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Ex  Libris 
C.  K.  OGDEN 


^      "  OEYLORTSSOGIATION  IN  LONDON 
C€YLON  ASSOCIATION  II  LONDOM, 

t,  UUIEMOE  POUNTHEY  HILL, 

GANNON  STREET,  L6MON,  E.C,  4, 


CEYLON, 

VOL.  I. 


irEW-STREET    SQUARE 


CEYLON 


AN    ACCOUNT    OF    THE    ISLAND 


PHYSICAL,    HISTOKICAL,   AND    TOPOGKAPHICAL 


NOTICES  OF  ITS  NATURAL  HISTORY,  ANTIQUITIES    AND  PRODUCTIONS 


SIR   JAMES    EMERSON    TENNENT,    K.C.S,    LLD,  &c. 


ILLUSTBATED  BY  MAPS,  PLANS  AND  DBA  WINGS 


FIFTH   EDITION,    THOBOUGHLY  BEVISED 


VOLUME  I. 


LONDON 

LONGMAN,   GREEN,    LONGMAN,   AND   ROBERTS 
1860 


The  right  of  translation  is  reterved 


Stack 
Annex 


CONTENTS 


THE   FIRST   VOLUME. 


V.I 


PART  I. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 


GEOLOGY.—  MINERALOGY.  —  OEMS. 


Page 

.       3 


I.  General  Aspect. 

Singular  beauty  of  the  island 
Its    ancient   renown    in    conse- 

quence .....  4 
Fable  of  its  "  perfumed  winds  " 

(note)  4 
Character  of  the  scenery     .        .      5 

II.  Geographical  Position    ...       6 
Ancient   views    regarding   it  a- 

mongst  the  Hindus,  —  "  the  Me- 

ridian of  Lanka  "  .  .  .6 
Buddhist  traditions  of  former 

submersions  .  .  .  (note)  7 
Errors  as  to  the  dimensions  of 

Ceylon  .....  8 
Opinions  of  Onesicritus,  Erato- 

sthenes, Strabo,  Pliny.Ptolemy, 

Agathemerus  .  .  .  .  8,  9 
The  Arabian  geographers  .  .  9 
Sumatra  supposed  to  be  Ceylon 

(note)  10 

True  latitude  and  longitude  .  11 
General  Eraser's  map  of  Ceylon 

(note)  1  1 

Geological  formation  .  .  .12 
Adam's  Bridge  ....  13 
Error  of  supposing  Ceylon  to  be 

a  detached  fragment  of  India  .     14 

III.  The  Mountain  System          .         .     14 
Remarkable  hills,  Mihintala  and 

Sigiri  .....  15 
Little  evidence  of  volcanic  action  16 
Rocks,  gneiss  .  .  .  .16 
Rock  temples  .  .  .  .17 
Laterite  or  "  Cabook  "  .  .17 
Ancient  name  Tamba-panni  (note)  17 
Coral  formation  .  .  .19 

Extraordinary  wells  .  .  .21 
Darwin's  theory  of  coral  wells 

examined  .  .  .  (note)  22 
The  soil  of  Ceylon  generally  poor  24 
"  Patenas,"  their  phenomena  ob- 

scure .....  24 
Rice  lands  between  the  hills  .  26 
Soil  of  the  plains,  "  Talawas  "  .  27 


IV.  Metals.— Tin                 ...     29 
Gold,  nickel,  cobalt     .        .        .29 
Quicksilver          .         .         .  (note)  29 
Iron 30 

V.  Minerals. — Anthracite,  plumbago, 

kaolin,  nitre  caves  .        .        .31 
List  of  Ceylon  minerals       .  (note)  32 

VI.  Gems,  ancient  fame  of  .     32 
Rose-coloured  quartz  .        .  (note)  33 
Mode  of  searching  for  gems        .     34 

Rubies 3'J 

Sapphire,    topaz,    garnet,    and 

cinnamon  stone,  cat's-eye, 
amethyst,  moonstone  .  "  37,  38 

Diamond  not  found  in  Ceylon 

(note)  38 

Gem-finders  and  lapidaries          .    39 

VII.  Rivers. — Their  character    .        .    40 
The  Mahawelli-ganga         .        .    41 
Table  of  the  rivers      ...    41 

VIII.  Singular  coast  formation,  and 

its  causes         .        .        .        .43 
The  currents  and  their  influence     44 
Word  "Gobb  "  explained  44,  (note)  46 
Vegetation  of  the  sand  forma- 
tions         48 

Their   suitability  for  the  coco- 
nut   51 

IX.  Harbours.  —  Galle    and    Trinco- 

malie 52 

Tides 52 

Red  infusoria       .        .        .        .53 
Population  of  Ceylon  .  .    53 

CHAP.  II. 

CLIMATE. — HEALTH  AND  DISEASE. 

Uniformity  of  temperature  .  .  54 
Brilliancy  of  foliage  .  .  .  .56 
Colombo. — January—  longshore  wind  56 
February— cold  nights  .  .  (note)  57 

March,  April 58 

May—  S.W.  monsoon         ...     58 
Aspect  of  the  country  before  it       .    59 

Lightning 60 

Rain,  its  violence    .        .        .        .61 

June 62 

3 


VI 


CONTENTS   OF 


Page 

July  and  August,  September,  October, 
November.    N.E.  monsoon      .        .    63 

December 64 

Annual  quantity  of  rain  in  Ceylon 

and  Hindustan        .        .        .  (note)  65 
Opposite  climates  of  the  same  moun- 
tain        ...  .    66 
Climate  of  GaUe         .                         .     67 
Kandy  and  its  climate                .        . .  87 
Mists  and  hail    ..       •          .        .     69 
Climate  of  Trincomalie   (text  and  note)  70 
Jaffna  and  its  climate                 .        .71 
Waterspouts       .                                  .    72 

Anthelia 73 

Buddha  rays 73 

Ceylon  as  a  sanatarium. — Neuera-ellia  74 

Health 75 

Malaria  .    75 

Food  and  wine        .        .        .76, 77 
Effects  of  the  climate  of  Ceylon  on 

disease 79 

Precautions  for  health    .  .    80 


CHAP.  III. 

VEGETATION. — TEEE3  AND  PLANTS. 

The    Flora    of    Ceylon    imperfectly 

known 83 

Vegetation  similar  to  that  of  India 

and  the  Eastern  Archipelago  .        .    84 
Trees  of  the  sea-horde. — Mangroves. 

— Screw-pines,  Sonneratia  .        .        85 
The  Northern   Plains.  —  Euphorbias 

Cassia. — Mustard-tree  of  Scripture     87 
Western  coast. —Luxurious  vegeta- 
tion          87 

Eastern  coast 88 

Pitcher  plant.— Orchids     ...    88 

Vines 89 

Botany  of  the  Mountains. — Iron-wood, 

Bamboo,  European  fruit-trees.        90 
Tea-plant—  Rhododendron— Miche- 

Ua 90 

Rapid  disappearance  of  dead  trees 

in  the  forests       .        .        .        .91 
Trees  with  natural  buttresses         !    91 


Page 

Flowering  Trees. — Coral  tree  .  .  92 
The  Murutu  —  Imbul— Cotton  tree 

— Champac .....  93 
The  Upas  Tree — Poisons  of  Ceylon  95 

The  Banyan 95 

The  Sacred  Bo-tree         .        .        .    97 
The  India-Rubber  tree — The  Snake- 
tree      98 

Kumbuk-tree:  lime  in  its  bark      .     99 
Curious  Seeds. — The  Dorian,  Sterculia 

fcetida  ....  99,  100 
The  Sea  Pomegranate  .  .  .  100 
Strychnos,  curious  belief  as  to  its 

poison          .        .  .     101 

Euphorbia  —  The  Cow-tree,  error  re- 
garding       .         .         .         (note)  101 
Climbing  plants,  epiphytes,  and  flow- 
ering creepers          ....  102 
Orchids.—  Brilliant  terrestrial  orchid, 
the  Wanna -raja. — Square- stemmed 

Vine 103 

Gigantic  climbing  Plants  .  .  .  104 
Enormous  bean  ....  105 
Bontluc  seeds.  —  Eatans  —  Eatan 

bridges 106 

Thorny  Trees.  —  Raised  as  a  natural 

fortification  by  the  Kandyans     .  107 
The   buffalo  thorn,  Acacia  tomen- 
tosa      .        .        .  •     .        .        .  108 

Palms 109 

Coco-nut — Talipat .        .        .        .110 

Palmyra Ill 

Jaggery  Palm  —  Areca  Palm          .  112 
Betel-chewing,  its  theory  and  uses       .  112 

Pingos 114 

Timber  Trees 115 

Jakwood— Del— Teak    .        .        .116 

Suria 117 

Cabinet  Woods.— Satin-wood— Ebony 

—  Cadooberia  .  .  .  .117 
Calamander,  its  rarity  and  beauty  118 

Tamarind 119 

Fruit-trees 119 

Remarkable  power  of  trees  to  gene- 
rate cold  and  keep  their  fruit  chill    121 
Aquatic  Plants  —  Lotus,  red  and  blue  123 
Desmanthus  natans,  an  aquatic  sen- 
sitive plant 123 


PART  II. 
ZOOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

MAMMALIA. 

Neglect  of  Zoology  in  Ceylon    . 
Monkeys    . 

Wanderoo       .        .        \ 

Error  regarding  the   Silenus  Ve-' 

.  (note)  129 
.  130 


127 

129 


"*  • 

Presbytes  Cephalo'pteriis 


P.  Ursinus  in  the  Hills  .        .131 

P.  Thersites  in  the  Wanny  .  .132 
P.  Priamus,  Jaffna  and  Trincomalie  132 
Iso  dead  monkey  ever  found  .  .  133 

'oris 133 

.  135 
.  135 


J  lying  fox 
Horse-shoe  bat 
Cfirnir.ora. — Bears 
Their  ferocity 


137 
138 


THE  FIRST  VOLUME. 


•Vll 


P-ge 
Singhalese  belief  in  the  efficacy 

of  charms        .        .        .    (note)  139 

Leopards 139 

Curious  belief         .        .        .        .140 
Anecdotes  of  leopards    .        .        .142. 

Palm-cat 144 

Civet .144 

Dogs 144 

Jackal 145 

The  horn  of  the  jackal   .        .        .145 

Mungoos 145 

Its  fights  with  serpents          .        .  146 
Theory  of  its  antidote    .        .        .  147 

Squirrels     .         .— * 148 

Flying  squirrel       .        .        .        .  148 

Tree  rat 149 

Story  of  a  rat  and  a  snake      .        .  149 

Coffee  rat 149 

Bandicoot 150 

Porcupine 150 

Pengolin 151 

Ruminantia. — The  Gaur    .         .         .151 

Oxen      .    » 152 

Humped  cattle       .        .        .        .152 
Encounter  of  a  cow  and  a  leopard     153 

Buffaloes 154 

Sporting  buffaloes  .        .        .155 

Peculiar  structure  of  the  hoof         .  155 

Deer  ......  156 

Meminna   .        .        .        ....  157 

Elephants 158 

Whales 158 

General  view  of  the  mammalia    of 

Ceylon 159 

List  of  Ceylon  mammalia  .         .        .  159 
Curious  parasite  of  the  bat         (note)  161 

CHAP.  II. 

BIRDS. 


Their  numbers   .... 

Songsters 

1  lornbills,  the  "  bird  with  two  heads 

Peafowl 

Sea  birds,  their  number 

I.  Accipitres. — Eagles 

Falcons  and  hawks 
Owls— the  devil  bird 

II.  Passeres. — Swallows 

Kingfishers — sunbirds 
Bul-bul — tailor  bird — and  w 
Crows,  anecdotes  of 

III.  Scansores. — Parroquets 

I V.  ColuiMdee. — Pigeons 

V.  Gcdlinte. — Jungle-fowl 

VI.  Grallce.— Ibis,  stork,  &c. 

VII.  Anseres. — Flamingoes 
Pelicans       . 

Game. — Partridges,  &c. 
List  of  Ceylon  birds   . 
List  of  birds  peculiar  to  Ceylon 

CHAP.  III. 


163 
163 
164 
165 


166 

1(17 
167 
L68 
I6fl 

17(1 
172 
178 
174 
175 
175 
176 
17.; 

177 

180 


Lizards.— Iguana       .        .        .        .182 
Kabragoya,  barbarous  custom  in  pre- 
paring the  cobra-tel  poison  (note)  183 


Page 
The  green  calotes  .        .        .        .184 

Chameleon 184 

Ceratophora 185 

Geckoes,  — their  power  of  reproduc- 
ing limbs    ....  185,  186 

Crocodiles 186 

Their  power  of  burying  themselves 

in  the  mud 187 

Tortoises. — Curious  parasite       .        .  188 
Land  tortoises         ....  189 

Edible  turtle 190 

Huge  Indian  tortoises    .        (note)  190 
Hawk's-bill  turtle,  barbarous  mode 

of  stripping  it  of  the  tortoise-shell  190 
Serpents. — Venomous  species  rare  .  191 
Cobra  de  capello  .  .  .  .192 
Instance  of  land  snakes  found  at  sea  193 
Tame  snakes  .  .  .  (note)  193 
Singular  tradition  regarding  the 

cobra  de  capello          .        .        .194 
Uropeltidaj. — New  species  discover- 
ed in  Ceylon       .        .        .        .195 
Buddhist  veneration  for  the  co- 
bra de  capello          .        .        .195 
Anecdotes  of  snakes        .        .        .196 

The  Python 196 

Water  snakes          .        .        .        .197 

Snake  stones 197 

Analysis  of  one       ....  199 
Caecilia   ...        .        .        .201 

Large  frogs 202 

Tree  frogs 202 

List  of  Ceylon  reptiles       .        .        .203 

CHAP.  IV." 


Ichthyology  of  Ceylon,  little  known .  205 
Fish  for  table,  seir  fish  ...  205 
Sardines,  poisonous  ? .  .  .  .  206 

Sharks 207 

Saw-fish 207 

Fish  of  brilliant  colours  .  .  .  207 
Curious  fish  described  by^Elian  (note)  207 
Fresh- water  fish,  little"  known,  —  not 

much  eaten 208 

Fresh-water  fish  in  Colombo  Lake  .  209 
Immense  profusion  of  fish  in  the 

rivers  and  lakes  ....  209 
Their  re -appearance  after  rain  .  .  209 
Mode  of  fishing  in  the  ponds  .  .210 

Showers  of  fish 210 

Conjecture  that  the  ova  are  preserved, 

not  tenable 212 

Fish  moving  on  dry  land  .        .        .  213 

Instances  in  Guiana        .        (note)  214 

Perca  Scandens,  ascends  trees         .215 

Doubts  as  to  the  story  of  Daldorf  .  217 

Fishes  burying  themselves  during  the 

dry  season 218 

The  protopterus  of  the  Gambia       .  218 
Instances  in  the  fish  of  the  Nile     .  218 
Instances  in  the  fish  of  South  Ame- 
rica       219 

Living  fish  dug  out  of  the  ground 

in  the  dry  tanks  in  Ceylon          .  220 
Other  anim'jils  that  so  bury  them- 
selves, Melanice,  Ampullarite,  &c.   220 


v 


CONTENTS  OF 


Page 

The  animals  that  so  bury  them- 
selves in  India   .        .         (note)  221 
Analogous  case  of  .        .        (note)  221 
Theory  of  aestivation  and  hyberna- 
tion     .        .        .        .        .        .221 

Fish  in  hot-water  in  Ceylon      .        .  224 
List  of  Ceylon  fishes  .        .        .        .224 

Instances  of  fishes  falling  from  the 
clouds         .        .        .        .        .226 

Overland  migration  of  fishes  known 

to  the  Greeks  and  Romans     .        .  227 
Note  on  Ceylon  fishes  by  Professor 

Huxley 229 

Comparative  note  by  Dr.  Gray,  Brit. 
Mils.  .  231 


CHAP.  V. 

MOLLUSCA,   RADIATA,  AND  ACALEPH^. 

I.  Conchology — General  character  of 

Ceylon  shells  ....  233 
Confusion  regarding  them  in 

scientific  works  and  collections  234 

List  of  Ceylon  shells  .  235 

II.  Radiata.— Star  fish  .  244 

Sea  slugs     .        .  .  245 

Parasitic  worms  .  .245 

Planaria      .        .  .245 

III.  Acalepha,  abundant  .  246 
Corals  little  known  .  246 


CHAP.  VI. 


Profusion  of  insects  in  Ceylon 
Imperfect  knowledge  of. 

I.  Coleoptera. — Beetles 

Scavenger  beetles 
Coco-nut  beetles. 
Tortoise  beetles  . 

II.  Orthoptera.— Mantis  and  leaf.in 

sects 
Stick-insects 

III.  Neuroptera. —  Dragon  flies 
Ant-lion      . 

White  ants . 


247 
247 
248 
249 
249 
250 

250 
252 
252 
252 
253 


Page 

Anecdotes  of  their  instinct  ar.d 
ravages    .        .  (text  and  note)  254 

V.  Hymenoptera.— Mason  Wasps       .  256 

Wasps 257 

Bees 257 

Carpenter  Bee     .        .        .        .258 

Ants 258 

Burrowing  ants  ....  262 

VI.  Lepidoptera.— Butterflies    .        .  262 

Sylph 263 

Lyca?nida3   .....  264 

Moths 265 

Silk  worms .          (text  and  note)  265 
Wood-carrying  Moths         .        .  266 
Pterophorus        ....  267 

VII.  Homoptera         .        .        .        .267 
Cicada 267 

VIII.  Hemiptera        .        .        .        .267 
Bugs 267 

IX.  Aphaniptera        .        .        .        .268 

X.  Diptera,— Mosquitoes  .        .        .268 
General  character  of  Ceylon  insects    .  269 
List  of  insects  in  Ceylon    .        .        .274 

CHAP.  VII. 

ARACHNIDS,    MYRIOPODA,  CRUSTACEA, 
ETC. 

Spiders  294 

Strange  nests  of  the  wood  spiders  .  295 
Olios  Taprobanius  .  .  295 


Mygale  fasciata       . 

Ticks , 

Mites.—  Trombidium  tinctorum 
Myriapods. — Centipedes     . 

Cermatia         .... 

Scolopendra  crassa 

S.  pollipes       .... 
Millipeds. — lulus 
Crustacea 

Calling  crabs .... 

Land  crabs     . 

Painted  crabs         . 

Paddling  crabs 
Annelida,  Leeches.— The  land  leech 

Medical  leech          ... 

Cattle  leech    .... 
List  of  Articulata,  &c. 


205 
200 
207 
207 
208 


209 
300 


801 

Sill 


Mfi 

:;»>(•> 
907 


PART  III. 
THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

SOURCES  OF  SINGHALESE  HISTORY.  —  THE 
MAHAWANSO. 

Ceylon  formerly  thought  to  have  no 

authentic  history    .        .        .  311 

Researches  of  Turnonr        .        .  312 

Biographical  sketch  of  Tumour  (note)  312 
The  Mahawanso        .        .       .        .314 


Recovery  of  the  "  tika  "  on  the  Ma- 
hawanso          315 

Outline  of  the  Mahawanso         .        .  315 
Tumour's  epitome  of  Singhalese  his- 
tory         316 

Historical  proofs  of  the  Mahawanso  .  317 
Identity  of  Sandracottus  and  Chan- 

dragupta 318 

Ancient  map  of  Ceylon       .         (note)  318 
List  of  Ceylon  sovereigns  .        .        .320 


THE    FIRST    VOLUME. 


IX 


CHAP.  II. 

THE   ABORIGINES. 

Page 
Singhalese  histories  all  illustrative  of 

Buddhism 325 

A  Buddha 325 

Gotama  Buddha,  his  history      ,         .326 
Amazing  prevalence  of  his  religion 

(note)  326 

His  three  visits  to  Ceylon  .        .        .  327 
Inhabitants   of   the    island  at    that 
time  supposed  to  be  of  Malayan 

type 327 

Legend  of  their  Chinese  origin  .        .  328 
Probably  identical  with   the   abori- 
gines of  the  Dekkan       .        .        .328 
Common  basis  of  their  language        .  328 
Characteristics  of  vernacular  Singha- 
lese          329 

State  of  the  aborigines  before  Wi- 

jayo's  invasion  ....  330 
Story  of  Wijayo  .  .  .  .330 
The  natives  of  Ceylon  described  as 

Yahhos  and  Nagas          .        .        .331 
Traces  of  serpent-worship  in  Ceylon    331 
Coincidence  of  the  Mahawanso  with 
the  Odyssey          .        .        .  (note)  332 


CHAP.  III. 

CONQUEST  OF  WIJAYO,  B.C.  543.  —  ESTA- 
BLISHMENT OF   BUDDHISM,  B.C.  307. 

Early  commerce  of  Coylon  described 

by  the  Chinese       ....  335 
Wijayo  as  a  colonizer         .        .        .  336 
His  treatment  of  the  native  popula- 
tion          336 

B.C.  505.  His  death  and  successors  .  336 
A  number  of  petty  kingdoms  formed  337 
Ceylon  divided  into  three  districts  ; 

Pihiti,  Rohuna,  and  Maya  .  .  337 
The  village  system  established  .  .  337 
Agriculture  introduced  .  .  .  338 
Irrigation  imported  from  India  .  .  338 
'Ihe  first  tank  constructed,  B.C.  504 

(note)  338 

Rapid  progress  of  the  island  .  .  339 
Toleration  of  Wijayo  and  his  followers  339 
Establishment  of  Buddhism,  307  B.C.  340 
Preaching  of  Mahindo  .  .  .  340 
Planting  of  the  sacred  Bo-tree  .  .  341 


CHAP.  IV. 

THE   BUDDHIST  MONUMENTS. 

Buddhist  architecture  introduced  in 

Cevlon 344 

The  first  dagobas  built        .        .        .345 
Their  mode  of  construction  and  vast 

dimensions  .....  346 
The  earliest  Buddhist  temples  .  .  346 
Images  and  statues  a  later  innovation  347 
First  residences  of  the  priesthood  .  347 


Page 
The  formation  of  monasteries  and  wi- 

haras 348 

The  first  wihara  built        .        .        .  349 
Form  of  the  modern  wiharas      .        .  349 
Inconvenient  numbers  of  the   Bud- 
dhist priesthood      ....  350 
Originally  fed  by  the  kings  and  the 

people 350 

Caste  annulled  in  the  case  of  priests  .  351 
The  priestly  robe  and  its  peculiarities  351 


CHAP.  V. 

SINGHALESE  CHIVALRY. — ELALA  AND 
DUTUGAIMUNU. 

Progress  of  civilisation  .  .  .  352 
The  new  settlers  agriculturists  .  .  352 
Malabars  enlisted  as  soldiers  and 

seamen  .        .        .        .        .        .  353 

B.C.  237.  The  revolt  of  Sena  and 

Gutika    .        .        .        .        .        .353 

B.C.  205.  Usurpation  of  Elala  .  .  353 
His  character  and  renown  .  x .  .  353 
The  victory  of  Dutugaimunu  .  .  354 
Progress  of  the  south  of  the  island  .  355 
Building  of  the  great  Ruanwelle' 

Dagoba 355 

Building  of  the  Brazen  Palace  .  .  356 
Its  vicissitudes  and  ruins  .  .  .  357 
Death  and  character  of  Dutugaimunu  358 


CHAP.  VI. 

THE  INFLUENCES  OF  BUDDHISM   ON   CIVI- 
LISATION. 

The  Mahawanse  or  Great  Dynasty  .  360 
The  Suluwanse  or  Inferior  Dynasty  .  360 
Services  rendered  by  the  Great  Dy- 
nasty   360 

Frequent  usurpations  and  the  cause  .  361 
Disputed  successions .  .  .  .361 
Rising  influence  of  the  priesthood  .  362 
B.C.  104.  Their  first  endowment  with 

land 363 

Rapid  increase  of  the  temple  estates  .  364 
Their  possessions  and  their  vow  of 

poverty  reconciled  ....  364 
Acquire  the  compulsory  labour  of 

temple-tenants  ....  365 
Impulse  thus  given  to  cultivation  .  365 
And  to  the  construction  of  enormous 

tanks' 365 

Tanks  conferred  on  the  temples  .  365 
The  great  tank  of  Minery  formed, 

A.n.272 365 

Subserviency  of  the  kings  to  the 

priesthood 366 

Large  possessions  of  the  temples  at 

the  present  day  • .  .  .  .  366 
Cultivation  of  flowers  for  the  temples  367 
Their  singular  profusion  .  .  .  367 
Fruit  trees  planted  by  the  Buddhist 

sovereigns 367 

Edicts  of  Asoca.  .  368 


CONTENTS   OF 


CHAP.  VII. 

FATE   OF  TUB  ABORIGINES. 


Page 


Aborigines  forced  to  labour  for  the 

new  settlers 369 

Immensity  of  the  structures  erected 

by  them 370 

Slow  amalgamation  of  the  natives 

with  the  strangers ....  370 
The  worship  of  snakes  and  demons 

continued 370 

Treatment  of  the  aborigines  by  the 

kings 371 

Their  formal  disqualification  for  high 

office 371 

Their  rebellions 371 

They  retire  into  the  mountains  and 

forests 372 

Their  singular  habits  of  seclusion       .  372 
Traces  of  their  customs  at  the  present 
day 373 

CHAP.  VIII. 

EXTINCTION    OF  THE   GREAT   DYNASTY. 

B.C.  104.  Walagam-bahu  1.  .  .  374 
His  wars  with  the  Malabars  .  .  374 
The  South  of  Ceylon  free  from  Malabar 

invasion 374 

The  Buddhist  doctrines  first  collected 

into  books       

The  formation  of  rock-temples  . 
Apostaey  of  Chora  Naga    . 
Ceylon  governed  by  queens 
Schisms  in  religion     .... 
Buddhism  tolerant  of  heresy  but  in-- 
tolerant of  schism  .... 
Illustrations  of  Buddhist  toleration    . 
Tolerance  enjoined  by  Asoca    . 
The  Wytulian  heresy 
Corruption  of  Buddhism  by  the  impu- 
rities of  Brahraanism 
A.D.  275.  Recantation  and  repentance 

of  King  Maha  Sen  .  .  .  ij»0 
End  of  the  Solar  race  .  .  .381 
State  of  Ceylon  at  that  period  .  .  381 
Prosperity  of  the  North  .  .  .  381 
Description  of  Anarajapoora  in  the 

fourth  century  ....  382 
Its  municipal  organisation  .  .  382 
Its  palaces  and  temples  .  .  .  382 
Popular  error  as  to  the  area  of  the  city 

Multitudes  of  the  priesthood  described 
by  Fa  Hian 384 

CHAP.  IX. 

KINGS  OF  THE   LOWER  DYNASTY. 

Sovereigns  of  the  Lower  Dynasty,  a 
feeble  race 335 

Kings  who  were  sculptors,  physicians' 
and  poets  .  .  .  .  .  38c 

Earliest  notice  of  Foreign  Embassies 
to  Rome  and  to  China  .  .  .337 

Notices  of  Ceylon  by  Chinese  Histo- 
rians   387 


Fa  Hian  visits  Ceylon  A.D.  413        .  387 

Anecdote  related  by  Fa  Hian     (note)  388 

History  of  "  the  Sacred  Tooth  "        .  388 
Murder  of  the  king  Dhatu  Sena,  A  D 

459 389 

Infamous  conduct  of  his  son       .        .  391 

The  fortified  rock  Sigiri     .        .        .  392 


CHAP.  X. 

DOMINATION   OF  THE   MALABARS. 

Origin  of  the  Malabar  invaders  of 

Ceylon 395 

The  ancient  Indian  kingdom  of  Pan- 

dja 395 

Malabar  mercenaries  enlisted  in  Cey- 
lon  395 

B.C.  237.  Revolt  of  Sena  and  Gutika     395 
B.C.  205.  Usurpation  of  Elala     .        .  396 
B.C.  103.  Second  Malabar  invasion    .  396 
A.D.  110.  Third  Malabar  invasion       .  396 
Jewish    evidence    of   Malabar    con- 
quest      ....        (note)  396 

A.D  433.  Fourth  Malabar  invasion    .  397 
The  influence  of  the  Malabars  firmly 
established      ....".  398 

Distress  of  the  Singhalese  in  the  7th 
century,  as  described   by  Hiouen 
Thsang  ......  399 

A.D.  642.  Anarajapoora  deserted,  and 
Pollanarrua  built    ....  400 

The  Malabars  did  nothing  to  improve 
the  island        .        .        .        .        .401 

A.D.  840.  A  fresh  Malabar  invasion   .  401 
The    Singhalese    seek  to    conciliate 
them  by  alliances  ....  402 

A.D.  990.  Another  Malabar  invasion  .  402 
Extreme  misery  of  the  island    .         .  402 
A.D.  1023.  The  Malabars  seize  Polla- 
narrua and  occupy  the  entire  north 
of  the  island  .....  403 


CHAP.  XI. 

THE   REIGN   OF  PRAKRAMA   BAHU. 

A.D.  1071.  Recovery    of    the    island 

from  the  Malabars  .  .  .  404 
Wijayo  Bahu  I.  expels  the  Malabars  405 
Birth  of  the  Prince  Prakrama  .  .  405 
His  character  and  renown  .  .  .  405 
Immense  public  works  constructed 

by  him   ......  406 

Restores  the  order  of  the  Buddhist 

priesthood  .....  495 
Intercourse  between  Siam  and  Ceylon  406 
lemples  and  sacred  edifices  built  by 

Prakrama  .....  407 
The  Gal-Wihara  at  Pollanarrua  .  407 
.  408 


Rums  of  Pollanarrua  .. 
Extraordinary  extent  of  hi 

for  irrigation 

Foreign  wars  of  Prakrama 
His  conquests  in  India  . 
The  death  of  Prakrama  Bahu 


409 
.  409 
.  410 
.  410 


THE    FIRST    VOLUME. 


XI 


CHAP.  XII. 

FATE   OF  THE   SINGHALESE   MONARCHY. 

ARRIVAL  OF  THE  PORTUGUESE. 
A.D.  1505. 

Page 
Prakrama   Bahu,   the  last  powerful 

king 411 

Anarchy  follows  on  his  decease  .  .  411 
A.D.  1197.  The  Queen  Leela-Wattee  412 
A.D.  1211.  Beturn  of  the  Malabar 

invaders          .....  412 
The  Malabars  establish  themselves  at 
Jaffna     .        *_   .        .        .        .413 


!         Page 

Early  history  of  Jaffna       .        .        .  413 
A.D.  1235.    The  new  capital  at  Dain- 

bedenia 413 

Extending  ruin  of  Ceylon          .        .414 
Kandy  founded  as  a  new  capital        .  41 4 
Successive  removals   of  the   seat  of 
Government   to  Yapahoo,    Korne- 
galle,  Gampola,  Kandy,  and  Cotta  415 
Ascendancy  of  the  Malabars      .        .415 
A.D.  1410.    The  King  of  Ceylon  car- 
ried captive  to  China      .        .        .  416 
Ceylon  tributary  to  China .        .        .417 
Arrival  .of  the  Portuguese  in  Ceylon .  418 


PART  IV. 


SCIENCES   AND    SOCIAL   AKTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

POPULATION,  CASTE,  SLAVERY,  AND 
RAJA  -KARIYA. 

Population  encouraged  by  the  fertility 
of  Ceylon 421 

Evidence  of  its  former  extent  in  the 
ruins  of  the  tanks  and  canals  .  .  422 

Means  by  which  the  population  was 
preserved 423 

Causes  of  its  dispersion  —  the  ruin  of 
the  tanks 424 

Domestic  life  similar  to  that  of  the 
Hindus 425 

Eespect  shown  to  females  .        .        .  425 

Caste  perpetuated  in  defiance  of  reli- 
gious prohibition  ....  425 

Particulars  in  which  caste  in  Ceylon 
differs  from  caste  in  India  .  .  425 

Slavery,  borrowed  from  Hindustan   .  425 

Compulsory  labour  or  "  Raja-kariya ''  4*26 

Mode  of  enforcing  it  .        .        .        .427 


CHAP.  II. 

AGRICULTURE,   IRRIGATION,  CATTLE,  AND 
CROPS. 

Agriculture  unknown  before  the  ar- 
rival of  Wijayo  .  .  .  .429 

Kice  was  imported  into  Ceylon  in  the 
second  century  B.C.  .  .  .  429 

The  practice  of  irrigation  due  to  the 
Hindu  kings 430 

Who  taught  the  science  of  irriga- 
tion to  the  Singhalese  .  (note)  430 

The  first  tank  constructed  B.C.  504    .  431 

Gardens  and  fruit-trees  first  planted  432 

Value  of  artificial  irrigation  in  the 
north  of  Ceylon  ....  432 

In  tl.e  south  of  the  island  the  rains 
sustain  cultivation  .  .  .  432 


Two  harvests  in  the  year  in  the  south 

of  Ceylon 432 

In  the  north,  where  rains  are  uncer- 
tain, tanks  indispensable        .        .  432 
Irrigation  the  occupation  of  kings     .  434 
The  municipal  village-system  of  cul- 
tivation   434 

"Assoedamising  "  of  rice  lands  in  the 

mountains 434 

Temple  villages  and  their  tenure  .  434 
Farm-stock  buffaloes  and  cows  .  .  435 
A  Singhalese  garden  described  .  .  435 
Coco-nut  palm  rarely  mentioned  in 

early  writings         ....  436 
Doubt  whether  it  be  indigenous  to 

Ceylon 436 

The  Mango  and  other  fruits  .  .  437 
Rice  and  curry  mentioned  in  the 

second  century  B.C.         .        .        .  437 
Animal  food  used  by  the  early  Sin- 
ghalese   438 

Betel,    antiquity   of   the   custom    of 

chewing  it 438 

Intoxicating   liquors   known    at   an 
early  period 439 


CHAP.  III. 

KARLY    COMMERCE,   SHIPPING,  AND    PRO- 
DUCTIONS. 

Trade  entirely  in  the  hands  of  stran- 
gers   440 

Native  shipping  unconnected  with 
commerce 440 

Same  indifference  to  trade  prevails  at 
this  day 441 

Singhalese  boats  all  copied  from  fo- 
reign models 442 

All  sewn  together  and  without  iron   .  442 

Romance  of  the  "  Loadstone  Island  '   443 

The  legend  believed  by  Greeks  and 
the  Chinese  .  .  443 


Xll 


CONTENTS   OF 


Page 
Vessels  with  two  prows  mentioned  by 

Strabo 444 

Foreign  trade  spoken  of  B.C.  204  .  444 
Internal  traffic  in  the  ancient  city  of 

Ceylon 445 

Merchants  traversing  the  island  .  445 
Early  exports  from  Ceylon, — gems, 

pearls,  &c 445 

The  imports,  chiefly  manufactures  .  446 
Horses  and  carriages  imported  from 

India 447 

Cloth,  silk,  &c.,  brought  from  Persia  447 
Kashmir,  intercourse  with  .  .  .  447 
Edrisi's  account  of  Ceylon  trade  in 

the  twelfth  century         .        .        .448 

CHAP.  IV. 

MANUFACTURES. 

Silk  not  produced  in  Ceylon        .        .  450 
Coir  and  cordage        ....  450 
Dress ;  unshaped  robes       .        .        .  450 
Manual  and  Mechanical  Arts— Weav- 
ing   451 

Priest's  robes  spun,  woven,  and  dved 

in  a  day 452 

Peculiar  mode  of  cutting  out  a  priest's 

robe 452 

Bleaching  and  dyeing  .  .  .  452 
Earliest  artisans,  immigrants  .  .  452 
Handicrafts  looked  down  on  .  .  453 

Pottery 453 

Glass 454 

Glass  mirrors 454 

leather 454 

Wood  carving 454 

Chemical  Arts — Sugar  .  .  .  455 
Mineral  paints 455 

CHAP.  V. 

WORKING  IN  METALS. 

Early  knowledge  of  the  use  of  iron     .  457 

Steel 457 

Copper  and  its  uses  ....  457 
Bells,  bronze,  lead  .  .  .  .458 

Gold  and  silver 458 

Plate  and  silver  ware  .  .  ,  458 
Red  coral  found  at  Galle  .  (note)  459 
Jewelry  and  mounted  gems  .  .  459 

Gilding.— Coin 460 

Coins  mentioned  in  the  Mahawanso  n.  460 
Meaning  of  the  term  "  raassa"  (note)  4GO 
Coins  of  Lokiswaira  .  .  .  .461 
General  device  of  Singhalese  coins  .  461 
Indian  coinage  of  Prakrama  Bahu  .  462 
Fish-hook  money  ....  463 

CHAP.  VI. 

ENGINEERING. 

Engineering    taught    by  the  Brah- 

mans 454 

Rude  methods  of  labour  .  .  .  404 
Military  engineering  unknown  .  .'  465 
Early  attempts  at  fortification  .  .  465 
Fortified  rock  of  Sigiri  .  .  .405 


Forests,  their  real  security 
Thorns  planted  as  defences 
Bridges  and  ferries 


Page 


.  468 
.  469 


.  466 
.  460 

Method  of  tying  cut  stone  in  forming 
tanks 467 

Tank  sluices 457 

Defective  construction  of  these  reser- 
voirs         467 

The  art  of  engineering  lost         .        .  468 

The  "  Giants'  Tank"  a  failure 

An  aqueduct  formed,  A.  D.  66 

CHAP.  VII. 

THE   FINE   ARTS. 

Music,  its  early  cultivation        .        .  470 
Harsh    character    of     Singhalese 

music 470 

Tom-toms,  their  variety  and  anti- 

0  quity 471 

Singhalese  gamut  ....  472 
Painting. — Imagination  discouraged .  472 
Similarity  of  Singhalese  toEgyptian 

art 47-2 

Rigid  rules  for  religious  design  .  473 
Similar  trammels  on  art  in  Modern 

Greece         .        .         .        (note)  473 

And  in  Italy  in  the  15th  century  (n.)  474 

Celebrated  Singhalese  painters       .  475 

Sculpture.— Statues  of  Buddha  .        .  475 

Built  statues 477 

Painted  statues       ....  477 
Statues  formed  of  gems  .        .        .  477 
Ivory  and  sandal-wood  carved       .  477 
Architecture,  its  ruins  exclusively  re- 
ligious         478 

Domestic  architecture  mean  at  all 

times 478 

Stone  quarried  by  wedges  .  .  478 
Immense  slabs  thus  prepared  .  479 
Columns  at  Anarajapoora  .  .479 
Materials  for  building  .  .  .  479 
Mode  of  constructing  a  dagoba  .  480 
Enormous  dimensions  of  these 

structures 480 

Monasteries  and  wiharas        .        .  481 

Palaces 482 

Carvings  in  stone  ....  483 
Ubiquity  of  the  honours  shown  to 

goose 484 

Delicate  outline  of  Singhalese  carv- 
ings      488 

Temples  and  their  decorations  .  488 
Cave  temples  of  Ceylon  .  .  .  489 
The  Alu-wihara  ....  489 
Moulding  in  plaster  .  .  .  489 
Claim  of  the  Singhalese  to  the  in- 
vention of  oil  painting  .  .490 
Lacquer  ware  of  the  present  day  .  490 
Honey-suckle  ornament .  .  .  491 

CHAP.  VIII. 

SOCIAL  LIFE. 

Ancient  cities  and  their  organisation   493 
ublic  buildings,  hospitals,  shops       .  493 

Anarajapoora,  as  it  appeared  in  7th 
century  .        .  .493 


THE    FIRST   VOLUME. 


xiii 


/85 


The  description  of  it  by  Fa  Hian 
Carriages  and  Horses  .  .  .  495 
Horses  imported  from  Persia  .  .  495 
Furniture  of  the  houses  .  .  .  496 
Form  of  Government. — Kevenue  .  497 
The  Army  and  Navv  .  .  .  498 
Mode  of  recruiting  "  .  .  .  .  499 

Arms. — Bows 499 

Singular  mode  of  drawing  the  bow 

with  the  foot  .        .        .        (note)  499 
Civil  Justice 500 

CHAP.  IX. 

SCIENCES. 

Education  and  schools        . 


501 
502 
503 
504 
504 
505 


Logic 

Astronomy  and  astrology  . 

Medicine  and  surgery        . 

King  Buddha-dasa  a  physician 

Botany       .         .        .    "    . 

(Geometry  ......  505 

Lightning  conductors         .        .        .  506 
Notice  of  a  remarkable  passage  in  the 
Mahawanso    .....  507 

CHAP.  X. 

SINGHALESE   LITERATURE. 

The  Pali  language  .  .  .  .512 
The  temples  the  depositaries  of 

learning  .....  512 
Historiographers  employed  by  the 

kings  ..."...  512 
Ola  books,  how  prepared  .  .513 
A  stile,  and  the  mode  of  writing 

with  it  .....  513 
Books  on  plates  of  metal  (note)  513 
Differences  between  Elu  and  Sing- 

halese ......  513 

Pali  works  : 

Grammar        .....  514 

Hardy's  list   of  Singhalese  books 

(note)  515 

Pali  books  all  written  in  verse       .  615 
The  Pittakas  .....  515 

The  Jatahas—  resemble  the  Talmud  516 
Pali  literature  generally  .  .516 
The  Milinda-prasna  .  .  .  516 
Pali  historical  books  and  their  cha- 

racter .....  517 
The  Mahawanso  ....  517 
Scriptural  coincidences  in  Pali 

books  ....    (note)  518 


Page 

Sanskrit  works  : 

Principally  on  science  and  medi- 
cine      520 

Elu  and  Singhalese  works : 
Low  tone  of  the  popular  literature    520 
Chiefly  ballads  and  metrical  essays   521 
Exempt  from  licentiousness   .        .  521 
Sacred  poems  in  honour  of  Hindu 

gods 521 

General  literature  of  the  people      .  522 

CHAP.  XI. 

BUDDHISM  AND  DEMON -WORSHIP. 

Buddhism  as  it  exists  in  Ceylon  .  523 
Which  was  the  more  ancient,  Brah- 

manism  or  Buddhism  .  .  .  523 
Various  authorities  .  .  (note)  523 
Buddhism,  its  extreme  antiquit}'  .  524 
Its  prodigious  influence  .  .  .  524 
Sought  to  be  identified  with  the 

Druids  ....  (note)  524 
Buddhism  an  agent  of  civilisation  .  525 
Its  features  in  Ceylon  .  .  .  526 
The  various  forms  elsewhere  .  .  527 
Points  that  distinguish  it  from  Brah- 

manism  ......  528 

Buddhist  theory  of  human  perfection  528 
Its  treatment  of  caste  .  .  .530 
Its  respect  for  other  religions  .  .  530 
Anecdote,  illustrative  of  .  (note)  530 

Its  cosmogony 531 

Its  doctrine  of  "  necessity  "  .  .  .  532 
Transmigration  .....  533 
Illustration  from  Lucan  .  (note)  533 
The  priesthood  and  its  attributes  .  534 
Buddhist  morals  ....  534 
Prohibition  to  take  life  .  .  .  53 1 
Form  of  worship  ....  535 
Brahmanical  corruptions  .  .  .  536 
Failure  of  Buddhism  as  a  sustaining 

faith 537 

Its  moral  influence  over  the  people  .  538 

Demon-worship 539 

Trees  dedicated  to  demons  (note)  540 
Devil  priests  and  their  orgies  .  .  541 
Ascendency  of  these  superstitions  .  542 
Buddhism  as  an  obstacle  to  Chris- 
tianity   543 

Difficulties  presented  by  the  morals 

of  Buddhism 544 

Prohibition  against  taking  away 

life (note)  544 


PART  V. 

MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

CEYLON   AS  KNOWN  TO   THE  GREEKS 
AND   ROMANS. 

First  heard  of  by  the  companions  of 
Alexander  the  Great       .        .        .549 


Various    ancient    names    of  Ceylon 

(note)  549 
Early  doubts  whether  it  was  an  island 

or  a  continent         ....  550 
Mentioned  by  Aristotle      .        .        .  550 


XIV 


CONTENTS    OF 


Page 

Alleged  mention  of  Ceylon  in  the  Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch        .        (.note")  551 
Onesicritus's  account         .         .        •  5o2 
Megasthenes'  description   .        .        .  5o2 
^Elian's  account  borrowed  from  Me- 
gasthenes       .        .        .        («»<e)552 
Ceylon  known  to  the  Phoenicians  and 

to  the  Egyptians  .  .  (note)  552 
Hippalus  discovers  the  monsoons  _  .  553 
Effect  of  this  discovery  on  Indian 

trade 554 

Pliny's  account  of  Ceylon  .        .        .  555 
Story  of  Jambulua  by  Diodorus  Si- 
culus       ....         (note)  556 

Embassy  from  Ceylon  to  Claudius     .  556 
Narrative  of  Rachias,  and  its  expla- 
nation    ....        (note)  557 

Lake  Megisba,  a  tank        .        .        .  557 
Early  intercourse  with  China    .        .558 
The  Veddaha  described  by  Pliny       .  558 
Interval  between  Pliny  and  Ptolemy  558 
Ptolemy's  account  of  Ceylon      .         .  559 
Explanation  of  his  errors  .         (note)  559 
Ptolemy  discriminates  bays  from  es- 
tuaries    ....         (note)  559 

Identification  of  Ptolemy's  names      .  560 
His  map     ......  560 

His  sources  of  information          .        .561 
Agathemerus,  Marcianus  of  Heraclea  562 
Cosmas  Indicopleustes        .        .        .  562 
Palladius— St.  Ambrosius  .        (note)  5C2 
State  of  Ceylon  when  Cosmas  wrote     563 
Its  commerce  at  that  period       .        .  563 
In  the  hands  of  Arabs  and  Persians  .  564 
Ce3rlon  as  described  b.y  Cosmas          .  565 
Story  of  his  informant  Sopater  .        .  566 
Translation  of  Cosmas        .        .        .  567 
The  gems  and  other  productions  of 

Ceylon — "  a  gaou  "         .        (note)  567 
Meaning  of  the  term   "Hyacinth'' 

(note)  568 

The  great  ruby  of  Ceylon,  its  history 
traced     ....         (note)  568 

Cosmas  corroborated  by  the  Periplus    570 
Horses  imported  from  Persia      .         .  570 
Export  of  elephants  ....  570 

Note  on  Sanchoniathon     .        .        .571 


CHAP.  II. 

INDIAN,   ARABIAN,   AND    PERSIAN 
AUTHORITIES. 

Absurd    errors    of  the    Hindus    re- 
garding Ceylon       ....  578 
Their  dread  of  Ceylon  as  the  abode  of 

demons 578 

Rise  of  the  Mahometan  power  .        .  579 
Persians  and  Arabs  trade  to  India      .  579 
Story  in  Beladory  of  the  first  invasion 
of  India  by  the  Mahometans  (text 

and  note) 580 

Character  of  the  Arabian  geographers  581 
Their  superiority  over  the  Greeks  .  581 
Greek  Paradoxical  literature  .  .  582 
A.IJ.  851.  The  two  Mahometans  .  583 
Their  account  of  Ceylon  .  .  .  583 

Adam's  Peak 583 

Obsequies  of  a  king    ....  584 


Page 

.  684 


Councils  on  religion  and  history 

Toleration 585 

Cannathic  monument  at  Colombo 

(note)  585 

Gaffe,  the  seat  of  ancient  trade  .  .  586 
Claim  of  Mantotte  disproved  .  .  587 
Greek  fire  .  .  .  .  (note)  588 
"  Kalah "  is  Galle  .  .  .  .589 
The  Maharaja  of  Zabedj  held  posses- 
sion of  Galle 589 

Evidence  of  this  in  the  Garsharsp- 

Namah 590 

Derivation  of  "  Galle  "  (text  and  note)  591 
Aversion  of  the  Singhalese  to  com- 
merce       592 

Identification  of  the  modern  Veddahs 

with  the  ancient  Singhalese    .        .  593 
Their  singular  habits,  as  described  by 
Robert  Knox,  Ribeyro,  and  Va"- 

lentyn 593 

ByAlbyrouni 593 

By  Palladius 593 

By  Fa  Hian 594 

By  the  Chinese  writers  (note)  594 

By  Pliny 594 

For  this  reason  the  coast  only  known 

to  strangers  .....  595 
Arabian  authors  who  describe  Ceylon  595 
Albateny  and  Massoudi  :  .  .595 
Tabari  ....  (note)  595 
Sindbad  the  Sailor .  .  .  .596 

Edrisi 597 

Kazwini 598 

Cinnamon,  no  mention  of    .        .        .  599 
Was  cinnamon  a  native  of  Ceylon  ?    .  599 
No  mention  by  Singhalese  authors    .  600 
No  mention  of  by  Latin  writers  .        .600 
The  Regio  Cinnamomifera  was  in  Af- 
rica      ....        (note)  600 
No  mention  by  Arabs  or  Persians     600 
First  noticed  in  Ceylon  by  Ibn  Ba- 

tuta 601 

By  Nicola  di  Conti          .         (note)  601 

Ibn  Batuta  describes  Ceylon       .        .  604 

His  Travels 605 


CHAP.  III. 

CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO   THE    CHINESE. 

Early  Chinese  trade  with  Ceylon  .  607 
Early  Chinese  travellers  in  India  .  607 
Chinese  translations  of  M.  S.  Julien  .  608 
List  of  Chinese  authors  relating  to 

Ceylon  ....  (note)  COS 
Their  errors  as  to  its  form  and  site  .  609 
Their  account  of  Adam's  Peak  and  its 

gems C09 

Chinese  names  for  Ceylon  .  .  .610 
Curious  habit  of  its  traders  .  .611 
They  describe  the  two  races,  Tamils 

and  Singhalese  .  .  .  .611 
Origin  of  the  cotton  "  Comboy  "  .612 
Costume  of  Ceylon  .  .  .  .612 

Early  commerce 613 

Works  for  irrigation  noticed  .  .  613 
Island  of  Junk-Ceylon  .  .  .614 
Galle  resorted  to  by  Chinese  ships  .  614 


THE   FIRST   VOLUME. 


XV 


Vegetable  productions  .  .  .  614 
Elephants,  ivory,  and  jewels  .  .  615 
Skill  of  Singhalese  goldsmiths  and 

statuaries 615 

Pearls  and  gems  sent  to  China  .        .  615 
No  mention  of  cinnamon    .        .        .  616 
Chinese  account  of  Buddhism  in  Cey- 
lon   616 

Monasteries  for  priests  first  founded 

in  Ceylon 616 

Cities  of  Ceylon  in  the  sixth  century  617 
Patriotism  of  Singhalese  kings  .  .  617 
Domestic  manners  of  the  Singhalese  .  617 
Embassies  from  China,  to  Ceylon  .  618 
Chinese  travels  prior  to  the  sixth 

century 619 

Fa  Hian's  travels  in  sixth  century  .  620 
First  embassy  from  Ceylon  to  China, 

A.D.  405 620 

Narrative  of  the  image  which  it  bore 

(note)  620 

Ceylon  tributary  to  China  in  sixth 
century   ......  620 

Iliouen-Thsang  describes  Ceylon  in 

the  seventh  century        .        (note)  621 
Events   in   the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries      ....  621 

King  of  Cevlon  carried  captive   to 
China,  A.D.  1405     .        .        .        .623 

Last  embassy  to  China,  A.D.  1459  .  625 
Traces  of  the  Chinese  in  Ceylon  .  626 
Evidences  of  their  presence  found  by 

the  Portuguese        .  626 

Modern  Chinese  account  of  Ceylon 

(note)  626 


CHAP.  IV. 

CEYLON   AS   KNOWN  TO   THE  MOOES, 
GENOESE,  AND  VENETIANS. 

Page 

The  Moors  of  Ceylon  ....  629 

Their  origin 629 

The  early  Mahometans  in  India        .  629 
Arabians  anciently  settled  in  Ceylon .  630 
Real  descent  of  the  modern  "  Moor- 
men"       631 

Their  occupation  as  traders,  ancestral  632 
Their  hostilities  with  the  Portuguese   633 
They  might  have  been  rulers  of  Cey- 
lon   .633 

Indian  trade  prior  to  the  route  by  the 

Cape 634 

The  Genoese  and  Venetians  in  the 

East 634 

Rise  of  the  Mongol  empire  .  .  635 
Marco  Polo,  A.D.  1271  .  .  .635 

Visits  Ceylon 636 

Friar  Odoric,  A.D.  1318  .  .  .636 
Jordan  de  Severac,  A.D.  1323  (note)  637 
Giov.  de  Marignola,  A.D.  1349  (note)  637 
Nicola  di  Conti,  A.D.  1444  .  .  .  637 
The  first  traveller  who  speaks  of 

Cinnamon 638 

Jerome  de  Santo  Stefano  .  (note)  639 
Ludov.  Barthema,  A.D.  1506  .  .639 
Odoardo  Barbosa,  A.D.  1509  .  .  640 
Andrea  Corsali,  A.D.  1515  .  (note)  640 
Cesar  Frederic,  A.D.  1563  .  .  .641 
Course  of  trade  changed  by  the  Cape 

route 642 

Irritation  of  the  Venetians         .        .  643 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  FIRST  VOLUME. 


MAPS. 

Page 

"Gobbs"  on  the  East  Coast      .        .        .        .  By  ARROWSMITH  .        .  .45 

"Gobbs"  on  the  West  Coast     ....        ARROWSMITH   .        .        .        .46 
Ceylon,  according  to  the  Sanskrit    and  Pali        SIR  J.  EMERSON  TEXNENT 

authors.  *>/«<*    318 

Map  of  Ancient  India LASSEN    ....  330 

Position  of  Colombo,  according  to  Ptolemy       .        SIR  J.  EMKRSON  TENNENT          559 
Ceylon,  according  to  Ptolemy  and  Pliny   .        .        SIR  J.  EMERSON  TENNENT 

to  face    560 

PLANS  AND  CHARTS. 

Page 

Geological  System By 12 

Currents  in  the  N.  E.  Monsoon 43 

Currents  in  the  N.  W.  Monsoon ' !     .'  •  4 

Diagram  of  Rain  in  India  and  in  Ceylon  .        .         DR.  TEMPLETON       .        .        .66 

Diagram  of  the  Anthelia DR.  TEMPLETON       .        .        .73 

Plan  of  a  Fish -corral 211 

Summit  of  a  Dagoba,  with  Lightning  apparatus 509 

WOOD  ENGRAVINGS. 

Marriage  of  the  Fig-tree  and  the  Palm     .        .  By  MR.  A.  NICHOLL      .        .        .96 
Fig-tree  on  the  Ruins  of  Pollanarrua         .        ,        MR.  A.  NICHOLL      .         .        .97 

The  "Snake-tree" MR.  A.  NICHOLL      .        .        .98 

The  Loris M.  H.  SYLVAT  .        .        .        .134 

The  Uropeltis  grandis M.  H.  SYLVAT  ....  195 

A  Chironectes     ...  M.  H.  SYLVAT          .        .        .  207 

Method  of  Fishing  in  Pools      ....  From  KNOX 210 

The  Anabas  of  the  dry  Tanks  .        .        .        .  By  DR.  TKMPLETON       .        .        .220 

Eggs  of  the  Leaf  Insect M.  H.  SYLVAT  ....  251 

Cermatia DR.  TEMPLETON       .        .        .298 

The  Calling  Crab 300 

Eyes  and  Teeth  of  the  Land  Leech  ...        DR.  TEMPLETON       .        .        .302 

Land  Leeches DR.  TEMPLETON       .        .  304 

Upper  and  under  Surfaces  of  the  Hirudo  sangui  • 

sorba DR.  TEMPLETON       .        .        .  305 

The  Bo-tree  at  Anarajapoora    .  .        MR.  A.  NICHOLL      .        .        .  343 

A  Dagoba  at  Kandy  .        .        .  From  a  Photograph       .        .         .  345 

Ruins  of  the  Brazen  Palace       .        .        .        .By  MR.  A.  NICHOLL      .        .        .357 

The  Alu  Wihara MR.  A.  NICHOLL      .        .        .375 

The  fortified  Rock  of  Sigiri       ....        MR.  A.  NICHOLL       .        .        .392 

Coin  of  Queen  Leela-Wattee 412 

Coin  showing  the  Trisula 461 

Hook-money 463 

Ancient  and  Modern  Tom-tom  Beaters     .        .  From  the  JOINVILLE  MSS.    .        .  471 

A  Column  from  Anarajapoora 479 

Sacred  Goose  from  the  Burmese  Standard !  485 

Hansa,  from  the  old  Palace  at  Kandy 487 

Honeysuckle  Ornament From   FERGUSSON'S  Handbook  of 

Architecture        .         .         .         .491 

P'gyptian  Yoke  and  Singhalese  Pingo 497 

Veddah  drawing  the  Bow  with  his  Foot   .        .  By  MR.  R.  MAC-DOWALL  490 

Method  of  Writing  with  a  Stile        .        .        .        MR.  R.  MACDOWALL  513 

The  "Comboy,"  as  worn  by  both  Sexes   .        .        MR.  A.  FAIRFIELD  .        .  612 


NOTICE 


TO 

THE    FIFTH    EDITION. 


THE  improvements  in  the  present  impression  consist  in  the  intro- 
duction of  new  matter  in  numerous  places,  the  careful  revision 
and  correction  of  the  old,  the  re-engraving  of  some  of  the  illus- 
trations, and  the  insertion  of  several  hundreds  of  additional 
references  in  the  Index. 

Since  the  first  volume  of  the  present  Edition  was  printed,  my 
attention  has  been  called  by  Lieut-Colonel  H.  Aime  Ouvry,  who 
is  about  to  proceed  to  Ceylon  as  Assistant  Quartermaster-General, 
to  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  the  Singhalese  coins,  one  of 
which  is  engraved  at  p.  461,  Vol.  I.  This  is  accompanied  by  an 
explanation  by  Mr.  Vaux  of  the  British  Museum  to  the  effect 
that  the  obverse  represents  "a  rude  standing  figure  of  the  JRaja 
holding  the  trisula  in  the  left  hand,  and  a  flower  in  the  right," 
and  on  the  reverse  "  the  same  figure  seated,  the  name  in  Nagari 
characters  being  placed  beside  the  face."  But  Colonel  Ouvry  is 
of  opinion  that  by  inverting  the  coin  some  of  the  lines,  which 
otherwise  (perhaps  intentionally)  represent  the  rude  outline 
of  a  human  figure,  resolve  themselves  into  Arabic  characters; 
which  he  considers  give  the  date  and  place  where  the  piece 
was  struck,  whilst  the  Deva-Nagari  letters  supply  the  name 
of  the  king. 

In  Colonel  Ouvry's  opinion  the  legend  on  the  reverse  exhibits 
the  Arabic  sentence  Jiil  X-j  *~»  sunna  sikha  Lunkeh,  "  struck 
at  Lanka  in  the  year ; "  while  on  the  obverse,  the  word  -b! 
"  Lunkeh"  is  repeated,  followed  by  what  appears  to  be  an  Arabic 
numeral. 

VOL.  I.  *  a 


xviii  NOTICE  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 

Thus  on  each  face  of  these  coins  there  would  seem  to  be  two 
inscriptions,  one  in  Nagari  and  a  second  in  Arabic ;  but  each  so 
placed  as  to  become  reversed,  when  the  one  above  it  is  held 
upright.  This  fact,  if  established,  acquires  much  significance  in 
connexion  with  the  great  resort  of  Arabian  merchants  at  that 
time  to  Ceylon,  and  it  serves  to  explain  the  circumstance  of  one 
of  these  coins  being  engraved  in  Davy's  Account  of  the  Interior 
of  Ceylon,  on  which  the  Nagari  characters  are  turned  upside 
down,  but  when  reversed  they  form  the  name  of  Sm  PRAKRAMA 

BAKU. 

J.  EMERSON  TENNENT. 

LONDON, 
March  1st,  1860. 


NOTICE   TO   THE   FOURTH  EDITION. 


THE  gratifying  reception  with  which  the  following  pages  have 
been  honoured  by  the  public  and  the  press,  has  in  no  degree 
lessened  my  consciousness,  that  in  a  work  so  extended  in  its 
scope,  and  comprehending  such  a  multiplicity  of  facts,  errors 
are  nearly  unavoidable  both  as  to  conclusions  and  detail.  These, 
so  far  as  I  became  aware  of  them,  I  have  endeavoured  to  correct 
in  the  present,  as  well  as  in  previous  impressions. 

But  my  principal  reliance  for  the  suggestion  and  supply  both 
of  amendments  and  omissions  has  been  on  the  press  and  the 
public  of  Ce}^lon  ;  whose  familiarity  with  the  topics  discussed 
naturally  renders  them  the  most  competent*  judges  as  to  the 
mode  in  which  I  have  treated  them.  My  hope  when  the 
book  was  published  in  October  last  was,  that  before  going  again 
to  press  I  should  be  in  possession  of  such  friendly  communi- 
cations and  criticisms  from  the  island,  as  would  have  enabled  me 
to  render  the  second  edition  much  more  valuable  than  the  pre- 
vious one.  In  this  expectation  I  have  been  agreeably  disappointed, 
the  sale  having  been  so  rapid,  as  to  require  a  fourth  impression 
before  it  was  possible  to  obtain  from  Ceylon  judicious  criticisms 
on  the  first.  These  in  due  time  will  doubtless  arrive ;  and  mean- 
while, I  have  endeavoured,  by  careful  revision,  to  render  the 
whole  as  far  as  possible  correct. 

J.  EMERSON  TENNENT. 


NOTICE 


THE    THIRD    EDITION. 


THE  call  for  a  third  edition  on  the  same  day  that  the  second  was 
announced  for  publication,  and  within  less  than  two  months 
from  the  appearance  of  the  first,  has  furnished  a  gratifying 
assurance  of  the  interest  which  the  public  are  disposed  to  take 
in  the  subject  of  the  present  work. 

Thus  encouraged,  I  have  felt  it  my  duty  to  make  several 
alterations  in  the  present  impression,  amongst  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  the  insertion  of  a  Chapter  on  the  doctrines 
of  Buddhism  as  it  developes  itself  in  Ceylon.1  In  the  historical 
sections  I  had  already  given  an  account  of  its  introduction  by 
Mahindo,  and  of  the  establishments  founded  by  successive 
sovereigns  for  its  preservation  and  diffusion.  To  render  the 
narrative  complete,  it  was  felt  desirable  to  insert  an  abstract  of 
the  peculiar  tenets  of  the  Buddhists ;  and  this  want  it  has  been 
my  object  to  supply.  The  sketch,  it  will  be  borne  in  mind,  is 
confined  to  the  principal  features  of  what  has  been  denominated 
Southern  Buddhism "  amongst  the  Singhalese ;  as  distin- 
guished from  "Northern  Buddhism"  in  Nepal,  Thibet,  and 
China.2  The  latter  has  been  largely  illustrated  by  the  labours 


1  See  Part  IV.,  c.  xi. 

2  MAX  MILLER,  History  of  Sanskrit  Literature,  p.  262. 

a2 


NOTICE   TO   THE   THIRD   EDITION. 


of  Mr.  B.  H.  HODGSON  and  the  toilsome  researches  of  the  Transyl- 
vanian  traveller  M.  CSOMA  of  Korros;  and  the  minutest  details  of  the 
doctrines  and  ceremonies  of  the  former  have  been  unfolded  in  the 
elaborate  and  comprehensive  collections  of  Mr.  SPENCE  HARDY.1 
From  materials  discovered  by  these  and  other  earnest  inquirers, 
Buddhism  in  its  general  aspect  has  been  ably  delineated  in  the 
dissertations  of  BuRNOUF2  and  SAINT  HILAIRES,  and  in  the  com- 
mentaries of  REMUSAT4,  STANISLAS  JULIENS,  FoucAux6,  LASSEN7, 
and  WEBER.S  The  portion  thus  added  to  the  present  edition 
has  been  to  a  great  extent  taken  from  a  former  work  of  mine  on 
the  local  superstitions  of  Ceylon,  and  the  "  Introduction  and 
Progress  of  Christianity"  there;  and  as  the  section  relating 
to  Buddhism  had  the  advantage,  previous  to  publication,  of 
being  submitted  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  GOGERLY,  the  most  accom- 
plished Pali  scholar  in  the  island,  as  well  as  the  most  eru- 
dite student  of  Buddhistical  literature,  I  submit  it  with  confi- 
dence as  an  accurate  summary  of  the  distinctive  views  of  the 
Singhalese  on  the  leading  doctrines  of  their  national  faith. 

A  writer  in  the  Saturday  Review9,  in  alluding  to  the  passage 
in  which  I  have  sought  to  establish  the  identity  of  the  ancient 
Tarshish  with  the  modern  Point  de  Galle10,  admits  the  force  of 
the  coincidence  adduced,  that  the  Hebrew  terms  for  "ivory, 
apes,  and  peacocks"11  (the  articles  imported  in  the  ships 
of  Solomon)  are  identical  with  the  Tamil  names,  by  which 


1  Eastern  Monacltism,  an  account 
of  the  origin,  laws,  discipline,  sacred 
•writings,  mysterious  rites,  religious 
ceremonies,  and  present  circum- 
stances of  the  Order  of  Mendicants, 
founded  by  Gotoma  Budha.  8vo. 
Lond.  1850  ;  and  A  Manual  ofjiud- 
hism  in  its  Modern  Development.  8vo. 
Lond.  1853. 

*  BuBtfoUF,  Introduction  a  THis- 
toire  du  Bouddhisme  Indian.  4to.  Paris. 
1845;  and  translation  of  the  Lotus 
de  la  bonne  Loi. 

8  J.BAHXHELEMYSAINT-HILAIEE, 


Le  Bouddha  et  sa  Religion.  8vo.  Paris. 
1860. 

4  Introduction  and  Notes  to   the 
Foe  Koue  Ki  of  FA  HIAN. 

5  Life    and    travels    of   HIOUEN 
THSANG. 

6  Translation  of  Lalitavistdra  by 
M.  PH.  ED.  FOTJCATTX. 

7  Author    of  the   Indische  Alter- 
thumskunde;  &c. 

8  Author  of  the  Indische  Studien;  &c. 

9  Novemb.  19,  1859,  p.  G12. 

10  See  Vol.  II.  Pt.  vii.;  c.  i.  p.  102. 
»  1  Kings,  x.  22. 


NOTICE    TO    THE    THIRD   EDITION.  XXI 

these  objects  are  known  in  Ceylon  to  the  present  day ;  and,  to 
strengthen  my  argument  on  this  point,  he  adds  that,  "these 
terms  were  so  entirely  foreign  and  alien  from  the  common 
Hebrew  language  as  to  have  driven  the  Ptolemaist  authors  of 
the  Septuagint  version  into  a  blunder,  by  which  the  ivory,  apes, 
and  peacocks  come  out  as  *  hewn  and  carven  stones.'' "  The 
circumstance  adverted  to  had  not  escaped  my  notice;  but 
I  forebore  to  avail  myself  of  it;  for,  although  the  fact  is 
accurately  stated  by  the  reviewer,  so  far  as  regards  the  Vatican 
MS.,  in  which  the  translators  have  slurred  over  the  passage 
and  converted  "  D^n^  D'$>p  and  D'?3Fi "  into  "  \tdwv  TO- 
psvrwv  KOL  TrsXsKrjrfov  "  (literally,  "  stones  hammered  and  carved 
in  relief");  still,  in  the  other  great  MS.  of  the  Septuagint, 
the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  which  is  of  equal  antiquity,  the  pas- 
sage is  correctly  rendered  by  OAONTW  €A€<I>ANTINU)N 
KAI  niGHKWN  KAI  TAWNWN.  The  editor  of  the 
Aldine  edition1  compromised  the  matter  by  inserting  "the 
ivory  and  apes,"  and  excluding  the  "  peacocks,"  in  order  to 
introduce  the  Vatican  reading  of  "stones."2  I  have  not  com- 
pared the  Complutensian  and  other  later  versions. 

The  Kev.  Dr.  CUBETON,  of  the  British  Museum,  who,  at  my 
request,  collated  the  passage  in  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  versions, 
assures  me  that  in  both,  the  terms  in  question  bear  the  closest 
resemblance  to  the  Tamil  words  found  in  the  Hebrew ;  and  that 
in  each  and  all  of  them  these  are  of  foreign  importation. 

J.   EMERSON   TENNENT. 

LONDON  .- 
November  28th,  1859. 


1  Venice,  1518. 

2  Kai  oSovruJv  iKftpavTivuiv  ical  irtOii- 
KUV   *ai  \iOwv.      BASIA.    TPI'I  H.    X. 
22.      It    is    to    be    observed,    that 
Joseplius  appears  to  have  been  equally 
embarrassed  by  the  unfamiliar  term 
D\'?ri  for  peacocks.     He  alludes  to 
the  voyages  of  Solomon's  merchant- 
men to  Tarshish,  and  says  that  they 
brought  back  from  thence  gold  and 
silver,  much  ivory,  apes,  and  ^Ethio- 
pians—  thus  substituting  "  slaves" 

VOL.  i.  *a  3 


for  pea-fowl  —  "icai  iroXve  i\'t<pact 
AiUoTTfe  rt  KOI  iri9tjKoi."  Josephus  also 
renders  the  word  Tarshish  b  "  iv  r 


an  exres- 


sion which  shows  that  he  was  think- 
ing not  of  the  Indian  but  the  western 
Tarshish,  situated  in  what  Avienus 
calls  the  Fretum  Tartessiumr  whence 
African  slaves  might  have  been  ex- 
pected to  come.  —  Antiquit.  Judaica*, 
1.  viii.  c.  vii.  sec.  2. 


NOTICE 

TO 

THE     SECOND    EDITION. 


THE  rapidity  with  which  the  first  impression  has  been  absorbed 
by  the  public,  has  so  shortened  the  interval  between  its  appear- 
ance and  that  of  the  present  edition,  that  no  sufficient  time  has 
been  allowed  for  the  discovery  of  errors  or  defects ;  and  the 
work  is  re-issued  almost  as  a  corrected  reprint. 

In  the  interim,  however,  I  have  ascertained,  that  Eibeyro's 
"Historical  Account  of  Ceylon,"  which  it  was  heretofore  supposed 
had  never  appeared  in  any  other  than  the  French  version  of  the 
Abbe  Le  Grand,  and  in  the  English  translation  of  the  latter  by 
Mr.  Lee1,  was  some  years  since  printed  for  the  first  time  in  the 
original  Portuguese,  from  the  identical  MS.  presented  by  the 
author  to  Pedro  II.  in  1685.  It  was  published  in  1836  by  the 
Agademia  Eeal  das  Sciencias  of  Lisbon,  under  the  title  of 
"  Fatalidade  Historica  da  Ilha  de  Ceildo ; "  and  forms  the 
fifth  volume  of  the  "  Collegao  de  Noticias  para  a  Historia  e 
Geografca  das  Nafoes  Ultramarinas"  A  fac-simile  from  a 
curious  map  of  the  island  as  it  was  then  known  to  the  Portu- 
guese, has  been  included  in  the  present  edition.2 

Some  difficulty  having  been  expressed  to  me,  in  identifying 
the  ancient  names  of  places  in  India  adverted  to  in  the  following 
pages ;  and  mediaeval  charts  of  that  country  being  rare,  a  map 
has  been  inserted  in  the  present  edition3,  to  supply  the  want 
complained  of. 

The  only  other  important  change  has  been  a  considerable  ad- 
dition to  the  Index,  which  was  felt  to  be  essential  for  facilitating 
reference. 

J.  E.  T. 

LONDON: 
November  1st,  1859. 


See  Vol.  II.  Part  vi.  ch.  i.  p.  5,  note.       *  Itnd.  p.  6.       3  See  Vol.  I.  p.  330. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THERE  is  no  island  in  the  world,  Great  Britain  itself 
not  excepted,  that  has  attracted  the  attention  of  authors 
in  so  many  distant  ages  and  so  many  different  countries 
as  Ceylon.  There  is  no  nation  in  ancient  or  modern 
times  possessed  of  a  language  and  a  literature,  the 
writers  of  which  have  not  at  some  time  made  it  their 
theme.  Its  aspect,  its  religion,  its  antiquities,  and 
productions,  have  been  described  as  well  by  the  classic 
Greeks,  as  by  those  of  the  Lower  Empire  ;  by  the 
Romans ;  by  the  writers  of  China,  Burmah,  India,  and 
Kashmir ;  by  the  geographers  of  Arabia  and  Persia ; 
by  the  mediaeval  voyagers  of  Italy  and  France  ;  by  the 
annalists  of  Portugal  and  Spain ;  by  the  merchant 
adventurers  of  Holland,  and  by  the  travellers  and 
topographers  of  Great  Britain. 

But  amidst  this  wealth  of  materials  as  to  its  vicissi- 
tudes in  early  times,  there  is  an  absolute  dearth  of  in- 
formation regarding  the  state  and  progress  of  the  island 
during  more  recent  periods,  and  its  actual  condition 
at  the  present  day. 

I  was  made  sensible  of  this  want,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  my  nomination,  in  1845,  to  an  office  in  con- 

a4 


XXIV 


INTRODUCTION. 


nection  with  the  government  of  Ceylon.  I  found 
abundant  details  as  to  the  capture  of  the  maritime 
provinces  from  the  Dutch  in  1795,  in  the  narrative  of 
Captain  PERCIVAL  *,  an  officer  who  had  served  in  the 
expedition  ;  and  the  efforts  to  organise  the  first  system 
of  administration  are  amply  described  by  CoRDiNER2, 
Chaplain  to  the  Forces  ;  by  Lord  VALENTIA  3,  who  was 
then  travelling  in  the  East  ;  and  by  ANTHONY  BERTO- 
LACCI4,  who  acted  as  auditor-general  to  the  first  go- 
vernor, Mr.  North,  afterwards  Earl  of  Guildford.  The 
story  of  the  capture  of  Kandy  in  1815  has  been  related 
by  an  anonymous  eye-witness  under  the  pseudonyme 
of  PHILALETHES  5,  and  by  MARSHALL  in  his  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  conquest.6  An  admirable  description  of 
the  interior,  as  it  presented  itself  some  forty  years  ago, 
was  furnished  by  Dr.  DAVY  7,  a  brother  of  the  eminent 
philosopher,  who  was  employed  on  the  medical  staff  in 
Ceylon,  from  1816  till  1820. 

Here  the  series  of  writers  is  broken,  just  at  the 
commencement  of  a  period  the  most  important  and 
interesting  in  the  history  of  the  island.  The  mountain 
zone,  which  for  centuries  had  been  mysteriously  hidden 
from  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch8,  was  suddenly  opened 
to  British  enterprise  in  1815.  The  lofty  region,  from 


1  An  Account  of  the  Island    of 
Ceylon,  g-c.,  by  Capt.  R.  PERCIVAL. 
4to.  London,  1805. 

2  A  Description  of  Ceylon,  Sfc.,  by 
the    Rev.   JAMES   CORDINER,  A.M. 
2  vols.  4to.  London,  1807. 

3  Voyages  and   Travels  to  India, 
Ceylon,  and  the  Red  Sea,  by  Lord 
Viscount   VALENTIA.     3  vols.   4to 
London,  1809. 

*  A  View  of  the  Agricultural,  Com- 
mercial,  and  Financial  Interests  of 
Ceylon,  §r.,  by  A.  BERTOLACCI.  Esq 
London,  1817. 

*  A  History  of  Ceylon  from  the 


earliest  Period  to  the  Year  MDCCCXV, 
by  PHILALETHES,  A.M.  4to.  Lond. 
1817.  The  author  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  Rev.  G.  Bisset. 

6  HENRY  MARSHALL,  F.R.S.E.,  &c. 
went   to   Ceylon   as    assistant    sur- 
geon of  the  89th  regiment,  in  1805, 
and   from    1816   till    1821  was    the 
senior  medical  officer  of  the  Kan- 
dyan  provinces. 

7  An  Account  of  the  Interior  of 
Ceylon,  fyc.,  by  JOHN  DAVY,  M.D. 
4to.  London,  1821. 

8  VALENTYN,  in  his  great  work  on 
the  Dutch  possessions  in  India,  Owl 


INTRODUCTION.  XXV 

behind  whose  barrier  of  hills  the  kings  of  Kandy 
had  looked  down  and  defied  the  arms  of  three  suc- 
cessive European  nations,  was  at  last  rendered  acces- 
sible by  the  construction  of  the  grandest  mountain  road 
in  India ;  and  in  the  north  of  the  island,  the  ruins  of 
ancient  cities,  and  the  stupendous  monuments  of  an 
early  civilisation,  were  discovered  and  explored  in  the 
solitudes  of  the  great  central  forests.  English  mer- 
chants embarked  in  the  renowned  trade  in  cinnamon, 
which  we  had  wrested  from  the  Dutch ;  and  British 
capitalists  introduced  the  cultivation  of  coffee  into  the 
previously  inaccessible  highlands.  Changes  of  equal 
magnitude  contributed  to  alter  the  social  position  of 
the  natives ;  domestic  slavery  was  extinguished  ;  com- 
pulsory labour^  previously  exacted  from  the  free  races, 
was  abolished;  and  new  laws  under  a  charter  of  justice 
superseded  the  arbitrary  rule  of  the  native  chiefs.  In 
the  course  of  less  than  half  a  century,  the  aspect  of  the 
country  became  changed,  the  condition  of  the  people 
was  submitted  to  new  influences ;  and  the  time  arrived 
to  note  the  effects  of  this  civil  revolution. 

But  on  searching  for  books  such  as  I  expected  to 
find,  recording  the  phenomena  consequent  on  these  do- 
mestic and  political  changes,  I  was  disappointed  to  dis- 
cover that  they  were  few  in  number  and  generally 
meagre  in  information.  Major  FORBES,  who  in  1826  and 
for  some  years  afterwards  held  a  civil  appointment  in  the 
Kandyan  country,  published  an  interesting  account  of 
his  observations l ;  and  his  work  derives  value  from  the 


en  Nieuw  Oost-Lidien,  alludes  more 
than  once  with  regret  to  the  igno- 
rance in  which  his  countrymen  were 
kept  as  to  the  interior  of  Ceylon, 


tives  and  spies.    (Vol.  v.  ch.  ii.  p.  35 ; 
ch.  xv.  p.  205.) 

1  Eleven  Years  in  Ceylon,  8fc.,  by 


concerning   which  their  only  infor-  I  1840. 
ination  was  obtained  through  fugi- 


Major  FOBBES.  2  vols.  8vo.  London, 


XXVI  -  INTRODUCTION. 

attention  which  the  author  had  paid  to  the  ancient 
records  of  the  island,  whose  contents  were  then  under- 
going investigation  by  the  erudite  and  indefatigable 

TURNOUB.1 

In  1843  Mr.  BENNETT,  a  retired  civil  servant  of  the 
colony,  who  had  studied  some  branches  of  its  natural 
history,  and  especially  its  ichthyology,  embodied 
his  experiences  in  a  volume  entitled  "  Ceylon  and 
its  Capabilities"  containing  a  mass  of  information, 
somewhat  defective  in  arrangement.  These  and  a 
number  of  minor  publications,  chiefly  descriptive  of 
sporting  tours  in  search  of  elephants  and  deer,  with 
incidental  notices  of  the  sublime  scenery  and  majestic 
ruins  of  the  island,  were  the  only  modern  works  that 
treated  of  Ceylon ;  but  no  one  of  them  sufficed  to  furnish 
a  connected  view  of  the  colony  at  the  present  day, 
contrasting  its  former  state  with  the  condition  to  which 
it  has  attained  under  the  government  of  Great  Britain. 

On  arriving  in  Ceylon  and  entering  on  my  official 
functions,  I  experienced  frequent  inconvenience  from 
this  dearth  of  local  knowledge.  In  my  tours  throughout 
the  interior,  I  found  ancient  monuments,  apparently 
defying  decay,  of  which  no  one  could  tell  the  date  or 
the  founder:  and  temples  and  cities  in  ruins,  whose 
destroyers  were  equally  unknown.  There  were  vast 
structures  for  public  utility,  on  which  the  prosperity 
of  the  country  had  at  one  time  been  dependent ;  arti- 
ficial lakes,  with  their  conduits  and  canals  for  irri- 
gation, the  condition  of  which  rendered  it  interesting  to 
ascertain  the  period  of  their  formation,  and  the  causes 
of  their  abandonment;  but  to  every  inquiry  of  this 
nature,  I  was  met  by  the  same  unvarying  reply; 
that  information  regarding  them  might  possibly  be 

1  See  Vol.  I.  Part  m.  cli.  iii.  p.  3] 2. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXvil 

found  in  the  Mahawanso,  or  in  some  other  of  the  native 
chronicles  ;  but  that  few  had  ever  read  them,  and 
none  had  succeeded  in  reproducing  them  for  popular 
instruction. 

A  still  more  serious  embarrassment  arose  from  the 
absence  of  authorities  to  throw  light  on  questions  that 
were  sometimes  the  subject  of  administrative  delibera- 
tion: there  were  native  customs  which  no  available 
materials  sufficed  to  illustrate ;  and  native  claims,  often 
serious  in  their  importance,  the  consideration  of  which 
was  obstructed  by  the  want  of  authentic  data.  With 
a  view  to  executive  measures,  I  was  frequently  de- 
sirous of  consulting  the  records  of  the  two  European 
governments,  under  which  the  island  had  been  ad- 
ministered for  300  years  before  the  arrival  of  the 
British ;  their  experience  might  have  served  as  a  guide, 
and  even  their  failures  would  have  pointed  out  errors 
to  be  avoided ;  but  here,  again,  I  had  to  encounter  dis- 
appointment :  in  answer  to  my  inquiries,  I  was  assured 
that  the  records,  both  of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  had 
long  since  disappeared  from  the  archives  of  the  Colonial 
Secretariat. 

Their  loss,  whilst  in  our  custody,  is  the  more  re- 
markable, considering  the  value  which  was  attached  to 
them  by  our  predecessors.  The  Dutch,  on  the  conquest 
of  Ceylon  in  the  seventeenth  century,  seized  the  official 
accounts  and  papers  of  the  Portuguese ;  and  a  memoir 
is  preserved  by  VALENTYN,  in  which  the  Governor,  Van 
Goens,  on  handing  over  the  command  to  his  successor 
in  1663,  enjoins  on  him  the  study  of  these  important 
documents,  and  expresses  anxiety  for  their  careful  pre- 
servation.1 


,  Oud  en  Nieuw  Oost-Indien,  frc.,  cb.  xiii.  p.  174. 


XXviii  INTRODUCTION. 

The  British,  on  the  capture  of  Colombo  in  1796, 
were  equally  solicitous  to  obtain  possession  of  the  re- 
cords of  the  Dutch  Government.  By  Art.  XIV.  of  the 
capitulation  they  were  required  to  be  "  faithfully  deli- 
vered over;"  and,  by  Art.  XI.,  all  "surveys  of  the 
island  and  its  coasts  "  were  required  to  be  surrendered 
to  the  captors.1  But,  strange  to  say,  almost  the  whole 
of  these  interesting  and  important  papers  appear  to  have 
been  lost ;  not  a  trace  of  the  Portuguese  records,  so  far 
as  I  could  discover,  remains  at  Colombo;  and  if  any 
vestige  of  those  of  the  Dutch  be  still  extant,  they  have 
probably  become  illegible  from  decay  and  the  ravages 
of  the  white  ants.'2 

But  the  loss  is  not  utterly  irreparable ;  duplicates  of 
the  Dutch  correspondence  during  their  possession  of 
Ceylon  are  carefully  preserved  at  Amsterdam ;  and 
within  the  last  few  years  the  Trustees  of  the  British 
Museum  purchased  from  the  library  of  the  late  Lord 
Stuart  de  Rothesay  the  Diplomatic  Correspondence  and 
Papers  of  SEBASTIAO  JOZE  CAKVALHO  E  MELLO  (Portu- 
guese Ambassador  at  London  and  Vienna,  and  subse- 
quently known  as  the  Marquis  de  Pombal),  from  1738 
to  1747,  including  sixty  volumes  relating  to  the  history 
of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  India  and  Brazil  during 
the  16th  17th,  and  18th  centuries.  Amongst  the  latter 
are  forty  volumes  of  despatches  relative  to  India  entitled 


1  Amongst  a  valuable  collection  of  I  2  Note  to  the  second  edition — Since 
documents  presented  to  the  Royal  !  the  first  edition  was  published,  I 
Asiatic  Society  of  London,  by  the  i  have  been  told  by  a  late  officer  of 
late  Sir  Alexander  Johnston,  for-  !  the  Ceylon  Government,  that  many 
merly  Chief  Justice  of  Ceylon,  there  |  years  ago,  what  remained  of  the 
is  a  volume  of  Dutch  surveys  of  the  Dutch  records  were  removed  from 
Island,  containing  important  maps  the  record- room  of  the  Colonial  Office 
of  the  coast  and  its  harbours,  and  '  to  the  cutcherry  of  the  government 
plans  of  the  great  works  for  irriga-  agent  of  the  western  province ;  where 
tion  in  the  northern  and  eastern  pro- 


some  of  them  may  still  be  found. 


INTRODUCTION. 


XXIX 


Collecqam  Authentica  de  todas  as  Leys,  Regimentos, 
Alvards  e  mais  ordens  que  se  expediram  para  a  India, 
desde  o  establecimento  destas  conquistas  ;  Ordendda  por 
proviram  de  28  de  Marco  de  1754.1  These  contain  the 
despatches  to  and  from -the  successive  Captains- General 
and  Governors  of  Ceylon,  so  that,  in  part  at  least,  the 
replacement  jof  the  records  lost  in  the  colony  may  be 
effected  by  transcription. 

Meanwhile  in  their  absence  no  other  resource  was 
left  me  than  the  original  narratives  of  the  Dutch  and 
Portuguese  historians,  chiefly  VALENTYN,  DE  BARROS, 
and  DE  COUTO,  who  have  preserved  in  two  languages 
the  least  familiar  in  Europe,  chronicles  of  their  re- 
spective governments,  which,  so  far  as  I  am  aware, 
have  not  been  republished  in  any  translation. 

The  present  volumes  contain  no  detailed  notice  of 
the  Buddist  faith  as  it  exists  in  Ceylon,  of  the  Brahma- 
nical  rites,  or  of  the  other  religious  superstitions  of  the 
isla/id.  These  I  have  already  described  in  my  history 
of  Christianity  in  Ceylon?  The  materials  for  that  work 
were  originally  designed  to  form  a  portion  of  the  present 
one;  but  having  expanded  to  too  great  dimensions  to 
be  made  merely  subsidiary,  I  formed  them  into  a  sepa- 
rate treatise.  Along  with  them  I  have  incorporated 
facts  illustrative  of  the  national  character  of  the  Singha- 
lese under  the  conjoint  influences  of  their  ancestral 
superstitions  and  the  partial  enlightenment  of  education 
and  gospel  truth. 

Kespecting  the  Physical  Geography  and  Natural  His- 


1  MSS.  Brit.  Mus.  No.  20,861  to 
20,900. 

a  Christianity  in  Ceylon :  its  In- 
troduction and  Progress  under  the 
Portuguese,  the  Dutch,  the  British, 


and  American  Missions;  with  an 
Historical  Sketch  of  the  Brahmanical 
and  Buddhist  Superstitions,  by  Sir 
JAMES  EMERSON  TENNENT.  London, 
Murray,  1850. 


XXX 


INTRODUCTION. 


tory  of  the  colony,  I  found  an  equal  want  of  reliable 
information ;  and  every  work  that  even  touched  on  the 
subject  was  pervaded  by  the  misapprehension  which  I 
have  collected  evidence  to  correct ;  that  Ceylon  is  but  a 
fragment  of  the  great  Indian  continent  dissevered  by 
some  local  convulsion ;  and  that  the  zoology  and  botany 
of  the  island  are  identical  with  those  of  the  mainland.1 

Thus  for  almost  every  particular  and  fact,  whether 
physical  or  historical,  I  have  been  to  a  great  extent 
thrown  on  my  own  researches ;  and  obliged  to  seek  for 
information  in  original  sources,  and  in  French  and 
English  versions  of  Oriental  authorities.  The  results 
of  my  investigations  are  embodied  in  the  following 
pages ;  and  it  only  remains  for  me  to  express,  in  terms 
however  inadequate,  my  obligations  to  the  literary  and 
scientific  friends  by  whose  aid  I  have  been  enabled  to 
pursue  my  inquiries. 

Amongst  these  my  first  acknowledgments  are  due  to 
Dr.  TEMPLETON,  of  the  Army  Medical  Staff,  for  his  cpr- 
dial  assistance  in  numerous  departments ;  but  above  all 
in  relation  to  the  physical  geography  and  natural  his- 
tory of  the  island.  Here  his  scientific  knowledge,  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  during  a  residence  of  nearly  twelve 
years  in  Ceylon,  and  his  intimate  familiarity  with  its 
zoology  and  productions,  rendered  his  co-operation  in- 
valuable ;  and  these  sections  abound  with  evidences  of 
the  liberal  extent  to  which  his  stores  of  information 
have  been  generously  imparted.  To  him  and  to  Dr. 
CAMERON,  of  the  Army  Medical  Staff,  I  am  indebted  for 
many  valuable  facts  and  observations  on  tropical  health 
and  disease,  embodied  in  the  chapter  on  "  Climate" 


1  It  may  seem  presumptuous  in 
me  to  question  the  accuracy  of  Dr. 
DAVY'S  opinion  on  this  point  (see 
his  Account  of  the  Interior  of  Ceylon 


ifc.,  ch.  iii.  p.  78.),  but  the  grounds 
on  which  I  venture  to  do  so  are 
stated,  Vol.  I.  pp.  7,  27,  160,  178, 
208,  &c. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXXI 

Sir  RODERICK  I.  MURCHISON  (without  committing 
himself  as  to  the  controversial  portions  of  the  chapter 
on  the  Geology  and  Mineralogy  of  Ceylon)  has  done  me 
the  favour  to  offer  some  valuable  suggestions,  and  to 
express  his  opinion  as  to  the  general  accuracy  of  the 
whole. 

Although  a  feature  so  characteristic  as  that  of  its 
Vegetation  cottld  not  possibly  be  omitted  in  a  work  pro- 
fessing to  give  an  account  of  Ceylon,  I  had  neither 
the  space  nor  the  qualifications  necessary  to  produce  a 
systematic  sketch  of  the  Botany  of  the  island.  I  could 
only  attempt  to  describe  it  as  it  exhibits  itself  to  an  un- 
scientific spectator ;  and  the  notices  that  I  have  given 
are  confined  to  such  of  the  more  remarkable  plants  as 
cannot  fail  to  arrest  the  attention  of  a  stranger.  In 
illustration  of  these,  I  have  had  the  advantage  of  copious 
communications  from  WILLIAM  FERGUSON,  Esq.,  a  gen- 
tleman attached  to  the  Survey  Department  of  the  Civil 
Service  in  Ceylon,  whose  opportunities  for  observation 
in  all  parts  of  the  island  have  enabled  him  to  cultivate 
with  signal  success  a  taste  for  botanical  pursuits.  And 
I  have  been  permitted  to  submit  the  portion  of  my 
work  which  refers  to  this  subject  to  the  revision  of  the 
highest  living  authority  on  Indian  botany,  Dr.  J.  D. 
HOOKER,  of  Kew. 

Regarding  the  fauna  of  Ceylon,  little  has  been  pub- 
lished in  any  collective  form,  with  the  exception  of  a 
volume  by  Dr.  KELAART  entitled  Prodromus  Faunae 
Zeilanicce ;  several  valuable  papers  by  Mr.  EDGAR  L. 
LAYARD  in  the  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  His- 
tory for  1852  and  1853  ;  and  some  very  imperfect 
lists  appended  to  PRIDIIAM'S  compiled  account  of  the 


XXX11 


INTRODUCTION. 


island.1  KNOX,  in  the  charming  narrative  of  his  cap- 
tivity, published  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  has  de- 
voted a  chapter  to  the  animals  of  Ceylon,  and  Dr. 
DAVY  has  described  some  of  the  reptiles  :  but  with 
these  exceptions  the  subject  is  almost  untouched  in 
works  relating  to  the  colony.  Yet  a  more  than  ordinary 
interest  attaches  to  the  inquiry,  since  Ceylon,  instead  of 
presenting,  as  is  generally  assumed,  an  identity  between 
its  fauna  and  that  of  Southern  India,  exhibits  a  re- 
markable diversity  of  type,  taken  in  connection  with 
the  limited  area  over  which  they  are  distributed.  The 
island,  in  fact,  may  be  regarded  as  the  centre  of  a 
geographical  circle,  possessing  within  itself  forms,  whose 
allied  species  radiate  far  into  the  temperate  regions  of 
the  north,  as  well  as  into  Africa,  Australia,  and  the 
isles  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 

In  the  chapters  that  I  have  devoted  to  its  elucida- 
tion, I  have  endeavoured  to  interest  others  in  the 
subject,  by  describing  my  own  observations  and  impres- 
sions, with  fidelity,  and  with  as  much  accuracy  as  may 
be  expected  from  a  person  possessing,  as  I  do,  no  greater 
knowledge  of  zoology  and  the  other  physical  sciences 
than  is  ordinarily  possessed  by  any  educated  gentleman. 
It  was  my  good  fortune,  however,  in  my  journeys  to 
have  the  companionship  of  friends  familiar  with  many 
branches  of  natural  science:  the  late  Dr.  GARDNER, 
Mr.  EDGAR  L.  LAYARD  an  accomplished  zoologist, 
Dr.  TEMPLETON,  and  others ;  and  I  was  thus  enabled 


1  An  Historical,  Political,  and  Sta- 
tistical Account  of  Ceylon  and  its  De- 
pendencies, by  C.  PRIDHAM,  Esq. 
2  vols.  8vo.  London,  1 849.  The  au- 
thor was  never,  I  believe,  in  Ceylon, 
but  his  book  is  a  laborious  conden- 


sation of  the  principal  English  works 
relating  to  it.  Its  value  would  have 
been  greatly  increased  had  Mr. 
Pridham  accompanied  his  excerpts 
by  references  to  the  respective  au- 
thorities. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXXlll 

to  collect  on  the  spot  many  interesting  facts  relative 
to  the  structure  and  habits  of  the  numerous  tribes 
of  animals.  These,  chastened  by  the  corrections  of 
my  fellow-travellers,  and  established  by  the  examina- 
tion of  collections  made  in  the  colony,  and  by  subse- 
quent comparison  with  specimens  contained  in  museums 
at  home,  I  have  ventured  to  submit  as  faithful  outlines 
of  the/azm<rt>f  Ceylon. 

The  sections  descriptive  of  the  several  classes  are 
accompanied  by  lists,  prepared  with  the  assistance  of 
scientific  friends,  showing  the  extent  to  which  each 
particular  branch  had  been  investigated  by  naturalists, 
up  to  the  period  of  my  departure  from  Ceylon  at  the 
close  of  1849.  These,  besides  their  inherent  interest, 
will,  I  trust,  stimulate  others  to  engage  in  the  same 
pursuit,  by  exhibiting  chasms,  which  it  remains  for 
future  industry  and  research  to  fill  up  ;  —  and  the 
study  of  the  zoology  of  Ceylon  may  thus  serve  as 
a  preparative  for  that  of  Continental  India,  embracing, 
as  the  former  does,  much  that  is  common  to  both,  as 
well  as  possessing  a  fauna  peculiar  to  the  island,  that  in 
itself  will  amply  repay  more  extended  scrutiny. 

From  these  lists  have  been  excluded  all  species 
regarding  the  authenticity  of  which  reasonable  doubts 
could  be  entertained1,  and  of  some  of  them,  a  very 
few  have  been  printed  in  italics,  in  order  to  denote  the 
desirability  of  more  minute  comparison  with  well  deter- 
mined specimens  in  the  great  national  depositories  be- 
fore finally  incorporating  them  with  the  Singhalese 
catalogues. 


1  An  exception  occurs  in  the  list 
of  shells,  prepared  by  Mr.  STLVANUS 
II  AN  LET,  in  which  some  whose  loca- 

VOL.  I.  ] 


lities  are  doubtful  have  been  ad- 
mitted for  reasons  adduced.  (See 
Vol.  I.  p.  234.) 


XXXIV  INTRODUCTION. 

In  the  labour  of  collecting  and  verifying  the  facts 
embodied  in  these  sections,  I  cannot  too  warmly  express 
my  thanks  for  the  aid  I  have  received  from  gentlemen 
interested  in  similar  studies  in  Ceylon  :  from  Dr. 
KELAAKT  and  Mr.  EDGAK  L.  LAYARD,  as  well  as  from 
officers  of  the  Ceylon  Civil  Service ;  the  HON.  GERALD 
C.  TALBOT,  Mr.  C.  R.  BULLER,  Mr.  MERCER,  Mr.  MORRIS, 
Mr.  WHITING,  Major  SKINNER,  and  Mr.  MITFORD. 

Before  venturing  to  commit  these  chapters  of  my  work 
to  the  press,  I  have  had  the  advantage  of  having  portions 
of  them  read  by  Professor  HUXLEY,  Mr.  MOORE,  of  the 
East  India  House  Museum;  Mr.  R.  PATTERSON,  F.R.S., 
author  of  the  Introduction  to  Zoology,  and  by  Mr.  ADAM 
WHITE,  of  the  British  Museum ;  to  each  of  whom  I  am 
exceedingly  indebted  for  the  care  they  have  bestowed. 
In  an  especial  degree  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  kind- 
ness of  Dr.  J.  E.  GRAY,  F.R.S.,  for  valuable  additions 
and  corrections  in  the  list  of  the  Ceylon  Reptilia  ;  and 
to  Professor  FARADAY  for  some  notes  on  the  nature  and 
qualities  of  the  "Serpent  Stone,"1  submitted  to  him. 
I  have  recorded  in  its  proper  place  my  obligations  to 
Admiral  FITZROY,  for  his  most  ingenious  theory  in  elu- 
cidation of  the  phenomena  of  the  Tides  around  Ceylon.2 

The  extent  to  which  my  observations  on  the  Elephant 
have  been  carried,  requires  some  explanation.  The 
existing  notices  of  this  noble  creature  are  chiefly  de- 
voted to  its  habits  and  capabilities  in  captivity ;  and 
very  few  works,  with  which  I  am  acquainted,  contain 
illustrations  of  its  instincts  and  functions  when  wild  in 
its  native  woods.  Opportunities  for  observing  the 
latter,  and  for  collecting  facts  in  connection  with  them, 


See  Vol.  I.  Part  u.  ch.  iii.  p.  199.     2  See  Vol.  II.  Part  vn.  ch.  i.  p.  116. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXXV 

are  abundant  in  Ceylon  ;  and  from  the  moment  of  my 
arrival,  I  profited  by  every  occasion  afforded  to  me  for 
observing  the  elephant  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  obtain- 
ing from  hunters  and  natives  correct  information  as  to 
its  (Economy  and  disposition.  Anecdotes  in  connection 
with  this  subject,  I  received  from  some  of  the  most 
experienced^residents  in  the  island ;  amongst  others, 
from  Major  SKINNEE,  Captain  PHILIP  PAYNE  GALL  WET, 
Mr.  FAIRHOLME,  Mr.  CRIPPS,  and  Mr.  MORRIS.  Nor 
can  I  omit  to  express  my  acknowledgments  to  PRO- 
FESSOR OWEN,  of  the  British  Museum,  to  whom  this 
portion  of  my  manuscript  was  submitted  previous  to  its 
committal  to  the  press. 

In  the  historical  sections  of  the  work,  I  have  been 
reluctantly  compelled  to  devote  a  considerable  space  to 
a  narrative  deduced  from  the  ancient  Singhalese  chro- 
nicles ;  into  which  I  found  it  most  difficult  to  infuse 
any  popular  interest.  But  the  toil  was  not  undertaken 
without  a  motive.  The  (economics  and  hierarchical 
institutions  of  Buddhism,  as  administered  through  suc- 
cessive dynasties,  have  exercised  so  paramount  an  influ- 
ence over  the  habits  and  occupations  of  the  Singhalese 
people,  that  their  impress  remains  indelible  to  the 
present  day.  The  tenure  of  temple  lands,  the  compul- 
sory services  of  tenants,  the  extension  of  agriculture, 
and  the  whole  system  of  co-operative  cultivation,  derived 
from  this  source  organisation  and  development ;  and  the 
origin  and  objects  of  each  of  these  are  only  to  be  ren- 
dered intelligible  by  an  inquiry  into  the  events  and 
times  in  which  the  system  took  its  rise.  In  connection 
with  this  subject,  I  am  indebted  to  the  representatives 
of  the  late  Mr.  TURNOUR,  of  the  Ceylon  Civil  Service, 
for  access  to  his  unpublished  manuscripts ;  and  to  those 

1)2 


XXXVl  INTRODUCTION. 

portions  of  his  correspondence  with  Prinsep,  which 
relate  to  the  researches  of  these  two  distinguished 
scholars  regarding  the  Pali  annals  of  Ceylon.  I  have 
also  to  acknowledge  my  obligations  to  M.  JULES  MOHL, 
the  literary  executor  of  M.  E.  BURNOUF,  for  the  use  of 
papers  left  by  that  eminent  orientalist  in  illustration  of 
the  ancient  geography  of  the  island,  as  exhibited  in  the 
works  of  Pali  and  Sanskrit  writers. 

I  have  been  signally  assisted  in  my  search  for  mate- 
rials illustrative  of  the  social  and  intellectual  condition 
of  the  Singhalese  nation,  during  the  early  ages  of  their 
history,  by  gentlemen  in  Ceylon,  whose  familiarity  with 
the  native  languages  and  literature  impart  authority 
to  their  communications ;  by  ERNEST  DE  SAKAM  WIJEYE- 
SEKEEE  KAROONARATNE,  the  Maha-Moodliar  and  First 
Interpreter  to  the  Governor ;  and  to  Mr.  DE  ALWIS,  the 
erudite  translator  of  the  Sidath  Sangara.  From  the 
Kev.  Mr.  GOGERLY  of  the  Wesleyan  Mission,  I  have 
received  expositions  of  Buddhist  policy ;  and  the  Rev. 
R.  SPENCE  HARDY,  author  of  the  two  most  important 
modern  works  on  the  archaeology  of  Buddhism1,  has 
done  me  the  favour  to  examine  the  chapter  on  SING- 
HALESE Literature,  and  to  enrich  it  by  numerous  sug- 
gestions and  additions. 

In  like  manner  I  have  had  the  advantage  of  com- 
municating with  Mr.  COOLEY  (author  of  the  History  of 
Maritime  and  Inland  Discovery)  in  relation  to  the 
Mediaeval  History  of  Ceylon,  and  the  period  embraced 
by  the  narrative  of  the  Greek,  Arabian,  and  Italian 
travellers,  between  the  fifth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 


1  Oriental  Monachism,  8vo.  London,  1850;  and  A  Manual  of  Buddhism, 
8vo.  Londou,  1853. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXXV11 

I  have  elsewhere  recorded  my  obligations  to  Mr. 
WYLIE,  and  to  his  colleague,  Mr.  LOCKHART  of  Shanghae, 
for  the  materials  of  one  of  the  most  curious  chapters  of 
my  work,  that  which  treats  of  the  knowledge  of  Ceylon 
possessed  by  the  Chinese  in  the  Middle  Ages.  This  is 
a  field  which,  so  far  as  I  know,  is  untouched  by  any 
previous  writer  on  Ceylon.  In  the  course  of  my  in- 
quiries, finding  that  Ceylon  had  been,  from  the  remotest 
times,  the  point  at  which  the  merchant  fleets  from  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf  met  those  from  China 
and  the  Oriental  Archipelago  (thus  effecting  an  exchange 
of  merchandise  between  East  and  West) ;  and  discover- 
ing that  the  Arabian  and  Persian  voyagers,  on  their 
return  home,  had  brought  back  copious  accounts  of  the 
island,  it  occurred  to  me  that  the  Chinese  travellers 
during  the  same  period  had  in  all  probability  been 
equally  observant  and  communicative,  and  that  the 
results  of  their  experience  might  be  found  in  Chinese 
works  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Acting  on  this  conjecture, 
I  addressed  myself  to  a  Chinese  gentleman,  WANG  TAO 
CHUNG,  who  was  then  in  England ;  and  he,  on  his  return 
to  Shanghae,  made  known  my  wishes  to  Mr.  WYLIE. 
My  anticipations  were  more  than  realised  by  Mr.  WYLIE'S 
researches.  I  received  in  due  course,  extracts  from 
upwards  of  twenty  works  by  Chinese  writers,  between 
the  fifth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  and  the  curious  and 
interesting  facts  contained  in  them  are  embodied  in  the 
chapter  devoted  to  that  particular  subject.  In  addition 
to  these,  the  courtesy  of  M.  STANISLAS  JULIEN,  the  eminent 
French  Sinologue,  has  laid  me  under  a  similar  obligation 
for  access  to  unpublished  passages  relative  to  Ceylon, 
prepared  for  his  translation  of  the  great  work  of  HIOUEN 


XXXV111 


INTRODUCTION. 


THSANG  ;  descriptive  of  the  Buddhist  country  of  India 
in  the  seventh  century.1 

It  is  with  pain  that  I  advert  to  that  portion  of  the 
section  which  treats  of  the  British  rule  in  Ceylon ;  in 
the  course  of  which  the  discovery  of  the  private  corre- 
spondence of  the  first  Governor,  Mr.  North,  deposited 
along  with  the  Wellesley  Manuscripts,  in  the  British 
Museum2,  has  thrown  an  unexpected  light  over  the 
fearful  events  of  1803,  and  the  massacre  of  the  English 
troops  then  in  garrison  at  Kandy.  Hitherto  the  honour 
of  the  British  Government  has  been  unimpeached  in 
these  dark  transactions ;  and  the  slaughter  of  the  troops 
has  been  uniformly  denounced  as  an  evidence  of  the 
treacherous  and  "  tiger-like "  spirit  of  the  Kandyan. 
people.3  But  it  is  not  possible  now  to  read  the  narra- 
tive of  these  events,  as  the  motives  and  secret  arrange- 
ments of  the  Governor  with  the  treacherous  Minister  of 
the  king  are  disclosed  in  the  private  letters  of  Mr. 
North  to  the  Governor-general  of  India,  without  feeling 
that  the  sudden  destruction  of  Major  Davie's  party, 
however  revolting  the  remorseless  butchery  by  which 
it  was  achieved,  may  have  been  but  the  consummation 
of  a  revenge  provoked  by  the  discovery  of  the  treason 
concocted  by  the  Adigar  in  confederacy  with  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  British  Crown.  Nor  is  this  construction 
weakened  by  the  fact,  that  no  immediate  vengeance 
was  exacted  by  the  Governor  in  expiation  of  that 
fearful  tragedy;  and  that  the  private  letters  of  Mr. 
North  to  the  Marquis  of  Wellesley  contain  avowals  of 
ineffectual  efforts  to  hush  up  the  affair,  and  to  obtain  a 


1  Memoires  sur  les  Cordrees  Occi- 
dcntales,  traduites  du  Sanscrit  en 
Chinois,  en  Van  648,  frc.  Par  M. 
STANISLAS  JULIEN. 


2  Additional    MSS.,    Brit.    Mus., 
No.  13,864,  &c. 

3  DE    QUINCEY,    collected    Works, 
vol.  xii.  p.  14. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXXIX 

clumsy  compromise  by  inducing  the  Kandyan  king  to 
make  an  admission  of  regret. 

I  am  aware  that  there  are  passages  in  the  following 
pages  containing  statements  that  occur  more  than  once 
in  the  course  of  the  work.  But  I  found  that  in  dealing 
with  so  many  distinct  subjects  the  same  fact  became 
sometimes  an  indispensable  illustration  of  more  than 
one  topic;  and  hence  repetition  was  unavoidable  even 
at  the  risk  of  tautology. 

I  have  also  to  apologise  for  variances  in  the  spelling 
of  proper  names,  both  of  places  and  individuals,  occurring 
in  different  passages.  In  extenuation  of  this,  I  can 
only  plead  the  difficulty  of  preserving  uniformity  in 
matters  dependent  upon  mere  sound,  and  unsettled  by 
any  recognised  standard  of  orthography. 

I  have  endeavoured  in  every  instance  to  append  re- 
ferences to  other  authors,  in  support  of  statements 
which  I  have  drawn  from  previous  writers ;  an  arrange- 
ment rendered  essential  by  the  numerous  instances  in 
which  errors,  that  nothing  short  of  the  original  autho- 
rities can  suffice  to  expose,  have  been  reproduced  and 
repeated  by  successive  writers  on  Ceylon. 

To  whatever  extent  the  preparation  of  this  work  may 
have  fallen  short  of  its  conception,  and  whatever  its 
demerits  in  execution  and  style,  I  am  not  without  hope 
that  it  will  still  exhibit  evidence  that  by  perseverance 
and  research  I  have  laboured  to  render  it  worthy  of  the 
subject. 

JAMES  EMERSON  TENNENT. 

LONDON : 
July  13th,  1859. 


ERRATA  IN   VOL.   I. 

Page  381,  6th  line  from  top,ybr  "  Jaytawanarama  "  read  "  Jayta-wana-Rama.' 
„     481,  8th  line  from  top,  for  "  Jeyta-wana-rama"  read  "  Jayta-wana-Rama 


VOL.    1. 

II 


PART    I. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


VOL.    1. 


' 


CHAPTER  L 

PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. — GEOLOGY. — MINERALOGY. — GEMS, 
CLIMATE,   ETC. 

GENERAL  ASPECT. — Ceylon,  from  whatever  direction  it 
is  approached,  unfolds  a  scene  of  loveliness  and  gran- 
deur unsurpassed,  if  it  be  rivalled,  by  any  land  in  the 
universe.  The  traveller  from  Bengal,  leaving  behind 
the  melancholy  delta  of  the  Ganges  and  the  torrid 
coast  of  Coromandel ;  or  the  adventurer  from  Europe, 
recently  inured  to  the  sands  of  Egypt  and  the  scorched 
headlands  of  Arabia,  is  alike  entranced  by  the  vision  of 
beauty  which  expands  before  him  as  the  island  rises  from 
the  sea,  its  lofty  mountains  covered  by  luxuriant  forests, 
and  its  shores,  till  they  meet  the  ripple  of  the  waves, 
bright  with  the  foliage  of  perpetual  spring. 

The  Brahmans  designated  it  by  the  epithet  of  "  the 
resplendent,"  and  in  their  dreamy  rhapsodies  ex- 
tolled it  as  the  region  of  mystery  and  sublimity x ; 
the  Buddhist  poets  gracefully  apostrophised  it  as  "a 


1  "  Us  en  ont  fait  une  espece  de 
paradis,  et  se  sont  imaging  que  des 
etres  d'une  nature  angelique  les  ha- 
bitaient." — ALBYROTTNI,  Traits  des 
Eres,  8fc. ;  REINATJD,  Geographic 
cFAboidfeda,  Introd.  sec.  iii.  p.  ccxxiv. 
The  renown  of  Ceylon  as  it  reached 
Europe  in  the  seventeenth  century  is 
thus  summed  up  by  PURCHAS  in  His 
nir/rimage,  b.  v.  c.  18,  p.  550  :  — 
"  The  heauens  with  their  dewes,  the 
ayre  with  a  pleasant  holesomenesse 


and  fragrant  freshnesse,  the  waters  in 
their  many  riuers  and  fountaines, 
the  earth  diuersified  in  aspiring  hills, 
lowly  vales,  equall  and  indifferent 
plaines,  filled  in  her  inward  chambers 
with  mettalls  and  Jewells,  in  her 
outward  court  and  vpper  face  stored 
with  whole  woods  of  the  best  cin- 
namon that  the  sunne  seeth  j  besides 
fruits,  oranges,  lemons,  &c.  surmount- 
ing those  of  Spaine ;  fowles  and 
beasts,  both  tame  and  wilde  (among 

2 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


pearl  upon  the  brow  of  India ;  "  the  Chinese  knew 
it  as  the  "island  of  jewels;"  the  Greeks  as  the  "land 
of  the  hyacinth  and  the  ruby ;  "  the  Mahometans,  in  the 
intensity  of  their  delight,  assigned  it  to  the  exiled 
parents  of  mankind  as  a  new  elysium  to  console  them 
for  the  loss  of  Paradise  ;  and  the  early  navigators  of 
Europe,  as  they  returned  dazzled  with  its  gems,  and 
laden  with  its  costly  spices,  propagated  the  fable  that 
far  to  seaward  the  very  breeze  that  blew  from  it  was 
redolent  of  perfume.1  In  later  and  less  imaginative 
times,  Ceylon  has  still  maintained  the  renown  of  its 
attractions,  and  exhibits  in  all  its  varied  charms  "  the 
highest  conceivable  development  of  Indian  nature."  2 

Picturesque    Outline.  —  The   nucleus    of  its   mountain 
masses  consists  of  gneissic,  granitic,  and  other  crystalline 


which  is  their  elephant  honoured  by 
a  naturall  acknowledgement  of  ex- 
cellence of  all  other  elephants  in  the 
world).  These  all  have  conspired 
and  joined  in  common  league  to  pre- 
sent vnto  Zeilan  the  chiefs  of  worldly 
treasures  and  pleasures,  with  a  long 
and  healthful!  life  in  the  inhabitants 
to  enjoye  them.  No  man-ell,  then, 
if  sense  and  sensualitie  haue  heere 
stumbled  on  a  paradise." 

1  The  fable  of  the  "  spicy  breezes  " 
said  to  blow  from  Arabia  and  India, 
is  as  old  as  Ctesias ;  and  is  eagerly 
adopted  by  Pliny,  lib.  xii.  c.  42, 
and  repeated  by  several  voyagers  in 
the  middle  ages,  and  even  in  later 
times.  (See  MEUDELSLO'S  Travels 
A.D.  1639.  b.  ii.)  The  Greeks  bor- 
rowed the  tale  from  the  Hindus, 
who  believe  that  the  Chandana  or 
sandal-wood  imparts  its  odours  to 
the  winds ;  and  their  poets  speak 
of  the  Malayan  as  the  westerns  did 
of  the  Sabrean  breezes.  But  the 
allusion  to  such  perfumed  winds 
was  a  trope  common  to  all  the 
discoverers  of  unknown  lands:  the 
companions  of  Columbus  ascribed 
them  to  the  region  of  the  Antilles; 
and  Verrazani  and  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh scented  them  off  the  coast  of 
Carolina.  Milton  borrowed  from 


Diodorus  Siculus,  lib.  iii.  c.  46,  the 
statement  that 

"  Far  off  at  sea  north-east  winds  blow 
Saba-an  odours  from  the  spicy  shore 
Of  Araby  the  Blest." 

(/>.  L.  ST.  163.) 

Anosto  emploj-s  the  same  imagina- 
tive embellishment  to  describe  the 
charms  of  Cyprus : 

"  Serpillo  e  persa  e  rose  e  gigli  e  croco 
Spargon  dall'  odorifero  terreno 
Tanta  suavita,  ch'  in  mar  sentire 
La  fa  ogni  vento  chc  da  terra  spire." 

(Oil.  Fur.  xviii.  IH8.) 

That  some  aromatic  smell  is  percep- 
tible far  to  seaward,  in  the  vicinity  of 
certain  tropical  countries,  is  unques- 
tionable ;  and  in  the  instance  of  Cuba, 
an  odour  like  that  of  violets,  which  is 
discernible  two  or  three  miles  from 
land,  when  the  wind  is  off  the  shore, 
has  been  traced  by  Poeppig  to  a  spe- 
cies of  Tetracera,  a  climbing  plant 
which  diffuses  its  odour  during  the 
night.  But  in  the  case  of  Ceylon,  if 
the  existence  of  such  a  perfume  be  not 
altogether  imaginary,  the  fact  has 
been  falsified  by  identifying  the  al- 
leged fragrance  with  cinnamon  ;  the 
truth  being  that  the  cinnamon  laurel, 
unless  it  be  crushed,  exhales  no  aroma 
whatever ;  and  the  pecidiar  odour  of 
the  spice  is  only  perceptible  after  the 
bark  has  been  separated  and  dried. 

2  LASSEX,     Lulische     Alterthtnns- 
kmtde,  vol.  i.  p.  108. 


CHAP.  L]  FOLIAGE   AND    VERDURE.  5 

rocks,  which  in  their  resistless  upheaval  have  rent  the 
superincumbent  strata,  raising  them  into  lofty  pyramids 
and  crags,  or  hurling  them  in  gigantic  fragments  to  the 
plains  below.  Time  and  decay  are  slow  in  their  assaults 
on  these  towering  precipices  and  splintered  pinnacles  ; 
and  from  the  absence  of  more  perishable  materials,  there 
are  few  graceful  sweeps  along  the  higher  chains,  or  roll- 
ing downs  injhe  lower  ranges  of  the  hills.  Every  bold 
elevation  is  crowned  by  battlemented  cliffs,  and  flanked 
by  chasms  in  which  the  shattered  strata  are  seen  as 
sharp  and  as  rugged  as  if  they  had  but  recently  under- 
gone the  grand  convulsion  that  displaced  them. 

Foliage  and  Verdure.  —  The  soil  in  these  regions  is 
consequently  light  and  unremunerative.  But  the  plentiful 
moisture  arising  from  the  interception  of  every  passing 
vapour  from  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
added  to  the  intense  warmth  of  the  atmosphere,  com- 
bine to  force  a  vegetation  so  rich  and  luxuriant,  that 
imagination  can  picture  nothing  more  wondrous  and 
charming ;  every  level  spot  is  enamelled  with  verdure, 
forests  of  never-fading  bloom  cover  mountain  and  valley ; 
flowers  of  the  brightest  hues  grow  in  profusion  over  the 
plains,  and  delicate  climbing  plants,  rooted  in  the  shelving 
rocks,  hang  in  graceful  festoons  down  the  edge  of  every 
precipice. 

Unlike  the  forests  of  Europe,  in  which  the  excess  of 
some  peculiar  trees  imparts  a  character  of  monotony 
to  the  outline  and  graveness  to  the  colouring,  the  forests 
of  Ceylon  are  singularly  attractive  from  the  endless  variety 
of  their  foliage,  and  the  vivid  contrast  of  its  tints.  The 
mountains,  especially  those  looking  towards  the  east  and 
south,  rise  abruptly  to  prodigious  and  almost  precipitous 
heights  above  the  level  plains  ;  the  rivers  wind  through 
woods  below  like  threads  of  silver  through  green  em- 
broidery, till  they  are  lost  in  a  dim  haze  which  conceals 
the  far  horizon  ;  and  through  this  a  line  of  tremulous  light 
marks  where  the  sunbeams  are  glittering  among  the  waves 
upon  the  distant  shore. 

B    3 


6  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

From  age  to  age  a  scene  so  lovely  has  imparted  a 
colouring  of  romance  to  the  adventures  of  the  seamen 
who,  in  the  eagerness  of  commerce,  swept  round  the 
shores  of  India,  to  bring  back  the  pearls  and  precious 
stones,  the  cinnamon  and  odours,  of  Ceylon.  The  tales 
of  the  Arabians  are  fraught  with  the  wonders  of 
"  Serendib  ;  "  and  the  mariners  of  the  Persian  Gulf  have 
left  a  record  of  their  delight  in  reaching  the  calm 
havens  of  the  island,  and  reposing  for  months  together 
in  valleys  where  the  waters  of  the  sea  were  overshadowed 
by  woods,  and  the  gardens  were  blooming  in  perennial 
summer.1 

Geographical  Position.  —  Notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  Hindus,  in  their  system  of  the  universe,  had 
given  prominent  importance  to  Ceylon,  their  first 
meridian,  "  the  meridian  of  Lanka,"  being  supposed  to 
pass  over  the  island,  they  propounded  the  most  extra- 
vagant ideas,  both  as  to  its  position  and  extent ;  expand- 
ing it  to  the  proportions  of  a  continent,  and  at  the 
same  time  placing  it  a  considerable  distance  south-east  of 
India.2 

The  native  Buddhist  historians,  unable  to  confirm 
the  exaggerations  of  the  Brahmans,  and  yet  reluctant 
to  detract  from  the  epic  renown  of  their  country  by  dis- 
claiming its  stupendous  dimensions,  attempted  to  re- 
concile its  actual  extent  with  the  fables  of  the 
eastern  astronomers  by  imputing  to  the  agency  of 
earthquakes  the  submersion  of  vast  regions  by  the 
sea.3  But  evidence  is  wanting  to  corroborate  the  asser- 


1  REINAUD,   Relation  des    Voyages 
Arabes,  Sec.,  dans  le  wuvieme  siecle. 
Paris,  1845,  torn.  ii.  p.  129. 

2  For  a  condensed  account  of  the 
dimensions  and  position  attributed  to 
Lanka,  in  the  Mythic  Astronomy  of 


of  the  West,  Asiat.  Researches,  vol.  x. 
p.  140. 

3  SIR  WILLIAM  JOXES  adopted  the 
legendary  opinion  that  Ceylon  "for- 
merly, perhaps,  extended  much  far- 
ther to  the  west  and  south,  so  as  to 


the  Hindus,  see  REIXATJD'S  Introdnc-  j  include    Lanka  or    the    equinoctial 
twn  to  Aboulfeda,  sec.  iii.  p.  ccxvii.,     point  of  the  Indian  astronomers."— 


and  his  Memoire  sur  FInde,  p.  342 ; 
WILFORD'S  Essay  on  the  Sacred  Isles 


Discourse    on    tlie    Institution    of  a 
Society  for  inquiring  into  the  History, 


CHAP.  I.] 


GEOGRAPHICAL   POSITION. 


tion  of  such  occurrences,  at  least  'within  the  historic 
period ;  no  records  of  them  exist  in  the  earliest  writings  of 
the  Hindus,  the  Arabians,  or  Persians ;  who,  had  the 
traditions  survived,  would  eagerly  have  chronicled 
catastrophes  so  appalling.1  Geologic  analogy,  so  far  as 
an  inference  is  derivable  from  the  formation  of  the 
adjoining  coasts,  both  of  India  and  Ceylon,  is  opposed 
to  this  theory ;  and  not  only  plants,  but  animals, 
mammalia,  birds,  reptiles,  and  insects,  exist  in  Ceylon, 
which  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  flora  or  fauna  of  the 
Indian  continent.2 


$c.,  of  the  Borderers,  Mountaineers, 
and  Islanders  of  Asia. — Works,  vol.  i. 
p.  120.  The  Portuguese,  on  their 
arrival  in  Ceylon  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, found  the  natives  fully  impressed 
by  the  traditions  of  its  former  extent 
and  partial  submersion;  and  their 
belief  in  connection  therewith  will  be 
found  in  the  narratives  and  histories 
ofDEBABJios  andUiooo  DE  COUTO, 
from  which  they  have  been  transferred, 
almost  without  abridgment,  to  the 
pages  of  YALENTYN-  The  substance 
of  the  native  legends  will  be  found  in 
the  Mahawanso,  c.  xxii.  p.  131 ;  and 
Raja  rali,  pp.  180,  190. 

1  The  first  disturbance  of  the  coast 
by  which  Ceylon  is  alleged  to  have 
been  severed  from  the  main  land  is 
said  by  the  Buddhists  to  have  taken 
place  B.C.  2387 ;  a  second  commotion 
is  ascribed  to  the  age  of  Panduwasa, 
B.C.  504 ;  and  the  subsidence  of  the 
shore  adjacent  to  Colombo  is  said  to 
have  taken  place  200  years  later,  in 
the  reign  of  Devenipiatissa,  B.C.  306. 
The  event  is  thus  recorded  in  the 
Rajavali,  one  of  the  sacred  books  of 
Ceylon  : — "  In  these  days  the  sea  was 
seven  leagues  from  Kalany ;  but  on 
account  of  what  had  been  done  to 
the  teeroonansee  (a  priest  who  had 
been  tortured  by  the  king  of  Kalany), 
the  gods  who  were  charged  with  the 
conservation  of  Ceylon,  became  en- 
raged and  caused  the  sea  to  deluge 
the  land ;  and  as  during  the  epoch 
called  dmvapaivrayaga  on  account  of 


the  wickedness  of  Rawana,  25  palaces 
and  400,000  streets  were  all  over-run 
by  the  sea,  so  now  in  this  time  of 
Tissa  Raja,  100,000  large  towns,  910 
fishers'  villages,  and  400  villages  in- 
habited by  pearl  fishers,  making  to- 
gether eleven-twelfths  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Kalany,  were  swallowed  up 
by  the  sea." — Rajavali,  UPITAM'S  ver- 
sion, vol.  ii.,  pp.  180,  190. 

FOEBES  observes  the  coincidence 
that  the  legend  of  the  first  rising 
of  the  sea  in  2387  B.C.,  very  nearly 
coincides  with  the  date  assigned 
to  the  Deluge  of  Noah,  2348. 
—  Eleven  Years  in  Ceylon^  vol.  ii. 
p.  258.  A  tradition  is  also  extant, 
that  a  submersion  took  place  at  a 
remote  period  on  the  east  coast  of 
Ceylon,  whereby  the  island  of  Giri- 
dipo,  which  is  mentioned  in  the  first 
chapter  of  the  Mahawanso,  was  en- 
gulfed. Of  this  the  dangerous  rocks 
called  the  Great  and  Little  Basses 
are  believed  to  be  remnants.  — 
Mahawanso,  c.  i. 

A  resume  of  the  disquisitions  which 
have  appeared  at  various  tunes  as  to 
the  submersion  of  a  part  of  Ceylon, 
will  be  found  in  a  Memoir  sur  la 
Geographic  ancienne  de  Ccyhm,  in 
the  Journal  Asiatique  for  January, 
1857, 5th  ser.,  vol.  ix.  p.  12.  See  also 
TuRNOUn's  Introd.  to  the  Mahaicanso, 
p.  xxxiv. 

2  See  Vol.  I.  p.  13.  Some  of  the 
mammalia  peculiar  to  the  island 
are  enumerated  at  p.  160 ;  birds 


B  4 


PHYSICAL   GEOGKAPIIY. 


[PART  I. 


Still  in  the  infancy  of  geographical  knowledge,  and 
before  Ceylon  had  been  circumnavigated  by  Europeans, 
the  mythical  delusions  of  the  Hindus  were  transmitted 
to  the  West,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  island  were 
expanded  till  its  southern  extremity  fell  below  the 
equator,  and  its  breadth  was  prolonged  till  it  touched 
alike  on  Africa  and  China.1 

The  Greeks  who,  after  the  Indian  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander, brought  back  the  earliest  accounts  of  the  East, 
repeated  them  without  material  correction,  and  re- 
ported the  island  to  be  nearly  twenty  times  its  actual 
extent.  Onesicritus,  a  pilot  of  the  expedition,  assigned 
to  it  a  magnitude  of  5000  stadia,  equal  to  500  geogra- 
phical miles.2  Eratosthenes  attempted  to  fix  its  posi- 
tion, but  went  so  widely  astray  that  his  first  (that  is  his 
most  southern)  parallel  passed  through  it  and  the 
"  Cinnamon  Land,"  the  Regio  Cinnamomifera,  on  the 
east  coast  of  Africa,3  He  placed  Ceylon  at  the  distance 
of  seven  days'  sail  from  the  south  of  India,  and  he  too 
assigned  to  its  western  coast  an  extent  of  5000  stadia.4 
Both  those  authorities  are  quoted  by  Strabo,  who  says 
that  the  size  of  Taprobaue  was  not  less  than  that  of 
Britain.5 


found  in  Ceylon  but  not  existing 
in  India  are  alluded  to  at  p.  178, 
and  Dr.  A.  GITXTHER,  in  a  paper 
on  the  Geographical  Distribution  of 
Reptiles,  in  the  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist. 
for  March,  1859,  says,  "  amongst  these 
larger  islands  winch  are  connected 
•with  the  middle  palaeotropical  region, 
none  offers  forms  so  different  from  the 
continent  and  other  islands  as  Ceylon. 
It  might  be  considered  the  Mada- 
gascar of  the  Indian  region.  "We  not 
only  find  there  peculiar  genera  and 
species,  not  again  to  be  recognised  in 
other  parts ;  but  even  many  of  the 
common  species  exhibit  such  remark- 
able varieties,  as  to  afford  ample 
means  for  creating  new  nominal 
species,"  p.  280.  The  difference  ex- 
hibited between  the  insects  of  Cey- 
lon and  those  of  Hindustan  and  the 


Dekkan  are  noticed  by  Mr.  Walker 
in  the  present  work,  p.  ii.  ch.  vii.  vol. 
i.  p.  270.  See  on  this  subject  HIT- 
TER'S Erdkunde,  vol.  iv.  p.  17. 

1  GIBBON,  ch.  xxiv. 

2  STRABO,    lib.  v.    ARTEMIDORTTS 
(100  B.C.),  quoted  by  STEPHANA  of 
BYZANTIUM,     gives  "  to    Ceylon     a 
length  of  7000  stadia  and  a  "breadth 
of  500. 

3  STRABO,  lib.  ii.  c.  i.  s.  14. 

4  The  text  of  Strabo  showing  this 
measure   makes    it  in  some  places 
8000  (Strabo,    lib.  v.) ;   and  Pliny, 
quoting    ERATOSTHENES,    makes    it 
7000. 

5  STRABO,  lib.  ii.  c.  v.  s.  32.     Aris- 
totle appears  to  have  had  more  cor- 
rect   information,    and  says   Ceylon 
was  not  so  large  as  Britain.  —  De 
Mundo,  ch,  iii. 


CUAP.  I.]  GEOGRAPHICAL   POSITION.  9 

The  round  numbers  employed  by  those  authors,  and 
by  the  Greek  geographers  generally,  who  borrow  from 
them,  serve  to  show  that  their  knowledge  was  col- 
lected from  rumours  ;  and  that  in  all  probability  they 
were  indebted  for  their  information  to  the  stories  of 
Arabian  or  Hindu  sailors  returning  from  their  Eastern 
voyages. 

Pliny  learned  from  the  Singhalese  embassy  which 
reached  Eome  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  that  the  breadth 
of  Ceylon  was  10,000  stadia  from  west  to  east ;  and 
Ptolemy  fully  developed  the  idea  of  his  predecessors,  that 
it  lay  opposite  to  the  "  Cinnamon  Land,"  and  assigned 
to  it  a  length  from  north  to  south  of  nearly  fifteen  degrees, 
with  a  breadth  of  eleven,  an  exaggeration  of  the  truth 
nearly  twenty-fold.1  Agathemerus  copies  Ptolemy  ;  and 
the  plain  and  sensible  author  of  the  "  Periplus " 
(attributed  to  ARRIAN),  still  labouring  with  delusions  as  to 
the  magnitude  of  Ceylon,  makes  it  stretch  almost  to  the 
opposite  coast  of  Africa,2 

These  extravagant  ideas  of  the  magnitude  of  Ceylon 
were  not  entirely  removed  till  many  centuries  later. 
The  Arabian  geographers,  Massoudi,  Edrisi,  and  Aboul- 
feda,  had  no  accurate  data  by  which  to  correct  the 
errors  of  their  Greek  predecessors.  The  maps  of  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  repeated  their  distor- 
tions 3 ;  and  Marco  Polo,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  not 
only  reiterates  the  usual  exaggerated  dimensions  of  the 
island,  but  informs  us  that  it  is  now  but  one  half  the 
size  it  had  been  at  a  former  period,  the  rest  having  been 
engulfed  by  the  sea.4 


1  PTOLEMY,  lib.  vii.  c.  4.  is  figured  in  the  Mappe-momles  of  the 

2  ARRIAX,  Pcriplus,  p.  35.     Mar-  Middle  Ages,  see  the  Essai  of  the 
claims  Heracleota  (whose   Periplus  VICOMTE  DE  SANTAKEM,  Sur  la  Cos- 
has  been  reprinted  by  HCDSOX,  in  the  moyraphic  et  Cartoyraphie,  torn.  iii.  p. 
same  collection  from  which  I  have  335,  &e. 

made  the  reference  to  that  of  Arrian)  j      *  MARCO  POLO,  p.  2,   c.  148.    A 

gives  to   Ceylon  a  length   of  9500  j  later  authority  than  Marco  Polo,  POR- 

Btadia  with  a  breadth  of  7500. — MAR.  j  CACCHT,  in  his  Isolario,  or  "  Description 

HER.  p.  26.  of  the  most  celebrated  Islands  in  the 

3  For  an  account  of  Ceylon  as  it  World,"   which    was    published   at 


10 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


Such  was  the  uncertainty  thrown  over  the  geography 
of  the  island  by  erroneous  and  conflicting  accounts,  that 
grave  doubts  came  to  be  entertained  of  its  identity,  and 
from  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  attention  of 
Europe  was  re-directed  to  the  nascent  science  of  geo- 
graphy, down  to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth,  it  remained 
a  question  whether  Ceylon  or  Sumatra  was  the  Taprobane 
of  the  Greeks.1 


Venice  in  A.D.  1576,  laments  his 
inability  even  at  that  time  to  ob- 
tain any  authentic  information  as 
to  the  boundaries  and  dimensions 
of  Ceylon;  and,  relying  on  the 
representations  of  the  Moors,  who 
then  carried  on  an  active  trade 
around  its  coasts,  he  describes  it  as 
lying  under  the  equinoctial  line,  and 
possessing  a  circuit  of  2100  miles. 
"Ella  gira  di  circuito,  secondo  il 
calcole  fatto  da  Mori,  che  moderna- 
mente  1'hanno  nauigato  d'ogn'  intorno 
due  mila  et  cento  miglia  et  corre 
maestro  e  sirocco;  et  per  il  mezo 
d'essa  passa  la  linea  equinottiale  et  e 
el  principio  del  primo  clima  al  terzo 
paralello." — L'  Isole  piu  Famose  (lei 
Monde,  descritte  da  THOMASO  POR- 
CACCHI,  lib.  iii.  p.  30. 

1  GIBBON  states,  that  "  Salmasius 
and  most  of  the  ancients  confound 
the  islands  of  Ceylon  and  Sumatra." 
— Led.  and  Fall,  ch.  xl.  This  is  a 
mistake.  Saumaise  was  one  of  those 
who  maintained  a  correct  opinion; 
and,  as  regards  the  "ancients,"  they 
had  very  little  knowledge  of  Further 
India,  to  which  Sumatra  belongs; 
but  so  long  as  Greek  and  Roman 
literature  maintained  their  influence, 
no  question  was  raised  as  to  the  iden- 
tity of  Ceylon  and  Taprobane.  Even 
in  the  sixth  century  Cosmas  Indico- 
pleustes  declares  unhesitatingly  that 
the  Sielediva  of  the  Indians  was  the 
Taprobane  of  the  Greeks. 

It  was  only  on  emerging  from  the 
general  ignorance  of  the  Middle  Ages 
that  the  doubt  was  first  promulgated. 
In  the  Catalan  Map  of  A.D.  1375,  en- 
titled Image  du  Monde,  Ceylon  is 
omitted,  and  Taprobane  is  represented 


by  Sumatra  (MALTE  BRTTN,  Hist,  de 
Geogr.,  vol.  i.  p.  318)  ;  in  that  of  Fra 
Mauro,t\ie  Venetian  monk,  A.D.  1458, 
Seylan  is  given,  but  Taprobane  is 
added  over  Sumatra,  A  similar  error 
appears  in  the  Mappe-mande,  by 
RUYCH,  in  the  Ptolemy  of  A.D.  1508, 
and  in  the  writings  of  the  geogra- 
phers of  the  sixteenth  century,  GEM- 
MA FEisirs,  SEBASTIAN  MTJNSTER, 
RAMTJSIO,  JUL.  SCALIGER,  ORTELIUS, 
and  MERCATOR.  The  same  view  was 
adopted  by  the  Venetian  NICOLA  DI 
CONTI,  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  by  the  Florentine  ANDREA 
CORSALI,  MAXIMILIANUS  TRANSYL- 
VANUS,  VARTHEMA,  and  PIGAFETTA. 
The  chief  cause  of  this  perplexity 
was,  no  doubt,  the  difficulty  of  recon- 
ciling the  actual  position  and  size  of 
Ceylon  with  the  dimensions  and  posi- 
tion assigned  to  it  by  Strabo  and 
Ptolemv,  the  latter  of  whom,  by  an 
error  which  is  elsewhere  explained, 
extended  the  boundary  of  the  island 
far  to  the  east  of  its  actual  site. 
But  there  was  a  large  body  of  men 
who  rejected  the  claim  of  Sumatra, 
and  DE  BARROS,  SALMASIVS,  BO- 
CHART  CLTTVERITJS,  CELLARITJS,  ISAAC 
VOSSITTS  and  others,  maintained  the 
title  of  Ceylon.  A  Mappe-mondc 
of  A.D.  1417,  preserved  in  the  Pitti 
Palace  at  Florence  compromises  the 
dispute  by  designating  Sumatra  Ta- 
probane 'Major.  The  controversy 
came  to  an  end  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  the  over- 
powering authority  of  DELISLE  re- 
solved the  doubt,  and  confirmed  the 
modern  Ceylon  as  the  Taprobane  of 
antiquity.  WILFORD,  in  the  Asiatic 
Researches  (vol.  x.  p.  140),  still  clung 


CHAP.  I.] 


LATITUDE   AND   LONGITUDE. 


11 


Latitude  and  Longitude. — There  has  hitherto  been 
considerable  uncertainty  as  to  the  position  assigned  to 
Ceylon  in  various  maps  and  geographical  notices.  These 
have  been  corrected  by  more  recent  observations,  and 
its  true  place  has  been  ascertained  to  be  between  5° 
55'  and  9°  51'  north  latitude,  and  79°  41'  40"  and  81° 
54'  50"  east  longitude.  Its  extreme  length  from  north 
to  south,  from  Point  Palmyra  to  Dondera  Head,  is  27 1^ 
miles  ;  its  greatest  width  137J  miles,  from  Colombo  on 
the  west  coast  to  Sangemankande  on  the  east ;  and  its 
area,  including  its  dependent  islands,  25,742  miles,  or 
about  one-sixth  smaller  than  Ireland.1 


to  the  opposite  opinion,  and  KANT 
undertook  to  prove  that  Taprobane 
was  Madagascar. 

1  Down  to  a  very  recent  period  no 
British  colony  was  more  imperfectly 
survej-ed  and  mapped  than  Ceylon ; 
but  since  the  recent  publication  by 
Arrowsmith  of  the  great  map  by 
General  Fraser,  the  reproach  has 
been  withdrawn,  and  no  dependency 
of  the  Crown  is  now  more  richly  pro- 
vided in  this  particular.  In  the  map 
of  Schneider,  the  Government  engi- 
neer in  1813,  two-thirds  of  the 
Kandyan  Kingdom"  are  a  blank ;  and 
in  that  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Knowledge,  re-published  so  late  as 
1852,  the  rich  districts  of  Neuera-kala- 
wa  and  the  Wanny,  in  which  there  are 
innumerable  villages  (and  scarcely  a 
hill),  are  marked  as  an  "  unltHoirn 
mountainous  region. ' '  G  eneral  Fraser, 
after  the  devotion  of  a  lifetime  to 
the  labour,  has  produced  a  survey 
which,  in  extent  and  minuteness  of 
detail,  stands  unrivalled.  In  this 
great  work  he  had  the  co-operation  of 
Major  Skinner  and  of  Captain  Gall- 
wey,  and  to  these  two  gentlemen  the 
public  are  indebted  for  the  greater 
portion  of  the  field- work  and  the  tri- 
gonometrical operations.  To  judge 
of  the  difficulties  which  beset  such 
an  undertaking,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  till  very  recently  travel- 
ling in  the  interior  was  all  but 


impracticable,  in  a  country  unopened 
even  by  bridle-paths,  across  un- 
bridged  rivers,  over  mountains  never 
trod  by  the  foot  of  a  European,  and 
amidst  precipices  inaccessible  to  all 
but  the  most  courageous  and  pru- 
dent. Add  to  this  that  the  country 
is  densely  covered  by  forests  and 
jungle,  with  trees  a  hundred  feet 
high,  from  which  here  and  there  the 
branches  had  to  be  cleared  to  ob- 
tain a  sight  of  the  signal  stations. 
The  triangulation  was  carried  on 
amidst  privations,  discomfort,  and 
pestilence,  which  frequently  prostrat- 
ed the  whole  party,  and  forced  their 
attendants  to  desert  them  rather  than 
encounter  such  hardships  and  peril. 
The  materials  collected  by  the  col- 
leagues of  General  Fraser  under  these 
discouragements  have  been  worked 
up  by  him  with  consummate  skill  and 
perseverance.  The  base  line,  five 
and  a  quarter  miles  in  length,  was 
measured  in  1845  in  the  cinnamon 
plantation  at  Kaderani,  to  the  north 
of  Colombo,  and  its  extremities  are 
still  marked  by  two  towers,  which  it 
was  necessary  to  raise  to  the  height 
of  one  hundred  feet,  to  enable  them 
to  be  discerned  above  the  surround- 
ing forests.  These  it  is  to  be  hoped 
will  be  carefully  kept  from  decay,  as 
thoy  may  again  be  called  into  requi- 
sition hereafter. 

As  regards  the  sea  line  of  Ceylon, 


12 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


General  Form.  —  In  its  general  outline  the  island 
resembles  a  pear — and  suggests  to  its  admiring  in- 
habitants the  figure  of  those  pearls  which  from  their 
elongated  form  are  suspended 
from  the  tapering  end.  When 
originally  upheaved  above  the 
ocean  its  shape  was  in  all  pro- 
bability nearly  circular,  with  a 
prolongation  in  the  direction  of 
north-east.  The  mountain  zone 
in  the  south,  covering  an  area 
of  about  4212  miles1,  may  then 
/  have  formed  the  largest  propor- 
-  tion  of  its  entire  area  —  and  the 
belt  of  low  lands,  known  as  the 
Maritime  Provinces,  consists  to  a  great  extent  of  soil 
from  the  disintegration  of  the  gneiss,  detritus  from  the 
hills,  alluvium  carried  down  the  rivers,  and  marine  de- 
posits gradually  collected  on  the  shore.  But  in  addi- 
tion to  these,  the  land  has  for  ages  been  slowly  rising 
from  the  sea,  and  terraces  abounding  in  marine  shells 
imbedded  in  agglutinated  sand  occur  in  situations  far 
above  high-water  mark.  Immediately  inland  from  Point 
de  Galle,  the  surface  soil  rests  on  a  stratum  of  decom- 
posing coral ;  and  sea  shells  are  found  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  shore.  Further  north  at  Madampe, 
between  Chilaw  and  Negombo,  the  shells  of  pearl  oysters 
and  other  bivalves  are  turned  up  by  the  plough  more 
than  ten  miles  from  the  sea, 

These  recent  formations  present  themselves  in  a  stih1 
more  striking  form  in  the  north  of  the  island,  the  greater 
portion  of  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  conjoint  pro- 


an  admirable  chart  of  the  West  coast, 
from  Adam's  Bridge  to  Dondera  Head, 
has  been  published  by  the  East  India 
Company  from  a  survey  in  1845. 
But  information  is  sadly  wanted  as  to 
the  East  and  North,  of  which  no 
accurate  charts  exist,  except  of  a  few 


unconnected  points,  such  as  the  har- 
bour of  Trincomalie. 

1  This  includes  not  only  the  lofty 
mountains  suitable  for  the  cultivation 
of  coffee,  but  the  lower  ranges  and 
spurs  which  connect  them  with  the 
maritime  plains. 


CHAP.  I.]  GEOLOGY.  13 

duction  of  the  coral  polypi,  and  the  currents,  which 
for  the  greater  portion  of  the  year  set  impetuously 
towards  the  south.  Coming  laden  with  alluvial  matter 
collected  along  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  and  meeting 
with  obstacles  south  of  Point  Calimere,  they  have  de- 
posited their  burthens  on  the  coral  reefs  round  Point 
Pedro  ;  and  these  gradually  raised  above  the  sea-level., 
and  covered  deeply  by  sand  drifts,  have  formed  the 
peninsula  of  Jaffna  and  the  plains  that  trend  westward 
till  they  unite  with  the  narrow  causeway  of  Adam's 
Bridge  —  itself  raised  by  the  same  agencies,  and  an- 
nually added  to  by  the  influences  of  the  tides  and 
monsoons.1 

On  the  north-west  side  of  the  island,  where  the  cur- 
rents are  checked  by  the  obstruction  of  Adam's  Bridge, 
and  still  water  prevails  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  these  de- 
posits have  been  profusely  heaped,  and  the  low  sandy 
plains  have  been  proportionally  extended  ;  whilst  on  the 
south  and  east,  where  the  current  sweeps  unimpeded 
along  the  coast,  the  hue  of  the  shore  is  bold  and  occa- 
sionally rocky. 

This  explanation  of  the  accretion  and  rising  of  the 
land  is  somewhat  opposed  to  the  popular  belief  that 
Ceylon  was  torn  from  the  main  land  of  India2  by  a 
convulsion,  during  which  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  and  the 
narrow  channel  at  Paumbam  were  formed  by  the  sub- 
mersion of  the  adjacent  land.  The  two  theories  might 
be  reconciled  by  supposing  the  sinking  to  have  oc- 
curred at  an  early  period,  and  to  have  been  followed 
by  the  uprising  still  in  progress.  But  on  a  closer  exami- 
nation of  the  structure  and  direction  of  the  mountain 


1  The  barrier  known  as  Adam's  |  rently  accumulated  by  the  influence 
Bridge,  which  obstructs  the  naviga-  j  of  the  currents  at  the  change  of  the 
tion  of  the  channel  between  Ceylon  monsoons.  See  an  Essay  by  Captain 
and  Ramnad,  consists  of  several  STEWART  on  the  Paumbcm  Pazsaqc 
parallel  ledges  of  conglomerate  and  Colombo,  1837.  See  Vol.  II.  p.  554. 
sandstone,  hard  at  the  surface,  and  2  LASSKX,  Indkche  Alterthums- 
growing  coarse  and  soft  as  it  descends  knnde,  vol.  i.  p.  193. 
till  it  rests  on  a  bank  of  sand,  appa-  '' 


14 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


system  of  Ceylon,  it  exhibits  no  traces  of  submersion. 
It  seems  erroneous  to  regard  it  as  a  prolongation  of  the 
Indian  chains ;  it  lies  far  to  the  east  of  the  line  formed 
by  the  Ghauts  on  either  side  of  the  peninsula,  and  any 
affinity  which  it  exhibits  is  rather  with  the  equatorial 
direction  of  the  intersecting  ranges  of  the  Nilgherries 
and  the  Vindhya.  In  their  geological  elements  there 
is,  doubtless,  a  similarity  between  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  India  and  the  elevated  portions  of  Ceylon  ; 
but  there  are  also  many  important  particulars  in  which 
their  specific  differences  are  irreconcilable  with  the  con- 
jecture of  previous  continuity.  In  the  north  of  the  island 
there  is  a  marked  preponderance  of  aqueous  strata, 
which  are  comparatively  rare  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape 
Comorin ;  and  whilst  the  rocks  of  Ceylon  are  entirely 
destitute  of  organic  remains  l ;  fossils,  both  terrestrial  and 
pelagic,  have  been  found  in  the  Eastern  Ghauts,  and 
sandstone,  in  some  instances,  overlies  the  primary  rocks 
which  compose  them.  The  rich  and  black  soil  to  the 
south  of  the  Nilgherries  presents  a  strong  contrast  to  the 
red  and  sandy  earth  of  the  opposite  coast ;  and  both  in 
the  flora  and  fauna  of  the  island  there  are  exceptional 
peculiarities  which  suggest  a  distinction  between  it  and 
the  Indian  continent. 

Mountain  System. — At  whatever  period  the  moun- 
tains of  Ceylon  may  have  been  raised,  the  centre 
of  maximum  energy  must  have  been  in  the  vicinity 
of  Adam's  Peak,  the  group  immediately  surrounding 


1  At  Cutchavelly,  north  of  Trin- 
coinalie,  there  exists  a  bed  of  cal- 
careous clay,  in  which  shells  and 
crustaceans  are  found  in  a  semi- 
fossilised  state ;  but  they  are  all  of 
recent  species,  principally  Mdcroph- 
tJudmus  and  Scylla,  The  breccia  at 
Jaffna  contains  recent  shells,  as  does 
also  the  arenaceous  strata  on  the 
western  coast  of  Manaar  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Galle.  The  ex- 
istence of  fossilised  crustaceans  in  the 


north  of  Ceylon  was  known  to  the  early 
Arabian  navigators.  Abou-zeyd  des- 
cribes one  of  them  as,  "Un  animal  de 
mer  qui  ressemble  a  l'e"crevisse ;  quand 
cet  animal  sort  de  la  mer,  Use  convertit 
en  pierre."  See  REINAUD,  Voyages 
fails  par  Ics  Arabes,  vol.  i.  jp.  21.  The 
Arabs  then,  and  the  Chinese  at  the 
present  day,  use  these  petrifactions 
when  powdered  as  a  specific  for 
diseases  of  the  eye. 


CHAP.  I.]  GEOLOGY.  15 

which  has  thus  acquired  an  elevation  of  from  six  to 
eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.1  The  uplifting  force 
seems  to  have  been  exerted  from  south-west  to  north- 
east ;  and  although  there  is  much  confusion  in  many  of 
the  intersecting  ridges,  the  lower  ranges,  especially  those 
to  the  south  and  west  of  Adam's  Peak,  from  Saffragam 
to  Amboganinioa,  manifest  a  remarkable  tendency  to  run 
in  parallel  ridges  in  a  direction  from  south-east  to  north- 
west. 

Towards  the  north,  on  the  contrary,  the  offsets  of 
the  mountain  system,  with  the  exception  of  those  which 
stretch  towards  Trincomalie,  radiate  to  short  distances 
in  various  directions,  and  speedily  sink  to  the  level 
of  the  plain.  Detached  hills  of  great  altitude  are  rare, 
the  most  celebrated  being  that  of  Mihintala,  which  over- 
looks the  sacred  city  of  Anarajapoora :  and  Sigiri  is  the 
only  example  in  Ceylon  of  those  solitary  acclivities,  which 
form  so  remarkable  a  feature  in  the  table-land  of  the 
Dekkan,  starting  abruptly  from  the  plain  with  scarped 
and  perpendicular  sides,  and  converted  by  the  Indians 
into  strongholds,  accessible  only  by  precipitous  pathways, 
or  steps  hewn  in  the  solid  rock.2 

The  crest  of  the  Ceylon  mountains  is  of  stratified 
crystalline  rock,  especially  gneiss,  with  extensive  veins 
of  quartz,  and  through  this  the  granite  has  been  every- 
where intruded,  distorting  the  riven  strata,  and  tilting 
them  at  all  angles  to  the  horizon.  Hence  at  the  abrupt 
terminations  of  some  of  the  chains  in  the  district  of 
Saffragam,  plutonic  rocks  are  seen  mingled  with  the 
dislocated  gneiss.  Basalt  makes  its  appearance  both 
at  Galle  and  Trincomalie.  In  one  place  to  the  east 


1  The  following  are  the  heights  of  a  few  of  the  most  remarkable  places  : — 

PedrotallagaUa     ....  8280  English  feet. 
Kirigalpotta          ....  7810  „ 

Totapella     .        .         .        .        .  7720  „ 

Adam's  Peak-       ....  7420  „ 

Nammoone-Koolle-Kanda    .         .  6740  ,, 

Plain  of  Neuera-ellia    .         .         .  6210 

2  See  Vol.  I.  p.392  ;  II.  579. 


1G 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


of  Pettigalle-Kanda,  the  rocks  have  been  broken  up  in 
such  confusion  as  to  resemble  the  effect  of  volcanic  action 
—huge  masses  overhang  each  other  like  suddenly-cooled 
lava ;  and  Dr.  Gygax,  a  Swiss  mineralogist,  who  was 
employed  by  the  Government  in  1847  to  examine  and 
report  on  the  mineral  resources  of  the  district,  stated,  on 
his  return,  that  having  seen  the  volcanoes  of  the  Azores, 
he  found  a  "  strange  similarity  at  this  spot  to  one  of  the 
semi-craters  round  the  trachytic  ridge  of  Seticidadas,  in 
the  island  of  St.  Michael."  1 

Gneiss.  —  The  great  geological  feature  of  the  island 
is,  however,  the  profusion  of  gneiss,  and  the  various 
new  forms  arising  from  its  disintegration.  In  the 
mountains,  with  the  exception  of  occasional  beds  of 
dolomite,  no  more  recent  formations  overlie  it ;  from 
the  period  of  its  first  upheaval,  the  gneiss  has  undergone 
no  second  submersion,  and  the  soil  which  covers  it  in 
these  lofty  altitudes  is  formed  almost  entirely  by  its 
decay. 

In  the  lower  ranges  of  the  hills,  gigantic  portions  of 
gneiss  rise  conspicuously,  so  detached  from  the  original 
chain  and  so  rounded  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
aided  by  their  concentric  lamellation,  that  but  for  their 
prodigious  dimensions,  they  might  be  regarded  as 
boulders.  Close  under  one  of  these  cylindrical  masses, 


1  Beyond  the  very  slightest  symp- 
toms of  disturbance,  earthquakes  are 
unknown  in  Ceylon.  But  although  its 
geology  exhibits  little  evidence  of 
volcanic  action  (Vith  the  exception 
of  the  basalt,  -which  occasionally  pre- 
sents an  appearance  approaching  to 
that  of  lava),  there  are  some  other 
incidents  that  seem  to  suggest  the 
vicinity  of  fire ;  more  particularly 
the  occurrence  of  springs  of  high 
temperature,  one  at  Badulla,  one  at 
Kitool,  east  of  Bintenne,  another  near 
Yavi  Goto,  in  the  Veddah  country, 
and  a  fourth  at  Kannea,  near  Trin- 
comalie.  I  have  heard  of  another 
near  the  Patipal  Aar,  south  of  Bat- 
ticaloa.  The  water  in  each  is  so  pure 


and  free  from  salts  that  the  natives 
make  use  of  it  for  all  domestic  pur- 
poses. Dr.  Davy  adverts  to  another 
indication  of  volcanic  agency  in  the 
sudden  and  profound  depth  of  the 
noble  harbour  at  Trincomalie,  which 
even  close  by  the  beach  is  said  to 
have  been  hitherto  Unfathomed. 

The  Spaniards  believed  Ceylon  to 
be  volcanic  ;  and  ARGENSOLA,  in  his 
Conquista  de  las  Malucas,  Madrid, 
1009.  says  it  produced  liquid  bitumen 
and  sulphur: — "Fuentes  de  betun 
liquido,ybolcanes  de  perpetuas  llamas 
que  arrojan  entre  las  asperezas  de  la 
montana  losas  de  a9ufre." — Lib.  v.  p. 
184.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  is 
altogether  imaginary. 


CHAP.  L]  "CABOOK."  17 

600  feet  in  height,  and  upwards  of  three  miles  in 
length,  the  town  of  Kornegalle,  one  of  the  ancient 
capitals  of  the  island,  has  been  built ;  and  the  great 
temple  of  Dambool,  the  most  remarkable  Buddhist  edifice 
in  Ceylon,  is  constructed  under  the  hollow  edge  of 
another,  its  gilded  roof  being  formed  by  the  inverted 
arch  of  the  natural  stone.1  In  other  localities  also  the 
Singhalese  priests  have  taken  frequent  advantage  of  the 
tendency  of  the  gneiss  to  assume  these  concentric  and 
almost  circular  forms;  and  some  of  their  most  venerated 
temples  are  to  be  found  under  the  shadow  of  the 
overarching  strata,  to  the  imperishable  nature  of  which 
they  point  as  symbolical  of  the  eternal  duration  of  their 
faith.2 

Laterite  or  "  Cabook" — A  peculiarity,  which  is  one 
of  the  first  to  strike  a  stranger  who  lands  at  Galle  or 
Colombo,  is  the  bright  red  colour  of  the  streets  and 
roads,  contrasting  vividly  with  the  verdure  of  the  trees, 
and  the  ubiquity  of  the  fine  red  dust  which  penetrates 
every  crevice  and  imparts  its  own  tint  to  every 
neglected  article.  Natives  resident  in  these  localities 
are  easily  recognisable  elsewhere,  by  the  general  hue  of 
their  dress.  This  is  occasioned  by  the  prevalence  along 
the  western  coast  of  laterite,  or,  as  the  Singhalese  call 
it,  cabook,  a  product  of  disintegrated  gneiss,  which 
being  subjected  to  detrition  communicates  its  hue  to  the 
soil.3  

1  For  an  account  of  the  temple  of    by  rubies,  and  nothing  can  exceed 
Dambool,  see  Vol.  II.  p.  575.  I  the  beauty   of  the   hand-specimens 

2  The    concentric  lamellar   strata  |  procurable   from   a  quarry  close  to 
of  the  gneiss  sometimes  extend  with  j  the  high  road  on  the  landward  side ; 
a  radius  so  prolonged  that  slabs  may    in  which,  however,  the  gems  are  in 


be  cut  from  them  and  used  in  sub- 
stitution for  beams  of  timber,  and  as 
such  they  are  frequently  employed 
in  the  construction  of  Buddhist  tem- 
ples. At  Piagalla,  on  the  road  be- 
tween Galle  and  Colombo,  within 
about  four  miles  of  Caltura,  there  is 
a  gneiss  hill  of  this  description  on 
which  a  temple  has  been  so  erected. 
In  this  particular  rock  the  garnets 
usually  found  in  gneiss  are  replaced 
VOL.  L 


every  case  reduced  to  splinters. 

3  According  to  the  Mahmcanso, 
"  Tamba-panni,"  one  of  those  names 
by  which  Ceylon  was  anciently  called, 
originated  in  an  incident  connected 
with  the  invasion  of  Wijayo,  B.C. 
543,  whose  followers,  "  exhausted  by 
sea-sickness  and  faint  from  weakness, 
sat  down  at  the  spot  where  they  had 
landed  out  of  the  vessels,  supporting 
themselves  on  the  palms  of  their 


IS 


PHYSICAL   GEOGEAPUY. 


[PART  I. 


The  transformation  of  gneiss  into  laterite  in  these 
localities  has  been  attributed  to  the  circumstance,  that 
those  sections  of  the  rock  which  undergo  transition 
exhibit  grains  of  magnetic  iron  ore  partially  dissemi- 
nated through  them;  and  the  phenomenon  of  the  con- 
version has  been  explained  by  recurrence  not  to  the 
ordinary  conception  of  mere  weathering,  which  is  prob- 
ably inadequate,  but  to  the  theory  of  catalytic  action, 
regard  being  had  to  the  peculiarity  of  magnetic  iron 
when  viewed  in  its  chemical  formula.1  The  oxide  of 
iron  thus  produced  communicates  its  colouring  to  the 
laterite,  and  in  proportion  as  felspar  and  hornblende 
abound  in  the  gneiss,  the  cabook  assumes  respectively 
a  white  or  yellow  hue.  So  ostensible  is  the  series  of 
mutations,  that  in  ordinary  excavations  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  tracing  a  continuous  connection  without 
definite  lines  of  demarcation  between  the  soil  and  the 
laterite  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  laterite  and  gneiss  rock 
on  the  other.2 


hands  pressed  to  the  ground,  whence 
the  name  of  Tamba-pannyo,  '  copper- 
palmed,'  from  the  colour  of  the  soil. 
From  this  circumstance  that  wilder- 
ness obtained  the  name  of  Tamba- 
panni ;  and  from  the  same  cause  also 
this  renowned  land  became  celebrated 
under  that  name." — TURNOUT'S  Ma- 
hawanso,  ch.  vi.  p.  50.  From  Tamba- 
panni came  the  Greek  name  for  Cey- 
lon, Taprobane.  Mr.  DE  ALWIS  has 
corrected  an  error  in  this  passage 
of  Mr.  Tumour's  translation ;  the 
word  in  the  original,  which  he  took 
for  Tamba-panniyo,  or  "copper- 
palmed,"  being  in  reality  tamba- 
vanna,or  "copper-coloured.  Colonel 
Forbes  questions  the  accuracy  of  this 
derivation,  and  attributes  the  name 
to  the  tamana  trees ;  from  the  abun- 
dance of  which  he  says  many  villages 
in  Ceylon,  as  well  as  a  district  in 
southern  India,  have  been  similarly 
called.  (Eleven  Years  in  Ceylon, 
vol.  i.  p.  10.^)  I  have  not  succeeded 
in  discovering  what  tree  is  desig- 
nated by  this  name,  nor  does  it  occur 


in  Mood's  List  of  Ceylon  Plants.  On 
the  southern  coast  of  India  a  river, 
which  flows  from  the  ghats  to  the 
sea,  passing  Tinnevelly,  is  called 
Tambapanni.  Tambapanni,  as  the 
designation  of  Ceylon,  occurs  in  the 
inscription  on  the  rock  of  Girnar  in 
Guzerat,  deciphered  by  Prinsep,  con- 
taining an  edict  by  Asoka  relative  to 
the  medical  administration  of  India 
for  the  relief  both  of  man  and  beast. 
(Asiat.  Soc.  Journ.  Seng.  vol.  vii. 
p.  158.) 

1  From  a  paper  read  to  the  Roysil 
Physical   Society  of  Edinburgh   by 
the  Rev.  J.  G.  MACVICAB,  D.D. 

2  From  a  paper  on  the  Geology  of 
Ceylon,  by  Dr.  Gardner,  in  the  Ap- 
pendix to  Lee's  translation  of  Ri- 
BEYBO'S  History  of  Ceylon,  p.  206. 
The   earliest  and  one  of  the  ablest 
essays  on  the  geological  system  and 
mineralogy  of  Ceylon  will  be  found 
in  DAVY'S  Account  oftJie  Interior  of 
Ceylon,  London,  1821.     It  has,  how- 
ever, been  corrected  and  enlarged  by 
recent  investigators. 


CHAP.  I.]  COKAL.  19 

The  tertiary  rocks  which  form  such  remarkable 
features  in  the  geology  of  other  countries  are  almost 
unknown  in  Ceylon ;  and  the  "  clay-slate,  silurian,  old  red 
sandstone,  carboniferous,  new  red  sandstone,  oolitic,  and 
cretaceous  systems  "  have  not  as  yet  been  recognised  in 
any  part  of  the  island.1  Crystalline  limestone  in  some 
places  overlies  the  gneiss,  and  is  worked  for  oeconomical 
purposes  in  the  mountain  districts  where  it  occurs.2 

Along  the"  western  coast,  from  Point-de-Galle  to 
Chilaw,  breccia  is  found  near  the  shores,  from  the 
agglutination  of  corallines  and  shells  mixed  with  sand, 
and  the  disintegrated  particles  of  gneiss.  These  beds 
present  an  appearance  very  closely  resembling  a  similar 
rock,  in  which  human  remains  have  been  found  imbed- 
ded, at  the  north-east  of  Guadaloupe,  now  in  the 
British  Museum.3  Incorporated  with  them  there  are 
minute  fragments  of  sapphires,  rubies,  and  tourmaline, 
showing  that  the  sand  of  which  the  breccia  is  composed 
has  been  washed  down  by  the  rivers  from  the  mountain 
zone. 

NORTHERN  PROVINCES.  —  Coral  Formation. — But  the 
principal  scene  of  the  most  recent  formations  is  the 
extreme  north  of  the  island,  with  the  adjoining  penin- 
sula of  Jaffna.  Here  the  coral  rocks  abound  far  above 
high-water  mark,  and  extend  across  the  island  where 
the  land  has  been  gradually  upraised,  from  the  eastern 
to  the  western  shore.  The  fortifications  of  Jaffna  were 
built  by  the  Dutch,  from  blocks  of  breccia  quarried  far 
from  the  sea,  and  still  exhibit,  in  their  worn  surface,  the 
outline  of  the  shells  and  corallines  of  which  they  mainly 
consist.  The  roads,  in  the  absence  of  more  solid  sub- 
stances, are  metalled  with  the  same  material;  as  the 
only  other  rock  which  occurs  is  a  description  of  loose 


1  Dr.  Gardner.  I  this  purpose  is  industriously  collected 

2  In  the  maritime  provinces  lime  j  by  the  fishermen  during  the  intervals 


for  building  is  obtained  by  burning 
the  coral  and  madrepore,  which  for 


rhen  the  wind  is  off  shore, 
3  Dr.  Gardner. 


c  2 


20 


PHYSICAL   GEOGEAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


conglomerate,  similar  to  that  at  Adam's  Bridge  and 
Manaar. 

The  phenomenon  of  the  gradual  upheaval  of  these 
strata  is  sufficiently  attested  by  the  position  in  which 
they  appear,  and  their  altitude  above  high-water  mark ; 
but,  in  close  contiguity  with  them,  an  equally  striking 
evidence  presents  itself  in  the  fact  that,  at  various  points 
of  the  western  coast,  between  the  island  of  Manaar  and 
Karativoe,  the  natives,  in  addition  to  fishing  for  chank 
shells1  in  the  sea,  dig  them  up  in  large  quantities  from 
beneath  the  soil  on  the  adjacent  shores,  in  which  they  are 
deeply  imbedded.2 

The  sand,  which  covers  a  vast  extent  of  the  peninsula 
of  Jaffna,  and  in  which  the  coco-nut  and  Palmyra-palm 
grow  freely,  has  been  carried  by  the  currents  from  the 
coast  of  India,  and  either  flung  upon  the  northern  beach 
in  the  winter  months,  or  driven  into  the  lake  during  the 
south-west  monsoon,  and  thence  washed  on  shore  by  the 
ripple,  and  distributed  by  the  wind. 

The  arable  soil  of  Jaffna  is  generally  of  a  deep  red 
colour,  from  the  admixture  of  iron,  and,  being  largely 
composed  of  lime  from  the  comminuted  coral,  it  is  sus- 
ceptible of  the  highest  cultivation,  and  produces  crops 
of  great  luxuriance.  This  tillage  is  carried  on  exclusively 
by  irrigation  from  innumerable  wells,  into  which  the 
water  rises  fresh  through  the  madrepore  and  sand ; 
there  being  no  streams  in  the  district,  unless  those  perco- 
lations can  be  so  called  which  make  their  way  under- 
ground, and  rise  through  the  sands  on  the  margin  of  the 
sea  at  low  water. 

Wells  in  the  Coral  Rock. — These  phenomena  occur 
at  Jaffna,  in  consequence  of  the  rocks  being  magnesian 
limestone  and  coral,  overlying  a  bed  of  sand,  and  in 


1  Turbinetta  rapa,  formerly  known 
as  Valuta  gravis,  used  by  the  people 
of  India  to  be  sawn  into  bangles  and 
anklets. 

a  In  1845  an  antique  iron  anchor 
was  found  under  the  soil  at  the  north- 


western point  of  Jaffna,  of  such  size 
and  weight  as  to  show  that  it  must 
have  belonged  to  a  ship  of  much 
greater  tonnage  than  any  which  the 
depth  of  water  would  permit  to  navi- 
gate the  channel  at  the  present  day. 


CHAP.  L]  CORAL   WELLS.  21 

some  places,  where  the  soil  is  light,  the  surface  of  the 
ground  is  a  hollow. arch,  so  that  it  resounds  as  if  a  horse's 
weight  were  sufficient  to  crush  it  inwards.  This  is 
strikingly  perceptible  in  the  vicinity  of  the  remarkable 
well  at  Potoor1,  on  the  west  side  of  the  road  leading 
from  Jaffna  to  Point  Pedro,  where  the  surface  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  is  only  about  fifteen  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  The  well,  however,  is  upwards  of  140  feet  in 
depth ;  the  water  fresh  at  the  surface,  brackish  lower 
down,  and  intensely  salt  below.  According  to  the  uni- 
versal belief  of  the  inhabitants,  it  is  an  underground  pool, 
which  communicates  with  the  sea  by  a  subterranean 
channel  bubbling  out  on  the  shore  near  Kangesentorre, 
about  seven  miles  to  the  north-west. 

A  similar  subterranean  stream  is  said  to  conduct  to  the 
sea  from  another  singular  well  near  Tillipalli,  in  sinking 
which  the  workmen,  at  the  depth  of  fourteen  feet,  came 
to  the  ubiquitous  coral,  the  crust  of  which  gave  way,  and 
showed  a  cavern  below  containing  the  water  they  were 
in  search  of,  with  a  depth  of  more  than  thirty-three  feet. 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  well  at  Tillipalli  preserves  its 
depth  at  all  seasons,  uninfluenced  alike  by  rains  or 
drought ;  and  a  steam-engine  erected  at  Potoor,  with  the 
intention  of  irrigating  the  surrounding  lands,  failed  to 
lower  the  water  in  any  perceptible  degree. 

Other  wells,  especially  some  near  the  coast,  maintain 
their  level  with  such  uniformity  as  to  be  inexhaustible  at 
any  season,  even  after  a  succession  of  years  of  drought — 
a  fact  from  which  it  may  fairly  be  inferred  that  their 
supply  is  mainly  derived  by  percolation  from  the  sea.2 

1  For  the  particulars  of  this  singular  salt  from  sea  water  by  filtration,  he 
well,  see  Vol.  II.  Pt.  ix.  ch.  vi.  p.  536.  suggests  that  the  porous  coral  rock 

being  permeated  by  salt  water,  the 
rain  which  falls  on  the  surface  sinks 
to  the  level  of  the  surrounding  sea, 
"  and  must  accumulate  there,  dis- 
placing an  equal"  bulk  of  sea  water 
— and  as  the  portion  of  the  latter  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  great  sponge- 
like  mass  rises  and  falls  with  the 


2  DAHWIN,  in  his  admirable  account 
of  the  coral  formations  of  the  Pacific 
and  Indian  oceans,  has  propounded  a 
theory  as  to  the  abundance  of  fresh 
water  in  the  atolls  and  islands  on 
coral  reefs,  furnished  by  wells  which 
ebb  and  flow  with  the  tides.  Assum- 
ing it  to  be  impossible  to  separate 


c  3 


2-2 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


A  general  idea  of  the  aspect  of  Ceylon  will  be  formed 
from  what  has  here  been  described.  Nearly  four  parts 
of  the  island  are  undulating  plains,  slightly  diversified 


tides,  so  will  the  fresh  water  near  the 
surface." — Naturalist's  Journal,  ch. 
xx.  But  subsequent  experiments 
have  demonstrated  that  the  idea  of 
separating  the  salt  by  nitration  is  not 
altogether  imaginary,  as  Darwin  seems 
to  have  then  supposed,  and  Mr.  WITT, 
in  a  remarkable  paper  On  a  peculiar 
power  possessed  by  Porous  Media  of  re- 
moving matters  from  solution  in  water, 
has  since  succeeded  in  showing  that 
"water  containing  considerable  quan- 
tities of  saline  matter  in  solution  may, 
by  fnerely  percolating  through  great 
masses  of  porous  strata  during  long 
periods,  be  gradually  deprived  of  its 
salts  to  such  an  extent  as  probably  to 
render  even  sea-water  fresh." — Philos. 
Mag.,  1856.  Divesting  the  subject 
therefore  of  this  difficulty,  other 
doubts  would  appear  to  present 
themselves  as  to  the  applicability  of 
Darwin's  theory  to  coral  formations 
in  general.  For  instance,  it  might 
be  suggested  that  rain  falling  on  a 
substance  already  saturated  Avith 
moisture,  would  flow  off  instead  of 
sinking  into  it ;  and  that  being  of 
less  specific  gravity  than  salt  water, 
it  would  fail  to  "displace  an  equal 
bulk  "  of  the  latter.  There  are  some 
extraordinary  but  well  attested  state- 
ments of  a  thin  layer  of  fresh  water 
having  been  found  on  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  after  heavy  rains  in  the  Bay 
of  Bengal.  (Joum.  Asiat.  Soc.  Seng. 
vol.  v.  p.  239.)  Besides,  I  fancy  that 
in  the  majority  of  atolls  and  coral 
islands  the  quantity  of  rain  which 
areas  so  small  are  calculated  to  inter- 
ceptwould  be  insufficient  of  itself  to  ac- 
count for  the  extraordinary  abundance 
of  fresh  water  drawn  daily  from  the 
wells.  For  instance,  the  superficial 
extent  of  each  of  the  Laccadives  is 
but  two  or  three  square  miles,  the 
surface  soil  resting  on  a  crust  of  coral, 
beneath  which  is  a  stratum  of  sand ; 
and  yet  on  reaching  the  latter,  fresh 
water  flows  in  such  profusion,  that 
wells  and  large  tanks  for  soaking 


coco-nut  fibre  are  formed  in  any  place 
by  merely  "breaking  through  the  crust 
and  taking  out  the  sand." — Madras 
Journal,  vol.  xiv.  It  is  curious  that 
the  abundant  supply  of  water  in  these 
wells  should  have  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  early  navigators,  and 
Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  writing  in  the 
sixth  century,  speaks  of  the  numerous 
small  islands  off  the  coast  of  Tapro- 
bane,  with  abundance  of  fresh  water 
and  coco-nut  palms,  although  these 
islands  rest  on  a  bed  of  sand.  (Cos- 
mas  Ind.  ed.  Thevenot,  vol.  i.  p.  3, 
20.)  It  is  remarkable  that  in  the 
little  island  of  Ramisseram,  one  of 
the  chain  which  connects  Adam's 
Bridge  with  the  Indian  continent, 
fresh  water  is  found  freely  on  sinking 
for  it  in  the  sand.  But  this  is  not 
the  case  in  the  adjacent  island  of  Ma- 
naar,  which,  being  more  solid,  partici- 
pates in  the  geologic  character  of  the 
interior  of  Ceylon.  The  fresh  water 
in  the  Laccadive  wells  always  fluc- 
tuates with  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
tides.  In  some  rare  instances,  as  on 
the  little  island  of  Bitra,  which  is  the 
smallest  inhabited  spot  in  the  group, 
the  water,  though  abundant,  is  brack- 
ish,  but  this  is  susceptible  of  an  ex- 
planation quite  consistent  with  the 
experiments  of  Mr.  Witt,  which 
require  that  the  process  of  perco- 
lation shall  be  continued  "during 
long  periods  and  through  great  masses 
of  porous  strata;"  Darwin  equally 
concedes  that  to  keep  the  rain  fresh 
when  banked  in,  as  he  assumes,  by 
the  sea,  the  mass  of  madrepore  must 
be  "  sufficiently  thick  to  prevent 
mechanical  admixture ;  and  where 
the  land  consists  of  loose  blocks  of 
coral  with  open  interstices,  the  water, 
if  a  well  be  dug,  is  brackish."  Con- 
ditions analogous  to  all  these  parti- 
cularised, present  themselves  at 
Jaffna,  and  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
extent  to  which  fresh  water  is  found 
there,  is  directly  connected  with  per- 
colation from  the  sea.  The  annual 


CHAP.  I.] 


COEAL   WELLS. 


•23 


by  offsets  from  the  mountain  system  which  entirely 
covers  the  remaining  fifth.  Every  district,  from  the 
depths  of  the  valleys  to  the  summits  of  the  highest 
hills,  is  clothed  with  perennial  foliage;  and  even  the 
sand-drifts,  to  the  ripple  on  the  sea  line,  are  carpeted 


fall  of  rain  is  less  than  in  England, 
being  but  thirty-inches ;  whilst  the 
average  heat  is  the  highest  in  Ceylon, 
and  the  evaporation  great  in  pro- 
portion. Throughout  the  peninsula, 
I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Byrne,  the 
Government  surveyor  of  the  dis- 
trict, that  as  a  general  rule  "all  the 
wells  are  below  the  sea  level"  It 
would  be  useless  to  sink  them  in  the 
higher  ground,  where  they  could 
only  catch  surface  water.  The  No- 
vember rains  fill  them  at  once  to  the 
brim,  but  the  water  quickly  subsides 
as  the  season  becomes  dry,  and  "  sinks 
to  the  uniform  level,  at  which  it  re- 
mains fixed  for  the  next  nine  or  ten 
months,  unless  when  slightly  affected 
by  showers."  "  No  well  below  the  sea 
level  becomes  dry  of  itself,"  even  in 
seasons  of  extreme  and  continued 
drought.  But  the  contents  do  not 
vary  with  the  tides,  the  rise  of  which 
is  so  trifling  that  the  distance  from 
the  ocean,  and  the  slowness  of  filtra- 
tion, renders  its  fluctuations  imper- 
ceptible. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  well  of 
Potoor,  the  phenomena  of  which  in- 
dicate its  direct  connection  with  the 
sea,  by  means  of  a  fissure  or  a  channel 
beneath  an  arch  of  magnesian  lime- 
stone, rises  and  falls  a  few  inches  in 
the  course  of  every  twelve  hours. 
At  Navokeiry,  a  short  distance  from 
Potoor,  another  well  does  the  same, 
whilst  the  well  at  Tillipalli  is  en- 
tirely unaffected  as  to  its  level  by  any 
rains,  and  exhibits  no  alteration  of  its 
depths  on  either  monsoon.  ADMIRAL 
FITZROY,  in  his  Narrative  of  the 
Surveying  Voyages  of  the  Adventure 
and  lieayle,  the  expedition  to  which 
Mr.  Darwin  was  attached,  adverts  to 
the  phenomenon  in  connection  with 
the  fresh  water  found  in  the  Coral 
Islands,  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 


wells,  and  the  flow  and  ebb  of  the  tide. 
He  advances  the  theory  afterwards 
propounded  by  Darwin  of  the  re- 
tention of  the  river-water,  which  he 
says,  "doesnotmix  with  the  saltwater 
which  surrounds  it  except  at  the  edges 
of  the  land.  The  flowing  tide  pushes 
on  every  side,  the  mixed  soil  being  very 
porous,  and  causes  the  water  to  rise : 
when  the  tide  falls,  the  fresh  water 
sinks  also.  A  sponge  full  of  fresh 
water  placed  gently  in  a  basin  of  salt 
water,  will  not  part  luith  its  contents 
far  a  length  of  time  if  left  untouched, 
and  the  water  in  the  middle  of  the 
sponge  will  be  found  untainted  by 
salt  for  many  days:  perhaps  much 
longer  if  tried." — Vol.  i.  p.  365.  In 
a  perfectly  motionless  medium  the  ex- 
periment of  the  sponge  may  no  doubt 
be  successful  to  the  extent  mentioned, 
by  Admiral  Fitzroy ;  and  so  the  rain- 
water imbibed  by  a  coral  rock  might 
for  a  length  of  time  remain  fresh 
where  it  came  into  no  contact  with 
the  salt.  But  the  disturbance  caused 
by  the  tides,  and  the  partial  intermix- 
ture admitted  by  Admiral  Fitzroy, 
must  by  reiterated  occurrence  tend  in 
time  to  taint  the  fresh  water  which  is 
affected  by  the  movement.  An  analo- 
gous fact  is  demonstrable  by  the  test  of 
the  sponge ;  for  I  find  that  on  charging 
one  with  coloured  fluid,  and  immers- 
ing it  in  a  vessel  containing  water 
perfectly  pure,  little  or  no  intermix- 
ture takes  place  so  long  as  the  pure 
water  is  undisturbed ;  but  on  causing 
an  artificial  tide,  by  gradually  with- 
drawing and  as  gradually  replacing  a 
portion  of  the  surrounding  contents 
of  the  basin,  the  tinted  water  in  the 
sponge  becomes  displaced  and  dis- 
turbed, and  in  the  course  of  a  few  ebbs 
and  flows  its  escape  is  made  manifest 
by  the  quantity  of  colour  which  it 
imparts  to  the  surrounding  fluid. 


c  4 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


with  verdure,  and  sheltered  from  the  sunbeams  by  the 
cool  shadows  of  the  palm  groves. 

SOIL. — But  the  soil,  notwithstanding  its  wonderful 
display  of  spontaneous  vegetation,  is  not  responsive  to 
systematic  cultivation,  and  is  but  imperfectly  adapted 
for  maturing  a  constant  succession  of  seeds  and  cereal 
crops.1  Hence  arose  the  disappointment  which  beset 
the  earliest  adventurers  who  opened  plantations  of 
coffee  in  the  hills,  on  discovering  that  after  the  first 
rapid  development  of  the  plants,  delicacy  and  languor 
ensued,  and  that  these  were  only  to  be  corrected  by  re- 
turning to  the  earth,  in  the  form  of  manures,  those  elements 
with  which  it  had  originally  been  but  sparingly  supplied, 
and  which  were  exhausted  by  the  first  experiments  in 
cultivation. 

