (Sefath Ziva, Splcnditenens, ip€yy6Karoxot
in Greek and Latin sources), from his reason the Great
King of Honour, from his thought Adamas, Light,
from his self-reflection the Iving of Glory, and from
his will the Supporter (Sabhla: Atlas and *Qfio4>6pos of
Greek and Latm sources). These five deities were
objects of special worship amongst Manichseans, and
St. Augustine (Contra Faustum, aV) eives us descrip-
tions 01 them drawn from Manichsean hymns.
These five descend to the realm of Darkness, find
the First-Man in his degradation and rescue him by
the word of their power; his armour remains behind,
but lifting him by the right hand the Spirit of Life
brings him back to the Mother of Life. The fashion-
ing of the world now begins. Some of the sons of the
Spirit of Life kill and flay the archons or sons of
Darloiess and bring them to the Mother of Life. She
spreads out their skins and forms twelve heavens.
Their corpses are hurled on the realm of Darkness and
eight worlds are made, their bones form the mountain
ranges. The Ornament of Splendour holds the five
resplendent deities by their waist and below their
waist the heavens are extended. Atlas carries all on
his shoulders, the Great King of Honour sits on top of
the heavens and guards over all. The Spirit of Life
forces the sons of Darkness to surrender some of the
light which they had absorbed from the five elements
and out of this he forms the s\m and the moon (ves-
sels of ligjht, lucidcB naves in St. Aug.) and the stars.
The Spirit of Life further makes the wheels of the
wind under the earth near the Supporter. The King
of Glory by some creation or otner enables these
\dieel8 to mount the surface of the earth and thus
prevents the five resplendent deities from being set
on fire by the poison of the archons. The text of
Theodore Bar Khoni is here so confused and corrupt
that it is difi^cult to catch the meanine; probably
wind, water, air, and fire are considered protective
coverings, encircling and enveloping the gross material
earthy and revolving around it.
At this stage of the cosmogony the Mother of lofot
ICANIOHiBISM
593
HANIOHiBISM
the First-Man, and the Spirit of Life beg and beseech
the Father of Majesty for a further creation and as
third creation he emanated the Messenger; in Latin
sources this is the so-called Legatus Tertius. This
Messenger emanates twelve virgins with their gar-
ments, crowns, and garlands, namely Royalty, Wis-
dom, Victory, Persuasion, Purity, Truth, Faith,
Patience, Righteousness, Goodness, Justice, and Light.
The Messenger dwells in the sun and, coming towards
these twelve virgin-vessels, he commands nis three
attendants to make them revolve and soon they reach
the height of the heavens. All this is a transparent
metaphor for the planetary system and the signs of the
sodiac. No sooner do the heavens rotate than the
Messenger commands the Great Ban to renovate the
earth and make the Great "Wheels (Air, Fire, and
Water) to mount. The Great Universe now moves,
but as yet there is no life of plants, beasts, or man.
The production of vegetative, animal, and rational
life on earth is a process of obscenity, cannibalism,
abortion, and prize-fighting between the Messenger
and the sons and daughters of Darkness, the details of
which are better pa^ed over. Finally Naimrael, a
female, and Ashaklun a male devil, brine forth two
children, Adam and Eve. In Adam's boay were im-
prisoned a vast number of germs of light. He was the
E'eat captive of the Power of Evil. The Powers of
ight had pity and sent a Saviour, the luminous Jesus.
This Jesus approached innocent Adam, awoke him
from his sleep of death, made him move, drew him out
of his slumber, drove away the seductive demon, and
enchained far away from him the mighty female ar-
chon. Adam reflected on himself ana knew that he
existed. Jesus then instructed Adam and showed him
the Fathers, dwelling in the celestial heights, and
Jesus showed him his own personality, exposed to all
things, to the teeth of the panther, the teeth of the
elephant, devoured by the greedy, swallowed by glut-
tons, eaten by dogs, mixed with and imprisoned in all
that exists, encompassed by the evil oaours of Dark-
ness. Manias weird but mighty imagination had thus
created a "suffering Saviour'' and given him the name
of Jesus. But this Saviour is but the personification of
the Ck)smic Light as far as imprisoned in matter, there-
fore it is diffused throughout all nature, it is bom,
suffers, and dies every day, it is crucified on every tree,
it is daily eaten in all fooa. This captive Cosmic Light
is called Jesu8 patibilia. Jesus then made Adam stand
up and taste of the tree of life. Adam then looked
around and wept. He mightily lifted up his voice as a
roaring lion. He tore his hair and struck his breast
and said, "Cursed be the creator of my body and he
who bound my soul and they who have made me their
slave. " Man's duty henceforth is to keep his body
pure from all bodily stain by practising self-denial and
to help also in the great work of puri&ation through-
out the universe. ManichsBan eschatology is in keep-
ing with its cosmogony. When, mainly through the
activity of the elect, all light-particles have been
gathered together, the Messenger, or Legatus Tertius,
appears, the Spirit of Life comes from the west, the
First-Man with his hosts comes from north, south, and
east, together with all light seons and all perfect Mani-
chsans. Atlas, the World-Supporter, throws his bur-
den away, the Ornament of Splendour above lets go,
and thus heaven and earth smk into the abyss. A
universal conflagration ensues and bums on imtil noth-
ing but lightless cinders remain. This fire continues
during 1486 years, during which the torments of the
wicked are the delight of the just. When the separa-
tion of light from darkness is finally completed, all
angels of li^ht who had functions in the creation
return on hieh; the dark world-soul sinks away in
the depth, which is then clcraed forever and eternal
tranquillity reigiis in the realm of light, no more to
be invaded by darkness. With reganl to the after-
death of the individual, Manichsism taught a three-,
IX.— 38
fold state prepared for the Perfect, the Hearers, and
the Sinners (non-Manichseans). The souls of the
first are after death received by Jesus, who is sent by
the First-Man accompanied by three SBons of light and
the Light-Maiden. They give the deceased a water-
vessel, a garment, a turban, a crown, and a wreath of
light. In vain do evil angels lie in his path, he scorns
them and on the ladder of praise he mounts first to the
moon, then to the First Man, the Sun, the Mother of
Life, and finally to the Supreme Light. The bodies of
the Perfect are purified by sun, moon and stars; their
light-particles, set free, mount to the First Man and
are formed into minor deities, surrounding his person.
The fate of the heavens is ultimately the same as that
of the Perfect, but they have to pass through a long
Eurgatory before they arrive at eternal bliss. Sinners,
owever, must after death wander about in torment
and anguish, surrounded by demons and condenmed
by the angels, till the end of the world, when they are,
body and soul, thrown into hell.
Discipline. — ^To set the light-substance free from
the pollution of matter was the ultimate aim of all
Manichaean life. Those who entirely devoted them-
selves to this work were the "Elect " or "the Perfect",
the Primates ManicJuBorum; those who through hu-
man fraility felt unable to abstain from all earthly joys,
though they accepted Manichsean tenets, were the
Hearers", auditoreSf or catechumens. The former
bear a striking similarity to Buddhist monks, only wiih
this difference that they were always itinerant, being
forbidden to settle anywhere permanently. The life
of these ascetics was a hard one. They were for-
bidden to have property, to eat meat or drink wine, to
gratify any sexiial desire, to engage in any servile occu-
pation, commerce or trade, to possess house or home,
to practise magic, or to practise any other religion.
Their duties were sunmied up in the three signw:ula,
i. e., seals or closures, that of the mouth, of the hands,
and of the breast (oriSj manuum, sinus). The first
forbade all evil words and all evil food. Animal food
roused the demon of Darkness within man, hence only
vegetables were allowed to the perfect. Amongst
vegetables, some, as melons and fruit containing oil,
were specially recommended, as they were thought to
contain many light-particles, and by being consumed
by the perfect these light particles were set free. The
second forbade all actions detrimental to the light-
substance, slaying of animals, plucking of fruit, etc.
The third forbade all evil thoughts, whether against
the Manichsean faith or against. purity. St. Angus*
tine (especially "De Moribus ^nich.") strongly in-
veighs i^ainst the Manichseans' repudiation of mar-
riage. They regarded it as an evil in itself because the
propagation of the human race meant the continual
re-imprisonment of the light substance in matter and
a retarding of the blissful consunmiation of all things;
maternity was a calamity and a sin and Manichseans
delighted, to tell of the seduction of Adam by Eve and
her nnal punishment in eternal danmation. In conse-
quence there was a danger that the act of generation,
rather than the act of unchastity was abhorred, ana
that this was a real danger Augustine's writings testify.
The number of the Perfect was naturally very smill
and in studying Manichseism one is particularly struck
by the extreme paucity of individual Perfecti known in
history. The vast bulk of Mani's adherents — ^ninety-
nine out of every hundred — were Hearers. They
were bound by Mani's Ten Commandments only, whicn
forbade idolatry, mendacity, avarice, murder (i. e. all
killing), fornication, theft, seduction to deceit, magic,
hypocrisy (secret infidelity to Manichseism), and re-
ligious indifference. The first positive duty seems to
have been the maintenance ana almost the worship of
the Elect. They supplied them with vegetables for
food and paid them homage on bended knee, asking for
their blessin^g. They regarded them as superior bern^n,
Qay> coUect^vely,^ they were thought to conMitu^^^
594
MAMlCBMUaa
oozniiLir.'inier.r-: rhv.-*- v**:!* rh-i r^o d'-i*.:« commor. to
all. pravfrr ir.i rVrir.z.
late IT. *.zj: a::r:.T->j.-.. ar'.er -:;r--f::. ir.-: tr-i^e lo^it;
Latf-r. Prav'rr -wi^ rr-i'l-? fioir.z \zj- ?':r-. or. in '.he
viiir.ir. th'-r. fL-^ Nor.r.. i'l.^ tLr'-r.e o: the L:zc.>K:r.z.
It 'xi^. pr^r-i-i J" •■• i rr-r-^-rr-or-iil pur! £■:&•. :■:■:. wltn
wa%::r or for I:i.:ic o: 'va-.-r 'a-^.L ^^mv o':h»::r ?--h<r?ir*ce
in the Mohir^jr.v'iir. ri-r.ior.. TLr '"Liily prav*-r? Tirere
accorr.rar.iei r.y -.-a-^I-.v- pr-i-^rravlor^- ar.i i'l-fresitii to
the viir.o-i- p-.r=o :.::!:•:•■-'• ;r. •L-: roiilni or lizht: the
Father o: Mjij*^?:*.'.-. •!.. F :r-* Mar., th-:- I^zii*'is Ter:-±=.
the Pira'^ifr^: M:i:.i . •.:.-- Fiv*? Elr=.-:r.*-=. ar.d =o or..
They '^or-TiT*. nalr-Iy ■>: i -rrir-zo: la'iL.*or.' ^pitL«:t.- arji
cor.tair. ryi". l:r:> =:r.'_r.I^?a':!or.. A.-; •.i.-r.-^ ar.i a'tit'-tie
of pray«rr ^'-rr- ir.';:r-iv!y - or-r.-KV:-! •^■i*:: a-rror.orr.;-
cal pL*:r.omeri. r«-F lik-.' :.-^ ws.-f 'h-r i-ty o: fi.=:L'e.
All ra^Tr : or. T.v ::r-' Ajt/ >;: ':.*: -^^-rk ir. hor.^-ir of
the s'ir.. rh*- P'rrfv'.t al.-^j fi-r'ri or. *.L*- -^fco:. i 'lay ir.
hor:o':ro: :ho r::<:-or.. All k-^r.: rhv :a-: 'i;rlr.e t'^v-o
dav= a::^r f:v-r." z.r'x- rr.x.r. : ur.i o:.-?'.- a ytiir at th*.-
fu5 rr-->.»:.. ar. i at ':.^ r.»:-£.r.r.]r.eo :".:.- :.r^' viarter of
th^ rr-r-'^r.. Mor^-ovvr a rr^or.th'y ::i-r*. o' -serv-i-fi -iil
suri.-T*:". . "»a= '.♦•^■:^ or. •:.•> eishti- day of -hr: nior-tr..
hi rlTr* ar,r! '^f-r^rrr.or.iv-s an: .-r.^-t '.'i.f^ MarJ-.hjear.T r .:t
VTer>- Iirt> i.r kr, j-at. to 'i.-?. Tr. y haii o:.r sr^ii: ^jl-ni-
nhy. th-at of '.v fjf-rria st:'2 thv ar.r.iv. r^ar;/ of
And -r-"""''^"-' ">=■■ ■' " ^ X' r-""- • *v r • j"- v. -v- "■'■■-.",-•■ -,-
■*?•• '»■■ *| *f- •
de-ta:!-- ar*=: a- >^t -::.kr-0'.vT.. .St. A iz ..*-:::-•-: '■■or:: !^:'..r
that thouzh Mar.:'':L*ar.^ rrr:-*^rr.':v'i to :•- rhri^*;.-..-.-
their f'ra.-t of tr.'.- 'i-ath of Niar.: •:-xc»>:-'i'=-i ir. =o-»:r..:.:ty
that of th'=: I>.-ath ar.-l Reauirtctiori of Christ.
Mar.icLsar..-; in'i.-t r^v«? pK)^.=e=.-*>'i a kirid of harTSri
and ''.-•^c'r-irl';*. Tr.r op>r'.r: on haptiim. whi'h o«?-
curm-i ar:;o:.z th*-- =ii.cTf:^i lit^-rafirc: of the Mani'.-hjta:.-.
13 ur.forr:.'.at*-ly los*. ar.i in *l»r>ntal 50'irceT= th^ mat-
ter L? no* r'^;frrrp-i to. but Chrlrtian JiO'irce^ rupporfe ^he
existence of ryjth thfr^: rlt*-?. O: zr*.ater importance.-
than rapt:--m wa.-- ♦hp* Cv? -".''*''»<* ;-tr»; or "'tl'or.-ola-
tion",an irrip*>^::ion of Lan-l* r>yon*r of the E!r-:t I y
which a H'rarer wi- receivel axno.nz'-'t their nimrvr.
The ManichsFran hi .rarchy and con-tit irion i.s -till
involved in owcurlty. Man: evidently inter.d'^i to
pro\~lde a siipreme hv-ad for the multitude of his
follower-. He even decided that h:.^ succc'r-sor i:.
th:« dizr.ity .-hoild reside in Baby ion. Thi* hizh
pre.^*ho<''i i= kno'vn in Arabic =ourc».':" a.* the Z^*'.:-
mcu. In the Flar* i* .T^-enL? to have r>o*re?s«ed at !ea*t
some temr-jrar/ im:.or:ance. in thfi* Wf.-az it s^«=^rr-s
hardly kno-^T. or r^rcoz.^ Ized. \o 1: -t of t h^-se .'Supreme
Pon'iffs of Manicha.-i-m ha- come down to u*: har«i:y a
name or two > kr.own to hi.-*or.*. It i' doubt ful - v- n
whether the f-hair of Mani did not remain vacant f-.r
lonz perlvb . On t he d u • :•■ - a :. i r -ri vi i-ze •: of t he I ma-
mate '.ve pO'.=':-T=.= af present no :r. formation. Acr-ord-
imr to ^^ e-terr: a:.l Ila-'err. .-o'lrce* the ManicL;ean
Church wiT di-.id'.d i:.*o ':v»^ hi^-rarchical c;a."vi*.?:
St. A^iZ':-=!":ne name^ *hem v.-iv:;:'.-;.-:'. <rp •".•/• r/f. }'rt:.i-
IrjtKri, kU'I'.x, *jkrA •i.-i:i'-^e-: x\.'>. Chr;.-'ian:z»-d termi-
noloey* repre-en*.-- in .Manirhjran my-tical lar.piaze 'he
son^ of m*;ekne.ST. of rea.'^jn. of kj'iOwl».-flze. oi my.ster} .
and 01 under? tandinz. Manis a.-trologica! pr^-^iilec-
tion= for 'he n:mr<r five, t-o evident in his ro-mo-
gony. e\idently -'icz'-rtM this divl-ion for h:= Church
or kinzdom of the iizht on earth. The Teachers
and Admini.-rtrator* r'-.n-si^ *r{ *-r * ry- ^rnjA are rroba"' -Iv
an adaptatior: ot the X^/o:^€j rj:.d ^^^vrtt, *he speakers
and the doers? , known in Gr^r-k an-i Bahiylor.ian myster-
ies; and the name 'prierts'' is probahly taken over
from the Sabian Kura.
V\'ith regard to the relation of Manichaei.'-m to Chris-
tianity two things are clear: a. Some connexion with
Cl«^-*"*''ity was intended from the very first by Man!
him>*?If. it was not an after-thouzht. intrfjduciSil when
Manzchsism came in touch w-.th 'he West, as is sone^
times assertefL TTirlstianity was the preiocsinAnt
relizio.n inC>srhoene. and perhac'r the prlnc:p«il relizion
in all MetK>potamia in Mani s time. Man:. wh«:-5#? :h-
]ect was to found a sj'rtem. ccmprehensive cf all re-
iizions then known, could not "^ ut tr.- to incorrvratc-
Christianity. In the 5r=t wori- of his rro«:lairia*:o:i
on the coronation day of Saf->r I. he mentioneii Jesus.
who ha«i come to the countries of the West. h The
connexion was purely external and ar i^jlal. Tbe sub-
stance of Manic hJE-ism was Chali-an istr':'.'?zy and
folklore cast in a rlzid d^ialistio mi-uld: if Christianity
was brouzht in. it was only thro'^h f ^rre :: h-?rorloal
circumstances. Christianity could nrt r-r izn«:red.
In conse^-juence 1 Man: pr«.<:Iaimf:-i h:n.^l: the Para-
clete pr«jmi*e»i by J':-s*.:i: 2 rt;-i:':»>i "rhe whole cf the
I »li Testament. :.ut adn-itt.: i a* nr.uoh ^"^z the New as
sTiited him: in pa.ric-ilar h- rfLJ-:-— t^d the Ar.s of the
Ap>stlrs. l^ca'ir»; it told of th- d-7^>r:.t of the Hcly
Gno=t in the r-a.-r.. The fn-Trel* w-re corrjptei in
many places, but where a ttxt ?eeni"'i to favour bizn
the Manichee knew how ti^ parade i*. 'I'ne ^ ^« to
n-ad .^t. A:;z-;stin«^"? anti-Mar.: hf a r. ii-put« to real-
ize the extreme inzen'.uty v%;-h whi'.h Scrlpfir*^ texts
were coi;ect»-*i an-i interT.r»:t«:d. ;.■ Tho'.xh Man:
called h::r_=.:!f the Paraclvti-. hv o'.aime*! no Di'.-inity
but wi:h show of h'lmili'y -tyie-i hiniTfilf " Ar-:>st:e of
Jesu-; Christ *r.y the Pr-- v! !• nee of '>■•■; the Fsthr^r":
a 'iv-i^.a-.i-jn v.h:.n > •.' •-: ju*:y aaar't^i :r:m "ne
:.-a.:.:.r of the Pa-iline F;. i-^l-s. Mini, h./'^^'evvr. wjk<
•;.v .V:->*1--- «:: J.-.-: rhris*. i. »•. thv -M':-?s«Lrz'=r of
Cl.r:.-:* - X'T'tTzz^. . rha* Paraoi-.te whom He sent aToo--
-: •:: *-o::i aTw-AX-;. •«.. -^n i . Mani's bLiSr-hemo'-xs
..; r:.:-ition was thus tone! down a little to Christian
earv. ■ 4 ■ Jesus ChrL-t was to Mani but an apon or sub-
.-i.-tent jyirsonincation of the Lizht in the world: as
f -r a- it hjid already S:<n s*-t fr»"*^ it wa« the luminous
Jesu.* or J€*'iJ! p-.t'^/lii. •'» Ti.- h>tor:oa! Jesus of
Nazart-th wa.? e:.*ir».:y rt^-rudirivl by Mani. "The
•on of a poc»r wi-low" Mari" . 'the J«:w:ih MtSi?:as.
whom the Jews cr;'.:r.»vl ". "a <ie'.-i'.. who v»-:is just ly
punishe*! for ir.trrvrinz in the u-rk i-f the ^on
Jcs'is"". such wa^ at.'.-c rdinz to Ma:.:, the Christ w-hom
Christians wr.r>hiri-^i a? <.ic-i. Man:? Chrlstology
war p'in?;y Dix'ttit.. hi? Ch.-lst apr^are^i '..j hv man.^o
live, suffer, and di-.- to syn.r-jlize the Iizht ^u^crlnz in
this world. Thouzh Mar.i 'ise^i the term "■ Evangel"
for hif? messaze. his E vang-l wa- cl-Larly in no real s^nse
that of the Chr>va:.*. ~r> Mani r.nai'.y r^^z'^ied the
unwarj- by the us*:- c.f *uch aprarently ih.'^ls'rian terms
as Father, .tyjn. and Holy lihost tij dvsiznate Di\-ine
personalitif-s. but a zlanoe at his Ci-*sn;ozony shows
how riim-sv was the disz*;L"?*--. N*: vvrh-.lvss. Mani-
chaean? sr-oke so cautiou-ly. urzi:.z r n'.y faith in God.
His light! Hi-- power, ani Hi- wisii'-^ni In r»>a:ity "the
Father of Majesty": th^- -ur. ani rvx*n: the r.ve
blesses i afon*. his ^itn*: and the Mani-.hiean religion .
That they dt-ceiveii many.
III. HisTOP.v IX THf. E.iST. — Nov.v:-l'>tand:nz the
bitttn^s* p*jrs^'CUtio:: by thv Sa-sa:. :■:•■* in Ptrsi^* as
well as by the cmp<:n>r? a* Ron:-.-. Mani-.hitism sprtad
very rapidly. Its grt;a*es' sUv'-.-;-s wa.-? achieved :-.
countries to the pa.st r-f Per-ia. In a. r>. 1"«» the
.\rab historian A!-B*.-ru!.i wr-v: -The majority of
the Eastern Turk.-, th- irha- itar.'s ^^i China and
Tibet and a numUr in I id: a ': » l«:'r.z to 'he >Mzion of
Manh" The recent nnd- -v ManichLean literature and
painting at Turfan corroN'rate this statomont. Within
a gent^ration after Mani's li^ath his foliowtrs had sot-
tied on the Malabar Cast an.i gave the name to
Manierama . i . e . " ' st-t t lemm t of .^Ia ni " ' . T he Chi nese
inscriptions of Kara Belza-sum. once thought to refer
to the Xestorlans. doub^!!.-^- have r\i\'r»?nce to the
existence of Manfiha-ism. The zrv:i' Turkish tril^ of
the Tuzuzzuz in ^y-^O threatenk-.i r--:r:-N:iLs vn Moham-
medans? inthcl- p^wi.'r if 'ht ManijL.fa:.s i:. Samar-
MANICBLfiISM
595
MAHIOHiBISM
cand were molested by the Prince of Chorazaii, in
whose dominion they were yety numerous. Detailed
information on the extreme Eastern Manichseans is
stiU lacking. In Persia and Babybnia proper, Mani-
chseism seems never to have been the predominant
religion, but the Manichaians enjoyed tnere a large
amount of prosperity- aiid toleration under Mahoname-
dan rule. Some caliphs were actually favourable to
Manichseism, and it had a number of secret sympa-
thizers throughout Islam. Though not numerous in
the capital, Bagdad, they were scattered in the vil-
lages and hamlets of the Irak. Their prosperity and
intimacy of social intcreourse with non-Manichseans
aroused the indignation of the Puritan part)r amongst
Mani's followers, and this led to the formation of tne
heresy of Miklas, a Persian ascetic in the eighth century.
As Manichseism adopted three Christian apocrypha,
the Gospel of Thomas, the Teaching of Addas, ana the
Shepherd of Hennas, the legend was soon formed that
Tliomas, Addas, and Hermas were the first great apos-
tles of Mani's system. Addas is supposed to have
spread it in the Orient (t4 t^i dyaroXrjs), Thomas in
Syria, and Hennas in Eeypt. Manichsism was cer-
tainly known in Judea lx?fore Mani's death; it was
brought to Elcutheropolis by Akouas in 274 (Epiph.,
*'H«r.", LXVI, 1). St. Ephrem (378) complained
that no country was more infected with Manichsism
than Mesopotamia in his day, and Manicha^ism main-
tained its ground in Edessa even in a. d. 450. The fact
that it was comlmted by Eusebius of Emesus, George
and Apollinaris of Laodicea, Diodorus of Tarsus, John
(Chrysostom) of Antioch, Epiphanius of Salamis, and
Titus of Bostra, shows how early and ubiquitous was
the danger of Manichseism in Western Asia. Alx)ut
A. D. 404, Julia, a lady of Antioch, tried by her riches
and culture to pervert the city of Gaza to ^la^ichaJism,
but without success. In Jerusalem St. C3'ril had many
converted Manicha'ans amongist his catechumens and
refuted their errors at length. St. Nilus knew of
secret Manicha^ans in Sinai before a. d. 430.
In no country did Manichaeism enter more insidi-
ously into Christian life than in Egj'pt. One of the
governors of Alexandria under Constantine was a
Manichxan, who treated the Catholic bishops with
unheard-of severity. St. Athanasius says of Anthony
the Hermit (330) that he forbade all intercourse with
"Maniclucans and other heretics".
In the Eastern Roman Empire it came to the zenith
of its power about a. d. 375-400, but then rapidly
declined. But in the middle of the sixth century it
once more rose into prominence. The Emperor Justin-
ian himself dispute<i wnth them; Photinus the Mani-
chiean publicly disputed with Paul the Persian.
Manicliu^isin obtained adherents amongst the highest
classes of society. Barsymes, the Nestorian prefect of
Theodora, was an avowe<l Manichiean. But tliis re-
cnidescence of Manicha?ism was soon suppres.sed.
Soon, however, under the name either of Paulicians
or Bogomiles, it again invaded the Byzantine Empire,
after having lain hidden for a time on Mussulman
territory. The following are the imperiul edicts
launched against Manicha>ism: Diocletian (Alexan-
dria, 31 March, 296) commands the Proconsul of
.Africa to persecute them, he speaks of them as a sordid
and impure sect recently come from Persia, which he is
determined to destroy root and branch (utirpilun am-
putari). Itjs leaders and propagators must Ix? burnt,
together with their hooks; the rank and file Ix^headed,
|H»ople of note condemned to the mines, and their
goods confiscate<l. This edict remained at least nomi-
nally in force under Constantine and Constantitis.
lender Julian the .\postate Manichieism seems to have
beon tolerated. Valentinian I and (iratian, though
tolerant of other sects, made exception of the Mani-
clurans. TheiNlosius I, by an e<lict of 381, dedared
ManicliMMMs to l>e without civil rights and incapaUeof
testamentary disposition. In the following year Ik
condemned them to death under the name of Encm>
tites, Saccophores, and Hydroparastates. Valentinian
II confiscated their goods, annulled their wills, and
sent them into exile. Honorius in 405 renewed the
edicts of his predecessors, and fined all governors of
cities or provinces who were remiss in carr>'ing out his
orders; ne invalidated all their contracts, declared
them outlaws and public criminals. In 445 Valen-
tinian III renewed the edicts of his predecessors;
Anastasius condemned 'all Manicha^ans to death;
Justin and Justinian decreed the death penalty, not
only against Manicha>ans who remained obstinate in
their heresy, but even against converts from Manichse-
ism who remaine(l in touch with their former co-reli-
gionists, or who did not at once denounce them to the
magistrates. Heavy penalties were likewise decreed
against all State officials who did not denounce their
colleagues, if infected with Manichxism, and against
all those who rctaine<l Manichaian books. It was a
war of extermination and was apparently successful,
within the confines of the Byzantine Empire.
IV. History in the West. — In the West the special
home of Manichaiism was Proconsular Africa, where
it seems to have had a second apostle inferior only to
Mani, a further incarnation of the Paraclete, Adiman-
tus. Previous to 296 Julian the Proconsul had writ-
ten to the emperor that the Manichceans troubled the
peace of the populat ion and caused injury tothetowns.
After the etlict of Diocletian we hear no more of it till
the days of St. Augustine. Its most notorious cliam-
pion was Faustus of Mileve. Bom at Mileve of poor
Sirents, he had gone to Rome, and being converted to
anichieism he had begun to study rhetoric somewhat
late in life. He was not a man of profound erudition,
but he was a suave and unctuous speaker. His fame in
Manicho^an circles was very great. He was a Mani-
cha>an cpUcopus and boasted of having left his wife
and children and all he had for his religion. He ar-
rivefl at Carthage in 383, and was arrested, but the
Christians obtained the commutation of his sentence to
banishment, and even that was not carried out. .\bout
A. D. 400 he wrote a work in favour of Manichaeism, or
rather against Christianitv, in which he tried to wrest
the New Testament to the suppKDrt of Manicha'ism.
St. Augustine anstN-ercd him in thirty-three l)ooks em-
bodying verlxilly much of his teaching. On 28 and 29
August, 392,St. Augustine had refuted a certainPortu-
natus in public discussion held in the Baths of SossiuB.
Fortunatus acknowledged defeat and disappeared
from the town. On 7 Dec, 404, St. Augustine held a
dispute with Felix, a Manichsean priest. He con-
vinced him of the error of his ways and he made him
say: Anathema to Mani. St. Augustine knew how to
use severitv to extirpate the heresy. VictorinuB»« a
deacon, had become an auditor and propagandifi cf the
Manichs^ans. He was discovered, upon which he ap-
parently repented and asked for reconcilbUcn. but St,
Augustine punished him and banished him from the
town, warning all people against him. H* would not
hear of his repentance unless he tfencuneed all the
Manichseans he knew in the province. ^. Augustine
did not write against MaxuciiMsn during the last
twenty-five years of his life: hmop it i» thought that
the sect decreased in importanc* during that time.
Yet in 420 Ursus, the imfml jwrfect, aircsted some
Manichaeans in Oirtba^^ aaS n***^ \^"^ recar:*:.
When the Arian Vaadak «»?»««* -^"«* ^^ ^-^-^
chseans thou^t rf ^iaa^tbe Arian c]erg>- 1 y secrr-hr
entering their raska. hdl Huawic {4. i-4s4 K- c rf
as the hnbed «f
Rpnicd by CgtaKCT !I T^»l
The snifei oc V^-=j>^*U-.-
:.:- • >
ll'
:c - •=■
MJjnOHJEISM
596
MAKICHiBISM
It 18 well known how St. Augustine (383) found a
home at Rome in the Manichaean community, which
must have been considerable. According to the
"Liber Pontificalis" Pope Miltiades (311-314) had al-
ready discovered adherents of the sect in the city.
Valentinian's edict (372), addressed to the city prefect,
was clearly launched mainlv against Roman Mani-
chseans. The so-called "Ambrosiaster" combated
Manichffiism in a great number of his writings (370-
380). In the years 384-388 a special sect of Slani-
chseans arose in Rome called Martari or Mat-s(juatters.
who, supported by a rich man called Constantius, triea
to start a sort of monastic life for the Elect in contra-
vention of Mani's command that the Elect should
wander about the world preaching the Manichsean
Gospel. The new sect found the bitterest opposition
among their co-reli^onists. In Rome they seem to
have made extraordinary endeavours to conceal them-
selves by almost complete conformity with Christian
customs. From the middle of the sixth century on-
ward Manichaeism apparently died out in the West.
Though a number of secret societies and dualistic
sects may have existed here and there in obscurity,
there is apparently no direct and conscious connex-
ion with the Prophet of BaWlon and his doctrine.
Yet when the Paulicians and Bo^omili from Bulgaria
came in contact with the West m the eleventh cen-
tury, and Eastern missionaries driven out by the
Byzantine emperors taught duahst doctrines m the
North of Italy and the South of France they found
the leaven of Manichajism still so deeply pervading
the minds of many that they could make it ferment
and rise into the formidable Catharist heresies.
V. MANicHiEAN WRiTERs.—Manichseism, like Gnos-
ticism, was an intellectual religion, it despised the sim-
plicity of the crowd. As it professed to bring salvation
through knowledge, iterance was sin. Manichaeism
in consecjuence was literary and refined, its founder
was a fruitful writer, and so were many of his followers.
Of all this literary output only fragments are at present
extant. No Manichsean treatise has come down to us
in its entirety. Mani wrote in Persian and Babylon-
ian Aramaic, apparently using either language with
e€[ual facility. The following seven titles of works of
his have come down to us: (1) "Shapurdk&n", i. e.
" Princely '\ because it was dedicated to Peroz the
brother of oapor I (written in Syrian) . It was a kind
of Manichflean eschatology, dealing in three chapters
with the dissolution of Hearers, Elect, and Sinners. It
was written about a. d. 242. (2) "The Book of Mys-
teries", polemical and dogmatic in character. (3)
"The Book of the Giants", probably about cosmogonic
figures. (4) "The Book of Precepts for Hearers",
with appendix for the Elect. (5) "The Book of
Life-Givmg", written in Greek, probably of consider-
able size. (6) "The Book of the Pragmateia", con-
tents totally unknown. (7) "The Gospel" (written
in Persian), of which the chapters began with succes-
sive letters of the alphabet. Besides these more ex-
tensive works no less than seventy-six letters or brief
treatises are enumerated, but it is not always^ clear
which of these are by Mani himself, which by his im-
mediate successors. The " Epistola Fundamenti ", so
well known in Latin writers, is probably the "Treatise
of the Two Elements", mentioned as first of the
seventy-six numbers in Arabic sources. Small and
often unintelligible fragments in Pahlevi and in Sog-
dian (?) have recently been found in Chinese Turkestan
by T. W. K. Mueller. The " Epistola Fundamenti " is
extensively quoted in St. Augustine's refutation and
also in Theodore Bar Khoni and Titus of Bostra, and
the "Acta Archelai ". Of Manichean writers the fol-
lowing names have come down to us: A^pius (Pho-
tius, Cod. 179), of Asia Minor; Aphthonius of Egypt
(Philostorgium, "Hist. Eccl.", Ill, 15), Photinus re-
futed by Paul the Persian (Mercati, "Per la vita di
Paolo il Persian©"), Adimantus, refuted by Augustine.
VI. ANTi-MANiCHiEAN WRITERS. — St. Eplmem
(a. d. 306-373) ; his treatise against the Manidupans wa«
publish^ in poems (59 to 73) in the Roman edition
with Latin translation, and again by K. Kessler in his
" Mani ", 1, 262-302; Hegemonius is said by Heracleon
of Chaloedon to be the author of the " Acta disputa-
tionis Archelai episcopi Mesopotamise et Manetis
hseresiarchse " . This important work on Ifonidueism,
written originally in Greek or perhaps in Syriac, be*
tween a. d. 300 and 350, has come down to us only^ in a
Latin translation, though small fragments exist in
Greek. The most recent edition is that of M. Beeson
(Berlin, 1906). It contains an imaginary dispute be*
tween Archelaus. Bishop of Charcar, and Mani nimself .
The dispute is out a literary device^ but the woiIl
ranks as the first class authority on Manichseism. It
was translated into English in the Ante-Nicene library.
Alexander of Lycopolis published a short treatise
against ManichsDism, last edited by A. Brinkmann
(Leipzig, 1895). Serapion of Thmuis (c. 350) is credited
bv St. Jerome with an excellent work against the Mani-
cbpans. This work has recently beeu restored to its
original form by A. Brinkmann, "Siti. ber. der Preuss.
Acad. Beriin " (1895), 479 sqq. Titus of Bostra (374)
published four books against the ManichsDans, two con-
taining arguments from reason and two arguments
from Scripture and theology against the heresy. They
have come down to us complete only in a Syriac ver-
sion (Lagarde, " Tit. Bost. contra Manichsos Libri IV".
Berlin, 1859), but part of the original Greek ispublishea
in Pitra's "Analecta sacr. et class." (1888), I, 44-46.
St. Epiphanius of Salamis devoted his great work " Ad-
versus Hsereses " (written about 374) mainly to refuta-
tion of Manichffiism. The other heresies receive but
brief notices and even Arianism seems of less impor-
tance. Theodoret of Cyrus (45S), "Dehaereticonim
fabulis ", in four books (P. G., LXXXIII), gives an ex-
position of Manicha?ism. Didymus the Blind, president
of the catechetical school at Alexandria (345 to 395),
wrote a treatise in eighteen chapters against Mani-
chseans. St. John Damascene (c. 750) wrote a " Dia-
logue against Manichaeans "(P. G.,XCTV), and a shorter
" Discussion of John the Orthodox with a Manichsean "
(P. G., XCVT); Photius (891) wrote four books
against the Manichseans, and is a valuable witness of
the Paulician phase of Manichaiism. Paul the Persian
(c, 529), "Disputation with Photinus the Manichaean"
(P.G.,LXXXVTII, 528). Zacharias Rhetor (c. 636),
"Seven theses against Manichseans", fragments m
P. G., LXXXV, 1143—. Heraclian (c. 610), wrote
twenty books against Manichseans (Photius, Cod. 86}.
Amongst Latin wiiters St. Augustine is foremost, his
works being "De utilitate crcdendi"; "De moribus
Manichseorum " ; "De duabus animabus"; "Contra
Fortunatum"; "Contra Faustum"; "De actis cum
Felice", "De Natura Boni", "Contra Secundinum",
"Contra Adversarium Legis et Prophetarum" in
" Opera ", VIII (Paris, 183717 Some inT:nglish. " De
Genesi contra ManichsBos lib. II . " Ambrosiaster (370-
380) : for his commentaries on St. Paul's Epistles and
his "Quffistiones V. et N. Testamenti" see A. Souter,
"A Studv of Ambrosiaster" (1907); Marcus Victop-
inus (380), "Ad Justinum Manichseum".
Sources. — Theodore Bar Khoni, Kefltorian Bishop of Cas-
car (c. end sixth oentu^), wrote a book of "Scholia" or
Memoirs. Book XI of this work contains a list of "sects which
arose at different times*'; among these he sives an account of
the ManichsEtans and relates at length the Monichsan oosmog*
ony. This is especially interesting and valuable as he retains
the original Synac designations of the cosmogonic figures and
probably (rfves Mani's own account verbally from the Fondft'-
mental Epbtle; in Poonon. Tnacriptions mandaitea dea ooupe§ d*
Khouabir (Paris, 1898), French tr. (see also M. Noldbkb
Wiener, Zeitsch. Kund. Morg., XII, 355); Abu* Lfaradsb*
usually called En Nahim ("The Shining One"), an Arab hiaio-
rian who in a. d. 008 wrote his Fihrist aVulvm or Compendium
of Sciences. The chapters dealing with the Manichssans wezB
published in German tr. by FLtJosL in his Manx. Al Bnttnti,
an Arabic chronologist (a. d. 1000), in his Chronoloov ofBiUUm
Naiionej^Eng. od. Sachau, Or. tranaL Fund (London, lo79), and
Indiat Bug. ed. Sacbau, TrQbn. Or, aer. (London, 1888).
BUmnSTATIOH 597 lUHlu
Lrriii*.TnHB.— DcroDno). Eiudea lur Ira lirnta Marianim from their respective ConBtitutionB, Directories, and
mrn^io'iH' Dt wSn'iJS^T/ud tJi^'^u^' ,'S^^ Manuals all the aforesaid reguiatioaB." llie pope
taeuie. ett (tiriii, IBiOl: Cckont. Rtdierchci lar It Mam- having thuH abolished compuiaory manlfeBtatlon of
dUifnii, I; La Coimoaonit Manichrmne (Bnusela, 1908); Ip conscience, goea On to torhld superiors, either directly
d^l:°lfl^^i^^^m^^^a^^^!^•^^^^°^^S^^'La " ""li'^tly, to induce their subjects to such nianife*-
'^^mm du afonSiJurM Sum. Vempirt Ramain (Ghent, IMS); tatioa, and conunanda that auch superiors be de-
Kesblch. Mcifif, F"or«»un(fm fl6=r dii mani-cAfliKAc Rriigiim, I nounced to higher superiors jf they violate thU decree,
^%f »^jj'(y^' 'i^")" ^iJi^^' R^^ALlTr'P^t o' >n case of the superior-general to the Sacred Congre-
ThtiA a vSmJ, ManvJuXr: 'FlOqbi,, MmiiiSSit Ldtrc umJ gation of Bishopa and Regulars (now the Coniregation
._■_. =.i_-f.- ,i^^^. ,B*.^. uv>,.„„ H..j_». B.^. .■_ of the Religious Orders). The decree states, hov
that any voluntary manifestation on the part of sub-
jects, for tbe purpose of obtaining help in doubts and
„,. .„ .„., . . ,--. difficulties, and to further their spiritual progress, is
H^S!u'AfV^5!;.-Z'MJ>i3KS:,llmSL,S;,^T«l); not prohibited. Neither does this decree forbid the
Bddbbbt, Uaufit/mMme der OnoiU (Oottiimpn. 1907): SAti- Ordinary domestic Or pftt«tnal interroKation Which is
iiAH«. ManicivrvAe Studim (petenburg. 1908) ; CAfl*inTLU. part of all reiigious government, HOT the solicitude of
dSjCi?(^^vi"i897)^*N«BS5^/S7^"'Mvm"j51ufi^ * superior in mquinng into the manifest troubles or
HwMutlsaz) TiiH-UEitKKTBciuui.'oie/'auJiswjn.r (l^piig. affliction of a Hubject. The pope commanda that the
iSOSjjDaiiiKiieH.OMtAieAiedn-pnojf-inonti-A.arcimiMunicE, decree "Quemadmoduni" be translated into the ver-
ISBOi: a«*uiii, Sttttn d., MaaKhaumu, Uenj, 1B7S), nacular and inserted into the Constitutiona of those
J. r. ASENDZBN. religious institutes which it affects, and that it be read
Huiif«tttioa of OoilBcienM (Ratio Conscibn- publicly on..e a year.
Ti«), a practice in many religious orders and congre- „^""'"™™i ^' .'i^'SV"", ^H^'^- '~!^™<"' l****''
gations, by which subjects manifest the state of tKeir ^^''^''■^'"'^'"'^'^^''^,if^y^-i^VA^^n
S:„.„.-„„„/tothesuperior,inorderthattheIattermay Wiujam H. W. Jamninq.
know them intimately, and thus further their spirituid Hutllft, Akchdiocese of (de Maniia), eomprisee
progress. This practice has been employed by those the city of Manila, the provinces of Etataan, BuLacao,
devot«d to the ascetical life from the early centuries of Cavite, Mindoro, Nueva E^ija, Pampanga, Rizal, Tar-
the Church, and Cassian's "Conferences" make fre- lac, and Zambalea; and the Districts oT Infanta and
Juent mention of it aa in common uae among the Marinduquein the Province of Tayabas. The area of
atbers of the Desert. It is part of the domestic and this territory is 18,175 square miles. The population,
paternal government of reli^ous institutes and of nearly all CatboUca, is estimated at 1,642,582. By
itoelf requires no ecclesiastical jurisdiction in thesupe- the appointment (March, 1610) of the Rt, Rev. Jose
riora, and hence such a function may be annexed to Patrelu as first Bishop of Lipa, Batangas, the prov-
the office of a lay, or even female, superior. Tbe ineeflof Batangas and Laguna were aeparatcd from the
Imowledge of the state of soul acquired by manitesta- archdiocese of which they had until then been a part.
tion of conscience enables the superior to determine The archidocese includes some 270 towns, or, more
the expediency of the frequency of communion, what properly, townships or counties, since each town may
spiritual reading is to be selected, what penances to be mclude, together with the pueblo several barriot (vil-
practised, what counsel to be given concerning doubts, j^g^) witha population of two or three thousand each.
difficulties, and temptations. Primarily, the object of There are in the arehdiocese 225 secular priests, 182
this manifestation is the ^ood of the mdividual sub- priests representing nine religious orders, 252 par-
ject, though, secondarily. It also affects the good of tbe lahes (196 of which have resident priests), 70 lay
whole religious institute. The superior cannot indeed brothers, 309 members of nine religious communities
make use of this knowledge for government in auch a of women, a preparatory and a general seminaiv,
way as to inflict any loss or grievous inconvenience on one university, 52 cglleges, academies, and school,
the aubject, and thus reveal the aecret knowledge he with a total attendance of about 5000, and 9 chad-
haa obtained, but be can diapose even external mat- table institutions with approximalely 2fi00 inmates.
tera for the interior good of the subject, who is pre- I. Histobt. — Manila was formerly occupied by tbe
Bumed to tacitly consent to such arrangement. The Spaniards under Legaspi on 19 Mav, 1571. The na-
secret must, however, be kept inviolably, and hence a tivea whom the missionaries found there were idol-
aubject may object to any external use whatever of ators, aacestor-worBhippers, and worshippers of the
the re vetat ions he has made to the superior. He can, sun, moon, and stars, of animals and birds. The
likewise, if he wishes, amplify the right of the superior Mohammedana (Moroa) from Mindanao, however,
to use it. It is to he noted that this manifestation of had begun to force their creed among the natives be-
conscience differs from sacramental confession both In fore Legaspi arrived, and be waa accompanied by
end and in object, as also from judicial and paternal Augustinian Friars, who immediately he^a to es-
investigation, E^'" ^''^ doctrines of Christianity to the pa^ns.
Although, by tbe nature of things, the power of Their conversion was rapid, and in a comparatively
receiving manifestation of conscience is not incompati- abort time churehes were erected, schools opened, and
ble with the state of lay, even female, superiors, yet a printing press established. Tbeeaaetvith which the
by the decree "Quemadmodum", of 17 Dec., 1890, Spanianfi conquered these Islands was due to tbe *eal
Pope Leo XIII considerably limited the powers of the ofthemisaionaries. That the Filipinos have remained
latter. Tbe decree 8a3^; "His Holiness annuls, abro- loyal to their faith is attested by the Philippine
gates, and declares of no force whatever hereafter, all CoimniasioD (Atkinson, "Tbe Philippine Islands , p.
regulations whatsoever in the Constitutions of pioua 329).
societies and institutes of women who make either The See of Manila, with jurisdiction over all the
simple or solemn vowa, as well as in those of men of Philippine lalands and suffragan to Mexico, was
the purely lay order (even though the said conatitu- erected in 1578. The first bishop, Domingo deSalasar
lions should have received from tH.e Holy See approba- (b. 1512), arrived in Sept., 1581. One of the first acts
tion in whatsoever form, even that which is termed of the bishop was to publish (21 Dec, 1581) regula-
most special), in this one point, in which those consti- tlons for the government of the cathedral chapter,
tutiona regard the secret manifeatation of conacience He appoint«d a dean, canons, and other ecclesiastical
in whatsoever manner or under whatsoever name, officials, and in 1582 convoked a synod at Manila, in-
He therefore seriously enjoins on all superiors, male terrupting it until 1586 on account of the absence from
and female, of such institutes, congregations, and the Fnilippines of the Jesuit Father Sanchez. There
societies absolutely to cancel and expunge altogether were ninetyeccl^astic8,andsix laymen, at the counciL
AftertenyeaiBofenereetic work Salainr went to Spain
to plead toe cause of tne Filipinoe before the Kine. He
was nominated Archbishop of Maiiila, with sunragan
aeee at Cebu, Nueva Caceres, and Nueva Segovia
(Vigan). To these were added the Diocese of Jaro,
in 1S65, and four other dioceses, in 1902, Salaxar
died at Madrid, 4 Dec., 1594, before receiving the
Bulls of his appointment from the pope. The firet
archbiahop to reach Manila waa the Franciscan, Ig-
nacio de Santibai^ez. He took possession of bis see
in 1798, but died Uiree months later. F"ive years
passed before a eucceasor was appointed, in the pcrsoti
of Miguel de Benavides, a Dominican and first fliahop
ot Nueva Segovia in Northern Luzon. The new arch-
bishop had come to the Philippines in 1587. He had
laboured among the Chmese of Manila and built the
hospital of San Gabriel for them. He was the founder
ot the celebrated Univeraity of Santo Tomis at Manila,
which exists to this day. During the archiepisco-
pacy of his successor, Diego Vasquez de Mercado,
there arrived in Manila a large band of confessors
exiled from Japan.
Col m ' 8 ■ 'Labor E vaa-
gelica", pp. 434-662.
Among the other
archbisnops who
filled the See of
Manila were: Miguel
Garcia Serrano, an
Augustinian, noted
for his great sanc-
tity of life; Hernando
Guerrero, a Fran-
ciscan, who had la-
boured for more tlian
thirty years among
theTaga los an d Pam-
^ngans; Fernando
on tero de Kspi-
nosa; Miguel Pol>-
letc. who rebuilt the
cathedral and him-
self went about the
city soliciting alms
for that purpoee;
Felipe Pardo, a Domii
citybythe Audiencia,butw
delaCueBta,aHien
number of prom inen , . . _ . ,
prisoned by the tyrannical governor Bustamente, ui
Fort Santiago, whence he was afterwards taken and
forced by the populace to accept the governorship of
the i^ands ad interim, in place of Bustamente. Man-
uel Rojo, who took possession of the see 22 July,
1759, had been also appointed governor-general of the
islands. During his rule the English, under Draper,
besieged and captured Manila and then pillaged the
city so wantonly that Draper himself was obliged to
interfere. In order to raise the money demanded by
the English, the archbishop was obliged to surrender
all his chureh property, even to his own pastoral ring.
Archbishop Pedro Payo, a Dominican, built the pres-
ent cathedral at a cost of about 1500,000. Bernar-
dino Noialeda, also a Dominican, was the last areh-
bishop under the Spanish domination, resigning his sec
in I90I. The archdiocese was then admmistercd by
the Rt. Rev. Martin Garcia y Alcocer, Bishop of Cebu,
until the appointment of the first American areh-
bishop, the Most Rev. Jeremiah J. Harty. Arch-
bishop Harty was bom at St. Louis, Missouri, 1 Nov.,
1853, made his early studies under the Christian Brolh-
ersand in the Jesuit University of St. Louis, entered
the seminary at Cape Girardeau in 1873, and was or-
dained priest 28 April. 1878. He had held various
cures of souls in the Archdiocese of St. Louis, and
had founded the Parish of St. Leo in that city, when
Pius X appointed him to the See of Manila by a Brief
i tumhk
dated 8 August, 1903. He was consecrated at Rome,
15 August, of the same year, pieconiied on 9 Not.,
and took possession of the see on 16 Jan., 1004. An
Apostolic delegation to the Philippine Islands was cn-
Bugurated in 19^ with the Most Rev. John Baptist
Guidi, who died at Manila, 26 June, 1904, and wae
replaced two months lat«r by the Most Rev. Ambrose
Agius, a Benedictine. Monsignor Agius convoked the
first Provincial Council of the Philippine lalanda,
which was solemnly opened in the cathedral of Hanils
on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, 1907.
II. Reuqioub Ordebb, — Sawyer, a Protestant
writer, speaking of the relipous orders in the Philip-
pines, says: "The friars have fared badly at the hands
of several nriteis on the Philippines; but it will be
noticed that those who know tJie least about them
sp^k the worst of them" ("The Inhabitants of tl»e
Phihppines", p, 65). "The religious ordetB . . .were
hardy and adventurouspioneetsof Christianity and in
the evangelization of the Philippines, by persuasion
and teaching, they did more for Chnstianity and civili-
Kationtlian any other
missionaries of mod-
em times. Of un-
daunted courage,
they have ever b^n
to the front when
calamities threat-
ened theirflocks. . . .
plague and chtJeis
they have not been
dismayed, nor have
they ever in such
cases abandoned
their flocks. . . .
They have done
much for education,
having founded
schools for both
sexes, training eol-
leges for teachers,
the Univeraity ot St.
Thomas in Man Ha
and other institu-
tions. Hospitals and asylums attest their charity.
They were formerly, and even lately, the protectors of
the poor against the rich, and of the native against
the Spaniard. Tbey have consistently resisted the
enslavement of the natives. They restrained the ccai-
stant inclination of the natives to wander away into
the woods and return to primitive savagery by"Keei>-
ing them in the towns, or, as they said, 'under the
bells'" (ibid,, p. 75).
The firat missionaries in the Archdiocese of Manila
were Augustinians, They arrived in Cebu, with
Legaspi, in 1565, and six years later opened a house
at Manila which became the central house of their
order in the Philippines. TJiey founded the panahes
of Tondo (Manila), Tambobong. and Pasig. In the
Province of Bulacan they established the parishes ot
Dapilap, Guiguinto, Bigaa, Angat, Baliuag, Quingua,
Malolos, Paombong, Calumpit, and Hagonoy. In the
Province o! Pampanga they founded parishes at
Bacolor, Macabebe, Porac, Mexico, Arayat, and
Apalit. They had their clmrches also at Tarlac, San
Miguel de Mayumo, and Candaba. In the Province
ot Balangas they touniled the towns (now numbering
from 20,000 to 40,000 inhabitants) of Taa], Balayan,
laboured, reduced the languages to a system, and pub-
lished grammars, dictionaries, and books of devotion
for the natives. In all their parishes (and this may be
said equally ot the other religious ordera^ they erected
magnificent stone churches which remain to this day
as a lasting memorial to their leal. Their monastery
Lg of members of their order at San Pedro
3ar Manila. The solid stone church Btill
I, but to-day only massive ruins remain of the
seventeenth-century novitiate. The Jesuits also pos-
sessed a college at Cavite. They built the famous
sanctuary of Antipolo, at present the most frequented
place of pilgrimage in the islands. They established
the Parishes of Santa Cruz and of San Miguel, Mamta,
They published numerous works in the Tagalog dia-
and church at Guadalupe (near Manila) and their the tt
church at Malolos, one of the largest in the islands, Hacati,
were destroyed during the Filipino insurrection; but
even the rums bear splendid testimony to the Apos-
tolic leal of these fervent miBsionaries,
The Franciscans arriv'ed at Manila 24 June, 1577.
They were the first missionaries in the districts of
Sampaloc and Santa Ana, Uanila, and in the towns
of Meycauayan, Bocaue, Moroug, Baraa, Pagsanjan, They published numerous works in the Tagalog
Santa Cnu de la Laguna. and Mainit. They also e»- lect, and some of their great folio dictionaries ot that
tablished numerous parishes in the Provinces of Ta- tongue exist to-day. Expelled from the Philippines in
yabas and Camarines. A lay brother, porter in the 1768^ it wasnot until ISd^thatthcytrcrepermittedto
Convent of San Francisco, Manila, was tne founder of contmue the work they had begun 278 years before.
the San Lazaro hospital for lepers in 159S. Five years They opened the college of the Ateneo, which, from
later the hospital was removed outside the city; since humble beginnings became a school of secondary in-
the American occupation it has been in the possession struction in 1865, and now numbers about 1500
of the American Government, though the archiepis- students, and they established a normal school which,
copal cross still remains over the entrance. The since the American occupation, has become a con^
Emperor of Japan was responsible in a great meaaura bined preparatory seminary and college under the title
for the increase of leprosy in the Islands, as he sent a of San Xavier. (See also Mani" '^ '
sbipdoad of the unfortunates to Manila with the double The first band of Dominican
purpose of ridding
bis country of them
and of manifesting
his displeasure at the
spread of Christian-
ity inhiscmpire. He
is reported to have
sent a message with
the convoy to the
effect that, as the
Spaniards were so
fond ot caring for the
sick, he desired to
gratify their Wishes
by pi«seDt!ng them
with the lepers. To
the Franciscans is
probably due, in
great measure, the ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^_^^^^_^__;j^ ^^^^^^— ™—
striking devotion to ^^^^^^^^^^^SSJ^B^^^^^Ljii^^—^^KUP to establish a chaTr
the Passion of Our \^0gf/^i^BSSBS^^^^^^^^^SSSff^^^^S^Kt '^^ Spanish and Insu-
Lord which exists „ — r „ " " ' lar Law. The peti-
Fiupmo people. i .^ ». ^^ ^j^^ j^^ depart-
The first Jeauits to arrive in the islands came with ment of the university was begun. In 1871 dcpart-
BishopSalaiarin 1581. One of them. Father Sedeno, meats of medicine and pharmacy were opened. As
had been a missionary in Florida. He opened the first these di«w revenue from the estate of the old San Jaa6
school in the Philippines and founded colleges at College, they are now known as the San Job6 Collese.
Manila and Cebu. He taught the Filipinos to cut The Cmlege of San Juan de Letrin was begun by the
stone, to make mortar, to weave, and to sew. He Dominican Fathers in 1840; it was elevated to the
brought artists from China to teach them to draw and rsnkofaschool of secondary instruction in 1807. The
paint, and erected the first stone building in the Phil- students, who number about 1000, follow the usual
Sipines, the cathedral, dedicated to the Immaculate college course leading to the degree of Bachelor d
□nception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the patroness Arts. Of the professors of Santo Tomis about thirty
of the whole group of islands. His companion, Father have been raised to the episcopal dignity, and one
Sanchei, was one of the most remarkable men of the student, a native Chinese namea Gregorio Lopei, was
society in his day, and by a unanimous vote of all the Bishop of Nanking, where he died in 1670. What is
Spaniards of the colony, was sent to Eunwe to treat now tne University Press was established at the end
with Philip II and with the pope on the affairs of the of the sixteenth century, before the foundation of the
colony. He was accompamed by a Filipino boy, a miivereity itself. It was fii^ established in the Hos-
Pampangan youth named Martin, who later returned pital of San Gabriel, later transferred to Bataan_, and
to his native land as the first Filipino Jesuit. The col- m 1623 it was removed to the university, where it has
lege and seminary of San Jos£ was established by the continued until the present day. During its long
Jesuits of Manila in 1595. Though no longer under career the University Press has issued countless works
the control of the Jesuits, it still exists, and is therefore of a religious and educational character, not only in
the oldest of the colleges of the archipelago. By royal the modem and classical languages, but in various
decree ot 12 March. 1653, it took pre(Xdence of all cen- native dialects of the Islands. Greek, Hebrew, and
tresof leamingintheislands. During the first hundred Sanskrit are included in its rich assortment of type.
B»rs of its existence it counted among its alumni 8 The Church of San Domingo at Manila, which was
shops. 39 Jesuits (4 of whom became provincials), II rebuilt for the fifth time in 1868, contains the famous
Augusttnians, 18 Franciscans of various bmnchea of statue of Our Lady of the Rosary which is carried in
the order, 3 Dominicans, and 39 secular clere^. The solemn procession every year through the streeta of
Jesuit University of St. Ignatius, which opened its first Manila attended b^ a vast multitude of people from
classes in 1687, wasconfkrmedasapontifical university every part of the islands. That the devotion to the
in 1621, and asa royal university in 1B63. Besidestheir Holv Rosary is so deeply implanted in the hearts d
college and university, the Jesuits had a novitiate for the Filipino people, is due mainly to the leal of the
Obbbrvatort.)
islands arrived
in Manila in 15S7. A
full account of the
immense good ac-
complished by these
fathers will be found
in Fonseca's " Hia-
toria de la Provinda
del Santisimo Ro-
sario". In 1611 they
founded the Univer-
sity of Santo Tomds
wmch was confirmed
as a pontifical uni-
versity in 1645 and
as a royal university
in 1680. In 1836 the
university petitioned
Spain for authority
HAMILi.
Dominican Fathers. Like their eompaoiona in mis-
gionary laboura, the Dominicana extended their eeal-
oua work in numcroua provinces of the islands,
founding towns, establishing parishes, buildine mag-
nificent churches, opening schools, and publishing
books in the native dialects.
The Recollect Fathers were first established in the
archdiocese in 1600. Besides their work in Manila,
where they have two large churches, the RecoUeets
have converted the tribes in Mariveles and Zambalea.
Their apostolic laboiiis have been extended to the
islands of MIndoro, Tablas, Masbate, Burias, Ticao,
ParagUB, the Calamianes, Ff^ros, and Hindonao.
lie Lazarist fathers came t« Manila in 1862tocar«for
the diocesan seminaries in the Philippines. Since the
American occupation the seminaries of the archdio-
cese have been under the di-
rection of the Jesuit fathers.
but the Lazarists continue in
charge of the diocesan semi-
naries of Cebu, Jaro (Iloilo),
and Nueva Caceres. The
Capuchin fathers arc in charge
of two churches at Manila.
They came to the Philippines
in 1886 to assume charge of
the missions in the Caroline
and Palaos Islands. The fa-
thers of the Order of St. Bene-
dict were first established in
ManiU in !895. In 1901 they
founded the college of San
Beda, which has an attendance
of about 400 students.
A community of cloistered
Franciscan nuns waH estab-
liahed at Manila in 1621. The
tisters, Spaniards, mesticas,
and natives, occupy the con-
vent of Santa Clara, Manila.
In 1694 Ignacia del Espiritu
Santo founded the ConBrega-
tion of the Sisters of the
Blessed Virgin. The members
are all natives. They conduct
a school, to which is attached a
home forced women. A large
number of them are engaged
in teaching in various mission
Btfttions of Mindanao. The
sisters of St. Dominic opened
their con vent at ManilainiegS.
They conduct the College of
Santa Catalina. The Sisters of Santa Rita date their
origin from 1730, They have chaise of the Santa Rita
Academy. The Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de
Paul are in charge of the Colleges of Santa Isabel, of
Concordia, and of Santa Rosa; of the Hospicio de Han
Jos^, of the Hospital of San Juan de Dios, of the
School and Orphan Asylum of St. Vincent de Paul
(Looban), all at Manila. They entered the archdio-
cese in 1862. The establishment of the Sisters of the
Assumption at Manila was made in 1892. The sisterB
are in charge of a collego for young ladies and a free
school for the poor. The Augustinian Sistera are
native nuns who conduct the Academy of Our Lady
of Consolation. The Sisters of St. Paul de Chartres
were established at Manila in 1904. Besides their
hospital work and a large school of native nurses in
the city, they have charge of several academies in the
provinces. The Benedictine Sisters came to the isl-
ands from Germany In 1906. They established the
college of St. Scholastica, and have organized in their
chapel the devotion of the Perpetual Adoration.
Charitable iNSTiTnnoNB. — The Hospital of San
Juan de Dios, situated in the Walled City of Manila,
was Ibunded in 1596 by the Confrat«niity of Santa
LBOABFI-UnDANBT.
the miBBioaary w
Misericordia. In 1666 it passed into the hands of thb
OrderofSt. JohnofGod, andin 1886 it was put under
the care of the Sisters of Charity, who still conduct the
institution. The hospital was twice destroyed by
earthquake, and was severely damaged by the storm
of 1S32. The generosity of the pious people, espe-
cially of the governor-general and of the arcnbishops,
restored it; tne building waa enlarged and now occu-
pies a large city square. The patients, the majority
of whom are Filipinos, number netween four hundred
and five hundred, a fourth of whom are charitypa-
tients, supported by the hospital, St. Paul's Hos-
pital, at present the best equipped hospital in the
Far East, was founded by Archbishop Harty in 1905.
It is under the care of the Sisters of St. Paul de Char-
tres. There are about 200 patients. The Hoepido
de San Joef is situated on an
island in the Pasig River, ad-
Scent to the Ayala Bridge,
anila. It was founded in
1806, and is under the care of
the Sisters of Charity. It con-
tains an orphan asylum for
boys and girls, a home for the
aged, a foundling asylum, an
insane asylum tor men and
women, a reform school for
youthful prisoners sentenced
by the courts, and a depart-
ment for female prisoners with
children under two years of
age. There are about 600
inmates in this institution,
which is supported by gov-
ernment appropriation and by
donations ot the charitable. A
native woman who became a
L ^ Sister of Charity, gave her
' home and property for the
founding of the Asylum of St.
Vincent de Paul, which is con-
ducted by that congr^ation.
It contains an orph^ asylum
for girls and an academy for
extern students. The asylum
is supported by charitable
donations and by the sale of
embroidery made by the in-
mates. The College of Santa
Isabel was founded in 1632 for
the education of Spanish or-
phan girls. It was supported
until 1640 by the Confrater-
nity of Mercy. In 1861 the College of Santa Poten-
ciana was combined with that of Santa Isabel. At
present the institution, besides providing for or-
phans, conducts a boarding- and day-school, llie
Monte de Piedad is a charitable pawnbroking eetab-
Money is loaned
annum. (The
ly 5 per cent
is allowed on all de-
lishment which was opened ii
to the poor at the rate of 6 p>er c<
rate in Manila for small loans is
Kr month, and a much highern
terest at 4 per cent per annui
posits. The Archbishop of Manila is the President of
the Board of Directors of the Monte de Piedad.
There are about 2000 students in Manila who have
come from the provinces to attend the advanced
classes of the government schools. To protect these
taiy influence of home, to provide them, also, with the
religious instruction of which they are deprived in the
government schools, Archbishop Harty established in
1906 a dormitory for boys, and in 1909 one tor girla.
Board and lodgmg are furnished in theee eetaQiah-
ments at from S7.50 to S9.00 a month.
U. 8. Bubbau or InnTLAR AiTAiitB. Official nanibaak: Dt-
iiAinii4
601
2AAMIPLE
tcription of th4 PhiUppinM, part I (Manila, 1903) ; RepoH of the
PhtUppine CommUaum to the President, 1900 (Washington,
1901): CouTV, StaU of the PhUippinee (Madrid, 1820), tr.
Walton (London, 1821); Atkinson, The Philippine Jatanda
(Boston, 1905) ; Sawtkr, The JnhabitanU of the PhUippinee
(New York. 1900); Oeneral Bulletin of the Manila Univernty of
Santo Tomde^ 1908-1909 (Manila, 1909); Baranbra, Compen-
diode la Hidoria de Filimnae (Manila, 1884); Arenas, MemO'
ria§ Hittdrieaa y Eatadleticaa de Filipinae (Manila, 1850);
Dbloado, Hielona Oeneral de Uu Idas Ftlipinaa (Manila, 1894) ;
Moreno, Hidoria de la Santa Igleeia Metropolitana de FVipinae
(Manila, 1^77): Ck>LiN, Labor Evangilica, vols. I. II, HI (Barce-
lona, 1902); Alcasar. Hietoria de loa daminioa JEaiMflolee en
Oceania: Fuipinae (Manila, 1895); Murillo, Hidoria de Filir
pinae (Manila, 1747).
Philip M. Fineoan.
Manila Observatory, founded by Father Frederic
Faura, 8. J., in 1865; constituted officially "The Philip-
pine Weather Bureau" by decree of the American
governor, May, 1901.
The typhoon, known in the Philippines as a baauio,
is one of the worst enemies with which the islands have
to contend. Father Faura, a Jesuit professor at the
Ateneo College, spent many years in the study of
these dreaded storms, in the hope of one day being able
to foretell their coming and thereby avert much of the
damage which they would otherwise cause. On 7
July, 1879, he predicted that a baguio would pass over
Northern Luzon; the event justified his warning. It
was the first time that the existence, duration, and
course of a typhoon had been predicted in the Far
East. On 18 November of the same vear. Father
Faura predicted a second typhoon, which he said
would pass through Manila. The announcement
caused great consternation in the city. Proper pre-
cautions were taken, and the captain of the port for-
bade vessels to leave the harbour. Thanks to the
warning of Father Faura, comparatively little damage
was done in Manila when, two days later, the storm
broke in all its fury on the city. At other ports, to
which notice of the approaching storm could not be
sent for lack of telegraphic communication, the de-
struction was enormous. Forty-two vessels were
wrecked in Southern Luzon alone, and many lives
were lost.
These successful predictions aroused the interest of
a number of merchants of the city, who subscribed
money to enable him to continue nis valuable work
on a larger scale. In 1880, when cable connexions
between Hong-Kong and Manila were established, the
merchants of the former colonv requested that Father
Faura's predictions be sent tnem, and their request
was cheerfully granted. For some time the Jesuit
meteorologist had been working on a barometer of his
own invention, specially designed to foretell the ap-
proach of baguios. In 1886 the "Faura barometer"
was offered to the public, and it passed immediately
into general use among the navij^tors of the Philip-
pine waters and the China Sea. In 1884 the Govern-
ment at Madrid declared Father Fauia's weather
bureau an official institution, to be known as the
Manila Observatory. It was then removed from the
Ateneo to its present location in the District of Ei^
mita, Manila. Fourteen sub-stations, each equipped
with suitable meteorological instruments, were now
opened in Luzon, and their daily observations were
published in a monthly bulletin. In 1890, at the
request of the Japanese Government, observations
began to be exchanged with that country. In 1895
the Manila Observatory was invited to be one oi six-
teen observatories of the world to co-operate in the
work of cloud-measurement, and it succeeded in mak-
ing the highest of these measurements. The photo-
graphic observations were carried on by the Rev. Jos6
Algu^, S.J., who is now director of the Plulippine
Weather Bureau. Father Algu^ published a valuable
work, "The Clouds in the Philippme Archipelago", as
the result of his observations. His "Philippine Cy-
clones", a volume much prized by navigators, and
which has been translated mto several languages, was
published in 1897. In the same year he gave the
public his "barocyclonometer", an improvement on
Father Faura's invention, by which storms may be
foretold, not only in the Philippines, but throughout
the entire Orient.
The meteorological service of the Philippines was
reor^nized by Father Algu^. The observatory at
Mamla receives observations by telegraph three times
a day from eight first-class and nine second-class sta-
tions throughout the islands. Eighteen stations of the
third class telegraph their observations twice a day.
while ten fourth-class stations record observations ana
telegraph on request. The observatory has a branch
atMt.Mirador, about 5000 feet above sea level, which
telegraphs its observations three times a day. Re-
ports are also received twice each day by cable, from
ten stations in Japan, from six in Formosa, from four
on the Chinese coastj and from three in Indo-China.
Whenever there are mdications of a typhoon, cable-
grams are exchanged with the stations m Guam and
Yap, and on such occasions aS many as half a dozen
or more messages may be cabled on a single day to all
the foreign stations. The observatory, besides a rich
equipment of the latest meteorological instruments
and seismographs, possesses a 19-inch refracting tele-
scope, by far tne largest in the Orient. It has also its
own private telegraph and cable office. The staff of
the oDservatory at Manila includes five Jesuit fathers
and twenty-five well-trained native assistants.
^iLiP M. Fineoan.
Maniple. — Fornix Material^ and Use, — ^The maniple
is an ornamental vestment in the form of a band, a
little over a yard long and from somewhat over two to
almost four inches wide, which is placed on the left
arm in such manner that it falls in equal length on
both sides of the arm. It is worn only during Mass,
not at the administration of the sacraments, during
processions, nor at Benediction, etc. In order to
fasten the maniple on the arm either two strings are
placed on the inner side near the middle, or else an
elastic band is used, or a loop is formed in the maniple
itself by sewing together the two halves which have
been laid over each other, at a distance of about six
inches from the middle. Another device for securing
the maniple is to set a small band a little to one side
of the middle and to secure this band with a pin to the
alt). The maniple is made of silk or half-silk material.
The colour is in accordance with the Uturgical rules.
The ends of the maniple are often broader than the
upper part, but too great a breadth at the ends, as in
the so-called pocket or spade-shaped maniple, is ugly.
In the middle and at each end the maniple is orna-
mented with a small cross; of these crosses that in the
middle is always necessary as it is prescribed by the
rubrics of the Missal. The maniple is worn by the sub-
deacon, deacon, priest, and bishop, but not by those
who have only received minor oraers. For the sub-
deacon the maniple is the liturgical sign of his rank,
and at ordination is placed on his left arm by the
bishop himself. A bishop puts on the maniple at the
altar after the Confiteor, other ecclesiastics put it on
in the sacristy before the service.
Name and Origin. — In earlier ages the maniple was
called by various names: mappuUif sudariunij mantilef
fanOf mantude, sestace^ and manipvlus, appellations
which indicate to some extent its original purpose.
Originally it was a cloth of fine Quality to wipe away
perspiration, or an ornamental nandkcrchiet, which
was seldom put into actual use, but was generally car-
ried in the hand as an ornament. Ornamental hand-
kerchiefs or cloths of this kind were carried by people
of rank in ordinary life. Ancient remains show many
proofs of this: for instance, the mappa with which tfaie
consul or praetor gave the signal for the commence-
ment of the games was a similar cloth. The name
manipuiu9 was given because it wa/i <Qld»d.\f^^^s^«&!^
ICANITOBA
602
MANITOBA
and carried in the left hand like a small bundle (tfio-
nipidus).
Antiquity. — ^Without doubt the nianiple was first
used at Rome. At least it was worn at Rome early
in the sixth century, even though not by ail those
ecclesiastics who later used it. The paUialinostima
spoken of in the lives of Popes Sylvester and Zosimus,
which appeared at this date in the "Liber Pontifi-
calis'', can be explained with most probabilitv as
references to the ornamental vestment called later
mapptda and manipidits. About the close of the sixth
century under the name of mapjnda it was also worn
by the priests and deacons of Kavenna (cf . the letters
which passed- between Gregory the Great and Arch-
bishop John of Ravenna). By the beginning of the
ninth century the use of the maniple was almost uni-
versal in Western Europe, being customar^r even at
Milan which had otherwise its own peculiar rite. This
is shown by the relief work on the celebrated paUioto
(antependmm) in the Basilica of St. Ambrose at Milan,
a fine piece of goldsmith's work of the niiddle of the
ninth century. The use of the maniple in Gaul and
Germany is proved by the statements of Amalar of
Metz, Rabanus Maurus, Walafried Strabo, by the
" Admonitio synodalis'* and bjr other writing, as well
as by various miniature paintings. That it was also
worn in England is evident from the elaborately
worked maniple now in the Museum of Diu-ham cathe-
dral which, according to the inscription embroidered
on it, was made by order of Queen iEthelflaed (d. be-
fore 916), wife of Edward the Elder, for Bishop
Frithestan of Winchester. At Rome in the ninth
century even the acolytes wore the maniple. In the
eleventh and twelfth centuries the singular custom
prevailed at Cluny and other monasteries that on the
chief feast days all, even the lay brothers, appeared
at Mass in alb and maniple; this practice, however,
was forbidden in 11 00 by the Synod of Poitiers. When
in the eleventh and twelfth centuries the subdiaconate
developed into a higher order, the maniple became its
distinctive vestment.
Nature and Mode of Wearing. — ^The maniple was
originally a folded piece of cloth. It cannot be posi-
tively decided when it became a plain band. Proba-
bly the change did not occur everywhere at the same
time. Maniples made of a fold of material existed at
least as early as the beginning of the tenth century;
this is proved by the maniple at Durham made for
Bishop Frithestan. About the end of the first mille-
niiun it was hardlj^ more than an ornamental band. In
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries these bands were,
as a rule, very long and narrow and had laid on at the
ends for ornament squares or rectangular pieces of
material ; after a while, however, this form of maniple
went out of use. In the sixteenth century it began to
be customary to broaden the ends, giving them some-
thing of the form of a spade, until in the eighteenth
century the shape of the ends became completely that
of a spade or pocket. For the period up to the twelfth
century almost nothing is known as to the material of
which the maniple was made. In the later Middle
Ages it was generally of silk. As early as the tenth
century much importance was attached to its orna-
mentation. The inventories of this time repeatedly
mention costly maniples adorned with gold or silver.
In the succeeding centuries even more importance was
attached to the rich ornamentation of the maniple.
It was enriched, so the inventories inform us, with
embroidery, small ornaments of precious metals, pre-
cious stones, and pearls. Maniples of this period with
costly embroidery are to be found in the cathedral of
Sens, in the convent of the Sisters of Notre-Dame at
Namur, at Pontigny, in the cathedral of Bayeux, in
the Museum of Industrial Art at Berlin^ etc. A favour-
ite way to finish the ends was with fnnge, tassels, or
little bells. The maniple had generally no crosses at
(Ae ends or in the midfUe, Originally it was held in the
left hand; from the eleventh century, however, it be-
came customary to carrv it on the lower part of the
left arm and the usage has remained the same up to
the present day. Even in medieval times it was sel-
dom worn except at Mass. The ceremony of giving
the maniple to the subdeacon at ordination developed
in the tenth to the eleventh century, but it was not
until the thirteenth century that the custom became
universal.
Symbolism, — In the Middle Ages the maniple re-
ceived various S3m:ibolical interpretations. At a later
period it was conunon to connect this vestment with
the bonds which held the hands of the Saviour. In
the prayer offered by the priest when putting on the
maniple are s>inbolized the cares and sorrows of ihia
earthly life which should be borne with patience in
view of the heavenly reward.
Epigonation. — In the Greek Rite the vestment
that corresponds to the maniple is the epigonation.
It is a square piece of material often embroidered with
a sword and intended as an ornament; it is himg at the
right side on the cincture and falls to the knee. The
epigonation does not belong to all the clergy but onlv
to tne bishop. Originally also an ornamental hand-
kerchief and called at that date encheirion (iyxt^iop)
it received its present form in the twelfth century.
SuBciNCTORiUM. — Very similar to the maniple in
form and nature is the subcinctorium, an ornamental
vestment reserved to the pope. It is worn on the
cincture; on one end is embroidered a small Agnus
Dei and on the other a cross. The pope wears it only
at a solemn pontifical Mass. The subcinctorium is
mentioned under the name of balteus as early as the
end of the tenth centurv in a " Sacramentarium " of
this date preserved in the BibIioth6que Nationale at
Paris (f. lat. 12052). It is mentioned imder the name
mcecinclorium about 1030 in what is known as the
"Missa Illyrica". Later it was generally called sub-
cinctorium. In the Middle Ages it was worn not only
by the pope but also by bishops, and even in a few
places by priests. However, it gradually ceased to be
a customary vestment of bishops and priests, and in
the sixteenth century only the popes ana the bishops of
the ecclesiastical province of Milan wore it. The orig-
inal object of the subcinctorium was, as St. Thomas
explicitly says, to secure the stole to the cincture. But
as early as about the close of the thirteenth century, it
was merely an ornamental vestment. According to
the inventories, even in the eleventh century much
thought was given to its ornamentation. Most prob-
ably the subcinctorium was first used in France,
whence the custom may possibly have spread to Italy
about the close of the first millennium.
Bock, Oeachichte der liturgitchen Gew&nder, II (Bonn, 1866);
Duchesne, Originea du cuUe chrHxen (Paris, 1903); Rohaui/t
DB Fleury, La mesae, yil (Paris, 18i88): Wilpert, Die Oe-
wandtmg der ChriMen in den erslen Jahr. (Cologne, 1808);
Thurston, The VeMmerUs of Low Mass in The Month (Sept.,
Oct., Nov^ Dec., 1898) ; Kleinschmidt, Die prienterl. GewUnder
in Limer Quartalachrift, LII (Linz. 1899); Braun, Die prietUT'
lichen GetoAnder dee Abendlandee (Freibui^g, 1897): Idem, Di€
liturgiache Gewandung im Occident und Orient (Freibuig, 1907).
Joseph Braun.
Manitoba, one of the smallest, but economically
and historically one of the most important, of the
Canadian provinces. Its name is derived from two
Sauteux words meaning "Manitou Narrows", firet
applied to the lake of the same name which lies within
the present boundaries of that commonwealth. These
are: 52° 50" N. lat ; 95° W. long. ; 101° 20' W. long, and
in the south, the American Stat^ of North Dakota and
Minnesota. From its square and relatively small area,
it is sometimes jocularly called the postage-stamp
province; yet it is not less than 74,(X)0 square znilw
m extent, or only 8782 less than England and Scot-
land combined. Physically it is remarkable for its
level plains and the fine, shallow sheets of water it
contains: Lake Winnipeg, 270 miles long, wiU) ao
MANIZALI8
603
MAHV
average width of 30; Lake WinnipegosiSi 150 miles by
18; and Lake Manitoba, 130 miles by about 10. The
first named is the only lake entirely within the present
limits of the province. These and other more or less
considerable sheets of water, by the immense shoals of
white fish they contain, give rise to a remunerative
industry. The only rivers worth mentioning are the
Red, the Assiniboine, and the Winnipeg. But the
principal weEtlth of the country consists m its fertile
plains, which are yearly covered with endless fields of
the famous hard Canadian wheat and other cereals.
The area under crop in 1909 was somewhat smaller
than in preceding years. We give it here, together
with the yields of the various grains and roots :
Crop
Area Tilled
in Acres
Average Yield
in Bushels
Total Yield
in Bushels
Wheat
2.642,111
1,373,683
601.008
25.096
28,265
9.876
1733
311
27-31
15-
192-8
2693
45.774.707
Oatfl
50.983.005
Barley.
16.416.634
Flax, Rye, and Peas
Potatoes
330,056
5,450.200
Roots
2,059.928
The climate of Manitoba is bracing and healthy. Its
winters are somewhat long and severe; but the con-
stant dryness of the atmosphere makes them bearable.
The total ^population of the province in Feb., 1910,
was computed at 466,368 inhabitants, of whom 8327
were Indians. Among the whites there were in May,
1909, 51,794 Catholics, with, officially, 1734 Indians.
Some 25,000 of the Catholics follow the Grseco-Ru-
thenian rite. The capital, Winnioeg, contains an
estimated population of 142.000. Its chief cities are
Brandon, pop. 14,000 inhabitants; St. Boniface (the
cathedral town), pop. 6700, and Portage la Prairie,
pop. 6500. The region which has become the prov-
ince of Manitoba was discovered and settled in a
way by the Sieur de Lav^rendrye, between 1732 and
1739. Shortly prior to the cession of Canada to Great
Britain, the trading posts he had established were
abandoned, and Engush-speakins adventurers from
the East for the first time tried their fortunes on the
Western plains. These, with their purveyors in Mon-
treal, founded the famous North-west Company, which
soon became a formidable rival to the long estab-
lished Hudson Bay Company^ the representative of
the English interests. Then Lord Seltcirk, a Scottish
nobleman, and an important shareholder in the latter
corporation, who haa secured a vast tract of land at
the confluence of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers,
planted there (1812) a colony of Scotch and Irish
settlers, whose presence excited the hostility of the
North-west Company and the numerous French Cana-
dians and half-breeds in its employ. This culminated
(19 June, 1816) in the Battle of Seven Oaks, wherein
Robert Semple, governor for the Hudson Bay Com-
pany and twenty of his men fell. The immediate
result was the disbanding of the colonists, who, how-
ever, were soon after recalled by Lord Selkirk at the
head of a strong force of hired soldiers (1817). The
following year (16 June, 1818) there arrived in the
colony the first two resident Catholic priests (see Pro-
vencher), and in the fall of 1820 the first Protestant
minister. Rev. John West, similarly reached the Red
River Settlement, as the country was long called.
In March, 1821, the two contending companies were
united under the name already borne bv the English
body. Twelve years later, the increase m the popula-
tion led to the formation of a sort of home govern-
ment, with a deliberative assembly termed the Council
of Assiniboia, the name then assumed by the settle-
ment. Meantime the country was seriously dissatis-
fied at the severity with which the Hudson Bay
Company — still practically the governing body — ^was
asserting its monopoly in the fur trade. In the spring
of 1849 the Frencn bialf-breeds, or Metis, took advan-
tage of the arr€«t of a few of their o\imber,»acQU»9cl of
having infringed on said vested rights, to rise for the
Purpose of forcibly establishing freedom of commerce,
en years later whites from Ontario began to arrive in
the settlement, established a newspaper, and waged
war on the Hudson Bay Company. Immediately on
the formation (1867) of the Dominion of Ccuiada steps
were taken to acquire the colony and the entire coun-
try tributary to Hudson Bay. Without consulting
the inhabitants, now numbering 12,000, those im-
mense regions were sold to Canada for the sum of
£300,000, and, even before their transfer to the new
confederation, surveyors and prospective settlers were
dispatched who, by their arrogance, greed, and lack of
respect for acquired jights, ^ve rise to the Red River
Insurrection under Louis Riel. The outcome of this
was a list of demands from the federal authorities, prac-
tically all of which were granted, the concessions being
embodied in the Manitoba Act. This Act created a
province with, at first (1870), an area of only 14,340
square miles. In 1881 its limits were enlaiged.
When, however, settlers from Ontario and Ens-
hsh-speaking provinces had outnumbered the Cath-
olics, who were chiefly of the French race, both rights
were ignored by the Provincial Legislature in the spring
of 1890, despite the unequivocal declarations (k the
Constitution. The Catholics inmiediately protested,
especially on behalf of their schools, and had recourse
to various tribunals in the dominion and even to the
Crown. In 1895 the Privy Council admitted that they
had a real grievance and that they were entitled to re-
dress at the hands of the Federal Parliament. A sort
of compromise was effected which fell short of Cath-
olic aspirations, and at present, as a result of a kindly
interpretation of the law by the Conservative Gov-
ernment of Manitoba, and thanks to a tacit under-
standing, which is liable to be ignored by a Liberal
administration of the province, the schools in the
town of St. Boniface and in the French coimtry dis-
tricts enjoy some measure of religious autonomy, due
chiefly to the fact that the teachers are mostly
French Canadians who are allowed to teach partly in
French and who are Catholics. These schoob receive
a government grant. But in cities, such as Winni-
peg, Brandon, and Portage la Prairie, those Catholics
who have made the greatest pecuniary sacrifices for
the education of their children have received abso-
lutely no redress from the unjust burden of taxation
for non-Catholic schools and from the refusal of gov-
ernment or municipal grants for the schools which
they maintain at great expense.
Ross, The Red River Settlement (London. 1856); Haroravx,
Red River (Montreal, 1871): Hamilton, The Prairie Province
(Toronto, 1876); Gunn. Htetory of Manitoba (Ottawa, 1880);
Brtcs, Manitoba; ite infanei/t growth and preaent condition
(London, 1882) ; The Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk' a Col-
onitUa (Toronto, 1909); Hill. Manitoba (Toronto, 1890); Begg,
Hiatory of the North-Weti (Toronto, 1894); Dugas, I/Oueat
Canadten (Montreal, 1896); Moricb, Aux Sourcea de VHiatoira
Manitobaine (Quebec. 1907) ; DictionrMire hiatorique dea Cana^
diena etdea MHia Fran^aia de VOueat (Quebec, 1908); Hiatory
of the Catholic Church in Weatem Canada (Toronto. 1910);
Anglin. Catholic EduccUion in Canada in iia Relation to the
Civil Authority in The Catholic Educational Aaaociation Bui"
letin (Oolumbus. Ohio. August, 1910).
A. G* MORICE.
Manisales, Diocese of. See Medellin, Archdio-
cese OF.
Mann, Theodore Augustine, English naturalist
and historian y b. in Yorkshire, 22 Jmie, 1735; d. at
Pra^e in Bohemia, 23 Feb., 1800. Little is known
of his education except that he seems to have imbibed
deistic ideas in his youth. He left England about
1754 and went to Paris. Here the study of Bos-
suet's "Discours sur Thistoire universelle'' exerted a
profound influence upon him, and in 1756 he was re-
ceived into the Catholic Church by the Archbishop
of Paris. Upon the outbreak of the war between
France and England in the same year, he went to
Spain, where he enlisted in a teiqg:c&»sQ^ ^ ^sw^y^sos^
icAnu
604
and afterwards became a student at the military
academy of Barcelona. He soon abandoned, how-
ever, the idea of a military career, and went to Bel-
ffium, where he entered the Chartreuse monastery at
Nieuport, the sole English house of the order. After
his profession his leisure was devoted to scientific
study, and his memoir "Thdorie des causes physiques
des mouvements des corps celestes d'apr^ les prin-
cipes de Newton'', won for him membership in the
Imperial Academy of Brussels. He became prior of
his monastery in 1764, but left the order thirteen years
later, after having obtained a Bull of secularization
and also the privilege of possessing a benefice. He
took up his residence at Brussels, and received a pre-
bend in the Chapter of Notre-Dame de Courtrai. In
1787 he was chosen perpetual secretary of the Brussels
Academy, and carriea on numerous meteorological
observations under its auspices. The invasion of the
French in 1794 forced him to leave Belgium, and,
after travelling in Germany and England, he finally
settled at Pra^e, where ne continued his literary
labours imtil his death. Mann was a laborious stu-
dent and a versatile writer. He is said to have re-
fused the Bishopric of Antwerp, oflFered him by Em-
peror Joseph II, rather than abandon his favourite
studies.
His principal literary works, conspicuous for their
erudition, were: "M^oire et lettres sur T^tude de la
langue grecque" (Brussels, 1781); "M^moire sur la
conservation et le commerce des grains'' (Mechlin,
1764); "Abr^6 de I'histoire ecci^siastique, civile, et
naturelle de la ville de Bruxelles et de ses environs"
(Brussels, 1785), in collaboration with Foppens; **His-
toire du r^gne de Marie Th^rdse" (Brussels, 1781; 2nd
ed., 1786); ''Recueil de m^moires sur les grandes
gel^es et leurs eflfets " (Ghent, 1792) ; " Pnncipesm^ta-
?hysiques des dtres et des connaissances " (Vienna,
807), and numerous papers in the ** M^moires" of the
Brussels Academy. He was also the translator of an
English work, which was published under the title
" Dictionnaire des Jardiniers et des Cultivateurs"
(Brussels, 1786-9).
RsiFrcNBERO, Eloqe de I'Abhi Mann in Annnaire de la
Biblioth. rmtoLe de Bdgujue (Brussels, 1850), 77; Sbccombb in
JHdt. Nat. Biog., a. v.; Kbqnard in Nouvelle Biogr. O^n,, s. v.
Henry M. Brock.
Manna (Heb. }d, Gr. /ouiv, /idvva; Lat. man, man-
na)^ the food miraculously sent to the Israelites during
their forty years' sojourn in the desert (Ex., xvi;
Num ., xi, 6-^9) . It fell during the night in small white
flakes or grains which covered the ground and pre-
sented the appearance of hoar frost. These grains are
described as resembling coriander seed and bdellium,
with a taste like "flour with honey", or ** bread tem-
pered with oil" (Ex., xvi, 31; Num., xi, 7-8).
The manna fell for the first time w^hile the
Israelites were in the desert of Sin, six weeks after
their departure from Egypt, in answer to their mur-
murs over the privations of desert life (Ex., xvi, 1 8(^.)
and thenceforth fell daily, except on the Sabbath, till
they arrived at Galgal in the plain of Jericho (Jos., v,
12). During these years the manna was their chief
but not their only article of diet. Their herds furnished
them some milk and meat; they had oil and flour, at
least in small quantities, and at times purchased pro-
visions from neighbouring peoples (Lev., ii, sq.; xvii,
1 sq.; Deut., ii, 6, 28). Tne manna had to be gath-
ered in the morning, as the heat of the sun melted it.
The quantity to be collected was limited to a gomor
Corner, between six and seven pints) j^er person ; but on
the eve of the Sabbath a double portion was gathered.
When kept over night it putrefied and bred worms, ex-
cept the portion which was reserved for the Sabbath.
Though it was probably eatable in the natural state,
it was usually ground in a mill or beaten in a mortar and
then boiled and made into cakes. As a reminder to
future generations, a vessel filled with manna was
placed near the Ark of the Covenant. The name b
connected with the exclamation " M&n htt", which the
Israelites uttered on first seeing it. This expresnoo
since the time of the Septuagint is generally tiana-
lated '^What is this?", tnou^ it should more prob-
ably be translated " Is tnis manna? ", or " It is manna ".
A substance named mannu was known in Egypt at
that time, and the resemblance of the newly fallen
food to this substance would naturally call forth the
exclamation and suggest the name.
Many scholars have identified the Biblical mfttma
with the juice exuded by a variety of Tamarix gaUica
(Tamarix mannifera) when it is pricked by an insect
(Coccus manniparua) f and known to the Arabs as
mannessama, '* gift of heaven " or " heavenly manna ".
But although manna in several respects answers the
description of the manna of the Bible, it lacks some
of its distinctive qualities. It cannot be ground or
beaten in a mortar, nor can it be boiled and made
into cakes. It does not decay and breed worms,
but keeps indefinitely after it is collected. Be-
sides, being almost pure sugar, it could hardly form
the chief nourishment of a people for forty years.
But even if the identity were certain, the phenomenon
of its fall, as recorded in Exodus, could not be ex-
plained except by a miracle. For, although the
tamarisk was probably more plentiful in the days c^
the Exodus than it is now, it could not have furnished
the large quantity of manna daily required by the
Israelites. Moreover, the tamarisk manna exudes
only at a certain season, whereas the Biblical mftnna^
fell throughout the year; it exudes every day during
its season, while the Biblical manna did not fall cm
the Sabbath. Most of these objections apply also to
the juice exuded by the Camel's Thorn (^Alncl^ Came-
lorum), which is sometimes considered identuad with
Biblical manna.
Others think they have found the true mannu in
a lichen, Lenora esculenia (also known as Sphtrro-
thaUia eacitlenta), met with in Western Ada and
North Africa. It easily scales off. and being carried
away by the wind sometimes falls in the form of a
rain. In times of famine it is ground and mixed
with other substances to make a kmd of bread. But
this lichen is dry and insipid, and possesses little nutri-
tive value. The regular fall in this case, too, wouJd
be miraculous. The manna may, indeed, have been a
natural substance, but we must admit a miracle at
least in the manner in which it was supplied. For not
only does the phenomenon resist all natural ex-
planation, but the account of Exodus, as well as the
designation " bread from heaven", "bread of angels",
i. e. sent by the ministry of angels (Ps. Ixxvii, 24, 25;
Wisd., xvi, 20), plainly represents it as miraculous.
Chnst uses the manna as the type and symbol of the
Eucharistic food^ which is true " bread from heaven",
and "bread of hfe*', i. e. life-giving bread, in a far
higher sense than the manna of old (John. vi). St.
Paul in calling the manna "spiritual food J* (I Cor..
X, 3), alludes to its symbolical significance with regard
to the Eucharist as much as to its miraculous charao-
ter. Hence the manna has always been a common
Eucharistic symbol in Christian art and hturgy. In
Apoc., ii, 17, the manna stands as the s3^mbol of the
happiness of heaven.
HuMMELAUER, Com. in Exod. (Paris. 1897), 168 sq.; Bbsrs,
Durch Oosen turn Sinai (Leipzig, 1872), 236; Rittxr, Die Erd-
kunde (Berlin. 1848), xiv. 665 sq.; Burcxhardt, Traveie in
Svria (London, 1822), 600 sq,; LEsfexRE in Vio., Did. de la
Bible, s. V. : Zenker, Afan hu in Zeiteehr. der Kath. TheoL, xxm
(1899), 164; Peters. Zu Man hu, ibid.. 371.
F. Bechtel.
Manning, Henry Edward, Cardinal Priest of Sts.
Andrew and Gregory on the Ccelian Hill and second
Archbishop of Westminster, b. 15 July, 1808; d. 14
January, 1892.
Henry Edward Manning, who was bom at his grand-
MANKINO
605
ICAMNINO
father's home, Copped Hall, Totteridge, Herts, Eng-
land, was the son ot William Manning, M. P. for Eves-
ham and Lymington and sometime governor of the
Bank of England. His father's family was of an old
Kentish stock, and though bom in Hertfordshire, the
futm-e cardinal spent some years of his boyhood at
Combe Bank, near Sevenoaks in Kent, whither his
father had moved when his son was but seven years
old. His motheir William Manning's second wife, was
a daughter of Henrv Lannoy Hunter, who was of a
French Huguenot family originally known by the
name of Veneur. His father's mother was a Miss Ry-
an, whose name betrays her Irish origin, and from
some old diaries which have only, lately come to life it
appears that she was a Catholic and faithfully prao-
tised the duties of her reli^on. This fact, it would
seem, was never luiown to Cardinal Manning himself,
as the diaries have only been discovered since his
death. After learning his first rudiments at home and
at a private school at Totteridge, Henry Manning went
to Harrow, in 1822, and on leaving school continued
his studies for a time under a private tutor. It had at
first been his purpose to follow his father in the bank-
ing business and to enter Parliament. But the banker
having suffered a reverse of fortune, he was fain to
take a different course. In 1827 he went up to Ox-
ford and entered at Balliol College. Although he no
longer had a parliamentary career in view, he con-
tinued to take an interest m political questions, and
his natural powers of oratory soon made him con-
spicuous in the debating of the Union, where he was
succeeded by Gladstone in the presidency. In later
life he still cherished pleasing recollections of the
memorable 4ebate of 1829, when Monckton Milnes
and Hallam and Sunderland came from Cambridge to
prove the poetical superiority of SheUey to Byron.
These rhetorical distractions, however, did not inter-
fere with his studies, and in 1830 he took a first class in
classics. On leaving Oxford, he accepted a subordi-
nate post in the Colonial Office, and devoted his atten-
tion to questions of political economy, a study which
stood him in good stead when in later years he took a
prominent part in the practical discussion of social
problems. But though Jhis time was in no wise
wasted, he had not yet found his rightful place and his
real work in life. . He had scarcely relinquished his
dreams of political ambition, when he felt himself
called to the service of God and his brethren. For
this reason he once more went back to Oxford, where,
in 1832, he was elected a Fellow of Merton College.
After completing the course of reading required For
orders, he was oraained to the Anglican mimstry later
in the same year and preached nis first sermon in
Cuddesdon Church on Christmas Day. Soon after his
ordination he went to act as curate to the Rev. John
Sargent, Rector of Lavin^ton-with-Graffham, Sussex,
who was stricken with illness, and in taking what
seemed to be a temporary work he found what was to
be his home for the next seventeen years. On the
death of the rector, he was presented to the living in
May, 1833, by the patroness, Mrs. Sargent of Laving-
ton, the mother of the Rev. John Sargent. In Novem-
ber of the same year he married Caroline Sargent, the
third daujghter of his predecessor in the incumbency.
His marriage may be said to have had some part, how-
ever indirectly, in leading him into the Catholic
Church, for it brought him into a family circle that
was destined to be strongly affected by the rising
Homeward movement. Of the four famous Sai^eent
sisters, Mrs. Heni^ Wilberforce and Mrs. George Ry-
der were received mto the Church with their husbands
and their children; the other two, Caroline Manning,
who died in July, 1837, and her eldest sister, the wife
of Samuel Wilberforce afterwards Bishop of Winches-
ter, were already dead when the movement had scarce
begun ; yet one of them eventually gave her husband
and the other her daughter to the Church.
In his coimtry parish at Lavington, though Henry
Manning had not yet attained to the fullness of the
Faith, nor as yet received the sacramental grace and
the spiritual powers of the Catholic pastor, he was al-
ready, according to the light so far vouchsafed him,
serving his Divine master and labouring for the salva-
tion of souls in a true spirit of zeal and generous self-
sacrifice, in the spirit that speaks in later days from
the pages of his ''Eternal Priesthood" and his "Pas-
toral Office". In 1841, after some years of simple
parish work, a wider field was opened to him by his
appointment to the office of Archdeacon of Chichester.
Tne office in his case was assuredly no sinecure. The
volume of charges delivered on the periodical visita-
tions of the archdeaconry remains to show the in-
telligent and tireless zeal with which he entered
into these new duties. Here also we may find some
tilings that seem to foreshadow his larger work in
later years, notably the pages that bear witness to
his love for God's poor, his resolute resistance to
wrong, and his zeal for reforming abuses. Mean-
while, all this active work was accompanied by a
corresponding growth in the knowledge of Catholic
truth.
The Oxford Movement was now in full swing, and
some of its leaders were already, however uncon-
sciously, well on their way to Rome. Newman had
begun to see the light in 1839 (two years before Man-
ning's appointment as archdeacon), but six more years
had to elapse before his final submission to the Holy
See in 1845. This fact is worth recalling here, for it
reminds us that a conversion is often a matter of some
time. Between the beginning of difficulties, misgiv-
ings, and fears that may prove illusory ^ and the period
when the misgivings oecome convictions, and duty
becomes clear, a considerable time may otten elapse.
It is difficult to lay down any general rule; some may
see their way clear more speedily than others and may
have little need to seek for outward help in coming to a
decision, but where, as so often happens, the process of
conviction is slow, and some wise counsel is needed, it
may be a duty to confide to some competent adviser
fears and misgivings which it would be a crime to pro-
claim in pubUc. In such a position the most candid
and consistent writer must needs speak in a different
strain in his confidential letters setting forth his diffi-
culties, and in letters addressed to others to whom it
would be wrong to make them known. And the
reader who can appreciate this position will readily
understand the seeming inconsistency between tfave
language of Manning's private correspondence unfold-
ing conscientious perplexities and tnat of his public
utterances at this time, wherein all doubt is silenced.
He has been accused of remaining an Anglican after los-
ing faith in Anglican teachings; and it has been alleged
that he became a Catholic for motives of worldly am-
bition . A change of religion for such unworthy motives
is quite out of keeping with the character of the man
as revealed in his letters and journals of that date, and
is unintelligible if Manning nad been the astute and
ambitious man imagined by his accusers. When he
first began to break away from the Church of England
there was no Catholic hiemrchy or cardinal archbishop
in England, and the position of a vicar Apostolic
could not offer any graat temptation to an ambitious
Anglican archdeacon. And if we once suppose him
to be so unprincipled as to change his behef or pro-
fession for the sake of preferment, why should he go so
far and get so little? There would certainly be less
trouble and greater prospect of success in a change of
course within the Church of England. An astute and
ambitious Archdeacon of Chichester would have
broken with the High Church party and taken a line
agreeable to the men in high places. The real cause
and motive of his conversion to the Church may be
plainly seen in the whole histoiy of the Oxford Mx>ve-
ment, as well as in his own published writings and hj&
ICAIININO
606
MAMNINO
private letters and journals. In common with the
Tractarian leaders he had from the first taken hold of
great Catholic principles which he found in the writ-
ings of the early Fatners. And in his case the truth
that came home to him with special force, and domi-
nated and moulded his whole life and character was
the abiding presence of the Holy Ghost in the Church
of God . This, it may be said , is at once his leading idea
in his Anglican sermons, his main motive at the time of
his conversion and in the course he took in the Vatican
Council, and it forms the favourite theme in his later
spiritual and theological writings. At first^ like other
Anglican divines, he was able to satisfy hunself that
the Church of England was a part of the one Holv
Catholic Apostolic Church of tne Creed, and as such
was guided and quickened by the presence of the Holy
Spirit. For this reason he looked to the Church to
guard and cherish the revealed doctrines committed,
as he supposed, to her care.
His faith in Anglicanism had already been some-
what shaken by other doctrinal or historical difficul-
ties. It was finally shattered by the Gorham Judg-
ment of 1850, when the Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council directed the Dean of Arches to institute
a clergyman who was accused of holding unorthodox
views on the subiect of Baptismal Regeneration. As
Newman had said of the Jerusalem Bishopric, this act
of the state Church was for Manning '' the beginning
of the end ^\ Even then he did not act with any undue
haste, and joined in an attempt to free the Church of
England from a compromising association with heresy.
His zeal and devotion to the Establishment caused
him at this time to be looked up to as the leader of the
High Church party as distinguished from the Tracta-
rians in the Anglican body. On 23 January, 1847, in
reply to Dr. Pusey's lament over Canon MacMullen's
conversion he had written to him: "You know how
long I have to you expressed my conviction that a
false position has been taken up by the Church of
England. The direct and certam tendency of what
remains of the original movement is to the Roman
Church. You know the minds of men about us better
than I do. and will therefore know how strong an im-
pression the claims of Rome have upon them. ... It
IS also clear that they are revising the Reformation;
that the doctrine, ritual, and practice of the Church of
England t-aken at its best does not suffice them. . . .
I say all this not in fault-finding but in sorrow. How
to help to heal it I do not presume to say. " Within a
few days after the Gorham Judgment (March, 1850)
he still clung to the Church of England as a living
branch of the Church of Christ, and he was the first to
sign a protest calling on the Church to free itself from a
heresy imposed on it by the civil power. A bill was in-
troduced in the House of Lords to provide that the ul-
timate decision as to questions of doctrine should be
transferred to the Upper House of Convocation, but
was lost by 84 votes to 31, and Manning was driven to
consider whether the Church of England could claim
to be an unerring guide and teacher of the Faith. He
took pains to inform his friends that he was acting
with calmness and deliberation. In June, 1850, he
wrote from Lavington to his sister, Mrs. Austen:
" Let me tell you to believe nothing of me but what
comes from me. The world has sent me long ago to
Pius IX, but I am still here, and if I may lay my bones
under the sod in Lavington Churchyard with a soul
clear before God, all the world could not move me."
With Wilberforce and Mill he circulated a declaration
that the oath of supremacy only obliged the conscience
in matters of a civil not of a spiritual kind ; it was sent
to 17,000 clergymen, but only about 18Ck) signed it.
When these efforts failed, and the truth was borne in
upon him with irresistible force, his own course was
at length clear before him. At Michaelmas in the
same year he took steps to resign his living, and on
Passion Sunday, 6 April, 1851, together with his friend
J. R, Hope-Scott, Q.C., he was received into the Catho-
lic Church, by Father Brownbill. S.J.
To those who knew the arcndeaoon's zeal in the
pastoral office for the salvation of souls, there was no
doubt of his call to the sacred ministry. It seemed
only a matter of course that his submisdon to the
Church should be followed, after the necessary inter-
val of preparation, by his ordination to the (!^tholic
priesthood. Few coiud have expected that this ordi-
nation would come as speedily as it did. CSaidinal
Wiseman, recognizing that the circumstances of the
case were exceptional, decided to let no time be lost,
and Henry Edward Manning was ordained priest by
his predecessor in the See of Westminster on Trinity
Sunda^^, 14 June, 1851, little more than two montte
after ms reception into the Church. There may seem
to be a strange irony of fate in this hurried promotioQ
of one who was to la^ so much stress on tiie impor-
tance of due preparation for the priesthood. But the
want of preparation in this case was apparent rather
than real. Whether we regard the theological learning
or the spiritual holiness of life required of candidates
for the priesthood, Manning had already made no little
progress in preparation. In his final years at Laving-
ton he had made good way in the study of Catholic
theology and spiritual literature, and. as Ids journal
with its searching self-examination and generous reso-
lutions bears witness, the other side of that preparation
was in no wise wanting. At the same time, it was cer-
tainly desirable that some more systematic training
should be added to this self-education. For this rea-
son his ordination was followed by a course of sUidies
in Rome. These studies, however, were not allowed
to prevent that immediate missionary wox^ which had
doubtless been one of Cardinal Wiseman's main
motives in hastening the ordination of the neophyte.
During these years of Roman study. Manning took
advantage of the summer vacation to exercise his
pastoral office in London, preaching, receiving con-
verts into the Church, and hearing confessions at the
Jesuit church in Farm Street. In this chureh he had
said his first Mass on 16 June, 1851, assisted by P^re
de Ravignan.
By a significant coincidence his ordination took
place on 14 June, the feast of St. Basil, one of the
Fathers who was in a special manner his^ttem.and
who has left us a great work 6n the Holy Gnost,
and, as he noticed at the time with debgihty the
Introit of his first Mass (on the feast of St. Frauds
Regis) was the text: **The Spirit of the Lord is upon
me; wherefore he hath anomted me. to preach the
Gospel to the poor he hath sent me (Luke, iv, 18;
Isaias, bci, 1), words that bring before us both his
active work for the poor and the devotion to the Holy
Ghost, which was, so to say, the soul of all his life and
labour. The priestly labours which thus began were
continued on a large field and with fresh advantages
when, in 1857, he founded at St. Mary of the Angels,
Bayswater, the Congregation of the Oblates of St.
Charles. This new community of secular priests was
in some sort the joint work of Cardinal Wiseman and
Manning, for both had independently conceived the
idea of a community of this kind, and Manning had
studied the life and work of St. Charles in his Andean
days at Lavington and had, moreover, visited the
Ol^lates at Milan, in 1856, to satisfy himself that their
rule could be adapted to the needs of Westminster.
In the same year tnat he became superior of this con-
gregation another office was laid upon him. At the
instigation of Dr. Whitty, who was about to enter the
Society of Jesus, he was appointed, by Pius IX, provost
of the Westminster Metropolitan Chapter. During the
eight years of his tenure of these two offices, the pro-
vost and superior accomplished a great amount of
work both for the diocese and for his own community,
and the eloquence which had made him one of the fore-
most Anglican preachers of the time now helped to
HENRY EDWARD CARDINAL MANNING
FAINTINQ BT XDWIN LONO. R^.
BCAMNINa 607 MAXOSmXQ
spread and strengthen the Catholic Faith in England. Birmingham. Later in the year he went to Rome to
His pastoral lalx>ur was now no lon^r hampered receive the pallium, returning to England by Novem-
by inward struggles or by the uncertainties of doc- ber, when he was solemnly enthroned, and set himself
trinal differences that troubled the Ang^can arch- to the great work that lay before him. If the choice
deacon. , made bjr the Holv See was naturally received with
Though the old time of storm and stress was ended, satisfaction by all who really knew him. others who
he was now to have trouble of another kind; ana had not that advantage regarded it with some mi&-
through no fault of his own he found himself involved giving. Yet some who had hitherto misunderstood
in a domestic controversy which became the cause of him may possibly have gained a new sense of his
considerable misunderstanding. In the circum- power, and of his fitness for the post, from the sermon
stances of the time it was almost inevitable that the that he preached at the funeral of Cardinal Wiseman,
new community, partly composed of converts and In that graphic sketch of his predecessor's career,
apparently aiming at a revival in En^ish Catholic wherein he snowed how the man had been fashioned
ecdesiastical Ufe, should be a subject of some differ- and prepared for the work he was destined to do in
ence of opinion. Men of the old school, who looked England, the discerning reader may see how well the
with suspicion on any novelties, may be pardoned for preacher had grasped the needs and hopes of the coun-
feeling alarm at the participation oi the new com- try, and mav moreover be led to reflect how he, too,
munitv in the work of the diocesan seminar}r. Likely though in other ways than Wiseman's, had been made
enough, neither mde quite understood the ideas and ready to carry the Catholic standard forward to fur-
motives of the other. Be this as it may, the majority ther victories. While those who rightly understood
of the Metropolitan Chapter adopted views at variance Manning's merits may well have had high hopes for
with those of Wiseman and Manning, and in the con- the future, few if any can have anticipated anythinjg
troversy that ensued the canons were supported by like the actual accomplishment. For one thing, his
Archbishop Errington, at that time Carainal Wise- age and his apparently frail health gave Uttle promise
man's coadjutor "with right of succession" to the see. of such a long lease of active and laborious life. He
In the event the Oblates had to retire from St. Ed- said himself that he thought he had twelve years of
mund's College (1861), where their presence had given work in him; and some may have considered this over
offence to the chapter. But the most important out- sanguine. Yet he was to have a life full of strenuous
come of the stru^e was the removal of Archbishop and varied labour for more than a quarter of a cen-
Errington from his office of coadjutor cum jure 8tu>- tury.
ceasionis. And as this decision of the Holy See fol- He inaugurated a memorial to his predecessor Car-
lowed upon a controversy in which Manning took a dinal Wiseman and determined that it should take the
conspicuous part, some critics, imperfectly acquainted form of a cathedral for Westminster. In 1868 he was
with the facts, have regarded hun as an ambitious able to secure a site^ but in after years a more favour-
aspirant for office removing a rival from his path, able one was determmed on. His efforts to procure edu-
But in this they strangely mistake the situation, and cation for the poor Catholic children of London were
forget or overlook the fact that Manning's part in the unceasing; and in his Lenten Pastoral of 1890 he was
controversy was strictly defensive. This can hard(y able to say that the names of 23,599 Catholic children
be disputed by any careful and candid student of the were on tne books of his parochial schools, and that
documents. For even a reader who shared Arch- during the previous quarter of a century 4542 children
bishop Errington's unfavourable view of the Oblate had been provided for in the homes of the archdiocese.
Community and its position and influence in the dio- He was one of the 500 bishops assembled in Rome to
oese could hardly blame the superior of the Oblates take part in the eighteenth centenary of Sts. Peter and
for writing a vigorous vindication of himself and his Paul, and he was, therefore, present when Pius IX an-
community. nounoed his intention of convoking a General Council.
Though this struggle was certainly not of his seek- He returned to Rome in 1869, arriving for the opening
ing, and though he clearlv had no thought of securing of the Vatican Council, 8 December, and was put on
the succession for himself; it is none the less true that the Committee " De Fide ". To this Committee, in
this controversy with the chapter and the coadjutor March, 1870, was referred the question of Papal In-
did lead in the event to his own elevation. If the xoipt- fallibility, and on 18 July the Decree was passed .
ure had never come to pass there would have been no On his return to England, Manning protested in the
vacancy on Cardinal Wiseman's death, since the coad- press against the charges made by Mr. Gladstone
jutor would have succeeded in due course. At the against Catholics who accepted the Vatican Decrees,
same time, the attack and the vindication had the and his three pastoral letters published under the title
effect of making Manning's merits and labours better "Petri Privile^um" did much to remove prejudice
known in Rome, and marked him out as the man and misconception even among Catholics. In 1878 his
most in sympathy with Wiseman's policy, and thus "True Story of the Vatican Council "appeared in "The
suggested him as a suitable successor. Hence, when Nineteenth Century" in reply to incorrect statements
the vacancy occurred on Wiseman's death in February, that had obtained credence. In 1875 he was sum-
1865, the natural result followed. This was made moned to Rome to receive the caidinalate and the
more certain when the chapter sent up Archbishop title of Sts. Andrew and Gregory, the church on the
Errington's name at the h^ of the tema, and the Coelian, once the home of St. Gregory the Great,
other candidates did their best to secure his appoint- whence St. Augustine and his companions had been
ment. As the Holy See could hardly accept such a sent to convert England. In 1878 Cardinal Manning
reversal of the decision made a few years before, it was took part in the conclave that elected Leo XIII, re-
inevitable that the names should be set aside; and the oeiving a vote or two himself in the scrutiny; and
pope himself decided to appoint Mgr. Manning. While Pope Leo's encyclical " On the condition of labour",
the matter still hung in the balance, Manning endeav- to use the words of Bishop Hedley, " owes something
oured to secure the appointment of another, and, in a to the counsels of Cardinal Manning. "
confidential letter to Mgr. George Talbot in Rome, A matter of importance which took up not a little of
urged the claims of Bishop Ullathome and Bishop his time and caus^ him some anxiety arose at the Low
Comthwaite. From resolutions which he made as to Week meeting of the bishops in 1877, when he pro-
his future conduct towards the coming archbishop it is posed that they should prepare a petition to be sent to
clear that he did not anticipate his own appoint- Kome asking that the pope should determine the rela-
naent. tions which ougbt to exist between the regulars and
The new archbishop was consecrated at St. Mary the episcopate. The main questions at issue affected
Moorfields, on 8 June, 1865, by Bishop Ullathome of the right of the bishops to divide missions already ia
BCAMimfO
608
uMsasmxa
the hands of regulars and the control bishops had oyer
missions served by regulars in matters concerning
visitation and the auditing of funds collected intuitu
miasionis. After some necessary delay the famous
Constitution "Romanos Pontifices" was issued in
1881, and in course of time its provisions have been ex-
tended to nearly all English-speaking countries. It
deals mainly with matters of jurisdiction and disci-
pline, and trea,t8 of many subjects involving nice and
complicated points of prudence and equity. To his
zeal in the cause of elementary religious education,
Cardinal Manning's later years saw added his efforts on
behalf of the poor and outcast. He was invited to join
the commission for the better housing of the working
classes, he founded his League of the Cross for the
promotion of temperance, and the " Candinal's Peace "
recalls the success of his efforts at mediation between
the strikers and their employers at the time of the
great London Dock Strike m 1889. Such are some of
the salient works of Manning's life. And it may be re-
mariced that while any one of these various lines of
activity might have been enough, or more than enough
for any ordinary man, all of them together by no
means make up the whole life work of Cardinal Man-
ning. Besides these special theological, literary, or
social labours, there remain his ordinary pastoral
activities. If he had done none of those things that
seem at first sight most striking and characteristic, his
life would still have been sufficiently full with the ad-
ministration of the affairs of his diocese, with his care
in training the clergy, his daily " solicitude for all the
Churches", with holding ordinations and presiding at
diocesan synods, with the building and blessing of new
churches. And nothing in the way of special work
could make him neglect those primary episcopal du-
ties or perform them in a perfunctory fashion. These,
it may be safely said, came first and foremost. For
him the Cathohc bishop was the father of the flock,
solicitous in every way for the welfare of his children.
It was, therefore, as a bishop sent by the Holy Ghost,
the "Pater pauperum", to rule the Church of God,
that he spent himself in works of charity or social re-
form, or defended the truth against attack from all
forms of error, or from the corruptions of an evil life,
and spoke in the same spirit, whether addressing dock-
ers in the East End, or agnostics in the Metaphysical
Society or bishops and theologians in the Vatican
Coimcil.
Theological controversy may be said to hold the
first place in the earlier part of his episcopate, culmi-
nating in the Vatican Council, and continuing with
somewhat abated vigour for a few years longer. Social
work gradually becomes more conspicuous in the
years after 1876, and reaches its climax in the Dock
Strike in 1889. And most of his active work in the
League of the Cross and amon^ working men comes
after his elevation to the cardinalate in 1875. For
the last two years of his life, his failing health made
him for the most part a prisoner. At length the end
camC; after a few days of illness, and he went to his rest
on 14 January, 1892. A striking proof of the hold he
had on the hearts of the poor and the working people
of London was given when thousands thronged to get
a last glimpse of him as he lay in state in his house at
Westminster, and to follow his funeral to Kensal
Green Cemetery. After some years in that field of the
dead which he had described so well in his words on
Wiseman, he was once more brought back to West-
minster and given his last earthly resting place in the
crypt of the cathedral.
The chief sources for the history of Cardinal Manning are hia
own published works nnd manuscript notes, reminiscences, let-
ters, and journals, which exist in great abundance. Apart from
their literary value, which is higher than some hasty critics arc
disposed to allow, his numerous works, both Ani^lican and
Catholic, throw no little light on the growth of his opmions and
the motives of his active labours, for from first to last there is a
close correspondence between his words and actions. For his
doctrinal development in Anglican dayv The Ride of Faith
(1830) and the Unity of the Church are noteworthy: but his best
work is seen in the four vols, of Sermcne (1845-60) and {7m«er-
tnity Sermons (1844), and these should be compared with such
Catholic works as The Orounda of Faith (1852), The Temporal
Miasitm of the Holy Ghoet (1865), and The Eternal Prieethood
(1883). This last book has been translated into many lan-
guages and ma3r be regarded as his mastenpieoe; apart man its
mtnnsic merit, it expresses the thoughts that dommated all his
active life. The greater part of his private papen are still un-
published; but a great number of lettera and autobiosraphieal
notes were printed in the Life of Cardinal Manntng, Archbishop
of Westminster, by Edwabd Sheridan Purcsll (Ixmdon,
1895), 2 vols., a work which contained much valuable matter,
though the author's information on some points was very
imperfect, and he strangely misunderstood some important
episodes, notably the state of Manning's mind before nis oon-
▼ersion, his part in the Eriington case, and his relations with
Cardinal Newman. Oi these points see the Appendix to Car-
dinal Manning (2nd ed., London, 1896) by Dr. J. R. Gabqubt,
the cardinal's nephew bv marrioc^e, who had the advantage of
private papers and family memories unknown to FuroelL The
true story of the Errinffton case is told, with the help of
authentic documents, by Wilfrid Ward in his Life and Ttmea
of Cardinal Wiseman, And the relation of Newman and Man-
xung, as well as the other two points, are treated in the review
of ruroell's book by W. H. Kent in Dublin Review (April.
1896). All those matters will be more fully dealt with in the
Life of Cardinal Manning now being prepared by W. H. Kent.
a work which will contain many important documents hitherto
unpublished, including the letters to Mr. Gladstone which Mr.
Purcell wrongly supposed to be destroyed. Hemknbr'b Vie du
Cardinal Manning (1897) may also be mentioned, as well as the
life by a well known French Protestant, db PRBSSBNst (1806:
tr., 1897). This book, like a more recent non-Ca4iiolio biog-
raphy. The Cardinal Democrat, by Miss I. Taylor, pays
special attention to the cardinal's social work, a topic also
treated by a French Catholic authority, Abb£ Lemirb, in Car-
dinal Manning et son ceuvre socials. On this point the article
of Sydney Buxton, M. P., in the Contemporary Review^ (1896)
on Cardinal Manning and the Dock Strike is valuable for its first-
hand information from one who took part in the fray. Yet
another non-Cathoiic work, the Life of Cardinal Mannina by
A. W. Button (1892) is worthy of note if only for its exceUoit
bibliography. See also Snead-0)X, Life of Cardinal Vaughan
(London, 1910).
W. H. Kent.
Mazmjmg, Robert, of Brunne, poet. He came
from Bourne in Lincolnshire, Englana. From his own
account he entered the house of the Gilbertine Canons
at Sempringham in 1288 and at some period in his life
he was with Robert Bruce at Cambriage. In 1338 he
was living in another priory of his order, but still in
Lincolnshire. The date of his death is imknown. He
was the author of two poems, both free -translations
from the French: (1) *' Handl>Tig Synne", a very free
rendering of the ''Manuel des Peschiez", which had
been written in poor French verse by an Englishman,
William of Wadoington, in the rei^ of Edward I. It
consists chiefly of a series of stories illustrating the
Conamandments, the seven deadly sins, the sin of sac-
rilege and the Sacraments. Mannyng is much more of
a story-teller than a poet, he interpolates tales of his
own and illustrates those of his original from the Eng-
lish life of his day. He is severe on all classes of
society, but is yet sympathetic towards the poor.
(2) A "Chronicle of England", the first part of which
is a translation, with some additions, of Wace's version
of Geofifrey of Monmouth, and the second is based on
Peter de Langtoft's An^lo-Norman poem. When
Mann3rng comes to the reign of Edwara I he inserts a
good de^ of matter which has some independent his-
torical value. These poems are important because
they illustrate a growing interest in "ignorant men
who delieht in listening to tales " but who cannot read
French, because they foreshadow the love of story-
telling which is to produce the "Canterbury Tales" at
the end of the centurv and because they helped to
make East-Midland English the literary dialect of
English. F. J. Fumivall has edited the " Handlyng
Synne" and the "Chronicle" with prefaces. The
authorship of " Meditacyuns of the Soper of our Lord
Jhesus " (edited for the Early English Text Society
in 1875), has also been ascribed to Mannyng, but this
is by no means ascertained beyond doubt.
Cf. Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. I, pp. 344-
62; Diet, of Nat. Biography, s. v.
F. Urquhart.
MAim
609
MAN8I
Mans, Lb. See Lb Manb, Dioobsb of.
Mansard (Mansart), the name of two French
architects. — I. FRANfois, b. in Paris, probably of Ital-
ian stock, in 1598; d. there, 1666. During at least t^e
last thirty years of his life he exercised the greatest in-
fluence on the development of architecture. Among
his contemporaries only Salomon de Brosse ap-
proached him in ability. Defects and oddities, so
glaring as even to provoke published satires, for some
time prevented him from obtaining conmiissions. He
had so hiffh a sense of true architecture that he hardier
ever decided on a plan definitely at the outset, antici-
pating that improvements on the first conception
would be sure to surest themselves later on. Thus
he lost the commission for building the Louvre, be-
cause nothing could induce him to submit detailed
plans. Having built <me wing of the chateau 1^-
son-Lafitte (1642), he destroyed what had been
built so as to rebuUd it <m what he thought a better
plan, the ultimate r^ult being the finest of all his
non-ecclesiastical works. After beginning Hoe finely
planned abbey church of Val-de-Gr&e (16^5), his fas-
tidious self-criticism made him leave the work, carried
only as far as tlie groimd plim, for others to finish. He
is said, however, to have elsewhere executed what had
been his desi^ for this church. These two are re-
§arded as his oest works. To him are due, also, the
esign and construction of several ch&teauz — Fresnes,
Bemy , Bercy, and others. At Paris he built, wholly or
in part, the H6tels Camavalet. de La Vrillidre. Manuin,
de Conti, and others, and the lagades of the Feuillants,
Dunes de Ste-liarie, and Minimes. His work is char-
acterized rather by the essential beauty of construc-
tion than by the adventitious charm of ornamenta-
tion, which, indeed, he employed sparingly. His style
was influenced by Salomon de Brosse, but he also
strove to follow the older Italian masters.
II. Jules, grand-nephew of Francois, was originally
Jules Hardouin, but took the name of Mansara; was
b. in Paris, 1646; d. at Hiarly 1708. He had more ap-
parent success than Francois, if less ability. He en-
loyed in a high degree the favour of Louis XIV, who
bestowed on him numerous titles and offices, as well as
the dignity of Count and the inspectorship of build-
ings. Nearly all the architectural undertakings of
this king are linked with the name of Jules Mansard,
who, indeed, has been blamed, rightly or wrongly,
for some of Loms's extravagant expenditures. Few
architects have ever received such remunerative, or so
many, commissions. He sought to combine the style
of his grand-uncle, and of Le Brun, with the extreme
classical style so much affected at that time, and thus
became in some degree an exponent of the Baroque
style. His best work is the cnurch of the Invalioes,
with its dome and cupola similar to St Paul's in Lon-
don, which is of the same period, and designed after
the plan of St Petor's at Kome. Mansard generally
laid more stress on elegance of effect than on monu-
mental grandeur, so tmit some of his effects tend to
triviaUty. The nave of the In valides is merely a cubi-
cal base for the great dome, and its double row of col-
umns, though graceful, has little of imposing grandeur
in its effect. The outer shell of the dome is of wood, a
feature which this building shares with other French
structures of similar character. The decoration be-
tween the ribs of the cupola, the pierced taperinjs lan-
tern, encircled with corbels, and the pointed tip, all
contributed to its elegance, so that the cap of the dome
seems rather to soar than to rest on its supports. This
graceful dome, with its high drum and attic, forms a
striking point in the panorama of Paris. In the inte-
rior, Mansard made use of a happy artifice in order to
secure the illuminating effect of the dome to the full
without exposing the painting to the direct glare of
day: he built two domes the one over the other, the
one above with attic windows so placed as not to be
visible from the interior; through an opening in the
IX.-~.39
inner dome one sees the paintings in the outer, but not
the windows. In spite of certam faults of detail, this
structure is, on the whole, one of the finest Baroaue
buildings in existence. With Leveau, Mansard fin-
ished the ch&teauof Versailles, which exercised so wide
and powerful an influence on the architecture of the
Baroque period. In the exterior, an effect of space
and sweep was sought rather than pure beauty. TTie
interior more than satisfies the anticipations raised by
the exterior. The Grand Trianon and the Colonnades
are also Jules Mansard's, as well as many other build-
ings in and near Versailles. His work, in domestic
architecture and public buildings is, indeed, scattered
all over France, and what is known as the "Mansard
roof" takes its name from him.
Langs, Diet, dea archUecte9 fran^is (Paris, 1873): ArchiveadB
Vart franfaU, 2nd series, II; NouveUea Archives de Vart firanoaia;
Duasxsnx, Le Chateau de VeraaiUea (Venailles, 1881); Our-
LITT, Oeeehichte dee BarotketUa (Stuttgart, 1887-69).
G. GlETMANN.
Mansi, Gian Domjsnico, Italian prelate and scholar,
b. at Lucca, of a patrician family, 16 Feb., 1692; d.
archbishop of that city, 27 Sept., 1769. At the age of
sixteen he entered the Congregation of Clerks Re^ilar
of the Mother of God and made his professicm in 1710.
Except for some journeys made for purposes of study,
his wnole life, imtil his appointment as Archbishop of
Lucca (1765), was spent in his religious home. In
1758, after a sojoiim at Rome, where he had been ex-
cellently received by Cardinal Passionei, there was
question of elevating him to the Sacred College, but
ms unwise collaboration in an annotated edition of the
famous "Encycl^>6die" (see Encyclopedists) dis-
pleased Clement XIII. It should be remarked that
the notes in this edition were intended to correct the
text. Three years after his elevation to the episco-
pate he was smitten with an attack of apoplexy whidi
left him suffering, deprived of the power of motion,
until his death. Pious, simple, very kindly, very
helpful, and extremely charitable to the poor, he made
an excellent bishop, and his death caused general re-
gret. His long career was filled chiefly with the re-
editing of erudite ecclesiastical works with notes and
complementary matter. His name appears on the
title-pages of ninety folio volumes and numerous quar-
tos. An indefatigable worker, widely read and thor-
oughly trained, his output was chiefly of a mechanical
order, and unoriginal because hurried. His task was
most often limited to inserting notes and documents
in the work to be reproduced and sending the whole
result to the printer. This left room for numberless
shortcomings; Mansi's publications cannot satisfy the
critical judgment; he himself, indeed, was a savant
rather than a critic; he went too fast, and did too
many things, to keep his aim fixed on perfection.
The only work worth mentioning that is all MansiVi
own is a "Tractatus de casibus et censuris reservatis'*,
published in 1724, which brought him inte difi&culties
with the Index. The rest are alTannotated editions. In
1726 there was ''Jo. Burch. Menckenii De Charlataneria
eruditorum declamationes duse cum notis variorum'';
from 1725 to 1738, an annotated Latin translation
of the three works of Dom Calmet — the " Dictionnaire
de la Bible", "Prol^gom^nes et Dissertations",
and "Commentaire littoral". In 1728 he reprinted
the"Vetus et nova Disciplina"of Thomassin; from
1738 to 1756 he issued in twenty-eight folio volumes
the "Annales" of Baronius and those of Ray-
nald, printed with the "Critica" of Paei; in 1742 he
re-edited the Chronicle of Castruccio (1314-28); in
1749 Natalis Alexander's "Historia ecclesiastica";
in 1753 a "Diario antico e modemo delle Chiese di
Lucca", considerably enlarged by himself; in 1754,
"Jo. Aloerti Fabricii Lipsiensis inter suos S. Th. D. et
professoris publici Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infinue
setatis, cum supplemento Christiani Schottgenii," with
his own notes also, in three quarto volumes (the work
MABTEOMA 61
b dated 1734; Manai's publicatian was re-edited at
Florence in 1S58) ; iu 1755, the works of JEneaa Silvius
Piccolomini (Pius 11); in 1758, the "TheoloBi» mora-
lig" of AnadetuB ReiSenstuel, with an epitome pub-
lished separately; in 1760, the "TheoloKia moralia" of
Laynmnn; in 1761, the " Miscellanea of Baluze; in
1762, the "Hiatoria eccleaiaatica" of P^re Am&t de
Gravesou; lastly, in 1765, the "Memoric della gran
Contessa Matilde" (Fiorcntini).
The best-know (publication of Mansi ie his vast— too
vast, indeed — edition of the Councils, " Sacrorum Con-
eiliorum nova et amplisKima coUectio" (31 vols., folio,
Florence and Venice, 175S-98), which waa stopped by
lack of resources iii the middle of the Council ol Flor-
ence of 1438. The absence of an index renders it in-
con venieut, and in a critical point of view it leaves an
a MAimEaHA
father, who, although the ftmnder of the PiidaBn
school of painting, possessed but medioore ability.
Mantegna'a earliest known work, a "Hadotma m
Glory , was painted when he was seventeen for the
church of S. Sofia at Padua. This picture is no longer
in existenoe, but to judge from his next dated wotfc,
a fresco (1452) in the church of the Santo, Padua, this
first achievement must have exhibited almost incredi-
ble maturity of talent. In 1454 he was employed in
the church of S. Giustina, Padua, where be painted
the Ancona, which is now in the Brera, at Mil&n.
Squarcione had been commissioned by uie Ovetari
family to decorate the Church of the Eremitani, Padua,
and he had deputed s portion of the task to Mantegna.
By these frescoes, which attest a steady development
in his manner, he is doubtless best known. The
Accademlk Rede. Venic*
immensity to be desired. Mansi saw only fourteen
volumes of it published, the others were finished from
hlB notes. In 1748 the savant began to publish the
first volume of a collection which waa presented as a
supplement to that of Coleti; the sixth and last volume
of It appeared in 1752. This supplement contains, to-
Eetlier with various dissertations, many recently pub-
Fishcd documents, and many unpublished, which wer«
lacking in the previous collections — 330 letters of
popes, 200 new councils, mention of 380 otihers— be-
sides notj?s. The success of this publication induced
Mansi to undertake a recasting of Coleti, with his sup-
plement, adding to it documents discovered since his
time. Such was the origin of the "Amplissima".
The Paris publishing-house of Welter undertook, in
1900, a hefioeravure reproduction of it with a con-
tinuation and supplement bv the AbbC J. B. Martin.
TKAHcoiCBim, Biognipliical Notice of Mmn. prefixed to tbe
Amplittima. XLX; Pacchius, J. D. Mann I'iia. prefilfU to
Foiricim, Bitlinlhrra lalina (Florence, IS5H1; Ql-kntih. /. D.
Uanri rf Irt oramJfi eollfcliem tmnlmirm (Paris, 1900);
Hepels, Hi"(mV«JfiConn7M, KnewFr. tr., Purw, 1W)7), 110.
A. BouDiNuoN.
HaDtagna, An-drea, Italian painter; b. according
t« some authorities, at Vicenza, according to others at
Padua, in 1431; d. at Mantua, 13 September, 1506.
Little-, is known of Ws origin save that he came of
honourable parentage and wusadoptedatanearij'age
\n' Francesco Squarcione who reared him as his son.
Everything tends to show that his artistic education
began very early, for he was at work upon master-
pieces at an age when most artists are still under
tuition. Heowedlittleof what heknew tohisfosfe^-
Erobable dates are 1448-55 and the frescoes due to
im are; on the left wall, " Baptism of Hermogenes",
"St, James before Caisar", "St. James led to execu-
tion", and "The Martjrdom of St. James"; on tits
right wall, "The Martyrdom of St. Chr7stopher", and
"The Removal of his Body". These works estab-
lished his fame as the foremost painter of the Paduaii
school, and among those who recognised and ap-
S lauded his genius was Jacopo Bellini, whose dau^ter,
icolosia, Mantegna married in 1454. This brougiit
about a rupture with Squarcione which was final.
At the height of his fame he painted the portrait of
Cardinal Scarampi (1459), the altar-piece of the
Church of San Zeno, Venice, and the "Agony in the
Garden". In 1457 Lodovico GonzaRa, Marquess of
Mantua, invited Mantegna to enter his service, but it
was two years before the successful artist could be per-
suaded to accept. In 1459 he went to Mantua, and
here, save for the inter\ai of his stay in Home, whither
he went at the request of Innocent VIII todecorate the
new chapel in the Vatican, he spent the remainder of
his life. He was held in great honour but treated with
only spasmodic liberality, his salary being irregularly
paid. Lodovico was succeeded in 1478 by his son
Federigo, who died in 14K4, and Francesco Goniaga
succeeded him at the age of eighteen. Francesco was
betrothed to the beautiful and accomplished Isabella
d'S^te, one of the women whose appreciation and
encouragement of art; and letters did so much to make
the Renaissance what it was. In 1 486 Mantegna was
ordered by Goniaga to paint a Madonna for Isabella's
mother, the Duchess of Ferrara, to do which he inter-
rupted a seriesof paintings. " The Triumph of Ctesar",
UAKTELLETTA 0
now at Humplon Court, wliich bo liiul iH'Kiin lUHiii
after bis arrival in Muntua. IVm work in thu Vaticuii
was another interruption, but onhia return to Mantiu
in 1490 he continu^ thifl, thn greatest of his worka,
which was completed in 140-1.
In 1-195 he painted an ultur-piece in conuncmonitiuQ
of tbe marquess's victory at Fornovo. Tliia nicture,
tlie "Madonna dclla Vittorja", is now at tlie Louvre.
The " Madonna and Saints ", painted for the church of
<>anta Maria in Organo, Verunu, waa liniHlied in 1497.
Another ser^ of paintings was tliat executed for tlie
Marchioness laaliclla aa decorations tor lier studv.
These were " The Triumph of Wisdom", " Pamaasua'',
and "The Masque of Comus", the last-nanie<l being
finished by Lorenzo Costa. To the laitt period of hia
bfe l>elon(; ilie "iSIadonna and Saints", now in the
National Ualleiy, the "Dead Christ", in tbe Brera,
Milan, and " The Triumph of Sdpio", in tlie Nulional
(iallerv. Mantegna's work is gnincily conceived and
severely beautiful. His manner has been called dry
and liaid, but he exhibits inan-ellous art in his
modelling of form
and disposing of
drapery, as well as
great knowledge of
design. lie was one
of the earliest I tali;iD
engravers on copper,
1 lut few of the pLites
attributed to him
V ASAM, A ndna Man-
(4fu,eil. S«NBoKi(Floi-
en(w.l878}lCRt>WKAHD
C*TAl,CAliriJ.E. Hi*, o/
painting in N. Italy, I
<Loa(lun. 1871)-, CHtti^
WELL, iianlmia (Lon-
dnn, 1001): WA.«iir.H,
I/bn-LtAm md H'lnten
<LdpriR, ISM)! Vbi-
ARTE, Manlnma (FarU,
1001).
B. M. Kellt.
HanteUatta, an
outer vestment
reaching . ^
knees, open in front,
with shts insteA<l of sleeves on the sides. It is
worn by cardinals, bishope, and prelates di man'
lellflla. For cardinals the colour is ordinarily red,
in penitential seasons and for times of mourning
it is violet, on Gautlete and Ljctare Sundays roae>
colour; for tbe other dignitaries, the Kime distinctions
lM.'ing made, tbe ct^our is violet or bl:ick with a violet
border. Curdinals and liJHlinps Iwloiiping to oniera
whieb have a distinctive dress, also alilHila -who arc en-
titled to wvar the manlellctin, retain for it the colour
of the huliit of liie onler. The vestment is made of
silk only wlien it is worn liy eutilinnU or liv bishops or
E relates lielonginR to the napal court. The niaiitel-
tta isproliablyconnectnl with llie mantrJlum of the
canlinals in tlic "Ortio" of Crcgorj- X (1271-127(1)
and with the ntind-HMm of the prelates in tlie "Ordo"
of I'etrus Amelius (d. 1401), which was a. vestment
similar to a scapular.
Tbe mnnielhne, the outer vestment of the prelates,
differs from tlie mantelletta by Iteing longer and hav-
ing wiiiK-like sleeves.
Barbikh ns UoTTAULT, Traitf ptali/iur dr la eonrlrui-liiin dn
igliict, II, 517 an.
Joseph Bkavx.
Huitiut, DiorESE OF (Mas'titana), in Lombordy.
The city is situated on the Mincio Kivcr, which sur-
rouniLt it entirely, and forms the sn-ampy lowlands
that help to make Mantua the strongest fortrc^ in
Italy, but infect its atmosphere. Maiitunisof l-;tru3-
k^ll '
Li
k.
K^^
..^Jk^m-->X^3B
1 HAHTUA
i-aii origin, and prescrvetl its ICtrusean charotter aa
lateas the timeof I'liiiy; even now KOine ruins of t hut
period are found. The possession of Mantua was eon-
tested for a long lime by the Ryiantines and tbe
Ijomlmrds; in tiOl tlic latt«r, banng obtained definite
success in that struggle, establisbeu the capital of one
<if thoir eountiesnt Abiutuu. I'rom the ninth centun',
oA elsewhere in Northern Italy, the authority of the
bishop ediiL<ed that of the count, and the emperors
gave to tlie bisliops nuiny sovereign rights, e^pci'ially
that of coiiii[ig nioiiev. In the eleventh century
Mantua was under the Counts of Canosaa, and became
involved in the wars lictwccu tbe popes and the cm-
pirc; in lODl Henry IV took possesc^ion of the city,
after a sie^gc of scvx'Ti montlis. At the death of
Countess Matilda ( 11 1.5), Mantua became a commune,
"salva imperial! justitia". In the wars of the Lom-
Itard cities against Frederick Burliuros^a, Mantua
was at first on the side of the empire, led by Bishop
Ciarsendouio, who in eansequenee was driven from the
city and deposed by Alexander III. after which (1161)
Mantua formed port
of the Lombard
League. After the
poace of Venice,
tiaiBendonio was sJ-
lowed to return, and
then began a period
of economical pn^
Teas, manifested
more especially in
the changing of the
course of the Mincio,
the buildi[ig of the
Palazzo deila Rog-
ione(I19S), and tlie
construction of the
covered bridiie
(1188). Mantua
took part in tbe
second Lombard
League against
Frederick II, was
besieged by him in
Mantua 123A, and' surren-
Cuinpiinile XII wniuw dered In the follow-
ing ye-ir. Eszelino
da Romano also besieged the city in V2'>R, and tbe
Mantuans bad a considerable part in the war that
overthrew that tyrant in 1259. There followed a
period of internal struggle for predominance among
the families of Casalolili, Arlotti, Uonoccorsi, and
Zanecalli. In 127ii, Uvo captains of the people
were created for the administration of justice, but
one of tiiem, Pinamonte Ilonacrolsi, nut to death
his colleague, Ottonello Zanecnili, and thereby re-
mained sole master of the city, the government of
which he left to his son; the latter, howe\-cr, was
obliged to resign in favour of his cousin Guido, thence-
forth known as Siijnnre (lord). Guido was succeeded
by his brother Kinalilo, who conquered Modcna, but
he made himself odious, and was murdered, while the
lonlsbip iiosseil t-O Lodovico Luigi (Jiinxaga (1328), in
whose family it remained until 1708. Luigi became
imperial vicar in i:i29; ho van a protector of letters,
e:>[x.-ci:illv of Petran-Ji; Ubc his successors, Luigl it
{i;i6()-!>2), and Cianfrincesco I {13S2-1407). he had
to cont-end with the Viseuntl of Milan, Ciianfnin-
ci-sco II ilH>7-U), on tbe other hand, after bavinj
comniandud the Venetian troops against the Vis-
conti, entcTed the service of tbe latter, thereby be-
coming arbiter of the situation, and assuring great
tranquillity to bis state, which conscrjuently began
to flourish. He was also a friend of letters. In
142.3 Vittorino da Feltre established at Muntua tba
famous school known as "Casa Giocosa". In 1432,
(ii.aiifraiiccHco rei-ei ved tbe title of marquess from Ebv
MASTUA 61
peror Sigismund. His son Ludovico III, "il Turoo",
who reigned from 1444 to 1478, divided the marques-
aat« between his two sons, leaving Mantua to Feder-
i^I (1478-84), and creating the marquesBate of Sab-
bioneto, which became a duchy, and the Principality
of Bortolo for Gianfrancesco, whose line became ex-
tinct in 1591. The third sou Rodolfo was made
Prince of CaBtiglione. Under Ludovico III, in 1459,
was held the famous "congress of princes", to con-
eider a common action against the Turks, proposed
by Piua II. Francesco Goneaga (1484-1519) was a
captain of the league against Charles VIII (1495), and
commanded at the battle of Fomovo, Federigo 11
(1619-1540) was made Duke of Mantua by Charles V,
and received the Marquessate of Caaaie Monferrato.
He was succeeded by his two aons Francesco III
count of this transaction, and because Carlo had ^vtat
assistance to France in the War of the Spanish Sue-
oesBJon, Joseph I in 1708 took the Duchy of Mantua
and annexed it, together with Milan, to the Austrian
1
!
I
;l I M.
\y','
a
km
_
-F^^m
~
SrATUB or St. Lonoihu.
— ■-"-'
Tt>e (oldier who p
1 in Mou
(1540-50), and Guglielmo (1550-87); the second shel-
tered Torquato Toeso. Vincenzo I (1587-1612), in
bis turn also left the duchy <tivided between two sons,
Francesco III (1612) and Ferdinando (1612-1626),
the latter of whom resigned the cardinalate, and was
succeeded by his brother VincenEO II (1626-27), who
also was a cardinal, and by whose death the direct line
of the Gonzaga of Mantua became extinct; Jta rights
were inherited by Carlo Goniaga (1827-1637). who
was a son of Luigi the brother of Francesco III, and
who, having married the heiress of the Duchy of Ne-
ver3, v/na acceptable to the Frencli; hut Carlo Ema-
nucle of Savoy was a pretendant to the Marquessate
ot Casalc, while Cessre Goniaga, Duke of Guastalla,
mshed to possess the entire du'ehy; and this situation
gave riso to the war of the succession of Monfcrmto. in
which Savoy received the support of Spain and of
Austria, and Carlo Gonznga that of Frauee. The
Austrians sacked Mantua in 1G29, but the treaty of
Cheraaco (1630) putanend to the war,and secured" the
possession of Mantua, and of Casale to Carlo of Ne-
vers. The latter was succeeded by his nephew Carlo
HI (1637-65), who wns a son of Carlo II. deceased in
1631; Carlo III sold the Duchy of Ncvers to Cardinal
Ma*arin. Carlo IV (1665-1708) was a libertine; he
united the Lordship of Guastalla t« Mantua, but sold
the marquessate of Casale to France (1681); on ao-
after a siege of eight months, but it was ret&ken by
Kray for Austria m 1799; at the Peace cif Lun^ville,
however, it was annexed to the Itahan Republic
(1801). Fram 1814 to 1366, it belonged to Austria,
and was besie^;©'' in 1848 by the Piedmontese.
The cathedral of Mantua is the ancient church of
SS. Peter and Paul transformed, and was be|^ by
Pietro Romano in 1544 by order of Cardinal Ercole
Gonzaga, it remained unfinished, but its stucco work
by Primaticcio is famous, as are also a statue of Hoses
and one of Aaron by Bemero and several beautiful
pictures, among them a Madonna by Mantegos, whose
art is abundantly ce presented in the other churches
and in the palaces of the city. The chapel of the In-
coronata is by Leon Battista Alberti; its belfry is
Romanesque. The church of Sant' Andrea is by the
same architect; it has a single nave over 300 feet iL
length, while its cupola, by Juvara, is about 250 feet
high. The tomb of Mantegna is in this church.
Outside the city is the sanctuary of the Madonna delle
Grazie, founded by Francesco Goniafa in 1390.
Other fine churches are that of Ognissanti, that of San
Bamaba, which contains the tomb of Giulio Romano,
the church of Son Maurizio, where there are punt-
ings by Ludovico and Annibale Caracci; lastly, the
church of San Sebastian.
The secular building arethe PalaszodellaRaKionei
which houses the communal government (1198 and
1250) ; the Ducal Palace, begun in 1302 by the Bonac-
colsi, and enlarged at different times by the Gonnga
(ducal apartments, the tapestries of Paradise, of Troy;
painting by Mantegna, Giulio Romano, and othera);
the Castello, built for the defence of the Ducal Palace,
containing archives that date from 1014; the Accade>
mia delle Scienze cd Arti, founded by Maria ThNesa;
the Palazzo degli Stuili, formerly a Jesuit college; the
"T" palace, a trilleggialura of the dukes, the work <rf
Giulio Romano; the episcopal palace, and several
private ones; the ancient synagogue in the ghett«, etc.
Among the famous men of Mantua are: the poets
Virgil, SordcUo (thirteenth century), G. Pietro Ar-
rivabene, author of the "Gonz^s", Vittorio Vet-
tori (d. 1763), and Folengo, the first of the eo-called
macaronicwritcrsjthe jtuist Piacentino (twelfth cen-
tury), Baldnssare Caatiglione (il Cortigiano) ; the phi-
losopher Pomponazzi, the Jesuits Antonio Poesevino
and Ognibetie, the physician Matteo Selvatico (thir-
teenth century), etc. Amonp women of letters are Ca-
milla Valenti. Ippolita, Giulia, and Lucrezia Gonsa^
The Gospel is said to have been brought to Mantua
by St. Longinus, the soldier who pierced the aide of
Our Lord; tradition also says that he brou^t with
him the relic of the Precious Blood, preserved in a
beautiful reliiiuary in the crypt of the church of Sant'
Andrea. Originally Mantua formed part of the Dio-
cese of Milan; later it belonged to tnat of Ravftnna
(about 585), and in 729 it was attached to the Diooese
of Aquileia. In 804 Leo III made Mantua & diocese^
of which a certain Gregory was the first Imown bishop.
The relic of the Precious Blood, which had been lost,
was found in 1048, and was recognized asauthentic by
Leo IX in 1053. The Bishops Garsendomo (1165)
and Enrico (1193-1225) bad the title of imperial
vicar in Italy; Guidotto da Corregio (1231) was aasas-
sinated by the Avvocati faction in 1235; other bishops
of this diocese were Cardinal Martino de PuioWiO
(1252); the Blessed Jacopode' Benfatti.O.P, (1304);
Guido d'Arezzo {1306), who died of the plague, which
MANU 613 MANU
he contracted through his care of the sick. From had to know by heart. Every Vedic school of im*
1466 to 1584, the see of Mantua was occupied by portanoe had its appropriate aUtrcu, among whidi
bishopsofthe House of Gonzaga: Cardinals Francesco, were the ''Grihya-«Otras", deahng with domestic
Ludovico, Sigismondo, Ercole, Federigo, Francesco II, ceremonies, and the *' Dharma-sQtras ", treating of the
Marco Fedele; only in 1566 was this series interrupted, sacred customs and laws. A fair mmiber of these
by the Dominican Gr^orio Boldrino. After Ales- have been preserved, and form part of the sacred
sandro Andreasi (1584-97), who founded a house for Brahmin literature. In course of time, some of the
Jewish converts and a hospital for 8ick pilgrims, the more ancient and popular ''Dharma-sQtras'[ were en-
diocese was once more governed by a Gonzaga, Car- larged in their scope and thrown into metrical form,
dinal Francesco III (1587-1620), a Franciscan whose constituting the so-called ''Dharmansastras". Of
secular name was Annibale. Mention should be made these the most ancient and most famous is the ** Laws
also of Mgr Pietro Rota (1871-79), who was the ob- of Manu", the "Mftnava Dharma-sastra '*, so called,
ject of much persecution at the hands of the govern- as scholars think^ because based on a " Dharma-
ment, and of Uiuseppe Sarto (1884-05), now Pius X. sQtra" of the ancient M&nava school. The associa-
A synod was held at Mantua in 827, to settle a con- tion of the original suira "with the name M&nava
troversy between the metropolitan bishops of Aquileia seems to have suggested the myth that Manu was
and of Urado, one in 1053 for disciplinary reform, an- its author, and this myth, incorporated in the metri-
other in 1064, in relation to the controversy be- cal "Dharma-sfistra", probably availed to secure the
tween Alexander II and the antipope Honorius II. new work universal acceptance as a divinely revealed
At first (1537) it was proposed to hold the Coimcil of book.
Trent iit Mantua. The "Laws of Manu" consists of 2684 verses, di-
The diocese was once su£fragan of Aquileia, but in vided into twelve chapters. In the first chapter is
1452 it became immediately dependent on the Holy related the creation of the world by a series of emanar
See; in 1803, however, it was made a suffragan of tions from the self-existent deity, the mythical origin
Ferrara, and in 1819 of Milan. It has 153 parishes, of the book itself , and the great spiritual advantage to
and 257,500 inhabitants; there are 3 religious houses be gained by the devout study ot its contents. Chap-
of men, and 21 of women; 4 educational establish- ters two to six inclusive set forth the manner of life
ments for boys, and 10 for girls, and one Catholic daily and regulat ion of conduct proper to the members of the
paper. three upper castes, who nave been initiated into the
DoNmuoNDj.Ddlai^maeaUs.diMantovai^^ Brahmin religion by the sin-removing ceremony
iSl'e''^S"a'iS£?d/ilf^;iS;; fM^a^ru A?^f i(Iif?SS,SrS ^o^ ?f the rnvesUture with the sacred cord. First
municipio di Mantova (Mantua. 1871-74); Volta, Compendio IS descnbed the period of studentship, a time of as-
deUa atoria di ^ontowo (Mantua. 1807-38), 6 V9to,; Davahi. cetic discipline devoted to the Study of the Vedas
i^J^i^^ cWte cttta di Mantova n« ^h is^is ^j^^ ^ Brahmin teacher. Then the chief duties of
XJ. B£2>nGNi. the householder are rehearsed, his choice of a wife,
marriage, maintenance of the sacred hearth-fire, sao-
ManUfTHELAWsoF. — "The Laws of Manu "is the rifices to the gods, feasts to his departed relatives,
English designation commonly applied to the "Ma- exercise of hospitality. The numerous restrictions,
nava Dharma-sdstra", a metrical Sanskrit compen- also, regulating nis daily conduct, are discuussed in de-
dium of ancient sacred laws and customs held in the tail, especially in regard to his dress, food, conjugal
highest reverence by the orthodox adherents of Brah- relations, and ceremonial cleanness. After this comes
minism. The Brahmins themselves credit the work the description of the kind of life exacted of those who
with a divine origin and a remote antiquity. Its re- choose to spend their declining years as hermits and
puted author is Manu, the mythical survivor of the ascetics. The seventh chapter sets forth the divine
Flood and father of the human race, the primitive dignity and the manifold duties and responsibilities of
teacher of sacred rites and laws, now enjoying in kings, offering on the whole a high ideal of the kingly
heaven the dignity of an omniscient deity. The open- office. The eighth chapter treats of procedure in
ing verses of the work tell how Manu was reverently civil and criminal lawsuits, and of the proper punish-
approached in ancient times by the ten great sages and ments to be meted out to different classes of crim-
asked to declare to them the sacred laws of the castes, inals. The next two chapters make known the cua-
and how he graciously acceded to their request by toms and laws governing divorce, inheritance, the
having the learned sage Bhrigu, whom he had care- rights of property, the occupations lawful for each
fully taught the metrical institutes of the sacred law, caste. Chapter eleven is chiefly occupied with the
deliver to them this precious instruction. The work various kinds of penance to be undergone by those
thus pretends to be the dictation of Manu through the who would rid themselves of the evil consequences of
agency of Bhrigu; and as Manu learned it himself from their misdeeds. The last chapter expounds the doo-
the self-existent Brahma, its authorship purports to trine of karma, involving rebirths in the ascending or
be divine. This pious Brahmin belief regarding the descending scale, according to the merits or demerits
divine origin of the " Laws of Manu" is naturally not of the present life. The closing verses are devoted to
shared by the Oriental scholars of the western world, the pantheistic scheme of salvation leading to ab-
Even the rather remote date assigned to the work by sorption into the all-embracing, impersonal deity.
Sir William Jones, 1200-500 b. c. has been very gen- The "Laws of Manu" thus offers an interesting
erally abandoned. The weight ot authoritjyr to-day is ideal picture of domestic, social, and religous life in
in favour of the view that the work in its present India under ancient Brahmin influence. The picture
metrical form dates probably from the first or second has its shadows. The dignity of the Braimiin caste
century of the Christian era, though it may possibly be was greatly exaggerated, white the Sudra caste was so
a century or two older. Most of its contents, however, far despised as to be excluded under pain of death
may be safely given a much greater antiquity, from participation in the Brahmin religion. Punishr
Scholars are now pretty well agreed that the work is an ments for crimes and misdemeanours were lightest
amplified recast in verse of a "Dharma-sQtra", no when applied to offenders of the Brahmin caste, and
longer extant, that may have been in existence as increased in severity for the guilty members of the
eariy as 500 b. c. ' warrior, farmer, and serf caste respectively. Most
The siUras were manuals composed by the teachers forms of industry and the practice of medicine were
of the Vedic schools for the guidance of tlwir pupils, held in contempt, and were forbidden to both Brah-
They summed up in aphorisms, more or less methodi- mins and warriors. The mind of woman was held to
cally arranj^ed, the enormously complicated mass of be fickle, sensual, and incapable of proper self-direo-
rult's, l;iws, cii^tdins, rites, that the Brahmin student tion. Hence it was laid down tlmt women wore to be
BCANUAL
614
MANUSCRIPTS
held in strict subjection to the end of their lives.
They were not allowed to learn any of the Vedic texts,
and their participation in religious rites was limited
to a few insignificant acts. Guilt involving penances
was attributed to unintentional transgressions of law,
and there was a hopeless confusion of duties of con-
science with traditional customs and restrictions in
large part superstitious and absurd. Yet, with all
this, tne ethical teachings of the "Laws of Alanu" is
very high, embracing almost every form of moral
obligation recognized in the Christian religion.
Tne "Laws of Manu" is accessible to modem
readers in a number of good translations. It was pub-
lished in English dress under the title, "The Insti-
tutes of Manu"^ by Sir William Jones in 1794, being
the first Sanskrit work to be translated into a Euro-
pean tongue. This version is still recognized as a
work of great merit. In 1884 a very excellent trans-
lation, begun by A. C. Bumell and completed by
Professor E. W. Hopkins, was published in London,
with the title, "The Ordinances of Manu". Two
years later appeared Professor George Buhler's able
version with a lengthy introduction, constituting
volume XXV of the "Sacred Books of the East".
In 1893 Professor G. Strehly published in Paris a very-
elegant French translation, "Les Lois de Manou' ,
forming one of the volumes of the " Annales du Mus4e
Guimet".
Macdonell, Santkrit Literature (New York; 1900) ; Frazer,
A Literary Hikorv of India (New York. 1898); Monikr Wii/-
UA118, Jridian madom (4th ed.. London, 1893); Jouantoen,
U^er daa OesettUntch des Manu (Leipzig. 1863).
Charles F. Aiken.
Manual Masses. See Mass.
Manuel Ohysoloras, first teacher of Greek in
Italy, bom at Constantinople about the middle of the
fourteenth centuiy; died at Constance, Germany, and
was buried there, 15 April, I4rl5. His first visit to
Italy was at the time ot the siege of Constantinople,
when he was sent to Venice by Emperor Palseologus to
implore the aid of the Christian pnnces. He returned
to Constantinople. In 1396 he went to Florence at
the invitation of the humanists of that city, Salutato,
Niccolo de Niccoli, and their friends, as professor of
Greek literatiu^. He severed his connexion with the
Florentine government, however, before the time for
the end of the agreement had expired, owing either
to intrigues which Bruno and Filolfo attributed to
Niccoli, or perhaps to his own moodv temperament.
He was then engaged in teaching at Milan and after-
wards at Pavia. In 1404 he was Manuel Palseolo-
gus's ambassador in Venice and visited Rome and
England in the same capacity. He was also actively
employed in promoting a umon of the Greek with th^
Latin Church, and with that object in view returned
once more to Constantinople. In 1413 John XXIII
chose him to accompanj^ the cardinals sent as dele-
gates to the emperor Sigismund to fix a place for the
assembling of a general council. Constance was
chosen. He is mentioned in the Bull of convocation.
He probably accompanied John XXIII to Constance
(1414) and died there the following year. His death
gave rise to commemorative essays of which Guarino
of Verona made a collection in "Chrysolorina'*.
Chrysoloras's works include opuscules on the Pro-
cession of the Holy Ghost; " Epistolai tres de compara-
tione veteris et nova* Romae"; letters to his brothers,
to L. Bruni, to Guauni, to Traversari, to Pallas
Strozzi. He also translated Plato's "Republic" into
Latin. Finally he is the author of the first modern
Greek grammar, the "Erotemeta" printed for the
first time at Florence in 1484, and immediately studiecl
by Linacre at Oxford and by Erasmus at ('ambridge.
lie was chiefly influential through his teaching in
familiarizing men such as Bnmi, Salutato, Giacomo da
Scarparia, Roberto de' Rossi, Carlo Mai-suppini, Xer-
gerio, Decembrie, Guauni, Poggio, with tne master-
pieces of Greek literature. As an oral teacher he
too verbose and diffuse. As a man, however, such no-
bility of character and integrity was rarely met with
in the Greek teachers who succeeded him in Italy.
Leorand, Bibliograpkie helUnioue (Paris, 1884). I. 2L1X. and
5: Sandys, A history of dasaieal xholarvtip. It (Cambridce,
Paul Lejat.
Manumission of Christian Slaves. See Slavery.
Manuscripts. — ^Every book written by hand on
flexible material and intended to be placed in a library
is called a manuscript. We must therefore set aside
from the study of maniuscripts (1) books graven on
stone or brick (Library of Assurbanipal at Ninive;
^ven documents discovered at Cnossus or Phse8U>s
m Crete); (2) ail public acts (diplomas, charters, etc.),
the study of which constitutes the object of diplomat-
ics. Manuscripts have been composed from the most
remote antiqmty (Egyptian papyri of the Memphite
epoch) down to the period of the invention of printing.
However, Greek manuscripts were still copied until
the end of the sixteenth century, and in the monaste-
ries of the East (Mount Athos, Syria, Mesopotamia,
etc.), the copving of manuscripts continued well into
the nineteenth century. On tne other hand the most
recent Western manuscripts date from Hie last years
of the fifteenth century.
I. Materials and Form of Manuscripts. — ^The
principal materials employed in the making of manu-
scripts have been papyrus, parchment, and paper. In
exceptional cases other materials have been used (e. g.
the linen books of Etruria and Rome, a specimen of
which was found on an Egyptian mummy in the mu-
seum of Agram; the silken books of China, etc.). Be-
sides, in ancient times and during the Middle Ages tab-
lets dipped in wax on which characters were traced
with a stylus were made use of for furtive writings, ac-
coimts, etc.; these might be folded m two (diptychs),
or in three (triptychs), etc. Papyrus {charta ceffyp-
tica) was obtaiuecffrom a long-stemmed plant termi^
nating in a large and elegant umbrella; this was the
Cyperus Papyrus, which grew in the marshes of Egypt
and Abvssinia. The stem was cut in long strips vi^ch
were placed one beside the other. On the vertical
strips others were placed horizontally; then after they
had been wet with the water of the Nile they were sub-
mitted to strong pressure, dried in the sun, and rubbed
with shells to render them solid. To make a book the
separate pages (ffeXldet^ pagina) were first written on,
then they were put end to end, the left margin of each
page being made to adhere to the right margin of the
preceding page. A roil {volumen) was thus secured,
of which the dimensions were sometimes considerable.
Some Eg>- ptian rolls are forty-six feet long by nine or
ten inches wide, and the great Harris papyrus (British
Museum) is one hundred and forty-one feet long. The
end of the last page was fastened to a cylinder of wood
or bone (6ti<pa\6i, umbilicus), which gave more consist-
ency to the roll. The page having been ruled, the writ-
ing was done with a sharpened reed on the horizontal
portion of the fibres. From being almost exclusively
used in Eg^'pt, the use of papyrus spread to Greece
about the fifth century, then to Rome and throughout
the West. Its price remained very high; in 407 b. c. a
roll of twenty leaves was worth twenty-six drachmas,
or about five dollars (Corp. Insc. Attic, 1, 324). Pliny
the Elder (Hist. Nat., XIII, 11-13) gives a list of its
various grades (charta Augusta^ Liviana, etc.). Ee^t
retained the monopoly of the manufacture, whicniur-
thermore belonged to the State. Alexanoria was the
principal market. In the first centuries of the Middle
Ages it was exf)orted to the West by the "Syrians".
but the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (640) stopped
the trade. However it still continued to be used for
diplomas (at Ravenna until the tentli centur>'; in the
papal chancer>' until 1057). The Arabs had attempted
to cultivate the plant in Sicily.
MMUWlEiCTS 61
Poichment {diarta pergamena), made of the Bkin of
•heep, Koata', ixXvea (B«&uni), ums, etc., woe med by
the lonianH and the Asiatics as early as the rizih osn-
tury ». c. (Herodotus, V, 58) ; the anecdote related by
Pliny (Hist. Nat., XIII, 11), according to wbjoh it was
Invented at Pergamus, seems li^endaiy; it would seem
that its maDufacture was simply perfected there. Im-
ported to Rome in ancient times, parchment sup-
planted pspyrus but elowly. It wasonly at theendof
the third century a. ». that it was preferred to papyrus
for the making of books. Once prepared, the paroh'
ment (membrana) was cut into leaves which were
folded in two; four leaves together formed a book of
Jcht folios {quaternio) ; all the books fonnod « tvdex.
-.'^ere was no paging before the fifteenth century;
writera merely numbered first the books (signature),
then the foiios. The dimensions of the leaves varied;
that most in use for literary texts was the large quarto.
An Urfoino oatalogue (fifteenth century) mentions a
S
HunreoKipn
16) oonfesses that he n«ver saw a papj^rus MS.
wera euoh, nevertheless, in sotoe archives, but it was
only in the eighteenth century, after the discovery of
the papyri of Herculaneum (1762) that attention was
devoted to this class of documents. The first dis-
covery took place in Egypt at Gizeh in 1778, then
from 1816 the discoveries m the tombs have succeeded
one another without interruption, espedally since
1880. The hieroglyphic, demotic, Creek, and I«tin
papyri are at present scattered among the great
librarieB (Turin, Rome, Paris, Lejfden, Strashur^
Berlin, London, etc.). The publication of the princn-
pal collections has been begun (see l>elow), and the
served at Stockholm a gi^ntlc Bible written on i .
skin, the dimensions of which have won for it the name
of " Gigaa librorum". The page was ruled in dry point
so deeply tliat the mark was visil)le on the other side.
Parchments were written on both sides (opistographs) .
As parchment became very rare and eoatly during the
MiadleAges, it became the custom in some monasteries
to scratch or wash out the old text in order to replace
it with new writing. Those erased manuscripts ore
called palimpsests. With the aid of reacting chemi-
cals the old writing bos been made to reappear and lost
texts have been thus discovered (the Codex Vaticonus
8757 contains under a text of St. Augustine the "De
Republica" of Cicero, recovered by Cardinal Mai).
Manuscripts thus treated have been nearly always in-
complete or mutilated; a complete work has never
been recovered on a palimpsest. Finally, by sewing
strips of parchment together, rolls (ratali) were made
similar to those formed of papyrus (e. a. Hebrew Pen-
tateuch of Brussels, ninth century, on fifty-seven sewn
skins, forty yards in length; "rolls of the dead",
used by the associations irf prayer for the dead i
ment, ete.).
Paperissaid tohavebeeainvent«dinChinain A. a.
105 by a certain Tsai-Louen (Chavannes, "Joum.
Asiatique", 1805, 1). Specimens of paper of Uie
fourth century a. d. have been found in Eastern
Turkestan (expeditions of Stein and Sven Hedm). It
was after the tAkinK of Samarkand (704) that the
Arabs learned to make paper, and mtroduced it to
Bagdad (795), and to Damascus laharta damtueena).
It was known in Europe as early as the end of the
eleventh century, and at this early date it was used in
the Norman chancery of Sicily; in the twelfth century
it began to be used for manuscripte. It was sold even
then in quires and reams (Arabic, raxmah) and in the
thirteentn century appeared the liligranea or water-
marks. According to cheniical analyses, the paper of
the Middle Ages was mode of hempen or linen rags.
The expression "charta Bombyoma" ocaoBa from the
Arab manufactory of Bombyce, between Antioch aiul
Aleppo. The copyist of the Middle Ages used chieflv
blank mk, incmikvm, composed of a mixture of ^1
nuts «id vitriol- Red ink was reserved from ancient
times for titles. Gold and silver ink were used for man-
uHcripta de luxe (see Evanoeuaria). The method
of binding oodices has varied little since ancieat
times. The books were sewn on ox sinews placed
in rows of five or six on the back. These sinews
{chorda) served to attach to the volume wooden oov-
era, which were covered with panhmmt or dyed diin.
Covers of the manuscripts de luxe were made of
ivory or braae. ornamented with carvings, precious
atones, cut and uncuf.
lt.-««l1^ tfwJaiiU ,p^ft~.,,
f Mi<L4>i/<wflifir>n-u» If -v
-^-.,sfc:.-.,^
<.4.
edition of a "Corpus papyrorum" is projected, which
may be one of the greatest undertakings of eruditioD
of the twentieth century. The importance of theae
discoveries may be estimated from the consideration
of the chief kinds of papyrus published to-dav.
(1) Egyptian Fapyri.^~'Tim greater number are
religious documents relating to the veneration of the
dead and the future life. The most anoieat date from
celebrated is the "Book of the Dead", of which sev-
eral copies have been recovered. Moml and philt^
sophical treatises have also been found (the Prisse
Papyrus, in the Biblioth^ue Nat., Paris) as well as
sdentifio treatises, romances and teles, and popular
songs.
(2) Greek Papyri.— They are distributed over ten
centuries (third century b. c.-seventh century a. D.)
and oontaln registers from archives (giving a very
exact idea of the administration of Eg;i-pt under the
Ptolemies and the Roman and Byiantiiie em^rors;
their study has given rise to a new diplonu-ti^ieiKtAiiKi
1SAVI780BIPT8
616
MJOnJSORZPTS
literary worics (the finest discovered^ are the ora-
tioos of Hyperiaes found on papyii in the British
Museum in 1847, 1858, 1891, and in the Louvre in
1889; Aristotle's ''Republic of Athens" on a papyrus
of the British Museum in 1891; the "Mimes" of Her-
ondas, lyric poems of Bacchylides and Timotheus; and
lastly, m 1905, 1300 verses by Menander at Kom
Ishkaou by G. Lefebvre), and religious documents
(fragments of Gospels, of which some remain uniden-
tified, religious poems, hymns, edifying treatises, etc.,
e. g.: the Greek Psalter of the British Museum, of the
thmi century a. d., which is one of the most ancient
Biblical manuscripts we possess; the " Logja " of Jesus,
published by Grenfell and Himt; a hymn in honour of
the Holy Trinity similar to the "Te Deimi", discov-
ered on a papyrus of the sixth century; etc.).
(3) Latin Papyri. — ^These are rare, at Herculan-
eum as well as in Egypt, and we possess only frag-
ments. A i)apyrus of Ravenna dated 551 (Library of
Naples) is in Ostrogothic writing (Catal. of Latin
papyri in Traube, ''BibUoth. Ecole des Chartes",
iSlV, 455).
Ckief CoUecUona. — ^Louvre (Brunet de Presle,
"Not. et ext. des BISS.", XVIII); Turin (ed. Pey-
ron, 1826-27); Leyden (ed. Leemans, 1843); British
Museimi (ed. Kenyon, 1898); Flinders Petrie (ed.
Mahafify, Dublin, 1893-94); University of California
(Tebtunis Papjrriis, ed. Grenfell and Hunt, London
and New York, 1902) ; Berlin ([Berlin, 1895-98) ; Arch-
duke Renier (ed. Wessely, Vienna, 1895) ; Strasburg
(ed. Keil, 1902); Oxyrhyncos excavations (Grenfell
and Hunt, London, smce 1898) ; Th. Reinach (Paris,
1905).
ni. The Maxinq of Manuscripts. — In ancient
times the copyists of manuscripts were free worlonen
or slaves. Athens, which was before Alexandria a
great Ubrary centre, had its B</SXio7/Hi^i, copyists,
who were at the same time librarians. At Home
Pomponius Atticus thought of competing with book-
sellers by training slaves, for the most part Greeks, to
copy manuscripts, their work to be afterwards sold.
Some booksellers were at once copyists, calligraphers,
and even painters. To the great libranes founded by
the emperors were attached rooms for copyists; in 372
Valens attached to that of Constantinople four Greek
and three Latin copyists (Theod. code, XIV, ix, 2).
The edict of Diocletian fixing the maxima of prices
sets down the monthly salary of the Ubraritu at fifty
denarii (Corp. Inscript. Latin, IIP 831). Unfor-
tunately, except for the Egyptian papyri, none of the
works copied in ancient times has come down to us,
and our oldest manuscripts date only from the begin-
ning of the fourth century. The copyists of this cen-
tury, several of whom were Christian priests, seem to
have displayed great activity. It was oy transcribing
on parcnment the works hitherto written on papyrus
and in danger of being destroyed (Acacius and Eu-
soTusat Csesarea; cf. St. Jerome, "Epist.", cxli), that
they assured the preservation of ancient literature and
prepared the work of the copyists of the Middle A^s.
The most ancient and the most precious manuscnpts
of our collections date from this period ; Biblical MSS. :
Codex Sinaiticus, a Greek fourth century MS. discov-
ered by Tischendorf at the monastery of St. Catherine
of Sinai (1844-59), now at St. Petersburg; Codex
Alexandrinus, a Greek Bible executed at Alexandria
in the beginning of the fifth century, now in the British
Museum; Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, a palimpsest of
the Biblioth^que Rationale of Paris, containing frag-
ments of a New Testament written in the fifth century;
Latin Bible of CJuedlinburg, fourth century, in the
Library of Berlin; Fragments of the Cotton Latin
Bible (Brit. Mus.), fifth century. Profane authors:
The seven manuscripts of Virgil in capitals [the most
famous is that of the Vatican (Lat. 3225), fourth cen-
tury]; the "Iliad" of the Ambrosian Library, fifth
oentujy; the Terence of the Vatican (Lat. 3226) in
capitals, fifth century; the "Calendar" of PhOocalut
wntten in 354, known only by modem copies (Brus-
sels. Vienna, etc.).
The barbarian invasions of the fifth and sixth cen-
turies brought about the destruction of the libraries
and the scattering of the books. However, in the
midst of barbarism, there were a certain number of
privileged refuges, in which the cop}ring of books
went on. It is to these copyists of tne B&iddle
that modems owe the preservation of the Sacred
Books as well as the treasures of classical antiquity;
they veritably saved civilization. The chief of these
copying centres were: Constantinople, where the li-
brary and schools continued to exist; the monasteries
of the East and West, where the copying of books was
regarded as one of the essential labours of monastic life ;
the s}magogues and schools of the Jews, to which we
owe the Hebrew MSS. of the Bible, the most ancient
of which date ordyr from the ninth century (British
Museum, MSS. Orient, 4445, ninth century; Codex
Babylonicus of St. Petersburg, copied in 916); the
Mussulman schools (Medresaef^), provided with large
libraries (that at Cordova had 400,000 vols.) and copy-
ing rooms, in which were transcribed not only the
Koran biit also theological works and Arabic trans-
lations of Greek authors (Aristotle, Ptolemy. Hippoc-
rates, etc.). The most important work uncfoubtedly
was done by the monasteries; ito history is identical
with the history of the transmission of sacred and pro-
fane texts of antiquity.
(1) Oriental Chrietendom— From the very begin-
ning of Egyptian monastidsm copying rooms were
installed in the monasteries, as is shown by the Coptic
chronicle on papvrus studied by Strzygowski (*'£ine
Alexandriniscne Weltchronik", Vienna, 1905). In
Palestine, S3rria, Ethiopia, and Armenia, in Melchite,
Jacobite, or Nestorian monasteries, the copying ^of
manuscripts was held in esteem. We know the name
of one scnbe, Emmanuel, of the monasterv of Qartamin
on the Tigris, who copied with his own hand seventy
manuscripts (one of tnem the Berlin Nestorian Evan-
geliarium; Sachau, 304, tenth century). At the Nes-
torian school of Nisibis the students copied the Holy
Scriptures, the text of which was afterwards explained
to them. Indeed the Bible was copied by preference,
hence the numerous Biblical MSo., whetner Syriac
(text of the " Peshitto "preserved at Milan; end ot the
fifth century), Coptic (fragments discovered bv Mas-
pero at Akhmin; see "Journal Asiaticiue", 1892, 126).
Armenian (Gospel in capitals. Institute Lazarev of
Moscow, dated 887; the most ancient complete Bible
belongs to the twelfth century) , Ethiopian, etc. Com-
mentaries on Holy Scripture, liturgical books, trans-
lations from the Ureek Fathers, theological or aaoei-
ical treatises, and some universal chronicles constitute
the greater number of these MSS., from which the
classic writers are excluded.
(2) Greek Church. — In the Greek monasteries St
Basil also recommended the copying of manuscripts,
and his treatise *' On the usefulness of reading profane
authors" bears sufficient witness that side by side
with the religious texts the Basilian monks assigned
an important place to the copying of classical authors.
That a large number of texts have perished is not the
fault of the monks, but is due to the custom of Bysan-
tine scholars of composing ** Excerpta" from the prin«
cipal authors, and afterwards neglecting the originals
(e. g. Encyclopedia of Constantino Porph3rrQgenitU8,
in the library of Photius. See Krumbacher, "Gesch.
der Byzant. Litter.", p. 505). Wars, and especially tha
taking of Constantinople in 1204, also brou^t about
the destruction of a great number of libraries. The
work of the Byzantine copyists from the sixth to the
fifteenth centuries was considerable; and to con vines
ourselves it is enough to peruse the list of three thou-
sand names of known copyists recovered by Maria
Vogel and Gardthausen from Greek manuscripts
HAHUaOBlPTS 6
("Beibefto lum Zentralblatt ftir BibUotbekwemn",
XXXIII, Ledpiig, 1900). It wiU be seen that the
neater number of copyiatA ue monks; at the end of
the manuBcript they often place thetr signature and
the name of uieir monastery. Some of tbiem through
humUity preserve anonymity: r^^« rlt; olSt Wt
"Who wrote this? God knows." Othera on the con-
trary inform posterity concerning the rapidity with
which they have completed their task. The scribe
TheophiluB wrote in thirty days the Gospel of St. John
(985). A manuscript of St. Basil begun on Pentecost
(28 Hay) of 1105 was ended 8 August of the same year.
With the monks there were some secular copyists
known as nofan'i, labvlani, among them a tax collector
of the eleventh century (Montfaucon, "PalBog. gr.",
17 MAHnS0BIPT8
ures of sacred and profane literature which are stin
preserved there, there is not a library of Greek HSS.
which djee not poBsees some examples of their work.
Finally the monasteries founded in the Slav countries,
in Russia, Bulgaria, Servia, on the model of the Greek
convents, also nad their copying rooms, in which were
translated into tJie Slavonic language, with the help oi
the alphabet invented in the ninth century by St.
Cyril, the Holy Scripture and the most important
works of the ecclesiastical hterature of the Greeks.
It was also in these monastic study halls that the first
monuments of the national literature of the Slavs were
dosiuB II (408-450) had earned the surname of "Cal-
ligrapber" (Codinus ed. of Bonn, 151) and John V
Cantacuzenus, having in 1355 retired to a monastery,
copied manuscripts. Among copyists is also men-
tioned the Patriarch Methodius (843-847), who in one
week copied seven psalters for the seven weeks of Lent
(Pat. Or. G. 1253).
The monasteries of Constantinople remain the chief
centres for the copying of manuscriptH, From them
^rhape proceeded in the sixth century the beautiful
GoBpels on purple parchment in letters of gold (see
MANcacRiFTB, iLLUumATBD). In the ninth century
the reform of the Studites was accompanied by a
veritable renascence of calligraphy. St. Plato, uncle
and master of Theodore of Studion, andTheodore him-
self copied many books, and their biographies extcd
the bniuty of their wnting. Theodore installed at
Studion a scriptorium, at the head of which was a
" protocailigra^her " charged with preparing the parch-
ment and distributing to each one his task. In Lent
the copyists were dispensed from the recitation of the
Psalter, but rigorous discipline reigned in the work-
room. A stain on a manuscript, an inexactness in
copy was severely punished. All the monasteries
which came under the influence of Studion also
adopted its method of copying; all had their libraries
and their copying rooms. In the eleventh century
St. ChristodouIoB, another monastic reformer, founder
of the convent of St. John of Patmos, ordained
that all monks "skillful in the art of writing should
with the authoriiiation of the heaoumenos make use
of the talents with which they had been endowed
by nature ". There has been preserved a catalogue of
the library of Patmos, dated 1201; it oomprisee two
hundred and sixty-seven manuscripts on parchment,
and sixty-t^ree on paper. The majority are religious
works, among them twelve Evangeliaries, nine Psal-
ters, and many Lives of the saints. Among the seven-
teen profane manuscripts are works on medicine and
grammar, the " Antiquities" of Joeephus, the "Cate-
gories" of Aristotle, etc.
In tbc monasteries located at the extremities of the
Hellenic worifl are found the same occupations. The
monastic colony of Sinai, which has existed since the
fourth century, formed an admirable library, of which
the present remains (1220 MS8.) afford but a faint
idea. In Byzantine Italy from the tenth to the twelfth
century, the Basilian monks also cultivated calligraphy
at Grottaferrata, at St. Salvatore at Messina, at Stilo
in Calabria, at the monastery of Cassola, near Otran to,
at St. Elios at Carbone, ana especially at the Patir of
Rossano, founded in the eleventh century by St.
Bartholomew, who bought books at Constantinople
and copied several MSS. The library of Itoesano be-
came one of the sources from which the manuscripts
of the Vatican hbrary weredrawn. Besides, from the
end of the tenth century the great mtmasteriss of Hi.
Athoa, the great lattra of St. Athanasius, Vatopedi,
E^phigmenou, etc., became most important centres for
the copying of MSB. Without speaking of the trM^
S'-fff'^lVftTIT^ ■ tfy^t ■
tHiKW- i^^Vf^pi. JuE VTftttTlF .
Mi-btrausun : , . ^ ..
6.«B(M™.I>rppn^p,„D„5 ^U. «^""^W
It eaixKa-. iiLt-uuXU-n^ ■
llriftiB'iiTiMt eaMucraolJinj oJapf L™^aji^
OBifptOJ* jiL(^^funt LiIB caltpjon. toplikuo^
DpiiVIC^ a^[mTf>fIc^Q^piii[Dj-nll ^.rpLrTpi.-'>V^1S
copied, such as the " Chronicle of Nestor", the " S<»ig
of Igor", ete.
(3) The IFegi.— The work of the Western copyists
begins with St. Jerome (340-420), who, in his solitude
of ChaJois and later in bis monastery of Bethlehem,
copied books and commended this eKeroise as one
most becoming bo monastic life (Ep. cxxiii). At the
same time St. Martin of Tours introduced this rule
into his monastery. The copvinff of USS. appears as
one of the occupations of all tine founders of monastic
institutions, of St. Honoratus and St. Capresius at
I4rins, of Caselan at St. Victor's at Uorseiiles, of St.
Patrick in the monasteries of Ireland, of Casalodorua
in his monasteries of Scyllactum (Squillace) . In his
treatise "De Institutione divinarum litterarum"
(643-G45) Cassiodorus has left a description of his
library with its nine ormaria for HSS. of the Bible;
he also describes the copying room, the scriptorium,
directed by ibe antiquarius. He himself set the exam-
ple by copying the Scriptures and he believed that
'■ each word of the Saviour written by the copyist is a
defeat inflicted on Satan" ("De Instltut.", I, 30).
The work of the copyists was also considered merit^
rious by Bt, Benedict. In the sixth century copying
rooms existed in all the monasteries of the West.
Since the time of Damasus, the popes had a library
which was profaiably pro^'ided wiui a copying room.
MAirusoams
618
ItAHUSO&IPTS
The missionaries who left Rome to evangelize the
Germanic peoples, such as Augustine in 597, brought
with them manuscripts which they were to reproduce
in the monastericE foimded by them. In the seventh
century Benedict Biscop made four journeys to Rome
and brought thence numerous MSS.; in 682 he
founded the monastery of Jarrow which became one
of the chief intellectual centres of England. Theodore
of Tarsus (668-680) accomplished a similar work when
he reorganized the AnglcnSaxon Church. The first
period of monastic activity (sixth-seventh centuries)
18 represented in our libraries by a larse number of
Biblical MSS., many of which come Trom Ireland
("Liber Armachanus" of Dublin), England ("CJodex
Amiatinus" of Florence, copied at Wearmouth under
Wilfrid, and offered to the pope in 716; " Harley Evan-
geliary", Brit. Mus., seventh century), some from
Spain (''Palimpsest of Leon'', cathedral archives,
seventh century). Finally the library of the Univer-
sity of Upsala possesses the "(Dodex Argenteus'', on
purple parchment, written in the fifth century, which
contains the Bible of Ulphilas, the first translation
into a (jermanic language of the Holy Scriptures.
At the end of the seventh and during the eighth
century Gaul became more and more barbarous;
monasteries were destroyed or ravaged, culture dis-
appeared, and when Charlemagne undertook the re-
organization of Eiux)pe he addressed himself to the
coimtries in which culture was still flourishing in the
monasteries, to England, Ireland, Lombardy. The
Carolingian renaissance, as the movement has been
called, nad as its principle the establishment of
copying rooms at the imperial court itself and in the
monasteries. One of the most active promoters of the
movement was Alcuin (735-804), wiio after having
directed the library' and school of York, became in 793
Abbot of St. Martin of Tours. Here he founded a
school of calligraphy which produced the most beauti-
ful MSS. of the Carolingian epoch. Several specimens
distributed by Charlemagne among the various mon-
asteries of the empire became the models which were
imitated everywhere, even in Saxony, where the new
monasteries founded by Charlemagne became the fore-
most centres of Germanic culture. M. L. DeUsIe
(M^m. de I'Acad. des Inscript., XXXII, 1) has com-
piled a list of twenty-five MSS. which proceeded
from this school of Tours (Bible of Charles the Bald,
Paris, Bib. Nat., Lat. No. 1; Bible of Alcuin, Brit.
Mui>., 10546; manuscripts at Quedlinburg relating
to the life of St. Martin; Sacramentaries of Metz and
Tours of the Paris Bibliothdque Nationale, etc.).
Among the works proceeding from the imperial
scriptorium attached to the Palatine School is men-
tioned the Evangeliary copied for Charlemagne by the
monk Godescalc in 781 (now at the Biblioth^que Na-
tionale), and the Psalter of Dagulf presented to Adrian
I (now at the Imperial Library of \ ienna) . Other im-
portant scriptoria were established at Orleans by
binhop Theodulfe (whence issued the two beautiful
Bibles now kept in the treasurN' of the cathedral of Puy
and of the Bibliotheque Nationale, I^t. 9380). at St.
Ainand (where tlie copvist Hucbald contrijjutea eight-
een volumes to the uorarv), at St. Gall, under the
Abbots Grimaldus (841-872) and Ilardmut (872-883),
who caased the making of a complete Bible in nine vol-
umes; there are extant ten Biblical MSS. iMitten or
corrected by Hardmut. At St. Gall and in many
otlier monasteries the influence of Irish monks is very
marked (M8S. of Tours, Wurzburg, Berne, BobUo,
etc.) . Besides numerous Biblical MS»S. there are found
among the works of tlie Carolingian epoch many MSS.
of the classical authors. Hardmut nad had copied
Josephus, Justin, Martianus Capella, Oosius, Isidore
of Seville: one of the most beautiful MSS. of the school
of Tours is the Virgil of tlie library of Berne, copied by
the deacon Bemon. Many of these works were even
ftnuuJated into the \'ulgar tongue: at St. Gall there
were Irish translations of Galen and Hippocrates, and
at the end of the ninth century King Alfred (849-000)
translated into English the works of Boethius, Ore-
sius, Bede, etc. At this epoch many monasteries pos-
s^sed libraries of considerable size: when in 906 the
monks of Novalaise (near Susa) fled bef(U« the Sara-
cens they carried to Turin a library of six thousand
MSS.
The period of the eleventh and twelfth centuries
may be considered as the golden age of monastic
manuscript writing. In each monastery there was a
special hall, called the '' scriptorium '', reserved for the
labours of the copyists. On the ancient plan of St.
Gall it is shown beside the church. In the Benedic-
tine monasteries there was a special benediction for^
mula for this hall (Ducange, "Glossar. niedisB et inf.
latin.", s. v. Scriptorium). Absolute silence reigned
there. At the head of the scriptorium the bibUothe-
cariua distributed the tasks, and, once copied, the MSS.
were carefully revised by the corredcMres, In the
schools the pupils were often allowed as an honour to
copy MSS. (for instance at Fleury-sur-Loire) . Every-
where the monks seem to have given themselves with
great ardour to the labour which was considered one
of the most edifying works of the monastic life. At
St. Evroult (Normandy) was a monk who was saved
because the number of letters copied by him equalled
the number of his sins (Ordericus Vitafis, III, 3); In
the "explicit" which concluded the book the scribe
often gave liis name and the date on which his work
ended : he sometimes declared that he wrote " for the
salvation of his soul " and commended himself to the
prayers of the reader. Division of labour seems as
yet not to have been fully established, and there were
monks who were both scribes and illuminators (Ord.
Vital., Ill, 7). The Bible remained the book whidi
was copied by preference. The Bible was c<^]ed
either entire {btblwthe^a) or in part (Pentateuch,
the Psalter, Gospels and Epistles, Evangeliaria, in
which the (jospels followed the order of the feasts).
Then came the commentaries on the Scriptures, the
liturgical books, the Fathers of the Church, worlm of
dogmatic or moral theology, chronicles, annals, lives
oi the saints, histories of churches or monasteries, and
lastly profane authors, the study of which never
ceased entirely. Rather a large number of them are
found among the one thousand MSS. in the library of
Cluny. At St. Denis even Greek MSS. were comd
(Paris, Bib. Nation., gr. 375, copied in 1022). The
newer religious orders, Cistercians. Carthusians^ etc.,
manifested the same zeal as the Benedictines m the
copying of MSS.
Then beginning with the thirteenth centurv the
labour of copyists began to be secularized. About
the universities such as that of Paris were a large num-
ber of laymen who gained a livelihood by c<»ying; in
1275 those of Paris were admitted as agents cm the uni-
versity; in 1292 we find at Paris twenty-four book-
sellers who copied MSS. or caused them to be copied.