Patenas. — The  only  spots  hitherto  found  suitable  for 
planting  coffee,  are  those  covered  by  the  ancient  forests 
of  the  mountain  zone ;  and  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
phenomena  in  the  ceconomic  history  of  the  island,  is  the 
fact  that  the  grass  lands  on  the  same  hills,  closely  ad- 
joining the  forests  and  separated  from  them  by  no 
visible  line  save  the  growth  of  the  trees,  although  they 
seem  to  be  identical  in  the  nature  of  the  soil,  have 
hitherto  proved  to  be  utterly  insusceptible  of  reclama- 
tion or  culture  by  the  coffee  planter.2  These  verdant 
openings,  to  which  the  natives  have  given  the  name  of 
patenas,  generally  occur  about  the  middle  elevation  of 
the  hills,  the  summits  and  the  hollows  being  covered 
with  the  customary  growth  of  timber  trees,  which  also 
fringe  the  edges  of  the  mountain  streams  that  trickle 
down  these  park-like  openings.  The  forest  approaches 
boldly  to  the  very  edge  of  a  "  patena,"  not  disappearing 


1  See  a  paper  in  the  Journal  of 
Agriculture,  for  March,  1857,  Edin. : 
on  Tropical  Cultivation  and  its  Limits, 
by  Dr.  MACVICAB. 

2  Since  the    above   was  written, 
attempts  have  been  made,  chiefly  by 
natives,  to  plant  coffee  on  patena  land. 


The  result  is  a  conviction  that  the 
cultivation  is  practicable,  by  the  use 
of  manures  from  the  beginning ; 
whereas  forest  land  is  capable,  for 
three  or  four  years  at  least,  of  yield- 
ing coffee  without  any  artificial  en- 
richment of  the  soil. 


CHAP.  I.] 


FATENAS. 


gradually  or  sinking  into  a  growth  of  underwood,  but 
stopping  abruptly  and  at  once,  the  tallest  trees  forming 
a  fence  around  the  avoided  spot,  as  if  they  enclosed  an 
area  of  solid  stone.  These  sunny  expanses  vary  in 
width  from  a  few  yards  to  many  thousands  of  acres  ;  in 
the  lower  ranges  of  the  hills  they  are  covered  with  tah1 
lemon-grass  (Andropogon  schcenanihus),  of  which  the  op- 
pressive perfume  and  coarse  texture,  when  full  grown, 
render  it  so  distasteful  to  cattle,  that  they  will  only  crop 
the  delicate  braird  which  springs  after  the  surface  has 
been  annually  burnt  by  the  Kandyans.  Two  stunted 
trees,  alone,  are  seen  to  thrive  in  these  extraordinary 
prairies,  Careya  arborea^  and  Emblica  officinalis,  and 
these  only  below  an  altitude  of  4000  feet.  Above  this, 
the  lemon-grass  is  superseded  by  hardier  and  more  wiry 
species ;  the  earth  being  still  the  same,  a  mixture  of 
disintegrated  quartz  largely  impregnated  with  oxide  of 
iron,  but  wanting  the  phosphates  and  other  salts  which 
are  essential  to  highly  organised  vegetation.1  The  extent 
of  this  patena  land  is  enormous  in  Ceylon,  amounting  to 
millions  of  acres  ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  com- 
plaints which  have  hitherto  been  made  by  the  experi- 
mental cultivators  of  coffee  in  the  Kandyan  provinces 
may  hereafter  prove  exaggerated,  and  that  much  that 
has  been  attributed  to  the  poverty  of  the  soil  may  even- 
tually be  traced  to  deficiency  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
early  planters. 

The  natives  in  the  same  lofty  localities  find  no  defi- 
cient returns  in  the  crops  of  rice,  which  they  raise  in 
the  ravines  and  hollows,  into  which  the  earth  from 
above  has  been  washed  by  the  periodical  rains ;  but 
rice  cultivation  is  so  entirely  dependent  on  the  pre- 


1  HOTBOLDT  is  disposed  to  ascribe 
the  absence  of  trees  in  the  vast  grassy 
plains  of  South  America  to  "the 
destructive  custom  of  setting  fire  to 
the  -woods,  when  the  natives  want  to 
convert  the  soil  into  pasture :  when 
during  the  lapse  of  centuries  grasses 
and  plants  have  covered  the  surface 


with  a  carpet,  the  seeds  of  trees  can 
no  longer  germinate  and  fix  them- 
selves in  the  earth,  although  birds 
and  winds  carry  them  continually 
from  the  distant  forests  into  the 
Savannahs." — Narrative,  vol.  i.  ch. 
vi.  p.  242. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGEAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


sence  of  water,  that  no  inference  can  be  fairly  drawn 
as  to  the  quality  of  the  soil  from  the  abundance  of  the 
harvest. 

The  fields  on  which  rice  is  grown  in  these  mountains 
form  one  of  the  most  picturesque  and  beautiful  objects 
in  the  country  of  the  Kandyans.  Selecting  an  angular 
recess  where  two  hills  converge,  they  construct  a  series 
of  terraces,  rising  stage  above  stage,  and  retiring  as 
they  ascend  along  the  slopes  of  each  acclivity,  up  which 
they  are  carried  as  high  as  the  soil  extends.1  Each 
terrace  is  furnished  with  a  low  ledge  in  front,  behind 
which  the  requisite  depth  of  water  is  retained  during 
the  germination  of  the  seed,  and  what  is  superfluous  is 
permitted  to  trickle  down  to  the  one  below  it.  In  order 
to  carry  on  this  peculiar  cultivation  the  streams  are  led 
along  the  level  of  the  hills,  often  from  a  distance  of 
many  miles,  with  a  skill  and  perseverance  for  which 
the  natives  of  these  mountains  have  attained  a  great 
renown. 

In  the  lowlands  to  the  south,  the  soil  partakes  of 
the  character  of  the  hills  from  whose  detritus  it  is 
to  a  great  extent  formed.  In  it  rice  is  the  chief 
article  produced,  and  for  its  cultivation  the  disinte- 
grated laterite  (cabook),  when  thoroughly  irrigated,  is 
sufficiently  adapted.  The  seed  time  in  the  southern 
section  of  the  island  is  dependent  on  the  arrival  of 
the  rains  in  November  and  May,  and  hence  the  moun- 
tains and  the  maritime  districts  at  their  base  enjoy 
two  harvests  in  each  year  —  the  Maha,  which  is  sown 
about  July  and  August,  and  reaped  in  December  and 
January,  and  the  Yalta,  which  is  sown  in  spring,  and 
reaped  from  the  15th  of  July  to  the  20th  September. 
But  owing  to  the  different  description  of  seed  sown  in 
particular  localities,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  are 


1  The  conversion  of  the  land  into 
these  hanging  farms  is  known  in 
Ceylon  as  "  assocdamiziny"  a  term 


borrowed  from  the  Kandyan  verna- 
cular, in  which  the  word  "  assoedam6r 
implies  the  process  above  described. 


CHAP.  I.]  TALAWAS.  27 

respectively  affected  by  the  rains,  the  seasons  of  seed-time 
and  harvest  vary  considerably  on  different  sides  of  the 
island.1 

In  the  north,  where  the  influence  of  the  monsoons2 
is  felt  with  less  force  and  regularity,  and  where,  to 
counteract  their  uncertainty,  the  rain  is  collected  in 
reservoirs,  a  wider  discretion  is  left  to  the  husband- 
man in  the  ..choice  of  season  for  his  operations.3  Two 
crops  of  grain,  however,  are  the  utmost  that  is  taken  from 
the  land,  and  in  many  instances  only  one.  The  soil  near 
the  coast  is  light  and  sandy,  but  in  the  great  central 
districts  of  Neuera-kalawa  and  the  Wanny,  there  is 
found  in  the  midst  of  the  forests  a  dark  vegetable 
mould,  in  which  in  former  times  rice  was  abundantly 
grown  by  the  aid  of  prodigious  artificial  works  for  irri- 
gation, the  ruins  of  which  still  form  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  island.  Even  after  centuries  of  neglect,  the  beds  of 
many  of  these  tanks  cover  areas  of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
miles  in  circumference.  They  are  now  generally  broken 
and  decayed ;  the  waters  which  would  fertilise  a  province 
are  allowed  to  waste  themselves  in  the  sands,  and  hundreds 
of  square  miles  capable  of  furnishing  food  for  all  the  in- 
habitants of  Ceylon  are  abandoned  to  solitude  and 
malaria,  whilst  rice  for  the  support  of  the  non-agricultural 
population  is  annually  imported  from  the  opposite  coast 
of  India. 

Talawas. — In  these  districts  of  the  lowlands,  espe- 
cially on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island,  and  in  the 
country  watered  by  the  Mahawelli-ganga  and  the  other 
great  rivers  which  flow  towards  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and 
the  magnificent  estuary  of  Trincomalie,  there  are  open 
glades  which  diversify  the  forest  scenery  somewhat 


1  The  reaping  of  other  descriptions 
of  grain  besides  rice  occurs  at  various 
•,  according  to  the 


locality. 

*  See  Vol.  I.  p.  6' 
3  This  peculiarity  of  the  north  of 


Ceylon  was  noticed  by  the  Chinese  |  Koue  Ki,  p.  332. 


traveller  FA  HIAN,  who  visited  the 
island  in  the  fourth  century,  and  says 
of  the  country  around  Anarajapoora : 
"  L'ensemencement  des  champs  est 
suivant  la  volont6  des  gens;  il  n'y 
a  point  de  temps  pour  cela."— Foe 


28  PHYSICAL   GEOGKAPHY.  [PART  I. 

resembling  the  grassy  patenas  in  the  hills,  but  differing 
from  them  in  the  character  of  their  soil  and  vegetation. 
These  park-like  meadows,  or,  as  the  natives  call  them, 
"  talawas,"  vary  in  extent  from  one  to  a  thousand  acres. 
They  are  belted  by  the  surrounding  woods,  and  studded 
with  groups  of  timber  and  sometimes  with  single  trees 
of  majestic  dimensions.  Through  these  pastures  the 
deer  troop  in  herds  within  gunshot,  bounding  into  the 
nearest  cover  when  disturbed. 

Lower  still  and  immediately  adjoining  the  sea-coast, 
the  broken  forest  gives  place  to  brushwood,  with  here 
and  there  an  assemblage  of  dwarf  shrubs ;  but  as  far  as 
the  eye  can  reach,  there  is  one  vast  level  of  impenetrable 
jungle,  broken  only  by  the  long  sweep  of  salt  marshes 
which  form  lakes  in  the  rainy  season,  but  are  dry  between 
the  monsoons,  and  crusted  with  crystals  that  glitter  like 
snow  in  the  sunshine. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  island  the  rivers  have 
formed  broad  alluvial  plains,  in  which  the  Dutch  at- 
tempted to  grow  sugar.  The  experiment  has  been  often 
resumed  since  ;  but  even  here  the  soil  is  so  defective, 
that  the  cost  of  artificially  enriching  it  has  hitherto  been  a 
serious  obstruction  to  success  commercially,  although  in 
one  or  two  instances,  plantations  on  a  small  scale  have 
succeeded  to  a  certain  extent. 

METALS. — The  plutonic  rocks  of  Ceylon  are  but 
slightly  metalliferous,  and  hitherto  their  veins  and  de- 
posits have  been  but  imperfectly  examined.  The  first 
successful  survey  attempted  by  the  Government  was 
undertaken  during  the  administration  of  Viscount  Tor- 
rington,  who,  in  1847,  commissioned  Dr.  Gygax  to 
proceed  to  the  hill  district  south  of  Adam's  Peak,  and 
furnish  a  report  on  its  products.  His  investigations 
extended  from  Eatnapoora,  in  a  south-eastward  direc- 
tion, to  the  mountains  which  overhang  Bintenne,  but 
the  results  obtained  did  not  greatly  enlarge  the  know- 
ledge previously  possessed.  He  established  the  exist- 


CHAP.  I.] 


METALS. 


ence  of  tin  in  the  alluvium  along  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tains to  the  eastward  towards  Edelgashena;  but  so  cir- 
cumstanced, owing  to  the  stream  of  the  Wellaway,  that, 
without  lowering  the  level  of  the  river,  the  metal  could 
not  be  extracted  with  advantage.  The  position  in  which 
it  occurs  is  similar  to  that  in  which  tin  ore  presents  itself 
in  Saxony;  and  along  with  it,  the  Singhalese,  when  search- 
ing for  gems,jiiscover  garnets,  corundum,  white  topazes, 
zircon,  and  tourmaline. 

Gold  is  found  in  minute  particles  at  Gettyhedra,  and 
in  the  beds  of  the  Maha  Oya  and  other  rivers  flowing 
towards  the  west.1  But  the  quantity  hitherto  discovered 
has  been  too  trivial  to  reward  the  search.  The  early  in- 
habitants of  the  island  were  not  ignorant  of  its  presence ; 
but  its  occurrence  on  a  memorable  occasion,  as  well  as 
that  of  silver  and  copper,  is  recorded  in  the  Mahawanso 
as  a  miraculous  manifestation,  which  signalised  the 
founding  of  one  of  the  most  renowned  shrines  at  the 
ancient  capital.2 

Nickel  and  cobalt  appear  in  small  quantities  in  Saf- 
fragam,  and  the  latter,  together  with  rutile  (an  oxide  of 
titanium)  and  wolfram,  may  possibly  find  a  market  in 
China  for  the  colouring  of  porcelain.3  Tellurium,  another 
rare  and  valuable  metal,  hitherto  found  only  in  Transyl- 
vania and  the  Ural,  has  likewise  been  discovered  in  these 


1  Ruanwelle,    a  fort   about    forty 
miles  distant  from  Colombo,  derives 
its  name  from  the  sands  of  the  river 
which   flows   below  it, — rang-welle, 
"golden   sand."       " Rang-galla-"  in 
the  central  province,  is  referable  to 
the  same  root — "  the  rock  of  gold." 

2  Mahawanso,    ch.    xxiii.    p.    166. 
167. 

3  The  Asiatic  Annual  Register  for 
1799  contains  the  following : — 

"  Extract  from  a  letter  from  Colombo, 
dated  26tK  Oct.  1798. 

"  A  discovery  has  been  lately  made 
here  of  a  very  rich  mine  of  quicksilver, 


about  six  miles  from  this  place.  The 
appearances  are  very  promising,  for 
a  handful  of  the  earth  on  the  surface 
will,  by  being  washed,  produce  the 
value  of  a  rupee.  A  guard  is  set  over 
it,  and  accounts  sent  express  to  the 
Madras  Government." — P.  53.  See 
also  PERCTVAL'S  Ceylon,  p.  539. 

JOINVILLE,  in  a  MS.  essay  on  The 
Geology  of  Ceylon,  now  in  the  library 
of  the  East  India  Company,  says  that 
near  Trincomalie  there  is  "  un  sable 
noir,  compose"  de  detriments  de  trappe 
et  de  cristaux  de  fer,  dans  lequel  on 
trouve  par  le  lavage  beaucoup  de 


SO  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

mountains.  Manganese  is  abundant,  and  iron  occurs 
in  the  form  of  magnetic  iron  ore,  titanite,  chromate, 
yellow  hydrate,  per-oxide  and  iron  pyrites.  In  most  of 
these,  however,  the  metal  is  scanty,  and  the  ores  of  little 
comparative  value,  except  for  the  extraction  of  manganese 
and  chrome.  "  But  there  is  another  description  of  iron 
ore,"  says  Dr.  Gygax,  in  his  official  report  to  the  Ceylon 
Government,  "  which  is  found  in  vast  abundance,  brown 
and  compact,  generally  in  the  state  of  carbonate,  though 
still  blended  with  a  little  chrome,  and  often  molybdena. 
It  occurs  in  large  masses  and  veins,  one  of  which  extends 
for  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles ;  from  it  millions  of  tons 
may  be  extracted,  and  when  found  adjacent  to  fuel  and 
water-carriage,  it  might  be  worked  to  a  profit.  The 
quality  of  the  iron  ore  found  in  Ceylon  is  singularly  fine ; 
it  is  easily  smelted,  and  so  pure  when  reduced  as  to  re- 
semble silver.  The  rough  ore  produces  from  thirty  to 
seventy-jive  per  cent.,  and  on  an  average  fully  fifty.  The 
iron  wrought  from  it  requires  no  puddling,  and,  converted 
into  steel,  it  cuts  like  a  diamond.  The  metal  could  be  laid 
down  in  Colombo  at  £6  per  ton,  even  supposing  the  ore 
to  be  brought  thither  for  smelting,  and  prepared  with 
English  coal ;  —  anthracite  being  found  upon  the  spot,  it 
could  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  one  of  the 
British  coal ;  and  the  cost  correspondingly  reduced." 

Eemains  of  ancient  furnaces  are  met  with  in  all 
directions  precisely  similar  to  those  still  in  use  amongst 
the  natives.  The  Singhalese  obtain  the  ore  they  require 
without  the  trouble  of  mining ;  seeking  a  spot  where  the 
soil  has  been  loosened  by  the  rains,  they  break  off  a  suf^ 
ficient  quantity,  which,  in  less  than  three  hours,  they 
convert  into  iron  by  the  simplest  possible  means.  None 
of  their  furnaces  are  capable  of  smelting  more  than 
twenty  pounds  of  ore,  and  yet  this  quantity  yields  from 
seven  to  ten  pounds  of  good  metal. 

The  anthracite  alluded  to  by  Dr.  Gygax  is  found  in 


CHAP.  I.] 


MINERALS. 


31 


the  southern  range  of  hills  near  Nambepane,  in  close 
proximity  to  rich  veins  of  plumbago,  which  are  largely 
worked  in  the  same  district,  and  the  quantity  of  the 
latter  annually  exported  from  Ceylon  exceeds  a  thou- 
sand tons.  Molybdena  is  found  in  profusion  dispersed 
through  many  rocks  in  Saffragam,  and  occurs  in  al- 
luvium in  grey  scales,  so  nearly  resembling  plumbago 
as  to  be  commonly  mistaken  for  it.  Kaolin,  called  by 
the  natives  Kfrimattie,  appears  near  Neuera-ellia,  at  He- 
wahette,  Kaduganawa.  and  in  many  of  the  higher  ranges 
as  well  as  in  the  low  country  near  Colombo ;  its  colour  is 
so  clear  as  to  be  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  por- 
celain1 ;  but  as  yet  the  difficulty  and  cost  of  carriage 
render  it  unavailing  for  commerce,  and  the  only  use  to 
which  it  has  hitherto  been  applied  is  to  serve  for  white- 
wash instead  of  lime. 

Nitre  has  long  been  known  to  exist  in  Ceylon,  where 
the  localities  in  which  it  occurs  are  similar  to  those  in 
Brazil  In  SafFragam  alone  there  are  upwards  of  sixty 
caverns  known  to  the  natives,  from  which  it  may  be 
extracted,  and  others  exist  in  various  parts  of  the  island, 
where  the  abundance  of  wood  to  assist  in  its  lixiviation 
would  render  that  process  easy  and  profitable.  Yet  so 
sparingly  has  this  been  hitherto  attempted,  that  even  for 
purposes  of  refrigeration,  crude  saltpetre  is  still  imported 
from  India.2 

GEMS. — But  the  chief  interest  which  attaches  to  the 


1  The  kaolin  of  Ceylon,  according 
to  an  analysis  in  1847,  consists  of — 

Pure  kaolin  .  .  .  70-0 
Silica  ....  26-0 
Molybdena  and  iron  oxide  4-0 

100-0 

In  the  Mi)ig-she,  or  history  of  the 
Ming  dynasty,  A.D.  1368—1643,  by 
Chan-ting-yuh,  "pottery-stone"  is 
enumerated  among  the  imports  into 
China  from  Ceylon. — B.  cccxxvi.  p.  5. 

2  The   mineralogy  of  Ceylon   has 


hitherto  undergone  no  scientific  scru- 
tiny, nor  have  its  mineral  productions 
been  arranged  in  any  systematic  and 
comprehensive  catalogue.  Specimens 
are  to  be  found  in  abundance  in  the 
hands  of  native  dealers ;  but  from 
indifference  or  caution  they  express 
their  inability  to  afford  adequate  in- 
formation as  to  their  locality,  their 
geological  position,  or  even  to  show 
with  sufficient  certainty  that  they 
belong  to  the  island.  Dr.  Gygax,  as 
the  results  of  some  years  spent  in  ex- 
ploring different  districts  previous  to 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


mountains  and  rocks  of  this  region,  arises  from  the 
fact  that  they  contain  those  mines  of  precious  stones 
which  from  time  immemorial  have  conferred  renown 
on  Ceylon.  The  ancients  celebrated  the  gems  as  well 
as  the  pearls  of  "  Taprobane ; "  the  tales  of  mariners 
returning  from  their  eastern  expeditions  supplied  to 
the  story-tellers  of  the  Arabian  Nights  their  fables  of 
the  jewels  of  "Serendib;"  and  the  travellers  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  on  coining  back  to  Europe,  told  of  the 
"  sapphires,  topazes,  amethysts,  garnets,  and  other  costly 
stones "  of  Ceylon,  and  of  the  ruby  which  belonged  to 


1847,  was  enabled  to  furnish  a  list  of 
but  thirty-seven  species,  the  site  of 

1.  Hock  crystal 

2.  Iron  quartz 

3.  Common  quartz 

4.  Amethyst 

5.  Garnet 

6.  Cinnamon  stone 

7.  Hannotome 

8.  Hornblende 

9.  Hypersthene 

10.  Common  corundum 

11.  Ruby 

12.  Chrysoberyl 

13.  Pleonaste  . 

14.  Zircon 

15.  Mica 

16.  Adular      . 

17.  Common  felspar 

18.  Green  felspar     . 

19.  Albite 

20.  Chlorite     . 

21.  Finite 

22.  Black  tourmaline 

23.  Calcspar    . 

24.  Bitterspar 

25.  Apatite      . 

26.  Fluorspar  . 

27.  Chiastolite 

28.  Iron  pyrites 

29.  Magnetic  iron  pyrites 

30.  Brown  iron  ore 

31.  Spathose  iron  ore 

32.  Manganese 

83.  Molybden  glance 

34.  Tin  ore      . 

35.  Arseniate  of  nickel 
86.  Plumbago          . 
37.  Epistilbite 


which  he  had  determined  by  personal 
inspection.     These  were : — 

Abundant. 

Saffragam. 

Abundant. 

Galle  Back,  Caltura. 

Abundant. 

Belligam. 

St.  Lucia,  Colombo. 

Abundant. 

Ditto. 
Badulla. 

Ditto  and  Saffragam. 
Ratganga,  North  Saffragam. 
Badulla. 

Wellaway-ganga,  Saffragam. 
Abundant. 

Patna  Hills,  North-east. 
Abundant. 
Kandy. 
Melly  Matte. 
Kandy. 
Patna  Hills 
Neuera-ellia. 
Abundant. 

Ditto. 
Galle  Back. 

Ditto. 

Mount  Lavinia. 
Peradenia. 

Ditto,  Rajawelle. 
Abundant. 
Galle  Back. 
Saffragam. 
Abundant. 
Saffragam. 

Ditto. 

Morowa  Corle. 
St.  Lucia. 


CHAP.  I.J  GEMS.  33 

the  king  of  the  island,  "a  span  in  length,  without  a 
flaw,  and  brilliant  beyond  description."1 

The  extent  to  which  gems  are  stih1  found  is  sufficient 
to  account  for  the  early  traditions  of  their  splendour 
and  profusion ;  and  fabulous  as  this  story  of  the  ruby 
of  the  Kandyan  kings  may  be,  the  abundance  of  gems 
in  SafFragam  has  given  to  the  capital  of  the  district 
the  name  of  Eatnapoora,  which  means  literally  "the 
city  of  rubies?' 2  They  are  not,  however,  confined  to 
this  quarter  alone,  but  quantities  are  stih1  found  on  the 
western  plains  between  Adam's  Peak  and  the  sea,  at 
Neuera-ellia,  in  Oovah,  at  Kandy,  at  Mattelle  in  the 
central  province,  and  at  Euanwelle  near  Colombo,  at 
Matura,  and  in  the  beds  of  the  rivers  eastwards  towards 
the  ancient  Mahagam. 

But  the  localities  which  chiefly  supply  the  Ceylon 
gems  are  the  alluvial  plains  at  the  foot  of  the  stu- 
pendous hills  of  SafFragam,  to  which  the  detritus  of  the 
rocks  has  been  carried  down  and  intercepted  by  the 
slight  elevations  that  rise  at  some  distance  from  the 
base  of  the  mountains.  The  most  remarkable  of  these 
gem-bearing  deposits  is  in  the  flat  country  around 
Ballangodde,  south-east  of  Eatnapoora  ;  but  almost 
every  valley  in  communication  with  the  rocks  of  the 
higher  ranges  contains  stones  of  more  or  less  value,  and 
the  beds  of  the  rivers  flowing  southward  from  the 
mountain  chain  are  so  rich  in  comminuted  fragments 
of  rubies,  sapphires,  and  garnets3,  that  their  sands  in 


1  Travels  of  MARCO  Poto,  a  Vene- 
tian, in  the  Thirteenth  Century,  Lond. 
1818. 

*  In  the  vicinity  of  Ratnapoora 
there  are  to  be  obtained  masses  of 
quartz  of  the  most  delicate  rose 
colour.  Some  pieces,  which  were 
brought  to  me  in  Colombo,  were  of 
extraordinary  beauty ;  and  I  have 
reason  to  believe  that  it  can  be  ob- 
tained in  pieces  large  enough  to  be 
used  as  slabs  for  tables,  or  formed 
into  vases  and  columns.  I  may  observe 

VOL.    I. 


that  similar  pieces  are  to  be  found 
in  the  south  of  Ireland,  near  Cork. 

3  Mr.  BAKER,  in  a  work  entitled 
The  Rifle  and  the  Hound  in  Ceylon, 
thus  describes  the  sands  of  the  Maniek- 
ganga,  near  the  ruins  of  Mahagam, 
in  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the 
island :  —  "  The  sand  was  composed 
of  mica,  quartz,  sapphire,  ruby,  and 
jacinth ;  but  the  large  proportion  of 
ruby  sand  was  so  extraordinary  that 
it  seemed  to  rival  Sindbad's  story  of 
the  vale  of  gems.  The  whole  of  this 


34 


PHYSICAL   GEOGEAPIIY. 


[PART  I. 


some  places  are  used  by  lapidaries  in  polishing  the 
softer  stones,  and  in  sawing  the  elephants'  grinders 
into  plates.  The  cook  of  a  government  officer  at 
Galle  recently  brought  to  him  a  ruby  about  the  size 
of  a  small  pea,  which  he  had  taken  from  the  crop  of  a 
fowl. 

Of  late  years  considerable  energy  has  been  shown  by 
those  engaged  in  the  search  for  gems ;  neglected  dis- 
tricts have  been  explored,  and  new  fields  have  been 
opened  up  at  such  places  as  Karangodde  and  Wera- 
loopa,  whence  stones  have  been  taken  of  unusual  size 
and  value. 

It  is  not,  however,  in  the  upper  strata  of  gravel,  nor 
in  those  now  in  process  of  formation,  that  the  natives 
search  for  gems.  They  penetrate  to  the  depth  of 
from  ten  to  twenty  feet,  in  order  to  reach  a  lower 
deposit  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Nettan,  in  which 
the  objects  of  their  search  are  found.  This  is  of  so 
remote  an  origin  that  it  underlies  the  present  beds  of 
rivers,  and  is  generally  separated  from  them  or  from 
the  superincumbent  gravel  by  a  hard  crust  (called 
Kadua\  a  few  inches  in  thickness,  and  so  consolidated 
as  to  have  somewhat  the  appearance  of  laterite,  or  of 
sun-burnt  brick.  The  nellan  is  for  the  most  part  hori- 
zontal, but  occasionally  it  is  raised  into  an  incline  as  it 
approaches  the  base  of  the  hills.  It  appears  to  have 
been  deposited  previous  to  the  irruption  of  the  basalt, 
and  to  have  undergone  some  alteration  from  the  contact. 
It  consists  of  water-worn  pebbles  firmly  imbedded  in 
the  soil,  and  occasionally  there  occur  large  lumps  of 
granite  and  gneiss,  in  the  hollows  under  which,  as 
well  as  in  "  pockets"  in  the  clay  (which  from  their 
shape  the  natives  denominate  "  elephants'  footsteps") 


was  valueless,  but  the  appearance  of 
the  sand  was  very  inviting,  as  the 
shallow  stream  in  rippling  over  it 
magnified  the  tiny  gems  into  stones 
of  some  magnitude.  I  passed  an  hour 


in  vainly  searching  for  a  ruby  worth 
collecting,  but  the  largest  did  not 
exceed  the  size  of  a  mustard  seed." 
— BAKEE'S Rifle  and  Hound  in  Ceylon. 
p.  181. 


CUAP.  I.]  GEMS.  35 

gems  are  frequently  found  in  groups  as  if  washed  in 
by  the  current. 

The  persons  who  devote  themselves  to  this  uncertain 
pursuit  are  chiefly  Singhalese,  and  the  season  selected 
by  them  for  "gemming"  is  between  December  and 
March,  when  the  waters  are  low.1  The  poorer  and  least 
enterprising  adventurers  betake  themselves  to  the  beds 
of  streams,  but  the  most  certain  though  the  most  costly 
course  is  to  "sink  pits  in  the  adjacent  plains,  which  are 
consequently  indented  with  such  traces  of  recent  ex- 
plorers. The  upper  gravel  is  pierced,  the  covering 
crust  is  reached  and  broken  through,  and  the  nellan 
being  shovelled  into  conical  baskets  and  washed  to 
free  it  from  the  sand,  the  residuum  is  carefully  searched 
for  whatever  rounded  crystals  and  minute  gems  it  may 
contain. 

It  is  strongly  characteristic  of  the  want  of  energy  in 
the  Singhalese,  that  although  for  centuries  these  alluvial 
plains  and  watercourses  have  been  searched  without 
ceasing,  no  attempt  appears  to  have  been  made  to  explore 
the  rocks  themselves,  in  the  debris  of  which  the  gems 
have  been  brought  down  by  the  rivers.  Dr.  Gygax  says : 
"  I  found  at  Hima  Pohura,  on  the  south-eastern  decline 
of  the  Pettigalle-Kanda,  about  the  middle  of  the  descent, 
a  stratum  of  grey  granite  containing,  with  iron  pyrites 
and  molybdena,  innumerable  rubies  from  one-tenth  to  a 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  of  a  fine  rose  colour, 
but  split  and  falling  to  powder.  This  is  not  an  isolated 
bed  of  minerals,  but  a  regular  stratum  extending  pro- 
bably to  the  same  depth  and  distance  as  the  other 
granite  formations.  I  followed  it  as  far  as  was  practi- 
cable for  close  examination,  but  everywhere  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  valley  I  found  it  so  decomposed  that 
the  hammer  sunk  in  the  rock,  and  even  bamboos  were 
growing  in  it.  On  the  higher  ground  near  some 


1  A    very  interesting  account    of  I  WM.  STEWART,  appeared  in  the  Co- 
Gems  and  Gem    Searching,   by   Mr.  [  lombo  Observer  for  June,  1855. 


36  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

small  round  hills  which  intercept  "it,  I  found  the  rubies 
changed  into  brown  corundum.  Upon  the  hills  them- 
selves the  trace  was  lost,  and  instead  of  a  stratum  there 
was  merely  a  wild  chaos  of  blocks  of  yellow  granite.  I 
carefully  examined  all  the  minerals  which  this  stratum 
contains, — felspar,  mica,  and  quartz  molybdena,  and  iron 
pyrites, — and  I  found  all  similar  to  those  I  had  pre- 
viously got  adhering  to  rough  rubies  offered  for  sale  at 
Colombo.  I  firmly  believe  that  in  such  strata  the  rubies 
of  Ceylon  are  originally  found,  and  that  those  in  the 
white  and  blue  clay  at  BaUangodde  and  Eatnapoora  are 
but  secondary  deposits.  I  am  further  inclined  to  believe 
that  these  extend  over  the  whole  island,  although  often 
intercepted  and  changed  in  their  direction  by  the  rising 
of  the  yellow  granite."  It  is  highly  probable  that  the 
finest,  rubies  are  to  be  found  in  this  rock  perfect 
and  unchanged  by  decomposition ;  and  that  they  are 
to  be  obtained  by  opening  a  regular  mine  like  the 
ruby  mine  of  Badakshan  in  Bactria  described  by  Sir 
Alexander  Burnes.  Dr.  Grygax  adds  that  having  often 
received  the  minerals  of  this  stratum  with  the  crystals 
perfect,  he  has  reason  to  believe  that  places  are  known 
to  the  natives  where  such  mines  might  be  opened  with 
confidence  of  success. 

Eubies  both  crystalline  and  amorphous  are  also  found 
in  a  particular  stratum  of  dolomite  at  Bullatotte  and 
Badulla,  in  which  there  is  a  peculiar  copper-coloured 
mica  with  metallic  lustre.  Star  rubies,  the  "  asteria"  of 
Pliny  (so  called  from  their  containing  a  movable  six- 
rayed  star),  are  to  be  procured  at  Eatnapoora  and  for  very 
trifling  sums.  The  blue  tinge  which  detracts  from  the 
value  of  the  pure  ruby,  (whose  colour  should  resemble 
"  pigeon's  blood,")  is  removed  by  the  Singhalese,  by 
enveloping  the  stone  in  the  lime  of  a  calcined  shell  and 
exposing  it  to  a  high  heat.  Spinel  of  extremely  beauti- 
ful colours  is  found  in  the  bed  of  the  Mahawelli-ganga  at 
Kandy,  and  from  the  locality  it  has  obtained  the  name  of 
Candite. 


CHAP.  I.]  GEMS.  37 

It  is  strange  that  although  the  sapphire  is  obtained 
in  this  region  in  greater  quantity  than  the  ruby,  it  has 
never  yet  been  discovered  in  the  original  matrix,  and 
the  small  fragments  which  sometimes  occur  in  dolomite 
show  that  there  it  is  but  a  deposit.  From  its  exquisite 
colour  and  the  size  in  which  it  is  commonly  found,  it 
is  by  far  the  most  valuable  gem  of  the  island.  A 
piece  which  was  dug  out  of  the  alluvium  within  a  few 
miles  of  Ratnapoora  in  1853,  was  purchased  by  a  Moor 
at  Colombo,  in  whose  hands  it  was  valued  at  upwards  of 
four  thousand  pounds. 

The  original  site  of  the  oriental  topaz  is  equally  un- 
known with  that  of  the  sapphire.  The  Singhalese  rightly 
believe  them  to  be  the  same  stone  only  differing  in 
colour,  and  crystals  are  said  to  be  obtained  with  one  por- 
tion yellow  and  the  other  blue. 

Garnets  of  inferior  quality  are  common  in  the  gneiss, 
but  finer  ones  are  found  in  the  hornblende  rocks. 

Cinnamon-stone  (which  is  properly  a  variety  of 
garnet)  is  so  extremely  abundant,  that  rocks  con- 
taining it  in  profusion  exist  in  many  places,  especially 
in  the  alluvium  around  Matura ;  and  at  Belligam,  a  few 
miles  east  from  Point-de-Galle,  a  detached  mass  is  so 
largely  composed  of  cinnamon-stones  that  it  is  carried 
away  in  lumps  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  and  polishing 
them. 

The  CaPs-eye  is  one  of  the  jewels  of  which  the 
Singhalese  are  especially  proud,  from  a  belief  that  it  is 
only  found  in  their  island ;  but  in  this  I  apprehend  they 
are  misinformed,  as  specimens  of  equal  merit  have  been 
brought  from  Quilon  and  Cochin  on  the  southern  coast 
of  Hindustan.  The  cat's-eye  is  a  greenish  translucent 
quartz,  and  when  cut  en  cabochon  it  presents  a  moving 
internal  reflection  which  is  ascribed  to  the  presence  of 
filaments  of  asbestos.  Its  perfection  is  estimated  by  the 
natives  in  proportion  to  the  narrowness  and  sharpness  of 
the  ray  and  the  pure  olive-tint  of  the  ground  over  which 
it  plays. 

D   3 


PHYSICAL   GEOGKAPIIY. 


[PART  I. 


Amethysts  are  got  in  the  gneiss,  and  some  discoloured 
though  beautiful  specimens  hi  syenite ;  they  are  too  com- 
mon to  be  highly  esteemed.  The  "Matura  Diamonds," 
which  are  largely  used  by  the  native  jewellers,  consist 
of  zircon,  found  in  the  syenite  not  only  uncoloured, 
but  also  of  pink  and  yellow  tints,  the  former  passing  for 
rubies. 

But  one  of  the  prettiest  though  commonest  gems  in 
the  island  is  the  "Moon-stone,"  a  variety  of  pearly 
adularia  presenting  chatoyant  rays  when  simply  polished. 
They  are  so  abundant  that  the  finest  specimens  may 
be  bought  for  a  few  shillings.  These,  with  aqua  marina, 
a  bad  description  of  opal  rock  crystal  in  extremely  large 
pieces,  tourmaline,  and  a  number  of  others  of  no  great 
value,  compose  the  list  of  native  gems  procurable  in 
Ceylon.1  Diamonds,  emeralds,  agates,  carnelians,  and 
turquoise,  when  they  are  exhibited  by  the  natives,  have 
all  been  imported  from  India. 

During  the  dynasty  of  the  Kandyan  sovereigns,  the 
right  of  digging  for  gems  was  a  royalty  reserved  jealously 
by  the  King ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  particular  villages 
were  employed  in  their  search  under  the  superintendence 
of  hereditary  officers,  with  the  rank  of  "  Mudianse."  By 
the  British  Government  the  monopoly  was  early  abolished 
as  a  source  of  revenue,  and  no  license  is  now  required  by 
the  jewel-hunters. 

Great  numbers  of  persons  of  the  worst-regulated 
habits  are  constantly  engaged  in  this  exciting  and  pre- 
carious trade ;  and  serious  demoralisation  is  engendered 
amongst  the  villagers  by  the  idle  and  dissolute  adven- 
turers who  resort  to  Saffragam.  Systematic  industry 
suffers,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  land  is  frequently  neg- 


1  CASWINI  and  some  of  the  Arabian 
geographers  assert  that  the  diamond 
is  found  at  Adam's  Peak ;  but  this  is 
improbable,  as  there  is  no  formation 
here  resembling  the  cascalhao  of 
Brazil  or  the  diamond  conglomerate 


of  Golconda.  If  diamonds  were  of- 
fered for  sale  in  Ceylon,  in  the  time 
of  the  Arab  navigators,  they  must 
have  been  brought  thither  from 
India.  (Journ.  As.  Soc.  Beng.  xiii. 


CIIAP.  I.]  GEMS.  39 

lected  whilst  its  owners  are  absorbed  in  these  speculative 
and  tantalising  pursuits.  The  products  of  their  searches 
are  disposed  of  to  the  Moors,  who  resort  to  Saffragam 
from  the  low  country,  carrying  up  cloth  and  salt,  to  be  ex- 
changed for  gems  and  coffee.  At  the  annual  Buddhist  fes- 
tival of  the  Pera-hara,  a  jewel-fair  is  held  at  Eatnapoora, 
to  which  purchasers  resort  from  all  parts  of  Ceylon.  Of 
late  years,  however,  the  condition  of  the  people  in  Saffra- 
gam has  so  mUch  improved  that  it  has  become  difficult  to 
obtain  the  finest  jewels,  the  wealthier  natives  preferring 
to  retain  them  as  investments :  they  part  with  them 
reluctantly,  and  only  for  gold,  which  they  find  equaUy 
convenient  for  concealment.1 

The  lapidaries  who  cut  and  polish  the  stones  are 
chiefly  Moors,  but  their  tools  are  so  primitive,  and 
their  skill  so  deficient,  that  a  gem  generally  loses  in 
value  by  having  passed  through  their  hands.  The 
inferior  kinds,  such  as  cinnamon-stones,  garnets,  and 
tourmaline,  are  polished  by  ordinary  artists  at  Kandy, 
Matura,  and  Galle ;  but  the  more  expert  lapidaries,  who 
cut  rubies  and  sapphires,  reside  chiefly  at  Caltura  and 
Colombo. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  rarer  gems  are  less  costly  in 
Europe  than  in  Colombo.  In  London  and  Paris  the 
quantities  brought  from  all  parts  of  the  world  are  suffi- 
cient to  establish  something  like  a  market  value ;  but,  in 
Ceylon,  the  supply  is  so  uncertain  that  the  price  is 
always  regulated  at  the  moment  by  the  rank  and  wealth 
of  the  purchaser.  Strange  to  say,  too,  there  is  often  an 
unwillingness  even  amongst  the  Moorish  dealers  to  sell 
the  rarest  and  finest  specimens ;  those  who  are  wealthy 
being  anxious  to  retain  them,  and  few  but  stones  of 
secondary  value  are  offered  for  sale.  Besides,  the 
Eajahs  and  native  Princes  of  India,  amongst  whom  the 
passion  for  jewels  is  universal,  are  known  to  give  such 


1  So    eager    is    the    appetite    for     have  frequently  been    given   for  a 
hoarding  in  these  hills,  that  eleven     sovereign, 
rupees  (equal  to  twenty-two  shillings) 


40  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

extravagant  prices  that  the  best  are  always  sent  to  them 
from  Ceylon. 

From  the  Custom  House  returns  it  is  impossible  to 
form  any  calculation  as  to  the  value  of  the  precious 
stones  exported  from  the  island.  A  portion  only  ap- 
pears, even  of  those  sent  to  England,  the  remainder 
being  despatched  through  the  post-office,  or  carried  away 
by  private  parties.  Of  the  total  number  found,  one- 
fourth  is  probably  purchased  by  the  natives  themselves, 
more  than  one-half  is  sent  to  the  Continent  of  India,  and 
the  remainder  represents  the  export  to  Europe.  Com- 
puted in  this  way,  the  value  of  precious  stones  found  in 
the  island  may  be  estimated  at  about  10,000/.  per  annum. 

EIVEKS. — From  the  mountainous  configuration  of  the 
country  and  the  abundance  of  rain,  the  rivers  are 
large  and  numerous  in  the  south  of  the  island  —  ten  of 
considerable  magnitude  flowing  into  the  sea  on  the  west 
coast,  between  Point-de-Galle  and  Manaar,  and  a  still 
greater  number,  though  inferior  in  volume,  on  the  east. 
In  the  low  country,  where  the  heat  is  intense  and  eva- 
poration proportionate,  the  rivers  derive  little  of  their 
supply  from  springs ;  and  the  passing  showers  do  scarcely 
more  than  replace  the  moisture  drawn  by  the  sun  from 
the  parched  and  thirsty  soil. 

Hence  in  the  plains  there  are  comparatively  few  rivu- 
lets or  running  streams ;  the  rivers  there  flow  in  almost 
solitary  lines  to  the  sea;  and  the  beds  of  then:  minor 
affluents  serve  only  to  conduct  to  them  the  occasional 
torrents  which  descend  at  the  change  of  each  monsoon, 
their  channels  at  other  times  being  exhausted  and  dry. 
But  in  their  course  through  the  hills,  and  the  broken 
ground  at  their  base,  they  are  supplied  by  numerous 
feeders,  which  convey  to  them  the  frequent  showers 
that  fall  in  these  high  altitudes.  Hence  their  tracks 
are  through  some  of  the  noblest  scenery  in  the  world ; 
rushing  through  ravines  and  glens,  and  falling  over 
precipitous  rocks  in  the  depths  of  wooded  valleys, 
they  exhibit  a  succession  of  rapids,  cataracts,  and  torrents, 


CHAP.  I.] 


RIVERS. 


41 


unsurpassed  in  magnificence  and  beauty.  On  reaching 
the  plains,  the  boldness  of  their  march  and  the  graceful 
outline  of  their  sweep  are  indicative  of  the  little  obstruc- 
tion opposed  by  the  sandy  and  porous  soil  through  which 
they  flow.  Throughout  their  entire  course  dense  forests 
shade  their  banks,  and,  as  they  approach  the  sea,  tama- 
risks and  over-arching  mangroves  mark  where  their 
waters  mingle  with  the  tide. 

Of  all  the^Oeylon  rivers,  the  most  important  by  far 
is  the  Mahawelh'-ganga  —  the  Ganges  of  Ptolemy — • 
which,  rising  in  the  south  near  Adam's  Peak,  traverses 
more  than  one-third  of  the  mountain  zone 1,  drains  up- 
wards of  four  thousand  square  miles,  and  flows  into  the 
sea  by  a  number  of  branches,  near  the  noble  harbour  of 
Trincomalie.  The  following  table  gives  a  comparative 
view  of  the  magnitude  of  the  rivers  that  rise  in  the  hills, 
and  of  the  extent  of  the  low  country  traversed  by  each 
of  them  : — 


Embouchure. 

Square  Miles 
drained  in 
Mountain 
Zone. 

Square  Miles 
drained  in  the 
low  Country, 
about 

Length  of 
Course  of 
the  main 
Stream. 

Mah  awelli-ganga 
Kirinde     .     . 

near  Trincomalie 
at  Mahagan  .     . 

1782 
34 

2300 
300 

134 
62 

Wellaway     . 

near  Hambangtotte 

263 

500 

69 

Neivalle   .     . 

at  Matura     . 

64 

200 

42 

(Three  Rivers) 

near  Tangalle 

56 

200 

Gindura    .     . 

near  Galle     . 

189 

200 

59 

Kalu-oya  .     . 
Kalany      .     . 

at  Caltura     . 
Colombo  .     . 

841 
692 

300 
200 

72 

84 

The  Kaymel  or  Ma- 
haoya    .     . 
Dederoo-oya  . 

near  Negombo 
near  Chilaw  . 

253 

38 

200 
700 

68 
70 

4212 

5100 

In  addition  to  these,  there  are  a  number  of  large 
rivers  which  belong  entirely  to  the  plains  in  the  northern 
and  south-eastern  portions  of  the  island.  The  principal 
are  the  Arive  and  the  Moderegam,  which  flow  into 


1  See  ante,  p.  12,  for  a  definition  of  what  constitutes  the  "  mountain 
zone"  of  Ceylon. 


42 


PHYSICAL  GEOGEAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


the  Gulf  of  Manaar ;  the  Kala-oya  and  the  Kandalady, 
which  empty  themselves  into  the  Bay  of  Calpentyn; 
the  Maniek  or  Kattragam,  and  the  Koombookgani,  oppo- 
site to  the  Little  Bass  rocks  ;  and  the  Naveloor,  the 
Chadawak,  and  Arookgam,  south  of  Batticaloa.  The 
extent  of  country  drained  by  these  latter  streams  is  little 
short  of  thirteen  thousand  square  miles. 

Very  few  of  the  rivers  of  Ceylon  are  navigable,  and 
these  only  by  canoes  and  flat-bottomed  paddy  boats, 
which  ascend  some  of  the  largest  for  short  distances, 
till  impeded  by  the  rapids,  occasioned  by  rocks  at  the 
lowest  range  of  the  hills.  In  this  way  the  Neivalle  at 
Matura  can  be  ascended  for  about  fifteen  miles,  as  far  as 
Wellehara ;  the  Kalu-ganga  can  be  traversed  from  Cal- 
tura  to  Eatnapoora  ;  the  Bentotte  river  for  sixteen  miles 
to  Pittagalla  ;  and  the  Kalany  from  Colombo  to  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  near  Ambogammoa.  The  Maha- 
welh-ganga  is  navigable  from  Trincornalie  to  within  a 
short  distance  of  Kandy 1 ;  and  many  of  the  lesser 
streams,  the  Kirinde  and  Wellaway  in  the  south,  and 
the  Kaymel,  the  Dedroo-oya,  and  the  Aripo  river  on  the 
west  of  the  island,  are  used  for  short  distances  by  boats. 

All  these  streams  are  liable,  during  the  fury  of  the 
monsoons,  to  be  surcharged  with  rain  till  they  over- 
flow then*  banks,  and  spread  in  wide  inundations  over 
the  level  country.  On  the  subsidence  of  their  waters, 
the  intense  heat  of  the  sun  acting  on  the  surface  they 
leave  deserted,  produces  a  noxious  and  fatal  malaria. 
Hence  the  rivers  of  Ceylon  present  the  curious  anomaly, 
that  whilst  the  tanks  and  reservoirs  of  the  interior  dif- 
fuse a  healthful  coolness  around,  the  running  water  of  the 
rivers  is  prolific  of  fevers  ;  and  in  some  seasons  so  deadly 
is  the  pestilence  that  the  Malabar  coolies,  as  well  as  the 
native  peasantry,  betake  themselves  to  precipitate  flight.2 


1  For  an  account  of  the  capabilities 
of  the  Mahawelli-ganga,  as  regards 
navigation,  see  BROOKE'S  Report,  Roy. 
Gem/.  Journ.  vol.  iii.  p.  223,  and  post. 
Vol.  II.  p.  423. 


2  It  has  been  remarked  along  the 
Mahawelli-ganga,  a  few  miles  from 
Kandy,  that  during  the  deadly  season, 
after  the  subsidence  of  the  rains,  the 
jungle  fever  generally  attacks  one 


CHAP.  I.] 


SAND   FORMATION. 


Few  of  the  larger  rivers  have  been  bridged,  except 
those  which  intersect  the  great  high  roads  from  Point- 
de-Galle  to  Colombo,  and  thence  to  Kandy.  Near  the 
sea  this  has  been  effected  by  timber  platforms,  sustained 
by  piles  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  force  of  the 
floods  at  the  change  of  each  monsoon.  A  bridge  of 
boats  connects  each  side  of  the  Kalany,  and  on  reach- 
ing the  Mahawelli-ganga  at  Peradenia,  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  structures  on  the  island  is  a  noble 
bridge  of  a  single  arch,  205  feet  in  span,  chiefly  con- 
structed of  satin-wood,  and  thrown  across  the  river  by 
General  Fraser  in  1832.  It  is  also  crossed  by  a  suspen- 
sion-bridge recently  erected  at  Gampola.  The  principal 
rivers  have  been  bridged,  between  Kandy  and  Kornegalle. 

On  reaching  the  margin  of  the  sea,  an  appearance  is 
presented  by  the  outline  of  the  coast,  near  the  em- 
bouchures of  the  principal  rivers,  which  is  very  remark- 
able. It  is  common  to  both  sides  of  the  island,  though 
it  has  attained  its  greatest  development  on  the  east. 
In  order  to  comprehend  its  formation,  it  is  necessary 
to  observe  that  Ceylon  lies  in  the  course  of  the  ocean 
currents  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  which  run  north  or 
south  according  to  the  pre- 
valence of  the  monsoon,  and 
with  greater  or  less  velocity 
in  proportion  to  its  force  at 
particular  periods. 

In  the  beginning  and  dur- 
ing the  strength  of  the  north- 
east monsoon  the  current  sets 
strongly  along  the  coast  of 
Coromandel  to  the  southward, 
a  portion  of  it  frequently  en- 
tering Palks  Bay  to  the  north  of  Ceylon ;  but  the  main 
stream  keeping  invariably  to  the  east  of  the  island, 


CURRENT    IN    THE    N.E.     MONSOON. 


face  of  the  hills  through  which  it 
grinds,  leaving  the  opposite  side  en- 
tirely exempted,  as  if  the  poisonous 


vapour,  being  carried  by  the  current 
of  air,  affected  only  those  aspects 
against  which  it  directly  impinged. 


44 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


CURRENT    IN    THE    S.  W.    MO.NdOON. 


runs  with  a  velocity  of  from  one  and  a  half  to  two 
miles  an  hour,  and  after  passing  the  Great  Bass,  its 
course  tends  seaward.  At  other  times,  after  the  mon- 
soon has  spent  its  violence, 
the  current  is  weak,  and 
follows  the  line  of  the  land 
to  the  westward  as  far  as 
Point-de-Galle,  or  even  to 
Colombo. 

In  the  south-west  monsoon 
the  current  changes  its  direc- 
tion ;  and,  although  it  flows 
steadily  to  the  northward, 
along  the  east  shore  of  the 
Indian  Peninsula,  its  action  is  very  irregular  and  unequal 
till  it  reaches  the  Coroniandel  coast,  after  passing  Ceylon. 
This  is  accounted  for  by  the  obstruction  opposed  by 
the  headlands  of  Ceylon,  which  so  intercept  the  stream 
that  the  current,  which  might  otherwise  set  into  the  Gulf 
of  Manaar,  takes  a  south-easterly  direction  by  Galle  and 
Dondera  Head.1 

There  being  no  lakes  in  Ceylon2,  in  the  still  waters 
of  which  the  rivers  might  clear  themselves  of  the  earthy 
matter  swept  along  in  their  rapid  course  from  the  hills, 
they  arrive  at  the  beach  laden  with  sand  and  alluvium, 
and  at  their  junction  with  the  ocean  being  met 
transversely  by  the  gulf-streams,  the  sand  and  soil 
with  which  they  are  laden,  instead  of  being  carried 
out  to  sea,  are  heaped  up  in  bars  along  the  shores. 
These,  augmented  by  similar  deposits  held  in  suspen- 


1  For  an  account  of  the  currents 
of  Ceylon,  see  HORSBURGII'S  Direc- 
tions for  Sailing  to  and  from  the  East 
Indies,  $c.,  vol.  i.  p.  516,  536,  580 ; 
KEITH    JOHNSTON^   Physical  Atlas, 
plate  xiii.  p.  50. 

2  Pliny  alludes  to  a  lake  in  Ceylon 
of  vast  dimensions,  but  it  is  clear 
that  his  informants  must  have  spoken 


of  one  of  the  huge  tanks  for  the 
purpose  of  irrigation.  Some  of  the 
Mftppc-mondes  of  the  Middle  Ages 
place  a  lake  in  the  middle  of  the 
island,  with  a  city  inhabited  by 
astrologers ;  but  they  have  merely 
reproduced  the  error  of  earlier  geo- 
graphers. (SANTAREM,  Cosmog.  torn, 
iii.  p.  336.) 


CHAP.  I.] 


SAND   FOEMATIOX. 


•lo 


sion  by  the  currents,  soon  extend  to  north  and  south, 
and  force  the  rivers  to  flow  behind  them  in  search  of  a 
new  outlet. 

These  formations  once  commenced,  their  growth  pro- 
ceeds with  rapidity,  more  especially  on  the  east  side  of 
the  island ;  as  the  southern  current  in  skirting  the 
Coromandel  coast  brings  with  it  quantities  of  sand,  which 
it  deposits,  in  tranquil  weather,  and  this  being  carried 
by  the  wind-is  piled  in  heaps  from  Point  Pedro  to 
Hambangtotte.  At  the  latter  point  hills  are  formed 
of  such  height  and  dimensions,  that  it  is  often  necessary 
to  remove  buildings  out  of  their  line  of  encroachment.1 

At  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  the  bars  thus  created 
generally  follow  the  direction  of  the 
current,  and  the  material  deposited 
being  dried  and  partially  consolidated 
in  the  intervals  between  the  tides,  long 
embankments  are  gradually  raised,  be- 
hind which  the  rivers  flow  for  con- 
siderable distances  before  entering  the 
sea.  Occasionally  their  embouchures 
become  closed  by  the  accumulations 
without,  and  the  pent-up  water  as- 
sumes the  appearance  of  a  still  canal, 
more  or  less  broad  according  to  the 
level  of  the  beach,  and  extending  for 
miles  along  the  coast,  between  the 
mainland  and  the  new  formations. 
When  swollen  by  the  rains,  if  not  as- 
sisted by  artificial  outlets  to  escape, 
the  rivers  burst  new  openings  for 
themselves,  and  not  unfrequently  leave 
their  ancient  channels  converted  into  shallow  lagoons 
without  any  visible  exit.  Examples  of  these  forma- 


1  This  is  occasioned  by  the  waste 
of  the  banks  further  north  during  the 
violence  of  the  N.  E.  monsoon ;  and 
the  sand,  being  carried  south  by  the 


current,  is  intercepted  by  the  head- 
land at  Hambangtotte  and  throws  up 
these  hills  as  described. 


4G 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


tions  present  themselves  on  the  east  side  of  Ceylon  at 
Nilla-velle,  Batticaloa,  and  a  number  of  other  places  north 
and  south  of  Trincomahe. 

On  the  west  coast  embankments  of  this  kind,  although 
frequent  are  less  conspicuous  than  on  the  east,  owing 
chiefly  to  the  comparative  weakness  of  the  current. 
For  six  months  in  the  year  during  the  north-east  mon- 
soon that  side  of  the  island  is  exempt 
from  a  current  in  any  direction,  and 
for  the  remaining  six,  the  current  to 
the  south  not  only  rarely  affects  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar,  but  as  it  flows  out  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  it  brings  no  earthy 
deposits.  In  addition  to  this,  the  surf 
during  the  south-west  monsoon  rolls 
with  such  turbulence  on  the  level  beach 
between  Colombo  and  Point-de-Galle, 
as  in  a  great  degree  to  disperse  the 
accumulations  of  sand  brought  down 
by  the  rivers,  or  heaped- up  by  the  tide, 
when  the  wind  is  off  the  land.  Still, 
many  of  the  rivers  are  thrown  back 
by  embankments,  and  after  forming 
tortuous  lakes  flow  for  a  long  distance 
parallel  to  the  shore,  before  finding  an 

n  .-I  -w-^  -I  n 

escape   tor  their  waters.     Examples  ot 
this  occur  at  Pantura,  to  the  south  of  Colombo,  and  at 
Negombo,  Chilaw,  and  elsewhere  to  the  north  of  it. 
In  process   of   time   these   banks   of    sand1    become 


1  In  the  voyages  of  The  Two 
Mahometans,  the  unique  MS.  of 
which  dates  ahout  A.D.  851,  and  is 
now  in  the  Bibliotheque  Royale  at 
Paris,  Abou-zeyd,  one  of  its  a'uthors, 
describes  the  "  Gobbs "  of  Ceylon — 
a  word,  he  says,  by  which  the  natives 
designate  the  valleys  deep  and  broad 
which  open  to  the  sea.  "  En  face  de 
oette  ile  il  y  a  de  vastee  Gobb,  mot  par 


lequel  on  designe  une  valle'e,  quand 
elle  est  a  la  fois  longue  et  large,  et 
qu'elle  debouche  dans  la  mer.  Les 
navigateurs  emploient,  pour  traver- 
ser  le  gobb  appele"  '  Gobb  de  Se- 
rendib,'  deux  mois  et  rneme  davant- 
age,  passant  a  travers  des  bois  et  des 
jardins,  au  milieu  d'une  temperature 
moyenne." — REINAUD,  Voyages  faits 
par  les  Arabes,  vol.  i.  p.  120.  A 


CHAP.  I.] 


SAXD   FORMATION. 


covered  with  vegetation ;  herbaceous  plants,  shrubs,  and 
finally  trees  peculiar    to    saline    soils   make   their  ap- 


misapprehension  of  this  passage 
has  been  admitted  into  the  English 
version  of  the  Vogages  of  the  two 
Mahometans  published  in  PINKER- 
TON'S  Collections  of  Voyages  and  Tra- 
vels, vol.  iii. ;  the  translator  having 
treated  "  gobb  "  as  a  term  ap- 
plicable to  valleyajn  general.  "  Cey- 
lon," he  says,  "contains  valleys  of 
great  length,  which  extend  to  the 
sea,  and  here  travellers  repair  for 
two  months  or  more,  in  which  one  is 
called  Gobb  Serendib,  allured  by  the 
beauty  of  the  scenery,  chequered 
with  groves  and  plains,  water  and 
meadows,  and  blessed  by  a  balmy  air. 
The  valley  opens  to  the  sea,  and  is 
transcendently  pleasant. "-. — PINKER- 
TON'S  Voyages,  vol.  vii.  p.  218. 

But  a  passage  in  Edrisi,  while  it 
agrees  with  the  terms  of  Abou-zeyd, 
explains  at  the  same  time  that  these 
gobbs  were  not  valleys  converted 
into  gardens,  to  which  the  seamen 
resorted  for  pleasure  to  spend  two 
or  three  months,  but  embouchures 
of  rivers  flowing  between  banks, 
covered  with  gardens  and  forests, 
into  which  mariners  were  accustomed 
to  conduct  their  vessels  for  more 
secure  navigation,  and  in  which  they 
were  subjected  to  detention  for  the 
period  stated.  The  passage  is  as 
follows  in  Jaubert's  translation  of 
Edrisi,  torn.  i.  p.  73:  —  "Cette  ile 
(Serendib)  depend  des  terres  de 
1'Inde ;  ainsi  que  les  vallees  (in  orig. 
aghbab)  par  lesquelles  se  dechargent 
les  rivieres,  et  qu'on  nomme  '  Valle'es 
de  Serendib.'  Les  navires  y  mouil- 
lent,  et  les  navigateurs  y  passent  un 
mois  ou  deux  dans  1'abondance  et 
dans  les  plaisirs." 

It  is  ooservable  that  Ptolemy,  in 
enumerating  the  ports  and  harbours 
of  Ceylon,  maintains  a  distinction 
between  the  ordinary  bays,  n6\iroc, 
of  which  he  specifies  two  correspond- 
ing to  those  of  Colombo  and  Trin- 
comalie,  and  the  shallower  inden- 
tations, \tnr)>',  of  which  he  enumerates 
five,  the  positions  of  which  go  far  to 
identify  them  with  the  remarkable 


estuaries  or  gobbs,  on  the  eastern  and 
western  coast  between  Batticaloa  and 
Calpentyn. 

To  the  present  day  these  latter 
gulfs  are  navigable  for  small  craft. 
On  the  eastern  side  of  the  island  one 
of  them  forms  the  harbour  of  Bat- 
ticaloa, and  on  the  western  those  of 
Chilaw  and  Negombo  are  bays  of 
this  class.  Through  the  latter  a  con- 
tinuous navigation  has  been  com- 
pleted by  means  of  short  connecting 
canals,  and  a  traffic  is  maintained 
during  the  south-west  monsoon,  from 
Caltura  to  the  north  of  Chilaw,  a 
distance  of  upwards  of  eighty  miles, 
by  means  of  craft  which  navigate 
these  shallow  channels. 

These  narrow  passages  conform  in 
every  particular  to  the  description 
given  by  Abou-zeyd  and  Edrisi :  they 
run  through  a  succession  of  woods 
and  gardens  ;  and  as  a  leading  wind 
is  indispensable  for  their  navigation, 
the  period  named  by  the  Arabian 
geographers  for  their  passage  is  per- 
haps not  excessive  during  calms  or 
adverse  winds. 

An  article  on  the  meaning  of  the 
word  gobb  will  be  found  in  the 
Journal  Asiatique  for  September, 
1844 ;  but  it  does  not  exhibit  clearly 
the  very  peculiar  features  of  these 
openings.  It  is  contained  in  an  ex- 
tract from  the  work  on  India  of 
ALBYROTJNI,  a  contemporary  of  Avi- 
cenna,  who  was  bom  in  the  valley  of 
the  Indus.— "Un  golfe  (gobb)  est 
comme  une  encoignure  et  un  detour 
que  fait  la  mer  en  pe"ne"trant  dans  le 
continents :  les  navires  n'y  sont  pas 
sans  peril  particulierement  a  l'e"gard 
du  flux  et  reflux." — Extrait  de  fouv- 
rage  <f  ALBYROTJNI  sur  Vliide ;  Frag- 
mens  Arabes  et  Persons,  relatifs  a 
rinde,  recueffles  par  M.  REINATJD  ; 
Journ.  Asiat.,  Septembre  et  Octobre, 
1844,  p.  261.  In  the  Turkish  nautical 
work  of  SIDI  ALI  CHELEBI,  the  "  Mo- 
hit,11  written  about  A.D.  1550,  which 
contains  directions  for  sailors  navigat- 
ing the  eastern  seas,  the  author  alludes 
to  the  gobbha's  on  the  coast  of  Ar- 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


pearance  in  succession,  and  as  these  decay,  their  de- 
composition generates  a  sufficiency  of  soil  to  sustain 
continued  vegetation. 

The  process  of  this  conversion  may  be  seen  in  all 
its  stages  at  various  points  along  the  coast  of  Ceylon. 
The  margin  of  land  nearest  to  the  water  is  first  taken 
possession  of  by  a  series  of  littoral  plants,  which 
apparently  require  a  large  quantity  of  salt  to  stimu- 
late vegetation.  These  at  times  are  intermixed  with 
others,  which,  though  found  further  inland,  yet  flourish 
in  perfection  on  the  shore.  On  the  northern  and 
north-western  coasts  the  glass  worts }  and  salt  worts 2 
are  the  first  to  appear  on  the  newly  raised  banks,  and 
being  provided  with  penetrating  roots,  a  breakwater  is 
thus  early  secured,  and  the  drier  sand  above  becomes 
occupied  with  creeping  plants  which  in  their  turn  afford 
shelter  to  a  third  and  erect  class. 

The  Goafs-foot  Ipomcea3,  which  appears  to  encircle 
the  world,  abounds  on  these  shores,  covering  the  surface 
to  the  water's  edge  with  its  procumbent  branches,  which 
sending  down  roots  from  every  joint  serve  to  give  the 
bank  its  first  firmness,  whilst  the  profusion  of  its  purple- 
coloured  flowers  contrasts  strikingly  with  its  dark  green 
foliage. 

Along  with  the  Ipomoea  grows  the  moodu-gaeta-kola  4, 
(literally  the  "jointed  sea-shore  plant,")  with  pink 
flowers  and  thick  succulent  leaves,  and  two  species  of 
bean5  each  endowed  with  a  peculiar  facility  for  repro- 
duction, all  of  which  help  to  consolidate  the  sands  into 
which  they  strike. 

Another   plant   which    performs   an   important   func- 


racan ;  and  conscious  that  the  term 
was  local  and  not  likely  to  be  under- 
stood beyond  those  countries,  he  adds 
that  "  gobbha"  means  "  a  yulffull  of 
shallows,  shook,  and  breakers,"  See 
translation  by  VON  HAMMEB,  Joum, 
Asiat.  Soc.  Seng.  v.  466. 
1  Salicornia  Indica. 


2  Salsola  Indica. 

3  Ipomoea  pes-capr?e. 

4  Hydrophylax  maiitima. 

5  The  Mooduawara  (Canavalia  ol- 
tustfolia),  whose  flowers  have  the  fra- 
grance of  the  sweet  pea,  and  Dolichos 
luteus. 


CUAP.  I.]  SAND  FORMATION.  49 

tion  in  the  fertilisation  of  these  arid  formations,  is  the 
Spinifex  squarrosus,  the  "  water  pink,"  as  it  is  sometimes 
called  by  Europeans.  Its  seeds  are  contained  in  a 
circular  head,  composed  of  a  series  of  spine-like  divisions, 
which  radiate  from  the  stalk  in  all  directions,  making 
the  diameter  of  the  whole  about  eight  to  nine  Inches. 
When  the  seeds  are  mature,  and  ready  for  dispersion, 
the  heads  become  detached  from  the  plant,  and  are 
carried  by  tke  wind  with  great  velocity  along  the  sands, 
over  the  surface  of  which  they  are  impelled  on  their 
elastic  spines.  One  of  these  balls  may  be  followed 
by  the  eye  for  miles  as  it  hurries  along  the  level  shore, 
dropping  its  seeds  as  it  rolls,  which  speedily  germinate 
and  strike  root.  The  globular  heads  are  so  buoyant  as 
to  float  lightly  on  the  water,  and  the  uppermost  spines 
acting  as  sails,  they  are  thus  carried  across  narrow  estua- 
ries to  continue  the  process  of  embanking  on  newly- 
formed  sand  bars.  Such  an  organisation  irresistibly 
suggests  the  wonderful  means  ordained  by  Providence 
to  spread  this  valuable  plant  along  the  barren  beach 
to  which  seed-devouring  birds  seldom  resort.  Even 
the  unobservant  natives,  struck  by  its  singular  utility 
in  resisting  the  encroachments  of  the  sea,  have  re- 
corded their  admiration  by  conferring  on  it  the  name  of 
Maha-Rawana  rcewula, — "  the  great  beard  of  Eawana." 1 
The  banks  being  thus  ingeniously  protected  from  the 
action  of  the  air  above,  and  of  the  water  at  their  base, 
other  herbaceous  plants  soon  cover  them  in  quick  suc- 
cession, and  give  the  entire  surface  the  first  carpet  of 
vegetation.  A  little  retired  above  high  water  are  to  be 
found  a  species  of  Aristolochia2,  the  Sayan3,  or  Choya, 


1  See  the  story  of  Rama,  Vol.  I.  p. 
678. 

2  Aristolochia   bracteata.     On    the 
sands  to  the  north  of  Ceylon  there  is 
also  the  A.  Indica,  which  forms  the 
food  of  the  great  black  and  red  but- 
terfly (Papillo  Hector). 

VOL.  I.  E 


3  Hedyotis  umbettata.  A  very  cu- 
rious account  of  the  Dutch  policy  in 
relation  to  Choya  dye  will  be  found  in 
a  paper  On  the  Vegetable  Produc- 
tions of  Ceylon,  by  W.  C.  ONDAATJIE, 
in  the  Ceylon  Calendar  for  1853. 
See  also  BEBTOLACCI,  B.  iii.  p.  270. 


50 


THYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


the  roots  of  which  are  the  Indian  Madder  (in  which, 
under  the  Dutch  Government,  some  tribes  in  the  Wanny 
paid  their  tribute) ;  the  gorgeous  Gloriosa  superba, 
the  beautiful  Vistnu-karandi1  with  its  profusion  of 
blue  flowers,  that  remind  one  of  the  English  "Forget- 
me-not,"  and  the  thickly-matted  verdure  of  the  Hir- 
amana-doetta2,  so  well  adapted  for  imparting  con- 
sistency to  the  soil.  In  the  next  stage  low  shrubs 
make  their  appearance,  their  seeds  being  drifted  by  the 
waves  and  wind,  and  taking  ready  root  wherever  they 
happen  to  rest.  The  foremost  of  these  are  the  Sca> 
volas3  and  Screw  Pines4,  which  grow  luxuriantly 
within  the  actual  wash  of  the  tide,  while  behind  them 
rises  a  dense  growth  of  peculiar  plants,  each  distin- 
guished by  the  Singhalese  by  the  prefix  of  "  moodu"  to 
indicate  its  partiality  for  the  sea.5 

Where  the  sand  in  the  lagoons  and  estuaries  is  more 
or  less  mingled  with  the  alluvium  brought  down  by 
the  rivers,  there  are  plants  of  another  class  that  are 
equally  characteristic.  Amongst  these  the  Mangroves6 
take  the  first  place  in  respect  to  their  mass  of  vege- 
tation ;  then  follow  the  Belli-patta 7  and  Suriya- 
gaha 8,  with  their  large  hibiscus-like  flowers ;  the  Ta- 
marisks 9 ;  the  Acanthus 10,  with  its  beautiful  blue 
petals  and  holly-like  leaves ;  the  Water  Coco-nut u  ; 
the  ^Egiceras  and  Hernandia 12,  with  its  sonorous 
fruits ;  while  the  dry  sands  above  are  taken  possession 
of  by  the  Acacias,  Salvador  a  Persica  (the  true  mus- 


1  Eyolvulus  alsinoides. 
3  Lippia  nodiflora. 

3  Sctevola  takkada  and  S.  Kcenigii. 

4  Pandanus  odoratissimus. 

&  Moodu-kaduru (Ochrosiaparvijlo- 
ra)  ;  Moodu-cobbe  (Ornitrojjhc  ser- 
rata)  ;  Moodu-murimga  (Sophora  to- 
mentosa),  &c.  &c.  Amongst  these 
marine  shrubs  the  Nil-picha  (Guet.- 
tarda  spcciosa),  with  its  white  and 
delightfully  fragrant  flowers,  is  a  con- 


spicuous object  on  some  parts  of  the 
sea -shore  between  Colombo  and 
Point-de-Galle. 

6  Two  species  of  HhisopJtora,  two 
of  Itruguiera,  and  one  of  Ccriops. 

1  Paritium  tiliaceum. 


9  Tamarix  Indica. 
10  Dilivaria  ilicifolin, 
1 '  Nipa  fruticans. 
12  Hernandia  sonora. 


CHAP.  I.] 


SAND   FORMATION. 


tard-tree  of  Scripture1,  which  here  attains  a  height  of 
forty  feet),  Ixoras,  and  the  numerous  family  of  Cassias. 

Lastly,  after  a  sufficiency  of  earth  has  been  formed  by 
the  decay  of  frequent  successions  of  their  less  important 
predecessors,  the  ground  becomes  covered  by  trees  of 
ampler  magnitude,  most  of  which  are  found  upon  the 
adjacent  shores  of  the  mainland  —  the  Margosa2,  from 
whose  seed  the  natives  express  a  valuable  oil;  the 
Timbiri 3,  wifti  the  glutinous  nuts  with  which  the  fisher- 
men "  bark  "  their  nets  ;  the  Cashu-nut 4  ;  the  Palu  5,  one 
of  the  most  valuable  timber  trees  of  the  Northern  Pro- 
vinces ;  and  the  Wood-apple  6,  whose  fruit  is  regarded 
by  the  Singhalese  as  a  specific  for  dysentery. 

But  the  most  important  fact  connected  with  these 
recently  formed  portions  of  land,  is  their  extraordinary 
suitability  for  the  growth  of  the  coco-nut,  which  re- 
quires the  sea-air  (and  in  Ceylon  at  least  appears  never 
to  attain  its  frih1  luxuriance  when  removed  to-  any  con- 
siderable distance  from  it)7,  and  which,  at  the  same  time, 


1  The  identification  of  this  tree 
with  the  mustard-tree  alluded  to  by 
our  Saviour  is  an  interesting  fact. 
The  Greek  term  vivainG,  which  occurs 
Matt.  xiii.  31,  and  elsewhere,  is  the 
name  given  to  mustard;  for  which 
the  Arabic  equivalent  is  chardul  or 
khardal,  and  the  Syriac  khardalo. 
The  same  name  is  applied  at  the 
present  day  to  a  tree  which  grows 
freely  in  the  neighbovirhood  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  generally  throughout 
Palestine ;  the  seeds  of  which  have 
an  aromatic  pungency,  which  enables 
them  to  be  used  instead  of  the  ordi- 
nary mustard  (Sinapis  niyra) ;  be- 
sides which,  its  structure  presents  all 
the  essentials  to  sustain  the  illus- 
tration sought  to  be  established  in 
the  parable,  some  of  which  are  want- 
ing or  dubious  in  the  common  plant. 
It  has  a  very  small  seed  ;  it  may  be 
sown  in  a  garden :  it  grows  into  an 
"  herb,"  and  eventually  "  becometh 
a  tree ;  so  that  the  birds  of  the  air 
come  and  lodge  in  the  branches  there- 
"e "  With  every  allowance  for  the 


of. 


extremest  development  attainable  by 
culture,  it  must  be  felt  that  the  di- 
mensions of  the  domestic  sinajiis 
scarcely  justify  the  last  illustration ; 
besides  which  it  is  an  annual,  and 
cannot  possibly  be  classed  as  a  "  tree." 
The  khardal  grows  abundantly  in 
Syria  :  it  was  found  in  Egypt  by  Sir 
Gardner  Wilkinson  ;  in  Arabia  by 
Bove";  on  the  Indus  by  Sir  Alex- 
ander Burnes ;  and  throughout  the 
north-west  of  India  it  bears  the 
name  of  kharjal.  Combining  all 
these  facts,  Dr.  Royle,  in  an  erudite 
paper,  has  shown  demonstrative 
reasons  for  believing  that  the  Sal- 
vador a  Persica,  the  "kharjal "  of  Hin- 
dustan, is  the  "  khardal  of  Arabia, 
the  "  chardul  "  of  the  Talmud,  and 
the  "  mustard-tree  "  of  the  parable. 

2  Azadirachta  Indica. 

3  Diospyros  glutinosa. 

4  Anacardium  occidentale. 

5  Mimnsops  hexandra. 
0  yEgle  marmelos. 

7  Coco-nuts  are  cultivated  at  mo- 
derate  elevations  in    the  mountain 


E  2 


5-2 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I 


requires  a  light  and  sandy  soil,  and  the  constant  presence 
of  water  in  large  quantities.  All  these  essentials  are 
combined  in  the  sea-belts  here  described,  lying  as  they 
do  between  the  ocean  on  the  one  side  and  the  fresh-water 
lakes  formed  by  the  great  rivers  on  the  other,  thus 
presenting  every  requisite  of  soil  and  surface.  It  is 
along  a  sand  formation  of  this  description,  about  forty 
miles  long  and  from  one  to  three  miles  broad,  that 
thriving  coco-nut  plantations  have  been  recently  com- 
menced at  Batticaloa.  At  Calpentyn,  on  the  western 
coast,  a  like  formation  has  been  taken  advantage  of  for 
the  same  purpose.  At  Jaffna  somewhat  similar  pecu- 
liarities of  soil  and  locality  have  been  seized  on  for  this 
promising  cultivation ;  and,  generally,  along  the  whole 
seaborde  of  Ceylon  to  the  south  and  west,  the  shore 
for  the  breadth  of  one  or  two  miles  exhibits  almost  con- 
tinuous groves  of  coco-nut  palms. 

Harbours. — With  the  exception  of  the  estuaries  above 
alluded  to,  chiefly  in  the  northern  section  of  the  island, 
the  outline  of  the  coast  is  interrupted  by  few  sinuosities. 
There  are  no  extensive  inlets,  or  bays,  and  only  two 
harbours — that  of  Point-de-Galle,  which,  in  addition  to 
being  incommodious  and  small,  is  obstructed  by  coral 
rocks,  reefs  of  which  have  been  upreared  to  the  surface, 
and  render  the  entrance  critical  to  strange  ships  *;  and 
the  magnificent  basin  of  Trincomalie,  which,  in  extent, 
security,  and  beauty,  is  unsurpassed  by  any  haven  in 
the  world. 

Tides. — The  variation  of  the  tides  is  so  slight  that 
navigation  is  almost  unaffected  by  it.  The  ordinary 


villages  of  the  interior ;  but  the  fruit 
bears  no  comparison,  in  number, 
size,  or  weight,  with  that  produced 
in  the  lowlands,  and  near  the  sea,  on 
either  side  of  the  island. 

1  Owing  to  the  obstructions  at  its 
entrance,  Galle  is  extremely  difficult 
of  access  in  particular  winds.  In 
1857  it  was  announced  in  the  Colombo 
Examiner  that  "the  fine  ship  the 


'  Black  Eagle '  was  blown  out  of  Galle 
Roads  the  other  day,  with  the  pilot 
on  board,  whilst  the  captain  was  tem- 
porarily engaged  on  shore;  and  as 
she  was  not  able  to  beat  in  again,  she 
made  for  Trincomalie,  where  she  has 
been  lying  for  a  fortnight.  Such  an 
event  is  by  no  means  unprecedented 
at  Galle/'—  Colombo  Examiner,  29 
Sept.  1857. 


CHAP.  I.] 


POPULATION. 


53 


rise  and  fall  is  from  18  to  24  inches,  with  an  increase  of 
about  a  third  at  spring  tides.  High  water  is  later  on  the 
eastern  than  on  the  western  coast ;  occurring,  at  full  and 
new  moon,  a  little  after  11  o'clock  at  Adam's  Bridge, 
about  1  o'clock  at  Colombo,  and  1.25  at  Galle,  whilst  it 
attains  its  greatest  elevation  between  5  and  6  o'clock  in 
the  harbour  of  Trincomalie. 

Red  infusoria. — On  both  sides  of  the  island  (but 
most  frequently  at  Colombo),  during  the  south-west 
monsoon,  a  broad  expanse  of  the  sea  assumes  a  red 
tinge,  considerably  brighter  than  brick-dust ;  and  this 
is  confined  to  a  space  so  distinct  that  a  line  seems  to 
separate  it  from  the  green  water  which  flows  on  either 
side.  Observing  that  the  whole  area  changed  its  position 
without  parting  with  any  portion  of  its  colouring,  I  had 
some  of  the  water  brought  on  shore,  and,  on  examination 
with  the  microscope,  found  it  to  be  filled  with  infusoria, 
probably  similar  to  those  which  have  been  noticed  near 
the  shores  of  South  America,  and  whose  abundance  has 
imparted  a  name  to  the  "  Vermilion  Sea"  off  the  coast  of 
California. 

THE  POPULATION  OF  CEYLON,  of  all  races,  was,  in  1857, 
1,697,975  ;  but  this  was  exclusive  of  the  military  and 
their  families,  both  Europeans  and  Malays,  which  together 
amounted  to  5,430  ;  and  also  of  aliens  and  other  casual 
strangers,  forming  about  25,000  more. 

The  particulars  are  as  follow :  — 


Whites. 

Coloured. 

Total. 

Population 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

sq.mile. 

Western 

1,293 

1,246 

293,409 

259,106 

294,702 

260,352 

146-59 

N.  Western 

21 

11 

100,807 

96,386 

100,828 

96,397 

59-93 

Southern    . 

238 

241 

156,900 

149,649 

157,138 

149,890 

143-72 

Eastern 

201 

1-13 

39,923 

35,531 

40,124 

35,674 

16-08 

Northern    . 

387 

362 

153,062 

148,678 

153,449 

149,040 

55.85 

Central  .     . 

468 

204 

143,472 

116,237 

143,940 

116,441 

52-57 

2,608 

2,207 

887,573 

805,587 

890,181 

807,794 

69-73 

54 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


CHAP.  II. 


CLIMATE. HEALTH   AND    DISEASE. 


THE  climate  of  Ceylon,  from  its  physical  configuration 
and  insular  detachment,  contrasts  favourably  with  that 
of  the  great  Indian  peninsula.  Owing  to  the  moderate 
dimensions  of  the  island,  the  elevation  of  its  mountains, 
the  very  short  space  during  which  the  sun  is  passing 
over  it1  in  his  regression  from  or  approach  to  the  sol- 
stices, and  to  the  fact  of  its  surrounding  seas  being  nearly 
uniform  in  temperature,  it  is  exempt  from  the  extremes 
of  heating  and  cooling  to  which  the  neighbouring  con- 
tinent of  India  is  exposed  From  the  same  causes  it 
is  subjected  more  uniformly  to  the  genial  influences  of 
the  trade  winds  that  blow  over  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
the  Bay  of  Bengal. 

The  island  is  seldom  visited  by  hurricanes2,  or 
swept  by  typhoons,  and  the  breeze,  unlike  the  hot  and 
arid  winds  of  Coromandel  and  the  Dekkan,  is  always 
more  or  less  refreshing.  The  range  of  the  thermometer 
exhibits  no  violent  changes,  and  never  indicates  a  tem- 
perature insupportably  high..  The  mean  on  an  annual 


1  In  his  approach  to  the  northern 
solstice,  the  sun,  having  passed  the 
equator  on  the  2 1st  of  March,  reaches 
the  south  of  Ceylon  about  the  5th  of 
April,  and  ten  days  later  is  vertical 
over  Point  Pedro,  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  island.  On  his  return 
he  is  again  over  Point  Pedro  about 
the  27th  of  August,  and  passes 
southward  over  Dondera  Head  about 
the  7th  of  September. 

*  The  exception  to  the  exemption 


of  Ceylon  from  hurricanes  is  the 
occasional  occurrence  of  a  cyclone 
extending  its  circle  till  the  verge 
has  sometimes  touched  Batticaloa,  on 
the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the 
island,  causing  damage  to  vegetation 
and  buildings.  Such  an  event  is,  how- 
ever, exceedingly  rare.  On  the  7th  of 
January,  1805,  H.M.S.  "Sheemess'' 
and  two  others  were  driven  on  shore 
in  a  hurricane  at  Trincomalie. 


CHAP.  II.]  CLIMATE.  55 

average  scarcely  exceeds  80°  at  Colombo,  though  in 
exceptional  years  it  has  risen  to  86°.  But  at  no  period 
of  the  day  are  dangerous  results  to  be  apprehended 
from  exposure  to  the  sun  ;  and  except  during  parts  of 
the  months  of  March  and  April,  there  is  no  season  when 
moderate  exercise  is  not  practicable  and  agreeable. 
For  half  the  year,  from  October  to  May,  the  prevailing 
winds  are  from  the  north-east,  and  during  the  remaining 
months  the  south-west  monsoon  blows  steadily  from  the 
great  Indian  Ocean.  The  former,  affected  by  the  wintry 
chills  of  the  vast  tracts  of  Northern  Asia  which  it  traverses 
before  crossing  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  is  subject  to  many  local 
variations  and  intervals  of  calm.  But  the  latter,  after 
the  first  violence  of  its  outset  is  abated,  becomes  nearly 
uniform  throughout  the  period  of  its  prevalence,  and 
presents  the  character  of  an  on-shore  breeze  extending 
over  a  prodigious  expanse  of  sea  and  land,  and  exert- 
ing a  powerful  influence  along  the  regions  bordering  on 
India. 

In  Ceylon  the  proverbial  fickleness  of  the  winds,  and  • 
the  uncertainty  which  characterises  the  seasons  in  north- 
ern climates,  is  comparatively  unknown ;  and  the  occur- 
rence of  changes  or  rain  may  be  anticipated  with  con- 
siderable accuracy  in  any  month  of  a  coming  year. 
There  are,  of  course,  abnormal  seasons  with  higher 
ranges  of  temperature,  heavier  rains,  or  droughts  of 
longer  continuance,  but  such  extremes  are  exceptional 
and  rare.  Great  atmospheric  changes  occur  only  at 
two  opposite  periods  of  the  year,  and  so  gradual  is  their 
approach  that  the  climate  is  almost  monotonous,  and 
one  longs  for  "  the  falling  of  the  leaf "  to  diversify  the 
sameness  of  perennial  verdure.  The  line  is  faint  which 
divides  the  seasons.  No  period  of  the  year  is  divested 
of  its  seed-time  and  its  harvest  in  some  part  of  the 
island ;  and  fruit  hangs  ripe  on  the  same  branches  that 
are  garlanded  with  opening  buds.  But  as  every  plant 
has  its  own  period  for  the  production  of  its  flowers  and 
fruit,  each  month  is  characterised  by  its  peculiar  flora. 

£   4 


56 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


As  regards  the  foliage  of  the  trees,  it  might  be 
expected  that  the  variety  of  tints  would  be  wanting 
which  forms  the  charm  of  a  European  landscape,  and 
that  all  nature  would  wear  one  mantle  of  unchanging 
green.  But  it  has  been  remarked  by  a  tasteful  observer1 
that  such  is  far  from  the  fact,  and  though  in  Ceylon  there 
is  no  revolution  of  seasons,  the  change  of  leaf  on  the 
same  plant  exhibits  colours  as  bright  as  those  which 
tinge  the  autumnal  woods  of  America.  It  is  not  the 
decaying  leaves,  but  the  fresh  shoots,  that  exhibit  these 
brightened  colours,  the  older  are  still  vividly  green,  whilst 
the  young  are  bursting  forth  ;  and  the  extremities  of  the 
branches  present  tufts  of  pale  yellow,  pink,  crimson,  and 
purple,  which  give  them  at  a  distance  the  appearance  of 
clusters  of  flowers.2 

A  notice  of  the  variations  exhibited  by  the  weather 
at  Colombo  may  serve  as  an  index  to  the  atmospheric 
condition  of  the  rest  of  the  island,  except  in  those  por- 
tions (such  as  the  mountains  of  the  interior,  and  the 
low  plains  of  the  northern  extremity)  which  exhibit 
modifications  of  temperature  and  moisture  incident  to 
local  peculiarities. 

January. — At  the  opening  of  the  year,  the  north-east 
wind  N  E  monsoon,  which  sets  in  two  months 

Temperature,  24  hours :  previously,  is  nearly  in  mid  career. 

Mean  greatest       85-6°       *  -\-        •  j>  o  i-n 

Mean  least  .    .  69-2°     Ims   wind,   issuing    from    the   chill 

Rain  (inches)  .     .     31         n()rth    ^    robbed   Qf  fo    aqueous  va_ 

pour  in  passing  over  the  elevated  mountain  regions  on 
the  confines  of  China  and  Thibet,  sweeps  across  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  whence  its  lowest  strata  imbibe  a  quan- 


1  Prof.  Harvey,  Trin.  Coll.  Dublin. 

2  Some   few   trees,   such    as    the 
margosa   (Azadirdchta    Indicd),  the 
country  almond    (Tcrminalia   catap- 
pa),  and  others,  are  deciduous,  and 
part  with  their  leaves.     The  cinna- 
mon shoots  forth  in  all  shades  from 
bright  yellow  to  dark  crimson.     The 
maella  (Olax  Zeylanica)  has  always  a 


copper  colour;  and  the  ironwood 
trees  of  the  interior  have  a  perfect 
blaze  of  young  crimson  leaves,  as 
brilliant  as  flowers.  The  lovi-lovi 
(Flacvurtia  inermis)  has  the  same 
peculiarity;  while  the  large  bracts 
of  the  musssenda  (Mussanda  fron- 
dosa)  attract  the  notice  of  Europeans 
for  their  singular  whiteness. 


CHAP.  II.]  CLIMATE.  57 

tity  of  moisture,  moderate  in  amount,  yet  still  leaving 
the  great  mass  of  air  far  below  saturation.  Hence  it 
reaches  Ceylon  comparatively  dry,  and  its  general  effects 
are  parching  and  disagreeable.  This  character  is  in- 
creased as  the  sun  recedes  towards  its  most  southern 
declination,  and  the  wind  acquires  a  more  direct  draught 
from  the  north;  passing  over  the  Indian  peninsula  and 
becoming  almost  divested  of  humidity,  it  blows  down  the 
western  coastTof  the  island,  and  is  known  there  by  the 
name  of  the  "along-shore-wind."  For  a  tune  its  influence 
is  uncomfortable  and  its  effects  injurious  alike  to  health 
and  to  vegetation  :  it  warps  and  rends  furniture,  dries  up 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  withers  the  delicate  verdure 
which  had  sprung  up  during  the  prevalence  of  the  pre- 
vious rains.  These  characteristics,  however,  subside 
towards  the  end  of  the  month,  when  the  wind  becomes 
somewhat  variable  with  a  westerly  tendency  and  occa- 
sional showers  ;  and  the  heat  of  the  day  is  then  partially 
compensated  by  the  greater  freshness  of  the  nights.  The 
fall  of  rain  within  the  month  scarcely  exceeds  three  inches. 
February  is  dry  and  hot  during  the  day,  but  the  nights 
Wind  N  E  are  cloudless  and  cool,  and  the  moon- 


e,  24  hours  :      light   singularly   agreeable.     Eain  is 

Mean  greatest      .89°  ,     J      .  G  .       „  „      . 

Mean  least  .  .7i°  rare,  but  when  it  occurs  it  falls  in 
Kain  (inches)  .  .  2-i  fafo^  succeeded  by  damp  and  sultry 
calms.  The  wind  is  unsteady  and  shifts  from  north-east 
to  north-west,  sometimes  failing  entirely  between  noon  and 
twilight.  The  quantity  of  rain  is  less  than  in  January, 
and  the  difference  of  temperature  between  day  and  night 
is  frequently  so  great  as  15°  or  200.1 


Dr.  MACVICAB,  in  a  paper  in  the     and  under  the  open  sky,  on  the  2nd  of 


Ceylon  Miscellany,  July,  1843, 
corded  the  results  of  some  experi- 
ments, made  near  Colombo,  as  to  the 
daily  variation  of  temperature  and 
its  effects  on  cultivation,  from  which 
it  appeared  that  a  register  thermo- 
meter, exposed  on  a  tuft  of  grass  in 
the  cinnamon  garden  in  a  clear  night 


January,  1841,  showed  in  the  morn- 
ing that  it  had  been  so  low  as  52° 
Fahr.,  and  when  laid  on  the  ground  in 
the  same  place  in  the  sunshine  on  the 
following  day,  it  rose  to  upwards  of 
140°.  These  were  results  of  direct, 
and  unimpeded  radiation. 


58  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

March.  —  In  March  the  heat  continues  to  increase, 
wind  N.E.  to  N.W.  tne  earth  receiving  more  warmth  than 
Temperature,  24  hours :  it  radiates  or  parts  with  by  evapora- 

Mean  greatest      877°  ?  J  r 

Mean  least  .  .  73-1°  tion.  The  day  becomes  oppressive, 
Rain  (inches) .  . .  2-i  tke  ^glits  unrefreshing,  the  grass  is 
withered  and  brown,  the  earth  hard  and  cleft,  the  lakes 
shrunk  to  shallows,  and  the  rivers  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness.  Europeans  now  escape  from  the  low  country,  and 
betake  themselves  to  the  shade  of  the  forests  adjoining 
the  coffee-plantations  in  the  hills ;  or  to  the  still  higher 
sanatarium  of  Neuera-ellia,  nearly  the  loftiest  plateau  in 
the  mountains  of  the  Kandyan  range.  The  winds,  when 
any  are  perceptible,  are  faint  and  unsteady  with  a  still 
increasing  westerly  tendency,  partial  showers  sometimes 
fall,  and  thunder  begins  to  mutter  towards  sunset.  At 
the  close  of  the  month,  the  mean  temperature  will  be 
found  to  have  advanced  about  a  degree,  but  the  sensible 
temperature  and  the  force  of  the  sun's  rays  are  felt  in  a 
still  more  perceptible  proportion. 

April  is  by  far  the  most  oppressive  portion  of  the  year 
wind  N.W.  to  s.w.          f°r  those  who  remain  at  the  sea-level 
Temperature,  24  hours:      of  the  island.     The  temperature  con- 
Mean  greatest  .  88-7°        .  .  ,  •     -i  • 

Mean  least .  .  .  73-6°  tmues  to  rise  as  the  sun  in  his  northern 
Ram  (inches) ...  7-4  prOgress  passes  vertically  over  the 
island.  A  mirage  fills  the  hollows  with  mimic  water ;  the 
heat  in  close  apartments  becomes  extreme,  and  every 
living  creature  flies  to  the  shade  from  the  suffocating 
glare  of  mid-day.  At  length  the  sea  exhibits  symptoms 
of  an  approaching  change,  a  ground  swell  sets  in  from 
the  west,  and  the  breeze  towards  sunset  brings  clouds  and 
grateful  showers.  At  the  end  of  the  month  the  mean 
temperature  attains  its  greatest  height  during  the  year, 
being  about  88°  in  the  day,  and  10°  lower  at  night. 

May  is  signalised  by  the  great  event  of  the  change 
wind  N.W.  to  s.  w.  °f  tne  monsoon,  and  all  the  grand 
Temperature,  24  hours :  phenomena  which  accompany  its  ap- 

Mean  greatest    .  87'2°  J 

Mean  least     .    .  72-9°      proach. 
Rain  (inches)    .   .  13'3  jt  ^  fflfofa  for  any  Qne  who  hag  not 


CHAP.  II.]  CLIMATE.  59 

resided  in  the  tropics  to  comprehend  the  feeling  of  en- 
joyment which  accompanies  these  periodical  commo- 
tions of  the  atmosphere;  in  Europe  they  would  be 
fraught  with  annoyance,  but  in  Ceylon  they  are  wel- 
comed with  a  relish  proportionate  to  the  monotony  they 
dispel. 

Long  before  the  wished-for  period  arrives,  the  ver- 
dure produced  by  the  previous  rains  becomes  almost 
obliterated  by*  the  burning  droughts  of  March  and 
April.  The  deciduous  trees  shed  their  foliage,  the  plants 
cease  to  put  forth  fresh  leaves,  and  all  vegetable  life 
languishes  under  the  unwholesome  heat.  The  grass 
withers  on  the  baked  and  cloven  earth,  and  red  dust 
settles  on  the  branches  and  thirsty  brushwood.  The 
insects,  deprived  of  their  accustomed  food,  disappear 
underground  or  hide  beneath  the  decaying  bark;  the 
water-beetles  bury  themselves  in  the  hardened  mud  of 
the  pools,  and  the  helices  retire  into  the  crevices  of  the 
stones  or  to  hollows  amongst  the  roots  of  the  trees, 
closing  the  apertures  of  their  shells  with  the  hybernating 
epiphragm.  Butterflies  are  no  longer  seen  hovering  over 
the  flowers,  the  birds  appear  fewer  and  less  joyous,  and 
the  wild  animals  and  crocodiles,  driven  by  the  drought 
from  then*  accustomed  retreats,  wander  through  the 
jungle,  and  even  venture  to  approach  the  village  wells  in 
search  of  water.  Man  equally  languishes  under  the 
general  exhaustion,  ordinary  exertion  becomes  distasteful, 
and  even  the  native  Singhalese,  although  inured  to  the 
climate,  moves  with  lassitude  and  reluctance. 

Meanwhile  the  air  becomes  loaded  to  saturation  with 
aqueous  vapour  drawn  up  by  the  augmented  force  of 
evaporation  acting  vigorously  over  land  and  sea:  the 
sky,  instead  of  its  brilliant  blue,  assumes  the  sullen  tint 
of  lead,  and  not  a  breath  disturbs  the  motionless  rest  of 
the  clouds  that  hang  on  the  lower  range  of  hills.  At 
length,  generally  about  the  middle  of  the  month,  but 
frequently  earlier,  the  sultry  suspense  is  broken  by 
the  arrival  of  the  wished-for  change.  The  sun  has  by 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


this  time  nearly  attained  his  greatest  northern  declina- 
tion, and  created  a  torrid  heat  throughout  the  lands  of 
southern  Asia  and  the  peninsula  of  India.  The  air, 
lightened  by  its  high  temperature  and  such  watery 
vapour  as  it  may  contain,  rises  into  loftier  regions  and 
is  replaced  by  indraughts  from  the  neighbouring  sea, 
and  thus  a  tendency  is  gradually  given  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  current  bringing  up  from  the  south  the  warm 
humid  air  of  the  equator.  The  wind,  therefore,  which 
reaches  Ceylon  comes  laden  with  moisture,  taken  up  in 
its  passage  across  the  great  Indian  Ocean.  As  the 
monsoon  draws  near,  the  days  become  more  overcast 
and  hot,  banks  of  clouds  rise  over  the  ocean  to  the  west, 
and  in  the  sombre  twilight  the  eye  is  attracted  by  the 
unusual  whiteness  of  the  sea-birds  that  sweep  along  the 
strand  to  seize  the  objects  flung  on  shore  by  the  rising 
surf.  At  last  the  sudden  lightnings  flash  among  the  hills 
and  sheet  through  the  clouds  that  overhang  the  sea1, 
and  with  a  crash  of  thunder  the  monsoon  bursts  over 
the  thirsty  land,  not  in  showers  or  partial  torrents, 
but  in  a  wide  deluge,  that  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours 
overtops  the  river  banks  and  spreads  in  inundations  over 
every  level  plain. 

All  the  phenomena  of  this  explosion  are  stupendous  : 
thunder,  as  we  are  accustomed  to  be  awed  by  it  in 
Europe,  affords  but  the  faintest  idea  of  its  overpowering 
grandeur  in  Ceylon,  and  its  sublimity  is  infinitely 
increased  as  it  is  faintly  heard  from  the  shore,  re- 
sounding through  night  and  darkness  over  the  gloomy 
sea.  The  lightning,  when  it  touches  the  earth  where 


1  The  lightnings  of  Ceylon  are  so 
remarkable,  that  in  the  middle  ages 
they  were  as  well  known  to  the 
Arabian  seamen,  who  coasted  the 
island  on  their  way  to  China,  as  in 
later  times  the  storms  that  infested 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  were  fami- 
liar to  early  navigators  of  Portugal. 
In  the  Mohit  of  SIDI  ALI  CUELKBI, 


translated  by  Von  Hammer,  it  is 
stated  that  to  seamen,  sailing  from 
Diu  to  Malacca,  "  the  sign  of  Ceylon 
being  near  is  continual  lightning,  be 
it  accompanied  by  rain  or  without 
rain ;  so  that  'the  lightning  of  Ceylon 
is  proverbial  for  a  liar !  " —  Joum, 
Asiut.  Soc.  Beng.  v.  4C5. 


CHAP.  II.]  CLIMATE.  61 

it  is  covered  with  the  descending  torrent,  flashes  into 
it  and  disappears  instantaneously;  but,  when  it  strikes 
a  drier  surface,  in  seeking  better  conductors,  it  often 
opens  a  hollow  like  that  formed  by  the  explosion  of 
a  shell,  and  frequently  leaves  behind  it  traces  of  vitri- 
fication.1 In  Ceylon,  however,  occurrences  of  this  kind 
are  rare,  and  accidents  are  seldom  recorded  from  light- 
ning, probably  owing  to  the  profusion  of  trees,  and  espe- 
cially of  coccfrmt  palms,  which,  when  drenched  with 
rain,  intercept  the  discharge,  and  conduct  the  electric 
fluid  to  the  earth.  The  rain  at  these  periods  excites 
the  astonishment  of  a  European :  it  descends  in  almost 
continuous  streams,  so  close  and  so  dense  that  the  level 
ground,  unable  to  absorb  it  sufficiently  fast,  is  covered 
with  one  uniform  sheet  of  water,  and  down  the  sides  of 
acclivities  it  rushes  in  a  volume  that  wears  channels  in 
the  surface.2  For  hours  together,  the  noise  of  the 
torrent,  as  it  beats  upon  the  trees  and  bursts  upon  the 
roofs,  flowing  thence  in  rivulets  along  the  ground,  occa- 
sions an  uproar  that  drowns  the  ordinary  voice,  and 
renders  sleep  impossible. 

This  violence,  however,  seldom  lasts  more  than  an 
hour  or  two,  and  after  intermittent  paroxysms,  it  gra- 
dually abates,  and  a  serenely  clear  sky  supervenes.  For 
some  days,  intensely  heavy  showers  continue  to  fall  at 


1  See  DARWIN'S  Naturalist's  Voy- 
age, ch.  iii.  for  an  account  of  those 
vitrified   siliceous  tubes  which   are 
formed   by  lightning  entering  loose 
sand.     During  a  thunderstorm  which 
passed  over  Galle,  on  the  16th  May, 
1854,  the  fortifications  were  shaken 
by  lightning,    and  an  extraordinary 
cavity  was  opened  behind  the  re- 
taining wall  of  the  rampart,  where  a 
hole,  a  yard  in  diameter,  was  carried 
into   the   ground    to    the    depth   of 
twenty  feet,  and  two  chambers,  each 
six  feet  in  length,  branched  out  on 
either  side  at  its  extremity. 

2  One    morning     on    awaking    at 
Pusilawa,  in  the  hills  between  Kandy 
and  Neuera-ellia,  I  was  taken  to  see 


the  effect  of  a  few  hours'  rain,  during 
the  night,  on  a  macadamised  road 
which  I  had  passed  the  evening  be- 
fore. There  had  been  no  symptom  of 
a  storm  at  sunset,  and  the  morning 
was  again  bright  and  cloudless  ;  but 
between  midnight  and  dawn  such  an 
inundation  had  swept  the  hills  that 
in  many  places  the  metal  had  been 
washed  from  the  highways  over  the 
face  of  the  acclivities;  and  in  one 
spot  where  a  sudden  bend  forced  the 
torrent  to  impinge  against  a  bank, 
it  had  scooped  out  an  excavation  ex- 
tending to  the  centre  of  the  high 
road,  thirteen  feet  in  diameter,  and 
deep  enough  to  hold  a  carriage  and 
horses. 


62  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

intervals ;  and  the  evenings  are  embellished  by  sunsets 
of  the  most  gorgeous  splendour,  lighting  the  fragments 
of  clouds  that  survive  the  recent  commotion. 

June.  —  The  extreme  heat  of  the  previous  month 
wind  s.w.  becomes  modified  in  June :  the  winds 

Temperature,  24  hours:     continue  to  blow  steadily  from   the 

Mean  greatest  .   85-8°  .  ,    .  J, 

Mean  least  .  .  74-4°  south-west,  and  frequent  showers,  ac- 
Rain  (inches)  .  .  6-8  comparue(l  by  lightning  and  thunder, 
serve  still  further  to  diffuse  coolness  throughout  the 
atmosphere  and  verdure  over  the  earth. 

So  instantaneous  is  the  response  of  Nature  to  the 
influence  of  returning  moisture,  that,  in  a  single  day, 
and  almost  between  sunset  and  dawn,  the  green  hue  of 
reviving  vegetation  begins  to  tint  the  saturated  ground. 
In  ponds,  from  which  but  a  week  before  the  wind 
blew  clouds  of  sandy  dust,  the  peasantry  may  be  seen 
catching  the  re-animated  fish ;  and  tank-shells  and 
water-beetles  revive  and  wander  over  the  submerged 
sedges.  The  electricity  of  the  air  stimulates  the  vege- 
tation of  the  trees ;  and  scarce  a  week  elapses  till 
the  plants  become  covered  with  the  larvaB  of  butter- 
flies, the  forest  murmurs  with  the  hum  of  insects, 
and  the  air  is  again  harmonious  with  the  voice  of 
birds. 

The  extent  to  which  the  temperature  is  reduced,  after 
the  first  burst  of  the  monsoon,  is  not  to  be  appre- 
ciated by  the  indications  of  the  thermometer  alone.  It 
is  rendered  still  more  sensible  by  the  altered  density  of 
the  air,  the  drier  state  of  which  is  favourable  to  eva- 
poration, whilst  the  increase  of  its  movement  bring- 
ing it  more  rapidly  in  contact  with  the  human  body, 
heat  is  more  readily  carried  off,  and  the  sensation 
of  coolness  is  proportionally  increased.  Occasionally 
during  the  month  of  June  the  westerly  wind  acquires 
considerable  strength,  and  sometimes  amounts  to  a  mode- 
rate gale.  At  this  period,  the  fishermen  seldom  put  to 
sea:  their  canoes  are  drawn  far  up  in  lines  upon  the 
shore,  and  vessels  riding  in  the  roads  of  Colombo  are 


CIIAP.  II.]  CLIMATE.  63 

often  driven  from  their  anchorage  and  stranded  on  the 
beach. 

July  resembles,  to  a  great  extent,  the  month  wnich 

Wind  S.W.  precedes   it,  except    that,  in    all   parti- 

Temperature,  24  hours:       culars,  the  season  is  more  moderate, 

Mean  greatest  .   84'8°         ,  ,,  , 

Mean  least  .  .  74-9°     showers  are   less   frequent,  there   is 


Rain  (inches)   .    .      34         legg  ^^  &nd  legg  absolute 

August.  —  In  August  the  weather  is  charming,  notwith- 
s.w.  standing  a  slight  increase  of  sensible 


Temperature,  24  hours:      heat,  owing  to  diminished  evapora- 

Mean  greatest  .    84  9°         .  °  . 

Mean  least  .  .  747°  tion;  and  the  sun  being  now  on  its 
Rain  (inches)  ..  28  return  to  the  equator,  its  power  is  felt 
in  greater  force  on  full  exposure  to  its  influence. 

September.  —  The  same  atmospheric  condition  con- 
wind  s.w.  tinues  throughout  September,  but  to- 

Temperature,  24  hours:         wards  its  close  tllC  SCa-brCCZC  becomes 
Mean  greatest  .   84'9°  ,  ,        ,        ,       , 

Mean  least  .  .  74-8°  unsteady  and  clouds  begin  to  col- 
Rain  (inches)  .  .  5-2  lectj  symptomatic  of  the  approaching 
change  to  the  north-east  monsoon.  The  nights  are 
always  clear  and  delightfully  cool.  Eain  is  sometimes 
abundant. 

October  is  more  unsettled,  the  wind  veering  towards 
wind  s.w.  and  N.E.  tne  north,  with  pretty  frequent  rain  ; 

Temperature,  24  hours:         an(J      as      the      SIU1      is      UOW      far      tO 

Mean  greatest  .    85'1°         ,  ,  , 

Mean  least  .  .  73-3°     the  southward,  the  neat  continues  to 

Rain  (inches)  .    .    11-2         Decline. 

November  sees  the  close  of  the  south-west  monsoon, 
Wind  N  E  and  the  arrival  of  the  north-eastern. 

Temperature,  24  hours:      In  the  early  part  of  the  month  the 

Mean  greatest  .    86'3°  .     ,      .   .  A  ,  .  „     - 

Mean  least  .  .  71  -5°  wind  visits  nearly  every  point  01  the 
Rain  (inches)  .  .  10-7  compass?  but  shows  a  marked  predi- 
lection for  the  north,  generally  veering  from  N.E.  at 
night  and  early  morning,  to  N.W.  at  noon  ;  calms  are 
frequent  and  precede  gentle  showers,  and  clouds  form 
round  the  lower  range  of  hills.  By  degrees  as  the  sun 
advances  in  its  southern  declination,  and  warms  the 
lower  half  of  the  great  African  continent,  the  current 
of  heated  air  ascending  from  the  equatorial  belt  leaves 


C4 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


Wind  N.E. 

Temperature  24  hours: 
Mean  greatest  .  85° 
Mean  least  .  .  70° 

Rain  (inches)     .     .    4'3 


a  comparative  vacuum,  towards  which  the  less  rarefied 
atmospheric  fluid  is  drawn  down  from  the  regions 
north  of  the  tropic,  bringing  with  it  the  cold  and  dry 
winds  from  the  Himalayan  Alps,  and  the  lofty  ranges 
of  Assam.  The  great  phenomenon  is  heralded  as  before 
by  oppressive  calms,  lurid  skies,  vivid  lightning,  bursts 
of  thunder,  and  tumultuous  rain.  But  at  this  change 
of  the  monsoon  the  atmospheric  disturbance  is  less 
striking  than  in  May ;  the  previous  temperature  is  lower, 
the  moisture  of  the  air  is  more  reduced,  and  the  change 
is  less  agreeably  perceptible  from  the  southern  breeze 
to  the  dry  and  parching  wind  from  the  north. 

December.  —  In  December  the  sun  attains  to  its 
greatest  southern  declination,  and  the 
wind  setting  steadily  from  the  north- 
east, brings  with  it  light  but  frequent 
rains  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The 
thermometer  shows  a  maximum  temperature  of  85°  with 
a  minimum  of  70° ;  the  morning  and  the  afternoon  are 
again  enjoyable  in  the  open  air,  but  at  night  every 
lattice  that  faces  the  north  is  cautiously  closed  against 
the  treacherous  "  along-shore-wind." 

Notwithstanding  the  violence  and  volume  in  which 
the  rains  have  been  here  described  as  descending  during 
the  paroxysms  of  the  monsoons,  the  total  rain-fall 
in  Ceylon  is  considerably  less  than  on  the  continent  of 
India.  Throughout  Hindustan  the  annual  mean  is  117*5 
inches,  and  on  some  parts  on  the  Malabar  coast,  upwards 
of  300  inches  have  fallen  in  a  single  year 1 ;  whereas 
the  average  in  Ceylon  rarely  exceeds  80,  and  the  highest 
quantity  registered  in  an  exceptional  season  was  120 
inches. 

The  distribution  is  of  course  unequal,  both  as  to 
time  and  localities,  and  in  those  districts  where  the 


1  At  Mahabaleshwar,  in  the  West- 
ern Ghauts,  the  annual  mean  is  254 
inches,  and  at  Uttray  Mullay,  in 


Malabar,  263 ;  whilst  at  Bengal  it  is 
209  inches  at  Sylhet;  and  (310-3  at 
Cherraponja. 


CHAP.  II. J 


RAIN. 


65 


fall  is  most  considerable,  the  number  of  rainless  days 
is  the  greatest.1  An  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  deluge 
that  descends  in  Colombo  during  the  change  of  the 
monsoon,  from  the  fact  that  out  of  72-4  inches,  the 
annual  average  there,  no  less  than  20-7  inches  fall 
in  April  and  May,  and  21-9  in  October  and  November, 
a  quantity  one-third  greater  than  the  total  rain-fall  in 
England  throughout  an  entire  year. 

In  one  important  particular  the  phenomenon  of  the 
Dekkan  affords  an  analogy  to  that  which  presents  itself 
in  Ceylon.  During  the  south-west  monsoon  the  clouds 
are  driven  against  the  lofty  chain  of  mountains  that 
overhang  the  western  shore  of  the  peninsula,  and  their 
condensed  vapour  descends  there  in  copious  showers. 
The  winds,  thus  early  robbed  of  their  moisture,  carry- 
but  little  rain  to  the  plains  of  the  interior,  and  whilst 
Malabar  is  saturated  by  daily  showers,  the  sky  of  Coro- 
mandel  is  clear  and  serene.  In  the  north-east  monsoon 
a  condition  the  very  opposite  exists  ;  the  wind  that  then 
prevails  being  much  drier,  and  the  hills  which  it  en- 
counters of  lower  altitude,  the  rains  are  carried  further 
towards  the  interior,  and  whilst  the  weather  is  unsettled 
and  stormy  on  the  eastern  shore,  the  western  is  compa- 
ratively exempt,  and  enjoys  a  calm  and  cloudless  sky.2 

In  like  manner  the  west  coast  of  Ceylon  presents  a 
contrast  with  the  east,  both  in  the  volume  of  rain  in 
each  of  the  respective  monsoons,  and  in  the  influence 
which  the  same  monsoon  exerts  simultaneously  on  the 
one  side  of  the  island  and  on  the  other.  The  greatest 


1  The  average  number  of  days  on 
which  rain  fell  at  Colombo  in  the 

In  August    . 

Days. 
10 

years  1832,   1833,   1834,  and  1835, 

September 
October  . 

14 
17 

Days. 

November 

11 

In  January  . 

3 

December 

8 

February 

4 



March      . 

6 

Total 

118 

April       . 

11 

2  The  mean  of  rain  is,  on  the  west- 

Slay 
June        . 

13 
13 

em  side  of  the  Dekkan,  80  inches,  and 
on  the  eastern,  52  '8. 

July 

8 

VOL.    I.                                            F 

G6 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


quantity  of  rain  falls  on  the  south-western  portion,  in 
the  month  of  May,  when  the  wind  from  the  Indian  Ocean 
is  intercepted,  and  its  moisture  condensed  by  the  lofty 
mountain  ranges,  surrounding  Adam's  Peak.  The  region 
principally  affected  by  it  stretches  from  Point-de-Galle, 
as  far  north  as  Putlam,  and  eastward  till  it  includes  the 


One  maximum  at  the  spring  change  of  the  monsoon  anticipating  a  little  that 
another  at  the  autumnal  change  corresponding  more  exactly  with  that  of  the 
through  the  year  more  equably  distributed  at  Colombo. 

greater  portion  of  the  ancient  Kandyan  kingdom.  But 
the  rains  do  not  reach  the  opposite  side  of  the  island  ; 
whilst  the  west  coast  is  deluged,  the  east  is  sometimes 
exhausted  with  dryness ;  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens 
that  different  aspects  of  the  same  mountain  present  at 


CHAP.  II.] 


EAIX. 


CLIMATE. 


li- 


the same  moment  the  opposite  extremes  of  drought  and 
moisture.1 

On  the  east  coast,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fall,  during 
the  north-east  monsoon,  is  very  similar  in  degree  to 
that  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  as  the  mountains  are 
lower  and  more  remote  from  the  sea,  the  clouds  are 
carried  further  inland,  and  it  rains  simultaneously  on 
both  sides  of  the  island,  though  much  less  on  the  west 
than  during  tHe  other  monsoon. 

The  climate  of  Galle,  as  already  stated,  resembles  in 
its  general  characteristics  that  of  Colombo,  but,  being 
further  to  the  south,  and  more  equally  exposed  to  the 
influence  of  both  the  monsoons,  the  temperature  is 
not  quite  so  high  ;  and,  during  the  cold  season,  it  falls 
some  degrees  lower,  especially  in  the  evening  and  early 
morning.2 

Kandy,  from  its  position,  shares  in  the  climate  of  the 
western  coast ;  but,  owing  to  the  frequency  of  mountain 
showers,  and  the  situation  of  the  city,  at  an  elevation  of 
upwards  of  sixteen  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  it  enjoys  a  much  cooler  temperature.  The  surrounding 
hills  differ  from  the  low  country  in  one  particular,  which 
is  very  striking  —  the  early  period  of  the  day  at  which 
the  maximum  heat  is  attained.  This  at  Colombo  is 
generally  between  two  and  three  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, whereas  at  Kandy  the  thermometer  shows  the 


1  ADMIRAL  FITZROY  has  described, 
in  his  Narrative  of  tlie  Voyages  of  the 
Adventure  and  Beagle,  the  striking 
degree  in  which  this  simultaneous 
dissimilarity  of  climate  is  exhibited 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  Galapagos 
Islands  ;  one  aspect  exposed  to  the 
south  being  covered  with  verdure 
and  freshened  with  moisture,  whilst 
all  others  are  ban-en  and  parched.  — 
Vol.  ii.  p.  502-3.  The  same  state  of 
things  exists  in  the  east  and  west 
sides  of  the  Peruvian  Andes,  and  in 
the  mountains  of  Patagonia.  And 
no  more  remarkable  example  of  it 
exists  than  in  the  island  of  Socotra, 


east  of  the  Straits  of  Bab  el  Mandeb, 
the  west  coast  of  which,  during  the 
north-east  monsoon,  is  destitute  of 
rain  and  verdure,  whilst  the  eastern 
side  is  enriched  by  streams  and  co- 
vered by  luxuriant  pasturage. — Journ. 
Asiat.  Soc.  Seng.  vol.  iv.  p.  141. 

3  At  Point-de-Galle,  in  1854,  the 
number  of  rainy  days  was  as  follows : 

Days.  Days. 

12      July    .     .        11 

7      August 


January  . 
February 
March  . 
April .  . 
May  .  '. 
June  . 


September 
October  . 
November 
December 


F    2 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


highest  temperature  between  ten  and  eleven  o'clock  in 
the  morning. 

In  the  low  country,  ingenuity  has  devised  so  many 
expedients  for  defence  from  the  excessive  heat  of  the 
forenoon,  that  the  languor  it  induces  is  chiefly  expe- 
rienced after  sunset,  and  the  coolness  of  the  night  is 
insufficient  to  compensate  for  the  exhaustion  of  the 
day  ;  but,  in  Kandy,  the  nights  are  so  cool  that  ft  is 
seldom  that  warm  covering  can  be  altogether  dispensed 
with.  In  the  colder  months,  the  daily  range  of  the 
thermometer  is  considerable  —  approaching  30°  ;  in  the 
others,  it  varies  little  from  15°.  The  average  mean, 
however,  of  each  month  throughout  the  year  is  nearly 
identical,  deviating  only  about  one  degree  from  76°,  the 
mean  annual  temperature.1 

1  The  following  Table  appeared  I  able  from  the  care  taken  by  Mr.  Caley 
in  the  Colombo  Observer,  and  is  valu-  |  in  its  preparation ; 

Analysis  of  the  Climate  at  Peradenia,  from  1851  to  1858  inclusive. 


Months. 

Temperature. 

Aver- 
« 

Rainfall. 

Remarks. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Inches. 

Aver- 
« 

January  .    85'0 

52-5 

74-06 

6 

4-04 

6 

Fine,  sunny,  heavy  dew  at 

night,  hot  days,  and  cold 

nights  and  mornings. 

February  .  '  87-75 

55-0 

75-76 

7 

1-625 

6 

Fine,    sunny,    dewy   nights, 

foggy  mornings,  days  hot, 

nights  and  mornings  cold. 

March      . 

89-5 

59-5 

77-42 

7 

3-669 

6 

Generally   a  very   hot    and 

oppressive  month. 

April  .     . 

89-5 

67-5 

77-91 

7 

7-759 

6 

Showery,  sultry,  and  oppres- 

sive weather. 

May    .     . 

88-0 

66-0 

77-7 

8 

8-022 

6 

Cloudy,  windy,  rainy;   mon- 

June   .     . 
July    .     . 

86-0 
83-5 

71-0 
67-0 

76-69 
75-64 

8 
8 

7-155 
572 

6 
6 

soon  generally  changes. 
A  very  wet  and  stormy  month. 
Ditto                 ditto. 

August    . 

85-5 

67'0 

75-81 

8 

8-55 

6 

Showery,  but  sometimes  more 

moderate,  variable. 

September 

865 

67'0 

76-13 

8 

6-318 

6 

Pretty  dry  weather,  compared 

with  the  next  two  months. 

October    . 

85-75 

68-2 

75-1 

8 

15-46 

6 

Wind  variable,  much  rain. 

November 

84-0 

62-0 

74-79 

8 

14-732 

6 

Wind  variable,  storms  from 

all  points  of  compass,  wet; 

December 

8275 

57-0 

74-05 

7 

7-72 

5 

monsoon  generally  changes. 
Sometimes  wet,  but  generally 

more   moderate;    towards 

end  of  year  like  January 

Mean  yearly  Tem- 
perature, 7  5  -9  2°. 

Mean  yearly 
Rainfall,  90-75 
in.  nearly. 

weather. 
Nov.  29,  1858. 
J.  A.  CALEY. 

CHAP.  If.]  CLIMATE   OF   KANDY.  —  HAIL.  69 

In  all  the  mountain  valleys,  the  soil  being  warmer 
than  the  air,  vapour  abounds  in  the  early  morning 
for  the  most  part  of  the  year.  This  greatly  adds  to  the 
dullness  of  travelling  before  dawn  ;  but,  generally 
speaking,  the  mist  is  not  wetting,  as  it  is  charged  with 
the  same  electricity  as  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  the 
human  body.  When  seen  from  the  heights,  it  is  a 
singular  object,  as  it  lies  compact  and  white  as  snow 
in  the  hollows*beneath,  but  it  is  soon  put  in  motion  by 
the  morning  currents,  and  wafted  in  the  direction  of  the 
coast,  and  dissipated  by  the  sunbeams. 

Snow  is  unknown  in  Ceylon ;  Hail  occasionally  falls 
in  the  Kandyan  hills  at  the  change  of  the  mon- 
soon *,  but  more  frequently  during  that  from  the  north- 
east. As  observed  at  Kornegalle,  the  clouds,  after 
collecting  as  usual  for  a  few  evenings,  and  gradually 
becoming  more  dense,  advanced  in  a  wedge-like  form, 
with  a  well-defined  outline.  The  first  fall  of  rain  was 
preceded  by  a  rush  of  cold  air,  accompanied  by  hail- 
stones which  outstripped  the  rain  in  their  descent.  Eain 
and  hail  then  poured  down  together,  and,  eventually, 
the  latter  only  spread  its  deluge  far  and  wide.  In 
1852,  the  hail  which  thus  fell  at  Kornegalle  was  of 
such  a  size  that  half-a-dozen  lumps  filled  a  tumbler. 
In  shape,  they  were  oval  and  compressed,  but  the  mass 
appeared  to  have  formed  an  hexagonal  pyramid,  the 
base  of  which  was  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  about 
half-an-inch  thick,  gradually  thinning  towards  the  edge. 
The  pieces  were  tolerably  solid  internally,  each  containing 
about  the  size  of  a  pea  of  clear  ice  at  the  centre,  but 
the  sides  and  angles  were  spongy  and  flocculent,  as  if 
the  particles  had  been  driven  together  by  the  in-draught 


1  It  is  stated  in  the  Physical  Atlas  j  heard  of  a  hail  atorm  at  Jaffna.  On 
of  KEITH  JOHNSTON,  that  hail  in  the  24th  of  Sept.  1857,  during  a 
India  has  not  been  noticed  south  of  thunder-storm,  hail  fell  near  Matelle 
Madras.  But  in  Ceylon  it  has  fallen  in  such  quantity  that  in  places  it 
very  recently  at  Komegalle,  at  Ba-  I  formed  drifts  upwards  of  a  foot  in 
dulla,  at  Kaduganawa;  and  I  have  I  depth. 

F  3 


70  PHYSICAL   GEOGKAPHY.  [PART  I. 

of  the  wind,  and  had  coalesced  at  the  instant  of  contact. 
A  phenomenon  so  striking  as  the  fall  of  ice,  at  the  mo- 
ment of  the  most  intense  atmospherical  heat,  naturally 
attracts  the  wonder  of  the  natives,  who  hasten  to 
collect  the  pieces,  and  preserve  them,  when  dissolved, 
in  bottles,  from  a  belief  in  their  medicinal  properties. 
Mr.  Morris,  who  has  repeatedly  observed  hailstones  in 
the  Seven  Korles,  is  under  the  impression  that  their 
occurrence  always  happens  at  the  first  outburst  of  the 
monsoon,  and  that  they  fall  at  the  moment,  which  is 
marked  by  the  first  flash  of  lightning. 

According  to  Professor  Stevelly,  of  Belfast,  the  ra- 
tionale of  their  appearance  on  such  occasions  seems  to 
be  that,  on  the  sudden  formation  and  descent  of  the 
first  drops,  the  air  expanding  and  rushing  into  the 
void  spaces,  robs  the  succeeding  drops  of  their  caloric 
so  effectually  as  to  send  them  to  the  earth  frozen  into 
ice-balls. 

These  descriptions,  it  will  be  observed,  apply  exclu- 
sively to  the  southern  regions  on  the  east  and  west  of 
Ceylon  ;  and,  in  many  particulars,  they  are  inapplicable 
to  the  northern  portions  of  the  island.  At  Trincomalie, 
the  climate  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  that  of  the 
Indian  peninsula  south  of  Madras :  showers  are  fre- 
quent, but  light,  and  the  rain  throughout  the  year  does 
not  exceed  forty  inches.  With  moist  winds  and  plentiful 
dew,  this  sustains  a  vigorous  vegetation  near  the  coast ; 
but  in  the  interior  it  would  be  insufficient  for  the 
culture  of  grain,  were  not  the  water  husbanded  in  tanks ; 
and,  for  this  reason,  the  bulk  of  the  population  are 
settled  along  the  banks  of  the  great  rivers. 

The  temperature  of  this  part  of  Ceylon  follows  the 
course  of  the  sun,  and  ranges  from  a  minimum  of  70° 
in  December  and  January,  to  a  maximum  of  94°  in  May 
and  June;  but  the  heat  is  rendered  tolerable  at  all 
seasons  by  the  steadiness  of  the  land  and  sea  breezes.1 


1  The  following  facts  regarding  the  I  ranged   from   elaborate  returns   fur- 
climate  of  Trincomalie  have  been  ar-  |  nished   by  Mr.    Higgs,   the   master- 


CHAP.  II.]       CLIMATE    OF   JAFFNA   AND    TRIXCOMALIE. 


71 


In  the  extreme  north  of  the  island,  the  peninsula  of 
Jaffna,  and  the  vast  plains  of  Neuera-kalawa  and  the 
Wanny,  form  a  third  climatic  division,  which,  from  the 
geological  structure  and  peculiar  configuration  of  the  dis- 
trict, differs  essentially  from  the  rest  of  Ceylon.  This 
region,  which  is  destitute  of  mountains,  is  undulating  in 
a  very  slight  degree ;  the  dry  and  parching  north-east 
wind  desiccates  the  soil  in  its  passage,  and  the  sandy 
plains  are  covered  with  a  low  and  scanty  vegetation, 
chiefly  fed  by  the  night  dews  and  whatever  moisture  is 
brought  by  the  on-shore  wind.  The  total  rain  of  the 
year  does  not  exceed  thirty  inches ;  and  the  inhabitants 
live  in  frequent  apprehension  of  droughts  and  famine. 
These  conditions  attain  their  utmost  manifestation  at  the 
extreme  north  and  in  the  Jaffna  peninsula :  there  the 
temperature  is  the  highest1  in  the  island,  and,  owing 
to  the  humidity  of  the  situation  and  the  total  absence  of 
hills,  it  is  but  little  affected  by  the  changes  of  the  mon- 
soons ;  and  the  thermometer  keeps  a  regulated  pace  with 
the  progress  of  the  sun  to  and  from  the  solstices.  The 
soil,  except  in  particular  spots,  is  porous  and  sandy, 
formed  from  the  detritus  of  the  coral  rocks  which  it 
overlays.  It  is  subject  to  droughts  sometimes  of  a  whole 


attendant  of  the  port,  and  published  |  logical  department  of  the  Board  of 
under  the  authority  of  the  nieteoro-  |  Trade :  — 

Trinromalie. 


1854. 

Mean  Maximum 
Temperature. 

Mean  Minimum 
Temperature. 

Extreme  range 
for  the  Month. 

a 

H  1 

|I 

Days  of  Rain. 

1854. 

Mean  Maximum 
Temperature. 

Mean  Minimum 
Temperature. 

| 

2 

ft 
P 

x 

1 

Jan. 

81-3° 

74.70 

14° 

83 

10 

July 

87-7° 

77.70 

16° 

90 

5 

Feb. 

838 

75-8 

14 

86 

7 

Aug. 

87-9 

77-4 

16 

91 

4 

Mar. 

85-9 

76-1 

16 

88 

3 

Sept. 

89-3 

77-8 

18 

93 

2 

April 

89-6 

78-9 

16 

92 

3  1 

Oct. 

85-2 

75-8 

15 

89 

14 

May 

89-1 

79-3 

19 

93 

3 

Nov. 

81-0 

74-9 

11 

83 

15 

June 

90-0 

795 

19 

94 

3 

Dec. 

80-1 

74-3 

11 

82 

15 

Mean  temperature  for  the  year  8 1  -4. 

1  The  mean  lowest  temperature  at  I  but  in  1845-6  the  thermometer  rose 
Jaftna  is  70°,  the  mean  highest  IK)0 ;  |  to  90°  and  100°. 
F  4 


72 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


year's  continuance  ;  and  rain,  when  it  falls,  is  so  speedily 
absorbed,  that  it  renders  but  slight  service  to  cultivation. 
This  is  carried  on  entirely  by  means  of  tanks  and 
artificial  irrigation,  in  the  practice  of  which  the  Tamil 
population  of  this  district  exhibits  singular  perseverance 
and  ingenuity.1  In  the  dry  season,  when  scarcely  any 
verdure  is  discernible  above  ground,  the  sheep  and 
goats  feed  on  their  knees  —  scraping  away  the  sand,  in 
order  to  reach  the  wiry  and  succulent  roots  of  the 
grasses.  From  the  constancy  of  this  practice  horny 
callosities  are  produced,  by  which  these  hardy  creatures 
may  be  distinguished. 

Water-spouts  are  frequent  on  the  coast  of  Ceylon, 
owing  to  the  different  temperature  of  the  currents  of  air 
passing  across  the  heated  earth  and  the  cooler  sea,  but 
instances  are  very  rare  of  their  bursting  over  land,  or  of 
accidents  in  consequence.2 

A  curious  phenomenon,  to  which  the  name  of  "  an- 
thelia"  has  been  given,  and  which  may  probably  have 
suggested  to  the  early  painters  the  idea  of  the  glory 
surrounding  the  heads  of  beatified  saints,  is  to  be  seen  in 
singular  beauty,  at  early  morning,  in  Ceylon.  When  the 
light  is  intense,  and  the  shadows  proportionately  dark — 
when  the  sun  is  near  the  horizon,  and  the  shadow  of  a 
person  walking  is  thrown  on  the  dewy  grass — each  par- 
ticle of  dew  furnishes  a  double  reflection  from  its  concave 


1  For    an   account  of  the   Jaffna 
wells,  and  the  theory  of  their  supply 
with  fresh  water,  see  ch.  i.  p.  21. 

2  CAMOENS,  who  had  opportunities 
of  observing  the  phenomena  of  these 
seas  during  his  service  on  board  the 
fleet  of  Cabral,  off  the  coast  of  Ma- 
labar and    Ceylon,    has    introduced 
into  the  Lusiad   the   episode   of    a 
water-spout  in  the   Indian    Ocean ; 
but,  under  the  belief  that  the  water 
which  descends  had  been  previously 
drawn  up  by  suction  from  the  ocean, 
he  exclaims:  — 

"  But  say,  ye  sages,  who  can  weigh  the  cause, 
And  trace  the  secret  springs  of  Nature's  laws  • 
Kay  why  the  wave,  of  bitter  brine  erewhile, 
Should  to  the  bosom  of  the  deep  recoil. 


Robbed  of  its  salt,  and  from  the  cloud  distil, 
Sweet  as  the  waters  of  the  limpid  rill  ?  " 

(Book  v.) 

But  the  truth  appears  to  be  that  the 
torrent  which  descends  from  a  water- 
spout, is  but  the  condensed  accumu- 
lation of  its  own  vapour,  and,  though 
in  the  hollow  of  the  lower  cone  which 
rests  upon  the  surface  of  the  sea,  salt 
water  may  possibly  ascend  in  the 
partial  vacuum  caused  by  revolution ; 
or  spray  may  be  caught  up  and  col- 
lected by  the  wind,  still  these  can- 
not be  raised  by  it  beyond  a  very 
limited  height,  and  what  Camoens 
saw  descend  was,  as  he  truly  says, 
the  sweet  water  distilled  from  the 
cloud. 


73 


CHAP.  II.]  AXTHELIA. 

and    convex   surfaces ;    and   to   the   spectator  his   own 
figure,    but   more   particularly   the   head,   appears   sur- 


ANTHEUA    A3  IT  APPEARS  TO  THE  PERSON  HIMSELF. 


rounded  by  a  halo  as  vivid  as  if  radiated  from  dia- 
monds.1 The  Buddhists  may  possibly  have  taken  from 
this  beautifid  object  their  idea  of  the  agni  or  emblem 
of  the  sun,  with  which  the  head  of  Buddha  is  sur- 
mounted. But  unable  to  express  a  halo  in  sculpture, 
they  concentrated  it  into  aflame. 

Another  luminous  phenomenon  which  sometimes  ap- 
pears in  the  hill  country,  consists  of  beams  of  light, 
which  intersect  the  sky,  whilst  the  sun  is  yet  in  the 
ascendant  ;  sometimes  horizontally,  accompanied  by  in- 
termitting movements,  and  sometimes  vertically,  a  broad 


1  SCORESBT  describes  the  occur- 
rence of  a  similar  phenomenon  in  the 
Arctic  Seas  in  July,  1813,  the  lumi- 
nous circle  being  produced  on  the 
particles  of  fog  which  rested  on  the 
calm  water.  "The  lower  part  of 
the  circle  descended  beneath  my  feet 
to  the  side  of  the  ship,  and  although 
it  could  not  be  a  hundred  feet 
from  the  eye,  it  was  perfect,  and  the 
colours  distinct.  The  centre  of  the 
coloured  circle  was  distinguished  by 
my  own  shadow,  the  head  of  which, 
enveloped  by  a  halo,  was  most  con- 
spicuously pourtrayed.  The  halo  or 
glory  was  evidently  impressed  on  the 
fog,  but  the  figure  appeared  to  be  a 
shadow  on  the  water ;  the  different 


parts  became  obscure  in  proportion 
to  their  remoteness  from  the  head,  so 
that  the  lower  extremities  were  not 
perceptible." — Account  of  the  Arctic 
Regio>is,  vol.  i.  ch.  v.  sec.  vi.  p.  394. 
A  similar  phenomenon  occurs  in  the 
Khasia  Hills,  in  the  north-east  of 
Bengal.  —  Asiat.  Soc.  Journ.  Seng. 
vol.  xiii.  p.  616.  Dr.  M'Gee  of  Belfast 
writes  to  me  that  he  has  observed  the 
anthelia  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  when 
the  rays  of  the  sun  were  projected 
obliquely  on  the  dewy  grass;  and 
that  he  has  seen  the  same  pheno- 
menon on  the  sea  at  Ardglass,  in  the 
county  of  Down,  when  the  surface 
of  the  water  was  crisped  by  a  faint 
breath  of  wind. 


74 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


belt  of  the  blue  sky  interposing  between  them.1  In 
Ceylon  this  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  air  holding  in 
suspension  a  large  quantity  of  vapour,  which  receives 
shadows  and  reflects  rays  of  light.  The  natives,  who 
designate  them  "Buddha's  rays,"  attach  a  superstitious 
dread  to  their  appearance,  and  believe  them  to  be  porten- 
tous of  misfortune— in  every  month,  with  the  exception 
of  May,  which,  for  some  unexplained  reason,  is  exempted. 
HEALTH. — In  connection  with  the  subject  of  "Cli- 
mate," one  of  the  most  important  inquiries  is  the 
probable  effect  on  the  health  and  constitution  of  a  Euro- 
pean produced  by  a  prolonged  exposure  to  an  unvarying 
temperature,  upwards  of  30  degrees  higher  than  the 
average  of  Great  Britain.  But  to  this  the  most  tran- 
quillising  reply  is  the  assurance  that  mere  heat,  even  to  a 
degree  beyond  that  of  Ceylon,  is  not  unhealthy  in  itself. 
Aden,  enclosed  in  a  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  is  not 
considered  insalubrious ;  and  the  hot  season  in  some 
parts  of  India,  where  the  thermometer  stands  at  100°  at 
midnight,  is  comparatively  a  healthy  period  of  the  year. 
In  fact,  in  numerous  cases  heat  may  be  the  means  of 
removing  the  immediate  sources  of  disease.  Its  first  per- 
ceptible effect  is  a  slight  increase  of  the  normal  bodily 
temperature  beyond  98°,  and,  simultaneously,  an  increased 
activity  of  all  the  vital  functions.  To  this  everything 
contributes  an  exciting  sympathy — the  glad  surprise  of 
the  natural  scenery,  the  luxury  of  verdure,  the  tempting 
novelty  of  fruits,  and  all  the  unaccustomed  attractions 
of  a  tropical  home.  Under  these  combined  influences 
the  nervous  sensibility  is  considerably  excited,  and  the 
circulation  acquires  greater  velocity,  with  slightly  dimi- 


1  VIGNE  mentions  an  appearance 
of  this  kind  in  the  valley  of  Kashmir  : 
"  Whilst  the  rest  of  the  horizon  was 
glowing  golden  over  the  mountain 
tops,  a  broad,  well-defined  ray- 
shaped  streak  of  indigo  was  shooting 
upwards  in  the  zenith  :  it  remained 
nearly  stationary  about  an  hour, 
and  was  then  blended  into  the  sky 


around  it,  and  disappeared  with  the 
day.  It  was,  no  doubt,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  some  particular 
mountains  which  intercepted  the  red 
rays,  and  threw  a  blue  shadow,  by 
causing  so  much  of  the  sky  above 
Kashmir  to  remain  unaffected  by 
them." —  Travels  in  Kashmir)  vol.  ii. 
ch.  x.  p.  115. 


CHAP.  II. J 


HEALTH. 


73 


nished  force.  This  is  soon  followed,  however,  by  the 
disagreeable  evidences  of  the  effort  made  by  the  system 
to  accommodate  itself  to  the  new  atmospheric  condition. 
The  skin  often  becomes  fretted  by  "  prickly  heat,"  or 
tormented  by  a  profusion  of  boils,  but  relief  being  speedily 
obtained  through  these  resources,  the  new  comer  is  seldom 
afterwards  annoyed  by  a  recurrence  of  the  process,  un- 
less under  circumstances  of  impaired  tone,  the  result  of 
weakened  digestion  or  climatic  derangement. 

Malaria.  —  Compared  with  Bengal  and  the  Dekkan, 
the  climate  of  Ceylon  presents  a  striking  superiority  in 
mildness  and  exemption  from  all  the  extremes  of  atmo- 
spheric disturbance ;  and,  except  in  particular  localities, 
all  of  which  are  well  known  and  avoided1,  from  being 
liable  after  the  rains  to  malaria,  or  infested  at  par- 
ticular seasons  with  agues  and  fever,  a  lengthened  resi- 
dence in  the  island  may  be  contemplated,  without  the 
slightest  apprehension  of  prejudicial  results.  The  pes- 
tilential localities  are  chiefly  at  the  foot  of  mountains, 
and,  strange  to  say,  in  the  vicinity  of  some  active  rivers, 
whilst  the  vast  level  plains,  whose  stagnant  waters  are 
made  available  for  the  cultivation  of  rice,  are  seldom  or 
never  productive  of  disease.  It  is  even  believed  that 
the  deadly  air  is  deprived  of  its  poison  in  passing  over 
an  expanse  of  still  water  ;  and  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able circumstances  is,  that  the  points  fronting  the  aerial 
currents  are  those  exposed  to  danger,  whilst  projecting 
cliffs,  belts  of  forest,  and  even  moderately  high  walls, 
serve  to  shelter  and  protect  all  behind  them  from  attack.2 


1  Notwithstanding  this  general  con- 
dition, fevers  of  a  very  serious  kind 
have  been  occasionally  known  to  at- 
tack persons  on  the  coast,  who  had 
never  exposed  themselves  to  the  mi- 
asma of  the  jungle.  Such  instances 
have  occurred  at  Galle,  and  more 
rarely  at  Colombo.  The  characteristics 
of  places  in  this  regard  have,  in  some 
instances,  changed  unaccoxmtably  ; 
thus  at  Peradenia,  close  to  Kandy,  it 
was  at  one  time  regarded  as  dan- 
gerous to  sleep. 


2  Generally  speaking,  a  flat  open 
country  is  healthy,  either  when 
flooded  deeply  by  rains,  or  when 
dried  to  hardness  by  the  sun ;  but  in 
the  process  of  desiccation,  its  exhala- 
tions are  perilous.  The  wooded 
slopes  at  the  base  of  mountains  are 
likewise  notorious  for  fevers;  such 
as  the  terrai  of  the  Nepal  hills,  the 
Wynaad  jungle,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Ghauts,  and  the  eastern  side  of  the 
mountains  of  Ceylon. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 


LP.VRT   I. 


In  traversing  districts  suspected  of  malaria,  experience  has 
indicated  certain  precautions,  which,  with  ordinary  pru- 
dence and  firmness,  serve  to  neutralise  the  risk  —  retiring 
to  rest  punctually  at  sunset,  generous  diet,  moderate  sti- 
mulants, and  the  daily  use  of  quinine  both  before  and 
after  exposure.  These,  and  the  precaution,  at  whatever 
sacrifice  of  comfort,  to  sleep  under  mosquito  curtains,  have 
been  proved  in  long  journeys  to  be  valuable  prophy- 
lactics against  fever  and  the  pestilence  of  the  jungle. 

Food.  — -  Always  bearing  in  mind  that  of  the  quantity 
of  food  habitually  taken  in  a  temperate  climate,  a  certain 
proportion  is  consumed  to  sustain  animal  warmth,  it 
is  obvious  that  in  the  glow  of  the  tropics,  where  the 
heat  is  already  in  excess,  this  portion  of  the  ingesta 
not  only  becomes  superfluous  so  far  as  this  office  is  con- 
cerned, but  occasions  disturbance  of  the  other  functions 
both  of  digestion  and  elimination.  Over-indulgence  in 
food,  equally  with  intemperance  in  wine,  is  one  fruitful 
source  of  disease  amongst  Europeans  in  Ceylon;  and 
maladies  and  mortality  are  often  the  result  of  the  former, 
in  patients  who  would  repel  as  an  insult  the  imputation 
of  the  latter. 

So  well  have  national  habits  conformed  to  instinctive 
promptings  in  this  regard,  that  the  natives  of  hot  coun- 
tries have  unconsciously  sought  to  heighten  the  enjoy- 
ment of  food  by  taking  their  principal  repast  after  sun- 
set l ;  and  the  European  in  the  East  will  speedily  discover 
for  himself  the  prudence,  not  only  of  reducing  the 
quantity,  but  in  regard  to  the  quality  of  his  meals,  of 
adopting  those  articles  which  nature  has  bountifully 


1  The  prohibition  of  swine,  which 
has  formed  an  item  in  the  dietetic 
ritual  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Hebrews, 
and  Mahometans,  has  been  defended 
in  all  ages,  from  Manetho  and  Hero- 
dotus downwards,  on  the  ground  that 
the  flesh  of  an  animal  so  foully  fed 
has  a  tendency  to  promote  cutaneous 
disorders,  a  belief  which,  though  held 


as  a  fallacy  in  northern  climates,  may 
have  a  truthful  basis  in  the  East. 
— ^EuAN,  Hist.  Anim.  1.  x.  16.  In 
a  recent  general  order  Lord  Clyde 
has  prohibited  its  use  in  the  Indian 
army.  Camel's  flesh,  which  is  also 
declared  unclean  in  Leviticus,  is  said 
to  produce  in  the  Arabs  serious  de- 
rangement of  the  stomach. 


CUAP..U.] 


HEALTH. 


77 


supplied  as  best  suited  to  the  climate.  With  a  moderate 
use  of  flesh  meat,  vegetables,  and  especially  farinaceous 
food,  are  chiefly  to  be  commended.  The  latter  is  ren- 
dered attractive  by  the  unrivalled  excellence  of  the  Sin- 
ghalese in  the  preparation  of  innumerable  curries  l,  each 
tempered  by  the  delicate  creamy  juice  expressed  from 
the  flesh  of  the  coco-nut  after  it  has  been  reduced  to  a 
pulp.  Nothing  of  the  same  class  in  India  can  bear  a 
comparison  with  the  piquant  delicacy  of  a  curry  in  Ceylon, 
composed  of  fresh  condiments  and  compounded  by  the 
skilful  hand  of  a  native. 

The  use  of  fruit. — Fruits  are  abundant  and  wholesome ; 
but  with  the  exception  of  oranges,  pineapples,  the  luscious 
mango  and  the  indescribable  "  rambutan," 2  for  want  of 
horticultural  attention  they  are  inferior  in  flavour,  and 
soon  cease  to  be  alluring. 

Wine. — Wine  has  of  late  years  become  accessible  to  all 
in  the  island,  and  has  thus,  in  some  degree,  been  substi- 
tuted for  brandy ;  the  abuse  of  which  at  former  periods  is 
commemorated  in  the  records  of  those  fearful  disorders  of 
the  liver,  derangements  of  the  brain,  exhausting  fevers, 
and  visceral  diseases,  which  characterise  the  medical 
annals  of  earlier  times.  With  a  firm  adherence  to  tem- 
perance in  the  enjoyment  of  stimulants,  and  moderation 
in  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  with  attention  to  exercise 
and  frequent  resort  to  the  bath,  it  may  be  confidently 
asserted  that  health  in  Ceylon  is  as  capable  of  preser- 
vation and  life  as  susceptible  of  enjoyment,  as  in  any 
country  within  the  tropics. 

Exposure. — Prudence  and  foresight  are,  however, 
as  indispensable  there  as  in  any  other  climate  to  escape 
well-understood  risks.  Catarrhs  and  rheumatism  are 


1  The  popular  error  of  thinking 
curry  to  be  an  invention  of  the  Por- 
tuguese in  India  is  disproved  by  the 
mention  in  the  Rajamh  of  its  use  in 
Ceylon  in  the  second  century  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  in  the  Muha- 


wanso  in  the  fifth  century  of  it.  This 
subject  is  mentioned  elsewhere  :  see 
chapter  on  the  Arts  and  Sciences  of 
the  Singhalese,  Vol.  I.  p.  437. 

2  For  a  description  of  the  rambutau 
see  Vol.  I.  p.  120.,  II.  p.  115. 


78 


PHYSICAL   GEOGKATHY. 


[PART  I. 


as  likely  to  follow  needless  exposure  to  the  withering 
"  along-shore  wind  "  of  the  winter  months  in  Ceylon  \ 
as  they  are  traceable  to  unwisely  confronting  the  east 
winds  of  March  in  Great  Britain ;  and  during  the  alter 
nation,  from  the  sluggish  heat  which  precedes  the 
monsoon,  to  the  moist  and  chill  vapours  that  follow  the 
change,  intestinal  disorders,  fevers,  and  liver  complaints 
are  not  more  characteristic  of  an  Indian  rainy  season 
than  of  an  English  autumn,  and  are  equally  amenable  to 
those  precautions  by  which  liability  may  be  diminished  in 
either  place. 

Paleness. — At  the  same  time  it  must  be  observed, 
that  the  pallid  complexion  peculiar  to  old  residents,  is 
not  alone  ascribable  to  an  organic  change  in  the  skin 
from  its  being  the  medium  of  perpetual  exudation,  but 
in  part  to  a  deficiency  of  red  globules  in  the  blood,  and 
mainly  to  a  reduced  vigour  in  the  whole  muscular  ap- 
paratus, including  the  action  of  the  heart,  which  imper- 
fectly compensates  by  increase  of  rapidity  for  diminution 
of  power.  It  is  remarkable  how  suddenly  this  sallow- 
ness  disappears,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  warm  tints  of 
health,  after  a  visit  of  a  very  few  days  to  the  plains  of 
Neuera-ellia,  or  to  the  picturesque  coffee  plantations  in  the 
hills  that  surround  it. 

Ladies.  —  Ladies,  from  their  more  regular  and  mo- 
derate habits,  and  their  avoidance  of  exposure,  might 
be  expected  to  withstand  the  climate  better  than  men ; 


1  See  ante,  p.  57.  It  is  an  agree- 
able characteristic  of  the  climate  of 
Ceylon,  that  sun-stroke,  which  is  so 
common  even  in  the  northern  por- 
tions of  India,  is  almost  unknown  in 
the  island.  Sportsmen  are  out  all 
day  long  in  the  hottest  weather,  a 
practice  which  would  be  thought 
more  than  hazardous  in  Oude  or  the 
north-west  provinces.  Perhaps  an 
explanation  of  this  may  be  found  in 
the  difference  in  moisture  in  the  two 
atmospheres,  which  may  modify  the 
degrees  of  evaporation ;  but  the  in- 


quiry is  a  curious  one.  It  is  be- 
coming better  understood  in  the 
army  that  active  service,  and  even  a 
moderate  exposure  to  the  solar  rays 
(always  guarding  them  from  the  hcail), 
are  conducive  rather  than  injurious 
to  health  in  the  tropics.  The  pale 
and  sallow  complexion  of  ladies  and 
children  born  in  India,  is  ascribable 
in  a  certain  degree  to  the  same  pro- 
cess by  which  vegetables  are  blanched 
under  shades  which  exclude  the 
light:  —  they  are  reared  in  apart- 
ments too  carefully  kept  dark. 


CHAP.  II.J  HEALTH.  79 

and  to  a  certain  extent  the  anticipation  appears  to  be 
correct,  but  it  by  no  means  justifies  the  assumption  of 
general  immmiity.  Though  less  obnoxious  to  specific 
disease,  debility  and  delicacy  are  the  frequent  results  of 
habitual  seclusion  and  avoidance  of  the  solar  light. 
These,  added  to  more  obvious  causes  of  occasional  illness, 
suggest  the  necessity  of  vigorous  exertion  and  regular 
exercise  as  indispensable  prophylactics. 

Children.-^,  suitably  clothed,  and  not  injudiciously 
fed,  children  may  remain  in  the  island  till  eight  or  ten 
years  of  age,  when  anxiety  begins  to  be  excited  by  the 
attenuation  of  the  frame  and  the  apparent  absence  of 
strength  in  proportion  to  development.  These  symptoms, 
the  result  of  relaxed  tone  and  defective  nutrition,  are  to 
be  remedied  by  change  of  climate  either  to  the  more 
lofty  ranges  of  the  mountains,  or,  more  providently,  to 
Europe. 

Effects  on  Europeans  already  Diseased.  —  To  persons 
already  suffering  from  disease,  the  experiment  of  a  resi- 
dence in  Ceylon  is  one  of  questionable  propriety.  Those 
of  a  scrofulous  diathesis  need  not  consider  it  hazardous, 
as  experience  does  not  show  that  in  such  there  is  any 
greater  susceptibility  to  local  or  constitutional  disorders, 
or  that  when  these  are  present,  there  is  greater  difficulty 
in  their  removal. 

To  -those  threatened  with  consumption,  the  island 
may  be  supposed  to  offer  some  advantages  in  equability 
of  temperature,  and  the  comparative  quiescence  of 
the  lungs  from  the  reduced  necessity  for  respiratory 
effort.  Besides,  the  choice  of  climates  presented  by 
Ceylon  enables  a  patient,  by  the  easy  change  of  resi- 
dence to  a  different  altitude,  avoiding  the  heats  of  one 
period  and  the  dry  winds  of  another,  to  check  to  a  great 
extent  the  predisposing  causes  likely  to  lead  to  the  de- 
velopment of  tubercle.  This,  with  attention  to  clothing 
and  systematic  exercise  as  preventives  of  active  disease, 
may  serve  to  restrain  the  further  progress  though  it  fail 
to  eradicate  the  tendency  to  phthisis.  But  when  the 


PHYSICAL    GEOGKAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


formation  of  tubercle  has  already  taken  place  to  any  con- 
siderable extent,  and  is  accompanied  by  softening,  the 
morbid  condition  is  not  unlikely  to  advance«with  alarming 
celerity  ;  and  the  only  compensating  circumstance  is  the 
diminution  of  apparent  suffering,  ascribable  to  general 
languor,  and  the  absence  of  bronchial  irritation  occasioned 
by  cold  and  humid  air. 

Dyspepsia.  —  Habitual  dyspeptics,  and  those  affected 
by  hepatic  obstruction,  had  better  avoid  a  lengthened 
sojourn  in  Ceylon ;  but  the  tortures  of  rheumatism  and 
gout,  if  they  be  not  reduced,  are  certainly  postponed 
for  longer  intervals  than  those  conceded  to  the  same 
sufferers  in  England.  Gout,  owing  to  the  greater  cutaneous 
excretion,  in  most  instances  totally  disappears. 

Precautions  for  Health.  —  Next  to  attention  to  diet, 
health  in  Ceylon  is  mainly  to  be  preserved  by  systematic 
exercise,  and  a  costume  adapted  to  the  climate  and  its 
requirements.  Paradoxical  as  it  may  sound,  the  great 
cause  of  disease  in  hot  climates  is  cold.  Nothing  ought 
more  cautiously  to  be  watched  and  avoided  than  the 
chills  produced  by  draughts  and  dry  winds ;  and  a 
change  of  dress  or  position  should  be  instantly  resorted 
to  when  the  warning  sensation  of  chilliness  is  per- 
ceived. 

Exercise.  —  The  early  morning  ride,  after  a  single 
cup  of  coffee  and  a  biscuit  on  rising,  and  the  luxury  of 
the  bath  before  dressing  for  breakfast,  constitute  the 
enjoyments  of  the  forenoon ;  and  a  similar  stroll  on 
horseback,  returning  at  sunset  to  repeat  the  bath1  pre- 
paratory to  the  evening  toilette,  completes  the  hygienic 
discipline  of  the  day.  At  night  the  introduction  of  the 
Indian  punka  into  bed-rooms  would  be  valuable,  a  thin 
flannel  coverlet  being  spread  over  the  bed.  Nothing 


1  "Je  me  souviens  que  les  deux 
premieres  anne'es  que  je  fus  en  ce 
pais-la,  j'eus  deux  maladies:  alors 
je  pris  la  coiitume  de  me  Men  lam- 
soir  et  matin,  et  pendant  16  ans  que 


j'y  ay  demeur^  depuis,  je  n'ay  pas 
senti  le  moindre  rnal."  —  KIBEYRO, 
Hist,  de  FIsle  de  Ceyltm,  vol.  v.  ch. 
xix.  p.  149. 


CHAP.  II.]  HEALTH.  61 

serves  more  effectually  to  break  down  an  impaired  con- 
stitution in  the  tropics  than  the  want  of  timely  and  re- 
freshing sleep. 

Dress. — In  the  selection  of  dress  experience  has  taught 
the  superiority  of  calico  to  linen,  the  latter,  when  damp 
from  the  exhalation  of  the  skin,  causing  a  chill  which 
is  injurious,  whilst  the  former,  from  some  peculiarity  in 
its  fibre,  however  moist  it  may  become,  never  imparts 
the  same  sensation  of  cold.  The  clothing  best  adapted 
to  the  climate  is  that  whose  texture  least  excites  the 
already  profuse  perspiration,  and  whose  fashion  presents 
the  least  impediment  to  its  escape.1  The  discomfort 
of  woollen  has  led  to  its  avoidance  as  far  as  possible ; 
but  those  who,  in  England,  may  have  accustomed  them- 
selves to  flannel,  will  find  the  advantage  of  persevering 
to  wear  it,  provided  it  is  so  light  as  not  to  excite  per- 
spiration. So  equipped  for  active  exercise,  exposure 
to  the  sun,  however  hot,  may  be  regarded  without  ap- 
prehension, provided  the  limbs  are  in  motion  and  the  body 
in  ordinary  health ;  but  the  instinct  of  all  oriental  races 
has  taught  the  necessity  of  protecting  the  head,  and 
European  ingenuity  has  not  failed  to  devise  expedients 
for  this  all-important  object. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  apparent  that, 
compared  with  continental  India,  the  securities  for  health 
in  Ceylon  are  greatly  in  favour  of  the  island.  As  to  the 
formidable  diseases  which  are  common  to  both,  their 
occurrence  in  either  is  characterised  by  the  same  appalling 
manifestations :  dysentery  fastens,  with  all  its  fearful  con- 
comitants, on  the  unwary  and  incautious  ;  and  cholera, 
with  its  dark  horrors,  sweeps  mysteriously  across  neg- 
lected districts,  exacting  its  hecatombs.  But  the  visitation 
and  ravages  of  both  are  somewhat  under  control,  and 


1  "Man  not  being  created  an 
aquatic  animal,  his  skin  cannot  with 
impunity  be  exposed  to  perpetual 
moisture,  whether  directly  applied  or 
arising  from  perspiration  retained  by 

VOL.    I. 


dress.  The  importance  to  health  of 
keeping  the  skin  dry  does  not  appear 
to  have  hitherto  received  due  atten- 
tion."— PICKERING,  Races  of  Man,  fyc., 
ch.  xliv. 


82 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


the  experience  bequeathed  by  former  gloomy  visitations 
has  added  to  the  facilities  for  checking  their  recurrence.1 

In  some  of  the  disorders  incidental  to  the  climate,  and 
the  treatment  of  ulcerations  caused  by  the  wounds  of 
the  mosquitoes  and  leeches,  the  native  Singhalese  have 
a  deservedly  high  reputation ;  but  their  practice,  when 
it  depends  on  specifics,  is  too  empirical  to  be  safely  re- 
lied on ;  and  their  traditional  skill,  though  boasting  a 
well  authenticated  antiquity,  achieves  few  triumphs  in 
competition  with  the  soberer  discipline  of  European 
science. 


1  "  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
although  all  the  troops  in  Ceylon 
have  occasionally,  but  at  rare  inter- 
vals, suffered  severely  from  cholera, 
the  disease  has  in  very  few  instances 
attacked  the  officers,  or  indeed  Eu- 
ropeans in  the  same  grade  of  life. 
This  is  one  important  difference  to 
be  borne  in  mind  when  estimating  the 
comparative  risk  of  life  in  India 


and  Ceylon.  It  must  be  due  to  the 
difference  in  comforts  and  quarters,  or 
more  particularly  to  the  exemption 
from  night  duty,  by  far  the  most  try- 
ing of  the  soldiers'  hardships.  The 
small  mortality  amongst  the  officers 
of  European  regiments  in  Ceylon  is 
very  remarkable." — Note  by  Dr.  CA- 
MERON, Army  Med.  Staff. 


CHAP.  HI. 

VEGETATION. — TEEES  AND  PLANTS. 

ALTHOUGH  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  Ceylon  has  at  all 
times  been  the  theme  of  enthusiastic  admiration,  its  flora 
does  not  probably  exceed  3000  phasnogamic  plants 1 ; 
and  notwithstanding  that  it  has  a  number  of  endemic 
species,  and  a  few  genera,  which  are  not  found  on  the 
great  Indian  peninsula,  still  its  botanical  features  may  be 
described  as  those  characteristic  of  the  southern  regions 
of  Hindustan  and  the  Dekkan.  The  result  of  some  recent 
experiments  has,  however,  afforded  a  curious  confirmation 
of  the  opinion  ventured  by  Dr.  Gardner,  that,  regarding 
its  botany  geographically,  Ceylon  exhibits  more  of  the 
Malayan  flora  and  that  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  than 
of  any  portion  of  India  to  the  west  of  it.  Two  plants  pe- 
culiar to  Malacca,  the  nutmeg  and  the  mangosteen,  have 
been  attempted,  but  unsuccessfully,  to  be  cultivated  in 
Bengal ;  but  in  Ceylon  the  former  has  been  reared  near 
Colombo  with  such  singular  success  that  its  produce  now 
begins  to  figure  in  the  exports  of  the  island ;— and 
mangosteens,  which,  ten  years  ago,  were  exhibited  as 


1  The  prolific  vegetation  of  the  [  was  2670;  of  which  2025  were  di- 
island  is  likely  to  cause  exaggeration  cotyledonous,  and  644  monocotyledo- 
in  the  estimate  of  its  variety.  Dr.  Gard-  nous  flowering  plants,  besides  247 
ner,  shortly  after  his  appointment  as  ferns  and  lycopods.  When  it  is  con- 
superintendent  of  the  Botanic  Garden  sidered  that  this  is  nearly  double  the 
at  Kandy,  in  writing  to  Sir  \V.  Hooker,  indigenous  flora  of  England,  and  little 
conjectured  that  the  Ceylon  flora  under  one  thirtieth  of  the  entire 
might  extend  to  4000  or  5000  species,  number  of  plants  hitherto  described 
But  from  a  recent  Report  of  the  pre-  over  the  world,  the  botanical  rich- 
sent  curator,  Mr.  Thwaites,  it  appears  ness  of  Ceylon,  in  proportion  to  its 
that  the  indigenous  phsenogamic  area,  must  be  regarded  as  equal  tu 
plants  discovered  up  to  August,  1856,  that  of  any  portion  of  the  globe. 

G  2 


84 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


curiosities  from  a  single  tree  in  the  old  Botanic  Garden  at 
Caltura,  are  now  found  to  thrive  readily,  and  they  occasion- 
ally appear  at  table,  rivalling  in  their  wonderful  delicacy 
of  flavour  those  which  have  heretofore  been  regarded 
as  peculiar  to  the  Straits. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  botany  of  Ceylon  has  been 
imperfectly  submitted  to  scientific  scrutiny.  Linnasus, 
in  1747,  prepared  his  Flora  Zeylanica,  from  specimens 
collected  by  Hermann,  which  had  previously  constituted 
the  materials  of  the  Thesaurus  Zeylanicus  of  Burman  and 
now  form  part  of  the  herbarium  in  the  British  Museum. 
A  succession  of  industrious  explorers  have  been  since 
engaged  in  following  up  the  investigation l ;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  an  imperfect  and  unsatisfactory  catalogue  by 
Moon,  no  enumeration  of  Ceylon  plants  has  yet  been  pub- 
lished. Dr.  Gardner  had  made  some  progress  with  a 
Singhalese  Flora,  when  his  death  took  place  in  1849,  an 
event  which  threw  the  task  on  other  hands,  and  has 
postponed  its  completion  for  years.2 

From  identity  of  position  and  climate,  and  the  apparent 
similarity  of  soil  between  Ceylon  and  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Indian  peninsula,  a  corresponding 
agreement  might  be  expected  between  the  vegetable 
productions  of  each :  and  accordingly  in  its  aspects 
and  subdivisions  Ceylon  participates  in  those  distinctive 
features  which  the  monsoons  have  imparted  respectively 
to  the  opposite  shores  of  Hindustan.  The  western  coast 


1  Amongst  the  collections  of  Cey- 
lon plants  deposited  in  the  Hookerian 
Herbarium,  are  those  made  by  General 
and  Mrs.  Walker,  by  Major  Cham- 
pion (who  left  the  island  in  1848), 
and  by  Mr.  Thwaites,  who  succeeded 
Dr.  Gardner  in  charge  of  the  Royal 
Botanic  Gardens  at  Kandy.  Moon, 
who  had  previously  held  that  appoint- 
ment, left  extensive  collections  in 
the  herbarium  at  Peradenia,  which 
have  been  largely  increased  by  his 
successors ;  and  Macrae,  who  was 
employed  by  the  Horticultural  So- 
ciety of  London,  has  enriched  their 


museum  with  Ceylon  plants.  Some 
admirable  letters  of  Mrs.  "Walker 
are  printed  in  HOOKER'S  Companion 
to  the  Botanical  Magazine.  They 
include  an  excellent  account  of  the 
vegetation  of  Ceylon. 

2  Dr.  Gardner,  in  1848,  drew  up  a 
short  paper  containing  Some  Remarks 
on  the  Flora  of  Ceylon,  which  was 
printed  in  the  appendix  to  LEE'S 
Translation  of  Ribeyro ;  to  this  essay, 
and  to  his  personal  communications 
during  frequent  journeys,  I  am  in- 
debted for  many  facts  "incorporated 
in  the  following  pages. 


CHAP.  III.] 


PLANTS    OF   THE   COAST. 


M 


being  exposed  to  the  milder  influence  of  the  south-west 
wind,  shows  luxuriant  vegetation,  the  result  of  its  humid 
and  temperate  climate  ;  whilst  the  eastern,  like  Coroman- 
del,  has  a  comparatively  dry  and  arid  aspect,  produced 
by  the  hot  winds  that  blow  for  half  the  year. 

The  littoral  vegetation  of  the  seaborde  exhibits  little 
variation  from  that  common  throughout  the  Eastern 
archipelago ;  but  it  wants  the  Phoenix  paludosa  ' ,  a 


1  Drs.  HOOKER  and  THOMSON,  in 
their  Introductory  Essay  to  the  Flora 
of  India,  speaking  of  Ceylon,  state 
that  the  Nipa  fruticans  (another 
characteristic  palm  of  the  Gangetie 
delta)  and  Cycads  are  also  wanting 
there  ;  but  both  these  exist  (the 
former  abundantly),  though  perhaps 
not  alluded  to  in  any  work  on  Ceylon 
botany  to  which  those  authors  had 
access.  In  connection  with  thissubject 
it  may  be  mentioned,  as  a  fact  which 
is  much  to  be  regretted,  that,  although 
botanists  have  been  appointed  to 
the  superintendence  of  the  Botanic 
Gardens  at  Kandy,  information  re- 
garding the  vegetation  of  the  island 
is  scarcely  obtainable  without  ex- 
treme trouble  and  reference  to  papers 
scattered  through  innumerable  pe- 
riodicals. That  the  maj  ority  of  Ceylon 
plants  are  already  known  to  science 
is  owing  to  the  coincidence  of  their 
being  also  natives  of  India,  whence 
descriptions  have  emanated ;  but  there 
has  been  no  recent  attempt  on  the 
part  of  colonial  or  European  botanists 
even  to  throw  into  a  useful  form  the 
already  published  descriptions  of  the 
commoner  plants  of  the  island.  Such 
a  work  would  be  the  first  step  to  a 
Singhalese  Flora.  The  preparation 
of  such  a  compendium  would  seem 
to  belong  to  the  duties  of  the  colo- 
nial botanist,  and  as  such  it  was 
an  object  of  especial  solicitude  to 
the  late  superintendent,  Dr.  Gardner. 
But  the  heterogeneous  duties  im- 
posed upon  the  person  holding  his 
office  (the  evils  arising  from  which 
are  alluded  to  Vol.  II.  p.  209),  have 
hitherto  been  insuperable  obstacles 
to  the  attainment  of  this  object,  as 


they  have  also  been  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  systematic  account  of  the 
general  features  of  Ceylon  vegeta- 
tion. Such  a  work  is  strongly  felt 
to  be  a  desideratum  by  numbers 
in  Ceylon,  who,  though  not  accom- 
plished botanists,  are  anxious  to 
acquire  accurate  ideas  as  to  the 
aspects  of  the  flora  at  different 
elevations,  different  seasons,  and 
different  quarters  of  the  island ;  of 
the  kinds  of  plants  that  chiefly 
contribute  to  the  vegetation  of  the 
coasts,  the  plains,  and  mountains; 
of  the  general  relations  that  subsist 
between  them  and  the  flora  of  the 
Camatic,  Malabar,  and  the  Malay 
archipelago ;  and  generally  of  the 
more  useful  plants  in  science,  arts, 
medicine,  and  commerce.  To  render 
such  a  work  at  once  accurate  as  well 
as  interesting,  would  require  sound 
scientific  knowledge ;  and,  however 
skilfully  and  popularly  written,  there 
would  still  be  portions  somewhat 
difficult  of  comprehension  to  the 
ordinary  reader ;  but  curiosity  would 
be  stimulated  by  the  very  occurrence 
of  difficulty,  and  thus  an  impulse 
might  be  given  to  the  acquisition  of 
rudimentary  botany,  which  would 
eventually  enable  the  inquirer  to 
contribute  his  quota  to  the  natural 
history  of  Ceylon. 

P.  S.  Since  the  foregoing  passage 
was  written,  Mr.  Thwaites  has  an- 
nounced the  early  publication  of  a 
new  work  on  Ceylon  plants,  to  be 
entitled  Enumeratio  Plantarum  Zey- 
IfDiiff :  with  Descriptions  of  the  new 
and  little  knoicn  yenera  and  species ; 
and  observations  on  their  habits,  uses, 
&c.  In  the  identification  of  the  spe- 


G  3 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


dwarf  date-palm,  which  literally  covers  the  islands  of  the 
Sunderbunds  at  the  delta  of  the  Ganges.  A  dense 
growth  of  mangroves  1  occupies  the  shore,  beneath  whose 
overarching  roots  the  ripple  of  the  sea  washes  unseen 
over  the  muddy  beach.  Ketiring  from  the  strand, 
there  are  groups  of  Sonneratia2,  Avicennia,  Heritiera, 
and  Pandanus ;  the  latter  with  a  stem  like  a  dwarf 
palm,  round  which  the  serrated  leaves  ascend  in  spiral 
convolutions  till  they  terminate  in  a  pendulous  crown, 
from  which  drop  the  amber  clusters  of  beautiful  but 
uneatable  fruit,  with  a  close  resemblance  in  shape 
and  colour  to  that  of  the  pineapple,  from  which,  and 
from  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  leaves,  the  plant 
has  acquired  its  name  of  the  "  Screw-pine." 


cies  Mr.  Thwaites  is  to  be  assisted 
by  Dr.  Hooker,  F.  B.  S.  ;  and  from 
their  conjoint  labours  we  may  at  last 
hope  for  a  production  worthy  of  the 
subject. 

1  Rhisophora  Candelaria,  Kandelia 
Khccdei,  Bruguiera  f/ymnorhiza. 

2  At  a  meeting1  of  the  Entomo- 
logical  Society  in  1842,   Dr.    Tem- 
pleton    sent,    for    the     use    of   the 
members,  many  thin  slices  of  sub- 
stance  to    replace   cork-wood   as    a 
lining  for  insect  cases  and  drawers. 
Along  with  the  soft  wood  he  sent  the 
following  notice  :  —  "In  this  country 
(he  writes   from   Colombo,    Ceylon, 
May  19,  1842),  along  the    marshy 
banks   of  the  large  rivers,  grows  a 
very  large    handsome   tree,    named 
Sotmeratia    acida    by    the    younger 
Linnjeus ;  its  roots  "spread  far   and 
wide  through  the  soft  moist  earth, 
and   at  various   distances    send    up 
most    extraordinary    long     spindle- 
shaped  excrescences  four  or  five  feet 
above   the    surface.      Of   these    Sir 
James  Edward  Smith  remarks,  'what 
those   horn-shaped  excrescences   are 
which  occupy  the  soil  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  base  of  the  tree,  from 
a  span  to  a  foot  in  length  and  of  a 
corky    substance,    as    described    by 
Bumphius,  we  can  offer  no  conjec- 
ture.'    Most  curious  things  (remarks 


Dr.  Templeton)  they  are;  they  all 
spring  A-ery  narrow  from  the  root, 
expand  as  they  rise,  and  then  become 
gradually  attenuated,  occasionally 
forking,  but  never  throwing  out 
shoots  or  leaves,  or  in  any  respect 
resembling  the  parent  root  or  wood. 
They  are  firm  and  close  in  their  tex- 
ture, nearly  devoid  of  fibrous  struc- 
ture, and  take  a  moderate  polish 
when  cut  with  a  sharp  instrument ; 
but  for  lining  insect  boxes  and 
making  setting-boards  they  have  no 
equal  in  the  world.  The  "finest  pin 
passes  in  with  delightful  ease  and 
i  smoothness,  and  is  held  firmly  and 
I  tightly  so  that  there  is  no  risk  of  the 
insects  becoming  disengaged.  With 
a  fine  saw  I  form  them  into  little 
boards  and  then  smooth  them  with  a 
sharp  case  knife,  but  the  London 
veneering-mills  would  turn  them  out 
fit  for  immediate  use,  without  any 
necessity  for  more  than  a  touch  of 
fine  glass-paper.  Some  of  my  pigmy 
boards  are  two  feet  long  by  three 
and  a  half  inches  wide,  which  is  more 
than  sufficient  for  our  purpose,  and 
to  me  they  have  proved  a  vast  ac- 
quisition. The  natives  call  them 
'  Kirilimow,'  the  latter  syllable  signi- 
fying root."  —  TEMPLETON,  Trans. 
Ent.  Soc.  vol.  iii.  p.  302. 


CHAP.  III.]  PLAXTS    OF   THE   COAST.  87 

A  little  further  inland,  the  sandy  plains  are  covered 
by  a  thorny  jungle,  the  plants  of  which  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  Carnatic,  the  climate  being  alike ;  and 
wherever  man  has  encroached  on  the  solitude,  groves  of 
coco-nut  palms  mark  the  vicinity  of  his  habitations. 

Eemote  from  the  sea,  the  level  country  of  the  north 
has  a  flora  almost  identical  with  that  of  Coromandel ;  but 
the  arid  nature  of  the  Ceylon  soil,  and  its  drier  atmo- 
sphere, is  attested  by  the  greater  proportion  of  euphor- 
bias and  fleshy  shrubs,  as  well  as  by  the  wiry  and 
stunted  nature  of  the  trees,  their  smaller  leaves  and 
thorny  stems  and  branches.1  Conspicuous  amongst  these 
are  acacias  of  many  kinds ;  Cassia  fistula,  the  wood  apple 
(Feronia  elephantum),  and  the  mustard  tree  of  Scripture 
(Salvadora  Persica),  which  extends  from  Ceylon  to  the 
Holy  Land.2  The  margosa  (Azadirachta  Indica),  the 
satin  wood,  the  Ceylon  oak,  and  the  tamarind  and 
ebony,  are  examples  of  the  larger  trees ;  and  in  the 
extreme  north  and  west  the  Palmyra  palm  takes  the 
place  of  the  coco-nut,  and  not  only  lines  the  shore,  but 
lills  the  landscape  on  every  side  with  its  shady  and 
prolific  groves. 

Proceeding  southward  on  the  western  coast,  the 
acacias  disappear,  and  the  greater  profusion  of  vegeta- 
tion, the  taller  growth  of  the  timber,  and  the  darker 
tinge  of  the  foliage,  all  attest  the  influence  of  the  in- 
creased moisture  both  from  the  rivers  and  the  rains. 
The  brilliant  Ixoras,  Erythrinas,  Buteas,  Jonesias,  Hibis- 
cus, and  a  variety  of  flowering  shrubs  of  similar  beauty, 
enliven  the  forests  with  their  splendour;  and  the  seeds 
of  the  cinnamon,  carried  by  the  birds  from  the  culti- 
vated gardens  near  the  coasts,  have  germinated  in  the 
sandy  soil,  and  diversify  the  woods  with  the  fresh  ver- 
dure of  its  polished  leaves  and  delicately-tinted  shoots. 
It  is  to  be  found  universally  to  a  considerable  height  in 
the  lower  range  of  hills,  and  thither  the  Chalias  were 


Dr.  Gardner.     2  The  mustard  tree  of  Scripture  is  described  ante,  p.  51,  n. 
G  4 


88  PHYSICAL   GEOGKAPHY.  [PART  I. 

accustomed  to  resort  to  cut  and  peel  it,  a  task  which 
was  imposed  on  them  as  a  feudal  service  by  the  native 
sovereign,  who  paid  an  annual  tribute  in  prepared  cin- 
namon to  the  Dutch,  and  to  the  present  time  this 
branch  of  the  trade  in  the  article  continues,  but  divested 
of  its  compulsory  character. 

The  Dutch,  in  like  manner,  maintained,  during  the 
entire  period  of  their  rule,  an  extensive  commerce  in 
pepper  worts,  which  still  festoon  the  forest,  but  the 
export  has  almost  ceased  from  Ceylon.  Along  with  these 
the  trunks  of  the  larger  trees  are  profusely  covered 
with  other  delicate  creepers,  chiefly  Convolvuli  and 
Ipomoeas  ;  and  the  pitcher-plant  (Nepenthes  distillatoria) 
lures  the  passer-by  to  halt  and  conjecture  the  probable 
uses  of  the  curious  mechanism,  by  means  of  which  it 
distils  a  quantity  of  limpid  fluid  into  the  vegetable  vases 
at  the  extremity  of  its  leaves.  The  Orchidese  suspend 
their  pendulous  flowers  from  the  angles  of  branches, 
whilst  the  bare  roots  and  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  are 
occasionally  covered  with  fungi  of  the  most  gaudy  colours, 
bright  red,  yellow,  and  purple. 

Of  the  east  side  of  the  island  the  botany  has  never 
yet  been  examined  by  any  scientific  resident,  but  the 
productions  of  the  hill  country  have  been  largely  ex- 
plored, and  present  features  altogether  distinct  from 
those  of  the  plains.  For  the  first  two  or  three  thousand 
feet  the  dissimilarity  is  less  perceptible  to  an  unscientific 
eye,  but  as  we  ascend,  the  difference  becomes  apparent 
in  the  larger  size  of  the  leaves,  and  the  nearly  uniform 
colour  of  the  foliage,  except  where  the  scarlet  shoots  of 
the  ironwood  tree  (Mesua  ferrea)  seem  like  flowers  in 
their  blood-red  hue.  Here  the  roots  of  the  broad-leafed 
wild-plantain  (Musa  textilis)  penetrate  the  soil  among  the 
broken  rocks ;  and  in  moist  spots  the  graceful  bamboo 
flourishes  in  groups,  whose  feathery  foliage  waves  like 
the  plumes  of  the  ostrich.1  It  is  at  these  elevations  that 

1  In  the  Malayan  peninsula  the  I  instrument  of  natural  music,  by  per- 
bamboo  has  been  converted  into  an  |  forating  it  with  holes,  through  which 


CHAF.  III.] 


PLANTS    OF    THE    HILLS. 


the  sameness  of  the  scenery  is  diversified  by  the  grassy 
patenas  before  alluded  to *,  which,  in  their  aspect,  though 
not  their  extent,  may  be  caUed  the  Savannahs  of  Ceylon. 
Here  peaches,  cherries,  and  other  European  fruit  trees, 
grow  freely  ;  but  they  become  evergreens  in  this  summer 
climate,  and,  exhausted  by  perennial  excitement,  and  de- 
prived of  their  winter  repose,  they  refuse  to  ripen  their 
fruit.2  A  similar  failure  was  discovered  in  some  European 
vines,  whichrWere  cultivated  at  Jaffna  ;  but  Mr.  Dyke, 
the  government  agent,  in  whose  garden  they  grew,  con- 
ceiving that  the  activity  of  the  plants  might  be  equally 
checked  by  exposing  them  to  an  extreme  of  warmth,  as 
by  subjecting  them  to  cold,  tried,  with  perfect  success, 
the  experiment  of  laying  bare  the  roots  in  the  strongest 
heat  of  the  sun.  The  result  verified  his  conjecture.  The 
circulation  of  the  sap  was  arrested,  the  vines  obtained 
the  needful  repose,  and  the  grapes,  which  before  had 
fallen  almost  unformed  from  the  tree,  are  now  brought  to 
thorough  maturity,  though  inferior  in  flavour  to  those 
produced  at  home.3 

The  tea  plant  has  been  raised  with  complete  success  in 
the  hills  on  the  estate  of  the  Messrs.  Worms,  at  Eoth- 


the  wind  is  permitted  to  sigh;  and  the 
effect  is  described  as  perfectly  charm- 
ing. Mr.  Logan,  who  in  1847  visited 
Naning,  contiguous  to  the  frontier  of 
the  European  settlement  of  Malacca, 
on  approaching  the  village  of  Kan- 
dang,  was  surprised  by  hearing  "  the 
most  melodious  sounds,  some  soft 
and  liquid  like  the  notes  of  a  flute, 
and  others  deep  and  full  like  the 
tones  of  an  organ.  They  were 
sometimes  low,  interrupted,  or  even 
single,  and  presently  they  would 
swell  into  a  grand  burst  of  mingled 
melody.  On  drawing  near  to  a 
clump  of  trees,  above  the  branches 
of  which  waved  a  slender  bamboo 
about  forty  feet  in  height,  he 
found  that  the  musical  tones  issued 
from  it,  and  were  caused  by  the 
breeze  passing  through  perforations 
in  the  stem.  'The  instrument  thus 
formed  is  called  by  the  natives 


the  bulu  perindu,  or  plaintive  bam- 
boo." Those  which  Mr.  Logan  saw 
had  a  slit  in  each  joint,  so  that  each 
stem  possessed  fourteen  or  twenty 


1  See  ante,  p.  24. 

2  The  apple-tree  in  the  Peradenia 
Gardens  seems  not  onlv  to  have  be- 
come   an    evergreen,   but    to    have 
changed  its  character  in  another  par- 
ticular; for  it  is  found  to  send  out 
numerous    runners     under    ground, 
which    continually  rise  into    small 
stems  and  form  a  growth  of  shrub- 
like  plants  around  the  parent  tree. 