Colleges such as the Sorbonne also had their cc^ying
rooms. On the other liand at the end of the thii^
teenth centu^^' in the greater number of monasteriet
the copying ot MSS. ceased. Although there were still
monks who were copyists, such as Giles of Mauleoo,
who copied the "Hours" of Queen Jeanne of Bur-
gundy (1317) at St. ^nis, the copWng and the illu-
mination of SiSS. became a lucrative craft. At this
juncture kings and princes l>egan to develop a taste
for books and to form libraries; that of St. Louis was
one of the earliest. In the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries these amateurs had in their pay veritable
armies of copyists. Thenceforth it was they who di-
rected the movement of tlie production of MiSS. The
most famous \*-ere Popes John XXII (1316-34), Bene-
dict XII (13;J4-42); the poet Petmrch (1304-74), who
was not satisfied with purchasing the BlSS. in convents
but himself formed a school of copyists in order to have
MAMUSORIPTS
(ill)
MANUSCRIPTS
accurate texta. the King of P^raiicc, Charles V (13()4-
1380), who collected in tlie Louvre a library of twelve
hundred volumes, the French princes Jean, Duke of
Berry, a forerunner of modern bibliophiles (1340-
1416), Louis Duke of Orl(^ans (1371-1407) and his son
Charles of Orleans (d. 1467), the dukes of Burgundy,
the kings of Naples, and Matthias Corv^inus. Also
worthy of mention are Richard of Bury, Chancellor of
England, Louis of Bruges (d. 1492), and Cardinal
Georges d'Amboise (1460-1510).
The cop>'ing rooms were made more perfect, and
Trithemius, Abbot of Spanheim (1462-1513), author
of " De laude scriptorum manualium", shows the well-
established division of labour in a studio (preparation
and polishing of parchment, ordinary writmg, red ink
titles, illumination, corrections, re vision,, each task
pletod their tasks in lK'(}ueathing to the niodcrn world
the sacre<l and profane works of antiquity.
IV. PREap:NT Location ok MSJS.— Save for some ex-
ceptions, which ai-e Ixjcoming more and more rare, the
MbS. copied during the Middle Ages are ai present
stored in the great public libraries. The private col-
lections which have been formed since the sixteenth
century (Cotton, BcKlley, Christina of Sweden, Pei-
resc, Gaignidres, Collxjrt, etc.) have eventually l)een
fused with' the great repositories. The suppression of
a great number of monasteries (England and Germany
in the sixteenth centurj', France in 1790) has also
augmented the importance of storehouses of MSS., the
chief of which are, Italy: Rome, Vatican Library-,
founded by Nicholas V (1447-55), which has acquired
successively the MSS. of the Elector Palatine (given
filunfi^nt«lHrlf1v^l'^bet|i^^ •
. . ■ ■ ■ ■ r .
Skction page of Petrarch's Sonnets
From tho MSS. written in part by the poet himself, begun between 1366 and 1368, Vatican Library, Rome
was given to a specialist). Among these copies reli-
gious MSS., Bibles, Psalters, Hours, lives of the saints,
were always represented, but an increasingly impor-
tant place was accorded the ancient authors and the
works of national literature. In the fifteenth century
a great many Greek refugees fleeing Ix^fore the Turks
came to Italy and copied the MSS. they brought with
them to enrich the libraries of the collectors. A num-
ber of them were in the service of Cardinal Bessarion
(d. 1472), who after collecting five hundred Greek
MSS., l)equeathed them to the Republic of Venice.
Even after the invention of printing, Greek copyists
continued to work, and their names are found on the
most beautiful Greek manuscripts of our libraries^ for
instance Const ant ineLascaris (1434-1501), who live<l
a long time at Mea^na; John Lascaris (1445-1535),
who came to France under Charles VIII ; Constant ine
Palflpocappa, a former monk of Athos, who entered the
service of Canlinal de Lorraine; John of Otrartto, the
mast skilful coj^yist of the sixteenth century.
' But the copying of manuscripts had ceased long be-
fore in coaseqiience of the invention of printing. The
copyists who had toiled for long centuries hod com-
by Tilly to Gregory XV), of the Duke of Urbino
(1655), of Christina of Sweden, of the Houses of Cap-
poni and Ottoboni, in 185t5 the collections of Cardinal
Mai, and in 1891 of the Borghese library: 45,000 MSS.
(ccxlices Vatican! , and according to tneir particular
foundation, Palatini, Urbinates, etc.); Florence: Lau-
nmtian Library, ancient collection of the Medici; 9693
MSS. largely of the Greek and I^tin classical authors
(Codices Laurentiani) ; National Library (formerly the
Uffizi), founded in 1860, 20,028 MSS.; Venice, Marcian
Library (collection of Petrarch, 1362, of Bessarion,
1468, etc.)j 12,096 MSS. (Codices Marciani); Verona:
Chapter Library, 1114 MSS.; Milan, Ambrosian Li-
brary, founded 1609 by C'ardinal Federigo Borromeo,
8400 MSS. (Codices Ambrosiani) ; Turin, National Li-
brary, foimded in 1720, collection of the Dukes of
Savoy. I n Jan . , 1 904 a fire destroyed most of its 3979
MSS., nearlv all of them of the first rank (Codices Tau-
rinenses); Naples, National Library' (ancient collec-
tion of the Bourbon family), 7990 MSS.
•SDaiw; Library of the Escorial, founded in 1575 (one
of the principal constituents is the collection of Hui?-
tado de Mendoza, formed at V«.vi'5» Vs^ 'O0& ^ss^w^^ar
BCAMUSOKiyTS 6^
dor of Philif) II), 4927 MSS. (Codices Escorialensefi).
France: National Library (had its origin in the royal
collections gathered at Fontainebleau aa early aa
Fraacis I, and contains the libraries of Mazarin, Col-
bert, etc., and those of the monu$t«nca confiscat«d in
1790) 102,000 MSS. (Codices Parisini). England:
Britisb MuBeum (contains the collections of Cotton,
Sloane Harley, etc.)^ founded in 1753, 55,000 MSS.;
Oxford, Bodleian Library, founded in 1597 by Sir
Thomas Bodley, 30 000 MSS. Bd^wn: BrusseU,
Royal Library, founded in 1S3S (the principal baaia is
the library of the Dukes of Burguncfy), 28,000 MSS.
Holland: Leyden, Library oftheUniveraity, founded in
1675,d400MSS. GennoTiy; Berlin Royal Library, 30,-
000 MSS.; Gattingen University, 6000 MSS,; Leip-
Hg, Albertioa Library, founded in 1543, 4000 MSS.;
Dresden, Royal Library 60,000 MSS. Austria: Vi-
enna, Imperiat Library, founded in 1440 (collections
ot llatthias Corvinus and of Prince Eueene), 27,000
HSS. Scandinavian countries: Stockholm, royal Li-
biary, 10,435 MSS. ; Upsala, University, 1.1,637 MSS. ;
Copenhagen, Royal Library, 20,000 MSS. Russia:
St. Petersbui^, Imperial Library, 35,350 MSS.; Mos-
cow, Library ol the Holy Synod, 513 Greek MSS., 1810
SUvic MSS. United
SUUea: New York Public
Library, founded 1850
(Astor collection, 40
HSS.; Lenox collection,
500 MSS.); Pierpont
Morgan collection, 115
MSS., illuminated minia-
tures. Orient: Constan-
tinople, Library of the
Seraglio (cf. Ouspensky,
Bulletin of the Russian
Archeological Institute,
XII, 1907) ; Monasteries
of Athos (13,000 MSS.),
of Smyrna, of St. John of
Patmoa at Athena, the
Librap- of the Senate —
at Cairo, the Library ot
the Khedive (found»l in Fnoy the vat
1870, 14000 Arabic
MSS.) and the Patriarchal Library (Greek and Coptic.
BISS.). The Library of the Monastery ot St. Catherine
o( Sinai, the patriarchal libAtries of Etscbmiadzin
{Armenian MSS.) and of Mossoul (Syriac MSS.).
The dangers of all kinds which threaten MSS. have
induced the greater number of these libraries to under-
take the reproduction in facsimile of their most pre-
dous MSS, In 1905 an international congress assem-
bled at Brussels to study the best practical means of
reproduction. This is a great undertaking, the ac-
complishment of which depends on the progress of
photography and of colour photography. By this
means will the worka of the copyista of the Middle
Ages be preserved. (See Libraries.)
Sflnif det bibliethtvua (Paris, since ISBO), b periodical devo-
ted to bibliotrsphy. contalos nuinenius unedited cstAlocues,
■od crilical itudiu ol MSS.; Zentralblall fUr BibliolhitutKn
(Leipiig, since 1S§4), tmats of periodical bibUosmphy in the
■uppkineat: Qraesei.. Fr. tr. Lavde. Manud 3e BiUialkfro-
nonu IPuis, 18^7). deals with Ihe msterial Bmngemcnls of
msauBcript cabinets; Ehhle (preFect ot the Vutican), ^ur In
"""^^rvatum el natauniion i/ft in^Tra \rfi.<i. in Rev. d^a Biblialh.
I. ISZ; OuoHT. LMt det r
BiUtrallat der devtiditn
On Iho history of gopyisia a
BibliotAigue df VEcolt da ChnHr.
numeroua bibliogmplilca) artinlr^
tPttrin ft Isff caUiaraphw in /■'
E La Mar
Sl^}; DEUSI.E. u
the history of medievu uunin'-., <* ljiu-iuaube.*, ^/l
Srhreihrr dim MiHsJaWm-s unJ d<ir lOjwiuana (Leipi
SsitOER, HUloin de la Vitl^U pctidani la premittn
•umitu -V< (Kwcy, 1893); F:iDroN, La librairit
SUXnsOBIFTS
/% jiuKv auiuuat of infonnBtioa coacemin^ papyri will be fcruiul
in Arihiv far Papurui/drnJmn^i (Leipiig. ainco 1900). See alio
HoiiLiiUN.LopaiiifroIoeMtn'^iqueCLouvain. IBOJS): SluditnttBr
PaloMffrapkie md papi/ruiutkundt (Ldpiifc nuee 1901, edited
by Wissilt).
LoDis BafiHiEii.
HftntuciiptB, Iij,TiuiNATED. I. Obigin.—A laije
number of MSS. are covered with painted omanients
which may be presented under several forma: (l)
initials of chapters or paragraphs, ornamented some-
times very simply, sometimes on the other hand with ft
great profusion of interlacings, foliage, and flowers;
these are developed along the whole length of the page
and within are sometimes depicted persons or scenes
from everyday life; (2) paintings on the margin, in
which some scene ia earned over several paees; (3),
borders around the text (interlacing colonnades, etc.),
the most remarkable example is that of the evangelis-
tic canons of the Middle Agea; (4) full-paee paintings
(or such as cover only a part of the page), but forming
real pictures, similar to ireecoee or easel pictures ; these
are chiefly found on veiy ancient or veiy recent MSS,
(fourteenth and fifteenth centuriea) ; (6) finally, there
exist rolls of parchment
wholly covered with
paintmgs (Roll of Joeue
m the Vatican; £xu]tet
Roll of S, lUly; see be-
low). All these oma-
mentsarecalled"en lumi -
nurea", illuminationa, or
miniatures, a word used
since the end of the six-
teenth century. At firat
the "miniator" was
charged with tracing in
red minium the titles and
initials. Despite its limi-
tations, the art of Ulumi-
nation is one of the moet
eliarmiiig ever invented;
it exacts the same quali-
CAH"ViKaii." ficationH and produces
almost as powerful ,^-
fecta as painting; it even calls for a delicacy of
touch all its own. And whereas moet of the paint-
ings of the Middle Ages have perished, these little
works form an almost uninterrupted series which
afford us a clear idea of the chief schools of painting of
eachepoch and each region. Finally, in tbehiatoiy (^
art the rdle of illuminated MSS. was considerable; by
treating in their works scenes of sacred history tJie
Orient must be sought the origin of this art,
as well as that of the MSS. themselves. The most
ancient examples are found on Egj'ptian papyri , where
in the midst of the text, and not separated from it,
portraits arc painted, most frequently in profile, ac-
cording to the Egyptian mctliod. After having drawn
the outline in black ink the artist filled in the diawing
in colours. The art seems to have been also cultivated
bjr the Greek artists of Alexandria. The papyrus con-
taining the poems of Timothcus (fourth centuiy b. c.)
foundatAbou9ir,hasalon^-lcggcdbirdin the body of
the text as a mark of division. A fragment of a
romance on a papyrus (Paris, Bib. Nat., supp. Gr.
1294; first century a. d.) displays a text brol^n by
groupeof miniatures: men and women in bluish-giay
or puik costumes stand out in relief from the back-
ground of the papyrus itself. Latin writers show ua
that the miniature was introduced into Rome as earlu
the first wntury B, c. (Pliny, "Hist. Nat.", XXV,
8),
Jib first century B, c. (Pliny, "Hist. Nat.", XXV,
Martial (XIV, 1865) mentions a portrait of Viigil
MAHU8CBIPT& 6i
painted OD a parchment MS , and Vorro collectedieven
busdred sucfi portraits of illustrioua men. (Th* por-
traits of Vbe Evangelista in medieval MSS. result from
this tradition.) None of these works remains and the
only traces of the illumination a of antiquity are found
in the following MS8. of the fourth and fifth centuries:
(1) the "Vir«ir of the Vatican (Lat. 3225), written by
a single hand, has fifty miniatures which appear to he
the work of at least three different painters. These are
small pictures bordered by colourwi hands (six of them
fil! a whole page); some of them, especially in the
"OeorKios", represent countiy landscapes the fresh-
ness of which IS worthy of the text they illustrata.
The background of buildings and temples recalls the
paintings at Pompeii; (2) the " Iliad" of Milan (similar
technic); (3) the Bible of Quedhnbijrif (Berlin), con-
taining the most ancient Christian miniatures known;
(4) the "Calendar" of Philocalus, composed in 364,
the original of which, acquired by Peirese, has disap-
peared, but the copies at Brussels, Vienna and the
Barberini Library evidence a work of a purity thor-
oughly antioue; the most curious portion is an illus-
trated calendar in which each month is eymbolized by
a scene of country life; this is a species of illustration
of ancient origin which recurs very frequently in the
miniatures of the Middle Ages.
II. Eastehn MiNiATUREB. — Eg'jpt.—The tradition
of miniatures on rMipyrus was preserved till the Chris-
tian era. On a Berlin papyrus (Emperor Frederick
Museum) wefindapictureofChristcuringademoniao.
In the Goleniscev collection there are sixteen leaves of
a universal Coptic chronicle on papyrus, dated 392 and
decorated witn miniatures in a very barbarous style,
intended as illustrations of the text. In the margin
are seen successively the months (women crovmed
with flowers), the provinces of Asia (fortified gate-
ways), the prophets, the kings of Rome, Lydia, Mace-
donia, Roman emperors, and perhaps the Patriarch
Theophilus presiding at the destruction of the Scra-
peum. The author was a native monk and a complete
stranger to Hellenic art. Syria and Afesopotamta. —
TTie existence of Persian MSS. on parchment very rich
!i auMuaoazFTs
with a decorative frame formed of zign^, curves,
rainbows, etc. The Gospel canons are set m arcades
ornamented with flowers and birds. The scene of the
Crucifixion is treated with an abundance of detail
which is very rare at this period. The works of the
Syro-Mesopotamian School seem to have missed the
meaning of the Hciienic figures (figures in flowing
1
^M
1
^^^m
^^
t
4
MuiATuKa
From ibe "H&quaaitt" of Hariri
,e of th.
from Greek art (dr«ped at present
figures), but relied mainly on the ornamental tradi-
Itotis of the ancient Orient, The masterpiece of this
school is the Syriac Evangeliary written m 586 at the
Monastery of Zagba (i^sopotamia) by the monk
Rabula (since the fifteenth century in the Laurentian
Library, Florence). The miniatures arc real picturea
pAHABLi or THE Wui AND FoousB Vnaim
From tha EvangeUvium of Hobbdo
draperies) of which they retained the tradition. On a
Syriac evangeliary in the Boi^ian Museum (MSS. Syr.,
14, f. k.) men and animals are painted in unreal colours
and are bordered with black lines which give to the
illuminationB the appearance of eloisonnfi enamels.
The work, which is dated 1546, eoems to have been
inspired by an older model.
Armenia.— The Armenian School of illuminating
also belong to Syria. It is represented by the evan-
geliary of Etschmiadzin (tenth century), the minia-
tures of which are derived from a sixth-century model;
the evangeliary of Queen Mike (Venice, Monastery of
the Mechitarists, dated 902), and the evangeliary of
To bin gen, dated U13. In ail these works the richneaa
of the framework and the hieratic character of the
human face are noteworthy, fl/ussufman Arl. — All
the above characteristics carried to extremes arc found
b the Mussulman schools of miniatures (Arabic, Turk-
ish, and Persian MSS.); tbe oldest date only from tiie
thirteenth century. Together with copies of the Koran,
admirably illuminated with purely geotnetrical figures
radiating symmetrically around a central imifi/like the
design ofacarpet, there is found especially in Persia, B
fruitful school of painters which did not fear to depict
the human face. Nothing is more picturesque than the
varied scenes intended to illustrate the books of chron-
icles, legends, etc. Besides fantastic scenes ("Apoca-
lypse of Mahomet", Paris, Bib. Nat., supp. Turk.,
190) are found contemporary reproductions of scenes
from real life which take us into the streets of Bagdad
in the thirteenth century or permit us to follow an
army or a caravan on the march ("Maq&mdt" of
Hanrij Bib. Nat., Paris, supp. Arab.. 161S). Eastern
artists, whether Christian or Mussulman, frequently
portray their subjects on backgrounds of gold; in
Persian MSS., however, are found attempts at land-
scape backgrounds, several of which betray a Chinese
influence.
III. BrzANTiNTi HiNiATTntBS. — The history of By-
Bontine miniatures is yet to be written; it is impossible
at present to determine its origin or to study its devel-
opment. It seems more and more evident that Bysaa-
tineart, far from bein^ an original creation, is no more
than a prolonged survival of the Hellenic-oriental art
of the fourth to the sixth centuries. The Greek monhl
chai|^ with the illumination of MSS. never ceased to
copy models, but, following the fashion ai\dtb!>>««:R>^
MAHUSORIPTS
022
MAHUSORIPTS
patioD of the time, the^ modclii xometiiuus variiHl; the rpproduction from an ancient origiiial of the
Lence Byiaiitiiie art has luidcrgonc a dcvelopmtMit third-fourth century; eome pictures, Buca aa th&t irf
more apparent tlian real. Under present conditions, David tending his flocks, have a quite Poropeianfreah-
without seeking to determine the M'houlH. wc must i>e ness. Antique influence uuikcs itself felt by a lar^
content to indicate the jirini'liiu] groujM of MS.S. Fiflk nunilier of HllcBories personified and draped in Heilemc
i- (2J the
nnil theological psalter
which the iiiiniaturcs placed
in the margin follow the text
Btep by step. The Chloudov
Psulter of Moscow (ninth
cent.),tho(ieof Vatopcdi (tenth
cent.), the Vatican (Barberini
I.il.rary: dated 1059), etc.
are ihe principal apecimena
oFlhisclass. Some miniatui^s
of thc'Chloudov Psalter rep-
resent episo<]e8 of the Icono-
clastic conflict, Another MS.
often illustrated at this period
WHS the"Menolo^on", which
contained sometimes Ijosidea
the liturgical calendar, on ab-
lircviulion of the lives of the
saints for each day. The most
ct-lfhrated is tliat of the Vat-
ican, decorated for Basil II
(!)7t)-llL'5) by seven artisU
who left, tlieir names attached
to each miniature. A great
variety of colours relieved a
rather extreme monotony of
iiispinition; everj'whcre are
htlectural Inickicrounds, tlie same
... - iKt of thesanie landscopcs. The
Indicopleastes (Vatican), a monk of Sinai: in thiM,t4i- Ijcautifiil MS. of the "Homilies "of Gre^oiy of Naci-
gether with symbolic rciwcsenlalioiis of various purls enzus (Paris. Bib. Nat., (ir. 510: end of nmth century)
of the worl<.t,~are many kcciics and iierBOiiagi^ of the won composed fur Basil II; it isunfortunatelydamaeed
Bible, painted opposite (he text, with the MS. it«elf aa but it presents a remarkable series of the most varied
bocksround. veiy difTcrcnt U the illustration of pictures (portniils of St. Ciregor)- of Naiienkusand
ncdical MSS.. such as the paM^ "^ Busil I ; sessions of Coun
" Diowsirides of Vifiinu,
exocul«d alMut the yi-ar
6UI), for Juliana. ilauglitiT
of Flocidia. Ilereiiu itrr
found real pictures {'(niii'd
from ancient originals (juir-
trait.s of jjhy.-iiciatis and cif
Juliaiiii).
EigliA lo Eleventh Ccii-
hi(T(.— Tlie Iconocliisiic
crisis was fatal to lllunii-
natioHj aiul tininted MSS.
were either mutilated or de-
atroved. Ait attempt was
inuile to substitute fur re-
reptewnt:
(aid iSixlh Cewfurics.— .Sevtml of tlie Biblical tiSA.
gold letters on purple [Mrch-
m(»it havf lieen rightly com-
pared with one another, viz.
the fjcnesis of the Imperial
library of Vieima, the Kvaii-
seliarium of Hossano, and the
Iragmeikt of the Go'iiiel of St.
Matthew discovered at Sino|)e
(dnce 1900 in the Bib. Nat.,
Paris). In these three MSS.
the painting lia.s an anecdotic
character: it is intended lo
illustrate the text, and eomo-
tinwH two pcriod.4 of a scene
are represented in a picture.
Botli tlie e^'angeliaries show a
bearded face of Cluist. ma-
jestic and severe, whicli already
suggests tiie " Pantocrutor" of
church cupolas. From the
same period date two works
which appear to lie f hn tran-
scription on parcliinent of lui
oricinal on papyrus: one in tho
Roll of Josue in the Vatican
Library, w h ich displays a scries
ofmi[iiaturc9i,elevoiiyar(Ubng,n'latiiigto the histoiy found the s
of Josue; (lie olJier Is the MS. nf tliewyageofCosnuis aulIeriiiKs ir
purely <
Prolwbl,
ital a
Proliably lo this scliool be-
longs an evangeliuiy of
Paris(Bib. Nat., Ur.G:{),in
wliich tlie motifs of deco-
ration are borrowed from
flora and fauna. The tri-
umph d images in the elev-
enth ccnturj- wiis also the
triumph iif n-ligious ntin-
iatuR! painting, which
together with calligniphy
underwent git'at development
cils; BibUcal scenes, etc.).
Tliis period was decidedly
the gol<len age of Byzantine
illumination. The MSS.,
even those which lack pic-
tures, liavc at least oma-
mcnted initial letters, which
in the earlier examples are
verj- simple, but in course
of tmie became surrounded
with foliage, in the midst of
which animals or small
figures <lisported them-
selves. (These initials, how-
ever, never attains the
SH me dimensions as in West-
cm MSS.)
Turlfih Cenlurv.— The
lofty IradhifT ' "
were upheld until the fall
<if Constiintinople in 1201.
A group of the Octateuch
(Smyrna, Athos, Vatican,
ind Seraglio libraries) seems
to have the same origin.
DAvin AM. OoLiATH . „ , Tlicarlists wcTC chicHv coH-
r..n. P«Jtw 130, In liil.liothi-.ii.c NationiJc, Pan, ^^^ ^jj^ illustrating tho
,. llic scriptcirium of text, fiiUowini! it step by sU^p; siime of the scenes
Studion. One of the books iliitslrutcd by jirefcn-nce are spirited ancl pictiiresnue, but the inspiration seems
by the nionkM was llii> Psalter, uf which the )iiiintJnRS derivedfrom ancient models (suchaatheRoll of Joeuc).
C(xn[>riso two elements: iIh- scenes of t\w history of TJu' specimen at the Seraglio was coinposeil for Prince
David, aiui the s^-mholie allusiimK to the life of Christ Isaac, sonnfAlexiusICumnenus, AMS.whosepictures
ermtiiineil iTi tlie Psahns. Tlu-n* are lo 1* disiin- exerejsrd grciil influenre on By;!unline art is lliat of
gui.^lKilfn theiirlstiicniiiiri'willer. n-prescnlcil livlhe Ihe " II'lmili(■^ un tlic Vin-nn"! bv .I:inie', a monk of
I'salli-r ..f I'lris (t !r. ];!ilj: (he miniatures extend over Cosynoly.iphd-^ (Vatican. 1 H>2; Paris, VJOS). Tlie ui-
i/ic rrifu7e/Mi£(; within a rich border, and appear to bu itiuls are remarkable for richness, and the p '
develop all the eventa of the life of the Bleaaed Virgin
untU the birth of Christ (cf. the mosaics in the narthex
of the KahriiS-Djarai at Conatantinople). Thir-
tomA to Fifteenth Century.— The studios of iniiiiu-
ture paintings for a long time felt the effects of tlie
catastrophe of 1204, and after the thirteenth century
the monks ceased to iUuminate luxuriously liturgical
M8S. One of the AIS8. mtat characteriiitic of this
period is that of the "Chronicle" of Skylities (Madrid,
National Library, tliirteenlh century). The colour*
are clear in tone and very fresh, but the artist liavuig
no ancient model before him and left to his own nv
sources, has executed veritable bona-hommes, which
nevertheless charm by the vivacity of their movc-
ntentu and their picturesque attitudes. The imitation
of antiquity however was not abandoned, as is shown
by the portraits of Doaiades aiid of Theocrilua (Cod.
Paris, Ur. 28-.'i2) composed iu the fourteenth century,
but probably copied from Alexandrian originals of the
third and fourth centuries. Lastly attention is culled
to certain fourteenth-century MSS. of Western or even
Italian inspiration (Cod. Pans, Gr. 135: dated l:(02 ; on
thisMS., written by ascribeof JohnVCantacuzcnus,
there ia a Gothic monster, a knight with buckler orna-
mented with fleur-de-lis, etc.). In the ijlavic coun-
tricBj the illuminated MSS. of the Bulgarian, Kuiisian or
Servian monasteries belong to the Byzantine school,
but have also been directly inRueuccd by the Orient,
3 HAHUSORIPTS
of the human form in Irish M^^S. miiy be compared to
what we find on certain ('optic monuments, buildings,
or l^a-reliefs. In Ireland as in the Orient, itncient
ornamentation finds little place; foliage is entirely ab-
sent from this
.clui
ely<if
gcometriral ele-
ments. The kin-
ship of these
matifi with those
found on thi" bar-
iMiric jewels or
the stone sculp-
tures of Ireland i«
evident. .\mnnK
the
the
■'Bookof Kelis"
(Trinity College,
Dublin), the
transcription of
which Li ascribed
to 8t. Columba,
but which in
reality belongs t<
gelianiiin of Durham '
edpecially bv Syria. Some Russian MSS. were illu-
mmated in the sixteenth century (e. g. the Book of the
Tsars, ir>;j5-53). Scandinavian influences appear in
Russian MS3. (monsters and intcrlacings of initials);
and one of the most remarkable monuments of Slavic
miniature painting is the Servian Psalter of Munich,
in which the paintings are executed by an impression-
istic artist, who uses contmating colours instead of
pen designs.
IV. WBSTERN MisiATUttEB,— The cvolution of min-
iature fainting in the Occident n-aa quite different; the
imitation of ancient models was never as complete as in
tho Orient, and as in all other arts, the time came
when the illuminator of MSS. abandoned tradition and
attempted to copy nature. In the Occident even
more than in the Orient, it is possible to follow a real
development of illuminated books. Sixth U> Eighth
Cenlant- — Until the Carlovingian epoch the sole orig-
inal school of illumination is to be sought in the Irish
monasterie.s, or in those founded on the Continent by
Irish monks. The works of the Irish school are char-
acterized by wonderful decorative sense, far removed
from naturalism. Nothing ia moic graceful than the
lar^ initials formed by libbtHis ornamented with inter-
lacings, in the midst of which are sometimes human
heads or animals. Some borders decorated with
tillibrord" {d. 730), Apoft-
ils, rose-work, and interlacings recall, hy their lUa-
ay of fancy, pages of the illuminated Korans. Jn-
l«eil there are m Irish art elements which are frankly
Slay of fancy, pages of the illuminal
eeil there are in Irish art elements t .^
Oriental, and the geometrical and symmetrical aspect
'venth century; the "Evan-
, belonging to the Diocese
Lindisfame (British Museum, Cotton M^.,
Xcro D. IV), copied in honour of St. Cuthljcrt
bv Bishop Eadfnth (fia3-721), Imund by Bishop
j^thilwatcl, and ornamented with precious stones by
the monk Billfrith, is also of great value. Althouga
copied in an English monastery it possesses all Iho
chanicterislicH of Irish art; l:irg<; initials ilccoratcd
with iaterlacings and without foliage, tltc predomi-
nance of simple colours (violet, green, yellow, red)
absence of gold and silver, portraits of the evangelists
similar to those on Byzantme MSS. Beginning with
the sixth century this art of illumination was brought
by Irish monks, not only to England but also to the
Continent, where the mona.<leries of Ijuxeuil. W'ilri-
hurg, St. Gall, and Bobliio bec:imc centrw of Irish art.
.\a specimens of this pxii^msinn may be citc<t: the
" Evnngeliarium of St. Will ~
tie of the Frisians
(Cod. Paris, supp.
Lat. 693), of which
the initials resem-
ble those of the
MS. of Durham;
the " Evangeliar-
iumof Macsevck"
(Belgium) eighth
century; the MS.
of the Bible called
Codex Bigotianus
(Cod. Pans, Lat.
281 and 298), the
work of the Abbey
of Fecamp, eighth
centuty; the so-
called St. Cainim
MS. (now with the
Franciscans of
Dublin, but origi-
nating in Italy),
in reality of the
t«nth and ele venth
centuries. Several
MSS. of St. Gall
contain miniatures of thissclKH>l, but nhowing foreign
inHuonw.
Ill the re-it uf ICuroi>e, ;<i[iuni; tin' Visigoths, ths
Franks, anii tlic Burguiirliuns, there w.'«^« v^<bk^ 4.
MAirrrsoBiPTS
624
lUHUUBim
calligraphy simikr to those of Ireland, with more posed for ■overeigns, whose portmits were piesentod
marked traces of ancient art (abaence of interiaciiiiis Dathe6ntpageinalItheirro^apparel;theyBreoft«D
which were replaoed by garlands, sturdy foliage, etc.). Burraunded by allegorical figures borrowed from antiq-
As an example may be mentioned the ini^ of the uity. Beside these full-paee paintings we find above
Burgundian p^ all in these KSB. beautiful initials of extraordinarv
pyri of Geneva, variety; Irish interlacings alone or oombined witn
sixth century antique foliage, purely loomorphic initials, etc. Tbe
niomihea of St. principal MSS. of this period are: the Evangeliary of
Avitus). A cele- Godescalc, made for Charlemagne. 781-83 (Paris),
brated Bible, the t«xt in gold letters on purple gronna with a decorative >
ornamentation of framework which is different on each page; Bibles of
which remains a Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans (Paris and Le Puy);
problem, must be Evangeliary of Charlemagne (Vienna) ; Bibles rf
considered apart. Alcuin (Zurich, Bamberg, ValUcella, Touia); Bibles
This is the famous of Charles the Bald (Paris); Sacramentary (rf Drogo
MB, of St. Gatien (Paris); Sacramentary of Gellone (Paris), has ini-
atTours.Htoienby tials uniquely formed with fishes or birds; Evanoeli-
Libri about 1846, ary of Lothaire (Paris); Bible of St. Martial of
and returned Limoges (Paris, tenth cent.); Evangeliary of Civi'
to the Paris Bib- dale (Friuli); Codei Egberti (Trier), presented to
lioth^que Nation- Egbert, Arcnbishop of Trier, by two monks of Reich-
ale in 1888, after enau in 980. To the same school belong the MSS.
having figured in composed in the German monasteries for the Ottoe.
the A^bumham Moreover, Irish or Anglo-Saxon art also produced
collection. This remarkable monuments, among which may be men-
I^ntateuch, writ- tioned the Psalter of Utrecht (tenth cent.), the
ten in aeventh- Psalters of Winchester (British Museum), and the
century uncials, Benedictionarieg of Jumi^gea (Rouen),
is adorned with TenUi to Ttvdfth CerUury, — At the beginning of the
large full-page miniatures framed in red bands, and pie- eleventh century the fictitious unity in the artistic and
senting a number of scenes arranged on different mar- intellectual sphei« eataUished by Charlemagne gave
' ' '*' way to the diversity of
SniBOUCiU. RXPRBSBNTATION O
From s Cukivisgiaa MS.
gins, but without sym-
metry. What is striking
about the MS. is its aim
at pictureaqueneBB and
movement, and the
wholly Oriental character
of the design and espe-
cially of the costumes of
the personages (the wo-
men wear the tall head-
dress and veil of the bas-
reliefs of Palmyra) and of
the architectural back-
grounds (bulbous cupolas
alternating with pedi-
mented buildings). The
arrangement of the scent „__
century Persian MSS. In this instance we have U> do
perhaps with the reproduction of a cycle of
provincial schools, but if
the boundaries of these
schools may ^moet be
traced when them is
riation of architecture,
task is more difficult
in the study of nuoia-
tures; researches in this
field have scarcely com-
menced. The illumi-
nated MSS tA this period
were made in tM mo-
nastic studios. AaageD'
i*t™« or TBI EvANoEu™ gral thing the wTiteis
From a C»rk.vmr»ii MS. ^^^e at once painters
recalls certain fourteenth- and calligraphers, such as Guillaume de St. ElvrouU,
MS. of Pl__
other arts. Thanks to the initiative of Chariemagne Lombard (Va-
and his chief assistants, Alcuin, Theodulfus, etc., lendennea, 178)
•ehools of miniature painting were formed in the prin- bears the in-
dpal monasteries of the empire, and our libraries pes- scription "8eg-
•ess a targe number of their works. The elements harus me scrip-
wluch compose this art were most varied; the influ- sit" and on
enoe of Irish and Anglo-Saxon illuminations is ungues- the frontispiece
tionable, and to it was due the partiality for large "Sawalo me
InitialawfaicbuntilthefifteenthcentuiywereaDeiJthe fecit". Sawalo,
favourite ornaments of Western MSS. Carlovingian a monk of St.
art was not exclusively Irish, and in the MSS. of this Amand, is the
period are found traces of ancient art and Oriental in- illuminator and
fluencea (evangeliary canons, symbolical motif) such his name is
as the fountain of hfe, etc.). With the assistance of found elsewhere.
these MSS. a whole iconographical cycle may be This period is
formed, encyclopedicincharacter.inwhichsidebyside marked by the
with religious history occur figures from the profane extraordinary
sciences (liberal arts, calendars, lodiaca, virtues and development of i
vices, etc.). Ornamentation is more luxurious, the lar^ initials
colours are more vigorous and decided in tone, silver while the fuU-
and gold have not been spared and there is even a re- page miniatures
turn to MSS. in gold letters on a purple ^ound. Many disappeared. Illustrations on several scales ar« still
of them Sthiea, Psalters, or Evangeliaries were com- found in tbe mar^n. These initials of tbe Romanio
625 lumnoftzm
period follow the traditioiu of C«rlovingian illumi- tween the Bodleian Library, tbe Biblioth^ue Nation-
natioD, but they are eveu more complex and the ale (rf Paris, and tbe Britiah Museum. The Psalter of
human figure ■■■■iinwi an inereaflingly important Ingeburg (Huafe Condd at Cbantill;^) and that of Sts.
plAoe. S<nite o! them are ful.
length portTftits of prophets
orapoBtlee; in othera complete
scenes (battles, besieged cities,
etc.) aredeveloped in tbe midst
of pillars. The great differ-
ence between this and the Car-
lovingian period lies in the ap-
pearance of naturalism and of
anachrooism (prophets with
pointed shoes, etc.). Lastly
there ate many points of re-
semblance between tbe develop-
ment of miniature painting and
that of other arts of dcilgn.
The abort and badly drawn
figures were succeeded, at the
end of the twelfth century, bv
more slender portraits whicn
resemble tbe elongated statues
of Charties. Such ia the char-
acter of the ornamental school
which produced innumerable
works in France, Germany,
Northern Italy, Spaij
piliMUsltBttuiHtitijrriutgrrtTiisrtf
(ntdo«iiTiwiiftnnic()rtliatnnhj rr
otniiitri obnnuic m
Louis and Blanche <rf Castile
(Arsenal Library) belong by
their ornamentation to the
monastic art of the twelfth
century. On the other hand
new tendencies appear in the
worlLS of the second half of
the thirteenth century, e. g. the
Evangeliarium of the Saint«-
Chapelle (Bib. Nat.), the two
Psalters of St. Louis (Paris,
Bib. Nat., and collection <rf H.
Y. Thompson), the works (rf
profane literature (chansons de
geste,etc.). Gothic ornamenta-
tion with its wealth a! roee and
quatrefoil decoration, gables,
Rinnacles, and foliage often
>rms the framework for these
' vignettes. The gold back-
grounds are almoet always cov'
I ered with designs, sometimes
in relief. Instead of foliage
and fantastic animals tbe hu*
man figure holds the predomi-
painting as in the sculpture
aeriiKint - FnTud Bible (7CII centucT)
the Two Biciliee. (Here it is difficult to trapse tbe nantplace. ^.. „
boundary between Western miniature painting and of the thirteenth century may be observed tbe li_
the Bysantine which made its influence felt in tbe gress of realism and the exact obitervation of tbe living
workrooms of Monte Cassino and especially in the model. ■ These beautiful miniatures of the Books m
beautiful paintings of the rolls — -— — - Hours revive for us with their
------'ning the toxtof the "Ex- | ...... JIIS'WI^ i| still admirable eoloure the coe^
ullet" of Holy Saturday.) Also
worthy of mention is an attempt
of the Cistercians to infuse more
at Clteaux, in which gold and
painting were replaced by a
calligraphic decoration in perfect
taste. There is an intimate rela-
tion between this severe elegance
and Cistercian architecture.
.ThirU^nth Ciniu™.— In the
thirteenth century iuumination,
like calligraphy, ceased to be the
specialty of the monasteries. Id
France and about the Univer-
minated MSS. spread more and
more, and important studios of
illuminators arose, the heads of
which often furnished sketches
of miniatuivs to be executed.
On tbe other hand the illumina-
tions took a more and more im-
portant place at the expense of
the text. Tbe artists were no
longer satisfied with ornamented
initials, but in a series of medal-
lions arran)^ like those deco-
rating the stained glass windows
they developed whole cycles of
sacred or profane history. There
were then composed Rcture
Bibles " made up of a continuous
series of miniatures (Bible of Sir
Thomas Philippe), or "Serm<xi
Bibles" ventable illustmted
theological summaries, giving for
rd^l'i'lhiW-uiiv"
tiiUnKi'iii'dii.iiit JiiKii
Ljiiwulr,iu«».'mj'i
.ni4Uifl.'UUi«.IJirdu)'i.n4i'ini(>iiiAi
itwffll moniiW: iniCfliB-Otmif .itui
ftanrl'mnifirin.d.ilijn.'iicili.l tiui'Ti
4ii!Dnin1iuiiuiianiiu^i]rnlteiVi''(
nxtmrun.^ni'i.aBMcu. *
flMila<mic>tciit>lui0ii<inm'ni'> Qu*
Brwn.1 or St. Jauks
From ChrBuiit-Ferruid Bibia (XII caaturyl
each verse of Scripture the" literal, symbolical, and same period the I
moral interpretations. This immense work, which mu*t markaole works
have eontamed 5000 figures, has not reached us com-
plete. AMS.inSvols.ofaSermoD Bible isdividedbe-
tumes of the contemporaries of
St. Louis and Philip the Fair.
Such is the style which hence-
forth dominates French mini-
ature painting and which speed-
ily spread throughout Europe,
especially Ed gland.
Early FourUenlh Century. —
This period is represented chiefly
by the Parisian illuminator Jeao
Pucelle, whose name has been
discovered on several HSS. One
of the most beautiful <d his works
is the Breviary of Belleville (Bib.
Nat.Ut. 104S3-S4), executed in
collaboration with Mabiet Anoe-
let and J. Chevrier. The new
school was remarkaUe for its
borders, formed of wonderful
S»riwKls of interlaoed fcdiage and
ewers, no longer eonvvntiooal
as f ormedy, but copied from na-
ture. Between the border and
tbet«
■ piper pla^g for dancing p^s-
ants, or animals, birds, monkeys,
sculptured paneb of the oathe-
drali of the same period. Tmeesof
Italian inspiration appear in the
architecture, which is of a mixed
Gothic character. Among the
works of this school the " Bo<^
of the Miracles of Our Lady"
(Seminary of Soissons) is one of
the most exquisite. During the
D^ish miniaturists produced re-
"Oueen Mary's Psalter"
HAinTSOaXPTB 621
tuiy. It contains first more than two hundred
scenes from the Old Testament bordered with a smpla
framework of foliage. The figures are graceful uid
elegant. Then come scenes from the life of Christ exe-
'd tiackgrounds with much greaterrichneBs
in the miHRt of innumerable
-^■fiies of tl]p chase, tourney,
's, grotesque Hubjeota, The
Anglian iibbeys (Norfolk,
SiitTiilk) produced niagnificent
p.-v:illprs during the lame period
'■^Iter of I'eterboroughatBnw-
■ ; PsaH
MAKUSORmv
«. In this respect the
)uke of Berry (Cbantilly,
«n attributed to Pol d
"Trt«
ij^Husfe
months are represented all the chAteaux of the prinoe
in the midst of surprisinriy true landscapes. Loog
before the Van Eycks, Pol de limbourg r
p, Robert of Ormes-
^«^«rQ^ by at Oxford)
*''*'*""^** which belong to
tlic same echoed.
lu (lermany the
mini.ituriats had
lone been imitat-
ig Bysantine art;
beginning with
the fourteenth
century they also
' I i t a t e
the mon-
asteiy of St. Florian is found the moat ancient exam-
ple of the Biblia Pauperum, executed about lUOO ac-
cording to the same method as theScrmon Bibles. The
taste for miniaturea was so keen at this period that they
even went so far as to illuminate some important char-
ters. A copy of the house rulea of the kings of Majorca
showB each of the ofEciala in the exerciae of his funo-
tiona (reproduced in "Acta SS. BoUand.", June, I;
cf. list given by Dclaborde ia " Centenaire de la Soci-
^t^ dcs Antiquairea de France ", 93).
I^e Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Century.— It was in
the second half of the fifteenth century that the art of
miniature painting n-aa most profoundly changed. It
m.iy even be said that the illuminators of this period
were to a certain extent the precursors of modem
painting. This new transformation seems to have
. been largely the
work ot the power-
ful" Ghildes" of
the Flemish mas-
ters, versatile art-
ists, many of them
skilled like Andr^
obUged b;^ stress
of competition to
leave their own
country in order
to offer their ser-
vices to the lovera
of beautiful MSS.
They are found
scattered through-
out Europe, and
Italy. Andr^
artists in Ihe em-
Sloy of Jean Duke of Berry. He made a Psalier {Bib.
at.. Paris) in which figures of propheta. and Apostles
iilti'mated in quiet tones. It was at this lime that
miiiiuscripts bejian to he painted in grisaille. The
goliJ baekgroundg WCTC np\&vni by designs in coloure,
quainted with aerial perspective. In his works an
found the effects t^ snow, of starry nights, of daiiUng
muniner li^ta, the grey tones of autumn, all of which
mre new m art. Persons were treated with the same
love of truth. Physiognomies copied from nature
without disguise of any defect, intensity of look (never
was religious sentiment expressed with such power),
minute truthfulness as to costumes and details of fur-
nishing, such were the characteristics of this art. Hav-
ing arrived at this perfection miniature painting eeued
to be a merely decorative art and was confounded
with painting on a large scale. The anachronism of
costumes belonging to the fifteenth century, wbetber
they have to do with characters from Terence or soenes
from the Goepels, is not one of the least charms of
these beautiful works. Simitar are the other MSS. of
Jean de Beny, the "Grandes Heures", ascribed to
Jacquemart de Hesdin, the "Trfe Belles Heurea"
(Brussels) by the same artist, the "Dukes' Terence"
^aris), which first belonged to the Duke of Ouyenne.
The "Heures de Turin" (destroyed by the fire of
1901), made for William IV, Count irf Holland, belcaw
to the same school. About 1450 we can distingui^
the Flemish- Burgundian school (works executed for
the Dukes of Burgundy) from the French schod,
whose chief representative is Jean Fouquet of Tours
(1415-80). Flemish and Italian influence are con-
fused in his works: "Jewish Antiquities" (Paris);
"Book of Hours" of Etienne Chevaher (Chantilly);
" Grandea Chronioues de France " (Paris), et«. After
him Jean Bourdichon, who about 1508 decorated the
"Hours" of Anne of Brittany (Paris), may be consid-
ered the lost representative of the great scnool of min-
iature painting. The progress of wood-engraving was
as fatal to it, as was that of printing to calligraphy.
Until modem times Books of Hours, works of nep-
atdiy, etc. have continued to be illuminated, but these
miniatures do not possess a single personal quality.
Sl..vl,iTHt. Faltoa^^iihie unir^MfHo {Taiii, ISSB-tl). 400;
Mli>nr,i:TON» lllvminited Munvfiriplt in Clatncat and Mrdim^
pal Tima (Cunbrldse, IS92]; Rtpmductiom /mm iUuminaltd
man^urriplsefthsantuh Mu-tam (Iadcjod, ISM-lMS); Bau-
LET, A Dictionary o] ilinvOmiti. fUuminnliiHi, CtalKrrapAin
and Capf/uli <Londan. ISfiT)^ Lscox Di 1.* UiUHsa, La
it la ontrr (&<■,' IW3v' MaktiH.'Lm pti
< Hla minimum tnFmnatPtlit. mm; Knw
lailik (Weiawr. 1S8S): Zoamoa, Bitbina A
rum picionim (Leipu«, 1743): Bbissbi., OoMAH At £Mni-
sW>«n6cMer >n d<r mttn fflttU da Mittt^aUin (FMban b
Br.. 1906); db HousilC. Lt Virgilt du Vatiem tf wt piSwt
(Piris. t8S7); M<I, IHadit fratmBita . . . mm pietivH ODba.
1S19I; Stbetoowui. StntAlaaiiAimttAtWtltAniult (VisuK,
IBOS): Idbu. Dot BUcimiadan EmnfiSaT (Vlouia, ISBl):
Idkh, KMUfammitAt MiniMtirwia$errt im YtrHfaiMdHatiit
«T UnintnilatibMiaatli n> reMwoi. 1: Uionst, ifaaul
d'a'rlMiattlman,U(PMit.lW7),K-60: Blocret, Lea faota ^
printurt m Prrte in Ret: AirliMoo. (Ju[y. 1005); Kohdako**.
Ili-'.-ir/ d, r.„! '.ii:.,„t:,i ,C,ii-r,s I,-.- .;, i -,-)!„-,■. I F> Ir, FatM.
ISSS-Sn^ Ouatn. Mi^ia!tIral^rtmanltlC^il^BTladI^aB^Ui^■
!. HiOBXTC dii fart I, II!
'saky
ISSG); I
rr.Coda
'^eZ^
r. Die Wia
I. Uathi
litu&t
_ AfonunwnnPirf, VII (1901);
btaantina dt Berlin in Revut Anhlolog. (July, 1901): CcxfuM a
Va^ni Select* . . . VIII. II Mmoloay, di BaMie, II (ToiId,
1907); OcspBNKT. Le manoKrit de rOdalntue du SJnQ ia
Bnlltiin de flmlUul AnAA)l. rutte de ComUntinopU, XII.
(1007)1 anuTOOWBEi. Dm miniaiuren dee eerbitch^n Fnltdri
tVi»DnkISOe>: GiLBcnr. Fac-timileeofnatiimalmiaitucrirllof
Ireland (London. 1H74-18S4): Wmtwood, Fa^^imUm of Ike
rtinialurei and omameiUt of Anglo-Saam and /rtrt mamaPipJl
(London, 18631: rNCER, La miniatwe iriandaiie in An. Cd-
(iqu«(lSTO); The Lindiifame and RutkwrVt (htpiit tSu^fM*
SoclETT. 4S. ISaS): ns Butaxd. Pcinlum et oriMiMK* dtt
manuKrite (Pfttii, 1888. intomplttol ; LiiTSCaraH, 0mA. drr
Karolineinchen Malerei (Berlin, 1804); tlEKUU Di* Tritrtr
Ada-Bandtckrifl (Ldpiii, 1889) ; db Babtabd, FfkUum di Is
BCANUSORIPTS
627
UAinJSORIPTS
Bible de Charlea le Chauve (Paris. 1883); BRimBR. La Bible
hidori^e de Clermont in Etudes archiol, (Clermont, 1010) ; Vm-
THUM, Die Parieer Miniqiurmalerei (Leipsig, 1007); Delulk.
Fac-eimUee de livrea copiie et enluminde pour le rot Charlea V
(Paris, 1003); dk LAanrrRiB, Lee tniniatttrea d Andri Beaw
neveu et de Jacquemart de Heedin in Monumente pict.. Ill;
DuRBZEU, Heuree de Turin (Paris, 1002); Lee Trie Richee
Heures du due de Berry (Paris, 1004) ; Rsznach, MinitUurea dee
Orandee Chroniquea de Philippe le Ban in Monumente pict., XI;
DE Laborde, Lee Manueerita h peinture de la CiU de Dxeu (Paris,
1010) ; Omont. Reproduction rMuite dee manueerita et minxaiurea
de la Bibliolh^ue Nationale (Paris, s. d.), contains Psalter of St.
Louis, Book of Hours of Anne of Brittany, Grande CThroniques
de France «f Jean Fouquet, etc.
Louis BRismEB.
ManuBCiipts of the Bible are written, as opposed
to printed, copies of the original text or of a version
either of tne whole Bible or of a part thereof. After
introductory remarks on MSS. in general^ we shall
take up in detail the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Syriac,
Armenian, and Coptic MSS. of the Bible; MSS. of other
versions are not important enough to come within the
scope of this article.
1. In General. — ^MSS. may be conveniently di-
vided into papyrus and vellum MSS. (1) Papyrus
MSS. — In tne Roman Empire of the first three cen-
turies of our era, papyrus was the ordinary writing
n^terial. Made out of strips of pith taken from the
stem of the Egyptian water-plant of the same name,
papyrus was very fragile, became brittle in air, crum-
olecl with use, could not resist the disintegrating
force of moisture, and was quite impracticable for
book-form. All papyrus MSS. of every sort are lost
to' us save such as were buried in exceedingly dry soil,
like that of Upper and Middle Eg>'pt. Here the igno-
rant fellaheen at one time wantonly destroyed vast
quantities of papyrus MSS. Egyptian excavators
now prevent such destruction and keep on adding to
our very considerable collections of papyri. It is
more than likely that the New Testament sacred
writers or their scribes used ink and rolls of fragile
papyrus for their autoarapha (II (Dor., iii. 3; II John,
12). These original BASS, probablv perisned towards
the end of the first or opemng of the second century.
We find no trace of them in either the Apostolic or the
apologetic Fathers, — unless we except TertuUian's
words, ''the authentic letters of the Apostles them-
selves'', which are now generally set aside as rhetori-
cal. A si^ficant proof of the early loss of the*auto-
graph copies of the New Testament is the fact that
Irenseus never appeals to the original writings but
only to all the painstaking and ancient copies (ip ira^c
rocs ffirovSalois Kal dpxalois dmypdiftois), to the witness
of those that saw John face to face {Kal fiapTvpoirrav
aihOv iKtltwv tOp Kardrf/iw rhv 'Itad^niP iopaicSTUfp)^ and
to the internal evidence of the written word (imU roO
\brfOv diddffKOPTOS ^/xas).
(2) Vellum MSS. — Egypt clung to her papyrus
rolls until the eighth century and even later. VeUum
had been used before the time of Christ (cf. PKny,
"Historia Naturalis", xiii^ 11), and during the time
of the Apostles (II Tim., iv, 13). Itf the third cen-
tury, it began, outside of Egypt, to supersede papyrus;
in the early part of the fourth century vellum and
the codex, or book-form, gained complete victory
over papyrus and the roll-form. When Constantine
founded his capital of the Byzantine Empire, he
ordered Eusebius to have fifty MSS. of the Bible
made on vellum ((rcu^ria ip dt^ipats) for use in the
churches of Byzantium (Vita Constant., IV, 36). To
the fourth century belong the earliest extant Biblical
MSS. of anything but fragmentary size.
(3) Po/impseste .-—Some vellum MSS. of the greatest
importance are palimpsests (from Lat. pcXimmestum,
Gr. iraXlfjapriffTos^ " scraped again "), — ^that is, they were
long ago scraped a second time with pumice-stone and
written upon anew. The discovery of palimpsests led
to the reckless and bigoted charge ot^wholesale de-
struction of Biblical MSS. by the monks of oM. That
there was some such destruction is clear enough from
the decree of a Greek synod of a. d. 691, which forbade
the use ofpalimpsest manuscripts either of the Bible
or of the Fathers, unless they were utterly unservice-
able (see Wattenoach, " Das Schriftwesen im Mittel-
alter", 1896, p. 299). That such destruction was not
wholesale, but had to do with only worn or damaged
MSS., is in like manner clear enough from the signifi-
cant fact that as yet no complete work of any kind has
been found on a palimpsest. The deciphering of a
palimpsest may at times be accomplished merely by
soaking it in clear water; generally speaking, some
chemical rea^nt is required, in order to bring back the
original writmg. Such chemical reagents are an in-
fusion of nutc^dls, Gioberti's tincture and hvdrosul-
E buret of ammonia; all do harm to the MS. Watten-
ach, a leading authority on the subject, says: "More
precious manuscripts, in proportion to the existing
supply, have been destroyed by the learned experi-
menters of our time than by the much abused monks
of old."
II. Hebrew MSS. — (1) Age. — (a) Pre-Massoretic
text. — ^The earliest Hebrew ft®, is the Nash papyrus.
There are four fragments, which, when pieced to-
gether, give twenty-four lines of a pre-Massoretic text
of the Ten 'Commandments and the shema* (Ex., xx,
2-17; Deut., v, 6-19; vi, 4-5). The writing is with-
out vowels and seems palseographically to be not later
than the second century. This is the oldest extant
Bible MS. (see Cook, "A Pre-Massoretic Biblical
Papyrus" in "Proceed, of the Soc. of Bib. Aroh.**,
Jan., 1903) . It agrees at times with the LXX a^inst
the Massorah. Another pre-Massoretic text is the
Samaritan Pentateuch. The Samaritan recension is
probably pre-exilic; it has come down to us free from
Massoretic influences, is written without vowels and in
Samaritan characters. The earliest Samaritan MS.
extant is that of NablAs, which was formerly rated
very much earlier than all Massoretic MSS., but is now
assigned to the twelfth or thirteenth century a. p.
Here mention should be made of the non-Massoretic
Hebrew MSS. of the Book of Ecclesiasticus (q. v.).
These fragments, obtained from a Cairo genizah (a box
for womout and cast-off MSS.), belong to the tenth or
eleventh century of our era. They provide us with
more than a haft of Ecclesiasticus and duplicate cer-
tain portions of the book. Many scholars deem that
the (Jairo fragments prove Hebrew to have been the
original language of Ecclesiasticus (see "Facsimiles
of the Fragments hitherto recovered of the Book of
Ecclesiasticus in Hebrew", Oxford-find Cambridge,
1901).
(b) Massoretic text. — All other Hebrew MSS. of the
Bible are Massoretic (see Massorah), and belong to
the tenth century or later. Some of these MSS. are
dated earlier. Text-critics consider these dates to be
due either to intentional fraud or to uncritical tran-
scription of dates of older MSS . For instance , a codex
of tne Former and Latter Prophets, now in the Karaite
synagogue of Cairo, is dated a. d. 895; Neubauer as-
signs it to the eleventh or thirteenth century. The
Cambridge MS. no. 12, dated a. d. 856, he marks as a
thirteenth-century work; the date a. d. 489, attached
to the St. Petersburg Pentateuch, he rejects as utterly
impossible (see Studia Biblica, IIL 22^. Probably
the earliest Massoretic MSS. are: "rrophetarum Pos-
teriorum Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus", dated
A. D. 916; the St. Petersburg Bible, written by Samuel
ben Jacob and dated a. d. 1009; and '^Codex Oriental.
4445" in the British Museum, which Ginsburg (Intro-
duction, p. 469) assigns to a. d. 820-50. Tiie text-
critics differ very widely in the dates they assign to
eertain Hebrew MSS. De Rossi is inclined to think
that at most nine or ten Massoretic MSS. are earlier
than the twelfth century (Vari® Lectiones, I, p. xv).
(2) Number. — ^Kennicott, the first critical stuuent of
the Massoretic text, either examined ot V^s^si^^^^cKc^^ss.*
HAVUaOBIPTS 6:
uidne 16 Samaritiui HSS., some 40 printed tozta and
638 Ifassoretio HSS. (tee "DisBerUtJo Ge&eralis in
Vetus TutEtm. Hebraicum", Oxford, 1780). He
nunibei«d these MSS. in six groups; nos. 1-88, Oxford
HSS.; noB. 89-144, other MSS. of English-speaking
countries; nos. 145-254, MSS. of continental Europe;
nos. 255-300, printed texts and various MSS.; nos.
301-694 ti^S. collated by Brunsius. De Rossi
(VariEe Lectiones Vet. Test.) retained the numeratioa
ofKennicottandaddeda list of 479 MSS., all his own
pergonal property, (rf which unfortunately 17 had al-
ready received aumbers from Kennicott. De Roasi
UAHUaOBXPTB
jot and tittle of the text wa« almost absolutely
ajid uered. R. Aqiba aeenu to have been the
head of this Jewish school of the second century. Un-
precedented means were taken to keep the text fixed.
The scholars counted the words and consoniuits of
each book, the middle word and middle conaonanta,
the pecularities of script, etc. Even when such pecu-
liarities were clearly due to error or to accident, they
were perpetuated and interpreted by a mystical mean-
ing. Broken and inverted letters, conaonanta that
were too small or too large, dots which w«tc out of
place — all these oddities were banded down as God-
I
Cool
a PiTTHci
Ui. 1-3
Saction of Page (Reduced)— Anna, ii, 11-13, biU Abdiaf
MS. in tmpertBl Library. St. Peteraburi
lateradded four Bupplementary Hats of 110,52, 37, and intended. In Gen., ii, 4, □tnSTIS ("when they w«n
76&^S. He brought the number of Maasoretic MSS. created"), all MSS. have a small n. Jewish sdiolara
up to 1375. No one has since undertaken so colossal a looked upon this peculiarity as inspired; they inter-
critical study of the Hebrew MSS. A tew of the chief preted it: "In the letter n he created them"; and then
MSS. are more exactly collated and compared in the set themselves to find out what that meant. This
critical editions of the Massoretic text which were lack of variants in Massoretic MSS. leaves ua bopelew
done by S. Baer and Er. Delitzsch and by Ginsburg. of reaching back to the original Hebrew text oave
To the vast number of Hebrew MSS. examined by throng the versions. Kittel in his splendid Hebrew
Kennicott and De Rossi must be added some 2000 text gives such variants as the versions suggest.
USS. of the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg, which
Firkowitsch collated at Tschutut-Kale (" Jews'
Rook") in the Crimea (see Struck, "Die biblisehen
und massoretischen Handschriften zu Tschufut-
Kale" in"ZeiU. fOrluth. Theol. und Kirche", 1876).
(3) Worth. — The critical study of this rich assort-
ment of about aiOO Massoretic rolls and codices is not
ao promising of important results as it would at first
thou^t seem to be. The MSS. are all of quite receut
date, it compared with Greek, latin, and Syriac cod-
ices. They are all singularly alike. Some few vari-
ants are found in copies made for private use; copies
made for public service in the synagogues are so uni-
form as to deter the critic from comparing them.
Massoretic MSS. bring us back to one editit
ft textual tradition which probably began
Hahkavt, Colaloe Art bibr. BOoUoiKlKAn/M
_. .1 BAlialick (Leipiig. 18751: NsnaADxa, Fa^
similaof Hrbrm MSS. ill till Bedt^n Library (Oxioni, IS06):
Nbdbacbr. CatalBs^i ofOieHrbrea UmiucTipl* in Iha BmfMaa
Librarv and in tin CoUrge Libraria a) Oifor^ (Oxford, IBH):
Khaft AMD DEirracn, Bit handttJiri/a. htbrOitdun Wtrir iit
K. K. HBfbihtioOiiie (Vienna, 1857); t^EiNBCBHDDBB. £>» W-
bmitch. Handarhriflm dtr K. Ho/, und SlaatMtiliiiOitk (MimMk
isas): ScuiLuiR-SiiNEssi. Calaloffut of tht HtbraB USS. pr*-
ttrvrd in Ui4 UniBtrritu Library (Cambridge, 1878); AmmMtMU
Biblialhtfa AtiotlaJioi Vaticana codicrt Oruralaia (Ron*,
1750): Mai, Appendix Is Avnnani (Rome, 1831).
III. Greek MSS.— (1) In General.— Greek MSS.
are divided into two classes according to their style
of writing— uncials and minuscules, (a) Uneiala were
... __.. written fetween the fourth and tenth oenturiee, with
■that of large and disconnected letters. These lettera were not
' " " capital8,buthadadiatinctivefonn:ep3iloE "'" " ""
ood txDtiay and became more and more minute imtil omega were not written £, X, (I, a
e those oaEat«lt
liANtJSOBIPTS
629
HANtJSORIPTS
in inscriptione; p, ^, ^, and at times v were prolonged
above or below the line. Words were not separated;
neither accents nor punctuation marks were used;
paragraphs were marked off only by a very small la-
cuna; the letters were uniform and artistic; ligatures
were used onlv for th£_most ordinary words — ic
('I^<roOt), ice (K^ptot), xc (Xpto-Tos), ica ('ly/wi^X),
ilNA (irrevfja), aaa (Aow/J), aNOC {JwBpwroi), pHP
(irar-fip), mHP (awTI^P), YO (»'t^«)> CHP (<rwTi>p), OYNOC
(o^pai^f). In the sixth century, began a decadence
of the elegant uncial writing. Twists and turns
were given to certain letters. In the seventh cen-
tury, more letters received flourishes; accents and
breathings were introduced; the writing leaned to the
right, (b) Minuscules. — While uncials held sway in
Biblical MSS., minuscules were employed in other
works. During the ninth century, both uncial and
minuscule MSS. of the Bible were written. The latter
show a form of writing so fully developed as to leave
no doubt about its long standing use. The letters are
small, connected, and written with a running hand.
After the tenth century, minuscules were used until,
in the fifteenth century, MSS. were superseded by
print.
(2) Old Testament MSS.— (a) LXX.— There are
three families of LXX MSS., — the Hexaplaric, Hesy-
chian, and Lucianic. MSS. of Origen's Hexapla (q. v.)
and Tetrapla were preserved at Csraarea by his disciple
Pamphilus. Some extant MSS. (v. g. M and Q) refer
in scholia to these gigantic works of Origen. In the
fourth century, Pamphilus and his disciple Eusebius
of Ccesarea reproduced the fifth column of the Hexa-
pla, i. e. Origen's Hexaplaric LXX text, with all his
critical si^s. This copy is the souree of the Hexa-
plaric family of LXX M^. In course of time, scribes
omitted the critical signs in part or entirely. Pas-
sages wanting in the LXX, but present in the Hebrew,
and conseouently supplied by Origen from either
Aqjuila or Theodotion, were hopelessly commingled
with passa^s of the then extant LXX. Almost at
the same time two other editions of the LXX were
Eublished — those of Hesychius at Alexandria and of
ucian at Antioch. From these three editions the ex-
tant MSS. of the LXX have descended, but by ways
that have not yet been accurately traced. Veiy few
MSS. can be assigned with more than probabih^ to
one of the three families. The Hexaplaric, Hesy-
chian, and Lucianic MSS. acted one upon the other.
Most extant MSS. of the LXX contain, as a result,
readings of each and of none of the great families.
The tracing of the influence of these three great MSS.
is a work yet to be done by the text-critics.
(i) Papyrus. — About sixteen fra^ents on papyrus
are extant. Of these, the moat important are: (o)
Oxyrhyncus Pap. 656 (early third cent.), containing
parts of Gen., xiv-xxvii, wherein most of the great
vellum MSS. are wanting. (/3) British Museum Pap.
37, at times called U (seventh cent.), containing part
of Psalms (Hebrew) x-xxxiii. (7) A Leipzig Pap.
(fourth cent.) containing Psalms xxix-liv. These
two Psalters give us the text of Upper Egypt. (3) A
Heidpllxjrg Pap. (seventh cent.) containing S^ach., iv,
6-Mal., iv, 5. (e) A Berlin Pap. (fourth or fifth cent.)
containing about thirty chapters of Genesis.
(ii) Vellum Uncial. — Parsons collated 13 imcial and
298 minuscule MSS. of the LXX; the former he desie-
nat<»d with Roman numerals, I-XIII, Hie latter with
Arabic numbers, 14-311 (cf., *'V. T. Grsecimi cum
Variis Lectionibus'*, Oxford, 1798). Lagarde desig-
nated the uncials by Roman and Greek capitals. This
designation is now generally accepted (cf . Swete, " In-
troduction to the Old Testament in Greek", Cam-
bridge, 1902, 148).
M — S, Cod. SinaiHcus (q. v.) (fourth century; 43
leaves at Leipzig, 156 together with N. T. at St.
Petersburg) contains fragments of Gen. and Num. : I
Par., ix, 27-xix, 17; Em., ix. 9-end; Esth.; Tod.;
Judith; landlVMach.; Isa.; Jer.; Lam., i, 1-ii, 20;
Joel; Abd.-Mal.; the Poetical Books; the entire New
Testament; the Epistle of Barnabas and part of the
"Shepherd" of Hennas. The text is mixed. In
Tobias it differs much from A and B. Its origin is
doubtful. Two correctors (C» and Cb) are of the
seventh centurv. Ca tells us at the end of Esth. that
he compared tiiis MS. with a very early copy, which
Pamphilus testified had been taken from and corrected
according to the Hexapla of Origen.
A, or Cod. Alexandrtnua (q. v.) (fifth century; in
British Museum) contains complete Bible (excepting
Ps. 1, 20-lxxx, 11, and smaller lacunae) and includes
deuterocanonical books and fragments, the apocry-
phal III and IV Mach., also I and II Clem. Its origin
IS Egyptian and may be Hesychian. It differs much
from B, especially in Judges. Two scribes wrote
the MS. Tne corrector belonged to about the same
time.
B^ or Cod. Vaticanua (q. v.) (fourth century; in the
Vatican) contains complete Bible. The Old Testa-
ment lacks Gen., i, 1-xlvi, 28; I and II Mach.; por-
tions of II Kings, ii; and Psalms, cv-cxxxvii. The
New Testament wants Heb., ix, 14; I and II Tim.;
Titus.; Apoc. Its origin is iiower Egyptian. Hort
thinks it akin to the text used by Origen in his Hex-
apla.
C, or Cod. EphrcBtni Rescnptus (q. v.) (fifth century
palimpsest; in National Library, Paris) contains 64
leaves of Old Testament; most of Eccl.; parts of
Ecclus.; Wisd.; Prov. and Cant.; 145 out of 238 leaves
of NiBW Testament.
D, or The Cotton Genesis (fifth century; in British
Museum) contains fragments of Gen.: was almost de-
stroyed by fire in 1731, but had been previously
studied.
E, or Cod. Bodleianus (ninth or tenth century; in
Bodl. Libr., Oxford) contains Heptateuch, fragments.
F, or Cod. Ambrosianus (fifth century; at Milan)
contains Heptateuch, fragments.
G, or Cod. Satravianus (fifth century; 130 leaves at
Leyden, 22 in Paris, one in St. Petersburg) contains
the Hexaplaric Octateuch (fragments) with some of
the asterisks and obeli of Origen.
H, or Cod. PetropolUanus (sixth century; in Im-
perial Libr., St. Petersburg) contains portions of
Numbers.
I. or Cod. Bodleianus (ninth century; in Bodl. Libr.,
Oxford) contains the Psahns.
K, or Cod. Lipsiensis (seventh century; in Univ. of
Leipzig) contains fragments of Heptateuch.
L, or The Vienna Genesis (sixth century; in Imperial
Libr., Vienna) contains incomplete Genesis, written
with silver letters on purple vellum.
M, or Cod. Coislinianus (seventh century; in Na-
tional Library, Paris) contains Heptateuch and Kings.
N-V, or Cod. Basiliano-Venettis (eighth or ninth
century; partly in Venice and partly in Vatican) con-
, tains complete Cren., Ex., and part of Lev., and was
used with B in the critical edition of LXX (Rome,
1587).
O, or Cod. Dtiblinensis (sixth century; in Trinity
College, Dublin) contains fra^ents of Isaias.
Q, or Cod. Marchalianus (sixth oentmy; in Vatican)
contains Prophets, complete; is very important, and
originated in Eg5rpt. The text is proDablv Hesv-
chian. In the margins are many readings from' the
Hexapla; it also gives manv Hexaplaric signs.
R, or Cod. Veronensis (sixth century; at Verona)
contains Or. and Lat. Psalter and Canticles.
T, or Cod. Zxtriceneis, the Zurich Psalter (seventh
century) shows, with R, the Western text; silver let-
ters, gold initials, on purple vellum.
W, or Cod. Parisiensis (ninth century; in National
Library, Paris) contains fragments of Psalms.
X, or Cod. VoHcanus (ninth century; in Vatican) co»^
tains the Book of Job.
MANUSCRIPTS
mo
MANUSOaiPTS
Y, or CfHl. Taitrinensis (iiintli century; iu National
Library', Turin) contains I/Csscr Prophets.
Z, or Cod, Tischendorf (ninth century) contains
fragments of Kings; published by Tischendorf.
r, or Cod. Cryptoferratensis (eighth or ninth
century; at Grot taf errata) contains fragments of
Prophets.
A. or C(td. Bodleianus (fourth or fifth centiuy; Ox-
forUi in Hodl. Libr.) contains a fragment of Daniel.
6, or Cod, Washington (fifth or sixth century, to
be in Smithsonian Institution), contains Deut. — Jos.,
found in Egj'pt, one of the Freer MSS. There are
likewise seven uncial Psalt<;rs (two complete) of the
ninth or t^nth century and eighteen rather unim-
portant fragments listed by Swete (op. cit., p. 140).
(iii) Vellum Minuscule. — More than 300 are known
but unclassified. The Cambridge Septuagint pur-
xcviii, 3; ci, 16-cii, 13) published by Taylor (op. cit.),
(v) The fourth-centunr papyrus fragments of Gen., i,
1-5, published, 1900, bv Grenfell and Hunt.
(c) Theodotion (see versions of the Bible). — The
Book of Daniel of Theodotion is found in the IJCX
MSS. previously mentioned. The Milan palimpsest
contains his text in part.
(d) Symmachus (see Versions of the Bible). —
MS. sources are the Milan palimpsest, Cambridge
fragment, and Hexaplaric marginal notes, all of which
arc MS. sources of Aquila.
Swete, Introduction to the O. T. in Greek (1900); Kenton.
Our Bible and the Ancient MSS. (1898); Nestle, Srpttiaffintor
aludien (1886-1007); Field, Origenia Hexaplorum qua aupernaU
(Oxford. 1875).
(3) New Testament MSS,— (a) In General. — ^Tbere
are, according to the latest authority on this subject,
•LiTllpOVNlAI : KAIPrcWVo AVION . .,
tioroYeceAiAiAr*i»Ki<'i»"r»^"»»^ '.'
OlAt-M AOH-I A« AYTOy UyJ. AMTOTlAA«Hh|
-i-oY«*<""^x V At- KAi ^« oxoM n-c- rAiexrjFriKj
Hi*OIOM S-«|sH»lAH«li|sl4»A|»lt'Am»M
c Aci or^AY «''^* • iArTii»o\oYt'iN oi
MAiM* < A iro\ roK cAhft Ar iMooYKoyt'cnihi
AUdKrlOC'If'Al 01H4 OAf f-CMIipACAYToY*' '
oyAt " o If ■mY • ^ AN<-rM*i»rAi oc iioiM»-rN
ikAY^iA oirriiriMAfCNAY'*'*'^ '"' ' "
KAiqU'V^^Y '"*"'*'*'*^*"*'^*'**''^'*^®**** ' '
I «Y«V K-Aii oyi-Ai'"* oY^*' *««^"P*^****' *'*'^*!fe'&
cJ»AieMKAHAn>K-rMKAllOICMrl'AYl'*r**' ■
on■oV»^■•^?o^^^*^*^*A^f•lM^■■lMMlVlOMOl*• •»»-
"•»• n*01 1' I r r«'Yt' • "^ ■' »'• i AY » M»« MCf awcaca mcmt
•I iisiAr|ir-A:;«iMrr>*oiMfinrAnPiATtiifinrMAYt*"
AiMn|*i>ifiic- f'lMrMoiAAiTniow^ir •■•
MAKAl'inrt^l riAt'MMOlA AC OflK*ATArATOtT
KAii»A|'AriArm'i-»i«Y^^**'^**V *' .
kAii-i»-cAouiMrtMAYi»>Y'»»A^»*^^»''^"^ J^*#
f V M A r * I . I ■ I IM CA ft IVA T *l » *' N MMKI A W«r*im0C '
:tMPA|MlX€l,lsjrilMXt»|.A llAfCTIfpQYWf^ »»
AYTOtslOirpAMMArrir VAIOl^AfK'AlQI-
cni».t-Ain^ATu.iMpAiirY«'iiMA5i)«i*Vf'*' '
KAl Hl-nriif AiAY rtiYAYToCA^ jcAfriMtwrt*
roVf\ lA Aori»'MoY«'AY noMA^rKfiax*^*" »' •
1 HNxr ii-AtxoMri'Hux^ ereifoYKA^'TMA**
(KlliltlVir i-4ii KAiAMAC'TAC*«-CTAit>ll
(■»iu MNCoiii<in»orAVV«Y*' C'lifptnTtirui "*
YMAtririt»'TiM*l"inrA5nAVui AFAao •
llniiK Al liKAKniiitilirAi>^yx»fMCiui'Al
HAiioAtoAi uiArrc'iiinitiiisj
Ml"
ItnAft^
,Uf Abl* A rci A C c- 1 1 Mil Uj" KJkOin
AbijLC pt-iLVtji-.rif-.y
diSripiiliAtirfHtiillKiv rcir-pc jLtiNTurit t-iLC-
SrirAV «''i| Jiu-AM|-iVfnA;siili«iv
tAtimit-AkAMT «|^ii(lAiTiAiii-ff'CT«<1V.-rA|L(yAeiY
^to-I-tlAMI'C-lC I'C r qilUlf Al UIMT
diffipiH It «iiVAtihAl l\<|(in(l|sinMli('c-T
frjrAt^<t^ ri\Aint ivuii\ilixirA<t<Hiiv
Micns^i Ainriorl f- (*.i\ viY q\ioil|-f <: ir
.(iAuicI •i*iAM«liir-^««R,iii ifV
FTS«liril(Tlf n< ISA I iMTpoihil iM«l<liV««Kn
^ei c I r^v^c^ i*|L<i|K«5>i-int^iV
mANcliic Am I- i- 1 clrdi i ci «|iiii-«i(% iC:|iA^T
VilbuVMOMlilvltAI fViA|MO(|i'AF*-N'IK«CM<4l'«Bllli'
lALTiLilcii ili«iv cn(l< «it4t ir iiiilir^N
«ifiMiU(Tiopc rAi^jic rrt vA^*>*Amr-i«lurif illi
hi*io,\i9«ii«lcciVi-tVS«m€»|.ACUV '
ifATuvov .ViA«ir«-iriKic v«*«V«nA*r «lir Tn^
fTT|AhAr*('Ai<i|(U C'.i\
fTrn»niMimt7.\**Tirf |c«i(riiKi
IYkiAQOi-.A WiVAMiAviUMMtiAf rATjiOmO -
4McU(ri»iAliC MV«»»AlM«in»nKYei[liAliAF«T f.
f^cn.\c|5iliAi rip^iAici^Ari '«
■TlVAtihAinc «ifApr-1- «iTiH€iCM«nr.HT
Arr(ivAK« f-tun ij»v<*Aiii« u>.Y*"f »*\^^-^,^
forriAriciMf \% niEticnilit't nil i
•I»inriAMinviAsicUa»hA»MhAi\y<ir«:**ryTA
»Mn>tili«in \«iK«.«NV.XVf iir *
^i-^ii Atii c cniKV Af1f-uv iwrr<R|ioi;A*»«
^ciYYiiifc I VAMiAin hf-Ki "
MCfn-Aui ctiAU f-A^VBf AMimAUiVA,"
kl
\
Codex Bsz.fs
Opix)aite PaRos, CJrcok and l4itin (Kftducetl; — Luke, vi, 1-9
his. iu Cambridge University Library
poses to collate the chief of these minuscules and to
group them with a view to discriminating the various
recensions of the LXX. More than half of these
MSS. are Psalters and few of them eive the entire
Old Testament. In editing his Alcald Polyglot,
Cardinal Ximcnes used minuscules 108 and 248 of
the Vatican.
(b) A(iuila (see Vkrsions of the Bible). — MS.
traces of the text of Aquila are found in: (i) frag-
ments of Origen's third columns, written as mar^nal
notes to some MSS., such as Q; (ii) the Milan palimp-
sest of the Hexapla, a most important tenth century
copy found by Mercati in 189G. It contains about
elev'en Psalms, has no Hebrew column, and uses the
space thereof for variant readings ; (iii) the Cambridge
fragment, seventh oentur^^ di.scovored in a Cairo geni-
zah. It contains parts of Ps., xxi (see Taylor, " Cairo
Genizah Palimpsests", 1000). The name Jahweh is
written in old Hebrew letters, (iv) The Cairo frag-
ments of the fourth and fifth centuries: three palimp-
sests (containing III Kings, xx, 7-17; IV Kings, xxiii,
Xl-27) published by Burkitt in 1897; and four portions
<rf tlie Tsalms (Ixxxix, 17-xci, 10; xcv, 7-xcvi, 12;
von Soden ("Die Schriften des N. T. in ihrer Altesieo
erreichbaren Textgestalt", Berlin, 1902), 2328 New-
Testament MSS. extant. Only about 40 contain,
eitlier entire or in part., all the books of the New Testa-
ment. There are 1716 MS. copies of the Gospels. 531
' of the Acts, 628 of the Pauline Epistles, 219 of the
Apocalypse. The commonly reoeive<l numeration of
the New Testament MSS. is tliat of Wettstein; unciab
are designated by Homun and Greek capitals, minus-
cules by Arabic numbt^rs. These MSS. are divided
into the a l)ove- mentioned four groups-— Gospels.
Acts, Pauline Epistles, Apocalvpse. In the case oi
imcials, an exponent is used to designate the group re-
ferred to. D or Dev is Cod. Beza>, a MS. of tlie Gos-
pels; D3 or Dpaw' is Cod. Claromontanus, a MS. of the
Pauline Epistles; Eg ^r ^^' ^^ ^9^* Laudianus, a MS. of
the Acts. The nomenclature is less clear for minus-
cules. Each group has a different set of numbers. If
a minuscule Ix? a complete MS. of the New Testament,
it is designated bv four different numbers. One and
the same MS. at Leicester is Evan. 69, Act. 31, Paul.
37, Apoc. 14. Wettstein's lists of New-Testament
MSS. were supplemented by Birch and Schols; later on
MAHUSCEIPTS Ch
Scrivener ami Gregory continunl tlic lists, caHi wilh
his own nomenclature. Von ijoden baa introduced a
new numeration, so as to indicate tlie content and date
of tiie MSS. If the content be more tban the Gospels,
it is marked S (that ia, S>a0i)int, " testonient ") ; if only
the Gospels, i (i.e., tAay-fiXior, " gospel"); if aught elM
save the Gospels, o (that is,A'ifTo\ai). B b i,; tt is
I,; Q is I,, etc. No distinction is made between un-
cials and minueculot. Scholars admit the logic and
Hcientinc worth of thin new numeration, but find it too
unwieldy and impracticable.
(b) Papyrus. — In the Archduke Raiaer collectioa,
Vienna, are several very fragmentary bits of New Tes-
tament Greek phrases, which Wesseiy, the curator of
that collection, assigns to the second century. The
Grenfell - and Hunt excavationa in Oxyrbyncus
brought to tigtit vnrioua fragments of the New Testa-
ment which Kenyon, the assistant keeper of the MSS.
of the British Museum, asngns to the latter part of the
third century. Only one papyrus MS. of the New Tes-
tament is important to the text-critic — Oxyrhyncus
Pap. 057, third-fourth oenturv; it preserves to us
about a third of the Epistle to tne Hebrews, an epistle
in which Cod. B. is defective.
(c) Vellum Uncials. — There are about 160 vellum
uncials of the New Testament; some 110 contain the
Gospels or a part thereof. The diicfcst of these un-
cials are the four great codioes of the entire Greek
Bible, tt, A, B, G, for which, see above. The Vatican
(B) is the oldest and probably tlie beat New Te^ita-
mcnt MS.
p. or Corf. Bear (q. v.) (fifth or sixth century; in
University Library, Cambridge) contains Gospels and
Ads in Gr. and Lat., excepting Acts, xxii, 2\) to the
end;it isa unique specimen ofa Greek MS. whose text
is Western, i. e. that of the Old Latin and Old Syriac.
Dj or Cod. Clarvmontanua (probably sixth centun*;
in \at. Libr.. ParisJ contains Pauline Epistles in Or.
and Lat., each text independent of the other. Before
Hebrews is a list of the books of the New Testament
and the number of lines Utickni) in each; this list omits
Thess., lieb., and Phil., includes tour apocryphal
books, and follows an unusual order; Hatt., John,
Mark. Luke, Rom^ I and II Cor,, Gal., Eph., I an.l II
Tim., TituB, Col., Philem., I and II Pet., James, I, II,
and III John, Jude, Barnabas, Apoc., Acts, Hermas,
Acts of Paul, Apoc. of Peter.
E, or Cod. BtxnUeneit (eighth century; in Univ.
Iiibr., Basle) contains the Gospels.
£,. or Cod. Laudianus (sixth century; Oxford^in
Bodl. Library) contains Acte in Gr. and Lat. The
former is somewhat like D.
Ej, or Cod. SangermanensU (ninth ceotuiy ; in Imper.
Libr., St, Pctemburg) coritains Pauline Epistles in
Or. and Lat.; of same family as D,.
F, or Cod. Boreeli (ninth century; at Utrecht), con-
tains Gospels.
F„ or Corf, ji ijffi'eiisM (ninth century; in Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge), contains Pauline Epp, in Gr. and
tilt.; of the tome family as Dj,E„ and C.,,
jrC'orf.Boernerianus (ninth century; at Dresden),
us Paul, Epp. in Gr. and Lat.; text of D, tj-pe.
H, or Cod. Wotni B (ninth or tenth century; at Cam-
bridge and Hamburg), contains the Gospels,
H„ or Cod. Mutinenaia (ninth century; at Modena),
contains Acts,
H„orCod. CoisHiiianus (sixth century; originally at
Mt. Athos where 8 leaves remain. Other parts were
used for binding AISS; 22 leaves thus reached Paris; 3
each were discovered at St. Petersburg, Moscow and
Kieff ; 1 in Turin). This MS. gives us, m great part, a
fourlh-century text of Euthalius of Sulca.
K. or Cod. Cyvriut (ninth century; in Nat. Libr.,
Paris), eonteins tne Gospels.
K., or Cod. Motquensit (ninth century; in Holy
1 flUHUSOBIPTS
Synod Librorj-, Moscow), contains Acta, Cath., and
Pans), contains Gospels,
L,, or Corf, Angdicus (ninth century; in Rome), con-
tains Acts, Cath., and Paul, T
M,, or Cod. Hamlnvgensi.1 (ninth century; in Ham-
burg and London), contains Paul. Epp.
N, or Cod. Purpureius, calleil also Petropalilanua
(sixth century), contains Gospels in silver on purple
vellum. About half the MS. is extant: 1S2 leaves
(found in Asia Minor. IttOQ) are iu St, Petersburg, '.i'd at
Patrnos, 6 in the Vatican, 4 in British Museum, and 2
in Vienna.
P, or Cod. Guel/rrbytanus A (sixth century; Wolfen-
bQttel), contains Gosp, fragments.
P„ or Cod. PorptiyHanua (riinth century; in St.
Petersburg), contains Acts, C^th. and Paul. Epp.
:fU>UKflt*Krt)>»«t^lVpOdMT|: ■■ .'1
■ i>JAK4p(oJ«jpHc(i)M('inVi;ib<<n'
-nAii-roYHoMovtiitrieVio i. i;n
.HyMi'lAi'KATHfi-HUHMei I
Anc>Tt>>-Nb Ml>Y'' vVuAM A-|iuy.
CMcuicrmxoMt'OA- ' •'■I I.-
ti>t-ri!AovAt'yi'i(VMMJiiuMKViniTJrnr*4
^.*'OY.'«**'"'r»rKii,T4M**rofiH.<„.,j
UN0M«(UM4|rn:A4tHrX»4Urftk.,.»i
AAAAT>lmMi^r'''''AM(JYN$rMUIMri^ll
eiKft^lAH,0>|OY'. ' .ulnftoMAiiuitiiii
e(MIIOHdMtX:yAC=IX3M*. IK-./ ; rVl.V'f
Q, or Cod. Gudferbytamis B (fifth centuo'; Wolfen-
bilttel), contains Gosp. fragments,
R, or Cod. Nitrientit (sixth century; in Brit, Mus.,
London), a palimpsest copy of Luke.
T, or Cod. Borgianus (fifth century; in Vatican), Gr.
and Sahidic fragments. One Itus tlie double ending of
Mark; another has 17 leaves of Luke and Jiihii, anil a
text akin to Baud K.
Z,orCod,OuWincn)ii« (sixth centurj'; in Trinity Col.,
Dublin), a palimpsest containing 2!lii verses of Mutt.;
text probably Egyptian, akin to «,
4, or Corf. SaTigallenau (ninth or tenth centurj'; at
Saint-Gall), contains Gospels in Gr. and T.At.
A, or Cod. Tiecliendorjianus HI (ninth centurj-),
Luke and John iu Boilleian, Oxford; Mult, and Mark,
written in cursives (E\-an. Gfl6), at St. Petersburg.
Z, or Cod. Raaaanengit (sixth century: at Ros.sano,
in Calabria), contains Matt, and Mark, in silver letters
on purple vellum with illustrations. N', Z, ZK and t
are all akin and were probably produced at Constan*
tinople from a single ancestor,
Z", or Cod. Sinopenain (sixth century; in Kat.
Libr., Paris), consists of 43 leaves (Malt., vii-xxiv), in
gold letters on purple vellum with 5 illustrations; it
was bought by a French navni officer for a few francc,
at Sinope, in 189B, and is called also O and n.
UAsxjMtam
632
MAMXTSOftmS
^2 or Cod. BeraHnus (sixth century; at Berat in Al-
bania), contains Matt, and Mark.
1, or Cod. Patirensia (fifth century; in the Vatican),
contains Act., Cath. and Paul. Epp.
The American MS, of the Gospds (fifth century),
found in Egypt, 1907, has not yet been published; nor
have the f ra^ents of the Pauline Epistles (sixth cen-
tury) which were foimd at the same time.
(d) Vellum minuscules. — ^The vast nimibers of minus-
cule witnesses to the text of the New Testament would
seem to indicate a rich field of investigation for the
text-critic. The field is not so rich at all. Many of
these minuscules have never been fully studied.
Ninety-five per cent, of them are witnesses to the same
type of text, that of the textus recejdtta. Only those
mmuscules interest the text-critic which are distinctive
of or akin to one of the great uncials. Among the
Gospel minuscules, according to Gregory's numeration,
the type of Bk is seen more or less in 33; 1, 118, 131.
209; 59, 157, 431, 496, 892. The type of D is that of
235, 431, 473, 700, 1071; and of the "Ferrar group",
13, 69, 124, 346, 348, 543, 713, 788, 826, 828. Among
the Acts minuscules, 31 and 61 show some kinship to
B; 137, 180, 216, 224 to D. 15, 40, 83, 205, 317, 328,
329, 393 are grouped and traced to the fourth century
text of Euthalius of Sulca. Among the Pauline minus-
cules, this same text (i. e. that of H.) is found in 81, 83,
93, 379, 381.
(e) Lectionaries. — ^There are soi^e 1100 MSS. of
readings from the Gospels (Evangdia or Evangdiaria)
and 300 MSS. of readings from Acts and Epistles
(Praxapostoli), Although more than 100 of these
lectionaries are imcials, they are of the ninth century
or later. Verv few of these books of the Epistles and
Gospels have been critically examined. Such exami-
nation may later on serve to group the New Testa-
ment minuscules better and help to localize them.
Scrivener, IrUroduetum to the CrittcUm of the New TeatamerU
(1894): Greoort. TextkrUik des N. T. (1900): Die Oriechiechen
Handechriften dee N. T. (1908); Harris, Further reeearehea into
the hutory of the F error-group (1900).
IV. Latin MSS. — Biblical MSS. are far more imi-
form in Greek than in Latin script. Palseography
divides the Greek into uncials and minuscules; the
Latin into uncials, semi-uncials, capitals, minuscules
and cursives. Even these divisions have subdivisions.
The time, place and even monastery of a Latin
MS. may be traced by the very distinct script of its
text.
(1) Old Latin. — Some 40 MSS. have preserved to us
a text which antedates the translation of St. Jerome;
they are designated by small letters. Unfortunately
no tw D of these MSS. represent to us quite the same
text. Corrections introduced by scribes and the in-
evitable influence of the Vulgate have left it a very
difficult matter to group the Old Latin MSS. Text-
critics now agree upon an African, a European and an
Italian type of text. The African text is that men-
tioned by Tertullian (c. 150-220) and used by St. Cy-
prian (c. 200-258); it is the earliest and crudest in
style. The European text is less crude in style and
vocabulary, and may be an entirely new translation.
The Italian text is a version of the European and was
revised by St. Jerome in parts of the Vulgate. The
most important Old Latin MSS. are the bilingual New
Testament MSS. D, D,, E-, E3, F3, Gj, A.
a, or Cod. Verceliensis (fourth century; at Vercelli),
containing the Gospels.
b, or Cod. Veronenaia (fifth century; at Verona),
containing Gospels on purple vellum, a and b are our
chief witnesses to the European text of the Gospels.
e, or Cod. Palatinus (fifth (jentury; at Vienna, — one
leal is in Dublin), contains the Gosp. For Acts, e is
lAt. of Ej; for Paul. Epp., e is Lat of E3.
f, or Cod. Brixianus (sixth century; at Brescia), con-
tains Gosp. on purple vellum; Italian type, thought by
Wordsworth and White to be the best extant repre-
sentative of the Old Latin text which St. Jerome used
when revising the New Testament.
ffj, or Cod. Corbeiensia (fifth century; at Paris), con-
tains the Gospels.
g, or Cod.Cfigaa (thirteenth century; at Stockholm),
a complete Bible; Acts and Apoc. are in Old Latin
text and are the chief representative of the European
type.
n, or Palimpsest de Flewry (sixth century; at Paris),
contains fragments of Acts, Cath., Ep. and Apoc.;
African type.
k^ or Cod. Bolnensis (fourth or fifth oentuoy; at
Turm), contains Mark, viii-xvi. Sand Matt., i-xv;
earliest form of Old Latin, African type,* closely akin
to text used by Saint Cyprian.
q, or Cod. Monacensis (sixth or seventh century; at
Munich), contains Gospels; Italian type of text.
BuRKiTT, The Old Latin and the Itata (Cambridce, 1806);
Wordsworth, San day, and White, Old Latin BibReal TexU
(Oxford, 1883-97) ; Gregory, TextkrUik dee N. T. (1900).
(2) Vttlgate (a. v.). — It is estimated that there are
more than 8000 MSS. of the Vulgate extant. Most of
these are later than the twelfth century and have very
little worth for the reconstruction of the text. Tisch*
endorf and Berger designate the chief MSS. by abbre-
viations of the names: am.= Amiatinus; fu. or fuld.»
Fuldensis. Wordsworth and White, in their critical
edition of the Gospel and Acts (1899-1905), use Latin
capitals to note the 40 MSS. on which their text de-
pends. Gregory (Textkritik, II, 634) numbers 2369
MSS. The most logical and useful grouping of these
MSS. is genealogical and geographical. The work of
future critics will be to reconstruct the text by recon-
structing the various types, Spanish, Italian, Irish,
French, etc. The chief Vulgate MSS. are: —
A, or Cod. Amiatinus (q. v.) (eighth century; at
Florence), contains complete Bible; text probably
Italian, best extant MS. of Vulgate.
C, or Cod. Cavensis (ninth century; at La Cava, near
Naples), a complete Bible; best representative of
Spanish type.
A^^or Coa. Dundmensis (seventh or eighth centmy;
in vurham Cathedral, England), Gospels; text akm
to A.
F, or Cod. Fuldensis (a. d. 641-546; at Fulda, in
Germany), a complete New Testament; Gospels are in
form of Tatian's ''Diatessaron". Bishop Victor of
Capua found an Old Latin version of Tatian's ar-
rangement and substituted the Vulgate for the Old
Latm.
G, or Cod. Sangermanensis (ninth century; at Paris),
contains the Bible. In Acts, Wordsworth uses it
more than any other MS.
H, or Cod. Hubertianus (ninth century; in Brit.
Mus., London), a Bible; Theodulfian type.
$f or Cod. Theodulfianus (ninth century; at Paris), a
Bible; Theodulfian type.
K, or Cod. Karolinus (ninth century; in Brit. Mus.,
London), a Bible; Alcuin's type. See V.
O, or Cod. Oxoniensis (seventh century; at Oxford,
in Bodl.), contains Gosp.; text English, affected by
Irish influences.
O2, or Cod. Oxoniensis, or Selden Acts (eighth cen-
tury; at Oxford, in Bodleian), contains Acts; Irish
type.
Q, or Cod. Kenanensis, Book of Kdls (q. v.) (eighth
century; in Trinity College, Dublin), contains Gosp.;
Irish type.
S, or Cod. StonyhuTstensis (seventh century; at
Stonyhurst College, England), contains John; text
akin to A and probably written near Durham.
V, or Cod. VaUicellianus (ninth century; at Rome,
in Vallicelliana), a Bible; Alcuin's type. See K.
Y, or Cod. lAndisfamensis (seventh century; in
Brit. Mus., London), Gospels. Liturgical directions in
text show it is a copy of a MS. written in Naples; text
akin to A.
BCAMUTIRGI
633
HAMUTIUB
Z, or Cod, HcarleianuB (sixth or seventh century; in
Brit. Mus., London), coi^tains Epist. and Apoo.
Wordsworth and WHtra, Bdiiion of <A€ KtiiSoto (1889-
1906).
V. Syriac MSS.--(1) Old Synac (OS).— The Cure-
Ionian and Sinaitic Syriac MSS. represent a version
older than the Pe^tto and bear witness to an earlier
text, one closely akhi to that of which D and the Old
Latin are witnesses.
(a) The Curetonian Syriac (Syr-Cur) MS. was dis-
covered in 1S42, among MSS. brought to the British
Museum from the monastery of S. Maria Deipara in
the Nitrian desert in Egyi>t, and was published by
Cureton in 1858. It contains five chapters of John,
large portions of Matt, and Luke, and Mark, xvi, 17-20,
enou^ to show that the last twelve verses were origi-
nally in the document, (b) The Sinaitic Syriac (Syr-
Sin) was found by Mrs. Lewis and Mrs. Gibson, during
1892, in the monastery of St. Catherine on Mount
Sinai. This palimpsest contains the Four Gospels in
great part, though not entire; it is an earlier recension
of the same version as Syr-Cur. Both are assigned to
the fifth century and represent a Syriac version which
cannot be later than a. d. 200.
(2) The Diatessaron. — ^This harmony of the Gospels
was written by Tatian, an Assyrian and the disciple of
Justin Mao-tyr, about a. d. 170, and was widely used in
Syria. Our MS. records are two Arabic versions, dis-
covered one in Rome the other in Egypt; and pub-
lished 1888. A Latin translation of an Armenian edi-
tion of St. Ephraem's commentarj^ on the Diatessa-
ron is in like manner witness to this early version of
the Gospels. Scholars are inclined to make Tatian 's
to be the earliest Syriac translation of the Gospel.
(3) The PeshiUo,— The earliest MS. of this Syriac
Vulgate is a Pentateuch dated a. d. 464; this is the
earliest dated Biblical MS. ; it is in the British Museum.
There are two New Testament MSS. of the fifth cen-
tury. In all, the Peshitto MSS. number 125 of Gos-
pels, 58 of Acts and Cath. Epp., 67 of Paul. Epp.
(4) The Philoxenian Syriac version of the New Tes-
tament has come down to us only in tiie four minor
Catholic Epistles, not included in the original Peshitto,
and in a single MS. of the Apoc., now at Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin.
(5) The Harkkan Syriac version of the New Testa-
ment is represented bv some 35 MSS. dating from the
seventh century and later; they show kinship with a
text like to D.
(6) The Palestinian Syriac version of the New Testa-
ment has reached us by lectionaries and other frag-
mentary MSS. discovered within the past sixteen
years. The three principal MSS. are dated a. d. 1030,
1104, and 1118.
Lbwu, Th» Four QotpoU trandaied from ike Sinaitic Palimp-
9MI (1804); Woods and Qwiluam in Sludia Bibliah vob. I and
VI. Armenian MSS. date from a. d. 887, and are
numerous.
VII. Coptic MSS.— -(1) Sahidic,— The Apocalypse is
the only book of the Old Testament which has come
down to us complete in a single MS. of this dialect of
Upper Egypt. Many isolated fragments have of recent
years been recovered by excavation in £^pt; from
these it may soon be possible to reconstruct the Sa-
hidic New Testament. The earliest fragments seem to
belong to the fifth centuiy. Some of these MSS. are
bilinjgual (see T of N. T. MSS.). (2) BoAatric.— This
version in the dialect of Lower £%ypt is well repre-
sented by MSS. of the same character as Bk. ^Hie
Curzon Catena is the earliest extant Boh. MS. of the
Gospels; it is dated a. d. 889 and is in the Parham Li-
brary. Others are of the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies. None is at all so old as the Sah. fragments.
(3) Middle Egyptian fragments, on vellum and papy-
rus, have l)eon found in FayMm anc) near to Aknmim
and to Memphis. The largest of these fragments is a
Brit. Mus. sixth-century palimpsest of John, iii and
iv.
Crum, Caiahoue of Coptic MSS. in the BriHA Miueum (Lon-
don, 1005): Htvsrnat, iBtwU wr lea vtrncfM coptet de la Btble
in Rev. BiW. (1806). „, ^
Wai/ter Drum.
Manaterff6.-~The name given to the tpwel used by
the priest when engaged liturgicaUy. There are two
idnda of manuterges. One serves the needs of the
sacristy. The priest uses this at the washing of hands
before Mass, before distributing Communion outside
of Mass, and before administenng baptism. It can
also be used for drying the hands after they have been
washed on occasions not prescribed by the rubrics, but
still customary after Mass. There are no prescrip-
tions as to material and form for the towel used in the
sacristy. It is usual to have it hanging over a roller,
the two ends beinesewti together so as to make it into
a circular band. The custom of washing the hands
before Mass appears to go back to the early days of
Christianity; the ceremon3r is expressly mentioned in
the sacramentaries of the ninth and tenth centuries.
The other manuterge is used in the Mass for drying
both hands at the Lavabo, an action performed by the
priest after the Offertorjr as he recites the psalm, " La-
vabo ", and also by the bishop before the OJBFertory and
after the Communion. It is kept on the credence
table with the finger-bowl and cruete. There are no
ecclesiastical regulations regarding the form and ma-
terial of this manuterge. The towel , which is used after
the Offertory during the recital of the psalm ** La-
vabo ", is usually small ( 18 in. by 1 4 in. ), only the points
of the thumb and two fingers, and not the whole nand,
being usually washed (Kitus celebr., VII, n. 6). It
ususSly has lace or embroidery at the ends. This sec-
ond manuterge is mentioned in chap, v of the ** Statuta
antiqua'' (fifth century) : " Subdiaconus cum ordinatur
. . . accipiat . . . de manu archidiaconi urceolum,
aquamanile et nlanutergium'' (when a subdeacon is
ordained he shall receive from the hand of the arch-
deacon a water-piteher, a finger-bowl, and a manu-
terge) is written regarding the rite used in bestowing
the subdiaconate, a ceremony in practice, of course,
to-day.
Braun, Winke f&r die AnfeHiguno det ParamerUe (Freibuig
im Br., 1904), 72, 76; Bock, GeachiehU der liturgiechen QewUn-
der (Bonn, 1871), 23 aq.
Joseph Braun.
ManutiuB, Aldus (Aldo Manuzio), scholar and
printer; b. in 1450, at Sermoneta, near Rome; died
m 1515. He studied Latin at Rome and Greek at
Ferrara. In 1482 he went to Mirandola, where he
Uved with Ins old friend, Giovanni Pico, continuing
his Greek studies there for two years. He was ap-
pointed by Pico tutor to the latter's nephews, Alberto
and Idonello Pio, I^ces of Oarpi.
At (3arpi, in 1490, Aldus conceived his brilliant
and original project of establishing a Greek press at
Venice. The funds for this great undertaking were
supplied by his former pupil, Alberto Pio. Between
the vears 1494 and 1515 tnirty-three first editions of
all the greatest Greek authors were issued from the Al-
dine press. Aldus's house became a gathering-place
for the learned Greek scholars of the time. The men
emp^yed by him in his work were almost all Greeks,
ana the prefaces to his great editions were almost al-
ways wntten in Greek. Aldus's aim was to publish
the best possible books at the lowest possible prices.
The type used for his great library of Greek, Latin, and
Italian authors, begun in 1501, was the italic, known
as the Aldine, and said to have been adapted from the
handwriting of Petrarch. It was cut by Francesco da
Boi(M;na, and had already been used (for the first
time) in the edition of Virgil published in 1500. In
1493, or before tliat, the "Iiero and Leander" of
Mqsfl^us was published. This wan (olVaw^wS. Vs^ *<>c«a^
Plato, Pindar, and othera
fttmoiu first edition of Aristotle, the first volume ap-
peariDg in 1495, sad the remaining four volumea in
1497 and 149S. The work was dedicated by Aldus
to his patron, Alberto Pio.
In 1499 AlduB married the daughter of Andrea Tor-
resano, of Asola, a Venetian printer. The two print-
ing establishments were then combined and after that
date the names of
Aldus and AHoUnus
appeared on the
title-pages of works
from the Aldine
Preaa. The device
adopted by Aldus
for the title-pagee of
bis publicatjons was
the dolphin sjid
anchor, with the
motto , FtsHna Icnte.
Within the next few
years first editions
of Aristophanes,
Tbucydides, Soph-
ocles, Herodotus,
Xenophon, Euripi-
des, Demosthenes,
produced at Venice. Be-
sides these Greek authors, many Latin and Italian pub-
lioatjons were put forth. In 1508 the groat Dutch
scholar, Erasmus, wrent to Venice and assisted in the pub-
licationofhis" Proverbs" by the Aldine Press. In order
to promote tlie study of Greek literature and the pub-
lication of Greek authors, Aldus, in 1500, founded the
New Academy, or Aldine Academy of HclenistB. The
members of this academy were required to speak
Greek, and its rules were written in Greek. The or-
ganixation comprised the tnost distinguished Greek
scholars in Italy, who assisted Aldus in publishing the
works of Greek and Ijitin authors. Under their di-
rection the first Latin and Greek lexicon n'as given to
the world.
Aldus was succeeded in the management of his great
printing establishment by his son, Paulua Manutius
(Paolo ftlariuiio), b. at Venice in 1512. Ho died in
1574. The work was then carried on by the latter's
son, Aldus, until his death in 1597.
Stuonhh. Rrrmitmicr in Ilaly. II (London. 189S); Rwdt^
BiHQTV otClainral Scholarthip, II (Cambridge, 1908), OS i
Dtdot, Aldi Man<Kt <Paria, IK75). For chrc--' ' ""
AldioM, soo CuHlsTIE, Baiiograpli'ica. I (ISt
Eduund Burke.
Huuoiii, Albbs&ndbo. Italian poet and novelist,
b. at Milan. 7 Mareh, 178.J; d. 22 May, 1873. He was
the son of Pietro Manzoni, the representative of an old
feudal family of provincial landowners with estates
near Lecco, and Ills wife Giulia, the daughter of Ce-
sare Bcccaria, the famous writer on political economy.
Donna Giulin was separated from her hiisliaml in 1702.
After his school-days under the Bomaschi and the
Bamabites, and a short stay at the University of
Pavia, the poet grew up at Milan in mingled study and
dissipation. In 1805, he joined his mother at Paris,
where be imbibed Voltnirean principles, and l)ecaine
intimate with Fauriol and others. At Milan, in I80S
he married Henriettc-Louise Blondel, the daughter of
a Swiss bunker, who was a Protestant, and when, in
IHIO, she beenme a Catholic at Paris, Manzoni fol-
lowed her back into the Church. Thenceforth his life
was consecrated to religicai, patriotism, and literature.
He settled at Milan, the neighbourliood of which he
pmctically never loft, save for a visit to Tuscany in
1827 for the purpose of making himself better ao-
Juainted with what he regarded as the idea! form of the
taliuti languace. His creative work was all done be-
tween ISI'3 and 1827, ttft«r which he was mainly
alwoiliwl in linguistic siudies. Am<mg liis chief
fiwBds vKTe the Milanese romantic writer, Tonunasii
iSsqa.;
Grom. the Piedmontcm novelirt and statesiiuii, Mu-
simo d'AMglio, who married his daughter, and tbs
philosopher Autooio Rosmini, with whom he wai
cloaeiy associated from 1827 until the lattor's death b
1855. An ardent patriot, Manzoni was in the fulkst
sympathy with the movement for the liberation and
unification of Italy. After the occupation erf Rome in
1870, he was made a Roman citisen; but, whether
from old age or the religious difficulty, he never
went to the Eternal City to take his seat as a sena-
tor.
Manzoni'searliestpoem, "IlTrionfodella Uberti"
(1801), on allegorical vision in the Petrarchian maimer
of liberty triumphing over tyranny and superstition,
is markedly influenced by Vinccnio Monti, whom be
claims as his master and hails as the greatest poet of
the age. This and the poems that followed, "In
mode di Carlo Imbonati" (1806) and "Urania"
(ISOO), belong to the classical school of which Monti
was the recognized head, and show the influence like-
wise of Panni and Alfieri. After hie conversion,
Manxoni's art changed no less than his life, and he be-
came the chief representative of tlie romantic school,
the principles of which he defended later in his letter
"Sul Romanticisrao" (182.3 and 1871). At the same
time he desired to make bis work a literary defence of
the Catholic Faith. He began a series of twelve "Inni
Sacri" to celebrate the chief feasts of the Church, of
which only five were written: "La Resurmiione"
(1812), "II Nome di Maria" and "II Natale" (1813),
"La Passione" (1815), "La Penteeoata" (1822). In
these he brought back the old medieval simplicity into
Italian religious poetrv, freeing it from the conven-
tionalities that nad become traditional since the
Renaissance. Two patriotic lyrics, celebrating the
Milanese insurrection of 1814 and Hurat's proclama-
tion of Italian nationality at Rimini in 1815, beloiigta
the same epoch. His two tragedies, "IlContediCkr-
magnola" (1820) and "L'Adelchi" (1822), are noble
works, but somewhat lacking in true dramatic qual-
ities; inspired in part by Schillerand Goethe, they pve
expression to the
tions of the Ital-
ians at a timewhen
these seemed far
off from realisa-
tion. This poetic
period closes with
II Cinigue Mag-
gie" (1822), an
ode on the death of
Napoleon which
ficpular Italian
yno of the nine-
teenth century.
"IPromessi
Sposi ", Manzoni 's
great masterpiece,
was wYitten be-
tween 1821 and
1825, and rewritten A""*"-".. M««,n.
in 1840. t^ir Walter Scott was not alone in ragardbif
it as the ^atest romance of modem times. AgaiDSt
the historical l>ackeround of the Spanish oppresauHi in
Milan and the war of the Mantuan succwsion (1628-
1630), we have the story of the love and fortunes of two
young peasants, and a whole series of inimitable por-
traits of men and women painted with the art of a
realist in the highest sense of the word. Eameatnett
of purpose is combined with a peouUariy delicate
humour and the author's moral intention, the applica-
tion of Catholic moralitv to the study of Itfo and his-
tory, is Imrmonized with his artistic instincts, and in
no wise olitnidcs itsi-lf upon the reader. Amon^
minor prose works are the "Osaervaxioqi
Maiuoni's
MAP 635 MAPHRIAN
Bulla morale cattolica" (1819), a defence of Catholicism siastical digaity goes back certainly to the seventh
against the attacks of Sismondi; the ''Storia dellaCo- century and perhaps to the closing years of the sixth,
lonna infame ** (1840), an historical appendix to his ro- When the theological school of the Persians at Ede^a
mance; the dialogue "Dell' Invenxione (1845);andan had been closed, first by Nonnus, successor of Ibas
essajr on the unity of the Italian language (1868). (457), and definitivel^r oy the Monophysite, CVrus
In his private life, Manzoni was under every aspect (489), Nestorianism triiunphed in the Empire of the
most aamirable and exemplary; as a public character, Sassanides. The few Persian Monophysitcs, like Xen-
hc is the noblest figure in the Italian literature of the aias (Philoxenus) of Tahal, were forced to go into
nineteenth century." exile. Xenaias became Bishop of Mabug (Hierop-
.xm9P^\^A^^J? ^<^r»o2}** ed. ScHEHiLLo AND Sfoma. olis). lu Pcrsla, the town of Tagrit alone did not
(Milan, 1905. etc.); Opere tnedtte o rare at AleMondro Maruoni, aAfXT^ ^U^ Tx«<»«ro;ii*.» waI:^*;^*^ . i* u^^-,^^ fK^ «.^nf ..» ^f
ed. BoKOHi (Milak. 1883-1808); Sfoma. Seritti pottumi di fdopt the prevailmg lebgion; it became the centre of
i4/Mmn<fyt)jlfonAmi (Milan. 1000); Bovoui,, Carteagio fra Ale»- the Monophysite missions at the Commencement of
aandro Manzoni e Antonio ^ojwntnt (Milan, 1001); Pmna. the sixth Century. The energetic James Barad£eus
i&f JJStSSriJSTFtoS i^rs^'^'^n'i^^i 5ri**°«' f?' % fep^ f tXp Ahudenuneh who
onni di AletMondro Manzoni (new ed., Milan. 1894): Pbtkoo- died a martyr m 575. But the efforts of the monk Ma-
?^\\ IS^^^^"^^^ ^'* «^«»to<» ««% .<<«« edizioni dd l8B5j ruthas Were to be crowned with greater success. At
i^^S^^ISSS cniiiSTi^r* ^^ ««« *™^ ^^^ ^^e monastery <5 Mar Mattai (near
Edmund G. Gakdner. Nineveh), at another from Tagrit itself, he under-
^ took fruitful missionary work among the Arabs and
Map (sometimeB wrongly written Mapis), Walter, throughout the valley of the Tigris. He relied on the
Aichdeaoon of Oxford, d. at, or in the vicinity of, influence of Chosroes IPs physician, Gabriel de Shig-
Herefoid, o. 1140; d. between 1208 and 1210. Be- ^' ^^^ ^^^^ completely won the confidence of the
longing by birth to the Welsh Marches, he was in all Christian queen, Shirin.
probability Welsh by extraction, though the two Ian- J^^m time to time the Persian armies, which in-
guages tlupough which he has be(^ome known in litera- vaded the Koman territories so often at this period,
ture are memeval church Latin, and the soHjalled would bring back a multitude of captives, Byaan-
Norman-French spoken at the Court of Henry II of *>n®8, Egyptians, Euphratesians or Edessans, mostly
England as well as in the law courts of that age and Jacobites. So in 628-9 it was ludged suitable to
countiy. At the age of fourteen Walter went to oi^nize the Monophysite Church in Persia. The
the University of Paris where he studied until 1160 Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch, Athanasius the Chan-
under Girard la Pucelle. In 1162 he was at the Court cellpr, saw that it would be necessary to grant the
of England. Henry made him a clerk of his household, Syrians in the Persian Empire a large ecclesiastical
which implies that Map had received, or was about to autonomy. In fact one of the most serious objecticms
receive, Holy orders. After this the road to other raised by the Nestorians against the Monoph^ites
preferments was open to him. He was ^e King's rei>- was that the latter obeyed a spiritual head residing in
resentativeattheThirdLateran Council (1179), where Byxantine territory and that thev were therefore
he waa appointed to dispute with the Waldensians. inclined to become the subjects of the Emperor of
He held various benefices and at last, in 1197, he was Constantinople. Hence the Monophysites were fre-
made Archdeacon of Oxford. An unsuccessful effort Quently denounced at the Court of Seleucia as con-
to obtain the See of Hereford brou^t him into con- spirators favouring the Romans. The Sassanides
tact with St. Hush, Bishop of Lincoln. would then become incensed and persecute the Jacob-
The place of mdter Map, however, is rather in the i*^- Athanasius moreover knew certain canons
history of profane literature than in ecclesiastical which prescribed that the head of the "Oriental"
history. As a churchman, though his life must have Christians, namely the Persians, was alone entitled
been respectable enough, his conversation can hardly to consecrate '* Oriental " bishops, and he was aware
have tended to edification, and he was the avowed ^at these canons dated back to the very beginning of
enemy of the White Monks. Girakius Cambrensis, J^e Syrian Churches. He decided that the metropol-
his fnend and admirer, states that in his oath as a ^^ans of Tagrit, when ordained by him, would become
king's justice, to do ]ustu» to all men, Map made a dis- autonomous and be sole rulers of the Monophysite
observation, written, regardless of form, on the sug- ^hne which cannot be definitely fixed the title of
^estion of one Geoffrey, to set down his (Map's) say- *'Mafriano".
mgs and doings that had not been committed to "^^ relations of the maphrian and the Jacobite
writing. It is also implied by Map that he wrote at Patriarch of Antioch were, despite several schisms,
the wish of Hennr II, at whose court the work was maintained harmoniously. In 869 it was decided
composed. Besides this woric in Latin, there is good that just as the patriarch consecrated the maphrian so
reason to believe that the earliest prose " Lancelot" the consecration of a new patriarch would be reserved
was based on a French poem of Walter Map (see to the maphrian. Within their own circumscriptions
Legends, Arthur), Lastly^ much of the " Goliardic" the maphrians had often disputes with the metropol-
Latin satire on the clergy of that period has without ^tan of the monastery of Mar Mattai (near Nineveh)
sufficient reason been ascribed to him, the most noted who was jealous of the preponderating influence of
amone that class of writing being the "Confessio Tagrit. In 1089 the churches of that town having
Golise^' from which is taken Uie famous bacchanalian ^^^ destroyed by the Mussulmans, the maphrians
lyric be^ining " Mihi est propositum in tabema mori". abandoned it and settled in Mosul. From a. d. 1155
The chief original sources are the D» nim eurialiwn and Gi- they generally resided at Mar Mattai while retaining
r„Tr^^/i^15."X,ote)e^2^ral£Ji?i„^{i^^ ^ Immediate jurtadiction over Tagrit and Nineveh'!
Idem m Preface to Latin Poemz attributed to Walter Map (Lon- "■^"® ^^7 nu^hnan worthy of bemg specially men-
don, 1841); KntoaroKD in Diet, of NaL Bioor., B, y. tioned is the celebrated Gregory Abulfaraflj, sur-
E. Macphebson. named Bar Hebrseus (q. v.) (d. 1286), the most highly
. cultured man of his age. There has been preserved a
Maplinan.--The Synac word mafriano signifies history bv him of his predecessors. Thb work was
one who fnictifies, a consecrator. It is used to desig- continuea by his brother, and later by unscholarly an-
nate the prelate who holds the second rank after the nalists, and stops in the fifteenth centurj- (1490). I- or
patnarch among the Jacobite Syrians. This ecclc- a long time past the Jacobite Chriat\aja£»^^^5asi^^^^'t
of the Tigris have seriously deoreaaediniiumberB. The
title ot mftphrian still exists, but the office has loat all
ita unportance and dignity.
AWBUAHI, BiUimhtca Onentalii. I, ITS; II. liv. 209. 214, 21S:
Bah Heboaids. Chnmiam taUria^icum. ed. Abbeloos «hd
Lamt, 1L parti.piTif-,p. xviii; part ui, epiloffue; ViedtMandOt
•d. by N*u; Laboubt, Le chriiliani'me Oant rrmpin Prrm
(Fuii. IBM).
J, Labourt.
Harui, Prudbntius, a learned Benedictme of the
Uaurist Congregation b. 140ctober,ie83,atS^aniie,
in the Department of Mame; d.2 April, 1762, at Paris.
After studying humanities at PanB he became a Bene-
dictine at the abbey of St. Faron near Meaux on 30
Januaiy, 1703, and continued hLs studies at the abbey
of St. Denis. He was then sent to tjt. Germain-de»-
Prts to collaborate with his confrere Toutt^ in the
edition of the works of St. Cyril of Jerusalem. In
1734 he was forced to leave St. Germain-des-Pr^ at
the instance of Cardinal Bisay, who suspected htm of
keeping his confreres from accepting the Bull " Uni-
genitus". After spending a year at the abbey of Or-
bais, he was sent to St. Martin de Poiitoise and in 1737
he was transferred to the abbey of Blaacs-Manleaux.
where he spent the remainder of his life. His profound
knowledge of theology and patriHlics is attested by the
learned and exhaustive introductions which he pre-
fixed to his critical editions of Grceic and Latin Fa-
thers as well as by hia other literary productions.
His masterpiece is the cditiuD of the works of St.
Justin: " Justini philos. ot martyris opera qum extant
omnia necnon TatiiLni, Athcnagonc, S. Theophili,
Hermiie" (Paris, 1742; l". G., IV). He further edited
the works of St. Cyril of Jerusalem which had been
frepared by Touttfe: "S. Cyriili Hieroa. opera"
Paris, 1720; P. G., XXXIII); the works ot St. Cyp-
rian which had been begun by St. Baluie: "8. Cyp-
riani opera", to which he prefixed a basic life of St.
Cyprian (Paris, 1726, P. L.. IV); the third volume of
the works of St. Basil, the two firat volumes of which
had been completed by Gamier (Paris, 1730). His
other works, aft anonymous, are " Dissertation but les
Simiariena" (Paris, 1722); "Divinitas domini noHtri
Jeeu Christi manifeata in scripturis et traditione"
tParis, 1746; new cd.,Wiir!burg, 1859); "Ladivinit*
de J^us Christ prouvte contre tes h^r^tiques ct les
d6i3t«s",3 vols. (Paris, 1751); "La doctrine de I'^cri-
ture et dea p^res aur les ^u^risons miraculeitsea "
(Paris, 1754) ; " Los grandeurs de JiiauB Christ aveo la
defense de sa divinity" (Paris, 1756).
Tavih. Hilt. lilt, dt !a eonorfe. dn SaitU-Maar (Bruaula,
1770). 741-e (Gonn. tr.. FranWurt, 1773>, II, 541-553: Le
Cbhf. StMioCAiW Aisf. rtcril. itaaalcuride lacoagrfa. ilc,<!iiinl-
UauT (The Hseur. 1726), ^<-H; Laha. fiAI. da /criramida Id
Conerlg. de Saint-Maur (Munich and Paris, 1HS2), 180-2;
Hdhter, NomntdatoT Lifrmnui, IV, ;ird ed. (Inaibnick. 1910),
1462-5.
MlCHABL OtT,
Haranatba. See Anatiieua.
Haranbao. See Sao Luiz do Makanuao, Dio-
Haiuta, an Armenian Catholic Diocese. The an-
dent name of this village was most probably Ger-
manida, the seat of a titular see (see Vol. VI, 475).
A patriarch resided here under Afens Comnenus,
shortly after which the country fell into the hands of
the Armenian princes. It (hen passed into the power
of the Crusaders, who established there a countship
dependent on tltat of Edeeaa. The Seljuks captured
it in 1155, and after various changes of masters it
belonged from the sixteenth century to the OamanU
Turks. The town, built on the slopes of Ahour-dagh.
is watered by numerous water-courses, tributaries ot
Pyrnmus. It numbers 52,(K)0 inhabitants, nearly
l:i,0()0 of whom are Catholics: Armenians, Chaldeans,
I.iitins, Melchites, and Syrians; there are besides
about lO.OftO schii^niatic Clirisliaiis, llie greal«r nuis-
hi'r lioiti/f Anifniunn. Many of these depend on the
AmecicaQ Prot«etant miaaion. The Catholic dioceie
ocmtaiDi 6000 faithful. 12 native priests, 6 pajishea or
stations, 5 schools. The Armenian Sistere oi the Im-
maculate Conception have an establishment, aa have
the Franciscans for the Latin Catholics. The t«wn,
which is a sandjak of the vilayet of Aleppo, has a very
bad reputation. The Christians suffered partdculariy
at the hands of the Mussulmans in 1895 and ld09.
CuiNET, La Tunpiie iTAiU, II (Parii. 1802), Z2ft-4B: Dv
CAHas, LttJan^Ut d-otart-mtr (Part, 1809), S«l aq.; Ui»-
timtt aUAoIica (Rome, 1907). 7fiS.
S. VxiLHi.
Hvatta, CkB-io, Italian painter, b. at Oatnerini^
in the March of Ancons, 13 May, 1625; d. in Rome,
15 December, 1713. From very early years Maratta
showed an extraordinary skill in design, and was sent
by his patrons to Rome to study under Andrea Sacchi,
with wnom be re-
mained for many
years, and for the
rded
hia
greatest fr . _
and benefactor.
After a while be
returned to his
own part of Italy,
and then in 1650,
in company with
the governor of
Ancona, iCardinal
Albriaio, who had
very much ad-
mired his talent,
he came again to
Rome, and was
introduced to
Alexander VTI,
who at once gave
him many com-
eventually, at the request of Sacchi, the important
one for a painting of Constantine destroying the
idols for the Baptistery of the Lateran. Tim
was one of bis greatest works, and inninawKl fail
popularity at the Vatican. In 1704 he was knigktad
by Clement XI, and given the Onler ol Chriat, iriiik
in the same year he was created painter ia onii-
nary by Louis XIV of France, who had wen bia pie-
ture of Daphne and greatly admired it. It ma am^
ing his residence in Rome that Maratta was atyltd
Maratti by the Romans, and his name it frequently
writtan in that form, althou^ originally it ynm aa iM
have given it. The painter was a member of thftAaad-
emy of St. Luke in Rome, and was not only
artist but extremely clever at cleaning ana i__.
frescoes, and was employed by Clement XI to ,
out such work as was necessary for the Raphael liM-
coesin the Vatican. He was also a clever etcber.uaBC
the tool with much freedom and spirit.
His pictures are very numerous. There are •even]
in the Louvre and others in Berlin, Munich, Vienna,
Brussels, Rome, Florence, St, Pelersburg, and in tha
National Gallery, Hampton Court., and at DevoOaUn
House in England. As a portrait painlfr he takM
high place. He was also a skilful architect, and re-
sponsible for the designs of several buikiinga, Ba
religious pictures are marked by a certain strength and
nobility, coupled with a gracious harmony. He was
not so skilful in arranging drapery, and was a little
disposed to exaggerate the details and acceasoriea,
breaking in upon the gcneml effect of his pictures, but
this fiiult is less seen in his portraits than in his
Madonna groups and religious compositions.
Vabari. Lt Viu dri Pillon (MiUnae ed.. Florence. 1S78,
ISSr.i: Aavfi:,n«n Kvn-lltr-LaKOn (Fnukfoit. 1898): I^akd,
Sloriii FiOunea dtlla llaliii (BuHsniio, 1806); DoutHId, Vilrdi
Pillori (Naiilm, 174'.i); Uont:*. Oimriimnt OtUporictt ddt*
CARDINAL GItTLlO ROSPIGLIOSI, AFTERWARDS POPE CLEMENT IX
CARLO UARATTA, PINAKOTHEK, MUNICH
iAABBODina 637 utABoiSLLnnm
Swiona (Palma, 1793): Palomino db Castro t Vbijiboo, El anonymous, defending the Crown. After the submis-
tf uMo Pictorico V Emx^ (Madrid^^ 1715). ^^ ^nd resignation of Cardinal de Retz, Marca was
Geobgb Charles Wiluamson. ^^^^ ^^^ Archbishopric of Paris^ but died about three^
MMbodiua, Bishop of R^cmese^^ tT^^'l^^MrtSjuri^^^d canonist! Sft^hkth^
and hymnologist b. about 1035 at Angers, Fra^ce^d- logical learning wis deficient, and his subservience to
there 11 September, 1123^ He received his early edu- ^j^^ . *^ excessive. He displayed a certain
Motion at Angers under Ramaldus, a disciple of Ful. inconstancyin his opinions, and too much ambition
bert of Chartres. After teaching some time at the ^^^ attachment to his own interests,
^thedrnl school of Angers he was put at the head of ^^ ^^ numerous publications the most impor-
the educational system of the cit;r and Diocese of ^^^ ^^ "Histoire de Wm", folio (Paris, 1640);
Angers by Bishop Eusebius Bnmo in 1067. Later he . ^^ concordia sacerdotii et imperii seu de libertatibui
became archdeacon and m 1096 Urban II appointed ^^^ gallican®-, foHo (PariST 1641) (and other edi-
him Bishop of ^nnes. In hw youth he mdu^ m tions) ; "Marca his^ca seu limes hlspanicus ", pub-
many excesses but from the time be became bishop ^y^^ '^^ ^^^ ^^^ (P^^i3 l^j g^^^ u ^Xtr^
his life was without reproach, In IIM he w^ present in^ites'de Marci" have been published by Tarizey
at the Council of Tours, and in 1109 Bishop Ramaldus ^ Larroque (Paris, 1881) and by J. Bonnet in the
of Martigne made him administrator of the Diocese of uRevue de Gascogne", January-^une. 1910.
Angers while he himself made a journey to Rome. At baluze. Vita iUustrUsimi viH PhH de Marca anhiepUcopi
the age of eighty^eight he resigned his diocese and Parm«?m«, at the banning of the editions of Concord%a after
withdrew to the Benedictine monastery of St. Aubin 1?63; de Facet, Vtta illuMHssimi et reverendisnmiPeln ds
^4. A^^^^ «rU»..» u« Air^A o^^» »f4o.« tli'a o.f^.L-a «r<«Mv MoTca lu PHtx «« MaTca d\%9ertal%onea posthuma: DubaraTi
at Angers where he died soon after. His works were NoticebiooraphiquesurPierredeMarcaiPiixi, 1S96).
first published at Rennes in 1 524. A new and enlarged Antoine Dsqert.
edition was published by Beaugendre (Paris, 1708),
reprinted in P. L. They comprise many lives of saints, Marcellina, Saint, only sister of St. Ambrose of
various epistles and some elegantly written hymns. Milan, b. about 330-5; d. about 398. She was older
A French translation of his hymns was edited by than St. Ambrose, and was bom most probably at
Ropartz (Rennes, 1873). Trier, where her father resided as prcefectus pratorio
Ernault, Marhode, 6vfque de Rennes, aa vie el ses ouvragea GcUliarum. Even before her fathers dfeath sne went
i^«?6i'??ii»^^"^)f'»'Sj^Yfer7l'^^^ to Rome, the home of her f^nily and. before her
343-392. Concerning his hymns see Blumb and Dreyks, mothers arrival at the capital With her two sons, had
Analecta hymnica, I (Leipug* 1907), 388 s<^ ^^ already forsaken the world, elected to live a life of
Michael Ott. Christian virginity, and devoted herself to the prac-
tices of piety and asceticism. On Christmas Day.
Marca, Pierre de, French bishop and scholar, b. probably in 353, she received the veil of consecrated
at Gan in B6am, 24 Jan., 1594, of a family distin- vir^nity from the hand of Pope Liberius. The advice,
guished in the magistracy; d. at Paris, 29 June, 1662. which the pope addressed to her on this occasion, has
After studying letters at the college of Auch and law been preserved by St. Ambrose (De viiginibus. III.
in the University of Toulouse, he became councillor i-iii), especially emphasized being the obligations of
(1615), and then president (1621), of the Parliament Christian virgins to preserve vircinal purity. After
of Pau, and finally intendant of B^am (1631), where Ambrose had become Bishop of Milan (374), he sum-
his influence greatly helped to restore the Catholic moned his sister thither, and found in her a zealous
religion almost extmguished by the queen, Jeanne assistant in fostering and extending the ascetic life
d'Albret. His wife, who had borne him four children, among the maidens of Milan. To her Ambrose dedi-
died in 1631, and from that moment he used all his cated his work on virginity, written in 377 ("Libri
spare time in studying and in writing works on reli- III de virginibus ad Marcellinam" in P. L., XVI, 187-
gious controversy, history — ^notably the "Histoire de 232). Marcellina survived her brother, and died in
B^rn " — and canon law. For the sake of utilizing his 398 or shortly afterwards. She also was buried in the
ecclesiastical learning, Louis XIII summoned him to crypt under the altar of the Ambrosian Basilica, and
Paris to be a member of the Coimcil of State (1639). was honoured as a saint. Her feast is celebrated on
At Cardinal Richelieu's request he published the 17 July.
treatise "Concordia sacerdotii et imperii" (1641), in ^ Lawrfo/w Mon^ina in Mombritius. 55., H. 95-7; AetaSS.,
which he aeu forth hb Gajlican views. After ten yea« ^'J^^^^^TrA^S^S^^^VSr.^S^^^rt^
of pious and laborious life as a widower, be aeciaed timius a Lacdb bt Alanus i>^ MACfCLANzs, Diaaert. hiaL da
to enter the priesthood. On 28 Dec., 1641, the king twnuhS. Maro^iwa wm aorom 5. Ambrosii in eiuadem im-
made him Bishop of Couserans (Gascognv^, but he SS2SiJ)KSAr^'' ^ * ^* See abo bibhogntphy to
was not preconized until ten years later, after having * * J, P. Kibsch.
seen his " Concordia " placed on the Index and having
signed a retractation ot the views there expressed. Sent MarceUinus, Saint, Pope, date of birth unknown;
as intendant to Catalonia, which had submitted to elected 30 June, 296; died 304. According to the.
France (1644), he wrote its history, under the title " Liber Pontificalis'' he was a Roman, son of a certain
of " Marca Hispanica " ; this work was published after Projectus. The Liberian Catalogue of popes (ed.
his death by his secretary, the learned Baluze. Shortly Duchesne, "Lib. Pont.'^ I, 6-7) gives 30 June as the
after his return from Catalonia, Marca was made Arch- day of his election, and the years 296r-304 as the time
bishop of Toulouse (28 May, 1652) . and when Innocent of his pontificate. These dates, accepted by the au*
X condemned Jansenism in 1653, ne used his influence thor of the *' Idber Pontificalis , are verified by that
to have the condemnation accepted. After that he ancient source. Nothing has been handed down con-
inspired the chief measures taken against this heresy ceming the activities of this pope in his reign of eight
in the general assemblies of the clergy (1655-60) and years. We learn from the Roman deacon Severus's
received from Pope Alexander VII (1656) a highly epitaph in the Catacomb of Callistus (De Rossi,
commendatory letter. Less commendable, however, ''Roma Sotterranea'', III, 46 tav. V) that at that
was his attitude when Louis XIV caused the arrest of time new burial chambers were made in the chief
Cardinal de Reta, Archbishop of Paris, for his share in oemeterv of the Roman Church. Severus says that he
the uprising of the Fronde. In opposition to the pope had laid out a double ctUnculum with luminare and
and cler^ who were offended W this violation of arcosolium, "jussu pape sui Marcellini". This hap-
ecclesia^itical immunities, Marca oeeame the king's pened before the outbreak of the great Diocletian per-
cou n sp] I or. and i\Tote«;vpral pamphlets, some of them secution; for in this the Callistus Catacomb waa
HAKCELLIXUS
638
BfiABOELLUnni
confiseatod, like the other public meeting-places of
the Roman community, be Rossi assumes that
the Christians blocked up the principal galleries of the
catacomb at this time, to protect from ofesecration the
tombs of the numerous martyrs buried there. The
Diocletian persecution, whose severe edicts against
the Christians were executed by Maximianus Hercu-
leus, caused tiie greatest confusion in the Roman
Church after 303. Marcellinus died in the second
year of the persecution and, in all probability, a nat-
ural death. No trustworthy sources of the fourth or
fifth century mention him as a martyr. His name
does not occur either in the list of martyrs or the
bishops in the Roman "Chronograph " of the year 364.
Neither is he mentioned in the " Martjrrologium Hie-
ronymianum". The "Marcellinus episcopus" on 4
Oct. in "Codex Bemensis" (ed. De Rossi-Duchesne,
129) is probably not identical w^ith the pope. In men-
tioning Marcellinus, Eusebius uses an obscure expres-
sion; he merely says: "the persecution also affected
him" (dp Kcd ainhv KaT€CKii<^v6duiyfibs "Hist. Eccl.",
VII, 32). From this one must obviously conclude
that the pope did not suffer martyrdom, other-
wise Eusebius would have distinctly stated ?.t. There
were even later reports in circulation that accused him
of having given up the sacred books after the first
edict, or even of having offered incense to the gi>d8;
to protect himself from the persecution. But vhe
sources in which this reproach is clearly stated are
very questionable.
The Donatist Bishop Petilianus of Constantine m
Africa asserted, in the letter he wrote in 400 and 410,
that Marcellinus and the Roman priests Melchiades.
Marcellus, and Sylvester (his three successors) had
S'ven up the sacred books, and had offere<l incons.?.
ut he could not adduce any proof. In the Acts of
confiscation of the church buildings at Rome, which
at the great Carthaginian conference between Cath-
olics and Donatists, were brought forward by the lat-
ter, only two Roman deacons, Straton and Cassius,
were named as traitors. St. Augustine, in his re-
plies to Petilianus. disputes the truth of the latter's
report ("Contra litteras Petiliani", II, 202: "De
(]uibus et nos solum respondemus: aut non probatis et
ad neminem pertinet, aut probatis et ad nos non perti-
nct"; "De imico baptismo contra Petilianum", cap.
xvi: " Ipse scelestos et sacrilegos fuisse dicit; ego inno-
centes fuisse resj)ondco"). One can only conclude
from Petilianus's accusation that such rumours against
Marcellinus and Roman priests were circulated m Af-
rica; but that they could not be proved, otherwise St
Augustine would not have been able to assert the
innocence of the accused so decidedly, or safely to have
referred to the matter at the Carthii^nian conference.
But even in Rome similar stories were told of Marcel-
linus in certain circles, so that in two later legendary
rej)ort8 a formal apostasy was attributed to this poixj,
of course followccf by reixiiitance and penance. 1 he
biography of Marcellinus in the "Liber Pontificalis ",
which probably alludes to a lost "passio*' of his, re-
lates that he was led to the sacrifice that he might
scatter incense, which he did. But after a few davs he
was seized with remorse, and was condemned to death
by Diocletian with three other Christians, and Ixj-
headed. It is clear that this report- attempts to com-
bine a rumour that the pope had offered incense to the
gods, with the fact that, in other circles he was re-
gardoii as a martyr and his tomb venerated.
At the beginning of the sixth century, rather later
than this "passio Marccllini", a collection of forged
documents appeare<l, which were manufactured in the
dispute lx?tween Pope Symmachus and Laurentius.
Among them are also found apocryphal Acts of an
alleged s>Tiod of 300 bishops, wnich took place in 303
at ^inuessa (between Rome and Capua), in order to
inquire into the accusation against Marcellinus that he
had sacrificed at I)io(?letian'3 order. On the first two
days Marcellinus had denied everything, but on tht
third day he admitted his lapse and repented; how-
ever the synod passed no sentence on him * ' Quia prima
sedes non judlcatur a quoquam''. When Diocietiazi
learnt of the occurrence, he had the pope and several
bishops of this synod executed (Hefele, "Konsilien-
geschichte", I, 2 Aufl. 143-45). The spuiiousness of
these acts is almost certain. Tlie foraer has made the
most of the rumour of Mareellinus's Eipse for his own
purposes in a different way from the author of the
^'passio", which crept into the "Liber Pontificalia ".
These apocryphal fragments cannot by themselves be
considered as historical proofs, any more than the
rumours in Donatist circles in Africa. It is accepted
as certain that the pope did not comply with the im-
perial edict by any overt act, such as the surrender of
the sacred writings, or even the offering of incense be-
fore the statue of a god. Such an apostasy of a Ro-
man bishop would without a doubt nave been fiven
the greatest prominence by contemporary auUiors.
Euseoius has not made use of the aoeve mentioned
idea. And later, Theodoret was still less in a position
to state in his "Church History", that Marcellinus
had been prominent in the persecution row iw rf
8itayfi$ iiairphl/arra (Hist. Eccl., I, 2). And Augustine
also would not have been able to assert so curtly in
answer to Petilian, that Marcellinus. and the pnests
accused with him as traitors and "lapei " were inno-
cent.
On the other hand it is remarkable, that in the
Roman "Chronograph " whose first edition was in 336,
the name of this pope alone is missing, while all other
popes from Lucius I onwards are forthcoming. In
the MS. there is indeed under 16 Jan. (XVI n kaL
I'v*b.) the name Marcellinus, but this is clearly a slip
of the pen for "Marcellus"; for the feast of this pope is
found rx)th in the " Marty rologium HieronjTnianum"
and in the old liturgical Roman books under this date,
while in the "Liber Pontificalis" and, in connection
therewith, in the historical martyrologies of the ninth
century, the feast of Marcclliniis is transferred to 26
April (ActaSS., June, VII, 185). By certain investiga-
tors (Mommsen, de Smedt) the lack of Marc^linus's
name was traced to the omission of a copyist, owing to
the similaritv of the names, and in the " Deposit io £pis-
coporum" they claimed to supplement the "Chiono-
Eiph": XVII kal. Febr. Marcelli in Priscillie; VI
1. Mali Marcellini in Priscillse (de Smedt, " Introdue-
tio in hist. eccl. critice tractandam'' 612-13). But
this hypothesis is not accepted. The dates of the
death ot the poises, as far as Svl vester in the list of suo-
cessions, are identical with the days of the month on
which their feasts are celebrated. Thus Marcellinuf
must come first after Gains, whose name is quoted
imder the date X kal. Maii. Tlien Marcellinus is lack'
ing not only in the ''Chronograph'', but also in the
''Martyrologium Hieronymianum", and in all fifth
and sixth century lists of popes. This omission if
therefore not accidental, but intentional.
In connection with the above mentioned rumoun
and the narratives of apocryphal fragments, it must
indeed be admitted that in certain circles at Rome the
conduct of the pope during the Diocletian persecution
was not approved. In this persecution we know of
only two Roman clerics who were mart)rred: the priest
Marcellinus and the exorcist Petrus. The Roman
bishop and the other memliers of the higher clexgy,
except the al>ove clerics, were able to elude the per-
secutors. How tliis happened we do not know. It
is passible that Pope Marcellinus was able to hide
himself in a safe place of concealment in due time, as
many other bishops did. But it is also possible that
at the publication of the edict he sccurecf his own im-
munity; in Roman circles this would have been im-
puted to him as weakness, so that his memory suf-
fered thereunder, and he was on that account omitted
by the author of the "Depositio Episcoporum" from
MiJtOXLLnrUB 639 makoeluhus
the " Chronograph '^ while he found a place in the Donatist^ falsely accused him out of hatred (Adv.
''CatologusLiberianus", which was ahnoBtcontempo- Pelagium, III, (3). Although St. Augustine intor-
rary. But his tomb was venerated by the Christians ceded for him, and several other African bishops came
of Rome, and he was afterwards recognized as a forward in his favour, he was beheaded 12 September,
martyr, as the "passio" shows. MarcelOnus died in 413, by order of Marinus; the latter was soon after
304. The dav of his death is not certain ; in the " li- called away from Africa, and in the edict of 30 August,
ber Pontificaus" his burial is wrongly placed at 26 414, which regulated the carrying out of the decrees
April, and this date is retained in the historical mar- against the Donatists, Marcellinus was referred to with
tyrologies of the ninth centuxy, and from them, in the honour. His name b in the Roman Martvrology, and
later martyrologies. But if we calculate the date of his feast is celebrated on 6 April as that of a martyr,
his death.from the duration of his office given in the Ada 8S., April, X, 639^2; Did. Chriu. Biog., Ill, 806-7;
Liberian Catalogue, he would have died on 24 or 25 "LmcLBRCfipUAfriquechritienne, II (Paris, 1904), lo^, 139-40.
Oct., 304. His body was mterred in the Catacomb of J- P- Kibsch.
Priscilla on the Via Salaria, near the crypt where the
martyr Cre»centius found his resting-plaice. The Cata- MarceUinui Oomes, Latin chronicler of the sixth
comb cd Callistus, the official bunal place of the century. He was an Illyrian by birth, but spent his
Roman Church, where the predecessors of Marcellinus life at the court of Constantinople. Under Justin I
were buried during several decades, was evidently con- (518-527) Marcellinus was chancellor to Justinian, the
fiscated in the persecution, while the Catacomb of Emperor's nephew already chosen as his successpr.
Prisciila, belongmg to the Acilii Qlabriones, was still When Justinian succeeded to the throne (527-565),
at the disposal of the Christians. his chancellor remained in favour and obtained va-
The tomb of Marcellinus was venerated at a very nous high places in the government. Otherwise little or
early date by the Christians of Rome, llie precise nothing is Known of his life. He died apparently soooa
statements aoout its position, in the *' Liber Pontifi- after 534. Tlie only surviving work of Slarcelhnus is
calls'' , indicate this. In one of the seventh century his chronicle (Annales), one of the many continuations
itineraries of the graves of the Roman martyrs, in the of Eusebius. It covers the period from 379 to 534.
" Epitome de locis ss. martyrum", it is expressly men- first he brought it down to 518, then he added a cou-
poned among the sacred graves of the Catacomb of tinuation to 534, as he says himself in the work. An
Priscilla (De Rossi, "Roma sotterranea'', I, 176). unknown writer added a continuation down to 566.
In the excavations at this catacomb the crypt of St. Although the work is in Latin, it describes almost ex-
Crescentius, beside which was the burial chamber of clusively the affairs of the East. The author says
Marcellinus, was satisfactorily identified. But no truly that he has "followed only the Eastern Em-
monument was discovered which had reference to this pire ". The few facts about Western Europe, taken
pope. The precise position of the burial chamber is from Orosius's ** Historia adv. paganos " and Genna-
therefore still uncertain. The lost ''passio" of Mar- dius's "De viris illustribus", are introduced onl^ in as
cellinus written towards the end of the fifth century, much as they relate in some way to Constant mople.
which was utilized by the authorof the ''Liber Pontifi- On the other hand the chronicle is filled with umm^
calis", shows that he was honoured as a mart}^* at portant details and anecdotes about that city and its
that time; nevertheless his name appears first in the court. Contemporary Church history is described
"Martyrology" of Bede, who drew nis account from fully as far as tne East is concerned. Marcellinus is
the '* Liber Pontificalis" (Quentin, *' Les martyroloees uncompromisin^y orthodox and has no good word to
historiques'', 103, sq.). This feast is on 26 April. Tne say of any of the heretics who appear in his pages,
earlier Breviaries, which follow the accoimt of the He is often inaccurate. He mentions Theodoret of
" Liber Pontificalis" concerning his lapse and his re- Cyrus in 466, whereas that person died ten years ear-
pentance, were altered in 18S3. lier. Cassiodorus (De Institut. divims, XVII) men-
Liber PoniUUxaia, ed. DucRBairs, I. 6, 7, 162-lM; cf. /n^ tions two Other Works of this author, four books " De
^*?55l^ cS^I'Sje.^^'SS^i^^ 1: Si'^^i'i: temporum qualitatibus et pasitionibus locorum '' ; and
P<mt. Rom. (Rome, 1819); L\norn, Oeaehichu der riymitchm a "most exact descnption of tlie Cities of Constanti-
Kvpche^, 370-872; Allard. Hittoirt des penicutioiu, TV, 37d- nople and Jerusalem m four little books *\ Both are
379; DucaiBaNB, Htttaire anctenne de VEglue, II, 92 sq.; i^
^KKXjccau II aepoUro dd papa Marcdlino nd Hmitero di Pn»- ii ,,. , «. i „ ^ j. 1 1* i j .
ciUa in NuovoBuU.diardieol.end, {1907), lis a<i. Maroelhnus's "Annales" were first pubhshed at
J. P. K1B8CH. Paris in 1546 (by A. Schonhovius) ; again by J. Sir-
mond (Paris, 1619); in the Lyons "Maxima Biblio-
MaroeUinns, Flavius, date of birth unknown ; d. 12 theca veterum Patrum " (1677) , IV, 517 ; in Gallandi's
September, 413. He was a high official (trtbunu8 el "Bib^otheca veterum Patrum"^ X, 343; and in
noUinus\ at the court of Emperor Honorius, and po»- "P. L,'* LI, 917. The best text is that of Mommsen
sessed the confidence of his imperial master owing to in his "Chronica minora" in "Monum. Germ. hist.
Us good sense, and unblemished conduct. In 411 auct. antiquiss." (Berlin, 1894), IX, pp. 37 sq. The
Honorius sent him to Africa as plenipotentiary judge, work is used by Jordanis the Goth (d. c. 560).
to preside and pass sentence at the great conference HoLOBR-EaoBR. Die Chronik des MareeUinua comen in Neuea
between the representatives of the Catholics and the Archivfar alure deuteche Gesehichte (1876). 250-253; Idbm, Die
Donatists, whiA began on 1 June of the same year and ?^i??;^J^i^r'^^rH'S!:VfrHeti^'''^^T^^f^^
lasted several days. Marcellinus, who had conducted don, 1889); Krumbacher, Oeeeh. d. hyzant. Lit. (2nd ed.,
the negotiations with great patience and entire impar- Munich, 1^96).
tialit y, decided in favour of the Catholics, whereupon Adrian Fortescue.
new imperial decrees were published against the Dona-
tists. The great interest which the imperial envoy MarceUinti0 of Oivesjsa (in the world Pietro
showed in theolo^cal and religious questions, brou^t Ranise), O.F.M., modem Franciscan author, bom at
about close and friendly relations between him and St. Civezza in Liguria, Italy, 29 May, 1822 ; d . at Leghorn,
Augustine, who wrote him several letters, and dedi- 27 March, 1900. He entered the order of the Friars-
cated various books to him (" De peocatorom meritis Minor in the Roman province, receiving the habit at
et remissione", "De baptismo parvulorum", the first Cori, 1 Feb., 1838. He completed his philosophical-
three books of "De Civitate Dei")- St. Jerome also theological studies at Tivoli and Lucca. In 1844 he
wrote him a letter. In 413 MarceUinus and his brother obtained the degree of Lector (Professor) in philoso-
Apringius were imprisoned by Marinus, who had phy, and in the following year, 17 May, was ordained
crushed the rising of Heradianus, as being alleged sup- pnest. For some years he taught at Tivoli , Ferentino,
porters and partisans of the latter. Jerome says the Viterbo, Aracceli in Rome; ir 1^54 he retired to Recco
ItmoXLLO 640 MAEOfLLim
in his native province of Genoa. By order of Bemar- Marcellns I, Saint, Popb, date of Urth unknown;
dino Tricmfettiy minister-general of the Friars-Minor, elected pope in May or June, 308; d. in 309. For some
Marcellinus in 1856 was entrusted with the ^gantio time after the death of Maroellinus in 304 the Diocle-
task of writing the history of the Franciscan missions, tian persecution continued with imabated severity,
to which the greater part of his life was devoted, ana After the abdication of Diocletian in 305, and the ao-
for which he undertook great journeys all over Eu- cession in Rome of Maxentius to the throne of the
rope, brin^g home great literary treasures, especially Caesars in October of the following year, the Christians
from the hbraries and archives of Spain. Later on he of the capital again enjoyed comparative peace,
resided n(iostly at Frato and at Rome, engaged in the Nevertheless, neany two years passed before a new
publication of his works. From 1881 to 1889 Mar- Bishop of Rome was elected. Then in 308, according
oellinus was definitor-general of his order, and finally to the ''Catalogue Liberianus^', Pope Maroellus first
in 1899 he retired to the convent of Leghorn, where he entered on his office : ' ' Fuit temporibus Maxenti a ochis.
peacefully died. During his long literary career Mar- X et Maximiano us<fue post consulatum X et septi-
oellinus made the acquaintance, of many prominent mum" ("Liber Pontif.". ed. Duchesne, 1, 6-7). This
men, with whom he carried on a large correspondence, abbreviated notice is to be read: " A cons. Maximiano
preserved in the convent of Leghorn. He enjoyea Herculio X et Maximiano Galerio VII lSOS\ usque
also the hiph esteem of Leo XIII, to whom he dedicated post cons. Maxim. Hierc. X et Max1n\. Gafer. Yll
some of his works. [309]" (cf. de Rossi, " Inscriptiones chriat. urbie
The total nmnber of books and brochures published Ilomffi", I, 30). At Rome, Maroellus found the
by Marcellinus amounts to between seventy and Church in the greatest confusion. The meeting-
eighty. Though his method was not always strictly sci- places and some of the burial-places of the faithful
entific, he has the undeniable merit of having aroused had been confiscated, and the ordinarv life and
interest in Franciscan historv and literature, which of activity of the Church was interrupted. Added
late has spread so widely. Only a few of his most im- to this were the dias^isions within the Church itself,
portant works can be mentioned here: (1) ''Storia caused by the large number of w^dcer members idio
universale delle Mission! Francescane " (Rome, Frato. had fallen away during the long period of active pene-
Florence, 1857-1895), 11 vols. in8vo. A French version cution and later, under the leadership of an apostate,
of thisworkwasbegunby Victor-BemardindeRouen^ violently demanded that they should be readmitted
O.F.M., 4 vols. (Paris, 1898-99) ; (2) " Saggio di to communion without doing penance. Ac(x>rdmg to
Bibliografia geografica, storica, etnografica Sanfran- the "Liber Pontificalis" Mi^ellus divided the teiri-
cescana" (Prato, 1879), 8vo; (3) ''Epistolse Missiona- tonal administration of the Church into twen^-five
riorum Ordinis 8. Francisci ex Frisia et Hollandia '' districts (tihdi), appointing over each a preebyter,
(Quaracchi, 1888), 8vo; (4) two periodicals: (a) "Cro- who saw to the preparation of the catechumens for
naca delle Missioni Francescane'', 6 vols. 8vo (Rome, baptism and directed the performance of public pen-
1860-66; Fr. trans., Louvain, 1861-67); (b) "Le Mis- ances. The presbvter was also made respociAble for
sioni Francescane in Palestina ed in altre regioni the burial of the dead and for the celebratiosiB oanh
della Terra". 8 vols. 8vo (Rome, Florence, Assisi, memorating the deaths of the martyrs. The pope
1890-97) ; (5) '' U Romano Pontincato nella Storia also had a new burial-place, the Ccaneteriufn Novium
d'ltalia", 3 vols. 8vo (Florence, 1886-87) ; (6) " Fra- on the Via Salaria (opposite the Catacomb of St. Pm-
tris Johaimis de Serravalle Ord. Min. . . . translatio et cilia), laid out. The '^ Liber Pontificalis" (ed. Ducheflne;
commentum totius libri Dantis Aldi^herii, cumtextu I, 164) says: '^Hic fecit cymiterium Novellae via Sa-
italico Fratris Bartholomsi a Colle eiusdem Ordinis " laria et XXV titulos in urbe Roma constituit quaa
(Prato, 1891), in foL; (7) "La Leggenda di San Fran- dioecesis propter baptismumetpcBnitentiammultonuD
cesco, scritta da tre suoi Compagni (legenda trium qui convertebantur ex paganis et propter sepultuns
Sociorum) pubblicata per la pnma volta nella vera martyrum'\ At the begimiine of the seventh oentmy
sua integrity" (Rome, 1899; Fr. trans, by Arnold there were probably twenty-nve titular churches in
Coffin, Brussels, 1902). Numbers (3)^ (4b), (6), (7) Rome; even granting that, perhaps, the compiler of
were published with the collaboration of Father the "Liber Pontifioalis'' referred this number to the
Theopnil Domenichelli, O.F.M., his inseparable friend, time of Marcellus, there is still a clear historical tradi-
DoMEmcHELu, In Memoria del P. MarceUino da Civexta tion in support of his declaration that the ecclefliastiesi
(Florence.. 1906); Acta Ordinis Fratrum Minorum, XXV administration in Rome was reorganised by this Dooe
tauantcchi. 1906). 263HJ4, t IVARIU8 Oliger after the great persecution. *^^ ^ ^^
LivARius UUGER. rj,^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ howcvcr, quickly inter-
__ ^ „ ^ ..-_.. ,.^. , ^ rupted by the controversies to which the question ol
MarceUo, Benedetto b. in yemce m 1696; d. at the readmittance of the lapsi into the Chuit^ cave
Brescia m July, 1739. MarcoUo s life was a strange rise. As to this, we ^ther some light from the poetic
mixture of the political and the artLstic. In. 1730 he tribute composed by Damasus in memory of his wede-
became Proveditore of Pola, but his health failed here cesser and placed over his grave (De Ro^, '^bct.
and he assuined the duties of Camerlengo at Brescia, christ. urbis Rom©", II, 62, 103, 138: csf. Idon.
He furnished the hbretto of Ruggien s " Arato in "Roma sotterranea", II, 204-6). Damasus relates
Sparta . The hbrary at San Marco m Venice pos- that the truth-loving leader of the Roman Church was
sesses the manuscript copy of his well known looked upon as a wicked enemy by all the lapsed, be-
"Teona Musicale' and m the Royal Library of Dres- cause he msisted that they should perform ^^ pre-
den are original copies of "II Timoteo' and "La scribed penance for theu- guilt. As a result senow
Cassandra .The Royal Library at Brussels has pre- conflicts arose, some of which ended in bloodshed, and
ser\'ed the MS. copy of " II Tnonf o della Musica nel every lx>nd of peace was broken. At the head of this
celebrarsilamortediMariayergjne' .^Hisgreat 'Para- Imnd of the unfaithful and rebellious stood an imostate
phrase of the Psalms" is his be^ work though his ^ho had denied the Faith even before the outbreak of
settmgs of the Salve Regma. the Miserere, and the La- persecution. The tyrannical Maxentius had the pope
mentations of Jeremias contain features of deep inter- seized and sent into exile. This took place at the end
est to the student of the history of music. The 7 Para- of 308 or the beginning of 309 accordmg to the pas-
phrase appeared m instahnents, the first pubhcation gages cited above from the ''Catalogue liberianuT,
being in 1724. His collaborator was the poet Gius- which gives the length of the pontificate eb no more
tiniani. ^w • rv n rw-*.- / ^^^ ^^® y^**"' ®** (°'* seven) months, and twenty
Bttrsky, General Hialorv of Munc, TV: Quoyk, Dichonary of A^vf. MaropUiifl Hiwi shnrtJv tdi^r lAAvm» DA«n»
Mwic; BiNOLBT. Hidorv of the Muaidana of idth A 17th ^y°' J*iarce"us <"ea snortiy wter leaving Rome,
Centuriee, II. And was venerated as a samt. His feast-day was 16
William Finn. January, according to the ** Depositio eptsooporum"
HABOELLUS
641
HABOELLUS
if the " Chronography" of ^54 tutd every other Roman pointed the adviser and prii-ate secretary of the youBg
authority. Nevertheless, it is not known whether and inexperienced cardinal and as such had a neat in-
this is the date of hia death or that of tlie burial of his fluence in the papal curia. He accompanied Faraese
rentains, aft^r these had been brought back from the on bis various legations, and in order that he might
unknown quarter to which he had been exiled. He take actual part ia the consultations and negotiations
was buried in the catacomb of St. Priscilla, where his between Famese and the monarchs of Europe, he was
nave is mentioned by the itineraries to the graves of created cardinal-priest of the title of Santa Croce in
the Ronian martyrs as existing in the basilica of St. Gerusalemme, 19 December, 1539. He had already
Silvester (De Rossi, "Roma sotterranea", I, 176) been appointed to the See of Nicastro, in addition to
Afifth-century"PaasioHarcelli", which is included which he became administrator of the Diocese of
in the leeendary account of tiw martyrdom of St. Reggio the following year and that of Gubbio in 1644.
Cyriacus (cf. Acta Sanct., Jan., II, 369) and is followed In 1539 he accompanied Farnese on an important lo-
" ■"" .— . Ration to Ctiarles V of Germany and Francis I of
France. The purpose of this legation was to induce the
two monarchs to send the prelates of their countries
to the intended General Council of the Church and to
gainst Henry VIII of England
by the "Liber Pontificalis", gives a different account
or the end of Marcellus. According ( '' '
at a station on the public highway (cata&uiiim). At
the end of nine months he was set free by the clergy;
but a matron named Lucina having had her house on
the Via Lata consecrated by him as " titulus Marcelli "
he was again con-
demned to the work
of attending to the
horses brought into
the station, in which
menial occupation he
died. All this is prob-
ably legendary, the
reference to the res-
toration of ecclesi-
astical activity by
Marcellus alone hav-
Thcy had an audience with Francis I at Amiens on
9 February, 1540, and with the emperor at Ghent on
the twenty-fourth of the same month, but their mis-
■" already returning to
Rome when Cervini
received orders from
the pope to stay as
legate at the impe-
ing .
1 hiator
. The tradition
related in the verses
of DamasuB seems
much more worthy
of belief. The feast
of St. Marcellus,
whrae name is to this
day borne by the
church at Rome men-
tioned in the above
legend, ia still cele-
brated on 1 6 JanuBiy.
There Btill re- " '-
;seiit him at the
Diet which the em-
peror wished to con-
vene at Speyer.
When, however, it
became evident that
the Protestants
would be mBdomi-
nant at the Diet and
had no desire to come
to an understanding
with the Catholics,
the pope counter-
acted his order and
sent no represen-
tative to the Diet
which in the mean-
time had been trans-
ferred to Hagenau.
In October, 1540,
Cervini returned to
bementionedMonimsen'Bpeculiar view that Marcellus Rome, not, however, before he had ui^ntly re-
was not really a bishop, but a simple Roman presbyter quested the pope to send a representative to the
to whom was committed the ecclesiastical administra- intended Diet of Worms. In a consistory held at
tion during the latter part of the period of vacancy of Rome on 6 February, 1545, hewaa appointed one of
the papal chair. According to this view, 16 January the three presidents'of the Council of Trent. His two
was really the date of Marcellinus's death, ijie next colleagues were Cardinals Giovanni Maria del Monte
occupant of the cliuir being Eusebius (Neues Archiv, (afterwards Julius III) and Reginald Pole. On 13
Vdtit
This hypothesis has, however,
, ,_. ., IM-A: cf. Introduction,
J., Jan., II.. MO; L*noeh. OmcA. der iVSn. Kircht,
March, 1645, he arrived at Trent During the first
period of the Council, i. e. from its opening session on
13 December, 1545, until its prorogation for an indefi-
nite period at Bologna on 14 September, 1547, he
fearlessly represented the interests of the pope and
the Church against all opposition from the emperor,
whose extreme hatred he in consequence incurred.
In 1548 he succeeded Aeostino Steuco as librarian of
the Vatican with the title of " Bibliothecte Apostolicte
ir_,: !.__. __.__„ Under bis protectorate the
. Hwcellus H, Pope (Marcbllo Cervini oequ
SPANNOCm), b. 6 May, 1501 at Montepulciano it __
Tuscany; d. 6 May, 1555, at Rome. His father, Ri- Vaticana! Protector
cardo Cfervini, was .\poatolic treasurer in the March of Vatican library was soon put in a flounshing condition.
Ancona. Atteratudyingsome time at Siena, became More than 500 I^tin, Greek and Hebrew volume*
to Rome, shortly after the accession of Clement VII, were added, and new catalogues of the Greek and
inl523, to continue hiastudies, and through his purity Latin manuscripts were prepared. As early aa 1539
of life and longing for knowledge gained the respect he had induced the pope to have printed at least the
and friendship of many peraona of high influence, moat valuable Greek manuscripts. Ccrvini'a pubUc
Paul III, who had succeeded Clement VII in 1534, ap- activity was less prominent during the pontificate of
pomted him prothonotary apostolic and papal secre- Julius III (1550-5). He was replaced aa president of
tary. When, in 1538, Paul III entrusted hia youthful the Council of Trent bv Marcel lo.Crescenii in the hope
nephew.CardinalAlessandroFameae, with practically that the emperor would give his support to the presi-
the complete management of the temporal affairs of dents of the Council.
the Church, the prudent and virtuous Cervini was ap- After the death of Julius III (23 March, 1555), tha
IX.— 41
BiABOELLUS
642
ICA&OHAKD
cardinals present in Rome, 39 in number, entered the
conclave on 4 April, and four days later Cardinal Mar-
cello Cervini was elected pope, although the emperor
had instructed his cardinals to prevent his election.
Contrary to custom, Cervini, like Adrian VI, retained
his old name of Marcello and was called Marcellus II.
On the following day, 10 April, he was consecrated
bishop, for, though he had administered the Dioceses
of Nicastro, Reggio, and Gubbio, he had not yet re-
ceived episcopal consecration. He was crowned pope
on the same day, but without the customary solem-
nity, on account of the Lenten season. The new pope
had been one of those cardinals who were desirous of
an inner reform of the Church. While administrator
of Reggio he undertook a thorough visitation of the
diocese in 1543, and abolished abuses wherever thev
were found. Immediately upon his accession he took
the work of reform in hand; he died after a reign of
only 22 days, of a sickness resulting from over-
exertion duringthe pontifical functions of Holy Week
and Easter. Falcstrina entitled one of his famous
polyphone masses "Missa Papee Marcelli^' in his
nonour. This mass was not, however, as is often as-
serted, chanted in the presence of Marcellus II; it was
not composed until after the death of this pope.
PoLTDORUS, De vUa gettis el moribua MarceUi IT, Papa
(Kome, 1744) ; Pastor, Oetchichte der Paepste seit dem Atugang
dea MiUdaUera, V (Freibunt im Br., 1900), passim; Ehseb,
Conct7tum Trideniinum, I (Fr^burg im Br., 1900), IV (1904),
passim; NtmtiaturberichU aua DeiUachland nebal ergaemenden
AHmduecken, Y, October, 1539-November. 1540 (Qotha,
1908), passim, especially 249 sq.; see also bibliography under
Trent, Ck>UNaL or.
Michael Ott.
MarcelluB of Anc3rra, one of the bishops present at
the (Jounciis of Ancvra and of Nicsea, a strong oppo-
nent of Arianism, but in his zeal to combat Arius
adopting the opposite extreme of modified Sabellian-
ism and being several times condemned, dying de-
S rived of his see c. a. d. 374. A few years after the
buncil of Nicsea Marcellus wrote a book against
Asterius, a prominent Arian. In this work he main-
tained that the trinity of persons in the Godhead was
but a transitory dispensation. God was originalljy
only One Personality, but at the creation of the uni-
verse the Word or Logos went out from the Father
and was God's Activity in the world. This Logos
became incarnate in Christ and was thus constituted
Son of God. The Holy Ghost likewise went forth as
third Divine Personality from the Father and from
Christ according to St. John, xx, 22. At the consum-
mation of all things, however (I Cor., xv, 28), Christ
and the Holy Ghost will return to' the Father and the
Godhead be a^ain an absolute Unity. The bishops at
Jerusalem havmg condemned his works, Marcellus was
firstdeposed at Constantinople in 336 at a council imder
the presidency of Eusebius of Nicomedia, the Arian,
and Basil of Ancyra appointed to his sec. Marcellus
sought redress at Rome from Julius I, who in
the autumn of 340 declared Marcellus innocent of the
charges brought against him, and reinstated him in
his see. Constantius, when threatened by his brother,
allowed the restoration of Athanasius, Marcellus
and others to their sees in 348. Marcellus' re-
turn was resisted by the populace of Ancyra, but he
succeeded in occupying his see for a few years, only to
be finally deposed by the Macedonian faction at Con-
stantinople and succeeded by Basil, c. 353. St.
Athanasius himself at last recognized Marcellus' heter-
odoxy; Pope Damasus likewise, in 380, and the Second
General Council pronounced against him. Eusebius of
Giesarea wrote against him two works: '* Contra
Marcellum", an exposition of Marcellus' doctrine, and
"On the Theology of the Church," a refutation of
Marcellus.
Zahn, Marcellus of Ancyra (Gotha, 1867); Loors. SUzber.
dtr Berlin. Academie (Berlin, 1902), 764 sqq.
J. P. Arendzen.
March, Auzias, Catalan poet, b. perhaps in the
last quarter of the fourteenth century, at Valencia;
d. there in 1458. He is the greatest lyric poet of the
older period of Catalan literature, and among for-
eigners is one of the best to realise the spirit of
Petrarch's love lyric. A knowledge of Dante^s work
is also apparent in his poetical imagery, which rises
superior to that of the troubadour poetry still written
by March's contemporaries. According to report,
March was a soldier of fame and took part in the expe-
dition of Alfonso V of Aragon against Naples; this
report needs verification. He certainly came of a
noble stock, and seems to have contracted marriage
twice. His extant poems consist of ninety-three love
songs (or Cants d amor) and eight death songs or
elegies {Cants de mart), besides some moralising poems
{Cants morals), a long Cant espiritual, and a brief
"Demanda fcta a la Senyora Na Tecla de Borja".
The lady celebrated in the love lyrics is said to have
been a fair gentlewoman of Valencia, Teresa Bou (or
Monboy), whom March met for the first time — even as
Petrarch had met his Laura — in church on a Good
Friday. Following Petrarch's example, the Catalan
poets sings her not only in life, but also in death. In
these compositions March reveals himself as a genuine
poet, in spite of the occasional obscurity of his Jines.
It is to be remembered also to his credit that the
Catalan language was a very imperfect medium for
poetical expression when he began to write, so that he
had many difl^culties to overcome when seeking to
give utterance to subtle poetic thought such as IV
trarch had set down in the far more supple Italian. In
the ''Cants morals" he brings an indictment agAJnat
the contemporary society for its materialism aim am-
fulness; while in the "Cant espiritual he arraiAiui
himself for his own shortcomings. The "DemanSi^
is a poetical epistle of slight account. It is a notahh
fact that in his own time Mareh was already lauded m
a great poet by the well-informed Castilian, the Mmt-'
quis of Santillana. In the sixteenth century his lyiici
were translated twice into Castilian, first by Haltaaar
de Romani (printed in 1539, four years before the fini
edition of the original Catalan text), and again bj
Jorge de Montemayor. His influence is clear in a
number of the leading poets writing in Spanish in thtt
same century, such as Boscan, Garcilaso de la Vegm
and Mendoza.
Among modem editions of the work of March see that off
Barcelona, 1864. and that also of Barcelona, of 1888, aeitber off
which is very good. Cf. Rubio t Ors, Atitiaa M. y tu 4poem
(Barcelona, 1862); Paqes, DocumenU irUdita reltUifa it ia wU
(TA.M. in Romania, XVII, 186; Morel-Patio in QrAbbk,
Orundriaa der roman. Philologie, II, ii, 79; and Dbnk, EinftUk-
rttng in die Geachichte der altcatalaniachen LiUeratitr CHunidl.
1893), 567 sqq. (a book to be used with caution).
J. D. M. Ford.
March, John. See Harbor Grace, Diocese of.
Marchand, Jean Baptiste, second prmcipal in
order of succession of the Sulpician College of Montreal
and missionary of the Detroit Hurons at Sandwich
Ont.; b. at Verch^res, Que., 25 Feb., 1760, son of
Louis Marchand and Marguerite de Niverville; d. at
Sandwich, 14 Apr., 1825. Marchand was ordained 11
March, 1786, affiliated to the Sulpician Seminary of
Montreal, 21 Oct., 1788, and thereupon named pnn*
cipal of what is now called Montreal Collep;e. This
institution was cradled in the presbytery oi M. Jean
Baptiste Curateau de la Blaiserie, S.S., parish priest
at Longue Pointe, an outlying village; the first stu*
dents having been received there about the year 1767.
It was removed to the city 1 Oct., 1773, and installed
in the old Chateau Vaudreuil, Jacques Cartier Souare,
where it was known as St. Raphael s College untu 1803
when the Chdteau was destroyed by fire. M. Mar-
chand's administration of St. Raphaers lasted till
1796, when the death occurred of M. Francois Xavier
Dufaux, S.S., missionary to the Hurons at Assimiption
Parish opposite Detroit, at what is now Sandwich, and
MABOHAItr 6-
U. M&rch&nd was ohoaen to succeed turn. It waa dur-
ing H. Marchond'a adminiatration In 1801, that Ii^.
D«ukUt, Bishop of Quebecj made the firat episcopal visi-
tation recorded in thepansh, and confirmed some five
hundred peraoDH. He at the same time gave H.
Harchand an assistant in the person of Rev. F^lix
Gratien, who was recalled in 1^06 to fill the chair of
pbiloaophy in the Quebec Seminary. M. Marchand
toiled on, unaided for the most part, for ail but thirty
years, and died abhis post among his beloved Indians.
TAKaCAT, Appertain Otnfnd dti CUrgt CaruuHtn; HiranBr-
Latocb, Ann-uairt dr VUlx Mant.
AsTHCR Edwabd Jongs.
Hardumt, Peter, theologian, b. at Couviu, a vil-
lage in the principality of Lifige, in 1585; d. at Ghent,
11 Nov., 1661. His brother James Vbs the author
of the well-known work "Hortus Paatorura", Peter
entered the Franciscan Order in 1601. He led an
austere life and was a strict observer of the Fianciscan
Rule. He acquired a profound knowledge of Scholas-
tic philosophy and theology and for several years
taught in the schools of his order. In 1G25 he was
elected definitor general of the order at the genera!
chapter held in Rome; and in lfi39 was appointed
commissBiy geaeral over the provinces of Germany,
Belgium, Holland, Great Britain, and Ireland. Ilis
duties as commissary general brought him into con-
tact with Irish politics during the troublesome times
of the "Confederation of Kilkenny", Unfortunately
he allowed himseu
to be deceived by
false reporta on
the true state of
affairs in Ireland
and he took sides
with the Ormond-
ists and gave en-
couragement to
Peter Walah and
his supporters in
their opposition to
the nuncio Rinac-
cini. He was called
upon by the au-
thorities of the
order to justify
his conduct in con-
ncKJon with the
Irish question, and
in 1661 he ad-
dressed to the gen-
eral chapter Uien
assembled in
Rome hia apologia under the title of " Relatio veridica
et sincera status Provinciae Hibemis ", etc. This is a
very rare book, as it waa never widely circulated and
was condemned by the general chapter and ordered to
be destroyed.
Marchant waa a voluminous author, Hia chief work
is "Tribunal Sacramentale" (3 vols., Ghent, 1642;
Antwerp, 1673), for the use of confessors. It contains
a fuU exposition of moral theology. He puts aside all
disputed opinions, and simply states the doctrinal
teaching of the Church, drawing hia proofa from Edy
Scripture, the dccisiona of councils, the constant tradi-
tion of the Church, and the writings of the saints.
The treatise on Probabilism is lucid and complete.
Ita principlea are in accordance with the restrictions
placed on the doctrine later on by the decrees of Alex-
ander VII and Innocent XI; and in many points is
identical with the doctrine subsequently propounded
by Daniel in hia refutation of the "Lettres Provin-
cialea". Marchant wrote sevenl worka on the oultua
of St. Joseph. His work intituled "Ssncti6catia9,
Joseph Spons) Virginia in utero asserts" (Bi
d.), was placed ■■ > ■ •"■» ■ -■""-
n the Index, 19 March, 1633. &alao
wn>t« " Baoulus Pastoralis aive Potestas flpiscoporura
in Regulares exemptoa ab originibus aula espUcata"
(Bruges, 1638); Resolutiones notabiles variorum
casuumet gusstionumamultishactenuadestderatffi"
(Antwerp. 1655), Many of hia works are on the his-
tory and legislation of the Franciscan Order.
WADDDfo-SBAnALEX^m'stsru Ord. Uin. (Rome, 1806);
JOANHU \ 3. Ant,, Bibtieaeea Univ. Francitama (Hadrid,
1732); FoPFi»(B, BMioUuea BOgica (BiubhIs, 1739); Dirks,
Hidoirt liatnart, etc, (Antwerp, ISSS): ConUmporani fTuMv
of Affairtinlnland, ad. GlI^Ka,T IDahUu. 1870-60),
Gbbgory Cleaht,
Haicheai, Pomfeo, a Lombard sculptor of the neo-
classic school, b. at Saltrio, near Milan, 7 August,
1790; d. at Milan, 6 February, 1858. He studied in
Rome under Canova and ret^ived much encourage-
ment from his master. The greater part of his life waa
spent in ^lilan, where for many years he waa profeasor
of aeutpture at the Academy. He executed a gi«at
number of groups in marble and portrait buata. One
of his earliest works was a colossal statue of St. Am-
brose, patron of the city- for the Arco della Faos
(Simplon commemorative arch), completed 1838, he
made the relieta of Terpsichore and Venus Urania.
He decorated the facade of the Castillo with twelvo
figures of great Italian captains, and that of the Palauo
Saporiti with reliefs in modem classic style. One of
his best-known compositions is the group of the
"Mater Dolorosa", in the church of San Carlo, at
which he laboured many yeai^. Works outside of Milan
are the colossal statue of Charles Emmanuel III at N»>
vara; that of Philibert Emanuel of Savoy at Turin;
the sitting figure of Goethe for the library at Frank-
tort; two statues of the Emperor Francis I of Austria,
one made with the assistance of Manfredoni, for
Goritz, and another, unasaisled, for the Hofburg at
Vienna. He also executed the monument to Volta at
Como; the monument of the aingerMalibmn; others
to Beccaria and Ilellini and a bust of Professor Zuccala
for the Alheneum of Bergan
M. L. H ANOINT.
Marchi, Giusbpfe, archxologist, b. at Tolmezzo
nearUdine, 22Feb,, 1795; d, at Rome, 10 Feb., 1850.
He entered the Society of Jesus at Home 12 Novem-
ber, 1814, shortly after the re-eatabilshment of the
order and was professor of humanities successively in
the colleges of Temi, Reggio-Emitia, Modena, and St.
Andrew of the Quirinal. After completing his couna
and making his religious profession (1833) he became
professor ^ rhetoric in the Roman College and held
this position until 1842. Meanwhile, he devoted hil
leisure to study, applying himself throueh choice to
profane antiquities. In 1838 he waa made prefect of
the Kircher Museum which office he retained until his
death. He soon gave special attention to Christian
antiquities, hoping thus to find a means of restoring
Christian art. In 1840 he announced his intention at
collecting into one large publication the monuments of
Christian architecture, painting, and sculpture. His
archsological pursuits recommended him to Gregory
XVI aa qualified to succeed Settete in the position ot
"Conservatore dei sacri cimiteri di Roma" (1842).
About this time Marchi made the acquamtance of
youthful Giovaimi Battista Dc Rossi, who accepted
him as master and thenceforth accompanied him on
his visits to the catacombs. These ancient cemet«riea
had been deplombly abandoned but thereafter were
more accessible and could be studied on the ground.
In 1844 AUrchi published the first volume of his
"Monument)", devoted to the construction of the
catacombs, especially that of St. Agnes, He proved
the Christian origin of these ancient burial-places and,
through his studies, was brought about (21 March,
1S45] the discovery of the crypts of Saints Peter and
HyacinUi in the catacomb of St. Hennea. ToD«
HAttOIAM 644 lUBOIAM
Rossi, however, was reserved the honour of the great under Theodosius, had been Anthemius. As soon as
discoveries in the Roman catacombs. He knew bet- he became emperor he began a policy of moderation,
ter than Marchi how to make use of ancient topograph- especially in taxation, that maae his reign prosperous
ical data and all the resources of learning. Marchi was and himself popular, though he did UtUe by force of
appointed Consultor of the Congregation of the Index arms to repress the ever-encroaching Huns and other
in 1847 a,nd several years later (1864) he took part in enemies ot Rome.
the creation of the liateran Museum of which, with de He reduced the expenses of the treasury and Court,
Fabris, he became director. In Julv, 1855, his labours and did away with l^e gl^f or foUiSf an oppressive tax
were interrupted for the first time by a stroke of apo- on properly that was specially obnoxious to the upper
plexy, to which he succunibed in 1860. The notes classes. There was a harsh system by which any
mtended for the continuation of the ''Monumenti'' senator mieht be forced to accept the imwelcome
were lost, but some of them were found by Father honour of the prcetura. As a praetor he was obliged to
Bonayenia and made known at the Second Congress of live at Constantinople during his time of office, and
Christian Archeology at Rome (1900). These recov- ^pend large sums on providing games and shows,
ered documents were destined for the second volume This was specially hard on senators who lived in ibe
of the "Monument!", which was to treat of the non- provinces, who had therefore to come to the capital
oemeterial Christian architecture of Rome. The full and live for months there at ruinous expense. Mar-
titles of his works are: "Musei Kirchemiani Inscrip- cian modified this law so as to excuse people living
tiones ethnicce et christians " (Milan, 1837) ; " L'aes away from the city, and he ordered the consms to take
g^ve del Museo Kircheriano, ovyero le monete primi- their share of the expenses. He reformed the navy
Uye dei popoli dell' Italia media'' in collaboration on a more economical basis. There were at that time
with P. Tessieni (Rome, 1839) ;" Monumenti delle arti frequent earthquakes, by which whole cities were
cristiane primitive nella metropoli del cristianesimo: destroyed. In these cases Marcian and Pulcheria
I. Archittetura della Roma sotteranea cristiana" came to the help of the sufferers generously with sup-
(Romo, 1844). plies from the imperial treasury.
Ceu, Oiuaeppe Marchi, SJ". dono einqiumt* onnt in CiviUii Marcian had a conscientious idea of the responsi-
Cattoliea, 1. 1§10. 308-322; 447-446. bilities of his office. In the second novella of hiicodc
R. Maehe. he defines his view of an emperor's duty: *'It is our
business to provide for the care of the human race. "
Mardan (Marcianus, MapKiavos), Roman Emperor And he was conscious of the distress caused by the ex-
at Constantinople, b. in Thrace about 390; d. January, cessi ve taxation and general maladministration of his
457. He became a soldier; during his early life he was predecessors. The nirst novella announces that com-
poor, and it is said that he arrived at Constantinople plainants have fiocked to the Government from all
with only two hundred pieces of gold, which he had sides, there are " endless crowds of petitioners"; this
borrowed. He served in the army imder Ardaburius is because of the want of "integrity and severity" in
the Alan and his son Aspar; he distinguished himself the judges. Marcian's laws are well-meant andi suo-
in the wars against the Persians and Huns. Aspar was cessful attempts to cope with these difficulties. Aveiy
a kind of king-maker, and general-in-chief for tne East popular measure was his refijsal to pay to Attila the
(magister mmtumper orientem) , also for a time the most tribute that had been paid regularly by Theodosius H.
powerful man at Constantinople. But since he was a This refusal both saved a great expense and restored
foreigner and an Arian he could not be emperor him- the dignity of the empire that had been degraded by
self. Instead he placed a succession of his favourites so great a humiliation. As the Huns were just begin-
on the throne. One of these was Marcian. At Con- ning their quarrel with the Franks, they cotdd not
stantinople Marcian became a senator and was a well- afford to go to war with the empire. No doubt Mar-
known and popular person. He was a widower; his cian knew this when he defied them,
daughter by the first marriage, Euphemia, afterwards But the chief event of this reign was the beginning
married Anthemius, Emperor in the West (467-472). of the great Monophysite quarrel and the Coundi oi
He was about sixty years old when Theodosius II died Chalcedon. Marcian was conspicuously pious and
(450). orthodox. As soon as he was crowned he wrote a
Tlieodosius II (40S-450) had succeeded his father, very friendly and respectful letter to Pope Leo I (440-
Arcadius (395-408), as a youne child. During the 461), whom he calls the guardian of the Faith, asking
greater part of his reign his elder sister Pulcneria for his prayers, and declaring himself anxious to sup-
managed the Government. Already during the reign port the council proposed by the pope (aoO a^^OtwroOrm)
of Theodosius Pulcheria was "Augusta". With her two m order to settle tne question raised by Eutyches,
sisters, Arcadia and Marina, she made a public vow Dioscurus, and their friends (ep. Ixxiii among St. Leo's
of celibacy. When her brother died all difficulty letters; Mansi, VI, 94). On 22 November, 450, he
about the succession was ended by the unanimous writes again in the same way, and speaks of the pleasure
choice of her (who had long really guided the State) with which he had welcomed the pope's legates. He
as empress. Thus began the reign of Pulcheria. hopes that Leo will be able to come to the council him-
Wishinjg to strengthen her position (it was the first self; if not he, Marcian, will sunmion it to some con~
case of a woman succeeding to the Roman throne) she venient place; it shall define the Faith according
at once made a nominal marriage with Marcian. He to Leo's letter to Flavian of Constantinople (ibid.,
seems to have be^n the best person she could have Ixxxvi; Mansi, VI, 99). Pulcheria also wrote; she too
chosen;thefriendshipof Aspar as well as his own repu- says that that the coimcil shall be sununoned by
tation had long pointed him out for som^ high place, the pope's authority. Leo had already asked Theo-
It is said that Theodosius on his death-bed haa told dosius II to summon the council (ep. xliv, 3; P. L.,
him: "It has been revealed to me that you will sue- LIV, 826); Marcian clearly only meant to cany* out
ceed me. " Marcian was crowned by the patriarch, this commission as Theodosius's successor. Mean-
25 August, 450. It is the first instance of the religious while Dioscurus and his party knew Quite well that
ceremony of coronation, imitated later in the West, Marcian would not be their friend. They had tried
and was to have far-reaching consequences. The and failed to prevent his recognition in Egypt; the
&st act of the new reim was the trial and execution of attempt only made their case worse with the Govem-
Chrysaphiua» a eunuch and court favourite long im- ment.
popular, who had brought Theodosius to a humiliating The Eastern Church had been disturbed by the
apoloey and the payment of a large fine by an unsuc- teaching of Eutyches since inmiediately after the
cessful conspiracy to murder Attila. Marcian be- Council of Ephesus (431) and the Nestorian troubles.
longed to the party of reform, of which the founder. In 448 Eusebius of Dorylceum had accused Eutyches
MABOIAMB 645 BiABOIONim
and his formula "one nature after the union" (jurii riage, the last emperor of the House of Theodoeius I
T^p (puHTiy Ida <ff6int) at Constantinople. Dioscunis The Orthodox have canonized him also, and keep his
of Alexandria had taken up the cause of Eutyches, and feast (with Pulcheria) on 17 February.
had condemned Dyophvsism at the Robber Council of Evagrius, Higt. EccL, U; Tillbmont, Hiatoire de9 Empe-
Ephesus in 449 (for all this see Mongphysitism). TSS^i^J???!*^*^'^*'^^^^;*^,^^'^^^
Pope Leo hoped for a time to restore peace without Z^X]^ii^%^''^r'Tnou^ in'^(i:,^nf 'iso'/)!^!^^^??
another general council (his letters to Marcian, Hsraui, tr. Leclercq, Uiataire des Coneilea, II (Paris, 1908)!
Ixxviii, to Pulcheria, Ixxix, and to the Patriarch Adrian Fobtescub.
Anatolius of CJonstantinople, Ixxx). But meanwhile m*™i^«^ x-x i * t • a e \r
Marcian. acting on Leo's former proposal, summoned a -^ Mardane, a titular see of Ljrcia, suffragan of Myra.
council on 17 May, 451, by lettera addressed to all the l^ ^,F^f^!^.^J^^u.l^''^'ll^J^'^^^^^ ^ w u^®
metropoUtans of the empire. It is clear that he ^""^^ to the twelfth or thirteenth centuries, but it is
acted in a misunderstanding, and had not yet received not mentioned by any author and its situation remams
the pope's later letter (Hefele-I^clercq, II, 639). unknown LeQmen (OrieM christ. J, 983) cites three
Leo th^ accepted what had happened, aid ap- bjshops: Januarius, who attended m 448 the Council
pointed as his legates Paschasinus, Bishop of Lilir- of Constantinople against Eutyches; Augustine who
t»um m Sicily,llnd a priest Boniface (ep. bcxxix; signed in 459 the synodal decree of Gennadius of Con-
Mansi, VI, 125). The council was to have met at ^^^^''^ ^^^ITl^^'^T^'^A Marcian who signed m
Nic»a; many bishops had already arrived there in the ^^^-^^ ^ecretal letter of the Council of Constantmople
summer of 451, when the
to wait till he could join them
553). He was busy at the fr<
ranging its defence against the Huns. The bishops Marcianopolis. a titular see in Lower Moesia, on
wrote to complain of the delay, and Marcian answered the right bank of the Danube, so called by Trajan
their letter telling them to go to Chalcedon, opposite after his sister Marciana ( Amm. Marcellmus, XX VII,
the capital on the other side of the Bosphorus (Mansi. 2) and previously known as Parthenopolis. Eir.peror
V, 657); in this way he could attend to the coimcii Claudius II repeatedly repulsed the Uoths near this
without leaving Constantinople. town (Trebellius Pollio, *' Claudius ",9 ; ZQsimus, 1, 42) ;
The council opened in the church of St. Euphemia Valens made it his winter Quarters in 368 and succeed-
at Chalcedon on 8 October, 451, and lasted till I ing years (Amm. Marcel!., XXVII, 5; Theophanis,
November. About 600 bishops attended. The im- "Chronographia". a. m. 6859, 5860, 6861). In 687
penal commissioners were present and regulated the it was sacked by the kine of the Avars, and at once re-
exterior business at each session. The papal legate, taken by the Romans (Theophanis, *'Chronographia",
Paschasinus, opened the council. Marcian and Pul- a. m. 6079). The Roman army quartered there in
cheria assisted at the sixth session (25 October). The 596 before crossing the Danube to assault the Avars
emperor opened the proceedings that day with a (op. cit., a.m. 6088). Marcianopolis was the home of
speech in Latin (Mansi, VII, 129). One notices that many saints or martyrs, e. g., St. Meletina, whose feast
what was still the official language of the empire was is kept on 15 Sept., and whose remains were carried to
used on specially solemn occasions. His speech was I^enmos; St. Alexander, martyred imder Maximianus,
then repeated in Greek. At this session the decree of and whose feast is kept on 2 Febr. Saints Maximus,
the council was read (see Chalcedon). On 27 Feb- Theodotus, Asclepiodotus, martyred at Adrianople
ruary, 452, Marcian, together with his Western col- underMaximianus,and whose feast is kept on 15 Sept.,
league, Valentinian III (423-455), made a lawenforc- were bom at Marcianopolis. The "Ecthesis" of the
ing the decree and canons of the council as the law pseudo-Epiphanius (c. 640) gives the Metropolitical
of the empire, and threatening heavy penalties See of Marcianopolis in the Balkans five suffragans
against all who disputed them. Marcian alone re- (Gelzer, '* Ungedruckte . . . Texte der Notitise Epis-
peated the same law on 13 March (Mansi, VII, 475- copatuum", 542). The "Notitia Episcopatuum " of
480). The famous twenty-eighth canon (giving Con- the Armenian cleric, Basil (c. 840) confirms this (Gel-
stantinople rank immediately after Rome) and the zer, "GeorgiiCypriidescriptio orbisromani'', 25). Oa
pope's protest against it caused further correspon- the other hana Marcian opoUs is not mentioned in the
dence between him and the emperor and empress "Notitia" of Leo the Wise (c. 900), nor in that of
(Ep. LeonisI.,cv, cvi; Mansi, VI, 187, 195), but did not Constantine Porphyrogenitus (c. 940), because the
disturb their good relations. Marcian's laws pro- region had at that time been overrun oy the Bulga-
duced uniformity at Constantinople and in the neigh- rians. Le Qaien (Oriens Christ., I, 1217-1220) men-
bourhood of the Government, but he could not en- tions many bishops of Marcianopolis and Preslau, er-
force them so successfully in Syria and Egypt. The roneously identifying these two towns. The Preslau
rest of his reign was troubled by the revolution in these of the Middle Ages remains Preslau to this day, and
provinces, which remained one of the chief difficulties his Marcianopolis is now the village of Devna, a little
of the Government under his successors for two cen- to the west of Varna in Bulgaria. This name imder
turies. Marcian made no concessions towards the the form Diabaina is mentioned by Pachymeros on
Syrian and Egyptian Monophysites. His Govern- account of something that took place there in 1280
ment carried out the deposition of Dioscurus, and an (De Michaele Palaeologo, VI, 49).
edict of 28 July, 452, insisted under heavy penalties Farlati, /Wyricufn Sacrum. VIII, 85-105; Tomabchex. Zur
on the recognition of Proterius, the Orthodox Patri- ^""^ ^ Hmmua-IIalbinsd (Vienna, 1887). 28
arch of Alexandria. A large force (2000 soldiers) was °* ^^^*^-
sent to Egypt. It was not until after Marcian's death Marcionites. — Heretical sect founded in a. d. 144
that a party at Constantinople under Aspar and Ana- at Rome by Marcion and continuing in the West for
tolius began to compromise with the heretics. 300 years, but in the East some centuries longer, espe-
In the year 453 Attila died. It is said that Marcian cially outside the Byzantine empire. They rejected the
dreamed, at the moment of Attila's death, that he saw writings of the Old Testament and taught that Christ
the bow of his great enemy broken. The Empress was not the Son of the god of the Jews, but the Son of
Pulcheria died in the same year. She is canonised the good God, who was different from the god of the
by both Catholics and Orthodox; her feast is on 10 Anciciiit Covenant. They anticipated the more con-
September in both calendars. Marcian survived his sistent dualism of Manichteism and were finally ab-
wife four years. The end of his reign was occupied sorbed by it. As they arose in the very infancy of
by the increasing troubles in Egypt. He was huc- Christianity and adopted from the l)eginning a strong
ceeded by Leo I (457-474). Marcian was, by nuir- ecclcsiasticul organization, parallel to that of tlveC^W
]I4ftOIOirZTI8
646
KAAoionm
otfe Church, they were perhaps the most dangerous foe
CSiristiaiiity has ever known. The subject will be
treated under the following heads: I. Life of Marcion;
II. Doctrine and Discipline; III. History; IV, Muti-
lation of the New Testament; V. Anti-Marcionlte
Writers.