3  An    equally   successful    experi- 
ment, to  give  the  vine  an  artificial 
winter  by  baring  the  roots,  is  re- 
corded by  Mr.  BALLARD,  of  Bombay, 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  A(/ric.  and 
I f»rt t<:  Society  of  India,  under  date 
24th   May,    1824.      Calcutta.   1850. 
Vol.  i.  p.  96. 


DO 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


schild,  in  Pusilawa *  ;  but  the  want  of  any  skilful  mani- 
pulators to  collect  and  prepare  the  leaves,  renders  it 
hopeless  to  attempt  any  experiment  on  a  large  scale,  until 
assistance  can  be  secured  from  China,  to  conduct  the 
preparation. 

Still  ascending,  at  an  elevation  of  6500  feet,  as  we 
approach  the  mountain  plateau  of  Neuera-ellia,  the 
dimensions  of  the  trees  again  diminish,  the  stems  and 
branches  are  covered  with  orchidese  and  mosses,  and 
around  them  spring  up  herbaceous  plants  and  balsams, 
with  here  and  there  broad  expanses  covered  with  Acan- 
thacece,  whose  seeds  are  the  favourite  food  of  the  jungle 
fowl,  which  are  always  in  perfection  during  the  ripening 
of  the  Nilloo.2  It  is  in  these  regions  that  the  tree-ferns 
(Alsophila  gigantea)  rise  from  the  damp  hollows,  and 
carry  their  gracefully  plumed  heads  sometimes  to  the 
height  of  twenty  feet. 

At  length  in  the  loftiest  range  of  the  hills  the 
Ehododendrons  are  discovered  ;  no  longer  delicate 
bushes,  as  in  Europe,  but  timber  trees  of  consider- 
able height,  and  corresponding  dimensions,  and  every 
branch  covered  with  a  blaze  of  crimson  flowers.  In 
these  forests  are  also  to  be  met  with  some  species  of 
Michelia,  the  Indian  representatives  of  the  Magnolias  of 
North  America,  several  arboreous  myrtacece  and  tern- 
stromiacece,  the  most  common  of  which  is  the  camelia- 
like  Gordonia  Ceylanica?  These  and  Vaccinia,  Gaul- 


1  The  cultivation  of  tea  was  at- 
tempted by  the  Dutch,  but  without 
success. 

2  There   are  said  to   be  fourteen 
species  of  the  Nilloo  (Strobilanthes) 
in   Ceylon.     They  form  a  complete 
under-growth  in   the  forest  five  or 
six  feet  in   height,    and   sometimes 
extending  for  miles.    When  in  bloom, 
their  red   and   blue   flowers    are    a 
singularly   beautiful   feature   in   the 
landscape,  and  are  eagerly  searched 
by  the  honey  bees.     Some   species 
are  said  to  flower  only  once  in  five, 
seven,  or  nine  years ;  and  after  ripen- 
ing their  seed  they  die.      This    is 


one  reason  assigned  for  the  sudden 
appearance  of  the  rats,  which  have 
been  elsewhere  alluded  to  (vol.  i.  p. 
149,  ii.  p.  234)  as  invading  the  coffee 
estates,  when  deprived  of  their  ordi- 
nary food  by  the  decay  of  the  nilloo. 
It  has  been  observed  that  the  jungle 
fowl,  after  feeding  on  the  nilloo,  have 
their  eyes  so  affected  by  it,  as  to  be 
partially  blinded,  and  permit  them- 
selves to  be  taken  by  the  hand.  Are 
the  seeds  of  this  plant  narcotic  like 
some  of  the  Solanacece?  or  do  they 
cause  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  like  those 
of  the  Atropa  Belladonna  ? 
3  Dr.  Gardner. 


CHAP.  III.]  PLANTS   OF   THE    HILLS.  91 

theria,  Symploci,  Goughia,  and  Gomphandra,  establish  the 
affinity  between  the  vegetation  of  this  region  and  that  of 
the  Malabar  ranges,  the  Khasia  and  Lower  Himalaya.1 

Generally  speaking,  the  timber  on  the  high  mountains 
is  of  little  value  for  ceconomic  purposes.  Though  of 
considerable  dimensions,  it  is  too  unsubstantial  to  be 
serviceable  for  building  or  domestic  uses  ;  and  perhaps, 
it  may  be  regarded  as  an  evidence  of  its  perishable 
nature,  that— dead  timber  is  rarely  to  be  seen  in  any 
quantity  encumbering  the  ground,  in  the  heart  of  the 
deepest  forests.  It  seems  to  go  to  dust  almost  imme- 
diately after  its  fall,  and  although  the  process  of  de- 
struction is  infinitely  accelerated  by  the  ravages  of 
insects,  especially  the  white  ants  (termites)  and  beetles, 
which  instantly  seize  on  every  fallen  branch  :  still,  one 
would  expect  that  the  harder  woods  would,  more  or 
less,  resist  their  attacks  till  natural  decomposition  should 
have  facilitated  their  operations  and  thus  exhibit  more 
leisurely  the  progress  of  decay.  But  here  decay  is 
comparatively  instantaneous,  and  it  is  seldom  that  fallen 
timber  is  to  be  found,  except  in  the  last  stage  of  con- 
version into  dust. 

Some  of  the  trees  in  the  higher  ranges  are  remarkable 
for  the  prodigious  height  to  which  they  struggle  up- 
wards from  the  dense  jungle  towards  the  air  and  light ; 
and  one  of  the  most  curious  of  nature's  devices,  is  the 
singular  expedient  by  which  some  families  of  these  very 
tall  and  top-heavy  trees  throw  out  buttresses  like  walls 
of  wood,  to  support  themselves  from  beneath.  Five  or 
six  of  these  buttresses  project  like  rays  from  all  sides 
of  the  trunk  :  they  are  from  six  to  twelve  inches  thick, 
and  advance  from  five  to  fifteen  feet  outward  ;  and  as 
they  ascend,  gradually  sink  into  the  bole  and  disappear 
at  the  height  of  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  from  the  ground. 
By  the  firm  resistance  which  they  offer  below,  the  trees 


1  Introduction  to  the  Flora  Inilica  of  Dr.  HOOKER  and  Dr.  THOMSON,  p. 
120.    London,  1855. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


are  effectually  steadied,  and  protected  from  the  leverage 
of  the  crown,  by  which  they  would  otherwise  be  uprooted. 
Some  of  these  buttresses  are  so  smooth  and  flat,  as  almost 
to  resemble  sawn  planks. 

The  greatest  ornaments  of  the  forest  in  these  higher 
regions  are  the  large  flowering  trees ;  the  most  striking 
of  which  is  the  Khododendron,  which  in  Ceylon  forms 
a  forest  in  the  mountains,  and  when  covered  with  flowers, 
it  seems  from  a  distance  as  though  the  hills  were  strewn 
with  vermilion.  This  is  the  principal  tree  on  the 
summit  of  Adam's  Peak,  and  grows  to  the  foot  of  the 
rock  which  carries  the  little  temple  that  covers  the 
sacred  footstep  on  its  crest.  Dr.  Hooker  states  that  the 
honey  of  its  flowers  is  believed  to  be  poisonous  in  some 
parts  of  Sikkim  ;  but  I  never  heard  it  so  regarded  in 
Ceylon. 

One  of  the  most  magnificent  of  the  flowering  trees, 
is  the  coral  tree1,  which  is  also  the  most  familiar  to 
Europeans,  as  the  natives  of  the  low  country  and  the 
coast,  from  the  circumstance  of  its  stem  being  covered 
with  thorns,  plant  it  largely  for  fences,  and  grow  it  in 
the  vicinity  of  their  dwellings.  It  derives  its  English 
name  from  the  resemblance  which  its  scarlet  flowers 
present  to  red  coral,  and  as  these  clothe  the  branches 
before  the  leaves  appear,  their  splendour  attracts  the  eye 
from  a  distance,  especially  when  lighted  by  the  full  blaze 
of  the  sun. 

The  Murutu2  is  another  flowering  tree  which  may 
vie  with  the  Coral,  the  Ehododendron,  or  the  Asoca3, 
the  favourite  of  Sanskrit  poetry.  It  grows  to  a  con- 
siderable height,  especially  in  damp  places  and  the 
neighbourhood  of  streams,  and  pains  have  been  taken, 


1  Erythrina  Indica.  It  belongs  to 
the  pea  tribe,  and  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  Jatropha  muttijida 
which  has  also  acquired  the  name  of 
the  coral  tree.  Its  wood  is  so  light 
and  spongy,  that  it  is  used  in  Ceylon 
to  form  corks  for  preserve  jars; 'and 


both  there  and  at  Madras  the  natives 
make  from  it  models  of  their  imple- 
ments of  husbandry,  and  of  their 
sailing  boats  and  canoes. 

2  Lagerstroemia  Keginse. 

8  See  p.  93. 


CHAP.  III.] 


FLOWERING    PLANTS. 


from  appreciation  of  its  attractions,  to  plant  it  by  the 
road  side  and  in  other  conspicuous  positions.  From 
the  points  of  the  branches  panicles  are  produced,  two 
or  three  feet  in  length,  composed  of  flowers,  each  the 
size  of  a  rose  and  of  every  shade,  from  a  delicate  pink  to 
the  deepest  purple.  It  abounds  in  the  south-west  of 
the  island. 

The  magnificent  Asoca1  is  found  in  the  interior,  and 
is  cultivated,— though  not  successfully,  in  the  Peradenia 
Garden,  and  in  that  attached  to  Elie  House  at  Colombo. 
But  in  Toompane,  and  in  the  valley  of  Doombera,  its 
loveliness  vindicates  all  the  praises  bestowed  on  it  by  the 
poets  of  the  East.  Its  orange  and  crimson  flowers  grow 
in  graceful  racemes,  and  the  Singhalese,  who  have  given 
the  rhododendron  the  pre-eminent  appellation  of  the 
"  great  red  flower,"  (maha-rat-mal,)  have  called  the 
Asoca  the  diya-rat-mal  to  indicate  its  partiality  for 
"  moisture,"  combined  with  its  prevailing  hue. 

But  the  tree  which  will  most  frequently  attract  the 
eye  of  the  traveller,  is  the  "  kattoo-imbul  "  of  the  Singha- 
lese 2,  one  of  those  which  produce  the  silky  cotton  which, 
though  incapable  of  being  spun,  owing  to  the  shortness 
of  its  delicate  fibre,  makes  a  most  luxurious  stuffing  for 
sofas  and  pillows.  The  species  in  question  is  a  tall  tree 
covered  with  formidable  thorns  ;  and  being  deciduous,  the 
fresh  leaves,  like  those  of  the  coral  tree,  do  not  make  their 
appearance  till  after  the  crimson  flowers  have  covered 
the  branches  with  their  bright  tulip-like  petals.  So 
profuse  are  these  gorgeous  flowers,  that  when  they  fall, 
the  ground  for  many  roods  on  all  sides  is  a  carpet  of 
scarlet.  They  are  succeeded  by  large  oblong  pods,  in 
which  the  black  polished  seeds  are  deeply  embedded  in 
the  floss  which  is  so  much  prized  by  the  natives.  The 
trunk  is  of  an  unusually  bright  green  colour,  and  the 


1  Jonesia  Asoca. 

2  Bombax   Malabaricus.      As   the 
genus  Bombax  is  confined  to  tropi- 
cal America,  the  German  botanists, 


Schott  and  Endlicher,  have  assigned 
to  the  imbul  its  ancient  Sanskrit 
name,  and  described  it  as  Salmalict 
Jfalabanca, 


1)4 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


branches  issue  horizontally  from  the  stem,  in  whorls  of 
threes  with  a  distance  of  six  or  seven  feet  between  each 
whorl. 

Near  every  Buddhist  temple  the  priests  plant  the 
Iron  tree  (Messua  ferrea) l  for  the  sake  of  its  flowers, 
with  which  they  decorate  the  images  of  Buddha.  They 
resemble  white  roses,  and  form  a  singular  contrast  with 
the  buds  and  shoots  of  the  tree,  which  are  of  the  deepest 
crimson.  Along  with  its  flowers  the  priests  use  like- 
wise those  of  the  Champac  (Michelia  Champaca),  be- 
longing to  the  family  of  magnoliaceae.  They  are  of  a  pale 
yellow  tint,  with  the  sweet  oppressive  perfume  which 
is  celebrated  in  the  poetry  of  the  Hindus.  From  the 
wood  of  the  champac  the  images  of  Buddha  are  carved 
for  the  temples. 

The  celebrated  Upas  tree  of  Java  (Antiaris  toxicaria\ 
which  has  been  the  subject  of  so  many  romances,  ex- 
ploded by  Dr.  Horsfield  2,  was  supposed  by  Dr.  Gardner 
to  exist  in  Ceylon,  but  more  recent  scrutiny  has  shown 
that  what  he  mistook  for  it,  was  an  allied  species,  the 
A.  saccidora,  which  grows  at  Kornegalle,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  island  ;  and  is  scarcely  less  remarkable, 
though  for  very  different  characteristics.  The  Ceylon 
species  was  first  brought  to  public  notice  by  E.  Eawdon 
Power,  Esq.,  government  agent  of  the  Kandyan  province, 
who  sent  specimens  of  it,  and  of  the  sacks  which  it 
furnishes,  to  the  branch  of  the  Asiatic  Society  at  Colombo. 
It  is  known  to  the  Singhalese  by  the  name  of  "  riti- 
gaha,"  and  is  identical  with  the  Lepurandra  saccidora, 
from  which  the  natives  of  Coorg,  like  those  of  Ceylon, 


1  Dr.  Gardner  supposed  the  iron- 
wood  tree  of  Ceylon  to  have  been 
confounded   with   the  Mesua  ferrea 
of  Linnaeus.     He  asserted  it  to  be  a 
distinct  species,  and  assigned  to  it  the 
well-known  Singhalese  name   "  na- 
gaha"  or  iron-wood  tree.     But  this 
conjecture  has  since  proved  erroneous. 

2  The  vegetable  poisons,  the  use  of 
which  is  ascribed  to  the  Singhalese, 
are  chiefly  the  seeds  of  the  Datura, 


which  act  as  a  powerful  narcotic,  and 
those  of  the  Croton  tiyliitm,  the  ex- 
cessive effect  of  which  ends  in  death. 
The  root  of  the  Nerium  odorum  is 
equally  fatal,  as  is  likewise  the  ex- 
quisitely beautiful  Gloriosa  superba, 
whose  brilliant  flowers  festoon  the 
jungle  in  the  plains  of  the  low 
country.  See  Bennett's  account  of 
the  Antiaris,  in  HOESFTELD'S  Plantce 
Juvanicte, 


CHAP.  III.] 


BANYAN   TREE. 


bfi 


manufacture  an  ingenious  substitute  for  sacks  by  a  pro- 
cess which  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Nimmo.1  "  A  branch 
is  cut  corresponding  to  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  bag 
required,  it  is  soaked  and  then  beaten  with  clubs  till  the 
liber  separates  from  the  timber.  This  done,  the  sack 
which  is  thus  formed  out  of  the  bark  is  turned  inside 
out,  and  drawn  downwards  to  permit  the  wood  to  be 
sawn  off,  leaving  a  portion  to  form  the  bottom  which  is 
kept  firmly  in-nts  place  by  the  natural  attachment  of  the 
bark." 

As  we  descend  the  hills  the  banyans2  and  a  variety  of 
figs  make  their  appearance.  They  are  the  Thugs  of  the 
vegetable  world,  for  although  not  necessarily  epiphytic, 
it  may  be  said  that  in  point  of  fact  no  single  plant  comes 
to  perfection,  or  acquires  even  partial  development,  with- 
out the  destruction  of  some  other  on  which  to  fix  itself 
as  its  supporter.  The  family  generally  make  their  first 
appearance  as  slender  roots  hanging  from  the  crown  or 
trunk  of  some  other  tree,  generally  a  palm,  among  the 
moist  bases  of  whose  leaves  the  seed  carried  thither  by 
some  bird  which  had  fed  upon  the  fig,  begins  to  germi- 
nate. The  root  branching  as  it  descends,  envelopes  the 
trunk  of  the  supporting  tree  with  a  network  of  wood, 
and  at  length  penetrating  the  ground,  attains  the  di- 
mensions of  a  stem.  But  unlike  a  stem  it  throws  out  no 
buds,  leaves,  or  flowers  ;  the  true  stem,  with  its  branches, 
its  foliage,  and  fruit,  springs  upwards  from  the  spot  near 
the  crown  of  the  tree  whence  the  root  is  seen  descending ; 
and  from  it  issue  the  pendulous  rootlets,  which,  on  reaching 
the  earth,  fix  themselves  firmly  and  form  the  marvellous 
growth  for  which  the  banyan  is  so  celebrated.3  In  the 


1  Catalogue  of  Bombay  Plants, 
p.  193.  The  process  in  Ceylon  is 
thus  described  in  Sir  W.  HOOKER'S 
Report  on  the  Vegetable  Products  ex- 
hibited in  Paris  in  1855  :  "  The  trees 
chosen  for  the  purpose  measure  above 
a  foot  in  diameter.  The  felled  trunks 
are  cut  into  lengths,  and  the  bark  is 
well  beaten  with  a  stone  or  a  club 
till  the  parenchymatous  part  comes 


off,  leaving  only  the  inner  bark  at- 
tached to  the  wood ;  which  is  thus 
easily  drawn  out  by  the  hand.  The 
bark  thus  obtained  is  fibrous  and 
tough,  resembling  a  woven  fabric  : 
it  is  sewn  at  one  end  into  a  sack, 
which  is  filled  with  sand,  and  dried 
in  the  sun." 

2  Ficus  Indica.  ' 

3  I  do  not  remember  to  have  seen 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


depth  of  this  grove,  the  original  tree  is  incarcerated  till, 
literally  strangled  by  the  folds  and  weight  of  its  resistless 
companion,  it  dies  and  leaves  the  fig  in  undisturbed 
possession  of  its  place.  It  is  not  unusual  in  the  forest  to 


MARRIAGE    OF    THE    FIG-TREE   AND    THE    PALM. 

find  a  fig-tree  which  had  been. thus  upborne  till  it  became 
a  standard,  now  presenting  a  hollow  cylinder,  the  centre  of 
which  was  once  filled  by  the  sustaining  tree  :  but  the 
empty  walls  form  a  circular  network  of  interlaced  roots 
and  branches ;  firmly  agglutinated  under  pressure,  and 
admitting  the  light  through  interstices  that  look  like 
loopholes  in  a  turret. 

Another  species  of  the  same  genus,  F.  repens,  is  a 
fitting  representative  of  the  English  ivy,  and  is  con- 
stantly to  be  seen  clambering  over  rocks,  twining 


the  following  passage  from  Pliny  re- 
ferred to  as  the  original  of  Milton's 
description  of  this  marvellous  tree : — 
"  Ipsa  se  serens,  vastis  diffunditur 
ramis :  quorum  imi  adeo  in  ten-am 
curvantur,  ut  annuo  spatio  infigantur, 
novamque  sibi  propaginem  faciant 
circa  parentem  in  orbcm.  Intra  septem 
earn  astivant  pastores,  opacam  pariter 
et  munitam  vallo  arboris,  decora 
specie  subter  intuenti,  proculve,/w- 
nicato  arbore.  Foliorum  latitudo 
pettce  effigiem  Amazonicte  habet/'  &c. 
— PLTNT,  1.  xii.  c.  11. 


"  The  fig-tree—not  that  kind  for  fruit  renowned, 
But  such  as  at  this  day  to  Indians  known, 
In  Malabar  or  Dekkan  spreads  her  arms, 
Branching  so  broad  and  long,  that  on  the  ground 
The  bended  twigs  take  root,  and  daughters  grow 
About  the  mother  tree  :  a  pillar'd  shade 
High  oVer  arched  and  echoing  walks  between. 
There  oft  the  Indian  herdsman,  shunning  heat, 
Shelters  in  cool  and  tends  his  pasturing  flocks 
At  loop-holes  cut  through  thickest  shade.  These 

leaves 

They  gathered  ;  broad  as  Amazonian  targe  : 
And  with  what  skill  they  had,  together  sewed 
To  gird  their  waist,"  &c. 

Par.  Lost,  ix.  1100. 


Pliny's  description  is  borrowed, 
with  some  embellishments,  fromTHE- 
OPHRASTUS  de.  Nat.  Plant.  1.  i.  7.  iv.  4. 


CIIAP.  III.]  BAXYAX    TKK  I-:.  97 

through  heaps  of  stones,  or  ascending  some  tall  tree  to  the 
height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  while  the  thickness  of  its 
own  stem  does  not  exceed  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 

The  facility  with  which  the  seeds  of  the  fig-tree  take 
root  where  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  moisture  to  permit  of 
germination,  has  rendered  them  formidable  assailants  of 
the  ancient  monuments  throughout  Ceylon.  The  vast 
mounds  of  brickwork  which  constitute  the  remains  of  the 
Dagobas  at  A»arajapoora,  Pollanarrua,  and  elsewhere  are 
covered  densely  with  trees,  amongst  which  the  figs  are 
always  conspicuous.  One,  which  has  fixed  itself  on  the 
walls  of  a  ruined  edifice  at  the  latter  city,  forms  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  objects  of  the  place  —  its  roots 
streaming  downwards  over  the  walls  as  if  their  wood  had 
once  been  fluid,  follow  every  sinuosity  of  the  building  and 
terraces  till  they  reach  the  earth. 


A    FIG-TREE    ON    THE    ROIN8    OF   POLLANARRUA. 

To  this  genus  belongs  the  Sacred  Bo-tree  of  the  Bud- 
dhists, Ficus  religiosa,  which  is  planted  close  to  every 
temple,  and  attracts  almost  as  much  veneration  as  the 

VOL.  I.  H 


98  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

statue  of  the  god  himself.  At  Anarajapoora  is  still  pre- 
served the  identical  tree  said  to  have  been  planted  288 
years  before  the  Christian  era.1 

Although  the  India-rubber  tree  (F.  elastica)  is  not 
indigenous  to .  Ceylon,  it  is  now  very  widely  diffused 
over  the  island.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  pink  leathery 
covering  which  envelopes  the  leaves  before  expansion, 
and  for  the  delicate  tracery  of  the  nerves  which  run  in 
equi-distant  rows  at  right  angles  from  the  mid-rib.  But 
its  most  striking  feature  is  the  exposure  of  its  roots, 
masses  of  which  appear  above  ground,  extending  on  all 


THE    SNAKE-TREE 


sides  from  the  base,  and  writhing  over  the  surface  in 
undulations  — 

"  Like  snakes  in  wild  festoon, 
In  ramous  wrestlings  interlaced, 
A  forest  Laocoon."8 

So  strong,  in  fact,  is  the  resemblance,  that  the  villagers 
give  it  the  name  of  the  "  Snake-tree."  One,  which  grows 
close  to  Cotta,  at  the  Church  Missionary  establishment 
within  a  few  miles  of  Colombo,  affords  a  remarkable 
illustration  of  this  peculiarity. 

There  is  an  avenue  of  these  trees  leading  to  the  Gar- 
dens of  Peradenia,  the  roots  of  which  meet  from  either 
side  of  the  road,  and  have  so  covered  the  surface  by 
their  agglutinated  reticulations  as  to  form  a  wooden 


1  For  a  memoir  of  this  celebrated 
tree,  see  the  account  of  Anaraiapoora, 
Vol.  II.  p.  614. 


3  HOOD'S  poem  of  TJie  Elm  Tree. 


CHAP.  III.]  THE   KUMBUK.  99 

framework,  the  interstices  of  which  retain  the  materials 
that  compose  the  roadway.1 

The  Kumbuk  of  the  Singhalese  (called  by  the  Tamils 
Maratha-maram)2  is  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  widely 
distributed  trees  in  the  island ;  it  delights  in  the  banks 
of  rivers  and  moist  borders  of  tanks  and  canals ;  it 
overshadows  the  stream  of  the  Mahawelli-ganga,  almost 
from  Kandy  to  the  sea ;  and  it  stretches  its  great  arms 
above  the  stitt  water  of  the  lakes  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  island. 

One  venerable  patriarch  of  this  species,  which  grows 
at  Mutwal,  within  three  miles  of  Colombo,  towers  to  so 
great  a  height  above  the  surrounding  forests  of  coco- 
nut  palms,  that  it  serves  as  a  landmark  for  the  native 
boatmen,  and  is  discernible  from  Negombo,  more  than 
twenty  miles  distant.  The  circumference  of  its  stem,  as 
measured  by  Mr.  W.  Ferguson,  in  1850,  was  forty-five 
feet  close  to  the  earth,  and  seven  yards  at  twelve  feet 
above  the  ground.  The  timber,  which  is  durable,  is 
applied  to  the  carving  of  idols  for  the  temples,  besides 
being  extensively  used  for  less  dignified  purposes ;  but 
it  is  chiefiy  prized  for  the  bark,  which  is  sold  as  a 
medicine,  and,  in  addition  to  yielding  a  black  dye,  it  is 
so  charged  with  calcareous  matter  that  its  ashes,  when 
burnt,  afford  a  substitute  for  the  lime  that  the  natives 
chew  with  their  betel. 

Some  of  the  trees  found  in  the  forests  of  the  interior 
are  remarkable  for  the  curious  forms  in  which  they 
produce  their  seeds.  One  of  these,  that  sometimes 
grows  to  the  height  of  one  hundred  feet  without  throwing 
out  a  single  branch,  has  been  confounded  with  the  durian 
of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  or  supposed  to  be  an  allied 
species3,  but  it  differs  from  it  in  the  important  particular 


1  Mr.  Ferguson,  of  the  Surveyor- 
General's  Department,  assures  me 
that  he  once  measured  the  root^of  a 
small  wild  fig-tree,  growing  in  a 
patena  at  Hewahette,  and  found  it 


upwards  of  140  feet  in  length,  whilst 
the  tree  itself  was  not  30  feet  high. 


Pentaptera  tomentosa  (Ro.r.). 
3  It     is    the    Cidlenia    exceha    of 
WIGHT'S  Iconcs,  &c.  (761-2). 


2 


100  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

that  its  fruit  is  not  edible.  The  real  durian  is  not  in- 
digenous to  Ceylon,  but  was  brought  there  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  the  sixteenth  century.1  It  has  been  very  recently 
re-introduced,  and  is  now  cultivated  successfully.  The 
native  name  for  the  Singhalese  variety ,  "  Katu-bceda,"  de- 
notes the  prickles  that  cover  its  fruit,  which  is  as  large  as 
a  coco-nut,  and  set  with  thorns  each  nearly  an  inch  in 
length. 

The  Sterculia  fcetida,  one  of  the  noblest  of  the  Ceylon 
forest-trees,  produces  from  the  end  of  its  branches 
large  bunches  of  dark  purple  flowers  of  extreme 
richness  and  beauty ;  but  emitting  a  stench  so  in- 
tolerable as  richly  to  entitle  it  to  its  very  characteristic 
botanical  name.  The  fruit  is  equally  remarkable,  and 
consists  of  several  crimson  cases  of  the  consistency  of 
leather,  within  which  are  enclosed  a  number  of  black 
bean-like  seeds  :  these  are  dispersed  by  the  bursting  of 
their  envelope,  which  opens  to  liberate  them  when 
sufficiently  ripened. 

The  Moodilla  (Barringtania  speciosa)  is  another  tree 
that  attracts  the  eye  of  the  traveller,  not  less  from 
the  remarkably  shaped  fruit  which  it  bears  than  from  the 
contrast  between  its  dark  glossy  leaves  and  the  delicate 
flowers  which  they  surround.  The  latter  are  white, 
tipped  with  crimson,  but  the  petals  drop  off  early,  and 
the  stamens,  of  which  there  are  nearly  a  hundred  to 
each  flower,  when  they  fall  to  the  ground  might  almost 
be  mistaken  for  painters'  brushes.  This  tree  (as  its  native 
name  implies)  loves  the  shore  of  the  sea,  and  its  large 
quadrangular  fruits,  of  pyramidal  form,  being  pro- 
tected by  a  hard  coriaceous  covering,  are  tossed  by  the 
waves  till  they  root  themselves  on  the  beach.  It  grows 
freely  at  the  mouths  of  the  principal  rivers  on  the  west 


1  PoBCACCm,  in  his  Isolario,  writ-  |  quei  cocomeri,  che  a  Venetia  son 
ten  in  the  sixteenth  century,  enume-  chiamati  angurie  :  in  mezo  del  quale 
rates  the  true  durian  as  being  then  j  trouano  dentro  cinque  frutti  de  sapor 
amongst  the  ordinary  fruit  of  Cey-  j  molto  excellente."  — Lib.  iii.  p.  188. 
Ion.  —  "Vi  nasce  anchora  un  frutto  :  Padua,  A.D.  1619. 
detto  Duriano,  verde  et  grande  come  | 


CHAP.  III.]  THE    GODA-KADURU. — EUPHORBIA.  101 

coast,  and  several  noble  specimens  of  it  are  found  near  the 
fort  of  Colombo. 

The  Goda-kaduru,  or  Strychnos  nux-vomica,  is  abun- 
dant in  these  prodigious  forests,  and  has  obtained  an 
European  celebrity  from  the  fact  of  its  producing  the 
poisonous  seeds  from  which  strychnine  is  extracted.  Its 
fruit,  which  it  exhibits  in  great  profusion,  is  of  the  size  and 
colour  of  a  small  orange,  within  which  a  pulpy  sub- 
stance envelopes  the  seeds  that  form  the  "  nux-vomica " 
of  commerce.  It  grows  in  great  luxuriance  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  ruined  tanks  throughout  the  Wanny,  and 
on  the  west  coast  as  far  south  as  Negombo.  It  is 
singular  that  in  this  genus  there  should  be  found  two 
plants,  the  seeds  of  one  being  not  only  harmless  but 
wholesome,  and  that  of  the  other  the  most  formidable 
of  known  poisons.1  Amongst  the  Malabar  immigrants 
there  is  a  belief  that  the  seeds  of  the  goda-kaduru,  if 
habitually  taken,  will  act  as  a  prophylactic  against  the 
venom  of  the  cobra  de  capello ;  and  I  have  been  assured 
that  the  coolies  coming  from  the  coast  of  India  accus- 
tom themselves  to  eat  a  single  seed  per  day  in  order  to 
acquire  the  desired  protection  from  the  effects  of  this 
serpent's  bite.2 

In  these  forests  the  Euphorbia 3,  which  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  see  only  as  a  cactus-like  green-house  plant,  attains 
the  size  and  strength  of  a  small  timber-tree  ;  its  quadran- 
gular stem  becomes  circular  and  woody,  and  its  square 
fleshy  shoots  take  the  form  of  branches,  or  rise  with  a 
rounded  top  to  the  height  of  thirty  feet.4 


1  The  tettan-cotta,  the  use  of  which  I  to  increase  the  intoxicating  power  of 
is  described  in  Vol.  II.  Pt.  ix.  ch.  i.  j  the  spirit, 
p.  411,  when  applied  by  the  natives  |       3  E.  Antiquorun. 
to  clarify  muddy  water,  is  the  seed  of         4  Amongst  the  remarkable  plants 
another  "species  of  strychnos,  S.  pota-     of  Ceylon,  there   is  one   concerning 
torum.   The  Singhalese  name  is  ingini     which  a  singular  error  has  been  per- 
(tettan-cotta  is  Tamil).  I  petuated  in  botanical  works  from  the 

3  In  India,  the  distillers  of  arrack  |  time  of  Paul  Hermann,  who  first 
from  the  juice  of  the  coco-nut  palm  >  described  it  in  1687,  to  the  present, 
are  said,  by  Roxburgh,  to  introduce  |  I  mean  the  kiri-anguna  (Gymnema 
the  seeds  of  the  strychnus,  in  order  j  lactiferum),  evidently  a  form  of  the 


102  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

But  that  which  cannot  fail  to  arrest  the  attention  even  of 
an  indifferent  passer-by  is  the  endless  variety  and  almost 
inconceivable  size  and  luxuriance  of  the  climbing  plants 
and  epiphytes  that  live  upon  the  forest  trees  in  every 
part  of  the  island.  It  is  rare  to  see  one  without 
its  families  of  dependents  of  this  description,  and  on 
one  occasion  I  counted  on  a  single  prostrate  stem  no  less 
than  sixteen  species  of  Capparis,  Beaumontia,  Bignonia, 
Ipomoea,  and  other  genera,  which  the  tree,  in  its  fall, 
had  brought  along  with  it  to  the  ground.  Those  that 
are  free  from  climbing  plants  have  their  higher  branches 
and  hollows  occupied  by  ferns  and  orchids,  of  which 
latter  the  variety  is  endless  in  Ceylon,  though  the  beauty 
of  the  flowers  is  not  equal  to  those  of  Brazil  and  other 
tropical  countries.  In  the  many  excursions  that  I 
made  with  Dr.  Gardner  he  added  numerous  species 
to  those  already  known,  including  the  exquisite  Sac- 
colabium  guttatum,  which  we  came  upon  in  the  vicinity 
of  Bintenne,  but  it  had  before  been  discovered 
in  Java  and  the  mountains  of  northern  India.  Its 
large  groups  of  lilac  flowers  hung  in  rich  festoons 
from  the  branches  as  we  rode  under  them,  and  caused 
us  many  an  inconvenient  halt  to  admire  and  secure 
the  plants. 

G.  sylvestre,  to  which  has  been  given  j  not  from  the  juices  being  susceptible 
the  name  of  the  Ceylon  cow-tree ;  and  j  of  being  used  as  a  substitute  for  milk, 
it  is  asserted  that  the  natives  drink  I  but  simply  from  its  resemblance  to  it 
its  juice  as  we  do  milk.  LOTTDOX  in  colour  and  consistency.  It  is  a 
(Ency.  of  Plants,  p.  197)  says,  "The  creeper,  found  on  the  southern  and 

western  coasts,  and  used  medicinally 
by  the  natives,  but  never  as  an  article 
of  food.  The  leaves,  when  chopped 
and  boiled,  are  administered  to  nurses 


,.of 
of  1 


milk  of  the  G.  lactiferum  is  used 
instead  of  the  vaccine  ichor,  and  the 
leaves  are  employed  in  sauces  in  the 
room  of  cream."  And  LINDLEY,  in 


his  Vegetable  Kingdom,  in  speaking  of  j  by  native  practitioners,  and  are  sup- 
the  Asclepiads,  says,  "the  cow  plant  \  posed  to  increase  the  secretion  of  milk, 
of  Ceylon, '  kiri-anguna,'  yields  a  milk  >  As  to  its  use,  as  stated  by  Loudon, 
of  which  the  Singhalese  make  use  in  lieu  of  the  vaccine  matter,  it  is  al- 
for  food,  and  its  leaves  are  also  used  together  erroneous.  MOON,  in  his 
when  boiled."  Even  in  the  English  j  Catalogue  of  the  Plants  of  Ceylon,}>.2l, 
Cyclopedia  of  CHARLES  KNIGHT,  j  has  accidentally  mentioned  the  kiri- 
published  so  lately  as  1854,  this  error  anguna  twice,  'being  misled  by  the 
is  repeated.  (See  art.  Cow-tree,  p.  Pali  synonym  "  kiri-hangula  " :  they 
178.)  But  this  is  altogether  a  mis-  are  the  same  plant,  though  he  has 
take ;  —  the  Ceylon  plant,  like  many  inserted  them  as  different, 
others,  has  acquired  its  epithet  of  kiri,  \ 


CHAP.  III.]         CLIMBING   PLANTS   AND    EPIPHYTES.  103 

A  rich  harvest  of  botanical  discovery  still  remains 
for  the  scientific  explorer  of  the  districts  south  and 
east  of  Adam's  Peak,  whence  Dr.  Gardner's  successor, 
Mr.  Thwaites,  has  already  brought  some  remarkable 
species.  Many  of  the  Ceylon  orchids,  like  those  of 
South  America,  exhibit  a  grotesque  similitude  to  va- 
rious animals  ;  and  one,  a  Dendrobium,  which  the  Sin- 
ghalese cultivate  in  the  palms  near  their  dwelling,  bears  a 
name  equivalent  to  the  WHiite-pigeon  flower,  from  the 
resemblance  that  its  clusters  present  to  a  group  of  those 
birds  in  miniature  clinging  to  the  stem  with  wings  at 
rest. 

But  of  this  order  the  most  exquisite  plant  I  have  seen 
is  the  Ancectochilus  setaceus,  a  terrestrial  orchid  found 
about  the  moist  roots  of  the  forest  trees,  which  has 
attracted  the  attention  of  even  the  apathetic  Singhalese, 
among  whom  its  singular  beauty  has  won  for  it  the 
popular  name  of  the  Wanna  Eaja,  or  "King  of  the 
Forest."  It  is  common  in  humid  and  shady  places  a 
few  miles  removed  from  the  sea-coast ;  its  flowers  have 
no  particular  beauty,  but  its  leaves  are  perhaps  the  most 
exquisitely  formed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom ;  their 
colour  resembles  dark  velvet,  approaching  to  black,  and 
their  surface  is  reticulated  with  veins  of  ruddy  gold.1 

The  branches  of  all  the  lower  trees  and  brushwood  are 
so  densely  covered  with  convolvuli,  and  similar  delicate 
climbers  of  every  colour,  that  frequently  it  is  difficult  to 
discover  the  plant  that  supports  them,  owing  to  the 
heaps  of  verdure  under  which  it  is  concealed.  One  very 
curious  creeper,  which  catches  the  eye,  is  the  square- 
stemmed  vine2,  whose  fleshy  four-sided  runners  clinib  the 


1  There  is  another  small  orchid 
bearing  a  slight  resemblance  to  the 
wanna  raja,  which  is  often  found 
growing  along  with  it,  called  by  the 
Singhalese  in  raja,  or  "striped  king." 
Its  leaves  are  somewhat  bronzed,  but 
they  are  longer  and  narrower  than 


Singhalese  name  implies,  it  has  two 
white  stripes  running  through  the 
length  of  each.  They  are  not  of  the 
same  genus ;  the  wanna  raja  being 
the  only  species  of  Ancectochilus  yet 
found  in  Ceylon. 


those  of  the  wanna  raja ;   and,  as  its 

H  4 


Cissus  edulis,  Dalz. 


104  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

highest  trees,  and  hang  down  in  the  most  fantastic  bunches. 
Its  stem,  like  that  of  another  plant  of  the  same  genus  (the 
Vitis  Indica),  when  freshly  cut,  yields  a  copious  draught 
of  pure  tasteless  fluid,  and  is  eagerly  sought  after  by  ele- 
phants* 

But  it  is  the  trees  of  older  and  loftier  growth  that 
exhibit  the  rank  luxuriance  of  these  wonderful  epiphytes 
in  the  most  remarkable  manner.  They  are  tormented  by 
climbing  plants  of  such  extraordinary  dimensions  that 
many  of  them  exceed  in  diameter  the  girth  of  a  man  ; 
and  these  gigantic  appendages  are  to  be  seen  surmount- 
ing the  tallest  trees  of  the  forest,  grasping  their  stems 
in  firm  convolutions,  and  then  flinging  their  monstrous 
tendrils  over  the  larger  limbs  till  they  reach  the  top, 
whence  they  descend  towards  the  ground  in  huge  festoons, 
and,  after  including  another  and  another  tree  in  their 
successive  toils,  they  once  more  ascend  to  the  summit, 
and  wind  the  whole  into  a  maze  of  living  network  as 
massy  as  if  formed  by  the  cables  of  a  line-of-battle  ship. 
When,  by-and-by,  the  trees  on  which  this  singular  fabric 
has  become  suspended  give  way  under  its  weight,  or  sink 
by  their  own  decay,  the  fallen  trunk  speedily  disappears, 
whilst  the  convolutions  of  climbers  continue  to  grow 
on,  exhibiting  one  of  the  most  marvellous  living 
mounds  of  confusion  that  it  is  possible  to  fancy.  Fre- 
quently one  of  these  creepers  may  be  seen  holding 
by  one  extremity  the  summit  of  a  tall  tree,  and  grasp- 
ing with  the  other  an  object  at  some  distance  near 
the  earth,  between  which  it  is  strained  as  tight  and 
straight  as  if  hauled  over  a  block.  In  all  probability 
the  young  tendril  had  been  originally  blown  into  this 
position  by  the  wind,  and  retained  in  it  till  it  had  gained 
its  maturity,  after  which  it  presents  the  appearance  of 
having  been  artificially  arranged  as  if  to  support  a 
falling  tree. 

This  peculiarity  of  tropical  vegetation  has  been 
turned  to  profitable  account  by  the  Ceylon  woodmen, 
employed  by  the  European  planters  in  felling  forests 


CHAP.  III.] 


CURIOUS   CLIMBING    PLANTS. 


105 


preparatory  to  the  cultivation  of  coffee.  In  this  craft 
they  are  singularly  expert,  and  far  surpass  the  Mala- 
bar coolies,  who  assist  in  the  same  operations.  In 
steep  and  mountainous  places  where  the  trees  have 
been  lashed  together  by  interlacing  climbers,  the  prac- 
tice is  to  cut  halfway  through  each  stem  in  succession, 
till  an  area  of  some  acres  in  extent  is  prepared-  for 
the  final  overthrow.  Then  severing  some  tall  group 
on  the  eminence,  and  allowing  it  in  its  descent  to 
precipitate  itself  on  those  below,  the  whole  expanse 
is  in  one  moment  brought  headlong  to  the  ground  ; 
the  falling  timber  forcing  down  those  beneath  it  by  its 
weight,  and  dragging  those  behind  to  which  it  is  har- 
nessed by  its  living  attachments.  The  crash  occasioned 
by  this  startling  operation  is  so  deafeningly  loud,  that  it 
is  audible  for  miles  in  the  clear  and  still  atmosphere  of 
the  hills. 

One  monstrous  creeping  plant  called  by  the  Kandyans 
the  Maha-pus-wael,  or  "  Great  hollow  climber," *  has 
pods,  some  of  which  I  have  seen  fully  five  feet  long  and 
six  inches  broad,  with  beautiful  brown  beans,  so  large 
that  the  natives  hollow  them  out,  and  carry  them  for 
tinder-boxes. 

Another  climber  of  less  dimensions  2,  but  greater  luxu- 
riance, haunts  the  jungle,  and  often  reaches  the  tops  of 
the  highest  trees,  whence  it  suspends  large  bunches  of  its 
yellow  flowers,  and  eventually  produces  clusters  of  prickly 
pods  containing  greyish-coloured  seeds,  less  than  an  inch 
in  diameter,  which  are  so  strongly  coated  with  silex,  that 
they  are  said  to  strike  fire  like  a  flint. 

One  other  curious  climber  is  remarkable  for  the 
vigour  and  vitality  of  its  vegetation,  a  faculty  in  which 
it  equals,  if  it  do  not  surpass,  the  banyan.  This  is  the 


1  Eiitada  pursatha.  The  same  plant, 
when  found  in  lower  situations,  where 
it  wants  the  soil  and  moisture  of  the 
mountains,  is  so  altered  in  appearance 
that  the  natives  call  it  the  "  heen- 
pus-wael ;  "  and  even  botanists  have 
taken  it  for  a  distinct  species.  The 


beautiful  mountain  region  of  Pusi- 
lawa,  now  familiar  as  one  of  the  finest 
coffee  districts  in  Ceylon,  in  all  pro- 
bability takes  its  name  from  the  giant 
bean,  "Pus-waelawa." 
8  Guilandina  Bonduc. 


106  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

Cocculus  cordifolius,  the  "  rasa-kindu  "  of  the  Singhalese, 
a  medicinal  plant  which  produces  the  guluncha  of  Bengal. 
It  is  largely  cultivated  in  Ceylon,  and  when  it  has 
acquired  the  diameter  of  half  an  inch,  it  is  not  unusual 
for  the  natives  to  cut  from  the  main  stem  a  portion  of 
from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  length,  leaving  the 
dissevered  plant  suspended  from  the  branches  of  the 
tree  which  sustained  it.  The  amputation  naturally 
serves  for  a  time  to  check  its  growth,  but  presently 
small  rootlets,  not  thicker  than  a  pack-thread,  are  seen 
shooting  downwards  from  the  wounded  end;  these 
swing  in  the  wind  till,  reaching  the  ground,  they  attach 
themselves  in  the  soil,  and  form  new  stems,  which  in 
turn,  when  sufficiently  grown,  are  cut  away  and  re- 
placed by  a  subsequent  growth.  Such  is  its  tenacity 
of  life,  that  when  the  Singhalese  wish  to  grow  the  rasa- 
kindu,  they  twist  several  yards  of  the  stem  into  a  coil . 
of  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and  simply  hang  it 
on  the  branch  of  a  tree,  where  it  speedily  puts  forth  its 
large  heart-shaped  leaves,  and  sends  down  its  rootlets  to 
the  earth. 

The  ground  too  has  its  creepers,  and  some  of  them 
very  curious.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  ratans, 
belonging  to  the  Calamus  genus  of  palms.  Of  these  I 
have  seen  a  specimen  250  feet  long  and  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter, without  a  single  irregularity,  and  no  appearance 
of  foliage  other  than  the  bunch  of  feathery  leaves  at  the 
extremity. 

The  strength  of  these  slender  plants  is  so  extreme, 
that  the  natives  employ  them  with  striking  success  in 
the  formation  of  bridges  across  the  water-courses  and 
ravines.  One  which  crossed  the  falls  of  the  Mahawelli- 
ganga,  in  the  Kotmalie  range  of  hills,  was  constructed 
with  the  scientific  precision  of  an  engineer's  work.  It 
was  entirely  composed  of  the  plant,  called  by  the 
natives  the  "  Waywel,"  its  extremities  fastened  to 
living  trees,  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  ravine,  through 
which  a  furious  and  otherwise  impassable  mountain 


CHAP.  III.]         RATAN    BRIDGES. THORNY    PLANTS.  107 

torrent  thundered  and  fell  from  rock  to  rock  with  a 
descent  of  nearly  100  feet.  The  flooring  of  this  aerial 
bridge  consisted  of  short  splints  of  wood,  laid  trans- 
versely, and  bound  in  their  places  by  thin  strips  of  the 
waywel  itself.  The  whole  structure  vibrated  and 
swayed  with  fearful  ease,  but  the  coolies  traversed  it 
though  heavily  laden ;  and  the  European,  between  whose 
estate  and  the  high  road  it  lay,  rode  over  it  daily  without 
dismounting^* 

Another  class  of  trees  which  excites  the  astonishment 
of  an  European,  are  those  whose  stems  are  protected,  as 
high  as  cattle  can  reach,  by  thorns,  which  in  the  jungle 
attain  a  growth  and  size  quite  surprising.  One  species  of 
palm  \  the  Caryota  horrida,  often  rises  to  a  height  of 
fifty  feet,  and  has  a  coating  of  thorns  for  about  six  or 
eight  feet  from  the  ground,  each  about  an  inch  in  length, 
and  so  densely  covering  the  stem  that  the  bark  is  barely 
visible. 

A  climbing  plant,  the  "Kudu-micis"  of  the  Singhalese'2, 
very  common  in  the  hill  jungles,  with  a  diameter  of 
three  or  four  inches,  is  thickly  studded  with  knobs 
about  half  an  inch  high,  and  from  the  extremity  of  each 
a  thorn  protrudes,  as  large  and  sharp  as  the  bill  of  a 
sparrow-hawk.  It  has  been  the  custom  of  the  Singhalese 
from  time  immemorial,  to  employ  the  thorny  trees  of 
their  forests  in  the  construction  of  defences  against 
their  enemies.  The  Mahawanso  relates,  that  in  the 
civil  wars,  in  the  reign  of  Prakrama-bahu  in  the  twelfth 
century,  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  portion  of  the 
island  intrenched  themselves  against  his  forces  behind 
moats  filled  with  thorns.3  And  at  an  earlier  period, 
during  the  contest  of  Dutugaimunu  with  Elala,  the 
same  authority  states,  that  a  town  which  he  was  about 


1  This  palm  I  have  called  a  Caryota  j  The  natives  identify  it  with  the  Ca- 
on  the  authority  of  Dr.  GARDNER,     ryota,  and  call  it  the  "  katu-kittul." 
and  of  MOON'S  Catalogue ;  but  I  have         2  Toddalia  aculeata. 


been  informed  by  Dr.  HOOKER  and 
Mr.  THWAITES  that  it  is  an  Areca. 


3  Mahawamo,  ch.  Ixxiv. 


108 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


to  attack  was  "surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  thorny 
Dadambo  creeper  (probably  Toddalia  aculeata),  within 
which  was  a  triple  line  of  fortifications,  with  one  gate  of 
difficult  access."  1 

During  the  existence  of  the  Kandyan  kingdom  as  an 
independent  state,  before  its  conquest  by  the  British,  the 
frontier  forests  were  so  thickened  and  defended  by  dense 
plantations  of  these  thorny  palms  and  climbers  at  different 
points,  as  to  exhibit  a  natural  fortification  impregnable  to 
the  feeble  tribes  on  the  other  side,  and  at  each  pass  which 
led  to  the  level  country,  movable  gates,  formed  of  the 
same  formidable  thorny  beams,  were  suspended  as  an 
ample  security  against  the  -incursions  of  the  naked  and 
timid  lowlanders.2 

The  pasture  grounds  throughout  the  vicinity  of  Jaffna 
abound  in  a  low  shrub  called  the  Buffalo-thorn3,  the  black 
twigs  of  which  are  beset  at  every  joint  by  a  pair  of  thorns, 
set  opposite  each  other  like  the  horns  of  an  ox,  as  sharp  as 
a  needle,  from  two  to-  three  inches  in  length,  and  thicker 
at  the  base  than  the  stem  they  grow  on. 

The  Acacia  tomentosa  is  of  the  same  genus,  with 
thorns  so  large  as  to  be  called  the  "jungle-nail "  by 
Europeans.  It  is  frequent  in  the  woods  of  Jaffna  and 
Manaar,  where  it  bears  the  Tamil  name  of  Ami  mulla, 
or  "  elephant  thorn."  In  some  of  these  thorny  plants, 
as  in  the  Phoberos  Gcertneri,  Thun.,4  the  spines  grow  not 
singly,  but  in  branching  clusters,  each  point  presenting  a 
spike  as  sharp  as  a  lancet ;  and  where  these  formidable 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxv. 

2  The  kings  of  Kandy  maintained 
a  regulation  "  that  no  one,  on  pain  of 
death,  should  presume  to  cut  a  road 
through  the  forest  wider  than'  was 
sufficient  for  one  person  to  pass." — 
WOLF'S  Life  and  Adventures,  p.  308. 

3  Acacia  latronum. 

4  Mr.  Wm.  Ferguson  writes  to  me, 
"This  is  the  famous  Katu-kurundu, 
or  '  thorny  cinnamon,'  of  the  Singha- 


lese, figured  and  described  by  Gaert- 
ner  as  the  Limonia  pusilla,  which, 
after  a  great  deal  of  labour  and  re- 
search I  think  I  have  identified  as 
the  Phoberos  macrophyttiis  (W.  and 
A.  Prod.  p.  30).  Thunberg  alludes  to 
it  (Travels,  vol.  iv.)  —  "Why  the 
Singhalese  have  called  it  a  cinnamon, 
I  do  not  know,  unless  from  some 
fancied  similarity  in  its  seeds  to  those 
of  the  cinnamon  laurel." 


CHAP.  III.] 


THE    PALMS. 


109 


shrubs  abound  they  render  the  forest  absolutely  im- 
passable, even  to  the  elephant  and  to  animals  of  great 
size  and  force. 

The  family  of  trees  which,  from  their  singularity  as 
well  as  their  beauty,  most  attract  the  eye  of  the  traveller 
in  the  forests  of  Ceylon,  are  the  Palms,  which  occur  in 
rich  profusion,  although,  of  upwards  of  six  hundred 
species  which  are  found  in  other  countries,  not  more 
than  ten  or  twelve  are  indigenous  to  the  island.1  At  the 
head  of  these  is  the  coco-nut,  every  particle  of  whose 
substance,  stem,  leaves,  and  fruit,  the  Singhalese  turn  to 
so  many  accounts,  that  one  of  their  favourite  topics  to  a 
stranger  is  to  enumerate  the  hundred  uses  to  which  they 
tell  us  this  invaluable  tree  is  applied.2 

The  most  majestic  and  wonderful  of  the  palm  tribe  is 
the  talpat  or  talipat3,  the  stem  of  which  sometimes  attains 
the  height  of  100  feet,  and  each  of  its  enormous  fan-like 
leaves,  when  laid  upon  the  ground,  will  form  a  semicircle 
of  16  feet  in  diameter,  and  cover  an  area  of  nearly  200 
superficial  feet.  The  tree  flowers  but  once,  and  dies ; 


1  Mr.   Thwaites  has    enumerated 
fifteen   species  (including  the  coco- 
nut, and  excluding  the  Nipa  fruticans, 
which  more  properly  belongs  to  the 
family  of  screw-pines):  viz.  Areca,  4; 
Caryota,  1 ;  Calamus,  5 ;  Borassus,  1 ; 
Corypha,  1  ;  Phoenix,  2 ;  Cocos,  1. 

2  The  following  are  only  a  few  of 
the  countless  uses  of  this  invaluable 
tree.    The  leaves,  for  roofing,  for  mats, 
for  baskets,  torches  or  chules,  fuel, 
brooms,   fodder  for  cattle,   manure. 
The  stein  of  the  leaf,  for  fences,  for 
pingoes  (or  yokes)  for  carrying  bur- 
thens on  the  shoulders,  for  fishing- 
rods,  and  innumerable  domestic  uten- 
sils.    The     cabbaye,    or     cluster    of 
unexpanded  leaves,  for   pickles  and 
preserves.     The   sap,   for   toddy,   for 
distilling    arrack,    and    for    making 
vinegar,  and  sugar.     The   unformed 
nut,   for   medicine   and   sweetmeats. 
The  young  nut  and  its  milk,  for  drink- 
ing, for  dessert ;  the  yreen  husk  for 


preserves.  The  nut,  for  eating,  for 
curry,  for  milk,  for  cooking.  The  oil, 
for  rheumatism,  for  anointing  the  hair, 
for  soap,  for  candles,  for  light ;  and 
the  poonak,  or  refuse  of  the  nut  after 
expressing  the  oil,  for  cattle  and 
poultry.  The  shell  of  the  nut,  for 
drinking  cups,charcoal,  tooth-powder, 
spoons,  medicine,  hookahs,  beads, 
bottles,  and  knife-handles.  The  coir,  or 
fibre  which  envelopes  the  shell  within 
the  outer  husk,  for  mattresses,  cush- 
ions, ropes,  cables,  cordage,  canvass, 
fishing-nets,  fuel,  brushes,  oakum, 
and  floor  mats.  The  trunk,  for  rafters, 
laths,  railing,  boats,  troughs,  furni- 
ture, firewood  ;  and  when  very  young, 
the  first  shoots,  or  cabbage,  as  a  vege- 
table for  the  table.  The  entire  list, 
with  a  Singhalese  enthusiast,  is  an 
interminable  narration  of  the  virtues 
of  his  favourite  tree. 

3  Corypha  umbraculifera,  Linn. 


110  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

and  the  natives  assert  that  the  bursting  of  the  spadix 
is  accompanied  by  a  loud  explosion.  The  leaves  alone 
are  converted  by  the  Singhalese  to  purposes  of  utility.  Of 
them  they  form  coverings  for  their  houses,  and  portable 
tents  of  a  rude  but  effective  description  ;  and  on  occasions 
of  ceremony,  each  chief  and  headman  walking  abroad 
is  attended  by  a  follower,  who  holds  above  his  head  an 
elaborately-ornamented  fan,  formed  from  a  single  leaf  of 
the  talpat. 

But  the  most  interesting  use  to  which  they  are  applied 
is  as  substitutes  for  paper,  both  for  books  and  for  ordi- 
nary purposes.  In  the  preparation  of  olas,  which  is  the 
term  applied  to  them  when  so  employed,  the  leaves  are 
taken  whilst  still  tender,  and,  after  separating  the  central 
ribs,  they  are  cut  into  strips  and  boiled  in  spring  water. 
They  are  dried,  first  in  the  shade,  and  afterwards  in  the 
sun,  then  made  into  rolls,  and  kept  in  store,  or  sent  to  the 
market  for  sale.  In  order  to  render  them  fit  for  writing 
on  they  are  subjected  to  a  second  process,  called  ma- 
dema ;  —  a  smooth  plank  of  areca-palm  is  tied  horizontally 
between  two  trees,  each  ola  is  then  damped,  and  a  weight 
being  attached  to  one  end  of  it,  it  is  drawn  backwards  and 
forwards  across  the  edge  of  the  wood  till  the  surface 
becomes  polished ;  and  during  the  process,  as  the  mois- 
ture dries  up,  it  is  necessary  to  renew  it  till  the  effect 
is  complete.  The  smoothing  of  a  single  ola  will  occupy 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes.1 

The  finest  specimens  in  Ceylon  are  to  "be  obtained  at 
the  Panselas,  or  Buddhist  monasteries  ;  they  are  known 
as  puskola,  and  are  prepared  by  the  Samanera  priests 
(novices)  and  the  students,  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  priests.  The  raw  leaves,  when  dried  without,  any 
preparation,  are  called  Tcarakola,  and,  like  the  leaves  of 
the  palmyra,  are  used  only  for  ordinary  purposes  by  the 
Singhalese ;  but  in  the  Tamil  districts,  where  palmyras 


See  Vol.  II.  p.  528. 


CHAP.  III.]  THE    PALMYRA.  HI 

are  abundant,  and  talpat  palms  rare,  the  leaves  of  the 
former  are  used  for  books  as  well  as  for  letters. 

The  palmyra1  is  another  invaluable  palm,  and  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  family.  It  grows  in  such  pro- 
fusion over  the  north  of  Ceylon,  and  especiaUy  in  the 
peninsula  of  Jaffna,  as  to  form  extensive  forests,  whence 
its  timber  is  exported  for  rafters  to  all  parts  of  the  island, 
as  well  as  to  the  opposite  coast  of  India,  where,  though 
the  palmyra— grows  luxuriantly,  its  wood,  from  local 
causes,  is  too  soft  and  perishable  to  be  used  for  any 
purpose  requiring  strength  and  durability,  qualities  which, 
in  the  palmyra  of  Ceylon,  are  pre-eminent.  To  the  in- 
habitants of  the  northern  provinces  this  invaluable  tree  is 
of  the  same  importance  as  the  coco-nut  palm  is  to  the 
natives  of  the  south.  Its  fruit  yields  them  food  and  oil; 
its  juice  "palm  wine"  and  sugar ;  its  stem  is  the  chief 
material  of  their  buildings  ;  and  its  leaves,  besides  serving 
as  roofs  to  their  dwellings  and  fences  to  their  farms, 
supply  them  with  matting  and  baskets,  with  head-dresses 
and  fans,  and  serve  as  a  substitute  for  paper  for  their 
deeds  and  writings,  and  for  the  sacred  books,  which  con- 
tain the  traditions  of  their  faith.  It  has  been  'said  with 
truth  that  a  native  of  Jaffna,  if  he  be  contented  with 
ordinary  doors  and  mud  walls,  may  build  an  entire  house 
(as  he  wants  neither  nails  nor  iron  work),  with  Avails, 
roof,  and  covering  from  the  Palmyra  palm.  From  this 
same  tree  he  may  draw  liis  wine,  make  his  oil,  kindle  his 
fire,  carry  his  water,  store  his  food,  cook  his  repast,  and 
sweeten  it,  if  he  pleases  ;  in  fact,  he  does  so  live  from 
day  to  day  dependent  on  his  palmyra  alone.  Multitudes 
so  live,  and  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  this  tree  alone 
furnishes  one-fourth  the  means  of  sustenance  for  the  popu- 
lation of  the  northern  provinces. 


1  Borassusjktbelliformis.  Foranac-  j  see  FERGUSON'S  monograph  on  the 
count  of  the  Palmyra,  and  its  culti-  Palmyra  Palm  of  Ceylon,  Colombo, 
vation  in  the  peninsula  of  Jaffna,  |  1850.  See  also  Vol.  II.  p.  519. 


112 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


The  Jaggery  Palm1,  the  Kitool  of  the  Singhalese,  is 
chiefly  cultivated  in  the  Kandyan  hills  for  the  sake  of 
its  sap,  which  is  drawn,  boiled  down,  and  crystallised 
into  a  coarse  brown  sugar,  in  universal  use  amongst  the 
inhabitants  of  the  south  and  west  of  Ceylon,  who  also 
extract  from  its  pith  a  farina  scarcely  inferior  to  sago. 
The  black  fibre  of  the  leaf  is  twisted  by  the  Eodiyas  into 
ropes  of  considerable  smoothness  and  tenacity.  A  Kitool- 
palm  was  pointed  out  to  me  at  Ambogammoa,  which 
furnished  the  support  of  a  Kandyan,  his  wife,  and  their 
children.  A  single  tree  has  been  known  to  yield  one 
hundred  pints  of  toddy  within  twenty-four  hours. 

The  Areca2  Palm  is  the  invariable  feature  of  a  native 
garden,  being  planted  near  the  wells  and  water-courses, 
as  it  rejoices  in"  moisture.  Of  all  the  tribe  it  is  the  most 
graceful  and  delicate,  rising  to  the  height  of  forty  or  fifty 
feet3,  without  an  inequality  on  its  thin  polished  stem, 
which  is  bright  green  towards  the  top,  sustaining  a  crown 
of  feathery  foliage,  in  the  midst  of  which  are  clustered 
the  astringent  nuts  for  whose  sake  it  is  carefully  tended. 

The  chewing  of  these  nuts  with  lime  and  the  leaf  of  the 
betel-pepper  supplies  to  the  people  of  Ceylon  the  same 
enjoyment  which  tobacco  affords  to  the  inhabitants  of 
other  countries  ;  but  its  use  is,  if  possible,  more  offensive, 
as  the  three  articles,  when  combined,  colour  the  saliva  of 
so  deep  a  red  that  the  lips  and  teeth  appear  as  if  covered 
with  blood.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this  disgusting  accompani- 
ment, men  and  women,  old  and  young,  from  morning  till 
night  indulge  in  the  repulsive  luxury.4 

It  is  seldom,  however,  that  we  find  in  semi-civilised 


1  Caryota  urens. 

2  A.  catechu. 

3  Mr.  Ferguson  measured  an  areca 
at  Caltura  which  was  seventy-five 
feet  high,  and  grew  near  a  coco-nut 
that    was    upwards   of  ninety   feet. 
Caltura  is,  however,  remarkable  for 


the  growth  and  luxuriance  of  its  vege- 
tation. 

4  Dr.  Elliot,  of  -Colombo,  observed 
several  cases  of  cancer  in  the  cheek 
which,  from  its  peculiar  characteris- 
tics, he  designated  the  "betel- 
chewer's  cancer." 


CHAP  III.]  THE   USE   OF   BETEL.  113 

life  habits  universally  prevailing  which  have  not  their 
origin,  however  ultimately  they  may  be  abused  by 
excess,  in  some  sense  of  utility.  The  Turk,  when  he 
adds  to  the  oppressive  warmth  of  the  sun  by  enveloping 
his  forehead  in  a  gaudy  turban,  or  the  Arab,  when 
he  increases  the  sultry  heat  by  swathing  his  waist  in  a 
showy  girdle,  may  appear  to  act  on  no  other  calculation 
than  a  willingness  to  sacrifice  comfort  to  a  love  of  display ; 
but  the  custom  in  each  instance  is  the  result  of  pre- 
caution —  in  the  former,  because  the  head  requires  es- 
pecial protection  from  sun-strokes ;  and  in  the  latter, 
from  the  fact  well  known  to  the  Greeks  (evfyovoi  'A^aio)) 
that,  in  a  warm  climate,  danger  is  to  be  apprehended 
from  a  sudden  chill  to  that  particular  region  of  the 
stomach.  In  like  manner,  in  the  chewing  of  the  areca- 
nut  with  its  accompaniments  of  lime  and  betel,  the  native 
of  Ceylon  is  unconsciously  applying  a  specific  to  correct 
the  defective  qualities  of  his  daily  food.  Never  eating 
flesh  meat  by  any  chance,  seldom  or  never  using  milk, 
butter,  poultry,  or  eggs,  and  tasting  fish  but  occasionally 
(most  rarely  in  the  interior  of  the  island,)  the  non- 
azotised  elements  abound  in  every  article  he  consumes 
with  the  exception  of  the  bread-fruit,  the  jak,  and  some 
varieties  of  beans.  In  his  indolent  and  feeble  stomach 
these  are  liable  to  degenerate  into  flatulent  and  acrid 
products ;  but,  apparently  by  instinct,  the  whole  po- 
pulation have  adopted  a  simple  prophylactic.  Every 
Singhalese  carries  in  his  waistcloth  an  ornamented  box 
of  silver  or  brass,  according  to  his  means,  enclosing  a 
smaller  one  to  hold  a  portion  of  chunam  (lime  obtained 
by  the  calcination  of  shells)  whilst  the  larger  contains 
the  nuts  of  the  areca  and  a  few  freshly-gathered  leaves  of 
the  betel-vine.  As  inclination  or  habit  impels,  he  scrapes 
down  the  nut,  which  abounds  in  catechu,  and,  rolling 
it  up  with  a  little  of  the  lime  in  a  leaf,  the  whole 
is  chewed,  and  finally  swallowed,  after  provoking  an 
extreme  salivation.  To  effect  the  desired  object,  no  me- 
dical prescription  could  be  more  judiciously  compounded 

VOL.  I.  I 


114 


PHYSICAL   GEOGEAPHY. 


[PABT  I. 


than  this  practical  combination  of  antacid,  the  tonic,  and 
carminative. 

The  custom  is  so  ancient  in  Ceylon  and  in  India,  that 
the  Arabs  and  Persians  who  resorted  to  Hindustan  in  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries  carried  back  the  habit  to 
their  own  country  ;  and  Massoudi,  the  traveller  of 
the  Bagdad,  who  wrote  the  account  of  his  voyages  in  A.D. 
943,  states  that  the  chewing  of  betel  then  prevailed  along 
the  southern  coast  of  Arabia,  and  reached  as  far  as  Yemen 
and  Mecca.1  Ibn  Batuta  saw  the  betel  plant  at  Zahfar 
in  1332,  and  describes  it  accurately  as  trained  like  a 
vine  over  a  trellis  of  reeds,  or  climbing  the  stems  of  the 
coco-nut  palm.2 

The  leaves  of  the  coca 3  supply  the  Indians  of  Bolivia 
and  Peru  with  a  stimulant,  whose  use  is  equivalent  to 
that  of  the  betel-pepper  among  the  natives  of  Hindustan 
and  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  With  an  admixture  of 
lime,  they  are  chewed  perseveringly ;  but,  unlike  the 
betel,  the  colour  imparted  by  them  to  the  saliva  is 
greenish  instead  of  red.  It  is  curious,  too,  as  a  coin- 
cidence common  to  the  humblest  phases  of  semi-civilised 
life,  that,  in  the  absence  of  coined  money,  the  leaves  of 
the  coca  form  a  rude  kind  of  currency  in  the  Andes,  as 
the  betel  does  still  in  some  parts  of  Ceylon,  and  tobacco 
did  formerly  amongst  the  tribes  of  the  south-west  of 
Africa.4 

Neither  catechu  nor  its  impure  equivalent,  "terra 
japonica,"  is  prepared  from  the  areca  in  Ceylon ;  but  the 
nuts  are  exported  in  large  quantities  to  the  Maldive 
Islands  and  to  India,  the  produce  of  which  they  excel 
in  astringency  and  exceed  in  size.  The  fibrous  wood  of 
the  areca  being  at  once  straight,  firm,  and  elastic,  is  em- 
ployed for  making  the  pingoes  (yokes  for  the  shoulders), 


1  MASSOTTDI,     Moroudj-al-Dzclieb, 
as  translated  by  REINATJD.  M&moire 
sur  Vlnde,  p.  230. 

2  Voyages,  fyc.  t.  ii.  p.  205. 
8  Erythroxylon  coca. 

4  Tobacco  was  a  currency  in  North 


America  when  Virginia  was  colonised 
in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century  ; 
debts  were  contracted  and  paid  in 
it,  and  in  every  ordinary  transaction 
tobacco  answered  the  purposes  of 


CIIAP.  III.]  TIMBER   TREES.  115 

by  means  of  which  the  Singhalese  coolie,  like  the  cor- 
responding class  among  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  the 
Greeks,  carries  his  burdens,  dividing  them  into  portions  of 
equal  weight,  one  of  which  is  suspended  from  each  end  of 
the  pingo.  By  a  swaying  motion  communicated  to  them 
as  he  starts,  his  own  movements  are  facilitated,  whereas 
one  unaccustomed  to  the  work,  by  allowing  the  oscillation 
to  become  irregular,  finds  it  almost  impossible  to  proceed 
with  a  load-ef  any  considerable  weight.1 

Timber  trees,  either  for  export  or  domestic  use,  are 
not  found  in  any  abundance  except  in  the  low  country ; 
and  here  the  facility  of  floating  them  to  the  sea,  down 
the  streams  which  intersect  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island, 
has  given  rise  to  an  active  trade  at  Batticaloa  and  Trinco- 
malie.  But,  unfortunately,  the  indifference  of  the  local 
officers  entrusted  with  the  issue  of  licences  to  fell,  and 
the  imperfect  control  exercised  over  the  adventurers  who 
embark  in  these  speculations,  have  led  to  a  destruction  of 
trees  quite  disproportionate  to  the  timber  obtained,  and 
utterly  incompatible  with  the  conservation  of  the  valuable 
kinds.  The  East  India  Company  have  had  occasion  to 
deplore  the  loss  of  their  teak  forests  by  similar  neglect  and 
mismanagement ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that,  ere  too  late, 
the  attention  of  the  Ceylon  Government  may  be  so  di- 
rected to  this  important  subject  as  to  lead  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  competent  foresters,  at  various  parts  of  the  island, 
under  whose  authority  and  superintendence  the  felling  of 
timber  may  be  carried  on. 

An  interesting  memoir  on  the  timber  trees  of  Ceylon 
has  been  prepared  by  a  native  officer  at  Colombo,  Adrian 
Mendis,  of  Morottu,  carpenter-moodliar  to  the  Eoyal  Engi- 
neers, in  which  he  has  enumerated  upwards  of  ninety 
species,  which,  in  various  parts  of  the  island,  are  employed 
either  as  timber  or  cabinet  woods.2  Of  these,  the  jak, 


1  The  natives  of  Tahiti  use  a  yoke 
of  the  same  form  as  the  Singhalese 
pingo,  but  made  from  the  wood  of  the 
Hibiscus  tiliaceus.  —  DARAVIN,  Nat. 
Voy.  ch.  xviii.  p.  407.  For  a  further 


account  of  the  pingo  see  Vol.  I.  Part 
iv.  ch.  viii.  p.  497. 

2  Mendis'  List  will  be  found  ap- 
pended to  the  Ceylon  Calendar  for 
1854. 


I  2 


116 


PHYSICAL   GEOGKAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


the  Kangtal  of  Bengal  (Artocarpus  integrifolia),  is,  next 
to  the  coco-nut  and  Palmyra,  by  far  the  most  valuable 
to  the  Singhalese  ;  its  fruit,  which  sometimes  attains  the 
weight  of  50  Ibs.,  supplying  food  for  their  table,  its  leaves 
fodder  for  their  cattle,  and  its  trunk  timber  for  every  con- 
ceivable purpose  both  oeconomic  and  ornamental.  The 
Jak-tree,  (as  well  as  the  Del,  or  wild  bread-fruit,)  is  in- 
digenous to  the  forests  on  the  coast  and  in  the  central 
provinces ;  but,  although  the  latter  is  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  villages,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  an  object  of  special 
cultivation.  The  Jak,  on  the  contrary,  is  planted  near 
every  house,  and  forms  the  shade  of  every  garden.  Its 
wood,  at  first  yellow,  approaches  the  colour  of  mahogany 
after  a  little  exposure  to  the  air,  and  resembles  it  at  all 
times  in  its  grain  and  marking. 

The  Del  (Artocarpus  pubescens)  affords  a  valuable 
timber,  not  only  for  architectural  purposes,  but  for  ship- 
building. It  and  the  Halmalille  1  resembling  but  larger 
than  the  linden  tree  of  England,  to  which  it  is  closely 
allied,  are  the  favourite  building  woods  of  the  natives, 
and  the  latter  is  used  for  carts,  casks,  and  all  household 
purposes,  as  well  as  for  the  hulls  of  their  boats,  from  the 
belief  that  it  resists  the  attack  of  the  marine  worms,  and 
that  some  unctuous  property  in  the  wood  preserves  the 
iron  work  from  rust.2 

The  Teak  (Tectona  grandis),  which  is  superior  to  all 
others,  is  not  a  native  of  this  island,  and  although  largely 
cultivated,  has  not  been  altogether  successful.  But  the 
satin-wood  3,  in  point  of  size  and  durability,  is  by  far  the 
first  of  the  timber  trees  of  Ceylon  ;  —  for  days  together 
I  have  ridden  under  its  magnificent  shade,  all  the 
forests  around  Batticaloa  and  Trincomalie,  and  as  far 
north  as  Jaffna,  being  thickly  set  with  it.  It  grows 
to  the  height  of  a  hundred  feet,  with  a  rugged  grey 


1  Berrya  ammonilla, 

2  The  Masula  boats,  which  brave 
the  formidable  surf  of  Madras,  are 
made  of  Halmalille,  which  is  there 


called  "Trincomalie  wood,"  from  the 
place  of  exportation-^ 

3  Chloroxylon  Swietenia. 


CHAP.  HI.]  CABINET  WOODS.  117 

bark,  small  white  flowers,  and  polished  leaves,  with 
a  somewhat  unpleasant  odour.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
carrying  its  heavy  beams,  the  natives  do  not  cut  it  except 
near  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  down  which  it  is  floated  to 
the  coast,  whence  large  quantities  are  exported  to  every 
part  of  the  colony.  The  richly-coloured  and  feathery- 
pieces  are  used  for  cabinet-work,  and  the  more  ordinary 
logs  for  building  purposes,  every  house  in  the  eastern 
province  being  floored  and  timbered  with  satin-wood. 

Another  useful  tree,  very  common  in  Ceylon,  is  the 
Suriya1,  with  flowers  so  like  those  of  a  tulip  that  Euro- 
peans know  it  as  the  tulip  tree.  It  loves  the  sea  air 
and  saline  soils.  It  is  planted  all  along  the  avenues 
and  streets  in  the  towns  near  the  coast,  where  it  is 
equally  valued  for  its  shade  and  the  beauty  of  its  yel- 
low flowers,  whilst  its  tough  wood  is  used  for  carriage 
shafts  and  gun-stocks. 

The  forests  to  the  east  furnish  the  only  valuable  ca~ 
linet  woods  used  in  Ceylon,  the  chief  of  which  is  ebony2, 
which  grows  in  great  abundance  throughout  all  the  flat 
country  to  the  west  of  Trincomalie.  It  is  a  different 
species  from  the  ebony  of  Mauritius3,  and  excels  it  and 
all  others  in  the  evenness  and  intensity  of  its  dark  colour. 
The  centre  of  the  trunk  is  the  only  portion  that  fur- 
nishes the  extremely  black  part  which  is  the  ebony  of 
commerce;  but  the  trees  are  of  such  magnitude  that 
reduced  logs  of  from  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter  can 
readily  be  procured  from  the  forests  at  Trincoraalie. 
For  facility  of  carriage  these  are  obliged  to  be  cut  into 
lengths  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet. 

There  is  another  cabinet  wood,  of  extreme  beauty, 
called  by  the  natives  Cadooberia.  It  is  a  species  of  ebony4, 
in  which  the  prevailing  black  is  stained  with  stripes 
of  rich  brown,  approaching  to  yellow  and  rose  colour. 
But  its  density  is  inconsiderable,  and  its  durability  is 
far  inferior  to  that  of  the  true  ebony. 

1  Thespesia  populnea.  3  D.  reticulate. 

a  Diospyros  ebenuni.  4  D.  ebenaster. 


118  PHYSICAL   GEOGKAPHY.  [PART  I. 

The  Calamander1  is  the  most  esteemed  cabinet  wood 
in  the  island.  It  resembles  rose-wood,  but  surpasses  it 
both  in  beauty  and  durability ; — it  has  at  all  times  been 
in  the  greatest  repute  in  Ceylon.  It  grows  chiefly  in 
the  southern  provinces,  and  especially  in  the  forests  at 
the  foot  of  Adam's  Peak ;  but  here  it  has  been  so  pro- 
digally felled,  first  by  the  Dutch,  and  afterwards  by 
the  English,  without  any  precautions  for  planting  or  re- 
production, that  it  has  at  last  become  exceedingly  scarce. 
Wood  of  a  large  scantling  is  hardly  procurable  at  any 
price  ;  and  it  is  only  in  a  very  few  localities,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  Saffragam,  in  the  western  province, 
that  even  small  sticks  are  now  to  be  found ;  one  reason 
assigned  for  this  being  that  the  heart  of  the  tree  is  seldom 
sound,  a  peculiarity  which  extends  also  to  the  Cadooberia. 
The  twisted  portions,  and  especially  the  roots,  yield 
veneers  of  unusual  beauty,  dark  wavings  and  blotches, 
almost  black,  being  gracefully  disposed  over  a  delicate 
fawn-coloured  ground.  Its  density  is  so  great  (nearly 
60  Ibs.  to  a  cubic  foot)  that  it  takes  an  exquisite  polish, 
and  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  furniture, 
in  the  ornamenting  of  which  the  native  carpenters  excel. 
The  chiefs  and  headmen,  with  a  full  appreciation  of  its 
beauty,  take  particular  pride  in  possessing  specimens  of 
this  beautiful  wood,  roots  of  which  they  regard  as  most 
acceptable  presents.  Notwithstanding  its  value,  how- 
ever, the  tree  is  nearly  eradicated,  and  runs  considerable 
risk  of  becoming  extinct  in  the  island  ;  but,  as  it  is  not 
peculiar  to  Ceylon,  it  may  hereafter  be  restored  by  fresh 
importations  from  the  south-eastern  coast  of  India,  of 
which  it  is  equally  a  native.  I  apprehend  that  the 
name,  Calamander,  which  was  used  by  the  Dutch,  is  but 
a  corruption  of  "  Coromandel." 

Another  species  of  cabinet  wood  is  produced  from  the 
Nedun2,  a  large  tree  common  on  the  western  coast ;  it 


I),  hirsuta.  |  2  Dalbcrgia  lanceolaria. 


CHAP.  III.] 


FRUIT-TREES. 


119 


belongs  to  the  Pea  tribe,  and  is  allied  to  the  Sisso  of 
India.  Its  wood,  which  is  lighter  than  the  "  black-wood  " 
of  Bombay,  is  used  for  similar  purposes. 

The  Tamarind  tree1,  and  especially  its  fine  roots,  pro- 
duce a  variegated  cabinet  wood  of  much  beauty,  but  of 
such  extreme  hardness  as  scarcely  to  be  workable  by  any 
ordinary  tools.2 

As  to  fruit  trees,  it  is  only  on  the  coast,  or  near  the 
large  villages  and  towns,  that  they  are  found  in  any 
perfection.  In  the  deepest  jungle  the  sight  of  a  single 
coco-nut  towering  above  the  other  foliage  is  in  Ceylon 
a  never-failing  landmark  to  intimate  to  a  traveller  his 
approach  to  a  village.  The  natives  have  a  superstition 
that  the  coco-nut  will  not  grow  out  of  sound  of  the 
human  voice,  and  would  die  if  the  village  where  it  had 
previously  thriven  became  deserted ;  the  solution  of  the 
mystery  being  in  all  probability  the  superior  care  and 
manuring  which  it  receives  in  inhabited  localities.3  In 
the  generality  of  the  forest  hamlets  there  are  always  to 
be  found  a  few  venerable  Tamarind  trees  of  patriarchal 
proportions,  the  ubiquitous  Jak,  with  its  huge  fruits, 
weighing  from  5  to  50  Ibs.  (the  largest  eatable  fruit  in 
the  world),  each  springing  from  the  rugged  surface  of  the 
bark,  and  suspended  by  a  powerful  stalk,  which  attaches 
it  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  Lime-trees,  Oranges,  and 
Shaddoks  are  carefully  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  occa- 
sionally the  Eose-apple  and  the  Cashu-nut,  the  Pap- 
paya,  and  invariably  as  plentiful  a  supply  of  Plantains 


1  Tamarindus  Indica. 

8  The  natives  of  Western  India 
have  a  belief  that  the  shade  of  the 
tamarind  tree  is  unhealthy,  if  not 
poisonous.  But  in  Ceylon  it  is  an 
object  of  the 'people,  especially  in  the 
north  of  the  island,  to  build  their 
houses  under  it,  from  the  conviction 
that  of  all  trees  its  shade  is  the  coolest. 
In  this  feeling,  too,  the  Europeans  are 
so  far  disposed  to  concur  that  it  has 
been  suggested  whether  there  may 


not  be  something  peculiar  in  the  re- 
spiration of  its  leaves.  The  Sin- 
ghalese have  an  idea  that  the  twigs  of 
the  ranna-wara  (Cassia  auricidata) 
diffuse  an  agreeable  coolness,  and  they 
pull  them  for  the  sake  of  enjoying  it 
by  holding  them  in  their  hands  or 
applied  to  the  head.  In  the  south  of 
Ceylon  it  is  called  the  Matura  tea- 
tree,  its  leaves  being  infused  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  tea. 
8  See  Vol.  II.  p.  125. 


i  4 


120  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  [PART  I. 

as  it  is  prudent  to  raise  without  inviting  the  visits  of 
wild  elephants,  with  whom  they  are  especial  favourites. 
These,  and  the  Bilimbi  and  Guava,  the  latter  of  which 
is  naturalised  in  the  jungle  round  every  cottage,  are 
almost  the  only  fruits  of  the  country ;  but  the  Pine- 
apple, the  Mango,  the  Avocado-pear,  the  Custard-apple, 
the  Eambutan  (Nephelium  lappaceum),  the  Fig,  the 
Granadilla,  and  a  number  of  other  exotics,  are  suc- 
cessfully reared  by  the  wealthier  inhabitants  of  the 
towns  and  villages  ;  and  within  the  last  few  years  the 
peerless  Mangosteen  of  Malacca,  the  delicacy  of  which 
we  can  imagine  to  resemble  that  of  perfumed  snow, 
has  been  successfully  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  Caltura 
and  Colombo. 

With  the  exception  of  the  orange,  the  fruits  of 
Ceylon  have  one  deficiency,  common,  I  apprehend, 
to  all  tropical  countries.  They  are  wanting  in  that 
piquancy  which  in  northern  climates  is  attributable  to 
the  exquisite  perfection  in  which  the  sweet  and  aromatic 
flavours  are  blended  with  the  acidulous.  Either  the 
acid  is  so  ascendant  as  to  be  repulsive  to  the  European 
palate,  or  the  saccharine  so  preponderates  as  to  render 
Singhalese  fruit  cloying  and  distasteful. 

Still,  all  other  defects  are  compensated  by  the 
coolness  which  pervades  them ;  and,  under  the  ex- 
haustion of  a  blazing  sun,  no  more  exquisite  physical 
enjoyment  can  be  imagined  than  the  chill  and  fragrant 
flesh  of  the  pine-apple,  or  the  abundant  juice  of  the 
mango,  which,  when  freshly  pulled,  feels  as  cold  as  iced 
water.  But  the  fruit  must  be  eaten  instantly ;  even  an 
interval  of  a  few  minutes  after  it  has  been  gathered  is 
sufficient  to  destroy  the  charm ;  for,  once  severed  from 
the  stern,  it  rapidly  acquires  the  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  air. 

Sufficient  admiration  has  hardly  been  bestowed  upon 
the  marvellous  power  thus  displayed  by  the  vegetable 
world  in  adjusting  its  temperature,  notwithstanding  at- 
mospheric fluctuations, — a  faculty  in  the  manifestation 


CHAP.  III.]  TEMPERATURE   OF   FRUIT.  121 

of  which  it  appears  to  present  a  counterpart  to  that  ex- 
hibited by  the  animal  ceconomy  in  regulating  its  own  heat. 
So  uniform  is  the  exercise  of  the  latter  faculty  in  man  and 
the  higher  animals,  that  there  is  barely  a  difference  of 
three  degrees  between  the  warmth  of  the  body  in  the 
utmost  endurable  vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold ;  and  in 
vegetables  an  equivalent  arrangement  enables  them  in 
winter  to  keep  their  temperature  somewhat  above  that 
of  the  surrounding  air,  and  in  summer  to  reduce  it  far 
below  it.  It  would  almost  seem  as  if  plants  possessed 
a  power  of  producing  cold  analogous  to  that  exhibited 
by  animals  in  producing  heat ;  and  in  the  luxurious 
chillness  of  the  fruit  that  nature  lavishes  on  the 
tropics,  man  enjoys  the  benefit  of  this  beneficent  ar- 
rangement. 

The  peculiar  organisation  by  whiqh  this  result  is  ob- 
tained is  not  free  from  obscurity,  but  in  all  probability 
the  means  of  adjusting  the  temperature  of  plants  is 
dependent  on  evaporation.  As  regards  the  power 
possessed  by  vegetables  of  generating  heat,  although  it 
has  been  demonstrated  to  exist,  it  is  in  so  trifling  a  de- 
gree as  to  be  almost  inappreciable,  except  at  the  period 
of  germination,  when  it  probably  arises  from  the  con- 
sumption of  oxygen  in  generating  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
which  is  then  evolved.  The  faculty  of  retaining  this 
warmth  at  night  and  at  other  times  may,  therefore,  be 
referable  mainly  to  the  closing  of  the  pores,  and  the  con- 
sequent check  of  evaporation. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  faculty  of  maintaining  a  tem- 
perature below  that  of  the  surrounding  air,  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  referring  it  to  the  mechanical  process 
of  imbibing  a  continuous  supply  of  fresh  moisture  from 
the  soil,  the  active  transpiration  of  which  imparts  cool- 
ness to  every  portion  of  the  tree  and  its  fruit.  It  requires 
this  combined  operation  to  produce  the  desired  result ; 
and  the  extent  to  which  evaporation  can  bring  down 
the  temperature  of  the  moisture  received  by  absorption, 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  Dr.  Hooker,  when 


122 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  found  the  temperature  of  the 
fresh  milky  juice  of  the  Mudar  (calotropis)  to  be  but  72°, 
whilst  the  damp  sand  in  the  bed  of  the  river  where  it 
grew  was  from  90°  to  104°. 

Even  in  temperate  climates  such  a  phenomenon  is  cal- 
culated to  excite  admiration ;  but  it  is  still  more  striking 
to  find  the  like  effect  rather  increased  than  diminished 
in  the  tropics,  where  one  would  suppose  that  the  juices, 
especially  of  a  small  and  delicate  plant,  before  they  could 
be  cooled  by  evaporation,  would  be  liable  to  be  heated 
by  the  blazing  sun.1 

A  difficulty  would  also  seem  to  present  itself  in  the 
instance  of  fruit,  the  juices  of  which  have  to  undergo  a 
chemical  change ;  hence  their  circulation  might  be  conjec- 
tured not  only  to  be  slower,  but  even  to  be  somewhat  in- 
dependent of  the  general  circulation  of  the  plant.  Besides, 
in  the  instances  of  fruit  with  hard  skins,  such  as  the  pome- 
granate, or  with  a  tough  leathery  coating,  like  the  mango, 
the  evaporation  must  necessarily  be  less  than  in  those 
with  a  soft  and  spongy  covering.  Yet  all  share  alike  in 
the  general  coolness  of  the  plant,  so  long  as  circulation 
supplies  fluid  for  evaporation ;  but  the  moment  this  re- 
source is  cut  off  by  the  separation  of  the  fruit  from 
the  tree,  the  supply  of  moisture  failing,  the  process  of 
refrigeration  is  arrested,  and  the  charm  of  agreeable 
freshness  gone. 

It  only  remains  to  notice  the  aquatic  plants,  which 
are  found  in  greater  profusion  in  the  northern  and 
eastern  provinces  than  in  any  other  districts  of  the 
island.  This  abundance  is  owing  to  the  innumerable 
tanks  and  neglected  watercourses  which  cover  the  whole 
surface  of  this  once  productive  province,  but  which  now 
only  harbour  the  alligator,  or  satisfy  the  thirst  of  the 
deer  and  the  elephant. 


1  See  on  this  subject  LINDLEY'S 
Introduction  to  Botany,  vol.  ii.  book  ii. 
ch.  viii.  p.  215.  CARPENTER,  Animal 


Physiology,  ch.  ix.  s.  407.  CABPEX- 
TER'S  Vegetable  Physiology,  ch.  xi. 
s.  407.  Lond.  1848. 


CHAP.  III.] 


VARIETIES   OF   THE   LOTUS. 


123 


The  chief  ornaments  of  these  neglected  sheets  of  water 
are  the  large  red  and  white  Lotus1,  whose  flowers  may  be 
seen  from  a  great  distance  reposing  on  their  broad  green 
leaves.  The  black  seeds  of  these  plants  are  not  unlike 
little  acorns  in  shape,  and  in  China  and  some  parts  of  India 
they  are  served  at  table  in  place  of  almonds,  which  they  are 
said  to  resemble,  but  with  a  superior  delicacy  of  flavour. 
At  some  of  the  tanks  where  the  lotus  grows  in  profu- 
sion in  Ceylon,  I  tasted  the  seeds  enclosed  in  the  torus 
of  the  flowers,  and  found  them  white  and  delicately- 
flavoured,  not  unlike  the  small  kernel  of  the  pine 
cone  of  the  Apennines.  This  red  lotus  of  the  island 
appears  to  be  the  one  that  Herodotus  describes  as 
abounding  in  the  Nile  in  his  time,  but  which  is  now 
extinct ;  with  a  flower  resembling  a  rose,  and  a  fruit  in 
shape  like  a  wasp's  nest,  containing  seeds  of  the  size 
of  an  olive  stone,  and  of  an  agreeable  flavour.2  But 
it  has  clearly  no  identity  with  those  which  he  des- 
cribes as  the  food  of  the  Lotophagi  of  Africa,  of  the  size 
of  the  mastic3,  sweet  as  a  date,  and  capable  of  being 
made  into  wine. 

One  species  of  the  water  lily,  the  Nymphcea  rubra,  with 
small  red  flowers,  and  of  great  beauty,  is  common  in  the 
ponds  near  Jaffna  and  in  the  Wanny;  and  I  found  in 
the  fosse,  near  the  fort  of  Moeletivoe,  the  beautiful  blue 
lotus,  N.  stellata,  with  lilac  petals,  approaching  to  purple 
in  the  centre,  which  had  not  previously  been  supposed  to 
grow  on  the  island. 

Another  very  interesting  aquatic  plant,  which  was  disco- 
vered by  Dr.  Gardner  in  the  tanks  north  of  Trincomalie,  is 
the  Desmanthus  natans,  with  highly  sensitive  leaves  float- 


1  Nelumbium  speciosum. 

2  Herodotus,  b.  ii.  s.  92. 

3  The    words    are    "  ta 

oaov  rt  Tije  ffxivov"  (Herod,  b.  iv.  s. 
177) ;  and  as  axivog  means  also  a  squill 
or  a  sea-onion,  the  fruit  above  referred 
to,  as  the  food  of  the  Lotophagi,  must 
have  been  of  infinitely  larger  size 
and  in  every  way  different  from  the 


lotus  of  the  Nile,  described  in  the 
2nd  book,  as  well  as  from  the  lotus 
in  the  East.  Lindley  records  the 
conjecture  that  the  article  referred  to 
by  Herodotus  was  the  nabk,  the  berry 
of  the  lote-bush  (Zizyphtts  lotus), 
which  the  Arabs  of  Barbary  still  eat. 
(  Vef/etabte  Kingdom,  p.  582.) 


124 


PHYSICAL   GEOGEAPHY. 


[PART  I. 


ing  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  is  borne  aloft  by  masses 
of  a  spongy  cellular  substance,  which  occur  at  intervals 
along  its  stem  and  branches,  but  the  roots  never  touch  the 
bottom,  absorbing  nourishment  whilst  floating  at  liberty, 
and  only  found  in  contact  with  the  ground  after  the  sub- 
sidence of  water  in  the  tanks.1 


1  A  species  of  Utricularia,  with 
yellow  flowers  (U.  stellaris),  is  a 
common  water-plant  in  the  still  lakes 
near  the  fort  of  Colombo,  where  an 
opportunity  is  afforded  of  observing 
the  extraordinary  provision  of  nature 
for  its  reproduction.  There  are  small 
appendages  attached  to  the  roots, 
which  become  distended  with  air,  and 
thus  cany  the  plant  aloft  to  the  sur- 


face, during  the  cool  season.  Here 
it  floats  till  the  operation  of  flowering 
is  over,  when  the  vesicles  burst,  and 
by  its  own  weight  it  returns  to  the 
bottom  of  the  lake  to  ripen  its  seeds 
and  deposit  them  in  the  soil ;  after 
which  the  air  vessels  again  fill,  and 
again  it  re-ascends  to  undergo  the 
process  of  fecundation. 


PART  II. 


ZOOLOGY. 


127 


CHAPTEE  I. 

MAMMALIA. 

WITH  the  exception  of  the  Mammalia  and  Birds,  the 
fauna  of  Ceylon  has,  up  to  the  present,  failed  to  receive 
that  systematic  attention  to  which  its  richness  and  variety 
so  amply  entitle  it.  The  Singhalese  themselves,  habitually 
indolent,  and  singularly  unobservant  of  nature  and  her 
operations,  are  at  the  same  time  restrained  from  the  study 
of  natural  history  by  the  tenet  of  their  religion  which 
forbids  the  taking  of  life  under  any  circumstances.  From 
the  nature  of  their  avocations,  the  majority  of  the 
European  residents,  engaged  in  planting  and  commerce, 
are  discouraged  by  want  of  leisure  from  cultivating  the 
taste ;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  civil  servants  of 
the  government,  whose  position  and  duties  would  have 
afforded  them  influence  and  extended  opportunities  for 
successful  investigation,  have  never  seen  the  importance 
of  encouraging  such  studies. 

The  first  effective  impulse  to  the  cultivation  of  natural 
science  in  Ceylon,  was  communicated  by  Dr.  Davy  when 
connected  with  the  medical  staff  of  the  army  from  1816 
to  1820,  and  his  example  stimulated  some  of  the  assistant- 
surgeons  of  Her  Majesty's  forces  to  make  collections  in 
illustration  of  the  productions  of  the  colony.  Of  these  the 
late  Dr.  Kinnis  was  one  of  the  most  energetic  and  success- 
fid.  He  was  seconded  by  Dr.  Templeton  of  the  Eoyal 
Artillery,  who  engaged  assiduously  in  the  investigation  of 
various  orders,  and  commenced  an  interchange  of  speci- 
mens with  Mr.  Blyth1,  the  distinguished  naturalist  and 
curator  of  the  Calcutta  Museum.  The  birds  and  rarer 


Journ.  Asiat.  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  xv.  p.  280,  314. 
9 


128 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II 


vertebrata  of  the  island  were  thus  compared  with  their 
peninsular  congeners,  and  a  tolerable  knowledge  of  those 
belonging  to  the  island,  so  far  as  regards  the  higher 
classes  of  animals,  has  been  the  result.  The  example  so 
set  has  been  perseveringly  followed  by  Mr.  E.  L.  Layard 
and  Dr.  Kelaart,  and  infinite  credit  is  due  to  Mr.  Blyth 
for  the  zealous  and  untiring  energy  with  which  he  has 
devoted  his  attention  and  leisure  to  the  identification  of  the 
specimens  forwarded  from  Ceylon,  and  to  their  description 
in  the  Calcutta  Journal.  To  him,  and  to  the  gentleman 
I  have  named,  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  whatever 
accurate  knowledge  we  now  possess  of  the  zoology  of  the 
colony. 

The  mammalia,  birds,  and  reptiles  received  their  first 
scientific  description  in  an  able  work  published  recently 
by  Dr.  Kelaart  of  the  army  medical  staff1,  which  is  by 
far  the  most  valuable  that  has  yet  appeared  on  the 
Singhalese  fauna.  Co-operating  with  him,  Mr.  Layard 
has  supplied  a  fund  of  information  especially  in  ornitho- 
logy and  conchology.  The  zoophytes  and  Crustacea  have 
been  investigated  by  Professor  Harvey,  who  visited 
Ceylon  for  that  purpose  in  1852,  and  by  Professor 
Schmarda,  of  the  University  of  Prague,  who  was  lately 
sent  there  for  a  similar  object.  From  the  united  labours 
of  these  gentlemen  and  others  interested  in  the  same 
pursuits,  we  may  hope  at  an  early  day  to  obtain  such 
a  knowledge  of  the  zoology  of  Ceylon,  as  may  to  some 
extent  compensate  for  the  long  indifference  of  the  govern- 
ment officers. 

I.  QUADRTJMANA.  1.  Monkeys.  —  To  a  stranger  in  the 
tropics,  among  the  most  attractive  creatures  in  the  forests 
are  the  troops  of  monkeys,  that  career  in  cease- 
less chase  among  the  loftiest  trees.  In  Ceylon  there 


1  Prodromus  Fauna)  Zeylanica; 
beiwj  Contributions  to  the  Zoology  of 
Ceylon,  by  F.  KELAABT,  Esq.,  M.D., 
F.L.S.,  &c.  &c.  2  vols.  Colombo 
and  London,  1852.  Dr.  DAVY,  of  the 
Medical  Staff,  brother  to  Sir  Hum- 


phry, published  in  1821  his  Account 
of  the  Interior  of  Ceylon  and  its  In- 
habitants, which  contains  the  earliest 
notices  of  the  natural  history  of  the 
island,  and  especially  of  the  Ophidian 
reptiles. 


CHAP.  I.]  MOXKEYS.  i2& 

are  five  species,  four  of  which  belong  to  one  group,  the 
Wanderoos,  and  the  other  is  the  little  graceful  grimacing 
rilawa  \  which  is  the  universal  pet  and  favourite,  of  both 
natives  and  Europeans. 

KNOX,  in  his  captivating  account  of  the  island,  gives 
an  accurate  description  of  both  ;  the  Eilawas,  with 
"  no  beards,  white  faces,  and  long  hair  on  the  top  of 
their  heads,  which  parteth  and  hangeth  down  like  a 
man's,  and~1frhich  do  a  deal  of  mischief  to  the  corn, 
and  are  so  impudent  that  they  will  come  into  their 
gardens,  and  eat  such  fruit  as  grows  there.  And  the 
Wanderoos,  some  as  large  as  our  English  spaniel  dogs, 
of  a  darkish  grey  colour,  and  black  faces  with  great 
white  beards  round  from  ear  to  ear,  which  makes  them 
shew  just  like  old  men.  This  sort  does  but  little  mis- 
chief, keeping  in  the  wqpds,  eating  only  leaves  and 
buds  of  trees,  but  when  they  are  catched  they  will  eat 
anything." 2 

KNOX,  whose  experience  during  his  long  captivity  was 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  hill  country  around 
Kandy,  spoke  in  all  probability  of  one  large  and  com- 
paratively powerful  species,  Presbytes  ursinus,  which  in- 
habits the  lofty  forests,  and  which,  as  well  as  another  of 
the  same  group,  P.  Thersites,  was,  till  recently,  unknown 
to  European  naturalists.  The  Singhalese  word  Ouanderu 
has  a  generic  sense,  and  being  in  every  respect  the 
equivalent  for  our  own  term  of  "  monkey,"  it  necessarily 
comprehends  the  low  country  species,  as  well  as  those 
which  inhabit  other  parts  of  the  island.  And,  in  point 
of  fact,  there  are  no  less  than  four  animals  in  the  island, 
each  of  which  is  entitled  to  the  name  of  "wanderoo."3 


interesting  facts  relative  to  the  Ri- 


1  Macaous  pileatus,  Shaw  and 
Desmarest.  The  "bonneted  Ma- 
caque "  is  common  in  the  south  and 
west ;  and  a  spectacled  monkey  is  |  Ion,  an  Island  in  the  East  Indies. — 


lawa  of  Ceylon. 
2  KNOX,  Historical  Relation  of  Cey- 


said  to  inhabit  the  low  countiy  near 
to  Bintenne  ;  but  I  have  never  seen 
one  brought  thence.  A  paper  by 
J)r.  TEMPLETON,  in  the  Mag.  Nat. 
Hist.  n.  s.  xiv.  p.  301,  contains  some 


P.  i.  ch.  vi.  p.  25.  Fol.  Lond.  1681. 
See  an  account  of  his  captivity, 
Vol.  II.  p.  65  n. 

s  Down  to  a  very  late  period,  a 
large  and  somewhat  repulsive-look- 


VOL.  I.  K 


130 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  IL 


Each  separate  species  has  appropriated  to  itself  a 
different  district  of  the  wooded  country,  and  seldom 
encroaches  on  the  domain  of  its  neighbours. 

1.  Of  the  four  species  found  in  Ceylon,  the  most 
numerous  in  the  island,  and  the  one  best  known  in 
Europe,  is  the  Wanderoo  of  the  low  country,  the  P. 
cephalopterus  of  Zimmerman.1  It  is  an  active  and 
intelligent  creature,  not  much  larger  than  the  common 
bonneted  Macaque,  and  far  from  being  so  mischievous 
as  others  of  the  monkeys  in  the  island.  In  captivity 
it  is  remarkable  for  the  gravity  of  its  demeanour  and 
for  an  air  of  melancholy  in  its  expression  and  move- 
ments, which  are  completely  in  character  with  its  snowy 
beard  and  venerable  aspect.  Its  disposition  is  gentle 
and  confiding,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  sensible  of 
kindness,  and  eager  for  endearing  attentions,  uttering 
a  low  plaintive  cry  when  its  sympathies  are  excited. 
It  is  particularly  cleanly  in  its  habits  when  domes- 
ticated, and  spends  much  of  its  time  in  trimming  its 


ing  monkey,  common  to  the  Malabar 
coast,  the  Silenus  veter,  Linn.,  was, 
from  the  circumstance  of  his  pos- 
sessing a  "  great  white  beard,"  incor- 
rectly assumed  to  be  the  "wande- 
roo"  of  Ceylon,  described  by  KNOX  ; 
and  under  that  usurped  name  it  has 
figured  in  every  author  from  Buffon 
to  the  present  time.  Specimens  of 
the  true  Singhalese  species  were, 
however,  received  in  Europe  ;  but  in 
the  absence  of  information  in  this 
country  as  to  their  actual  habitat, 
they  were  described,  first  by  Zim- 
merman, on  the  continent,*  under 
the  name  of  Leucoprymnus  cepha- 
lopterus, and  subsequently  by  Mr. 
E.  Bennett,  under  that  of  Semno- 
pitlwcus  Nestor  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 
pt.  i.  p.  67 :  1833)  ;  the  generic  and 
specific  characters  being  on  this  oc- 
casion most  carefully  pointed  out  by 
that  eminent  naturalist.  Eleven 

Siars  later  Dr.  Templeton  forwarded  j 
the  Zoological  Society  a  descrip-  | 
tion,  accompanied  by  drawings,    of  | 


the  wanderoo  of  the  western  maritime 
districts  of  Ceylon,  and  noticed  the 
fact  that  the  "wanderoo  of  authors 
(S.  veter)  was  not  to  be  found  in  the 
island  except  as  an  introduced  species 
in  the  custody  of  the  Arab  horse- 
dealers,  who  visit  the  port  of  Colombo 
at  stated  periods.  Mr.  Waterhouse, 
at  the  meeting  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  p.  1 : 
1844)  at  which  this  communication 
was  read,  recognised  the  identity  of 
the  subject  of  Dr.  Templeton's  de- 
scription with  that  already  laid  before 
them  by  Mr.  Bennett ;  and  from  this 
period  the  species  in  question  was 
believed  to  truly  represent  the  wan- 
deroo of  Knox.  *  The  later  discovery, 
however,  of  the  P.  ursiniw  by  Dr. 
Kelaart,  in  the  mountains  amongst 
which  we  are  assured  that  Knox  spent 
so  many  years  of  captivity,  reopens 
the  question,  but  at  the  same  time  ap- 
pears to  me  to  clearly  demonstrate  that 
in  this  latter  we  have  in  reality  the 
animal  to  which  his  narrative  refers. 
1  Leucoprymnus  Nestor,  Bennett. 


CHAP.  I.]  MONKEYS.  131 

fur,  and  carefully  divesting  its  hair  of  particles  of  dust. 
Although  common  in  the  southern  and  western  provinces, 
it  is  never  found  at  a  higher  elevation  than  1300 
feet. 

When  observed  in  their  native  wilds,  a  party  of 
twenty  or  thirty  of  these  creatures  is  generally  busily 
engaged  in  the  search  for  berries  and  buds.  They 
are  seldom  to  be  seen  on  the  ground,  except  when 
they  may  have  descended  to  recover  seeds  or  fruit 
which  have  fallen  at  the  foot  of  their  favourite  trees. 
When  disturbed,  their  leaps  are  prodigious ;  but  ge- 
nerally speaking,  their  progress  is  made  not  so  much 
by  leaping  as  by  swinging  from  branch  to  branch, 
using  their  powerful  arms  alternately  ;  and  when 
baffled  by  distance,  flinging  themselves  obliquely  so  as 
to  catch  the  lower  boughs  of  an  opposite  tree,  the  mo- 
mentum acquired  by  their  descent  being  sufficient  to 
cause  a  rebound  of  the  branch,  that  carries  them  up- 
wards again,  till  they  can  grasp  a  higher  and  more  distant 
one,  and  thus  continue  their  headlong  flight.  In  these 
perilous  achievements,  wonder  is  excited  less  by  the  sur- 
passing agility  of  these  little  creatures,  frequently  encum- 
bered as  they  are  by  their  young,  which  cling  to  them  in 
their  career,  than  by  the  quickness  of  their  eye  and  the 
unerring  accuracy  with  which  they  seem  almost  to  cal- 
culate the  angle  at  which  a  descent  will  enable  them  to 
cover  a  given  distance,  and  the  recoil  to  elevate  them  to 
a  higher  altitude. 

2.  The  low  country  Wanderoo  is  replaced  in  the  hills 
by  the  larger  species,  P.  ursinus,  which  inhabits  the 
mountain  zone.  The  natives,  who  designate  the  latter 
the  Maha  or  Great  Wanderoo,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  Kaloo,  or  black  one,  with  which  they  are  familiar, 
describe  it  as  much  wilder  and  more  powerful  than  its 
congener  of  the  lowland  forests.  It  is  rarely  seen  by 
Europeans,  this  portion  of  the  country  having  till  very 
recently  been  but  partially  opened  ;  and  even  now  it  is 
difficult  to  observe  its  habits,  as  it  seldom  approaches  the 

K    2 


132 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


few  roads  which  wind  through  these  deep  solitudes.  It 
was  first  captured  by  Dr.  Kelaart  in  the  woods  near 
Neuera-ellia,  and  from  its  peculiar  appearance  it  has 
been  named  P.  ur sinus  by  Mr.  Blyth.1 

3.  The  P.  Thersites,  which  is  chiefly  distinguished  from 
the  others  by  wanting  the  head  tuft,  is  so  rare  that  it  was 
for  some  time  doubtful  whether  the  single  specimen  pro- 
cured by  Dr.  Templeton  from   Neuera-kalawa,  west  of 
Trincomalie,  and  on  which  Mr.  Blyth  conferred  this  new 
name,  was  in  reality  native  ;  but  the  occurrence  of  a 
second,  since  identified  by  Dr.  Kelaart,  has  established  its 
existence  as  a  separate  species.     Like  the  common  wan- 
deroo,  the  one  obtained  by  Dr.  Templeton  was  partial  to 
fresh  Vegetables,  plantains,  and  fruit ;  but  he  ate  freely  boiled 
rice,  beans,  and  gram.    He  was  fond  of  being  noticed  and 
petted,  stretching  out  his  limbs  in  succession  to  be  scratched, 
drawing  himself  up  so  that  his  ribs  might  be  reached  by 
the  linger,  closing  his  eyes   during  the    operation,  and 
evincing  his  satisfaction  by  grimaces  irresistibly  ludicrous. 

4.  The  P.  Priamus  inhabits  the  northern  and  eastern 
provinces,  and  the  wooded  hills  which  occur  in  these 
portions  of  the  island.     In  appearance  it  differs  both  in 
size  and  in  colour  from  the  common  wanderoo,  being 
larger  and  more  inclining  to  grey ;  and  in  habits  it  is 
much  less  reserved.      At  Jaffna,  and  in  other  parts  of 
the  island  where    the  population  is  comparatively  nu- 
merous, these  monkeys  become  so  familiarised  with  the 
presence  of  man  as  to  exhibit  the  utmost  daring  "and 
indifference.     A  flock  of  them  will  take  possession  of 
a  Palmyra  palm ;    and   so   effectually  can  they  crouch 
and  conceal  themselves  among  the  leaves  that,  on  the 
slightest   alarm,   the  whole   party  becomes   invisible  in 
an  instant.      The   presence  of  a  dog,  however,  excites 


1  Mr.  Blyth  quotes  as  authority 
for  this  trivial  name  a  passage  from 
MAJOR  FORBES'  Eleven  Years  in  Cey- 
lon ;  and  I  can  vouch  for  the  graphic 
accuracy  of  the  remark. — "  A  species 


of  very  large  monkey,  that  passed 
some  distance  before  me,  when  rest- 
ing on  all  fours,  looked  so  like  a 
Ceylon  bear,  that  I  nearly  took  him 
for  one." 


CHAP.  L]  THE    LOEIS.  133 

such  an  irrepressible  curiosity  that,  in  order  to  watch 
his  movements,  they  never  fail  to  betray  themselves. 
They  may  be  frequently  seen  congregated  on  the  roof 
of  a  native  hut ;  and,  some  years  ago,  the  child  of  a 
European  clergyman  stationed  near  Jaffna  having  been 
left  on  the  ground  by  the  nurse,  was  so  teased  and  bitten 
by  them  as  to  cause  its  death. 

The  Singhalese  have  the  impression  that  the  remains 
of  a  monkeyuft'e  never  to  be  found  in  the  forest ;  a  belief 
which  they  have  embodied  in  the  proverb  that  "  he  who 
has  seen  a  white  crow,  the  nest  of  a  paddi  bird,  a 
straight  coco-nut  tree,  or  a  dead  monkey,  is  certain  to 
live  for  ever."  This  piece  of  folk-lore  has  evidently 
reached  Ceylon  from  India,  where  it  is  believed  that 
persons  dwelling  on  the  spot  where  a  hanuman  monkey, 
S.  entellus,  has  been  killed,  will  die,  that  even  its  bones 
are  unlucky,  and  that  no  house  erected  where  they  are 
hid  under  ground  can  prosper.  Hence  when  a  dwelling 
is  to  be  built,  it  is  one  of  the  employments  of  the  Jyotish 
philosophers  to  ascertain  by  their  science  that  none  such  are 
concealed ;  and  Buchanan  observes  that  "  it  is,  perhaps, 
owing  to  this  fear  of  ill-luck  that  no  native  will  acknow- 
ledge his  having  seen  a  dead  hanuman." 1 

The  only  other  quadrumanous  animal  found  in  Ceylon 
is  the  little  loris 2,  which,  from  its  sluggish  movements, 
nocturnal  habits,  and  consequent  inaction  during  the 
day,  has  acquired  the  name  of  the  "Ceylon  Sloth." 
There  are  two  varieties  in  the  island ;  one  of  the  ordi- 
nary fulvous  brown,  and  another  larger,  whose  fur  is 
entirely  black.  A  specimen  of  the  former  was  sent  to 
me  from  Chilaw,  on  the  western  coast,  and  lived  for 
some  time  at  Colombo,  feeding  on  rice,  fruit,  and  vege- 
tables. It  was  partial  to  ants  and  other  insects,  and  was 
always  eager  for  milk  or  the  bone  of  a  fowl.  The 
naturally  slow  motion  of  its  limbs  enables  the  loris  to 


1  BUCHANAN'S  Survey  of 
poor,  p.  142.     At  Gibraltar  it  is  be- 


lieved  that  the  body  of  a  dead  monkey 
is  never  found  on  the  rock. 


2  Loris  gracilis,  Geoff". 
K  3 


134  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

approach  its  prey  so  stealthily  that  it  seizes  birds  before 
they  can  be  alarmed  by  its  presence.  The  natives  assert 
that  it  has  been  known  to  strangle  the  pea-fowl  at 
night,  to  feast  on  the  brain.  During  the  day  the 
one  which  I  kept  was  usually  asleep  in  the  strange  po- 
sition represented  below ;  its  perch  firmly  grasped  with 
all  hands,  its  back  curved  into  a  ball  of  soft  fur,  and  its 
head  hidden  deep  between  its  legs.  The  singularly- 
large  and  intense  eyes  of  the  loris  have  attracted  the 


THE    LOBIS. 


attention  of  the  Singhalese,  who  capture  the  creature 
for  the  purpose  of  extracting  them  as  charms  and  love- 
potions,  and  this  they  are  said  to  effect  by  holding  the 
little  animal  to  the  fire  till  its  eyeballs  burst.  Its 
Tamil  name  is  theivangu,  or  "  thin-bodied  ;  "  and  hence  a 
deformed  child  or  an  emaciated  person  has  acquired 


CHAP.  I.]  BATS.  135 

in  the  Tamil  districts  the  same  epithet.  The  light- 
coloured  variety  of  the  loris  in  Ceylon  has  a  spot  on  its 
forehead,  somewhat  resembling  the  namam,  or  mark  worn 
by  the  worshippers  of  Vishnu ;  and,  from  this  peculiarity, 
it  is  distinguished  as  the  Nama-theivangu.1 

II.  CHEIROPTERA.  Bats. — The  multitude  of  bats  is  one 
of  the  features  of  the  evening  landscape;  they  abound 
in  every  cave  and  subterranean  passage,  in  the  tunnels 
on  the  highways,  in  the  galleries  of  the  fortifications, 
in  the  roofs  of  the  bungalows,  and  the  ruins  of  every 
temple  and  building.  At  sunset  they  are  seen  issuing 
from  their  diurnal  retreats  to  roam  through  the  twilight 
in  search  of  crepuscular  insects,  and  as  night  approaches 
and  the  lights  in  the  rooms  attract  the  night-flying 
lepidoptera,  the  bats  sweep  round  the  dinner-table  and 
carry  off  their  tiny  prey  within  the  glitter  of  the  lamps. 
Including  the  frugivorous  section  about  sixteen  species 
have  been  identified  in  Ceylon,  and  of  these,  two  varieties 
are  peculiar  to  the  island.  The  colours  of  some  of 
them  are  as  brilliant  as  the  plumage  of  a  bird,  bright 
yellow,  deep  orange,  and  a  rich  ferruginous  brown 
inclining  to  red.2  The  Eoussette3  of  Ceylon  (the 
"Flying-fox,"  as  it  is  usually  called  by  Europeans) 
measures  from  three  to  four  feet  from  point  to  point  of 
its  extended  wings,  and  some  of  them  have  been  seen 
wanting  but  a  few  inches  of  five  feet  in  the  alar 
expanse.  These  sombre-looking  creatures  feed  chiefly 
on  ripe  fruits,  the  guava,  the  plantain,  and  the  rose- 
apple,  and  are  abundant  in  ah1  the  maritime  districts, 
especially  at  the  season  when  the  pulun-imbul4,  one  of  the 
silk-cotton  trees,  is  putting  forth  its  flower-buds,  of  which 


1  There  is  an  interesting  notice  of 
the  loris  of  Ceylon  by  Dr.  TEMPLE- 
TON,  in  the  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  1844, 
ch.  xiv.  p.  362. 

2  Rhinolophus  affinis  ?  var.  rubidus, 


Hipposideros  muriiius,  var.  fulvus, 
Kchtart. 


Hipposideros  speoris,  var.  aureus, 
Kcluurt. 

Kerivoula  picta,  Pallas. 
Scotophilus  Heathii,  Horsf. 

3  Pteropus  Edwardsii,  Geoff. 

4  Eriodendron  orientale,  Stead. 


K  4 


136 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II 


they  are  singularly  fond.  By  day  they  suspend  them- 
selves from  the  highest  branches,  hanging  by  the  claws 
of  the  hind  legs,  pressing  the  chin  against  the  breast, 
and  using  the  closed  membrane  attached  to  the  fore- 
arms as  a  mantle  to  envelope  the  head.  At  sunset 
launching  into  the  air,  they  hover  with  a  murmuring 
sound  occasioned  by  the  beating  of  their  broad  mem- 
branous wings,  around  the  fruit  trees,  on  which  they 
feed  tih1  morning,  when  they  resume  their  pensile  atti- 
tude as  before.  They  are  strongly  attracted  to  the 
coco-nut  trees  during  the  period  when  toddy  is  drawn  for 
distillation,  and  exhibit,  it  is  said,  at  such  times  symptoms 
resembling  intoxication.1 

The  flying-fox  is  killed  by  the  natives  for  the  sake  of 
its  flesh,  which  I  have  been  told,  by  a  gentleman  who 
has  eaten  it,  resembles  that  of  the  hare.2 

There  are  several  varieties  (some  of  them  peculiar  to 
the  island)  of  the  horse-shoe-headed  Rhinolophus,  with 
the  strange  leaf-like  appendage  erected  on  the  extremity 
of  the  nose.  It  has  been  suggested  that  bats,  though 
nocturnal,  are  deficient  in  that  keen  vision  characteristic 


1  Mr.  THWAITES,  of  the  Royal  Bo- 
tanic Garden,  at  Kandy,  in  a  recent 
letter,  19th  Dec.  1858,  gives  me  the 
following  description  of  a  periodical 
visit  of  the  pteropus  to  an  avenue  of 
fig-trees  :  —  "  You  would  be  much 
interested  now  in  observing  a  colony 
of  the  pteropus  bat,  which  has  estab- 
lished itself  for  a  season  on  some 
trees  within  sight  of  my  bungalow. 
They  came  about  the  same  time  last 
year,  and,  after  staying  a  few  weeks, 
disappeared :  I  suppose  they  had 
demolished  all  the  available  food  in 
the  neighbourhood.  They  are  now 
busy  of  an  evening  eating"  the  figs  of 
Ficm  I'lastica,  of  which  we  have  a 
long  avenue  in  the  grounds,  as  I 
dare  say  you  remember. 

"  These  bats  take  possession  during 
the  day  of  particular  trees,  upon 
which  they  hang  like  so  much  ripe 
fruit,  but*  they  take  it  into  their 
heads  to  have  some  exercise  every 


morning  between  the  hours  of  9  and 
11,  during  which  they  are  wheeling 
about  in  the  air  by  the  hundred, 
seemingly  enjoying  the  sunshine  and 
warmth.  They  then  return  to  their 
favourite  tree,  and  remain  quiet 
until  the  evening,  when  they  move  off 
towards  their  feeding  ground.  There 
is  a  great  chattering  and  screaming 
amongst  them  before  they  can  get 
agreeably  settled  in  their  places 
after  their  morning  exercise ;  quar- 
relling, I  suppose,  for  the  most  com- 
fortable spots  to  hang  on  by  during 
the  rest  of  the  day.  The  trees  they 
take  possession  of  become  nearly 
stripped  of  leaves  ;  and  it  is  a  curious 
sight  to  see  them  in  such  immense 
numbers.  I  do  not  allow  them  to  be 
disturbed." 

2  In  Western  India  the  native 
Portuguese  eat  the  flying-fox,  and 
pronounce  it  delicate,  and  far  from 
disagreeable  in  flavour. 


CHAP.  I.] 


BEARS. 


137 


of  animals  that  take  their  prey  at  night.  I  doubt 
whether  this  conjecture  be  well  founded ;  but  at  least  it 
would  seem  that  in  their  peculiar  (economy  some  addi- 
tional power  is  required  to  supplement  that  of  vision, 
as  in  insects  touch  is  superadded,  in  the  most  sensitive 
development,  to  that  of  sight.  Hence,  it  is  possible 
that  the  extended  screen  stretched  at  the  back  of  the 
nostrils  in  bats  may  be  intended  by  nature  to  facilitate 
the  collection  and  conduction  of  odours,  as  the  vast 
development  of  the  shell  of  the  ear  in  the  same  family  is 
designed  to  assist  in  the  collection  of  sounds — and  thus 
to  reinforce  their  vision  when  in  pursuit  of  their  prey 
in  the  dusk  by  the  superior  sensitiveness  of  the  organs 
of  hearing  and  smell,  as  they  are  already  remarkable 
for  that  marvellous  delicacy  of  touch  which  enables  them, 
even  when  deprived  of  sight,  to  direct  their  flight  with 
security  by  the  nerves  of  the  wing. 

One  tiny  little  bat,  not  much  larger  than  the  humble 
bee1,  and  of  a  glossy  black  colour,  is  sometimes  to  be 
seen  about  Colombo.  It  is  so  familiar  and  gentle  that 
it  will  alight  on  the  cloth  during  dinner,  and  manifests 
so  little  alarm  that  it  seldom  makes  any  effort  to  escape 
before  a  wine  glass  can  be  inverted  to  secure  it.2 

III.  CARNIVORA. — Bears. — Of  the  carnivora,  the  one 
most  dreaded  by  the  natives  of  Ceylon,  and  the  only 
one  of  the  larger  animals  that  makes  the  depths  of  the 
forest  its  habitual  retreat,  is  the  bear3,  attracted  chiefly  by 
the  honey  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  hollow  trees  and 
clefts  of  the  rocks.  Occasionally  spots  of  fresh  earth  are 
observed  which  have  been  turned  up  by  the  bears  in  search 
of  some  favourite  root.  They  feed  also  on  the  termites 
and  ants.  A  friend  of  mine  traversing  the  forest  near 
Jaffna,  at  early  dawn,  had  his  attention  attracted  by  the 
growling  of  a  bear,  which  was  seated  upon  a  lofty  branch 


-  It  is  a  very  small  Singhalese 
variety  of  Scotophilus  Coromandeli- 
cus,  P.  Cuv. 

2  For  a  notice  of  the  curious  para- 


site peculiar  to  the  bat,  see  Note  A. 
end  of  this  chapter. 

3  Prochilus  labiatus,  BlainviUe. 


138  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

thrusting  portions  of  a  red-ant's  nest  into  his  mouth  with 
one  paw,  whilst  with  the  other  he  endeavoured  to  clear 
his  eyebrows  and  lips  of  the  angry  inmates  which  bit 
and  tortured  him  in  their  rage.  The  Ceylon  bear  is 
found  in  the  low  and  dry  districts  of  the  northern 
and  south-eastern  coast,  and  is  seldom  met  with  on  the 
mountains  or  the  moist  and  damp  plains  of  the  west.  It 
is  furnished  with  a  bushy  tuft  of  hair  on  the  back,  be- 
tween the  shoulders,  by  which  the  young  are  accustomed 
to  cling  till  sufficiently  strong  to  provide  for  their 
own  safety.  During  a  severe  drought  that  prevailed  in 
the  northern  province  in  1850,  the  district  of  Caretchy 
was  so  infested  by  bears  that  the  Oriental  custom  of  the 
women  resorting  to  the  wells  was  altogether  suspended, 
as  it  was  a  common  occurrence  to  find  one  of  these 
animals  in  the  water,  unable  to  climb  up  the  yielding 
and  slippery  soil,  down  which  his  thirst  had  impelled 
him  to  slide  during  the  night. 

Although  the  structure  of  the  bear  shows  him  to  be 
naturally  omnivorous,  he  rarely  preys  upon  flesh  in 
Ceylon,  and  his  solitary  habits  whilst  in  search  of  honey 
and  fruits,  render  him  timid  and  retiring.  Hence  he 
evinces  alarm  on  the  approach  of  man  or  other  animals, 
and,  unable  to  make  a  rapid  retreat,  his  panic  rather 
than  any  vicious  disposition  leads  him  to  become  an 
assailant  in  self-defence.  But  so  furious  are  his  assaults 
under  such  circumstances  that  the  Singhalese  have  a 
terror  of  his  attack  greater  than  that  created  by  any 
other  beast  of  the  forest.  If  not  armed  with  a  gun,  a 
native,  in  the  places  where  bears  abound,  usually  carries 
a  light  axe,  called  "  kodelly,"  with  which  to  strike  them 
on  the  head.  The  bear,  on  the  other  hand,  always  aims 
at  the  face,  and,  if  successful  in  prostrating  his  victim, 
usually  commences  by  assailing  the  eyes.  I  have  met 
numerous  individuals  on  our  journeys  who  exhibited 
frightful  scars  from  such  encounters,  the  white  seams 
of  their  wounds  contrasting  hideously  with  the  dark  colour 
of  the  rest  of  their  bodies. 


CHAP.  l.J 


LEOPARDS. 


139 


The  Veddahs  in  Bintenne,  whose  principal  stores  consist 
of  honey,  live  in  dread  of  the  bears,  because,  attracted  by 
the  perfume,  they  will  not  hesitate  to  attack  their  rude 
dwellings,  when  allured  by  this  irresistible  temptation.  The 
Post-office  runners,  who  always  travel  by  night,  are  fre- 
quently exposed  to  danger  from  these  animals,  especially 
along  the  coast  from  Putlam  to  Aripo,  where  they  are  found 
in  considerable  numbers  ;  and,  to  guard  against  surprise, 
they  are  accustomed  to  carry  flambeaux,  to  give  warning 
to  the  bears,  and  enable  them  to  shuffle  out  of  the  path.1 

Leopards 2  are  the  only  formidable  members  of  the 
tiger  race  in  Ceylon,  and  they  are  neither  very  nume- 


1  Amongst  the  Singhalese  there  is 
a  belief  that  certain  charms  are  effi- 
cacious in  protecting  them  from  the 
violence  of  bears,  and  those  whose 
avocations  expose  them  to  encounters 
of  this  kind  are  accustomed  to  carry 
a  talisman  either  attached  to  their 
neck  or  enveloped  in  the  folds  of  their 
luxuriant  hair.  A  friend  of  mine, 
writing  of  an  adventure  which  oc- 
curred at  Anarajapoora,  thus  de- 
scribes an  occasion  on  which  a  Moor, 
who  attended  him,  was  somewhat 
rudely  disabused  of  his  belief  in  the 
efficacy  of  charms  upon  bears :  — 
"  Desiring  to  change  the  position  of  a 
herd  of  deer,  the  Moorman  (with  his 
charm)  was  sent  across  some  swampy 
land  to  disturb  them.  As  he  was 
proceeding  we  saw  him  suddenly 
turn  from  an  old  tree  and  run  back 
with  all  speed,  his  hair  becoming  un- 
fastened and  like  his  clothes  stream- 
ing in  the  wind.  It  soon  became 
evident  that  he  was  flying  from  some 
terrific  object,  for  he  had  thrown 
down  his  gun,  and,  in  his  panic,  he 
was  taking  the  shortest  line  towards 
us,  which  lay  across  a  swamp  covered 
with  sedge  'and  rushes  that  greatly 
impeded  his  progress,  and  prevented 
us  approaching  him,  or  seeing  what 
was  the  cause  of  his  flight.  Missing 
his  steps  from  one  hard  spot  to  an- 
other lie  repeatedly  fell  into  the 
water,  but  he  rose  and  resumed  his 
flight.  I  advanced  as  far  as  the  sods 


would  bear  my  weight,  but  to  go  fur- 
ther was  impracticable.  Just  within 
ball  range  there  was  an  open  space, 
and,  as  the  man  gained  it,  I  saw  that 
he  was  pursued  by  a  bear  and  two 
cubs.  As  the  person  of  the  fugitive 
covered  the  bear,  it  was  impossible 
to  fire  without  risk.  At  last  he  fell 
exhausted,  and  the  bear  being  close 
upon  him,  I  discharged  both  barrels. 
The  first  broke  the  bear's  shoulder, 
but  this  only  made  her  more  savage, 
and  rising  on  her  hind  legs  she  ad- 
vanced with  ferocious  growls,  when 
the  second  barrel,  though  I  do  not 
think  it  took  effect,  served  to  frighten 
her,  for  turning  round  she  retreated 
at  full  speed,  followed  by  the  cubs. 
Some  natives  then  waded  through 
the  mud  to  the  Moorman,  who  was 
just  exhausted  and  would  have  been 
drowned  but  that  he  fell  with  his 
head  upon  a  tuft  of  grass :  the  poor 
man  was  unable  to  speak,  and  for 
several  weeks  his  intellect  seemed 
confused.  The  adventure  sufficed  to 
satisfy  him  that  he  could  not  again 
depend  upon  a  charm  to  protect  him 
from  bears,  though  he  always  insisted 
that  but  for  its  having  fallen  from 
his  hair  where  he  had  fastened  it 
under  his  turban,  the  bear  would  not 
have  ventured  to  attack  him." 

2  Felispardus,Z?'/w.  What  is  called 
a  leopard,  or  a  cheetah,  in  Ceylon,  is 
in  reality  the  true  panther. 


140  ZOOLOGY.  [PAET  II 

rous  nor  very  dangerous,  as  they  seldom  attack  man. 
By  Europeans  they  are  commonly  called  cheetahs ;  but 
the  true  cheetah,  the  hunting  leopard  of  India  (Felis 
jubata),  does  not  exist  in  Ceylon.  There  is  a  rare 
variety  which  has  been  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
island,  in  which  the  skin,  instead  of  being  spotted,  is  of 
a  uniform  black.1  The  leopards  frequent  the  vicinity 
of  pasture  lands  in  quest  of  the  deer  and  other  peace- 
ful animals  which  resort  to  them ;  and  the  villagers 
often  complain  of  the  destruction  of  their  cattle  by 
these  formidable  marauders.  In  relation  to  them,  the 
natives  have  a  curious  but  firm  conviction  that  when 
a  bullock  is  killed  by  a  leopard,  and,  in  expiring,  falls 
so  that  its  right  side  is  undermost,  the  leopard  will  not 
return  to  devour  it.  I  have  been  told  by  English 
sportsmen  (some  of  whom  share  in  the  popular  belief), 
that  sometimes,  when  they  have  proposed  to  watch 
by  the  carcase  of  a  bullock  recently  killed  by  a  leopard, 
in  the  hope  of  shooting  the  spoiler  on  his  return  in 
search  of  his  prey,  the  native  owner  of  the  slaughter- 
ed animal,  though  earnestly  desiring  to  be  avenged, 
has  assured  them  that  it  would  be  in  vain,  as,  the  beast 
having  fallen  on  its  right  side,  the  leopard  would  not 
return. 

The  Singhalese  hunt  them  for  the  sake  of  their  ex- 
tremely beautiful  skins,  but  prefer  taking  them  in  traps 
and  pitfalls,  and  occasionally  in  spring  cages  formed  of 
poles  driven  firmly  into  the  ground,  within  which  a  kid 
is  generally  fastened  as  a  bait ;  the  door  being  held 
open  by  a  sapling  bent  down  by  the  united  force  of 
several  men,  and  so  arranged  as  to  act  as  a,  spring,  to 
which  a  noose  is  ingeniously  attached,  formed  of  plaited 
deer's  hide.  The  cries  of  the  kid  attract  the  leopard, 
which  being  tempted  to  enter,  is  enclosed  by  the  libe- 
ration of  the  spring  and  grasped  firmly  round  the  body  by 
the  noose. 


F.  melas,  Peron  and  Leseur. 


CHAP.  I.]  LEOPARDS.  141 

Like  the  other  carnivora,  leopards  are  timid  and  cowardly 
in  the  presence  of  man,  never  intruding  on  him  volun- 
tarily and  making  a  hasty  retreat  when  approached. 
Instances  have,  however,  occurred  of  individuals  having 
been  slain  by  them,  and  it  is  believed,  that,  like  the 
tiger,  having  once  tasted  human  blood  they  acquire  an 
habitual  relish  for  it.  A  peon  on  duty  by  night  at  the 
court-house  of  Anarajapoora,  was  some  years  ago  carried 
off  by  a  leoplfrd  from  a  table  in  the  verandah  on  which 
he  had  laid  down  his  head  to  sleep.  At  Batticaloa  a 
"  cheetah"  in  two  instances  in  succession  was  known 
to  carry  off  men  placed  on  a  stage  erected  in  a  tree 
to  drive  away  elephants  from  rice-land  :  but  such  cases 
are  rare,  and  as  compared  with  their  dread  of  the 
bear,  the  natives  of  Ceylon  entertain  but  slight  ap- 
prehensions of  the  "  cheetah."  It  is,  however,  the 
dread  of  sportsmen,  whose  dogs  when  beating  in  the 
jungle  are  especially  exposed  to  its  attacks :  and  I  am 
aware  of  one  instance  in  which  a  party  having  tied  their 
dogs  to  the  tent-pole  for  security,  and  fallen  asleep 
round  them,  a  leopard  sprang  into  the  tent  and  carried 
off  a  dog  from  the  midst  of  its  slumbering  masters. 
On  one  occasion  being  in  the  mountains  near  Kandy,  a 
messenger  despatched  to  me  through  the  jungle  excused 
his  delay  by  stating  that  a  "cheetah"  had  seated  itself  in 
the  only  practicable  path,  and  remained  quietly  licking 
its  fore  paws  and  rubbing  them  over  its  face,  till  he  was 
forced  to  drive  it,  with  stones,  into  the  forest. 

They  are  strongly  attracted  by  the  peculiar  odour 
which  accompanies  small-pox.  The  reluctance  of  the 
natives  to  submit  themselves  or  their  children  to  vac- 
cination exposes  the  island  to  frightful  visitations  of 
this  disease  ;  and  in  the  villages  in  the  interior  it  is 
usual  on  such  occasions  to  erect  huts  in  the  jungle 
to  serve  as  temporary  hospitals.  Towards  these  the 
leopards  are  certain  to  be  allured ;  and  the  medical 
officers  are  obliged  to  resort  to  increased  precautions  in 
consequence. 


142  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

Major  SKixxER,who  for  upwards  of  forty  years  has  had 
occasion  to  live  almost  constantly  in  the  interior,  occupied 
in  the  prosecution  of  surveys  and  the  construction  of 
roads,  is  strongly  of  opinion  that  the  disposition  of  the 
leopard  towards  man  is  essentially  pacific,  and  that,  when 
discovered,  its  natural  impulse  is  to  effect  its  escape.  In 
illustration  of  this,  I  insert  an  extract  from  one  of  his  letters, 
which  describes  an  adventure  highly  characteristic  of  this 
instinctive  timidity. 

"  On  the  occasion  of  one  of  my  visits  to  Adam's  Peak 
in  the  prosecution  of  my  military  reconnoissances  of  the 
mountain  zone,  I  fixed  on  a  pretty  little  patena  (i.  e. 
meadow)  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  and  dense  forest  in 
the  southern  segment  of  the  Peak  Eange,  as  a  favourable 
spot  for  operations.  It  would  have  been  difficult,  after 
descending  from  the  cone  of  the  peak,  to  have  found  one's 
way  to  this  point,  in  the  midst  of  so  vast  a  wilderness  of 
trees,  had  not  long  experience  assured  me  that  good  game 
tracks  would  be  found  leading  to  it,  and  by  one  of  them  I 
reached  it.  It  was  in  the  afternoon,  just  after  one  of  those 
tropical  sun-showers  that  decorate  every  branch  and 
blade  with  pendant  brilliants,  and  the  little  patena  was 
covered  with  game,  either  driven  to  the  open  space 
by  the  drippings  from  the  leaves  or  tempted  by  the 
freshness  of  the  pasture :  there  were  several  pairs  of 
elk,  the  bearded  antlered  male  contrasting  finely  with 
his  mate  ;  and  other  varieties  of  game  in  a  profusion 
not  to  be  found  in  any  place  frequented  by  man.  It  was 
some  time  before  I  would  allow  them  to  be  disturbed 
by  the  rude  fall  of  the  axe,  in  our  necessity  to  establish 
our  bivouac  for  the  night,  and  they  were  so  unaccustomed 
to  danger,  that  it  was  long  before  they  took  alarm  at  our 
noises. 

"  The  following  morning,  anxious  to  gain  a  height  for 
my  observations  in  time  to  avail  myself  of  the  clear 
atmosphere  of  sunrise,  I  started  off  by  myself  through  the 
jungle,  leaving  orders  for  my  men,  with  my  surveying 
instruments,  to  follow  my  track  by  the  notches  which 


CHAP.  I.]  LEOPAKDS.  143 

I  cut  in  the  bark  of  the  trees.  On  leaving  the  plain, 
I  availed  myself  of  a  fine  wide  game  track  which  lay  in 
my  direction,  and  had  gone,  perhaps,  half  a  mile  from  the 
camp,  when  I  was  startled  by  a  slight  rustling  in  the 
nilloo l  to  my  right,  and  in  another  instant,  by  the  spring 
of  a  magnificent  leopard  which,  in  a  bound  of  full  eight 
feet  in  height  over  the  lower  brushwood,  lighted  at  my 
feet  within  eighteen  inches  of  the  spot  whereon  I  stood, 
and  lay  in  a~^cVouching  position,  his  fiery  gleaming  eyes 
fixed  on  me. 

"  The  predicament  was  not  a  pleasant  one.  I  had 
no  weapon  of  defence,  and  with  one  spring  or  blow  of 
his  paw  the  beast  could  have  annihilated  me.  To  move 
I  knew  would  only  encourage  his  attack.  It  occurred 
to  me  at  the  moment  that  I  had  heard  of  the  power 
of  man's  eye  over  wild  animals,  and  accordingly  I  fixed 
my  gaze  as  intently,  as  the  agitation  of  such  a  moment 
enabled  me,  on  his  eyes  :  we  stared  at  each  other  for 
some  seconds,  when,  to  my  inexpressible  joy,  the  beast 
turned  and  bounded  down  the  straight  open  path  before 
me.  This  scene  occurred  just  at  that  period  of  the 
morning  when  the  grazing  animals  retired  from  the  open 
patena  to  the  cool  shade  of  the  forest :  doubtless,  the 
leopard  had  taken  my  approach  for  that  of  a  deer,  or 
some  such  animal.  And  if  his  spring  had  been  at  a 
quadruped  instead  of  a  biped,  his  distance  was  so  well 
measured,  that  it  must  have  landed  him  on  the  neck  of  a 
deer,  an  elk,  or  a  buffalo  ;  as  it  was,  one  pace  more  would 
have  done  for  me.  A  bear  would  not  have  let  his  victim 
off  so  easily." 

It  is  said,  but  I  never  have  been  able  personally  to  verify 
the  fact,  that  the  Ceylon  leopard  exhibits  a  peculiarity  in 
being  unable  entirely  to  retract  its  claws  within  their 
sheaths. 

Of   the  lesser  feline  species  the  number  and  variety 


1  A  species  of  one  of  the  suffruticose     in  the  mountain  ranges  of  Ceylon. 
Acanthacece  which  grows  abundantly     See  ante,  p.  90  n. 


144  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

in  Ceylon  is  inferior  to  that  of  India.  The  Palm-cat1 
lurks  by  day  among  the  fronds  of  the  coco-nut  palms, 
and  by  night  makes  destructive  forays  on  the  fowls  of  the 
villagers ;  and,  in  order  to  suck  the  blood  of  its  victim, 
inflicts  a  wound  so  small  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible. 
The  glossy  genette 2,  the  "  Civet"  of  Europeans,  is  common 
in  the  northern  province,  where  the  Tamils  confine  it 
in  cages  for  the  sake  of  its  musk,  which  they  collect 
from  the  wooden  bars  on  whicli  it  rubs  itself.  Edrisi,  the 
Moorish  geographer,  writing  in  the  twelfth  century,  enu- 
merates musk  as  one  of  the  productions  then  exported  from 
Ceylon. 3 

Dogs. — There  is  no  native  wild  dog  in  Ceylon,  but 
every  village  and  town  is  haunted  by  mongrels  of  Eu- 
ropean descent,  that  are  known  by  the  generic  descrip- 
tion of  Pariahs.  They  are  a  miserable  race,  acknowledged 
by  no  owners,  living  on  the  garbage  of  the  streets 
and  sewers,  lean,  wretched,  and  mangy,  and  if  spoken 
to  unexpectedly,  they  shrink  with  an  almost  involuntary 
cry.  Yet  in  these  persecuted  outcasts  there  survives 
that  germ  of  instinctive  affection  which  binds  the  dog 
to  the  human  race,  and  a  gentle  word,  even  a  look  of  com- 
passionate kindness,  is  sufficient  foundation  for  a  lasting 
attachment. 

The  Singhalese,  from  their  religious  aversion  to  taking 
away  life  in  any  form,  permit  the  increase  of  these 
desolate  creatures  till  in  the  hot  season  they  become  so 
numerous  as  to  be  a  nuisance  ;  and  the  only  expedient 
hitherto  devised  by  the  civil  government  to  reduce 
their  numbers,  is  once  in  each  year  to  offer  a  reward 
for  their  destruction,  when  the  Tamils  and  Malays 
pursue  them  in  the  streets  with  clubs  (guns  being 
forbidden  by  the  police  for  fear  of  accidents),'  and  the 
unresisting  dogs  are  beaten  to  death  on  the  side-paths 
and  door  steps,  where  they  had  been  taught  to  resort 


Paradoxurus  typus,  F.  Cuv.  I       3  EDRISI,    G'eoc/r.,   sec.  vii.     Jau- 

Viverra  Indica,  Gcoffr.,  Hwlyson.  \  Lert's  translation,  t.  ii.  p.  72. 


CHAP.  I.J  THE   MONGOOS.  145 

for  food.  Lord  Torrington,  during  his  tenure  of  office, 
attempted  the  more  civilised  experiment  of  putting  some 
check  on  their  numbers,  by  imposing  a  dog  tax,  the  effect 
of  which  would  have  been  to  lead  to  the  drowning  of 
puppies  ;  whereas  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  dogs  are 
at  present  bred  by  the  horse-keepers  to  be  killed  for  sake 
of  the  reward. 

Jackal.  —  The  Jackal 1  in  the  low  country  hunts  in 
packs,  headed^by  a  leader,  and  these  audacious  prowlers 
have  been  seen  to  assault  and  pull  down  a  deer.  The 
small  number  of  hares  in  the  districts  they  infest  is 
ascribed  to  their  depredations.  An  excrescence  is 
sometimes  found  on  the  head  of  the  jackal,  con- 
sisting of  a  small  horny  cone  about  half  an  inch  in 
length,  and  concealed  by  a  tuft  of  hair.  This  the 
natives  call  Narri-comboo,  and  they  aver  that  this 
"  Jackal's  Horn  "  only  grows  on  the  head  of  the  leader 
of  the  pack.2  Both  the  Singhalese  and  the  Tamils 
regard  it  as  a  talisman,  and  believe  that  its  fortunate 
possessor  can  command  by  its  instrumentality  the  reali- 
sation of  every  wish,  and  that  if  stolen  or  lost  by  him, 
it  will  invariably  return  of  its  own  accord.  Those  who 
have  jewels  to  conceal,  rest  in  perfect  security  if  along 
with  them  they  can  deposit  a  Narri-comboo,  fully  con- 
vinced that  its  presence  is  an  effectual  safeguard  against 
robbers. 

Jackals  are  subject  to  hydrophobia,  and  instances  are 
frequent  of  cattle  being  bitten  by  them  and  dying  in  con- 
sequence. 

The  Mongoos.  —  Of  the  Mongoos  or  Ichneumon  five 
species  have  been  described ;  and  one  that  frequents 
the  hills  near  Neuera-ellia3,  is  so  remarkable  from  its 


1  Cams  aureus,  Linn. 

*  In  the  Museum  of  the  College  of 
Surgeons,  London  i 
is  a  cranium  of  a  j 

bits  this  strange  osseous  process  on 

the  super-occipital ;  and  I  have  placed 

along  with  it  a  specimen  of  the  homy 

VOL.    I. 


(No.  4362  A),  there 
jackal  which  exhi- 


sheath,  which  was  presented  to  me 
by  Mr.  Lavalliere.  the  district  iudtre 
ofKandy. 

3  Herpestes  vitticottis.  Mr.  W. 
ELLIOTT,  in  his  Catalogue  of  Mam- 
malia found  in  the  Southern  Maharata 
Country,  Madras,  1840,  says,  that 


146 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PAET  II. 


bushy  fur,  that  the  invalid  soldiers  in  the  sanatarium, 
to  whom  it  is  familiar,  call  it  the  "Ceylon  Badger." 
I  have  found  universally  that  the  natives  of  Ceylon 
attach  no  credit  to  the  European  story  of  the  Mongoos 
(H.  griseus)  resorting  to  some  plant,  which  no  one 
has  yet  succeeded  in  identifying,  as  an  antidote  against 
the  bite  of  the  venomous  serpents  on  which  it  preys. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  in  its  conflicts  with  the  cobra 
de  capello  and  other  poisonous  snakes,  which  it  attacks 
with  as  little  hesitation  as  the  harmless  ones,  it  may  be 
seen  occasionally  to  retreat,  and  even  to  retire  into  the 
jungle,  and,  it  is  added,  to  eat  some  vegetable ;  but  a 
gentleman  who  has  been  a  frequent  observer  of  its 
exploits,  assures  me  that  most  usually  the  herb  it 
resorted  to  was  grass ;  and  if  this  were  not  at  hand, 
almost  any  other  plant  that  grew  near  seemed  equally 
acceptable.  Hence  has  probably  arisen  the  long  list 
of  plants ;  such  as  the  Ophioxylon  serpentinum  and 
Ophiorhiza  mungos,  the  Aristolochia  Indica,  the  Mi- 
mosa octandria,  and  others,  each  of  which  has  been 
asserted  to  be  the  ichneumon's  specific ;  whilst  their 
multiplicity  is  demonstrative  of  the  non-existence  of 
any  one  in  particular  to  which  the  animal  resorts  for  an 
antidote.  Were  there  any  truth  in  the  tale  as  regards 
the  mongoos,  it  would  be  difficult  to  understand,  why 
other  creatures,  such  as  the  secretary  bird  and  the 
falcon,  which  equally  destroy  serpents,  should  be  left 
defenceless,  and  the  ichneumon  alone  provided  with 
a  prophylactic.  Besides,  were  the  ichneumon  inspired 
by  that  courage  which  would  result  from  the  conscious- 
ness of  security,  it  would  be  so  indifferent  to  the  bite 
of  the  serpent,  that  we  might  conclude  that,  both  in  its 
approaches  and  its  assault,  it  would  be  utterly  careless  as 
to  the  precise  mode  of  its  attack.  Such,  however,  is  far 


Erocured  by  accident   in  the   Ghat 
)rests  in  1829,  and  is  now  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum ;  it  is  very 


rare,  inhabiting  only  the  thickest 
woods,  and  its  habits  are  very  little 
known,"  p.  9.  In  Ceylon  it  is  com- 
paratively common. 


CHAP.  I.]  THE   MONGOOS.  147 

from  being  the  case ;  and  next  to  its  audacity,  nothing 
can  be  more  surprising  than  the  adroitness  with  which  it 
escapes  the  spring  of  the  snake  under  a  due  sense  of 
danger,  and  the  cunning  with  which  it  makes  its  ar- 
rangements to  leap  upon  the  back  and  fasten  its  teeth  in 
the  head  of  the  cobra.  It  is  this  display  of  instinctive 
ingenuity  that  Lucan1  celebrates  where  he  paints  the 
ichneumon  diverting  the  attention  of  the  asp,  by  the 
motion  of  his-foushy  tale,  and  then  seizing  it  in  the  midst 
of  its  confusion. 

"  Aspidas  ut  Pharias  cauda  solertior  hostis 
Ludit,  et  iratas  incerta  provocat  umbra  : 
Obliquusque  caput  vanas  serpentis  in  auras 
Effusfe  toto  comprendit  guttura  morsu 
Letiferam  citra  saniem  ;  tune  irrita  pestis 
Expriniitur,  faucesque  fluunt  pereunte  veneno." 

Pharsalia,  lib.  iv.  v.  729. 

The  mystery  of  the  mongoos  and  its  antidote  has 
been  referred  to  the  supposition  that  there  may  be  some 
peculiarity  in  its  organisation  which  renders  it  proof 
against  the  poison  of  the  serpent.  It  remains  for 
future  investigation  to  determine  how  far  this  conjec- 
ture is  founded  in  truth ;  and  whether  in  the  blood  of 
the  mongoos  there  exists  any  element  or  quality  which 
acts  as  a  prophylactic.  Such  exceptional  provisions 
are  not  without  precedent  in  the  animal  oeconomy :  the 
hornbill  feeds  with  impunity  on  the  deadly  fruit  of  the 
strychnos  ;  the  milky  juice  of  some  species  of  euphorbia, 
which  is  harmless  to  oxen,  is  invariably  fatal  to  the 
zebra ;  and  the  tsetse  fly,  the  pest  of  South  Africa, 
whose  bite  is  mortal  to  the  ox,  the  dog,  and  the  horse, 
is  harmless  to  man  and  the  untamed  creatures  of  the 
forest.2 

The  Singhalese   distinguish   one  species  of  mongoos, 
which    they   designate   "  Hotambeya"  and    which  they 


1  The  passage  in  Lucan  is  a  versi- 
fication of  the  same  narrative  related 
by  Pliny,  lib.  viii.  ch.  35 ;  and  ^Elian, 
lib.  iii.  ch.  22. 


2  Dr.    LIVINGSTONE,    Tour    in  S. 
Africa,  p.  80.     Is  it  a  fact  that  in 
America,  pi^s  extirpate  the  rattle- 
snakes with  impunity  ? 
2 


148  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

assert  never  preys  upon  serpents.  A  writer  in  the 
Ceylon  Miscellany  mentions,  that  they  are  often  to  be 
seen  "  crossing  rivers  and  frequenting  mud-brooks  near 
Chilaw;  the  adjacent  thickets  affording  them  shelter, 
and  their  food  consisting  of  aquatic  reptiles,  crabs,  and 
mollusca." 1 

IV.  KODENTIA.  Squirrels.  —  Smaller  animals  in  great 
numbers  enliven  the  forests  and  lowland  plains  with 
then:  graceful  movements.  Squirrels2,  of  which  there 
are  a  great  variety,  make  -their  shrill  metallic  call  heard 
at  early  morning  in  the  woods,  and  when  sounding  their 
note  of  warning  on  the  approach  of  a  civet  or  a  tree- 
snake,  the  ears  tingle  with  the  loud  trill  of  defiance, 
which  rings  as  clear  and  rapid  as  the  running  down  of  an 
alarum,  and  is  instantly  caught  up  and  re-echoed  from 
every  side  by  their  terrified  playmates. 

One  of  the  largest,  belonging  to  a  closely  allied  sub- 
genus,  is  known  as  the  "  Flying  Squirrel," 3  from  its 
being  assisted  in  its  prodigious  leaps  from  tree  to  tree, 
by  a  parachute  formed  by  the  skin  of  the  flanks, 
which  on  the  extension  of  the  limbs  front  and  rear,  is 
laterally  expanded  from  foot  to  foot.  Thus  buoyed  up 
in  its  descent,  the  spring  which  it  is  enabled  to  make 
from  one  lofty  tree  to  another  resembles  the  flight  of  a 
bird  rather  than  the  bound  of  a  quadruped.  Of  these 
pretty  creatures  there  are  two  species,  one  common  to 
Ceylon  and  India,  the  other  (Sciuropterus  Layardii, 
Kelaart)  is  peculiar  to  the  island,  and  is  by  far  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  family. 


1  This  is  possibly  the  "  musbilai  " 
or  mouse-cat  of  Behar,  which  preys 
upon  birds  and  fish.     Can  it  be  the 
Urvaof  the  Nepalese  (  Urva  cancrivwa, 
Hodgson),  which  Mr.  Hodgson  de- 
scribes as  dwellirg  in  burrows,  and 
being  carnivorous  and  ranivorous  ? — 
Vide  Jvurn.  As.  Soc.  Seng.,  vol.  vi. 
p.  56. 

2  Of  two  kinds  which  frequent  the 
mountains,  one  which  is  peculiar  to 
Ceylon  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Edgar 


L.  Layard,  who  has  done  me  the 
honour  to  call  it  the  Scittrm  Tennentii. 
Its  dimensions  are  large,  measuring 
upwards  of  two  feet  from  head  to 
tail.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  S. 
mao-unts  by  the  predominant  black 
colour  of  the  upper  surface  of  the 
body,  with  the  exception  of  a  rusty 
spot  at  the  base  of  the  ears. 

8  Pteromys  oral.,   Ticket.     P.  pet- 
aurista,  Pallas. 


CUAP.  I.]  THE   EAT   AND   THE    RAT-SNAKE.  Hfr 

Eats. — Among  the  multifarious  inhabitants  to  which 
the  forest  affords  at  once  a  home  and  provender  is  the 
tree  rat1,  which  forms  its  nest  on  the  branches,  and  by 
turns  makes  its  visits  to  the  dwellings  of  the  natives, 
frequenting  the  ceilings  in  preference  to  the  lower  parts 
of  houses.  Here  it  is  incessantly  followed  by  the  rat- 
snake2,  whose  domestication  is  encouraged  by  the 
servants,  in  consideration  of  its  services  in  destroying 
vermin.  I  Had  one  day  an  opportunity  of  surprising  a 
snake  that  had  just  seized  on  a  rat  of  this  description, 
and  of  covering  it  suddenly  with  a  glass  shade,  before  it 
had  time  to  swallow  its  prey.  The  serpent,  which  ap- 
peared stunned  by  its  own  capture,  allowed  the  rat  to 
escape  from  its  jaws,  which  cowered  at  one  side  of  the 
glass  in  the  most  pitiable  state  of  trembling  terror.  The 
two  were  left  alone  for  some  moments,  and  on  my  re- 
turn to  them  the  snake  was  as  before  in  the  same  attitude 
of  sullen  stupor.  On  setting  them  at  liberty,  the  rat 
bounded  towards  the  nearest  fence ;  but  quick  as  light- 
ning it  was  followed  by  its  pursuer,  which  seized  it  before 
it  could  gain  the  hedge,  through  which  I  saw  the  snake 
glide  with  its  victim  in  its  jaws. 

Another  indigenous  variety  of  the  rat  is  that  which 
made  its  appearance  for  the  first  time  in  the  coffee  plan- 
tations on  the  Kandyan  hills  in  the  year  1847,  and  in  such 
swarms^  does  it  continue  to  infest  them,  at  intervals,  that 
as  many  as  a  thousand  have  been  killed  in  a  single  day  on 
one  estate.  In  order  to  reach  the  buds  and  blossoms  of 
the  coffee,  it  cuts  such  of  the  slender  branches,  as  would 
not  sustain  its  weight,  and  feeds  as  they  fall  to  the  ground ; 
and  so  delicate  and  sharp  are  its  incisors,  that  the  twigs 
thus  destroyed  are  detached  by  as  clean  a  cut  as  if  severed 
with  a  knife.  The  coffee-rat 3  is  an  insular  variety  of  the 
Mus  hirsutus  of  W.  Elliot,  found  in  Southern  India.  They 


1  There  are  two  species  of  the  tree 
rat  in  Ceylon :  M.  rufescens,  Gray ; 
(M.  flavescens,  Ettiot ;)  and  Mus  ne- 
moralis,  Blyth. 


*  Coryphodon  Blumenbachii,  Merr, 
3  Golunda  Ellioti,  Gray. 


150  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

inhabit  the  forests,  making  their  nests  among  the  roots  of 
the  trees,  and  feeding  in  the  season,  on  the  ripe  seeds  of 
the  nilloo.  Like  the  lemmings  of  Norway  and  Lapland, 
they  migrate  in  vast  numbers  on  the  occurrence  of  a 
scarcity  of  their  ordinary  food.  The  Malabar  coolies  are 
so  fond  of  their  flesh,  that  they  evince  a  "preference  for 
those  districts  in  which  the  coffee  plantations  are  subject 
to  their  incursions,  where  they  fry  the  rats  in  coco-nut  oil, 
or  convert  them  into  curry. 

Bandicoot. — Another  favourite  article  of  food  with 
the  coolies  is  the  pig-rat  or  Bandicoot1,  which  attains  on 
those  hills  the  weight  of  two  or  three  pounds,  and  grows 
to  nearly  the  length  of  two  feet.  As  it  feeds  on  grain 
and  roots,  its  flesh  is  said  to  be  delicate,  and  much  resem- 
bling young  pork.  Its  nests,  when  rifled,  are  frequently 
found  to  contain  considerable  quantities  of  rice,  stored  up 
against  the  dry  season. 

Porcupine. — The  Porcupine2  is  another  of  the  rodentia 
which  has  drawn  down  upon  itself  the  hostility  of  the 
planters,  from  its  destruction  of  the  young  coco-nut  palms, 
to  which  it  is  a  pernicious  and  persevering,  but  withal  so 
crafty,  a  visitor,  that  it  is  with  difficulty  any  trap  can  be 
so  disguised,  or  any  bait  made  so  alluring,  as  to  lead  to 
its  capture.  The  usual  expedient  is  to  place  some  of  its 
favourite  food  at  the  extremity  of  a  trench,  so  narrow 
as  to  prevent  the  porcupine  turning,  whilst  the  direction 
of  his  quills  effectually  bars  his  retreat  backwards.  On  a 
newly  planted  coco-nut  tope,  at  Hang-welle,  within  a  few 
miles  of  Colombo,  I  have  heard  of  as  many  as  twenty-seven 
being  thus  captured  in  a  single  night ;  but  such  success 
is  rare.  The  more  ordinary  expedient  is  to  smoke  them 
out  by  burning  straw  at  the  apertures  of  their  burrows. 
The  flesh  is  esteemed  a  delicacy  in  Ceylon,  and  in  con- 
sistency, colour,  and  flavour,  it  very  much  resembles 
young  pork. 


1  Mus  bandicota,  Bcckst.  The  En- 
glish term  bandicoot  is  a  corruption 
of  the  Telinga  name  pandikoku,  lite- 
rally piy-rat. 


Hystrix  leucurus;  Syki 


CHAP.  I.]  THE   PENGOLIN.  151 

V.  EDEXTATA.   Pengolin. — Of  the  Edentata  the  only 
example  in  Ceylon  is  the  scaly  ant-eater,  called  by  the 
Singhalese,  Caballaya,  but  usually  known  by  its  Malay 
name  of  Pengolin1,  a  word  indicative  of  its  faculty  of 
"  rolling  itself  up  "  into   a  compact   ball,   by   bending 
its  head  towards  its   stomach,  arching  its  back   into  a 
circle,  and  securing  all  by  a  powerful  fold  of  its  mail- 
covered  tail.     The  feet  of  the  pengolin  are  armed  with 
powerful  claws,  which  in  walking  they   double   in,  like 
the  ant-eater  of  Brazil.      These  they  use  in  extracting 
their    favourite   food,   the   termites,   from   ant-hills   and 
decaying  wood.      When  at  liberty,  they  burrow  in  the 
dry    ground  to  a  depth  of  seven  or   eight  feet,  where 
they  reside  in  pairs,  and  produce  annually  one  or  two 
young. 

Of  two  specimens  which  I  kept  alive  at  different 
times,  one,  about  two  feet  in  length,  from  the  vicinity 
of  Kandy,  was  a  gentle  and  affectionate  creature,  which, 
after  wandering  over  the  house  in  search  of  ants,  would 
attract  attention  to  its  wants  by  climbing  up  my  knee, 
laying  hold  of  my  leg  with  its  prehensile  tail.  The  other 
more  than  double  that  length,  was  caught  in  the  jungle 
near  Chilaw,  and  brought  to  me  in  Colombo.  I  had  always 
understood  that  the  pengolin  was  unable  to  climb  trees  ; 
but  the  one  last  mentioned  frequently  ascended  a  tree 
in  my  garden,  in  search  of  ants,  and  this  it  effected  by 
means  of  its  hooked  feet,  aided  by  an  oblique  grasp  of 
the  tail.  The  ants  it  seized  by  extending  its  round  and 
glutinous  tongue  along  their  tracks.  In  both  specimens, 
the  scales  of  the  back  were  a  cream-coloured  white, 
with  a  tinge  of  red  in  that  which  came  from  Chilaw, 
probably  acquired  by  the  insinuation  of  the  Cabook  dust 
which  abounds  along  the  western  coast  of  the  island. 
Generally  speaking,  they  were  quiet  during  the  day,  and 
grew  restless  as  evening  and  night  approached. 

VI.  KUMIXANTIA.     The  Gaur. — Besides  the  deer  and 


Mania  pentadactyla,  Linn. 
t  4 


152  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

some  varieties  of  the  humped  ox,  that  have  been  in- 
troduced from  the  opposite  continent  of  India,  Ceylon 
has  probably  but  one  other  indigenous  ruminant,  the 
buffalo.1  There  is  a  tradition  that  the  gaur,  found 
in  the  extremity  of  the  Indian  peninsula,  was  at  one 
period  a  native  of  the  Kandyan  mountains  ;  but  as  Knox 
speaks  of  one  which  in  his  time  "  was  kept  among  the 
king's  creatures  "  at  Kandy2,  and  his  account  of  it 
tallies  with  that  of  the  Bos  Gaums  of  Hindustan,  it 
would  appear  even  then  to  have  been  a  rarity.  A  place 
between  Neuera-ellia  and  Adam's  Peak  bears  the  name 
of  Gowra-ellia,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  animal 
may  yet  be  discovered  in  some  of  the  imperfectly  ex- 
plored regions  of  the  island.3  I  have  heard  of  an  in- 
stance in  which  a  very  old  Kandyan,  residing  in  the 
mountains  near  the  Horton  Plains,  asserted  that  when 
young  he  had  seen  what  he  believed  to  have  been  a 
gaur,  and  he  described  it  as  between  an  elk  and  a 
buffalo  in  size,  dark  brown  in  colour,  and  very  scantily 
provided  with  hair. 

Oxen. — Oxen  are  used  by  the  peasantry  both  in 
ploughing  and  in  tempering  the  mud  in  the  wet  paddi 
fields  before  sowing  the  rice  ;  and  when  the  harvest  is 
reaped  they  "  tread  out  the  corn,"  after  the  immemorial 
custom  of  the  East.  The  wealth  of  the  native  chiefs 
and  landed  proprietors  frequently  consists  in  their  herds 
of  bullocks,  which  they  hire  out  to  their  dependents 
during  the  seasons  for  agricultural  labour ;  and  as  they 
already  supply  them  with  land  to  be  tilled,  and  lend 
the  seed  which  is  to  crop  it,  the  further  contribution 
of  this  portion  of  the  labour  serves  to  render  the  de- 
pendence of  the  peasantry  on  the  chiefs  and  head-men 
complete. 

The  cows  are  worked  equally   with  the  oxen;  and 


1  Bubalus  buffelus,  Gray. 

2  Historical  Relation  of  Ceylon,  &c 
A.D.  1681.     Book  i.  c.  6. 


s  KELAABT,  Fauna  Zeyktn.,  p.  87. 


CHAP.  I.]  OXEN.  153 

as  the  calves  are  always  permitted  to  suck  them, 
milk  is  an  article  which  the  traveller  can  rarely  hope 
to  procure  in  a  Kandyan  village.  From  their  con- 
stant exposure  at  all  seasons,  the  cattle  in  Ceylon, 
both  those  employed  in  agriculture  and  on  the  roads, 
are  subject  to  devastating  murrains,  that  sweep  them 
away  by  thousands.  So  frequent  is  the  recurrence 
of  these  calamities,  and  so  extended  their  ravages, 
that  they  exercise  a  serious  influence  over  the  com- 
mercial interests  of  the  colony,  by  reducing  the 
facilities  of  agriculture,  and  augmenting  the  cost  of 
carriage  during  the  most  critical  periods  of  the  coffee 
harvest. 

A  similar  disorder,  probably  peripneumonia,  fre- 
quently carries  off"  the  cattle  in  Assam  and  other  hill 
countries  on  the  continent  of  India;  and  there,  as  in 
Ceylon,  the  inflammatory  symptoms  in  the  lungs  and 
throat,  and  the  internal  derangement  and  external 
eruptive  appearances,  seem  to  indicate  that  the  disease 
is  a  feverish  influenza,  attributable  to  neglect  and  ex- 
posure in  a  moist  and  variable  climate;  and  that  its 
prevention  might  be  hoped  for,  and  the  cattle  preserved, 
by  the  simple  expedient  of  more  humane  and  conside- 
rate treatment,  especially  by  affording  them  cover  at 
night. 

During  my  residence  in  Ceylon  an  incident  occurred 
at  Neuera-ellia,  which  invested  one  of  these  pretty 
animals  with  an  heroic  interest.  A  little  cow,  belong- 
ing to  an  English  gentleman,  was  housed,  together  with 
her  calf,  near  the  dwelling  of  her  owner,  and  being 
aroused  during  the  night  by  her  furious  bellowing,  the 
servants,  on  hastening  to  the  stall,  found  her  goring  a 
leopard,  which  had  stolen  in  to  attack  the  calf.  She 
had  got  him  into  a  corner,  and  whilst  lowing  incessantly 
to  call  for  help,  she  continued  to  pound  him  with  her 
horns.  The  wild  animal,  apparently  stupified  by  her 
unexpected  violence,  was  detained  by  her  till  despatched 
by  a  gun. 


154  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

The  Buffalo. — Buffaloes  abound  in  all  parts  of 
Ceylon,  but  they  are  only  to  be  seen  in  their  native 
wildness  in  the  vast  solitudes  of  the  northern  and  eastern 
provinces,  where  rivers,  lagoons,  and  dilapidated  tanks 
abound.  In  these  they  delight  to  immerse  themselves, 
till  only  their  heads  appear  above  the  surface ;  or, 
enveloped  in  mud  to  protect  themselves  from  the  assaults 
of  insects,  luxuriate  in  the  long  sedges  by  the  water 
margins.  When  the  buffalo  is  browsing,  a  crow  will 
frequently  be  seen  stationed  on  his  back,  engaged  in 
freeing  it  from  the  ticks  and  other  pests  which  attach 
themselves  to  his  leathery  hide,  the  smooth  brown  sur- 
face of  which,  unprotected  by  hair,  shines  with  an  un- 
pleasant polish  in  the  sunlight.  When  in  motion  he 
throws  back  his  clumsy  head  till  the  huge  horns  rest 
on  his  shoulders,  and  the  nose  is  presented  in  a  line 
with  the  eyes. 

The  temper  of  the  wild  buffalo  is  morose  and  uncertain, 
and  such  is  its  strength  and  courage  that  in  the  Hindu 
epic  of  the  Eamayana  its  onslaught  is  compared  to  that 
of  the  tiger.1  It  is  never  quite  safe  to  approach  them, 
if  disturbed  in  their  pasture  or  alarmed  from  their  repose 
in  the  shallow  lakes.  On  such  occasions  they  hurry  into 
line,  draw  up  in  defensive  array,  with  a  few  of  the 
oldest  bulls  in  advance ;  and,  wheeling  in  circles, 
their  horns  clashing  with  a  loud  sound  as  they  clank 
them  together  in  their  rapid  evolutions,  they  prepare  for 
attack ;  but  generally,  after  a  menacing  display  the  herd 
betakes  itself  to  flight.  Then  forming  again  at  a  safer  dis- 
tance, they  halt  as  before,  elevating  their  nostrils,  and 
throwing  back  their  heads  to  take  a  defiant  survey  of  the 
intruders.  The  sportsman  rarely  molests  them,  so  huge 
a  creature  affording  no  worthy  mark  for  his  skill,  and 
their  wanton  slaughter  adding  nothing  to  the  supply  of 
food  for  the  assailant. 

In  the  Hambangtotte  country,  where  the  Singhalese 
domesticate  the  buffaloes,  and  use  them  to  assist  in  the 


CAKEY  and  MAKSHMAN'S  Transl.  vol.  i.  p.  430,  447. 


CnAr.  L]  BUFFALOES.  155 

labour  of  the  rice  lands,  the  villagers  are  much  annoyed 
by  the  wild  ones,  that  mingle  with  the  tame  when 
sent  out  to  the  woods  to  pasture;  and  it  constantly 
happens  that  a  savage  stranger,  placing  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  tame  herd,  resists  the  attempts  of  the 
owners  to  drive  them  homewards  at  sunset.  In  the 
districts  of  Putlam  and  the  Seven  Corles,  buffaloes 
are  generally  used  for  draught;  and  in  carrying  heavy 
loads  of  salrtrom  the  coast  towards  the  interior,  they 
drag  a  cart  over  roads  which  would  defy  the  weaker 
strength  of  bullocks. 

In  one  place  between  Batticaloa  and  Trincomalie 
I  found  the  natives  making  an  ingenious  use  of 
them  when  engaged  in  shooting  water-fowl  in  the 
vast  salt  marshes  and  muddy  lakes.  Being  an  object 
to  which  the  birds  are  accustomed,  the  Singhalese 
train  the  buffalo  to  the  sport,  and,  concealed  behind, 
the  animal  browsing  listlessly  along,  they  guide  it  by 
ropes  attached  to  its  horns,  and  thus  creep  undiscovered 
within  shot  of  the  flock.  The  same  practice  prevails,  I 
believe,  in  some  of  the  northern  parts  of  India,  where 
they  are  similarly  trained  to  assist  the  sportsman  in  ap- 
proaching deer.  One  of  these  "  sporting  buffaloes  "  sells 
for  a  considerable  sum. 

The  buffalo,  like  the  elk,  is  sometimes  found  in  Ceylon 
as  an  albino,  with  purely  white  hair  and  a  pink  iris. 
There  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  formation  of  its  foot, 
which,  though  it  must  have  attracted  attention,  I  have 
never  seen  mentioned  by  naturalists.  It  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  arrangement  which  distinguishes  the  foot  of 
the  reindeer  from  that  of  the  stag  and  the  antelope. 
In  the  latter,  the  hoofs,  being  constructed  for  lightness 
and  flight,  are  compact  and  vertical;  but,  in  the  rein- 
deer, the  joints  of  the  tarsal  bones  admit  of  lateral 
expansion,  and  the  front  hoofs  curve  upwards,  while 
the  two  secondary  ones  behind  (which  are  but  slightly 
developed  in  the  fallow  deer  and  others  of  the 
same  family)  are  prolonged  till,  in  certain  positions, 


156 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  IT. 


they  are  capable  of  being  applied  to  the  ground,  thus 
adding  to  the  circumference  and  sustaining  power  of 
the  foot.  It  has  been  usually  suggested  as  the  probable 
design  of  this  structure,  that  it  is  to  enable  the  reindeer  to 
shovel  away  the  snow  in  order  to  reach  the  lichens  be- 
neath it ;  but  I  apprehend  that  another  use  of  it  has  been 
overlooked,  that  of  facilitating  its  movements  in  search 
of  food  by  increasing  the  difficulty  of  its  sinking. 

A  formation  precisely  analogous  in  the  buffalo  seems 
to  point  to  a  corresponding  design.  The  ox,  whose 
life  is  spent  on  firm  ground,  has  the  bones  of  the  foot 
so  constructed  as  to  afford  the  most  solid  support  to 
an  animal  of  its  great  weight ;  but  in  the  buffalo, 
which  delights  in  the  morasses  on  the  margins  of 
pools  and  rivers,  the  formation  of  the  foot  resembles 
that  of  the  reindeer.  The  tarsi  in  front  extend  almost 
horizontally  from  the  upright  bones  of  the  leg,  and 
spread  widely  on  touching  the  ground;  the  hoofs  are 
flattened  and  broad,  with  the  extremities  turned  up- 
wards ;  and  the  false  hoofs  behind  descend  till  they  make 
a  clattering  sound  as  the  animal  walks.  In  traversing  the 
marshes,  this  combination  of  abnormal  incidents  serves  to 
give  extraordinary  breadth  to  the  foot,  and  not  only  pre- 
vents the  buffalo  from  sinking  inconveniently  in  soft 
ground1,  but  at  the  same  time  presents  no  obstacle  to 
the  withdrawal  of  its  foot  from  the  mud. 

Deer,  • — "  Deer,"  says  the  truthful  old  chronicler, 
Eobert  Knox,  "  are  in  great  abundance  in  the  woods, 
from  the  largeness  of  a  cow  to  the  smallness  of  a  hare, 
for  here  is  a  creature  in  this  land  no  bigger  than  the 
latter,  though  every  part  rightly  resembleth  a  deer  :  it 
is  called  meminna,  of  a  grey  colour,  with  white  spots 
and  good  meat."2  The  little  creature  which  thus  dwelt 


1  PROFESSOR  OWEN  has  noticed  a 
similar  fact  regarding  the  rudiments 
of  the  second  and  fifth  digits  in  the 
instance  of  the  elk  and  bison,  which 
have  them  largely  expanded  where 
they  inhabit  swampy  ground  ;  whilst 


they  are  nearly  obliterated  in  the 
camel  and  dromedary,  that  traverse 
arid  deserts. — OWEN  on  Limbs,  p.  34 ; 
see  also  BELL  on  the  Hand,  eh.  iii. 

2  KNOX'S    Relation,    fyc,}    book  i. 
c.  G. 


CHAP.  L] 


ELK. 


157 


in  the  recollection  of  the  old  man,  as  one  of  the  memo- 
rials of  his  long  captivity,  is  the  small  "musk  deer"1 
so  called  in  India,  although  neither  sex  is  provided  with 
a  musk-bag ;  and  the  Europeans  in  Ceylon  know  it  by 
the  name  of  the  moose  deer.  Its  extreme  length  never 
reaches  two  feet ;  and  of  those  which  were  domesticated 
about  my  house,  few  exceeded  ten  inches  in  height, 
their  graceful  limbs  being  of  proportionate  delicacy. 
It  possesses  ictog  and  extremely  large  tusks,  with  which 
it  can  inflict  a  severe  bite.  The  interpreter  moodliar 
of  Negombo  had  a  milk  white  meminna  in  1847,  which 
he  designed  to  send  home  as  an  acceptable  present  to 
Her  Majesty,  but  it  was  unfortunately  killed  by  an 
accident.2 

Ceylon  Elk.  —  In  the  mountains,  the  Ceylon  elk3, 
which  reminds  one  of  the  red  deer  of  Scotland,  attains 
the  height  of  four  or  five  feet ;  it  abounds  in  all 
shady  places  that  are  intersected  by  rivers ;  where, 
though  its  chase  affords  an  endless  resource  to  the 
sportsman,  its  venison  scarcely  equals  in  quality  the 
inferior  beef  of  the  lowland  ox.  In  the  glades  and 
park-like  openings  that  diversify  the  great  forests  of  the 
interior,  the  spotted  Axis  troops  in  herds  as  numerous 
as  the  fallow  deer  in  England  ;  and,  in  journeys  through 
the  jungle,  when  often  dependent  on  the  guns  of  our 
party  for  the  precarious  supply  of  the  table,  we  found 
the  flesh  of  the  Axis  4  and  the  Muntjac  5  a  sorry  substi- 
tute for  that  of  the  pea-fowl,  the  jungle-cock,  and 
flamingo."  The  occurrence  of  albinos  is  very  frequent 

the  elk,  frequently  effect  their  ap- 
proaches hy  so  imitating  the  call  of 
the  animal  as  to  induce  them  to  re- 
spond. _  An  instance  occurred  during 
my  residence  in  Ceylon,  in  which  two 
natives,  whose  mimicry  had  mutually 
deceived  them,  crept  so  close  toge- 
ther in  the  jungle  that  one  shot  the 
other,  supposing  the  cry  to  proceed 
from  the  game. 

8  Axis  maculata,  H.  Smith. 

4  Stylocerue  muntjac,  Horsf. 


1  Moschus  meminna. 

2  When  the  English  took  possession 
of  Kandv,  in  1803,  they  found  "  five 
beautiful    milk-white    deer    in    the 
palace,  which  was  noted  as  a  very 
extraordinary  thing."  —  Letter  in.  Ap- 
pendix to  PERCIVAL'S  Ceylon,  p.  428. 
The  writer  does  not  say    of   what 
species  they  were. 

3  Rusa  Aristotelis.     Dr.  GRAY  has 
lately  shown  that  this  is  the  great 
em's  of  Cinder. — Oss.  Foss.  502,  t.  39, 
f.  10.     The  Singhalese,  on  following 


153  ZOOLOGY.  [PAST  II. 

in  troops  of  the  axis.  Deer's  horns  are  an  article  of 
export  from  Ceylon,  and  considerable  quantities  are 
annually  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom. 

VIE.  PACHYDEEMATA.  The  Elephant  —  The  elephant 
and  the  wild  boar,  the  Singhalese  "waloora,"  are  the 
only  representatives  of  the  pachydermatous  order.  The 
latter,  which  differs  in  no  respect  from  the  wild  boar  of 
India,  is  found  in  droves  in  all  parts  of  the  island  where 
vegetation  and  water  are  abundant.  The  elephant,  the 
lord  paramount  of  the  Ceylon  forests,  is  to  be  met  with 
in  every  district,  on  the  confines  of  the  woods,  in  whose 
depths  he  finds  concealment  and  shade  during  the  hours 
when  the  sun  is  high,  and  from  which  he  emerges  only 
at  twilight  to  wend  his  way  towards  the  rivers  and  tanks, 
where  he  luxuriates  till  dawn,  when  he  again  seeks  the 
retirement  of  the  deep  forests.  This  noble  animal  fills 
so  dignified  a  place  both  in  the  zoology  and  oeconomy  of 
Ceylon,  and  his  habits  in  a  state  of  nature  have  been  so 
much  misunderstood,  that  I  shall  devote  a  separate 
section  to  his  defence  from  misrepresentation,  and  to  an 
exposition  of  what,  from  observation  and  experience,  I 
believe  to  be  his  genuine  character  when  free  in  his 
native  domains. 

Vm.  CETACEA. — Among  the  Cetacea  the  occur- 
rence of  the  Dugong1  on  various  points  of  the  coast, 
and  especially  on  the  western  side  of  the  island,  will  be 
noticed  elsewhere ;  and  whales  are  so  frequently  seen 
that  they  have  been  captured  within  sight  of  Colombo, 
and  more  than  once  their  carcases,  after  having  been 
flinched  by  the  whalers,  have  floated  on  shore  near  the 
light-house,  tainting  the  atmosphere  within  the  fort  by 
their  rapid  decomposition. 

From  this  sketch  of  the  Mammalia  it  will  be  seen 
that,  in  its  general  features,  this  branch  of  the  Fauna 
bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  that  of  Southern  India, 
although  many  of  the  larger  animals  of  the  latter  are 


Ilalicore  duyong,  F.  Cuv. 


CHAP.  I.] 


THE   GAUE. 


159 


unknown  in  Ceylon ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  some  spe- 
cies discovered  there  are  altogether  peculiar  to  the  island. 
A  deer1  as  large  as  the  Axis,  but  differing  from  it  in  the 
number  and  arrangement  of  its  spots,  has  been  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Kelaart,  to  whose  vigilance  the  natural 
history  of  Ceylon  is  indebted,  amongst  others,  for  the 
identification  of  two  new  species  of  monkeys 2,  a  number 
of  curious  shrews 3,  and  an  orange-coloured  ichneumon  4, 
before  unknown.  There  are  also  two  descriptions  of 
squirrels5  that  have  not  as  yet  been  discovered  elsewhere, 
one  of  them  belonging  to  those  equipped  with  a  para- 
chute 6,  as  well  as  some  local  varieties  of  the  palm  squirrel 
(Sciurus  penicillatus,  Leach).7 

But  the  Ceylon  Mammalia,  besides  wanting  a  num- 
ber of  minor  animals  found  in  the  Indian  peninsula, 
cannot  boast  such  a  ruminant  as  the  majestic  Gaur8, . 
which  inhabits  the  great  forests  from  Cape  Comorin  to 
the  Himalaya  ;  and,  providentially,  the  island  is  -  equally 
free  of  the  formidable  tiger  and  the  ferocious  wolf  of 
Hindustan. 

The  Hyena  and  Cheetah 9,  common  in  Southern  India, 
are  unknown  in  Ceylon  ;  and  though  abundant  in  deer, 
the  island  possesses  no  example  of  the  Antelope  or  the 
GazeUe. 

List  of  Ceylon  Mammalia. 

A  list  of  the  Mammalia  of  Ceylon  is  subjoined.  In  framing  it, 
as  well  as  the  lists  appended  to  other  chapters  on  the  Fauna  of 
the  island,  the  principal  object  in  view  has  been  to  exhibit  the 
extent  to  which  the  natural  history  of  the  island  had  been  investi- 


1  Cervus  orizus,  KELAART,  Prod. 
F.  Zeyl,  p.  83. 

2  Presbytes  ursinus,  Blyth,  and  P. 
Thersites,  Ettiot. 

3  Sorex  montanus,  S.  ferruginous, 
and  Feroculus  macropus. 

4Herpestes  fulvescena,  KELAABT, 
Prod.  Faun.  Zeylan.,  App.  p.  42. 

5  Sciurus  Tennentii,  Lmjard. 

6  Sciuropterus  Layardi,  Kelaart. 

7  There  is  a  rat  found  only  in  the 
Cinnamon  Gardens  at  Colombo,  Mus 


Ceylonus,  Kelaart ;  and  a  mouse 
which  Dr.  Kelaart  discovered  at  Trin- 
comalie,  M.  fulvidi-ventris,  Jilyth, 
both  peculiar  to  Ceylon.  Dr.  TEM- 
FLETON  has  noticed  a  little  shrew 
(Corsira  purpurascens,  Mag.  Nat. 
Hist.  1855,  p.  238)  at  Neuera-ellia, 
not  as  yet  observed  elsewhere. 

8  Bos   cavifrons,  Hodys. ;  B.  fron- 
talis,  Lamb. 

9  Felis  jubata,  Schreb. 


160 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


gated,  and  collections  made  up  to  the  period  of  my  leaving  the 
colony  in  1850.  It  has  been  considered  expedient  to  exclude  a 
few  individuals  which  have  not  had  the  advantage  of  a  direct 
comparison  with  authentic  specimens,  either  at  Calcutta  or  in 
England.  This  will  account  for  the  omission  of  a  number 
which  have  appeared  in  other  catalogues,  but  of  which  many, 
though  ascertained  to  exist,  have  not  been  submitted  to  this 
rigorous  process  of  identification. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  species  of  mammals  and  birds  con- 
tained in  these  lists  will  be  found,  with  suitable  references  to 
the  most  accurate  descriptions,  in  the  admirable  catalogue  of 
the  collection  at  the  India  House,  now  in  course  of  publication 
under  the  care  of  Dr.  Horsfield.  This  work  cannot  be  too  highly 
extolled,  not  alone  for  the  scrupulous  fidelity  with  which  the 
description  of  each  species  is  referred  to  its  first  discoverer,  but 
also  for  the  pains  which  have  been  taken  to  elaborate  synonymes 
and  to  collate  from  local  periodicals  and  other  sources,  little 
accessible  to  ordinary  inquirers,  such  incidents  and  traits  as  are 
calculated  to  illustrate  characteristics  and  habits. 


Quadrumana. 

Presbytes  cephalopterus,  Zimm. 

ursinus,  Blyth. 

Priamus,  Elliot  Sf  Blyth. 

Thersites,  Blyth. 

Macacus  pileatus,  Shaw  Sf  Deim. 
Loris  gracilis,  Geoff". 

Cbeiroptera. 

Pteropus  Edwardsii,  Geoff. 

Leschenaultii,  Dum. 
Cynopterus  marginatus,  Hamilt. 
Megaderma  spasma,  Linn. 

lyra,  Geoff. 

Rhinolophus  affinis,  Horsf. 
Hipposideros  murinus,  Elliot. 

speoris,  Elliot. 

armiger,  Hodgs. 

vulgaris,  Horsf. 
Kerivoula  picta,  Pall. 
Taphozons  longimanus,  Hardw. 
Scotophihis  Coromandelicus,  F.  Cu 

adversus,  Horsf. 

Temminkii,  Horsf. 

Tickelli,  Blyth. 

Heathii. 

Carnivora. 

Sorcx  ccertilesccns,  Shaw. 
ferruginous,  Kelaart. 
serpentarius,  7*.  Geoff. 


Sorex  montanus,  Kelaart. 
Feroculus  macroptis,  Kelaart. 
Ursus  labiatus,  Blainv. 
Lutra  nair,  F.  Cuv. 
Canis  aureus,  Linn. 
Viverra  Indica,  Geoff.,  Hodgs. 
Herpestes  vitticollis,  Benn. 

griseus,  Gm. 

Smithii,  Gray. 

fulvcscens,  Kelaart. 
Paradoxurus  typus,  F.  Cuv. 

Ceylonicus,  Pall. 
Fclis  pardus,  Linn. 

chaus,  Guldens. 

viverrinus,  Benn. 

Xtodentia. 

Sciurus  macrurus,  Forst. 

Tennentii,  Layard. 

penicillatus,  Leach. 

trilineatus,  Waterh. 
Sciuropterus  Layardi,  Kelaart. 
Pteromys  petaiirista,  Pall. 
MHS  bandicota,  Bectist. 

Kok,  Gray. 

rufescens,  Gray. 

nemoralis,  Blyth. 

Indicus,  Geoff. 

fulvidiventris,  Blyth. 
Nesoki  Hardivickii,  Gray. 
Golunda  Neuera,  Kelaart. 

Ellioti,  Gray. 
Gerbillus  Indicus,  Hardw. 


ClIAF.   I.] 


NYCTERIBIA. 


161 


Lepus  nigricollis,  F.  Cuv. 
Hystrix  leucorus,  Sykes. 

Edentata. 

Manis  pentadactyla,  Linn. 

P  a  chy  d  e  rmat  a . 

Elephas  Indicus,  Linn. 
Sas  Indicus,  Gray. 
Zeylonicus,  Blyth. 


Ruminantia. 
Moschns  meminna,  Erxl. 
Stylocerus  muntjac,  Horsf. 
Axis  maculata,  H.  Smith. 
Rusa  Aristotelis,  Cuv. 

Cetacea. 
Halicore  dugung,   F.  Cuv. 


NOTE  (A.) 
Parasite  of  the  Bat. 

One  of  the  most  curious  peculiarities  connected  with  the  bats 
is  their  singular  parasite,  the  Nycteribia.1  t)n  cursory  obser- 
vation, this  creature  appears  to  have  neither  head,  antenna?,  eyes, 
nor  mouth ;  and  the  earlier  observers  of  its  structure  satisfied 
themselves  that  the  place  of  the  latter  was  supplied  by  a  cylin- 
drical sucker,  which,  being  placed  between  the  shoulders,  the 
creature  had  no  option  but  to  turn  on  its  back  to  feed.  An- 
other anomaly  was  thought  to  compensate  for  this  apparent 
inconvenience:  its  three  pairs  of  legs,  armed  with  claws, 
being  so  arranged  that  they  seemed  to  be  equally  distributed 
over  its  upper  and  under  sides,  the  creature  being  thus  enabled 
to  use  them  like  hands,  and  to  grasp  the  strong  hairs  above  it 
while  extracting  its  nourishment.  It  moves,  in  fact,  by  rolling 
itself  rapidly  along,  rotating  like  a  wheel  on  the  extremities  of  its 
spokes,  or  like  the  clown  in  a  pantomime  hurling  himself  forward 
on  hands  and  feet  alternately.  Its  celerity  is  so  great  that  Colonel 
Montague,  who  was  one  of  the  first  to  describe  it  minutely2, 
says  its  speed  exceeds  that  of  any  known  insect,  and  as  its 
joints  are  so  flexible  as  to  yield  in  every  direction  (like  what 
mechanics  call  a  "ball  and  socket"),  its  motions  are  exceed- 
ingly grotesque  as  it  tumbles  through  the  fur  of  the  bat. 

To  enable  it  to  attain  its  marvellous  velocity,  each  foot  is 


1  This  extraordinary  creature  had  .  them  in  Ceylon  in  great  abundance 

formerly  been  discovered  only  on  a  j  on  the  fur  of  the  Scotophilug  Coro- 

few  European  bats.   Joinville  figured  mandelicus,  and  they  will,  no  doubt, 

one  which   he  found   on  the  large  be  found  on  many  others, 

roussette  (the  flying-fox),  and  says  he  i  2  Celeripes    vespertilionis,    Mont. 

had  seen  another  on  a  bat  of  the  same  !  Lin.  Trani.  xi.  p.  11, 
family.      Dr.    Templeton     observed  ' 

VOL.    I.  M 


162  ZOOLOGY.  [PAET  II. 

armed  with  two  sharp  hooks,  with  elastic  pads  opposed  to  them, 
so  that  the  hair  can  not  only  be  rapidly  seized  and  firmly  held, 
but  as  quickly  disengaged  as  the  creature  whirls  away  in  its 
headlong  career. 

The  insects  to  which  it  bears  the  nearest  affinity  are  the 
Hippoboscidce,  or  ''spider  flies,"  that  infest  birds  and  horses, 
but,  unlike  them,  it  is  unable  to  fly. 

Its  strangest  peculiarity,  and  that  which  gave  rise  to  the 
belief  that  it  is  headless,  is  its  faculty  when  at  rest  of  throwing 
back  its  head  and  pressing  it  close  between  its  shoulders  till  the 
under  side  becomes  uppermost,  not  a  vestige  of  head  being  dis- 
cernible where  we  would  naturally  look  for  it,  and  the  whole 
seeming  but  a  casual  inequality  on  its  back. 

On  closer  examination  this  apparent  tubercle  is  found  to 
have  a  leathery  attachment  like  a  flexible  neck,  and  by  a  sud- 
den jerk  the  Httle*creature  is  enabled  to  project  it  forward  into 
its  normal  position,  when  it  is  discovered  to  be  furnished  with 
a  mouth,  antennae,  and  four  eyes,  two  on  each  side. 

The  organisation  of  such  an  insect  is  a  marvellous  adaptation 
of  physical  form  to  special  circumstances.  As  the  nycteribia 
has  to  make  its  way  through  fur  and  hairs,  its  feet  are  furnished 
with  prehensile  hooks  that  almost  convert  them  into  hands;  and 
being  obliged  to  conform  to  the  sudden  flights  of  its  patron, 
and  accommodate  itself  to  inverted  positions,  all  attitudes  are 
rendered  alike  to  it  by  the  arrangement  of  its  limbs,  which 
enables  it,  after  every  possible  gyration,  to  find  itself  always  on 
its  feet. 


103 


CHAP.  II. 


BIRDS. 

OF  the  Birds  of  the  island,  upwards  of  three  hundred 
and  twenty  ^species  have  been  indicated,  for  which  we 
are  indebted  to  the  persevering  labours  of  Dr.  Temple- 
ton,  Dr.  Kelaart,  and  Mr.  Layard;  but  many  yet 
remain  to  be  identified.  In  fact,  to  the  eye  of  a 
stranger,  their  prodigious  numbers,  and  especially  the 
myriads  of  waterfowl  which,  notwithstanding  the  pre- 
sence of  the  crocodiles,  people  the  lakes  and  marshes  in 
the  eastern  provinces,  form  one  of  the  .marvels  of  Ceylon. 

In  the  glory  of  their  plumage,  the  birds  of  the  inte- 
rior are  surpassed  by  those  of  South  America  and 
Northern  India ;  and  the  melody  of  their  song  will  bear 
no  comparison  with  that  of  the  warblers  of  Europe,  but 
the  want  of  brilliancy  is  compensated  by  their  singular 
grace  of  form,  and  the  absence  of  prolonged  and  modu- 
lated harmony  by  the  rich  and  melodious  tones  of  their 
clear  and  musical  calls.  In  the  elevations  of  the  Kan- 
dyan  country  there  are  a  few,  such  as  the  robin  of 
Neuera-ellia 1  and  the  long-tailed  thrush 2,  whose  song 
rivals  that  of  their  European  namesakes ;  but,  far  be- 
yond the  attraction  of  their  notes,  the  traveller  rejoices 
in  the  flute-like  voices  of  the  Oriole,  the  Dayal-bird 3,  and 
some  others  equally  charming ;  when,  at  the  first  dawn 
of  day,  they  wake  the  forest  with  their  clear  reveil. 

It  is  only  on  emerging  from  the  dense  woods,  and 


1  Pratincola  atrata,  Kelaart. 

2  Kittacincla  macrura,  Gm. 

3  Copsychus  saularis,  Linn.   Called 
by    the    Europeans   in   Ceylon    the 
"  Magpie  Robin."     This  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  other  popular 
favourite,     the     "Indian     Robin" 


(Thamnobiafulicata,  Linn.),  which  is 
^ never  seen  in  the  unfrequented 
jungle,  but,  like  the  coco-nut  palm, 
which  the  Singhalese  assert  will  only 
flourish  within  the  sound  of  the  human 
voice,  it  is  always  found  near  the  habi- 
tations of  men.5' — E.  L.  LATARD. 


M  2 


164 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PAKT  II. 


coming  into  the  vicinity  of  the  lakes  and  pasture  of  the 
low  country,  that  birds  become  visible  in  great  quanti- 
ties. In  the  close  jungle  one  occasionally  hears  the  call 
of  the  copper-smith  *,  or  the  strokes  of  the  great  orange- 
coloured  woodpecker 2  as  it  beats  the  decaying  trees  in 
search  of  insects,  whilst  clinging  to  the  bark  with  its 
finely-pointed  claws,  and  leaning  for  support  upon  the 
short  stiff  feathers  of  its  tail.  And  on  the  lofty 
branches  of  the  higher  trees,  the  hornbill3  (the  toucan 
of  the  East),  with  its  enormous  double  casque,  sits  to 
watch  the  motions  of  the  tiny  reptiles  and  smaller  birds 
on  which  it  preys,  tossing  them  into  the  air  when  seized, 
and  catching  them  in  its  gigantic  mandibles  as  they 
fall.4  The  remarkable  excrescence  on  the  beak  of  this 
extraordinary  bird  may  serve  to  explain  the  statement 
of  the  Minorite  friar  Odoric,  of  Portenau  in  Friuli,  who 
traveUed  in  Ceylon  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
brought  suspicion  on  the  veracity  of  his  narrative  by 
asserting  that  he  had  there  seen  " birds  with  two  heads" 5 
As  we  emerge  from  the  deep  shade  and  approach  the 


1  The  greater  red-headed  Barbet 
(Megalaima  indica,  Lath. ;  M.  Phi- 
lippensis,  var.  A.  Lath.~),ihe  incessant 
dm  of  which  resembles  the  blows  of 
a  smith  hammering  a  cauldron. 

2  Brachypternus  aurantius,  Linn. 

3  Buceros  pica,     Scop. ;  B.    coro- 
nata,  Bodd.     The  natives  assert  that 
3?.  pica  builds  in  holes  in  the  trees, 
and  that  when  incubation  has  fairly 
commenced,  the  female  takes  her  seat 
on  the  eggs,  and  the  male  closes  up 
the   orifice  by  which   she   entered, 
leaving  only  a  small  aperture  through 
which  he  feeds  his  partner,  whilst 
she   successfully  guards  their  trea- 
sures from  the   monkey  tribes ;  her 
formidable  bill  nearly  filling  the  en- 
tire entrance.     See  a  paper  by  Edgar 
L.   Layard,   Esq.    Ma;/.   Nat.  Hist. 
March,    1853.      Dr.    Horsfield    had 
previously  observed  the  same  habit 
in  a  species  of   Buceros  in    Java. 
(See  HORSFIELD  and  MOORE'S  Catal. 
Birds,  E.  I.  Comp.  Mus.  vol.  ii.)     It 


is  curious  that  a  similar  trait,  though 
necessarily  from  very  different  in- 
stincts, is  exhibited  by  the  termites, 
who  literally  build  a  cell  round  the 
great  progenitrix  of  the  community, 
and  feed  her  through  apertures. 

4  The  hornbill  is  also  frugivorous, 
and  the  natives  assert  that  when  en- 
deavouring to  detach  a  fruit,  if  the 
stem  is  too  tough  to  be  severed  by 
his  mandibles,  he  flings  himself  off 
the  branch  so  as  to  add  the  weight 
of  his  body  to  the   pressure    of  his 
beak.     The  hornbill  abounds  in  Cut- 
tack,  and  bears  there  the  name  of 
"  Kuchila-Kai,"    or    Kuchila-eater, 
from  its  partiality  for  the  fruit  of  the 
Strychnus  nux-vomica.     The  natives 
regard  its  flesh  as  a  sovereign  specific 
for  rheumatic  affections. — Asiat,  Ecs. 
ch.  xv.  p.  184 

5  Itwerarius  FRATRIS  ODORICI,  de 
Foro  Julii  de  Portu-vahonis,  &c. — 
HAKLUYT,  vol.  ii.  p.  31). 


CHAP.  II.]  SWALLOWS.  \fi5 

park-like  openings  on  the  verge  of  the  low  country, 
quantities  of  pea-fowl  are  to  be  found  either  feeding 
on  the  seeds  and  fallen  nuts  among  the  long  grass  or  sun- 
ning themselves  on  the  branches  of  the  surrounding 
trees.  Nothing  to  be  met  with  in  English  demesnes 
can  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  size  and  magni- 
ficence of  this  matchless  bird  when  seen  in  his  native 
solitudes.  Here  he  generally  selects  some  projecting 
branch,  from  which  his  plumage  may  hang  free  of  the 
foliage,  and,  if  there  be  a  dead  and  leafless  bough,  he  is 
certain  to  choose  it  for  his  resting-place,  whence  he 
droops  his  wings  and  suspends  his  gorgeous  train,  or 
spreads  it  in  the  morning  sun  to  drive  off  the  damps 
and  dews  of  the  night. 

In  some  of  the  unfrequented  portions  of  the  eastern 
province,  to  which  Europeans  rarely  resort,  and  where 
the  pea-fowl  are  unmolested  by  the  natives,  their 
number  is  so  extraordinary  that,  regarded  as  game,  it 
ceases  to  be  "  sport "  to  destroy  them ;  and  their  cries 
at  early  dawn  are  so  tumultuous  and  incessant  as  to 
banish  sleep,  and  amount  to  an  actual  inconvenience. 
Their  flesh  is  excellent  when  served  up  hot,  though  it  is 
said  to  be  indigestible ;  but,  when  cold,  it  contracts 
a  reddish  and  disagreeable  tinge. 

But  of  all,  the  most  astonishing  in  point  of  multitude, 
as  well  as  the  most  interesting  from  their  endless  va- 
riety, are  the  myriads  of  aquatic  birds  and  waders 
which  frequent  the  lakes  and  watercourses;  especially 
those  along  the  coast  near  Batticaloa,  between  the 
mainland  and  the  sand  formations  of  the  shore,  and 
the  innumerable  salt  marshes  and  lagoons  to  the  south  of 
Trincomalie.  These,  and  the  profusion  of  perching  birds, 
fly-catchers,  finches,  and  thrushes,  that  appear  in  the 
open  country,  afford  sufficient  quariy  for  the  raptorial  and 
predatory  species — eagles,  hawks,  and  falcons — whose 
daring  sweeps  and  effortless  undulations  are  striking 
objects  in  the  cloudless  sky. 

M  3 


166 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II 


I.  ACCIPITRES.  Eagles.  —  The  Eagles,  however,  are 
small,  and  as  compared  with  other  countries  rare ;  ex- 
cept, perhaps,  the  crested  eagle  \  which  haunts  the 
mountain  provinces  and  the  lower  hills,  disquieting  the 
peasantry  by  its  ravages  amongst  their  poultry ;  and  the 
gloomy  serpent  eagle 2,  which,  descending  from  its  eyrie 
in  the  lofty  jungle,  and  uttering  a  loud  and  plaintive 
cry,  sweeps  cautiously  around  the  lonely  tanks  and 
marshes,  to  feed  upon  the  reptiles  on  their  margin. 
The  largest  eagle  is  the  great  sea  Erne3,  seen  on  the 
northern  coasts  and  the  salt  lakes  of  the  eastern  pro- 
vinces, particularly  when  the  receding  tide  leaves  bare 
an  expanse  of  beach,  over  which  it  hunts,  in  company 
with  the  fishing  eagle4,  sacred  to  Siva.  Unlike  its 
companions,  however,  the  sea  eagle  rejects  garbage 
for  living  prey,  and  especially  for  the  sea  snakes 
which  abound  on  the  northern  coasts.  These  it  seizes 
by  descending  with  its  wings  half  closed,  and,  suddenly 
darting  down  its  talons,  it  soars  aloft  again  with  its 
writhing  victim.5 

Hawks.  —  The  beautiful  Peregrine  Falcon6  is  rare, 
but  the  Kestrel 7  is  found  almost  universally ;  and  the 
bold  and  daring  Goshawk8  wherever  wild  crags  and 
precipices  afford  safe  breeding  places.  In  the  dis- 
trict of  Anarajapoora,  where  it  is  trained  for  hawking,  it 
is  usual,  in  lieu  of  a  hood,  to  darken  its  eyes  by  means 
of  a  silken  thread  passed  through  holes  in  the  eyelids. 
The  ignoble  birds  of  prey,  the  Kites 9,  keep  close  by  the 


1  Spizaetus  limnaetus,  Harsf. 

2  Haematomis  cheela,  Daud. 

3  Pontoaetus  leucogaster,  Gtnel. 

4  Haliastur  Indus,  Bodd. 

5  E.  L.  Layard.     Europeans  have 
given  this  bird   the   name   of    the 
"  Brahminy  Kite,"  probably  from  ob- 
serving the  superstitious   feeling  of 
the  natives  regarding  it,  who  believe 
that  when  two  armies  are  about  to 
engage,  its  appearance  prognosticates 
victory  to  the  party  over  whom  it 
hovers. 


6  Fnlco  peregrinus,  Linn. 

7  Tiimunculus  alaudarius,  Briss. 

8  Astur  trivirgatus,  Tan  HI. 

9  Milvus    govinda,     Sykes.       Dr. 
Hamilton   Buchanan    remarks    that 
when  gorged  this  bird  delights  to  sit 
on  the  entablature  of  buildings,  expo- 
sing its  back  to  the  hottest  rays  of 
the  sun,  placing  its  breast  against  the 
wall,  and  stretching  out   its   wings 
exactly  a*  the  IfyypttOH  Jfawk  is  re- 
presented on  their  monuments. 


CHAF.  II.] 


SWALLOWS. 


167 


shore,  and  hover  round  the  returning  boats  of  the  fisher- 
men to  feast  on  the  fry  rejected  from  their  nets. 

Owls. — Of  the  nocturnal  accipitres  the  most  remark- 
able is  the  brown  owl,  which,  from  its  hideous  yell,  has 
acquired  the  name  of  the  "  Devil-Bird." l  The  Singhalese 
regard  it  literally  with  horror,  and  its  scream  by  night 
in  the  vicinity  of  a  village  is  bewailed  as  the  harbinger  of 
approaching  calamity. 

II.  PASSERS.  Swallows. — Within  thirty-five  miles 
of  Caltura,  on  the  western  coast,  are  inland  caves, 
to  which  the  Esculent  Swift2  resorts,  and  there  builds 
the  "edible  bird's  nest,"  so  highly  prized  in  China, 
Near  the  spot  a  few  Chinese  immigrants  have  esta- 
blished themselves,  who  rent  the  royalty  from  the 
government,  and  make  an  annual  export  of  their  pro- 
duce. But  the  Swifts  are  not  confined  to  this  district, 
and  caves  containing  them  have  been  found  far  in  the 
interior,  a  fact  that  complicates  the  still  unexplained 
mystery  of  the  composition  of  their  nest ;  and  notwith- 


1  Syrnium  Indranee,  Sykes.  The 
horror  of  this  nocturnal  scream  was 
equally  prevalent  in  the  West  as  in 
the  East.  Ovid  introduces  it  in  his 
Fasti,  L.  vi.  1.  139 ;  and  Tibullus  in 
his  Elegies,  L.  i.  El.  5.  Statins 
says — 

"  Nocttirnaeque  gomunt  striges,  et  feralia  bubo 
Damnn  <;ti  en*."  Iheb.  iii.  1.  511. 

But  Pliny,  1.  xi.  c.  93,  doubts  as  to 
what  bird  produced  the  sound ;  and 
the  details  of  Ovid's  description  do 
not  apply  to  an  owl. 

Mr.  Mitford,  of  the  Ceylon  Civil 
Service,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for 
many  valuable  notes  relative  to  the 
birds  of  the  island,  regards  the  iden- 
tification of  the  Singhalese  Devil-Bird 
as  open  to  similar  doubt :  he  says — 
"  The  Devil-Bird  is  not  an  owl.  I 
never  heard  it  until  I  came  to  Korne- 
galle,  where  it  haunts  the  rocky  hill 
at  the  back  of  Government-House. 
Its  ordinary  note  is  a  magnificent  clear 
shout  like  that  of  a  human  being,  and 
which  can  be  heard  at  a  great  dis- 


tance, and  has  a  fine  effect  in  the 
silence  of  the  closing  night.  It  haa 
another  ciy  like  that  of  a  hen  just 
caught,  but  the  sounds  which  have 
earned  for  it  its  bad  name,  and  which 
I  have  heard  but  once  to  perfection, 
are  indescribable,  the  most  appalling 
that  can  be  imagined,  and  scarcely  to 
be  heard  without  shuddering ;  I  can 
only  compare  it  to  a  boy  in  torture, 
whose  screams  are  being  stopped  by 
being  strangled.  I  have  offered  re- 
wards for  a  specimen,  but  without 
success.  The  only  European  who 
had  seen  and  fired  at  one  agreed  with 
the  natives  that  it  is  of  the  size  of  a 
pigeon,  with  a  long  tail.  I  believe 
it  is  a  Podargus  or  Night  Hawk." 
In  a  subsequent  note  he  further  says 
— "  I  have  since  seen  two  birds  by 
moonlight,  one  of  the  size  and  shape 
of  a  cuckoo,  the  other  a  large  black 
bird,  which  I  imagine  to  be  the  one 
which  gives  these  calls." 

-8  Collocalia  brevirostris,  McCleH.  • 
C.  nidifica,  Gray. 


M  4 


163  ZOOLOGY.  [PAST  II. 

standing  the  power  of  wing  possessed  by  these  birds,  adds 
something  to  the  difficulty  of  believing  that  it  consists  of 
glutinous  algas.1  In  the  nests  brought  to  me  there  was 
no  trace  of  organisation ;  and  the  original  material,  what- 
ever it  be,  is  so  elaborated  by  the  swallow  as  to  pre- 
sent somewhat  the  appearance  and  consistency  of  strings 
of  isinglass.  The  quantity  of  these  nests  exported  from 
Ceylon  is  trifling. 

Kingfishers, — In  solitary  places,  where  no  sound  breaks 
the  silence  except  the  gurgle  of  the  river  as  it  sweeps 
round  the  rocks,  the  lonely  Kingfisher,  the  emblem  of 
vigilance  and  patience,  sits  upon  an  over-hanging  branch, 
his  turquoise  plumage  hardly  less  intense  in  its  lustre 
than  the  deep  blue  of  the  sky  above  him ;  and  so  intent 
is  his  watch  upon  the  passing  fish  that  intrusion  fails  to 
scare  him  from  his  post. 

Sun  Birds. — In  the  gardens  the  tiny  Sun  Birds2  (known 
as  the  Humming  Birds  of  Ceylon)  hover  all  day  long, 
attracted  by  the  plants  over  which  they  hang,  poised 
on  their  glittering  wings,  and  inserting  their  curved  beaks 
to  extract  the  insects  that  nestle  in  the  flowers. 

Perhaps  the  most  graceful  of  the  birds  of  Ceylon  in 
form  and  motions,  and  the  most  chaste  in  colouring,  is  the 
one  which  Europeans  call  "the  Bird  of  Paradise,"3  and 
natives  "  the  Cotton  Thief,"  from  the  circumstance  that 
its  tail  consists  of  two  long  white  feathers,  which  stream 
behind  it  as  it  flies.  Mr.  Layard  says  : — "  I  have  often 
watched  them,  when  seeking  their  insect  prey,  turn 
suddenly  on  their  perch  and  whisk  their  long  tails 
with  a  jerk  over  the  bough,  as  if  to  protect  them  from 
injury." 

The  Bulbul—ThQ    Condatchee  Bidbul*,  which,  from 


1  An  epitome  of  what  has  been 
written  on  this  subject  will  be  found 
in  Dr.  Horsfield's  Catalogue  of  the 
Birds  in  the  E.  I.  Comp.  Museum, 
vol.  i.  p.  101,  &c. 


Nectarina  Zeylanica,  Linn. 
Tchitrea  paradisi,  Linn. 
Pyenouotus  hscmorrhous,  Gmel. 


CHAP.  II.] 


BULBUL. 


169 


the  crest  on  its  head,  is  called  by  the  Singhalese  the 
"  Konda  Coorola,"  or  Tuft  bird,  is  regarded  by  the  na- 
tives as  the  most  "game"  of  all  birds;  and  training  it 
to  fight  was  one  of  the  duties  entrusted  by  the  Kings  of 
Kandy  to  the  Kooroowa,  or  Bird  Head-man.  For  this 
purpose  the  Bulbul  is  taken  from  the  nest  as  soon  as  the 
sex  is  distinguishable  by  the  tufted  crown ;  and  being 
secured  by  a  string,  is  taught  to  fly  from  hand  to  hand 
of  its  keeper. """"When  pitted  against  an  antagonist,  such 
is  the  obstinate  courage  of  this  little  creature  that  it 
will  sink  from  exhaustion  rather  than  release  its  hold. 
This  propensity,  and  the  ordinary  character  of  its  notes, 
render  it  impossible  that  the  Bulbul  of  India  can  be 
identical  with  the  Bulbul  of  Iran,  the  "  Bird  of  a  Thou- 
sand Songs,"1  of  which  poets  say  that  its  delicate 
passion  for  the  rose  gives  a  plaintive  character  to  its 
note. 

Tailor-Bird.  —  The  Weaver-Bird.  —  The  tailor-bird2 
having  completed  her  nest,  sewing  together  leaves  by 
passing  through  them  a  cotton  thread  twisted  by  herself, 
leaps  from  branch  to  branch  to  testify  her  happiness 
by  a  clear  and  merry  note ;  and  the  Indian  weaver3,  a 
still  more  ingenious  artist,  having  woven  its  pendulous 
dwelling  with  grass  into  a  form  somewhat  resembling 
a  bottle  with  a  prolonged  neck,  hangs  it  from  a  pro- 
jecting branch  with  its  entrance  inverted  so  as  to  baffle 
the  approaches  of  its  enemies,  the  tree  snakes  and  other 
reptiles.  The  natives  assert  that  the  male  bird  carries 
fire  flies  to  the  nest,  and  fastens  them  to  its  sides  by  a 
particle  of  soft  mud ; — and  Mr.  Layard  assures  me  that 
although  he  has  never  succeeded  in  finding  the  fire  fly, 


1  "  Hazardasitaum"  the  Persian 
name  for  the  bulbul.  "The  Per- 
sians," accoi-ding  to  Zakary  ben  Mo- 
hamed  al  Caswini,  "  say  the  bulbul 
has  a  passion  for  the  rose,  and  la- 
ments and  cries  when  he  sees  it 
pulled." — OUSELEY'S  Orietital  Collec- 
tions, vol.  i.  p.  16.  Accordingto Pallas 


it  is  the  true  nightingale  of  Europe, 
Sylvia  lusciuia,  which  the  Armenians 
c«all  boulboul,  and  the  Grim-Tartars 
byl-lyl-i. 

2  Orthotomus  longicauda,  Gmel. 

3  Ploceus  baya,  Slyth. ;  P.  Philip- 
pinus;  Auct. 


170 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


the  nest  of  the  male  bird  (for  the  female  occupies  another 
during  incubation)  invariably  contains  a  patch  of  mud  on 
each  side  of  the  perch. 

Crows. — Of  all  the  Ceylon  birds  of  this  order  the  most 
familiar  and  notorious  is  the  small  glossy  crow,  whose 
shining  black  plumage  shot  with  blue  has  obtained  for 
him  the  title  of  Corvus  splendens.1  They  frequent  the 
towns  in  companies,  and  domesticate  themselves  in  the 
close  vicinity  of  every  house ;  and  it  may  possibly  serve 
to  account  for  the  familiarity  and  audacity  which  they 
exhibit  in  their  intercourse  with  men,  that  the  Dutch 
during  their  sovereignty  in  Ceylon  enforced  severe  penal- 
ties against  any  one  killing  a  crow,  under  the  belief  that 
they  are  instrumental  in  extending  the  growth  of  cinna- 
mon by  feeding  on  the  fruit,  and  thus  disseminating  the 
undigested  seed.2 

So  accustomed  are  the  natives  to  its  presence  and  ex- 
ploits, that,  like  the  Greeks  and  Eomans,  they  have  made 
the  movements  of  the  crow  the  basis  of  their  auguries ; 
and  there  is  no  end  to  the  vicissitudes  of  good  and  evil 
fortune  which  may  not  be  predicted  from  the  direction  of 
their  flight,  the  hoarse  or  mellow  notes  of  their  croaking, 
the  variety  of  trees  on  which  they  rest,  and  the  numbers 
in  which  they  are  seen  to  assemble.  All  day  long  they 
are  engaged  in  watching  either  the  offal  of  the  offices,  or 
the  preparation  for  meals  in  the  dining-room  ;  and  as 
doors  and  windows  are  necessarily  opened  to  relieve  the 
heat,  nothing  is  more  common  than  the  passage  of  crows 
across  the  room,  lifting  on  the  wing  some  ill-guarded 
morsel  from  the  dinner-table. 

No  article,  however  unpromising  its  quality,  pro- 
vided only  it  be  portable,  can  with  safety  be  left  un- 


1  There  is  another  species,  the 
C.  culminatm,  so  called  from  the 
convexity  of  its  bill ;  but  though 
seen  in  the  towns,  it  lives  chiefly  in 
the  opeii  country,  and  may  be  con- 
stantly observed  wherever  there  are 


buffaloes,  perched  on  their  backs  and 
engaged,  in  company  with  the  small 
Mynah  (Acridothcres  tristis),  in  free- 
ing them  from  ticks. 

*  WOLF'S    Life    and    Adventure*. 
p.  117. 


CHAP.  II.]  CEOWS.  171 

guarded  in  any  apartment  accessible  to  them.  The  con- 
tents of  ladies'  work-boxes,  kid  gloves,  and  pocket  hand- 
kerchiefs vanish  instantly  if  exposed  near  a  window  or 
open  door.  They  open  paper  parcels  to  ascertain  the 
contents ;  they  will  undo  the  knot  on  a  napkin  if  it 
encloses  anything  eatable,  and  I  have  known  a  crow  to 
extract  the  peg  which  fastened  the  lid  of  a  basket  in 
order  to  plunder  the  provender  within. 

On  one  occ&sion  a  nurse  seated  in  a  garden  adjoining 
a  regimental  mess-room,  was  terrified  by  seeing  a  bloody 
clasp-knife  drop  from  the  air  at  her  feet ;  but  the  mys- 
tery was  explained  on  learning  that  a  crow,  which  had 
been  watching  the  cook  chopping  mince-meat,  had  seized 
the  moment  when  his  head  was  turned  to  carry  off  the 
knife. 

One  of  these  ingenious  marauders,  after  vainly  atti- 
tudinising in  front  of  a  chained  watch-dog,  that  was 
lazily  gnawing  a  bone,  and  after  fruitlessly  endeavour- 
ing to  divert  his  attention  by  dancing  before  him,  with 
head  awry  and  eye  askance,  at  length  flew  away  for 
a  moment,  and  returned  bringing  a  companion  whicli 
perched  itself  on  a  branch  a  few  yards  in  the  rear.  The 
crow's  grimaces  were  now  actively  renewed,  but  with  no 
better  success,  tih1  its  confederate,  poising  himself  on  his 
wings,  descended  with  the  utmost  velocity,  striking  the 
dog  upon  the  spine  with  aU  the  force  of  his  strong  beak. 
The  ruse  was  successful ;  the  dog  started  with  surprise 
and  pain,  but  not  quickly  enough  to  seize  his  assailant, 
whilst  the  bone  he  had  been  gnawing  was  snatched  away 
by  the  other  crow  the  instant  his  head  was  turned.  Two 
well-authenticated  instances  of  the  recurrence  of  this 
device  came  within  my  knowledge  at  Colombo,  and  attest 
the  sagacity  and  powers  of  communication  and  combina- 
tion possessed  by  these  astute  and  courageous  birds. 

On  the  approach  of  evening  the  crows  near  Colombo 
assemble  in  noisy  groups  along  the  margin  of  the  fresh- 
water lake  which  surrounds  the  fort  on  the  eastern  side ; 
and  here  for  an  hour  or  two  they  enjoy  the  luxury  of  the 


172 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


bath,  tossing  the  water  over  their  shining  backs,  and 
arranging  their  plumage  decorously,  after  which  they 
disperse,  each  taking  the  direction  of  his  accustomed 
quarters  for  the  night.1 

During  the  storms  that  usher  in  the  monsoon,  it  has 
been  observed,  that  when  coco-nut  palms  are  struck  by 
lightning,  the  destruction  frequently  extends  beyond 
a  single  tree,  and  from  the  contiguity  and  conduction 
of  the  spreading  leaves,  or  some  similar  cause,  large 
groves  will  be  affected  by  a  single  flash,  a  few  killed 
instantly,  and  the  rest  doomed  to  rapid  decay.  In 
BeUigam  Bay,  a  little  to  the  east  of  Point-de-Galle,  a 
small  island,  which  is  covered  with  coco-nuts,  has  acquired 
the  name  of  "  Crow  Island,"  from  being  the  resort  of 
those  birds,  which  are  seen  hastening  towards  it  in 
thousands  towards  sunset.  A  few  years  ago,  during  a 
violent  storm  of  thunder,  such  was  the  destruction  of 
the  crows  that  the  beach  for  some  distance  was  covered 
with  a  black  line  of  their  remains,  and  the  trees  on  which 
they  had  been  resting  was  to  a  great  extent  destroyed  by 
the  same  flash.2 

III.  SCANSORES.  Parroquets. — Of  the  Psittacidas  the  only 
examples  in  Ceylon  are  the  parroquets,  of  which  the  most 
renowned  is  the  Palceornis  Alexandri,  which  has  the  his- 
toric distinction  of  bearing  the  name  of  the  great  conqueror 
of  India,  having  been  the  first  of  its  race  introduced  to 
the  knowledge  of  Europe  on  the  return  of  his  expedition. 
An  idea  of  their  number  may  be  formed  from  the  fol- 
lowing statement  of  Mr.  Layard,  as  to  the  multitudes 
which  are  found  on  the  western  coast.  "  At  Chilaw  I 
have  seen  such  vast  flights  of  parroquets  coming  to  roost 


1  A  similar  habit  has  been  noticed 
in    the    damask   Parrots   of   Africa 
(Palaornisfuscus),  which  daily  resort 
at  the  same  hour  to  their  accustomed 
water  to  bathe. 

2  Similar  instances  are  recorded  in 
other  countries  of  sudden  mortality 
amongst  crows  to  a  prodigious  ex- 
tent,   but    whether    occasioned    by 


lightning  seems  uncertain.  In  1839 
thirty-three  thousand  dead  crows 
were  found  on  the  shores  of  a  lake 
in  the  county  "Westmeath  in  Ireland 
after  a  storm. — THOMPSON'S  Nat. 
Hixt.  Ireland,  vol.  i.  p.  319,  and  Pat- 
terson in  his  Zoology,  p.  350,  men- 
tions other  cases. 


CHAP.  II.]  PIGEONS.  173 

in  the  coco-nut  trees  which  overhang  the  bazaar,  that 
their  noise  drowned  the  Babel  of  tongues  bargaining 
for  the  evening  provisions.  Hearing  of  the  swarms 
that  resorted  to  this  spot,  I  posted  myself  on  a  bridge 
some  half  mile  distant,  and  attempted  to  count  the  flocks 
which  came  from  a  single  direction  to  the  eastward. 
About  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  straggling  parties 
began  to  wend  towards  home,  and  in  the  course  of 
half  an  hour~the  current  fairly  set  in.  But  I  soon 
found  that  I  had  no  longer  distinct  flocks  to  count,  it 
became  one  living  screaming  stream.  Some  flew  high 
in  the  air  till  right  above  their  homes,  and  dived  ab- 
ruptly downward  with  many  evolutions  till  on  a  level 
with  the  trees  ;  others  kept  along  the  ground  and  dashed 
close  by  my  face  with  the  rapidity  of  thought,  their 
brilliant  plumage  shining  with  an  exquisite  lustre  in 
the  sun-light.  I  waited  on  the  spot  till  the  evening 
closed,  when  I  could  hear,  though  no  longer  distinguish, 
the  birds  fighting  for  their  perches,  and  on  firing  a  shot 
they  rose  with  a  noise  like  the  '  rushing  of  a  mighty 
wind,'  but  soon  settled  again,  and  such  a  din  com- 
menced as  I  shall  never  forget ;  the  shrill  screams  of  the 
birds,  the  fluttering  of  their  innumerable  wings,  and  the 
rustling  of  the  leaves  of  the  palm  trees,  was  almost 
deafening,  and  I  was  glad  at  last  to  escape  to  the  Govern- 
ment Best  House. " 1 

IV.  COLUMBINE.  Pigeons. — Of  pigeons  and  doves 
there  are  at  least  a  dozen  species ;  some  living  entirely 
on  trees 2  and  never  alighting  on  the  ground ;  others, 
notwithstanding  the  abundance  of  food  and  warmth,  are 
migratory3,  allured,  as  the  Singhalese  allege,  by  the 
ripening  of  the  cinnamon  berries,  and  hence  one  species 
is  known  in  the  southern  provinces  as  the  "  Cinnamon 
Dove."  Others  feed  on  the  fruits  of  the  banyan :  and 
it  is  probably  to  their  instrumentality  that  this  mar- 


1  Annals  of  Nat.    Hist.  vol.  xiii.  j       3  Alsoconms  pmriceus,  the  "  Season 
p.  2G3.  i  Pigeon  "  of  Ceylon,  so  called  from  its 

2  Treron  bicincta,  Jcrd.  I  periodical  arrival  and  departure. 


174  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

vellous  tree  chiefly  owes  its  diffusion,  its  seeds  being 
carried  by  them  to  remote  localities.  A  very  beautiful 
pigeon,  peculiar  to  the  mountain  range,  discovered  in 
the  lofty  trees  at  Neuera-ellia,  has,  in  compliment  to 
the  Viscountess  Torrington,  been  named  Carpophaga 
Torringtonice. 

Another,  called  by  the  natives  neela-cobeya l ,  although 
strikingly  elegant  both  in  shape  and  colour,  is  still 
more  remarkable  for  the  singularly  soothing  effect 
of  its  low  and  harmonious  voice.  A  gentleman  who 
has  spent  many  years  in  the  jungle,  in  writing  to 
me  of  this  bird  and  of  the  effects  of  its  melodious 
song,  says,  that  "  its  soft  and  melancholy  notes,  as  they 
came  from  some  solitary  place  in  the  forest,  were 
the  most  gentle  sounds  I  ever  listened  to.  Some  sen- 
timental smokers  assert  that  the  influence  of  the  pro- 
pensity is  to  make  them  feel  as  if  they  could  freely  forgive 
all  who  had  ever  offended  them,  and  I  can  say  with 
truth  such  has  been  the  effect  produced  on  my  own 
nerves  by  the  plaintive  murmurs  of  the  neela-cobeya. 
Sometimes,  when  irritated,  and  not  without  reason,  by 
the  perverseness  of  some  of  my  native  followers,  the 
feeling  has  almost  instantly  subsided  into  placidity  on 
suddenly  hearing  the  loving  tones  of  these  beautiful 
birds. " 

V.  GALLING.  The  Ceylon  Jungle-fowl.  —  The  jungle- 
fowl  of  Ceylon2  is  shown  by  the  peculiarity  of  its 
plumage  to  be  distinct  from  the  Indian  species.  It 
has  never  yet  bred  or  survived  long  in  captivity,  and 
no  living  specimens  have  been  successfully  transmitted 
to  Europe.  It  abounds  in  all  parts  of  the  island,  but 
chiefly  in  the  lower  ranges  of  mountains ;  and  one  of 
the  most  vivid  memorials  associated  with  my  journeys 
through  the  hills,  is  its  loud  clear  cry,  that  sounds 
like  a  person  calling  "  George  Joyce ! "  At  early 
morning  it  rises  amidst  mist  and  dew,  giving  life 


1  Chalcophaps  Indicus,  Linn.  2  Gallus  Lafayetti,  Lesson. 


CHAP.  II.]  FLAMINGO.  175 

to  the  scenery  that  has  scarcely  yet  been  touched  by  the 
sunlight. 

VL  GKALLJE. — On  reaching  the  marshy  plains  and  shal- 
low lagoons  on  either  side  of  the  island,  the  astonishment 
of  the  stranger  is  excited  by  the  endless  multitudes  of  stilt- 
birds  and  waders  which  stand  in  long  array  within  the 
wash  of  the  water,  or  sweep  in  vast  clouds  above  it.  Ibises 1, 
storks 2,  egrets,  spoonbills  3,  herons  4,  and  the  smaller  races 
of  sand  larks-«tnd  plovers,  are  seen  busily  traversing  the 
wet  sand,  in  search  of  the  red  worm  which  burrows 
there,  or  peering  with  steady  eye  to  watch  the  motions 
of  the  small  fry  and  aquatic  insects  in  the  ripple  on  the 
shore. 

VII.  ANSERES. — Preeminent  in  size  and  beauty,  the  tall 
flamingoes  5,  with  rose-coloured  plumage,  line  the  beach  in 
long  files.  The  Singhalese  have  been  led,  from  their  co- 
lour and  their  military  order,  to  designate  them  the 
" English  Soldier  birds"  Nothing  can  be  more  startling 
than  the  sudden  flight  of  these  splendid  creatures  when 
alarmed ;  their  strong  wings  beating  the  air  sound  like 
distant  thunder ;  and  as  they  soar  over  head,  the  flock 
which  appeared  almost  white  but  a  moment  before,  is  con- 
verted into  crimson  by  the  sudden  display  of  the  red 
lining  of  their  wings.  A  peculiarity  in  the  beak  of  this 
bird  has  scarcely  attracted  the  attention  it  merits,  as  a 
striking  illustration  of  creative  wisdom  in  adapting  the 
organs  of  animals  to  their  local  necessities.  The  upper 
mandible,  which  is  convex  in  other  birds,  is  flattened 
in  the  flamingo,  whilst  the  lower,  instead  of  being  flat, 
is  convex.  To  those  who  have  had  an  opportunity  of 
witnessing  the  action  of  the  bird  in  its  native  haunts,  the 
expediency  of  this  arrangement  is  at  once  apparent.  To 
counteract  the  extraordinary  length  of  its  legs,  it  is  pro- 
vided with  a  proportionately  long  neck,  so  that  in  feeding 


Tantalus  leucocephalus,  and  Ibia 


falcinellus. 


8  The    violet-headed    Stork   (Ci- 
conia  leucocephala). 


3  Platalea  leucorodia,  Linn. 

4  Ardea  cinerea.     A.  purpurea. 

5  Phcenicopterus  roseus,  Pallas. 


17G  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

in  shallow  water  the  crown  of  the  head  becomes  inverted 
and  the  upper  mandible  brought  into  contact  with  the 
bottom ;  where  its  flattened  surface  qualifies  it  for  per- 
forming the  functions  of  the  lower  one  in  birds  of  the  same 
class ;  and  the  edges  of  both  being  laminated,  it  is  thus 
enabled,  like  the  duck,  by  the  aid  of  its  fleshy  tongue,  to  sift 
its  food  before  swallowing. 

Floating  on  the  surface  of  the  deeper  water,  are  fleets  of 
the  Anatida3,theCoromandel  teal1,  the  Indian  hooded  gull 2, 
the  Caspian  tern,  and  a  countless  variety  of  ducks  and 
smaller  fowl.  Pelicans 3  resort  in  great  numbers  to  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers,  taking  up  their  position  at  sunrise  on 
some  projecting  rock,  from  which  to  dart  on  the  passing 
fish,  and  returning  far  inland  at  night  to  then:  retreats 
among  the  trees  which  overshadow  some  ruined  water- 
course or  deserted  tank. 

Of  the  birds  familiar  to  European  sportsmen,  partridges 
and  quails  are  to  be  had  at  all  times ;  the  woodcock  has 
occasionally  been  shot  in  the  hills,  and  the  ubiquitous 
snipe,  which  arrives  in  September  from  Southern  India,  is 
identified  not  alone  by  the  eccentricity  of  its  flight,  but  by 
retaining  in  high  perfection  the  qualities  which  have  en- 
deared it  to  the  gastronome  at  home.  But  the  magnificent 
pheasants  that  inhabit  the  Himalayan  range  and  the 
woody  hills  of  the  Chin-Indian  peninsula,  have  no  repre- 
sentative amongst  the  tribes  that  people  the  woods  of  Cey- 
lon ;  although  a  bird  believed  to  be  a  pheasant  has  more 
than  once  been  seen  in  the  jungle,  close  to  Eangbodde,  on 
the  road  to  Neuera-elha. 


1NettapusCoromandelianus,6r»j^.  I      3  Pelicanus  Philippensis,  Gmcl. 
2  Larus  brunnicephalus,  Jerd. 


CHAP.  II.] 


LIST   OF   BIRDS. 


177 


List  of  Ceylon  Birds. 

In  submitting  this  catalogue  of  the  birds  of  Ceylon,  I  am 
anxious  to  state  that  the  copious  mass  of  its  contents  is  mainly 
due  to  the  untiring  energy  and  exertions  of  my  friend,  Mr.  E.  L. 
Layard.  Nearly  every  bird  in  the  list  has  fallen  by  his  gun ; 
so  that  the  most*  ample  facilities  have  been  thus  provided,  not 
only  for  extending  the -limited  amount  of  knowledge  which 
formerly  existed  on  this  branch  of  the  zoology  of  the  island  ;  but 
for  correcting,  by  actual  comparison  with  recent  specimens,  the 
errors  which  had  previously  prevailed  as  to  imperfectly  described 
species.  The  whole  of  Mr.  Layard's  fine  collection  is  at  present 
in  England. 


Accipitres. 

Aquila  Bonelli,  Temm. 

pennata,  Gm. 
Spizaetus  Nipalensis,  Hodgs. 

limnasetus,  Horsf. 
Ictinaetus  Malayensis,  Reinw. 
Hffimatornis  cheela,  Daud. 

spilogaster,  Blyth. 
Pontoaetus  leucogaster,  Gm. 

ichthyaetus,  Horsf. 
Haliastur  Indus,  Bodd. 
Falco  peregrinus,  Linn. 

peregritiator,  Sund. 
Tinnunculus  alaudarius,  Bn'ss. 
Hypotriorchis  chicqnera,  Daud. 
Baza  lophotes,  Cuv. 
Milvus  govinda,  Sykes. 
Elanus  melanopterus,  Daud. 
Astur  trivirgatus,  Temm. 
Accipiter  badius,  Gm. 
Circus  Swainsonii,  A.  Smith. 

cinerascens,  Mont. 

melanoleucos,  Gm. 

erniginosus,  Linn. 
Athene  castonatus,  Blyth. 

scutulata,  Raffles. 
Ephialtes  scops,  Linn. 

lempijii,  Horsf. 

sunia,  Hodgs. 
Ketnpa  Ceylonensis,  Gm. 
Syrnium  Indranee,  Sykes. 
Strix  Javanica,  Gm. 


Batrachostoimis  irioniliger,  Layard. 
Caprimulgus  Mahrattensis,  Sykes. 

Kelaarti,  B'yfh. 

Asiaticus,  Lath. 

VOL.  I. 


Cypselus  batassiensis,  Gray. 

melba,  Linn. 

affinis,  Gray. 

Macropteryx  coronatus,  Tickefl. 
Collocalia  brevirostris,  McClel. 
Acanthylis  caudacuta,  Lath. 
Hit-undo  panayana,  Gm. 

daurica,  Linn. 

hyperythra,  Layard. 

domicola,  Jerdon. 
Coracias  Indica,  Linn. 
Harpactes  fasciatus,  Gm. 
Eurystomus  orientalis,  Linn. 
Halcyon  Capensis,  Linn. 

atricapillus,  Gm. 

Smyrnensis,  Linn. 
Ceyx  tridactyla,  Linn. 
Alcedo  Bengalensis,  Gm. 
Ceryle  rudis,  Linn. 
Merops  Philippintis,  Linn. 

viridis,  Linn. 

quincticolor,  Vieill. 
Upnpa  nigripennis,  Gould. 
Nectarina  Zeylanica,  Linn. 

minima,  Sykes. 

Asiatica,  Lath. 

Lotcnia,  Linn. 
Diczeum  minimum,  Tickell. 
Phyllornis  Malabarica,  Lath. 

Jerdoni,  Blyth. 
Dendrophila  frontalis,  IJi.rsf. 
Piprisoma  agile,  Blyth. 
Orthotomus  longicatida,  Gm. 
Cisticola  cursitans,  Frankl. 

omalura,  Blyth. 
Drymoica  valida,  Blyth. 

inornata,  Sykes. 
Prinia  socialis,  Sykes. 
Acrocephalus  dumetorum,  Blyth. 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Phyllopnenste  nitidus,  Blyth. 

montanus,  Blyth. 

viridanus,  Blyth. 
Copsychus  saularis,  Linn. 
Kittacincla  macrura,  GOT. 
Pratincola  caprata,  Linn. 

atrata,  Kelaart. 
Calliope  cyanea,  Hodgs. 
Thamnobia  fulicata,  Linn. 
Cyanecula  Suevica,  Linn. 
Sylvia  affinis,  Blyth. 
Parus  cinereus,  Vieill. 
Zosterops  palpebrosus,  Temm. 
lora  Zeylanica,  Gm. 

typhia,  Linn. 
Motacilla  sulphurea,  Bechs. 

Indica,  Gm. 

Madraspatana,  Briss. 
Budytes  viridis,  Gm. 
Anthus  rufulus,  Vieill. 

Kichardii,  Vieill. 

striolatus,  Blyth. 
Brachypteryx  Palliseri,  Kelaart. 
Alcippe  nigrifrons,  Blyth. 
Pitta  brachyura,  Jerd. 
Orcocincla  spiloptera,  Blyth. 
Merula  Wardii,  Jerd. 

Kinnisii,  Kelaart. 
Zoothera  imbricata,  Layard. 
Garrulax  cinereifrons,  Blyth. 
Pormatorhinus  melanurus,  Blyth. 
Malacocercus  rufescens,  Blyth. 

griseus,  Gm. 

striatus,  Swains. 

Pellorneum  fuscocapillum,  Blyth. 
Dumetia  albogularis,  Blyth. 
Chrysomma  Sinense,  Gm. 
Oriolus  melanocephalus,  Linn. 

Indicus,  Briss. 
Crinigcr  ictericus,  Stickl. 
Pycnonotus  penicillatus,  Kelaart. 

flavirictus,  Strickl. 

haamorrhous,  Gm. 

atricapillus,  Vieill. 
Hemipus  picatus,  Sykes. 
Hypsipetes  Nilgherriensis,  Jerd. 
Cyornis  rubeculoules,  Vig. 
Myiagra  azurea,  Bodd. 
Cryptolopha  cinereocapilla,  Vieill. 
Leucocerca  compressirostris,  Blyth. 
Tchitrea  paradisi,  Linn. 
Butalis  latirostris,  Raffles. 

Muttui,  Layard. 
Stoparola  melanops,  Vig. 
Pericrocotus  flammeus,  Forst. 

percgrinus,  Linn. 
Campephaga  Macei,  Less. 

Sykesii,  Strickl. 
Artamus  fuscus,  Vieill. 
Edolius  paradiseus,  Gm. 
Dicrurus  macrocercus,  Vieill. 

edoliformis,  Blylh. 


longicaudatus,  A.  Hay. 

leucopygialis,  Blylh. 

coerulescens,  Linn. 
Irena  puella,  Lath. 
Lanius  superciliosus,  Lath. 

erythronotus,  Vig. 
Tephrodornis  affinis,  Blyth. 
Cissa  puella,  Blyth  if  Layard. 
Corvus  splendens,  Vieille. 

culminatus,  Sykes. 
Eulabes  religiosa,  Linn. 

ptrtogenys,  Blyth. 
Pastor  roscus,  Linn. 
Hetasrornis  pagodarum,  Gm. 

albifrontata,  Layard. 
Acridotheres  tristis,  Linn. 
Ploceus  manyar,  Horsf. 

baya,  Blyth. 
Mania  undulata,  Latr. 

Malabarica,  Linn. 

Malacca,  Linn. 

rubronigra,  Hodgs. 

striata,  Linn. 

pectoralis,  Jerd. 
Passer  Indicus,  Jard.  Sf  Selb. 
Alauda  gulgula,  Frank. 

Malabarica,  Scop. 
Pyrrhulauda  grisea,  Scop. 
Mirafra  affinis,  Jerd. 
Buceros  gingalensis,  Shaw. 

coronata,  Bodd. 

Scansores. 

Lori  coins  Asiaticus,  Lath. 
Palseornis  Alexandri,  Linn. 

torquatus,  Briss. 

cyanoccphalus,  Linn. 

Calthropae,  Layard. 

Layardi,  Blyth. 
Megalaima  Indica,  Latr. 

Zeylanica,  Gmel. 

flavifrons,  Cuv. 

rubicapilla,  Gm. 
Picus  gymnophthalmus,  Blyth. 

Mahrattensis,  Lath. 

Macei,  Vieill. 

Gecinus  chlorophanes,  Vieill. 
Brachypternus  aurantius,  Linn. 

Ceylonus,  Forst. 

rubescens,  Vieill. 

Stricklandi,  Layard. 
Micropternus  gularis,  Jerd. 
Centropus  rufipennis,  Illiger. 

chlororhynchos,  Blyth. 
Oxylophus  melanoleucos,  Gm. 

Coromandus,  Linn. 
Eudynamys  orientalis,  Linn. 
Cuculus  Bartletti,  Layard. 

striatus,  Drapiez. 

canorus,  Linn. 
Polyphasia  tenuirostris,  Gray. 

Sonneratii,  Lath. 


CHAP.  II.] 


LIST   OP   BIRDS. 


179 


Hierococcyx  varius,  Vahl. 

Numenius  arquatus,  Linn. 

Surniculus  dicruro'ides,  Hodgs. 

phoeopus,  Linn. 

Phcenicophaus  pyrrhocephalus,  Forst. 

Totanus  fuscus,  Linn. 

Zanclostomus  viridirostris,  Jerd. 

ochropus,  Linn. 

calidris,  Linn. 

Columbae. 

hypoleucos,  Linn. 

Treron  bicincta,  Jerd. 
flavogularis,  Blyth. 
Pompadoura,  Gm. 

glottoides,  Vigors. 
stagnalis,  Bechst. 
Actitis  glareola,  Gm. 

chlorogaster,  Blyth. 

Tringa  minuta,  Leist. 

Carpophaga  pusilla,  Blyth. 

subarquata,  Gm. 

Torringtonia;,  Kelaart. 
Alsocomus  puniceus,  Ticket. 
Columba  intermedia^  StricJtl. 
Turtur  risorius,  Linn. 

Limicola  platyrhyncha,  Temm. 
Limosa  aegocephala,  Linn. 
Himantopus  candidus,  Bon. 
Recurvirostra  avocetta,  Linn. 

Suratensis,  Lath. 

Hsematopus  ostralegus,  Linn. 

humilis,  Temm. 

Rhynchoea  Bengalensis,  Linn. 

orientals,  Lath. 

Scolopax  rusticola,  Linn. 

Chalcophaps  Indicus,  Linn. 

Gallinago  stenura,  Temm. 

Gallinse. 

scolopacina,  Bon. 

Pavo  cristatns,  Linn. 
Gallus  Lafayetti,  Lesson. 
Galloperdix  bicalcaratus,  Linn. 
Francolinus  Ponticerianus,  Gm. 
Perdicula  agoondah,  Sykes. 

Hydrophasianus  Sinensis,  Gm. 
Ortygometra  rubiginosa,  Temm. 
Corethura  Zeylanica,  Gm. 
Porzana  pygmaja,  Nan. 
Rallus  striatus,  Linn. 

Coturnix  Chinensis,  Linn. 
Turnix  ocellatus  var.  Bengalensis,  Blyth. 
„            „      var.  taigoor,  Sykes. 

Indicus,  Blyth. 
Porphyrio  poliocephalus,  Lath. 
Gallinula  phcenicura,  Penn. 

Grallae. 

chloropus,  Linn. 

Esacus  recurvirostris,  Cuv. 

cristata,  Lath. 

CEdicnemus  crepitans,  Temm. 

Anseres. 

Cursorius  Coromandelicus,  Gm. 

Phcenicopterns  ruber,  Linn. 

Lobivanellus,  bilobus,  Gm. 

Sarkidiornis  melanonotos,  Penn. 

Goensis,  Gm. 

Nettapus  Coromandelianus,  Gm. 

Charadrius  virginicns,  Bechs. 

Anas  pcecilorhyncha,  Penn. 

Hiaticula  Philippensis,  Scop. 
Cantiana,  Lath. 

Dendrocygnus  arcuatus,  Cuv. 
Dafila  acuta,  Linn. 

Leschenaultii,  Less. 
Strepsilas  interpres,  Linn. 

Querquedula  crecca,  Linn. 
circia,  Linn. 

Ardea  purpurea,  Linn. 

Fuligula  rufina,  Pall. 

cinerea,  Linn. 
asha,  Sykes. 
intermedia,  Wagler. 

Spatula  clypeata,  Linn, 
Podiceps  Philippensis,  Gm. 
Larus  brunnicephalus,  Jerd. 

garzetta,  Linn. 

ichthyaetus,  Pall. 

alba,  Linn. 

Sylochelidon  Caspius,  Lath. 

bubulcus,  Savig. 

Hydrochelidon  Indicus,  Steph. 

Ardeola  leucoptera,  Bodd. 

Gelochelidon  Anglicus,  Mont. 

Ardetta  cinnamomea,  Gm. 

Onychoprion  anasthajtus,  Scop. 

flavicollis,  Lath. 

Sterna  Javanica,  Horsf. 

Sinensis,  Gm. 

melanogaster,  Temm, 

Butoroides  Javanica,  Horsf. 

minuta,  Linn. 

Platalea  leucorodia,  Linn. 

Seena  aurantia,  Gray. 

Nycticorax  griseus,  Linn. 
Tigrisoma  melanolopha,  Raff.. 

Thalasseus  Bengaleusis,  Less. 
cristata,  Steph. 

Mycteria  australis,  Shaw. 

Dromas  ardeola,  Payk. 

Lcptophilus  Javanica,  Horsf. 

Atagen  aricl,  Gould. 

Ciconia  leucocephala,  Gm. 
Anustomus  oscitans,  Bodd. 

Thalassidroma  melanogaster,  Gould. 
Plotus  melanogaster,  Gm. 

Tantalus  leucocephalus,  Gm. 
Geronticus  melanocephalus,  Loth. 

Pelicanus  Philippensis,  Gm, 
Graculus  Sinensis,  Shaw. 

Ibis  falcinellus,  Linn. 

pygmseus,  Pallas. 

N  2 

180 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


NOTE. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  birds  which  are,  as  far  as  is  at 
present  known,  peculiar  to  the  island  ;  it  will  probably  at  some 
future  day  be  determined  that  some  included  in  it  have  a  wider 
geographical  range. 

Haematornis  spilogaster.  The  "  Ceylon 
eagle;"  was  discovered  by  Mr. La- 
yard  in  the  Wanny,  and  by  Dr. 
Kelaart  at  Trincomalie. 

Athene  castonotus.  The  chestnut-wing- 
ed hawk  owl.  This  pretty  little 
owl  was  added  to  the  list  of  Ceylon 
birds  by  Dr.  Templeton. 

Batrachostomus  monoliger.  The  oil  bird ; 
was  discovered  amongst  the  precipi- 
tous rocks  of  the  Adam's  Peak  range 
by  Mr.  Layard.  Another  speci- 
men was  sent  about  the  same  time 
to  Sir  James  Emerson  Tennent 
from  Avisavelle.  Mr.  Mitford  has 
met  with  it  at  Ratnapoora. 

Caprimulgus  Kelaarti.  Kelaart's  night- 
jar ;  swarms  on  the  marshy  plains 
of  Neuera-ellia  at  dusk. 

Hirundo  hyperythra.  The  red-bellied 
swallow  ;  was  discovered  in  1849 
by  Mr.  Layard  at  Ambepusse. 
They  build  a  globular  nest  with  a 
round  hole  at  top.  A  pair  built  in 
the  ring  for  a  hanging  lamp  in  Dr. 
Gardner's  study  at  Peradenia,  and 
hatched  their  young,  undisturbed 
by  the  daily  trimming  and  lighting 
of  the  lamp. 

Cisticola  omalura.  Layard's  mountain 
grass  warbler ;  is  found  in  abundance 
on  Horton  Plain  and  Neuera-ellia, 
among  the  long  Patena  grass. 

Drymoica  valida.  Layard's  wren-war- 
bler; frequents  tufts  of  grass  and 
low  bushes,  feeding  on  insects. 

Pratincola  atrata.  The  Neuera-ellia 
robin ;  a  melodious  songster ;  added 
to  our  catalogue  by  Dr.  Kelaart. 

Brachypteryx  PalliserL  Ant  thrush.  A 
rare  bird,  added  by  Dr.  Kelaart 
from  Dimboola  and  Neuera-ellia. 

Pellorneum  fuscocapillum.  Mr,  Layard 
found  two  specimens  of  this  rare 
thrush  creeping  about  shrubs  and 
bushes,  feeding  on  insects. 

Alcippe  nigrifrons.  This  thrush  fre- 
quents low  impenetrable  thickets, 
and  seems  to  be  widely  distributed. 

Oreocincla  spiloptera.  The  spotted 
thrush  is  only  found  in  the  moun- 
tain zone  about  lofty  trees. 


MerulaKinnisii.  The  Neuera-ellia  black- 
bird ;  was  added  by  Dr.  Kelaart. 

Garrulax  cinereifrons.  The  ashy-headed 
babbler;  was  found  by  Mr.  Layard 
near  Katnapoora. 

Pomatorhinus  melanurus.  Mr.  Layard 
states  that  the  mountain  babbler 
frequents  low,  scraggy.impenetrable 
brush,  along  the  margins  of  deserted 
cheena  land. 

Malacocercus  rufescens.  The  red-dung 
thrush  added  by  Dr.  Templeton 
to  the  Singhalese  Fauna,  is  found 
in  thick  jungle  in  the  southern  and 
midland  districts. 

Pycnonotus  penicillatus.  The  yellow- 
eared  bulbul;  was  found  by  Dr. 
Kelaart  at  Neuera-ellia. 

Butalis  Muttui.  This  very  handsome 
flycatcher  was  procured  at  Point 
Pedro,  by  Mr.  Layard. 

Dicrums  edoliformis.  Dr.  Templeton 
found  this  kingcrow  at  the  Bibloo 
Oya.  Mr.  Layard  has  since  got  it 
at  Ambogammoa. 

Dicrurus  leucopygialis.  The  Ceylon 
kingcrow  was  sent  to  Mr.  Blyth 
from  the  vicinity  of  Colombo,  by 
Dr.  Templeton. 

Tephrodornis  affinis.  The  Ceylon 
butcher-bird.  A  migratory  species 
found  in  the  wooded  grass  lauds  in 
October. 

Cissa  puella.  Layard's  mountain  jay. 
A  most  lovely  bird,  found  along 
mountain  streams  at  Neuera-ellia 
and  elsewhere. 

Eulabes  ptilogenys.  Templeton's  my- 
nah.  The  largest  and  most  beau- 
tiful of  the  species.  It  is  found  in 
flocks  perching  on  the  highest  trees, 
feeding  on  berries. 

Loriculus  asiaticus.  The  small  parro- 
quet,  abundant  in  various  dis- 
tricts. 

Palaeornis  Calthropse.  Layard's  purple- 
headed  parroquet,  found  at  Kandy, 
is  a  very  handsome  bird,  flying  in 
flocks,  and  resting  on  the  summits 
of  the  very  highest  trees.  Dr. 
Kelaart  states  that  it  is  the  only 
parroquet  of  the  Ncuera-cllia  range. 


CHAP.  IL] 


BIRDS. 


181 


Palseornis  Layardi.  The  Jaffna  par- 
roquet  was  discovered  by  Mr.  La- 
yard  at  Point  Pedro. 

Megalaima  flavifrons.  The  yellow-head- 
ed barbet,  is  not  uncommon. 

Megalaima  rubricapilla,is  found  in  most 
parts  of  the  island. 

Picus  gymnophthalmus.  Layard's  wood- 
pecker. The  smallest  of  the  species, 
was  discovered  near  Colombo,  a- 
mongst  jak-trees. 

Brachypternus  Ceylonus.  The  Ceylon 
woodpecker,jsjbnndin  abundance 
near  Neuera-ellia. 

Brachypternus  rubescens.  The  red 
woodpecker. 

Centropus  chlororhynchus.  The  yellow- 
billed  cuckoo,  was  detected  by  Mr. 
Layard  in  dense  jungle  near  Co- 
lombo and  Avisavelle. 

Phcenicophaus  pyrrhocephalus.  The 
malkoha,  is  confined  to  the  southern 
highlands. 

Treron  flavogularis.  The  common  green 
pigeon,  is  found  in  abundance  at 
the  top  of  Balacaddua  Pass  and  at 
Ratnapoora.  It  feeds  on  berries 
and  flies  in  large  flocks.  It  was 
believed  to  be  identical  with  the 
following.— Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  p.  58 : 
1854. 

Treron  Pompadonra.  The  Pompadour 
pigeon.  "The  Prince  of  Canino 


has  shown  that  this  is  a  totally  dis- 
tinct bird,  much  smaller,  with  the 
quantity  of  maroon  colour  on  the 
mantle  greatly  reduced."  —  Paper 
by  Mr.  BLYTH,  Mag.  Nat.  Hist. 
p.  514:  1857. 

Carpophaga  Torringtoniae.  Lady  Tor- 
rington's  pigeon;  a  very  handsome 
pigeon  discovered  in  the  highlands 
by  Dr.  Kelaart.  It  flies  high  in 
long  sweeps,  and  makes  its  nest  on 
the  loftiest  trees. 

Carpophaga  pusilla.  The  little-hill 
dove,  a  migratory  species  found  by 
Mr.  Layard  in  the  mountain  zone, 
only  appearing  with  the  ripened 
fruit  of  the  teak,  banyan,  &c.,  on 
which  they  feed. 

Gallus  Lafayetti.  The  Ceylon  jungle 
fowl.  The  female  of  this  handsome 
bird  was  figured  by  Mr.  GRAY  (///. 
2nd.  Zoo/.)  under  the  name  of  G. 
Stanley!.  The  cock  bird  had  long 
been  lost  to  naturalists,  until  aspeci- 
men  was  forwarded  to  Mr.  Blyth, 
who  at  once  recognised  it  as  the 
long-looked -for  male  of  Mr.  Gray's 
recently  described  female.  It  is 
abundant  in  all  the  uncultivated 
portions  of  Ceylon;  coming  out 
into  the  open  spaces  to  feed  in  the 
mornings  and  evenings. 


182 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


CHAP.   HE. 

EEPTILES. 


LIZARDS.  Iguana.  —  One  of  the  earliest  if  not  the 
first  remarkable  animal  to  startle  a  stranger  on  arriving 
in  Ceylon,  whilst  wending  his  way  from  Point-de- 
Galle  to  Colombo,  is  a  huge  lizard  of  from  four  to 
five  feet  in  length,  the  Talla-goya  of  the  Singhalese,  and 
Iguana l  of  the  Europeans.  It  may  be  seen  at  noonday 
searching  for  ants  and  insects  in  the  middle  of  the 
highway  and  along  the  fences  ;  when,  disturbed  but  by 
no  means  alarmed,  by  the  approach  of  man,  it  moves 
off  to  a  safe  distance  ;  and,  the  intrusion  being  at  an 
end,  it  returns  again  to  the  occupation  in  which  it  had 
been  interrupted.  Eepulsive  as  it  is  in  appearance,  it 
is  perfectly  harmless,  and  is  hunted  down  by  dogs 
in  the  maritime  provinces,  where  its  delicate  flesh  is 
converted  into  curry,  and  its  skin  into  shoes.  When 
seized,  it  has  the  power  of  inflicting  a  smart  blow  with 
its  tail.  The  Talla-goya  lives  in  almost  any  convenient 
hollow,  such  as  a  hole  -in  the  ground,  or  the  deserted 
nest  of  the  termites ;  and  some  small  ones  which  fre- 
quented my  garden  at  Colombo,  made  their  retreat  in 
the  heart  of  a  decayed  tree.  A  still  larger  species,  the 
Kabragoya 2,  is  partial  to  marshy  ground,  and  when  dis- 
turbed upon  land,  will  take  refuge  in  the  nearest  water. 
From  the  somewhat  eruptive  appearance  of  the  yellow 
blotches  on  its  scales,  a  closely  allied  species,  similarly 


1  Monitor  dracsena,  Linn.  Among 
the  barbarous  nostrums  of  the  un- 
educated natives,  both  Singhalese  and 
Tamil,  is  the  tongue  of  the  iguana, 


which  they  regard  as  a  specific  for 

consumption,   if  plucked    from    the 

living  animal  and  swallowed  whole. 

2  Hydrosaurus  salvator,  Wagler. 


CHAP.  III.] 


LIZARDS. 


183 


spotted,  formerly  obtained  amongst  naturalists  the 
name  of  Monitor  exanthemata,  and  it  is  curious  that 
the  native  appellation  of  this  one,  Kabra1,  is  suggestive 
of  the  same  idea.  The  Singhalese,  on  a  strictly  homoeo- 
pathic principle,  believe  that  its  fat,  externally  applied, 
is  a  cure  for  cutaneous  disorders,  but  that  taken  in- 
wardly it  is  poisonous.2  It  is  one  of  the  incidents  that 
seem  to  indicate  that  Ceylon  belongs  to  a  separate  circle 
of  physical  geography,  that  this  lizard  has  not  hitherto 
been  discovered  on  the  continent  of  Hindustan,  though  it 
is  found  to  the  eastward  in  Burmah.3 

Blood-suckers. — These,  however,  are  but  the  stranger's 
introduction  to  innumerable  varieties  of  lizards,  all  most 
attractive  in  their  sudden  movements,  and  some  unsur- 
passed in  the  brilliancy  of  their  colouring,  which  bask  on 
banks,  dart  over  rocks,  and  peer  curiously  out  of  the 


1  In  the Mahawanso  the  hero,  Tisso, 
is  said  to  have  been  "  afflicted  with 
a  cutaneous  complaint  which  made 
his  skin  scaly  like  that  of  the  godho." 
— Ch.  xxiv.  p.  148.  "Godho"  is  the 
Pali  name  for  the  Kabra-goya. 

2  In  the  preparation  of  the  mys- 
terious poison,  the    Cobra-tel,  which 
is  regarded  with  so  much  horror  by  the 
Singhalese,  the  unfortunate  Kabra- 
goya  is  forced  to  take  a  painfully  pro- 
minent part.     The  receipt,  as  writ- 
ten down  by  a  Kandyan,  was  sent  to 
me  from  Kornegalle,  by  Mr.  Morris, 
in   1840;  and  in  dramatic  arrange- 
ment it  far  outdoes  the  cauldron  of 
Macbettis  witches.     The  ingredients 
are  extracted  from  venomous  snakes, 
the  Cobra  de  Capello  (from  which 
it  takes  its  name),  the   Carawella, 
and    the   Tic   polonga,    by    making 
an  incision  in  the    head    and   sus- 
pending the  reptiles  over  a  chattie  to 
collect  the  poison.     To  this,  arsenic 
and  other  drugs  are  added,  and  the 
whole  is  to  be  "  boiled  in  a  human 
skull,   with    the    aid  of  the   three 
Kabra-goyas,  which  are  tied  on  three 
sides  of  the  fire,  with  their  heads 
directed  towards  it,  and  tormented 
by  whips  to  make  them  hiss,  so  that 
the  fire  may  blaze.     The  froth  from 


their  lips  is  then  to  be  added  to  the 
boiling  mixture,  and  so  soon  as  an 
oily  scum  rises  to  the  surface,  the 
cobra-tel  is  complete." 

Although  it  is  obvious  that  the 
arsenic  is  the  main  ingredient  in  the 
poison,  Mr.  Morris  reported  to  me 
that  this  mode  of  preparing  it  was 
actually  practised  in  his  district ; 
and  the  above  account  was  trans- 
mitted by  him  apropos  to  the  murder 
of  a  Mohatal  and  his  wife,  which  was 
then  under  investigation,  and  which 
had  been  committed  with  the  cobra- 
tel.  Before  commencing  the  ope- 
ration of  preparing  the  poison,  a 
cock  is  first  sacrificed  to  the  yakhos 
or  demons. 

3  In  corroboration  of  the  view  pro- 
pounded elsewhere  (see  pp.  7,  84, 
&c.),  and  opposed  to  the  popular 
belief  that  Ceylon,  at  some  remote 
period,  was  detached  from  the  conti- 
nent of  India  by  the  interposition  of 
the  sea,  a  list  of  reptiles  will  be  found 
at  p.  203,  including,  not  only  indivi- 
dual species,  but  whole  genera  pecu- 
liar to  the  island,  and  not  to  be  found 
on  the  mainland.  See  a  paper  by 
DR.  A.  GUNTHER  on  The  Geog.  Dis- 
tribution of  Reptiles,  Magaz.  Nat.  Hist, 
for  March,  1859,  p.  230. 


H  4 


184  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

chinks  of  every  ruined  wall.  In  all  their  motions  there 
is  that  vivid  and  brief  energy,  the  rapid  but  restrained 
action  associated  with  their  limited  power  of  respiration, 
which  justifies  the  accurate  picture  of — 

"  The  green  lizard,  rustling  thro'  the  grass, 
And  up  the  fluted  shaft,  with  short,  quick,  spring' 
To  vanish  in  the  chinks  which  time  has  made."1 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  this  race  is  the  green 
calotes2^  in  length  about  twelve  inches,  which,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  dark  streaks  about  the  head,  is  as 
brilliant  as  the  purest  emerald  or  malachite.  Unlike 
its  congeners  of  the  same  family,  it  never  alters  this 
dazzling  hue,  whilst  many  of  them  possess  the  power, 
like  the  chameleon,  but  in  a  less  degree,  of  exchanging 
their  ordinary  colours  for  others  less  conspicuous.  The 
C.  ophiomachus,  and  another,  the  C.  versicolor,  ex- 
hibit this  faculty  in  a  remarkable  manner.  The  head  and 
neck,  when  the  animal  is  irritated  or  hastily  swallowing 
its  food,  becomes  of  a  brilliant  red  (whence  the  latter  has 
acquired  the  name  of  the  "  blood-sucker "),  whilst  the 
usual  tint  of  the  rest  of  the  body  is  converted  into  pale 
yellow.  The  sitana3,  and  a  number  of  others,  exhibit 
similar  phenomena. 

Chameleon. — The  true  chameleon4  is  found,  but  not 
in  great  numbers,  in  the  dry  districts  in  the  north  of 
Ceylon,  where  it  frequents  the  trees,  in  slow  pursuit  of 
its  insect  prey.  Whilst  the  faculty  of  this  creature  to 
blush  all  the  colours  of  the  rainbow  has  attracted  the 
wonder  of  all  ages,  sufficient  attention  has  hardly  been 
given  to  the  imperfect  sympathy  which  subsists  between 
the  two  lobes  of  its  brain,  and  the  two  sets  of  nerves 
that  permeate  the  opposite  sides  of  its  frame.  Hence, 
not  only  has  each  of  the  eyes  an  action  quite  indepen- 
dent of  the  other,  but  one  side  of  its  body  would  appear 


1  ROGERS'  Pcestum.  I       s  Sitana  Ponticereana,  Cuv. 

3  Calotes  viridis,  Gray.  4  Chamaelio  vulgaris,  Daud. 


CHAP.  III.] 


CHAMELEON. 


185 


to  be  sometimes  asleep  whilst  the  other  is  vigilant  and 
active  :  one  will  assume  a  green  tinge  whilst  the  opposite 
one  is  red ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  chameleon  is  utterly 
unable  to  swim,  from  the  incapacity  of  the  muscles  of 
the  two  sides  to  act  in  concert. 

Ceratophora.  —  An  unique  lizard,  hitherto  known  by 
only  two  specimens,  one  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
another  in  that  of  Leyden,  is  the  Ceratophora  Stod- 
dartii,  distinguished  by  the  peculiarity  of  its  having 
no  external  ear,  whilst  its  muzzle  bears  on  its  extremity 
the  horn-like  process  from  which  it  takes  its  name. 
It  has  recently  been  discovered  by  Dr.  Kelaart  to  be  a 
native  of  the  higher  Kandyan  hills,  where  it  is  sometimes 
seen  in  the  older  trees  in  pursuit  of  insect  larvae.1 

Geckoes. — But  the  most  familiar  and  attractive  of  the 
class  are  the  Geckoes2,  that  frequent  the  sitting-rooms, 
and  being  furnished  with  pads  to  each  toe,  are  enabled 
to  ascend  perpendicular  walls  and  adhere  to  glass 
and  ceilings.  Being  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  the  pupil 
of  the  eye,  instead  of  being  circular  as  in  the  diurnal 
species,  is  linear  and  vertical  like  that  of  the  cat.  As 
soon  as  evening  arrives,  the  geckoes  are  to  be  seen  in 
every  house  in  keen  and  crafty  pursuit  of  their  prey ; 
emerging  from  the  chinks  and  recesses  where  they  con- 
ceal themselves  during  the  day,  to  search  for  insects  that 
then  retire  to  settle  for  the  night.  In  a  boudoir  where 
the  ladies  of  my  family  spent  their  evenings,  one  of  these 
familiar  and  amusing  little  creatures  had  its  hiding-place 
behind  a  gilt  picture  frame.  Punctually  as  the  candle 
were  lighted,  it  made  its  appearance  on  the  wall  to  be 
fed  with  its  accustomed  crumb ;  and,  if  neglected,  it  re- 
iterated its  sharp  quick  call  of  chic,  chic,  chit,  till  attended 
to.  It  was  of  a  delicate  grey  colour,  tinged  with  pink  ; 
and  having  by  accident  fallen  on  a  work-table,  it  fled, 
leaving  part  of  its  tail  behind  it,  which,  however,  it 


1  Dr.  Kelaart  has  likewise  dis- 
covered at  Neuera-ellia  a  Salea,  dis- 
tinct from  the  S.  Jerdoni. 


3  Hemidactylus  maculatus,  Dum. 
et  Bib.,  Gray;  H.  Leschenaultii, 
Dum.  et  Sib. ;  II.  frenatus,  Schl&jel. 


186  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

reproduced  within  less  than  a  month.  This  faculty  of 
reproduction  is  doubtless  designed  to  enable  the  creature 
to  escape  from  its  assailants :  the  detaching  of  the 
limb  is  evidently  its  own  act ;  and  it  is  observable,  that 
when  reproduced,  the  tail  generally  exhibits  some  varia- 
tion from  the  previous  form,  the  diverging  spines  being 
absent,  the  new  portion  covered  with  small  square 
uniform  scales  placed  in  a  cross  series,  and  the  scuta 
below  being  seldom  so  distinct  as  in  the  original  mem- 
ber.1 In  an  officer's  quarters  in  the  fort  of  Colombo, 
a  Geckoe  had  been  taught  to  come  daily  to  the  dinner- 
table,  and  always  made  its  appearance  along  with  the 
dessert.  The  family  were  absent  for  some  months,  during 
which  the  house  underwent  extensive  repairs,  the  roof 
having  been  raised,  the  walls  stuccoed,  and  the  ceilings 
whitened.  It  was  naturally  surmised  that  so  long  a  sus- 
pension of  its  accustomed  habits  would  have  led  to 
the  disappearance  of  the  little  lizard ;  but  on  the 
return  of  its  old  friends,  at  their  first  dinner  it  made 
its  entrance  as  usual  the  instant  the  cloth  had  been  re- 
moved. 

Crocodile.  —  The  Portuguese  in  India,  like  the  Spa- 
niards in  South  America,  affixed  the  name  of  lagarto  to 
the  huge  reptiles  that  infest  the  rivers  and  estuaries  of 
both  continents ;  and  to  the  present  day  the  Europeans  in 
Ceylon  apply  the  term  alligator  to  what  are  in  reality  cro- 
codiles, which  literally  swarm  in  the  still  waters  and  tanks 
throughout  the  northern  provinces,  but  rarely  frequent 
rapid  streams,  and  have  never  been  found  in  the  marshes 
among  the  hills.  Their  instincts  in  Ceylon  do  not  lead  to 
any  variation  from  their  habits  in  other  countries.  There 
would  appear  to  be  two  well-distinguished  species  in  the 
island,  the  Allie  Kimboola 2,  the  Indian  crocodile,  inhabit- 
ing the  rivers  and  estuaries  throughout  the  low  countries 
of  the  coasts,  attaining  the  length  of  sixteen  or  eighteen 


1  Brit.  Mm.  Cat.  p.  143 ;  KELA-  I       2  Crocodilus  biporcatus,  Cuvivr. 
ABT'a  Prod.  Faun.  Zeylan,,  p.  183. 


CHAP.  III.] 


CKOCODILES. 


187 


feet,  and  ready  to  assail  man  when  pressed  by  hunger ; 
and  the  Marsh  crocodile1,  which  lives  exclusively  in 
fresh  water,  frequenting  the  tanks  in  the  northern  and 
central  provinces,  and  confining  its  attacks  to  the 
smaller  animals :  in  length  it  seldom  exceeds  twelve  or 
thirteen  feet.  Sportsmen  complain  that  their  dogs  are 
constantly  seized  by  both  species ;  and  water-fowl,  when 
shot,  frequently  disappear  before  they  can  be  secured 
by  the  fowlef7  The  Singhalese  believe  that  the  croco- 
dile can  only  move  swiftly  on  sand  or  smooth  clay,  its 
feet  being  too  tender  to  tread  firmly  on  hard  or  stony 
ground.  In  the  dry  season,  when  the  watercourses 
begin  to  fail  and  the  tanks  become  exhausted,  the 
Marsh  crocodiles  are  sometimes  encountered  wandering 
in  search  of  water  in  the  jungle ;  but  generally,  during 
the  extreme  drought,  when  unable  to  procure  their  ordi- 
nary food  from  the  drying  up  of  the  watercourses,  they 
bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  and  remain  in  a  state  of 
torpor  till  released  by  the  recurrence  of  the  rains.3  At 
Arne-tivoe,  in  the  eastern  province,  whilst  riding  across 
the  parched  bed  of  the  tank,  I  was  shown  the  recess, 
still  bearing  the  form  and  impress  of  a  crocodile,  out 
of  which  the  animal  had  been  seen  to  emerge  the  day 
before.  A  story  was  also  related  to  me  of  an  officer  at- 
tached to  the  department  of  the  Surveyor-General,  who, 
having  pitched  his  tent  in  a  similar  position,  had  been 
disturbed  during  the  night  by  feeling  a  movement  of  the 
earth  below  his  bed,  from  which  on  the  following  day  a 
crocodile  emerged,  making  its  appearance  from  beneath 
the  matting.4 


1  Crocodilus  palustris,  Less. 

2  In  Siara  the  flesh  of  the  crocodile 
is  sold  for  food  in  the  markets  and 
bazaars.     "Un  jour  je  vis  plus  de 
cinquante  croqodiles,  petits  et  grands, 
attaches  aux  colonnes  de  leurs  mai- 
sons.     Ils  les  vendent  la  chair  coinme 
on  vendrait  de  la  chair  de  pore,  mais  a 
bien  meilleur  marche." — PALLEGOIX, 
Siam,  vol.  i.  p.  174. 


3  HERODOTUS  records  the   obser- 
vations of  the   Egyptians  that   the 
crocodile  of  the  Isile  abstains  from 
food  during  the  four  winter  months. 
— Euterpe,  Iviii. 

4  HtTMBOLDT  relates  a  similar  story 
as  occurring  at  Calabazo,  in  Vene- 
zuela.— Personal  Narrative,  c.  xvi. 


188 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  H. 


The  species  that  inhabits  fresh  water  is  essentially 
cowardly  in  its  instincts,  and  hastens  to  conceal  itself 
on  the  appearance  of  man.  A  gentleman  (who  told 
me  the  circumstance),  when  riding  in  the  jungle,  over- 
took a  crocodile,  evidently  roaming  in  search  of  water. 
It  fled  to  a  shallow  pool  almost  dried  by  the  sun, 
and,  thrusting  its  head  into  the  mud  till  it  covered 
up  its  eyes,  remained  unmoved  in  profound  confidence 
of  perfect  concealment.  In  1833,  during  the  progress 
of  the  Pearl  Fishery,  Sir  Eobert  Wilmot  Horton  em- 
ployed men  to  drag  for  crocodiles  in  a  pond  which 
was  infested  with  them  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Aripo.  The  pool  was  about  fifty  yards  in  length,  by 
ten  or  twelve  wide,  shallowing  gradually  to  the  edge, 
and  not  exceeding  four  or  five  feet  in  the  deepest 
part.  As  the  party  approached  the  bund,  from  twenty 
to  thirty  reptiles,  which  had  been  basking  in  the  sun, 
rose  and  fled  to  the  water.  A  net,  specially  weighted 
so  as  to  sink  its  lower  edge  to  the  bottom,  was  then 
stretched  from  bank  to  bank  and  swept  to  the 
further  end  of  the  pond,  followed  by  a  line  of  men 
with  poles  to  drive  the  crocodiles  forward:  so  com- 
plete was  the  arrangement,  that  no  individual  could 
evade  the  net,  yet,  to  the  astonishment  of  the  Governor's 
party,  not  one  was  to  be  found  when  it  was  drawn 
on  shore,  and  no  means  of  escape  for  them  was  apparent 
or  possible  except  descending  into  the  mud  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pond.1 

TESTUDINATA.  Tortoise.  —  Of  the  testudinata  the  land 
tortoises  are  numerous,  but  present  no  remarkable 
features  beyond  the  beautiful  marking  of  the  starred 
variety2,  which  is  common  in  the  north-western  province 


1  A  remarkable  instance  of  the  vi- 
tality of  the  common  crocodile,  C.  bi- 
porcatus,  was  related  to  me  by  a 
gentleman  at  Galle :  he  had  caught 
on  a  baited  hook  an  unusually  large 
one,  which  his  coolies  disembowelled, 
the  aperture  in  the  stomach  being  left 


expanded  by  a  stick  placed  across  it. 
On  returning  in  the  afternoon  with  a 
view  to  secure  the  head,  they  found 
that  the  creature  had  crawled  for 
some  distance,  and  made  its  escape 
into  the  water. 

8  Testudo  stellata,  Schiveig. 


CHAP.  III.] 


TORTOISES. 


around  Putlam  and  Cliilaw,  and  is  distinguished  by  the 
bright  yellow  rays  which  diversify  the  deep  black  of  its 
dorsal  shield.  From  one  of  these  which  was  kept  in  my 
garden  I  took  a  number  of  flat  ticks  (Ixodes\  which 
adhered  to  its  fleshy  neck  in  such  a  position  as  to  baffle 
any  attempt  of  the  animal  itself  to  remove  them ;  but 
as  they  were  exposed  to  constant  danger  of  being  crushed 
against  the  plastron  during  the  protrusion  and  retraction 
of  the  head,  ea«h  was  covered  with  a  horny  case  almost 
as  resistant  as  the  carapace  of  the  tortoise  itself.  Such 
an  adaptation  of  structure  is  scarcely  less  striking  than 
that  of  the  parasites  found  on  the  spotted  lizard  of 
Berar  by  Dr.  Hooker,  each  of  which  presented  the 
distinct  colour  of  the  scale  to  which  it  adhered.1 

The  marshes  and  pools  of  the  interior  are  frequented 
by  the  terrapins  2,  which  the  natives  are  in  the  habit  of 
keeping  alive  in  wells  under  the  conviction  that  they 
clear  them  of  impurities.  The  edible  turtle 3  is  found 
on  all  the  coasts  of  the  island,  and  sells  for  a  few  shil- 
lings or  a  few  pence,  according  to  its  size  and  abundance 
at  the  moment.  At  certain  seasons  the  turtle  on  the 
south-western  coast  of  Ceylon  is  avoided  as  poisonous, 
and  some  lamentable  instances  are  recorded  of  death 
which  was  ascribed  to  their  use.  At  Pantura,  to  the 
south  of  Colombo,  twenty-eight  persons  who  had  par- 
taken of  turtle  in  October,  1840,  were  immediately 
seized  with  sickness,  after  which  coma  supervened,  and 
eighteen  died  during  the  night.  Those  who  survived 
said  there  was  nothing  unusual  in  the  appearance  of 
the  flesh  except  that  it  was  fatter  than  ordinary.  Other 
similarly  fatal  occurrences  have  been  attributed  to  turtle 
curry ;  but  as  they  have  never  been  proved  to  proceed 


'  HOOKER'S  Himalayan  Journals, 
vol.  i.  p.  37. 

2  Cryptopus  granum,  SCHOPF.  Dr. 
KELAART,  in  his  Prodromus  (p.  179), 
refers  this  to  the  common  Indian 
species,  C.  punctata ;  but  it  is  a 
distinct  one.  It  is  generally  dis- 


tributed in  the  lower  parts  of  Cey- 
lon, in  lakes  and  tanks.  It  is  put 
into  wells  to  act  the  part  of  a  scav- 
enger. By  the  Singhalese  it  is  named 
Kiri-ibba. 

3  Chelonia  virgata;  Schweig, 


190 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


exclusively  from  that  source,  there  is  room  for  believing 
that  the  poison  may  have  been  contained  in  some  other 
ingredient.  In  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  turtle  is  frequently 
found  of  such  a  size  as  to  measure  between  four  and 
five  feet  in  length  ;  and  on  one  occasion,  in  riding  along 
the  sea-shore  north  of  Putlam,  I  saw  a  man  in  charge 
of  some  sheep,  resting  under  the  shade  of  a  turtle  shell, 
which  he  had  erected  on  sticks  to  protect  him  from  the 
sun — almost  verifying  the  statement  of  ^Ehan,  that  in 
the  seas  off  Ceylon  there  are  tortoises  so  large  that 
several  persons  may  find  ample  shelter  beneath  a  single 
shell.1 

The  hawksbill  turtle 2,  which  supplies  the  tortoise-shell 
of  commerce,  was  at  former  times  taken  in  great  num- 
bers in  the  vicinity  of  Hambangtotte  during  the  season 
when  they  came  to  deposit  their  eggs,  and  there  is  still 
a  considerable  trade  in  this  article,  which  is  manufac- 
tured into  ornaments,  boxes,  and  combs  by  the  Moor- 
men resident  at  Galle.  If  taken  from  the  animal  after 
death  and  decomposition,  the  colour  of  the  shell  becomes 
clouded  and  milky,  and  hence  the  cruel  expedient  is 
resorted  to  of  seizing  the  turtles  as  they  repair  to  the 
shore  to  deposit  their  eggs,  and  suspending  them  over 
fires  till  heat  makes  the  plates  on  the  dorsal  shields 
start  from  the  bone  of  the  carapace,  after  which  the 
creature  is  permitted  to  escape  to  the  water.3  In 
illustration  of  the  resistless  influence  of  instinct  at  the 


1  "  TiKTOvrai  Sf  apa  tv  ravry  ry  $a- 
Xarrfl,  ical  \t\wvai  /usyitrrat,  uvirtp  ovv 
TO.  tXwrpa  opo<j>oi  yivovrai'  Kai  yap  tan 
rat  irevTfKaiSiKa  -irr}\G>v  'iv  ^(Xuvtiov, 

fc>£  VTTOlKltV  OVK  6Xl'yOV£,  Kai   TOVQ  JjXjOUf 

irvptaSi ffrarovg  airoari ft i,  Kai  axiav  dn- 
ftl-voiG  7rap«x*'-" — Lib.  xvi.  C.  17. 
yElian  copied  this  statement  lite- 
ratim from  MEGASTHENES,  Indica 
Frag.  lix.  31;  and  may  not  Mega- 
sthenes  have  referred  to  some  tradi- 
tion connected  with  the  gigantic 
fossilised  species  discovered  on  the 
Sewalik  Hills,  the  remains  of  which 


are  now  in  the  Museum  at  the  East 
India  House  ? 

8  Chelonia  imbricata,  Linn. 

3  At  Celebes,  whence  the  finest 
tortoise-shell  is  exported  to  China, 
the  natives  kill  the  turtle  by  blows 
on  the  head,  and  immerse  the  shell 
in  boiling  water  to  detach  the  plates. 
Dry  heat  is  only  resorted  to  by  the 
unskilful,  who  frequently  destroy  the 
tortoise-shell  in  the  operation.  — 
Joum.  Indian  Arcldpel.  vol.  iii.  p.  227. 
1849. 


CHAP.  III.] 


SNAKES. 


191 


period  of  breeding,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  identical 
tortoise  is  believed  to  return  again  and  again  to  the 
same  spot,  notwithstanding  that  at  each  visit  she  may  have 
to  undergo  a  repetition  of  this  torture.  In  the  year  1826, 
a  hawksbill  turtle  was  taken  near  Hambangtotte,  which 
bore  a  ring  attached  to  one  of  its  fins  that  had  been 
placed  there  by  a  Dutch  officer  thirty  years  before,  with 
a  view  to  establish  the  fact  of  these  recurring  visits  to  the 
same  beach.1  — * 

Snakes. —  It  is  perhaps  owing  to  the  aversion  excited 
by  the  ferocious  expression  and  unusual  action  of 
serpents,  combined  with  an  instinctive  dread  of  attack, 
that  exaggerated  ideas  prevail  both  as  to  their  numbers 
in  Ceylon,  and  the  danger  to  be  apprehended  from  en- 
countering them.  The  Singhalese  profess  to  distinguish 
a  great  many  kinds,  of  which  not  more  than  one  half 
have  as  yet  been  scientifically  identified;  but  so  cau- 
tiously do  serpents  make  their  appearance,  that  the 
surprise  of  long  residents  is  invariably  expressed  at 
the  rarity  with  which  they  are  to  be  seen ;  and  from 
my  own  journeys,  through  the  jungle,  often  of  two  to 
five  hundred  miles,  I  have  frequently  returned  with- 
out seeing  a  single  snake.2  Davy,  whose  attention  was 
carefully  directed  to  the  poisonous  serpents  of  Ceylon 3, 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  but  four,  out  of  twenty 
species  examined  by  him,  were  venomous,  and  that 
of  these  only  two  (the  tic-polonga 4  and  cobra  de 
capello  5)  were  capable  of  inflicting  a  wound  likely  to 
be  fatal  to  man.  The  third  is  the  carawilla 6,  a 
brown  snake  of  about  twelve  inches  in  length  ;  and 
for  the  fourth,  of  which  only  a  few  specimens  have 
been  procured,  the  Singhalese  have  no  name  in  their 


1  BENNETT'S  Ceylon,  ch.  xxxiv. 

2  Mr.  Bennett,  who  resided  much 
in  the  south-east  of  the  island,  as- 
cribes   the    rarity    of    serpents    in 
the  jungle  to  the  abundance  of  the 
wild  peafowl,  whose    partiality  to 


snakes  renders  them  the  chief  de- 
stroyers of  these  reptiles. 

3  See  DAVY'S  Ceylon,  ch.  xiv. 

4  Daboia  elegans,  Daud. 

5  Naja  tripudians,  Merr. 

6  Tngonocephalus  hypnale,  Merr. 


192 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


vernacular,  —  a  proof  that  it  is  neither  deadly  nor 
abundant. 

Cobra  de  Capello. —  The  cobra  de  capello  is  the  only 
one  exhibited  by  the  itinerant  snake-charmers :  and 
the  accuracy  of  Davy's  conjecture,  that  they  control  it, 
not  by  extracting  its  fangs,  but  by  courageously  avail- 
ing themselves  of  its  accustomed  timidity  and  extreme 
reluctance  to  use  its  fatal  weapons,  received  a  painful 
confirmation  during  my  residence  in  Ceylon,  by  the 
death  of  one  of  these  performers,  whom  his  audience 
had  provoked  to  attempt  some  unaccustomed  familiarity 
with  the  cobra ;  it  bit  him  on  the  wrist,  and  he  expired 
the  same  evening.  The  hill  near  Kandy,  on  which  the 
official  residences  of  the  Governor  and  Colonial  Secre- 
tary had  been  built,  is  covered  in  many  places  with 
the  deserted  nests  of  the  white  ants  (termites),  and 
these  are  the  favourite  retreats  of  the  sluggish  and 
spiritless  cobra,  which  watches  from  their  apertures  the 
toads  and  lizards  on  which  it  preys.  Here,  when  I 
have  repeatedly "  come  upon  them,  their  only  impulse 
was  concealment;  and  on  one  occasion,  when  a  cobra 
of  considerable  length  could  not  escape,  owing  to  the 
bank  being  nearly  precipitous  on  both  sides  of  the  road, 
a  few  blows  from  my  whip  were  sufficient  to  deprive  it 
of  life. 

There  is  a  rare  variety,  fancifully  designated  by  the 
natives  "  the  king  of  the  cobras,"  which  has  the  head 
and  the  anterior  half  of  the  body  of  so  light  a  colour,  that 
at  a  distance  it  seems  like  a  silvery  white.1  A  gentleman 
who  held  a  civil  appointment  at  Kornegalle,  had  a  servant 
who  was  bitten  by  a  snake,  and  he  informed  me  that  on 
enlarging  a  hole  near  the  foot  of  the  tree  under  which  the 
accident  occurred,  he  unearthed  a  cobra  of  upwards  of 


1  A  Singhalese  work,  the  Sarpa 
Doata,  quoted  in  the  Ceylon  Times, 
January,  1857,  enumerates  four 
species  of  the  cobra ; — the  raja,  or 
king ;  the  velyander,  or  trader  j  the 


baboona  ,  or  hermit ;  and  the  goore, 
or  agriculturist.  The  young  cobras, 
it  says,  are  not  venomous  till  after  the 
thirteenth  day,  when  they  shed  their 
coat  for  the  first  time. 


CHAP.  III.] 


SNAKES. 


193 


three  feet  long,  and  so  purely  white  as  to  induce 
him  to  believe  that  it  was  an  albino.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  rat-snake  1,  the  cobra  de  capello  is  the 
only  serpent  which  seems  from  choice  to  frequent 
the  vicinity  of  human  dwellings,  but  it  is  doubtless 
attracted  by  the  young  of  the  domestic  fowl  and 
by  the  moisture  of  the  wells  and  drainage. 

The  Singhalese  remark  that  if  one  cobra  be  destroyed 
near  a  house7"fts  companion  is  almost  certain  to  be  dis- 
covered immediately  after, —  a  popular  belief  which  I  had 
an  opportunity  of  verifying  on  more  than  one  occasion. 
Once,  when  a  snake  of  this  description  was  killed  in 
a  bath  of  Government  House  at  Colombo,  its  mate 
was  found  in  the  same  spot  the  day  after ;  and  again, 
at  my  own  stables,  a  cobra  of  five  feet  long,  having 
fallen  into  the  well,  which  was  too  deep  to  permit 
its  escape,  its  companion  of  the  same  size  was  found 
the  same  morning  in  an  adjoining  drain.2  On  this 
occasion  the  snake,  which  had  been  several  hours  in 
the  well,  swam  with  ease,  raising  its  head  and  hood 
above  water;  and  instances  have  repeatedly  occurred 
of  the  cobra  de  capello  voluntarily  taking  considerable 
excursions  by  sea.  When  the  "  Wellington,"  a  govern- 


1   Coryphodon  Blumenbachii. 

WOLF,  in  his  interesting  story  of 
his  Life  and  Adventures  in  Ceylon, 
mentions  that  rat-snakes  were  often  so 
domesticated  by  the  natives  as  to  feed 
at  their  table.  He  says :  "  I  once 
saw  an  example  of  this  in  the  house 
of  a  native.  It  being  meal  time,  he 
called  his  snake,  which  immediately 
came  forth  from  the  roof  under 
which  he  and  I  were  sitting.  He 
gave  it  victuals  from  his  own  dish, 
which  the  snake  took  of  itself  from 
off  a  fig-leaf  that  was  laid  for  it,  and 
ate  along  with  its  host.  When  it 
had  eaten  its  fill,  he  gave  it  a  kiss 
and  bade  it  go  to  its  hole." 

Since  the  above  was  written,  Major 
Skinner,  writing  to  me  12th  Dec. 
1858,  mentions  the  still  more  remark- 
able case  of  the  domestication  of  the 


cobra  de  capello  in  Ceylon.  "Did 
you  ever  hear,"  he  says,  "of  tamo 
cobras  being  kept  and  domesticated 
about  a  house,  going  in  and  out  at 
pleasure,  and  in  common  with  the 
rest  of  the  inmates  ?  In  one  family, 
near  Negombo,  cobras  are  kept  as 
protectors,  in  the  place  of  dogs,  by 
a  wealthy  man  who  has  always  large 
sums  of  money  in  his  house.  But 
this  is  not  a  solitary  case  of  the  kind. 
I  heard  of  it  only  the  other  day,  but 
from  undoubtedly  good  authority. 
The  snakes  glide  about  the  house,  a 
terror  to  thieves,  but  never  attempt- 
ing to  harm  the  inmates." 

2  PLINY  notices  the  affection  that 
subsists  between  the  male  and  female 
asp  ;  and  that  if  one  of  them  happens 
to  be  killed,  the  other  seeks  to  avenge 
its  death.— Lib.  viii.  c.  37. 


VOL. 


0 


194 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  .11: 


ment  vessel  employed  in  the  conservancy  of  the  pearl 
banks,  was  anchored  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from 
land,  in  the  bay  of  Koodremale,  a  cobra  was  seen,  about 
an  hour  before  sunset,  swimming  vigorously  towards 
the  ship.  It  came  within  twelve  yards,  when  the 
sailors  assailed  it  with  billets  of  wood  and  other 
missiles,  and  forced  it  to  return  to  land.  The  follow- 
ing morning  they  discovered  the  track  which  it  had 
left  on  the  shore,  and  traced  it  along  the  sand  till  it 
was  lost  in  the  jungle.1  On  a  later  occasion,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  same  spot,  when  the  "  Wellington  "  was 
lying  at  some  distance  from  the  shore,  a  cobra  was 
found  and  killed  on  board,  where  it  could  only  have 
gained  access  by  climbing  up  the  cable.  It  was  first 
discovered  by  a  sailor,  who  felt  the  chill  as  it  glided 
over  his  foot.2 

In  BENNETT'S  account  of  "  Ceylon  and  its  Capabilities" 
there  is  a  curious  piece  of  Singhalese  folk-lore,  to  the 
effect,  that  the  cobra  de  capello  every  time  it  expends 
its  poison  loses  a  joint  of  its  tail,  and  eventually  acquires 
a  head  resembling  that  of  a  toad.  A  recent  dis- 
covery of  Dr.  Kelaart  has  thrown  light  on  the  origin 
of  this  popular  fallacy.  The  family  of  "  false  snakes  " 
(pseudo-typhlops),  as  Schlegel  names  the  group,  have 
till  lately  consisted  of  but  three  species,  of  which  only 
one  was  known  to  inhabit  Ceylon.  They  belong  to 
a  family  intermediate  between  the  lizards  and  serpents 
with  the  body  of  the  latter,  and  the  head  of  the  former, 
with  which  they  are  moreover  identified  by  having  the 


1  STEWART'S  Account,  oftlie  Pearl 
Fisheries  of  Ceylon,  p.  9 :  Colombo, 
1843. 

The  Python  reticulatus  (the  "rock- 
snake")  has  been  known,  like  the 
cobra  de  capello,  to  make  short  voy- 
ages at  sea.  One  was  taken  on 
board  II.M.S.  "Hastings,"  when  oft' 
the  coast  of  Burmah,  in  1853 ;  it  is 
now  in  the  possession  of  the  surgeon, 
Dr.  Scott.  • 


2  SWAINSON,  in  his  Habits  ami 
Instincts  of  Animals,  c.  iv.  p.  187, 
says  that  instances  are  well  attested 
of  the  common  English  snake  having 
been  met  with  in  the  open  channel, 
between  the  coast  of  Wales  and  the 
island  of  Anglesea,  as  if  they  had 
taken  their  departure  from  the  one 
and  were  bound  for  the  other. 


CHAP.  III.]  SNAKES.  195 

upper  jaw  fixed  to  the  skull  as  in  mammals  and  birds, 
instead  of  movable  as  amongst  the  true  ophidians.  In 
this  they  resemble  the  amphisba3nidas ;  but  the  tribe 
of  Uropeltidce,  or  "  rough  tails,"  has  the  further  pecu- 
liarity, that  the  tail  is  truncated,  instead  of  ending,  like 
that  of  the  typhlops,  in  a  point  more  or  less  acute  ; 
and  the  reptile  assists  its  own  movements  by  pressing 
the  flat  end  to_jhe  ground.  Within  a  very  recent  period 
an  important  addition  has  been  made  to  this  genus,  by 
the  discovery  of  five  new  species  in  Ceylon ;  in  some 
of  which  the  singular  construction  of  the  tail  is  de- 
veloped to  an  extent  much  more  marked  than  in  any 
previously  existing  specimen.  One  of  these,  the  Uro- 
peltis  grandis  of  Kelaart,  is  distinguished  by  its  dark 
brown  colour,  shot  with  a  bluish  metallic  lustre,  closely 
approaching  the  ordinary  shade  of  the  cobra  ;  and  the 
tail  is  abruptly  and  flatly  compressed  as  though  it  had 
been  severed  by  a  knife.  The  form  of  this  singular 
reptile  will  be  best  understood  by  a  reference  to  the 
accompanying  figure  ;  and  there  can  be,  I  think,  little 
doubt  that  to  its  strange  and  anomalous  structure  is  to 
be  traced  the  fable  of  the  transformation  of  the  cobra 
de  capello.  The  colour  alone  would  seem  to  identify 


DROPELTIS  ORANDIS. 


the  two  reptiles,  but  the  head  and  mouth  are  no  longer 
those  of  a  serpent,  and  the  disappearance  of  the  tail 
might  readily  suggest  the  mutilation  which  the  tradition 
asserts. 

The  Singhalese  Buddhists,  in  their  religious  abstinence 
from  inflicting  death  on  any  creature,  are  accustomed, 
after  securing  a  venomous  snake,  to  enclose  it  in  a 
basket  woven  of  palm  leaves,  and  to  set  it  afloat  on  a 
river.  During  my  residence  in  Ceylon,  I  never  heard 

o  '2 


196 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PAKT  II, 


of  the  death  of  a  European  which  was  caused  by  the 
bite  of  a  snake ;  and  in  the  returns  of  coroners'  in- 
quests made  officially  to  my  department,  such  accidents 
to  the  natives  appear  chiefly  to  have  happened  at 
night,  when  the  animal,  having  been  surprised  or  trodden 
on,  had  inflicted  the  wound  in  self-defence.1  For  these 
reasons  the  Singhalese,  when  obliged  to  leave  their 
houses  in  the  dark,  carry  a  stick  with  a  loose  ring,  the 
noise2  of  which  as  they  strike  it  on  the  ground  is 
sufficient  to  warn  the  snakes  to  leave  their  path. 

The  Python.  - —  The  great  python  3  (the  "  boa,"  as  it  is 
commonly  designated  by  Europeans,  the  "  anaconda  "  of 
Eastern  story),  which  is  supposed  to  crush  the  bones  of 
an  elephant,  and  to  swallow  the  tiger,  is  found,  though 
not  of  so  portentous  dimensions,  in  the  cinnamon  gardens 
within  a  mile  of  the  fort  of  Colombo,  where  it  feeds  on 
hog-deer  and  other  smaller  animals. 

The  natives  occasionally  take  it  alive,  and  securing  it 
to  a  pole  expose  it  for  sale  as  a  curiosity.  One  that 
was  brought  to  me  in  this  way  measured  seventeen  feet 
with  a  proportionate  thickness :  but  another  which  crossed 
my  path  on  a  coffee  -estate  on  the  Peacock  Mountain 
at  Pusilawa,  considerably  exceeded  these  dimensions. 
Another  which  I  watched  in  the  garden  at  Elie  House, 
near  Colombo,  surprised  me  by  the  ease  with  which  it 
erected  itself  almost  perpendicularly  in  order  to  scale  a 
wall  upwards  of  ten  feet  high. 

Of  ten  species  that  ascend  trees  "to  search  for  squirrels 
and  lizards,  and  to  rifle  the  nests  of  birds,  one  half, 
including  the  green  carawilla,  and-  the  deadly  tic 
polonga,  are  believed  by  the  natives  to  be  venomous  ;  but 


1  In  a  return  of  112  coroners'  in- 
quests, in  cases  of  death  from  wild 
animals,  held  in  Ceylon  in  five  years/ 
from  1851  to  1855  inclusive,  68  are 
ascribed  to  the  bites  of  serpents ; 
and  in  almost  every  instance  the  as- 
sault is  set  down  as  having  taken 
place  at  night.  The  majority  of  the 
sufferers  were  children  and  women. 


2  PLINY  notices  that    the  serpent 
has  the  sense  of  hearing-  more  acute 
than  that  of  sight;  and  that  it  is  more 
frequently  put  in  motion  by  the  sound 
of  footsteps  than  by  the  appearance 
of    the    intruder,    "excitatur     pede 
spepius." — Lib.  viii.  c.  36. 

3  Python  reticulatus,  Gray. 


.CHAP.  III.]  WATEfc-SXAKES.  197 

the  fact  is  very  dubious.  I  have  heard  of  the  cobra  being 
found  on  the  crown  of  a  coco-nut  palm,  attracted,  it  was 
said,  by  the  toddy  which  was  flowing  at  the  time,  it 
being  the  season  for  drawing  it. 

Water-Snakes. — The  fresh- water  snakes,  of  which  several 
species  *  have  been  described  as  inhabiting  the  still  water 
and  pools,  are  all  harmless  in  Ceylon.  A  gentleman,  who 
found  near  a  river  an  agglutinated  cluster  of  the  eggs  of 
one  variety  (Tftpidonotus  stolatus?),  placed  them  under  a 
glass  shade  on  his  drawing-room  table,  where  one  by  one 
the  young  serpents  emerged  from  the  shell  to  the  number 
of  twenty. 

The  use  of  the  Pamboo-Kaloo,  or  snake-stone,  as  a 
remedy  in  cases  of  wounds  by  venomous  serpents,  has 
probably  been  communicated  to  the  Singhalese  by  the 
itinerant  snake-charmers  who  resort  to  the  island  from 
the  coast  of  Coromandel;  and  more  than  one  well- 
authenticated  instance  of  its  successful  application  has 
been  told  to  me  by  persons  who  had  been  eye-wit- 
nesses to  what  they  described.  On  one  occasion,  in 
March,  1854,  a  friend  of  mine  was  riding,  with  some 
other  civil  officers  of  the  government,  along  a  jungle 
path  in  the  vicinity  of  Bintenne,  when  they  saw  one  of 
•two  Tamils,  who  were  approaching  them,  suddenly  dart 
into  the  forest  and  return,  holding  in  both  hands  a 
cobra  de  capello  which  he  had  seized  by  the  head  and 
tail.  He  called  to  his  companion  for  assistance  to 
place  it  in  their  covered  basket,  but,  in  doing  this,  he 
handled  it  so  inexpertly  that  it  seized  him  by  the 
linger,  and  retained  its  hold  for  a  few  seconds,  as  if 
unable  to  retract  its  fangs.  The  blood  flowed,  and 
intense  pain  appeared  to  follow  almost  immediately ; 
but,  with  all  expedition,  the  friend  of  the  sufferer  undid 
his  waistcloth,  and  took  from  it  two  snake-stones,  each 
of  the  size  of  a  small  almond,  intensely  black  and  highly 


Chersydrus   granulatus,    Mer 
Cerberus  cinereus,  Daud.;  Tropido- 


pliis  schistosus,  Daitd. ;  Tropidonotus 

o  3 


quincunciatus,  Schleg. ;    T,   stolatus, 
Linn  ;  T.  chrysargus,  Boie. 


.198  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  IT. 

polished,  though  of  an  extremely  light  substance.  These 
he  applied  one  to  each  wound  inflicted  by  the  teeth 
of  the  serpent,  to  which  they  attached  themselves 
closely,  the  blood  that  oozed  from  the  bites  being  rapidly 
imbibed  by  the  porous  texture  of  the  article  applied, 
The  stones  adhered  tenaciously  for  three  or  four  minutes, 
the  wounded  man's  companion  in  the  meanwhile  rubbing 
his  arm  downwards  from  the  shoulder  towards  the 
fingers.  At  length  the  snake-stones  dropped  off  of  their 
own  accord ;  the  suffering  of  the  man  appeared  to  have 
subsided ;  he  twisted  his  fingers  till  the  joints  cracked, 
and  went  on  his  way  without  concern.  Whilst  this  had 
been  going  on,  another  Indian  of  the  party  who  had  come 
up  took  from  his  bag  a  small  piece  of  white  wood,  which 
resembled  a  root,  and  passed  it  gently  near  the  head  of 
the  cobra,  which  the  latter  immediately  inclined  close  to 
the  ground  ;  he  then  lifted  the  snake  without  hesitation, 
and  coiled  it  into  a  circle  at  the  bottom  of  his  basket. 
The  root  by  which  he  professed  to  be  enabled  to  perform 
this  operation  with  safety  he  called  the  Naya-thalee 
Kalinga  (the  root  of  the  snake-plant),  protected  by 
which  he  professed  his  ability  to  approach  any  reptile 
with  impunity. 

In  another  instance,  in  1853,  Mr.  Lavalliere,  then  Dis- 
trict Judge  of  Kandy,  informed  me  that  he  saw  a  snake- 
charmer  in  the  jungle,  close  by  the  town,  search  for 
a  cobra  de  capello,  and,  after  disturbing  it  in  its  retreat, 
the  man  tried  to  secure  it,  but,  in  the  attempt,  he  was 
bitten  in  the  thigh  till  blood  trickled  from  the  wound. 
He  instantly  applied  the  Pamboo-Kaloo,  which  adhered 
closely  for  about  ten  minutes,  during  which  time  he 
passed  the  root  which  he  held  in  his  hand  backwards  and 
forwards  above  the  stone,  till  the  latter  dropped  to  the 
ground.  He  assured  Mr.  Lavalliere  that  all  danger  was 
then  past.  That  gentleman  obtained  from  him  the  snake- 
stone  he  had  relied  on,  and  saw  him  repeatedly  afterwards 
in  perfect  health. 

The  substances  used  on  both  these  occasions  are  now 


CHAP.  III.] 


SXAKE-STOXES. 


199 


in  my  possession.  The  roots  employed  by  the  several 
parties  are  not  identical.  One  appears  to  be  a  bit  of 
the  stem  of  an  Aristolochia ;  the  other  is  so  dried  as  to 
render  it  difficult  to  identify  it,  but  it  resembles  the 
quadrangular  stem  of  a  jungle  vine.  Some  species 
of  Aristolochia,  such  as  the  A.  serpentaria  of  North 
America,  are  supposed  to  act  as  specifics  in  the  fcure 
of  snake-bites ;  and  the  A.  indica  is  the  plant  to  which 
the  ichneunioli  is  popularly  believed  to  resort  as  an 
antidote  when  bitten1;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  use 
of  any  particular  plant  by  the  snake-charmers  is  a 
pretence,  or  rather  a  delusion,  the  reptile  being  over- 
powered by  the  resolute  action  of  the  operator2,  and  not 
by  the  influence  of  any  secondary  appliance,  the  confi- 
dence inspired  by  the  supposed  talisman  enabling  its  pos- 
sessor to  address  himself  fearlessly  to  his  task,  and  thus  to 
effect,  by  determination  and  will,  what  is  popularly 
believed  to  be  the  result  of  charms  and  stupefaction. 
Still  it  is  curious  that,  amongst  the  natives  of  Northern 


1  For  an  account  of  the  encounter 
between  the  ichneumon  and  the  ve- 
nomous snakes  of  Ceylon,  see  Pt.  IT. 
ch.  i.  p.  140. 

3  The  following  narrative  of  the 
operations  of  a  snake  charmer  in  Cey- 
lon is  contained  in  a  note  from  Mr. 
Reyne,  of  the  department  of  public 
works:  "A  snake  charmer  came  to 
my  bungalow  in  1854,  requesting  me 
to"  allow  him  to  show  me  his  snakes 
dancing.  As  I  had  frequently  seen 
them,  I  told  him  I  would  give  him 
a  rupee  if  he  would  accompany  me 
to  the  jungle,  and  catch  a  cobra, 
.that  I  knew  frequented  the  place. 
lie  was  willing,  and  as  I  was  anxious 
to  test  the  truth  of  the  charm,  I 
counted  his  tame  snakes,  and  put  a 
watch  over  them  until  I  returned 
with  him.  Before  going  I  examined 
the  man,  and  satisfied  myself  he  had 
no  snake  about  his  person.  When 
we  arrived  at  the  spot,  he  played  on 
a  small  pipe,  and  after  persevering 
for  some  time  out  came  a  large 
cobra  from  an  ant  hill,  which  I  knew 
it  occupied.  On  seeing  the  man  it 
o 


tried  to  escape,  but  he  caught  it  by 
the  tail  and  kept  swinging  it  round 
until  we  reached  the  bungalow.  He 
then  made  it  dance,  but  before  long 
it  bit  him  above  the  knee.  He  im- 
mediately bandaged  the  leg  above 
the  bite,  and  applied  a  snake-stone  to 
the  wound  to  extract  the  poison.  He 
was  in  great  pain  for  a  few  minutes, 
but  after  that  it  gradually  went  away, 
the  stone  falling  off  just  before  he 
was  relieved.  When  he  recovered 
he  held  a  cloth  up,  which  the  snake 
flew  at,  and  caught  its  fangs  in  it ; 
while  in  that  position,  the  man 
passed  his  hand  up  its  back,  and 
having  seized  it  by  the  throat,  he 
extracted  the  fangs  in  my  presence 
and  gave  them  to  me.  He  then 
squeezed  out  the  poison  on  to  a 
leaf.  It  was  a  clear  oily  substance, 
and  when  nibbed  on  the  hand  pro- 
duced a  fine  lather.  I  carefully 
watehed  the  whole  operation,  which 
was  also  witnessed  by  my  clerk  and 
two  or  three  other  persons.  Colombo, 
IMiJtuntary,  I860.— II.  E.  REYNE." 


200  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  IT. 

Africa,  who  lay  hold  of  the  Cerastes  without  fear  or 
hesitation,  their  impunity  is  ascribed  to  the  use  of  a 
plant  with  which  they  anoint  themselves  before  touching 
the  reptile 1 ;  and  Bruce  says  of  the  people  of  Sennar, 
that  they  acquire  exemption  from  the  fatal  consequences 
of  the  bite  by  chewing  a  particular  root,  and  washing 
themselves  with  an  infusion  of  certain  plants.  He  adds 
that  a  portion  of  this  root  was  given  him,  with  a  view  to 
test  its  efficacy  in  his  own  person,  but  that  he  had  not 
sufficient  resolution  to  undergo  the  experiment. 

As  to  the  snake-stone  itself,  I  submitted  one,  the  ap- 
plication of  which  I  have  been  describing,  to  Mr. 
Faraday,  who  has  communicated  to  me,  as  the  result 
of  his  analysis,  his  belief  that  it  is  "  a  piece  of  charred 
bone  which  has  been  filled  with  blood  perhaps  several 
times,  and  then  carefully  charred  again.  Evidence  of 
this  is  afforded,  as  well  by  the  apertures  of  cells  or  tubes 
on  its  surface  as  by  the  fact  that  it  yields  and  breaks 
under  pressure,  and  exhibits  an  organic  structure  within. 
When  heated  slightly,  water  rises  from  it,  and  also  a 
little  ammonia ;  and,  if  heated  still  more  highly  in  the 
air,  carbon  burns  away,  and  a  bulky  white  ash  is  left, 
retaining  the  shape  and  size  of  the  stone."  This  ash, 
as  is  evident  from  inspection,  cannot  have  belonged  to 
any  vegetable  substance,  for  it  is  almost  entirely  composed 
of  phosphate  of  lime.  Mr.  Faraday  adds  that  "  if  the 
piece  of  matter  has  ever  been  employed  as  a  spongy 
absorbent,  it  seems  hardly  fit  for  that  purpose  in  its 
present  state  ;  but  who  can  say  to  what  treatment  it  has 
been  subjected  since  it  was  fit  for  use,  or  to  what  treat- 
ment the  natives  may  submit  it  when  expecting  to  have 
occasion  to  use  it  ?  " 

The  probability  is,  that  the  animal  charcoal,  when 
instantaneously  applied,  may  be  sufficiently  porous 
and  absorbent  to  extract  the  venom  from  the  recent 
wound,  together  with  a  portion  of  the  blood,  before  it 
has  had  time  to  be  carried  into  the  system ;  and  that  the 

1  ITassellquist, 


CHAP.  III.]  SNAKE-STOMPS.  201 

blood  which  Mr.  Faraday  detected  in  the  specimen 
submitted  to  him  was  that  of  the  Indian  on  whose  per- 
son the  effect  was  exhibited  on  the  occasion  to  which  my 
informant  was  an  eye-witness.  The  snake-charmers  from 
the  coast  who  visit  Ceylon  profess  to  prepare  the  snake- 
stones  for  themselves,  and  preserve  the  composition  as 
a  secret.  Dr.  Davy1,  on  the  authority  of  Sir  Alexander 
Johnston,  says  the  manufacture  of  them  is  a  lucrative 
trade,  carriecMbn  by  the  monks  of  Manilla,  who  supply 
the  merchants  of  India — and  his  analysis  confirms  that 
of  Mr.  Faraday.  Of  the  three  different  kinds  which 
he  examined  —  one  being  of  partially  burnt  bone,  and 
another  of  chalk,  the  third,  consisting  chiefly  of  vege- 
table matter,  resembled  a  bezoar, — all  of  them  (except 
the  first,  which  possessed  a  slight  absorbent  power)  were 
quite  inert,  and  incapable  of  having  any  effect  exclusive 
of  that  on  the  imagination  of  the  patient.  Thunberg 
was  shown  the  snake-stone  used  by  the  boers  at  the 
Cape  in  1772,  which  was  imported  for  them  "  from 
the  Indies,  especially  from  Malabar,"  at  so  high  a 
price  that  few  of  the  farmers  could  afford  to  possess 
themselves  of  it ;  he  describes  it  as  convex  on  one  side, 
black,  and  so  porous  that  "  when  thrown  into  water, 
it  caused  bubbles  to  rise  ;  "  and  hence,  by  its  absorption, 
it  served,  if  speedily  applied,  to  extract  the  poison  from 
the  wound.2 


1  Account  of  the  Interior  of  Cey-  \  horn  from  its  envelope,  when  it 


Ion,  ch.  iii.  p.  101. 

2   Thunberg,  vol.  i.  p.   155.     Since 
the  foregoing  account  was  published, 


be  ready  for  immediate  use.  In  this 
state  it  will  resemble  a  solid  black 
fibrous  substance,  of  the  same  shape 


I   have   received   a   note   from   Mr.  !  and  size  as  before  it  was  subjected 


Hardy,  relative  to  thepicdra  ponsona, 


to  this  treatment. 


the  snake-stone  of  Mexico,  in  which         "  USE. — The  wound  being  slightly 
he  gives  the  following  account  of  the     punctured,  apply    the  bone   to   the 


method  of  preparing  and  applying  it 
"  Take  a  piece  of  hart's  horn  of  any 
convenient  size  and  shape ;  cover  it 
well  round  with  grass  or  hay,  and 
enclosing  both  in  a  thin  piece  of 
sheet  copper  well  wrapped  round 
them,  and  place  the  parcel  in  a  char- 
coal 
charred. 

"  When  cold,  remove  the  calcined 


i,  and  place  the  parcel  in  a  char- 
fire  till  the  bone  is  sufficiently 


opening,  to  which  it  will  adhere 
firmly  for  the  space  of  two  minutes ; 
and  when  it  falls,  it  should  be  re- 
ceived into  a  basin  of  water.  It 
should  then  be  dried  in  a  cloth,  and 
again  applied  to  the  wound.  But  it 
will  not  adhere  longer  then  about 
one  minute.  In  like  manner  it  may 
be  applied  a  third  time  ;  but  now  it 
will  fall  almost  immediately,  and 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Ccecilia.  —  The  rocky  jungle,  bordering  the  higher 
coffee  estates,  provides  a  safe  retreat  for  a  very  singular 
animal,  first  introduced  to  the  notice  of  European 
naturalists  about  a  century  ago  by  Linnseus,  who 
gave  it  the  name  Ccecilia  glutinosa,  to  indicate  two 
peculiarities  manifest  to  the  ordinary  observer— an  appa- 
rent defect  of  vision,  from  the  eyes  being  so  small  and 
imbedded  as  to  be  scarcely  distinguishable  ;  and  a  power 
of  secreting  from  minute  pores  in  the  skin  a  viscous 
fluid,  resembling  that  of  snails,  eels,  and  some  salaman- 
ders. Specimens  are  rare  in  Europe  from  the  readiness 
with  which  it  decomposes,  breaking  down  into  a  flaky 
mass  in  the  spirits  in  which  it  is  attempted  to  be  pre- 
served. 

The  creature  is  about  the  length  and  thickness  of  an 
ordinary  round  desk  ruler,  a  little  flattened  before  and 
rounded  behind.  It  is  brownish,  with  a  pale  stripe  along 
either  side.  The  skin  is  furrowed  into  350  circular 
folds,  in  which  are  imbedded  minute  scales.  The  head 
is  tolerably  distinct,  with  a  double  row  of  fine  curved 
teeth  for  seizing  the  insects  and  worms  on  which  it  is 
supposed  to  live. 

Naturalists  are  most  desirous  that  the  habits  and  meta- 
morphoses of  this  creature  should  be  carefully  ascertained, 
for  great  doubts  have  been  entertained  as  to  the  position 
it  is  entitled  to  occupy  in  the  chain  of  creation. 

Frogs.  —  In  the  numerous  marshes  formed  by  the 
overflowing  of  the  rivers  in  the  vast  plains  of  the  low 
country,  there  are  many  varieties  of  frogs,  which,  both 
by  their  colours  and  by  their  extraordinary  size,  are 
calculated  to  excite  the  surprise  of  strangers.1  In  the 


nothing  will  cause  it  to  adhere  any 
more. 

"  These  effects  I  witnessed  in  the 
case  of  a  bite  of  a  rattle-snake  at 
Oposura,  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Sonora,  in  Mexico,  from  whence  I 
obtained  my  recipe ;  and  I  have 
given  other  particulars  respecting  it 
in  my  Travels  in  the  Interior  of 
Mexico,  published  in  1830.  R.  W.  II. 
HARDY.  Bath,  30th  January,  1860." 


1  The  Indian  toad  (Bufo  melano- 
stictus,  Schneid)  is  found  in  Ceylon, 
and  the  belief  in  its  venomous  nature 
is  as  old  as  the  third  century  B.C., 
when  the  Mahawanso  mentions  that 
the  wife  of  "  King  Asoka  attempted 
to  destroy  the  great  bo-tree  (at  Ma- 
gadha)  with  the  poisoned  fang  of  a 
toad."—Cb.  xx.  p.  122. 


CHAP.  ILL] 


REPTILES. 


203 


lakes  around  Colombo  and  the  still  water  near  Trin- 
comalie,  there  are  huge  creatures  of  this  family,  from 
six  to  eight  inches  in  length  \  of  an  olive  hue,  deep- 
ening into  brown  on  the  back  and  yellow  on  the  under 
side.  The  Kandyan  species,  recently  described,  is  much 
less  in  dimensions,  but  distinguished  by  its  brilliant 
colouring,  a  beautiful  grass  green  above  and  deep  orange 
underneath.2 

In  the  shrubberies  around  my  house  at  Colombo  the 
graceful  little  hylas  3  were  to  be  found  in  great  numbers, 
crouching  under  broad  leaves  to  protect  them  from 
the  scorching  sun ;  some  of  them  utter  a  sharp  metallic 
sound  at  night,  similar  to  that  produced  by  smacking  the 
lips.  They  possess  in  a  high  degree  the  power  of  changing 
their  colour  ;  and  one  which  had  seated  itself  on  the  gilt 
pillar  of  a  dinner  lamp  was  scarcely  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  or-molu  to  which  it  clung.  They  are  enabled 
to  ascend  glass  by  means  of  the  suckers  at  the  extremity 
of  their  toes.  Their  food  consists  of  flies  and  minute 
coleoptera. 

List  of  Ceylon  Reptiles. 

I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Gray  of  the  British  Museum  for  a 
more  complete  enumeration  of  the  reptiles  of  Ceylon  than  is 
to  be  found  in  Dr.  Kelaart's  published  lists ;  but  many  of  those 
new  to  Europeans  have  been  carefully  described  by  the  latter 
gentleman  in  his  Prodromua  Faunae,  Zeylanicce  and  its  appen- 
dices, as  well  as  in  the  13th  vol.  Magaz.  Nat.  Hist.  (1854). 


Saura. 

Monitor  dracaena,  Linn. 
Riopa  punctata,  Linn. 
Hardwickii,  Gray. 
Brachymeles  Bonitae,  Dum.  Sf  Bib. 
Tiliqua  rufescens,  Shaw. 
Eumeces  Taprobanius,  Kel. 
Nessia  Burtoni,  Gray. 
Acontias  Layardi,  Kelaart. 
Argyrophis  bramicus,  Daud. 
Rhinophis  Blythii,  Kelaart. 
Mitylia  Gerrardii,  Gray. 
Templetonii,  Gray. 
unimaculata,  Gray. 

Mitylia  melanogaster,  Gray. 
Siluboura  Ceylonica,  Cuv. 
Uropeltis  Saffragamus,  Kelaart. 
grandis,  Kelaart. 
pardalis,  Kelaart. 
Dapatnaya  Lankadivana,  Kel. 
Trevelyanii,  Ktlaart. 
Hemidactylus  frenatns,  Schleg. 
Leschenaultii,  Dum  Sf  Bib. 
trihedrus,  Daud. 
maculatus,  Dum.  Sf  Bib. 
Piresii,  Kelaart. 
Coctoei,  Dum.  Sf  Bib. 
sublffivis,  Cantor.. 

1  Rana  cutipora?  and  the  Malabar 
bull-frog,  R.  Malabarica. 
8  R.  Kandiana,  Kelaart. 

3  The  tree-frog,  Hyla  leucomystax, 
Grav. 

204 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Peripia  Peronii,  Dum.  §•  Bib. 
Gymnodactylus  Kandianus,  Kd. 
Sitana  Ponticercana,  Cuv. 
Lyriocephalus  scutatus,  Linn. 
Ceratophora  Stoddartii,  Gray. 
Salea  Jerdoni,  Gray. 
Calotcs  ophiomachus,  Merr. 

viridis,  Gray. 

versicolor,  Daud. 

Rouxii,  Dum.  §•  Bib. 

mystaceus,  Dum.  Sf  Bib. 
Chameleo  vulgaris,  Daud. 

Ophidia. 

Megsera  trigonoccphalus,  Lntr. 
Trigonocephalus  hypnalis,  Merr. 
Daboia  elegans,  Daud. 
Pelamys  bicolor,  Daud. 
Aturia  lapemoides,  Gray. 
Hydrophis  sublaevis,  Gray. 

cyanocinctu?,  Daud. 
Chersydrus  granulatus,  Schneid. 
Cerberus  cinereus,  Daud. 
Tropidopbis  schistosus,  Daud. 
Python  rcticulatus,  Gray. 
Cylindropbis  rufn,  Schneid. 

maculata,  Linn. 
Aspidura  brachyorrhos,  Bole. 
Haplocercus  Cc'yloncnsis,  Gtlir. 
Obgodon  subquadratus,  Dum.  §•  Bib. 

subgriseus,  Dum.  Sf  Bib. 

sublineatus,  Dum.  §•  Bib. 
Simotes  Ilussellii,  Daud. 

])iirpurascens,  Schlcg. 
Ablabcs  collaris,  Gray. 
Trupidonotus  quincunciatus,  Schlcg. 
var.  funobris. 
var.  carinatus. 

stolalus,  Linn. 

cbrysargus,  Bole. 
Cynophis  Helena,  Daud. 
Coiyphodon  Blumenbacliii,  Merr. 
Cyclophis  calamaria,  Giinther. 
Clirysopelea  ornata,  Shaw. 
Dendrophis  picta,  Gin. 
Passerita  myctcrizans,  Linn. 

var.  fusca. 
Dipsadomorphus  Ceyloneusis,  Giinther. 


Lycodon  aulicus,  Linn. 
Cercaspis  carinata,  Kuhl. 
Bungarus  fascinatus,  Schncid. 

var.  Ceylonensis.  Gthr. 
Nnja  tripudians,  Merr. 

Cbelonia. 

Testtido  stellata,  Schweiy. 
Kmys  Sel)a;,  Gray. 
Cryptopus  granuin,  Schfyf. 
Caretta  inibricata,  Linn. 
Chclonia  virgata,  Schwcigy. 

Emyclosauri. 

Crocodilus  biporcatus,  Cue. 
palustris,  Less. 

Batrachis. 

Rana  hcxadactyla,  Less. 

Kuhlii,  Schletj. 

robusta,  Btytn. 

tigrina,  Daud. 

Malabarica,  Dum.  Sf  Bib. 

Kcindiana,  Kclaart. 

Neuera-elliana,  Kclaart. 
Bufo  melanostictus,  Schneid. 

Kelaartii,  Giinther. 
Ixalus  variabilis,  Giinther. 

Icucorhinus,  Martens. 

poecilopleurus,  Martens. 

aurifasciatus,  Schleg. 
Polypedates  maculatus,  Gray. 

microtyrapanum,  Giinthar. 

cques,  Giinther. 

stcllatus,  Kelaait. 

schmardanus,  Kelaart. 
Limnodytes  lividus,  BIyth. 

macularis,  Blylh. 

mutabilis,  Kelaart. 

maculatus,  Kelaart. 
Kaloula  pulchra,  Gray. 

balteata,  var.  Giinther. 
Pyxicephalus  fodicns,  Jerd. 
Engystoma  rubruin,  Jerd. 

Pseudopbidia. 

Caecilia  glutinosa,  Linn. 


NOTE. —  The  following  species  are  peculiar  to  Ceylon ;  and 
the  genera  Aspidura,  Cercaspis,  and  Haplocercus  would 
appear  to  be  similarly  restricted.  Trimesurus  Ceylonensis,  T. 
nigro-marginatus ;  Megsera  Trigonocephala  ;  Trigonocephalus 
hypnalis ;  Daboia  elegans  ;  Cylindrophis  maculata ;  Aspidura 
brachyorrhos  ;  Haplocercus  Ceylonensis ;  Oligodon  sublineatus ; 
Cynophis  Helena;  Cyclophis  calamaria;  Dipsadomorphus  Cey- 
lonensis; Cercaspis  carinata;  Ixalus  variabilis,  I.  Leucorhinus, 
I.  poecilopleurus ;  Polypedates  microtympanum,  P.  eques. 


•205 


CHAP.  IV. 


FISHES. 


As  yet  little  j^is  been  done  in  the  examination  and  de- 
scription of  the  fishes  of  Ceylon,  especially  those  which 
frequent  the  rivers  and  inland  waters.  Mr.  Bennett,  who 
was  for  some  years  employed  in  the  Civil  Service,  directed 
his  attention  to  the  subject,  and  published  in  1830  some 
portions  of  a  projected  work  on  the  marine  ichthyology 
of  the  island  *,  but  it  never  proceeded  beyond  the  de- 
scription of  about  thirty  specimens.  The  great  work 
of  Cuvier  and  Valenciennes2  particularises  about  one 
hundred  species,  specimens  of  which  were  procured  from 
Ceylon  by  Eeynard  Leschenault  and  other  correspond- 
ents, but  of  these  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  belong  to 
fresh  water. 

The  fishes  of  the  coast,  so  far  as  they  have  been 
examined,  present  few  that  are  not  common  to  the 
seas  of  Ceylon  and  India.  A  series  of  drawings,  includ- 
ing upwards  of  ^ix  hundred  species  and  varieties,  of 
Ceylon  fish,  all  made  from  recently-captured  specimens, 
has  been  submitted  to  Professer  Huxley,  and  a  notice 
of  their  general  characteristics  forms  an  interesting  article 
in  the  appendix  to  the  present  chapter.3 

Of  those  in  ordinary  use  for  the  table  the  finest  by 
far  is  the  Seir-fish  4,  a  species  of  scomber,  which  is  called 
Tora-malu  by  the  natives.  It  is  in  size  and  form  very 
similar  to  the  salmon,  to  which  the  flesh  of  the  female 
fish,  notwithstanding  its  white  colour,  bears  a  very  close 
resemblance  both  in  firmness  and  flavour. 


1  A  Selection  of  tfu>  most  Remark- 
able ivtcl  Intere-ttinr/  i-Ww.s  found  on 
'the  Coast  of  Ceylon,  By  J.  W.  BES- 
JTETT,  Esq.  Loudon,  1830. 


-   Ilixtoire  Xntin-eUc  des  Poissons. 
8  See  note  C  to  this  chapter. 
4  Cybium  (Scomber,  Linn.)  guf.- 
tatum. 


206 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PAET  IT. 


Mackerel,  dories,  carp,  whitings,  mullet  both  red  and 
striped,  perches  and  soles,  are  abundant,  and  a  sardine 
(Sardinella  Neohowii,  Val.)  frequents  the  southern  and 
eastern  coast  in  such  profusion  that  on  one  instance  in 
1839  a  gentleman,  who  was  present,  saw  upwards  of 
four  hundred  thousand  taken  in  a  haul  of  the  nets  in  the 
little  bay  of  Goyapanna,  east  of  Point-de-Galle.  As  this 
vast  shoal  approached  the  shore  the  broken  water  became 
as  smooth  as  if  a  sheet  of  ice  had  been  floating  below  the 
surface.1 

Poisonous  Fishes. — The  sardine  has  the  reputation  of 
being  poisonous  at  certain  seasons,  and  accidents  ascribed 
to  eating  it  are  recorded  in  all  parts  of  the  island.  Whole 
families  of  fishermen  who  have  partaken  of  it  have .  died. 
Twelve  persons  in  the  jail  of  Chilaw  were  thus  poisoned 
about  the  year  1829 ;  and  the  deaths  of  soldiers  have 
repeatedly  been  ascribed  to  the  same  cause.  It  is  diffi- 
cult in  such  instances  to  say  with  certainty  whether 
the  fish  were  in  fault;  whether  there  was  not  a 
peculiar  susceptibility  in  the  condition  of  the  recipients ; 
or  whether  the  mischief  may  not  have  been  occasioned 
by  the  wilful  administration  of  poison,  or  its  accidental 
occurrence  in  the  brass  cooking  vessels  used  by  the  na- 
tives. The  popular  belief  was,  however,  deferred  to 
by  an  order  passed  by  the  Governor  in  Council  in 
February,  1824,  which,  after  reciting  that  "  Whereas 
it  appears  by  information  conveyed  to  the  Govern- 
ment that  at  three  several  periods  at  Trincomalie 
death  has  been  the  consequence  to  several  persons 
from  eating  the  fish  called  Sardinia  during  the  months 
of  January  and  December,"  enacts  that  it  shall  not 
be  lawful  in  that  district  to  catch  sardines  during 


1  These  facts  serve  to  explain  the 
story  told  by  the  friar  ODORIC  of 
Friuli,  who  visited  India  about  the 
year  1320  A.D.,  and  says  there  are 
"  fishes  in  those  seas  that  come  swim- 
ming towards  the  said  country  in 
such  abundance  that  for  a  great  dis- 
tance into  the  sea  nothing  can  be 


seen  but  the  backs  of  fishes,  which 
casting  themselves  on  the  shore,  do 
suffer  men  for  the  space  of  three  daies 
to  come  and  to  take  as  many  of  them 
as  they  please,  and  then  they  return 
again  into  the  sea." — Hakluyt,  vol.  ii. 
p.  57. 


CIIAI-.  IV.]  SHARKS.  207 

these  months,  under  pain  of  fine  and  imprisonment. 
This  order  is  still  in  force^  but  the  fishing  continues 
notwithstanding.1 

Sharks. — Sharks  appear  on  all  parts  of  the  coast, 
and  instances  continually  occur  of  persons  being  seized 
by  them  whilst  bathing  even  in  the  harbours  of  Trin- 
comalie  and  Colombo.  In  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  they  are 
taken  for  the  sake  of  their  oil,  of  which  they  yield  such 
a  quantity  that  "  shark's  oil "  is  now  a  recognised 
export.  A  trade  also  exists  in  drying  their  fins,  for 
which,  owing  to  the  gelatine  contained  in  them,  a  ready 
market  is  found  in  China,  whither  the  skin  of  the  basking 
shark  is  also  sent ;  —  to  be  converted,  it  is  said,  into  sha- 
green. 

Saw  Fish.  —  The  huge  saw  fish,  the  Pristis  anti- 
quorum  2,  infests  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island  3,  where 
it  attains  a  length  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet,  inr 
eluding  the  powerful  weapon  from  which  its  name  is 
derived. 

But  the  most  striking  to  the  eye  of  a  stranger  are 
those  fishes  whose  brilliancy  of  colouring  has  won  for 
them  the  wonder  even  of  the  listless  Singhalese.  Some, 


1  There  are  other  species  of  Sardine  found  at  Ceylon;  such  as  the  &  lincolata, 
the  S.  neohowii,  Cuv.  and  Val.  and  the  S. 

leioyaster,  Cuv.  and  Val.  xx.  270,  which 
was  found  byM.  KeynaudatTrinconmlie. 
It  occurs  also  off'  the  coast  of  Java.  Ano- 
ther Ceylon  fish  of  the  same  group,  a 
Clupea,  is  known    as  the    "  poisonous 
sprat,"  the  bonito   (Scotnber 
pelamys?),  the  kangewena,  or 
unicorn  fish  (Ealistes?),  and  a 
number  of  others,  are  more  or 
less  in  bad  repute  from  the 
same  imputation. 

2  Two   other    species   are 
found  in  the  Ceylon  waters,  P. 
cuxpidatus  and  P.  pectinatus. 

3  ^ELIAX  mentions^  amongst  the  extraordinary 
marine  animals  found  in  the  seas  around  Ceylon,  a 
fish  with  feet  instead  of  fins ;  voSag  yt  p>}v  x/;X<ie  »; 
vrfpiyta.  —  Lib.  xvi.  c.  18.     Does  not  this  draw- 
ing of  a  species  of  Chironectes,  captured  near 

Colombo,  justify  his  description  ?  CHIEONECTES. 


208 


ZOO  LOGY. 


[PART  II. 


like  the  Bed  Sea  Perch  (Holocentrus  ruber,  Bennett) 
and  the  Great  Fire  Fish  V  are  of  the  deepest  scarlet  and 
flame  colour ;  in  others  purple  predominates,  as  in  the 
Serranus  flavo-cceruleus ;  in  others  yellow,  as  in  the  Chce- 
todon  Brownriggii'2,  and  Acanthurus  vittatus,  Bennett3, 
and  numbers,  from  the  lustrous  green  of  their  scales, 
have  obtained  from  the  natives  the  appropriate  name  of 
Giraway,  or  parrots,  of  which  one,  the  Spams  Hard- 
wickii  of  Bennett,  is  called  the  "  Flower  Parrot,"  from  its 
exquisite  colouring,  being  barred  with  irregular  bands  of 
blue,  crimson,  and  purple,  green,  yellow,  and  grey,  and 
crossed  by  perpendicular  stripes  of  black. 

Fresh-water  Fishes.  —  Of  the  fresh-water  fish,  which 
inhabit  the  rivers  and  tanks,  so  very  little  has  hitherto 
been  known  to  naturalists4,  that  of  nineteen  drawings 


1  Pterois  nutricata,  Cuv.  and  Val. 
iv.   3(33.     Scorpcma  miles,  Bennett ; 
named,  by  the  Singhalese,  "  Muha- 
rata-gini"  the  Great  lied  Fire,  a  very 
brilliant    red    species    spotted   with 
black.     It  is  very  voracious,  and  is 
regarded  on  some  parts  of  the  coast 
as  edible,  while  on   others  it  is  re- 
jected.     Mr.  Bennett  has   given  a 
drawing  of  this  species   (pi.  9),    so 
well  marked  by  the  armature  of  the 
head.     The   French    naturalists    re- 
gard  this   figure    as    being    only   a 
highly-coloured  variety  of  their  spe- 
cies "  dont  1'eclat  est  occasionne  par 
la  saisou  de  1'amour."     It  is  found  in 
the  Red  Sea  and  Bourbon  and  Pe- 
nang.      Dr.   CANTOK  calls  it  Pterois 
miles,  and  reports  that  it  preys  upon 
small     Crustacea).  —  Cat.      Malayan 
Fishes,  p.  44. 

2  Glyphisodon    Brou-nrir/c/ii,   Cuv. 
and  Val.  v.  484;   Chcetodon  Brown- 
rif/ffii,   Bennett.     A  very  small  fish 
about  two  inches  long,  called  Kaha 
bartikyha    by   the    natives.       It   is 
distinct  from    Choetodon,   in   which 
Mr.  Bennett  placed   it.     Numerous 
species   of   this  genus  are  scattered 
throughout    the    Indian   Ocean.      It 
derives  its  name  from  the  fine  hair- 
like    character   of   its    teeth.     They 
are  found  chiefly  among  coral  reefs, 


and,  though  eaten,  are  not  much 
esteemed.  In  the  French  colonies 
they  are  called  "Chaufl'e-soleil."  One 
species  is  found  on  the  shores  of  the 
Jsew  World  (G.  saxatilis),  and  it  is 
curious  that  Messrs.  Quoy  and  Gai- 
mard  found  this  fish  at  the  Cape  de 
Verde  Islands  in  1827. 

3  This  fish  has  a  sharp  round  spine 
on  the   side  of  the    body  near  the 
tail;  a  formidable  weapon,  which  is 
generally  partially  concealed  within 
a  scabbard-like   incision.     The   fish 
raises  or  depresses  this  spine  at  plea- 
sure. It  is  yellow,  with  several  nearly 
parallel  blue  stripes  on  the  back  and 
sides ;  the  belly  is  white,  the  tail  and 
fins  brownish  green,  edged  with  blue. 

It  is  found  in  rocky  places ;  and 
according  to  Mr.  Bennett,  who  has 
figured  it  in  his  second  plate,  it  is 
named  Seweya.  It  is  scarce  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Ceylon. 

4  In  extenuation  of  the  little  that 
is  known  of  the  fresh-water  fishes  of 
Ceylon,  it  may  be  observed  that  very 
few  of  them  .are  used  at  table  by 
Europeans,  and  there  is  therefore  no 
stimulus  on  the  part  of  the  natives 
to    catch    them.      The    burbot    and 
grey  mullet  are   occasionally  eaten, 
but  they  taste  of  mud,  and  are  not  in 
request. 


CHAP.  IV.] 


FRESH-WATER   FISHES. 


209 


sent  home  by  Major  Skinner  in  1852,  although  spe- 
cimens of  well-known  genera,  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith 
pronounced  nearly  the  whole  to  be  new  and  undescribed 
species. 

Of  eight  of  these,  which  were  from  the  Mahawelli- 
ganga,  and  caught  in  the  vicinity  of  Kandy,  five  were 
carps1,  of  which  two  were  Leucisci,  and  one  a  Masta- 
cemblus,  to  which  Col.  H.  Smith  has  given  the  name  of 
its  discoverer7*M  Skinneri2,  one  was  an  Ophicephalus^ 
and  one  a  Poly  acanthus,  with  no  seme  on  the  gills.  Six 
were  from  the  Kalany-ganga,  close  to  Colombo,  of  which 
two  were  Helastoma,  in  shape  approaching  the  Chceto- 
don ;  two  Ophicephali,  one  a  Silurus,  and  one  an  Anabas, 
but  the  gills  were  without  denticulation.  From  the  still 
water  of  the  lake,  close  to  the  walls  of  Colombo,  there 
were  two  species  of  Eleotris,  one  Silurus  with  barbels, 
and  two  Malacopterygians,  which  appear  to  be  Bagri. 

In  this  collection,  brought  together  without  premedita- 
tion, the  naturalist  will  be  struck  by  the  preponderance 
of  those  genera  which  are  adapted  by  nature  to  endure  a 
temporary  privation  of  moisture  ;  and  this,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  vicissitudes  affecting  the  waters  they 
inhabit,  exhibits  a  surprising  illustration  of  the  wisdom  of 
the  Creator  in  adapting  the  organisation  of  His  creatures 
to  the  peculiar  circumstances  under  which  they  are  des- 
tined to  exist. 

So  abundant  are  fish  in  all  parts  of  the  island,  that 
Knox  says,  not  the  running  streams  alone,  but  the  reser- 
voirs and  ponds,  "  nay,  every  ditch  and  little  plash  of 
water  but  ankle  deep  hath  fish  in  it."  3  But  many  of 


1  Of  the  fresh-water  fishes  belong- 
ing to  the  family  Cyprinidae,  there 
are  about  eighteen  species  from  Cey- 
lon in  the  collection  of  the  British 
Museum. 

a  This  fish  bears  the  native  name 
of  Theliya  in  Major  Skinner's  list ; 
and  is  described  by  Colonel  Hamilton 
Smith  as  being  "  of  the  proportions 
of  an  eel,  beautifully  mottled,  with 
eyes  and  spots  of  a  lighter  olive  upon 
a  dark  green."  This  so  nearly  cor- 
VOL.  I. 


responds  with  a  fish  of  the  same 
name,  Tlidiya,  which  was  brought  to 
Gronovius  from  Ceylon,  and  proved 
to  be  identical  with  the  Aral  of  the 
Coromandel  coast,  that  it  may  be 
doubtfid  whether  it  be  not  the  in- 
dividual already  noted  by  Cuvier 
as  RJiyncobdella  oceU-ata,  Cuv.  and 
Val.  viii.  445. 

3  KNOX'S  Historical  Relation  of 
Ceylon,  Part  i.  ch.  vii.  The  occur- 
rence of  fish  in  the  most  unlocked- 


210 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


these  reservoirs  and  tanks  are,  twice  in  each  year,  liable 
to  be  evaporated  to  dryness  till  the  mud  of  the  bottom  is 
converted  into  dust,  and  the  clay  cleft  by  the  heat  into 
gaping  apertures  ;  yet  within  a  very  few  days  after  the 
change  of  the  monsoon,  the  natives  are  busily  engaged  in 
fishing  in  those  very  spots  and  in  the  hollows  contiguous 
to  them,  although  they  the  latter  are  entirely  unconnected 
with  any  pool  or  running  streams.  Here  they  fish  in  the 
same  way  which  Knox  described  nearly  200  years  ago, 
with  a  funnel-shaped  basket,  open  at  bottom  and  top, 
which,  as  he  says,  they  "jibb  down,  and  the  end  sticks 
in  the  mud,  which  often  happens  upon  a  fish ;  which, 
when  they  feel  beating  itself  against  the  sides,  they  put 
in  their  hands  and  take  it  out,  and  reive  a  ratan  through 
their  gills,  and  so  let  them  drag  after  them."  1 


FROM  KNOX'3  CETLON,    A.D.  1681. 


This  operation  may  be  seen  in  the  lowlands,  traversed 
by  the  high  road  leading  from  Colombo  to  Kandy. 
Before  the  change  of  the  monsoon,  the  hollows  on  either 


for  situations,  is  one  of  the  mysteries 
of  other  eastern  countries  as  Veil  as 
Ceylon  and  India.  In  Persia  irri- 
gation is  carried  on  to  a  great  ex- 
tent by  means  of  -wells  sunk  in  line 
in  the  direction  in  which  it  is  desired 
to  lead  a  supply  of  water,  and  these 
are  connected  by  channels,  which 


are  carefully  arched  over  to  protect 
them  from  evaporation.  These  kanats, 
as  they  are  called,  are  full  of  fish, 
although  neither  they  nor  the  wells 
they  unite  have  any  connection  with 
streams  or  lakes. 

1  KNOX,  Historical  Relation  of  Cey- 
lon, Part  i.  ch.  vii. 


CUAP.  IV.]  FALL    OF   FISHES    FROM    CLOUDS.  211 

side  of  the  highway  are  covered  with  dust  or  stunted 
grass ;  but  when  flooded  by  the  rains,  they  are  imme- 
diately resorted  to  by  the  peasants  with  baskets,  con- 
structed precisely  as  Knox  has  stated,  in  which  the  fish 
are  entrapped  and  taken  out  by  the  hand.1 

So  singular  a  phenomenon  as  the  sudden  re-appearance 
of  full-grown  fishes  in  places  that  a  few  days  before  had 
been  encrusted  with  hardened  clay,  has  not  failed  to 
attract  attentrcfn  ;  but  the  European  residents  have  been 
content  to  explain  it  by  hazarding  conjectures,  either 
that  the  spawn  must  have  lain  imbedded  in  the  dried  earth 
till  released  by  the  rains,  or  that  the  fish,  so  unexpectedly 
discovered,  fall  from  the  clouds  during  the  deluge  of  the 
monsoon. 

As  to  the  latter  conjecture  ;  the  fall  of  fish  during 
showers,  even  were  it  not  so  problematical  in  theory,  is 
too  rare  an  event  to  account  for  the  punctual  appearance 
of  those  found  in  the  rice-fields,  at  stated  periods  of  the 
year.  Both  at  Galle  and  Colombo  in  the  south-west 
monsoon,  fish  are  popularly  believed  to  have  fallen  from 
the  clouds  during  violent  showers,  but  those  found  on 
r^  the  occasions  that  give  rise  to  this  belief, 
consist  of  the  smallest  fry,  such  as  could  be 
caught  up  by  waterspouts,  and  vortices  ana- 
logous to  them,  or  otherwise  blown  on  shore 
from  the  surf;  whereas  those  which  sud- 
denly appear  in  the  replenished  tanks  and 
in  the  hollows  which  they  overflow,  are 
mature  and  well-grown  fish.2  Besides,  the 

1  As  anglers,  the  }  into  a  series  of  enclosures  from  which 

V  native       Singhalese  I  retreat  is  impracticable.  Mr.  LA  YARD, 

exhibit  little  expert-  j  in  the  Magazine  of  Natural  History 


but  for 
ing  the  rivers,  they 
construct  with  singu- 


forMay,  1863,  has  given  a  diagram  of 
one  of  these  fish  "  corrals,"  as  they 


are  called. 


lar  ingenuity  fences  [  3  I  had  an  opportunity,  on  one 
formed  of  strong  j  occasion  only,  of  witnessing  the 
stakes,  protected  by  phenomenon  which  gives  rise  to 
screens  of  ratan,  that  this  popular  belief.  I  was  driving 


stretch      diagonally 
across  the   current ; 


in   the  cinnamon  gardens  near  the 
fort  of  Colombo,  and  saw  a  violent 


and  along  these  the    but    partial     shower     descend     at 
are    conducted  '  no   great  distance  before  me.      On 

p  2 


212 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PAUT  II. 


latter  are  found,  under  the  circumstances  I  have  de- 
scribed, in  all  parts  of  the  interior,  whilst  the  prodigy 
of  a  supposed  fall  of  fish  from  the  sky  has  been  noticed, 
I  apprehend,  only  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  or  of  some 
inland  water. 

The  surmise  of  the  buried  spawn  is  one  sanctioned  by 
the  very  highest  authority.  Mr.  YARRELL  in  his  "History 
of  British  Fishes"  adverting  to  the  fact  that  ponds  (in 
India)  which  had  been  previously  converted  into  hardened 
mud,  are  replenished  with  small  fish  in  a  very  few  days 
after  the  commencement  of  each  rainy  season,  offers  this 
solution  of  the  problem  as  probably  the  true  one  :  "  The 
impregnated  ova  of  the  fish  of  one  rainy  season,  are  left 
unhatched  in  the  mud  through  the  dry  season,  and  from 
their  low  state  of  organisation  as  ova,  the  vitality  is  pre- 
served till  the  recurrence,  -and  contact  of  the  rain  and 
oxygen  in  the  next  wet  season,  when  vivification  takes 
place  from  their  joint  influence."  1 

This  hypothesis,  however,  appears  to  have  been 
advanced  upon  imperfect  data ;  for  although  some  fish 


coming  to  the  spot  I  found  a  multi- 
tude of  small  silvery  fish  from  one 
and  a  half  to  two  inches  in  length, 
leaping  on  the  gravel  of  the  high 
road,  numbers  of  which  I  collected 
and  brought  away  in  my  palankin, 
The  spot  was  about  half  a  mile  from 
the  sea,  and  entirely  unconnected 
with  any  watercourse  or  pool. 

Mr.  WHITING,  who  was  many  years 
resident  at  Trincomalie;  writes  me 
that  he  "  had  often  been  tuld  by  the 
natives  on  that  side  of  the  island  that 
it  sometimes  rained  fishes ;  and  on 
one  occasion  (he  adds)  I  was  taken 
by  them,  in  1849,  to  a  field  at  the 
village  of  Karran-cotta-tivo,  near 
Batticaloa,  which  was  dry  when  I 
passed  over  it  in  the  morning,  but 
had  been  covered  in  two  hours  by 
sudden  rain  to  the  depth  of  three 
inches,  in  which  there  was  then  a 
quantity  of  small  fish.  The  water 
had  no  connection  with  any  pond  or 
stream  whatsoever."  Mr.  CRIPPS,  in 
like  manner,  in  speaking  of  Galle, 
says :  "  I  have  seen  in  the  vicinity  of 


the  fort,  fish  taken  from  rain-water 
that  had  accumulated  in  the  hollow 
parts  of  land  that  in  the  hot  season 
are  perfectly  dry  and  parched.  The 
place  is  accessible  to  no  running 
stream  or  tank  ;  and  either  the  fish, 
or  the  spawn  from  which  they  were 
produced,  must  of  necessity  have 
fallen  with  the  rain." 

Mr.  J.  PKINSEP,  the  eminent  secre- 
tary to  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal, 
found  a  fish  in  the  pluviometer  at 
Calcutta,  in  1838. — Journ.  Asiat.  Soc. 
Benyal,  vol.  vi.  p.  465. 

Aseries  of  instances  in  which  fishes 
have  been  found  on  the  continent  of 
India  under  circumstances  which  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  they  must  have 
fallen  from  the  clouds,  have  been  col- 
lected by  Dr.  BTTIST  of  Bombay,  and 
will  be  found  in  the  appendix  to  this 
chapter. 

1  YABEELL,  History  of  British 
Fishes,  introd.  vol.  i.  p'.  xxvi.  This 
too  was  the  opinion  of  Aristotle,  De 
Respiratione,  c.  ix. 


CHAP.  IV.J  BURIED   FISHES.  21S 

like  the  salmon  scrape  grooves  in  the  sand  and  place 
their  spawn  in  inequalities  and  fissures  ;  yet  as  a  general 
rule  spawn  is  deposited  not  beneath  but  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground  or  sand  over  which  the  water  flows,  the 
adhesive  nature  of  each  egg  supplying  the  means  of  attach- 
ment. But  in  the  Ceylon  tanks  not  only  is  the  surface 
of  the  soil  dried  to  dust  after  the  evaporation  of  the 
water,  but  the_earth  itself,  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  deep, 
is  converted  into  sun-burnt  clay,  in  which,  although  the 
eggs  of  mollusca,  in  their  calcareous  covering,  are  in  some 
instances  preserved,  it  would  appear  to  be  as  impossible 
for  the  ova  of  fish  to  be  kept  from  decomposition  as  for 
the  fish  themselves  to  sustain  life.  Besides,  moisture  in 
such  situations  is  only  to  be  found  at  a  depth  to  which 
spawn  could  not  be  conveyed  by  the  parent  fish,  by  any 
means  with  which  we  are  yet  acquainted. 

But  supposing  it  possible  to  carry  the  spawn  sufficiently 
deep,  and  to  deposit  it  safely  in  the  mud  below,  which  is 
still  damp,  whence  it  could  be  liberated  on  the  return  of 
the  rains,  a  considerable  interval  would  still  be  necessary 
after  the  replenishing  of  the  ponds  with  water  to  admit  of 
vivification  and  growth.  Yet  so  far  from  this  interval 
being  allowed  to  elapse,  the  rains  have  no  sooner  fallen 
than  the  taking  of  the  fish  commences,  and  those  captured 
by  the  natives  in  wicker  cages  are  mature  and  full  grown 
instead  of  being  "  small  fish  "  or  fry,  as  supposed  by  Mr. 
Yarrell. 

Even  admitting  the  soundness  of  his  theory,  and  the 
probability  that,  under  favourable  circumstances,  the 
spawn  in  the  tanks  might  be  preserved  during  the  dry 
season  so  as  to  contribute  to  the  perpetuation  of  their 
breed,  the  fact  is  no  longer  doubtful,  that  adult  fish 
in  Ceylon,  like  some  of  those  that  inhabit  similar  waters 
both  in  the  New  and  Old  World,  have  been  endowed  by 
the  Creator  with  the  singular  faculty  of  providing  against 
the  periodical  droughts  either  by  journeying  overland  in 
search  of  still  unexhausted  water,  or,  on  its  utter  disap- 

P3 


214 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


pearance,  by  burying  themselves  in  the  mud  to  await  the 
return  of  the  rains. 

Travelling  Fishes.  —  It  was  well  known  to  the 
Greeks  that  certain  fishes  of  India  possessed  the  power 
of  leaving  the  rivers  and  returning  to  them  again  after 
long  migrations1  on  dry  land,  and  modern  observation 
has  fully  confirmed  their  statements.  They  leave  the 
pools  and  nullahs  in  the  dry  season,  and  led  by  an  in- 
stinct as  yet  unexplained,  shape  their  course  through  the 
grass  towards  the  nearest  pool  of  water.  A  similar  phe- 
nomenon is  observable  in  countries  similarly  circum- 
stanced. The  Doras  of  Guiana 2  have  been  seen  travelling 
over  land  during  the  dry  season  in  search  of  their  natural 
element3,  in  such  droves  that  the  negroes  have  filled 
baskets  with  them  during  these  terrestrial  excursions. 
Pallegoix  in  his  account  of  Siam,  enumerates  three 
species  of  fishes  which  leave  the  tanks  and  channels  and 
traverse  the  damp  grass  4 ;  and  Sir  John  Bowring,  in  his 
account  of  his  embassy  to  the  Siamese  kings  in  1855, 
states,  that  in  ascending  and  descending  the  river  Meinam 
to  Bankok,  he  was  amused  with  the  novel  sight  of  fish 
leaving  the  river,  gliding  over  the  wet  banks,  and  losing 
themselves  amongst  the  trees  of  the  jungle.5 

The  class  of  fishes  which  possess  this  power  are  chiefly 


1  I  have  collected  into  a  note, 
which  will  be  found  in  the  appendix 
to  this  chapter,  the  opinions  enter- 
tained hy  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
upon  this  habit  of  the  fresh-water 
fishes  of  India.  See  note  B. 

a  D.  Hancockii,  Cuv.  et  Val. 

3  Sir  II.  Schornburgk's  Fishes  of 
Guiana,  vol.  i.  pp.  113,  151,  160. 
Another  migratory  fish  was  found 
by  Bosc  very  numerous  in  the  fresh 
waters  of  Carolina  and  in  ponds  liable 
to  become  dry  in  summer.  When 
captured  and  placed  on  the  ground, 
"  they  always  directed  themselves  to- 
wards the  nearest  water,  which  they 
could  not  possibly  see,  and  which  they 
must  have  discovered  by  some  in- 


ternal index.  They  belong  to  the 
genus  Hydrargijra,  and  are  called 
Swampines.  —  KIRBT,  Bridycwater 
Treatise,  vol.  i.  p.  143. 

Eels  kept  in  a  garden,  when  Au- 
gust arrived  (the  period  at  which 
instinct  impels  them  to  go  to  the  sea 
to  spawn)  were  in  the  habit  of  leaving 
the  pond  and  were  invariably  found 
moving  eastward  in  the  direction  of 
the  sea.  —  YAKRELL,  vol.  ii.  p.  384. 
Anglers  observe  that  fish  newly 
caught,  when  placed  out  of  sight  of 
water,  always  struggle  towards  it  to 
escape. 

4  PALLEGOIX,  vol.  i.  p.  144. 

5  Sir    J.    BOWHIXG'S    Siam,    $c., 
vol.  i.  p.  10. 


CUAP.  IV.] 


CLIMBING   FISH. 


215 


those  with  labyrinthiform  pharyngeal  bones,  so  disposed 
in  plates  and  cells  as  to  retain  a  supply  of  moisture, 
which,  whilst  crawling  on  land,  gradually  exudes  so  as 
to  keep  the  gills  damp.1 

The  individual  which  is  most  frequently  seen  in  these 
excursions  in  Ceylon  is  a  perch  caUed  by  the  Singhalese 
Kavaya  or  Kawhy-ya,  and  by  the  Tamils  Pannei-eri,  or 
Sennal.  It  is  closely  allied  to,  if  not  identical  with,  the 
Anabas  scandens  of  Cuvier,  the  Perca  scandens  of  Daldorf. 
It  grows  to  about  six  inches  in  length,  the  head  round 
and  covered  with  scales,  and  the  edges  of  the  gill-covers 
strongly  denticulated.  Aided  by  the  apparatus  already 
adverted  to  in  its  head,  this  little  creature  issues  boldly 
from  its  native  pools  and  addresses  itself  to  its  toil- 
some march  generally  at  night  or  in  the  early  morning, 
whilst  the  grass  is  still  damp  with  the  dew;  but  in  its 
distress  it  is  sometimes  compelled  to  travel  by  day,  and 
Mr.  E.  L.  Layard  on  one  occasion  encountered  a  number 
of  them  travelling  along  a  hot  and  dusty  gravel  road  under 
the  midday  sun.2 


Nat.  dcs  Paisson*,  torn.  vii.  p.  246. 

2  Annah  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist., 
May,  1853,  p.  390.  'Mr.  Morris,  the 
government-agent  of  Trincomalie, 
writing  to  me  on  this  subject  in 
1856,  says  —  "I  was  lately  on  duty 
inspecting  the  bund  of  a  large  tank 
at  Nade-cadua,  which,  being  out  of 
repair,  the  remaining  water  was  con- 
fined in  a  small  hollow  in  the  other- 
wise dry  bed.  "Whilst  there  heavy 
rain  came  on,  and,  as  we  stood  on  the 
high  ground,  we  observed  a  pelican 
on  the  margin  of  the  shallow  pool 
gorging  himself;  our  people  went 
towards  him  and  raised  a  cry  of  fish  ! 
fish  !  We  hurried  down,  and  found 
numbers  of  fish  struggling  upwards 
through  the  grass  in  the  rills  formed 
by  the  trickling  of  the  rain.  There 
was  scarcely  water  enough  to  cover 
them,  but  nevertheless  they  made 
rapid  progress  up  the  bank,  on  which 


our  followers  collected  about  two 
bushels  of  them  at  a  distance  of  forty 
yards  from  the  tank.  They  were 
forcing  their  way  up  the  knoll,  and, 
had  they  not  been  intercepted  first 
j  by  the  pelican  and  afterwards  by 
j  ourselves,  they  would  in  a  few 
minutes  have  gained  the  highest 
point  and  descended  on  the  other 
side  into  a  pool  which  formed  another 
portion  of  the  tank.  They  were 
chub,  the  same  as  are  found"  in  the 
mud  after  the  tanks  dry  up."  In  a 
subsequent  communication  in  July, 
1857,  the  same  gentleman  says  — 
"  As  the  tanks  dry  up  the  fish  congre- 
gate in  the  little  pools  till  at  last  you 
find  them  in  thousands  in  the  moistest 
parts  of  the  beds,  rolling  in  the  blue 
mud  which  is  at  that  time  about  the 
consistence  of  thick  gruel." 

"  As  the  moisture  further  evapo- 
rates the  surface  fish  are  left  un- 
covered, and  they  crawl  away  in 
4 


216 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Eeferring  to  the  Anabas  scandens,  Dr.  Hamilton 
Buchanan  says,  that  of  all  the  fish  with  which  he  was 
acquainted  it  is  the  most  tenacious  of  life;  and  he  has 
known  boatmen  on  the  Ganges  to  keep  them  for  five  or  six 
days  in  an  earthen  pot  without  water,  and  daily  to  use 
what  they  wanted,  finding  them  as  lively  and  fresh  as  when 
caught.1  Two  Danish  naturalists  residing  at  Tranquebar, 
have  contributed  their  authority  to  the  fact  of  this  fish 
ascending  trees  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  an  exploit 
from  which  it  acquired  its  epithet  of  Perca  scandens. 
Daldorf,  who  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  Danish  East  India 
Company's  service,  communicated  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
that  in  the  year  1791  he  had  taken  this  fish  from  a  moist 
cavity  in  the  stem  of  a  Palmyra  palm,  that  grew  near 
a  lake.  He  saw  it  when  already  five  feet  above  the 
ground  struggling  to  ascend  still  higher  ;  —  "  suspending 
itself  by  its  gill-covers,  and  bending  its  tail  to  the  left, 
it  fixed  its  anal  fin  in  the  cavity  of  the  bark,  and  sought 
by  expanding  its  body  to  urge  its  way  upwards,  and 
its  march  was  only  arrested  by  the  hand  with  which 
he  seized  it."2 


search  of  fresh  pools.  In  one  place 
I  saw  hundreds  diverging  in  every 
direction,  from  the  tank  they  had 
just  abandoned  to  a  distance  of  fifty 
or  sixty  yards,  and  etiU  travelling 
onwards.  In  going  this  distance, 
however,  they  must  have  used  mus- 
cular exertion  sufficient  to  have  taken 
them  half  a  mile  on  level  ground,  for 
at  these  places  all  the  cattle  and  wild 
animals  of  the  neighbourhood  had 
latterly  come  to  drink ;  so  that  the 
surface  was  everywhere  indented 
with  -footmarks  in  addition  to  the 
cracks  in  the  surrounding  baked  mud, 
into  which  the  fish  tumbled  in  their 
progress.  In  those  holes  which  were 
deep  and  the  sides  perpendicular 
they  remained  to  die,  and  were 
carried  off  by  kites  and  crows." 

"  My  impression  is  that  this  migra- 
tion takes  place  at  night  or  before  sun- 
rise, for  it  was  only  early  in  the  morn- 


ing that  I  have  seen  them  progress- 
ing, and  I  found  that  those  I  brought 
away  with  me  in  chatties  appeared 
quiet  by  day,  but  a  large  proportion 
managed  to  get  out  of  the  chatties 
at  night  —  some  escaped  altogether, 
others  were  trodden  on  and  killed." 

"  One  peculiarity  is  the  large  size 
of  the  vertebral  column,  quite  dis- 
proportioned  to  the  bulk  of  the  fish. 
I  particularly  noticed  that  all  in  the 
act  of  migrating  had  their  gills  ex- 


3  Fishes  of  tJie  Ganges,  4to.  1822. 

2  Transactions  Linn.  Soc.  vol.  iii. 
p.  63.  It  is  remarkable,  however, 
that  this  discovery  of  Daldorf,  which 
excited  so  great  an  interest  in  1791, 
had  been  anticipated  by  an  Arabian 
voyager  a  thousand  years  before. 
Abou-zeyd,  the  compiler  of  the  re- 
markable MS.  known  since  Re- 
naudot's  translation  by  the  title  of 


CHAP.  IV.] 


CLIMBING    FISH. 


217 


There  is  considerable  obscurity  about  the  story  of 
this  ascent,  although  corroborated  by  M.  John.  Its 
motive  for  climbing  is  not  apparent,  since  water  being 
close  at  hand  it  could  not  have  gone  for  sake  of  the 
moisture  contained  in  the  fissures  of  the  palm  ;  nor  could 
it  be  in  search  of  food,  as  it  lives  not  on  fruit  but  on 
aquatic  insects.1  The  descent,  too,  is  a  question  of  diffi- 
culty. The  position  of  its  fins,  and  the  spines  on  its  gill- 
covers,  might  "assist  its  journey  upwards,  but  the  same 
apparatus  would  prove  anything  but  a  facility  in  steady- 
ing its  journey  down.  The  probability  is,  as  suggested 
by  Buchanan,  that  the  ascent  which  was  witnessed  by 
Daldorf  was  accidental,  and  ought  not  to  be  regarded  as 
the  habit  of  the  animal.  In  Ceylon  I  heard  of  no  in- 
stance of  the  perch  ascending  trees2,  but  the  fact  is 
well  established  that  both  it,  the  pullata  (a  species  of 
polyacanthus),  and  others,  are  capable  of  long  journeys 
on  the  level  ground.3 


the  Travels  of  the  Tioo  Mahometans, 
states  that  Suleyman,  one  of  his  in- 
formants, who  visited  India  at  the 
close  of  the  ninth  century,  was  told  ! 
there  of  a  fish  which,  issuing  from  • 
the    waters,    ascended  the   coco-nut  ' 
palms  to   drink  their  sap,    and  re-  | 
turned  to  the  sea.     "  On  parle  d'un  : 
poisson  de  mer  qui,  sortant  de  1'eau, 
monte  sur  la  cocotier  et  boit  le  sue 
de  la  plante ;  ensuite  il  retourne  a  j 
la  mer."      See   REIXATTD,    Relations  \ 
des   Voyages  faits  par  les  Arabes  et 
Persons  dans  le  neuvieme  siecle,  torn, 
i.  p.  21,  torn.  ii.  p.  93. 

1  Kirby  says  that  it  is  "  in  pursuit 
of  certain  crustaceans  that  form  its 
food  "  (jBridgevoater  Treatise,  vol.  i. 
p.  144)  ;  but  I  am  not  aware  of  any 
crustaceans  in  the  island  which  as- 
cend the  palmyra  or  feed  upon  its 
fruit.  The  Birgus  latro,  which  inhabits 
Mauritius,  and  is  said  to  climb  the 
coco-nut  for  this  purpose,   has  not 
been  observed  in  Ceylon. 

2  This  assertion  must  be  qualified 
by  a  fact  stated  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Layard, 
who  mentions  that  on  visiting  one  of 


the  fishing  stations  on  a  Singhalese 
river,  where  the  fish  are  caught  in 
staked  enclosures,  as  described  at 
p.  212,  and  observing  that  the 
chambers  were  covered  with  net- 
ting, he  asked  the  reason,  and  was 
told  "that  some  ofthefah  climbed  up 
the  sticks  and  got  over" — Mag.  Nat, 
Hist,  for  May  1823,  p.  390-1. 

3  Strange  accidents  have  more 
than  once  occurred  in  Ceylon  arising 
from  the  habit  of  the  native  anglers ; 
who,  having  neither  baskets  nor 
pockets  in  which  to  place  what  they 
catch,  will  seize  a  fisn  in  their  teeth 
whilst  putting  fresh  bait  on  their 
hook.  In  August,  1853,  a  man  was 
carried  into  the  Pettah  hospital  at 
Colombo,  having  a  climbing  perch, 
which  he  thus  attempted  to  hold, 
firmly  imbedded  in  his  throat.  The 
spines  of  its  dorsal  fin  prevented  its 
descent,  whilst  those  of  the  gill- 

j  covers   equally   forbade    its    return. 

i  It  was  eventually  extracted  by  the 
forceps  through  an  incision  in  the 
oesophagus,  and  the  patient  recovered. 
Other  similar  cases  have  proved  fatal. 


218  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

Burying  Fishes.  —  But  a  still  more  remarkable  power 
possessed  by  some  of  the  Ceylon  fishes,  is  that  already 
alluded  to,  of  secreting  themselves  in  the  earth  in  the  dry 
season,  at  the  bottom  of  the  exhausted  ponds,  and  there 
awaiting  the  renewal  of  the  water  at  the  change  of  the 
monsoon.  The  instinct  of  the  crocodile  to  resort  to  the 
same  expedient  has  been  already  referred  to  \  and  in  like 
manner  the  fish,  when  distressed  by  the  evaporation  of 
the  tanks,  seek  relief  by  immersing  first  their  heads,  and 
by  degrees  their  whole  bodies,  in  the  mud  ;  sinking  to  a 
depth  at  which  they  find  sufficient  moisture  to  preserve 
life  in  a  state  of  lethargy  long  after  the  bed  of  the  tank 
has  been  consolidated  by  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun. 
It  is  possible,  too,  that  the  cracks  which  reticulate  the 
surface  may  admit  air  to  some  extent  to  sustain  their 
faint  respiration. 