I. Life op Marcion. — Marcion was son of the
Bishop of Sinope in Pontus, bom c. a. d. 110, evidently
from wealthy parents. He is described as tm&rfp,
naudems, a shipowner, by Rhodon and TertuUian, who
wrote about a generation after his death. Epiphanius
(Hseres., XLII, ii) relates that Marcion in ms youth
Erofessed to lead a life of chastity and asceticism,
ut in spite of his professions fell into sin with a young
maiden. In consequence his father, the bishop, cast
him out of the Church. He besought his father for
reconciliation, i. e. to be admitted to ecclesiastical
penance, but the bishop stood firm in his refusal. Not
Deing able to bear with the laughter and contempt of
his fellow townsmen, he secretly left Sinope and trav-
elled to Rome. The story of Marcion's sin is rejected
by many modem scholars (e. g. G. KrOger) as a piece
of malicious gossip of which tney say Epiphanius was
fond; others see in the young maiden but a metaphor
for the Church, the then young bride of Christ, whom
Marcion violated by his heresy, though he made great
professions of bodily chastity and austerity. No accu-
sations of impurity are brought against Marcion by
earlier church writers, and Marcioir s austerity seems
aclmowledged as a fact. Irenseus states that Marcion
flourished under Pope Anicetus (c. 155-166) [invalmt
9ub Aniceto]. Thougn this period may mark Marcion's
greatest success in Rome, it is certain that he arrived
&ere earlier, i. c. a. d. 140, after the death of Hyginus,
who died that year and apparently before the accession
of Pius I. Epiphanius says that Marcion sought ad-
mittance into the Roman Church but was refused. The
reason given was that they could not admit one who
had been expelled by his own bishop without previous
communication with that authority. This story has
likewise been pointed out as extremely unlikely, im-
plying, as it does, that the great Roman Church pro-
fessed itself incompetent to override the decision of a
local bishop in Pontus. It must be borne in mind,
however, that Marcion arrived at Rome sede vacante,
"after the death of Hyginus", and that such an
answer sounds natural enough on the lips of presbyters
as yet without a bishop.
Moreover it is obvious that Marcion was already a
consecrated bishop. A layman could not have dis-
Euted on Scripture with the presbyters as he did, nor
ave threatened shortly after his arrival: " I will divide
your Church and cause within her a division, which
will ]&at for ever", as Marcion is said to have done; a
layman could not have founded a vast and world-wide
institution, of which the main characteristic was that
it was episcopalian; a layman would not have been
proudly referred to for centuries by his disciples as
their first bishop, a claim not disputed by any of their
adversaries, though many and extensive works were
written against them; a ia3rman would not have been
permanently cast out of the Church without hope of
reconciliation by his own father, notwithstanding his
entreaties, for a sin of fornication, nor therefore nave
become an object of laughter to his heathen fellow
townsmen, if we accept the story of Epiphanius. A
la3rnian would not have been disappointed that he
was not made bishop shortly after his arrival in a city
whose see was vacant, as Marcion is said to have lx?en
on his arrival at Rome after the death of Hyginus.
This stoiy has been held up as the height of absurd-
ity and so it would be, if we ignored the facts that
Marcion was a bishop, and that according to TertuUian
(De Praescr., xxx) he made the Roman community the
gift of two hundred thousand sesterces soon after his
arrival. This extraordinary gift of £1400 (7000 dol-
lars), a huge sum for those days, may be ascribed to
the first fervour of faith, but is at least as oatim%
ascribed to a lively hope. The money was returned to
him after lus breach with the Church. This again ia
more natural if it was made with a tacit condition,
than if it was absolute and the outcome of pure chal^
ity. Lastly the report that Marcion on his arrival at
Itome had to hand in or to renew a oonf ession of faith
(Tert., "De Praescr.", xxx; "Adv. Mar.", I, xx; "De
came Christ! ", ii) fits in naturally with the suppositioo
of his being a bishop, but would be, as G. KrCkger points
out, unheard of in the case of a layman.
We can take it for granted then that Marcion was
a bishop, probably an assistant or suffragan of his fa-
ther at Sinope. Having fallen out with his father he
travels to Rome, where, being a seafarer or shipowner
and a great traveller, he may already have been
known and where his wealth obtains him influence and
position. If Tertullian supposes him to have been ad-
mitted to the Roman Church and Epiphanius B&ys
that he was refused admittance, the two statements
can easily be reconciled if we understand the former of
mere membership or communion, the latter of the ac-
ceptance of his claims. His episcopal dignity has re-
ceived mention at least in two early writers, wno speak
of him as having "from bishop become an apostate"
(Optatus of Mileve, IV, v), and of his followers as be-
ing sur named after a bishop instead of being called
Christians after Christ (Adamantius, " DiaL", I, ed.
Sande Bakhuysen). Marcion is said to have asked
the Roman presbyters the explanation of Matt., ix,
16, 17, whicn he evidently wished to understand as
expressing the incompatibility of the New Testament
with the Old, but which they interpreted in an ortho-
dox sense. His final breach with the Roman Churdi
occurred in the autumn of 144, for the Marcionites
counted 115 years and 6) months from the time of
Christ to the beginning of their sect. Tertullian
roughly speaks of a hundred years and more. Mar-
cion seems to have made common cause with Cerdo
(q. v.), the Syrian Gnostic, who was at the time in
Rome ; that his doctrine was actually derived from that
Gnostic seems unlikely. Irenseus relates (Adv. Hser.,
Ill, iii) that St. Polycarp meeting Marcion in Rmne
was asked by him: Dost thou reco|^ize us? and gave
answer: I recognize thee as the nrst-bom of Satan.
This meeting must have hanpened in 154, by which
time Marcion had displayed a great and successful
activity, for St. Justin Martyr in his ^ First Apology
(written about 150), describes Marcion 's heresy as
spread everywhere. These half a dozen years seem to
many too short a time for such prodigious success, and
they believe that Marcion was active in Asia Minor
long l)efore he came to Rome. Clement of Alexandria
(Strom., VII, vii, 106) calls him the older contempo-
rary of Basilides and Valentinus, but if so, he must have
been a middle-aged man when he came to Rome, and a
Previous propaganda in the East is not impoMssible.
hat the Chronicle of Edessa places the beginning of
Marcionism in 138, strongly favours this view. Ter-
tullian relates in 207 (the date of his Adv. Marc., IV,
iv) that Marcion professed penitence and accepted as
condition of his readmittance into the Chiu-ch that he
should bring hack to the fold those whom he had led
astray, but death prevented his carrying this out.
The precise date of his death is not known.
II. Doctrine and Discipline. — We must distin-
guish between the doctrine of Marcion himself and
that of his followers. Marcion was no Gnostic
dreamer. He wanted a Christianity untrammelled
and undefiled by association with Judaism. Chris-
tianity was the New Covenant pure and simple Ab-
stract questions on the origin of evil or on the essence
of the Godhead interested him httle, but the Old Tes-
tament was a scandal to the faithful and a stumbling-
block to the refined and intellectual Gentiles by its cru-
dity and cruelty, and the Old Testament had to be set
aside. The two great obstacles in his way he removed
MABOIONins 64/ BCAR0IONITB8
by drastic measures. He had to account for the ex- Sent, suddenly Christ I" Maroion admitted no proph«
istence of the Old Testament and he accounted for it ecy of the Coming of Christ whatever; the Jewish
by postulating a secondary deity, a demiurgus, who prophets foretold a Jewish Messias only, and this Mes-
was god in a sense, but not the supreme Goa; he was sias had not yet appeared. Marcion used the story of
just, rigidly just, he had his good qualities, but he was the tliree angels, wno ate, walked and conversed with
not the good God, who was Father of Our Lord Jesus Abraham and yet had no real human body, as an iilus-
Christ. The metaphysical relation between these two tration of the life of Christ (Adv. Marc, III, ix).
gods troubled Marcion little; of divine emanation. Tertullian says (ibid.) that when Apelles and seceders
fieons, syzygies, eternally opposed principles of gooa from Marcion began to believe that Christ had a real
and evil, he knows nothing. He may oe almost a body indeed, not by birth but rather collected from
Manichee in practice, but in theory he has not reached the elements, Marcion would prefer to accept even a
absolute consistency as Mani did a hundred years putative birth rather than a real body. Whether this
later. Marcion had secondly to account for' those is Tertullian 's mockery or a real change in Marcion's
passages in the New Testament which countenanced sentiments, w^e do not know. To Marcion matter and
the Old. He resolutely cut out all texts that were flesh are not indeed essentially evil, but are contempti-
contrary to his dogma; in fact, he created his own ble things, a mere production of the Demiurge, and it
New Testament, aomitting but one Gospel, a mutila- was inconceivable that God should really have made
tion of St. Luke, and an Apostolicon containing ten them His own. Christ's life on earth was a continual
epistles of St. Paul. The mantle of St. Paul had fallen contrast to the conduct of the Demilune. Some of
on the shoulders of Marcion in his struggle with the the contrasts are cleverlv staged: the Demiurge sent
Judaisers. The Catholics of his day were nothing but bears to devour children for puerile merriment (Kings)
the Judaisers of the previous century. The pure Paul- — Christ bade children come to Him and He fondfed
ine Gospel had become corrupted and Marcion not ob- and blessed them; the Demiurge in his law declared
scurely hinted that even the pillar apostles, Peter, lepers imclean and banished them — but Christ
James and John, had betrayed their trust. He loves to touched and healed them. Christ's putative passion
speak of "false apostles", and lets his hearers infer and death was the work of the Demiurge, who in re-
who they were. Once the Old Testament has been venge for Christ's abolition of the Jewish law delivered
completely got rid of, Marcion has no further desire for Him up to hell. But even in hell Christ overcame the
change. He makes his purely New Testament Demiurge by preacliing to the spirits in Limbo, and by
Church as like the Catholic Church as possible, consist- His Resurrection He founded the true Kingdom of the
ent with his deep-seated Puritanism. The first de- good God. Epiphanius (Hser., xlii, 4) sayS that Mar-
scription of Marcion's doctrine dates from St. Justin: cionites believed that in Limbo Christ brought salva-
*' With the help of the devil Marcion has in every coun- tion to Cain, Core, Dathan and Abiron. Esau and the
try contributed to blasphemy and the refusal to ac- Gentiles, but left in damnation all Old Testament
knowledge the Creator of all the world as God. He saints. This may have been held by some Marcion-
recognizes another god, who, because he is essentially ites in the fourth century, but it was not the teaching of
greater (than the W' orld-maker or Demiurge) has done Marcion himself, who had no Antinomian tendencies,
greater deeds than he (wf ttn-a fielj^ova t4 yxl^ova irapA Marcion denied the resurrection of the body, "for
rovTov veroiriKivai). The Supreme God is diyaObi, good, flesh and blood shall not inherit the Kingdom of God ",
kind; the inferior god is merely BiKaiOi, just and ri^ht- and he denied the second coming of Christ to judge the
eous. The good God is all love, the inferior god gives living and the dead, for the good God, being all good-
way to fierce anger. Though less than the good God, ness, does not punish those who reject JHim; He simply
yet the just god, as world-creator, has his indepen- leaves them to the Demiurge, who will cast them into
dent sphere of activity. They are not opposed as Or- everlasting fire.
muzd and Ahriman, though the good Goa interferes in With regard to discipline, the main point of differ-
favour of men, for He alone is all- wise and all-powerful ence consists in his rejection of marriage, i. e. he bap-
and loves mercy more than punishment. All men are tized only those who were not living in matrimony:
indeed created by the Demiurge, but by special choice virgins, widows, ceUbates ancl eunuchs (Tert., "Adv.
he elected the Jewish people as his own and thus be- Marc.",I,xxix); all others remained catechumens. On
came the god of the Jews. the other hand the absence of division between cate-
His theological outlook is limited to the Bible, his chumens and baptized persons in Marcionite worship,
struggle with the CathoHc Church seems a battle with shocked orthodox Christians, but it was emphatical^
texts and nothing more. The Old Testament is true defended by Marcion's appeal to Gal., vi, 6. According
enough, Moses and the Prophets are messengers of the to Tertullian (Adv. Marc, I, xiv) ne used water in
Demiurge, the Jewish Messias is sure to come and baptism, anointed his faithful with oil and gave milk
found a millennial kingdom for the Jews on earth, but and honey to the catechumens and in so far retained
the Jewish Messias has nothing whatever to do with the orthodox practices, although, says Tertullian, all
the Christ of God. The Invisible, Indescribable, these things are " beggarly elements of the Creator. "
Good God (d^parof, dKardwoftaaTos, dya&6s SeSs), for- Marcionites must have been excessive fastens to pro-
merly utterly unknown to the creator as well as to his yoke the ridicule of Tertullian in his Montanist davs.
creatures, has revealed Himself in Christ. How far Epiphanius says they fasted on Saturday out of a
Marcion admitted a Trinity of persons in the Supreme spirit of opposition to the Jewish God, who made the
Godhead is not known; Christ is indeed the Son of Sabbath a day of rejoicing. This however may have
God, but He is also simply "God" without further been merely a western custom adopted by them,
qualification ; in fact, Marcion's Gospel began with the III. HisTOKY.—It was the fate of Marcionism to
words : " In the fifteenth year of the Emperor Tiberius drift away almost immediately from its founder's ideas
God descended in Caphamaum and taught on the towards mere Gnosticism. Marcion's creator or Jew-
Sabbaths". However daring and capricious this ma- ish god was too inconsistent and illogical a conception,
nipulation of the Gospel text, it is at least a splendid he was inferior to the good God, yet he was inoepen-
testimony that in Christian circles of the first half of dent; he was just and yet not good; his writings were
the second century the Divinity of Christ was a central true and yet to be discarded ; he had created all men
dogma. To Marcion however Christ was God Mani- and done them no evil, yet they had not to worship
fest, not God Incarnate. His Christoloipr is that of and serve him. Marcion's followers sought to be more
theDocetffi (q. v.) rejectine the inspired history of the logical^ they postulated three principles: good, just
Infancy, in fact any childhood of Christ at all; Mar- and wicked, opposing the first two to the last; or one
cion's Saviovu- is a "deus ex machina" of which Ter- principle only, the just god being a mere creation of
tulUan mockingly says: "Suddenly a SoDi suddenty the ^(xxi God. The first opinion was maintAix\s^Vsi^
BC^ROIONITES
648
MA&OIOMim
Syneros and Lucanus or Lucianus. Of the first we
know nothing beyond the mention of him in Rhodon :
of the second we possess more information, ana
Epiphanius has devoted a whole chapter to his refuta-
tion. Both Origen and Epiphanius, however, seem to
know of Lucanus' sect only bv hearsay; it was there-
fore probably extinct towards the end of the third
century. Tertullian (de Resur. Cam., ii) says that he
outdid even Marcion in denying the resurrection not
only of the body but also of the soul, only admitting
the resurrection of some tertium quid {irvtvfia as op-
posed to ^ux^ ?) . Tertullian says that he had Lucanus'
teaching in view when writing his " De Anima ". It is
possible that Lucanus taught transmigration of souls;
according to Epiphanius some Marcionites of his day
maintained it. Though Lucanus' particular sect may
have soon died out, the doctrine comprised in the
three principles was long maintained by Marcionites.
In St. Hippolytus' time (c. 225) it was held by an
Assyrian called Prepon, who wrote in defence of it a
work called " Bardesanes the Armenian " (Hipp., "Adv.
HaBr.", VII, xxxi) . Adamantius in his " Dialogue" (see
below) introduces a probably fictitious Marcionite doc-
trine of three principles, and Epiphanius evidently
puts it forward as the prominent Marcionite doctrine
of his day (374). The doctrine of the One Principle
only, of which the Jewish god is a creature, was mam-
tained by the notorious Apelles, who, though once a
disciple of Marcion himself, became more of a Gnostic
th^ of a Marcionist. He was accompanied by a girl
called Philumena, a sort of clairvoyante who dabbled
in magic, and who claimed frequent visions of Christ
and St. Paul, appearing under the form of a boy.
Tertullian calls this Philumena a prostitute, and ac-
cuses Apelles of unchastity, but Khodon, who had
known Apelles personally, refers to him as " venerable
in behaviour and age". Tertullian often attacks him
in writings ("De Pra?scr.", Ixvii; "Adv. Marc.," Ill,
g. 11, IV, 17) and even wrote a work against him:
"Adversus Apclleiacos", which is unfortunately lost,
though once known to St. Hippolytus and St. Augus-
tine. Some fragments of Apelles have been collected
by A. Hamack (first in "Texte u. Unters.", VI, 3,
1890, and then ibid., XX, or new ser.^ V, 3, 1900),
who wrote "De Apelles Gnosi Monarchica" (I^ipzig,
1874), though Apelles emphatically repudiated Mar-
don's two gods and acknowledged " One good God,
one Beginning and one Power beyond all description
(djrarar6/ia<rro}) .
This "Holy and Good God above", according to
him, took no notice of things below, but made another
god, who made the world. Nor is this creator-god the
only emanation of the Supreme God; there is a fire-
angel or fire-god (" Igneus Prajses mali " according to
Tertullian, "De Came", viii) who tampered with the
souls of men; there is a Jewish god, a law-god, who
presumably wrote the Old Testament, which Apelles
neld to be a lying production. Possibly, however, the
fire-god and the law-god were but manifestations of
the creator-god. Apelles wrote an extensive work
called ^vWoyia/Mt to prove the untrustworthiness of
the Old Testament, of which Origen quotes a charac-
teristic fragment (In Gen., II, ii). Apelles' Antido-
cetism has been referred to above. Of other followers
of Marcion the names only are known. The Marcion-
ites differed from the Gnostic Christians in that they
thought it unlawful to deny their religion in times of
persecution, nobly vying with Catholics in shedding
their blood for the name of Christ. Marcionite martyrs
are not infrequently referred to in Eusebius' "Church
History" (IV, xv, xlvi; V, xvi, xxi; VII, xii). Their
nimiber and influence seem alwavs to have l^cen less in
the West than in the East, and in the West they soon
died out. Epiphanius, however, testifies that in the
East in A. D. 374 they had deceived "a vast numlwr of
men" and were found "not onlv in Rome and Italy
but in Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, Syria, Cj'prus and the
Thebaid and even in Persia ". And Hieodoret, Bishop
of Cyrus in the Province of the Euphrates from 423 to
458, in his letter to Domno, the Patriarch of Antioch,
refers with just pride to his having converted one thou-
sand Marcionites in his scattered diocese. Not far
from Theodoret's diocese, near Damascus, an inscrip-
tion was found of a Marcionite church, showing that m
▲. D. 318-319 Marcionites possessed fretMlom of wor-
ship (Le Boss and Waddington, " Inscr. Grec", Paris,
1870). Constantine (Eusebius, "Vita", III, Ixiv) for-
bade all public and private worship of Marcionism.
Though the Paulicians are always designated by their
adversaries as Manich^ans, and though their adoption
of Manichsean principles seems imdeniable, yet ao-*
cording to Petrus Siculus, who lived amongst Paulh
cians (868-^869) in Tibrike and is therefore a trust-
worthy witness, their founder, Constantine the
Armenian, on receiving Marcion's Gosp>el and Apostol- •
icon from a deacon in Syria, handed it to his followers,
who at first at least kept it as their Bible and repudi-
ated all writings of Mani. The refutation of Marcion-
ism by the Armenian Archpriest Eznic in the fif^
century shows the Marcionites to have been still
numerous in Armenia at that time (Eznik, " Refuta-
tion of the Sects ", ly, Ger. tr., J. M. Schmid, Vienna,
19G0). Ermoni maintains that Eznik's descriptiim
of Marcion's doctrine still represents the ancient form
thereof, but this is not acknowledged by other scholars
("Marcion dans la Utt^rat. Armlnienne" in "Revue
de I'Or. Chr^t.", I).
IV. Mutilation op the New Testament. — Mar-
cion's name appears prominently in the discussion cC
two important questions, that of the Apostles' Creed
and that of the Canon of the New Testament. It is
maintained by recent scholars that the Apostles' Creed
was drawn up in the Roman Church in opposition to
Marcionism (cf. F. Kattenbusch, "Das Apost. Sym-
bol", Leipzig, 1900; A. C. McGiffert, "The Apostles'
Creed", New York, 1902). Passing over this point,
Marcion's attitude towards the New Testament must
be further explained. His cardinal doctrine was the
opposition of the Old Testament to the New, and this
doctrine he had amply illustrated in his great (lost)
work 'Avrt^^crets or "Contrasts". In order^ however.
to make the contrast perfect he had to omit much ol
the New Testament writings and to manipulate the
rest. He took one Gospel out of the four, and ac-
cepted only ten epistles of St. Paul. Marcion's Gospd
was based on our canonical St. Luke with omission ol
the first two chapters. The text has been as far as
possible restored by Th. Zahn. "Geschichte d. N.T.
kanons", II, 455^494, from all available sources, es-
pecially Epiphanius, who made a collection oi 78
passages. Marcion's changes mainly consist in omis-
sions, where he modifies the text. The modifications
are slight, thus: " I give thee thanks, Father, God of
heaven and earth ", is changed to "I give thanks, Fa-
ther, Lord of heaven ". " O foolish and hard of heart
to believe in all that the prophets have spoken", is
changed into: "O foolish and hard of heart to believe
in all that I have told you." Sometimes slight adcli-
tions are made : " We found this one subverting our na-
tion" (the accusation of the Jews before Pilate) re-
ceives the addition: "and destroying the law and the
grophets". A similar process was followed with the
Ipistle of St. Paul. By the omission of a single prepo-
sition Marcion had coined a text in favour of his doo^
trine out of Ephes., iii, 10: "the mystery which from
the beginning of the world has been hidden /r<>m the
god who created all things " (omitting ip before 0ef).
However cleverly the changes were made, CathoUes
continued to press Marcion even with the texts which
he retained in his New Testament, hence the continual
need of further modifications. The Epistles of St.
Paul which he received were, first of all, Galatians,
which he considered the charter of Marcionism, then
Corinthians I and II, Romans I and II, Thessalonians,
MAROOPOLIS
649
MAROOSIANS
Ephesians (which, however, he knew under the name of
Laodiceans), Colossians, rhilippians and Philemon.
The Pastoral Epistles, the Catholic Epistles, Hebrews
and the Apocalypse, as well as Acts, were excluded.
Recently de Bruyne ("Revue Benedictine", 1907,
1-16) has made out a good case for the supposition
that the short prefaces to the Pauline epistles, which
were once attributed to Pelagius and others, are taken
out of a Marcionite Bible and augmented with Catho-
lic headings for the missing Epistles.
V. Anti-Marcionite Writers. — (1) St. Justin the.
Martyr (150) refers to the Marcionites in his first Apol-
ogy; he also wrote a special treatise against them.
This, however, mentioned by Irenseus as ^^vr ay iul irpbs
MapKlupa, is lost. Irenaaus (Hcer., IV, vi, 2) quotes
short passages of Justin containing the sentence: "I
would not have believed the Lord himself if he had
announced any other than the Creator''; also V, 26, 2.
(2) Irenseus (c. 176) intended to write a special work
in refutation of Marcion, but never carried out his
Surpose (Haer., I, 27, 4; III, 12, 13); he refers to
[arcion, however, again and again in his great work
against Heresies, especially III, 4, 2; III, 27, 2; IV,
38, 2 sq.; Ill, 11,7,25, 3. (3) Rhodon (180-192)
wrote a treatise against Marcion, dedicated to Callis-
tion. It is no longer extant, but is referred to by
Eusebius (H. E., V, 13) who gives some extracts. (4)
TertuUian, the main source of our information, wrote
his "Ad versus Marcionem'* (five books) in 207, and
makes reference to Marcion in several of his works:
"DePraB8criptione","DeCame Christi", "DeResur-
rectione Camis ", and " De Anima". His work against
Apelles is lost. (5) Pseudo Tertullian (possibly Com-
modian. See H. Waitz, " Ps. Tert. Gedicht Adv. M.",
Darmstadt, 1901) wrote a lengthy poem against Mar-
cion in doggerel hexameters, which is now valuable.
Pseudo Tertullian's (possibly Victorinus of Pettau)
short treatise against all heresies (c. a. d. 240) is also
extant. (6) Adamantius. — \\Tiether this is a real per-
sonage or only a nom de plume is uncertain. His Dia-
logue, "De itecta in Deum Fide'*, has often been
ascribed to Origen, but it is beyond doubt that he is
not the author. The work was probably composed
about A. D. 300. It was originally written in Greek
and translated by Rufinus. It is a refutation of Mar-
cionism and Valentinianism. The first half is directed
against Marcionism, which is defended by Megethius
(who maintains three principles) and Marcus (who
defends two). (Berlin ed. of the Fathers by Sande
Bakhuysen, Leipzig, 1901.) (7) St. Hippolytus of
Rome (c. 220) speaks of Marcion in his Kefutation
of all Heresies", Book VII, ch. 17-26, and X, 15.
(8) St. Epiphanius wrote his work against heresies in
374, and is the second main source of information in
his Ch. xUi-xliv. He is invaluable for the reconstruc-
tion of Marcion's Bible text, as he gives 78 and 40
passages from Marcion's New Testament where it
differs from ours and adds a short refutation in each
instance. (9) St. Ephraem (373) maintains in many of
his writings a polemic against Marcion, as in his "Com-
mentary on tne Diatessaron" (J. R. Harris, "Frag-
ments of Com. on Diates.**, London, 1895), and in his
"Metrical Sermons" (Roman ed.. Vol. II, 437-560,
and Overbeck's Ephrem etc., Opera Selecta). (10)
Eznik, an Armenian Archpriest, or possibly Bishop of
Bagrewand (478), wrote a "Refutation of the Sects",
of which Book IV is a refutation of Marcion. Trans-
lated into German, J. M. Schmid, Vienna, 1900.
Meyboom. Marcion en de Marcionieten (Leyden, 1888); Idbm,
Hft Christendom der tweede Eeuw (Qmningfin, 1897); KrCoew,
extensive article in Hauck, Real Encyclop. derProt. Theol., XII
(1903). 8. v.; Harnack, Oeschichie d*r altchrial. Lit., I, 191-197,
839-840; Texte und Unterauehung, VI. 3 pp., 109-120; XX, 3,
pp. 93-100 (1900); 2nd II, 2, 537; Bardenhewer. GeBch. der
aUkirchL lit.. II (1902); Zahn. OenchiefUe dea N. T. Kanone, I
and II (1888): Dae Apoat. Symbol (Leipzig. 1893): Hilobnfeij>,
Ur-Chrtkenthume (LJpxig, 1884).
KeUergeachichte dea
J. P. Arendzen.
Marcopolifl, a titular see of Asia Minor, suffragan
of Edesaa. The nati ve name of this city is not known ,
but it owes its Greek name to the Emperor Marcus
Aurelius. Marcopolis is described at the beginning
of the seventh century by the geographer George oi
Cyprus ("Descriptio orbis romani , ed. Gelser, 46),
ana in the'^Notitiseepiscopatuum" of Antioch (sixth
century) is alluded to as a see of Osrhoene (Echos
d'Orient, X, 145). Two of its early bishops are known :
Cyrus, who attended the Council of Ephesus in 431
(Mansi, "ConciUorum coUectio", IV, 1269; V, 776,
797) and Caioumas, present at the Council of Chalce-
don in 451 (Mansi, "Cone. coll.". VI, 572, 944; VII,
148). Eubel O'Hierarchia catnolica medii aBvi",
Munich, I, 341) mentions four other titulars between
1340 and 1400, and a fifth from 1441 to 1453 (ibid.,
II, 204). The site of this city has not been found.
S. VailhI:.
Marco Polo. See Polo, Marco.
Marcosians, a sect of VaUentinian Gnostics,
founded by Marcus (q. v.) and combated at length
by Irenseus (Haer., I, xii-xxiii). In the district of
Ly[ons, the Rhone Valley and Spain, they continued to
exist till well into the fourth century. They main-
tained their Gnostic system not merely in theory but,
forming Gnostic confmunities, they were addicted to
Gnostic practices. In their conventicles prophecy was
habitually practised; not only men but women wer6
bidden by their leaders or by lot to stand up in the
congregation and prophesy. The incoherent gibber-
ish they uttered was taken for the voice of God.
Women were likewise bidden to utter the Eucharistic
formula over the elements. The wine was then
poured in a larger cup and by a chemical trick in-
creased 'in volume. Irenceus scornfully repeats that
the sect was an affair of silly women, ruining their
souls and their bodies, and narrates that women who
repented and returned to the Church confessed their
past degradation.
The Marcosian system was a degraded variety of
that of Valentinus (q. v.). It retained the 30 i^ns,
but called them " Greatnesses " and gave them numer-
ical values. It kept the myth of the fall of Sophia but
called it a "Divine Deficiency*'. Peculiar to it was
the adaptation of the Pythagorean number theory to
Gnosticism. The 30 iEons are obtained by adding the
numbers of the Ogdoad together: 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 7
+ 8 = 30. The 6 is purposely omitted for it is the
iirlffrjfiop and not a letter of the usual Greek alphabet.
The fall of Sophia is clearly shown by the fact that A
which equals 30, or the complete set of Greatnesses, ia
really only the eleventh letter of the alphabet, but to
make up for this deficiency it sought a consort and so
became M (= AA). The episemon, or 6, is a number
fuU of potency; the name 'I1^^ovf consists of six letters,
hence the name of the Saviour. When the Propator,
who is the M6yaf, willed the Unspeakable to be
spoken, He uttered the Word which has 4 syllables and
30 letters. The plenitude of Greatness is 2 tetrads, a
decad and a dodecad (4 + 4 + 10+12 = 30); the 2
tetrads are the Unspeakable, Silence, Father and
Truth followed by Logos, Life, Man and Church.
These form the Ogdoad. The mutes of the Greek
alphabet belong to Father and Truth (The Unspeak-
able, and Silence, of course, do not count) ; these being
mute reveal nothing to man. The semivowels belong
to Word and liife, but the vowels to Man and Church,
for through Man voice gave power to all. The 7
Greek vowels go through the seven heavens, which
thus sing the Great Doxology in harmony. Even
numbers are female, odd numbers male, by the union
of the first of these, 2X3, was begotten the ejnsemorif
or 6, the number of our Salvation. G . Salmon well re-
marks that Marcus's system is the most worthless of all
that passed under the name of knowled ge in second cen-
tury literature. Irenceus (I. c.) is practically our only
authority. (See Gnosticibm.) J. P. Abendzek^
liABOOUX
650
MAftDIN
Mareoux, Joseph, missionary among the Iroquois,
b. in Canada, 16 March, 1791; d. there 29 May, 1855.
He was ordained 12 Januanr, 1813, and spent the re-
maining forty-two years of his life evangelizing the
Iroquois, first at St. Regis and later at Caughnawaga,
or »ault-St-Louis. In addition to his fruitful efforts
towards the betterment of the spiritual and social
condition of the Indians, he acquired such proficiency
in the Iroquois tongue as to attain a high rank among
philologists throu^ his Iroquois grammar and his
French-Iroquois dictionary. For fis flock, whom he
had provided with church and schools (1845), he
translated into Iroquois P^re de Ligny's '*Life of
Chnsf , and published in their own language, a col-
lection of prayers, hymns, and canticles (1852), a
catechism (1854), a calendar of Catholic ritual, and
a number of sermons. He died in 1855 of typhoid
fever, at that time epidemic among the Iroquois.
Afpleton, Cyclopadxa of American Biography, s. v.; Tan-
GUAT, Rip, gHUral du cUrg^ canadien.
Florence Rudge McGahan.
Marculf. See Formularies.
Marcus y the name of three leading Gnostics.
I. The founder of the Marcosians (q. v.) and elder
contemporary of St. Irenseus, who, c. a. d. 175. in his
refutation addresses him as one apparently still living
(Adv. Hser., I, xi, 3, where the "clarus magister" is
Marcus, not Epiphanes; and I, xiii, 21). Irenseus,
from whom St. Epiphanius (Hcer., xxxiv) and St.
Hippolytus (Hser., VI, xxxix-lv) quote, makes Mar-
cus a disciple of Valentinus (q. v.), with whom Mar-
cus's aeonology mainly agrees. St. Jerome (Ep. 75, 3)
makes him a follower of Basilides (q. v.), confusing
him no doubt with Marcus of Memphis. Clement
of Alexandria, himself infected with Gnosticism, ac-
tually uses Marcus's number system though with-
out acknowledgment (Strom., VI. xvi). Marcus first
taught in Asia Minor and possibly later in the West
also. His immoralities and juggling tricks (colouring
the contents of the cup and increasing the quantitjO
are described by IrensDus and Hippolytus. (For his
system see Marcosians.)
II. One of the two defenders of Marcionism in Ada-
mantius's Dialogue "De Recta in Deum fide"; the
other is called Mcgethius; but whether these are ficti-
tious or real personages is uncertain. Marcus's dual-
ism is more absolute than that of Marcion himself: the
demiurgus is the absolute evil principle. He inclines
further towards Apellea, accepting salvation neither for
the body nor the psyche but only for the pneuma.
III. A Manichean Gnostic, a native of Memphis,
who introduced dualistic doctrines into Spain aoout
the middle of the fourth century. His precise activity
was unknown even to Sulpicius Severus (Hist. Sacr.,
II, xliv), c. A. D. 400, who only knows that he had two
hearers or disciples: Agape, a wealthy matron, and
the orator Elpidius, who became the instructors of
Priscillian (" ab his Priscillianus est institutus ") when
still a layman. Elpidius and Priscillian were both
condemned by the Council of Saragossa, but Elpidius
did not share Priscillian's tragic fate in a. d. 385.
J. P. Arendzen.
Marcus Aurelius. See Aurelius Antoninus
Marcus.
Marcus Diaconus. See Porpiiyrius, Bishop of
Gaza.
Marcus Diadochus (MdpKos 6 SidSoxos), an ob-
scure writer of the fourth century of whom nothing is
known but his name at the bead of a "Sermon against
the Arians", discovered by Wetsten in a manuscript
codex of St. Athanasius at Basle and published by him
at the end of his edition of Origen: "De oratione"
(Basle, 1694). Another version of the same work was
lent by Galliciollus to Galland and published in the
"Veterum Patrum Bibliotheca", V (Venice, 1765-
1781). This is the text in P. G., LXV, 1149-1166.
The sermon quotes and expounds the usual texts,
John, i, 1; Heb., i, 3; Ps. cix, 3-4: John^ xiv, 6, 2.3,
ftc, and answers difficulties trom MAtk, xiii, 32; x, 10;
fatt., XX, 23, etc.
A quite different person is Diadochus, Bishop of
Photike in Epirus in the fifth century, author of a
"Sermon on tne Ascension" and of a hundred ** Chap-
ters on Spiritual Perfection" (P. G., LXV, 1141-1148,
1167-1212), whom Victor Vitensis praises in the pro-
logue of his history of the Vandal persecution (Kuin-
art's edition, Paris, 1694, not. 3). The two are often
confounded, as in Migne.
P. (?.. LXV, 1141-1212; JuNGMAim-FESSLER. InMHtutiona
Patrologia (InnBbnick, 1896), lib, 147-148; Cbsvaubr. Btb-
Bt6i.. 8.V. Adrian Fortescue.
Marcus Eremita (MdpKot 6 ip-nfjUrrit, or puovax^t or
dtf-iriTr^s), a theologian and ascetic writer oif some im-
portance in the fifth century. Various theories about
nis period and works have been advanced. These
seem now to be supplanted by J. Kunze in his study
of this writer.
According to Kunze, Mark the Hermit was sup^
rior of a laura at Ancyra; he then as an old
man left his monastery and became a hermit, prob-
ably in the desert east of Palestine, near St. Sabas.
He was a contemporary of Nestorius and died prob-
ably before the Council of Chalcedon (461). Nice-
phorus Callistus (fourteenth centuiy) sa^s he was
a disciple of St. John Chrysostom ("Hist. Eccl."
in P. G., CXLVI, XIV, 30). Cardinal Bellannine
[de Script, eccl. (1631), p. 273] thought that this Mark
was the monk who prophesied ten more years of life
to the Emperor Leo VI in 900. He is refuted by
Tillemont [Mdmoires (1705), X, 456 sq.]. Another
view supported by the Byzantine "Menaia" (Acta
Sanct., March 1) identifies him with the Egyptian
monk mentioned in Palladius, ''Historia Laiisiaca".
XX (P. G., XXXII), who lived in the fourth century!
The discovery and identification of a work by him
against Nestorius by P. Kerameus in his ArdXeirrci
UpoffoX, araxvoXoyias (St. Petersburg, 1891), I, pp.
89-113, makes his period certain, as defended by
Kmize.
Mark's works are: (1) Of the spiritual law; (2) Con-
cerning those who think to be justified through works
(both ascetic treatises for monks); (3) Of penitence;
(4) Of baptism; (5) To Nicholas on refraining from
anger and lust; (6) Disputation against a scholar
(against appealing to civil courts and on celibacy);
(7) Consultation of the mind with its own soul (re-
proaches that he makes Adam, Satan ^ and other men
responsible for his sins instead of himself); (8) On
fasting and humility; (9) On Melchisedek (against
people who think that Melchisedek was an apparition
of the Word of God). Ml the above works are named
and described in the " Myrobiblion " (P. G., CIII, 668
sq.) and are published in Gallandi's collection. To
them must be added: (10) Against the Nestorians (a
treatise against that heresy arranged without order).
Mark is rather an ascetic than a donnatic writer. He
is content to accept dogmas from tne Church; his in-
terest is in the spiritual life as it should be led by
monks. He is practical rather than mystic, belongs
to the Antiochene School and shows himself to be a
disciple of St. John Chrysostom.
G ALLAN ni, Bibliotheca vet'crum Patrum ^ WTl (Venice, 1788),
1-104. reprinted with Gallnndi's prolegomena in P. O., LXV»
893-1140: Fabricius-Harles, Bibliotheca arveca, IX (Ham-
burg. 1R04), 267-269; Junqmann-Fessler, fn^iittitionf Patrxh-
lopia, II (Innsbruck, 1892). 143-146; Kunze, Marcu9 EremUa,
ein neuer Zeuye fiir das altkirchliche Taufbekennfy^is (LeipaJA
1896).
Adrian Fobtebcux.
Mardin, a residential Armenian archbishopric, a
Chaldean bishopric, and a residential Syrian bish-
opric; moreover it is the headquarters of the Capuchin
mission of Mardin and Amida.
The ancient Syriac name was Mardaj which meant
MABDOOHAI
651
MABSNOO
fortress. It is mentioned as earlv as the time of Em-
peror Constantius (Amm. Murcell. xix, 9. 4) and again
m the year 506 (Theophanis, " Chronogr/' a. m., 6998).
The town became Christian under Tiridates II, King
of "Armenia, at the close of the third century, and it is
probable that the churches, mausoleums, and houses,
the ruins of which have been discovered, belong to this
period. It played an important part in the religious
controversies between the Catholics and Monophy-
sites, Who made it one of their principal monasteries.
It had a Jacobite bishop in 0:^4 (see tne list of Syrian
titulars, in Lequien, " Oriens Christ r," II, 1457-14G2;
also "Revue de I'Orient Chretien", VI, 200; also the
list of Chaldean titulars given in Lequien, op. cit.. II.
1321). After 1166 the Jacobite patriarch, who had
hitherto resided at Diarbekir, took up his residence in
Maniin. During the Middle Ages, thanks to its strong
position, the town escaped the attacks of Houla-
gon, grandson of Genghis Khan, and of Tamerlane.
Since 1574 it has belong to the Ottoman Empire,
and is a sanjak in the vilayet of Diarbekir. It is sit-
uated at about 3600 feet above sea-level, on a rugged
browed and impregnable green hill; the grassy plam in
the valley below is known as the Sea of-Mardin. The
population is computed at 25,000, of whom 15,500 are
Mussulmans, the remainder being Christians. The
number of Catholics of various rites is about 3000.
In the Armenian archdiocese there are 8000 faithful,
16 native priests, 8 churches or chapels, 5 central sta-
tions, and 10 chapels of ease. The Syrian Catholic dio-
cese has existed since 1852, and its title has been joined
with that of Amida since 1888. The patriarch ought
to reside at Mardin, but for some years past he has pre-
ferred Beirut on account of facility of communication
with Europe. In the Syrian diocese there are 3500
Catholics, 25 priests, 8 churches and chapels, 1 1 sta-
tions, and the monastery of St. Ephraim. Tne Chaldean
diocese, which is Hmited to the town of Mardin, has
750 faithful, 4 native priests, 1 parish, and 3 stations.
The Capuchin mission dates from the seventeenth
century^ but its headquarters have been changed
many times. It consists of 15 religious, of whom 11
are priests, and it has 6 houses (Diarbekir or Amida,
Orfa or Edessa^ Malatea or Melitene, Kharpout,
Mamouret-ul-Aaiz or Mozera, and Mardin). The mis-
sion owns 6 churches and 5 chapels; it carries on 18
primary schools, a college at Mamouret-ul-Aziz, 2
orphanages. The Franciscan Sisters of Lons-le-Sau-
nier have three establishments for ^rls, one at Diar-
bekir, one at Orfa, and one at Mardm. The superior
of the mission is Rey. J. Antonius a Mediolano, O.M.C.
There is moreover a schismatic Armenian archbishop
in the town, and an American Protestant mission is
in activity.
AasEMANi, Bibliotheca orientalia, 11, 470; Chapot, Im firon-
Hh-e de VEuphraie (Paris. 1907) . 312; Cuinet, La Turquxe d'Asie,
II, 494-502; Piolkt, Lea tnisnona catholiqtiee frarifaieea au
XIX' eiMe, I ^aria). 274-294; Muaiones Caiholica (Rome,
1907) 161, 756, S05, 810.
S. Vailh6.
Mardochai. See Esther.
Mar^chaly Ambrose, third Archbishop of Balti-
more; b. at Ingres near Orl^ns, France, 28 August,
1764; d. at Baltimore, 29 January, 1828. Yielding to
his parents' desires hcstudied for the legal profession,
but later entered the Sulpician seminarv at Orl^ns,
where he received tonsure towards the close of 1787.
Owing to the chaotic condition of France, he was
obliged to leave Paris for Bordeaux, where he was
ordained in 1792. On the day of his ordination, and
at the risk of his life, accompanied by Abb^ Richard,
Martignon, and Cicquard, he sailed for America and
arrived at Baltimore (24 June, 1792^, where he offered
his first Mass. He was sent ou the mission in St.
Mary's County, and later to Bohemia on the eastern
shore of Maryland . In 1 799, he was teaching theology
at St. Mary's College, Baltimore: in 1801 he was on
the staff of Georgetown College, but after a while re-
turned to St. Mary's, which was then in the hands of
the Sulpicians, of which order he was a member. Civil
fovemment having been restored in France under
fapoleon. Father Mar^chal was summoned by his
superiors to teach at Saint- Flour, Lyons, Aix and
Marseilles. His pupils at Marseilles presented him
with the marble altar which now stands in the Cathe-
dral of Baltimore^ and Louis XVIII also testified his
regard by presenting him with several paintings, which
also remam in Baltimore Cathedral.
In 1812 he was again teaching in Baltimore; in 1816
he was nominated Bishop of Philadelphia^ but at his
request the nomination was withdrawn; m 1817, on
24 July, he was appointed coadjutor to Archbishop
Neale ot Baltimore, and Titular of Stauropolis. The
Brief of appointment had not reached Baltimore when
Archbishop Neale died, and the Titular of Stauropolis
was consecrated Archbishop of Baltimore by Bishop
Cheverus of Boston, 14 December, 1817. He soon had
to face serious dissensions over the claim by the laity
to a voice in the appointment of clergy; he tactfully
induced his flock to yield, and established the right of
the ordinary to make all such appointments. The
building of the Cathedral which had oeen begun imder
Archbishop Carroll in 1806, was now resumed and
completed so that the edifice was consecrated 31 May,
1821. In that year Archbishop Marshal went to
Rome on business of his diocese, and in connexion with
the White Marsh plantation .which the Archbishop
claimed as Diocesan property, but which had been
devised to the Jesuits (17 Feb., 1728), and was claimed
by them as property of the society to be employed in
the interests of the Church of Maryland. 'The arch-
bishop secured from Rome a Bull in his favour. (See
Society op Jesus, in the United States.) From his
"Relatio Status" for 1821-1822 we learn that in the
United States as they then existed there were 9 dio-
ceses and 117 priests, including the Archdiocese of Bal-
timorCj which had 40 priests, 52 churches, 80,(XX)
Catholics, 1 seminary, 1 Sulpician college, 1 Jesuit
college, 1 Carmelite convent, 1 Convent of St. Vincent
of Paul nuns, and 1 convent of Ursulines. In 1826
Archbishop Mar^chal made a journey to Canada, and
on his return fell ill . H is coad i utor. Key. James Whit-
field, who succeeded him as Archbishop, had not yet
been consecrated when death came. His writings
consist almost entirely of letters and documents schol-
arly in style and are to be f oimd in " The History of
the Society of Jesus In North America" by Hughes.
Clarxjb, LiveM of Deceased Biehopa, I (New York, 1872) 23S-
255: Hughes, Hiatorupf the Society of Jetua in North Ameriea,
1 (Cleveland, 1910) Part II: Shea, History of the Cathoiie
Church in the U. S, (New York, 1886-1892).
J. P. W. McNeal.
Marenco, (1), Carlo, Italian dramatist, bom at
Cassolo (orCassolniioyo)in Piedmont in 18()0; died at
Savona in 1846. He studied law for a while, but
finally determined to devote himself to literature. To
make sure of a competency he applied for and ob-
tained a public post ccmnected with the Treasury De^
Eartment of Savona. As a writer. Carlo Marenco
elongs to the Romantic school, for he rejects the
unity of time in his plays and gives to his plots a
more ample development than the classic rules allow.
In general his characters ard lifelike and his style ele-
gant. Perhaps it may be urged against his tra^c
plots that they tend unduly to the sentimental. For
some of his tragedies he derived inspiration from
Dante, as in the "Pia de' Tolomei , the "Corso
Donati", and the "Conte UgoHno". In the "Pia"
we observe traits of the Roman Lucretia and the Su-
sannah of the Bible combined with characteristics of
the Dantesque figure. Of other plays bearing upon
more or less historical personages there may be listed
"Amoldo da Brescia'', "Berengario", "Arrigo di
Syeyia",and "Corradino" (8eehis''Tragedie",Turin,
1837-44, and " Tragedie inedite ", Florence, Va5fi\.
MABKNZIO Qi
(2) Lbopou>o, Italian dramatic poet, b. at Ceva in
1831 ; d. 1899, SOD of Carlo Marenco. Like his fattier
he held a government post under the Treasury Depart-
ment, one wliich toolchimtoSardinia. In ItiQO be be-
came Professor of Latin literature at Bologna and later
occupied aaimilarcbair at Milan. In 1871 he retired to
Turin. Hia plays in verse, written after I860, are
more notable for their lyrical qtialities than they are
tot excellence of dramatic technique. Among them
are "Celeste", "Tempeate alpine", " Maroeliina ",
"H falconiere cli Pietra Ardena", "Adelasia", "La
fami^ia". "Carmela". "Piccarda Dorati", "Saffo",
" Ro^liuda ", etc. SuDJects from modem and medie-
val history 'were treated by him, and he followed his
father's example in drawing from Dante. See the coU
lection of his plays, "Teatro di L, M." (Turin, 1884).
J. D. M. Ford.
Hamulo, Luca, musical composer, b. in 1550 at
Coccaglia, near Brescia; d. at Rome 1599. Hia
chief legacy to the musical world are his books of
madrigals. His first collection was published in IS81
and was dedicated to Alphonse d'Este, the duke of
Ferrsra. Many of bis 159 Madrigals and Motets
have been translateil into modern notation by Proske.
A number of madrigals were published in 15S3 in
"Musica Trans-Alpina"; this collection became fm-
of more illustrious church musicians. In a collec-
tion tailed "Viilanelle e Arie alia NapoUtana" he
has left 113 exquisite madrigals and motets for three
and four voices. The most notable of his composi-
tions may be found printed in modern notation by
Proske in "Musica Di>nna", II (Ratisbon, 1853),
ROBU, Eloai Iliilorici lit Bretciani illuatri (Braacia, 1620):
PucHA-j, Tin CompUatGtrUUman (Isndon, 1022).
WiLUAM Finn.
Margaret, Saint, Virgin, and Mahtyr, also called
Marina, belonged to Pisidian Antioch in Asia Minor,
where her father was a pagan priest. Her mother dy-
ing soon after her birtti. Margaret was nursed by a
pious woman five or six leagues from Antioch. Hav-
ing embraced Christianity and consecrated her vir-
ginity to God, she was disowned by her father and
adopted by her nurse. While she was one day en-
raged in watching the flocks of her mistress, a lustful
Roman prefect named Olybrius faught sight of her,
and attracted by her great beauty sought to make
her his concubine or wife. When neither cajolery
nor threats of punishment coutd succeed in moving
her to yield to his desires, he had her brought be-
fore him in public trial at Antioch. Threatened with
death unless she renounced the Christian faith, the
holy virgin refused to adore the gods of t he empire, and
an attempt was made to bum her, but the Ramcs,
we are told in her Acts, left her unhurt. She was
then bound hand and Coot and thrown into a cauldron
of boiling water, but at her prayer her bonds were
broken and she stood up uninjured. Finally the pre-
fect ordered her to be (jeheaded. The Greek Church
honours her under the name Marina on 13 July; the
Latin, as Margaret on 20 Julv. Her Acta place her
death in the persecution ot t)ioclelian (a. d. 303-5),
bat in fact even the century to which she belonged
is uncertain. St. Margaret is represented in art some-
times asa shepherdess, or as leading a chained d rages,
again carrying a little cross or a girdle in her hand, or
standing by a large vessel which recalls the cauldron
into which she was plunged. Relics said to belong to
the saint are venerated in ve^ many parts of Europe:
at Rome, Monfefiascone, Brussels. Bruges. Paris,
Froidmont, Troves, and various other places. Cu-
riously enough this virgin has been widely venerated
for many centuries as a special patron of women who
are pnganut.
n, XXIX, 24-44: La PHiii BoUaadiMtt. Vllt,
Saintt, 20 July.
J. UacRoby.
Margaret Ooloona, Blbbsed, Poor Clare, b. in
Rome, date uncertain; d. there, 20 September, 1284.
Her parents died in Rome when she was still a young
girl, and she was left to the care of her two brothers,
the youngest of whom was raised t« the cardinalate
by Nicholas III in 1278. Having resolutely refused
the proposal of mard^o made to her by the chief
magistrate of Rome, she retired to a lonely retr^t
near Palestrina where she passed her time in prac-
tices of piety and penance. Her charity towards the
poor was unbounded, and was more than once mi-
raculously rewarded. Through the influence of her
brother. Cardinal Coloima, Blessed Margaret obtained
the canonical erection of a community of Urbanist
ftwrCiarcsat Palestrina, of which she most probably
became superioress. Seven j'ears before her death she
was attacked njth a fearful and painful ulcer which till
the end of her life she bore w ith the most sublime and
generous resignation. After the death of Blessed Mai^
garet, the commui>itj- of Palestrina was transferred to
the convent ot San Sdvestro in Copite. The nuns were
driven from their cloister by the Italian Goverijment at
the time of the suppression; and the monastei^- has
since been used as the central posUoffice of Rome.
The exiled religious found shelter in the convent of
Santa Cecilia in Tmsteverc, to which place tlie body of
Blessed Margaret was removed.
Leo, Lica oft'" Sainti oiid BlrurdofVit Thra Order* ot St.
Fnneit [TBuntoD. 18S7) IV, TO-73. '
STErHEN M, Donovan,
as she was familiarly styled, b. in Cavan, Ireland,
about 1814; d. at New Orleans, Louioana, 9 February,
1882. Herparenls,
Charles and Mar-
garet O'Rourke
Gaffncy, died at
Baltimore, Mary-
land, in 1822 and
i left to her
□ resources and
was thus deprived
of acquiring a
knowled ge of read-
in g and writing.
A kind - hearted
family of Welsh
tered the little or-
phan in their
home. In 1835
she there married
Charles Haughery
and went to New
Orleans with him.
Within a year her
husband and in-
fantdled. It was
then she began her
great career of charity. She \. „3emploj;ed in theorphao
asylum and when the orphans were without food she
bouRht it for them from her earnings. The Female Or-
phan Asylum of the Sisters of Charity built in 1840 waa
practically her work, for she cleared it of debt*. _ Dui^
mg the yellow fever epidemic in New Orleans in the
fifties she went about from house to house, without
regard to race or creed, nursing the victims and con-
soling the dying mothers with the promise to look
after their little ones. St. Teresa's Church was prac-
tically buiit by Margaret, in conjunction with Sister
Francis Regis. Margaret first established a dairy and
drove around the city delivering the milk beraelf;
MAROABIT
653
MARGABBT
afterwards she opened a bakery, and for years con-
tinued her rounos with the bread cart. Although she
provided for orphans, fed the poor, and gave enor-
mously in charity, her resources grew wonderfully and
Margaret's bakery (the first steam bakery in the South)
became famous. She braved General Butler during
the Civil War and readily obtained permission to carry
a cargo of flour for bread for her orphans across the
lines. The Confederate prisoners were the special ob-
ject of her solicitude.
Seated in the doorway of the bakery in the heart of
the city, she became an integral part of its life, for
besides the poor who came to her continually she was
consulted by the people of all ranks about their
business aflfairs, her wisdom having become pro-
verbial. " Our Margaret" the people of New Orleans
called her, and they will tell you that she was mas-
culine in energy and courage but gifted with the
gentlest and kindest manners. Her death was an-
nounced in the newspapers with blocked columns as
a public calamity. All New Orleans, headed by the
archbishop, the governor, and the mayor attended
her funeral. She was buried in the same grave with
Sister Francis Regis Barret, the Sister of Charity who
died in 1862 and with whom Margaret had co-
operated in all her early work for the poor. At once
the idea of erecting a public monument to Margaret in
the city arose spontaneously and in two years it was
unveiled, 9 July, 1884. The little park in which it is
erected is officially named Margaret Place. It has
often been stated that this is the first public monu-
ment erected to a woman in the United States, but
the monument on Dustin Island, N. H., to Mrs.
Hannah Dustin who, in 1697, killed nine of her sleep-
ing Indian captors and escaped (Harper's Encyclo-
paedia of American History, New York, 1902) ante-
dates it by ten years.
(iiiACK kiNo. iV'ir Orleans, the Place and the People (New
York. Ici90'. 272-S; Notable Americans, V (Boston, 1904); Ap-
Slctons" Cyclono'Jia of American Biography, s. v.; The Ave
faria, LVl. 7: The files of the iVeir Orleans Picayune and other
New Orleans newspapers. RegINA RANDOLPH.
Margaret Mary Alacoque, Blessed, religious of
the Visitation Order, Apostle of the Devotion to the
Sacred Heart of Jesus, d. at Lhautecour, France, 22
July, 1647 ; d. at Paray-le-Monial, 1 7 Oct., 1690. Her
parents, Claude Alacoque and Philiberte Lamyn, were
distinguished less for temporal possessions than for
their virtue, which gave them an honourable position.
From early childhood Margaret showed intense love
for the Blessed Sacrament, and preferred silence and
prayer to childish amusements. After her first com-
munion at the age of nine, she practised in secret se-
vere corporal mortifications, until paralysis confined
her to bed for four years. At the oi d of this period,
having made a vow to the Blessed Virgin to conse-
crate herself to the religious life, she was instantly
restored to perfect health. The death of her father
and the injustice of a relative plunged the family in
poverty and humiliation, after which more than ever
Margaret found her consolation in the Blessed Sacra-
ment, and Christ made her sensible of His presence and
protection. He usually appeared to her as the Cruci-
ned or the Ecce Homo, and this did not surprise her, as
she thought others had the same Divine assistance.
When Margaret was sever teen, the family property was
recovered, and her mother l>esought her to establish
herself in the world. Her filial tenderness made her
betteve that the vow of childhood was not binding, and
that she could serve God at home by penance and
charity to the poor. Then, still bleeding trom her self-
imposed austerities, she began to take part in the
pleasures of the world. One night upon her return
from a ball, she had a vision of Christ as He was during
the scourging, reproaching her for infidelity after He
had given her so many proofs of HLs love. During
her entire Hfe Margaret mourned over two faults com-
mitted at this time — the wearing of some super-
fluous ornaments and a mask at the carnival to please
her brothers.
On 25 May, 1671, she entered the Visitation Con-
vent at Paray, where she was subjected to many
trials to' prove her vocation, and in Nov., 1672, pro-
nounced her final vows. She had a deUcate constitu-
tion, but was gifted with intelligence and good judg-
ment, and in the cloister she chose for herself what
was most repugnant to her nature, making her life one
of inconceivable sufferings, which were often relieved
or instantly cured by our Lord, Who acted as her
Director, appeared to her frequently and conversed
with her, confiding to her the mission to establish the
devotion to His Sacred Heart. These extraordinary
occurrences drew upon her the adverse criticism of the
community, who treated her as a visionary, and her
superior commanded her to live the common life.
But her obedience, her humility, and invariable char-
ity towards those who persecuted her, finally pre-
vailed, and her mission, accomplished in the crucible
of suffering, was recognized even by those who had
shown her the most bitter opposition.
Margaret Mary was inspired by Christ to establish
the Holy Hour and to pray lying prostrate with her
face to the ground from eleven till midnight on the eve
of the first Friday of each month, to share in the mor-
tal sadness He endured when abandoned by His
Apostles in His Agony, and to receive holy Commun-
ion on the first Friday of every month. In the first
great revelation, He made known to her His ardent
desire to be loved by men and His design of manifest-
ing His Heart with all Its treasures of love and mercy,
of sanctification and salvation. He appointed the
Friday after the octave of the feast of Corpus Christ!
as the feast of the Sacred Heart; He called her "the
Beloved Disciple of the Sacred Heart ",and the heiress
of all Its treasures. The love of the Sacred Heart was
the fire which consumed her, and devotion to the
Sacred Heart is the refrain of all her writings. In
her last illness she refused all alleviation, repeating
frequently: " W^hat have I in heaven and what do I
desire on earth, but Thee alone, O my God ", and died
pronouncing the Holy Name of Jesus. The discus-
sion of the mission and virtues of Margaret Mary
continued for years. All her actions, her revela-
tions, her spiritual maxims, her teachings regard-
ing the devotion to the Sacred Heart, of which she
was the chief exponent as well as the apostle, were
subjected to the most severe and minute examination,
and finally the Sacred Congregation of Rites passed
a favourable vote on the heroic virtues of this
servant of God. In March, 1824, Leo XII pro-
nounced her \enerable, and on 18 Sept., 1864, Fius
IX declared her Blessed. When her tomb was
canonically opened in July, 1830, two instanta-
. neous cures took place. Her body rests under the
altar in the chapel at Paray, and many striking
favours have been obtained by pilgrims attracted
thither from all parts of the world. Her feast is cele-
brated on 17 October.
The Letters, Instructions, and Autobiography of BI. Mar-^
Karet Marv are included in Vie el (Euvrea var Us Vontemporains
(2 vols., Paris, 1901); Lanouet, La Vie de la Vin. Marguerite"
Marie (Paris, 1729), tr. (London, 1850); Hamon, Vie de la b,
M. d'aprcs les manitsc. et lea docum. orig. (Paris, 1907);
BouGADD, Revelations of the Sacred Heart, tr. (New York, 1890). •
8ee also biographies by Gauthky (Paris, 1890); Boulangbr
(Paris, 1847); Da.viel, tr. by a Sister or Mercy (New York);
TlCKELL (New York. 19(X)); Life of the Blessed Margaret Mary
Alacoque in The Messenger of the Sacred Heart (1905), seriatinu
Sister Mary Bernard Doll.
Margaret of Oortona, Saint, a penitent of the
Third Order of St. Francis, bom at Laviano in Tus-
cany in 1247; died at Cortona, 22 February, 1297.
At the age of seven years Margaret lost her mother and
two years later her father married a second time. Be-
tween the daughter and her .step -mother there seems
to have been but little sympathy or affectioiXv «a&^
tbrg&ret was one of thooe nftturM who cnve affection.
When About wventeen yean of acje she nude the ac-
quaintance of a young cavaher, who. some say, was a
■on of Guff lielmo di Pecora, lord of Valiano, with whom
she one night fled from her father's house. Margaret in
bercmifeaaionsdoeBnot mention her lover'sname. For
nine years she lived with him in liia castle near Monte-
Ciano, and a son waa born to them. Frequently she
light lier lover to marry her; he as of ten promised
to do 90, but never did. In her confeasiona ahe ex-
piemly says that she consented to her lover'a impor-
tunities unwillingly. Wadding and others who have
described her in theae early years as an abandoned
woman, either had not rightly read her legend, or had
deepened the shadows of her early life to make her
conversion seem the more wonderful. Even during
this period Margaret was very compiaaaionate towards
the poor ajid relieved thi
tomed to seek out quiet places
where she would dream of a
life given to virtue and the
love of God. Once some of
her neighbours bade her look
to her soul before it was too
late. She replied that they
need have no fear of her, tor
that ahe would die a aaint and
that her critics would come aa
pilgrima to her shrine.
She waa at last set free from
her life of ain by the tragic
death of her lover, who waa
murdered whilst on a journey.
Margaret's first intimation of
his death was the return of hia
favourite hound without its
master. The hound led her M
his body. It was character-
istic of her generosity that she
blamed herself for hiij irregular
life, and began to loathe her
beauty which had fascinated
bim. She returned to his relo-
tivea all the jewels and prop-
erty he had given her and left
his home; and with her little
son set out for her father's
house. Her father would have
received her, but hia wife re-
fused, and Margaret and her
child were turned adrift. For . —
a moment ahe felt tempted ^- MABOAErr
to trade upon her beauty; Giovmnni Barbieri (Gui
but she prayed earnestly and in her aoul she
seemed to hear a voice bidding her go (« the Fran-
ciscan Friars at Cortona and put heraelf under their
spiritual direction. On her arrival at Cortona, two
ladies, noticing her loneliness, offered her assistance
and took her home with them. They afterwards intro-
duced her to the Franciscan FriorB at the church of
San Francesco in the city. For three years Margaret
had to Htrugele hard with temptations. Naturally of a
gay spirit, ahe felt much drawn to the world. But
temptation only convinced her the more of the nccea-
sity of self-discipline a.nd an entire consecration of her-
self to religion. At times remorse for the past would
have led her into intemperate self -mortifications, but
for the wise advice of her confeMors. As it was, she
fasted rigorously, abataining altogether from fJeah-
meat, and generally subsisting upon bread and herbs.
Her great phyaical vitality made such penance a
necessity to her.
After three veara of probation Margaret waa admit-
ted to the Third Order of St. Francis, and from this
time she Iive<l in strict poverty. Following the exam-
ple of St. Francis, she went and begged her bread.
But wbHat thus living on alms, she gave her services
freely to Others; especially to the Biek.poor whom ^
nuiaed. It waa about the time that she became a
Franciscan tertiary that the revelationa began which
form the chief feature ia her story. It was in the year
1277, as she was praying in the church of the Franciscan
Friars, that she seemed to hear these words: "Wliatis
thy wish, povereUat" and she rephed: " I neither seek
nor wiah for aught but Thee, my Lord Jeeus." Frmn
this time forth she lived in intimate commiminK with
Christ. At first He always addressed her as ptn»-
rella ", and only aft«r a time of probation and purifi-
cation did He call her "My child". But Margaret,
though coming to lead more and more the life of a
recluse, was yet active in the service of others. She
prevailed upon the city of Cortona to found a boepital
for the sick-poor, and to supply nurses for the hospital,
ahe instituted a congregation of Tertiary Sisters,
known as ie povertile. She also establiahed a confra-
ternity of Our Lady of Mert^;
the members of which bound
themsei vea to support the boe-
pital, and to h^p the needy
wherever found, and particu-
larly the respectable poor.
Moreover on several occasicmf
Margaret intervened in pubhc
affairs for the sake of putting
an end to civic feuds. Twice
in obedience to a Divine ctHn-
mand, she upbraided Gugliel-
mo Ubertini Paui, Bishop of
Areiio, in which diocese Coi^
tona was situated, because he
lived more like a secular
prince and soldier, than like a
pastor of soula. This prelate
was killed in battleat Bibbiena
in 1289. The year previous to
this, Margaret for the sake til
S;reater auiet hod removed her
odging from the hospital she
hadfounded to near the ruined
church of St. Basil above the
city. Thia church she now
caused to be repaired. It wal
here that she spent her last
years, and in tlua church she
was buried. But after her
death it was rebuilt in more
magnificent style and dedi-
cated in her own name. There
her body remains enshrined
to thia day, incorrupt, in
as a beata from the ti
not canonized until 16 May, 1728.
The original "Legend of St. Margaret" was written
by her director and friend, Fra Giunta Beve^ati. It
is almost entirely taken up with her revelations, and
was mainly dictated by Mar^ret herself, in obedience
to her directors. It is published by the BoUandists in
"ActaSS., mense Fobruarii, die 22". The most nota-
ble edition of the " Legend " however is that published
m 1793 by da Pelago, together with an Italian transla-
tion and twelve learned dissertations dealing witb the
life and times of the saint. In 1897 a new edition of
da Pelago'a work, but without the dissertations, was
published at Siena by Crivclli. An English veraicn of
the greater part of the " Legend ", with an mtroductory
es-suv. has lioen published hy Fr. Cuthbert, O.S.F.C.
(London. 19061.
See aim Mahcbebe. Vila di 3. MaT^herila ^ome, 1074):
CtlfcHANCE, Samic Marsuirilt de Carione. ti, O'CoHNOB tLoo-
Father Citthbeet,
King Bela I of Hungary and h
MAROABBT
655
MARGABIT
bom 1242; died 18 Jan., 1271. According to a vow
which her parents made when Hungary was liberated
from the Tatars that their next chud should be dedi-
cated to religion, Margaret, in 1245, entered the Do-
minican Convent of Veszpr^m. Invested wilii the habit
at the age of four, she was transferred in her tenth year
to the Convent of the Blessed Virgin founded by her
parents on the Hasen Insel near Buda, the Margareten
insel near Budapest to-day, and where the ruins of
the convent are still to be seen. Here Margaret passed
all her life, which was consecrated to contemplation
and penance, and was venerated as a saint during her
lifetime. She strenuously opposed the plans of her
father, who for political reasons wished to marry her
to King Ottokar II of Bohemia. Margaret appears to
have taken solenm vows when she was eighteen. All
narratives call special attention to Margaret's sanctity
and her spirit of earthly renunciation. Her whole life
was one unbroken chain of devotional exercises and
penance. She chastised herself unceasingly from
childhood, wore hair garments, and an iron girdle
round her waist, as well as shoes spiked with nails; she
was frequently scourged, and performed the most
menial work in the convent.
Shortly after her death, steps were taken for her
canonization, and in 1271-1276 investigations refer-
ring to this were taken up; in 1275-1276 the process
was introduced, but not completed. Not till 1640 was
the process again taken up, and again it was not con-
cluded. Attempts which were made in 1770 by Count
Ignatz Batthydnyi were also fruitless; so that the
canonization never took place, although Margaret was
venerated as a saint shortly after her death; and Pius
VI consented on 28 July, 1789, to her veneration as a
saint. Pius VII raised her feast day to a festum
duplex. The minutes of the proceedings of 1271-1272
record seventy-four miracles; and among those giving
testimony were twenty-seven in whose favour the
miracles had been wrought. These cases refer to the
cure of illnesses, and one case of awakening from
death. Margaret's remains were given to the Poor
Clares when the Dominican Order was dissolved; they
were first kept in Pozsony and later in Buda. After
the order had been suppressed by Joseph II, in 1782,
the relics were destroyed in 1789; but some portions
are still preserved in Gran, Gyor, Pannonhalma. The
feast day of the saint is 18 January. In art she is
depicted with a lily and holding a book in her hand.
N£mstht-Frakn6i, ArptidhAzi b. Margit tHriineiihex (Buda-
pest, 1885), beiog oontributioaa on the history of Blessed Mar-
garet of the House of Arpaden; Demk6, Arpddhdzi b. MaraU
ilete (Budapest, 1895), a hfe of the saint. Further bibliqgrapn-
ih
ogr
ical particulars in Arpdd and the Arpaden^ edited by (JsXnki
(Budapest, 1908), 387-388; minutes of the proceedings of
1271-72, published in MonumerUa Romana Episeopaiua t^M-
yrimienain, I (Budapest, 1896). -
A. AldXst.
Marp^aret of Lorraine, Blessed, Duchess d'Alen-
9on, religious of the order of Poor Clares^ bom in 1463 at
the castle of Vauddmont (Lorraine) ; died at Argentan
(Brittany) 2 November, 1521. The daughter of Fern
de Vaud^mont and of Yolande d'Anjou, little Mar-
garet became an orphan at an early age and was
brought up at Aix-en-Proven^e, by King Ren6 of
Anjou, her grandfather. The latter dying in 1480 she
was sent back to Lorraine to her brother, Ren6 II,
who gave her in marriage at Paris, in 1488, to the
Duke d'Alen9on. Left a widow in 1492 she busied
herself in the administration of her duchy and the
education of her children. When she was relieved
of the duties imposed on her by her position she de-
cided to renounce the world and retired to Mortagne,
to a monastery of religious women who followed the
rule of Saint Elizabeth. Later having brought with
her to Argentan some of these nuns she founded
there another monastery which she placed, with the
authorization of the pope, under the rule of Saint
Clare, modified by the Minor Observants. She her-
self took the relifflous habit in this house and made her
vows on 11 October, 1520, but on 2 November, 1521.
after having lived for a year in the most humble and
austere manner, she died a most holy death in her
modest cell at tne age of sixty-two. Her body, pre-
served in the monastery of the Poor Clares, was trans-
ferred when that monastery was suppressed to the
church of St. (3ermain d'Argentan, but in 1793 it was
profaned and thrown into the common burying-
place.
The memory of Margaret of Lorraine is preserved in
the ''Martjrrologium Frandscanum" and in the
" Martvrologium gallicanum". After an invitation
made by the Bishop of S^z, Jacques Calamus de Pont-
carr^, Louis XIII begged Pope Urban VIII to order a
canonical inquiry into the virtues and the miracles of
the pious Duchess d'Alen^on; unfortunately in the
political agitations of the time the realization of this
Slan was lost sight of. At the initiative of the present
►ishop of S6ez an effort is being made to obtain recog-
nition at the Court of Rome of her cultus. The pro-
cess is well on its way.
Hameau, Laviede Maryueriie de Lorraine j ducheeae d^AUnctm
(Paris, 1628) ; Lambel, Marguerite de Lorraine, ducheaee d'Alen^
pon (lille, 1862); Laurent, Hiatoire de Marguerite de Lorraine^
ducheaee tTAlenQon, fondatrice ei religieuae du monaaUre de Ste.
Claire d' Argentan (Paris, 1854); Serrb, Vie de la B. Marguerite
de Lorraine, ducheaae d'Alenpon (Paris, 1652).
Li:oN Clugnbt.
Margaret of Savoy, Blessed, Marchioness of Mont-
ferrat, bom at Pignerol in 1382; died at Alba, 23 No-
vember, 1464. She was the only daughter of Louis of
Savoy, Prince of Achaia, and of Bonne, dau^ter of
Amadeus VI, Count of Savov, and was given m mar-
riage in 1403 to Theodore, Marquis of Montferrat, a
descendant of the Greek emperors, the Palseologi, and
widower of Jeanne, daughter of the duke of Bar and of
Lorraine. Her piety, already great, increased after
she had heard tne preaching of St. Vincent Ferrer,
who spent several months in Montferrat. Therefore,
when she was left a widow in 1418, she decided to aban-
don the world. Leaving the direction of the affairs
of the marcjuisate to Jean-Jacques, the son of her hus-
band by his first marriage, she retired to Alba where
she joined the Third Order of St. Dominic. A little
later, Philip Maria, duke of Milan, asked her hand in
marriage and begged the pope to relieve her of her
vow. But Margaret opposed a formal refusal to this
request and thorougiily resolved to give herself en-
tirely to God: with several young women of rank, she
foimded a monastery and placed it under the rule of
the order of St. Dominic. Redoubling her mortifica-
tions she made rapid progress in the way of perfection
and died in a saintly manner. On 13 DeoemDer, 1464,
her remains were placed in a simple tomb; in 1481
they were transferred to a different and much more
beautiful sepulchre built in her monastery at the ex-
pense of William, Marquis of Montferrat.
Allaria, Storia deUa B. Margherita di Savota,TnareKe»a di
Montferrato (Alba, 1877); Baresiano, Viia deUa B. MargherUa
di Savoia, domenicana, prineipeaaa di Piemonte (Turin, 1638)^
Barisano, Viia delta B. Margherita di Savoia, Mareheaa da
Montferrato (Turin, 1602; ibid., 1892); Cabbara, Vita civile e
religioaa delta B. Margherita di SavoiOf marcheaa at Montferrato
S'urin, 1833); 0>drbtto, Vita e miracoloai portenti della B,
argherita di Savoia (Turin; 1653): Rschac, Lee eaintee de
Vordre de SL Dominique (Pans, 1635) : Rstnaud. Vie dela B,
Marguerite de Savoie de Vordre de St. Dominique (Paris, 1674);
Sbmbria, Vita della B. Margherita di Savoia (Turin, 1833).
L±os Clugnbt.
Margaret of Scotland, Saint, b. about 1045, d. 16
Nov., 1093, was a daughter of Edward "Outremere",
or "the Exile *', by Agatha, kinswoman of Gisela, the
wife of St. Stephen of Hungary. She was the grand-
daughter of Edmund Ironside. A constant tradition
asserts that Margaret's father and his brother Edmund
were sent to Hungary for safety during the reign of
Canute, but no record of the fact has been foimd m
that country. The date of Margaret's birth cannot ba
MABGABIT
656
MABGABIT
ascertained with accuracy, but it must have been be-
tween the years 1038, when St. Stephen diecL and
1057, when her father returned to England. It ap-
pears that Marearet came with him on that occasion
and, on his deam and the conquest of England by the
Normans, her mother Agatha aecided to return to the
Continent. A storm however drove their ship to Scot-
land, where Malcolm III received the party imder his
protection, subsequently taking Margaret to wife.
This event had been delayed for a while by Margaret's
desire to enter religion, but it took place some time
between 1067 and 1070.
In her position as queen, all Margaret's great influ-
ence was thrown into the cause of religion and piety.
A s^od was held, and among the special reforms
instituted the most important were the regulation of
the Lenten fast, observance of the Easter communion,
and the removal of certain abuses concerning marriage
within the prohil^ited degrees. Her private life was
given up to constant prayer and practices of piety.
She founded several churches, including the Abbey of
Dunfermline, built to enshrine her greatest treasure, a
relic of the true Cross. Her book of the Gospels,
richly adorned with jewels, which one day dropped
into a river and was according to legend miraculously
recovered, is now in the Bodleian Rbrary at Oxford.
She foretold the day of her death, which took place at
Edinburgh on 16 Nov., 1093, her body being buried
before the high altar at Dunfermline.
In 1250 Margaret was canonized by Innocent IV,
and her relics were translated on 19 June, 1259, to a
new shrine, the base of which is still visible beyond the
modem east wall of the restored church. At the Ref-
ormation her head passed into the possession of Mary
Queen of Scots, and later was secured by t^e Jesuits at
Douai, where it is believed to have perished during the
French Revolution. According to George Conn, ''De
duplici statu religionis apud Scotos" (Rome, 1628),
the rest of the relics, together with those of Malcolm,
were acquired by Philip II of Spain, and placed in two
urns in the Escorial. When, however, Bishop Gillies
of Edinburgh applied through Pius IX for their resto-
ration to Scotland, they could not be found.
The chief authority for Margaret's life is the con-
temporary biography printed in *' Acta SS.", II, June,
320. Its authorship has been ascribed to Turgot, the
saint's conTessor, a monk of Durham and later Arch-
bishop of St. Andrews, and also to Theodoric, a some-
what obscure monk; but in spite of much controversy
the point remains quite unsettled. The feast of St.
Margaret is now observed by the whole Church on 10
June.
Acta SS., II, June, 320; Capqrave, Nova Legenda Angliof
(London. 1515), 225; Wiluam ok Malmesburt. Gcsta Regum
in P. L., CLXXIX, alao in Rolls Series, ed. Stubbs (London,
1887-9); Challoner, Britannia Sancta, I (London, 1745), 358;
Butler, Lives of the Saints, 10 June; Stanton, Menologj/ of
England and Wales (London, 1887), 544: Forbes-Leith, Life
of St. Margaret . . . (London, 1885); AIadan. The Evangdis-
tarium of St. Margaret in Academy (1887); Bcllesheim, His-
tory of the Catholic Church in Scotland, tr. Blair, III (Edin-
buigh, 1890). 241-03.
G. Roger Hudleston.
Margaret of the Blessed Sacrament, Carmelite nun,
b. in Paris, 6 March, 1590; d. there 24 May, 1660.
She was the second daughter of the celebrated
Madame Acarie, otherwise Imown as Blessed Marie de
rincamation (q. v.), who introduced the Reformed
CarmeUtes into France. Carefully reared by her
mother and directed by M. de B6rulle, she took the
religious habit at the first Carmelite convent, Rue St.
Jacques, Paris, 15 September, 1605. On 21 Novem-
ber, 1606, she made her vows privately, and on 18
March, 1607, she made them solemnly, under the care
of Mother Anne de Saint-Barth^lemi. In 1615 she was
made sub-prioress, and in 1618. prioress of the convent
of Tours. In these offices she showed such ability that
she was sent in 1620 to restore harmony in the convent
^t Bordeaux. Shortly after this she was ordered to the
convent of Saintes, where she remained eighteen
months, and in 1624 was recalled to Paris, to replace
as prioress Mother Madelcuie de Saint-Joseph in the
convent situated in the Rue Chapon. After having
been several times prioress of the convent of the Rue
Chapon, where she edified the conmiunity by a zeal
for bodily mortification that her superiors had some-
times to moderate, she was attacked by dropsy, to
which she succumbed. Her heart was taken to the
monastery of Pontoise, where her saintly mother had
been buried, and her body remained in the convent of
the Rue Chapon, where it was kept until 1792.
See bibliorraphy of article Marie de l*Incarnation and
Boucher, Hist, de la Bienheureiuie Marie de rincamation, U,
(Paris. 1854), 168-80.
LtoN Clugnet.
Margaret Pole, Blessed, Countess of Salisbury,
martyr; b. at Castle Farley, near Bath, 14 August,
1473; mart>Ted at East Smithfield Green, 28 May,
1541. She was the daughter of George Plantagenet,
Duke of Clarence, and Isabel, elder daughter of the
Earl of Warwick (the king-maker), and the sister of
Edmund of Warwick who, under Henry VII, paid
with his life the penalty of being the last male repre-
sentative of the Yorkist line (28 Nov., 1499). About
1491 Henry VII gave her in marriage to Sir Richard
Pole, whose mother was the half-sister of the king's
mother, Margaret Beaufort. At her husband's death
in 1505 Margaret was left with five children, of whom
the fourth, Reginald, was to become cardinal and
Archbishop of Canterbury, and also the indirect cause
of his mother's martyrdom. Henry VIII, on his acces-
sion, reversed her brother's attainder, created her
Countess of Sallsljury, and an Act of Restitution was
passed by which she came into possession of her ances-
tral domains: the king considered her the saintliest
woman in England, and, after the birth of the Princess
Mary, Margaret of Salisbury became her sponsor in
baptism and confirmation and was afterwards ap-
pomted governess of the princess and her household.
As the years passed there was talk of a marriage be-
tween the pnncess and the countess's son Reginald,
who was still a layman. But when the matter of the
king's divorce l^egan to be talked of Reginald Pole
boldly spoke out his mind in the affair and shortly
afterwaixis withdrew from England. The princess was
still in the countess's charge when Henry married
Anne Boleyn, but when he was opposed in his efforts
to have his daughter treated as illegitimate he removed
the countess from her post, although she begged to be
allowed to follow and serve Mary at her own charge.
She returned to court after the fall of Anne, but in
1530 Reginald Pole sent to Henry his treatise " Pro
ecclesiasticaj unitatis defcnsione*', in answer to ques-
tions propounded to him in the king's behalf by Cromr
well, Tunstall, Starkey, and others. Besides being a
theological reply to the questions, the book was a
denunciation of the king's courses (see Pole, Regi-
nald). Henry was lx?si(le himself with rage, and it soon
became evident that, failing the writer of the " Defen-
sio", the royal anger was to be wreaked on the host-
ages in England, and this despite the fact that the
countess and her eldest son had written to Reginald in
reproof of his attitude and action.
In November, 1538, two of her sons and others of
their kin were arrested on a charge of treason, though
Cromwell had previously written that they had *' htue
offended save that he [the Cardinal] is of their kin ",
they were committed to the Tower, and in January,
with the exception of Geoffrey Pole, they were exe-
cuted. Ten days after the apprehension of her sons
the venerable countess was arrested and examined by
Fitzwilliam, Earl of Southampton, and Goodrich,
Bishop of Ely, but these reported to Cromwell that
although they had "travailed with her " for many hours
she would ** nothuig utter ", and they were forced to con-
clude that either her sous had not made her a sharer
BCABGARITJB
657
BCABOOTTI
in their "treason" or else she was "the most arrant
traitress that ever lived '\ In Southampton's custody
she was committed to Cowdray Park, near Midhurst,
and there subjected to all manner of indignity. In
May Cromwell introduced against her a Bill of Attain-
der, the readings of which were hurriedly got over, and
at the third reading Cromwell produced a white silk
tunic found in one of her coffers, which was embroid-
ered on the back with the Five Wounds, and for this,
which was held to connect her with the Northern Up-
rising, she was " attainted to die by act of Parliament ,
The other charges against her, to which she was never
permitted to reply, had to do with the escape from
England of her chaplain and the conveying of mes-
sages abroad. After the passage of the Act she was
removed to the Tower and there, for nearly two years,
she was "tormented by the severity of the weather
and insufficient clothing". In April, 1541, there was
another insurrection in Yorkshire, and it was then
determined to enforce without any further procedure
the Act of Attainder passed in 1539. On the morning
of 28 May (de Marillac; Gairdiier, following Chapuys,
says 27) she was told she was to die within the hour.
She answered that no crime had been imputed to her;
nevertheless she walked calmly from her cell to East
Smithtield Green, within the precincts of the Tower,
where a low wooden block had been prepared, and
there, by a clumsy novice, she was beheaded.
Db Castillon and db Marillac, Correapondance politique:
Morris in The Month (April, 1889); Camm, Lives of the English
Martyrs, I (Londoa, 1904), 502 sqqj Gairdnbu in Diet. Nat.
Biog.t 8. V. Pole; Gillow, Did. Eng. (Jath., s. v.
Blanche M. Kelly.
Margaritfld (Decreti Decretorum, Decretauum).
— ^The canonists of the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies who taught canon law by commenting on the
Decretum of Gratian and on the various collections of
the Decretals, gave the most varied forms and diverse
names to their treatises. The " Margaritse " are col-
lections specially intended to help the memory. In
them are arranged, either in alphabetical order or ac-
cording to the subject matter, the more important
propositions, r^um^, and axioms ; some of them con-
sisted of more or less felicitous mnemonic verses. A
number of these "Margaritas" have been preserved,
but not all the authors are known with certainty.
Some of the treatises have been printed with the
Decretum or the Decretals. Thus several editions of
the Decretum contain the "Modus legendi" in verse,
beginning:
CoUi^ versibus quid vult distinctio qusevis,
Ut videat quisquis divinum jus hominisque.
Another, as yet unpublished, which may be the " Bre-
viarium pauperum metrice compilatum", contains in
verse the five books of the Decretals and ends thus:
•* Hos quinque libros metrice conscribere tempto."
ScHULTE. Geschichte der Quellen des canoniachen Rechts (Stutt-
gart. 1875). I. 218; II, 490. 492. 495.
A. BOUDINHON.
Margil, Antonio, b. at Valencia, Spain, 18 August,
1657; d. at Mexico, 6 Aug., 1726. He entered the
Franciscan Order in his native city on 22 April, 1673.
After his ordination to the priesthood he volunteered
for the Indian missions in America, and arrived at
Vera Cruz on 6 June, 1683. He was stationed at the
famous missionary college of Santa Cruz, i^uer^taro,
but was generally engaged in preaching missions all
over the country, in Yucatan, Costa Rica, Nicaragua,
and especially in Guatemala, where he merited the
name of Apostle of Guatemala. He always walked
barefooted, without sandals, fasted every day in the
year, never used meat or fish, and applied the disci-
pline as well as other instruments of penance to him-
self unmercifully. He slept very little, but passed in
prayer the greater part of the night, as well as the
time allotted for the siesta. The result was that his
efforts for the salvation of Indians and colonists were
IX.— 42
crowned with extraordinary success. On 25 June.
1706, he was appointed first guardian of the newly-
erected missionary college of Guadalupe, Zacatecas.
In 1716 he led a band of three fathers and two lay-
brothers into Texas, and founded the missions of
Guadalupe among the Nacogdoches, Dolores among
the Ays, and San Miguel among the Adays. When
the French destroyed these missions, Father Margil
withdrew to the Rio San Antonio, and remained near
the present city of San Antonio for more than a year.
He then returned with his friars to the scene of his
former activity, restored the missions, and even gave
his attention to the French settlers in Louisiana.
In 1722 he was elected guardian of his college and
compelled to leave his beloved Indians. At the close
of his term of office he resumed missionary work i»
Mexico. He died at the capital in the famous Con-
vento Grande de San Francisco, in the odour of sanc-
tity. Gregory XVI in 1836 declared Father Antonio
Margil's virtues heroic.
EspiNOSA, Crdnica ApodrUica y Senifica (Mexico. 1746);
ViLAPLANA. Vida del V. P. Fr. Antonio Margil (Madrid, 1775);
Arricivita, Crt'mica Scrdfica y Apoatdlica (Mexico, 1792); Soto-
MATOR. Hi^ria del Apo8l6lico Colegio de Guadalupe (Zacatecas,
1874); Shea, Catholic Church in Colonial Days (New York,
1886).
Zephyrin Engelhardt.
Margotti, Giacomo, a Catholic publicist, bom 11
May, 1823; died 6 May, 1887. He was a native of
San Remo, where his father was president of- the
Chamber of Commerce, and there he studied the clas-
sics and philosophy, after which he entered the semi-
nary of Ventimiglia; in 1845, he obtained the doctor-
ate at the University of Genoa and was received into
the Royal Academy of Superga, where he remained
until 1849. Already in 1848, in company with Mgr.
Moreno, Bishop of Ivrea. Professor Audisio, and
the Marquis Birago, he liad established the daily
paper "L'Armonia", which soon had other distin-
guished contributors; among them, Rosmini and
Slarquis Gustavo, brother of Cavour; the managing
editor, however, and the soul of the publication, was
Margotti, whose writings combined soundness of phi-
losophy and of theological doctrine with rare purity of
style, while his ready ability for reply, and the bril-
liancy of his polemics made him feared by the sects
and by the Sardinian government, which at that
moment, in furtherance of its policy of territorial ex-
pansion, had entered upon a course of legislation that
was hostile to the Church and at variance with the
wishes of a great majority of the people. As a result,
Margotti underwent frequent trials, and was often
subjected to fines and to other impositions; and in
1859^ Cavour suppressed the "L' Armenia". This
pubhcation was replaced by "II Piemonte"; but
when the period of agitation passed, "L' Armenia"
reappeared ; its name was chan^d, however, conform-
ably with the wish of Pius IX, on the twenty-fifth of
December, 1863, after which date it was called
"L'Unit^ Cattolica". On the other hand, Margotti
continued to be the object of attacks and of plots,
and once, at Turin, an attempt was made upon his
life; but nothing intimidated nim; while his journal-
istic proficiency was eulogized by the "British Re-
view" in its issue for August^ 1865.
For a long time, the opinion of Margotti on ques-
tions of Catholic interest had the force of oracle for
Italian Catholics; and if he was not the author of the
axiom " n^ eletti, n^ elettori " — " be neither elector nor
elected " — he, more effectually than any one else, pre-
sented its truth to the Catholics, to convince them
that, in the face of r(»volutionary triumphs, it was idle
to hope for a successful reaction through parliament ;
in which he was in accordance with the views of Pius
IX, who, in 1868, said to Margotti that Catholics
should not go to the ballot-box: " Non si vada alle
ume", He was foreign to all sense of personal ag-
MABIA-LAAOH
658
MABIiL-LAAOB
grandizement ; Pius IX, referring to this fact, once said:
''Margotti never asked me for anything: he was nght;
for any dignity that I could have conferred upon him
would have been inferior to his merits ". By his will,
Margotti left nearly 100,000 lire for charitable pur-
poses. Besides the articles in "L'Unita", Margotti
wrote "II process© di Nepomuceno Nuytz, prof, di
Diritto Canonico nella Umversit^ di Tormo" (1851);
" Consideraasioni sulla separazione dello Stato dalla
Chiesa in Piemonte " (1855) ; *' Le vittorie della Chiesa
nei primi anni del Pontificato di Pio IX" (1857);
"Memorie per la storia dei nostri tempi" (1863, 6
vols.); "Le consolazioni del S. P. Pio IX" (1863);
" Pio IX e il suo episcopate nelle diocesi di Spoleto e
d'Imola" (1877).
. CiviiUi CaUolica (Rome), ser. XIII, vol. VI, p. 485; vol. VH,
p. 1 sq.; Della. Casa, I Nostri (Treviso, 1903), 31 sq.
U. Beniqni.
Maria-Laach (Abbatia Beat^ Mabi.c Virginis
AD LACUM, or Beat^ Mari^ lacensis), a Benedictine
abbey on the south-west bank of Lake Laach, near
Andemach in Rhineland, Germany. It was founded
in the year 1093 by the Palsgrave Henry II of Lorraine
who probably was a descendant from the line of the
Counts of Hochstaden (P. Adalbert Schippers, O.S.B.,
"The Palsgrave Henry IPs Charter of Foundation for
Laach" in the "Trierisches Archiv", XV, 1909 53
sq.). In the year 1112 his stepson Siegfried of Ballen-
stadt renewed the foundation (P. Ildefons Herwegen,
O.S.B., "The Palsgraves of Lorraine and the Ben-
edictine monasteries of the Lower Rhine" in "An-
nalen der historischen Vereins fiir den Niederrhein ",
LXXXIX, 1910, 40 sq.). The monastery, which was
handed over to the Cluniac Benedictines from the
abbey of Afflighem in Belgium, welcomed its fu^t ab-
bot in the accomplished Gilbert, in 1127, and thus
became independent. His memorial tablet in mosaic
with portrait and epitaph is in the Rhine Provincial
Museum at Bonn. A facsimile of the same has found
a place in the cloister at Maria-Laach. Until the mid-
dle of the fourteenth century disci})line was severe.
Abbot Fulbert (1152-1177) did good work for the
library and promoted scientific activity, while the
Abbots Albert (1199-1217) and Theoderich II (1256-
1295) directed their energies towards the structural
embellishment and artistic decoration of the church
and monastery. The last named erected the tomb of
the founder, one of the finest pieces of thirteenth cen-
tury sculpture on the Rhine (Hasak, "Gesch. der
deutschen Bildhauerkunst im 13. Jahrhundert",
Berlui, 1899, page 92 sq.). He also succeeded in ti-
ding over a serious economic crisis.
In the fourteenth century there began in Germany,
owing to the unfavourable conditions of the time, a
deterioration in the spiritual life of the Benedictine
Order. Under the thirteenth ablx)t, Johannes I (1328-
1333), it came gradually into notice in Maria-Laach as
well. It was only in the second half of the fifteenth
centurv. through an alliance with the congregation of
Bursfela, that the monastic spirit began once more to
flourish. A number of the monks held out against
reform, but the sagacity and energ>' of the celebrated
Abbot Johannes IV of Deidesheim (1409-1491) pre-
vailed finally on the side of discipline. With improve-
ment in discipline there came a new literary life. The
Humanities were ably represented by Siberti, Tilmann
of Bonn, Benedict of Munstereifel, and above all by
Prior Johannes Butzbach (1526). Most of Butzbacl/s
poetical and prose works remain in manuscript in the
University Library at Bonn, and have not all ])ecn
published. His best known work is his " Hodoipsori-
kon ", an account of his years of travel before his eutrv'
into the monastery at Laach, issued by D. J. Becker
(Ratisbon, 1869) as the "Chronicle of a Travelling
Scholar". His "Auctarium in librum Johannis Tri-
themii de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis", a supplement
to the Abbot von Sponheim's "Scholars' Catalogue",
is also noteworthy. The abbey chranicle written bf
Butzbach has unfortunately been lost. The world-
famous story of Genevieve, the scene of which is at
Lake Laach, goes back, in the oldest form that has
come down to us, to Johannes von Andemach, a con-
temporary monk at Laach (BruU, "Andemach I^
gramme, 189&-97"; Idem, "Pnmun Programme,
1898-99 "). The Ablwt Johann Augustin (1562-1568)
left behind a book on "The practices and customs of
Laach" (Rituale monastics HyparchisB coenobii laoen*
sis) that is now numbered among the manuscripts in
the library of Bonn University.
Until the dissolution of the abbey in the great
secularizing movement of the year 1802, Itfaria-Laach
remained a centre of religious and Uterazy activity.
The church and monastery went first to the Frendi
and then, in 1815, to the Prussian government. In the
year 1820 the monastery became private property and
m 1863 was acquired by the Society of Jesus. The
abbey church has remained to this day the property
of the Prussian Exchequer. The Jesuits maae Maria-
Laach a home of learning. It became a place of study
for the scholastics and a meeting place for the leading
savants of the Society Among tnem P. Schneemann
distinguished himself as chief worker on the ** Collectio
lacensis" ("Acta et decreta sacrorum concilionim
recentiorum ", 7 volumes, Freiburg, 1870-1890), which
represents a valuable continuation of the older coUee-
tions of the Councils. P. Schneemann issued vols. I to
VI (1682-1870); P. Granderath vol. VII (1870-1882)
dealing with the Vatican Coimcil. Here also was be-
gun the " Philosophia lacensis", a collection of learned
books on the different branches of philosophy (logic.
cosmologv, psvchology, theodicy, natural law) ana
published at Freiburg, 1880-1900. The "Stimmen
aus Maria-Laach", however, bore the name of the
monastery farthest. Lender the direction of P. Schnee-
marm the first series be^n in 1865, and appeared as
occasional pamphlets. They were undertaken at the
suggestion of the provincial, P. Anderledy, in defence
of the Encyclical *' Quanta cura", and the Syllabus of
Pius IX (1864) against the attacks of Liberalism. P.
Florian Riess had a meritorious share in the publica-
tion of a second series at the time of the Vatican
Council. Since 1871 the " Stinmien" has been a regu-
lar periodical dealing with every department of knowl-
edge. The "Stimmen" retained its old name when
the Jesuits were banished from Maria-La^ch during
the Kiilturkampf in 1873.
The Benedictines of the Bemt)n Congregation moved
into the monastery in 1892. In the year 1893 Maria-
Laach was canonically raised into an abbey. The first
Ablx)t, Willibrod Benzler, was appointed Bishop of
Metz in 1901. Fidelis von Stotzingen succeeded nim
as second abbot (1901). The community numbers
(1910) 41 monks and 74 lay-brothers. The new ten-
ants of the abbey have been allowed the use of the
church by the state, but in return have been made
responsible for the upkeep and furnishing of the build-
ing stripped as it is of all its appointments. The resto-
ration was inaugurated l)y Kaiser William II, in 1897,
through the gift of a high altar. At the present time
the monks are engaged in decorating the east apse
with mosaics. The church is in basilica style witn a
transept and double choir. The east choir is flanked
by two square towers, while the west facade shows a
square central tower with a graceful balcony supported
on twin columns. This rich group of towers, to which
must l>e added an imposing cupola, gives the church an
exceedingly picturesque appearance. The east and
west choir as well as the sides of the church end in an
apse. Under the east choir lies a crypt; opening on
tne west choir there is a vestibule, or paraaisus, with
open arcades, the arches resting on slender twin col-
umns. The doors of the church and vestibule are
ornamented with sculpture. In the west choir stands
the sarcophagus of the founder under a Barocco stone
TMffAftTAT.gft
659
MARTAWA
canopy. Near this on the pillars are several fifteenth
century paintings. The abbey^hurch is a masterpiece
of Romanesque architecture, and marks a new phase
in the history of Grerman architecture, since it is the
first columned basilica built with arches (Schippers, in
"Christian Art", IV, 1907-1908, 266, in reply to
Schmitt, ibid., 1 sq.). Drawings of its architectural
features are given in Greier and Uorz, *' Monuments of
Roman Architecture on the Rhine" (Frankfort. 1874).
The St. Nicholas Chapel in the monastery garden was
built during 1756-1766; its tower belongs, however,
to the twelfth century. Several tombstones of earUer
abbots grace the cloisters of the monastery. Only the
portrait in relief of the Abbot Simon von der Leyen
(1491-1512) has however any claim to art.
Weoeler. Dcu Ktoater Loach, Oeschichte und Urkunden
(Bonn, 1854); Richter, Die Benedikttner- Abtei Maria-Loath
(HamburK. 1896); Idem. Die Schriftsteller der Benediktiner-
Abtei Maria-Loach in WestdetUache ZeiiaeJirift, XVII (1898). 41
a., 277 sq.; Kniel, Die Benedihtiner- Ahtei Maria-Loach (3rd
.. Cologne, 1902). See also bibliography in Studien vnd
MiUeUungen aue dem Benedikttner- una Cxatercieneer Orden, IX
(1896). 277 sq.
Ildefonbus Herwegen.
MarialeSy X antes, Dominican, b. about 1580; d.
at Venice in April, 16(K). He was of a noble Venetian
family. At an early age he entered the Dominican
convent of Sts. John and Paul. Remarkable for his
versatility and prodigious memory, he was soon sent
to Spain, where he completed his studies. He first
taugnt at Venice, then at Padua where he thrice exer-
cised the office of regent. From 1624 onwards he led
a most retired life at Venice, devoting his time exclu-
sively to prayer, reading, and study. He possessed in
a high degree the more kindly and winsome external
accomplisnments. In his writings he displayed such
zeal for the Holy See that he was twice exiled bv the
Venetian senate. At Milan, Ferrara, and Bologna
where lie took refuge, he was ercatly esteemed for his
learning and holiness. He died at Venice from a stroke
of apoplexv. The obsequies were honoured by the
presence of the Venetian nobility. Among his works
the following are noteworthy: " Controversize ad
universam Summam theol. S. Th. Aq. " (Venice, 1624) ;
"Amplissimum artium scientiarumque omnium am-
phitheatrum" (Bologna. 1658).
HuRTER, Nomenclator, who summarizes **Scriptoree O. P.",
II fParis. 1721). 600; ''Elogium" in "Acta Cajntuli Oeneralia
O. Pr (Rome. 1970).
Thos. X K. Reillt.
Maxiana, Juan, author and Jesuit, b. at Talavera,
Toledo, Spain, probably in April, 1536; d. at Toledo,
16 February, 1624.
He is one of the most maligned members of the
Jesuit order, owing to the opinions expressed in his
book " De rege et regis institutione ", on the killing of
despots. He joined the order 1 January, 1554. Noth-
ing more is known of his parentage or his family his-
tory.
It is an evidence of his talent that, as early as 1561,
after finishing his studies, he was called by his superi-
ors to Rome, where he taught theology for four years.
After a further short sojourn in Sicily he occupied the
chair of theology in Paris (1569-1574), but was obliged
through illness to return to Spain. There he spent a
great number of years at Toledo, occupied almost ex-
clusively with literary work.
Among his literary labours the most important is
undoubtedly his great work on the history of Spain,
which is still remembered to-day. There was pub-
lished as late as 1854, in Madrid, an improved and
richly illustrate edition continued up to that year.
The work first appeared as "Historiae de rebus His-
EanisB libri XX,Toleti, typis P. Roderici. 1592'*. A
iter edition of the compiler himself, carried on still
further, is the "De rebus Hispani® libri XXX", pub-
lished at Mainz in 1605. This edition bears the im-
primatur of the order for the thirty books, given by
Stephen Hojeda, visitor from Dec., 1598, and of the
provincial from 1604. The author had in the mean-
time converted the Latin edition into Spanish and
this appeared complete, containing the thirhr books of
the Latin edition, at Toledo in 1601. This went
through a number of editions during the lifetime of the
author and through others after his death.
The second work published is that mentioned above,
" De Rege et Regis institutione libri III ad Philippum
III Hispaniae Re^em CathoUcum, 1 599 ' * . The work was
written at the sohcitation of the tutor of the royal princes
and at the expense of Philip II (Garcias de Loaysa),
but was dedicated to Philip III, who had become kiii^
in the meantime. It was not objected to by the king
nor anywhere else in Spain; it was obviously calcu-
lated to bring up the king as the true father of his peo-
ple and as a pattern of virtue for the whole nation.
The Protestant Dr. Leutbecher (Erlangen, 1830) ex-
pr^sed his judgment of the book in the following
terms: ''Mariana's excellent mirror for kings . . . con-
tains more healthy materials for the education of fu-
ture kings than any other existing princely mirror, and
is worthy of all respect as much from kings themselves,
as from their educators. . . . Would that all kings
were as Mariana wanted them to be." — ^The book cer-
tainly contained a misconstrued observation in favour
of the assassination of Henry III of France, and de-
fended, though with many restrictions and precau-
tions, the deposition and killing of a tyrant. This did
not escape the Jesuits in France and they drew the at-
tention of the general of the order to it. The general
at once expressed his regret, stating that the work had
been published without his knowledge and that he
would take care that the book should l^ corrected. In
1605 there really appeared a somewhat altered edition
at Mainz; to what degree the book had been corrected
by the order is hard to discover. Mariana himself had
not prepared another edition. But in 1610 a real
storm broke loose against the book in France; by
the order of Parliament the book was publicly burnt
by the hand of the public executioner, while in Spain
it continued to enjoy the royal favour. The general
of the order forbade membfers to preach that it is
lawful to kill despots.
There was still a whole scries of smaller works from
the pen of Mariana; many of them are only in manu-
script. Some of his published works are not without
value in political economy — ^his work, " De ponderibus
et mensuris,'' for example, which appearea at Toledo
in 1599 and at Mainz in 1605, and his little '' De mone-
tae mutatione'', which appeared in a general collection
of his works in 1609. In a criticism of this small pub-
lication, Pascal Duprat (Sommervogel, V, 562), a
French economist, declared as late as 1870 that Mari-
ana had set forth the true principles of the money
question ^ far better than his contemporaries. This
work, however, proved fatal to the author. The fact
that he had opposed with genuine courage the depre-
ciation of the currency laid him under a charge of
treason to the king, and Mariana, then seventy-three
years old, was actually condemned to lifelong impris-
onment, which took the form of committal to a Fran-
ciscan convent. He was only to be allowed freedom
shortly before his death.
The vehement character of Mariana, that strove
against real or intended wron^, had also its dark side.
The period of his old age coincided with a stormy time
in the history of the order. In the order, which had
just then b^un to flourish, there were a number of
members who were not satisfied with the approved
principles of the founder and the Holy See, especially
as there was a good deal in them that did not corre-
spond with the principles of the older orders. Even
tne solemn BuUs of Gregory XIII, which again ex-
pressly confirmed the points criticised from within and
without the order, did not altogether bring quiet, so
that in the year 1593, under the government of Aqua-
MARIANA
660
MARIANA
viva, there was a general congregation for the purpose
of expellmg some of the members. Juan Mariana, for
a loi^ period at least, was numbered among the dis-
satisned and the advocates of change. In the year
1589 Mariana had already prepared a manuscript to
defend the order against the attacks of some of his op-
ponents; the general, Aqua\iva, was inch'ned to have
it published, but as it was desirable not to disturb the
momentary calm that had come in Spain, this ** Defen-
sorium'* was never printed. Some time later Mari-
ana, when internal dissensions prevailed in the order,
was engaged in the preparation of a memorial, which
it is highly probable he intended to forward to Rome.
According to Astrain ("Historia de la compania de
J^us", III, 417), it must have been written in 1605.
The author took great care of the manuscript; there
are no indications that it was ever intended to be pub-
lished. But on his arrest in 1610 all Mariana's papers
were seized, and in spite of his request nothing was re-
turned. After his aeath the memorial was published
at Bordeaux by the opponents of the order in 1625
under the title ''Discursus de erroribus qui in forma
gubemationis Societatis occurrunt". After the ex-
pulsion of the Jesuits from Spain it was often printed
again (1468, 1841) in Spanish, and named '^Discorso
de los enfermedades de la Compania". Since the
publication of all these editions was the work of oppo-
nents of the order, there is no guarantee that the origi-
nal text had been reproduced whole. Astrain, never-
theless, showed (op. cit., Ill, 560, note 3) that the
copies of the manuscript which had pa&sed through his
hands agreed with the printed work. The original text
was thus published without being essentially altered.
It is but the effusion of a dissatisfied member of the
order. The further development of the order and
the further papal confirmation of the principle of the
order show Mariana to have been wrong in his criti-
cisms, though his subjective culpability is much les-
sened by the circuiAstances. He never left the order;
and there seems to have been an entire reconciliation
in his last years.
iSoMMERVOGEL, Bib. de la Comp. de Jesus (Brussels and Paris,
1894), 1547 sqa;] Casbani, Varones ilustrcs, V, 8H-98; Duhr,
JesuUenfabcln (FreiburK, 1899), n. 25; Astrain, Historia de la
Compania de Jesus, Hf (Madrid, 1909).
Aug. Lehmkuhl.
Mariana, Archdiocese op (Marianensis), situ-
ated in the centre of Minas Geraes, the great mining
state of Brazil, is bounded on the north, south, and
west respectively by its suffragan sees, Diamantina,
Pouso Alegre, uoyaz, and Uberaba. The city of
Mariana, formerly Ribeirao do Carmo (population
over 6000), established in 1711, lies about seven miles
east of Ouro Proto, the former capital of the state. A
bishopric was erected there in Deceml:)er, 1745, by
Beneaict XIV, the first occupant of the see l^ing Frei
Manoel da Cruz (1745-1764), who was translated from
the Diocese of Maranhfio. For over a century Mari-
ana was the ecclesiastical centre of Minas Geraes. In
1854 some parishes were detached from it to form part
of the new Diocese of Diamantina, and others in 19(X)
on the establishment of that of Pouso Alegre. In
May, 1906, Mariana was made an archdiocese, having
ErevioiLsly been a suffragan of Rio de Janeiro. It em-
races an area of 110,(XK) square miles, nearly one-half
of Minas Geraes, and contains over 2,(XX),C)(X) Catho-
lics, there being only about 2QO0 Protestants, mostly
foreigners in the mining centres. It has 311 parishes,
and 611 churches or chapels, served by 545 secular
and 104 regular priests. The theological s(»minary is
under the care of the Lazaristjj. The present occu-
pant of the see who is the ninth ordinary' of Mariana
and the first archbishop, Mgr. Sil verio Gomes Pimenta,
was bom at Conpjonhas do Campo, near the celebrated
shrine of Mattosinho.«, on 12 January. 1840: he was or-
dained on 20 July. 1862, at Sabani. by Bishop Vic.-oso,
and for many years professed history and philosophy
in the diocesan seminary; named coadjutor to the
Bishop of Mariana, he was consecrated at Sdo Paulo by
the Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro on 31 August, 1890,
as Titular Bishop of Camachus in Armenia. On 16
April, 1897, he succeeded to the see on the death of
Mgr. Corr^ de Sd y Benevides. Mgr. Pimento is the
firet native of Minas Geraes to rule this bishopric, ail
his predecessors except Mgr. Benevides, having been
Portuguese by birth.
From 1711 till 1897 the capital of the state was at
Ouro Preto near Mariana, but it has now been trans-
ferred to the new and rapidly growing city of Belle
Horizonte, founded in February, 1894. It is situated
on the west side of the valley of the Rio das Velhas,
and lies 390 miles northwest of Rio de Janeiro. It has
a population of about 17,615, of whom 17,490 are
Catholics. It has five churches, and a college in
charge of nuns for the higher education of women. A
large cathedral is being erected there. Many laymen
and clerics distinguished in science and literature are
natives of or have laboured in the Diocese of Mariana.
Among them may be mentioned the following; priests:
Jos6 &silio da Gama (1740-95), the author of the epic
'* Uruguay", a work which unfortunately pays no trib-
ute to the labours of the Jesuits, of which body da
Gama was a member l>efore the suppression ; Jos^ da
Santa Rita Durao (1737-83), a Jesuit born in Infec-
gaoado, Minas Geraes, a brilliant novelist and author
of the famous poem **Caramuni"; Felix Lisboa, the
sculptor; Jos6 Mariano da ConcecySo Velloso (1742-
1811), the great botanist, author of ** Flora Flumi-
nese"; Jos^ Corr^a de Almeida, b. 4 September, 1820,
at Barbacena; d. there, 5 April, 1905, poet (23 vol-
umes published) and historian; Bishop de Sousa,
of Diamantina, author of " O Lar Catholieo " and other
works well known in Brazil, is also a native of the
diocese.
DioGO DE Vabconellas, Historia antiga daa Minas Gents
(Bello Horizonte, 1907); Miguel, Cartas sertanejas (Mariana,
1905); Renault, Jndiffcnas de Minas Geraes (Bello Horizont«,
1904); DE Senna, Annuario de Minas Geraes (Bello liorixonte,
1906, etc.); Idem, Notas e chronicas (S&o Paulo, 1907 J.
A. A. MacErlean.
Mariana Islands, Prefecture Apostouc of. —
The Marianas Archipelago (also called the Ladrone
Islands) is a chain of fifteen islands in the Northern
Pacific, situated between 13° and 21° N. I.at. and 144*
and 146° E. long. The islands were first discovered in
1521 by Magellan, who called them Las Islas de lot
Ladrones (Thieves' Islands) on account of the predilec-
tion of the natives for thieving. In 1G67 the Spanish
established a regular colony there, and gave the islands
the official title of Las Marianas in honour of Queen
Maria Anna of Austria. They then possessed a popu-
lation of 40-60,000 inhabitants^ but so fierce was the
opposition offered to the Spanianls that the natives
were almost exterminated lx?fore Spanish rule was
made secure. The Marianas remained a Spanish col-
ony under the general government of the Philippines
until 1898, when, as a result of the Spanish-American
War, Guam was ceded to the United States. By
Treaty of 12 Feb., 1899, the remaining islands (to-
gether with the Carolines) were sold to Germany for
about $4, 100,0(X). Guam is 32 miles long, from 3 to 10
miles broad, and about 200 sq. miles in area. Of its
total population of 11,490 (11,159 natives), Agana, the
capital, contains al>out 7,000. Possessing a good har-
bour, the island serves as a United States naval sta-
tion, the naval commandant acting also as governor.
The products of the island are maize, copra, rice,snjrRr,
and valuable timl^er. The remaining islands of tlie
archipelago l)elong to the German Protectorate of New
Guinea; their total pop\dation is only 2,646 inhf>bi
tants, the ten most northerly islands being aotivrly
volcanic and iminhabited. The prefecture Apostolic
was erected on 17 Sept., 1902, by the Constilutioo
ACARIAMNHILL
661
TWTAl^TAiar
'* Qus mari sinico " of Leo XIII. The islands had pre-
viously formed part of the Diocese of Cebu. By T)e-
cree of 18 June, 1907, thev were entrusted to the
Capuchin Fathers of the Westphalian Province, to
which order the present prefect Apostolic, Very Rev.
Paul von Kirchhausen (appointed August, 1907; resi-
dence in Saipan, Carolina Islands) , belongs. There are
two public schools, but accommodation is so inade-
quate that the boys attend in the morning and the
girls in the evening. The instruction is given in Eng-
Gsh, and, in addition to the usual elementary subjects,
carpentry and other trades are taught. Two priests
are stationed at Agana; one in each of the smaller
settlements, Agat and Merizo. In addition to the
churches at these places, there is a church at Sainay
and several little cnapels in the mountains. A priest
from Agana visits each month the colony where the
lepers are segregated, to celebrate Mass and ad-
nunister the sacraments. Catholicism is the sole re-
ligion of the islands. Until 1908 the Institute of
the Mission Helpers of the Sacred Heart had a house
at Agana.
Battandxer, Annuaire Pontificale (1010): Report of the
Smithsonian Inatittdion (1903); Stateeman's Year-Book (1910).
Thomas Kennedy.
Mariazmhill, Congregation of the Missionaries
OF. — Mariannhill is located in Natal, near Pinetown,
15 miles from Durban, and 56 from Pietermaritzburg.
In 1882 the Rev. Francis Pfanner, then prior of the
Trappist (Reformed Cistercian) Monastery^ of Maria-
stem (Bosnia), at the invitation of the late Bishop
Ricards, and with the consent of the general chapter
of that branch of the order called the Congregation of
De Ranc^, volunteered to establish a monastery in
Cape Colony, in order to try to adapt their rule to the
missionary life. He landeid at Port Elizabeth with
thirty-one companions in July, 1880, and settled in a
place he called Dimbrody, after an old Irish monastery.
This he had to abandon in 1882; and at the solicita-
tion of the late Bishop Jolivet, O.M.I. , transferred his
community to Mariannhill. Upon arrival there he set
to work with indefatigable energy in the missionary
field, and was blessed with such success that in 1885
Mariannhill was erected into an abbey, and Father
Pfaimer was imanimously elected its first abbot,
receiving the abbatial bleasing on the third anniver-
sary of the founding of the monastery, 27 Dec., 1885.
The same year Abbot Pfanner had started a branch
of missionary sisters called "Sisters of the Precious
Blood" to take charge of the native children and
women; this congregation flourished abundantly, and
was approved by Rome in 1907.
Mariannhill was too restricted for the zeal of Abbot
Pfanner, so in the course of a few years, he founded
seven mission stations, scattered over Natal, from
Transvaal (Ratschitz) to Cape O)lony (Lourdes) in
Griqualand. Each of these stations had a small com-
munity of monks, and another of sisters, with church,
school, etc., according to the needs of the natives. In
1892 Abbot Pfanner, who was then sixty-seven years
of age, resigned and retired to Emmaus, one of the
stations, where he died on 24 May, 19()9. He was
immediately succeeded by Dom Amandus Schoelzig
as administrator, and in 1894 as abbnot. Under his
wise administration nine stations were founded in
Natal and Cape Colony, and two houses in German
East Africa. Abbot Amandus died in January, 1900,
a martyr to the great work and its many cares. In
Sept. of the same year he was succeeded by Abbot
Gerard Wolpert, who had spent the greater part of his
missionary life at the Czenstochau Station. He
founded a station in Mashonaland, Rhodesia, and two
more in Natal, so that his activity was divided be-
tween German East Africa, Rhodesia, Natal and Cape
Colony. This, however, w^ too much for his strengtn;
Mb health gave way, and being anxious to return to
his mission life at Czenstochau, he resigned his posi-
tion in 1904.
During the general chapter of the order held that
year at Citeaux, the Rt. Kev. Edmond M. Obrecht,
Abbot of the Abbey of Gethsemani, U. S. A., was ap-
pointed, with the approbation of the Holy See, Admin-
istrator of Mariannhill. His principal labour was to
enquire into the adaptability of the Cistercian to the
missionary life; after three years of work in Africa the
Abbot of Gethsemani submitted his report to Rome
and the general chapter, from which it was decided
that Mariannhill should become an independent con-
gregation, as otherwise either the monastic observ-
ances or the missionary labour had to suffer. Conse-
Suently Propaganda delegated Rt. Rev. Bishop Miller,
►.M.I., Vicar- Apostolic of Transvaal, to arrange for
such independence, according to the wishes of the
Reformed Cistercians, and the members of Mariann-
hill. Finallv the Congregation of Regulars, on 2 Feb.,
1909, issued a decree separating Mariannhill from the
Order of Reformed Cistercians, forming of it the
*' Congregation of the Mariannhill Missionaries'' and
erecting their church into a Collegiate Church, under
the guidance of a provost. The members of the con-
gregation take simple, but perpetual, vows; and are
exempt from the jurisdiction of the Ordinary of tiie
diocese. They at present number about 60 priests,
with 260 choir-religious and lay-brothers. From its
foundation until 1 Jan. 1910, nearly 20,000 persons,
the greater number adults, have been baptized In the
55 churches and chapels scattered throughout the 26
missions and stations.
Trappielen Miiaions Kloater MariannhiU (Freiburg, 1907);
Vergissmeinnickt, Zeitachrift der Mariannhiller Mvuion, 188S~
1910; Maxiati/ahiUer KaUnder, 1888-1910; Ada S. Sedie, 20
Dec., 1909; Aaiea du Chapitre 06n. dee Cisterciena Riformis
(1904-1907)1 Utippislen imd ihre Miaaion in MariannhiU; Abt
Franz Pfatmer Q8o5); Boek£n. Um und in Afrika (O}logne,
1903).
Edmond M. Obrecht.
Marian Pnests. — ^This term is applied to those
English priests who being ordained in or before the
reign of Queen Mary (1553-1558), survived iaifi the
reign of Elizabeth. The expression is used in contra-
distinction to "Seminary Priests" by which was
meant priests ordained at Douai, Rome, or other
English seminaries abroad. Shortly after Elizabeth's
accession ordinations ceased altogether in England in
consequence of the imprisonment of the surviving
bishops, and unless the Seminary priests had begun
to land in England to take the place of the older priests
who were dying off, the Catholic priesthood would
have become e^inct in England. There was an im-
portant distinction between the Marian priests and the
Seminary priests in the fact that the penal legislation
of the rigorous statute 27 Ehz. c. 2 only applied to
the latter who were forbidden to come into or remain
in the realm under pain of high treason. Therefore
the Marian priests only came under the earlier statutes.
e. g. 1 Elizabeth c. 1 which inflicted penalties on all
who maintained the spiritual or ecclesiastical author-
ity of any foreign prelate, or 5 Eliz. c. 1 which made
it high treason to maintain the authority of the Bishop
of Rome, or to refuse the Oath of Supremacy. The
recent researches of Dom Norbert Birt have shown
that the number of Marian priests who were driven
from their livings was far greater than has been com-
monly supposed. After a careful study of all available
sources of information he estimates the number of
priests holding livings in England at Elizabeth's acces-
sion at 7500 (p. 162). A large number, forming the
majority of these, accepted, though unwillingly, the
new state of things, and according to tradition many
of them were in the habit of celebrating Mass early,
and of reading the Church of England service later on
Sunday morning. But the number of Marian priests
who refused to conform was very large, and the fre-
quently repeated statement that only two hundred of
MABUMirS
662
BIABIA
them refused the Oath of Supremacy has been shown
to be misleading, as this figure was given originally in
Sander's list, which only included dignitaries and was
not exhaustive. Dom Norbert Birt has collected in-
stances of 'nearly two thousand priests who were de-
prived or who abandoned their livings for conscience'
sake. As years went on, death thinned the ranks of
these faithful priests, but as late as 1596 there were
nearly fifty of them still working on the English mis-
sion. Owing to their more favourable legal position
they escaped the persecution endured by the Seminary
priests, and only one — the Venerable James Bell — is
known to have suffered martyrdom.
Birt, The Elizabethan RdipiouB SeUlemerU (London, 1907);
" alAloroni' _~ \
don, 1005); Ftr<< and Second Douay Diaries: Appendix LIV
Sander, Report to Cardinal
in CcUh. Record Soc., I (Lon-
(London, 1878).
Edwin Burton.
Marianas of Florence, Friar Minor and historian,
b. at Florence about the middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury, exact date of birth uncertain ; d. there, 20 July,
1623. Very little is known of the life and personality
of this great chronicler of the Franciscan Order. That
his writings should, likewise, share in this general ob-
livion is due to a number of causes, principal among
which is the diflBculty of procuring them, not any of
his chronicles or other works ever having been pub-
lished. In his most noted work entitled "Fasciculus
Chronicarum", there is contained a history of the
Franciscan Order from the beginning up to the year
1486. That Marianus should nave written three cen-
turies after the death of St. Francis in no way tells
against his trustworthiness as a historian, for he had
access to original sources now lost, of which some
precious fragments have been passed on to us through
nim. The crudeness and inelegance of his style of
which Wadding complains may, perhaps, have been
due to the impatience of the good nun Dorothea
Broccardi (Dorothea scripsit appears on all her handi-
work) , who offered to be his amanuensis and who was
continually pressing him for copy. Marianus fell a
victim to the plague while engaged in administering
the last sacraments to the stricken inhabitants of his
native city. Besides the '* Fasciculus Chronicarum",
he is the author of a **Catalogu8 sen brevis historia
feminarum ordinis Sanctse ClarsB" which contains bio-
graphical sketches of more than 150 illustrious women
of the Second Order of St. Francis. Among his other
writings may be mentioned "Historia Montis Alver-
niae", " Historia Provinciae Etruriae Ordinis Minonim",
"Itinerarium Urbis Rohmb", and "Historia Trans-
lationis Habitus Sancti Francisci a Monte Acuto ad
Florentiam" which has been translated into Italian
and published by Fr. Roberto Razzoli in his mono-
graph, "La Chiesa d'Ognissanti in Firenze, Studi
storicocritici " (Florence, 1898).
Wadding, Scriploree Ordinie Minorum (Rome, 1907), 167;
Bartholi, Tractatua de Indvlgentia S. Maria de Portiuncula, ed.
Sabatier (Paris, 1900), 136-164; Golubovich, Biblioteca Bio-
Bibliografica della Terra Santa (Quaracchi, 1906), 77-80; Rob-
inson, A Short Introduction to Franciscan Literature (New York,
1907), 17, 42.
Stephen M. Donovan.
MarianuB Scotus. — There were two Irish scholars
of this name who attained distinction in the eleventh
century. Both spent the greater part of their lives in
Germany.
(1) Marianus Scotub, the chronicler, whose Irish
name was Maelbrigte, or "Servant of Brigid", b., ac-
cording to his own * 'Chronicle", in Ireland in 1028; d. at
Mainz, 1082. From the same source we leam also that
in 1052 he became a monk, assuming the name Mari-
anus, and that in 1056 he went to Cologne, where he
entered the Irish monastery of St. Martin. Two years
later, he tells us, he went to Fulda, visited Paderbom,
and in 1059 was ordained priest at WOrzburg. In 1060
he became a hermit, or recluse, at Fulda, whence in
1070 he moved to Mainz in obedience to an order from
his former abbot, Siegfried, who was now arohbiahop
of that see. His remains were interred in the monaa-
tery of St. Martin at Mainz. The only work which can
with certainty be ascribed to Marianus is the * ' Univer-
sal Chronicle^' (the incipit has the title ** Mariana Scoti
cronica clara"), a history of the world, year by year,
from the beginning of the Christian era down to 1082.
It has been published in various editions, the best of
which are the Waitz edition in the '^Moniimenta Ger-
manias" (V, 481 sqq.) and Migne's (P. L., CLXVII,
623 sqq.). It exists in at least two eleventh-century
manuscripts, one of which (Vatican, 830) has stronc
claims to be considered an autograph. The materiu
which Marianus gathered tc^ether with a great deal of
intelligent industry was used very freely by subsequent
chroniclers, such as Florence of Worcester and Sieg-
bert of Gembloux. The chronological system, how-
ever, which Marianus defended as preferable, and
which was based on his contention that the date of
Christ's birth given by Dionysius Ebciguus was twenty-
two years too late, did not meet with general accept-
ance. He himself gives both systems. Besides the
"Chronicle" several other works were ascribed to Mari-
anus owing to a confusion of his name with that of his
countryman, Marianus, Abbot of St. Peter's at Ratis-
bon.
P. L., CXLVII, 602 sqq.; Mon. Oerm. Hist.: ScripL, V, 481
sqq.; Hauasen, Diss, eritica de antiquisa. cod. chroniei Mar.
Scoti (Frankfort, 1782); Wattenbach, Deutachlands Oe-
achichtequeUen, II (Berlin, 1874), 83 sqq.
(2) Marianus Scotus, Abbot of St. Peter's at
Ratisbon, b. in Ireland before the middle of the elev-
enth century; d. at Ratisbon towards the end of the
eleventh century, probably in 1088. In 1067 he left
his native country, intending to make a pilgrimage to
Rome. Like many of his countrymen, however, who
visited the Continent, he decided to settle in Germany,
and did not return to Ireland. At Bamberg he became
a Benedictine monk, and thence he went with some
companions to Ratisbon (or Regensburg), where he
founded the monastery of St. Peter and became its
first abbot. After his death he was honoured as a
saint, his feast being observed on 17 April, 4 July, or,
according to the Bollandists, on 9 Feoruary. Mari-
anus devoted himself to transcribing and glossing the
text of the Scriptures. His success as a scribe, and
the exceptional beauty of his calligraphy may be
judged by a specimen of his work which has come
down to us. This is Codex 1247 of the Imperial
Library of Vienna containing the Epistles of St. Paul
with glosses, some of which are in Latin and others in
Irish. The latter were collected and pubHshed by
Zeuss in his **Grammatica Celtica" (p. xxiv). The
manuscript ends with the words *' In honore individus
trinitatis Marianus Scotus scripsit hunc Ubrum suis
fratribus peregrinis ..." (the date given is 16 May,
1078). Over the words "Marianus Scotus" is the
gloss: "Muirdach trog mace robartaig, i. e. Marianus
miser filius Robartaci." The Irish form of his name
was, therefore, Muirdach (from the root muir; hence,
instead of the Latin form Marianus, there sometimes
occurs Pelagius), and his family name was Robartaig,
or Rafferty.
Acta SS., Feb., II, 361 sqq.; Revue celtioue, I (1870). 262
oqq.; Proceed., Royal Irish Acad., VII, 290 sqq.; Verfumdl,
hxat. Ver. Oberpfalz-Reoenaburg (1879), XXVI.
WiLUAM Turner.
Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia,
Archduchess of Austria, Roman-German Empress,
bom 1717; died 1780.
I. From 1717 to 1745. — Maria Theresa was bom on
13 May, 1717, the daughter of the German Emperor
Charles VI (1711-1740) and his wife Elizabeth von
Braunschweig-WolfenbOttel. Her elder brother Leo-
{)old had died a short time before and the emperor was
eft without male issue. As early as 1713 he had pro-
mulgated a family law, the Pmgmatic Sanction, by
MA&IA 66
virtue of which the possession.^ of the Hapsburgi were
to remain undivided and, in default (d a male lieir, fall
to his eldest daughter. He was constantly negotiating
with foreign powers to secure their lecognition of this
Pragmatic Sanction. Maria Theresa was endowed
with brilliant gifts, with beauty, amiability and intelli-
gence, and was universally admired as a girl. On 14
February, 1736, she married Duke Francis Stephen of
Lorraine, who by the Peace ot Vienna, in 1738, re-
ceived Tuscany instead of Lorraine. Charles VI died
unexpectedly on 20 October, 1740, at the age of 56,
and Maria Theresa came into possession of the terri-
tories of Austria without having any political training.
Her husband was an amiable man, but of mediocre
mental endowments and consequently of little assist-
ance to her. Charles, moreover, left the internal
affairs of his monarchy, particularly the finances and
the anny, in a lamentalDle condition. His family re-
sided the future with miagivine and perplexity.
Maria Theresa waa the first to recover her self-poa-
session and to appreciate the problems before her.
On the very day oflier father's death, she received the
homage o( Privy Councillors and nobility as Queen of
Hungary, Queen of Bohemia, and Archduchess of
Austria, and at her first cabinet meeting expressed her
determination to uphold to the full every right she had
inherited. AH admired her firmness, dignity and
strength of spirit. Certainly they were few who be-
lieved she would succeed.
At Vienna men were familiarizing themselves with
the idea "of becoming Bavarian". The Elector
Charles Albert of Bavaria, who had never recognized
the Pragmatic Sanction, laid claim to Austria as the
descendant of a daughter of Emperor Ferdinand I
(1556-1564), and referred to a testament of 1547, in
which mention was made however not of the failure of
"male" but of "legitimate" issue. He secured the
support of France, which induced Spain and Saxony
also to lay elaima to the succession. A greater peril
appeared in a quarter where it was least expected;
King Frederick 11 oF Prussia laid claim to Silesia. He
promised to lielp Maria Theresa, provided she ceded
to hira liagerndorf, Brieg, Wohlau and Liogniti, to
which he pretended to have hereditary claims. Other-
wise he would ally himself with France, Bavaria and
Saxony and make war on her. He wanted, like a good
merchant, to take advantage of the opportunity, and
proposed a deal by which Maria Theresa and him-
self could settle the account between them. For in
case of her acceptance of bis proposal, Maria Theresa
would have been spared the war arising out of the
Austrian succession. Maria Theresa was, however, as
convinced of her rights as she v&e determined to en-
force them by action. That Prus.iia had a right to
expect concessions from Austria, since, in 1686, in-
demnilication had been promised her for the Duchies
of Silesia, Maria Theresa did not take into account,
Tlie kinK hastily invaded Silesia and dispatched a dis-
agreeable, conceited courtier as his representative.
Thus the first Silesiim war came about (1740-1742).
Frederick II gained a great victory at Mollwilz (10
'April, 1741). On 4 June he allied himself with France
wnich now gave its support to the Elector of Ba-
varia, who a.jpired to the imperial dignity and won
most of the electors to his side, Maria Theresa vainly
strove to secure the crown for her spouse Franca
Stephen. In her hereditary lands she found her prin-
cipal support against the threats of her foes. The
energetic bearing of the princess roused general enthu-
siasm. When in Prcssburg she appealed to the chiv-
alry of the Hungarians, the nobles cried out that they
were ready to give their blood and life for their queen
(September, 1741). However, as the Bavarians,
French and Saxons were advancing against her, she
was compelled to arrange a truce with Prussia in order
to avoid danger from that side.
Charles Albert of Bavaria with the French hod oc-
cupied Passau on 31 July and Lini on 15 September,
and had been acknowledged by the Upper Austrian
Diet. On 26 November he surprised Prague with
Saxon assistance, and had himself crownad King of
Bohemia on 7 December. On 24 January, 1742 he
was abo elected Roman emperor as Charles VlL His
success however was short-lived. The queen's forces
had already made an entry into his own country.
Still, what was most needful was to rid herself of her
mast dangerous antagonist. Frederick II had broken
the truce, had entered Moravia "to pluck the Mora-
vian hens", and won a victory at Chotusitz (17 May,
1742). Maria Theresa concluded the peace of Breslau
(OJune, 1742) and ceded to him Silesia except Teschen,
Troppau and Jftgcmciorf . She now turned against the
Bavarians and the French. Bohemia was retaken and
Maria Theresa crowned queen {May, 174.'t). Her ally,
King George II of England, inarched forward with the
"pragmatic army" and defeated the French at Det-
tingen (27 June, 1743). The emperor became a fugi-
tive in Frankfort. His rival's advantageous position
inspired Frederick II with the fear that he might again
lose his recent conquests in Silesia. He therefore
again allied himself with France and the emperor and
broke the peace by invading Bohemia. But as the
French failed to send the promised army and Charles
VII died on 20 January, 1745, the King of Prussia was
compelled to rely upon his own forces and to retreat to
Siiesui, The Bavarians made peace with Austria and
in Dresden (May, 1745) Bavana, Saxony and Austria
agreed to reduce Prussia to its former condition as the
Electorate of Brandenburg. The Prussian victories
at Hohenfriedberg, Soor-Trautenau and Kesselsdorf
(June, September and December, 1745) overthrew the
allies, and the second Silesian war had thus to be set-
tled by the Peace of Dresden, where Prussia was coo-
firmed in its po39es.iion of Silesia. Meanwhile Maria
Theresa's husband, Francis Stephen, was chosen em-
peror on 4 October, 1745. Prussia acknowledged him.
He took the name of FrnncU I (1745-1765), Thus tha
high-spirited woman had obtained what it was possible
for her to obtain; the imperial dignity remained ia
her family, and the pragmatic sanction was practically
BIABIA 664 BIABIA
confirmed. War continued to be waged in the Neth- also for political, reasons. The Jews were not regarded
erlands and Italy, but this conflict was no longer by her with favour. After 1751 Protestants were not
formidable. The conclusion of peace at Aix la Cha- permitted to sell their property and emigrate, but all,
pelle, in 1748, put an end to the war of the Austrian who declined solemnly to become Catholics, were re-
succession. The relations of the European Powers quired to emigrate to Transylvania where the Evan-
were not vitally altered. What was important was gelical worship was {>ermitted. "Transmigration"
that Prussia, though not recognized as a great power, took the place of '^ emigration". Later she came to
had to be tolerated as such. the conclusion that compulsion ought to be avoided,
II. The Peace Interval (174S-1756). — Directly but that those who had gone astray should be led to
after the Peace of Dresden the empress applied her- conversion by argument and careful instruction. At
self to the reform of the administration. In a memo- court she was strict in regard to attendance at church,
randum dated 1751 she herself says: "Since the Peace frequent communion, and fasting. She broke up the
of Dresden it has been my sole aim to acquaint myself Freemason lodges by force in 1743.
with the condition and strength of my states, and then III. The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) . — Maria
honestlv to become acquainted with the abuses exist- Theresa would have carried out many more useful
ing in them and in the Dicasteriis (courts of justice) measures had she not again turned to foreign politics.
where everything was found to be in the utmost con- But she was irresistibly impelled to punish Prussia
fusion." The initiative came from the aueen herself, and to reconauer Silesia. Her court and state chan-
Her assistant was Count Frederick William von cellor, Coimt Kaunitz (since 1753) recognized at times
Haugwitz. Finances and the army were in sorest that it was better to come to an agreement with
need of reorganization. The greatest necessity was Prussia, but he had not the courage to oppose the em-
the raising of the money needed for a standing army press's designs. The opportunity of taking revenge
of 108,000 men in the hereditary states and in Hun- on Prussia came when England and France made war
gary. For this purpose 14 millions of gulden were on each other in North America and looked about for
required. The diets were to raise them by regular European allies. In 1755 England received the assur-
grants for a number of years, and in return would be ance of aid from Russia. To make Russia's assistance
free from all taxes in kind. The rights of the several useless and in fact to paralyze her, Frederick the
diets were thus restricted for the benefit of the coun- Great made the Westminster Treaty of Neutrality in
try. Against this opposition arose. Maria Theresa, January, 1756 with England, by which the two Pow-
however, came f orwara energetically in support of the ers bound themselves to prevent their respective al-
authority of the government and by her personal in- lies, namely France and Russia, from attacking the
fluence carried out the project. For the present the territory of the Confederates. This allowed the old
pNBople of the several coimtnes made grants for a pe- rivals, Austria and France, to combine. Maria Ther-
rioa of ten years, and when these had passed the new esa was annoyed that England had joined Prussia, and
conditions had become habitual and become settled. France was disgusted with Prussia's independent
To the credit of the empress it ought not to be for- policy, for she had reckoned upon Frederick's help,
gotten that in the levying of this contribution for the Thus France and Austria made the defensive treaty
army she did not permit any oppression of the work- of Versailles on 1 May, 1756. As tathe origin of the
ing class. A much more important measure from Seven Years' War, whether it was an offensive or de-
the point of view of the well-being of the state was fensive war on the part of Frederick the Great, this
the separation of administration and justice. The has been the subject of much dispute. It must be
Austrian and Bohemian court chancelleries, hitherto granted that Austria called upon France to participate
separate, were combined into a single supreme admin- actively in a war against Prussia, and in return had
istrative office. On the other hand, for the adminis- offered concessions in the Low Countries. She had
tration of the Law, the supreme court was established, also come to a similar agreement with Russia. The
In 1753 the empress appointed a commission to com- new war was an unfortunate undertaking. The pros-
pile a new civil code. It was only in 1811, however, pects of regaining Silesia were not great, and the nope
that it was published. During her reign (1768) the of weakening Prussia was an absolute chimera. Be-
"Constitutio criminalis Theresiana" was also pro- sides, France had no great interest in weakening
mulgated for criminal law. Up to that time a heter- Prussia, and her active participation was doubtful
ogeneous procedure prevailed in the different countries, from the beginning. In Russia the death of the em-
Centralization was also aided by the creation of new press and a consequent change of policy was imminent,
district officials who were to carry out the measures of Frederick the Great foresaw the intentions of Maria
the government in the several countries. As they had Theresa in good time, and anticipated her before the
often to protect the subjects against the oppression of preparations of his enemy were completed. As the
the lords, the people became much more devoted to empress made an evasive reply or no reply at all to his
the government. enquiries as to her aims he entered Saxony on 28
For the promotion of trade and industry a bureau August, 1756,. and Bohemia in September and de-
of commerbe was established in 1746, but its develop- feated the Austrians on 1 October, at Lobositz. The
ment wsis hindered by the internal duties. The over- attack, which was clearly a breach of the peace,
sea trade greatly increased. The army was improved, brought about the immediate conclusion of the aUi-
the Prussian army being taken as a model; in 1752 a ances. Frederick made an alliance with England in '
military academy, and in 1754 an academy of engi- January, 1757. France and Austria came to an agree-
neering science were established. The empress also ment (on 1 May, 1757) in regard to the partition of
gave her attention to education and especially to the Prussia, after Austria had come to an understanding
middle and higher schools. The gymnasia received a with Russia in January. Frederick had to defend him-
new curriculum in 1752. The medical faculty of the self on every side. He was on the offensive only in
University of Vienna, after being long neglected, was 1757 and 1758. Later he had to confine himself to
raised to greater efficiency. The legal faculty also be- acting on the defensive. The Seven Years' War was a
came a strong body. Moreover, the empress founded long struggle in which fortune alternately favoured
the academy of the nobles (Theresianum) and the either side. In contrast with Frederick the Great's
academy for Oriental languages as well as the archives victories at Prague (6 May, 1757), at Rossbach (5 No-
for the imperial family, court and state, which since vember, 1757), at Leuthen (15 December, 1757), at
1749, had oeen a model of its kind. In her dealings Torgau (3 November, 1760) stand his serious defeats
with Catholicism the empress adopted the principle at Kolin (18 June, 1757), at Hochkirch (14 October,
" cuj us regio,ej us religio", and defended unity of faith 1758), and at Kunersdorf (12 August, 1759). In
in the State not only for Christian and religious, but the West the allies effected very little against th«
BffABIE 665 MABIE
Enc^lu In the East on the other hand, Frederick oppression of the. landlords. When she sought to
seemed on the point of succumbing (1761). The Eng- abolish the serfdoin in Bohemia she encoimtered un-
lish did not renew the agreement to subsidize Fred- expected opposition from the emperor, whom the land-
erick. His opponents, it is true, were equally ex- owners had caused to hesitate,
hausted financially, as well as weary and disappomted. She was tireless in her care for the welfare and edu-
The decisive turn of events was brought about by cation of her children. When they were at a distance
the death of the Russian Empress Elizabeth (1762). she carried on a busy correspondence with them and
Her successor^ Peter III, an admirer of Frederick's, gave them wise instruction and advice. Marie Antoi-
made peace with him and even sought his alliance and nette, the Dauphiness, and afterwards Queen, of
sent him 20,000 men. When Peter lost his throne France, with her light and thoughtless temperament,
and life, the Empress Catharine, it is true, withdrew her frivolous disregard of dignity, her love of pleasure
from the Prussian alliance, but the last successes of and her extravagance, caused her much anxiety.
Frederick were lar^ly due to the Russians (Burkers- Nearest to her heart was her daughter Maria Christina
dorf, 21 July; Freiberg, 29 October). As France and who was happily married to Prince Albert of Saxony-
England concluded peace in Paris on 10 February, Teschen. Death was made hard for the courageous
1763, the empress was compelled to do the same. The woman. On 15 October, 1780, she made her wifl and
Peace of Hubertsburg (15 February, 1763) restored to in it directed, which was characteristic of her, be-
each belligerent the possessions he had held before sides generous bequests to the poor, the granting of a
the war. But apart from the loss in men and treasure, month's pay to the soldiers. On 8 November she waa
the war injured the policy of the empress and Count present at a hunt and appears to have caiight a cold in
Kaunitz by strengthening the position of Prussia as the pouring rain. Night and day she su&red from a
a great power. Frederick the ureat had maintained rackmg cough and choking fits, nevertheless she was
Prussia's power in a severe ord^. but little in bed, but busied herself by putting her
IV. The Evening of Life (1763-1780). — ^The papers in order, and consoling her children. On the
empress had still seventeen years to rule. However. 25th she received Communion; on the 28th extreme
this period no longer exclusivelv bore the impress oi unction was eiven to her, and with her own hand she
her personality. Sne did not indeed give up the reins, put certain bequests on paper, among them, again
but she could not make headway against the passion- characteristic of her disposition, 100,000 florins for the
ate impulses of her son Joseph II, or entirelv carry out funds of the normal schools. During the night of 29
her own views. Thus the Theresian period gradually November, 1780, she died, at the age of sixty-three
became the ** Josephine*' period. On 27 March, 1763, years.
Joseph was chosen as Roman king. Francis I to whom She was the last and beyond doubt the greatest of
Theresa was really devoted, and to whom she had the Hapsbuigs. She is not only, as Sonnenfels de-
borne sixteen children (eleven daughters and five scribed her as early as 1780, the restorer, but rather the
sons), died suddenly, fifty-seven years old (1765), foimdress of the Austrian monarchy, which with a
Joseph II became emperor (1765-1790), and in Aus- skilful hand she built up out of loose parts into a well
tria co-regent with his mother. To her ambitious son, rivetted whole, while in all essential respects she left
brimful of projects, the liberal-minded autocrat who the administration radically improved. In her per-
with the noblest intentions was able to effect nothing, sonal character she was a thorough German, always
she could not transmit her political talent. In many proud of her German descent and nationality, intelii-
respects their views differea, particularly on religious gent, affable, cheerful, pleasant, fond of music, and at
affairs. Joseph had entirely different ideas on the the same time thoroughly moral and deeply religious,
treatment of non-Catholics. Indeed even under Maria In her character were united, as v. Zwiedmeck-SUden-
Theresa the politico-ecclesiastical policy known as horst says, all that was amiable and honourable, all
''Josephinism^haditsrise, though the empress was a that was worthy and winning, all the strength and
pious woman and attended strictly to her religious eentleness of wmch the Austrian character is capable,
duties. Papal Bulls were only to be made public with Klop^tock was right when he appraised her as *Hhe
the consent of the government, and intercourse with greatest of her line because she was the most himian",
Rome was to be conducted through the Foreim OflSce. and even Frederick the Great recognized her merits
Festivals were reduced in number. The jurisdiction of when he said : *' She has done honour to the throne and
the Church over the laity ceased, as well as the im- to her sex; I have warred with her but I have never
munity from taxes enjoyed by the clergy. The num- been her enemy."
ber of monasteries was restricted. The Jesuits lost vok Arnbtb. GeachidUe MaHaTheresias, I-X (Vienna, 1803-
their standing as confessora at the court as well as Uie ^ i^.^J^jJ^jpfr^i^fl'^X^T^yXli
direction of the theological and philosophical faculties Arnkth in the AUg. detdaehe Biographie, XX (Leipaig. 1884).
at the University of Vienna, and were confined to the p. 340-365: Khuen in Wetzer and Weltb, Kirchenlex,,
InwprflphnnU ^d ed., VIII (Freiburg, 1891), 777-786; v. Zwiedinbck-
lower scnoois. .... . , .... , . , S^dewhorst, Maria Theresia (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1905);
The empress mamtamed a neutral attitude towards The Cambridoe Modem HUlory, vol. VI (Cambridge, 1909).
the dissolution of the Jesuit Order. Her fortune was Klemens L6ffler,
devoted to the care of souls and to education. In for-
eign politics a conflict of views between mother and Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, b. at Vienna,
son arose on the occasion of the first Partition of 2 November, 1755; executed in Paris, 16 October,
Poland. The empress not only doubted that the ac- 1793. She was the youngest daughter of Francis I,
quisition of Polish territory would be an advantage, German Emperor, and of Maria Theresa. The mar-
but she also recoiled from doing wrong to others. At riage of Louis XVI and Mane Antoinette was one of
last she yielded to the pressure of her son and Count the last acts of Choiseul's policy (see Choiseul) ; but
Kaunitz, but later she often regretted having given the Dauphiness from the first shared the impopularity
her assent. Nor did she approve of the War of the attaching to the Franco-Austrian alliance. Ambas-
Bavarian Succession, clearlv foreseei^ that Prussia sador Mercy and Ahh6 de Vermond, the former tutor
would interfere. She could not sufficiently thank of the archduchess in Austria and now her reader
Providence for the fortunate issue of the affair. In iJie in France, endeavoured to make her follow the pru-
last ten years of her life she developed an unremitting dent counsels as to her conduct sent by her mother,
activity on behalf of the improvement of the primary Maria Theresa, and to enable her thus to overcome all
schools. The excellent Abbot Felbiger, the father of the intrigues of the Court. Marie Antoinette's dis-
the Catholic primary schools of Germany, was sum- dain of Madame du Barr^-, the mistress of Louis XV,
moned from Silesia. She also tried to improve the was perhaps, from a political standpoint, a mistake,
condition of the peasantry, and to put an end to the but it is an honourable evidence of tne high character
and »elf-rwpect of the Dauphiness, Having became
qneua on 10 May, 1774, ene adopted an imprudent
course ot action, Doth in ber political and private life.
In politics she was always so uncompromislnely at-
tached to the Franco-Austrian alliance that she was
nicknamed "L'Autricbienne" by Mmc Adelaide and
the Due d'Aiguillon'a party. Her unpopularity
reached a climax when, in 1778, Austria laid claim to
the throne of Bavaria and she tried to bring about
French mediation between Austria and Prussia. In
truth, it was to the interest of France not to permit the
indefinite growth of the Prussian power; but the
routine diplomats, believing that Au.'dria wiis to be
forever the enemy of France, and the philosophers,
who were favourably disposed towards 1'rus.sia, as a
Protestant nation, abhorred any display of Bvmpathy
for Austria.
In her private life, Marie Antoinette may justly be
blamed for her prodigality, for having, between 1774
and 1777, byoertain notorious
escapades (sleieh racing,
opera balls, hunting in the
Bois de Boulogne, gambling)
and by her amusements at
the Trianon (see Vbrsah-i-es),
pven occasion for calumnious
reports. But she confeeaed
to MtTcy thut she indulged
in this dissipation to con-
sole herself for having nochil-
dren;and the tales ot Bescn-
val, Lauzun, and Soulavie,
about the amours of Mane
Antoinette, cannot stand
against the testimony of the
Prince de Lignc: ''Her pre-
tended gallantry was never
any more than a very deep
friendship for one or two in-
dividuals, and the ordinary
coquetry of a woman, or a
queen, trying to please every-
one." De Golti, the Prus-
sian minister, also wrote that
tboiigh a malicious person
might interpret the queen's
conduct unfavourably, there
was nothing in it beycmd a
desire to please everybody.
Besides, the queen continued
to give edification by her
TWiTar practice ot her religious duties. "If I were
only a mother, I should be considered a French-
woman", wrote Marie Antoinette to Mercy in 1775.
She became the mother of Madame Royale in 1778,
in 1781 of a Dauphin who was to die eight years
later, and of little Louis XVII in 17S5. But the
ill-teelinK towards "L'Autricbienne" was stirred up
by the lamentable "Affair of the Diamond Neck-
lace" (1784-86). Cardinal de Rohan, grand aatn/>-
nier of France, deceived by an adventuress, who
called herselt Comtesse de la Motte-Vatois, purchased
for 1,600,000 livres a necklace which he believeil the
queen wished to have; the lawsuit begun by the un-
paid jewellers resulted in the acquittalot Cardinal de
Rohan, while the publicity of the allegations of Mrae
de la Motte, who pretended that the queen was aware
of the transaction, and the romantic story ot a noc-
turnal rendezvous at the Tuileries, were exploited
by Marie Antoinette's enemies. The Comte d Artois
compromised her by hia intimacy, scurrilous pam-
phletg were circulated, and, particularly in certain
court circles, that abominable campaign of mendacity
was inaugurated to which the queen icll a victim at a
later pcnod.
In 1789, at the opening of the States-General, the
crowd, acclaiming the queen's enemy, shouted in her
6 Auaix
bearing: "Long live the Due d'OrWanel" The «varti
of October, 1789, which forced the Court to return
from Veraaillea to Paris, were directed eepeciaUT
rinsther. In June, 1791, the projected flight wh^
had planned with the assistance of Feraen and
Bouill^, failed, the royal couple being arrested at
Varennes. Marie Antoinette secretly negotiated wiUi
foreign powers tor the king's safety; but wben, on 27
August, 1791, Leopold ot Austria and Frederick Wii-
liam of Prussia bound themselves, by the Declaratim
of Pilhiitz, never to allow the new French Constitu-
tion to be established, she wrote to Mercy that "each
one is at liberty to adopt in his own country the do-
mestic laws that please him", and she r^retted the
extravagances of the dnigrit. She wished the powen
to hold a kind of "armed t^mgress" which, without
making war on France, should give moral support to
the French king, and inspire the better class of bis aub^
jecta with courage to rally round him. But the Revo-
lution was hastening: on 13
August, 171*2, Marie AnttH-
nette was shut up in the Tem-
ple; on 1 August, 1793, she
was sent to the Coneiergerie;
her trial took place on 14
October. Accused by Fou-
quier-Tinville of having tried
to foment both war with
foreign nations and civil war,
the Widow Capet" was de-
fended by Chauvcau-Lagarde
and Tronson Ducoudray, who
were forthwith caat into
prison, ISbe may have re-
ceived alMolution from the
Cur£ of St«-Marguerite, who
was in a cell opposite to
hers ; at all eventa, she refused
to make her confession to.
the Abb^ Girard, a " constitu-
tional " priest, who offered lier
hisservices. ^he mounted the
scaffold undauntedly. Her
historian, M.de la Kocheterie,
says ot ber: "She waa not a
giiilty woman, neither was she
a saint; she was an upright,
charming woman, a htlle
frivolous, somewhat intpul-
sive, but always ^ure; she
was a queen, at times ardent
in her fancies for ber favourites and thou^tkes in
her policy, but proud and full ot energy- a thor-
ough woman in her winsome ways and t«ndenieHS of
heart, until she became a martyr- "
De Biadcooht and he la Rocbeterie, cd*., Ltitm d*
Marie-Antointtle {2 \o\a..Pana, IBB5. 1890) (the onb' editioD to
consult, since GeOioy has coDvicled Fcuilict de CoDchea' rat-
AHD GErFnoT, eda. , Corrnpondance tKrUt mtn UariirThtrit ^
Uercu Aroenteau IPaha. 18741; Ahnetij %r Flahheiuiokt,
eds., Coirfspondanrc de Joeeph II ovrc le prince de XaufeiCt
(Paris, 1889-91); Afnetii, ed., M<ini-A nloindlr, Jmrph II. und
Lfopold II.. Oir Bnefwtchid tLiiiiiiig. 18fiai: latjt, ed.. Mario-
Tkeretia und Marie-Anloinitlf, lAr BHiftcKtucl (leipjig, 1866);
De NoLHic, La rknt Maric-AntaintOe (Pnria. 1898)-,' Ipuil
Morit AnlBxntUf.Oir Dauphinr, tr, {ram tliePreDch{Ioba, Puia.
1S97); Idem. Vcriailla ou tempi dc Maru-AnlaineUe (Puris.
1892); De S£acrH, Au atvchant de la mananhit (Paris, lOiO);
BiCKUELL, The Slow of Marie AnIointlU {London, 1807): Blk*-
'. Marie-Anloinrtte Kmii/in von Ftanknack (Bi«l»-
excoltent gtudy of the bia-
te a ToDBNEiTi. Marit-
biblwffmphujxu t2Dd ed„
Geobqes Gotau.
Marie Ohristine of Savoy, Blessed, h. at Gag-
liari, Sardinia, 14 November, 1812; d. at Naples, 31
January, 1S36. She was the daughter of Vietcf
VlR^eLebnin
loriciil sources on Marie-Ai
667
^AI^TK
Emanuel I, King of Sardinia, and oi Maria Teresa of
Austria, nieoe of the Emperor Joseph II. She lost her
father in 1824 and her mother at tne beginning of the
year 1832. Charles Albert, who succeeded to the
throne of Sardinia, insisted upon her appearing at the
court of Turin, and she married Ferdinand II, King
of the Two Sicilies (21 November. 1832). She died
at the age of twenty-three, after naving given birth
fifteen days before to a son, Francesco-Maria-Leopold.
Duke of Calabria. The renown of her virtues had
been so great during her brief life, and after her death
the graces obtained by her intercession were so nu-
merous, that the Italian episcopate and many CathoUc
sovereigns obtained from Pius IX the signature, on 9
February, 1859, of the decree by which tne process of
her canonization was introduced: before the Congre^
tion of Rites. This resulted in her name being m-
scribed, in 1872, in the list of the Blessed.
Vie de la vhUrable aervante de Dieu Marit-Chrit/tine de Savoie,
reine dea Deux-Siciles (Paris, 1872) : Gu£rim, Lea PetUa BoUan-
diatea, XV (BaMe-Duo. 1874), 37-51.
Leon Clugnet.
Marie de France, a French poetess of the twelfth
century. She has this trait in common with the
other trouv^res, that she had no biographer; at least
no biography of her has come down to us, and it is
mostly by inference that scholars have been able to
gather the meagre information that we possess about
ner. In one of her verses, she tells us her name and
that of her native country: Marie at nun, si sui de
France (Roquefort,. "Poesies de Marie de France",
II, p. 401). Her lays are dedicated to a King Henry,
and her "Ysopet" to a Count WillianL Who were this
King Henry, and this Count William? This question,
whicn puzzled scholars for a long time, has been set-
tled only recently by a careful philological study of
her works. She was a native of Normandy and lived
in the second half of the twelfth century, because she
uses the pure Norman dialect of that time, and the two
personages alluded to in her works were Henry II
of England and his son William, Coimt of Salisbury.
Marie was then a contemporary and, very likely, a
habitual guest of the brilliant court of troubadours
and Gascon knights who gathered in the castles of
Anjou and Guyenne around Henry II and Queen
Eleanor; a contemporary, too, of Clu-^tien de Troyes,
who, about that time, was writing the adventures of
Yvain, Erec and I>ancelot for the court of Champagne.
Marie's contributions to French literature consist of
lays, the *'Ysopet", and a romance published by
Roquefort under the title, "Legend of tne Purgatory
of Saint Patrick".
The lays, which number fifteen, belong to the Bre-
ton Cycle, or more accurately, to what might be
termed the "love group" of that cycle. Thev are
little poems in octosyllabic verses, in which are told the
brave deeds of Breton knights for the s^e of their
lady-love. These little tales of love and knightly
adventure show on the part of the writer a sensibility
which is very rare among trouvdres. The style is sim-
ple and graceful, the narrative clear and concise.
The *' Ysopet" is a collection of 103 fables translated
into French from the English translation of Henry
Beauclerc. In the '* Pureatory of Saint Patrick" the
author tells us of the adventures of an Irish knight
who, in atonement for his sins, descends into a cavern
where he witnesses the torments of the sinners and the
happiness of the just.
Bedier, Lea hxia de Marie de France in Revue dea Deux
Mondea (Paris, 15 Oct., 1891); Hiatoire liUiraire de la France,
XXX (Paris, 1888); Pams in Romania (Paris, 1872, 1907);
Roquefort, Poiaiea de Marie de France (Paris, 1820) ; 'Vv arnkb,
Marie de France und die Ananjfmen lata (Cobuig, 1892).
P. J. Mariqxje.
Marie de Tlncamation, Blessed, known also as
Madame Acarie, foundress of the French Caimel, b. in
Paris, 1 February, 15(W; d. at Pontoise, April, 1618.
By her family Barbara Avrillot belonged to the higher
bourgeois society in Paris. Her father, Nicholas Av*
rillot was accountant general in the Chamber of Paris,
and chmicellor of Marguerite of Navarre, first wife of
Henri IV; while her mother, Marie Lhuillier was a
descendant of Etienne Marcel, the famous privdi dt9
marchatids (chief municipcd maostrate). She was
placed with the Poor Clares of Longchamp for her
education, and acquircKl there a vocation for the
cloister, which subsequent life in the world did not
alter. In 1684, through obedience she married Pierre
Acarie, a wealthy young man of hieh standing, who
was a fervent Christian, U> whom shelx)re six children.
She was an exemplary wife and mother.
Pierre Acarie was one of the staunchest members of
the League, which, after the death of Henry III, op-
posed the succession of the Huguenot prince, Henry
of Navarre, to the French throne. He was one of the
sixteen who organized the resistance in Paris. The
cruel famine which accompanied the siege of Paris
gave Madame Acarie an occasion of displaying her
charity. After the dissolution of the League, brought
about by the abjuration of Henry IV, Acarie was ex-
iled from Paris and his wife had to remain behind to
contend with creditors and business men for her chil-
dren's fortime, which had been compromised by her
husband's want of foresight and prudence. In ad-
dition she was afflicted with physical sufferings, the
consequences of a fall from her horse, and a very se-
vere course of treatment left her an invalid for the rest
of her life.
At the beginning of the seventeenth century Madame
Acarie was widelv known for her virtue, her super-
natural gifts, ana especially her charity towards tiie
poor and the sick in the hospitals. To her residence
came all the distinguished and devout people of the
day in Paris, among them Mme de Meignelay, n^ de
Gondi, a model of Christian widows, Mme Jourdain
and Mme de Br^aut^, future Carmelites, the Chancel-
lor de Merillac, Pdre Coton the Jesuit, St. Vincent of
Paul, and St. Francis of Sales, who for six monUis was
Ikime Acarie's director. The pious woman had been
living thus retired from the world, but sought by
chosen souls, when, toward the end of 1601, there ap-
peared a French translation of Ribera's life of St.
Teresa. The translator, Abb6 de Br^tigny, was known
to her. She had some portions of the work read to
her. A few days later St. Teresa appeared to her and
informed her that God wished to make use of her to
found Carmelite convents in France. The apparitions
continuing, Mme Acarie took counsel' and o^an the
work. Urille de Longueville wishing to defray the cost
of erecting the first monastery, in Rue St. Jacques,
Heniy IV granted letters patent, 18 July, 1602. A
meeting in which Pierre de B^rulle, future founder of
the Oratory, St. Francis of Sales, Abbd de Br^tigny,
and the Marillacs took part, decided on the foundation
of the "Reformed Carmel m France", 27 July, 1602.
Hie Bishop of Geneva wrote to the pope to obtain the
autiiorization, and Clement VIII granted the Bull of
institution, 23 November, 1603. The following year
some Spanish Carmelites were received into the Car-
mel of Rue St. Jacques, which became celebrated.
Mme de Longueville, Anne de Gonzague, Mile de la
Vallieres, withdrew to it; there also Bossuet and Fen-
ek>n were to preach. The Carmel spread rapidly and
profoundly influenced French society of the day. In
1618, the year of Mme Acarie's death, it numbered
fourteen houses.
Mme Acarie also shared in two foundations of the
day, that of the Oratory and that of the Ursulines.
She urged De B^rulle to refuse the tutorship of Louis
XIII, and on 11 November, 1611 she, with St. Vincent
de Paul, assisted at the Mass of the installation of the
Oratorv of France. Among the many postulants
whom Mme Acarie received for the Carmel, there were
some who had no vocation, and she conceived the idea
668
SffABIENBERO
of getting them to undertake the education of young
girls, and broached her plan to her holy cousin, Mme.
de Sainte-Beuve. To establish the new order they
brought Ursulines ta Paris and adopted their rule and
name. M. Acarie having died in 1613, his widow set-
tled her afiFairs and begged leave to enter the Carmel,
asking as a favour to be received as a lay sister in the
poorest community. In 1614 she withdrew to the
monastery of Amiens, taking the name of Marie de
. rincamation. Her three daughters had preceded her
into the cloister, and one of them was suo-prioress at
Amiens. In 1616, by order of her superiors, she went
to the Carmelite convent at Pontoise, where she died.
Her cause was introduced at Rome in 1627; she was
beatified, 24 April, 1791; her feast is celebrated in
Paris on 18 April.
Du Val, La vie admirable de la aervante de Dieu, eoeur Marie
de V Incarnation connue dans le monde aou8 le nam de Mdme
Acarie (Paria, 1621; latest edition, Paris, 1893); Hodssate.
M, de BSruUe et lea CarmSlitea de France (Paris, 1875); de
Broqlie, La bienheureuae Marie de V Incarnation, Madame
Acarie (Paris, 1903).
A. FOURNET.
Marie de rincamation, Venerable (in the world
Marie Guyard), first superior of the Ursulines
of Quebec, b. at Tours, France, 28 Oct., 1599; d. at
Queoec, Canada, 30 April, 1672. Her father was by
birth a bourgeois; her mother was connected with the
illustrious house of Barbon de la Bourdaisidre. From
infancy Marie gave evidences of great piety and de-
tachment from the world. At the age of seventeen , in
obedience to her parents, she was married to a silk-
manufacturer of the name of Martin, and devoted her-
self without reserve to the duties of a Christian wife.
The union was a source of trials: the only consolation
it brought her was the birth of a son, who afterwards
became a Benedictine as Dom Claude, wrote his
mother's biography, and died in the odour of sanctity.
Left a widow after two years of married life, she enter-
tained the idea of joining the Ursulines, but the care
which her child required of her delayed the realization
of this project, until he had reached the age of twelve,
when she followed her vocation unhesitatingly. The
Ursuline Order had recently been introduced into
France by Madame de Sainte-Beuve, and Madame
Martin took the veil in the house of that order at
Tours. The care of the novices was confided to her
two years after her entry into the convent. She al-
ways felt intense zeal for saving souls, and at the age
of about thirty-four she experienced new impulses of
"the apostolic spirit which transported her soul even
to the ends of the earth " ; and the longing for her own
sanctification, and the salvation of so many souls still
under the shadows of paganism inspired her with the
resolution to go and live in America. She communi-
cated this desire to her confessor, who, after much
hesitation, approved it. A pious woman, Mme de la
Peltrie, provided the means for its execution. This
lady, better known as Marie-Madeleine de Chauvigny,
by her generosity, and the sacrifice she made in leav-
ing her family and her country, deserved to be called
the co-worker of Marie de I'lncamation in Canada.
Sailing from Dieppe 3 April, 1639, with a few sisters
who had begged to be allowed to accompany her, Marie
de rincamation, after a perilous voyage of three
months, arrived at Quebec and was there joyfully
welcomed by the settlers (4 July). She and her com-
panions at first occupied a little house in the lower
town (Basse- Ville). In the spring of 1641 the founda-
tion-stone was laid of the Ursuline monastery, on the
same spot where it now stands. Marie de 1 Incarna-
tion was acknowledged as the superior. To be the
more useful to the aborigines, she had set herself
to learn their languages immediately on her ar-
rival. Her piety, ner zeal for the conversion and
instruction of the young aborigines, and the wis-
dom with which she ruled her community were
aiike remarkable. She suffered great tribulations
from vue Iroquois who were threatening the colony,
but in the midst of them she stood firm and was able
to comfort the downcast. On 29 December, 1650, a
terrible conflagration laid the Ursuline monastery in
ashes. She simered much from the rigours of winter,
and took shelter first with the Hospitali^res and then
with Mme de la Peltrie. On 29 May of the following
year she inaugurated the new monastery. The rest of
her hfe she passed teaching and catechizing the young
Indians, and died after forty years of labours, thirty-
three of them spent in Canada.
Marie de rincamation has left a few works which
breathe imction, piety, and resignation to Divine
Providence. "Des Lettres" (Paris, 1677-1681) ctm-
tains in its second part an account of the events which
took place in Canada during her time, and constitute
one of the sources for the history of the French colony
from 1639 to 1671. There are also a " Retraite ", with
a short exposition of the Canticle of Canticles, and a
familiar " Explication" of the mysteries of the Faith —
a catechism which she compiled for young religious
women.
Casqrain, Histoire de la Vfn. Mire Marie de V Incarnation,
(Quebec, 1888) ; Chapot, Hist, de la Vhi. Mire Marie de V Incar-
nation (Paris, 1892); Rxchaudeau, Lettrea de la rSv. Mhre M. de
VI (Paris. 1876).
A. FoURNET.
Marienberg, Benedictine abbey of the Congrega-
tion of St. Joseph near Mais, Tvrol (in Vintschgau).
The history of tne founding goes back to Charlemagne,
who established between 780 and 786 a Benedictine
monastery near Taufers (Tuberis) in Graubunden (in
Upper Vintschau), which later (after 880) was dis-
solved and then became a convent for both sexes.
Two hundred years later there was a reorganization:
Eberhard of Tarasp built for the male portion the
little monastery of Schuls in the Engaaine, conse-
crated by Cardinal Gregor in 1078 or 1079, while tlie
female inmates remained at Taufers (later called
Mtinster). Destroyed by lightning, Schuls was re-
built, and consecrated in 1131. Ulrich IV of Tarasp
shortly after called monks from Ottobeuem to Schuls
to instil new Hfe into the monastery. At the same
time the monastery, which till then had been merely a
priory, was made an abbey. In 1146 he removed the
community to St. Stephen in Vintschgau, and in 1150
to the hill near the village of Burgeis, where the abbey
has since continued under the name of Marienbei^g.
Ulrich himself later assumed the habit of the order
(about 1164) in Marienberg, and died on 14 December,
1177. Under Abbot Konrad III (1271-98) Marien-
berg was sacked by two nobles, and in 1304 Abbot
Hermann was killed by Ulrich of Matsch. In 1 348 the
plague carried away every inmate of the monastery
except Abbot Wyho, a priest, one lay brother, and
Goswin, later a chronicler. Goswin became a priest
in 1349, and compiled new choir-books, two estate
registers (Urbare)^ and the chronicle of the monastery.
The chronicle, most of which Goswin had finished in
1374, is divided into three books, the first of which
gives the story of the founding and donations, the
second the history of the abbots, and the third the
privileges conferred by popes and princes. It gives
an account, without regara for order or chronology,
of the founders, fortunes, benefactors, and oppressors
of the monastery. Documents take up the greater
part, and the narrative is poor. Under Abbot Nicho-
las (1362-88) Goswin became prior, while in 1374 he
was appointed court chaplain to Duke Leopold III of
Austria. In 1418 Marienberg was burned down. After
a period of decline in the sixteenth century. Abbot
Mat bias Lang (1615-40), from Weingarten monastery,
became the reformer of the abbey. In 1634 Marien-
berg joined the Benedictine Congregation of Swabia*.
Lang 8 successor, Jacob Grafinger (1640-53), enlarged
the lib^ar>^ and made the younger members finish
their education at schools of repute. In 1656 the
MAam 669 MABINI
abbey was again burned down. Abbot Johann Bap- posed the famous Roman Catechism, "Catechismus
tist Murr (1705-32) founded in 1724 the g^rmnasium at Romanus vulgo dictus ex decreto Concilii Tridentini
Meran, still administered by the monks of Marienber^. compositus et Pii V jussu editus *' (Rome, 1566). He
Abbot Pacidus Zobel (1782-1815) compiled a chrom- was also a member of the commission of theologians
ole of the abbots. In 1807 Marienberg was dissolved appointed by Pius V to prepare a new and improved
by the Bavarian government, but was again restored edition of the Breviary (1568) and of the Missal (1570).
by Emperor Francis II inr, 1816. In the nineteenth By order of Pius IV he revised also the Rules and Con-
century the followingwell-known scholars were monks stitutions of the Bamabite Order,
of Marienberg: (1) Beda Weber (1798-1858), from Qvimr-EcBAMD, Script. Ord, Prod., U, 228: Touron.
noted as historian, homilist, gifted poet, and energetic i, 696; II, 69, 98, 276.
Driest; member of the Academy in Munich and (g) Tommaso Marini, grand-nephew of the forego-
Vienna; (2) Albert Jfiger (1801-91^, professor of his- -^^^ ^ate of birth unknown; d. 1635 at Naples. He
tory at Innsbruck, jprmnasium director at Meimi, was of an exceptionaUy reUgious family, of which three
from 1851 professor m Vienna and memb«r of the ^^^ entered the Order of St. Dominic and four daugh-
Academy; (3) Pius Zmgerle (1801-81), professor m ters took the religious habit. Tommaso, the eldest
Meran, in 1862 prof^r at tiie Sapienza m Rome, ^^^^ ^is novitiate and studies in the Minerva convent
^^u'^P^ a • rJ^^^^^'^^'^^^J^^^f®^ at Rome. In 1608 he was made master of sacred theol-
authonty on Syrian hterature. The monastery ha? ^gy ^nd was assigned the chair of that science in his
now 52 inembers (40 pnests). Apart from the gym- convent. He was secretary at three general chapters
nasium at Meran it has the care of four parisnes. ^f ^x.^ ordpr In Ifil 1 Ha hAAAmA unritLn i€\ t ho ffpnpml
GoswiN. Chivnik des Stiftes M.. ed. Schwitzer in TirolUche ^JuK^k^TuV^ V\>J^!i ^ Decame «0CIU« tO tne genem
OeMhichuqueUen. II (Innabruck, 1880); Goswin. Urbare, ed. With the title of Provincial of the Holy Land. In 1615
BoHwrrzKR, ibid.. Ill (1891): Sxdlbr, Mntuier-Tuberia, eine and 1622 he Was defimtor at the chapters of Bologna
^^^TK^ i?^V£S? m JoArftucA far Schweueritche Qt^ch., ^nd MUan respectively, and in 1618 was appointed
XXXI (Zurich. 1906). 207-348. j^^^^^ LoFFLER. "^^"^^^ ^^^ ^^^ German and Bohemian, and in 1634 for
the Sicilian, provinces. In 1623 and 1624 he was vicar
--,., ^, V - -xjLiOf the Roman provinces, in which he succeeded in
Marini (pEMARiNis), name of an ancient and noble introducmg a severer diswplme.
family of the Repubhc of Genoa, distinguished ahke m Mon. OrdTPrad. Hitt., XI. lbs. 161. 186. 239. 304. 319. 321,
the Island of Chios, one of its dependencies, where it 350; XII. 352.
possessed many beautiful and valuable estates. Be- (3) Giovanni Baptista Marini. brother of the fore-
sides giving to the Church one pope, Urban VTI, it going, b. 28 Nov., 1 597, at Rome ,d. there, 6 May, 1669.
adorned the Dominican Order with several eminent He entered the Domimcan order at the age of sixteen,
theologians and distinguished religious. and, after his religious profession, studied philosophy
(1) Leonardo Marini. archbishop, b. 1509 on the and theology at the universities of Salamanca and Al-
island of Chios, in the iEgean Sea; d. 11 June, 1573, cald. On the completion of these he returned to Rome,
at Rome. He entered the order in his native place, taught theology at the Minerva convent, obtain^ the
and, after his religious profession, made his studies in degree of Master of Theology, and was appointed by
the Convent of Genoa with great distinction, obtaining Urban VIII in 1628 secretary of the Congregation of
finally the degree of Master of Sacred Theology. He the Index. In the long conscientious management of
was a man of deep spirituality, and was esteemed the this office he received not a little abuse from censured
most eloquent of contemporary orators and preachers, authors, being especially persecuted by the learned
Paul III, recognizing his piety and extraordinary ex- but bitter opponent of the Index, Theophilus Ray-
ecutive ability, decided to choose him as coadjutor naud, S.J., who, in the pseudonymous work "De im-
with the right of succession to the Bishopric of Peru- munitate Cyriacorum («c. the Dominicans) a censura
giaj but death frustrated his plans. On 5 March, 1550. diatribae Petri a Valleclausa ", published a pungent
Julius III created him titular Bishop of Laodicea and satire replete with personal invectives agamst the
administrator of the Diocese of Mantua. In 1553 he Dominicans, the alleged controlling element of the
was appointed papal nuncio to the court of Charles V Inquisition and the Index, but prinapally against the
of Spam, where, by his fearless defence of the rights secretary of the latter. The work was condemned on
and authority of the Holy See, he effected a complete 20 June, 1662. On 17 Nov., 1664, a similar fate befell
adjustment of the religious troubles of the country, two works published by Dominicans in reply to Ray-
On 26 Feb., 1562, Pius IV elevated him to the metro- naud and in defence of themselves, the Index, and its
politan See of Lanciano, and the same year, at the secretary. The first of these was that of Vincent
request of Cardinal Hercules Gonza^, appomted him Baron, "Apologia pro sacra Congregatione Indids
papal legate to the Council of Trent, m all the delibera- ejusque secretanoac Dominicanis " (Rome, 1662), the
tions of which he took a prominent part. On the ter- other that of John Casalas, " Candor lilii seu Ordo FF.
raination of the council, after visitmg his archdiocese, Prsedicatorum a calumniis et contumeliis Petri a Val-
he was sent to the court of Maximilian II to adjust cer- leclausa vindicatus " (Paris, 1664). During his office
tain ecclesiastical matters, and, on his return the pope as secretary he providM for the publication of " Index
determined to raise him to the cardinalate, but death Ubrorum prohibitorum cum decretis omnibus a S.
prevented him from carrying out his plans. Marini Congregatione emanatis post indicemClementis VIII".
now resigned his diocesan duties and retired to the jn 1650 he was elected general of the order, which
castle of his brother to combat bv pen and prayer the office he held till his death. At the request of Alex-
errors of the reformers. Pius V, however not slow in ander VII, he composed also a " Tractatus de Concep-
recogmzmg his bnlliant talents, appointed him to the tione B. M. Virginis ", which still remains unpublished.
See of Alba and made him Apostohc Visitor of twenty- Qotnr-EcHARD. Script. Ord. Prcsd.. 11. 661, 615; Afon. Ord,
five dioceses, a proof of the anxiety of the pontiff to Prod, Hist., XII. 126, 276, 375; Der Katholik, I (1864), 433.
carry into effect the Tridentine reforms. In 1572 he (4) Domexico Marini, theologian and brother of
was sent by Gregory XIII on a mission to Philip II of the two preceding, b. 21 Oct., 1599, at Rome; d. 20
Spain and Sebastian of Portu^l to secure from these June, 1669, at Avignon. On 2 Feb., 1615. he followed
monarchs a renewal of their alliance against the Turks, his two brothers into the Dominican oraer, where he
His mission was successful. He returned to Rome to soon became noted for his piety and learning. Having
be elevated to the cardinalate, but died two days after filched his acadeinic stuaies m Rome, he was sent for
his return. By order of the pope and the Council of his theological studies to the universities of Salamanca
Trent, Marini, with the assistance of two of his breth- and AlcaU. On his return to Rome, he was assigned
ren, Egidio Foscarari and Francesco Foreiro, com- the chair of theology in the Minerva convent, but, lean^
MAEIMI
670
idAEiKns
ingthat a severer discipline prevailed in the convent
at Toulouse, he went there, taught theology for some
ttme, and was then appointed to teach the same in the
convent of St. Honong at Paris. Recalled to Rome by
the general, Nicolao Ridolphi, he was made master of
theology and regens primarius of studies in his former
convent. Later he became prior, and in that capacity
demolished the old, and in its olace erected the present
Minerva convent. On 18 Oct., 1648, Innocent X
created him Archbishop of Avignon. His attention
here was first directed towards providing the univer-
sity— ^which, since the return of the popes to Rome,
had practically lost all significance^with a represen-
tative theological faculty. From his private funds he
founded chairs of philosophy and theology and sup-
plied them with professors of his own order, thus
restoring to the institution the teachings of St. Augus-
tine and Aquinas. He is the author of "Expositio
oommentaria in I, II et III partem S. Thomai " (Lyons,
1663-5).
QutTiF-EcBARP, Script. Ord. Prced., II, 627: Hcrter,
Nomend., II (2nd ed.), 15; Afon. Ord. Pnxd. Hist., XII. 75. 78,
341; Bbrthikr, VEgliBe de la Minerve a Rome (Rome, 1910).
Joseph Schroeder.
Marini, Luigi Gaetano, natural philosopher, ju-
rist, historian, archeologist, b. at Sant' Orcangelo
(pagus Acerbotanus), 18 Dec, 1742; d. at Paris, 7
Iday, 1815. Having received a comprehensive pre-
paratory education at the College of San Marino and
at the seminary at Rimini, he was able to pass through
the legal and philological studies at Bologna Univer-
sity brilliantly, and to graduate at Ravenna in utroque
jure (in both branches of law). He went to Rome in
Dec, 1764, where he gained the friendship of Cardinal
Alessandro Albani and Garampi. He entered into re-
lations with the most distinguished scholars of his day,
and maintained with them an extensive correspond-
ence. In 1772 he was appointed coadjutor to Marino
Zampini, prefect of the archives; and was also given
the position by the Roman Republic of prefect of the
archives at the Vatican and the Castle of bt. Angcio, as
well as that of president of the Vatican Museum and
the Vatican Library. On 18 Aug., 1800, Pius VII
made him primus custos of the Vatican Library and
also prefect of the archives. In Jan., 1805, he was
made a cameriere d*onore to the pope.
When the archives of the Curia were carried off to
Paris by Napoleon, he accompanied them, and reached
Paris, 1 1 April, 1810. After Napoleon's fall the Count
of Artois, viceregent and brother of the king, issued a
decree on 19 April, 1814, directing the restitution to
the Holy See of the archives, of all documents and
MSS., and of several other collections. On 28 April
the papal conmiissioners, Mgr. de Gre^orio, Mgr. Gae-
tano Marini, and his nephew Don Manno Marini. took
change of the whole of this property; but before it had
reached Rome Gaetano Marini, who had long Ix^en an
invalid, died at Paris. He was a scholar of eminent
parts, a thorough master of Latin, Greek, and He-
Drew; and possessed profound legal knowledge. By
choice he took up Questions of natural philosophy; as
an archseologist ana historian he is esteemed even to-
day. His great work on papyrus records is a standard
work on the investigation of papyri. His book on the
Arval Brothers of ancient Rome, showed great erudi-
tion and brought to light so much that was new, that
its appearance created considerable stir. His classifi-
eation of five thousand inscriptions, both Christian
and heathen, in the Galleria Lapidaria at the Vatican,
is a masterpiece, and earned for him the honorary title
of "Restorer" of Latin epigraphies [" Inscriptiones
(onlv preserved in MS.) christianse Latinse et GrcBcae
evi Muliarii conlegit digcssit adnotationibusque auxit
Gaictanus Marinus a Bibliotheca Vaticana item a
■criniis sedis apoBtolicg. Dues partes '']. Marini was
~ deriiSiJillHI^ priest. He was distinguished for
'ng for hours before uie Blessed
Sacrament. He went to commtinion three times a
week. During his residence in Paris he gave away
alms to the extent of 3000 scudi (dollars).
Marino Marini, Deoli. AneddoU di Oaelano Marini: Com-
mentario di avo nipote (Rome, 1822); Moroni, DiHonano ii
Erudizione Slorico-EeeUaitUica, IV, 286; Marino Hardti.
Memorie Storiehe ddC occuptuione e rettituHone dei^i Arekkm
deUa S. Sede e dd riacquiMo de' Qodici e Muto NumiamaUeo dd
Vaticano e de' ManoacriUi e parte del Mumo di Storia Naiunle di
Bohfftia (Rome. 1885). Paul Maria Baxjmqarten.
Marinas I, Pope (882-4).— There is reason for be-
lieving that Marinus I was elected on the very day of
the death of John VIII (16 Dec, 882), and that he was
consecrated without waiting for the consent of the
incompetent emperor, Charles the Fat. If the actual
date of his election is uncertain, that of his death is
still more so; but it was perhaps 15 May, B84. In the
seventh century there was a pope, St. ftfartinus I, and,
owing to the smiilarity between the names Martinus
and Marinus, some cnroniclers called Pope Marinus
MarHnus. Hence, some modem historians have errone-
ously described the two popes Mannus as Martinus II
and Martinus III resi)ectively, and the successor of
Nicholas III culled himself Arlartinus IV. Marinus.
about whom but little is known^ had a distinguishea
career before he became pope. lie was the son of the
priest Palumbo, was bom at Gallese, and was attached
to the Roman Church at the age of twelve. Leo IV
ordained him sub-deacon, and, after he had been made
a deacon, he was sent on three important embassies to
Constantinople. The second time he went there (869)
to preside, as one of the legates of Adrian II, avtt
the Eightn General Council. John VIII, who made
him Bishop of Caere (Cervetri), treasurer (arearius) of
the Roman Church, and archdeacon, despatched him
on that mission to Constantinople, which resulted
in his imprisonment for his firmness in carr3ring
out his instructions. Although a bishop, he was
elected to succeed John VIII, whose policy he partly
abandoned and partly followed. In the hope of fessen-
ing the factions in Rome, he, most unfortunately as
the sequel proved, reversed the action of his predeces-
sor regarding Bishop Formosus of Porto, whom he
absolved from all censures, and permitted to return
to Rome. But Marinus vigourously upheld the poli^
of John VIII with regard to Photius, whom he hunseu
condemned . Tmsting to get supi>ort from Charles the
Fat, he met that useless emperor in 833. But, unable
to help himself, Charles could do nothing for others.
Marinus sent the pallium to the distinguished FuDc of
Reims, and, at the request of King Alfred of England,
freed from all taxes the Schola Anghrumf or nead-
c}uarters of the English in Rome. Marinus was buried
in the portico of St. Peter's.
Jaffe. Regeata Pont. Rom., I (Leipsig, 1885); Liber PtmUf^
II, cd. Duchesne; Annals of Fulda and other aimali in Man.
Germ. Script., I; Dcchesse, The Bemnnino of the Temoorai
Sovereignty Of the Popes (London, 1908), 187 sq.; BIann* lAwea
of the Popes tn the Early Middle Ages, III, 353 sqa.
Horace K. BIann.
Marinus II, Pope (942-946), d. in April or liav,
946. A Roman, and a cardinal of the title of &L
Ciriacus, he was one of the popes nlaced on the thnvie
of St. Peter by the power of Alberic, Prince of the
Romans, and who, tnough virtuous ''durst not put
their hands to an>^hing without his permission. **
Consequently Marinus II made little impression on the
world. In an unassuming manner he worked for re-
form— abroad bv his legates, at home b^ his own
exertions. He also favoured that monastic devel(H>-
ment which had already set in, and which through the
influence especially of the Congregation of Cluny, was
to refomt Europe. He is also said to have devoted
himself to the repair of the basilicas, and to the care
of the poor.
Jaffk, Regesta Pont. Rom. (2nd ed.); Liber Pontif., IT. ad.
Ddcresne : a few Privileges for monaateries in P. L.. CXXXUI;
Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ag^ IV, 218 ■Q^
Horace K. BiaMN*
MAftXOTTE
671
MAftlVS
Mariotte, Edme, French physicist, b. at Dijon,
Prance, about 1620; d. at Paris, 12 May, 1684. His
residence was at Dijon, and some of his works are
dated from that place. He was ordained and, as a
reward for his successful scientific labours, was made
Srior of Saint-Martin-sous-Beaune near Dijon. Con-
orcet remarks on that crubject that *'no profane use
is made of the property of the Church, when it goes to
reward services rendered to humanity". Mariotte is
pronounced the first in France to "bring into the
study of physics a spirit of observation and of doubt,
and to inspire that caution and timidity so necessary
to those who question nature and who try to interpret
her answers." In his "Essay on Logic" he enu-
merates rules of reasoning as well as the fundamental
principles themselves, especially in the case of what he
calls the natural and tne moral sciences. He there
teaches a method of experimental research for the es-
tablishment of truth, so that we are thus able to study
the methods which he used himself to obtain those
great results from his experiments.
His fame rests on his work on hydrostatics and on
the establishment of the law of gases that bears his
name. This was first published in an essay on the
nature of air in 1676. "The diminution of the volume
of the air proceeds in p^portion to the weights with
which it is loaded. " This law is now stated as fol-
lows: The volume of a gas, kept at a constant tem-
perature, changes inversely as the pressure upon the
fas. This is uie fundamental generalization of our
knowledge concerning gases. He invented a device
for proving and illustrating the laws of impact be-
tween bodies. The bobs of two pendulums are struck
against each other, and the resultant motions are
measured and studied. He added to tiie mathemat-
ical deductions of Galileo, Pascal, and others, a num-
ber of experimental demonstrations of the laws of the
Eendulum, of the flow of water through orifices, of
ydrostatic pressure ete. Mariotte's uask is an in-
genious device to obtain a uniform flow of water. His
work included experiments on heat and cold, light,
sight, and colour. He was a member of the Royal
Society of Science from its foundation in 1666. His
contributions ((Euvres) were collected and published
at Leyden in 1717, and again at The Hague in 1740.
They include reprints of the following: "Nouvelles
d^couvertes toucnant la vue" (Paris, 1668); "Expe-
riences sur la congelation de Teau" (Paris, 1682);
"Traite du niveUement" (Paris, 1672-4); "Traits de
la percussion des corps " (Paris, 1676) ; " Essais de phy-
sique" (4 vols., Paris, 1676-81); "De la vegetation
des plantes " (Paris, 1679 and 1686) ; " De la nature de
Fair" (Paris. 1679); "Traite des couleurs" (Paris,
1681); "Essai de logique" (Paris, 1678); "Traite du
mouvement des eaux et des autres corps fluides"
(Paris, 1686; 2nd ed., 1700).
Merueux in Nouv. Biogr. G&n., b. v.; Condorcet in (Euvres,
I, 61-75. Eioge (Brunswick and Paris, 1804).
William Fox.
Maris. Martha, Audifaz, and Abachmn, Saints,
martvrea at Rome in 270. Maris and his wife Martha,
who belonged to the Persian nobility, came to Rome
with their children in the reign of Emperor Claudius II.
As zealous Christians, they sympathized with and suc-
coured the persecuted faithful, and buried the bodies
of the slain . This exposed them to the imperial venge-
ance; they were seized and delivered to the judge
Muscianus, who, unable to persuade them to abjure
their faith, condenmed them to various tortures. At
last, when no suffering could subdue their courage.