The  same  thing  takes  place  in  other  tropical  regions, 
subject  to  vicissitudes  of  draught  and  moisture.  The 
Protopterus2  which  inhabits  the  Gamb  a  (and  which, 
though  demonstrated  by  Professor  Owen  to  possess  all 
the  essential  organisation  of  fishes,  is  nevertheless  pro- 
vided with  true  lungs),  is  accustomed  in  the  diy  season, 
when  the  river  retires  into  its  channel,  to  bury  itself  to 
the  depth  of  twelve  or  sixteen  inches  in  the  indurated 
mud  of  the  banks,  and  to  remain  in  a  state  of  torpor 
till  the  rising  of  the  stream  after  the  rains  enables  it  to 
resume  its  active  habits.  At  this  period  the  natives 
of  the  Gambia,  like  those  of  Ceylon,  resort  to  the  river, 
and  secure  the  fish  in  considerable  numbers  as  they 
flounder  in  the  still  shallow  water.  A  parallel  instance 
occurs  in  Abyssinia  in  relation  to  the  fish  of  the  Mareb, 
one  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  the  waters  of  which  are 
partially  absorbed  in  traversing  the  plains  of  Taka. 
During  the  summer  its  bed  is  dry,  and  in  the  shine 
at  the  depth  of  more  than  six  feet  is  found  a  species 


1  See  ante,  P.  n.  ch.  iii.  p.  189. 

2  Liyridosiren  annectaiis,  Owen.     See  Linn.  Trans.  1839. 


CHAP.  IV.] 


TRAVELLING    FISH. 


219 


of  fish  without  scales,  different  from  any  known  to  inhabit 
the  Nile.1 

In  South  America  the  "  round-headed  hassar "  of 
Guiana,  Callicthys  littoralis,  and  the  "  yarrow,"  a  species 
of  the  family  Esocidse,  although  they  possess  no  specially 
modified  respiratory*  organs,  are  accustomed  to  bury 
themselves  in  the  mud  on  the  subsidence  of  water  in 
the  pools  during  the  dry  season.2  The  Loricaria  of 
Surinam,  anotHer  Siluridan,  exhibits  a  similar  instinct, 
and  resorts  to  the  same  expedient.  Sir  E.  Schomburgk, 
in  his  account  of  the  fishes  of  Guiana,  confirms  this 
account  of  the  Callicthys,  and  says  "they  can  exist  in 
muddy  lakes  without  any  water  whatever,  and  great 
numbers  of  them  are  sometimes  dug  up  from  such 
situations." 

In  those  portions  of  Ceylon  where  the  country  is  flat, 
and  small  tanks  are  extremely  numerous,  the  natives  in 
the  hot  season  are  accustomed  to  dig  in  the  mud  for 
fish.  Mr.  Whiting,  the  chief  civil  officer  of  the  eastern 


1  This  statement  will    be   found 
in     QUATREMERE'S     Memoires"  sur 


e,  torn.  i.  p.  17,  on  the  au- 
thority of  Abdullah  ben  Ahmed  ben 
Solairn  Assouany,  in  his  History  of 
Nubia,  "  Simon,  heritier  presomptif 
du  royaume  d'Alouah,  m'a  assure 
que  1'on  trouve,  dans  la  vase  qui 
couvre  le  fond  de  cette  riviere, 
un  grand  poisson  sans  ecailles,  qui 
ne  ressemble  en  rien  aux  poissons 
du  Nil,  et  que,  pour  1'avoir,  il  faut 
creuser  a  une  toise  et  plus  de  pro- 
fondeur."  To  this  passage  there 
is  appended  this  note  :  —  "  Le  pa- 
triarc-lie  Mendes,  cite  par  Legrand 
(Station  Hist.  <TAbt/ssime,  du  P. 
LOBO,  p.  212-3)  rapporte  que  le 
fleuve  Mareb,  apres  avoir  arrose"  une 
etendue  de  pays  considerable,  se 
perd  sous  terre  ;  et  que  quand  les 
Portugais  faisaient  la  guerre  dans 
-ce  pays,  ils  fouilloient  dans  le  sable, 
et  y  "trouvoient  de  la  bonne  eau  et 
du  bon  poisson.  Au  rapport  de 
1'auteur  de  FAyin  Akben/  (torn.  ii. 
p.  140,  ed.  1800),  dans  le'Soubah  de 
Caschmir,  pres  du  lieu  nomme"  Tilah- 


moulah,  est  une  grande  piece  de  terre 
qui  est  inondee  pendant  la  saison  des 
pluies.  Lorsque  les  eaux  se  sont 
evaporees,  et  que  la  vase  est  presque 
seche,  les  habitans  prennent  des 
batons  d'environ  une  aune  de  long, 
qu'ils  enfoncent  dans  la  vase,  et  ils  y 
trouvent  quantite"  de  grands  et  petits 
poissons."  In  the  library  of  the 
British  Museum  there  is  an  unique 
MS.  of  MANGEL  DE  ALMEIDA,  writ- 
ten in  the  sixteenth  century,  from 
which  Balthasar  Tellez  compiled  his 
Historia  General  de  Ethiopia  alta, 
printed  at  Coimbra  in  1660,  and  in 
it  the  above  statement  of  Mendes  is 
corroborated  by  Almeida,  who  says 
that  he  was  told  by  Joao  Gabriel,*  a 
Creole  Portuguese,  born  in  Abys- 
sinia, who  had  visited  the  Merab, 
and  who  said  that  the  "fish  were  to 
be  found  everywhere  eight  or  ten 
palms  down,  and  that  he  had  eaten 
of  them." 

8  See  Paper  "on  some  Species  of 
Fishes  and  Reptiles  in  Demcrara,"  by 
J.  IlANDCOCK,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Zoological 
Journal,  vol.  iv.  p.  243. 


220  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

province,  informs  me  that,  on  two  occasions,  he  was  pre- 
sent accidentally  when  the  villagers  were  so  engaged, 
once  at  the  tank  of  Malliativoe,  within  a  few  miles  of 
Kottiar,  near  the  bay  of  Trincomalie,  and  again  at  a 
tank  between  Ellendetorre  and  Arnitivoe,  on  the  bank 
of  the  Vergel  river.  The  clay  was  firm,  but  moist,  and 
as  the  men  flung  out  lumps  of  it  with  a  spade,  it  fell  to 
pieces,  disclosing  fish  from  nine  to  twelve  inches  long, 
which  were  full  grown  and  healthy,  and  jumped  on  the 
bank  when  exposed  to  the  sun  light. 

Being  desirous  of  obtaining  a  specimen  of  fish  so  ex- 
humed, I  received  from  the  Moodliar  of  Matura,  A.  B. 
Wickremeratne,  a  fish  taken  along  with  others  of  the 
same  kind  from  a  tank  in  which  the  water  had  dried 
up  ;  it  was  found  at  a  depth  of  a  foot  and  a  half  where 
the  mud  was  still  moist,  whilst  the  surface  was  dry  and 
hard.  The  fish  which  the  moodliar  sent  to  me  proved 
to  be  an  Anabas,  closely  resembling  the  Perca  scandens 
of  Daldorf. 


ANABAS  OF  THE  BR7  TANKS, 


But  the  faculty  of  becoming  torpid  at  such  periods  is 
not  confined  in  Ceylon  to  the  crocodile  sand  fishes  ;  —  it  is 
equally  possessed  also  by  some  of  the  fresh-water  mollusca 
and  aquatic  coleoptera.  The  largest  of  the  former,  the 
Ampullaria  glauca,  is  found  in  still  water  in  all  parts 
of  the  island,  not  alone  in  the  tanks,  but  in  rice-fields 
and  the  watercourses  by  which  they  are  irrigated. 
There  it  deposits  a  bundle  of  eggs  with  a  white  cal- 
careous shell,  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  or  mo™ 


CHAP.  IV.] 


BURYING    FISH. 


221 


in  each  group,  at  a  considerable  depth  in  the  soft  mud, 
under  which,  when  the  water  is  about  to  evaporate 
during  the  dry  season,  it  burrows  and  conceals  itself1  till 
the  returning  rains  restore  it  to  activity,  and  reproduce 
its  accustomed  food.  The  Melania  Paludina  in  the  same 
way  retires  during  the  droughts  into  the  muddy  soil  of 
the  rice  lands ;  and  it  can  only  be  by  such  an  instinct 
that  this  and  other  mollusca  are  preserved  when  the  tanks 
evaporate,  to  Ttf-appear  in  full  growth  and  vigour  imme- 
diately on  the  return  of  the  rains.2 

Dr.  John  Hunter3  has  advanced  an  opinion  that  hy- 
bernation,  although  a  result  of  cold,  is  not  its  immediate 
consequence,  but  is  attributable  to  that  deprivation  of 
food  and  other  essentials  which  extreme  cold  occasions, 
and  against  the  recurrence  of  which  nature  makes  a 
timely  provision  by  a  suspension  of  her  functions.  Ex- 


1  A  knowledge   of  this  fact  was 
turned   to   prompt   account  by  Mr. 
Edgar    S.  Layard,  when  holding   a 
judicial  office  at  Point  Pedro  in  1849. 
A  native  who  had  been  defrauded  of 
his  land  complained  before  him  of 
his  neighbour,  Avho,  during  his  ab- 
sence, had  removed  their  common 
landmark   by  diverting  the  original 
watercourse  and  obliterating  its  traces 
by  filling  it  to  a  level  with  the  rest 
of  the  held.     Mr.  Layard  directed  a 
trench  to  be  sunk  at  the  contested 
spot,  and  discovering  numbers  of  the 
Ampullaria,  the  remains  of  the  eggs, 
and  the  living  animal  which  had  been 
buried  for  months,  the  evidence  was 
so  resistless  as  to  confound  the  wrong- 
doer, and  terminate  the  suit. 

2  For  a  similar  fact  relative  to  the 
shells  and  water  beetles  in  the  pools 
near  Rio  Janeiro,  see  DARWIN'S  Nat. 
Journal,  ch.  v.  p.  99.     BENSON,  in  the 
first  vol.  of  Gleanings  of  Science,  pub- 
lished at  Calcutta  in  1829,  describes 
a  species  of  Paludina  found  in  pools, 
which  are   periodically  dried   up  in 
the  hot  season  but  reappear  with  the 
rains,  p.  363.     And  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Asiatic  Soc.  of  Bengal  for  Sept. 
1832,  Lieut.  HTJTTON,  in  a  singularly 
interesting  paper,  has  followed  up  the 


same  subject  by  a  narrative  of  his 
own  observations  at  Mirzapore,  where 
in  June,  1832,  after  a  few  heavy 
showers  of  rain,  that  formed  pools 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground  near  a 
mango  grove,  he  saw  the  Paludina 
issuing  from  the  ground,  "pushing 
aside  the  moistened  earth  and  coming 
forth  from  their  retreats ;  but  on  the 
disappearance  of  the  water  not  one  of 
them  was  to  be  seen  above  ground. 
Wishing  to  ascertain  what  had  be- 
come of  them,  he  turned  up  the  earth 
at  the  base  of  several  trees,  and  in- 
variably found  the  shells  buried  from 
an  inch  to  two  inches  below  the  sur- 
face." Lieut.  Ilutton  adds  that  the 
Ampullaria;  and  Planorbes,  as  well 
as  the  Paludinee,  are  found  in  similar 
situations  during  the  heats  of  the 
dry  season.  The  British  Piaidea  ex- 
hibit the  same  faculty  (see  a  mono- 
graph in  the  Camb.  Phil.  Trans,  vol. 
iv.).  The  fact  is  elsewhere  alluded 
to  in  the  present  work  of  the  power 
possessed  by  the  land  leech  of  Ceylon 
of  retaining  vitality  eves  after  being 
parched  to  hardness  during  the  heat 
of  the  rainless  season.  Vol.  I.  ch.  vii. 
p.  312. 

3  HUNTER'S   Observations  on  parts 
of  the  Animal  (Economy,  p.  88. 


222  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

cessive  heat  in  the  tropics  produces  an  effect  upon  ani- 
mals and  vegetables  analogous  to  that  of  excessive  cold  in 
northern  regions,  and  hence  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  the  torpor  induced  by  the  one  may  be  but  the  coun- 
terpart of  the  hybernation  which  results  from  the  other. 
The  frost  that  imprisons  the  alligator  in  the  Mississippi 
as  effectually  cuts  it  off  from  food  and  action  as  the 
drought  which  incarcerates  the  crocodile  in  the  sun-burnt 
clay  of  a  Ceylon  tank.  The  hedgehog  of  Europe  enters 
on  a  period  of  absolute  torpidity  as  soon  as  the  incle- 
mency of  winter  deprives  it  of  its  ordinary  supply  of 
slugs  and  insects  ;  and  the  Tenrec1  of  Madagascar,  its 
tropical  representative,  exhibits  the  same  tendency  during 
the  period  when  excessive  heat  produces  in  that  climate  a 
like  result. 

The  descent  of  the  Ampullaria,  and  other  fresh-water 
molluscs,  into  the  mud  of  the  tanks,  has  its  parallel  in 
the  conduct  of  the  Bulimi  and  Helices  on  land.  The 
European  snail,  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  either  buries 
itself  in  the  earth  or  withdraws  to  some  crevice  or  over- 
arching stone  to  await  the  returning  vegetation  of  spring. 
So,  in  the  season  of  intense  heat,  the  Helix  Waltoni 
of  Ceylon,  and  others  of  the  same  family,  before  re- 
tiring under  cover,  close  the  aperture  of  their  shells 
with  an  impervious  epiphragm,  which  effectually  pro- 
tects their  moisture  and  juices  from  evaporation  during 
the  period  of  their  aestivation.  The  Bulimi  of  Chili 
have  been  found  alive  in  England  in  a  box  packed  in 
cotton  after  an  interval  of  two  years,  and  the  animal 
inhabiting  a  land-shell  from  Suez,  which  was  attached 
to  a  tablet  and  deposited  in  the  British  Museum  in 
1846,  was  found  in  1850  to  have  formed  a  fresh 
epiphragm,  and  on  being  immersed  in  tepid  water,  it 
emerged  from  its  shell.  It  became  torpid  again  on  the 
15th  November,  1851,  and  was  found  dead  and  dried 
up  in  March,  1852.2  But  the  exceptions  serve  to  prove 

1  Centetcs  ecaudatus,  Illiger.  |  See   Dr.   BAIRD'S  Account  of  Helix 

2  Annals  of  Natural  History,  1850.  j  desertonim;  Excelsior,  $c.}  ch.  i.  p.  345. 


CHAP.  IV  ] 


.ESTIVATION    OF    FISHES. 


the  accuracy  of  Hunter's  opinion  almost  as  strikingly 
as  accordances,  since  the  same  genera  of  animals  that 
hybernate  in  Europe,  where  extreme  cold  disarranges 
their  oeconomy,  evince  no  symptoms  of  lethargy  in  the 
tropics,  provided  their  food  be  not  diminished  by  the  heat. 
Ants,  which  are  torpid  in  Europe  during  winter,  work  all 
the  year  round  in  India,  where  sustenance  is  uniform.1 
The  Shrews  of  Ceylon  (Sorex  montanus  and  S.  ferrugi- 
neus  of  Kelaart)?  like  those  at  home,  subsist  upon  insects, 
but  as  they  inhabit  a  region  where  the  equable  tempera- 
ture admits  of  the  pursuit  of  their  prey  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  unlike  those  of  Europe,  they  never  hyber- 
nate. A  similar  observation  applies  to  bats,  which  are 
dormant  during  a  northern  winter  when  insects  are  rare, 
but  never  become  torpid  in  any  part  of  the  tropics. 
The  bear,  in  like  manner,  is  nowhere  deprived  of  its 
activity  except  when  the  rigour  of  severe  frost  cuts  off 
its  access  to  its  accustomed  food.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
tortoise,  which  in  Venezuela  immerses  itself  in  indurated 
mud  during  the  hot  months  shows  no  tendency  to  torpor 
in  Ceylon,  where  its  food  is  permanent ; — and  yet  it  is 
subject  to  hyberna^ion  when  carried  to  the  colder  regions 
of  Europe. 

To  the  fish  in  the  detached  tanks  and  pools  when  the 
heat,  by  exhausting  the  water,  deprives  them  at  once 
of  motion  and  sustenance,  the  practical  effect  must  be 
the  same  as  when  the  frost  of  a  northern  winter 
encases  them  in  ice.  Nor  is  it  difficult  to  believe  that 
they  can  successfully  undergo  the  one  crisis  when  we 
know  beyond  question  that  they  may  survive  the  other.2 

Hot-water  Fishes. — Another   incident   is   striking   in 


1  Colonel  SYKES  has  described  in 
the  Entomological  Trans,  the  opera- 
tions of  an  ant  in  India  which  lays  up 
a  store  of  hay  against  the  rainy  season. 

2  YAB.RELL,  vol.  i.  p.  3(54,  quotes 
the  authority  of  Dr.  J.  Hunter  in  his 
Animal  (Economy,  that  fish,  "after 
being  frozen  still  retain  so  much  of 


life  as  when  thawed  to  resume  their 
vital  actions ;"  and  in  the  same  volume 
(Introd.  vol.  i.  p.  xvii.)  he  relates 
from  JESSE'S  Gleanings  in  Natural 
History,  the  story  of  a  gold  fish  (  Cy- 
primts  auratus)  which,  together  with 
the  water  in  a  marble  basin,  was 
frozen  into  one  solid  lump  of  ice,  yet, 


224 


ZOOLOGY. 


II. 


connection  with  the  fresh-water  fishes  of  Ceylon.  I  have 
mentioned  elsewhere  the  hot  springs  of  Kannea,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Trincomalie,  the  water  in  which  flows  at  a 
temperature  varying  at  different  seasons  from  85°  to  115°. 
In  the  stream  formed  by  these  wells  M.  Keynaud  found 
and  forwarded  to  Cuvier  two  fishes  which  he  took  from 
the  water  at  a  time  when  his  thermometer  indicated  a 
temperature  of  37°  Keaumur,  equal  to  115°  of  Fahrenheit. 
The  one  was  an  Apogon,  the  other  an  Ambassis,  and  to 
each,  from  the  heat  of  its  habitat,  he  assigned  the  specific 
name  of  "  Thernaalis."  1 


List  of  Ceylon  Fishes. 


l.  OSSEOUS. 

Acantbopterygii. 

Perca  argentea,  Bennett. 
Apogon  foseipinnis,  Cuv.  &j-  Val. 

Zeylonicus,  Cuv.  Sj  Val. 

thermalis,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 
Ambassis  thermalis,  Cuv.  Sj  Val. 
Scrranus  biguttatus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

TankervillsD,  Benn. 

lemniscatus,  Cuv.  $•  Val. 

Sonneratii,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

flavo-ceruleus,  Lacep. 

inarginalis,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

Boelang,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 


Serranns  faveatus,  Cuv.  Sf  Vol. 

angularis,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

punctulatus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 
Diacope  decem-lineatus,  Cuv.  If  Val. 

spilura,  Benn. 

xanthopus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 
Mesoprion  annularis,  Cuv.  Sj  Val. 
Holocentrus  orientate,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

spinifera,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

argenteus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 
Upeneus  taeniopterus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

Zeylonicua*  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

Russelli,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

cinnabarinus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 
Platycephalus  punctatus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 


on  the  water  being  thawed,  the  fish 
became  as  lively  as  usual.  Dr. 
KICHARDSON,  in  the  third  vol.  of  his 
Fauna  Borealis  Americana,  says  the 
grey  sucking  carp,  found  in  the  fur 
countries  of  North  America,  may  be 
frozen  and  thawed  again  without 
being  killed  in  the  process. 

1  CUT.  and  VAL.,  vol.  iii.  p.  363.  In 
addition  to  the  two  fishes  above  named, 
a  loche  Cobitis  thermalis,  and  a  carp, 
Aw/to  tJiermoicos,  were  found  in  the 
hot-springs  of  Kannea,  at  a  heat  40° 
Cent.,  114°  Fahr.,  and  a  roach,  Leu- 
ciscus  thermal^,  when  the  thermo- 
meter indicated  50°  Cent.,  122°  Fahr. 
— Ib.  xviii.  p.  59,  xvi.  p.  182,  xvii. 
p.  94.  Fish  have  been  taken  from 
a  hot  spring  at  Pooree  when  the 


thermometer  stood  at  112°  Fahr. 
and  as  they  belonged  to  a  carnivo- 
rous genus,  they  must  have  found 
prey  living  in  the  same  high  tempera- 
ture.— Journ.  Asiatic  Soc.  limy.  vol. 
vi.  p.  465.  Fishes  have  been  observed 
in  a  hot  spring  at  Manilla  which 
raises  the  thermometer  to  187°,  and  in 
another  in  Barbary,  the  usual  tempe- 
rature of  which  is  172°;  and  Humboldt 
and  Bonpland,  when  travelling  in 
South  America,  saw  fishes  thrown  up 
alive  from  a  volcano,  in  water  that 
raised  the  temperature  to  210°,  being 
two  degrees  below  the  boiling  point. 
PATTERSON'S  Zoology,  Pt.  ii.  p.  211 ; 
YARRELL'S  History  of  British  Fislics, 
vol.  i.  In.  p.  xvi. 


CHAP.  IV.] 


FISHES. 


225 


scaber,  Linn. 

tuberculatus,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

serratus,  Cuv.  Sf  Vol. 
Pterois  volitans,  Gin. 

muricata,  Cuv.  &j  Vol. 
Diagramma  cinerascens,  Cuv.  Sf  Vol. 

Blochii,  Cuv.  $  Vol. 

pceciloptera,  Cuv.  $  Vol. 

Cuvieri,  limn. 

Sibbaldi,  E.  Benn. 
Lobotes  eratc,  Cuv.  Sf  Vol. 
Scolopsides  bimaculatus,  Rupp. 
Amphiprion  Clarkii,  J.  Benn. 
Dascyllus  aruanus,  &&.  Sf  VaL 
Glyphisodon  Rahti,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

Brownrigii,  Benn. 
Sparus  Hardwickii,  J.  Benn. 
Pagrus  longifilis,  Cuv.  Sf  Vol. 
Lethrinus  opercularis,  Cuv.  &j  VaL 

fasciatus,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

fncnatus,  Cuv.  &j  VaL 

eythrurus,  Cuv.  §•  VaL 

cinereus,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
Smaris  balteatus,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
Cicsio  ccerulaareus,  Lacep. 
Gcrrcs  oblongus,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
ClisDtodon  vagabundus,  Linn. 

Sebanus,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

Layardi,  Blyth. 

xaiithocephalus,  E.  Bennett. 

guttatissimus,  E.  Benn. 
Hreniochus  macrolepidotus,  Linn. 
Scatophagus  argus,  Cuv.  Sj  VaL 
Holacanthus  xanthurus,  E.  Benn. 
Platax  Raynaldi,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

ocellatns,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

Ehrcnbergii,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
Anabas  scandens,  Dald. 
Hc/ostoma. 
Polyacanthus. 
Opkicephalus. 
Cybiura  guttatum,  Block. 
Chorinemus  moadetta,  Ehren. 
Rhynchobdella  ocellata,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
Mastocemblus  Skinneri,  H.  Smith. 
Caranx  Heberi,  J.  Benn. 

spcciosus,  Forsk. 

Rbombus  triocellatus,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
Eqtiula  dacer,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

filigera,  Cuv.  &j  VaL 
Amphacanthus  javus,  Linn. 

sutor,  Cuv.  &j  Vol. 
Acanthurus  xanthurus,  Blyth. 

triostegus,  Block. 

Delisiani,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

lineatns,  Lacep. 

melas,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
Athcrina  duodecimals,  Cuv.  §•  VaL 
Blennius. 
Salarias  marmoratu?,  Benn. 

alticus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 
Eleotris  sexguttata,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
VOL.  I. 


Cheironectes  hispidas,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
Tautoga  fasciata,  Block. 
Julis  lunaris,  Linn. 

decussatus,  W.  Benn. 

formosus,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

quadricolor,  Lesson. 

dorsalis,  Quay  Sf  Gaim. 

aureomaculatus,  W.  Benn. 

Ceilanicus,  E.  Benn. 

Finlaysoni,  Cuv.  §•  Val. 

purpureo-lineatus,  Cuv.  §•  Val. 
Gomphosus  fuscus,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

viridis,  W.  Benn. 
Scarus  pepo,  W.  Benn. 

harid,  Forsk. 

IVIalacopteryeii  (abdomlnales). 

Silurus. 

Bagrus  albilabris,  Cuv.  Sj  VaL 

Plotosus  lineatus,  Cuv.  Sj  VaL 

Cyprinus. 

Barbus  tor,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

Nuria  thermoicos,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

Leuciscus  Zeylonicus,  E.  Benn. 

thcrmalis,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 
Cobitis  thermalis,  Cuv.  §•  VaL 
Hemirhamphus  Rcynaldi,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 

Georgii,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 
Exocostus  evolans,  Linn. 
Sardinella  leiogaster,  Cuv.  Sf  Val. 

lineolata,  Cuv.  Sf  VaL 
Saurus  myops,  VaL 

Malacopterygrll  (Sub-bracblati). 

Pleuronectes,  L. 

Malacopterygrii  (Apoda). 
Muraena. 


liophobrancbl. 

Syngnatkus,  L. 

Plectognatliii. 

Tetraodon  ocellatus,  W.  Benn. 

argyropleura,  E.  Bennett. 

argentatus,  Blyth. 
Balistes  biaculeatus,  W.  Benn. 
Triacanthus  biaculeatus,  W.  Benn. 

II.  CARTILAGINOUS. 

Squabus,  L. 

Pristis  antiquorum,  Lnth. 

cuspidatus,  Lath. 

pcctinatus,  Lath. 
Raia,  L. 


ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 


NOTE  (A.) 

INSTANCES  OF  FISHES  FALLING   FEOM  THE  CLOUDS  IN  INDIA. 
From  the  Bombay  Times,  1856. 

Dr.  Buist,  after  enumerating  cases  in  which  fishes  were  said 
to  have  been  thrown  out  from  volcanoes  in  South  America  and 
precipitated  from  clouds  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  adduces 
the  following  instances  of  similar  occurrences  in  India.  "  In 
1824,"  he  says,  "  fishes  fell  at  Meerut,  on  the  men  of  Her  Ma- 
jesty's 14th  Regiment,  then  out  at  drill,  and  were  caught  in 
numbers.  In  July,  1826,  live  fish  were  seen  to  fall  on  the 
grass  at  Moradabad  during  a  storm.  They  were  the  common 
cyprinus,  so  prevalent  in  our  Indian  waters.  On  the  19th  of 
February,  1830,  at  noon,  a  heavy  fall  of  fish  occurred  at  the 
Nokulhatty  factory,  in  the  Daccah  zillah ;  depositions  on  the 
subject  were  obtained  from  nine  different  parties.  The  fish 
were  all  dead  ;  most  of  them  were  large :  some  were  fresh,  others 
were  rotten  and  mutilated.  They  were  seen  at  first  in  the  sky, 
like  a  flock  of  birds,  descending  rapidly  to  the  ground ;  there 
was  rain  drizzling,  but  no  storm.  On  the  16th  and  17th  of 
May,  1833,  a  fall  of  fish  occurred  in  the  zillah  of  Futtehpoor, 
about  three  miles  north  of  the  Jumna,  after  a  violent  storm  of 
wind  and  rain.  The  fish  were  from  a  pound  and  a  half  to  three 
pounds  in  weight,  and  of  the  same  species  as  those  found  in  the 
tanks  in  the  neighbourhood.  They  were  all  dead  and  dry.  A 
fall  of  fish  occurred  at  Allahabad,  during  a  storm  in  May,  1835  ; 
they  were  of  the  chowla  species,  and  were  found  dead  and  dry 
after  the  storm  had  passed  over  the  district.  On  the  20th  of 
September,  1839,  after  a  smart  shower  of  rain,  a  quantity  of 
live  fish,  about  three  inches  in  length  and  all  of  the  same  kind, 
fell  at  the  Sunderbunds,  about  twenty  miles  south  of  Calcutta. 
On  this  occasion  it  was  remarked  that  the  fish  did  not  fall  here 
and  there  irregularly  over  the  ground,  but  in  a  continuous 
straight  line,  not  more  than  a  span  in  breadth.  The  vast  mul- 
titudes of  fish,  with  which  the  low  grounds  round  Bombay  are 
covered,  about  a  week  or  ten  days  after  the  first  burst  of  the 
monsoon,  appear  to  be  derived  from  the  adjoining  pools  or 
rivulets,  and  not  to  descend  from  the  sky.  They  are  not,  so 
far  as  I  know,  found  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  island.  I  have 
never  seen  them,  (though  I  have  watched  carefully,)  in  casks 


CHAP.  IV.]        FISHES  FALLING  FROM  THE  CLOUDS.  227 

collecting  water  from  the  roofs  of  buildings,  or  heard  of  them  on 
the  decks  or  awnings  of  vessels  in  the  harbour,  where  they  must 
have  appeared  had  they  descended  from  the  sky.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  phenomena  of  this  kind  occurred  during  a  tre- 
mendous deluge  of  rain  at  Kattywar,  on  the  25th  of  July,  1850, 
when  the  ground  around  Kajkote  was  found  literally  covered 
with  fish ;  some  of  them  were  found  on  the  tops  of  haystacks,  where 
probably  they  had  been  drifted  by  the  storm.  In  the  course  of 
twenty-four  successive  hours  twenty-seven  inches  of  rain  fell, 
thirty-five  fell  in  twenty-six  hours,  seven  inches  within  one  hour 
and  a  half,  being  the  heaviest  fall  on  record.  At  Poonah,  on  the 
3rd  of  August,  1852,  after  a  very  heavy  fall  of  rain,  multitudes 
of  fish  were  caught  on  the  ground  in  the  cantonments,  full  half  a 
mile  from  the  nearest  stream.  If  showers  of  fish  are  to  be  ex- 
plained on  the  assumption  that  they  are  carried  up  by  squalls  or 
violent  winds,  from  rivers  or  spaces  of  water  not  far  away  from 
where  they  fall,  it  would  be  nothing  wonderful  were  they  seen  to 
descend  from  the  air  during  the  furious  squalls  which  occasion- 
ally occur  in  June." 


NOTE  (B.) 

MIGRATION   OF   FISHES  OVER  LAND. 
Opinions  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 

It  is  an  illustration  of  the  eagerness  with  which,  after  the 
expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great,  particulars  connected  with 
the  natural  history  of  India  were  sought  for  and  arranged  by  the 
Greeks,  that  in  the  works  both  of  ARISTOTLE  and  THEOPHRASTUS 
the  facts  are  recorded  of  the  fishes  in  the  Indian  rivers  migrating 
in  search  of  water,  of  their  burying  themselves  in  the  mud  on  its 
failure,  of  their  being  dug  out  thence  alive  during  the  dry  sea- 
son, and  of  their  spontaneous  reappearance  on  the  return  of  the 
rains.  The  earliest  notice  is  in  the  treatise  of  ARISTOTLE  De 
Respiratione,  chap,  ix.,  who  mentions  the  strange  discovery  of 
living  fish  found  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil,  "TOM>  l 
ev  rr)  777,  aKtvr]Tt^ovTSS  fj,svroi,  KCU 
and  in  his  History  of  Animals  he  conjectures 
that  in  ponds  periodically  dried  the  ova  of  the  fish  so  buried 
Q  2 


228  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

become  vivified  at  the  change  of  the  season.1  HERODOTUS  had 
previously  hazarded  a  similar  theory  to  account  for  the  sudden 
appearance  of  fry  in  the  Egyptian  marshes  on  the  rising  of 
the  Nile;  but  the  cases  are  not  parallel.  THEOPHRASTUS,  the 
friend  and  pupil  of  Aristotle,  gave  importance  to  the  subject  by 
devoting  to  it  his  essay  Tispl  rijs  rwv  iyQvwv  sv  tflpw  Stapovris, 
De  Piscibus  in  sicco  degentibus.  In  this,  after  adverting  to  the 
fish  called  exoccetus,  from  its  habit  of  going  on  shore  to  sleep, 
"  aTTo  rrjs  Koirrjs"  he  instances  the  small  fish  (l%QvBia),  that  leave 
the  rivers  of  India  to  wander  like  frogs  on  the  land;  and 
likewise  a  species  found  near  Babylon,  which,  when  the 
Euphrates  runs  low,  leave  the  dry  channels  in  search  of  food, 
"  moving  themselves  along  by  means  of  their  fins  and  tail."  He 
proceeds  to  state  that  at  Heraclea  Pontica  there  are  places  in 
which  fish  are  dug  out  of  the  earth,  "  opv/croi  rwv  fyBvav"  and  he 
accounts  for  their  being  found  under  such  circumstances  by  the 
subsidence  of  the  rivers,  "  when  the  water  being  evaporated  the 
fish  gradually  descend  beneath  the  soil  in  search  of  moisture ; 
and  the  surface  becoming  hard  they  are  preserved  in  the  damp 
clay  below  it,  in  a  state  of  torpor,  but  are  capable  of  vigorous 
movements  when  disturbed."  "  In  this  manner,  too,"  adds  Theo- 
phrastus,  "  the  buried  fish  propagate,  leaving  behind  them  their 
spawn,  which  becomes  vivified  on  the  return  of  the  waters  to 
their  accustomed  bed."  This  work  of  Theophrastus  became  the 
great  authority  for  all  subsequent  writers  on  this  question. 
ATHEN^US  quotes  it'2,  and  adds  the  further  testimony  of  POLYBIUS, 
that  in  Gallia  Narbonensis  fish  are  similarly  dug  out  of  the 
ground.3  STRABO  repeats  the  story4,  and  one  and  all  the 
Greek  naturalists  received  the  statement  as  founded  on  reliable 
authority. 

Not  so  the  Eomans.  LIVY  mentions  it  as  one  of  the  prodigies 
which  were  to  be  "expiated  "  on  the  approach  of  a  rupture  with 
Macedon,  that  "in  Gallico  agro  qua  induceretur  aratrum  sub 
glebis  pisces  emersisse,"  5  thus  taking  it  out  of  the  category  of 
natural  occurrences.  POMPONIUS  MELA,  obliged  to  notice  the 
matter  in  his  account  of  Narbon  Gaul,  accompanies  it  with  the 
intimation  that  although  asserted  by  both  Greek  and  Eoman 


1  Lib.  vi.  eh.  15, 10, 17. 
8  Lib.  viii.  ch.  2. 
3  2b.  ch.  4. 


Lib.  iv.  and  xii. 
Lib.  xlii.  ch.  2. 


CHAP.  IV.]  FISHES  ON  DRY  LAND.  229 

authorities,  the  story  was  either  a  delusion  or  a  fraud.1  JUVENAL 
has  a  sneer  for  the  rustic — 

;  •  "  miranti  sub  aratro 

Piscibus  inventis."  —  Sat.  xiii.  63. 

And  SENECA,  whilst  he  quotes  Theophrastus,  adds  ironically,  that 
now  we  must  go  to  fish  with  a  hatchet  instead  of  a  hook ;  "  non 
cum  hamis,  sed  cum  dolabra  ire  piscatum." 2  PLINY,  who  devotes 
the  35th  chapter  of  his  9th  book  to  this  subject,  uses  the  narra- 
tive of  Theophrastus,  but  with  obvious  caution,  and  universally 
the  Latin  writers  treated  the  story  as  a  fable. 

In  later  times  the  subject  received  more  enlightened  attention, 
and  Beckmann,  who  in  1736  published  his  commentary  on  the 
collection  flspl  ®av/j,acria)v  a/eouoyiaT&>i>,  ascribed  to  Aristotle,  has 
given  a  list  of  the  authorities  about  his  own  times, — Georgius 
Agricola,  Gesner,  Kondelet,  Dalechamp,  Bomare,  and  Gronovius, 
who  not  only  gave  credence  to  the  assertions  of  Theophrastus, 
but  adduced  modern  instances  in  corroboration  of  his  Indian 
authorities. 


NOTE  (C.) 
CEYLON   FISHES. 

(Memorandum,  by  Professor  Huxley.)  ' 
See  p.  205. 

The  large  series  of  beautifully  coloured  drawings  of  the  fishes 
of  Ceylon,  which  has  been  submitted  to  my  inspection,  possesses 
an  unusual  value  for  several  reasons. 

The  fishes,  it  appears,  were  all  captured  at .  Colombo,  and 
even  had  those  from  other  parts  of  Ceylon  been  added,  the 
geographical  area  would  not  have  been  very  extended.  Never- 
theless there  are  more  than  600  drawings,  and  though  it  is 
possible  that  some  of  these  represent  varieties  in  different 
stages  of  growth  of  the  same  species,  I  have  not  been  able  to 
find  definite  evidence  of  the  fact  in  any  of  those  groups  which 
I  have  particularly  tested.  If,  however,  these  drawings  repre- 
sent six  hundred  distinct  species  of  fish,  they  constitute,  so  far 
as  I  know,  the  largest  collection  of  fish  from  one  locality  in 
existence. 


Lib.  ii.  ch.  5.  2  Nat.  Quasi,  vii.  10. 

Q  3 


230  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

The  number  of  known  British  fishes  may  be  safely  assumed 
to  be  less  than  250,  and  Mr.  Yarrell  enumerates  only  226,  Dr. 
Cantor's  valuable  work  on  Malayan  fishes  enumerates  not  more 
than  238,  while  Dr.  Kussell  has  figured  only  200  from  Coro- 
mandel.  Even  the  enormous  area  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
seas  has  as  yet  not  yielded  800  species  of  fishes. 

The  large  extent  of  the  collection  alone,  then,  renders  it  of 
great  importance ;  but  its  value  is  immeasurably  enhanced  by 
two  circumstances,  —  the  first,  that  every  drawing  was  made 
while  the  fish  retained  all  that  vividness  of  colouring  which  be- 
comes lost  so  soon  after  its  removal  from  its  native  element ; 
second,  that  when  the  sketch  was  finished  its  subject  was  care- 
fully labelled,  preserved  in  spirits,  and  forwarded  to  England, 
so  that  at  the  present  moment  the  original  of  every  drawing 
can  be  subjected  to  anatomical  examination,  and  compared  with 
already  named  species. 

Under  these  circumstances,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the 
collection  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  existence,  and  might, 
if  properly  worked  out,  become  a  large  and  secure  foundation 
for  all  future  investigation  into  the  ichthyology  of  the  Indian 
Ocean. 

It  would  be  very  hazardous  to  express  an  opinion  as  to  the 
novelty  or  otherwise  of  the  species  and  genera  figured  without  the 
study  of  the  specimens  themselves,  as  the  specific  distinctions  of 
fish  are  for  the  most  part  based  upon  character ;  the  fin-rays, 
teeth,  the  operculum,  &c.,  which  can  only  be  made  out  by  close 
and  careful  examination  of  the  object,  and  cannot  be  represented 
in  ordinary  drawings  however  accurate. 

There  are  certain  groups  of  fish,  however,  whose  family  traits 
are  so  marked  as  to  render  it  almost  impossible  to  mistake  even 
their  portraits,  and  hence  I  may  venture,  without  fear  of  being 
far  wrong,  upon  a  few  remarks  as  to  the  general  features  of  the 
ichthyological  fauna  of  Ceylon. 

In  our  own  seas  rather  less  than  a  tenth  of  the  species  of  fishes 
belong  to. the  cod  tribe.  I  have  not  found  one  represented  in 
these  drawings,  nor  do  either  Eussell  or  Cantor  mention  any 
in  the  surrounding  seas,  and  the  result  is  in  general  har- 
mony with  the  known  laws  of  distribution  of  these  most  useful 
of  fishes. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  mackerel  family,  including  the  tun- 
nies, the  bonitos,  the  dories,  the  horse-mackerels,  &c.,  which  form 
not  more  than  one  sixteenth  of  our  own  fish  fauna,  but  which  are 


CHAP.  IV.] 


FISHES  OF  CEYLOX. 


231 


known  to  increase  their  proportion  in  hot  climates,  appear  in 
wonderful  variety  of  form  and  colour,  and  constitute  not  less 
than  one  fifth  of  the  whole  of  the  species  of  Ceylon  fish.  In 
Russell's  catalogue  they  form  less  than  one  fifth,  in  Cantor's  less 
than  one  sixth. 

Marine  and  other  siluroid  fishes,  a  group  represented  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  but  doubtfully,  if  at  all,  in  this  country, 
constitute  one  twentieth  of  the  Ceylon  fishes.  In  Russell's  and 
Cantor's  lists  they  form  about  one  thirtieth  of  the  whole. 

The  sharks  anTfrays  form  about  one  seventh  of  our  own  fish 
fauna.  They  constitute  about  one  tenth  or  one  eleventh  of 
Russell's  and  Cantor's  lists,  while  among  these  Ceylon  drawings 
I  find  not  more  than  twenty,  or  about  one  thirtieth  of  the  whole, 
which  can  be  referred  to  this  group  of  fishes.  It  must  be  ex- 
tremely interesting  to  know  whether  this  circumstance  is  owing 
to  accident,  or  to  the  local  peculiarities  of  Colombo,  or  whether 
the  fauna  of  Ceylon  really  is  deficient  in  such  fishes. 

The  like  exceptional  character  is  to  be  noticed  in  the  propor- 
tion of  the  tribe  of  flat  fishes,  or  Pleuronectidce.  Soles,  turbots, 
and  the  like,  form  nearly  one  twelfth  of  our  own  fishes.  Both 
Cantor  and  Russell  give  the  flat  fishes  as  making  one  twenty- 
second  part  of  their  collection,  while  in  the  whole  600  Ceylon 
drawings  I  can  find  but  five  Pleuronectidce. 

When  this  great  collection  has  been  carefully  studied,  I 
doubt  not  that  many  more  interesting  distributional  facts  will 
be  evolved. 


Since  receiving  this  note  from  Professor  Huxley,  the  drawings 
in  question  have  been  submitted  to  Dr.  Grray,  of  the  British 
Museum.  That  eminent  naturalist,  after  a  careful  analysis,  has 
favoured  me  with  the  following  memorandum  of  the  fishes  they 
represent,  numerically  contrasting  them  with  those  of  China  and 
Japan,  so  far  as  we  are  acquainted  with  the  ichthyology  of 
those  seas : — 


Cartilagrinea. 

China  and 
Ceylon.  Japan. 

Squall 12  ...   15 

Raiffi 19  ...  20 

Sturioncs  .....     0 ...     1 

Ostinopterygii. 

Plectognathi. 

tetraodontidae  .     .   10  .     .     .21 
balistidoe      .     .     .     9  .     .     .19 


China  and 
Ceylon.        Japan. 

Lophobranchii. 

syngnathidae    .     .  2  .     .     .     21 

pegasidse    ...  0  ...     3 

Ctcnobranchii. 

lophidse.     ...  1  ...     3 

Cyclopodi. 

echeneidae  .     .     .  0  .     .     .     I 

cycloptcridae    .     .  0  .     .     . 

gobidze  .      ...  7  ...  35 


U  4 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Percini. 

Ceylon. 
.     0  . 

China  and 
Japan. 

.     .     7 

Pharyngognathi. 
labridse            .     . 

Ceylon. 
16  . 

China  and 
Japan. 

.     .  35 

.     0  . 

.     .     7 

13  . 

.     .'    6 

0  . 

.     .  13 

3  . 

.     .     8 

triglidae.     .     . 

.  11  . 

12  . 

.     .  37 
.     .     3 

Scomberina. 

0  . 

.     .     2 

.     1  . 

.     .     7 

5  . 

.     .     4 

26 

12 

118  . 

.     .  62 

0  . 

5 

0  . 

.     .     1 

.     3 

.     .     1 

0  . 

.     .     5 

sciaenidae    .     . 

.  19  . 
6 

.     .   13 
12 

Heterosomata. 

5  . 

.     .  22 

serranidse   .     . 
theraponidae    . 
cirrhitidaa  . 

.  31   . 
.     8  . 
0 

.     .  38 
.     -  20 
2 

siluridae      .     .     . 
cjprinidas  .     .     . 

31   . 
19  . 
2  . 

.     .  24 

.     .  52 

.     .     7 

msenidiae     .     . 
sparidae  . 

.  37  . 
.   16 

.     .  25 

.  17 

salmonidae  .     .     . 

0  . 
43  . 

.     .     1 

.     .  22 

14 

6 

o 

2 

25 

21 

g        se  . 

1 

o 

fistularidse 

.     2  . 

.     .     3 

Apodes. 

s 

12 

mufilidse    . 

5 

7 

8  . 

.     .     6 

anabantidse 

6  . 

15 

8  . 

.     .   10 

pomacentrida:  . 

.   10  . 

.     .   11 

233 


CHAP.  V. 

_^        CONCHOLOGY,    ETC. 

I.   THE   SHELLS   OP   CEYLON. 

ALLUSION  has  been  made  elsewhere  to  the  profusion  and 
variety  of  shells  that  abound  in  the  seas  and  inland 
waters  of  Ceylon1,  and  to  the  habits  of  the  Moormen, 
who  monopolise  the  trade  of  collecting  and  arranging  them 
in  satin-wood  cabinets  for  transmission  to  Europe.  But, 
although  naturalists  have  long  been  familiar  with  the 
marine  testacea  of  the  island,  no  successful  attempt  has 
yet  been  made  to  form  a  classified  catalogue  of  the  species ; 
and  I  am  indebted  to  the  eminent  conchologist,  Mr.  Syl- 
vanus  Hanley,  for  the  list  which  accompanies  this  notice. 

In  drawing  it  up,  Mr.  Hanley  observes  that  he  found  it 
a  task  of  more  difficulty  than  would  at  first  be  surmised, 
owing  to  the  almost  total  absence  of  reliable  data  from 
which  to  construct  it.  Three  sources  were  available  :  col- 
lections formed  by  resident  naturalists,  the  contents  of  the 
well-known  satin-wood  boxes  prepared  at  Trincomalie, 
and  the  laborious  elimination  of  locality  from  the  habitats 
ascribed  to  all  the  known  species  in  the  multitude  of  works 
on  conchology  in  general. 

But,  unfortunately,  the  first  resource  proved  fallacious. 
There  is  no  large  collection  in  this  country  composed  ex- 
clusively of  Ceylon  shells  ; — and  as  the  very  few  cabinets 
rich  in  the  marine  treasures  of  the  island  have  been 
filled  as  much  by  purchase  as  by  personal  exertion,  there 
is  an  absence  of  the  requisite  confidence  that  all  professing 


See  Vol.  II.  ch.  iv.  p.  474. 


234  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

to  be  Singhalese  have  been  actually  captured  in  the  island 
and  its  waters. 

The  cabinets  arranged  by  the  native  dealers,  though 
professing  to  contain  the  productions  of  Ceylon,  include 
shells  which  have  been  obtained  from  other  islands  in  the 
Indian  seas  ;  and  books,  probably  from  these  very  circum- 
stances, are  either  obscure  or  deceptive.  The  old  writers 
content  themselves  with  assigning  to  any  particular 
shell  the  too-comprehensive  habitat  of  "  the  Indian 
Ocean,"  and  seldom  discriminate  between  a  specimen 
from  Ceylon  and  one  from  the  Eastern  Archipelago  or 
Hindustan.  In  a  very  few  instances,  Ceylon  has  been 
indicated  with  precision  as  the  habitat  of  particular 
shells,  but  even  here  the  views  of  specific  essentials 
adopted  by  modern  conchologists,  and  the  subdivisions 
established  in  consequence,  leave  us  in  doubt  for  which 
of  the  described  forms  the  collective  locality  should  be 
retained. 

Valuable  notices  of  Ceylon  shells  are  to  be  found  in  de- 
tached papers,  in  periodicals,  and  in  the  scientific  surveys 
of  exploring  voyages.  The  authentic  facts  embodied  in 
the  monographs  of  Eeeve,  Kuster,  Sowerby,  and  Kiener, 
have  greatly  enlarged  our  knowledge  of  the  marine 
testacea;  and  the  land  and  fresh-water  mollusca  have 
been  similarly  illustrated  by  the  contributions  of  Benson 
and  Layard  in  the  Annals  of  Natural  History. 

The  dredge  has  been  used  but  only  in  a  few  insulated 
spots  along  the  coasts  of  Ceylon  ;  European  explorers 
have  been  rare  ;  and  the  natives,  anxious  only  to  secure 
the  showy  and  saleable  shells  of  the  sea,  have  neglected 
the  less  attractive  ones  of  the  land  and  the  lakes.  Hence 
Mr.  Hanley  finds  it  necessary  to  premise  that  the  list 
appended,  although  the  result  of  infinite  labour  and  re- 
search, is  less  satisfactory  than  could  have  been  wished. 
"  It  is  offered,"  he  says,  "  with  diffidence,  not  pretending 
to  the  merit  of  completeness  as  a  shell-fauna  of  the  island, 
but  rather  as  a  form,  which  the  zeal  of  other  collectors 
may  hereafter  elaborate  and  fill  up." 


CHAP.  V.]  SHELLS.  235 

Looking  at  the  little  that  has  yet  been  done,  compared 
with  the  vast  and  almost  untried  field  which  invites 
explorers,  an  assiduous  collector  may  quadruple  the 
species  hitherto  described.  The  minute  shells  especially 
may  be  said  to  be  unknown  ;  a  vigilant  examination  of 
the  corals  and  excrescences  upon  the  spondyli  and  pearl- 
oysters  would  signally  increase  our  knowledge  of  the 
Kissose,  Chemnitzias,  and  other  perforating  testacea, 
whilst  the  dredge  from  the  deep  water  will  astonish  the 
amateur  by  the  wholly  new  forms  it  can  scarcely  fail  to 
display. 

Dr.  Kelaart,  an  indefatigable  observer,  has  recently  under- 
taken to  investigate  the  Nudibranchiata,  Inferobranchiata, 
and  Tectibranchiata ;  and  a  recently-received  report  from 
him,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Ceylon  Branch  of  the  Eoyal 
Asiatic  Society,  in  which  he  has  described  fifty-six 
species,— thirty-three  belonging  to  the  genus  Doris 
alone,  —  gives  ample  evidence  of  what  may  be  expected 
from  the  researches  of  a  naturalist  of  his  acquirements  and 
industry. 


List  of  Ceylon  Shells. 

The  arrangement  here  adopted  is  a  modified  Lamarckian  one, 
very  similar  to  that  used  by  Reeve  and  Sowerby,  and  by  MK. 
HANLEY,  in  his  Illustrated  Catalogue  of  Recent  Shells.1 


1  Below  will   be  found   a  general  |  BORN,  Test.  Mm.  Cats.  Vind.  BRODE- 
reference  to  the  Works  or  Papers  in  |  RIP,  Zool.  Journ.  i.  iii.     BRUGUTERE, 


which  are  given  descriptive  notices 
of  the  shells  contained  in  the  follow- 
ing list  ;  the  names  of  the  authors  (in 
full  or  abbreviated)  being,  as  usual, 
annexed  to  each  species. 

ADAMS,  Proceed.  Zool.  Soc.  1853, 
54,  56  ;  Thesaur.  Conch.  ALBERS, 
Zeitsch.  Matttkoz.  1853.  ANTON, 


Ency.  Method.  Vers.  CARPENTER, 
Proc.  Zool,  Soc.  1856.  CHEMNITZ, 
Conch.  Cab.  CHENTT,  Illus.  Conch. 
DESHAYES,  Encyc.  Mtth.  Vers. ;  Mag. 
Zool.  1831;  Voy.  Sclanger ;  Edit. 
Lam.  An.  s.  Vert. ;  Proceed.  Zool. 
Soc.  1853,  54,  55.  DILLWTN,  Descr. 
Cat.  SMls.  DOHRN,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 


Wiegm.  Arch.  Nat.  1837  ;  Verzeichn.  i  1857,  58  ;  Malak.  Blatter  ;  Land  and 
Conch.  BECK  in  Pfeiffer,  Symbol.  \  Fluviatilc  Shells  of  Ceylon.  DUCLOS, 
Helic.  BEXSON,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  vii.  !  Monor/.  of  Oliva.  FABRICIIJS,  in 
1851  ;  xii.  1853  ;  xviii.  1850.  BLAIN-  !  Pfeiffer  Monog.  Helic.  ;  in  Dohrris 
VILLE,  Diet.  Sc.  Nat.  ;  Nouv.  Ann.  MSS.  FERUSSAC,  Hist.  Molhtsques. 
Mus.  Hist.  Nat.  i.  BOLTEN,  Mm.  FORSKAL,  Anim.  Orient.  GMELIN, 


236 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PA'ET  II. 


Aspergillum  Javannm,  Brag.  Enc.  Met 
sparsnm,  Sotcerby,  Gen.  Shells.1 
clavatunu  Chat*,  Blast.  Conch. 
Teredo  nuciToras,    SpengL   Skr.  Nat. 

Sels.* 

Solen  trnncatns,  Wood,  Gen.  Conch, 
linearis,  Wood,  Gen.  Conch, 
cultellus,  Linn.  Syst  Nat. 
radiatos,  Lam.  Sjst.  Nat. 
Anatina  subrostrata,  Lamarck,  Anim.  s. 

Vert. 

Anatinella  Nicobarica,  Gm.  Syst.  Nat 
Lutraria  Egypriaca,  Chan*,  Conch.  Cab. 
Blainvillea  ritrea,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab.3 
Scrobicularia  angulata,  Cheatn.  Conch. 

Cab.« 
Mactra    complanata,    Deshayes,  Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.* 

tnmida,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 
antiquata,    Reere   (as  of   Spengler"), 

Conch.  Icon. 

cvgnea,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 
Corbicnloides,  Deshayes,  Proc.  Zool. 

Soc.  1854. 

Mesodesma   LayardL,   Deshayes,   Proc. 
Zool  Soc.  1854. 


striata,  Chemn,  Conch,  Cab/ 
Crassatella    rostrata,   Lam.    Anim.    s. 
Vert. 

sulcata.  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert 
Amphidesma      dnplicatum,      Sowerby. 

Species  Conch. 

Pandora  Ceylanica,  Sowerby,  Conch.  Mis. 
Galeomma    Layardi,   Deshayes,    Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  1856. 
Kellia  pecnliaris,   Adams,  Proc.   ZooL 

Soc.  1856. 
Petricolacultellus, Deshayes,  Proc.  Zool. 

Soc.  1853. 

Sanguinolaria  rosea,  Lam.  Anim.  s.Vert. 
Psammobia  rostrata,  Lam,  Anim.  s.Vert. 

occidens,  Gm.  Systema  Naturae. 

Skinneri,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon.T 

Layardi,  Desk.  P.  Z.  Soc.  1854. 

lunulata,  Desk.  P.  Z.  Soc.  1854. 

amethystus,  Wood,  Gen.  Conch.8 

rugosa,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert.' 
Tellina  virgata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat* 

rugosa,  Born,  Test.  Mus.  Caes.  Vind. 

ostracea,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

ala,  Hanky,  Thesaur.  Conch,  i. 

inaqualis,  Hanley,  Thesaur.  Conch,  i. 


A.  dichotomum,  Chenu. 
Fistulana  gregata,  Lam. 
Blainvillea,  Hupe. 
Latraria  tellinoides,  Lam. 
I  have  also  seen  M.  hians  of  Philippi 
in  a  Ceylon  collection. 


"  Psammotella  Skinneri,  Reeve. 
s  P.  caerulescens,  Lam. 
*  Sanguinolaria  rugosa,  Lam. 
10  T.    striatula    of   Lamarck   is  also 
supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  Ceylon. 


Sy?t.  Xat.  GRAY,  Proc.  ZW.  Soc. 
1834,  52;  Index  Teftaceologicut 
Suppl.  ;  Spic&egia  Zool ;  Zoo/.  Jotirn. 
i. ;  Zool.  Beechey  Voy.  GEATELorp, 
Act.  Linn.  Bordeaux,  xL  GCERDT, 
Ret.  Zool.  1847.  HAMLET,  Thesaur. 
Conch.  L ;  Recent  Bivalves ;  Proc. 
ZvA.  Soc.  1858.  HTVDS,  Zool.  Voy. 
Sulphur ;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Hrirox, 
Jotirn.  As.  Soc.  KABSTEX,  Mm.  Lesk. 
KIEXER,  Coquffles  Vivtmtes.  KKArss, 
Sud-Afrik  MoUuak.  LAitABCit,  An. 
sans  Verteb.  LATARD,  Proc.  Zool. 
Soc.  1854  LEA,  Proceed.  Zool.  Soc. 
1850.  Lixxjsrs,  Syst.  Nat.  MAR- 
•mfi,  Conch.  Cab.  MAWE,  Introd. 
Linn.  Conch.  ;  Index.  Test.  Suppl. 
3LET8CHEX,  in  Gronov.  Zoophylac. 
MEXKE,  Synop.  MoOus.  MmxER, 
Hist.  Verm,  Terrest.  PETIT,  Pro. 
Zool.  Soc.  1842.  PFEIPFER,  Monog. 
Hctic.  ;  Monog.  Pneumon.  ;  Proceed. 


Zool.  Soc.  1852,  53,  54,  55,  56; 
Zeitschr.  Malacoz.  1853.  PHILIPPI, 
Zeitech.  Mai.  1846,  47  ;  Abbild.  Neuer 
Conch.  POTIEZ  et  MICHATJD,  Galerie 
Douai.  RAXG,  Mag.  Zool.  ser.  i. 
p.  100.  RECLFZ,  Proceed.  Zool.  Soc. 
1845  ;  Revue  Zool.  Cuv.  1841 ;  Mag. 
Conch.  REETB,  Conch.  Icon. ;  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  1842,  52.  SCHTTMACHER, 
Syst.  SHUTTLEWORTH.  SOLASDER,  in 
DUhvyn'sDesc.Cat.Shetts.  SOWERBT, 
Genera  SheUs  ;  Species  Conch. ;  Conch. 
Misc.  ;  Thesaur.  Conch. ;  Conch.  I0us.  ; 
Proc.  Zool.  Soc. ;  App.  to  Tankerville 
Cat.  SPEXGLER,  Skritt.  Nat.  Selsk. 
Kiobenhav.  1792.  SWAIXSOX,  Zool. 
Ittust.  eer.  iL  TEKPLETOX,  Ann. 
Nat.  Hist.  1858.  TBOSCHEL,  in 
Pfeiffer,  Man.  Pneum;  Zeitschr. 
Malak.  1847;  Wiegm.  Arch.  Nat. 
1837.  WOOD,  General  Conch. 


CHAP.  V.] 


SHELLS. 


237 


Layardi,  Deshayes,  P.  Z.  Soc.  1854. 

callosa,  Deshayes,  P.  Z.  Soc.  1854. 

rubra,  Deshayes,  P.  Z.  Soc.  1854. 

abbreviate  Deshayes,  P.  Z.  Soc.  1854. 

foliacea,  Linn.  Systema  Naturae. 

lingna-felis.  Linn.  Systema  Naturae. 

vulsella,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab.' 
Lucina  interrupta,  Lam.  Anim.  a.  Vert* 

Layardi,  Deshayes,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1855. 
Donax  scortum,  Linn.  Syst  Nat. 

cuneata.  Linn.  Syst  Nat. 

faba,  Chem.  Conch.  Cab. 

spinosa,  Gm.  Syst~HSt 

paxillns,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Cyrena  Ceylanica,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

"Tennemii,  Hanley,  P.  Z.  Soc.  1858. 
Cytherea  Erycina,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.* 

meretrix,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.4 

castanea,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

castrensis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

casta,  GUI,  Syst.  Nat. 

costata,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

laeta,  Gm.  Syst.  Nat. 

trimaculata,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

Hebnea,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

rugifera,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

scripta,  Linn,  Syst.  Nat. 

gibbia,  Lam,  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

ileroe.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat 

tcstudinalis,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

seminnda,  Anton.  Wiegm,  Arch.  Nat. 

1837. 

Cytherea  seminuda,  Anton* 
Venus  retienlata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.' 

pinguis,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

recens,  Philippi,  Abbild.Neuer  Conch. 

thiara,  Dillw.  Descriptive  Cat  Shells. 

Malabarica,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

Bruguieri,  Hanley,  Recent  Bivalves. 

papilionacea,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert 

Indica,  Sou-erby,  Thesanr.  Conch,  ii. 

inflata,  Deshayes,   Proc.    ZooL  Soc. 
1853.' 

Ceylonensis,  Sowerby,  Thes.  Conch.  iL 

literata,  Linn.  Systema  Naturae. 

textrix,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab.* 
Cardium  unedo.  Linn.  Syst  Nat 

maculosnm,  Wood,  Gen.  Con. 

leucostomum,  Born,  Test.  Mus.  Cas. 
Vind. 


rugosum,  Lam.  Anim,  s.  Vert. 

biradiatum,  Bntguiere,  Encyc.  Meth. 
Vera. 

attenuatum,  Sowerby,  Conch.  Ulust 

enode,  Sowerby,  Conch.  Ulust 

papyracenm,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

ringiculnm,  Sowerby,  Conch.  Ulust 

subrugosum,  Sowerby,  Conch.  Ulust, 

latum,  Bon,  Test  Mus.  Caes.  Vind. 

Asiaticum,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 
Cardlta    variegata,   Bruguiere,   Encvc. 
Method.  Vers. 

bicolor,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Area  rhombea,  Born,  Test  Mus. 

vellicata,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 

cruciata,  Philippi,  Ab.  Neuer  Conch. 

decussata.    Recce  (as  of  Sowerby), 
Conch,  Icon.* 

scapha,  Meuschat,  in  Gronor.  Zoo. 
Pectnnculus  nodosus,/?eere,Conch.Icon. 

pectiniformis,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

Nucula  mitralis,  Hinds,  ZooLvoy.SuL 

Layardi,  Adams,  Proc,  ZooLSoc.  1 856. 
Nucula  Manritii  (Hanley  as  of  Hinds), 

Recent  Bivalves, 
Unio  corrngatas,  Miller,  Hist  Venn. 

marginalis,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Lithodomus  ciunamonens,  Lam.  Anim. 

s.  Vert 
Mytilus  viridis,  Linn.  Syst  Nat" 

bilocnlaris,  Linn.  Syst  Nat 
Pinna  inflata,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

cancellata,  Mouse,  Intr.  Ian.  Conch. 
Malleus  vulgaris,  Lam.  Auim.  s.  Vert 

albus,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Meleagrina  margaritifera,Z»jin.Syst.Nat, 

vexillum,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon.11 
Av'cula  macroptera,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Lima  sqnamosa,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Pecten  plica,  Linn.  Syst  Nat 

radnla,  Linn.  Syst  Nat 

pleuronecte?,  Linn.  Syst  Nat 

pallium,  Linn.  Syst  Nat 

senator,  Gm.  Syst  Nat 

histrionicus,  Gm.  Syst.  Nat 

Indicns,  Deshayes,  Voyage  Belanger. 

Layardi,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Spondylus  Layardi,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 

candidus,  Reeve  (as  of  Lam.)  Conch. 
Icon. 


1  T.  rostrata,  Lam. 

*  L.  divaricata  is  found,  also,  in  mixed 
Ceylon  collections. 

*  C.  dispar  of  Chemnitz  is  occasionally 
found  in  Ceylon  collections. 

*  C.  impudica,  Lam. 
s  As  Donax. 

'  V.  corbis,  Lam. 
T  As  Tapes. 


•  V.  textile,  Lam. 

*  ?  Area  Helblingii,  Chemn. 

'•  Mr.  Cuming  informs  me  that  he 
has  forwarded  no  less  than  six  distinct 
Uniones  from  Ceylon  to  Isaac  Lea  of 
Philadelphia  for  'determination  or  de- 
scription. 

11  M.  smaragdinus,  Chemn. 

"  As  Avicula. 


238 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Ostrea  liyotis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
glaucina,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Mytiloides,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert, 
cucullata?  var.     Born.     Test.  Mus. 

Vind.1 
Vulsella  Pholadiformis,  Reeve,  Conch. 

Icon,  (immature). 
Placuna  placenta,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Lingula  anatina,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Hyalsea  tridentata,  For.  Anim.  Orient.8 
Chiton,  2  species  (Layard). 
Patella  Reynaudii,  Deshayes,  Voy.  Be. 

testudinaria,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Emarginula  fissurata,    Chemn.    Conch. 

Cab.3  Lam. 

Calyptrsea     (Crucibulum)     violnsccns, 

Carpenter,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1856. 

Dentalium  octogonum,  Lam.  Anim.  s. 

Vert. 

aprinum,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Bulla  soluta,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab.4 
vexillum,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 
Bruguieri,  Adams,  Thes.  Conch, 
elongata,  Adams,  Thes.  Conch, 
ampulla,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Lamellaria  (as  Marsenia  Indica,  Leach. 
in  Brit.  Mus.)  allied  to  L.  Muuri- 
tiana,  if  not  it. 

Vaginula  maculata,  Tempi.  An.  Nat. 
Limax,  2  sp. 

Parmacella  Tennentii,  Tempi.5 
Vitrina  irradians,  Pfeiffer,  Mon.  Helic. 
Edgariana,  Benson,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist. 

1853  (xii.) 
membranacea,  Benson,  Annal.  Nat. 

Hist.  1853  (xii.) 

Helix  haemastoma,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
vittafa,Mt<7/er,Vermium  Terrestrium. 
bistrialis,  Beck,  in  Pfeiffer,   Symbol. 

Helic. 
Tranquebarica,    Fabricius,    in    Pfeiff. 

Monog.  Helic. 

Juliana,  Gray,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1834. 
Waltoni,  Reeve,  Proc. Zool.  Soc.  1842. 
Skinneri,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon.  vii. 
corylus,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon.  vii. 
umbrina,  ( Reeve,  as  of  Pfeiff.),  Conch. 

Icon.  vii. 
fallaciosa,  Ferussac,  Hist.  Mollus. 


Rivolii,  Deshayes,  Enc.  Meth.  Vers  ii. 
Charpentieri,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
erronea,  Aiders,  Zeitschr.  Mai.  1853. 
carncola,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
convexiuscula,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
ganoma,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
Chenui,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
semidecussata,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
pIiCEnix,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
superba,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
Ceylanica,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
Gardner!,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
coriaria,  Pfeiff'.  Monog.  Helic. 
Layardi,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
concavospira,  Pfeiff'.  Monog.  Helic. 
novella,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 


rerrucula,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
hyphasma,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
Emiliana,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
Woodiana,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
partita,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
biciliata,  "Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
Isabellina,    Pfeiff.    Proc.   Zool.   Soc. 
trifilosa,  Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1854. 
politissima,  Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1854. 
Thwaitesii,   Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1854. 

nepos,  Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1855. 
subopaca,  Pfeiff'.   Proc.    Zool.    Soc. 

1853. 
subconoidea,  Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1854. 
ceraria,   Benson,   Annals  Nat.   Hist. 

1853  (xii.) 
vilipensa,  Benson,  Ann.    Nat.   Hist. 

1853  (xii.) 
perfucata,  Benson,  Ann.    Nat.  Hist. 

1853  (xii.) 
puteolus,   Benson,  Ann.   Nat.    Hist. 

1853  (xii.) 
mononema,  Benson,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist. 

1853  (xii.) 
marcida,   Benson,    Ann.   Nat.   Hist. 

1853  (xii.) 
galerus,    Benson,    Ann.    Nat.   Hist. 

1856  (xviii.) 
albizonata,  Duhrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1858. 


1  The  specimens  are  not  in  a  fitting 
state  for  positive  determination.  They 
are  strong,  extremely  narrow,  with  the 
beak  of  the  lower  valve  much  produced, 
and  the  inner  edge  of  the  upper  valve 
denticulated  throughout.  The  muscular 
impressions  are  dusky  brown. 

*  As  Anomia. 

3  The  fissurata  of  Humphreys  and 
Dacosta,  pi.  4. — E.  rubra,  Lamarck. 


4  B.  Ceylanica,  Brug. 

5  P.  Tennentii.  "  Greyish  brown,  with 
longitudinal  rows  of  rufous  spots,  form- 
ing interrupted  bands  along  the  sides. 
A  singularly  handsome  species,  having 
similar  habits  to  Limax.     Found  in  the 
valleys    of  the    Kalany    Ganga,    near 
Kuamvelle."—  Templeton  MSS. 


>.  V.] 


SHELLS. 


239 


Nietneri,  Dohrn,  MS.1 
Grcvillei,  Pfeiff.Proc. Zool.  Soc.  1 856. 
Streptaxis  Layardi,  Pfeiff.  Mon.  Helic. 

Cingalensis,  P/e//f.' Monog.  Helic. 
Pupa  muscerda,  Benson,  Annals  Nat. 

Hist.  1853  (xii.) 
mimula,  Benson,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1856 

(xviii.) 

Ceylanica,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
Bulimus    trifasciatus,    Brug.     Encycl. 

Meth.  Vers. 

pullus,  Gray,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1834. 
gracilis,  Hutton,  Jonrn.  Asiat.  Soc.  iii. 
punctatus,  Anton,  Vcfteichn.  Conch. 
Ceylanicus,P/e//f.  (?  Blsevis,  Gray,  in 

Index  Testaceologicus.) 
adumbratus,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
intermedius,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
proletarius,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
albizonatus,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Mavortius,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon, 
fuscoventris,  Benson,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist. 

1856  (xviii.) 
rufopictus,  Benson,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist. 

1856  (xviii.) 
panos.  Benson,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1853 

(xii.) 

Achatina  nitens,  Gray,  Spicilegia  Zool. 
inornata,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
capillacea,  Pfeiff.  Monog  Helic. 
Ceylanica,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
Punctogallana,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Helic. 
pachycheila,  Benson. 
veruina,  Bens.  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1853 

(xii.) 
parabilis.  Bens.  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1856 

(xviii.) 

Succinea  Ceylanica,  P/ez/flMonog.Helic. 
Auricula  Ceylanica,  Adams,  Proc.  Zool. 

Soc.  1854.* 

Ceylanica,PeM,  Proc.  Zool  Soc.  1842.3 
Lay  a,rAi,Adams,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1 854. 4 
pellucens,  Menke,  Synopsis  Moll. 
Pythia  Ceylanica,  Pfeiff.  Zeitschr.  Ma- 

lacoz.   1853. 

ovata,  Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1854. 
Truncatella    Ceylanica,    Pfeiff.    Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  1856. 
Cyclostoma  (Cyclop/torus')  Ceylanicum, 

Sowerby,  Tlies.  Conch, 
involvulum,  Miiller,  Verm.  Terrest. 
Menkeanum,  Philippi,  Zeitsch.  Mai. 

1847. 

punctatum,   Grateloup,  Act.  Lin.  Bor- 
deaux (xi.) 


loxostoma,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
alabastrura,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
Bairdii,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
Thwaitesii,  Pfeiff.  M 


annulatum,  Troschel,  in 

Pneumon. 
parapsis,  Bens.  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1853 

(xii.) 
parma,  Bens.  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1856 

(xviii.) 
cratera,  Bens.  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1856 

(xviii.) 
(Leptopoma)  halophilum,  Benson,  Ann. 

Nat.  Hist.  (ser.  2.  vii.)  1851. 
orophilum,  Bens.   Annals  Nat.  Hist. 

(ser.  2.  xi.) 
apicatum,  Bens.  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1856 

(xviii.  ) 

conulus,  Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1$54. 
flammeum,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
semiclausum,P/ei/f.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
pcecilum,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
elatum,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
Cyclostoma  (Aulopoma). 

Itieri,  Guerin,  Rev.  Zool.  1847. 
hclicinum,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 
Hoffmeisteri,  Troschel,  Zeitschr.  Mai. 

1847. 

grande,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
spheroideum,  Dohrn,  Malak.  Blatter. 
(?)  gradatum,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneum. 
Cyclostoma  (Pterocyclos). 

Cingalense,   Bens.  Ann.   Nat.    Hist. 

(ser.  2.  xi.) 

Troscheli,  Bens.  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1851. 
Cumingii,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
bifrons,  Pfeiff.  Monog.  Pneumon. 
CataulusTemplemani,P/e//F.Mon.Pneu. 
eurytrema,  Pfeiff.   Proc.    Zool.   Soc. 

1852. 
marginatus,  Pfeiff.   Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1853. 

duplicatus,  Pfeiff.Proc.  Zool.Soc.  1  8  54. 
aureus,  Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1855. 
Layardi,  Gray,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1852. 
Austcnianus,  Bens.  Ann.  Nat.  Hist. 

1853  (xii.) 
Thwaitesii,  Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.   Soc. 

1852. 

Cumingii,  Pfeiff.  Proc.Zool.Soc.1856. 
decorus,  Bens.  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  1853. 
haemastoma,  Pfeiff.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1856. 
Planorbis  Coromandelianus,  Fabric,  in 

Dorhn's  MS. 


1  Not  far  from  bistrialis  and  Cey- 
lanica. The  manuscript  species  of  Mr. 
Dohrn  will  shortly  appear  in  his  intended 
work  upon  the  land  and  fluviatile  shells 
of  Ceylon. 


*  As  Ellobium. 
3  As  Melampus. 
1  As  Ophicardelis. 


240 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Stelzcneri,Z>oArw,Proc.Zool.Soc.  1858. 
elegantulus,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1858. 
Limnaea  tigrina,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1858. 

pinguis,  Dohrn,  Pioc.  Zool.  Soc.  1858. 
Melania    tuberculata,     Mutter,    Verm. 

Ter.1 

spinulosa,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert, 
corrugata,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert, 
rudis,  Lea,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1850. 
acanthica,  Lea,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1850. 
Zeylanica,  Lea,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1850. 
confusa,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1858. 
datura,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1858. 
Layardi,  Z>o/*rw,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1858. 
Paludomus    abbreviates,    Reeve,  Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  1852. 

clavatus, Reeve,Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1852. 
dilatatus,  Reeve,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1852. 
globulosus,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
decussatus,.Z?ee«!,Proc.Zool.Soc.l852. 
nigricans,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon, 
constrictus,   Reeve,  Proc.  Zool.   Soc. 

1852. 

bicinctus, Reeve,Proc.  Zool.  Soc.1852. 
phasianmus,7teet;e,Proc.Zool.So.l852. 
Isevis,  Layard,  Prcc.  Zool.  Soc.  1854. 
palustris,Zayard,Proc.  Zool.  So.  1854. 
fulguratu8,DoArn,  Proc.Zool.So.  1857. 
nasutus,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1857. 
sphaericus,Do/J77z,Proc.  Zool.  So.  1857. 
solidus,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1857. 
distinguendus,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1857. 
Cumingianus.-Do/irw,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1857. 
dromedarius,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1857. 

Skinneri,DoArn,Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1857. 
Swainsoni,i>o//ra,Proc.  Zool.  So.1857. 
nodulosus,DoAr«,  Proc.Zool.So.  1857. 
Paludomus  (Tanalia). 

loricatus,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon, 
erinaceus,  Reeve, Proc.  Zool.  Soc.1852. 
aereus,  Reeve,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1852. 
Layardi,  Reeve,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1852. 
undatus,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Gardner!,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Tenncntii,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Reevei,Za#«/-d,  Tree.  Zool.  Soc.  1854. 
violaceus,  Layard,  Proc.  Zool.  So.1854. 
similis,  Layard,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1854. 
funiculatus,  Layard,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1854. 


Paludomus  (  Philopotamis). 
sulcatus,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
regalis,  Layard,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1854. 
Thwaitesii,  Layard,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1854. 

Pirena  atra,  Linn.  Systema  Naturae. 
Paludina  melanostoma,  Bens. 

Ceylanica,i>oArw,  Proc.  Zool.  So.  1857. 
Bythinia  stenothyroides,  Dohrn,   Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  1857. 
modesta,  Dohrn,  MS. 
inconspicua,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1857. 

Anipullaria  Layardi,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon, 
moesta,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon, 
cinerea,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Woodwardi,  Dohrn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1858. 
Tischbeini,  Dohm,  Proc,  Zool.  Soc. 

1858. 

carinata,  Swainson,  Zoo],  Ulus.  ser.  2. 
paludinoides,  Cat.  Crislofori  Sf  Jan? 
Malabarica,  Philippi,  monog.  Ampul.2 
Luzonica,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon.2 
SumatrensiSjPMzgpt,  monog.  Ampul.2 
Navicella  eximia,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon, 
reticulata.  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Livcsayi,7)oArn,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1858. 
squamata,  Dohrn,  Proc.Zool.  So.  1858. 
depressa,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Neritina    crepidularia,   Lam.  Anim.  s. 

Vert, 
melanostoma,  Troschel,  Wicgm.  Arch. 

Nat.  1837. 

triserialis,  Sowerby,  Conch.  Illustr. 
Colombaria,  Recluz,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

1845. 
Perottetiana,    Recluz,    Revue    Zool. 

Cuvier,  1841. 

Ceylanensis,#ec/Mr,Mag.  Conch.  1851. 
Layardi,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon, 
rostrata,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon, 
reticulata,  Sowerby,  Conch.  Illustr. 
Nerita  plicata,  Linn.  Systema  Naturae, 
costata,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 
plcxa,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab.3 
Natica  aurantia,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert, 
mammilla,  Linn.  Systema  Naturae, 
picta,  Reeve  (as  of  Recluz),  Conch. 

Icon. 

arachnoidea,  Gm.  Systema  Nature, 
lineata,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert, 
adusta,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab.  f.  1926-7, 

and  Karsten* 
pellis-tigrina,  Karsten,  Mus.  Lcsk.5 


1  M.  fasciolata,  Olivier. 

2  These  four  species  arc  included  on 
the  authority  of  Mr.  Dohrn. 

3  N.  exuvia,  Lam,  not  Linn. 


4  Conch.  Cab.  f.  1926-7,  and  N.  me- 
lanostoma, Lam.  in  part. 

5  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab.  1892-3. 


CHAP.  V.] 


SHELLS. 


241 


didyma,  Bulten,  Mus.1 
lanthina  prolongata,  Blainv.     Diction. 

Sciences  Nat.  xxiv. 
communis,  Krauss  (as  of  Lamarck,  in 

part)  Sud-Afrik.  Mollusk. 
Sigaretus.  A  species  (possibly  Javanicus) 
is  known  to  have  been  col- 
lected.   I  have  not  seen  it. 
Stomatella  calliostoma,  Adams,  Thesaur. 

Conch. 

Holiotis  varia,  Linn.  Systema  Naturas. 
striata,  Martini  (as  of  Linn.\  Conch. 

Cab.  i. 

semistriata,  fieever-Qtonch.  Icon. 
Tornatella  solidula,  Linn  Systema.  Nat. 
Pyramidella  maculosa,  Lam.  Anim.  s. 

Vert. 

Eulinia  Martini,  Adams,  Thes.  Conch,  ii. 
Siliquaria  muricata,  Born,  Test.   Mus. 

Cses.  Vind. 

Scalariararicostata,  Lam.  Anira.  s.  Vert. 
Djlphinula  laciniata,Z,am.  Anim.  s.Vert. 

distorta,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.* 
Solarium  perdix,  Hinds.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 
Layardi,  Adams,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1 854> 
llotella  vestiaria,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Phorus  pallidulus,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon.  i. 
Trochus  elegantulus,  Gray,  Index  Tes. 

Suppl. 

Niloticus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Monodonta  labio,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

canaliculata,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Turbo  versicolor,  Gm.  Syst.  Nat. 

princeps,  PhilippL* 

Planaxis  undulatus,  Lam.  Anim.  s.Vert.5 

Littorina  angulifera,iam.  Anim.  s.Vert. 

melanostoma,Grai/,Zool.,Z?eecA.Voy.6 

Chcmnitzia  trilineata,  Adams,¥roc.  Zool. 

Soc.  1853. 

lirata,  Adams,  Proc.   Zool.  Soc.  1853. 
Phasianclla  lineolata,  Gray,  Index  Test. 

Suppl. 
Turritella    bacillum,  Kiener,  Coquillcs 

Vivantes. 

columnari8,jfiTjener,Coquilles  Vivantes. 
duplicata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
attenuata,  Reeve,  Syst.  Nat. 
Cerithium  fluviatile,  Potiez  Sf  Micliaud, 

Galerie  Douai. 
Layardi   (Cerithidea),   Adams,  Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  1854. 
palustre.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 


aluco,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

asperum,  Linn  Syst.  Nat. 

telescopium,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

palustre  obeliscus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

fasciatnm,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

rubus,  Sower  by  (as  of  Martyn),  Thes. 
Conch,  ii. 

Sowerbyi,  Kitner,  Coquilles  Vivantes 

(teste  Sir  E.  Tennent). 
Pleurotoma  Indica,  Deshayes,  Voyage 
Bclanger. 

virgo,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Turbinella  pyrum,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

rapa.  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert.(the  Chank.) 

cornigera,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

spirillus,  2am,  Syst.  Nat. 
Cancellaria  trigonostoma,  Lam.  Anim, 
s.  Vert.7 

scalata,  Sowerby,  Thesaur.  Conch. 

articularis,  Sowerby  Thesaur,  Conch. 

Littoriniformis,  Sowerby,  Thes.  Conch. 

contabulata,  Sowerby,  Thes.  Conch. 
Fasciolaria  filamentosa,  Lam.  Anim.  s. 
Vert. 

trapezium,  Linn,  Syst.  Nat. 
Fusus  longissimus,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

colus,  Linn.  Mus.  Lud.  Ulricas. 

toreuma,    Deshayes,    (as    Murex    t. 
Martyn).  ed.  Lam.  Anim.  s.Vert. 

laticostatus   Deshayes,  Magas.    Zool. 
1831. 

Blosvillei,  Deshayes,  Encycl.  Method. 

Vers.,  ii. 
Pyrula  rapa,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.* 

citrina  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

pugilina,  Born,  Test.  Mus.  Vind.9 

ficus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat 

ficoides,  Lam  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Banella  crumena,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

spinosa,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

rana,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.10 

margaritula,  Deshayes,Voy.  Bclanger. 
Murcx  haustcllum,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

adustus,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

microphyllus,  Lam.  Anirn.  s.  Vert. 

anguliferus,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  "Vert. 

palmarosffi,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

ternispina,  Kiener  (as  of  Lam.),  Co- 
quilles Vivantes. 

tenuispina,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

ferrugo,  Maive,  Index.  Test.  Suppl.11 

Beeveanus,  Shuttleworth(tcste  Cuming). 


1  N.  glaucina,  Lam.  not  Linn. 

'*  Not  of  Lamarck.  T).  atrata,  Reeve. 

3  Philippia  L. 

4  Zeit.  Mai.  1846  for  T.  argyrostomn, 
Lam.  not  Linn. 

*  Buccinum    pyramidatum,    Gm.   in 
part :  B.  suloatuin,  var.  C.  of  Brug. 
6  Teste  Cuming. 

VOL.  I. 


7  As  Delphinulut. 

8  P.     papyracea,    Lam.     In    mixed 
collections  I  have  seen  the  Chinese  P. 
bczonr  of  Lamarck  as  from  Ceylon. 

•  P.  vespcrtilio,  Gm. 
10  B.  albivaricosa,  llecre. 
*'  M.  anguliferus  var.  Lam. 


242 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Triton  anus,  Linn,  Syst.  Nat.1 

mulus,  Dillwyn,  Descript.  Cat.  Shells. 

retusus,  Lam.  Anim.  &.  Vert. 

pyrum,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

clavator,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

Ceylonensis,  Sowerby,Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 

lotorium,  Lam.  (not  Linn.)  Anim.  s. 
Vert. 

lampas,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Pterocera  lambis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

millepeda,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Strombus  canariura,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.8 

succinctus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

fasciatus,  Born,  Test.  Mus.  Cass.Vind. 

Sibbaldii,  Sowerby,  Thcsaur.  Conch,  t. 

lentiginosus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

marginatus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

Lamarckii,  Sowerby,  Thesaur.  Conch. 
Cassis  glauca,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.3 

canaliculata.  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

Zeylanica,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

areola,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Eicinula  albolabris,  Blainv.  Nouv.  Ann. 
Mus.  II.  N.  i.4 

horrida,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

morus,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Purpura  fiscella,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

Pcrsica,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

liystrix,  Lam.  (not  Linn.)     Anim.  s 
Vert. 

granatina,  Deskayes,  Voy.  Belangcr. 

mancinella,  Lam.  (as  of  Linn.)  Anim. 
s.  Vert. 

bufo,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

carinifera,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Harpa  conoidalis,  Lam  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

minor,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Dolium  pomum,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

olearium,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

perdix,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

maculatum,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Nassa  ornata,  Kiener,  Coq.  Vivantes.5 

verrucosa,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

crenulata,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

olivacea,  Bruy.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

glans,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

arcularia,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat 

papillosa,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Phos  virgatus,  Hinds,  Zool.  Sul.  Moll. 

retecosus,  Hinds,  Zool.  Sulphur,  Moll. 

senticosus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 


Buccinum  melanostoma,  Sowerby,  A  pp. 
to  Tankerv.  Cat. 

erythrostoma,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 

Proteus,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 

rubiginosum,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 
Eburna  spirata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.6 

canaliculata,  Schumacher,  Sys.  Anim. 
s.  Vert.7 

Ccylanica,  Brugulere,  En.  Meth. Vers. 
Bullia  vittata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

lineolata,  Sowerby,  Tankerv.  Cat.8 

Melanoides,  Deshayes,Voy.  Belan. 
Terebra  chlorata,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

muscaria,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

laevigata,  Gray,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1834. 

maculata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

subulata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

concinna,  Deshayes,  ed.  Lam.  Anim. 
s.  Vtrt. 

myurus,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

tigrina,  Gm.  Syst.  Nat. 

Cerithina,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Columbella  flavida,  Lam.  Anim.  s.Vert, 

fulgurans.  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

mendicaria,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

scripta,  Lam.  Anim.  s. Vert.(tcste  Jay). 
Mitra  episcopalis,  Dillwyn,  Descript.  Cut. 
Shells. 

cardinalis,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

crcbrilirata,  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon. 

punctostriata,  Adams,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 
1854. 

insculpta,   Adams,   Proc.   Zool.  Soc. 
1854. 

Layard,  Adams,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1854.9 
Voluta  vexillum,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

Lapponica,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Melo  Indicus,  Gm.  Syst.  Nat. 
Marginella  Sarda,  Kiener,  Coq. Vivantes. 
Ovulum  ovum,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

verrucosum,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

piiAicum, Adams,  Proc.Zool  Soc.  1854. 
Cyprsea  Argus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

Arabica,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

Mauritiana,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

hirnndo,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

Lynx,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

asellus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

erosa,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

vitellus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

stolida,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 


1  T.  cynocephalus  of  Lamarck  is  also  I 
met  with  in  Ceylon  collections. 

*  S.  incisus  of  the  Index  Testaceo- 
logicus  (urccus,  var.  Sow.  Thesaur.)  is 
found  in  mixed  Ceylon  collections. 

3  C.  plicariaof  Lamarck,  and  C.  coro- 
nulata  of  Sowerby,  are  also  said  to  bo 
found  in  Ceylon. 


As  Purpura. 

N.  suturalis,  Reeve  (as  of  Lam.),  is 
met  with  in  mixed  Ceylon  collections. 
E.  areolata  Lam. 
E.  spirata,  Lam.  not  Linn. 
B.  Belangcri,  Kiener. 
As  Turricula  L. 


CHAP.  V.] 


SHELLS. 


243 


mappa,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

helvola,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

errones,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

cribraria,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

globulus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

clandestina,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

ocellata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

caurica,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

tabescens,  Solander,  inDillwyn  Descr. 
Cat.  Shells. 

gangrenosa,    Solander,    in     Dillwyn 
Desc.  Cat.  Shellr. 

interrupta,  Gray,  Zool.  Journ.  i. 

lentiginosa,  Gray,~7K>ol.  Journ.  i. 

pyriformis,  Gray,  Zool.  Journ.  i. 

nivosa,  Broderip,  Zool.  Journ.  iii. 

poraria,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

testudinaria,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 
Tercbellum  subulatum,  Lam.  Anim.  s. 

Vert. 
Ancillaria  glabrata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

Candida,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 
Oliva  Maura,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

erythrostoma,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

gibbosa,  Born,  Test.  Mus.  Ca?s.' 

nebulosa,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert 

Macleayana,   Duclus,  Monograph  of 
Oliva. 

episcopalis,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

elegans,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

ispidula,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  (partly).8 

Zeilanica,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

undata,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

irisans,  Lam.  Anim.  a.    Vert,  (teste 

Duclos). 
Conus  miles,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

gcneralis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

bctulinus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

stercus-muscarum,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

Hebraus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

virgo,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

geographicus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

aulicus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat 

figulinus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

striatus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

A  conclusion  not  unworthy  of  observation  may  be  deduced 
from  this  catalogue ;  namely,  that  Ceylon  was  the  unknown,  and 
hence  unacknowledged,  source  of  almost  every  extra-European 
shell  which  has  been  described  by  Linnaeus  without  a  recorded 
habitat.  This  fact  gives  to  ^Ceylon  specimens  an  importance 
which  can  only  be  appreciated  by  collectors  and  the  students  of 
Mollusca. 


senator,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.1 

literatus.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

imperialis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

textile,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

terebra,  Born,  Test.  Mus.  Caes.  Vind. 

tessellatus,  ScMTi.Test.  Mus.  Cats.  Vind. 

Augur,  Bruguiere,  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

obesus,  Bruguiere  Encycl.  Meth.Vers. 

araneosus,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

gubernator,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.Vers. 

monile,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

nimbosus,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

eburneus,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

vitulinus,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

qnercinus,  Brtig.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

lividus,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

Omaria,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

Maldivus,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

nocturnus,  Brug.  Encycl.  Moth.  Vers. 

Ceylonensis,.Z?/'M<7.Encycl.  Meth.Vers. 

arenatus,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

Nicobaricus,  Bn/jr.Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

glans,  Bnig.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

Amadis,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

punctatus,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

minimus,  Reeve  (as  of  Linn.\  Conch. 
Icon. 

terminus,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert. 

lineatus,  Chemn.  Conch.  Cab. 

episcopus,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

verriculum,  Reeve,  Conch.  Cab. 

zonatus,  Bi-ug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

rattus,    Brug.    Encycl.  Meth.   Vers. 
(teste  Chemn.) 

pertusHS,  Brug.  Encycl.  Meth.  Vers. 

Nussatella,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

lithoglyphus,  Brug.  En.  Meth.  Vers.3 

tulipa.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat. 

Ammiralis,  var.  Linn,  teste  Brug. 
Spirula  Peronii,  Lam.  Anim.  s.  Vert 
Sepia  Hieredda,  Rang.  Magas.  Zool. 

ser.  i.  p.  100. 
Sepioteuthis,  Sp. 
Loligo,  Sp. 


1  O.  utriculus,  Dillwyn. 
*  C.   planorbis,  Born  ;    C.   vulpinus, 
Lam. 


3  Conus  crmineus,  Born,  iu  part. 


244  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  If. 


2.    RADIATA. 

The  eastern  seas  are  profusely  stocked  with  radiated 
animals,  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  they  have  as  yet 
received  but  little  attention  from  English  naturalists. 
Eecently,  however,  Dr.  Kelaart  has  devoted  himself  to  the 
investigation  of  some  of  the  Singhalese  species,  and  has 
published  his  discoveries  in  the  Journal  of  the  Ceylon 
Branch  of  the  Asiatic  Society  for  1856-8.  Our  informa- 
tion respecting  the  radiata  on  the  confines  of  the  island 
is,  therefore,  very  scanty ;  with  the  exception  of  the  ge- 
nera *  examined  by  him.  Hence  the  notice  of  this  exten- 
sive class  of  animals  must  be  limited  to  indicating  a  few 
of  those  which  exhibit  striking  peculiarities,  or  which 
admit  of  the  most  common  observation. 

Star  Fish. — Very  large  species  of  Ophiuridce  are  to 
be  met  with  at  Trincomalie,  crawling  busily  about,  and 
insinuating  their  long  serpentine  arms  into  the  irregu- 
larities and  perforations  in  the  rocks.  To  these  they 
attach  themselves  with  such  a  firm  grasp,  especially  when 
they  perceive  that  they  have  attracted  attention,  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  procure  unmutilated  specimens 
without  previously  depriving  them  of  life,  or  at  least 
modifying  their  muscular  tenacity.  The  upper  surface 
is  of  a  dark  purple  colour,  and  coarsely  spined ;  the  arms 
of  the  largest  specimens  are  more  than  a  foot  in  length, 
and  very  fragile. 

The  star  fishes,  with  immovable  rays2,  are  by  no 
means  rare  ;  many  kinds  are  brought  up  in  the  nets,  or 
may  be  extracted  from  the  stomachs  of  the  larger  market 
fish.  One  very  large  species3,  figured  by  Joinville  in 
the  manuscript  volume  in  the  library  at  the  India 
House,  is  not  uncommon ;  it  has  thick  arms,  from 


1  Actinia,  9  sp. ;   Anthea,  4  sp. ;  I  2  Asterias,  Linn. 

Actinodendron,  3  sp. ;   Dioscosoma,  3  Pentaceros  f 

1   sp.  j   Peechea,  1  sp. ;  Zoanthura, 
Isp. 


CIIAP.  V.]  PARASITIC  WORMS.  245 

which  and  the  disc  numerous  large  fleshy  cirrhi  of  a 
bright  crimson  colour  project  downwards,  giving  the 
creature  a  remarkable  aspect.  No  description  of  it,  so 
far  as  I  am  aware,  has  appeared  in  any  systematic  work 
on  zoology. 

Sea  Slugs.  —  There  are  a  few  species  of  Holothurice,  of 
which  the  trepang  is  the  best  known  example.  It  is 
largely  collected  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  and  dried  in  the 
sun  to  prepareTit  for  export  to  China.1  A  good  descrip- 
tion and  figure  of  it  are  still  desiderata. 

Parasitic  Worms. — Of  these  entozoa,  the  Filaria  me- 
dinensis,  or  guinea  worm,  which  burrows  in  the  cellular 
tissue  under  the  skin,  is  well  known  in  the  north  of 
the  island,  but  rarely  found  in  the  damper  districts 
of  the  south  and  west.  In  Ceylon,  as  elsewhere,  the 
natives  attribute  its  occurrence  to  drinking  the  waters 
of  particular  wells  ;  but  this  belief  is  inconsistent  with 
the  fact  that  its  lodgment  in  the  human  body  is  almost 
always  effected  just  above  the  ankle.  This  shows  that 
the  minute  parasites  are  transferred  to  the  skin  of  the 
leg  from  the  moist  vegetation  bordering  the  footpaths 
leading  to  wells.  At  this  period  the  creatures  are 
minute,  and  the  process  of  insinuation  is  painless  and 
imperceptible.  It  is  only  when  they  attain  to  considerable 
size,  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  that  the  operation  of  ex- 
tracting them  is  resorted  to,  when  exercise  may  have 
given  rise  to  inconvenience  and  inflammation. 

Planaria.  —  In  the  journal  above  alluded  to,  Dr.  Ke- 
laart  has  given  descriptions  of  fifteen  species  of  planaria, 
and  four  of  a  new  genus,  instituted  by  him  for  the  recep- 
tion of  those  differing  from  the  normal  kinds  by  some 
peculiarities  which  they  exhibit  in  common.  At  Point 
Pedro,  Mr.  Edgar  Layard  met  with  one  on  the  bark  of 
trees,  after  heavy  rain,  which  would  appear  to  belong  to 
the  subgenus  geoplana.2 

*  See  Vol.  H.  p.  556  ~ 


"  A  curious  species,  which  is  of 
a  light  brown  above,  white  under- 


neath j  very  broad  and  thin,  and  has 

R  3 


a  peculiarly  shaped  tail,  half-moon- 
shaped,  in  fact,  like  a  grocer's  cheese 


knife, 


246  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

Acalephce. — Acaleplise1  are  plentiful,  so  much  so, 
indeed,  that  they  occasionally  tempt  the  larger  cetacea 
into  the  Gulf  of  Manaar.  In  the  calmer  months  of  the 
year,  when  the  sea  is  glassy,  and  for  hours  together 
undisturbed  by  a  ripple,  the  minute  descriptions  are 
rendered  perceptible  by  their  beautiful  prismatic  tint- 
ing. So  great  is  their  transparency  that  they  are  only 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  water  by  the  return  of 
the  reflected  light  that  glances  from  their  delicate  and 
polished  surfaces.  Less  frequently  they  are  traced  by 
the  faint  hues  of  then-  tiny  peduncles,  arms,  or  ten- 
taculse  ;  and  it  has  been  well  observed  that  they  often 
give  the  seas  in  which  they  abound  the  appearance  of 
being  crowded  with  flakes  of  half-melted  snow.  The 
larger  kinds,  when  undisturbed  in  their  native  haunts, 
attain  to  considerable  size.  A  faintly  blue  medusa, 
nearly  a  foot  across,  may  be  seen  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar, 
where,  no  doubt,  others  of  still  larger  growth  are  to  be 
found. 

The  remaining  orders,  including  the  corals,  madrepores, 
and  other  polypi,  have  yet  to  find  a  naturalist  to  under- 
take their  investigation,  but  in  all  probability  the  species 
are  not  very  numerous. 


Jellyfish, 


247 


CHAP.  VI. 

_  INSECTS. 

OWING  to  the  favourable  combination  of  heat,  moisture,  and 
vegetation,  the  myriads  of  insects  in  Ceylon  form  one  of 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  island.  In  the  solitude  of 
the  forests  there  is  a  perpetual  music  from  their  soothing 
and  melodious  hum,  which  frequently  swells  to  a  startling 
sound  as  the  cicada  trills  his  sonorous  drum  on  the  sunny 
bark  of  some  tall  tree.  At  morning  the  dew  hangs  in 
diamond  drops  on  the  threads  and  gossamer  which  the 
spiders  suspend  across  every  pathway ;  and  above  the 
pool  dragon-flies,  of  more  than  metallic  lustre,  flash  in  the 
early  sunbeams.  The  earth  teems  with  countless  ants, 
which  emerge  from  beneath  its  surface,  or  make  their  de- 
vious highways  to  ascend  to  their  nests  in  the  trees. 
Lustrous  beetles,  with  their  golden  elytra,  bask  on  the 
leaves,  whilst  minuter  species  dash  through  the  air  in 
circles,  which  the  ear  can  follow  by  the  booming  of  their 
tiny  wings.  Butterflies  of  large  size  and  gorgeous  colour- 
ing flutter  over  the  endless  expanse  of  flowers,  and 
at  times  the  extraordinary  sight  presents  itself  of 
flights  of  these  delicate  creatures,  generally  of  a  white 
or  pale  yellow  hue,  apparently  miles  in  breadth,  and  of 
such  prodigious  extension  as  to  occupy  hours,  and  even 
days,  uninterruptedly  in  their  passage  —  whence  coming 
no  one  knows  ;  whither  going  no  one  can  tell.1  As  day 


1  The  butterflies  I  have  seen  in 
these  wonderful  migrations  in  Cey- 
lon were  mostly  Callidryas  Hilarice, 
C.  Alcmeone,  and  C.  Pyranthe,  with 


Enplcea,  E.  Coras,  and  E.  Prothoe. 
Their  passage  took  place  in  April  and 
May,  generally  in  a  north-easterly 


direction. 


straggling  individuals  of  the  genus 

R  4 


248  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

declines,  the  moths  issue  from  their  retreats,  the  crickets 
add  their  shrill  voices  to  swell  the  din  ;  and  when  dark- 
ness descends,  the  eye  is  charmed  with  the  millions  of 
emerald  lamps  lighted  up  by  the  fire-flies  amidst  the  sur- 
rounding gloom. 

As  yet  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  describe  the  insects 
of  Ceylon  systematically,  much  less  to  enumerate  the  pro- 
digious number  of  species  that  abound  in  every  locality. 
Occasional  observers  have,  from  time  to  time,  contributed 
notices  of  particular  families  to  the  Scientific  Associations 
of  Europe,  but  their  papers  remain  undigested,  and  the 
time  has  not  yet  arrived  for  the  preparation  of  an  Ento- 
mology of  the  island. 

What  Darwin  remarks  of  the  Coleoptera  of  Brazil  is 
nearly  as  applicable  to  the  same  order  of  insects  in 
Ceylon  :  "  The  number  of  minute  and  obscurely  coloured 
beetles  is  exceedingly  great ;  the  cabinets  of  Europe  can 
as  yet,  with  partial  exceptions,  boast  only  of  the  larger 
species  from  tropical  climates,  and  it  is  sufficient  to  dis- 
turb the  composure  of  an  entomologist  to  look  forward  to 
the  future  dimensions  of  a  catalogue  with  any  pretensions 
to  completeness." *  M.  Nietner,  a  German  entomologist, 
who  has  spent  some  years  in  Ceylon,  has  recently  pub- 
lished, in  one  of  the  local  periodicals,  a  series  of  papers 
on  the  Coleoptera  of  the  island,  in  which  every  species 
introduced  is  stated  to  be  previously  undescribed.2 

COLEOPTEEA.  —  Buprestidce ;  Golden  Beetles.  —  In  the 
morning  the  herbaceous  plants,  especially  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  island,  are  studded  with  these  gorgeous  beetles, 
whose  golden  wing-cases3  are  used  to  enrich  the  em- 
broidery of  the  Indian  zenana,  whilst  the  lustrous  joints  of 
the  legs  are  strung  on  silken  threads,  and  form  necklaces 
and  bracelets  of  singular  brilliancy. 

These  exquisite  colours  are  not  confined  to  one  order, 


Nut.  Journal,  p.  39.  I       3  Sternoccra    Chrysis  ;    8.    sterni- 


corns. 


CHAP.  VI.] 


BEETLES. 


249 


and  some  of  the  Elateridaa1  and  Lamellicorns  exhibit  hues 
of  green  and  blue,  that  rival  the  deepest  tints  of  the  eme- 
rald and  sapphire. 

Scavenger  Beetles.  —  Scavenger  beetles 2  are  to  be  seen 
wherever  the  presence  of  putrescent  and  offensive  matter 
affords  opportunity  for  the  display  of  their  repulsive  but 
most  curious  instincts  ;  fastening  on  it  with  eagerness, 
severing  it  into  lumps  proportionate  to  their  strength,  and 
rolling  it  along~m  search  of  some  place  sufficiently  soft  in 
which  to  bury  it,  after  having  deposited  their  eggs  in  the 
centre.  I  had  frequent  opportunities,  especially  in  tra- 
versing the  sandy  jungles  in  the  level  plains  to  the  north 
of  the  island,  of  observing  the  unfailing  appearance 
of  these  creatures  instantly  on  the  dropping  of  horse 
dung,  or  any  other  substance  suitable  for  their  purpose  ; 
although  not  one  was  visible  but  a  moment  before. 
Their  approach  on  the  wing  is  announced  by  a  loud  and 
joyous  booming  sound,  as  they  dash  in  rapid  circles  in 
search  of  the  desired  object,  led  by  their  sense  of  smell, 
but  evidently  little  assisted  by  the  eye  in  shaping  their 
course  towards  it.  In  these  excursions  they  exhibit  a 
strength  of  wing  and  sustained  power  of  flight,  such  as  is 
possessed  by  no  other  class  of  beetles  with  which  I 
am  acquainted,  but  which  is  obviously  indispensable 
for  the  due  performance  of  the  useful  functions  they 
discharge. 

The  Coco-nut  Beetle.  —  In  the  luxuriant  forests  of 
Ceylon,  the  extensive  family  of  Longicorns  live  in  de- 
structive abundance.  Their  ravages  are  painfully  fami- 
liar to  the  coco-nut  planters.3  The  larva  of  one  species 


1  Of  the  family  of  Elaterida,  one 
of  the  finest  is  a  Singhalese  species, 
the  Compsosternus  Templetonii,  of  an 
exquisite  golden  green  colour,  with 
blue  reflections  (described  and  figured 
by  Mr.  WESTWOOD  in  his  Cabinet  of 
Oriental  Entomology,  pi.  35,  f.  1).  In 
the  same  work  is  figured  another 
species  of  large  size,  also  from  Ceylon, 


this  is  the  Alaus  sordidus. — WEST- 
WOOD,  1.  c.  pi.  35,  f.  9. 

a  Ateuchus  sacer ;  Copris  sagax  ; 
C.  capucinus,  &c.  &c. 

3  There  is  a  paper  in  the  Journ.  of 
the  Asiat.  Society  of  Ceylon,  May, 
1845,  by  Mr.  CAPPER,  on  the  ravages 
perpetrated  by  these  beetles.  The 
writer  had  recently  passed  through 


250 


ZOOLOGY. 


[FART  II. 


of  large  dimensions,  Batocera  rubus1,  called  by  the 
Singhalese  "  Cooroominya"  makes  its  way  into  the 
stems  of  the  younger  trees,  and  after  perforating  them 
in  all  directions,  forms  a  cocoon  of  the  gnawed  wood 
and  sawdust,  in  which  it  reposes  during  its  sleep  as  a 
pupa,  till  the  arrival  of  the  period  when  it  emerges  as  a 
perfect  beetle.  Notwithstanding  the  repulsive  aspect  of 
the  large  pulpy  larvae  of  these  beetles,  they  are  esteemed 
a  luxury  by  the  Malabar  coolies,  who  so  far  avail  them- 
selves of  the  privilege  accorded  by  the  Levitical  law, 
which  permitted  the  Hebrews  to  eat  "  the  beetle  after  his 
kind."2 

Tortoise  Beetles.  —  There  is  one  family  of  insects,  the 
members  of  which  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  traveller 
by  their  singular  beauty,  the  Cassididce  or  tortoise 
beetles,  in  which  the  outer  shell  overlaps  the  body,  and 
the  limbs  are  susceptible  of  being  drawn  entirely  within 
it.  The  rim  is  frequently  of  a  different  tint  from  the 
centre,  and  one  species  which  I  have  seen  is  quite  start- 
ling from  the  brilliancy  of  its  colouring,  which  gives  it 
the  appearance  of  a  ruby  enclosed  in  a  frame  of  pearl ; 
but  this  wonderful  effect  disappears  immediately  on  the 
death  of  the  insect.3 

ORTHOPTEEA.  The  Soothsayer.  —  But  the  admiration 
of  colours  is  still  less  exciting  than  the  astonishment 
created  by  the  forms  in  which  some  of  the  insect  families 
present  themselves  ;  especially  the  "  soothsayers  "  (Man- 
tidce]  and  "  walking  leaves."  The  latter 4,  exhibiting 
the  most  cunning  of  all  nature's  devices  for  the  preser- 
vation of  her  creatures,  are  found  in  the  jungle  in  all 


several  coco-nut  plantations,  "  vary- 
ing in  extent  from  20  to  150  acres. 
and  about  two  to  three  years  old  ; 
and  in  these  he  did  not  discover  a 
single  young  tree  untouched  by  the 
cooroomina."  —  P.  49. 


1  Called    also   B. 
Lamia  rubus,  Fabr. 
a  Leviticus,  xi,  22. 


octo-maculatus  ; 


3  One  species,  the  Cassida  farinosa, 
frequent  in  the  jungle  which  sur- 
rounded my  official  residence  at  Kan- 
dy,  is  covered  profusely  with  a  snow- 
white  powder,  arranged  in  delicate 
filaments,  which  it  moves  without 
dispersing  :  but  when  dead  they  fall 
rapidly  to  dust. 

*  Phyttium  siccifoUum. 


CHAP.  VI.J 


ORTHOPTERA. 


251 


varieties  of  hue,  from  the  pale  yellow  of  an  opening 
bud  to  the  rich  green  of  the  full-blown  leaf,  and  the 
withered  tint  of  decay.  So  perfect  is  the  imitation  in 
structure  and  articulation,  that  this  amazing  insect  when 
at  rest  is  almost  undistinguishable  from  the  foliage  around : 
not  only  are  the  wings  modelled  to  resemble  ribbed  and 
fibrous  follicles,  but  every  joint  of  the  legs  is  expanded 
into  a  broad  plait  like  a  half-opened  leaflet. 

It  rests  on  i!f  abdomen,  the  legs  serving  to  drag  it 
slowly  along,  and  thus  the  flatness  of  its  attitude  serves 
still  further  to  add  to  the  appearance  of  a  leaf.  One  of 
the  most  marvellous  incidents  connected  with  its  organi- 
sation was  exhibited  by  one  which  I  kept  under  a  glass 
shade  on  my  table  ;  it  laid  a  quantity  of  eggs,  that,  in 
colour  and  shape,  were  not  to  be  discerned  from  seeds. 
They  were  brown  and  pentangular,  with  a  short  stem, 
and  slightly  punctured  at  the  intersections. 


EOO3  OF    THE    LEAF    INS3CT. 


The  "  soothsayer,"  on  the  other  hand  (Mantis  supersti- 
tiosa,  Fab.1),  little  justifies  by  its  propensities  the  appear- 
ance of  gentleness,  and  the  attitudes  of  sanctity,  which 
have  obtained  for  it  the  title  of  the  "praying  mantis."  Its 
habits  are  carnivorous,  and  degenerate  into  cannibalism, 
as  it  preys  on  the  weaker  individuals  of  its  own  species. 
Two  which  I  enclosed  in  a  box  were  both  found 
dead  a  few  hours  after,  literally  severed  limb  from 
limb  in  their  encounter.  The  formation  of  the  foreleg 
enables  the  tibia  to  be  so  closed  on  the  sharp  edge 
of  the  thigh  as  to  amputate  any  slender  substance 
grasped  within  it. 


1  M.  arldifolia  and  M.  extensicottis, 
as  well  as  Empusa  gongyloidcs,  re- 
markable for  the  long  leaf-like  head, 


and    dilatations    on    the    posterior 
thighs,  are  common  in  the  island. 


252 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


The  Stick-insect  —  The  Phasmidce  or  spectres,  another 
class  of  orthoptera,  present  as  close  a  resemblance  to 
small  branches  or  leafless  twigs  as  their  congeners  do 
to  green  leaves.  The  wing-covers,  where  they  exist, 
instead  of  being  expanded,  are  applied  so  closely  to  the 
body  as  to  detract  nothing  from  its  rounded  form,  and 
hence  the  name  which  they  have  acquired  of  "  walking- 
sticks"  Like  the  Phyllium,  the  Phasma  lives  exclusively 
on  vegetables,  and  some  attain  the  length  of  several 
inches. 

Of  all  the  other  tribes  of  the  Orthoptera  Ceylon  pos- 
sesses many  representatives  ;  in  swarms  of  cockroaches, 
grasshoppers,  locusts,  and  crickets. 

NEUKOPTERA.  Dragon-flies. — Of  the  Neuroptera,  some 
of  the  dragon-flies  are  pre-eminently  beautiful ;  one 
species,  with  rich  brown-coloured  spots  upon  its  gauzy 
wings,  is  to  be  seen  near  every  pool.1  Another  2,  which 
dances  above  the  mountain  streams  in  Oovah,  and 
amongst  the  hills  descending  towards  Kandy,  gleams 
in  the  sun  as  if  each  of  its  green  enamelled  wings 
had  been  sliced  from  an  emerald.3 

The  Ant-lion.  —  Of  the  ant-lion,  whose  larva?  have 
earned  a  bad  renown  from  their  predaceous  ingenuity, 
Ceylon  has,  at  least,  four  species,  which  seem  peculiar 
to  the  island.4  This  singular  creature,  preparatory  to  its 
pupal  transformation,  contrives  to  excavate  a  conical  pitfall 
in  the  dust  to  the  depth  of  about  an  inch,  in  the  bottom 
of  which  it  conceals  itself,  exposing  only  its  open  man- 
dibles above  the  surface  ;  and  here  every  ant  and  soft- 
bodied  insect  which  curiosity  tempts  to  descend,  or  acci- 
dent may  precipitate  into  the  trap,  is  ruthlessly  seized  and 
devoured  by  its  ambushed  inhabitant. 


1  Libelhda  pulchatta. 

2  Euphcca  xplendenn,  Ilagen. 

3  Gymnacantha  Mibinterrupta,~Rmn\>. 
distinguished  by  its  large  size,  is  plen- 
tiful about  the  mountain  streamlets. 


4  Palpares  contrarius,  Walker ; 
Myrmclcon  qravis,  Walker  ;  M.  dims, 
Walker ;  M.  barbarm,  Walker. 


ClIAP.  VI.] 


WHITE   A^TS. 


253 


The  White  Ant. — But  of  the  insects  of  this  order  the 
most  noted  are  the  white  ants  or  termites  (which  are  ants 
only  by  a  misnomer).  They  are,  unfortunately,  at  once 
ubiquitous  and  innumerable  in  every  spot  where  the 
climate  is  not  too  chilly,  or  the  soil  too  sandy,  for  them  to 
construct  their  domed  edifices. 

These  they  raise  from  a  considerable  depth  under 
ground,  excavating  the  clay  with  their  mandibles,  and 
moistening  it  wifli  tenacious  saliva1  until  it  assume  the 
appearance,  and  almost  the  consistency,  of  sandstone. 
So  delicate  is  the  trituration  to  which  they  subject  this 
material,  that  the  goldsmiths  of  Ceylon  employ  the 
powdered  clay  of  the  ant  hills  in  preference  to  all  other 
substances  in  the  preparation  of  crucibles  and  moulds 
for  their  finer  castings  ;  and  KNOX  says,  "  the  people 
use  this  clay  to  make  their  earthen  gods  of,  it  is  so 
pure  and  fine."2  These  structures  the  termites  erect 
with  such  perseverance  and  durability  that  they  fre- 
quently rise  to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  from 
the  ground,  with  a  corresponding  diameter.  They  are 


1  It  becomes  an  interesting  question 
•whence  the  termites  derive  the  large 
supplies  of  moisture  with  which  they 
not  only  temper  the  clay  for  the  con- 
struction of  their  long  covered-ways 
above  ground,  but  for  keeping  their 
passages  uniformly  damp  and  cool 
below  the  surface.  Yet  their  habits 
in  this  particular  are  unvarying,  in 
the  seasons  of  droughts  as  well  as  after 
rain  ;  in  the  driest  and  least  promis- 
ing positions,  in  situations  inaccessible 
to  drainage  from  above,  and  cut  off  by 
rocks  and  impervious  strata  from 
springs  from  below.  Dr.  Living- 
stone, struck  with  this  phenomenon 
in  Southern  Africa,  asks :  "  Can  the 
white  ante  possess  the  power  of  com- 
bining the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  of 
their  vegetable  food  by  vital  force  so 
as  to  form  water  ?  "  —  Travels,  p.  22. 
And  he  describes  at  Angola  an  insect* 


resembling  the  Aphrophora  spumaria ; 
seven  or  eight  individuals  of  which 
distil  several  pints  of  water  every 
night,— P.  414.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  termites  are  endowed  with 
some  such  faculty  :  nor  is  it  more  re- 
markable that  an  insect  should  com- 
bine the  gases  of  its  food  to  produce 
water,  than  that  a  fish  should  decom- 
pose water  in  order  to  provide  itself 
with  gas.  FotmcROix  found  the  con- 
tents of  the  air-bladder  in  a  carp  to 
be  pure  nitrogen. — Yarrell,  vol.  i.  p. 
42.  And  the  aquatic  larva  of  the 
dragon-fly  extracts  air  for  its  respira- 
tion from  the  water  in  which  it  is 
submerged.  A  similar  mystery  per- 
vades the  inquiry  whence  plants  under 
peculiar  circumstances  derive  the 
water  essential  to  vegetation. 

3  KNOX'S  Ceylon,  Part  I.   ch.   vi. 
p.  24. 


1  A.govdottif    Bennett. 


254 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  IT. 


so  firm  in  their  texture  that  the  weight  of  a  horse  makes 
no  apparent  indentation  on  their  solidity ;  and  even  the 
intense  rains  of  the  monsoon,  which  no  cement  or  mortar 
can  long  resist,  fail  to  penetrate  the  surface  or  substance 
of  an  ant  hill.1  In  their  earlier  stages  the  termites 
proceed  with  such  energetic  rapidity,  that  I  have  seen  a 
pinnacle  of  moist  clay,  six  inches  in  height  and  twice  as 
large  in  diameter,  constructed  underneath  a  table  between 
sitting  down  to  dinner  and  the  removal  of  the  cloth. 

As  these  lofty  mounds  of  earth  have  all  been  carried 
up  from  beneath  the  surface,  a  cave  of  corresponding 
dimensions  is  necessarily  scooped  out  below,  and  here, 
under  the  multitude  of  miniature  cupolas  and  pinnacles 
which  canopy  it  above,  the  termites  hollow  out  the  royal 
chamber  for  their  queen,  with  spacious  nurseries  sur- 
rounding it  on  all  sides.  Store-rooms  and  magazines 
occupy  the  lower  apartments,  and  all  are  connected  by 
arched  galleries,  long  passages,  and  doorways  of  the 
most  intricate  and  elaborate  construction.  In  the 
centre  and  underneath  the  spacious  dome  is  the  recess 
for  the  queen — a  hideous  creature,  with  the  head  and 
thorax  of  an  ordinary  termite,  but  a  body  swollen  to  a 
hundred  times  its  usual  and  proportionate  bulk,  and 
presenting  the  appearance  of  a  mass  of  shapeless  pulp. 
From  this  great  progenitrix  proceed  the  myriads  that 
people  the  subterranean  hive,  consisting,  like  the  com- 


1  Dr.  HOOKER,  in  his  Himalayan 
Journal  (vol.  i.  p.  20)  is  of  opinion 
that  the  nests  of  the  termites  are  not 
independent  structures,  but  that  their 
nucleus  is  "  the  debris  of  clumps  of 
bamboos  or  the  trunks  of  large  trees 
which  these  insects  have  destroyed." 
He  supposes  that  the  dead  tree  falls 
leaving  the  stump  coated  with  sand, 
ivhich  the  action  of  the  weather  soon 
fashions  into  a  cone.  But  indepen- 
dently of  the  fact  that  the  "  action  of 
the  weather "  produces  little  or  no 


effect  on  the  closely  cemented  clay  of 
the  white  ants'  nest,  they  may  be 
daily  seen  constructing  their  edih'ces 
in  the  very  form  of  a  cone,  which 
they  ever  after  retain.  Besides  which, 
they  appear  in  the  midst  of  terraces 
and  fields  where  no  trees  are  to  be 
seen ;  and  Dr.  Hooker  seems  to  over- 
look the  fact  that  the  termites  rarely 
attack  a  living  tree ;  and  although 
their  nests  may  be  built  against  one, 
it  continues  to  flourish  not  the  less 
for  their  presence. 


CHAP.  VI.]  WHITE   ANTS.  255 

mimities  of  the  genuine  ants,  of  labourers  and  soldiers, 
which  are  destined  never  to  acquire  a  fuller  development 
than  that  of  larvae,  and  the  perfect  insects  which  in  due 
time  become  invested  with  wings  and  take  their  depart- 
ing flight  from  the  cave.  But  their  new  equipment 
seems  only  destined  to  facilitate  their  dispersion  from 
the  parent  nest,  which  takes  place  at  dusk ;  and  almost 
as  quickly  as  they  leave  it  they  divest  themselves  of 
their  ineffectual*  wings,  waving  them  impatiently  and 
twisting  them  in  every  direction  till  they  become  de- 
tached and  drop  off,  and  the  swarm,  within  a  few  hours 
of  their  emancipation,  become  a  prey  to  the  night-jars 
and  bats,  which  are  instantly  attracted  to  them  as  they 
issue  in  a  cloud  from  the  ground.  I  am  not  prepared 
to  say  that  the  other  insectivorous  birds  would  not 
gladly  make  a  meal  of  the  termites,  but,  seeing  that  in 
Ceylon  their  numbers  are  chiefly  kept  in  check  by  the 
crepuscular  birds,  it  is  observable,  at  least  as  a  coinci- 
dence, that  the  dispersion  of  the  swarm  generally  takes 
place  at  twilight  Those  that  escape  the  caprimulgi  fall 
a  prey  to  the  crows,  in  the  morning  succeeding  their 
flight. 

The  strange  peculiarity  of  the  omnivorous  ravages 
of  the  white  ants  is  that  they  shrink  from  the  light, 
in  ah1  their  expeditions  for  providing  food  they  con- 
struct a  covered  pathway  of  moistened  clay,  and  their 
galleries  above  ground  extend  to  an  incredible  distance 
from  the  central  nest.  No  timber,  except  ebony  and 
ironwood,  which  are  too  hard,  and  those  which  are 
strongly  impregnated  with  camphor  or  aromatic  oils, 
which  they  dislike,  presents  any  obstacle  to  their  ingress. 
I  have  had  a  case  of  wine  filled,  in  the  course  of  two 
days,  with  almost  solid  clay,  and  only  discovered  the  pre- 
sence of  the  white  ants  by  the  escape  from  the  corks.  I 
have  had  a  portmanteau  in  my  tent  so  peopled  with  them 
in  the  course  of  a  single  night  that  the  contents  were 
found  worthless  in  the  morning.  In  an  incredibly  short 


256 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PAKT  II. 


time  a  detachment  of  these  pests  will  destroy  a  press  full 
of  records,  reducing  the  paper  to  fragments ;  and  a  shelf 
of  books  will  be  tunnelled  into  a  gallery  if  it  happen  to 
be  in  their  line  of  march.  The  timbers  of  a  house  when 
fairly  attacked  are  eaten  from  within  till  the  beams  are 
reduced  to  an  absolute  shell,  so  thin  that  it  may  be 
punched  through  with  the  point  of  the  finger :  and  even 
kyanized  wood,  unless  impregnated  with  an  extra  quantity 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  appears  to  occasion  them  no  in- 
convenience. The  only  effectual  precaution  for  the  pro- 
tection of  furniture  is  incessant  vigilance  —  the  constant 
watching  of  every  article,,  and  its  daily  removal  from 
place  to  place,  in  order  to  baffle  their  assaults. 

They  do  not  appear  in  the  hills  above  the  elevation  of 
2000  feet.  One  species  of  white  ant,  the  Termes  Tapro- 
banes,  was  at  one  time  believed  by  Mr.  Walker  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  island,  but  it  has  recently  been  found 
in  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  and  in  some  parts  of  Hin- 
dustan. 

HYMEXOPTERA.  Mason  •Wasp.  —  In  Ceylon  as  in  all 
other  countries,  the  order  of  hymenopterous  insects 
arrests  us  less  by  the  beauty  of  their  forms  than  the 
marvels  of  their  sagacity  and  the  achievements  of  their 
instinct.  A  fossorial  wasp  of  the  family  of  Sphegidce  *, 
which  is  distinguished  by  its  metallic  lustre,  enters  by 
the  open  windows,  and  changes  irritation  at  its  movements 
into  admiration  of  the  graceful  industry  with  which  it 
stops  up  the  keyholes  and  similar  apertures  with  clay  in 
order  to  build  in  them  a  cell.  Into  this  it  thrusts  the 
pupa  of  some  other  insect,  within  whose  body  it  has  pre- 
viously introduced  its  own  eggs  ;  and,  enclosing  the  whole 
with  moistened  earth,  the  young  parasite,  after  under- 
going its  transformations,  gnaws  its  way  into  light,  and 
emerges  a  four-winged  fly.2 


1  It  belongs  to  the  genu 
P.  Spinolte,  St.  Fargeau.  The  Ampulex 
compressa,  which  drags  about  the  lar- 
va) of  cockroaches  into  which  it  has 


implanted   its  eggs,   belongs   to  the 
same  family. 

2  Mr.  E.  L.  Layard  has  given  an 
interesting  account    of   this  Mason 


CHAP.  VI.] 


WASPS. 


257 


Wasps.  —  Of  the  wasps,  one  formidable  species 
(Sphex  ferruginea  of  St.  Fargeau),  which  is  common  to 
India  and  most  of  the  eastern  islands,  is  regarded  with 
the  utmost  dread  by  the  unclad  natives,  who  fly  preci- 
pitately on  finding  themselves  in  the  vicinity1  of  its 
nests.  These  are  of  such  ample  dimensions,  that  when 
suspended  from  a  branch,  they  often  measure  upwards 
of  six  feet  in  length.2 

Bees.  —  Bees^of  several  species  and  genera,  some 
divested  of  stings,  and  some  in  .size  scarcely  exceeding 
a  house-fly,  deposit  their  honey  in  hollow  trees,  or 
suspend  their  combs  from  a  branch.  The  spoils  of  their 
industry  form  one  of  the  chief  resources  of  the  uncivi- 
lised Veddahs,  who  collect  the  wax  in  the  upland 


wasp  in  the  Annals  and  Magazine  of 
Nat.  History  for  May,  1853. 

"  I  have  frequently,"  he  says,  "  se- 
lected one  of  these  flies  for  observa- 
tion, and  have  seen  their  labours  ex- 
tend over  a  period  of  a  fortnight  or 
twenty  days  ;  sometimes  only  half  a 
cell  was  completed  in  a  day,  at  others 
as  much  as  two.  I  never  saw  more 
than  twenty  cells  in  one  nest,  seldom 
indeed  that  number,  and  whence  the 
caterpillars  were  procured  was  always 
to  me  a  mystery.  I  have  seen  thirty 
or  forty  brought  in  of  a  species  which 
I  knew  to  be  very  rare  in  the  perfect 
state,  and  which  I  had  sought  for  in 
vain,  although  I  knew  on  what  plant 
they  fed. 

"  Then  again  how  are  they  disabled 
by  the  wasp,  and  yet  not  injured  so 
as  to  cause  their  immediate  death? 
Die  they  all  do,  at  least  all  that  I 
have  ever  tried  to  rear,  after  taking 
them  from  the  nest. 

"  The  perfected  fly  never  effects  its 
egress  from  the  closed  aperture, 
through  which  the  caterpillars  were 
inserted,  and  when  cells  are  placed 
end  to  end,  as  they  are  in  many  in- 
stances, the  outward  end  of  each  is 
always  selected.  I  cannot  detect  any 
difference  in  the  thickness  in  the 
crust  of  the  cell  to  cause  this  uni- 
formity of  practice.  It  is  often  as 
much  as  half  an  inch  through,  of 

VOL.   I. 


great  hardness,  and  as  far  as  I  can  see 
impervious  to  air  and  light.  How 
then  does  the  enclosed  fly  always 
select  the  right  end,  and  with  what 
secretion  is  it  supplied  to  decompose 
this  mortar  ?  " 

1  It  ought  to  be  remembered   in 
travelling  in   the  forests  of  Ceylon 
that  sal  volatile  applied  immediately 
is  a  specific  for  the  sting  of  a  wasp. 

2  At  the  January  (1839)  meeting 
of  the    Entomological  Society,  Mr. 
Whitehouse  exhibited  portions  of  a 
wasps'  nest  from    Ceylon,  between 
seven  and   eight  feet  long  and  two 
feet  in  diameter,    and  showed  that 
the  construction  of  the  cells  was  per- 
fectly analogous  to  those  of  the  hive 
bee,  and  that  when  connected  each 
has  a  tendency  to  assume  a  circular 
outline.      In   one    specimen    where 
there  were  three    cells    united   the 
outer  part  was  circular,  whilst  the 
portions  common  to  the  three  formed 
straight  walls.     From  this  Singhalese 
nest  Mr.  Whitehouse  demonstrated 
that  the  wasps  at  the  commencement 
of  their  comb  proceed  slowly,  form- 
ing the  bases  of  several    together, 
whereby  they  assume  the  hexagonal 
shape,  whereas,  if  constructed  sepa- 
rately, he  thought  each  single  cell 
woidd  be  circular.     See  Proc.  Ent. 
Soc.  vol.  iii.  p.  xvi. 


258 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


forests,  to  be  bartered  for  arrow  points  and  clothes  in  the 
lowlands.1  I  have  never  heard  of  an  instance  of  persons 
being  attacked  by  the  bees  of  Ceylon,  and  hence  the 
natives  assert,  that  those  most  productive  of  honey  are 
destitute  of  stings. 

The  Carpenter  Bee.  —  The  operations  of  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  the  tribe,  the  Carpenter  bee''5,  I  have 
watched  with  admiration  from  the  window  of  the  Colo- 
nial Secretary's  official  residence  at  Kandy.  So  soon  as 
the  day  grew  warm,  these  active  creatures  were  at  work 
perforating  the  wooden  columns  which  supported  the 
verandah.  They  poised  themselves  on  their  shining 
purple  wings,  as  they  made  the  first  lodgment  in  the 
wood,  enlivening  the  work  with  an  uninterrupted  hum  of 
delight,  which  was  audible  to  a  considerable  distance. 
When  the  excavation  had  proceeded  so  far  that  the 
insect  could  descend  into  it,  the  music  was  suspended, 
but  renewed  from  time  to  time,  as  the  little  creature  came 
to  the  orifice  to  throw  out  the  chips,  to  rest,  or  to  enjoy 
the  fresh  air.  By  degrees,  a  mound  of  saw-dust  was 
formed  at  the  base  of  the  pillar,  consisting  of  particles 
abraded  by  the  mandibles  of  the  bee.  These,  when 
the  hollow  was  completed  to  the  depth  of  several  inches, 
were  partially  replaced  in  the  excavation  after  being 
agglutinated  to  form  partitions  between  the  eggs,  as 
they  are  deposited  within. 

Ants. — As  to  ants,  I  apprehend  that,  notwithstand- 
ing their  numbers  and  familiarity,  information  is  very 
imperfect  relative  to  the  varieties  and  habits  of  these 
marvellous  insects  in  Ceylon.3  In  point  of  multitude 


1  A  gentleman  connected  with  the 
department  of  the  Surveyor-General 
writes  to  me  that  he  measured  a 
honey-comb  which  he  found  fastened 
to  the  overhanging  branch  of  a  small 
tree  in  the  forest  near  Adam's  Peak, 
and  found  it  nine  links  of  his  chain 
or  about  six  feet  in  length  and  a  foot 
in  breadth  where  it  was  attached  to 
the  branch,  but  tapering  towards  the 


other  extremity.  "It  was  a  single 
comb  with  a  layer  of  cells  on  either 
side,  but  so  weighty  that  the  branch 
broke  by  the  strain." 

2  Xylocapa  tenuiscapa,  Westw. ;  X. 
latipes,  Drury. 

3  Mr.  Jerdan,  in  a  series  of  papers 
in  the  thirteenth  volume  of  the  Annals 
of  Natural  History,    has   described 
forty-seven  species  of  ants  in  South- 


CHAP.  VI.]  AXTS.  25$ 

it  is  scarcely  an  exaggeration  to  apply  to  them  the 
figure  of  "  the  sands  of  the  sea."  They  are  every- 
where ;  in  the  earth,  in  the  houses,  and  in  the  trees ; 
they  are  to  be  seen  in  every  room  and  cupboard,  and 
almost  on  every  plant  in  the  jungle.  To  some  of  the 
latter  they  are,  perhaps,  attracted  by  the  sweet  juices 
secreted  by  the  aphides  and  coccidse.  Such  is  the  pas- 
sion of  the  ants  for  sugar,  and  their  wonderful  faculty 
of  discovering  if,  that  the  smallest  particle  of  a  substance 
containing  it,  though  placed  in  the  least  conspicuous 
position,  is  quickly  covered  with  them,  where  not  a  single 
one  may  have  been  visible  a  moment  before.  But  it  is 
not  sweet  substances  alone  that  they  attack;  no  animal 
or  vegetable  matter  comes  amiss  to  them ;  no  aperture 
appears  too  small  to  admit  them ;  it  is  necessary  to  place 
everything  which  it  may  be  desirable  to  keep  free  from 
their  invasion,  under  the  closest  cover,  or  on  tables  with 
cups  of  water  under  every  foot.  As  scavengers,  they 
are  invaluable ;  and  as  ants  never  sleep,  but  work 
without  cessation,  during  the  night  as  well  as  by  day, 
every  particle  of  decaying  vegetable  or  putrid  animal 
matter  is  removed  with  inconceivable  speed  and  certainty. 
In  collecting  shells,  I  have  been  able  to  turn  this  pro- 
pensity to  good  account ;  by  placing  them  within  their 
reach,  the  ants  in  a  few  days  removed  every  vestige  of 
the  mollusc  from  the  innermost  and  otherwise  inaccessible 
whorls ;  thus  avoiding  all  risk  of  injuring  the  enamel  by 
any  mechanical  process. 

But  the  assaults  of  the  ants  are  not  confined  to  dead 
animals  alone,  they  attack  equally  such  small  insects  as 
they  can  overcome,  or  find  disabled  by  accidents  or 
wounds ;  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  some  hundreds  of 


em  India.  But  M.  Nietner  has  re- 
cently forwarded  to  the  Berlin  Mu- 
seum upwards  of  seventy  species 
taken  by  him  in  Ceylon,  chiefly  in  the 
western  province  and  the  vicinity  of 
Colombo.  Of  these  many  are  iden- 


tical with  those  noted  by  Mr.  Jerdan 
as  belonging  to  the  Indian  continent. 
One  (probably  Drepanoynathus  sal- 
tator  of  Jerdan)  is  described  by  M. 
Nietner  as  "moving  by  jumps  of 
several  inches  at  a  spring." 


s  2 


2GO  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

them  surrounding  a  maimed  beetle,  or  a  bruised  cock- 
roach, and  hurrying  it  along  in  spite  of  its  struggles.  I 
have,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  seen  a  contest  between 
them  and  one  of  the  viscous  ophidians,  Ccecilia  glutinosa1, 
a  reptile  resembling  an  enormous  earthworm,  common  in 
the  Kandyan  hills,  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  nearly  two 
feet  in  length.  It  would  seem  on  these  occasions  as  if  the 
whole  community  had  been  summoned  and  turned  out 
for  such  a  prodigious  effort ;  they  surrounded  their  victim 
literally  in  tens  of  thousands,  inflicting  wounds  on  all 
parts,  and  forcing  it  along  towards  their  nest  in  spite 
of  resistance.  In  one  instance  to  which  I  was  a  wit- 
ness, the  conflict  lasted  for  the  latter  part  of  a  day, 
but  towards  evening  the  Ccecilia  was  completely  ex- 
hausted, and  in  the  morning  it  had  totaUy  disappeared, 
having  been  carried  away  either  whole  or  piecemeal  by 
its  assailants. 

The  species  I  here  allude  to,  is  a  very  small  ant, 
called  the  Koombiya  in  Ceylon.  There  is  a  still 
more  minute  description,  which  frequents  the  caraffes 
and  toilet  vessels,  and  is  evidently  a  distinct  species. 
A  third,  probably  the  Formica  nidificans  of  Jerdan,  is 
black,  of  the  same  size  as  that  last  mentioned,  and, 
from  its  colour,  called  the  Kalu  koombiya  by  the 
natives.  In  the  houses  its  propensities  and  habits  are 
the  same  as  those  of  the  others;  but  I  have  observed 
that  it  frequents  the  trees  more  profusely,  forming  small 
paper  cells  for  its  young,  like  miniature  wasps'  nests,  in 
which  it  deposits  its  eggs,  suspending  them  from  the  leaf 
of  a  plant. 

The  most  formidable  of  all  is  the  great  red  ant  or 
Dimiya.2  It  is  particularly  abundant  in  gardens,  and 
on  fruit  trees ;  it  constructs  its  dwellings  by  glueing 
the  leaves  of  such  species  as  are  suitable  from  their 
shape  and  pliancy  into  hollow  balls,  and  these  it  lines 
with  a  kind  of  transparent  paper,  like  that  manufac- 


See  anta,  Pt.  I.  ch.  iii.  p.  201.  2  Formica  smaraydina,  Fab. 


CHAP.  VI.]  ANTS.  261 

tured  by  the  wasp.  I  have  watched  them  at  the  inter- 
esting operation  of  forming  these  dwellings ;  —  a  line 
of  ants  standing  on  the  edge  of  one  leaf  bring  another 
into  contact  with  it,  and  hold  both  together  with 
their  mandibles  till  their  companions  within  attach 
them  firmly  by  means  of  their  adhesive  paper,  the 
assistants  outside  moving  along  as  the  work  proceeds. 
If  it  be  necessary  to  draw  closer  a  leaf  too  distant  to 
be  laid  hold  of*by  the  immediate  workers,  they  form  a 
chain  by  depending  one  from  the  other  till  the  object  is 
reached,  when  it  is  at  length  brought  into  contact,  and 
made  fast  by  cement. 

Like,  all  their  race,  these  ants  are  in  perpetual 
motion,  forming  lines  on  the  ground  along  which  they 
pass,  in  continual  procession  to  and  from  the  trees  on 
which  they  reside.  They  are  the  most  irritable  of  the 
whole  order  in  Ceylon,  biting  with  such  intense  ferocity  as 
to  render  it  difficult  for  the  unclad  natives  to  collect  the 
fruit  from  the  mango  trees,  which  the  red  ants  espe- 
cially frequent.  They  drop  from  the  branches  upon 
travellers  in  the  jungle,  attacking  them  with  venom  and 
fury,  and  inflicting  intolerable  pain  both  upon  animals  and 
man.  On  examining  the  structure  of  the  head  through  a 
microscope,  I  found  that  the  mandibles,  instead  of  merely 
meeting  in  contact,  are  so  hooked  as  to  cross  each  other 
at  the  points,  whilst  the  inner  line  is  sharply  serrated 
throughout  its  entire  length ;  thus  occasioning  the  intense 
pain  of  their  bite,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  ordinary 
ant. 

To  check  the  ravages  of  the  coffee  bug  (Lecanium 
coffece,  Walker),  which  for  some  years  past  has  devastated 
some  of  the  plantations  in  Ceylon,  the  experiment  was 
made  of  introducing  the  red  ants,  who  feed  greedily  on 
the  Coccus.  But  the  remedy  threatened  to  be  attended 
with  some  inconvenience,  for  the  Malabar  Coolies,  with 
bare  and  oiled  skins,  were  so  frequently  and  fiercely 
assaulted  by  the  ants  as  to  endanger  their  stay  on  the 
estates. 

s  3 


262  ZOOLOGY.  [PAST  II. 

The  ants  which  burrow  in  the  ground  in  Ceylon  are 
generally,  but  not  invariably,  black,  and  some  of  them  are 
of  considerable  size.  One  species,  about  the  third  of  an 
inch  in  length,  is  abundant  in  the  hills,  and  especially  about 
the  roots  of  trees,  where  they  pile  up  the  earth  in  circular 
heaps  round  the  entrance  to  their  nests,  and  in  doing  this 
I  have  observed  a  singular  illustration  of  their  instinct.  To 
carry  up  each  particle  of  sand  by  itself  would  be  an  end- 
less waste  of  labour,  and  to  carry  two  or  more  loose  ones 
securely  would  be  to  them  embarrassing,  if  not  impossible. 
To  overcome  the  difficulty  they  glue  together  with  their 
saliva  so  much  earth  or  sand  as  is  sufficient  for  a  burden, 
and  each  ant  may  be  seen  hurrying  up  from  below  with 
his  load,  carrying  it  to  the  top  of  the  circular  heap  out- 
side, and  throwing  it  over,  whilst  it  is  so  strongly  attached 
as  to  roll  to  the  bottom  without  breaking  asunder. 

The  ants  I  have  been  here  describing  are  inoffensive,  dif- 
fering in  this  particular  from  the  Dimiya  and  another  of 
similar  size  and  ferocity,  which  is  called  by  the  Singhalese 
Kaddiya.  They  have  a  legend  illustrative  of  their  alarm 
for  the  bites  of  the  latter,  to  the  effect  that  the  cobra  de 
capello  invested  the  Kaddiya  with  her  own  venom  in  admi- 
ration of  the  singular  courage  displayed  by  these  little 
creatures.1 

LEPIDOPTERA.  Butterflies. — In  the  interior  of  the  island 
butterflies  are  comparatively  rare,  and,  contrary  to  the  ordi- 
nary belief,  they  are  seldom  to  be  seen  in  the  sunshine. 
They  frequent  the  neighbourhood  of  the  jungle,  and  espe- 
cially the  vicinity  of  the  rivers  and  waterfalls,  living  mainly 
in  the  shade  of  the  moist  foliage,  and  returning  to  it  in  haste 
after  the  shortest  flights,  as  if  their  slender  bodies  were 
speedily  dried  up  and  exhausted  by  the  exposure  to  the 
intense  heat. 

Among  the  largest  and  most  gaudy  of  the  Ceylon  Lepi- 
doptera  is  the  great  black  and  yellow  butte&y(0rnitkoptera 


KNOX'S  Historical  Relation  of  Ceylon,  pt.  i.  ch.  vi.  p.  23. 


CHAP.  VI.]  BUTTERFLIES.  263 

darsius,  Gray) ;  the  upper  wings  of  which  measure  "six 
inches  across,  and  are  of  deep  velvet  black,  the  lower, 
ornamented  by  large  particles  of  satiny  yellow,  through 
which  the  sunlight  passes.  Few  insects  can  compare  with 
it  in  beauty,  as  it  hovers  over  the  flowers  of  the  helio- 
trope, which  furnish  the  favourite  food  of  the  perfect  fly, 
although  the  caterpillar  feeds  on  the  aristolochia  and  the 
betel  leaf,  and  suspends  its  chrysalis  from  its  drooping 
tendrils. 

Next  in  size  as  to  expanse  of  wing,  though  often 
exceeding  it  in  breadth,  is  the  black  and  blue  Papilio 
Polymnestor,  which  darts  rapidly  through  the  air, 
alighting  on  the  ruddy  flowers  of  the  hibiscus,  or  the 
dark  green  foliage  of  the  citrus,  on  which  it  deposits 
its  eggs.  The  larvae  of  this  species  are  green  with  white 
bands,  and  have  a  hump  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  segment. 
From  this  hump  the  caterpillar,  on  being  irritated,  pro- 
trudes a  singular  horn  of  an  orange  colour,  bifurcate  at 
the  extremity,  and  covered  with  a  pungent  mucilaginous 
secretion.  This  is  evidently  intended  as  a  weapon  of 
defence  against  the  attack  of  the  ichneumon  flies,  that 
deposit  their  eggs  in  its  soft  body,  for  when  the  grub  is 
pricked,  either  by  the  ovipositor  of  the  ichneumon,  or 
by  any  other  sharp  instrument,  the  horn  is  at  once  pro- 
truded, and  struck  upon  the  offending  object  with  un- 
erring aim. 

Amongst  the  more  common  of  the  larger  butterflies  is 
the  P.  Hector,  with  gorgeous  crimson  spots  set  in  the 
black  velvet  of  the  inferior  wings ;  these,  when  fresh,  are 
shot  with  a  purple  blush,  equalling  in  splendour  the  azure 
of  the  European  "  Emperor" 

Another  butterfly,  but  belonging  to  a  widely  different 
group,  is  the  "  sylph"  (Hestia  Jasonia),  called  by  the  Euro- 
peans by  the  various  names  of  Floater,  Spectre,  and  Silver- 
paper-fly,  as  indicative  of  its  graceful  flight.  It  is  found 
only  in  the  deep  shade  of  the  damp  forest,  usually  fre- 
quenting the  vicinity  of  pools  of  water  and  cascades,  about 
which  it  sails  heedless  of  the  spray,  the  moisture  of  which 

s  4 


264  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

may  even  be  beneficial  in  preserving  the  elasticity  of  its 
thin  and  delicate  wings,  that  bend  and  undulate  in  the  act 
of  flight. 

The  Lyccenidce *,  a  particularly  attractive  group,  abound 
near  the  enclosures  of  cultivated  grounds,  and  amongst  the 
low  shrubs  edging  the  patenas,  flitting  from  flower  to 
flower,  inspecting  each  in  turn,  as  if  attracted  by 
their  beauty,  in  the  full  blaze  of  sun-light ;  and  shunning 
exposure  less  sedulously  than  the  other  diurnals.  Some 
of  the  more  robust  kinds2  are  magnificent  in  the 
bright  light,  from  the  splendour  of  their  metallic  blues 
and  glowing  purples,  but  they  yield  in  elegance  of  form 
and  variety  to  their  tinier  and  more  delicately-coloured 
congeners. 

Short  as  is  the  eastern  twilight,  it  has  its  own  peculiar 
forms,  and  the  naturalist  marks  with  interest  the  small, 
but  strong,  Hesperiidce3,  hurrying,  by  abrupt  and  jerk- 
ing flights,  to  the  scented  blossoms  of  the  champac  or 
the  sweet  night-blowing  moon-flower ;  and,  when  dark- 
ness gathers  around,  we  can  hear,  though  hardly  distin- 
guish amid  the  gloom,  the  humming  of  the  powerful 
wings  of  innumerable  hawk  moths,  which  hover  with  their 
long  proboscides  inserted  into  the  starry  petals  of  the  peri- 
winkle. 

Conspicuous  amidst  these  nocturnal  moths  is  the  richly- 
coloured  Acherontia  Satanas,  one  of  the  Singhalese  repre- 
sentatives of  our  Death's-head  moth,  which  utters  a 
sharp  and  stridulous  cry  when  seized.  This  sound  has 
been  conjectured  to  be  produced  by  the  friction  of 
its  thorax  against  the  abdomen ;  —  Eeaumur  believed 
it  to  be  caused  by  rubbing  the  palpi  against  the  tongue. 
I  have  never  been  able  to  observe  either  motion,  and  Mr. 
E.  L.  Layard  is  of  opinion  that  the  sound  is  emitted 
from  two  apertures  concealed  by  tufts  of  wiry  bristles 


1  Lycama  polyommatus,  $c.  j       3  PampMa  hesperia,  $c, 

3  Amblypodia  pseudocentaurus,  fyc.     I 


CHAP.  VI.] 


MOTHS. 


265 


thrown  out  from  each  side  of  the  inferior  portion  of  the 
thorax.1 

Moths.  —  Among  the  strictly  nocturnal  Lepidoptera 
are  some  gigantic  species.  Of  these  the  cinnamon-eat- 
ing Atlas,  often  attains  the  dimensions  of  nearly  a  foot 
in  the  stretch  of  its  superior  wings.  It  is  very  common 
in  the  gardens  about  Colombo,  and  its  size,  and  the  trans- 
parent talc-like  spots  in  its  wings  cannot  fail  to  strike 
even  the  most"  careless  saunterer.  But  little  inferior 
to  it  in  size  is  the  famed  Tusseh  silk  moth2,  which 
feeds  on  the  country  almond  (Terminalia  catappa)  and 
the  palma  Christi  or  Castor-oil  plant;  it  is  easily  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  Atlas,  which  has  a  triangular 
wing,  whilst  its  is  falcated,  and  the  transparent  spots  are 
covered  with  a  curious  thread-like  division  drawn  across 
them. 

Towards  the  northern  portions  of  the  island  this 
valuable  species  entirely  displaces  the  other,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  almond  and  palma  Christi  abound 
there.  The  latter  plant  springs  up  spontaneously  on 
every  manure-heap  or  neglected  spot  of  ground;  and 
might  be  cultivated,  as  in  India,  with  great  advantage, 
the  leaf  to  be  used  as  food  for  the  caterpillar,  the  stalk 
as  fodder  for  cattle,  and  the  seed  for  the  expression  of 
castor-oil.  The  Dutch  took  advantage  of  this  facility, 
and  gave  every  encouragement  to  the  cultivation  of  silk 
at  Jaffna3,  but  it  never  attained  such  a  development  as  to 


1  There  is  another  variety  of  the 
same  moth  in  Ceylon  which  closely 
resembles  it  in  its  markings,  but  I 
have  never  detected  in  it  the  utter- 
ance of  this  curious  cry.  It  is  smaller 
than  the  A.  Satanas,  and,  like  it,  often 
enters  dwellings  at  night,  attracted 
by  the  lights  ;  but  I  have  not  found 
its  larvae,  although  that  of  the  other 
species  is  common  on  several  widely 
different  plants. 

z  Anthercea  mylitta,  Drury. 

3  The  Portuguese  had  made  the 
attempt  previous  to  the  arrival  of  the 
Dutch,  and  a  strip  of  land  on  the 


banks  of  the  Kalany  river  near  Co- 
lombo, still  bears  the  name  of  Orta 
Seda,  the  silk  garden.  The  attempt 
of  the  Dutch  to  introduce  the  true 
silkworm,  the  Bombyx  mart,  took 
place  under  the  governorship  of 
Ryklof  Van  Goens,  who,  on  handing 
over  the  administration  to  his  suc- 
cessor in  A.D.  1GG3,  thus  apprises  him 
of  the  initiation  of  the  experiment : 
—  "  At  Jaffna  Palace  a  trial  has  been 
undertaken  to  feed  silkworms,  and  to 
ascertain  whether  silk  may  be  reared 
at  that  station.  I  have  planted  a 
quantity  of  mulberry  trees,  which 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


become  an  article  of  commercial  importance.  Ceylon 
now  cultivates  no  silkworms  whatever,  notwithstanding 
this  abundance  of  the  favourite  food  of  one  species ;  and 
the  rich  silken  robes  sometimes  worn  by  the  Buddhist 
priesthood  are  still  imported  from  China  and  the  con- 
tinent of  India. 

In  addition  to  the  Atlas  moth  and  the  Mylitta,  there 
are  many  other  Bombycidce  in  Ceylon ;  and,  though  the 
silk  of  some  of  them,  were  it  susceptible  of  being  un- 
wound from  the  cocoon,  would  not  bear  a  comparison 
with  that  of  the  Bombyx  mori,  or  even  of  the  Tusseh 
moth,  it  might  still  prove  to  be  valuable  when  carded  and 
spun.  If  the  European  residents  in  the  colony  would 
rear  the  larree  of  these  Lepidoptera,  and  make  drawings 
of  their  various  changes,  they  would  render  a  possible 
service  to  commerce,  and  a  certain  one  to  entomological 
knowledge. 

The  Wood-carrying  Moth. — There  is  another  family  of 
insects,  the  singular  habits  of  which  will  not  fail  to 
attract  the  traveller  in  the  cultivated  tracts  of  Ceylon 
— these  are  moths  of  the  genus  Oiketicus1,  of  which  the 
females  are  devoid  of  wings,  and  some  possess  no  articu- 
lated feet.  Their  larvas  construct  for  themselves  cases, 
which  they  suspend  to  a  branch  frequently  of  the  pome- 
granate2, surrounding  them  with  the  stems  of  leaves,  and 
thorns  or  pieces  of  twigs  bound  together  by  threads,  till 
the  whole  presents  the  appearance  of  a  bundle  of  rods 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  long ;  and,  from  the  resem- 
blance of  this  to  a  Eoman  fasces,  one  African  species 
has  obtained  the  name  of  "  Lictor."  The  German  ento- 
mologists denominated  the  group  Sack-trager,  the  Singha- 
lese call  them  Dalmea  kattea  or  "  billets  of  firewood,"  and 


grow  well  there,  and  they  ought  to 
be  planted  in  other  directions." — VA- 
LENTYN,  chap.  xiii.  The  growth  of 
the  mulberry  trees  is  noticed  the  year 
after  in  a  report  to  the  governor- 
general  of  India,  but  the  subject 
afterwards  ceased  to  be  attended  to. 
1  Eumeta,  Wlk. 


2  The  singular  instincts  of  a  species 
of  Thecla,  Dipsas  Isocrates,  Fab., 
in  connection  with  the  fruit  of  the 
pomegranate,  were  fully  described  by 
Mr.  Westwood,  in  a  paper  read  before 
the  Entomological  Society  of  London 
in  1835. 


CHAP.  VI.]  BUGS.  267 

regard  the  inmates  as  human  beings,  who,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  stealing  wood  in  some  former  stage  of  existence, 
have  been  condemned  to  undergo  a  metempsychosis 
under  the  form  of  these  insects. 

The  male,  at  the  close  of  the  pupal  rest,  escapes  from 
one  end  of  this  singular  covering,  but  the  female  makes 
it  her  dwelling  for  life  ;  moving  about  with  it  at  pleasure, 
and  entrenching  herself  within  it,  when  alarmed,  by  draw- 
ing together  trie  purse-like  aperture  at  the  open  end. 
Of  these  remarkable  creatures  there  are  five  ascertained 
species  in  Ceylon.  Psyche  DouUedaii,  Westw. ;  Metisa 
plana,  Walker ;  Eumeta  Cramerii,  Westw. ;  E.  Temple- 
tonii,  Westw. ;  and  Cryptothelea  consorta,  Temp. 

All  the  other  tribes  of  minute  Lepidoptera  have  abun- 
dant representatives  in  Ceylon  ;  some  of  them  most 
attractive  from  the  great  beauty  of  their  markings  and 
colouring.  The  curious  little  split-winged  moth  (Ptero- 
phorus)  is  frequently  seen  in  the  cinnamon  gardens  and 
the  vicinity  of  the  fort,  resting  in  the  noonday  heat  in 
the  cool  grass  shaded  by  the  coco-nut  topes.  Three 
species  have  been  captured,  all  characterised  by  the 
same  singular  feature  of  having  the  wings  fan-like,  sepa- 
rated nearly  their  entire  length  into  detached  sections, 
resembling  feathers  in  the  pinions  of  a  bird  expanded  for 
flight. 

HOMOPTERA.  Cicada. — Of  the  Homoptera,  the  one 
which  will  most  frequently  arrest  attention  is  the  cicada, 
which,  resting  high  up  on  the  bark  of  a  tree,  makes  the 
forest  re-echo  with  a  long-sustained  noise  so  curiously  re- 
sembling that  of  a  cutler's  wheel  that  the  creature  pro- 
ducing it  has  acquired  the  highly-appropriate  name  of 
the  "  knife-grinder." 

HEMIPTEEA.  Bugs. — On  the  shrubs  in  his  compound 
the  newly-arrived  traveller  will  be  attracted  by  an  insect 
of  a  pale  green  hue  and  delicately-thin  configuration, 
which,  resting  from  its  recent  flight,  composes  its  scanty 
wings,  and  moves  languidly  along  the  leaf.  But  expe- 
rience will  teach  him  to  limit  his  examination  to  a 


268 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


respectful  view  of  its  attitudes ;  it  is  one  of  a  numerous 
family  of  bugs,  (some  of  them  most  attractive1  in  their 
colouring,)  which  are  inoffensive  if  unmolested,  but  if 
touched  or  irritated,  exhale  an  odour  that,  once  endured, 
is  never  afterwards  forgotten. 

APHANIPTERA.  Fleas. — Fleas  are  equally  numerous, 
and  may  be  seen  in  myriads  in  the  dust  of  the  streets  or 
skipping  in  the  sunbeams  which  fall  on  the  clay  floors  of 
the  cottages.  The  dogs,  to  escape  them,  select  for  their 
sleeping  places  spots  where  a  wood  fire  has  been  pre- 
viously kindled  ;  and  here  prone  on  the  white  ashes,  their 
stomachs  close  to  the  earth,  and  their  hind  legs  extended 
behind,  they  repose  in  comparative  coolness,  and  bid  de- 
fiance to  their  persecutors. 

DIPTEEA.  Mosquitoes. — But  of  all  the  insect  pests 
that  beset  an  unseasoned  European  the  most  provoking 
by  far  are  the  truculent  mosquitoes.2  Even  in  the 
midst  of  endurance  from  their  onslaughts  one  cannot 
but  be  amused  by  the  ingenuity  of  their  movements; 
as  if  aware  of  the  risk  incident  to  an  open  assault,  a 
favourite  mode  of  attack  is,  when  concealed  by  a 
table,  to  assail  the  ankles  through  the  meshes  of  the 
stocking,  or  the  knees  which  are  ineffectually  protected 
by  a  fold  of  Eussian  duck.  When  you  are  reading,  a 
mosquito  will  rarely  settle  on  that  portion  of  your  hand 
which  is  within  range  of  your  eyes,  but  cunningly  steal- 
ing by  the  underside  of  the  book  fastens  on  the  wrist  or 
little  finger,  and  noiselessly  inserts  his  proboscis  there. 
I  have  tested  the  classical  expedient  recorded  by 
Herodotus,  who  states  that  the  fishermen  inhabiting  the 
fens  of  Egypt  cover  their  beds  with  their  nets,  knowing 
that  the  mosquitoes,  although  they  bite  through  linen 


1  Such  as  Cantuo  ocellatus,  I^epto- 
scelis  Marginalis,  Collided  StocJcerius, 
&c.  &c.  Of  the  aquatic  species,  the 
gigantic  JBelostoma  Indicum  cannot 
escape  notice,  attaining  a  size  of  nearly 
three  inches. 


2  Ciikx  laniger  ?  "VVied.  In  Kandy 
Mr.  Thwaites  finds  C.  fuscanus,  C. 
circumvolens,  &c.,  and  one  with  a  most 
formidable  hooked  proboscis,  to  which 
he  has  assigned  the  appropriate  name 
C.  Rer/ius. 


CHAP.  VI.]  CEYLON   INSECTS.  269 

robes,  will  not  venture  though  a  net.1  But,  notwith- 
standing the  opinion  of  Spence2,  that  nets  with  meshes 
an  inch  square  will  effectually  exclude  them,  I  have  been 
satisfied  by  painful  experience  that  (if  the  theory  is  not 
altogether  fallacious)  at  least  the  modern  mosquitoes 
of  Ceylon  are  uninfluenced  by  the  same  considerations 
which  restrained  those  of  the  Me  under  the  successors 
of  Cambyses. 


List  of  Ceylon  Insects. 

For  the  following  list  of  the  insects  of  the  island,  and 
the  remarks  prefixed  to  it,  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  F. 
Walker,  by  whom  it  has  been  prepared  after  a  careful 
inspection  of  the  collections  made  by  Dr.  Templeton, 
Mr.  E.  L.  Layard,  and  others ;  as  well  as  those  in  the 
British  Museum  and  in  the  Museum  of  the  East  India 
Company. 

"  A  short  notice  of  the  aspect  of  the  Island  will  afford  the 
best  means  of  accounting,  in  some  degree,  for  its  entomological 
Fauna :  first,  as  it  is  an  island,  and  has  a  mountainous  central 
region,  the  tropical  character  of  its  productions,  as  in  most 
other  cases,  rather  diminishes,  and  somewhat  approaches  that 
of  higher  latitudes. 

"  The  coast-region  of  Ceylon,  and  fully  one-third  of  its 
northern  part,  have  a  much  drier  atmosphere  than  that  of  the 
rest  of  its  surface ;  and  their  climate  and  vegetation  are  nearly 
similar  to  those  of  the  Carnatic,  with  which  this  island  may 
have  been  connected  at  no  very  remote  period.3  But  if,  on 
the  contrary,  the  land  in  Ceylon  is  gradually  rising,  the  dif- 
ference of  its  Fauna  from  that  of  Central  Hindustan  is  less 
remarkable.  The  peninsula  of  the  Dekkan  might  then  be 
conjectured  to  have  been  nearly  or  wholly  separated  from  the 
central  part  of  Hindustan,  and  confined  to  the  range  of  mount- 
ains along  the  eastern  coast ;  the  insect-fauna  of  which  is  as 


1  HERODOTUS,  Euterpe,  xcv. 

2  KIRBY  and  SPENCE'S  Entomology, 
letter  iv. 


3  On  the  subject  of  this  conjecti 
see  ante,  Vol.  I.  Pt.  I.  ch.  i.  p.  7. 


270  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

yet  almost  unknown,  but  will  probably  be  found  to  have  more 
resemblance  to  that  of  Ceylon  than  to  the  insects  of  northern 
and  western  India — just  as  the  insect-faima  of  Malaya  appears 
more  to  resemble  the  similar  productions  of  Australasia  than 
those  of  the  more  northern  continent. 

"  Mr.  Layard's  collection  was  partly  formed  in  the  dry 
northern  province  of  Ceylon  ;  and  among  them  more  Hindustan 
insects  are  to  be  observed  than  among  those  collected  by  Dr. 
Templeton,  and  found  wholly  in  the  district  between  Colombo 
and  Kandy.  According  to  this  view  the  faunas  of  the  Neilgherry 
Mountains,  of  Central  Ceylon,  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca, 
and  of  Australasia  would  be  found  to  form  one  group ; — while 
those  of  Northern  Ceylon,  of  the  western  Dekkan,  and  of  the 
level  parts  of  Central  Hindustan  would  form  another  of  more 
recent  origin.  The  insect-fauna  of  the  Carnatic  is  also  pro- 
bably similar  to  that  of  the  lowlands  of  Ceylon ;  but  it  is  still 
unexplored.  The  regions  of  Hindustan  in  which  species  have 
been  chiefly  collected,  such  as  Bengal,  Silhet,  and  the  Punjaub, 
are  at  the  distance  of  from  1300  to  1600  miles  from  Ceylon, 
and  therefore  the  insects  of  the  latter  are  fully  as  different  from 
those  of  the  above  regions  as  they  are  from  those  of  Australasia, 
to  which  Ceylon  is  as  near  in  point  of  distance,  and  agrees 
more  with  regard  to  latitude. 

"  Dr.  Hagen  has  remarked  that  he  believes  the  fauna  of  the 
mountains  of  Ceylon  to  be  quite  different  from  that  of  the 
plains  and  of  the  shores.  The  south  and  west  districts  have  a 
very  moist  climate,  and  as  their  vegetation  is  like  that  of  Ma- 
labar, their  insect-fauna  will  probably  also  resemble  that  of  the 
latter  region. 

"  The  insects  mentioned  in  the  following  list  are  thus  dis- 
tributed : — 

Order  COLEOPTEEA. 

"  The  recorded  species  of  Cicindelidee  inhabit  the  plains  or 
the  coast  country  of  Ceylon,  and  several  of  them  are  also  found 
in  Hindustan. 

"  Many  of  the  species  of  Carabidce  and  of  Stapkyli/n&dcB,  es- 
pecially those  collected  by  Mr.  Thwaites,  near  Kandy,  and  by 
M.  Nietner  at  Colombo,  have  much  resemblance  to  the  insects 
of  these  two  families  in  North  Europe;  in  the  Scydmcenidcc, 
Ptiliadce,  PJialacrida;,  Nitidu  Udce,  Colydiadcv,  and  Lathridiadte 
the  northern  form  is  still  more  striking,  and  strongly  contrasts 


CHAP.  VI.]  CEYLON   INSECTS.  271 

with  the  tropical  forms  of  the  gigantic  Copridcc,  Buprestidce, 
and  Cerambycidw,  and  with  the  Elatei*idce,  Lampyridce,  Tene- 
brionidce,  Helopidce,  Meloidce,  Curculionidce,  Prionidce,Ceram- 
bycidce,  Lamiidce,  and  Endomychidce. 

"  The  Copridce,  Dynastidce,  Melolontkidce,  Cetoniadce,  and 
Passalidce  are  well  represented  on  the  plains  and  on  the  coast, 
and  the  species  are  mostly  of  a  tropical  character. 

"  The  Hydrophilidce  have  a  more  northern  aspect,  as  is  gene- 
rally the  case  with  aquatic  species. 

"  The  order  Stl^psiptera  is  here  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  Mordellidce,  and  is  represented  by  the  genus  Myrmecolax, 
which  is  peculiar,  as  yet,  to  Ceylon. 

"  In  the  Curculionidce  the  single  species  of  Apion  will  recall 
to  mind  the  great  abundance  of  that  genus  in  North  Europe. 

"  The  Prionid-ce  and  the  two  following  families  have  been  in- 
vestigated by  Mr.  Pascoe,  and  the  Hispidce,  with  the  five  fol- 
lowing families,  by  Mr.  Baly;  these  two  gentlemen  are  well 
acquainted  with  the  above  tribes  of  beetles,  and  kindly  supplied 
me  with  the  names  of  the  Ceylon  species. 


Order  ORTHOPTERA. 

"  These  insects  in  Ceylon  have  mostly  a  tropical  aspect.  The 
Physapoda,  which  will  probably  be  soon  incorporated  with 
them,  are  likely  to  be  numerous,  though  only  one  species  has 
as  yet  been  noticed. 


Order  NEUROPTERA. 

"  The  list  here  given  is  chiefly  taken  from  the  catalogue  pub- 
lished by  Dr.  Hagen,  and  containing  descriptions  of  the  species 
named  by  him  or  by  M.  Nietner.  They  were  found  in  the  most 
elevated  parts  of  the  island,  near  Eangbodde,  and  Dr.  Hagen 
informs  me  that  not  less  than  500  species  have  been  noticed  in 
Ceylon,  but  that  they  are  not  yet  recorded,  with  the  exception 
of  the  species  here  enumerated.  It  has  been  remarked  that 
the  Trichoptera  and  other  aquatic  Neuroptera  are  less  local  than 
the  land  species,  owing  to  the  more  equable  temperature  of  the 
habitation  of  their  larvae,  and  on  account  of  their  being  often 
conveyed  along  the  whole  length  of  rivers.  The  species  of 
Psocus  in  the  list  are  far  more  numerous  than  those  yet  ob- 
served in  any  other  country,  with  the  exception  of  Europe. 


272  ZOOLOGY.  [PART  II. 

Order  HYMENOPTERA. 

"  In  this  order  the  Formicidce  and  the  Poneridce  are  very  nu- 
merous, as  they  are  in  other  damp  and  woody  tropical  countries. 
Seventy  species  of  ants  have  been  observed,  but  as  yet  few  of 
them  have  been  named.  The  various  other  families  of  aculeate 
Hymenoptera  are  doubtless  more  abundant  than  the  species 
recorded  indicate,  and  it  may  be  safely  reckoned  that  the  para- 
sitic Hymenoptera  in  Ceylon  far  exceed  one  thousand  species  in 
number,  though  they  are  yet  only  known  by  means  of  about  two 
dozen  kinds  collected  at  Kandy  by  Mr.  Thwaites. 

Order  LEPIDOPTERA. 

"  The  fauna  of  Ceylon  is  much  better  known  in  this  order 
than  in  any  other  of  the  insect  tribes,  but  as  yet  the  Lepidoptera 
alone  in  their  class  afford  materials  for  a  comparison  of  the 
productions  of  Ceylon  with  those  of  Hindustan  and  of  Austral- 
asia; 932  species  have  been  collected  by  Dr.  Templeton  and 
by  Mr.  Layard  in  the  central,  western,  and  northern  parts  of  the 
island.  All  the  families,  from  the  Papilionidce  to  the  Tineidce, 
abound,  and  numerous  species  and  several  genera  appear,  as 
yet,  to  be  peculiar  to  the  island.  As  Ceylon  is  situate  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  eastern  regions,  the  list  in  this  volume  will  suitably 
precede  the  descriptive  catalogues  of  the  heterocerous  Lepi- 
doptera of  Hindustan,  Java,  Borneo,  and  of  other  parts  of  Aus- 
tralasia, which  are  being  prepared  for  publication.  In  some  of 
the  heterocerous  families  several  species  are  common  to  Ceylon 
and  to  Australasia,  and  in  various  cases  the  faunas  of  Ceylon  and 
of  Australasia  seem  to  be  more  similar  than  those  of  Ceylon  and 
of  Hindustan.  The  long  intercourse  between  those  two  regions 
may  have  been  the  means  of  conveying  some  species  from  one  to 
the  other.  Among  the  Pyralites,  Hymenia  recurvalis  inhabits 
also  the  West  Indies,  South  America,  West  Africa,  Hindustan, 
China,  Australasia,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  ;  and  its  food- 
plant  is  probably  some  vegetable  which  is  cultivated  in  all  those 
regions;  so  also  Desmia  afflictalis  is  found  in  Sierra  Leone, 
Abyssinia,  Ceylon,  and  China. 

Order  DIPTERA. 

"  About  fifty  species  were  observed  by  Dr.  Templeton,  but 
most  of  those  here  recorded  were  collected  by  Mr.  Thwaites  at 
Kandy,  and  have  a  great  likeness  to  North  European  species. 


CHAP.  VI]  CEYLON   INSECTS.  273 

The  mosquitoes  are  very  annoying  on  account  of  their  numbers, 
as  might  be  expected  from  the  moisture  and  heat  of  the  climate. 
Culex  laniger  is  the  coast  species,  and  the  other  kinds  here 
mentioned  are  from  Kandy.  Humboldt  observed  that  in  some 
parts  of  South  America  each  stream  had  its  peculiar  mosquitoes, 
and  it  yet  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  gnats  in  Ceylon 
are  also  thus  restricted  in  their  habitation.  The  genera  Sciara, 
Cecidomyia,  and  Simulium,  which  abound  so  exceedingly  in 
temperate  countries,  have  each  one  representative  species  in 
the  collection  mUfle  by  Mr.  Thwaites.  Thus  an  almost  new 
field  remains  for  the  Entomologist  in  the  study  of  the  yet 
unknown  Singhalese  Diptera,  which  must  be  very  numerous. 

Order  HEMIPTERA. 

"  The  species  of  this  order  in  the  list  are  too  few  and  too  similar 
to  those  of  Hindustan  to  need  any  particular  mention.  Le- 
canium  coffem  may  be  noticed,  on  account  of  its  infesting  the 
coffee  plant,  as  its  name  indicates,  and  the  ravages  of  other 
species  of  the  genus  will  be  remembered,  from  the  fact  that 
one  of  them,  in  other  regions,  has  put  a  stop  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  orange  as  an  article  of  commerce. 

"  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  observed  that  the  species  of  insects 
in  Ceylon  may  be  estimated  as  exceeding  10,000  in  number,  of 
which  about  2000  are  enumerated  in  this  volume. 

Class  AKACHNIDA. 

"  Four  or  five  species  of  spiders,  of  which  the  specimens  can- 
not be  satisfactorily  described;  one  Ixodes  and  one  Chelifer 
have  been  forwarded  to  England  from  Ceylon  by  Mr.  Thwaites." 


VOL.  I. 


274 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


NoTB_The  asterisk  prefixed  denotes  the  species  discovered  in  Ceylon  since  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent's 

departure  from  the  Island  in  1849. 

OBDER,  Coleoptera, 

*rugosifrons,  Niet. 

Physodera,  Esch. 

Linn. 

*elongatula,  Niet. 

Eschscholtzii,  Parry. 

*maculata,  Niet. 

Omphra,  Latr. 

Fam.  CicmDELiD^:,  Steph. 

recta,  Wlk. 
Leistus,  Fraehl. 

*ovipennis,  Reiche. 
Planetes,  Mad. 

Ciciudela,  Linn. 

linearis,  Wlk. 

bimaculatus,  Madeay. 

flavopunctata,  Aud. 
discrepans,  Wlk. 

Isotarsus,  Lafcrte. 
quadrimaculatus,  Oliv. 

Cardiaderns,  Dej. 
scitus,  Wlk. 

aurofasciata,  Guer. 

Panagaeus,  Latr. 

Distrigus,  Dej. 

qnadrilineata,  Fair. 

retractus,  Wlk. 

*costatus,  NieU 

biramosa,  Fabr. 

Chlaenius,  Bon. 

*submetallicus,  Niet 

catena,  Fabr. 

bimaculatus,  Dej. 

*rufopiceus,  Niet 

*insignificans,  Dohrn. 

diffinis,  Reiche. 

*seneus,  Niet 

Tricondyla,  Latr. 

*Ceylanicus,  Niet 

*Dejeani,  Niet. 

femorata,  Wlk. 

*quinque-maculatus, 

Drimostoma,  Dej. 

*tumidula,  Wlk. 

Niet. 

*Ceylanicum,  Niet 

*scitiscabra,  Wlk. 
*concinna,  Dohrn. 

pulcher,  Niet 
cupricollfs,  Niet. 

*ma"rginale,  Wlk. 
Cyclosomus,  Latr. 

rugulosus,  Niet. 

flexuosus,  Fabr. 

Fam.  CARABID^E,  Leach. 

Anchomenus,  Bon. 
illocatus,  Wlk. 

Ochthephilus,  Niet 
*Ceylanicus,  Niet. 

Casnonia,  Latr. 

Agonum,  Bon. 

Spathinus,  Niet. 

*punctata,  Niet 

placidulum,  Wlk. 

•nigriceps,  Niet 

*pilifcra,  Niet. 

Colpodes  ?     Mad. 

Acupalpus,  Latr. 

Ophionea,  King. 

marginicollis,  Wlk. 

derogatus,  Wlk. 

*cyanocephala,  Fabr. 
Euplynes,  Niet. 

Argutor,  Meg. 
degener,  Wlk. 

extremus,  Wlk. 
Bembidium,  Latr. 

Dohrnii,  Niet. 

relinquens,  Wlk. 

finitimum,  Wlk. 

Heteroglossa,  Niet. 

Simphyus,  Niet. 

*opulentum,  Niet 

*elegans,  Niet. 

*unicolor,  Niet. 

*truncatum,  Niet 

*ruficollis,  Niet. 
*bimaculata,  Niet. 

Bradytus,  Steph. 
stolidns,  Wlk. 

*tropicum,  Niet. 
*triangulare,  Niet 

Zuphium,  Latr. 

Curtonotus,  Steph. 

•Ceylanicum,  Niet 

*pubescens,  Niet. 

compositus,  Wlk. 

Klugii,  Niet. 

Pheropsophus,  Solier. 

Harpaltis,  Latr. 

*ebeninum,  Niet 

Catoirei,  Dej. 

*advolans,  Niet. 

*orientale,  Niet 

bimaculatus,  Fabr. 

dispellens,  Wlk. 

*emarginatum,  Niet 

Cymindis,  Latr. 

Calodromus,  Niet. 

*ornatum,  Niet 

rufiventris,  Wlk. 

*exornatus,  Niet. 

*scydinaeuoides,  Niet 

Anchista,  Niet. 

Megaristerus,  Niet. 

*modesta,  Niet. 

*mandibularis,  Niet. 

Fam.  PATJSSID^;,  Westw. 

Dromius,  Bon. 
marginifer,  Wlk. 
repandens,  Wlk. 
Lebia,  Latr. 

*steuolophoides,  Niet. 
*Indicus,  Niet. 
Platysma,  Bon. 
retinens,  Wlk. 

Cerapterus,  Swed. 
latipes,  Swed. 
Pleuropterus,  West 
"Westermanni,  West. 

bipars,  Wlk. 
Creagris,  Niet. 
labrosa,  Niet. 

Mono,  Latr. 
trogositoides,  Wlk. 
cncujoides,  Wlk. 

Paussus,  Linn. 
pacificus,  West. 

Elliotia,  Niet. 
pallipes,  Niet. 

Barysomus,  Dej. 
*Gyllenhalii,  Dej. 

Fam.  DYTISCID^;,  Mad. 

Maraga,  Wlk. 

Oodes,  Bon. 

Cybister,  Curt 

planigera,  Wlk. 

*piceus,  Niet. 

limbatus,  Fabr. 

Catascopns,  Kirby. 

Selenophorus,  Dej. 

Dytiscus,  Linn. 

facialis,  Wied. 

imfixus,  Wlk. 

extenuans,  Wlk. 

reductus,  Wlk. 

Orthogonius,  Dej. 

Eunectes,  Erich. 

Scarites,  Fabr. 

femoratus,  Dej. 

griseus,  Fabr. 

obliterans,  Wlk. 

Helluodes,  Westw. 

Hydaticus,  Leach. 

subsignans,  Wlk. 

Taprobanas,  Westw. 

festivus,  ///. 

designans,  Wlk. 

Physocrotaphus,  Parry. 

vittatus,  Fabr. 

*minor,  Niet. 

Ceylonicus,  Parry- 

dislocans,  Wlk. 

Clivina,  Latr. 

*minax,  West. 

fractifer,  Wlk. 

CHAP.  VI.] 


CEYLON   INSECTS. 


275 


Colymbetes,  Clairv. 

Dinarda,  Leach. 

Fam.  COLTBIAD^:,  Wall 

interclusus,  Wlk. 
Hydroporus,  Clairv. 

serricornis,  Wlk. 

Lyctus,  Fabr. 
retractus,  Wlk. 

interpulsus,  Wlk. 
intermixtus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PSELAPHID^E,  Leach. 

disputans,  Wlk. 

Isetabilis,  Wlk. 
*inefficiens,  Wlk. 

Pselapbanax,  Wlk. 
setosus,  Wlk. 

rugicollis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  GYRINID-E,  Leach. 

Fam.  TEOGOSITID^;,  Kirby. 

Dineutes,  Mad. 

Fam.  ScrosLSNiD-E.ZeacA. 

Trogosita,  Oliv. 

spinosas,  Fabr. 
Porrorhynchus,  Lap. 
indicans,  Wlk. 

Erineus,  Wlk. 
monstresus,  Wlk. 
Scydmsenus,  Latr. 

insinuans,  Wlk. 
"Thyzophagoides,  Wlk. 

Gyretcs,  Brutte.    ~ 

*megamelas,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CUCUJID^E,  Steph. 

discifer,  Wlk. 
Gyrinus,  Linn. 
nitidulus,  Fabr. 
obliquus,  Wlk. 
Orectochilus,  Esch. 

*alatus,  Niet. 
•femoralis,  Niet. 
*Ceylanicus,  Niet. 
*intermedius,  Niet. 
*pselaphoides,  Niet. 

Loemophlceus,  Dei. 
ferrugineus,  Wlk. 
Cucujus?  Fabr. 
*incommodus,  Wlk. 
Silvan  us,  Latr. 

*lcnocinium,  Dohrn. 

*advolans,  Niel. 

retrahens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  STAPIIILINID^E, 
Leach. 

*pubescens,  Niet. 
*pygma2us,  Niet. 
*glanduliferus,  Niet. 

*scuticollis,  Wlk. 
*porrectus,  Wlk. 
Brontes,  Fabr. 

Ocypus,  Kirby. 
longipcnnis,  Wlk. 
congruus,  Wlk. 

*graminicola,  Niet. 
*pyriformis,  Niet. 
*angusticeps,  Niet. 
*ovatus,  Niet. 

*orientalis,  Dej. 
Fam.  LATHKIDJAN^!,  Wall. 

punctilinea,  Wlk. 

Lathridius,  Herbst. 

*lineatus,  Wlk. 
Philonthus,  Leach. 

Fam.  PTILIAD.E,  Wott. 

perpusillus,  Wlk. 
Corticaria,  Marsh. 

*pedestris,  Wlk. 
Xantholinus,  Dahl. 

Trichopteryx,  Kirby. 

resecta,  Wlk. 
Monotoma,  Herbst. 

cinctus,  Wlk. 
*inclinans,  Wlk. 

*immatura,  Niet. 

concinnula,  Wlk. 

Sunius,  Leach. 
"obliquus,  Wlk. 
CEdichirus,  Erich. 

*invisibilis,  Niet. 
Ptilium,  Schupp. 
*subquadratum,  Niet. 

Fam.  DERMESTID^E,  Leach. 
Dermestes.  Linn. 

*alatus,  Niet. 
Poederus,  Fabr. 

Ptenidium,  Erich. 
*macrocephalum,  Niet. 

vulpinus,  Fabr. 
Attagenus,  Latr. 

alternans,  Wlk. 

defectus,  Wlk. 

Stenus,  Lair. 
*barbatus,  Niet. 

Fam.  PnALACRiD^ZeocA. 

rufipes,  Wlk. 
Trinodes,  Meq. 

*lacertoides,  Niet. 

Phalacrus,  Payk. 

hirtellus,  Wlk. 

Osorius?  Leach. 

conjiciens,  Wlk. 

*compactus,  Wlk. 

confectus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  BTRRHIDJ;,  Leach. 

Prognatha,  Latr, 

Inclica,  Wlk. 

decisa,  Wlk. 
*tenuis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  NITIDULID^E,  Leach. 

solida,  Wlk. 

Leptochirus,  Perty. 
*bispinus,  Erich. 

Nitidnla,  Fabr. 
contigens,  Wlk. 

Fam.   HISTERID.J:,  Leach. 

Oxytelus,  Grav. 

intendens,  Wlk. 

Hister,  Linn. 

rudis,  Wlk. 

significans,  Wlk. 

Bengalensis,  Weid. 

productus,  Wlk. 

tomentifera,  Wlk. 

encaustus,  Mars. 

*bicolor,  Wlk. 

•submaculata,  Wlk. 

orientalis,  Payk. 

Trogophlceus,  Mann. 
•Taprobanse,  Wlk. 

*glabricula,  Dohrn. 
Nitidulopsis,  Wlk. 

bipustulatus,  Fabr. 
*mundissimus,  Wlk. 

Omalium,  Grav. 

ajqualis,  Wlk. 

Saprinus,  Erich. 

filiforrae,  Wlk. 

Meligethes,  Kirby. 

semipunctatus,  Fabr, 

Aleochara,  Grav. 

*orientalis,  Niet. 

Platysoma,  Leach. 

postica,  Wlk. 

•respond  ens,  Wlk. 

atratum?  Erichs. 

"translata,  Wlk. 

Rhizophagus,  Herbst 

desinens,  Wlk. 

*subjecta,  Wlk. 

parallelus,  Wlk. 

restoratum,  Wlk. 