Maris and his sons were beheaded at a place callea
Nymphae Catabassi, thirteen miles from Rome, and
their bodies burnt. Martha was cast into a well. A
Roman lady named Felicitas, having succeeded in se-
curing the half-consumed remains of the father and
sons and also the mother's bod^ from the well, had the
sacred relics secretly interred in a catacomb, on the
thirteenth before the Kalends of February (20 Jan-
uary). The commemoration of these four martyrs,
however, has been appointed for 19 February, doubt-
less so as to leave tne twentieth for the feast of St.
Sebastian.
Acta SS. (1643), II Jan., 214-6; Baroitiub, Annalea (1589),
270, 2-0, 12-16; Bosco, Utm famiglia di martiri osaia vita de%
SS, Mario, Maria, Audiface ed Abaco (Turin, 1892); Mombri-
TIU8, Sanctuarium (1479), II, cxxxi-iii; Surius, De vitxs 9anc-
torum (Venice, 1581), I, 309-10; Txllbmont, Mhn, pour aervir
ii Vhitt. eceUa. (1606). IV. 675-7.
L6oN Clugnet.
Marisco. Adam de (or Adam Marsh), Franciscan.
He probably came from the county of Somerset, but
the date of his birth is unknown; d. at the end of 1257
or the beginning of 1258. He was educated at Ox-
ford, where he acquired a great reputation. He had
been for three years rector of Wearmouth, in Durham,
when he joined the Friars Minor about 1237. He suc-
ceeded Robert Grosseteste as lecturer at the Fran-
ciscan house in Oxford, and soon became acauainted
with many of the most distinguished men of tne time.
The extent and character of his correspondence shows
how widespread was his personal influence, and is a
striking illustration of the moral force exerted b^ the
early Franciscans in England. Adam was intimate
with Grosseteste and Archbishop Boniface, with
Richard of Cornwall and Simon de Montfort. Always
a reformer himself, he must have helped^ give Earl
Simon, who began his career in End f elf M a forei^
favourite, his deep patriotic and roLe OaiiKnterest m
the cause of reform. Over Henry III ne had no direct
influence, but he had friends at Court and he was most
anxious to combine peace and reform. Unfortunately
he died just when the great political crisis of the reign
was beginning. Before his death his name was pro-
posed by Archbishop Boniface for the See of Ely,
where uiere had beien a disputed election, but he
seems to have been opposed by the monastic interest.
As a man of learning Adam had much to do with the
organization of studies at Oxford, and as "Doctor
Iflustris" was known throughout Europe. Roger
Bacon professed for him the same perhaps rather ex-
cessive admiration with which he regarded Grosse-
teste, calling them the ''greatest clerks in the world".
Among the works attributed to Adam are commen-
taries on the Master of the Sentences, on parts of
Scripture, and on Dionysius the Areopagite.
The chief source of information is Adam's own correspond-
ence published in Brewer, Monumenta Franeiacana \RoUa
Seriea), Ecct.bston, De Adventu Minorum, GROSSBrasTE's
Lettera and Matthew Paris's Chronicle should also be con-
sulted. Modem works: Brewer. Preface to Monumenta;
Rasbdall. Univeraitiea of the Middle Agea, II (Oxford, 1895;;
Stevenson. Life of Oroaaeteate (London, 1899); Crbiobton m
Diet. Nat. Biog., s. v. Adam de Mariaco.
F. F. Urquhart.
Marist Brothers. See Mart, Little Brothers
OF.
MaristB. See Mart, Societt of.
MariuB AventicuB (or Aventicensis), Saint,
Bishop of Avenches (Switzerland) and chronicler, b.
about 530 in the present Diocese of Autun; d. at Lau-
sanne, 31 December, 594. Of the events of his life
little is known. From an inscription on his tomb in
the church of St. Thyrsius in Laxisanne (pubUshed in
the "Monumenta Germ. Scriptores", XXIV, 795).
we learn that he came of a distinguished, rich and
Erobably Roman family, and at an early age em-
raced the ecclesiastical state. In 574 he was made
Bishop of Avenches, took part in the Council of M4^
con in 685, and shortly afterwards transferred hie
episcopal see from Avenches, which was rapidly de-
clining, to Lausanne. He is extolled ae an ideeJ
bishop; as a skilled eoldsmith who made taef- *
vesse& with his own nands; as a protector aod^
factor of the poor; as a man of prayer, and ae a -'
full of Anf.hiifliaiim for aerious mtellectual
fltndfaa. la
587 he consecrated St. Mary's
MABIUS
672
ISABX
which had been built at his expense and through his
efforts. After his death he was venerated in the Dio-
cese of Lausanne as a saint, and his feast was cele-
brated on 9 or 12 Februarv. The church of St. Thyr-
sius received at an early date the name of St. Marius.
A chronicle of his is still preserved, and purports to be
a continuation of the chronicle of Prosper Tiro, or
rather of the "Chronicon Imperiale". It extends
from 455 to 581, and, although consisting only of dry,
annahstic notes, it is valuable for Burgundian ana
Franconian history, especially for the second half of
the sixth centur}'. This explains the fact that, not-
withstanding its brevity, it nas been frequently pub-
lished— first by Chifflct in Andr^ Duchesne's "His-
torisB Francorum Scriptores", I (1636), 210-214;
again by Migne in P. L., LXXII, 793-802, and finaUy
by Mommsen in '*Mon. Germ., Auctores antiqui ,
XI (1893). 232-9.
Arndt, Bischof Marina von Aventicum. Sein Leben u. seine
Chronik (Leipzig. 1875): Mommrkn in his edition, PrcBfatio,
227-31; FoTTHAST, Bibl. hist. med. ccvi, I (Berlin. 1896). 667.
Patkicius Schlager.
MariuB Mazimus, Lucius Pehpktuus Aureli-
ANUS, Roman historian, lived c. 165-230. No con-
nected account of his life exists, but he is frequently
quoted as an authority in the first half of the *' Historia
Augusta", and Valesuis and Borghesi have identified
him (Fragm. hist. Rom., p. xxv sq.) with the prefect of
the same nagT»**eientioncd both in the inscriptions and
by Dion ^a&m^According to these he served in the
Roman army^W^ved praetorian rank at Rome, took
part as conmiandcr in the campaigns in Gaul, Belgium,
Germany, and Cccle-Syria, and was employed in high
offices of administration. During the reign of the
Emperor Septimius Severus (193-211) he was made
consul for the first time short) v after 197, and in 217
Macrinus appointed him prefect. In the reign of
Alexander Severus (222-235) he was, in 223, appointed
consul for the second time and governed the Provinces
of Asia and Africa as proconsul, thesg offices being
due to the special favour of the emperor. Later,
Marius Maximus devoted himself to historical writing
and wTote biographies of the emjxjrors from Nerva
(96-98) to Ileliogabalus (d. 222). As the biographies
stop with Ileliogabalus, althouch Maximus was inti-
mately connected with Alexander Severus, it is sup-
posed that he did not survive the latter emperor dur-
ing whose reign, it is thought, his work was prol^ably
written. The history of the earlier emperors is not
extant, but it can be inferred from the fragments pre-
served that he adopted the method and views of Sue-
tonius of whose biographies of the emperors his work
was a continuation. His description of the lives and
acts of the emperors is influenced by his friendliness
towards the senate. His style is diffuse and detailed.
Often he introduces personal occurrences, and offers
official instruments and records of the senate as docu-
mentary proof. The biographies of Marius Maxi-
mus were greatly admired by his contemporaries and
were especially read by the Roman senators. Some
of the biographies were continued and enkrged by other
writers, ^lius Junius Cordus WTote supplementary
lives of the usurpers, Ca?sar3, and coadjutor-emperors,
up to Alexander Severus.
Herrmann, Scriptores hist. Aug. (Leipzig. 1865); Idem, Die
geschichUiche Litemtur iiber die rornische Kaiserzeit bis Tfieoilo~
aius, II (LeipziR, 1897); Plew, Marius Maximus als direkte und
indirckte quelle d. scriptorcji hist. Auo. (1878); MCller, Der
Geachichtschreiber Marius Maximus in Bi' dinger, Untersuch-
ungen zur riimischen KaisertQsch, III; Tecffel, Gesch. demim,
Literatur, new ed. Schwabs (Leipzig, 1890).
Karl Hoeder.
Marius Mercator, ecclesiastical writer, b. prolm-
bly in Northern Africa alwut 390; d. shortly after 451.
In 417 or 418 he was in Rome where he wrote two anti-
Pelagian treatises, which he suhmitt^ni to St. Augus-
tine (Ep. ad M. M., no. 193). From 429 till about 448
he was in Constantinople. His works, mostly transla-
tions ftnd compilations of excerpta from heretical a
well as orthodox Greek theological writers, were edited
by Gamier (Paris, 1673), reprinted in Migne (P. L,
XI.VIII, Paris, 1846). They were also edited Ij
Baluze (Paris, 1684), reprinted with corrections m
Galland , '^Bibliotheca veterum Patnim", VIII (Vot-
ice, 1772), 613-738. His treatises " Commonitorium
super nomuie Cselestii", and "Commonitoriumadvo^
sus hseresim Pelagii et Cffilestii vel <etiam scripts
Juliani'' are against the Pelagians. The former Ob
Mi^e, loc. cit., 63-108) effected the expulsioo of
Julian of Eclanuin and Cslestius from Constantinopk
and their condemnation at Ephesus in 431. The latter
is in Migne, loc. cit., 109-172. Against the Nestoriiu
he WTote **Epistola de discrimine inter hseresim Kes-
torii et dogmata Pauli Samosateni, £bioni8, Photisi
atque Marcelli" (Mi^e, loc. cit., 773) and "Nestoro
blasphemiarum capitula XII '* (Migne, loc. cit., 907-
932). Among his translations are extracts from Cyii
of Alexandria, Nestorius, Theodore of Mopsuestia,
Theodoret, Pelaeius, and' others.
Bardeniiewer, ratrologie, tr. Shahan (FreiburK im Br Md
St. Louis. 1908), .508-10; Kiiin. Patrolopie (Padertx>m, 190S),
356-«; Koch in Theologiscfie QuartalscJinft, LXXXI (TabiBia»
1899), 396-433; Puillott in Dirt. ChrifJ. Biog., a. v.; LoSn^
Nestoriana (Halle, 1905), 34 sq., 120 sq. The second part of tk
lost mentioned work contains the Nestorian fragments that ovi
their preservation to Marius M creator.
MiCHABL On.
Marius Victorinus. See Victorinus.
Mark (Mdp/cos, Maiicus), Saint and SvANOXiiBr.
— It is assumed in this article that the individual re-
ferred to in Acts as John Mark (xii, 12, 25; xv, 37),
John (xiii, 5, 13), Mark (xv, 39), is identical with the
Mark mentioned by St. Paul (Col., iv, 10; II Tim iv,
11; Philcm., 24) and by St. Peter (1 Peter, v,*13).
Their identity is not questioned by any ancient writer
of note, while it is strongly suggested, on the one hand
by the fact that Mark of the PauUne Epistles was the
cousin (6 di^i6s) of Barnabas (Col., iv, 10), to whom
Mark of Acts seems to have been bound by some
special tie (Acts, xv, 37, 39) ; on the other by the prob-
auility that the Mark, whom St. Peter calls his son (I
Peter, v, 13), is no other than the son of Mary, the
Apostle's old friend in Jerusalem (Acts, xii, 12)/ To
the Jewish name John was added the Roman pre-
nomen Marcus, and by the latter he was commonly
known to the readers of Acts (xv, 37, xAr xoXo^iw
Mdp/cov) and of the Epistles. Mark's mother was a
prominent member of the infant Church at Jerusalem;
it was to her house that Peter turned on his release
from prison; the house was approached by a poidi
(TTuXtiv), there was a slave girl (iraiStaKrj)^ probabiythe
portress, to open tlie door, and the house was a meel-
mg-place for the brethren, ''many*' of whom were
praying there the night St. Peter arrived from nrison
(Acts, xii, 12-13). ^
When, on the occasion of the famine of a. d. 45-46,
Barnabas and Saul had completed their ministration
in Jerusalem, they took Mark with them on their re-
turn to Antioch (Acts, xii, 23). Not long after when
they started on St. Paul'sfirst Apostolic journey they
had Mark with them as some sort of assi.stant (^lyp/r^
Acts, xiii, 5) ; l)ut the vagueness and variety of mean-
ing of the (ireek term makes it uncertain in what pre-
cise capacity he acted. Neitlier selected by the Holy
Spirit nor delegated by the Church of Antioch as were
Barnabas and Saul (Acts, xiii, 2-4), he was probaUy
taken by the Apostles as one who could be of general
help. The context of Acts, xiii, 5, sugpgests that he
helped even in preaching the Word. When Paul and
Bama})as resolved to push on from Perga into central
Asia Minor, Mark depart erl from them, if indeed he
had not already done so at Paphos, and returned to
Jenisalem (Acts, xiii, 13). What his reasons were for
turning back, we cannot say with certainty; Acts xv
38, seems to suggest that he feared the toil. At'sny
rate, the incident was not forgotten by St. Paul who
refused on account of it to take Hark with him on the for some time, and returned to Komc before I Peter
second Apoetolic jouney, This refusal led to the waa written, the Petrine and Pauline references to the
aepairation of Paul and Barnabas, and the latter, tak- Evangelist are quite intelliKible and conmst^t.
" ' ■' '■ -...-. '.-. ~- .-" V... ^g ^uj^ yj traditii
ing Mark with him, sailed to Cyprus (Acta, xv 37-40).
At this point (a. d. 49-60) we lose sight of Mark in
Acts, and we meet him no more in the New Testament,
tiU he appears some ten ^ears afterwards as the fellow-
that
_.. . ., . 300) asserts
. later than A. D. 130,on thcauthority of an"eldcr"
t Hark had been the interpreter (/p»ii|Hur4i) of
workerofst. Paul,andm thecampanyofSt.Peter,at Peter, and wrote down accurately, tjiough n_. _
Rome. order, the teaching of Peter (see below Mahk, Gospel
St. Paul, writing to the Colossians during his first OF Saint, II). A widespread, if somewhat lfl(«, tradi-
Roman imprisomnent (a. d. 59-61), says; "Aristar- tion represents St. Mark as the founder of the Church
chAs, my fellow prisoner, aaluteth you, and Hark, the of Alexandria. Though strangely enough Clement
cousin of Barnabas, touching whom you have received and Orijjen make no reference to the saint's coaneiion
commandments; if he come unto you, receive him" with their city, it is attested by Eusebius (op. cit., II,
(Col., iv, 10). At the time this was written, xvi, xxiv. in P. Q XX, 173, 205), by 8t. Je-
Mark was evidently in Rome, Imt. ha<l ^.^r^^^m^^^ romr (' De Vir. lUust.'', viii, in P. L.,
some intention of visiting Asia Mhior. i^^^^B^^^^^^ XXIIl, 622), by the Apostc^ic Con-
About the same time St. Paul sciiih 4l^^~^iL^^^!^ Editions (Vll, xlvi), by '^-"
greetings to Philemon from Us.rk. /J^T .^^^^^^^^^^ ' ^|V |>haniuB ("Hier.", li, 6, i '^
K his te].
low-workers (ouF^friTrf.Philem.,
24). The Evangelist's intention
of visiting Asia Minor was prob-
ably earned out, for St. Paul,
writing shortly before his
death to Timothy at Ephesus.
bids him pick up Mark ana
bring hi"i with hmi to Rome,
adding " for be is profitable to
me for the ministry" (11 Tim.,
iv, U). If Hark liame to
Home at this time, he was
probably there when St. Paul
was martyred. Turning to I
Peter, v, 13, we read: "The
Chureh that is in Babylon,
elected together with you,
saluteth you, and (so doth)
Mark my son" (Mdpnt, i v\^
m). This letter was ad-
dnseed to various Churehes
of Asia Minor (1 Peter, i, 1),
and we may conclude that
Mark was known to them.
Hence, though he had refused
to penetrate into Asia Minor
with Paul and Barnabas, St.
Paul makes it probable, and
St. Peter certain, that he went
afterwards, and the fact that
St. Peter sends Mark's greet-
ing to a number of Churches
implies that he must have
«';
, and by many later
authorities. The "Martyrolo-
gium Romanum" (25 April)
records: "At Alexandria the
anniversary of Blessed Mark
the Evangelist ... at Alex-
andria of St. Anianus Bishop,
the discipl'? of Blessed Mark
and his successor in the epis-
copate, who fell asleep in the
Lord" (cf. Lc Quien, Oriena
Christ.", II, Paris, 1740,
334; "Acta SS.", IX, 344-
0; Lipsius, 323 sqq.). The
date at which Mark came to
Alexandria is uncertain. The
Chronicle of Eusebius (P. G.,
XIX, 5:19) assigns it to the
first years of Claudius (a. d.
41-4), and later on (ibid.,
543) states that St. Mark's
first su(»;esBor, Anianus, suc-
ceeded to the See of Alexan-
dria in the eighth year of Nen>
(61-2). This would make
Mark Bishop of Alexandria
for a period of about twenty
^ears. This is not impossible,
it we might suppose in accord-
ance with some early evidence
that St. Peter came to Rome
in A. D. 42, Hark perhaps ac-
companying him. But Acts
^ Fr» Bmrtolommeo. Pitti PbIbm. Floroiae ru3es considerable difficultiea.
been widely known there. ]ncaiLngHarkhis"BDn", On the assumption that the founder of the Church of
Peter may possibly imply that he bad baptised him, Alexandria was identical with the companion of Paul
though in that case r/mr might be expected rather and Barnabas, we find him at Jerusalem and Antioch
than ulii (cf. I Cor., iv, 17; I Tim., i, 2, 18; II about a. d. 46 (Acts xii, 25), in Salamis about 47
Tim., i, 2; ii, 1; Tit., i, 4; Philem., 10). The term (Acts, xiii, 5), at Antioch again about 49 or 50 (Acts,
need not be taken to imply more than affectionate xv, 37-9), and when he quitted Antioch, on the sepa-
r^ard for a younger man, who had long ago sat at ration of I^ul and Bamaoas, it was not to Alexandria
Peter's feet in Jerusalem, and whose mother had been but to Cyprus that he turned (Acta, xv, 39). There is
the Apostle's friend (Acts, xii, 12), As to the Baby- nothing mdeed to prove absolutely that all this is in-
lon fronn which St. Peter writes, and in which Hark is consistent with his being Bishop of Alexandria at the
present with him, there can be no reasonable doubt time, but seeing that the chronology of the Apoetohc
that it is Rome. The view of St. Jerome: "St. Peter age is admittedly uncertain, andthat we have no
also mentions this M>irk in his First Epistle, while earlier authority than Eusebius for the date of the
referring figuratively to Rome under ttje title of Baby- foundation of the Alexandrian Church, we may perhaps
Ion" (De vir. Illustr., viii), is supported by all the conclude with more probability that it was founded
early Fathers who refer to the sulnect. It may be somewhat later. "There is abundance of time between
said to have been questioned for the first time by a. n. 50 and fiO.aperiodduringwhich theNewTesta-
Erasmus, whom a numl«r of Protestant writers then ment is silent in regard to St. Mark, for his activity
followed, that they might the more readily denv the in Egypt.
Roman connexion of St. Peter. Thus, we find Mark IntbeprefacetohisGospelinmanuBcriptaoftheVii]-
in Rome with St. Peter at a time when he was widely gate, Marie is represented as having been a Jewish
known to the Churehea of Asia Mmor, Ifwesuppose priest: "Hark the Evangelist, who exercised the
him, as we may, to have gone to Asia Minor after the priestly office in Israel, a Levite by race ". Early au-
date of the Epistle to the Cotosrians, remained there thoritiee, however, are silent upon the point, and itia
IX.-43
MARK 674 BCABK
perhaps only an inference from his relation to Barna- identical with the pope. The date of Mark's electioD
bas the Levite (Acts, iv, 36). Papias (in Euscbius, (18 Jan., 336) is given in the Liberian Catalogue of
"Hist, eccl.", Ill, xxxix, in P. G., XX, 300) says, on popes (Duchesne, "Liber Pontificalis ", I, 9). and is
the authority of *' the elder", that Mark neither heard nistorically certam; so is the day of his death (7 Oct.),
the Lord nor followed Him (o(^e yi^p ^kovv€ rov mtplov which is specified in the same way in the " Depositio
o6t€ T€LpriKokoO$nc€v a^{;), and the same statement is episcoporum" of Philocalus's " Chronography ", the
made in the Dialogue of Adamantius (fourth centurv, first emtion of which appeared also in 336. Concern-
Leipzig, 1901 » p. 8) , by Eusebius C* Demonst. E vang. , ing an interposition of the pope in the Arian troubles,
III, V, in P. G., XjCII, 215), by St. Jerome ("In which were then £io actively aftecting the Church in the
Matth.'' in P. L., XXVI, 18). b)r St. Auffustine (" De East, nothing has been handed down. An alleged let-
Consens. Evang." in P. L., XXXlV, 1043), and is sug- ter of his to St. Athanasius is a later forgery. Two
gested by the Muratorian Fragment. Later tradition, constitutions are attributed to Mark by the author of
however, makes Mark one of the seventy-two disci- the "Liber Pontificalis" (ed. Duchesne, I, 20). Ao-
ples, and St. Epiphanius ("Hsr.", li, 6, in P. G., XLI, cording to the one, he invested the Bishop of Ostia
899) says he was one of those who withdrew from with the pallium (q. v.). and ordained that this bishop
Christ (John, vi, 67). The later tradition can have no was to consecrate the Bishop of Rome. It is certain
weight against the earlier evidence, but the statement that, towards the end of the fourth century, the
that Mark neither heard the Lord nor followed Him Bishop of Ostia did bestow the episcopal consecration
need not be prised too strictly, nor force us to believe upon the newly-elected pope; Augustine expressly
tiiat he never saw Christ. Miuiy indeed are of opinion bears witness to this (Breviarium CoUationis, III, 16).
that the young man who fled naked from Gethse- It is indeed possible that Mark had confirmed this
mane (Mark, xiv, 51) was Mark himself. Early in the privilege by a constitution, which does not preclude
third century Hippolytus (" Philosophumena'', VII, the fact that the Bishop of Ostia before this tune usu-
XXX, in P. G-., VI, 3334) refers to Mark as h KoKofioddKrv- ally consecrated the new pope. As for the bestowal
Xof, i. e. " stump-fingered'' or "mutilated in the fin- of the paUium, the account cannot be established from
Ker(s) '', and later authorities allude to the same de- sources of the fourth century, since the oldest memo-
feet. Various explanations of the epithet have been rials which show this badge, belong to the fifth and
suggested: that M!ark, after he embraced Christianity, sixth centuries, and the oldest written mention of a
cut off his thiunb to unfit himself for the Jewish priest- pojpe bestowing the pallium dates from the sixth cen-
hood; that his fingers were naturally stumpy; that tury (cf. Grisar, "Das rdmische Pallium und die Sites-
some defect in his toes is alluded to; that the epithet is ten liturgischen Sch^rpen *\ in " Festschrift des deu-
to be regarded as metaphorical, and means " deserter" tschen Campo Santo in Rom ", Freiburg im Br., 1897,
(cf. Acts, xiii, 13). 83-114).
The date of St. Mark's death is uncertain. St. The " Liber Pontificalis" remarks further of Marcus:
Jerome (*' De Vir. Illustr.", viii, in P. L., XXIII, 622) " Et oonstitutum de onmi ecclesia ordinavit '* ; but we
assigns it to the eighth year of Nero (62-63) (AforfuiM do not know which constitution this refers to. The
. est octavo Neronia anno et sepuUua Alexandria) , but building of two basilicas is attributed to this pope by
this is probably only an inference from the statement the author of the " Liber Pontificalis ". One of these
of Eusebius ("Hist, eccl.", II, xxiv, in P. G., XX, ma built within the city in the region " iuxta Palla-
205), that in that year Anianus succeeded St. Mark in cinis"; it is the present church of San Marco, which
the Sec of Alexandria. Certainly, if St. Mark was alive however receivea its present external shape by later
when II Tim. was written (II Tim., iv, II), he cannot alterations. It is mentioned in the fifth century as a
have died in 61-62. Nor does Eusebius say he di4; the Roman title church, so that its foundation may with-
historian may merely mean that St. Mark then re- out diflSculty be attributed to St. Mark, The other
signed his see, and left Alexandria to join Peter and was outside the dty; it was a cemetery churchy which
Paul at Rome. As to the manner of his death, the the pope got built over the Catacomb of Balbma. be-
" Acts "of Mark give the saint the glory of martyniom, tween the Via Appia and the Via Ardeatina (ct. de
and say that he died while being dragged through the Rossi, " Roma sotterranea *', HI, 8-13 ; '* BuUettino di
streets of Alexandria; so too the Paschal Chronicle, arch, crist.", 1867, 1 sqq.; Wilpert, "Topographische
But we have no evidence earlier than the fourth cen- Studien Qber die christhchen Monumente der Appia
tiuy tJiat the saint was martyred. This earlier silence, und der Ardeatina ", in " Rom. Quartalschrif t ", 1901, '
however, is not at all decisive against the truth of the 32-49). The pope obtained from Emperor Constan-
later tradition. For the saint's alleged connexion with tine gifts of land and liturgical furniture for b6th basili-
Aquileia, see "Acta SS.", XI, pp. 346-7, and for the cas. Mark was buried in the Catacomb dt Balbina,
removal of his body from Alexandria to Venice and where he had built the cemetery church. Hb grave is
his cultus there, ibid., pp, 352-8. In Christian litera- expressly mentioned there bv the itineraries of the
ture and art St. Mark is symbolically represented b^ seventh century (de Rossi, *^Roma sotterranea", I,
a lion. The Latin and Greek Churches celebrate his 180-1). The feast of the deceased pope was given on
feast on 25 April, but the Greek Church keeps also the 7 Oct. in the old Roman calendar ot feasts, which was
feast of John Mark on 27 September. inserted in the " Martyrologium Hieronynuanum " ; it
Ada SS., XI, 344-58; P, G., CXV, 164-70; Mangenot in is still kept on the same date. In an ancient manu-
(EdmbuiTBh*. 1909), 427-56. ' ' J. MacRory. christ. urbis Romae.", II, 108; Ihm. " iamasi epigram-
mata", Leipzig, 1895, 17, no. 11). De Rossi refers
Mark, Saint, Pope, date of birth unknown; conse- this to Pope Mark^ but Duchesne (loc. cit., 204), is
crated 18 Jan., 336 ; d . 7 Oct. j 336. After the death of unable to accept this view. Since the contents of the
Pope Sylvester, Mark was raised to the Roman episco- poem are of an entirely ^neral nature, without any
pal chair as his successor. The "Liber PontificaUs" Mrticularly charactenstic feature from the life of
says that he was a Roman, and that his father's name rope Mark, the Question is not of great importance.
was Priscus. Constantine the Great's letter, which />t&erP<mii/..ed. Duchesne, I. 202-4; Urbain, £tn Afarfyr-
summoned a conference of Wshops f or the investipj- ?&fp'Si.%TO8?TSS^K."(;^. 3^^ ^'^X^\ l^.-*'
tion of the Donatist dispute^ IS directed to Pope Milti- j^ p^ Kirsch.
ades and one Mark (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl. , X, v).
This Mark was evidently a member of the Roman Mark, Gospel op Saint. — ^The subject will be
clergy, either priest or first deacon, and is perhaps treated under the following heads: (I) Contenta
MARK 675 MARK
Selection and Arrangement of Matter; (II) Author- down accurately everything that he remembered,
ship; (III) Originw Language, Vocabulary, and without, however, recording m order what was either
Style; (IV) State of Text and Intepity; (V) Place said or done by Christ. For neither did he hear the
and Date of Composition ; (VI) Destmation and Pur- Lord, nor did he follow Him, but afterwards, as I said,
pose; (VII) Relation to Matthew and Luke. (he attended) Peter, who adapted his instructions to
I. Contents, Selection and Arrangement of the needs (of his hearers), but had no design of giv-
Mattbr. — ^The Second Gospel, like the other two ing a connected account of the Lord's oracles [v. 1.
Synoptics, deals chiefly with the Galilean ministry of '^words'!. So then Mark made no mistake [Schmie-
dbrist, and the events of the last week at Jerusalem, del, "committed no fault"], while he thus wrote down
In a brief introduction, the ministry of the Precursor some things (l^wa) as he remembered them; for he
and the immediate preparation of Christ for His made it his one care not to omit anything that he had
official work by His Baptism and temptation are heard, or set down any false statement therein"
touched upon (i, 1-13); tnen follows the body of the (Euseb., "BKst. Eccl.", Ill, xxxix, in P. G., XX, 300),
Gospel, dealing with the public ministry, Passion. Some indeed have understood this famous passage to
Death, and Resurrection of Jesus (i, 14-xvi, 8) ; ana mean merely that Mark did not write a literary work,
lastly the work in its present form gives a summary ac- but simply a string of notes connected in the simplest
count of some appearances of the risen Lord, and ends • fashion (cf. Swete, "The Gospel ace. to Mark", pp.
with a reference to the Ascension and the xmiversal Ix-lxi). The present writer, however, is convinced
preaching of the Gospel (xvi, 9-20). The body of the that what Papias and the elder deny to our Gospel is
Gospel falls naturally into three divisions: the minis- chronological order, since for no other order would it
try m Galilee and adjoining districts: Phoenicia, Decap- have been necessary that Mark should have heard or
ohs, and the country north towards Csesarea Philippi followed Christ. But the passage need not be imder-
(i, 14-ix, 49); the ministry in Judea and (kuI Tipaw, stood to mean more than that Mark occasionally de-
with B, K, C*, L, *, in X, 1) PersBa, and the journey to parts from chronological order, a thing we are quite
Jerusalem (x, 1-xi, 10) ; the events of the last week at prepared to admit. What Papias and the elder con-
Jerusalem (xi, 11-xvi, 8). sidered to be the true order we cannot say; they can
Beginning with the public ministry (cf. Acts, i, 22; hardly have fancied it to be represented in the First
X, 37), St. Mark passes in sUence over the preliminary Gospel, which so evidently groups (e. g. viii-ix), nor.
events recorded oy the other Synoptists: the concep- it would seem, in the Third, since Luke, like Mark, had
tion and birth of the Baptist, the genealogy, concep- not been a disciple of Christ. It may well be that,
tion, and birth of Jesus, the comingof the Magi, etc. belonging as they did to Asia Minor, they had the
He is much more concerned with Christ's acts than Gospel of St. John and its chronology in mind. At
with His discourses, only two of these being eiven at any rate, their judgment upon the Second Gospel, even
any considerable length (iv, 3-32; xiii, 5-37). The if it be just, does not prevent us from holding that
miracles are narrated most graphically and thrown Mark, to some extent, arranges the events of Christ's
into great prominence, almost a fourth of the entire life in chronological order.
Gospel (in the Vulg., 164 verses out of 677) being de- II. Authorship. — All early tradition connects the
voted to them, and there seems to be a desire to im- Second Gospel with two names, those of St. Mark and
■press the readers from the outset with Christ's al- St. Peter, Alark being held to have written what Peter
migh^ power and dominion over all nature. The had preached. We nave just seen that this was the
very nrst chapter records three miracles: the casting view of Papias and the elder to whom he refers. Pa-
out of an unclean spirit, the cure of Peter's mother- pias wrote not lat<?r than about a. d. 130, so that the
in-law, and the healing of a leper, besides alluding testimony of the elder probably brings us back to the
summarily to many others (i, 32-34) ; and, of the eight- first century, and shows the Second Uospel known in
een miracles recorded altogether in the Gospel, allbut Asia Minor and attributed to St. Mark at that early
three (ix, 16-28; x, 46-52; xi, 12-14) occur in the time. St. Irenseus says: *' Mark, the disciple and in-
first eight chapters. Only two of these miracles (vii, terpreter of Peter, himself also handed down to us in
31-37; viii, 22-26) are peculiar to Mark, but, in regard writing what was preached by Peter" (** Adv. H»r.",
to nearly all, there are graphic touches and minute III, i, in P. G., VIII, 845; ibid., x, 6, in P. G., VII,
details not found in the other Synoptics. Of the 878). St. Clement of Alexandria, relying on the
parables proper Mark has only four: the sower (iv, 3- authority of "the elder presb3rters", tells us tha^
9), the 8€^ growing secretly (iv, 26-29), the mustard when Peter had publicly preached in Rome, many of
seed (iv, 30-32), and the wicked husbandman (xii, those who heard him exhorted Mark, as one who had
1-9); the second of these is wanting in the other long followed Peter and remembered what he had said.
Gospels. Special attention is paid throughout to the to write it down, and that Mark '* composed the Gospel
human feelings and emotions of Christ, and to the efiFect and gave it to those who had asked him for it' ' (Euseo. ,
produced by His miracles upon the crowds. The "Hist. EccL", VI, xiv, in P. G., XX, 552). Origen
weaknesses of the Apostles are far more apparent than says (ibid., VI, xxv, in P. G., XX, 581) that Mark
in the parallel narratives otMatt. and Luke, this being, wrote as Peter directed him (<»$ TL^rpot (nfyny^aro airf),
probably due to the graphic and candid discourses of and Eusebius himself reports the tradition that Peter
Peter, upon which tradition represents Mark as relying, approved or authorized Mark's work ("Hist. EccL",
The repeated notes of time and place (e. g. i, 14, 19, II, xv, in P. G., XX, 172). To Uiese early Eastern
20, 21, 29, 32, 35) seem to show that the Evangelist witnesses may be added, from the West, the author of
meant to arrange in chronological order at least a the Muratorian Fragment, which in its first line almost
number of the events which he records. Occasionally certainly refers to Mark's presence at Peter's dis-
the note of time is wimtin^ (e. g. i, 40; iii, 1 ; iv, 1 ; x, courses and his composition of the Gospel accordingly
1, 2, 13) or vague (e. g. it, 1, 23; iv, 35), and in such (Quibita tamen inter/uit et itaposuU); 'Tertulliaji, ^o
cases he may of course depart from the order of events, states : "The Gospel which Mark published {eduUt) is
But the very fact that m some instances he speaks affirmed to be Peter's, whose interpreter Mark was"
thus vaguely and indefinitely makes it all the more ("Contra Marc.", IV, v, m P. L., II, 367); St. Jerome,
necessary to take his definite notes of time and se- who in one place says that Mark wrote a short Gospel
quence in other cases as indicating chronological at the request of the brethren at Rome, and that
order. We are here confronted, however, with the Peter authorized it to be read in the Churches ("De
testimony of Papias, who quotes an elder (presbyter), Vir. 111.", viii, in P. L., XXIII, 621), and in another
with whom he apparently agrees, as saying that Mark that Mark's Gospel was composed, Peter narrating
did not write in order: " And the elder said this also: and Mark writing (Petro narrante et iUo scribente — ** Aq
Mark, liaving become interpreter of Peter, wrote Hedib.", ep. cxx^ in P. L,, XXII, 1002). Lx e^rae^
MARX 676 MARK
one of these ancient authorities Mark is n^arded as hired servants (i, 20), how they came into the house ^^
the writer of a Gospel, which is looked upon at the Simon and Andrew, with James and John (i, 29), how
same time as having Apostolic authority, because the blind man at Jericho wsa the son of Timeus(x, 46).
substantially at least it had come from St. Peter, how Simon of Cyrene was the father of Alexander and
In the li^t of this traditional connexion of the Gospel Ruf us (xv. 21) ; (3) how there was no room even about
wit^ St. Feter, there can be no doubt that it is to it St. the door ot the house where Jesus was (ii, 2), how Jesus
the sons of Zebedee (a fact mentioned in the N. T. the Sabbath, when the sun had set, the sick were
brought to be cured (i, 32), how in the morning, loDf
before day, Christ rose up (i, 35), how He was cruoi-
only in Mark, iii, 17), and that this is written in the
"memoirs'' of Peter (ivroit dwownifiAwtCfuiffiv airoO —
after he had just named Peter). Though St. Justin fied at the third hour (xv, 25), how the women came to
does not name Bfark as the writer of the memoirs, Uie the tomb very early^ when the sim had risen (xvi. 2) ;
fact tibat his disciple Tatian used our present Mark, in- (5) how the paralytic was carried by four (ii, 3), now
cludmg even the last twelve verses, in the composition the swine were about two thousand m niunber (v. 13).
of the ** Diatessaron'', makes it practically certain that how Christ began to send forth the Apostles, two and
St. Justin knew our present Second Gospel, and like.the two (vi. 7). This mass of information which is want-
other Fathers connected it with St. Peter. ' ing in tne other Synoptics, and of which the above in-
If , then, a consistent and widespread early tradition stances are only a sample, proves beyond doubt that
is to count for anything, St. Mark wrote a work based the writer of the Second Gospel must have drawn
upon St. Peter's preaching. It is absurd to seek to from some independent source, and that this source
destroy the force of this tiadition by suggesting that must have been an eyewitness. And when we reflect
all the subsequent authorities relied upon Papias, who that incidents connected with Peter, such as the cure
may have been deceived. Apart from the utter im- of his mother-in-law and his three denials, are tokl with
probability that Papias, who had spoken with many special details in this Gospel; that the accounts of the
disciples of the Apostles, could have been deceived on raising to life of the daugnter of JaTrus, of the Trans-
such a question, the fact that Irensus seems to place figuration, and of the Agony in the Garden, three oo-
the composition of Mark's work after Peter's death, casions on which only Peter and James and John were
while Ongen and others represent the Apostle as ap- present, show special signs of first-hand knowledge
proving of it (see below, v), shows that all do not j[cf. Swete, op. cit., p. xliv) such as might be expected
draw from the same source. Moreover, Clement of in the work of a disciple of Peter (Matthew ana Luke
Alexandria mentions as his source, not any sin^ au- may also have relied upon the Petrine tradition for
thority, but "the elders from the beginning" (tQv their accounts of these events, but naturally Peter's
d9f4Ka6€v Tpwpvrfpvp — Euseb., " Hist. Eccl.", VI, xiv, in disciple would be more intimately acquainted with ibe
P.G.,XX, 552). The only question, then, that can be tradition); finally, when we remember that, thou^
raised with any shadow of reason, is whether St. the Second Gospel records with special f ulln^ PetePs
Mark's work was identical with our present Second three deniab, it alone among the Gospels omits all ref-
Gospel, and on this there is no room for doubt. Early erenoe to the promise or bestowal upon him of the
Christian Uterature knows no trace of an Urmarkua primacy (cf. Matt., xvi, 18-19; Luke, xxii, 32; J<^m,
different from our present Gospel, and it is impossible xxi, 15--17), we are led to conclude that the e;^witne88
that a Work giving the Prince of the Apostles' account to whom St. Mark was indebted for his special infor-
of Christ's words and deeds could have disappeared ut- mation was St. Peter himself, and that our present
terly^ without leaving any trace behind. Nor can it Second Gospel, like Mark's work referred to by Papias,
be said that the original Mark has been worked up into is based upon Peter's discourses. This internal evi-
our pfesent Second Gospel, for then, St. Mark not be- dence, if it does not actuall^r prove the traditional
ing the actual writer of the present work and its sub- view regarding the Petrine origin of the Second Goa-
stance being due to St. Peter, there would have been pel, is altogether ccmsistent with it and tends strongly
no reason to attribute it to Mark, and it would un- to confirm it.
doubtedly have been known in the Church, not by the III. Original Lanouaob, Vocabulabt, and Stsub.
title it bears, but as the ''Gospel according to Peter". — It has always been the common opinion that the
Internal evidence strongly confirms the view that Second Gospel was written in Greek, and there is no
our present Second Gospel is the work referred to by soUd reason to doubt the correctness of this view. We
Papias. That work, as has been seen, was based on learn from Juvenal (Sat.. Ill, 60 sq. ; VI, 187 sqq.) and
Peter's discourses. Now we learn from Acts (i, 21-22; Martial (Epig., XIV, 58) that Greek was very indely
X, 37;-41) that Peter's preaching dealt chiefly with the spoken at Rome in the first century. Various infiu-
Sublic life. Death, Resurrection, and Ascension of ences were at work to spread the language in the capi-
hrist. So our present Mark, confining itself to the tal of the Empire. ** Indeed, there was a double tend-
same limits, omitting all reference to Christ's birth and ency which embraced at once classes at both ends of
private life, such as is found in the opening chapters of the social scale. On the one hand among slaves and
Matthew and Luke, and commencing with the preach- the trading classes there were swarms of Greeks and
ing of the Baptist, ends with Christ's Resurrection and Greek-speaking Orientals. On the other hand in the
Ascension. Again (1) the graphic and vivid touches higher ranks it was the fashion to speak Greek; chil-
peculiar to our present Second Gospel, its minute notes dren were taught it by Greek nurses ; and in after life
m regard to ^2) persons, (3) places, (4) times, and (5) the use of it was carried to the pitch of affectation"
numbers, pomt to an eyewitness like Peter as the (Sanday and Headlam, "Romans", p. Ui). We know,
source ot tne writer's information. Thus we are told too, that it was in Greek St. Paul wrote to the Ro-
(1) how Jesus took Peter's mother-in-law by the hand mans, and from Rome St. Clement wrote to Uie
and raised her up (i, 31), how with anger He looked Church of Corinth in the same language. It is true
round about on His critics (iii, 5), how He took little that some cursive Greek MSS. of the tenth century or
children into His arms and blessed them and Laid His later speak of the Second Gospel as written in Latin
hands upon them (ix, 35; x, 16), how those who car- (4yp^4>v 'Pwfu^urrt iv 'Pc&mt?), but scant and late
ried the paralytic unQovered the roof (ii, 3, 4), how dence like this, which is probably only a deduction
Christ commanded that the multitude should sit down from the fact that the Gospel was written at Rome,
upon the green grass, and how they sat down in com- can be allowed no weight. Equally improbable seems
^mies, in hundreds and in fifties (vi, 39-40); (2) how the view of Blass (Philol. of the Gosp., 196 sc|q.) that
Jsaegand John left their father in the boat with the the Gospel was originally written in Aramaic. Thft
677
arguments advanced by BlasB (cf. also Allen in "Ex- v^vQv or V^fnfwrivQv is to be read in v, 1, -fyrhp^i or
poittor". 6th series, I, 436 8C[q.) merely show at most hrdu in vi, 20, and whether the difficult a^ou, at-
that Mark may have thou^tmAramaie; andnaturally tested by B, Kf A, L, or a^4f is to be read in vi, 20l
his simple, colloquial Greek discloses much of the na- But the great textual problem of the Gospel concerns
tive Aramaic tinge. Blass indeed urges that the yari- the genuineness of the last twelve verses. Three
ous readings in the MS8. of Mark, and the variations conclusions of the Gospel are known: the long con-
in Patristic quotations from the Gospel, are relics of elusion, as in our Bibles, containing verses 9-20, the
different translations of an Aramaic original, but the short one aiding with verse 8 (^0o/£i;rro Tdp), and an
instances he adduces in su])port of this are quite in- intermediate form which (with some slight variations)
conclusive. An Aramaic original is absolutely incon^ runs as follows: *'And they immediately made known
patible with the testimony of Papias, who evidently all that had been commanded to those about Peter,
contrasts the work of Peter's interpreter with the Ara- And after this, Jesus EUmself appeared to them, and
maic woik of Matthew. It is incompatible, too, with through them sent forth from East to West the holy
the testimony of all the other Fathers, who represent and incorruptible proclamation of the eternal salva-
the Gospel as written by Peter's interpreter tor the tion." Now this third form may he dismissed at
Christians of Rome. once. Four uncial MSS., dating from the seventh to
The vocabulary of the Second €ospel embraces 1330 the ninth century, give it, indeed, after xvi, 8, but
distinct words, of which 60 are proper names. Eighty each of them also makes reference to Uie longer end-
words, exclusive of proper names, are not found elseN ing as an alternative (for particulars ef. Swete, op.
where in the N. T. ; this, however, is a small number in cit., pp. cv-cvii). It stands also in the margin of the
comparison with more than 250j)eculiar words found cursive MS. 274, in the margin of the Harclean Syriac
in the Gospel of St. Luke. Of St. Mark's words, 150 and of two MSS. of the Memphitic version; and in a
are shared only by the other two Synoptiste; 15 are few MSS. of the Ethiopic it stands between verse 8 and
shared only by St. John (Gospel); and 12 others bv the ordinary conclusion. Only one authority, the Old
one or other of the Synoptiste and St. John. Thougn Latin k, gives it alone (in a very corrupt rendering),
the words found but once in the N. T. {(Lwa^ \ey6fi£wa) without any reference to the longer form. Such evi-
are not relatively numerous in the Second Gospel, they dence, especially when compared with that for the
are often remarkable ; we meet with words rare in later other two endinns, can have no weight, and in fact, no
Greek such as ttrer, rcudi^^cy, with colloquialisms like scholar regards this intermediate conclusion as having
K€rrvpUf9^ ^i^TTfs^ cx€Kov\drvp, and with transliterations any title to acceptance.
such as KoppSiPj ToKttpdk Ko^n, i<p<^d, ^ppovrei (cf We may pass on, then, to consider how the case
Swete, op. cit., p. xlvii) . Of the words peculiar to St. stands between the long conclusion and the short, L e.
Mark about one-fourth are non-classical, while among between accepting xvi, 9-20, as a genuine portion of
those peculiar to St. Matthew or to St. Luke the pro- the original Gospel, or making the oriemal end wilii
portion of non-classical words is only about one- xvi. 8. In favour of the snort ending Eusebius
seventh (cf. Hawkins, " Hor. Synopt. ", 171). On the ("Quaest. adMarin.",inP.G.,XXII, 937-40) is appealed
whole, the vocabulary of the ^cond Gospel pointe to to as saying that an apologist might get rid of any^
the writer as a foreigner who was well acquainted with difficulty arising from a comparison of Matt., xxviu,
colloquial Greek, but a comparative stranger to the 1, with Mark, xvi, 9, in regard to the hour of Ghrist's
literaiy use of the language. Resurrection, by pointing out that the passage in Mark
St. Mark's style is clear, direct, terse, and pictur- bcannnine with verse 9 is not conteined m all the
esque, if at times a little harsh. He makes very fre- MSS. of fiie Gospel. The historian then goes on him-
quent use of participles, is fond of the historical prea- self to say that in nearly all the MSS. of Amrk, at least,
ent, of direct narration, of double negatives, of the in the accurate ones (axfShv h dveuri rots Arriypd^s
copious use of adverbs to define and emphasise his . . . rd yody dxptfirj), the Gospel ends with xvi, 8. It
expressions. He varies his tenses very freely, some- is true, Eusebius gives a second reply which the apolo-
times to bring out di£Ferent shades of meaning (vii, 35; gist might make, and which supposes the genuineness
XV, 44)^ sometimes apparently to give life to a di&- of the disputed passage, and he says that this latter
logue (ix, 34; xi. 27). The style is often most com- reply might be made by one *' who did not dare to set
pressed, a great aeal being conveyed in very few words aside anything whatever that was found in any way
(i, 13, 27 ; xii, 38-40), yet at otlier times adverbs and in the Gospel writing ''. But the whole passage shows
synonyms and even rraetitions are used to hei^ten clearly enoudb that Eusebius was inchned to reject
the impression and lend colour to the picture. Clauses everythinfl; after xvi, 8. It is commonly held, too,
are generally strung together in the simplest way by thathe did not apply his canons to the disputed verses,
Kal ; d4 is not used half as frequently as in Matthew or thereby showing clearly that he did not rc^;ard them as
Mark wrote in Latin or even understood the language, the passage was wanting in nearly all Greek MSS.
It proves merely that he was familiar with the com- (omnibus Grcecia libris pcene hoc capiitUum in fine non
mon Greek of the Roman Empire, which freely adopted habentibus) , but he quotes it elsewhere (' ' Comment, on
Latin words and, to some extent, Latin phraseology Matt.'', in P. L., XaVI, 214; *' Ad Hedib.", in P. L.,
(cf . Blass,/' Philol. of the Gosp.", 211 sq.). Indeed XXII, 987-88), and, as we know, he incorporated it in
such familiarity with what we may call Roman Greek the Vulgate. It is quite clear that the whole passable
strongly confirms the traditional view that Mark was where Jerome makes the statement about the dis-
an "interpreter" who spent some time at Rome. puted verses being absent from Greek MSS. is hor-
IV. State of Text and Integritt. — The text of rowed almost verl^tim from Eusebius, and it may be
the Second Gospel, as indeed of all the Gospels, is doubted whether his stetement really adds any inde-
excellentl;jr attested. It is contained in all tne pri- pendent weight to the statement of Eusebius. It
mary uncial MSS., C, however, not having the text seems most I&ely also that Victor of Antioch, the first
complete, in all the more important later uncials, in the commentetor of the Second Gospel, rea^arded xvi, 8.
great mass of cursives; in all the smctent versions: as the conclusion. If we add to this that the Gospel
Latin (both Vet. It., in ite best MSS., and Vulg.), Syriac ends with xvi, 8, in the two oldest Greek MSS., B and
(Pesh., Curet., Sin., Hard., Palest.), Coptic (Mem;^. H, in the Sin. Ssrriac and in a few Ethiopic MSS., and
andTheb.), Armenian, Gothic, and Ethiopic; and it is that the cursive MS. 22 and some Armenian MSS.
largely attested by Patristic quotations. Some textual indicate doubt as to whether the true endin^^ is at
problems, however, still remain, e. g< whether Ttpa- verse &or verse 20, we have mentioned all the evideiaoe
678
that can be adduced in favour of the short conclusion, of Eusebius. Dean Burgon, while contending for the
The external evidence in favoiu: of the long* or or- genuineness of the verses, suggested that the omiasioii
dinary, conclusion is exceedingly strong. The paa- zuight have come about as follows. One of the an-
sage stands in all the great uncials excepts and K — ^in cient church lessons ended with Mark, xvi. 8, and
A, C, (D), E, F, G, H, K, M (N), S, U, V, X, r, A, (E, 2), Bureon suggested that the t^Xoi, which would stand
0,3 — in all the cursives, in all the Latin MSS.(O.L. and at the enoTof such lesson, may have misled some
Vulg.) except k, in all the Syriac versions except the scribe who had before him a copy of the Four Gospels
Sinaitic (in the Pesh., Curet., Harcl., Palest.), m the in which Mark stood last, and from which the last leaf,
Coptic, Gothic, and most MSS. of the Armenian. It containing the disputed verses, was missing. Given
is cited or alluded to, in the fourth century, by Aphra- <me such defective cop^, i^d supposing it fell into the
ates, the Syriac Table of Canons, Macarius Magnes, hands of ignorant scribes, the error might easily be
Didymus, the Syriac Acts of the Apostles, Leontius, spread. Others have suggested that the omission is
Pseudo-Ephraem, Cyril of Jerusalem, Epiphanius, probably to be traced to Alexandria. That Church
Ambrose, Augustine, and Chrysostom; in tne third ended the Lenten fast and commenced the celebratioc
century, by Hippolytus, Vincentius, the *'Acts of of Easter at midnight, contrary to the custom of most
Pilate , the " Apostolic Constitutions", and, probably Churches, which waited for cock-crow (cf . Dionysius
by Celsus; in the second, by Ircnseus most explicitly of Alexandria in P. G., X, 1272 sq.). Now Mark, xvi,
as the end of Mark's Gospel (*' In fine autem evangelii 9: ''But he rising early'^ etc., might easily be taken
ait Marcus et quidem dominus Jesus", etc. — Mark, to favour the practice of the .other Churches, and it is
xvi 19), by Tatian in the '^Diatessaron", and most suggested that the Alexandrians may have omitted
probably by Justin (*' Apol. I", 45) and Hermas (Pas- verse 9 and what foUows from their lectionaries, and
tor, IX, XXV, 2). Moreover, in the fourth century from these the omission might pass on into MSS. of
certainly, and probably in the third, the passage was the Gospel. Whether there be any fqroe in these
used in the Liturgy of the Greek Churcn, sufficient suggestions, they point at any rate to ways in whidi
evidence that no doubt whatever was entertained as it was possible that the passage, though genuine, should
to its genuineness. Thus, if the authenticity of the have been absent from a number of MbS. in the time
passage were to be judged by external evidence alone, of Eusebius; while, on the other hand, if the verses
there could hardly be any doubt about it. were not written by St. Mark, it is extremely hard to
Much has been made of the silence of some third and understand how they could have been so widely re-
fourth century Fathers, their silence being interpreted ceived in the secona century as to be accepted by
to mean that they either did not know the passage or Tatian and Irensus, and probablv by Justin and Her-
rejected it. Thus Tertullian,SS. Cyprian, Athanasi us, mas, and find a place in the Old Latin and Syriac
Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Cyril of Versions.
Alexandria are appealed to. In the case of Tertullian When we turn to the internal evidence^ the number,
and Cyprian there is room for some doubt, as they and still more the character^ of the peculiarities is oer-
might naturally enough be expected to have quoted tainly striking. The f ollowmg words or phrases occur
or alluded to Mark, xvi, 16, if they received it; but nowhere else in the Gospel: wptih-ii aap^rov (v. 9), not
the passage can hardly have been unknown to Athana- found again in the N. T., instead of r^tl /ua[t] [tQw]
8ius(298-373),sinceit was received by Didjrmus (309- aafifidrvp (v. 2), iKeiPot used absolutely (10, 11, 20),
394), his contemporary in Alexandria (P. G., XXXIX, rop€i^/uu (10, 12, 15), ecdofAoi (11, 14), drurr4w (11, 16)^
687), nor to Basil, seeing it was received by his younger fifrdk raOra and frepoi (12), rapaKoXovBiut and 4w r^
brother Gregory of Nyssa (P. G., XL VI, 652), nor to Mftari, (17), A KOpiot (19, 20), iraiTttxcO, avif€py^,
Gregory of Nazianzus, since it was known to his /Sf/Scu^ciy, iwoKoKovOita (20). Instead of the usual con-
younger brother Csesarius (P. G., XXXVIII, 1178); nexion by koU and an occasional 94 , we have /xcrd H
and as to Cyril of Alexandria, he actually quotes it toOto (12), Co-Tepoi'[W] (14), A /livcdp (19), iKciiKu d4 (20).
from Nestonus (P. G., LXXVI, 85). The only seri- Then it is urged that the subject of verse 9 has not been
ous difficulties are created by its omission in B and K mentioned immediately before; that Mar;y Magdalen
and by the statements of Eusebius and Jerome. But seems now to be introduced for the first tmie, though
Tischendorf proved to demonstration (Proleg., p. xx, in fact she has been mentioned three times in the pre-
1 sqq.) that the two famous MSS. are not here two in- ceding sixteen verses; that no reference is made to an
depNsndent witnesses, because the scribe of B copied appearance of the Lord in Galilee, though this was to
the leaf in M on which our passage stands. Moreover, be expected in view of the message of verse 7. Com-
in both MSS., the scribe, though concluding with verse paratively little importance attaches to the last three
8, betrays knowledge that something more followed points, for the subject of verse 9 is sufficiently obvious
either in his archetype or in other MS§., for in B, con- from the context; the reference to Magdalen as the
trary to his custom, he leaves more than a colunm woman out of whom Christ had cast seven devils is ex-
vacant after verse 8, and in M verse 8 is followed by an plicable here, as showing the loving mercy of the Lord
elaborate arabesque, such as is met with nowhere else to one who before had been so wretched ; and the men-
in the whole MS. , showing that the scribe was aware of tion of an appearance in Galilee was hardly necessary,
the existence of some conclusion which he meant the important thing being to prove, as this passage
deliberately to exclude (cf. Comely, *' Introd.", iii, does, tnat Christ was really risen from the dead, and
96-99;Salmon,*'Introd.", 144-48). Thus both MSS. that His Apostles, almost against their wills^ were
bear witness to the existence of a conclusion following forced to believe the fact. But, even when this is said,
after verse 8, which they omit. Whether B and K are the cumulative force of the evidence against the Mar-
two of the fifty MSS. which Constantine commissioned can origin of the passage is considerable. Some ex-
Ehisebius to have copied for his new capital we cannot planation indeed can be offered of nearly every point
be sure; but at all events they were written at a time {cf. Knabenbauer, "Comm. in Marc", 445-47), but it
when the authority of Eusebius was paramount in is the fact that in the short space of twelve verses so
Biblical criticism, and probably their authority is but many points require explanation that constitutes the
the authority of Eusebius. The real difficulty, there- strength of the evidence. There is nothing strange
fore, against the passage, from external evidence, is about the use, in a passage like this, of many words
reduced to what Eusebius and St. Jerome say about rare with the author. Ctoly in the last chapter is
its omission in so many Greek MSS., and these, as dwurriu used by St. Luke also (Luke, xxiv, 11, 41),
Eusebius says, the accurate ones. But whatever be h-tpos is used oiJy once in St. John's Gospel (xix. 37),
the explanation of this omission, it must Ix? remem- and wapaKo\ov04(a is used only once by St. Luke (i, 3).
b^n»<l that, as we have seen alx)ve, the disput^Ml verses Besides, in other passages St. Mark uses many words
were widely known and received long before the time that are not found in the Gospel outside the particular
BSABX 679
passage. In the ten verses, Mark, iv^ 20-29, the probably misunderstood Eusebius, who says that
so many peculiar features, not only of vocabulary, but adopted the suggestion of Richard Simon (** Hist. crit.
of matter and construction^ that leaves room for doubt du Texte du N. T/' 1689, 107) that the Evangelist
as to the Marcan authorship of the verses. ma^r have published Doth a Roman and an Egjrptian
In weighing the internal evidence, however, account edition of the Gospel. But this view is sufficiently
must be taken of the improbability of the Evangelist's refuted by the silence of the Alexandrian Fathers,
concluding with vers| 8. Apart from the unlikelihood Other opinions, such as that the Gospel was written in
of his endmg with the particle ydp, he could never de- Asia Minor or at Syrian Antioch, are not deserving of
Uberately close his account of the "good news" (i, 1) any consideration.
with the note of terror ascribed in xvi, 8, to some ot The date of the Gospel is uncertain. The external
Christ's followers. Nor could an Evangelist, ^pe- evidence is not decisive, and the internal does not as-
cially a disciple of St. Peter, willingly conclude ms Gob- sist very much. St. Clement of Alexandria, Origen,
pel without mentioning some appearance of the risen Eusebius, Tertullian. and St. Jerome si^iify that it
Lord (Acts, i, 22; x, 37-41). If, then, Mark concluded was written before St. Peter's death. The subscrip-
with verse 8. it must have been because he died or was tion of many of the later uncial and cursive MS8.
interrupted before he could write more. But tradition states that it was written in the tenth or twelfth year
points to bis living on after the Gospel was completed, after the Ascension (a. d. 38-40). The ** Paschal
since it represents him as bringing the work with him Chronicle " assigns it to a. d. 40, and the "Chronicle "
to E^pt or as handing it over to the Roman of Eusebius to the third year of Claudius (a. d. 43).
Christians who had asked for it. Nor b it easy to im- Possibly these earlv dates may b^ only a deduction
derstand how, if he lived on. he could have been so in- from the tradition that Peter came to Rome in the seo-
temipted as to be eflfectually prevented from adding, ond jrear of Claudius, a. d. 42 (cf . Euseb., " Hist. Eccl.",
sooner or later, even a short conclusion. Not many II, xiv, in P. G., Xa, 472; Jer., "De Vir. 111.", i, in
minutes would have been needed to write such a pas- P. L., XXIII). St. Irenseus, on the other hand, seems
sage as xvi, 9-20, and even if it was his desire, as Zahn to place the composition of the Gospel after the death
. without reason suggests (Introd.. II, 479) ^ to add some of reter and Paul (f««rd W r^p Tc&naw H^odow — "Adv.
considerable portions to the work, it is still inconoeiv- Hsr.", III. i, in P. G., VII, 844). Paj)ias, too, assert-
able how he could have either circulated it himself or ing that Mark wrote according to his recollection of
allowed his friends to circulate it without providing it Peter's discourses, has been taken to imply that Peter
with at least a temporary and provisional conclusion, was dead. This, noweyer, does not necessarily follow
In every hypothesis, then, xvi, 8, seems an impossible from the words of Papias, for Peter might have been
ending, and we are forced to conclude either that the absent from Rome. Besides, Clement of Alexandria
true ending is lost or that we have it in the disputed (Euseb., "Hist. Eccl.", VI, xiv, in P. G., XX, 552)
verses. Now, it is not easy to see how it coula have seems to say that Peter was alive and in Rome at the
been lost. Zahn affirms that it has never been estab- time Mark wrote, though he gave the Evangelist no
lished nor made probable that even a single complete help in his work. There is left, therefore, the testi-
sentence of the N. T. has disappeared altogether from mony of St. Irenseus a^inst that of all the other early
the text transmitted by the Cnurch (Introd., II, 477). witnesses; and it is an mteresting fact that most jpres-
In the present case, if the true ending were lost during ent-day Rationalist and Protestant scholars prefer to
Mark's lifetime, the question at once occurs: Why did follow Irensus and accept the later date for Mark's
he not replace it? And it is difficult to understand Gospel, though they reject almost unanimous! v the
how it could have been lost after his death, for before saint's testimony, given in the same context and sup-
then, unless he died within a few days from the com- ported bv all antiquity, in favour of the priority of
pletion of the Gospel, it must have been copied, and it Matthew s Gospel to Biuix^'s. Various attempts have
IS most unlikely tnat the same verses could have dis- been made to explain the passage in Irenseus so as to
appeared from several copies. brin^; him into agreement with the other early au-
It will be seen from this survey of the question that thonties (see, e. g. Comely. "Introd.", iii, 76-78;
there is no justification for the confident statement of Patrizi," De Evang.", 1, 38), out to the present writer
Zahn that 'Ut may be regarded as one of the most cer- they appear unsuccessful if the existing text must be
tain of critical conclusions, that the words ^0o/3odrro regarded as correct. It seems much more reasonable,
ydpj xvi, 8, are the last words in the book which were however, to believe that Irenseus was mistaken than
written by the author himself" (Introd., II, 467). that all the other authorities are in error, and hence
Whatever be the fact, it is not at all certain that Mark the external evidence would show that Mark wrote be-
did not write the disputed verses. It may be that he foreo^eter's death (a. d. 64 or 67).
did not; that thev are from the pen of some other in- From internal evidence we can conclude that the
spired writer, and were appended to the Gospel in the Gospel was written before a. d. 70, for there is no allu-
first century or the beginning of the second. An Ar- sion to the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem,
menian MS., written in a. d. 986, ascribes them to a such as might naturally be expected in view of the pre-
presbyter named Ariston, who mav be the same with diction in xiii, 2, if that event nad already taken place,
the presbyter Aristion. mentioned by Papias as a con- On the other hand, if xvi, 20: " But they going forth
temporary of St. Jonn in Asia. Catholics are not preached everywhere ", be from St. Mark's pen, the
bound to hold that the verses were written by St. Gospel cannot well have been written before tne close
Mark. But they are canonical Scripture, for the of tne first Apostolic journey of St. Paul (a. d. 49 or
Council of Trent (Sess. IV), in defining that all the 50), for it is seen from Acts, xiv, 26; xv. 3, that only
parts of the Sacrea Books are to be received as sacred then had the conversion of the Gentiles oegun on any
and canonical, had especially in view the disputed large scale. Of course it is possible that previous to
parts of the Gospels, ot which this conclusion of Mark this the Apostles had preached far and wide among
IS one (cf. Theiner, *' Acta gen. Cone. Trid.", I^ 71 sq.). the dispen^ Jews, but, on the whole, it seems more
Hence, whoever wrote the verses, they are inspired, probable that the last verse of the Gospel, occurring in
and must be received as such by every Catholic. ^ a work intended for European readers, cannot have
V. Place and Date op Composition. — It is certain been written before St. Paul's arrival in Europe (a. d.
that the Gospel was written at Rome. St. Chrysos- 50-61). Taking the external and internal evidence
torn indeed speaks of Egypt as the place of composi- together, we may conclude that the date of the Gospel
tion (" Ilomr 1 on Matt.", 3, in P. G., LVII, 17), but he prolMibly lies somewhere between a. d. 50 and 67.
680
VI. Destination and Purpose. — ^Tradition repre- that Matthew (xxvi, 10) seems to say that Jesus
sents the Gospel as written primarily for Roman cleansed the Temple the day of His triumiihal entiy
Christians (see above, II), and mtemal evidence, if it into Jerusalem and cm^ed the ^ tree only on the
does not quite prove the truth of this view, is alto- following day, while Mark assigns ooth events to the
gether in accord with it. The language and customs following day, and places the cursing of the fi^ tree be-
of the Jews are supposed to be unknown to at least fore the cleansing of the Temple; and while Mattiiew
some of the readers. Hence terms like Boanipyh (iii, seems to say that the e£Fect of the curse and the aston-
17), Kopfiap (vii, 11), i<f>^d (vii, 34) are interpreted; ishment of the disciples thereat followed immediatdy,
Jewish customs are explained to illustrate the nar- Mark says that it was only on the following day the
rative (vii, 3-4; xiv, 12) ; the situation of the Mount disciples saw that the tree was withered from the roots
of Olives in relation to the Temple is pointed out (xiii, (Matt., xxi, 12-20; Mark, xi, 11-21). It is often said,
3); the genealogy of Christ is omittea; and the O. T. too, that Luke departs from Mark's arrangement in
is quot^ (Hily once (i, 2-3; xv, 28, is omitted by B, K, placingthe disclosure of the traitor after the institution
A, C, D, X). Moreover, the evidence, as far as it of the Blessed Eucharist, but if, as seenos certain, the
goes, points to Roman readers. Pilate and his office traitor was referred to many times during the Supper,
are supposed to be known (xv, 1 — cf. Matt., xxvii, 2; this difference may be more apparent than real (Mark,
Luke, ill, 1); other coins are reduced to their value xiv, 18-24; Luke, xxii, 19-23). And not only is there
in Roman money (xii, 42) ; Simon of Cyrenc is said this considerable agreement as to subject-matter and
to be the father of Alexander and Rufus (xv, 21), a arrangement, but in manv paasa^, some of consider-
fact of no importance in itself, but mentioned prob- able length, there is such coincidence of words and
ably because Kufus was known to the Roman Chris- phrases that it is impossible to believe the accounts to
tians (Rom., xvi, 13); finally Latinisms, or uses of be wholly independent. On the other hand, side by
vulgar Greek, such as must have been particularly side with this coincidence, there is strange and fre-
common in a cosmopolitan city like Ilome, occur quently recurrine divergence. "Let any passage
more frequently than in the other Gospels (v, 9, 15; common to the three Synoptists be put to the test
vi, 37; XV, 39, 44; etc.). The phenomena presented will be much as follows;
The Second Gospel has no such statement of its first, perhaps, we shall have three, five, or more words
purpose as is found m the Third and the Fourth (Luke, identical; then as manv wholly distinct; then two
1, 1-3; John, xx, 31). The Tubingen critics long clauses or more expressed in the same words, but differ-
regarded it as a ''Tendency" writinK» composed for ing in order; then a clause contained in one or two, and
the purpose of mediating between ana reconciling the n<^ in the third; then several words identical; then a
Petrine and Pauline parties in the early Church, clause or two not only wholly distinct, but apparently
Other Rationalists have seen in it an attempt to allay inconsistent; and so forth; with recurrences of the
the disappointment of Christians at the delay of same arbitrary and anonialous alterations, ooinci-
Christ's Coming, and have held that its object was to d^ices, and transpositions ( Alford, " Greek Tseta-
set forth the Lord's earthly Ufe in such a manner as to menf , I, prol., 5).
show that apart from His glorious return He had sufiS- The question then arises, how are we to explain this
ciently attested the Messianic character of His mis- very remarkable relation of the three Gospels to each
sion. But there is no need to have recourse to Ra- other, and, in particular, for our present purpose, how
tionalists to learn the purpose of the Gospel. Hie are we to explain the relation of Mark to tne other two?
Fathers witness that it was written to put into per- For a full discussion of this most important Hterary
mancnt form for the Roman Church the discourses of problem see Synoptics. It can barely be touched
St. Peter, nor is there reason to doubt this. And the nere, but cannot be wholly passed over in silence. At
Gospel itself shows clearly enough that Mark meant, the outset may be put aside, in the writer's opinion,
by the selection he made from Peter's discourses, to the theory of the common dependence of the three
prove to the Roman Christians, and still more perhaps (kNspels upon oral tradition, for, except in a veiy
to those who might think of becoming Christians, that mooified form, it is incapable by itself alone of ex-
Jesus was the Almighty Son of God. To this end, in- plaining all the phenomena to be accounted for. It
stead of quoting prophecy, as Matthew does to prove seems impossible that an oral tradition could account
that Jesus was the Messias, he sets forth in ^phic for the extraordinary similari^ between, e. e. Mark,
language Christ's power over all nature, as evidenced ii, 10-11, and its parallels. Literaiv dependence or
by His miracles. The dominant note of the whole connexion of some kind must be admitted, and the
Gospel is sounded in the very first verse: ''The be- question is, what is the nature of that dependence or
ginning of the ffospel of Jesus Christ, Son of God" (the connexion? Does Mark depend upon Matthew, or upon
words " Son of God" are removed from the text by both Matthew and Luke, or was it prior to and utilised
Westcott and Hort, but quite improperly — cf. Kna- in both, or are all three, perhaps, connected through
benb., "Comm. in Marc.", 23), and the Evangelist's their common dependence upon earlier documents or
main purpose throughout seems to be to prove the through a combination of some of these causes? Li
truth of this title and of the centurion's verdict: " In- reply, it is to }>e noted, in the first place, that all early
deed this man was (the) son of God" (xv, 39). tradition represents St. Matthew's Gospel as the first
VII. Relationto Matthew AND Luke. — The three written; and this must be understood of our present
Synoptic Gospels cover to a large extent the same Matthew, for Euscbius, with the work of Papias before
ground. Mark, however, has nothing corresponding him, had no doubt whatever that it was our present
to the first two chapters of Matthew or the first two of Matthew which Papias held to have been written in
Luke, venr little to represent most of the long dis- Hebrew (Aramaic). The order of the Gospels, accord-
courses of Christ in Matthew, and perhaps nothing ing to the Fathers and early writers who refer to
quite oarallel to the long section in Luke, ix, 5I-xviii, the subject, was Matthew, Mark, Luke, John. Clem-
14. 6n the other hano, he has very little that is not ent of Alexandria is alone in signifying that Luke
found in either or both of the other two Synoptists, the wrote before Mark (Euseb., " Hist. Eccl. , VI, xiv, in
amount of matter that is peculiar to the Second Uos- P. G., XX, 552), and not a single ancient writer held
pel, if it were all put together, amounting onlv to less that Mark wrote before Matthew. St. Augustine,
than sixty verses. In the arrangement of tne com- assuming the priority of Matthew, attempted to ao-
mon matter the three Gospels differ veiy considerably count for the relations of the first two Gospels by
up to the point where Herod Antipas is said to have holding that the second is a compendium of tne first
heard of the fame of Jesus (Matt., xiii, 58; Mark, vi, {Matihanim sccutus ianquam jyedisequus et breviaUfr —
13; Luke, ix, 0). From this point onward the order "De Cons«'ns. Evang.' , I. ii, in P. L., XXXIV).
of events Is practically the same in all three, except But, as soon as the serious study of tlie Synoptic
681
Problem began, it was seen that this fiew could 122;SalmondinHast./'DiGt. of the Bible", III, 261;
not exijain the faots, and it was abandoned. Tlie Piummer, ''Gospel of Matthew'* (1909), p. xi; Stan-
dependence of Mark's Qospel upon MattiieVs, how* ton, "The Gospels as Historical Documents" (1909),
ever, though not after the manner of a compen- 30-37; Jackson, *' Cambridge Biblical Essays" (1909),
dium, is still strenuously advocated. Zahn holds 455.
that the Second Gospel is dependent on the Aramaic Yet, notwithstanding the wide acceptance this
Matthew as well as upon Peter's discourses for its theory has gained^ it may be doubted whether it can
matter, and, to some extent, for its order; and that enable us to explam all the phenomena of the first two
the Greek Matthew is in turn dependent upon Mark Gospels; Orr, "The Resurrection of Jesus" (1908), 61-
for its phraseology. So, too,Belser (^'Einleitungindas 72, does not think it can, nor does Zahn (Introd., U,
N. T.' , 1889) and Bonaccorsi (** I tre primi Van^eli ", 601-17), some of whose arguments against it have not
1904). It will be seen at once that this view la m ao- yet been grappled with. It offers indeed a ready ex-
cordance with tradition in regard to the priority of planation of tne similarities in language between the
Matthew, and it also explains the similarities in the two Gospels, but so does Zahn's theory of the depend-
first two Gospels. Its chief weakness seems to the ence of tne Greek Matthew upon Mark. It helps also
present writer to lie in its inabilitv to explain some of to explain the order of the two Gospels, and to account
Mark's omissions. It is ver^ hard to see, for instance, for certain omissions in Matthew (cf . especially Allen,
why, if St. Mark had the First Gospel before him, he op. cit., pp. xxxi-xxxiv). But it leaves many differ-
omitted all reference to the cure of the centurion's enoes un^cplained. Why, for instance, should Mat-
servant (Matt., viii, 5-13). This miracle, by reason thew, if he had Mark's Gospel b^ore him, omit refer-
of its relation to a Roman officer, ought to have had ence to the singular fact recorded by Mark that Christ
very special interest for Roman readers, and it is ex« in the desert was with the wild beasts (Mark, i, 13)7
tremel^r difficult to account for its omission by St. Why should he omit (Matt., iv, 17) from Mark's sum-
Mark, if he had St. Matthew's Gospel before him.' mary of Christ's first preachmg, ''Repent and believe
Again, St. Mdtthew relates that when, after the feed- in the Gospel " (Marie, i. 15), the very important words
ing of the five thousand, Jesus had come to the disci- ** Believe in the Goqsel", which were so appropriate to
pies, walking on the water, those "whg were in the the occasion? Why should he (iv, 21) onut dXfyoy
boat "came and adored him, saying: Indeed Thou and tautologically add "two brothers" to Mark, i, 19,
art [the] Son of God" (Matt., xiv, 33). Now, Mark's or fail (tv, 22) to mention "the hired servants" with
report of this incident is: " And ne went up to them whom the sons of Zeb^ee left their father in the boat
into the ship, and the wind ceased: and they were ex- (Mark, i, 20). especially since, as Zahn remarks, the
ceedingly amazed within themselves: for they imder- mention would have helped to save their desertion of
stood not concerning the loaves, but their heart was their father froin the appearance of being unfilial.
blinded" (Mark, vi, 51-52). Thus Mark makes no Why, again, should he omit viii, 28-34, the curious
reference to the adoration, nor to the striking con- fact that though the Gadarene demoniac after his cure
fession of the disciples that Jesus was [the] Son of (jod. wished to follow in the company of Jesus, he was not
How can we accoimt for this, if he had Bilatthew's permitted, but told to go home and announce to his
report before him? Once more, Matthew relates friends what great things the Lord had done for him
that, on the occasion of Peter's confession of Christ (Mark, v, 18-19). How is it that Matthew has no
near Csesarea Philippi, Peter said: "Thou art the reference to the widow's mite and Christ's touching
Christ, the Son of the living God" (Matt., xvi, 16). comment thereon (Mark, xii, 41-44) nor to the num-
But Mark's report of this magnificent confession is ber of the swine (Matt., viii, 3-34; Mark, v, 13), nor to
.merely: "Peter answering said to him: "Thou art the the disagpeement of the witnesses who appeared
Christ" (Mark, viii, 29). it appears impossible to ac- against Christ? (Matt., xxvi, 60; Mark, xiv, 56, 59).
count for the omission here of the words: " the Son of It is surely strange too, if he had Mark's Gospel be-
the living God", words which make the special glory fore him, tliat he should seem to represent so differ-
of this confession, if Mark made use of the First Gos- ^tly the time of the women's visit to the tomb, the
pel. It would seem, therefore, that the view which situation of the angel that appeared to them and the
makes the Second Gospel dependent upon the First is purpose for which they came (Matt., xxviii, 1-6;
not satisfactory. A somewhat detailed criticism of Marie, xvi, 1-6). A^^ain. even when we admit that
the view will be found in Stanton, "The Gospels as Matthew is grouping m chapters viii-4x, it is hard to
Historical Documents " (1909), part II, 38-42. see any satisfactory reason why, if he had Mark's Gos-
The prevailing view at present amon^ Protestant pel before him, he should so deal with the Marcan ao-
scholars and not a few Catholics, in America and Eng' count of Christ's earliest recorded miracles as not only
land as well as in Germany, is that St. Mark's Gos^mI to omit the first altogether, but to make the third and
is prior to St. Matthew's, and used in it as well as in second with Mark respectively the first and third with
St^ Luke's. Thus Gigot writes: "'The Gc«pel accord- himself (Matt., viii, 1-15; Mark, i, 23-31;40-45). Al-
:xx._ ^ __j .-xii.._-j i___xL_ .1^ _ , - , .X .. .V .. ts an explana-
rersion m the
, convmcmg.
pears that the narrative material of Matthew is simfuy For other difficulties see Zahn, " Introd.", II, 616-617.
'^ ' * - - - regard
estab-
, . . . J is op-
(Introd. to the N. T., 1905, 186-89). Allen, art. " Mat- posed to all the early evidence for the priority of Mat-
thew" in ''The International Critical Commentary", thew. The question is still sub judice, and notwitb-
speaks of the priority of the Second to the other two standing the immense labour bestowed upon it, fur-
S3rnoptic Gospels as ** the one solid result of literary ther patient inquiry is needed,
criticism"; and Buridtt in "The Gospel History^' It may possibly be that the solution of the peculiar
(1907), 37, writes: "We are bound to conclude that relations between Matthew and Mark is to be found
Mark contains the whole of a document which Mat* neither in the dependence of both upon oral tradition
thew and Luke have independently used, and, further, nor in the dependence of eitiier upon the other, but in
that Mark contains very little else beside. Tliis oon- the use by one or both of previous documents. If we
elusion is extremely important; it is the one solid oon- may suppose, and Luke, i, 1, gives ground for the sup-
tribution made by the scholarship of the nineteenth position, that Matthew had access to a document
century towards the solution of the Synoptic Prob- written probably in Aramaic, embodying the Petrine
lem". See also Hawkins, "Hone Synopt." (1899), tradition, he may have combined with it one or more
other dooumeiits, ooataining chiefly Chiut'a dw- „ . , „..,.,
Fetrine tradition. perhapBin a Qreek form, mi^t have II. eiOMiq.: Habhace, BnaAitadH -"
been known to Mark also; for the early authoritiea ??^„*^"™i 'nfraLi la •rtUfut to
h.rilyobUg.u.toboklth.the™i.no».o(p,» "SfST^tuS^Sratrii. „.. „„„_., «._.
existing documents. Papias (apud EiU., ' U.E. Ill, bkooxx, Syiurlieoit: Wuon, SynoptuoJIhtOotptUittOTak.
39; P.G. XX, 207) speaks of him aa writing down some "n't nomrff.T. Probltmn; Hawkisb. HoraSynojaica: Wutcdtt.
things as he remembered them, and if Clement of Alex- f.'°™"„,"/ J^Ir2"i r"^^ '^ '^li'^.'/^i'^TZ^^^
andna{ap. Eub., "H. E. VI, U; P.G. XX, 552) rep- EUn,miinihtaoiptU;Ri»s.siuduii«aLeGoiptiKMEtitMta.Tiu
resents the Romans as thinking that he oould wnte EartieM Oomtl; Barht, fA* Tmdiiion of Scripture; Bdmkitt,
.veything f ™. n,™.o,T, it doe. no, ., .U folio, ti^l J'-^''^ i'SLTS.'SSTcJZS.^'S: l^i. "SSn,
he did. Let uB suppoae, then, that Matthew em- OKB.Tiu,RrumtT«iiimorjtna,tb.ia;aTiDnos.Th,aottHUui
bodied the Petrine tradition in his Aramaic Gospel, HUiorvaiDoamtntiifwMll): Warn. Da>aiir,te Hvanedimm;
and that Mark afterwards used it or rather a Greek u'M^r^'%Zi'!i^^ i^%^^,drR%l"ii0nd^T^
form of it somewhat different, combining with it rem* Pnmien Eaangiliiiei. '
' » of Peter's discourses. If, in addition to J. MacRobt.
UxlUlU* du JV. T^ ROBBBACH.
tiia otber BynoptiaM: Rimb-
this, we suppose the Greek transUitor of Matthew to , . . «, „
have made use of our present Mark for his phraseology, „ ""« ,»»* HWCrtlUn, Saints, martyred at
we have quite a possible means of accounting for ffie ™>ine under Diocletian towards the end of the third
similaritiee and dissimilaritien of our first two Gospels, century, most likalym 286. These martyrs, who were
and we are free at the same time to accept the tradi- brothers, are mentioned m moat of the ancient mar-
tional view in regard to the priority of Matthew. Luke tyrologies on 18 June, and their raartjrdom is known
might then be held to have used our present Mark or «> "» I™™ the Acts of bt. Sebastian which, thou^ m
perhaps an earUer form of the Petrine tradition, com- great part legendary, are nevertheless very ancient,
bining with it a source or sources which it does not be- Cast into prison for bemg Christians, they were visited
long to the present article to consider. by their father uid mother, Tranquillinua and Martia,
Of course the existence of early documents, such as ""O- being still idolaterB, implored them to return to
are here supposed, cannot be directly proved, unless ^ worship crf1:he false gods to save their lives. But
the spade should diance to disclose them; but it is not Seba**"*", "nose apprqachmg martyrdom was to ren-
at all unprobable. It is reasonable to think that not »ler hun illustnous, havmg penetrated into their prison
many yeani eUpsed att«r Christ's death before aU »» *J» same time, exhorted them bo earnestly not to
tempts were made to put into written form some ac- abandon the Christian Faith, that henot only rendered
oount of His words and works. Luke tells us that theirfidelity immovable, butalaoconverterftheirpai^
many such attempts had been made before he wrote; onts and seveial of their friends who were present,
and It needs no effort to believe that the Petrine form "he i udge, before whom they were at length brought,
of the Gospel had been committed to writing brfore not being able to mduoe them to apoaUtae c<»-
the Apostles separated; that it disappeared after- demned tbem to death. They were buned m the Via
wards WouU not be wonderful, seeing tlwt it was em- Ardeatina, near the cemetery of Domitilla. Their
bodied in the Gospels. It is hardly neceaaary to add IwUes were translated at a, later date {which is not
that the use of earlierdocunienu by an inspired writer quite certain, but probably m the ninth century) to
is quite intelligible. Grace does not di^nae with t** church of Sta. Cosmas and Damian, wh^ they
states distinctly that his book ia an abridgment of an "^y ^ ^een an ancient painting wherein the two mar-
earherwork(IIM8ch.,ii,24,27),andSt.Lnketellsua tyrs are represented with a third person who seems
that before undertaking to write his Gospel he had be the Blessed Virgm. „.„„,„..
inquired diligently into all things fifm the beginning .S^.i^^.^"^^:^ I^^- S^^^^^i)}^'^..
(Luke, 1, 1), Ada SS.. Ill, June (Antwerp, ITDl), SW-^71: Masuccbi. L€
There ia no reason, therefore, why Catholics should mmorit dti lanii Marco t MantUiano nti timtUro di Domima
be timid aboutadmittiag, if necessary, the dependence 'i^^^j^^'SSS di 5^7^". V (S^e'^09) ^ffi
of the inspired evangelists upon earlier documents, Lion CtuONBt.
and, in view of the difficulties against the other
theorioB, it is well to bear this posaihility in mind in Mark of Uabon (properly Makcos da Bilta),
attempting to account for the puzzling relations of friar minor, historian, and Bishop of Oporto in Fortu-
Mark to the other two synoptiats. gal, b. at Lisbon (date of birth uncertem); d. in 1691.
Com roEiii stun. AoionsCstholla:— Therarllest.irtbework While visiting the principal convents of the Fr^ncis-
beindeedliu.vuVicTTORorAHTiocnCfifth-'aizthcantuiyi.iM can Orderin Spain, Italy, and France, at the instance
Sf"xSSpS!S^?ii^l"S,iSiS^?i'lfS^S ol the mi«., B«„„l, F, A«d« Alv™, h. .u.^
Ei)TBiH]Ds(tweirtbuiituiy)mP,o,cxxiX:BRin(oAnEHuii ceeded in sallecting a number of original documents
CtweVth oentury) in P.L. CLXV: Albertub Haiihiib and 9r. hearing upMi the history of the order. Previous to
.„,.. ithcHnturyliCAt- had instructed all the provincials of tlie Order to collect
tTCMihteenthcenturjiote. SioMtba middle □(tbeninetecath all documents they could find pertaining to the fif-
.JStdfSf'p'SiS ffi/K'KSS'MrISS; t»nth ..ntury to, th. puipoo. o^ntiimi-g th= ■ C«-
(1870); MacEyilly (IS77); ScBAHi (1881); Filuon (1883): formities' of Bartholomew of Pisa. A peat part rd
"*'•",.*.'.???' ^J""""- ti**3'j.K!i; "«!!■*'"■ (18M1; TiETBK- the material thus brought together was given to Mark
(IKXI.
o'^T'^w"" "f I'^^ra^ '""''^ oentury, for the purpose of continuing the " Coo-
I; ScBANi (1881); FiLuoN {1883)- formities" of Bartholomew of Pisa. A peat part o*
•-..^iST^'-A """■ ^"^'aSi;""^"*""" (l8Ml;_Tii!mK- the material thus brought together was given to Mark
^ (ISM); CscLEHAKs (1888); GrrjAaR 0904); Rm< q! Lisbon; with the aid of which, and of theChrwiicle
AmoM Protwianta:— Some of the prindud am Eii«luh- of Marianus of Florence and what he had himself col-
t;nBi>nStV): Coot \a Speaker' tC<mmaaaT^(\«7S);Pi.viir- lected, be compiled in Portuguese his weU-known
SUI &%?JSiSS:S>''Sl7'i:wiiSi ;'a™i* of th. F™ MmoP!, p„bll.l«d .t L«*«
Hoi,i»iiA»Ka802). "■Ann iiour,, ™-w *j. ij,i558_fl8. This work has gone through several edi-
BenduwriteraooIntRxlueUoii to theN. T. aurhu AsvRLB, tions; and has been translated into Italian, French,
ft^f^K ^Sf™;>i?"'G^D« ^zJ^^ESr^Edtob^^h' »"^ Spanish, and partly into English. The Italian
IIKW). JounieH, s*lmok, Baco'h sod mivSbuton to Bihiic*! translation bv Horatio Diola, bearing the title " Croni-
dlrtton»ri€8ofattlcl*»onthoSBamdQMpel«uch»i.MAi(o»HOT ohe degli Ordlni instituti dal P, S. Francesco" (Voft-
Si£"MTrs,t'jsSi5r;ra;ii'2'ES£iS^t i»,i606)i.p.rii.p.thohe,tk„ow„otti««™iih,
DZL In fimvcbparfia BMiai, tbt folloirinc may be oonnilMd :— one most often quoted, because the most aoceBmhta.
MABONI
683
MAB0NITS8
The work is taken up almost completely with biog^-
phies of illustrious men of the order, the title b^g
thus somewhat misleading. It is of great historical
value, especially since the original sources to which the
author Imd access, have entu:ely disappeared. It is
worth recording that to Mark of Lisoon we are in-
debted for the first edition of a granunar of the Bicol
language in the Philippine Islands.
Wadding, Saiptorea Ordinia Minomm (Rome, 1007). 167;
Robinson, A Short IrUroduction to Franciacan Literature (New
York, 1907), 17, 42; Le Monnier, Hidory of St. Francis (Lon-
don, 1894), 17-18.
Stephen M. Donovan.
Maroniy Paul, missionaxy, b. 1 Nov., 1695. He
entered the Austrian province of the Jesuits on 27
Oct., 1712, and, like many German and Austrian mis-
sionaries of that time, went in 1723 on the mission in
XIpper Maranon that belonged to the Quito province
of^tne order. He worked for several years as professor
of theolo^ at Quito and then with great success as
Indian missionary on the rivers Napo and Aguarico,
converting a number of tribes to the Christian faith
and founding a series of new reduci6nes (i. e. settle-
ments of converted Indians) . At the same time he did
great service in carefully exploring those regions, serv-
ices which were duly acknowledged by the French
geographer. La Condamine, (see "Journal des Sa-
vants', Paris, March, 1750, 183). Maroni left be-
hind him a number of valuable works which have only
recently been published. Two of them are: "Diario
de la entrada que hizo el P. Pablo Maroni de la C. d. J.
Eorelriocorifio6 Pastaza ... el aflo 1737", published
y P. Sanvicente, S. J. in "El Industriar' (Quito,
1895), ano IV., num. 132, 133, 135; as also the "No-
ticias aut^nticas del famoso rio Marafion y misi6n
ap6stolica de la Compania de Jestis de la provincia de
Quito en los dilatados bosques de dicho no escribilas
por los afios de 1738 un misionero de la misma com-
paixia y las publicas ahora por primera vez Marcos
Jimenez de la Espada (Madrid, 1889)", with maps
dmwn up by Maroni.
Neuer WeU-Bott, No. 210, 282, 333, 565; Chantbet-Hersra.
Hist, de las Misionea de la Compafiia deJ.end MaraH&n Eapatioi
(Madrid, 1901).
A. HUONDER.
Maronia, a titular see in the province of Rhodopis,
suffragan of Trajanopolis. The town is an ancient
one, said to have been foimded by Blaron, who was
supposed to be the son of Dionysus (Euripides,
"(^clops", V, 100, 141) or companion of Osiris
(Diodorus SiciUus, I, 20). The probable origin of this
legend is the fact that Bilaronia was not^ for its
Dionysiac worship, perhaps because of the famous
wine grown in the neighbourhood and whi.ch was cele-
brated even in Homer's day (Odyssey, IX, 196; Non-
nus, I, 12; XVII, 6; XIX, 11 etc.). It is mentioned
in Herodotus (VII, 109), and referred to by Pliny
under the name Ortagurea (Hist. Nat., IV, 11). The
town derived some of its importance from its com-
manding position on the Thracian Sea, and from the
colony from Chios which settled there about 660 b. c.
It was taken by Philip V, King of Macedonia (200
B. c), but straightway set free at the command of the
Romans (Livy, XXXI, 16; XXXIX, 24; Polybius,
XXII, 6, 13; 5CXIII, 11, 13). By the Romans it was
given to Attains, King of Pergamos, but the gift was
revoked and the town retained its freedom (Polybius,
XXX, 3). Lequien (Oricns Christ., I, 1195-1198)
mentions many of its Greek bishops, but none of them
was remarkable in any way. Eubel (Hierarchia Ca-
tholica medii sevi, 1, 341 ; II, 205) mentions two titular
Latin bishops in 1317 and 1449. Originally suffragan
of TrajanopNolis, Maronia, about 640, became an aiSio-
cephalous archdiocese, and was raised to metropoli-
tan rank in the thirteenth century under Andronicus
II. In our own times, Maronia continues to be a
Qieek metropolitan see, but its titular resides at
Gumuldjina, the chief town of the sandiak. The
ancient town on the sea coast has been aoandoned,
and the name is now given to a village of 2000 inhabi-
tants about three-quarters of an hour inland.
Bulletin de correspondance hellSniqu^ (Paris), V, 87-95;
Christododlou. La Thrace et Quarante-Eglises, 1897 [this work
is written in Greek]; Meurrhttos, Historical and geographi-
cal description of the Diocese of Maronia [in Greek], 1871.
S. Vailhe.
Manmites. — ^This article will give first the present
state of the Maronite nation and Church; after which
their history will be studied, with a special examina-
tion of the much discussed problem of the origin of the
Church and the nation and their unvarying ortho-
doxy.
I. Present State of the Maronites. — A. Ethno-'
graphical and Political. — ^The Maronites (Syriac Mar^
undue; Arabic Matvarinah) number about 300,000
souLs, distributed in Syria. Palestine, Cyprus, and
Egypt. Of this number about 230,000 mhabit the
Lebanon^ forming nearly five-eighths of the population
of that vilayet and the main constituent oi the popu-
lation in four out of seven kaimakats, viz., those of
Batrun, Kasrawan, Meten, and Gizzin (the Orthodox
Greeks predominating in Koura, the Catholic Greeks
in Tahl6, and the Druses in ShM ) . They are of Syrian
race, but for many centuries have spoken only Arabic,
thou^ in a dialect which must have retained many
Syriac peculiarities. In the mountain districts man-
ners are very simple, and the Maronites are occupied
with tillage and cattle-grazing, or the silk industry; in
the towns they are engaged in commerce. Bloodv
vendettas, due to family and clan rivalries, are still
kept up in the mountam districts. The population
increases very rapidly, and numbers of Maronites emi-
grate to the different provinces of the Ottoman Em-
pire, to Europe, particularly France, to the French
colonies, but most of all to the United States. The
emigrants return with their fortunes made, and too
often bring with them a taste for luxury and pleasiue,
sometimes also a decided indifference to religion which
in some instances, degenerates into hostility.
For many centuries the Maronite mountaineers
have been able to keep themselves half independent of
the Ottoman Empire. At the opening oi the nine-
teenth century their organization was entirely feudal.
The aristocratic families — who, especiaUy when they
travelled in Europe, affected princely rank — elected
the emir. The power of the Maronite emir prepon-
derated in the Lebanon, especially when the Syrian
family of Beni Shib&b forsook Islam for Christianity.
The famous emir Beshir, ostensibly a Mussulman, was
really a Maronite ; but after his fall the condition of the
Maronites changed for the worse. A merciless strug-
gle against the Druses, commencing in 1845, devas-
tated the whole Lebanon. Two emirs were then
created, a Maronite and a Druse, both bearing the title
of Kaimakam, and they were held responsible to the
Pasha of Saida. In 1860 the Druses, impelled by far
naticism, massacred a large number of Maronites at
Damascus and in the Lebanon. As the Turkish Gov-
ernment looked on supinely at this process of exteiw
mination. France intervened: an expedition led by
General ae Beaufort d'Hautpoult restored order. In
1861 the present system, witn a single governor for all
the Lebanon, was inaugurated. This governor is ap-
pointed by the Turkish Government for five years.
There are no more feudal rights; all are equal before
the law, without distinction of race; each nation has
its sheik, or mayor, who takes cognizance of com-
munal affairs, and is a judge in the provincial council.
Every Maronite between the ages of fifteen and sixtv
pays taxes, with the exception of the clergy, though
contributions are levied on monastic property. In
contrast to the rule among the other rites, tne Maron-
ite patriarch is not obliged to solicit his firman of in-
vestiture from the sultan; but, on the other hand, ha
BCAR0NITS8
684
MABONmS
b not the temporal head of his nation, and has no
agent at the Sublime Porte, the Maronites being, to-
gether with the other Uniat communities, represented
by the Vakeel of the Latins. Outside of the Lebanon
they are entirely subject to the Turks; in these regions
the bishops — e. g. the Archbishop of Beirut — must
obtain their b&raif in default of which they would have
no standing with the civil government, and could not
sit in the provincial councU.
iike the other Catholic conmiunities of the Turidsh
Empire, the Maronites are under the protection of
France, but in their case the protectorate is combined
with more cordial relations dating from the connexion
between this pec^le and the French as early as the
twelfth century. This cordiality has been strength-
ened by numerous French interventions, from the
Capitulations of Francis I to the campaign of 1861, and
bv the wide diffusion of the French language and
french culture, thanks to the numerous establish-
ments in the Lebanon under the direction of French
missionaries— Jesuits, Lazarists, and religious women
of different orders. It is impossible to foresee what
dianges will be wrought in the situation of the Maron-
ites, national and international, by the accession to
power of the " Young Turks ".
B. The Maronite Church. — ^The Maronite Church is
divided into nine dioceses: Gibail and Batrun (60,000
souls); Beirut and one part of the Lebanon (50,000);
Tyre and Sidon (47,000); Baalbek and Kesraouan
(40,000) ; Tripoli (35,000). Cyprus and another part of
the Lebanon (30,000); Damascus and Hauran (26,-
000) ; Aleppo and CiUcia (5000) ; Egypt (7000) . The
last-named diocese is under a vicar patriarchal, who
also has charge of the Maronite communities in foreign
parts — Leghorn, Marseilles, Paris — and particularly
those m America
(1) The Patriarch.— The official title is Patriarcha
Anliochenua Maronitarum, The Maronite patriarch
shares the title of Antioch with three other CathoUo
patriarchs — ^the Melchite, the Syrian Catholic, and the
Latin (titular) — one schismatical (Orthodox), and one
heretical (Syrian Jacobite). The question will be
considered later on, whether, apart trom the conces-
sion of the Holy See. the Maronite patriarch can allege
historical right to the title of Antioch. Since the ^-
teenth century his traditional residence has been the
cloLstcr of St. Mary of Kandbin, where are the tombs
c^ the patriarchs. In winter he resides at Bkerke, be-
low Beirut, in the district of Kesraouan. He himself
administers the Diocese of Gibail-Batrun, but with the
assistance of the titular Bishops of St-Jean d'Acre,
Tarsus, and Nazareth, who also assist him in the gen-
eral administration of the patriarchate. He has the
right to nominate others, and there are also several
patriarchal vicars who are not bishops. The patri-
arch is elected by the Maronite bishops, usually on the
ninth day after the see has been declared vacant. He
must be not less than forty years of age, and two-
thirds of the whole number of votes are required to
elect him. On the next day the enthronization takes
place, and then the solemn benediction of the newly
elected patriarch. The proceedings of the assembly
are transmitted to Rome ; the pope may either approve
or disapprove the election; if he approves, he sends the
paUium to the new patriarch; if not, he quashes the
acts of the assemblv and is free to name a candidate of
his own choice. The chief prerogatives of the patri-
arch are: to convoke national councils; to choose and
consecrate bishops; to hear and judge charges against
bishops; to visit dioceses other than his own once in
every three years. He blesses the holy oils and dis-
tributes them to the clergy and laity; he grants indul-
gences, receives the tithes and the taxes for dispensa-
tions, and may accept legacies, whether personal or for
the Church. Before 1736 he received fees for ordina-
tions and the blessing of holy oils; this privilege being
suppressed, Benedict XIV substituted for it permi»-
sion to receive a subndiwn cariiaHvum. The difltino*
tive insignia of the patriarch are the masnqfld (a form
of head-dress), the phaind (a kind of cape or cope), the
orarion (a kind of pallium), the tiara, or mitre (other
bishops wear only tbe orarion and the mitre), the pa^
toral staff surmounted with a cross, and, in the littin
fashion, the pastoral ring and the pectoxul croaB. To
sum upj the Maronite patriarch exercises over his sub-
jects, virtually, the authority of a metropolitan. He
himself is accountable only to the pope and the Con-
gregation of Propaganda; he is bound to make his
visit ad Zimtna only once in every ten jrears. The
e resent (1910) occupant of the patriarchal throne is
[gr. Elias Hoysk, elected in 1899.
(2) The Episcopate. — ^The bisKops are nominated by
the patriarch. The title of Archbishop (metropoli-
tan), attached to the Sees of Aleppo, Beirut, Damas-
cus, Tyre and Sidon, and Tripoli, is purelv honorary.
A bishop without a diocese resides at Elhcien. It has
been said above that the patriarch nominates a certain
number of titular bishops. The bishop, besides his
spiritual functions, exercises, especially outside of the
Vilayet of the Lebanon, a judicial and civil jurisdio-
tion.
The bishops are assisted by chorepiscopL archdea-
cons, economi, and periodeutes (baraiU). The chore-
piscopus visits, and can also consecrate, churches. The
chorepiscopus of the episcopal residence occupies the
first place in the cathearal in the absence of the oishop.
The periodeutes, as his name indicates, is a kind of
vicar f orane who acts for the bishop in the inspection
of the rural clergy. The economus is the bishop's co-
adjutor for the administration of church property and
the episcopal mensa.
(3) The Clergy. — Of the 300 parishes some are ^ven
b^ the bishops to regulars, others to seculan. Priests
without parishes are celibate and dependent on the
patriarch. The others are married — ^that is to say,
they marry while in minor orders, but cannot many a
second time. There are about 1100 secular j^riests
and 800 regulars. The education of the clergy is car-
ried on in five patriarchal and nine diocesian seminar-
ies. Many study at Rome, and a great number in
Firance, thanks to the ''CEuvre de St Louis" and the
burses supported by the French Government.^ The
intellectual standard of the Maronite clergy is de-
cidedly higher than that of the schismatical and hereti-
cal clergy who surround them. The married priests
of the rural parishes are often very simple men, stfll
more often tney are far from well-to-do, living almost
exclusively on the honoraria received for Masses and
the presents of farm produce given them by the ooim-
try people. Most oi them have to eke out these re-
soiurces by cultivating their little portions of land or
engaging m some modest industry.
(4) The Religious. — These number about 2000, of
whom 800 are priests. They all observe the rule
known as that ot St. Anthony, but are divided into
three congregations: the oldest, that of St. Anthony,
or of Eliseus, was approved in 1732. It was aftcn>
wards divided into Aleppines and peasants, or Bala-
dites, a division approved by Clement XIV in 1770.
In the meantime another Antonian congregation had
been founded, under the patronage of la&ias, and ap-
proved in 1740. The Aleppines have 6 monasteries;
ihe Isaians, 13 or 14; the Baladites, 25. The Alep-
pines have a procurator at Rome, residing near S. Pie-
tro in Vincon. The lay brothers give themselves up
to manual labour; the priests, to intellectual, with the
care of souls, having charge of a great many parishes.
The monastic habit consists of a black tunic and a gir-
dle of leather, a cowl, mantle, and sandals. — ^There are
also seven monasteries, containing about 200 relijgioius,
under a rule founded by a former Bishop of A&ppo.
At Aintoura, also, there are some Maronite sisters fol-
lowing the Salesian Rule.
(5) Tlie Liturgy. — The Maronite is a Syrian Rite,
MABOVITBS
685
MABomrsa
Qjrias being the liturgical language, thou^ the Gos-
pel is read in Arabic for the benefit of the people,
tiany of the priests, who are not sufficiently leamea to
perform the Liturgy in Syriac, use Arabic instead, but
Arabic written in ^iiac characters (Karahuni), The
Liturgy is of the Syrian type, i. e., the Liturgy of St.
James, but much c&sfigured by attempts to adapt it to
Roman usages. Adaptation, often useless and ser-
vile, to Roman usages is the distinguishing character-
istic of the Maromte among Oriental Rites. This
appears, not onlv in the Liturgy, but also in the admin-
istration of all the Sacraments. The Maronites conse-
crate unleavened bread, they do not mingle warm wa-
ter in the Chalice, and the}^ celebrate many Masses at
the same altar. Communion under both kinds was
discouraged by Gregory XIII and at last formally
forbidden in 1736, though it is still permitted for the
deacon at high Mass. Benedict XIV forbade the com-
municating of newly baptized infants. Baptism is ad-
ministered in the Latin manner, and since 1736 confir-
mation, which is reserved to the bishop, has been given
separately. The formula of absolution is not depre-
cative, as it is in other Eastern Rites, but indicative,
as in the Latin, and Bilaronite priests can validly ab-
solve Catholics of all rites. The orders are: tonsure,
paaUe, or chanter, lector, sub-deacon, deacon, priest.
Ordination as psalte may be received at the ag^ of
seven; as deacon, at twenty-one; as priest, at tmrty,
or, with a dispensation, at twenty-five. Wednesday
and Friday of everv week are days of abstinence; a
fast lasts until middav, and the abstinence is from
meat and eggs. Lent fasts for seven weeks, beginning
at Quinquagesima; the fast is observed every day ex-
cept Saturoays, Sundays, and certain feast days; fish
is allowed. There are neither ember days nor vigils,
but there is abstinence during twenty days of Advent
and fourteen days preceding the feast of Sts. Peter
and Paul. Latin devotional practices are more cus-
tomary among the Maronites than in any other Uniat
Eastern Church — ^benediction of the Blessed Sacra-
ment, the Way of the Cross, the Rosary, the devotion
to the Sacred Heart, etc.
(6) The Faithful. — In the interior of the country the
faithful are strongly attached to their faith and very
respectful to the monks and the other clergyr. Sur-
rounded by Mussulmans, schismatics, and heretics,
they are proud to call themselves Roman Catholics;
but education is as yet but little developed, despite the
laudable efforts of some of the bishops, and although
schools have been established, largely through the ef-
forts of the Latin missionaries and the support of the
society of the Ecoles d'Orient, besides the Collie de la
Sagesse at. Beirut. Returning emigrants do nothing
to raise the moral and religious standard. The in-
fluence of the Western press is outrageously bad.
Wealthy Maronites, too often indifferent, if not worse,
do not concern themselves about this state of affairs,
which is a serious cause of anxiety to the more intelli-
gent and enlightened among the clergy. But ^e
Maronite nation as a whole remains faithful to its tra-
ditions. If thev are not exactly the most iniportant
community of Elastem Uniats in point of numbers, it is
at least true to say that they form the most effective
fulcrum for the exertion of a Catholic propaganda in
the Lebanon and on the Syrian coast.
II. HiaroRY OF the Maronites. — All competent au-
thorities agree as to the history of the Maronites as far
back as the sixteenth century, but beyond that period
the unanimity ceases. They themselves assert at
once the high antiquity and uie perpetual orthodoxy
of their nation; but lx>th of these pretensions have
constantly been denied by their Christian — even Cath-
olic— rivals in Syria, the Bielchites, whether Catholic
or Orthodox, the Jacobite Svrians, and the Catholic
Syrians. Some European scholars accept the Biaro-
nlte view; the majority reject it. So many points in
(ke Ji^rimitive history of the nation are still obscure
that we can here only set forth the aiguments ad-
vanced on either side, without drawing any conclusion.
The whole discussion gravitates around a text of the
twelfth century. William of Tyre (De Bello Sacro,
XX, viii) relates the conversion of 40,000 Maronites in
the year 1 182. The substance of the leading text is as
follows: "After they [the nation that had oeen con-
verted, in the vicinity of Byblos] had for five hundred
years adhered to the false teaching of an heresiarch
named Maro, so that they took from him the name of
Maronites, and, being separated from the true Church
had been following their own peculiar liturgy [ab eccle-
sia fidelium sequestrati seorsim sacramenta conficerent
sua], they came to the Patriarch of Antioch, Aymery.
the thira of the Latin patriarchs, and, having abjured
their error, were, with their patriarch and some oish-
ops, reunited to the true Church. They declared
themselves ready to accept and observe the prescrip-
tions of the Roman Church. There were more than
40,000 of them, occupying the whole region of the Ld>
anon, and they were of great use to the Latins in the
war against the Saracens. The error of M^ro and his
adherents is and was, as may he read in the Sixth
Council, that in Jesus Christ there was, and had been
since the beginning, only one will and one ener;^. And
after their separation they had embraced stm other
.pernicious doctrines."
We proceed to consider the various interpretations
given to this text.
A. The Maronite Position, — ^Maro, a Syrian monk,
who died in the fifth century and is notioed by Theo-
doret (ReligionisHistoria, xvi), had ^thered together
some disci^es on the banks of the Orontes, between
Emesa and Apamea. After his death the faithful
built, at the place where he had lived, a monastery
which they named after him. When Syria was di-
vided by heresies, the monks of Blit-Marun remained
invariably faithful to the cause of orthodoxy, and ral-
lied to it the neighbouring inhabitants. This was the
cradle of the Maronite nation. The Jacobite chroni-
clers bear witness that these populations aided the Em-
peror Heraclius in the struggle against Monophysitism
even by force (c. 630). Moreover, thirty years later
when Mu'awyaii, the future caliph, was governor of
Damascus (658-59), they disputed with the Jacobites
in his presence, and the Jacobites, beingworsted, had
to pay a large penalty. The Emperor Ueraclius and
his successors having meanwhile succumbed to the
Monothelite heresy, which was afterwards condemned
in the Council of 681, the Maronites, who until then
had been partisans of the Byzantine emperor (Mel-
chites), broke with him, so as not to be in communion
with a heretic. From this event dates the national
independence of the Maronites. Justinian II (Rhin-
otmetes) wished to reduce them to subjection: in 694
his forces attacked the monastery, destroyed it, and
marched over the mountain towards Tripoli, to cem-
glete their conquest. But the Maronites, with the
atholic Patriarch of Antioch, St. John Maro, at their
head, routed the Greeks near Amiun, and saved that
autonomy which they were able to maintain through
succeeding a^es. They are to be identified with tne
Mardaltes of Syria, who, in the Lebanon, on the
frontier of the Empire, successfully struggled with the
Byzantines and the Arabs. There the Crusaders
found them, and formed very close relations with
them. William of Tyre relates that, in 1182, the
Maronites to the number of 40,000, were converted
from Monothelitism; but either this is an error of in-
formation, due to William's having copied, without
critically examining, the Annals of Eutychius, an
Egyptian Melchite who calumniated the Bilaronites, or
else these 40,000 were only a very small part of the na-
tion who had, through ignorance, allowed themselves
to be led astray by the Monothelite propaganda of a
bishop named Thomas of Kfar-tas. Besides, the Biar-
onites can show an unbroken list of patriarcha Vmi-
XABOVITES
686
XABOHITES
tween the time of St. John Maro and that of Pope In-
nocent III: these patriarchs, never ha vine erred in
faith, or strayed into schism, are the only legitimate
heirs of the Patriarchate of Antioch, or at least they
have a claim to that title certainly not inferior to the
claim of any rival.— Such is the case frequently pre-
sented by Maronites, and in the last place by Mgr.
Debs, Archbishop of Beirut (Perpdtuelle orthodoxie
des Maronites).
B. Criticism of the ^raronite Position, (1) The Mon-
astery of St. Maro before the Monothelite Controversy.
— The existence since the sixth century of a convent of
St. Bilaro, or of Beit-Marun, between Apamea and
Emesa, on the right bank of the Orontes, is an estab-
lished fact, and it may very well have been built on the
rt where Maro the solitary dwelt, of whom Theo-
et speaks. This convent suffered for its devotion
to the true faith, as is strikingly evident from an ad-
dress presented by its monks to the Metropolitan of
Apamea in 517, and to Pope Hormisdas, complaining
of the Monophysites, who had massacred 350 monks
for siding with the Coimcil of Chalcedon. In 536 th&
apocrisarius Paul appears at Constantinople subscrib-
ing the Acts of the Fourth CEcumenical Council in the
nAme of the monks of St. Maro. In 553, this same
convent is represented at the Fifth CEcumenical Coun-
cil by the priest John and the deacon Paul. The op-
thociox emperors, particularly Justinian (Procopius,
"De -^dific", V, ix) and Heraclius, gave liberal
tokens of their regard for the monastery. The part
played by the monks of St. Maro, isolated in the midst
of an almost entirely Monophvsite population, should
not be underrated. But it will be observed that in the
texts cited there is mention of a single convent, and
not by any means of a population such as could possi-
bly have originated the Maronitc nation of later times.
(2) St. John Maro. — The true founder of the Maron-
ite nation, the patriarch St. John Maro, would have
lived towards the close of the seventh century, but, un-
fortunately, his very existence is extremely doubtful.
All the Syriac authors and the Byzantine priest Ti-
motheus derive the name Maronite from that of the
convent Beit-Marun. The words of Timotheus are:
MopwyiTcu 5i KiK\rivrai dw6 rod fiovaarriplov airwv MapJy
KoKovfUpov iv 2up/^ (in P. G. LXXXVl, 65 and note
53). Renaudot absoluteljr denies the existence of
John Maro. But, supposing that he did exist, as
may be inferred from the testimony of the tenth-cen-
tury Melchite Patriarch Eutychius (the earliest text
bearing on the point), his identity has bafRed all re-
searches. His name is not to be found in any list of
Melchite Patriarchs of Antioch, whether Greek or
Syriac. As the patriarchs of the seventh and eighth
centuries were orthodox, there was no reason why St.
John Maro should have oeen placed at the head of an
alleged orthodox branch of the Church of Antioch.
The episcopal records of Antioch for the period in
question may be summarized as follows: 685, election
of Theophanes; 686, probable election of Alexander;
692, George assists at the Trullan Council; 702-42,
vacancy of the See of Antioch on account of Mussul-
man persecutions; 742, election of Stephen. But,
according to Mgr Debs, the latest Maromte historian,
St. John Maro would have occupied the patriarchal
See of Antioch from 685 to 707.
The Maronites insist, affirming that St. John Maro
must have been Patriarch of Antioch because his works
present him under that title. The works of John
Maro referred to are an exposition of the Liturgy of
St. James and a treatise on the Faith. The former is
Eublbhed by Joseph Aloysius Assemani in his " Codex
iturgicus" and certainly bears the name of John
Maro, but the present writer has elsewhere shown that
this alleged commentary of St. John Maro is no other
than the famous commentary of Dionysius bar Salibi,
a Monophysite author of the twelfth century, with
muUlaUoDB, additions, and accommodations to suit
the changes by which the Maronites have endeavoured
to make the Syriac Liturgy resemble the Roman (Dio-
nysius Bar Salibi, expositioliturgis'', ed. Labourt, pref.).
The treatise on the Faith is not likely to be any more
authentic than the liturgical work: it bears a remark-
able resemblance to a theological treatise of Leontius
of Byzantium, and should therefore^ very probably,
be referred to the second half of the sixth century and
the first half of the seventh — a period much eariier
than that which the Maronites assign to St. John Maro.
Besides^ it contains nothing about Monothelitism —
which, in fact, did not yet exist. John Maro, we must
therefore conclude, is a very problematic personality;
if he existed at allj it was as a simple monk, not by any
means as a Melchite Patriarch of Antioch.
(3) Uninterrupted Orthodoxy of the Maronites. —
It IS to be remembered that, before the rise of Mono-
thelitism, the monks of St. Maro, to whom the Maron-
ites trace their origin, were faithful to the Council of
Chalc^on as accepted by the Byzantine emperors;
they were Melchites in the full sense of the term — i. e..
Imperialists, representing the Byzantine creed among
populations which had abandoned it, and, we may
add, representing the Byzantine language and Byzan-
tine culture among peoples whose speech and naanners
were those of Syria. There is no reason to think that,
when the Bjzantine emperors, by way of one last
effort at union with their Jacobite subjects; Syrian
and Egyptian, endeavoured to secure the triumph of
Monothelitism — a sort of compromise between Mono-
physitism and Chalcedonian orthodoxy — the monks of
St. Maro abandoned the Imperialist party and faith-
fully adhered to orthodoxy. On the contrary, all the
documents suggest that the monks of Beit-Marun em-
braced Monothelitism, and still adhered to that heresy
even after the Council of 681, when the emperors had
abjured it. It is not very difficult to produce evidence
of this in a text of Dionysius of TeU-Mahr^ (d. 845)
preserved to us in the chronicle of Michael the Syrian,
which shows Heraclius forcing most of the Syrian
monks to accept his Ecthesis, and those of Beit-
Marun are counted among the staunchest partisans of
the emperor. One very instructive passage in this
same chronicle, referring to the year 727, recounts at
length a c[uarrel between the two branches of the
Chaloedonians, the orthodox and the Monotbelites,
where the former are called Maximists, after St. Maxi-
mus the confessor, the uncompromising adversary of
the Monothelites. while the latter are described as the
"party of Beit-Marun" and "monks of Beit-Marun".
We are here told how the monks of St. Maro have a
bishop in their monastery, how they convert most of
the Melchites of the country districts to Monothelitism
and even successfully contend with the Maximists (L e.,
the Catholics) for the possession of a church at Aleppo.
From that time on, oeing cut off from commimion
with the Melchite (Catholic) Patriarch of Antioch,
they do as the Jacobites did before them, and for the
same reasons: thev set up a separate Church, eschew-
ing, however, with equal horror the Monophysites,
who reject the Council of Chalcedon, and the Catholics
who condemn the Monothelite Ecthesis of HeracUus
and accept the Sixth CEcumenical Council. Why the
monks of Beit-Marun, hitherto so faithful to the
Byzantine emperors, should have deserted them when
they returned to orthodoxy, we do not know; but it b
certain that in this defection the Maronite Church and
nation had its origin, and that the name Maronite
thenceforward becomes a synonym for Monothelite, as
well with Byzantine as with Nestorian or Monophysite
writers. Says the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian,
referring to this period : " The Maronites remained as
they are now. They ordain a patriarch and bishops
from their convent. They are separated from Max-
imus, in that they confess only one will in Christ,
and say: * Who was crucified for us'. But they ac-
cept the Synod of Chalcedon. '' St. Germanui of Con*
MAXOVITBS
687
KABOHinS
stantinople, in his treatise '' De HsBresibiis et Synodis "
(about tne ^ear 735), writes: ''There are some here-
tics who, rejecting the Fifth and Sixth Councils, never-
theless contend against the Jacobites. The latter treat
them as men without sense, because, while accepting
the Fourth Council, they try to reject the next two.
Such are the Maronites, whose monastery is situated
in the very mountains of Syria. " (The Fourth Coun-
cil was tliat of Chalcedon.) St. John Damascene, a
Doctor of the Church (d. 749), also considered the
Maronites heretics. He reproaches them,' among
other things, with continuing to add the words arav-
pioSeu dl ri/jMt (Who didst suffer for us on the Cross) to
the Trisagion, an addition susceptible of an orthodox
sense, but which had eventually been prohibited in
order to prevent misunderstanding [/tafxapl^oftMy
wfHxrOifUPOi rifi rpiffaytfp r^v ara^pio^iv ("We shall be
following Maro, if we join the Crucifixion to our Trisa-
gion "— " De Hymno Trisa^o' ', ch. v) . a. wtfil 6pM
^pov^/carot, ch. v.]. A httle later, Timotheus I,
Patriarch of the Nestorians, receives a letter from the
Maronites, proposing that he should admit them to his
communion. His reply is extant, though as yet im-
Eublished, in which he felicitates tnem on rejecting, as
e himself does, the idea of more than one energy and
one will in Christ (Monothelitism), but lays down cer-
tain conditions which amount to an acceptance of his
Nestorianism, though in a mitigated form. Analogous
testimony may be found in the works of the Melchite
controversialist Theodore Abukara (d. c. 820) and
the Jacobite theologian Habib Abu-Ra!ta (about the
same period), as also in the treatise "De Reoeptione
Hareticorum'' attributed to the priest Timotheus (P.
G., 86, 65). Thus, in the eighth century there exists
a Maronite Church distinct from the Catholic Church
and from the Monophysite Church; this Church ex-
tends far into the plain of Syria and prevails especiaUy
in the mountain regions about the monastery of Beit^
Marun. In the ninth century this Church was prob-
ably confined to the mountain regions. The destruc-
tion of the monastery of Beit-Marun did not put an
end to it; it completed its oraanization by settmg v^
a patriarch, the first known Maronite patriarch dating
from 1121, though there may have b^n others before
him. The Maronite mountaineers preserved a rela-
tive autonomy between the Byzantine emperors, on
the one hand, who reconquered Antioch in the tenth
century, and, on the other hand, the Mussulmans.
The Crusaders entered into relations with them. In
1182, almost the entire nation— 40.000 of them — were
converted. From the moment when their influence
ceased to extend over the helleniied lowlands of
Syria, the Maronites ceased to speak any langua^ but
Syriac, and used no other in their liturgy. It is im-
possible to assign a date to this disappearance of hel-
lenism among them. At the end of tne eighth oenturv
the Maronite Theophilus of Edessa Imew enou^
Greek to translate and comment on the Homeric
poems. It is very likely that Greek was the chief
lan^age used in the monastery of Beit-Marun, at least
until the ninth century; that monastery having been
destroyed, there remained only country and mountain
villages where nothing but Syriac had ever been used
either coUoauially or in the liturgy.
It would be pleasant to be able at least to say that
the orthodoxy of the Maronites has been constant since
1182, but, unfortunately, even this cannot be asserted.
There have been at least partial defections amon^
them. No doubt the patriarch Jeremias al Amshlti
visited Innocent III at Home in 1215, and he is known
to have taken home with him some prmects of liturgi-
cal reform. But in 1445, after the Cfoimcil of Flor-
ence, the Maronites of Cyprus return to Catholicism
(Hefele, " Histoire des conciles", tr. Delare, XI, 540).
In 1461, Pius II, in his letter to Mahomet II, still ranks
them among the heretics. Gryphone, an illustrious
Flemish Franciscan of the end of the fifteenth
tury, converted a large number of them, receiving
several into the Order of St. Francis, and one of them.
Gabriel Glal (Barclalus. or Benclalus), whom he had
caused to be consecrated Bishop of Lefkosia in Cyprus,
was the first Maronite scholar to attempt to estaDlish
his nation's claim to imvarving orthodoxy: in a letter
written in 1495 he gives what purports to be a list of
eighteen Maronite patriarchs in succession, from the
beginning of their Unurch down to his own time, taken
from documents which he assumes to come down from
the year 1315. — It is obvious to remark how recent all
this is. — ^The Franciscan Suriano ("II trattato di
Terra Santa e dell' Oriente di fr. Fr. Suriano", ed.
Golubovitch), who was delegated to the Maronites by
Leo X, inl515, points out many traits of ignorance and
many abuses among them, and regards Maro as a
Monothelite. However, it may be asserted that the
Maronites never relapsed into Monothelitism after
Gryphone's mission. Since James of Hadat (1439-
58) all their patriarchs have been strictly ortho-
dox.
C. The Maronite Church since the Sixteenth Century,
— ^The Lateran Council of 1516 was the beginning of a
new era, which has also been the most brilliant, in
Maronite history. The letters of the patriarch Simon
Peter and of his bishops may be found in the eleventh ,
session of that council (19 Dec, 1516). From that
time the Maronites were to be in permanent and un-
interrupted contact with Rome. Moses of Akkar
(152ft-67) received a letter from Pius IV. The patri-
arch Michael sought the intervention of Gregory XIII
and received the pallium from him. That great
pontiff was the most distinguished benefactor of the
lllEkronite Church: he estabfished at Rome a hospital
for them, and then the Maronite College to which the
bishops could send six of their subjects. Blany fa-
mous savants have gone out of this college: George
Amira, the grammarian, who died patriarch in 1633;
Isaac of Scnadrd; Gabriel Siouni, professor at the
Sapiensa, afterwards interpreter to Kins Louis XIII
and collaborator in the Polyglot Bible (d. 1648);
Abraham of Qakel (Ecchelensis), a very prolific writer,
Erofessor at Rome and afterwards at Paris, and ool-
iborator in the Polyelot Bible ; above all, the Assemani
—Joseph Simeon, editor of the "Bibliotheca Orien-
talis ", Stephanus Evodius, and Joseph Aloysius. An-
o^er Maronite college was founded at Ravenna by
Innocent X, but was amalgamated with that at Rome
in 1665. After the French Revolution the Maronite
College was attached to the Congregation of Propa-
ganda.
In the patriarchate of Sei^^us Risius, the successor
of MichaeL the Jesuit Jerome Dandini, by order of
Clement VIII, directed a general council of the Maron-
ites at Kannobin in 1616, which enacted twentv-one
canons, correcting abuses and effecting reforms in litur-
gical matters; the liturgical reforms of the council of
1596, however, were extremely moderate. Other
patriarchs were: Joseph II Risius, who, in 1606,
introduced the Gregorian Calendar; John XI (d.
1633), to whom Paul V sent the pallium in 1610;
Gregory Amira (1633-44) ; Joseph III of Akur (1644r-
47); Jc^m XII of Soffra (d. 1656). The last two of
these prelates converted a great man^r Jacobites.
Stephen of Ehden (d. 1704) composed a history of his
predcM^essors from 1095 to 1699. Peter James II was
deposed in 1705, but Joseph Mubarak, who was
elected in his place, was not recognized by Clement
XI, and, through the intervention of Propaganda,
which demanded the holding of another council, Peter
James II was restored in 1713.
Under Joseph lY (173^-42) was held a second na-
tional oouncU, which is of the highest importance.
Pope Clement XII delegated Joseph Simeon Assemani,
who was assisted by his nephew Stephanus Evodius,
with an express mandate to cause the Council of Trent
to be promulgated in the Lebanon. The Jesuit Fm^
iCABQUUAS
688
MAKQUUAB
ma^ was appointed synodal orator. According to the
letter whion lie sent to his superiors (published at the
iM^inning of Mansi's thirty-eighth volume), the chief
abuses to be corrected by the ablegate were: (1) The
Maronite bishops, in virtue of an ancient custom, had
in their households a certain number of religious
women, whose lodeings were, as a rule, separated irom
the bishop's only by a door of oommumcation. (2)
The patriarch had reserved to himself exclusively the
right to consecrate the holy oils and distribute them
among the bishops and clergy in consideration of
monev payments. (3) Marriage dispensations were
sold for a monev price. (4) Tne Blessed Sacrament
was not reserved in most of the country churches, and
was seldom to be found except in the churches of reli*
gious conmiunities. (5) Mamed prietjts were permitted
to remarry. (6) Churches lacked their becoming oma-
mcnt-s, and *'the members of Jesus Christ, necessary
succour", while, on the other hand, there were too
many bishops — fifteen to one hundred and fifty par-
ishes. (7) The Maronites of Aleppo had, for ten or
twelve years past, been singing the Liturgy in Arabic
only.
With great difficulty, J. S. Assemani overcame the
ill will of the patriarch and the intrigues of the bishops:
the Council of the Lebanon at last convened in the
monastery of St. Mary of Luwelsa, fourteen Maronite
bishops, one Syrian, and one Armenian assisting. The
abuses enumerated above were reformed, and measures
were taken to combat ignorance by estaUisfaing schools.
The following decisions were also taken: the Filioque
was introduced into the Creed; in the Synaxary, not
only the first six councils were to be mentioned, but
also the Seventh (Niceea, 787), the Ekhth (Con-
stantinople, 869), the Council of Florence (1439), and
the Council of Trent; the pope was to be named in the
Mass and in other parts of the liturgy; confirmation
was reserved to the bishop; the consecration of the
holy chrism and the holy oils was set for Holy Thurs-
day; the altar bread was to take the circular form in
use at Rome, must be composed only of flour and
water, and must contain no oil or salt, after the Syrian
tradition; the wine must be mixed with a little water;
communion under both species was no longer per-
mitted except to priests. and deacons; the ecdesiasti-
cal hierarchy was definitely organized, and the cere-
monial of ordination fixed; the number of bishoprics
was reduced to eight.
The publication of the decrees of this council did not,
of course, completely transform Maronite manners
and customs. In 1743, two candidates for the patri*
archate were chosen. Clement XIV was obliged to an-
nul the election; he chose Simon Euodius, Arohbdshop
of Damascus (d. 1756), who was succeeded by Tobias
Peter (1766-66). In the next patriarchal reign, that
of Joseph Peter Stefani, a certain Anna Agsmi founded
a congregation of religious women of the Ssiored Heart;
the Holy See suppressed the congregation and con-
demned its foundress, who, by means of her reputation
for sanctity, was disseminating grave errors. Joseph
Peter, who defended her in 6pite of everything, was
placed imder interdict in 1779, but was reconciled
some years later. After him came Michael Fadl (d.
1795), Peter Gemall (d. 1797), Peter Thian (1797-
1809), and Joseph Dolcl (1809-23). The last, m 1818,
aboli^ed, by tne action of a synod, the custom by
which, in many places, there were pairs of monasteries,
one for men, tne other for women. Under Joseph
Habalsoh the struggles with the Druses (see I, above)
began, continuing under his successor, Joseph Ghazm
(1846-55). Peter Paul Massaad (1855-90) during h»
long and fruitful term on the patriarchal throne wit-
nessed events of extreme gravity — the revolt of the
people against the sheiks and the massacres of 1860.
ftlie Maronite Chiutih owes much to him : his firmness
of character and the loftiness of his aims had the ut-
most possible effect in lessening the evil consequences
and breaking the shock of tliese conflicts. The faft>
mediate predecessor of the present (1910) patriardi,
Mstr. Hoyek, was John Peter Hadj (1890-09).
I. For the councUs of 1696 and 1736 see Maku, Saenrtm
wncUionim nova et <xmpli9Bima colUcUo (Florence aiid Veniee,
1759-98). For the history of the Maionites. Michaxx< ths
Stbian. Chronicle, ed. Nau in 0pii9culM Maronites in Revue de
VOrient Chrftien, IV.
II. ANaENT WORKS. — Maronite I NaIroni, Disaertatio de
origine nomine ae rdigione Maronitanan (Rome. 1670) ; Idem,
Evoplia Met (Rome, 1694) ; J. S. Ambmani, BibHotkeoa orien-
talis, I (Rome. 1719), 496 sqq. Western: DANontz, Jdissimu
apostolica al Pairiarca e Maroniti (Ceaeoa. 1656). French tr.,
Simon, Voyaqe du Mont. Liban (Paris. 1685) : Lb Quxem, Oriena
CkrialianKSt III: Ecdcaia Maronitarum de Monte lAbtMno, 1-100.
See also the works of the travellers and nuasionaziea amonc ^be
Maronites; the chief, besides Wiujam of Tyre, axe Jaoqub*
DE Vitrt; Ludolp op Suchen. De itinere hierosolymitano;
Gryphonb. Sdriano, Froiiagk.
III. Modern woRKfl. — Maronite: Dum^ Laperpitu^leotiko-
dtNcie des Maronites (Beirut, s. d.); Chebu. £>« patriarcat Maro-
nite d^Antioche in Revue de VOr. ChrH., VIII. 133 sqq.; for the
Maronite tbeoiy, Nau. Opuscules maronites in Rev. de FOr.
chrH., IV. Western: Lam mens. Fr. Oryphon et le lAban a«
XV b sitcle in Revue de VOr. ChrH., IV, 68 sqci.; and wpecially
the articles of VAiLHi: in Echoa d^Orient, Orimnes reOgieuses des
AfanmifM, IV, 96, 154; V,28l; Melehites etMaronitoB, W.TIV,
Fra Suriano ei la perpHuelle orthodoxie des Maronitem, VII, 09;
Le monc^hSlisme des Maronites d'apris les auteurs Meiehites, IX,
91; VEglise Maronite du V' au IX* sikde, IX. 257, 344: also
Nehbr in Kirchenlex., s. v. Maroniten; Kxseuni in Roalenci/c.
fikr proL theol., a. v. Maroniten,
J. Laboxtbt.
Marquesas Islands, Vicariate Apostolic of (In-
BULARUM Marchesi). in Polynesia, indudes all the
Blarquesas Islands, eleven in number, lying between
7*» 5(y and 10** 30' S. lat. and between 138** aMd 141*»
W. long. The area comprises 480 sq. miles. The
islands are mountainous and rocky, but have fertile
plains. The aborigines are cannibals who live mainly
Dv fishing, and dwell in huts of wattles and branches.
The chief products are the bread-fruit tree, the coco-
nut, the banana, orange, and sugar-cane. Horses.
Eigs, sheep, cotton, and tobacco have been introduced
y the missionaries. The islands were discovered in
1505 by Mendana and named Marquesas after the
Marquess de Mendoza. at that time Viceroy of Peru,
from which country tne expedition had sailed. Hie
first Mass was said there 28 July, 1595. In 1791 the
northern islands were visited by Ingraham, an Ameri-
can, and by Marchand, a Frenchman, who took pos-
session of the group in the name of France. Cm 4
August, 1836, three missionaries of the Congregation
of Picpus entered the Bav of Vaithu, Fathers Des-
vault and Borgella, and Brother Nil. They found
the natives gix^en to tattooing, cruel and defective in
morals. In 1774 some whaling vessels left the dread
disease, phthisis, among the natives, and it has con-
tinued to work havoc there. The population in 1804
was reckoned at 17,700; in 1830 it had shrunk to
8000; at the present time it is about half that number.
Between 1838 and 1848 there were 216 iMtptisms of
adults; between 1848 and 1856, 986 baptisms. In
1858 the missionaries opened schools at Taioha^, and
in 1900 tliese schools were instructing 300 children.
In 1894 the use of opium by natives was prohibited;
in 1895 the selling or possessing of alcohol was made a
criminal offence, and in 1896 attendance at school was
made obligatory. In 1900, however, in consequence
of the passing of the Associations Law in France the
schools were closed by the Government. Efforts of
the missionaries to enforce attendance at their private
schools met with limited success. The present Vicar
Apostolic, Mgr. Martin, of the Picpus Uongregation,
titular Bishop of Uranopolis, arrived in 1890 and took
up his residence at Antouna on Hiva-Oa. The resi-
dence of the civil governor is at Taiohal on Noukou-
hiva.
Statistics. — 1 Vicar-Apostolic; 9 priests, 5 brothers
of the Picpus congregation; 4 brothers of Ploeimel; 9
sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny; 10 native catechists; 40
stations scatterea over 6 islands; 1 hospital which
cares for 160 lepers. Present population, 3300 Catbo
Ilea, 150 Proteatants, about 300 pagans. The Mar-
quesas Islands have been a Vicariate Apoatcdio since
13 April, 184S.
FlQlfT, Lit MUmiont (Puis, ■. d.); 0<rarchia (1910)1 Mit-
tionei Cat>ielxca {Somt. IB07); WcmHU, Orbit ttrrtmrn Ca-
Iholicut (FnibuTs, 1890); Street. AtUu da Mittioni CalA.
(Steyl, 19001: HAaninor. Ltt MabtitarnimLi frnn^ait m OiJanit
(PWU.18B1); Tdlha, CAoIxCannibobCPuu. 1903): Muuh.
Au Loin: BUKniri da lUt Mamiata (Pwi*, ISBl).
J. C. Grey.
■Iaiqnatt« (Sault Ste. Mabie and Marquette),
DlOceSB OF (MaRIANOPOUTANA BT MAXQUeiTENBtsi,
compriHCs the injpcr peninauU aad the adjacent istands
o[ tbe State of Michigan, U. S. A. The Jesuit Fathers,
Kaymbault and Jogues, were the first priests to step on
Michigan soil at Sault Ste. Marie, 1641, but atl they did
vas to plant a large cross on the bank of St. Marys
River. P^re Rend Menard, on Ids way to Wisconsin,
arrived in that region ilurinfc Octo-
ber, 1660; overtaken \>y the cold
weather he spent the winter at
L'Anse amidst great hani^lii JIM, Hin
efforts at converting the reiiiipiii
Indians were crowne<l with litilf
success and he deparml ii
1661. He perished atior«!
the wilds of Northern \\ i.s
On 1 September, 16ij.>,
Claude Allouez pasaeil tlie
on his way to La Pbiiiic
Esprit. Aft«r two ye^rs of
aant labour he returni>i.i lo Qiu'lie
and painted out to his .sij|x^i
necessity of estab-
lishing a mission at
Sault St«. Marie,
where Indian tribes
were in the haliit of
gathering. The su-
perior consented to
the plan, appointing
Father Marquett«(q.
J9 MABQUXTTE
to establish a fort at Detroit. In a short time be
coaxed the greater number of the Indians to Detroit,
lite fathers saw that it was useless to expend theii
energies upon the very worst of the Indiana and
French. With the sanction of the superior, Carheil
and his faithful companion Joseph Jacques Marcst
stripped the chapel of lis portable ornaments and, to
save it from desecration, reduced it to ashes (1703).
Carheil returned to Quebec; Marest went to the Sioux.
Besides these missionaries the following Jesuit Fa-
thers laboured at the Sault and Mackinac prior to
the abandonment of the two missions; (iabriel Druil-
lettes, Louis Andrd, Pierre Bailloquct, and Charlea
Albanel- The Sault mission was not revived until
1S34.
Cadillac was unable to hold the red man in the lower
Krt of the stale. As soon as he ceased to offer the
dians material inducements, they commenced to
move back in small
and large parties just
as they had left. The
government could
not afford to leave
them without any
supervision, so they
re-manned the feat
and asked the Jesuits
to take up their la-
bours agam. Father
Marest was the first
to return and take
) the r
sion. He left Mont-
real 21 April, 166S.
With the help of will-
ing hands, Indian
and French, he
erected a stockaded house and chapel. In 1669 Allouea
came again to Quebec, this time asking permission to ea-
tAblish a mission at Green Bav, Wisconsin. To avoid
further long journeys, the well-experienced missionary
Father Claude Dablon was appointed superior of the
west«m missions. Arriving at the Sault be sent AI-
loues to Green Bay and Marquett« to La Fointe, while
he himself remained at the Sault. The following year
he spent the winter at Klichlllimackinac, building a
chapel there. This chapel was built on the St. Ignace
side where Father Marquette took up his residence in
the summer of 1671, and remained m charge of the
Indian tribes there until 17 May, 1673. He died 18
May, 1675. Two years later the Kiskakons brought
his bones to St. Ignace, where they were reinterred
beneath the floor of the new chapel, built in 1674
by Father Henry Nouvel and his associate. Father
E%ilip Piersoti. In 1683 Jean Enjalran became supe-
rior and Pierre Bailloquet his assistant. The French
post, instead of protecting and helping the mission,
became its ruin. FatherEtiennede Carheil, whosuo-
ceeded to the mission in 1686, raised his voice in vig-
orous protest to the Governor-General Frontenac
against the greed and lust of the trader*, the garrisons,
and their commsndeiB. The appointment as com-
mander of the St. Ignace poet di Sieur Antoine de
la Motte Cadillac increased these evils. Cwnte de
Froiitenac died in 1008 and was succeeded by Louis
Hector de Oalli^res, who granted Cadillac permiaaiDn
IX.— 44
til 1741 only a tent-
porary establish ment
was maintained. In
]712, under Delj>u-
vigny, the French
built the fort across
the Straits, in the
neighbourhood of the present Mackinaw City.
Gradually relations between the missionaries and
the government ataiin liecame normal. About
the year 1741a chapel anil dwelling for the mis-
sionary were built u'liliii] i lie stockaded fort. In
17BI tlie Enga^ih siicoicd'^d the French. Their
unpopularity brouglii. uu Lhe Pontiac massacre,
2 June, 1763. In 1779 Major De Pej-ster com-
menced a substantial stone fort on Mackinac Island.
The chapel in the old fort was taken down and
hauled over the ice and re-erected. The island
became a fp«at trading post and the gateway to
western civilisation. Father Du Jaunay attended
the mission for a quarter of a century, but with the
removal of the church to the island the Jesuits
seem to have given up the control <^ it. After that
regular and secular pnests had charge of it, at times
they were stationary and then again only paid it an
occasional t'tsit. Among them were PSre Guibault,
1775; P*re Payet, 1787; Pdre Le Dru, 1794. Father
Michael Levadoux, 1706, was the first to conte under
the jurisdiction of an American prelate. Bishop Car-
roll. By the treaty of Paris, 3 Sept., 1783, Mackinac
became the possession of the Lnited States. Tlie
British however, did not evacuate till October, 1796.
Major Henry Burbeck took passession of it. On 20
June, 1799, Father Gabriel Richard came to the is-
land. He received his jurisdiction from the bishop of
Baltimore, but 8 April, 1808, the Diocese of BardHtoWn
was erected and Michipkn cameunder the jurisdiction
of Bishop Flaget. .\gain, when the Diocese of Cincin-
nati was established, 19 June, 1821, Michigan was in-
cluded in its territory. Rt. Rev. Edward Fenmck
was the first bishop to visit Upper Michigan. Upon
the death of this saintly bishop. Detroit was created
an episcopal see (1833) and Frederic R£z£ became ita
first ordinaiy. During the first National Council id
BSABQUETTB
690
BfABQTJETTS
Bfay, 1852, the Fathers recommended that Upper
Michigan be made a vicariate Apostolic. By a brief
of 29 July^ 1853. Pins IX disjoined the territory from
Detroit and under the same date appointed Frederic
Baraga its vicar apostolic with the title of Bishop of
Amyzonia in jxirtibtis. He took up his residence in
Sauit Ste. Mane from which the vicariate and later the
diocese took its name. Bishop Baraga found three
churches and two priests in his vicariate, but after
three years of administration his report showed not
only an increase and permanency of missiofis but vast
possibilities in development so that the Holy Sec
did not hesitate to raise the vicariate to the dignity
of a diocese, conferring at the same time upon Baraga
the title of Bishop of Sault Ste . Marie . The city was at
the extreme east end of the diocese^ so that, when
many important missions developed m the west end,
the question of moving the see to a more accessible
place naturally suggested itself. The choice fell upon
the town of Marquette and the Holy See sanctioned
the removal 23 October, 1865, enjoining that the old
name be retained together with the new one, hence the
name of the diocese: Sault Ste. Marie and Marquette.
Since the elevation of Milwaukee to an archdiocese
(1875) it has belonged to that province. The bishops
of Detroit, Milwaiucee, St. Paul^ and Hamilton^ Can-
ada, had ceded jurisdiction to Bishop Baraga over the
missions, mostly Indian, adjoining his territory. Thus
the northern portion of Lower Michigan, the regions
around Lake Superior throughout Wisconsin and Min-
nesota from Port Arthur to Michipicoten and the Sault,
were attended by him and his missionaries while he
ruled the diocese. Bishop Baraga died 19 January,
1868. (See Baraga, Frederic.) His countryman
Ignatius Mrak became his successor. He was conse-
crated 9 February, 1869, resigned in 1877, was trans-
ferred to Antinoe, in partHms. died 2 January, 1901.
John Vertin became the third oishop. He was conse-
crated 14 September, 1879; died 26 February, 1899.
The fourth bishop was chosen in the person of Fred-
erick Eis. He was bom 20 January, 1843, at Arbach,
Diocese of Trier, Germany, the youngest of four chil-
dren. In 1855 his parents emigrated to America and
settled first at Calvary, Wisconsin, but later removed
to Minnesota and from there went to Rockland, Mich-
i^n, where the diligence and talents of the future
bishop attracted the attention of the pioneer mission-
ary, Martin Fox, who at once took a lively interest in
him. Civil war broke up most of the colleges and
young Frederick went from St. Francis, Wis., to Joliet,
Canada, to complete his studies. He was ordained by
Bishop Mrak, 30 October, 1870. Filling various im-
g^rtant pastorates, he was made, upon the death of
ishop vertin, administrator of the diocese and Leo
XIII raised him to the episcopate, 7 June, 1899. His
consecration took place at Marquette 24 August, 1899.
Early Missionaries. — Jean Dejean, Francis Vin-
cent Badin, brother of Stephen Theodore Badin, the
first priest ordained in the U. S., Samuel Mazzuchelli,
Francis Pierz, Francis Haetscher, C.SS.R., F. J.
Bonduel, Dominic Du Ranquet, S.J., August Kohler,
S.J., G. B. Weikamp, O.S.F., Richard Baxter, S.J.,
Otto Skolla, O.S.F., Andrew Piret, P. Point, S.J.,
B. Pedelupe, S.J., Jean B. Menet, S.J., 1846, the first
stationary Jesuit missionary since 1703, J. D. Chonne,
8 J., Martin Fox, Edward Jacker, who discovered in
St. Ignace the site of the old Jesuit chapel and Mar-
quette's grave, John Cebul, Gerhard Terhoret, Hon-
oratus Bourion, and John F. Chambon, S.J.
Statistics. — Bishop Baraga found in his diocese
three churches and two priests. He left 15 priests, 21
churches, 16 stations, 4 religious institutions. Bishop
Mrak left: 20 priests, 27 churches, 3 charitable institu-
tions, 3 academies, 20,000 population. Bishop Ver-
tin left: 62 priests, 56 churches with pastors, 24 mis-
sion churches, 64 stations, 3 chapels, 1 academy, 20
parochial schools with 5440 pupils, 1 orphan asylum,
4 hospitab, 60,000 population. Present status: 85
priests, 67 churches with pastors, 37 mission chuiches,
23 chapels, 104 stations, 1 academy, 24 parochial
schools with 6650 pupils, 1 orphan asylum, 4 hospitals,
95,000 population.
OEIeligigus Communities. — Orders of men: Jesuits,
Franciscans (3 houses), Premonstratensians. Orders
of women: Sisters of St. Joseph (St. Louis, Mo.), 5
houses ; Sisters of St. Francis (Peoria), 3 houses ; Sisters
of Notre Dame (Milwaukee), 3 houses; Sisters of St.
Joseph (Ccmcordia, Kans.), 2 houses; Sisters of St.
Aj^es (Fond du Lac, Wis.), 3 houses; Franciscan
Sisters of Christian Charity (Alvemo, Wis.), 2 houses;
Sisters of Loretto (Toronto, Canada) ; Ursuline Nims;
Little Franciscan Sisters of Mary (Bale St. Paul,
Quebec).
Rezek, History of the Diocese of Sault Ste. Marie cand Mar-
ouette (Houghton. Mich., 1906) ; Tuwaites, The Jesuit RelationM
(Cleveland. 1901); Ver^tst, Life of Bishop Baraga (Milwau-
kee, 19(X)); Kelton, Annals of Fort Mackinac (Detroitt 1880);
Jacker, Am. Quarterly Review, I, 1876; History of the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan (Chicago, 1883); Ada et Dccreta, CoU
lectio Lacensis, III ; BeruJUe der Leopoldinen Stiftimg im Kaiser-
thwne Oesterreich (Vienna, 1832-65); Diocesan Archives, Mar-
quette, Mich.; CcUholic Directory.
Antoine Ivan Rezek.
Marquette, Jacques, S.J., Jesuit missionary and
discoverer of the Mississippi River, b. in 1636, at
Laon, a town in north central France; d. near Luding-
ton, Michigan, 19 May, 1675. He came of an ancient
family distinguished for its civic and military ser-
vices. At the age of seventeen he entered the So-
ciety of Jesus, and after twelve Vears of study and
teaching in the Jesuit colleges of France was sent by
his superiors (1666) to labour upon the Indian missions
in Canada. Arriving at Quebec he was at once as-
signed to Three Rivers on the Saint Lawrence, where
he assisted Druillettes and, as prelimiifary to furtlier
work, devoted himself to the study of the Huron lan-
guage. Such was his talent as a linguist that he
{earned to converse fluently in six different dialects.
Recalled to Quebec in the spring of 1668 he repaired at
once to Montreal, where he awaited the flotilla which
was to bear him to his first mission in the west. After
labouring for eighteen months with Father Dablon at
Sault Ste. Marie (the Soo) he was given the more difficult
task of instructing the tribes at the mission of the
Holy Ghost at La rointe, on the south-western shore of
Lake Superior, near the present city of Ashland.
Here we meet for the first time the account of the
work of Marquette as told by himself and his first
reference to the great river with which his name
will be fqrever associated (Jesuit Relations, LI I.,
206). To this mission on the bleak bay of a northern
lake came the Illinois Indians from their distant wig-
wams in the south. They brought strange tidings of
a mighty river which flowed through their country and
BO far away to the south that no one knew into what
ocean or gulf it emptied. Their own villages num-
bered eight thousand souls, and other populous tribes
lived along the banks of this unknown stream. Would
Marquette come and instruct them? Here was a call
to which the young and enthusiastic missionary re-
sponded without delay. He would find the river, ex-
plore the country, and open up fields for other mis-
sionaries . The liurons promised to build him a canoe ;
he would take with him a Frenchman and a young
Illinois from whom he was learning the language.
From information given by the visitors Marquette
concluded that the Mississippi emptied into the Gulf
of California; and on learning that the Indians along
its banks wore dlass beads he knew they had inter-
course with the Europeans.
So far had he gone in his preparations for the trip
that he sent presents to the neighbouring pagan
tribes and obtained permission to pass through their
country. However, before he could carry out his
designs the Hurons were forced to abandon their vil-
lage at La Pointe on account of a threatened attack of
BIABQinrRB 091 MARBIAaS
the Dakotas. The missioiiaTy embarked with the en- opposite to the place later known to history m
tire tribe and followed the Indians back to their an- Starved Rock. Since the missionary's strex^ith had
cient abode on the north-west shore cf the Straits been exhaused by his labours and travels, he ^It that
of Mackinac. Here a rude chapel was built and his end was fast approaching; he, therefore, left the
the work of instructing the Indians went on. Illinois after three weeks, being anxious to pass his
There is extant a long letter from his pen in which remaining da3rB at the mission at Mackinac. Coastine
Marquette gives some interesting accounts of the along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, he reachea
piety and habits of the converted Hurons (Jesuit the mouth of a small stream near the present city of
Kelations, LVTI, 249). But Marquette was jeam- Ludin^ton, where he told his two companions, who had
ing for other conquests among the tribes which in- been with him throughput his entire trip, to carry him
hi3)ited the buiks of the Mississippi. He concluded ashore. There he died at the age of thirty-nine,
this letter with the joyful information that he had Two years later the Indians carried his bones to the
been chosen by his superiors to set out from Mackinac Mission at Mackinac. In 1887 a bill was passed by
for the exploration which he had so long desired. In the Assembly at Madison, Wisconsin, authorizing the
the meanwhUe accoimts of the Mississippi had reached state to place a statue of Marquette in the Hall of
Quebec, and while Marquette was preparing for the Fame at Washington. This statue of Marquette
voyage and awaiting the season of navigation, Joliet from the chisel of the Italian sculptor, S. Tretanove, is
came to join the expedition. On 17 May, 1673, with conceded to be one of the most artistic in the Capitd.
five other Frenchmen, in two canoes, Marquette and Bronze replicas of this work have been erected at
Joliet set forth on their voyage of discovery. Skirting Marquette, Michigan, and at Mackinac Island. Thus
along the northern shore of I^ke Michigan and enter- have been verified the prophetic words of Bancroft,
ing Green Bay, pushing up the twisting cturent of the who wrote of Marquette: " The people of the West will
Fox River, and crossmg a short portoge, the partv build his monument."
reached the Wisconsin. This river, they were told, T^iWAiraa. FaUwr MargueUe (New York, 1904); Hedoeui,
flowed into the great stream which they were seeking, f^ '^ryS:U''iS^":Tj;i^l^±Z.'re{:^^.
The report proved true, and on the 17 June then* i904), UI, 207; LVII, 249; LIX. 86, 164, 184; Bancroft. Hi^
canoes glided out into the broad, swift current of the tory of the U. S., Ill (Boston, 1870). 109; Parkman. La SaUe
Mississippi Marquette drew a, map of the comity S^ti1;S3rg?pK,STrt^^^^
through which they passed and kept a diary of the 1854). For grave of Maitiuette, see Catholic World. XXVI
voyage : this diary with its clear, concise style is one of (New York). 267; statues of Marquette, cf. WooiUUKkLeUer*
the most important and interesting documents of (Woodstock^MaryUod). VI. 159. 171;XXV.302^
V "Z^^*' fV^t?^ ^*^- r^ Ti 1 x^ ^TTv oo w»^\ 387; De Soto and Marquette, cf. Spalding. MeMenger ofth*
Amencan History (Jesuit Relations, LIX, 86, 164). saered Heart, XXXV. 669: XXXVIII, 271; Spalmno, V, 3.
He describes the villages and customs of the different Cath, Hutorieal Records and Studies, III (New York. 1904), 381.
tribes, the topography of the country, the tides of Henby S. Spaij>ing.
the lakes, the future commercial value of navigable m*^.^.,^*** t -.-—-. • i. r j j • xt
streams, the nature and variety of the flowere and v^"^^**® ?^SP?' if ^^^^ founded m New
trees, of birds and animals. DoWn the river the party York m May, 1904, by Rev. H G. Gan^, of Lancas-
sailed, passing the mouth of the muddy Missoui? and ^J* ^^\Z'^^, f directorate of tw«ity-five members
the Ohio until they reached the mouth of the Ar- ^*^TS^* ^"^^ ^^""1 *^^ '''''^'''^ ^^ *H^^ ^"'''''"^ ^^
kansas, and learned with certainty from the Indians ^?,^ ,?^'^*r ' ?^ f ^Y°T s movement to co^rate
that the river upon which they were navigating flowed with t^e ecclesiastical authonU^^^
into the Gulf olf Mexico. ^eFaith^ among the Catholic Indians of the United
This was the
fearing daneer from
they turned the prows »^. v..^** ^,««^^v-, ..^.v..^».^. , - . • ■ x.-j xu-x j* -j
« We considered ", Writes Marquette in his diary, " that P^ maintaining tramed catechiste; and to endeavour
were not prepared to resist the InSian alUee of the "^ estabhshed mission chapek at Holy Rosary and St
Europeans, for these savages were expert in the use Francis mission, South Dakota; for the Moquis In-
of fir^rm^; lastly we hadiathered aU the information ^ <>J Northern Aruona; for the Winnebago^ of
that could be d^ired fr^m the expedition. After Nebraska; ^d twochapels on the Fort Berthold
weighing all these reasons we resold to return." Reservation, North Dakota. Several catechiste were
On coming to the mouth of the Illinois they left the *®5* ^ ^^ mission field, and many gifts of clothuMj
Mississippi and took what they learned from the In- ^5 money were sent each year to the mission schools
dians w^ a shorter route. Near the present city of ^^ ^"^^^ "^S^y oSermg^ for Masses to the mis^onapr
Utica they came to a very large village of the Illinois pneate, together with v^tmente and chahces for the
who requested the missionary to return and instruct different chapels built by the League. The Le^^ue
them. Reaching Lake Michigan (where Chicago now S^^H^ ^^ harmony with the Bureau of Cathohc Indian
stands), and paddling along the western shore they Missions, Washington, and its work extends mto al-
came ti the mission of Samt Francis Xavier at th4 most every state in the umon. The League is goyen^
head of Green Bay. Here Marquette remained while ?>" * prudent and a board of directors, consistmg of
Joliet went on to Quebec to announce the tiding? of twenty-five inen of New York and Brooklyn, member-
the discovery. The resulte of this expedition were ^Inp in a St. Vmc«it de PauISociety being no longer
threefold : (1) it gave to Canada and Europe historical, » nec^sary qualification. The wincipal office is m
ethnological, and geographical knowledge hitherto un- New York, witii organizations m Brooklyn, Washmg-
known; (2) it opened vast fields for missionary zeal ^^* Philadelphia, and Worcester,
and added impul^ to colonization; (3) it deterJiined Yolk)'! fiS^esf 'JSSSW f^Zrf^^^^ '^"'' ^""'^
the policy of France m fortifying the Mississippi and Thomas F. Mbehan.
its eastern tributaries, thus placing an effective barrier
to the further extension of the English colonies. A Marriage, Civil. — ^"Marriage", says Bishop, "as
year later (1675) Marquette started for the village of distinguished from the agreement to marry and from
the Illinois Indians whom he had met on his return the act of becoming married, is the civil status of one
voyage, but was overtaken by the cold and forced to man and one woman legally united for life, with the
spend the winter near the lake (Chicago). The follow- ri^hte and duties which, for the establishment of fanir
ing spring he reached the village and said Bfass just ilies and the multiplication and education of the
BCABSIAOE 092 lftABfiIA0X
epeoies, are, or from time to time may thereafter be, requirement in some of the states, and in othen thi
assigned by the law of matrimony. " (I. Mar. and Div. parties may have recourse to the publication of baooi
Sec. 11.) mstead of securing a license. Parental consent is
The municipal law deals with this status only as a re<)uired in almost all of the states, the a^e for males
civil institution. Though sometimes spoken of as a bemg from sixteen to twenty-one and for females from
contract, marriage in the eyes of the municipal law is eighteen to twenty-one. Li nearly all of the states,
not a contract strictly speaking, but is a status result- if either of the parties has been continuoiisly absent
ing from the contract to marry. Justice Story speaks for a number of years and has not been known to be
of it as "an institution of societv founded upon the living during that time, the other party may contiact
consent and contract of the parties ''. (Story, ^* Ckmfl. a new marriage. The general doctrine of the law on
Laws", Sec. 108. Note.) All competent persons may the subject of foreign marriages is that a
intermarry, and marriage being pnresum&d to be for valid where celebrated is valid everywhere. Exoq)-
the interest of the State and of the highest public in- tions are made in a number of states where citizens go
terest, is encouraged. It is held to be a union for life, to another jurisdiction in order to evade the laws of
The law does not permit it to be a subject of experi- the home domicile. In some of the states marriages
mental or temporary arrangement, but a fixed and between persons of difTerent races are made void. If
permanent status to be dissolved only by death, or, either of the parties is not of sound mind at the time of
where statutes permit, by divorce. In England the entering into the marriage, it is void unless oonfirmed
solemnization oi a marriage was required to be before when sanity is regained. Where a physical ino^iae-
a clergyman until the statute passed in 1836, and all ity exists the marriage may be made void on the an-
other marriafes excepting those of Quakers and Jews, plication of the other party who was ignorant of the
were null. By that act civil marriages and those of fact. Under the conunon Jaw a marriaee can be an-
dissenters from the Church of England are legalized nulled for mistake as to identity or fraud. There are
and regulated. In order to constitute a valid mar- certain kinds of fraud where an ordinary contract
riage there must be a consent of the parties, and in would be declared void, which do not affect a marriage
some of the states of the Union no formality is neces- contract because of pubUc policy. In some of the
sarv. United States annulment would be allowed for decep-
fiy the conunon law the age at which minors were tion as to chastity, but not, it is said, in Cngland.
capable of marrying, known as the age of consent, was Duress sufficient to overcome the will of the consent-
fixed at fourteen years for males and twelve years for ing party is a cause for annulment unless subaequently
females. Marriages under the age of seven years for ratified. As in England, so in all of the United States
both were void, but between seven and the age of con- there are statutes regulating the formalities in connee*
sent the parties could contract an imperfect marri^^e, tion with marriages other timn common law marriages,
which was voidable but not necessarily void. Tne and in addition to ministers of the various churches,
marriage of parties who had attained the age of consent who for the purpose are looked upon as civil officers,
was valid even though they lacked parental con- other designated officials are authorized to perform
sent, until in England the marriage act of 1753 de- the marriage ceremony, excepting in a few of the
clared such marriages void. This act, however, has states. Marriages may be proved both by direct and
never been the law m the United States. In England circumstantial evidence, the pfesumption being in fa-
imder the statute of 32 Henry VIII, c. 38, all niar- vor of a former marriage where there has been cohabi-
riages were made lawful between parties not within the tation and reputation.
Levitical degrees of relationship; this was interpreted Where marriages are annulled, the decree relates
to mean all marriages excepting those between rela- back to the date of the marriage, while divorce relates
tives in the direct line and in the collateral line to the only to the date of its own decree (see Divorce). Pen-
third degree, according to the rules of the Civil Law, alties are usually prescribed for violation of statutoiy
including both tiie whole and the half blood. In the regulations relating to marriage by ministers or other
United States, in the absence of statutes to the con- persons authorized to perform the ceremony. Mar-
trary, marriages are unlawful only in the direct as- riage of itself gives to the husband and wife certain
cending and descending line of consanguinity and interests in the property of the other, both real and per-
between brothers and sisters. In most, if not all, of the sonal, which by modem legislation have been largely
States, however, there are statutes covering this sub- modified. Formerly the husband was to sdl intents
ject, and in a number of them marriages between first and purposes owner of his wife's property, but now
cousins are forbidden. Marriages that arc made with- she has absolute control of it in ^[igiand and in the
out formalities, but by the mere consent of the parties. United States, reserving to the husband certain rif hts
are known as common law marriages. In order to which become effective after her death. In Engumd
make such marriages effective, there must be a present imder the common law, the marriage of parents after
hitention to make the contract and it must be ex- the birth of children does not legitimate them, but in
pressed accordinglv, — in other words, ''per verba de most of the American states and in European oonti-
pnesenti''. Wordjs expressing a futiu^ intention do nental countries it is sought to encourage marriage by
not give the necessary consent, but when words are providing that illegitimate children may thus be legiti-
usedwith the future intention apparently, followed by mated. The laws of most foreign countries make
consummation, or, as it is said, ''per verba de futiut) strict requirements as to mental capacity, and estab-
cum copula'', a marriage is constituted, the future lish certain degrees of consanguinity and aflSnity
promise having been converted by action into an ac- within which marriage cannot be contracted. There
tual marriage. Marriages contracted without con- are certain impediments, not known in the United
forming to statutory regulations are valid in a number States, imposing a period of delay in connexion with
of states and not in others. Formal solemnization is military service, and providing a time within which a
imnecessanr. Where no penalty for disobedience of woman may not contract marriage after the dissolu-
statutory formalities is provided, their omission does tion of a previous one. The tendency in continental
not inviJidate the marriage. countries is to establish civil marriage as ihe only form
The requirement of a license to marry was first recognized by the State. This is the law in BeWum.
brought into England by Lord Hardwicke's Marriage France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, the NetherGindB»
Act of 1753. It is not part of the common law of the Rumania, and Switzerland, where the civil ceremony
United States, but very generally licenses are required alone is recognized in the eyes of the law, and in most
in the states, though not to the extent of making mar- of these countries clergymen are prohibited under
riages invalid where they have not been granted. The severe penalties from performing tne religious cere-
Society of Friends or Quakers is excepted from the mony before the civil marriage has taken place. A
BSABBIAOX 693 MABSIAOX
ofvil oereiXKmy is roquired in Austria when both par- In Italy the consent of the parents or next of kin is
ties belong to no legally recognised Faith. There are required for men under twenty-five years of age and
similar provisions in Denmark, Norway and Sweden, for women under twenty-one years. Li case of r»-
Bulgaria, Finland, Croatia, Slavmiia, and Servia recog- f usal of consent, provision is made for an appeal to a
ni2e ihe religious ceremony alone. court. Foreigners desiring to marry in Italy must
In Japan a marriage code which became effective present a certificate from a competent authority that
in 1898, contains sections dealing with the laws of they have satisfied the requirements of the laws of
family and of succession. The form of ceremony is their own country. Foreigners ordtnarilv residing in
not regulated, but the marriaee itself is valid only Italy are subject to the requirements of the ItaUan
under certain conditions. The mws of countries other law. Military officials cannot marry without the
than the United States provide in a number of in- royal permission, which is not given unless they have
stances for the consent of parents or guardians after an assured income of about eight hundred dollars at
the parties have attained the age of twenty-one years, least, and have made a settlement for the benefit of
Thus in Austria parties between the age of fourteen the bride. Somewhat similar regulations are made
and twenty-four years are incapable of contracting a for lower officers and privates, in revenue service,
valid mamage without the consent of their father or, In the Netherlands the consent of parents is re-
if he be dead or incapable of acting, both of their guar- quired of an individual under thirty years of age. The
dian and of the court. Even for those who have at- marriageable age begins with men at eighteen and
tained the a^e of twenty-foiu*, but who for any reason women at sixteen. If both parents are dead or in-
are incapable of entering into a valid obligation, e. g. capacitated, an individual under twenty-one requires
if they have been legally declared spendthrifts, such the consent of a grandparent or, in default of agrand-
oonsent is necessary. In the case of minors of illegiti- parent, of a guardian and second guardian. Cheers
mate birth, the consent both of the guardian and of of the army and navy require the consent of the sov-
the coiurt is requisite. In general, persons in military ereign before they can marry, and no man between the
service cannot contract a valid marriage without the ages of eighteen and forty may marry unless he has
written permission of their superiors. A law of 1889 proved he has performed military service or has been
provides that a man shall not be permitted to marry excused from it.
before reaching the age of military service, or before In Switzerland the consent of parents is required of
leaving the third aj^e class, i. e., at the age of twenty- all persons under twenty years ofage. The consent of
three years. In France the man must be at least parents is required also in Belgiiun of all persons under
eighteen years of age and the woman fifteen to con- the age of twenty-five, the law being somewhat simi-
tract a valid marriage, unless the President of the Re- lar to that of France.
public grants a special disp^isation. By a law dated In Russia children must obtain the consent of their
25 June, 1907, parental consent is no longer required parents if living, without regard to their age, a man
for men and women over twenty-one years of age, but attaining the marriageable age at eighteen and a
both men and women under thirty must ask for it and woman at sixteen.
serve upon the dissenting parent or parents an instru- In D^imark the marriageable age is twenty for men
ment requesting it. The parties may marry three and sixteen for women, and consent of parents must
days after service has been made. Under the law be obtained by minors under the age of twenty-five.
grevious to that date, men under the age of twenty- In Sweden females under the age of twenty-one ro-
ve and women under the age of twenty-one could not quire the consent of a marriage guardian, usually her
marry without the consent of their parents, or the sur- ntther or brother or some other male relative. Men
vivor if one of them was dead. require no parental consent. Men may marry at the
In England the common law rule of fourteen for age of twenty-one or over, and women at l^e age of
males and twelve for females governs the marriage seventeen or over.
age. Consent of parents is necessury for persons In Norway the marriageable age for men is twenty
under twenty-one, except for a widow or widower, and for women sixteen. ParentaTconsent is necessary
The proper person to give consent is the father or, if he for both parties under the age of eighteen,
be dead, the mother, if unmarried, or finally a guar- Parental consent appears to be necessaiy, under cer-
dian appointed by the Court. Soldiers must get the tain conditions, in all European coimtries where the
consent of their commander. Violation of these pro- parties are under the age of twenty-one and in many
visions does not, however, invalidate the marriage; where they are liable to militaiy serviee. In Japan
but in case of soldiers the woman is not recognized as the consent of parents or of the family council is essen-
having a military status. In Scotland the impedi- tial to the marriage of a man under thirty and of a
ments are the same as in England, but no consent of woman under twenty-five. The marriage laws of the
parents or guardian is required. Regular marriages different Canadian provinces are not uniform but are
are celebrated by some minister of religion in the pres- quite similar. The minimum age for marriage in the
enoe of at least two witnesses, after the publication of Province of Quebec is fourteen for males and twelve
banns or issuance of registrar's certificate. Irregular for females. Parental consent is necessary for any
marriages are clandestine marriages, celebrated with- one under twenty-one years of age. In Quebec alone
out publication of banns or notice to the registrar, of the Canadian Provinces ill^timate children are
Such marriages may be made by mere consent without legitimated by the marriage of their parents. The
a clergyman and are valid. In Ireland provisions laws of Australia and New ^aaland are based upon the
are made for marriages by Episcopalians, Catholics, English statutes and common law.
and Presbyterians, by ministers of other denomina- Bishop, Afarruv*. Divorce and Sepwniion (Chieago, 1891);
tions, and by the civil registrars. The impediments to ^^m. and Eng. Ene, of Lav, s. v. Marriaoe; Bouyzbs, Law IH>
marriage are substantiaUy the same as in England. ?SS?'^ !P^*^ ^S""^ of the Census Office (Washington. 1867-
T rr ^ ZT^ «"^ oc***^ «o 1** ^A^««uu. jgQg^ Pai,rt I), with a valuable summary of the mamage and
In tiermany a man may not marry, except m un- divorce laws of all modem States, from which the foregoing
usual cases, imder the age of twenty-one or a woman ^ets in relation to foreign countries have been derived,
under the age of sixteen. A le^tunate child under Walter George SMrrn.
the age of twenty-one must obtam the consent of the
father or, if he be dead, of the mother- an illegitimate Maiiiage, Hibtort of. — The word marriage may
child, the consent of the mother; an adopted child, the be taken to denote the action, contract, formiUity, or
consent of the foster parent. Military men, public ceremony by which the conjugal union is formed, or
officials, and forei^ers, before marriage, must obtain a the union itself as an enduring condition. In thiB
snecial permit, and militaiy men in active service must article we deal for the most part with marriage as •
also obtain the consent of their officers. condition, and with its moral and social aspects. It is
ISARBIAOB 694 ISARBIAOB
usually defined as the legitimate union between hus- thus described by Howard: " The researches of seviefal
band and wife. "Legitimate'' indicates the sanction recent writers, notably those of Starcke and Wester-
of some kind of law, natural, evangelical, or civil, marck, confirming in part and further developing the
whilethephrase,*' husband and wife", implies mutual- earlier conclusions of Darwin and Spencer, have es-
rights of sexual intercourse, life in common, and an tablished a probability that marriage or pairi^ be-
enduring xmion. The last two characters distinguish tween one man and one woman, though the union be
marriage, respectively, from concubinage and fomica- often transitory and the rule frequently violated, is
tion. The aefinition, however, is br^id enough to the typical form of sexual imion from the infancy of
comprehend polygamous and pol^androus unions the human race" (History of Matrimonial Instito-
when the^ are permitted by the civil law; for in such tions, I, pp. 90, 91).
relationships there are as many marriages as there are (2) Polyandry and Polygamy. — One deviation from
individuals of the numerically larger sex. Whether the typical form of sexiial imion which, however, is
promiscuity, the condition in which all the men of a also called marriage, is polyandry, the union of several
group maintain relations and live indiscriminately husbands with one wife. It has been practised at
with all the women, can be properly called marriage, various times by a considerable number of peoples or
may well be doubted. In such a relation cohabita- tribes. It existed amon^ the ancient Bntons, the
tion and domestic life are devoid of that exclusi veness primitive Arabs, the inhabitants of the Canary Islands,
which is commonly associated with the idea of con- the Aborigines of America, the Hottentots, the inhabi-
jugal imion. tants of India, Ceylon, Thibet, Malabar, and New
(1) The Theory of Primitive Promiscuity, — ^All au- Zealand. In the great majority of these instances
thorities agree t^t during historical times promia- polyandry was the exceptional form of conjugal union,
cuity has l^n either non-existent or confined to a few Monogamy and even polygamy were much more
small groups. Did it prevail to any extent during the prevalent. The greater number of the polyandrous
prehistoric period of the race? Writing between 1860 unions seem to have been of the kind called iratemal:
and 1890, a considerable number of anthropologists, that is, the husbands in each conjugal group virere au
such as Bachofen, Mor^n, McLennan, Lubbock, and brothers. Frequently, if not generally, the first hu»-
Giraud-Teulon, maintamed that this was the original hand enjoyed conjujgal and domestic rights superii^
relationship between the sexes amon^ practically all to the others, was, in fact, the chief husband. The
peoples, oo rapidly did the theory wm favour that in others were husbands only in a secondary and limited
1891 it was, aocorciing to Westermarck, " treated by sense. Both these circumstances show that even in
many writers as a demonstrated truth" (History of the comparatively few cases in which polyandry ex-
Human Marri^e, p. 51). It appealed strongly to isted it was softened in the direction of monogamy;
those believers m organic evolution who assumeni that for the wife belonged not to several entirely independ-
the social customs of primitive man, including sex re- ent men, but to a group united by the closest ties of
lations, must have dinered but slightly from the cor- blood; she was married to one family rather than to
responding usages among the brutes. It has been one person. And the fact that one of her consorts poe-
ea^rly adopted by the Marxian Socialists, on account sessed superior marital privileges shows that she had
cd its agreement with their theories of primitive com- only one husband in the full sense of the term. Some
mon property and of economic determinism. Accord- writers, e. g. McLennan (Studies in Ancient History,
ing to the latter hypothesis, all other social institutions pp. 1 12, sq.) have asserted that the Levirate, the cus-
are, and have ever been, determined by the underlying tom which compelled the brother of a deceased hus-
eeonomic institutions; hence in the original condition band to many his widow, had its origin in polyandry,
of common propertv, wives and husbands must like- But the Levirate can be explained without any sudb
wise have been hela in common (see Engels, "The hypothesis. In many cases it merely indicated that
Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the the wife, as the property of her husband, was inherited
State '\ tr. from German, Chicago, 1902). Indeed, by his nearest heir, i. e. his brother j in other instances,
the vogue which the theory of promiscuity for a time as among the ancient Hebrews, it was evidently a
enjoyed seems to have been due far more to a priori means of continuing the name, family, and individo-
considerations of the kind just mentioned, and to the ality of the deceased husband. If the Levirate
wish to believe in it, than to positive evidence. pointed in all cases to a previous condition of polyan-
About the only direct testimony in its favour is dry, the latter practice must have been much more
found in the fra^entary statements of some ancient common than it is shown to have been by direct evi-
writers, such as Herodotus and Strabo, concerning a dence. It is certain that the Levirate existed among
few unimportant peoples, and in the accounts of some the New Caledonians, the Redskins, the Mongols,
modem travellers regarding some uncivilized tribes of Afghans, Hindoos, Hebrews, and Abyssinians; yet
the present day. Neither of these classes of testi- none of these peoples shows any trace of polyandry,
mony clearly shows that the peoples to which they re- The principal causes of polyandiv were the scarcity of
fer practised promiscuity, and both are entirely too women, due to female infanticide and to the appro-
few to justify the generalization that all peoples lived priation of many women by polygamous chiefs and
originally in the conditions which they describe. As strong men in a tribe, and to the scarcity of the food
for the indirect evidence in favour of the theory, con- supplv, which made it impossible for e verymale mem-
sisting of inferences from such social customs as the her of a family to support a wife alone. Even today
tracing of kinship through the mother, religious pros- polyandry is not entirely unknown. It is found to
titution, unrestrained sexual intercourse previous to some extent in Thibet, in the Aleutian Islands, among
marriage among some savage peoples, and primitive the Hottentots, and the Zaporogian Cossacks,
commimity of goods, — none of these conditions can be Polygamy (man^ marriages) or, more correctly,
S roved to have been universal at any stage of human polygyny (many wives) has oeen, and is still, much
evelopment, and every one of them can be explained more common than polyandry. It existed among
more easily and more naturally on other groimds than most of the ancient peoples known to history, and oe-
on the assumption of promiscuity. We may say that curs at present in some civilized nations and in the
the positive ar^ments in favour of the theory of majority of savage tribes. About the only important
Srimitive promiscuity seem insufficient to give it any peoples of ancient times that showed little or no traces
egree of probaUlity, while the biological, economic, of it were the Greeks and the Romans. Nevertheless,
psychological, and historical arguments brought against concubinage, which may be regarded as a higher form
it by many recent writers, e. g. Westermarek (op. of polygamy, or at least as nearer to pure monogamy,
dt., iv-vi) seem to render it unworthy of serious con- was for many centuries recognized by the customs and
nderation. The attitude of oontemporaiy scholars is even by the legislation of these two nations (fiee CoK-
MABRIAOB 695 MABBIAOB
oubinage). The principal peoples among whom the elements of human nature. Taking the word natural
practice still exists are those under the sway of Mo- in its full sense, we may unhesitatingly affirm that
hammedanism, as those of Arabia, Turkey, and some monogamy, is the only natural form of marriage,
of the peoples of India. Its chief home among un- While promiscuity responds to certain elementalpas-
civilized races is Africa. However widespread polyg- sions and temporarily satisfies certain superficial
amy has been territorially, it has never been practised wants, it contradicts the parental instinct, the welfare
by more than a small mmority of any people. Even of children and of the race, and the overpowering
where it has been sanctioned by custom or the civil forces of jealousy and individual preference in both
law, the vast maiority of the population have been men and women. While polyandiy satisfied in some
monogamous. The reasons are obvious: there are not measure the temporary and exceptional wants arising
sufficient women to provide every man with several from scarcity of food or scarcity of women, it finds an
wives, nor are the majority of men able to support insuperable barrier in male jealousy, in the male sense
more than one. Hence polygamous marriages are of proprietorship, and is directly opposed to the wel-
found for the most part among the kings, chiefs, fare of the wife, and fatal to the fecimdity of the race,
strong men, and rich men of the community; and While polygamy has prevailed among so many peoples
its prevailing form seems to have been bigamy. More- and over so long a period of history as to suggest that
over, polygamous unions are, as a rule, modined in the it is in some sense natural, and while it does seem to
direction of monogamy, inasmuch as one of the wives, furnish a means of satisfying the stronger and more
usually the first married, occupies a higher place in the frequently recurring desires of the male, it conflicts
household than the others, or one of them is the fa- with the numerical equaUty of the sexes, with the
vourite, and has exceptional privileges of intercourse jealousy, sense of proprietorship, equality, dignity,
with the common husuand. and general welfare of the wife, and with the best in-
Among the principal causes of polygamy are: the terests of the offspring,
relative scarcity of males, arising sometimes from nu- In all those regions in which polygamy has existed
merous destructive wars, and sometimes from an ex- or still exists, the status of woman is extremely low;
cess of female births; the unwillingness of the husband she is treateu as man's property, not as his compaiH
to remain continent when intercourse with one wife is ion; her life is invariably one of great hardship, while
undesirable or impossible; and unrestrained lustful her moral, spiritual, and intellectual qualities are al-
cravings. Still another cause, or more properly, a most utterly neglected. Even the male human being
condition, is a certain degree of economic advance- is in the highest sense of the phrase naturally monoga-
ment in a people, and a certain amount of wealth ac- mous. His moral, spiritual, and Aesthetic faculties can
cumulated by some individuals. In the rudest socio- obtain normal development only when his sexual rela-
ties p^ygamy is almost unknown, because hunting tions are confined to one woman in the common life
and fishing are the chief means of livelihood, and fe- and enduring association provided by monogamy,
male labour has not the value that attaches to it when The welfare of the children, and, therefore, of the race,
a man's wives can be employed in tending flocks, culti- obviously demands that the offspring of each pair shall
vating fields, or exercising useful handicrafts. Before have the undivided attention and care of both their
the pastoral stage of industry has been reached parents. When we speak of the naturalness of any
scarcely any man can afford to support several women, social institution, we necessarily take as our standard,
When, however, some accumulation of wealth has not nature in a superficial or one-sided sense, or in its
taken place, polygamy becomes possible for the more savage state, or as exemplified in a few individuals or
wealthy, and for those who can utilize the productive in a sin^e generation, but nature adequately consid*
labour of their wives. Hence the practice has been ered, in all its needs and powers, in all the members of
more frequent among the higher savages and barba- the present and of future generations, and as it ap-
rians than among the very lowest races. At a still pears in those tendencies which lead toward its high-
higher stage it tends to give way to monogamy. est development. The verdict of experience and the
We may now sum up the whole historical situation voice of nature reinforce, conse<]^uently, the Christian
concerning the forms of sexual union and of maniage teaching on the unity of marriage. Moreover, the
in the words of one of the ablest living authorities in progress of the race toward monogamy, as well as
this field of investigation: ** It is not, of course, impos- toward a purer monogamy, during the last two thou-
sible that, among some peoples, intercourse between sand years, owes more to the influence of Christianity
the sexes may have been almost promiscuous. But than to all other forces combined. Christianity has
there is not a shred of genuine evicience for the notion not oidy aboli^ed or diminished polyandry and polyg-
that promiscuity ever formed a general stage in the amy among the savage and barbarous peoples which
history of mankind . . . although polygamy occurs it lias converted, but it has preserved Europe from the
among most existing peoples, and polyandry among polygamous civilization of Mohammedanism, has kept
some, monogamy is by far the most common form of nefore the eyes of the more enlightened peoples tne
human marriage. It was so among the ancient peo- ideal of an unadulterated monogamy, and has given to
pies of whom we have any direct knowledge. Mouog- the world its highest conception of the equality that
amy is the form which is generally recognized and pei^ should exist between the two parties in tne marriage
mitted. The great majority of peoples are, as a rule, relation. And its influence on behalf of monogamy
monogamous, and the other forms of marriage are usu- has extended, and continues to extend, far beyond the
ally modified in a monogamous direction. We may confines of those countries that call tJouemselves Chris-
without hesitation assert that, if mankind advance in tian.
the same direction as hitherto; if, consequently, the (3) Deviations from Marriage. — Our discussion of
causes to which monogamy in the most progressive the various forms of marriage would be incomplete
societies owes its origin continue to operate with con- without some reference to those practices that nave
stantly growing force ; if, especially, altruism increases, been more or less prevalent, and yet that are a trans-
and the feeling of love becomes more refined, and more gression of every form of marriage. Sexual license
exclusively directed to one, — the laws of monogamy amounting almost to promiscuity seems to have pre-
can never be changed, but must be followed much vailed among a few peoples or tribes. Among some
more strictly than they are now " (Westermarck, op. andent peoples the women, especially the unmarried,
cit.. pp. 133, 459, 510). practised prostitution as an act of religion. Some
The experience of the race, particularly in its move- tribes, botn ancient and relatively modem, have main-
ment toward and its progress in civilization, has ap- tained the custom of yielding the newly married bride
proved monogamy for the simple reason that monog- to the relatives and guests of the bridegroom. Unlim-
amy is in harmony with the essential and immutable ited sexual intercourse before marriage has been sane-
.^-s r-ron:-:--!- :--->-j:i
-_-^ t^».-. =Li- ^ii!^:-
^-. --- rr^ iK »? >rv:.xa -ja;
:^« iil-Jb-
BSABBIAOB 607 BSAB&IAQB
Similarly^ easy divorce gives an impetus to illicit re- have beeo already attained; and, second, that the
lations between the unmarried, inasmuch as it tends to same policy will be f oimd essentia to the highest d»-
destroy the association in the popular consciousness gree oi civilization.
between se^oial intercourse and the enduring union of (5) AhsienHan Jrom Marriage. — ^With a verv few
one man with one woman. Another evil is the in- unimportant exceptions all peoples, sava^ and civ-
crease in the number of hasty and unfortunate mar- ilized, that have not accepted tne Cathouc religion,
riages among persons who look forward to divorce as have looked with some disdain upon celibacy. Savage
an eas^ remeay for present mistakes. Inasmuch as races many much earlier, and have a smaller propor-
the children of a divorced couple are deprived of their tion of cehbates than civilized nations. Dunng the
normal heritage, which is education ana care by both last centuiy the proportion of unmarried persons has
father and mother in the same household, they almost increased in the United States and in Europe. Tlie
always suffer ^ve and varied disadvantages. Finally, causes of this change are partly economic, inasmuch
there is the injury done to the moral clumEuster gener- as it has become more difficult to support a family in
ally. Indissoluble marriage is one of the most effective accordance with contemporary stanoards of living;
means of developing self-control and mutual self-sacri- partly social, inasmuch as the increased social pleasure
fice. Many salutary inconveniences are endured be- and opportunities have displaced to some degree do-
cause they cannot be avoided, and many imperfections mestic desires and interests; and partly moral, inas-
of temper and character arc corrected because the much as laxer notions of chastity nave increased the
husband and wife realize that thus only is conjugal number of those who satisfy their sexual desires out-
happiness possible. On the other hand, when divorce side of marriage. From the viewpoint of social moral-
is easily obtained there is no sufficient motive for under- ity and social welfare, this modem celibacy is an al-
goinK those inconveniences which are so essential to most unmixed evil. On the other hand, the religious
self-discipline, self-development, and the practice of celibacy taught and encouraged by tne Church is
altruism. socially benencial, since it shows that continence is
All the objections just noted are valid against fre- practicable, and since religious celibates exemplify a
quent divorce, against the abuse of divorce, but not nigher degree of altruism than any other section of
fi^inst divorce so far as it implies separation from bed society. The assertion that celibacy tends to make
and board without the right to contract another mar- the married state seem low or unworthy, is contra-
riage. The Church permits limited separation in cer- dieted by the public opinion and practice of every
tain cases, chiefly, when one of the parties has been country m which celibacy is held in highest honour,
guilty of adultery, and when further cohabitation For it is precisely in such places that the marriage
would cause grave injury to soul or body. If divorce relation, and the relations between the sexes generally,
were restricted to these two cases some pretend that are purest (see Ceubact).
it would be socially preferable to mere separation with- (6) Marriage as a Ceremony or ContrcuU, — The act, f or-
out the right to remarry, at least for the innocent mality, or ceremony by which the marriage union is
spouse. But it would surely be less advantageous to created, has differed widely at different times and
society than a regime of no divorce. Where mere among different peoples. One of the earliest and
separation is permitted, it will in a considerable propor- most frequent customs associated with the entrance
tion of instances need to be only temporary, and the into marriage was the capture of the woman by her
welfare of parents and children will be better pro- intended husband, usually from another tribe than
moted by reconciliation than if one of the parties that to which he himself belonged. Among most
formed another matrimonial union. When there is primitive peoples this act seems to nave been regarded
no hope of another marriage, the offences that justify rather as a means of getting a wife, than as the forma-
separation are less likely to be provoked or committed tion of the marriage union itself. The latter was sub-
by either i>arty, and separation is less likely to be sequent to the capture, and was generally devoid of
sought on insufficient grounds, or obtained through any formality whatever, beyond mere cohabitation,
fraudulent methods. Moreover, experience shows But the symbolic seizure of wives continued in many
tiiat when divorce is permitted for a few causes, there places long after the reality had ceased. It still exists
is an almost irresistible tendency to increase the num- among some of the lower races, and until quite recently
ber of le^ grounds, and to make the administration of was not unknown in some parts of Eastern Europe,
the law less strict. Finally, the ajbaolute prohibition After the practice had become simulated instead of
of divorce has certain m^f* effects which contribute actual, it was frequently looked upon as either the
in a fundamental an4,^far-reaching way to the social whole of the marriage ceremony or an essential accom-
welfare. The pop^rfar mind is impressed with the paniment of the marriage. Symbolic capture has
thought that mapiage is an exclusive relation between laigely given way to wife purchase, which seems to pre-
two persons, a^^that sexual intercourse of itself and vail among most uncivilizied peoples to-day. It has as-
normally call§ f or a lifelong union of the persons en- sumed various forms. Sometimes the man desiring a
tering udoq such intercourse. wife gave one of his kinswomen in exchange; some-
The ooliffation of self-control, and of subordinating times he served for a period his intended bride's father,
the animal in human nature to the reason and the which was a frequent custom among the ancient He-
spirit, ad well as the possibility of fulfilling this obliga- brews; but most often the bride was paid for in money
tion, %re likewise taught in a most striking and practi- or some form of property. Like capture, purchase
cal m&nner. Humanity is thus aided andf encouraged became after a time amon^ many peoples a symbol to
to reach a higher moral plane. In the matter of the in- signify the taking of a wife and the formation of the
dissolubility, as w^ell as in that of the unity of marriage, marriage union. Sometimes, however, it was merely
then^fore, the Christian teaching is in harmony with an accompanying ceremony. Various other cere-
nature at her best, and with the deepest needs of monial forms have accompanied or constituted the
civilization. "There is abundant evidence '^ says entrance upon the marriage relation, the most common
W^termarck, "that marriage has, upon the whole, of which was some kind of feast; yet among many un-
bebome more durable in proportion as the human race civilized peoples marriage has taken place, ana still
has risen to higher degrees of civilization, and that a takes place, without any formal ceremony whatever,
certain amount of civiBzation is an essential condition By many uncivilized races, and by most civilized
of the formation of lifelong unions" (op. cit., p. ones, the marriage ceremony is regarcbed as a religious
635). This statement suggests two tolerably sale rite or includes religious features, although the re-
§eneralizations: first, thatuie prohibition of divoroe ligious element is not always regarded as necessary to
uring many centuries has been a cause as well as an the validity of the union. Under the Christian dls-
effect of those "higher degrees of civilization" that pensation marriage is a religiousaet of the very higjhflHt
MABBUOI 698 BSABSIMX
kind.namely.oneofthe seven Bacnunenta. Although eacred name of Chiist. By degrees, however, Uie ob-
Lutkra dectared that marriage wu not a sacrament jection to a marriage between a Catholic and an infidd
but "a worldly thioK". aU the I^teetant aecte have grew stronger as the necessity for such imiona de-
continued to n^utl it aa religious io the sense that it creased, and so in the course of time, more by custom
ought nonnaUy to be contracted in the presence of a than by positive enactment, the impediment ditpari-
cleigyman. Owing to the influence of the Lutheran 1cm ctilhia makine such marriages null and void began
viewandof the French Revolution, civil marria^ has to have force. When the Decrelum of Gratian wai
been instituted In almost all the countries of Europe published in the twelfth century, this impediment was
and North America, as well as in some of the states of recogniied as a diriment one and it became part <il the
South America. In some countries it b essential to canon law of the Church. (Deoretum Gist., o. !K, q.
the validity of the imion before the civil law, while In 1.) From that time forward, allmsrriaKea contract^
others, e. g., in the United States, it is merely one of between Catholics and infidels were held to be inralid
the ways m which marriage may be contracted. Civil unless a dispensation for such union had been ob-
mairiage is not, however, a post-Reformation institu- tained from the ecclesiastical authority. Marriages^
tion, for it e^sted among the ancient Peruvians, and however, between Catholics and heretics were not sub-
aroong the Aborigines of North America. ject to the same impediment. They were held as
Whether as a state or as a contract, whether from vahd, though illicit if a dispensation mixUe rdiqi-
the viewpoint of religion and morals or from that of onia had not been obtained. The opposition of the
social welfare, marriage appears in its highest form in Church to such unions is, however, very ancient, and
the teaching and practice ot the Catholic Church. The early councils Instated against marriages of this chai^
fact that the contract is a sacrament impresses the acter. Such enactments are found in the fourth cen-
popular mind with the irnportance and sacredness of tury Councils of Elvira (can. 16) and of Laodicea (can.
Ihe relation thus begun. The fact that the union is in- 10, 31 ,). The General Council of Chalcedon (can. 14)
dissoluble and monogamous promotes in the highest prohibits such unions especially between members (rf
degree the welfare of parents and children, and stimu- the lower ecclesiastical grades and heretical women,
lat^s in the whole community the practice of those While the Western Church forbade these mairiagies, it
qualities of self-restraint and altruism which are cssen- did not declare them invalid. In the Eastern Cburcb,
4.._i 4.. „ — :.i W..11 i^i-™ nV...o:~.i .nantni _•..( ...ri_i however, the seventh century Council in Trullo, d«-
clared marriages between Catholics and heretics null
and void (can. 72), and this discipline has since be«i
r ,"uJ!.'''":^MfJ'F'^^iiuf\l]^ maintained in the Greek Schismatical Church. The
York. 18B1); Mohoan, AncimI SadHa (London, 1817): Mc- latter has also shown Itself opposed to marna^ be-
Lehnah, Siuditi in Ancient HittBry (LondoQ, 188e|; t^niW twcen members of the Orthodox Church and Catho-
Slntta Cennu, Marriage oiul Divorct (WnihinKloQ. IBOB); ■: j - p,,g,:„ voTHnnii lavra isBrB ruumut nrrlDnna
Howard. Hijtory of Mairimanial InttitutioTu {CScam, 19041^ i,™:* J ""^'" Various laws were paMBO Otaerutg
luEH iiuid Dthrra) In Ameriean Journal of Soaolivy^oX. XIV; that such niamages be not permitted unless the chil-
'Biira.fleaBneucioptdiaofiliKiatRr^rn.i.'i.MarruiBi.FtHnihi; dren of the union are to DC brought up as sctuB-
BjtraiarEH. Dm KMtrraM (StuttgMt, 1861); 0iH4cn-TitD- _„*;„„
uw. La oriqina d<i mariat, ^ dc la JamiUt (Paris, 1834); ™r . . , „_ ^ ^ ... ■ .i. ■_. ^l
Cathrkin, Maraiphiioiophii (Freibut^. 1BW>; Veciulot, u The advent of Protestantism in the sixteenth cen-
Droif rfu S<:ianeur dv Moi/r" Agt (Puna, 18S4; 3rd ed., 18781 : Jury renewed the problem of mixed marriages in S
ISi^ ^i.^^SrSirt.^*'(1880) " heightened degree. The danger of pervereion for the
^^ " ■ John A. Rtan. Catholic party or for the children, and the almost cer-
tain unhappiness awaiting the members of such unions
MuiUgn, HiXBD (Lat. Matrimonia mixta), tech- caused more stringent legislation on the part of the
nically marriages between Catholics and non-Catho- Church, This was emphasised by the impediment of
lies, when iJie Utter have been baptized in some Chris- clandestinity enacted by the Council of Trent. We
tian sect. The term is also frerjuently employed to say enacted by the Council of Trent, because from the
designate unions between Catholics and infidels. Prom twelfth century the validity of clandestine marriages
the very beginninzoFitaexistencetheChurch of Christ had been recognieed by the Church. This was not,
has been opposed to such unions. As Christ raised however, the original discipline, for it had anciently
wedlock to the dignity of a Sacrament, a marriage be- been looked on as proper for Christians to contract
tween a Catholic and a non-Catho!ic was rightly marriages only in /ari6£'cde«t<E{Tertullian, Do Pudic.
looked upon as degrading the holy character of matri- c. 4). Marriages contrucl«d otherwise were held as
mony, involving as it did a communion in sacred things null and void by various decrees of the Roman Em-
with those outside lie fold. The Apostie St. Paul in- perora of the East and capitularitaof French Kinzs,
sists strongly on Christian marriage being a symbol of and the same is evident from the Fab« Decretals. The
the union Detween Christ and His Church, and hence Council of Trent therefore in declaring %11 matrimonial
sacred. The very intimacy of the union necessarily unions between Catholics and non-CatfioUcs null and
established between those joined in wedlock reijuites a void, unless entered into before the ecclfldastical au-
eoncordance above all in their religious sentiments, thority, was rather inaugurating a return to the old
Holding this doctrine, it was but natural and logical discipline existent before the twelfth ceufVy than
for the Church to do all in her power to hinder her chiU making an entirely new law. By its decree tHS Coun-
dren from contracting marriage with those outside her cil requires the contract to be ent«rcd into befSfe the
pale, who did not recogniie the sacramental (jharacter parish priest or some other priest delected by him,
of the union on which they were entering (see Mar- and in the presence of two or three witnesses iflder
EIaob). Hence arose the impediments toa marriap penalty of invalidity. Marriages otherwise contra'*ted
with a heretic (mixta religio) and with an infidel (_dig- are called clandestine marriages. The Church diti not
pariUu cuUta). As regards marriage with an infidel, find it possible, however, to insist on the rigour uf this
the early Church did not consider such unions invalid, legislation in all countries owing to strong Pro tealant
especially when a person had been converted to the opposition. Indeed, in many countries, it was ^ot
faith after such marriage. It was hoped tMt the con- found advisable to promul^te the decrees of tlie
verted wife or husband would be the means of brine- Council of Trent at all, and in such countries the im.-
fng the other party to the knowledge of the true faith, pediment of clandestinity did not obtain. Even ill -
or at least of safeguarding the Catnolic upbringing of countries where the Tametei (q. v.) decree had beeit
the children of the union. This held even for Jews, published, seriousdifficultiesaroee. As a consequence
Uiough the Church was naturaJIj" more opposed to Pope Benedict XtV, choosing the lea-scr of two evils,
wedlocklx'tween them and Christians, even tnan with issued a declaration concerning marriages in HoJlnno
pagans, owing to the intense Jewish hatred for the and Belgium (Nov. 4, 1741), in which be declared
MAB&IAGX 699 MAXBIAM
mixed unions to be valid, provided they were accord- mixed marriages is that of the decree Ne temere which
ing to the civil laws, even if the Tridentine preecrip- went into effect 18 April, 1908. By this decree all
tions had not been observed. A similar declaration marriages ever3rwhere in the Latin Church between
was made concerning mixed marriages in Ireland by Catholics and non-Catholics are invalid unless they
Pope Pius, in 1785, and gradually the ''Benedictine take place in the presence of an accredited priest and
dispensation'' was extended to various localities. The two witnesses, and this even in countries where the
object of the Coxmcil of Trent in issuing its decree had Tridentine law was not binding. By a later decree,
been partly to deter Catholics from such marriages Providaj the Holy See exempted Germany from the
altogether, and partly to hinder any conmiunion in sa- new legislation. (See Clandestinity; Disparity op
ored things with heretics. By decrees, however, the Worship;Disp£Nbation;Mabriaqb. Sacrament of).
Popes felt constrained to make various concessions for Taunton, The Law of the Church, a. v. Mixed Marriages (Lon-
mixed marriages, though they were always careful to ?Six^.®^?i„^''?iSi.^*f-v^'?!^' '• .T v^'^T^i.T^ ^^ff^^{
guard the essential prmciples on which the Chureh {New York, 1909); McNxchous. TA* JV«w Marriage Legieiatum
founds her objections to such unions. Thus Pius VI (PhilAdelpbia, 1908). For the evils of mixed marriages see the
was employed, and with the omission of public banns, popular JrutrucHone on Marriage (New York); Farrbll, The
as evidence of the unwillmgness of the Chureh to ^*»^«»» ^<ww«. «*«•
sanction such unions. Similar concessions were later '^ • ' awning.
made, first for various states of Germany, and then for Marruge, Moral and Canonical Aspect of. —
other countries. Marriage is that individual union through which man
Another serious difficultv arose for the Chureh where and woman by their reciprocal rights form one prin-
the civil laws prescribed that in mixed marriages the ciple of generation. It is effected by their mutual
bojrs bom of the union should follow the religion of the consent to give and accept each other for the purpose
father and the girls that of the mother. Without be- of propagating the human race, of educating their
traying their sacred trust, the popes could never sano- offspring, of anftripg life in common, of supporting
tion such legislation, but in order to avoid greater each other in imdivided conjugal affection by alasting
evils they permitted in some states of Germany a union.
passive assistance on the part of the parish priest at I. Marbiage Instituted by God. — Marriage is
marriages entered into unaer such conditions. As to a contract and is by its very nature above human
a mixed marriage contracted before a non-Catholic law. It was institute by God, is subject to the
minister, Pope Pius IX issued an instruction, 17 Feb.. Divine law, and cannot for that reason be rescinded
1864. He declared that in j^laces where the heretical by human law. Those who contract marriage do
preacher occupied the position of a dvil magistrate so indeed by their own free wills, but they must
and the laws of the country reauired marriages to be assume the contract and its obligations uncondi-
entered into before him in order that certain legal tionaUy. Marriage is natural in purpose, but Divine
effects may follow, it is permitted to the Catholic party in origin. It is sacred, being intended primarily by the
to appear before him either before or after the mar- Author of life to perpetuate His creative act and to
riage has taken place in presence of the parish priest, beget children of Uoo; its secondary ends are mutual
If, however, the heretical minister is held to be dis- society and help, and a lawful remedy for concupis-
charging a religious duty in such witnessing of a mar- cence. Human law certainly takes cognizance of mar-
riage, then it is unlawful for a Catholic to renew consent riage, but marriage not having been established by
before him as this would be a communion in sacred man, its essential properties cannot be annulled by
things and an implicit yielding to heresy. Parish such law. Marriage is monogamic and indissoluble;
priests are also reminded that it is their stnct duty to death alone dissolves the union when consummated,
tell Catholics who ask for information that such going When men pretend to be the final arbiters of the
before a minister in a religious capacity is unlawful and marriage contract, they base their claim on the as-
that they thereby subject themselves to ecclesiasticai sumption that this contract is merely of human
censure. Where, however, the priest is not asked, and institution and is subject to no laws above those of
he has reason to fear that his admonitions will prove man. But human society, both in its primitive and
unavailing, he may keep his peace provided there be organised form^ originated by marriage, not marriage
no scandal and the other conditions required by the by human society. Marriage was intended by toe
Church be fulfilled. When a Catholic party has gone Creator for the propagation of the human race and for
before an heretical minister before coming to the par- the mutual helpof husmmdand wife. The monogamic
ish priest, the latter cannot be present at the marriage and indissolubk properties of marriage were for a time
until full reparation has been made. For the issuing dispensed by Divine permission, ^us in the patri-
of a dispensation for a mixed marriage, the Chureh re- aronal times of the Old Testament polygamous mar-
quires three conditions; that the Catholic party be riage was tolerated. The right of dismissal also by
allowed free exercise of religion, that all the offspring the bill of divorce was legal (Deut., xxiv sqq.; Matt.,
are to be brought up Catholics and that the Catholic xix, 3-12). Still, marriage never lost its sacred char-
party promise to do ail that is possible to convert the acter in the Old Dispensation. It continued a type
non-Catholic. It is not to be supposed , however, that and figure of marriage in the New Law. Other nations
even when these precautions have b^n taken, this is besides the Jews treated marriage with such regard and
all that suffices for the issuance of a dispensation. In ceremony as betoken their beuef in its superhuman
an instruction to the Bishops of England, 25 Mareh, character. Evolutionists, indeed, account for mar-
1868, the Congregation of the Propaganda declared riage by tiie gregarious habits of human beings. They
that the above conditions are exacted by the natural consider it a developed social instinct, a matter of
and divine law to remove the intrinsic dangers in utility, convenience, and decency, a consequence of
mixed marriages, but that in addition there must be sexual intercourse, which human society decided to
some grave necessity, which cannot otherwise be regulate by law, and thus encourage a state of affairs
avoided, for allowing the faithful to expose themselves conducive to the peace and happiness of ihe race,
to the grave dangers inherent in these unions, even They do not deny that the religious feeling latent in the
when the prescribed conditions have been fulfilled, human heart regarding marriage and the religious
The bishops are therefore to warn Catholics against ceremonies attoidant on its celebration have their
such marriages and not to grant dispensations for -utility, but they insist that marriage is entirely n
them except for weighty reasons and not at the mere natund thing. Socialists entertain this same view of
will of the petitioner. The latest legislation affecting marriage; th^ deprecate excessive state control of the
700 MARRIAOB
marriage contract, but would impose the duty of riage bond is sacred; married life mnbolises the union
providmg for, and educating, children on the State, between Christ and His Chimsh (Ephes., v, 22 sqq.).
The ethical value of marriage is certainly lowered by and the Church protects both by such rules as wul
siich views. Marriage, thoueh contracted to preserve maintain their Christian characteristics under a&
order, would still remain subject to human caprice, circumstances.
It would not bind the couple to an inseparable union. C. The moral law looks to the conduct of those who
It would exclude polyandry, but not polygamy or marry; canon law regulates matrimonial courts of the
divorce. By principles borrowed from Christian Church. There is no marked point of difference be-
tradition, polygamy, strange to say, is proscribed tween them; they rather form a conoplete system of
even by those whose ethics of marriage are naturalistic, legislation concerning the Sacmment of Marriage. Of
evolutionary and socialistic. course baptized persons alone receive the sacraments.
II. Marriage in the Christian Dispensation. — Some theologians regard a marriage in which only one
Christ revoked the dispensation granted in the Mosaic party is baptised as a sacrament. Whether those
law. He promulgated the original Divine law of who have been baptized, but are not members of the
monogamic and indissoluble marriage; in addition, body of the Church, or unbaptized persons are ez-
He raised marriage to the dignity of a sacrament empt from all purely Church matrimonial law is a
(Gen., ii, 24; Matt., xix, 3 sqq.; Luke, xvi, 15 sqq.; disputed (question.
Mark, x, 11 sqq.; I Cor., vii, 2 sqq.). "If any one D. As citizens of the State, Christians should oer-
should say, matrimony is not truly and properly one tainly comply with the civil laws regulating marriage
of the seven sacraments of the Gospel law, instituted for certain civil effects, though they must not consider
byChrist, butan invention of man, notconferringcrooe, the marriage contract as something distinct from the
let him be anathema'' (Council of Trent, Sess. aXI, sacrament, for the two are inse^rable. One result
can. 1). Under the Christian law, therefore, the mar- of the defection from the Church m the sixteenth cen-
riage contract and the sacrament are inseparable and tury was a belief that marriage is a civil ceremony,
incu visible; for, in virtue of Christ's legislative act. The opinion of several canonists, who, wishing to jus-
the consent in marriage produces, besides sanctifying tify this view, taught that the contract of mamago
grace, its peculiar sacramental grace. Whenever the might possibly be separated from tfa« sacrament, was
marriage contract is duly made, the sacrament is trulv condemned in the syllabus of Pius IX in 1864 (num-
effected. That is undoubtedly the case when both bers 65 and 66). It is likewise erroneous to consider
parties to marriage are by baptism members of the the priest the minister of ^he sacrament; he is the au-
mystical body of Christ, for ' * This is a great sacrament; thonzed witness of the Church to the contract. The
but I speak m Christ and in the church" (Ephes., v, parties contracting really administer the sacrament to
32). Hence the moral and canonical aspect of matri- themselves.
mony in the Christian dispensation is necessarily E. It is historical fact that the Church alwajrs recog-
determined by the sacramental character of the mar- nized the right of the State to legislate in certain r&-
riage contract. spects concerning marriage, on account of its civil ef-
A. The Church being the Divinely appointed custo- fects. The enactment of laws fixing the dowry, the
dian of aU sacraments, it belongs to her jurisdiction to right of succession, alimonv and other like matters,
interpret and apply the Divine law of marriage. She belongs to the secular authorities, according to ths
cannot repeal or change that law. Marriage is, in its common teaching of canonists. When, however, the
essentii^ requirements, ever the same, monogamic and State enacts laws inimical to the marriage laws <tf
indissoluble. The contract validly made and consum- the Church, practically denying her right to protect
mated is dissolved by death alone. However, the the sacred character of matrimony,she cannot auow her
Church must determine what is re<)uired for a valid children to submit to such enactments. She respects
and licit marriage contract. Doubt in so grave a mat- the requirements of the State for the marriages of its
ter, or uncertainty as to the form and duties of mar- citizens as long as those requirements are for the com-
riage, would be disastrous for the temporal and spirit- mon good, and in keeping with the dignity and Di-
ualgood of individuals and of society. The Church vine purpose of marriage. Thus, for instance, she
safeguards the sacramental contract by unremitting recognizes that a defect of mind or a lack dF nroper
solicitude and directs the consciences and conduct (3 discretion is an impediment to matrimony. Certain
those who marry by moral teaching and canonical defects of bod v,parUcularlyimpotency,disqu2difylike-
l^slation. The procedure of her courts in cases wise. The Church, on the other hand, justly expccta
where the validity or legality of amarriage is involved, the State to treat her laws, such as those of celibacy^
is ordered by admirable insight. The Church derives with respect (see SchmalzgrOber. vol. IV, part I, sect,
her power to lenslate in matrimonial affairs, not from 2; and vc^. IX, part II, title 22, for obsolete canonical
the State, but from Christ; and acts, not on suffer- rules). A marriage is said to be canonical or civil:
ance, but by Divine ri^ht. She recognizes the duty of canonical, when contracted in accordance with Church
the State to take cognizance of Christian mairiage, in law; civil, if the ordinances of civil law are observed,
order to insure certain civic effecte, but her jurisdio- In addition, we sometimes speak of a secret marriage,
tion is superior and of Divine origin. or a marriage of conscience, that is, a marriage oC
B. The laws of the Church governing Christian which the banns have not been published, celebrated
marriage are fundamental and unchangeable laws; or by the parish priest and witnesses under bond of
accidental, circumstantial, and changeable laws. The crecy, with the bishop's permission. A true marria^
natural law. Divine revealed law, and the Apostolic is one duly contractCNd and capable of being proved m
law of marriage are interpreted by the Church, but the ordinary way; a presumptive marriage, when the
never repealed or dispensed from. Circumstantial law presumes a marriage to exist; a putative marriage,
laws are enacted by the Church, and may vary or be when it is believed to be valid, but is in reality null
repealed. Hence disciplinary laws, regulating solem- and void, owing to the existence of a hidden diiiment
nities to be observed m marriage, and laws defining impediment.
qualifications of parties to marry, are not so rigid as There is, again, a special kind of marriage which
to admit of no change, if the Church sees fit to chanee needs explanation here. When a prince or a member
them, owing to difference of time and place; the of a ruling house weds a woman of inferior rank, es-
chan^e too may affect the validity or the legality of a pedaliv if her family is plebeian, the marriage is
mamage. The Church, therefore, has laid down the generally known as a mor^natic marriage. In this
conditions requisite for the validity of the matrimonial case it is as valid and licit before the Church as any
consent on the part of those who marry, and has legis- other lawful marriage, but there are certain civil dis-
lated on their respective rights and duties. The mar- abilities. First, the children bom in such wedlodc
MAEBIAGX 701 BCABBXAOB
bave no right to the title or orown of their father, since that, if such condition has lasted a month, Uiey may
those who are to succeed him ought not to suffer from marry without a priest, but in the presence of two wit-
the social disadvantages arising from the inferior rank nesses, the record of their marriage being properly
of their father's morganatic wSe. In some countries, made as prescribed. The law makes no exception in
however, the law concedes a hope of succcssIotl to such favour of mixed marriages, not even when one party
children if all the direct heirs should die. Tne mor- is a Cathoho of an Eastern Rite. By a special dis*
ganatic wife and her children receive, by agreement or pensation, mixed marriages — ^i. e., both paities being
stipulation, a dowry and means of support, the amount oaptized, one a Protestant, the other a Catholic — <rf
bemg in some countries at the discretion of the king or Germans marrying within the boundaries of the Ger-
prince, in others fixed by law. man Empire are valid, though clandestinely oon^
'III. Matrimonial Courts in thb Church.— tracted. A like diepensation has been granted to
Doubtful marriage cases are decided in courts provided Hungarians marrying within the boundaries of Hun*
by the canon law for that purpose. The doubt may gary; and according to the Secretary of the S. Congre-
arise from a supposed hidden or occult impediment or gation of Sacraments (18 March, 1909), Croalians,
from a public unpediment. In the former case (oo- Slavonians, inhabitants of Transylvaziia, and of Fiume
cult impediment) the question is decided pro foro in^ enjoy a sixmlar dispensation. Catholics of the various
temo in the tribunal of penance or by the penitentiary Eastern rites, who are in union with the Holy See, are
Apostolic at Rome. In such cases strict secrecy, exempt from the law; likewise all non-Catholics, ex-
similar to that of the confessional, is observed, par- cept those who have been baptised in the Church, but
ticularlv with regard to names and places of resiaence. have fallen away.
In the latter case (public impediment) the doubt has The law is not retroactive. Marriages contracted
always to be settlea pro foro extemo in the matrimo- before its promulgation will be adjudicated, in case of
nial courts ; for no general laws can be made to cover all doubt, according to the laws in force at the time and
possible circumstances, and the practical application place of marriage. It simplifies procedure. Former
of the canonical and moral laws of marriage to ao- difficulties arising from quasi-domicile are done away
tual cases, just as happens with civil laws, involves at with by a month's residence, even when taken infrau-
times questions de jure and de facto, which must be set- dem leffia; the ordinanr or the parish priest is tli^ au-
tled by competent judges. In every diocese presided thorized witness of the Churdi, and he or a priest
over by a bishop and especially in every metropolitan delegated by him by name, can assist validly at any
see, the canon law requires a matrimonial court. Such marriage within his territoiy, even though the parties
a court has no power to legislate, but ad indicates ao- come from without it; though, of course, such ordinary
cording to the laws and the precedents ot the Roman or parish priest needs, and snoidd ask for, letters of
courts. Bishops of dioceses, national and provincial permission from the proper authority to assist lidtly
councils may, however, enforce stricter observance of at such a marriage. The local autiiOTities may in-
the general la^s in their respective jurisdictions; if crease the punishment assigned in the text of the law
peculiar circumstances require it, they can legislate for any infraction of this provision*. By a decree of
against abuses and insist on special pomts of law; for the Sacred Congregation of the Sacraments (7 March,
instance, they may demand certain qualifications in 1910), the power to dispense kings or roysd princes
witnesses to marriage, and prescribe certain prelimi* from impecuments, diriment or impedient. is henoe-
naries for mixed marriag^, binding on priest and peo- forth reserved in a special manner to the Holy See, and
pie imder pain of sin. From the decisions of the dio- all faculties granted heretofore in such cases to cer*
cesan and the metropolitan courts, particularly in tain ordinaries are revoked. In the peculiar drcunn
questions involving nullity of marriage, appeal can be stances of certain Indian dioceses (see India, DovbU
taken to the courts of theHoly See. The decisions of Jurisdiction) ^ the question has been asked: Whether
these courts are final, especially when the Holy Father for persons residing in India within a double jurisdio-
approves them. In rare cases a reopening is allow^, tion, it is sufficient, in order to a valid and hcit mar-
aud then, usually, because new evidence is offered, liage, to stand before the personal parish priest of one
Since Pius X reorganized the Roman Curia by the or both; or whether they must also stand before the
Constitution "Sapienticonsilio" (29 June, 1908), such territorial parish priest. The question having been
appeals must be made to the congregation, tribunal or referred to the Holy Father, the Con^gation of the
cmice specified in that Constitution to deal with them: Sacraments replied, with the approbation of His Holi*
" For tne future every question regarding mixed mar- ness, in view of the peculiar circumstanoes, affirma-
riages is to be brought before the Congregation of the tively to the firat part; negativelyto the second part.
Holy Office; likewise, all points which either directly V. Marriage Indissoluble Except by Death.—
or indirectly, in fact or in law, refer to the Pauline It must again be repeated here that the Church
Privilege " (Answer of the Congregation of the Consis- teaches, and has always taught, that death alone can
tory to letter of Holy Office, 27 March, 1909). (For dissolve a ratified and consummated Christian mar-
the procedure in case of appeals from countries under riage. When the death of either party is not proved
thejurisdiction of Propaganda, see Propaganda.) by such evidence as is required by canon law, there is
IV. The New Marriage Legislation. — The no permission to re-marry. The instruction " Matri-
marriage law, known by its initial words, ''Netemere", monii vinculo'' (1868) is still strictly followed, as
went into force on Easter Sunday, 18 April, 1908. appears from an answer of the Sacred Congregation of
The principal changes it made in the Church's matri- the Sacraments to cases that arose in the earthquake
monial legislation relate to clandestine marriages district in Southern Italy in March, 1910. Marriages
(which it makes null and void for all Catholics of the ratified but not consummated by sexual intercourse
Latin Rite) and to questions incidental thereto, are sometimes dissolved by the Roman Pontiff in
The law enacts that a marriage of Catholics of the virtue of his supreme power; sometimes thev are dis-
Latin Rite is licit and valid only if contracted in the solved by entrance into the reUgious life and by actual
presence of the ordinary, or the parish priest, or a profession of solenm vows. Such dissolutions of mar-
priest delegated by either, and at least two witnesses. Tiagesthatare merely ratified are in no sense subversive
Any priest may revalidate a sinful or an invalid mar- of 'what God hath joined let no man put asunder "
riage of those who. through sickness, are in serious (Matt., xix, 6). Again the matrimonial courts nuMr
danger of death, unless their case is such as admits of find on the evidence adduced that a marriage is null
no revalidation — as for instance, if they are in holy and void; there may have been a Imown or a hidden
orders. Again, in the case of those who live in dis- diriment impediment when the marriage was con*
tricts where no priest resides, and who cannot with- tracted. In some i^^tances such a marriage is revali*
out serious hardship go to one, the new law provides dated after securing the required dispensationi if sudi
MARUAOB 700 MARRIAOB
marriaf^ contract, but would impose the duty of riage bond is sacred; married life mnbolises the uniop
providmg for, and educating, children on the State, between Christ and His Church (Ephes., v, 22 sqq.).
The ethical value of marriage is certainly lowered by and the Church protects both by such rules as wu
such views. Bfarriage, though contracted to preserve maintain their Christian characteristics under afl
order, would still remain subject to hiunan caprice, circumstances.
It would not bind the couple to an inseparable union. C. The moral law looks to the conduct of those who
It would exclude polyandry, but not polygamy or marry; canon law regulates matrimonial courts of the
divorce. By principles borrowed from Christian Church. There is no marked point of difference be-
tradition, polygamy, strange to say, is proscribed tween them; they rather form a complete system of
even hy those whose ethics of marriage are naturaUstic, legislation concerning the Sacrament of Marriage. Of
evolutionary and socialistic. course baptized persons alone receive the sacraments.
II. Marriage in the Christian Dispensation. — Some theologians regard a marriage in which only one
Christ revoked the dispensation granted in the Mosaic party is baptised as a sacrament. Whether those
law. He promulgated the original Divine law of who have been baptized, but are not members of the
monogamic and indissoluble marriage; in addition, body of the Church, or unbaptized persons are ez-
He r^scd marriage to the dignity of a sacrament empt from all purely Church matrimonial law is a
(Gen., ii, 24; Matt., xix, 3 sqq.; Luke, xvi, 15 sqq.; disputed (question.
Mark, x, 11 sqq.; I Cor., vii, 2 sqq.). ''If any one u. As citizens of the State, Christians should oer-
should say, matrimony is not truly and properly one tainly comply with the civil laws regulating marriage
of the seven sacraments of the Gospel law, instituted for certain civil effects, though they must not consider
byChrist,butaninvention of man, not conf erring mce, the marriage contract as something distinct from the
let him be anathema'' (Council of Trent, Sess. XXI, sacrament, for the two are inseparable. One result
can. 1). Under the Christian law, therefore, the mar- of the defection from the Church m the sixteenth oeo-
riage contract and the sacrament are inseparable and tury was a belief that marriage is a civil ceremony,
inm visible; for, in virtue of Christ's legislative act. The opinion of several canonists, who, wishing to iu»-
the consent in marriage produces, besides sanctifying tify this view, taught that the contract of mamags
grace, its peculiar sacramental grace. Whenever the might possibly be separated from the sacrament, was
marriage contract is duly made, the sacrament is trulv condemned in the syllabus of Pius IX in 1864 (num-
effectea. That is undoubtedly the case when both bers 65 and 66). It is Ukewise erroneous to consider
the priest the minister of (he sacrament; he is the au-
thorized witness of the Church to the contract. The
parties contracting really administer the sacrament to
32). Hence the moral and canonical aspect of matri- themselves.
mony in the Christian dispensation is necessarily E. It is historical fact that the Church alwa3r8 reco^
determined by the sacramental character of the mar- nized the right of the State to legislate in certain re-
riaee contract. spects concerning marriage, on account of its civil ef-
A. The Church bein^ the Divinely appointed custo- fects. The enactment of laws fixing the dowry, the
dian of all sacraments, it belongs to her jurisdiction to right of succession, alimonv and other like matteiv,
interpret and apply the Divine law of marriage. She belongs to the secular authorities, according to the
cannot repeal or change that law. Marriage is, in its common teaching of canonists. When, however, the
essential requirements, ever the same, monogamic and State enacts laws inimical to the marriage laws of
indissoluble. The contract validly made and consmn- the Church, practically denying her right to protect
mated is dissolved by death alone. However, the the sacred character of matrimony,she cannot aliow her
Church must determine what is re<)uired for a valid children to submit to such enactments. She reelects
and licit marriage contract. Doubt m so grave a mat- the requirements of the State for the marriages of its
ter, or uncertainty as to the form and duties of mar- citizens as long as those requirements are for the com-
riage, would be disastrous for the temporal and spirit- mon good, and in keeping with the dignity and Di*
luJ^good of individuals and of society. The Church vine purpose of marriage. Thus, for instance, she
safeguards the sacramental contract by tmremittine recognizes that a defect of mind or a lack of nroptf
solicitude and directs the consciences and conduct m discretion is an impediment to matrimony. Certain
those who marry by moral teaching and canonical defects of bodv, particularly impotency, disqualify like-
l^slation. The procedure of her courts in cases wise. The Church, on the other hand, justly eroects
where the validity or legality of a marriage is involved, the State to treat her laws, such as those of ceUausy,
is ordered by admirable insight. The Church derives with respect (see Schmalzgrilber. vol. IV, part I, sect,
her power to lenslate in matrimonial affairs, not from 2; and vc^. IX, part II, title 22, for obsolete <^noni<qJ
the State, but from Christ; and acts, not on suffer- rules). A marriage is said to be canonical or civil:
ance, but by Divine ri^ht. She recognizes the duty of canonical, when contracted in accordance with Church
the State to take cognizance of Christian marriage, in law; civil, if the ordinances of civil law are observed,
order to insure certain civic effects, but her jurisdio- In addition, we sometimes speak of a secret marriage,
tion is superior and of Divine origin. or a marriage of conscience, that is, a marriage oc
B. The laws of the Church governing Christian which the banns have not been published, celebrated
marriage are fundamental and unchangeable laws; or by the parish priest and witnesses under Ixmd of se-
accidental, circumstantial, and changeable laws. The crecy, with the bishop's permission. A true marria^
natural law, Divine revealed law, and the Apostolic is one duly contracted and capable of being proved m
law of marriage are interpreted by the Church, but the ordinary way; a presumptive marria^, when the
never repealed or dispensed from. Circumstantial law presumes a marriage to exist; a putative marriage,
laws are enacted by the Church, and may vary or be when it is believed to be valid, but is in reality null
rei>ealed. Hence disciplinary laws, regulating solem- and void, owing to the existence of a hidden dirmient
nities to be observed in marriage, and laws defining impediment.
qualifications of parties to marry, are not so rigid as There is, again, a special kind of marriage which
to admit of no change, if the Church sees fit to change needs explanation here. When a prince or a member
them, owing to difference of time and place; the of a ruling house weds a woman of inferior rank, es-
chan^e too may affect the validity or the legality of a peciallv if her family is plebdan, the marriage is
mamage. The Church, therefore, has laid down the generally known as a morganatic marriage. In this
conditions requisite for the validity of the matrimoniid case it is as valid and licit before the Church as any
consent on the part of those who marry, and has legis- other lawful marriage, but there are certain divil di»-
lated on their respective rights and duties. The mar- abiUties. First, the children bom in such wedlook
MAERXAaX 701 BCABBXAOB
bave no right to the title or crown of their father, since that, if such condition has lasted a month, Uiey may
those who are to succeed him ought not to suffer from marry without a priest, but in the presence of two wit-
the social disadvantages arising from the inferior rank nesses, the record of their marriage being properly
of their father's morganatic wSe. In some countries, made as prescribed. The law makes no exception in
however, the law concedes a hope of succession to such favour of mixed marriages, not even when one party
children if all the direct heirs should die. The mor- is a Catholic of an Eastern Rite. By a special dis*
ganatic wife and her children receive, by agreement or pensation, mixed marriages — ^i. e., both paities being
etiolation, a dowry and means of support, the amo\mt oaptized, one a Protestant, the other a Catholic — of
bemg in some countries at the discretion of the king or Germans marrying within the boundaries of the Ger-
prince, in others fixed by law. man Empire are valid, though clandestinely con^
'III. Matrimonial Courts in thb Church.— tracted. A like dispensation has been granted to
Doubtful marriage cases are decided in courts provided Hungarians marrying within the boundaries of Hun-
b^ the canon law for that purpose. The doubt may gary; and according to the Secretary of the S. Congre-
arise from a supposed hidden or occult impediment or gation of Sacraments (18 March, 1909), Croatians,
from a public unpediment. In the former case (oc- Slavonians, inhabitants of Transylvaziia, and of Fiume
cult impediment) the question is decided pro foro in^ enjoy a similar dispensation. Catholics of the various
temo in the tribunal of penance or by the penitentiary Eastern rites, who are in union with the Holy See, are
Apostolic at Rome. In such cases strict secrecy, exempt from the law; likewise all non-Catholics, ex-
similar to that of the confessional, is observed, par- cept those who have been baptised in the Church, but
ticularlv with regard to names and places of resiaence. have fallen away.
In the latter case (public impediment) the doubt has The law is not retroactive. Marriages contracted
always to be settlea pro foro extemo in the matrimo- before its promulgation will be adjudicated, in case of
nial courts ; for no general laws can be made to cover ail doubt, according to the laws in force at the time and
possible circumstances, and the practical application place of marriage. It simplifies procedure. Former
of the canonical and moral laws of marriage to ao- difficulties arising from quasi-domidle are done away
tual cases, just as happens with civil laws, involves at with by a month's residence, even wh€»i taken infrau"
times questions de jure and de facto, which must be set- dem legia; the ordinanr or the parish priest is tli^ aiH
tied by competent judges. In every diocese presided thorized witness of the Churcn, and he or a priest
over by a bishop and especially in every metropolitan delected by him by name, can assist validly at any
see, the canon law requires a matrimonial court. Such marriage within his territoiy, even though the parties
a court has no power to legislate, but adiudicates ac- come from without it; thou^, of course, such ordinary
cording to the laws and the precedents ot the Roman or parish priest needs, and should ask for, letters of
courts. Bishops of dioceses, national and provincial permission from the proper authority to assist lidtly
councils may, however, enforce stricter observance of at such a marriage. The local authorities may in-
the general la^ in their respective jurisdictions; if crease the punishment assigned in the text of the law
peculiar circumstances require it, they can legislate for any iniraction of this provision'. By a decree of
against abuses and insist on i^)ecial points of law; for the Sacred Congregation ol the Sacraments (7 March,
instance, they may demand certain qualifications in 1910), the power to dispense kings or roysd princes
witnesses to marriage, and prescribe certain prelimi- from impediments, diriment or impedient. is hence-
naries for mixed marriages, binding on priest and peo- forth reserved in a special manner to the Holy See, and
pie imder pain of sin. From the decisions of the dio- all faculties granted heretofore in such cases to cer*
cesan andf the metropolitan courts, particularly in tain ordinaries are revoked. In the peculiar drcumr
questions involving nullity of marriage, appeal can be stances of certain Indian dioceses (see India, Double
taken to the courts of the Holy See. The decisions of Jurisdiction) , the question has been asked: Whether
these courts are final, especially when the Holy Father for persons residing in India; within a double jurisdio-
approves them. In rare cases a reopening is allows, tion, it is sufficient, in order to a valid and hcit mar-
aud then, usually, because new evidence is offered, riage, to stand before the personal parish priest of one
Since Pius X reorganused the Roman Curia by the or both; or whether they must bIbo stand before the
Constitution "Sapienticonsilio" (29 June, 1908), such territorial parish priest. The question haying been
appeals must be made to the congregation, tribunal or referred to the Holy Father, the Conjugation of the
OTnce specified in that Constitution to deal with them: Sacraments replied, with the approbation of His Hdi*
" For tne future every question re^rding mixed mar- ness, in view of the peculiar circumstances, affirma-
riages is to be brought before the Congregation of the tively to the firat part; negatively to the second part.
Holy Office; likewise, all points which either directly V. Marriage Indissoluble Except by Death.—
or indirectly, in fact or in law, refer to the Pauline It must again be repeated here that the Church
Privilege " (Answer of the Congregation of the Consis- teaches, and has always taught, that de&tti alone can
tory to letter of Holy Office, 27 March, 1909). (For dissolve a ratified and consummated Christian mar-
the procedure in case of appeals from countries under riage. When the death of either party is not proved
the jurisdiction of Propaganda, see Propaganda.) by such evidence as is required by canon law, there is
I V . The New Marriage Legislation. — The no permission to re-marry. The instruction ** Matri-
marriage law, known by its initial words, ''Netemere", monii vinculo^' (1868) is still strictly followed, as
went into force on Easter Sunday, 18 April, 1908. appears from an answer of the Sacred Congregation oi
The principal changes it made in the Church's matri- the Sacraments to cases that arose in the eamiquake
monial legislation relate to clandestine marriages district in Southern Italy in March, 1910. Marriages
(which it makes null and void for all Catholics of the ratified but not consummated by sexual intercourse
Latin Rite) and to questions incidental thereto, are sometimes dissolved by the Roman Pontiff in
The law enacts that a marriage of Catholics of the virtue of his supreme power; sometimes thev are di^
Latin Rite is licit and valid only if contracted in the solved by entrance into the religious life and by actual
presence of the ordinary, or the parish priest, or a profession of solemn vows. Such dissolutions of nuuv
priest delegated by either, and at least two witnesses. riagestluLtAre merely ratified are in no sense subverave
Any priest may revalidate a sinful or an invalid mar- of 'what God hath joined let no man put asunder "
riage of those who. through sickness, are in serious (Matt., xix, 6). Again the matrimonial courts msY
danger of death, unless their case is such as admits of find on the evidence adduced that a marriage is nuU
no revalidation — as for instance, if they are in holy and void; there may have been a Imown or a hidden
orders. Again, in the case of those who live in dis- diriment impediment when the marriage was con*
tricts where no priest resides, and who cannot with- tracted. In some i^^tances such a marriage is revali*
out serious haraship go to one, the new law provides dated after securingthe requinkl diqpouMitiQii, if Buok
BCABSIAOX
092
MAEBIAOX
epeoies, are, or from time to time may thereafter be,
aflsigned by the law of matrimony. " (I. Mar. and Div.
Sec. 11.)
The municipal law deals with this status only as a
civil institution. Though sometimes spoken of as a
contract, marriage in the eyes of the municipal law is
not a contract strictly speaking, but is a status result-
ing from the contract to marry. Justice Story speaks
of it as *' an institution of society founded upon the
consent and contract of the parties *'. (Story, " Ckmfl.
Laws '*, Sec. 108. Note.) All competent persons may
intermarry, and marriage being presumed to be for
the interest of the State and of the highest public in-
terest, is encouraged. It is held to be a union for life.
The law does not permit it to be a subject of experi-
mental or temporary arrangement, but a fixed and
permanent status to be 'dissolved only by death, or,
where statutes permit, by divorce. In England the
solemnization of a marriage was required to be before
a clergyman until the statute passed in 1836, and all
other marriages excepting those of Quakers and Jews,
were null. By that act civil marriages and those of
dissenters from the Church of England are legalized
and regulated. In order to constitute a valid mar-
riage there must be a consent of the parties, and in
some of the states of the Union no formality is neces-
earv.
By the conmion law the age at which minors were
capable of marrying, known as the age of consent, was
fised at fourteen years for males and twelve years for
females. Marriages under the age of seven years for
both were void, but between seven and the age of con-
sent the parties could contract an imperfect marriage,
which was voidable but not necessarily void. The
marriage of parties who had attained the age of consent
was valid even though they lacked parental con-
sent, until in England the marriage act of 1753 de-
clared such mama^es void. This act, however, has
never been the law m the United States. In England
imder the statute of 32 Henry VIII, c. 38, all mar-
riages were made lawful between parties not within the
Levitical degrees of relationship; this was interpreted
to mean all marriages excepting those between rela-
tives in the direct line and in the collateral line to the
third degree, according to the rules of the Civil Law,
hicluding both the whole and the half blood. In the
United States, in the absence of statutes to the con-
trary, marriages are unlawful only in the direct as-
cending and descending line of consanguinity and
between brothers and sisters. In most, if not all, of the
States, however, there are statutes covering this sub-
ject, and in a number of them marriages between first
cousins are forbidden. Marriages that arc made with-
out formalities, but by the mere consent of the parties,
are known as common law marriages. In order to
make such marriages effective, there must be a present
intention to make the contract and it must be ex-
pressed accordinglv, — in other words, "per verba de
prsesenti". Words expressing a future intention do
not give the necessary consent, but when words are
usedwith the future intention apparently, followed by
consummation, or, as it is said, *'per verba de futuro
cum copula", a marriage is constituted, the future
promise having been converted by action into an ac-
tual marriage. Marriages contracted without con-
forming to statutory regulations are valid in a number
of states and not in others. Formal solemnization is
imnecessary. Where no penalty for disobedience of
statutory formalities is provided, their omi&^sion does
not invalidate the marriage.
The requirement of a license to marry was first
brought into EIngland by Lord Hardwicke's Marriage
Act of 1753. It is not part of the common law of the
United States, but very generally licenses are required
in the states, though not to the extent of making mar-
riages invalid where they have not been granted. The
Society of Friends or Quakers is excepted from the
requirement in some of the states, and in othen tin
parties may have recourse to the publication of baoni
mstead of securing a License. Parental ocnseDtii
required in almost all of the states, the aj^ for make
bemg from sixteen to twenty-one and for females froo
eighteen to twenty-one. In nearly all of the states,
if either of the parties has been continuously abGcnt
for a number of years and has not been known to be
living during that time, the other party may contnct
a new marriage. The general doctrine of the law oi
the subject of foreign marriages is that a marriap
valid where celebrated is valid everywhere. Excep-
tions are made in a number of states where citiKDS go
to another jurisdiction in order to evade the laws of
the home domicile. In some of the states marriaga
between persons of different races are made void. If
either of the parties is not of sound mind at the time of
entering into the marriage, it is void unless oonfinuBd
when sanitv is regained. Where a physical incapac-
ity exists the marriage may be made void on the ap-
plication of the other party who was ignorant of toe
fact. Under the common Jaw a marriase can be an-
nulled for mistake as to identity or fraud. There aic
certain kinds of fraud where an ordinary contrad
would be declared void, which do not a£fect a marriace
contract because of public policy. In some of the
United States annulment would he allowed for decep-
tion as to chastity, but not, it is said, in Englano.
Duress sufficient to overcome the will of the oonseat-
ing party is a cause for annulment unless subsequent^
ratified. As in England, so in all of the United States
there are statutes regulating the fomaalities in connee-
tion with marriages other than common law marriages,
and in addition to ministers of the various churches,
who for the purpose are looked upon as civil oflBcers,
other designated officials are authorised to perfonn
the marriage ceremony, excepting in a few of the
states. Marriages may be proved Doth by direct and
circumstantial evidence, the presumption being in fa-
vor of a former marriage where there has been cohabi-
tation and reputation.
Where marriages are annulled, the decree relates
Ixkck te the date of the marriage, while divorce relates
only to the date of its own decree (see Divobce). Pen-
alties are usually prescril^ed for violation of statutory
regulations relating to marriage by ministers or other
persons authorized te perform the ceremony. Mar-
riage of itself gives to the husband and wife certain
interests in the property of the other, both real and per-
sonal, which by modem legislation have been largely
modified. Formerly the husband was to all intents
and purposes owner of his wife's property, but now
she has absolute control of it in £jigland and in the
United States, reserving to the husband certain ridits
which become effective after her death. In "RngRnH
under the common law, the marriage of parents after
the birth of children does not legitimate them, but in
most of the American states and in Eiuropean conti-
nental countries it is sought to encourage marriage hj
providing that illegitimate children may thus be legiti-
mated. The laws of most foreign countries make
strict requiremente as to mental capacity, and estab-
lish certain degrees of consanguinity and affini^
within which marriage cannot be contracted. There
are certain impediments, not known in the United
States, imposing a period of delay in connexion with
military service, and providing a time within which a
woman may not contract marriage after the dissolu-
tion of a previous one. The tendency in oontinenta]
countries is to establish civil marriage as the only form
recognized by the State. This is the law in Bdgiuin.
France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, the Netherumds,
Rumania, and Switzerland, where the civil ceremony
alone is recognized in the eyes of the law, and in moat
of these countries clergymen are prohibited under
severe penalties from performing tne religious cere-
mony before the civil marriage has taken place. A
BSABBIAOE 693 BSABBIAOB
ofvil oereiXKmy is roquired in Austria when both par- In Italy the consent of the parents or next of kin is
ties belong to no legaUy recognised Faith. There are required for men under twenty-five years of age and
similar provisions in Denmanc, Norway and Sweden, for women under twenty-one years. In case of r»-
Bulgaria, Finland, Croatia, Slavmiia, and Servia recog- f usal of consent, provision is made for an appeal to a
nise tihe religious ceremony alone. court. Foreigners desiring to marry in Italy must
In Japan a marriage code which became effective present a certificate from a competent authority that
in 1898, contains sections dealing with the laws of they have satisfied the requirements of the laws of
family and of succession. The form of ceremony is their own country. Forei^ers ordinarilv residing in
not regulated, but the marriage itself is valid only Italy are subject to the requirements of the ItaUan
imder certain conditions. The L&ws of countries other law. Military officials cannot marry without the
than the United States provide in a number of in- royal permission, which is not given unless they have
stances for the consent of parents or guardians after an assured income of about eight htmdred dollars at
the parties have attained the age of twenty-one years, least, and have made a settlement for the benefit of
Thus in Austria parties between the age of fourteen the bride. Somewhat similar regulations are made
and twenty-four years are incapable of contracting a for lower officers and privates in revenue service,
valid mamage without the consent of their father or, In the Netherlands the consent of parents is re-
if he be dead or incapable of acting, both of their guar^ quired of an individual under tiiirty y^ars of age. The
dian and of the court. Even for those who have at- marriageable age begins with men at eighteen and
tained the a^e of twenty-foiu*, but who for any reason women at sixteen. If both parents are dead or in-
are incapabfe of entering into a valid obligation, e. g. capacitated, an individual under twenty-one requires
if they have been legally declared spendthrifts, such the consent of a grandparent or, in default of a^and-
oonsent is necessary. In the case of minors of illegiti- parent, of a guaraian and second guardian. Omcers
mate birth, the consent both of the guardian and of of the army and navy require the consent of the sov-
the court is requisite. In general, persons in military ereign before they can marry, and no man between the
service cannot contract a valid marriage without the ages of eighteen and forty may marry unless he has
written permission of their superiors. A law of 1889 proved he has performed military service or has been
provides that a man shall not be permitted to marry excused from it.
before reachmj^ the age of miUtary service, or before In Switzerland the consent of parents is required of
leaving the third age class, i. e. , at the age of twenty- all persons imder twenty years ofage. The consent of
three years. In France the man must be at least parents is required also in Belgium of all persons under
eighteen years of age and the woman fifteen to con- the age of twenty-five, the law being somewhat simi-
tract a valid marria^, unless the President of the Re- lar to that of France.
public grants a special disp^isation. By a law dated In Russia children must obtain the consent of their
25 June, 1907, parental consent is no longer required parents if living, without regard to their age, a man
for men and women over twenty-one years of age, but attaining the marriageable age at eighteen and a
both men and women under thirty must ask for it and woman at sixteen.
serve upon the dissenting parent or parents an instru- In Denmark the marriageable age is twenty for men
ment requesting it. The parties may marry three and sixteen for women, and consent of parents must
days after service has been made, tinder the law be obtained by minors under the age of twenty-five,
previous to that date, men under the age of twenty- In Sweden females imder the age of twenty-one re-
nve and women imder the age of twenty-one could not quire the consent of a marriage guardian, usually her
marry without the consent of their parents, or the sur- Mher or brother or some other male relative. Men
vivor if one of them was dead. require no parental consent. Men may marry at the
In England the common law rule of fourteen for age of twenty-one or over, and women at the age of
males and twelve for females governs the marriage seventeen or over.
age. Consent of parents is necessary for persons In Norway the marriageable age for men is twenty
under twenty-one, except for a widow or widower, and for women sixteen. Parentalconsent is necessary
The proper person to give consent is the father or, if he for both parties under the age of eighteen,
be dead, the mother, if unmarried, or finally a guar- Parentol consent appears to be necessaiy, under cer-
dian appointed by the Court. Soldiers must get the tain conditions, in all European countries where the
consent of their commander. Violation of these pro- parties are under the age of twenty-one and in many
visions does not, however, invalidate the marriage; where they are liable U> militaiy serviee. In Japan
but in case of soldiers the woman is not recognized as the consent of parents or of the family council is essen-
having a military status. In Scotland the impedi- tial to the marriage of a man under thirty and of a
ments are the same as in Exigland, but no consent of woman under twenty-five. The marria^ laws of the
parents or guardian is required. Regular marriages different Canadian provinces are not uniform but are
are celebrated by some minister of rehgion in the pres- quite similar. The minimum age for marriage in the
enoe of at least two witnesses, after the publication of Province oi Quebec is fourteen for males and twelve
banns or issuance of registrar's certificate. Irregular for females. Parental consent is necessary for any
marriages are clandestine marria^, celebrated with- one under twenty-one years of age. In Quebec alone
out publication of banns or notice to the registrar, of the Canadian Provinces ill^timate children are
Such marriages may be made by mere consent without legitimated by the marriage of their parents. The
a clergyman and are valid. In Ireland provisions laws of Australia and New ^oaland are based upon the
are made for marriages by Episcopalians, Catholics, English statutes and common law.
and Presbyterians^ by ministers of other denomina- Bisbop, lfarruv«, Divorr^ and Separation (Ghieago, 1891):
In uermany a man may not marry, except m un- divoroe lawa of all modem States, from which the foregoing
usual cases, under the age of twenty-one or a woman facts in relation to foreign countries have been derived.
mider the age of sixteen. A leptimate child under Walter George Smith.
the age of twenty-one must obtam the consent of the
father or, if he be dead, of the mother; an illeffitimate Marriage, Hibtort of. — The word marriage may
child, the consent of the mother; an adopted child, the be taken to denote Uie action, contract, formiuity, or
consent of the foster parent. Militaiy men, public ceremony by which the conjug^ union is formed, or
officials, and forei^ers, before marriage, must obtain a the union itself as an enduring condition. In this
special permit, and military men in active service must article we deal for the most part with marriage as •
aim obtain the consent of their officers. condition, and with its moral and social aspects. It is
MARftlAGC
706
MAftRIAGC
take thee, N. for my wedded wife, to have and to
hold, from this day forward, for better for worse, for
richer for poorer, in sickness and in health, till death
do us part, if Holy Church will it 'permit, and thereto I
plight thee my troth." It is tolerably clear tliat this
troth-plighting originally formed part of a betrothal
ceremonial and recognized the possibility that the
Church might still refuse to confirm and bless the
union thus initiated. But as the words occur in the
modem service, where the parties have already eiven
their consent, where the marriage is consequently an
accomplished fact and the priest has said *'ego con-
juneo vos in matrimonium , they may readily cause
a difficulty. Needless to say that this particular
clause has been omitted in the Anglican *^Book of
Common Prayer".
Ancient Observances surviving in later Rituals, — ^The
traces of the old betrothal ceremony in the modem
nuptial Ordinals of different countries are many and
varied. First the wedding ring itself, in accordance
with the old Roman custom, seems to have been origi-
nally a pledge or arrha given at the sponsalia by the
bridegroom as the earnest of the future fulfilment of
his share in the contract. At a later date however it
probably became confused with certain Grerman cus-
toms of *' morning gifts" after marriage and conse-
quently was transferred to the nuptials proper.
Further in many places it ultimately l)ecame and still
remains the custom for bride and bridegroom to pre-
sent each other mutually with rings as a pledge of
fidelity, and this is in fact the symbolical meaning
attached to the ring in the modern ritual of the
Church, as the form for its blessing plainly signifies,
i^erhaps the first trace of the use of two rings occurs
In the early Spanish Ordines. Furthermore, while the
use of the weoding ring has been retained among most,
though not quite all, the rituals of the West, the man-
ner of putting it on varies considerably. The English
custom that the l)ridegroom should place it, first, on
the bride's thumb with the words "in the name of the
Father" — then on the index finger — '*and of the Son "
— then on the middle finger — *'and of the Holy
Ghost" — and finally on the fourth finger — 'SVmen'*
— is found in medieval ceremonials in places as far
separat-ed as Spain and Non^'ay, but it was by no
means universal. In some places the priest puts on
the ring, and elsewhere it was customary to place the
ring on the bride's right hand. This was the case in
the Sarum rite and it was retained among English
Catholics until the middle of the eighteenth century.
The reason so frequently assigned for the choice of the
fourth, or ring, finger, \\z. tlvat a vein runs from that
finger to the heart, is found in early non-Christian
writers like Pliny and Macrobius.
A second survival which appears even in the concise
Roman Ritual, is the hand-clasp of the married pair.
This was a custom also in the pagan marriage cere-
monial of Rome, and it is hard to say whether it comes
to us through Roman or Teutonic traditions. Certain
it is that the "hand-fast" constituted a sort of oath
among most Germanic peoples and was used for the
solemn ratification of all kinds of contracts (see Fried-
berg, '*Eheschliessung", pp. 39-42). h\ many, and
especially the German rituals, the priest was directed
to wrap his stole around the claspea hands of the bride
and bridegroom while he pronounced some words of
ratification. This ceremony may often be noticed in
medieval pictures of a marriage, e. g. the "Espousals
of St. Joseph and our Lady ". This also is quite prob-
ably of heathen origin for we find a reference to some-
thing very similar in Arl)eo's " Life of St. Emmeram ",
written before the year 800. It contains an account of
a pagan woman summarily given in marriage to a
Christian, her hand wrapped round with a cloak "as
is the custom in espousals". A most elaborate cere-
mony of this kind is prescribed in the " Rituale " com-
pilea for the Christians of Japan in 1605. It was
noticed above that the "gifta", or fonnal surrender
of the bride, who thus passed from the *' xnund " of her
father or guardian to that of her husband, was re-
garded as the most essential feature of Anglo-Saxon
nuptials. This left its mark in the Sanim rite, and
something of it still survives both in the Anglican and
the Catholic ceremonial. In the former the minister
asks " Who giveth this woman to be married to this
man"; in the latter no question is put, but the
rubric still stands "Then let the woman be given
away by her father or by her friends".
Most remarkable of all perhaps is the nving of gold
and silver by the bridegroom to the bride. This has
been much modified in the Anglican "Book of Com-
mon Prayer" which speaks only of "laying the ring
upon a book with the accustomed duty to the priest
and clerk"; but the Catholic rite, more closely follow-
ing the Sarum, directs that gold and silver be placed
with the ring and given to the bride w^hile the bride-
groom says: "With this ring I thee wed; this g^ld and
silver I thee give, with my body I thee worship and
with all my worldly ^oods I thee endow ' ' . This action
takes us back to Tacitus's account of German marriage
customs. "The wife", he says, "does not present a
dower to her husband, but the husband to the wife"
(Germania, xviii). Undoubtedly this is a trace of the
primitive sale by which the bridegroom paid a sum of
money for the transference to him of the **mund" or
right oi custody of the bride. Originally that money
was paid to the father or guardian, but by successi\^
stages it became a sort of dower for the bride and was
represented by the symbolical payment to her of
"arrhse", the name by which the money thus given in
the marriage ceremony is still designated. In certain
branches of the Teutonic family, notably the Salians,
this form of purchase of a bride was known as mai^
riage * ' per solidum ct denarium ". See for example the
account of the nuptials of Chlodwig and St. Clotilde
in the historj' of the so-called Fredegarius (c. xviii).
The solidus was a gold piece, the denarius a silver one,
and in the time of Charlemagne and later the solidus
was the equivalent in value of twelve denarii. When
the custom of coining gold pieces was given up in the
ninth century, it seems that the solidus and oenarius
were represented by their equivalent value, i. e. thir-
teen silver pieces. Certain it is, in any case, that in
Spain and in some parts of France thirteen pieces of
money, known in PVench as the "Treiaain", are still
blessed and given to the bride along with the ring.
The ceremony was duly observed at the marriage of
King Alfonso of Spain, in 1906 (see "The Messenger",
1906, 113-130).
To mention the many observances peculiar to
particular provinces, for example the Hungarian cus-
tom of taking an oath of mutual fidelity upon relics at
the dictation of the priest, or the York practice by
which the bride threw herself at the feet of her hus-
Iwtnd if he gave her land as part of her dower — would
here be impossible. We must not however omit to
note the pallium or pall (French, pode)^ which in a
very large number of dioceses was held over the mar-
riedi pair, they in the meantime lying prone before the
altar, while the nuptial l)enediction w*as pronounced in
the Mass. The custom was retained until recently
in many parts of France and is still observed in t^ie
more ceremonious weddings which follow the Toledan
ritual. This and the ** jugale ", or parti-coloured yoke
of ribbon binding together the married pair, are men-
tioned by St. Isidore of Seville, and it is not quite clear
how far they are to be identified with the velum or
flammeum of the bride in the Roman marriage. It is
to be noted that according to certain rituals the pid-
lium is completely to cover the bride but only the
shoulders of the bridegroom. This seems clearly to be
connected with the fact tliat, as already observed, the
nuptial l)enediction is almost entirely devoted to the
bride and consecrates her to her special responnbili*
MA&BIAGX
707
MABRIAOX
ties. The parallel of this marriage ceremony is seen
in the pall held over nuns while the consecratory pre-
face is being said at their clothing or profession. It
follows that the idea that this is a funeral pall and is
symbolical of the death of the religious to the world
is not historically justifiable.
The words of the priest, " Ego vos in matrimonium
conjungo'', which, though sanctioned by the Council
of Trent, are apt to convey the false impression that
the priest is the minister of the Sacrament, are not
primitive, atanv rate in this form, and are only to be
found in Rituals of comparatively recent date. In
the medieval Nuptial Mass, and in many places until
lon£ after the Reformation, the kiss of peace was given
to the married pair. The bridegroom received it from
the priest either directly or by means of the pax-
board, or instrumentum paciSy and then per oaculum
oris conveyed it to the bride. The misconception,
found in some modem writers, that the priest kissed
the bride, is due to a misunderstanding of this piece of
ritual, no such custom is recorded m manuals ap-
proved by ecclesiastical authority.
Oriental Marriage Rituals. — ^That of the Orthodox
Greek Church may be conveniently taken as a model,
for the others, e. g. the SjTian and Coptic rites, resem-
ble it in many particulars. The most noteworthy
feature in a Greek or Russian marriage is the fact that
there are two quite distinct religious services. In the
service of the betrothal a contract is entered upon and
two rings are presented. A gold ring is gi\'en by the
priest to the bridegroom and a silver one to the bride,
out these are sulSequently exchanged between the
fjarties. The second ceremony is that of the nuptials
proper and it is generally called the crowning. The
service is one of considerable length in wmch the
parties again solemnly express their consent to the
union ana towards the close of which a crown is placed
by the priest on the head of each. The bridegroom
and bride afterwards partake of a cup of wine previ-
ously blessed and excnange a kiss. Marriages m the
Greek Church take place after the celebration of the
Liturgy, and, as in tne West, the season of Lent is a
forbidden time. It may be noticed that some rituals
of the Western Church retain more positive traces of
the ancient ceremony of the crowning than is pre-
served in the wreath usually worn by the bride. Thus
in a I^tin ritual printed for Poland and Lithuania in
1691 it is directed that two rings be used, but if these
are not forthcoming, then the priest is to bless two
wreaths (serta) and present them to the married pair.
DuBCHESNE, Chrutian WonJiip (tr., 3rd editkm, London.
1910) 428-^34; Frkiaen, Oeachichte dca canoniachen Eherechta
(Tubingen. 1888); Fkkisen, in Archiv. f. Kath. Kirehenrechi
(Mainz, vol. LIU, 1885); Frf.isen, Manuale Lincoperue (Pader-
born, 1906); Gautier, La Chevalerie (Paris, 1891), 341-450;
Maskell, Monumenta RUualia (Oxford, 1882), voLI; Haxxi^
TINE, Zur GeachichU der EheschlicMung nach anotlsdchsiachen
Recht (Berlin, 1905); Howard, A HuAory of Matrimonial In-
atitutiana, I (Chicago, 1904). 291-383; Crttchlow, Forma of Be-
trothal, &c (Baltimore, 1903); Watkins, HoluMatnmonu (Lon-
don, 1895) ; Martisne, De A rUtquia Eccleaia Riiibua, II (Venice,
1788); DiECKHOFF, Die Kirchliche Trauimg (Roestock. 1878);
Henderson, The York Manuale, publ. by Sdrteer Socibtt
i Durham, 1875); Lingard, Anglo-Saxon Church, II, cap i;
loEDER, Die Schoaa oder Knieadxung (Gdttingen, 1907); Sohm,
Trauunq tend Verlobung (1876); Frieddrro, Daa Recht der
Eheachlteaauno (Leipzig. 1865); Sohm, Daa Recht der Eheachlies-
$ung (Weimar, 1875) ; Binoham, Chriatian Marriage (New York,
1900).
Herbert Thurston.
Marriage, Sacrament of. — ^That Christian mar-
riage (i. e. marriage between baptized persons) is really
a sacrament of the New Law in the strict sense of the
word is for all Catholics an indubitable truth. Ac-
cording to the Council of Trent this dogma has always
been taught by the Church, and is thus defined in.
canon i, Scss. XXIV: " If any one shall say that matri-
mony is not truly and properly one of the Seven Sacra-
ments of the Evangelical Law, instituted by Christ our
Lord, but was invented in the Church by men, and
does not confer grace, let him 1)e anathema. " The
occasion of this solemn declaration was the denial by
the so-called Reformers of the sacramental charact^
of marriage. Calvin in his " Institutions '', IV, xix, 34,
says : ** Lastly, there is matrimony, which all admit was
instituted by God, though no one before the time of
Gregory regarded it as a sacrament. What man in his
sober senses could so regard it? God's ordinance is
good and holy; so also are agriculture, architecture,
shoemaking, hair-cutting legitimate ordinances of
God, but they are not sacraments". And Luther
speaks in terms equally vigorous. In his German
work, published at Wittenberg in 1530 imder the title
' " Von den Ehesachen", he writes (p. 1) : "No one in-
deed can deny that marriage is an external worldly
thing, Uke clothes and food, house and home, subject
to worldly authority, as shown by so many imperial
laws governing it." In an earlier work (the ori^nal
edition of **De captivitate Babylonica") he writes:
"Not only is the sacramental character of matrimony
without foundation in Scripture; but the very tradi-
tions, which claim such sacredness for it, are a mere
jest"; and two pages further on: "Marriage may
therefore be a figure of Christ and the Church; it is,
however, no Divinely instituted sacrament, but the
invention of men in the Church, arising from ignorance
of the subject." The Fathers of the Council of Trent
evidently had the latter passage in mind.
But the decision of Trent was not the first given by
the Church. The Council of Florence, in the Decree
for the Armenians, had already declared: "The sev-
enth sacrament is matrimony, which is a figure of
the union of Christ and the Cnurch, according to the
words of the Apostle: 'This is a ereat sacrament, but
I speak in Christ and in the Church.' " And Innocent
IV, in the profession of faith prescribed for the Wal-
densians (18 December, 1208), includes matrimony
among the sacraments (Densiger-Bannwart, "En-
chiridion", n. 424). The acceptance of the sacra-
ments administered in the Church had been prescribed
in general in the following words: "And we by no
means reject the sacraments which are administered
in it (the Roman Catliolic Church), with the co-opera-
tion of the inestimable and invisible power of Uie Holy
Ghost, even though they be admini^red by a sinfm
priest, provided the Church recognizes him^ , the for-
mula then takes up each sacrament in particular,
touching especially on those points which the Walden-
sians had denied: "Therefore we approve of baptism
of children . . . confirmation administered by the
bishop . . . the sacrifice of the Eucharist. . . . We
believe that pardon is granted by God to penitent sin-
ners ... we hold in ];ionour the anointing of the sick
with consecrated oil ... we do not deny that carnal
marriages are to be contracted, according to the words
of the Apostle. " It is, therefore, historically certain
that from the beginning of the thirteenth century the
sacramental character of marriage was universally
known and recognized as a dogma. Even the few
theologians who minimized, or who seemed to mini-
mize, the sacramental character of marriage, set down
in the foremost place the proposition that marriage is
a sacrament of the New Leiw in the strict sense of the
word, and then sought to conform their further theses
on the effect and nature of marriage to this fundamen-
tal truth, as will be evident from the quotations
given below.
The reason why marriage was not expressly and for-
mally included among the sacraments earlier and the
denial of it branded as heresy, is to be found in the
historical development of the doctrine regarding the
sacraments; but the fact itself may be traml to Apos-
tolic times. With regard to the several religious rites
designated as " Sacraments of the New loaw ", there was
always in the Church a profound conviction that they
conferred interior Divine grace. But the grouping of
them into one and the same category was left for a
later period, when the dogmas of faath m ge&eiaLbe^pui
MARRIAGE
,708
BCARRIAGX
to be scientifically examined and systematically ar-
ranged. Furthermore, that the seven sacraments
should be grouped in one category was by no means
self-evident. For, though it was accepted that each
of these rites conferred interior grace, yet, in contrast
to their common invisible effect, the cfifference in ex-
ternal ceremony and even in the immediate purpose of
the production of grace was so ^feat that^or a long
time, it hindered a uniform classification. Thus, there
is a radical difference between the external form under
which baptism, confirmation, and orders, on the one
hand are administered, and, on the other hand, those
that characterize penance and marriage. For while
marriage is in the nature of a contract, and penance in
the nature of a judicial process, the three first-men-
tioned take the form of a religious consecration of the
recipients.
I. Proof op Sacramental Character op Chris-
tian Marriage. — In the proof of Apostolicity of the
doctrine that marriage is a sacrament of the New Law,
it will suffice to show that the Church has in fact al-
ways taught concerning marriage what belongs to the
essence of a sacrament. The name sacrament cannot
be cited as satisfactory evidence, since it did not ac-
quire until a late period the exclusively technical
meaning it has to-day; both in pre-Christian times
and in the first centuries of the Christian Era it had a
much broader and more indefinite signification. In
this sense is to be understood the statement of Leo
XIII in his Encyclical "Arcanum" (10 February,
1880) : "To the teaching of the Apostles, indeed, are to
be referrred the doctrines which our holy fathers, the
councils, and the tradition of the Universal Church
have always taught, namely that Christ Our Lord
raised marriage to the dignity of a sacrament. '' The
pope rightly emphasizes the importance of the tradi-
tion of the Universal Church. Without this it would
be very difficult to get from the Scriptures and the
Fathers clear and decisive proof for all, even the un-
learned, that marriage is a sacrament in the strict
sense of the word. The process of demonstration
would be too lon^ and would require a knowledge of
theology which tne ordinary faithful do not possess.
In themselves, however, the direct testimonies of the
Scriptures ana of several of the Fathers are of suffi-
cient weight to constitute a real proof, despite the
denial of a few theologians past and present.
The classical Scriptural text is the declaration of
the Apostle Paul (Eph., v, 22 sqq.), who emphati-
cally aeclares that the relation between husband and
wife should be as the relation between Christ and His
Church: " Let women be subject to their husbands, as
to the Lord: because the husband is the head of the
wife, as Christ is the head of the Church. He is the
saviour of his body. Therefore as the Church is sub-
ject to Christ, so also let the wives be to their hus-
bands in all thines. Husbands, love your wives, as
CSirist also loved the Church, and delivered Himself up
for it: that He might sanctify it, cleansing it by the
laver of water in the word of life; that He might
present it to Himself a glorious church not having spot
or wrinkle or any such thing; but that it shomd be
holy, and without blemish. So also ought men to
love their wives as their own bodies. He that loveth
his wife, loveth himself. For no man ever hated his
own flesh; but nourisheth it and cherisheth it, as also
Christ doth the Church: because we are members of
His body, of His flesh, and of His bones. " After this
exhortation the Apostle alludes to the Divine institu-
tion of marriage in the prophetical words proclaimed by
God through Adam : For this cause shall a man leave
his father and mother and shall cleave to his wife, and
they shall be two in one flesh. " He then concludes
with the significant words in which he characterizes
Christian marriage: "This is a great sacrament; but I
■peak in Christ and in the Church. **
It would be rash, of course, to infer immediately
from the expression, "This is a great sacrament^',
that marriage is a sacrament of the New Law in the
strict sense, for the meaning of the word sacrament, as
already remarked, is too indefinite. But considering
the expression in its relation to the preceding words,
we are led to the conclusion that it is to be taken in
the strict sense of a sacrament of the New Law. The
love of Christian spouses for each other should be mod-
elled on the love oetween Christ and the Church, be-
cause Christian marriage, as a copy and token of the
union of Christ with the Church, is a great mysteiy
or sacrament. It would not be a solemn, mysterious
symbol of the union of Christ with the Church, which
takes concrete form in the individual members of the
Church, imless it efficaciously represented this union,
i. e. not merely by signifying tne supernatural life-
imion of Christ with the Church, but also by causiiig
that union to be realized in the individual members;
or, in other words, by conferring the supernatural life
of grace. The first marriage between Adam and Eve
in Paradise was a symbol of this imion ; in Yact, merely
as a symbol, it surpassed individual Christian mar-
riages, inasmuch as it was an antecedent type, whereas
individual Christian marriages are subsequent repre-
sentations. There would be no reason, therefore, why
the Apostle should refer with such emphasis to Chris-
tian marriage as ao qreai a sacrament, if the greatness
of Christian marriage did not lie in the fact, that it is
not a mere sign, but an efficacious sign of the life of
grace. In fact, it would be entirely out of keeping
with the economy of the New Testament if we pos-
sessed a sign of grace and salvation instituted by God
which was only an empty sign, and not an efficacious
one. Elsewhere (Gal., iv, 9), St. Paul emphasizes in a
most significant fashion the difference between the Old
and the New Testament, when he calls the religious
rites of the former "weak and needy elements'' which
could not of themselves confer true sanctity, the effect
of true justice and sanctity being reserved for the New
Testament and its religious rites. If, therefore, he
terms Christian marriage, as a religious act, a great
sacrament, he means not to reduce it to the low plane
of the Old Testament rites, to the plane of a "weak
and needy element'', but rather to show its impor-
tance as a sign of the life of grace, and, like the other
sacraments, an efficacious sign. St. Paul, then, does
not speak of marriage as a true sacrament in explicit
and immediately apparent fashion, but only in such
wise that the doctrine must l)e deduced from his
words. Hence, the Council of Trent (Sess. XXIV), in
the dogmatic chapter on marriage, says that the sacra-
mental effect of grace in marriage is ''intimated" by
the Apostle in tne Epistle to the Ephesians {gytod
PatUus Apostolus innuit).
For further confirmation of the doctrine that mar-
riage under the New Law confers grace and is there-
fore included among the true sacraments, the Council
of Trent refers to the Holy Fathers, the earlier coun-
cils, and the ever manifest tradition of the universal
Church. The teaching of the Fathers and t^e con-
stant tradition of the Church, as already remarked, set
forth the dogma of Christian marriage as a sacrament,
not in the scientific, theological terminology of later
times, but only in substance. Substantiidh^, the fol-
lowing elements belong to a sacrament oi the New
I^w: (1) it must l>e a sacred reli^ous rite instituted
by Christ; (2) this rite must be a si^ of interior sano-
tification; (3) it must confer this mterior sanctifica-
tion or Divine grace; (4) this effect of Divine grace
must be produced, not only in conjunction with the
respective religious act, but throu^^ it. Hence, who-
ever attributes these elements to Christian niarriage,
thereby declares it a true sacrament in the strict sense
of the word.
Testimony to this effect is to be found from the ear-
liest Christian times onward. The clearest is that of
St. Augustine in his works ''De bono oonjugii" and
MABRIAQB 709 MABaiAOE
*'De nuptiis et concumsoentia". In the former work fore should it not turn out happilv, so that it will not
(chap, xxiv in P. L., aL, 394), he says, '** Among all be troubled by afflictions and needs and obstacles and
Pjeople and all men the good that is secured by mar- contaminations, since it ei^oys the protection of the
riage consists in the offspring and in the chastity of Divine grace?" But if Divine grace and its protection
married fidelity; but, in the case of God's people [the are, as Tertullian asserts, given with marriage, we
Christians], it consists moreover in the holiness of the have therein the distinctive moment which constitutes
sacrament, by reason of which it is forbidden, even a religious action (already known for other reasons as
after a separation has taken place, to marry another a sign of Divine grace) an efficacious sign of grace, that
as long as the first partner lives . . . just as priests is, a true Sacrament of the New Dispensation. It is
are ordained to draw together a Christian community, only on this hypothesis that we can rightlv understand
and even thoiigh no such communitv be formed, the another passage from the same work of Tertullian (II,
Sacrament of Orders still abides in those ordained, or ix, in P. L., 1, 13Q2) : " How can we describe the hap-
just as the Sacrament of the Lord, once it is conferred, piness of those marriages which the Church ratifies,
abides even in one who is dismissed from his office on the sacrifice strengthens, the blessing seals, the angels
account of guilt, although in such a one it abides imto publish, the Heavenlv Father propitiously beholds ? ''
judgment. In the other work (I, x, in P. L., XLIV, Weightier, if anything, than the testimony of the
420), the holy Doctor says: ''Undoubtedly it belongs Fathers as to the sacramental character of Christian
to the essence of this sacrament that, when man and marriage is that of the liturgical books and sacramen-
wife are once united by marriage, this bond remains taries of the different Churches, Eastern and Western,
indissoluble throughout their lives. As long as both recording the liturgical prayers and rites handed down
live, there remains a something attached to the mar- from the very earliest times. These, it is true, differ in
riaee, which neither mutual separation nor union with many unimportant details, but their essential features
a third can remove; in such cases, indeed, it remains must be traced back to Apostolic ordinances. In all
for the aggravation of the guilt of their crime, not for these rituals and litur^cal collections, marriage, con-
the strengthening of the union. Just as the soul of an tracted before the priest during the celebration of
apostate, which was once similarly wedded unto Christ Mass, is accompanied by ceremonies and prayers sim-
and now separates itself from Him, does not, in spite ilar to those used in connexion with the other sacra*
of its loss of faith, lose the Sacrament of Faith, which ments; in fact several of these rituals expressly call
it has received in ihe waters of regeneration.'' In marriage a sacrament, and, because it is a sacrament
these words, St. Augustine places marriage, which he of the hving ", require contrition for sin and the recep-
names a sacrament, on the same level with Baptism tion of the Sacrament of Penance before marriage is
and Holy Orders. Thus, as Baptism and Holy Orders contracted (cf . Mart^ne, *' De antiquis ecclesise riti-
are sacraments in the strict sense and are recognized bus", I, ix). But the venerable age, in fact the apos-
as such by the Holy Doctor, he also considers the mar- tohcity, of the ecclesiastical tradition concerning
riage of Christians a sacrament in the full and strict marriage is still more clearly revealed by the circum-^
sense of the word. stance that the rituals or liturgical books of the Orien-
Scarcely less clear is the testimony of St. Ambrose, tal Churches and sects, even of those that separated
In his letter to Siricius (Ep. xlii, 3, in P. L., XVI, from the Catholic Church in the first centuries, treat
1124), he states: ** We also do not deny that marriage the contracting of marriage as a sacrament, and sur-
was sanctified by Christ"; and to Vigilius he writes round it with significant and impressive ceremonies
(Ep. xix, 7, in P. L., XVI, 984): "Since the contract- and prayers. The Nestorians, Monophysites, Copts,
Of what kind this sanctification is, the saint tells us Denzinger, ''Ritus orientalium", I, 150 sqq.; II, 364
clearly in his work "De Abraham" (I, vii, in P. L., sqq.). The numerous prayers which are used
XIV, 443): " We know that God is the Head and Pro- throughout the ceremony refer to a si)ecial grace
tector, who does not permit that another's marriage- which is to be granted to the newly-married persons,
bed be defiled; and further. that one guilty of such a and occasional conunentaries show that this ^ce was
crime sins against God, whose command he contra- regarded as sacramental. Thus, the Nestonan patri-
venes and whose bond of grace he loosens. Therefore, arch, Timotheus II, in his work "De septem causis
since he has sinned against God, he now loses his par- sacramentorum" mentioned in Assemani (III, i, 579).
ticipation in the heavenly sacrament." According to deals with marriage among the other sacraments, ana
Amorose, therefore, Christian marriage is a heavenly enumerates several religious ceremonies without which
sacrament, which binds one with God oy the bonds of marriage is invalid. Evidently, therefore, he includes
grace until these bonds are sundered by subsequent marriage amone the sacraments, and considers tllB
sin — that is, it is a sacrament in the strict and com- grace resulting from it a sacramental grace,
plete sense of the word. The value of this testimony The doctrine that marriage is a sacrament of the
might be weakened only by supposing that Ambrose, Ne^ Law has never been a matter of dispute between
in referring to the " participation in the heavenly sac- the Roman Catholic and any of the Oriental Churches
rament" which he declares forfeited by adulterers, separated from it — a convincing proof that this doc-
was really thinking of Holy Communion. But of the tnne has always been part of ecclesiastical tradition
latter there is in the present instance not the sli^test and is derived from the Apostles. The correspondence
question; consequently, he must here mean the loss (1576-81) between the TObingen professors, defenders
of all share in the grace of the Sacrament of Marriage, of Protestantism, and the Greek patriarch, Jeremias,
Hiis production of grace through marriage, and there- is well known. It terminated in the latter's indig-
fore its character as a perfect sacrament, was empha- nantly scouting the suggestion that he could be won
sized also ^ Innocent I in his letter to IVobus (Ep. ix, over to the doctrine of onlv two sacraments, and in his
in P. L., aX, 602). He declares a second marriage solemn recognition of the doctrine of seven sacraments,
during the lifetime of the first partner invalid, and including marriage, as the constant teaching of the
adds: "Supported by the Catholic Faith, we declare Oriental diuroh. More than half a century later the
that the true marriage is that which is originally Patriarch Cyril Lucar, who had adopted the Calvin-
founded on Divine grace." istic doctrine of only two sacraments, was for that
As early as the second century we have the valuable reason publicly declared a heretic bv the Synods of
testimony of Tertullian. While still a Catholic, he Constantinople in 1638 and 1642 and that of Jerusa-
writes (" Ad Uxorem"^ II, vii, in P. L., 1, 1299) : " If lem in 1672 — eo firmly has the doctrine of seven sacra«
therefore such a mamage is pleasing to God, where* mente and of marriage as a sacrament been mala-
MAR&IAGE
710
ICABaiAOE
tained by the Greek and by Oriental theologianfl in
general.
Doubts as to the thoroughly sacramental character
of marriage arose in a very few isolated cases, when
the attempt was made to formulate, according to
speculative science, the definition of the sacraments
and to determine exactly their effects. Only one
prominent theologian can be named who denied that
marriage confers sanctifying grace, and consequently
that it is a sacrament of the New Law in the strict
sense of the word — Durandus of St. Pourgain, after-
wards Bishop of Meaux. Even he admitted that mar-
riage in some way produces grace, and therefore that
it 3iould be called a sacrament; but it was only the
actual help of grace in subduing passion, which he
deduced from marriage as an effect, not ex opere
operatOf but ex opere operanlis (cf. Pcrrone, " De matri-
monio christiano", I, i, 1, 2). As authorities he
could cite only a few jurists. Theologians with the
greatest unanimity rejected this doctrme as new and
opposed to the teachmg of the Church, so that the
celebrated theologian of the Council of Trent, Domi-
nlcus Soto, said of Durandus, that it was only with
diflficulty he had escaped the danger of being branded
as a heretic. Many of the leading scholastics spoke
indeed of marriage as a remedy against sensuality —
e. g. Peter IvombSrd (whose fourth book of sentences
was commentated by Durandus), and his most distin-
guished coinmentators St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Bona-
venture, Petrus de Palude. But the conferring of
sanctifying grace ex opere operato is not thereby ex-
cluded; on the contrary, it must be regarded as the
foundation of that actual grace, and as the root from
which springs the right to receive the Divine assistance
as occasion requires. That this is the teaching of those
ffreat theologians is evident partly from their explicit
declarations concerning the sacrament of marriage,
and partly from what they defined as the essential
element of the Sacraments of the New Law in general.
It is sufficient here to give the references: St. Thomas,
*'InIVSent.",dist.Il,i,4; II,ii, 1; XXVI, ii, 3; St.
Bona venture, " In IV Sent.", dist. II, iii; XXVI, ii.
The real reason why some jurists hesitated to call
marriage a grace-giving sacrament was a religious one.
It was certain that a sacrament and its grace could not
be purchased. Yet such a transaction took place in
marriage, as a dowry was ordinarily paid to tne man.
But this objection is baseless. For, although Christ
has raised marriage or the marriage contract to the
dignity of a sacrament (as will be shown below), yet
marriage, even among Christians, has not thereby lost
its natural significance. The dowry, the use of which
devolves on the man, is given as a contribution to-
wards bearing the natural burdens of marriage, i. e.,
the support of the family, and the education of the
offspring, not as the price of the ^crament.
For a better understanding of the sacramental
character of Christian as opposed to non-Chrii+'an
marriage, we may briefly state the relations of tne one
to the other, especially as it cannot be denied that
every marriage from the beginning has had, and has,
the character of something holy and religious, and
may therefore be designated as a sacrament in the
broader sense of the word. In this connexion we can-
not pass over the instructive encyclical of IjCO XIII
mentioned above. He says : * * Marriage has God for its
Author, and was from the verj' beginning a kind of
foreshadowing of the Incarnation of the Divine Word;
consequently, there abides in it a something holy and
religious; not extraneous but innate; not derived
from man, but implanted by nature. It was not,
therefore, without good reason that our predecessors,
Innocent III and Honorius III, affirmed that a * certain
sacrament of marriage' existed ever among the be-
lievers and unbelievers. We call to witness the monu-
ments of antiquitj', as also the manners and customs
of those jKJoples who, being the most ci\ilized, had a
finer fenM of eouity and right. In the minds of all of
them it was 'a aeeply rooted conviction that marriage
was to be regaraed as something sacred. Hence,
among these, marriages were commonly celebrated
with religious ceremonies, imder the authority of
pontiffs, and with the ministry of priests — so great,
even in the souls ignorant of heavenly doctrine, was
the impression produced by the nature of marriage,
by reflection on the history of mankind, and by the
consciousness of the human race.''
The term "sacrament", applied by the pope to all
marriages, even those of infidels, is to be taken in its
widest sense, and signifies nothing but a certain holi-
ness inherent in marriage. Even among the Israelites
marriage never had the importance of an Old Testa-
ment sacrament in the strict sense, since even such a
sacrament produced a certain holiness (not indeed
the interior holiness which is effected by the New
Testament sacraments, but only an external legal
purity), and even this was not connected with the
marriage contract among the Jews. The sanctity of
marriage in general is of another kind. The original
marriage, and consequently marriage as it was con-
ceived in the original plan of God before sin, was to be
the means not merely of the natural propagation of
the human race, but also the means by which personal
supernatural sanctity should be transmitted to the
individual descendants of our first parents. It was,
therefore, a great mystery, intended not for the per-
sonal sanctification of those united by the mamage
tie, but for the sanctification of others, i. e. of their
offspring. But this Divinely ordered sanctity of mar-
riage was destroyed by original sin. The effectual
sanctification of the human race, or rather of indi-
vidual men, had now to be accomplished in the way of
redemption through the Promised Redeemer, the Son
of God made Man. In place of its former sanctitv,
marriage retained only the significance of a type feebly
representing the sanctity that was thenceforth to be
acquired; it foreshadowed the Incarnation of the Son
of God, and the close union which God was thereby
to form with the human race. It was reserved for
Christian marriage to symbolize this higher super-
natural union with mankind, that is, with those who
unite themselves to Christ in faith and love, and to be
an efficacious sign of this union.
III. Minister op the Sacrament; Matter and
Form. — ^Although the Church realised from the first
the complete sacramentality of Christian marriage,
yet for a time there was some uncertainty as to what
m the marriage contract is the real essence of the sac-
rament; as to its matter and form, and it« minister.
From the earliest times this fundamental proposition
has been upheld: Mairimoniumfacit conscnsits, i. e.
Marriage is contracted through the mutual, expressed
consent. Therein is contained implicitly the doctrine
that the persons contracting marriage are themselves
the agents or ministers of the sacrament. However,
it has been likewise emphasized that marriage must
be contracted with the blessing of the priest and the
approbation of the Church, for otherwise it would be
a source not of Divine grace, but of malediction.
Hence it might easily be inferred that the sacerdotal
blessing is the grace-giving element, or form of the
sacrament, and that the JT^'icst is the minister. But
this is a false conclusion . Tlie first theologian to desig-
nate clearly and distinctly the priest as the minister of
the Sacrament and his blessing as tlie sacramental
form was apparently Melchior Canus (d. 15C0). In his
well-known work, "De locis theologicis", VIII, v, he
sets forth the following propositions: (1) It is, indeed,
a common opinion of tlie schools, but not their certain
and settled doctrine, that a marriage contracted with-
out a priest is a true and real sacrament; (2) the con-
troversies on this point do not affect matters of faith
and religion; (3) it would be erroneous to state that
all theologians of the Catholic school defended that
MA&UAOl
711
MARRIAGl
opinion. In the ooiirae of the same chapter CanuB
defends, as a vital matter, the opinion that without
the priest and his blessing a valid marriage may take
Elace, but a sacramental form and valid sacrament are
kcking. For this opinion he appeals to Petrus de
Palude (In IV Sent., dist. V, ii) and also to St. Thomas
(•*In IV Sent.", dist. I, i, 3 :**Summa contra gentiles'*,
IV, Ixxviii), as well as to a number of Fathers and
popes of the earliq^t centuries, who compared a mar-
riage contracted without sacerdotal blessing to an
adulterous marriage, and therefore could not have
recognized a sacrament therein.
The appeal, however, to the above authorities is
unfortunate. St. Thomas Aouinas, in the hrst article
cited hy Canus, entitled *'Utrum consistant sacra-
menta m verbis et rebus", raises the following diffi-
culty: ** Penance and marriage belong to the sacra-
ments: but for their vahdity, words are unnecessary;
therefore it is not true that words belong to all the
sacraments. " This diflSculty he answers at the end of
the article : " Marriage taken as a natural function and
penance as an act of virtue have no form of words: but
in so far as both belong to the sacraments, which are to
be conferred by the ministers of the Church, words are
employed in both; in marriage the words which ex-
press mutual consent, and also the blessings which
were instituted by the Church, and in penance the
words of absolution spoken by the priest. Although
St. Thomas mentions the words of blessing along with
the words of mutual consent, he expressly calls them
an institution of the Church, and hence they do not
constitute the essence of the sacrament instituted by
Christ. Again, though he seems to understand that
marriage, also, must be administered by the ministers
of the Church, it cannot be denied that the contracting
parties in Christian marriage must be guided by eccle-
siastical regulations, and cannot act otherwise than as
ministers sulyect to the Church or dispensers of the
sacrament. If, however, St. Thomas in this passage
attributes to the sacerdotal blessing too great an influ-
ence on the essence of the sacrament of marriage, he
manifestly corrects himself in his later work, " Summa
contra gentiles", in which he undoubtedly places the
whole essence of the sacrament in the mutual con-
sent of the contracting parties: '' Marriage, therefore,
inasmuch as it consists in the union of man and
woman, who propose to beget and rear children for the
glory ot God ^ is a sacrament of the Church; therefore
the contractmg parties are blessed by the ministers of
the Church. And as in the other sacraments some-
thing spiritual is signified by an external ceremony, so
here in this sacrament the union of Christ and the
Church is typified by the union of man and woman
according to the Apostle: *This is a great sacrament,
but I speak in Christ and in the Church.' And as the
sacraments effect what they signify, it is clear that the
persons contracting marriage receive through this
sacrament the grace by which they participate in the
union of Christ and the Church." Hence the whole
essence and grace-producing power of marriage con-
sists, according to St. Thomas, in the union of man
and woman (in presence of the priest), not in the
additional blessing of the priest prescribed by the
Church.
The same seems to be true of the passage from
Petrus de Palude cited by Canus. As his work,
**Commentarium in IV Librum Sententiarum " is not
so readily accessible, we may state precisely the edi-
tion used here: It bears as a final note the comment:
Explicit scriptum in quartuin sententiarum Clarissimi
et Acutissimi doctoris Petri de Palude patriarchse
Hierosolyinitani, ordinis fratrum prsedicatorum per-
quam diligcntissime Impressum Venetiis per Bonct-
tum Locatellum Bergomensem mandato Nobilis viri
Octaviani Scoti Civis Modcetiensis Anno a natali partu
Intemerate Virginis nonagcsimotertio cum Quadrin-
gentesimo suprii mille.siinum Xll Kalendas Octobris, "
Here it says expressly in dist. V., Q. xi (fol. 124, ooL
1) : " It seems tnat one who contracts marriage in the
state of sin does not sin although the essence of mar-
riage consists in the mutual consent, which the parties
mutually express; thb consent confers the sacrament
and not the priest by his blessing; he only confers
a sacramental." Further on, in dist. XXVI, Q. iv
(fol. 141^ col. 4), he says: "Marriage is such that its
efficacy is not based on the minister of the Church
(the priest). Its essence, therefore, can exist with-
out the priest, not because it is a necessary sacrament
— ^though it is indeed necessary for human society, just
as baptism is necessary for the individual — but be-
cause its efficacy does not come from the minister of
the Church. Perhaps, however, it is not lawful to con-
tract marriage except in the presence of the Church
and before the priest, if this is possible." These pas-
sages are clear. It is hard to see why Mclcliior Canus
tried to support his opinion by the opening words of
the first quotation. He supposes that from the words
'Mt seems that one who contract-s marriage in the state
of sin does not sin " the conclusion is to be drawn that
de Palude means in this case a marriage which is not a
sacrament; for to administer or receive a sacrament
in a state of sin is a grave sin, a sacrilege. But on the
other hand, it is to be noted that de Palude in unmis-
takable terms declares the mutual consent to be the
conferring of the sacrament. The words, ** it seems ",
merely introduce a difficulty: whether this expresses
his own view, he does not make clear, in so far as the
contracting of marriage means the reception of a sac-
rament; in so far as it is the administration of a
sacrament, he regards it as probable that the adminis-
tering of a sacrament in sin is an additional sin only in
the case of ministers ordained for the administration
of the sacraments, but the contracting parties in mar-
riage are not such ministers.
The opinion of Canus finds but little support in the
expressions of the Fathers or in papal letters, which
state that marriage without the priest is declared un-
holy, wicked, or sacrilegious, tnat it does not bring
the grace of God but provokes His HTath. This is noth-
ing more than what the Council of Trent says in the
chapter "Tametsi" (XXIV, i, de ref. Matr.), namely,
that "the Holy Church of God has always detested
and forbidden clandestine marriages". Such state-
ments do not deny the sacramental character of mar-
riage so contracted; but they do condemn as sacrile-
gious that reception of the sacrament which indeed
lays open the source of grace, yet places an obstacle in
the way of the sacrament's emcacy.
For a long time, nevertheless, the opinion of Canus
had its defenders among the post-Tndentine tlieolo-
gians. Even Prosper Lambert ini, as Benedict XIV,
did not set aside his pronouncement, given in his work
"De synodo dioecesana", VIII, xiii, that Canus's view
was "valde probabilis", although in his capacity as
Eope he taught the opposite clearly and distinctly in
is letter to the ArchTbishop of Goa. To-day it must
be rejected by all Catholic theologians and branded at
least as false. The inferences not contemplated by the
originators of this opinion, but deduced later and used
in practice against the rights of the Church, con-
stnuned succeeding popes repeatedly to condemn it
f ormallv. Subservient Cathohcs and court theologians
especially found it useful as warranting the secular
power in making laws concerning validity and inval-
idity, diriment impediments, and the like. For, if the
sacrament consisted in the priestly blessing and the
contract, as was never doubted, in the mutual consent
of the parties, evidently then contract and sacrament
must be separated; the former had to precede as a
foundation; upon it, as matter, was founded the sac-
rament, which took place through the blessing of the
priest. But contracts, which affect social and civil
life, are subject to state authority, so that this can
make suph regulations and restrictions oven as to their
MARBIAQl
712
BKABBIAQI
validity, as it deems necessary for the public weal.
This practical conclusion was drawn especially by
llarcus Actonius de Dominis, Bishop of Spoleto, after-
wards an apostate, in his work '' De republica ecclesi-
astica" (V, xi, 22), and by Launoy in his work " Regia
in matrimonio potestas '* (I, ix sqq.) . In the middle of
the last centuiy Nepomuk Nuytz, professor at the
University of Turin, defended this opinion with re-
newed vigour in order to supply a juridical basis for
civil legis&tion regarding marriage . Nu^tz 's work was
thereupon expressly condemned by Pius IX in the
Apostolical Letter of 22 Aug., 1851, in which the pope
declared as false especially the following propositions:
Tlie sacrament of marriage is only something which is
added to the contract of marriage and which can be
separated from it; the sacrament consists only in the
blessing of the marriage. These propositions are in-
cluded in the "Syllabus" of 8 December, 1864, and
must be rejected by all Catholics. In like manner Leo
XIII expresses himself in the Encyclical "Arcanum"
c^uoted above. He says: " It is certain that in Chris-
tian marriage the contract is inseparable from the
sacrament; and that, for this reason, the contract
cannot be true and legitimate without being a sacra-
ment as well. For Christ our Lord added to marriage
the dignity of a sacrament; but marriage is the con-
tract itself, whenever that contract is lawfully made.
. . . Hence it is clear that among Christians every
true marriage is, in itself and by itself, a sacrament;
and that nothing can be farther from the truth than
to say that the sacrament is a certain added ornament,
or external adjunct, which can be separated and torn
away from the contract at the caprice of man."
As it is certain, therefore, from the point of view of
the Church that marriage as a sacrament is fulfilled
only through the mutual consent of the contracting
parties, it is a matter of secondary consideration, how
and in what sense the matter and form of this sacra-
ment are to be taken. The view that most correctly
explains this is perhaps the one that is generally prev-
alent to-day; in every contract two elements are to be
distinguished, the oftering of a right and the accept-
ance of it; the former is the foundation, the latter is
the juridical completion. The same holds true of the
sacramental contract of marriage; in so far, therefore,
as an offering of the marriage right is contained in the
mutual declaration of consent, we have the matter of
the sacraments, and, in so far as a mutual acceptance is
contained therein, we have the form.
To complete our inquiry concerning the essence of
the Sacrament of Marriage, its matter and form, and
its minister, we have still to mention a theory that was
defended by a few jurists of the Middle Ages and has
been revived by Dr. Jos. Freisen ("Geschichte des
canonischen Eherechts". Tubingen, 1888). Accord-
ing to this marriage in tne strict sense, and therefore
marriage as a sacrament, is not accomplished until
consummation of the marriage is added to the consent.
It is the consummation, therefore, that constitutes the
matter or the form. But as Freisen retracted this
opinion which could not be harmonized with the
Cnurch's definitions, it is no longer of actual interest.
This view was derived from the fact that marria^,
according to Christ's command, is absolutely indis-
soluble. On the other hand, it is undeniably the teach-
ing and practice of the Church that, in spite of mutual
consent, marriage can be dissolved by religious profes-
sion or by the declaration of the pope; hence the con-
clusion seemed to be that there was no real marriage
previous to the consummation, since admittedly nei-
ther religious profession nor papal declaration can
afterwards effect a dissolution. The error lies in tak-
ing indissolubility in a sense that the Church has never
held. In one case, it is true, according to earlier eccle-
siastical law, the previous relation of mere espousal
between man and woman became a lawful marriage
(knd thcTX'foro tJie Sacrament of Marriage), namely
when a valid betrothal was followed by CMnsuinnia-
tion. It was a legal presumption that in tJbis case the
betrothed parties wished to lessen the sinf ulneas of
their action as much as possible, and therefore per-
formed it with the intention of marriage and not of
fornication. The efficient cause of the marriage con-
tract, as well as of the sacrament, was even in this case
the mutual intention of marriage, although expression
was not given to it in the regular wav. This legal pre-
sumption ceased on 5 Feb., 1892, by Decree of Leo
XIIl, as it had grown obsolete among the faithful and
was no longer adapted to actual conditions.
IV. Difference Between the Sacbament of
Mabriaoe and the other Sacraments. — 'Fnxa all
that has been said, it is clear that while marriage,
inasmuch as it is an outward sign of grace and also
produces interior grace^ has the nature comm(Hi to all
the sacraments, stiljL viewed as an external sign, it is
unique and very different from the other sacraments.
The external sign is a contract; hence marriage, even
as an effective sign or sacrament, has precisely the
nature and quality of a contract, its vahdity depend-
ing on the rules for the validity of contracts. And, as
we can distinguish between a contract in its origin and
a contract in its continuance, so we can distinguish
between the sacrament of marriage in fieri and in facto
esse. The sacrament in fieri is the above-mentioned
mutual declaration of consent; the sacrament in /octo
esse is the Divine bond which unites the married per-
sons for life. In most of the other sacraments also
there is this distinction between sacrament infi/eri and
in facto esse; but the continuance of the other sacra-
ments is based mostly on the inamissible character
which thev impress upon the soul of the recipient.
Not so with marriage ; m the soul of the recipient there
is a question of no new physioGd being or mode of be-
ing, but of a legal relationship which can as a rule be
broken only by death, although in individual cases it
may otherwise be rendered void, provided the mar-
riage has not been consummated. In this respect,
therefore, marriage, especiallj^ as a sacrament, differs
from other contracts, smce it is not subject to the free
will of the individuals. Of course, the choice of a
partner and especially the contracting or non-con-
tracting of marriage are subject to the free will of the
individuals; but any revocation or essential altering
of the terms is beyond the power of the contracting
girties; the essence of the contractual sacrament is
ivinely regulated.
Of still greater importance is the contract aspect of
the sacrament in fieri. In the other sacraments^ the
conditional administration is admissible only within
narrow limits. There can only be questions of condi-
tions of the present or past^ which, according as thev
are verified or not verined m fact, there and then ad-
mit or prevent the vahd administration of the sacra-
ment. But generally even these conditions have no
influence on the validity; they are made for the sake
of greater reverence, so as to avoid even the appear-
ance of regarding the sacramental procedure as useless.
The Sacrament of Marriage, on tne contrary, follows
the nature of a contract in all these matters. It ad-
mits conditions not only of the past and present, but
also future conditions which delay the production of
the sacrament until the conditions are fulfilled. At
the moment these are fulfilled the sacrament and its
conferring of grace take place in virtue of the mutual
consent previously expressed and still continuing.
Onlv diriment conditions are opposed to the essence
of the Sacrament of Marriage, beokuse it consists in an
indissoluble contract. Any such conditions, as well aa
all others that are opposed to the intrinsic nature of
marriage, have as a result the invalidity of both the
contract and the sacrament.
A further quality of the Sacrament of Marriage, not
possessed by the other sacraments, is that it can be
effected without the personal presence of the mutual
IIA&&UOX
713
MAR&IAaS
ministers and recipiente. A consensual agreement can
be made in writing as well as orally, and by proxy as
well as in person. Henoe these methods are not op-
posed to tne validity of the sacrament. Of course,
according to ecclesiastical law, the form prescribed for
validity is, as a rule, the personal, mutual declaration
of consent before witnesses; but that is a requirement
added to the nature of marriage and to Divine law,
which the Church can therefore set aside and from
which she can dispense in individual cases. Even the
contracting of marriage through authorized represen-
tatives is not absolutely excluded. In such a case,
however, this representative could not be called the
minister, much less the recipient of the sacrament, but
merely the agent or intermediarv. The declaration of
consent made b^r him is valid only in so far as it repre-
sents and contains the consent of his principal; it is
the latter which effects the contract and sacrament,
hence the principal is the minister of the sacrament.
It is the prmcipal, and not the agent, who receives the
consent of and marries the other party, and who there-
fore also receives the sacrament. It does not matter
whether the principal, at the exact moment when the
consent is expressed by his agent, has the use of reason,
or consciousness, or is deprived of it (e. g. by sleep) ; as
soon as the mutual consent is given, the sacrament
comes into being with the contract, and the conferring
of grace takes place at the same time, provided no
obstacle is placed in the way of this effect. The actual
use of reason is no more required for it than in the
baptism of an infant or in extreme unction adminis-
tered to an unconscious person. It may even happen
in the case of marriage that the consent, which was
given many years ago, only now takes effect. This
occurs in the case of the so-called sanatio in radice.
Through this an ecclesiastical impediment, hitherto
invalidating the marriage, is removed by ecclesiastical
authority, and the mutual consent previously given
without knowledge of the impediment is accepted as
legitimate, provided it is certain that this consent has
habitually continued according to its original intent.
At the moment of the ecclesiastical dispensation th6
original consent becomes the effective cause of the
sacrament and the hitherto presumptive, but now real,
spouses receive the sacramental effect in the increase
of sanctifying grace, provided they place no obstacle
in the way.
V. The Extent of Sacramental Mahriage. — As
we have several times emphasized, not even marriage
is a true sacrament, but only marriages between Chris-
tians. One becomes and remains a Christian in the
sense recoenized here throueh valid baptism. Hence
only one who has been validly baptized can contract a
marriage which is a sacrament; but every one can
contract it who has been validly baptized, whether he
has remained true to the Christian faith, or become a
heretic, or even an infidel. Such has always been the
teaching and practice of the Chureh. Through bap-
tism one "becomes a member of Christ and is incor-
porated in the body of the Church ", as declared in the
Florentine Decree for the Annenians; so far as law
is concerned, he remains irrevocably subject to the
Church, and is therefore, in legal questions, always to
be considered a Christian. Hence it is a general prin-
ciple that all baptized persons are subject to universal
ecclesiastical laws, especially marriage laws, unless the
Church makes an exception for individual cases or
classes. Hence not only the marriage between Cath-
olics, but also that contracted bv members of the dif-
ferent sects which have retained baptism and validly
baptize, is imdoubtedly a sacrament. It matters not
whether the non-Catholic considers marriage a sacra-
ment or not, or whether he intends to effect a sacra-
ment or not. Provided only he intends to contract a
true marriage, and expresses the requisite consent,
this intention and this expression are sufficient te con-
■tttute a sacrament. But if he is absolutely deter-
mined not to effect a sacrament, then, of course, the
production of a sacrament would be excluded, but the
marriage contract also would be null and void. By
Divine ordinance it is essential to Christian marriage
that it should be a sacrament; it is not in the power of
the contracting parties to eliminate anything from ite
nature, and a person who has the intention of doing
this invalidates the whole ceremonv. It is certain,
therefore, that marriage contracted between baptized
persons is a sacrament, even the so-called mixed mar-
riage between a Catholic and a non-Catholic, provided
the non-Catholic has been validly baptized. Jt is
equally certain that marriage between unbaptized per*
sons is not a sacrament in the strict sense of the word.
There is, however, great uncertainty as to how those
marriages are to be regarded which exist legitimately
and validly between 'a baptized and an imbaptized
person. Such marriages may occur in two ways. In
the first place, a marriage may have been contracted
between unbelievers, one of whom afterwards becomes
a Christian, while the other remains an unbeliever.
(Here believer and unbeliever are taken in the sense of
baptized and unbaptized.) The marriage contracted
validlv while both were unbelievers continues to exist,
and though under certain circumstances it is dissolu-
ble, it is not rendered void simply because of the bap-
tism of one of the parties, for, as Innocent III says (in
ly, xix, 8), ''through the sacrament of baptism mar-
riage is not dissolved, but sins are forgiven '^ and St.
Paul expressly states (I CJor., vii, 12 sq.): "If any
brother hath a wife that belie veth not, ana she consent
to dwell with him, let him not put her away. And if
any woman hath a husband that believeth not, and he
consent to dwell with her, let her not put away her
husband." There is question here, therefore, of a mar-
riage which subsequently has developed into a mar-
riage between baptized and imbaptized. Secondly,
there may be question of a marriage, which from the
beginning was a mixed marriage, i. e. which was con-
tracted between a believer and an unbeliever. By
ecclesiastical law, such a marriage cannot take place
without a dispensation from the Church, which has
made disparity of worship between baptized and un-
baptized a diriment impediment. In regard to both
kinds of mixed marriage it may be asked whether they
have the character of a sacrament, and whether they
have the effect of imparting grace at least to the bap-
tized party. As to the unbaptized party, there can
clearly be no (question of sacrament or sacramental
grace, for baptism is the door to the other sacraments,
none of which can be validly received before it.
The opinions of theologians on this point vary con-
siderably. Some maintain that in both kinds of mixed
marriages the baptized party receives the grace of the
sacrament; others deny this in the case of a marriage
contract contracted by unbelievers which subse-
ouently becomes a mixed marriage, and affirm it in
the case of a marriage contracted by a believer with
an unbeliever in virtue of a dispensation from the
Church; a third class again deny that there is a sacra-
ment or sacramental grace in either case. The first
view was held as probable by Palmieri (De matrimonio
christiano, cap. h, thes. ii, Append, q. 3), Rosset (De
Sacramento matrimonii, I, 350), and others; the sec-
ond by the older authors, Soto, Toumely, Collet, and,
among recent authors, especially by Perrone (De ma-
trimonio christiano, I, 306-311); Sasse and Christian
Pesch declare at least in favour of the sacramental
character of a marriage contracted with ecclesiastical
dispensation between a baptized and an unbapti»ed
person, but express no opimon on the other case. The
third opinion is upheld by Vasquez and Thomas
Sanchez, and is at the present time vigorously de-
fended by Billot (De sacramentis: II, De matrimonio,
thesis xxxviii, sec. 3) and Wemz (Jus Decretalium,
I v. v, 44).
No side brings convincing proof. Perhaps the weak-
BKABRIAOE
714
BIAR&IAOC
est grounds are adduced for the opinion which, in
regard to marriage contracted by unbelievers, claims
sacramentallty and the sacramental grace after bap-
tism for the party who, subsequently to the marriage,
is baptized. These grounds are mostly negative; for
example, there is no reason why an unbaptizcd person
should not administer a sacrament, as is clcarlv done
in the case in baptism; or wHy the sacramental efifect
should not take place in one party which cannot take
place in the other, as in the case oi a marriage between
baptized persons where one party is in the state of
grace ana the other is not, so that the sacrament of
marriage confers grace on the former, but not on the
latter. Besides, it is not fitting that the baptized per-
son should be altogether deprived of grace. As ajgamst
this view, there seems to be a weighty reason in the
fact that such a marriage contracted in infidelity is
still dissoluble, even after years of continuation, either
through the Pauline Privilege or through the plenary
authority of the Holy See. And yet it has always
been a principle with theologians that a matrtviontum
ratum et consummaium (i. e. a marriage that bears the
sacramental character and is afterwards consum-
mated) is by Divine Law absolutely indissoluble, so
that not even the Holy See can on any groimds what-
soever dissolve it. Hence, it seems to follow that the
marriage in question is not a sacrament.
This argument reversed, together with the reason of
fitness mentioned above, tells in favour of the sacra-
mentality of a marriage contracted with ecclesiastical
dispensation between a baptized and an unbaptized
person. Such a marriage, once it is consummated, is
absolutely indissoluble, just as a consummated maiv
riage between two baptized persons; under no circum-
stances may recourse be had to the Pauline Privilege,
nor will any other dissolution be granted by Rome (for
documents see Lehmkuhl, "Theol. mor. , II, 928).
A further reason is that the Church claims jurisdiction
over such mixed marriages, institutes diriment imped-
iments to them, and grants dispensations. This
authority regarding marriages Pius VI bases on their
sacramentality; hence it seems that the marriage in
question should be included among marriages that are
sacraments. The words of Pius Vl in his letter to the
Bishop of Mutila are as follows: "If, therefore, these
matters (he is speaking of marriage) belong exclusi\'ely
to the ecclesiastical forum for no other reason than
that the marriage contract is truly and properly one of
the seven sacraments of the Law of the Gospel, then,
since this sacramental character is inherent in all
marriage-matters, they must all be subject to the
exclusive jurisdiction of the Church."
However, these arguments likewise fail to carry
conviction. In the first place, many deny that the
mixed marriages in question pertain exclusively to the
jurisdiction of the Church, but claim a certain right for
the State as well; only in case of conflict the Cliurch
has the preference; the exclusive right of the Church
is confined to marriages between two baptized persons.
The Church also possesses some authority, no doubt,
over all marriages contracted in infidelity, as soon as
one party receives baptism, but this does not prove
the sacramentality, after the conversion of one party,
of a marriage contracted by infidels. Furthermore, it
is uncertain whether matters affecting the nature of
Christian marriage are subject to ecclesiastical author-
ity for the sole reason that Christian marriage was
raised to the dignity of a sacrament, or for the more
general reason that it is a holy and religious thing. In
the document cited above Pius VI gives no decision on
the point. In case the latter reason is of itself suffi-
cient, then the conclusion is all the more secure if, as
Pius VI says, 'Hhe raising to the dignity of a sacra-
ment" is taken as a reason. In fact the elevation of
marriage to a sacrament can well serve as a ground for
ecclesiastical authority, even in regard to a marriage
which is only an inchoate sacrament.
As positive proof against the sacramentality of the
mixecT marriages with which we are dealing, tne advo-
cates of the third opinion emphasize the, nature of
marriage as a contract. Marriage is an indivisible
contract which cannot be one thing for one party and
another thing for the other party. If it cannot be a
sacrament for one, then it cannot be a sacrament for
the other. The contract in facto ease is not really an
entity that exists in the parties, but rather a relation
between, them, and indecil a relation of the same sort
on both sides. Now, this cannot be a sacrament in
fadto esse, if in one of the parties the basis of the rela-
tion has no sacramental character. But, if the con-
tract in /ado esse be no sacrament, then the actual
contractmg of marriape cannot be a sacrament in fieri.
Were the opposite opinion correct, the contract would
be rather lame, i. e. firmer in the believing party than
in the unbaptized ^ since the greater constancy of Chris-
tian marriage arises precisely from its character as
a sacrament. But such an uneven condition seems
opposed to the nature of marria^. Should it be urged
on the contrary that as a result in extraordinary cases
these mixed marriages might be dissolved just as in
the case of those contracted by two unbaptized per-
sons, this inference is to be rejected. Apart from the
question whether the inner constancy does not of itself
exclude such a dissolution, it is quite certain that,
externally, the most complete indissolubility is secured
for such mixed marriages, or, in other words, that the
Church, which by its approval has made them possible,
also makes them by its laws indissoluble. A dissolu-
tion in \'irtue of the Pauline Privilege is thus not cer-
tainly available, since it might be utilized in odium
fidei, instead of in favorem fidei. In any case, as to
the application of this privilege, the Church is the au-
thoritative interpreter and judge. These arguments,
though not perhaps decisive, may serve to recommend
the third opinion as the most probable and best
founded.
There still remains the one question, on which also
Catholic theologians are still to some extent divided,
as to whether and at what moment marriages legiti-
mately contracted between the unbaptized become a
sacrament on the subsequent baptism of the two
parties. That they never become a sacrament was
taught in his day by Vasquez, and also by the canon-
ists Weistner and Schmalzgriiber. This view may
to-day l>e regarded as abandoned, and cannot lie
reconciled with the official decisions since given by the
Holy See. The discussion must, therefore, be confined
to tne question, whether through the baptism alone
(i. e. at the moment when the baptism of the later
baptized of the two partners is completed) the mar-
riage becomes a sacrament, or whether for this purpose
the renewal of their mutual consent is necessary.
Bellarmine, La3^mann, and other theologians defended
the latter view; the former, which was already main-
tained by Sanchez, is to-day generally accepted, and is
followed by Sape, Rasset, Billot, Pesch, Wema etc.
This opinion is base<l on the ecclesiastical teaching
which declares that among the baptized there can be
no true marriage which is not also a sacrament. Now,
immediately after the baptism of both partners, the
already contracted marriage, which is not dissolved by
baptism, becomes a "marriage of the baptized"; for
were it not immediately a "sacrament"^he above-
mentioned general principle, which Pius iX and Leo
XIII proclaimed as incontestable doctrine, would be
untrue. Consequently we must say that, through the
baptism itself, the existing marriage passes mto a
sacrament. A difficulty may arise only in the detfei^
mination as to where in such a case the matter and
form of the sacrament are to be sought, and what act
of the minister completes the sacrament. This prob-
lem, it would seem, is most readily solved by falling
back on the virtually continuing mutual consent of the
parties, which has been already formally given. This
HA&RTAT 7
^rtual wish lo be aud to temaui partners in inarriage,
which is not annulled by the reception ot baptiam, is
an entity in the parties in which may be found the
ministration of the sacrament.
Sjinchei, Difpulatio dr t. matnmmii Samimt<<o. nnwrially
II; PuHiioHK. l>«fnn(rimoBibcftn*iniiD (Rome,
■KT. Dt SacmHatlo Ualnmimti fmclulua dpBnuil.
titan., iudicariut (189S). «P«-^-"-- '■ "
■.aitu AnNiana (Rome, ISHU);
:; Itos-
drt Is
. (bonu
HI. Jvt Drenlatm
binKiia, lS8ii);Gian,Dielil.StikTamrtUedtataai.Kinhejardu
SrSiirgiT daBmalirh darvaUm. II (t'lnibunt. 18U9). viL AIM
works cootnininn traatoea on the BnersmenU In Keoer^ luch
wthoH by^CHAHiiiUaiii:! Peach. Fraf.divM'.ivU; Billot.
Aug. Lehmkuhl.
Hanyftt, Florence, novelist and actress, b. 9
Julv, 18:18, at Brixton, Enjtland; d. 27 Octol»er, 1S90,
in tondon, EnRland. She was the dTth daughter and
tenth child of Captain rrederick Marrjat, R. N., the
celebrated novelist, and his wife, C!atherine, second
daughter ot Sir Stephen Shairp of Houston, Linlith-
gow, Scotland, and for many years consuI-Reneral in
Russia. Florence Marryat's brother Frank, author of
"Borneo and the Indian Archipelago" and "Moun-
tains and Molehills, or Kccolleetions of a Burnt Jour-
nal", died in IS*). In 18,11, when she was not quite
sixteen, she married T. Ross Church, afterwards colo-
nel of the Madras Staff Corps, with whom she travelled
over the (treater part of India, and to whom she bore
eight children. To distract her mind while nursing some
crfherchildrenthrouBhscarlettever.Bhe turned to novel
writing, her three first works, " Love's Conflict ", " Too
Good for Him", and "Woman again.it Woman", ap-
pearing at London in 1SB5. Thereafter she was an in-
defatigable and rapid hterary "worker, and during the
thirlv-foiir years that intervened between that date
and her deiiih, she producol some ninety novels, many
of whieh were republished in Anterica and Germany,
and translated into French, German, Russian, Flem-
ish, and Swedish. She was also a frei|iicnt contribu-
tor to newspapcrsand mutnizines, and eiiited " London
Societv", a monthlv publication, from 1H72 to 18713.
In 1872 she published in two volumes, " The Life and
Letters of (aptnin Marryat". She had many other
forms ot activity, being a playwright, and appearing at
diflereni times as an ogieratic singer, as an actress in
high-class comedy, and as a lecturer, dramatic reader
and public entert amer. She also conduct4?d a school of
journalism. In 1881 she acted in "Her World", a
drama of her own composition, produced in London.
She married as her second husband Colonel Francis
Lean of the Royal Marine Light Infantry. Fermany
years she was niueh attracted to the subject ot Spirit-
ualism, and dealt with it in certain ot her works, such
OS "There Is No Death" (1891); "The Spirit World"
(1894); and "A Soul on Fire". "Tom Tiddler's
Grotmd " (IS86), a book ot (ravel, is a somewhat frivo-
lous account ot (he I'oited States of America. Her
Inst iMKik, "The Follv of Alison", appeared just lie-
fore her death. Alftiough she had t>een a convert
to Catholicity for a considerable period, the letters
"R.I. P." appended to her obituary notices iiTre the
first intimation that a large faction of the public re-
ceived of the fact.
Alubove. Did., Svppt.. II: The Limiion Timn (iS Oct.,
189B); Thr Alhmaum (4 Hov.. ISDB) ; The TaM.I (1 Xi.v..
Ifi99); Mm and Wtrmtn of Iht Time OSaO); Lib m Did. Sal.
Biog.. Suppl.. 9. V. „ , ,
P. J, Lennox.
HarBfdllaB(MASSiUA),DiocE8KOF(MAsaiuBNBia),
suffragan of Aix, comprises the district of Iklarseilles
in the Department of Bouehes-du-Rhone. Founded
about 600 H. c. by a colony of Phoenicians and taken
by Cffisar in 49 b. c, Marseilles was captured by the
Viaigoths in a. d. 480; later it belonged to the Burgun-
diaoe, afterwards, from 607-637, to the Ostrogoth
Theodoric and hia Buccessors. In .5^7 it was ceded to
the Fra iiks under (;!iildeb''rt and annexe-ltotbe King-
dom of Paris. Laterthe city wasdivided bet weenSigc-
bert of .\ustrasia aud Gontran ot Burgundy. It had
various masters until Boson became King of Bur-
gundy-Provence (879). The Marseilles of the Middle
Ages oweil allegiance to three sovereignties. The epis-
copal town, for which the i>ishop swore fealty only to
the emperor, included the harbour of La Joliette, the
fisherman's district, and three citadels (Chateau Ba-
b(wi,Roquebarlje, and the bishop's palace). Tlie lower
town l«loneed to the viscounts and became a republic
in 1*214; and the abbatial town, dependent on the
Abl>ey of St. Victor, comprised a few market towns
and cha(eaux south of the harbour. In 1246 Mar-
NOTRE-DlHE-
seilles was subjugated by Charles of Anjou, Count ot
Provence. Finally, in 1481 it was annexed by Louia
XI to the crown of France.
Bishops of Maracitteg. — Mgr Duchesne has proved
tliat the trailitions wliich make St. Laiarus the first
Bishop of Marseilles do not antedate the thirteenth
century. A document ot tlie eleventh century relative
to the consecration of the church of St. Victor by
Ilencdict IX (KMO) mentions the existence of relics of
St. Laxsrusat Marseilles but does not speak ot him as
a bishop. In the twelfth century it was lielieved at
.Atitun that St. Lazarus was buried in their cathedral,
deilicated (o St. Xazariiis; th.it St. Lasarus had Iteen
Bishop of Marseilles was yet Hnknown. The earliest
Provencal test in whieh St. I^asarus is nieutiotiHl as
liishopdf Marseilles is a pussaeenf lhe"Olia Iinpcri-
fllia" otGerva.'ie otTillmrv, dating from 1212. Chri.i-
tianit y, however, wr(scert;iinlypreachedatMarwillesat
a very early date. Tlu' city w[miil\va\'B a creat commer-
cial entrepot, and must have lieen ^nr Proi-ence what
Lyons was foi- C'fltie (^lul. n centre from which Chris-
tianity radiated widely. The Christian Museum at
Harwilles possesses among other soreophagi one dat-
ing from 273. The epitaph of Volusianus and Fortu-
natuB, two Christians who perished by fire, martyrs
SThaps, ia one of tho oldest Christian inscriptiana(Le
lant, "InBcriptiona chr^tiennes de laOaule", Paris,
leefl-e.")). The first historically known bishop it
Oresliw who atleuded the Council of Aries In 314.
Frooulua (3S1-428) was celebrated (or hia quarrel with
Patroclea, Bishop of Aries, as to the limits of their
dioceses, and his differences with the bishops of the
province of Narbonneiisis Secunda concerning the
metropolitan rights which Marseilles claimed over
that entire region; the Council of Turin, about the
year 400. theoretically decided in favour of Narboone
against Marseliles, but allowed Proculus to exercise
metropolitan rights until his death. In 41S Pope
Zosimus, influenced by Patrocles of Aries, was about
to depose Proculus, but Zosimus died and the matter
was dropped. To Bishop Veneriua (431-452) we
owe the so-called "Mareeillea Breviary". The Bol-
landists question the existence of St. Caiinat, and the
"Gallia Christiana" does not count him among the
bishops of the sec. Albania maintains his existence,
trusting to the eightieth chapter of the "De viriaill. "
of Geniiadius, writt«n towards the dose of the sixth
century; relying also on the veneration certainly paid
to him at Marseilles since 1122, Albany's accepts nim
as bishop about i85.
Among the noteworthy bishops (following the
chronolc^ of Abb£ Albante) are: — Ilonoratus I
(about ©5) an ecclesiastical nfiter, approved bv
Pope Gelflsius; St. Theodore (560-91), urged by St.
Gregory the Great to use only persuasion with tlie Je\s-s,
and persecuted by King Gontran; St. Screnus (o96-
601) reproved by the same pope for rcmovine; from
the churches and destroying certain pictures which the
faithful were incliiied to worship; St. Abdalong (eighth
century); St. Maurontius (780), former Aliliot of
St. Victor; Honoratus II (948-976), who began the
restoration of the Abbey of St. Victor; Pons 11(1008-
73); Pierre de Montlaur (1214-29), who founded in
1214 the first chapel of Notre-Damc-de-la-Oarde; Car-
dinal William Sudrc (1361-66). afterwards Bishop of
Ostia, commissiioned in 1368 by Urban V to crown the
empress, wife of Charles IV, and in 1369 to receive the
profession of faith of Johannes Palfeologus, Emperor
of Constantinople; Cardinal Philippe de Cabassole
(1306-68), protector of Petrarch, author of a "Lite of
St. Mary Magdalen", protector ot St. Delphine, gov-
ernor under Urban V of theComtat Veiioissin, 1367-
69: he died in 1372, while legate of Gregory XI at
Rome; the preacher and ascetical writer Antoine
Dufour (I500-09L confessor of Louia XII; Claude
Seyssel (lfiOS-lSl7), ambaicudor of Louis XII at the
Lateran Council, 1613; Cardinal Innocent CibA (1S17-
1530), grandson of Innocent VIII, nephew of Leo X
and Clement VII; the preacher and controversialist
Nicolas Cofiffeteau (q. v.), 1621-23; the Oratorian
Eustace Gault (1639-40) and his brother Jean-Bap-
tiate Gault (1642-43) famed for his charity to the
KUey slaves- de Forbin- Janson (1668-79), sent
Louia XIV to the Diet of Poland (1674) which
elected John Sobieaki; Belsunce de Castelmoraa
(1710-56); Jean-Baptist* de Belloji- (1755-1801),
died almost a centenarian as Archbishop of Paris;
Eugene de Mazenod (1837-61) who founded the Con-
grrgation of the Oblat«s of Mary Immaculate; Patrice
Cruice (1861-65), of Irish descent, founder and direc-
tor of the school of higher ecclesiastical studies estab-
lished at Paris in the former monastery of the Carmel-
ites (Cannes), and well known for his excellent edition
oftheso-callcd"Philosophoumena"(seeHippoLYTi!S),
The moralist Guillaume du Vair, president of the Parle-
muiit of Aix, was named Bishop of MarseUleB in 1603
by Henry IV, but the Provincial Estates entreated the
king to retain him as head of the administration of
Abbeu of St. Victor.— About 415, Cassian (q. v.)
founded the two monasteries of St. Victor, one for
men, the other tor women. In the crypt of St. Victor
lay formerly the remains of Cassian, also those of Saints
Uaurice, Marcellinus, and Peter, the body of one of
the Holy Innocents, and Bishop St. Mauront. The
biography of St. Izam, Abbot of St. Victor in the
eleventh century (Acta 8S., 24 Sept.), gives sn inter-
esting account of the first visit of St, Isam to liie
cn'pt. All that now remains of the abbey is the
Church of St. Victor dedicated by Benedict IX in 1040
aad rebuilt in 1200, In the fifth century the Semj-
pelagion heresy, that began with certain writings of
Cassian, disturbcdgreatly the Abbey of St. Victor and
the Church of Marseilles (see CAseiuf; Augusti.ve;
Hii^ry; PnoBPEnoFAQtiiTAiNE); from Marseilles the
heres3'. After the devastations of the Saracens the
Abbey of St. Victor n-as rebuilt in the first half of the
eleventh century, through the efforts of Abbot St.
ft'iifred. From the middle of the eleventh century
its renown was such that from all points of the South
appeals were sent t« the abbots of this church to re-
store the religious life in decadent monaateries. The
abbey long kept in touch with the princes of Spain and
Sardinia and even owned propcrtv in Syna. The
polyptych of St. Victor, compiled in 814, the large
chartulary, or collection of charters (end of the eleventh
and beginning of the twelfth centurj'), and the small
chartulary (middle ot the thirteenth century) edited
by M. Gu^rard, and containing documents from 6S3 to
1336. enable the reader to grasp the important eco-
nomic role of this great abbey in the Middle Ages.
Blessed Bernard, Ablwt of St. Victor 1064-1079 was
one of the two ambassadors delegated byGregoryVII
to the DietofForehhcira. where the German princes de-
posedEmperor HentrlV. He was seized bj- one of the
partisans of Henry IV and passed several months in
prison. Gregory Vll also sent him as legate to Spain
and in rewanl for his services exempted St. Victor
from a!i jurisdiction other than that of the Holy See.
Blessed William dc Grimoard was made Abbot of St.
Victor, 2 Ai^st, 1301, and 1>ccame pope in 13S2 ai
Urban V. He enlarged the church, surrounded the
abbey with high crenelated walla, panted the abbot
episcopal jurisdiction, and gave him as diocese the
suburbs and villages south of the city. He %-iBitod
Marseilles in October, 1365, consecrated the high al-
tar of the church, returned to St. Victor in May, 1367,
and held a consistory in the Abbey. What beoame of
the library of St. Victor ia still a problem. Its £M^
uMA'^tatTfjr.mat
717
TXTAl^ffyiT.T.gft
tents are known through an inventory of the latter
half of the twelfth century. It was extremely rich in
ancient nutnuscripts, and must have been scattered in
the latter half of the sixteenth century, probably be-
tween 1579 and 1591; M. Morhreuil coniectures that
when Giuliano de' Medici was abbot (1570-88) he
scattered the library to please Catherine de' Medici;
it is very likely that all or many of the books became
the property of the king. Mazarin was Abbot of St.
Victor in 1656. Thomas le Foumier (1676-1745)
monk of St. Victor, left numerous manuscripts which
greatly aided the Maurists in their publications. The
secularisation of the Abbey of St. Victor was decreed
by Clement XII, 17 December, 1739.
Councils were held at Marseilles in 533 (when six-
teen bishops of Provence, under the presidency of St.
Csesarius of Aries, passed sentence on Contimieliosus.
Bishop of Riez), also in 1040 and in 1103. Several
saints belong; in a particular wav to Marseilles: the
soldier St. Victor, martyr imder Maximian; the soldier
St. Defendens and his companions, mart3nrs at the
same time; the martyrs St. Adrian, St. Clemens, and
their twenty-^ight companions (end of the third
century) ; St. (>prian. Bishop of Toulon (fifth-sixth
centunes) ; St. Eutropius, Bishop of Orange, native of
Marseilles, celebrated for his conflict wim Arianism
and Semipelagianism (fifth century) ; St. Bonet (Boni-
tus), prefect of Marseilles in the seventh century,
brother of Avitus, Bishop of Clermont, and a short
while Bishop of Clermont; St. Eusebia, abbess of the
monastery of nuns founded by Cassian, and massacred
by the Saracens with thirty-nine of her companions,
(perhaps in 838) ; St. Tsam, Abbot of St. Victor, d.
in 1048, at whose instigation Raymond B^ranger,
(Dount of Barcelona, compelled the Moors to free the
monks of L^rins; St. Louis, Bishop of Toulouse
(1274-97), of the family of the counts of Provence and
buried with the Friars Minor of Marseilles; St. Elziar
de Sabran (1286-1323) a student of St. Victor's, and
husband of St. Delphine of Sabran^ Blessed Bertrand
de Garrigue, (1230), one of the first disciples of St.
Dominic, founder of the convent of Friars Preachers
at Marseilles; Blessed Hugues de Digne, a Franciscan
writer of the thirteenth century, buried at MarseiUes
(with Ms sister St. Douceline, foundress of the B^
guines) after having foimded near the city, about
1250, the Order of Friars of Penance of Jesus Christ.
Hughes de Baux, Viscount of Marseilles induced St.
John of Matha to found in Marseilles, in 1202, a house
of Trinitarians for the redemption of captives; in this
house the Trinitarians from Southern France, Spain,
ana Italy held annually their (general Chapter. Near
by was founded in 1306 a brotherhood of penitents
who collected money in the city for the redemption of
captives.
St. Vincent de Paul's first visit to Marseilles, in
1605, on a business matter ended with the saint's
captivity in Tunis; his second visit in 1622, as chap-
lain general was marked bv the pious and heroic
fraud which led him to take the place of a galley slave.
In 1643 he sent Lazarists to attend the hospital for
convicts foimded by Philippe Emmanuel de Gondi,
ChevaUer de la Costa, and Bishop Gault. The Jesuit
College of St. R^gis was founded in 1724, at C!amp
Major, for missionaries on their way to the East who
studied there the various languages spoken in the
commercial towns along the M^iterranean coast.
The Jesuits also conducted the Royal Marine Obser-
vatory and a school of hydrography. The hospital of
Marseilles, founded in 1188, is one of the oldest in
France. Anne Magdaleine de Remusat (1696-1730),
daughter of a rich merchant of Marseilles, who had
entered the convent of the Visitation of St. Mary, 2
October, 1711, sent word to Mgr Belzunce that on
17 October, 1713, the twenty-third anniversary of the
death of Margaret Mary Alacoque, she had received
certain revelations from Christ; in consequence a
confratemi^ of the Sacred Heart was foimded, and
enriched with indulgences by Clement XI (1717):
Anne Magdaleine published in 1718 a small manual of
devotion to the Sacred Heart. The Marseilles mer-
chants carried this devotion to Constantinople and
Cairo and the society soon comprised 30,000 mem-
bers. At the time of the plague m Marseilles (39.152
victims out of 80,000 inhabitants), Belzunce, follow-
ing new revelations received by Anne Magdaleine, in-
stituted in the diocese the feast of the Sacred Heart
(22 October, 1720); later, on 4 June, 1722 at his in-
stigation the magistrates consecrated the city to the
Sacred Heart, as the first act of consecration formu-
lated to the Sacred Heart by a corporate body.
Marseilles plays also an important part in the his-
tory of the devotion to St. Joseph. As early as 1839
Bishop Mazenod decreed that Marseilles was to vener-
ate St. Joseph as the patron of the diocese, and that
wherever the churches admitted of three altars one
should be dedicated to this saint. The church of Cabot
near Marseilles was the first in the Christian world to
be consecmted to St. Joseph as patron of the Univer-
sal Church. The pilgrimage of Notre-Dame-de-la-
Garde dates from 1214. In 1544 a large church was
built on the hill overlooking Marseilles; in 1837 a
statue of the Madonna was blessed there, and in 1864
was inaugurated a new sanctuary yisited daily by
numerous pilgrims. In the church of St. Victor is
the statue of Notre-Dame-des-Confessions or Notr&-
Dame-des-Martyrs, said to have been venerated at
Marseilles since the end of the second century. The
pilgrimage of Notre-Dame-du-Sacr^-Cceur, at Ch4-
teau-Gonbert, gave rise to a confraternity which now
has almost one million members.
Before the law of 1901 on associations the Diocese
of Marseilles counted Benedictines, Capuchins, Jesuits,
Dominicans, Franciscans, Lazarists, African Mission-
aries, White Fathers, Missionaries of the Sacred Heart,
Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Redemptorists^ Sales-
ians, Brothers oi Christian Doctrine of St. GabneL Lit-
tle Brothers of Mary, Brothers of the Sacred Iieart,
Hospitaller Brothers of St. John of God, Clerks of St.
Viateur, Fathers of the Sacred Heart of the Child
Jesus. A number of religious congregations for
women originated in the diocese; the Capuchins, and
Nuns of the Visitation of Saint Mary, contemplative
orders founded at Marseilles in 1623; Franciscan Sis-
ters of the Holy Family, founded in 1851 imder the
name of Soeurs de I'lnt^neur de J4sus et Marie; Sisters
of Mary Immaculate, who take care of the dumb and
the blind; Sisters of Our Lady of Compassion^ a teach-
ing order; Sisters of St. Joseph of the Appantion^ de-
voted to nursing and teachmg; Sisters of the Holy
Names of Jesus and Mary, teachers (mother-houses of
all the foregoing are in Marseilles) ; Sisters of the Holy
Name of Jesus, a teaching order founded in 1832
(mother-house at La Ciotat), discalced Trinitarian
Sisters, founded in 1845 by Abb^ Margalhan-Ferrat.
who attend to the sick at home, to hospitals, and until
recently to schools (mother-house at Sainte-Marthe).
At the beginning of the twentieth century the religious
congregations had under their care 5 cr^hes, 38 day
nurseries, 1 asylum for the blind, 3 boys' orphanages,
21 girls' orphanages, 7 industrial work rooms, 4 socie-
ties for the prevention of crime, 1 protectory, 1 dis-
pensary, 1 general pharmacy for societies of mutual
assistance, 4 houses of retreat and sanitariums, 4
houses for the care of the sick in their own homes, 1 in-
sane asylum, 4 hospitals. In 1 905 the Diocese of Mar-
seilles (last year of the Concordat) counted 545,445
inhabitants, 11 parishes, 82 succursal parishes, 9
vicariates paid by the State.
ChtUia ChriiHana I (nova, 1715), 1.627.078; tiMfncm.. 105-
118; ALBANts AND Chetalzkr, Cfoma Chritiiana novinima;
MotmUU (Valoice. 1890): AlbanI^b. Armorial et aiffUlographU
de* ivfque^ de ManeOU (Maneilles, 1884); Beuxtnck, L'anf»-
mnU de CMiee d» MaraeuU tt la auceeeaion det ivifuea (ibid.*
1747-51); BtscARD. Lee iviquee de MareeilU deifw* SK^^
(aMyiSJ3)\^DK \iviEN, La oriema^rMmw dtta^OavlB ^^OajjaiT. BOLfi^ Bng.Calk.. IV^jTlMM; Ooowm io M«
^.li;:!.' "" ij^rSt^/aiS^nS^i'soaf'*^'^ MtrrfuOl IiUnda, Vicabiatb Apootouc or tm.
Ret. ( - ir dt MaririUe (ibid.'. IB8G)'; Mon- Tbefle islands, a German possesBion since 1885, Jying
TBEc ir . . I . : iahbavi itrt s firfor (ibid., iftM): in the Pacific Ocean, eaat of the Caroline IsUnde, be-
^,*t MoriSilf'Jibid' B d7^ T^^'jtfSr^Hf au xf!^ t"^" *° "^ ^3° ^ ^^■- ^"^ 161° and 171° E. longK
(Puii, 1805); CatVALiBB, rojwMN., '1857-1882. tude, Were discovered in 1529 by SsAvedra, ViUaloboa
Gborqes Gotad. and otherSpanisbmariaen, and explored by Marshall
and Gilbert in 1788. They are fifty in number, an
Marshall, Thouas Williau, LL.D., K.S.G., con- archipelaeoof!ow-lyingatous,the highest pcant being
troveraial writer, b. 1818; d. at Surbiton, Surrey, 14 only 33 feet above sea-level. Their total area, includ-
Dec., 1877. He was son of John Marshall, govern- ing Xauru, or Pleasant Island, 385 niiles to the south,
ment agent for colonizing New South Wales. His is about 150 Bqu3,re miles. 'The population in 190S
mrenta were Protestants, and he was educated at amounted to 15,000, of whom 1G2 were Europeans,
&inbridge (Trinity College) where he graduated B.A. Moat of the natives are still pagan. In 1891 the
in 1840. Taking orders in the Church of England, he Missionaries of the Sacred Heart liegan work there,
became Vicar of SwallowclilT, in Wiltshire, to which but were soon forced to desist by the civil authorities.
living the Perpetual Curacy of Antstey was attached. In 1898 they resumed their labours. The islands were
Profoundly influenced by the Tractarian movement, then included in the Vicariate Apostohc of New
be set hirnself to study the episcopal government of Pomerania; but in Septemlier, 1905, they were erected
the Church, and his fir^t book, putitishcd in 1844, was into a separate vicariate, though it has not j'et been
a work on this subject. But in writing this book he invested with an episcopal character. Thesuperiorof
was led by his researches to abandon the Anglican the mission. Very Rev. Augustus Erdland, resides on
position as untenable, and in November, 1845, he was the island of Jaluit. He was bom, 11 October, 1874;
received into the Catholic Church in Lord Arundell's joined the Missionary Fathers of the Sacred Heart, 30
ehapel at. Wardour Castle. In 1847 he was appointed Septeml>er, 18!)5; was ordained, 25 July, 1900, and
thefirst inspector of Catholic Schools, a position which appointed to iiis present office, 16 September, 1905.
he held till 1860, when he was asked to resign, on'ing In 1907 the mission contained 7 priests and 8 bro-
to the pubUc feeling aroused against him by the publi- thcrs; 13 Sisters of Our I.ady of the Sacred Heart (of
eatjon of his pamphlet exposing the An^ican missions Hiltrup, Germany) ; 323 Catholics; 520 catecliumens;
to the heathen. After two years spent in America he 6 churches and stations (on Jaluit Likieb, Arao,
returned to England and published his best known Mejeni.andNauru l5land8);8schoois,with223pui^.
work on "Christian Missions" (1862), In 1870 and Afitama Calioliea (Rome, 1907): Guillem^ho. XulnJ-
the following year he lectured in the United States 9^^-J^ (Loodon. J894), ms-o: Xu*™f™ c-uMtf Dir«i«t
with great success, the Jesuit College of Georgetown A_ j^ MAcEntEAii
conferring on him the degree of Doctor of Laws. In
1872 he returned to England, where he devoted him- Huai, Diocese of (Marbordu), in the province of
self to literary pursuits for the remaining five years of Aquila, Central Italy, with its seat at Pescma. WiUi
his life. He married Harriet, daughter of the Rev. the exception of Sabina, it is the only diocese that re
William Dansey, Rector of Donhead-St .-Andrew, ceives its name from a people, and not from a city,
who joined the Church with him and who survivea The Marvi were a warlike people who lived about Laie
him. Fucino. In 325 b.c. they allied themselves with the
He was a valued contributor to the Catholic press Romans, revolted in 309 in favour of the Sanmite«.
in England and America. His published works are: but in 304 returned to the Roman alliance. The chief
" Notes on the Episcopal Polity of the Holy Catholic divinity of the Marsi was the goddess Angitia. In lie
Church" (1844); "Twenty-two Reasons for Entering time of the Lombards the territ-ory formed a county
the Catholic Church" (I&46); "Ixitter to tJie Rev. subject to the Duchy of Spoleto, and the counts gave
Cecil Wray, M,A." (1849); "Christianity in China" several popes to the Church — among them Innocent
(1858); "Tabulated Reports on Roman Catholic III. Accordingtji legend, the Gospel was preached to
Schools inspected in the South and East of England " the Marsi in Apostolic times by Saint Mark, and Saint
(1859); "Christian Missions, their Agents, their Rufinus, their bishop, was martyred about 240. The
Method and their Results" (18G2; 1863; New York, episcopal see was originally at Santa &vina, but, (s
1865; London, 1865. Translated into French and thisplacewasiaolateilawlthcrcforeinsecure, Oregon'
German); "Catholic Missions in Southern India to XIII permitted, in 1580, the removal of the bishops
1865" (1865, written in conjunction with the Rev. W. residence to Pescina, where the cathedral was com-
Strickland, 8.J.); "Order and Chaos, a Lecture deliv- pleted in 1596. Among the bishops of this diocese
ered at Baltimore" (1869); "My Clerical Friends and was Saint Berardo of the family of the Counts of the
their Relation to Modern Thought" (1873); "Church Marei. He was educated at Montecaasino, and be-
Defence: Report of a Conference on the Present Dan- came pontifical governor of the Campania. On ac-
gers of the Cnurch" (1873); "Protestant Journalism" countof his justice and of his severity m that office, be
(1874); "Anglicans of the Day" (187,')). wa.f imprisoned by Pietro Colonna, but Paschal II
Arthur FEATFEnsTONE Marbhali,, B.A, Oxon., a made him a cardinal, and bishop of his native town.
younger brother of Thomas, abandoned his curacy at Olherprclatesof the Marsi were Bishop Jacopo (1276),
Liverpool to become a Catholic in the early sixties, during whose government of the diocese dueensions
He was widely known as the author of "The Comedy amseuctwccn the canons of Santa Savina and those of
of Convocation ", a satirical brochure exposing the in- Celano concerning the right to nominate the bishops:
consistencies invoked in all three of the Anglican Angelo Maccafani (1445), treasurer general of tV
views — High, Low, and Broad Church. His "Old Marches; Cardinal Marccllo Cresccnii (1533); Mattco
Catholics at Cologne" was hardly less popular during Colli (1579), under whom the removal of the bishop's
the period immediately following the Vatican Council residence to Pescina took place; he was a prisoner (or
and the defection of DilUinger. Other controversial some time in the Castle of Saiit' Angelo, but proved
worksof alight and popular character by this brilliant his innocence and was liberated; Gian Paolo Caccia
writer were "Reply to the Bishop of Plipon's Attack (1048), who did much for the public schools; Die*©
on the Catholic Church" and "The Infallibility of the Petra (1664), who restored the sominary, enlarged by
Pqpc." Francesco Corradini (16SD) and l>y Nuiiiio de' VeccU
MiJUOOO 719 MABSZUUS
(1710). The diocese ia inunediately subject to the which surrendered in 1703. Count d'Arco was be^
Iloly See; it has 78 parishes with 140,000 inhabitants, headed because he was found guilty of capitulating
6 religious houses of men and 0 of women, 2 educa- before it was necessary, while Marsigli was stripped m
tional institutes for male students and 5 for girls. all honours and commissions, and his swora was
Cappbllbtti, Chiete d* Italia, XXI (Venice. 18W). broken over him. His appeals to the emperor were in
U. Benioni. vain. Public opinion, however, acquitted him later
Marsico Nuoyo and
8ICEN8IS ET POTENTINA) »uxxi^»it ui ««c.uu. ^ «mjx- ^ ^ , .^..ui.u. oux.^-
S!^n?Jir^^^.fiiU^^^^^^^^ tificpursm^. He dn.wpkns, made astronomical ob-
the seat of a county. It became an episcopal seat, Z^ i^i^^nJ ^^ ^i,,^^ ♦^ n^i^vo^o o^/j r%,^ao«f^
when Bishop GrinJdo.of Grumentxun^^^^ S^ enSrcte^rt^e &„S'^Jl£>f TlT^
residence there, reteimng however hw fonnert.tle. There he founded his "Institute of ScienoS and Arts",
There were bid^ops of G™ment'm « ^^r «f the ^j j^ j „ ^ ; j^jg gj^ professore
sixth century: it is said tlmt a Samt labenus or S»- ^ j ^j^ /^f ^^ different divisions of the in-
venus first preached the Gos^l there. C^^^^^ ^^^ L^t^ f established a printing-house fur-
ops were Enrico (1131V who finished the ca^^^ j^ ^ j j^ ^^ l,^^ ^ f ^a^ q^^ g^brew,
%?^.,M"*''*° °^, I?!*™*'' t.^"^!^?^''J}V.f}i and Arabic. This wa^^t in chanje of the Domini^
rieiro y^o^^i, several ""'^JS^^Sr'o.ThoA.S <»n8' and placed under the patronage of St. Thomas
?*°,'2,flT"l,/ll"LY'l^„i^^. the c*thedraL ^ »i ^^37 he addetfto hirother collections
In 818 the diocese was united (Rj^jw^n^^^^ ^ j^j j^^^, ^^j^^ j^^ collected in England and
that of Potenza. This city is the capital of a fertile H„„^d_ A solemn procession of the institute he
province in the BasUicate, over 2400 feet above the ^ ^ ^ ^ f twenty-five years on
sea-the ancient city of the Li^am was farther d^^ ^ j ^ ^ Annunciation.^In 1715 he wis named
in thevallev of ^aMj^to Potent was destroyed ^ ^ ^^gg^^j^t^ „f ^he Paris Academy of Sciences; he
??^T^t^?rJ/^t^ rfin kJI^L^L^? A?in?. 0^9? ^ also a member of tlie Royal Society of London,
1250, to be destroyed agam by Charles of Anjou. Un 21 n^d of Montoellier
December 1857^t was greatly damaged^- an earth- ^^ ^ F , ^;^^^ j^ following: " Osserva-
quake. The town clait^ that it v«s e^^nge W ^^ j i jniJo^o*;! BosforoTracio" (Rome, 1681); "His-
baint Peter; Saint Aruntius and his companions suf- j physique de la mcr", translate by teclerc
fered martvrdom there under Maximian^ The first ^^^^^^ 1725); "Danubius Pannonic^mysicus,
known bishop was Amandus (about 5W). Other ^bservationibus", etc. (7 vols.. Hague, 1726) ; "L'Etat
bishops were baint Gerardo della PorM1099- 1 19)- i,j^j ^ ,, ottoman "(ASwt^rdam 1732).
to whoni the above-mentioned cathedral, built by foottnixlb. Bb^e* de,Acad..U (taria. 1825) ; QmNcr. W
Bishop Oberto and restored by Giovanni Andrea moim (Zurich, 1741).
Serra (1783-99), is dedicated— and AchilleCaracciolo ' Wiluam Fox.
(1616), who founded the sermnary. Blessed Bon^ MarsiUuB of Padna, physician and theologian, b.
""''t^^i 5 ^?^,^fii^^u 1??^ wTtiflt «^^" at Padua about 1270; d ab6ut 1342. Contrar^ to the
ventual P^eft- was from tto c ty It is to be noted ^^^^^^ ^{ ^^^^ ^(.thors, he was only a layiAan and
that, in «^?«i'eval d<«umcnte, toe B^^^^^^ i ,^ ^,j^j„^ t^^' legitimate Archbishop of
and the Bishop of the Mars are both ca led Mam- ^.^ thougEhe was a canon of his native city. He
cantw, a source of someconfusion The united sees ^ ^ . ^^ ^ ^j^ emperor, and after-
have 21 panshes, 96,500 "jhabitante, one religious ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^.^^ „f ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^j
^"^.L'^Z ^r^) ctel^^"(Venlce. 1857). n^dicine at the University of Padua. To complete
U. Benigni. bis medical studies he proceeded to Pans, and before
25 December, 1312, became rector of the university
Marsigli, Luigi Ferdinando, Count de, Italian there. A little later he went to Avignon and obtained
geographer and naturalist, b. at Bologna 10 July, from John XXII letters appointing him to one of the
1658; d. at Bologna 1 Nov., 1730. He was a member canonries of the Church of Padua (fi^. Vat., a. I, p. 2,
of an old patrician family and was educated in accord- n. 1714). It was at this time that Louis of Bavaria
ance with his rank. He supplemented his training by was about to reopen against the pope the strugdes of
studying mathematics, anatomy, and natural history Philippe le Bel against Boniface VlII. JohnXXII
with the best teachers, and by personal observations, had just denounced Louis as a supporter of heretics,
As a soldier he was sent by the Republic of Venice to excommunicated liim, and ordered him to cease within
Constantinople in 1679. There he investigated the three months administering the affairs of the Empire,
condition of the Turkish forces, while at the same time The emperor was looking for help, and Marsilius, who
he observed the surroundings of the Thracian Bos- had now begun the study of tneology, joined with
porus. Both of these matters were fully reported by Jean de Jandun, canon of Senlis, in offering him his
nim. In 1680, when the Turks threatened to invade assistance. Together they composed the Defensor
Hungaiy, he offered his services to the Emperor Leo- pacis'' at Paris, and, about 1326, setting out for Ger-
pold. On2 July, 1083 (the feast of the Visitation), he many, presented their work to the emperor. Tliey
fell wounded and was taken prisoner. He suffered as became his intimate friends, and on several occasions
a slave until he was ransomed on 25 March, 1684 (the expounded their teaching to hinL What were the
feast of the Annunciation). His reflections on these doctrines of these two Parisian doctors, the very au-
two feast days show his great piety: on these days, he dacity of which at first startled Louis of Bavaria?
says, on which the august protectress of the faithful They recalled the wildest theories of the legists of
is particularly honoured, she obtained for him two Philippe le Bel, and Csssarian theologians like Guil-
graces : salutary punishment for his past faults and an laume Durand and the Doiiiinican John of Paris. The
end to his punishment. After the long war he was t^hings of these last mentioned had been proposed
employed to arrange the boundaries between the Vene- witn hesitation, restrictions, and moderation of lan-
tian Republic, Turkey, and the Empire. During the guage which met with no favour before the rigorous
war of the Spanish Succession he was second in com- logic of Marsilius of Padua. He completely aban-
ZD^nd under Count d'Arcout the fortress of Breisach, doned the olden theocratic conception of society.
M A BflTTiTfTH
720
M A BflTTiTfTH
God, it is true, remained the ultimate source of all
power, but it sprang immediately from the people,
who had in addition the power to legislate. Law was
the expression, not of the will of the prince, as John of
Paris taught, but of the will of the people, who, by the
voice of ttie majority, could enact, interpret, modify,
suspend, and abrogate it at will. The elected head of
the nation was possessed only of a secondary, instru-
mental, and executive authority. We thus arrive at
the theory of the ''Contrat Social''. In the Church,
according to the ''Defensor Pacis", the faithful have
these two great powers — ^the elective and the legisla-
tive. They nominate the bishops and select those
who are to be ordained. The legislative power is, in
the Church, the right to decide the meaning of the old
Scriptures; that is the work for a general council, in
which the right of discussion and voting belones to the
fai^ful or their delegates. The ecclesiastical power,
the priesthood, comes directly from God and consists
essentially in the power to consecrate the Body and
Blood of Jesus Christ and remit sins, or, rather, to de-
clare them remitted. It is equal in all priests, each of
whom can communicate it by ordination to a subject
legitimately proposed by the community. Luther
would have recognized his theories in these heretical
assertions, and the Gallicans of later times would wil-
lingly have subscribed to such revolutionary declara-
tions. The two writers are just as audacious in their
exposition of the respective roles of the Empire and
the Church in Christian society and of the relations of
the two powers.
According to the idea of the State propounded by
Marsilius all ecclesiastical power proceeded from the
community and from the emperor, its principal repre-
sentative, there being no limit to the rights of the lay
State (cf. Franck, ** Journal des savants", March,
188:3; No6l Valois, "Histoire litt^raire de la France",
XXXIII). As to the Church it has no visible head.
St. Peter, he goes on, received no more power or au-
thority than the other Apostles, and it is uncertain
that he ever came to Rome. The pope has only the
power of convoking an oecumenical council which is
superior to him. His decrees are not binding; he can
impose on the people only what the generajT council
has decided ana interpreted. The community elects
the parish priest and supervises and controls the clergy
in tne penormance of their duties; in a word — ^the
community or the state is everything, the Church
playing an entirely subsidiary part. It cannot leg-
islate, adjudicate, possess goods, sell, or purchase
without authorization; it is a perpetual minor. As
is clear, we have here the civil constitution of the
clergy. Marsilius, moreover, shows himself a severe
and often unjust censor of the abuses of the Roman
curia. Regardinj5 the relations between the emperor
and the pope, it is maintained in the " Defensor Pa-
cis", that tne sovereign pontiff has no power over any
man, except with the permission ot the emperor;
while the emperor has power over the pope and the
general council. The pontiff can act only as the au-
thorized agent of the Roman people; all the goods of
the Church belong by right to Caesar. This is clearly
the crudest concept of the pagan empire, an heretical
assault on the Church's constitution, and a shame-
less denial of the rights of the sovereign pontiff to the
profit of Cajsar. Dante, the Ghibelline theorist, is
surpassed. Arnold of Brescia is equalled. William
Occam could never have proposed anj-thing more
revolutionary.
The pope was stirred bv these heretical doctrines.
In the Bull of 3 April, 1327, John XXII reproached
Louis of Bavaria with having welcomed auos per^
ditionis filios et maledictionia alumnos (Denifle, ** Chart ",
II, 301). On 9 April be suspended and exoom-
municiitod thi'in (/' Thesaurus novus anccdotorum ",
ii, Gl)2). A conmiibhion, appointed by the pope
at AvigMo.., condemned on 23 October five oi the
propositions of MaFsilius in the foUo^nng terms: ''I)
Th&Be reprobates do not hesitate to affirm in ytha.t is
related of Christ in the Gospel of St. Matthew, to wit
that He paid tribute . . . tnat he did so, not throu^
condescension and liberaUty, but of necessity — an
assertion that runs counter to the teaching of the Gos-
pel and the words of our Saviour. If one were to be-
lieve these men. it would follow that all the property
of the Church belongs to the emperor, and that he
may take possession of it again as his own; 2) These
sons of Belial are so audacious as to affirm that the
Blessed Apostle St. Peter received no more authority
than the other Apostles, that he was not appointed
their chief, and further that Christ gave no bead to
His Churcn, and appointed no one as His vicar here
below — all which is contrary to the Apostolic and
evangelic truth; 3) These children of Belial do not fear
to assert that the emperor has the right to appoint, to
dethrone, and even to punish the pope — ^which is un-
doubtedly repugnant to all right; 4) These frivolous
and lying men say that all priests, be they pc^>es.
archbishops, or simple priests are possessed of equal
authority and equal jurisdiction, by the institution of
Christ; that whatever one possesses beyond another is
a concession of the Emperor, who can moreover re-
voke what he has granted, — ^which assertions are cer-
tainly contrary to sacred teaching and savour of
heresy; 5) these blasphemers say that the universal
Church may not inflict a coactive penalty on any per-
son unless with the emperor's permission.'' All the
pontifical propositions opposed to the declarations of
Marsilius of Padua and Jean de Jandun are proved at
length from the Scriptures, traditions, and history.
These declarations are condemned as being contra^
to the Holy Scriptures, dangerous to the Cathohc
faith, heretical, and erroneous, and their authors Mar-
silius and Jean as being undouotedly heretics and even
heresiarchs (Denzingcr, ** Enchiridion ", 423, ed. Bann-
wart, 495; Noel Valois, "Histoire litt^raire de'la
France"^ XXXIII, 592).
As this condemnation was falling on the bead of
Marsilius, the culprit was coming to Italy in the em-
peror's train and ne saw his revolutionary ideas being
put into practice. Louis of Bavaria had himseu
crowned by Colonna, syndic of the Roman people; he
dethroned John XXlI, replacing him by the Friar
Minor, Peter of Corbara, whom he invested with tem-
poral power. At the same time he bestowed the title
of imperial vicar on Marsilius and permitted him to
persecute the Roman clergy. The pope of Avignon
Erotested twice against the sacrilegious conduct of
oth. The triumph of Marsilius was, however, of
short duration. Abandoned by the emperor in Octo-
ber, 1336, he died towards the end of 1342. Among
his principal works, the "Defensor Pads", which we
possess in twenty manuscripts, has been printed fre-
quently and translated into various langua^. The
*' Defensor Minor "^ a r6sum6 of the precedmg work,
compiled by Marsihus himself, has just been recoverea
in the Bodleian Library, Oxford (Canon. Misoell., 188).
It throws light on certain points in the larger work;
but has not yet been published. "De translations
Imperii Romani " has been printed four tim^i in Ger-
many and once in England. "De jurisdictione Im-
peratoris in causa matrimoniali " has been edited by
Preher and by Goldast (Monarchia sancti Rom. Im-
perii, II, c. 1283). The influence of the "Defensor
pacis " was disastrous, and Marsilius may well be reck-
oned one of the fathers of the Reformation.
Baudrillart. Revue d'hist. et de Ktt. reliaimue, 1808. p. 320;
Batle, Diet. crU.. Ill (1741), 379-80; Bbsold in Hittor. ZeU-
M-Ar. XXXVI (1876), 343-7; Birck. Maraiglio von Pocfua und
Alvaro Pelayo m>er Papst und Kaiaer, Kirche und Stoat in
Jahrtber. kith. BuraerBchule, Mulheim a Rh. (18S8); BT7x<jnm,
ffUl. Univ. Paris, IV (1669). 974-5; CAflTBLumi, La doitrima
ddlo 9tato in Marsiglio da Padova (Asti. 1898) ; Dbniflb, Chart,
univert., II (Paris, 1891). 158, 303; DdLLXNOXR, PapMfabein
MiUel. (1863). 92-<J; DtiFW. B. a. •.. XFV (1701). 226-30:
FABRiaus, B. M. oe. V (1786), 102-3; Fl»rr, Food. tMoL, III
L ^
(Faiia, isse). iss-e, lO^Soo; tiuji<r*.Rffon«. el Public. Hurv- Ute"AiuuJesOrdinu8.Benedicti" (Fftria, 1739) islhe -
Sh (IBM), 135-51: QiiAuaE, TWtor. IV (l863).41Si HonAOT, __-t of MarOnn ainnn
thiu . . . («onlaub«i.l8B21; L.vbamc*, W™lw dflPiKli>i.ti SfLj^ffiS* AoHn''''*'*^" ** *»'^-*"" (»"°"''' »>^
riftmolore poWtM « r^wtOM dei ««. ATV (Paduii, 1882): •^•™' l"""'- "S-™-
Jforivlia da Pndoin > JtfofliRO LiUm in ^/woM^Btatoffii. XU i'ATHICTOS BcHIAQER.
S.fhS
f!_20B-2T; Hetib, Elud* mr Sf orn(« dn Padmu. tA/olog.
-. . .-. l,uIs.l870):Nl^n^ JlfnrnlnmmPodBa HUth*, SaINT (Gr. UipSa), from the Aramaic,
H- "ji,'^r,''^io-oT^iu''iM.'r-J- ' '"'y i" I""^^' ^' 58-12; and John, xi; lii,
o^*uu.u, uM«u 0 'cii«m'n«irir*(T°p»(iir'(l'i8a"'ll2-a: sqq. TheAiamaioformoccurHinaNabatffianinsrrip-
Tlioiiuia Url, airh.Msi. Ar. /rYmcoM., 11 (Rome. 18S2),'I47- tion foundatPuteoIi,aiid now in the Naples Museum:
i?i(.'tofr SrS'fi-^; ^Jcmi'- v!I.?SMli'jv«™!4.i^' »' "* ^t*^ *■ °- ^ (Corpua Inscr. 8emit., 158); also in
LV riBSl)' S53-9' Whabtok in iHnvw g v (17*4) II iiVSo' * Pahnyxene inacription, where the Greek translation
Wmti, ZuMarrikuM von Padua ia HutoT.Jahrb., XIV a^'Si), bos the form liipeiir, A. D. 176. Mary, Martha, and
•'^- J a*iEunreB LaiaruB are represented by St. John as living at Beth-
ia, but St. Luke would eeem to imply that they
Te, at least at one time, living in GuIIee; he does
t mention the name of the town, but it may have
d.20 June, ITSOiatSaint-GermainHJea-Pr^oearPariBi been Magdala, and we ehould thus, supposing Maiy
In 1672 he entered the Benedictine Abbey of St-IUmy of Beth^a and Mary Magdalene to be tne same per-
at Reims, a house of the Congregation of Sunt-Maur. son, miderstand the appellative "Magdalene". The
. OningtohiHextraordinary eoIJ in the pursuit of leam- words of St. John (xi, 1) seem to imaly a change of
ing, however, he was sent by his superiors to Saint- residence for the family. It ia possible, too, that St.
Germain to receive further training under the direo- Luke has displaced the incident referred to in c. x.
tion of d'Ach^ry and Mabillon, and also to assist in tiie The likeness between the pictures of Martha presented
preliminary work connected with the new edition of by Luke and John ia ve^ remarkable. The familiar
the Fathers. Thenceforth he devoted his whole life to intereourse between the Saviour of the world and the
a most profound study of subjects connected with hia- humble family which St. Luke depicts is dwelt on by St.
ton" and liturgy, reaioing in various monasteries of his John when he tells us that " Jesua loved Martha, and
order, eepeGiaJty at Rouen, where he received the sym- her siJ^ter Mary, and Lazarus" (xi, 5). A^in, the
pathetic co-operation of the prior of Sainte-Marthe. picture of Martlia's anxiety (John, xi, 20-21, 30) ac-
Even in his student years he had shown indefatigable cords with the picture of ner who was "busy about
■eal in gathering from widely various sources every- much servinff" (Luke, x, 40); so also in John, xii, 2;
thing ti^t might be helpful in elucidating the Rule of "They made him a supper there: and Martha served."
St. Benedict; the fruit of his labours he published in But St. John has given us a glimpse of the other and
1690 as "Conimeotarius in regulam S. P. Benedicti deeper side of her character when he depicts her grow-
lltteralia, morahs, hiatoricus ex variis antiquorum ingfaithinChrist'sDivinity (xi, 20-27), a faith which
scriptorum commentationibus, actis sanctorum, mo- was the oeeaaion of the words: "I am the resurrection
nasticis ritibus aliisque monumentia cum editia turn and the life." The Evangelist has beautifully indi-
manuscriptisconcinnatus" (Paris, 1660; 16S5). Dur- cated the change that came over Martha after that
ing the same year he issued as a supplement to this: interview:"WhenBhehadsaid these things, she went,
"De antitjuis mbnachorum ritibus libri S collect! ex and colled her sister Mary secretly, saying: The Master
variis ordtnarii3,conBUetudiDariisiituaUbusqueinaDU- is come, and calleth for thee."
scriptis" (Lyons, 1690; Venice, 1765). These were Difficulties have been raised about the lost supper
followed by other liturgical works, as " De antiquis at Bethania. St. John aeeras to put it six days before
ecclesis ritibus Ubri 4" (Rouen, 1700-2) and "Trac- the Paach, and, so some conclude, in the bouse of
tatus de antiqua ecclesice disciplina in divinis officiis Martha: while the Svnoptic account puts it two days
oelebrandis" (Lyons, 1706); Ekewiae "De antiquis beforethePasch, ana in the house of Simon the Leper.
ecciesis ritibua editio aecunda" (4 vols., Antwerp, We need not try to avoid this difficulty by asserting
1736-8; Veoioe, 1763-4; 1783; Baseano, 1788), in which that there were two suppers; for St. John does not say
he collated and expanded his earlier writing. "Vete- that the supper took place six days before, but only
rum scriptorum et monumentorum morahum, hiato- that Cbriat arrived in Bethania six daya before the
riconuo, d<^piaticorum ad roe eccleeiasticas monas- Pasch; nor does be sa)[ that it was in the house of
ticas et politicas illustrandas collectio" (Rouen, 1700) Martha. We are surely justified in arguing that, since
is a continuation of the " Spicilegium" of Mart^ne's St. Matthew and St. irfark place the scene in the house
teacher, d'AchSry. He also wrote "I.a vie du v&i£ra- of Simon, St. John must be understood to say the
ble Claude Martin, religieux b^n^lictin" (Tours, same; it remains to be proved that Martha could not
1697; Rouen, 169S); "ImperialisStabulensismonaste- "serve" in Simon's house.
rii jura propugnata adversua iniquas diaceptationes" For St. Hartb^'n coonenoa with Uarwllfla, He Ada SS.;
(CoW 1730); „dth. ■■ Hjto™ ^ llbb™, d. J". •'S^Zlk'A^.^^Z^:^"?^^-^^
Harmoutier", first edited in 1874 and 187& by Cheva- ^> • oii-ciT.
lier as Vols. XXIV and XXV of "M6moii«8 de la Ucqh Pope.
sociSt^arcbteliwquedeTouraiae". In 1708 Marine
and his fellow Benedictine, Ursin Durand, were oom- Htrtial, Saint, Bishop of Limoges in the third
missioned to ransack the archives of France and Bel- oentury. We have no accurate information as to the
giumfor materials for the forthcoming revised edition cngin, dates of birth and death, or the acts of this
of the " Gallia Christiana", proposed by the prior of bishop. * All that we know of him we have from Greg-
Sointe-Harthe. The numerous documents gathered ory oc Tours and it may be aummed up thus: Under
by them from about eight hundred abbeys and one the consulate of Dedua and of Gratua seven bishops
hundred cathedrals were incorporated in the above- were sent from Rome to Gaul to preach the Gceoel-
mentioned work or in the five volumes of the "The- Gatien to Tours, Trophimua to Aries, Paul to "Nar-
saurua noyus anecdotorum" (Paris, 1717). The re- bonne, Satuminua to Toulouse, Denia to Paris, Aus-
sults of a journey made through the Netbertanda and tromoine to Clermont, and Martial to Limt^ee. Har-
Gerrnany for the purpose of documentary research tial seems to have been acccanpanied by twoprleflta
were embodied by the two scholars in the nine folk) brought by him from the Orient, so he himseff may
volumea of "Vetermn Bcriptorum et monumentorum have been born in that region. He succeeded in oon-
eccleeiatticorum et dogmaticorum amplisaima col- verting the inhabitants of Limoges to the true Faith,
lectio" (Paris, 1724-^). Finally, the sixth volume <rf aud bia memory has always b«en venerated tfaiaie.
LX.— «
MABTIALL 722 MABTIANAY
Very early, the popular imagination, which so give; later on, he obtained a canonry in the church
easily creates legends, transformed Martial into an of St. Peler at the neighbouring city of Lille. Owing
apostle of the first century. Sent into Gaul by St. to the disturbed state of the country, he was not inr
I^ter himself he is said to have evangelized not only stalled until 1579. He lived to enjoy his dignity for
the Province of Limoges but all Aquitaine. He per- ei^teen years. It was during his residenoe at Lou-
formed many miracles, among others the raising of a vam that he brought out the two chief literary works
dead man to life, by touching him with a rod that for which he is known. The first of these, " Treatise of
St. Peter had given him. A "Life of St. Martial" at- the Cross" (Antwerp, 1564), was a defence of the
tributed to Bishop Aurelian, his successor, in reality honour paid by Catholics to the Cross, and he dedi-
the work of an eleventh-century forger, develops cateS it to Queen Elizabeth, being "emboldened upcm
this legendary account. According to it Martial waa her keeping the image of a crucifix in her chapel",
bom in Palestine, was one of the seventy-two dis- He was attacked by James Calfhill, the Calvmist,
ciples of Christ, assisted at the resurrection of Lasa- which brought forth his "Reply" (Louvain, 1566).
rus, was at the Last Supper, was baptized by St. He also wrote a treatise on the "Tonsure of CleriLs",
Peter, etc. . which is still in MS.
This tissue of fables which fills long pages was re- Coopbr in Did. Nat. Biog., s. v.; Gillow, BibL Diet. Eng.
^ived with favour not only by the unletter^but also ^ii;i,^^iJ§Sk.!TA'^^T^.^-^'^^^^^'
by tlie learned of past centuries and even of modem 113. prm, />« uiuat. Ana. genpt.; Hakdboceur, UUunrt du
times. For a long time however it has been exposed Collioe Anglais it Douai (Reims, 1898); Camic, Life of AUm
to well-warranted discussion that St. Martial's biog- (London, 1908). Bernard Ward.
raphy is linked with the great question of the aposto-
licityofcertain Churches of Gaul. As to what concerns Martianay, Jean, b. 30 Dec., 1647, at Saint-Sever-
St. Martial, it has been clearly proved that we must Cap, Diocese of Aire; d. 16 June, 1717.. at Saint-Ger-
honour in him not one of the seventy-two disciples of main-des-Pr^, Paris. He entered tlie Benedictine
Christ but the first preacher of the Christian faith in Congregation of St. Maur at an early age, and de-
tho Province of Limoges, and that we should not go be- vot^ himself to Biblical studies, fle is spoken of
yond this. Mgr Buissas, Bishop of Limoges, haying repeatedly in the Bene<lictine annals as " most learned
petitioned the Holy See in 1853 that the most ancient in Greek and Hebrew", and he was ever engaged in
of his predecessors should not be deprived of the perfecting his knowledge. He spent over thirty
honours so long accorded him as one of the seventy- years in searching the libraries of France for informa-
twodisciplesofChrist, the Sacred Congregation, unani- tion, particularly with regard to the works of St.
mously on 8 April, 1854, and Pius IX in his decree of Jerome. A circular letter of Martianay's is still ex-
8 May following, refused absolutelv to bestow on St. tant, in which he begs the co-operation of all the
Martial the title of disciple of Christ and confined Benedictine abbeys in the work of producing a critioal
themselves to saying that the veneration that was ao- and complete edition of Jerome's writings. Ziegel-
corded him was of very ancient origin. Two Epistles bauer says (op. cit. below, II, 58) that Martianay
inserted in the Bibliotheca Patrum are attributed to completed witnout aid the gigantic task of editing
St. Martial, but they are apocryphal. The Church St. Jerome's works; this is true if we excei>t the " Di-
celebrates his feast on 30 June. vina Bibliotheca", or Hieronymian edition of the
Arbelix)t, Documents inidita sur Vapoatolat de St. Martial et Vulgate. This work was executed with the coUabo-
surVapo8toliciifde9ioiiae8deFmru:e{?Bjra^mi)\ ration of Dom Ant. Pouget. Martianay's fame as
Vita S. Martialts apostoh, from a MS. in the Bntish Museum (no -j -x.- ^ a a. Torr^no Vioa unfr^rf tmaf^lv anhnoorl Kie f».
place or date) ; Couture in Rev. de Gaaeogne, XXII, xii ( Auch, editor Of St. Jerome has untortunately eclipsed bis re-
1881), 294-8; Baronius, Ann. (1605), 1032, 1-3; Bellkt, St. pute as a Bibucal scholar. He undertook the work of
-, .... J r- /«__:_ ,ooox.T r ,!._/- .... ^. x ' ' bccause hc fclt tfac pressliig
"' who devoted themselves
nself taught Scripture at
isonne. In addition, he
^S-A4rDis6Hlupf^Vl'av6tre S. Martial (Limoges, 1893); PUDUsnea many cnucai worKS on BibUcalquestions;
Duchesne, s. Martial de Limogea in Ann. du Midi, IV (Tou- he ^Tote a treatise on inspiration against Richard
Jouso. 1892), 289-330; Laplaone. L\apoMolat de ^.Martial gimon: aiso a vindication of the Hebrew text and of
g'l&°rii/fril.n^"/u"tf'iat'^iTToX^:TmC the chronology.given in the Vulgate Martianay al«>
also A naieda BoUandiana (Brussels), I. 41 1-46; XII. 466-«; treated of the history of the canon ; the French versions
XIII, 404-5; XIV, 328; XV, 87-8; XVI. 601-6^ of the New Testament— the "Tentamen Versionis":
Leon Clugnet, ^^^d wrote a treatise on "The Method of explaining
Holy Scripture". In 1711 he published the life of a
Martiall (or Marshall), John, b. in Worcester- nun of the monastery of Beaume.
shire^ 1534, d. at LiUe, 3 April, 1597. He was one of In one sense it may be said that Martianay's most
the SIX companions associated with Dr. Allen in the important contribution to Biblical criticism was his
foundation of the English College at Douai in 1568. edition of the " Divina Bibliotheca ". or St. Jerome's
He received his education at Winchester (1545-49) text of the Vulgate. It was a bold tning at that date
and New College, Oxford (1549-50), at which latter to attempt to reproduce St. Jerome's text, for the
place, after a residence of seven years, he graduated as materials were comparatively scanty, and, considering
bachelor of civil law in 1556. He next accepted a the means at his disposal, Martianay's work was a
post as assistant master at his old school at Win- triumph, not only of industry', but of critical acumen.
Chester under Thomas Hyde; but soon after the ac- He tells us at the close of his prolegomena what manu-
cession of Elizal)eth, both of them found it necessary to scripts he had at his disposal, six m all, the most im-
quit the country. Marshall retired to Louvain, where portant of which was the famous MS. Sangermanensis.
a numl)er of English Catholic exiles were residing. Martianay published (1695) a separate collation of this
Thence he removed to Douai, when he joined the new text in his edition of the old Latin version of St.
universitv recentlv founded there, and graduated Matthew's Gospel and of the Epistle of St. James.
B.D. in i567. Thus it came about that when Allen This collation, reproduced by Bianchini in his " Evan-
arrived to found his new college, Marshall was already gelium Quadniplex ", was faulty, and the student will
in residence, and willingly attached himself to the new find a correction of it in the nrst volume of Words-
foundation, which was destined to play so important worth and White, " Old Latin Biblical Texts ". Ziegel-
a part in English Catholic affairs in the future. He bauer mentions also another work of Martianay^ never
did not, however, remain long, chiefly Ix^cause of the printed, namely, an edition of the Vulgate with va-
aumJhiess of ihe allowance wliich it was possible to riant readings suggested by the Hebrew and Greelr
MABTIAHUS
723
ISARTIH
teztfl. and furnished with a series of references to the
parallel passages. He also published the three psal-
ters of St. Jerome; these anpeared in French. Lastly
should be mentioned his "New Testament in French
(2 vols., Paris, 1712).
ZiEOELBAUBR, Hitt. Tei. III. Ord. S. Bened. (Augsbuis, 1754) ;
Tasmn. Hi8i. m. da laConqriq. de <SY-Afaur (Pam. 1770), 382-
97; OS Lama, Bibl. dea icnvatna de la conarig. de Saint-Maur
(Paris, 1882).
Hugh Pope.
Martianas OapeUa, Roman writer of Africa who
flourished in the fifth century. His work is entitled:
"De nuptiis philologia) ct Mercurii". It was com-
posed after the taking of Rome by Alaric (410) and be-
tore the conquest of Africa by the Vandals (429). The
author, a native of Madaura, Apuleius's birthplace,
had settled in Carthage where he earned a precarious
living as a solicitor. He proposed to write an ency-
clopedia of the liberal culture of the time, dedicated to
his son Martianus, and this work he planned like the
ancient " Satyra ", that is a romance which was a med-
ley of prose and verse. The original conception was
both bizarre and entertaining. Mercurj' hixs grown
weary of celibacy but has been refused by Wisdom,
Divination and Soul. Apollo speaks favourably of a
charming and wise young maiacn, Pliilologia. The
gods give their consent to this union provided that the
betrothed be made divine. Philologia agrees. Her
mother Reflection, the Muses, the Cardinal Virtues,
the three Graces surround her and bedeck her. Phi-
lologia drinks the cup of ambrosia which makes her
immortal and is introduced to the jgods. The wed-
ding gifts are examined. Phoebe oners, in her hus-
band's name, a number of young women who will
be Philologia*s slaves. These women are the 7 libe-
ral arts: Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, Geometry,
Arithmetic, Astronomy and Harmony. The first
and second books of "De Nuptiis" contain this alle-
gory. Of the remaining books each one treats of an
art. Art herself gives an exposition of the principles
of the science she governs. Finally night has come.
Architecture and Medicine are indeed present, but as
they care for nothing but earthly things, they are con-
demned to remain silent. Harmony escorts the bride
to the bridal chamber while nuptial songs are sung.
Allegor>', as we see, predominates in this work. In it,
Martianus Capella notably departs from his model
Apuleius and comes nearer medieval times. While
the Psyche of Apuleius is a living person and her story
a charming one, the personages of Martianus Capella
are cold abstractions. His style also suffers in the at-
tempt to imitate Apueleius, for he exaggerates the de-
fects, incongruities, and pedantry of tne latter, and js
wanting in his c|ualities of grace, clearness and bril-
liancy. His verse is better than his prose, as is gener-
ally the case among the decadent 'writers.
The subject treated belongs to a tradition which
goes back to Varro's ** Disci pflnse". The allusion to
Srchitecture and medicine in Martianus Capella is an
idea borrowed from Varro who mentioned these arts in
his book in connection ^^ith the other seven. And be-
fore this, in a celebrated passage in **De OflBciis" (I,
§ 161) Cicero opposes medicine and architecture to tne
precepts which lead to the making of an honest man,
while placing them amon^ the lilx>ral arts. In Mar-
tianus CapeUa's day architecture and medicine were
no longer taught in the schools, the curriculum of
which was reduced to rhetoric and its accompanying
arts. St. Augustine, broader minded, mentions archi-
tecture and medicine but does not group them with
the other arts. Moreover^ even in Varro, philosophy
is represented only by dialectics. There again, St.
Augustine attempted, but vainly, to broaden the nar-
row school plan and to introduce philosophy. The
encyclopedia of human knowledge n^maineii in medie-
val days as it had been represented to be by the Ma-
daura barrister. Each lxx)k is an extract from, or a
compilation of, earlier authors: book V (rhetorie).
from Aquila Romanus and Fortunatianus; book Vl
(geometr}', including geograplw), from Solinus and.
in an ^brid^ed form, from Pliny the Elder; ana
book X (music) , from Aristide's * * Quintilian ". Varro
must also have been largely drawn upon, and, possibly ,
through Varro, Nigidius Figulus, for data of a religious
and astrological order. This encyclopedic work of
Martianus Capella is one of the books which exercised
a lasting influence. As early as the end of the fifth
century, another African, Fulgentius, composed a
work modelled on it. In the sixth century Gregory of
Tours tells us that it became, in a way, a school man-
ual C* Hist. Franc", X, 449, 14 Amdt). It was com-
mented upon by Scotus Erigena, Hadoard, Alexander
Neckam, Remy of Auxerre. Copies of '* De Nuptiis"
increased in number; as early as the middle of the
sixth century Securus Memor Felix, a professor of
rhetoric, received the text in Rome. The" book,
which is 'thoroughly pagan and in which one vainly
seeks any allusion to Christianity, was the mentor of
teachers and su^ested the figures of the seven arte
which adorn the m^ades of the cathedrals of the time.
A critical e<lition was published at Leipzig in 1866.
Sandys, A hiMoryofclasncnl scholarship, T (Cftmbridfre, 1903),
228 ; Th u i jn , Die ff fitter dca Martian us Capella und der Brontelah
her von Piaccnza (Giesaen. 1906); Nordkn, Die arUike KunM^
proa, (Leipzig 1898), 11, 670; Luedecke, De Af . C. libra sexlo
(Gottingen, 1862).
Paul Lejay.
Martigny, Jobeph-Alexandre, canon of Belley,
archa&ologist; b. at Sauvemy, Ain, in 1808; d. at Bel-
ley, 19 August, 1880. He studied at the petit s&mv'
yiaire of Belley and became a professor there in 1832.
He was curate later at Cressy and afterwards parish
priest of Arl)ignieu. Encouraged by his bishop and
the learned Ahh6 Greppo, who was distinguished for
his lalx)urs in promoting a revival of religious archeeol-
ogy in France, he devoted his leisure hours to the pur-
suit of that science. He was appointed cur6 of Bag^le-
Chiitel and made an honorary canon in 1849. From
that time dates his acquaintance with J. B. de Rossi,
to whom he became closely attached by reason of his
work in the domain of Christian archseology. Thourfi
living in a retire<l locality he collected the matter lor
his " Dictionnaire des antiquit^s chr6tiennes", which
appeared in 1865, the first work of its kind, giving
evidence of vast enidition, too vast perhaps, for the
articles, so varied in matter and character, are all
from the pen of this learned country priest. This
work was soon taken up again by Smith in England
and Kraus in Germany. Martigny published a cor-
rected edition of his dictionary in 1877. The pub-
lisher, Hachette, had intended the work to be a part of
the '* Dictionnaire des antiquit<5s grecques et romainea"
of Daremberg and Saglio, out its importance made it
an independent work. Mgr. Martigny published also a
French edition of the " Bullettino di archteologia cria-
tiana" of de Rossi. His writings include beside his
"Dictionnaire des antiquit^s chr^tiennes" (Paris,
1865; 2nd edition, 1877) various articles in *' Annales
de I'Acad^mie de Macon", 1851, sqq., etc.
Polybiblion, XXIX, 1880, p. 376-76.
R. Maere.
Martin I, Saint, Pope, martyr, h. at Todi on the
Tiber, son of one Fabricius; elected pope at Rome,
21 July, 649, to succeed Theodore I: a. at Cherson in
the present peninsula of Krym, 16 Sept., 655, after a
reign of six years, one month and twenty-six days, hav-
ing ordained eleven priests, five deacons, and thuly-
three bishops. 5 July is the date commonly given
for his election, but 21 July (given by Lobkowits,
"Statistik der Papste". Freiburg, 1905) seems to
correspond better with the date of death and term of
reign (Duchesne, "T.ib. Pont.", I, 386): his feast is on
12 Nov. The Greeks honour him on 13 April and I^
ISARTIH
724
MABTXM
Sept., the Muscovites on 14 April. In the hymns of
the Office the Greeks style him infaUibilU fidei rrtofTM-
ter because he was the successor of St. Peter in the
See of Rome (Nilles, " Calendarium Manuale '', Inns-
bruck, 1896, I, 336). Martin, one of the noblest fig-
ures in the long line of Roman pontiffs (Hodgkin,
"Italy", VI, 268). was, according to his biographer
Theodore (Mai, *^Spicil. Rom.*', IV, 293) of noble
birth, a great student, of commanding; intelligence, of
Profound learning, and of great chanty to the poor,
iazza, II, 457 states that he belonged to the Order of
St. Basil. He governed the Church at a time when
the leaders of the Monothelite heresy, supported by
the emperor, were making most strenuous efforts to
?)read their tenets in the East and the West. Pope
heodore had sent Martin as apocrvsiary to Constan-
tinople to make arrangements for the canonical depo-
sition of the heretical patriarch, Pyrrhus. After nis
election Martin had himself consecrated without wait-
ing for the imperial confirmation, and soon called a
council in the Lateran at which one himdred and five
bishops met. Five sessions were held on 5, 8, 17, 19,
and 31 Oct., 649 (Hefele, " Conciliengeschichte ", III,
190) . The " Ecthesis " of Heraclius and the " Typus "
of Constans II, were rejected; nominal excommunica-
tion was passed against Sergius, P\Trhus, and Paul of
Constantinople, Cyrus of Alexandria, and Theodore of
Pharan in Arabia; twenty canons were enacted defin-
ing the Catholic doctrine on the two wills in Christ.
The decrees signed by the pope and the assembled
bishops were sent to the other bishops and the faithful
of the world together with an encyclical of Martin.
The Acts with a Greek translation were also sent to
the Emperor Constans II.
The pope appointed John, Bishop of Philadelphia.
as his vicar in the East with necessary instructions ana
full authority. Bishop Paul of Thessalonica refused to
recall heretical letters previously sent to Rome and
added others, — ^he was, therefore, formally excom-
municated anid deposed. The Patriarch of Constanti-
nople, Paul, had urged the emperor to use drastic
means to force the pope and the Western bishops at
least to subscribe to the " Typus **. The emperor sent
Olympius as exarch to Italy^ where he arrived while
the council was still in session. Olympius tried to
create a faction among the Fathers to favour the views
of the emperor, but without success. Then upon pre-
tence of reconciliation he wished to receive holy com-
munion from the hands of the pontiff with the inten-
tion of slaying him. But Divine Providence protected
the pope, and Olympius left Rome to fight against the
Saracens in Sicily and died there. Constans II,
thwarted in his plans, sent as exarch Theodore Callio-
pas with orders to bring Martin to Constantinople.
Ualliopas arrived in Rome, 15 June, 653, and, entering
the Lateran Basilica two days later, informed the
clergy that Martin had been deposed as an unworthy
intruder, that he must be brought to Constantinople
and that another was to be chosen in his place. The
pope, wishing to avoid the shedding of human blood,
torbade resistance and declared himself willin^^ to be
brought before the emperor. The saintly pnsoner,
accompanied by only a few attendants, and suffering
much from bodily ailments and privations, arrived at
Constantinople on 17 Sept., 653 or 654, having landed
nowhere except at the island of Naxos. The letters of
the pope seem to indicate that he was kept at Naxos
for a year. Jaff6, n. 1608, and Ewald^ n. 2079, con-
sider the annum fecimua an interpolation and would
allow only a very short stop at Naxos, which granted
the pope an opportunity to enjoy a bath. Duchesne,
" Lib. Pont.", 1, 336, can see no reason for abandoning
the traditional account; Hefele, ''Conciliengeschichte*',
III, 212, held the same view (see "Zeitschr. fUr Kath.
Theol.", 1892, XVI, 375).
From Abydos messengers were dispatched to the
imperial city to xuinouncc the arrival of the prisoner.
who was branded as a heretic and rebel, an enemy of
God and of the State. Upon his arrivsd at Constanti-
nople Martin was left for several hours on dedk ex-
posed to the jests and insults of a curious crowd of
spectators. Towards evening he was brought to a
prison called Prandearia and kept in close and cruel
confinement for ninety-three days, suffering from hun-
ger, cold, and thirst. All this did not break his energy
ana on 19 December he was brought before the assem-
bled senate where the imperial treasurer acted as
judge. Various political charges .were made, but the
true and onlv charge was the pope's refusal to sign the
''Typus". tie was then carried to an open space in
full view of the emperor and of a large crowd of people.
These were asked to pass anathema upon the pope, to
which but few responded. Numberless inolgnlties
were heaped upon him, he was stripped of nearly all
his clothing, loaded with chains, dragged through the
streets of tne city and then again thrown into the
prison of Diomede, where he remained for eighty-five
days. Perhaps influenced by the death of Paul, Patri-
arch of Constantinople, Constans did not sentenee the
pope to death, but to exile. He was put on board a
ship, 26 March, 654 (655) and arrived at his destina-
tion on 15 May. Cherson was at the time suffering
from a great famine. The venerable pontiff here
passed the remaining days of his life. He was buried
m the church of Our Lady, called Blachemse, near
Cherson, and many miracles are related as wrought by
St. Martin in life and after death. The greater part df
his relics are said to have been transferred to Home,
where they repose in the church of San Martino ai
Monti. Of his letters seventeen are extant in P. L.,
LXXXVII, 119.
Mann, Lives of the Popes, I (London, 1902), 385; HiM. Jahr-
huch. V, 424: XII, 757; Leclercq, Les Martyrs, IX (Paris,
1905), 234; CiviUii Cattolica, III (1907), 272, 656.
Francis Mershman.
Martin n, m, Popes. See Marinus I, II, Popes.
Bftartin IV (Simok de Brie), Pope; b. at the castle
of Montpensier in the old French province of Touraine
at an unknown date; d. at Perugia 28 March, 1285.
As priest he held a benefice at Rouen for a short time,
whereupon he became canon and treasurer at the
church of St. Martin in Tours.
King Louis IX made him Chancellor
of France in 1260 and Urban VI
created him cardinal-priest with the
titular church of St. Cecilia in De-
cember, 1262. Under Urban VI
(1261-4) and his successor, Clement
IV (1265-8), he was legate in France
with powers to offer the I^ngdom of
Sicily to Charles of Anjou on certain
conditions. Under Gregory X (1271-
76) he was sent as legate to France a
second time, with ample faculties to stem the abuses
that had crept into the Church of France. In this
capacity he presided over various reformatory synods,
the most important of which was the one held at
Bourges in September, 1276 (Mansi, Sacr. Cone, nova
et ampl. Collectio XXI V, 165-180). Just six months
after the death of Pope Nicholas III, Simon de Brie
was unanimously elected pope at Viterbo on 22
February, 1281. His election was due to Charles of
Anjou who was present at Viterbo and caused the
two most influential cardinals of the Italian faction to
be imprisoned before the conclave, on the plea that
they were retarding the election. Cardinal Simon de
Brie accepted the tiara with reluctance and chose the
name of Martin. Though he was only the second
pope b)r the name of Martin he is generalhr known
as Martin FV, because since the beginning of the thir^
teenth century the Popes Marinus I (882-4) and
Marinus II (942-6) were listed among the Martins.
Unable to go to Rome where a pope of French
nationality was hated, and im willing to stay at Vitecbo
Arms ov Habtik TV
MMtnN
725
BCARTm
which was under interdict because it had im-
prisoned two cardinals, Martin IV went to Orvieto
where he was crowned on 23 March. Though per-
sonally pious and well-meaning, the new pope was de-
pendent in everything on Charles of Anjou whom he
at once appointed to the influential position of Ro-
man Senator. He also assisted him in his endeavours
to restore the Latin Empire of the East, and excom-
municated the Greek emperor, Michael Palaeologus,
of Constantinople, who opposed the plans of Charles of
Anjou. By liiis imprudent act he broke the union
which had been effected between the Greek and the
Latin Churches at the Council of Lyons in 1274.