T2 

276 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PAST  II. 


Dendrophilus,  Leach. 

Orphnus,  Mad. 

Ancylonycha,  Dej. 

finitimus,  Wlk. 

detegens,  Wlk. 

Eeynaudii,  Blanch. 

scitissimus,  Wlk. 

Leucopholis,  Dej. 

Fam.  APHODIAD^B,  Mad. 

Mellei,  Guer. 

Aphodius,  Illig. 
robustus,  Wlk. 
dynastoides,  Wlk. 
pallidicornis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  GEOTRCPiDJE.Zeacfi. 

Bolboceras,  Kirby. 
lineatus,  Westw. 

pinguis,  Burm. 
Anomala,  Meg. 
elata,  Fabr. 
humeralis,  Wlk. 

rli     r-nli   •       TXHf, 

mutans,  Wlk. 
sequens,  Wlk. 
Psammodius,  Gyll. 

Fam.  MELOLONTHID.E, 
Mad. 

uiscaiis,  rr  IK. 
varicolor,  Sch. 
conformis,  Wlk. 

inscitus,  Wlk. 

Melolontha,  Fabr. 

similis,  Hope. 

nummicudens,  Newm. 

punctatissima,  Wlk. 

Fam.  TROGHXS:,  Mad. 
Trox,  Fabr. 
inclusus,  Wlk. 

cornut  us,  Fabr. 

rubiginosa,  Wlk. 
ferruginosa,  Wlk. 
seriata,  Hope. 
pinguis,  Wlk. 
setosa,  Wlk. 

infixa,  Wlk. 
Mimela,  Kirby. 
variegata,  Wlk. 
mundissima,  Wlk. 
Parastasia,   Westw. 

Fam.  COPEID^J,  Leach. 

Rhizotrogus,  Latr. 
hirtipectus,  Wlk. 

rufopicta,  Westw. 
Euchlora,  Mad 

Ateuchus,  Weber. 

ajqualis,  Wlk. 

viridis,  Fabr. 

sacer,  Linn. 

costatus,  Wlk. 

perplexa,  Hope. 

Gymnopleurus,  Illig. 

inductus,  Wlk. 

smaragdifer,  Wlk. 

exactus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CETONIAD^:,  Kirby. 

Kocnigii,  Fabr. 
Sisyphus,  Latr. 
setosulus,  Wlk. 
snbsidens,  Wlk. 
prominens,  Wlk. 
Orepanocerus,  Kirby. 
Taprobanaz,  West. 
Copris,  Geoffr. 
Pirmal,  Fabr. 
sagax,  Quens. 
capucinus,  Fabr. 
cribricollis,  Wlk. 
repertus,  Wlk. 
sodalis,  Wlk. 
signatus,  Wlk. 
diminutivus,  Wlk. 
Onthophagus,  Latr. 
Bonassus,  Fabr. 
cervicornis,  Fabr. 

sulcifer,  Wlk. 
Phyllopertha,  Kirby. 
transversa,  Burm. 
Silphodes,  Westw. 
Indica,  Westw. 
Trigonostoma,  Dej. 
assimilc,  Hope. 
compressum?  Weid. 
nanum,  Wlk. 
Serica,  Mad. 
pruinosa,  Hope. 
Popilia,  Leach. 
marginicollis,  Newm. 
cyanella,  Hope. 
discalis,  Wlk. 
Sericesthis,  Dej. 
rotundata,  Wlk. 
subsignata,  Wlk. 
mollis,  Wlk. 

Glycyphana,  Burm. 
versicolor,  Fabr. 
luctuosa,  Gory. 
variegata,  Fabr. 
marginicollis,  Gory. 
Clinteria,  Burm. 
imperialis,  Schaum. 
incerta,  Parry. 
chloronota,  Blanch. 
Tajniodera,  Burm. 
Malabariensis,  Gory. 
quadririttata,  White. 
alboguttata,  Vigors. 
Protaetia,  Burm. 
maculata,  Fabr. 
Whitehousii,  Parry. 
Agestrata,  Erich. 
nigrita,  Fabr. 

prolixus,  Wlk. 
gravis,  Wlk. 
difficilis,  Wlk. 
lucens,  Wlk. 
negligens,  Wlk. 

confirmata,  Wlk. 
Plectris,  Lep.  &•  Serv. 
solida,  Wlk. 
punctigera,  Wlk. 
glabrilinea,  Wlk. 

orichalcea,  Linn. 
Coryphocera,  Burm. 
elegans,  Fabr. 
Macronota,  Hoffm. 
quadrivittata,  Sch. 

moerens,  Wlk. 
turbatus,  Wlk. 
Onitis,  Fabr. 
Philemon,  Fabr. 

Isonychus,  Mann. 
ventralis,  Wlk. 
pectoralis,  Wlk. 
Omaloplia,  Meg. 

Fam.  TRICHIAD^:,  Leack. 
Valgus,  Scriba. 
addendus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  DYNASTID^E,  Mad. 

fracta,  Wlk. 
interrupta,  Wlk. 

Fam.  LUCANID^:,  Leach. 

Oryctes,  lUig. 

semicincta,  Wlk. 

Odontolabis,  Burm. 

rhinoceros,  Linn. 
Xylotrtipes,  Hope. 

"hamifera,  Wlk. 
*picta,  Dohrn. 

Bengalcnsis,  Parry. 
cmarginatus,  Dej. 

Gideon,  Linn. 

*nana,  Dohrn. 

JEgus,  Mad. 

reductus,  Wlk. 

Apogonia,  Kirby. 

acuminatus,  Fabr. 

solidipes,  Wlk. 

nigricans,  Hope. 

lunatus,  Fabr. 

Phileurus,  Latr. 

Phytalus,  Erich. 

Singhala,  Blanch. 

detractus,  Wlk. 

eurystomus,  Burm. 

tenella,  Blanch. 

CHAP.  VI.]                           CEYLON   INSECTS.                                       277 

Fam.  PASSALID^E,  MacL 

Bohemannii,  Cand. 

Fam.  TELEPHORIJXS, 

Passalus,  Fabr. 
transversus,  Dohrn. 
interstitial  is,  Perch. 
punctiger?  Lefeb. 
tricolor,  Fabr. 

venustulus,  Cand. 
pallidipes,  Cand. 
Agrypnus,  Esch. 
fuscipes,  Fabr. 
Alaus,  Esch. 
speciosus,  Linn. 
sordidus,  Westw. 

Leach. 

Telephorus,  Sehaff. 
dimidiatus,  Fabr. 
maltbinoides,  Wlk. 
Eugeusis,  Westw. 
palpator,  Westw. 

Fam.  SPH^RIDIAU^;, 
Leach. 

Cardiophorus,  Esch. 
bumerifer,  Wlk. 

gryphus,  Hope. 
olivaceus,  Hope. 

Sphajridium,  Fabr. 

Corymbites,  Latr. 

tricolor,  Wlk. 

dividens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CEBRIONID^:,  Steph. 

Cercron,  Leach. 
"vicinale,  Wlk~* 

Fam.  HYDROPHILID^, 

divisa,  Wlk. 
•bivittava,  Wlk. 
Lacon,  Lap. 
*obesus,  Cand. 

Callirhipis,  Latr. 
Templetonii,  Westw. 
Championii,  Westw. 

Leach. 
Hydrous,  Leach. 
*rufiventris,  Niet. 

Athous,  Esch. 
punctosus,  Wlk. 
inapertus,  Wlk. 
decretus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  MELYRID^:,  Leach. 
Malachius,  Fabr. 
plagiatus,  Wlk. 

*inconspicuus,  Niet. 

incfficiens,  Wlk. 

Malt  hin  us,  Latr. 

Hydrobius,  Leach. 
stultus,  Wlk. 

Ampedus,  Meg. 
*acutifer,  Wlk. 

•forticomis,  Wlk. 
*retractus,  Wlk. 

Philydrus,  Solier. 

*discicollis,  Wlk. 

fragilis,  Dohrn. 

esuriens,  Wlk. 
Berosus,  Leach. 
*decrescens,  Wlk. 

Legna,  Wlk. 
idonea,  Wlk. 

Enicopus,  Steph. 
proficiens,  Wlk. 
Honosca,  Wlk. 

Hydrochns,  Germ. 
*lacustris,  Niet. 

Fam.  LAMPYRID^E,  Leach. 

necrobioides,  Wlk. 

Georyssus,  Latr. 
*gcmma,  Niet. 
*insularis,  Dohrn. 
Dastarcus,  Wlk. 

Lycus,  Fabr. 
triangularis,  Hope. 
gcminus,  Wlk. 
astutus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CLERID^E,  Kirby. 

Cylidrus,  Lap. 
sobrinus,  Dohrn. 

porosus,  Wlk. 

fallax,  \Vlk. 

Stigmatium,  Gray. 

Fam.  BUPRESTIDJ<:,  Stph. 
Sternocera,  Esch. 

planicornis,  Wlk 
melanopterus,  Wlk. 
pubicornis,  Wlk. 

elaphroides,  Westw. 
Necrobia,  Latr. 
rufipes,  Fabr. 
aspera,  Wlk. 

chrysis,  Linn. 

duplex,  Wlk. 

sternicornis,  Linn. 
Chrysochroa,  Solier. 
ignita,  Linn. 
Chinc-nsis,  Lap. 

revocans,  Wlk. 
dispellcns,  Wlk. 
'pubipeimis,  Wlk. 
*humerifer,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PTINID^;,  Leach. 

Ptinus,  Linn. 
*nigerrimus,  Boield. 

Rajah,  Lap. 
*cyaneocephala,  Fabr. 
Chrysodemn,  Lap. 
sulcata,  Thiinb. 
Belionota,  Esch. 
scutellaris,  Fabr. 
•Petiti,  Gory. 

expansicornis,  Wlk. 
divisus,  Wlk. 
Dictyopterus,  Latr. 
intcrnexus,  Wlk. 
Lampyris,  Geoff. 
tenebrosn,  Wlk. 

Fam.  DIAPERID.S:,  Leach. 

Diapcris,  Geoff. 
velutina,  Wlk. 
fragilis,  Dohrn. 

Chrysobothris,  Each. 
suturalis,  Wlk. 
Agrilus,  Meg. 
sulcicollis,  Wlk. 
*cupreiceps,  Wlk. 
"cupreicollis,  Wlk. 
*armatus,  Fabr. 

diffinis,  Wlk. 
lutcscens,  Wlk. 
"vitrifera,  Wlk. 
Colopbotia,  Dej. 
humeralis,  Wlk. 
[vespertina,  Fabr. 
perplexa,  Wlk.  ?] 
intricata,  Wlk. 

Teach. 

Zophobas,  Dej. 
errans  ?  Dej. 
clavipes,  Wlk. 
?  solidus,  Wlk. 
Pseudoblaps,  Guer. 
nigrita,  Fabr. 

Fam.  ELATERIDJE,  Leach. 

extricans,  Wlk. 
promclas,  Wlk. 

Tenebrio,  Linn. 
rubripes,  Hope. 

Campsosternos,  Latr. 

Harmatelia,  Wlk. 

retenta,  Wlk. 

Templetonii,  Westw. 

discalis,  Wlk. 

Trachyscelis.  Latr. 

aureolus,  Hope. 

bilinea,  Wlk. 

bruunea,  Dohrn. 

T3 

278 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  IL 


Fam.  OPATRID-E,  Shuck. 

Sora,  Wlk. 

Dohrnii,  Jek. 

Opatrum,  Fabr. 
contrahens,  Wlk. 
bilineatum,  Wlk. 

*marginata,  Wlk. 
Thaccona,  Wlk. 
dimelas,  Wlk. 

discrepans,  Dohrn. 
Eucorynus,  Sch'un. 
colligcndus,  Wlk. 

planatum,  Wlk. 
serricolle,  Wlk. 

Fam.  MORDELLID.S:,  Steph. 

colligcns,  Wlk. 
Basitropis,  Jek. 

Asida,  Latr, 
horrid  a,  Wlk. 
Crypticus,  Latr. 
detersus,  Wlk. 
longipcnnis,  Wlk. 
Phaleria,  Latr. 

Acosmus,  Dej. 
languidus,  Wlk. 
Rhipiphorus,  Fabr. 
*tropicus,  Niet. 
Mordella,  Linn. 
composita,  Wlk. 

*disconotatus,  Jek. 
Litocerus,  Schon. 
punctulatus,  Dohrn. 
Tropideres,  Sch. 
punctulifer,  Dohrn. 
fragilis.  Wlk. 

rufipes,  Wlk. 
Toxicnm,  Latr. 
oppugnans,  Wlk. 
biluna,  Wlk. 

*defectiva,  Wlk. 
Myrmecolax,  Wentw. 
*Nietncri,  Westw. 

Cedus,  Waterh. 
*cancellatus,  Dohrn. 
Xylinadcs,  Latr. 
sobrinulus,  Dohrn. 

Boletophagns,  III. 
*morosns,  Dohrn. 
*exasperatus,  Doh. 
Uloma,  Meg. 
scita,  Wlk. 
Alphitophagus,  Steph. 
subfascia,  Wlk. 

Fam.  ANTHICID.E,  Wlk. 
Anthicus,  Payk. 
*quisquilarius,  Niet. 
*insularius,  Niet. 
*sticticollis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CISSIDJE,  Leach. 

indignus,  Wlk. 
Xcnocerus,  Germ. 
anguliferus,  Wlk. 
revocans,  Wlk. 
*anchoralis,  Dohrn. 
Callistocerus,  Dohrn. 
*Nictneri,  Dohrn. 
Anthribus,  Geoff. 

Fam.  HELOPIM-:,  Steph. 

Cis,  Latr. 
contendens,  Wlk. 

longicornis,  Fabr. 
apicalis,  Wlk. 

Osdara,  Wlk. 

facilis,  Wlk. 

picipcs,  Wlk. 

Fam.  TOMICIDJE,  Shuck. 

Arajccrus,  Schon. 

Cholipus,  Dej. 
brevicornis,  Dej. 
parabolicus,  Wlk. 
Iseviusculus,  Wlk. 

Apate,  Fabr. 
submedia,  Wlk. 
Bostriclius,  Geoff. 
mutilatus,  Wlk. 

coffees,  Fabr. 
*insidiosuH,  Fabr.   ' 
*musculus,  Dohrn. 
*intangens,  Wlk. 

Helops,  Fabr. 
ebeninus,  Wlk. 

*vertcns,  Wlk. 
*moderatus,  Wlk. 

*bifovea,  Wlk. 
Dipieza,  Pasc. 

Camaria,  Lep.  §•  Serv. 
amethystina,  L.  Sf  S. 
Amarygmus,  JDalm. 
chrysomeloides,  Dej. 

*testaceus,  Wlk. 
*exiguus,  Wlk. 
Platypus,  Herbst. 
minax,  Wlk. 
solidus,  Wlk. 

*insignis,  Dohrn. 
Apolecta,  Pasc. 
*Nietncri,  Dohrn. 
*musculus,  Dohrn. 
Arrhenode?,  Steven. 

Fam.  MELOID2E,  Wall. 

*latifinis,  Wlk. 

miles,  Sch.            ,  j 

Epicauta,  Dej. 
nigrifinis,  Wlk. 
Cissites,  Latr. 
testaceus,  Fabr. 
Mylabris,  Fabr. 
humeralis,  Wlk. 
alterna,  Wlk. 

Hylurgus,  Latr. 
determinans,  Wlk. 
*concinnulus,  Wlk. 
Ilylesinus,  Fabr. 
cun-ifer,  Wlk. 
despectus,  Wlk. 
irresolutus,  Wlk. 

pilicornis,  Sch. 
dentirostris,  Jek. 
approximans,  Wlk. 
Veneris,  Dohrn. 
Cerobatcs,  Schiin. 
thrasco,  Dohrn. 
aciculatus,  Wlk. 
Ceocephalus,  Schon. 

*recognita,  Wlk. 
Atractoccrus,  Pal..  Bv. 
dcbilis,  Wlk. 
reversus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CDRCULIONIDJE, 
Leach. 
Bruchus,  Linn. 

cavus,  Wlk. 
*reticulatus,  Fabr. 
Nemocephalus,  Latr. 
sulcirostris,  De  Haan. 

scutellaris,  Fabr. 

planicollis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  (EDEMERID.E,  Steph. 

Spermophagus,  Steven. 
convolvuli,  Thunb. 

spinirostris,  Wlk. 
Apoderus;  Oliv. 

Cistcla,  Fabr. 
congrua,  Wlk. 
•falsifica,  Wlk. 
Allecula,  Fabr. 

figuratns,  Wlk. 
Cisti,  Fabr. 
incertus,  Wlk. 
decretus,  Wlk. 

longicollis  ?  Fabr. 
Tranquebaricus,  Fabr. 
cygneus,  Fabr.  ? 
scitulus,  Wlk. 

fusiforrnis,  Wlk. 
elcgans,  Wlk. 
*flavifemur,  Wlk. 

Dendropcmon,  Schon. 
*melancholicus,Z)o/trn. 
Deudrotrogus,  Jek. 

*triangularis,  Fabr. 
*echinatus,  Sck. 
Rbynchites,  Herbst, 

CHAP.  VI.] 


CEYLON   INSECTS. 


279 


suffundens,  Wlk. 

Protocerus,  Schon. 

vicintis,  Hope. 

*rcstituens,  Wlk. 

molossus?   Oliv. 

ascendens,  Pasc. 

Apion,  Herbst. 

Sphrcnophorus,  Schon. 

Walkeri,  Pose. 

*Cingalense,  Wlk. 

glabridiscus,  Wlk. 

annularis,  Fabr. 

Strophosomus,  Bllbug. 
*suturalis,  Wlk. 

exquisitus,  Wlk. 
Dehaani  ?  Jek. 

*aurilinea,  Dohrn. 
Rhaphuma,  Pasc. 

Piazomias,  Schon. 
aequalis,  Wlk. 

cribricollis,  Wlk. 
?  panops,  Wlk. 

leucoscutellata,  Hope, 
Ceresium,  Newm. 

Astycus,  Schon. 

Cossonus,  Clairv. 

cretatum,  White. 

lateralis,  Fair.  ? 

*quadrimacula,  Wlk. 

Zeylanicum,  White. 

ebeninus,  Wlk. 

Phebcs,  Wlk. 

Stromatium,  Serv. 

*immunis,  Wlk. 

ambigtius,  Sch.? 

barbatum,  Fabr. 

Cleonus,  Schon. 

Scitophilus,  Schon. 

maculatum,  While. 

induceus,  Wlk.  _ 

orizse,  Linn. 

Hespherophanes,  Mais. 

Myllocerus,  Sckon. 

disciferns,  Wlk. 

simplex,  Gytt. 

transmarinus,  Herbst.? 

Mecinus,  Germ. 

spurcatas,  Wlk. 

*  ?  relictus,  Wlk. 

*retrahens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  LAMIID^E,  Kirby. 

*posticus,  Wlk. 
Phyllobius,  Schdn. 
*mimicus,  Wlk. 
Episomus,  Schon. 

Fam.  PBIOXID.S:,  Leach. 
Trictenotoma,G..R.  Gray 
Templetoni,  Westw. 

Nyphona,  Muls. 
cylindracea,  White. 
Mesosa,  Serv. 

paupcratus,  Fabr. 
Lixns,  Fabr. 
nebulifascia,  Wlk. 

Prionomma,  White. 
orientalis,  Oliv. 
Acanthophorus,  Serv. 

columba,  Po«c. 
Coptops,  Serv. 
bidens,  Fabr. 

Aclees,  Schon. 
cribratus,  Dcj, 
Alcides,  Dalm. 
signatus,  Boh. 
obliquus,  Wlk. 

serraticornis,  Oliv. 
Cncmoplites,  Newm. 
Rhesus,  Motch. 
JEgosoma,  Serv. 
Cingalense,  White. 

Xylorhiza,  Dej. 
adusta,  Wied. 
Cacia,  Newm. 
triloba,  Pasc. 
Batocera,  Blanch, 

transversus,  Wlk. 
*clausus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CERAMBYCID.S:, 

V-    1 

rubus,  Fabr. 
ferruginea,  Blanch. 

Acicnemis,  Fairm. 

Kirby. 

Monohammus,  Meg.  • 

Ceylonicus,  Jek. 

Ccrambyx,  Linn. 

fistnlator,  Germ. 

Apotomorhinus,  Schon. 

indutus,  Newm. 

crucifer,  Fabr. 

signatus,  Wlk. 

vernicosus,  Pose. 

nivosus,  White. 

alboater,  Wlk. 

consocius,  Pose. 

commixtus,  Pasc. 

Cryptorhynchus,  Illig. 

versutus,  Pose. 

Cereopsius,  Dup. 

ineffectus,  Wlk. 

nitidus,  Pasc. 

patronus,  Pase.       j 

assimilans,  Wlk. 

macilentus,  Pasc. 

Pelargoderus,  Serv. 

declaratus,  Wlk. 

venustus,  Pasc. 

tigrinus,  Chevr. 

notabilis,  Wlk. 

torticollis,  Dohrn. 

Olenocamptus,  Chevr. 

vexatus,  Wlk. 

Sebasmia,  Pasc. 

bilobus,  Fabr. 

Camptorhinus,  Schon.? 
reversus,  Wlk. 

Templetoni,  Pasc. 
Callichroma,  Latr. 

Praonetha,  Dej. 
annulata,  Chevr. 

*indiscretus,  Wlk. 

trogoninum,  Pasc. 

posticalis,  Pasc. 

Desmidophorus,  Chevr. 
hebes,  Fabr. 

telephoroides,  Westw. 
Homalomelas,  White. 

Apomecyna,  Serv. 
histrio,  Fabr.  var.? 

communicans,  Wlk. 

gracilipes,  Parry. 

Ropica,  Pasc. 

strenuus,  Wlk. 

zonatus,  Pasc. 

prseusta,  Po«c. 

*discriminans,  Wlk. 

Colobus,  Serv. 

Hathlia,  Serv. 

inexpertus,  Wlk. 

Cingalensis,  While. 

procera,  Pctsc. 

fasciculicollis,  Wlk. 

Thranius,  Pasc. 

lolea,  Pasc. 

Sipalus,  SchSn. 

gibbosus,  Pasc. 

proxima,  Pa*c. 

granulatus,  Fabr. 

Deuteromma,  Pasc. 

histrio,  Pasc. 

porosus,  Wlk. 

mutica,  Pasc. 

Glenea,  Newm. 

tinctus,  Wlk. 

Obrium,  Meg. 

sulphurella,  White. 

Mccopus,  Dalm. 

laterale,  Pose. 

commissa,  Po«c. 

*Waterhousei,  Dohrn. 

mccstum,  Pasc. 

scapifera,  Pasc. 

Rhynchophorus,  Herbst. 

Psilomcrus,  Blanch. 

vexator,  Pasc. 

fcrrugineus,  Fabr. 

macilentus,  Pasc.     . 

Stibara,  Hope. 

introdueens,  Wlk. 

Clyttis,  Fabr.     .   .t 

nigricornis,  Fabr.  j 

T  4 

ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  IT. 


Fam.  HISPIDJE,  Kirby. 

cyaneus,  Hope. 

Fam.  EROTYLID^;,  Leach. 

Oncocephala,  Dohrn. 
deltoides,  Dohrn. 
Leptispa,  Baly. 
pygma3a,  Baly. 
Amblispa,  Baly. 
Dohniii,  Baly. 
Estigmena,  Hope. 
Chinensis,  Hope. 

aeneus,  Baly. 
Glyptoscelis,  Chevr, 
Templetoni,  Baly. 
pyrospilotus,  Baly. 
micans,  Baly. 
cnpreus,  Baly. 
Eumolpus,  Fabr. 
lemoides,  Wlk. 

Fatua,  Dej. 
Nepalensis,  Hope. 
Triplax,  Pai/k. 
decorus,  Wlk. 
Tritoma,  Fabr. 
*bifacies,  Wlk. 
*preposita,  Wlk. 
Ischyrus,  Cherz. 

Hispa,  Linn. 
hystrix,  Fabr. 

Fam.  CRYPTOCEPHALIDjE, 

grandis,  Fabr. 

erinacea,  Fabr. 

Kirby. 

Fam.  ENDOSIYCHID^, 

nigrina,  Dohrn. 

Cryptocephalus,  Geoff. 

Leach. 

*Walkeri,  Baly. 
Platypria,  Guer. 
echidna,  Guer. 

sex-punctatus,  Fabr. 
Walkeri,  Baly. 
Diapromorpha,  Lac. 
Turcica,  Fabr. 

Eugonius,  Gerst. 
annularis,  Gerst. 
lunulatus,  Gerst. 
Eumorphus,  Weber, 

Fam.  CASSIDIDJE,  Wesho 
Epistictia,  Boh. 
matronula,  Boh. 
Hoplionota,  Hope. 
tetraspilota,  Baly. 
rubromarginata,  Boh. 
horrifica,  Boh. 
Aspidomorpha,  Hope. 
St.  crucis,  Fabr. 

Fam.  CHRYSOMELID.E, 
Leach. 
Chaleolampa,  Baly 
Templetoni,  Baly. 
Lina,  Meg. 
convexa,  Baly. 
Chrysomela,  Linn. 
Templetoni,  Baly. 

pulchripes,  Gerst. 
*tener,  Dohrn. 
Stenotarsus,  Perty. 
Nietneri,  Gerst 
*castaneus,  Gerst. 
*tomentosus,  Gerst. 
*vallatus,  Gerst. 
Lycoperdina,  Latr. 
glabrata,  Wlk. 

miliaris,  Fabr. 

Fam.  GALERUCID^J,  Steph 

Ancylopus,  Gerst. 
melanocephalus,  Oliv. 

dorsata,  Fabr. 

Galeruca,  Geoff. 

Saula,  Gerst. 

calligera,  Boh. 

*pectinata,  Dohrn. 

•nigripes,  Gerst. 

micans,  Fabr. 

Graptodera,  Chevr. 

*ferruginea,  Gei-st, 

Cassida,  Linn. 

cyanea,  Fabr. 

Mycetina,  Gerst.       « 

clathrata,  Fabr. 

Monolepta,  Chevr. 

castanea,  Gerst. 

timefacta,  Boh. 

pulchdla,  Baly. 

farinosa,  Boh. 
Laccoptera,  Boh. 

Thyamis,  Steph. 
Ceylonicus,  Baly. 

Order  Ortboptera,  Linn. 

14-notata,  Boh. 
Coptcycla,  Chevr. 

Tarn.  COCCINELLID.E,  Latr. 

Fam.  FORFICULID^:,  Steph. 
Forficula  Linn 

sex-notata,  Fabr. 

Epilachna,  Chevr. 

13-signata,  Boh. 

28-punctata,  Fabr. 

13-nctata,  Boh. 
ornata,  Fabr. 
Ceylonica,  Boh. 
Balyi,  Boh. 
trivittata,  Fabr. 
15-punctata,  Boh. 

Delessortii,  Guer. 
pubescens,  Hope. 
innuba,  Oliv. 
Coccinella,  Linn. 
tricincta,  Fabr. 
*repanda,  Muls. 

Fam.  BLATTID^;,  Steph. 
Panesthia,  Serv. 
Javanica,  Serv. 
plagiata,  Wlk. 
Polyzosteria,  Burm. 

catenata,  Dej. 
Fam.  SAGRID^;,  Kirby. 

tenuilinea,  Wlk. 
rejiciens,  Wlk. 
interrumpens,  Wlk. 

larva. 
Corydia,  Serv. 
Petiveriana,  Linn. 

Sagra,  Fabr. 
nigrita,  Oliv. 

quinqueplaga,  Wlk. 
simplex,  Wlk. 
antica,  Wlk. 

Fam.  MANTID^E,  Leach. 
Empusa,  Illig. 

Fam.  DONACID.E,  Lacord. 

flaviceps,  Wlk. 

gongylodes,  Linn. 

Donacia,  Fabr. 
Delesserti,  Guer. 
Coptocephala,  Chev. 
Templetoni,  Baly. 

Neda,  Muls. 
tricolor,  Fabr. 
Coelophora,  Muls. 
9-maculata,  Fabr.? 
Chilocorus,  Leach. 

Harpax,  Serv. 
signifer,  Wlk. 
Schizocephala,  Serv. 
bicornis,  Linn. 
Mantis,  Linn. 

Fam.  EUMOLPID^E,  Baly. 
Corynodes,  Hope. 

opponens,  Wlk. 
Scymnus,  Kug. 
variabilis,  Wlk. 

superstitiosa,  Fabr. 
aridifolia,  Stoll. 
extcnsicollis  ?  Serv. 

CHAP.  VI.] 


CEYLON    INSECTS. 


281 


Fam.  PHASMID^;,  Serv. 

Setodes,  Ramb. 

Ascalaphus,  Fabr. 

Acrophylla,  Gray. 
systropedon,  Westw. 
Phasma,  Licht. 
sordidum,  De  Haan. 
Phyllium,  Illig. 

*Iris,  Hagen. 
*Ino,  Hagen. 

Fam.  PSYCHOMID.E,  Curt. 
Chimarra,  Leach. 

nugax,  Wlk. 
incusans,  Wlk. 
*cervinus,  Niet. 

Fam.  PSOCID^E,  Leach. 

siccifolium,  Linn. 

*auriceps,  Hagen. 

Psocus,  Latr. 

*funesta,  Hagen. 

*Taprobanes,  Hagen. 

Fam.  GRYLLID^J,  Steph. 

*scpulcralis,  Hagen. 

*oblitus,  Hagen. 

.   ,         j  . 

*consitus,  Hagen. 

bimaculata,  Deg. 
supplicans,  Wlk. 
tequalis,  Wlk. 
confirmata,  Wlk7~" 
Platydactylus,  Brull 

Fam.  HYDROPSYCHID^:, 
Curt. 

Hydropsyche,  Pict. 
*Taprobanes,  Hagen. 
*mitis,  Hagen. 

*trimaculatus,  Hagen. 
•obtusus,  Hagen. 
*elongatus,  Hagen. 
*chlorotictis,  Hagen. 
*aridus,  Hagen. 

crassipes,  Wlk. 
Steirodon,  Serv. 

Fam.  RHYACOPHILID.E, 

*coleoiitri\tus,  Hagen. 
*dolabratus,  Hagen. 

*•      f    !•             TT 

lanccolatum,  Wlk. 

Steph. 

*mfelix,  Hagen. 

Phyllophora,  T/tunb. 
falsilblia,  Wlk. 
Acanthodis,  Serv. 

Rhyacophila,  Pict. 
*castanea,  Hagen. 

Fam.  TERMITID^,  Leach. 
Termes,  Linn. 

rugosa,  Wlk. 
Phancroptera,  Serv. 

Tarn.  PERLID.E,  Leach. 

Taprobanes,  Wlk. 
fatalis,  Kaen. 

attenuata,  Wlk. 

Perla,  Geoffr. 

monoccros,  Kmi. 

Phymateus,  Thunb. 
miliaris,  Linn. 

angulata,  Wlk. 
•testacea,  Hagen. 

*1  •                         TT 

*umbilicatus,  Hagen. 
*n.  s.  Jouv. 

Truxalis,  Linn. 

*limosa,  Hagen. 

*n.  6.  Jouv. 

exaltata,  Wlk. 
porrecta,  Wlk. 

?am.  SILIAD.E,  Westw. 

Fam.  EMBID^E,  Hagen. 

Acridium,  Genffr. 

Dilar,  Ramb. 

Oligotoma,  Westw. 

extensum,  Wlk. 

•Nietneri,  Hagen. 

*Saundersii,  Westw. 

deponens,  Wlk. 

rufitibia,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HEMEROBID^E,  Leach 

Fam.  EPHEMERID^E,  Leach. 

cinctifcmur,  \V  Ik. 
respondens,  Wlk. 
nigrifascia,  Wlk. 

Mantispa,  Illig. 
*Indica,  Westw. 
mutata,  Wlk. 

Bsetis,  Leach. 
Taprobanes,  Wlk. 
Potamanthus,  Pict. 

Order,  Fbysapoda,  Dum 

Chrysopa,  Leach. 
invaria,  Wlk. 

*fasciatus,  Hagen. 
•annulatus,  Hagen. 

Thrips,  Linn. 
stenomclas,  Wlk. 

•tropica,  Hagen. 
aurifera,  Wlk. 

"femoralis,  Hagen. 
Cloe,  Burn. 

Order,  Neurcptera, 

Linn. 

*punctata,  Hagen. 
Micromerus,  Ramb. 
*linearis,  Hagen. 

•tristis,  Hagen. 
*consueta,  Hagen. 
*solida,  Hagen. 

Fam.  SERICOSTOMID^, 
Steph. 

*australis,  Hagen. 
Hemerobius,  Linn. 
*frontalis,  Hagen. 

*sigmata,  Hagen. 
*marginalis,  Hagen. 
Caenis,  Steph. 

Mormonia,  Curt. 

Coniopteryx,  Hal. 

perpusilla,  Wlk. 

*ursina,  Hagen. 

*cerata,  Hagen. 

Fam.  LlBELLULIDyE. 

Fam.  LEPTOCERID.S:, 
Leach. 

Fam.  MYRMELEONID^E, 
Leach. 

Calopteryx,  Leach. 
Chinensis,  Linn. 

Macronema,  Pict. 

Palparcs,  Ramb. 

Euphcea,  Selys. 

multifarium,  Wlk. 

contrarius,  Wlk. 

splendens,  Hagen. 

*splcndidum,  Hagen. 

Acanthoclisis,  Ramb. 

Micromerus,  Ramb. 

*nebnlosum,  Hagen. 

•  —  n.  s.  Hagen. 

lincatus.  Burnt. 

*obliquum,  Hagen, 

*molestus,  Wlk. 

Trichocnemys,  Stlys. 

*Ceylanicum,  Niet. 

Myrmeleon,  Linn. 

*serapica,  Hagen. 

*annulicorne,  Niet. 

gravis,  Wlk. 

Lestes,  Leach. 

Molanna,  Curt. 

dirus,  Wlk. 

*elata,  Hagen. 

mixta,  Hagen. 

barbarus,  Wlk. 

*gracilis,  Hagen. 

282 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  H. 


Agrion,  Fabr. 

Myrmica,  Latr. 

Fam.  APID^;,  LeacJu 

*Coromandelianum,.F. 
*tenax,  Hagen. 
*hilare,  Hagen. 

basalis,  Smith. 
contigua,  Smith. 
glyciphila,  Smith. 

Andrena,  Fabr. 
•exagens,  Wlk. 
Nomia,  Latr. 

*velare,  Hagen. 
•delicatum,  Hagen. 
Gynacantha,  Ramb. 
subinterrupta,  Itamb. 
Epophthalmia,  Burm. 
vittata,  Burm. 

•consternens,  Wlk. 
Crematogaster,  Lund.    . 
*pellens,  Wlk. 
*deponens,  Wlk. 
*forticulus,  Wlk. 
Pseudomyrma,  Gure. 

rustica,  Westw. 
*vincta,  Wlk. 
Allodaps,  Smith. 
*marginata,  Smith. 
Ceratina,  Latr. 
viridis   Guer. 

Zyxomma,  Ramb. 

*atrata,  Smith. 

picta.  Smith. 

petiolatum,  Ramb. 

allaborans,  Wlk. 

¥siniilliuia,  Smith. 

Acisoma,  Ramb. 
panorpoidcs,  Ramb. 
Libellula,  Linn. 

Atta,  St.  Farg. 
didita,  Wlk. 
Pheidole,  Westw. 

Ccelioxys,  Latr. 
capitata,  Smith. 
Croeisa,  Jur. 

Marcia,  Drury. 
Tillarga,  Fabr. 

Janus,  Smith. 
*Taprobana3,  Smith. 

*ramosa,  St.  Farg. 
Stelis,  Panz. 

variegata,  Linn. 
flavescens,  Fabr. 
Sabina,  Drury. 

*rugosa,  Smith. 
Meranoplus,  Smith. 
*dimicans,  Wlk. 

carbonaria,  Smith. 
Anthophora,  Latr. 

viridula,  Pal.  Beauv. 
congener,  Ramb. 

Cataulacus,  Smith. 
Taprobante,  Smith. 

Xylocopa,  Latr. 
tenuiscapa,  Westw. 

soror,  Ramb. 

latipes,  Drury. 

Aurora,  Burm. 

Fam.  MCTILLID.S,  Leach. 

*v  .            ~ 
Apis,  Linn. 

violacea,  Niet. 
perla,  Hagen. 
sanguinea,  Burm, 
trivialis,  Ramb. 
contaminata,  Fabr. 

Mutilla.  Linn. 
•Sibylla,  Smith. 
Tiphia,  Fabr. 
*decrescens,  Wlk. 

Indica,  Smith. 
Trigona,  Jur. 
iridipennis,  Smith. 
*pra3terita,  Wlk. 

equestris,  Fair. 
nebulosa,  Fabr. 

Fam.  EUMENID^E,  Westw. 

Fam.  CHRYSID.E,  Wlk. 

Odynerus,  Lair. 

Stilbum,  Spin. 

Order,  Hymcnoptera, 

Linn. 

*tinctipennis,  Wlk. 
*intendens,  Wlk. 

splendidum,  Dahl. 

Scolia,  Fabr. 

Fam.  DORTLIDJ:,  Shuck. 

Fam.  FORMICIDJE,  Leach. 

auricollis,  St.  Farg. 

Enictns,  Shuck. 

Formica,  Linn. 

Fam.  CRABRONID.E,  Leach. 

porizonoides,  Wlk. 

smaragdina,  Fabr. 
mitis,  Smith. 
*Taprobane,  Smith. 
*variegata,  Smith. 
*exercita,  Wlk. 

Philanthus,  Fabr. 
basalis,  Smith. 
Stigmus,  Jur. 
*congruus,  Wilk. 

Fam.  ICHNEUMONID^;, 
Leach. 
Cryptus,  Fabr. 
•onustus,  Wlk. 

*exundans,  Wlk. 
*meritans,  Wlk. 

Fam.  SPHEGID.E,  Steph. 

Hemitelcs?  Grav. 
•varins,  Wlk. 

"latebrosa,  Wlk. 

Ammophila,  Kirby. 

Porizon,  Fall. 

*pangens,  Wlk. 
•ingruens,  Wlk. 
*detorquens,  Wlk. 
*diffidens,  Wlk. 

atripes,  Smith. 
Pelopreus,  Latr. 
Spruit,  St.  Farg. 
Sphex,  Fabr. 

*dominans,  Wlk. 
Pimpla,  Fabr. 
albopicta,  Wlk. 

*obscurans,  Wlk. 
*indeflexa,  Wlk. 
consultans,  Wlk. 
Polyrhachis,  Smith. 
*illaudatus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PONERID.E,  Smith. 

ferruginea,  St.  Farg. 
Ampulex,  Jur. 
compressa,  Fabr. 

Fam.  LARRID.E,  Steph. 
Larrada,  Smith. 
*extensa,  Wlk. 

Fam.  BRACONID^:,  Hal. 
Microgaster,  Lair. 
*recusans,  Wlk. 
•significans,  Wlk. 
*subducens,  Wlk. 
*detracta,  Wlk. 
Spathius,  Nees. 

Odontomachus,  Lair. 
similliraus,  Smith. 

Fam.  POSIPILID^:,  Leach. 

*bisignatus,  Wlk. 
•signipennis,  Wlk. 

Typhlopone,  Westw. 

Pompilus,  Fabr.  . 

Heratemis,  Wlk. 

Curtisii,  Shuck. 

analis,  Fabr. 

•filosa,  Wlk. 

CHAP.  VI.] 


CEYLON   INSECTS. 


283 


Nebartha,  Wlk.               \ 

Mesentina,  Godt. 

Pyrameis,  Hiibn. 

*macropoides,  Wlk. 

Severina,  Cram. 

Charonia,  Drury. 

Psyttalia,  Wlk. 

Namouna,  Doubl. 

Cardui,  Linn. 

"testacea,  Wlk. 

Phryne,  Fabr. 

Callirhoe,  Hiibn. 

Paulina,  Godt. 

Junonia,  Hiibn. 

Fam.  CHALCIDI.E,  Spin. 

Thestylis,  Doubl. 

Limonias,  Linn. 

Chalcis,  Fabr. 
*dividens,  Wlk. 
•pan  dens,  Wlk. 
Halticella,  Spin. 

Callosune,  Doubl. 
Eucharis,  Fabr. 
Danae,  Fabr. 
Etrida,  Boisd. 
Idmais,  Boisd. 

CEnone,  Linn. 
Orithyia,  Linn. 
Laomedia,  Linn. 
Asterie,  Linn. 
Precis,  Hiibn. 

*inficicns    Wlk 

Calais,  Cram. 

Iphita,  Cram. 

Dirrhinus,  Dalm. 

Thestias,  Boisd. 
Mariamnc,  Cram. 

Cynthia,  Fabr. 
Arsinoe,  Cram. 

Eurytoina,  ///. 
*contraria,  Wlk. 
"indefensa,  Wlk. 
Eucharis,  Latr. 
*convergens,  Wlk. 
*deprivata,  Wlk. 
Ptcromalus,  Swed. 
*magniceps,  Wlk. 

Pirene,  Linn. 
Hebomoia,  Hiibn. 
Glaucippe,  Linn. 
Eronia,  Hiibn. 
Valeria,  Cram. 
Callidryas,  Boisd. 
Phillipina,  Baud. 
Pyranthe,  Linn. 
Hilaria,  Cram. 

Parthenos,  Hiibn. 
Gambrisius,  Fabr. 
Limenitis,  Fabr. 
Calidusa.  Moore. 
Neptis,  Fabr. 
Heliodore,  Fabr. 
Columella,  Cram. 
aceris,  Fabr. 
Jumhah,  Moore. 

*obstructus,  Wlk. 

Alcmeone,  Cram. 
Thisorella,  Boisd. 

Hordonia,  Stall. 
Diadema,  Boisd. 

Fam.  DIAPRIDJE,  Hal. 

Tcrias,  Swain. 
Drona,  Horsf. 

Augc,  Cram. 
Bolina,  Linn. 

Diapria,  Latr. 

Hecabe,  Linn. 

Symphaedra,  Hiibn. 

apicalis,  Wlk. 

Thyelia,  Fabr. 

Tf        "PJ                            ^ 

Adolias,  Boisd. 

I?  HID.  IN  YMPHALIDA,  OU/ut/2. 

Evelina,  Stoll. 

Order,  Iiepldoptera, 

Euplcea,  Fabr. 

Lubentina,  Fabr. 

Linn. 

Prothoe,  Godt. 

Vasanta,  Moore. 

Fam.  PAPILIONIDJE,  Leach. 

Core,  Cram. 
Alcathoe,  Godt. 

Gar  u  da,  Moore. 
Nymphalis,  Latr. 

Ornithoptera,  Boisd. 

Danais,  Latr. 

Psaphon,  Westw. 

Darsius,  G.  R.  Gray. 

Chrysippus,  Linn. 

Bernardus,  Fabr. 

Papilio,  Linn. 

Plexippus,  Linn. 

Athamas,  Cram. 

Diphilus,  Esp. 

Aglae,  Cram. 

Fabius,  Fabr. 

Jophon,  G.  R.  Gray 

Melissa,  Cram. 

Kalliraa,  Doubl. 

Hector,  Linn. 

Limniacae,  Cram. 

Philarchus,  Westw. 

Romulus,  Cram. 

Juventa,  Cram. 

Melanitis,  Fabr. 

Polymnestor,  Cram. 

Hestia,  Hiibn. 

Banksia,  Fabr. 

Crino,  Fabr. 

Jasonia,  Westw. 

Leda,  Linn. 

Helcnus,  Linn. 

Telchinia,  Hiibn. 

Casiphone.G.  R.  Gray. 

Pammon,  Linn. 

viola?,  Fabr. 

undularis,  Boisd. 

Polytes,  Linn. 

Cethosia,  Fabr. 

Ypththima,  Hiibn. 

Erithonius,  Cram. 

Cyane,  Fabr. 

Lysandra,  Cram. 

Antipathis,  Cram. 

Messarus,  Doubl. 

Parthalis,  Wlk. 

Agamemnon,  Linn. 

Erymanthis,  Drury. 

Cyllo,  Baud. 

Eurypilus,  Linn. 

Atella,  Doubl. 

Gorya,  Wlk. 

Bathycles,  Zinek-Som. 

Phalanta,  Drury. 

Cathsena,  Wlk. 

Sarpedon,  Linn. 

Arjrynnis,  Fabr. 

Embolima,  Wlk. 

dissimilis,  Linn. 

Niphe,  Linn. 

Neilgherriensis,  Gu€r. 

Pontia,  Fabr. 

Clagia,  Godt. 

Purimata,  Wlk. 

Nina,  Fabr. 

Ergolis,  Boisd. 

Pushpamitra,  ^Vlk. 

Pieris,  Schr. 

Taprobana,  West. 

Mycalesis,  Hiibn. 

Eucharis,  Drury. 

Vanessa,  Fabr. 

Patnia,  Moore. 

Coronis,  Cram. 

Charonia,  Drury. 

Gamaliba,  Wlk. 

Epicharis,  Godt. 

Libythea,  Fabr. 

Dosaron,  Wlk. 

Nam  a,  Doubl. 

Medhavina,  Wlk. 

Samba,  Moore. 

Remba,  Moore. 

Pushcara,  Wlk. 

Camonympha,  Hiibn. 

284 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Euaspla,  Wlk. 

Pyrgus,  Hiibn. 

JEgocera,  Latr. 

Emesis,  Fabr. 

Superna,  Moore. 

Venulia,  Cram. 

Echerius,  Stall. 

Danna,  Moore. 

bimacula,  Wlk. 

Genta,  Wlk. 

Fam.  LYC^ENID^E,  Leach. 
Anops,  Boisd. 
Bulis,  Boisd. 
Thetys,  Drury. 
Loxura,  Horsf. 
Atymnus,  Cram. 
Myrina,  Godt. 
Selimnus,  Doubled. 
Triopas,  Cram. 
Amblypodia,  Horsf. 

Sydrus,  Wlk. 
Nisoniades,  Hiibn. 
Diodes,  Boisd. 
Salsala,  Moore. 
Toides,  Wlk. 
Pamphila,  Fabr. 
Augias,  Linn. 
Achylodcs,  Hiibn. 
Temala,  Wlk. 
Hesperia,  Fabr. 
Indrani,  Moore. 

Fam.  ZYG^ENID^E,  Leach. 
Syntomis,  Ochs. 
Schcenherri,  Boisd. 
Creusa,  Linn. 
Imaon,  Cram. 
Glaucopis,  Fabr. 
subaurata,  Wlk. 
Enchromia,  Hiibn. 
Polymena,  Cram. 
diminuta,  Wlk. 

Iionginus,  Fabr. 
Narada,  Horsf. 
Pseudocentaurus,  Do. 
qucrcetorum,  Boisd. 

Chaya,  Moore. 
Cinnara,  Moore. 
grcmius,  Latr. 
Cendochates,  Wlk. 

Fam.  LITHOSIIDJE,  Steph. 

Scaptesyle,  Wlk. 
bicolor,  Wlk. 

Aphnasus,  Hiibn. 
Pindarus,  Fabr. 

Tiagara,  Wlk. 
Cotiaris,  Wlk. 

Nyctemera,  Hiibn. 
lacticinia,  Cram. 

Etolus,  Cram. 
Hephjestos,  Doubled. 

Sigala,  Wlk. 

latistriga,  Wlk. 
Coleta,  Cram. 

Crotus,  Doubled. 
Dipsas,  Doubled. 
Chrysomallus,  Hiibn. 

Fam.  SPIIINGIIXE,  Leach. 
Scsia,  Fabr. 

Euschema,  Hiibn. 
subrepleta,  Wlk. 
transversa    '\Vlk. 

Isocratcs,  Fabr. 

Hylas,  Linn. 

vilis,  Wlk. 

Lycoena,  Fabr. 
Alexis,  Stall 

Macroglossa,  Ochs. 
Stcllatarum,  Linn. 

Chalco'sia,  Hiibn. 

Boetica,  Linn. 

gyrans,  Boisd. 

i  enna,     ram. 

Cnejus,  Horsf. 
Kosimon,  Fubr. 
Theophrastus,  Fabr. 
Pluto,  Fabr. 
Parana,  Horsf. 
Nyseus,  Guer. 
Ethion,  Boisd. 
Celcno,  Cram. 

Corythus,  Boisd. 
divergens,  Wlk. 
Calyuinia,  Boisd. 
Panopus,  Cram. 
Chcerocampa,  Dup. 
Thyelia,  Linn. 
Nyssus,  Drury. 
Clotho,  Drury. 

Eterusia,  Hope. 
JEdea,  Linn. 
Trypanophora,  Koll. 
Taprobanes,  Wlk. 
Heteropan,  Wlk. 
scintillans,  Wlk. 
Hypsa,  Hiibn. 
plan  a,  Wlk. 

Kandarpa,  Horsf. 

Oldenlandia),  Fabr. 

caricse,  Fabr. 

El  pis,  Godt 

Lycetus,  Cram. 

ficus,  Fabr. 

Chimonas,  Wlk. 
Gandara,  Wlk. 
Chorienis,  Wlk. 

Silhctensis.  Boisd. 
Pergcsa,  Wlk. 
Acteus,  Cram. 

Vitessa,  Moor. 
Zemire,  Cram. 
Lithosia   Fabr. 

Gcria,  Wlk. 

Panacra,  Wlk. 

antica,  Wlk. 

Doanas,  Wlk. 
Sunya,  Wlk. 

vigil,  Guer. 
Daphnis,  Hiibn. 

brevipennis,  Wlk. 
Setina,  Schr. 

Audhra,  Wlk. 

Nerii,  Linn. 

Polyommatus,  Latr. 

Zonilia,  Boisd. 

solita,   Wlk. 

Akasa,  Horsf. 
Puspa,  Horsf. 

Morpheus,  Cram. 
Macrosila,  Boisd. 

Doliche,  Wlk. 

hilaris,  Wlk. 

Laius,  Cram. 

obliqna,  Wlk. 

Pitane,  Wlk. 

Ethion,  Boisd. 

discistriga,  Wlk. 

conserta,  Wlk. 

Cattigara,  Wlk. 

Sphinx,  Linn. 

JEmene,  Wlk. 

Gorgippia,  Wlk. 
Lucia,  Westw. 
Epius,  Westw. 
Pithccops,  Horsf. 
Hylax,  Fabr. 

convolvuli,  Linn. 
Achcrontia,  Ochs. 
Satanas,  Boisd. 
Smerinthus,  Latr. 
Dryas,  Boisd. 

Taprobanes,  Wlk. 
Dirades,  Wlk. 
attacoides,  Wlk. 
Cjllene,  Wlk. 
transversa,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HESPERID.E,  Steph. 

Fam.  CASTNIIDJE,  Wlk. 

*spoliata,  Wlk. 
Bizone,  Wlk. 

Goniloba,  Westw. 

Eusemia,  Dalm. 

subornata,  Wlk. 

lapetus,  Cram. 

bellatrix,  Westw. 

peregrina,  Wlk. 

CHAP.  VI.] 


CEYLON   INSECTS. 


285 


Deiopeia,  Steph. 

Cispia,  Wlk. 

graciosa,  Westw. 

pulcbella,  Linn. 

plagiata,  Wlk. 

Narosa,   Wlk. 

Astrea,  Drury. 

Dasychira,  Hiibn. 

conspersa,  Wlk. 

Argus,  Kollar. 

pudibunda,  Linn. 

Naprepa,  Wlk. 

Lymantria,  Hiibn. 

varians,  Wlk. 

Fam.  ARCTIID.S:,  Leach. 

grandis,  Wlk. 

Alope,  Wlk. 
ocellifera,  Wlk. 
Sangarida,  Cram. 
Tinolius,  Wlk. 
eburneigutta,  Wlk. 
Creatonotos,  Hiibn. 
interrupta,  Linn. 
emittens,  Wlk. 
Acmonia,  Wlk. 

marginata,  Wlk. 
Enome,  Wlk. 
ampla,  Wlk. 
Dreata,  Wlk. 
plumipes,  Wlk. 
geminata,  Wlk. 
mutans,  Wlk. 
mollifera,  Wlk. 
Pandala,  Wlk. 

Fam.  DREPANULIDJE,  Wlk. 
Oreta,  Wlk. 
suft'nsa,  Wlk. 
extensa,  Wlk. 
Arna,  Wlk. 
apicalis,  Wlk. 
Ganisa,  Wlk. 
postica,  Wlk. 

litbosioides,  Wlk. 
Spilosoma,  Steph. 
subfascia,  Wlk. 

Charnidas,  Wlk. 
junctifera,  Wlk. 

Fam.   SATURINIDJE,   Wlk. 
Attacus,  Linn. 

Cycnia,  Hiibn. 
rubida,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PSYCHIDJE,  Bru. 

Atlas,  Linn. 
lunula,  Anon. 

sparsigntta,  Wlk. 
Antheua,  Wlk. 
discalis,  Wlk. 

Psyche,  Schr. 
Doubledaii,  Westw. 
Metisa,  Wlk. 

Antheraja,  Hiibn. 
Mylitta,  Drury. 
Assama,  Westw. 

Aloa,  Wlk. 

plana,  Wlk. 

Tropaea,  Hiibn. 

lactinea,  Cram. 

Eumeta,  Wlk. 

Selene,  Hiibn. 

candidula,  Wlk. 

Cramerii,  Westw. 

erosa,  Wlk. 

Templetonii,  Westw. 

Amerila,  Wlk. 

Cryptothelea,  Tempi. 

.barn.  BOMBYCID^E,  Steph. 

Melanthus,  Cram. 

consorta,  Tempi. 

Trabala,  Wlk. 

Ammatho,  Wlk. 

basalis,  Wlk. 

cunionotatus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  NOTODONTIDJE,  St. 

prasina,  Wlk. 

P                   o    . 

Lasiocampa,  Sckr. 

Fam.  LIPARIDJE,   Wlk. 

Artaxa,  Wlk. 
guttata,  Wlk. 
*varians,  Wlk. 
atomaria,  Wlk. 
Acyphas,  Wlk. 
viridescens,  Wlk. 
Lacida,  Wlk. 

liturata,  Wlk. 
Stauropus,  Germ. 
alternans,  Wlk. 
Nioda,  Wlk. 
fusiformis,  Wlk. 
transversa,   Wlk. 
Rilia,  Wlk. 
lanceolata,  Wlk. 

trifascia,  Wlk. 
Megasoma,  Boisd. 
venustum,  Wlk. 
Lebeda,  Wlk. 
repanda,  Wlk. 
plagiata,  Wlk. 
bimaculata,  Wlk. 
scriptiplaga,  Wlk. 

rotundata,  Wlk. 
antica,  Wlk. 

basivitta,  Wlk. 
Ptilomacra,  Wlk. 

Fam.  COSSID.S:,  Newm. 

subnotata,  Wlk. 

juvenis,  Wlk. 

Cossus,  Fabr. 

complens,  Wlk. 
promittens,  Wlk. 
strigulifera,  Wlk. 

Elavia,  Wlk. 
metaphaea,  Wlk. 
Notodonta,  Ochs. 

quadrinotatus,  Wlk. 
Zeuzera,  Latr. 
leuconota,  Sleph. 

Amsacta?  Wlk. 

ejecta,  Wlk. 

pusilla,  Wlk. 

tenebrosa,  Wlk. 

Ichthyura,  Hiibn. 

Antipha,  Wlk. 

restituens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HEPIALIDJE,  Steph. 

costalis,  Wlk. 
Anaxila,  Wlk. 
notata,  Wlk. 

Fam.  LIMACODIIXE,  Dup. 
Scopelodes,  Westw. 

Phassus,  Steph. 
signifer,  Wlk. 

Procodeca,  Wlk. 
angnlifera,  Wlk. 

unicolor,  Westw. 
Messata,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CYMATOPHORIDJE, 
Herr.  Sch. 

Redoa,  Wlk. 
submarginata,  Wlk. 

rubiginosa,  Wlk. 
Miresa,  Wlk. 

Thyatira,  Ochs. 

Euproctis,  Hiibn. 

argentifera,  Wlk. 

repugnans,  Wlk. 

virguncula,  Wlk. 

aperiens,  Wlk. 

bimaculata,  Wlk. 

Nyssia,  Herr.  Sch. 

Fam.  BRTOPniLiD.a^G'M&i, 

lunata,  Wlk. 

laeta,  Westw. 

Bryophila,  Treit. 

tinctifera,  Wlk. 

Neoera,  Herr.  Sch. 

semipars,  Wlk. 

286 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Fam.  BOMBYCOIDJE,  Guen. 

inclusa,  Wlk. 

exotica,  Guen. 

Diphtera,  Ochs. 

Epiceia,  Wlk. 

rivularis,  Wlk. 

deceptura,  Wlk. 

subsignata,  Wlk. 

duplicans,  Wlk. 

Hadena,  Treit. 

Fam.  LECCANID/E,  Guen. 

subcurva,  Wlk. 

Fam.  EURHIPID.*:,  Guen. 

Leucania,  Ochs. 
confusa,  Wlk. 
exempta,  Wlk. 
inferens,  Wlk. 

postica,  Wlk. 
retrahens,  Wlk. 
confundens,  Wlk. 
congressa,  Wlk. 

Penicillaria,  Guen. 
nugatrix,  Guen. 
resoluta,  Wlk. 
solida,  Wlk. 

collecta,  Wlk. 
Brada   Wlk. 

ruptistriga,  Wlk. 
Ansa,  Wlk. 

ludatrix,  Wlk. 
Ehesala,  Wlk. 

truncata,  Wlk. 

filipalpis,  Wlk. 

imparata,  Wlk. 

Crambopsis,  Wlk. 
excludens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  GLOTTULID.E,  Guen. 

Fam.  XYLINIDJE,  Guen. 
Bagada,  Wlk. 
pyrorchroma,  Wlk. 
Cryassa,  Wlk. 

Eutelia,  Hiibn. 
favillatrix,  Wlk. 
thermesiides,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PLUSIID^E,  Boisd. 

Polytela,  Guen. 

bifacies,  Wlk. 

Abrostola,  Ochs. 

gloriosa,  Fabr. 

Egelista,  Wlk. 

transfixa,  Wlk. 

Glottula,  Guen. 

rudivitta,  Wlk. 

Plusia,  Ochs. 

Dominica,  Cram. 
Chasmina,  Wlk. 

Xylina,  Ochs. 
deflexa,  Wlk. 

aurifera,  Hiibn. 
verticillata,  Guen. 

pavo,  Wlk. 

inchoans,  Wlk. 

agramrca,  Guen. 

cygnus,  Wlk. 
Fam.  APAMID^E,  Guen. 

Fam.  HELIOTHID^E,  Guen. 
Heliothis,  Ochs. 

obtusisigna,  Wlk. 
nigriluna,  Wlk. 
signata,  Wlk. 

Laphygma,  Guen. 

armigera,  Hiibn. 

dispellens,  Wlk. 

obstans,   Wlk. 

Fam.  ILEMEROSID.E,  Guen. 

propulsa,  Wlk. 

trajiciens,  Wlk. 

Ariola,  Wlk. 

Prodenia,  Guen. 
retina,  Friv. 
glaucistriga,  Wlk. 

coelisigna,  Wlk. 

dilectissima,  Wlk. 
saturata,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CAX.PIDJE,  Guen. 
Calpe,  Treit. 
minuticornis,  Guen. 

apertura,   Wlk. 

Orcesia,  Guen. 

Calogramma,  Wlk. 

Fam.  ACONTID.E,  Guen. 

emarginata,  Fabr. 

festiva,  Don. 
Heliophobus,  Boisd. 
discrepans,  Wlk. 
Hydrsecia,  Guen. 
lampadifera,  Wlk. 

Xanthodes,  Guen. 
intersepta,  Guen. 
Acontia,  Ochs. 
tropica,  Guen. 
olivacea,  Wlk. 

Deva,  Wlk. 
conducens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HEMICERID^E,  Guen. 
Westermannia,  Hiibn. 

Apamea,  Ochs. 
undecilia,  Wlk. 

fasciculosa,  Wlk. 
signifera,  Wlk. 

superba,  Hiibn. 

Celsena,  Steph. 

turpis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HYBL^ID^E,  Guen. 

serva,  Wlk. 

mianoides,  Wlk. 

Hybtea,  Guen. 

Fam.  CARADRINID^E,  Guen. 

approximans,  Wlk. 
divulsa,  Wlk. 

Puera,  Cram. 
constellata,  Guen. 

Amyna,  Guen. 

*egens,  Wlk. 

Nolasena,  Wlk. 

selenampha,  Guen. 

plenicosta,  Wlk. 

ferrifervens,  Wlk. 

determinate,  Wlk. 

Fam.  NOCTTJID^E,  Guen. 

hypsetroides,  Wlk. 

Fam.  GONOFTERIDJS,  Guen. 

Agrotis,  Ochs. 
aristifera,  Guer. 

Chlumetia,   Wlk. 
multilinea,  Wlk. 

Cosmophila,  Boisd. 
Indica,  Guen. 

congrua,  Wlk. 
punctipes,  Wlk. 

Fam.  ANTHOPHILIDJE, 

xanthindyma,  Boisd. 
Anomis,  Hiibn. 

mundata,  Wlk. 

Guen. 

fulvida,  GuCn, 

transducta.  Wlk. 

Micra,  Guen. 

iconica,  ~Wlk. 

plagiata,  Wlk. 

destituta,   Wlk. 

Gonitis,  Guen. 

plagifera,  Wlk. 

derogata,   Wlk. 

combinans,  Wlk. 

simplex,  Wlk. 

albitibia,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HADENID-E,  Guen. 

mesogona,   Wlk. 

Eurois,  Huln. 

Fam.  ERIOPID.E,    Guen. 

gnttanivis,  Wll;. 

auriplena,  Wlk. 

Callopistria,  Hiibn. 

involuta,  Wlk. 

CHAP.  VI.] 


CEYLON  INSECTS. 


287 


basal  is,  Wlk. 

orbicularis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  OMMATOPHORID.E, 

Eporcdia,  Wlk. 

muscosa,  Wlk. 

Guen. 

damnipennis,  Wlk. 
Eusicada,  Wlk. 

Dinumma,  Wlk. 
placens,  Wlk. 

Spciredonia,  Hiibn. 
retrahens,  Wlk. 

nigritarsis,  Wlk. 

Lusia,  Wlk. 

Sericia,  Guen. 

Pasipeda,  Wlk. 
rufipalpis,  Wlk. 

geometroides,  Wlk. 
perficita,  Wlk. 
repulsa,  Wlk. 

anops,  Guen. 
parvipennis,  Wlk. 
Patula  Guen. 

Fam.  TOXOCABIPID^:, 
Guen. 

Abunis,  Wlk. 
trimesa,  Wlk. 

macrops,  Linn. 
Argira,  Hiibn. 

Toxocampa,  Gu&n. 
metaspila,  Wlk. 

Fam.  OATEpniD^:,  Guen. 

hieroglyphica,  Drury. 
Beregra,  Wlk. 

sexlinea,  Wlk. 

Cocytodes,  Gu6n. 

replenens,  Wlk. 

quinquelina,  Wlfc" 

coerula,  Guen. 

Albonica,  Wlk. 

modesta,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HYPOPYRID.E,  Guen. 

reversa,  Wlk. 

Fam.PoLYDESMIDJE,  Gu6n. 

Catephia,  Ochs. 
linteola,  Guen. 
Anophia,  Guen. 

Spiramia,  Guen. 
Helicon!  a,  Hiibn. 
triloba,  Guen. 

Polydesma,  Boisd. 
boarmoides,  Wlk, 
erubescens,  Wlk. 

acronyctoides,  Guen. 
Steiria,  Wlk. 
subobliqua,  Wlk. 
trajiciens,  Wlk. 

Hypopyra,  Guen. 
vespertilio,  Fabr. 
Ortospana,  Wlk. 
connectens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HOJIOPTERID^E,  Bois. 
Alamis,  Guen. 

Aucha,  Wlk. 
velans,  Wlk. 
JEgilia,  Wlk. 

Entomogramma,  Guen. 
fautrix,  Guen. 

spoliata,  Wlk. 
Homoptcra,  Boisd. 

describcns,  Wlk. 
Maceda,  Wlk. 

Fam.  BENDIDJE,  Guen. 

basipallens,  Wlk. 

mansueta,  Wlk. 

Homrea,  Gufn. 

retrahens,  Wlk. 

clathrum,  Gu6n. 

costifera,  Wlk. 
divisistriga,  IVlk. 
procumbens,  Wlk. 
Diacuista,  Wlk. 
homopteroidcs,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HTPOCALIDJS,  Guen. 
Hypocala,  Gu6n. 
efflorescens,  Gu£n. 
subsatura,  Guen. 

Hulodes,  Gufn. 
caranea,  Cram. 
palumba,  Gu6n. 

Fara.  OPHIUSID^E,  Guen. 

Daxata,  Wlk. 
bijungens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CATOCALID.E,  Boisd. 

Sphingomorpha,  Guen. 
Chlorea,  Cram. 

Fam.  HYPOGRAMMTDJE, 

Blenina,  Wlk. 
donans,  Wlk. 

Lagoptera,  Guen. 
honesta,  Hiibn. 

Guen. 

accipiens,  Wlk. 

inagica,  Hiibn. 

Briarda,  Wlk. 

dotata,  Fabr. 

precedens,  Wlk. 

Fam.OpHiDERiD^:,  Guen. 

Ophiodes,  Guen. 

Brana,  Wlk. 
calopasa,  Wlk. 
Corsa,  Wlk. 

Ophidcres,  Boisd. 
Materna,  Linn. 

discriminans,  Wlk. 
basistigma,  Wlk. 
Cerbia,  Wlk. 

lignicolor,  Wlk. 
Avatha,  Wlk. 

fullonica,  Linn. 
Cajcta,  Cram. 

fugitiva,  Wlk. 
Ophisma,  Guru. 

includens,  Wlk. 
Gadirtha,  Wlk. 
decrescens,  Wlk. 
impingens,  Wlk. 
spurcata,  Wlk. 
rectifera,  Wlk. 

Ancilla,  Cram. 
Salaminia,  Cram. 
Hypermnestra,  Cram. 
multiscripta,  Wlk. 
bilineosa,  Wlk. 
Potamophera,  Gu4n. 

lajtabilis,  Gufn. 
deficiens,  Wlk. 
gravata,  Wlk. 
circumferens,  Wlk. 
tcrminans,  Wlk. 
Achsea,  Hiibn. 

duplicans,  Wlk. 
intrusa,  Wlk. 

Manlia,  Cram. 
Lygniodcs,  Guen. 

Melicerta,  Drury. 
Mezentia,  Cram. 

Ercheia,  Wlk. 
diversipcnnis,  Wlk. 
Plotheia,  Wlk. 

reducens,  Wlk. 
disparans,  Wlk. 
hypoleuca,  Guen. 

Cyllota,  Guen. 
Cyllaria,  Cram. 
fusifera,  Wlk. 

frontalis,  Wlk. 
Diomea,  Wlk. 

Fam.  EREBID.E,  Guen. 

signivitta,  Wlk. 
reversa,  Wlk. 

rotundata,  Wlk. 

Oxyodes,  Guen. 

combinans,  Wlk. 

cbloromela,  Wlk. 

Clytia,  Cram. 

expectans,  Wlk. 

ZOOLOGY. 


[PAST  II. 


Serrodes,  Guert. 

Thermcsia,  Hilbn. 

Agathia,  Gu6n. 

campana,  Guen. 

finipalpis,  Wlk. 

blandiaria,  Wlk. 

Naxia,  Guen. 

soluta,  Wlk. 

Bulonga,  Wlk. 

absentimacula,  Gu&n. 

Azazia,  Wlk. 

Ajaia,  Wlk. 

Onelia,  Guen. 

rubricans,  Boisd. 

Chacoraca,  Wlk. 

calefaciens,  Wlk. 

Selenis,  Gnen. 

Chandubija,  Wlk. 

calorifica,  Wlk. 

nivisapex,  Wlk. 

Calesia,  Guen. 

multiguttata,  Wlk. 

Fam.GEOMETRiD^:,  Guen. 

hcemorrhoda,  Guen. 
Hypsetra,  Guen. 

semilux,  Wlk. 
Ephyrodes,  .Gutn. 

Geometra,  Linn. 
specularia,  Guen. 

trigonifera,  Wlk. 
curvifera,  Wlk. 
condita,  Wlk. 
complacens,  Wlk. 
divisa,  Wlk. 
Ophiusa,  Ochs. 
myops,  Guen. 

excipiens,  Wlk. 
cristisfera,  Wlk. 
lineifera,  Wlk. 
Capnodes,  Guen. 
•maculicosta,  Wlk. 
Ballatha,  Wlk. 
atrotumens,  Wlk. 

Nanda,  Wlk. 
Nemoria,  Hiibn. 
caudularia,  Guen. 
solidaria,  Guen. 
Thalassodes,  Guen. 
quadraria,  Guen. 

albivitta,  Guen. 

Daranissa,  Wlk. 

immissaria    Wlk. 

Achatina,  Sulz. 
fulvotaenia,  Gu6n. 
simillima,  Guen. 
festinata,  Wlk. 
pallidilinea,  Wlk. 
luteipalpis,  Wlk, 

digramma,  Wlk. 
Darsa,  Wlk. 
defectissima,  Wlk. 

Fam.  URAPTERTD.E,  Guen. 

Sisunaga,  'wik. 
adornataria,  Wlk. 
meritaria,  Wlk. 
ccelataria,  Wlk. 
gratularia,  Wlk. 
chlorozonaria,  Wlk. 

Fodina,  Guen. 
stola,  Guen. 
Grammodes,  Guen. 

Lagyra,  Wlk. 
Talaca,  Wlk. 

lissaria,  Wlk. 
simpliciaria,  Wlk. 
immissaria,  Wlk. 

Ammonia,  Cram. 

Comibrena,  Wlk. 

Mygdon,  Cram. 
stolida,  Fabr. 
mundicolor,  Wlk, 

Fam.  ENXOMID.E,  Guen. 
Hyperythra,  Guen. 

Divapala,  Wlk. 
impulsaria,  Wlk. 
Celenna,  Wlk. 

Fam.  ECCLIDID^E,  Guen. 

limbolaria,  Guen. 
Orsonoba,  Wlk. 

saturaturia,  Wlk. 
Pseudoterpna,  Wlk. 

Trigonodes,  Guen. 
Hippasia,  Cram. 

Rajaca,  Wlk. 
Fascellina,  Wlk. 
chromataria,  Wlk. 

Vivilaca,  Wlk. 
Amaurinia,  Gu6n. 
rubrolimbaria,  Wlk. 

Laginia,  Wlk. 

Fam.  REMIGIOS:,  Guen. 

bractiaria,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PALYAD.S,  Guen. 

Remigia,  Gu6n. 
Archesia,  Cram. 
frngalis,  Fabr. 
pertendens,  Wlk. 
congregata,  W2k. 

Fam.  BOARMID^E,  Guen. 

Amblychia,  Guen. 
angeronia,  Guen. 

Eumelea,  Dune. 
ludovicata,  Gu6n.' 
aureliata,  Guen. 
carnearia,  Wlk. 

opturata,  Wlk. 

poststrigaria,  Wlk. 

Fam.  EPHTEIDJE,  Guen. 

Fam.  FOCILLID^,  Guen. 
Focilla,  Guen. 
submemorans,  Wlk. 

Fam.  AMPHIGANID^E, 
Gu£n. 
Laccra,  GWn. 
capella,  Guen. 

Boarmia,  Treit. 
sublavaria,  Guen. 
admissaria,  Guen. 
raptaria,  Wlk. 
Medasina,  Wlk. 
Bhurmitra,  Wlk. 
Sniasasa,  Wlk. 
diffluaria,  Wlk. 
caritaria,  Wlk. 
exclusaria,  Wlk. 

Ephyra,  Dup. 
obrinaria,  Wlk. 
dccursaria,  Wlk. 
Cacavena,  Wlk. 
abliadraca,  Wlk. 
Vasudeva,  Wlk. 
Snsarmana,  Wlk. 
Vutnmana,  Wlk. 
inaequata,  Wlk. 

Amphigonia,  Guen. 
hepatizans,  Guen. 

Hypochroma,  Guen. 
minimaria,  Guen. 

Fam.  ACIDALID^;,  Gu6n~ 

Fam.  TUERMISUXE,  Guen. 

Gnophos,  Treit. 
Pulinda,  Wlk. 
Citlataria,  Wlk. 

Drapetodes,  Guen. 
mitaria,  Gu6n. 
Pomasia,  Guen. 

Sympis,  Guen. 
rufibasis,  Guin, 

Hcmerophila,  Steph. 
vidbisara,  W,k. 

Psylaria,  Gue"n~ 
Snnandaria,  Wlk. 

CHAP.  VI.] 


CEYLON   INSECTS. 


Acidalia,  Treit. 

Ghosha,  Wlk. 

Orthaga,  Wlk. 

obliviaria,  Wlk. 

contributaria,  Wlk. 

Euadrusalis,  Wlk. 

adeptaria,  Wlk. 

Mesogramma,  Steph. 

Hipoepa,  Wlk. 

nexiaria,  Wlk. 

lactularia,  Wlk. 

lapsalis,  Wlk. 

addictaria,  Wlk. 

scitaria,  Wlk. 

Lamnra,  Wlk. 

actiosaria,  Wlk. 

Eupithecia,  Curt. 

oberratalis,  Wlk. 

defamataria,  Wlk. 

recensitaria,  Wlk. 

Echana,  Wlk. 

negataria,  Wlk. 

admixtaria,  Wlk. 

abavalis,  Wlk. 

actuaria,  Wlk. 

immixtaria,  Wlk. 

Dragana,  Wlk. 

coesaria,  Wlk. 

Gathynia,  Wlk. 

pansalis,  Wlk. 

Cabera,  Steph. 

miraria,  Wlk. 

Pingrasa,  Wlk. 

falsaria,  Wlk. 

accnralis,  Wlk. 

decussaria,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PLATYDID.E,  Guen. 

Egnasia,  Wlk. 

famularia,  Wlk.    ^ 
nigrarenaria,  Wlk. 
Hyria,  Steph. 

Trigonia,  Guen. 
Cydonialis,  Cram. 

ephyradalis,  Wlk. 
accingalis,  Wlk. 
participalis,  Wlk. 

clataria,  Wlk. 
marcidaria,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HYPENID^E,  Herr. 

0-7. 

usurpatalis,  Wlk. 
Berresa,  Wlk. 

oblataria,  Wlk. 

OC/i. 

natalis,  Wlk. 

grataria,  Wlk. 

Dichromia,  Guen. 

Imma,  Wlk. 

rhodinaria,  Wlk. 

Orosialis,  Cram. 

rugosalis,  Wlk. 

Timandra,  Dup. 

Ilypena,  Schr. 

Chusaris,  Wlk. 

Ajuia,  Wlk. 

rhombalis.  Guen. 

retatalis,  Wlk. 

Vijuia,  Wlk. 

jocosalis,  Wlk. 

Corgatha,  Wlk. 

Agyris,  Guen. 

mandatalis,  Wlk. 

zonalis,  Wlk. 

deliaria,  Guen. 

quzesitalis,  Wlk. 

Catada,  Wlk. 

Za,nclopteryx,Herr.Sch. 

laceratalis,  Wlk. 

glomeralis,  Wlk. 

saponaria,  Herr.  Sch. 

iconicalis,  Wlk. 

captiosalis,    Wlk. 

labatalis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  MICRONID^E,  Guen. 

obacerralis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PYRALID^;,  Guen. 

Micronia,  Guen. 
caudata,  Fair. 

pactalis,  Wlk. 
raralis,  Wlk. 

Pyralis,  Linn. 
igniflualis,  Wlk. 

aculeata,  Guen. 

Fam.  MACARIDJE,  Guen. 
Macaria,  Curt. 

paritalis,  Tri  Ik. 
surreptalis,  Wlk. 
detersalis,  Wlk. 
ineffectalis,  Wlk. 
incongrualis,  Wlk. 

Palesalis,  Wlk. 
reconditalis,  Wlk. 
Idalialis,  Wlk. 
Janassalis,  Wlk. 

Eleonora,  Cram. 
Varisara,  Wlk. 
Rhagivata,  Wlk. 
Palaca,  Wlk. 

rubripunctum,  Wlk. 
Gesonia,  Wlk. 
*obeditalis,  Wlk. 
duplex,  Wlk. 

A  Lil<  >>>ii.  Lcitr. 
Gnidusalis,  Wlk. 
Labanda,  Wlk. 
herbealis.  Wlk. 

honestaria,  Wlk. 
Sangata,  Wlk. 

Fam.  HEKMINID^:,  Dup. 

Fam.  ENNYCHID^E,  Dup. 

honoraria,  Wlk. 
cessaria,  Wlk. 
subcaudaria,  Wlk. 
Doava,  Wlk. 
adjutaria,  Wlk. 
figuraria,  Wlk. 

Herminia,  Lair. 
Timonalis,  Wlk. 
diffusalis,  Wlk. 
interstans,  Wlk. 
Adrapsa,  Wlk. 
ablualis,  Wlk. 

Pyrausta,  Schr. 
*absistalis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  ASOPID^;,  Guen. 

Desmia,  Westw. 
afflictalis,  Guen. 

Fam.  LARENTID^E,  Guen. 

B.rtula,  Wlk. 
abjudicalis,  Wlk. 

concisalis,  Wlk. 
^Ediodes,  Guen. 

Sauris,  Gudn. 

raptatalis,  Wlk. 

flavibasalis,  Guen. 

hirudinata,  Guen. 

contigens,  Wlk. 

effertalis,  Wlk. 

Camptogramma,  Steph. 

Bocana,  Wlk. 

Samea,  Guen. 

baccata,  Guen. 

jutalis,  Wlk. 

gratiosalis,  Wlk. 

Blemyia,  Wlk. 

manifestalis,  Wlk. 

Asopia,  Guen. 

Bataca,  Wlk. 

ophiusalis.  Wlk. 

vulgalis,  Guen. 

blitiaria,  Wlk. 

vagalis,  Wlk. 

falsidicalis,  Wlk. 

Coremia,  Guen. 

turpatalis,  Wlk. 

abruptalis,  Wlk. 

Gomatina,  Wlk. 

hypernalis,  Wlk. 

latimarginalis,  Wlk. 

Lobophora,  Curt. 

gravatalis,  Wlk. 

praeteritalis,  Wlk. 

Salisuca,  Wlk. 

tumidalis,  Wlk. 

Eryxalis,  Wlk. 

VOL.  I.                                                U 

290 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


roridalis,  Wlk. 

Pygospila,  Gu£n. 

Herculia,  Wlk. 

Agathodes,  Guen. 

Tyresalis,  Cram. 

bractialis,  Wlk. 

ostentalis,  Geyer. 

Neurina,  Guen. 

Mecyna,  Gu6n. 

Leucinades,  Gu6n. 

Procopialis,  Cram. 

deprivalis,  Wlk. 

orbonalis,  Guen. 

ignibasalis,  Wlk. 

Hymenia,  Htibn. 
recurvalis,  Fabr. 

Uurgia,  Wlk. 
defamalis,  Wlk. 

Fam.   SCOPARID^:,   Guen. 

Agrotera,  Schr. 

Maruca,  Wlk. 

Scoparia,  Haw. 

suffusalis,  Wlk. 

ruptalis,  Wlk. 

murificalis,  Wlk. 

decessalis,  Wlk. 

caritalis,  Wlk. 

congestalis,  Wlk. 

Isopteryx,  GWn. 

Alconalis,  Wlk. 

"melaleucalis,  Wlk. 
*impulsalis,  Wlk. 

Fam.   BOTTOM,    Guen. 

Davana,  Wlk. 
Phalantalis,  Wlk. 

*spilomelalis,  Wlk. 

Botys,  Latr. 

Darsania,  Wlk. 

acclaralis,  Wlk. 

marginalis,  Cram. 

Niobesalis,  Wlk. 

abnegatalis,  Wlk. 

sellalis,  Guen. 

Dosara,  Wlk. 

multilinealis,  Guen. 

coelatella,  Wlk, 

Fam.    HTDROCAMPID.E, 
Guen. 

admcnsalis,  Wlk. 
abjungalis,  Wlk. 
nitilalis,  Wlk. 

lapsalis,  Wlk. 
immeritalis,  Wlk. 

Oligostigma,  Guen. 

admixtalis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CHOREUTID.E, 

obitalis,  Wlk. 

celatalis,  Wlk. 

S  taint. 

votalis,  Wlk. 
Cataclysta,  Herr.  Sch. 

deductalis,  Wlk. 
celsalis,  Wlk. 

Niaccaba,  Wlk. 

dilucidalis,  Guer. 
bisectalis,  Wlk. 
blandialis,  Wlk. 
elutalis,  Wlk. 

vulsalis,  Wlk. 
ultimate,  Wlk. 
tropicalis,  Wlk. 
abstrusalis,  Wlk. 
ruralis,  Wlk. 

Simaethis,  Leach, 
Clatella,  Wlk. 
Damonella,  Wlk. 
Bathusella,  Wlk. 

Fam.SpiLOiiELiD.E,  Guen. 

adhoesalis,  Wlk. 
illisalis    Wlk 

Fam.  PHTCID^E,  Staint. 

Lepyrodes,  Guen. 
geometralis,  Guen. 
lepidalis,  Wlk. 
peritalis,  Wlk. 
Phalangiodes,  Guen. 
Neptisalis,  Cram. 
Spilomela,  Guen. 
meritalis,  Wlk. 
abdicalis,  Wlk. 
decussalis,  Wlk. 
aurolinealis,  Wlk. 
Nistra,  Wlk. 
coelatalis,  Wlk. 
Pagyda,  Wlk. 
salvalis,  Wlk. 
Massepha,  Wlk. 
absolutalis,  Wlk. 

stultalis,  Wlk. 
adductalis,  Wlk. 
histricalis,  Wlk. 
illectalis,  Wlk. 
snspicalis,  Wlk. 
Janassalis,   Wlk. 
Nepheali-s  Wlk. 
Cynaralis,  Wlk. 
Dialis,  Wlk. 
Thaisalis,  Wlk. 
Dryopealis,  Wlk. 
Myrinalis,  Wlk. 
pbycidalis,  Wlk. 
annulalis,  Wlk. 
brevilinealis,  Wlk. 
plagiatalis,  Wlk. 
Ebulea,  Gu6n. 

Myeiois,  Hubn. 
actiosella,  Wlk. 
bractiatella,  Wlk. 
cautella,   Wlk. 
adaptella,  Wlk. 
illnsella,  Wlk. 
basifuscella,  Wlk. 
Ligeralis,  Wlk. 
Marsyasalis,  Wlk. 
Dascusa,  Wlk. 
Valensalis,  Wlk. 
Daroma,  Wlk. 
Zeuxoalis,  Wlk. 
Epulusalis,  Wlk. 
Timeusalis,  Wlk. 
Homcesoma,  Curt. 
gratella,  Wlk. 

Fam.  MARGARODID^:, 
G- 

aberratalis,  Wlk. 
Camillalis,  Wlk. 

Getusella,  Wlk. 
Nephopteryx,  Hiibn. 

uen. 

Pionea,  Guen. 

Etolusalis,  Wlk. 

Glyphodes,  Guen. 

actualis,  Wlk. 

Cvllnsalis,  Wlk. 

dinrnalis,  Guen. 

Optiletalis,  Wlk. 

Ilvlasalis,  Wlk. 

decretalis,  Guen. 

Jubesalis,  Wlk. 

Acisalis,  Wlk. 

coesalis,  Wlk. 

brevialis,  Wlk, 

Harpaxalis,  Wlk. 

univocalis,  Wlk. 

suffusalis,  Wlk. 

^Eolnsalis,  Wlk. 

Phakellura,  L  Guild. 

Scopula,  Schr. 

Argiadesali-s  Wlk. 

gazorialis,  Guen. 

revocatalis,  Wlk. 

Philiasalis,  Wlk. 

Margarodes,  Guen. 

turgidalis.  Wlk.                  Pempelia,  Hiibn. 

psittacalis,  Hiibn, 

volutatalis,  Wlk.                     laudatella,  Wlk. 

pomortalis,  Guen. 

Godara,  Wlk. 

Prionapteryx,  Steph. 

hilaralis,  Wlk. 

pcrvasalis,  Wlk. 

Lincusalis,  Wlk. 

CHAP.  VI.] 


CEYLON   INSECTS. 


291 


Pindicitora,  Wlk. 

fasciculana,  Wlk. 

Fam.PTEROPHORiD^!,  ZelL 

Acreonalis,  Wlk. 
Annusalis,   Wlk. 

Hemonia,  Wlk. 
orbiferana,  Wlk. 

Pterophorus,  Geoffr. 
leucadactylus,  Wlk. 

Thysbesalis,  Wlk. 
Linceusalis,  Wlk. 

Achroia,  Hiibn. 
tricingulana,  Wlk. 

oxydactylus,  Wlk. 
anisodactylus,  Wlk. 

Lacipea,  Wlk. 

muscosella,  Wlk. 

Fam.  YPONOMEUTID.S:, 

Araxes,  Steph. 

Steph. 

Order  Diptera,  Linn. 

admotella,  Wlk. 
decusella,  Wlk. 
celsella,  Wlk. 

Attero,  Wlk. 
niveigutta,  Wlk. 

Fam.  MYCETOPHILID^E, 
Hal. 

admigratella,   Wlk. 
ccesella,  Wlk. 

Fam.  GELICHID.S;,  Staint. 

Sciara,  Meig. 
*valida,  Wlk. 

candidatella,  Wlh* 

Depressaria,  Haw. 

Catagela,  Wlk. 
adjurella,  Wlk. 
acricuella,  Wlk. 

obligatella,  Wlk. 
fimbriella,  Wlk. 
Decuaria,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CECIDOMYZID^E,  Hal. 
Cecidomyia,  Latr. 

lunulella,  Wlk. 

mendicella,  Wlk. 

*primaria,  Wlk. 

Gelechia,  Hiibn. 

Fam.  CRAMBID.S:,  Dup. 

nngatella,  Wlk. 
calatella,  Wlk. 

Simulium,  Latr. 

Crambus,  Fabr. 

deductella,  Wlk. 

*destinatum,  Wlk. 

concinellus,  Wlk. 

Perionella,  Wlk. 

Darbhaca,  Wlk. 
inceptella,  Wlk. 
Jartheza,  Wlk. 
honorella,  Wlk. 

Gizama,  Wlk. 
blandiella,  Wlk. 
Enisipia,  Wlk. 
falsella,  Wlk. 

Fam.  CHIRONOMIDJE,  Hal. 

Ceratopogon,  Meig. 
*albocinctus,  Wlk. 

Bulina,  Wlk. 
solitella,  Wlk. 

Gapharia,  Wlk. 
recitatella,  Wlk. 

Fam.   CDLICIDJE,   Steph. 

Bembina,  Wlk. 

Goesa,  Wlk. 

Culex,  Linn. 

Cyanusalis,  Wlk. 

decusella,  Wlk. 

regius,  Tkwaites. 

Chilo,  Zinck. 

Cimitra,  Wlk. 

fuscanus,  Wied. 

dodatella,  Wlk. 

seclusella,  Wlk. 

circumvolans,  Wlk. 

gratiosella,  Wlk. 

Ficulea,  Wlk. 

contrahens,  Wlk. 

aditella,  Wlk. 

blandulella,  Wlk. 

blitella,  Wlk. 

Fresilia,  Wlk. 

Fam.   TIPDLID^E,   Hal. 

Dariausa,  Wlk. 
Eubusalis,  Wlk. 

nesciatella,  Wlk. 
Gesontha,  Wlk. 

Ctenophora,  Fabr. 

Arrhade,  Wlk. 
Ematheonalis,  Wlk. 

captiosella,  Wlk. 
Aginis,  Wlk. 

Taprobanes,  Wlk. 
Gymnoplistia  ?  Westw. 

Darnensis,  Wlk. 

hilariella,  Wlk. 

hebes,  Wlk. 

Strephonella,  Wlk. 

Cadra,  Wlk. 
defectella,  Wlk. 

Fam.  STRATIOMID^,  Latr. 

Ptilocera,  Wied. 

Staint. 

Fam.  GLYPHYPTID.E, 

quadridentata,  Fabr. 

Staint, 

fastuosa,  Geist. 

Thagora,  Wlk. 
figurans,  Wlk. 

Glyphyteryx,  Hiibn. 
scitulella.  Wlk. 

Pachygaster,  Meig. 
rufitarsis,  Macq. 

Earias,  Hiibn. 

Hybele,  Wlk. 

Acanthina,  Wied. 

chromatana,  Wlk. 

mansuetella,  Wlk. 

azurea,  Geist. 

Fam.  TORTRICID^;,  Steph. 

Fam.  TINEIDJE,  Leach. 

Fam.  TABANID^:,  Leach. 

Lozotsenia,  Steph. 
retractana,  Wlk. 

Tinea,  Linn. 
tapetzella,  Linn. 

Pangonia,  Latr. 
Taprobanes,  Wlk. 

Peronea,  Curt. 
divisana,  Wlk. 

receptella,  Wlk. 
pelionella,  Linn. 

Fam.  ASILID.E,  Leach. 

Lithogramina,  Steph. 
flexilineana,  Wlk. 
Dictyopteryx,  Steph. 

plagiferella,  Wlk. 
Fam.  LYONETID.E,  Staint. 

Trupanea,  Macq. 
Ceylanica,  Macq. 
Asilus,  Linn. 

punctaua,  Wlk. 

Cachura,  Wlk. 

flavicornis,  Macq. 

Ilomona,  Wlk. 

objectella,  Wlk. 

Barium,  Wlk. 

v  2 

292 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Fam.  DOLICHOPID^E, 

Catacanthus,  Spin. 

Fam.  AEADID.E,  Wlk. 

Leach. 
Psilopus,  Meig. 

incarnatus,  Drury. 
Ehaphigaster,  Lap. 

TT77A 

Piestosoma,  Lap. 
picipes,  Wlk. 

*procuratus,  Wlk. 

congrua,  WIA. 

Fam.  TINGID^E,  Wlk. 

Fam.    MUSCID.E,     Latr. 

Fam.  EDESSID^E,  Dall. 

Calloniana,  Wlk. 

Tachina?  Fabr. 

Aspongopus,  Lap. 

*elegans,  Wlk. 

*tenebrosa,  Wlk. 

anus,  Fabr. 

Masca,  Linn. 

Tesseratoma,  Lep.  Sf 

Fam.  CIMICIJXS:,  Wlk. 

domestica,  Linn. 
Dacus,  Fabr. 
"interclusus,  Wlk. 

Serv. 
papillosa,  Drury. 
Cyclopelta,  Am.  Sf  Serv. 

Cimex,  Linn. 
lectularius,  Linn.? 

*nigroaeneus,  Wlk. 
*detentus,  Wlk. 

siccifolia,  Hope. 

Fam.  EEDDVIID^S,  Steph. 

Ortalis,  Fall. 

Fam.  PHYLLOCEPHALID^E, 

Pirates,  Burm. 

*confundens,  Wlk. 

Dall. 

marginatus,  Wlk. 

Sciomyza,  Fall. 
"leucotelus,  Wlk. 
Drosophila,  Fall. 

Phyllocephala,  Lap. 
^Egyptiaca,  Lefeb. 

Acanthaspis,Am.  SfServ. 
sanguinipes,  Wlk. 
fulvispina,  Wlk. 

*restitucns   TF7&. 

Fam.  MICTID^;,  Dall. 

Fam.  NYCTERIBID.E, 

Mictis,  Leach. 

Fam.  HYDROMETRID^;, 
Leach. 

Leach. 

castanea,  Dall. 
valida,  Dall. 

•Ptilomera,  Am.  &•  Serv. 

Nycteribia,  Latr. 
v    ^     species 

punctum,  Hope.                      laticauda,  Hardw. 

parasitic    on    Sca- 

Crinocerus,  Burm. 
ponderosus,  Wlk.         \  Fam-  NEPID.E,  Leach. 

tophilus  Coroman- 
delicus,  Bligh.   See 
ante,  p.  161. 

Belostoma,  Latr. 
Fam.ANisoscELiDjs,.DaW.  :          Indicum,  St.  Farg.  Sf 

Slfrti. 

Order  Hemiptera,  Linn. 

IJeptoscelis,  Lap. 
ventralis,  Dall. 

Nepa,  Linn. 
minor,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PACHYCORID^E,  Dall. 
Cantuo,  AmyotSf  Serv. 

turpis,  Wlk. 
marginalis,  Wlk. 
Serinetha,  Spin. 

Fam.NoTONECTiD  jc,  Steph. 

ocellatus,  Thunb. 

Taprobanensis,  Dall. 

Notonecta,  Linn. 

Callidea,  Lap. 

abdominalis,  Fabr. 

abbreviate  Wlk. 

superba,  Dall. 

simplex,  Wlk. 

Stockerus,  Linn. 

Fam.  ALYDID.E,  Dall. 

Corixa,  Geoff. 

Aly  d  u  s  Fabr. 

*subjacens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  EURYGASTERID^;, 
Dall. 

linearis,  Fabr. 

Order  Homoptera,  Latr. 

Trigonosoma,  Lap. 
Desfontainii,  Fabr. 

Fam.  STENOCEPUALID^S, 
Dall. 

Fam.  CICADID.E,  Westw. 

Fam.  PLATASPID^E,  Dall. 
Coptosoma,  Lap. 

Leptocorisa,  Latr, 
Chinensis,  Dall. 

Dundubia,  Am.  Sf  Serv. 
stipata,  Wlk. 
Clonia,  Wlk. 

T  .,,-i.-     117/A 

laticeps,  Dall. 

Fam.  COREID.S:,  Steph. 

J-^arUS,    rrln. 

Cicada,  Linn. 

Fam.  HALYDID.E,  Dall. 

Rhopalus,  SchiU. 
interruptus,  Wlk. 

limitaris,  Wlk. 
nubifurca,  Wlk. 

Halys,  Fabr. 

dentata,  Fabr. 

Fam.  JLrfGJEiVM,  Westw. 

Fam.FuLGORiD^;,  Sckaum. 

Fam.  PENTATOMID.E:, 

ry.        . 

Lygaeus,  Fabr. 
lutescens,  Wlk. 

Hotinus,  Am.  SfServ. 
maculatus,  Oliv. 

bteph. 

figuratus,  Wlk. 

fulvirostris,  Wlk. 

Pentatoma,  OKv.                       dfscifer.  Wlk. 

coccineus,  Wlk. 

Timorensensis,  Hope. 
Taprobanensis,  Dall. 

Rhyparochromus,  Curt. 
testaciepes,  Wlk. 

Pyrops,  Spin. 
punctata,  Oliv. 

CHAP.  VI.] 


CEYLON   INSECTS. 


Aphaena,  Guer. 

tenebrosus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  TETTIGONIIDJE,  Wlk 

sanguinalis,  Westw. 
Elidiptera,  Spin. 
Emersoniana,  White. 

Ricania,  Germ. 
Hemerobii,  Wlk. 
Pceciloptera,  Lair. 

Tettigonia,  Latr. 
paulula,  Wlk. 

pulverulenta,  Guer. 

Fam.  CIXHDJE,  Wlk. 

Eurybrachys,  Gu6r. 
tomentosa,  Fabr. 

stellaris,  Wlk. 
Tennentina,  White. 

Fam.  SCARID^:,  Wlk. 
Ledra,  Fabr. 

dilatata,  Wlk. 
cr'udelis,  Westw. 

Fam.  MEMBRACID^:,  Wlk. 

rugosa,  Wlk. 
conica,  Wlk. 

Cixius,  Lair. 

Oxyrhachis,  Germ. 

Gypona,  Germ. 

"nubilus,  Wlk. 

*indicajis,  Wlk. 

prasina,  Wlk. 

Centrottis,  Fabr. 

Fam.  ISSIDJE,  WE? 

*reponens,  Wlk. 

Hemisphajrius,  Schaum. 
*Schaumi,  Stal. 
*bipustulatus,  Wlk. 

*malleus,  Wlk. 
substitutes,  Wlk. 
*decipiens,  Wlk. 
*relinquens,  Wlk. 

Fam.  IASSID.E,  Wlk. 

Acocephalus,  Germ. 
porrectus,  Wlk. 

Fam.  DERBIOE,  Schaum. 

•imitator,  Wlk. 

Thracia,  Westw. 

*repressus,  Wlk. 
*terminalis,  Wlk. 

Fam.  PSYLLID-E,  Lair. 

pterophorides,  Westw. 
Derbe,  Fabr. 

Psylla,  Goff. 
*marginalis,  Wlk. 

*furcato-vittata,  Stal. 

Fam.  CERCOPID.S;,  Leach. 

Fam.  FLATTID^E,  Schaum. 

Cercopis,  Fabn 
inclusa,  Wlk. 

Fam.  COCCID.E,  Leach. 

Flatoides,  Guer. 
hyalinus,  Fabr. 

Ptyelus,  Lep.  if  Serv. 
costalis,  Wlk. 

Lecaninm,  Illig. 
Coffese,  Wlk. 

ZOOLOGY.  [PAST  II. 


CHAP.  vn. 

ARACHXIDA MYRIOPODA CRUSTACEA,  ETC. 

WITH  a  few  striking  exceptions,  the  true  spiders  of 
Ceylon  resemble  in  ceconomy  and  appearance  those  we 
are  accustomed  to  see  at  home.  They  frequent  the 
houses,  the  gardens,  the  rocks  and  the  stems  of  trees 
and  along  the  sunny  paths,  where  the  forest  meets  the 
open  country,  the  Epeira  and  her  congeners,  the  true 
net-weaving  spiders,  extend  their  lacework,  the  grace  of 
their  designs  being  even  less  attractive  than  the  beauty 
of  the  creatures  that  elaborate  them. 

Those  of  them  that  live  in  the  woods  select  with  sin- 
gular sagacity  the  bridle-paths  and  narrow  passages  for 
expanding  their  nets  ;  no  doubt  perceiving  that  the  larger 
insects  frequent  these  openings  for  facility  of  movement 
through  the  jungle  ;  and  that  the  smaller  ones  are  car- 
ried towards  them  by  currents  of  air.  Their  nets  are 
stretched  across  the  path  from  four  to  eight  feet  above 
the  ground,  suspended  from  projecting  shoots,  and  at- 
tached, if  possible,  to  thorny  shrubs  ;  and  these  sometimes 
exhibit  the  most  remarkable  scenes  of  carnage  and 
destruction.  I  have  taken  down  a  ball  as  large  as  a 
man's  head  consisting  of  successive  layers  rolled  together, 
in  the  heart  of  which  was  the  den  of  the  faniily,  whilst 
the  envelope  was  formed,  sheet  after  sheet,  by  coils  of 
the  old  web  filled  with  the  wings  and  limbs  of  insects 
of  all  descriptions,  from  large  moths  and  butterflies 
to  mosquitoes  and  minute  coleoptera.  Each  layer 
appeared  to  have  been  originally  hung  across  the 
passage  to  intercept  the  expected  prey ;  and,  as  it  became 
surcharged  with  carcases,  to  have  been  loosened,  tossed 


CHAP.  VII.] 


CEYLON   INSECTS. 


295 


over  by  the  wind  or  its  own  weight,  and  wrapped  round 
the  nucleus  in  the  centre,  the  spider  replacing  it  by  a 
fresh  sheet,  to  be  in  turn  detached  and  added  to  the 
mass  within. 

Walckenaer  has  described  a  spider  of  large  size,  under 
the  name  of  Olios  Taprobanius,  which  is  very  common 
and  conspicuous  from  the  fiery  hue  of  the  under  surface, 
the  remainder  being  covered  with  gray  hair  so  short 
and  fine  that  4i*e  body  seems  almost  denuded.  It  spins 
a  moderate-sized  web,  hung  vertically  between  two  sets 
of  strong  lines,  stretched  one  above  the  other  athwart 
the  pathways.  Some  of  the  cords  thus  carried  hori- 
zontally from  tree  to  tree  at  a  considerable  height  from 
the  ground  are  so  strong  as  to  cause  a  painful  check 
across  the  face  when  moving  quickly  against  them ;  and 
more  than  once  in  riding  I  have  had  my  hat  lifted  off  my 
head  by  a  single  line.1 

Separated  by  marked  peculiarities  of  structure,  as  well 
as  of  instinct,  from  the  spiders  which  live  in  the  open 
air,  and  busy  themselves  in  providing  food  during  the 
day,  the  My  gale  fasciata  is  not  only  sluggish  in  its  habits, 
but  disgusting  in  its  form  and  dimensions.  Its  colour  is  a 
gloomy  brown,  interrupted  by  irregular  blotches  and  faint 
bands  (whence  its  trivial  name) ;  it  is  sparingly  sprinkled 
with  hairs,  and  its  limbs,  when  expanded,  stretch  over 
an  area  of  six  to  eight  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  familiar 
to  Europeans  in  Ceylon,  who  have  given  it  the  name, 
and  ascribed  to  it  the  fabulous  propensities,  of  the 
Tarentula.2 


1  Over  the  country  generally  are 
scattered  species  of  Gasteracantha, 
remarkable  for  their  firm  shell-co- 
vered bodies,  with  projecting  knobs 
arranged  in  pairs.  In  habit  these 
anomalous-looking  Epeiridse  appear 
to  differ  in  no  respect  from  the 
rest  of  the  family,  waylaying  their 
prey  in  similar  situations  and  in  the 
same  manner. 

Another  very  singular  subgenus, 


met  with  in  Ceylon,  is  distinguished 
by  the  abdomen  being  dilated  behind, 
and  armed  with  two  long  spines,  arch- 
ing obliquely  backwards.  These  ab- 
normal kinds  are  not  so  handsomely 
coloured  as  the  smaller  species  of 
typical  form. 

*  Species  of  the  true  1arentul<c  are 
not  uncommon  in  Ceylon ;  they  are 
all  of  very  small  size,  and  perfectly 
harmless. 


u   4 


296 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


By  day  it  remains  concealed  in  its  den,  whence  it 
issues  at  night  to  feed  on  larvse  and  worms,  devouring 
cockroaches1  and  their  pupse,  and  attacking  the  mille- 
peds,  gryllotalpge,  and  other  fleshy  insects.  The  Mygale 
is  found  abundantly  in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts 
of  the  island,  and  occasionally  in  dark  unfrequented 
apartments  in  the  western  province ;  but  its  inclinations 
are  solitary,  and  it  shuns  the  busy  traffic  of  towns. 

Ticks. — Ticks  are  to  be  classed  among  the  intolerable 
nuisances  to  the  Ceylon  traveller.  They  live  in  immense 
numbers  in  the  jungle2,  and  attaching  themselves  to 
the  plants  by  the  two  forelegs,  lie  in  wait  to  catch  at 
unwary  animals  as  they  pass.  A  shower  of  these  dimi- 


1  Mr.  EDGAR  L.  LAYARD  lias  de- 
scribed the  encounter  between  a  My- 
gale and  a  cockroach,  which  he  wit- 
nessed in  the  madua  of  a  temple  at 
Alittane,  between  Anarajapoora  and 
Dambool.    When  about  a  yard  apart, 
each  discerned   the  other  and  stood 
still,  the  spider  with  his  legs  slightly 
bent  and  his  body  raised,  the  cock- 
roach confronting  him  and  directing 
his  antennae  with  a  restless   undu- 
lation   towards    his    enemy.       The 
spider,  by  stealthy  movements,  ap- 
proached to  within  a  few  inches  and 
paused,  both  parties  eyeing  each  other 
intently  :  then   suddenly  a  rush,  a 
scuffle,  and  both  fell  to  "the  ground, 
when  the  blatta's  wings  closed,  the 
spider   seized   it    under   the    throat 
with  his  claws,  and  dragging  it  into 
a  corner,  the  action  of  his  jaws  was 
distinctly   audible.      Next    morning 
Mr.  Layard  found  the  soft  parts  of 
the  body  had  been  eaten,  nothing  but 
the  head,  thorax,  and  elytra  remain- 
ing.— Ann.  &•  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  May, 
1853. 

2  Dr.  HOOKER,  in  his  Himalayan 
Journal,  vol.  i.  p.  279,  in  speaking  of 
the  multitude  of  these  creatures  in 
the  mountains    of   Nepal,   wonders 
what  they  find  to  feed  on,  as  in  these 
humid  forests  in  which  they  literally 
swarmed,  there  was  neither  pathway 
nor  animal    life.      In  -Ceylon  they 
abound  everywhere  in  the  plains  on 
the  low  brushwood  :  and  in  the  very 


driest  seasons  they  are  quite  as  nu- 
merous as  at  other  times.  In  the 
mountain  zone,  which  is  more  humid, 
they  are  less  prevalent.  Dogs  are 
tormented  by  them ;  and  they  display 
something  closely  allied  to  cunning 
in  always  fastening  on  an  animal  in 
those  parts  where  they  cannot  be 
torn  off  by  his  paws ;  on  his  eye- 
brows, the  tips  of  his  ears,  and  the 
back  of  his  neck.  With  a  corre- 
sponding instinct  I  have  always  ob- 
served in  the  gambols  of  the  Pariah 
dogs,  that  they  invariably  commence 
their  attentions  by  mutually  gnawing 
each  other's  ears  and  necks,  as  if  in 
pursuit  of  ticks  from  places  from 
which  each  is  unable  to  expel  them 
for  himself.  Horses  have  a  similar 
instinct ;  and  when  they  meet,  they 
apply  their  teeth  to  the  roots  of  the 
ears  of  their  companions,  to  the  neck 
and  the  crown  of  the  head.  The 
buffaloes  and  oxen  are  relieved  of 
ticks  by  the  crows  which  rest  on 
their  backs  as  they  browse,  and  free 
them  from  these  pests.  In  the  low 
country  the.  same  acceptable  office  is 
performed  by  the  "  cattle  -  keeper 
heron  "  (Ardea  bubulcus),  which  is 
"  sure  to  be  found  in  attendance  on 
them  while  grazing;  and  the  animals 
seem  to  know  their  benefactors,  and 
stand  quietly,  while  the  birds  peck 
their  tormentors  from  their  flanks.'' — • 
Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  p.  Ill,  1844. 


CHAP.  VII.]  MYKIAPODS.  297 

nutive  vermin  will  sometimes  drop  from  a  branch,  if 
unluckily  shaken,  and  disperse  themselves  over  the  body, 
each  fastening  on  the  neck,  the  ears,  and  eyelids,  and 
inserting  a  barbed  proboscis.  They  burrow,  with  their 
heads  pressed  as  far  as  practicable  under  the  skin,  causing 
a  sensation  of  smarting,  as  if  particles  of  red  hot  sand 
had  been  scattered  over  the  flesh.  If  torn  from  their 
hold,  the  suckers  remain  behind  and  form  an  ulcer. 
The  only  safe—expedient  is  to  tolerate  the  agony  of 
their  penetration  till  a  drop  of  coco-nut  oil  or  the 
juice  of  a  lime  can  be  applied,  when  these  little  furies 
drop  off  without  further  ill  consequences.  One  very 
large  species,  dappled  with  grey,  attaches  itself  to  the 
buffaloes. 

Mites.  —  The  Trombidium  tinctorum  of  Hermann  is 
found  about  Aripo,  and  generally  over  the  northern  pro- 
vinces, —  where  after  a  shower  of  rain  or  heavy  night's 
dew,  they  appear  in  countless  myriads.  It  is  about  half 
an  inch  long,  like  a  tuft  of  crimson  velvet,  and  imparts 
its  colouring  matter  readily  to  any  fluid  in  which  it  may 
be  immersed.  It  feeds  on  vegetable  juices,  and  is  per- 
fectly innocuous.  Its  European  representative,  similarly 
tinted,  and  found  in  garden  mould,  is  commonly  called 
the  "  Little  red  pillion." 

MYRIAPODS.  —  The  certainty  with  which  an  accidental 
pressure  or  unguarded  touch  is  resented  and  retorted  by 
a  bite,  makes  the  centipede,  when  it  has  taken  up  its 
temporary  abode  within  a  sleeve  or  the  fold  of  a  dress, 
by  far  the  most  unwelcome  of  all  the  Singhalese  assail- 
ants. The  great  size,  too  (little  short  of  a  foot  in  length), 
to  which  it  sometimes  attains,  renders  it  formidable ;  and, 
apart  from  the  apprehension  of  unpleasant  consequences 
from  a  wound,  one  shudders  at  the  bare  idea  of  such 
hideous  creatures  crawling  over  the  skin,  beneath  the 
innermost  folds  of  one's  garments. 

At  the  head  of  the  Myriapods,  and  pre-eminent  from 
a  superiorly-developed  organisation,  stands  the  genus 
Cermatia  :  singular-looking  objects.;  mounted  upon  slen- 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  If. 


der  legs,  of  gradually  increasing  length  from  front  to 
rear,  the  hind  ones  in  some  species  being  amazingly 
prolonged,  and  all  handsomely  marked  with  brown 
annuli  in  concentric  arches.  These  myriapods  are 


CEEAIATIA. 


harmless,  excepting  to  woodlice,  spiders,  and  young 
cockroaches,  which  form  their  ordinary  prey.  They 
are  rarely  to  be  seen ;  but  occasionally  at  daybreak, 
after  a  more  than  usually  abundant  repast,  they  may 
be  observed  motionless,  and  resting  with  their  regularly 
extended  limbs  nearly  flat  against  the  walls.  On  being 
disturbed  they  dart  away  with  a  surprising  velocity, 
to  conceal  themselves  in  chinks  until  the  return  of 
night. 

But  the  species  to  be  really  dreaded  are  the  true 
Scolopendrce,  which  are  active  and  carnivorous,  living 
in  holes  in  old  walls  and  other  gloomy  dens.  One 
species  *  attains  to  nearly  the  length  of  a  foot,  with  cor- 
responding breadth ;  it  is  of  a  dark  purple  colour,  ap- 
proaching black,  with  yellowish  legs  and  antennas,  and 
its  whole  aspect  repulsive  and  frightful.  It  is  strong 
and  active,  and  evinces  an  eager  disposition  to  fight 
when  molested.  The  Scolopendrce  are  gifted  by  nature 
with  a  rigid  coriaceous  armour,  which  does  not  yield 
to  common  pressure,  or  even  to  a  moderate  blow ;  so 
that  they  often  escape  the  most  well-deserved  and  well- 
directed  attempts  to  destroy  them,  seeking  refuge  in 
retreats  which  effectually  conceal  them  from  sight. 

There  is  a  smaller  scorpion 2,  that  frequents  dwelling- 


Scolopendra  crassa,  Temp. 


8  Scolopendra  pallipes. 


CHAP.  VII.]  MILLIPEDS.  299 

houses ;  it  is  about  one  quarter  the  size  of  the  preceding, 
and  of  a  dirty  olive  colour,  with  pale  ferruginous  legs. 
It  is  this  species  that  generally  inflicts  the  wound,  when 
persons  complain  of  being  bitten  by  a  scorpion ;  and 
it  has  a  mischievous  propensity  for  insinuating  itself 
into  the  folds  of  dress.  The  bite  at  first  does  not  occa- 
sion more  suffering  than  would  arise  from  the  pene- 
tration of  two_^  coarsely-pointed  needles  ;  but  after  a 
little  time  the  wound  swells,  becomes  acutely  painful, 
and  if  it  be  over  a  bone  or  any  other  resisting  part, 
the  sensation  is  so  intolerable  as  to  produce  fever.  The 
agony  subsides  after  a  few  hours'  duration.  In  some 
cases  the  bite  is  unattended  by  any  particular  degree  of 
annoyance,  and  in  these  instances  it  is  to  be  supposed 
that  the  contents  of  the  poison  gland  had  become  ex- 
hausted by  previous  efforts,  since,  if  much  tasked,  "the 
organ  requires  rest  to  enable  it  to  resume  its  accustomed 
functions  and  to  secrete  a  supply  of  venom. 

Millipeds. — In  the  hot  dry  season,  and  more  especially 
in  the  northern  portions  of  the  island,  the  eye  is  attracted 
along  the  edges  of  the  sandy  roads  by  fragments  of  the 
dislocated  rings  of  a  huge  species  of  millipede1,  lying  in 
short,  curved  tubes,  the  cavity  admitting  the  tip  of  the 
little  finger.  When  perfect  the  creature  is  two-thirds 
of  a  foot  long,  of  a  brilliant  jet  black,  and  with  above  a 
hundred  yellow  legs,  which,  when  moving  onward,  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  a  series  of  undulations  from  rear 
to  front,  bearing  the  animal  gently  forwards.  This 
julus  is  harmless,  and  may  be  handled  with  perfect  im- 
punity. Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  fruits  and  the  roots 
and  stems  of  succulent  vegetables,  its  jaws  not  being 
framed  for  any  more  formidable  purpose.  Another 
and  a  very  pretty  species 2,  quite  as  black,  but  with 
a  bright  crimson  band  down  the  back,  and  the  legs 
similarly  tinted,  is  common  in  the  gardens  about  Co- 
lombo and  throughout  the  western  province. 


1  Julus  ater,  2  Julus  carnifex,  Fab. 


300 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PAKT  11. 


CRUSTACEA.  —  The  seas  around  Ceylon  abound  with 
marine  articulata ;  but  a  knowledge  of  the  Crustacea  of 
the  "island  is  at  present  a  desideratum ;  and  with  the 
exception  of  the  few  commoner  species  that  frequent 
the  shores,  or  are  offered  in  the  markets,  we  are  literally 
without  information,  excepting  the  little  that  can  be 
gleaned  from  already  published  systematic  works. 

In  the  bazaars  several  species  of  edible  crabs  are  ex- 
posed for  sale ;  and  amongst  the  delicacies  at  the  tables 
of  Europeans,  curries  made  from  prawns  and  lobsters 
are  the  triumphs  of  the  Ceylon  cuisine.  Of  these  latter 
the  fishermen  sometimes  exhibit  specimens l  of  extra- 
ordinary dimensions,  and  of 
a  beautiful  purple  hue,  varie- 
gated with  white.  Along  the 
level  shore  north  and  south  of 
Colombo,  and  in  no  less  pro- 
fusion elsewhere,  the  nimble 
little  Calling  Crabs  2  scamper 
carrying  aloft  the  enormous 
hand  (sometimes  larger  than  the  rest  of  the  body), 
which  is  their  peculiar  characteristic,  and  which,  from 
its  beckoning  gesture,  has  suggested  their  popular 
name.  They  hurry  to  conceal  themselves"  in  the  deep 
retreats  which  they  hollow  out  in  the  banks  that  border 
the  sea. 

Sand  Crabs. — In  the  same  localities,  or  a  little  farther 
inland,  the  ocypode3  burrows  in  the  dry  soil,  making 
deep  excavations,  bringing  up  literally  armfuls  of  sand ; 
which  with  a  spring  in  the  air,  and  employing  its  other 
limbs,  it  jerks  far  from  its  burrows,  distributing  it  in 
a  circle  to  the  distance  of  several  feet.4  So  inconvenient 
are  the  operations  of  these  industrious  pests  that  men 


CALLING  CRAB  OF  CEYLON. 


over    the    moist   sands, 


1  Palinurtis  wnatus,  Fab. 

2  Gelasimus  tetragcmon  f  Edw. ;  G. 
annulijjes  f  Edw.  j    G.   Dussumieri  f 
Edw. 


3  Ocijpode  cwatophthahnus,  Pall. 

4  Ann.   Nat.    Hist.    April,    1852. 
Paper  by  Mr.  EDGAR  L.  LATARD. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


ANNELIDS. 


301 


are  kept  regularly  employed  at  Colombo  in  filling  up 
the  holes  formed  by  them  on  the  surface  of  the  Galle 
face.  This,  the  only  equestrian  promenade  of  the 
capital,  is  so  infested  by  these  active  little  creatures 
that  accidents .  often  occur  by  horses  stumbling  in  their 
troublesome  excavations. 

Painted  Crabs.  —  On  the  reef  of  rocks  which  lies  to 
the  south  of  the  harbour' at  Colombo,  the  beautiful  little 
painted  crabs^,  distinguished  by  dark  red  markings  on  a 
yellow  ground,  may  be  seen  all  day  long  running  nimbly 
in  the  spray,  and  ascending  and  descending  in  security 
the  almost  perpendicular  sides  of  the  rocks  which  are 
washed  by  the  waves.  Paddling  Crabs  2,  with  the  hind 
pair  of  legs  terminated  by  flattened  plates  to  assist  them 
in  swimming,  are  brought  up  in  the  fishermen's  nets. 
Hermit  Crabs  take  possession  of  the  deserted  shells  of 
the  univalves,  and  crawl  in  pursuit  of  garbage  along 
the  moist  beach.  Prawns  and  shrimps  furnish  deli- 
cacies for  the  breakfast  table;  and  the  delicate  little 
pea  crab,  Pontonia  inflata3,  recalls  its  Mediterranean 
congener4,  which  attracted  the  attention  of  Aristotle, 
from  taking  up  its  habitation  in  the  shell  of  the  living 
pinna. 

ANNELID  J3. — The  marine  Annelides  of  the  island 
have  not  as  yet  been  investigated ;  a  cursory  glance, 
however,  amongst  the  stones  on  the  beach  at  Trinco- 
malie  and  in  the  pools,  that  afford  convenient  basins 
for  examining  them,  would  lead  to  the  belief  that  the 
marine  species  are  not  numerous;  tubicole  genera,  as 
well  as  some  nereids,  are  found,  but  there  seems  to  be 
little  diversity,  though  it  is  not  impossible  that  a 
closer  scrutiny  might  be  repaid  by  the  discovery  of 
some  interesting  forms. 

Leeches. — Of  all  the  plagues  which  beset  the  traveller 


1  Grapsus  strigosus,  Herbst. 
*  Neptuntis   pektffictts,    Linn,  j 
sanguinolentus,  Herbst,  &c.  &c. 


3  MILKE  EDW.  Hist.  Nat.   Crust. 
vol.  ii.  p.  360. 

4  Pinnotheres  veterum. 


302 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


in  the  rising  grounds  of  Ceylon,  the  most  detested  are 
the  land  leeches.1     They  are  not  frequent  in  the  plains, 


1  H&madipsa  Ceylanica,  Bosc. 
Blainv.  These  pests  are  not,  how- 
ever, confined  to  Ceylon ;  they  infest 
the  lower  ranges  of  the  Himalaya. 
— HOOKER,  vol.  i.  p.  107  ;  vol.  ii. 
p.  64.  THTJNBERG,  who  records 
( Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  232)  having  seen 
them  in  Ceylon,  likewise  met  with 
them  in  the  forests  and  slopes  of 
Batavia.  MARSDEN  (Hist.  p.  311) 
complains  of  them  dropping  on  tra- 
vellers in  Sumatra.  KNORR  found 
them  at  Japan  ;  and  it  is  affirmed 
that  they  abound  in  islands  farther 
to  the  eastward.  M.  GAY  encoun- 
tered them  in  Chili.  —  MOQTJIN- 
TAOTXHT  (Hirudinees,  p.  211,  346).  It 
is  very  doubtful,  however,  whether 
all  these  are  to  be  referred  to  one 
species.  M.  DE  BLAIXVILLE,  under 
H.  Ceylanica,  in  the  Diet,  de  Scien. 
Nat.  vol.  xlvii.  p.  271,  quotes  M.  Bosc 
as  authority  for  the  kind  which  that 
naturalist  describes  being  "  rouges  et 
tachetees  ; "  which  is  scarcely  ap- 

flicable  to  the  Singhalese  species, 
t  is  more  than  probable  therefore, 
considering  the  period  at  which 
M.  Bosc  wrote,  that  he  obtained  his 
information  from  travellers  to  the 
further  east,  and  has  connected  with 
the  habitat  universally  ascribed  to 
them  from  old  KNOX'S  work  (Part  I. 
chap,  vi.)  a  meagre  description,  more 
properly  belonging  to  the  land  leech 
of  Batavia  or  Japan.  In  all  like- 
lihood, therefore,  there  may  be  a 
H.  Boscii,  distinct  from  the  H.  Cey- 


lanica. That  which  is  found  in  Cey- 
lon is  round,  a  little  flattened  on  the 
inferior  surface,  largest  at  the  anal 
extremity,  thence  gradually  taper- 


ing forward,  and  with  the  anal  sucker 
composed  of  four  lings,  and  wider  in 
proportion  than  in  other  species.  It 
is  of  a  clear  brown  colour,  with  a 
yellow  stripe  the  entire  length  of  each 
side,  and  a  greenish  dorsal  one.  The 
body  is  formed  of  100  rings  j  the  eyes, 
of  which  there  are  five  pairs,  are 
placed  in  an  arch  on  the  dorsal  sur- 
face ;  the  first  four  pairs  occupying 
contiguous  rings  (thus  differing  from 
the  water-leeches,  which  have  an  un- 
occupied ring  betwixt  the  third  and 
fourth);  the  fifth  pair  are  located  on 
the  seventh  ring,  two  vacant  rings  in- 
tervening. To  Mr.  Thwaites,  Director 
of  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Peradenia, 
who  at  my  request  examined  their 
structure  minutely,  I  am  indebted  for 
the  following  most  interesting  particu- 
lars respecting  them.  "  I  have  been 
giving  a  little  time  to  the  examination 
of  the  land  leech.  I  find  it  to  have 
five  pairs  of  ocelli,  the  first  four 
seated  on  corresponding  segments, 
and  the  posterior  pair  on  the  seventh 
segment  or  ring,  the  fifth  and  sixth 
rings  being  eyeless  (fig.  A).  The 
mouth  is  very  retractile,  and  the 
aperture  is  shaped  as  in  ordinary 
leeches.  The  serratures  of  the  teeth, 
or  rather  the  teeth  themselves,  are 
very  beautiful.  Each  of  the  three 
"  teeth,"  or  cutting  instruments,  is 
principally  muscular,  the  muscular 
body  being  very  clearly  seen.  The 
rounded  edge  in  which  the  teeth  are 
set  appears  to  be  cartilaginous  in 
structure  j  the  teeth  are  very  nume- 
rous, (Jig.  B) ;  but  some  near  the  base 
have  a  curious  appendage,  apparently 
(I  have  not  yet  made  this  out  quite  sa- 
tisfactorily) set  upon  one  side.  I  have 
not  yet  been  able  to  detect  the  anal 
or  sexual  pores.  The  anal  sucker 
seems  to  be  formed  of  four  rings, 
and  on  each  side  above  is  a  sort  of 
crenated  flesh-like  appendage.  The 
tint  of  the  common  species  is  yellow- 
ish-brown or  snuff-coloured,  streaked 
with  black,  with  a  yellow-greenish 
dorsal,  and  another  lateral  line  along 


CHAP.  VII.J 


LEECHES. 


303 


which  are  too  hot  and  dry  for  them ;  but  amongst  the 
rank  vegetation  in  the  lower  ranges  of  the  hill  country, 
which  is  kept  damp  by  frequent  showers,  they  are  found 
in  tormenting  profusion.  They  are  terrestrial,  never 
visiting  ponds  or  streams.  In  size  they  are  about  an 
inch  in  length,  and  as  fine  as  a  common  knitting  needle  ; 
but  capable  of  distension  till  they  equal  a  quill  in  thick- 
ness, and  attain  a  length  of  nearly  two  inches.  Their 
structure  is  Tstf  flexible  that  they  can  insinuate  them- 
selves through  the  meshes  of  the  finest  stocking,  not 
only  seizing  on  the  feet  and  ankles,  but  ascending  to 
the  back  and  throat  and  fastening  on  the  tenderest 
parts  of  the  body.  The  coffee  planters,  who  live  amongst 
these  pests,  are  obliged,  in  order  to  exclude  them,  to 
envelope  their  legs  in  "leech  gaiters"  made  of  closely 
woven  cloth.  The  natives  smear  their  bodies  with  oil, 
tobacco  ashes,  or  lemon  juice l ;  the  latter  serving  not 
only  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood,  but  to  expedite  the 
healing  of  the  wounds.  In  moving,  the  land  leeches 
have  the  power  of  planting  one  extremity  on  the  earth 
and  raising  the  other  perpendicularly  to  watch  for  their 
victim.  Such  is  their  vigilance  and  instinct,  that  on 
the  approach  of  a  passer-by  to  a  spot  which  they 
infest,  they  may  be  seen  amongst  the  grass  and  fallen 
leaves  on  the  edge  of  a  native  path,  poised  erect,  and 
preparing  for  their  attack  on  man  and  horse.  On 


its  whole  length.  There  is  a  larger 
species  to  be  found  in  this  garden 
with  a  broad  green  dorsal  Fascia; 
but  I  have  not  been  able  to  procure 
one  although  I  have  offered  a  small 
reward  to  any  coolie  who  will  bring 
me  one."  In  a  subsequent  commu- 
nication Mr.  Thwaites  remarks  "  that 
the  dorsal  longitudinal  fascia  is  of  the 
same  width  as  the  lateral  ones,  and 
differs  only  in  being  perhaps  slightly 
more  green  ;  the  colour  of  the  three 
fascite  varies  from  brownish-yellow 
to  bright  green."  He  likewise  states 


"that  the  rings  which  compose  the 
body  are  just  100,  and  the  teeth  70 
to  80  in  each  set,  in  a  single  row, 
except  to  one  end,  where  they  are  in 
a  double  row." 

1  The  Minorite  friar,  ODOMC  of 
Portenau,  writing  in  A.  B.  1320,  says 
that  the  gem-finders  who  sought  the 
jewels  around  Adam's  Peak,  "take 
lemons  which  they  peel,  anointing 
themselves  with  the  juice  thereof,  so 
that  the  leeches  may  not  be  able  to 
hurt  them." — HAKLTJYT,  Voy.  vol.  ii. 
p.  58. 


304 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


descrying  their  prey  they  advance  rapidly  by  semi- 
circular strides,  fixing  one  end  firmly  and  arching  the 
other  forwards,  till  by  successive  advances  they  can 


LAKD    LEECHES. 


lay  hold  of  the  traveller's  foot,  when  they  disengage 
themselves  from  the  ground  and  ascend  his  dress  in 
search  of  an  aperture  to  enter.  In  these  encounters 
the  individuals  in  the  rear  of  a  party  of  travellers 
in  the  jungle  invariably  fare  worst,  as  the  leeches, 
once  warned  of  their  approach,  congregate  with  sin- 
gular celerity.  Their  size  is  so  insignificant,  and  the 
wound  they  make  is  so  skilfully  punctured,  that  both 
are  generally  imperceptible,  and  the  first  intima- 
tion of  their  onslaught  is  the  trickling  of  the  blood 
or  a  chill  feeling  of  the  leech  when  it  begins  to 
hang  heavily  on  the  skin  from  being  distended  by 
its  repast.  Horses  are  driven  wild  by  them,  and 
stamp  the  ground  in  fury  to  shake  them  from  their 
fetlocks,  to  which  they  hang  in  bloody  tassels.  The 
bare  legs  of  the  palankin  bearers  and  coolies  are  a 
favourite  resort ;  and,  their  hands  being  too  much  en- 
gaged to  be  spared  to  pull  them  off,  the  leeches  hang 
like  bunches  of  grapes  round  their  ankles  ;  and  I  have 
seen  the  blood  literally  flowing  over  the  edge  of  a 
European's  shoe  from  their  innumerable  bites.  In 
healthy  constitutions  the  wounds,  if  not  irritated,  gene- 
rally heal,  occasioning  no  other  inconvenience  than  a 
slight  inflammation  and  itching ;  but  in  those  with  a 
bad  state  of  body,  the  punctures,  if  rubbed,  are  liable 


CHAP.  VII.] 


LEECHES. 


305 


to  degenerate  into  ulcers,  which  may  lead  to  the  loss  of  limb 
or  even  of  life.  Both  Marshall  and  Davy  mention,  that 
during  the  march  of  troops  in  the  mountains,  when  the 
Kandyans  were  in  rebellion,  in  1818,  the  soldiers,  and 
especially  the  Madras  sepoys,  with  the  pioneers  and  coolies, 
suffered  so  severely  from  this  cause  that  numbers  of 
them  perished.1 

One  circumstance  regarding  these  land  leeches  is  re- 
markable a«d  unexplained ;  they  are  helpless  without 
moisture,  and  in  the  hills  where  they  abound  at  all 
other  times,  they  entirely  disappear  during  long  droughts ; 
—  yet  re-appear  instantaneously  on  the  very  first  fall  of 
rain ;  and  in  spots  previously  parched,  where  not  one 
was  visible  an  hour  before,  a  single  shower  is  sufficient 
to  reproduce  them  in  thousands,  lurking  beneath  the 
decaying  leaves,  or  striding  with  rapid  movements 
across  the  gravel.  Whence  do  they  re-appear?  Do 
they,  too,  take  a  "summer  sleep,"  like  the  reptiles, 
molluscs,  and  tank  fishes  ?  or  may  they,  like  the  Rotifera, 
be  dried  up  and  preserved  for  an  indefinite  period, 
resuming  their  vital  activity  on  the  mere  recurrence  of 
moisture  ? 

Besides  a  species  of  the  medicinal    leech,  which2  is 


1  DAVY'S    Ceylon,  p.   104 ;   MAR- 
SHALL'S Ceylon,  p.  15. 

2  Hinulo  aanguisorba.     The  paddi- 
field  leech  of  Ceylon,  used  for  sur- 
gical purposes,  has   the  dorsal  sur- 
face of  blackish  olive,  with  several 
longitudinal  strife,  more  or  less  de- 
fined ;  the  crenated  margin  yellow. 
The  ventral  surface  is  fulvous,  bor- 
dered laterally  with  olive ;  the  ex- 
treme margin  yellow.     The  eyes  are 


DORSAL.  VENTRAL. 

ranged  as  in  the  common  medicinal 
VOL.  I.  X 


leech  of  Europe ;  the  four  anterior  ones 
rather  larger  than  the  others.  The 
teeth  are  140  in  each  series,  appearing 
as  a  single  row ;  in  size  diminishing 
gradually  from  one  end,  very  close 
set,  and  about  half  the  width  of  a 
tooth  apart.  When  full  grown,  these 
leeches  are  about  two  inches  long, 
but  reaching  to  six  inches  when  ex- 
tended. Mr.  Thwaites,  to  whom  I 
am  indebted  for  these  particulars, 
adds  that  he  saw  in  a  tank  at  Kolona 
Korle  leeches  which  appeared  to  him 
flatter  and  of  a  darker  colour  than 
those  described  above,  but  that  he 
had  not  an  opportunity  of  examining 
them  particularly. 

Mr.  Thwaites  states  that  there  is  a 
smaller  tank  leech  of  an  olive-green 
colour,  with  some  indistinct  longi- 
tudinal striae  on  the  upper  surface ; 


306 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


found  in  Ceylon,  nearly  double  the  size  of  the  European 
one,  and  with  a  prodigious  faculty  of  engorging  blood, 
there  is  another  pest  in  the  low  country,  which  is  a 
source  of  considerable  annoyance,  and  often  of  loss,  to 
the  husbandman.  This  is  the  cattle  leech1,  which 
infests  the  stagnant  pools,  chiefly  in  the  alluvial  lands 
around  the  base  of  the  mountain  zone,  whither  the 
cattle  resort  by  day,  and  the  wild  animals  by  night,  to 
quench  their  thirst  and  to  bathe.  Lurking  amongst 
the  rank  vegetation  that  fringes  these  deep  pools,  and 
hid  by  the  broad  leaves,  or  concealed  among  the  stems 
and  roots  covered  by  the  water,  there  are  quantities  of 
these  pests  in  wait  to  attack  the  animals  on  their  approach 
to  drink.  Their  natural  food  consists  of  the  juices  of 
lumbrici  and  other  invertebrata ;  but  they  generally 
avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the 
dipping  of  the  muzzles  of  the  animals  into  the  water 
to  fasten  on  their  nostrils,  and  by  degrees  to  make 
their  way  to  the  deeper  recesses  of  the  nasal  passages, 
and  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  throat  and  gullet. 
As  many  as  a  dozen  have  been  found  attached  to  the 
epiglottis  and  pharynx  of  a  bullock,  producing  such 
irritation  and  submucous  effusion  that  death  has  even- 


the  crenated  margin  of  a  pale  yellow- 
ish-green ;  ocelli  as  in  the  paddi-field 
leech  ;  length,  one  inch  at  rest,  three 
inches  when  extended. 

Mr.  E.  L.  LA  YARD  informs  us,  Mag. 
Nat.  Hist.  p.  225,  1853,  that  a  bub- 
bling spring  at  the  village  of  Ton- 
niotoo,  three  miles  S.  W.  of  Moele- 
tivoe,  supplies  most  of  the  leeches 
used  in  the  island.  Those  in  use  at 
Colombo  are  obtained  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity. 

1  ffamopsis  paludum.  In  size  the 
cattle  leech  of  Ceylon  is  somewhat 
larger  than  the  medicinal  leech  of 
Europe ;  in  colour  it  is  of  a  uniform 
brown  without  bands,  unless  a  rufous 
margin  may  bo  so  considered.  It 


has  dark  striae.  The  body  is  some- 
what rounded,  flat  when  swimming, 
and  composed  of  rather  more  than 
ninety  rings.  The  greatest  dimen- 
sion is  a  little  in  advance  of  the  anal 
sucker;  the  body  thence  tapers  to 
the  other  extremity,  which  ends  in 
an  upper  lip  projecting  considerably 
beyond  the  mouth.  The  eyes,  ten  in 
number,  are  disposed  as  in  the  com- 
mon leech.  The  moutlj  is  oval,  the 
biting  apparatus  with  difficulty  seen, 
and  the  teeth  not  very  numerous. 
The  bite  is  so  little  acute  that  the 
moment  of  attachment  and  the  inci- 
sion of  the  membrane  is  scarcely 
perceived  by  the  sufferer  from  its 
attack. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


ARTICULATA. 


307 


tually  ensued ;  and  so  tenacious  are  the  leeches  that  even 
after  death  they  retain  their  hold  for  some  hours. 1 


ARTICULATA. 

APTERA. 

Geophilus  tegularius. 

Tbysanura. 

speciosus. 
Julus  ater. 

Podura  albicolKS? 

carnifcx,  Fabr. 

atricottis. 

pallipes. 

viduata. 

jlaviceps. 

pilosa. 

pallidus. 

Achorcutes  coccinea. 

Craspedosom&juloides, 

Lepisma  nigrofasciata,  Temp, 
nigra. 

prcnista. 
Polydesmus  granulatus. 

Cambala  catenulata. 

Arachnida. 

Zephronia  conspicua. 

Euthus  afcr,  Linn. 

Ceylonicus,  Koch. 

CRUSTACEA. 

Scorpio  linearis. 
Chelifer  librorum. 

Decapoda  brachyura. 

oblongus. 

Polybius. 

Obisium  crassifemur. 
Phrynus  lunatus,  Pall, 

Neptunus  pelagicas,  Linn. 
sanguinolentas,  Herbst. 

Thelyphonus  caudatus,  Linn. 

Thalamita     .     .     .     .     ? 

Phalangium  bisignatum. 
Mygale  fasciata,  Walck. 

Thelphusa  Indica,  Latr. 
Cardisoma     .     .     .     .     ? 

Olios  taprobanius,  Walck. 

Ocypoda  ceratophthalmus,  Pott. 

Nephila    .    .    .    .    .    ? 

macrocera,  Edw. 

Trombidium  tinctorum,  Herm. 
Oribata    ? 

Gelasimus  tetragonon,  Edw. 
annulipes,  Edw. 

Ixodes                                ? 

Macrophthalmus  carinitnanus,  Latr. 

Grapsus  mcssor,  Forsk. 

Myriapoda. 

strigosus,  Herbst. 

Cermatia  dispar. 
Lithobius  umbratilis. 
Scolopendra  crassa. 

Plagnsia  depressa,  Fabr. 
Calappa  philargus,  Linn, 
tuberculata,  Fabr. 

spinosa,  Newp. 

Matuta  victor,  Fabr. 

pallipes. 

Leucosia  fugax,  Fabr. 

Grayii  f  Newp. 

Dorippe. 

tuberculidens,  Newp. 
Ceylonensis,  Newp. 

Decapoda   anomura. 

flava,  Newp. 

Dramia     .     .     .     .     f 

olivacea. 

Hippa  Asiatica,  Edw. 

abdominalis. 

Pagurus  affiois,  Edw. 

Cryptops  sordidus. 

punctulatus,  Oliv. 

assimilis. 

Parcettana    ....       f 

1  Even  men,  when  stooping  to 
drink  at  a  pool,  are  not  safe  from  the 
assault  of  the  cattle  leeches.  They 
cannot  penetrate  the  human  skin, 
but  the  delicate  membrane  of  the 
mucous  passages  is  easily  ruptured 


by  their  serrated  jaws.  Instances 
have  come  to  my  knowledge  of  Eu- 
ropeans into  whose  nostrils  they  have 
gamed  admission  and  caused  serious 
disturbance. 


x  2 


ZOOLOGY. 


[PART  II. 


Decapoda  macrura. 
Scyllarus  orientalis,  Fab. 
Palinurus  ornatus,  Fab. 

affinis,  N.S. 
Crangon    ....       f 
Alpheus    .     .     .     .       f 
Pontonia  inflata,  Edw. 
Palaemon  carcinus,  Fabr. 
Stenopus    ....       ? 
Peneus    ....       ? 

Stomatopoda. 
Sguitta    .    .     .     .       9 
Gonodactylus  chiragra,  Fabr. 


CIREHIPED1A. 

Lepas. 
Balanus* 

ANNELIDA. 

Tubicolie. 

Dorsibranchiata. 

Abranchia. 

Hirudo  sanguisorba. 
Thwaitesii. 

Haemopsis  paludum. 

Hffimadipsa  Ceylana,  Blainv. 

Lumbricus    ....       ? 


PART  III. 


THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES, 


311 


CHAPTER  I. 

SOURCES   OF  SINGHALESE    HISTORY.  —  THE   MAHAWANSO   AND 
OTHER  NATIVE   ANNALS. 

IT  was  long  affirmed  by  Europeans  that  the  Singhalese  an- 
nals, like  those  of  the  Hindus,  were  destitute  of  interest  or 
devoid  of  value  as  historical  elements  ;  that,  viewed  as  re- 
ligious disquisitions,  they  were  no  better  than  the  ravings 
of  fanaticism,  and  that  myths  and  romances  had  been  re- 
duced to  the  semblance  of  national  chronicles.  Such  was 
the  opinion  of  the  Portuguese  writers  DE  BARROS  and  DE 
COUTO;  and  VALENTYN,  who,  about  the  year  1725,  pub- 
lished his  great  work  on  the  Dutch  possessions  in  India, 
states  his  conviction  that  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  such 
of  the  Singhalese  books  as  profess  to  record  the  ancient 
condition  of  their  country.  These  he  held  to  be  even  of 
less  authority  than  the  traditions  of  the  same  events 
which  had  descended  from  father  to  son.  On  the  in- 
formation of  learned  Singhalese,  (drawn  apparently  from 
the  Rajavali,}  he  commenced  an  account  of  the  native  sove- 
reigns, from  the  earliest  times  to  the  arrival  of  the  Portu- 
guese ;  but,  wearied  by  the  monotonous  inanity  of  the 
story,  he  omitted  every  reign  between  the  fifth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.1 

A  writer,  who,  under  the  signature  of  PIIILALETIIES, 
published,  in  1816,  A  History  of  Ceylon  from  the  earliest 
period,  adopted  the  dictum  of  Valentyn,  and  contented 
himself  with  still  further  condensing  the  "  account," 
which  the  latter  had  given  "  of  the  ancient  Emperors 


a  VALENTYX,  Oitd  en  Nicuw  Oost-lndi&i,  ^-c.,  Landbeschryving  van  €  Eyland 
Ceylon,  ch.  iv.  p.  GO. 

x  4 


312 


THE    SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


and  Kings  "  of  the  island.  Dr.  DAVY  compiled  the 
portion  of  his  excellent  narrative  which  has  reference 
to  the  early  history  of  Kandy,  chiefly  from  the  recitals 
of  the  most  intelligent  natives,  borrowed,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  informants  of  Valentyn,  from  the  perusal  of 
popular  legends  ;  but  he  and  every  other  author  unac- 
quainted with  the  native  language,  who  wrote  on  Ceylon 
previous  to  1833,  assumed  without  inquiry  the  non- 
existence  of  historic  data.1 

It  was  not  till  about  the  year  1826  that  the  discovery 
was  made  and  communicated  to  Europe,  that  whilst  the 
histoiy  of  India  was  only  to  be  conjectured  from  epic  myths 
and  elaborated  from  the  dates  on  copper  grants,  or  fading 
inscriptions  on  rocks  and  columns2,  Ceylon  could  boast 
the  possession  of  continuous  written  chronicles,  rich  in 
authentic  facts,  and  not  only  presenting  a  connected  his- 
tory of  the  island  itself,  but  also  yielding  valuable  mate- 
rials for  elucidating  that  of  India.  At  the  moment  when 
Prinsep  was  deciphering  the  mysterious  Buddhist  inscrip- 
tions, scattered  over  Hindustan  and  Western  India,  and 
when  Csoma  de  Korrb's  was  unrolling  the  Buddhist  records 
of  Thibet,  and  Hodgson  those  of  Nepaul,  a  fellow-labourer  of 
kindred  genius  was  successfully  exploring  the  Pali  manu- 
scripts of  Ceylon,  and  developing  results  not  less  re- 
markable nor  less  conducive  to  the  illustration  of  the 
early  history  of  Southern  Asia.  Mr.  Tumour,  a  civil 
officer  of  the  Ceylon  service3,  was  then  administering 


1  DAVY'S  Ceylvn,  ch.  x.  p.  293.  See 
also  PERCIVAL'S  Ceylon,  p.  4. 

8  REIKAUD,  Me  moire  sur  FInde,  p.  3. 

3  GEORGE  TURNOFR  was  the  eldest 
son  of  the  Hon.  George  Tumour, 
son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Winterton ; 
his  mother  being  Emilie,  niece  to  the 
Cardinal  Due  de  Beausset.  He  was 
born  in  Ceylon  in  1799,  and  having 
been  educated  in  England  under  the 
guardianship  of  the  Right  Hon.  Sir 
Thomas  Maitland,  then  governor  of 
the  island,  he  entered  the  Civil  Service 


in  1818,  in  which  he  rose  to  the  highest 
rank.  He  was  equally  distinguished 
by  his  abilities  and  by  his  modest 
display  of  them.  Interpreting  in  its 
largest  sense  the  duty  enjoined  on 
him,  as  a  public  officer,  of  acquiring 
a  knowledge  of  the  native  languages, 
he  extended  his  studies,  from  the 
vernacular  and  written  Singhalese 
to  Pali,  the  great  root  and  original 
of  both,  known  only  to  the  Buddhist 
priesthood,  and  imperfectly  and  even 
rarely  amongst  them.  No  diction- 


CHAP.  I.]         SOURCES   OP   SINGHALESE   HISTORY. 


313 


the  government  of  the  district  of  Saflragam,  and  resided 
at  Katnapoora  near  the  foot  of  Adam's  Peak.  He 
was  enabled  to  pursue  his  studies  under  the  guidance 


From  this 


pathy  of  the  government   officers, 
ajor  Forbes,   who  was  then   the 


aries  then  existed  to  assist  in  denning 
the  meaning  of  Pali  terms  which  no 
teacher  could  he  found  capable  of  ren- 
dering into  English,  so  that  Mr.  Tur- 
nonr  was  entirely  dependent  on  his 
knowledge  of  Singhalese  as  a  medium 
for  translating  them.  To  an  ordinary 
mind  such  obstructions  woidd  have 
proved  insurmountable,  aggravated 
as  they  were  by  discouragements 
arising  from  the  assumed  barrenness 
of  the  field,  and  the  absence  of  all 
sympathy  with  his  pursuits,  on  the 
part  of  those  around  him,  who  re- 
served their  applause  and  encour- 
agement till  success  had  rendered 
him  indifferent  to  either. 
a 

Major 

resident  at  Matelle,  was  honour- 
ably exempt  ;  and  his  narrative  of 
Eleven  Years  in  Ceylon  shows  with 
what  ardour  and  success  he  shared 
the  tastes  and  cultivated  the  studies 
to  which  he  had  been  directed  by  the 
genius  and  example  of  Tumour.  So 
zealous  and  unobtrusive  were  the 
pursuits  of  the  latter,  that  even  his 
immediate  connexions  and  relatives 
were  unaware  of  the  value  and  extent 
of  his  acquirements  till  apprised  of 
their  importance  and  profundity  by 
the  acclamation  with  which  his  dis- 
coveries and  translations  from  the 
Pali  were  received  by  the  savans  of 
Europe.  Major  Forbes,  in  a  private 
letter,  which  I  have  been  permitted 
to  see,  speaking  of  the  difficulty  of 
doing  justice  to  the  literary  cha- 
racter of  Tumour,  and  the  ability, 
energy,  and  perseverance  which  he 
exhibited  in  his  historical  investiga- 
tions, says,  "  his  Epitome  of  the  His- 
tory of  Ceylon  was  from  the  first 
correct  ;  I  saw  it  seven  years  before 
it  was  published,  and  it  scarcely  re- 
quired an  alteration  afterwards." 
Whilst  engaged  in  his  translation  of 
the  Mahawanso,  TURXOTJR,  amongst 
other  able  papers  on  Buddhist  History 
and  Indian  Chronolo/jy  in  the  Journal 


of  the  Bengal  Asiatic  Society,  v.  521, 
vi.  299,  790,  1049,  contributed  a 
series  of  essays  on  the  Pali-Buddhis- 
tical  Annals,  which  were  published  in 
1836,  1837,  1838.— Journ.  Asiatic 
Soc.  Bengal,  vi.  501,  714,  vii.  686, 
789,  919.  He  published  at  various 
times  in  the  same  journal  an  account 
of  the  Tooth  Relic  of  Ceylon,  Ib. 
vi.  856,  and  notes  on  the  inscriptions 
on  the  columns  of  Delhi,  Allahabad, 
and  Betiah,  &c.  &c.,  and  frequent 
notices  of  Ceylon  coins  and  inscrip- 
tions. He  had  likewise  planned 
another  undertaking  of  signal  im- 
portance, the  translation  into  En- 
glish of  a  Pali  version  of  the  Bud- 
dhist scriptures,  an  ancient  copy 
of  which  he  had  discovered,  unen- 
cumbered by  the  ignorant  commen- 
taries of  later  writers,  and  the  fables 
with  which  they  have  defaced  the 
plain  and  simple  doctrines  of  the 
early  faith.  He  announced  his  in- 
tention in  the  Introduction  to  the 
Mahawanso  to  expedite  the  publica- 
tion, as  "  the  least  tardy  means  of 
effecting  a  comparison  of  the  Pali 
with  the  Sanskrit  version"  (p.  ex.). 
His  correspondence  with  Prinsep, 
which  I  have  been  permitted  by 
his  family  to  inspect,  abounds  with 
the  evidence  of  inchoate  inquiries 
in  which  their  congenial  spirits  had 
a  common  interest,  but  which  were 
abruptly  ended  by  the  premature  de- 
cease of  both.  Tumour,  with  shat- 
tered health,  returned  to  Europe  in 
1842,  and  died  at  Naples  on  the 
10th  of  April  in  the  following  year. 
The  first  volume  of  his  translation 
of  the  Mahaicamo,  which  contains 
thirty-eight  chapters  out  of  the 
hundred  which  form  the  original 
work,  was  published  at  Colombo 
in  1837  ;  to  which,  apprehensive 
that  scepticism  might  assail  the 
authenticity  of  a  discovery  so 
important,  he  added  a  reprint 
of  the  original  Pali  in  Roman 
characters  with  diacritical  points. 


314 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 


of  Galle,  a  learned  priest,  through  whose  instrumen- 
tality he  obtained  from  the  Wihara,  at  Mulgiri-galla, 
near  Tangalle  (a  temple  founded  about  130  years  before 
the  Christian  era),  some  rare  and  important  manu- 
scripts, the  perusal  of  which  gave  an  impulse  and  di- 
rection to  the  studies  and  investigations  which  occupied 
the  rest  of  his  life. 

It  is  necessary  to  premise,  that  the  most  renowned 
of  the  Singhalese  books  is  the  Mahawanso,  a  metrical 
chronicle,  containing  a  dynastic  history  of  the  island  for 
twenty-three  centuries  from  B.C.  543  to  A.D.  1758.  But 
being  written  in  Pali  verse  its  existence  in  modern  times 
was  only  known  to  the  priests,  and  owing  to  the  obscurity 
of  its  diction  it  had  ceased  to  be  studied  by  even  the  learned 
amongst  them. 

To  relieve  the  obscurity  of  their  writings,  and  supply 
the  omissions,  occasioned  by  the  fetters  of  rhythm  and 
the  necessity  for  permutations  and  elisions,  required  to 
accommodate  their  phraseology  to  the  obligations  of 
verse,  the  Pah  authors  of  antiquity  were  accustomed 
to  accompany  their  metrical  compositions  with  a  tika 
or  running  commentary,  which  contained  a  literal  ver- 
sion of  the  mystical  text,  and  supplied  illustrations  of 
its  more  abstruse  passages.  Such  a  tika  on  the  Maha- 
wanso  was  generally  known  to  have  been  written ;  but 
so  utter  was  the  neglect  into  which  both  it  and  the 
original  text  had  been  permitted  to  fall,  that  Tumour 
till  1826  had  never  met  with  an  individual  who 
had  critically  read  the  one,  or  more  than  casually 
heard  of  the  existence  of  the  other.1  At  length, 


He  did  not  live  to  complete  the  task 
he  had  so  nobly  begun ;  he  died  while 
engaged  on  the  second  volume  of  his 
translation,  and  only  a  few  chapters, 
executed  with  his  characteristic  ac- 
curacy, remain  in  manuscript  in  the 
possession  of  his  surviving  relatives. 
It  diminishes,  though  in  a  slight  de- 
gree, our  regret  for  the  interruption 
of  his  literary  labours  to  know  that 
the  section  of  the  Mahawanso  which 


he  left  unfinished  is  inferior  both  in 
authority  and  value  to  the  earlier 
portion  of  the  work,  and  that  being 
composed  at  a  period  when  literature 
was  at  its  lowest  ebb  in  Ceylon,  it 
differs  little  if  at  all  from  other 
chronicles  written  during  the  decline 
of  the  native  dynasty. 

1  TTJENOTTH'S  3/a7ia?£7awso,  introduc- 
tion, vol.  i.  p.  ii. 


CHAP.  I.]  THE   MAHAWANSO.  315 

amongst  the  books  procured  for  him  by  the  high 
priest  of  SafFragam,  was  one  which  proved  to  be 
this  neglected  commentary  on  the  mystic  and  other- 
wise unintelligible  Mahawanso ;  and  by  the  assistance 
of  this  precious  document  he  undertook,  with  confidence, 
a  translation  into  English  of  the  long  lost  chronicle,  and 
thus  vindicated  the  claim  of  Ceylon  to  the  possession  of 
an  authentic  and  unrivalled  record  of  its  national 
history. 

The  title  "  Mahawanso,"  which  means  literally  the 
"  Genealogy  of  the  Great"  properly  belongs  only  to  the 
first  section  of  the  work,  extending  from  B.C.  543  to 
A.D.  301  \  and  containing  the  history  of  the  early  kings, 
from  Wijayo  to  Maha  Sen,  with  whom  the  Singhalese 
consider  the  "  Great  Dynasty "  to  end.  The  author 
of  this  portion  was  Mahanamo,  uncle  of  the  king 
Dhatu  Sena,  in  whose  reign  it  was  compiled,  between 
the  years  A.D.  459  and  477,  from  annals  in  the  vernacular 
language  then  existing  at  Anarajapoora.2 

The  sovereigns  who  succeeded  Maha  Sen  are  dis- 
tinguished as  the  "  Sulu-wanse,"  or  "  lower  race." 
The  story  of  their  line  occupies  the  continuation  of  this 
extraordinary  chronicle,  the  second  portion  of  which 
was  written  by  order  of  the  illustrious  king  Prakrama 
Bahu,  about  the  year  A.  D.  1266.  The  narrative 
was  continued,  under  subsequent  sovereigns,  down  to 
the  year  A.D.  1758,  the  latest  chapters  having  been 
compiled  by  command  of  the  King  of  Kandy,  Kirti- 


1  Although  the  Mahawanso  must 
be  regarded  as  containing  the  earliest 
historical  notices  of  Ceylon,  the 
island,  under  its  Sanskrit  name  of 
Lanka,  occupies  a  prominent  place  in 
the  mythical  poems  of  the  Hindus, 
and  its  conquest  by  Rama  is  the 


the  King  Megavahana,  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  chronology  of  Troyer, 
reigned  A.D.  24,  made  an  expedition 
to  Ceylon  for  the  purpose  of  extend- 
ing Buddhism,  and  visited  Adam's 
Peak,  where  he  had  an  interview 
with  the  native  sovereign.  —  Raja- 

'7V™ «««-•—.•    T> i.  .:;    ~i    ni       nc\         TL 


theme  of  the  Ramayana,  one  of  the  |  Tarangini,  Book  iii.  si.  71 — 79.  Ib. 
oldest  epics  in  existence.  In  the  j  vol.  ii.  p.  364. 

Raja-Taranflini  also,  an  historical  !  2  Mahawanso,  ch.  i.  The  early 
chronicle  which  may  be  regarded  as  j  Arabian  travellers  in  Ceylon  mention 
the  Mahawanso  of  Kashmir,  very  the  official  historiographers  employed 
early  accounts  of  Ceylon  are  con-  by  order  of  the  kings.  See  Vol.  I. 
tained,  and  the  historian  records  that  '  Pt.  in.  ch.  viii.  p.  387,  note. 


216  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 

Sri,  partly  from  Singhalese  works  brought  back  to  the 
island  from  Siam  (whither  they  had  been  carried  at 
former  periods  by  priests  dispatched  upon  missions),  and 
partly  from  native  histories,  which  had  escaped  the 
general  destruction  of  such  records  about  the  year 
1590,  in  the'  reign  of  Eaja  Singha  I,  an  apostate  from 
Buddhism,  who,  during  the  period  when  the  Por- 
tuguese were  in  occupation  of  the  low  country,  exter- 
minated the  priests  of  Buddha,  and  transferred  the  care 
of  the  shrine  on  Adam's  Peak  to  Hindu  Fakirs. 

But  the  Mahawanso,  although  the  most  authentic, 
and  probably  the  most  ancient,  is  by  no  means  the  only 
existing  Singhalese  chronicle.  Between  the  14th  and 
18th  centuries  several  historians  recorded  passing  events  ; 
and  as  these  corroborate  and  supplement  the  narrative 
of  the  greater  work,  they  present  an  uninterrupted  His- 
torical Eecord  of  the  highest  authenticity,  comprising 
the  events  of  nearly  twenty-four  centuries.1 

From  the  data  furnished  by  these,  and  from  corrobo- 
rative sources2,  Tumour,  in  addition  to  many  elabo- 
rate contributions  drawn  from  the  recesses  of  Pah 
learning  in  elucidation  of  the  chronology  of  India,  was 


1  In  1833  Upliam  published,  under 
the  title  of  The  Sacred  and  Historical 


which  is  the  most  valuable  of 
these  volumes,  was  translated  for  Sir 


Books  of  Ceylon ,  translations  of  what  Alexander  Johnston  by  Mr.  Diony- 

professed  to  be  authentic  copies  of  sius  Lambertus  Pereira,  who  was  then 

the  Mahaicanso,  the  Rajaratnacari,  Interpreter-Moodliar  to  the  Cutchery 

and  Rajavali;  prepared  for  the  use  I  at  Matura.     These  English  versions, 

of    Sir  Alexander    Johnston   when  i  though   discredited    as  independent 

Chief-Justice    of   the    island.     But  authorities,   are   not  without  value 

Tumour,  in  the  introduction  to  his  in  so  far  as  they  afford  corroborative 

masterly   translation  of  the   Maha-  \  support  to  the  genuine  text  of  the 

wanso,  has  shown  that  Sir  Alexander  :  Mahaicanso,  and  on   this  account  I 

had  been  imposed  upon,  and  that  the  J  have  occasionally  cited  them, 
alleged  transcripts  supplied  to  him  |       2  Besides  the   3Iahaican$o,   Rajn- 

are  imperfect  as  regards  the  original  !  ratnacitri,   and   RujaraU,   the    other 

text  and  unfaithful  as  translations,  j  native  chronicles  relied  on  by  Tur- 

Of  the  Mahawanso  in  particular,  Mr.  nour  in  compiling  his  epitome  were  the 

Tumour    says,   in   a  private    letter  Pujavali,  composed  in  the  thirteenth 

which  I  have  seen,  that  the  early  part  j  century,  the  Xik<n/a-tanf/raha,  written 


of  Upham's  volume  "  is  not  a  trans- 
lation but  a  compendium  of  several 
works,  and  the  subsequent  portions 
a  mutilated  abridgment."  The  Raju- 


A.D.  1347,  and  the  Account  of  the 
J-'niJitixxi/  to  tiifiHi  in  the  reign  of  Raja 
Singha  II.,  A.D.  1739 — 47,  by  WILBA- 


GEDEKA  31CDIANSE. 


CHAP.  I.] 


THE   MAHAWANSO. 


317 


enabled  to  prepare  an  Epitome  of  the  History  of  Ceylon. 
In  this  work  he  has  exhibited  the  succession  and 
genealogy  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  kings,  who 
filled  the  throne  during  2341  years,  extending  from 
the  invasion  of  the  island  from  Bengal,  by  Wijayo, 
in  the  year  B.C.  543,  to  its  conquest  by  the  British  in 
1798.  He  has  succeeded,  after  infinite  labour,  in  con- 
densing the  events  of  each  reign,  commemorating 
the  founder^  of  the  chief  cities,  and  noting  the  erec- 
tion of  the  great  temples  and  Buddhist  monuments, 
and  the  construction  of  some  of  those  gigantic  reservoirs 
and  works  for  irrigation,  which,  though  in  ruins,  arrest 
the  traveller  in  astonishment  at  their  stupendous  di- 
mensions. He  thus  effectually  demonstrated  the  mis- 
conceptions of  those  who  had  previously  believed  the 
literature  of  Ceylon  to  be  destitute  of  historic  materials.1 

Besides  evidence  of  a  less  definite  character,  there  is 
one  remarkable  coincidence  which  affords  ground  for 
confidence  in  the  faithfulness  of  the  purely  historic 
portion  of  the  Singhalese  chronicles ;  due  allowance 
being  made  for  that  exaggeration  of  style  which  is 
apparently  inseparable  from  oriental  recital.  The  cir- 
cumstance alluded  to  is  the  mention  in  the  Mahawanso 
of  the  Chandragupta2,  so  often  alluded  to  by  the  Sanskrit 
writers,  who,  as  Sir  William  Jones  was  the  first  to 
discover,  is  identical  with  Sandracottus  or  Sandra- 
coptus,  the  King  of  the  Prasii,  to  whose  court,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ganges,  Megasthenes  was  accredited  as  an 
ambassador  from  Seleucus  Nicator,  about  323  years  be- 


1  By  the  help  of  TtnufOFE's  trans- 
lation of  the  Mahawanso  and  the 
versions  of  the  Rajaratnacari  and 
Rajavali,  published  by  Upham,  two 
authors  have  since  expanded  the 
Epitome  of  the  former  into  something 
like  a  connected  narrative,  and  those 
who  wish  to  pursue  the  investigation 
of  the  early  story  of  the  island,  will 
find  facilities  in  the  History  of  Ceylon, 
published  by  KNTGHTOX  in  1845, 
and  in  the  first  volume  of  Ceylon 


and  its  Dependencies,  by  PRTDHAM, 
London,  1849.  To  facilitate  re- 
ference I  have  appended  a  Chrono- 
logical List  of  Singhalese  Sovereigns, 
compiled  from  the  historical  epitome 
of  Tumour.  See  Note  B.  at  the  end 
of  this  chapter. 

2  The  era  and  identity  of  Sandra- 
cottus and  Chandragupta  have  been 
accurately  traced  in  MAX  MTTLLER'S 
History  of  Sanskrit  Literature,  p.  298, 

vCC. 


318 


THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


fore  Christ.  Along  with  a  multitude  of  facts  relating  to 
Ceylon,  the  Mahawanso  contains  a  chronologically  con- 
nected history  of  Buddhism  in  India  from  B.C.  590  to  B.C. 
307,  a  period  signalised  in  classical  story  by  the  Indian 
expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  by  the  Embassy 
of  Megasthenes  to  Palibothra, — events  which  in  their 
results  form  the  great  link  connecting  the  histories  of 
the  West  and  East,  but  which  have  been  omitted  or 
perverted  in  the  scanty  and  perplexed  annals  of  the 
Hindus,  because  they  tended  to  the  exaltation  of  Bud- 
dhism, a  religion  loathed  by  the  Brahrnans. 

The  Prasii,  or  people  of  Magadha,  occupy  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  history  of  Ceylon,  inasmuch  as 
Gotama  Buddha,  the  great  founder  of  the  faith  of  its 
people,  was  a  prince  of  that  country,  and  Mahindo, 
who  finally  established  the  Buddhist  religion  amongst 
them,  was  the  great-grandson  of  Chandagutto,  a  prince 
whose  name  thus  recorded  in  the  Mahawanso1  (not- 
withstanding a  chronological  discrepancy  of  about  sixty 
years,  which  Turnour  has  shown  that  there  are  reason- 
able grounds  to  account  for2),  may  with  little  difficulty  be 
identified  with  the"  Chandragupta"  of  the  Hindu  Purana, 
and  the  "  Sandracottus"  of  Megasthenes. 

This  is  one  out  of  the  many  coincidences  which  demon- 
strate the  authenticity  of  the  ancient  annals  of  Ceylon ; 
and  from  sources  so  venerable,  and  materials  so  abun- 
dant, I  propose  to  select  a  few  of  the  leading  events, 
sufficient  to  illustrate  the  origin,  and  explain  the  in- 
fluence of  institutions  and  customs  which  exist  at  the 
present  day  in  Ceylon,  and  which,  from  time  imme- 
morial, have  characterised  the  island. 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  v.  p.  21.  See  also 
WILSON'S  Notes  to  the  Vishnu  Purdna, 
p.  408. 


2  Introd.  Mahawanso,  p.li.  See  post, 
p.  329,  note  3. 


LANGKA  OR  TAMBRAPAKNI, 
(C  EYL  OF) 

according  to 
He  Sanscrit  Pat*  Sin^ese  Authorities 


OR   RAJAS  RATTA 

- 


CHAP.  I.]  ANCIENT   MAP    OF   CEYLON.  319 

NOTE  (A.) 

ANCIENT  MAP   OF   CEYLON. 

So  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  map  has  ever  been  produced,  ex- 
hibiting the  comparative  geography  of  Ceylon,  and  placing  its 
modern  names  in  juxtaposition  with  their  Sanskrit  and  Pali 
originals.  In  the  comprehensive  plan  which  Burnouf  had  drawn 
up  for  an  exposition  of  the  history  of  the  island,  in  elucidation 
of  the  progres8t>f  Buddhism  in  India,  he  intended  to  include  a 
chart  to  exhibit  its  archaeological  divisions  and  localities ;  and  in 
the  only  portion  of  the  work  which  he  lived  to  complete,  and 
which  was  published,  after  his  decease,  by  M.  Jules  Mohl,  under 
the  title  of  Recherches  sur  la  Geographic  ancienne  de  Ceylan, 
in  the  Journal  Asiatique  for  January,  1857,  he  has  enlarged 
upon  the  necessity  of  such  a  chart,  and  the  difficulties  likely  to 
attend  its  construction.  He  had  discovered  that  many  names  of 
historic  interest  had  utterly  disappeared  from  the  modern  map,  or 
had  become  so  changed  as  to  be  scarcely  recognisable ;  and  that 
Sanskrit  words  especially  had  been  so  superseded  by  Singhalese 
as  to  be  no  longer  susceptible  of  identification.  In  order  there- 
fore to  trace  the  events  of  which  Ceylon  was  the  theatre, 
between  the  fourth  and  the  seventh  centuries,  he  found  himself 
obliged  to  undertake  the  construction  of  a  map  in  which  it  was 
his  design  to  restore  the  ancient  nomenclature,  and  correct  the 
corrupted  orthography  where  it  had  not  been  altogether  ob- 
literated. 

This  task  Burnouf  appears  to  have  commenced,  but  death 
interrupted  its  progress ;  and  he  left  behind  only  some  manu- 
script materials,  consisting  of  lists  of  the  names  of  those  towns 
and  villages,  the  great  majority  of  which  he  had  found  it  impos- 
sible to  identify.  These  papers  have  been  confided  to  me  by  his 
literary  executor,  M.  Jules  Mohl,  and  by  their  help  and  the  aid 
of  similar  collections  made  by  Turnour  and  others,  I  have  ven- 
tured to  produce  the  map  which  accompanies  this  chapter.  Not- 
withstanding the  omission  of  a  great  number  of  names  that  it  is 
no  longer  possible  to  identify,  this  map  fixes,  with  at  least  compa- 
rative accuracy,  the  principal  localities,  mountains,  rivers,  and 
cities  mentioned  in  the  Mahawanso,  the  Rajavali,  and  Raja- 
ratnacari.  The  names  wanting  are  chiefly  those  of  villages, 
tanks,  and  wiharas,  which,  although  occurring  frequently  in  the 
ecclesiastical  portion  of  the  national  chronicles,  are  of  little  poli- 
tical or  historic  importance. 


320 


THE  SINGHALESE  CHRONICLES. 


[PART  II F. 


NoTE._The  Singhal 
N.B.  Thenami 


NOTE  (B.) 

NATIVE    SOVEREIGNS   OF   CEYLON. 

i  vowels  a,  e,  i,  o,  a,  are  to  be  pronounced  as  in  French  or  Italian, 
af  subordinate  or  cotemporary  Princes  are  printed  in  Italics. 


Names  and  Relationship  of  each  succeeding  Sovereign. 

Capital. 

Accession. 

1.  Wejaya  or  Wijayo1,  founder  of  the  Wejayan 

B.C. 

dynasty     

Tamananeuera 

543 

2.  Upatissa  1st,  minister  —  regent    .        .        . 

Upatissaneuera 

505 

3.  Panduwasa,  paternal  nephew  of  Wejaya 

ditto  . 

504 

Rama         .")         

Rdmagona 

Rohuna      

Rohuna 

Diggaina      I  , 

Diggdmadulla 

Urawelli    .  f"rot'iers  »*•"*"> 

Mahawelligama 

Anurddhapoora 

Wijitta      J         

Wijittapoora 

4.  Abhaya,  son  of  Paduwasa,  dethroned  . 

Upatissancuera 

474 

Interregnum         ...... 

. 

454 

5.  Pandukabhaya,  maternal  grandson  of  Pan- 

duwasa     ....... 

Anurddhapoora     . 

437 

6.  Mutasiwa,  paternal  grandson 

ditto  . 

367 

7.  Devenipiatissa,  second  son   .... 

ditto  . 

307 

Yatdlalissa,  son    

Kellania 

Gotdbhaya,  son     ...... 

Mdgama 

Kellani-tissa,  not  specified     .... 

Kellania 

Kdwan-tissa,  son  of  Gotdbhaya     . 

Mayama         .         . 

8.  Uttiya,  fourth  son  of  Mutasiwa     . 

Anuradbapoora 

267 

9.  Mahasiwa,  fifth             do. 

ditto  . 

257 

10.  Suratissa,  sixth             do.             put  to  death 

ditto  . 

247 

11.  Sena  and  Guttika,  foreign    usurpers  —  put 

to  death     

ditto  . 

237 

12.  Asela,  ninth  son  of  Mutasiwa  —  deposed 

ditto  . 

215 

13.  Elala,  foreign  usurper  —  killed  in  battle 

ditto  . 

205 

14.  Dutugaimunu,  son  of  Kdwantissa 

ditto  . 

161 

1  5.  Saidaitissa,  brother       ..... 

ditto  . 

137 

16.  Tuhl  or  Thullathanaka,  younger  son  —  de- 

posed         

ditto  . 

119 

17.  Laiminitissa  1st  or  Lajjitissa,  elder  brother  . 

ditto  . 

119 

18.  Kalunna  or  Khallatanaga,  brother  —  put  to 

death        

ditto  . 

109 

19.  Walagambahu  1st  or  Wattagamini,  brother 

—  deposed         ....                  . 

ditto  . 

104 

(Pulahattha     .  ~)                                             ( 

ditto  . 

103 

Bayiha           .  1  Foreign  usurpers  —  sue-  1 

ditto  . 

100 

Panayamara  .  >     cessively  deposed  and  J 

ditto  . 

98 

Peliyamara    .  1      put  to  death. 

ditto  . 

91 

Dathiya          J                                              1 

ditto  . 

90 

Valagambahu  1st,  reconquered  the  kingdom 
22.  Mahadailitissa  or  Mahachula,  son 

ditto  . 
ditto  . 

88 
76 

23.  Chora  Naga,  son  —  put  to  death  . 

ditto  . 

62 

24.  Kuda  Tissa,  son  —  poisoned  by  his  wife 
25.  Anula,  widow      

ditto  . 

ditto  . 

50 

47 

26.  Makalantissa  or  Kallakanni  Tissa,  second  son 

. 

41 

27.  Batiyatissa  1st,  or  Batikabhaya,  son      . 

ditto  . 

19 

\\Yjaya  is  also  spelled  Wijayo,  see  p.  320,  n. 


CHAP.  I.] 


NATIVE   SOVEREIGNS   OF   CEYLON. 


321 


Names  and  Relationship  of  each  succeeding  Sovereign. 

Capital. 

Accession. 

28.  Maha  Dailiya  Mana  or  Dathika,  brother  . 
29.  Addagaimunu  or  Amanda  Gamini,  son  — 
put  to  death  
30.  Kinihirridaila  or  Kanijani  Tissa,  brother  . 
31.  Kuda  Abba  or  Chulabhaya,  son 
32.  Singhawalli  or  Siwalli,  sister  —  put  to  death 
Interregnum           .         .                            . 
33.  Elluna  or  Ila  Naga,  maternal  nephew  of 
Addagaimunu       
34.  Sanda  Mtlhuna  or  Chanda  Mukha  Siwa, 
son        
35.  Yasa  Silo  or  Yatalakatissa,  brother—  put  to 
death    ....... 
36.  Subha,  usurper  —  put  to  death 
37.  Wahapp  or  Wasahba,  descendant  of  Lai- 

Anuradhapoora 

ditto    . 
ditto    . 
ditto    . 
ditto    . 

ditto     . 
ditto    . 

ditto    . 
ditto    . 

ditto 

A.  D. 

9 

21 
30 
33 
34 
35 

38 
44 

52 
60 

66 

38.  Waknais  or  Wanka  Nasica,  son 
39.  Gajabahu  1st  or  Gamini,  son     . 
40.  Mahalumana  or  Mallaka  Naga,  maternal 

ditto    . 
ditto    . 

ditto 

110 

113 

125 

41.  Batiya  Tissa  2nd  or  Bhatika  Tissa,  son     . 
42.  Chula  Tissa  or  Kanitthatissa,  brother 
43.  Kuhuna  or  Chudda  Naga,  son—  murdered 
-44.  Kudanama  or  Kuda  Naga,  nephew  —  de- 
posed   ....... 
45.  Kuda  Sirina  or  Siri  Naga  1st,  brother-in- 
law        
46.  Waiwahairatissa  or  Wairatissa,  son  —  mur- 
dered     
47.  Abha  Sen  or  Abha  Tissa,  brother     . 

ditto     . 
ditto     . 
ditto    . 

ditto    . 
ditto    . 

ditto    . 
ditto     . 
ditto     . 

131 
155 
173 

183 
184 

209 
231 

239 

49.  Weja  Indu  or  Wejaya  2nd,  son  —  put  to 
death    
50.  Sangatissa  1st,  descendant  of  Laiminitissa 

ditto    . 
ditto 

241 
242 

51.  Dahama  Sirisanga  Bo  or  Sirisanga  Bodhi 
1st,  do   do.  —  deposed   .... 
52.  Golu  Abha,  Gothabhaya  or  Megha  warna 
Abhay,  do.  do.       ..... 
53.  Makalan  Detu  Tissa  1st,  son     . 
54    Maha  Sen  brother                     . 

ditto     . 

ditto    . 
ditto     . 

246 

248 
261 
275 

55.  KitsiriMaiwan  1st  or  Kirtisri  Megha  warna, 
son        .        .        .         .        .        »  '      . 
56.  Detu  Tissa  2nd,  brother  .... 
57.  Bujas  or  Budha  Dasa,  son 

ditto     . 
ditto     . 
ditto     . 

302 
330 
339 

ditto 

410 

60.   Senghot  or  Sotthi  Sena,  son  —  poisoned   . 
61.  Laimini  Tissa  2nd  or  Chatagahaka,  de- 
scendant of  Laiminitissa 
62.  Mitta  Sena  or  Karalsora,  not  specified  — 

ditto    . 
ditto    . 
ditto 

432 
432 

{Pandu         .         ~\.         .         .         .       „ 
Parinda  Kuda      1                              • 

ditto    . 

434 

Khudda  Parinda  V24.9.  Foreign  usurpers 
Datthiya                1 

ditto     . 

455 

Pitthiya               J  
64.  Dasenkelleya  or  Dhatu  Sena,  descendant  of 
the  original  royal  family  —  put  to  death 
65.  Sigiri  Kasumbu   or  Kasyapa  1st,  son  — 
committed  suicide          .... 
VOL.    I.                                             Y 

ditto     . 
ditto    .      .  .     ..  * 
Sigiri  Galla  Neuera 

458 
459 
477 

322 


THE  SINGHALESE   CHKOXICLES. 


[PART  III. 


Names  and  Relationship  of  each  succeeding  Sovereign. 

Capital. 

Accession. 

A  D. 

66.  Mugallana  1st,  brother     .... 

Anuradhapoora 

495 

67.  Kumara  Das  or  Kumara  Dhatu  Sena,  son 

—  immolated  himself     . 

ditto    . 

513 

68.  Kirti  Sena,  son  —  murdered 

ditto    . 

522 

69.  Maidi  Siwu  or  Siwaka,  maternal  uncle  — 

murdered                .                  . 

ditto 

531 

70.  Laimini  Upatissa  3rd,  brother-in-law         . 

ditto    . 

531 

71.  Ambaherra  Salamaiwan  or  Silakala,  son- 

in-law  

ditto    . 

534 

72.  Dapulu   1st  or  Datthapa  Bhodhi,  second 

son  —  committed  suicide 

ditto    . 

547 

73.  Dalamagalan   or   Mugallana    2nd,    elder 

brother          ...... 

ditto     . 

547 

74.  Kuda  Kitsiri  Maiwan  1st  or  Kirtisri  Meg- 

hawarna,  son  —  put  to  death 

ditto    . 

567 

75.   Senewi  or  Maha  Naga,  descendant  of  the 

Okaka  branch        ..... 

ditto     . 

586 

76.  Aggrabodhi  1st  or  Akbo,  maternal  nephew 

ditto    . 

589 

77.  Aggrabodhi  2nd  or  Sula  Akbo,  son-in-law 

ditto     . 

623 

78.  Sanghatissa,  brother  —  decapitated 

ditto 

633 

79.  Buna  Mugalan  or  Laimini  Bunaya,  usurper 

—  put  to  death       ..... 

ditto     . 

633 

80.  Abhasiggahaka  or  Asiggahaka,  maternal 

grandson       ...... 

ditto     . 

639 

81.  Siri  Sangabo  2nd,  son  —  deposed 

ditto     . 

648 

82.  Kaluna    Detutissa  or  Laimina  Katuriya, 

descendant  of  Laiminitissa  —  committed 

suicide          

Dewuneura  or  Don- 

dera  . 

648 

Siri  Sangabo  2nd,  restored,  and  again  de- 

posed 

A  n  11  rail  b  -i  noora 

649 

83.  Dalupiatissa  1st  or  Dhatthopatissa,  Laimini 

P 

branch  —  killed  in  battle 

ditto    . 

665 

84.  Paisulu  Kasumbu  or  Kasyapa  2nd,  brother 

of  Sirisan°"abo 

ditto 

677 

85.  Dapulu  2nd,  Okaka  branch  —  deposed 

ditto     . 

686 

86.  Dalupiatissa  2nd  or  Hattha-Datthopatissa, 

son  of  Dalupiatissa  1st  . 

ditto     . 

693 

87.  Paisulu  Siri  Sanga  Bo  3rd  or  Aggrabodhi, 

brother          .                           ... 

ditto     . 

702 

88.  Walpitti  Wasidata  or  Dantanama,  Okaka 

branch            ...... 

ditto    . 

718 

89.  Hununaru  Kiandalu  or  Hatthadatha,  ori- 

ginal royal  family—  decapitated 

ditto    . 

720 

90    Mahalaipanu  or  Manawamma,   do.   do.     . 

ditto    . 

720 

91.  Kasiyappa  3rd  or  Kasumbu,  son 

ditto     . 

726 

92.  Aggrabodhi  3rd  or  Akbo,  nephew 

Pollonnarrua  . 

729 

93.  Aggrabodhi  4th  or  Kuda  Akbo,  son 

ditto     . 

769 

94.  Mahindu  1st  or  Salamaiwan,  original  royal 

family  

ditto     . 

775 

95.  Dappula  2nd,  son     

ditto     . 

795 

96.  Mahindu  2nd  or  Dharmika-Silamaiga,  son 
97.  Aggrabodhi  5th  or  Akbo,  brother     . 

ditto     . 
ditto     .      '  . 

800 
804 

98.  Dappula  3rd  or  Kuda  Dappula,  son 
99.  Aggrabodhi  6th,  cousin     .... 

ditto     . 
ditto     . 

815 
831 

100.  Mitwella  Sen  or  Silamaiga,  son 

ditto     . 

838 

101.  Kasiyappa  4th  or  Maganyin  Sena  or  Mi- 

hindu,  grandson       ..... 

ditto     . 

858 

102.  Udaya  1st,  brother  

ditto    . 

891 

CHAP.  I.] 


NATIVE   SOVEREIGNS   OF   CEYLON. 


323 


Names  and  Relationship  of  each  succeeding  Sovereign. 

Capital 

Accession. 

A.D. 

103.  Udaya  2nd,  son  ,. 

Pollonnarrua    . 

926 

104.  Kasiyappa  5th,  nephew  and  son-in-law 

ditto     . 

937 

ditto 

954 

106    Dappula  4th  son         ..... 

ditto     ; 

964 

107.  Dappula  5th,  not  specified  .... 

ditto     . 

964 

108.  Udaya  3rd,  brother     .         ..-'-..       i     .   . 

ditto     . 

974 

109.  Sena  2nd,  not  specified        ..       ..       „ 

ditto     . 

977 

110.  Udaya  4th,       do.     do.        . 

ditto     . 

986 

111.  Sena  3rd,        do.     do.        ...        .     .':» 

ditto     . 

994 

112.  Mihindu  3Tff,  do.     do.         .... 

ditto     . 

997 

113.  Sena  4th,  son  —  minor        .... 

ditto     . 

1013 

114.  Mihindu  4th,  brother  —  carried   captive   to 

India  during  the  Cholian  conquest  . 
Interregnum  Cholian  viceroyalty  . 

Anuradhapoora 
Pollonnarrua    . 

1023 
1059 

Maha  Lai  or  Maha  \ 

Ldla  Kirti       •         •  ] 

Rohuna 

Wikrama  Pdndi       .  1  Subordinate  native     . 

Kalutotta 

Jagat  Pdndi  orJagati  '       kings  during   the     . 

• 

Pdla        .         .         .  f      Cholian    vice- 

Rohuna 

Prdkrama    Pdndi  or  \      royalty. 

Prakrama  Bahu       .  ] 

ditto 

Lokaiswara      .         . 

Kdcharagama 

115.  Wejayabahu  1st  or  Sirisangabo  4th,  grand- 

son of  Mihindu  4th  ..... 

Pollonnarrua   . 

1071 

116    Javabahu  1st  brother 

ditto 

1  126 

117.  Wikramabahu  1st    .  \ 

ditto     . 

\ 

Manabarana  .         .     1 

Rohuna 

118.  Gajabahu2nd         .     >  A  disputed  succession 
Siriwallaba  or  Kitsiri  \ 

Pollonnarrua    . 

>  1127 

Maiwan          .         .  / 

Rohuna 

) 

119.  Prakrama  Bahu  1st,  son  of  Manabarana 

Pollonnarrua    . 