After Sicily forcibly threw off the galling yoke of
Charles of Anjou and gave expression to its deep
hatred of France in the cruel massacre known as the
Sicilian Vespers, Pope Martin IV used his full papal
power to save Sicily for France. He excommunicated
Peter III of Aragon whom the Sicilians had elected as
their king, declared his kingdom of Aragon forfeited
and ordered a crusade to be preached against him.
But all his efforts proved useless. Among the seven
cardinals created by Martin IV was Ben^etto Gae-
tano, who afterwards ascended the papal throne as
the famous Boniface VIII.
Les Rigiairea de MaHin IV M 281-1285) in BHAiothi^ue de9
icoleB fran^aiaea tTAthhtea et ae Rome, four fascicles (Paria,
1901); Vita Martini ex Ma. Bemardi Cfuidonia in Muratori,
Renun italiearum acriplorea. III, i, 608-610; Choulubr, Re-
eherekea attr la vie du pape Martin IV in Revue de Champagne
IV (1878). 16-30; Ddchesnb, Liber Pontificalia, II (Paris,
1902), 459-464; Potthast, Regeata Pontificum Romanorum, II,
(Berlin, 1874). 1756-1795.
Michael Ott.
Martin V (Oddone Colonna), Pope; b. at Genaz-
zano in the Campagna di Roma, 1368; d. at Rome,
20 February, 1431. He studied at the University of
Perugia, became prothonotary Apostolic under Urban
VI, papal auditor and nuncio at various Italian courts
under Boniface IX, and was admin-
istrator of the Diocese of Palestrina
from 15 December, 1401. to 1405,
and from 18 to 23 September, 1412.
On 12 June, 1405, he was made Car-
dinal Deacon of San Giorgio in
Velabro. He deserted the lawful
pope, Gregory XII, was present at
the Ciouncil of Pisa, and took part in
the election of the antipopes Alex-
ander V and John XXIII. At the
Council of (Constance he was, after a
conclave of three davs, unanimously elected pope on
11 November, 1417, by the representatives of the five
nations (Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and England)
and took the name of Martin V in honour of the saint
of Tours whose feast fell on the day of his election.
Being then only subdeacon, he was ordained deacon
on 12, and priest on 13, and was consecrated bishop
on 14 November. Gn 21 November he was crowned
pope in the great court of the episcopal palace at (Con-
stance. (Concerning his further activity at the coun-
cil, see Constance, Council of.)
The influential family of the Colonnas had already
gjven twenty-seven caidinals to the Church, but Mar-
tin V was the first to ascend the papal throne. He
was in the full vigour of hfe, bemg only forty-one
years of age. Of simple and unassuming manners and
stainless chamcter, he possessed a great knowledge of
canon law, was pledged to no party, and had numer-
ous other good qualities. He seemed the right man to
rule the Churchy which had just passed through the
most critical penod of its history — ^the so-called West-
em Schism. The antipopes, John XXIII and Bene-
dict XIII, were still recalcitrant. The former, how-
ever, submitted to Martin at Florence on 23 June.
1419, and was made Dean of the Sacred College ana
Oarcunal-Bishop of Frascati. The latter remained
itubbom to the end , but had little following. His suo-
Arics or Martin V
oessor Clement VIII submitted to Martin V in 1429.
while another successor of Benedict XIII, who haa
been elected by only one cardinal and styled himself
Benedict XIV, was excommunicated by Martin V, and
thereafter had only a few supporters (see Schism,
Western). On 22 April, 1418, Martin V dissolved the
council, but remained in Constance^ concluding separ-
ate concordats with Germany (Mansi, '' Sacrorum Cone,
nova et ampl. Coll.". XXVII, 1189-93), France (ibid.,
1184-9) England (ibid., 1193-5), Spain ("Colecci<5n
completa de concordatos espaholes'', Madrid, 1862. 9
sc|.). A separate concordat was probably made also
with Italy, though some believe it identical with the
concordat of Spain. King Si^ismund of Germany
used eveVy effort to induce Martm V to reside in a Ger-
man city, while France begged him to come to Avi-
gnon, but, rejecting all offers, he set out for Rome on 16
May, 1418.
The sad state of Rome, however, made it impossible
at that time to re-estaolish the papal throne there.
The city was wellnigh in ruins, famme and sickness
had decmiated its inhabitants, and the few people that
still lived there were on the verge of starvation. Mar-
tin V, therefore, proceeded slowly on his way thither,
stopping for some time at Berne, Geneva, Mantua, and
Florence. While sojoiuning in the two last-named
cities, he gained tfaie support of Queen Joanna of
Naples, who was in possession of Rome and Naples, by
consenting to reco^iize her rights as Queen of Naples
and to permit her coronation by the Cardipal Legate
Morosini on 28 October, 1419. She ordered her gen-
eral, Sforza Attendolo, to evacuate Rome on 6 Ma^rch,
1419, and granted important fiefs in her kingdom to
the pope's two brothers, Giordano and Lorenso. With
the nelp of the Florentines, Martin also came to an un-
derstanding with the famous condottiere Bracdo di
Montone, who had gained mastery over half of Central
Italy. The pope allowed him to retain Perugia, A»-
sisi, Todi, and Jesi as vicar of the Church, whereupon
Braccio restored all his other con(][uestB, and in July,
1420, compelled Bologna to submit to the pope.
Martin was now able to continue his journey to
Rome, where he arrived on 28 September, 1420. He
at once set to work, establishing oider and restoring
the dilapidated churches, palaces, bridges, and other
public structures. For this restoration he engaged
some famous masters of the Tuscan school, and thus
laid the foundation of the Roman Renaissance. When
practically a new Rome had risen from the ruins of the
old, the pope turned his attention to the rest of the
Papal States, which during the schism had become an
incoherent mass of independent cities and provinces.
After the death of Braccio di Montone in June, 14^,
Perugia, Assisi, Todi, and Jesi freely submitted to the
pope, and they were soon follow^ by the remaining
papal territory. Bologna again revolted in 1428, but
returned to the papal allegiance in the following year.
In these activities, Martin V was greatly assisted by
his kindred, the Colonna family, whom he over-
whelmed with important civil and ecclesiastical offices.
In his case, however, the charge of nepotism loses some
of its odiousness, for, when he came to Rome, he was a
landless ruler and could look for support to no one ex-
cept his relatives.
The tendency, which some of the cardinals had
manifested at the Council of Constance to substitute
constitutional for monarehical government in the
Church and to make the pope subject to a General
Council, was firmly and successfully opposed by Bfar-
tin V. The council had decided that a new council
should be convened within five years. Accordingly,
Martin convened a council, which opened at Pavia m
April, 1423, but had to be transferred to Siena in June
in consequence of the plague. He used the smaU at-
tendance and the disagreement of the cardinals as a
pretext to dissolve it again on 26 February, 1424, but
agreed to summon a new council at Basle within seven
MABTIN
726
MABTIH
years. He (lied, however, before this convened,
though he had previously appointed Cardinal Giuli-
ano Cesarini as president of the council with powers to
transfer and, if necessary, suspend it. Though Mar-
tin V allowed adiustment of the temporal affairs of the
Church to draw his attention from the more important
duty of reforming the papal court and the clergy, still
the. sorry condition of Rome and the Papal States at
his accssion palliate this neglect. He diu not entirely
overlook the inner reform of the Church; esoecially
during the early part of his pontificate, he made some
attempts at reforming the clergy of St. Peter's and
abolishing the most crying abuses of the Curia. In a
Bull issued on 16 March, 1425, he made some excellent
provisions for a thorough reform, but the Bull appar-
ently remained a dead letter. (This Bull is printed in
D6llinger, " Beitr&ge zur politischen, kirchlichen and
Kulturgeschichte der sechs letzteu Jahrhunderte", II,
Ratisbon, 1863, pp. 335-44.) He also successfully op-
posed the secular encroaclunents upon the rights of
the Church in France by issuing a Constitution (13
April, 1425), which greatly limited the Galilean liber-
ties in that part of France which was subject to King
Henry VI oi England, and by entering a new concor-
dat with King Charles VII of France in August, 1426
(see Valois, "Concordats ant^rieurs k celui de Fran-
cois I. Pontificat de Martin V" in "Revue des ques-
tions historiques'*, LXXVII, Parb, 1905, pp. 376-
427). Against the Hussites in Bohemia he ordered
a crusadcj and negotiated with Constantinople in
behalf of a reunion of the Greek with the Latin
Church. His bulls, diplomas, letters etc. are printed
in Mansi, "Sacrorum Cone, nova et ampl., coll.,"
XXVII-XXVIII.
Pastor, Oesch. der Pdntte aeit dem A%ugang des MiUelaUera, I
(4th ed., Freiburg, lOOl), 1st ed. tr. Antrobus, History of the
Popes from the dose of the Middle Ages, I (Londoo, 189 1 ) , 208-82 ;
Creighton, History of the Papacy during the Period of the Re for-
mation^ I-II (London, 1882) ; Hallbr, England u. Rom, unter
Martin V (Rome, 1905); Contelori, Vila di Martino V (Rome.
1641); CiROCCo. Vita di Martino V (Foligno, 1638); Funk, Mar-
tin V und das Komilzu Konstam in Theolog. Quartalschr., LXX
(TQbingen, 1888),451-65;Vkrnet, Martin V<rf Uemardin de Si-
WHne in University Catholique, IV (Lyons, 1890), 663-94: Idbm,L«
pape Martin V etlesJuifs in Revue des questions hist., LI (Paris,
1892), 373-423; Lanciani, Patrimonio della famiglia Colonna al
tempo di Martin V in Archivio della Societd Romana di sloria
patria, XX (Rome, 1897), .369-449; Frommk, Die Wahl des
Papstes Martin V in Romische Quartalschr., A (Rome, 1896),
131-61. Earlier lives of Martin V aro print<Ki m Muratori,
Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, III, ii, 857-68. See also bibliog-
raphy under Constance, Council of, and Schibm, WbstxbNc
Michael Ott.
Martin, Benedictine Abbot of the Schottenkloster
at Vienna, b. about 1400; d. 28 July, 1464 (29 July
1470). Born of wealthy farmers at Leibitz, County
of Zips in Hungary, he made his studies at Krakow
and Vienna, and in'^the latter place taught for some
time in the faculty of arts. Accompanying his
mother on a pilgrimage to Italy, he visited the an-
cient monastery of Subiaco and took the habit of
St. Benedict about 1425. But he found the climate
and discipline too severe for his delicate health, and
was transferred to the Schottenkloster at Vienna.
In 1428 he was sent to the Council of Basle, and on his
return was made prior. After the death of John IV,
he was elected abbot on 19 Oct., 1446. He now
laboured hard and incessantly for the welfare, spir-
itual and temporal, of the abbey and of the order.
To advance the education of his subjects he secured a
library not etiualle^l by many in his days. Cardinal
legate Nicholas of Cusa in 1451 appointed him, with
some others, visitors of the I^nedictine abbeys of the
Diocese of Salzburg, with powers to introduce neces-
sary or useful reforms. By authority of Nicholas V,
he examined the election of the Abbot of Melk and,
finding no canonical dofect, confirmed the same. He
also stood high in the estimation of Pius II and Em-
peror Frederick IV. Though paying heavy taxes
towards a fund against the Turks, Martin placed his
abbey on a solid financial basis. For uukno^n rea-
sons he resigned the abbatial dignity at the close of
1460 or the beginning of 1461 (some say 1455). Only
one work of Martin's has appeared in print, called
''Senatorium'', which gives accounts of himself, his
visitation trip and other matters of interest in Aus-
trian history — complete edition in Pea, "Rerum
Austr. Script.", II, 626. In Munich and Vienna there
are some copies of smaller works in manuscript.
BhaunmOixeb in Kirchenlcx., 8. v.; Brunner* Benedietiner'
buch CW^sburg), 300; Hauswirth, Abris9 einer Oesch, der
Schotten (Vienna, 27); Hurtbr, NomencL, II (1906), M5.
Francis Msrshman.
Martin, Felix, antiquarv, historiographer, archi-
tect, educationist, b. 4 October, 1804, at Auray, seat
of the famous shrine of St. Ann in Brittany, France;
d. at Vaugirard, Paris, 25 November, 1886. His
father, Jacques Ausustin A^Iartin, for many years
mayor of Auray and Attomey-GenewJ' of Alorbihan,
was a public benefactor. His mother was Anne Aimel
Lauzer de Kerzo, a truly pious matron, of whose ten
children three entered religious communities, while
the others, as heads of families, shone in Breton society
as models of every domestic virtue. Felix, having
made his classical studies at the Jesuit seminary close
by the shrine of St. Anne, entered the Society of Jesus
at Montrouge, Paris, 27 September, 1823, but on the
opening of a new novitiate at Avignon, in Aug., 1824,
he was transferred there. Thence in 1826 he was sent
to the one time famous college of Arc, at D61e, to com-
plete his logic and gain his first experience in the man-
agement of youth among its 400 pupils. The following
scholastic year, 1826-1827, at St-Acheul, he began
his career as teacher. This was soon to be interrupted,
for already among the revolutionists of the boulevards
and in the Chami)er of Deputies the wildest and most
preposterous accusations had been formulated against
the Society. This agitation culminated on 16 June,
1828, in the "Ordonnances de Charles X" which were
to be enforced the following October. The Fathers,
meanwhile, quietly closed their colleges, their teachers
went into temporary exile and among them Ft. Martin.
He spent the succeeding years m colleges established
across the frontier.
In Switzerland, Brie^ and Estavay^; in Spain, Le
Passage near St. Sebastian; in Belgium, the College of
Brugeiette, were in turn the scenes of his labours as
student or as teacher. It was when he was in Switzer-
land, in 1831, that he received Holy orders. Eleven
vears later, while engaged in the ministry at Angers
ne was informed that, under Father ChajeUe, ex-
rector of St. Mary's College, Kentucky, he was chosen
together with Fathers Hainpaux, Tellier and Domi-
nique du Banquet to restore the Society of Jesus in
Canada, extinct since the death of Father Jean Joseph
Casot at Quel>ec on 16 March, 1800. The party reached
their destination on 31 May, 1842. On 2 Jul^, Mgr.
Boureet, at whose invitation the fathers had come,
confided to them the parish of Laprairie, deprived of
its pastor, the Rev. Michael Power, by his promotion
to the newly erected episcopal see of Toronto, 26 June,
1842. On 31 July, 1844, Fr. Martin was named supe-
rior of the mission in Lower Canada, now the Province
of Quebec. The enthusiastic citizens of Montreal had
generously subscribed towards the building of a col-
lege, his principal preoccupation. In M&y, 1847,
ground was broken and the foundations were laid.
Then came a series of disasters which interrupted all
further work. The greater portion of Laprairie was
swept by fire and the presbytery of the fathers was
reduced to ashes. The great conflagration of Quebec
foUowea, whereby a vast portion oi the city was de-
stroyed. Thousands of Irish immigrants were pouring
into the country; in 1847 the nimibers reached nearly
100,000. With them they brought the dreaded typhus
or ship-fever. Li that year alone nearly two thousand
were stricken down in Montreal. With Christian intre-
BCARTIM
727
MABTIH
pidity the priests of St. Sulpice, pastors of tlie city,
devoted themselvet} to the spiritual relief of the sick
and dying, and five at the outset fell victims to their
zeal. Fathers Paul Mignard and Henri du Banquet,
arriving from New York gave timely assistance. But
this was far from sufficient, so Fr. Martin appealed to
Fr. Th^baud, rector of St. John's, Fordham, for volun-
teers to assist the plague-stricken. The answer was
the immediate arrival of Fathers Driscoll, Dumerle,
Ferard and Schianski. All escaped the contagion ex-
cept Fr. Dumerle, who fell a martyr of charity.
The priests of St. Sulpice, whose ranks were thinned
by the ravages of the plague, asked for four Eng-
lish-speaking Fathers to take charge of St. Patrick's
Church. A presbytery was provided for them near
the very ground whereon the college had been com-
menced. In it there was room sufficient to house a
few teachers. A temporary structure was put up, and
opened as a college on 20 September, 1848. A few
boarders even were received and lodged in a small
tenement in a street hard by. It was not till the
month of May, 1850, that work was resumed on the
college building, but so strenuously was it prosecuted
that Mgr Bourget was invited to bless it, in it« ad-
vanced stage of completion, on 31 July, 1831, feast
of St. Ignatius. On 4 August the novitiate was
transferred from its temporary quarters in M. Rodier's
house, and installed in the new edifice, and in the be-
ginning of September everything was in perfect work-
ing order in the young institution of learning, from
under whose roof, in later years, so many remarkable
men were to go forth as statesmen, judges, physi-
cians and members of the clergy and of the bar. 'This
was Fr. Martin's achievement. But he was not only
the founder of St. Mary's College, the financier, the
architect, and the overseer of the material construc-
tion, he was also the systematizer of its curriculum
during his rectorship which lasted until 1857. The
stately pile of St. Patrick's Church, Montreal, was also
of his designing, the main outUnes of which are in pure
thirteenth-century Gothic. Fr. Martin was the orig-
inator of the well-known Archives of St. Mary's Col-
lege, and the principal collector of the priceless his-
torical treasures they contain. He awakened in his
contemporaries a keen interest in the records of an al-
most forgotten past. With such men as Vigor, Fari-
bault, £. B. O Callaghan, etc., he quickened, if he
really did not set on foot, that campaign of research
which ended in the placing within reach of all the
original historical sources of the colonial and mission-
ary days of New France.
No better account of Fr. Martin's labours in this
field could be given than that which appeared a few
months after his death in the " Catholic World " (N.
Y., April, 1887): "But, it is, perhaps, as an antiqua-
rian and a man of letters that Fr. iVIartin has become
most generally known. His services to historical
literature, particularly the history of Canada, have
been many and great. He devoted himself amidst
all his onerous duties to the task of throwing Ught on
the dark places of the past. He was commissioned by
Government to explore the regions where of old the
Jesuits had toiled amongst the Hurons, giving at last
to the dusky tribes the priceless gifts of faith. He
wrote at this time a work embellished with various
plans and drawings, all of which remained in posses-
sion of the Government. He also collected many
curious Indian relics. In 1857 he was sent by the
Canadian Government to Europe on a scientific mis-
sion, and was likewise entrusted with the task of ex-
amining the Archives of Rome and of Paris for points
of interest in relation to Canadian history. In this he
was eminently successful. He discovered a numJber
of unpublished documents relating to Canada which
would be sufficient to fill a foUo volume. Periiaps his
mo9t eminent service to historical literature was his
great share in bringing out the 'Relations des J6-
buites * [1611-16721, a very mine of infonnatiou for
the scholar. . . . He discovered and put into print,
with preface and most valuable annotations by him-
self, the * Relations', extending from 1672 to 1679.
He added to them two geographical charts. . . . Fr.
Martin also translated from Italian to French the
'Relation' of Pdre Bressani, which he published with
notes, together with a biography of that ^orious
martyr. His historical works mcluded Lives of
Samuel de Champlain (?), the founder of Quebec,
of Fathers Br^beuf, Chaumonot and Jogues [and, not
mentioned in the article, of Montcalm]. Tiie latter
[that of Fr. Jogues] has become known to the Ameri-
can pubUc through the translation made by our fore-
most CathoUc historian, John Gilmary Shea. Fr.
Martin was the friend, adviser, and co-labourer of the
eminent Canadian historical writer, J. Viger. " And
letters preser\'ed in the College archives attest that
his relations with E. B. O'Callaghan, compiler of the
"Documentary History of New York ", were of a
kindred nature.
Among his lesser pubUcations may be mention(Kl:
" Notice Biographique de la M6re S. Stanislas [his sis-
ter] Religieuse cle la Misericorde de Jesus, de la Hotel-
Dieu d'Auray, 1886", " Manuel du Pelerin k N. D. de
Bonsecours", ''Neuvaine k St Francois Xavier" and
" Neuvaine k St. Antoine de Padoue". After his re-
turn from Europe, in 1858 and 1859, he was bursar of
St. Mary's College, and the two following years^ 1860
and 1861, superior of the Quebec residence. His eye-
sight Was already much impaired, and the glare of the
Canadian snows was very trying, so much so that he
was threatened with total bhndness. For this reason
he was recalled to France. He spent part of the year
1862 at St© Genevidve College, Paris, and was ap-
pointed on the 12 September (1862) rector of the col-
lege of Vannes.
After three years, on 8 Sept., 1865, he was named
superior of the residence of the Holy Name at Poitiers.
Thence he was transferred to Vaugirard College at
Paris, where he had the spiritual direction of the house
for six years. On 5 Sept., 1874, he went to Rouen for
three years as superior, and returned to Vaugirard in
1878. At the closing of the Jesuit colleges by the arbi-
trary enactments of the French Republic, the commu-
nity of Vaugirard was dispersed, and Fr. Martin, with
a few others of his fellow reUgious took up their abode
in 1882 at No. 1 Rue Desnouettes. Here he remaine^^
for five years patiently awaiting the final call of the
blaster, though never ceasing to collect materials bear-
ing on the history of the country of his predilection.
Physically, Fr. Martin was of medium height, heavily
built, but carrying his weiglit lightly and with dignity.
His name is a household won! for all who are given to
historical research not only in Canada of toKlay but
throughout the vast territory comprised within the
vaguely defined limits of New France.
Thwaites, Jesuit Relatitms and Allied Documents, LXXIII,
133; Cath. World, Now York, April, 1887, 107; [Vignon?], Ls
Pcre Martin (brochure); [De BompartT], V Enseigntment des
Jesuites au Canada in the Revue Canadienne (Oct., 1891);
Tanouat, R^ertoire Oin. du Clerg^ Canadien; Martin, Notice
Biographtque de la Mtre S. Stanislas (Paris, 1886).
Abthur Edward Jones.
Martiii, Gregory, translator of the Douai Version
of the Bible from the Latin Vulgate; b. in Maxfield,
parish of G nestling, near Winchelsea, in Sussex; d. at
Reims, 28 October, 1 582 . In preparing the translation
he was assisted by several of the other great scholars
then Living in the English College at Douai, but Gregory
Martin made the whole translation in the first instance
and bore the brunt of the work throughout. He was
well aualified for the undertaking. During his thirteen
vears residence at Oxford^ he bore the reputation of a
orilliant scholar and lingiust, whose abilities were only
equalled by hifl industry, ue entered as one of the
onginal scholars of St. John's College, in 1557. Among
MAETIH
728
MAETIH
those who entered at^the beginning was Edmund Cam-
pion^ the renowned Jesuit martyr. At this period of
his hfe, however, he was possessed with the ambitions
of youth, and although at heart a Catholic, he con-
formed to the Established Church, and even accepted
ordination as a deacon. Gregorv Martin was his close
friend throughout his Oxfoi3 days, and himself re-
mained a devout Catholic. When ne found it neces-
sary to quit the university, he took refuge as tutor in
the family of the Duke of Norfolk, where he had
among his pupils Philip, Earl of Arundel, also subse-
Suently martyred. During his residence with the
>uke, Martin wrote to Campion, warning him that he
was being led away into danger b^ his ambition, and
begging him to leave Oxford. It is said that it was in
great measure due to this advice that Campion mi-
grated to Dublin in 1570, and accepted a post in the
university there. He continued to conform to the es-
tablished religion outwardly; but his Catholic senti-
ments were no secret.
In the meantime Gregory Martin left the house of
the Duke of Norfolk, and crossing the seas, presented
himself at Dr. Allen's College at Douai as a candidate
for the priesthood, in 1570. During his early days
there, he wrote once more to Campion, who yielded to
his entreaties, and the following year saw the two
friends once more united within the venerable walls of
the English College at Douai. Campion was now a
professed Catholic, and he received minor orders and
the subdiaconate, after which he proceeded to Rome
and eventually entered the Society of Jesus. Having
finished his theology, Gregory Martin was ordained
priest in March, 1573. Three years later he went to
Rome to assist Allen in the foundation of the English
College there, known by the title of the " Venerabile'*.
Campion, however, was at that time absent from
Rome. Martin remained two years, during which
time he organized the course of studies at the new
college; when he was recalled by Allen to Reims,
whither the college had been removed from Douai in
consequence of political troubles. Martin and Cam-
pion met once more in this world, when the latter made
a short stay at Reims in the summer of 1580, on his
way to the English Mission, and — as it turned out —
to early martyraom.
It was during the next four years after his return
from Rome that Gregory Martin s brilliant talents and
scholarship found full scope in a work destined to be
of far-reaching and permanent utility to English
Catholics. The need of a Catholic translation of the
Bible had long been felt, in order to counteract the
various inaccurate versions which were continually
nuoted by the Reformers, and as Allen said, to meet
tnem on their own ^ound. He determined to at-
tempt the work at his college, and deputed Martin to
undertake the translation. Thomas Worthington,
Richard Bristowe, John Reynolds, and Allen himself
were to assist in revising the text and preparing suit-
able notes to the passages which were most uSkI by
the Protestants.
The merits and shortcomings of Martin's translation
have been discussed in the article on the Douai Bible
(q. v.). It is sufficient here to say that it was made
from the Vulgate, and is full of Latinisms, so that it
has little of tne rhythmic harmony of the Anglican
Authorized Version which has become part of the
literature of the nation: but in accuracy and scholar-
ship, it was superior to any of the English versions
which had preceded it, and it is understood to have
had ^eat influence on the translators of King James's
Version. In many cases in which they did not follow
the Douai, the editors of the Revised Version have up-
held Gregory Martin's translation. And it was ac-
curacy of rendering which was chiefly needed by the
controversial exigencies of the day.
The Reims New Testament first appeared in 1682.
The Old Testament was not publiahea till more than a
Quarter of a century later. This, however, was aokhr
due to want of funds. It was not called for with suai
urgency, and its publication was put off from year to
year. But it was all prepared at the same time as the
New Testament, and by the same editors.
The constant work told on Martin's constitution,
and he was found to be in consumption. In the hope
of saving his life, Allen sent him to Paris, where oe
coQsult^ the best physicians of the di&y, only to be
told that the disease was past cure. He returned to
Reims to die, and he was buried in the parish church
of St. Stephen. Allen preached the funeral diacoune,
and erected a long Latin inscription on the tomb of his
friend. The following is a list of Martin's works:
" Treatise of Schisme '^ (Douai, 1678) : " Discovery of
atie Manifold Corruptions of the Holy Scriptures by
the Heretikes of our Dales" (Reims, 1582); Reims
Testament and Douay Bible; *' Treatise of Christian
Peregrination" (Reims, 1583); "Of the Love of the
Soul^' (St. Omer, 1603); ''Gre^rius Martinus ad
Adolphum Mekerchum pro veten et vera Grsecarum
Literarum Pronunciatione" (Oxford, 1712); several
other works in MS. mentioned by Pitts.
Burton, Life ofChaUoner (London, 1909); Dodd, Ch. HiaL:
Pitts, De Illxut. Script. Ecclcs.; Wood, Aihtncg Oxan.; Knox.
Historical Introductum to Douay Diaries (1878) ; Idem, Lettenof
Card. Alien (1882); Foley, Records S. J.; SiMpeoN, Life «/
Campion (London, 1866; leiasued, 1907); Menotogy of St
Edmund' a College (London, 1909). Also bibliosraphy of artklt
Douai Bible.
Bebnard Ward.
Martin, KoNRAO, Bishop of Paderbom; b. 18 May,
1812, at Geismar, Province of Saxony; d. 16 July,
1879, at Mont St Guibert, near Brussels, Belgium.
He studied at first under an elder brother who was a
Eriest, and later at the ' 'gymnasium " at HeiUgenstadt;
e studied theology and Oriental languages for two
years at Munich under D6llinger and Aliioli, then went
to Halle where the famous Gesenius taught, and
thence to WUrzburg where he passed the examen
rigorosum for the degree of "Doctor Theologis".
But before he could present the necessary Public Act,
he was compelled to leave WOrzburg, and undergo the
same examination in MOnster, Westphalia, because the
Prussian ministry forbade stud>ang at South German
universities and did not recognise their degrees. In
1835 he obtained in Monster the degree of D.D., for his
dissertation: " De Petri denegatione, qua inquiriturde
huius criminis ethica natura et luculentioribus effecti-
bus *'. Feeling an inclination towards academic teach-
ing which the Diocese of Paderbom was unable to sat-
isfy, he entered the Archdiocese of Cologne, and as a
student of the theological seminary was ordained
priest in 1836. Immediately after this he was ap-
pointed rector of the "pro-gymnasium" at Wippei^
farth, which had just been established, and published,
in Mainz, 1839, under the pseudonym Dr. Fridericm
Lange, a sharp and forceful pamphlet against Her-
mesianism, written in classical Latin and entitled
"Novse annotationes ad Acta Hermesiana et Acta
Romana, quas ad causam Hermesianam denuo illus-
trandam scripsit". The pamphlet created a sensa-
tion everywhere and caused the coadjutor Geissel of
Cologne to appoint the young savant teacher of re-
ligion at the Marzellengymnasium at Colo^p:ie in the
year 1840. In order to elevate the teaching of relir
gion in the higher schools and to infuse into it a deeper
significance, he wrote his famous text-book of the
Catholic religion for high-schools, which appeared at
Mains in 1843 in two volumes and went through fifteen
editions. It was used as a text-book in all Prussian
gymnasia and translated into Hungarian and Frendi,
but later on, during the Kulturkampf, it was sup-
pressed by order of the Prussian minister of education.
Before the end of the same year he was invited by
Bishop Dammers of Paderbom to become professor A
dogmatic theology in the faculty of his home diocese,
but Geissel requested him to ramain in Cologne ana
729
MAETIK
made him extraordinary professor of theology at the
University of Bonn, inspector of the local seminaries,
ahd| with Dieringer, umversity preacher. In 1848 he
became ordinair professor of moral theology and pub-
lished, in 1850, the ** Lehrbuch der kathoUschen Moral "
which as early as 1865 had gone through five editions.
Dating back to his work as professor in Bonn, there
exist numerous articles in the '' katholischen Viertel-
iahrsschrift fiir Wissenschaft und Kunst" of which
ne was one of the founders, as well as in the " Kirchen-
lexikon"; there are furthermore an unfinished trans-
lation of the "Jewish History" of Flavins Josephus,
a translation of the writings of St. Thomas Aqiiinas on
the Eucharist and the Ten Commandments, an edition
of Maldonatus's ''Commentary on the Four Gospels"
(1854 and 1862) and finally, " Die Wissenschaft von der
gdttlichen Dingen" a popular handbook of Dogma
representing t^ ripe fruits of his long work upon
the writings of St. Thomas (1855 and 1869). Soon,
however, he was compelled to give up his work at
Bonn.
In 1856 he was elected Bishop of Paderbom, and
consecrated by Cardinal Geissel on 17 August. Filled
with apostolic zeal he accepted the responsible office,
and became one of the most illustrious bishops of Ger-
many; one who with his untiring labour and persever-
ance encouraged Christian life in his extensive diocese,
and who exerted a beneficent influence even far beyond
his own domain, by his example and his writings. As
a man of firm and unshakable faith he considered it
his chief duty to protect the Faith against all attacks.
It was his first care to train effective priests. ^ In order
to accomplish this purpose, he comoined his annual
confirmation journeys with detailed investigations so
as to become acquamted with his clergy and to instil
everywhere a true ecclesiastical spirit. He founded,
in 1857, at Heiligenstadt a second seminary for boys
and introduced the general examination for priests.
In connection with ideas he formed in 1860 during the
provincial council at Cologne, he founded with his own
monev a theological schocd at Paderbom He even
had the satisfaction of holding a diocesan synod at
Paderbom in 1867, the first for two centuries; at this
synod the resolutions passed at the Council of Cologne
were adopted, although in slightlv changed form. In
order to give more effect to these resolutions, he
caused them to be published in the "Acta et Decreta
synodi dioecesis Paderbomiensis", 1867 (2nd edition,
1888) . He acquired especial merit through the estab-
lishment and enlarg|ement of the Bonifatius-Verein, of
which he was preodent from 1859 until 1875. and
through the assistance of which he was able to found
about fifty new missionary posts in neglected districts.
In two magnificent works. " The ChiefDuty of Catho-
lic Germany", and *^ Another Message to the Christian
German People in Matters Regarding the Bonifatius-
Verein" he explained its noble aims and made a
powerful appeal for the manifesting of Christian
faith by givmg assistance to poor Catholic churches
and pnests. Full of enthusiasm he even planned to
lead the Protestants of Germany back to tne Catholic
Church and addressed to them three friencUv bro-
chures entitled : '' An episcopal message to the Protes-
tants of Germanv, especially to those of my own Dio-
cese, regarding the points of oontroversv between us"
(Paderbom, 1866) ; " Seccmd Episcopal Message to the
Protestants of Germany" (same year): and "Why is
there still this gulf between the Churches? An open
message to Germany's Catholics and Protestants"
(Paderbom, 1869). Naturally these writings did not
have the success expected by him, but on the contrary
made him maznr enemies; they stirred, however
many Catholics m>m their torpidity and strengthened
them in their faith.
The Vatican Council give him the opportunity to
show his fidelity to the Holy See and to champion his
faith. As a member of the " Coogregatio dogmatica "
and the "Commissio pro postulatis" he took a lively
part in the discussions of the same, and was from the
beginning a zealous defendant of the infallibility of the
papal office; with him originated the wording of the
most important chapter of the final decision. Soon
after the new dogma had been formulated, and, in
order to quiet nervous minds and to enli^ten the
faithful, he published several pastorals which passed
far beyond tne confines of his own diocese; as, for in-
stance, "The Infallible Office of the Pope", (1870);
and "A Pastoral Message: What the Vatican Coun-
cil presents to us as Faith regarding the pope " (1871) ;
and several more extensive works, in which he ex-
plains in detail the far-reaching consequences of the
decision, as " The real meaning of the Vatican decision
regarding the Infallible Papal Office" (Paderbom.
1871), the "DeUberations of the Vatican Council'*
(Paderbom, 1873), which was also translated into
Italian, and "Omnium Concilii Vaticani, qusB ad
doctrinam et disciplinam pertinent documentorum col-
lectio" (Paderbom, 1873). This fidelity to the Apos-
toUc See which he showed openly at every opportu-
nity despite all hostile criticisms; his restless activity
for the spread of the Catholic faith; the establishment
of missions in Northern Germany, and his open mes-
sage to the Protestants of Germany, formed the op-
portunitv for the most vituperious attacks against
nim in the daily press and, as soon as the necessary
laws had been passed, a welcome occasion to proceed
against him by means of different oppressive measures
and a chance to attempt to undermine his authority;
but in vain, for as soon as the intentions of the Prussian
government became clear to all, thousands of men
from the whole diocese journeyed to the cathedral town
enthusiastically to swear undying fidelity to their
bishop and to the Catholic Church.
Finally, in 1874, because of his trahsgression of the
May Laws, he was sentenced to imprisonment; in the
following year relieved of his office, by order of the
Minister of Worship, and incarcerated in the fortress of
Wesel. A few months later, however, he succeeded
in escaping to Holland, but was expeUed on the de-
mand of the Prussian government. He fornid a
refuge with the Sisters of Christian Love, who had been
banished from Paderbom and who had settled in
Mont St. Guibert. From there, as a centre, he governed
secretly his diocese, laboured as pastor and teacher of
religion, and wrote several works, of which these are
noteworthy: "Drei Jahre aus meinen Leben: 1874-
1877" (Paderbom, 1877); "Zeitbilder oder Erin-
nerungen an meine verewi^n Wohltftter", TMainz.
1879). Numerous other writings, mostly the fruit ot
lectures in the seminary, in the mother house of the
Sisters of Christian Love at Paderbom and in St Gui-
bert, we must leave unnoticed. Some have only been
found among his papers after his death, and were pub-
lished by his companion and private secretary, Stamm,
in seven volumes, 1882-1890.
STAinf, Dr. Conrad Martin, ein btbliooraphiseher Varatteh,
(1892) ; Idku, Ujicundenaammluno tur Biograpkie (1892); lorai,
Aua der BrUfmappe Martins (Paderbom, 1902).
Pateucius Schlager.
Martin, Paulin, a French Biblical scholar, b. at
Lacam, Lot, 20 July, 1840; d. at Amdlie-les-Bains,
Pyr^n^es-Orientales, 14 Jan., 1890. His secondsjy
studies were made a.tthe petit aCminaire of Montfaucon,
and his theolo^ at St. Sulpice. Here he came under
the influence of Le Hir. At the end of his theology,
Martin was too young for ordination; so he went
to the French Seminarv, Rome, attended the lec-
tures at the Gregorian University, and was raised to
the priesthood in 1863. He remained in Rome till
1868, obtained a doctorate in sacred theology and
licentiate in canon law, and started upon his life study
of Semitic limguages. He worked chiefly at Hebrew,
Syriao, Aramaic, and Arabic. It was as a Syriao
scholar that be first attracted attention. Abb^BuxtiR
MABTm
730
MABTm
was In France ten yearSj as curate in various parishes
of Paris, before his appointment to the chair of Sacred
Scripture and Oriental Languages in the Institut
Catholique of Paris, which he filled from 1878 to 1890.
The time of literary activity of Abb6 Martin was the
twelve years of his professorship at the Institut. His
best work is said to be the lithographed lectures de-
livered from 1882 to 1886: " Introduction k la critique
textuelle du N.T.,partieth<^oric^ue" (Paris, 1882-83) ;
a supplement thereto^ "Description technique des
manuscrits grecs, relatifs au N. T., conserves dans les
biblioth^ques de Paris" (Paris, 1883); "Introduction
k la critic^ue textuelle du N. T.. partie pratique" (4
vols.^ Pans. 1884^86). These tour volumes contain
studies in tne ancient manuscripts of the New Testa-
ment, the authenticity and historicity of disputed
fragments of the New Testament. — nota!)ly tlie end-
ing of Mark, the bloody sweat, tne woman taken in
adultery, the three heavenly witnesses. In regard to
this last fragment, he carried on a controversy with
MM. Vacant, Maunoury, and Rambouillet m the
"Revue des sciences eccl63ia8tiques" (1887 and 1889),
and in " La Controverse " (1888). Earlier writings of
Abb^ Martin were: "(Euvres grammaticales d'Abu
el-Faraj, dit Bar-Hebrseus " (Paris, 1872); "(Jram-
matica, chrestomathia, et glossarium linguse syriaci^"
(Paris, 1873) ; " Histoire de la ponctuation ou de la
massore chez les Syriens" (Paris, 1875). In addition
he published a general introduction to the Bible
(Paris, 1887-89).
Mangenot, 3f. I'abbi Paidin Martin in Revue dea acimcea
eccUaxMliquea (1S91).
Walter Drum.
Martin, Richard, Venerable. See Leigh, Rich-
ard, Venerable.
Martina, Saint, Roman virgin, martyred in 226,
according to some authorities, more probably in 228,
under the pontificate of Saint Urban I, according to
others. The daughter of an ex-consul and left an
orphan at an early age she so openly testified to her
Christian faith that she could not escape the perse-
cution under Alexander Severus. Arrested and
commanded to return to idolatry, she courageously
refused, whereupon she was subjected to various tor-
tures, and was finally beheaded. The accounts of her
martyrdom which we possess belong to a lat« period
and as usual contam many amplifications which have
not, as Baronius has already observed, any historical
value. The relics of Saint Martina were discovered
on 25 October, 1634, in the crypt of an ancient church
situated near the Mamertine prison and dedicated to
the saint. Urban VIII who occupied the Holy See at
that time, had the church repairea and, it would seem,
composed the hymns which are sung at the office oi
the noble martyr, 30 January.
Act SS. Bollnnd. (1643\ Janiiar>', I, IIj Bahomius, Ann.
(1589), 228. 1; Sfritts, De VU. SS. (1618), I, 9-10; Vincent of
Beauvais. Spec. Hist. (147.3). XII. 27-29; Mombritius, Sandu-
arium (Milan, 1749), II, CXXV-XL; Ragguaglio della vUa di S.
Martina Verffine e marlire (Rome, 1801).
LtoN Cluqnet.
Martini, Antonio, Archbishop of Florence, Bibli-
cal scholar; b. at Prato, in Tuscany, 20 April, 1720; d.
at Florence, 31 December, 1809!^ Having received
holv Orders, he was appointed director of the Superga
College at Turin. Cardinal delle Lanze, knowing that
Benedict XIV, then pope, desired a good version of the
Bible in contemporary Tuscan, urged Martini to un-
dertake the work. The latter began a translation of
the New Testiiment from the original Greek, but soon
found this lalx)ur, in conjunction with his duties in the
Superga, Ixjyond his physical strength. He accord-
ingly resigned the directorship and accepted from
King Charles Emanuel of Sardmia a state councillor-
ship together with a pension. In spite of some dis-
couragt»inent consequent upon the decease of Bene<lict
XIV, Martini |X'rsovered, completing the public-ation
of theNewTeBtamMitin 1771. In his work upon tlw
Hebrew text of the Old Testament, which followed, Jie
was assisted by the Rabbi Temi, a Jewish scholar.
The whole work was approved, and Martini personally
commended, by Pius VI, who made him Arenbishop of
Florence in 1781. As archbishop he succeeded in
partly foiling an attempt to publisn a ^rbled edition
of his work, and a third authorized edition issued from
the Archiepiscopal Press of Florence in 1782-^92 (see
also Versions op the Bible).
Beoagu, BioQrafia deqli uominx iUtintri (Venice, 1840);
MiNoccHZ in ViQouRonx, Diet, de la Bible, b. v. Italiennee (V«o
gione) de la Bible.
E. Macph£rson.
Martini, Martino (Chinese name: Wei), distin-
guished Austrian Jesuit missionary to the Chinese, in
the seventeenth century. He was bom at Trent in
1614; and on 8 October, 1631, entered the Austrian
province of his order; where he studied mathematics
under Athanasius Barcher (q. v.) in the Roman Col-
lege, probably with the intention of being sent to
Cliina. He set out for China in 1640, and arrived in
1643. While there he made great use of his talents as
missionary, scholar, writer, and superior. In 1650 he
was sent to Rome as procurator for the Chinese Mission,
and took advantage of the long, adventurous vovBge
(gohig first to the Philippines, from thence on a
Dutch privateer to Batavia, he reached Bergen in
Norway, 31 August, 1653), to sift his valuable historical
and cartographical data on China. During his so-
journ in Europe the works were printed that made
his name so famous. In 1658 he returned with pro-
visionally favourable instructions on the question of
ritual to China, where he laboured until his death in
Hangtscheu, 6 June, 1661. According to the attesta-
tion of P. Prosper Intorcetta (''Litt. annuae", 1681),
his body was tound imdecayed twenty years after.
Richthofen calls Martini "the leading geographer of
the Cliinese mission, one who was unexcelled, and
hardly equalled, during the eighteenth century . . .
There was no other missionary, either before or after,
who made such diHgent use of his time in acquiring
information about the country" (China, I, 674 sq.).
Martini's most important work is his " Novus Atlas
Sinensis" (Vienna^ 1653), with 17 maps and 171 pages
of text, a work which is, according to Richthofen, " the
most complete geographical description of China that
we possess, and through which Martini has become the
father of geographical learning on China". Of the
great chronological work which Martini had planned,
and which was to comprise the whole Chinese histor\'
from the earliest age, only the first part appearecf:
"Sinicje Historian, Decas I" (Munich, 1658). His
" De Bello Tartarico Historian " (Cologne, 1654) is also
important as Chinese historj", for Martini himself had
lived through the frightful occurrences which brought
about the overthrow of the ancient Ming dynasty.
The works have been repeatedly published and trans-
lated into different languages (cf.^ Sommervogel,
" Biblioth^que " . . . etc.). Interesting as mission-
ary history is his " Brevis relatio de numero et quali-
tate Christianorum apud Sinse " (Rome, 1654 ; Cologne,
1655; Ger. ed., 1654). Besides these. Martini wrote a
series of theological and apologetical works in Chinese.
Several works, among them a Chinese translation of
the theological works of Suarez, still exist in his hand-
writing (cf. Sommervogel and H. Cardier, "Essai
d'une bibliographic des ouvrages publics en Chine par
le*! Europ^ns'', Paris, 1882).
Th«» scientific correspondence between Martini and his di»-
tinffiiished teacher, P. Atiianabius Kirchbr, is to be found in
hiD Maanes (3rd ed.. Rome. 1654), 316. 318, 348. An excellent
appreointion by Schrameier of Martini is to be found in Peking
Si)cietp, 11, 0»-119; cf. also Ghbua, LXXXVII, p. 167.
A. HUONDER.
Martini, SniONE (also known as Simons di Mas-
TiNo, and as Simone Mem^h), Sienese painter, Ik in
MABTXHIQUE
731
MARTIN
Siena, 1283; died either in the same place or at Avi-
enon in 1344 or 1349. This artist is now declared to
have been a direct pupil of Duccio, whom he surpassed
in the decorative quality of his work. Vasari states
that he was a pupil of Giotto, but this statement is re-
futed bv an examination of Simone's works, and also
by all tne evidence which has been gathered regarding
the Sienese school. The earliest of Simone's authentic
works is his ereat fresco in Siena of the enthroned Vir-
gin and Child, painted originally in 1315, and restored
by the master himself in 1321, after it had suffered
damage from damp. In 1320 he painted an altar-
piece for the church of St. Catherine at Pisa, which has
now been taken to pieces, and although the greater
part is in the Academy at Pisa, two other portions are
m other buildings in the same city. In the following
year he was at Orvieto, painting an altar-piece for the
church of San Dominico which is now preserved in the
museum of that city, and then he returned to Siena,
where he was busily engaged in 1328 on his splendid
portrait of Fogliano, painted in honour of that gen-
eral's capture of Montomassi. A little later on we
hear of him at Assisi, where he painted a wonderful
series of works relating to the life of St. Martin, adorn-
ing the chapel of St. Martin in the church of San Fran-
cesco. The latter part of his life was passed in Avi-
gnon in the service of the papal court tnen resident in
that place, and there he decorated various portions of
the cathedral and several chapels and rooms in the
papal palace. It was in Avignon that he met Pet-
rarch, and there painted the portrait, so famous in
later years, of Madonna Laura.
He is said to have painted a portrait at Avignon
of Petrarch himself, commissioned bv Pandolfo Ma-
latesta, but if he did this, it was during an earlier
visit to Avignon, and respecting it we have not much
information. We are only certain concerning his
second visit to the place, after Ixiing called by Pope
Clement VI. The exact date of his funeral is proved
by certain Sienese records as 4 August, 1344, but
the record is not sufficiently clear as to whether
his body was transported from Avignon to Siena for
burial, or whether ne actually died in Siena. There
are several of his works in the city of his birth, one at
the Louvre, one in Berlin, an excecKiingly fine one at
Antwerp, and a remarkable signed and dated picture
at Liverpool. In the museum at Altenburg there is
one of his works, and there are at least three in private
collections in America. The portrait of Petrarch at-
tributed to him was sold in 1867 at the Poniatowski
sale, and at the same sale there was sold a pKjrtrait of
Laura, which was undoubtedly his work.
See special manuscript material Kathcred up in Siena by-
Lucy Ollcott; Vasari, Le Vile dei Pittori^ Milancsi edition
(Florence, 1878, 1885); Yalle, LcUere Senesi (Rome, 1782),
and other works by the same author.
George Charles Williamson.
Martiniquei Diocese op (Sancti Petri et Arcis
Galuce.) Martinique is one of the French Lesser
Antilles, 380 so. miles in area; it. was discovered by
Christopher Columbus in 1493, and colonized by tlie
French about 1625; it was in the hands of the English
from 1762 to 1783, was again occupied by them in
1794, 1802, 1809, 1815, and again became French ter-
ritory in 1818. The name Martinique comes from the
Carib word Madinima. On Good Friday, 1640, Pdres
Bouton and Hempteau, Jesuits, set out for Martinique,
where thev fomided the celebrated Jesuit mission.
Pdres Ceubergeon and Gueimu, Jesuits, were slain
there in 1654 by the revolting Caribs. The ' ' M^moire
concernant la Mission des Pdres de la Compagnie de
J^sus dans Ics lies f ran^aises de T Amdrique " addressed
in 1707 by P^re Combaid to P^re Tamburini, General
of the Jesuits, and published in 1907 by Pdre Roche-
monteix, contains mo\nng details concerning the
catechetical instrtiction pf the negro slaves by the
Jesuit'^. In 1753 IVr^' dc La valet te was named supe-
rior general and Prefect Apostolic of the Mission of
Martmique; his business transactions were later the
cause of very violent attacks on the Society. P^re
Rochemonteix has proved that FiSre de Lavalette
acted thus without the knowledge of even his fellow-
missionaries of Martinique or of his superiors at Paris
and Rome; that when at length, in 1759 and 17(50, the
missionaries accused him of taking part in forbidden
traffic they had no written proofs, and that the supe-
riors were not certain until 1762, after the investigation
of P^re de La Marche, when P6re de Lavalette was de-
posed, silenced, and sent back to Europe. When in
1848 the Second Republic suppressed slavery in the
colonies the prefect Apostolic, (jastelli, in a public ad-
dress hailed the new epoch as an "era of light and
evangelical regeneration ' ' .
The Diocese of Martinique is suffragan of the Arch-
diocese of Bordeaux, was created 27 Sept., 1850. and
by a law of 20 July, and a decree of 18 December, 1850.
At first the see was fixed at Fort de France, was trans-
ferred to St. Pierre on 12 Sept., 1853, and the bishop
took the title of Bishop of St. Pierre and Fort de
France. Bishop I^e Ilerpeur (1851-1858) organized
the pilgrimage of Notre Dame de la D^livrande.
Bishop Fa va (1872-1879) founded in 1872 a religious
weeldy bulletin, which later became the daily **Le
Bien Public". Martinique was crueUy tried, 8 May,
1902, by the eruption of Mt. Pel^, which had long
been considered an extinct volcano. This eruption
completely destroyed the town of St. Pierre. The
island suffered also from the cyclone of 8 August, 1903,
and the earthcjuakes of 1906. After the catastrophe
of 1902 the episcopal residence was again transferred
to Fort de France. The Diocese of Slartinique con-
tains 170,000 inhabitants and 46 priests. There are
in the diocese Fathers of the Holy Ghost, Sisters of St.
Joseph of Cluny and of St. Paul of Chart res, hospital
and teaching sisters. The Congregation of the
Daughters of Notre Dame de la D^livrande had its
origin in the diocese. The present bishop, Mgr de
Cormont, was born at Paris, France, 29 March, 1847,
chosen as bishop 14 December, 1899, in succession to
Mgr Carmen^, who resigned.
AvBE, La Martinique (Paris, 1882): Rochemgntkix, An/oine
Lavalette a la Martinique (Paris, 1907) ; Hess. La Catastrophe de
la Martinimu, Notes (Tun reporter (Paris, 1902); Lacroix, La
Montagne PeUe H see Eruptions (Paris, 1904); L'ipiscopat fran-
cais aux xix* mtde (Paris. 1907), 339-344.
Georqes Goyau.
Martm of Bra^a (Bracara; or, op Dumio), Saint,
bishop and ecclesiastical writer: b. about 520 in Pan-
nonia; d. in 580 at Braga in Portugal. He made a
pilgrimage to Palestine, where he be^me a monk and
naet some Spanish pilgrims whose narrations indu(^
him to come to Galicia (Northwestern Spain) with
the purpose of converting the Suevi, some of whom
were st ill half pagans and others Arians. He arrived
in Spain in 550, founded various monasteries, among
them that of Dumio, of which he became aboot and
afterwards bishop. At the Synod of Braga, in May,
561, he signed as Bishop of Dumio. Later he became
Archbishop of Braga and, as such, presided over the
second Council of Braga in 572. He was successful in
converting the Arian Galicians and rooting out the
last remnants of paganism among them. He is vener-
ated as a saint, nis feast day being 20 March. His
great learning and piety are attested by Gregory of
Tours (Hist. Franc, V, xxxviii), who styles him full of
virtue (plenua virtiUibus) and second to none of his con-
temporaries in learning ("in tantum se litteris imbuif
ut nulli secundus sui temporis haberetur '*).
His writings consist chiefly of moral, litur^cal, and
ascetical treatises. The l)est known of his moral
treatises, "Formula vit» honest®'* or "De differen-
tiis quatuor virtutum '*, as St. Isidore of Seville (De
viris illostribus xxxv) entitles it, is an exposition of
Christian life chiefly for laymen, from tb« standpoint
MABTIH
732
MABTIK
of the four cardinal virtues, and is believed to be based
on a lost work of Seneca. His little work. "De ira",
b merely a compendium of Seneca's three books, ** De
ira". The two preceding works proceed from the
standpoint of natural ethics, while his three other
moral treatises: "Pro repellenda jact^ntia", "De
superbia". and "Exhortatio humilitatis'*, are exposi-
tions of Christian morality. Of great importance in
the history of medieval canon law is Martin's collec-
tion of eighty-four canons: "Collectio orientalium
canonum, seu Capitula Martini ", which was compiled
^ter 561, and contains mostly Greek, also a few Span-
ish and African, canons. It is in two parts; the nrst,
containing sixty-eight canons, treats of the ordination
and the duties of clerics; the second, containing six-
teen canons, treats chiefly of the duties and faults of
laymen. His two liturgical works are a litt le treatise :
"De pascha", in which he explains to the people the
reason whv Iiaster is celebrated at variable periods
between I A Kal. April, and XI Kal. Maii, and " Epis-
tola ad Bonifatium de trina mersione ", in answer to
a letter from a Spanish bishop who supposed that the
custom of triple aspersion in baptism was of Arian
origin. His ascetical works are " Sententi® patrum
^gjrptiorum "^ a collection of edifying narratives con-
cerning Egyptian monastic life, and of pious sayings of
Egyptian abbots, which he translated trom the Greek;
and another work of similar nature, " Verba seniorum " ,
translated from the Greek by Paschasius, a deacon of
Dumio, by order and with the help of Martin. He
also wrote an interesting sermon "De correctione
rusticorum", against the pagan superstitions which
were still prevalent among the peasantry of his dio-
cese. There are also extant three poetical inscriptions,
"In basilico"^ "In refectorio", "Epistaphium'^. No
complete edition of Martin's works nas ever been pub-
lished. His " Formula vitae honesta; ", " Libellus de
moribus " (spurious), " Pro repellenda jactantia ", " De
superbia", '^Exhortatio humilitatis", "De ira", "De
pascha ", and the three poetical inscriptions are printed
m Gallandi, " Bibl. Vet. Patr. ", XIi; 275-288, and in
Migne, P. L., LXXH, 21-52. Migne also reprints
"Verba seniorum" (P. L. LXXIII, 102^-62);"
"iEgyptiorum patrum sententi® (P. L., LXXIV, 381
-394); "Capitula Martini" (P. L., 574-586). The
sermon, "De correctione rusticorum" was edited with
notes and a learned disquisition on Martin's life and
writings by C. P. Casr)ari (Christiania, 1883). The
epistle, "De trina mersione", is printed in "Collectio
maxima conciliorum Hispanifie", II (Rome, 1693),
506, and in "Espana sagrada", XV (Madrid, 1759),
422. The latest editions of the "Formula honestae
vitae" were prepared by Weidner (Magdeburg, 1872)
and May (Neisse, 1892). The treatise "De pascha"
was recently edited by Bum, in " Niceta of Reme-
siana" (Cambridge, 1905), 93 sq.
Besides the work of Caspari, mentioned above, see Barden-
HEWEK, Patrology, tr. Sqahan (St. Louis, 1908), 658-660;
GAifff, KirchcTKjesch. Spaniens, II (Ratisbon, 1864), i, 471-5;
De Amaral, Vida e opuscula di a. Martinaho Bracharense (Lis-
bon, 1803); Seebero-Waqenmann in RecUencyklopddie fur
prpt. Theol. s. v. Martin von Bracara; Ward in Dxct. ChrisL
Biogr, s. v. Martinus of Braga.
Michael Ott.
Martiii of Oochem. See Cochem, Martin of.
Martiii of Leon, Saint, a priest and canon regiilar
of the Augustinians; b. at Leon in Spain (Old Castile)
before 1150; d. there, 12 January, 1203. Having
been educated in the monastery of St. Marcellus at
Leon, he visited Rome and Con^ntinople. Return-
ing to Spain, he took the religious habit at St. Mar-
cellus; but this monastery having been secularized by
the bishops, he entered the collegiate church of St.
Isidore in the same city. The date of Hs death is
given us by the necrology preserved in the monastery.
He wrote commentaries on different Epistles and the
Apocalypse, and left numerous discourses on the most
varied subjects. His complete works were published
first by Espinosa (Seville. 1782) and again by Migne
in P. L., LXXXI, 53-64, CCVIII, CCIX{Paris, 1855).
The rehgious of St. Isidore's dedicated a chapel to
Martin very early and celebrated his feast ^ich year,
but the Church has not officially included him in the
list of her saints.
Ada SS.f February, II, 568; Caatro. Bibl. EanaiL, Tl Olad-
rid, 1786). 514-5; Cave, Scnpt. Ecclea., II (Basle, 1745), 301;
Ceilubr, Hiti. gin. des atUeura tacria H ecdis., JCIV (Paria,
1863). 833-4; Luc, VUa S, MaHini in P. L., C5CVTII, 9-24.
Ltos Clugnet.
Martin of Tours, Saint, bishop; b. at Sabaria (to-
day Steinamanger in German, or Sxombathelv in
Hungarian), Pannonia (Hungary), about 316; <L at
Canoes, Touraine, most probably in 397. In his early
years, when his father, a military tribune, was trans-
ferrea to Pavia in Italy, Martin accompanied him
thither, and when he reached adolescence was, in ac-
cordance with the recruiting laws, enrolled in tiie Ro-
man army. Touched by grace at an early ajge, he was
from the first attracted towards Christianity, which
had been in favour in the camps since the conversioQ
of Emperor Constantino. His regiment was soon sent
to Amiens in Gaul, and this town became the scene of
the celebrated legend of the cloak. At the gates of the
city, one very cold day, Martin met a shivering and
half-naked beggar. Moved with compassion, he di-
vided his coat into two parts and gave one to the poor
man. The part kept by himself oecame the famous
relic preserved in tne oratory of the Frankish kings
under the name of "St. Martin's cloak". Martin,
who was still only a catechumen, soon received bap-
tism, and was a little later finally freed from military
service at Worms on the Rhine. As soon as he was
free, he hastened to set out to Poitiers to enrol himself
among the disciples of St. Hilary, the wise and pious
bishop whose reputation as a theologian was alnady
passing beyond tne frontiers of Gaul. Desiring, how-
ever, to see his parents again, he returned to Lom-
bardy across the Alps. The inhabitants of this
region, infested with Arianism, were bitterly hostile
towards Catholicism, so that Martin, who did not con-
ceal his faith, was very badly treated by order of
Bishop Auxentius of Milan, the leader of the heretical
sect in Italy. Martin was very desirous of returning
to Gaul, but, learning that the Arians troubled that
country also and had even succeeded in exiling Hilary
to the Orient, he decided to seek shelter on the island
of Gallinaria (now Isola d'Albenga) in the middle of
the Tyrrhenian Sea.
As soon as Martin learned that an imperial decree
had authorized Hilary to return to Gaul, he hastened
to the side of his chosen master at Poitiers in 361, and
obtained permission from him to embrace at some dis-
tance from there in a deserted region (now called
Ligug6) the solitary life that he had adopted in Galli-
naria. His example was soon followed, and a great
number of monks gathered aroimd him. Thus was
formed in this Gallic Thcbaid a real laura, from which
later developed the celebrated Benedictine Abbey of
Ligug6. Martin remained about tenyears in this soli-
tude, but often left it to preach the Cxospel in the cen-
tral and western parts of Gaul, where the rural in-
habitants were still plunged in the darkness of idolatry
and given up to all sorts of gross superstitions. The
memory of tnese apostolic joumeyings .survives to our
day in the numerous local legends of which Martin is
the hero and which indicate roughly the routes tliat he
followed. When St. Lidorius, second Bishop of Tours,
died in 371 or 372, the clergy of that city deared to
replace him by the famous hermit of Liguff^. But. as
Martin remained deaf to the prayers of 9ie deputies
who brought him this message, it was necessary to re-
sort to a ruse to overcome his resistance. A certain
Rusticius, a rich citizen of Tours, went and begged him
to come to his wife, who was in the last extremity, and
to prepare her for death,* Without any suspidon.
HA&Tnt 733
Bl&rtiu followed him in all baste, but hardly bad be last devastation. It was entirely demoliiihed n-itb the
entered the citj when, in spite of the opposition of exception of the two towers which are still standing,
a few ecclesiastical dignitaries, popi^ar acclam&tion and, so that its TecaoBtruetion might be impoeaible,
constrained bim to become Bishop of the Church of the atheistic municipality caused two streets to be
Touts. opened up on its site. In December, 1860, skilfully
Consecrated on 4 July, Martin brought to the aecom- executed excavations located the site of St. Martina
plishment of the duties of his new ministry all the en- tomb, of which some fragments were discovered.
, ___, „ Some other hermits joined ter of St. Martin. On 11 November each year tbe
him there, and thus was eradualljr formed a new mon- feast of St. Martin is solemnly celebrated in this church
ostery, which surpassed uiat of Ligug^, as is indicated in tbe presence of a loige number of the faithful of
by the name, Marmoutier (Mcjus MonoMterium), Tours and other cities and villages of the diocese,
which it has kept to our own day. Thus, toanuntir- of the aumEious norlaon thellfoond rale ol St. Unnin. we
ing sea! Martin added the greatest simplicity, and it is i-iw only the mosi unpoituQi: Alet. 6i. Martin « « ta«;wi«d«
tfi.whkh.xpi™ho.whi.5„»«i.ini„i»»ii„n«, Ss s.«?^(ia/,wsan"i-.7™.''4.'ib£."^:
admirably succeeded m sowing Chnstaanity through- njip. 331-3; v. 3ia. app. 4S4-B2. «00-S03, 506-e. 647; Bafst,
out Touraine. Nor was it a rare occurrence for him to Le Tomitau de SI. JVartji in Rrv. ArdiM. (Paris, 1886) , C, VII,
leave his diocese, when he thought that his appearance v'li^^-la-'Mfr °i^M" R^'oin^"Tn"u^ENty'35i' I'r^'
in some distant locality might produce some good. He ;!5e,'iZ4-5; 368,20; 376, 'i-3: ssa.aMS: 38S. iid-3; ioo, laj
even went several times to Tner, where the emperore ioa,4»-^: 483,47-^; M9,3D; MO. 7-11. 13; 38G.22-7; 57*.
bad establu^ed their residence, to plead the inter- ^^i,^;,\''l^^Xi^l^'li^^>^'l^'i^"'Sk'-^'t^J:
esM of the Church or to ask pardon for some con- (istbJ, 207; Bni.u _ — ..
demned person. His rfile in the matter of the Priscil- pj'"^'-'Mi?f^'*,"B" z/ ■
lionists and Ithocians was especially remarkable, x vu! 57-aM^ XVIII '2'' ^
Against Priscillian, the Spanish heresiarch, and his a* " ■ ' " ' '
partisans, who had been justly condemned by the ^- ;- 7- —i,i---„,-,^ -. -,„-,-.-.>.,-,■ ,; - -
E^u„oa„(s.r«o™,tu™u.ch.,g=.w™b™™Sti»- 1ZX,t'"iu'iKS:SI,rH'?A^i',^S.
fore Emperor Haximus by some orthodox bishops of dr la sic nnhiol di rounnne, m <Toun, 1S74), Sd-os: Fi.*-
Spain, led by Bidiop Ithacius. Martin hurried to cha«,,. E.jai^rrap«toiaidt6i.UariiiideT€^,mirtVichK,t
Trier, °ot indeed to. defend the gnostic and Mani- lrj:f,i^-^^Zl^'\^^'Q^;^r'VAi!i^'S^1^.
chteandoctnnesof Pnscillian, but to remove him from carum. X; HiM. tiu, dt la Fnntrt (Pub, 1733). I, n, 413-7;
the secular jurisdiction of the emperor. Haximus at LBeoioijL»M*H™E,z-»j™i«>mtajCTi(j™Wt/jAS. Vortoi
first Bi-i-pHpHt/. hid pntrpjitv hut whpn Mnrtin hnrt Hb. la LfUm eliTft..l (Pms. IBSO), 4^-57; LuLOfa, BM. hiH. di
nrst acceaea to nis entreaty. Dill, wnen Martin nan oe- j^ p„,m, i iPtra, 1708), 10375-302: Losonm-Au Hmi. dt
parted, yielded to the eohcitations of Ithacius and or- i-^iueneUicant.lv lPimi.n3'i),SS5-e2; iS\NLt,o«.ActaSS.
dered Priscillian and his followers to be beheaded, 0^,8. (Kris, ioso),yi,U.4aB770:.Pm*.DtMrt.iui.MWM™
Djeplj gri.vrf, Martin jeM to •om.nmic.l, with J.^?"™*"*. 'iSS^K^K E.'ZS'^^SiJS'ii
Ithacius. However, when he went ogam to Tner a LiaiuiiiiMiiiiediTouri{/i.bbevait.iaa4): Ranxesa. if arlin
little later to ask pardon for two rebels, Nareea and ran fours. At umdtMaiiqc Monchu-Buchiif, in trinan Liim
T^iiraiiliini MflliTTHIH wnlilH nnlv nmrnian if t/i him nn "■ V^irtm datvcMtlU (Bnglsu. 188*); Rtvttst:, Im mrorla dr
l«ucadiu3 uaxunus would only promise .'t to him on ^^„.^ Uonm. U ipW /Jlfli™w»rD« <fc» OauUt. d«™i U Coiutit
condition that he would make his peace with Ithacius. Municipal deTauri(Toure, ISei): Scdllahd, Martin p/roun,
To save the lives of his clients, he consented to this ApoMc afOa«i (London, isoi!; Snt-ncipii Sevbhus. v\ia3.
reconciliation, but afterwards reproached himself bil^ "'"Jl' irSTI^ "vl ( Veiiw "iMl ) 79™- Sit "ch"™
terly for this act of weakness. Db S. Martini loco iMoli <t euUu in lVi«™^W. S(i«Jim a.
AfUr a last visit to Rome, Martin went to Candea, Mitunl aw d™ B«urfi*(iner Ordm tisso). I. i. 62-«4: II. 26-
one of the religious centres created by him in hw ^,^^:S^°^^■its!^■^i:^l^TT"rA't^^":^^aZA
diocese, when he was attacked by the malady which is&i)- Ffia di S Martina, rttann di Taurt (Monmi, IB7fl];
ended his life. Ordering himaelf to be earned mto WotOTuce. Vir d, si. Martin (Toun, ISSB).
the presbytery of the ohureh, he died there in 400 (ao- I^on CLtrcNET.
cording to some authorities; more probably in 3S7)
at the age of about 81, evincing until the last that ex- Martin of Troppan, chronicler, date of birth un-
emplary spirit of humility and mortification which he known; d. 1278. His family name was Strebski, and,
had ever shown. The Church of France has always being by birth a native of Troppau (Oppavia), be is
considered Martin one of her greatest saints, and hsgi- abo known as Martinus Oppaviensis. In nis youth he
ographers have recorded a great number of miracles entered the Dominican Order at Prague, and, as tiie
due tohisintercession whilehewasUvingandafterhis Bohemian monasteries ti the Dominicans belonged
death. His cult was very popular throughout the to the Polish province ot the order, he was usually
Middle Ages, a multitude of churches and chapels were known as Martmus Polonus. After the middle of the
dedicated to him, and a great number of places have thirteenth century he went to Rome, was appointed
been called by his name. His body, taken t« Toura, pap^chaplaiu and penitentiary by Clement Iv (1265-
was enclosed in a stone sarcophagus, above which his S), and retained this position under the succeeding
successors, St. Britiua and St. Perpetuus, built first a popes. On 22 June, 1278, Nicholas III appointed bim
simple chapel, and later a basilica (470). St. Eu- AivhtHsh<q> <^ Gnesen, and performed in perstw the
phronius. Bishop of Autim and a friend of St. Perpe- episcopal consecration. Shortly afterwards Hociin
tuus, sent a sculptured tablet of marble t4) cover the set out on his journey to Poland, but fell so seriotisly
tomb. A larger basilica was constructed in 1014, ill on the way that he was compelled to stop at
which was burned down in 1230 tfl be rebuilt soon on a Bologna. He died at this city in the same year,
Btill larger scale. This sanctuary was the centre of and found interment there- lurtin ia remembered
great national pilgrimages until 1562, the fatal year chiefly for bis epitome <A the history of the W4uid
when the Protestants sacked it from top to bottom, (Gbrooica Fonl^cum et Imperatorum), whioh wm
destroying the sepulchre and the relics of the great the favourite handbook of th« later Middle Agea.
wonder-worker, the object of their hatred. The ill- The fint edition appeared during the pontifioate ot
fated collegiate church was restored by its canons, but Clement IV (1205-8); a second reoenuon extends to
a new and more terrible misfortune awaited it. The the death of tM* pcmtiff, and a third to 1277. The
nvohitionary hammtw of 1703 waa to subject it to a "CSiraiucIo" mm ai7wi|ed in such a manner that tbt
MAETIN
734
MAETZMSBERG
popes were treated on one side of the codex, and the
emperors on the opposite page. As each page con-
tains fifty Unes, and each hne the historical matter of
one year, each page covers a period of fifty years.
Alike in matter and in arrangement he followed the
old models. The work is entirely uncritical; his
sources were to a great extent legendary, and this ma-
terial is again employed by him in uncritical fashion.
The " Chronicle " thus contains Uttle true history, but
chiefly a mass of fables and popular legends. He ad-
mits, for example, into his third edition the fable of
Popess Joan (q. v.), which indeed owes to him its wide
dissemination (Chronicle ed. in Mon. Germ., Script.,
XXII, 397-475) . The " Chronicle *' was continued by
many imitators of Martin. The work printed at
Turin in 1477 under the title " Martini Poloni Chro-
nicon summorum Pontificum et Imperatorum " is,
however, by a later author, and has no connexion with
Martin of Troppau . Besides the ' ' Chronicle ' ' , Martin
is said to have also written sermons (Sennones de
tempore et de Sanctis, Argentorati, 1484), a lexicon of
canon law, and a work on the Greek Schism.
Weiland, Introductio in Mon. Qerm. hist. Script., XXII, 377;
Idem, in A rchiv der Oca. fiir aeltere deutache Geachtchtakunde, XII,
1-79; Wattenbach, DnUschlanda Oeach'MitaqueUm, II (6th
ed.), 466-71; Hdrter, NomencUUor, II (3nl ed.), 420-1;
Michael, Qeach. dea deutachen Volkea, III, 384-8; Potthast,
Bibl. hiat, medii oavi, 2nd ed., I, 771-2.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Martin of Valencia, O.F.M. (Juan Martin de Boil),
b. at Villa de Valencia, Spain, about the middle of the
fifteenth century; died in the odour of sanctity at
Tlalmanalco, Mexico, 31 August, 1534. He entered
the Franciscan Order at Mayorga in the Province of
Santiago, built the monastery of Santa Maria del
Berrogal, and was the chief founder of the Custody of
San Gabriel, for which he visited Rome. In 1523 he
was chosen to head a band of twelve Franciscans who
were to labour for the conversion of the Mexican
natives. They reached their destination on 13 May,
1524, and to the amazement of the Mexican chiefs were
received with the most profound veneration by Her-
nando Cortes shortly aft^r their arrival. (See Friars
Minor in America.) Fr. Martin, as apostolic dele-
gate, presided at the first ecclesiastical synod in the
New World, 2 July, 1524. At the same time he estab-
lished the Custody of the Holv Gospel, of which he
was elec^d the first ctistos. After an interval of three
years he was re-elected in 1830. He led a most peni-
tential life, and he and his eleven companions, the
band known as the Twelve Apostles of Mexico, are
said to have baptized several million natives.
Habold, Epitome Annalium FF. Minorum (Rome. 1672);
GoTfZAQA, De Oriqine Seraphicca Religionia, II (Rome, 1587);
Mentdieta, Hiatorta Ecleaitlatica Indiana (Mexico, 1870) ; Vetan-
CURT, Cronica de la Prov. del Santo Evangelio (Mexico, 1697);
Menologio Franciacano (Mexico, 1697); Torquemada, Monar-
quia Indiana, I (Madrid, 1723); Pkrusini, Cronologia Hia-
torico-Legalia, III (Rome, 1752).
Zephyrin Engelhabdt.
Martinov, John, b. 7 October, 1821; d. 26 April,
1894. Having passed through his university course at
St. Petersburg with distinction, Count Schouvalov en-
gaged him as tutor to his children during a tour through
Europe. In France he became acquainted with Father
de Ravignan, and this led to his reception into the
Church. Being now unable to return to Russia, he
entered the French Jesuits, 18 September, 1845.
Similarly his patron. Count Schouvalov, having also
become a Catholic, joined the Bamabites. Father
Martinov, like Father Gagarin, with whom he often
co-operated, could now only reach his countrymen by
his writings, and devoted himself to literature and
correspondence with great success. He wrote fre-
quently for the "Revue des Questions Historiques ",
for "Polybiblion", and "Les Etudes Religieuses".
Called by Pius IX to Rome as a papal theologian for
the Vatican Council, he was afterwards a consultor of
the Pr()paganda in matters connected ^^Lth OrientAl
rites. TKe last days of his busy, well-filled life were
passed at Cannes. His bibliography, under fifty-two
titles, comprises works of every class, in Russian,
French, and Latin. His most notable work is the
"Annus Ecclesiasticus Grseco-Slavonicus ", which
forms part of the eleventh volume of the Bollandist
"Acta Sanctorum", for October (Brufisels, 1863).
Pricia Hiatoriquea (Brussels, 1894), 201; PolybMitm (18M),
aer. II, vol. 39^ 540; Somubbvooel., Bibliothkque de la Compa-
gnie de Jiaua, ix, 645--52.
J. H. Pollen.
Martinsberff, or Pannonhalma, an important
Benedictine abbey in Hungary, about fourteen Eng-
lish miles south of Raab, and sixty we6t of Buda-
Pesth. From an early date the place was tradition-
ally regarded as the scene of the birth and early life
of the famous St. Martin of Tours and was hdd in
great veneration by the small Christian population of
Hungary. Towards the end of the tenth century the
Benedictine monastery was begim by Duke Geysa, and
completed by his more celebrated son, St. Stephen, the
king. The second Sunday of October, 1001 , witnessed
the dedication of the church. The site is a pleasant
one on a high plateau with extensive views to the
north and east, and occupies the ground once covered
by a strongly fortified Roman encampment. Almost
iminterruptedly from that date the "Holy Mountain
of Himgary'', as it came to be called, has been the
centre of all that is best in the religious and intellee--
tual life of the kingdom. The first Christian school
established in Hungary, it soon attracted lai^ num-
bers of students; popes and kings increased and guar-
anteed its possessions, and owing to its strongly forti-
fied position it escaped destruction more than once
when all around was ruined. The Tartar invasion
left it unscathed. It was less fortimate imder Arch-
abbot Matthew, who died in 1584, during the disas-
trous five years in which tiie Turks were roasters of
Hungary, though it escaped annihilation till the fail
of its fortress in 1594, when the community was scat-
tered. The younger monks were received into va-
rious Austrian monasteries and the valuable archives
were saved from destruction. It was not till peace
was fully restored in 1683 that St. Martin's Abbev
rose from its ashes, the only house of the fifty which
had belonged to the Beneaictine Order in medieiid
Hungry. Its schools were reonened in 1724 and
flourished till the days of Joseph II, "the Sacristan"
(1780-86), whose narrowmindedness could not leave
untouched so vigorous a centre of religious feeling and
Hungarian sentiment and language.
The eclipse of Martinsberg lasted about sixteen
years. Li 1802, on 12 March, the abbey and its col-
leges were reopened in deference to the genera] desire
of the nation, and an archabbot was appointed in the
person of Dom Chr>'so8tom Novak. Smce that time
the fortunes of the community have prospered. The
abbey and church have been rebuilt in the Italian
style, and form an imposing group of buildings. The
house is the central home of all the monks of the Hun-
garian congregation; its superior, the archabbot, is a
prelate "nullius", inunediately subject to the Holy
See, Ordinary of the Diocese, perpetual President of
the Benedictine Congregation of Hungary, and a
member of the House of Magnates of the kingdom.
Subject to his government, besides the actual com-
munity at Martmsberg, are the abbeys of St. Maurice
and Companions at Bakonybel, of St. Anian at Tihany,
of St. Mary at Doemelk, and St. Hadrian at Zalavar,
and six residences, with colleges attached, in various
parts of the kingdom; Gydr ^ith 448 students, So-
pron with 345, Estergom with 366, and three nunor
gmmasia; Koszeg with 208, Komarom with 144, and
Papa with 157 students. The entire congregati<m of
Hungarian Benedictines numbers about 160 priests,
with some. 40 or 50 clerics and novices. The ooogre-
MAETmUZZI
735
MAETIMUZ2I
gation administers also in 26 incorporated parishes,
with seventy-five daughter churches and forty-four
chapels; serving a population of nearly 18,000 souls;
it has the supervision oesides of five convents of nuns;
its high schools, "gymnasia majora'' are attended by
alM)ut 1200 boys, its lesser seminaries by over 500.
The monks of St. Martin's have contributed largely
to the modem theological, scientific and historical
literature of their country, and have given many dis-
tinguished men to the Church. Cardinal Claud Vas-
zary, Archbishop of Gran, and Bishop Kohl, his auxil-
iary, are perhaps the best known representatives of
the Hungarian Benedictines at the present day.
Album Benedictinum (St. Vincent's Abbey, Pennsylvania,
1880); SS. PatriarefuB Benedicti famUa eonfcedtrata (Rome»
Vatican Press, 1905); Scriptorea Ord. S. Benedidi, qui lySO-
1880 fuerufU in imprrio AiMtriaco-Hungarico (Vienna. 1880).
John Gilbert Doian.
Martmuud, George, monk, bishop, cardinal, b. at
Kamicac, Dalmatia, 1482; d. 16 December, 1551. His
real name was George Utjesenovic. His mother, a
native of Venice of the name of Martinuzzi, had a
brother who was a bishop, and, out of regard for his
mother and uncle, George preferred to be called Marti-
nuzzi (I^atin Martinuzius), His father died in battle
against the Turks. At the age of eight, George came
to the court of Duke John Corvinus, in whose service
he remained at the Castle Hunyad 15 years under hard
conditions. Then he entered the service of the Duch-
ess Hedwig, the widow of Count Stephan Zapolya, by
whom he was well treated. A year later (1504), at
the age of 22, he entered the Pauline monasterv of St.
Laurentius near Of en, whore his unusual intellectual
gifts soon attracted attention. A monk taught him
writing and reading; later, he studied philosophy and
theologv' and was ordained priest. Owing to his tal-
ent, slull, and zeal, his superiors appointed him prior
of the monastery of Czenstochau in Poland, and later
of the monastery of Sajolad, near Erlau in North Hun-
?;ary. Here the Hungarian pretender, John Zapolya,
ound him, when, after the battle of Kashau, 1527, he
was compelled to fiee before King Ferdinand, and
discovered in the prior **Frater Georgius'*, an ac-
quaintance from the court of his mother Hedwig.
Kecognizing the prior's ability and energy, the prince
requested him to enter his service. Moved by ambi-
tion as well as patriotism, Martinuzzi left his monas-
tery to go with tne fugitive prince to Poland, and to de-
fend with tact and energy the prince's cause. During
the unfortunate troubles brought upon Hungary by
the war between the two pretenders, John Zapolya
and Ferdinand of Austria, and by the Turkish con-
quests, Martinuzzi was prominent in Hungarian poli-
tics. He went from Poland to Hungary, organized
the adherents of Zapolya, secured financial support
from Magyar nobles, and niised an army which de-
feated Ferdinand's general, Ravay (1528). In 1529.
Zapolya entered Ofen. He appointed Martinuzzi royal
counselor and treasurer, and in 1534 conferred on
him the diocese of Grosswardein, though the newly
nominated bishop did not receive papal approbation
until five years later. Meanwhile, he ruled his dio-
cese, but not being consecrated bishop, all the episco-
pal functions were performed by auxiliary bishops.
John Zapolya died 21 July, 1540. He left oijy
one young son, John Sigmund, who was bom nine dajrs
before Zapolya's death. The deceased monarch m
his will had appointed Martinuzzi and Peter Petrovich
guardians of the child. They proclaimed him king
and the Sultan Suleiman promised to recognize him.
But Ferdinand, who had the support of several Mag-
yarian nobles, demanded the f uinllment of an agree-
ment concluded between him and John Zapolya, ac-
cording to which, Hungary after the Latter's death,
was to oe ceded to him. His demand proving ineffeo-
tual, Ferdinand sent a new arm^ to Hungary which
•ccupied several cities and laid aiege to Ofen. In the
meantime, he negotiated with Isabella, to whom Mar-
tinuzzi was chief adviser. On one occasion Marti-
nuzzi even placed himself at the head of an army and
repulsed an attack on his city. Meanwhile, the Sul-
tan Suleiman declared war against Ferdinand, and in
person led a formidable army into Hungary. He oc-
cupied Ofen, and turned the lands along the Danube
into a Turkish province. But he respected the terri-
tory of Isabella and her son which was to be governed
during the latter's minority by Martinuzzi and Petro-
vich. The war between Ferdinand and the Sultan
continued, while Isabella governed the principality of
Siebenbtirgen for some years in peace. There was a
powerful cabal among the nobles vehemently hostile
to Martinuzzi, who governed with an autocractic firm-
ness that brought him many enemies. He had also
disagreements with Isabella, who permitted herself to
be swayed by his opponents. Martinuzzi now began
secretly negotiating with King Ferdinand, and in 1549
an agreement was come to by which Isabella had to
give up Siebenbtirgen. In return she was to receive
the pnncipaUty of Opelln in Silesia, and in addition
all that had been left her by her husband. Ferdinand
was also to provide for her son John Sigmund, and
later to marry him to his daughter. Martinuzzi was
to be made Archbishop of Gran, and to receive the car-
dinal's hat. As soon as this contract became known,
a quarrel broke out between Isabella and the minister.
The latter, however, had the upper hand, and the
queen was compelled to come to an agreement (1551);
this agreement however did not alUy the mistrust
between the two.
In the meantime the astute Martinuzzi treated with
the Sultan, and succeeded for a time in deceiving him
regarding the fate of Siebenbiirgen and his own rela-
tions with King Ferdinand. Ferdinand sent his gen-
eral, Castaldo, Margrave of Cassiano, with an army
to Siebenbiirgen to discuss the agreement made witn
Martinuzzi. Castaldo was told to keep on good terms
with the minister; but having little faith in Martinuzzi,
he was eager to settle the matter with Isabella as soon
as possible. In accordance with a previous arrange-
ment made with Martinuzzi, a treaty was conclucied
by which Isabella agreed to give up, under certain
conditions, Hungary and Sielx^nbUr^en, and to hand
over to Ferdinand the crown and insignia of the King-
dom. When the Sultan learned this, he sent a new
army against the king. Castaldo at once suspected
that M^inuzzi was in secret alliance with the Turks,
and that the negotiations were directed against him
and king Ferdinand. Castaldo told the king of his
suspicion and was told to deal with Martinuzzi in such
a way as he thought the country's need and the wel\
bein^ of its people demanded. Whether Castaldo's
suspicion was well founded, or whether he wished to
rid himself of a rival is a difficult question to decide
Older historical authority considered Martinuzzi 's se-
cret negotiations with the Sultan as treason against
Ferdinand. Modem historical research, however,
scouts these accusations, and maintains that Marti-
nuzzi cannot be con\icted of any treason against Fer-
dinand. (Danko in the ** Kirchenlex ", s. v.) Castaldo
brought about the assassination of Martinuzzi. The
order was executed on the night of December 16th
1551, by Sforza Pallavicini and several accomplices.
The body remained unburied until February 25th,
1552, when it was interred in St. Michael's church at
Karlsburg. Although Ferdinand and Castaldo en-
deavored to justify themselves to the pope, Julius III
excommunicated the murderers and instigators of the
crime. In 1555 however the punishment was with-
drawn. Though Martinuzzi's lame lies mainly in the
political sphere, he was also largely occupied with ec-
clesiastical affairs. He exerted himself greatly in re-
sisting the invasion of Protestantism. But a measure
with the same object which passed the legislative as-
eembly of Siebenbiirgen in 1544 had little result, for
MA&TIK
736
MMtTTR
the reason that Petrovich, the second guardian of the
king, was on the side of the new doctrine. In his own
diocese of Grosswardein, Martinuzzi battled energeti-
cally with the innovations, though he could not pre-
vent their progress in Siebenbiirgen. A reliable his-
torical account of this remarkable man has not yet
been compiled.
Bechet, Hisloire du ministhe du cardinal Mariinusius (Paris,
1771); Utjesenovic, Leben»geachicfUe des Kardinal Oeorg Utr
jeaenovic o^nannt Martinu3iua (Vienna, 1881); Schwtckbr,
Kard. Mariinuxzi und die Reformation in Unoam und Si^ten^
bUrgen {Oeaterr. Vierteljahrachrift fiir kaih. Theologie, 1867, VI,
397 ff.); Mailath, Oeschichie der Moffyaren, III,_(Renge8burg,
1863). 59 sq., 94 sq.. 112 sq., 116 sq.; WsiSB, Wdtgesehiehte,
3 ed., VUI, 68-70, 116.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Martm y Oarcia, Luis, twenty-fourth General of
the Society of Jesus; b. of humble parentage at Mel-
ear de Femamental, Burgos, Spain, 19 August, 1846;
d. at Fiesole, Italy, 18 April, 1906. After a course of
six years in the seminary of Burgos, he entered the
Society at Loyola, in 1864; studied philosophy at
L^on, VsJs (Haute-Loire, France), and Poyanne
(Landes, France), and theology at the last-named
place, where he also taught theology. He was or-
dained priest in 1876, was successively rector of the
seminaiy at Salamanca, director of '^El Mensajero''
(The Messenger), superior of the college of Deusto-
Bilbao, provmcial of Castile, and vicar; and was
general of the Society from 2 October, 1892, until his
death. The disease (sarcoma) which ended his life
necessitated the amputation of an arm and other pain-
ful operations, which he bore with Christian fortitude.
His superior talents were shown in such splendid
works as the rebuilding of the great seminary at Sala-
manca, the foundation of the Comillense seminary,
and his plan for compiling the history of the Society.
In prose he wrote with a nervous and graceful style, m
verse with a robust sonority and great wealth of
imagery, while as a preacher the elegance of his diction,
the profoundity ol his thought, and his emotional
warmth made him almost unrivalled among the Span-
ish orators of his time. His published woi^ include:
" Discm-so leido en el tercer centenario de la muerte de
Sta. Teresa" (discourse on St. Teresa's centenary),
^Madrid, 1882; Bilbao, 1891; Barcelona, 1908); "De
Studiis Theologicis ordinandis" (Bilbao, 1892); an
epistle to the fathers and brothers of the society;
articles in "El Mensajero", I (1886), of which he was
editor for some years; and some uncollected poems.
Hozrfn V F«. XV (Madrid). 141-66; 279-92; La Crut, I
(Madrid, 1893), 146: I (1906), 415; Diceionario hteielonSdico
Hispano^mericano, jd^ (Barcelona, 1893); Letters and Notices
(London, 1906-07).
Antonio Perez (jotena.
Mart3rr. — ^The Greek word udprvt signifies a wit-
ness who testifies to a fact of which he bob knowledge
from personal observation. It is in this sense that the
term first appears in Christian Uterature; the Apostles
were "witnesses" of all that they had observecl in the
public life of Christ, as well as of all they had learned
from His teaching, "in Jerusalem, and in all Judea,
and Samaria, and even to the uttermost part of the
earth" (Acts, i, 8). St. Peter, in his adoress to the
Apostles and disciples relative to the election of a
successor to Judas, employs the term with this mean-
ing: "Wherefore, of these men who have companied
with us all the time that the Lord Jesus cfjne in and
went out among us, beginning from the aaptism of
John until the day he was taken up from us, one of
these must be made witness with us of his resurrection"
(Acts, i, 22). In his first public discourse the chief
of the Apostles speaks of himself and his companions
as "witnesses" who saw the risen Christ, ana subse-
quently, after the miraculous escape of the Apostles
from prison, when brought a second time before the
tribimal, Peter again alludes to the twelve as witnesses
k? Chiiat, as the I^ince and Saviour of Israel, Who
rose from the dead; and added that in giving their
public testimony to the facts, of which they were cer-
tain, they must obey God rather than man (Acts, v,
29 sqa.)- In his First Epistle St. Peter also refers to
himself as a "witness of the sufferings of Christ" (I
Pet., V. 1).
But even in these first examples of the use of the
word ijuipryt in Christian terminology a new shade of
meaning is already noticeable, in addition to the ac-
cepted signification of the term. The disciples of
Christ were no ordinary witnesses such as those who
gave testimony in a court of justice. These latter ran
no risk in bearing testimony to facts that came under
their observation, whereas the witnesses of Christ
were brought face to face daily, from the beginning of
their apostolate, with the possibility of incurring
severe punishment and even death itself. Thus, St.
Stephen was a witness who early in the history of
Christianity sealed his testimony with his blood. The
careers of the Apostles were at all times beset with
dangers of the gravest character, until eventually
they all suffered tne last penaltvfor their convictions.
Thus, within the lifetime of the Apostles, the term
/tdpTvs came to be used in the sense of a witness who at
any time might be called upon to deny what he testi-
fied to, under penalty of death. From this stage the
transition was easy to the ordinary meaning of the
term, as used ever since in Christian literature: a
martyr, or witness of Christ, is a person who, though
he has never seen nor heard the Divine Founder of the
Church, is yet so firmly convinced of the truths of the
Christian religion, that he gladly suffers death rather
than deny it. St. John, at the end of the first cen-
tury, employs the word with this meaning; Antipas,
a convert from paganism, is spoken of as a " faithful
witness (fidftrvs) who was slain among you. where
Satan dwelleth " (Apoc., ii, 13). Further on the same
Apostle speaks of the "souls of them that were slain
for the Word of God and for the testimony (jtofirvpUui)
which they held" (Apoc., vi, 9).
Yet, it was only by degrees, in the course of the first
age of the Church, that the term martyr came to be
exclusively applied to those who had died for the
faith. The grandsons of St. Jude, for example, on
their escape from the peril they underwent when cited
before Domitian were afterwards regarded as nuirtyrs
(Euseb., "Hist, eccl.'^ Ill, xx, xxxii). The famous
confessors of Lyons, who endured so bravely awful
tortures for their belief, were looked upon by iJ^eir
fellow-Christians as martyrs, but they themselves de-
clined this title as of right belonging only to Ihose who
had actuallv died: "They are already martyrs whom
Christ has deemed worth v to be taken up in their con-
fession, having sealed their testimony by their de-
parture; but we are confessors mean and lowly"
(Euseb., op. cit., V, ii). This distinction between
martyrs and confessors is thus traceable to the latter
part of the second century: those only were martyrs
who had suffered the extreme penalty, whereas the
title of confessors was given to Christians who had
shown their willingness to die for their belief, by
bravely enduring imprisonment or torture, but were
not put to death. Yet the term martyr was still some-
iimes applied during the third century to persons still
living, as, for instance, by St. Cyprian, who gave the
title of martyrs to a number of bishops, priests, and
laymen condemned to penal servitude in the mines
(Ep. 76). Tertullian speaks of those arrested as
Christians and not yet condemned as marhires denff"
nati. In the fourth century, St. Gregory of Nasiansus
alludes to St. Basil as "a martyr", but evidently em-
plovs the term in the broad sense in which the word is
still sometimes applied to a person who has borne
many and grave hardships in tne cause of Christianity.
The description of a martyr given by the ^agan his-
torian Anunianus Marcelunus (XXII, xni), ^owb
that by the middle of the fourth century the title wm
MARTTB
737
MA&TYft
everywhere reserved to those who had actually suf-
fered death for their faith. Heretics and schismatics
put to death as Christians were denied the title of
martyrs (St. Cyprian, *'De Unit,", xiv; St. Augustine,
Ep. 173; Euseb., *'Hist. Eccl.", V, xvi, xia), St.
CVprian lays down clearly the general principle that
"he cannot be a martyr who is not in the Church; he
cannot attain unto the kingdom who forsakes that
which shall reign there." St. Clement of Alexandria
strongly disapproves (Strom., IV, iv) of some here-
tics ^o gave themselves up to the law; they "banish
themselves without being martyrs".*
The orthodox were not permitted to seek martyr-
dom. Tertullian, however, approves the conduct of
the Christians of a province of Asia who gave them-
selves up to the governor, Arrius Antoninus (Ad.
Scap., v;. Eusebius also relates with approval the
incident of three Christians of Csesarea m Palestine
who, in the persecution of Valerian, presented them-
selves to the judge and were condemned to death
(Hist. Eccl., Vll, xii). But while circumstances might
sometimes excuse such a course, it was generjuly
held to be imprudent. St. Gregory of Nazianzus
stuns up in a sentence the rule to be followed in such
cases : it is mere rashness to seek death, but it is cow-
ardly to refuse it (Orat. xlii, 5, 6). The example of a
Christian of Smyrna named Quintus, who, in the time
of St. Polycarp, persuaded several of his fellow be-
lievers to declare tnemselves Christians, was a warning
of what might happen to the over-zealous: Quintus
at the last moment apostatized, though his compan-
ions persevered. Breaking idols was condemnea by
the Council of Elvira (30i5), which, in its sixtieth
canon, decreed that a Christian put to death for such
vandalism would not be enrolled as a martyr. Lac-
tantius, on the other hand, has only mild censure
for a Christian of Nicomedia who suffered martyrdom
for tearing down the edict of persecution (De mort.
pers., xiii). In one case St. Cyprian authorizes seek-
ing martyrdom. Writing to his priests and deacons
regarding repentant lapsi who were clamouring to be
received oaclc into communion, the bishop after giving
general directions on the subject, concludes by saying
that if these impatient personages are so eager to get
back to the Church there is a way of doing so open
to them. "The stru^le is still going forward", he
says, "and the strife is waged daily. If they (the
lapsi) truly and with constancy repent of what tney
have done, and the fervour of their faith prevails, he
who cannot be delayed may bo crowned (Ep. xiii).
Legal Basis of the Persecutions. — Acceptance
of the national religion in antiquity was an obligation
incumbent on all citizens; failure to worship the gods
of the State was equivalent to treason. This univer-
sally accepted principle is responsible for the various
persecutions suffered by Christians before the reign of
Constantine; Christians denied the existence of and
therefore refused to worship the gods of the state
pantheon. They were in consequence regarded as
atheists. It is true, indeed, that the Jews also re-
jected the gods of Rome, and yet escaped persecution.
But the Jews, from the Roman standpoint, had a
national religion and a national God, Jehovah, whom
they had a full legal right to worship. Even after the
destruction of Jerusalem, when the Jews ceased to
exist as a nation, Vespasian made no change in their
religious status, save that the tribute formerly sent
by Jews to the temple at Jerusalem was henceforth to
be paid to the Roman exchequer. For some time
after its establishment, the Chnstian Church enjoyed
the religious privileges of the Jewish nation, but from
the nature of the case it is apparent that the chiefs of
the Jewish religion would not long permit without
protest this state of things. For they abhorred
Christ's religion as much as they abhorred its Founder.
At what date the Roman authorities had their atten-
tion directed to the difference between the Jewish and
IX.~47
the Christian religion cannot be determined, but it ap«
pears to be fairly well es>tablishcd that laws proscribing
Christianity were enacted befoi^ the end of the first
centur>\ Tertullian is authority for the statement
that persecution of the Christians was insUiuium Ne-
ronianum — ^an institution of Nero — (Ad nat., i, 7).
The First Epistle of St. Peter also clearly alludes to
the proscription of Christians, as Christians, at the
time it was written (I, St. Peter, iv, 16). Domitian
(81-96) also, is known to have punished with death
Christian members of his own family on the charge of
atheism (Suetonius, "Domitianus", xv). While it is
therefore probable that the formula: " Let there be no
Christians " {Chridiani non sint) dates from the second
half of the first centuiy, yet the earliest clear enact-
ment on the subject of Christianity is that of Trajan
(98-117) in his famous lette|to the younger Pliny, nis
legate in Bithynia.
Pliny had been sent from Rome by the emperor to
Restore order in the ProWnce of Bithynia-Pontus.
Among the difficulties he encountered in the execution
of his commission one of the most serious concerned
the Christians. The extraordinarily large number of
Christians he found within his iuriscfiction greatly sur-
prised him: the contagion of their "superstition", he
reported to Trajan, affected not only the cities but
even the villages and country districts of the province
(Pliny, Ep., x, 96). One consequence of the general
defection from the state religion was of an economic
order: so many people had become Christians that
purchasers were no longer found for the victims that
once in great numbers were offered to the gods. Com-
plaints were laid before the legate relative to this state
of affairs, with the result that some Christians were
arrested and brought before Pliny for examination.
Tlie suspects were interrogated as to their tenets and
those ot them who persisted in declining repeated
invitations to recant were executed. Some of the
prisoners, however, after first affirming tliat they
were Christians, afterwards, when threatened wim
punishment, qualified their first admission by saying
that at one time they had been adherents of the pro-
scribed body but were so no longer. Others again de-
nied that they were or ever nad l^een Christians.
Having never before had to deal with questions coiw
ceming Christians Pliny applied to the emperor for
instructions on three points regarding which he did not
see his way clearly: first, whether tne age of the ac-
cused should be taken into consideration in meting
out punishment; secondly, whether Christians who
renounced their belief should be pardoned; and
thirdly, whether the mere profession of Christianity
should be regarded as a crime, and punishable as such,
independent of the fact of the innocence or guilt of the
accused of the crimes ordinarily associatecTwith suc^
profession.
To these inquiries Trajan replied in a rescript which
was destined to have the force of law throughout the
second century in relation to Christianity. After ap-
proving what his representative had already done,
the emperor directed that in future the rule to he ob-
served m dealing with Christians should be the follow-
ing: no steps were to be taken by ma^strates to
ascertain who were or who were not Christians, but at
the same time, if any person was denounced, and ad-
mitted that he was a Christian, he was to be punished
— evidently with death. Anonymous denunciations
were not to be acted upon, and on the other hand,
those who repented of oeing Christians and offered
sacrifice to the gods, were to be pardoned. Thus,
from the year 112, the date of this document, perhaps
even from the reign of Nero, a Christian was ipso
facto an outlaw. That the followers of Christ were
known to the highest authorities of the State to be
innocent of the numerous crimes and misdemeanors
attributed to them by popular calumny, is evident
from Pliny's testimony to this effect, as well as fraia
MARTTE
738
MABTTB
Trajan's order: canquirendi non 8uni. And that the
emperor did not regard Christians as a menace to the
State is apparent fipm the general tenor of his in-
structions. Their only crime was that they were
Christians, adherents of an ill^pal religion. Under
this regime of proscription the Uhnrch existed from
the year 112 to the reign of Septimius Severus (193-
211). The position of the faithful was always one of
grave danger, being as they were at the mercy of
every malicious person who might, without a moment's
warning, cite them before the nearest tribunal. It is
true indeed, that the delator was an unpopular person
in the Roman Empire, and, besides, in accusing a
Christian he ran the risk of incurring severe pimish-
ment if imable to make good his charge against his
intended victim. In spite of the danger, however,
instances are known, in the persecution era, of Chris-
tian victims of delation. •
The prescriptions of Trajan on the subject of Chris-
tianity were modified by Septimius Severus by the
addition of a clause forbidding any person to become
a Christian. The existing law of Trajan against Chris-
tians in general was not, indeed, repealed by Severus,
though for the moment it was evidently the intention
of the emperor that it should remain a dead letter.
The object aimed at by the new enactment was, not
to disturb those already Christians, but to check the
growth of the Church by preventing conversions,
ome illustrious convert martyrs, the most famous
being Sts. Perpetua and Felicitas. were added to the
roll of champions of religious freedom by this prohibi-
tion, but it effected nothing of consequence in regard
to its primary purpose. The persecution came to an
end in the second year of the reign of Caracalla (211-
17). From this date to the reign of Decius (250-53)
the Christians enjoyed comparative peace, with the
exception of the short period when Maximinus the
Thracian (235-38) occupied the throne. The eleva-
tion of Decius to the purple began a new era in the
relations between Christianity and the Roman State.
This emperor, thou^ a native of Illyria^ was never-
theless profoundly imbued with the spirit of Roman
conservatism. He ascended the throne with the firm
intention of restoring the prestige which the empire
was fast losing, and he seems to nave been convinced
that the chief difficulty in the way of effecting his pur-
pose was the existence of Christianity. The conse-
Quenoe was that in the year 250 he issued an edict,
tne tenor of which is known only from the documents
relating to its enforcement, prescribing that all Chris-
tians of the empire should on a certain day offer sacri-
fice to the gods.
This new law was quite a different matter from the
existing legislation against Christianity. Proscribed
though they were lewdly, Christians had hitherto en-
(oyed comparative security under a regime which
clearly laid down the principle that they were not to
be sought after officially bv the civil authorities. The
edict of Decius was exacti>r the opposite of this: the
magistrates were now constituted religious inquisitors,
whose duty it was to punish Christians who refused to
apostatize. The emperor's aim, in a word, was to
annihilate Christianity by compelling every Christian
in the empire to renounce his faith. The first effect of
the new legislation seemed favourable to the wishes of
its author. During the long interval of peace since the
reign of Septimius Severus — nearly lorty years — a
considerable amount of laxity had crept into the
Church's discipline, one consequence of which was,
that on the publication of the edict of persecution,
multitudes of Christians besieged the magistrates
everywhere in their eagerness to comply with its de-
mands. Many other nominal Christians procured by
bribery certificates stating that they had complied with
the law, while still others apostatised imder torture.
Yet after this first throng ofweaklings had put them-
9e)ve8 outside the pale of Christianity there still re-
mained, in every part of the empire, numerous Chris-
tians worthy of tfa^r religion, who endured all maimer
of torture, and death itself, for their convictions. The
persecution lasted about eighteen months, and wrought
mcalculable harm.
Before the Church had time to repair the damage
thus caused, a new conflict with the State was inaugu-
rated by an edict of Valerian published in 257. This
enactment was directed against the clergy, bishops,
priests, and deacons, who were directed under pain ot
exile to offer sacrifice. Christians were also forbidden,
imder pain of death, to resort to their cemeteries.
The results of this first edict were of so little moment
that the following year, 258, a new edict appeared
requirixig the clergy to offer sacrifice imder penalty of
death. Christian senators, knights, and even the ladies
of their families, were also affected by an order to offer
sacrifice under penalty of confiscation of their goods
and reduction to plebeian rank. And in the event of
thc»9e severe measiu^ proving ineffective the law pre-
scribed further punismnent: execution for the men,
for the women exile. Christian slaves and freedmen
of the emperor's household also were punished by
confiscation of their possessions and reduction to tlie
lowest ranks of slavery. Among the martyrs of this
persecution were Pope Sixtus II and St. Cyprian of
Carthage. Of its further effects little is known, for
want <» documents, bu|; it seems safe to surmise that,
besides adding many new martyrs to the Church's
roll^ it must have caused enormous suffering to the
Christian nobility. The persecution came to an end
with the capture (260) of Valerian by the Persians;
his successor, GalUenus (260-68), revoked the edict
and restored to the bishops the cemeteries and meet-
ing places.
From this date to the last persecution inaugurated
by Diocletian (284-305) the Church, 9a ve for a short
period in the reign of Aurelian (270-75), remained in
the same legal situation as in the second century. The
fibrst edict ctf Diocletian was promulgated at Nicomedia
in the year 303, and was of the following tenor: Chris-
tian assemblies were forbidden; churches and sacred
books were ordered to be destroyed, and all Christians
were commanded to abjure their religion forthwith.
The penalties for failure to comply with these demands
were degradation and civil deatn for the higher classes,
reduction to slavery for freemen of the humbler sort,
and for slaves incapacity to receive the gift of freedom.
Later in the same year a new edict ordered the impris-
onment of eccledastics of all grades, from bishops to
exorcists. A third edict imposed tne death-penalty
for refusal to abjure^ and granted freedom to those
who would offer sacrifice; while a fourth enactment,
published in 304, commanded everybody without ex-
ception to offer sacrifice publicly. This was the last
and most determined effort of the Roman State to
destroy Christianity. It gave to the Church countless
martjrrs, and ended in her triumph in the reign of
Const antine.
Number of the Marttbs. — Of the 249 years from
the first persecution under Nero (64) to the jrear 313,
when Constantine established lasting peace, it is cal-
culated that the Christians suffered persecuUon about
129 yeara and enjoyed a certain degree oi toleration
about 120 years. Yet it must be borne in mind that
even in the years of comparative tranquillity Chris-
tians were at all times at the mercy of every peraon
fll-disposed towards them or their religion in the em-
pire. Whether or not delation of Christians occurred
frequently during the era of persecution is not known,
but taking into consideration the irrational hatred 01
the pagan population for Christians, it may safely be
surmised tnai not a few Christians suffered niartyr-
dom through betraval. An example of the kind re-
lated by St. Justin Martyr shows how swift and terri-
ble were the conseouences of delation. A woman who
had been convertea to Christianity was accused by ber
MAETTE
739
MAETTE
husband before a magistrate of being a Christian.
Through influence the accused was granted the favour
of a brief, respite to settle her worldly affairs, after
which she was to appear in court and put forward her
defence. Meanwhile her angry husband caused the
arrest of the catechist, Ptolomscus by name, who had
instructed the convert. Ptolomaeus, when Question^,
acknowledged that he was a Christian ana was con-
demned to death. In the court, at the time this
sentence was pronounced, were two persons who
protested against the iniquity of inflicting capital
punishment for the mere fact of professing Christian-
itv. The magistrate in reply asked if they also were
Christians, and on their answering in the affirmative
both were ordered to be executed. As the same fate
awaited the wife of the delator also, unless she re-
canted, we have here an example of three, possibly
four, persons suffering capital punishment on tne accu-
sation of a man actuated ov malice, solely for the reason
that his wife had given up the evil life she had previously
led in his society (St. Justin Martyr, IT, Apol., ii).
As to the actual number of persons wno died as
martyrs during these two centuries and a half we have
no definite infoniiation. Tacitus is authority for the
statement that an immense multitude {ingens mtdtp-
tudo) were put to death by Nero. The Apocalypse of
St. John speaks of "the souls of them that were slain
for the word of God '* in the reign of Domitian^ and
Dion Cassius informs us that "many" of the Christian
nobility suffered death for their faith during the perse-
cution for which this emperor is responsible. Origen,
indeed, writing about the year 249, before the edict ot
Decius, states that the number of those put to death
for the Christian religion was not very great, but he
probably means that the number of martyrs up to this
time was small when compared with the entire number
of Christians (of. Allard, "Ten Lectures on the Mar-
tyrs", 128). St. Justin Martyr, who owed his con-
version largely to the heroic example of Christians
suffering for their faith^ incidentally gives a glimpse
of the danger of professing Christianity in the middle
of the second century, in the reign of so good an
emperor as Antoninus Plus (138-61). In his " Dialogue
witn Tiypho" (ex), the apologist, after alluding to the
fortitude of his brethren in religion, adds, " for it is
plain that, though beheaded, and crucified, and thrown
to wild beasts, and chains, and fire, and all other kinds
of torture, we do not give up our confession; but, the
more such things happen, the more do others in larger
numbers become faitnful. . . . Every Christian has
been driven out. not only from his own property, but
even from the wnole world; for you permit no Christian
to live." Tertullian also, writing towards the end of
the second century, frequently alludes to the terrible
conditions under wnich Christians existed (" Ad knar-
tyres ", " Apologia ", " Ad Nationes", etc.) : death and
torture were ever present possibilities.
But the new r6^me of special edicts, which began
in 250 with the edict of Decius, was still more fatal to
Christians. The persecutions of Decius and Valerian
were not, indeed, of long duration, but while they
lasted, and in spite of the large number of those who
fell away, there are clear indications that they pro-
duced numerous martyrs. Dionysius of AleTcancuia,
for instance, in a letter to the Bishop of Antioch, teUs
of a violent persecution that took place in the Egyp-
tian capital, through popular violence, before the eoict
of Decius was even puolished. The Bishop of Alex-
andria gives several examples of what Christians
endured at the hands of the pagan rabble and then
adds that "many others, in cities and villages, were
torn asunder by the heathen" (Euseb.. " Hist, eccl.",
VI, xli sq.). Besides those who perished by actual vio-
lence, also, a "multitude wandered in the deserts and
mountains, and perished of hunger and thirst^f cold
and sickness and robbers and wild beasts" (Euseb.,
L o.)« In another letter, speaking of the persecution
under Valerian, Dionysius 6tat<.'S tliat "men and
women^ young and old, maidens and matrons, soldiers
and civilians, of every age and race, some by scourging
and fire, others by the sword, have conquered in the
strife and won their crowns" (Id., op. cit., VII, xi).
At Cirta, in North Africa, in the same persecution,
after the execution of Christians had continued for
several days, it was resolved to expedite matters. To
this end the rest of those condemned were brought to
the bank of a river and made to kneel in rows. When
all was ready the executioner passed along the raiiks
and despatched all without further loss of time
(Ruinart, p. 231).
But the last persecution was even more severe than
any of the previous attempts to extirpate Christianity.
In Nicomedia " a great multitude " were put to death
with their bishop, Anthimus; of these some perished
by the sword, some by fire, while others were drowned.
In Egypt " thousands of men, women and children,
despising the present life, . . . endured various
deaths" (Euseb.^ "Hist, eccl.", \1I, iv sqq.), and the
same happened m many other places throughout the
East. In the West the persecution came to an end at
an earlier date than in the East, but, while it lasted,
numbers of martyrs, especially at Rome, were added
to the calendar (cf. AUard. op. cit., 13S sq.). But
besides those who actually shea their blood in the first
three centuries account must betaken of the numerous
confessors of the Faith who, in prison, in exile, or in
penal servitude suffered a daily martyrdom more diflS-
cult to end ure than death itself. Thus, while anythii^
like a numerical estimate of the number of martyrs b
impossible, yet the meagre evidence on the suDJect
that exists clearly enough establishes the fact tnat
countless men, women and even children, in that glo-
rious, though terrible, first age of Christianity, cheer-
fully sacrificed their goods, their liberties, or their lives,
rather than renounce the faith they prized above all.
Trial of the Martyrs. — ^The first act in the trag-
edy of the martyrs was their arrest by an officer of the
law. In some instances the privilege of custodia libera,
granted to St. Paul during his first imprisonment, was
allowed before the accus^ were broi^ht to trial; St.
Cyprian, for example, was detained m the house of
the officer who arrested him, and treated with con-
sideration until the time set for his examination. But
such procedure was the exception to the rule; ihe ao-
cusecf Christians were generally cast into the public
prisons, where often, for weeks or months at a time,
they suffered the greatest hardships. ^ Glimpses of the
suffering they endured in prison are in rare instances
supplied by the Acts of the Martyrs. St. Perpetua,
for instance, was horrified by the awful darkness, the
intense heat caused by overcrowding in the climate of
Roman Africa, and the brutality of the soldiers (Pas-
sio SS. Perpct., et Felic, i). dther confessors allude
to the various miseries of prison life as beyond their
powers of description (Passio SS. Montani, Lucii, iv).
Deprived of food, save enough to keep them alive, of
water, of light and air; weighted down with irons, or
placed in stocks with their Tegs drawn as far apart as
was possible without causing a rupture; exposed to aU
manner of infection from heat, overcrowding, and the
absence of anything like proper sanitary conditions—
these were some of the afflictions that preceded actual
martyrdom. Many, naturally, died in prison under
such conditions, while others, unfortunately, unable to
endure the strain, adopted the easy means of escape
left open to them, namely, complied with the con-
dition demanded by the State of offering sacrifice.
Those whose strength, physical and moral, was ca-
pable of enduring to the end were, in addition, fre-
quently interrogated in court by the magistrates, who
endeavoured by persuasion or torture to induce them
to recant. These tortures comprised every means
that human ingenuity in antiquity had devised to
break down even the most courageous; the obstinatQ
MARTnt
740
MAftTnt
virerescoiu^ged with whips, with straps, or with ropes: or
again they were stretched on the rack and their Dodies
torn apart with iron rakes. Another awful punish-
ment consisted in suspending the victim, sometimes for
a whole day at a time, by one hand; while modest
women in addition were exposed naked to the gaze of
those in court. Almost worse than all this was the
penal servitude to which bishops, priests, deacons, lay-
men and women, and even chudrenj were condemned
in some of the more violent persecutions; these refined
personages of both sexes, victims of merciless laws,
were doomed to pass the remainder of their days in the
darkness of the mines, where they dragged out a
wretched existence, half naked, hungry, and with no
bed save the damp ground. Those were far more for-
tunate who were condemned to even the most dis-
graceful death, in the arena, or by crucifixion.
HoNOUKs PAID THE Martyrs. — It is casy to under-
stand why those who endured so much for their con-
victions should have been so greatly venerated by
their co-reli^onists from even the first days of trial in
the reign otNero. The Roman officials usually per-
mitted relatives or friends to gather up the mutilated
remains of the martyrs for mterment, although in
some instances such permission was refused^ These
rehcs the Christians regarded as ''more valuable than
gold OT precious stones" (Martyr. Polycarpi, xviii).
Some of the more famous martyrs received special
honours, as for instance, in Rome, St. Peter and St.
Paul, whose *' trophies ", or tombs, are spoken of at the
bepnning of the third century by the Roman priest
Caius (Eusebius, " Hist, eccl.", II, xxi, 7). Numerous
crypts and chapels in the Roman catacombs, some of
which, like the capella grcecay were constructed in sub-
Apostolic times, also bear witness to the early venera-
tion for those champions of freedom of conscience who
won. by dying, the greatest victory in the history of
the numan race. Special commemoration services of
the martyrs, at which the holy Sacrifice was offered
over their tombs — the origin of the time-honoured
custom of consecrating altars by enclosing in them the
relics of martyrs — were held on the anniversaries of
their death; the famous Fractio Pants fresco of the
capella orcecaf dating from the early second century, is
probably a representation (see s. v. Fractio Panib;
Eucharist, Symbols of) in miniature, of such a
celebration. From the age of Constantine even still
flreater veneration was accorded the martyrs. Pope
Damasus (366-84) had a special love for the martyrs,
as we learn from the inscnptions, brought to li^ht by
de Rossi, composed by him for their tombs m the
Roman catacombs. Later on veneration of the mar-
tyrs was occasionally exhibited in a rather undesirable
form * many of the frescoes in the catacombs have been
mutilated to gratify the ambition of the faithful to be
buried near tne saints (retro sancloa)^ in whose com-
pany they hoped one day to rise from the grave. In
the Middle Ages the esteem in which the martyrs were
held was eaually ^reat ; no hardships were too severe to
be endured in visiting famous shrines, like those of
Rome, where their reb'cs were contained.
Allard, Ten Lectures on the Martyrs (New York, 1907);
BmK8 in Diet, of Christ. AnUq. (London, 1876-80), s. v.;
Healt, The Valerian Persecution (Boeton, 1905); Leclercq,
Le9 Martyrs, I (Paris, 1906); Duchesne, Hidoire ancienne de
Vfglise, I (Paris. 1906); Heuser in Kraus. Realencykloplidie
LChristlichen AltenthUmer (Freiburg, 1882-86), s. v. M&Hurer;
BoNWETCH in RealencyklopOdie /. prot. Theol. u. Kirche (Leip-
Bg, 1903), 8. V. Mdrtyrer u. Bekenner, and Harnack in op. cit.,
8. V. Christenverfolgungen. _ _ •«, -r-r
Maurice M. Habsatt.
Martyr d'Anghiera, Peter, historian of Spain
and of the discoveries of her representatives, b. at
Arona, near Anghiera, on Lake Maggiore in Italy, 2
Februarv, 1457; d. at Granada in October, 1526. He
went to Rome at the age of twenty, and there made the
acquaintance of Pomponius LsBtus, the antiquarian.
Cardinals Arcimbolo and Sforza became his patrons,
find under Pope Innocent VIII he was made secretary
of the prothonotary, Francesco Negro. He became
acquainted through the Spanish prothonotary, Geral-
dlnOy with the Ambassador Don Ifiigo Lopez de Men-
dosa, Count of Tendilla, whom he accompanied to
Saragossa in August, 1487. He soon became a notable
figure among the Humanists of Spain, and in 1488
gave lectures in Salamanca on the invitation of the
university. The new learning was under high patron-
age. King Ferdinand was a pupil of Vidal de Noya;
Queen Isabel bad studied under Beatrice Gidindo,
sumamed The Latina: EIrasmus has praised the
learning of Catherine ot Aragon, who married Henry
Vin of England: and Luis Vines relates that the
daughter of Isabel the Catholic, Dofia Juana La Loca,
could converse in Latin with the ambassadors from
the Low Countries. Italians were spreading the
Renaissance movement throughout Spain, and the
intelligence of Castile sat at the feet of^ Peter Martyr
d'Ani^iera. His chief task, however, after 1492 was
the education of young nobles at the Spanish court,
and a great number of noted men issued from his
school. In 1501 he was sent to Egypt on a diplomatic
mission to dissuade the Sultan from taking vengeance
on the Christians in Eg^t and Palestine for the de-
feat of the Moors in Spam. Following on the success-
ful issue of this mission, he received the title of '' maes-
tro de los caballeros". In 1504 he became papal
prothonotary and prior of Granada. In 1511 he was
given the post of chronicler in the newly formed State
Council of India, which was commissioned b^ the
Government to describe what was transpiring in the
New World. In 1522 his old friend, Aarian of Lou-
vain, now Pope Adrian VI, a(>pointed him archpriest
of Ocana. Cnarles V gave him in 1523 the title of
Count Palatine, and in 1524 called him once more
into the Indian State Council. At last he was in-
vested by Clement VII, on the proposal of Charles V,
with the di^ty of Abbot of Jamaica. Martyr never
visited the island, but as abbot he had built there the
first stone church.
As chronicler he performed notable Uteranr work,
which has preserved his name to posterity. The year
of his appointment (1511), he published, with other
works, tne first historical account of the great S^mish
discoveries under the title of "Opera, Legatio, Babv-
lonica, Oceanidecas, Poemata, Epigrammata " (Seville.
1511). The "Decas" consisted of ten reports, of
which two, in the form of letters describing the voy-
ages of Columbus, had been already sent by Martyr
to Cardinal Ascanius Sforza in 1493 and 1494. In
1501 Martyr, at the urgent request of the Cardinal of
Aragon, had added to these eight chapters on the
third voyage of Columbus and the exploits of Nifio and
Pinzon, and in 1511 he added a supplement giving an
account of events from 1501 to 1511. Jointly with
this " Decade ", he published a narrative of his ex-
periences in Egypt with a description of the inhabi-
tants, their country, and history. By 1516 he had
finished two other "Decades", the first of these being
devoted to the exploits of Ojeda. Nicuesa, and Balboa,
the other giving an account of the discovery of the
Pacific Ocean by Balboa, of the fourth voyage d
Columbus, and furthermore of the expeditions of
Pedrarias. All three appeared together at Alcaic in
1516 under the title: Ve orbe novo decades cum
Legatione Babylonica ". The " Enchiridion de nuper
sub D. Carolo repertis insulis" (Basle, 1521) came out
as the fourth "Decade" treating of the voyages of
Hernandez de C6rdoba, Drijalva, and Cort&. The
fifth "Decade" (1523) dealt with the conquiest of
Mexico and the circumnavigation of the worid by
Magellan; the sixth " Decade " (1524) gave an account
of the discoveries of Davila on the west coast of
America; in the seventh "Decade" (1525) there are
collected together descriptions of the customs of the
natives in South Carolina, as well as Florida. Haiti,
Cuba, Darien; the eighth "Decade" (1525) gives for
MABTTBDOM
741
MABTTBOLOOY
the most part the story of the inarch of Gort^ against
out.
liartyr got many of his accounts from the discov-
erers themselves; he profited by letters of Columbus,
and was able also to make use of the reports of the
Indian State Council. He himself had a great grasp
of geographical problems: it was he, for example, who
first realized the significance of the Gulf Stream. For
these reasons his " Decades ", which are also written
with spirited vivacity, are of great value in the historv
of geography and discovery. All the eight ** De<»tdes
were published together for the first time at Alcald in
1 530. Later editions of single or of all the '' Decades **
appeared at Basle (1533), Cologne (1574), Paris
(1587), and Madrid (1892). A German translation
came out at Basle in 1582; an English version may be
found in Arber, ''The first three English books on
America" (Birmingham, 1885); a French one by
Gaffarel in " Recueil de voyages et de documents pour
servir li Thistoire de la Geographic" (Paris, lw7).
In addition to his " Decades" another valuable source
of historical information is his "Opus epistolarum",
although its value is somewhat lessened by the fact
that it was not arranged or published until after his
death. This collection consists of 812 letters to or
from ecclesiastical dignitaries^ generals, and states-
men of Spain and Italy, dealmg with contemporary
events, and especially with the history of Spain be-
tween 1487 and 1525. It appeared first at Alcald in
1530; a new edition was issued by Elzevir at Amster-
dam in 1670.
In addition to the numerous works oonoemins Christopher
Columbus and the discovery of America, in which Martyr's
records are discussed, the reader may consult ScnnMACHBR,
Petrtu Martyr, der Oeachiehtachreiber dea W^meercB (New York,
1879); Heidenueimcr, Petrtis Martyr Analeriua und aein 0pU9
Snatolarum (Berlin, 1881); Gbrigk, Das Opua epiat. dea P. M.,
issertation (Braunsberg, 1881); Idrm, Daa Ld>en dea P. M. in
Jahreaber. dea Mariengymnaaiuma tu Poaan (1800) ; Beknayb,
P.M. A. u. aein Opua epiat. (Strasburg, 1891).
Otto Hartio.
Martyrdom. See Martyr.
Martyrologium Hieronymianum. See Martte-
OLOGY.
Martyrology. — By martyrology is understood a
catalogue of martyrs and saints arranged according to
the order of their feasts, i. e., according to the calen-
dar. Since the time when the commemorations of
martyrs, to which were added those of bishops, began
to be celebrated, each Church had its special martjrr-
ology. Little by little these local lists were enrich^
by names borrowed from neighbouring Churches, and
when the era of martyrs was definitively closed, those
were introduced who had shone in the community by
the sanctity of their life and notably by the practice of
asceticism. We still possess the martyroloey, or fe-
rial, of the Roman Church of the middle of uie fourth
century, comprising two distinct lists, the " Depositio
martvrum*' and the "Depositio episcoporum , lists
which are elsewhere most frequently foimd united.
Among the Roman martyrs mention is already made
in the "Ferial" of some African martyrs (7 March,
Perpetua and Felicitas; 14 September, Cyprian). The
calendar of Carthage which belongs to the sixth cen-
tury contains a larger portion of foreign martyrs and
even of confessors not belonging to that Church.
LfOcal martyrologies record exclusively the custom of a
particular Church. The name of calendars is some-
times given to them, but this is a mere question of
words. Besides special martyrologies, of which very
few types have reached us, there are general martyr-
ologies which are of the nature of a compilation. They
are formed by the combination of several local naartyr-
ologies, with or without borrowing from literary
sources. The most celebrated and important of tlie
representatives of this class is the martyrology com-
monly called Hieronymian, because it is erroneously
attributed to St. Jerome. It was drawn up in Italy in
the second half of the fifth century, and underwent re-
cension in Gaul, probably at Auxerre, about a. d. 600.
All the MSS. we possess of the " Hieronymian Mart^-
ology'' spring from this Galilean recension. SettinA[
aside the additions which it then received, the chi^
sources of the "Hieronymian" are a general mart)rr-
ology of the Churches of the East, the local martyrol-
ogy of the Church of Rome, a general martyrolo^ of
Italy, a general martvrol(^ of Africa, and some liter-
ary sources, among tnem Eusebius. The manuscript
tradition of the document is in inexplicable confusion,
and the idea of restoring the text in its integrity must
be abandoned. Of course when any part of the text
is restored, there arises the further problem of deter-
mining itie origin of that portion before pronouncing
on its documentary value.
The "Hieronymian Martyrology" and those resem-
bling it in form show signs of nurried compilation.
The notices consist mostly of a topographical rubric
preceding the name of the saint, e. g. "Ill id. ian.
Ronue, in cymiterio Callisti, via Appia, depositio Mil-
tiadis episcopi". There is another type of martyrol-
ogy in which the name is followed by a short history
of the saint. These are the historical martyrologies.
There exists a large number of them, the best known
being Uiose of Bede (eighth centurv), and Rhabanus
Maurus, Florus, Adon, and Usuard, all of the ninth
century. Without dwelling here on the relations be-
tween them, it may be said that their chief sources are,
besides the "Hieronymian", accounts derived from
the Acts of the martyrs and some ecclesiastical au-
thors. The present Roman Martyrology is directly
derived from the historical martyrologies. It is in
sum the martyrologyr of Usuard completed by the
" Dialogues" of St. Gregory and the works of some of
the Fathers, and for the Greek saints by the catalogue
which is known as the "Menologion" of Sirlet (in
H. Canisius, "Lectiones Antique", III, Pt. ii, 412,
Amsterdam, 1725). The edilio princeps appeared at
Rome in 1583, under the title: " Martyrologium ro-
manum ad novam kalendarii rationem et ecclesiasti-
cs historise veritatem restitutum, Gregorii XIII pont.
max. iussu editum". It bears no approbation. A
second edition also appeared at Rome in the same
year. This was soon replaced by the edition of 1584,
which was approved and imposed on the entire Church
by Gregory XIII . Baronius revised and corrected this
work and republished it in 1 586, with the " Notationes "
and the "Tractatio de Martyrologio Romano". The
Antwerp edition of 1589 was corrected in some places
by Baronius himself. A new edition of the text and
the notes took place under Urban VIII and was pub-
lished in 1630. Benedict XIV was also interested in
the Roman Martyrology. The Bull addressed to John
V, Kin^ of Portugal, dated 1748 (it is to be found at
the begmning of tlie modem editions of the "Martyr-
ology"), makes known the importance of the changes
introduced in the new edition, which is in substance
and except for the changes noiade necessary by new
canonizations, the one in use to-day.
With the historical martyrologies are connected the
great Greek S3rnaxaries, the arrangement and genesis
of which makes them an important counterpart. But
the literature of the synaxaries, which comprises also
the books of that category belonging to the various
Oriental Rites, requires separate treatment (see " Ana-
lecta Bollandiana", XIV, 396 sqq.; Delehaye, "Sy-
naxarium ecclesise Constantinopoutanse, Propylseum
ad Acta Sanctorum novembris", 1902). Worthy of
mention, as in some way being included in the preced-
ing categories, are a number of martyrologies or calen-
dars of some special interest, whetner considered as
documents more or less important for the history of
the veneration of saints, or regarded as purely artifi-
cial compilations. We may refer to the provisory list
drawn up at the beginning of Vol, I for November of
MAET7B0P0LIB
742
MAETTB8
the "Acta SS/' Particularly interesting, however, is
the marble calendar of Naples, at present in the arch-
diocesan chapel, and which is the object of the lengthy
commentaries of Mazocchi ("Commentariiin marmo-
reum Neapol. Kalendarium", Naples, 1755, 3 vols.)
and of Saboatini (" II vetusto calendario napolitano",
Naples, 1744, 12 vols.); the metrical martyrology of
Wsmdelbert of PrOm (ninth century) , of which DOmmler
Published a critical edition (Monumenta Germanise,
*octffi lat., II, 578-602); the martyrology which it
has been agreed to call the " Little Roman ' vcontempo-
rary with Ado, who made it known, and which must
be mentioned because of the importance which was
for a long time attached to it, wrongly, as recent
researches have proved. Among the artificial com-
pilations which have been given the title of martyrolo-
gies may be mentioned as more important the '* Mar-
tyrologium Gallicanum" of Andr6 du Saussay (Paris,
1637), the *'Catalogus Sanctorum Italiae" of Philip
Ferrari (Milan, 1613), the " Martyrologium Hispa-
num" of Tamayo (Lyons, 1651-59); the last-named
must be consulted with great caution. The universal
martyrology of Chastetain (Paris, 1709) represents
vast researches.
The critical study of martyrologies is rendered very
difficult by the multitude and the disparate charac-
ter of the elements which compose them. Elarly re-
searches dealt with the historical martyrologies. The
notes of Baronius on the Roman Martyrology cannot
be passed over in silence, the work being the result of
vast and solid erudition which has done much towards
making known the historical sources of the compila-
tions of the Middle Ages. In 1613 Rosweyde pub-
lished at Antwerp a good edition of Ado, preceded by
the " Little Roman " which he called " vetus Roma-
num ". It was only replaced by that of Gior^ (Rome,
1745), based on new MSS. and enriched with notes.
In Vol. II for March of the "Acta SS." (1668) the
Bollandists furnished new materials for martyrologi-
cal criticism by their publication entitled "Martyro-
logium veneraoilis Bedas presbyteri ex octo antiquis
manuscriptis acceptum cum auctario Flori ... ".
The results which seemed then to have been achieved
were in part corrected, in part rendered more specific,
by the great work of P6re Du Sollier, " Martyrologium
Usuardi monachi" (Antwerp, 1714), published in
parts in Vols. VI and VII for June of the " Acta SS ".
Although some have criticized Du Sollier for his text
of Usuard^ the edition far surpasses anything of the
kind previously attempted, and considering the re-
sources at his disposal and the methods of the time
when it was prepared, it may be regarded as a master-
piece. Quite recently D. Quentin (" Les Martyrologes
nistoriques du moyen &ge ". Paris, 1908) has taken up
the general Question and nas succeeded in giving a
reasonable solution, thanks to a very deep and careful
study of the manuscripts.
For a long time the study of the "Hieronymian
Blartyrolop^ yielded few results, and the edition
of F. M. Fiorentini (" Vetustius occidentalis ecclesise
martyrologium", Lucca, 1668), accompanied by a
very erudite historical commentary, caused it to make
no notable progress. It was the publication of the
Syriac Martyrologv discovered by Wright ("Journal of
Sacred Literature *', 1866, 45 sqq.), which gave the im-
petus to a series of researches which still continue.
Father Victor De Buck ("Acta SS". Octobris, XII,
185, and elsewhere) signalizes the relationship of this
martyrology to the " Hieronjrmian Martyrology".
This fact, which escaped the first editor, is of assist-
ance in recognizing the existence of a general mar-
tyrology of the Orient, written in Greek at Nicomedia,
and which served as a source for the " Hieronymian ".
In 1885 De Rossi and Duchesne published a memoir
entitled "Les sources du martvrologe hi^ronymien"
(in Melanges d'arch^ologie et d'nistoire, V), which be-
came the jjtarting-point of a critical edition of the
martyrology, published throu^ their efiforts in Vol.
II for November of the "Acta SS." in 1894. But
little criticism has been devoted to the Roman Martyr-
ology which has become an official book, its revision
being reserved to the Roman Curia. Every effort de-
voted to the study of the " Hieronymian ", the histori-
cal martyrologies, and the Greek " Synaxaria " helps
the study of this compilation, which is derived from
them. Attention may be called to the large conmia^
tary on the Roman Martyrology, by Alexander Politi
(Florence, 1751). Only the first volimie, containing
the month of January, has appeared.
Besides the works already quoted see the followiiis: Ma-
martyroiooe romaxn €utuel in Ds Backer, Stb,
TAONB, Le
Serivaina de la Comp. d« Jinia, 2iid ed.. Ill (1876), 368 sqq .
Dc Smedt, IrUrodueHo generalia ad historiam ^celentuHeam
entice tmdandam (Ghoit. 1876), 127-158; db Buck. Recherchee
aw les caUndriera ecdiaiaatvitiea in Pr6eia hiatoriquea (Brussels,
1877), 12 sqq.; Achelxs^Dm Mariyrologien, ihre OeechiehU %aui
ihr Weri (Benin, 1900); Delbhaye, Le Umoignage dee vtartyro'
logea in Analeei. Bolland., XXVI, 78 sqq. A himdy edition of
the Martyrolooium Romanum was published at Turin (1010}:
there is an English translation, The Roman Martyrvlogy (Balti-
more, 1907). HiPPOLYTB DelSUATE.
MartsrropoUs, a titular see, suffragan of Amida in
the Province of Mesopotamia or Armenia Quarta. It
was only a small town, named Maipherqat, but was
rendered oelebrated at the' end of the fourth century,
by its bishop, St. Maruthas. Enjoying great influ-
ence at the Roman and the Persian Courts, Maruthas
was sent on several important missions to Seleucia-
Ctesiphon or Constantinople and succeeded in ob-
taining religious liberty for the Persian Christians in
410. On his return ^rom one of the journeys he
brought back to Maipherqat fromJPersia many relics
of the martyrs, in consequence of which the town be-
came known as Martyropolis. The emperor Theo-
dosius II aided Maruthas in this work of reconstruc-
tion and embellishment. Captured by the Persians
under Anastasius I, the town was retaken by the
Romans and successfully defended in the time of
Justinian (Ahrens and Kriiger, "Die sogenannte
Kirchengeschichte des Zacharias Rhetor", 171-75;
Procopius, " Bellum pers.", I, xxi, xxiii ; '* De nedifidis ",
III, 2). Its name was then changed for a short time
to J ustinianopolis (Malalas, " Chronographia ", XVIII ;
P. G., XCVIl, 629). Martyropolis is mentioned very
often in the time of the wars between the Romans and
the Persians, from 584 to 589 (Theophanis, "Chrono-
graphia", anno mundi 6077, 6079, 6080); Heradius
halted there in 624 (op.cit.,6116); in712, itwasin the
hands of the Arabs (op. cit., 6204). Lequien (Oriens
CJhristianus, II, 997-1002) mentions several of its
Greek bishops, among them being the Metropolitan
Basil who assisted at the conciliabulum of Photius in
878. We know, indeed, hy a statement in the " Noti-
tia episcopatuum " of Antioch, in the tenth century
(Echos d 'Orient, X, 93) that Martyropcdis had been
withdrawn from the jurisdiction of Amida, and be-
Jacobite bishops. At present, Martyropolis is caUed
Mefarkin, or Snvan; it is a caza of the vilayet of Diar-
bekir. The town, situated 42 miles north-east of
Diarbekir, contains 7(XX) inhabitants, of whom 4000
are Mussulmans, 20(X) schismatic Armenians. 430
Catholic Armenians, and about 511 Syrian Jacobites.
It possesses 3 churches for these dinerent religjous
communities.
CtriNET, La Turquie d'Asie. II, 470-72; Chapot, La frontihre
de VEuphrate (Pans, 1907), 359-61. g VAILHfe
Martjrrs, Acts of the. — In a strict sense the Acts
of the Martyrs are the official records of the trials of
early Christian martyrs made by the notaries of the
court. In a wider sense, however, the title is applied
to all the narratives of the martyrs' trial and death.
In the latter sense, they may be classified as follows:
MAETTB8
743
MAETTB8
•
(1) Official reports of the interrogatories (acta,
gesta). Those extant, like the "Acta Proconsulia'
(Cyprian, " Ep. Ixxvii ") are few in number and have
only come down to us in editions prepared with a view
to the edification of the faithful. The "Passio
C3rpriam" and "Acta Martyrum SdUitanorum" are
typical of this class. Of these the former is a com-
posite work of three separate documents showing the
minimum of editorial additions in a few connecting
phrases. The first document gives an account of the
trial of C3rprian in 257. the second, his arrest and
trial in 258, the third, ot his martyrdom.
(2) Non-official records made by eye-witnesses or at
least by contemporaries recording the testimonv of
eye-witnesses. Such are the "Blartyrium S. Poly-
carpi", admitting thou^ it does much that may be
due to the pious fancy of the eye-witnesses. The
"Acta SS. rerpetuse et Felicitatis" is perhaps of all
extant Acta the most beautiful and famous, for it
includes the autograph notes of Perpetua and Saturus
and an eye-witness's account of the martyrdom. And
to these must be added the "Epistola Ecclesiarum
Viennensis et Lugdunensis", tellmg the story of the
martyrs of Lyons, and other Acta not so famous.
(3) Documents of a later date than the martyrdom
based on Acta of the first or second <;lass, and therefore
subjected to editorial manipulation of various kinds.
It is this class which afforas the critic the greatest
scope for his discernment. What distinguish^ these
Acta from the subsequent classes is their literary
basis. The editor was not constructing a story to smt
oral tradition or to explain a monument, lie was
editing a literaiy document according to his own taste
and purpose. The class is numerous and its contents
highly aebatable, for though additional study may
raise any particidar Acta to a higher class, it is far
more likely as a rule to reduce it.
Besides these three classes of more or less reliable
documents, many others pass- under the name of
Acta Martyrum, though their historicity is of little
or no value. They are romances, either written
around a few real facts which have been preserved in
popular or literary tradition, or else pure works of the
miagination, containing no real facts whatever. Among
the historical romances we may instance the story m
Felicitas and her seven sons, which in its present form
seems to be a variation oi IV Maccabees^ viii, 1,
though there can be no doubt of the underlying facts,
one of which has actually been confirmed by De Rossi's
discovery of the tomb of Januarius, the eldest son in
the narrative. And according to such strict critics as
M. Dufourcq (Etude sur les Gesta martyrum romains,
Paris, 1900) and P. Delehaye (Analecta Bollandiana,
XVI^ 235-248), the Roman ^* Legendarium " can claim
no higher class than this; so that, apart from monu-
mentalj liturgical, and topographical traditions, much
of the hterary evidence for the great martyrs ot Rome
is embeddecl in historical romances. It may be a
matter for surprise that there should be such a class of
Acta as the imaginative romances, which have no
facts at all for their foundation. But they were the
novels of those days which unfortunately came to be
taken as history. Perhaps such is the case with the
story of Genesius the Comedian who was suddenly
converted while mimicking the Christian mysteries
(Von der Lage, ''Studien s. Genesius Legende", Ber-
lin, 1898-9). and the Acts of Didymus and Theodora,
the latter ot whom was saved by the former, a Chris-
tian soldier, from a punishment worse than death.
And even less reputable than these so-called Acta
are the story of Barlaam and Josaphat which is the
Christian adaptation of the Buddha legend, the Faust-
legend of Cyprian of Antioch, and the romance of the
heroine who, under the various names of Pelagia.
Marina, Eugenia, Margaret, or Apollinaria is admittea
in man's dress to a monastery, convicted of miscon-
duct, and posthumously i^habilitated. H%, liiberatu
also, the bearded lady who was nailed to a cross, is a
saint of fiction only, though the romance was probably
invented with the definite purpose of explaining the
draped fisure of a crucifix.
Still these two classes of romantic Acta can
hardly be regarded as forgeries in the strict sense of
that term. They are literary figments, but as they were
written with the intention of ^ifying and not cieceiv-
ing the reader, a special class must be reserved for
hagiographical forgeries. To this must be relegated
all those Acts, Passions, Lives, Legends, and Trans-
lations which have been written with the express pur-
pose of perverting history, such, for instance, as the
legends and translations falsely attaching a saint's
name to some special church or city. Their authors
disgraced the name of hagiographer, and they would
not merit mention were it not that conscious deceit
has in consequence been attributed to those haeiog-
raphers, who, having for their object to edify and not
to instruct, have written Acta which were meant to be
read as romances and not as history.
Besides these detached Acta Martyrum, there are
other literary documents concerning the life and death
of the martyrs which may be mentioned here. The
Calendaria were lists of martyrs celebrated by the
different Churches according to their different dates.
The Martyrologies represent collections of different
Calendaria and sometimes add details of the martyr-
dom. The Itineraries are guide-books drawn up for
the use of pilgrims to the sanctuaries of Rome; they
are not without their utility in so far as they reveal, not
only the resting places of the ^reat dead, but also the
traditions which were current m the seventh century.
The writings of the Fathers of the Church also embody
many references to the martyrs, as, for instance, the
sermons of St. Basil, Chrysostom, Augustine, Peter
Chrysologus, and John Damascene.
Finally there are to be considered the collections of
Lives, intended for public and private reading. Most
important of all are the "Historia Ecclesiastica" of
Eusebius (265-340), and his /'De Martyribus Pales-
tine"; but unfortunately his ftapHfHop vvpaytay-ij or
Collection of Acts of the ^uirtyrs, to which he refers in
the preface of the fifth book of his ** Historia Ecclesias-
tica , is no longer extant. The fourteen poems of
Aureli^s Prudentius Clemens, published in 404 as the
" Persitephanon liber", celebrated the praises of the
martyrs of Spain and Italy; but as tne author al-
lowed himself the license of the poet with his material,
he is not always reliable. The writers of the Middle
Ages are responsible for a very large element of the
fictitious in the stories of the martyrs; they did not
even make a proper use of tJie material they had at
their disposal. Gregory of Tours was the first of these
medieval hanographers with his '^De virtutibus S.
Martini", "Oe 0oria Confessorum", and "De vitis
Sanctorum". Simeon Metaphrastes is even less re-
liable; it has even been questioned whether he was not
consciously deceitful. See, however, the article on
Metaphrastes. But the most famous collection of
the Middle Ages was the "Golden Legend" of
Jacopo de Soragine, first printed in 1476. All
these medieval writers include saints as well as
martyrs in their collections. So do Mombritius
rMilan, 1476), Lipomanus (Venice, 1551), and Surius
(Cologne, 1570). J. Faber Stapulensis included
only Martyrs in his "Martyrum agones antiquis
ex monumentis genuine descnptos" (1525), and they
are only the martyrs whose feasts are celebrated
in the month of January. But an epoch was marked
in the history of the martyrs by the " Acta primorum
martyrum sincera et selecta " of the Benedictine Theo-
dore Kuinart (Paris, 1689), and frequently reprinted
(Ratisbon, 1858). Other collections of Acta, sub-
sequent to Ruinart's are Ilbachius, " Acta Martyrum
Vmdicata" ^ome, 1723). S. Assemai, "Acta SS.
Martyrum onen^. et ooc," (Rome, 1748). T. Mama-
MARTYRS
744
MARTYRS
chii, "Origines et Antiquitates Christianaj" (Rome,
1749). The critical study of the Acta Martyrum
has been vigorously prosecuted within the last few
years, and the standpoint of the critics considerably
changed since the attempt of Ruinart to make bis
selection of Acta. Many of his Acta Sincera will
no longer rank as sincera; and if they be arranged
in different classes according to their historicity very
few can claim a place in our first or second class. But
on the other hand the discovery of texts and the arch»-
ological researches of De Rossi and others have con-
firmed individual stories of martyrdom. And a
general result of criticism has been to substantiate
such main facts as the causes of persecution, the num-
ber and heroism of the martyrs, the popularity of their
cultus, and the historicity of the popular heroes.
The chief problem, therefore, for modem critics is
to discover tne literary history of the Acta which
have come down to us. It cannot l^ denied that some
attempt was made at the very first to keep the history
of the Church's martyrs inviolate. The public read-
ing of the Acta in the chutches would naturally
afford a guarantee of their authenticity; and this
custom certainly obtained in Africa, for the Third
Council of Carthage (c. 47) permittee! the reading of
the " Passiones Martyrum cum anniversarii dies eorum
oelebrentur". There was also an interchange of
Acta between different Churches, as we see from
the "Martyrium S. Polycarpi'* and the "Epistola
Ecclesise Viennensis et Lugdunensis". But it is not
known to what extent those customs were practised.
And during the persecutions of Diocletian there must
have been a wholesale destruction of documents, with
^e result that the Church would lose the accounts of
its Martyr's history. This seems to be especially true
of Rome, which possesses so few authentic Acta in
spite of the numtJer and fame of its martyrs; for the
Romans had apparently lost the thread of these tradi-
tions as early as the second half of the fourth century.
The poems of Prudentius, the Calendaria, and even
the writings of Pope Damasus show that tne story of
the persecutions had fallen into obscurity. Christian
Rome had her martyre beneath her feet, and celebrated
their memory with intense devotion, and yet she
knew but little of their history.
Under these circumstances it is not improbable that
the desire of the faithful for fuller information would
easily be satisfied by raconteurs who, having only
scanty material at tneir disposal, would amplify and
multiply the few facts preser\^ed in tradition and at-
tach wliat they considered suitable stories to historical
names and localities. And in the course of time it is
argued these legends were committed to writing, and
have come down to us as the Roman legendarium. In
support of this severe criticism it is urged that the
Roman Acta are for the most part not earlier than
the sixth centurv (Dufourcq), and that spurious
Acta were certainly not unknown during the period.
The Roman Council of 494 actually condemned the
public reading of the Acta (P. L., LIX, 171-2). And
this Roman protest had been already anticipated by
the Sixth Council of Carthage (401) which protested
against the cult of martyrs whose martyrdom was not
certain (canon 17). St. Augustine (354-340) also had
written: "Though for other martyrs we can hardly
find accounts whicli we can read on their festivals, the
Passion of St. Stephen is in a canonical book " (Senno,
315, P. L., XXXVIII, 1426). Subsequently in (>02 the
TruUan Council at Constantinople cxcommiinicatcd
those who were responsible for the reading of spurious
Acta. The supposition, therefore^ of such an ori-
gin for the Roman legends is not improbable. And
unfortunatelv the Roman martyrs arc not the only
ones whose Acta are unreliable." Of the seventy-four
separate Passions included by Ruinart in his Acta Sin-
cera, the Bollandist Delehaye places only thirtcKin in
the first or second class, as original documents. Fur-
ther study of particular Acta may, of course, raise
this number; and other original Acta inay be dis-
covered. The labours of such critics as Uebhardt,
Aub^, Franchi de Cavalieri, Le Blant, Conybeare, Har-
nack^ the Bollandists, and many others, have in fact,
not mfrequently issued in this direction, while at
the same time they have gathered an ext^n^ive
bibliography around the several Acta. These must
therefore be valued on their respective merits. It
may, however, be noticed here that the higher criti-
cism is as dangerous when applied to the Acts of the
Martyrs as it is for the Holy Scriptures. Arguments
may of course, be drawn from the formal setting of the
document, its accuracy in dates, names, and topo-
graphv, and still stronger arguments from w^hat may
becalfed the informal setting given to it unconsciously
by its author. But in the first case the formal setting
can surely be imitated^ and it is unsafe therefore to
seek to establish historicity by such an argument. It
is equally unsafe to presume that the probability of a
narrative, or its simplicity is a proof that it is genuine.
Even the improbable may contain more facts of his-
tory than many a narrative which bears the appear-
ance of sobriety and restraint. Nor is conciseness a
sure proof that a document is of an early date; St.
Mark s Gospel is not thus proved to be the earliest of
the Svnoptics. The informal setting is more reliable;
philology and psychology are better tests than dates
and geography, for it needs a clever romancer indeed
to identify nimself so fully with his heroes as to share
their thoughts and emotions. And yet even with this
concession to higher criticism, it still remains true that
the critic is on safer ground when he has succeeded in
establishing the pedigree of his document by external
evidence.
AeU^ 8S.\ AndUdta Bollandiana; Bibliographica haoioara'
phtca gnuKca (Bruflscb, 1895); Bt6/. hao. latina (Brussels, 1^8);
Le Blant, Les Pera^iUeura et lea Martyrs (Paris, 1H9.3); Lea
Aetea (Ua Martyra^ SupplemerU aux Ada Sinctra de D. RuinaHm
Mimoirea de VAccuUmxe dea Inacripticma et BcUea Lettrca, XXX.
(Paris, 1882); Neumann, Der RUmiache Stoat imd die allge-
meine Kirche bia auf Diokletian, I (Leipxig, 1890); HARNACXt
Geachichte der alichrxaUichen LiUeratur bia Euaebiua (I^eipsig,
1897-1904) ; Dufourcq, Etude aur lea Geaia Martyrum Ramavna
(Paris, l90Cy-07); Actielis. Die Martyrologirn. \hre GeachichAe
und ihr Wert (Beriin, 1900); Quentxn, Lea mariyrologea kiatO'
riquea du moyen ^(/r (Paris, 1907): Gebhardt, Acta Marturum
Selecta (Berlin, 1902;; Leclercq. Lea Martyra (Paris, 1902);
LlETKHANN, Dte drci fillesten Martyrolofnen (Bonn, 1903) ; Delx-
HATE, Legenda of the SairUa (Eng. tr., London, 1907).
James Bridge.
Martgnrs, Coptic. See Persecutions.
Mart3rrs, Enqush. See English Confessors and
Martyrs.
Maitsrrs. Japanese. — There is not in the whole
history of tne Church a single people who can offer to
the aamiration of the Chnstian world annals as glo-
rious, and a martyrolog>' as lengthy, as those of the
people of Japan. In January', 1552, St. Francis
Aavicr had remarked the proselytizing spirit of the
early neophytes. " I saw them ", he wrote, " rejoicing
in our successes, manifesting an ardent zeal to spread
the faith and to win over to baptism the pagans
they conquered." He foresaw the obstacles that
would block the progress of the faith in certain prov-
inces, the absolutism of this or that daimifo, a class at
that time ver>' independent of the Mikaoo and in re-
volt against his supreme authority. As a matter of
fact, in the pro\nnoe of Ilirado, where he made a hun-
dred converts, and where nix years after him, 600
pagans were baptized in three days, a Christian wo-
man (the profo-martyr) was beheaded for prajing
Ixjfore a cross. In 1561 the daimyo forced the Chris-
tians to abjure their faith, **but they preferred to
abandon all their possessions and live in the Bungo,
poor with Christ, rather than rich without Him",
wrote a missionary, 11 ()ctol)er, 1502. When, under
the Shogunate of Yoshiaki, Ota Nobiuiaga, supported
HART7RS
745
MARTTaS
by Wada Korcsama, a Christian, had subdued the
greater part of the provinces and liad restored rooa-
archical unity, there came to pass what St. Francis
^Xavier had hoped for. At Miyako (the modem Ki-
yoto) the faith was recognized and a church bmit 15
Auff., 1576. Then the faith continued to spread
without notable opposition, as the daimyos followed
the lead of the Mikado (Ogimachi, 1558-1586) and
Ota Nobunaga. The toleration or favour of the cen-
tral authority brought about everywhere the exten-
sion of the Cnristian religion, and only a few isolated
cases of martyrdom are known (Le Catholicisme au
Japon, I, 173).
It was not until 1587, when there were 200,000
Christians in Japan, that an edict of persecution, or
rather of prescription, was passed to the surprise of
everyone, at the instigation of a bigoted bome, Nichi-
joshonin, zealous for the rcUgion of nis race. Twenty-
six residences and 140 churches were destroyed; the
missionaries were condemned to exile, but were clever
enough to hide or scatter. They never doubted the
constancy of their con verts ; they assisted them in secret
and in ten years there were 100,000 otiier converts in
Japan. We read of two martyrdoms, one at Takata,
the other at Notsuhara; but very many Christians
were dispossessed of their goods and reduced to
poverty. The first bloody persecution dates from
1597. It is attributed to two causes: (1) Four years
earlier some Castilian religious had come from the
Philippines and, in spite of the decisions of the Holy
See, had joined themselves to the 130 Jesuits who,
on account of the delicate situation created by the
edict, were acting with great caution. In spite of
every charitable advice given them, these men set to
work in a very indiscreet manner, and violated the
terms of the edict even in the capital itself; (2) a Cas-
tilian vessel cast by the storm on the coast of Japan
was confiscated under the laws then in vigour. Some
artillery was found on board, and Japanese suscepti-
bilities were further excited by the lying tales of the
pilot, so that the idea went abroad that the Castilians
were thinking of annexing the country. A list of all
the Cliristians in Miyado and Osaka was made out,
and on 5 Feb., 1597, 26 Christians, among whom were
6 Franciscan missionaries, were crucified at Nagasaki.
Among the 20 native Christians there was one, a
child of 13, and another of 12 years. '' The astonishing
fruit of the generous sacrifice of our 26 martyrs^
(wrote a Jesuit missionary) '*is that the Christians,
recent converts and those of maturer faith, have been
confirmed in the faith and hope of eternal salvation;
they have firmly resolved to lay down their lives for
the name of Christ. The very pagans who assisted at
the martyrdom were struck at seeing the joy of the
blessed ones as they suffered on their crosses and the
courage with which they met death".
Ten years before this another missionary had fore-
seen and predicted that "from the courage of the
Japanese, aided by the grace of God, it is to l)e ex-
pected that persecution will inaugurate a race for
martyrdom". True it is that the national and reli-
gious customs of the people predisposed them to lay
down their lives ^ith singular fatalism; certain of their
established usages, religious suicide, hara-kiri, had de-
veloped a contempt for death; but if grace does not
destroy nature it exalts it, and their fervent charity and
love for Christ led the Japanese neophytes to scoui^-
ings tliat the missionaries nad to restrain. When this
love for Christ had grown strong in the midst of suffer-
ing freely chosen, it became easier for the faithful to
give the Saviour that greatest proof of love by laying
down their lives in a cruel deatn for His name's sake.
"The fifty crosses, ordered for the holy mountain of
Nagasaki, multiplied ten or a hundred fold, would not
have sufficeil" (wrote one missionary) "for all the
faithful who longed for martyrdom . Associations
(JKumi) were formed under the patronage of the
Blessed Virgin with the object of prei)aring the mem*
bcrs by Drayer and scourgings even to blood, to be
ready to lay down their fives for the faith. After the
persecution of 1597, there were isolated cases of mar-
tyrdom until 1614, in all about 70. The reigns of
leyasu, who is better known in Christian annals by the
name of Daifu Sama, and of his successors Hidetada
and lemitziu, were the more disastrous. We are not
concerned now with the causes of that persecution,
which lasted half a century with some bnef intervals
of peace. Accordmg to Mr. Ernest Satow (quoted by
Thurston in "The Month", March, 1905, "Japan and
Christianity ") : " As the Jesuit missionaries conducted
themselves with great tact, it is by no means improb*
able that they might have continued to make con-
verts year by year until the great part of the nation
had been brought over to the CathoUc religion, had it
not been for tne rivalry of the missionaries of other
orders." These were the Castilian religious; and
hence the fear of sceine Spain spread its conquests
from the Philippines to Japan. Furthermore the zeal
of certain religious Franciscans and Dominicans was
wanting in prudence, and led to persecution.
Year by year after 1614 the number of martyr-
doms was 55, 15, 25, 62, 88, 15, 20. The year 1622
was particularly fruitful in Cliristian heroes. The
Japanese martyrolog>' counts 128 Vt'ith name, Chris-
tian name ana place of execution. Before this the
four religious onlers, Dominicans, Franciscans, Au-
gustinians and Jesuits, had had their martyrs, but on
10 Sept., 1622, 9 Jesuits, 6 Dominicans, 4 Franciscans,
and 6 lay Christians were put to death at the stake
after witnessing the beheading of about 30 of the
faithful. From December untilthe end of September,
1624, there were 285 martyrs. The English captain.
Richard Cocks (Calendar of State Papers: Colonial
East Indies, 1617-1621, p. 357) "saw 55 martyred at
Miako at one time . . . and among them little chil-
dren 5 or 6 years okl burned in their mother's arms,
crying out: Jesus receive our souls'. Many more
are in prison who look hourly when they shall die, for
very few turn pagans". We cannot go into the de-
tails of these horrible slaughters, the skilful tortures of
Mount Unzen, the refined cruelty of the trench. After
1627 death pnew more and more terrible for the Cliris^
tians: in 1627, 123 died, during the years that followed,
65, 79, and 198. Persecution went on unceasingly as
long as there were missionaries, and the last of whom
we learn were 5 Jesuits and 3 seculars, who suffered
the torture of the trench from 25 to 31 March, 1643.
The list of martyrs we know of (name. Christian name,
ancl place of execution) has 1648 names. If we add to
this the groups we learn of from tlie missionaries, or
later from the Dutch travellers between 1649 and
1660, the total goes to 3125, and this does not include
Christians who were banished, whose property was
confiscated, or who died in poverty. A Japanese
judee, Arai Hakuseki, bore witness alx)ut 1710, that
at tne close of the reign of lemitzu (1650) "it was
ordered that the converts should all lean on their own
staff". At that time an immense number, from
200,000 to 300,000, perished. Without counting the
mcml)ers of Third Orders and Congregations, the
Jesuits had, acconling to the martyrology (Delplace,
II, 181-195; 263-275), 55 martyrs, the Franciscans 36.
the Dominicans 38, the Augustinians 20. Pius IX and
Ijco XIII declannl worthy of public cult 36 Jesuit
martyrs, 25 Franciscans, 21 Dominicans, 5 Augus-
tinians and 107 lay victims. After 1632 it ceased to
l)e possible to obtain reliable data or information
which would lead to canonical beatification. Wlien in
1854, Conamodore Perry forced an entry to Japan, it
was learned that the Christian faith, after two cen-
turies of intolerance, was not dead. In 1865, priest*
of the Foreign Missions found 20,000 Christians prac-
tising their religion in secret at Kiushu. Religious
liberty was not granted them by Japanese law untE
MAETTfiS
746
MAETYftS
1873. Up to that time in 20 provincee, 3404 had suf-
fered for tne faith in exile or in prison ; 660 of these had
died; and 1981 returned to their homes. In 1858, 12
Christians, among whom were two chief-baptiserSy
were put to death oy torture. One missionaiy calcu-
lates that in all 1200 died for the faith.
PAoks, Hi$lo%re de la religion chrHienne au J anon (Paiiflt
1809); Valbnttn, BMc^ryvtna (Dordrecht, 1716): MoiiTANns,
QetanUchappent Japan (Amiiterdain, 1660): Dblplacb, Lo
Caiholicianieau Japan,!, 1640-1603; U, 1603-1640 (BniMeb,
1010) ; KatKoliocKo M%$o%onen (Freibuig, 1804). See alio works
referred to in text.
Louia Delplacb.
MnrtytB, The Fortt. See Fobtt Marttbs.
Martjrrs, The Ten Thousand. — On two dayB is a
group of ten thousand martvrs mentioned in the Ro-
man Martvrology. On 18 Biarch : " At Nicomedia ten
thousand holy martjrrs who were put to the sword for
the confession of Christ", and on 22 June: " On Mount
Ararat the martyrdom of ten thousand holv martyrs
who were crucified. '* The first entry, found in an old
Greek martyrologv', translated by Cardinal Sirleto and
published by H. Canisius, probably notes the venera-
tion of a number of those who gave their lives for
Christ at the beginning of the persecution of Diocle-
tian, in 303 (Acta SS., March, II, 616). That^ the
number is not an exaggeration is evident from Eu-
sebius ("Hist. Eccl.", VIII, vi), and Lactantius ("De
morte persecut.", xv). The entiy of 22 June is based
upon a legend (Acta SS., June, V, 151) said to have
been translated from a Greek original (which cannot,
however, be found) by Anastasius Bibliotheoarius
(who died in 886), and dedicated to Peter, Bishop of
Sabina (? d. 1221). The legend reads: The emperors
Adrian and Antoninus marched at the head of a laige
army to suppress the revolt of the Gadarenes and tne
people of tne Euphrates region. Finding too strong
an opponent, all fled except nine thousand soldiers.
After these had been converted to Christ by the voice
of an angel they turned upon the enemy and com-
pletely routed tnem. They were then brought to the
top of Mount Ararat and instructed in the faith.
Wnen the emperors heard of the victorv they sent for
the converts to join in sacrifices of thanksgiving to the
gods. They refused, and the emperors applied to five
tributary kings for aid against the rebels. The kings
responded to the call, bringing an immense army.
The Christians were asked to deny their faith, and, on
refusal, were stoned. But the stones rebounded
against the assailants, and at this miracle a thousand
soldiers joined the confessors. Hereupon the emper-
ors ordered all to be crucified. The Spanish version of
the legend makes the martyrs Spaniards converted by
St. Hermolaus, a supposed Bishop of Toledo. Many
difficulties are created by the legend, it contains so
many historical inaccuracies and utterly improbable
details. The martyrs are not given by anyone before
Petrus de Natalibus, Bishop of Equilio in 1371. The
Greeks do not mention them in the Mensea, Meno-
logium, or Horolo^um, nor do the Copts or Arme-
nians. Surius omitted them in the first and second
editions of his " Vitse Sanctorum". Henschenius the
Bollandist intended to put the group among the Pr»-
termissi. Papebroeck admitted it to the body of the
work only on the authority of Radulph de Rivo (Bibl.
Patrum, XXVI, Lyons, 1677, 298) and classifies the
Acts as apocryphal, while Baronius takes up their
defence (Annales Eccl., ad an. 108, n. 2). The ven-
eration of the Ten Thousand Martyrs is found in Den-
mark, Sweden, Poland, France, SpaixK and Portugal.
Relics are claimed by the church of St. Vitus in Prague,
by Vienna, Scutari in Sicily, Cuenca in Spain, Lisbon
and Coimbra in Portugal.
Dc8 Vaux, Lea dix mille martyro crucifUo our le marU Ararat,
tour cuUe et leurB reliquet au pay a <rOueho (BellAme, 1800);
Qrosshsdtschi in Ktrehenlex., a. v. Marfuror, oohntauoond;
Weber, Die kath. Kirche in Armonien (FreiDun. 1003), 00.
Francis Mebshman.
Martyrg in O&ina.— The first Christian martyra in
China appear to have been the missionaries of Hi
B&liq in Central Asia, Khan-Bdliq (Peking), and
iSaitun (Fu-kien). in the middle of the fourteenth cen-
tnrv. Islam had been introduced into Central Asia,
and in China, the native djmasty of Ming, replacing
the Mongol aynasty of Yuan, liad not followed the
policy 01 toleration of their predecessors: the Hun-
garian, Matthew Escandel, oeing possibly ^e first
martyr.
With the revival of the missions in C!hina with
Matteo Ricci, who died at Peking in 1610, the blood of
martyrs was soon shed to fertilize the evangelical field ;
the change of the Mins dynasty to the Manchu dy-
nasty, giving occasion for new persecution. Andrew
Xavier (better known as Andrew Wolfgang) Koffler
(b. at Krems^ Austria, 1603), a Jesuit, and companion
of Father Michel Bo3rm, in the Kwane-si province,
who had been very succeffif ul during the Minf dynasty,
was killed by the Manchu invaders on 12 Dec., 1651.
On 9 May, 1665, the Dominican, Domingo Coronado,
died in prison at Peking. Sometime before, a Span-
ish Dominican, Francisco Fernandez, of the convent of
Valladolid, had been martyred on 15 Jan. , 1648. Among
the martyrs must be reckoned the celebrated Jesuit
Johann Adam Schall von Bell (T'ang Jo-wang), who
was imprisoned and ill-treated during the Manchu con-
quest. They were the first victims in modem times.
After the publication by a lUerato, of a libel against
the Christians of Fu-ngan, in Fu-kien, the viceroy of
the province gave oroers to inquire into the state of
the Catholic religion, the result of which was that a
dreadful persecution broke out in 1746, during the
reign of the Emperor K'ien lung, the victims of which
were aU Spanish Dominicans: the following were
arrested: Juan Alcober (b. at Girone in 1694) ; Fran-
cisco Serrano. Bishop of Tipasa, and coadjutor to the
vicar Apostolic; and Francisco Diaz (b. in 1712, at
fci|a) ; finally tiie vicar Apostolic, Pedro Martyr S&ni
(b. m 1680, at Asco. Tortosa), Bishop of Mauncastra,
and Joachim Royo (b. at Tervel in 1690) surrendered.
After they had been cruelly tortured, the viceroy sen-
tenced them to death on 1 Nov., 1746; Sanz was mar-
tyred on 26 May 2 1747; his companions shared his faie;
the five Domimcan martyrs were beatified by Leo
XIII, on 14 May, 1893. shortly after, a fresh perse-
cution broke out in the Kiang-nan province, and the
two Jesuit fathers, Antoine-Joseph Henriquez (b. 13
June, 1707), and Tristan de Attimis (b. in Friuli, 28
July, 1707), were thrown into prison with a great
number of Christians, including young girls, who were
ill-treated: finally the viceroy of Nan-king sentenced
to death tne two missionaries, who were strangled on
12 Sept., 1748. In 1785, the Franciscan brother, Atto
Biagini (b. at Pistoia, 1752), died in prison at Peking.
Persecution was very severe during the Kia K'ing .
period (1796-1820); Ix>ui8-Gabriel-Taurin Dufresse
(b. at Ville de L4zoux, Bourbonnais, 1751), of the
Paris Foreign Missions, Bishop of Tabraca (24 July,
1800), and vicar Apostolic of Sze ch'wan, was be-
headcKi in this province on 14 Sept., 1815. In 1819, a
hew persecution took place in the Hu-pe Province;
Jean-FranQois-Regis Clet (b. at Grenoble, 19 AprU,
1748), an aged Lazarist, was betrayed by a renegade,
arreted in Ho-nan, and thrown into prison at Wu
ch'ang in Oct., 1819; he was stranglea on 18 Feb.,
1820, and twenty-three Christians were, at the same
time, sentenced to perpetual banishment; another
Lazarist, Lamiot, who had also been arrested, being
the emperor's interpreter, was sent back to Peking;
the Emperor Kia King died shortly after; Father Clet
was beatified in 1900.
Under the reign of the Emperor Tas Kwang, another
Lazarist was also the victim of the Mandarin of Hu-pe;
also betrayed by a Chinese renegade, Jean-Gabriel Per-
boyre (b. at Puech, C!ahors, on 6 Jan., 1802), was trans-
feired to Wu ch'ang like Clet; during several months,
MAETYBS
747
MABTTB8
he endured awful tortures, and was finally strangled
on 11 Sept., 1840; he was beatified on 10 Nov., 1880.
Father cr Addosio has written in Chinese, in 1887, a life
of Perboyre; full bibliomphical details are given of
these twQ martyrs in " Bibliotheca Sinica".
Just after the French tieaty of 1844, stipulating
free exercise of the Christian religion, the Francisican
Vicar Apostolic of Hu-pe, Giuseppe Riszolati, was ex-
pelled, and Michel Navarro (b. at Granada, 4 June,
1809), was arrested; a Lazarist missionary, Laurent
Carayon was taken back from Chi-K to Macao (June,
1846), while Hue and Gabet were compelled to leave
Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, on 26 February, 1846, and
forcibly conducted to Canton. The death of Father
August Chapdelaine, of the Paris Foreign Missions (b.
at La Rochelle, Diocese of Coutances, 6 Jan., 1814,
beheaded on 29 Feb., 1856, at 8i-lin-hien, in the
Kwang-si province), was the pretext chosen by France,
to join England in a war against China; when peace
was restored by a treaty signed at Tien-tsin in June,
1858, it was stipulated by a separate article that the
Si-lin mandarin guilty oi the murder of the French
missionary should be degraded, and disqualified for
any office in the future. On 27 Feb., 1857, Jean- Vic-
tor MOUer, of the Paris Foreign Missions, was arrested
in Kwang-tung; an indemnity of 200 dollars was paid
to him; he was finally murdered by the rebels at !mng-
yi-fu, on 24 April, 1866. On 16 August, 1860, the
T'ai-p'ing rebel chief, the Chung Wang, accompanied
by the lutn Wang, marched upon Shiuighai; on 17th,
his troops entered the village of Tsa ka wei, where the
orphanage of the Jesuit Luigi de Massa (b. at Naples
3 March, 1827) was situated; the father was killed
with a number of Christians; they were no less than
five brothers belonging to the Neapolitan family of
Bfassa, all Jesuit missionaries in China: Augustin (b.
16 March, 1813; d. 15 August, 1856), Nicolas (b. 30
Jan., 1815; d. 3 June, 1876), Ren6 (b. 14 May, 1817;
d. 28 April, 1853), Gaetano (b. 31 Jan., 1821; d. 28
AprU, 1850), and Luigi. Two years later, another
Jesuit father, Victor Vuillaume (b. 26 Dec., 1818), was
put to death on 4 March, 1862, at Ts'ien Kia, Kiangsu
province, by order of the Shanghai authorities.
At the beginning of 1861, Jean-Joseph Fenouil (b.
18 Nov., 1821 at Kudelle, Cahors), later Bishop of
Tenedos, and Vicar Apostolic of Yun-nan, was cap-
tured by the Lolo savages of Ta Leang Shan, and ill-
treated, being mistaken for a Chinaman. On 1 Sept.,
1854, Nicolas-Michel Krick (b. 2 March, 1819, at Lix-
heim), of the Paris Foreign Missions, missionary to
Tibet, was murdered, with Father Bourry, in the
country of the Abors. On 18 Feb„ 1862, Jean-Pierre
N6el (b. at Sainte-CatherineHSur^Kiverie, Diocese of
Lyons, June, 1832), Paris Foreign Missions, was be-
headed at Kai chou (Kwei chou). Gabriel-Marie-
Pierre Durand (b. at Lunel, on 31 Jan., 1835), of the
same order, missionary to Tibet, in trying to escape
his persecutors, fell into the Salwein river and was
drowned on 28 Sept., 1865.
On 29 August, 1865, FranQois Mabileau (b. 1 March,
1829, at Paimboeuf), of the Paris Foreign Missions,
was murdered at Yew yang chou, in Eastern Sze
Chw'an; four years later, Jean-FranQois Rigaud (b.
at Arc-et-Senans) was killed on 2 Jan., 1869, at tJie
same place. Redress was obtained for these crimes
by the French Legation at Peking. In Kwang-tung,
Fathers Verch^re (1867), Dejean (1868), Delavay
(1869), were persecuted; Gilles and Lebrun were ill-
treated (1869-1870). Things came to a climax in
June, 1870: rumours had men afloat that children
had been kidnapped by the missionaries and the sis-
ters at T'ien-tsm; the chs-fu^ instead of calming liie
people, was exciting them by posting bills hostOe to
foreigners; the infuriated mob rose on 20 June, 1870:
the French consul, Eontanier, and his chanoellbr
Simon, were murdered at the Yamun of the imperial
commissioner, Ch'ung Hou; the church of the Lasar-
ists was pillaged and burnt down: Father Chevrier
was killed wiw a Cantonese priest, Vincent Hu, the
French interpreter, Thomassin and his wife, a French
merchant, Challemaison and his wife; inside the native
town, ten sisters of St. Vincent of Paul were put to
death in the most cruel manner, while on the other
side of the river, the Russian merchants, BassofiF and
Protopopoff with his wife, were also murdered.
Throughout China there was an outcry from all tlie
foreign communities. It may be said that this awful
crime was never punished; France was involved in
her gigantic struggle with Germany, and she had to be
content with the punishment of uie supposed mur-
derers, and with tne apology brought to St-Germain
by the special embassy of Ch ung hou, who at one time
had been looked upon as one ofthe instigators of tlie
massacre. Jean Hue (b. 21 Jan., 1837), was massa-
cred with a Chinese priest on 5 Sept., 1873, at Kien-
Kiang in Sze chw'an; another priest of the Paris
Foreign Missions, Jean-Joseph-Marie Baptifaud (b. 1
June^ 1845), was murdered at Pienkio, in the Yun-nan
pjovmce during the n^ht of 16-17 September, 1874.
The secretary of the French legation, Guillaume de
Roquette, was sent to Sze chw'an, and after some
protracted negotiations, arranged that two murderers
should be executed, an indemmty paid and some man-
darins punished (1875).
In the article China we have related the Korean
massacres of 1839, and 1866; on 14 May, 1879, Victor
Marie Deguette, of the Paris Foreign Missions, was
arrested in the district of Kung-tjyou, and taken to
Seoul; he was released at the request of the French
minister at Peking; during the preceding year the
Vicar Apostolic of Korea, Mgr Ridel, one of the sur-
vivors of the massacre of 1866, had also been arrested
and sent back to China. On Sunday, 29 July, 1894,
Father Jean-Mo!se Jozeau (b. 9 Feb., 1866), was mur-
dered in Korea. Three priests of the Paris Foreign
Missions were the next victims: Jean-Baptiste-Ho-
nor6 Brieux was murdered near Ba-t'ang, on 8 Sept.)
1881 ; in April, 1882, Eugene Charles Brugnon was un-
prisoned; Jean-Antoine-Louis Terrasse (b. at Lan-
triac, Haute-Loire) was murdered with seven Chris-
tians at Chang In, Yun-nan province, during the nig^t
of 27-28 Maroh, 1883; the culprits were flogged and
banished, and an indemnity of 50,000 taelswas paid.
Some time before, Louis^Dominique Conraux, ot the
same order (b. 1852), was arrested and tortured in
Manchuria at Hou L&n. On 1 November, 1897, at
eleven o'clock in the evening, a troop of men belonging
to the Ta Tao Hwei, the great "Knife Association",
an anti-foreign secret society, attacked the German
mission (priests of Steyl), in the village of Chang Kiar
chwang (Chao-chou prefecture), where Fathers Fran-
ds-Xavier Nies (b. 11 June, 1859, at Recklinghausen,
Paderbom), Richard Henle (b. 21 July, 1863, at Stet-
ten, near Kaigerloch, Sigmaringen), and Stenz were
asleep; the latter escaped, but the other two were
killea. This double murder led to the occupation of
Kiao-chou, on 14 Nov., 1897, by the German fleet: the
Governor of Shan-tung, Li Ping-heng was replaced by
the no less notorious Yu Hien. On 21 April, 1898,
Mathieu Bertholet (b. at Charbonnier, Puy de Ddme,
12 June, 1865), was murdered in the Kwang-si prov-
ince at Tong-Kiang chou; he belonged to the JPariB
Foreign Missions.
In July, 1898, two French missionaries were arrested
at Yung chang, in Sza-ch'wan, by the bandit Yu
Man-tze alreadv sentenced to death in Jan., 1892^ at
the request of the French legation; one of the mission-
aries escaped wounded; but the other, Fleury (b.
1869), was set at libertv onlv on 7 Jan., 1899. On 14
October, 1898, Henri Chani&s (b. 22 Sept., 1865, at
Coubon-sur-Loire), of the Paris Foreign Missions, was
murdered at Pak-tung (Kwang-tung), with several
native Christians; the Chinese had to pay 80,000
dollars. In the same year, on 6 Dec., tne Bel^pAn
BCABTTES
748
MART
FraDciscan, Jean Delbrouck (brother Victorin, h. at
Boirs, 14 May, 1870), was arrested and beheaded on
11 Dec., his body being cut to pieces; by an agreement
sign^ on 12 Dec., 1899, by the French consul at Han-
kou, 10,000 taels were paid for the murder, and 44,500
taeis for the destruction of churches, builaings, etc. in
the prefectures of I-ch'ang and Sha-nan. The most
appalUng disaster befell the Christian Church in 1900
during the Boxer rebellion: at Peking, the Lazarist,
Jules Garrigues (b. 23 June, 1840), was burnt w^ith his
church, the Tung-Tang; Dor^ (b. at Paris, 15 May,
1862), was murdered, and his church, the Si Tang, de-
stroyed ; two Marist brethren were killed at Sha-la-
eul; Father d'Addosio (b. at Brescia, 19 Dec, 1835),
who left the French legation to look after the foreign
troops who had entered Peking, was caught by the
Boxers, and put to death; another priest, Chavanne
(b. at St-Chamond, 20 August, 1862), wounded by a
shot during the siege, died of smallpox on 26 July.
In the Chi-li province, the followmg Jesuits suffered
for their faith: Modeste Andlauer (b. at Rosheim,
Alsace, 1847); Remi Isor^ (b. 22 Jan., 1852, at Bam-
becque, Nord); Paul Denn (b. 1 April, 1847, at Lille);
Ignace Mangin (b. 30 July, 1857, at Vemy, Lorraine).
In the Hu-nan province: the Franciscans: Antonio
Fantosati, Vicar Apostolic and Bisho[> of Adra (b. 16
Oct., 1842, at Sta. Maria in Valle, Trevi) ; Cesadaj and
Joseph: in the Hu-pe province, the Franciscan Ebert;
in the Shan-si provmce, where the notorious Yu hien,
subsequently^ beheaded, ordered a wholesale massacre
of missionaries both Catholic and Protestant, at T'ai
yuan: Gregorio Grassi (b. at Castellazzo, 13 Dec, 1833)
vicar apostolic; his coadjutor, Francisco Fogolla (b. at
Montereggio, 4 Oct., 1839), Bishop of Bagi; Fathers
Facchini, Saccani, Theodoric Balat, Egide, and
Brother Andrew Bauer, all Franciscans. In Man-
churia: Laurent Guillon (b. 8 Nov., 1854, at Chind-
rieux, burnt at Mukden, 3 July, 1900), Vicar Apostohc
and Bishop of Eumenia; No^l-Mane Emonet (b. at
Massingy, canton of Rumilly, burnt at Mukden, 2
July, 1900); Jean-Marie Viaud (b. 5 June, 1864; mur-
dered 1 1 July, 1900) ; Edouard Agnius (b. at Haubour-
din, Nord, 27 Sept., 1874; murdered 11 July, 1900);
Jules-Joseph Bayart (b. 31 March, 1877; murdered 11
July, 1900); Louis-Marie-Joseph Bourgeois (b. 21
Dec, 1863, at La Chapelle-des-Bois, Doubs; murdered
15 July, 1900) ; Louis Marie Leray (b. at Lign^, 8 Oct..
1872; murdered 16 July, 1900); Auguste Le Gu^vel
(b. at Vannes, 21 March, 1875; muidered, 15 July,
1900); Fran9ois Georjon (b. at Marlhes, Loire, 3 Au-
gust^ 1869; murdered 20 July, 1900); Jean-Frangois
lUgis Souvignet (b. 22 Oct., 1854, at Monistrol-sur-
Loire; murdered 30 July, 1900), all priests of the Paris
Foreign Missions.
The Belgian Missions (Congregation of Scheut) num-
bered also many martyrs: Ferdinand Hamer (b. at
Nimegue, Holland, 21 August, 1840; burnt to death
in Kan-su), the first Vicar Apostolic of the province;
in Mongolia: Joseph Segers (o. at Saint Nicolas, Waes,
20 Oct., 1869); Heirman; Mallet; Jaspers; Zylmans;
Abbeloos, Dobbe. The cemeteries, at Peking espe-
cially, were desecrated, the graves opened and, the re-
mains scattered abroad. Seven cemeteries (one Brit-
ish, five French, and one mission), situated in the
neighbourhood of Peking had l^een desecrated. By
Article IV of the Protocol signed at Peking, 7 Sept.,
1901, it was stipulated: "The Chinese government
has agreed to erect an expiatory monument in each of
the foreign or international cemeteries, which were
desecrated, and in which the tombs were destroyed.
It has been agreed with the Representatives of the
Powers, that the I^egations interested shall settle the
details for the erection of these monuments, China
bearing all the expenses thereof, estimated at ten
thousand taels for the cemeteries at Peking and in its
nei^bourhood , and at five thousand taels for the oeme-
^nes in tbeprovinces.*' The amounts have been paid.
Notwithstanding these negotiations, Hipnolyte Juliei
(b. 16 July, 1874) of the Paris Foreign Miaaiong was
murdered on 16 Jan., 1902, at Ma-tze-hao, in the
Kwang Tung province.
In 1904, Mgr. Theotime Verhaegen, franciacan
Vicar Apostolic of Southern Hu-pe (b. 1867), was
killed with his brother, at Li-Shwan. A new massacre
of several missionaries of the Paris Foreign Missions
including Father Jean-Andrd Souli^ (b. 1858), took
place in 1905 in the Mission of Tibet (western part of
the province of Sae-chw'an). Finally we shall record
the death of the Marist Brother, Louis Maurice, mur-
dered at Nan ch'ang on 25 Feb., 1906.
A long and sad list, to which might be added the
names of many others, whose suiTerings for the Faith
of Christ have not been recorded.
Henri Cordihr.
Martyrs of Gorknm. See Gorkum, The Mar-
tyrs OP.
Mart3rrs of Lyons. See Pothinus, Saint.
Martjrrs of the Oommune. See Commune, Mar-
tyrs of the Paris.
Maruthas, Saint, Bishop of Tagrit or Maypherkat
in Mesopotamia, friend of St. Jphn Chrysostom, d.
before 420. Feast, 4 Dec. He is honoured by the
Latins, Greeks, Copts, and Syrians. He broui^ht into
his episcopal city tne reUcs of so many martyrs that it
received the name Martyropolia, In the interests of
the Church of Persia, wmch had suffered much in the
persecution of Sapor II, he came to Constantinople,
but found Emperor Arcadius too busily engaged in the
affairs of St. John Chrysostom. Later Maruthas was
sent by Theodosius II to the Court of Persia, and here,
in spite of the jealousy and intrigues of the Magi, he
won the esteem of King Yesdigerd by his affability,
saintly Hfe, and, as is claimed, by his knowledge of
medicine. He was present at the General Council of
Constantinople in 381 and at a Council of Antioch in
383 (or 390), at which the Messahans were condemned.
For the benefit of the Persian Church he is said to have
held two synods at Ctesiphon. He must not be con-
founded with Maruthas (Maruta), Monophysite Bishop
of Tagrit (d. 649).
His writings include: (1) ''Acts of the Persian Mar^
tyrs'', found partly in Assemani, ''Acta SS. mart,
orient, et Occident.", I (Rome, 1748), and more com-
pletely m Bedjan, ibid., II (Paris, 1891), 37-^396.
W. Wright's Enghsh translation was printed in "Jour-
nal of Sacred Literature" (Oct., 1866-^an., 1866).
Zingerle published it in German (Innsbruck, 1836).
A school edition was made by Leitzmann, "Die drei
ftltesten Martyrologien " (Bonn, 1903). See Ache-
lis, "Die Martvrologien" (Berlin, 1900), 30-71. (2)
"History of the Council of Nicsea", on which see
Braun in " KirchengeschichtUche Studien", IV, 3, and
Hamack's " Ketzerkatalog des Bischofs Maruta'' in
"Texte u. Untersuchun^en", XIX, 1, b. (3) "Acts
of the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon ", edited in Syr-
iac and Latin by Lamy (Louvain, 1869), on which see
Hefele, "Conciliengeschichte", II, • 102. He also
wrote hymns on the Holy Eucharist, on the Cross, and
on saints.
Bajidbnhkwer, Pa<ro2o0^, tr. Shahan (St. Louia, 1908). 394;
Stokes in Diet. Christ. Bioq., s. v.; Zinqerle in KirchenUx.,
». v.; KiHN, PatroloQxe (Paderbom, 1908), 102; Hurtbr. No-
mmd., V (Innsbr.. 1903). 32«.
Francis Merahman.
Mary, the name of several personages in the New
Testament. — Mary of Cleophas. — This title occurs
only in John, xix, 25. A comparison of the liste of those
who stood at the foot of the cross would seem to identify
her with Maiy, tlie mother of James the Less and Joseph
(Mark, xv. 40; cf . Matt., xxvii, 56) . Some have indeed
tried to identify hsr with the Salome of Mark, xv, 40,
but St. John's reticence concerning himself and nis rela-
tives seems conclusive against tms (cf . John, xxi, 2).
MAEY 749 MABY
In the narratives of the Resiirrection she is named the United Kingdom and the British Colonies in South
^Mary of James" (Mark, xvi, 1; Luke, xxiv, 10) and Africa and Australasia. The introduction of the
"the other Mary" (Matt., xxvii, 61; xxviii, 1). The Marist Brothers in North America (1885) was a very
titleof Mary of James "is obscure. If it stood alone, auspicious event for the dissemination of Cathoho
we should feel inclined to render it ** wife of (or sister principles among the pupils entrusted to their charge in
60 James", but the recurrence of the expression the field of education. The institute of the Marist
**Mary the mother of James and Joseph" compels us Brothers is legally incorporated under the laws of the
to render it in the same way when we only read ^' Maiy State of New York. The Marist Brothers do not
of James". Her relationship to the Blessed Virgin is limit their e£Forts to the ordinary work of the class
obscure. James is termed ^' of Alpheus", i. e., pre- room, but labour in any form for the welfare of youth,
sumably " son of Alpheus ". St. Jerome would iaen- Besides primary schools, they conduct boarding schools
tify this Alpheus with Cleophas who, according to and academies, industrial schools, homes for working
Hegesippus, was brother to St. Joseph (Hist, eccl., III. boys, orphanages, etc. The Marist Brothers are not ec-
xi) . In this case Mary of Cleophas, or Alpheus, wouki clesiastics. They are a congregation solely devoted to
\ye the sister-in-law of the Blessed Virgin, and ibe educational work. In selecting postulsmts for the
term "sister", ASe\<pi/i, in John, xix, 25, would cover novitiate, they never accept anyone who has aspira^
this. But there are grave difficulties in the way of this tions for the priesthood. Their aim is to secure re-
identification of Alpheus and Cleophas. In the first emits who are likely to develop special aptitudes for
place, St. Luke, who speaks of Cleophas (xxiv, 18), the mission of teaching. For the training and educa-
also speaks of Alpheus (vi. 15; Acts, i, 13). We may tion of competent siibjects, the institute possesses
question whether he would have been guilty of such a three kinds of establishments: the junior novitiate, the
confused use of names, had they both referred to the novitiate, and the scholasticate or normal schooL
same person. Again, while Alpheus is the equivalent The Marist novitiate, for the American province, is at
of the Aramaic, it is not easy to see how the Greek form Poughkeepsie, New York, and the scholasticate in
of this became Cleophas, or more correctly Clopas. New York City. Bbother Z^phirint.
More probably it is a shortened form of Cleopatros.
Bei^er, EinUitung in daa Neue TeMament (Freiburg, 1901), Mftiyy MISSIONARIES OF THE CoMPANT OF. — ^The
661-6; CALMB8. L'Bvangiie de S. Jean (Paris). Company of Mary was founded by Blessed Louia-
Mary of James, see Mary of Cleophas. Marie Grignion de Montfort in 1713. As early as 17(X)
Mary, The other, see Mary of Cleophas. Montfort had conceived the idea of founding a society
Mary, the mother of John, who was surnamed Mark of missionaries. Five months after his ordination,
(Acts, xii. 12). We know nothing of her; but from Nov., 17(X), he wrote: " I am continually asking in my
the fact that a meeting of the Church was held in her prayers for a poor and small company of good priests
house, we may conclude that she was possessed of to preach missions and retreats under the standard
some wealth. She may have been a widow, for her and protection of the Blessed Virgin". For many
husband's name would presumably have been given years he prayed, fasted and caused others to pray for
in place of hers, had he oeen alive. the realization of his project. In 1713 he went to
Mary (Rom., xvi, 6), also otherwise unknown. She Paris with a view to recruit members for his commu-
had "laboured much among" the Roman Church, nity. The director of the seminary DuSt-Espritprom-
hence St. PauVs salutation to her. It is only a coo- ised to send him such young priests as would feel
iecture that she is the same as the mother of John called to do missionary work. During the intervals
Mark. Hugh Pope. between his missions Montfort wrote the Rule of the
Company of Mary (1713). When he died in 1716,
Mary, Little Brothers of, generally known as two young priests. Father Vatel and Father Mulot.
Marist School Brothers. This religious teaching insti- and a few lay-brotners whom Montfort had associated
tute is modem in its origin, having been founded in with himself during his missions, were the only tangible
1817, in France, by the Venerable Benedict Maroellin result of his prayers, travels, and austerities. Never-
Champagnat. This zealous priest, especially attracted theless the founder felt confident that his company
to the care of the children of the people, worked zeal- was to develop at the time marked by Divine Provi-
ously for their primary education. Besides the rules denoe, and aadressing his Uttle flock, he bade them
and constitutions of this society, he wrote valuable not to fear or lose courage.
manuals and methods for the pedagogic training of his From 1718 till 1781 the " Montfortists ", although
disciples. The Holy See definitively recognized and ap- few in number, gave over 430 missions, most of which
proved this educational institute by a decree of 9 Janu- lasted a month. Continuing their founder's fi^t
ary, 1863. Its development in the last sixty years against Jansenism, they preached the tender mercies
has been wonderful. When the founder died (1840), of the Divine Heart, and the love of Jesus Crucified,
his society consisted of 310 members and had charge They exhorted people to renew their baptbmal vows,
of forty-eight schools, all in the central p&rt of France. Above all, they strove to draw the faithful to Jesus
To-day (1910) it numbers 6000 members pursuing Christ through devotion to the Blessed Virgin. They
their educational labours in all parts of the world, as promoted everywhere the daily recital of the Rosary,
shown by the following statistics of these educational Through their preaching, La Vend^ and Brittany
establishments; Spain, 81 schools; Belgium, 41 ; Brit- were kept free from heresy and the hearts of the brave
(1903), the Marist Brothers had charge of 750 schools brothers of the Company of Mary shared the martyr's
in that country. Caj)e Colony (Africa), 9 schoob; death with the Vendean heroes. Montfort's corn-
Turkey in Asia, 5; Ceylon, 2; Arabia, 1; Brazil, 36; pany of Mary and for the Daughters of Wisdom. Pftre
Canada, 29 j Mexico, 25; Colombia, 21; United States, Dalm (1837-1855) obtained canonical approbation of
12; Argentina, 8; Cuba, 2; Chili, 3; Peru, 3. both congregations. Hitherto the missionaries had
The Marist Brothers were sent to Oceanica as co- but one residence, the mother^ouse at St. Laurent-
adjutors to the missionaries and the Marist Fathers sur-Sdvre. During Pftre Dalin's administration as
in 1836. In 1852 they established their English general, several establishments were made in France,
province, which rapidly spread its branches throughout Under P^re Denis (1855-1877) the community ao-
MART
750
VABT
cepted at Pont-ChAteau, Diocese of Nantes, the direc-
tion of a seminary destined to furnish piriests to Haiti.
Pdre Denis also sent several of his missionaries and
brothers to Haiti. This was the company's first at-
tempt at forei^ missions.
So far the missioxiaries had been recruited from the
secular clergy. This mode being too uncertain, too
slow and more or less prejudicial to that unity of
?)irit which ought to characterize a religious family,
dre Denis established a school in which boys, callea
to the missionary Ufe, should be educated by and for
the company. Together with the foreign missions
and the foundation of mission schools, what hastened
the spreading of the company, was the expulsion of
the religious from France in 1880 and in 1901. In
1880 the French novices took refuge in the Nether-
lands, where a novitiate and a scholasticate were es-
tablisned . In 1883, a school was also begun at Schim-
mert. The year 1883 saw the establishment of the
first house m Canada. After the election of P6re
Maurille as general, in 1887, the membership of the
community doubled. The Beatification of Montfort,
in 1888, gave a new stimulus to the company's ex-
pansion. In Canada a novitiate and a scholasticate
were founded near Ottawa (1890) ; a mission school at
Papineauville (Quebec), in 1900; in Rome, a scholasti-
cate; several missions in Denmark. In 1901 the com-
pany took charge of the Vicariate Apostolic of Nyassa
I^ind (Africa), which numbers at present 1 vicar
Apostolic, 20 missionaries and 600 converts.
r^re L'Houmeau's Q903) administration as general
has been marked by tne foundation of two residences
in the Diocese of Brooklyn: Port JefTei^on and Ozone
Park (1904) ; the foundation of the Vicariate Apostolic
of San Martino (Colombia, South America) having
1 vicar Apostolic, 12 fathers and a few brothers; the
sending to Iceland of 2 priests and 2 brothers (1903),
the only Catholic missionaries now evangelizing that
country; several establishments in British Columbia;
the dennite approbation of the Constitutions in 1904;
the division ot the congregation into provinces; the
acquisition of the Diocese of Port de Paix (Haiti), and
the transfer of the French mission school to Romsey,
England (1910). The company actually numbers
about 500 members. The provincial of the American
province resides in Montreal. The Initials S. M. M.
which the missionaries affix to their signature are an
abbreviation of "Socictatis Mariaj a Montfort", of the
Company of Mary (founded) by Montfort.
Blessed Louis-Marie G. de Montfort, by a secular priest (Lon*
don, 1860) ; Pauvert, Vie du ven&rable Louis Marie Orianton de
Montfort (Paris and Poitiers, 1875); Laveille, Le Bienheureux
L. M, Ortgnum de Montfort (Paris. 1907). See Icexjind.
John H. Bemelmans.
Mary, Sekvants of (Order of Servites). — ^This
order was foimded on the feast of the Assumption,
1233, when the Blessed Virgin appeared to seven
noble Florentines, who had repairea to the church to
follow the exercises of the Confraternity of the L/aw-
desif and bade them leave the world and live for God
alone. On the following feast of her Nativity, 8
September, they retired to La Camarzia just outside
the walls of the city, and later on to Monte Senario,
eleven miles from Florence. Here a^ain they had a
vision of the Blessed Virein. In her hands she held a
black habit; a multitude of angels surrounded her,
some bearing the different instruments of the Passion,
one holding the Rule of St. Augustine, whilst another
offered with one hand a scroll, on which appeared the
title of Servants of Mary surroimded by golden rays,
and with the other a palm branch. She addressed to
them the following words: *'I have chosen you to be
my first Servants, and under this name you are to till
my Son's Vineyard. Here, too, is the habit which you
are to wear; its dark colour will recall the pangs which
I suffered on the day when I stood by the Cross of my
only Son. Take also this Rule of St. Augustine, and
may you, bearing the title of my Servants, obtain the
palm of everlasting lif e. " Among the holy men of the
order was St. Phihp Benizi, who was bom on the dav
the Blessed Virgin first appeared to the Seven Found-
ers (15 August), and afterwards became the great
propagator of the order. The order developed rapidly
not only in Italy but also in France anci Germany,
where the holy founders themselves spread devotion
to the Sorrows of Mary. Their glorious son St. Philip
continued the work and thus merited the title of
Eighth Founder of the Order. The distinctive spirit
of the order is the sanctification of its members by
meditation on the Passion of Jesus and the Sorrows of
Manr, and spreading abroad this devotion.
The order consist of three branches. Concerning
the First Order or Servite Fathers, see Servite Order.
The Second Order (cloistered nims) was probably
founded by Blessed Helen and Blessed Rose shortly
after the death of St. Philip in 1285. This branch has
houses in Italy and Austna as well as one at Bognor,
England. The Third Order or Mantellate was founded
by St. Juliana Falcon ieri to whom St. PhiHp save the
habit in 1284. This branch occupies itself wiui active
works after the example of its holy foundress. From
Italy it spread into other countries of Europe. The
Venerable Anna Juliana, Archduchess of Austria,
founded several houses and became a Mantellate her-
self. In 1844 it was introduced into France, and was
thence extended into England in 1850. The sisters
were the first to wear the religious habit publicly in
that country after the so-call^ Reformation, ^niey
are at present one of the leading religous orders for
women in what was once "Mary's Dowry", having
been active missionaries under Father Faber and the
Oratorians for many years. In 1871 the ^gUsh
province sent sisters to America, but they were re-
called in 1875. The superior general bein^ very de-
sirous to see the order established in the Umted States
sent sisters a second time in 1893. They have now
a novitiate at Cherokee, Iowa, and mission houses
in other states. They devote themselves principally
to the education of youth, managing academies and
taking charge of parochial schools and workrooms.
They also undertake works of mercy, such as the care
of orphans, visiting the sick, and instructing converts
etc. Above all, in imitation of their holy roundr^,
St. Juliana, they do all in their power to instiU into the
hearts of those under their care a great love for Jesus
in the Blessed Sacrament. At the last general chap-
ter held in London, 31 July, 1906, a vicaress general
for America was appointed.
Hbimbuchsr, Oraen «. Konoreffotionsn, TL (Paderbonit
1907). 218 sq. rp^g Servants op Mart.
Mary, Sister of Martha. See Mart Magdalen,
Saint.
Mary, Socjett op (initials S. M.), or Marist Fa-
thers, a religious order of priests, so called on accoimt
of the special devotion they profess toward the
Blessed Virgin.
I. Foundation (1816-1 836) .—The first idea of a
"Society of Mary" originated (1816) in Lyons,
France, with a group of seminarians, who saw in the
Restoration of 1815 an opportunity for religion, but
the real founder was Jean-Claude-Marie Colin (<j. v.),
the most retiring of the group. He began, amid his
pastoral cares, by drafting a tentative nue and found-
ing at Cerdon, where he was pastor, the Sisters of the
Holv Name of Marv; Marcelhn Champa^at. another
of the group, established at La valla tne Little Broth-
ers of Mary. On account of the cold attitude as-
sumed by the ecclesiastical authorities in Lyons, the
foundation of the missionary priests* branch coula not
be made till Cerdon, Colin^s parish, passed from the
jurisdiction of Lyons to that of Belley. Bishop De-
vie of the newly restored See of Belley authorized
(1823) Colin and a few companions to resign their
UABT
761
parochial duties and form into a miaaonary band for
the rural districts. Their zeal and success in that
arduous work moved the bishop to entrust them also
with the conduct of his semin^uy, thus enliurginf; tibe
scope of their work. However, the fact that Bishop
Devie wanted a diocesan institute only, and that
Fr. Colin was averse to such a limitation, came near
placing the nascent order in jeopardy when Pope
Gregory XVI, in quest of missionaries for Oceanica,
by Brief of 29 April, 1836, approved definitively the
"Priests of the Society of Mary" or Marist Fathers,
as a religious institute with simple vows and under a
superior general. The Ld ttle Brothers of Mary and
the Sisters of the Holy Name of Blary, commonly
called Marist Brothers and Marist Sisters, were re-
served for separate institutes. Father Colin was
elected superior general on 24 Sept., 1836, on which
day occurred the first Marist profession, Blessed
Pierre Chanel (q. v.), Venerable Colin, and Venera-
ble Champagnat Deing among the professed.
II. Development (1836-1910).— From its defini-
tive organization to the present date (1910) the Society
of Mary, under four superiors general — J. C. M. Colin
(1836-54), J. Favre (1854-85), A. Martin (1885-1905),
J. C. Raffin (1905 — ) — ^has developed alongthe various
lines of its constitutions in and out of France. In
France it has done work in the mission field from many
missionary residences established in various centres.
When educational liberty was restored to French
Catholics, it also entered the field of secondary, or
college education, its methods being embodi^ in
Montfat's "Thtorie et pratique de Teducation chn^
tienne'' (Paris, 1880), and moreover assumed the di-
rection of a few diocesan seminaries together with
professorships in Catholic institutes for higher educa-
tion. The French houses have also supplied men for
the various missions undertaken abroad by the So-
ciety of Mary.
CKitside of France, the first field of labour offered
the Marists (1836) was the Vicariate Apostolic of
Western Oceanica, comprising New Zealand, the
Friendly Islands, the Navi^tor Islands, the Gilbert
and Marshall Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, New
Guinea, the Solomon and Caroline Islands. Under
the secular bishop, Dr. Pompallier, who took up his
residence in New Zealand, the Marists successive)^ oc-
cupied Wallis (1837), soon converted by Fr. Bataillon;
Futuna (1837), the place of Blessed Pierre Chanel's
martyrdom; Tonga (1842), turned by Fr. C!hevron into
a model Christian community; New C^edonia (1843),
where Bishop Douarre, Pompallier's coadjutor, met
untold difficulties and Brother Blaise was massacred^
and, in spite of much Protestant opposition, Fiji
(1844) and Samoa (1845). The immense area of the
vicariate, together with the presence at its head of a
secular bishop, soon necessitated the creation of
smaller districts under Marist bishops: Central Ocean-
ica imder Bishop Bataillon (1842), Melanesia and
Micronesia under Bishop Epalle (1844), New Cale-
donia under Bishop Douarre (1847), Wellington (New
Zealand) under Bishop Viard (1848), Bishop Pompal-
lier retaining Aucklana; the Navigator Islands (1851),
long administered by the Vicar Apostolic of Central
Oceanica ; the Prefecture of Fiii (lS63) , etc. Of these,
Melanesia and Micronesia haa to be abandon^ after
the massacre of Bishop Epalle at Isabella Island and
the sudden death of his successor, Bishop Colomb, the
Solomon Islands alone reverting to the Amrists in 1898.
Those various missions have progressed steadily under
the Marist Fathers who, beside their religious work,
have largely contributed to make known the lan-
guages, fauna, and flora of the South Sea Islands (see
Hervier, ''Les missions Maristes en Oceanic", Paris,
1902), and helped in their colonisation (de Salinis,
" Marins ct Missionnaires", Paris, s. d.). Tlie growth
of New Zealand has been such a.s to call for a regular
hierarchy, and the Marists were concentrated (1887)
in the Archdiocese of Wellington and the Diocese of
Christchurch^ still so vemed by members of the order.
In the British Isfes, the Manst foundations began aa
early as 1850 at the request of Cardinal Wiseman, but
have not grown beyond three colleges and five par-
ishes. In the United States, the Society of Mary has
taken a firmer hold. From Louisiana, whither Arch-
bishop Odin called them (1863) to take charge of a
Frendi parish and college, the Marists have passed
into eleven states and even branched off into Mexico,
and, although continuing to minister to a number ot
French speaking communities, they have not limited
their action there, but gradually taken up, both in par-
ishes and colleges, .^onerican work, their training
houses being almost entirely recruited in this country
and being located in Washington.
in. Present State (1910). — ^The Society of Mary
is now divided into six provinces: 2 in France, 1 in the
British Isles, 1 in the United States, 1 in New Zealai^d,
and 1 in Oceanica.
The French provinces (Lyons and Paris) counted at
the time of the Association Act (1901) 9 institutes for
the training of aspirants or of young religious, 15
missionary residences with chapels, 9 colleges for sec-
ondary education, and three diocesan seminaries, with
a total of 340 priests, 100 novices, and 34 lay-brothers.
The Association Act of 1901, by dissolving religious
communities and confiscating their property, told
heavily on these establishments: the training-houses
had to be transferred to foreign parts (Belgium, Italy,
and Spun); the diocesan seminaries were taken from
the reugious; the residences were confiscated and their
inmates compelled either to go into exile or to live
separately in rented quarters; the colleges alone sur-
vived in part by becoming diocesan establishments.
To the French provinces are attached, in Germany, an
apostolic seminary for the German Missions in Ocean-
ica, and, in Italy and Spain, various chaplaincies and
houses of retreat for the aged or the exiled fathers.
The Anglo-Irish province, erected in 1889, com-
prises 5 parishes (3 in London, 1 in Devonshire, and 1
m Yorkshire) and three colleges (1 in Dublin, 1 in
Dundalk, and 1 in Middlesborough) with 46 priests, 8
novices, and 6 lay-brothers.
The New Zealand province, erected in 1889, com-
E rises, in the Archdiocese of Wellington and the
diocese of Christchurch, 1 novitiate-scholasticate, 1
second novitiate, 1 college, 20 parishes among the
whites, 6 missions among the Maoris and one mission-
ary band, with 1 archbishop^ 1 bishop, 70 priests, 17
novices, 15 lay-brothers, ministering to a Catholic
pcjoulation of about 30,000.
The Province of Oceanica, erected in 1898, com-
prises, besides a procurator house at Sydney and three
missions in Australia, five vicariates ((central Oceanica
with 15 stations; the Navigator Islands or Samoa with
15 stations; New Caledonia with 36 stations; Fiji with
17 stations; New Hebrides with 22 stations) and two
prefectures (the Southern Solomon Islands with 8 sta-
tions and the Northern Solomon Islands with 5
stations). It counts: 5 vicars Apostohc, 2 prefects
ApostoUc, 200 priests, 25 lay-brothers (all diarists),
assisted by lid Little Brothers of Mary, 566 native
catechists, and a large number of sisters, both Euro-
pean and native, of the Third Order Regular of Mary
and of Our Lady of the Missions^ founded by the
Marists. The Catholic population is about 41,885.
The province of the United States, erected in 1889,
comprises two training houses in Washington, District
of CS>lumbia, 4 colleges (Jefferson College, Louisiana;
An Hallows' College,lJtah; St. Mary's CoUege, Maine;
Marist College, Georgia)^ 18 parishes in various states,
and missions in West Virginia and Idaho. Its mem-
bership consists of 1 archbishop, 105 priests, 75 novices,
and 5 lay-brotherH. There are about 600 boys in the
colleges and 70.000 Catholics in the parishes and mis-
sions. From tnis province has been detached (1905)
2AART
762
MARY
the Vice-province of Mexico which counts 26 priests
working in 1 college with 350 pupils and 6 parishes
with a large number of parishioners, French, Ameri-
can, German, and Mexiaan.
IV. Rule. — According to their constitutions, ap-
proved by ()apal Decree of 8 March, 1873, the Marists
profess, besides the three simple and perpetual vows of
Eoverty^ chastity, and obedience, common to all simi-
ir institutes, a spirit of special devotion to Mary,
absolute loyalty to the Holy See, reverence for the
hierarchy, and the love of the hidden life, conformably
to their motto: Ignoti et quasi occuUi in hoc mundo (see
G. Goyau, "Le role de l'humilit6 dans la fondation
d'un Ordre", Paris, 1910). The work of the order
includes missions, both domestic and foreign; colleges
for the education of youth, and, in a less degree,
seminaries for the training of clerics. Its members are
either priests or lay-brothers. The candidates for the
priesthood are prepared, once their classical course is
over, by one year or novitiate, two years of philosophy,
four years of theology, additional opportunities being
given to those especially gifted. After ten years o(
profession and after the age of thirtv-five, the priests
are allowed to take the vow of stability, which ren-
ders them eligible for the chapters and the high offices
of the society. The lay-brothers after a long pro-
bation take tne same vows as the priests, and devote
themselves to the care of temporalities. Its govern-
ment is in the hands of general oflScers and of chapjters.
The general officers, whose official residence is in
Rome, are the superior general, his four assistants, the
general procurator, the procurator aptui Sanctam
Sedem, all elected oy the chapter general — the first
for life, the others till the following chapter. The
provincial and local superiors are appointed by the
superior general and his counsel. Tne general chap-
ters, wherein all the provinces are represented m
proportion to their membership, meet regularly every
seven years, and, besides electing the general officers,
issue statutes for the good of the whole order. Provin-
cial chapters are convened every three years for the
purpose of electing representatives to the chapters
general, auditing the finances, and ensuring the disci-
pline oi each province. As tne general statutes take
effect only after due approbation by the Holy See. so
the provincial statutes are in vigour only when ana as
approved by the superior council. By Apostolic Brief
of 8 Sept., 1850. a Third Order of Mary for persons
living in the world was canonically established and has
a large membership wherever the Marists are found.
ConstittUionea S. M, (Lyons, 1873); Staiuta Capitidorum
Oeneralium 3. M. (Lyons, 1907); Esprit de la SocUU de Marie
(Pans, 1905); Life of Venerable Fr. Colin (St. Louis, L909.);
ixi SocieU de Marie in RecnUemerU Sacerdotal (Paris, 1906-7) ;
Chroniques et annales de la SomdtS de Marie (Lugon, 1903 — ;
Roulers, 1908 — ); Baunard. Un nkde de VEglise de France
(Pans* 1902), 49. For the Missions: Adbry, Missione of the
Society of Mary in Annale of the Propagation of the Faith (Balti-
more, 1905); Hekvier, LjCS Missions Maristes en Oceanic
(Paris. 19()2); Matet, Mgr Douarre . . . en Nouvelle-CalS-
donie (Lyons, 1884); Manoerkt, Mgr Bataillon (Lyons, 1884);
MoNFAT, Afar. EUoy ... en Oc6anie centrale (Lyons. 1890);
Idem, Les Samoa (Lyons, 1891); Idem, Dix ans en MHanisie
(Lyons, 1891); Idem, Les Tonga (Lyons, 1893). See abo
Ldtres des Missionnairea S. M. and AnneUea des Missions 3, M.
(Lyona). For Enclish speakine countries: Mangeret, Les
ongines de la fox Ca/holigue en Nouvelle-Z^nde (Lyons, 1892);
La Sociftc de Marie en AmMque (Montreal. 1007); MAcCAr-
VBBT. History of the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth Cen^
fury (2 vols., Dublin, 1909), passim; Tablet (London) and
TcJblet (New Zealand), passim. J. F. SOLUER.
Mary, Society of, of Paris, founded in 1817 by-
Very Reverend William Joseph Chaminade at Bor-
deaux, France. In 1839 Gregory XVI issued a decree
of commendation to the society in praise of the work
done by its members. Pius IX recognized it as a reli-
gious body in 1865, and finally in 1891, after a careful
examination of the special features in which the
•ociety differed notably from other orders, Leo XIII
gave canonical approbation to its constitutions. In
.accordance with thi« Brief, the Society of Mary of
Paris is a religious society of clerical and lay members,
who make the usual simple vows of poverty, chastity,
and obedience, to which at the time of their final pro-
fession they add the fourth vow of stability in the
service of the Blessed Virgin. Its members are offi-
cially designated by the IU>man Curia as Marianists,
to distinguish them from the Mariste of the Society of
Mar}^ of Lyons, founded at Lyons in 1816.
William Joseph Chaminade was bom at Pcri^^eux,
France, in 1761. After his ordination, he taught in the
college of Mussidan until the outbreak of the French
Revolution, which drove most of the clergy from
France. During this terrible period he continued the
exercise of his sacred ministry in spite of the gravest
dangers of arrest and death, from which, indeed, he
escaped only by adopting numerous disguises and
changing continually nis hiding-places. At the re-
newiuof the persecution in 1797, he was driven into
exile at Saragossa, Spain, where he remained for three
years. It was during this period of retreat and medi-
tation on the needs of the Church that he matured hds
plans for the restoration of the Christian spirit of
France. After his return to Bordeaux in 1800, nis first
efforts resulted in the formation of two sodalities or
congregations of men and women, whose faith and
zeal prompted them to co-operate with him in his
efforts to repair the losses sustained by the Church in
France during the Revolution. The religious influence
of these sodalities was soon felt, and Father Chami-
nade quickly gathered around him a number of holy
souls, hound to him by no other ties than those of
their zeal and piety, but all eager to consecrate them-
s^vcs to God under his direction for the salvation of
souls. Their desires culminated in the foundation of
the Daughters of Mary in 1816, and of the Society
of Mary m 1817. The constitutions of the Society of
Mary specifv the salvation of its own members as its
primary end. Its secondary end includes all works of
zeal. However, Christian education specially appeals
to it, and for this reason it has devoted most of its
energies to the management of schools of every kind.
A distinctive feature of the Society of Mary is the
composition of its membership, which, as statea above,
consists of both clerical and lay members who make
profession of the same four vows. Except the func-
tions of the sacred ministry, which are necessarily
restricted to the priests, and a limited number of other
functions which are reserved by the constitutions,
some to the priests and some to the lay members, all
members may be employed, according to their abiUty
but without distinction of class, in the various wor^
oi the order as well as in its government. In this com-
bination of the forces of priests and laymen the
founder squght to remove the limitations of usefulness
to which each category' would be subject without the
co-operation of the otner. The general superior and
his assistants resided at Bordeaux until 1860, when
they removed to Paris, where the headquarters of the
order were maintained until the expulsion of the
society from France in 1903. Since then the seat of
the general administration has be«n at Nivelles, Bel-
gium. The increase and expansion of the order has
been rapid. In 1908 it comprised seven provinces and
one vice-province, with houses in Belgium, France,
Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Africa,
China, Japan, the Hawaiian Islands, Canada, Mexico,
and the United States. The Society of Mary was
introduced into the United States in 1849, when its
first house was founded in the Archdiocese of Cincin-
nati. In 1908 it had increased to 53 establishments,
comprising 2 normal schools, 4 colleges, 3 high schools,
and 44 parochial schools. Thirty-nve of mese com-
munities belong to the Cincinnati province, with the
residence of the provincial at Nazareth, Daj'ton, Ohio;
the remaining eighteen form the St. Louis province,
with the residence of the provincial at Chaminade Col-
lege, Cla>'tun, AL'ssouri. GEOJiOE Meter.
MiLBT
753
aUBY
Mary, The Blessed Vibgin. See Viboin hUsj,
The Bucssed.
Mary, The Name of, in Scripttll^ and in Oathdio
use. New Testament. Mapidfi ana sometimes U^kk^i
seems impossible, in the present state of the text, tosay
whether the form Mariam was reserved by the Evan-
gelists for the Mother of Christ, und the form At aria
used for all others of the name. The form Maptd/i un-
doubtedly represents the Hebrew D^"ID, the name of
the sister of Moses and Aaron (Num., xii. 1 sqq.). In
1 Par., iv, 17, it occurs presumably ad the name of a
man, but the Septuagint has rbv Maptbv, The ety-»
mology of the name D^"lD (Miriam) is exceedingly
doubtful. Two roots are proposed: (a) miO mean-
ing " to rebel", in which connexion some have endeav-
oured to derive the name of the sister of Moses from
her rebellion against him (Num., xii^ 1). But this
seems far-fetched, as her murmuring is by no means
the only, or the principal event, recorded of her; (b)
«1D meaning "to be fat"; it is thought that, since the
possession of this quality was, to the Semitic mind, the
essence of beauty, the name Miriam may have meant
"beautiful". But the meaning "lady^ which is to
common among the Fathers of the Church, and which
is enshrined in the Catholic expression "Our Lady",
has much to support it. Th« Aramaic tnD means
" Lord " as we see in St. Paul's Marano/Ad— 1. e. " Come,
Lord", or "the Lord is nigh". It is true that the
name Miriam has no N in our Hebrew text; but,
though the Aramaic word for " lord " always has an
K in the older inscriptions (e. g. those of ^njirli of
the eighth century, b. c), yet in later inscriptions from
Pahnyra the K has gone. Besides, the presence of the
] may well be due to the formative ending d, which
18 generally a sign of abstract nouns. The rendering
"star of the sea" is without foundation except in a
tropological sense; Cornelius ii Lapide would render
"lady, or teacher, or guide of the sea", the sea being
this world, of which Christ Himself (Num., xxiv, 17)
is the Star. The frequency with which the name
occurs in the New Testament (cf. infra) shows that
it was a favourite one at the time of Christ. One of
Herod's wives was the ill-fated Mariamne, a Jewess;
Joeephus gives us this name sometimes as Mariamme,
at others as Mariame or Mariamne. The favour in
which the name was then held is scarcely to be at-
tributed to the influence her fate had on the Jews
(Stanley, "Jewish Church "^ III, 429); it is far more
likely that the fame of the sister of Moses contributed
to this result — cf. Mich., vi, 4, where Miriam is put
on the same footing as Moses and Aaron: " I sent be-
fore thy face Moses and Aaron and Mary." At a time
when men like Simeon were " looking for the Conso-
lation of Israel ", their minds would naturally revert
to the great names of the Exodus. For extra-Biblical
instances of the name at this time see Josephus,
'Antiquities ", ivj 6; XVIII, v, 4, and "Jewish War",
VI, IV. In Christian times the name has always been
popular; no less than seven historically famous Marys
are given in the " Dictionary of Christian Biography ".
Among Catholics it is one of the commonest of bap-
tismal names; and in many reli^ous orders, both of
men and of women, it is the practice to take this name
in addition to some other distinctive name, when
entering the religious state.
Besides the Biblical dioUooaries and the ordinary oommen-
/?C^ "®® Bardknhbwer, Der Name Maria in Bibl Studim
(Fretbum. ISW). ^^^^ ^^^^
Mary Anne de Paredes, Blessed, b. at Quito.
Ecuador, 31 Oct., 1618; d. at Quito, 26 May, 1646.
On both sides of her family she was sprung from an
illustrious line of ancestors, her father being Don
Girolamo Flores Zenel de Paredes, a nobleman of
Toledo, and her mother Dofla Mariana Cranobles di
Xaramilo, a descendant of one of the best Spanish
famihes. Her birth was accompanied by most un-
IX.-48
usual phenomena in the heavens, clearly connected
with the. child and juridically attested at the time of
the process of beatification* Almost from infancy
she gave signs of an extraordmary attraction for
piuver and mortification, of love for God and devotion
to the Bl^seed Virgin; and besides bein^ the recipient
of many other remarkable manifestations of divine
favour was a number of times miraculously preserved
from death. At the a^ of ten vears she made the
vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. She was
very desirous of conveying the light of faith to the
peoples sitting in darlcness, and later ot entering a
monastery; but when God made it plain to her that
He wished neither the one nor the other of these pioua
designs, she acauiesoed in the Divine will, and made
for herself a solitude in her own home where, apart
from all worldly cares and closely united to God, she
gave herself up to the practice of unheard-of corporal
austerities. The fast which she kept was so strict
that she took scarcely an ounce of dry bread every
ei^t or ten days. Tne food which miraculously such
tamed her life, as in the case of St. Catherine and Bt,
Rose of Lima, was, according to the sworn testimony
of many witnesses, the Eucharistic Bread alone which
she received every morning in Holy Communion. She
possessed an ecstatic gift of prayer, predicted the
future, saw distant events as if they were passing
before her, read the secrets of hearts, cured diseases
by a mere sign of the Cross, or by sprinkling the
sufferer with holy water, and at least once she restored
a dead person to life. The very day she died her
sanctity was shown in a wonderful manner, for imme-
diately after her death there sprang up from her blood
and blossomed and bloomea a pure white lily, a
prodigy which has given her the title of "The Lily <rf
QuitoA
The first preliminary steps towards the beatlfkatioa
were taken by Monsignor Alfonso della Pegna, who
instituted the process for inquiring into and collecting
evidence for the sanctity of her life, her virtues and her
nairacles; but the authenticated copy of the examina-
tion of the witnesses was not forwarded to Rome until
1754. The Sacred Congregation of Rites, having dis-
cussed and approved of this process, decided in favour
of the formal introduction of the cause, and Benedict
XIV signed the commission for introducing the cause
17 Dec, 1757. The Apostolic process concerning the
virtues of the Venerable Mary Anne de Paredes wa^r
drawn up and examined in due form by the two Pre-
paratory Congregations and by the General Congremr
tion of Rites, and orders were given by Pius VI for tne
publication of the decree attesting the heroic chanio-
ter of her virtues. The process concerning the two
miracles wrought through the intercession of the
servant of God was subsequently prepared and, at the
request of the Very Rev. John Rootnaan, Genertfl of
the Society of Jesus, was examined and accepted l^
the three congregations, and was formally approved
11 Jan., 1847, by Pius IX. The General Congregation
having decided in favour of proceeding to the beatifica-
tion, Pius IX commanded tne Brief of Beatification to
be prepared. Very Rev. Peter Beckx, General of the
Society of Jesus, petitioned Cardinal Patrizi to order
the publication ot the Brief; his request was granted.
The Brief was read and the solemn oeatification took
place ua the Vatican Basilica 10 Nov., 1853. Many
miracles have been the reward of those who have in-
voked her intercession, especially in America, of which
she seems pleased to show herself the especial patron-
ess.
BoBRO, BUaaed Mary Ann of Jemu; The Roman Breviary.
J. H. FiSHEB.
Mary de Oeryellione (or de Cervello), popu-
larly styled " de Socos " (of Help) Saint, b. about 1230
at Barcelona ; d . there 19 Septemlxjr, 1290. She was a
daughter of a Spanish nobleman named William de
BCART
764
MART
Cervellon. One dav she heard a sermon preached by
Blessed Bernard de Ck>rbarie. the superior of the
Brotherhood of Our Lady of Ransom at Barcelona,
and was so deeply affected by his pleading for the
Christian slaves and captives in the hands of the
Turks that she resolved to do all in her power for their
alleviation. In 1265 she joined a little community of
Sious women who lived near the monastery of the
[ercedarians and spent their lives in prayer and good
works under the direction of Blessed Bernard de Cor-
barie. They obtained permission to constitute a
Third Order of Our Lady of Ransom {de Mercede) and
to wear the habit of the Brotherhood of Our Lad^r of
Ransom. In addition to the usual vows of tertiaries,
they promised to pray for the Christian slaves. Mary
was unanimously elected the first superior. On ac-
count of her great charitv towards the needy she be-
gan to be called Maria de oocoe (Mary of Help) a name
under which she is still venerated in Catalonia. Her
cult, which began immediately after her death, was
approved by Innocent XII in 1692. She is invoked
especially against shipwreck and is generally repre-
sented with a ship in her hand. Her feast is cele-
brated on 25 September.
Acta SS.t September, VII, 152-171; Dunbar, Didionary of
Saintly Women, II (London, 1906). 66-7; Ulate, Vita Catha-
launuB Virginia Maricf de Cervellon (Madrid, 1712); Ayala,
Vida de a. Maria del Socoa de la orden de N. S. de laa Mercedea
(Salamnnca, 1696); Corbrra, Vida y hechoa maravilloaaa de d.
Maria de Cerveilon, clamado Maria Socoa (Barcelona, 1639};
a Life written by her oontemporaxy John de Laes is printed in
Acta SS.t loc. cit.
Michael Ott.
Maxy de Sales Ohappuis (Marie-Th^rebe Chap-
PUis), VENERABLE, of the Order of the Visitation of
Holy Mary, b. at Soyhidres, a village of the Bernese
Jura (then French territory), 16 June, 1793; d. at
Troyes, 6 October, 1875. Her parents were excellent
Chnstians: her father had seen service in the regular
Guard (the Cent-Sriisses corps) of the King of France.
Her mother, n^e Catherine Fleury, was the sister of the
Cur€ of Soyhidres. Out of eleven children bom of this
union, six entered religion. From infancy Marie-
Th6r6se was remarkable for her piety. She made her
First Communion in 1802 and at tne age of twelve years
entered as an intern pupil in the Visitation Convent at
Fribourg, where she* remained three years. In June,
1811, she returned to the convent as a postulant, but
left it again in three months. Three years later she
came back, took the religious habit on 3 June, 1815,
and made her profession on 9 June, 1816. A year
after taking her vows she was sent to Metz, but reasons
of health compelled her to return to Fribourg. In
1826 she became superior of the monastery at Troyes,
and in 1833 spent six months in the second monastery
in Paris, where she was afterwards to be superior
(1838-44). The greater part of her life was spent at
Troyes, where she was elected superior eleven times,
and where she celebrated in 1866 the golden anniver-
sary of her religious profession. Iler last illness
attacked her in September, 1875.
Mother Maiy de Sales is celebrated chiefly for her
zeal in spreading a certain kind of spirituahty which
she called "The Way" (La Vote). Her principal
biographer. Father Brisson, who had been for thirty
years confessor to the Visitandines of Troyes, and was
her director, writes that by this expression — La Vote
— " she understood a state of soul which consisted in
depending upon the actual will of God, relishing what-
ever was His good pleasure, and imitating the life of
the Saviour externally" (Vie de la V^n^r^ Mdre,
Marie-de-Sales Chappuis, Paris, 1886, p. 591). The
English edition of her life (London, 1900), in translat-
ing this sentence, overlooks the word actueUe (actual):
"What did the good Mother mean by this Word, 'The
Way ' ? She meant a state of soul which consists in an
entire dependence on the Will of God, by an interior
consent to n]] that is according to His good pleasure.
and an exterior imitation of our Saviour" (i>. 261).
It adds: "Chosen by God to propagate and spread
abroad this Way, the good Mother consecrated her
whole life to it" (p. 262). To spread this Way, she,
with Father Brisson, founded the Oblates of St.
Francis de Sales. — "It was in order to extend this
Way that she made choice of others like herself, whom
she might inspire with zeal, and point out the means
for attaining the desired end. She solenmly asserted
that they would participate in the grace which she had
herself received trom God, by which they would under-
stand how to deal with souls, and how to lead them to
a love of this resemblance to their Saviour. This, she
said, would be the characteristic work of their apostle-
ship" (ibid.). She and her disciples proclaimed the
marvellous efficacity of "The Way". — "She added
that this Divine action would not tie confined merely
to a certain number of privileged souls, but that it
would be brought within the reach of the most aban-
doned. Nor would it be confined to souls who dweU
under the light and influence of the Gospel, but would
reach those who are the farthest from it, and penetrate
even to the uttermost parts of the world (p. 263).
"'Wishing to save the world over again,' says one of
the leading oblates, Father RoUin, in giving the ideas
of the Good Mother, ' Our Lord had to use means imtil
then unknown' . . ." (Brisson, op. cit., p. 661). The
English "Life" (p. 275) attenuates this passage: "In
His insatiable desire to save the world. He willed to
employ a means hitherto unknown ; a means by which
all the glory would redound unto Himself alone, since,
being merely His agents, man would claun no part
therem ..."
For some years past there have been controversies
as to the doctrinal value of Venerable Mary de Sales'
"Way"; it will be enough to indicate, in the biblio-
graphy at the end of this article, some of the various
writings which have treated the subject. It seems,
indeed, that many of her disciples have exaggerated
the purport of the approbation accorded to her writ-
ings (2 June, 1892) . Tnat approbation is not absolutely
definitive, in that it implies many restrictions, and that,
even when joined with beatification, it does not forbia
the exercise of a respectful criticism. Benedict XIV
says (De Serv. Beattf., II, Prato, 1839, p. 312): "This
much, it seems, should be added by way of corollary:
It can never be said that the doctrine of a servant of
God has been approved by the*Holy See, but, at the
most, that it has not been eondenmed. There has
been controversy also as to the marvellous deeds at-
tributed to Venerable Mary de Sales. This much is
certain: that an ecclesiastical commission appointed
by the Bishop of Troyes has declared, after canonical
investigation, that the facts alleged in the ' Abr^g^ de
la vie ', can be explained naturally or in other cases
are not sufliciently established" (Rev. des Sciences
Eccl^., Sept., 1901, pp. 260-65). Nevertheless, ex-
amination of these miracles results in evidence of
the personal sanctity of Mother Mary de Sales. The
cause of her beatification was introduced at Rome, 27
July, 1897. The Sacred Congregation of Rites will
decide as to the doctrine of "The Way", or, at least,
as to the miracles, virtues, and perfection of the
Venerable Mary de Sales.
Ahrigi de la vie el dea vertua de notra tr^a-honorie et vhiirie
Mh^ Marie de Salea Chappuia (Paris, s. d.) ; Brisson, Vie de la
vinirie mere Marie de Salea Chappuia (Paris, 1891); Life of the
Venerable Mother Mary de Salea Chappuia (London, 1900);
Annalea aal^aiennca (Paris), passim; Poaitio auper introductione
cauacB beatificationia aervcB Dei Maria Franciaca Saleaia Chap-
puia (Rome, 1897); Poaitio auper fama in genera (Rome. 1903).
SpnoTUAL Teachino. — Penefea de la ven. Mhre Marie de Salea
(Paris, 1897); FRXGNitnE, La Voie: sermon preached at Fri-
bourg, 19 November, 1897 (Paris, 1898); Watwgant, Une
rumvMe Scola de apirUualiii in Etudaa religieuaea (Paris, Jtme.
1899) ; FRAGNxfcRE. Riponae au Rd. Watrigara eijuatifioation de
la vote de chariU de la vHtSrie Mbre Marie de Salea Chappuia
(Fribourg, 1900); Watrioant, Lea deux mHhodea de apirituaUti
(Lille, 1900); Haoen, Die ehw. Mutter Marie von Salea Chap-
puia in Sendfjote dea goUlichen Herzena Jeau (Cincinnati, 1900) ;
MHhodea de apiritualit^ in Ami du clerge (6 February, 1902);
adtlaV. Utre CSapmiit (13 Januaiy,
. — ,. — unef BxUtiailvtuf (iJUe, Scptembar.
leooi. 200: CKOLUrr. id cautdt Ualifiaitipn de la MirtMarit
CORTBT, U(r* «ir let F
-~8T). HH Rnw iet i
ii>00i.2fl0: Chol
it Saiet Ckappuu
the vacsnible mot
OATTT. L'Soole dt la t
. L'luc^tvuf modem —
B, July, August. 1909).
w (July, 1902)
1 tpirUmiiiU nmptifiie (lille. 1903): fl
modtrtuttu, aietHa in CtnJtri CoUoIica (8 May, ]90S)i Cbol-
ET, L'amitique nvjdrmiale in Que^iont ecciituutiqutt (LiIIb,
H. Wathigant.
Hwy m&CM of tlM Five Wounds of Jmui,
Saint, of the Third Order of St. Francis, h. at Naples,
25 Hanjh, 1715; d. there. 6 October, 1791. Her fam-
ily belonged to the middle class. Her father, Fran-
cesco Gallo, was a severe, avaricious man with a pas-
sionate temper, and from him the saint had mucn to
suffer. He subjected her to much iU-treatmeat and
hard, incessaDt -labour which ofteu brought her to the
verge of the grave. Barbara Baainsin, her mother,
however, was gentle, pious, and patient in bearing
with the brutal conduct of her busband. Before her
birth St. John Joseph of the Cross, O.F.M., and St.
Francis de Geronimo, S.J., are said to have predicted
Mar;f's future sanctity. At the ape of seven she waa
adnutted to Holy Coiuraunlon, which she was subse-
quently in the habit of receiving daily. When Mary
Frances was sixteen years old, her father Bought to
force her into a marriage with a rich yuung mun, but
the saint firmly refused, and instead asked leave to
ent«r the Third Order of St. Francis. This request
was at length ^nted her through the influence of
Father Theophilus, a Friar Minor. At her reception
among the Tertiaries of St. Peter of Alcantara, 8 Sep-
tember, 1731, she took the name of " Mary Frances of
the Five Wounds of Jesus" out of devotion to the
Blessed Virgin, St. Francis, «nd the Sacred Passion.
Her body is said to have been signed with the stig-
mata, which, at her prayer, took no outward, visible
appearance, and on Frid:i^'s, especially the Fridays ol
Lent, she felt in her body the very pains of the PossicKi.
Duringherwholelife the saint had much to suffer from
bodily illSj and to her physical suffering was added
mental pam from the persecution of her father, sisters,
and other persons. Even her confessors, to test her
sanctity, made her suffer by the rte\erity of their di-
rection. But over and above thtse mental and physi-
cal BuflFerings she imposed upon herself voluntary pen-
ances, strict faata, nair-shirts, and disciplines, tier
prayers and advice saved many souls from dangers.
Priests, religious, and pious persons went to her for
light and counsel. Her charity and compassion, es-
pecially towards the afl!ict«d and miserable, knew no
bounds. Like St. Francis. Mary Frances hod a tender
devotion to the Infant Jesus, the Holy Eucharist, and
the Blessed Virpn. The last thirty-eight years of her
life were spent in the house of a pious priest, Giovanni
Pessiri. She was buried in the church of the Alcan-
tarines, Sta. Lucia del Monte, at Naples, wliich con-
tains the tomb of St. John Joseph of the Cross. She
was declared Venerable by Pius VII, 18 May, 18M,
beatified by Gregory XVL 12 November, 184-1, and
' canoniied by Pius IX, 29 June, 1867. Her feast on 0
October is Icept by the Friars Minor and CapuchinR as
a double of the second class, and by the Conventuals
--a double major.
lofOii Thrre Orderi of
5 HAHYLAim
of this total 37'1 per cent was reported in the cennia
as claiming to be church-members (23'7 per cent Prot-
est&nta ; I3'l per cent Catholics ; 0'3 per cent all
others), and 62'9 per cent not reported as church
members. The numerical rank of-the state has de-
creased in every census period, being sixth in 1790
and twenty-sixtn in 1900. The foreign population ia
small, and the n^ro population about 248,000. Balti-
more, the chief city, mcreased 9 per cent in population
during the census decade 1900-1910. Tiie federal
census of 1910 gives it 558,485 inhabitants as against
5<K,957 in 1900.
. The state census of 1908 shows 401 church organi-
zations with a membership (communicants) of 473,-
257. In this enu-
meration the Cath-
olics are set down
at 166,941, which
i^, owing to the
government meth-
od of computa-
tion, 15 per cent
less than the actual
claim of the church
authorities. Other
totals are: Bap-
tists, 30,928; Dw-
ciplca, or Chris-
tians, 2984; Dun-
kers, 44 50 ; Friends,
2079; "
Eva
eli<
ible major.
, Livrt ajlht SainU,
^. in (TouoWQ, 1
Htniium md Sdigm au* dim dHlIm OnJm .fi-a hi. Valni Fr.
liikua (RatiBbon, 1386), 417-8S: LAVin»A-STRr)Ui, Vila drili
b. Maria FrmuMca. Ign<aria profrtM aUanlariaa (Romt. 1843);
pALMCRt.CanimduidtllavOadiUab.MariaFmnraraiKnm'!.
1841);. Vol Sainl.{Qiieb«. 18001. 241-2; Rn7HABn.tf*oic/<r«.
Maria Praniiihi (3 ed. MainE. ISSI); aim Limby Mohtelli.
(NsplB. ISe?); Z:U)ARi (MJUu. 1892).
Ferdinand Heckmann.
Haiyland. — One of the thirteen English colonies
which after the Revolution of 1776 became the orig-
inal States of the American Union. Its total area is
13,327 sqiiare miles, of which 3:186 square miles are
water. Tiic total pojiulation (ltHN>) was l,27iS,-t34;
8334; iTutheran bodies, 32,246; Methodists 137,156;
Presbyterians, 17,895; Reformed PresbyterianB,
13,461; United Brethren. 6541. The tolal number
of church edifices reported was 2814, with a seating
capacity of 810,701 and a valuation of $23,766,172.
Colonial Period.—" On 25 March, 1634 ", saj^ the
Jesuit Father Andrew White, in his " Relatio Itineiis
in Maryland iam ", or "Narrative of the Voyage of
The Ark and The Dove", "we celebrated Mass tor the
first time in the island (St. Clement's). This had
never been done before in this part of the world ", and
it was the beginning of the Maryland colony. The
expedition, the londii^ of which on the shores of St.
Mary's is thus described, was organized and sent out
by Cccilius Calvert (q. v.), the second Lord Balti-
more, and the first Proprietary of Maryland, under a
charter issued to him, 20 June, 1632, by Charles I
of England. This cnarter was the handiwork of
George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, the father of
Cecilius, and was intended to be issued t« himself, but,
as he died on the fifteenth of the preceding April, the
charter went out to his son Cecilius, the neir to his
title and estates and to his long-cherished scheme of
English Catholic colonization in the Western Hemi-
sphere. The charter contained the grant of an exten-
sive territory, which was set out nnd defined by clenrnnd
explicit metes and Ijounds, conlaining nearly double
the present land area of Maryland, emoracing what is
now the State of Delaware, a tract of Southern Peim-
Kyh'onia, 1,5 miles wide by 138 miles long, and the
fertile valley lying between the north and south
branches of the Potomac River. The means by
which the lords proprietary were deprived of so
lai^e a part of the territory given to them by the ex-
press language of the charier does not belong to this
article. [See Russell, "Land of Sanctuary' (Balti-
more, 1907), passim.] The charter also contained the
mostcomprehensivegrant of civil and politico! author-
ity and jurisdiction tnat ever emanated from the Ena-
Ikh Crown, It was a palatinate that was created witn
all the royal and viceregal rights pertaining to the
unique and exceptional kind of government then
existing in the Bishopric of Durham. The grantee
appointed the governor and all the civil and military
officers of the province. The writs ran in his name.
2AARYLAND
756
MARYLAND
He had power of life and death over the inhabitants
as regards punishments for crime. He could erect
manors, the grantees of which enjoved all the rights
and privileges belonging to that kina of estate in Eng-
land. Many of them were created. He could confer
titles of honour and thus establish a colonial aristoc-
racy. Of all the territory embraced within the boun-
daries clearly set out in the charter, *' the grantee, his
heirs, successors and assigns, were made and consti-
tuted the true and absolute lords and proprietaries*'.
Sir George Calvert (q. v.), having become a convert
to the Catnolic faith in 1625, witn his son Cecilius,
then nineteen years of age, withdrew from public office,
and sailed for Avalon in Newfoundland, a charter for
which province had been granted him by King James.
He carried with him a secular priest to attend to the
spiritual wants of the Catholic colonists, and also a
Protestant minister to supply those of the Protestant
members of the expedition. In this act Sir George
gave practical evidence of his recognition and accept-
ance of the principle of religious frecKlom and of the
rights of conscience, of which his son Cecilius was to
be ^o illustrious and shining a supporter. After a
year's residence in Avalon, Su: George sailed south in
quest of a more genial climate and a more kindly soil.
He reached Jamestown, Virginia, but the authorities
of that English settlement refused him permission to
land unless he would take the oath of supremacy as
well as that of allegiance. The latter he was willing to
take, the former, as a Catholic, he declined . Returning
to England he sought and obtained from Charles I
the charter of Maryland. Dying before it passed the
great seal, the charter was issued to his son Cecilius,
the second Lord Baltimore and the first Lord Pro-
prietary of the Province of Maryland.
The charter to Cecilius was opposed by the agents of
the Virginia colonists, on the ground that the grant
was an encroachment on the territory of Virginia.
This contention was untenable. For. by the judg-
ment of the King's Bench in 1624, eight years before
the issuing of the Baltimore Charter, in certain quo
warranto proceedings instituted in the King's Bench,
the Virginia colony was converted into a royal colony,
and the king revested with the title to all the territory
embraced in the charter of the London or Virginia
Company, with full power and authority to grant all or
anv part of it to whomsoever he pleased, which he
subsequently freely exercised without question in the
cases of the grants of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the
Carolinas and the northern neck of Virginia. The
question was only raised as to the grant of Maryland,
and that solely and avowedly because it was a grant
to a Catholic nobleman for the purpose of establishing
a Catholic colony. The committee of the Privy Coun-
cil on American plantations, after a full hearing of both
parties, unanimously decided "to leave the Lord Bal-
timore to his charter, and the Protestants to their
remedy at law ". Not having any such remedy, they
did not, as they could not, resort to it. Aft«r numer-
ous delays and detentions caused by its enemies, the
expedition sailed from Southampton, 22 November,
1633. By an arrangement previously made by Lord
Baltimore the expedition stopped at Cowes, in the Isle
of Wight, and took on board the Jesuit Fathers Andrew
White and John Altham {alias Gravenor) with some
lay brothers and servants. The general description of
the personnel of the expedition is that it consisted of
"twenty gentlemen adventurers", all of whom, with
perhaps one exception, were Catholics and of good
families. With tne.se were associated a number of
artisans, mechanics, and labourers estimated at 250,
the greater part of whom, it is said, were Protestants.
Cecilius Calvert carefully prepared and delivered
to his brother Leonard ( q. v.), whom he appointed
governor, and to the two commissioners, Hawley and
Coniwaleys, associated with him in the government of
^is province, a body of insti uctions for their conduct
while on the voyage, and when and after they should
reach their destination. In this first article he enjoins,
both on shipboard and on land, an abstinence from all
religious controversies, " to preserve peace and unity
amongst all the passengers and to suffer no scandal or
offence, whereby just complaint mav be made by them
in Virginia or in England : . . ancf to treat the Prot-
estants with as much mildness and favour as justice
will require ". During the voyage, among the piassen-
gere, embracing men of opposite creeds and separated
by widely different social conditions, confined for four
tedious months on the crowded decks of the Ark and
the Dove, there occurred nothing to mar and disturb
its harmony. On landing, the colonists were kindly
received by the Indians. Governor Calvert pur-
chased from the tribe of the PLscataways, who occu-
pied this land, the possession of a considerable tract.
The aborigines cave to the colonists as a temporary
shelter one of their principal villages. The wigwam
of the chief was assigned to the two priests as a resi-
dence and a chapel, and they immediately began their
apostolical labours, first among the Protestant colo-
nists, most of whom in a short time accepted the true
Faith. Father White prepared a grammar, a dic-
tionary, and a catechism in the language of the Pis-
cataways which was destroyed at the time of the Ingle
invasion (see below). Tayac, the chief of this power-
ful tribe, was converted, with his wife, his family, and
many of his tribe, as well €ts a princess of the Patux-
ents, a neighbouring tribe, and a number of her people.
The genial climate, the fertile soil, the liberal con-
ditions of plantation promulgated by the lord pro-
prietary, the security and safety enjoyed by the
colonists, the religious freedom and equality secured
to the members of every Christian denomination, soon
attracted a numerous immigration, and the colony
grew apace.
But a change came. The inhabitants of Virginia
had abated none of their hostility to a Catholic colony
in their neighbourhood and of their determination if
Eossible to break up and destroy it. William Clai-
ome, a member of the Council of Government of that
colony, had, under a hcence he had obtained from
Governor Harvey of Virginia to trade with the In-
dians, and a licence from Sir William Alexander, the
Secretary of State for Scotland, to trade with the
Dutch at Manhattan and the people of Newfound-
land, established a trading post on Kent Island in the
Chesapeake Bay within the boundaries of Lord Balti-
more's grant, for the purpose of carrying on his busi-
ness as a trader. He had never obtained a grant of
any lands whatever. He was a mere squatter on the
island, without a title to a single acre of it. He re-
fused to acknowledge Lord Baltimore's charter and
rights, and to submit to his authority, referring the
matter to the Council of Virginia whicn upheld him.
Governor Calvert thereupon proceeded to reduce the
island to submission. Claiborne, \^ith the aid of some
of the Virginians, but without any authority of the Vir-
ginian government, organized an expedition to re-
capture the island. He was met by a force of Gover-
nor Calvert, commanded by Captain Comwaleys, and
defeated, but escaped capture, to be for the rest of his
lawless and incendiary career a thorn in the* side of
Calvert and the unrelenting foe of the Catholic colo-
nists.
In 1644 Richard Ingle, instigated and aided by
Claiborne, made a sudden descent upon the province
in a vessel named the Reformation, compelled Gover-
nor Calvert and some of the principal persons of the
colony^ including two of the Jesuit Fathers, to fly to
Virgima, captured and burned St. Mary's, destroyed
valuable records, plundered and destroyed the resi-
dences of many of the inhabitants, especially the
houses and chapels of the missionaries, and took
Father VVhite a prisoner in chains to London, where he
had him indicted as a returned Jesuit priest, an offence
MAEYLAMD
767
BIAEYLAMD
for which death was the punishment. Father White
pleaded, however, that his return was not voluntary,
and escaped.
The avowed object of both these piratical raids was
the destruction of the Catholic colony of Maryland.
Lord Baltimore, seeing the disturbed condition of
things, wrote to his brother the governor to save what
he could out of the wreck of his fortunes and retire
from the province. Leonard Calvert had, however,
already taten st^ps to recover possession, and, return-
ing with a small force of friencis and adherents, drove
out the marauders and re-established his authority.
While Cecilius Calvert was thus confronting his ene-
mies, who with untiring industry were seeking to
involve his charter, his proN'ince, ms colonists and the
Jesuit fathers in a common ruin, he became engaged
in an unfortunate controversy with the Jesuits over a
tract of land they had received as a gift from some of
their Indian converts without the knowledge or con-
sent of the Proprietary, and the surrender of which
the governor demanded. The priests refused to give
it up until, after several years of somewhat acrimoni-
ous controversy, the father general of the order decided
in Lord Baltimore's favour. Lord Baltimore did not
object so much to the acquisition of lands by the
fathers, but to the method and manner of that acqui-
sition by grants or gifts from the Indians, in deroga-
tion of what he regarded his right and his title to these
lands, under the express provisions of his charter. In
1651 Cecilius Calvert set apart 10,000 acres of land near
Calverton Manor for the benefit of the Indian con-
verts, under the care and direction of the fathers, the
first fund established within the English possessions in
America for the support of Indian missions.
Peace and order oeing restored by the return of
Governor Leonard Calvert to the province, and the
re-establishment of Lord Baltimore's authority, Mary-
land entered on a brief period of prosperity and
began to grow in population and wealth. There are
no statistics on wnich to base an opinion as to the
number of the inhabitants of the province at this
period (1645), but the best opinion puts it at between
tour and five thousand. Three-fourths of this num-
ber were Catholics. They held most of the offices
under the appointment of the proprietary, and con-
stituted a majority of the legislative body, and con-
tinued to do so until the Puritan Rebellion. The
number of Jesuits serving the Maryland Missions aver-
aged four annually from 1634 to 1650. Among them
were Fathers Andrew White, Thomas Copley {alias
Philip Fisher), and Ferdinand Poulton (alias John
BrocK and Morgan). These missionaries converted
nearly if not quite all of the Protestant colonists who
came out in the Ark and the Dove, and many of those
who had come into the province afterwards from Eng-
land and Virginia. To these were added, pending the
difficulty between the fathers and Lord Baltimore,
four Franciscans, who soon retired, however, and left
the field to the Jesuits.
In 1649 the General Assembly of the province
passed the celebrated Toleration Act. From the
foundation of the colony, therefore, religious freedom
had been the inviolable rule and practice of the pro-
vincial government. Under a provision in the charter
giving to the Lonls Baltimore the initiation of legisla-
tion in the province, Cecilius Calvert had drawn up a
body of laws, sixteen in number, to be adopted by the
Assembly, and among them was this famous Act. It
was passed by that body, the majority of whom were
Catholics, without a dissenting voice. " And whereas ",
it reads, "the enforcing of the conscience in mat-
ters of religion hath frequently fallen out to be of
dangerous consequence in those commonwealths where
it hath been practised, and for the more auiet and
peaceable government of the province and the better
to preserve mutual love and amity amongst the in-
habitants thereof: Be it therefore enacted that noe
person or persons whatsoever within this province
.... professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall hence-
forth DC in any waies troubled, molested or discoun-
tenanced for or in respect of his or her religion or in
the free exercise thereof within this province nor in
anything compelled to the belief or exercise of any
other religion against his or her consent." The act
then pro\'iide8 penalties for violation of its provisions.
In the controversies about this celebrated Act of
Toleration, efforts have been made by many Protestant
writers to deprive Cecilius Calvert of the merit of its
authorship, but the judgment of all fair historians
gives to Cecilius Calvert, and to him alone, following
the example of his father, the honour of " being the
first in the annals of mankind ", as Bancroft says in his
"History of the United States", "to make religious
freedom the basis of the State ".
Cecilius Calvert was a conscientious Catholic. In-
deed, " it was to that fact that he owed the continuous
hostility he had to meet with", says Prof. William
Hand Browne of Johns Hopkins University in his
" History of a Paktinate " : " He had only to declare
himself a Protestant and all this hostility would have
ceased. This he did not do. " In 1643, the House of
Burgesses of Virginia passed a stringent law requiring
of all persons a strict conformity with the worship and
discipline of the Church of England, the established
Church of that colony. This act was put into vigorous
execution by the governor, and a considerable body of
Puritans were driven out of Virginia into Maryland . At
their solicitation Governor Stone gave them a large
tract of land on the Severn, where they made a settle-
ment, calling it Providence (now Annapolis). Soon
they began to complain that their consciences would not
allow them to acknowledge the authority of a Catholic
proprietary, and in 1650 they started a rebellion, and
seized the government of the colony. They convened
a General Assembly to which Catholics were declared
to be ineligible either as members or electors. The
first thing this illegal and revolutionary body did was
to repeal the Act of Toleration of 1649, and to enact
another " Concerning Religion " which contained this
proNision: "That none who profess and exercise the
Papistic, commonly known as the Roman Catholic re-
ligion, can be protected in this province." By this
act Catholics and Church of England adherents were
expressly proscribed, and the profession of any other
religion could be included as the caprice or intolerance
of its authors should at any time require.
During the Puritan usurpation the Catholic Churoh
suffered greatly. Swashbucklers paraded the province,
breaking into the chapels and mission houses and de-
stroying property. Three of the Jesuit priests fled
to Virginia, where they kept themselves in hiding
for two or three years, enduring great privations. One
only remained in Maryland. In 1658 the govern-
ment of the province was restored to Lord Baltimore.
A General Assembly was convoked which re-enacted
the Toleration Act of 1649. This Act remained on the
statute book under the Catholic proprietaries until the
Protestant Revolution of 1689. Maryland now en-
J'oyed another era of quiet and prosperity, and the
esuits returning to the province resumed their mLsh
sionary labours. In 1660 the population of the prov-
ince numbered 12,000; in 1665, 16,000; and in 1671,
20,000. This rapid increase is a proof of the wisdom
and liberality of the proprietary's rule. The Catholic
inhabitants auring tnis period, the majority of whom
were in St. Mary s and Charles Counties, were esti-
mated to be between 4000 and 5000, served by two,
sometimes three, Jesuits and two Franciscans who
arrived in 1673.
Philip Calvert, brothtr of Cecilius, was governor
from 1660 to 1662, when he was succeeded by Charles
Calvert, the son and heir of Cecilius, who, on the death
of his father in 1675, became the third Lord Baltimore
and second proprietary of the province. Chariee
2CABYLAMD
758
2CABYLAMD
married and settled in the province, and lived there
several years, discharging tiie duties of governor as
well as of proprietary according to liberal and en-
lightened princfples and with consideration for the
welfare of the inhabitants. In 1683 the General As-
sembly voted him 100,000 lbs. of tobacco as an ex-
pression of " the duty gratitude and affection" of the
people of the provmce. This he declined on the
ground that it would impose too great a tax buiden on
the people.
Puritan Usurpation. — Charles was not, however,
without his troubles. Attempts were made in 167G to
force him to make public provision for the clergymen
of the Church of England. This, following his father's
example, he declined to do, and with the approval of
the innaoitants, because of the worthless character and
scandalous conduct of most of the ministers of that
denomination sent over from England. In 1676 a
proclamation was issued by the Protestant malcon-
tents denouncing the government of the Catholic Pro-
prietary, demanding its extinction, and the appoint-
ment of a royal governor. They assembled in arms in
Calvert County to carry out their programme, but
Governor Notfey, in the absence of Sir Charles Cal-
vert in Ensland, quickly suppressed the movement
and hanged two of the ringleaders. Later on the
malcontents availed themselves of the opportunity
created by the Revolution in England to raise the
standard of revolt against the government of Lord
Baltimore, and to call upon all good Protestants to aid
in its overthrow. Unoer the leadership of one John
Coode, an apostate Catholic, a Colonel Jowles and
others formed " The Protestant Association in arms to
defend the Protestant religion''. All sorts of lying
charges against the Catholics were scattered broad-
cast through the community. They were accused
among other things of forming an alliance with the
Indians for the massacre of tlie Protestants. The
Government of the proprietary was overthrown, and a
Committee of Public Safety was installed in its place.
This Committee appealed to William and Mary for a
recognition, and to the discredit of those monarchs it
was given.
Lord Baltimore, without the charge of a single
offence bein^ brought against him, except that he was
a Catholic, without a trial by a jury of his peers, against
his earnest protest, and notwilHstanding the remon-
strances of large numbers of respectable Protestants
in several of the counties, was deprived of all the civil
and political authority conferred upon him in the
charter, and remained so deprived until his death in
1715. William and Mary without a scruple took over
the province, made it a royal colony, and appointed
Lionel Copley governor. And now began the reign of
religious intolerance and bigotry. William and Mary,
although they deprived Lord Baltimore of his govern-
ment of the province in violation of the express pro-
visions of the charter, refused to sanction the repeated
attempts made by the Maryland usurpers to rob him
of his proprietary rights. These rignts he retained
until his death in 1715, administering his land olFice,
appointing his surv'eyors, collecting his rents and
issuing, as the only recognized source of title, grants
and patents for lands to claimants under the condi-
tions of plantation promulgated by his father Cecilius.
This retention of his territory enabled the proprietary
to save his province and the future State ot Marj-land
from absorption by either Virginia or Pennsylvania
colonies. Encouraged by the Government both in
England and in the colony, and by the sympathy and
support of the Protestant inhabitants of Maryland,
the revolutionists began an era of religious persecu-
tion.
In 1692 an " Act of Religion " was passed whereby
all the penal laws of England existing at that time
against the Catholics were declared to be in force in
the colony. This Act established the Church of Eng-
land as the Church of the province, and provided for
conformity with its worship and discipline. To Eps-
copal clei^^en was given jurisdiction in testamentaiy
causes. Tne members of the Church of England at
that time constituted but a small minority of the
people. To the Dissenters and the Quakers, who to-
other with the Catholics formed a considerable ma-
jority of the people, this act was very obnoxious.
Under the rule of the Catholic proprietaries there was
no Established Church, no tax imposed for its sup-
port, no conformity with its worship and discipline re-
quired under penalties for non-compliance. In 1702
an Act was passed exempting Puritans and Quakers
and all other Rinds of Dissenters from the provisions of
this law, except the one imposing an annual tax of 40
pounds of tobacco per poll on all the inhabitants for
the support of the Establishment. To the Catholics no
relief whatever from these burdens was extended.
They and they alone remained subject to the jpains,
S3nalties, disabilities, and taxes provided in this Act.
y the Test Oath of 1692 Catholic attorneys were de-
barred from practising in the provincial courts. By
the Act of 1704 Catholics were prohibited from prac-
tising their religion; priests were debarred from the
exercise of their functions; priests and parents for-
bidden to teach Catholic children their religion, and
the children encouraged to refuse obedience to the
rule and authority of their parents.
Charles, Lord Baltimore, died 20 February, 1715.
His son Benedict Leonard now succeeded to the title
and estates. This son, a few years before the death of
his father, had renounced the Catholic Faith, and with
his family had conformed to the Church of England.
His father, incensed by this conduct, had cut off
his allowance. To replace this. Queen Anne had,
on the petition of Benedict, directed Governor Hart to
provide for him an annuity of £500 out of the revenue
of the province. This apostasy proved an injury to
the Catholics of Maryland. Benedict died 5 April,
1715. His son Charles II. who had conformed with
his father, became 2he fifth Lord Baltimore and the
fourth proprietary, and received from Queen Anne
the government of the province. In 17.18 a more
stringent law w^as passed barring Catholics from the
exercise of the franchise and the nolding of any office
in the province. In 1 71 5 a law was adopted providing
that if a Protestant should die leaving a widow and
children, and such widow should marry a Catholic, or
be herself of that opinion, it should be the duty of the
governor and council to remove such child or children
out of the custody of such parents and place them
where they might be securely educated in the Protes-
tant religion. This Act was amended and re-enacted
in 1729 by an Act which in the case mentioned gave the
power to take the child to any justice of the county
court. Without regard to sex or age the child or
children should be put w^herever the justice pleased.
There was no appeal.
In all this proscriptive legislation there are evi-
dences of a latent lU-conc^ed purpose which in
1756 was boldly announced in petitions to the Lower
House, and in a series of articles from correspondents
in the " Maryland Gazette " published in Annapolis.
The Jesuits owned and cultivated several lai^
manors and other tracts of fertile lands, the revenues
of which were devoteil to religion, charity, education,
and their missionary work. The Assembly was there-
fore prayed to enact that all manors, tenements, etc.,
possessed by the priests should on 1 October, 1756, be
taken from them, and vested in a commission appointed
for that purpose and sold^ the proceeds of the sale to
be devoted to the protection of the inhabitants from
the French and Indians. Priests were to be required
to take all the test oaths and on their refusal banished,
and. as " Romish recusants "^ their lands to be forfeited.
In tne same year the Upper House, as the Governor's
Council was called, framed a bill with the title "To
MiATLAHD 759 BCARYLAMD
prevent the erowth of Popery within this 'province'', Baltimore, because he was a Catholic. The proprie-
which provided that priests were to be made incap- tary rule, notwithstanding the clamours of the malcon-
able of holding any lands, to be obliged to register tents and revolutionists of 1689, was acceptable to the
their names, and give bond for their good conduct; people. The only ground of objection, indeed, ever
were prohibited from converting Protestants under urged against the government of either Cedlius or
the penalty of high treason, and further that anv per- Charles Calvert was that they were Catholics. *
son educated at a forei^ Catholic seminary could not War for Independence. — Maryland did not at
inherit or hold lands m the province. There were first contemplate or favour independence, and had so
other eoually severe disabilities and penalties im- instructed her delegates to the Continental Congress,
posed. But a controversy arose between the two While the public mind was in this uncertain and un-
Houses over the bill during which it was dropped. To balanced state, Dulany's letter appeared and pro-
render the province no longer a desirable place of resi- duced considerable effect. The patriot cause, the
dence to the loyal Catholic gentlemen and their families cause of independence, found a champion in the dis-
was the object of these propositions and laws. Charles f ranchised Catholic, Charles Carroll of Carrollton (q. v.),
Carrol], the father of the signer of the Declaration of In- the wealthiest landowner in the province. Four
dependence, wrot^ to his son that Marvland was no letters passed between the controversialists. By
longer a fit place for a Catholic to resia.e, and he felt general acknowledpnent the triumph of Carroll was
inclined to dispose of his great landed estate and complete. Carroll^ letters met with an enthusiastic
leave the province. Fortunately his son earnestly per- reception by the patriots, and the cause of independ-
suadedhimnottodoso. Some families sought refuge ence was won. Throwing all selfish considerations
from these intolerant laws and the more mtolerant aside, Maiyland, henceforth a state and no longer a
sentiments of the people under the milder rule of province, cast her lot with the other colonies. Subse-
Pennsylvania: In 1752 the same Charles Carroll, quently, two other Catholic CarroUs took prominent
after consultation with some of the principal Catholic parts in the revolutionary struggle : Rev. John Car-
families of IVIaryland, went to France to obtain from roll (q. v.). afterwards the first bishop of the United
Louis XV a tract of land in the Louisiana territory for States, ana Daniel Carroll of Duddington (q. v.).
the purpose of transporting the Catholics of the The name of Daniel Carroll is little known, and his
provmce in a body to that country. He failed in his patriotic services have never been sufficiently recog-
mission. Maryland Catholics began to emigrate to nized. While a member of the Congress from Marv-
Kentucky in 1774, and in 17S5 twenty-five Catholic land, he took a leading and prominent part in tne
faoiilies set out from St. Mary's County for Pottinger's settlement of a question of profound significance and
Creek (see Kentucky). ^ importance to his country. Under language of a very
In the absence of reliable statistics it is difficult to vague character in their charters, as colonies, from the
ascertain the ^owth of the population in the colony king, several of the states laid claim to laree stretches
during the period elapsing from 1634 to 1690; aooord- of the territory west of the Alleghanies. Virginia as-
ing to the estimate already given, in 1671, it was serted a blanket claim to the whole territory under the
20,000. The Protestant RevSution exercised a de- charter of 1607. Verv early in the sessions of the
terring influence, so that in 1708, it was only 33,000, of Congress Maryland had introduced through her repre-
whom 3000 were Catholics. In 1754 the population sentatives a resolution to the effect that if, as a result
was placed at 153,000, of whom the Catholics num- of the war then being waged, these lands should be ac-
berea about 8000. During the early part of this ouired by the Confeaeration from Great Britain, they
period, the number of priests — mostlv, sometimes ex- should become the common property of all the states,
dusively, Jesuits — serving this Catholic population free to the entrance of the inhabitants of all the states,
averaged four or five; during the latter part ten to and regulated and governed by the Congress as the
twelve. In 1759 the ^imated Catholic population of trustee of all the states, and declared she would not
the province was 9000, and the number of priests, all sign the Articles of Confederation until the states claim-
Jesuits, eight to fifteen. In 1756 Bishop Challoner, ing these lands should make a surrender of them to
vicar apostolic in England, places the number of Congress to become in time independent states and
priests at twelve. In 1763 the Catholic population members of the Union. The resolution met with
was estimated to be between 8000 and 10,000, whose great opposition from the landed states, especiidly
spiritual needs were supplied by fourteen Jesuits. By from Virginia. Alone and unsupported by any other
1769 this population had increased to 12,000. Numeiv state, Maryland remained firm and ultimately tri-
ous conversions had bc^n made. The proclamation of umphed. John Fiske, in his ** Critical Period of Ameri-
independence and the Revolution which followed it can Historv ", does not hesitate to say that but for the
put an end to the royal authority in the American position taken by Maryland on this question the Union
colonies, and to the proprietary rule in Maryland, and would not have been fonned; or, if formed, would
struck the shackles from the Catholics of that province, soon have been broken in pieces by the conflicting
Henceforth a new order of things was to prevail, pretensions of the landed states.
Daniel Dulany, an eminent lawyer and the attorney The Catholics of Maryland, both clergy and laity,
general of the province under the last proprietary warmly espoused the patriot cause. On the roster of
governor, had addressed a letter to the people of the Maryland Line are to be found the names of repre-
Marvland earnestly uiging them to remain steadfast sentatives of the Catholic families of Maryland. The
in their loyalty tx> the Kmg of England and to the important services of the Carrolls, the loyalty of the
provincial authority. He pointed out as a dissuasive Catholic clergy and laity to the patriot cause, coupled
to Maryland from joining her sister colonies in the with the fact that the whole body of the Anglican
revolt the fact that under Section XX of the Mary- cleigy had almost to a man adhered to King George,
land Charter the province enjoyed the right of abso- had somewhat ameliorated the old intolerant senti-
lute exencmtion from all taxation by kin^ or Parlia- ments of the people of colonial Maryland towards the
ment. Theauthoritvof Mr. Dulany was high, and his Catholic religion and its professors. This change of
argument strong. Another letter was calculated to sentiment found expression in Section XXXIII of
exert an influence unfavourable to the patriot cause, the Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the new State
The fact was, the royal authority had been exerted in of Maryland, ^opted in November, 1776. In this arti-
Maryland only to a limited extent. No royal govern- cle it is declared that all persons professing the Chris-
ors had been appointed except during the usurpation tian religion are equally entitled to protection . . .
of the Protestant ascendency, when tne government of that no person ought to be compelled to frequent or
the province, and the appointment of governors, was maintain any particular place of^worship or any par-
taken temporarily out of the hands of Charles, Lord ticular ministry. Still it provided that tne legislature
BIAEYLAKD 760 ICAEtLAMD
might in its discretion lay a general and equal tax for limits of the country. (See Baltimore, Arctidio-
the support of the Christian religion, leaving to each in- cme of ; Carroll, John .)
dividual taxpayer the right to designate to what partic- In the War of 1812 with England, a number of locali-
ular place of worship or to what particular mmister ties suffered from the attacks of the British fleet. The
his portion of the tax should be applied. By this bombardment of FortMcHenry, Baltimore, 13 »Sept.,
article also the churches, chapels, parsonages, and 1814, was the occasion of the composition of the
glebe lands of the Church of England in the province National anthem, "The Star-Spangled- Bamicr".
were secured to that Church forever. It further pro- On 12 Sept., 1814, the Maryland troops under General
vided that all Acts of the General Assembly passed for Strieker checked the British forces commanded bv
collecting money for building or repairing of churches General Ross at the Battle of North Point. This
or chapeb (that is for the Protestant Episcopal Church) victory saved the Republic from being cut in two by
shall continue in force until repealed by the l^islature. the British and resulted in the Treaty of Ghent, which
This article, adopted in 1776, fell far short of that full was signed on 2 December, 1814. The defeat and
and just measure of relieious freedom announced a death of General Ross at the Battle of North Point
century and a half before oyCeciliusCaKert in his in- was a vital moment in the history of the United
structions to Governor Leonard Calvert and the Toler- States. During the Civil War, 1861-65, as a border
ation Act of 1649. It remained on the statutes until state Maryland had many citizens who favoured se-
the first Congress of the United States passed its first cession. In October, 1864, a new constitution abol-
amendment, to the effect that ** Congress shall make ished slavery and disfranchised all who had aided the
no laws respecting the establishment of religion or rebellion against the United States,
prohibiting the free exercise thereof ". Education. — The percentage of illiterate nati\'e
The success of the Revolution rendered necessary whites, 41, is the lowest, and of negroes, 35-1, the
new arrangements and adjustments of ecclesiastical second lowest of any state having a large negro popu-
jurisdiction and authority in the Catholic Church of lation. P'rom the time of the first Jesuit miasioiiaries
the United States. In a population of about 200,000, Catholic effort for sound education has been constant.
the Catholics of Maryland numbered at the clase of the To further the organization of a native clergy Bishop
revolution 15,000: 9000 adults, 30(X) chiklren, and Carroll secured the services of a number of Sulpidans,
3000 slaves. The number of Catholic priests at the who on 3 Octol)er, 1791, began St. Mary's Seminaiy,
same time in Maryland was twenty-one. The vicars Baltimore. In January, 1805, the State legislature
ApostoHc of London had jurisdiction over the English gave it the charter of a university. Up to 1910, 1800
colonies in America, and this jurisdiction was con- priests had been educated there. Many distinguished
firmed to Bishop Challoner on his appointment. laymen also studied within its walls. Under the same
Writing to Propaganda in 1750 he urged that a bishop direction St. Charles College, Ellicott City, was founded
or vicar Apostolic be appointed for the Catholics in in 1830. Georgetown University (q. v!) waa founded
our [i. e., British] American settlements. In 1765 he in 1778, and in its first years some of the Sulpidana
favoured the idea of two or three vicariates and wrote assisted as professors in the work of the institution,
in this sense to his agent in Rome. carried on by the Society of Jesus. Other notable in-
In Rome, however, the Cardinal of York, brother stitutions are Mount St. Mary's Seminary and Cd-
of Charles Edward Stuart, pretender to the English lege, Emmitsburg (1808); Loyola College, Baltimore
throne, was thouglit to control the nomination of (1852); Rock Hill College, Ellicott City (Christian
bishops within British dominions. The Catholics of Brothers, 1865).
Maryland were not partisans of the House of Stuart, For women the most modem educational advan-
and, furthermore, the sympathies of the Cardinal of tages are supplied by the Sisters of Charity of St. Vin-
York were known to he not on the side of the Societ v cent de Paul m St. Joseph's College, founded by Mother
of Jesus, to which the Maryland missionaries almost all Seton at Emmitsburg in 1808, and in the Academy
belonged. Bishop Challoner then suggested that the of Notre Dame of Mar>iand at Baltimore. The Ccf-
Sacraraent of Confirmation \>e conferred on the Catho- lege of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, the philosophical
hcs of Pennsylvania and Maryland by the Bishop of and theological House of Studies of the Society of
Quebec, but there is no evidence that this ever took Jesus, is at Woodstock; the Redemptorist House of
place, or tliat Confirmation was administered prior to Studies is at lUchester, and the normal school and
the War of Independence. On 27 June, 1783, a meet- novitiate of the Christian Brothers at Ammendale.
ing of the Catholic clergy of Maryland was held at Nearly one-half the parishes of the State have Catho-
White Marsh, Prince George's County, to take into He schools. The boys' parochial schools are under the
considenition the status and the wants of the Church cliarge of the Christian Brothers and the Xaverian
under the new political order brought about by the Brothers. The girls' schools are under the charge of
war. This meeting addresvsed a petition to His Iloli- the Sisters of Mercy, the Sisters of Charity, and^ the
ness Pius VI, refuiesting the appomtment of a prefect School Sisters of Notre Dame. The governor, princi-
Apostolic clothetl with episcopal powers. In response pal of the State Normal School and state euperin-
to this petition, on 9 June, 1784 a Decree of the Propa- tendent.with four meml)ors appointetl by the governor,
ganda was issued organizing the Catholic Church in make up the State Board of Education. The gover-
the United States, and appointing the Rev. John nor and Senate name a Board of School Commis-
Carroll superior of the missions in the thirteen Unitecl sioners for each coimty, and this board selects three
States of America. Father Carroll at once entered school trustees in each district. The law makes the
on the duties of his office, but it required but little annual school term last ten months,
experience to dcmonstmte that the appointment of Charities. — \ Board of State Aid and Charities
a "Superior of Missions" was wholly inadequate to appointed by the governor and the Senate receives
meet the wants of the Church in the United States, all applications for state aid, and recommends to the
and that a bishop with full authority and jurisdiction legislature the amount to be granted and its recipient,
was necessary. In 17SS a petition to that effect, signed There are 6 Catholic hospitals; 2 homes for aged
Pope Pius VI. Ilis Holiness approved the recom- as well as churches and cemeteries, is exempt from
mnidation, and a Bull was issued on 6 Noveml)er, taxation. Burial plots in cemeteries are not hable for
■1788, establishing Baltimore as a see and appointing debts, etc.
i. ttBiBZjtjUAfiKroU its first bishop. The authority and Laws Affecting Reugiox.— .\11 Sundaj-s, besides
e bishop was co-extensive with the New Year's Day, Christmas, and Good Friday, are
je^^^'^'m
w
Ai
w
p
Ir -1
CHRIST AND MARY MAGDALEN
B PRADO, MADRID
MARY
761
MART
legal holidays. Incorporation of Catholic churches is
made accoraing to a special law bv the body com-
posed of the bishop of the diocese, his vicar-general,
the pastor of the parish and two otnerpersons electea
annually by the male pewhoiders. Tne form of the
judicial or other oath not provided for in the State
Constitution is: " In the presence of Almighty God I do
solemnly promise * ', or " declare ", etc. It is not lawful
to add to any oath the words " So help me God ", or
any imprecatory words whatever. Affirmation is suf-
ficient if the conscience of the person is against an
oath. The manner is by holding up the right hand,
unless this is not practical or some other way is con-
sidered more bindmg.
No one who takes part in, or aids or abets a duel, or
sends or accepts a challenge, can hold office. No
minister of the Gospel is eligible for election to the Legis-
lature. Murder in the first degree is punishable with
death ; arson, rape, and treason with death or imprison-
ment at the aiscretion of the court. The chief groimds
of divorce are adultery, abandonment for three years,
impotency at time of marriage, and misconduct of wife
before marriage unknown to husband. Separation
from bed and board is granted for cruel treatment, ex-
cessively vicious conduct, or desertion.
RUS8EIX, The Land of Sanctuary (Baltimore, 1907); Huohes,
The History of the Society ofJeaua in North America (Cleveland,
1907-10); BosMAN, Hxstory of Maryland 1633-60 (Baltimore.
■" '" " ruland
(Baltimore. 1848}*!^ BnowtiE, Mary Uind, History of a Palatinate
1861); McShrrry, History of Maryland . . ,to the Year 1848
(Boston. 1884); McMahon, History of Maryland to 1776 (Bal-
timore, 1831): ScHARFP, History of Maryland (BsUtimore,
1879); Davis, The Day-Star of American Freedom (New
York, 1855); Mokris, The Lords Baltimore (Baltimore, lo74);
Hall, The Ixtrds Baltimore and the Maryland Palatinate
(Baltimore. 1902); Calvert Papers; Maryland Archives; Kiltt,
Landholder 8 Assiatant (Baltimore, 1808); Bacon, Laws of
Maryland (Annapolis, 1765) ; Bulletins of the Maryland Orioirud
Research Society; Fiske, Old Viryinia and her Neighbors (Bos-
ton, 1897); Adamb, Village Communities of Cape Anne and
ScUem (Baltimore, 1883) ; Qambrall, History of Early Mary-
land (New York, 1893); Johnson, Old Maryland Manors
(Baltimore, 1883); White, Relatio Itineris in Marylandiam in
Hist. Soc. Publ.; Zwierlein, Religion in New Netherland
(Rochester, 1910). See also bibliography of Carroll, John.
A. Leo Knott.
Mary Magdalen, so called either from Magdala near
Tiberias, on the west shore of Galilee, or possibly
from a Talmudic expression K^^K'i \r\T^ XTliD, i. e.
"curling women's hair", which the Talmud explains
as of an adulteress. In the New Testament she is
mentioned among the women who accompanied
Christ and ministered to Him (Luke, viii, 2-3), where it
is also said that seven devils had been cast out of her
(Mark, xvi, 9). She is next named as standing at the
foot of the cross (Mark,xv, 40; Matt., xxvii, 56; John,
xix, 25; Luke, xxiii, 49). She saw Christ laid in the
tomb, and she was the first recorded witness of the
Resurrection. The Greek Fathers, as a whole, dis-
tinguish the three persons: the "sinner'* of Luke, vii,
36-50; the sister of Martha and Lazarus, Luke, x,
38-42, and John, xi; and Mar^*^ Magdalen. On the
other hand most of the Latins hold that these three
were one and the same. Protestant critics, however,
believe there were two, if not three, distinct persons.
It is impossible to demonstrate the identity of the
three; but those commentators undoubtedly go too
far who assert, as does Westcott (on John, xi, 1),
"that the identity of Mary with Mary Magdalene is a
mere conjecture supported by no direct evidence, and
opposed to the general tenour of the gosjpels ". It is the
iaentification of Mary of Bethany with the "sinner"
of Luke, vii, 37, which is most combatted by Prot-
estants (see Plummer, " International Criticad Com-
ment, on St. Luke", p. 209). It almost seems as if
this reluctance to identify the "sinner" with the sister
of Martha were due to a failure to grasp the full signif-
icance of the forgiveness of sin. (See Mayor in
Hastings, "Dictionary of the Bible", III, 28'1.) The
harmonizing tendencies of so nmny modem critics,
too, arc responsible for nuich of the existing confusion.
The first fact mentioned in the Gospel relating to
the question under discussion is the anointing of
Christ's feet by a woman, a "sinner" in the city
([Luke, vii, 37-50). This belongs to the Galilean min-
istry, it precedes the miracle of the feeding of the
five thousand and the third Passover. Immediately
afterwards St. Luke describes a missionary circuit in
Galilee and tells us of the women who nunistered to
Christ, among them being " Mary who is called Magda-
len, out of whom seven devils were gone forth" (Luke,
viii, 2) ; but he does not tell us that she is to be identified
with the * ' sinner ' ' of the previous chapter. In x, 3&-42,
he tells us of Christ's visit to Martha and Mary " in a
certain town"; it is impossible to identify this town,
but it is clear from ix, 53, that Christ had definitivelv
left Galilee, and it is quite possible that this "town''
was Bethany. This seems confirmed by the preceding
parable of the good Samaritan, which must almost
certainly have been spoken on the road between Jer-
icho and Jerusalem. But here again we note that
there is no suggjestion of an identification of the
three persons, viz., the "sinner", Mary Magdalen,
and Mary of Bethany; and if we had only St. Luke
to guide us we should certainly have no grounds
for so identifying them. St. John, however, clearly
identifies Maiy of Bethany with the woman who
anointed Christ's feet (xii* cf. Matt., xxvi, and
Mark, xiv). It is remarkable that already m xi,.
2, St. John has spoken of Mary as "she that
anointed the Lord's feet", ^ dXe/^cwa; it is com-
monly said that he refers to the subsequent anointing
which he himself describes in xii, 3-8; but it may be
questioned whether he would have used ^ dXef^cwa
if another woman, and she a "sinner" in the city, had
done Uie same. It is conceivable that St. John, just
because he is writing so long after the event and at a
time when Mary was dead, wishes to point out to us
that she was really the same as the " sinner". In the
same way St. Lute may have veiled her identity pre-
cisely because he did not wish to defame one who was
yet living; he certainly does something similar in the
case of St. Matthew whose identity with Levi the
publican (v, 7) he conceals.
If the foregoing argument holds good, Mary of
Bethany and the "sinner" are one and the same.
But an examination of St. John's Gospel makes it al-
most impossible to deny the identity of Mary of Beth-
any with Mary Magdalen. From St. John we learn
the name of the "woman" who anointed Christ's feet
previous to the last supper. We may remark here
that it seems unnecessary to hold that because St.
Matthew and St. Mark say " two days before the Pass- •
over", while St. John says "six days" there were,
therefore, two distinct anointings following one an-
other. St. John does not necessarily mean that tJhe
supper and the anointing took place six days before,
but only that dirist came to Bethany six days before
the Passover. At that supper, then, Mary received
the glorious encomium, "she hath wrought a good
work upon Me ... in pouring this ointment upon My
body she hath done it for My burial . . . wheresoever
this Gospel shall be preached . . . that also which she
hath done shall be told for a memory of her. " Is it cred-
ible, in view of all this, that this Mary should have no
place at the foot of the cross, nor at the tomb of (Christ?
Yet it is Mary Magdalen who, according to all the
Evangelists, stood at the foot of the cross and assisted
at the entombment and was the first recorded witness
of the Resurrection. And while St. John calls her
"Mary Magdalen "in xix, 25, xx, 1, 18, he calls her
simply "Mary" in xx, 11 and 16.
In the view we have advocated the series of events
forms a consistent whole; the "sinner" comes early in
the ministry to seek for pardon; she is described im-
mediately afterwards as Mary Magdalen "out of
whom seven devils wore gone forth "; shortly after, we
find her "sitting at the Lonl's feet an<l hearing His
MART
762
MART
words ". To the Catholic mind it all seems fitting and
natural. At a later period Maiy and Martha turn to
"the Christ, the Son of the Livmg God", and He re-
stores to them their brother Lazarus; a short time
afterwards thev make Him a supper and Mary once
more repeats the act she had performed when a peni-
tent. At the Passion she stands near by; she sees
Him laid in the tomb; and she is the first witness of
His Resurrection — excepting always His Mother, to
whom He must needs have appeared first, though th^
New Testament is silent on this point. In our view,
then, there were two anointings of Christ's feet — it
should surely be no difficulty that St. Matthew and St.
Mark speak of His head — the first (Luke, vii) took
place at a comparatively early date; the second, two
days before the last Passover. But it was one and the
same woman who performed this pious act on each
occasion.
Subsequent History of St. Mary Magdalen. —
The Greek Church maintains that the saint retired to
Ephesus with the Blessed Virgin and there dieti, that
her relics were transferred to Constantinople in 886
and are there preserved. Gregory of Tours, "De
miraculis", I, xxx, supports the statement that she
went to Ephesus. However, according to a French
tradition (see Lazarus of Bethany, Saint), Mary,
Lazarus, and some companions came to Marseilles
and converted the whole of Provence. Magdalen is
said to have retired to a hill, La Sainte-Baume, near
by, where she gave herself up to a life of penance for
thirty years. When the time of her death arrived she
was carried by angels to Aix and into the oratory of
St. Maximinus, where she received the viaticum; her
bod>[ was then laid in an oratory constnicted by St.
Maximinus at Villa Lata, afterwards called St. Maxi-
min. History is silent about these relics till 745, when,
according to the chronicler Sigebert, they were re-
moved to Vezelay through fear of the Saracens. No
record is preserved of their return, but in 1279, when '
Charles II, King of Naples, erected a convent at La
Sainte-Baume for the Dominicans, the shrine was
found intact, with an inscription stating why they
were hidden. In 1600 the reUcs were placed in a
sarcophagus sent by Clement VIII, the head being
g laced in a separate vessel. In 1814 the church of La
te Baume, wrecked during the Revolution, was re-
stored, and in 1822 the grotto was consecrated afresh.
The head of the saint now lies there, where it has lain
so long, and where it has been the centre of so many
pilgrimages.
Acta SS.f 22 July; Faillon, MonumcnU irUdUs sur Vapoa-
tolat de Ste-M arte- Madeline en Provence (2 vola., Paris, 1859),
I, 1-282, where a full discuasion of the Identity of the saint is
to be found; also 878-9; Bahonius, Ann. EccL, I, 117-121,
251; Baillet, Vies dca Saints (Paris, 1724). For the common
non-Catholic opinion cf. Simpson in Expositor (Oct., 1900).
Hugh Pope.
Mary Magdalen de' Pazzi, Saint, Carmelite Vir-
gin, b. 2 April, 1566; d. 25 May, 1607. Of outward
events there were very few in the saint's life. She
came of two noble families, her father being Camillo
Geri de' Pazzi and her mother a Biioudelmonti. She
was baptized, and named Caterina, in the great bap-
tistery. Her childhood much resembled that of some
other women saints who have become great mvstics,
in an early love of prayer and penance, great charity
to the poor, an apostolic spirit of teaching religious
truths, and a charm and sweetness of nature that
made her a general favourite. But above all other
spiritual cliaracteristics was Caterina 's intense attrac-
tion towards the Blessed Sacrament, her longing to
receive It, and her delight in touching and being near
those who were speaking of It, or who had just been
to Communion. She made her own First Communion
at the age of ten, and shortly afterwards vowed her
virginity to God. At fourteen she was sent to school
at the convent of the Cavalaresse, where she lived in
fo mortified and fervent a manner as to make the
sisters prophesy that she would become a great saint ;
and, on leaving it, she told her parents of her resolve
to enter the religious state. They were truly spiritual
people; and, after a little difficulty in persuading them
to reUnquieh their only daughter, she finally entered
in December, 1582, the Carmelite convent of Santa
Maria degl' Angeli, founded by four Florentine ladies
in 1450 and renowned for its strict observance. Her
chief reason for choosing this convent was the rule
there followed of daily Communion.
Caterina was clothed in 1583, when she took the
name of BCaria Maddalena; and on 29 Biay, 1584,
being then so ill that they feared she woulcT not re-
cover, she was professed. After her profession, she
was subject to an extraordinary dailv ecstasy for forty
consecutive da>^s, at the end of which time she ap-
p€».red at the point of death. She recovered, however,
miraculously; and henceforth, in spite of constant baa
healthy was able to fill withenergv the various offices
to which she was appointed. She became, in turn,
mistress of extems — i. e of girls coming to the convent
on trial — teacher and mistress of the juniors, novice
mistress (which post she held for six years), and
finally, in 1604, superior. For five years (1585-90)
God allowed her to oe tried by terrible inward desola-
tion and temptations, and by external diabolic at-
tacks; but the courageous severity and deep humility
of the means that she took for overcoming; these only
served to make her virtues shine more brilliantly in the
eyes of her community.
From the time of her clothing with the religious
habit till her death the saint's life was one series
of raptures and ecstasies, of which only the most
notable characteristics can be named in a short notice.
First, these raptures sometimes seized upon her whole
being with such force as to compel her to rapid motion
(e. g. towards some sacred object). Secondly, she was
frequently able, whilst in ecstasy, to carry on work
belonging to her office — e. g., embroidery, painting,
etc. — with pjerfect composure and efficiency. Thirdly
md this is the point of chief importance — ^it was
whilst in her states of rapture that St. Mary Magdalen
de' Pazzi gave utterance to those wondeitul maxims
of Divine Love, and those counsels of perfection for
souls, especially in the religious state, which a modem
editor of a selection of them declares to be '' more f re-
guently quoted by spiritual writers than those even of
t. Teresa". These utterances have been preserved
to us by the saint's companions, who (unknown to
her) took them down from her lips as she poured them
forth. She spoke sometimes as of herseli, and some-
times as the mouthpiece of one or other cf the Persons
of the Blessed Trinity. These maxims of the saint are
sometimes describee! as her ''Works", although she
wrote down none of them herself.
'This ecstatic life in no wise interfered with the
saint's usefulness in her community. She was noted
for her strong common-sense, as well as for the high
standard and strictness of her government, and was
most dearly loved to the end of her life by all for the
spirit of intense charity that accompanied her some-
what severe code of discipline. As novice-mistress she
was renowned for a miraculous gift of reading her sub-
jects' tearts — ^which gift, indeed, was not entirely
confined to her community. Many miracles, both of
this and of other kinds, she performed for the benefit
either of her own convent or of outsiders. She often
saw things far off, and is said once to have supemat-
urally beheld St. Catherine de' Ricci in her convent at
Prato, reading a letter that she had sent her and writ-
ing the answer; but the two saints never met in a
natural manner. To St. Mary Magdalen's numerous
Eenances, and to the ardent love of suffering that made
er genuinely wish to live long in order to suffer with
Christ, we can here merely refer; but it must not be
forgotten that she was one of the strongest upholders
of the value of suffering for the love of God and the
HAKT
763
nlrstiot] of our feUaw-creatures, that ever Hved. Her ment of the church, she returned to Our I^dy 'b statue,
death was fully in accordance with her life in this and while praying there for guidance as to her future
respect, for she died after an illness of nearly three couisegSheseemed to heara voice fromafartelling her
years' duratioii and of iadeacribablepainfuhieBs, borne that if she crossed the Jordan, she would find rest.
with heroic joy to the end. Innumerable miracles fol- That same evening Mary reached the Jordan and re-
lowed the saint's death, and the process tor her beatifi- ceived Holy Communion in a church dedicated to the
c&tioD was be^uB in 1610 under Paul V, and finished Baptist, and the day fallowing crossed the r '
under Urban VlH in 1626. She was not, however,
canonized till sijcty-two years after her death, when
Clement IX raised her to the altars on 2S April, 1669.
Her feast is kept on 27 May.
(1) The Oratonao Lif§ (1S49), tmiiili>t«l from tli« Jtmlimit
Lift by Cepari, for s Umit time confeaoi
omimuiiity; the editioo truu]at«d Lb th
in Rome by Bkrnabo. m A MS. Li/c—
in EuIukI, only in sevenil coovsnta — c
IreinlEei*ove-n«ned«rkofCEPAHra.«
wandered eastward into the desert that stretches
towards Arabia.
Here she had lived absolutely alone for forty-seven
a Lifth
eompiled u
LADHEirr HiHiA BraH'
cACCio, a Neapolitan
Cknnetite. Irom Fuo-
oini's work. Tliia book
the R.luiioa» Life traia-
lated froiD the Freni*
by Farhinotoh (DubSn.
1801).
F. M. Capes.
ICuy of Zgjpt,
Saint, b. probably
about 344; d, about
421. At the early
age of twelve Mary
left her home and
came to Alexandria,
where tor upwards of
seventeen years she
led a life of public
prostitution. At the
end oF that time, on
the occasion of a pil-
grimage tj) Jerusalem
for the Feast of the
Exaltation of the
Holy Cross, she em-
barked for Pales-
tine, not however
- -J-;— and monk, named ^osinius, who after the custom of his
t"o(TaM"publihod brethren had come out from his monastery to spend
f which mpi» eiin Lent in the desert, met her and learned from her own
mpiled by PAHTmo lipa the strange and romantic storj- of her life. As
eoBfS«(S''lor'about "''"' *^ ^''^J' ™^*' "^^ Called Zoslmus by his name and
" t' fain, recomised himasaDrieet. After they had con vereecf
and prayed together,
she begged ^simus
to promise to meet
' ' the Jordan on
^#
Holy Thursday eve:
ing of the followii
2
• and bring y
mm the Rlessea
Sacrament. When
the appointed even-
ing arrived, Zosimus,
we are told, put into
a small chalice a por-
tion of the undenled
Body and the Pre-
cious Blood of Our
Lord Jesus Christ
(P.L.,LXXIII,686:
"Mittens in modico
calice intemerati cor-
poris portionom et
Bretiosi sanguinis
.N.J.C." But the
reference to both
species is less clear
in Acta SS., IX, 82:
"Accipiena parvum
poculum intemerati
corporis ac venerandi
sanguinis Christi Dei
nbstri "), and came to
^ _^ __ Ribcra. TlM Prado. Madrid
with the intention of making the pikrimage, but in the spot that had been indicated. After
the hope that life on board ship would afFora her new Mar^ appeared on the eastern bank of tbe river, and
and abundant opportunities of gratifying an insati- havmg made the sign of the cross, walked upon the
able lust. Arrived in Jerusalem she persisted in her waters to the western side. Having received Holy
shamelesB life, and on the Feast of the Exaltation of Communion, she raised her hands towards heaven,
the Cross joined the crowd towards the church where and cried aloud in the words of Simeon: " Now thou
the sacred relic was venerated, hopine to meet in (he dost dismiss thy servant, O Lord, according to thy
^thering some new victims whom she might allure word in peace, because my ej'es have seen thy salva-
mto sin. And now came the turning-point in her ca- tion". She then charged Zosiraua to come in the couree
reer. When she reached the church door, she sud- ofayeartothespotwherehehadfirstmetherinlhcdeo-
denly felt herself repelled by some secret force, and crt. addinK that he would find her then in what con-
having vainly attempted three or four times to enter, dition God might ordain. He came, but only to find
she retired to a comer of the churchyard, and was the poor saint s corpse, and written beside it on the
Struck with remorse for her wicked life, which she recog- ground a request that he should bury her, and a state-
□iied as the cause of her exclusion from the church, ment that she had died a vear before, on the very
Bursting into bitter tears and beating her breast, she night on which he had given her Holy Communion, far
began to bewail her sins. Just then her eyes fell upon away by the Jordan's l»nks. Aided, we are told, by a
a statue of the Blessed Virgin above the spot wher« she iion, he prepared her grave and buried her, and hav-
was standing, and in deep faith and humility of heart ingcommended hinaself and the Church to her prayers,
she besought Our I«dy for help, and permission to en- he returned to his monastery, where now for the firet
ter the church and venerate the sacred wood on which time he recounted the wondrous story of her lite.
Jesus liad suffered, promising that if her request were The saint's life was written not very long after her
granted, she would then renounce forever the world death by one who states that he learned the details
and its ways, and forthwith depart whithersoever Our from the monks of the monastery to which Zosimus
Lady might lead her. Encouraged by prayer and had belonged. Many authorities mention St. 8o-
COUnting on the mercy of the Mother ot God, she once phronius, who became Patriarch of Jerusalem in 635,
more approached the door of the church, and this time as the author; but as the Bollandists give good reasons
succeeded in entering without the slightest difficulty, tor belie ving that the Life was written before 500, we
Having adored the Holy CYoss and Kisse*! the pave- may conclude that it is from some other hand. The
MA&Y
764
MARY
date of the saint is somewhat uncertain. The Bol-
landists place her death on 1 April, 421, while manv
other authorities put it a century later. The Greek
Church celebrates her feast on 1 April, the Latin on 9
April, while the Roman Martyrology assigns it to 2
April, and the Roman Calendar to 3 April. The Greek
date is more likely to be correct; the others may be due
to the fact that on those days portions of her relics
reached the West. Relics of the saint are venerated at
Rome, Naples, Cremona, Antwerp, and some other
olaces
Acta' SS., IX, 67-90: Mione, P. L., LXXIII, 671-90;
AssEMANi,, Kalendaria Ecclema Univeraa, VI, 218-20; But-
ler, Lives of the SainU, April 9.
J. MacRory.
Mary Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart), b. at Lin-
lithgow, 7 Dec, 1542; d. at Fotheringay, 8 Feb.,
1587. She was the onlv legitimate child of James V of
Scotland. His death (14 December) followed imme-
diately^ after her birth, and she became queen when
only six davs old.
The Tuciors endeavoured by war to force on a
match with Edward VI of England. Mary, how-
ever, was sent to France, 7 August, 1648, where
she was excellently educated, as is now aamitted
by both friend and foe. On 24 April, 1558, she
married the Dauphin Francis and, on the death of
Henri II, 10 July, 1559, became Queen Consort of
France. This apparent good fortune was saddened
by the loss of Scotland. Inunediately after the ac-
cession of Elizabeth, her coimcil made plans to '' help
the divisions " of Scotland bv aiding those ** inclined
to true religion ". The revolution broke out in May,
and with Elizabeth's aid soon gained the upper hand.
There were dynastic, as well as rehgious^ reasons for
this policy. Elizabeth's birth being iUegitimate, Biarv,
though excluded by the will of Henry VIII, might
claim the English Throne as the legitimate heir. As
the state of war still prevailed between the two coun-
tries, there was no chance of her being accepted, but
her heralds did , later on, emblazon England in ner arms,
which deeply offended the English Queen. Mary's
troubles were still further increased by the Huguenot
rising in France, called le tumvlU orAn^xnae (6-17
March, 1560), making it impossible for the French to
succour Mary's side in Scotland. At last the starving
French garrison of Leith was obliged to yield to a
large English force, and Mary's representatives signed
the Treaty of Edinburgh (6 July, 1560). One clause of
this treaty might have excluded from the English
throne all Mary's descendants, amongst them the
present reigning house, which claims through her.
Mary would never confirm this treaty. Francis II
died, 5 December, and Mary, prostrate for a time with
pief , awoke to find all power gone and rivals installed
in her place. Though the Scottish reformers had at
first openly plotted her deposition, a change was
making itselt felt, and her return was agreed to.
Elizabeth refused a passport, and ordered her fleet to
watch for Mary's vessel. She sailed in apprehension
of the worst, but reached Leith in safety, 19 Aug.,
1561.
The political revolution, the vast appropria-
tions of church proiK?rty, and the frenzied hatred
of Knox's followers for Catholicism made any resto-
ration of the old order impossible. Mary contented
herself with the new and, by her moderation and
management, left time for a gradual return of loy-
alty. But though she ruled, she did not yet govern.
She issued J and frequently repeated, a proclama-
tion acceptmg religion as she had found it — the first
edict of toleration in Great Britain. A slow but
steady amelioration of the lot of Catholics ^ook
place. At the end of her reign there were no fewer
than 12,606 Easter communions at Edinburgh. (See
Pollen, " Papal Negociations", 520.) In 1562 Father
Nicholas de (ioudu visited her from Pope Pius IV, not
without danger to his life. He reported himself sadly
disappointed in the Scottish bishops, but ivas almost
enthusiastic for the "devout young queen," who
" numbers scarce twenty summers " and " is without
a single protector or good councillor". Though she
still " counteracts the machinations of the heretics to
the best of her power . . . there is no mistaking the
inuninent danger of her position". That was true.
Mary was a woman who leant on her advisers with
full and wife-Uke confidence. But, living as she did
amongst false friends, she be<»me an utterly bad judge
of male advisers. All her misfortunes may be trao^
to her mistaking flashy attractions for solid worth.
Other sovereigns have indeed made favourites of
objectionable persons, but few or none have risked or
sacrificed everything for them, as Mary did, again and
again.
Henry Stuart, Lord Damley, a great-grandson of
Henry VII of England, with clauns to both English and
Scottish crowns, had always been a possible candidate
for Mary's hand, and. as more poweitul suitors fell out,
his chances improvea. He was, moreover, a Catholic,
though of an accommodating sort, for he had been
brought up at E^abeth's court, and she in February,
1565, let him ^o to Scotland. Mary, at first cool, soon
fell violently in love. The Protestant lords rose in
arms, and Elizabeth backed up their rebellion, but
Mary drove them victoriously from the country and
married Damley before the dispensation required to
remove the imp^iment arising from their being first
cousins had arrived from Rome. But she did leave
enough time for a dispensation to be granted, and it
was eventually conceded in a form that would suffice,
if that were necessary, for a sanatio in radice ('' Scottish
Historical Review", April. 1907). As soon as the
victory had been won, Damley was found to be change-
able, quarrelsome, and, presumably, also vicious. He
became violently jealous of David Rizzio, who, so far
as we can see, was perfectly innocent and inoffensive,
a merry fellow who nelped the queen in her foreign cor-
respondence and sometimes amused her with music.
Damley now entered into a band with the same lords
who had lately risen in rebeUion against him: they
were to seise Rizzio in the queen's presence, put him to
death, and obtain the crown matrimonial for Damley,
who would secure a pardon for them, and reward them.
The plot succeeded: Rizzio, torn from Mary's table,
was poignarded outside her door (9 Marcn, 1566).
Mary, though kept a prisoner, managed to escape, and
again triumphed over her foes; but respect lor her
husband was no longer possible. Her favourite was
now James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, who had
served her with courage and fidelity, in the late crisis.
Then a band for Damley 's murder was si^ed at Ains-
ley by most of the nobles who had been implicated in
the previous plots. Damley, who had been ill at
Glasgow, was Drought back to Edinburgh by his wife,
and lay that ni|;ht in her lodgings at Kirk o' Field . At
two next mormng (10 Febmary, 1567) the house wus
blown up by powder, and the boy (he had only just
come of age) was killed. Inciuiry mto the murder was
most perfunctory. Bothwell, who was charged with
it, was found not guilty by his peers (12 April), and on
the 24th he carried Mary off by force to Dunbar, where
she consented to marry him. Bothwell thereupon,
with scandalous violence, carried a divorce from his
wife through both Protestant and CathoUc courts, and
married Mary (15 May). Exactly a month later the
same lords as Ix^fore raised forces against their whilom
confederate and the queen, whom they met at Carberry
HiU. Bothwell was allowed to escape, but Mary, who
surrendered on the understanding tnat she should be
treated as a queen, was handled with rough violence,
and immured in Lochleven Castle.
The original documents on which a verdict as to her
guilt Hhould be fomicd have perisho<l, and a prolonged
cent rovers V ha.s arisen overtlu' ovidcucc still acces^
MART
765
MART
siblc. This coufusion, however, is largely due to
prepossessions. Of late, with the diminution of
Protestant rancour and ot enthusiasm for the Stuarts,
the conflict of opinions has tauch. diminished. The
tendency of moaem schools is to regard Mary as a
participant, though in a minor and stUl undetermined
degree, in the above-mentioned crimes. The argu-
ments are far too complicated to be given here, but
that from authority may be indicated. There were
several well-informed representative Catholics at
Edinburgh during the critical period. The pope had
sent Father Edmund Hay, a Jesuit; Philibert Du
Croc was there for France, Rubertino Solaro Moretta
represented Savoy, while Roche Mamerot, a Domini-
can, the queen's confessor, was also there. All these,
as also the Spanish ambassador in London, represent
the BothweU match as a disgrace involving a slur on
her virtue. Her confessor only defends her from par-
ticipation in the murder of her nusband (see Pollen, op.
cit., cxxix). The most important documentary evi-
dence is that of the so-callect '' casket letters", said to
have been written by Mary to BothweU diuing the
fatal crisis. If, on the one hand, their authenticity
still lacks final proof, no argument yet brought for-
ward to invalidate them has stood the test of modem
criticism.
The defeat at Carberry Hill and the inmrisonment
at Lochleven were blessings in disguise. The Protes-
tant lords avoided a searching inquiry as much as
Mary had done; and she alone suffered, while the
others went free. This attracted sympathjr onoe
more to her cause. She managed to escape, raised an
army, but was defeated at Langside (13 Biay. 1568)
and fled into England, where she found herself onoe
more a prisoner. She did not now refuse to justify
herself, but made it a condition that she should appear
before Elizabeth in person. But Cecil schemed to
bring about such a trial as should finally embroil Mary
with the king's lords, as they were now called (for they
had crowned the infant James), and so keep the two
parties divided, and both dependent on England.
This was eventually accomplished in the conferences
at York and Westminster before a commission of
English peers under the Duke of Norfolk. The casket
letters were then produced against Mary, and a thousand
filthy charges, afterwards embodied in Buchanan's
" Detectio ". Mary, however, wisely refused to defend
herself, unless her dignity as queen was respected.
Eventually an open verdict was found. ''Nothing
has been sufficiently proved, whereby the Queen df
England should conceive an evil opimon of ner good
sister" (10 January, 1569). Cecil's astuteness had
overreached itself. Such a verdict, from an enemy-
was everywhere regarded as one of Not Guilty, ana
Mary's reputation, which had everywhere fallen after
the BothweU match, now quickly revived. Her con-
stancy to her faith, which was clearly the chief cause
of her suffering, made a deep impression on all Catho-
lics, and St. Pius V wrote her a letter, which may be
regarded as marking her reconciliation with the papacy
(9 January, 1570).
Even before this, a scheme for a declaration of nul-
lity of the marriage with BothweU, and for a marriage
with the Duke of Norfolk, had been suggested and had
been supported by what we should now call the Con-
servative Party among the English peers, a sign that
they were not very much impressed by the charges
against the Scottish queen, which they liad just heard.
Norfolk, however, had not the initiative to carry the
scheme through. The CathoUcs in the North rose in
his support, but, having no organization, the rising at
once collapsed (14 November to 21 December, 1569).
Mary had been hurried south by her gaolers, with
orders to kill her rather than allow her to escape. So
slowly did posts travel in those days that the pope,
two months after the collapse of the rising, but not
having yet heard of its commencement, excommuni-
cated Elizabeth (25 Feb., 1570) in order to pave the
way for the appeal to arms. Both the rising and the
excommunication were so independent of the main
course of affairs that, when the surprise they caused
was over the scheme for the Norfolk marriage re-
sumed its previous course, and an Italian banker.
Ridolfi, promised to obtain papal support for it. Lord
Acton's erroneous idea, that Ridolfi was employed by
Pius V to obtain Elizabeth's assassination, seems to
have arisen from a mistranslation of Gabutio's Latin
Life of St. Pius in the Boliandists (cf . ** Acta SS.", May,
IV, 1680, pp. 657, 658, with Catena, ''Vita di Pio V^',
Mantua, 1587, p. 75). Cecil eventually discovered the
intrigue; Norfolk was beheaded, 2 June, 1572, and the
Puritans clamoured for Mary's blood, but in this par-
ticular Elizabeth would not gratify them.
After this Mary's imprisonment continued with
great rigour for yet fourteen years, under the Earl of
Shrewsbury and Sir Amias Paulet, at Sheffield Castle,
Tutbuiy, Wingfield, and Chartley. But she had so
many sympathizers that notes were frequently smug-
gled in, despite aU precautions, and Mary's hopes of
eventual release never quite died. The frequent plots
of which our Protestant historians so often speak are
empty rumours which wiU not stand historical investi-
gation. Elizabeth's life was never in danger for a mo-
ment. Plans for Mary's liberation were indeed oc-
casionaUy formed abroad, but none of them approached
within any measurable distance of realization. Her
eventual faU was due to her excessive confidence in
Thomas Morgan, an a^nt, who had shown ^at skill
and energy in contriving means of passing m letters,
but who was also a vain, quarrelsome, factious man,
always ready to talk treason against Elizabeth. Wal-
singham^s spies therefore frequently offered to carry
letters for him, and eventually the treacherous Gilbert
Gifford (a seminarist who afterwards got himself made
priest in order to carry on his deceits with less suspi-
cion) contrived a channel of correspondence, in which
every letter that was sent to or from Mary passed
through the hands of Elizabeth's decipherer Tnomas
PhelUps, and was copied by him. As Morgan was now
in communication with Ballard, the only priest, so far
as we know, who fell a victim to the temptation to plot
against Elizabeth, Mary's danger was now grave. In
due course Ballard, through Anthony Babington, a
young gentleman of wealth, wrote, by Gifford's means,
to Mary. It seems that the confederates refused to
join the plot unless they had Mary's approval, and
Babinffton wrote to inquire whether Mary would re-
ward tnem if they " despatched the usurper", and set
her free. As Walsingham had two or three agents
provocateurs keeping company with the conspirators,
the suspicion is vehement that Babington was per-
suaded oy them to ask this perilous question, but posi-
tive proof of this has not yet been found. Against the
advice of her secretaries, Mary answered this letter,
promising to reward those who aided her escape, but
saying nothing of the assassination (17 July, 1586).
Babington and his feUows were now arrested, tried and
executed, then Mary's trial began {14 and 15 October).
A death sentence was the object desired, and it was of
course obtained. Mary freely confessed that she al-
ways had sought and always would seek means of es-
capes As te plots against the life of Elizabeth, she
protested *'her innocence, and that she had not pro-
cured or encouraged any hurt against her Majesty",
which was perfectly true. As te the allegation of bare
knowledge of treason without having manifested it,
the prosecution would not restrict itself to so moder-
ate a charge. Mary, moreover, always contended
that the Queen of Scotland did not incur responsibUity
for the plottings of English subjects, even if she had
known of them. Indeed, in those dajrs of royal privi-
lege, her rank would, in most men's minds, have ex-
cused her in any case. But Lord Burahley, seeine
how much turned on this point of privilege, refused
MAST li
her all signs of royalty, and she was condemned as
"Mary Stuart, commonly called Queen of Scotland".
During the whole process of her trial and execution,
iAe.Ty acted with magnificent courage worthy of her
noble character and queenly rank. There can be no
question that slie died with the charity and magna-
nimity of a martyr; as also that her execution was due,
on the part of her enemies, to hatred of the FaiUi.
Pope Benedict XIV gives it aa his opinion that on
these two heads no requisite seems wanting for a for- moi. mic, i-iuij,
mal declaration of martyrdom, if only the charges mother, nlso fell into disfavour, and shortly after-
connected with the names of Darnley and Bothwell wards, in 1531, to theirgreot mutual grief, tbe mother
could be entirely eliminated (" Opera omnia", Prato, and daughter were forcibly separated. During Anw
1840, III, c. xiii, s. 10), Boleyn'R lifetime as queen, the harshest treatment
At ftrstglance the portraits of Mary appear to he in- was shown t« "the Lady Mary, the King's natural
consiatent with one another and with any handsome daughter", and wide-spread rumours afErmed that it
original. But modem criticism has reduced genuine was intended to bring both the princess and her mother
portraits to a comparatively small numl>cr and shown f-o the gallows. However, after Queen Catherine's
how they may be reconciled, while their stiff appear- death in January, 1536, and .\nnc IJoleyn'e execution,
r, BSAKT
catod, speaking Latin, t'rench, and Spanish with facil-
ity, and she was in particular an accomplisbed musi-
cian. Down to the time of the divoree negotiations,
^ry was recognised as heir to the throne, and many
schemes had been proposed to supply her with a suit-
able husband. She was indeed amanced for some
time to the Emperor Charles V, the father of the man
she was afterwards to marry. When, however, Henry
VIII became inflexibly determined to put away h^
first wife, Mary, who was deeply attached to ber
iprobabiyonlylheie-
sult of tlie unskilful painter's
endeavour to represent
the quality of majesty.
Throe chalk sketches by
Clouet (Jeanet), represent-
ing herat the ages of 9, 16,
and 19, are the most relia-
ble for outlirae. The third,
" Le Deuil Diane " , has been
several times copied in oil
or miniature. For her reign
in Scotland no picture
seems to Iw known, except,
perhaps, I.ord Leven and
Melville's, which is in-
teresting OS the only one
that gives us an idea of life.
During her captivity it
seems that she was pamted
which followed i .. .
months, the new queen,
Jane Seymour, seenu to
have shown willingness to
befriend the king's eldest
daughter. Heanwlulevery
strong )HC8Suie was brou^t
to bear by the all-poweriul
Cromwell, and Bbry was
at last induced to sign a
formal " submi8Bio& ", in
which she begg^P*>^oi' of
the king whom she had
"obstiaately and disobedi-
ently ofTencfed ", renounced
" the Bishop of Rome's
pretended authoritr", and
acknowledged the mar-
riage between her father
„ and mother to have been
Harmlwn Type. 1700-1710 contrary to the law d
Qod. It should be noted, hon-ever, that Harj mOMtA
this paper without reading it (Gairdner, "LoUanr",
I, ;tl2; Stone, "Mary I, t^ueen of England", 126),
anil by the advice of Chapuys, the mipeiial am-
bassador, made a private protestation that ahe had
signed it under compulsion. The degree of favoiir to
which Mary was restored was at first but sinall, and
even this was jeopardized by the sympathy ahoim for
her in the Pilgrimage of Grace, but after tte Uni*!
marriage to his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, Hain't
improved, and she was tuimed in Heuy** will,
. the little Edward, in the succession to the
throne.
When Henrj- died it was inevitable that under the
influences which surrounded the young king, Haty
should retire into comparative obscurity. She diieflf
resided at her manors of llunsdon, KenningfaaO, or
Newhall, but during Somerset's protectorate abe was
M ~Kfime""iJe"vL™ ""^ iU-lrealed. When the oelebraticHi of HaM waa
„ Pini'mThe Month prohibited, she summoned up courage to take a ttrong
lmd. QHrrng n/ Sntland (Edinbumh. line. She wrote to the Council and appealed to the
«TEii ConriminaihtTriu Portraiture envp^Tot, sj\d il Bcerapd at one time as if Chariea V
1: ri'BT. Vurr« on ihr .luiABniie For- would actually declare war. Throughout, Mary re-
19031; l,i.Tia, Foriraiif tmti Jrveli of maincd firm, and despite repeated monitions fttim tin
J. H. Po[.i,Ks. Council and a visit from Bishop Ridley, she to all in-
• tents and purposes set the government at defianoe, so
MaiT Tudor, Queen of England from 1553 to 155S; far, at kast, as regarded the religious obaervances IcA-
b. IK Feb., 151fi; A. 17 Novemlwr 15.5S. Mary was lowed in her own household. At the same time her ro-
the daughter and only surviving child of Henry VIII lations with her brother remained outwardly friendly,
and Catherine of Aragon. Cardinal VVoLsey Vfas her and she paid him vi.iita of state from time t« time,
godfather, and amongst her most intimate 'friends in At Eilward's death on ft .luly, 1553, the news was
early life were Cardinal Pole (q. v.) and his rnother. for some days kept from Mair, Northumberland, the
the Coimte.is of Salisbury, put to death in l,5:(i) and Lord Pre3i<lent of the Council, having contrived that
now twatified. We know from the report of contem- the young king should disinherit both his sisters in fn-
pomries that Mary in her youth did not lark charm, vour of Northumberland's own daught*r-in-law, Lady
She wa.s by nature modest, afTeetionatc, and kindly. Jane Grey. The Lord President, backed at first by
IJke all tlie Tudor princesses she had been well edu- the Council, made a resolute attempt to aecura the
that from these descend the so-called "Sheffield"
type of portraits. A very valuable picture wa>" painted
after her death, showing the execution; this, now at
Blairs, and its copies (at Windsor, etc.) are called
"memorial pictures".
Ductimmtt: Catendart o! State Faperi (for Soatlaad, Svaia.
Venice. Bnd [fae Fareian ^rina); Teulkt, Selationi poliluua
dt laFraacc it dt VEepaeae avec CEcomc (Psru. IWi); \a-
BANOFr. Lritrci . . . . de HI. S. (LoD'lOD, 1S44): Goodall.
Examinatioa of the Itttere laid to havt brm vrittn by M. (j. S.
oJM. Q. S. (Edinbui«h, 1727); Stevenso!., Uiri7rvotM.T& nwmage TC
ClaudtNautEdmhart,b,lS»3):CBiiHTs.i.'.via,it.S..KmPnieft position im)
.... d'aprrt U joumai iJe BoHTgBiia_(Paivi. 1S78): Pollen, next tO th(
PapaIA'w<.fin(i<™.aiW0i«™«i"»JEdmbtirKh.I001); Ideu, ,!,-_„:
idlirr to G«i« (EdinburKh. lOM): Bhemhu, Die Kaneittn- ^"^'•"'■-
briefc. b Sybel. HieloTiiche Zrilflinfl hUSi}, 200-,-)IO: Sepp in
Tagiburli. II, Ankl'tier lit York. eU., Ill, Anthma Babingtim,
nnd IV, Pmceu (Munich. 1822-86); Uonais, Lnter Booke of
Sir Amia4 Pould (Londou, 1874).
liistoriM; besides Lisfi SHU, Tttleu (P. F.l, Fbocoe, etr,,
FLEiR^n.Afarvtrucrno/SnXo (London. )S97); Hosace, Afartr
Sluart and hrr Aceuurt (Edinbuigh, 18701; Lanq, Muettn '
Morn Sluart (lADilmi. lOOIl; PniMPPBOH, Rigne lie Mai
Slu-trl (Pnris, ISOl' " ^ .- . _. . f _. .,
(lAndon, 1006): i^
I8!J0).
SpH-iulunPortra
of M. Q. S. (l.oniloi
IraiUofM.Q.S. (!.
M. S. (Cbscow. l»
^■Vic.> -•■*(^
—tJS*"^'- .
^HnH -«7 mHUei
' '"^mP"' \^
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
MARY 767 BIABY
succession for Lady Jane, but Mary acted promptly apprehension which prevailed tliat the conopiete re-
and courageously, setting up her standard at Fram- establishment of Catholicism could only be effected at
lingham, where the men of the eastern counties rallied the price of the restitution of the abbey lands to the
round her and where she was soon joined by some Church. When, however, the marriage of Mary and
members of the Council. By 19 July Mary had been Philip had taken place (25 July), and the Holy See had
Proclaimed in London, and a few days later Northum- given assurances that the impropriators of Church
erland was arrested. property would not be molested, Pole towards the
Mary's success was highly popiilar, and the friends end of November was at last allowed to make his way
of the late administration, seeing that resistance to London. On 30 Nov., he pronounced the absolu-
was hopeless, hastened to make their peace with tion of the kingdom over the king and queen and
her. Her own inclinations were all in favour of Parliament all Imeelin^ before him. In was this same
clemency, and it was only in deference to the re- Parliament which in December, 1554, re-enacted the
monstrances of her advisers that she ultimately con- ancient statutes aeainst heresy and repealed the enact-
sented to the execution of the arch-traitor Northum- ments which had oeen made against Home in the last
berland with two of his followers. In his hour of two reigns.
distress Northumberland, apparently In all sincerity. All this seems to have excited much feeling among
professed himself a Cathohc. Lady Jane Grey was the more fanatical of the Reformers, men who for
spared, and even in matters of religion, Mary, perhaps some years past had railed against the pope and
by the advice of Charles V, showed no wish to proceed denounced Transubstantiation with impimity. Mary
to extremities. The Catholic bishops of Henry's and her advisers were probably right in thinking
reign, like Bonner, Tunstall, and Garoiner, were re- that religious peace was impossible unless these fana-
stored to their sees, the intruded bishops were de- tics were silenced, and they started once more to en-
prived, and some of them, like Ridley, Coverdale, force those penalties for heresy which after all had
and Hooper, were committed to custody. Cranmer, never ceased to be familiar. Both under Henry VIII
after he had challenged the Catholic party to meet him and Edward VI men had been burned for religion^ and
and Peter Martyr in disputation, was conunitted to the Protestant bishops like Craimier, Latimer, and Ridley
Tower upon a by no means frivolous charge of having had had a principal hand in their burning. It seems to
participated in the late futile rebellion. But no blood be generally admitted now that no vindictive thirst for
was shed for religion at this stage. bloodprompted the deplorable severities which foUowed,
In September Mary was crowned with great pomp but they nave weighed heavily upon the memory of
at Westminster by Gardiner, in spite of the excom- Mary, and it seems on the whole most probable that in
munication which still lay upon tbe country, but this her conscientious but misguided zeal for the peace of
act was only due to the constitutional impasse which the Church, she was herself principally responsible for
would have been created had this sanction to the royal them. In less than four years 277 persons were burned
authority been longer delayed. Mary had no wish to to death. Some, like Bishops Cranmer, Latimer, and
refuse obedience to papal authority. On the contrary, Ridley, were men of influence and high position, but
negotiations had already been opened with the Holy the majority belonged to the lower orders. Still these
See which resulted in the nomination of Pole as legate last were dangerous, because, as Dr. Gairdner has
to reconcile the kingdom. Parliament met, 5 October, pointed out, heresy and sedition were at that time al-
1553. It repealed the savage Treason Act of North- most convertible terms. In regard to these execu-
lunberland's government, passed an Act declaring the tions, a much more lenient and at the same time more
queen legitimate, another for the restitution of the equitable judgment now prevails than was formerly
Mass in Latin, though without penalties for non-con- the case. As one recent writer observes, Mary and
formity, and another for the celibacy of the clergy, her advisers "honestly believed themselves to be
Meanwhile Mary, owing perhaps partly to the fact that applying the only remedy left for the removal of a
she fell much under the influence of the Spanish am- mortal disease from the body politic. . . . What they
bassador, Renard, had made up her mind to marry did was on an imprecedented scale in England because
Philip of Spain. The suggestion was not very palata- heresy existed on an unprecedented scale'' (Innes,
ble to the nation as represented by the lower house of ** England under the Tudors", 232; and cf. Gairdner,
Parliament, but the queen persisted, and a treaty of "LoUardy", I, 327).
marriage was drawn up in wnich English liberties were Something, perhaps, of Mary's severity, which
carefully safeguarded. All the Spanish influence was was in contradiction to the clemency and generosity
exercised to carry this scheme safely through, and at uniformly shown in the rest of her life, may be at-
the emperor's instigation Pole was deliberately de- tributed to the bitterness which seems to have been
tained on his way to England under the apprehension concentrated into these last years. Long an in-
that he might oppose the match. The unpopularity valid, she had had more than one serious illness
of the project^ alliance encouraged Sir Thomas during the reign of her brother. But the dropsy had
Wyatt to organise a rebellion, which at one time, 29 now Income chronic, and she was in truth a doomed
Jan., 1554, looked very formidable. Mary behaved with woman. Again it was her misfortune to have con-
conspicuous courage, addressed the citizens of Lon- ceived a passionate love for her husband. Philip had
don at the Guildhall, and when they rallied round her never returned this affection, and when the hope of her
the insurrection was easily crushed. "The security of bearing him an heir proved illusory, he treated her
the State seemed now to require stem measures. The with scant consideration and quitted England forever,
leaders of the revolt were executed and with them the Then in Mary's last year of life came the loss of Calais,
unfortunate Lady Jane Grey. Whether Mary's sister and this was followed by misunderstandings with the
Elizabeth was implicated in this movement has never Holy See for which she had sacrificed so much. No
quite been made clear, but mercy was shown to her as wonder the Queen sank under this accumulated
well as to many others. weight of disappointments. Mary died most piously,
Meanwhile the restoration of the old religion went as she had always lived, a few hours before her staunch
on vigorously. The altars were set up again, the friend, Cardinal Pole. Her good qualities were many,
married clergy were deprived. High Mass was sung at To the very end she was a woman capable of inspiring
St. Paul's, and new bishops were consecrated accord- affection in those who came in contact with her.
ing to the ancient ritual. In Mary's second Parliament Modem historians are almost unanimous in regarding
the title of supreme head was formally abrogated, and the sad story of this noble but disappointed woman
an attempt was made to re-enact the statutes aeainst as one of the most tragic in histor\\
herwyjwt was defeated by the resistance of the Cords. g^„„_ „ , q„^ of England (^„don. i90l): Z.-«.-
Some of this resistance undoubtedly came from the jiiura.Aforio die iCoMo/i»cA«(Freibui». 1806) ;LtNOAHD.HiK.o/
MASAOOIO 768 MASOOUTENS
England, V; Tnnkb. England under thr Twlorn fT/ondon. ino5>; dcriiig St. Pet-cr to pay the Tribute '*, "St. IVtor and
Si'IS:;.'aii^'"i;/l!»^'^<l"Jrc";i?S™^ St; Jo^n healhig.the afck" "St Peter giving Alms';,
MuLLiNOBR in Cambridge Modem Hiatory, II (Cambridge, St. Peter Baptizing' , "St. Peter restoring a Kings
1905); Sidney Lee in Did. Nat. Biog.; Strickland, Livea of Son to Life". This last fresco was finishedf by Filip-
ihe Queena of England, II. Hprbert THtm^rov R^"^' ^ *"^« Masaccio worked at the paintings in the
HERBERT iHURSTON. ferancacci chapel, the church of which it was a part
Masacdo (Tommaso), Itab'an painter, b. about was consecrated: he "renresents this ceremony in
1402, at San Giovanni di Valdamo, a stronghold situ- chiaroscuro over the door leading from the church to
ated between Arezzo and Florence; d., probably at the cloister" (Vasari) and introduces a great many
Rome, in 1429. His correct name was Tommaso di portraits of important persons in the group of citizens
ser Giovanni di Simone dei Guidi, which may be trans- who follow the procession. Here, too, he nas painted
lated '^Thomas, son of Sir John, grandson ot Simon, of the convent porter, with his bunch of keys. This
the Guidi clan." His family had ^ven manv magis- famous "Procession" perished when the church was
trates to the Republic of Florence m earlier days. But reconstructed in 1612, but the old porter has survived,
when Thomas was bom prosperity had forsaken them: a marvellously executed portrait still to be seen in the
his father was a poor notary in a small country com- Uffizi. It seems that the fashion of painting liknceses
munity. His familiar name of Masaccio \a an aug- of contemporaries was set by Masaccio. He has not
mented form of Maso (short for Tommaso) and means forgotten to give his own portrait a good place, in the
" Big Tom", with a shade of depreciation. By this fresco where St. Peter is paying the tribute,
name, if we are to believe Vasari, his Florentine con- Moderately esteemed in his own time, Masaccio was
temporaries indicated after their fashion the oddities accorded enthusiastic admiration only after his death;
of his character — "He was absent-minded, whimsical, but— as is only rarely the case — the enthusiasm has
as one who, having fastened his whole mind and will not cooled in the duration of five centuries : it has even
upon the things of art, paid little attention to himself degenerated into excessive adulation. Masaccio is
and still less to other people." preached as a " Messias without a Precursor ", an " au-
Masaccio's master was Tommaso di Cristofano di todidact", a self-teacher, without an ancestor in the
Fino, known as Masolino da Panicale, Masolino mean- past. His insight into nature, his scientific perspec-
ing" Little Tom" (see Masolino). Masaccio was very tive and foreshortening have been loudly acclaimed,
precocious: we find him at the age of nineteen already and with reason. But Giotto and his faithful disci-
enrolled among the^'pezioZt (Grocers, or Spicers),one pies, before Masaccio, had given Florentine painting
of the "arts", or guilds. The iSpezia/i included painters the impulse towards an intelligent representation m
among its members. After a few essays which earned nature which necessarily produced great results. His
him some degree of reputation, he was conmiissioned to admirers justly vaimt the noble gravity of his figures,
continue the decoration of the Brancacci chapel at the suppleness and simplicity of his draperies, the har-
Florence, which his master, Masolino, had begun. This mony of his compositions, and his grasp of light and
was, according to some authorities, in 1424; according shadow; but the germs of these precious qualities had
to others in 1426 ; so that he cannot have been more than already existed in the frescoes of Masolino, his master
twenty-four years old. The work did not make him and initiator, and Florentine artists before him had
rich. Absoroed in the things that pertain to art, he wrought with the double ambition of expressing the
knew nothing about sublunary business matters. The real and the ideal — the visible element and the invisi-
state register of property for 1427 shows that Masaccio ble. Between these two opposite aims they were
"possesses nothing of his own, owes one hundred and more or less distracted; the difficult thing — and the
two lire to one painter, and six florins to another; that vital — is to so associate the two that in subordinating
nearly all his clothing is in pawn at the Lion and the the accessory to the principal — the expressive form to
Cow loan-offices". Suddenly he left Florence, and the substance it expresses — the union may result in a
there is evidence of his presence at Rome in 1428 The puissant and well-ordered work of art. It is Masac-
cause of this precipitate departure is unknown; in any cio's glory to have succeeded in doin^ this almost su-
case, the unhappy man did not succeed in bettering perlatively well; this explains his lasting fame and his
his material condition, for he died of grief and want in unfailing influence. All through the fifteenth century
1429 or later. and after it, the Brancacci chapel was the chosen ren-
Many of Masaccio's works are lost. In the Spada dezvous of artists: as Ingres said, "It should be re-
chapel, in the Church of Santa Maria Novella at Flor- garded and venerated as uie paternal mansion of the
ence, he painted a "Trinity" between the Virgin and great schools."
St. John, 'With kneeling portraits of the two donors at Vasari, Le viUdelpiu ecceUmHmtUni,jctdtoH earehHetton,
the sides. This erandi<^ work is unfortunately^ ^^fn&,]\^l^ri. A<.''*^S5l. ^^i^Tx^v^:
much damaged. In the Academy of Florence is to be caselle, A New Hiatory of Painting in Italy, 1 (London. 1864),
seen a " St. Anne with Madonna and Infant Jesus". 3«v. 519-50; Bumc, HiaUnre dea peintrea de toxdea lea Eeoln;
A. F. Rio discovered in the Napl^. Museum a small gSSL^'^^STJ^^^i^S^'L';. ^^i^'^^l-J^^'^;
MasacCK) which Vasan had heard Michelangelo praise XII. 175 sqq. : Latard, The Brancacdo Chapel (Arundel Society,
very highly, but of which all trace had been lost. 1868); Delabow)E. Dea aevvres el deja manUre deMancno
" iTere we (.ave Pop Liberius, repre^nted under the Sr?S^«f^:,.''^o^^.1^itX■^\^'l^fe). 21!*,$^:'^!^:^
lineaments of Martin V, OUthnmg on the snow-covered Hiatoire de taH pendant la RenaUaance, I. Bk. V. li. 603-19.
ground the foundations of the Basilica of Sta. Maria Schmarzow. Maaacdo-Studien (Caasd. 1895-1900): Maaacdo.
Wgiore, in the midst of an imposing corpse of cardi- ^±,'^ ^tS^aZ''^^ ^ nSSa"(«i,I''i?7Sb«;
nals and other personages, all painted from life (Rio, Jodoco della Badia, Maaacdo e Giovanni auo fraUUo in
*'L'Art Chretien", II, Paris, 1861, p. 13). This pic- i?a>»wvnaAraH(male(Nov 1904). 143-46: SoRTAM.^Jwd^g^
ture is known as " The Founding of St. Mary of the ^trn%m'wZr^^&' dfi^ ^^T^ii^^L ^
Snows at Rome'. Some portraits m tjie Uffizi — dei Quattrocmto. VII (MUan, 1910).
notably one of a frail, melancholy youth — which were G. Sortais.
for a long time attributed to Masaccio, have now, and
correctly, been assigned to Filippino Lippi and other MaacoutenB Indiana. — A Wisconsin tribe of Algon-
later masters. But Masaccio's chief work is the pic- auian stock, of considerable missionary importance in
torial decoration of the Brancacci chapel, in the south ttie seventeenth century, but long since entirely ex-
transept of the Church of Sta. Maria del Carmine. In tinct. Their language was a dialect of that common
this work, })egun by Masolino and finished by Filip- to the Sauk. Fox. and Kickapoo, with whom, as also
pino Lippi, the intermediate portion is Masaccio's — with the Miami, they were usually in close alliance,
.; Adam and Eve driven out of Paradise", "Christ or- while maintaining hereditary warfare ^ith the Iro-
BCASHOMAIiAHD
769
MABOLIHO
quoiB and Sioux. The Algonquian name by which they
are ^nerally known aj^nifies "people of the littfe
praine ". In the earlier French records they are known
as the ** Fire Nation " (Gens de Feu)y from the Huron
name Asistaxeronon (people at the nreplace), properly
a rendering of the tribal name of the Potawatomir The
mistake arose from the fact of the close proximity of
the two tribes, and the further fact of the resemblance
of the Algonouian roots for fire {ishkoU) and prairie
(mashkott^. It is certain, as shown by Hewitt, that
the Fire Nation of some of the earliest notices are the
Potawatomi. The confusion persisted until the West-
em tribes had become better known. The Mascoutens
were first visited by Champlain's venturesome inter-
preter, Jean Nicolet, in 1634, at their town on upper
Fox River. In 1654--55 the explorers, Radisson and
Groseilliers, also stopped at the same town, which, as
later, the Miascoutens occupied jointly with the Miami.
The location of this town is a matter of dispute, but
it is i^enerally agreed to have been near Fox River,
within the present limits of Green Lake County or
the northern part of Columbia county.
In 1669, the pioneer Jesuit explorer. Father Claude
Alloues, established the mission of Saint-Frangois-
Xavier at the rapids of Fox River, about the present
Depere, Wisconsin, as a central station for the evan-
gelization of the tribes between Lake Michigan and
the Mississippi. In the spring of the next year, 1670,
with two French companions, he visited the ** Mahou-
tensak'', partly to compose some differences which
the tribe already had with the French traders. He
was received as an actual manitou, with ceremonial
feasts, anointing of the limbs of himself and his com-
panions, and *' a veritable sacrifice like that which they
made to their false gods", being invoked at the same
time to give them victory against their enemies, abun-
dant crops, and immunity from disease and famine.
The missionary at once let them know that he was not
a god, but a servant of the True God, proceeding with
an explanation of the Christian doctrine, to which they
listened with reverence. In September of the same
vear, in company with the Jesuit Father Claude Da-
blon, he made a second missionary visit to the town,
preaching to the Indians, who crowded to hear them
Both day and night, with the greatest eagerness and
attention. The teaching was given in the Miami
language.
Tne town was a frequent rendezvous for several
tribes, and on some occasions must have had several
thousand Indians assembled in its neighbourhood.
Its regular occupants were the Mascoutens, and a part
of the Miami, estimated by Dablon. in 1670, at about
four hundred warriors each, or, as ne says, over three
thousand souls. The Mascoutens may have num-
bered fifteen hundred souls. ' He describes the town
as beautifully situated on a small hill in the midst
of extensive prairies, interspersed with eroves and
abounding in herds of buffalo. It was pfuisaded for
defence against the Iroquois, who earned their de-
structive raids even to the Mississippi. Besides the buf-
falo, there were fields of com, squashes, and tobacco,
with an abundance of wild grapes, and plums, and
probably also stores of wild rice. Notwithstanding all
this, their natural improvidence made life an alterna-
tion of feasting and famine. Of the two tribes the
Miami were the more polished. The houses were liffht
structures covered with mats of woven rushes. The
people were given to heathenism, offering almost daily
sacrifices to uie sun, the thunder, the buffalo, the bear,
and to the special manitou which came to them in
dreams. Sickness was attributed to evil spirits or
witchcraft, to be exorcised by their medicine-men. In
their cabins they kept buffalo skulls to which they
made sacrifice, and sometimes the stuffed skin of a bear
erected upon a pole. Like the other tribes of the
ranon, they sometimes ate prisoners of war.
u 1672, Allouez established in the town a regular
IX.— 49
mission which he named Saint-Jacques, building a
special cabin for a chapel, and setting up two large
crosses, which the Indians decorated with offering of
dressed skins and beaded belts. For lack of mission-
aries, however, he was only able to serve it through
occasional visits from Saint-Ftancois-Xavier near
Green Bay, in consequence of which its growth was
slow. In the next year Marquette and JoEet stopped
there and procured guides for their vovage of discov-
ery. In 1678, Allouez was transferred to the Ulinois
mission, while his assistant, Father Antoine SHvy, was
lecalled to Canada, his place being filled by Father
Andr^ Bonnault. Up to this time there had been
over five himdred baptisms of various tribes at the
Mascoutens mission. In 1692, the heroic Father Se-
bastien Rasles also stopped there on his way to ihe
Illinois station, and reported the mission as still de-
pendent on occasional visits from Green ^ay. This is
apparently the last notice of the Mascoutens mission,
which seems to have dwindled out from neglect, and
from the growing hostility manifested towara tiie
French by uie Sauk, Foxes, and Kickapoo, with whom
the Mascoutens were so closely connected. In 1702, a
band of the tribe had drifted down into Southern
Illinois, and had their village on the Ohio near to the
French post of Fort Massac. Here Father Jean Mer-
met, stationed at the post, attempted to minister to
them, but found them entirely under the influence of
their medicine men and opposed to Christianity. In
the meantime an epidemic visited the village, idlling
many daily. The missionary did what he could to
relieve the sick, even baptizing some of the dying at
their own request, his only reward being abuse and
attempts upon his life. To appease the disease-spirit
the Indians organized dances at which they sacrinced
some forty dogs, carrying them at the ends of poles
while dancing. They were finally driven to ask the
aid and prayers of the priest, but in spite of idl more
than halt the band perisned.
In 1712, the Mascoutens, with the Kickapoo and
Sauk, joined the Foxes in the war which the latter in-
augurated against the French, and continued in desul-
tory fashion for some thirty years. In 1728 Father
Michel (orLouis-Ignace) Gmgnas, while descending the
Mississippi, was taken near the mouth of the Wiscon-
sin by a party of Mascoutens and Kickapoo, held for
sevend months, and finally condemned to be burnt,
but rescued by being adopted by an old man. Through
his mediation they made peace with the French, and
afterwards took him to spend the winter of 1729^-30
with them (Le Petit). It is evident that by this time
the Mascoutens were near their end, reduced puily by
wars, but more by the gr^t epidemics which wiped
out the tribes of the Illinois country. In 1736 they
are officially reported by Chauvignerie as eighty war-
riors, about thiee hundred souls, still on Fox River, in
connexion with the Kickapoo and Foxes, with whom
they were probably finally incorporated. They are
not named in Sir William Johnson's list of Western
tribes in 1763, and are last mentioned by Hutchins in
1778, as living then on the Wabash in company with
ihe Kickapoo, Miami, and Piankishaw.
Jeauit Rdatioiu, Thwaitbs ed., eopeoialhr voto. I, V,
Vin. XXVni, XLIV. LIV UUoua), LVTpaWon}. lViII
(AUtmet), IJDC iManwUe and AUoua), LX, LXI. LXVI
(fiarut, Mermei). IJCVUl (U PetU) (Cleveland, 1896-1901);
CBAinnoiffnus's list in ScnooLCRArr. Jnd. Tribett in (Flul-
adelphis. 1863); HuTCBniin,Topogmph%ealDeacnptum (London.
177$; Sua. Catholie huLMiMianalSew York, 1855).
James Mooxet.
MashonaUnd» Ruins of. See Soix>mon.
MasoUno dft Panicala, son of Cristoforo Fioi; b. in
the suburb of Panioale di Valdeee, near Florence, 138S;
d. 0. 1440. It is said that he was a pupil of Stamina,
several of whose frescoes in charming taste heralding
the Renaissance are in the Cathedral of Prato. Es*
tablished at Florence Masolino was received in 1423
a member of the corporation of druggists or grocers
lAASOV
770
MAflOH
(fpegiaU) which then included painters. A document
diBOovered by Milanesi informs us that in July, 1423,
he was occupied on the celebrated paintings of the
Brancacci chapel in. the Church of the Carmine. Here
he was again at work in 1426. In 1427 he was in Hun-
gary in the service of the famous Florentine adven-
turer, Filipo Scolari (PippoSpanoas he is sumamed).
Between 1428 and 1435 he executed near Varese, at
CastigUone d'Olona, paintings discovered fortv years
■ince in the baptistery and collegiate church. He
died four or five years later aged, not 37 as Vasaii
states, but 57 years. Masolino's glory is to hav«
collaborated in the Carmine and to be also the master
and forerunner of Masaccio. He pla;y^ed an important
part in the development of the Renaissance, but it is
far from being as considerable or as "providential" as
ancient historians have claimed.
At the beginning of the fifteenth century the Renais-
sance was at hand; in all countries simultaneously
and nearly everywhere it had the same characteristics.
For example the work of the Limbourgs belongs to
1416, and some miniatulies of their calendar might
almost be mistaken for certain pictures of Gentile da
Fabriano^ whose " Adoration of the Kings *' belongs to
1423. Similar figures are found in Masolino's work
in the Brancacci Chapel, such as the pretty group of
Florentine gentlemen m the ** Preaching of St. Peter *'.
The delicate taste of the architecture, the pleasing
sense of the landscape are still general traits ot the art
of this period. When Masolino came to Florence he
was more than forty years old . All agree at present in
attributing to him the frescoes, in the Church of San
Clemente at Rome, which Vasari regards as the work
of Masaccio's youth. They may be placed about
1415. They represent scenes from the li(e of St.
Ambrose and the life of St. Catherine. The latter
have been often restored. What is remarkable about
these frescoes is not that they differ from many Giot-
tesque works (nearly all the traditional ideas and
customs have been followed), neither is it that the
painter shows great skill, but he has a wholly new
sense of grace and beauty, an innate gift of elegance,
and that inexpressible quality which we call '* charm. "
It seems as though a breath of youth passed over
the art of painting and thawed the ancient formulas.
There is nothing more ravishing than the figures of the
women, especially the young girls. The little Cathe-
rine, converting the wife of the Emperor Maxentius, is
a virginal vision of childish beauty whose sweetness
has only been surpassed by Angelico. It is especially
in the large " Calvary " behind the altar that this at-
mosphere of ingenuousness is felt. The immense
landscape of undulating hills, on which is unfolded the
feebly composed scene, redeems all the defects of
composition such as absence of the pathetic and lack
of unity in the grouping. One is conscious only of a
peace, an enchantment of nature which resembles the
state of grace.
Some of these merits are found in the frescoes in the
Carmine. As indicated by its reputation this cele-
brated work must be its author's most considerable
composition. He painted only three of these com-
positions: on one of the pillars in the entrance the
"Temptation of Adam and Eve ", and in the chapel it-
self the "Preaching and the Miracles of St. Peter",
which is the best of all. and com])rises two distinct
episodes: the "Cure of tne Paralytic" and the "Res-
urrection of Tabitha". Deserving of admiration are
the figures of the Apostles and the accuracy of observa-
tion in the attitude of the cripple and the risen woman.
But what constitutes the value of these works, and is
abo found in the frescoes of San Clemente, is a sober
and spiritual grace and a delightful sense, at once
familiar and refined , of life . It is this quality, also, that
imparts value to the frescoes at Castiglione d'Olona.
the last and most animated of his works. His " life of
St John the Baptist " abounds in Uvely traits. The
beautiful costumes and portraits, the graceful attire of
the women, his Herodiases and Salomes, are charming.
At need the painter gives proof of technical knowledge;
he develops fair perspectives composed of delicate
architecture in the antioue manner. But all this for
him fk but the frame, full of fancy and taste, wherein
transpire charming scenes of Florentine Ufe. Thus in
the "Baptism of Christ" the group of neophytes rob-
ing, the man seated putting on his shoes, and the one
who. bare-limbed awaiting his turn, snivera in his
cloak, form a genre picture which is full of spirit and
charm.
Masaccio treated the same subject at the Carmine
with his customary grandeur; Masolino sees in it only
a familiar study, similar to the " Baths " or " Studies"
of the German prints, but in which only a Florentine
could put such a lively sense of beauty. Opposite, the
trio of angels bearing the garments of Christ recall the
most exquisite figures of the "Life of St. Catherine".
But above all there is that general air of spring and
adolescence, that unique feeling of youth which is the
charm of that age^ and which we find in Gentile and
Pesellino, but which lasted only a moment and was
seen no more. Vasari realized this: "He was the first
to impart more sweetness to his figures of women, to
give more graceful demeanour to his young men. . . .
He treated skilfully the play of Ught and shade. . . .
His pictures are blended with such grace that they
have all the suppleness imaginable. ... It is very
difficult to say whether Masaccio really owes anything
to Masolino. The genius of this sublime young man
transcends ordinary rules; he brought about a revolu-
tion in the school, and hastened by fifty years the
development of the Renaissance. But without the
interference of tlus sudden and tremendous force the
Renaissance would have arrived of itself, less great
perhaps, less learned, but more gently. Masolino
shows us what the blossoming would have been had it
not been for Masaccio's coup dHat."
Vabari, ed. Milanese (Florence, 1878, 1886): Crowb and
Cavalcasalle, HiMory of painting in Italy (London, 1864-66);
LObke, Masolino and Masaccio in JahrbHeher fUr KtmsttnaseH"
schaft (1870), 75-79; 280-286; Bchuahzow. Masaccio: Stvdien
(Cassel. 1896-1000); Wickhoit, Die Fretken dor Katharine-
kapeUe in S. Clemente zu Rom. in ZeUschrift fOr BUdende Kunst
(1889). 306; Mttm, Histoire de VArt pendant la Renaissance,
Vol. I. Les Primitives (Paris, 1888); Quthmann. Die Land-
schafbnalerei . . . von Oiotto bis Rafael (Leipsig, 1902); Rosen,
Die Natur in der Kunst (Ldpiig, 1903) ; Bbrenbon, Florentine
Painters of the Renaissance (London, 2nd ed.. 1904).
Louis Gillkt.
Mason, Richabd Angelus a S. Francisco, Eng-
lish— or Irish — Franciscan writer; b. in Wiltshire,
1599; d. at Douai, 30 Dec., 1678. There is some dis-
pute as to the nationality of his extraction: while it is
affT^ that he was a native of the English county of
Wiltshire, a Franciscan MS. record, dated 1721, men-
tions his having been *' for some time dean of a Catho-
lick deanery in Ireland'', conveying a suggestion that
his family may have been Irish: Gillow(Bibl. Diet,
of the English Catholics) thinks that if Mason ever
held a deanery in Ireland, it must have been under
the Protestant Establishment, in which case Father
Angelus, as he was known among his contempo-
raries, would have to be reckoned among the seven-
teenth-century converts. The MS. mention of his
"Oatholick deanery", however, was written forty-
three years after Mason's death, and there is evidence
that he was ordained priest at Douai four years after
his profession in the Seraphic Order, the latter event
having taken place in 1629. In any case he rapidly
became eminent in the order, being created a doctor of
divinity and appointed successively to the high ad-
ministrative offices of definitor, guardian, and visitor
of the province of Brabant. Elected provincial in
1659, he visited Paris in an unsuccessful attempt to
obtain permission for the settlement there of a colony
of Franciscan sisters from the convent at Nieuport
(Flanders) to which he had been confessor. . Froia.
MA80NBT
771
MASONET
1862 to 1675 he lived in England, as domeetic chap-
lain to Lord Arundell of Waidour, after which period
he retired to the convent at Douai to prepare for
death.
Father Angelus displayed, in the course of his long,
and otherwise busy, rehgious life, a remarkable in-
dustry in both original comoosition and the com-
pilation of devotional manuals. The latter include
nis *' Manuale Tertii Ordinis S. Francisci ", with a com-
meniATy on the Rule, and meditations (Douai, 1643),
"The Kule of Penance of the Seraphical Father St.
Francis'' (Douai, 1644); '^Sacrarium privilegiorum
quorundam Seraphico P. S. Francisco . . . indulto-
rum" (Douai, 1636). Among his historical writings
are "Certamen Seraphicum Provincise Anglis pro
Sancta Dei Ecclesia (Douai, 1649), a review of dis-
tinguished English Franciscan martyrs and polemical
writers, and Apologia pro Scoto Anglo (Douai,
1656). — ^The last-named work has for its main scope
the establishment, against Colgan, of the thesis that
the great Franciscan philosopher. Duns Scotus. was
not an Irishman, but an Englishman : it may be tairlv
inferred that its author, if he himself was of Irisn
descent, was not fully conscious of the fact. — His
'^Liturgical Discourse of the Holy Sacrifice of the
Mass" (8. 1., 1670, dedicated to Henry, Lord Arundell
of Wardour, "Master of the Horse to oiu* late Queen
Mother Henrietta Maria *'), was abridged in the " Holy
Altar and Sacrifice Explained" which Father Pacifi-
cus Baker. O. S. F., published at the request of Bishop
James Talbot (London, 1768).
GiLLOW, Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.: Harris, Ware*8 WriUra of
Ireland, 336; Ouykr, Collections (tiondon, 1845), 193, 229, 541.
554, 568; Waddino, Script. Ord. Minor.
E. Macpherson.
MaBonzy (Freemasonry). — ^The subject is treated
under the following heads: I. Name and Definition;
II. Origin and Early History; III. Fundamental Prin-
ciples and Spirit; IV. Propagation and Evolution;
V. Organization and Statistics ; VI. Inner Work; VII.
Outer Work; VIII. Action of State and Church.
The following are the abbreviations of masonic
terms used in this article: — Fy, Fs, My, Ms, Mn, mas.=
FVeemasonrv, Freemasons, !« reemason, Masonry, ma-
sonic, etc; L., Ls., GL, GLs, GO, GOs, Supr. Counc,
GBs=LfOdge, Lodges, Grand Lodge, Gr. Orient, Su-
preme Coimcil, Gr. Bodies, etc. — GM, GC.,= Grand-
master, Grand Commander.
Abbreviations of more frequently quoted books
and magazines: K.= Keystone (Philadelphia). V=
" Voice cS Masonry " , later on : " Masonic Voice and Re-
view" (Chicago). Chr.=" Freemason's Chronicle"
(London); A. Q. C.="Ars Quatuor Coronatorum".
Transactions (London), the best scientific mas. maga-
zine; Bauh.=Bauh(itte; Sign.="Signale filr die deut-
sche Maurerwelt" (Leipzig); Enc, Cycl., Handb.=
Encyclopedia, " Allgemeines Handbuch der Freimau-
rerei" (Universal Manual of Freemasonry) Leipzig.
This latter German encyclopedia, in its three editions,
quite different from each other, but all of them con-
taining valuable and accurate information, is consid-
erecT even by English and American masonic criticism
(A. Q. C, Al, 1898, 64) as far and away the best ma-
sonic ency^clopedia ever pubhshed.
Abbreviation of name of author: 01.= Oliver.
Key to numbers: An Arabic number after the name
of an author of several works indicates the work
marked with the same number in the bibliography
closing the article.
Other numbers are to be judged according to the
general rules maintained throughout the Enctclo-
PBDIA.
I. Nabcb and Definition. — Leaving aside various
fanciful derivations we may trace the word mason to
the French mofon (Latin matio or mackio), "& builder
of walls" or "a stone-cutter" (cf. German SteinmeU,
ttOBk mMaenf " to out" ; and Dutch vrijmeUelaar), The
compound term Freemason occurs first in 1375 — aO"
cording to a recently found writing, even prior to 1155
(The Freemason^s Chronicle, 1908, 1, 283, frequently
refeired to in this article as Chr.) — ^and, contrary to
Gould (Concise Hist., 109, 122), means primarily a
mason of superior skill, though later it also designated
one who enjoyed the freedom, or the privilege, of a
trade guUd (Gould, "Hist.", I, 378, 379, 410; II, 153
sqq.). In the former sense it is commonly derived
from freestone-maaony a mason hewiujg or building in
free (ornamental) stone in opposition to a rough
(stone) mason (A. Q. C, VIII, 35, 155 sq. ; Boos, 104
sqq.). This derivation, though harmonizing with the
meaning of the term, seemed unsatisfactory to some
scholars. Hence Speth proposed to interpret the word
freemasons as referring t^ those masons claiming
exemption from the control of the local guilds of the
towns, where they temporarily settled (A. Q. C, X,
10-30; IX, 167). In accordance with this suggestion
the '' New English Dictionary of the Philological So-
ciety" (Oxfora, 1898) favours the interpretation of
freemasons as skilled artisans, emancipated accord-
ing to the medieval practice from the restrictions and
control of local guilds in order that they might be able
to travel and render services, wherever any great
building (cathedral, etc.) was in process of construo-
tion. These freemasons formed a universal craft for
themselves, with a system of secret signs and pass-
words by which a craftsman, who had been admitted
on givii^ evidence of competent skill, coidd be recog-
nized. On the decline of Gothic architecture this craJt
coalesced with the mason guilds (A. Q. C, XI, 166--'
168).
Quite recently W. Bepemann ( Voigeschichte, 1, 1909,
42-58) combats the opmion of Speth (A. Q. C, X, 20-
22) as purely hypotnetical, stating that the name
freemason originally designated particularly skilled
freestone-masons, needed at the time of the most mag-
nificent evolution of Gothic architecture, and nothine
else. In English law the word freemason is fint
mentioned in 1495, -wYnXe frank-mason occurs already
in an Act of 1444-1445 (Gould, "Concise History '\
166 sq.). Later, freemason and mason were usea
as convertible terms. The modem signification of
Freemasonry in which, since about 1750, the won!
has been universally and exclusively understood, dates
only from the constitution of the Grand Lodge of Eng-
land, 1717. In this acceptation Freemasonry, accord-
ing to the ofl&cial English, Scottish, American, etc.,
craft rituals, is most generally defined: ''A peculiar
[some say "particular" or 'beautiful"] system of
morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by sym-
bols." Mackey (Symlx)lism of Freemasonry, 1869,
303) declares the best definition of Freemasonry to be:
"A science which is engaged in the search after the
divine truth." The German encyclopedia of Free-
masonry, "Handbuch" (1900, I, 320 sq.), defines
Freemasonry as "the activity of closely united men
who, employing symbolical forms borrowed princi-
pally from the mason's trade and from architecture,
work for the welfare of mankind, striving morally to
ennoble themselves and others and thereby to bring
about a universal league of mankind [Aienschheiia'
bund], which they aspire to exhibit even now on a
small scale". The three editions which this "Hand-
buch" (Universal Manual of Freemasonry) has had
since 1822 arc most valuable, the work faiaving been
declared by English-speaking Masonic critics 'M3y far
the best Masonic Encyclopedia ever published"
[" Transactions of the Lodge Ars Quatuor Coronato-
rum", XI (London, 1898), 64).
II. Origin and Early History. — Before entering
upon this and the following divisions of our subject it is
necessary to premise that the very nature of Freema-
sonry as a secret society makes it difficult to be sure even
of its reputed documents and authorities, and therefore
we have consulted only those whk^ are acknowledged
MASONRY 772 MA80NBT
and recommended by responsible members of the craft, of the Grand Lodge of England, 24 June, 1717, and iti
as stated in the bibliography appended to this article, essential orcanization was completed in 1722 by the
" It is the opprobrimn of Freemasonry", says Mackey adoption of the new '* Book of Ccmstitutions " and of
(Encycl(^>edia, 296), "that its history has never yet the three degrees:— apprentice, fellow, master. All the
been written in a spirit of critical truth ; that credulity ablest and most conscientious investi^tions by compe-
. . . has been the foundation on which all masonic his- tent Masonic historians show, that in 1717 the old lodges
torical investigations have been built, . . . that the had almost ceased to exist. The new lodges began as
missing links of a chain of evidence have been fre- convivial societies, and their characteristic Masonic
quently supplied by gratuitous invention and that spirit developed but slowly. This spirit, finally, as
statements of vast importance have been carelessly sus- exhibited in the new constitutions was in contradic-
tained by the testimony of documents whose authen- tion to that which animated the earlier Masons. These
ticityhas not been proved.'' "The historical portion of facts prove that modem Masonry is not, as Gould
old records", he adds, "as written by Anderson, Pres- (History, II, 2, 121), Hughan (A. Q. C.» X, 128) and
ton. Smith, Calcott and otherwriters of that generation, Mackev (Encyclopedia, 296 so.) contend, a revival of
was little more than a<collection of fables, so absurd as the older system, out rather tnat it is a new order of
to excite the smile of every reader" (Chr., 1890, II, no greater antiquity than the first quarter of the eight-
145). The germs of nearly all these fantastic theories eenth century.
are contained in Anderson's "The Constitutions of III. Fundamental Principles and Spirit. —
Free Masons" (1723, 1738) which makes Freemasonry There have been many controversies among Masons
coextensive with geometry and the arts based on it* as to the essential points of Masonrv. English-speak-
insinuates that God, the Great Architect, founded ing Masons style them "landmarks", a term taken
Freemasonry, and that it had for patrons, Adam, the from Deut., xix, 14. and signifying " the boundaries
Patriarchs, the kings and philosophers of old. Even of Masonic freedom", or the unalterable Umits within
Jesus Christ is included in the list as Grand Master of which all Masons have to confine themselves. Mackey
the Christian Church. Masonry is credited with the (3, 17-39) specifies no less than twenty-five land-
building of Noah's Ark, the Tower of Babel, the Pvra- marks. The same number is adopted by Whitehead
mids, and Solomon's Temple. Subsequent authors (Chr.. 1878, I, 187. 194 sqq.) " as the pith of the re-
find the origin of Masonry in the Egyptian, Dionysiac, searcnes of the ablest masonic writers". The prin-
Eleusinian, Mithraic, and Druidic mysteries; in sects cipal of them are: the method of recognition by secret
and schools such as the Pythagoreans, Essenes, Cul- signs, words, grips, steps, etc.; the three degrees in-
dees, Zoroastrians, and Gnostics; in the Evangelical cludingtheKoyai Arch; tne Hiram legend of the third
societies that preceded the Reformation; in the orders degree; the proper "tiling" of the lodge against
of knighthood (Johannites, Templars); among the "raining" and "snowing", i.e., against male and fe-
alchemists, Rosicrucians, and Cabbalists; in Chinese male "cowans", or eavesdroppers, i.e., profane in-
and Arabic secret societies. It is claimed also that truders ; the right of eveiy regular Mason to visit every
Pythagoras founded the Druidic institution and hence regular lodge in the world; a belief in the existence of
that Masonrv probaUv existed in England 500 years God and in future life; the Volume of the Sacred Law;
before the Christian Era. Some authors, considering equality of Masons in the lodge; secrecy; symboli-
geological finds as Masonic emblems, trace Masonry to cal method of teaching; inviolability of landmarks
ttie Miocene (?) Period (Donnelly, "Atlantis the Ante- (Mackey, "Jurisprudence", 17-39; Chr., 1878, 1, 194
diluvian World"); while others pretend that Masonic sqq.; 1888, I, 11). In truth there is no authority in
science "existed before the creation of this globe, dif- Freemasonry to constitute such "unchangeable"
fused amidst the numerous systems with which the landmarks or fundamental laws. Strictly judicially,
erand empyreum of universal space is furnished " even the " Old Charges ", which, according to Ander-
(Oliver, I, 20, sq.). son's " Constitutions ", contain the unchangeal^le laws,
It is not then difiicult to understand that the at- have a legal obligatoiy character only as far as thev
tempt to prove the antiquity of Freemasonry with are inserted in the "Book of Constitution" of each
evidence supplied by such monuments of the past as Grand Lodge (Fischer, I, 14 sq.; Groddeck, 1 sqc)., 91
the Pjrramios and the Obelisk (removed to New York sqq.; " Handbuch", 3rd ed., II, 154). But practicaUy
in 1879) should have resulted in an extensive litera- there exist certain characteristics which are univer-
ture concerning these objects (Chr., 1880, I, 148; II, sally considered as essential. Such are the funda-
139; 1884, II, 130; Gruber, 5, 122-128). Though mental principles described in the first and sixth arti-
many intellijgent Masons regard these claims as base- cles of the "Old Charges" concerning religion, in the
less, the majority of the craft (see, for instance, "llie texts of the first two ^glish editions (1723 and 1738)
Voice" of Chica^, Chr., 1885, I, 226) still accept the of Anderson's "Constitutions". These texts, thou^
statement contamed in the "Chaige" after initiation: differing slightly, are identical as to their essential
"Ancient no doubt it is, having subsisted from time tenor. That of 1723, as the original text^ restored by
immemorial. In everv age monarchs [American rit- the Grand Lodge of England in the editions of the
uals: "the greatest and best men of all ages"] have been "Constitutions", 1756-1813, and inserted later in the
promoters of the art, have not thought it aerogatorv " Books of Constitutions " of nearly all the other
to their dignity to exchange the sceptre for the trowel. Grand Lodges, is the most authoritative; but the text
have participated in our mvsteries and joined in our of 1738, which was adopted and used for a long fime
assemolies" (En^ish ritual, 1908, almost identictd by many Grand Lodges, is also of great importance in
with other English, Irish, Scottish, and American itself and as a further illustration of the text of 1723.
rituals). It is true that in earlier times gentlemen In the latter, the first article of the "Old Charges"
who were neither operative masons nor architects, the containing the fundamental law and the essence of
so-called geomatic Masons (see Gould, " Hist.", 1, 408, modem Freemasonry runs (the text is given exactly
473, etc.) joined with the ooerative, or domatic, as printed in the original, 1723): — I. Concerning Goa
Masons in their lodges, observea ceremonies of admis- ana Religion, A Mason is obhged by his Tenure, to
flion, and had their signs of recognition. But this obey the moral law; and if he rightljr imderstands the
Masonry is by no means the "speculative" Masonry of Art, he will never be a stupid Atheist [Gothic letters]
modem times, i. «., a systematic method of teaching nor an irreli^ous Libertine [Gothic letters]. But
moralitv by means of such symbols according to the though in ancient times Masons were charged in every
principles of modem Freemasonry after 1723. As the coimtry to be of the religion of that country or nation,
best German authorities admit ("Handbuch ", 3rd ed., whatever it was, vet 'tb now thou^t more expedient
I, 321; Begemann, " Vorgeschichte, etc.", 1909, I, 1 only to oblige them to that rehgion in which all
iqq.), speculative Masonry began with the foundation men agree, mving their particular Opiniona to them*
MA80NBY 773 BffASONBY
selves: that is, to be good men and true or Men of to desijsoate the essential principle of Masonrv (Grod-
Honour and Honesty, by whatever Denominations 4eck; ''Handbuch", 3rd ed., I, 466 sqq.)* It occurs
or Persuasions they may be distinguished; whereby in a Masonic address of 1747 (Ohver/' Remains", 1, 96;
Masonry becomes the Centre of Union and the Means 332). Other watchwords are ''tolerance", ''unsecta-
of conciliating true Friendship among Persons that rian", "cosmopoUtan". The Christian character of
must have remained at a pei^tual Distance." the society under the operative regime of former cen-
Under Article VI, 2 (Masons' behaviour after the turies, says Hughan (Chr., 1876, I, 113), "was ex-
Lodge is closed and the Brethren not gone) is added: changed for the unsectarian regidations which were to
'' In order to preserve peace and harmony no private include under its wing the votaries of all sects, with-
piques or quarrels must be brought within the door of out respect to their differences of colour or clime,
the Lodge, far less any quarrels about Religion or provided the simple conditions were observed of mo-
Nations or State Policy, we being only, as Masons, of raUty, mature age and an approved ballot " (see also
the CathoUck ReUgion above mentioned, we are also Chr., 187S, I, 180; 1884, II, 38; etc., Gould, "Cone,
of all Nations, Tongues, Kindreds and Languages and Hist.", 289 sq.) In Continental Masonry the same
are resolved against all Politicks [printed in the orig- notions are expressed b3r the words " neutrality ".
inal in Gothic letters] as what never yet conduced to " laicit^ ", " Comessionslosigkeit ", etc. In the text ot
the welfare of the Lodge nor ever will. This charge 1738 particular stress is laid on "freedom of con-
has been always strictly enjoin 'd and obsery'd; but science" and the universal, non-Christian character
especially ever since the Reformation in Britain or the of Masonry is emphasized. The Mason is called a
dissent and secession of these Nations from the comr "true Noanida ", i. e. an adherent of the pre-Christian
munion of Rome" and pre-Mosaic system of undivided mankind. The
In the text of 1738 the same articles run (variation "3 articles of Noah" are most probably "the duties
from the ed. of 1723 are given in italics) : — 1. Concern- towards Godj the neighbour ana himself " inculcated
ing God and Religion. A Mason is obliged by his from older times in the "Charge to a newly made
Tenure to observe the moral law as true Noahida (sons Brother ". They might also refer to " brotherly love,
of Noah, the first name of Freemasons) and if he relief and truth", generally with "religion" styled
rightly understands the craft, he will never be a stupid the " great cement " of the fraternity and called by
atheist or an irreUgious libertine nor act against con- Blackey (Lexicon, 42) " the motto of our order and
science. In ancient times the Christian masons were the characteristic of our profession ".
charged to comply with the Christian usages of each Of the ancient Masons it is no longer said, that they
country where tney travelled or worked ; but Masonry were obliged to " be of the religion " but only " to com-
being found in all nations, even of diverse religions f ply with the Christian usages of each Country ". The
they are now generally charged to adhere to that re- designation of the said " unsectarian " reUgion as the
U^on, in which all men agree, (leaving each Brother "ancient catholick" betrays the attempt to oppose
his own particular opinion), that is, to be good men this religion of "Humanity" to the Roman Catholic
and true, men of honour and honesty, by whatever as the only true, genuine, and originally Catholic.
nameSf religions or persuasions they may be distin- The unsectarian character of Masonry is also implied
Ruished; for they all agree in the three great articles of in the era chosen on the title page: " In the year of
jfioahf enough to preserve the cement of the lodae. Thus Masonry 5723" and in the "History". As to the
Masonry is the centre of their union and the happy "History" Anderson himself remarks in the preface
means of conciliating true friendship among persons (1738) : " Only an expert Brother ^ by the true light, can
who otherunse must have remained at a perpetual dis- readily /irufnuint/ useful hints in almost every page ojf this
tanoe. VI. 1. Behaviour in the Lodge before clos- 2»ooiSrwliich Cowans and others not initiated (also among
ing: ... No private piques nor quarrels about na- Masons) cannot discern." Hence, concludes Krause
tions, /ami/ies, religions or politics must by any means (Kunsturkunden, 1810, 1, 525), Anderson's " History"
or under any colour or pretence whatsoever be brought is allegorically written in "cipher language". Apart,
within the doors of the lodge; for as Masons we are of then, from "mere childish allusions to the minor
the most ancient catholic religion y above mentioned and secrets", the general tendency of this "History" is
ofaU nations upon the square y level and plumb; and Wee to exhibit the " unsectarianism " of Masonry.
our jyredecessors in all ages, we are resolved against Two points deserve special mention : the utterances
political disputes, as contrary to the peace and welfare on the " Augustan " and the " Gothic " style of arch!-
of the Lodge. tecture ana the identification of Masonry with geo-
In order to appreciate rightly these texts character- metry. The " Augustan " which is praised above all
izing modem *' speculative " I* reemasonry it is neces- other styles alludes to "Humanism", while the
sary to compare them with the corresponding injuno- "Gothic" which is charged with ignorance and nar-
tion of the "Gothic" (Christian) Constitutions regu- row-mindedness, refers to Christian and particularly
lating the old lodges of " operative " Masonry till and Roman Catholic orthodoxy. The identification of
after 1747. These injunctions are uniformly summed Masonry with geometry brings out the naturalistic char-
up in the simple words: " The first charge is this that acter of the former. Like the Royal Society, of which
you be true to God and Holy Church and use no error a large and most influential proportion of the first Free-
or heresy" (Grand Lodge Ms. No. 1, Gould, "Concise masons were meml:)ers (Begemann, "Vorgeschichte,"
History^', 2.'^; Thorp, Ms. 1629, A. Q. C, XI, 210; II, 1910, 127 jjq., 137 sq.). Masonry professes the
Rawlinson Ms. 1729-39 A. Q. C, XI, 22; Hughan;' empiric or" positivist" geometrical method of reason
"Old Charges"). The radical contrast between and deduction in the investigation of truth (Calcott, ''A
the two types is obvious. While a Mason accord- Candid Disquisition, etc.", 1769; Oliver, "Remains",
ing to the old Constitution was above all obliged to 11,301.) In general it appears that the founders of Ma-
be true to God and Church, avoiding heresies, his son ry intended to follow the same methods for their so-
"reUgious" duties, according to the new type, are es- cial purposes which were chosen by the Royal Society
sentially reduced to the observation of the "moral for its scientific researches ((jould, "History", II,
law" practically summed up in the rules of "honour 400). "Geometry as a method is particularly recom-
and honesty" as to which "all men agree". This mended to the attention of Masons." " In this light,
" universal religion of Hunianity " which gradually re- Geometry may very properly be considered as a natural
moves the accidental divisions of mankind due to par- logic; for as truth is ever consistent, invariable and uni-
ticular opinions "or religious", national, and social form.alltruthsmaybeinvestigatedinthesamemanner.
"prejudices", is to be the bond of union among men in Moral and religious definitions, axioms and proposi-
the Masonic society, conceived as the model of human tions have as regular and certain dependence upon
association in general. '' Humanity " is the term used each other as any in physics or mathematics." *' Let
BIASON&Y
774
MASOH&Y
me recommend you to pursue such knowledge and
cultivate such dispositions as will seoure you the
Brotherly respect of this society and the honour of
your further advancement in it " (Calcott; Oliver, ibid.,
II f 301-303) . It is merely through inconsistency that
some Grand Lodges of North America insist on belief
in the Divine inspiration of the Bible as a necessary
qualification and that not a few Masons in America
and Germany declare Masonry an essentially *' Chris-
tian institution '\ According to the German Grand
Lodges, Christ is only * * the wise and virtuous pure man "
jMxr excellence, the principal model and teacher of
^'Humanity" ("Sign.", 1904, 45sg.,54; Gruber (5), 49
sqq. ; Idem (4) , 23 sq. ) . In the Swedish system, practised
by the German Country Grand Lodge, Christ is said to
have taught besides the exoteric Christia]i doctrine,
destined for the people and the duller mass of his dis-
ciples, an esoteric doctrine for his chosen disciples, such
as St. John, in which He denied that He was God
(Findel, **Die Schule der Hierarchic, etc.", 1870, 15
sqq. ; Schiffmann, " Die Entstehimg der RitterCTade ",
1882, 85, 92, 95 sq.). Freemasonry, it is hela, is the
descendant of the Christian secret society, in which
this esoteric doctrine was propagated. It is evident,
however, that even in this restricted sense of "unsec-
tarian" Christianity, Freemasonry is not a Christian
institution, as it acknowledges many pre-Christian
models and teachers of " Humanity ". All instructed
Masons agree in the objective import of this Masonic
principle of "Humanity", according to which belief
m dogmas is a matter of secondary importance, or
even prejudicial to the law of universal love and toler-
ance. Freemason rv, therefore, is opposed not only to
Cathohcism and Christianity, but also to the whole
system of supernatural truth.
The only serious discrepancies among Masons re-
farding the interpretation of the texts of 1723 and
738 refer to the words: "And if he rightly under-
stands the Art, he will never he a stupid Atheist or an
irreligious Liberiine'\ The controversy as to the
meaning of these words has been particularly sharp
since 13 September, 1877, when the Grand Orient of
France erased the paragraph, introduced in 1854 into
its Constitutions, bv whicn the existence of God and
the immortality of soul were declared the basis of
Freemasonry (Bulletin du Grand Orient de France,
1877, 236-50) and gave to the first article of its new
Constitutions the following tenor: "Freemasonry, an
essentially philanthropic, philosophic (naturalist, adog-
matic) and progressive institution, has for its object
the search after truth, the study of universal morality,
of the sciences and arts and the practice of beneficence.
It has for its principles absolute liberty of conscience and
human solidarity. It excludes none on account of his
belief. Its device is Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. "
On 10 September, 1878, the Grand Orient, moreover,
decreed to expunse from the Rituals and the lodge
proceedings all allusions to religious dogmas as the
83rmbols of the Grand Architect, the Bible, etc. These
measures called out solemn protests from nearly all
the Anglo-American and German organs and led to a
rupture between the Anglo-American Grand Lodges
and the Gr.\ Or.*, of France. As many freethinkmg
Masons both in America and in Europe sympathize in
this struggle with the French, a world-wiae breach
resulted. Quite recently many Grand Lodges of the
United States refused to recognise the Grand Lodge
of Switzerland as a regular body, for the reason that
it entertains friendly relations with the atheistical
Grand Orient of France ("Intern. Bull.", Berne, 1908,
No. 2). This rupture might seem to show, that in the
above paragraph of the Old Charges" the belief in a
personal God is declared the most essential prerequi-
site and duty of a Mason and tliat Anglo-American
Masonry, at least, is an uncompromising champion of
this Ixjlief against the impiety of Latin Masonry.
But in truth all Masonry is full of ambiguity'. The
texts of 1723 and 1738 of the fundamental law con<
ceming Atheism are purposely ambiguous. Atheism
is not positively conaenmed, but just sufficiently dis-
avowed to meet the exigencies of the time, when an
open admission of it woula have been fatal to Bfaeoniy .
It is not said that AtUeists cannot be admitted, or
that no Mason can be an Atheist, but merely that if he
rightly understands the Art, he will never be a stupid
Atheist, eto., i. e., he will not hold or profess Atheism
in a stupid way, by statements, for instance that shock
religious feeling and bring Masoniy into bad repute.
And even such a stupid Atheist incurs no stronger
censure than the simple ascertaining of the fact that
he does not rightly understand the art, a merely theo-
retical judgment without any practical sanction. Such
a disavowal tends rather to encourage modem poai-
tivist or scientific Atheism. Scarcely more serious is
the rejection of Atheism by the British, American and
some German Grand Lodges in their struggle with the
Grand Orient of France. The English Grand Loc^,
it is true, in its quarterly communication of 6 March,
1878 (Chr., 1878, 1, 161) adopted four resolutions, in
which belief in the Great Arcnitect of the Universe is
declared to be the most important ancient landmark
of the order, and an exphcit profession of that belief
is required of visiting brethren belonging to the Grand
Orient of France, as a condition for entrance into the
English lod^. Similar measures were taken by the
Irish, Scottish, and North American Grand Lodges.
But this behef in a Great Architect is so va^e and
symbolical, that almost every kind of Atheism and
even of "stupid" Atheism may be covered by it.
Moreover, British and American Grand Lodges de-
clare that they are fully satisfied with such a vague,
in fact merely verbal declaration, without further
inquiry into the nature of this belief, and that they do
not dream of claiming for Freemasonry that it is a
"church", a "coimcil", a "synod". Consequently
even those are acknowledged as Masons who with
Spencer and other Naturalist philosophers of the a^
call God the hidden all-powerful principle working m
nature, or, like the followers of " Handbuch" (3rd ed.,
II, 231), maintain as the two pillars of religion "the
sentiment of tnan's littleness in the immensity of space
and time", and "the assurance that whatever \a real
has its origin from the good and whatever happens
must be for the best".
An American Grand Orator Zabriskie (Arixona) on
13 November, 1889, proclaimed, that "individual
members may believe in many gods, if their conscience
and judgment so dictate" (Chr., 1890, I, 243). Li-
mousin (Acacia, 1907, I, 48), approved by German
Masons (Sign., 1907, 133 sq.), says: "The majority of
men conceive God in the sense of exoteric relifions as
an all-powerful man; others conceive God as t£e high-
est idea a man can form in the sense of esoteric reli-
gions. * ' The latter are called Atheists according to the
exoteric notion of God repudiated by science, but they
are not Atheists according to the esoteric and true
notion of God. On the contraiy, add others (Sign.,
1905, 54), they are less Atheists than churchmen, from
whom they differ only by holding a higher idea of God
or the Divine. In this sense Thevenot, Grand Secre-
tary of the Grand Orient of France, in an official lettei
to the Grand Lodge of Scotland (30 January, 1878),
states: "French Masonry does not beUeve that there
exist Atheists in the absolute sense of the word" (Chr.,
1878, I, 134) ; and Pike himself (Morals and Dogma,
643 sqq.) avows : " A man who has a higher conception
of God than those about him and who denies tJ^t
their conception is God, is very likely to be called an
Atheist by men who are really far less believers in God
than he ", ete. Thus the whole controversy turns out
to be merely nominal and formal. Moreover, it is to
be noticed tliat the clause declaring belief in the great
Architect a condition of admission, was introduced
into the text of the Constitutions of the Grand Lodft
MA80IIBY
775
MA80M&Y
of England, only in 1815 and that the same text says:
" A Biason therdore \a particularly bound never to act
against the dictates ot his conscience'', whereby the
Grand Lddge of England seems to acknowledge that
liberty of conscience is the sovereign principle of Free-
masonry prevailing over all others when in conflict
with them. The same supremacy of the liberty of
conscience is implied also in the unsectarian character,
which Anglo-American Masons recoj^ize as the inner-
most essence of Masonry. * ' Two prmciples ", said the
German Emperor Frederick III, in a solenm address to
Masons at Strasburg on 12 September, 1886, "char-
acterize above all our piuposes, viz., liberty of con-
science and tolerance''; and the ''Handbuch" (3rd
ed., II, 200) justly observes that hberty of conscience
ana tolerance were thereby proclaimed the foundation
of Masonry by the highest Masonic authority in Ger-
many.
Thus the Grand Orient of France is right from the
Masonic point of viewas tothe substance of thequestion;
but it ha& deviated from tradition by discardmg sym-
bols and symbolical formulae, which, if rightly under-
stood, in no way imply dogmatic assertions and which
cannot be rejected without injuring the work of Ma-
sonry, since this has need of ambiguous religious for-
mulae adaptable to every sort of belief and every
phase of moral development. From this point of
view the symbol of the Grand Architect of the Uni-
verse and of the Bible are indeed of the utmost im-
portance for Masonry. Hence, several Grand Lodges
which at first were supposed to imitate the radicalism
of the French, eventually retained these symbols. A
representative of the Grand Lodge of France writes
in this sense to Findel: " We entirel}r agree with you in
considering all dogmas, either positive or negative, as
radically contradictory to Masonry, the teaching of
which must only be propagated by symbols. And the
symbols may and must be explamed by each one ac-
cording to his own imderstanding; thereby they serve
to maintain concord. Hence our G. L. facultatively
retains the Symbol of the Gr. Arch, of the Univerae,
because every one can conceive it in conformity with
his personal convictions, [Lodges are allowed to re-
tain the s^nnbols, but there is no obligation at all of
doing so, and many do not.] To excommunicate each
other on account of metaphysical questions, appears
to us the most unworthy thing Masons can do " (bign.,
1905, 27). The official organ of Italian Masonry even
emphasizes: "The formula of the Grand Architect,
which is^ reproached to Masonry as ambiguous ana
absurd, is tne most large-minded and righteous affir-
mation of the immense princi()le of existence and ma}r
represent as well the (revolutionary) God of Mazzini
as the Satan of Giosue Carducci (in his celebrated
hymn to Satan) ; God, as the fountain of love, not of
hatred. Satan, as the genius of the good, not of the
bad" (Rivista, 1909,44). In both interpretations it
is in reality the principle of Revolution that is adored
by Italian Masonry.
rV. Propagation and Evolution of Masonky. —
The members of the Grand Lodge formed in 1717 by
the union of four old lodges, were till 1721 few in
number and inferior in quality. The entrance of sev-
eral members of the Royal Societv and of the nobility
changed the situation. Since 17^1 it has spread over
Europe (Gould, "History", II, 284 sq.). This rapid
propagation was diiefly due to the spirit of the age
which, tiring of religious quarrels, restive under eccle-
siastical authority and discontented with existing
social conditions, turned for enlightenment and relief
to the ancient mysteries and sought, by umting men
of kindred tendencies, to reconstruct society on a
purely human basis. In this situation Freemasonry
with its vagueness and elasticity, seemed to many an
excellent remedy. To meet tne needs of different
countries and classes of society, the original system
(17X7-23) underwent more or less profound modifica-
tions. In 1717, contrary to Gould (Condse History^
309), only one simple ceremony of admission or one
degree seems to have been in use (A. Q. C., X, 127 sqq. ;
XI, 47 soa.; XVI, 27 sqq.): in 1723 two appear as
recognized by the Grand Lodge of England: '^Entered
Apprentice" and "Fellow Craft or Master". The
tm^ degree eryrstem, first practised about 1725, became
universal and official only after 1730 ([Gould^ "Cone.
Hist., 272 ; 310-17) . The symbols and ritualistic forms,
as they were practised from 1717 till the introduction
of further degrees after 1738, together with the " Old
Charges" of 1723 or 1738, are considered as the orig-
inal pure Freemasonry. A fourth, the " Royal Arch "
degree (ibid., 280) in use at least since 1740, is first
mentioned in 1743. and though extraneous to the
system of pure ana ancient Masonry (ibid., 318) is
most characteristic of the later Anglo^axon Masonry.
In 1751 a rival Grand Lodge of En^nd " according to
the Old Institutions" was established, and through
the activity of its Grand Secretary, Lawrence Der-
mott, soon surpassed the Grand Lodge of 1717. Tlie
members of this Grand Lodge are known by the desig-
nation of "Ancient Masons". They are also call^
"York Masons" with reference, not to the ephemeral
Grand Lodge of all England in York, mentioned in
1726 and revived in 1761, but to the pretended first
Grand Lodge of England assembled in 926 at York
THandbuch, 3rd ed., I, 24 sqq.; II, 559 sqq.). They
nnally obtained control, the United Grand Lodge of
England adopting in 1813 their ritualistic forms.
In its religious spirit Anglo-Saxon Masonrv after
1730 undoubtedlv retrograded towards biblical Chris-
tian orthodoxy (Chr., 1906, II, 19 so.; 1884, II, 306).
* This movement is attested by the Cnnstianization of
the rituals and by the popularity of the works of
Hutchinson, Preston^ and Oliver with Anglo-American
Masons. It is principally due to the conservatism of
English-speaking society in religious matters, to the
influence of ecclesiastical members and to the insti-
tution of "lodge chaplains" mentioned in English
records since 1733 (A. Q. C, XI, 43). The reform
brought by the articles of union between the two
Grand Ixxiges of England (1 December, 1813) con-
sisted above all in the restoration of the unsectarian
character, in accordance with which all allusions to a
particular (Christian) religion must be omitted in
lodge proceedings. It was further decreed " there shall
be the most perfect unity of obligation of discipline, or
working . . . according to the genuine landmarks,
laws and traditions . . . throughout the masonic
world, from the day and date of the said union (1
December, 1813) until time shall be no more" (Pres-
ton, ''Illustrations", 296 seq.). In taking this ac-
tion the United Grand Lodge overrated its authority.
Its decree was complied with, to a certain extent, m
the United States, where Masonry, first introduced
about 1730, followed in general the stages of Masonic
evolution in the mother country.
The title of Mother-Grand Lodge of the United
States was the object of a long and ardent contro-
versy between the Grand Lodges of Pennsylvania and
Massachusetts. The prevailing opinion at present is,
that from time immemorial, i.e., prior to Grand
Lodge warrants (Chr., 1887, 11^ 313), there existed in
Philadelphia a regular lodge with records dating from
1731 (Drummond, ''Chr.", 1884, II, 227; 1887, 1, 163;
II, 178; Gould, "Concise History^', 413). In 1734
Benjamin Franklin published an edition of the En-
glish " Book of Constitutions ". The principal agents
of the modem Grand Lodge of England in tne United
States were Coxe and Price. Several lodges were
chartered by the Grand Lodge of Scotland. After
1758, especially during the War of Independence,
1773-83, most of the lodges passed over to the "An-
cients". The union of the two systems in England
(1813) was followed by a similar union in America.
The actual form of the American rite since then prao-
BSAflOIlBY
776
BffASONBY
tised 18 chiefly due to Webb (1771-1819), and to
Cross (178^1861).