1153 

120.  Wejayabahu  2nd,  nephew  —  murdered. 

ditto     . 

1186 

121.  Mihindn  5th  or  Kitsen  Kisdas,  usurper  — 

put  to  death      
122.  Kirti  Nissanga,  a  prince  of  Kalinga     . 
Wirabahu,  son  —  put  to  death 

ditto     . 
ditto     . 
ditto     . 

1187 
1187 
1196 

123.  Wikramabahu  2nd,  brother  of  Kirti  Nissanga 

—  put  to  death  

ditto    . 

1196 

124.  Chondakanga,  nephew  —  deposed 
1  25.  Lilawati,  widow    of    Prakramabahu  —  de- 

ditto    . 

1196 

posed        ....... 

ditto     . 

1197 

126.  Sahasamallawa,  Okaka  branch—  deposed 

ditto     . 

1200 

127.  Kalyanawati,  sister  of  Kirti  Nissanga  ..        .. 

ditto     . 

1202 

128.  Dharmasoka,  not  specified  —  a  minor    . 

ditto     . 

1208 

129.  Nayaanga  or  Nikanga,    minister  —  put    to 

death 

ditto 

1209 

Lilawati,  restored,  and  again  deposed  . 

ditto     . 

1209 

130.  Lokaiswera  1st,  usurper  —  deposed 

ditto     . 

1210 

Lilawati,  again  restored,  and  deposed  a  third 

time                                                      •        • 

ditto 

1211 

131.  Pandi   Prakrama  Bahu  2nd,  usurper—  de- 

posed              ». 

ditto     . 

1211 

132.  Magha,  foreign  usurper       .... 

ditto     . 

1214 

133.  Wejayabahu   3rd,  descendant    of    Sirisan- 

gabo 1st  

Dambadenia    . 

1235 

134.  Kalikala   Sahitya  Sargwajnya   or   Pandita 

Prakrama  Bahu  3rd,  son  .         •  "r  *••••*« 

ditto      . 

1266 

135.  Bosat  Wejaya  Bahu  4th,  son 

Pollonnarrua    .      ;*; 

1301 

T  2 


324 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHROXICLES. 


[PART  in. 


Names  and  Relationship  of  each  succeeding  Sovereign. 

Capital. 

ccession. 

A.D. 

Bhuwaneka  Bdhu         ..... 

Yapahu    or    Subba- 

pabatto 

136.  Bhuwaneka  Bahu  1st,  brother 

ditto     . 

1303 

137.  Prakrama  Bahu  3rd,  son  of  Bosat  Wejaya- 

bahu         

Pollonnarrua    . 

1314 

138.  Bhuwaneka  Bahu  2nd,  son  of  Bhuwaneka 

Kurunaigalla       or 

1319 

Bahu         

Hastisailapoora 

139.  Pandita  Prakrama  Balm  4th,  not  specified  . 

ditto 

140.  Wanny  Bhuwaneka  Bahu  3rd,          do. 

ditto 

141.  Wejaya  Bahu  5th,                                do. 

ditto 

142.  Bhuwaneka  Bahu  4th,                         do. 

Gampola   or    Ganga- 

siripoora     . 

1347 

143.  Prakrama  Bahu  5th,                            do. 

ditto     . 

1361 

144.  Wikram  Bahu  3rd,  cousin   .... 

Partly  at  Kandy  or 

Sengadagalla  Neuera 

1371 

145.  Bhuwaneka  Bahu  5th,  not  specified     . 

Gampola    or   Ganga- 

siripoora     . 

1378 

146.  Wejaya  Bahu  5th,  or  WiraBahu,  do   . 

ditto     . 

1398 

147.  Sri  Prakrama  Bahu  6th,         do. 

Kotta  or  Jayawarda- 

napoora 

1410 

148.  Jayabahu  2nd,  maternal  grandson  —  put  to 

death        

ditto     . 

1462 

149.  Bhuwaneka  Bahu  6th,  not  specified 

ditto     . 

1464 

150.  Pandita  Prakrama  Bahu  7th,  adopted  son    . 

ditto     . 

1471 

151.  Wira  Prakrama  Bahu  8th,  brother  of  Bhu- 

waneka  Bahu  6th 

ditto 

1485 

152.  Dharma  Prakrama  Bahu  9th,  son 

ditto     . 

1505 

153.  Wejaya  Bahn  7th,  brother  —  murdered 

ditto     . 

1527 

Jayawiva  Bdnddra    . 

(^nninnltt. 

154.  Bhuwaneka  Bahu  7th,  son  .... 

Kotta 

1534 

Mdyddunnai     .          ..... 

Setawacca 

Rui/Qam  Banddra     .         .                   . 

Rdyodni 

Jayawira  Banddra    .                             . 

2£cindy 

155.  Don  Juan  Dharmapala         .... 

Kotta       . 

1542 

A  Malabar       ...... 

Yapahu 

Portuguese        .          ..... 

Colombo 

Widiye  Rdja     

PctiUtindct  fficucrct 

fidia  Singha     ...... 

Aiwissdwelle 

Idirimdne  Suriya       ..... 

Seven  Koi  Ics 

WikramaBdhu,descendant  o/'Sirisangabol  st 
156.  Raja  Singha  1st,  son  of  Mdyddunnai    .         , 

Kandy 
Setawacca 

1581 

Jaya  Suriya     ...... 
Widiye  Raja's  queen          .... 

Setawacca 
ditto 

157.  Wimala  Dharma,  original  royal  family 

Kandy     . 

1592 

1  58.  Senaraana  or  Senarat,  brother     . 

ditto     . 

1604 

159.  Raja-singha  2nd,  son  

ditto     . 

1632 

Kumdra-singa,  brother      .... 

Ouvah 

Wejaya  Pdla,  brother         .... 

Matelle 

160.  Wimala  Dharma  Suriya  2nd,  son  of  Raja- 

singha      ....... 

Kandy     . 

1687 

161.  Sriwira  Prakrama  Nareudrasingha  or  Kun- 

dasala      

ditto     . 

1707 

162.  Sriwejaya  Raja  Singha  or  Hanguranketta, 

brother-in-law.         .         .         .         «•      -•% 

ditto     . 

1739 

163.  Kirtisri  Raja  Singha,  brother-in  law    . 

ditto     . 

1747 

164.  Rajadhi  Raja  Singha,  brother 
165.  Sri  Wikrema  Raja  Singha,  son  of  the  late 

ditto    . 

1781 

king's  wife's  sister,  deposed  by  the  English 

in  1815,  and  died  in  captivity  in  1832 

ditto    . 

1798 

325 


CHAP.  II. 

THE   ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS   OF   CEYLON. 

DIVESTED  o£  the  insipid  details  which  overlay  them, 
the  annals  of  Ceylon  present  comparatively  few  stirring 
incidents,  and  stiU  fewer  events  of  historic  importance 
to  repay  the  toil  of  their  perusal.  They  profess  to  record 
no  occurrence  anterior  to  the  advent  of  the  last  Buddha, 
the  great  founder  of  the  national  faith,  who  was  born  on 
the  borders  of  Nepaul  in  the  seventh  century  before  Christ. 

In  the  theoretic  doctrines  of  Buddhism  "  Buddhas"  1 
are  beings  who  appear  after  intervals  of  inconceivable 
extent ;  they  undergo  transmigrations  extending  over 
vast  spaces  of  time,  accumulating  in  each  stage  of 
existence  an  increased  degree  of  merit,  till,  in  their  last 
incarnation  as  men,  they  attain  to  a  degree  of  purity  so 
immaculate  as  to  entitle  them  to  the  final  exaltation 
of  "  Buddha-hood,"  a  state  approaching  to  incarnate 
divinity,  in  which  they  are  endowed  with  wisdom  so 
supreme  as  to  be  competent  to  teach  mankind  the  path 
to  ultimate  bliss. 

Their  precepts,  preserved  orally  or  committed  to 
writing,  are  cherished  as  bana  or  the  "  word ; "  their 
doctrines  are  incorporated  in  the  system  of  dharma  or 
"  truth ;"  and,  at  their  death,  instead  of  entering  on  a 
new  form  of  being,  either  corporeal  or  spiritual,  they 
are  absorbed  into  Nirwana,  that  state  of -blissful  uncon- 
sciousness akin  to  annihilation  which  is  regarded  by 
Buddhists  as  the  consummation  of  eternal  felicity. 


1  The  most  profound  and  learned  j  Manual  of  Buddhism,  Lond.  1853.  A 
dissertations  on  Buddhism  as  it  exists  j  sketch  of  the  Buddhist  religion  will 
in  Ceylon,  will  be  found  in  the  works  j  be  found  in  this  work.     Vol.  i.  Part 
of  the  Rev.  R.  SPENCE  HARDY,  East-     iii.  ch.  xi. 
em  Monachism,  Lond.  1850,  and  A 

T  3 


326 


THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


rpART  in. 


Gotama,  who  is  represented  as  the  last  of  the  series 
of  Buddhas1,  promulgated  a  religious  system  in  India 
wliich  has  exercised  a  wider  influence  over  the  Eastern 
world  than  the  doctrines  of  any  other  uninspired 
teacher  in  any  age  or  country.2  He  was  born  B.C. 
624  at  Kapila-Vastu  (a  city  which  has  no  place  in  the 
geography  of  the  Hindus,  but  which  appears  to  have 
been  on  the  borders  of  Nepaul) ;  he  attained  his  superior 
Buddha-hood  B.C.  588,  under  a  bo-tree3  in  the  forest  of 
Urawela,  the  site  of  the  present  Buddha  Gaya  in  Bahar ; 
and,  at  the  age  of  eighty,  he  died  at  Kusinara,  a  doubtful 
locality,  which  it  has  been  sought  to  identify  with  the 
widely  separated  positions  of  Delhi,  Assam,  and  Cochin 
China.4 

In  the  course  of  his  ministrations  Gotama  is  said  to 
have  thrice  landed  in  Ceylon.  Prior  to  his  first  coming 
amongst  them,  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  appear  to 
have  been  living  in  the  simplest  and  most  primitive 
manner,  supported  on  the  almost  spontaneous  products 
of  the  soil.  Gotama  in  person  undertook  their  conver- 
sion, and  alighted  on  the  first  occasion  at  Bintenne,  where 


1  There  were  twenty-four  Buddhas 
previous  to  the  advent  of  Gotama, 
who   is   the  fourth  in  the    present 
Kalpa  or  chronological  period.     His 
system  of  doctrine  is  to  endure  for 
5000  years,  when  it  will  be  super- 
seded oy  the  appearance  and  preach- 
ing of  his  successor. — Rajaratnacari, 
ch.  i.p.  42. 

2  HARDY'S     Eastern     Mvnachism, 
ch.  i.  p.  1.      There  is  evidence  of 
the  widely-spread  worship  of  Buddha 
in  the  remotely  separated  individuals 
with  whom  it  has  been  sought  at 
various  times  to  identify  him.  "  Thus 
it  has  been  attempted"  to  show  that 
Buddha  was  the  same  as  Thoth  of 
the   Egyptians,   and  Turni    of    the 
Etruscans,  that  he  was  Mercury,  Zo- 
roaster, Pythagoras,  the  Woden  of  the 
Scandinavians,  the  Manes  of  the  Mani- 
chaeans,  the  prophet  Daniel,  and  even 
the  divine  author  of  Christianity." 
(PROFESSOR  WILSON,  Joiirn.  Asiat. 


Soc.,  vol.  xvi.  p.  233.)  Another 
curious  illustration  of  the  prevalence 
of  his  doctrines  may  be  discovered 
in  the  endless  variations  of  his  name 
in  the  numerous  countries  over  which 
his  influence  has  extended :  Buddha, 
Budda,  Bud,  Bot,  Baoth,  Buto,  Buds- 
do,  Bdho,  Pout,  Pote,  Fo,  Fod,  Fohi, 
Fuh,  Pet,  Pta,  Poot,  Phthi,  Phut, 
Pht,  &c. — POCOCKE'S  India  in  Greece, 
appendix,  397.  HARDY'S  Buddhism, 
ch.  vii.  p.  355.  HARDY  in  his  Eastern 
Monachism  says,  "  There  is  no  country 
in  either  Europe  or  Asia,  except  those 
that  are  Buddhist,  in  which  the  same 
religion  is  now  professed  that  was  there 
existent  at  the  time  of  the  Redeemer's 
death,"  ch.  xxii.  p.  327. 

3  The  Pippul,  Ficus  rclif/iosa. 

4  Professor    H.   H.   WILSON    has 
identified  Kusinara    or    Kusinagara 
with   Kusia    in    Gorakhpur,    Journ. 
Hoy.  Asiat.  Soc.  vol.  xvi.  p.  246. 


CHAP.  II.]      ABORIGINAL   INHABITANTS    OF   CEYLON. 


327 


there  exists  to  the  present  day  the  remains  of  a  monu- 
ment erected  two  thousand  years  ago  *  to  commemorate 
his  arrival.  His  second  visit  was  to  Nagadipo  in  the 
north  of  the  island,  at  a  place  whose  position  yet 
remains  to  be  determined ;  and  the  "  sacred  foot-print" 
on  Adam's  Peak  is  still  worshipped  by  his  devotees  as  the 
miraculous  evidence  of  his  third  and  last  farewell. 

To  the  question  as  to  what  particular  race  the  inha- 
bitants of  €£ylon  at  that  time  belonged,  and  whence  or 
at  what  period  the  island  was  originally  peopled,  the 
Buddhist  chronicles  furnish  no  reply.  No  memorials 
of  the  aborigines  themselves,  no  monuments  or  inscrip- 
tions, now  remain  to  afford  ground  for  speculation.  Con- 
jectures have  been  hazarded,  based  on  no  sufficient  data, 
that  the  Malayan  type,  which  extends  from  Polynesia  to 
Madagascar,  and  from  Chin-India  to  Taheite,  may  still  be 
traced  in  the  configuration,  and  in  some  of  the  imme- 
morial customs,  of  the  people  of  Ceylon.2 


1  By  Dutugaimunu,  B.C.  164.     For 
an  account  of  the  present  condition 
of  this  Dagoba  at  Bintenne,  see  Vol. 
II.  Pt.  ix.  ch.  ii. 

2  Amongst  the  incidents   ingeni- 
ously pressed  into  the  support  of  this 
conjecture  is  the  use  by  the  natives 
of  Ceylon  of  those  double  canoes  and 
boats  with  outriggers,  which  are  never 
used  on  the  Arabian  side  of  India, 
but  which  are  peculiar  to  the  Ma- 
layan race  in  almost  every  country 
to  which  they  have  migrated ;  Mada- 
gascar and  the  Comoro  islands,  Sooloo, 
Luzon,  the  Society  Islands,  and  Ton- 
ga.    PRITCHARD'S  Races  of  Man,  ch. 
iv.  p.  17.     For  a  sketch  ot  this  pecu- 
liar canoe,  see  Vol.  II.  Pt.  vn.  ch.  i. 

There  is  a  dim  tradition  that  the 
first  settlers  in  Ceylon  arrived  from 
the  coasts  of  China.  It  is  stated  in 
the  introduction  to  RIBEYRO'S  History 
of  Ceylon,  but  rejected  by  VALEXTYN, 
ch.  iv.  p.  61. 

The  legend  prefixed  to  RIBEYRO 
is  as  follows.  "Si  nous  en  croyons 
les  historiens  Portugais,  les  Chiuois 


ont  e"te"  les  premiers  qui  ont  habite" 
cette  isle,  et  cela  arriva  de  cette 
maniere.  Ces  peuples  e"toient  les 
maitres  du  commerce  de  tout  1'orient ; 
quelques  unes  de  leurs  vaisseaux  fu- 
rent  porte"z  sur  les  basses  qui  sont  pres 
du  lieu,  que  depuis  on  appelle  Chilao 
par  corruption  au  lieu  de  Cinilao. 
Les  Equipages  se  sauverent  a  terre, 
et  trouvant  le  pais  bon  et  fertile  ils 
s'y  etablirent :  bientot  apres  ils  s'al- 
lierent  avec  les  Malabares,  et  les  Ma- 
labares  y  envoyoient  ceux  qu'ils  ex- 
iloient  et  qu'Us  nominoient  Galas. 
Ces  exiles  s^tant  confondus  avec  les 
Chinois,  de  deux  noms  n'en  ont  fait 
qu'un,  et  se  sont  appelles  Chin-galas 
et  ensuite  Chingalais."  —  RIBEYRO, 
Hist,  de  Ceylan,  pref.  du  trad. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  observe  in 
reference  to  this  hypothesis  that  it 
is  at  variance  with 'the  structure  of 
the  Singhalese  alphabet,  in  which  n 
and  g  form  but  one  letter.  DE 
BARROS  and  DE  COTJTO  likewise 
adhere  to  the  theory  of  a  mixed  race, 
originating  in  the  settlement  of  Chi- 


328 


THE  SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  in. 


But  the  greater  probability  is,  that  a  branch  of  the 
same  stock  that  originally  colonised  the  Dekkan 
extended  its  migrations  to  Ceylon.  All  the  records  and 
traditions  of  the  peninsula  point  to  a  time  when  its 
nations  were  not  Hindu ;  and  in  numerous  localities  \ 
in  the  forests  and  mountains  of  the  peninsula,  there  are 
still  to  be  found  the  remnants  of  tribes  who  undoubtedly 
represent  the  aboriginal  race.  The  early  inhabitants 
of  India  before  their  comparative  civilisation  under 
the  influence  of  the  Aryan  invaders,  like  the  abori- 
gines of  Ceylon  before  the  arrival  of  then:  Bengal 
conquerors,  are  described  as  mountaineers  and 
foresters  who  were  "  rakshas  "  or  demon  worshippers  ; 
a  religion,  the  traces  of  which  are  to  be  found 
to  the  present  day  amongst  the  hill  tribes  in  the 
Concan  and  Canara,  as  well  as  in  Guzerat  and  Cutch. 
In  addition  to  other  evidences  of  the  community  of 
origin  of  these  continental  tribes  and  the  first  in- 
habitants of  Ceylon,  there  is  a  manifest  identity, 
not  alone  in  their  popular  superstitions  at  a  very 
early  period,  but  in  the  structure  of  the  national 
dialects,  which  are  still  prevalent  both  in  Ceylon  and 
Southern  India.  Singhalese,  as  it  is  spoken  at  the 
present  day,  and,  still  more  strikingly,  as  it  exists  as 
a  written  language  in  the  literature  of  the  island, 
presents  unequivocal  proofs  of  an  affinity  with  the 
group  of  languages  still  in  use  in  the  Dekkan ;  Tamil, 
Telingu,  and  Malayahm.  But  with  these  its  iden- 
tification is  dependent  on  analogy  rather  than  on 
structure,  and  all  existing  evidence  goes  to  show  that 
the  period  at  which  a  vernacular  dialect  could  have  been 
common  to  the  two  countries  must  have  been  extremely 
remote.2 


nese  in  the  south  of  Ceylon,  but  they 
refer  the  event  to  a  period  subse- 
quent to  the  seizure  of  the  Singha- 
lese king  and  his  deportation  to 
China  in  the  fifteenth  century.  DE 
BARROS,  Dec.  iii.  ch.  i. ;  DE  COTJTO, 
Dec.  v.  ch.  5. 


'  L  \SSE:N, Indischc 'Alt 'erthwnskunde, 
vol.  i.  p.  199,  362. 

2  The  Mahawanso  (ch.  xiv.)  attests 
that  at  the  period  of  Wijayo's  con- 
quest of  Ceylon,  B.C.  543,*  the  lan- 
guage of  the  natives  was  different 
from  that  spoken  by  himself  and  his 


CUAP.  II.]       ABORIGINAL   INHABITANTS   OF   CEYLON. 


Though  not  based  directly  on  either  Sanskrit  or  Pali, 
Singhalese  at  various  times  has  been  greatly  enriched 
from  both  sources,  and  especially  from  the  former ; 
and  it  is  corroborative  of  the  inference  that  the  ad- 
mixture was  comparatively  recent;  and  chiefly  due  to 
association  with  domiciliated  strangers,  that  the  further 
we  go  back  in  point  of  time  the  proportion  of  amalgama- 
tion diminishes,  and  the  dialect  is  found  to  be  purer 
and  less  affoyed.  Singhalese  seems  to  bear  towards 
Sanskrit  and  Pali  a  relation  similar  to  that  which 
the  English  of  the  present  day  bears  to  the  combination 
of  Latin,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  Norman  French,  which 
serves  to  form  the  basis  of  the  language.  As  in  our 
own  tongue  the  words  applicable  to  objects  connected 
with  rural  life  are  Anglo-Saxon,  whilst  those  indicative  of 
domestic  refinement  belong  to  the  French,  and  those  per- 
taining to  religion  and  science  are  borrowed  from  Greek 
or  Latin l ;  so,  in  the  language  of  Ceylon,  the  terms  appli- 
cable to  the  national  religion  are  taken  from  Pah,  those 
of  science  and  art  from  Sanskrit,  whilst  to  pure  Singha- 
lese belong  whatever  expressions  were  required  to  denote 
the  ordinary  wants  of  mankind  before  society  had  attained 
organisation.2 

Whatever  momentary  success  may  have  attended  the 
preaching  of  Buddha,  no  traces  of  his  pious  labours  long 
survived  him  in  Ceylon.  The  mass  of  its  inhabitants 
were  still  aliens  to  his  religion,  when,  on  the  day  of 
his  decease,  B.C.  543,  Wijayo3,  the  discarded  son  of  one 


companions,  which,  as  they  came 
from  Bengal,  was  in  all  probability 
Pali.  Several  centuries  afterwards, 
A.D.  339,  the  dialect  of  the  two  races 
was  still  different,  and  some  of  the 
sacred  writings  were  obliged  to  be 
translated  from  Pali  into  the  Sihala 
language.  —  Mdhaica-nso,  ch.  xxxvii. 
xxxviii.  p.  247.  At  a  still  later  period, 
A.D.  410,  a  learned  priest  from  Ma- 
gadha  translated  the  Attah-Katha 
from  Singhalese  into  Pali. — Ib.  p.  253. 
See  also  DE  ALWIS,  Sidath-Sangara, 
p.  19. 


1  See  TRENCH  on  the  Study  of 
Words. 

z  See  DE  Axwis,  Siduth-Sangara, 
p.  xlviii. 

8  Spelled  also  Wejaya.  See  List, 
p.  320.  TURNOTJR  has  demonstrated 
that  the  alleged  concurrence  of  the 
death  of  Buddha  and  the  landing  of 
Wijayo  is  a  device  of  the  sacred  an- 
nalists, in  order  to  give  a  pious  in- 
terest to  the  latter  event,  which  took 
place  about  sixty  years  later. — Introd. 

Tlf  7  %.:. 

Jilanawanso,  p.  1m. 


330 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


of  the  petty  sovereigns  in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges1, 
effected  a  landing  with  a  handful  of  followers  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  modern  Putlam.2  Here  he  married  the 
daughter  of  one  of  the  native  chiefs,  and  having  speedily 


1  To  facilitate  reference    to    the  I  map  is  subjoined,  chiefly  taken  from 
ancient  divisions  of  India,  a  small  |  Lassen's  Indische  Alterthumskunde. 


(Gagnnnath.) 


MAP    OF    ANCIENT    INDIA. 


2  BUBNOUF  conjectures  that  the 
point  from  which  Wijayo  set  sail 
for  Ceylon  was  the  Godavery,  where 
the  name  of  Bandar-maha-lanka  (the 
Port  of  the  Great  Lanka),  still  com- 
memorates the  event. — Journ.  Asiat. 
vol.  xviii.  p.  134.  DK  Cotrro,  re- 


cording the  Singhalese  tradition  as 
collected  by  the  Portuguese,  says  he 
landed  at  Preature"  (Pereatorre),  be- 
tween Trincomalie  and  JaiFna-patam, 
and  that  the  first  city  founded  by 
him  was  Mantotte. — Decade  v.  1.  1. 
c.  5. 


CHAP.  II.]        ABORIGINAL  INHABITANTS  OF  CEYLON. 


331 


made  himself  master  of  the  island  by  her  influence,  he 
established  his  capital  at  Tamana  Neuera1,  and  founded 
a  dynasty,  which,  for  nearly  eight  centuries,  retained 
supreme  authority  in  Ceylon. 

The  people  whom  he  mastered  with  so  much  facility 
are  described  in  the  sacred  books  as  Yakkhos  or  "de- 
mons,"2 and  Nagas*,  or  "  snakes ;".  designations  which 
the  Buddhist  historians  are  supposed  to  have  employed 
in  order  txT*mark  their  contempt  for  the  uncivilised 
aborigines4,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  aborigines  in 
the  Dekkan  were  denominated  goblins  and  demons  by 
the  Hindus5,  from  the  fact  that,  like  the  Yakkhos  of 
Ceylon,  they  too  were  demon  worshippers.  The  Nagas, 
another  section  of  the  same  superstition,  worshipped 
the  cobra  de  capello  as  an  emblem  of  the  destroying 
power.  They  appear  to  have  chiefly  inhabited  the 
northern  and  western  coasts  of  Ceylon,  as  the  Yakkhos 
did  the  interior 6 ;  and,  notwithstanding  their  alleged  bar- 
barism, both  had  organised  some  form  of  government, 
however  rude.7  The  Yakkhos  had  a  capital  which  they 
called  Lankapura,  and  the  Nagas  a  king,  the  possession 
of  whose  "  throne  of  gems"8  was  disputed  by  the  rival 
sovereign  of  a  neighbouring  kingdom.  So  numerous 
were  the  followers  of  this  gloomy  idolatry  of  that  time 
in  Ceylon,  that  they  gave  the  name  of  Nagadipo9,  the 


B.C. 

543. 


1  See  a  note  at  the  end  of  this  chap- 
ter, on  the  landing  ofWij  ayo  inCeylon, 
as  described  in  the  Mahawanso. 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  vii. ;  FA  HIAX, 
Foe-koue-ki,  ch.  xxxvii. 

3  Eajavali,  p.  169. 

4  REINATTD,  Introd.  to  Abmdfeda, 
vol.  i.   sec.  iii.  p.  ccxvi.     See  also 
CLOUGH'S  Singhalese  Dictionary,  vol. 
ii.  p.  2. 

5  MOTTNTSTTJART      ELPHINSTONE'S, 

History  of  India,  b.  iv.  ch.  xi.  p.  216. 

6  The    first    descent    of    Gotama 
Buddha  in  Ceylon  was  amongst  the 
Yakkhos  at  Bintenne  ;  in  his  second 
visit  he  converted  the  "  Naga  King 
of  Kalany,"  near   Colombo,   Maha- 
wanso, ch.  i.  p.  5. 

7  FABER,  Origin  of  Idolatry,  b.  ii. 
ch.  vii.  p.  440. 


8  Mahaicanso,  ch.  i. 

9  TTIRNOTTR  was  unable  to  deter- 
mine the   position    on  the  modern 
map  of  the  ancient  territory  of  Na- 
gadipo.  —  Introd.   p.  xxxiv.     CASTE 
CHITTY,  in  a  paper  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Ceylon  Astatic  Society,  1848,  p.  71, 
endeavours  to  identify  it  with  Jaffna, 
The  Rajaratnqzari  places    it  at  the 
present  Kalany,  on  the  river  of  that 
name  near  Colombo  (vol.  ii.  p.  22). 
The   Mahaicanso  in   many  passages 
alludes  to   the   existence    of   Naga 
kingdoms  on  the  continent  of  India, 
showing  that  at  that  time  serpent- 
worship  had  not  been  entirely  ex- 
tinguished  by   Brahmanism   in   the 
Dekkan,  and  affording  an  additional 
ground  for  conjecture  that  the  first 


332 


THE  SINGHALESE  CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B-C.    Island  of  Serpents,  to  the  portion  of  the  country  which 

543*    they  held,  in  the  same  manner  that  Ehodes  and  Cyprus 

severally  acquired  the  ancient  designation  of  Ophiusa, 

from  the  fact  of  their  being  the  residence  of  the  Ophites, 

who  introduced  serpent-worship  into  Greece.1 

But  whatever  were  the  peculiarities  of  religion  which 
distinguished  the  aborigines  from  their  conquerors,  the 
attention  of  Wijayo  was  not  diverted  from  his  projects 
of  colonisation  by  any  anxiety  to  make  converts  to  his 
own  religious  belief.  The  earliest  cares  of  himself  and 
his  followers  were  directed  to  implant  civilisation,  and 
two  centuries  were  permitted  to  elapse  before  the  first 
effort  was  made  to  supersede  the  popular  worship  by  the 
inculcation  of  a  more  intellectual  faith. 


NOTE. 

DESCRIPTION    IN    THE    MAHAWANSO    OF    THE    LANDING   OF  WIJAYO. 

THE  coincidences  are  so  remarkable  between  the  structure  and 
treatment  of  the  great  Hindu  Epic  of  the  Ramayana,  and  the 
events  and  machinery  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Oydssey,  as  to  have 
given  rise  to  the  conjecture  that  Homer,  in  his  wanderings  as  a 
minstrel,  must  have  listened  at  Rhinocolura  or  some  other  port 
frequented  by  the  Phoenicians,  to  the  metrical  romances,  brought 
home  by  seamen  returning  from  their  eastern  voyages.2  Hence 
it  has  been  said  of  Valrniki's  grand  poem,  that  it  is  "  an  Iliad 
preceded  by  an  Odyssey  ;"  and  even  their  respective  titles  coin- 
cide, the  Ramayana  ("  Ramce  vice  ")  being  equivalent  to  what 
Statius  calls  the  "  Vias  Ulixi."3  The  enumeration  of  the 
forces,  in  the  Ramayana^&s  a  striking  similarity  to  Homer's  lists 


inhabitants  of  Ceylon  were  a  colony 
from  the  opposite  coast  of  Calinga. 

1  BRYANT'S  Analysis  of  Mythology, 
chapter  on  Ophiolatria,  vol.  i.  p.  480, 
"  Eubcea  means  Oub-mia,  and  signi- 
fies the  serpent  island."  (Ib.) 

But  STRABO  affords  us  a  still  more 
striking  illustration  of  the  Maha- 
wanso,  in  calling  the  serpent  wor- 
shippers of  Ceylon  "  Serpents,"  since 
he  states  that  in  Phrygia  and  on  the 
Hellespont  the  people  who  were  styled 
o  / xoyf  I'tie,  or  the  Serpent  races, actually 
retained  a  physical  affinity  with  the 


snakes  with  whom  they  were  popu- 
a 


t;  avyyvvftav  Ttva  t\tiv  TTQOQ 
rove  otftie."  —  STRABO,  lib.  xiii.  c.  588. 

PLINY  alludes  to  the  same  fable 
(lib.  vii.).  And  OVTD,  from  the  in- 
cident of  Cadmus'  having  sown  the 
dragon's  teeth  (that  is,  implanted 
Ophiolatria  in  Greece),  calls  the 
Athenians  Serpentigout. 

2  See  Vol.  I.  p.'  526,  547  ;  Vol.  II. 
p.  101.  FATJCHE,  Ramayana,  torn. 
viii.  p.  11. 

3  Sylvarum,  lib.  ii.  p.  7,  49. 


CHAP.  II.]  THE   LANDING   OF  WIJAYO.  333 

of  the  army  and  the  ships,  and  many  other  grand  features  are 
equally  coincident.  Sougriva,  it  is  asserted,  is  the  prototype  of 
Agamemnon ;  and  his  epithet  in  Sanskrit  is  identical  with  the 
avaf  avSpwv  of  the  Greek.  In  like  manner  Ajax  is  a  re-pro- 
duction of  Angada,  Nestor  of  Djambavat,  Achilles  of  Rama, 
and  Patroclus  of  the  faithful  Lakshman.  Hanuman,  the 
Monkey  chief,  is  the  original  of  the  cunning  and  agile  Ulysses, 
and  one  of  Homer's  biographies,  ascribed  to  Herodotus,  attributes 
to  him  the  composition  of  a  poem,  of  which  the  heroes  were 
apes. 

In  like  manner,  coincidences  between  the  Mahawanso  and 
some  passages  in  Homer  have  attracted  attention ;  amongst 
others  the  landing  of  Wijayo  in  Ceylon  as  related  in  the  7th 
chapter,  presents  so  strong  a  similarity  to  Homer's  account  of  the 
landing  of  Ulysses  in  the  island  of  Circe  ;  that  it  is  difficult  to 
conceive  that  the  author  was  entirely  ignorant  of  the  works  of  the 
Father  of  Poetry.  Wijayo  and  his  followers  are  met  by  a 
"  devo,"  and  one  of  the  band  presently  discovers  the  princess 
seated  near  a  tank,  and  she  being  a  magician  imprisons  him  and 
eventually  the  rest  of  his  companions  in  a  cave.  The  Mahawanso 
then  proceeds:  "all  these  persons  not  returning,  Wijayo  proceeded 
after  them,  and  examined  the  delightful  pond :  he  could  perceive 
no  footsteps  but  those  leading  down  into  it,  and  there  he  saw  the 
princess.  It  occurred  to  him  his  retinue  must  surely  have  been  seized 
by  her,  and  he  exclaimed,  '  Pray,  why  dost  not  thou  produce  my 
attendants  ? '  *  Prince,'  she  replied,  '  from  attendants  what 
pleasure  canst  thou  derive  ?  drink  and  bathe  ere  thou  departest.' 
Seizing  her  by  the  hair  with  his  left  hand,  whilst  with  his  right 
he  raised  his  sword,  he  exclaimed,  '  Slave,  deliver  my  followers  or 
die.'  The  Yakkhini  terrified,  implored  for  her  life ;  '  Spare  me, 
prince,  and  on  thee  will  I  bestow  sovereignty,  my  love,  and 
my  service.'  He  forced  her  to  swear l,  and  when  he  again  demanded 
the  liberation  of  his  attendants  she  brought  them  forth,  and  dis- 
tributed to  them  rice  and  other  articles  procured  from  the  wrecked 
ships  of  mariners,  who  had  fallen  a  prey  to  her.  A  feast  follows, 
and  Wijayo  and  the  princess  retire  to  pass  the  night  in  an  apart- 
ment which  she  causes  to  spring  up  at  the  foot  of  a  tree,  cur- 
tained as  with  a  wall  and  fragrant  with  incense."  It  is  impos- 
sible not  to  be  struck  with  a  curious  resemblance  between  this 
description  and  that  in  the  10th  book  of  the  Odyssey,  where 
Eurylochus,  after  landing,  returns  to  Ulysses  to  recount  the 

1  Ei  iii]  fioi  T\(tlrie  yf,  &nr,  ^iyav  opKov  ofioaaai 

Mijri  fioi  aiiTtji  irjjfta  K<IKOV  €ov\fv0'ifitv  «XXo. —  Odys.  X.  1.  343. 


334  THE    SINGHALESE    CHKOXICLES.  [PARivIII. 

fate  of  his  companions,  who,  having  wandered  towards  the 
palace  of  Circe,  had  been  imprisoned  after  undergoing  trans- 
formation into  swine.  Ulysses  hastens  to  their  relief,  the  story 
proceeds : — 

'fly  <^>dr  eyco  S'  aop  o£v  spvaadpsvos  irapd  fjurjpov 
T£ipKr)STrr)i,%a  COOTS  tcrd/Asvai,  ijusvsaivwv.  K.  r.  \. 

"  She  spake,  I,  drawing  from  beside  my  thigh 
The  faulchion  keen,  with  death  denouncing  looks, 
Eush'd  on  her, — she,  with  a  shrill  scream  of  fear, 
And  in  winged  accents  plaintive  thus  began : — 
*  *  *  <  Sheath  again 

Thy  sword,  and  let  us  on  my  bed  recline.' 
The  goddess  spake,  to  whom  I  thus  replied : 
'  Oh  Circe,  canst  thou  bid  me  meek  become. 
And  gentle,  who  beneath  thy  roof  detain'st 
My  fellow- voyagers.  * 

No,  trust  me,  never  will  I  share  thy  bed, 
Till  first,  oh  goddess,  thou  consent  to  swear 
That  dread,  all-binding  oath,  that  other  harm 
Against  myself,  thou  wilt  imagine  none.' 
I  spake,  she,  swearing  as  I  bade,  renounced 
All  evil  purpose,  and  her  solemn  oath 
Concluded,  I  ascended  next  her  bed."  * 

The  story  of  Wijayo's  interview  with  Kuweni  is  told  in 
the  Mahawanso  in  nearly  the  same  terms  as  it  appeared  in  the 
Rajavali,  p.  172. 

Another  classical  coincidence  is  curious :  we  are  strongly 
reminded  of  Homer's  description  of  the  Syrens  by  the  following 
passage,  relative  to  the  female  Rakshasis,  or  demons,  by  whom 
Ceylon  was  originally  inhabited,  which  is  given  in  the  memoirs 
of  HIOUEN-THSANG,  the  Chinese  traveller  in  the  7th  century, 
as  extracted  by  him  from  the  Buddhist  Chronicles.  "Elles 
epiaient  constamment  les  marchands  qui  abordaient  dans  1'isle, 
et  se  changeant  en  femmes  d'une  grande  beaute  elles  venaient 
au-devant  d'eux  avec  des  fleurs  odorantes  et  au  son  des  instru- 
ments de  musique,  leur  adressaient  des  paroles  bienveillantes  et 
les  attiraient  dans  la  ville  de  fer.  Alors  elles  leur  offraient  un 
joyeux  festin  et  se  livraient  au  plaisir  avec  eux :  puis  elles  les 
enfermaient  dans  un  prison  de  fer  et  les  mangeaient  1'un  apres 
1'autre." 2 

1  COWPER'S  Odyssey,  B.  x.  p.  392. 

3  HIOUEN-THSANG,  Mem.  des  Pcler.  Bmidd.  L  xi.  p.  131. 


335 


CHAP.  HI. 


THE    CONQUEST^OF    CEYLON    BY    WIJAYO,   B.C.   543,   AND    THE 
ESTABLISHMENT   OF   BUDDHISM,    B.C.    307. 

THE  sacred  historians  of  Ceylon  affect  to  believe  in  the  B.C. 
assertion  of  some  mysterious  connection  between  the  543 
landing  of  Wijayo,  and  the  conversion  of  Ceylon  to  Bud- 
dhism, one  hundred  and  fifty  years  afterwards ;  and 
imply  that  the  first  event  was  but  a  pre-ordained  precur- 
sor of  the  second.1  The  Singhalese  narrative,  however, 
admits  that  Wijayo  was  but  a  "  lawless  adventurer," 
who  being  expelled  from  his  own  country,  was  refused 
a  settlement  on  the  coast  of  India  before  he  attempted 
Ceylon,  which  had  previously  attracted  the  attention  of 
other  adventurers.  This  story  is  in  no  way  inconsis- 
tent with  that  told  by  the  Chinese  Buddhists,  who 
visited  Ceylon  in  the  fifth  and  seventh  centuries.  FA 
HIAN  states,  that  even  before  the  advent  of  Buddha,  the 
island  was  the  resort  of  merchants,  who  repaired  there 
to  exchange  their  commodities  for  gems,  which  the 
"  demons "  and  "  serpents,"  who  never  appeared  in 
person,  deposited  on  the  shore,  with  a  specified  value 
attached  to  each,  and  in  lieu  of  them  the  strangers 
substituted  certain  indicated  articles,  and  took  their 
departure.2 

HIOUEN-THSANG,   at  a  later   period,    disposes   of   the 
fables   of   Wijayo's   descent  from  a   lion3,   and   of  his 


1  Mahaicamo,  ch.  vii. 

8  FA  HIAN,  Foe-Kone-ki,  ch. 
xxxviii.  See  a  notice  of  this  story 
of  FA  HiAJf,  as  it  applies  to  the  still 
existing  habits  of  the  Veddahs, 
Vol.  I.  Pt.  v.  ch.  ii.  p.  592,  &c. 


3  The  legend  of  Wijayo's  descent 
from  a  lion,  probably  originated  from 
his  father  being  the  son  of  an  outlaw 
named  "  Singha." 


336 


THE  SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  HI. 


B.C.    divine  mission  to  Ceylon,  by  intimating,  that,  according 

'   to   certain   authorities,  he  was  the  son  of  a  merchant 

(meaning   a   sea-faring    trader),   who,   having   appeased 

the  enmity  of  the  Yakkhos,  succeeded  by  his  discretion 

in  eventually  making  himself  their  king.1 

Whatever  may  have  been  his  first  intentions,  his  sub- 
sequent policy  was  rather  that  of  an  agriculturist  than 
an  apostle.  Finding  the  country  rich  and  fertile,  he 
invited  merchants  to  bring  their  families,  and  take  pos- 
session of  it.2  He  dispersed  his  followers  to  form 
settlements  over  the  island,  and  having  given  to  the 
kingdom  his  patrimonial  name  of  Sihala3,  he  addressed 
himself  to  render  his  dominions  "habitable  for  men."4 
He  treated  the  subjugated  race  of  Yakkhos  with  a  de- 
spotic disdain,  referable  less  to  pride  of  caste  than  to 
contempt  for  the  rude  habits  of  the  native  tribes.  He 
repudiated  the  Yakkho  princess  whom  he  had  espoused, 
because  her  unequal  rank  rendered  her  unfit  to  remain 
the  consort  of  a  king 5 ;  and  though  she  had  borne  him 
children,  he  drove  her  out  before  his  second  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  an  Indian  prince,  on  the 
ground  that  the  latter  would  be  too  timid  to  bear  the 
presence  of  a  being  so  inferior.6 

B.C.  Leaving  no  issue  to  inherit  the  throne,  he  was  suc- 
50^-  ceeded  by  his  nephew7,  who  selected  a  relation  of  Gotama 
Buddha  for  his  queen ;  and  her  brothers  having  dispersed 
themselves  over  the  island,  increased  the  number  of  petty 
kingdoms,  which  they  were  permitted  to  form  in  vari- 
ous districts8,  a  policy  that  was  freely  encouraged  by 
all  the  early  kings,  and  which,  though  it  served  to 


1  "  Suivant  certains  auteurs,  Seng- 
kia-lo  (Wijayo)  serait  le  nom  du 
fils  d'un  marchand,  qui,  par  sa  pru- 
dence, ayant  echappe  a  la  fureur  ho- 
micide des  Lo-tsa  (demons)  reussit 
ensuite  a  se  faire  Hoi." — HiotnEN 
THSA^G,  Voyages,  $c.  1.  iv.  p.  198. 

*  Hiorax  THSAXG,  ch.  iv. 

3  "Whence  Singhala  (and  Singha- 
lese) Silan,  Seylan,  and  Ceylon. 


4  Mahaicamo,  ch.  vii.  p.  49.   Ruja- 
ratnacari,  ch.  i. 

5  Mahawanso,  ch.  vii.  p.  51. 

6  Ibid.,  p.  52. 

7  B.C.  504. 

8  Mahawanso,  ch.  vii.  p.  51,  ix.  p. 
57;    Rajavali,  part  i.  p.   177,  186; 
and  TFRXOUB'S  Epitome,  p.  12,  14. 


CHAP.  III.]         CONQUEST   OF   CEYLON   BY    WIJAYO.  337 

accelerate   colonisation,  and  to  extend  the  knowledge  of    B-c- 
agriculture,  led  in  after  years  to  dissensions,  civil  war, 
and  disaster. 

It  was  at  this  period  that  Ceylon  was  resolved  into 
the  three  geographical  divisions,  that,  down  to  a 
very  late  period,  are  habitually  referred  to  by  the 
native  historians.  All  to  the  north  of  the  Maha- 
welli-ganga  was  comprised  in  the  denomination  Pihiti, 
or  the  Kaja-rafta,  from  its  containing  the  ancient  capital 
and  the  residence  of  royalty ;  south  of  this  was  Rohano 
or  Rohuna,  bounded  on  the  east  and  south  by  the  sea, 
and  by  the  Mahawelh-ganga  and  Kalu-ganga,  on  the  north 
and  west ;  a  portion  of  this  division  near  Tangalle  still 
retains  the  name  of  Boona.1  The  third  was  the  Maya- 
ratta,  which  lay  between  the  mountains,  the  two  great 
rivers  and  the  sea,  having  the  Dedera-oya  to  the  north, 
and  the  Kalu-ganga  as  its  southern  limit. 

The  patriarchal  village  system,  which  from  time  im- 
memorial has  been  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Dekkan,  and  which  still  prevails  throughout  Ceylon  in 
a  modified  form,  was  one  of  the  first  institutions 
organised  by  the  successors  of  Wijayo.  "They  fixed 
the  boundaries  of  every  village  throughout  Lanka;"2 
they  "caused  the  whole  island  to  be  divided  into  fields 
and  gardens ; " 3  and  so  uniformly  were  the  rites  of 
these  rural  municipalities  respected  in  after  times,  that 
one  of  the  Singhalese  inonarchs,  on  learning  that  merit 
attached  to  alms  given  from  the  fruit  of  the  donor's  own 
exertions,  undertook  to  sow  a  field  of  rice,  and  "from  the 


1  The  district  of  Rohuna  included  ;  trict   amongst    Mahometan   writers, 
the  mountain  zone  of  Ceylon,  and  |  and  in  the  Jiaja  Tarangini,  it  is  called 
hence    probably    its    name,    rokttno  j  "  Rohanam,"  b.  iii.  50.  7'2. 
meaning  the  "  act  or  instrument  of  I       2  It  was  established  by  Panduka- 
ascending,    as    steps    or  a  ladder."  1  bhaya,  A.D.  437. — Mahmr<mto,  ch.  x. 
Adam's  Peak  was  in  the  Maya  di-  !  p.  67,  Jtajarattiacari,  ch.  i. 
vision  ;  but  Edrisi,  who  wrote  in  the          3  Rajaratnacari,  ch.   ii.,  RajavaK, 
twelfth  century,  says,  that  it  was  then  I  b.  i.  p.  185.  For  the  scriptural  mean- 
railed  "El Rahoun.'" — Geographie,^'c.  \  ing  of  "  dividing  the  fields,"  seevoL 
viii.  JATTBERT'S  Trtmsl.  vol.  ii.  p.  71.     i.  p.  430.  n.  4. 
Ha hn  is  an  ordinary  name  for  the  dis-  ' 

VOL.   I.  Z 


338  THE    SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 

B.C.    portion  derived  by  him  as  the  cultivator's  share,"  to  be- 
'°4'    stow  an  offering  on  a  religious  mendicant. 1 

From  the  necessity  of  providing  food  for  their  fol- 
lowers, the  earliest  attention  of  the  Bengal  conquerors 
was  directed  to  the  introduction  and  extension  of  agri- 
culture. A  passage  in  the  Mahawanso  would  seem  to 
imply,  that  previous  to  the  landing  of  Wijayo,  rice  was 
imported  for  consumption2,  and  upwards  of  two  cen- 
turies later  the  same  authority  specifies  "one  hundred 
and  sixty  loads  of  hill-paddi,"3  among  the  presents  sent 
to  the  island  from  Bengal. 

In  a  low  and  level  country  like  the  north  of  Ceylon, 
where  the  chief  subsistence  of  the  people  is  rice,  a 
grain  that  can  only  be  successfully  cultivated  under 
water,  the  first  requisites  of  society  are  reservoirs  and 
canals.  The  Buddhist  historians  extol  the  father  of 
Wijayo  for  his  judgment  and  skill  "in  forming  villages 
in  situations  favourable  for  irrigation ;  "4  his  own  attention 
was  fully  engrossed  with  the  cares  attendant  on  the 
consolidation  of  his  newly  acquired  power ;  but  the 
earliest  public  work  undertaken  by  his  successor  Pan- 
B.C.  duwasa,  B.C.  504,  was  a  tank,  which  he  caused  to  be 
formed  in  the  vicinity  of  his  new  capital  Anarajapoora 
(the  Anurogrammum  of  Ptolemy),  originally  a  village 
founded  by  one  of  the  followers  of  Wijayo.5 


1  The  king  was  Mahachula,  77  B.C. 
— Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxiv. 

2  Kuweni  distributed  to  the  com- 
panions of  Wijayo,  "  rice  and  other 
articles,  procured  from  the  wrecked 
ships    of   mariners."       (Mahawanso, 
ch.  vii.  p.  49.)     A  tank  is  mentioned 
as  then  existing  near  the  residence  of 
Kuweni ;  but  it  was  only  to  be  used 
as  a  bath.     (Ib.  c.  vii.  p.  48. )     The 
Rajaratiwari  also  mentions  that,  in 
the  fabulous  age  of  the  second  Bud- 


istence  of  systematic  tillage  anterior 
to  the  reign  of  Wijayo. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xi.  p.  70.  Paddi 
is  rice  before  it  has  been  freed  from 
the  husk. 

4  Mahawanso,  ch.  vi.  p.  4(5. 

6  The  first  tank  recorded  in  Ceylon 
is  the  Abayaweva,  made  by  Pandu- 
wasa,  B.C.  '503  or  4  (MaJuiioanso,  ch. 
ix.  p.  57 ).  The  second  was  the  Jaya- 
weva,  formed  by  Pandukabhaya.  B.C. 
437.  (Ib.  ch.  x.  p.  Go.)  The  third 


dha,  of  the  present  Kalpa,  there  was  a     the  Uamini  tank,  made  by  the  same 


famine  in  Ceylon,  that  dried  up  the 
cisterns  and  fountains  of  the  island. 
But  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  ex- 


km<r  at  the  same  place,  Anarajapoora. 
—76.  ch.  x.  p.  0<;. 


CHAP,  in.]        CONQUEST   OF   CETLOX    BY   WIJAYO.  339 

The  continual  recurrence  of  records  of  similar  con-    B.c. 
structions    amongst   the   civil   exploits   of  nearly   every   307. 
succeeding    sovereign,    together    with    the    prodigious 
number  formed,  alike  attest  the   unimproved  condition 
of  Ceylon,  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  Bengal  invaders, 
and  the  indolence  or  ignorance  of  the  original  inhabitants, 
as   contrasted  with   the   energy  and   skill  of  their  first 
conquerors. 

Upwards  of  two  hundred  years  were  spent  in  initiatory  B.c. 
measures  for  the  organisation  of  the  new  state.  307- 
Colonists  from  the  continent  of  India  were  encouraged 
by  facilities  held  out  to  settlers,  and  carriage  roads 
were  formed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  towns.1  Village 
communities  were  duly  organised,  gardens  were  planted, 
flowers  and  fruit-bearing  trees  introduced2,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  food  secured  by  the  construction  of  canals3, 
and  other  public  works  for  irrigation.  Moreover,  the 
kings  and  petty  princes  attested  the  interest  which  they 
felt  in  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  by  giving  personal 
attention  to  the  formation  of  tanks  and  to  the  labours 
of  cultivation.4 

Meantime,  the  effects  of  Gotama  Buddha's  early  visits 
had  been  obliterated,  and  the  sacred  trees  which  he 
planted  were  dead ;  and  although  the  bulk  of  the  settlers 
had  come  from  countries  where  Buddhism  was  the  domi- 
nant faith,  no  measures  appear  to  have  been  taken  by  the 
Bengal  immigrants  to  revive  or  extend  it  throughout  • 
Ceylon.  Wijayo  was,  in  all  probability,  a  Brahman,  but 


1  3fahatcanso,  ch.  xiv.  xv.  xvi. 
s  Maharranso,  ch.  xi.  p.  60  (367 
B.C.),  ch.  xxxiv.  p.   211    (B.C.    20), 
ch.  xxxv.  p.  215  (A.D.  20).     Raja- 
ratnacari.  en.  ii.  p.  29.      Rajavali,  p. 
185.  227. 
3    Mahawanso,  ch.   xxxiv.  p.   210 
(B.C.   42),  ch.   xxxv.    p.    221,    222 
(A.D.  275),  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  238.     Raja- 
rat  nacari,  ch.  ii.  p.  49,  and  Rajavali, 
p.  223,  &c. 

z 

4  Mahawanso,  ch.  x.  p.  61,  xxii. 
p.  130,  xxiv.  p.  149.  Rajavali,  p.  185, 
186.    The  Buddhist  kings  of  Burmah, 
at  the  present  day,  in  imitation  of 
the  ancient   sovereigns    of    Ceylon, 
rest  their  highest  claims  to  renown 
on  the  number  of  works  for  irrigation 
which  they  have   either  formed  or 
repaired.      See    Ytik's   yarratii-r   of 
the  British  mission  to  Ava  M  1855, 
p.  106. 

2 

340  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 

j5.c.  so  indifferent  was  he  to  his  own  faith,  that  his  first  alliance 
307.  in  Ceylon  was  with  a  demon  worshipper.1  His  immediate 
successors  were  so  eager  to  encourage  immigration,  that 
they  treated  all  religions  with  a  perfect  equality  of  royal 
favour.  Yakkho  temples  were  not  only  respected,  but 
"  annual  demon  offerings  were  provided  "  for  them  ;  halls 
were  built  for  the  worshippers  of  Brahma,  and  residences 
provided  at  the  public  cost,  for  "  five  hundred  persons  of 
various  foreign  religious  faiths  ; " 2  but  no  mention  is  made 
in  the  Mahawanso  of  a  single  edifice  having  been  then 
raised  for  the  worshippers  of  Buddha,  whether  resident 
in  the  island,  or  arriving  amongst  the  colonists  from 
India. 

It  was  not  till  the  year  B.C.  307,  in  the  reign  of 
Tissa,  that  the  preacher  Mahindo  visited  Ceylon,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  king,  whom  he  succeeded  in  inducing 
to  abstain  from  Brahmanical  rites,  and  to  profess  faith 
in  the  doctrines  of  Gotama.  From  the  prominent  part 
thus  taken  by  Tissa  in  establishing  the  national  faith  of 
Ceylon,  the  sacred  writers  honour  his  name  with  the 
prefix  of  Dewdnan-pia,  or  "  beloved  of  the  saints." 

The  Mahawanso  exhausts  the  vocabulary  of  ecstacy 
in  describing  the  advent  of  Mahindo,  a  prince  of 
Magadha,  and  a  lineal  descendant  of  Chandragupta. 
It  records  the  visions  by  which  he  was  divinely 
directed  to  "  depart  on  his  mission  for  the  conversion 
of  Lanka  ; "  it  describes  his  aerial  flight,  and  his  descent 
on  Ambatthalo,  the  loftiest  peak  of  Mihintala,  the  moun- 
tain which,  rising  suddenly  from  the  plain,  overlooks 
the  sacred  city  of  Anarajapoora.  The  story  proceeds  to 


1  According    to    the   Mahawanso,  ':  insanity,  as  a  punishment  in  his  person 

Vishnu,  in  order  to  protect  Wijayo  i  of  the  crime  of  perjury,  committed  by 

and  his  followers  from  the  sorceries  I  his  predecessor  Wijayo,  Iswara  wa's 

of  the  Yakkhos,  met  them  on  their  supplicated  to  interpose,  and  by  his 

landing  in  Ceylon,  and  "  tied  threads  \  mediation  the  king  was  restored  to 

on  their  anm,h  ch.  vii. ;  and  at  a  later  i  his  right  mind. — Rajavali,  p.  181. 
period,  when  the  king  Panduwasa,  '       2  Mahawanso,   ch.  x.   p.    67  ;    ch. 

B.C.  504,  was  afflicted  with  temporary  xxxiii.  p.  203. 


CHAP.  III.]       CONQUEST    OF   CEYLON    BY    WIJAYO.  341 

explain,  how  the  king,  who  was  limiting  the  elk,  was    B.C: 
miraculously  allured   by  the  fleeing  game  to  approach    307- 
the   spot  where   Mahindo  was   seated l ;    and  .  how  the 
latter  forthwith  propounded  the  Divine  doctrine  "  to  the 
ruler  of  the  land ;  who,  at  the  conclusion  of  his  discourse, 
together  with  his  forty  thousand  followers,  obtained  the 
salvation  of  the  faith."  2 

Then  follows  the  approach  of  Mahindo  to  the  capital ; 
the  conversion  of  the  queen  and  her  attendants,  and 
the  reception  of  Buddhism  by  the  nation,  under  the 
preaching  of  its  great  Apostle,  who  "  thus  became  the 
luminary  that  shed  the  light  of  religion  over  the 
land."  He  and  his  sister  Sanghamitta  thenceforth  de- 
voted their  lives  to  the  organisation  of  Buddhist  com- 
munities throughout  Ceylon,  and  died  in  the  odour  of 
sanctity,  in  the  reign  of  King  Uttiya,  B.C.  267. 

But   the   grand   achievement    that    consummated  the 
establishment    of    the    national    faith,   was   the   arrival    B.C. 
from  Magadha  of  a  branch  of  the  sacred  Bo-tree.     Every   289- 
ancient  race  has  had  its  sacred  tree  ;  the  Chaldeans,  the 
Hebrews  3,  the  Greeks,  the  Romans  and  the  Druids,  had 
each  their  groves,  their  elms  and  their  oaks,  under  which 
to  worship.     Like  them,  the  Brahmans  have  their  Kalpa 


1  The  story,  as  related  in  the  j  the  elk  fled  to  the  mountain.  The 
Mahaivanso,  tears  a  resemblance  to  I  king  gave  chase  to  the  flying  animal, 
the  legend  of  St.  Hubert  and  the  |  and,  on  reaching  the  spot  where  the 
stag,  in  the  forest  of  Ardennes,  and  priests  were,  the  thero  Mahindo  came 


to  that  of  St.  Eustace,  who,  when 
hunting,  was  led  by  a  deer  of  singular 
beauty  towards  a  rock,  where  it  dis- 
played to  him  the  crucifix  upon  its 


within  sight  cf  the  monarch  ;  but  the 
metamorphosed  deer  vanished." — 
Mahawanso,  c.  xiv.  The  device  of 
the  flying  deer,  is  by  no  means  an 


forehead ;  whence  an  appeal  was  ad-  j  infrequent  one  in  the  poetry  of  the 

dressed  which  effected  his  conversion,  j  East :  it  occurs   in  the  Hamai/ana  ; 

"  The    king    Dewananpiyatissa    de-  where  Rama  is  allured  to  a  distance 

parted  for  an  elk  hunt,  taking  with  I  by  a  demon  under  the  form  of  a  deer, 

him  a  retinue  ;  and  in  the  course  of  j  whilst  Ravana  approaches  the  dwell- 

the  pursuit  of  the  game  on  foot,  he  |  ing  of  Sita  and  carries  her  off', 

came    to    the    Missa  mountain.     A  j       *  Mahawanso,  ch.  xiv.  p.  80. 

certain  devo,  assuming  the  form  of  an  (       3  "  They  sacrifice  upon  the  tops  of 

elk,  stationed  himself  there,  grazing ;  mountains,  and  burn  incense  under 

the  sovereign  descried  him,  and  say-  oaks,  and  poplars,  and  elms,  because 

ing  '  it  is  not  fair  to  shoot  him  stand-  the  shadow  thereof  is  good." — Hosea, 

ing,'  sounded  his  bowstring,  on  which  iv.  18. 

z  3 


342 


THE   SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B.C.  tree  in  Paradise,  and  the  Banyan  in  the  vicinity  of  their 
289>.  temples ;  and  the  Buddhists,  in  conformity  with  imme- 
morial practice,  selected  as  their  sacred  tree  the  Pippul, 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the  Banyan,  yet  sufficiently 
distinguished  from  it,  to  serve  as  the  emblem  of  a  new 
and  peculiar  worship.1  It  was.  whilst  reclining  under 
the  shade  of  this  tree  in  Uruwela,  that  Gotama  received 
Buddhahood;  hence  its  adoption  as  an  object  of  reverence 
by  his  followers,  and  in  all  probability  its  adoration  pre- 
ceded the  use  of  images  and  temples  in  Ceylon.2 

In  order  that  his  kingdom  might  possess  a  sacred 
tree  of  the  supremest  sanctity,  king  Tissa  solicited  a 
branch  of  the  identical  tree  under  which  Gotama  re- 
clined, from  Asoka,  who  then  reigned  in  Magadha.  The 
difficulty  of  severing  a  portion  without  the  sacrilegious 
offence  of  "  lopping  it  with  any  weapon,"  was  overcome 
by  the  miracle  of  the  branch  detaching  itself  sponta- 
neously, and  descending  with  its  roots  into  the  fragrant 
earth  prepared  for  it  in  a  golden  vase,  in  which  it  was 
transported  by  sea  to  Ceylon 3,  and  planted  by  king 


1  The  Bo-tree  (Ficus  religiosd)  is 
the  "  pippul "  of  India.  It  differs 
from  the  Banyan  (F.  indicd),  by 
sending  down  no  roots  from  its 
branches.  Its  heart-shaped  leaves, 
with  long  attenuated  points,  are  at- 
tached to  the  stem  by  so  slender  a 
stalk,  that  they  appear  in  the  pro- 
foundest  calm  to  be  ever  in  motion, 
and  thus,  like  the  leaves  of  the  aspen, 
which,  from  the  tradition  that  the 
cross  was  made  of  that  wood,  the 
Syrians  believe  to  tremble  in  recol- 
lection of  the  events  of  the  crucifixion, 
those  of  the  Bo-tree  are  supposed 
by  the  Buddhists  to  exhibit  a  tremu- 
lous veneration,  associated  with  the 
sacred  scene  of  which  they  were  the 


2  Previous  Buddhas  had  each  his 
Bo-tree  or  Buddha-tree.  The  pip- 
pul had  been  before  assumed  by  the 
first  recorded  Buddha  ;  others  had  the 
iron-tree,  the  champac,  the  nipa,  &c. 


— Mahawamo,  TUHNOTTR'S  Introd.  p. 
xxxii. 

3  The  ceremonial  of  the  mysterious 
severance  of  the  sacred  branch  "  amid 
the  din  of  music,  the  clamours  of 
men,  the  howling  of  the  elements,  the 
roar  of  animals,  the  screams  of  birds, 
the  yells  of  demons,  and  the  crash  of 
earthquakes,"  is  minutely  described 
in  an  elaborate  passage  of  the  Maha- 
wanso.  And  its  landing  in  Ceylon, 
the  retinue  of  its  attendants,  the  ho- 
mage paid  to  it,  its  progress  to  the 
capital,  its  arrival  at  the  Northem- 
gate  "  at  the  hour  when  shadows  are 
most  extended,"  its  reception  by 
princes  "  adorned  with  the  insignja 
of  royalty,"  and  its  final  deposition  in 
the  earth,  under  the  auspices  of  Ma- 
hindo  and  his  sister  Sanghamitta, 
form  one  of  the  most  striking  epi- 
sodes in  that  very  singular  book. — 
Mahawamo,  ch.  xviii.  xix. 


CHAP.  III.]        CONQUEST    OF    CEYLOtf    BY    W1JAYO. 


343 


Tissa    in   the   spot   at   Anarajapoora,   where,   after   the    B.C. 
lapse  of   more  than   2000   years,   it  still   continues   to   289- 
flourish   and  to  receive  the  profound  veneration  of  all 
Buddhist  nations.1 


TBE  BO-TREE  AT 


1  The  planting  of  the  Bo-tree  took  i  288 ;  it  is  consequently  at  the  present 

__      •          J.-I    _          •      -|_j       __    jl        __  .      _f*     1 1     _  -•      __     c\1   4*7 -1  J        * 


place  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the 
reign   of    King  Devenipiatissa,   B.C. 


time  2147  years  old. 


344  THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 

CHAP.    IV. 
THE    EAKLY    BUDDHIST   MONUMENTS. 

B.C.    ALMOST    simultaneously  with   the   establishment  of  the 
289.   Buddhist  religion  was  commenced  the  erection  of  those 
stupendous  ecclesiastical  structures,  the  number  and  mag- 
nitude of  whose  remains  form  a  remarkable  characteristic 
in  the  present  aspect  of  the  country. 

The  architectural  history  of  continental  India  dates 
from  the  third  century  before  Christ ;  not  a  single  build- 
ing or  sculptured  stone  having  as  yet  been  discovered 
there,  of  an  age  anterior  to  the  reign  of  Asoka1,  who 
was  the  first  of  his  dynasty  to  abandon  the  religion  of 
Brahma  for  that  of  Buddha.  In  like  manner  the  earliest 
existing  monuments  of  Ceylon  belong  to  the  same  period ; 
they  owe  their  construction  to  Devenipiatissa,  and  the 
historical  annals  of  the  island  record  with  pious  gratitude 
the  series  of  dagobas,  wiharas,  and  temples  erected  by 
him  and  his  successors. 

Of  these  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Dagobas,  piles 
of  brickwork  of  dimensions  so  extraordinary  that  they 
suggest  comparison  with  the  pyramids  of  Memphis 2,  the 
barrow  of  Halyattys 3,  or  the  mounds  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates. 


1  FERGTJSSOX,  Handbook  of  Archi- 
tecture, b.  i.  c.  i.  p.  5. 

2  So  vast  did  the  dagobas  appear 
to  the  Singhalese  that  the  author  of 
the   Mahawanso,   in   describing    the 
construction  of  that  called  the  Ruan- 


The  shape  of  one  of  the  domes,  its 
apparent  size,  the  small  tower  on  the 
summit,  the  trees  growing  on  the 
sides,  the  appearance  of  masonry 
here  and  there,  the  shape  of  the 
ornaments,  and  the  small  doorway  at 


welle  at  Anarajapoora,  states  that  j  the  base,  are  so  exactly  similar  to 
each  of  the  lower  courses  contained  I  what  I  had  seen  at  Anarajapoora 
ten  kotis  (a  koti  being  equal  to  100  that  when  my  eyes  first  fell  on  the 


lacs)  or  10,000,000  bricks.  —  Maha- 
wanso, ch.  xxx.  p.  179. 

3  "  The  ancient  edifices  of  Chi-Chen 
in  Central  America  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  the  topes  of  India. 


engravings  of  these  remarkable  ruins 
I  supposed  that  they  were  presented 
in  illustration  of  the  dagobas  of  Cey- 
lon."— HARDY'S  Eastern  Monachiim, 
c.  xix.  p.  222. 


CHAP.  IV.]         THE    EAELY   BUDDHIST   MONUMENTS. 


345 


A  dagoba  (from  datu,  a  relic,  and  gabbhan,  a  shrine1)    B.C. 
is  a  monument  raised  to  preserve  one  of  the  relics  of  289' 
Gotama,  which  were   collected   after  the   cremation  of 
his  body  at  Kusinara,  and  it  is  candidly  admitted  in  the 
Mahawanso  that  the  intention  in  erecting  them  was  to 
provide  "  objects  to  which  offerings  could  be  made."  2 

Ceylon  contains  but  one  class  of  these  structures, 
and  boasts  no  tall  monolithic  pillars  like  the  lats  of 
Delhi  and  Aflanabad,  and  no  regularly  built  columns 
similar  to  the  minars  of  Cabul ;  but  the  fragments  of  the 
bones  of  Gotama,  and  locks  of  his  hair,  are  enclosed  in 
enormous  masses  of  hemispherical  masonry,  modifica- 
tions of  which  may  be  traced  in  every  Buddhist  country 
of  Asia,  in  the  topes  of  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjaub, 
in  the  pagodas  of  Pegu,  and  in  the  Boro-Buddor  of 
Java.  Those  of  Ceylon  consist  of  a  bell-shaped  dome  of 
brick-work  surmounted  by  a  terminal  or  tee  (generally  in 
the  form  of  a  cube  supporting  a  pointed  spire),  and 
resting  on  a  square  platform  approached  by  flights  of 


* 


A  SMALL  DAGOBA  A 


stone  steps.     Those,  the  ruins  of  which  have  been  explored 
in  modern  times,  have  been  found  to  be  almost  solid,  en- 


1  Deha,  "the  body,"  and  gopa, 
"  what  preserves;  "  because  they  en- 
shrine hair,  teeth,  nails,  &c.  of  Buddha. 


— WILSON'S  Asiat.   Res.   vol.    xvii. 
p.  605. 

~  Mahuiranso,  ch.  xvii.  p.  104. 


346 


THE   SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B.C. 

289. 


closing  a  hollow  vessel  of  inetal  or  stone  that  had  once 
contained  the  relic,  but  of  which  the  ornament  alone  and 
a  few  gems  or  discoloured  pearls  set  in  gold,  are  usually 
all  that  is  now  discoverable. 

Their  outline  exhibits  but  little  of  ingenuity  or  of 
art,  and  their  construction  is  only  remarkable  for  the 
vast  amount  of  labour  which  must  necessarily  have 
been  lavished  upon  them.  But,  independently  of  this, 
the  first  dagoba  erected  at  Anarajapoora,  the  Thupa- 
ramaya,  which  exists  to  the  present  day,  "  as  nearly  as 
may  be  in  the  same  form  in  which  it  was  originally 
designed,  is  possessed  of  a  peculiar  interest  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  in  all  probability  the  oldest  architectural 
monument  now  extant  in  India." 1  It  was  raised  by 
King  Tissa,  at  the  close  of  the  third  century  before 
Christ,  over  the  collar-bone  of  Buddha,  which  Mahindo 
had  procured  for  the  king.2  In  dimensions  this  monu- 
ment is  inferior  to  those  built  at  a  later  period  by  the 
successors  of  Tissa,  some  of  which  are  scarcely  exceeded 
in  diameter  and  altitude  by  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's3  ;  but 
in  elegance  of  outline  it  immeasurably  surpassed  all  the 
other  dagobas,  and  the  beauty  of  its  design  is  still  percep- 
tible in  its  ruins  after  the  lapse  of  two  thousand  years. 

The  king,  in  addition  to  this,  built  a  number  of  others 
in  various  parts  of  Ceylon4,  and  his  name  has  been  per- 
petuated as  the  founder  of  temples,  for  the  rites  of  the 
new  religion,  and  of  Wiharas  or  monasteries  for  the  resi- 
dence of  its  priesthood.  The  former  were  of  the  simplest 
design,  for  an  atheistical  system,  which  substitutes  medi- 
tation for  worship,  dispenses  with  splendour  in  its  edifices 
and  pomp  in  its  ceremonial. 


1  FERGUSSON'S  Handbook  of  Archi- 
tecture, b.  i.  c.  iii.  p.  43. 

2  Mahawanso,  en.  xvii.  The  Raja- 
vali  calls  it  the  jaw-bone,  p.  184. 

3  The  Abhayagiri  dagoba  at  Anara- 
japoora, built  B.C.  89,  was  originally 
180  cubits  high,  which,  taking  the 
Ceylon    cubit    at  2   feet   3  inches, 
would  be  equal   to   405  feet.     The 


dome  was  hemispherical,  and  describ- 
ed with  a  radius  of  180  feet,  giving  a 
circumference  of  1130  feet.  The 
summit  of  this  stupendous  work  was 
therefore  fifty  feet  higher  than  St. 
Paul's,  and  fifty  feet  lower  than  St 
Peter's.  See  vol.  ii.  p.  x.  c.  ii.  p.  622. 
4  TuaNOTO's  Epitome,  p.  15. 


CHAP.  IV.]          THE    EARLY   BUDDHIST    MONUMENTS.  347 

The  images  of  Gotama,  which  in  time  became  objects    B-c- 
of  veneration,  were  but  a  late  innovation 1,  and  a  doubt    " 
has  even  been  expressed  whether  the  religion  of  Buddha 
in  its  primitive  constitution,  rejecting  as  it  does  the  doc- 
trine of  a  mediatorial  priesthood,  contemplated  the  exist- 
ence of  any  organised  ministry. 

Caves,  or  insulated  apartments  in  imitation  of  their 
gloom  and  retirement,  were  in  all  probability  the  first 
resort  of  devotees  in  Ceylon,  and  hence  amongst  the 
deeds  of  King  Tissa,  the  most  conspicuous  and  munifi- 
cent were  the  construction  of  rock  temples,  on  Mihintala, 
and  of  apartments  for  the  priests  in  all  parts  of  his 
dominions.2 

The  directions  of  Gotama  as  to  the  residence  of  his 
votaries  are  characterised  by  the  severest  simplicity,  and 
the  term  "  pansala,"  literally  "  a  dwelling  of  leaves,"3  by 
which  the  house  of  a  priest  is  described  to  the  present 
day,  serves  to  illustrate  the  original  intention  that  persons 
dedicated  to  his  service  should  cultivate  solitude  and 
meditation  by  withdrawing  into  the  forest,  but  this  was 
to  be  within  such  a  convenient  distance  as  would  not 
estrange  them  from  the  villagers,  on  whose  bounty  and 
alms  they  were  to  be  dependent  for  subsistence. 

In  one  of  the  rock  inscriptions  deciphered  by  Prinsep, 
King  Asoka,  in  addressing  himself  to  his  Buddhist 
subjects,  distinguishes  them  as  "  ascetics  and  house- 
holders" In  the  sacred  books  a  laic  is  called  a  "  graha 
pah,"  meaning  "  the  ruler  of  a  house  ; "  and  in  contra- 
distinction Fa  Hian,  the  Chinese  Buddhist,  speaks  of  the 
priests  of  Ceylon  under  the  designation  of  "  the  house- 


1  The  precise  date  of  their  intro-  \  were  Buddhists  or  Brahmans ;  but 
duction  is  unknown,  but  the  first  j  the  account  which  he  gives  of  the 
mention  of  a  statue  occurs  in  an  in-  class  of  them  whom  he  styles  the 


scription  on  the  rock  at  Mihintala, 
bearing  date  A.D.  246,  and  referring 


Hylobii,  would  seem  to  identify  them 
with  the   Sramanas    of   Buddhism, 


to    the    house    constructed    over    a  "passing  their  lives  in  the  woods, 

figure  of  Buddha.  |  fwi/rec  tv  rats  vAaTe,  living  on  fruits 

2  TtrBNotra's  Epitome,  p.  15.  i  and  seeds,  and  clothed  with  the  bark 

3  It  is  questionable  whether  the  i  of    trees." — MEGASTHENES'    Itidica, 
Sarmanai,  mentioned  by  Megasthenes,  j  &c.,  Fragm.  xlii. 


348 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B.C.  less,"  to  mark  their  abandonment  of  social  enjoyments.1 
Anticipating  the  probable  necessity  of  their  eventually 
resorting  to  houses  for  accommodation,  Buddha  directed 
that,  if  built  for  an  individual,  the  internal  measurement 
of  a  cell  should  be  twelve  spans  in  length  by  seven  in 
breadth2;  and,  if  restricted  to  such  dimensions,  the  asser- 
tions of  the  Singhalese  chronicles  become  intelligible  as 
to  the  prodigious  number  of  such  dwellings  said  to  have 
been  raised  by  the  early  kings.3 

But  the  multitudes  who  were  thus  attracted  to  a  life 
of  indolent  devotion  became  in  a  short  time  so  excessive 
that  recourse  was  had  to  other  devices  for  combining 
economy  with  accommodation,  and  groups  of  such  cells 
were  gradually  formed  into  wiharas  and  monasteries, 
the  inmates  of  which  have  uniformly  preserved  their 
organisation  and  order.  Still  the  edifices  thus  con- 
structed have  never  exhibited  any  tendency  to  depart 
from  the  primitive  simplicity  so  strongly  enjoined  by 
their  founder ;  and,  down  to  the  present  time,  the  homes 
of  the  Buddhist  priesthood  are  modest  and  humble  struc- 
tures generally  reared  of  mud  and  thatch,  with  no  pre- 
tension to  external  beauty  and  no  attempt  at  internal 
decoration. 

To  supply  to  the  ascetics  the  means  of  seclusion  and 
exercise,  the  early  kings  commenced  the  erection  of 
ambulance-halls  ;  and  gardens  were  set  apart  for  the 
use  of  the  great  temple  communities.  The  Mahawanso 
describes,  with  all  the  pomp  of  oriental  diction,  the 
ceremony  observed  by  King  Tissa  on  the  occasion 
of  setting  apart  a  portion  of  ground  as  a  site  for  the 
first  wihara  at  his  capital  ;  the  monarch  in  person, 
attended  by  standard  bearers  and  guards  with  golden 
staves,  having  come  to  mark  out  the  boundary  with 


1  "  Lea  hommes  hors  de  leur  mai- 
sons."  —  FA  HIAN,  Foe-koue-ki,  ch. 
xxxix.  This  is  the  equivalent  of 
the  Singhalese  term  for  the  same 
class,  affarii/an-piMajito,  used  in  the 
Pittakas. 


2  UAKDT'S     Eastern    Monachism, 
ch.  xiii.  p.  122. 

3  The     Rajaratnacari    says     that 
Devenipiatissa     caused     eighty-four 
thousand  temples  to  be  built  during' 
his  reign,  p.  36. 


CHAP.  IV.]        THE   EARLY   BUDDHIST   MONUMENTS.  349 

a  plough   drawn   by   elephants.1     A   second   monastery    B.C. 
was  erected   by  him  on  the  summit  of  Mihintala2;    a   289- 
third  was  attached  to  the  dagoba  of  the  Thuparamaya, 
and  others  were  rapidly  founded  in  every  quarter  of  the 
island.3 

It  was  in  all  probability  owing  to  the  growth  of  these 
institutions,  and  the  establishment  of  colleges  in  con- 
nection with  them,  that  halls  were  eventually  appro- 
priated for  the'lkception  of  statues ;  and  that  apartments 
so  consecrated  were  devoted  to  the  ceremonies  and 
worship  of  Buddha.  Hence,  at  a  very  early  period, 
the  dwellings  of  the  priests  were  identified  with  the 
chaityas  and  sacred  edifices,  and  the  name  of  the  Wihara 
came  to  designate  indifferently  both  the  temple  and  the 
monastery. 

But  the  hall  which  contains  the  figures  of  Buddha, 
and  which  constitutes  the  "  temple  "  proper,  is  always 
detached  from  the  domestic  buildings,  and  is  frequently 
placed  on  an  eminence  from  which  the  view  is  com- 
manding. The  interior  is  painted  in  the  style  of  Egyptian 
chambers,  and  is  filled  with  figures  and  illustrations  of 
the  legends  of  Gotama,  whose  statue,  with  hand  uplifted 
in  the  attitude  of  admonition,  or  reclining  in  repose 
emblematic  of  the  blissful  state  of  Mrwana,  is  placed  in 
the  d  mniest  recess  of  the  edifice.  Here  lamps  cast  a 
feeble  light,  and  the  air  is  heavy  with  the  perfume  of 
flowers,  which  are  daily  renewed  by  fresh  offerings  from 
the  worshippers  at  the  shrines. 

In  no  other  system  of  idolatry,  ancient  or  modern, 
have  the  rites  been  administered  by  such  a  multitude 
of  priests  as  assist  in  the  passionless  ceremonial  of 


1  Mahawatiso,  ch.  xv.  p.  99.  \  Rohuna  and  Mahagam  were  equally 

2  Mahawamo,  ch.  xx.  p.  123.  xcalous  in  their  devout  labours,  the 

3  Five  hundred  were  built  by  one  j  one   having  erected    sixty-four  wi- 
king  alone,  the  third  in  succession  j  haras  in  the  east  of  the  island,  and 
from  Devenipiatissa,  B.C.  246  {Ma-     the  other  sixty-eight  in  the  south.  — 
hau-anso,   ch.   xxi.  p.   127).      About     Mahawanso,  ch.  xxiv.  p.  145,  148. 
the  same  period  the  petty  chiefs  of  j 


350 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


Buddhism.  Fa  Hian,  in  the  fourth  century,  was  assured 
-fay  f^e  peOple  Of  Ceylon  that  at  that  period  the  priests 
numbered  between  fifty  and  sixty  thousand,  of  whom  two 
thousand  were  attached  to  one  wihara  at  Anarajapoora, 
and  three  thousand  to  another.1 

As  the  vow  which  devotes  the  priests  of  Buddha  to 
religion  binds  them  at  the  same  time  to  a  life  of  poverty 
and  mendicancy,  the  extension  of  the  faith  entailed  in 
great  part  on  the  crown  the  duty  of  supporting  the  vast 
crowds  who  withdrew  themselves  from  industry  to  em- 
brace devotion  and  indigence.  They  were  provided  with 
food  by  the  royal  bounty,  and  hence  the  historical  books 
make  perpetual  reference  to  the  priests  "going  to  the 
king's  house  to  eat," 2  when  the  monarch  himself  set  the 
example  to  his  subjects  of  "  serving  them  with  rice 
broth,  cakes,  and  dressed  rice."  3  Eice  in  all  its  varieties 
is  the  diet  described  in  the  Mahawanso  as  being  pro- 
vided for  the  priesthood  by  the  munificence  of  the 
kings ;  "  rice  prepared  with  sugar  and  honey,  rice  with 
clarified  butter,  and  rice  in  its  ordinary  form."4  In 
addition  to  the  enjoyment  of  a  life  of  idleness,  another 
powerful  incentive  conspired  to  swell  the  numbers  of 
these  devotees.  The  followers  and  successors  of  Wijayo 


1  FA  HlAN,  Foe-kow-ki,  ch. 
xxxviii.  p.  336,  350.  At  the  present 
day  the  numher  in  the  whole  island 
does  not  probably  exceed  2500 
(HARDY'S  Eastern  Monachism,  p.  57, 
309).  But  this  is  far  below  the  pro- 
portion of  the  Buddhist  priesthood 
in  other  countries  ;  in  Siam  nearly 
every  adult  male  becomes  a  priest 
for  a  certain  portion  of  his  life;  a 
similar  practice  prevails  in  Ava ;  and 
in  Burmah  so  common  is  it  to  assume 
the  yellow  robe,  that  the  popular 
expedient  for  effecting  divorce  is  for 
the  parties  to  make  a  profession  of 
the  priesthood,  the  ceremonial  of 
which  is  sufficient  to  dissolve  the 
marriage  vow,  and  after  an  interval  of 
a  few  months,  the  individual  can 


throw   off  the  yellow  robe  and  is 
then  at  liberty  to  marry  again. 

3  Rajavali,i>.189.  HiouenThsang, 
the  Chinese  pilgrim,  describing  Ana- 
rajapoora in  the  seventh  century, 
says :  "  A  cot6  du  palais  du  roi,  on 
a  construit  une  vaste  cuisine  ou  1'on 
prepare  chaque  jour  des  aliments 
pour  dix-huit  mille  religieux.  A 
1'heure  de  repas,  les  religieux  vien- 
nent,  un  pot  «a  la  main,  pour  recevoir 
leur  nourriture.  Apres  1'avoir  ob- 
tenue  ils  s'en  retournent  chacun  dans 
leur  chambre." — HIOTJETT  THSANG, 
Transl.  M.  JULIEN,  lib.  xi.  torn.  ii. 
p.  143. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xiv.  p.  82. 

4  Mahawanso,   ch.    xxxii. ;    Raja- 
ratnacari,  ch.  i.  p.  37,  ch.  ii.  p.  56, 
60,  62. 


CHAP.  IV.]        THE   EARLY    BUDDHIST   MONUMENTS. 


351 


preserved  intact  the  institution  of  caste,  which  they  had 
brought  with  them  from  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  ;  and, 
although  caste  was  not  abolished  by  the  teachers  of  Bud- 
dhism, who  retained  and  respected  it  as  a  social  institution, 
it  was  practically  annulled  and  absorbed  in  the  religious 
character  ; — all  who  embraced  the  ascetic  life  being  si- 
multaneously absolved  from  all  conventional  disabilities, 
and  received  as  members  of  the  sacred  community  with 
all  its  exalted  prerogatives.1 

Along  with  food,  clothing  consisting  of  three  garments 
to  complete  the  sacerdotal  robes,  as  enjoined  by  the 
Buddhist  ritual2,  was  distributed  at  certain  seasons  ;  and 
in  later  times  a  practice  obtained  of  providing  robes  for 
the  priests  by  "  causing  the  cotton  to  be  picked  from 
the  tree  at  sunrise,  cleaned,  spun,  woven,  dyed  yeUow, 
and  made  into  garments  and  presented  before  sunset."3 
The  condition  of  the  priesthood  was  thus  reduced  to  a 
state  of  absolute  dependency  on  alms,  and  at  the  earliest 
period  of  their  history  the  vow  of  poverty,  by  which 
their  order  is  bound,  would  seem  to  have  been  righteously 
observed. 


B.C. 

289. 


1  Professor  WILSON,  Journ.  Roy. 
Asiat.  Soc.  vol.  xvi.  p.  249. 

2  To  avoid  the  vanity  of  dress  or 
the  temptation  to  acquire  property, 
no  Buddhist  priest  is  allowed  to  have 
more  than  one  set  of  robes,  consist- 
ing of  three  pieces,  and  if  an  extra 
one  be  bestowed  on  him  it  must  be 
surrendered   to   the   chapter   of  his 
wihara  within  ten  days.    The  dimen- 
sions must  not   exceed  a  specified 
length,  and  when  obtained  new  the 
cloth  must  be  disfigured  with  mud  or 
otherwise  before  he  puts  it  on.     A 
magnificent  robe  having  been  given 
to  Gotama,  his  attendant  Ananda,  in 
order  to  destroy  its  intrinsic  value, 
cut  it  into  thirty  pieces  and  sewed 
them  together  in  four  divisions,  so 
that  the  robe  resembled  the  patches 
of  a  rice-field  divided  by  embank- 
ments.   And  in  conformity  with  this 
precedent  the  robes  of  every  priest 
are  similarly  dissected  and  reunited. 
—  HARDY'S   Eastern  Monachism,   c. 
xii.    p.   117  :    Rnjaratnacari,   ch.  ii. 

no.  pp.  w. 


3  Rajaratnacari,  pp.  104,  109,  112. 
The  custom  which  is  still  observed 
in  Ceylon,  of  weaving  robes  between 
sunrise  and  sunset  is  called  Catina 
dhwana  (Rajavali,  p.  261).  The  work 
is  performed  chieny  by  women,  and 
the  practice  is  identical  with  that 
mentioned  by  Herodotus,  as  observed 
by  the  priests  of  Egypt,  who  cele- 
brated a  festival  in  honour  of  the 
return  of  Rhampsinitus,  after  playing 
at  dice  with  Ceres  in  Hades,  by  in- 
vesting one  of  their  body  with  a  cloak 
made  in  a  single  day,  <pap0£  avr^t^v 
iZwfiiivavTie,  Euterpe,  cxxii.  GRAY, 
in  his  ode  of  The  Fatal  Sisters,  has 
embodied  the  Scandinavian  myth  in 
which  the  twelve  weird  sisters,  the 
Valkirinr,  weave  "the  crimson  web 
of  war  "  between  the  rising  and  set- 
ting of  the  sun.  Amongst  the  Budd- 
hists in  Burmah  the  same  practice 
prevails,  and  there  the  weaving  of  the 
robe  is  called  matho  thengan.  See 
BRIGGS'  Heathen  and  Holy  Lands,  p. 
92  :  see  also  post,  p.  452. 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 


CHAP.   V. 

SINGHALESE   CHIVALRY. ELALA   AND    DUTUGAIMUNU. 

B.C.  FOR  nearly  a  century  after  the  accession  of  Devenipia- 
289-  tissa,  the  religion  and  the  social  development  of  Ceylon 
thus  exhibited  an  equally  steady  advancement.  The 
B.C.  cousins  of  the  king,  three  of  whom  ascended  the  throne 
266-  in  succession,  seem  to  have  vied  with  each  other  in 
works  of  piety  and  utility.  Wiharas  were  built  in  all 
parts  of  the  island,  both  north  and  south  of  the  Maha- 
welli-ganga.  Dagobas  were  raised  in  various  places, 
and  cultivation  was  urged  forward  by  the  formation 
of  tanks  and  canals.  But,  during  this  period,  from 
the  fact  of  the  Bengal  immigrants  being  employed  in 
more  congenial  or  more  profitable  occupations  (pos- 
sibly also  from  the  numbers  who  were  annually  devoting 
themselves  to  the  service  of  the  temples),  and  from 
the  ascertained  inaptitude  of  the  native  Singhalese  to 
bear  arms,  a  practice  was  commenced  of  retaining 
foreign  mercenaries,  which,  even  at  that  early  period, 
was  productive  of  animosity  and  bloodshed,  and  in 
process  of  time  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Wijayan 
dynasty  and  the  gradual  decay  of  the  Sinhala  sovereignty. 
The  genius  of  the  Gangetic  race,  which  had  taken 
possession  of  Ceylon,  was  essentially  adapted  to  agricul- 
tural pursuits — in  which,  in  their  own  country,  to  the  pre- 
sent day,  their  superiority  is  apparent  over  the  less  ener- 
getic tribes  of  the  Dekkan.  Busied  with  such  employments, 
the  early  colonists  had  no  leisure  for  military  service ; 
besides,  whilst  Devenipia-tissa  and  his  successors  were 
earnestly  engaged  in  the  formation  of  religious  com- 
munities, and  the  erection  of  sacred  edifices  in  the 


CHAP.  V.] 


ELALA. 


353 


1  The  term  "  Malabar "  is  used 
throughout  the  following  pages  in  the 
comprehensive  sense  in  which  it  is 
applied  in  the  Singhalese  chronicles 
to  the  continental  invaders  of  Ceylon  ; 
but  it  must  be  observed  that  the  ad- 
venturers in  these  expeditions,  who 
are  styled  in  the  Mahaivamo,  "  dami- 
los"  or  Tamils,  came  not  only  from  the 
south-western  tract  of  the  Dekkan, 
known  in  modern  geography  as  "  Mala- 
bar," but  also  from  all  parts  of  the 
peninsula,  as  far  north  as  Cuttack  and 
Orissa. 

a  Mahawamo,  ch.  xxi.  p.  127. 


3  MaJuiwanso,  xxi. ;  Rajaratnacari, 
ch.  ii. 

4  Chola,  or  Solee,  was  the  ancient 
name   of  Tanjore,  and  the  country 
traversed  by  the  river  Caveri.     See 
Map  of  India,  p.  330. 

5  Mahawmtso,  xxi.  p.    129.     The 
other  historical  books,  the  Rajavali, 
and    Rajaratnacari,   give    a    totally 
different  character  of  Elala,  and  re- 
present him  as  the  desecrator  of  mo- 
numents   and    the    overthrower    of 
temples.     The  traditional  estimation 
which  has  followed  his  memory  is 
the  best  attestation  of  the  superior 
accuracy  of  the  Mahawanso. 


B.C. 

237. 


northern  portion  of  the  island,  various  princes  of  the  B.C. 
same  family  occupied  themselves  in  forming  settlements  266> 
in  the  south  and  west.  Hence,  whilst  their  people 
were  zealously  devoted  to  the  service  and  furtherance 
of  religion,  a  combination  of  causes  compelled  the  so- 
vereign at  Anarajapoora  to  take  into  his  pay  a 
body  of  Malabars1  for  the  protection  both  of  the  coast 
and  the  interior.  Of  the  foreigners  thus  confided  in, 
"  two  youths,  "powerful  in  their  cavalry  and  navy,  named 
Sena  and  Guttika," 2  proved  unfaithful  to  their  trust,  and 
after  causing  the  death  of  the  king  Suratissa  (B.C.  237), 
retained  the  supreme  power  for  upwards  of  twenty  years, 
till  overthrown  in  their  turn  and  put  to  death  by  the 
adherents  of  the  legitimate  line.3  Ten  years,  however, 
had  barely  elapsed  when  the  attempt  to  establish  a  Tamil 
sovereign  was  renewed  by  Elala,  "  a  Malabar  of  the 
illustrious  Uju  tribe,  who  invaded  the  island  from  the 
Chola4  country,  killed  the  reigning  king  Asela,  and  ruled 
the  kingdom  for  forty  years,  administering  justice  im- 
partially to  friends  and  foes." 

Such  is  the  encomium  which  the  Mahawanso  passes 
on  an  infidel  usurper,  because  Elala  offered  his  protection 
to  the  priesthood  ;  and  the  orthodox  annalist  closes  his 
notice  of  his  reign  by  the  moral  reflection  that  "  even  he 
who  was  an  heretic,  and  doomed  by  his  creed  to  perdi- 
tion, obtained  an  exalted  extent  of  supernatural  power 
from  having  eschewed  impiety  and  injustice."5 


B.C. 

205. 


B.C. 

161. 


VOL.  I. 


A   A 


354  THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 

B.C.  But  it  was  not  the  priests  alone  who  were  captivated 
61 '  by  the  generosity  of  Elala.  In  the  final  struggle  for 
the  throne,  in  which  the  Malabars  were  worsted  by  the 
gallantry  of  Dutugaimunu,  a  prince  of  the  excluded 
family,  the  deeds  of  daring  displayed  by  him  were 
the  admiration  of  his  enemies.  The  contest  between  the 
rival  chiefs  is  the  solitary  tale  of  Ceylon  chivalry,  in  which 
Elala  is  the  Saladin  and  Dutugaimunu  the  Cceur-de-lion. 
So  genuine  was  the  admiration  of  Elala's  bravery  that  his 
rival  erected  a  monument  in  his  honour,  on  the  spot  where 
he  fell ;  the  ruins  of  which  remain  to  the  present  day, 
and  are  still  regarded  by  the  Singhalese  with  respect 
and  veneration.  "  On  reaching  the  quarter  of  the  city 
in  which  it  stands,"  says  the  Mahawanso  *,  "  it  has  been 
the  custom  for  the  monarchs  of  Lanka  to  silence  their 
music,  whatsoever  procession  they  may  be  heading ; " 
and  so  uniformly  was  the  homage  continued  down  to 
the  most  recent  period,  that  so  lately  as  1818,  on  the 
suppression  of  an  attempted  rebellion,  wfyen  the  de- 
feated aspirant  to  the  throne  was  making  his  escape  by 
Anarajapoora,  he  alighted  from  his  litter,  on  approach- 
ing the  quarter  in  which  the  monument  was  known  to 
exist,  "  and  although  weary  and  almost  incapable  of 
exertion,  not  knowing  the  precise  spot,  he  continued 
on  foot  till  assured  that  he  had  passed  far  beyond  the 
ancient  memorial."  2 

Dutugaimunu,  in  the  epics  of  Buddhism,  enjoys  a 
renown,  second  only  to  that  of  King  Tissa,  as  the 
champion  of  the  faith.  On  the  recovery  of  his  kingdom 
he  addressed  himself  with  energy  to  remove  the  effects 
produced  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  island  by  forty 
years  of  neglect  and  inaction  under  the  sway  of  Elala. 
During  that  monarch's  protracted  usurpation .  the  minor 
sovereignties,  which  had  been  formed  in  various  parts 
of  the  island  prior  to  his  seizure  of  the  crown,  were 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxi. 

2  FORBES'  Eleven  Years  in  Ceylon,  vol.  i.  p.  233. 


ELALA  AXD    DUTUGAIMUNU.  355 

little  impeded  in  their  social  progress  by  the  forty-  *-c- 
four  years'  residence  of  the  Malabars  at  Anarajapoora. 
Although  the  petty  kings  of  Eohuna  and  Maya  sub- 
mitted to  pay  tribute  to  Elala,  his  personal  rule  did  not 
extend  south  of  the  Mahawelli-ganga  l,  and  whilst  the 
strangers  in  the  north  of  the  island  were  plundering 
the  temples  of  Buddha,  the  feudal  chiefs  in  the  south 
and  west  were  emulating  the  munificence  of  Tissa  in  the 
number'  of  wiharas  which  they  constructed. 

Eager  to  conciliate  his  subjects  by  a  similar  display 
of  regard  for  religion,  Dutugaimunu  signalised  his  victory 
and  restoration  by  commencing  the  erection  of  the  Euan- 
welle  dagoba,  the  most  stupendous  as  well  as  the  most 
venerated  of  those  at  Anarajapoora,  as  it  enclosed  a  more 
imposing  assemblage  of  relics  than  were  ever  enshrined 
in  any  other  in  Ceylon. 

The  mass  of  the  population  was  liable  to  render 
compulsory  labour  to  the  crown  ;  but  wisely  reflecting 
that  it  was  aot  only  derogatory  to  the  sacredness  of  the 
object,  but  impolitic  to  exact  any  avoidable  sacrifices 
from  a  people  so  recently  suffering  from  internal  warfare, 
Dutugaimunu  came  to  the  resolution  of  employing  hired 
workmen  only,  and  according  to  the  Mahaicanso  vast 
numbers  of  the  Yakkhos  became  converts  to  Buddhism 
during  the  progress  of  the  building  2,  which  the  king  did 
not  live  to  complete. 

But  the  most  remarkable  of  the  edifices  which  he 
erected  at  the  capital  was  the  Maha-Lowa-paya,  a  mon- 
astery which  obtained  the  name  of  the  Brazen  Palace 
from  the  fact  of  its  being  roofed  with  plates  of  copper 
It  was  elevated  on  sixteen  hundred  monolithic  columns  of 


1  Mahaivanso,  ch.  xxii.,  Rajavali, 
p.  188,  Bajaratnacari,  p.  36.  The 
MaJwiwanso  has  a  story  of  Dutugai- 
munu, when  a  boy,  illustrative  of  his 
early  impatience  "to  rid  the  island  of 
the  Malabars.-  His  father  seeing  him 
lying  on  his  bed,  with  his  hands  and 
feet  gathered  up,  inquired,  "  My  boy, 

A    A     2 


why  not  stretch  thyself  at  length  on 
thy  bed  ?  "  "  Confined  by  the  Da- 
mUos,"  he  replied,  "  beyond  the  river 
on  the  one  side,  and  by  the  unyield- 
ing ocean  on  the  other,"  how  can  I  lie 
with  outstretched  limbs  ?  " 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxviii.  xxix.  xxx. 


356  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 

B.C.  granite  twelve  feet  high,  and  arranged  in  lines  of  forty,  so 
161-  as  to  cover  an  area  of  upwards  of  two  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  square.  On  these  rested  the  building  nine  stories  in 
height,  which,  in  addition  to  a  thousand  dormitories  for 
priests,  contained  halls  and  other  apartments  for  their  ex- 
ercise and  accommodation. 

The  Mahawanso  relates  with  peculiar  unction  the 
munificence  of  Dutugaimunu  in  remunerating  those  em- 
ployed upon  this  edifice  ;  he  deposited  clothing  'for  that 
purpose  as  well  as  "vessels  filled  with  sugar,  buffalo 
butter  and  honey ;  "  he  announced  that  on  this  occasion 
it  was  not  fitting  to  exact  unpaid  labour,  and,  "  placing 
high  value  on  the  work  to  be  performed,  he  paid  the 
workmen  with  money." l 

The  structure,  when  completed,  far  exceeded  in  splen- 
dour anything  recorded  in  the  sacred  books.  All  its 
apartments  were  embellished  with  "  beads,  resplendent 
like  gems ; "  the  great  hall  was  supported  by  golden 
pillars  resting  on  lions  and  other  animals,  and  the  walls 
were  ornamented  with  festoons  of  pearls  and  of  flowers 
formed  of  jewels ;  in  the  centre  was  an  ivory  throne, 
with  an  emblem  on  one  side  of  a  golden  sun,  and  on 
the  other  of  the  moon  in  silver,  and  above  all  glittered 
the  imperial  "  chatta,"  the  white  canopy  of  dominion. 
The  palace,  says  the  Mahawanso,  was  provided  with  rich 
carpets  and  couches,  and  "  even  the  ladle  of  the  rice 
boiler  was  of  gold." 

The  vicissitudes  and  transformations  of  the  Brazen 
Palace  are  subjects  of  frequent  mention  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  sacred  city.  As  originally  planned  by 
Dutugaimunu,  it  did  not  endure  through  the  reign  of 
his  successor  Saidaitissa,  at  whose  expense  it  was  re- 
constructed, B.C.  140,  but  the  number  of  stories  was 
reduced  to  seven.2  More  than  two  centuries  later,  A.D. 
182,  these  were  again  reduced  to  five3,  and  the  entire 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxvii.  p.  163. 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxvi. 


3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxiii. 


CHAP.  V.] 


DUTUGAIMUNU. 


357 


building  must  have  been  taken  down  in  A.D.  240,  as  the    B-c- 
king  who  was  then  reigning  caused  "the  pillars  of  the 
Lowa  Pasado  to  be  arranged  in  a  different  form." 

The  edifice  erected  on  its  site  was  pulled  to  the  ground 
by  the  apostate  Maha-Sen,  A.D.  301 ] ;  but  penitently 
reconstructed  by  him  on  his  recantation  of  his  errors. 
Its  last  recorded  restoration  took  place  in  the  reign  of 
Prakrama-bahu-^towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century, 
when  "  the  king  rebuilt  the  Lowa-Maha-paya,  and  raised 
up  the  1600  pillars  of  rock." 

Thus  exposed  to  spoliation  by  its  splendour,  and  ob- 
noxious to  infidel  invaders  from  the  religious  uses  to  which 
it  was  dedicated,  the  palace  was  subjected  to  violence 
on  every  commotion,  whether  civil  or  external,  which 
disturbed  the  repose  of  the  capital ;  and  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  no  traces  of  it  remain  except  the  indestruc- 
tible monoliths  on  which  it  stood.  A  "  world  of  stone 


, 


RUINS  OF  THE  BRAZEN  PALACE. 


columns,"  to   use  the   quaint   expression   of  Knox,  still 
marks  the  site  of  the  Brazen  Palace  of  Dutugaimunu, 


Mahawanso.  ch.  xxxvii. 


358  THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES.  [PART  Ilf. 

B.C.     and  attests  the  accuracy  of  the  chronicles  which  describe 

1G1-    its  former  magnificence. 

The  character  of  Dutugaimunu  is  succinctly  ex- 
pressed in  his  dying  avowal,  that  he  had  lived  "  a  slave 
to  the  priesthood."1  Before  partaking  of  food,  it  was 
his  practice  to  present  a  portion  for  their  use ;  and 
recollecting  in  maturer  age,  that  on  one  occasion,  when 
a  child,  he  had  so  far  forgotten  this  invariable  rule,  as 
to  eat  a  chilly  without  sharing  it  with  a  priest,  he 
submitted  himself  to  a  penance  in  expiation  of  this 
youthful  impiety.2  His  death  scene,  as  described  in 
the.Mahawanso,  contains  an  enumeration  of  the  deeds 

B.C.     of  piety  by  which  his  reign  had  been  signalised.3     Ex- 

]  J7>  tended  on  his  couch  in  front  of  the  great  dagoba  which 
he  had  erected,  he  thus  addressed  one  of  his  military 
companions  who  had  embraced  the  priesthood :  "  In 
times  past,  supported  by  my  ten  warriors,  I  engaged  in 
battles ;  now,  single-handed,  I  commence  my  last  con- 
flict, with  death ;  and  it  is  not  permitted  to  me  to  over- 
come my  antagonist."  "  Ruler  of  men,"  replied  the 
thero,  "  without  subduing  the  dominion  of  sin,  the  power 
of  death  is  invincible ;  but  call  to  recollection  thy  acts 
of  piety  performed,  and  from  these  you  wih1  derive  con- 
solation." The  secretary  then  "  read  from  the  register 
of  deeds  of  piety,"  that  "  one  hundred  wiharas,  less 
one,  had  been  constructed  by  the  Maharaja,  that  he 
had  built  two  great  dagobas  and  the  Brazen  Palace  at 
Anarajapoora ;  that  in  famines  he  had  given  his  jewels  to 
support  the  pious ;  that  on  three  several  occasions  he 
had  clothed  the  whole  priesthood  throughout  the  island, 
giving  three  garments  to  each  ;  that  five  times  he  had 
conferred  the  sovereignty  of  the  land  for  the  space  of 
seven  days  on  the  National  Church ;  that  he  had 
founded  hospitals  for  the  infirm,  and  distributed  rice  to 
the  indigent ;  bestowed  lamps  on  innumerable  temples, 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxii.  I       3  MaJutwanso,  ch.  xxxii. 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxiv.  xxv. 


CHAP.  V.]  DUTUGAiMUNU.  359 

and  maintained  preachers,  in  the  various  wiharas,  in  all    »•  c- 
parts  of  his  dominions.     '  All  these  acts,'  said  the  dying    1 
king,  '  done  in  my  days  of  prosperity,  afford  no  comfort 
to  me  now ;    but   two    offerings  which   I  made    when 
in  affliction   and  in  adversity,    disregardful   of  my  own 
fate,   are  those  which  alone  administer  solace  to  me.' l 
After    this,   the  pre-eminently  wise  Maharaja  expired, 
stretched    on    his  bed,   in  the   act  of   gazing  on  the 
Hahathupo."  2  """* 


1  Mahawatiso,  ch,  xxxii. 

2  Another  name  for  the  Ruanwelle  dagoba,  which  he  had  built. 


A  A    4 


360 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


CHAP.  VI. 


THE   INFLUENCE   OF   BUDDHISM   ON   CIVILISATION. 


B.C.  AFTER  the  reign  of  Dutugaimunu  there  is  little  in  the 
137'  pages  of  the  native  historians  to  sustain  interest  in  the 
story  of  the  Singhalese  monarchs.  The  long  hue  of 
sovereigns  is  divided  into  two  distinct  classes  ;  the  kings 
of  the  Maha-wanse  or  "  superior  dynasty  "  of  the  uncon- 
taminated  blood  of  Wijayo,  who  occupied  the  throne  from 
his  death,  B.C.  505,  to  that  of  Maha-Sen,  A.D.  302,  and 
the  kings  of  the  Sulu-wanse  or  "  inferior  race,"  whose  de- 
scent was  less  pure,  but  who,  amidst  invasions,  revolutions, 
and  decline,  continued,  with  unsteady  hand,  to  hold  the 
government  down  to  the  occupation  of  the  island  by 
Europeans  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

To  the  great  dynasty,  and  more  especially  to  its 
earliest  members,  the  inhabitants  were  indebted  for  the 
first  rudiments  of  civilisation,  for  the  arts  of  agricultural 
life,  for  an  organised  government,  and  for  a  system  of 
national  worship.  But  neither  the  piety  nor  the  muni- 
ficence of  the  kings  sufficed  to  conciliate  the  personal 
attachment  of  their  subjects,  or  to  strengthen  their  throne 
by  national  attachment  such  as  would  have  fortified  its 
occupant  against  the  fatalities  incident  to  despotism. 
Of  fifty-one  sovereigns  who  formed  the  pure  Wijayan 
dynasty,  two  were  deposed  by  their  subjects,  and  nine- 
teen put  to  death  by  their  successors.1  Excepting  the 


1  There  is  something  very  striking 
in  the  facility  with  which  aspirants  to 
the  throne  obtained  the  instant  ac- 
quiescence of  the  people,  so  soon  as 
assassination  had  put  them  in  pos- 


session of  power.  This  is  the  more 
remarkable,  where  the  usm-pers  were 
of  the  lower  grade,  as  in  the  in- 
stance of  Subho,  a  gate  porter,  who 
murdered  King  Yasa  Silo,  A.D.  60, 


CHAP.  VI.]      INFLUENCE  OF  BUDDHISM  ON   CIVILISATION.      361 

rare  instances   in  which   a  reign  was  marked  by  some     B.c. 
occurrence,    such   as    an   invasion  and   repulse   of    the    137- 
Malabars,   there   is   hardly   a   sovereign   of  the   "Solar 
race  "  whose  name  is  associated  with  a  higher  achieve- 
ment than  the  erection  of  a  dagoba  or  the  formation  of 
a  tank,  nor  one  whose  story  is  enlivened  by  an  event 
more    exciting    than    the    murder    through   which    he 
mounted  the  throne  or  the  conspiracy  by  which  he  was 
driven  from  it.1 

One  source  of  royal  contention  arose  on  the  death  of 
Dutugaimunu  ;  his  son,  having  forfeited  his  birthright 
by  an  alliance  with  a  wife  of  lower  caste,  was  set  aside 
from  the  succession;  Saidaitissa,  a  brother  of  the  de- 
ceased king,  being  raised  to  the  throne  in  his  stead. 
The  priests,  on  the  death  of  Saidaitissa,  B.C.  119,  has- 
tened to  proclaim  his  youngest  son  Thullatthanaka  2,  to 
the  prejudice  of  his  elder  brother  Laiminitissa,  but  the 
latter  established  his  just  claim  by  the  sword,  and  hence 


and  reigned  for  six  years  (Mahaw.  ch. 
xxxv.  p.  218).  A  carpenter,  and  a 
earner  of  fire-wood,  were  each  ac- 
cepted in  succession  as  sovereigns, 
A.D.  47;  whilst  the  "great  dynasty" 
was  still  in  the  plenitude  of  its  po- 
pularity. The  mystery  is  perhaps 
referable  to  the  dominant  necessity 
of  securing  tranquillity  at  any  cost, 
in  the  state  of  society  where  the  means 
of  cultivation  were  directly  dependent 
on  the  village  organisation,  and 
famine  and  desolation  would  have 
been  the  instant  and  inevitable  con- 
sequences of  any  commotions  which 
interfered  with  the  conservancy  and 
repair  of  the  tanks  and  means  of  ir- 
rigation, and  the  prompt  application 
of  labour  to  the  raising  and  saving  of 
produce  at  the  instant  when  the  fall 
of  the  rains  or  the  ripening  of  the 
crops  demanded  its  employment  with 
the  utmost  vigour. 

1  In  theory  the  Singhalese  monar- 
chy was  elective  in  the  descendants 
of  the  Solar  race  :  in  practice,  primo- 
geniture had  a  preference,  and  the 
crown  was  either  hereditary  or  be- 


came the  prize  of  those  who  claimed 
to  be  of  royal  lineage.  On  reviewing 
the  succession  of  kings  from  B.C.  307 
to  A.D.  1815,  thirty-nine  eldest  sons 
(or  nearly  one  fourth)  succeeded  to 
their  fathers  :  and  twenty-nine  kings 
(or  more  than  one  fifth)  were  suc- 
ceeded by  brothers.  Fifteen  reigned 
for  a  period  less  than  one  year,  and 
thirty  for  more  than  one  year,  and  less 
than  four.  Of  the  Singhalese  kings 
who  died  by  violence,  twenty-two 
were  murdered  by  their  successors ; 
six  were  killed  by  other  individuals ; 
thirteen  fell  in  feuds  and  war,  and 
four  committed  suicide  ;  eleven  were 
dethroned,  and  their  subsequent  fate 
is  unknown.  Not  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  Singhalese  kings  re- 
tained sovereign  authority  to  their 
decease,  or  reached  the  funeral  pile 
without  a  violent  death. — FORBES' 
Eleven  Years  in  Ceylon,  vol.  i.  .ch.  iv. 
p.  80,  97;  JOINVILLE,  Religion  and 
3[<tnncrx  off  he  People  of  Ceylon ;  Asiat. 
Res.  vol.  vii.  p.  423.  See  also  Ma- 
hatcanso,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  201. 

2  Mahmcanso,  ch.  xxxiii.  p.  201. 


362 


THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B.C. 

119. 


arose  two  rival  lines,  which  for  centuries  afterwards 
were  prompt  on  every  opportunity  to  advance  adverse 
pretensions  to  the  throne,  and  assert  them  by  force  of 
arms. 

In  such  contests  the  priesthood  brought  a  preponde- 
rant influence  to  whatever  side  they  inclined  l ;  and  thus 
the  royal  authority,  though  not  strictly  sacerdotal,  be- 
came so  closely  identified  with  the  hierarchy,  and  so 
guided  by  its  will,  that  each  sovereign's  attention  was 
chiefly  devoted  to  forwarding  such  measures  as  most  con- 
duced to  the  exaltation  of  Buddhism  and  the  maintenance 
of  its  monasteries  and  temples. 

A  signal  effect  of  this  regal  policy,  and  of  the  growing 
diffusion  of  Buddhism,  is  to  be  traced  in  the  impulse 
which  it  communicated  to  the  reclamation  of  lands  and 
the  extension  of  cultivation.  For  more  than  three 
hundred  years  no  mention  is  made  in  the  Singhalese 
annals  of  any  mode  of  maintaining  the  priesthood  other 
than  the  royal  distribution  of  clothing  and  voluntary 
offerings  of  food.  The  priests  resorted  for  the  "  royal  alms  " 
either  to  the  residence  of  the  authorities  or  to  halls 
specially  built  for  their  accommodation 2,  to  which  they 
were  summoned  by  "  the  shout  of  refection ;  "  3  the  ordi- 
nary priests  receiving  rice,  "those  endowed  with  the 
gift  of  preaching,  clarified  butter,  sugar,  and  honey."4 
Hospitals  and  medicines  for  their  use,  and  rest  houses  on 
their  journeys,  were  also  provided  at  the  public  charge.5 
These  expedients  were  available  so  long  as"  the  num- 
bers of  the  priesthood  were  limited ;  but  such  were  the 


1  It  was  the  dying  boast  of  Dutu- 
gaimunu  that  he  had  lived  "  a  slave  to 
the  priesthood."  The  expression  was 
figurative  in  his  case  ;  but  so  abject 
did  the  subserviency  of  the  kings 
become,  and  so  rapid  was  its  growth, 
that  Batiya  Tissa,  who  reigned  A.D. 
8,  rendered  it  literal,  and  "  dedicated 
himself,  his  queen,  and  two  sons,  as 
well  as  his  charger,  and  state  ele- 
phant, as  slaves  to  the  priesthood." 


The  Mahmcanso  intimates  that  the 
priests  themselves  protested  against 
this  debasement,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  '214. 

2  Mahawanso,  cb.  xx.  p.  123;  xxii. 
p.  132,  135. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxviii.  p.  167. 

4  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxii.  p.  196-7. 

5  Mahawanso,  ch,  xxxii.   p.    196; 
xxxvii.  p.  244  ;  Rajaratnacari,  p.  39, 


CHAP.  VI.]       INFLUENCE   OF  BUDDHISM   ON   CIVILISATION.       363 


multitudes  who  were  tempted  to  withdraw  from  the  B.C. 
world  and  its  pursuits,  in  order  to  devote  themselves  to  liy- 
meditation  and  the  diffusion  of  Buddhism,  that  the 
difficulty  became  practical  of  maintaining  them  by  per- 
sonal gifts,  and  the  alternative  suggested  itself  of  setting 
apart  lands  for  their  support.  This  innovation  was 
first  resorted  to  during  an  interregnum.  The  Sin- 
ghalese king  Walagam  Bahu,  being  expelled  from  his 
capital  by  a  Malabar  usurpation  B.C.  104,  was  unable  to  B.C. 
continue  the  accustomed  regal  bounty  to  the  priesthood ;  ] 
and  dedicated  certain  lands  while  in  exile  in  Eohuna,  for 
the  support  of  a  fraternity  "who  had  sheltered  him 
there." L  .The  precedent  thus  established,  was  speedily 
seized  upon  and  extended;  lands  were  everywhere  set 
apart  for  the  repair  of  the  sacred  edifices2,  and  eventually, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  the  priesthood 
acquired  such  an  increase  of  influence  as  sufficed  to 
convert  their  precarious  eleemosynary  dependency  into 
a  permanent  territorial  endowment ;  and  the  practice  had 
become  universal  of  conveying  estates  in  mortmain  on 
the  construction  of  a  wihara  or  the  dedication  of  a 
temple.3 

The  coiporate  character  of  the  recipients  served  to 
neutralise  the  obligations  by  which  they  were  severally 
bound  ;  the  vow  of  poverty,  though  compulsory  on  an 
individual  priest,  ceased  to  be  binding  on  the  commu- 
nity of  which  he  was  a  member ;  and  whilst,  on  his  own 
behalf,  he  was  constrained  to  abjure  the  possession  of 
property,  even  to  the  extent  of  one  superfluous  cloth, 
the  wihara  to  which  he  was  attached,  in  addition  to  its 
ecclesiastical  buildings,  and  its  offerings  in  gems  and 
gold,  was  held  competent  to  become  the  proprietor  of 
broad  and  fertile  lands.4  These  were  so  bountifully 


1  'Mahawamo,  ch.  xxxiii.  p.  203. 
Previous  to  this  date*  a  king  of  Ilo- 
huna,  during  the  usurpation  of  Elala, 
B.C.  205,  had  appropriated  lands  near 
Kalany,  for  the  repairs  of  the  dagoba. 
— Rajaratnacari,  p.  37. 


2  In  the  reign  of  Batiya  Tissa,  B.C. 
20.     Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  212  ; 
lidjaratnacari,  p.  51. 

3  Mahaivcmso,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  214. 

4  HARDY'S  Eastern  Monachism,  ch. 
viii.  p.  68. 


364 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B.C.  bestowed  by  royal  piety,  by  private  munificence,  and 
104.  by  mortuary 'gifts,  that  ere  many  centuries  had  elapsed 
the  temples  of  Ceylon  absorbed  a  large  proportion  of 
the  landed  property  of  the  kingdom,  and  their  pos- 
sessions were  not  only  exempted  from  taxation,  but 
accompanied  by  a  right  to  the  compulsory  labour  of  the 
temple  tenants.1 

As  the  estates  so  made  over  to  religious  uses  lay  for 
the  most  part  in  waste  districts,  the  quantity  of  land  to  be 
brought  under  cultivation  necessarily  involved  large  ex- 
tensions of  the  means  of  irrigation.  To  supply  these, 
reservoirs  were  formed  on  such  a  scale  as  to  justify  the 
term  "  consecrated  lakes,"  by  which  they  are  described 
in  the  Singhalese  annals.2 

Where  the  circumstances  of  the  ground  permitted, 
their  formation  was  effected  by  drawing  an  embankment 
across  the  embouchure  of  a  valley  so  as  to  arrest  and 
retain  the  waters  by  which  it  was  traversed,  and  so  vast 
were  the  dimensions  of  some  of  these  gigantic  tanks  that 
many  yet  in  existence  still  cover  an  area  of  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  miles  in  circumference.  The  ruins  of  that 
at  Kalaweva,  to  the  north-west  of  Dambool,  show  that 
its  original  circuit  could  not  have  been  less  than 
forty  miles,  its  retaining  bund  being  upwards  of  twelve 
miles  long.  The  spill-water  of  stone,  which  remains  to 
the  present  time,  is  "  perhaps  one  of  the  most  stupend-. 
ous  monuments  of  misapplied  human  labour  in  the 
island."  3 

The  number  of  these  stupendous  works,  which  were 
formed  by  the  early  sovereigns  of  Ceylon,  almost  ex- 
ceeds credibility.  Kings  are  named  in  the  native  annals, 


1  The  Rajaratnacari  mentions  an 
instance,  A.D.  62,  of  eight  thousand 
rice  fields  bestowed  in  one  grant,  and 
similar  munificence  is  recorded  in 
numerous  instances  prior  to  A.D.  204. 
— Rajaratnacari,  p.  57, 59, 64, 74, 1 13, 
£c.  Mahmcanso,  ch.  xxxv.  p.  223, 
224 ;  ch.  xxxvi.  p.  233. 


2  Rajaratnacari,  ch.  ii.  p.  37 ;  Raja- 
vali,  p.' 237. 

3  TURNOFR,    MaJuncanso,    p.    12. 
The  tank  of  Kalaweva  was  formed 
by   Dhatu   Sena,  A.D.   459.— llahn- 
wanso,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  257. 


CHAP.  VI.]      INFLUENCE  OF  BUDDHISM  ON  CIVILISATION.         3G5 

each  of  whom  made  from  fifteen  to  thirty1,  together  B.C. 
with  canals  and  all  the  appurtenances"  for  irrigation.  1(^ 
Originally  these  vast  undertakings  were  completed  "  for 
the  benefit  of  the  country,"  and  "  out  of  compassion  for 
living  creatures ; " 2  but  so  early  as  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  the  custom  became  prevalent  of  forming 
tanks  with  the  pious  intention  of  conferring  the  lands 
which  they  enriched  on  the  church.  Wide  districts, 
rendered  fertilely  the  interception  of  a  river  and  the 
formation  of  suitable  canals,  were  appropriated  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  local  priesthood3;  a  tank  and  the 
thousands  of  acres  which  it  fertilised  were  sometimes 
assigned  for  the  perpetual  repairs  of  a  dagoba 4,  and  the 
revenues  of  whole  villages  and  their  surrounding  rice 
fields  were  devoted  to  the  support  of  a  single  wihara.5 

So  lavish  were  these  endowments,  that  one  king,  who 
signalised  his  reign  by  such  extravagances  as  laying  a 
carpet  seven  miles  in  length,  "  in  order  that  pilgrims 
might  proceed  with  unsoiled  feet  all  the  way  from  the 
Kadambo  river  (the  Malwatte  oya)  to  the  mountain 
Chetiyo  (Mihintala),  awarded  a  priest  who  had  presented 
him  with  a  draught  of  water  during  the  construction  of  a 
wihara,  "  land  within  the  circumference  of  half  a  yogana 
(eight  miles)  for  the  maintenance  of  the  temple."6 

It  was  in  this  manner  that  the  beautiful  tank  at 
Minery,  one  of  the  most  lovely  of  these  artificial  lakes, 
was  enclosed  by  Maha  Sen,  A.D.  275  ;  and,  together  witli 
the  80,000  amonams  of  ground  which  it  waters,  was 


1  Rajaratnacan,  p.  41,  45,  54,  55  ;  1  3  Maliawamo,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  210 ; 
King  Saidaitissa  B.C.  137,  made  j  xxxv.  p.  221 ;  xxxviii.  p.  237.  Raja- 
"  eighteen  lakes  "  (Raja  rait,  p.  233).  i  ratnacari,  ch.  ii.  p.  67,  59,  64,  69, 
King  "Wasabha,  who  ascended  the  !  74. 

throne  A.D.  66,  "  caused  sixteen  I  *  Mahawamo,  ch.  xxxv.  p.  215, 
large  lakes  to  be  enclosed "  (Raja-  \  218,  223 ;  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  234 ;  Raja- 
ratnacan, p.  57).  Detu  Tissa,  A.D.  ratnacari,  ch.  ii.  p.  51.  TURNOVE'S 
261,  excavated  six  (Ha/avail,  p.  237),  Epitome,  p.  21. 

5  MaJutwanso,  ch.  xxxv.   p.    218, 
221  ;   Rajaratnacari,  ch.  ii.    p.   51 ; 


and  King  Maha  Sen,  A.D.  275,  seven- 
teen   (Mahawanso,  ch.    xxxviii.    p. 


236). 

2  Mahaicamo,  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  242. 


StgtnaK.  p.  241. 

6  JMahaicanso,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  3. 


THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


conferred  on  the  Jeytawana  Wiliara  which  the  king  had 
just  erected  at  Anarajapoora.1 

To  identify  the  crown  still  more  closely  with  the 
interests  of  agriculture,  some  of  the  kings  superintended 
public  works  for  irrigating  the  lands  of  the  temples 2  ; 
and  one  more  enthusiastic  than  the  rest  toiled  in  the  rice 
fields  to  enhance  the  merit  of  conferring  their  produce  on 
the  priesthood.3 

These  broad  possessions,  the  church,  under  all  vicissi- 
tudes and  revolutions,  has  succeeded  in  retaining  to  the 
present  day.  Their  territories,  it  is  true,  have  been 
diminished  in  extent  by  national  decay ;  the  destruction 
of  works  for  irrigation  has  converted  into  wilderness 
and  jungle  plains  once  teeming  with  fertility;  and  the 
mild  policy  of  the  British  government,  by  abolishing 
raja-kariya\  has  emancipated  the  peasantry,-  who  are 
no  longer  the  serfs  either  of  the  temples  or  the  chiefs. 
But  in  every  district  of  the  island  the  priests  are  in 
the  enjoyment  of  the  most  fertile  lands,  over  which  the 
crown  exercises  no  right  of  taxation  ;  and  such  is  the 
extent  of  their  possessions  that,  although  their  precise 
limits  have  not  been  ascertained  by  the  local  govern- 
ment, they  have  been  conjectured  with  probability  to 
be  equal  to  one-third  of  the  cultivated  land  of  the 
island. 

One  peculiarity  in  the  Buddhist  ceremonial  served  at 
all  times  to  give  a  singular  impulse  to  the  progress  of 
horticulture.  Flowers  and  garlands  are  introduced  in 
its  religious  rites  to  the  utmost  excess.  The  atmosphere 
of  the  wiharas  and  temples  is  rendered  oppressive  with 
the  perfume  of  champac  and  jessamine,  and  the  shrine 
of  the  deity,  the  pedestals  of  his  image,  and  the  steps 
leading  to  the  temple  are  strewn  thickly  with  blos- 


'  Itdjaratnacari,  ch.  ii.  p.  69. 

2  TuiiNOtm's  Epitome,  p.  33. 

3  Mahawanso,    ch.    xxxiv.       The 
Buddhist  kings  of  Burmali  are   still 
accustomed  to  boast,  almost  in  the 
terms  of  the  Mahawattso,  of  the  dis- 


tinction which  they  have  earned,  by 
the  multitudes  of  tanks  they  have 
constructed  or  restored.  See  YTJLE'S 
Narrative  of  tJic  Mi-ssion  to  Ava  in 
1855,  p.  100. 

4  Compulsory  labour. 


CHAP.  VI.]       INFLUENCE  OF  BUDDHISM  ON  CIVILISATION.         367 

soms  of  the  nagaha  and  the  lotus.  At  an  earlier  period  B.C. 
the  profusion  in  which  these  beautiful  emblems  were  104- 
employed  in  sacred  decorations  appears  almost  incre- 
dible ;  the  Mahawanso  relates  that  the  Kuanwelle  da- 
goba,  which  was  270  feet  in  height,  was  on  one  occasion 
"festooned  with  garlands  from  pedestal  to  pinnacle  till 
it  resembled  one  uniform  bouquet ; "  and  at  another 
time,  it  and  the  lofty  dagoba  at  Mihintala  were  buried 
under  heaps  of*  jessamine  from  the  ground  to  the 
summit.1  Fa  Hian,  in  describing  his  visit  to  Anaraja- 
poora  in  the  fourth  century,  dwells  with  admiration 
and  wonder  on  the  perfumes  and  flowers  lavished  on 
their  worship  by  the  Singhalese2 ;  and  the  native  histo- 
rians constantly  allude  as  familiar  incidents  to  the 
profusion  in  which  they  were  employed  on  ordinary 
occasions,  and  to  the  formation  by  successive  kings  of 
innumerable  gardens  for  the  floral  requirements  of  the 
temples.  The  capital  was  surrounded  on  all  sides3  by 
flower  gardens,  and  these  were  multiplied  so  extensively 
that,  according  to  the  Rajaratnacari,  one  was  to  be 
found  within  a  distance  of  four  leagues  in  any  part  of 
Ceylon.4  Amongst  the  regulations  of  the  temple  built 
at  Dambedenia,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  was  "  every 
day  an  offering  of  100,000  flowers,  and  each  day  a 
different  flower."5 

Another  advantage  conferred  by  Buddhism  on  the 
country  was  the  planting  of  fruit  trees  and  esculent  vege- 
tables for  the  gratuitous  use  of  travellers  in  all  the  fre- 
quented parts  of  the  island.  The  historical  evidences  of 
this  are  singularly  corroborative  of  the  genuineness  of  the 


1  Mahawanso,    ch.    xxxiv. ;  Raja- 
ratnacari, p.  52,  53. 

2  FA-HIAN.       Foe-koue-ki,       ch. 
xxxviii.  p.  335. 

3  RajavaJi,  p.  227 ;  Mahawanso,  ch. 
xi.  p.  07. 

4  Rajaratnacari,  p.  29, 49.  Amongst 
the   officers    attached   to    the   great 
establishments  of  the  priests  in  Mihin- 
tala, A.D.  246,  there  are  enumerated 
in  an  inscription  engraven  on  a  rock 


there,  a  secretary,  a  treasurer,  a 
physician,  a  surgeon,  a  painter,  twelve 
cooks,  twelve  thatchers,  ten  carpen- 
ters, six  carters,  and  two  florists. 

5  Rajaratnacari,  p.  103.  The  same 
book  states  that  another  king,  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  "offered  no 
less  than  6,480,320  'sweet  smelling 
flowers  "  at  the  shrine  of  the  Tooth. 
— Ib.,  p.  136. 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B.C.  Buddhist  edicts  engraved  on  various  rocks  and  monu- 
104-  ments  in  India,  the  deciphering  of  which  was  the 
grand  achievement  of  Prinsep  and  his  learned  coadju- 
tors. On  the  pillars  of  Delhi,  Allahabad,  and  other 
places,  and  on  the  rocks  of  Girnar  and  Dhauli,  there 
exist  a  number  of  Pah  inscriptions  purporting  to  be 
edicts  of  Asoka  (the  Dharmasoca  of  the  Mahawanso\ 
King  of  Magadha,  in  the  third  century  before  the 
Christian  era,  who,  on  his  conversion  to  the  religion  of 
Buddha, .  commissioned  Mahindo,  his  son,  to  undertake 
its  establishment  in  Ceylon.  In  these  edicts,  which  were 
promulgated  in  the  vernacular  dialect,  the  king  endea- 
voured to  impress  both  upon  his  subjects  and  allies,  as 
well  as  those  who,  although  aliens,  were  yet  "  united  in 
the  law "  of  Buddha,  the  divine  precepts  of  their  great 
teacher  ;  prominent  amongst  which  are  the  prohibition 
against  taking  animal  life1,  and  the  injunction  that, 
"  everywhere  wholesome  vegetables,  roots,  and  fruit 
trees  shall  be  cultivated,  and  that  on  the  roads  wells 
shall  be  dug  and  trees  planted  for  the  enjoyment  of  men 
and  animals."  In  apparent  conformity  with  these  edicts, 
one  of  the  kings  of  Ceylon,  Addagaimunu,  about  the 
year  20  A.D.,  is  stated  in  the  Mahawanso  to  have  "  caused 
to  be  planted  throughout  the  island  every  description  of 
fruit-bearing  creepers,  and  interdicted  the  destruction  of 
animal  life,"2  and  similar  acts  of  pious  benevolence, 
pel-formed  by  command  of  various  other  sovereigns, 
are  adverted  to  on  numerous  occasions. 


1  It  is  curious  that  one  of  these 
edicts  of  Asoka,  who  was  cotem- 
porary  with  Devenipiatissa,  is  ad- 
dressed to  "  all  the  conquered  terri- 
tories of  the  raja,  even  imto  the  ends 
of  the  earth,  as  in  Chola,  in  Pida,  in 
Keralaputra,  and  in  Tamlapanni  (or 
Ceylon)."  This  license  of  speech, 
reminding  one  of  the  grandiloquent 
epistles  "from  the  Flaminian  Gate," 
was  no  doubt  assumed  in  virtue  of  the 
recent  establishment  of  Buddhism, 
or,  as  it  is  called  in  the  Ma1i<tu-<iit$o, 
"the  religion  of  the  Vanquisher," 
and  Asoka,  as  its  propagator,  thus 


claims  to  address  the  converts  as  his 
"  subjects." 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxv.  p.  215. 
The  king  Upatissa,  A.D.  368,  in  the 
midst  of  a  solemn  ceremonial,  ll  ob- 
serving ants,  and  other  insects  drown- 
ing in  an  inundation,  halted,  and 
having  swept  them  towards  the  bank 
with  the  feathers  of  a  peacock's  tail, 
and  enabled  them  to  save  themselves, 
he  continued  the  procession." — Ma- 
Jiawanso,  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  249;  Raja- 
ratnacari,  p.  49,  52  :  ItajavaU,  p. 
228. 


3GU 


CHAP.  VII. 

PATE   OP   THE   ABOKIGINES. 

IT  has  already  Men  shown,  that  devotion  and  policy  coin-  B.C. 
bined  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  social  improvement  104> 
in  Ceylon,  and  that  before  the  close  of  the  third  century  of 
the  Christian  era,  the  portion  of  the  island  to  the  north  of 
the  Kandyan  mountains  contained  numerous  cities  and 
villages,  adorned  with  temples  and  dagobas,  and  seated 
in  the  midst  of  highly  cultivated  fields.  The  face  of  the 
countiy  exhibited  broad  expanses  of  rice  land,  irri- 
gated by  artificial  lakes,  and  canals  of  proportionate 
magnitude,  and  thus  the  waters  from  the  rivers,  which 
would  otherwise  have  flowed  idly  to  the  sea,  were 
diverted  inland  in  all  directions  to  fertilise  the  fields 
of  the  interior.1 

In  the  formation  of  these  prodigious  tanks,  the 
chief  labour  employed  was  that  of  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants, the  Yakkhos  and  Nagas,  directed  by  the 
science  and  skill  of  the  conquerors.  .  Their  contribu- 
tions of  work,  though  in  the  instance  of  the  Bud- 
dhist converts  they  may  have  been  to  some  extent 
voluntary,  were,  in  general,  the  result  of  compulsion.2 
Like  the  Israelites  under  the  Egyptians,  the  aborigines 
were  ordered,  to  make  bricks3  for  the  stupendous 
dagobas  erected  by  their  masters4;  and  eight  hundred 
years  after  the  subjugation  of  the  island,  the  Eajavali 
describes  vast  reservoirs  and  appliances  for  irriga- 
tion, as  being  constructed  by  the  forced  labour  of  the 


1  Mahaicanso,  ch.  xxxv.  xxxvii. 

*  In  some  instances  the  soldiers  of 
the  king  were  employed  in  forming 
works  of  irrigation, 

VOL.  I.  B  B 


Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxviii. 
Ibid.,  ch.  xxvii. 


370 


THE   SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B.C.  Yakkhos  *,  under  the  superintendence  of  Brahman  engi- 
°4'  neers.2  This,  to  some  extent,  accounts  for  the  prodigious 
amount  of  labour  bestowed  on  these  structures  ;  labour 
which  the  whole  revenue  of  the  kingdom  would  not 
have  sufficed  to  purchase,  had  it  not  been  otherwise 
procurable. 

Under  this  system,  the  fate  of  the  aborigines  was 
that  usually  consequent  on  the  subjugation  of  an  infe- 
rior race  by  one  more  highly  civilised.  The  process  of 
their  absorption  into  the  dominant  race  was  slow,  and 
for  centuries  they  continued  to  exist  distinct,  as  a  subju- 
gated people.  So  firmly  rooted  amongst  them  was  the 
worship  both  of  demons  and  serpents,  that,  notwith- 
standing the  ascendancy  of  Buddhism,  many  centuries 
elapsed  before  it  was  ostensibly  abandoned ;  from  time 
to  time,  "  demon  offerings  "  were  made  from  the  royal 
treasury 3  ;  and  one  of  the  kings,  in  his  enlarged  libe- 
rality, ordered  that  for  every  ten  villages  there  should 
be  maintained  an  astrologer  and  a  "  devil-dancer,"  in 
addition  to  the  doctor  and  the  priest.4  - 

Throughout  the  Singhalese  chronicles,  the  notices  of 
the  aborigines  are  but  casual,  and  occasionally  contemp- 
tuous. Sometimes  they  allude  to  "  slaves  of  the  Yakkho 
tribe,"  5  and  in  recording  the  progress  and  completion  of 
the  tanks  and  other  stupendous  works,  the  Mahawanso 
and  the  Rajaratnacari,  in  order  to  indicate  the  inferi- 
ority of  the  natives  to  their  masters,  speak  of  their 
conjoint  labours  as  that  of  "  men  and  snakes," 6  and 
"  men  and  demons." 7 


^  *.  RajavaU,  p.  237,  238.  Excep- 
tions to  the  extortion  of  forced  labour 
for  public  works  took  place  Under  the 
more  pious  kings,  who  made  a  merit 
of  paying  the  workmen  employed  in 
the  erection  of  dagobas  and  other 
religious  monuments.  —  Mahcnvamo, 
ch.  xxxv. 

9  Mahawanso,  ch.  x. 
3  Mahawanso,  ch.  x. ;  TTJEXOTJR'S 
Epitome,  p.  23. 


4  TTTKNOTJU'S  Epitome,  p.  27 ;  Raja- 
ratnacari,  ch.  ii. ;  Rajavali,  p.  241. 

5  Mahawanso,  ch.  x. 

6  Ibid.,  ch.  xix.  p.  115. 

7  The  King  Maha-Sen,  anxious  for 
the  promotion  of  agriculture,  caused 
many  tanks  to  be  made  "  by  men  and 
devils." — Mahawanso,   ch.     xxxvii. ; 
UPHAM'S    TransL;  Rajaratnacari,  p. 
69 ;  Rajavali,  p.  237. 


CHAP.  VII.]  FATE   OF  THE   ABORIGINES.  371 

Notwithstanding  the  degradation  of  the  natives,  it  B.C. 
was  indispensable  to  "  befriend  the  interests 1 "  of  a  104:* 
race  so  numerous  and  so  useful ;  hence,  they  were  fre- 
quently employed  in  the  military  expeditions  of  the  Wi- 
jayan  sovereigns,  and  the  earlier  kings  of  that  dynasty 
admitted  the  rank  of  the  Yakkho  chiefs  who  shared  in 
these  enterprises.  They  assigned  a  suburb  of  the  capital 
for  their  residence  2,  and  on  festive  occasions  they  were 
seated  on  thrones  of  equal  eminence  with  that  of  the 
king.3  But  every  aspiration  towards  a  recovery  of 
their  independence  was  checked  by  a  device  less  charac- 
teristic of  ingenuity  in  the  ascendant  race,  than  of 
simplicity  combined  with  jealousy  in  the  aborigines. 
The  feeling  was  encouraged  and  matured  into  a  con- 
viction which  prevailed  to  the  latest  period  of  the  Sin- 
ghalese sovereignty,  that  no  individual  of  pure  Singhalese 
extraction  could  be  elevated  to  the  supreme  power,  since 
no  one  could  prostrate  himself  before  one  of  his  own 
nation.4 

For  successive  generations,  the  natives,  although 
treated  with  partial  kindness,  were  regarded  as  a  sepa- 
rate race.  Even  the  children  of  Wijayo,  by  his  first 
wife  Kuweni,  united  themselves  with  their  maternal  con- 
nexions on  the  repudiation  of  their  mother  by  the  king, 
"  and  retained  the  attributes  of  Yakkhos,"  5  and  by  that 
designation  the  natives  continued  to  be  distinguished 
down  to  the  reign  of  Dutugaimunu. 

In  spite  of  every  attempt  at  conciliation,  the  process 
of  amalgamation  between  the  two  races  was  reluctant 
and  slow.  The  earliest  Bengal  immigrants  sought 
wives  among  the  Tamils,  on  the  opposite  coast  of 
India 6 ;  and  although  their  descendants  intermarried 
with  the  natives,  the  great  mass  of  the  population  long 
held  aloof  from  the  invaders,  and  occasionally  vented 


1  Jlfahawanso,  ch.  x. 

2  Ibid,,  ch.  x.  p.  67. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  66. 


4  JOINVILLE'S  Asiat.  Res.  vol.  vii. 
p.  422. 

5  Mahmoanso,  ch.  vii. 
0  Ibid.,  p.  53. 

B   B  2 


372 


THE  SINGHALESE  CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B.C.     their  impatience  in  rebellion.1     Hence  the  progress  of 

104.    civilisation    amongst    them   was   but   partial   and   slow, 

and  in  the  narratives  of  the  early  rulers  of  the  island 

there  is  ample  evidence  that  the  aborigines  long  retained 

their  habits  of  shyness  and  timidity. 

Notwithstanding  the  frequent  resort  of  every  nation 
of  antiquity  to  its  coasts,  the  accounts  of  the  first  voy- 
agers are  almost  wholly  confined  to  descriptions  of  the 
loveliness  of  the  country,  the  singular  brilliancy  of  its 
jewels,  the  richness  of  its  pearls,  the  sagacity  of  its 
elephants,  and  the  delicacy  and  abundance  of  its  spices  ; 
but  the  information  which  they  furnish  regarding  its 
inhabitants  is  so  uniformly  meagre,  as  to  attest  the  absence 
of  intercourse  ;  and  the  writers  of  all  nations,  Greeks, 
Romans,  Arabians,  Chinese  and  Indians,  concur  in  their 
allusions  to  the  unsocial  and  uncivilised  customs  of  the 
islanders.2 

As  the  Bengal  adventurers  advanced  into  the  interior 
of  the  island,  a  large  section  of  the  natives  withdrew 
into  the  forests  and  hunting  grounds  on  the  eastern  and 
southern  coasts.3  There,  subsisting  by  the  bow  4  and  the 
chase,  they  adhered,  with  moody  tenacity,  to  the  rude 
habits  of  their  race ;  and  in  the  Veddah  of  the  present 
day,  there  is  still  to  be  recognised  a  remnant  of  the  un- 
tamed aborigines  of  Ceylon.6 

Even  those  of  the  original  race  who  slowly  conformed 
to  the  religion  and  habits  of  their  masters,  were  never 
entirely  emancipated  from  the  ascendency  of  their 
ancient  superstitions.  Traces  of  the  worship  of  snakes 
and  demons  are  to  the  present  hour  clearly  perceptible 
amongst  them;  the  Buddhists  still  resort  to  the  incan- 


1  Mahaivanso,  ch.  Ixxxv. 

2  See  an  account  of  these  singular 
peculiarities,  Vol.  I.  P.  v.  c.  ii.  p.  592. 

3  Hiouen  Thsang,  the  Chinese  geo- 
grapher,  who   visited  India   in  the 
seventh   century,   says  that  at  that 
time  the  Yakkhos  had  retired  to  the 
south-east  comer  of  Ceylon  ;  —  and 
here  their  descendants,  the  Veddahs, 


are  found  at  the  present  day. —  Voy- 
ages, #<?.,  liv.  iv.  p.  200.  _ 

4  Mahawanso,   ch.  xxiv.    p.    145, 
xxxiii.  p.  204. 

5  DE   AlAVis,'  Sidath   Sanr/am,  p. 
xvii.     For  an  account  of  the  Veddahs 
and  their  present  condition,  see  Vol. 
II.  P.  ix.  ch.  iii. 


CHAP.  VLL] 


FATE    OF   THE   ABORIGINES. 


573 


tations  of  the   "devil  dancers"  in   case   of  danger  and    B.C. 
emergency1 ;  a  Singhalese,  rather  than  put  a  Cobra   de    104- 
capello  to  death,  encloses  the  reptile  in  a  wicker  cage, 
and  sets  it  adrift  on  the  nearest  stream  ;  and  in  the  island 
of  Nainativoe,  to  the  south-west  of  Jaffna,  there  was  till 
recently  a  little  temple,  dedicated  to  the  goddess  Naga 
Tambiran,  in  which  consecrated  serpents  were  tenderly 
reared  by  the  Pandarams,  and  daily  fed  at  the  expense  of 
the  worshippers^ 


1  For  an  account  of  Demon  wor- 
ship as  it  still  exists  in  Ceylon,  see 
Sir  J.  EiiEESOJJ  TEJ^TEXT'S  History  of 


Christianity  in  Ceylon, 
8  CASIE  CHITIT'S 
p.  169. 


ch.  v.  p.  236. 


BBS 


374  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 


CHAP     VIII. 
EXTINCTION    OF   THE    "  GREAT   DYNASTY." 

EC.  ]?ROM  the  death  of  Dutugaimunu  to  the  exhaustion 
of  the  superior  dynasty  on  the  death  of  Maha-Sen,  A.D. 
301,  there  are  few  demonstrations  of  pious  munificence 
to  signalise  the  policy  of  the  intervening  sovereigns. 
The  king  whom,  next  to  Devenipiatissa  and  Dutugai- 
munu, the  Buddhist  historians  rejoice  to  exalt  as  one 
of  the  champions  of  the  faith,  was  Walagam-bahu  I.1, 
whose  reign,  though  marked  by  vicissitudes,  was  pro- 
ductive of  lasting  benefit  to  the  national  faith.  Wala- 
gam-bahu ascended  the  throne  B.C.  104.,  but  was  almost 
immediately  forced  to  abdicate  by  an  incursion  of  the 
Malabars.  Concerting  a  simultaneous  landing  at  several 
parts  of  the  island,  the  invaders  combined  their  movements 
so  successfully  that  they  seized  on  Anarajapoora,  and 
drove  the  king  into  concealment  in  the  mountains  near 
Adam's  Peak ;  and  whilst  one  portion  of  them  re- 
turned laden  with  plunder  to  the  Dekkan,  their  com- 
panions remained  behind  and  held  undisputed  possession 
of  the  northern  parts  of  Ceylon  for  nearly  fifteen 
years. 

In  this  and  the  frequent  incursions  which  followed, 
the  Malabar  leaders  were  attracted  by  the  wealth  of 
the  country  to  the  north  of  the  Mahawelli-ganga,  the 
southern  portion  of  the  island  being  either  too  wild 
and  unproductive  to  present  a  temptation  to  conquest, 
or  too  steep  and  inaccessible  to  afford  facilities  for  in- 
vasion. Besides,  the  highlanders  who  inhabit  the  lofty 
ranges  that  lie  around  Adam's  Peak  (a  district  known 


Called  in  the  Mahawanso,  u  Wata-gamini." 


CHAP.  Vin.J       EXTINCTION   OF   THE    "GREAT   DYNASTY."          375 

as  Malaya,  "  the  region  of  mountains  and  torrents,")1  B.C. 
then  and  at  all  times  exhibited  their  superiority  over 
the  lowlanders  in  vigour,  courage,  and  endurance. 
Hence  the  petty  kingdoms  of  Maya  and  Eohuna  af- 
forded on  every  occasion  a  refuge  to  the  royal  family 
when  driven  from  the  northern  capital,  and  furnished 
a  force  to  assist  in  their  return  and  restoration.  Wala- 
gam-bahu,  after  many  years'  concealment  there,  was 
at  last  enabled  to  resume  the  offensive,  and  succeeded 
in  driving  out  the  infidels,  and  recovering  possession  of 
the  sacred  city,  an  event  which  he  commemorated  in 
the  usual  manner  by  the  construction  of  tanks,  and  the 
erection  of  dagobas  and  wiharas. 


THE    ALD    W1HARA,    NEAR    MATELLE. 


But  the  achievement  by  which  most  of  all  he  entitled 
himself  to  the  gratitude  of  the  Singhalese  annalists,  was 
the  reduction  to  writing  of  the  doctrines  and  discourses 
of  Buddha,  which  had  been  orally  delivered  by  Mahindo, 
arid  previously  preserved  by  tradition  alone.  These 
sacred  volumes,  which  may  be  termed  the  Buddhist 


1  MahaiL-anso,  ch.  vii. 
B  B  4 


376 


THE    SINGHALESE    CHKONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


B.C. 

62. 


B.C.  Scriptures,  contain  the  Pittakataya,  and  its  .comment- 
89-  aries  the  Atthakatha,  and  were  compiled  by  a  company 
of  priests  in  a  cave  to  the  north  of  Matelle,  known  as 
the  Alu-wihara.1  This,  and  other  caverns  in  which 
the  king  had  sought  concealment  during  his  adversity, 
he  caused  to  be  converted  into  rock  temples  after  his 
restoration  to  power  ; —  amongst  the  rest,  Dambool, 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  cave  temples  of  Ceylon 
from  its  vastness,  its  elaborate  ornaments,  and  the 
romantic  beauty  of  its  situation  and  the  scenery  sur- 
rounding it. 

The  history  of  the  Buddhist  religion  in  Ceylon  is 
not,  however,  a  tale  of  uniform  prosperity.  The 
first  of  its  domestic  enemies  was  Naga,  the  grandson 
of  the  pious  Walagam-bahu,  whom  the  native  histo- 
rians stigmatise  by  the  prefix  of  "  chora  "  or  the  "  ma- 
rauder." His  story  is  thus  briefly  but  emphatically  told 
in  the  Mahawanso :  "  During  the  reign  of  his  father 
Mahaclmla,  Chora  Naga  wandered  through  the  island 
leading  the  life  of  a  robber  ;  returning  on  the  demise 
of  the  king  he  assumed  the  monarchy ;  and  in  the 
places  which  had  denied  him  an  asylum  during  his 
marauding  career,  he  impiously  destroyed  the  wiharas.2 
After  a  reign  of  twelve  years  he  was  poisoned  by 
his  queen  Anula,  and  regenerated  in  the  Lokantariko 
hell."3 

His  son,  King  Kuda  Tissa,  was  also  poisoned  by  his 
mother,  in  order  to  clear  her  own  path  to  the  throne. 
The  Singhalese  annals  thus  exhibit  the  unusual  incident 
of  a  queen  enrolled  amongst  the  monarchs  of  the  great 
dynasty — a  precedent  which  was  followed  in  after  times  ; 


B.C. 

50. 


B.C. 

47. 


1  Rajaratnacari,  cli.i.  p.  43.  Abou- 
zeyd  states  that  at  that  time  public 
writers  were  employed  in  recording 
the  traditions  of  the  island :  "  Le 
Royaume  de  Serendyb  a  une  loi  et 
des  docteurs  qui  s'assemblent  de 
temps  en  temps  comme  se  re"unissent 
chez  nous  les  personnes  qui  recueil- 
lent  les  traditions  du  prophete,  et  les 


Indiens  se  rendent  aupres  des  docteurs, 
et  (Scrivent  sous  leur  dieted,  la  vie  de 
leurs  prophetes  et  les  preceptes  de 
leur  loi.  —  REINATJD,  Relation,  $•<?., 
torn.  i.  p.  127. 

2  Malutwanso,   ch.   xxxui.  ;  Raja- 
vali,  p.   224 ;    TTTRNOTTR'S    Epitome, 
p.  19 ;  Rajaratnacari,  ch.  i.  p.  43,  44. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  209. 


CHAP.  VIII.]       EXTINCTION    OF   THE    "  GKEAT   DYNASTY."        377 

Queen   Siwalli   having   reigned   in  the   succeeding  cen-    B.C. 
tury,  A.D.  37,  Queen  Lila-wati,  in  A.D.  1197,  and  Queen    47- 
Kalyana-wati  in  A.D.  1202.     From  the  excessive  vileness 
of  her  character,  the  first  of  the  Singhalese  women  who 
attained   to   the   honours   of  sovereignty  is   denounced 
in   the  Mahawanso  as  "the  infamous  Anula."     In  the 
enormity   of  her  crimes   and   debauchery  she  was   the 
Messalina  of  Ceylon ; — she  raised  to  the  throne  a  porter 
of  the   palace   with   whom    she   cohabited,   descending 
herself  to  the  subordinate  rank  of  Queen  Consort,  and 
poisoned  him  to  promote  a  carpenter  in  his  stead.     A 
carrier   of  firewood,    a   Brahman,   and  numerous  other 
paramours   followed   in   rapid  succession,  and  shared  a 
similar  fate,  till  the  kingdom  was  at  last  relieved  from 
the  opprobrium  by  a  son  of  Prince  Tissa,  who  put  the 
murderess  to  death,  and  restored  the  royal  line  in  his 
own  person.     His  successors  for  more  than  two  centuries    B.C. 
were  a  race  of  pious  faineants,  undistinguished  by  any    60- 
qualities,  and  remembered  only  by  their  fanatical  subser- 
viency to  the  priesthood. 

Buddhism,  relieved  from  the  fury  of  impiety,  was 
next  imperilled  by  the  danger  of  schism.  Even  before 
the  funeral  obsequies  of  Buddha,  schism  had  dis- 
played itself  in  Magadha,  and  two  centuries  had  not 
elapsed  from  his  death  till  it  had  manifested  itself  on 
no  less  than  seventeen  occasions.  In  each  instance 
it  was  with  difficulty  checked  by  councils  in  which  the 
priesthood  settled  the  faith  in  relation  to  the  points 
which  gave  rise  to  dispute  ;  but  not  before  the  actual 
occurrence  of  secessions  from  the  orthodox  church.1 
The  earliest  differences  were  on  questions  of  discipline  A.D. 
amongst  the  colleges  and  fraternities  at  Anarajapoora ;  209> 
but  in  the  reign  of  Wairatissa,  A.D.  209,  a  formidable 
controversy  arose,  impugning  the  doctrines  of  Buddhism, 
and  threatened  for  a  time  to  rend  in  sunder  the  sacred 
unity  of  the  church.2 


MaJiawanso,  ch.  v.  p.  21.  8  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxiii. 


378 


THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PAET  III. 


A.D. 

209. 


Buddhism,  although  tolerant  of  heresy,  has  ever  been 
vehement  in  its  persecution  of  schism.  Boldly  con- 
fident in  its  own  superiority,  it  bears  without  im- 
patience the  glaring  errors  of  open  antagonists,  and 
seems  to  exult  in  the  contiguity  of  competing  sys- 
tems as  if  deriving  strength  by  comparison.  In  this 
respect  it  exhibits  a  similarity  to  the  religion  of  Brahma, 
which  regards  with  composure  shades  of  doctrinal 
difference,  and  only  rises  into  jealous  energy  in  support 
of  the  distinctions  of  caste,  an  infringement  of  which 
might  endanger  the  supremacy  of  the  priesthood.1  To 
the  assaults  of  open  opponents  the  Buddhist  displays  the 
calmest  indifference,  convinced  that  in  its  undiminished 
strength,  his  faith  is  firm  and  inexpugnable  ;  his  vigilance 
is  only  excited  by  the  alarm  of  internal  dissent,  and 
all  his  passions  are  aroused  to  stifle  the  symptoms  of 
schism.2 

This  characteristic  of  the  "  religion  of  the  Vanquisher  " 
is  in  strict  conformity,  not  alone  with  the  spirit  of  his 


1  Hence   the   indomitable    hatred 
with  which   the  Brahmans  pursued 
the  disciples  of  Buddhism  from  the 
fourth  century  before   Christ  to   its 
final     expulsion     from     Hindustan. 
"  Abundant  proofs,"  says   Tumour, 
"  may  be  adduced  to  snow  the  fa- 
natical ferocity  with  which  these  two 
great   sects  persecuted  each   other; 
and    which     subsided    into    passive 
hatred  and  contempt,  only  when  the 
parties  were  no  longer  placed  in  the 
position  of  actual  collision." — Introd. 
Mahawanso,  p.  xxii. 

2  In  its  earliest   form  Buddhism 
was   equally  averse   to   persecution, 
and  the  Mahawanso  extols  the  libe- 
ralitv  of  Asoka  in  giving  alms  indis- 
criminately to  the  members  of  all 
religions  (Mahawanso,  ch.  v.  p.  23). 
A  sect  which  is  addicted  to  persecu- 
tion is  not  likely  to  speak  approvingly 
of  toleration,  but  the  Mahawanso  re- 
cords with   evident   satisfaction  the 
courtesy  paid  to  the  sacred  things  of 
Buddhism  by  the  believers  in  other 


doctrines ;  thus  the  Xagas  did  homage 
to  the  relics  of  Buddha  and  mourned 
their  removal  from  Mount  Mem 
(Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxi.  p.  189) ;  the 
Yakkhos  assisted  at  the  building  of 
dagobas  to  enshrine  them,  and  the 
Brahmans  were  the  first  to  respect 
the  Bo-tree  on  its  arrival  in  Ceylon 
( Ib.  ch.  xix.  p.  119).  COSMAS  IKDICO- 
PLEHSTES,  whose  informant,  Sopater, 
visited  Ceylon  in  the  sixth  century, 
records  that  there  was  then  the 
most  extended  toleration,  and  that 
even  the  Nestorian  Christians  had 
perfect  freedom  and  protection  for 
their  worship. 

Among  the  Buddhists  of  Burmah, 
however,  "  although  they  are  tolerant 
of  the  practice  of  other  religions  by 
those  who  profess  them,  secession 
from  the  national  faith  is  rigidly  pro- 
hibited, and  a  convert  to  any  other 
form  of  faith  incurs  the  penalty  of 
death." — Professor  WILSON,  Joitrn. 
Roy.  Asiat.  Soc.,  vol.  xvi.  p.  261. 


CHAP.  VOL]      EXTINCTION   OF   THE    "  GREAT   DYNASTY."        379 

doctrine,  but  also  with  the  letter  of  the  law  laid  down  A.D. 
for  the  guidance  of  his  disciples.  Two  of  the  singular 
rock-inscriptions  of  India  deciphered  by  Prinsep,  in- 
culcate the  duty  of  leaving  the  profession  of  different 
faiths  unmolested  ;  on  the  ground,  that  "  ah1  aim  at 
moral  restraint  and  purity  of  life,  although  all  cannot 
be  equally  successful  in*  attaining  to  it."  The  sentiments 
embodied  in  one  of  the  edicts 1  of  King  Asoka  are  very 
striking :  "  A  m3!h  must  honour  his  own  faith,  without 
blaming  that  of  his  neighbour,  and  thus  will  but  little  that 
is  wrong  occur.  There  are  even  circumstances  under 
which  the  faith  of  others  should  be  honoured,  and  in 
acting  thus  a  man  increases  his  own  faith  and  weakens 
that  of  others.  He  who  acts  differently,  diminishes  his 
own  faith  and  injures  that  of  another.  Whoever  he  may 
be  who  honours  his  own  faith  and  blames  that  of  others 
out  of  devotion  to  lu's  own,  and  says,  '  let  us  make  our 
faith  conspicuous,'  that  man  merely  injures  the  faith  he 
holds.  Concord  alone  is  to  be  desired." 

The  obligation  to  maintain  the  religion  of  Buddha 
was  as  binding  as  the  command  to  abstain  from  as- 
sailing that  of  its  rivals,  and  hence  the  kings  who  had 
treated  the  snake-worshippers  with  kindness,  who  had 
made  a  state  provision  for  maintaining  "  offerings  to 
demons,"  and  built  dwellings  at  the  capital  to  accom- 
modate the  "  ministers  of  foreign  religions,"  rose  in 
fierce  indignation  against  the  preaching  of  a  firm  be- 
liever in  Buddha,  who  ventured  to  put  an  independent 
interpretation  on  points  of  faith.  They  burned  the 
books  of  the  Wytulians,  as  the  new  sect  were  called, 
and  frustrated  their  irreligious  attempt.2  The  first 


Wytulia  was  a  Brahman  who  had 
"  subverted  by  craft  and  intrigue  the 
religion  of  Buddha  "  (ch.  ii.  p.  61 ). 
As  it  is  stated  in  a  further  passage 
that  the  priests  who  were  implicated 

The  Mahawanso  throws  no  light  ;  were  stripped  of  their  habits,  it  is 
on  the  nature  of  the  "NVytulian  (or  evident  that  the  innovation  had  been 
"Wettulyan)  heresy  (ch.  xxvii.  p.  227),  i  introduced  under  the  garb  of  Buddha, 
but  the  Rajaratnacari  insinuates  that  '  — Rajaratnacari,  ch.  ii.  p.  65. 


1  The  twelfth  tablet,  which,  as 
translated  by  BFKNOUF  and  Pro- 
fessor "WILSOX,  will  be  found  in  Mrs. 
SPEIR'S  Life  in  Ancient  India,  book  ii. 
ch.  iv.  p.  239. 


380 


THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


A.D. 
°9- 


effort  at  repression  was  ineffectual.  It  was  made  by 
the  King  Wairatissa,  A.D.  209  ;  but  within  forty  years 
the  schismatic  tendency  returned,  the  persecution  was 
renewed,  and  the  apostate  priests,  after  being  branded 
on  the  back,  were  ignominiously  transported  to  the 
opposite  coast  of  India.1 

The  new  sect  had,  however,  established  an  interest  in 
high  places  ;  and  Sangha-mitta,  one  of  the  exiled  priests, 
returning  from  banishment  on  the  death  of  the  king,  so 
ingratiated  himself  with  his  successor,  that  he  was  en- 
trusted with  the  education  of  the  king's  sons.  One  of  the 
latter,  Maha-Sen,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  A.D.  275,  and, 
openly  professing  his  adoption  of  the  Wytulian  tenets, 
dispossessed  the  popular  priesthood,  and  .overthrew  the 
Brazen  Palace.  With  the  materials  of  the  great  wihara, 
he  constructed  at  the  sacred  Bo-tree  a  building  as  a 
receptacle  for  relics,  and  a  temple  in  which  the  statue  of 
Buddha  was  to  be  worshipped  according  to  the  rites  of 
the  reformed  religion.2 

So  bold  an  innovation  roused  the  passions  of  the 
nation  ;  the  people  prepared  for  revolt,  and  a  conflict 
was  imminent,  when  the  schismatic  Sangha-mitta  was 
suddenly  assassinated,  and  the  king,  convinced  of  his 


1  TUHNOUB'S  Epitome,  p.  25,  Ma- 
hawanso,  ch.  xxxvi.  p.  232.  As  the 
Mahawamo  intimates  in  another  pas- 
sage that  amongst  the  priests  who 
were  banished  to  the  opposite  coast 
of  India,  there  was  one  Sangha- 
mitta,  "  who  was  profoundly  versed 
in  the  rites  of  the  demon  faith 
('bhuta'),  it  is  probable  that  out 
of  the  Wytulian  heresy  grew  the 
system  which  prevails  to  the  present 
day,  by  which  the  heterodox  dewales 
and  halls  for  devil  dances  are  built 
in  close  contiguity  to  the  temples  and 
wiharas  of  the  orthodox  Buddhists, 
and  the  barbarous  rites  of  demon 
worship  are  incorporated  with  the 
abstractions  of  the  national  religion. 
On  the  restoration  of  Maha-Sen  to  the 
true  faith,  the  Mahawanso  repre- 


sents him  as  destroying  the  dewales 
at  Anarajapoora  in  order  to  replace 
them  with  wiharas  (Mahawanso,  ch. 
xxxvii.  p.  237).  An  account  of  the 
mingling  of  Brahmanical  with  Budd- 
hist worship,  as  it  exists  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  will  be  found  in  HARDY'S 
Oriental  Monachism,  ch.  xix.  Pro- 
fessor H.  H.  WILSON,  in  his  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Kingdom  of  Pandi/a, 
alludes  to  a  heresy,  which,  anterior 
to  the  sixth  century,  disturbed  the 
sanaattar  or  college  of  Madura ;  the 
leading  feature  of  which  was  the  ad- 
mixture of  Buddhist  doctrines  with 
the  rite  of  the  Brahmans,  and  "  this 
heresy,"  he  says,  "some  traditions 
assert  was  introduced  from  Ceylon." 
— Asiat.  Journ.  vol.  iii.  p.  218. 
2  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  235. 


CHAP.  VIII.]       EXTINCTION   OF   THE    "  GREAT   DYNASTY."         381 

errors,  addressed  himself  with  energy  to  restore  the  A-.D. 
buildings  he  had  destroyed,  and  to  redress  the  mis-  ?75' 
chiefs  caused  by  his  apostacy.  He  demolished  the 
dewales  of  the  Hindus,  in  order  to  use  their  sites  for 
Buddhist  wiharas ;  he  erected  nunneries,  constructed 
the  JaytaAvanarama  (a  dagoba  at  Anarajapoora),  formed 
the  great  tank  of  Mineri  by  drawing  a  dam  across  the 
Kara-ganga  and  that  of  Kandelay  or  Gantalawa,  and 
consecrated  ^"5*20,000  fields  which  it  irrigated  to  the 
Dennanaka  Wihare.1  "He  repaired  numerous  dilapi- 
dated temples  throughout  the  island,  made  offerings  of 
a  thousand  robes  to  a  thousand  priests,  formed  sixteen 
tanks  to  extend  cultivation  —  there  is  no  defining  the 
extent  of  his  charity" — and  having  performed  during 
his  existence  acts  both  of  piety  and  impiety,  the  Maha- 
wanso  cautiously  adds,  "  his  destiny  after  death  was 
according  to  his  merits."2 

With  King  Maha-Sen  end  the  glories  of  the  "  superior  A.D. 
dynasty"  of  Ceylon.  The  "  sovereigns  of  the  Suluwanse,  302' 
who  followed,"  says  the  Rajavali,  "  were  no  longer  of 
the  unmixed  blood,  but  the  offspring  of  parents,  only 
one  of  whom  was  descended  from  the  sun,  and  the 
other  from  the  bringer  of  the  Bo-tree  or  the  sacred 
tooth  ;  on  that  account,  because  the  God  Sakkraia  had 
ceased  to  watch  over  Ceylon,  because  piety  had  dis- 
appeared, and  the  city  of  Anarajapoora  was  in  ruins, 
and  because  the  fertility  of  the  land  was  diminished, 
the  kings  who  succeeded  Maha-Sen  were  no  longer 
reverenced  as  of  old."3 

The  prosperity  of  Ceylon,  though  it  may  not  have 
attained  its  acme,  was  sound  and  auspicious  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  when  the  solar  line 
became  extinct.  Pihiti,  the  northern  portion  of  the 
island,  was  that  which  most  engaged  the  solicitude  of 
the  crown,  from  its  containing  the  ancient  capital, 


1  TTTKTOTO'S  Epitome,  p.  25.  I  »  Rajavali,  p.  239. 

2  JHahtnoanso,  ch.  xxxiii.  p.  238. 


382  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 

A.D.  whence  it  obtained  its  designation  of  the  Eaja-ratta  or 
302  country  of  the  kings.  Here  the  labour  bestowed  on 
irrigation  had  made  the  food  of  the  population  abundant, 
and  the  sums  expended  on  the  adornment  of  the  city,  the 
multitude  of  its  sacred  structures,  the  splendour  of  its 
buildings,  and  the  beauty  of  its  lakes  and  gardens,  ren- 
dered it  no  inappropriate  representative  of  the  wealth 
and  fertility  of  the  kingdom. 

Anarajapoora  had  from  time  immemorial  been  a 
venerated  locality  in  the  eyes  of  the  Buddhists ;  it  had 
been  honoured  by  the  visit  of  Buddha  in  person,  and 
it  was  already  a  place  of  importance  whenWijayo  effected 
his  landing  near  Putlam  in  the  fifth  century  before  the 
Christian  era.  It  became  the  capital  a  century  after, 
and  the  King  Pandukabhaya,  who  formed  the  ornamen- 
tal lake  which  adjoined  it,  and  planted  gardens  and  parks 
for  public  festivities,  built  gates  and  four  suburbs  to  the 
city,  set  apart  ground  for  a  public  cemetery,  and  erected 
a  gilded  hall  of  audience,  and  a  palace  for  his  own 
residence. 

The  Mahawanso  describes  with  particularity  the  offices 
of  the  Naggaraguttiko,  who  was  the  chief  of  the  city  guard, 
and  the  organisation  of  the  low  caste  Chandalas,  who 
were  entrusted  with  the  cleansing  of  the  capital  and 
the  removal  of  the  dead  for  interment.  For  these  and 
for  the  royal  huntsmen  villages  were  constructed  in  the 
environs,  mingled  with  which  were  dwellings  for  the  sub- 
jugated native  tribes,  and  temples  for  the  worship  of 
foreign  devotees.1 

Seventy  years  later,  when  Mahindo  arrived  in  Ceylon, 
the  details  of  his  reception  disclose  the  increased  mag- 
nificence of  the  capital,  the  richness  of  the  royal  parks, 
and  the  extent  of  the  state  establishments ;  and  describe 
the  chariots  in  which  the  king  drove  to  Mihintala,  to 
welcome  his  exalted  guest.2 

Yet  these  were  but  preliminary  to  the  grander  con- 


Mahawanso,  ch.  x.  p.  66.  a  Ibid.,  ch.  xiv.,  xvv  xx. 


CHAP.  VIII.]      EXTINCTION    OP   THE    "  GREAT   DYNASTY."         383 


structions  which  gave  the  city  its  lasting  renown ;  A.D. 
stupendous  dagobas  raised  by  successive  monarchs,  each  302' 
eager  to  surpass  the  conceptions  of  his  predecessors ; 
temples  in  which  were  deposited  statues  of  gold  adorned 
with  gems  and  native  pearls ;  the  decorated  terraces  of 
the  Bo-tree,  and  the  Brazen  Palace,  with  its  thousand 
chambers  and  its  richly  embellished  halls.  The  city 
was  enclosed  by  a  rampart  upwards  of  twenty  feet  in 
height1,  whidbfwas  afterwards  replaced  by  a  wall2; 
and,  so  late  as  the  fourth  century,  the  Chinese  tra- 
veller Fa-Hian  describes  the  condition  of  the  place  in 
terms  which  fully  corroborate  the  accounts  of  the 


1  By  WASABHA,  A.  D.  06.     Haha- 
wanso,  ch.  xxxv.  p.  222. 

2  TTJRNOTJR,  in  his  Epitome  of  the 
Histonj  of  Ceylon,  says  that  AJaara- 
japoora  was   enclosed  by  a  rampart 
seven  cubits  high,  B.  c.  41,  and  that 
A.  D.  66  King  Wasabha  built  a  wall 
round  the  city  sixteen  gaous  in  cir- 
cumference. As  he  estimates  the  gaou 
at  four  English  miles,   this  would 
give  an    area    equal  to   about   300 
square  miles.     A  space  so  prodigious 
for  the  capital  seems  to  be  dispro- 
portionate to  the  extent  of  the  king- 
dom, and  far  too  extended  for  the 
wants  of  the  population.     TTJKNOTTR 
does  not  furnish  the  authority  on 
which  he  gives  the  dimensions,  nor 
have  I  been  able  to  discover  it  in  the 
Hajavali  nor   in   the   Rajaratnacari. 
The  Mahawanso  alludes  to  the  fact 
of  Anarajapoora  having  been  fortified 
by  Wasabha,  but,  instead  of  a  wall, 
the  work  which  it  describes  this  king 
to  have  undertaken  was  the  raising  of 

.  the  height  of  the  rampart  from  seven 
cubits  to  eighteen  (MaJutwanso,  ch. 
xxxv.  p.  222).  Major  Forbes,  in  his 
account  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city, 
repeats  the  story  of  their  former  ex- 
tent, in  which  he  no  doubt  considered 
that  the  high  authority  of  Tumour  in 
matters  of  antiquity  was  sustained 
by  a  statement  made  by  Lieutenant 
Skinner,  who  had  surveyed  the 
ruins,  to  the  effect  that  he  had  dis- 
covered near  Alia-parte  the  remains 
of  masonry,  which  he  concluded  to 


be  a  portion  of  the  ancient  city  wall 
running  north  and  south  and  forming 
the  west  face ;  and,  as  Alia-parte  is 
seven  miles  from  Anarajapoora,  he 
regarded  this  discovery  as  confirming 
the  account  given  of  its  original  di- 
mensions. Lieutenant,  now  Major, 
Skinner  has  recently  informed  me 
that,  on  mature  reflection,  he  has 
reason  to  fear  that  his  first  inference 
was  precipitate.  In  a  letter  of  the 
8th  of  May,  1856,  he  says:  — "I 
first  visited  Anarajapora  in  1833, 
when  I  made  my  survey  of  its 
ruins.  The  supposed  foundation  of 
the  western  face  of  the  city  wall  was 
pointed  out  near  the  village  of  Alia- 
parte  by  the  people,  and  I  hastily 
adopted  it.  I  had  not  at  the  time 
leisure  to  follow  up  this  search  and 
determine  how  far  it  extended,  but 
from  subsequent  visits  to  the  place 
I  have  been  led  to  doubt  the  accu- 
racy of  this  tradition,  though  on  most 
other  points  I  found  the  natives 
tolerably  accurate  in  their  knowledge 
of  the  history  of  the  ancient  capital. 
I  have  since  sought  for  traces  of  the 
other  faces  of  the  supposed  wall,  at 
the  distances  from  the  centre  of  the 
city  at  which  it  was  said  to  have 
existed,  but  without  success."  The 
ruins  which  Major  Skinner  saw  at 
Alia-parte  are  most  probably  those  of 
one  of  the  numerous  forts  which  the 
Singhalese  kings  erected  at  a  much 
later  period,  to  keep  the  Malabars  in 
check. 


384  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 

A.D.  Mahawanso.  It  was  crowded,  he  says,  with  nobles, 
302>  magistrates,  and  foreign  merchants;  the  houses  were 
handsome,  and  the  public  buildings  richly  adorned. 
The  streets  and  highways  were  broad  and  level,  and 
halls  for  preaching  and  reading  bana  were  erected  in  all 
the  thoroughfares.  He  was  assured  that  the  island 
contained  not  less  than  from  fifty  to  sixty  thousand 
ecclesiastics,  who  all  ate  in  common ;  and  of  whom  from 
five  to  six  thousand  were  supported  by  the  bounty  of  the 
king. 

The  sacred  tooth  of  Buddha  was  publicly  exposed 
on  sacred  days  in  the  capital  with  gorgeous  ceremonies, 
which  he  recounts,  and  thence  carried  in  procession  to 
"  the  mountains  without  fear  ; "  the  road  to  which  was 
perfumed  and  decked  with  flowers  for  the  occasion ;  and 
the  festival  was  concluded  by  a  dramatic  representation 
of  events  in  the  life  of  BucWha,  illustrated  by  scenery 
and  costumes,  with  figures  of  elephants  and  stags,  so 
delicately  coloured  as  to  be  undistinguishable  from 
nature.1 


X,  Foe-koue-ld,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  334,  &c. 


CHAP.    IX.]         KINGS   OF   THE    "LOWER   DYNASTY."  385 


CHAP.   IX. 

KINGS   OF   THE    "  LOWER   DYNASTY." 

THE  story  of  the  kings  of  Ceylon  of  the  Sulu-wanse  A.D. 
or  "  lower  line,"  is  but  a  narrative  of  the  decline  of  the  302- 
power  and  prosperity  which  had  been  matured  under 
the  Bengal  conquerors  and  of  the  rise  of  the  Malabar 
marauders,  whose  ceaseless  forays  and  incursions  even- 
tually reduced  authority  to  feebleness  and  the  island  to 
desolation.  The  vapid  biography  of  the  royal  imbeciles 
who  filled  the  throne  from  the  third  to  the  thirteenth 
century  embodies  scarcely  an  incident  of  sufficient  inte- 
rest to  diversify  the  monotonous  repetition  of  temples 
founded  and  dagobas  repaired,  of  tanks  constructed 
and  priests  endowed  with  lands  reclaimed  and  fertilised 
by  the  "forced  labour"  of  the  subjugated  races.  Civil 
dissensions,  religious  schisms,  royal  intrigues  and  assas- 
sinations contributed  equally  with  foreign  invasions  to 
diminish  the  influence  of  the  monarchy  and  exhaust  the 
strength  of  the  kingdom. 

Of  sixty-two  sovereigns  who  reigned  from  the  death 
of  Maha-Sen,  A.D.  301,  to  the  accession  of  Prakrama 
Bahu,  A.D.  1153,  nine  met  a  violent  death  at  the  hands 
of  their  relatives  or  subjects,  two  ended  their  days  in 
exile,  one  was  slain  by  the  Malabars,  and  four  com- 
mitted suicide.  Of  the  lives  of  the  larger  number  the 
Buddhist  historians  fail  to  furnish  any  important  inci- 
dents ;  they  relate  merely  the  merit  which  each  acquired 
by  his  liberality  to  the  national  religion  or  the  more 
substantial  benefits  conferred  on  the  people  by  the  for- 
mation of  lakes  for  irrigation. 

VOL.  i.  c  c 


386 


TTIE   SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


A.D. 

330. 


339 


Unembarrassed  by  any  questions  of  external  policy 
or  foreign  expeditions,  and  limited  to  a  narrow  range 
of  internal  administration,  a  few  of  the  early  kings 
addressed  themselves  to  intellectual  pursuits.  One  im- 
mortalised himself  in  the  estimation  of  the  devout  by  his 
skill  in  painting  and  sculpture,  and  in  carving  in  ivory, 
arts  which  he  displayed  by  modelling  statues  of  Buddha, 
and  which  he  employed  himself  in  teaching  to  his 
A.D.  subjects.1  Another  was  equally  renowned  as  a  medical 
author  and  a  practitioner  of  surgery2,  and  a  third  was 
so  passionately  attached  to  poetry  that  in  despair  for 
the  death  of  Kalidas3,  he  flung  himself  into  the  flames 
of  the  poet's  funeral  pile. 

With  the  -exception  of  the  embassy  sent  from  Ceylon 
to  Borne  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius4,  the 
earliest  diplomatic  intercourse  with  foreigners  of  which 
a  record  exists,  occurred  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  centuries, 
when  the  Singhalese  appear  to  have  sent  ambassadors 
to  the  Emperor  Julian5,  and  for  the  first  time  to  have 
established  a  friendly  connection  with  China.  It  is 
strange,  considering  the  religious  sympathies  which 
united  the  two  people,  that  the  native  chronicles  make 
no  mention  of  the  latter  negotiations  or  their  results,  so 
that  we  learn  of  them  only  through  Chinese  historians. 
The  Encyclopedia  of  MA-TOUAX-LIX,  written  at  the 
close  of  the  thirteenth  century6,  records  that  Ceylon 


1  Detu  Tissa,    A.D.   330,   Maha- 
icanso,  xxxvii.  p.  242. 

2  Budha  Daasa,  A.D.  339.     Maha- 
wanso,  xxxvii.  p.  243.     His  woi-k  on 
medicine,  entitled   Sara-sanyralm  or 
Sarat-tha- Sambo,  is  still  extant,  and 
native  practitioners  profess  to  consult 
it. —  TURNOTJR'S  Epitome,  p.  27. 

3  Not  KALIDAS,  the  author  of  Sa- 
contcda,  to  whom  Sir  W.  Jones  awards 
the  title  of  "  The  Shakspeare  of  the 
East,"  but  PANDITA  KALIDAS,  a  Sin- 
ghalese poet,  none  of  whose  verses 
have    been    preserved.      His    royal 
patron  was    Kiunara  Das,    king"  of 


Ceylon,  A.D.  513.  For  an  account  of 
Kalidas,  see  DE  ALWIS'S  Sidath  San- 
gara,  p.  cliv. 

4  PLINY,  lib.  vi.  c.  24. 

5  AlIMIASTSMAKCELLIXrS,  lib.  XX. 

c.  7. 

6  KLAPROTH  doubts,  "si  la  science 
de  1'Europe  a  produit  jusqu'a  pre- 
sent un  ouvrage  de  ce  genre  aussi 
bien  execute"  et  capable  de  soutenir 
la  comparaison  avec  cette  encyclo- 
pedic chinoise." — Jmtrn.  Asiat.  torn. 
xxi.  p.  3.     See  also  Asiatic  Journal, 
London,  1832,  vol.  xxxv.  p.  110.     It 
has  been  often  reprinted  in  100  large 


volumes.  M.  STASTISLAS  JULIEN  says  |  these  authorities  will  be  found  ex- 
that  in  another  Chinese  work,  Picn-i-  I  tracted  in  the  chapter  in  which  I 
tien,  or  T7ic  History  of  .Foreign  Na-  have  described  the  intercourse  be- 
tions,  there  is  a  compilation  including  tween  China  and  Ceylon,  Vol.  I.  P.  v. 


tions,  there  is  a  compilation  including 
every  passage  in  which  Chinese  au- 
thors have  written  of  Ceylon,  which 
occupies  about  forty  pages  4to.  Ib. 
torn.  xxix.  p.  39.  A  number  of 


tween  China  and  Ceylon,  Vol.  I.  P.  v. 
ch.  iii. 

1  Between  the  years  317  and  420 
A.D. — Joum.  Asiat.  torn,  xxviii.  p. 
401. 


A.I). 


CUAP.  IX.]          KIXGS   OF   THE   "  LOWER   DYNASTY."  387 

first  entered  into  political  relations  with  China  in  the 
fourth  century.1  It  was  about  the  year  400  A.D.,  says 
the  author,  "  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Nyan-ti,  that 
ambassadors  arrived  from  Ceylon  bearing  a  statue  of  Fo 
in  jade-stone  four  feet  two  inches  high,  painted  in  five 
colours,  and  of  such  singular  beauty  that  one  would  have 
almost  doubted  its  being  a  work  of  human  ingenuity. 
It  was  placed  in  the  Buddhist  temple  at  Kien-Kang 
(Xankin)."  In  the  year  428  A.D.,  the  King  of  Ceylon 
(Maha  Nama)  sent  envoys  to  offer  tribute,  and  this 
homage  was  repeated  between  that  period  and  A.D.  529, 
by  three  other  Singhalese  kings,  whose  names  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  identify  with  their  Chinese  designations  of  Kia-oe, 
Kia-lo,  and  the  Ho-li-ye. 

In  A.D.  670,  another  ambassador  arrived  from  Ceylon, 
and  in  742,  Chi-lo-mi-kia  sent  presents  to  the  Emperor 
of  China  consisting  of  pearls  (perles  de  feu],  golden  flowers, 
precious  stones,  ivory,  and  pieces  of  fine  cotton  cloth. 
At  a  later  period  mutual  intercourse  became  frequent 
between  the  two  countries,  and  some  of  the  Chinese 
travellers  who  resorted  to  Ceylon  have  left  valuable 
records  as  to  the  state  of  the  island. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of  Maha  Nama,  about  the  year     A.D. 
413  A.D.,  that  Ceylon  was  visited  by  Fa  Hian,  and   the    413> 
statements  of  the  Mahawanso  are  curiously  corroborated 
by  the  observations  recorded  by  this  Chinese  traveller. 
He   describes   accurately   the    geniality   of  the  climate, 
whose  uniform  temperature  rendered  the  seasons  undis- 
tinguishable.     "  Winter  and  summer,"  he  says,  "  are  alike 
unknown,  and  perpetual  verdure  realises  the  idea  of  a 


388 


THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


perennial  spring,  periods  for  seed  time  and  harvest 
being  regulated  by  the  taste  of  the  husbandman."  This 
statement  has  reference  to  the  multitude  of  tanks  which 
rendered  agriculture  independent  of  the  periodical  rains. 