In France and Germany, at the beginning Masonry
was practised according to the English ritual (Pridi-
ard, ^' Masonry Dissected '.', 1730) ; but so-called "Scot-
tish " Masonry soon arose. Only nobles being then
reputed admissible in good society as fully qualified
members, the Masonic gentlemen's society was inter-
preted as a society of GeniUahommea, i. e.. of noblemen
or at legist of men ennobled or knighted by their very
admission into the order, which according to the old
English ritual still in use, is "more honourable than
the Golden Fleece, or the Star or Garter or any other
Order under the Sun ". The pretended association of
Masonry with the orders of the warlike knights and of
the religious was far more acceptable than the idea of
development out of stone-cutters' guilds. Hence an
oration delivered by the Scottish Chevalier Ramsay
before the Grand Lodge of France in 1737 and in-
serted by Tierce into his first French edition of the
"Book of Constitutions" (1743) as an "oration of the
Grand Master", was epoch-making (Gould, "Concise
History", 274 sq., 357 sq.; Boos, 174 sa.). In this
oration Masonnr was dated from " the close associa-
tion of the order with the Knights of St. John in
Jerusalem" during the Crusades; and the "old lod^
of Scotland " were said to have preserved this genume
Masonry, lost by the English. Soon after 17^, how-
ever, as occult sciences were ascribed to the Templars,
their system was readily adaptable to all kinds of
Rosicrucian purposes and to sucn practices as alchemy,
magic, cabbala, spiritism, and necromancy. The sup-
pression of the order together with the story of the
urand Master James Molay and its pretended revival
in Masonry, reproduced in the Hiram legend, repre-
senting the fall and the resurrection of the just or the
suppression and the restoration of the natural rights
of man 2 fitted in admirably with both Christian and
revolutionary high grade systems. The principal
Templar systems of the eighteenth centuiy were the
system of the "Strict Observance", organized by the
swindler Rosa and propagated by the enthusiast von
Hundt; and the Swedish system, made up of French
and Scottish degrees in Sweden.
In both systems obedience to unknown superiors
was promis^. The supreme head of these Templar
systems, which were rivals to each other, was falsely
supposed to be the Jacobite Pretender, Charles Ed-
ward, who himself declared in 1777, that he had never
been a Mason (Handbuch, 2nd ed., II, 100). Almost
all the lodges of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Poland,
and Russia were, in the second half of the eighteenth
century, involved in the struggle between these two
systems. In the lodees of France and other countries
(Abafi, 1, 132) the aomission of women to lodge meet-
ings occasioned a scandalous immorality (Boos, 170.
183 sqq., 191). The revolutionary spint manifested
itself early in French Masonry. Already in 1746 m the
book " LaFranc-Magonnerie dcras4e ", an experienced
ex -Mason, who, when a Mason, had visited many
lodges in France and England, and consulted high
Masons in official position, described as the true
Masonic pro^mme a programme which, according to
Boos, the historian of Freemasonry (p. 192), in an
astonishing degree coincides with the programme of the
great French Revolution of 1789. In 1776 this revolu-
tionary spirit was brought into Germany by Weisshaupt
through a conspiratory system, which soon spread
throughout the coimt^ (see Illuminati, and Boos,
303) . Charles Augustus of Saxe-Weimar, Duke Ernest
of Gotha, Ihike Ferdinand of Brunswick, Goethe,
Herder. Pestalozzi, etc., are mentioned as members of
this order of the Illuminati. Very few of the members,
however, were initiated into the higher de^ees.
The French Illuminati included Condorcet, the Duke
of Orleans, Mirabeau, and Siey&s (Robertson, "Chr.",
1907, II, 95; see also Engel, ''^Gesch. des Illuminaten-
ordens", 1906). After the Conmes of Wilhelmsbade
(1782) reforms were made both in Germany and in
France. The principal German reformers, L. Schroder
(Hambun) and I. A. Fessler, tried to restore the ord-
inal simpficity and purity. The system of Schroder m
actually practised by the Grand Lodge of Hambuig,
and a modified system (Schroder-Fessler) by the
Grand Lodge Royal York (Berlin) and most lodges of
the Grand Lodge of Bayreuth and Dresden. Tl^
Grand Lod^ of Frankfort-on-the-Main and Darm-
stadt practise an eclectic system on the basis of the
English ritual (BauhUtte. 1908, 337 sqo.). Except the
Grand Lodge Koyal York, which has Scottish "Inner
Orients" and an ''Innermost Orient 'J, the others re-
pudiate high degrees. The largest Grand Lodge of
Germany, the National (Berlin), practises a rectified
Scottish (Strict Observance) system of seven degrees
and the "Landes Grossloge'' and Swedish system of
nine degrees. The same system is practised by the
Grand Lodge of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.
These two systems stUl declare Masonry a Christian
institution and with the Grand Lodge Royal York
refuse to initiate Jews. Findel states that the princi-
pal reason is to prevent Masonry from being domi-
nated by a people whose strong racial attachnients are
incompatible with the imsecterian character of the
institution (Sign., 1898, 100; 1901, 63 sqq.; 1902, 39;
1905, 6).
The principal system in the United States (Charles-
ton, South Carolina) is the so-called Ancient and
Accepted Scottish Rite, organised in 1801 on the basis
of the French Scottish Rite of perfection, which was
established by the Council of the Emperors of the East
and West (Paris, 1 758) . This system . which was prop-
agated tiiroughout the world, may oe considered as
the revolutionary type of the French Templar Ma-.
sonry, fighting for the natural rights of man against
religious and political despotisms, symbolized by the
pa{Md tiara and a royal crown. It strives to exert a
preponderant influence on the other Masonic bodies,
wherever it is established. This influence is insured to
it in the Grand Orient systems of Latin coimtries; it is
felt even in Britain and Canada, where the supreme
chiefs of craft Masonry are also, as a rule, prominent
members of the Supreme Councils of the Scottish Rite.
There are at the present time (1908) twenty-six uni-
versally recognized Supreme Councils of the Ancient
and Accepted Scottish Rite: U.S. of America: South-
em Jurisdiction (Washington), established in 1801;
Northern Jurisdiction (Bc^n), 1813; Argentine Re-
public (Buenos Aires), 1858; Belgium (Brussels),
1817; Brazil (Rio de Janeiro), 1829; Chile (Santiago),
1870; Colon, for West India Islands (Havana), 1879;
Columbia (Cartagena): Dominican Republic (S. Do-
mingo) ; England (London), 1845; Egypt (Cairo), 1878;
France (Paris), 1804; Greece (Athens), 1872; Guate-
mala (for Central American), 1870; Ireland (Dublin),
1826; Italy (Florence), 1858; Mexico (1868); Para-
guay (Asuncion); Peru (Lima), 1830; Portugal (Lis-
bon). 1869; Scotland (Edinburgh), 1846; Spain
(Madrid), 1811; Switzerland (Lausanne), 1873; ITru-
ffuay (Montevideo); Venezuela (Caracas). Supreme
Councils not universally recognized exist in Hungary,
Luxemburg, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Turkey. The
founders of the rite, to give it a great splendour,
invented the fable that Frederick II, King of Prussia,
was its true founder, and this fable upon the authority
of Pike and Mackey is still maintained as probable in
the last edition of Mackey's "Encyclopedia" (1008),
392 sq.
V. Organization and Statistics. — ^The character-
istic feature of the organization of speculative Masonry
is the Grand Lodse system founded in 1717. Every
regular Grand Lodge or Supreme Council in the Scot-
tisn, or Grand Orient in the mixed system, constitutes
a supreme independent body with legislative, judicial,
and executive powers. It is composed of the lodges or
MASONRY
777
2CA80NBT
inferior bodies of its jurisdiction or of their represeii-
tatives regularly assembled and the grand officers
whom they elect. A duly constituted lodge exercises
the same powers, but in a more restricted sphere. The
indispensable officers of a lodge are the Worshipful
Master (French Vinirable; German MeistervonStiud),
the Senior and Junior Warden, and the Tiler. The
master and the wardens are usually aided by two
deacons and two stewards for the ceremonial and con-
vivial work and by a treasurer and a secretary. Many
lodges have a Cliaplain for religious ceremonies and
adm'esses. The same officers in large numbers and
with soimding titles (Most Worshipf\3 Grand Master,
Sovereign Grand Commander, etc.) exist in the Grand
Lodges. As the expenses of the members are heavy,
only wealthy persons can afford to join the fraternity.
The number of candidates is further restricted by
prescriptions regarding their moral, intellectual, so-
cial, and physical quaJifications, and by a regulation
which requires unanimity of votes in secret ^llotine
for their admission. Thus, contrary to its pretended
universality, Freemasonry appears to be a most exclu-
sive society, the more so as it is a secret society, closed
off from the profane world of common mortals.
" Freemasonry ', says the ** Keystone " of Phladelphia
(Chr., 1885, 1, 259), " has no right to be popular. It is
a secret society. It is for the few, not the many, for
the select, not for the masses." Practically, it is true,
the prescriptions concerning the intellectual and moral
endowments are not rigourously obeyed. " Numbers
are being admitted . . . whose sole object is to make
their membership a means for advancing their pecu-
niary interest" (Chr., 1881,1,66). "There are a goodly
number again, who value Freemasonry solely for the
convivial meetings attached to it." ''Again I have
heard men say openly, that they had joined to gain
introduction to a certain class of indiviauals as a trad-
ing matter and that they were forced to do so because
every one did so. Then there is the great class who
join it out of curiosity or perhaps, because somebody
in a position above them is a mason." *' Near akin to
this is that class of individuals who wish for congenial
society" (Chr., 1884, II, 196). " In Masonnr they find
the means of ready access to society, which is-clenied
to them by social conventionalities. They have wealth
but neither by birth nor education are they eligible for
polite and fine intercourse." "The shop is never
absent from their words and deeds." "The Masonic
body includes a large number of publicans" (Chr.,
1885, 1, 259), etc., etc.
Of the Masonic rule — brotherly love, relief, and truth
— certainly the two former, especially as understood
in the sense of mutual assistance in all the emergen-
cies of life, is for most of the candidates the princi-
pal reason for joining. This mutual assistance, espe-
cially S3rmbolized by the five points of fellowship and
the "grand hailing sign of distress " in the third degree,
is one of the most fundamental characteristics of Free-
masoniy . By his oath the Master Mason is pledged to
maintain and uphold the five points of fellowship in
act as well as in words, i. e., to assist a Master Mason
on every occasion according to his ability, and partic-
ularly when he makes the sien of distress. In Duncan,
" AmericanRitual " (229), the Royal Arch-Mason even
swears: " I will assist a companion R. A. -Mason, when
I see him engaged in any difficiilty and will espouse his
cause so as to extricate him from the same whether he
be right or wrong." It is a fact attested by expe-
rienced men of all countries that, wherever Masonry
is influential, non-Masons have to suffer in their inter-
ests from the systematical preferment which Masons
give each other in appointment to offices and employ-
ment. Even Bismarck (Gedanken imd Erinnerungen.
1898, I^ 302 sq. ) complained of the effects of such mutual
Masonic assistance, which is detrimental alike to civic
equality and to public interests. In Masonic books
And magazines unlawful and treacherous acts, per-
formed In rendering this mutual assistance, are recom-
mended and praised as a glory of Freemasonry. " The
inexorable laws of war themselves", says the official
orator of the Grand Orient de France, Lefdbvre
d'Aumale (Solstice, 24 June, 1841, Proc^verb., 62),
"had to bend before Freemasonry, which is perhaps
the most striking proof of its power. A sign sufficed
to stop the slaughter; the combatants tmrew away
their arms, embraced each other fratemidly and at
once became friends and Brethren as their oaths pre-
scribed", and the "Handbuch", 3rd ed., II, 109. de-
clares : "this sign has had beneficial effect, particularly
in times of war, where it often disarms the bitterest
enemies, so that they listen to the voice of humanitv
and give each other mutual assistance instead of kill-
ing each other" (see also Freemason, Lond., 1901,
181; Clavel, 288 sqq. ; Ragon,"Cour8", 164; Herold,
191, no. 10; "Handbuch^', 2nd ed., II, 451 sqq.).
Even the widely spread suspicion, that justice is some-
times thwarted and Masonic criminals saved from due
pimishment, cannot be deemed groundless. The said
practice of mutual assistance is so reprehensible that
Masonic authors themselves (e. g., Krause, ibid., 2nd
ed., I, 2, 429; Marbach, "Freimaurer-Gelabde", 22-
35) condemn it severelv. "If", says Br<>. Marbach
(23), "Freemasonry really could be an association and
even a secret one of men of the most different ranks of
society, ai^isting and advancing each other, it would
be an miquitous association, and the police would have
no more urgent duty than to exterminate it."
Another characteristic of Masonic law is that " trea-
son" and "rebellion" against civil authority are de*
clared only political crimes, which affect the good
standing of a Brother no more than heresy, and fur-
nish no ground for a Masonic trial (Mackey, " Juri^
prudence", 509). The importance which Masonry
attaches to this point is manifest from the fact that
it is set forth in the Article II of the " Old Charges",
which defines the duties of a Freemason with respect
to the State and civil powers. Compared with the
corresponding injunction of the "Gothic" constitu-
tions of operative masoniy, it is no less ambiguous
than Article I concerning God and reUgion. The old
Gothic Constitutions candidly enjoin^: "Also you
shall be true liegemen to the King without treason
or falsehood and that you shall know no treason
but you mend it, if you may, or else warn the King
or his council thereof" (Thorp, Ms., 1629, A. Q. C,
XI, 210; Rawlinson, Ms. 1900, A. Q. C, XI, 22-
Hughan, "Old Charges"). The second article of
modem speculative Freemasonry (1723) runs: "Of
the civil magistrates, supreme and subordinate. A
Mason is a peaceable sumect to the Civil Powers,
wherever he resides or works^ and is never to be con-
cerned in Plots and Conspiracies against the peace and
welfare of the Nation, nor to behave himself unduti-
fuUy to inferior Magistrates; for as Masonry hath al-
ways been injured by War, Bloodshed and Confusion
so ancient Kings and Princes have been much dis-
posed to encourage the craftsmen, because of their
Peaceableness and Loyalty, whereby they practically
answer'd the Cavils of their adversaries and promoted
the Honour of Fraternity, who ever flourished in
Times of Peace. So that if a Brother should be a
Rebel against the State, he is not to be countenanc'd
in his Ilebellion, however he may be pitied as an un-
happy man; and, if convicted of no other Crime,
though the loyal Brotherhood must and ought to dis-
own his Rebellion, and give no Umbrage or Groimd of
political Jealousy to the Government for the time be-
mg; they cannot expel him from the Lodge and his
Relation to it remains indefeasible."
Hence rebellion by modem speculative Masonry is
only disapproved when plots are directed against the
peace and welfare of the nation. The brotherhood
ought to disown the rebellion, but only in order to pre-
serve the fraternity from annoyance by the dvil au-
MASONRY
778
IffASONET
thorities. A brother, then, guilty of rel^cllion cannot
be expelled from the lodge: on the contrary, his feUow
Maaonfl are particularly obliged to have pity on his
misfortune when he (in prison or before the courts)
has to suffer from the consequences of his rebellion, and
five him brotherlv assistance as far as they can.
reemasonry itself as a body is very peaceable and
loyal, but it does not disapprove; on the contrair, it
conmiends those brethren who through love of free-
dom and the national welfare successfully plot against
monarchs and other despotic rulers^ while as an asso-
ciation of public utility it claims pnvile^ and protec-
tion through kings^ princes, and other high dignitaries
for the success of its peaceful work. "Loyalty to
freedom", says Chr.. 1875, I, 81, "overrides all other
considerations". The wisdom of this regulation, re-
marks Mackey (Jurisprudence. 510. note I), "will be
apparent when we consider, tnat ii treason or rebel-
hon were masonic crimes, almost every mason in the
United Colonies, in 1776, would have oeen subject to
expulsion and every Lodge to a forfeiture of its war-
rant by the G. LL. of England and Scotland^ under
whose jurisdiction they were at the time ".
A misleading adage is "once a Mason always a
Mason". This is often taken to mean that the
Masonic tie is indissoluble, that there is no absolution
from its consequences" (Ohr., 1885, 1, 161) or "Obli-
gations" (Chr., 18n89, II, 58), that not even death can
sever the connexion of a Mason with Freemasonry
(Chr., 1883. 11^ 331). But certainly a Mason has the
"right of demission" (Mackey. "Jurisprudence. 232
sq.), and this right, whatever \ye the opinion of Ma-
sonic iurispnidence, according to the inalienable
natural rights of man, extends to a complete with-
drawal not only from the lodge but also from the
brotherhood. In the scale of Masonic penalties, "ex-
pulsion " is the most severe (Mackey, op. cit., 514 sqq.).
Besides those who have been expelled or have resigned
there are many "unaffiliated" Masons who have
ceased to be "active " members of a lodge, but, accord-
ing to Masonic law, which, of course, can oblige no
more than is authorized by the general rules of mo-
rality, they remain subject to the lodge within the
jurisdiction of which they reside.
As to unity, Masonic authorities unanimously af-
firm that Freemasonry throughout the world is one,
and that all Freemasons form in reality but one lodge;
that distinct lodges exist only for the sake of conven-
ience, and that conseauently every regular Mason is
entitled to be receivea in every regular lodge of the
world as a brother, and, if in distress, to be relieved.
The good understanding among Masons of different
countries is furthered by personal intercourse and by
correspondence, especially between the grand secre-
tary offices ana international congresses (Paris, 1889;
Antwerp, 1894; Hague, 1896; Paris, 1900; Geneva, 1902;
Brussels, 1904; Rome, intended for Oct., 1911) which
led to the establishment, in 1903, of a permanent inter-
national office at Neuchdtel, Switzerland (Chr., 1907,
II, 119). There is no general Grand Lodge or direc-
tion of Freemasonry, though various attempts have
been made in nearly every larger state or country to
establish one. Incessant dissensions between Ma-
sonic systems and bodies are characteristic of Free-
masoniy in all countries and times. But the federative
unity of Freemasonry suffices to prove a true solidarity
among Masons and Masonic bodies throughout the
world ; hence the charge of complicity in the machina-
tions which some of tliem carry on. This solidarity
is openly avowed by Masonic authorities. Pike,
for instance, writes (Off. Bull., 1885, VII, 29): "When
the journal in London which speaks of the freema-
sonry of the G. L. of England, deprecatingly protested
that the English Freemasonry was innocent of the
charges preferred by the Papal Bull (Encycl. 1884)
against Freemasonry, when it declared that English
Freemasonry had no opinions political or religious, and
that it did not in the least degree sympathise vrith the
loose opinions and extravagant utterances of part of
the Continental Freemasonry, it wajs very justiy tnd
verv conclusivelv checkmated by the Ronush Orgfja
with the reply, It is idle for you to protest. You are
Freemasons and you recognixe them as Freemasons.
You give them countenance, encouragement and sup-
port and you are jointly responsible with them and
cannot shirk that responsibihty ' ".
As accurate statistics are not always to be had and
the methods of enumeration differ in different coun-
tries, total numbers can only be approximated. Thus
in most of the Lodges of the Umted States only the
Masters (third degree) are counted, while in other
countries the apprentices and fellows are added.
There are besides many unaffiliated Masons (ha>'ing
ceased to be members of a lodge) who are not in-
cluded. Their number may be estimated at two-
thirds of that of the active Masons. In England a
Mason may act as member of many lodges. Confirming
our statement as to the active members of the strictly
Masonic bodies, which in calendare and year books are
registered as such, we may, upon recent and reliable
sources (Mackey, "Encyclopedia", 1908, 1007 sq.:
"Annual of Umversal Masonry'*, Berne, 1909; "Mas.
Year-Book 1909", London; "Kalender fQr Frd-
maurer", Leipzig, 1909), estimate the actual state of
Freemasonry as follows: Grand O's^ G. L's, Supr.
Couns., and other Scottish G. bodies, 183; lodges
26,500; Masons, about 2,000,000; the number of the
Grand Chapters of Royal Arch is: in the United
States, 2968 subordinate chapters, under one General
Grand Chapter; England, 46 Grand Chapters with
1015 suboruinate chapters; English colonies and for-
eign Masonic centres, 18 Grand Chaptera with 150 sub-
ordinate chapters. The census of craft masonry is as
follows:
Countries
Great Britain and Colonies (exc. Can-
ada)
Canada
United, States: White
Colored
Latin Countries
(Europe and S. America)
Other European countries
Africa
Total
Members
262.651
66.728
1.203.150
28.000
120.000
90.700
2.150
1.767.388
VI. Inner Work or Freemasonry: MxaoNic
Symbolism and Oaths. — "From first to last", says
Pike (I, 340), "Masonry is work". The Masonic
"work", properl^r so called, is the inner secret ritual-
istic work by wmch Masons are made and educated
for the outer work, consisting in action for the welfare
of mankind according to Masonic princii)les. Masons
are made by the three ceremonies of initiation (first
degree), passing (second degree), and raising (third
degree). The symbols displayed in these cere-
monies and explained accordmf; to the MasOnic prin-
ciples and to tne verbal hints given in the rituals and
lectures of the three degrees, are the manual of Masonic
instruction. The education thus begun is comjjleted
by the whole lodge life, in which every Mason is ad-
vised to take an active part, attending the lodge meet-
ings regularlv, profiting, according to his ability, by
the means wfiicn Masonry affords him, to perfect him-
self in conformity with Masonic ideals, and contribut-
ing to the discussions of Masonic themes and to a good
lodge government, which is represented as a model of
the government of society at large. The lodge is to be
a type of the world (Chr.. 1890, 1, 99) and Masons are
intended to take part in tne regeneration of the human
race (Chr., 1900, II, 3). "The symbolism of Free-
masonry ", says rike in a letter to Gould, 2 December,
1888 (A. Q. C., XVI, 28), "is the very soul of Ma-
MASONRY
779
ISASONRY
«onry." And Boyd, the Grand Orator of Missouri,
confirms: " It is from the beginning to the end symbol,
symbol, symbol" (Chr., 1902 I, 167).
The principal advantages of this symbolism, which is
not peculiar to Freemasonry but refers to the mjrsteries
and doctrines of all ages and of all factors of civiliza-
tion, are the following: (1) As it is adaptable to all
possible opinions, doctrines, and tastes, it attracts the
candidate and fascinates the initiated. (2) It pre-
serves the unsectarian unity of Freemasonry in spite
of profound differences in religion, race, national feel-
ing, and individual tendencies. (3) It sums up the
theoretical and practical wisdom of all ages and na-
tions in a universally intelligible language. (4) It
trains the Mason to consider existing institutions, reli-
gioiis, political, and social, as passing phases of human
evolution and to discover by his own study the reforms
to be realized in behalf of Masonic progress, and the
means to realize them. (5) It teacnes him to see in
prevailing doctrines and dogmas merely subjective
conceptions or changing 6>Tnbols of a deeper umversal
truth in the sense of Masonic ideals. (6) It allows
Freemasonry to conceal its real purposes from the
profane and even from those among the initiated, who
are unable to appreciate those aims, as Masonry in-
tends. '* Masonry ", says Pike, " jealously conceals its
secrets and intentionally leadiJ conceitedf interpreters
astray " [( 1) , 1 05]. " Part of the Symbols are displayed
, . . to the Initiated, but he is intentionally misled by
false interpretations "[(1), 819]. "The initiated are few
though many hear the Thyrsus " [( 1 ), 355]. ** The mean-
ing of the Symbols is not unfolded at once. We give
you hints only in general. You must study out the
recondite and mysterious meaning for yourself" [(3),
128]. " It is for each individual Mason to discover the
secret of Masonry by reflection on its symbols and a
wise consideration jof what is said and. done in the
work " [( 1 ) , 2 1 8]. " The universal cry throughout the
Masonic world", says Mackey (Inner Sanctuary I,
311), "is for light; our lodges are henoefolili to be
schools, our labour is to be study, our wages are to
be learning; the types and symbols, the myths and
allegories of the institution are only beginning to be
investigated with reference to the ultimate meaning
and Freemasons now thoroughly understand that often
quoted definition, that Masonry is a science of mo-
rality veiled in allegory and illustrated by s>Tnbols."
Iklasonic symbols can be and are interpreted in dif-
ferent senses. By orthodox Anglican ecclesiastics the
whole symbolism of the Old and New Testament con-
nected with the symbolism of the Temple of Solomon
was treated as Masonic symbolism and Masonry as the
"handmaid of religion" (Oliver, Hist. Landmarks, I,
128) which, "in almost every part of every degree
refers distinctly and plainly to a crucified Saviour"
(OUver, ibid., I, 146, 65; 11^ 7 sq.). Many Masonic
authors in the Latin countries (Clavel, Ilagnon, etc.)
and some of the principal Anglo-American authors
(Pike, Mackey, etc.) declare, that Masonic symbolism
in its original and proper meaning refers above all to
the solar and phallic worship of the ancient mysteries,
especially the Egyptian [Pike (1), 771 sq.]. " It is in
the antique symbols and their occult meaning", says
Pike [(4), 3971 "that the true secrets of Freemasonry
consist. These must reveal its nature and true pur-
poses." In conformity with this rule of interpretation,
the letter G in the symbol of Glory (Blazing Star) or the
Greek Gamma (square), summing up all Masonry is
very commonly explained as meaning "generation";
the initial letter ot the tetragrammaton iT]r\^ and the
whole name is explained as male or male-female prin-
ciple [Pike (1), 698 sq., 751, 849; (4), IV, 342 sq.;
Mackey, "Symbolism , 112 sqq., 186 sqq.; see also
Preuss, "American Freemasonry", 175 sqq.]. In the
same sense according to the ancient interpretation are
explained the two pillars Boaz and Jachm; the Rose-
oroix (a croes with a rose in the centre) ; the point within
the circle; the "vesica piscis". the well-known sign
for the Saviour; the triple Tau; Sun and Moon ; Hiram
and Christ (Osiris) ; the coffin; the Middle Chamber and
even the San eta Sanctorum, as ad^'ta or most holy parts
of each temple, usually contained hideous objects of
phalUc worship (Mackey, " Dictionary ", s. v. rhaUus;
Oliver, "Signs'\ 206-17; V. Longo, La Mass. Specul.).
As Masons even in their official lectures and rituals,
generally claim an Egyptian origin for Masonic sym-
bolism and a close "affinity" of "masonic usages and
customs with those of the Ancient Egyptians " [Ritual.
I (first) degree], such interpretations are to be deemed
officially authorized. Pike says, moreover, that "al-
most every one of the ancient Masonic symbols " has
" four distinct meanings, one as it were within the
other, the moral, political, philosophical and spiritual
meaning" [Pike (3), 128]. From the political point
of view Pike with many other Anglo-American Scotch
l^fasons interprets all Masonic symbolism in the sense
of a systematic struggle against every kind of political
and religious " despotism " . Hiram, Christ, Molay are
regarded only as representatives of "Humanity the
"Apostles of Liberty, EquaUty, Fraternity" [Pike
(4), 141]. The Cross (a double or quadniple aquare)
is " no specific Christian symbol ", " to all of us it is an
emblem of Nature and of Eternal life; whether of them
only let each say for himself" (Pike, ibid., 100 sq.).
The Cross X (Christ) was the Sign of the Creative
Wisdom or Logos, the Son of God. Mithraism signed its
soldiers on the forehead with a cross, etc. [(1), 291 sq.].
I. N. R. I., the inscription on the Crass is, Masonically
read : " Igne Natura Rcnovatur Integra ". The regen-
eration of nature by the influence of the sun symbol-
izes the spiritual regeneration of mankind by the sacred
fire (truth and love) of Masonrv, as a purely natural-
istic institution [Pike (4), 111,^81; (1), 291; Ragon,
1. c, 76-86]. "The first assassin of Iliram is RmjaUy
as the common type of tyranny ", striking "with its
rule of iron at the throat of Hiram and making free-
dom of speech treason." The second assassin is the
Pontificate (Papacv) " aiming the square of steel at
the heart of the victim" [(4), I, 288 sq.]. Christ dy-
ing on Calvary is for Masonry " the greatest among the
apostles of Humanity, braving Roman despotism and
the fanaticism and bigotryof the priesthood (ibid., Ill,
142 sq.) . Under the svmbol of the Cross. " the legions
of freedom shall march to victory" (ibid., Ill, 146).
The Kadosh (thirtieth degree), trampling on the
papal tiara and the royal crown, is destined to wreak a
just vengeance on these " liigh criminals " for the mur-
der of Molav (ibid., IV, 474 sq.), and " as the apostle of
truth and the rights of man" (ibid. J[V, 478), to deliver
mankind "from the bondage of Despotism and the
thraldom of spiritual T\Tamiy" (ibid., IV, 476). "In
most rituals of this degree everything breathes ven-
geance" against religious and political "Despotism"
(ibid., IV, 547). Thus Masonic symbols are said to be
" radiant of ideas, which should penetrate the soul of
every Mason and be clearly reflected in his character
and conduct, till he become a pillar of strength to the
fratemitv" ("Masonic Advocate" of Indianapolis,
Chr., 1900, 1 296). "Tliere is no iota of Masonic Rit-
ual", adds tne "Voice" of Chicago, "which is void of
significance" (Chr., 1897, II, 83). These inteipreta-
tions, it is true, are not officially adopted in Anglo-
American craft rituals; but they appear fully author-
ized, though not the only ones auttiorized even by its
system and by the first two articles of the "Old
Charge" (1723), which contains the fundamental law
of Freemasonry. As to the unsectarian character of
Masonry and its symbolism. Pike justly remarks:
"Masonry propagates no creed, except its own most
simple and sublime one taught by Nature and Reason.
There has never been a false Religion in the world.
The permanent one universal revelation is written in
visible Nature and expkdned by the Reason and is
completed by the wise analogies of faith. There is but
MASONBY
780
SIASONRY
<me true religion, one dogma, one legitimate belief
[(4), 1, 271]. Consequently, also, the Bible as a Masonic
symbol, is to be interpreted as a symbol of the Book
of Nature or the Code of human reason and conscience,
while Christian and other dogmas have for Freema-
sonry but the import of changing symbols veiling the
one permanent truth, of which Masonic " Science ** and
"Arts" are a "progressive revelation", and applica-
tion [ibid.. I 280; (1), 516 sq.].
It should be noted, that the great majority of Ma-
sons are far from being "initiated" and "are grovel-
ling in Egyptian darkness" (Chr., 1878, II, 28). "The
M^nry of the higher degrees", says Pike [(4), 1. 3111
" teacheathe great truths of intellectual science; out as
to these, even as to the rudimente and first principles.
Blue Masonry is absolutely dumb. Its dramas seem
intended to teach the resurrection of the body."
"The pretended possession of mysterious secrets, nas
enabled Blue Masonry to nimiber its initiates by tens
of thousands. Never were any pretences to the pos-
session of mysterious knowledge so baseless and so ab-
surd as those of the Blue and Sx)yal Arch Chapter De-
pees " (ibid., IV, 388 sq.). "The aping Christianity of
Blue Masoniy made it simply an emasculated and im-
potent society with large and soimding pretences and
slender performances. And yet its mmtitudes adhere
to it, because initiation is a necessity for the Human
Soul; and because it instinctively longs for a union of
the many under the control of a single will, in things
spiritual as well as in things temporal, for a Hierarchy
andaMonarch" (ibid., IV, 389 sq.). "It is for the Adept
to imderstand the meaning of the Symbols" [(1), 849];
and Oliver declares: "Brethren, high in rank and
office, are often imacquainted with the elementary
principles of the science" (Oliver, "Theocratic Phil-
osophy' ' , 355) . Masons * ' may be fifty years Masters of
the Chair and yet not learn the secret of the Brother-
hood. This secret is, in its own nature, invulnerable;
for the Mason, to whom it has become known, can only
have guessed it and certainly not have received it from
anv one; he has discovered it, because he has been in the
looge, marked, learned and inwardly digested. When
he arrives at the discovery, he unquestionably keeps it
to himself, not conununicating it even to his most
intimate Brother, because, should this person not have
capability to discover it of himself, he would likewise
be wanting in the capability to use it, if he received it
verbally. For this reason it will forever remain a
secret" (Oliver, Hist. Landmarks, I, 11, 21; "Free-
masons' Quarterly Rev.", I, 31; Casanova in Ragon,
"Kit. 3rd Degree", 35).
In view of the fact that the secrete of Masonry are
unknown to the bulk of Masons, the oaths of secrecy
taken on the Bible are all the more startling and im-
justifiable. The oath, for instance, of the firat degree
IS as follows: " I, in the presence of the Great Architect
of the Universe, . . . ao hereby and hereon solemnly
and sincerely swear, that I will always hide, conceal
and never reveal any part or parts, any point or
points of the secrete or mysteries of or belonging to
Free and Accepted Masons in Masonry which may
heretofore have been known by, shall now or may
at any future time be communicated to me" ete.
"These several pointe I solemnly swear to observe
\mder no less penalty, than to have my throat cut
across, my tongue tern out by the root and my body
buried in the sands of the sea", "or the more efficient
punishment of being branded as a wilfully perjured
mdividual, void of all moral worth". "So help me
CJod", ete. Similar oaths, but with severer penalties
attached, are token in the advanced degrees. The
princ^al contente of the promises are according to
Pike: eighteenth degree: "I obligate and pledge my*-
self always to sustain , that it belongs to Masonry to
teach the great unsecterian truths, that do not exclu-
vxely belong to any religion and acknowledge that I
Aave no right whatever to exact from others the ac-
ceptation of any particular interpretation of masonic
symbols, that I may attribute to them by the virtue of
my personal beUef . I obligate and solenmly pledge my-
self to respect and sustein by all means andfunder any
circimistances Liberty of Speech, Liberty of Thou^t
and Liber^ of Conscience in religious and political
matters" FPike (4), III, 68]. Thirtieth D^ree: A.—
" I solenmly and freely vow obedience to afl the laws
and regulations of the Order, whose belief will be my
behef , I promise obedience to all my regular superiors.
... 1 pledge myself to be devoted., soul and body, to
the protection of innocence, the vindication of right,
the crushing of oppression and the punishment of
every infraction against the law of Humanity and of
Man s righte . . . never, either by interest or by
fear, or even to save my existence, to submit to nor
suffer any material despotism, that may enslave or
oppress humanity by the usurpation or abuse of
power. I vow never to submit to or tolerate any in-
tellectual Despotism, that may pretend to chain or
fetter free thought, ete." B. "I solemnly vow to
consecrate my life to the ends of the Order of Knights
of Kadosh, and to co-operate most efficaciously by all
means prescribed by the constituted authorities of the
order to attein them. I solemnly vow And consecrate,
to these ends, my words, my power, my strength, my
influence, my intelligence and my life. I vow to con-
sider myself henceforward and forever as the Apostle
of Truth and of the rights of man." C. "I vow my-
self to the utmost to bring due punishment upon the
oppressors, the usurpers and the wicked; I pleoge my-
self never to harm a Knight Kadosh, either by word or
deed . . .; I vow that if I find him as a foe in the
battlefield, I will save his life, when he makes me the
Sign of Distress, and that I will free him from prison
and confinement upon land or water, even to the risk
of my own life or my own liberty. I pledge myself to
vindicate right and truth even by might and violence,
if necesqyy and duly ordered by my regular superiors. ' '
D. "I pftdge myself to obey without hesitation any
order whatever it may be of my regular Superiors in
the Order" (ibid., IV, 470, 479, 488, 520).
VII. Outer Work of Freemasonry: Its Achieve-
ments, Purposes and Methods. — The outer work
of Freemasonry, though imiform in ite fundamental
character and its general lines, varies considerably in
different countries and different Masonic svmbols.
*' Charitable** or '* philanthropic** purposes are chiefly
pursued by Englisn, German, and American Masonry,
while practically at least, they are neglected by Ma-
sons in the Latin countries, who are absorbed by
pK>litical activity. But even in England, where rela-
tively the largest sums are spent for charitable pur-
poses, Masonic philanthropy does not seem to be
mspired by very high ideals of generosity and disin-
terestedness, at least with respect to the great mass of
the brethren; the principal contributions are made by
a few very wealthy brethren and the rest by such as
are well-to-do. Moreover, in all coimtries it is al-
most exclusively Masons and their families that profit
by Masonic charity. Masonic beneficence towards
the "profane " world is little more than figurative, con-
sisting in the propagation and application of Masonic
principles by which Masons pretend to promote the
welfare of mankind; and if Masons, particularly in
Catholic countries, occasionally devote themselves to
chariteble works as ordinarily understood, their aim is
to gain sympathy and thereby further their real pur-
poses. In North America, especially in the United
States, a characteristic feature of the outer work is the
tendency toward display in the construction of sump-
tuous Masonic "temples", in Masonic processions, at
the laying of cornerstones and the dedication of public
buildmgs and even of Christian churches. This ten-
dency h&a frequently been rebuked by Masonic writ-
ers. "The Masonry of this continent has ffone mad
after high degreeism and grand titleism. We tell the
SIASONEY
781
SIASONBY
brethren, that if they do not pay more attention to the
pure, simple, beautiful symbolism of the Lodge and
less to the tinsel, furbelow, fuss and feathers of Scotch
Ritism and Templarism, the Craft will yet be shi^n to
its very foundations!'' *' Let the tocsin be sounded''
(Chr., 1880, II, 179). " Many masons have passed
through the ceremony without any inspiration* but,
in public parades of the Lodges (also in England) they
may generally be found in the front rank and at the
masonic banquets they can neither be equalled nor ex-
celled" (ibid^ 1892, I, 246). For similar criticism see
Chr., 1880, II, 195; 1875, 1, 394.
But the real object of both inner and outer work is
the propagation and application of the Masonic prin-
ciples. The truly Masonic method is, that the lodge
is the common ground on which men of different re-
ligions and political opinions, provided thev accept
the general Masonic principles, can meet; hence, it
does not directly and actively interfere with party
politics, but excludes political and religious discus-
sions from the meetings, leaving each M^on to apply
the principles to proDiems of the day. But tnis
nethod is openly disowned by contemporaneous Ma-
v3onry in the Latin countries and by many Supreme
Councils of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish system,
by the Grand Lodge of Hungary, the Grand Orient of
Belgium, etc. It was and is practically rejected also
by German and even by American and English Ma-
sonry. Thus American Masonic lodges, at least so
leadmg Masonic authors openly claim, had a prepon-
derant part in the movement for independence, the
lodges of the *' Ancients" in general promoting this
movement and those of the modems" siding with
Great Britain (Gould, "Concise History" 419).
According to the *' Masonic Review" Freemasonry
was instrumental in forming the American Union
(1776), claiming fifty-two (Chr., 1893, 1, 147), or even
fifty-five (Chr., 1906, 1, 202), out of the fiftynsix of the
" signers of the Declaration of Independence as mem-
bers of the Order". Other Masonic periodicals, how-
ever, claim that only six of the signers (" New Age ",
May, 1910, 464), and only nine of the presidents of
the United States were Freemasons (" Acacia ", II,
409). In the French Revolution (1789) and the later
revolutionary movements in France, Italy, Spain, Por-
tugal, Central and South America, Masonic bodies, it is
claimed, took a more or less active part, as is stated by
prominent representatives of the drand Lodees in the
several countries and in many cases by *' profane" im-
partial historians (see Congi^s Intern, of Paris, 1889,
m "Compte rendu du Grand Orient de France", 1889;
Browers, "L'action, etc."; Brttck, **Geh. Gesellsch.
inSpanien"; *'Handbuch"; articles on the different
countries, etc.). In Russia also Freemasonry finally
turned out to be a "political conspiracy" of Masom-
cally organized clubs that covered the land.
Even with regard to the most recent Turkish Revo-
lution, it seems certain, that the Young Turkish
party, which made and directed the Revolution, was
guided by Masons, and that Masonry, especially the
Grand Orients of Italy and France, had a preponder-
ant r61e in this Revolution (see "Rivista*', 1909. 76
sqq.; 1908, 394; "Acacia," 1908, II, 36; "Bauhtitte",
1909, 143; "La Franc-Ma^onnerie d^masqu^e", 1909,
93-96; "Compte rendu du Convent, du Gr.*. Or.*, de
France", 21-26 Sept., 1908, 34-38). In conducting
this work Freemasonry propagates principles which,
logically developed, as shown above, are essentially
revolutionary and s^rve as a basis for all kinds of
revolutionary movements. Directing Masons to find
out for themselves practical reforms in conformity
with Masonic ideals and to work for their realization,
it fosters in its members and through them in so-
ciety at large the spirit of innovation. As an ap-
parently harmless and even beneficent association,
which in reality is, through its secrecy and ambiguous
symbolism, subject to the most different influences, it
ftimishes in critical times a shelter for conspiracy, and.
even when its lodges themselves are not transformed
into conspiracy dubs, Masons are trained and en-
couraged to found new associations for such purposes
or to make use of existing associations. Thus. Free-
masonry in the eighteenth century, as a powertul ally
of infidelity, prepared the French Revolution. The
alliance of Freemasonry with philosophy was pub-
licly sealed by the solemn initiation of Voltaire, the
chief of these philosophers, 7 February, 1778, and his
reception of tne Masonic garb from the famous ma-
terialist Bro.*. Helvetius (Handbuch,3rded.,II,517).
Prior to the Revolution various conspiratory societies
arose in connexion with Freemasonry from which
they borrowed its forms and methods; Illuminati.
dubs of Jacobins, etc. A relatively large number ol
the leading revolutionists were members of Masonic
lodges, tramed by lodge life for their political career.
Even the programme of the Revolution expressed in
the " rights of man " was, as shown above, drawn from
Masonic principles, and its device : " Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity " is the very device of Freemasonry. Sim-
ilarly, Freemasonry, together with the Carbonari, co-
operated in the Italian revolutionary movement of the
nineteenth century. Nearly all the prominent leaders
and among them Mazzini and Garibaldi, are extolled
by Masonry as its most distinguished members. In
dermany and Austria, Freemasonry during the eigh-
teenth century was a powerful ally of the so-called
party of "Enlightenment" (Aufklaerung), and of
Josephinism ; in the nineteenth century of the pseudo-
Liberal and of the anti-clerical party.
In order to appreciate rightly the activity of Free-
masonry in Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Eng-
land^ and in France imder the Napoleonic regime, the
special relations between Freemasonry and the reign-
ing dynasties must not be overlooked. Li Germany
two-tnirds of the Masons are members of the old
Prussian Grand Lodges imder the protectorship of a
member of the Royal Dynasty, which implies a severe
control of all lodge activity in conformity with the
aims of the Government. Hence German Free-
masons are scarcely capable of independent action.
But they certainly furthered the movement by which
Prussia gradually became the leading state of Ger-
many, considered by them as the " representative and
the protector of modem evolution" against "Ultra-
montanism'', *' bigotry", and "Papal usurpations".
They also instigated the " Kulturkampf ". The cele-
brated jurisconsult and Mason, Grandmaster Blunt-
schU, was one of the foremost agitators in this con-
flict; he also stiired up the Swiss "Kulturkampf".
At his instigation the assembly of the " Federation of
the German Grand Lodges ", in order to increase lodge
activity in the sense of the " Kulturkampf ", declared,
24 May, 1874 : " It is a professional duty for the lodges
to see to it^ that the brethren become fully consdous
of the relations of Freemasonry to the sphere of ethical
life and cultural purposes. Freemasons are obliged to
put into effect the principles of Freemasonry in prac-
tical life and to clefend the ethical foundations of
human society, whensoever these are assailed. The
Federation of the German Grand Lodges will provide,
that every year questions of actuality be proposed to
all lodges for discussion and uniform action " [Gruber
(5), 6; Ewald, "Loge und KulturkampfJ German
Freemasons put forth untiring efforte to exert a
deddve influence on the whole life of the nation in
keeping with Masonic principles, thus maintaining
a perpetual silent "Kulturkampf". The prindpal
means which they employ are popular libraries, con-
ferences, the affiliation of kindred associations and
institutions, the creation, where necessary, of new insti-
tutionSj through which the Masonic spirit permeates
the nation (see Herold, No. 37 and 33 sqq.). A similar
activity is displayed by the Austrian Freemasons.
The chief organisation which in France aecured the
MASONRY
782
MASONRY
success of Freemasonry was the famous "League of
instruction'' founded in 1867 by Bro.'.F. Mac^, later a
member of the Senate. This league affiliated and im-
bued with its spirit many other associations. French
Masonry and above all the Grand Orient of France
has displayed the most systematic activity as the
dominating pohtical element in the French Kultur-
kampf' since 1877 (see also Chr., 1889, I, 81 sq.).
From the official documents of French Masonry' con-
tained principally in the official "Bulletin" and
"Compte-renau" of the Grand Orient it has been
provea that all the anti-clerical measures passed in
the French Parliament were decreed beforehand in the
Masonic lodges and executed under the direction of the
Grand Orient, whose avowed aim is to control every-
thing and everybody in France ("que personne ne
bougera plus en France en dehors de nous", "Bull.
Gr. Or.", 1890, 500 sq.). "I said in the assembly of
1898 ", states the deputy Massd, the official orator of
the Assembly of 1903, " that it is the supreme duty of
Freemasonry to interfere each day more and more in
political and profane struggles ". " Success (in the anti-
clerical combat) is in a lar^ measure due to Free-
masonry; for it is its spirit, its programme, its meth-
ods, that have triumphed." If the Bloc has been
established, this is owing to Freemasonry and to the
discipline learned in the lodges. The measures we
have now to urge are the separation of Church and
State and a law concerning instruction. Let us put
our trust in the word of our Bro .*. Coml>es ". " For a
long time Freemasonry has been simply the republic in
disguise ", i. e., the secret parliament and govern-
ment of freemasonry in reality rule France; the pro-
fane State, Parliament, and Government merely exe-
cute its decrees. "We are the conscience of the
country"; "we are each year the funeral bell an-
nouncing the death of a caoinet that has not done its
duty but has betrayed the Republic; or we are its sup-
port, encouraging it by saying in a solemn hour: I
present you the word of the country ... its satis-
fecit wliich is wanted by you, or its reproach that
to-morrow will be sealed by your fall " . " We need vigi-
lance and above all mutual confidence, if we are to ac-
complish our work, as yet unfinished . This work, you
know ... the anti-clerical combat, is going on. The
Republic must rid itself of the religious congregations,
sweeping them off by a vigorous stroke. The system
of half measures is everywhere dangerous; the adver-
sary must be crushed with a single blow" (Compte-
rendu Gr. Or., 1903, Nourrisson, " Les Jacobins ", 26&-
271) . " It is beyond doubt ", declared the President of
the Assembly of 1902, Bro .'. Blatin, with respect to the
French elections of 1902, " that we would nave been
defeated by our well-organized opponents, if Free-
masonry had not spread over the whole country"
(Compte-rendu, 19a2, 153).
Along with this political activity Freemasonry em-
ployed against its adversaries, whether real or sup-
posed, a system of spying and false accusation, the
exposure of which brought about the downfall of the
Masonic cabinet of Combes. In truth all the " anti-
clerical " Masonic reforms carried out in France since
1877, such as the secularissation of education, meas-
ures against private Christian schools and charitable
establishments, the suppression of the religious orders
and the spoliation of tne Church, professedly culmi-
nate in an anti-Christian and irreligious reorganization
of human society, not only in France but tlwoughout
the world. Thus French* Freemasonry^ as the stand-
ard-bearer of all Freemasonry, pretends to inau-
gurate the golden era of the Masonic universal republic,
comprising in Masonic brotherhood all men and all na-
tions. " The triumph of the Galilean " said the presi-
dent of the (jrand Orient, Senator Delpech, on 20
September, 1902, "has lasted twenty centuries. But
now he dies in his turn. The mvsterious voice, an-
nouncing (to Julian the Apostate) the death of Pan,
to-day announces the death of the impostor God who
Eromised an era of iustioe and peace to those who be-
eve in him. The iUusion has lasted a long time. The
mendacious God is now disappearing in his turn; he
passes away tojjoin in the dust of ages the other divin-
ities of India, Egypt, Greece, and Kome, who saw so
many deceived creatures prostrate before their altars.
Bro .'. Masons, we rejoice to state that we are not with-
out our share in this overthrow of the false prophets.
The Romish Church, founded on the Galilean myth,
began to decay rapidly from the very day on which the
Masonic Association was established " (Compte-rendu
Gr. Or. de France. 1902, 381).
The assertion of the French Masons: "We are the
conscience of the country", was not true. By the
official statistics it was ascertained, that in all elections
till 1906 the majority of the votes were against the
Masonic Bloc, and even the result in 1906 does not
prove that the Bloc, or Masonry, in its anti-clerical
measures and purposes represents the will of the na-
tion, since the contrary is evident from many other
facts. Much less does it represent the ' * conscience ' ' of
the nation. The fact is, that the Bloc in 1906 secured
a majority only because the greater part of this ma-
jority voted against their "conscience". No doubt
the claims of I*>eemasonry in France are highly exag-
gerated, and such success as they have had is due
chiefly to the lowering of the moral tone in private
and public life, facilitated by the disunion existing
among Catholics and by the serious political blunders
which they committed. Quite similar is the outer
work of the Grand Orient of Italy which likewise pre-
tends to be the standard-bearer of Freemasonry in the
secular struggle of Masonic light and freedom against
the powers of "spiritual darlmess and bondage", al-
luding of course to the papacy, and dreams of the
establishment of a new and universal republican em-
gire with a Masonic Rome, supplanting tne papal and
cesarean as metropolis. The Grand Orient of Italy
has often declared that it is enthusiastically foUowed
in this struggle by the Freemasonry of the entire
world and especially by the Masonic centres at
Paris, Berlin, London, Madrid, Calcutta, Washington
("Riv.", 1892, 219; Gruber, "Mazzini", 215 sqq. and
passim). It has not been contradicted by a single
Grand Ixxige in any country, nor did the German and
other Grand Lodges break off their relations with it
on account of its sliameful political and anti-religious
activity. But though the aims of Italian Masons are
perhaps more radical and their methods more cunning
th^i those of the French, their political influence, owing
to the difference of the surrounding social conditions,
is less poweriul. The same is to be said of the Bel^an
and the Hungarian Grand Lodges, which also consider
the Grand Orient of France as their political model.
Since 1889, the date of the international Masonic
congress, assembled at Paris, 16 and 17 July, 1889, by
the Grand Orient of France, systematic and incessant
efforts have been made to bring about a closer union
of universal Freemasonry in order to realize effica-
ciously and rapidly the Masonic ideals. The special
allies of the Grand Orient in this undertaking are:
the Supreme Council and the Symbolical Grand Lodge
of France and the Masonic Grand Lodges of Switzer-
land, Belgium, Italy, Spam, Hungary, Portugal,
Greece; the Grand Ix)dges of Massachusetts and of
Brazil were also represented at the congress. The
programme pursued ny the Grand Orient of France, in
its main lines, runs thus: "Masonry, which prepared
the Revolution of 1789, has the duty to continue its
work" (circular of the G. O. of France, 2 April, 1889).
This task is to lie accomplished by the thoroughly and
rigidly consistent apphcatiou of the principles of the
Revolution to all the departments of the religious,
moral, judicial, legal, political, and social order. The
necessary' political relorms being realized in most of
their essential points, henceforth the consistent appli*
MASONBY
783
MASONBY
cation of the revolutionary principles to the social con-
ditions of mankind is the main task of Masonry. The
universal social republic, in which, after the over-
throw of every kind of spiritual and political tyr-
anny", of "theocratical" and dynasticai powers and
class privileges, reigns the greatest possible individual
liberty and social and economical equality conform-
ably to French Masonic ideals, is the real ultimate
aim of this social work.
The following are deemed the principal means: (1)
To destroy radically by open persecution of the Church
or by a hypocritical fraudulent system of separation
between State and Church, all social influence of the
Church and of religion, insidiously called ''clerical-
ism", and, as far as possible, to destroy the Church
and all true, i. e., superhuman religion, which is more
than a vague cult of fatherland and of hmnanity; (2)
To laicize, or secularize, by a likewise hypocritical
fraudulent system of *' unsectarianism", all public and
private life and, above all, popular instruction and
education. "Unsectarianism" as understood by the
Grand Orient party is anti-CathoUc and even anti-
Christian, atheistic, positivistic, or agnostic secta-
rianism in the garb of imsectarianism. Freedom of
thought and conscience of the children has to be de-
veloped systematically in the child at school and pro-
tected, as far as possible, against all disturbing influ-
ences, not only of the Church and priests, but also
of the children's own parents, if necessary, even by
means of moral and physical compulsion. The Grand
Orient party considers it indispensable and an infalli-
bly sure way to the final establishment of the universal
social republic and of the pretended world peace, as
they fancy them, and of the glorious era of human
solidarity and of unsurpassable human happiness in
the reign of liberty and justice (see " Chaine d Union,"
1889, 134, 212 sqg., 248 sqq., 291 sqa.; the official
comptes rendus ot the International Masonic Con-
ress of Paris, 16-17 July, 1889, and 31 August, 1 and
September, 1900, published by the Grand Orient of
France, and the regular official *' Comptes rendus des
travaux" of this Grand Orient, 1896-1910, and the
" Ri vista massonica", 1880-1910).
The efforts to bring about a closer union with Anglo-
American and German Freemasonry were made prin-
cipally by the Symbolical Grand Lodge of France and
the "International Masonic Agency" at NeucliAtel
(directed by the Swiss Past Grand Master Ouartier-
La Tente), attached to the little Grand Ix)dge **A1-
E" of Switzerland. These two Grand Ix)ages, as
ised agents of the Grand Orient of France, act as
itors between this and the Masonic bodies of
English-speaking and German countries. With Eng-
lish and American Grand Lodges their efforts tfll
now have had but little success (see Intemat. Bul-
letm, 1908, 119, 127, 133, 149, 156; 1909, 186).
Only the Grand Lodge of Iowa seems to have recog-
nizeid the Grand Lodge of France (Chr. 1905. II,
58, 108, 235). The English Grand Lodge not only de-
clined the offers, but, on 23 September, 1907, through
its registrar even declared: " A'e feel, that we in En-
fland are better apart from such people. Indeed,
'reemasonry is in such bad odour on the Continent
of Europe, by reason of its })eing exploited bv So-
cialists and Anarchists, that we may have to Break
off relations with more of the Grand Bodies who have
forsaken our Landmarks" (from a letter of the Regis-
trator J. Strahan, in London, to the Grand Lodee of
Massachusetts: see "The New Age", New York,
1909, 1, 177). The American Grand Ix)dee8 (Massa-
chusetts, Missouri, etc.), in general, seem to be resolved
♦o follow the example of the English Grand Lodges.
The German Grand Lodges, on the contrar\% at
least most of them, j'ielded to the pressure exercised on
them by a great many German brothers. Captivated
bj the Grand Orient party on 3 June, 1906, the Federa-
tion of the eight German Grand Lodges, by 6 votes to
2, decreed to establish official friendly relations with
the Grand Lodge, and on 27 May, 190!9, by 5 votes to
3, to restore the same relations with the Grand Orient
of France. This latter decree excited the greatest
manifestations of joy, triumph and jubilation in the
Grand Orient party, which considered it as an event
of great historic import. But in the meantime a pub-
lic press discussion was brought about by some incisive
articles of the "Germania" (Beriin, 10 Biay, 1908; 9
June, 12 November, 1909; 5, 19 February, 1910) with
the result, that the three old Prussian Grand Lodges,
comprising 37,198 brothers controlled by the pro-
tectorate, abandoned their ambiguous attitude and
energetically condemned the decree of 27 May, 1909,
and the attitude of the 5 other so-called "humanita-
rian" German Grand Lodges, which comprise but 16,-
448 brothers. It was hoped, that the British and
American Grand Lodges, enticed by the example of
the German Grand Lodges, would, in the face of the
common secular enemy in the Vatican, join the Grand
Orient party before the great universal Masonic con-
gress, to be held in Rome in 1911. But instead of
this closer union of universal Freemasonry dreamt of
by the Grand Orient party, the only result was a split
between the German Urana Lodges by which their fed-
eration itself was momentarily shaken to its foundation.
But in spite of the failure of the official transactions,
there are a great manv German and not a few Amer-
ican Masons, who evidently favour at least the chief
anti-clerical aims of the Grand Orient party. Start-
ling evidence thereof was the recent violent world-
wide agitation, which, on occasion of the execution of
the anarchist, Bro. .*. Ferrer, 31 .*. , an active member
of the Grand Orient of France (Barcelona, 13 October,
1909), was set at work by the Grand Orient of France
(Circular of 14 October, 1909; "Franc-Ma?, d^m.",
1906, 230 sqq.; 1907, 42, 176; 1909, 310, 337 sqq.; 1910,
an "International Masonic Bulletin", Berne, 1909,
204 sq.), and of Italy (Rivista massonica, 1909, 337
sqq., 423), in order to provoke the organization of an
international KuUurk^mpf after the French pattern.
In nearly ail the countries of Europe the separation be-
tween State and Church and the laicization or neu-
tralization of the popular instruction and education,
were and are still demanded by all parties of the Left
with redoubled impetuosity.
The fact that there are also American Masons, who
evidently advocate the KuUurkampf in America and
stir up the international KuUurkampf^ is attested by
the example of Bros. .* .J. D. Buck, 33 and A. Pike, 33/ . .
Buck published a book, " The Genius of Freemasonry",
in which he advocates most energetically a KuUur-
kampf for the United States. TWs book, which in
1907, was in its 3rd edition, is recommended ardently
to all American Masons by Masonic journals. A.
Pike, as the Grand Commander of the Mother Su-
f)renie Council of the World (Charleston, South Caro-
ina) lost no opportunity in his letters to excite the
anti-clerical spirit of his colleagues. In a long letter
of 28 December, 1886, for instance, he conjures the
Italian Grand Commander, Timoteo Riboli, 33.*. the
intimate friend of Garil)aldi, to do all in his power, in
order to unite Italian Masonry against the Vatican.
He writes: "The Papacy . . . has been for a thousand
years the torturer and curse of Humanity, the most
shameless imposture, in its pretence to spiritual power
of all ages. With its robes wet and reeking with the
blood of half a million of human beings, with the
grateful odour of roasted human flesh always in its
nostrils, it is exulting over the prospect of renewed
dominion. It has sent all over the world its anath-
emas against CoiLstitutional government and the
right of men to freedom of thought and conscience".
Again, "In presence of this spiritual '('obra di ca-
pello', this deadly, treacherous, murderous enemy,
the most formidalile power in the world, the unity of
Italian Masonry is of absolute and supreme ntceBBity;
MASONRY 784 SIASONBY
and to this paramount and omnipotent necessity all deserved, for even at the height of their literary (ani^
minor considerations ought to yield; dissensions and not they, but common swindlers, Uke Johnson, Cagii-
disunion, in presence of this enemy of the human race ostro. etc., were the centres round which the Masonic
are criminar'. "There must be no unvielding, im- world gravitated. All the superior men belongmi
compromising insistence upon particular opinions, to Freemasomy: Fichte, Fessler, Krause, SchrOda,
theories, preiudices, professions: but, on the con- Mossdorf, Schiffman, Findel, etc., so far as they strove
trary, mutual concessions and harmonious co-opera- to purge lodge life from humbug, were treated igno-
tion". ''The Freemasonry of the world will rejoice miniously by the bulk of the average Masons and even
to see accomplished and consummated the Unity of b^ lodge authorities. Men of similar turn of mind are
the Italian Freemasonry " (Official Bulletin, Septem- stigmatized by English and American Masonic devo-
ber, 1S87, 173 sqq.). Important Masonic journals, tees as "materialists'' and "iconoclasts" (Chr., 1885,
for instance, "The American Tyler-Keystone" (Ann I, 85; 1900. II, 71). But true it is that the lodges
Arbor), openly patronize the efforts of the French work silently and effectually for the propagation sAd
Grand Onent Party. "The absolute oneness of the application of "unsectarian" Masomc principles m
Craft", says the Past Grand Master Clifford P. Mao- human society and Ufe. The Masonic mftgayiT^fff
Calla (Pennsylvania), "is a glorious thought." abound in passages to this effect. Thus Bro. .'. Rich-
" Neither boundaries of States nor vast oceans sepa- ardson of Tennessee avers: "Freemasonry does its
rate the Masonic Fraternity. Everywhere it is one." work silently, but it is the work of a deep river, that
"There is no imiversal church, no imiversal body of silently pushes on towards the ocean, etc." (Chr..
politic; but there is an universal Fraternity, that Free- 1889. 1, 308) . " The abandonment of old themes ana
masonry;andevery Brother who is a worthy member, the formation of new ones", explained Grand High
may feel proud of it" (Chr., 1906, II, 132). Owing to Priest, J. W. Taylor (Georgia), 'Nlo not always arise
thesoUdarity existing between all Masomc bodies and from the immediately perceptible cause wmch the
individual Masons, they are all jointly responsible for world assigns, but are tne culmination of prindpfeB
the evil doings of their fellow-members. which have been working in the minds of men for
Representative Masons, however, extol the pre- many years, until at last the proper time and projpi-
tended salutary influence of their order on human cul- tious surroundings kindle the latent truth into ufe.
ture and progress. "Masonry", says Frater, Grand and, as the light of reason flows from mind to mind
Orator, Washmgton, "is the shrine of grand thoughts, and the unity of purpose from heart to heart, enthus-
of beautiful sentiments, the seminary for the improve- ing all with a mighty common cause and moving na-
ment of the moral and the mental standard of its mem- tions as one man to the accomplishment of great ends,
bers. As a storehouse of morality it rains benign On this principle does the Institution of Freemasonnr
influence on the mind and heart" (Chr., 1897, II, 148). diffuse its influence to the world of mankind. It
"Modem Freemasonry", according to other Masons, works quietly and secretly, but penetrates through all
" is a social and moral reformer" (Chr., 1888, II, 99J. the interstices of society m its many relations, and the
"No one", says the "Keystone" of Chicago, " has esti- recipients of its many favors are awed by its grand
mated or can estimate the far reaching character of achievements, but cannot tell whence it came " (Chr.,
the influence of Masonry in the world. It by no 1897, II, 303). The "Voice" (Chicago) writes:
means is limited to the bodies of the Craft. Every " Never before m the history of ages has Freemasonry
initiate is a light bearer, a center of light " (Chr., 1889. occupied so important a position, as at the present
II, 146). "In Germany as in the United States ana time. Never was its influence so marked, its mem-
Great Britain those who have been leaders of men in bership so extensive, its teaching so revered." "There
intellectual, moral and social life, have been Free- are more Masons outside the great Brotherhood than
masons. Eminent examples in the past are the Broth- within it." Throu^ its " pure morality " with which
ers .*. Fichte, Herder, Wieland, Lessing, Goethe, pure Freemasonry is synonomous, it " influences soci-
Greatest of them all was I. W. von Goethe. Well may ety^ and, unperceived, sows the seed that brings forth
we be proud of such a man" (" Keystone ", quoted in fruit in wholesome laws and righteous enactments. It
Chr., 1887, II, 355), etc. German Masons (see Boos, upholds the right, relieves the distressed, defends the
304-63) claim for Freemasonnr a considerable part in weak and raises the fallen (of course, all understood
the splendid development of German literature in the in the masonic sense above explained). So, silently
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These claims, but surely and continuedly, it builds into tiie great
however, when critically examined, prove to be either fabric of human society" (Chr. 1889, II, 257 sq.).
^oundless or exaggerated. EngUsn Freemasonry, be- The real force of Freemasonry in its outer work is
ing then at a low intellectual and moral level and re- indeed, that there are more Masons and oftentimes
trograding towards orthodoxy, was not qualified to be better qualified for the performance of Masonic work,
the originator or a leading factor in the freethinking outside the brotherhood than within it. Freema-
" Culture of Enlightenment." German Masonry, then sonry itself in Europe and in America founds societies
dominated by the Swedish system and the Strict Ob- and institutions of similar form and scope for all
servance and intellectually and morally degenerated, classes of society and infuses into them its spirit,
as Masonic historians themselves avow, was in no bet- Thus according to Gould (Concise History, 2) Flee-
ter plight. In truth the leading literary men of the masoniy since about 1750 "has exercised a remark-
epoch, Lessin^, Goethe, Herder, etc. were cruelly dis- able influence over all other oath-boimd societies",
abused and disappointed by what they saw and ex- The same is stated by Bro .*. L. Blanc, Deschamps, etc.
perienced in their lodge life [Gruber (6), 141-236]. for Germany and other countries. In the Um'ted
Lessing spoke with contempt of the lodge life; States, according to the "Cyclopedia of Fraternities",
Goethe characterized the Masonic associations and there exist more than 600 secret societies, working
doings as "fools and rogues"; Herder wrote, 9 Janu- more or less imder the veil of forms patterned on
ary. 1786, to the celebrated philologist Bro.'. Heyne; Masonic symbolism and for the larger part notably in-
"I Dear a deadly hatred to all secret societies and, as a fluenced by Freemasonry, so that every third male
result of my experience, both within their innermost adult in the United States is a member of one or more
circles and outside, I wish them all to the devil. For of such secret societies. " Freemasonry ", says the
persistent domineering intrigues and the spirit of " Cyclopedia ", p. v, " of course, is shown to be the
cabal creep beneath the cover " (Boos, 326) . mother-Fratermty in fact as well as in name." " Few
Freemasonry, far from contributing to the literary who are well informed on the subject, will deny that
greatness of these or other leading men, profited by the masonic Fraternity is directly or indirectly the
the external splendour which their membership re- parent organization of all modem secret societies,
fleeted on it. But the advantage was by no means good, bad and indifferent" (ibid., p^ xv).
SlASOmtY
785
SIASONBY
Many Anglo-American Freemasons are wont to
protest strongly against all charges accusing Freema-
sonry of interfering with political or religious affairs or
of hostility to the Church or disloyalty to the public
authorities. They even praise Freemasonry as " one
of the strongest bulwarks of religion " (Chr., 1887, II,
340), "the handmaid of religion^ (Chr., 1887, 1, 119)
and the "handmaid of the church" (Chr.. 1885, II,
355). "There is nothing in the nature or the Soci-
ety", says the "Royal Craftsman", New York, "that
necessitates the renunciation of a single sentence of
any creed, the discontinuance of any religious customs
or the obliteration of a dogma of belief. No one is
asked to deny the Bible, to change his Church rela-
tions or to be less attentive to the teaching of his spir-
itual instructors and counsellors" (Chr., 1887, II, 49).
" Masonry indeed contains the pith of Christianity "
(Chr., 1875, 1, 1 13) . " It is a great mistake to suppose
it an enemy of the Church." " It does not offer itself
as a substitute of that divinely ordained institution."
"It offers itself as an adjunct, as an ally, as a helper in
the great work of the regeneration of the race, of the
uplifting of man" (Chr., 1890, II, 101). Hence, "we
deny the rigjit of the Romish Church to exclude from
its communion those of its flock who have assumed
the responsibility of the Order of Freemasonry"
(Chr., 1875, 1, 113). Though such protestations seem
to be sincere and to reveal even a praiseworthy desire
in their authors not to conflict with religion and the
Church,' they are contradicted by notorious facts.
Certainly Freemasonry and "Christian" or "Catho-
lic" rehgion are not opposed to each other, when
Masons, some erroneously and others h3rpocritically
understand "Christian" or "Catholic" in the above
described Masonic sense, or when Masonry itself is
mistakenly conceived as an orthodox Christian insti-
tution. But between "Masonry" and "Christian"
or "Catholic" religion, conceived as thev really are:
between " unsectarian " Freemasonry and " dogmatic,
orthodox " Christianity or Catholicism, there is a radi-
cal opposition. It is vain to say: though Masonry is
officially " unsectarian", it does not prevent individual
Masons from being "sectarian" in their non-Masonic
relations; for in its official " unsectarianism " Free-
masonry necessarily combats all that Christianitv con-
tains beyond the " universal religion in which aU men
agree", consequently all that is characteristic of the
Christian and Catholic religion. These characteristic
features Freemasonry combats not only as superfluous
and merely subjective, but also as spurious additions
disfiguring the objective universal truth, which it pro-
fesses. To ignore Christ and Christianity, is practi-
cally to reject them as unessential framework.
But Freemasonry goes farther and attacks Catholi-
cism openly. The " Voice " (Chicago), for instance, in
an article which begins: "There is nothing in the
Catholic religion which is adverse to Masonry", con-
tinues, "for the truth is, that masonry embodies that
religion in which all men agree. This is as true as that
all veritable religion, wherever found, is in substance
the same. Neither is it in the power of anjr man or
body of men to make it otherwise. Doctrines and
forms of observance conformable to piety, imposed by
spiritual overseers, may be as various as the courses of
wind; and like the latter may war with each other
upon the face of the whole earth, but they are not re-
ligion. Bigotrv and zeal, the assumptions of the
priestcraft, witn all its countless inventions to magnify
and impress the world . . . are ever the mainsprings
of strife, hatred and revenge, which defame ana ban-
ish religion and its inseparable virtues, and work un-
speakable mischief, wherever mankind are found upon
tne earth. Poperv and priestcraft are so allied, tnat
they may be called the same; the truth bein^, that the
former is nothing more nor less than a special case of
the latter, being a particular form of a vicious princi-
ple, which itself is but the offspring of the conceit of
IX.— 50
self-sufficiency and the lust of dominion. Nothing
which can be named, is more repugnant to the spirit of
masonry, nothing to be more carefullv guarded
against, and this has been alwajrs well imderstood by
au skillful masters, and it must in truth be said, that
such is the wisdom of the lessons, i. e. of masonic in-
struction in Lodges, etc." (Chr., 1887, 1, 35) . In simi-
lar discussions, containing in almost every word a hid-
den or open attack on Christianity, the truly Masonic
magazines and books of all countries abound. Past
Grand Deacon J. C. Parkinson, an illustrious English
Mason, frankly avows: "The two systems of Roman-
ism and Freemasonry are not only incompatible,
but they are radically opposed to each other" (Chr.,
1884, II, 17): and Amencan Masons say: "We won't
make a man a Freemason, until we know that he
isn't a Catholic." (Chr., 1890, II, 347: see also 1898,
1,83).
With respect to loyalty towards "lawful govern-
ment " American Masons pretend that " everywhere
Freemasons, individually and collectively, are loyal
and active supporters of republican or constitutional
governments ("Voice" quoted in Chr., 1890, I,
98) . " Our principles are all republican " (" Voice " in
Chr., 1893, I, 130). "Fidelitjf and Lovalty, and
peace and order, and subordination to lawful authori-
ties are household gods of Freemasonry" ("Voice" in
Chr., 1890, I, 98); and English Freemasons declare,
that, "the loyalty of English Masons is proverbial"
(Chr., 1899, 1, 301). These protestations of English
and American Freemasons in general mav be deemed
sincere, as far as their own countries and actual gov-
ernments are concerned. Not even the revolutionary
Grand Orient of France thinks of overthrowing the
actual political order in France, which is in entire con-
formity with its wishes. The question is, whether
Freemasons respect a lawful Government in their own
and other countries, when it is not inspired by Masonic
principles. In this respect both English and Ameri-
can Freemasons, by tneir principles and conduct,
provoke the condemnatory verdict of enlightened ana
impartial public opinion. We have already above
hinted at the whimsical Article II of the "Old
Charges", calculated to encour&ge rebellion against
Governments which are not accoiding to the wishes of
Freemasonry. The "Freemason's Chronicle" but
faithfully expresses the sentiments of Anglo-American
Freemasonry, when it writes: "If we were to assert
that under no Circumstances had a Biason been found
willing to take arms against a. bad government, we
should only be declaring that, in trying moments,
when duty, in the masonic sense, to state means an-
tagonism to the Government, they had failed in the
highest and most sacred duty of a citizen. Rebellion
in some cases is a sacred duty, and none, but a bigot or
a fool, will say, that our countrymen were in the
wrong, when they took arms against King James II.
Loyalty to freedom in a case of this kind overrides all
other considerations, and when to rebel means to be
free or to perish, it would be idle to urge that a man
must remember obli^tions which were never in-
tended to rob him of his status of a human being and a
citizen"(Chr., 1875, 1,81).
Such language would equally suit every anarchistic
movement. The utterances Quoted were made in
defence of plotting Spanish Masons. Only a page
further the same English Masonic magazine writes:
" Assuredly Italian Masonry, which has rendered such
invaluable service in the regeneration of that mag-
nificent country", "is worthy of the highest praise"
(Chr., 1875, I, 82). "A Freemason, moved by lofty
principles ", says the " Voice " (Chicago), " may rightly
strike a blow at tyranny and may consort with othera
to bring about needed relief, in ways that are not ordi-
narily justifiable. ^ History affords numerous in-
stances of acts which have been justified by subse-
quent events, and none of us, whetner Masons or not.
MASONRY
786
BCASOmtY
are inclined to condemn the plots hatched between
Paul Revere, Dr. J. Warren and others, in the old
Green Dragon Tavern, the headquarters of Colonial
Freemasonry in New England, because these plots
were inspired by lofty purpose and the result not only
justified them^ but crowned these heroes with glory
(Chr., 1889^ I, 178). "No Freemason" said Ri^t
Rev. H. C. rotter on the centenary of the Grand Chap-
ter of Royal Arch, New York, " may honourably bend
the knee to any foreign potentate (not even to King
Edward VII of England) civil or ecclesiastical (the
Pope) or yield allegiance to any alien sovereignty,
temporal or spiritual " (Chr., 1889, II, 94). From tms
utterance it is evident that according to Potter no Cath-
olic can be a Mason. In conformity with these princi-
{)les American and English Freemasons supported the
eaders of the revolutionary movement on the Euro-
pean continent. Kossuth, who " had been leader in the
rebellion against Austrian tyranny", was enthusiasti-
cally received by American Masons, solemnly initiated
into Freemasonry at Cincinnati, 21 April, 1852, and
presented with a generous gift as a proof " that on the
altar of St. John's Lodge the fire of love burnt so
brightly, as to flash its light even into the deep re-
cesses and mountain fastnesses of Hungary" ("Key-
stone" of Philadelpliia quoted by Chr., 1881, 1, 414;
the "Voice" of Chicago, xbid., 277). Garibaldi "the
greatest freemason of Italy" ("Intern. Bull.", Berne,
1907, 98) and Mazzini were also encoura^d by Anglo-
American Freemasons in their revolutionary enter-
prises (Chr., 1882, I, 410; 1893, I, 185; 1899, II, 34).
The consistent Mason", says the "Voice "(Chicago),
*' will never be found engaged in conspiracies or plots
for the purpose of overturning and suljverting a gov-
ernment based upon the masonic principles of liberty
and eoual rights" (Chr., 1892, I, 259). "But" de-
clares rike, " with tongue and pen, with all our open
and secret influences, with the purse, and if need be,
with the sword, we will advance the cause of human
progress and labour to enfranchise human thought, to
give freedom to the human conscience (above all from
papal 'usurpations') and equal rights to the people
everywhere. Wherever a nation struggles to gain or
regain its freedom, wherever the human mind asserts
its independence and the people demand their inalien-
able rights, there shall go our warmest sympathies"
[Pike (4), IV, 547].
VIII. Action of State and Church Authorities.
— Curiously enough, the first sovereign to join and pro-
tect Freemasonry was the Catholic German Emperor
Francis I, the founder of the actually reigning hne of
Austria, while the first measures against Freemasonry
were takenby Protestant Governments: Holland, 1735;
Sweden and Geneva, 1738; Zurich, 1740; Berne, 1745.
In Spain, Portugal and Italy, measures against Masonry
were taken after 1738. In Bavaria Freemasonry was
?rohibited 1784 and 1785; in Austria, 1795; in Baden,
^ 813; in Russia, 1822. Since 1847 it has been tolerated
in Baden, since 1850 in Bavaria, since 1868 in Hun-
gary and Spain. In Austria Freemasonry is still pro-
hibited because as the Superior Court of Administra-
tion, 23 January, 1905, rightly declared, a Masonic
association, even though established in accordance with
law, "would 1x3 a member of a large (international)
organization (in reality ruled by the * Old Charges ',
etc. according to general Masonic principles and aims),
the true regiilations of which would oe kept secret
from the civil authorities, so that the activity of the
members could not \)e controlled" (Bauhtttte, 1905,
60). It is indeed to he presumed that Austro-Hun-
garian Masons, whatever statutes they might present
to the Austrian Government in order to secure their
authorLBation, would in fact continue to regard the
French Grand Orient as their true pattern, and
the Brothers. -.Kossuth, Garibaldi, and Mazzini as the
heroes, whom they would strive to imitate. The
Prussian edict of 1798 interdicted Freemasonry in
fleneral, excepting the three old Prussian Grand
Lodges which the protectorate subjected to severe
control by the Government. This edict, though
juridically abrogated by the edict of 6 April, IS&,
practically, according to a decision of the Supreme
Court of Administration of 22 April, 1893, D)r an
erroneous interpretation of the organs of adminis-
tration, remained in force till 1893. Similarly, in
England an Act of Parliament was passed on 12 July,
1798 for the ''more effectual suppression of societies
established for seditions and treasonable purposes and
for preventing treasonable and seditious practices".
By this Act Masonic associations and meetmgs in gen-
eral were interdicted, and only the lodges existing on
12 July, 1798, and ruled according to the old re^ila-
tions of the Masonry of the kingdom were tolerat^, on
condition that two representatives of the lod^e should
make oath before the magistrates, that the lodge ex-
isted and was ruled as the Act enjoined (Preston,
"Illustrations of Masonry", 251 sqq.). During the
period 1827-34, measures were taken against Freema-
sonry in some of the United States of America. As to
European countries it may be stated, that all those
Governments, which had not originated in the revolu-
tionary movement, strove to protect themselves
against Masonic secret societies.
The action of the Church is summed up in the papal
pronouncements against Freemasonry smce 1738, the
most important of which are: —
Clement XII, Const. " In Emmenti ", 28 April, 1738;
Benedict XIV, "Providas", 18 May, 1751: Pius VII,
"Ecclesiam", 13 September, 1821; Leo XII, "Quo
graviora", 13 March, 1825; Pius VIII, Encycl. "Tra-
diti", 21 May, 1829; Gregory XVI, **Mirari", 15
August. 1832; Pius IX, Encycl. "Qui pluribus", 9
November, 1846; Alloc. "Qmbus quantisque malis",
20 April, 1849; Encycl. "Quanta cura", 8 December,
1864; Alloc. "Multiplices inter", 25 September, 1865;
Const. " Apostolicae Sedis", 12 October, 1869; Encvcl.
"Etsi multa", 21 November, 1873; Leo XIII, Encycl.
"Humanum genus", 20 April, 1884; "Prseclara", 20
June, 1894; "Annum ingressi", 18 March, 1902
(against Italian Freemasonry); liicycl. "Etsl nos",
15 February, 1882; "Ab Apostolici", 15 October,
1890. These pontifical utterances from first to last
are in complete accord, the latter reiterating the earlier
with such developments as were called for by the
growth of Freemasonry and other secret societies.
Clement XII accurately indicates the principal rea-
sons why Masonic associations from the Catholic,
Christian, moral, political, and social points of view,
should be condemned. These reasons are: — (1)
The peculiar, " imsectarian " (in truth, anti-Catholic
and anti-Christian) naturalistic character of Free-
masonry, by which theoretically and practically it
imdermines the Catholic and Christian faith, first in
its members and through them in the rest of society,
creating religious indmerentism and conteinpt for
orthodoxy and ecclesiastical authority. (2) The in-
scrutable secrecy and fallacious ever-changing di^uise
of the Masonic association and of its "work , by
which "men of this sort break as thieves into the
house and like foxes endeavour to root up the vine-
yard", "perverting the hearts of the simple", ruining
their spiritual and temporal welfare. (3) The oaths of
secrecy and of fidelity to Masoniy and Masonic work,
which cannot be justified in their scope, their object,
or their form, and cannot, therefore, mduce any obli-
gation. The oaths are condemnable. because the
scope and object of Masonry are "wicked" and con-
demnable, and the candidate in most cases is ignorant
of the import or extent of the obligation which he
takes upon himself. Moreover the ritualistic and doc-
trinal ''secrets" which are the principal object of the
obligation, according to the highest Masonic authori-
ties, are either trifles or no longer exist (Handbuch,
3rd ed., 1, 219). In either case the oath is a condemna-
MASONBY
787
MASONBY
ble abuse. Even the Masonic modes of recognition,
which are represented as the principal and only essen-
tial "secret of Masonry, are published in many
printed books. Hence the real ' * secrets ** of Masonry,
if such there be, could only be political or anti-reli-
^ous conspiracies like the plots of the Grand Lodges
m Latin countries. But such secrets, condemned, at
least theoretically, by Anglo-American Masons them-
selves, would render the oath or obligation only the
more immoral and therefore null and void. Thus in
every respect the Masonic oaths are not only sacrile-
gious but also an abuse contrary to public order which
requires that solemn oaths and obligations as the
principal means to maintain veracity and faithfulness
m the State and in human society, should not be vili-
fied or caricatured. In Masonry the oath is further
degraded by its form which includes the most atro-
cious penalties, for the "violation of obligations''
which do not even exist; a "violation** which, in
truth may be and in many cases is an imperative duty.
(4) The danger which such societies involve for the
security and "tranquility of the State" and for " the
spiritual health of souls*', and conseouently their in-
compatibility with civil and canonical law. For even
admitting that some Masonic associations pursued for
themselves no purposes contrary to religion and to pub-
lic order, they would be nevertheless contrary to
public order, because by their very existence as secret
societies based on the Masonic principles, thc^' encour-
age and promote the foundation of other really dan-
gerous secret societies and render difficult, if not
impossible, efficacious action of the civil and ecclesi-
astical authorities against them.
Of the other papal edicts only some characteristic
utterances need be mentioned. Benedict XIV ap-
peals more urgently to Catholic princes and civil pow-
ers to obtain their assistance in the struggle against
Freemasonry. Pius VII condemns the secret society
of the Carbonari which, if not an offshoot, is "cer-
tainly an imitation of the Masonic society** and, as
such, already comprised in the condemnation issued
against it. Leo All deplores the fact, that the civil
powers had not heeded the earlier papal decrees, and in
consequence out of the old Masonic societies even more
dcm^erous sects had sprung. Among them the " Uni-
versitarian ** is mentioned as most pernicious. " It is
to be deemed certain**, says the pope, "that these
secret societies are linked together by the bond of the
same criminal purposes.'* Gregory XVI similarly de-
clares that the calamities of the age were due princi-
pEilIy to the conspiracy of secret societies, and like Leo
5CII, deplores the religious indifferentism and the false
ideas of tolerance propagated by secret societies.
Pius IX (Allocution, 1865) characterizes Freemasonry
as an insidious, fraudulent and perverse organization
injurious both to religion and to society ; and condemns
anew "this Masonic and other similar societies, which
differing only in appearance coalesce constantly and
openly or secretly plot against the Church or lawful
authority**. Leo XIII (1884) says: "There are vari-
ous sects, which although differing in name, rite, form,
and origin, are nevertheless soimited by community of
purposes and by similarity of their main principles as
to be really one with the Masonic sect, which is a kind
of centre, whence they all proceed and whither they
all return.*' The ultimate purpose of Freemasonry is
"the overthrow of the whole religious, political, and
social order based on Christian institutions and the
establishment of a new state of things according to
their own ideas and based in its principles and laws on
pure Naturalism."
In view of these several reasons Catholics since 1738
are, under penalty of excommunication, incurred ipso
facto f and reserved to the pope, strictly forbidden to
enter or promote in any way Masonic societies. The
law now in force (Const. "Apostolicae Sedis", 1869,
Cap. ii, n. 24) pronounces excommunication upon
"those who enter Masonic or Carbonarian or other
sects of the same kind, which, openly or secretly, plot
against the Church or lawful authonty and those who
in any way favour these sects or do not denoimce their
leaders and principal members.** Under this head
mention must also be made of the " Practical Instruc-
tion of the Congreg. of the Inquisition, 7 May^ 1884
'de Secta Massonum*** (Acta SanctsB Sedis, \VIII,
43-47) and of the decrees of the Provincial Coimcils of
Baltimore, 1840; New Orleans, 1856; Quebec, 1851,
1868; of the first Council of the English Colonies, 1854;
and particularly of the Plenary Councils of Baltimore,
1866 and 1884 (see "Collect. Lacensis*', III, 1875 and
" Acta et deer. Concil. plen. Bait. Ill **, 1884). These
documents refer mainlv to the application of the papal
decrees according to the peculiar condition of the re-
spective ecclesiastical provinces. The Third Council
of Baltimore, n . 254 sq. , states the method of ascertain-
ing whether or not a society is to be regarded as com-
prised in the papal condemnation of Freemasonry. It
reserves the final decision thereon to a commission
consisting of all the archbishops of the ecclesiastical
provinces represented in the council, and, if they can-
not reach a imanimous conclusion, refers to the Holy
oee.
These papal edicts and censures against Freema^
sonry have often been the occasion of erroneous and
unjust charges. The excommunication was inter-
preted as an "imprecation** that cursed all Free-
masons and doomeid them to perdition. In truth an
excommunication is simply an ecclesiastical penalty,
by which members of the Church should be aeterrea
from acts that are criminal according to ecclesiastical
law. The pope and the bishops, therefore, as faithful
pastors of Christ's flock, cannot but condemn Free-
masonry. They would betray, as Clement XII stated,
their most sacred duties, if they did not oppose with
all their power the insidious propagation and activity
of such societies in Catholic countries or with respect
to Catholics in mixed and Protestant countries. Free-
masonry systematically promotes religious indifferent-
ism ana undermines true, i. e., orthodox Christian
and Catholic Faith and life. Freemasonry is essen-
tially Naturalism and hence opposed to all supematu-
ralism. As to some particular charges of I^ XIII
(1884) challenged by Freemasons, e. g.,the atheistical
character of Freemasonry, it must be remarked, that
the pope considers the activity of Masonic and similar
societies as a whole, applying to it the term which
designates the most of tnese societies and among the
Masonic groups those, which push the so-called "anti-
clerical", in reality irreligious and revolutionary,
principles of Freemasonry logically to their ultimate
consequences and thus, in truth, are, as it were, the
advanced outposts and standard-bearers of the whole
immense anti-Catholic and anti-papal army in the
world-wide spiritual warfare of our a^e. In this sense
also the pope, in accordance with a fundamental bib-
lical and evangelical view developed by St. Augustine
in his " De ci vitate Dei * ' , like the Masonic poet Carducci
in his * *H3nnn to Satan ",considers Satan as the supreme
spiritual chief of this hostile army. Thus Leo XIII
(1884) expressly states: " What we say, must be under%
stood of the Masonic sect in the universal acceptation
of the term, as it comprises all kindred and associated
societies, but not of their single members. There may
be persons amongst these, and not a few, who, al-
though not free from the ^It of having entangled
themselves in such associations, yet are neither them-
selves partners in their criminal acts nor aware of the
ultimate object which these associations are endeav-
ouring to attain. Similarly some of the several bodies
of the association may perhaps by no means approve
of certain extreme conclusions, which they woula con-
sistently accept as necessarily following from the gen-
eral principles common to aU, were they not deterred
by tne vicious character of the conclusions.** "The
Masonic fedention ui to be judged not eo much by the
acts and things it baa accompliabed, aa by the whole of
its principles and purposes.
The Free, "
dSrii.^".':
the 1.. ■
R.Fii (...' 1^1. -■ . I' N iinirl
18(W,l,.i.>i>f. lll^imHripiilMiuu
Iste ALEtuT Pike. Gnod Comm
Council (CbarloalQD. South Cninliiu.
ed^vd IB the (imtcflt authority id nil Miui
!□£ to NoRTOH "'tbo world- renow
ITS) ii EeDDTBliv admilleil aa tl
the OiTind Orator RoBEOT (Indian Tamtoi^") he '■
i. I. 25).
orld'
MoraU and Dot
_r Muanty la ki
. -J the Ncic Age. M-»-
» tbe foremom flgure in the Fnw
(1901). II. 458). "the gr«l. ^
■'."thoPfophetofFj
.Ceatur, , .„
'luJ /(Of (IBIO, 1, H). "»«
Tre rflvu«d and apiiiluiklit ^
■ logma, curTBnllv quolHd by ui, ia highly
by tbfi cflebnitcd Umnnii: scbabu^ Tcupi-E (BruMcli) and
_ .V, ... . . .u. 1 . i^..... — ,-. .: Lodp,
SrBTH. tba late necretary „. .....
at Londoa (CAr.. 188S, I. 339).
actordina to the BalUlin d/ i
(1H83, 211) wen "true coda I
«U the Supreme Counciln of tl
Ooundb of En ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
; Wisdom". The well-
kept la leadinc irtrinAH
1898. 215). The
call* Pilw: "T
Findel, the Oei
of the Wh Desrea" (SauAUIe, ISOl. 12S>.
Mawmic PublioalioDS. Encyclopedias: MicitBY, (1) Encn-
deprdMa/^r«Tna»riTV(LaDdon, 1908) .even this recent edi^OD.
Hcordins to American authorities, is thorDUBhlysoliqualAJ and
scarcely an improvement on (hat of 18«0: foEii. l2)Liiiam of
Freemaaonrv (LimdoD. 1SH4): OuiER. Ditl. ol Sumbolic Fttf
nitwniv (London. IS63): Nackehme, rAfffctralMoKmic Cud.
<18TS-f): WoooroRD, K(nn>iw'>CV. (1S7S): Lenhihq. £>■-
Old. dtr Preimaurerti (1822-1828); InEii *nd Henne *u
Rhtn. AUecmtina Handbvrh dtr Ft., 2Dd ed. (1863-79); Pia-
cer.K, Alia. Handb.d. Ft.. MA fA-ilMO); theseeditioos contain
vaiuaUe information and answer scientific requiremeDU fsr
more than all the other Musonic cyelopediae (A. Q. C. XI, St);
aiEVENB, Cuclopfdu of FrottniUiei (New York. IMT).
Masonic Isw and Jurisprudence: Tht Cmilitiaimi of Us
Frermattm; 17MS. 1738: Nma C«tu(iluttiHir)i BikA, etc. < 1741);
pK La TiKItcI, Hiiloirr. Obligalioni, H SUUuli, etc. <FrBnkfort.
i7i2): QuyiK, MatoBie Jurujirvdcim {1S59, 1S74): Chabi,
Dtgetl of Matonic Lav (ISeai: Milckkt, Tat Book of Union.
JurupridmctHSSB)-. vjm Ohoddxck. ete., VtriueA einrr Dai-
itcUuno da fotilivm tnntm Frdmaurtr. Rtthlx (1S7T), the beat
"hiSo'Ic^: Andebboh, Hi**. D/Frmnasmrv' in the fimt edi-
tions Bud tiannlationa of the Boot of Contitalioni (most unre-
liable, even after 1717); Preston. IlluHralioTu of Maionry
(17721. ed.OuvEB (lasfii, IhouBh not reliable in some historical
(isss). I iiiF-ii-.. ' ■. .. .- r
Thf Obnui und t^rrrmitaonrv. ocrorrtirii
Umi andaaniniit iSe« Yaik, IfiliO];
vtdualmBndBoeekdrrFrar-
yrwmaKmry (ISSl-I; 1906),
1U9: l&Buentu] in apreuUnc more
■monc Uasona; Qodld. Hit. of Frurmawnrv (» vols., 1883-
1887), now nput«d the best histoiinal work on Froemnsonry;
''-— ODB Chawlet. CamrMario HtbrmiiM (1895-1000):
«. Origin of Iht^ntjMHile^ofFremmtryhSliih Tkt
flS23);TSiSlarin Ihr BaM 1 1327): Signt and Synl
iaS7):Pm.(l)MamltaHdi>0fmaBfcheA.A.Scoi... . ._,
MaaiiaH2)^lDtM.(2)T/teBookafUuiWordtSeas(l»7S)jlBBi.
a'lJhe PotA and Uu MiddU Choicer. B«ok of At Lodft fesi
(lB70-7a):K»AtmE.Di.
(l87a);lDUi«,l4 ,--.
dnti dJMm Kumlurkunden dtr Frmra
esteemed, in spite of faiatoriea] enon, as a aritieal ^ipnniatiiiB
of Frcemuooiy; Fihdcl (beat Gennaa authority). OtiM md
"im *T Fr. (1874, 1809); I ""'- "- -■- "- ■-
<tterbAcn(l8g2); Idsh, Di*
I. Die OmndMtie der Fr. m
\4 WdUmntluiu.x
1891) and SionaU (1895-1905).
Anti-masonic publication!: Fmm 1T23-174.1. EunlLib Fm-
oaaoniy and AHnENSON, Hiwtory, wen derided in mMiy pab>
bcatioog (GoDLD, 2, 294, 327); acauut Freoeh Freemasoon
appeared: VOrdrtdiiFrHnuuonHtahinsa lA..Q,C..lX..tSl
aad Le SrcrU da itopta r^rlli (1745); Sc«u nmpu (1745);
on the oceaalon of the French Revolution; LEimuic, Lt nit
Um (1792). In the United Sutes the sati-MaKmic nuvoncet
l>egBnl783: Creior, Hojonnr and Jnfimasmrv (1854): Snin,
LiUtrion MoKmni and AntimoKnrii (18.12); FirHUH. Dim/att
of MoKnru (IKIK): Vfiialogui of anH-Maimie Ivoiu (Bwten,
INAl'): .■i^A. .•itin.nu-n ubcr tiiktitnc QaOlichttfloi Mid Fnnni
Frrurordm tn Hriner iroAriri Bidndiat
, lo. Dii Frmrei and dai aane. PfaTraml
lS54-Se); CivOHi CaUelitaADtx ISW; Neoro) - "' '
(1901), trHces the ]
(IfffSli
< dtUa rivoltuione liloJuM
0900-01); Ehicua. £a ■«■
_.. rork of lUlian Mssaniv from
La Front-moLfonneri* H la Rtwit%-
.... .... . ,_ ..,., (jj^ ^
work ol
icA (2iid ed., 1879. IV. 138)
lI ol the Older", and T, O.
of Masonry: " the uncrowned king
(UR (1872): Jahet. Lti toeinit
1B80-S3). best naeral survey
.„~. .^..i^i— ■„ .11 ~,..„.rioi: BBDWEia, LAction dt Im
■ (1392): Lehoube. La Fnmc-m.
' BiLHm.u.IjiFrane-m.
_ .1(1899); NocRRUSOK,
(1900); luEH. La Jacohinm ou poinvir
, ^1 Grand Oritnt dt Frana (1906); Nut.
utnuc du ffrand jo-ur dr la publicUf (18M). contains
(189i,. __ _. _
(19041; Biu.
to,"
Mali
usble <
.. La Maronnirie Bclgt (IBoS). documents on the most
political activity of Belgian Masoniy; de La Fcertc
:_ J. i_. t..__j_j , ,.■ F Etpata.
HAS. to atasoneria rn BifK^^flSOi-At:
<mThTv< , ... ___
'irAeif der i^rwirn (1884): GrT-
Ordnrnit (1893): Idem, (5) fini
Hi:«or
etc. (1870-71:
(1S81): Tim _
DE Rafael. La Maaoni. ._ , ,_. ,. ,
LKR, Der itillf KrivBiemTli-nmundAUa
Raich). Dit inncrc VnuKilirfiat der Frmri
DieFTmrriu ' - - " ■
( 1 899 1 "id Ml. "mFmieiundUmH uri5TO«jw>«r'(i5o lY: Sfm/nS
durdl da> Rridi drr Frmrri (1897): EwALD, Ltvt und Kldlur-
jlamp/(lS99); OesEO.Drr Hamnrrd. fmm. etc. (1876): W.B.,
Sei^raga lur OarJiKhte drr F. in Ocitrrreiili (18^); Die Frmra
inOrMfrrric/iUnaam nS97). IaPaliiod:Mi -■ ■
~ " PDln.Eri.4' ' "~ "
„ . „!■-- (T.f "
*.(1876);1
W); DieF
lALOW Z)lV I
lawi.OMiu
830:1877);
1908): for Anslo-Suan i
.... , , A Stadv in American Fn
.—DfiTv (St. Louis. 1908), ■ careful discussion on the basis
the standard works of Hackey and Pike.
Hermann Gboser.
Boo«, Ofdi. der Frtimaw^rn (1806); Haicall, Rut. ofFm
vuuonry llSai): Bariv Hiil.andTTantacliantafMatoneof.Vea
York (1878); McTlekachah, Hit. of Iht Fral. in Keic York
(1888-94); Hobs Robe«t»o«, ff £i*. o/ Fr«™oimifv in CnMdo
hS90): Dnvimona. Hitl. and Bibluer. Memoranda and HiM. of
(^jotn, //iV. (18M*): TiWKT.Aninh'.'ely.'.thi'a'r'i'^'fol^'-nlilr
cr
Spiril
(1822,
1723 and 1738: Hdtc
Spirit of FreematonrTi (1775); 'Cavtv.SyMem of Spec. Mat
Olivsk, ilnJtfuttiM of Freematonrji
. . -Name of several plaoes in the Bible. The
Septuagint transcribes Katipi, Hoirffir^, Hafm^r;
Vulg.: Afaspka and Masphath {once Mtuphe, Mam-
pha, Mesphe); Hebrew: Alifpeh and Mi^paA; the
latter almost invariably in pause. The word, with
many other proper names, is derived from \/^PH =
watch, observe, and means "watch-tower" {spwtijum,
ffnvJa), which sense it bears twice in the Bible (Is.,
xii, 8; II Par., XK, 24^. Joaephus interprets by rare-
wTiv^rBior (Antt.VI,ii, I). It tsthus a natural name
for a town in a commanding position (ef. the Crusad-
ing Belvoir, and el-Mi^hr(feh (Palmer, Desert of the
Exodus, II, 513). Like the latter it almost invariably
has the article.
Mabpha op Galaad. — Hiatory. — Jacob to ratify
his compact with Laban, " took a stone and set it up
for a title, and he said to his brethren 'Bring hither
stones'. And they, gathering stones together, made a
heap and they ate upon it (or&yitR.V.). Andl^ban
said. 'This heap (Kal) shall be a witness ('M) between
me and thee this dav, and therefore the name thereof
was called Galaad (gal'ed) and Mf^^pah (so R. V.with
Hebrew) for he said 'The I^ord watch (ye^et VpFH)
between me and thee when we are absent one from an-
another'" (Gen. XXXI, 45 ff.). Here the Vulgate
omits Adm-Mffpo*. ^^ Septuagint translates * ifitra,
Targtims of OnkeloaandSiire, SekOthA, i. e. view. The
MA8PHA
789
ICASPHA
play on the Hebrew words is not unnatural if we
suppose that the spot itself or some neighbouring
height was already called Maspha. The name seems
to nave gradually extended from the height to the
whole region (Judges, xi, 29). The monument was
probably a cairn or a dolmen. While the latter is
suggested by the flat surface on which they ate
(verse 46; Joseph us, "Ant.", T, xix, II; Conder, "Heth
and Moab,'' 241), the sepulchral destination of the
dolmens and the ambiguity of the Hebrew militate
against this view (Schumacher, ''Across the Jordan
pass.'*).
Aroimd Jacob's monument Israel assembled to re-
5 el Ammon (Judges, x, 17). Thither they summoned
ephte, "and Jephte spoke all his words before the
Lord at Maspha" (Judges, xi, U). By Maspha of
Galaad (a region?) he marched against Ammon, and
after victory " to Maspha to his house " . The Septua-
gint translates by aKoxla the rendezvous of Israel, and
the place by which Jephte passed over against Ammon.
They thus distinguish between the sanctuary and
town, and a watch-tower on the height above (cf.
Palmer, op. cit., II, 512-513); but in Osee, y, 1, they
likewise use the common noun when parallelism mam-
festly requires the proper name. At Maspha prob-
ably Jephte was buried (Judges, xii, 7, anci variants
in Kittel, and perhaps Josephus, "Antiquities'* V,
vii, 12).
identification. — We cannot decide whether the
Maspha of Jacob and Jephte is identical with Ramath
hdm-Mf9p^h (Jos., xiii, 26), or both with Rdmoth Gil'ed
(III Kings, iv, 13), nor even whether Maspha refers
to one or many places. In Jephte's history it seems
near the borders of Ammon, in ^hat of Judas Macca-
basus far to the N. E., and, if we place here the events
of Judges, xxi-xxii, near the Western frontier (G. A.
Smith, "Hist. Geog. of H. Land", 586). Jacob was
coming from Padan Aram and probably approached
Galaad by the Hajj route. Turning westward N. of
Jabeoc he would traverse the valley of Jerash. About
four miles from Jerash, S. E. of Mahneh (before
Mahanaim?), on a high mountain overhanging the
valley, is the village of S (if in a locality rich in dol-
mens. Many identify with Maspha this place whose
derivation may be identical with and whose name re-
calls the 2€j8«t^ of Josephus, 1. c. But Dr. Schumacher
discovered N. E. of Jerash Tell Md^fah, whose summit
dominating all the surrounding heights is strewn with
dolmens and stone-hewn altars. The ideal site, exact
preservation of the ancient name and the veneration
still attaching to the spot (it is still a ma*bad) all
justif^r its identification with Maspha.
For identification with Ramath GUead and es-Salt cf.: —
SCBWARTS, Tebuolh ha-Arez, 269, 270 (Jerusalem, 1900); v.
RicflS. Btbliache Geographte (Freibui^ im Br.. 1872). 64.
Against it cf. Driver, Commentary on DeiUeronomu (Edin-
bunh, 1902).
For SOf: etc.: — Conder, HHh and Moab (London, 1889), 181;
Armbtrono, Names and Places in the Old Testament (London,
1887); OUPHANT. Land of Oalaad (London, 1880), 209-18;
Buhl, Oeooraphxe des Alten PaUlstina (Freiburg im Br., '96);
Mbrrxll, East of Jordan, 365-374; Smith, Historical Geography
of the Holy Land, 487, 679 (London, 1907); Mittheilungen und
Nachriehten des deut. palnst. Vereins, 1897, 66; 1899, If, 06.
Maspha op Benjamin. — History. — Maspha was
assigned to Benjamin by Josue (Jos., xviii, 26) . Here,
according to many, Israel assembled to avenge the
outrage on the Levite's wife, and swore not to give
their daughters in marriage to the survivors. But as
they would scarcely have gathered in the heart of the
enemy's country, others place the events of Judges,
xx-xxi, at Maspha of Galaad. Note that Jabes
Galaad is mentioned in close connexion with the camp
of Israel. Further, Judges, xx. 3, implies that Maspha
was outside the borders of Benjamin. To Maspha
Samuel when Judge convoked all Israel, prayed for
them there while they defeated the Philistines, and
erected a monument to commemorate the victoiy be-
tween Maspha and Sen (I Kings, vii, 5>12). Here he
held some of his chief assizes (Kings, x, 13-16), and
his final assembly for the election of Saul (ibid., 17).
Two hundred and fifty years later Maspha was forti-
fied by Asa, King of Juda, with the materials left be-
hind at Rama by King Baasa in his hasty march
northwards against the Syrians (III Kings, xv, 22;
II Par., xvi, 6). Jerusalem destroyed (586 b. c.)
Godolias, Governor of Juda, made Maspha his head-
Quarters (Jer., xli, 6; IV Kings, xxv, 23 sq.) and there
tne tragic events of Jer^ xlii, took place. In the re-
building of the walls of Jerusalem the lords of Maspha
took an active part (II Esd., iii, 7, 15, 17). Some in-
fer from verse 7 that Maspha was the seat of govern-
ment (HSlscher, " Pal&stina in der Pers. und Hellen.
Zeit", 29); but this is unlikely (Smith, " Jerusaleni**,
II, 354 n.) . Judas Machabeus, preparing for war with
the Syrians, gathered his men to Maspha, over
against Jerusalem: for in Maspha was a place of
prayer heretofore in Isnier' (I Mach., iii, 46), and
transported thither the ritualistic observances.
Identification: — (a) Many modems suggest Nebt-
Sdmwtl, the most striking position around Jerusalem,
and identify Maspha with Rama and Ramathaim-
Sophim, relying chiefly on the connexion with Samuel
implied by the mociem name. In that case the
rendezvous for the Benjaminite war must be sought
in Galaad or Ephraim, perhaps near Silo, and the
"house of the Lord" (Jer., xli, 6) cannot refer to
Jerusalem, (b) Gu^rin (Jud^e^ I, 395-4(K2) placed
Maspha at Sh&fat, a village on high ground overlook-
ing Jerusalem, but his etymology is suspect, and
SMfat suits neither III Kmgs, xv, 22, nor I Mach.,
iii, 46. The same objections hold for Tell el-Fiil only
three miles N. of Jerusalem, (c) Others suggest Tell
en-Ndsbeh, which commands a narrow defile on the
high road two miles S. of el-B!reh. (d) Perhaps the
best conjecture is el-Blreh, which has a copious water
supply, IS sufficiently northerly to permit of a camp
there against Benjamin, lies on the road from Silo to
Jerusalem, and is near Bethel (cf. Josephus, " Antiq.",
V, ii, 10). This identification was expressly made by
Surius ("Le Pieux P^lerin'*, III. ii, 547, Brussels,
1660), and bv some copies of the map of Sanuto
(1306) (Rohricht "Zeitschr. des deut. paliist. Ver-
eins, " 1898, Map 6). Near the village is a large spring,
'In MfsbAh, whose name may be a modernization of
Maspha. Burchard (1283), indeed, identifies el-Btreh
with Machmas (" Peregrinationes medii aevi quatuor",
Leipzig, 1873. p. 56), and similarly others [e. g. Maun-
drell (1697) in "Pinkerton Voyages", X, 337]; but
Machmas was certainly elsewhere, and the identifica-
tion serves only to show that the homophony of Be-
roth and Blreh is not conclusive.
For the testimony of Eusebius and the Franks cf . Heidet in
ViGOUROUx, Diet, de la Bible, s. v. For identification with
(a) cf., Schwartz, op. cit., 152, 402; Armstrong, op. cU., 127;
Robinson, Biblical Researches, II (Boston, 1841), 139-149;
Survey of Western Palestine, Memoirs, III, 144: Buhl, op.
eit., 167; Fischer Guthe, Map of Palestine; (b) Srafat: —
V. RiBSS, op. cit., p. 64 ; Gatt in Das heilige Land (Cologne, 1879),
119-126; 154-160; 184-194; Stanley, -Sinai and Palestine,
(London, 1871) 226; Haoen, Index Topogrcmhicus (Paris,
1908); DE Saulct, Voyage atUour de la Mer Morte, I (Paris,
1883). 112-115: (c) Vin cent, /2eru«BiWi9u«( 1898), 630; (1899),
315-316; (1901), 151; (1902), 458; Conder, Palestine Explora-
tion Fund Quarterly (1898), 169, 251; Raboisson. Les Mizpeh
(Paris, 1807); (d) Heidet in Remie Biblique, 1894,321-356,
450; 1895. 97; Idem in Revue d'Orient, 1898, 295-300; Ixi Pales-
tine, Guide historique et pratique (Paris, 1904), 317 sqq.
Maspha of Juda (ham-Mi^peh, Masepha, Mcw^a) is
placed in*the Sephela, in the second group of towns
* in the lot of Juda ", between Delea and Jechtel (Jos.,
XV, 38). Eusebius and Jerome place it in the temtory
of Eleutheropolis near the road to Elia. William of
Tyre mentions a crusading fortress eight miles N. of
Ascalon near the frontiers of Palestine and Simeon,
called Tell es-Saphi-Blanche Garde-Alba Specula.
This is undoubtedly Tell es-S&ftyeh and is commonlv
identified with Maspha. Both places served to watch
Ascalon. The map of Madaba calls the place 2a^i^a«
MASS
790
MAnii
As however this can scarcely be other than Sephata
(cf . II Par» xiv, 10; List of Thotmee Ulin " MittheU.
der Deut. Vorderas. Gessell. ", 1907 pi. ; " Rev. Bib. ".
1908, 516), the question arises whether Masepha ana
Sepheta can refer to the same place.
Survey of Western Palestine^ Memoire^ II, 440; Robinson,
op. ct<., II, 31; GuiRiN, op^ cU.^ II, 92; db Saulct, Dietionnaire
topographique o^r^^ 220 (Paris, 71); v. Kiess. op ci<., 64; Buhl*
•p. cit.t 19o.
Land op Masfha, near Hermon. "The Hevite,
who dwelt at the foot of Hermon in the land of Mas-
Eha", was amongst the foes on whom Josue fell at
.ake Merom and chased to " the great Sidon and the
waters of Maserephoth, and the field of Maspha " east-
ward (Jos., xi, 8). Probably the two names here
mentioned indicate one place despite the variations of
the versions (Heb., Mi^pah, Miypeh; LXX, Mcur<ru/aa,
Ma<ro'(6x; Alex., Mo<r<ri70d^, Mcuro'i^^d; Vulg., Maspha,
Masphe).
Identifications. — Suggestions differ according as
" eastward " is referred to Sidon or Merom. Hence west
of Hermon either (a) The Merj 'liyiin, a fertile plain,
the Lit&ny and the Nahr Hasb&ny, with Metiillah re-
g lacing Maspha, or (b), the plain from Metilllah to
►anias, with es-S\ibdbeh as Maspha. or (c) the valley
of the LitAny, actually called el-Buqi*. If "east-
ward " refers to Merom (which is more probable) then
Maspha may be the W&dy el-'di^m, stretching south
of Hermon and traversed by the Roman road (Via
Maris) from Damascus.
At the western end of the valley is the village of
el-BijqA'ty, perhaps an echo of Bfq'dt Mi^peh.
Armstrong, op. ct/., 127; Schwartz, op. cit., 74; v. Ribss,
Bible ^Atla*, 20, 1887; Buhl, op. ct7., 240; DillMann. Com-
mentdrium in Joeue.
Maspha of Moab, whither David fled with his
parents from Adullam (I Kings, xxii, 3 sq.). We
nave no clue to its identification, save that it was,
temporarily, at least, a royal residence.
Schwartz, op. cit., 254. For seneral reference: — Hastings,
Dictionary of the Bible, s. v.\ Vigodroux, Dietionnaire de la
Bible, s. v.; Baedeker, Syrta and Palestine, 4th ed. (Le^zig,
1006).
J. A. Hartigan.
Mass, Chapter and Conventual. — As a general
rule, churches in which the Divine office is to be said
publiclv every day must also have Mass said daily.
This Mass is the "conventual** Mass {miasa convene
ttuUis); it completes, with the canonical Hours, the
official public service of God in such a church. A con-
ventual Mass then is to be sung or said in all cathe-
drals and collegiate churches that have a chapter; in
this case it is often called the "chapter" Mass {missa
capituli), though the official books constantly use the
general name "conventual" for this Mass too. A
conventual (not chapter) Mass must also be celebrated
daily in churches of regulars who have the obligation
of the pubhc recitation of the office, therefore certainly
in churches of monks and canons re^lar. Whether
mendicant friars have this obligation is disputed.
Some authors consider them obliged by common law,
others admit only whatever obligation they may have
from their special constitutions or from custom. Some
extend the obligation even to churches of nuns who
say the office in choir. That friars may celebrate a
daily conventual Mass according to the rule of monas-
tic churches is admitted by every one (de Herdt., I.
14). A chapter Mass then is a kind of conventual
Mass, and falls under the same rules.
The obligation of procuring the conventual Mass
rests with the corporate body in question and so con-
cerns its superiors (Dean, Provost, Abbot, etc.). Nor-
mally it should be said by one of the memoers, but the
obligation is satisfied as long as some priest who may
celebrate lawfully undertakes it. The conventual
Mass should always, if possible, be a high Mass; but if
this is impossible, low Ma«8 is still treated as a hi^^
Mass with regard to the number of collects said, tt»
candles, absence of prayers at the end, and so on. It
may not be said durmg the recitation of the office, but
at certain fixed times between the canonical Hours, as
is explained below. The general rule is that the con-
ventual Mass should correspond to the office with
which it forms a whole. It is not allowed to sing two
high Masses both conformed to the office on the same
day. On the other hand, there are cases in which two
dinerent conventual Masses are celebrated. The
csjses in which the Mass does not correspond to the
office are these: on Saturdays in Advent (except Em-
ber Saturday and a Vigil), if the office is ferial the
Mass is of the Blessed Virgin. On Vigils in Advent
that are not also Ember days, if the office is ferial the
Mass is of the Vigil commemorating the feria. On
Maundy Thursday and Holy Satiuday the Mass does
not conform to the office. On Rogation Tuesday, if
the office is ferial the Mass is of Rogation. On Whit-
sun Eve the office is of the Ascension, but the Mass a
Whitsun Mass. When a Vigil, an Ember day or Ro-
gation Monday falls within an octave (except that of
the Blessed Sacrament) the office is of the octave, and
the Mass of the feria, conmiemorating the octave.
Except in Advent and Lent, on Ember days. Rogation
days and Vigils, if the office is ferial and the Sunday
Mass has already been said that week, the conventual
Mass may be one of the Votive Masses in the Missal
appointed for each day in the week. Except in Ad-
vent, Lent and Paschal time, on the first day of the
month not prevented by a double or semi-double, the
conventual Mass is a Requiem for deceased members
and benefactors of the community.
On doubles, semi-doubles^ Sundays, and during oc-
taves, the conventual Mass is said after Terce, onsim-
Eles and ferias after Sext, on ferias of Advent and
ent, on Vigils and Ember days after None. There
are also occasions on which several conventual Masses
are said on the same day. On ferias of Lent, on Eda-
ber days. Rogation days and Vigils when a double or
semindouble occurs, or during an octave or when a
Votive office is said, the Mass corresponding to the
office is said after Terce. that of the feria after None.
On Ascension eve, if a double or semi-double occurs,
the Mass of the feast is said after Terce, that of the
Vigil after Sext, that of Rogation after None. In the
case of the conventual Requiem mentioned above, if a
simple occurs or if the Mass of the preceding Sunday
has not yet been said, the Requiem is celebrated after
the Office of the Dead, or if that is not said, after
Prime, the Mass of the simple or Sunday after Sext.
On All Souls' day (2 Nov.) the Mass of the octave (or
feast) is said after Terce, the Requiem after None.
When an additional Votive Mass has to be said (for in-
stance for the Forty Hours or for the anniversary ol
the bishop's consecration or enthronement, etc.) it is
said after None. On the Monday of each week (ex-
cept in Lent and Paschal time) if the office is ferial the
conventual Mass may be a Reouiem. But if it is a
simple or a feria with a proper Mass, or if the Sunday
Mass has not been said, the collect for the dead (Fidi'
Hum) Is added to that of the day instead. These rules
concerning the celebration of two or more conventual
Masses apply as laws only to chapters. Regulars are
not bound to celebrate more than one such Mass eadi
day (corresponding always to the office) , unless the par-
ticular constitutions of their order impose this obliga-
tion.
See the Rubrics of the Missal (Ruhr. gen. tit. t-VIT), where
the Mass in question is primarily the conveatudl Mass, and an^
authorised book of ceremonial: Dk HsRiyr, 8. Liturgta Praxu
(Louvain, 18M), 14-17; Lb Vavasseur, Manud de Lit%vi/i»
(lOth ed.. Paris. IQlO). 205-221; Dale. Ceremonial according to
the Roman Rite (London, 1006).
Adrian Fortescub.
Mass, LmjRGT of the . — ^A. Name and Definition.
—The Mass is the complex of prayers and ceremonies
that make up the service of the Eucharist in the Latin
UAta
7&1
MAfiS
rites. As in the case of all liturgical terms the name is
less old than the thing. From the time of the first
preaching of the Christian Faith in the West, as every-
where, the Hol^ Eucharist was celebrated as Christ
had instituted it at the Last Supper, according to His
command, in memory of Him. But it was not till
long afterwards that the late Latin name Missa^ used
at first in a vaguer sense, became the technical and al-
most exclusive name for this service.
In the first period, while Greek was still the Chris-
tian language at Rome, we find the usual Greek names
used there, as in the East. The conunonest was
E^apiarta, used both for the consecrated bread and
wine and for the whole service. Clement of Rome
(d. about 101) uses the verbal form still in its general
sense of '' giving thanks", but also in connexion with
the Liturgy (I Clem^ Ad Cor., xxxviii, 4: /card ndyra
e^api0T€cy airf). The other chief witness for the
earliest Roman Liturgy, Justin Martyr (d. c. 167),
speaks of eucharist in both senses repeatedly (Apol.. I,
av, 3, 5; Ixvi, §1; Ixvii, 5). After him the word is
always used, and passes into Latin {euchanstia) as
soon as there is a Latin Christian Literature [Tertul-
lian (d. c. 220), "De praBScr.", xxxvi, in P. L., II, 50;
St. Cyprian (d. 258), Ep., Uv, etc.]. It remains the
normal name for the sacrament throughout Catholic
theology, but is gradually superseded by Missa for the
whole nte. Clement calls the service AeirovpyLa (I
Cor., xl, 2, 5; xli, 1) and «-po<r0opd (ibid., 2, 4), with,
however, a shade of different meaning ("rite", " obla-
tion"). These and the other usual Greek names
(xXdffa dfiTov in the Catacombs; KonnapLa^ oi^m^tt,
0-vyAcv(rit in Justin, " I Apol. "^ Ixvii, 3), with their not
yet strictly technical connotation, are used during the
first two centuries in the West as in the East. With
the use of the Latin language in the third century
came first translations of the Greek terms. While
eucharisHa is very common, we find also its transla-
tion gratiarum actio (Tertullian, "Adv. Marcionem",
I, xxiii, in P. L., II, 274) ; benedictio (= ei>Xo7/o) oc-
curs too (ibid.. Ill, xxii; "De idolol.", xxii);
aacrificiumf generally with an attribute {divina sacri-
etc.). We find also Solemnia (Cypr^ "De lapsis",
xxv), "Dominica solemnia" (Tert., "De fuga", xiv).
Prex, OUatio, Coma Domini (Tert., "Ad uxor.", II, iv,
in P. L., I, 1294), SpirUtiale ac coehste sacramentum
(Cypr., Ep., Ixiii, 13), Dominicum (Cypr., "De opere
et eleem.'*, xv; Ep. bciii, 16), Officium (Tert., ^'De
<»at.", xiv), even Passio (Cypr., Ep. xlii), and
other expressions that are rather descriptions than
technical names.
All these were destined to be supplanted in the West
by the classical name Missa. The first certain use of
it is by St. Ambrose (d. 397). He writes to his sister
Marcellina describing the troubles of the Arians in the
vears 385 and 386, when the soldiers were sent to
break up the service in his church: "The next day (it
was a Sunday) after the lessons and the tract, having
dismissed the catechumens, I explained the creed
[mfmbolum trad^mm] to some of the competents [peo-
ple about to be baptized] in the baptistery of the
oasilica. There I was told suddenly that they had
Bent soldiers to the Portiana basilica. . . . But I re-
mained at my place and began to say Mass [missam
facere coBpi]. While I offer [dum offero], I hear that a
certain Castulus has b^n seized by the people " (Ep.,
I. XX, 4-5). It will be noticed that missa here means
tne Eucharistic Service proper, the Liturgy of the
Faithful only, and does not mclude that of the Cate-
chimiens. Ambrose uses the word as one in cominon
use and well known. There is another, still earlier,
but very doubtfully authentic instance of the word in
a letter of Pope Pius I (from c. 142 to o. 157) : " Eupre-
pia has hanaed over possession of her house to the
I, 672). The authenticity of the letter, however,
is very doubtful. If Missa really occurred in the
second century in the sense it now has, it would be
surprising that it never occurs in the third. We may
consider St. Ambrose as the earliest certain authority
for it.
From the fourth century the term becomes more
and more common. For a time it occurs nearly al-
ways in the sense of dismissal. St. Augustine (d. 430)
says: " After the sermon the dismissal of the catechu-
mens takes place " (j>ost sermonem fit missa catechu-
menorum—Serm., xlix, 8, in P. L., XXXVIII, 324).
The Synod of Lerida in Spain (524) declares that peo-
ple guilty of incest may be admitted to church "usque
ad missam catechumenorum ", that is, till the cate-
chumens are dismissed (Can., iv, Hefele-Leclercq,
" Hist, des Conciles ", II, 1064) . The same expression
occurs in the Synod of Valencia at about the same
time (Can., i, ibid., 1067), in Hincmar of Reims (d.
882} ("Opusc. LV capitul.", xxiv, in P. L., CXXVI,
380), etc. Etheria (fourth century) calls the whole
service, or the Liturgy of the Faithful, missa con-
stantly ("Peregr. Silviai*, e. g., xxiv, 11, Benedicit
fideles et fit missa, etc.). So also Innocent I (401-
17) in Ep., xvii, 5, P. L., XX, 535, Leo I (440-61), in
Ep., be, 2, P. L., LIV, 627. Although from the be-
ginning the word Missa usually means the Eucharistic
Service or some part of it, we find it used occasionally
for other ecclesiastical offices too. In St. Benedict's
(d. 543) Rule fiani missce is used for the dismissal at
the end of the canonical hours (chap., xvii, passim).
In the Leonine Sacramentary (sixth cent. See Litur-
gical BooKB),thewordin its present sense is supposed
throughout. The title. " Item alia ", at the head of each
Mass means "Item alia missa". The Gelasian book
(sixth or seventh cent. Cf. ibid.) supplies the word:
"Item alia missa", "Missa Chrismatis", "Orationes
ad missa [sic] in natale Sanctorum ", and so on through-
out. From that time it becomes the regular, practi-
cally exclusive, name for the Holy Liturgy m the
Roman and Gallican Rites.
The origin and first meaning of the word, once much
discussed, is not really doubtful. We may dismiss at
once such fanciful explanations as that missa is the
Hebrew missah ("oblation" — so Reuchlin and Lu-
ther), or the Greek fju^ff is (" initiation "), or the German
Mess r" assembly", "market"). Nor is it the parti-
ciple leminine of mitterCy with a noun understood
(* oblatio missa ad Deum ", ^' congregatio missa ", i. e.,
aimissa — so Diez, " Etvmol. Worterbuch der roman.
Sprachen", 212, and others). It is a substantive of a
late form for missio. There are many parallels in
medieval Latin, coUeda, ingressa, conjessa, accessa,
ascensa — all for forms in -io. It does not mean an
offering {mittere, in the sense of handing over to God),
but the dismissal of the people^ as in the versicle : " Ite
missa est " (Go, the dismissal is made). It may seem
strange that this unessential detail should have given
its name to the whole service. But there are many
similar cases in liturgical language. Communion ^
confession^ hreviary are none of them names that ex-
press the essential character of what they denote. In
the case of the word missa we can trace the develop-
ment of its meaning step by step. We have seen it
used b^ St. Augustine, synods of the sixth century,
and Hincmar of Reims for " dismissal ". Missa Cate-
chumenorum means the dismissal of the catechumens.
It appears that missa fit or missa est was the regular
formula for sending people away at the end of a trial
or legal process. Avitus of Vienne (d. 523) says:
" In churches and palaces or law-courts the dismissal is
proclaimed to be made [missa ^im pronuntiatur] when
the people are dismissed from their attendance '' (Ep.
i). SoalsoSt. Isidore of Seville: " At the time of the
MA88
792
IkASS
sacrifioe the dismissal is [missa tempore aocrf/ictt est]
when the catechumens are sent out, as the deacon
cries: If anv one of the catechumens remain, let him
go out: and thence it is the dismissal [et inde missa] "
("Etymol.", VI, xix, in P. L., LXXXII, 252). As
there was a dismissal of the catechumens at the end of
the first part of the service, so was there a dismissal of
the faithful (the baptized) after the Communion.
There were, then, a missa caiechumenorum and a missa
fideliumf both, at first, in the sense of dismissals only.
So Florus Diaconus (d. 860) : " MiSsa is understood as
nothing but dimissio, that is, absolutio, which the
deacon pronounces when the people are dismissed
from the solemn service. The deacon cried out and
the catechumens were sent [mittebarUur]^ that is, were
dismissed outside [id est^ dimiUebaniur foras]. So the
missa catechumenorum was made before the action of
the Sacrament (i. e.. before the Canon Actionis)^ the
missa fiddium is made " — note the difference of tense;
in Florus's time the dismissal of the catechumens had
ceased to be practised — "after the consecration and
commimion" [post confecHonem et participationem]
(P. L., CXIX, 72).
How the word gradually changed its meaning from
dismissal to the whole service, up to and including the
dismissal, is not difl&cult to understand. In the texts
quoted we see already the foundation of such'a change.
To stay till the missa caiechumenorum is easily modi-
fied into: to stay for, or during, the missa catechu-
menorum. So we find these two misses used for the
two halves of the Liturcy. Ivo of Chartres (d. 1116)
has forgotten the original meaning, and writes : ** Those
who heard the missa catechumenorum evaded the
missa sacramentorum'* (Ep. ccxix, in P. L., CLXII,
224). The two parts are then called by these two
names; as the discipline of the catechumenate is grad-
ually jforgotten^ and there remains only one con-
nected service, it is called by the long familiar name
missaj without further qualification. We find, how-
ever, through the Middle Ages the plural missce^ miS"
sarum solemnia, as well as missce sacramentum and
such modified expressions also. Occasionally the
word is transferred to the feastnday. The feast of St.
Martin, for instance, is called Missa S. Martini. It is
from this use that the German Mess, Messtag, and so
on are derived. The day and place of a local feast was
the occasion of a market (for all this see Rottmanncr,
op. cit., in bibliography below). Kirmess (Flemish
Kermis, Ft. kermesse) is Kirch-mess, the anniversary of
the dedication of a church, the occasion of a fair. The
Latin missa is modified in all Western languages (It.
messa, Sp. misa, Fr. messe, Germ. Messe, etc.). The
English form before the Conquest was maesse,\hi&n
tiiddle Engl, messe, masse — " It nedith not to speke of
the masse ne the seruise that thei hadde that day"
("Merlin" in the Early Engl. Text Soc., II, 375)
— " And whan our parish masse was done " (" Sir Cau-
line". Child's Ballads, III, 175). It also existed as a
verb: "to mass" was to say mass; "massing-priest"
was a common term of abuse at the Reformation.
It should be noted that the name Mass (missa) ap-
Slies to the Eucharistic service in the Latin rites only,
[either in Latin nor in Greek has it ever been applied
to any Eastern rite. For them the corresponding
word IS Liturgy (titurgia). It is a mistake that leads
to confusion, and a scientific inexactitude, to speak of
any Eastern Liturey as a Mass.
B. The Origin of the Mass. — The Western Mass, like
all Liturgies, begms, of course, with the Last Supper.
What Christ then did, repeated as he commanded in
memory of Him, is the nucleus of the Mass. As soon
as the Faith was brought to the West the Holy Eu-
charist was celebrated here, as in the East. At first
the language used was Greek. Out of that earliest
Liturgy, the language being changed to Latin, de-
veloped the two great parent rites of the West, the
Roman and the Galilean (see Ltturgt). Of these two
the Galilean Mass may be traced without difficulty.
It is so plainly Antiochene in its structure, in the veiy
text of many of its prayers, that we are safe in ae-
coimting for it as a translated form of the Lituny of
Jerusalem-Antioch, brought to the West at about
the time when the more or less fluid universal Liturgy
of ihe first three centuries gave place to different fixed
rites (see Liturgy; Gallican Kite). The orinn of
the Roman Mass, on the other hand, is a most difficult
Question. We have here two fixed and certain data:
tne Litui^gy in Greek described by St. Justin Mart^
(d. c. 165), which is that of the Church of Rome in toe
second century, and, at the other end of the develop-
ment, the Liturgy of the first Roman Sacramentaries
in Latin, in about the sixth century. The two are
very different. Justin's account represents a rite of
what we should now call an Eastern type, correspond-
ing with remarkable exactness to that of the Apostolic
Constitutions (see Liturgy) . The Leonine and
Gelasian Sacramentaries show us what is practically
our present Roman Mass. How did the service change
from the one to the other? It is one of the chief dS-
ficulties in the history of liturgy. During the last few
vears, especially, all manner of solutions and com-
oinations have been proposed. We will first note
some points that are certain, that may serve as land-
marks in an investigation.
Justin Martyr, Clement of Rome, Hippolytus (d.
235), and Novatian (c. 250) all agree in the Litui^gies
they describe, though the evidence of the last two is
scanty (Probst, "Liturgie der drei ersten christl
Jahrhdte"; Drews, " Untersuchungen tiber die sogen.
clement. Liturgie "). Justin gives us the fullest litur-
gical description of any Father of the first three cen-
turies (ApoL, I, Ixv, IX vi, quoted and discussed in
Liturgy) . He describes how the Holy Eucharist was
celebrated at Rome in the middle of the second cen-
tury; his account is the necessary point of departure,
one end of a chain whose intermeaiate links are hid-
den. We have hardly any knowledge at all of what
developments the Roman Rite went through during
the third and fourth centuries. This is the mysterious
time where conjecture may, and does, run riot. By
the fifth century we come back to comparatively firm
ground, after a radical change. At this time we have
the fragment in Pseudo- Ambrose, *'De sacramentis"
(about 400. Cf. P. L., XVI, 443), and the letter of
Pope Innocent I (401-17) to Decentius of Eugubium
(P. L. , XX, 553) . In these documents we see uiat the
Roman Liturgy is said in Latin and has already be-
come in essence the rite we still use. A few indica-
tions of the end of the fourth century agree with tiiis.
A little later we come to the earliest Sacramentaries
(Leonine, fifth or sixth century; Gelasian, sixth or
seventh century) and from then the history of the
Roman Mass is fairly clear. The fifth and sixth cen-
turies therefore show us the other end of the chain.
For the interval between the second and fifth centuries,
during which the great change took place, although we
know so little about Rome itself, we have valuable data
from Africa. There is everv reason to believe that in
liturgical matters the Church of Africa followed Rome
closely. We can supply much of what we wish to
know about Rome from the African Fathers of the
third century, Tertullian (d. c. 220), St. Cyprian (d.
258), the Acts of St. Perpetua and St. Felicitas (203),
St. Augustine (d. 430) (see Cabrol, " Dictionnaire d'
arch6oIogie ", I, 591-657). The question of the
change of language from Greek to Latin is less impor-
tant than it might seem. It came about natundly
when Greek ceaused to be the usual language of the
Roman Qiristians. Pope Victor I (190^202), an
African, seems to have been the first to use Latin at
Rome. Novatian writes Latin. By the second half
of the third century the usual litui^cal languase at
Rome seems to have been Latin (Kattenbusch, " ^rm-
bolik", II, 331), though fragments of Greek remame^
MASS
793
irfAM
f<% mfUiy centuries. Other writers think that Latin
was not finally adopted till the end of the fourth cen-
tury (Probst, ''Die abendl&nd. Messe'', 5; Rietschel,
"Lehrbuch der Liturgik", I, 337). No doubt, for a
time both languages were used. The question is dis-
cussed at length in C. P. Caspari, *' Quellen zur Gesch.
des Tauf symbols u. der Glaubensreger' (Christiania,
1879), III, 267 so. The Creed was sometimes said in
Greek, somepsaims were sung in that language, the
lessons on Holy Saturday were read in Greek and
Latin as late as the eighth century (Ordo Rom., I, P.
L., LXXVIII, 966-68, 955). There are still such frag-
ments of Greek ("Kyrie eleison", "A«ios O Theos )
in the Roman Mass. But a change of lancua^e^ does
not involve a change of rite. Novatian's Latm aUu-
sions to the Eucharistic prayer agree veiy well with
those of Clement of Rome in Greek, and with the
Greek forms in Apost. Const., VIII (Drews, op. cit.,
107-22). The Africans, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, etc.,
who write Latin, describe a rite very closely related to
that of Justin and the Apostolic Constitutions (Probst,
op. cit., 183-206; 215-30). The Galilean Rite, as m
Germanus of Paris (Duchesne, "Origines du Culte",
180-217), shows how Eastern— how ''Greek "—a
Latin Liturgy can be. We must then conceive the
change of language in the third century as a detail that
did not much affect the development of the rite. No
doubt the use of Latin was a factor in the Roman ten-
dency to shorten the prayers, leave out whatever
seemed redundant in formulas, and abridge the whole
service. Latin is naturally terse, compared with the
rhetorical abundance of Greek. This difference is one
of the most obvious distinctions between the Roman
and the Eastern Rites.
If we may suppose that during the first three cen-
turies there was a conunon Liturgy throughout Chris-
tendom, variable, no doubt, in details, but uniform in
all its main points, which common Liturgy is repre-
sented bjT tnat of the eighth book of the Apostolic
Constitutions, we have in that the origin of the Roman
Mass as of all other liturgies (see Liturqy). There
are, indeed, special reasons for supposing that this
type of liturgy was used at Rome. Tne chief authori-
ties for it (Clement, Justin, Hippolytus, Novatian) are
ajl Roman. Moreover, even the present Roman Rite,
in spite of later modifications, retains certain elements
that resemble those of the Apost. Const. Liturgy re-
markably. For instance, at Rome there neither is nor
has been a public Offertory prayer. The "Oremus"
said just before the Offertory is the fragment of auite
another thing, the old prayers of the faithful, of wnich
we still have a specimen in the series of collects on
Good Friday. The Offertory is made in silence while
the choir sin@3 part of a psalm. Meanwhile the cele-
brant says private Offertory prayers which in the old
form of the Mass are the Secrets only. The older
Secrets are true Offertory prayers. In the Byzantine
Rite, on the other hand, the gifts are prepared before-
hand, brought up with the singing of the Cherubikon,
and offered at the altar by a public Synapte of deacon
and people, and a prayer once sung aloud by the cele-
brant (now only the Ekphonesis is sung aloud). The
Roman custom of a silent offertory with private
prayer is that of the Liturgy ef the Apostohc Con-
stitutions. Here too the rubric says only: "The
deacons bring the gifts to the bishop at the altar"
(VIII, xii, 3) and "The Bishop, praying by himself
[Ko^AiwT6r, "silently"] with the pnests . . . "(VIII,
xii, 4). No doubt m this case, too, a psalm was sung
meanwhile^ whidi would account for the unique in-
stance of silent prayer. The Apostolic Constitutions
order that at this point the deacons should wave fans
over the oblation (a practical precaution to keep away
insects, VTII, xii, 3); this, too, was done at Rome
down to the fourteenth century fMart^ne, " De anti-
quis eccl. ritibus ", Antwerp, 1 763, I^ 145) . The Roman
Mass, like the Apostolic (Constitutions (VIII, xi, 12),
has a washing of hands just before the Offertory. It
once had a uss of peace before the Preface. Pope
InnocentI,in his letter to Deoentius of Eugubium (416),
remarks on this older custom of placing it ante ctynftda
mysieria (before the Eucharistic prayer — ^P. L., XX,
553). That is its place in the Apost. Const. (Vlil, xi,
9). After the Lord's Prayer, at Rome, during the
fraction, the celebrant sings: " Pax Domini sit semper
vobiscum . " It seems that this was the place to which
the kiss of peace was first moved (as in Innocent I's
letter). This greeting, unique in the Roman Rite, oc-
curs again only in the Ap<x5t. Const. (^ clp-^nj tov BeoO
ft/trii xdvTiaw it/jiQp), Here it comes twice: after the
Intercession (VIII, xiii, 1) and at the kiss of peace
(VIII, xi, 8). The two Roman prayers after the
Communion, the Postcommunion and the Oratio
super populum {ad poptdum in the Gelasian Sacra-
mentary) correspona to the two prayers, first a
thanksgiving, then a prayer over the people, m Apost.
Const., VIII, XV, 1-5 ancl 7-9.
There is an interesting deduction that may be made
from the present Roman Preface. A number of Pref-
aces introduce the reference to the angels (who sing
the Sanctus) by the form et ideo. In many cases it is
not clear to what this idea refers. Like the igitur at
the beginning of the Canon, it does not seem justified
by what precedes. May we conjecture that some-
thing has been left out? The beginning of the Euchar-
istic prayer in the Apost. Const., VIII, xii, 6-27 (the
part oefore the Sanctus, our Preface, it is to be found
m Brightman, "Liturgies, Eastern and Western", I,
Oxford, 1896, 14-18), is much longer, and enumerates
at length the benefits of creation and various events
of the Old Law. The angels are mentioned twice,
at the beginning as the first creatures and then again
at the end abruptly, without connexion with what has
preceded, in oraerto introduce the Sanctus. The
shortness of the Roman Prefaces seems to make it
certain that they have been curtailed. All the other
rites begin the Eucliaristic prayer (after the formula:
"Let us give thanks") with a long thanksgiving for
the various benefits of God. which are enumerated.
We know, too^ how much o( the development of the
Roman Mass is due to a tendency to abridge the older
prayers. If then we suppose that the Roman Preface
IS such an abridgement of that in the Apost. Const.,
with the details of the Creation and Old Testament
history left out, we can account for the ideo. The
two references to the angels in the older prayer have
met and coalesced. The ideo refers to the omitted
list of benefits, of which the angels, too, have their
share. The parallel between the orders of angels in
both liturgies is exact: —
Roman Missal Apost. Ck>NST.
cum Angelis arftartaX ayy/A«»v,
et Archangelist cum Thronis apxayy^Awr, $p6vm¥,
et Dominationibua, cumque icvpior^TMv,
omni militia ciBlestis exer- <rrpariMv
ciiuS aJMvitty^ ,
sine fine dioentes. Myovra oicarairavoTMv.
Another parallel is in the old forms of the " Hano
igitur" prayer. Baumstark ("Liturgia romana",
102-07) has found two early Roman forms of this
prayer in Sacramentaries at Vauclair and Rouen,
already published by Mart^ne (" Voyage litt^raire ",
Paris, 1724,40) and Delisle(inEbner, "Iteritalicum",
417), in which it is much longer and has plainly the
nature of an Intercession, such as we find in the East-
em rites at the end of the Anaphora. The form is:
"Hanc igitur oblationem servitutis nostrse sed et
cunctee familise tuae, qusesumus Domine placatus
accipias, quam tibi devoto offerimus corde pro pace
et caritate et imitate sanctse ecclesis, pro fide catholica
. . . pro sacerdotibus et omni gradu ecclesise, pro
regibus . . . " (Therefore, Ol^rd, we beseech Thee,
be pleased to accept this offering of our service and of
all Thy household, which we offer Thee with devout
BCA88
794
MASS
heart for the peace, charityi and iinity of Holy Church,
for the Catholic Faith ... for the Diieets and every
order of the Church, for kings . . . ; and so on, enu-
merating a complete list of people for whom prayer
is said. Baumstark prints these clauses parallel with
those of the Intercesison in various Eastern rites; most
of them may be found in that of the Apo^. Const.
(VIII, xii, 40-50, and xiii, 3-9). This, then, supplies
another missing element in the Mass. Eventuallv
the clauses enumerating the petitions were suppressed!,
no doubt because they were thought to be a useless
Feduplication of the prayers "Te igitur", "Communi-
cantes", and the two Mementos (Baumstark, op. cit.,
107), and the introduction of this Intercession (Hahc
igitur . . . placatus accipias) was joined to what
seems to have once been part of a prayer for the dead
(diesque nostros in tua pace disponas, etc.).
We still have a faint echo of the old Intercession in
the clause about*the newly-baptized interpolated into
the "Hanc igitur" at Easter and Whitsuntide. The
beginning of the prayer has a parallel in Apost. Const..
VIII, xiii, 3 (the (beginning oi the deacon's Litany oi
Intercession) . Drews thinks that the form quoted by
Baiunstark, with its clauses all beginning pro, was
spoken by the deacon as a litany, Uke the clauses in
Apost. Const, beginning ^^p (Untersuchungen tiber
die sog. clem. Lit., 139). The prayer containing the
words of Institution in the Roman Mass (Qui pridie
. . in mei memoriam facie tis) has just the construc-
tions and epithets of the corresponding text in Apost.
Const., VIII, xii, 36-37. All this and many more
Earallels between the Mass and the Apost. Const,
liturgy may be studied in Drews (op. cit.) . It is true
that we can find parallel passages with other liturgies
too, notably with that of Jerusalem (St. James).
There are several forms that correspond to those of the
Egyptian Rite, such as the Roman '* de tuis donis ac
datis" in the " Unde et memores" (St. Mark: iic tQp
ffQp d(i)po9v; Brightman, " Eastern Liturgies", p. 133, 1.
30) ; " offerimus praeclarae maiestati tuie de tuis donis
ac datis" is found exactly in the Coptic form (" before
thine holy glory we have set thine own gift of thine
own", ibid., p. 178, 1. 15). But this does not mean
merely that there are parallel passages between any
two rites. The similarities of the Apost. Const, are far
more obvious than those of any other. The Roman
Mass, even apart from the testimony of Justin Martyr.
Clement, Hippolytus, Novatian, still bears evidence oi
its development from a type of liturgy of which that of
the Apostolic Constitutions is the only perfect surviv-
ing specimen (see Liturgy). There is reason to be-
lieve, moreover, that it has since been influenced both
from Jerusalem- Ant ioch and Alexandria, though
many of the forms common to it and these two may
be survivals of that original^ universal fluid rite which
have not been preserved m the Apost. Const. It
must always be remembered that no one maintains
that the Apost. Const. Liturroj is word for word the
?riraitive universal Liturgy. The thesis defended by
robst, Drews, Kattenbusch, Baumstark, and others
is that there was a comparatively vague and fluid
rite of which the Apost. Const, have preserved for us
a specimen.
But between this original Roman Rite (which we
can study only in the Apost. Const.) and the Mass as it
emerges in the first sacramentaries (sixth to seventh
century) there is a great change. Much of this change
is accounted for by the Roman tendency to shorten.
The Apost. Const, has five lessons; Rome has generally
only two or three. At Rome the prayers of the faitli-
ful after the expulsion of the catechumens and the
Intercession at the end of the Canon have gone. Both
no doubt were considered superfluous since there is a
series of petitions of the satne nature in the Canon.
But both iiave left traces. We still say 0remu8 before
the Offertory, where the prayers of the faithful once
stood, and still have these prayers on Good Friday in
•
the collects. And the " Hanc Igitur " is a fragment of
the Intercession. The first great change that separate!
Rome from all the Eastern rites is the ii^uenoe of ths
ecclesiastical year. The Eastern liturgies remain al-
ways the same except for the lessons, Prokeimerum
(Gradual- verse), and one or two other slight modifica-
tions. On the other hand the Roman Mass is pro-
foundly affected throughout by the season or feast od
which It is said. Probst's theory was that this change
was made by Pope Damasus (36^-84; ''Liturgie des
vierten Jahrh. ", pp. 448-72) . This idea is now aban-
doned (Funkm ''tabmger Quartalschrift ", 1894, pp.
683 sq.). Indeed, we have the authority of Pope
Vigilius (540-55) for the fact that in the sixth century
the order of the Mass was still harcUy affected by tbie
calendar ("Ep. ad Eutherium" m P. L., LXIX, 18).
The influence of the ecclesiastical year must have be^
gradual. The lessons were of course alwa3r8 varied,
and a growing tendency to refer to the feast or season
in the prayers. Preface, and even in the Canon, brought
about the present state of things, already in tull force
in the Leonine Sacramentary. That Damasus was
one of the popes who modified[ the old rite seems, how-
ever, certam. St. Gregory I (590-604) says he intro-
duced the use of the Hebrew AUduia from Jerusalem
(" Ep. ad loh. Syiucus. " m P. L., LXXVII, 956). It
was under Damasus that the Vulgate became the
official Roman version of the Bible used in the Litur^;
a constant tradition ascribes to Damasus's friend St.
Jerome (d. 420) the arrangement of the Roman Leo-
tionary. Mgr Duchesne thinks that the Canon was
arranged by this pope (Origines du Culte, 168-9). A
curious error of a Roman theologian oi Damasus's
time, who identified Melchisedech with the Holy
Ghost, incidentally shows us one prayer of our Mass as
existing then, namely the " Supra qu« " with its
allusion to "summus sacerdos tuus Melchisedech'*
("Quflest. V. et N. Test." in P. L., XXXV, 2329).
C. The Mass from the Fifth to the Seventh Century. —
By about the fifth century we begin to see more clearly.
Two documents of this timie give us fairly large frag-
ments of the Roman Mass. Innocent I (401-17), m
his letter to Decentius of Euffubium (about 416; P. L.,
XX, 553), alludes to many features of the Mass. We
notice that these important changes have already been
made: the kiss of peace has been moved from the
beginning of the Mass of the Faithful to after the Con-
secration, the Commemoration of the Living and Dead
is made in the Canon, and there are no longer prayers
of the faithful before the Offertory (see Canon op the
Mass). Rietschel (Lehrbuch der Litureik, I, 340-1)
thinks that the Invocation of the Holy Ghost has
already disappeared from the Mass. Innocent does
not mention it, but we have evidence of it at a later
date under Gelasius I (492-6: see Canon of the
Mass, s. v. Supplices te rogamus, and Epiklesis).
Rietschel doc. cit.) also thioJcs that there was a dog-
matic reason for these changes, to emphajsize the sacri-
ficial idea. We notice especially that in Innocent's
time the prayer of Intercession follows the Consecra-
tion (see (3anon of the Mass). The author of the
treatise ** De Sacramentis" (wrongly attributed to St.
Ambrose, in P. L., XVI, 418 sq.) says that he will ex-
plain the Roman Use, and proceeds to quote a great
part of the Canon (the text is given in Canon of the
Mass, II). From this document we can reconstruct
the following scheme: The Mass of the (Catechumens
is still distinct from that of the faithful, at least in
theory. The people sing " Introibo ad altare Dei" as
the celebrant and nis ministers approach the altar (the
Introit). Then follow lessons from Scripture, chants
(Qraduals), and a sermon (the Cateohiunens* Mass).
The people still make the Offertory of bread and wine.
The IVeface and Sanctus follow (laua Deo defertur),
then the prayer of Intercession {aratione petttur jaro
voptdo, pro reffibug, pro ceteris) and the Ck>n8ecratJ0Q
r>y the words of Institution (ut conficUwr vm. 9acrq^
TMTAaff
795
2CASS
mmiJtum . . . vHbur wrmonibu9 ChritH). From this
point (Fao nobis banc oblationem ascriptam, ratam,
lationalnlem . . .) the text of the Canon is quoted.
Then oome the Anamnesis (Ejrgq memores , . .),
joined to it the prayer of oblation (offerimus tibi hano
immaculatam hostiam . . .), i. e., practically our
"Supra quae" prayer, and the Communion with the
form: ** Corpus Christi. R. Amen", during which Ps.
xxii is sune. At the end the Lord's Prayer is said.
In the "De Sacramentis", then, the Intercession
comes before the Consecration, whereas in Innocent's
letter it came after. This transposition should be
noted as one of the most important features in the
development of the Mass. The "Liber Pontificalia"
(ed. Duchesne, Paris, 1886-92) contains a number of
statements about changes in and additions to the
liass made by various popes, as for instance that Leo I
(440-61) added the woros "sanctum sacrificium, im-
maculatam hoetiam" to the prayer "Supra quad",
that Sei^gius I (687-701) introduced the 4gnus Dei,
and so on. These must be received with caution; the
whole book still needs critical examination. In the
case of the Agnus Dei the statement is made doubtful
by the fact that it is found in the Gregorian Sacramen-
tary (whose date, however, is agam doubtful). A
constant tradition ascribes some great influence on
the Mass to Gelasius I (492-6). Gennadius (De vir.
illustr., xciv) sa^s he composed a sacramentary ; the
Liber Pontincalis speaks of his liturgical work, and
there must be some basis for the way in which his
name is attached to the famous Gelasian Sacramen-
tary. What exactly Gelasius did is less easy to
determine.
We come now to the end of a period at the reign of
St. Gregory I (590-604). Gr^ory knew the Mass
poracticaily as we still have it. There have been addi-
tions and changes since his time, but none to compare
with the complete recasting of the Canon that took
place before him. At least as far as the Canon is con-
cerned, Gregory may be considered as having put the
last touches to it. His biographer, John the Deacon,
says that he "collected the Sacramentary of Gelasius
in one book, leaving out much, changing little, adding
something for the exposition of the Gospels" (Vita S.
Greg., II, xvii). He moved the Our Father from the
end of the Mass to before the Communion, as he says
in his letter to John of Syracuse: " We say the Lord's
Prayer immediately after the Canon \mox post pre-
eem] ... It seems to me very imsmtable that we
should say the Canon [prex] which an unknown scho-
lar composed [quam schotasHcus composuerat] over
the oblation and that we should not say the prayer
handed down by our Redeemer himself over His body
and bk)od " (P. L. , LXX VII, 956) . He is also credited
with the addition: "diesque nostros etc." to the
"Hanc igitiur" (ibid.; see Canon op the Mass).
Benedict XIV says that "no pope has added to, or
changed the Canon since St Gregory" (De SS. Missse
saorificio, p. 162). There has been an important
change since, the partial amalgamation of the old
Roman Rite with Galilean features; but this hardly
affects the Canon. We may say safely that a modem
Latin Catholic who coidd be carried back to Rome in
the early seventh century would — ^while missing some
features to which he is accustomed — find himself on
the whole quite at home with the service he saw there.
This brings us back to the most difficult question:
Why and when was the Roman Liturgy changed from
what we see in Justin Martyr to that of Gregory I?
The change is radical, especially as regards the most
important element of the Mass, the Canon. The modi-
fications in the earlier part, the smaller number of
lessons, the omission of the prayers for and expulsion
c^ the catechumens, of the prayers of the faithful be-
fore the Offertory and so on, may be accounted for
easily as a result of the characteristic Roman tendency
to shorten the service and leave out what had become
superfluous. The influence of the calendar has abready
been noticed. But there remains the great question
of the arrangement of the Canon. That the order of
the prayers that make up the Canon is a cardinal diffi-
culty is admitted by every one. The old attempts to
justify their present order by symbolic or mystic rea-
sons have now been given up. The Roman Canon as
it stands is recognized as a problem of great difficulty.
It differs fundamentally from the Anaphora of any
Eastern rite and from the Galilean Canon. Whereas
in the Antiochene family of liturgies (including that
of Gaul) the great Intercession follows the Consecra-
tion, which comes at once after the Sanctus, and in the
Alexandrine class the Intercession is said during what
we should call the Preface before the Sanctus, in the
Roman Rite the Intercession is scattered throughout
the Canon, partly before and partly after the Conse-
cration. We may add to this the other difficulty, the
omission at Rome of any kind of clear Invocation of
the Holy Ghost (Epiklesis). Paul Drews has tried to
solve this question. His theory is that the Roman
Mass, starting from the primitive vaguer rite (prac-
tically that of the Apostolic Constitutions), at first
followed the development of Jcrusalem-Antioch, and
was for a time very similar to the Liturgy of St. James.
Then it was recast to brine it nearer to Alexandria.
This change was made probably by Gelasius I under
the influence of his guest, John Talaia of Alexandria.
The theory is explained at length in the article Canon
OP THE Mass. Here we need only add that it has re-
ceived in the main the support of F. X. Funk (who at
first opposed it; see "lustor. Jahrbuch der Gorres-
gesellschaft", 1903, pp. 62, 283; but see also his
" Kirchengesch. Abhandlungen", III, Paderbom,
1907, pp. 85-134, in which he will not admit that he
has altogether changed his mind), A. Baumstark
("Liturgia romana e Liturgia dell' Esarcato", Rome,
1904), and G. Rauschen ("Eucharistie und Bussakra-
ment", Freiburg, 1908, p. 86). But other theories
have been suggested. Baumstark does not follow
Drews in the details. He conceives (op. cit.) the origi-
nal Canon as consisting of a Preface m which God is
thanked for the benefits of creation; the Sanctus
interrupts the prayers, which then continue (Vere
Sanctus) with a prayer (now disappeared) thanking
God for Redemption and so coming to the Institution
(Pridie autem quam pateretur . . .). Then follow
the AnamTiesis (tlnde et memores), the "Supra qua)",
the "Te igitur", joined to an Epiklesis after the words
"hsec sancta sacrificia illibata". Then the Interces-
sion (In primis quse tibi offerimus . . .), "Memento
vivorum", "Communicantes", "Memento defuncto-
rum" (Nos quo<iue pcccatores . . . intra sanctorum
tuorum consortium non eestimator meriti sed veniffi
qusesumus largitor admittc, per Christum Dominum
nostrum).
This order then (according to Baumstark) was dis-
located by the insertion of new elements, the "Hanc
Igitur", "Quam oblationem", "Supra quae" and
" Supplices ", the list of saints in the " Nobis quoque ",
all of which prayers were in some sort reduplications
of what was already contained in the Canon. They
represent a mixed influence of Antioch and Alexan-
dria, which last reached Rome through Aquilea and
Ravenna, where there was once a rite of the Alexan-
drine type. St. Leo I began to make these changes;
Gregory I finished the process and finally recast the
Canon in the form it still has. It will be seen that
Baumstark's theory agrees with that of Drews in the
main issue — ^that at Rome originally the whole Inter-
cession followed the Canon. Dom Cagin (Pal^o-
graphie musicale, V, 80 sq.) and Dom Cabrol (Origines
Rturgiques, 354 sq.) propose an entirely different
theory. So far it has been admitted on all sides that
the Roman and Galilean rites belong to different
classes: the Galilean Rite approaches that of Antioch
very closely, the origin of the Roman one being the
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796
MA88
great problem. Cagin's idea is that all that must be
reversed, the Gallican Rite has no comiezion at all
with Antioch or any Eastern Liturgy ; it is in its origin
the same rite as the Roman. Rome changed this ear-
lier form about the sixth or seventh century. Before
that the order at Rome was: Secrets, Preface, Sanctus,
"Te igitur"; then "Hanc igitur", "Quam oblatio-
nem", "Qui pridie" (these uuree pravers correspond
to the Gallican Post-Sanctus). Then followed a
group like the Gallican Pos^Pridie, namely '* Undo et
memores", ?*0flferimu8 praeclar»", ** Supra quae",
"Supplices", "Per eunaem Christum etc.", "Per
quern hsec omnia", and the Fraction. Then came the
Lord's Prayer with its embolism, of which the " Nobis
()uoque " was a part. The two Mementos were orig-
inally before the Preface. Dom Cagin has certainly
pointed out a number of points in which Rome and
Uaul (that is all the Western rites) stand together as
opposed to the East. Such points are the changes
caused by the calendar, the introduction of the Insti-
tution by the words '* Qui pridie ", whereas all Eastern
Liturgies have the form " In the night in which he was
betrayed". Moreover the place of the kiss of peace
(in Gaul before the Preface) cannot be quoted as a
difference between Rome and Gaul, since, as we have
seen, it stood originally in that place at Rome too.
The Gallican diptychs come before the Preface; but
no one knows for certain where they were said ori^-
nally at Rome. Caein puts them in the same place in
the earlier Roman Mass. His theory may be studied
further in Dom Cabrol's ** Origines liturgiques", where
it is very clearly set out (pp. 353-64). Mgr Duchesne
has attacked it vigorously and not without effect in
the " Revue d'histoire et de litt^rature eccl6siastiques"
(1900), pp. 31 sq. Mr. Edmund Bishop criticizes the
German theories (Drews, Baumstark etc.), and im-
plies in general terms that the whole question of the
grouping of liturgies will have to be reconsidered on a
new oasis, that of the form of the words of Institution
(Appendix to Dom R. Connolly's "Liturgical Homi-
lies of Narsai" in "Cambridge Texts and Studies",
VIII, I, 1909). It is to be regretted that he has not
told us plainly what position he means to defend, and
tha^ he is here again content with merelv negative
criticism. The other great question, that of the disap-
pearance of the Roman Epiklesis, cannot be examined
here (see Canon of the Mass and Epiklesis). We
will only add to what has been said in those articles
that the view is growing that there was an Invocation
of the Second Person of the Holy Trinity, an Epiklesis
of the Logos, before there was one of the Holy Ghost.
The Anaphora of Serapion (fourth century in Egypt)
contains such an Epiklesis of the Logos only (in I* unk,
"Didascalia", II, Paderborn, 1905, pp. 174-6). Mr.
Bishop (in the above-named Appendix) thinks that
the Invocation of the Holy Ghost did not arise till
later (Cyril of Jerusalem, about 350, being the first
witness for it), that Rome never had it, that her only
Epiklesis was the "Quam oblationem" before the
words of Institution. Against this we must set what
seems to be the convincing evidence of Gelasius I's
letter (quoted in Canon op the Mass, s. v. Supplicea
te rogamua).
We have then as the conclusion of this paragraph
that at Rome the Eucharistic prayer was fundamen-
tally changed and recast at some uncertain period be-
tween the lourth and the sixth and seventh centuries.
During the same time the prayers of the faithful before
the Offertory disappeared, the kiss of peace was trans-
ferred to after the Consecration, and tne Epiklesis was
omitted or mutilated into our "Supplices" prayer.
Of the various theories suggested to account for this it
seems reasonable to say with Rauschen: "Although
the question is by no means decided, nevertheless
there is so much in favour of Drews's tneory that for
the present it must l)e considered the right one. We
must then admit that between the years 400 and 600
a great transformation was made in the Roman
Canon" (Euch. u. Busssakr., 86).
D. From the Seventh Century to Modem Times.--
After Gregory the Great (590-604) it is comparatively
easy to follow the history of the Mass in tne Roman
Rite. We have now as documents first the three well-
known sacramentaries. The oldest, called Leonine^
exists in a seventh-century manuscript. Its composi-
tion is ascribed variously to the fifth, sixth, or seventh
century (see Litubgical Boosls). It is a fragment,
wanting the Canon, but, as far as it goes, represents
the Mais we know (without the later Gallican addi-
tions). Many of its collects, secrets, post-commu-
nions, and prefaces are still in use. The Gelasian book
was written in the sixth, seventh, or eighth century
(ibid.) ; it is partly GalUcanized and was composed in
the Frankish Kingdom. Here we have our Canon
word for word. The third sacramentary, called GregO'
riaUf is apparentlv the book sent by Pope Adrian I to
Charlenaagpe probably between 781 and 791 (ibid.).
It contains additional Masses since Gregory's time and
a set of supplements gradually incorporated into the
original book, giving Frankish (i e. older Roman and
Gallican) additions. Dom Suitbert Baumer ('* Ueber
das sogen. Sacram. Gelasianum" in the '' Histor. Jahr-
buch' , 1893, pp. 241-301) and Mr. Edmund Bishop
("The Earliest Roman Massbook" in "Dublin Re-
view", 1894, pp. 245-78) explain the development of
the Roman Rite from the nmth to the eleventh cen-
tury in this way: The (pure) Roman Sacramentary
sent by Adrian to Charlemagne was ordered by the
king to be used alone throughout the Frankish King-
dom. But the people were attached to their, old use,
which was partly Roman (Gelasian) and partly Galli-
can. So wnen the Gregorian book was copied they
(notably Alcuin, d. 804) added to it these Franki^
supplements. Gradually the supplements became
incorporated into tKe original book. So composed it
came back to Rome (tmou^h the influence of the
Carlo vingian emperors) and became the "use of the
Roman Church". The "Missale Romanum Latem-
nense" of the eleventh century (ed. Azevedo, Rome,
1752) shows this fused rite complete as the only one in
use at Rome. The Roman Mass has thus gone through
this last change since Gregory the Great, a partial
fusion with GaUican elements. According to Baumer
and Bishop the Gallican influence is noticeable chiefly
in the variations for the course of the year. Their view
is that Gregory had given the Mass more uniformity
(since the time of the Leonine book), had brought it
rather to the model of the unchanging Eastern litur-
gies. Its present variety for different days and seasons
came bacK again with the mixed books later. Gallican
influence is also seen in many dramatic and symbolic
ceremonies foreign to the stern pure Roman Kite (sec
Bishop, "The Genius of the Roman Rite"). Such
ceremonies are the blessing of candles, ashes, palms,
much of the Holy Week ritual, etc.
The Roman Ordines, of which twelve were pub-
lished by Mabillon in his "Museum Italicum" (others
since by De Rossi and Duchesne), are valuable sources
that supplement the sacramentaries. They are de-
scriptions of ceremonial without the prayers (like the
" Cserimoniale Episcoporum"), and extend from the
eighth to the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries. The
first (eighth century) and second (based on the first,
with Frankish additions) are the most important (see
LiTURQiCAL Books). From these and the sacramen-
taries we can reconstruct the Mass at Rome in the
eighth or ninth century. There were as yet no pre-
paratory prayers said before the altar. The pope,
attended oy a great retinue of deacons, subdeacons,
acolytes, and singers, entered while the Introit psalm
was sung. After a prostration the Kjrrie eleison was
sung, as now with nine invocations (see Ktrie Elei-
son) ; any other litany hail disappeared. The Gloria
followed on feasts (sec (iLoria in Excelsib). The
BtASS
7^7
MASS
pope sang the prayer of the day (see Collect), two or
three lessons followed (see Lessons in the Liturgt),
interspersed with psalms (see Gradual). The prayers
of the faithfxil had gone, leaving only the one word
Oremus as a fragment. The people Drought up the
bread and wine while the Offertory psalm was sung;
the gifts were arranged on the altar by the deacons.
The Secret was said (at that time the only Olfertory
prayer) after the pope had washed his hands. The
Preface, Sanctus, and all the Canon followed as now.
A reference to the fruits of the earth led to the words
"per quem haec onmia" etc. Then came the Lord's
Prayer, the Fraction with a complicated ceremony,
the kiss of peace, the Agnus Dei (since Pope Sei^ius,
687-701), the Communion under both kinds, during
which tiie Conmiunion psalm was sung (see Com-
munion-Antiphon), the rost-Communion prayer, the
dismissal (see Ite Missa Est), and the procession back
to the sacristy (for a more detailed account see C.
Atchley, "Ordo Romanus Primus", London, 1905;
Duchesne, **Origines du Culte chr^tien", vi).
It has been explained how this (mixed) Roman Rite
gradually drove out the Galilean Use (see Liturgy).
By about the tenth or eleventh century the Roman
M!ass was practically the only one in use in the West.
Then a few additions (none of them very important)
were made to the Mass at different times. The Nioene
Creed is an importation from Constantinople. It is
said that in 1014 Emperor Henry II (1002-24) per-
suaded Pope Benedict VIII (1012-24) to add it after
the Gospel (Bemo of Reichenau, " De quibusdam re-
bus ad Missse offic. pertiL . ", ii). It had already been
adopted in Spain, Gaul, and Germany. All the present
ritual and tne prayers said by the celebrant at the
Offertory were introduced from France about the
thirteenth century (" Ordo Rom. XIV ", liii, is the first
witness; P. L., LXXVIII, 1163-4); before that the se-
crets were the only Offertory prayers (" Micrologus ", xi,
in P. L., CLI, 984) . There was considerable variety as
to these prayers throughout the Middle Ages until the
revised Missal pf Pius V (1570). The incensing of
persons and things is again due to Galilean influence;
It was not adopted at Rome till the eleventh or twelfth
century (Micrologus^ ix). Before that time incense
was burned only dunng processions (the entrance and
Gospel procession; see C. Atchley, "Ordo Rom. Pri-
mus", 17-18). The three prayers said by the cele-
brant before his communion are private devotions
introducfd gradually into the official text. Durandus
(thirteenth century, "Rationale," IV, liii) mentions
the first (for peace) ; the Sarum Rite had instead an-
other prayer addressed to God the Father (" Deus Pater
fons et origo totius bonitatis, " ed. Burntisland, 625).
Micrologus mentions only the second (D. I. Chr. qui ex
voluntate Patris), but says that many other private
prayers were said at this place (xviii) . Here too there
was great diversity through the Middle Ages till Pius V 's
Missal. The latest additions to the Mass are its pres-
ent be^nning and end. The psalm " ludica me ", the
Confession, and the other prayers said at the foot of the
altar, are all part of the celebrant's preparation, once
said (with many other psalms ancl prayers) in the
sacristy, as the '' Prseparatio ad Missam " m the Missal
now is. There was great diversity as to this prepara-
tion till Pius V established our modem rule of saying
80 much only before the altar. In the same way all
that follows the " Ite missa est " is an afterthought.
g&rt of the thanksgiving, not formally admitted till
iusV.
We have thus accounted for all the elements of the
Mass. Tlie next stage of its development is the
growth of numerous local varieties of the Roman Mass
m the Middle Ages. These medieval rites (Paris,
Rouen, Trier, Sarum, and so on all over Western
Europe) are simply exuberant local modifications of
the old Roman rite. The same applies to the partic-
ular uses of various religious orders (Carthusians, Do-
minicans, Carmelites etc.) . None of these deserves to
be called even a derived rite; their changes are only
ornate additions and amplifications; though certain
special points, such as the Dominican preparation of
tne offerings oefore the Mass begins, represent more
Galilean influence. The Milanese and Mozarabic lit-
urgies stand on quite a different footing; they are the
descendants of a really different rite — the original Gal-
ilean— ^though they too have been considerably Ro-
manized (see Liturgy).
Meanwhile the Mass was developing in other ways
also. During the first centuries it had been a common
custom for a number of priests to concdebrate; stand-
ing around their bishop, they joined in his prayers
and consecrated the oblation with him. This is still
common in the Eastern rites. In the West it had be-
come rare by the thirteenth century. St. Thomas
Aquinas (d. 1274) discusses the question, "Whether
several priests can consecrate one and the same host "
(Sunmia Theol., Ill, O. Ixxxii, a. 2). He answers of
course that they can, out quotes as an example only
the case of ordination. In this case only nas the
practice been preserved. At the ordination of priests
and bishops all the ordained concelebrate with the
ordainer. In other cases concelebration was in the
early Middle Ages replaced by separate private cele-
brations. No doubt the custom of offering each Mass
for a special intention helped to bring about this
change. The separate celebrations then involved the
building of many altars in one church and the reduc^
tion of the ritual to the simplest possible form. The
deacon and subdeacon were m this case dispensed with;
the celebrant took their part as well as his own. One
server took the part of the choir and of all the other
ministers, everything was said instead of being sung,
the incense and kiss of peace were omitted. So we
have the well-known rite of low Mass {missa privata).
This then reacted on high Mass (missa solemnis), so
that at high Mass too the celebrant himself recites
everything, even though it be also sung by the deacon,
subdeacon, or choir.
The custom of the intention of the Mass further led
to Mass being said every day by each priest. But this
has by no means been uniformly carried out. On the
one hand, we hear of an abuse of the same priest say-
ing Mass several times in the day, which medieval
councils constantly forbid. Again, many most pious
priests did not celebrate daily. Bossuet (d. 1704),
for instance, said Mass only on Sundays, Feasts, every
day in Lent, and at other times when a special ferial
Mass is provided in the Missal. There is still no obli-
^tion for a priest to celebrate daily, though the custom
IS now very common. The Council of Trent desir^
that priests should celebrate at least on Sundays and
solemn feasts (Sess. XXIII, cap. xiv). Celebration
with no assistants at all {missa solilaria) has continu-
ally been forbidden, as by the Synod of Mainz in 813.
Another abuse was the missa bifaciata or trifaciata^ in
which the celebrant said the first part, from the Introit
to the Preface, several times over and then joined to all
one Canon, in order to satisfy several intentions. This
too was forbidden by medieval councils (Durandus,
"Rationale", IV, i, 22). The missa sicca (dry Mass)
was a common form of devotion used for funerals or
marriages in the afternoon, when a real Mass could not
be said. It consisted of all the Mass except the Offer-
tory, Consecration and Communion (Durandus, ibid.,
23). The missa nautica and missa venatoria, said at
sea in rough weather and for hunters in a hurry, were
kinds of dry Masses. In some monasteries each priest
was obliged to say a dry Mass after the real (conven-
tual) Mass. Cardinal Bona (Rerum liturg. libr. duo,
I, xv) argues against the practice of saying dry Masses.
Since the reform of Pius V it has gradually disappeared.
The Mass of the Presanctified {missa prassanctificato-
rumj \ciTovpyla rQy mportyiaffftdytap) is a very old custom
described by the Quinisext Council (Second Trullan
MASS
798
MASS
Svnod, 692). It is a Service (not really a Mass at all)
of Communion from an oblation consecrated at a
I>revious Mass and reserved. It is used in the Bvsan-
tine Church on the week-days of Lent (except Satur-
days) ; in the Roman Rite only on Good Friday.
Finally came uniformity in the old Roman Kite and
the abolition of nearl]^ all the medieval variants. The
Council of Trent considered the question and formed a
commission to prepare a uniform Missal. Eventually
the Missal was published by Pius V by the BuU "Quo
primum" (still printed in it) of 14 July, 1570.* That
IS really the last stage of tne history of the Roman
Mass. It is Pius V's Missal that is used throughout
the Latin Church, except in a few cases where he al-
lowed a modified use that had a prescription of at
least two centuries. This exception saved the variants
used by some religious orders and a few local rites as
well as the Milanese and Mozarabic liturgies. Clem-
ent VIII (1604), Urban VIII (1634), and Leo XIII
(1884) revised the book slightly in the rubrics and the
texts of Scripture (see Liturgical Books). Pius X
has revised the chant (1908.) But these revisions
leave it still the Missal of Pius V. There has been
since the earlv Middle Ages unceasing change in
the sense of ad.ditions of masses for new feasts, the
Missal now has a number of supplements that still
grow (Liturgical Books), but liturgically these
additions represent no real change. The new Masses
are all built up exactly on the lines of the older ones.
We turn now to the present Roman Mass, without
comparison the most important and widespread, as it
it is m many wa^rs the most archaic service of the Holy
Eucharist in Christendom.
E. The Present Roman Mass. — It is not the object of
this paragraph to give instruction as to how the Ro-
man Mass is celebrated. The very complicated rules
of all kinds, the minute rubrics that must be obeyed by
the celebrant and his ministers, all the details of coin-
cidence and commemoration — these things, studied at
length by students before they are ordained, must be
sought in a book of ceremonial (Le Vavasseur, quoted
in the bibliography, is perhaps now the best). More-
over, articles on all the chief parts of the Mass, describ-
ing how they are carried out, and others on vestments,
music, and the other ornaments of the service, will be
found in The Catholic Encyclopedia. Itwillbesuffi-
oient here to give a general outline of the arrangement.
The ritual of the Mass is affected by (1) the person
who celebrates, (2) the day or the special occasion on
which it is said, (3) the kind of Mass (high or low) cele-
brated. But in all cases the general scheme is the
same. The normal ideal may be taken as high Mass
sung by a priest on an ordinary Sunday or feast that
has no exceptional feature.
Normally. Mass must be celebrated in a conse-
crated or blessed Church (private oratories or even
rooms are allowed for special reasons: see Le Vavas-
seur, I, 200-4) and at a consecrated altar (or at least
on a consecrated altar-stone), and may be celebrated
on any day in the year except Good Friday (restric-
tions are made agamst private celebrations on Holy
Saturday and in the case of private oratories for cer-
tain great feasts) at any time between dawn and mid-
day. A priest may say only one Mass each day, ex-
cept that on Christmas Day he may say three, and the
first may (or rather, should) then be said immediately
after midnight. In some countries (Spain and Portu-
gal) a priest may also celebrate three times on All
Souls' Day (2 November). Bishops may give leave
to a priest to celebrate twice on Sundays and feasts of
obligation, if otherwise the people could not fulfil their
duty of hearing Mass. In cathedral and collegiate
churches, as well as in those of religious oiders who
are bound to say the Canonical Hours every day
publicly, there is a daily Mass corresponding to the
Office and fonning with it the complete cycle of the
public worship of (Jod. This official public Mass is
called the conventual Mass; if possible it should be s
high Mass, but, even if it be not, it always has some of
the features of high Mass. Tne time for this oqd-
ventual Mass on feasts and Sundays is after Teroe has
been said in choir. On Simples aiid ferise the time k
after Sext; on ferise of Advent, Lent, on Vigils and
Ember days after None. Votive Masses and tiie
Requiem on All Souls' Day are said also after None;
but ordinary requiems are said after Prime. The
celebrant of Mass must be in the state of grace, fasting
from midnight, free of irregularity and censure, and
must observe all the rubrics and laws concerning the
matter (azyme bread and pure wine), vestments, ves-
sels, and ceremony.
Tiie scheme of high Mass is this: the procession
comes to the altar, consisting of thurifer, acolytes,
master of ceremonies, subdeacon, deacon, and cele-
brant, all vested as the rubrics direct (see Vestments).
First, the preparatory prayers are said at the foot of
the altar; the altar is incensed, the celebrant reads at
the south (Epistle) side the Introit and Kyrie. Mean-
while the choir sing the Introit and K3rrie. On days
on which the '^Te Deum'' is said in the office, the
celebrant intones the "Gloria in excelsis'V which is
continued by the choir. Meanwhile he, the deacon,
and subdeacon recite it, after which they may sit
down till the choir has finished. After the greeting
" Dominus vobiscum V, and its answer '* Et cum spiritu
tuo'', the celebrant chants the collect of the day, and
after it as many more collects as are required either to
conunemorate other feasts or occasions, or are to be
said by order of the bishop, or (on lesser days) are
chosen by himself at his discretion from the collection
in the Missal, according to the rubrics. The sub-
deacon chants the Epistle and the choir sings the
Gradual. Both are read by the celebrant at the altar,
according to the present law that he is also to recite
whatever is sung by any one else. He blesses the
incense, says the "Munoa Cor meum" prayer, and
reads tne Uospel at the north (Gospel) side. Mean-
while the deacon prepares to sing the Gospel. He goes
in procession with the subdeacon, thuriier, and aco-
lytes to a place on the north of the choir, and there
chants it, the subdeacon holding the book, unless an
ambo be used. If there is a sermon, it should be
preached immediately after the GospeL This is the
traditional place for the homily, after the lessons
(Justin Martyr, "I Apolog.", Ixvii, 4). On Sundays
and certain feasts the Creed is sung next, just as was
the Gloria. At this point, before or after the Creed
(which is a later introduction, as we have seen), ends
in theory the Mass of the Catechumens. The celebrant
at the middle of the altar chants " Dominus vobiscum"
and **Oremus" — the last remnant of the old prayers
of the faithful. Then follows the Offertonr. ITie
bread is offered to' God with the prayer Suscipe
sancte Pater '* ; the deacon pours wine into the chalice
and the subdeacon water. The chalice is offered by
the celebrant in the same way as the bread (Offerimus
tibi Domine), after which the gifts, the altar, the cele-
brant, ministers, and people are all incensed. Mean-
while the choir sings the Offertory. The celebrant
washes his hands saying the ''Lavabo". After an-
other offertory prayer (Suscipe sancta Trinitas), and
an address to the people (Orate fratres) with its
answer, which is not sung (it is a late addition), the
celebrant says the secrets, corresponding to the col-
lects. The last secret ends with an Ekphanesis (Per
omnia ssecula sseculorum). This is only a warning of
what is coming. When prayers began to be said
silently, it still remained necessary to mark their end-
ing, tliat people might know what is going on. So the
last clauses were said or sung alouo. This so-called
Ekphonesis is much developed in the Eastern rites.
In the Roman Mass there are three cases of it— always
the words: '' Per omnia sscula Sfficulorum", to which
the choir answers ' ' Amen ". After the Ekphonesis of
MA88
799
IftAfiS
the Secret comes the dialo^e, "Sursum Corda", etc.,
used with sliffht variations in all rites, and so the begin-
ning of the Eucharistic prayer which we c^ the Jnef-
ace, no longer counted as part of the Canon. The
choir sings and the celebrant says the Sanctus. Then
follows the Canon, beginning "Te igitur'' and ending
with an ekphonesis before the Lora s Prayer. All its
parts are described in the article Canon of the Mass.
The Lord's Prayer follows, introduced by a little
clause (Prseceptis salutaribus moniti) and followed bv
an embolism (see Libeba nos), said silently and enci-
VDf with the third ekphonesis. The Fraction follows
with the versicle ** Pax domini sit semper vobiscum'',
meant to introduce the kiss of peace. The choir sings
the Agnus Dei, which is said by the celebrant together
.with the first Communion prayer, before he gives the
kiss to the deacon. He then says the two other Com-
' munion prayers, and receives Communion under both
kinds. The Communion of the people (now rare at
high Mass) follows. Meanwhile the choir sings the
Communion (see Communion-Antiphon). The chaUoe
is purified and the post-Communions are sung, corre-
sponding to the collects and secrets. Like the collects,
tney are introduced by the greeting '* Dominus vobi»-
cum'' and its answer, and said at the south side.
After another greeting by the celebrant the deacon
sings the dismissal (see Ite Missa E^r). There still
follow, however, three later additions, a blessing by
the celebrant, a short prayer that God may be pleased
¥rith the sacrifice (Plaiceat tibi), and the Last Gospel,
normally the beginning of St. John (see Gospel in
THE Liturgy). The procession goes back to the
sacristy.
This high Mass is the norm; it is only in the com-
plete rite with deacon and subdeacon that the cere-
monies can be understood. Thus, the rubrics of the
Ordinarv of the Mass always suppose that the Mass is
high. Low Blass, said by a priest alone with one
server, is a shortened and simphfied form of the same
thing. Its ritual can be explained only by a reference
to h^h Mass. For instance, the celebrant goes over to
the north side of the altar to read the Gospel, because
that is the side to which the deacon goes in procession
at high Mass; he turns round always by the right,
because at high Mass he should not turn his back to
the deacon, and so on. A sung Mass (missa Cantata)
is a modem compromise. It is really a low Mass, since
the essence of high Mass is not the music but the dea-
oon and subdeacon. Only in churches which have no
ordained person except one priest, and in which high
liass is thus impossible, is it allowed to celebrate the
Mass (on Sundays and feasts) with most of the adorn-
ment borrowed from high Mass, with singing and
generally) with incense. The Sacred Congregation of
lutes has on several occasions (9 June, 1884; 7 Decem-
ber, 1888) forbidden the use of incense at a Missa
Cantata; nevertheless, exceptions have been made for
several dioceses, and the custom of using it is generally
tolerated (Le Vavasseur, op. cit., I, 514-5). In thiis
case, too, the celebrant takes the part of deacon and
subdeacon; there is no kiss of peace.
The ritual of the Mass is further affected by the
dignity of the celebrant, whether bishop or only priest.
There is something to be said for taking the pontifical
Mass as the standard, and explaining that of the sim-
ple priest as a modified form, just as low Mass is a
modified form of high Mass. On the other hand his-
torically the case is not parallel throughout; some of
the more elaborate pontifical ceremony is an after-
thought, an adornment added later. Here it need
only DC said that the main difference of the pontifical
Mass (apart from some special vestments) is that the
bishop remains at his throne (except for the prepara-
tory prayers at the altar steps and the incensing of the
altar) till the Offertory; so in this case the change
from the Mass of the Catechumens to that of the
Faithful is still clearly marked. He also does not put
on the maniple till after the preparatory prayers,
a^n an archaic touch that marks tnem as being out-
side the original service. At low Mass the bishop's
rank is marked only by a few unimportant details and
by the later assumption of the maniple. Certain
prelates, not bishops, use some pontifical ceremonies
at Mass. The pope again has certain special cere-
monies in his Mass, of which some represent remnants
of older customs. Of these we note especially that he
makes his Communion seated on the throne and drinks
the consecrated wine through a little tube called
fistula.
Durandus (Rationale, IV, i) and all the symbolic
authors distinguish various parts of the Mass accord-
ing to mystic principles. Thus it has four parts, corre-
sponding to tnc four kinds of prayer named in I Tim.,
ii, 1. It is an Obsecratio from the Introit to the Offer-
tory, an Oraiio from the Offertory to the Pater Noster,
a PostuUUio to the Communion, a Gratiarum actio from
then to the end (Durandus, ibid. ; see Mass, Sacbifice
OF the: Vol. X). The Canon especially has been
divided according to all manner of sj'stems, some very
ingenious. But the distinctions that arc really impor-
tant to the student of liturgy are, first the historic
division between the Mass of the Catechumens and
Mass of the Faithful, already explained, and then the
great practical distinction between the changeable and
imchangeable parts. The Mass consists of an un-
changed framework into which at certain fixed points
the variable prayers, lessons, and chants are fitted.
The two elements are the Common and the Proper of
the day (which, however, may again be taken from a
common Mass provided for a number of similar occa-
sions, as are the Commons of various classes of saints).
The Common is the Ordinary of the Mass (Ordinarium
Misses) y now printed and inserted in the Missal be-
tween Holy Saturday and Easter Day. Every Mass is
fitted into that scheme; to follow Mass one must first
find that. In it occur rubrics directing that something
is to be said or sung, which is not printed at this place.
The first rubric of this kind occurs after the incensing
at the beginning: "Then the Celebrant signing himself
with the sign of the Cross begins the Introit." But no
Introit follows. He must know what Mass he is to say
and find the Introit, and all the other proper parts,
under their heading among the large collection of
masses that fill the oook. These proper or variable
parts are first the four chants of the choir, the Introit,
Gradual (or tract. Alleluia, and perhaps after it a
Sequence), Offertory, and Communion; then the les-
sons (Epistle, Gospel, sometimes Old Testament les-
sons too), then the prayers said by the celebrant
(Collect, Secret, post-Communion; often several of
each to commemorate other feasts or days). By fit-
ting these into their places in the Ordinary the whole
Mass is put together. There are, however, two other
elements that occupy an intermediate place between
the Ordinary and tne Proper. These are the Preface
and a part of tJie Canon. We have now only eleven
pqrefaces, ten special ones and a common preface.
They do not then change sufficiently to be printed
over and over again among the proper Masses, so all
are inserted ^Ji the Ordinary; from them naturally the
jight one must be chosen according to the ruorics.
In the same way, five great feasts have a special clause
in the Communicantes prayer in the Canon, two (Eas-
ter and Whitsunday) nave a special **Hanc Igitur"
prayer, one day (Maundy Thursday) affects the "Qu^
pridie" form. These exceptions are printed after the
corresponding prefaces; but Maundy Thursday, as it
occurs only once, is to be found in the Proper of the
day (see Canon op the Mass).
It is these parts of the Mass that vary, and, because
of them, we speak of the Mass of such a day or of such
a feast. To be able to find the Mass for any given day
requires knowledge of a complicated set of rules. These
rules are given in the rubrics at the beginning of th^
Mm
800
lljsaal. In outline the aystem la this. First a Maaa ia IV). There ure two Other Masses which, inasmuch *■
provided for every day m the year, according to the they do not eorrGspond to the office, may be ttm-
seasoQS of the Church. Ordinary week days (feria) sidered a kind of Votive Mass: the Nuptial Mass
have the Mass of the preceding Sunday with certain (miasa pro aptmso et gportsa), said at weddings, and the
regular changes; but ferix of Lent, rogation and ember Requiem Mass, said for the faithful depart«d, which
Jays, and vigib have special Masses. AH this makes up have a number of special charact«riBtics (see Nuptul
the first part of the Misaal called Propriumde tempore. Mass and Reqvibu Mass). The calendar (Ordb) p ub-
The year is then overladen, as it were, by a great quan- lished yearly in each diooeae or province gives the
tity of feasts of saints or of special events detemiined office and Mass for every day. (Concerning Mass Glj-
by the day of the month (these make up the Proprium pends, see Mass, Sacriticb of the: Vol. X.)
Sattdorum). Nearly every day in the year is now a That the Haa8| around which such complicated
feast of some kind; often thcte are several on one day. rules have grown, is the central feature of the Catholic
There is then constantly coinciifence (concurrent ia) of rolipon hardly needs to be said. During the Reforms-
several possible Masses on one day. There are cases tion and always the Mass has been the test. The
in which two or more conventual Masses are said, one wordof theReformera: "It is the Mass that matters",
for each of the coinciding oftioes. Thus, on feriie that was true. The Corriish insurgents in 1549 rose against
have a special office, if a feaat occurs as wetl, the Mass the new religion, and expressed their whole cause in
of tJie feast is said after Terce, that of the leria after their demand to have the Prayer-book Communioo
None. If a feast talis on the Eve of Ascension Day Service taken away and the old Mass reatotfed. The
thcie are three Conventual Masses — cf the feast ader long persecution of Catholics in England took the
Terce, of the Vigil after Sext, of Ro^tion day after practical form of laws chiefly a^inst saying Mass; for
None. But, in churches thiat have no official con- centuries the occujmnt of the En^ish throne was
ventual Mass and in the case of the priest who says obliged to manifest bis Protestantism, not by a general
Mass for his own devotion, one only of the coinciding denial of the whole aystem of CathoUc dogma, but b^a
Masses is said, the others being (usually) commemo- formal repudiation of the doctrine of Transubstantia-
rated by saying their collects, secrets, and post-Com- tion and of the Mass. As union with Rome is the
munions aft«r those of the Mass chosen. To know bond between Catholics, bo is our common share in
which Mass to choose one must know their various de- this, the most venerable rite in Christendom, the wit-
grees of dignity. All days or feasts are arranged in ness and safeguard of that bond. It isby hisshaiein
this scale: feria, simple, semidouble, double, greater the Mass in Communion that the Catholic proclaims
double, double of the second class, double of the first his union with the great Church. As excommunica-
class. The greater feaat then is the one kept: by tion means the loas of that right in those who are ei-
transferring feasts to the next free day, it ia arranged pelled, so the Alass and Comtnunion are the visible
that two feasts of the same rank do not coincide, bond between people, priest, and biahop, who are all
Certain important days are privileged, ao that a higher onebody who share the or- — -"
feast cannot displace them. Thus nothing i
place the first Sundays of Advent and Lent, Passion
and Palm Sundays. These are the so-called nt^t-class
Sundays. In the same way nothing can diaplao
piac^ by doubles of the first class. Ordinary Sundays 'SSi^lmmJu™
.. .„ OnainttduCuUedu*-
Mai (3d[) ed., Paris, 1S9S); Oam. Dai heilige Matop/er (Olb eA^
Freiburg, ISB?): Rieivchei, Lthriiurh drr LUurgJc. I (Beiiin,
1000): Pbobot, Lil-arait der dm" n-*«i ekriitiichen Jahrhm-
dnfeCTQbingeD, 1S70): Idem. LtlursK detvirrltn Jahrhundrrti
K. drren Refirm (MOiMtflr. 18B31 ; iDtM. Dii aUiHai rOmiKti^
SaeramnUarien u. Ordina (Ufluter. ISSS); Cabhol.. Ln
0™n« Wurvwu*" (Pftris, IBOOl; Idik, Lt Livrc de la prirn
anSirtu (Faria. 1000); Biaiiop, TtuOtniut ofUu Rom-^ Hi"
in Stalit, EtKiu'im Ctrammial (LoDdao, IHM). Z83-a
La Men " " - '
count as semidoubles, but have precedence over other
aemidoubles. The days of an octave are semidoubles;
the octave day isa double. The octaves of Epiphany,
Eaater, and Pentecost (the original thtee greatest
feasts of all) are cliMed against any other feast. The - „ ....
di.pl.ced («ut i. oom™m„„wl , Bo.pl In the cu. ol 5fte3;,t fflol'siS.'Si
a great infenonty: the rules for this are given among iath>. ciudni i-nmni* nt tt» TnxHii
the "RubricK generalea" of the Miasal (VII; deCom.
iM^'
rationibus). Onaemidoublesand days below that gfJ^T^j^jj
in rank other collects are always added to that of the ii, Teits
day to make up an uneven number. Certain ones are 'I'u'oioi, 1, i
prescribed regularly in the Missal, the celebrant may
add others at hia discretion. The bishop of the dio-
cese may also order collects for special reasons (the
so-called Orationes imperaltE). As a genera! ru|e the ^,^^
Mass must correspond to the Office of the day, iaclud- Ma;
ing its commemorations. But the Missal contains a •>'>"
collection of Votivt Mattes, that may be Bald on days ^^j^
not above a semidouble in rank. The bishop or pope ym<
may order a Votive Mass for a public cause to be said wU
on any day but the very highest. All these rules are )^,
explained m detail by Le Vavssaeur (op. cit., I, 210- cin
31) as well as in the rubrics of the Missal (Ruhr. gen..
„ 1B08); Dbewb. Zur EitUtrhuna^etei.
(Tabinaen. 1M2); tuEU. Vnternchvngen Ubtt dit
loam. drnunlniKAB Liluvii (Tabinscn, 10001; BiuiiaruE.
iMumia Komana t litarvia dtW BtaraUo (Rome. IMM): Alstxis
UID f DUBTOH, Orwinm Bucharitliea (LoDdon. 190S); Warren.
liiturm ol lAt Ante-Kitme ChunA CLODdou. 1907); RotthaN-
Hm, Vtbrr nnuere taid aUere Devtiaem dtt WarUt MimKa in
" *" — — »qq.; DCRAKunB (Biahop
mi agirionBa Libri VIll,
'■xiv^^^^iTDt SS.
NEiDEB (Msiai. 1^79). b
I. FlorilfQium PatnHi-
WitaoH, Tilt Gtlatian Saci
Coda LUurgiau Ecetttia wiiwn, 1 [Ldpiig. 18«7i:
"■■ • '-LitiireuifthrCh^rcha/BnqbindtUm-
.MiHaieSarum<.BuTiMMlaiiS ir
>i>uJ, I8ei-B3).
ana in the Missal, «ra-
' {3 vola.. 0th ed.. Lou-
3* iruSaO'tnii. iwC).
JnfmiJurliDn aui: MwJe*
BE Mass and other arti-
Adriak Foktescue,
3 2044 048 326 359
i