Fa  Hian  speaks  of  the  lofty  monuments  which  were 
the  memorials  of  Buddha,  and  of  the  gems  and  gold 
that  adorned  his  statues  at  Anarajapoora.  Amongst 
the  most  surprising  of  these  was  a  figure  in  what 
he  calls  "  blue  jasper,"  inlaid  with  jewels  and  other 
precious  materials,  and  holding  in  one  hand  a  pearl  of 
inestimable  value. l  He  describes  the  Bo-tree  in  terms 
that  might  almost  be  applied  to  its  actual  condition 
at  the  present  day,  and  he  states  that  they  had  recently 
erected  a  building  to  contain  "  the  tooth  of  Buddha." 
This  was  exhibited  to  the  pious  in  the  middle  of  the 
third  moon  with  processions  and  ceremonies  which  he 
minutely  details.2  All  this  corresponds  closely  with  the 
narrative  of  the  Mahawanso.  The  sacred  tooth  of  Bud- 
dha, called  at  that  time  Ddthd  dhdtu,  and  now  the 
Dalada,  had  been  brought  to  Ceylon  a  short  time  before 
Fa  Hian's  arrival  in  the  reign  of  Kirti-Sri-Megha-warna, 
A.D.  311,  in  charge  of  a  princess  of  Kalinga,  who  con- 
cealed it  in  the  folds  of  her  hair.  And  the  Mahawanso 
with  equal  precision  describes  processions  conducted 
by  the  king  and  the  assembled  priests,  in  which 


1  It  was  whilst  looking  at  this 
statue  that  FA  HIAN  encountered  an 
incident  which  he  has  related  with 
touching  simplicity  :  —  "  Depuis  que 
FA  HIAN  avait  quitte  la  terre  de 
Han,  plusieurs  annees  s'etaient  ecou- 
le"es ;  les  gens  avec  lesquels  il  avait 
des  rapports  etaient  tous  des  homines 
de  centimes  etrangeres.  Les  mon- 
tagnes,  les  rivieres,  les  herbes,  les 
arbres,  tout  ce  qui  avait  frappe  ses 
yeux  etait  nouveau  pour  lui.  De 

Rlus,  ceux  qui  avaient  fait  route  avec 
li,   s'en    e"taient    scare's,    les    uns 
s'e"taiit  arrete"s,   et  les   autres   e"tant 
morts.    En  re"flechissant  au  passe",  son 


C03ur  etait  toujours  rempli  de  pen- 
se"es  et  de  tristesse.  Tout  a  coup,  a 
cote  de  cette  figure  de  jaspe,  il  vit 
un  marchand  qui  faisait  hommage 
a  la  statue  d'un  eventail  de  taffetas 
blanc  du  pays  de  Tsin.  Sans  qu'on 
s'en  apercut  cela  lui  causa  une  emo- 
tion telle  que  ses  larmes  coulerent 
et  remplirent  ses  yeux."  (FA  HIAN. 
Foe-koue-ki,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  333.) 
"  Tsin "  means  the  province  of 
Chensi,  which  was  the  birthplace  of 
Fa  Hian. 

2  FA     HIAN,     Foe-kmie-ki,     ch, 
xxxviii.  p.  334-6. 


CHAP.  IX.]         KINGS   OF   THE    "  LOWER   DYNASTY."  389 

the  tooth  was  borne  along  the  streets  of  Anarajapoora 
amidst  the  veneration  of  the  multitude.1 

One  of  the  most  striking  events  in  this  period  of 
Singhalese  history  was  the  murder  of  the  king,  Dhatu 
Sena,  A.D.  459,  by  his  son,  who  seized  the  throne  under 
the  title  of  Kasyapa  I.  The  story  of  this  outrage, 
which  is  highly  illustrative  of  the  superstition  and 
cruelty  of  the  age,  is  told  with  much  feeling  in  the 
Mahawanso ;  tli£  author  of  which,  Mahanamo,  was  the 
uncle  of  the  outraged  king,  Dhatu  Sena  was  a 
descendant  of  the  royal  line,  whose  family  were  living 
in  retirement  during  the  usurpation  of  the  Malabars, 
A.D.  434  to  459.  As  a  youth  he  had  embraced  the 
priesthood,  and  his  future  eminence  was  foretold  by  an 
omen.  "  On  a  certain  day,  wrhen  chaunting  at  the  foot 
of  a  tree,  when  a  shower  of  rain  fell,  a  cobra  de  capello 
encircled  him  with  its  folds  and  covered  his  book  with 
its  hood." 2  He  was  educated  by  his  uncle,  Mahanamo, 
and  in  process  of  time,  surrounding  himself  with  ad- 
herents, he  successfully  attacked  the  Malabars,  defeated 
two  of  their  chiefs  in  succession,  put  three  others  to 
death,  recovered  the  native  sovereignty  of  Ceylon,  "  and 
the  religion  which  had  been  set  aside  by  the  foreigners, 
he  restored  to  its  former  ascendancy."  He  recalled 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  241,  in  person  to  Madura  to  negotiate  its 
249.  After  the  funeral  rites  of  Go-  surrender,  and  brought  it  back  to 
tama  Buddha  had  been  performed  !  Pollanarrua.  Its  subsequent  adven- 
at  Kusinara,  B.C.  543,  his  "  left  ca-  tures  and  its  final  destruction  by  the 
nine  tooth"  was  earned  to  Danta-  i  Portuguese,  as  recorded  by  DE  COTTTO 
pura,  the  capital  of  Kaliiiga,  where  and  others,  -noil  be  found  in  a  subse- 
it  was  preserved  for  800  years.  The  quent  passage,  see  Vol.  II.  P.  vii.  ch.v. 
King  of  Kalinga,  in  the  reign  of  :  The  Singhalese  maintain  that  the 
Maha-Sen,  being  on  the  point  of  en-  ;  Dalada,  still  treasured  in  its  strong 
gaging  in  a  doubtful  conflict,  directed,  ;  tower  at  Kandy,  is  the  genuine  relic, 
in  the  event  of  defeat,  that  the  sacred  which  was  preserved  from  the  Portu- 
relic  should  be  conveyed  to  Ceylon,  guese  spoilers  by  secreting  it  at  Del- 
Avhither  it  was  accordingly  taken  as  gamoa  in  Saflragam.  TTJENOHR'S 
described.  (RajavaK,  p.  240.)  Be-  Account  of  the  Tooth  Relic  of  Ceylon : 
tween  A.D.  1303  and  1315  the  tooth  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of 
was  carried  back  to  Southern  India  BcngaJ,  1837,  vol.  vi.  p.  2,  p.  856. 
by  the  leader  of  an  army,  who  invaded  2  This  is  a  frequent  emblematic 
Ceylon  and  sacked  Yapahoo,  which  episode  in  connection  with  the  heroes 
was  then  the  capital.  The  succeed-  of  Hindu  history. — Asiat.  Researches, 
ing  monarch,  Prnkrama  III.,  went  ,  vol.  xv.  p.  275. " 
~c  c  3 


390  THE    SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 

A.D.  the  fugitive  inhabitants  to  Anarajapoora  ;  degraded  the 
0  '  nobles  who  had  intermarried  with  the  Malabars,  and 
vigorously  addressed  himself  to  repair  the  sacred  edifices 
and  to  restore  fertility  to  the  lands  which  had  been  neg- 
lected during  their  hostile  occupation  by  the  strangers. 
He  applied  the  jewels  from  his  head-dress  to  replace  the 
gems  of  which  the  statue  of  Buddha  had  been  despoiled, 
the  curled  hair  of  the  divine  teacher  being  represented 
by  sapphires,  and  the  lock  on  his  forehead  by  threads  of 
gold. 

The  family  of  the  king  consisted  of  two  sons  and  a 
daughter,  the  latter  married  to  his  nephew,  who 
"  caused  her  to  be  flogged  on  the  thighs  with  a  whip 
although  she  had  committed  no  offence ; "  on  which  the 
king,  in  his  indignation,  ordered  the  mother  of  her 
husband  to  be  burned.  His  nephew  and  his  eldest  son 
now  conspired  to  dethrone  him,  and  having  made  him  a 
prisoner,  the  latter  "  raised  the  chatta  "  (the  white  parasol 
emblematic  of  royalty),  and  seized  on  the  supreme  power. 
Pressed  by  his  son  to  discover  the  depository  of  his 
treasures,  the  captive  king  entreated  to  be  taken  to 
Kalawapi1,  under  the  pretence  of  pointing  out  the  place 
of  their  concealment,  but  in  reality  with  a  determination 
to  prepare  for  death,  after  having  seen  his  early  friend 
Mahanamo,  and  bathed  in  the  great  tank  which  he 
himself  had  constructed.  The  usurper  complied, 
and  assigned  for  the  journey  a  "  carriage  with  broken 
wheels,"  the  charioteer  of  which  shared  his  store  of 
"  parched  rice  "  with  the  fallen  king.  "  Thus  worldly 
prosperity," "says  Mahanamo,  who  lived  to  write  the  sad 
story  of  the  interview,  "  is  like  the  glimmering  of 
lightning,  and  what  reflecting  man  would  devote  himself 
to  its  pursuit ! "  The  Eaja  approached  his  friend  and, 
"  from  the  manner  these  two  persons  discoursed,  side 
by  side,  mutually  quenching  the  fire  of  their  afflictions, 
they  appeared  as  if  endowed  with  royal  prosperity. 
Having  allowed  him  to  eat,  the  thero  (Mahanamo)  in 

1  The  great  tank  of  Kalaweva.— See  Vol.  I.  p.  468 ;  Vol.  II.  p.  G02. 


CHAP.  IX.]          KINGS    OF   THE    "  LOWER   DYNASTY." 


391 


various  ways  administered  consolation  and  abstracted  his 
mind  from  all  desire  to  prolong  his  existence."  The  king 
then  bathed  in  the  tank ;  and  pointing  to  his  friend  and 
to  it,  "  these,"  he  exclaimed  to  the  messengers,  "  are  ah1 
the  treasures  I  possess." 

He  was  conducted  back  to  the  capital ;  and  Kasyapa, 
suspecting  that  the  king  was  concealing  his  riches 
for  his  second  son,  Mogallana,  gave  the  order  for  his 
execution.  Arrayed  in  royal  insignia,  he  repaired  to  the 
prison  of  the  Raja,  and  continued  to  walk  to  and  fro  in 
his  presence :  till  the  king,  perceiving  his  intention  to 
wound  his  feelings,  said  mildly,  "  Lord  of  statesmen,  I 
bear  the  same  affection  towards  you  as*  to  Mogallana." 
The  usurper  smiled  and  shook  his  head ;  then  stripping 
the  king  naked  and  casting  him  into  chains,  he  built  up  a 
wall,  embedding  him  in  it  with  his  face  towards  the  east, 
and  enclosed  it  with  clay  :  "  thus  the  monarch  Dhatu-Sena, 
who  was  murdered  by  his  son,  united  himself  with  Sakko 
the  ruler  of  Devos."  1 

The  parricide  next  directed  his  groom  and  his  cook 
to  assassinate  his  brother,  who,  however,  escaped  to  the 
coast  of  India.2  Failing  in  the  attempt,  he  repaired  to  Siha- 
giri  (Sigiri),  a  place  difficult  of  access  to  men,  and  having 
cleared  it  on  ah1  sides,  he  surrounded  it  with  a  rampart. 
He  built  three  habitations,  accessible  only  by  flights  of 
steps,  and  ornamented  with  figures  of  lions  (siho), 
Avhence  the  fortress  takes  its  name,  Siha-giri,  "  the  Lion 
Rock."  Hither  he  carried  the  treasures  of  his  father, 
and  here  he  built  a  palace,  "  equal  in  beauty  to  the  ce- 
lestial mansion."  He  erected  temples  to  Buddha,  and 


1  Mahmcanso,  eh.  xxxviii.  To  this 
hideous  incident  Mahanamo  adds 
the  following  curious  moral :  "  This 
Raja  Dhatu  Sena,  at  the  time  he  was 
improving  the  Kalawapi  tank,  ob- 
served a  certain  priest  absorbed  in 
meditation,  and  not  being  able  to 
rouse  him  from  abstraction,  had  him 
buried  under  the  embankment  by 
heaping  earth  over  him.  His  own 
o  c 


living  entombment  was  the  retribu- 
tion manifested  in  this  life  for  that 
impious  act." 

2  I  am  indebted  to  the  family  of 
the  late  Mr.  Tumour  for  access  to  a 
manuscript  translation  of  a  further 
portion  of  the  Mahmcanso,  from  which 
this  continuation  of  the  narrative  is 
extracted. 


A.D. 

477. 


392 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHKOXICLES. 


[PART  III. 


A.D.    monasteries  for  his  priests,  but  conscious  of  the  enor- 

477-    mity  of  his  crimes,  these  endowments  were  conferred  in 

the  names  of  his  minister  and  his  children.     Failing  to 


FORTIFIED    ROCK.   OF    SIGIRI. 


"  derive  merit "  from  such  acts,  stung  with  remorse, 
and  anxious  to  test  public  feeling,  he  enlarged  his 
deeds  of  charity ;  he  formed  gardens  at  the  capital, 
and  planted  groves  of  mangoes  throughout  the  island. 
Desirous  to  enrich  a  wihara  at  Anarajapoora,  he  pro- 
posed to  endow  it  with  a  village,  but  "  the  ministers  of 
religion,  regardful  of  the  reproaches  of  the  world,  de- 
clined accepting  gifts  at  the  hands  of  a  parricide.  Kasyapa, 
bent  on  befriending  them,  dedicated  the  village  to  Buddha, 
after  which  they  consented,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  then 
the  property  of  the  divine  teacher."  Impelled,  says  the 
Mahawanso,  by  the  irrepressible  dread  of  a  future  exist- 
ence, he  strictly  performed  his  "  aposaka  " l  vows,  prac- 
tised the  virtue  of  non-procrastination,  acquired  the  "  da- 
thanga,"2  and  caused  books  to  be  written,  and  image 
and  alms-edifices  to  be  formed. 

Meanwhile,  after  an  interval  of  eighteen  years,  Mo- 
gallana,  having  in  his  exile  collected  a  sufficient  force, 


1  A  lay  devotee  who  takes  on  him-  j  which  the  cleaving  to  existence  is  de- 
self  the  obligation  of  asceticism  with-     stroycd,  involving  piety,  abstinence, 


out  putting  on  the  yellow  robe. 

»  The    dathanga*  or     "teles-dat- 
hanga  "  are  the  thirteen  ordinances  by 


and    self  -  mortification.  —  HARDY'S 
Eastern  Monachism,  ch.  ii.  p.  9. 


CHAP.  IX.]         KINGS   OF   THE    "  LOWER   DYNASTY.' 


393 


returned  from  India  to  avenge  the  murder  of  his  father  ; 
and  the  brothers  encountered  each  other  in  a  decisive 
engagement  at  Ambatthakolo  in  the  Seven  Corles.1 
Kasyapa,  perceiving  a  swamp  in  his  front,  turned  the 
elephant  which  he  rode  into  a  side  path  to  avoid  it ;  on 
which  his  army  in  alarm  raised  the  shout  that  "  their 
liege  lord  was  flying,"  and  in  the  confusion  which  fol- 
lowed, Mogallana,  having  struck  off  the  head  of  his 
brother,  returnecf  the  kreese  to  its  scabbard,  and  led 
his  followers  to  take  possession  of  the  capital ;  where  he 
avenged  the  death  of  his  father,  by  the  execution  of  the 
minister  who  had  consented  to  it.  He  established  a 
marine  force  to  guard  the  island  against  the  descents 
of  the  Malabars,  and  "  having  purified  both  the  orthodox 
dharma2,  and  the  religion  of  the  vanquisher,  he  died, 
after  reigning  eighteen  years,  signalised  by  acts  of  piety."3 
This  story  as  related  by  its  eye-witness,  Mahanamo,  forms 
one  of  the  most  characteristic,  as  well  as  the  best  au- 
thenticated episodes  of  contemporary  history  presented 
by  the  annals  of  Ceylon. 

Such  was  the  feebleness  of  the  royal  house,  that  of  the 
eight  kings  who  succeeded  Mogallana  between  A.D.  515 
and  A.D.  586,  two  died  by  suicide,  three  by  murder, 
and  one  from  grief  occasioned  by  the  treason  of  his  son. 
The  anarchy  consequent  upon  such  disorganisation  stimu- 
lated the  rapacity  of  the  Malabars ;  and  the  chronicles 
of  the  following  centuries  are  filled  with  the  accounts  of 
their  descents  on  the  island  and  the  misery  inflicted  by 
their  excesses. 


A.D. 

495. 


1  At  or  near  the  Kidi-wihara,  eight 
miles  north-east  of  Kornegalle. 

2  The  doctrines  of  Buddha. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxix.     Manu- 
script translation  by  TURNOTTR.   TUR- 


his Epitome^  says  Kasyapa 
committed   suicide  on  the  field  of 
battle,"  but  this  does  not  appear  from 
the  narrative  of  the  Mahawanso. 


A.D. 

515. 


394 


THE   SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


CHAP.  X. 


A.D. 

515. 


THE    DOMINATION   OF   THE   MALABARS. 

IT  has  been  already  explained  that  the  invaders  who 
engaged  in  forays  into  Ceylon,  though  known  by  the 
general  epithet  of  Malabars  (or  as  they  are  designated 
in  Pali,  damilos,  "  Tamils "),  were  also  natives  of  places 
in  India  remote  from  that  now  known  as  Malabar.  They 
Avere,  in  reality,  the  inhabitants  of  one  of  the  earliest 
states  organised  in  Southern  India,  the  kingdom  of  Pandya1, 
whose  sovereigns,  from  their  intelligence,  and  their  en- 
couragement of  native  literature,  have  been  appropriately 
styled  "  the  Ptolemies  of  India."  Their  dominions,  which 
covered  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  comprehended 
the  greater  portion  of  the  Coromandel  coast,  extending 
to  Canara  on  the  western  coast,  and  southwards  to  the 
sea.2  Their  kingdom  was  subsequently  contracted  in 
dimensions,  first  by  the  assertion  of  their  independence  by 
the  people  of  Malabar,  and  eventually  by  the  rise  of  the 
state  of  Chera  to  the  west,  of  Eamnad  to  the  south,  and 
of  Chola  in  the  east,  till  it  sank  in  modern  times  into  the 
petty  government  of  the  Naicks  of  Madura,3 

The  relation  between  the  monarchs  of  this  portion  of  the 
Dekkan  and  the  early  colonisers  of  Ceylon  was  rendered 
intimate  by  many  concurring  incidents.  Wijayo  himself 
was  connected  by  maternal  descent  with  the  king  of 


1  Pandya,  as  a  kingdom,  was  not 
unkno\vn  in  classical  times,  and  its 
ruler  was  the  EaaiXevQ  navfttwv  men- 
tioned in  the  Penplus  of  the  JEry- 
thra>an  Sea,  and  the  king  Pandion, 
who  sent  an  embassy  to  Augustus.  — 


PLIXT,  vi.   20;     PTOLEMT,  rii.    1. 
Vide  Mup  of  India,  Vol.  I.  p.  330. 

2  See  an'  Historical  Sketch  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Pandya,  by  Prof.  II.  II. 
AVuxix,  A.<inf.  J<>»rn.,  vol.  Hi. 

3  See  ante,  p.  353,  n. 


CHAP.  X.]      THE   DOMINATION   OF   THE    MALABAKS. 


395 


Kalinga !,  now  known  as  the  Northern  Circars ;  his  A.D. 
second  wife  was  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Pandya,  and  515- 
the  ladies  who  accompanied  her  to  Ceylon  were  given  in 
marriage  to  his  ministers  and  officers.2  Similar  alli- 
ances were  afterwards  frequent;  and  the  Singhalese 
annalists  allude  on  more  than  one  occasion  to  the 
"  damilo  consorts "  of  their  sovereigns.3  Intimate  in- 
tercourse and  consanguinity,  were  thus  established  from 
the  remotest  period.  Adventurers  from  the  opposite 
coast  were  encouraged  by  the  previous  settlers  ;  high 
employments  were  thrown  open  to  them,  Malabars  were 
subsidised  both  as  cavalry  and  as  seamen ;  and  the 
first  abuse  of  their  privileges  was  in  the  instance  of  the 
brothers  Sena  and  Goottika,  who,  holding  naval  and 
military  commands,  took  advantage  of  their  position 
and  seized  on  the  throne,  B.C.  237;  apparently  with  such 
acquiescence  on  the  part  of  the  people,  that  even  the 
Mahawanso  praises  the  righteousness  of  their  reign,  which 
was  prolonged  to  twenty-two  years,  when  they  were  put 
to  death  by  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne.4 

The  easy  success  of  the  first  usurpers  encouraged  the 
ambition  of  fresh  aspirants,  and  barely  ten  years  elapsed 
till  the  first  regular  invasion  of  the  island  took  place, 
under  the  illustrious  Elala,  who,  with  an  army  from 
Mysore  (then  called  Chola  or  Soli),  subdued  the  entire 
of  Ceylon,  north  of  the  Mahawelli-ganga,  and  compelled 
the  chiefs  of  the  rest  of  the  island,  and  the  kings  of  Rohuna 
and  Maya,  to  acknowledge  his  supremacy  and  become 
his  tributaries.5  As  in  the  instance  of  the  previous 
revolt,  the  people  exhibited  such  faint  resistance  to  the 
usurpation,  that  the  reign  of  Elala  extended  to  forty- 
four  years.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  their  quies- 
cence under  a  stranger  was  entirely  ascribable  to,  the 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  vi.  p.  43. 

8  Mahaicanso,  ch.  vii.  p.  53 ;  the 
Rajai-ali  (p.  173)  says  they  were 
700  in  number. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  253. 


4  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxi.  p.  127 

5  TOIXOUK'S  Epitome,  p.  17; 
hauxmto.  ch.  xxi.  p.  128 ; 

p.  188. 


396 


THE   SIXGHALESE   CHROXICLES. 


[PART  III. 


A.D.  fact,  that  the  rule  of  the  Malabars,  although  adverse  to 
515'  Buddhism,  was  characterised  by  justice  and  impartiality. 
Possibly  they  recognised  to  some  extent  their  pretensions, 
as  founded  on  their  relationship  to  the  legitimate  sove- 
reigns of  the  island,  and  hence  they  bore  their  sway  with- 
out impatience.1 

The  majority  of  the  subsequent  invasions  of  Ceylon  by 
the  Malabars  partook  less  of  the  character  of  conquest 
than  of  forays,  by  a  restless  and  energetic  race,  into  a 
fertile  and  defenceless  country.  Mantotte,  on  the  north- 
west coast,  near  Adam's  Bridge,  became  the  great  place  of 
debarcation ;  and  here  successive  bands  of  marauders 
landed  time  after  time  without  meeting  any  effectual  resist- 
ance from  the  unwarlike  Singhalese. 

The  second  great  invasion  took  place  about  a  century 
after  the  first,  B.C.  103,  when  seven  Malabar  leaders 
effected  simultaneous  descents  at  different  points  of  the 
coast2,  and  combined  with  a  disaffected  "Brahman 
prince  "  of  Rohuna,  to  force  Walagam-bahu  I.  to  sur- 
render his  sovereignty.  The  king,  after  an  ineffectual 
show  of  resistance,  fled  to  the  mountains  of  Malaya ;  one 
of  the  invaders  carried  off  the  queen  to  the  coast  of  India ; 
a  third  despoiled  the  temples  of  Anarajapoora  and  retired, 
whilst  the  others  continued  in  possession  of  the  capital 
for  nearly  fifteen  years,  till  Walagam-bahu,  by  the  aid 
of  the  Eohuna  Highlanders,  succeeded  in  recovering  the 
throne. 

The  third  great  invasion  on  record 3  was  in  its  cha- 


1  See  ante,  p.  360,  n. 

2  TURNOUTS  Epitome,  p.  16.     The 
Mahau-anso     says    they    landed    at 
"  Miihatitlha."—  Mantotte,  ch.  xxxiii. 
p.  203. 

3  This  incursion  of   the  Malahars 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  Mafiawanso, 
but  it  is  described  in  the  Rajavali,  p. 
220,  and  mentioned  by  TURXOTTR,  in 
his  Epitome,  #<?.,   p.   21.     There  is 
evidence  of  the  conscious  supremacy 
of  the  Malabars  over  the  north   of 
Ceylon,  in  the  fourth   century,  in  a 


very  curious  document,  relating  to 
that  period.  The  existence  of  a  co- 
lony of  Jews  at  Cochin,  in  the  south- 
western extremity  of  the  Dekkan, 
has  long  been  known  in  Europe,  and 
half  a  century  ago,  particulars  of 
their  condition  and  numbers  were 
published  by  Dr.  Claudius  Buchanan. 
(Christian  Researches,  $c.~)  Amongst 
other  facts,  he  made  known  their 
possession  of  Hebrew  MSS.  demon- 
strative of  the  great  antiquity  of  their 
settlement  iu  India,  and  also  of  their 


CHAP.  X.]      THE   DOMINATION   OF   THE   MALABARS. 


397 


racter  still  more  predatory  than  those  which  preceded  A.D. 
it,  and  it  was  headed  by  a  king  in  person,  who  carried 
away  12,000  Singhalese  as  slaves  to  Mysore.  It  oc- 
curred in  the  reign  of  Waknais,  A.D.  110,  whose  son 
Gaja-bahu,  A.D.  113,  avenged  the  outrage  by  invading 
the  Solee  or  Chola  country  with  an  expedition  which 
sailed  from  Jaffnapatam,  and  brought  back  not  only  the 
rescued  Singhalese  captives,  but  also  a  multitude  of 
Solleans,  whonT"the  king  established  on  lands  in  the 
Alootcoor  Corle,  where  the  Malabar  features  are  thought 
to  be  discernible  to  the  present  day.1 

A  long  interval  of  repose  ensued,  and  no  fresh  ex- 
pedition from  India  is  mentioned  in  the  chronicles  of 
Ceylon  till  A.D.  433,  when  the  capital  was  again  taken 
by  the  Malabars  ;  the  Singhalese  families  fled  beyond 
the  Mahawelli-ganga ;  and  the  invaders  occupied  the 
entire  extent  of  the  Pihiti  Eatta,  where  for  twenty- 
seven  years,  live  of  them  in  succession  administered  the 
government,  till  Dhatu  Sena  collected  forces  sufficient 
to  overpower  the  strangers,  and,  emerging  from  his 
retreat  in  Eohuna,  recovered  possession  of  the  north  of 
the  island.2 

Dhatu  Sena,  after  his  victory,  seems  to  have  made  an 
attempt,  though  an  ineffectual  one,  to  reverse  the  policy 
that  had  operated  under  his  predecessors  as  an  in- 
centive to  the  immigration  of  Malabars;  settlement 


title  deeds  of  land  (sasanams),  en- 
graved on  plates  of  copper,  and  pre- 
sented to  them  by  the  early  kings  of 
that  portion  of  the  peninsula.  Some 
of  the  latter  have  been  carefully 
translated  into  English  (see  Madras 
Journ.,  vol.  xiii.  xiv.).  One  of  their 
MSS.  has  recently  been  brought  to 
England,  under  circumstances  which 
are  recounted  by  Mr.  FOESTEB,  in 
the  third  voL  of  his  One  Primeval 
Language,  p.  303.  This  MS.  I  have 
been  permitted  to  examine.  It  is  in 
corrupted  Rabbinical  Hebrew,  writ- 
ten about  the  year  1781,  and  contains 
a  partial  synopsis  of  the  modern  his- 


tory of  the  section  of  the  Jewish  na- 
tion to  whom  it  belongs ;  with  ac- 
counts of  their  arrival  in  the  year 
A.D.  68,  and  of  their  reception  by  the 
Malabar  kings.  Of  one  of  the  latter, 
frequently  spoken  of  by  the  honorific 
style  of  SRI  PERVMAL,  but  identifiable 
with  IRA vi  VARMAR,  who  reigned 
A.D.  379,  the  manuscript  says  that 
his  "rule  extended  from  ~Goa  to 
Colombo." 

1  CASIE  CHITTY,  Ceylon  Gazetteer, 
p.  7. 

2  Rajavali,    p.    243  j     TuRXOUR's 
Epitome,  p.  27. 


898  THE    SINGHALESE    CHKOXICLES.  [PART  III. 

and  intermarriages  had  been  all  along  encouraged1, 
and  even  during  the  recent  usurpation,  many  Singha- 
lese families  of  rank  had  formed  connections  with  the 
Damilos.  The  schisms  among  the  Buddhist  themselves, 
tending  as  they  did  to  engraft  Brahmanical  rites 
upon  the  doctrines  of  the  purer  faith,  seem  to  have 
promoted  and  matured  the  intimacy  between  the  two 
people ;  some  of  the  Singhalese  kings  erected  temples 
to  the  gods  of  the  Hindus2,  and  the  promoters  of  the 
Wytulian  heresy  found  a  refuge  from  persecution 
amongst  their  sympathisers  in  the  Dekkan.3 

The  Malabars,  trained  to  arms,  now  resorted  in  such 
numbers  to  Ceylon,  that  the  leaders  in  civil  commotions 
were  accustomed  to  hire  them  in  bands  to  act  against 
the  royal  forces4;  and  whilst  no  precautions  were 
adopted  to  check  the  landing  of  marauders  on  the 
coast,  the  invaders  constructed  forts  throughout  the 
country  to  protect  their  conquests  from  recapture  by 
the  Singhalese.  Proud  of  these  successful  expeditions,  the 
native  records  of  the  Chola  kings  make  mention  of  their 
victories  ;  and  in  one  of  their  grants  of  land,  engraved 
on  copper,  and  still  in  existence,  Viradeva-Chola,  the 
sovereign  by  whom  it  was  made,  is  described  as  having 
triumphed  over  "Madura,  Izharn,  Caruvar,  and  the 
crowned  head  of  Pandya ;"  Izham,  (or  Ham)  being 
the  Tamil  name  of  Ceylon.5  On  their  expulsion  by 
Dhatu  Sena,  he  took  possession  of  the  fortresses  and 
extirpated  the  Damilos ;  degraded  the  Singhalese  who 
had  intermarried  with  them ;  confiscated  their  estates 
in  favour  of  those  who  remained  true  to  his  cause ; 


1  Anula,  the  queen  of  Ceylon,  A  D. 
47,  met  with  no  opposition  in  raising 
one  of  her  Malabar  husbands  to  the 
throne.  —  TTJR:NTOUR'S  Epitome,  p.  19. 
Sotthi  Sena,  who  reigned  A.D.  432, 
had  a  Darailo  queen.  —  Mahawanso, 


a  supporter  of  the  religion  of  Buddha, 
and  a  friend  of  the  people." — Raja- 
ratnacari,  p.  78. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  234; 
TURNOTJR'S  Epitome,  p.  25. 

4  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxvi.  p.  228. 


ch.  xxxviii.  p.  253.  5  DOWSON,  On  the  Chera  Kingdom 

2  SriSangaBoIII.A.D.  702,  "made  I  of  India. — Asiat.  Journ.  vol.  viii.  p. 
a  figure  of  the  God  Vishnu;  and  was  I  24. 


CHAP.  X.]      THE    DOMINATION    OF   THE    MALADARS. 


399 


and  organised  a  naval  force  for  the  protection  of  the    A-D- 
coasts  l  of  the  island. 

But  his  vigorous  policy  produced  no  permanent 
effect ;  his  son  Mogallana,  after  the  murder  of  his  father 
and  the  usurpation  of  Kasyapa,  fled  for  refuge  to  the 
coast  of  India,  and  subsequently  recovered  possession  of 
the  throne,  tyy  the  aid  of  a  force  collected  there.'2  In 
the  succession  of  assassinations,  conspiracies,  and  civil 
wars  which  distracted  the  kingdom  in  the  sixth  and 
seventh  centuries,  during  the  struggles  of  the  rival 
branches  of  the  royal  house,  each  claimant,  in  his  adver- 
sity, betook  himself  to  the  Indian  continent,  and  Malabar 
mercenaries  from  Pandya  and  Chola  enrolled  themselves 
indifferently  under  any  leader,  and  deposed  or  restored 
kings  at  their  pleasure.3 

The  Rajavali,  in  a  single  passage  enumerates  fourteen 
sovereigns,  each  of  whom  was  murdered  by  his  successor 
between  A.D.  523  and  A.D.  648.  During  this  period  of 
violence  and  anarchy,  peaceful  industry  was  suspended, 
and  extensive  emigrations  took  place  to  Bahar  and  Orissa, 
Buddhism,  however,  was  still  predominant,  and  protection 
was  accorded  to  its  professors.  Hiouen  Thsang,  a 
Chinese  traveller,  who  visited  India  between  629  A.D.  and 
645  4,  encountered  many  numbers  of  these  exiles,  who  in- 
formed him  that  they  fled  from  civil  commotions  in 
Ceylon,  in  which  religion  had  undergone  persecution,  the 
king  lost  his  life,  cultivation  had  been  interrupted,  and 
the  island  wasted  by  famine.  This  account  of  the  Chinese 
voyager  accords  accurately  with  the  events  detailed  in  the 
Singhalese  annals,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  Sanghatissa 
was  deposed  and  murdered,  A.D.  633,  by  Seneriwat, 


A.D. 

523. 


A. P. 

640. 


1  MahttU'ansn,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  256. 
and  xxxix.     TTJRNOITR^S  MS.,  Trans. 

2  TuRXorR's  Epitome,  p.  29;  Ra- 
favali,  p.  244. 

3  TFRNOUR'S  Epitome,  p.  31.    Ra~ 
javali,  p.  247. 


4  Histoire  de  In  Vie  de  Ilivucn 
Thsa-ng,  et  dc  scs  Voyages  dans  flnde 
depiris  Fan  629  jusqu'en  643.  Par 
HOEI-LI  et  YEX-THSASG,  $c.  Tra- 
duite  du  Chinois  par  STAXISLAS 
,  Paris,  1853. 


400 


THE   SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


A.D. 

640. 


his  minister,  who,  amidst  the  horrors  of  a  general  famine, 
was  put  to  death  by  the  people  of  Eohuna,  and  a  civil 
war  ensued ;  one  result  of  which  was  the  defeat  of  the 
Malabar  mercenaries  and  their  distribution  as  slaves  to  the 
temples.  Hiouen  Thsang  relates  the  particulars  of  his 
interviews  with  the  fugitives,  from  whom  he  learned  the 
extraordinary  riches  of  Ceylon,  the  number  and  wealth 
of  its  wiharas,  the  density  of  its  population  in  peaceful 
times,  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  the  abundance  of  its 
produce.1 

For  nearly  four  hundred  years,  from  the  seventh  till 
the  eleventh  century,  the  exploits  and  escapades  of  the 
Malabars  occupy  a  more  prominent  portion  of  the 
Singhalese  annals  than  that  devoted  to  the  policy  of 
the  native  sovereigns.  They  filled  every  office,  in- 
cluding that  of  prime  minister2,  and  they  decided  the 
claims  of  competing  candidates  for  the  crown.  At 
length  the  country  became  so  infested  by  their  numbers 
that  the  feeble  monarchs  found  it  impracticable  to  effect 
their  exclusion  from  Anarajapoora.3  Hence  to  escape  from 
their  proximity,  the  kings  in  the  eighth  century  began 
to  move  southwards,  and  transferred  their  residence  to 
Pollanarrua,  which  eventually  became  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom.  Enormous  tanks  were  constructed  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  new  capital;  palaces  were  erected,  sur- 
passing those  of  the  old  city  in  architectural  beauty; 
dagobas  were  raised,  nearly  equal  in  altitude  to  the 
Thuparama  and  Euanwelle,  and  temples  and  statues 
were  hewn  out  of  the  living  rock,  the  magnitude  and 
beauty  of  whose  ruins  attest  the  former  splendour  of 
Pollanarrua.4 


1  "  Ce  royaume  a  sept  mille  li  de 
tour,  et  sa  capitale  quarante  li ;    la 
population  est  agglomeree,  et  la  terre 

froduit  des  grains  en  abondance."  — 
IIOUEN-THSANG,  liv.  iv.  p.  194. 

2  TTJRNOUR'S  Epitome,  p.  33. 

3  TURNOTJR'S  Epitome,  A.D.    686, 
p.  31. 

4  The  first  king  who  built  a  palace 


at  Pollanarrua  was  Sri  Sanga  Bo  II. , 
A.D.  648.  One  of  his  successors,  Sri 
Sanga  Bo  III.,  took  up  his  residence 
there  temporarily,  A.D.  702 ;  it  was 
made  the  capital  by  Kuda  Akbo,  A.D. 
769,  and  its  embellishment,  the  build- 
ing of  colleges,  and  the  formation  of 
tanks  in  its  vicinity,  were  the  occupa- 
tions of  numbers  of  subsequent  kings. 


CHAP.  X.]      THE   DOMINATION   OF   THE   MALABABS.  401 

Notwithstanding  their  numbers  and  their  power,  it  is  A.D. 
remarkable  that  the  Malabars  were  never  identified  with  64°- 
any  plan  for  promoting  the  prosperity  and  embellishment 
of  Ceylon,  or  with  any  undertaking  for  the  permanent  im- 
provement of  the  island.  Unlike  the  Gangetic  race,  who 
were  the  earliest  colonists,  and  with  whom  originated 
every  project  for  enriching  and  adorning  the  country,  the 
Malabars  aspired  not  to  beautify  or  enrich,  but  to  impo- 
verish and  defkCe  ; — and  nothing  can  more  strikingly 
bespeak  the  inferiority  of  the  southern  race  than  the 
single  fact  that  everything  tending  to  exalt  and  to  civilise, 
in  the  early  condition  of  Ceylon,  was  introduced  by  the 
northern  conquerors,  whilst  all  that  contributed  to  ruin 
and  debase  is  distinctly  traceable  to  the  presence  and 
influence  of  the  Malabars. 

The  Singhalese,  either  paralysed  by  dread,  ma*de  feeble 
efforts  to  rid  themselves  of  the  invaders  ;  or  fascinated  by 
their  military  pomp,  endeavoured  to  conciliate  them  by 
alliances.  Thus,  when  the  king  of  Pandya  over-ran  the  A  D 
north  of  Ceylon,  A.D.  840,  plundered  the  capital  and  840. 
despoiled  its  temples,  the  unhappy  sovereign  had  no  other 
resource  than  to  purchase  the  evacuation  of  the  island  by 
a  heavy  ransom.1  Yet  such  was  the  influence  still  exer- 
cised by  the  Malabars,  that  within  a  very  few  years  his 
successor  on  the  throne  lent  his  aid  to  the  son  of  the  same 
king  of  Pandya  in  a  war  against  his  father,  and  conducted 
the  expedition  in  person.2  His  army  was,  in  all  proba- 
bility, composed  chiefly  of  Damilos,  with  whom  he  over- 
ran the  south  of  the  Indian  peninsula,  and  avenged  the 
outrage  inflicted  on  his  own  kingdom  in  the  late  reign 
by  bearing  back  the  plunder  of  Madura. 

This  exploit  served  to  promote  a  more  intimate  inter- 
course between  the  two  races,  and  after  the  lapse  of  a 


1  TTTRNOUR'S  Epitome,  p.  35  j  Ha-  I       2  A.D.  858  ;  Rajaratnacari,  p.  84. 
faratnacari,  p.  79. 

VOL.  I.  D  D 


402  THE   SINGHALESE    CHRONICLES.  [PART  111. 

A.n.  century,  A.D.  954,  the  king  of  Ceylon  a  second  time  in- 
954t  terposed  with  an  army  to  aid  the  Pandyan  sovereign 
in  a  quarrel  with  his  neighbour  of  Chola.  In  this  the 
former  was  worsted,  and  forced  to  seek  a  refuge  in  the 
territory  of  his  insular  ally,  whence  he  was  ultimately 
expelled  for  conspiracy  against  his  benefactor.  Having 
fled  to  India  without  his  regalia,  his  Cholian  rival  made 
the  refusal  of  the  king  of  Ceylon  to  surrender  them  the 
pretext  for  a  fresh  Malabar  invasion,  A.D.  990,  when 
the  enemy  was  repulsed  by  the  mountaineers  of  Eohuna, 
who,  from  the  earliest  period  down  to  the  present  day, 
have  evinced  uniform  impatience  of  strangers,  and  steady 
determination  to  resist  their  encroachments. 

But  such  had  been  the  influx  of  foreigners,  that  the 
efforts  of  these  highland  patriots  were  powerless  against 
A.D.  their  numbers.  Mahindo  III.,  A.D.  997,  married  a 
907.  princess  Of  Kalinga1,  and  in  a  civil  war  which  ensued, 
during  the  reign  of  his  son  and  successor,  the  novel 
spectacle  was  presented  of  a  Malabar  army  supporting 
the  cause  of  the  royal  family  against  Singhalese  insur- 
gents. The  island  was  now  reduced  to  the  extreme  of 
anarchy  and  insecurity  ;  "  the  foreign  population  "  had 
increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to  gain  a  complete  ascen- 
dancy over  the  native  inhabitants,  and  the  sovereign  had 
lost  authority  over  both.2 

A.D.  In  A.D.  1023,  the  Cholians  again  invaded  Ceylon 3, 
'  carried  the  king  captive  to  the  coast  of  India  (where 
he  died  in  exile),  and  established  a  Malabar  viceroy  at 
Pollanarrua,  who  held  possession  of  the  island  for  nearly 
thirty  years,  protected  in  his  usurpation  by  a  foreign 
army.  Thus,  "  throughout  the  reign  of  nineteen  kings," 
says  the  Rajaratnacari,  "  extending  over  eighty-six  years, 
the  Malabars  kept  up  a  continual  war  with  the  Singha- 
lese, till  they  filled  by  degrees  every  village  in  the 
island."  4 


Now  the  Northern  Circars. 
TURNOUT'S  Epitome,  p.  37. 


3  In  the  reign  of  Mahindo  IV. 

4  JRajardtnacnri,  p.  85. 


CHAP.  X.]       THE    DOMINATION  OF  'THE   MALABAKS.  403 

During  the  absence  of  the  rightful  king,  and  in  the  A.D. 
confusion  which  ensued  on  his  decease,  various  mem-  1028> 
bers  of  the  royal  family  arrived  at  the  sovereignty  of 
Eohuna,  the  only  remnant  of  free  territory  left.  Four 
brothers,  each  assuming  the  title  of  king,  contended 
together  for  supremacy  ;  and  amidst  anarchy  and  intrigue, 
each  in  turn  took  up  the  reins  of  government,  as  they 
fell  or  were  snatched  from  the  hands  of  his  predeces- 
sor J,  ti]l  at  length,  on  the  retirement  of  ah1  other  can- 
didates, the  forlorn  crown  was  assumed  by  the  minister 
Lokaiswara,  who  held  his  court  at  Kattragam,  and  died 
A.D.  1071.2 


TUENOUK'S  Epitome,  p.  39.  2  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixi. 


D   2 


404  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  III. 


CHAP.  XL 

THE  REIGN  OF  PRAKRAMA  BAKU. 

A.D.  FROM  the  midst  of  this  gloom  and  despondency,  with 
1071'  usurpation  successful  in  the  only  province  where  even 
a  semblance  of  patriotism  survived,  and  a  foreign  enemy 
universally  dominant  throughout  the  rest  of  Ceylon, 
there  suddenly  arose  a  dynasty  which  delivered  the 
island  from  the  sway  of  the  Malabars,  brought  back  its 
ancient  wealth  and  tranquillity,  and  for  the  space  of  a 
century  made  it  pre-eminently  prosperous  at  home  and 
victorious  in  expeditions  by  which  its  rulers  rendered  it 
respected  abroad. 

The  founder  of  this  new  and  vigorous  race  was  a 
member  of  the  exiled  family,  who,  on  the  death  of 
Lokaiswara,  was  raised  to  the  throne  under  the  title  of 
Wijayo  Bahu.1  Dissatisfied  with  the  narrow  limits  of 
Eohuna,  he  resolved  on  rescuing  Pihiti  from  the  usurp- 
ing strangers  ;  and,  by  the  courage  and  loyalty  of  his 
mountaineers,  he  recovered  the  ancient  capitals  from  the 
Malabars,  compelled  the  whole  extent  of  the  island  to 
acknowledge  his  authority,  reunited  the  several  king- 
doms of  Ceylon  under  one  national  banner,  and,  "for 
the  security  of  Lanka  against  foreign  invasion,  placed 
trustworthy  chiefs  at  the  head  of  paid  troops,  and 
stationed  them  round  the  coast."2  Thus  signally  suc- 
cessful at  home,  the  fame  of  his  exploits  "  extended 


1  A.D.  1071.  J  ratnacari,  p.    58 ;  Rqjamli,  p.    251 ; 

2  Mahawanso,     ch.      lix.  ;    Raja-  \  TURNOUR'S  Epitome,  p.  39. 


CHAF.  XI.]          THE    REIGN   OF   PRAKRAMA    BAHU.  405 

over   all  Dambadiva1,  and  ambassadors  arrived  at  his 
court  from  the  sovereigns  of  India  and  Siam." 

As  he  died  without  heirs  a  contest  arose  about  the    A.D. 
succession,  which  threatened  again  to  dissever  the  unity  112C- 
of   the   kingdom   by   arraying   Eohuna   and   the   south 
against  the  brother  of  Wijayo  Bahu,  who  had  gained 
possession  of  Pollanarrua.     But  in  this  emergency  the 
pretensions  of_jill  other  claimants   to  the  crown  were 
overruled  in  favour  of  Prakrama,  a  prince  of  accomplish- 
ments and  energy  so  unrivalled  as  to  secure  for  him  the 
partiality  of  his  kindred  and  the  admiration  of  the  nation 
at  large. 

He  was  son  to  the  youngest  of  four  brothers  who 
had  recently  contended  together  for  the  crown,  and  his 
ambition  from  his  childhood  had  been  to  rescue  his  country 
from  foreign  dominion,  and  consolidate  the  monarchy 
in  his  own  person.  He  completed  by  foreign  travel  an 
education  which,  according  to  the  Mahawanso,  comprised 
every  science  and  accomplishment  of  the  age  in  which  he 
lived,  including  theology,  medicine,  and  logic ;  grammar, 
poetry,  and  music  ;  the  training  of  the  elephant  and  the 
management  of  the  horse.2 

On  the  death  of  his  father  he  was  proclaimed  king  by 
the  people,  and  a  summons  was  addressed  by  him  to  his 
surviving  uncle,  calling  on  him  to  resign  in  his  favour 
and  pay  allegiance  to  his  supremacy.     As  the  feeling  of 
the  nation  was  with  him,  the  issue  of  a  civil  war  left  Tiim 
master  of  Ceylon.     He  celebrated  his  coronation  as  King 
of  Pihiti  at  Pollanarrua,  A.D.  1153,  and  two  years  later,    A.D. 
after  reducing  the  refractory  chiefs  of  Eohuna  to  obe-  1153< 
dience,  he  repeated  the  ceremonial  by  crowning  himself 
"  sole  King  of  Lanka."  3 

There  is  no  name  in  Singhalese  history  which  holds 
the  same  rank  in  the  admiration  of  the  people  as  that  of 
Prakrama  Bahu,  since  to  the  piety  of  Devenipiatissa  he 
united  the  chivalry  of  Dutugaimunu.  The  tranquillity 


1  India  Proper.          z  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixiv.          3  MaJutwanso,  ch.  Ixxi. 

CDS 


406 


THE    SINGHALESE    CIIKONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


A.D.  insured  by  the  independence  and  consolidation  of  his 
1155.  Dominions  he  rendered  subservient  to  the  restoration  of 
religion,  the  enrichment  of  his  subjects,  and  the  embellish- 
ment of  the  ancient  capitals  of  his  kingdom  ;  and,  ill- 
satisfied  with  the  inglorious  ease  which  had  contented 
his  predecessors,  he  aspired  to  combine  the  renown  of 
foreign  conquests  with  the  triumphs  of  domestic  policy. 
Faithful  to  the  two  grand  objects  of  royal  solicitude, 
religion  and  agriculture,  the  earliest  attention  of  Pra- 
krama  was  directed  to  the  re-establishment  of  the  one, 
and  the  encouragement  and  extension  of  the  other.  He 
rebuilt  the  temples  of  Buddha,  restored  the  monuments 
of  religion  in  more  than  their  pristine  splendour,  and 
covered  the  face  of  the  kingdom  with  works  for  irriga- 
tion to  an  extent  that  would  seem  incredible  did  not 
their  existing  ruins  corroborate  the  historical  narrative  of 
his  stupendous  labours. 

Such  had  been  the  ostensible  decay  of  Buddhism 
during  the  Malabar  domination  that,  when  the  kingdom 
was  recovered  from  them  by  Wijayo  Bahu,  A.D.  1071, 
"  there  was  not  to  be  found  in  the  whole  island  five 
tirunansis,"  and  an  embassy  was  sent  to  Arramana1  to 
request  that  members  of  this  superior  rank  of  the  priest- 
hood might  be  sent  to  restore  the  order  in  Ceylon.2 


1  A  part  of  the  Chin-Indian  pen- 
insula, probably  between  Arracan  and 
Siam. 

2  Rajaratnacari,  p.  85  ;   Rajavali, 
p.  252  ;  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ix. 

From  the  identity  of  the  national 
faith  in  the  two  countries,  inter- 
course existed  between  Siam  and 
Ceylon  from  time  immemorial.  At 
a  very  early  period  missions  were 
interchanged  for  the  inter-commu- 
nication of  Pali  literature,  and  in 
later  times,  when,  owing  to  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  Malabars  certain  orders 
of  the  priesthood  had  become  extinct 
in  Ceylon,  it  became  essential  to  seek 
a  renewal  of  ordination  at  the  hands 
of  the  Siamese  hierarchy  {Rajaratna- 
cari, p.  86).  In  the  numerous  incur- 


sions of  the  Malabars  from  Chola  and 
Pandya,  the  literary  treasures  of 
Ceylon  were  deliberately  destroyed, 
and  the  Mahawanso  and  Rajavali, 
make  frequent  lamentations  over  the 
loss  of  the  sacred  books.  (See  also 
Rajaratnacari,  pp.  77,  95,  97.)  At  a 
still  later  period  the  savage  Raja 
Singha,  who  reigned  between  A.D. 
1581  and  1592,  and  became  a  con- 
vert to  Brahmanism,  sought  eagerly 
for  Buddhistical  books,  and  "  de- 
lighted in  burning  them  in  heaps  as 
high  as  a  coco-nut  tree."  These 
losses  it  was  sought  to  repair  by  an 
embassy  to  Siam,  sent  by  Kirti-Sri 
in  A.D.  1753,  when  a  copious  supply 
was  obtained  of  Burmese  versions  of 
Pali  sacred  literature. 


CHAP.  XI.]          THE    REIGN   OF   PEAKRAMA   BAIIU. 


407 


During  the  same  troublous  times,  schisms  and  "heresy 
had  combined  to  undermine  the  national  belief,  and 
hence  one  of  the  first  cares  of  Prakrama  Bahu  was  to 
weed  out  the  perverted  sects,  and  establish  a  council 
for  the  settlement  of  the  faith  on  debatable  points.1 
Dagobas  and  statues  of  Buddha  were  multiplied  with- 
out end  during  his  reign,  and  temples  of  every  form  were 
erected  both  at  Pollanarrua  and  throughout  the  breadth 
of  the  island.  -Sails  for  the  reading  of  "bana,"  image 
rooms,  residences  for  the  priesthood,  ambulance  haUs  and 
rest  houses  for  their  accommodation  when  on  journeys, 
were  built  in  every  district,  and  rocks  were  hollowed 
into  temples  ;  one  of  which,  at  Pollanarrua,  remains  to 
the  present  day  with  its  images  of  Buddha ;  "  one  in 
a  sitting  and  another  in  a  lying  posture,"  almost  as  de- 
scribed in  the  Mahawanso? 

In  conformity  with  the  spirit  of  toleration,  which  is  one 
of  the  characteristics  of  Buddhism,  the  king  "  erected  a 
house  for  the  Brahmans  of  the  capital  to  afford  the  com- 
forts of  religion  even  to  his  Malabar  enemies."  And 
mindful  of  the  divine  injunctions  engraven  on  the  rock 
by  King  Asoka,  "  he  forbade  the  animals  in  the  whole 
of  Lanka,  both  of  the  earth  and  the  water,  to  be  killed," 3 
and  planted  gardens,  "  resembling  the  paradise  of  the 
God-King  Sakkraia,  with  trees  of  all  sorts  bearing  fruits 
and  odorous  flowers." 

For  the  people  the  king  erected  almonries  at  the  four 
gates  of  the  capital,  and  hospitals,  with  slave  boys  and 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxvii. 

2  Mahawanso,   ch.   Ixxii.      For  a 
description  of  this  temple  see  the  ac- 
count of  Pollanarrua  in  the  present 
work,  Vol.  II.  Pt,  x.  ch.  i.  p.  596. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxvii.     Among 
the  religious  edifices  constructed  by 
Prakrama  Bahu  in  many  parts  of  his 
kingdom,  the  Mahawanso,  enumerates 
three  temples  at  Pollanarrua,  besides 
others  at  every  two  or  three  gows 
distance  ;    101  dagobas,  476  statues 


of  Buddha,  and  300  image  rooms 
built,  besides  6100  repaired.  He 
built  for  the  reception  of  priests  from 
a  distance,  "  230  lodging  apartments, 
50  halls  for  preaching,  and  9  for 
walking,  144  gates,  and  192  rooms 
for  the  purpose  of  offering  flowers. 
He  built  12  apartments  and  230  halls 
for  the  use  of  strangers,  and  31  rock 
temples,  with  tanks,  baths,  and  gar- 
dens for  the  priesthood." 


408  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART  in. 

A.D.  maidens  to  wait  upon  the  sick,  superintending  them  in 
1155.  person,  and  bringing  his  medical  knowledge  to  assist  in 
their  direction  and  management. 

Even  now  the  ruins  of  Pollanarrua,  the  most  pictu- 
resque in  Ceylon,  attest  the  care  which  he  lavished  on 
his  capital.  He  surrounded  it  with  ramparts,  raised  a 
fortress  within  them,  and  built  a  palace  for  his  own 
residence,  containing  four  thousand  apartments.  He 
founded  schools  and  libraries ;  built  halls  for  music 
and  dancing;  formed  tanks  for  public  baths;  opened 
streets,  and  surrounded  the  whole  city  with  a  wall 
which,  if  we  are  to  credit  the  native  chronicles,  en- 
closed an  area  twelve  miles  broad  by  nearly  thirty  in 
length. 

By  his  liberality,  Eohuna  and  Pihiti  were  equally  em- 
bellished ;  the  buildings  of  Vigittapura  and  Sigiri  were 
renewed ;  and  the  ancient  edifices  at  Anarajapoora  were 
restored,  and  its  temples  and  palaces  repaired,  under  the 
personal  superintendence  of  his  minister.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  so  greatly  had  the  constructive  arts  declined, 
even  at  that  period,  in  Ceylon,  that  the  king  had  to 
"bring  Damilo  artificers"  from  the  opposite  coast  of  India 
to  repair  the  structures  at  his  capital.1 

The  details  preserved  in  the  Singhalese  chronicles  as 
to  the  works  for  irrigation  which  he  formed  or  restored, 
afford  an  idea  of  the  prodigious  encouragement  bestowed 
upon  agriculture  in  this  reign,  as  well  as  of  the  extent 
to  which  the  rule  of  the  Malabars  had  retarded  the  pro- 
gress and  destroyed  the  earlier  traces  of  civilisation. 
Fourteen  hundred  and  seventy  tanks  were  constructed 
by  the  king  in  various  parts  of  the  island,  three  of  them 
of  such  vast  dimensions  that  they  were  known  as  the 
"  Seas  of  Prakrama ; " 2  and  in  addition  to  these,  three 
hundred  others  were  formed  by  him  for  the  special 
benefit  of  the  priests.  The  "  Great  Lakes "  which  he 
repaired,  as  specified  in  the  Mahawanso,  amount  to 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxv.  Ixxvii.  2  Rujaratnacari,  p. 


CHAP.  XI.]          THE   KEIGN   OF   PEAKEAMA   BAKU. 


409 


thirteen  hundred  and  ninety-five,  and  the  smaller  ones    A.D. 
which   he  restored   or   enlarged   to  nine   hundred   and  1155- 
sixty.     Besides  these,  by  damming  up  the  rivers,  he  made 
five   hundred   and   thirty-four  watercourses  and  canals, 
and  he  repaired  three  thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty- 
one.1 

The  bare  enumeration  of  such  labours  conveys  an 
idea  of  the  prodigious  extent  to  which  structures  of 
this  kind  had  beCh  multiplied  by  the  early  kings;  and 
we  are  enabled  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  activity  of 
agriculture  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  the  vast  popula- 
tion whose  wants  it  supplied,  by  the  thousands  of  reser- 
voirs still  partially  used,  though  in  ruins;  and  the  still 
greater  number  now  dry  and  deserted,  and  concealed 
by  dense  jungle,  in  districts  once  waving  with  yellow 
grain.  Such  was  the  internal  tranquillity  which -per- 
vaded Ceylon  under  his  rule,  that  an  inscription,  engraved 
by  one  of  his  successors,  on  the  rock  of  Dambool,  after 
describing  the  general  peace  and  "security  which  he 
established,  as  well  in  the  wilderness  as  in  the  inhabited 
places,"  records  that,  "even  a  woman  might  traverse 
the  island  with  a  precious  jewel  and  not  be  asked  what  it 
was."  2 

In  the  midst  of  these  congenial  operations  the  energetic 
king  had  command  of  military  resources,  sufficient  not 


1  The  useful  ambition  of  signalising 
their  reign  by  the  construction  of 
works  of  irrigation,  is  still  exhibited 
by  the  Buddhist  sovereigns  of  the 
East ;  and  the  king  of  Burraah  in  his 
interview  with  the  British  envoy  in 
1855,  advanced  his  exploits  of  this 
nature  as  his  highest  claim  to  distinc- 
tion. The  conversation  is  thus  re- 
ported in  YULE'S  Narrative  of  the 
Mission.  London,  1858. 

"  King.  Have  you  seen  any  of  the 
royal  tanks  at  Oung-ben-le',  which 
have  recently  been  constructed  ? 

"  Envoy.  I  have  not  been  yet,  your 
Majesty,  but  I  purpose  going. 

"  King.  I  have  caused  ninety-nine 
tanks  and  ancient  reservoirs  to  be 


dug  and  repaired  ;  and  sixty-six 
canals :  whereby  a  great  deal  of  rice 
land  will  be  available.  *  *  *  In 
the  reign  of  Nauraba-dzyar  9999 
tanks  and  canals  were  constructed : 
I  purpose  renewing  them." — P.  109. 
2  Moore's  melody,  beginning 

"  Rich  and  rare  were  the  gems  she  wore," 

was  founded  on  a  parallel  figure 
illustrative  of  the  security  of  Ireland 
under  the  rule  of  King  Brien ;  when, 
according  to  Warner,  "  a  maiden 
undertook  a  journey  alone,  from  one 
extremity  of  the  kingdom  to  another, 
with  only  a  wand  in  her  hand,  at  the 
top  of  which  was  a  ring  of  exceeding 
great  value." 


410 


THE    SINGHALESE    CIIROXICLES. 


[PART  III. 


A.D.  only  to  repress  revolt  within  his  own  dominions,  but 
1;L55'  also  to  carry  war  into  distant  countries,  that  had 
offered  him  insult  or  inflicted  injury  on  his  subjects. 
His  first  foreign  expedition  was  fitted  out  to  chastise 
the  king  of  Cambodia  and  Arramana1  in  the  Siamese 
peninsula,  who  had  plundered  merchants  from  Ceylon, 
visiting  those  countries  to  trade  in  elephants ;  he  had 
likewise  intercepted  a  vessel  which  was  carrying  some 
Singhalese  princesses,  had  outraged  Prakrama's  ambas- 
sador, and  had  dismissed  him  mutilated  and  maimed. 
Prakrama  sailed  on  this  service  with  a  fleet  in  the  sixteenth 
j^ear  of  his  reign.  He  effected  a  landing  in  Arramana,  van- 
quished the  king,  and  obtained  full  satisfaction.2  He 
next  directed  his  arms  against  the  Pandyan  king,  for  the 
countenance  which  that  prince  had  uniformly  given  to 
the  Malabar  invaders  of  the  island.  He  reduced  Pandya 
and  Chola,  rendered  their  sovereigns  his  tributaries,  and 
having  founded  a  city  within  the  territory  of  the  latter,  and 
coined  money  in  his  own  name,  he  returned  in  triumph 
to  Ceylon.3 

"  Thus,"  says  the  Mahawanso,  "  was  the  whole  island 
of  Lanka  improved  and  beautified  by  this  king,  whose 
majesty  is  famous  in  the  annals  of  good  deeds,  who  was 
faithful  in  the  religion  of  Buddha,  and  whose  fame  ex- 
tended abroad  as  the  light  of  the  moon." 4  "  Having 
departed  this  life,"  adds  the  author  of  the  Rajavali, 
"  he  was  found  on  a  silver  rock  in  the  wilderness  of  the 
Himalaya,  where  are  eighty-four  thousand  mountains 
of  gold,  and  where  he  will  reign  as  a  king  as  long  as  the 
world  endures."  5 


1  See  ante,  p.  406,  n. 

2  TrRNOTO  s  Epitome,  p.  41 ;  Ma- 
hawanso,   Ixxiv.  ;    Rajaratnacari,   p. 
87  ;  Rajavali,  p.  254. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxvi.    I  am  not 
aware  whether  the  Tamil  historians 
have  chronicled  this  remarkable  ex- 
pedition, and  the   conquest  of  this 
portion  of  the  Dekkan  by  the  king 
of  Ceylon ;  but  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
Kings   appended   by   Prof.   WILSON 


to  his  Historical  Sketch  of  Pandya 
(Asiat.  Joum.  vol.  iii.  p.  201)  the 
name  of  "  Pracrama  Baghu  "  occurs  as 
the  sixty-fifth  in  the  list  of  sovereigns 
of  that  state.  For  an  account  of  Dipal- 
denia,  where  he  probably  coined  his 
Indian  money,  see  Asiat.  Soc.  Jaurn. 
Bengal,  v.  vi."  pp.  218,  301. 

4  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxviii. 

5  Rajaratnacari,  p.  91. 


CHAP.  XII.]     FATE    OF   THE    SINGHALESE    MONARCHY.  411 


^         CHAP.  XII. 

FATE   OF   THE   SINGHALESE   MONARCHY. —ARRIVAL    OF 
THE   PORTUGUESE,  A.D.  1501. 

THE  reign  of  Prakrama  Bahu,  the  most  glorious  in  the  1155. 
annals  of  Ceylon,  is  the  last  which  has  any  pretension  to 
renown.     His  family  were  unequal  to  sustain  or  extend 
the   honours   he   had  won,  and   his   nephew1,  a   pious 
voluptuary,  by  whom  he  was  succeeded,  was  killed  in 
an  intrigue  with   the   daughter   of  a   herdsman  whilst 
awaiting  the  result  of  an  appeal  to  the  Buddhist  sove- 
reign  of  Arramana   to    aid   him  in  reforming  religion. 
His  murderer,  whom  he  had  previously  nominated  his    A.D. 
successor,  himself  fell  by  assassination.     An  heir  to  the  1187> 
throne  was  discovered  amongst  the  Singhalese  exiles  on    A.D. 
the  coast  of  India 2,  but  death  soon  ended  his  brief  reign.  1192' 
His  brother  and  his  nephew  in  turn  assumed  the  crown ;    A  D 
both  were  despatched  by  the  Adigar,  who,  having  allied  1196. 
himself  with  the  royal  family  by  marrying  the  widow  of 
the  great  Prakrama,  contrived  to  place  her  on  the  throne, 
under  the  title  of  Queen  Lila-Wati,  A.D.  1197.     With-  1197. 
in  less  than  three  years  she  was  deposed  by  an  usurper, 
and    he    being   speedily   put   to   flight,  another   queen,    AD 
Kalyana-Wati,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  kingdom.  3202. 
The   next   ill-fated   sovereign,  a   baby  of  three  months 


1  Wijayo    Bahu     II      killed    bv  I       2  Kirti    Nissanga.   brought    from 
Mihiiido,  A.D.  1187.  |   Kalinga,  A.D.  1192. 


412  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PART   in. 

A.D.  old,  was  speedily  set  aside  by  means  of  a  hired 
1202.  force,  and  the  first  queen,  Lila-Wati,  restored  to 
the  throne.  But  the  same  band  who  had  effected 
a  revolution  in  her  favour  were  prompt  to  repeat 
the  exploit;  she  was  a  second  time  deposed,  and  a 
third  tune  recalled  by  the  intervention  of  foreign  merce- 
naries.1 

A.D.  Within  thirty  years  from  the  decease  of  Prakrama 
1211<  Bahu,  the  kingdom  was  reduced  to  such  an  extremity 
of  weakness  by  contentions  amongst  the  royal  family, 
and  by  the  excesses  of  their  partisans,  that  the  vigilant 
Malabars  seized  the  opportunity  to  land  with  an  army 
of  24,000  men,  reconquered  the  whole  of  the  island, 
and  Magha,  their  leader,  became  king  of  Ceylon  A.D. 
1214.2 

The  adventurers  who  invaded  Ceylon  on  this  occasion 
came  not  from  Chola  or  Pandya,  as  before,  but  from 
Kalinga,  that  portion  of  the  Dekkan  which  now  forms 
the  Northern  Circars.  Their  domination  was  marked 
by  more  than  ordinary  cruelty,  and  the  Mahawanso  and 
Rajaratnacari  describe  with  painful  elaboration  the 
extinction  of  Buddhism,  the  overthrow  of  temples,  the 
ruin  of  dagobas,  the  expulsion  of  priests,  and  the  occu- 
pation of  their  dwellings  by  Damilos,  the  outrage  of 
castes,  the  violation  of  property,  and  the  torture  of  its 
possessors  to  extract  the  disclosure  of  their  treasures, 
"  till  the  whole  island  resembled  a  dwelling  in  flames 
or  a  house  darkened  by  funeral  rites."3 

On  all  former  occasions  Eohuna  and  the  South  had 
been  comparatively  free  from  the  actual  presence  of  the 
enemy,  but  in  this  instance  they  established  themselves 


1  Of  the  very  rare  examples  now 
extant  of  Singhalese  coins,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  bears  the  name  of 
Lila-  Wati.  —  Numismatic   Chroni- 
cle, 1853.     Papers  on  some  Coins  of 
Ceylon,  fyW.S.W.  VAUX,^.,  p.  126. 

2  Rajavali,  p.  256. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.    Ixxix.  ;  Raja- 
ratnacari,  p.  93  ;  Rajavali,  p.  256. 


CHAP.  XII.]       FATE   OF   THE   SINGHALESE   MONARCHY. 


413 


at  Mahagam 1,  and   thence   to   Jaffnapatam,   every  pro-  A.D. 
vince  in  the  island  was  brought  under  subjection  to  their  1211- 
rule. 

The  peninsula  of  Jaffna  and  the  extremity  of  the  island 
north  of  Adam's  Bridge,  owing  to  its  proximity  to  the 
Indian  coast,  was  at  all  times  the  district  most  infested 
by  the  Malabars.  Jambukola,  the  modern  Colombogam, 
is  the  port  which  is  rendered  memorable  in  the  Maha- 
icanso  by  the  departure  of  embassies  and  the  arrival  of 
relics  from  the  Buddhist  countries,  and  Mantotte,  to  the 
north  of  Manaar,  was  the  landing  place  of  the  innumer- 
able expeditions  which  sailed  from  Chola  and  Pandya  for 
the  subjugation  of  Ceylon. 

The  Tamils  have  a  tradition  that,  prior  to  the  Christian 
era,  Jaffna  was  colonised  by  Malabars,  and  that  a  Cholian 
prince  assumed  the  government,  A.D.  101, — a  date  which 
corresponds  closely  with  the  second  Malabar  invasion 
recorded  in  the  Mahawanso.  Thence  they  extended  their 
authority  over  the  adjacent  country  of  the  Wanny,  as  far 
south  as  Mantotte  and  Manaar,  "  fortified  their  frontiers 
and  stationed  wardens  and  watchers  to  protect  them- 
selves from  invasion." 2  The  successive  bands  of  ma- 
rauders arriving  from  the  coast  had  thus  on  every  occasion 
a  base  for  operations,  and  a  strong  force  of  sympa- 
thisers to  cover  their  landing  ;  and  from  the  inability 
of  the  Singhalese  to  offer  an  effectual  resistance,  those 
portions  of  the  island  were  from  a  very  early  period 
practically  abandoned  to  the  Malabars,  whose  de- 
scendants at  the  present  day  form  the  great  bulk  of  its 
population. 

After  an  interval  of  twenty  years,  Wijayo  Bahu  III.,  A.D.    A.D. 
1235,  collected  as  many  Singhalese  followers  as  enabled  1235> 
him  to  recover  a  portion  of  the  kingdom,  and  establish 
himself  in  Maya,  within  which  he  built  a  capital  at  Jam- 
budronha  or  Dambedenia,  about  fifty  miles  north-east  of 


1  Rajavali,  257. 

*  See  a  paper  on  the  early  History 
of   Jaffna     by    S.    CASIE    CHITTY, 


Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiat.  Society  of 
Ceylon,  1847,  p.  68. 


414 


THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


A-D-     the  present  Colombo.     The  Malabars  still  retained  posses- 
'    sion  of  Pihiti,  and  defended  their  frontier  by  a  line  of 

forts  drawn  across  the  island  from  Pollanarrua  to  Ooroo- 

totta  on  the  western  coast.1 

A.D.         Thirty  years   later   Pandita   Prakrama   Balm  III.,  in 
12G6.    1266,  effected  a  further  dislodgment  of  the  enemy  in  the 

north  ;  but  Ceylon,  which  possessed 

"  The  fatal  gift  of  beauty,  that  became 
A  funeral  dower  of  present  woes  and  past," 

was  destined  never  again  to  be  free  from  the  evils  of  foreign 
invasion  ;  a  new  race  of  marauders  from  the  Malayan 
peninsula  were  her  next  assailants  2 ;  and  these  were  fol- 
lowed at  no  very  long  interval  by  a  fresh  expedition  from 
the  coast  of  India.3 

Having  learned  by  experience  the  exposure  and  inse- 
curity of  the  successive  capitals,  which  had  been  built 
by  former  sovereigns  in  the  low  lands,  this  king  founded 
the  city  of  Kandy,  then  called  Siriwardanapura,  amongst 
the  mountains  of  Maya4,  to  which  he  removed  the 
sacred  dalada,  and  the  other  treasures  of  the  crown. 
But  such  precautions  came  too  late :  to  use  the  simile 
of  the  native  historian,  they  were  "  fencing  the  field 
whilst  the  oxen  were  within  engaged  in  devouring 
the  corn."5  The  power  of  the  Malabars  had  become 
so  firmly  rooted,  and  had  so  irresistibly  extended  itself, 
that,  one  after  another,  each  of  the  earlier  capitals  was 
abandoned  to  them,  and  the  §eat  of  government  car- 
ried further  towards  the  south.  Pollanarrua  had  risen 
into  importance  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  when 
Anarajapoora  was  found  to  be  no  longer  tenable  against 
the  strangers.  Dambedenia  was  next  adopted,  A.D. 
A  D<  1235,  as  a  retreat  from  Pollanarrua ;  and  this  being 
1303.  deemed  insecure,  was  exchanged,  A.D.  1303,  for  Yapahu 
in  the  Seven  Corles.  Here  the  Pandyan  marauders 


1  Mahawamo,  cli.  Ixxx.  Ixxxii.;  Ra- 
jaratnacari,  pp.94, 95 ;  Rqjavali,  p.  258. 

2  Rajavali,  pp.  256, 260.    A  second 
Malay  landing  is  recorded  in  the  reign 
of  Prakrama  III.,  A.D.  1267. 


3  Maliawanso,  ch.  Ixxxii. 

4  Rajarntnacari,   p.    104  ;    MaJia 


wanso,  ch.  Ixxxiii. 

5  Rajftratnacdfi,  p,  #2. 


CHAP.  XII.]       FATE   OF   THE   SINGHALESE   MONARCHY.  415 

followed  in  the  rear  of  the  retreating  sovereign1, 
surprised  the  new  capital,  and  carried  off  the  dalada 
relic  to  the  coast  of  India.  After  its  recovery  Ya- 
pahu  was  deserted,  A.  p.  1319.  Kornegalle  or  Kurunai-  A-D- 
galla,  then  called  Hastisailapura,  and  Gampola2  still 
further  to  the  south,  and  more  deeply  intrenched 
amongst  the  Kandyan  mountains,  were  successively 
chosen  for  the  royal  residence,  A.D.  1347.  Thence  the 
uneasy  seat  of  go~v$rnment  was  carried  to  Peradenia,  close 
by  Kandy,  and  its  latest  migration,  A.D.  1410,  was  to  A-D- 
Jaya-wardana-pura,  the  modern  Cotta,  a  few  miles  east  of 
Colombo. 

Such  frequent  removals  are  evidences  of  the  alarm  and 
despondency  excited  by  the  forays  and  encroachments  of 
the  Malabars,  who  from  their  stronghold  at  Jaffna  exercised 
undisputed  dominion  over  the  northern  coasts  on  both 
sides  of  the  island,  and,  secure  in  the  possession  of  the 
two  ancient  capitals,  Anarajapoora  and  Pollanarrua,  spread 
over  the  rich  and  productive  plains  of  the  north.  To 
the  present  hour  the  population  of  the  island  retains  the 
permanent  traces  of  this  alien  occupation  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Pihiti.  The"  language  of  the  north  of  the 
island,  from  Chilaw  on  the  west  coast  to  Batticaloa  on 
the  east,  is  chiefly,  and  in  the  majority  of  localities 
exclusively,  Tamil ;  whilst  to  the  south  of  the  Dedera- 
oya  and  the  Mahawelli-ganga,  in  the  ancient  divisions 
of  Eohuna  and  Maya,  the  vernacular  is  uniformly  Sin- 
ghalese. 

Occasionally,  after  long  periods  of  inaction,  collisions 
took  place ;  or  the  Singhalese  kings  equipped  expeditions 
against  the  north  ;  but  the  contest  was  unequal ;  and  in 
spite  of  casual  successes,  "  the  king  of  the  Ceylonese  Ma- 
labars," as  he  is  styled  in  the  Bajavali,  held  his  court  at 
Jaffnapatam,  and  collected  tribute  from  both  the  high  and 


A.D.  1:303. 


2  Gampola  or  Gam-pala,  Ganga- 
siripura,  "the  beautiful  city  near 
the  river,"  is  said  in  the  Rajarat- 


have  been  built  by  one  of 
the  brothers-in-law  of  Panduwasa, 
B.C.  504. 


416  THE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES.  [PAKT  III. 

A.D.  the  low  countries,  whilst  the  south  of  the  island  was  sub- 
1410.  Divided  into  a  variety  of  petty  kingdoms,  the  chiefs  of 
which,  at  Yapahu,  at  Kandy,  at  Gampola,  at  Matura, 
Mahagam,  Matelle,  and  other  places  *,  acknowledged  the 
nominal  supremacy  of  the  sovereign  at  Cotta,  with  whom, 
however,  they  were  necessarily  involved  in  territorial 
contentions,  and  in  hostilities  provoked  by  the  withhold- 
ing of  tribute. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  an  event  occurred, 
which  is  obscurely  alluded  to  in  some  of  the  Singhalese 
chronicles,  but  is  recorded  with  such  minute  details  in 
several  of  the  Chinese  historical  works,  as  to  afford  a 
reliable  illustration  of  the  condition  of  the  island  and  its 
monarchy  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Prior  to  that  time 
the  community  of  religion  between  Ceylon  and  China, 
and  the  eagerness  of  the  latter  country  to  extend  its 
commerce,  led  to  the  establishment  of  an  intercourse 
which  has  been  elsewhere  described 2 ;  missions  were 
constantly  despatched  charged  with  an  interchange  of 
courtesies  between  the  sovereigns  ;  theologians  and 
officers  of  state  arrived  in  Ceylon  empowered  to  col- 
lect information  regarding  the  doctrines  of  Buddha  ; 
and  envoys  were  sent  in  return  bearing  royal  donations 
of  relics  and  sacred  books.  The  Singhalese  monarchs, 
overawed  by  the  magnitude  of  the  imperial  power,  were 
induced  to  avow  towards  China  a  sense  of  dependency 
approaching  to  homage  ;  and  the  gifts  which  they  offered 
are  all  recorded  in  the  Chinese  annals  as  so  many 
"payments  of  tribute."  At  length,  in  the  year  14053, 


1  Rajavali,    p.    263 ;    Mahawanso, 
ch.  Ixxxvii. 

8  See  Part  v.  ch.  iii. 

3  The  narrative  in  the  text  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  Ta-tsing-yi-twu/, 
a  "  Topographical  Account  of  the 
Manchoo  Empire,"  written  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  to  a  copy  of 
which,  in  the  British  Museum,  my 
attention  was  directed  by  the  eru- 
dite Chinese  scholar,  Mr.  MEADOWS,  j  see  Part  v.  of  this  work,  ch.  iii. 
author  of  "  The  Chinese  and  their  I 


Rebellions.'"  The  story  of  this 
Chinese  expedition  to  Ceylon  will 
also  he  found  in  the  Sc-i/ih-kf-foo- 
choo,  "A  Description  of  Western 
Countries,"  A.D.  1450 ;  the  Woo  heo- 
pecu,  "A  Eecord  of  the  Ming  Dynas- 
ty," A.D.  1522,  b.  Iviii.  p.  3,  and  in  the 
Ming-she,  "A.  History  of  the  Ming 
Dynasty,"  A.D.  1739,  cccxxvi.  p.  2. 
For  a  further  account  of  this  event 


CHAP.  XII.]         FATE   OF   THE   SINGHALESE   MONARCHY.  417 

during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Yung-lo !  of  the  Ming  A.D. 
dynasty,  a  celebrated  Chinese  commander,  Ching-Ho,  141°- 
having  visited  Ceylon  as  the  bearer  of  incense  and 
offerings,  to  be  deposited  at  the  shrine  of  Buddha,  was 
waylaid,  together  with  his  followers,  by  the  Singhalese 
king,  Wijayo  Bahu  VI.,  who  held  his  court  at  Gampola, 
and  with  difficulty  effected  an  escape  to  his  ships.  To 
revenge  this  treacherous  affront  Ching-Ho  was  despatched 
a  few  years  Afterwards  with  a  considerable  fleet  and  a 
formidable  military  force,  which  the  king  (whom  the 
Chinese  historian  calls  A-lee-ko-nae-wih)  prepared  to  re- 
sist; but  by  a  vigorous  effort  Ho  and  his  followers 
succeeded  in  seizing  the  capital,  and  bore  off  the  sove- 
reign, together  with  his  family^  as  prisoners  to  China. 
He  presented  them  to  the  emperor,  who,  out  of  com- 
passion, ordered  them  to  be  sent  back  to  their  country 
on  the  condition  that  "  the  wisest  of  the  family  should 
be  chosen  king."  "  Seay-pa-nea-na  "  2  was  accordingly 
elected,  and  this  choice  being  confirmed,  he  was  sent 
to  his  native  country,  duly  provided  with  a  seal  of  in- 
vestiture, as  a  vassal  of  the  empire  under  the  style  of  Sri 
Prakrama  Bahu  VI., — and  from  that  period  till  the  reign 
of  Teen-shun,  A.D.  1434 — 1448,  Ceylon  continued  to  pay 
an  annual  tribute  to  China. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century  to  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  Singhalese  dynasty  in  the  18th,  the  island 
cannot  be  said  to  have  been  ever  entirely  freed  from  the 
presence  of  the  Malabars.  The  latter,  even  when  tem- 
porarily subdued,  remained  with  forced  professions  of 
loyalty ;  Damilo  soldiers  were  taken  into  pay  by  the 
Singhalese  sovereigns ;  the  dewales  of  the  Hindu  worship 
were  built  in  close  contiguity  to  the  wiharas  of  Buddhism, 
and  by  frequent  intermarriages  the  royal  line  was  almost  as 
closely  allied  to  the  kings  of  Chola  and  Pandya  as  to  the 
blood  of  the  Suluwanse.3 


1  The  Miiig-she  calls  the  Emperor 
"Ching-tsoo." 

2  So  called  in  the   Chinese   ori- 
ginal. 


3  ^/«m/z,p.261,262.  In  A.D.  1187 
on  the  death  of  MahindoV.,  the  second 
in  succession  from  the  great  Prak- 
rama, the  crown  devolved  upon  Kirti 


VOL.  I.  E    E 


418 


TIIE   SINGHALESE   CHRONICLES. 


[PART  III. 


A.D.  It  was  iii  this  state  of  exhaustion,  that  the  Singhalese 
1505.  were  brought  into  contact  with  Europeans,  during  the 
reign  of  Dharma  Prakrama  IX.,  when  the  Portuguese,  who 
had  recently  established  themselves  in  India,  appeared 
for  the  first  time  in  Ceylon,  A.D.  1505.  The  paramount 
sovereign  was  then  living  at  Cotta ;  and  the  Rajavali  re- 
cords the  event  in  the  following  terms  :  —  "And  now  it 
came  to  pass  that  in  the  Christian  year  1522,  in  the 
month  of  April,  a  ship  from  Portugal  arrived  at  Colombo, 
and  information  was  brought  to  the  king,  that  there  were 
in  the  harbour  a  race  of  very  white  and  beautiful  people, 
who  wear  boots  and  hats  of  iron,  and  never  stop  in  one 
place.  They  eat  a  sort  of  white  stone,  and  drink  blood  ; 
and  if  they  get  a  fish  they  give  two  or  three  ride  in  gold 
for  it ;  and  besides,  they  have  guns  with  a  noise^  louder 
than  thunder,  and  a  ball  shot  from  one  of  them,  after  tra- 
versing a  league,  will  break  a  castle  of  marble."  *• 

Before  proceeding  to  recount  the  intercourse  of  the 
islanders  with  these  civilised  visitors,  and  the  grave  re- 
sults which  followed,  it  will  be  well  to  cast  a  glance  over 
the  condition  of  the  people  during  the  period  which  pre- 
ceded ;  and  to  cull  from  the  native  historians  such  notices 
of  the  domestic  and  social  position  of  the  Singhalese  as 
occur  in  passages  intended  by  their  annalists  to  chronicle 
only  those  events  which  influenced  the  national  worship, 
or  the  exploits  of  those  royal  personages,  who  earned  im- 
mortality by  their  protection  of  Buddhism. 


Nissanga,  who  was  summoned  from 
Kalinga  on  the  Coromandel  Coast. 
On  the  extinction  of  the  recognised 
line  of  Suluwanse  in  A.D.  1706,  a 
prince  from  Madura,  who  was  merely 
a  connection  by  marriage,  succeeded 
to  the  throne.  TheKingKaiaSingha, 
who  detained  KNOX  in  captivity,  A.D. 


1640,  was  married  to  a  Malabar  prin- 
cess. In  fact,  the  four  last  kings  of 
Ceylon,  prior  to  its  surrender  to  Great 
Britain,  were  pure  Malabars,  without 
a  trace  of  Singhalese  blood. 

1  Rajavali,    UPHAM'S   version,    p. 
278. 


PART    IV. 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  ARTS 


THE    ANCIENT    SINGHALESE, 


421 


CHAPTER  I. 

POPULATION — CASTE. — SLAVEET  AND   KAJA-KAKIYA. 

POPULATION.  —  In  no  single  instance  do  the  chronicles  of 
Ceylon  mention  the  precise  amount  of  the  population  of 
the  island,  at  any  particular  period ;  but  there  is  a  suffi- 
ciency of  evidence,  both  historical  and  physical,  to  show 
that  it  must  have  been  prodigious  and  dense,  especially  in 
the  reigns  of  the  more  prosperous  kings.  In  a  civilised 
state  and  in  ordinary  climates,  artificial  wants  necessarily 
impose  certain  limits  to  the  increase  of  man.  Not  so, 
however,  in  a  tropical  region,  where  clothing  is  an  encum- 
brance, the  smallest  shelter  a  home,  and  sustenance  supplied 
by  the  bounty  of  the  soil  in  almost  spontaneous  abundance. 
Under  such  propitious  circumstances,  in  the  midst  of  a 
profusion  of  fruit-bearing-trees,  and  in  a  country  reple- 
nished by  a  teeming  harvest  twice,  at  least,  in  each  year, 
with  the  least  possible  application  of  labour ;  it  will  be 
readily  granted  that  the  number  of  the  people  must 
be  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  adjusted  by  the  extent  of  arable 
land. 

The  emotion  of  the  traveller  of  the  present  time,  as  day 
after  day  he  traverses  the  northern  portions  of  the  island, 
and  penetrates  the  deep  forests  of  the  interior,  is  one  of 
unceasing  astonishment  at  the  inconceivable  multitude  of 
deserted  tanks,  the  hollows  of  which  are  still  to  be  traced ; 
and  the  innumerable  embankments,  overgrown  with  tim- 
ber, indicating  the  sites  of  prodigious  reservoirs  that  for- 
merly fertilised  districts  now  solitary  and  barren.  Every 
such  tank  is  the  landmark  of  one  village  at  least,  and 
such  are  the  dimensions  of  some  of  them  that  in  propor- 

EE  3 


422 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


tion  to  their  area,  it  is  probable  that  hundreds  of  villages 
may  have  been  supported  by  a  single  one  of  these  inland 
lakes. 

The  labour  necessary  to  construct  one  of  these  gigan- 
tic works  for  irrigation  is  in  itself  an  evidence  of  local 
density  of  population ;  but  their  multiplication  by  suc- 
cessive kings,  and  the  constantly  recurring  record  of 
district  after  district  brought  under  cultivation  in  each 
successive  reign1,  demonstrate  the  steady  increase 
of  population,  and  the  multitude  of  husbandmen  whose 
combined  and  sustained  toil  was  indispensable  to  keep 
these  prodigious  structures  in  productive  activity. 
The  Eajavali  relates  that  in  the  year  1301  A.D. 
King  Prakrama  ILL,  on  the  eve  of  his  death,  reminded 
his  sons,  that  having  conquered  the  Malabars,  he  had 
united  under  one  rule  the  three  kingdoms  of  the  island, 
Pihiti  with  450,000  villages,  Eohuna  with  770,000, 
and  Maya  with  250, OOO.2  A  village  in  Ceylon,  it  must 
be  observed,  resembles  a  "  town "  in  the  phraseology  of 
Scotland,  where  the  smallest  collection  of  houses,  or 
even  a  single  farmstead  with  its  buildings  is  enough  to 
justify  that  appellation.  In  the  same  manner,  according 
to  the  sacred  ordinances  which  regulate  the  conduct  of 
the  Buddhist  priesthood,  a  "solitary  house,  if  there  be 
people,  must  be  regarded  as  a  village,"  3  and  all  beyond 
it  is  the  forest. 

Even  assuming  that  the  figures  employed  by  the 
author  of  the  Eajavali  partake  of  the  exaggeration 
common  to  all  oriental  narratives,  no  one  who  has 
visited  the  silent  and  deserted  regions,  which  were 


1  The  practice  of  recording  the 
formation  of  tanks  for  irrigation  by 
the  sovereign  is  not  confined  to  the 
chronicles  of  Ceylon.  The  construc- 
tion of  similar  works  on  the  continent 
of  India  has  been  commemorated  in 
the  same  manner  by  the  native  histo- 
rians. The  memoirs  of  the  Rajas  of 
Orissa  show  the  number  of  tanks 
made  and  wells  dug  in  every  reign. 


8  Eajavali.  p.  262.  A  century  later 
in  the  reign  of  Prakrama-Kotta,  A.D. 
1410,  the  Rajaratnacari  says,  there 
then  were  256,000  villages  in  the 
province  of  Matura,  495,000  in  that  of 
Jaflha,  and  790,000  in  Oovah.— 
P.  112. 

3  HABDT'S  Eastern  Monachism,  ch. 
xiii.  p.  133. 


CHAP.  L]  POPULATION.  423 

once  the  homes  of  millions,  can  hesitate  to  believe  that 
when  the  island  was  in  the  zenith  of  its  prosperity, 
the  population  of  Ceylon  must  of  necessity  have 
been  at  least  ten  times  as  great  as  it  is  at  the  present 
day. 

The  same  train  of  thought  leads  to  a  clearer  concep- 
tion of  the  means  by  which  this  dense  population  was 
preserved,  through  so  many  centuries,  in  spite  of  frequent 
revolutions  -4«ad  often  recurring  invasions ;  as  well  as 
of  the  causes  which  led  to  its  ultimate  disappearance, 
when  intestine  decay  had  wasted  the  organisation  on 
which  the  fabric  of  society  rested.  Cultivation,  as  it 
existed  in  the  north  of  Ceylon,  was  almost  entirely  de- 
pendent on  the  store  of  water  preserved  in  each  village 
tank ;  and  it  could  only  be  carried  on  by  the  combined 
labour  of  the  whole  local  community,  applied  in  the 
first  instance  to  collect  and  secure  the  requisite  supply 
for  irrigation,  and  afterwards  to  distribute  it  to  the 
rice  lands,  which  were  tilled  by  the  united  exertions  of 
the  inhabitants,  amongst  whom  the  crop  was  divided  in 
due  proportions.  So  indispensable  were  concord  and 
union  in  such  operations,  that  injunctions  for  their 
maintenance  were  sometimes  engraven  on  the  rocks,  as 
an  imperishable  exhortation  to  forbearance  and  harmony.1 
Hence,  in  the  recurring  convulsions  that  overthrew  suc- 
cessive dynasties,  and  transferred  the  crown  to  usurpers, 
with  a  facile  rapidity,  otherwise  almost  unintelligible, 
it  is  easy  to  comprehend  that  the  mass  of  the  people 
had  the  strongest  possible  motives  for  passive  sub- 
mission, and  were  constrained  to  acquiescence  by  an 
instinctive  dread  of  the  fatal  effects  of  prolonged  com- 
motion. If  interrupted  in  their  industry,  by  the 
dread  of  such  events,  they  retired  till  the  storm  had 
blown  over,  and  returned,  after  each  temporary  disper- 


1  See  the  inscription  on  the  rock  of  I  one  on  a  rock  at  Pollanarrua,  ibid., 
Mihintala,  A.  D.  262,  TtTRNOTJR's  Epi-     p.  92. 
tome,  Appendix,  p.  90 ;  and  a  similar  | 

EE4 


424  SCIENCES   AND    SOCIAL   ARTS.  [PART  IV. 

sion,  to  resume  possession  of  the  lands  and  their  village 
tank.1 

The  desolation  which  now  reigns  over  the  plains 
which  the  Singhalese  formerly  tilled,  was  precipitated 
by  the  reckless  domination  of  the  Malabars,  in  the  four- 
teenth and  following  centuries.  The  destruction  of 
reservoirs  and  tanks  has  been  ascribed  to  defective  con- 
struction, and  to  the  absence  of  spill-waters,  and  other 
facilities  for  discharging  the  surplus-water,  during  the 
prevalence  of  excessive  rains ;  but  independently  of  the 
fact  that  vast  numbers  of  these  tanks,  though  utterly 
deserted,  remain,  in  this  respect,  almost  uninjured  to 
the  present  day,  we  have  the  evidence  of  their  own 
native  historians,  that  for  upwards  of  fifteen  centuries, 
the  reservoirs,  when  duly  attended  to,  successfully  defied 
all  the  dangers  to  be  apprehended  from  inundation. 
Their  destruction  and  abandonment  are  ascribable,  not 
so  much  to  any  engineering  defect,  as  to  the  disruption 
of  the  village  communities,  by  whom  they  were  so  long 
maintained.  The  ruin  of  a  reservoir,  when  neglected 
and  permitted  to  fall  into  decay,  was  speedy  and  inevi- 
table ;  and  as  the  destruction  of  the  village  tank  involved 
the  flight  of  all  dependent  upon  it,  the  water,  once  per- 
mitted to  escape,  carried  pestilence  and  miasma  over  the 
plains  they  had  previously  covered  with  plenty.  After 
such  a  calamity  any  partial  return  of  the  villagers,  even 
where  it  was  not  prevented  by  the  dread  of  malaria, 
would  have  been  impracticable ;  for  the  obvious  reason, 
that  where  the  whole  combined  labour  of  the  commu- 
nity was  not  more  than  sufficient  to  carry  on  the  work 
of  conservancy  and  cultivation,  the  diminished  force  of 
a  few  would  have  been  utterly  unavailing,  either  to 
effect  the  reparation  of  the  watercourses,  or  to  restore 
the  system  on  which  the  culture  of  rice-land  depends. 
Thus  the  process  of  decay,  instead  of  a  gradual  decline  as 


1  SeooNfeVol.  I.  p.  361.  w. 


CHAP.  I.]  CASTE.  425 

in  other  countries,  became  sudden  and  utter  desolation  in 
Ceylon. 

From  such  traces  as  are  perceptible  in  the  story  of 
the  earliest  immigrants,  it  is  obvious  that  in  their 
domestic  habits  and  civil  life  they  brought  with  them 
and  preserved  in  Ceylon  the  traits  and  pursuits 
which  characterised  the  Aryan  races  that  had  colonised 
the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  The  Singhalese  Chronicles 
abound,  like  the  ancient  Vedas,  in  allusions  to  agri- 
culture and  herds,  to  the  breeding  of  cattle  and  the 
culture  of  grain.  They  speak  of  village  communities 
and  of  their  social  organisation,  as  purely  patriarchal. 
Women  were  treated  with  respect  and  deference; 
and  as  priestesses  and  queens  they  acquired  a  pro- 
minent place  in  the  national  esteem.  Eich  furniture 
was  used  in  dwellings  and  costly  textures  for  dress ; 
but  these  were  obtained  from  other  nations,  whose 
ships  resorted  to  the  island,  whilst  its  inhabitants, 
averse  to  intercourse  with  foreigners,  and  ignorant  of 
navigation,  held  the  pursuits  of  the  merchant  in  no 
esteem. 

Caste. — Amongst  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  caste  ap- 
pears to  have  been  unknown,  although  after  the  arrival 
of  Wijayo  and  his  followers  the  system  in  all  its  minute 
subdivisions,  and  slavery,  both  domestic  and  prasdial, 
prevailed  throughout  the  island.  The  Buddhists,  as 
dissenters,  who  revolted  against  the  arrogant  preten- 
sions of  the  Brahmans,  embodied  in  their  doctrines  a 
protest  against  caste  under  any  modification.  But  even 
after  the  conversion  of  the  Singhalese  to  Buddhism,  and 
their  acceptance  of  the  faith  at  the  hands  of  Mahindo, 
caste  as  a  national  institution  was  found  too  obstinately 
established  to  be  overthrown  by  the  Buddhist  priest- 
hood; and  reinforced,  as  its  supporters  were,  by  sub- 
sequent intercourse  with  the  Malabars,  it  has  been 
perpetuated  to  the  present  time,  as  a  conventional  and 
social,  though  no  longer  as  a  sacred  institution.  Prac- 
tically, the  Singhalese  ignore  three  of  the  great  classes, 


426 


SCIENCES  AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


theoretically  maintained  by  the  Hindus ;  among  them 
there  are  neither  Brahmans,  Vaisyas,  nor  Kshastryas ; 
and  at  the  head  of  the  class  which  they  retain,  they 
place  the  Goi-wanse  or  Vellalas,  nominally  "  tillers  of 
the  soil."  In  earlier  times  the  institution  seems  to  have 
been  recognised  in  its  entirety,  and  in  the  glowing  de- 
scription given  in  the  Mahawanso  of  the  planting  of  the 
great  Bo-tree,  "the  sovereign  the  lord  of  chariots 
directed  that  it  should  be  lifted  by  the  four  high  caste 
tribes  and  by  eight  persons  of  each  of  the  other  castes."  * 
In  later  times  the  higher  ranks  are  seldom  spoken  of  in 
the  historical  books  but  by  specific  titles,  but  frequent 
allusion  is  made  to  the  Chandalas,  the  lowest  of  all,  who 
were  degraded  to  the  office  of  scavengers  and  carriers  of 
corpses.2 

Slavery. — The  existence  of  slavery  is  repeatedly  re- 
ferred to,  and  in  the  absence  of  any  specific  allusion  to 
its  origin  in  Ceylon,  it  must  be  presumed  to  have  been 
borrowed  from  India.  As  the  Sudras,  according  to  the 
institutes  of  Menu,  were  by  the  laws  of  caste  consigned 
to  helpless  bondage,  so  slavery  in  Ceylon  was  an  attri- 
bute of  race 3 ;  and  those  condemned  to  it  were  doomed 
to  toil  from  their  birth,  with  no  requital  other  than  the 
obligation  on  the  part  of  their  masters  to  maintain 
them  in  health,  to  succour  them  in  sickness,  and  appor- 
tion their  burdens  to  their  strength.4  And  although  the 
liberality  of  theoretical  Buddhism  threw  open,  even  to 
the  lowest  caste,  all  the  privileges  of  the  priesthood,  the 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xix.  p.  116. 

2  Ibid.,  ch.  x.  p.  66.  The  Chandala 
in  one  of  the  Jatakas  is  represented 
as  "  one  born  in  the  open  air,  his  pa- 
rents not  being  possessed  of  a  roof; 
and  as  he  lies  amongst  the  pots  when 
his  mother  goes  to  cut  fire-wood,  he 
is  suckled  by  the  bitch  along  with  her 
pups."  —  HAKDY'S  Buddhism,  ch.  iii. 
p.  80. 


3  In  later  times,  slavery  was  not 
confined  to  the  low  castes ;  insolvents 
could  be  made  slaves  by  their  credi- 
tors— the  chief  frequently  buying  the 
debt,  and  attaching  the  debtor  to  his 
followers.     The  children  of  freemen, 
by  female  slaves,  followed  the  status 
of  their  mothers. 

4  HAKDY'S  JJuddhism,  ch.  x.  p.  482. 


CHAP.  I.] 


SLAVERY. 


427 


slave  alone  was  repulsed,  on  the  ground  that  his  admis- 
sion would  deprive  the  owner  of  his  services.1  Like 
other  property,  slaves  could  be  possessed  by  the 
Buddhist  monasteries,  and  inscriptions,  still  existing 
upon  the  rocks  of  Mihintala  and  Dambool,  attest  the 
competency  of  the  priests  to  receive  them  as  gifts,  and  to 
require  that  as  slaves  they  should  be  exempted  from 
taxation. 

Unrelaxed  in  its  assertion  of  abstract  right,  but  miti- 
gated in  the  forms  of  its  practical  enforcement,  slavery 
endured  in  Ceylon  till  extinguished  by  the  fiat  of  the 
British  Government  in  1845.2  Li  the  northern  and 
Tamil  districts  of  the  island,  its  characteristics  differed 
considerably  from  its  aspect  hi  the  south  and  amongst 
the  Kandyan  mountains.  In  the  former,  the  slaves  were 
employed  in  the  labours  of  the  field  and  rewarded  with 
a  small  proportion  of  the  produce  ;  but  amongst  the  pure 
Singhalese,  slavery  was  domestic  rather  than  praedial, 
and  those  born  to  its  duties  were  employed  less  as  the 
servants,  than  as  the  suite  of  the  Kandyan  chiefs.  Slaves 
swelled  the  train  of  their  retainers  on  all  occasions  of 
display,  and  had  certain  domestic  duties  assigned  to  them, 
amongst  which  was  the  carrying  of  fire-wood,  and  the 
laying  out  of  the  corpse  after  death.  The  strongest  proof 
of  the  general  mildness  of  their  treatment  in  all  parts  of 
the  island,  is  derived  from  the  fact,  that  when  in  1845, 
Lord  Stanley,  now  the  Earl  of  Derby,  directed  the  final 
abolition  of  the  system,  slavery  was  extinguished  in 
Ceylon  without  a  claim  for  compensation  on  the  part  of 
the  proprietors. 

Compulsory  Labour.  —  Another  institution,  to  the  in- 
fluence and  operation  of  which  the  country  was  indebted 
for  the  construction  of  the  works  which  diffused  plenty 
throughout  every  region,  was  the  system  of  Raja-kariya, 


1  HARDY'S  Eastern  Mcmachism,  ch. 
iv.  p.  18. 

2  An  account  of  slavery  in  Ceylon, 


and  the  proceedings  for  its  suppres- 
sion, will  be  found  in  PRIDHAM'S 
Ceylon,  vol.  i.  p.  223. 


428 


SCIENCES    AND   SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


by  which  the  king  had  a  right  to  employ,  for  public 
purposes,  the  compulsory  labour  of  the  inhabitants.  To 
what  extent  this  was  capable  of  exaction,  or  under  what 
safeguards  it  was  enforced  in  early  times,  does  not  appear 
from  the  historical  books.  But  on  all  occasions  when 
tanks  were  to  be  formed,  or  canals  cut  for  irrigation, 
the  Mahawanso  ajludes — almost  in  words  of  course — 
to  the  application  of  Eaja-kariya  for  their  construction  \ 
the  people  being  summoned  to  the  task  by  beat  of 
drum.2 

The  only  mention  of  the  system  which  attracts  parti- 
cular attention,  is  the  honour  awarded  to  the  most  pious 
of  the  kings,  who,  whilst  maintaining  Eaja-kariya  as  an 
institution,  nevertheless  stigmatised  it  as  "  oppression " 
when  applied  to  non-productive  objects  ;  and  on  the 
occasion  of  erecting  one  of  the  most  stupendous  of  the 
monuments  dedicated  to  the  national  faith,  felt  that  the 
merit  of  the  act  would  be  neutralised,,  were  it  to  be 
accomplished  by  "  unrequited  "  labour.3 


1  The  inscription  engraven  on  the 
rock  at  Mihintala,  amongst  other  re- 
gulations for  enforcing  the  observance 
by  the  temple  tenants  of  the  con- 
ditions on  which  their  lands  were  held, 
declares  that  "  if  a  fault  be  committed 
by  any  of  the  cultivators,  the  adequate 
fine  shall  be  assessed  according  to 
usage  ;  or  in  lieu  thereof,  the  delin- 
quent shall  be  directed  to  work  at  the 
lake  in  making  an  excavation  not 


exceeding  sixteen  cubits  in  circum- 
ference and  one  cubit  deep."  —  TTTK- 
NOUR'S  Epitome,  &c.,  Appendix,  p.  87. 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxv.  p.  149. 

3  Ibid.,   ch.  xxvii.  pp.    163,    165. 
King  Tissa,  A.  D.  201,  in  imitation  of 
Dutugaimunu,  caused  the  restorations 
of  monuments  at  the  capital  "  to  be 
made  with  paid  labour."  —  Ibid.,  ch. 
xxxvi.  p.  226.  See  ante  Vol.  I.  Ft.  in. 
ch.  T.  p.  358. 


429 


CHAP.  II. 


AGRICULTURE.  —  IRRIGATION. — CATTLE   AND   CROPS. 

AGRICULTURE. — Prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  Bengalis,  and 
even  for  some  centuries  after  the  conquest  of  Wijayo, 
before  the  knowledge  of  agriculture  had  extended 
throughout  the  island,  the  inhabitants  appear  to  have 
subsisted  to  a  great  extent  by  the  chase.1  Hunting  the 
elk  and  the  boar  was  one  of  the  amusements  of  the 
early  princes ;  the  "  Eoyal  Huntsmen "  had  a  range  of 
buildings  erected  for  then-  residence  at  Anarajapoora, 
B.C.  504 2,  and  the  laws  of  the  chase  generously  forbade 
to  shoot  deer  except  in  flight.3  Dogs  were  trained  to 
assist  in  the  sport 4  and  the  oppressed  aborigines,  driven 
by  their  conquerors  to  the  forests  of  Rohuna  and  Maya, 
are  the  subject  of  frequent  commendation  in  the  pages  of 
the  Mahawanso,  from  their  singular  ability  in  the  use  of 
the  bow.5 

Before  the  arrival  of  Wijayo,  B.C.  543,  agriculture  was 
unknown  in  Ceylon,  and  grain,  if  grown  at  all,  was  not 
systematically  cultivated.  The  Yakkhos,  the  aborigines, 
subsisted,  as  do  the  Veddahs,  their  lineal  descendants,  at 
the  present  day,  on  fruits,  honey,  and  the  products  of  the 
chase.  Eice  was  distributed  by  Kuweni  to  the  followers 
of  Wijayo,  but  it  was  "  rice  procured  from  the  wrecked 


1  Mahaicanso,  ch.  x.  p.  59 ;  ch.  xiv. 
p.  78  ;  ch.  xxiii.  p.  142.     The  hunt- 
ing of  the  hare  is  mentioned  161  B.C. 
Mahaicanso,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  141. 

2  Ibid.,  ch.  x.  p.  66. 

3  Ibid.,  ch.  xiv.  p.  78.     King  De- 
venipiatissa,  when  descrying  the  elk 
which  led  him  to  the  mountain  where 


Mahindo  was  seated,  exclaimed,  "  It 
is  not  fair  to  shoot  him  standing ! " 
he  twanged  his  bowstring  and  fol- 
lowed him  as  he  fled.  See  ante, 
p.341,n. 

4  Ibid.,  ch.  xxviii.  p.  166. 

5  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxiii.  pp.   202,   204, 
&c. 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   AETS. 


[PART  IV. 


ships  of  mariners."  '  And  two  centuries  later,  so  scanty 
was  the  production  of  native  grain,  that  Asoka,  amongst 
the  presents  which  he  sent  to  his  ally  Devenipiatissa, 
included  "  one  hundred  and  sixty  loads  of  hill  paddi  from 
Bengal."  2 

A  Singhalese  narrative  of  the  "  Planting  of  the  Bo-tree," 
an  English  version  of  which  will  be  found  amongst  the 
translations  prepared  for  Sir  Alexander  Johnston,  men- 
tions the  fact,  that  rice  was  still  imported  into  Ceylon 
from  the  Coromandel  coast 3  in  the  second  century  before 
Christ. 

Irrigation. — It  was  to  the  Hindu  kings  who  succeeded 
Wijayo,  that  Ceylon  was  indebted  for  the  earliest  know- 
ledge of  agriculture,  for  the  construction  of  reservoirs, 
and  the  practice  of  irrigation  for  the  cultivation  of  rice.4 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  vii.  p.  49. 
3  Ibid.,  ch.  xi.  p.  70. 

3  UPHAM,  Sacred  Hooks  of  Ceylon, 
vol.  iii.  p.  231. 

4  A  very  able  report  on  irrigation 
in   some  of  the  districts  of  Ceylon 
lias  been  recently  drawn  up  by  Mr. 
BAILEY,  of  the  Ceylon  Civil  Service ; 
but  the  author  has  been  led  into  an 
error  in  supposing  that,  "  it  cannot  be 
to  India  that  we  must  look  for  the 
origin  of  tanks  and  canals  in  Ceylon," 
and  that  the  knowledge  of  their  con- 
struction was  derived  through  "  the 
Arabian  and  Persian  merchants  who 
traded  between  Egypt  and  Ceylon." 
Mr.  Bailey  rests  this  conclusion   on 
the   assertion  that  the   first   Indian 
canal  of  which  we  have  any  record 
dates  no  farther  back  than  the  middle 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  There  was 
nothing    in    common    between    the 
shallow  canals  for  distributing  the 
periodical  inundation  of  the  Nile  over 
the  level  lands  of  Egypt  (a  country 
in    which  rice  was    little  known), 
and   the  gigantic   embankments  by 
which  hills    were   so  connected  in 
Ceylon  as  to  convert  the  valleys  be- 
tween them  into  inland  lakes ;  and 
there  was  no   similarity  to  render 
the  excavation  of  the  one  a  model 
and  precedent  for  the  construction  of 


the  other.  Probably  the  lake  Moeris 
dwells  in  the  mind  of  those  who 
ascribe  proficiency  in  irrigation  to 
the  ancient  Egyptians ;  but  although 
Herodotus  asserts  it  to  have  been  an 

excavation,  ^tipoTrot'jjrog  icai  opvicrf) 
(lib.  ii.  149),  geologic  investigation 
has  shown  that  Mceris  is  a  natural 
lake  created  by  the  local  depression 
of  that  portion  of  the  Arsinoite  nome. 
Neither  Strabo  nor  Pliny,  who  be- 
lieved it  to  be  artificial,  ascribed  its 
origin  to  anything  connected  with 
irrigation,  for  which,  in  fact,  its  level 
would  render  it  unsuitable.  Nature 
had  done  so  much  for  irrigation  in 
Egypt,  that  art  was  forestalled  ;  and 
even  had  it  been  otherwise,  and  had 


in  the  science,  or  capable  of  teaching 
it,  the  least  qualified  imparters  of 
engineering  knowledge  would  have 
been  the  Arab  and  Persian  mariners, 
whose  lives  were  spent  in  coasting 
the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  is 
true  that  in  Arabia  itself,  at  a  very 
early  period,  there  is  the  tradition  of 
the  great  artificial  lake  of  Aram,  in 
Yemen,  about  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great  (SALE'S  Koran,  Introd.  p.  7); 
and  evidence  still  more  authentic 
serves  to  show  that  the  practice  of 
artificial  irrigation  was  one  of  the 


CHAP.  II.] 


IRRIGATION. 


431 


The  first  tank  in  Ceylon  was  formed  by  the  successor 
of  Wijayo,  B.C.  504,  and  their  subsequent  multiplication 
to  an  almost  incredible  extent  is  ascribable  to  the 
influence  of  the  Buddhist  religion,  which,  abhorring 


earliest  occupations  of  the  human  race. 
The  Scriptures,  in  enumerating  the 
descendants  of  Shem,  state  that  "unto 
Eber  were  born  two  sons,  and  the 
name  of  one  was  Peleg,  for  in  his  days 
the  earth  was  divided."  (Genesis,  ch. 
x.  ver.  25.)  In  this  passage,  according 
to  CYRIL  C.  GRAHAM,  the  term  Peleg 
has  a  profounder  meaning,  and  the 
sentence  should  have  been  translated 
—  "for  in  his  days  the  earth  was  cut 
intocanals."  (Cambridge  JEssays,l858.) 
But  historical  testimony  exists 
which  removes  all  obscurity  from  the 
inquiry  as  to  who  were  the  instruc- 
tors of  the  Singhalese.  The  most 
ancient  books  of  the  Hindus  show 
that  the  practice  of  canal-making  was 
understood  in  India  at  as  early  a  period 
as  in  Egypt.  Canals  are  mentioned  in 
the  Rayamana,  the  story  of  which  be- 
longs to  the  dimmest  antiquity  ;  and 
when  Baratha,  the  half-brother  of 
llama,  was  about  to  search  for  him  in 
the  Dekkan,  his  train  is  described  as 
including  "labourers,  with  carts, 
bridge-builders,  carpenters,  and  dig- 
gers of  canals."  (Ramayana,  CART'S 
Trans.,  vol.  iii.  p.  228.)  The  Maha- 
wanso,  removes  all  doubt  as  to  the 
person  by  whom  the  Singhalese  were 
instructed  in  forming  works  for  irriga- 
tion, by  naming  the  Brahman  engineer 
contemporary  with  the  construction 
of  the  earliest  tanks  in  the  fourth 
century  before  the  Christian  era. 
(Mahawanso,  ch.  x.)  Somewhat  later, 
B.C.  262,  the  inscription  on  the  rock 
at  Mihintala  ascribes  to  the  Malabars 
the  system  of  managing  the  water  for 
the  nee  lands,  and  directs  that  "  ac- 
cording to  the  supply  of  water  in 
the  lake,  the  same  shall  be  distri- 
buted to  the  lands  of  the  wihara 
in  the  manner  formerly  regulated  by 
the  Tamils"  (Notes  to  TURNOUR'S 
Epitome,  p.  90.)  To  be  convinced  of 
the  Tamil  origin  of  the  tank  system 
which  subsists  to  the  present  day  in 
Ceylon,  it  is  only  necessary  to  see  the 


tanks  of  the  Southern  Dekkan.  _  The 
innumerable  excavated  reservoirs  or 
colams  of  Ceylon  will  be  found  to  cor- 
respond with  the  culams  of  Mysore  ; 
and  the  vast  erays  formed  by  drawing 
a  bund  to  intercept  the  water  flowing 
between  two  elevated  ridges,  exhibit 
the  model  which  has  been  followed  at 
Padivil,  Kandelai,  Minery,  and  all  the 
other  huge  constructions  of  Ceylon. 
But  whoever  may  have  been  the  ori- 
ginal instructors  of  the  Singhalese  in 
the  formation  of  tanks,  there  seems 
every  reason  to  believe  that  from  their 
own  subsequent  experience,  and  the 
prodigious  extent  to  which  they  oc- 
cupied themselves  in  the  formation  of 
works  of  this  kind,  a  facility  was  at- 
tained in  Ceylon  unsurpassed  by  the 
people  of  any  other  country,  it  is  a 
curious  circumstance  in  connection 
with  this  inquiry,  that  in  the  eighth 
century  after  Christ,  the  King  of 
Kashmir  despatched  messengers  to 
Ceylon  to  engage  workmen,  whom  he 
employed  in  constructing  an  artificial 
lake.  (Raja-Tarangini,  Book  iv.  si. 
505.)  if  it  were  necessary  to  search 
beyond  India  for  the  origin  of  culti- 
vation in  Ceylon,  the  Singhalese,  in- 
stead of  borrowing  a  theory  from 
Egypt,  might  more  naturally  have 
imitated  the  ingenious  devices  of  their 
own  co-religionists  in  China,  where 
the  system  of  irrigation  as  pursued  in 
the  military  colonies  of  that  country 
has  been  a  theme  of  admiration  in 
every  age  of  their  history.  (See  Jour- 
nal Asiatigue,  1850,  vol.  hi.  pp.  341, 
346.)  And  as  these  colonies  were 
planted  not  only  in  the  centre  of  the 
empire,  but  on  its  north-west  extre- 
mities towards  Kaschgar  and  the 
north-east  of  India,  where  the  new 
settlers  occupied  themselves  in  drain- 
ing marshes  and  leading  streams  to 
water  their  arable  lands,  the  proba- 
bilities are  that  their  system  may 
have  been  known  and  copied  by  the 
people  of  Hindustan. 


432 


SCIENCES   AND    SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


the  destruction  of  animal  life,  taught  its  multitudinous 
votaries  to  subsist  exclusively  upon  vegetable  food. 
Hence  the  planting  of  gardens,  the  diffusion  of  fruit- 
trees  and  leguminous  vegetables 1,  the  sowing  of  dry 
grain2,  the  formation  of  reservoirs  and  canals,  and  the 
reclamation  of  land  "  in  situations  favourable  for  irri- 
gation." 

It  is  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  importance  of 
this  system  of  water  cultivation,  especially  in  the  north  of 
Ceylon,  a  country  subject  to  periodical  droughts.  From 
physical  and  geological  causes,  the  mode  of  cultivation 
in  that  section  of  the  island  at  the  present  day  differs 
essentially  from  that  practised  in  the  southern  division ; 
and  whilst  in  the  latter  the  frequency  of  rains  and  the 
abundance  of  rivers  afford  a  copious  supply  of  water, 
the  rest  of  the  district  is  mainly  dependent  upon  artificial 
irrigation,  and  on  the  quantity  of  rain  collected  in  tanks ; 
or  of  water  diverted  from  streams  and  directed  into 
reservoirs. 

As  has  been  elsewhere 3  explained,  the  mountain 
ranges  that  tower  along  the  south-western  coast, 
and  extend  far  towards  the  eastern,  serve  in  both 
monsoons  to  intercept  the  trade  winds  and  condense 
the  vapours  with  which  they  are  charged,  thus  ensuring 
to  those  regions  a  plentiful  supply  of  rain.  Hence  the 
harvests  in  those  portions  of  the  island  are  regulated  by 
the  two  monsoons,  the  yalla  being  gathered  in  May  and 
the  maha  in  November  ;  and  seed-time  in  both  is  adjusted 
so  as  to  take  advantage  of  the  copious  showers  that  fall 
at  those  periods. 

But  in  the  northern  portions  of  Ceylon,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  mountains,  this  natural  resource  cannot  be 
relied  on.  The  winds  in  both  monsoons  traverse  the 
island  without  parting  with  a  sufficiency  of  moisture; 


1  Beans,  designated  by  the  term  of 
Sfasd  in  the  jMahawanso,  were  grown 
in  the  second  century  before  Christ, 
ch.  xxiii.  p.  140. 


2  The  "cultivation  of  a  crop  of  hill 
rice"  is  mentioned  in  the  Mahau-anso, 
B.C.  77,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  208. 

3  See  Vol.  I.  Part  i.  ch.  ii.  p.  67. 


CIIAP.  II.]  IEEIGATIOK.  433 

droughts  are  of  frequent  occurrence  and  of  long  con- 
tinuance ;  and  vegetation  in  the  low  and  scarcely  undu- 
lated plains  is  mainly  dependent  on  dews  and  whatsoever 
damp  is  distributed  by  the  steady  sea-breeze.  In  some 
places  the  sandy  soil  rests  upon  beds  of  madrepore  and 
coral  rock,  through  which  the  scanty  rain  percolates 
too  quickly  to  refresh  the  soil ;  and  thus  the  husbandman 
is  entirely  dependent  upon  wells  and  village  tanks  for 
the  means  of  irrigation. 

In  a  region  exposed  to  such  climatic  vicissitudes  the  risk 
would  have  been  imminent  and  incessant,  had  the  popu- 
lation been  obliged  to  rely  on  supplies  of  dry  grain  alone, 
the  growth  of  which  must  necessarily  have  been  precarious, 
owing  to  the  possible  failure  or  deficiency  of  the  rains. 
Hence  frequent  famines  would  have  been  inevitable  in 
those  seasons  of  prolonged  dryness  and  scorching  heat, 
when  "  the  sky  becomes  as  brass  and  the  earth  as  iron." 
What  an  unspeakable  blessing  that  against  such  calami- 
ties a  security  should  have  been  found  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  grain  calculated  to  germinate  under  water; 
and  that  a  perennial  supply  of  the  latter,  not  only 
adequate  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  but  sufficient  to  guard 
against  extraordinary  emergencies,  should  have  been  pro- 
vided by  the  ingenuity  of  the  people,  aided  by  the 
bounteous  solicitude  of  their  sovereigns.  It  is  no 
matter  of  surprise  that  the  kings  who  devoted  their 
treasures  and  their  personal  energies  to  the  formation  of 
tanks  and  canals  have  entitled  their  memory  to  traditional 
veneration,  as  benefactors  of  their  race  and  country.  And 
in  striking  contrast  to  them,  it  is  the  pithy  remark  of  the 
author  of  the  Rajavali,  mourning  over  the  extinction 
of  the  Great  Dynasty  and  the  decline  of  the  country, 
that  "  because  the  fertility  of  the  land  was  decreased  the 
kings  who  followed  were  no  longer  of  such  consequence 
as  those  who  went  before."1 


1  Rajavali,  p.  238. 
VOL.  I.  F  F 


434 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


Simultaneously  with  the  construction  of  works  for  the 
advancement  of  agriculture,  the  patriarchal  village  system, 
copied  from  that  which  existed  from  the  earliest  ages 
in  India1,  was  established  in  the  newly  settled  districts; 
and  every  hamlet,  with  its  governing  "headman"  its 
artisans,  its  barber,  its  astrologer  and  washerman,  was 
taught  to  conduct  its  own  affairs  by  its  gam-sabe  or 
village  council ;  to  repair  its  tanks  and  watercourses,  and 
to  collect  the  harvests  in  each  year  by  the  combined 
labour  of  the  whole  community. 

Between  the  agricultural  system  of  the  mountainous 
districts  and  that  of  the  lowlands,  there  was  at  all  times 
the  same  difference  which  distinguishes  at  the  present  day 
the  tank  cultivation  of  Neuera-kalawa  and  the  Wanny  from 
the  hanging  rice  lands  of  the  Kandyan  hills.  Among  the 
latter,  reservoirs  are  comparatively  rare,  as  the  natives 
rely  on  the  certainty  of  the  rains,  which  seldom  fail  at 
their  due  season  in  those  lofty  regions.  Streams  are  con- 
ducted by  means  of  channels  ingeniously  carried  round 
the  spurs  of  the  hills  and  along  the  face  of  acclivities,  so 
as  to  fertilise  the  fields  below,  which  in  the  technical 
phrase  of  the  Kandyans  are  "  assoedamised "  for  the 
purpose  ;  that  is,  formed  into  terraces,  each  protected 
by  a  shallow  ledge  over  which  the  superfluous  water 
trickles,  from  the  highest  level  into  that  immediately 
below  it;  thus  descending  through  all  in  succession  till 
it  escapes  in  the  depths  of  the  valley. 

For  the  tillage  of  the  lands  with  which  the  temples 
were  so  largely  endowed  in  all  quarters  of  the  island, 
the  sacred  communities  had  assigned  to  them  certain 
villages,  a  portion  of  whose  labour  was  the  property 
of  the  wihara.2  Slaves  were  also  appropriated  to  them, 
and  an  instance  is  mentioned  in  the  fifth  century3,  of 
the  inhabitants  of  a  low-caste  village  having  been  be- 
stowed on  a  monastery  by  the  king  Aggrabodhi,  "  in  order 


1  MaJutwanso,  eh.  x.  p.  07.     See 
«fe,  pp.  89,  497. 

2  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  247. 


3  ilock    inscriptions  at    Mihintala 
and  at  Dambool. 


CHAP.  II.]  AGEICULTUEE.  405 

that  the  priests  might  derive  their  service  as  slaves."  l 
Sharing  in  a  prerogative  of  royalty,  some  of  the  temples 
had,  moreover,  a  right  to  the  compulsory  labour  of  the 
community ;  and  in  one  of  the  inscriptions  carved  on 
the  rock  at  Mihintala,  the  "  Eaja-kariya  writer "  is  enu- 
merated in  the  list  of  temple  officers.2  The  temple  lands 
were  occasionally  let  to  tenants  whose  rent  was  paid 
either  in  "  land-fees,"  or  in  kind.3 

Farm-stock.  —  The  only  farm-stock  which  appears  to 
have  been  kept  for  tillage  purposes,  were  buffaloes,  which, 
then  as  now,  were  used  in  treading  the  soft  mud  of  the 
irrigated  rice-fields,  preparatory  to  casting  in  the  seed. 
Cows  are  alluded  to  in  the  Mahawanso,  but  never  in 
connection  with  labour ;  and  although  butter  is  spoken 
of,  it  is  only  that  of  the  buffalo.4 

Gardens.  —  Probably  the  earliest  enclosures  attempted 
in  a  state  of  incipient  civilisation,  were  gardens  for  the 
exclusion  of  wild  animals  from  fruit  trees  and  vegeta- 
bles, when  these  were  first  cultivated  for  the  use  of 
man;  and  to  the  present  day,  the  frequent  occurrence 
of  the  termination  "watte"  in  the  names  of  places  on 
the  map  of  Ceylon,  is  in  itself  an  indication  of  the  im- 
portance attached  to  them  by  the  villagers.  The  term 
"  garden,"  however,  conveys  to  an  European  but  an  im- 
perfect idea  of  the  character  and  style  of  these  enclosures; 
which  in  Ceylon  are  so  similar  to  the  native  gardens 
in  the  south  of  India,  as  to  suggest  a  community  of 
origin.  Their  leading  features  are  lines  of  the  graceful 
areca  palms,  groves  of  oranges,  limes,  jak-trees,  and 
bread  fruit ;  and  irregular  clumps  of  palmyras  and  coco- 
nuts. Beneath  these,  there  is  a  minor  growth,  sometimes 
of  cinnamon  or  coffee  bushes;  and  always  a  wilderness 
of  plantains,  guavas  and  papayas ;  a  few  of  the  commoner 
flowers  ;  plots  of  brinjals  (egg  plants)  and  other  esculents ; 


1  MaJuticanso,  ch.  xlii. 
MS.  translation. 

2  TrntNOiJB.'s  Epitome,    Apnendu; 
p.  88. 

F  F    2 


3  Ilnil,  pp.  86,  87. 

4  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxvii.  p.  1G3. 


436 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PAST  IV. 


and  the  stems  of  the  standard  trees  are  festooned  with 
climbers,  pepper  vines,  tomatas,  and  betel. 

The  Coco-nut  Palm.  —  It  is  curious  and  suggestive 
as  regards  the  coco-nut,  which  now  enters  so  largely 
into  the  domestic  ceconorny  of  the  Singhalese,  that  al- 
though it  is  sometimes  spoken  of  in  the  Mahawanso  (but 
by  no  means  so  often  as  the  palmyra),  no  allusion  is 
ever  made  to  it  as  an  article  of  diet,  or  an  element  in 
the  preparation  of  food,  nor  is  it  mentioned  before  the 
reign  of  Prakrama  L,  A.D.  1153 *,  in  the  list  of  those 
fruit-trees,  the  planting  of  which  throughout  the  island 
is  so  often  recorded  amongst  the  munificent  acts  of 
the  Singhalese  kings. 

As  the  other  species  of  the  same  genus  of  palms  are 
confined  to  the  New  World2,  a  doubt  has  been  raised 
whether  the  coco-nut  be  indigenous  in  India,  or  an  im- 
portation. If  the  latter,  the  first  plant  must  have  been 
introduced  anterior  to  the  historic  age;  and  whatever 
the  period  at  which  the  tree  may  have  been  first  cul- 
tivated, a  time  is  indicated  when  it  was  practically  un- 
known in  Ceylon  by  the  fact,  that  a  statue,  without  date 
or  inscription,  is  carved  in  high  relief  in  a  niche  hol- 
lowed out  of  a  rock  to  the  east  of  Galle,  which  tradition 
says  is  the  monument  to  the  Kustia  Eaja,  an  Indian 
prince,  whose  claim  to  remembrance  is,  that  he  first 
taught  the  Singhalese  the  use  of  the  coco-nut.3 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxii. 

2  BBOWN'S  Notes  to  TTJCKEY'S  Ex- 
pedition to  the  Congo,  p.  456. 

3  The     earliest    mention    of    the 
coco-nut  in   Ceylon    occurs  in  the 
Mahau-anso,    which  refers  to  it  as 
known  at  Rohuna  to  the  south,  B.  C. 
161  (ch.  xxv.  p.  140).     "  The  milk 
of  the  small  red  coco-nut  "  is  stated 
to  have  been  used  by  Dutugaimunu 
in  preparing  cement  for  building  the 
Ruanwelle"    dagoba  (Mah.   ch.  xxx. 
p.  169).     The  south-west  of  the  is- 
land,  and  especially  the  margin  of 
the  sea,  is  still  the  locality  in  which 


the  tree  is  found  in  greatest 
abundance  in  Ceylon.  Hither,  if 
originally  self-sown,  it  must  have 
been  floated  and  flung  ashore  by  the 
waves ;  and  as  the  north-east  coast, 
though  washed  by  a  powerful  current, 
is  almost  altogether  destitute  of  these 
palms,  it  is  obvious  that  the  coco- 
nut, if  carried  by  sea  from  some  other 
shore,  must  have  been  brought 
during  the  south-west  monsoon  from 
the  coast  near  Cape  Comorin.  ./ELIAX 
notices  as  one  of  the  leading  pecu- 
liarities in  the  appearance  of  the  sea 
coast  of  Ceylon,  that  the  palm  trees 


CHAP.  II.] 


AGRICULTURE. 


437 


The  mango,  the  jambo,  and  several  other  fruits  are 
particularised,  but  the  historical  books  make  no  mention 
either  of  the  pine-apple  or  the  plantain,  both  of  which 
appear  to  have  been  of  comparatively  recent  introduction. 
Pulse  is  alluded  to  at  an  early  date  under  the  generic 
designation  of  "  Masa."1 

Rice  and  Curry. —  Rice  in  various  forms  is  always 
spoken  of  as  the  food  alike  of  the  sovereign,  the  priests, 
and  the  people  ;  rice  prepared  plainly,  conjee  (the  water  in 
which  rice  is  boiled),  "  rice  mixed  with  sugar  and  honey, 
and  rice  dressed  with  clarified  butter."2  Chillies  are 
now  and  then  mentioned  as  an  additional  condiment.3 
The  Eajavali  speaks  of  curry  in  the  second  century 
before  Christ 4,  and  the  Mahawanso  in  the  fifth  century 
after.6  ' 

Although  the  taking  of  life  is  sternly  forbidden  in  the 
ethical  code  of  Buddha,  and  the  most  prominent  of  the 


(by  which,  as  the  south  of  the  island 
was  the  place  of  resort,  he  most  pro- 
bably means  the  coco-nut  palms)  grew 
in  regular  quincunxes,  as  if  planted 
by  skilful  hands  in  a  well-ordered 
garden.  "'H  vijiroc,  nv  Ka\ovai  Ta?rpo- 


tv  TOIQ  a/3po7£  TWI>  TTctpaStiawv  ol 
Tovriiiv  fiiXidwvoi  QvTtvovai  TO.  fij'fpa 
rd  <TKia3T)t>6pa."  —  Lib.  xvi.  ch.  18. 
The  comparative  silence  of  the  Ma- 
hawamo  in  relation  to  the  coco-nut 
may  probably  be  referable  to  the  fact 
that  its  author  resided  and  wrote  in 
the  interior  of  the  island;  over  which, 
unlike  the  light  seeds  of  other  plants, 
its  ponderous  nuts  could  not  have 
been  distributed  accidentallv,  where 


down  to  the 


prese 


nt  time  it  has  been 


but  partially  introduced,  and  nowhere 
in  any  considerable  number.  Its  pre- 
sence throughout  Ceylon  is  always 
indicative  of  the  vicinity  of  man,  and 
at  a  distance  from  the  shore  it  appears 
in  those  places  only  where  it  has  been 
planted  by  his  care.  The  Singhalese 
believe  that  the  coco-nut  will  not 
flourish  "  unless  you  walk  under  it 
and  talk  under  it : "  but  its  proxi- 
mity to  human  habitations  is  possibly 


explained  by  the  consideration  that 
if  exposed  in  the  forest,  it  would  be 
liable,  when  young,  to  be  forced  down 
by  the  elephants,  who  delight  in  its 
delicate  leaves.  See  DAVY'S  Angler 
in  the  Lake  Districts,  p.  246. 

1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  140. 

2  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxii.  p.  196. 

3  Ibid.,  ch.  xxv.  p.  158  :  ch.  xxvi. 
p.  160. 

*  Rajamli,  pp.  196,  200,  202. 

6  Mahawanso,  TUHNOUR'S  MS. 
translation,  ch.  xxxix. 

RNOX  says  that  curry  is  a  Portu- 
guese word,  caive  (Relation,  &c., 
part  i.  ch.  iv.  p.  12),  but  this  is  a 
misapprehension.  Professor  H.  H. 
WILSOJJ,  in  a  private  letter  to  me,  says, 
"  In  Hindustan  we  are  accustomed  to 
consider  '  curry  '  to  be  derived  from 
tarkari,  a  general  term  for  esculent 
vegetables,  but  it  is  probably  the 
English  version  of  the  Kanara  and 
Malayalam  kadi;  pronounced  with  a 
hard  r,  '  kari '  or '  kuri,'  which  means 
sour  milk  with  rice  boiled,  which  was 
originally  used  for  such  compounds 
as  curry  at  the  present  day.  The 
Karnata  mqj'kke-kari  is  a  dish  of  rice, 
sour  milk,  spices,  red  pepper,  &c. 
&c." 


F   F     3 


SCIENCES   AND    SOCIAL   AETS. 


[PART  IV. 


obligations  undertaken  by  the  priesthood  is  directed  to 
its  preservation  even  in  the  instances  of  insects  and 
animalcules,  casuistry  succeeded  so  far  as  to  fix  the  crime 
on  the  slayer,  and  to  exonerate  the  individual  who 
merely  partook  of  the  flesh.1  Even  the  inmates  of  the 
wiharas  and  monasteries  discovered  devices  for  the  saving 
of  conscience,  and  curried  rice  was  not  rejected  in  con- 
sequence of  the  animal  ingredients  incorporated  with 
it.  The  mass  of  the  population  were  nevertheless  vege- 
tarians, and  so  little  value  did  they  place  on  animal  food, 
that  according  to  the  accounts  furnished  to  EDRISI  by 
the  Arabian  seamen  returning  from  Ceylon,  "  a  sheep 
sufficient  to  regale  an  assembly  was  to  be  bought  there 
for  half  a  drachm."  2 

Betel. —  In  connection  with  a  diet  so  largely  composed 
of  vegetable  food,  arose  the  custom,  which  to  the  present 
day  is  universal  in  Ceylon,  —  of  chewing  the  leaves 
of  the  betel  vine,  accompanied  with  lime  and  the  sliced 
nut  of  the  areca  palm.3  The  betel  (piper  betel),  which 
is  now  universally  cultivated  for  this  purpose,  is  pre- 
sumed to  have  been  introduced  from  some  tropical 
island,  as  it  has  nowhere  been  found  indigenous  in  con- 
tinental India.4  In  Ceylon,  its  use  is  mentioned  as  early 
as  the  fifth  century  before  Christ,  when  "  betel  leaves  " 
formed  the  present  sent  by  a  princess  to  her  lover.5  In 
a  conflict  of  Dutugaimunu  with  the  Malabars,  B.C.  161, 
the  enemy  seeing  on  his  lips  the  red  stain  of  the  betel, 


1  HAHDY'S     Eastern     Monachism, 
ch.  iv.  p.  24  j  cli.  ix.  p.  92  ;  ch.  xvi. 
p.  158.     HARDY'S  Buddhism,  ch.  vii. 
p.  327. 

2  EDRISI,  Geographic,  &cv  torn.  i. 
p.  73. 

3  For  an  account  of  the  medicinal 
influence  of  betel-chewing,  see  Part  I. 
c.  iii.  §  ii.  p.  112. 

4  ROYLE'S  Essay  on  the  Antiquity 
of  Hindoo  Medicine,  p.  85. 

5  B.  c.    504.      Mahawanso,   ch.  ix. 
p.  57.     Dutugaimunu,  when  building 
the  Ruanwelle*  dagoba,  provided  for 


the  labourers  amongst  other  articles 
"  the  five  condiments  used  in  masti- 
cation." This  probably  refers  to  the 
chewing  of  betel  and  its  accompani- 
ments (Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  p.  175). 
A  story  is  told  of  the  wife  of  a  Sin- 
ghalese minister,  about  A.  D.  56,  who 
to  warn  him  of  a  conspiracy,  sent 
him  his  "  betel,  &c.,  for  mastication, 
omitting  the  chunam,"  hoping  that 
coming  in  search  of  it,  he  might 
escape  his  "impending  fate."  Ma- 
hawanso, ch.  xxxv.  p.  219. 


CHAP.  II.J 


AGRICULTURE. 


439 


mistook  it  for  blood,  and  spread  the  false  cry  that  the 
king  had  been  slain.1 

Intoxicating  liquors  are  of  sufficient  antiquity  to  be 
denounced  in  the  moral  system  of  Buddhism.  The  use 
of  toddy  and  drinks  obtained  from  the  fermentation  of 
"  bread  and  flour "  is  condemned  in  the  laity,  and 
strictly  prohibited  to  the  priesthood  2 ;  but  the  Arabian 
geographers  mention  that  in  the  twelfth  century,  wine, 
in  defiance  of  the  prohibition,  was  imported  from  Persia, 
and  drunk  by  the  Singhalese  after  being  flavoured  with 
cardamoms.3 


1  Rajavali,  p.  221. 

2  HARDY'S  Buddhism,  &c.t   ch.  x. 
p.  474. 


3  EDEISI,  Geographic,   &cv    Trad. 
JATJBERT,  torn.  i.  p.  73. 


F  4 


440 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   AETS. 


[PART  IV. 


CHAP.  m. 


EAKLY   COMMERCE,   SHIPPING,   AND   PRODUCTIONS. 


TRADE. —  At  a  very  early  period  the  mass  of  the  people 
of  Ceylon  were  essentially  agricultural,  and  the  propor- 
tion of  the  population  addicted  to  other  pursuits  consisted 
of  the  small  number  of  handicraftsmen  required  in  a 
community  amongst  whom  civilisation  and  refinement 
were  so  slightly  developed,  that  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants 
may  be  said  to  have  had  few  wants  beyond  the  daily 
provision  of  food. 

Upon  trade  the  natives  appear  to  have  looked  at  all 
tunes  with  indifference.  Other  nations,  both  to  the  east 
and  west  of  Ceylon,  made  the  island  their  halting-place 
and  emporium ;  the  Chinese  brought  thither  the  wares 
destined  for  the  countries  beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  the 
Arabians  and  Persians  met  them  with  their  products  in 
exchange  ;  but  the  Singhalese  appear  to  have  been  unin- 
terested spectators  of  this  busy  traffic,  in  which  they  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  taken  any  share.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  opposite  coast  of  India,  aware  of  the  natural  wealth 
of  Ceylon,  participated  largely  in  its  development,  and 
the  Tamils,  who  eagerly  engaged  in  the  pearl  fishery,  gave 
to  the  gulf  of  Manaar  the  name  of  Salabham,  "  the  sea  of 
gain." 1 

Native  Shipping.  —  The  only  mention  made  of  na- 
tive ships  in  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Singhalese,  is 


1  The  Tamils  gave  the  same  name 
to  Chilaw,  which  was  the  nearest 
town  to  the  pearl  fishery  (and  which 


Ibn  Batuta  calls  Salawaf) ;  and 
eventually  they  called  the  whole  is- 
land Salabham. 


CHAP,  in.] 


EARLY    TRADE. 


441 


in  connection  with  missions  for  the  promotion  of  Budd- 
hism, or  embassies  for  the  negotiation  of  marriages  and 
alliances  with  the  princes  of  India.1  The  building  of 
dhoneys  is  adverted  to  as  early  as  the  first  century,  but 
they  were  only  intended  by  a  devout  king  to  be  stationed 
along  the  shores  of  the  island,  covered  by  day  with 
white  cloths,  and  by  night  illuminated  with  lamps,  in 
order  that  from  them  priests,  as  the  royal  almoners, 
might  distribute  gifts  and  donations  of  food.2 

The  genius  of  the  people  seems  to  have  never  inclined 
them  to  a  sea-faring  life,  and  the  earliest  notice  that 
occurs  of  ships  for  the  defence  of  the  coast,  is  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Malabars  who  were  taken  into  the  royal 
service  from  their  skill  in  naval  affairs.3  A  national 
marine  was  afterwards  established  for  this  purpose,  A.D. 
495,  by  the  King  Mogallana.4  In  the  Suy-shoo,  a  Chinese 
history  of  the  Suy  dynasty,  it  is  stated  that  in  A.D.  607, 
the  king  of  Ceylon  "  sent  the  Brahman  Kew-mo-16  with 
thirty  vessels,  to  meet  the  approaching  ships  which  con- 
veyed an  embassy  from  China."5  And  in  the  twelfth 
century,  when  Prakrama  I.  was  about  to  enter  on  his 
foreign  expeditions,  "several  hundreds  of  vessels  were 
equipped  for  that  service  within  five  months."6 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  same  apathy,  if  not  anti- 
pathy .  to  navigation,  still  prevails  amongst  the  inhabi- 
tants of  an  island,  the  long  sea-borde  of  which  affords 
facilities  for  cultivating  a  maritime  taste,  did  any  such 
exist.  But  whilst  the  natives  of  Hindustan  fit  out  sea- 
going vessels,  and  take  service  as  sailors  for  distant  voy- 
ages, the  Singhalese,  though  most  expert  as  fishers  and 
boatmen,  never  embark  in  foreign  vessels,  and  no  in- 


1  TTTRNOTJE'S  Epitome,  App.  p.  73. 

2  By  King  Malm  Dailiya,  A.D.  8. 
Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  211 ;  Raja- 
vali,  p.  228  ;  Rajaratnacari,  p.  52. 

8  B.  c.  247.     Mahawanso,  ch.  xxi. 
p.  127. 


4  Mahawanso,  ch.  xl.     TTJBNOTTR'S 
MS.  Transl. 

5  Suy-shoo,  b.  Ixxxi.  p.  3. 

6  TVENOUR'S  Epitome,   &c.,  App. 
p.  73. 


442 


SCIENCES   AXD    SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


stance  exists  at  the  present  day,  nor  so  far  as  I  can  dis- 
cover at  any  former  period,  of  a  native  ship,  owned, 
built,  or  manned  by  Singhalese. 

The  boats  which  are  in  use  at  the  present  day,  and 
which  differ  materially  in  build  at  different  parts  of  the 
island,  appear  to  have  been  all  taken  from  models  sup- 
plied by  other  countries.  In  the  south  the  curious  double 
canoes,  that  attract  the  eye  of  the  stranger  arriving  at 
Point  de  Galle  by  their  balance-log  and  outrigger,  were 
borrowed  from  the  islanders  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  ; 
the  more  substantial  canoe  called  a  ballam,  which 
is  found  in  the  estuaries  and  shallow  lakes  around  the 
northern  shore,  is  imitated  from  one  of  similar  form  on 
the  Malabar  coast;  and  the  catamaran  is  common  to 
Ceylon  and  Coromandel.  The  awkward  dhoneys,  built 
at  Jaffna,  and  manned  by  Tamils,  are  copied  from  those 
at  Madras  ;  while  the  Singhalese  dhoney,  south  of  Co- 
lombo, is  but  an  enlargement  of  the  Galle  canoe  with 
its  outrigger,  so  clumsily  constructed  that  the  gunwale  is 
frequently  topped  by  a  line  of  wicker-work  smeared  with 
clay,  to  protect  the  deck  from  the  wash  of  the  sea.1 

One  peculiarity  in  the  mode  of  constructing  the 
native  shipping  of  Ceylon  existed  in  the  remotest  times, 
and  is  retained  to  the  present  day.  The  practice  is 
closely  connected  with  one  of  the  most  imaginative 
incidents  in  the  mediaeval  romances  of  the  East. 
Their  boats  and  canoes,  like  those  of  the  Arabs  and 
other  early  navigators  who  crept  along  the  shores  of 
India,  are  put  together  without  the  use  of  iron  nails2, 
the  planks  being  secured  by  wooden  bolts,  and  stitched 
together  with  cords  spun  from  the  fibre  of  the  coco- 


1  The  gunwale  of  the  boat  of 
Ulysses  was  raised  by  hurdles  of 
osiers  to  keep  off  the  waves. 


il\ap    ifji 
ro  vXjjr. 


iroXXi'iv    S'    iiri 
Od.  \.  250. 


2  DELATTKIER,  Etudes  sur  la  "  Ee- 


Id t  ion  dcs  voyages  faits  par  les  Arabes 
et  les  Persons  dans  Flnde"  Journ. 
Asiat.  torn.  xlix.  p.  137.  See  also 
MALTE  Bsrx,  Hist,  de  Geogr.  torn.  i.  p. 
409,  with  the  references  to  the  Pen- 
plus  Mar.  Erythr.,  Strabo,  Procopius, 
&C.  GIBBON,  DecL  and  Fall,  vol.  v. 
ch.  xl. 


CHAP.  III.] 


SHIPS. 


443 


nut.1  PALLADIUS,  a  Greek  of  the  lower  empire,  to 
whom  is  ascribed  an  account  of  the  nations  of  India, 
written  in  the  fifth  century2,  adverts  to  this  peculiarity 
of  construction,  and  connects  it  with  the  phenomenon 
which  forms  so  striking  an  incident  in  one  of  the  tales 
in  the  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments.  In  the  story 
of  the  "Three  Eoyal  Mendicants,"  the  "Third  Cal- 
ender," as  he  is  called  in  the  old  translation,  relates  to 
the  ladies  of  Bagdad,  in  whose  house  he  is  enter- 
tained, how  he  and  his  companions  lost  their  course, 
when  sailing  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  found  them- 
selves in  the  vicinity  of  "the  mountain  of  loadstone 
towards  which  the  current  carried  them  with  violence, 
and  when  the  ships  approached  it  they  feh1  asunder,  and 
the  nails  and  everything  that  was  of  iron  flew  from  them 
towards  the  loadstone." 

The  learned  commentator,  LAXE,  says  that  several 
Arab  writers  describe  this  mountain  of  loadstone,  and 
amongst  others  he  instances  El  Caswini,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  century.3  EDEISI,  the 
Arab  geographer,  likewise  alludes  to  it ;  but  the  inven- 
tion belongs  to  an  earlier  age,  and  Palladius,  in  de- 
scribing Ceylon,  says  that  the  magnetic  rock  is  in  the 
adjacent  islands  called  Maniolse  (Maldives  ?),  and  that 
ships  coming  within  the  sphere  of  its  influence  are 
irresistibly  drawn  towards  it,  and  lose  all  power  of 
progress  except  in  its  direction.  Hence  it  is  essential, 
he  adds,  that  vessels  sailing  for  Ceylon  should  be  fastened 
with  wooden  instead  of  iron  bolts.4' 


1  Boats  thus  sewn  together  existed 
at  an  early  period  on   the  coast  of 
Arabia  as  well  as  of  Ceylon.     Odoric 
of  Friuli  saw  them  at  Ormus  in  the 
fourteenth  century  (HaJduyt,  vol.  ii. 
p.  35)  ;  and  the  construction  of  ships 
without  iron  was  not  peculiar  to  the 
Indian  seas,  as  Homer  mentions  that 
the  boat  built  by  Ulysses  was  put 
together  with  woo'denpegs,  y<'-.n$oimv, 
instead  of  bolts.     Odys.  v.  249. 

2  The  tract  alluded  to  is  usually 


known  as  the  treatise  de  Mvribus 
Brachmanorum,  and  ascribed  to  St. 
Ambrose.  For  an  account  of  it  see 
Vol.  I.  Pt.  v.  ch.  i.  p.  538. 

3  LANE'S  Arabian  Nights,  vol.  i. 
ch.  iii.  n.  72,  p.  242. 

4  "*E<rri    ci    IfiKujQ    TO.    diairfpwvra 
rrXoia   tig   tKiivrjv  TI}V   fitya\i)v  viiaov 
drtv   oifijoov  iiriovpioig  £vXfi'oi£   rarrr- 
ff« rafffitra." — PALLADITS,  in  Psetldo- 
CaUisthfnes,  lib.  iii.  c.  vii.     But  the 
fable  of  the  loadstone  mountain  is 


444 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


Another  peculiarity  of  the  native  craft  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ceylon  is  their  construction  with  a  prow  at 
each  extremity,  a  characteristic  which  belongs  also  to 
the  Massoula  boats  of  Madras,  as  well  as  to  others  on 
the  south  of  India.  It  is  a  curious  illustration  of  the 
abiding  nature  of  local  usages  when  originating  in  neces- 
sities and  utility,  that  STEABO,  in  describing  the  boats  in 
which  the  traffic  was  carried  on  between  Taprobane  and 
the  continent,  says  they  were  "  built  with  prows  at  each 
end,  but  without  holds  or  keels." l 

Foreign  Trade.— In  connection  with  foreign  trade  the 
Mahawanso  contains  repeated  allusions  to  ships  wrecked 
-upon  the  coast  of  Ceylon2,  and  amongst  the  remarkable 
events  which  signalised  the  season,  already  rendered  me- 
morable by  the  birth  of  Dutugaimunu,  B.C.  204,  was  the 
"  arrival  on  the  same  day  of  seven  ships  laden  with  golden 
utensils  and  other  goods."3  As  these  were  brought  by 
order  of  the  king  to  Mahagam,  then  the  capital  of  Eohuna, 
the  incident  is  probably  referable  to  the  foreign  trade 
which  was  then  carried  on  in  the  south  of  the  island4  by 


older  than  either  the  Arabian  sailors 
or  the  Greeks  of  the  lower  empire. 
Aristotle  speaks  of  a  magnetic 
mountain  on  the  coast  of  India,  and 
Pliny  repeats  the  story,  adding  that 
"  si  sint  clavi  in  calciamentis,  ves- 
tigia avelli  in  altero  non  posse  in 
altero  sisti." — Lib.ii.  c.  98,  lib.  xxxvi. 
c.  25.  Ptolemy  recounts  a  similar 
fable  in  his  geography.  Klaproth,  in 
his  Lettre  sur  la  Boussole,  says  that 
this  romantic  belief  was  first  com- 
municated to  the  West  from  China. 
"  Les  anciens  auteurs  Chinois  par- 
lent  aussi  de  montagnes  magnetiques 
de  la  mer  me'ridionale  sur  les  cotes 
de  Tonquin  et  de  la  Cochin  Chine ; 
et  diseiit  que  si  les  vaisseaux 
Strangers  qui  sont  garnis  de  plaques 
de  fer  s'en  approchent  Us  y  sont 
arretes  et  aucun  d'eux  ne  peut  passer 
par  ces  endroits." — KLAPROTH,  Lett. 
v.  p.  117,  quoted  by  SANTAREM,  Es- 


sai  sur  THist.  de   Cosmonr..  vol.  i. 
p.  182. 

1  (f  KnTiaictvaafiivae  Si  dftrforepwGfv 
syKoiXiW  nrjrpwv  \wpic." — Lib.  XT.  C. 
i.  s.  14.     Pliny,  who  makes  the  same 
statement,says  the  Singhalese  adopted 
this  model  to  avoid  the  necessity  of 
tacking  in  the  narrow  and  shallow 
channels,  between   Ceylon  and   the 
mainland  of  India  (lib.  vi.  c.  24). 

2  B.  c.  543.  Mahawanso,  ch.  vii.  p. 
49 :  B.  c.  306.  Hid,,  ch.  xi.  p.  68,  &c. 

3  Mahcnvamo,  ch.  xxii.  p.  135. 

4  The    first    direct  intimation   of 
trading   carried   on  by  native  Sin- 
ghalese, along  the  coast  of  Ceylon, 
occurs  in  the  HajavaH,  but  not  till 
the  year  A.  D.  1410, — the  king,   who 
had  made  Cotta   his  capital,   being 
represented    as    "  loading    a  vessel 
with  goods  and  sending  it  to  Jaffna, 
to  carry  on  commerce  with  his  son." 
— Rajdvali,  p.  289. 


CHAP.  III.] 


EARLY   EXPORTS. 


445 


the  Chinese  and  Arabians,  and  in  which,  as  I  have  stated, 
the  native  Singhalese  took  no  part. 

Still,  notwithstanding  their  repugnance  to  intercourse 
with  strangers,  the  Singhalese  were  not  destitute  of  traffic 
amongst  themselves,  and  their  historical  annals  contain 
allusions  to  the  mode  in  which  it  was  conducted.  Their 
cities  exhibited  rows  of  shops  and  bazaars  \  and  the  coun- 
try was  traversed  by  caravans  much  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  drivers  of  tavalams  carry  goods  at  the  present  day 
between  the  coast  and  the  interior.2 

Whatever  merchandise  was  obtained  in  barter  from 
foreign  ships,  was  by  this  means  conveyed  to  the  cities 
and  the  capital 3,  and  the  reference  to  carts  which  were 
accustomed  to  go  from  Anarajapoora  to  the  division  of 
Malaya,  lying  round  Adam's  Peak,  "  to  procure  saffron 
and  ginger,"  implies  that  at  that  period  (B.  c.  165) 
roads  and  other  facilities  for  wheel  carriages  must  have 
existed,  enabling  them  to  traverse  forests  and  cross  the 
rivers.4 

Early  Exports  of  Ceylon.  —  The  native  historians 
give  an  account  of  the  exports  of  Ceylon,  which  corres- 
ponds in  all  particulars  with  the  records  left  by  the 
early  travellers  and  merchants,  Greek,  Eoman,  Arabian, 
Indian,  and  Chinese.  They  consisted  entirely  of  natural 
productions,  aromatic  drugs,  gems,  pearls,  and  shells ; 
and  it  is  a  strong  evidence  of  the  more  advanced  state 
of  civilisation  in  India  at  the  same  period  that,  whilst 
the  presents  sent  from  the  kings  of  Ceylon  to  the  native 


1  B.  c.  204,  a  visitor  to  Anaraja- 
poora is  described  as  "  purchasing 
aromatic  drugs  from  the  bazaars, 
and  departing  by  the  Northern  Gate" 
(3{(th(iu-(inso,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  139)  ;  and 
A.D.  8,  the  King  Maha  Dathika 
"ranged  shops  on  each  side  of  the 
streets  of  the  capital." — Mahcnuanso, 


ch.  xxxiv.  p.  213. 

a  B.C.  170. 
p.  138. 


Mahaivanso,  ch.  xxii. 


3  In  the  reign  of  Elala,  B.C.  204, 
the   son   of    "  an   eminent    caravan 
chief  "  was  despatched  to  a  Brahman, 
who  resided  near  the  Chetiyo  moun- 
tain (Mihintala),  in  whose  possession 
there  were  rich  articles,  frankincense, 
sandal-wood,  &c.,  imported  from  be- 
yond the   ocean. —  Mahawanso.   ch. 
xxiii.  p.  138. 

4  Mahaioanso,  ch.  xxviii.  p.  167. 


446 


SCIENCES   AND    SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


princes  of  Hindustan  and  the  Dekkan  were  always  of 
this  precious  but  primitive  character,  the  articles  re- 
ceived in  return  were  less  remarkable  for  the  intrinsic 
value  of  the  material,  than  for  the  workmanship  bestowed 
upon  them.  Thus  Devenipiatissa  sent  by  his  ambassa- 
dors to  Asoka,  B.  c.  306,  "  the  eight  varieties  of  pearls, 
viz.,  hay  a  (the  horse),  gaja  (the  elephant),  ratha  (the 
chariot  wheel),  maalaka  (the  nelli  fruit),  valaya  (the 
bracelet),  anguliwelahka  (the  ring),  kakudapliala  (the 
kabook  fruit),  and  pakatika,  the  ordinary  description. 
He  sent  sapphires,  lapis  lazuli *,  and  rubies,  a  right  hand 
chank  2,  and  three  bamboos  for  chariot  poles,  remarkable 
because  their  natural  marking  resembled  the  carvings  of 
flowers  and  animals.  On  the  other  hand  the  gifts  sent  by 
the  king  of  Magadha,  indicate  the  advanced  state  of  the 
arts  in  Bengal,  even  at  that  early  period :  they  con- 
sisted of  "a  chowrie  (the  royal  fly  flapper),  a  diadem, 
a  sword  of  state,  a  royal  parasol,  golden  slippers,  a 
crown,  an  anointing  vase,  asbestos  towels,  to  be  cleansed 
by  being  passed  through  the  fire,  a  costly  howdah,  and 
sundry  vessels  of  gold."  Along  with  these  was  sacred 
water  from  the  Anotatto  lake  and  from  the  Ganges, 
aromatic  and  medicinal  drugs,  hill  paddi  and  sandal- 
wood  ;  and  amongst  the  other  items  "  a  virgin  of  royal 
birth  and  of  great  personal  beauty."  3 

Early  Imports.  —  Down  to  a  very  late  period,  gems, 
pearls,  and  chank  shells  continued  to  be  the  only 
products  taken  away  from  Ceylon,  and  cinnamon  is 
nowhere  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Books  as  amongst 
the  exports  of  the  island.4  In  return  for  these  exports, 


1  Lapis  lazuli  is  not  found  in  Cey- 
lon, and  must  have  been  brought  by 
the  caravans  from  Budakshan.     It  is 
more  than   once   mentioned  in  the 
MahawansOj  ch.  xi.  p.  09 :  ch.  xxx.  p. 
185. 

2  A  variety  of  the  TurHndla  rapa 
with  the  whorls  reversed,  to  which 


the  natives  attach  a  superstitious 
value ;  professing  that  a  shell  so 
formed  is  worth  its  weight  in  gold. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xi.  pp.  G9,  70. 

4  For  an  account  of  the   earliest 
trade  in  cinnamon,  see  post,  Part  v. 
ch.  ii.  on  the  Knowledge  of  Ceylon 
possessed  by  the  Arabians. 


CHAP.  III.] 


EARLY   IMPORTS. 


447 


slaves,  chariots,  and  horses  were  frequently  transmitted 
from  India.  The  riding  horses  and  chargers,  so  often 
spoken  of *,  must  necessarily  have  been  introduced  from 
thence,  and  were  probably  of  Arab  blood ;  but  I  have 
not  succeeded  in  discovering  to  what  particular  race 
the  "  Sindhawa  "  horses  belonged,  of  which  four  purely 
white  were  harnessed  to  the  state  carriage  of  Dutugai- 
munu.2  Gold  cloth  3,  frankincense,  and  sandal-wood  were 
brought  from  India 4,  as  was  also  a  species  of  "  clay " 
and  of  "cloud-coloured  stone,"  which  appear  to  have 
been  used  in  the  construction  of  dagobas.5  Silk6  and 
vermilion  7  indicate  the  activity  of  trade  with  China ;  and 
woollen  cloth  8  and  carpets 9  with  Persia  and  Kashmir. 

Intercourse  with  Kashmir.  —  Possibly  the  woollen 
cloths  referred  to  may  have  been  shawls,  and  there  is 
evidence  in  the  Raja-taranginilQ,  that  at  a  very  early 
period  the  possession  of  a  common  religion  led  to  an 
intercourse  between  Ceylon  and  Kashmir,  originating 
in  the  sympathies  of  Buddhism,  but  perpetuated  by 
the  Kashmirians  for  the  pursuit  of  commerce.  In  the 
fabulous  period  of  the  narrative,  a  king  of  Kashmir  is 
said  to  have  sent  to  Ceylon  for  a  delicately  fine  cloth,  em- 
broidered with  golden  footsteps.11  In  the  eighth  century 
of  the  Christian  era,  Singhalese  engineers  were  sent  for  to 
construct  works  in  Kashmir 12 ;  and  Kashmir,  according 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.    xxii.    p.    134, 
&c.  &c. 

2  Ibid.,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  142 ;  ch.  xxxi. 
p.  186. 

3  A.D.459.  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxviii. 
p.  258. 

4  Ibid,,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  138. 

5  Ibid.,  ch.  xxix.  p.  109  ;  ch.  xxx. 
p.  179. 

6  Ibid.,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  139 ;  Rajarat- 
nacari,  p.  49. 

7  Ibid.,  ch.  xxix.  p.  169  ;  Rajarat- 
nacari,  p.  51. 

8  Mahawamo,   ch.    xxx.   p.    177 ; 
Rajavali,  p.  269.     Woollen  cloth  is 
described  as  "most  valuable" — an 


epithet  which  indicates  its  rarity,  and 
probably  foreign  origin. 

9  Mahawanso,  ch.  xiv.  p.  82  ;  ch. 
xv.  p.  87  ',  ch.  xxv.  p.  151 ;  carpets  of 
wool,  ib.  ch.  xxvii.  p.  164. 

10  The  Rajutaranffini  resembles  the 
Mahawanso,    in    being    a    metrical 
chronicle    of    Kashmir    written    at 
various  times  by  a  series  of  authors, 
the   earliest  of  whom  lived  in  the 
12th  century.     It  has  been  translated 
into   French  by  M.   Troyer.  Paris, 
1840. 

11  Raftitarantfini,  b.  i.  si.  294. 

12  Rajataranyini,  b.  iv.  si.  502,  &c. 


448 


SCIENCES  AXD   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


to  Troyer,  took  part  in  the  trade  between  Ceylon  and  the 
West.1 

Of  the  trade  between  Ceylon  and  Kashmir  and  its 
progress,  the  account  given  by  EDRISI,  the  most  re- 
nowned of  the  writers  on  eastern  geography,  who  wrote 
in  the  twelfth  century2,  is  interesting,  inasmuch  as  it 
may  be  regarded  as  a  picture  of  this  remarkable 
commerce,  after  it  had  attained  its  highest  develop- 
ment. 

EDRISI  did  not  write  from  personal  knowledge,  as  he 
had  never  visited  either  Ceylon  or  India ;  but  compiling 
as  he  did,  by  command  of  Eoger  II.,  of  Sicily,  a  compen- 
dium of  geographical  knowledge  as  it  existed  in  his  time, 
the  information  which  he  has  systematised  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  condensation  of  such  facts  as  the  eastern  sea- 
men engaged  in  the  Indian  trade  had  brought  back  with 
them  from  Ceylon. 

"  In  the  mountains  around  Adam's  Peak,"  says  EDRISI, 
"  they  collect  precious  stones  of  every  description,  and  in 
the  valleys  they  find  those  diamonds  by  means  of  which 
they  engrave  the  setting  of  stones  on  rings.  The  same 
mountains  produce  aromatic  drugs  perfumes,  and  aloes- 


1  "  La  communication  entre  Kach- 
mir  et  Ceylan  n'a  pas  eu  lieu  seule- 
ment  par  les  entreprises  guerrieres 
que  je  viens  de  rappeler,  mais  aussi 
par  un  commerce  paisible ;  c'est  de 
cette  ile  que  venaient  des  artistes 
qu'on  appelait  Rakchasas  a  cause  du 
merveilleux  de  leur  art;  et  qui 
exe"cutaient  des  ouvrages  pour  1  u- 
tilite  et  pour  I'ornement  d  un  pays 
montagneux  etsujetaux  inondations. 
Ceci  confirme  ce  que  nous  appren- 
nent  les  geographes  grecs,  que  Cey- 
lan, avant  et  apres  le  commencement 
de  notre  ere,  etait  un  grand  point  de 
reunion  pour  le  commerce  de  1'Orient 
et  de  i'Occident." — Rajatarangini, 
vol.  ii.  p.  434. 

a  Abou-abd-allali  Mahommed  was 
a  Moor  of  the  family  who  reigned  over 
Malaga  after  the  fall  of  the  Kalifat 


of  Cordova,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
llth  century,  and  his  patronymic  of 
Edrisi  or  Al  Edrissy  implies  that  he 
was  descended  from  the  princes  of 
that  race  who  had  previously  held 
supreme  power  in  what  is  at  the  pre- 
sent day  the  Empire  of  Morocco.  He 
took  up  his  residence  in  Sicily  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Norman  king, 
Roger  II.,  A.D.  1154,  and  the  work 
on  geography  which  he  there  com- 
posed was  not  only  based  on  the  pre- 
vious labours  of  Massoudi,  Ibn 
Haukul,  Albyrouni,  and  others,  but 
it  embodied  the  reports  of  persons 
commissioned  specially  by  the  king 
to  undertake  voyages  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  back  correct  accounts  of 
foreign  countries.  See  REINATID'S 
Introduction  to  the  Geography  of 
Abulfeda,  p.  cxiii. 


CHAP.  III.]  FOREIGN   TRADE.  441) 

wood,  and  there  too  they  find  the  animal,  the  civet, 
which  yields  musk.  The  islanders  cultivate  rice,  coco- 
nuts, and  sugar-cane  ;  in  the  rivers  is  found  rock 
crystal,  remarkable  both  for  brilliancy  and  size,  and 
the  sea  on  every  side  has  a  fishery  of  magnificent 
and  priceless  pearls.  Throughout  India  there  is  no 
prince  whose  wealth  can  compare  with  the  King  of 
Serendib,  his  immense  riches,  his  pearls  and  his  jewels, 
being  the  produce  of  his  own  dominions  and  seas ;  and 
thither  ships  of  China,  and  of  every  neighbouring 
country  resort,  bringing  the  wines  of  Irak  and  Fars, 
which  the  king  buys  for  sale  to  his  subjects ;  for  he 
drinks  wine  and  prohibits  debauchery ;  whilst  other 
princes  of  India  encourage  debauchery  and  prohibit 
the  use  of  wine.  The  exports  from  Serendib  consist  of 
silk,  precious  stones,  crystals,  diamonds,  and  per- 
fumes." 1 

1  EDEISI,  G6ographie,  Trad.  JAITBERT,  torn.  i.  p.  73. 


VOL.  I.  GO 


450 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


CHAP.    IV. 


MANUFACTURES. 


THE  silk  alluded  to  in  the  last  chapter  must  have 
been  brought  from  China  for  re-exportation  to  the 
West.  Silk  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Mahawanso  19 
but  never  with  any  suggestion  as  to  its  being  a  native 
product  of  Ceylon. 

Coir  and  Cordage. — EDRISI  speaks  of  cordage  made 
from  the  fibre  of  the  coco-nut,  to  prepare  which, 
the  natives  of  Oman  and  Yemen  resorted  to  Cey- 
lon.2 Hence  the  Singhalese  would  appear  to  have 
been  instructed  by  the  Arabs  in  the  treatment  of  coir, 
and  its  formation  into  ropes  ;  an  occupation  which,  at 
the  present  day,  affords  extensive  employment  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  south  and  south-western  coasts. 
Ibn  Batuta  describes  the  use  of  coir,  for  sewing  toge- 
ther the  planking  of  boats,  as  it  was  practised  at  Zafar 
in  the  fourteenth  century 3 ;  and  the  word  itself  bespeaks 
its  Arabian  origin,  as  ALBYROUNI,  who  divides  the 
Maldives  and  Laccadives  into  two  classes,  calls  the 
one  group  the  Dyvah-kouzah,  or  islands  that  produce 
cowries;  and  the  other  the  Dyvah-kanbar,  or  islands 
that  produce  coir.4' 

Dress. — The  dress  of  the  people  was  of  the  simplest 


1  Silk  is  mentioned  20  B.C.  Raja- 
ratnacari,   p.    49.    Mahawanso.    ch. 
xxiii.  p.  139. 

2  EDKISI,  t.  i.  p.  74. 

3  Voyages.  8,-c.,   vol.   ii.    p.    207. 
Paris,  1854. 

4  ALBYBOTJNI,  inREYNAUD,  Fragm. 


Arabes,  $c.,  pp.  93,  124.  The  Por- 
tuguese adopted  the  word  from  the 
Hindus,  and  CASTANEDA,  in  Hist,  of 
the  Discovery  of  India,  describes  the 
Moors  of  Sofalah  sewing  their  boats 
with  "  cayro"  ch.  v.  14,  xxx.  75. 


CHAP.  IV.]  MANUFACTURES.  451 

kind,  and  similar  to  that  which  is  worn  at  the  pre- 
sent day.  The  bulk  of  the  population  wore  scanty 
cloths,  without  shape  or  seam,  folded  closely  round  the 
body  and  the  portion  of  the  limbs  which  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  cover ;  and  the  Chinese,  who  visited  the 
island  in  the  seventh  century,  described  the  people  as 
clothed  in  the  loose  robe,  still  known  as  a  "  corn- 
boy,"  a  word  probably  derived  from  the  Chinese  koo- 
pei,  which  signifies  cotton.1 

The  wealthier  classes  indulged  in  flowing  robes,  and 
Bujas  Dasa  the  king,  who  in  the  fourth  century  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  medicine  and  the  cure  of  the 
sick,  was  accustomed,  when  seeking  objects  for  his  com- 
passion, to  appear  as  a  common  person,  simply  "  dis- 
guising himself  by  gathering  his  cloth  up  between  his 
legs."  2  Eobes  with  flowers  3,  and  a  turban  of  silk,  con- 
stituted the  dress  of  state  bestowed  on  men  whom  the 
king  delighted  to  honour.4  Cloth  of  gold  is  spoken  of 
in  the  fifth  century,  but  the  allusion  is  probably  made 
to  the  kinbaub  of  India.5 

MANUAL  AND  MECHANICAL  ARTS.  Weaving.  —  The 
aborigines  practised  the  art  of  weaving  before  the  arrival 
ofWijayo.  Kuweni,  when  the  adventurer  approached 
her,  was  "  seated  at  the  foot  of  a  tree,  spinning  thread  ; "  6 
cotton  was  the  ordinary  material,  but  "  linen  cloth  "  is 
mentioned  in  the  second  century  before  Christ.7  White 
cloths  are  spoken  of  as  having  been  employed,  in  the 
earliest  times,  on  every  occasion  of  ceremony  for  covering 
chairs  on  which  persons  of  rank  were  expected  to  be 
seated  ;  whole  "  webs  of  cloth  "  were  used  to  wrap  the 
carandua  in  which  the  sacred  relics  were  enclosed  8,  and 


1  See  Part  v.  ch.  iii.  on  the  Know- 
ledge of  Ceylon  possessed  by  the 
Chinese. 

s  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  245. 


By  the  ordinances  of  Buddhism 
it  was  forbidden  to  the  priesthood 


to  adorn  the  body  with  flowers," 
thus  showing  it  to  liave  been  a  prac- 
tice of  the  laity.  HARDY'S  Eastern 

G   G     2 


Monachism,  ch.  iv.  p.  24  j    ch.  xiii. 


p.  128. 


Mahaivanso,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  139. 


5  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  258 

6  Mahawanso,  ch.  vii.  p.  48  ;  Raja- 
vali,  p.  173. 


"'  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxv.  p.  152. 
8  Rajaratnacari,  p.  72. 


452 


SCIENCES  AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


one  of  the  kings,  on  the  occasion  of  consecrating  a 
dagoba  at  Mihintala,  covered  with  "  white  cloth "  the 
road  taken  by  the  procession  between  the  mountain  and 
capital,  a  distance  of  more  than  seven  miles.1 

In  later  times  a  curious  practice  prevailed,  which 
exists  to  the  present  day ;  —  on  occasions  when  it  was 
intended  to  make  offerings  of  yellow  robes  to  the  priest- 
hood, the  cotton  was  plucked  from  the  tree  at  day- 
break, and  "cleaned,  spun,  woven,  dyed,  and  made 
into  garments"  before  the  setting  of  the  sun.2  This 
custom,  called  Catina  Dhawna,  is  first  referred  to  in 
the  Eajaratnacari  in  the  reign  of  Prakrama  I.2,  A.D. 
1153. 

The  expression  "  made  into  garments "  alludes  to  the 
custom  enjoined  on  the  priests  of  having  the  value  of 
the  material  destroyed,  before  consenting  to  accept  it  as 
a  gift,  thus  carrying  out  their  vow  of  poverty.  The 
robe  of  Gotama  Buddha  was  cut  into  thirty  pieces, 
these  were  again  united,  so  that  they  "resembled  the 
patches  of  ground  in  a  rice  field  ; "  and  hence  he  en- 
joined on  his  followers  the  observance  of  the  same 
practice.3 

The  arts  of  bleaching  and  dyeing  were  understood 
as  well  as  that  of  weaving,  and  the  Mahawanso,  in 
describing  the  building  of  the  Kuanwelle  dagoba,  at 
Anarajapoora,  B.C.  161,  tells  of  a  canopy  formed  of 
"  eight  thousand  pieces  of  cloth  of  every  hue."  4 

Earliest  Artisans. — VALENTYN,  writing  on  the  tradi- 
tional information  acquired  from  the  Singhalese  them- 
selves, records  the  belief  of  the  latter,  that  in  the  suite 
of  the  Pandyan  princess,  who  arrived  to  marry  Wijayo, 
were  artificers  from  Madura,  who  were  the  first  to  intro- 


1  A.D.  8.  Rajavali,  p.  227  j  MaJia- 
wanso,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  213. 

8  See  ante,  Vol.  II.  p.  351.  Raja- 
ratnacari,  pp.  104,  109,  112,  135; 
Rajavali,  p.  261 ;  HARDY'S  Eastern 
Monachism,  ch.  xii.  pp.  114,  121. 


3  HARDY'S     ^Eastern    Monachism, 
ch.  xii.  p.  117.  See  ante,Vol.  I.  Ptirr. 
ch.  iv.  p.  351. 

4  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  p.  179.  See 
also  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  258. 


CHAP.  IV.]  MANUFACTUKES.  453 

duce  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  handicrafts  amongst 
the  native  population.  According  to  the  story,  these 
were  goldsmiths,  blacksmiths,  brass-founders,  carpenters, 
and  stone-cutters.1 

The  legend  is  given  with  more  particularity  in  an 
historical  notice  of  the  Chalia  caste,  written  by  Adrian 
Eajapaxa,  one  of  their  chiefs,  who  describes  these 
immigrants  as  Peskare  Brahmans,  who  were  at  first 
employed  in  weaving  gold  tissues  for  the  queen,  but 
who  afterwards  abandoned  that  art  for  agriculture. 
A  fresh  company  were  said  to  have  been  invited  in  the 
reign  of  Devenipiatissa,  and  were  the  progenitors  of 
"Saleas,  at  present  called  Chalias,"  who  inhabit  the 
country  between  Galle  and  Colombo,  and  who,  along 
with  their  ostensible  occupation  as  peelers  of  cinna- 
mon, still  employ  themselves  in  the  labours  of  the 
loom.2  All  handicrafts  are  conventionally  regarded  by 
the  Singhalese  as  the  occupations  of  an  inferior  class ; 
and  a  man  of  high  caste  would  submit  to  any  privation 
rather  than  stoop  to  an  occupation  dependent  on  manual 
skill. 

Pottery. — One  of  the  most  ancient  arts,  the  making 
of  earthenware  vessels,  exists  at  the  present  day  in  all 
its  pristine  simplicity,  and  the  "potter's  wheel,"  which 
is  kept  in  motion  by  an  attendant,  whilst  the  hands  of 
the  master  are  engaged  in  shaping  the  clay  as  it  revolves, 
is  the  primitive  device  which  served  a  similar  purpose 
amongst  the  Egyptians  and  Hebrews.3 

A  "  potter"  is  enumerated  in  the  list  of  servants  and 
tradesmen  attached  to  the  temple  on  the  Eock  of  Mihin- 
tala,  A.D.  262,  along  with  a  sandal-maker,  blacksmiths, 
carpenters,  stone-cutters,  goldsmiths,  and  "makers  of 


1  VALENTYN,  Oud  en  Nieio  Oost- 
Indien,  chap.  iv.  p.  267. 

2  A  History  of  the   Chalias,   by 
ADRIAN    RAJAPAXA.      Asiatic   Res. 
vol.  vii.  p.  440.     Ib.j  vol.  x.  p.  82. 

3  Pottery    is    mentioned    in    the 


Mahawanso,  B.C.  161,  ch.  xxix.  p. 
173  :  the  allusion  is  to  "  new  earthen 
vases,"  and  shows  that  the  people  at 


that  time,  like  the  Hindus  of  to- 
day, avoided  where  possible  the  re- 
peated use  of  the  same  vessel. 


G    G     3 


454 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


strainers"  through  which  the  water  for  the  priests  was 
filtered,  to  avoid  taking  away  the  life  of  animalcule. 
The  other  artisans  on  the  establishment  were  chiefly 
those  in  charge  of  the  buildings,  lime-burners,  plasterers, 
white-washers,  painters,  and  a  chief  builder. 

Glass. — Glass,  the  knowledge  of  which  existed  in 
Egypt  and  in  India1,  was  introduced  into  Ceylon  at 
an  early  period ;  and  in  the  Dipawanso,  a  work  older 
than  the  Mahawanso  by  a  century  and  a  half,  it  is  stated 
that  Saidaitissa,  the  brother  of  Dutugaimunu,  when  com- 
pleting the  EuanweUe  dagoba,  which  his  predecessor 
had  commenced,  surmounted  it  with  a  "glass  pinnacle."2 
This  was  towards  the  end  of  the  second  century  before 
Christ.  Glass  is  frequently  mentioned  at  later  periods  ; 
and  a  "glass  mirror"  is  spoken  of3  in  the  third  century 
before  Christ,  but  how  made,  whether  by  an  amalgam 
of  quicksilver  or  by  colouring  the  under  surface,  is  not 
recorded. 

Leather. — The  tanning  of  leather  from  the  hide  of 
the  buffalo  was  understood  so  far  back  as  the  second  cen- 
tury before  Christ,  and  "  coverings  both  for  the  back  and 
the  feet  of  elephants  "  were  then  formed  of  it.4 

Wood-carving.  —  Carving  in  sandal-wood  and  inlaying 
with  ivory,  (of  which  latter  material  "  state  fans  and 
thrones"  were  constructed  for  the  Brazen  Palace5,)  are 
often  alluded  to  amongst  the  mechanical  arts ;  and  during 
the  period  of  prosperity  which  signalised  the  era  of  the 
"  Great  Dynasty,"  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  skilled 
artificers  were  brought  from  India  to  adorn  the  cities  and 
palaces  of  Ceylon. 

Chemical  Arts. — A  rude  knowledge  of  chemical  ma- 


1  Dr.  BOYLE'S  Lectures  an  the  Arts 
and  Manufactures  of  India,  1852,  p. 
221.  PLINY  says  the  glass  of  India 
being  made  of  pounded  crystal,  none 
other  can  compare  with  it.  (Lib. 
xxxvi.  c.  66.) 


2  See  post,  Vol.  I.  Part  iv.  p.  510. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  xv.  p.  99,  ch. 
xxx.  p.  182. 

4  Ibid.,  ch.  xxv.  p.  152,  ch.  xxix. 
p.  169. 

5  Ibid.,  ch.  xxvii.  p.  103,  164. 


CHAP.  IV.] 


MANUFACTUKES. 


455 


nipulation  was  required  for  the  extraction  of  camphor1 
and  the  preparation  of  numerous  articles  specified 
amongst  the  productions  of  the  island,  aromatic  oils2, 
perfumes3,  and  vegetable  dyes. 

Sugar. — Sugar  was  obtained  not  only  from  the 
Palmyra  and  Kittool  palms4,  but  also  from  the  cane ; 
which,  besides  being  a  native  of  India,  was  also  indigenous 
to  Ceylon.5  A  "  sugar  mill "  for  expressing  its  juice 
existed  in  the  first  century  before  Christ  in  the  district  of 
the  "  Seven  Corles," 6  where  fifteen  hundred  years  after- 
wards a  Dutch  governor  of  the  island  made  an  attempt  to 
restore  the  cultivation  of  sugar. 

Mineral  Paints. — Mineral  preparations  were  made 
with  success.  Eed  lead,  orpiment,  and  vermilions  are 
mentioned  as  pigments ;  but  as  it  is  doubtful  whether 
Ceylon  produces  quicksilver,  the  latter  was  probably 
imported  from  China7  or  India,  where  the  method  of 
preparing  it  has  long  been  known. 

There  is  likewise  sufficient  evidence  in  these  and  a 
number  of  other  preparations,  as  well  in  the  notices  of 
perfumes,  camphor,  and  essential  oils,  to  show  that  the 
Singhalese,  like  the  Hindus,  had  a  very  early  acquaint- 
ance with  chemical  processes  and  with  the  practice  of 


1  Rajaratnacari,     p.      133.       Dr. 
ROYLE  doubts  whether  camphor  was 
known  to  the  Hindus  at  this  early 
period,  but  "  camphor  oil "    is  re- 
peatedly mentioned  in  the  Singhalese 
chronicles  amongst  the  articles  pro- 
vided   for    the    temples. — ROYLE'S 
Essay  on  Hindoo  Medicine,  p.  140  j 
ftqjavaK,  p.  190. 

2  MaJuiwanso,  ch.  xxv.  p.  157. 

3  B.C.  161.     Mahawamo,  ch.  xxx. 
p.  180. 

*  "  Palm  sugar/'  as  distinguished 
from  "  cane  sugar/'  is  spoken  of  in 
the  Mahawanso  in  the  second  century 
B.C.  ch.  xxvii.  p.  103. 

5  "Cane  sugar"  is  referred  to  in 
the  Mahawamo  B.C.  161,  ch.  xxvii.  p. 
162,  ch.  xxxi.  p.  192. 

6  A.D.  77.     Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxiv. 
p.  208. 


7  See  ante,  Vol.  I.  Part  I.  ch.  i.  p.  29. 
n.  Both  quicksilver  and  vermilion 
are  mentioned  in  the  Rajaratnacari, 
p.  51,  as  being  in  use  in  the  year  20 
B.C.  Vermilion  is  also  spoken  of  B.C. 
307  in  the  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxvii.  p. 
162,  c.  The  two  passages  in  which 
vermilion  is  spoken  of  in  the  Old 
Testament,  Jerem.  xxii.  14,  and 
Ezek.  xxiii.  14,  both  refer  to  the 
painting  of  walls  and  woodwork,  a 
purpose  to  which  it  would  be  scarcely 
suitable,  were  not  the  article  alluded 
to  the  opaque  bisulphuret  of  mercury ; 
and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the 
vermilion  used  by  the  Singhalese. 
The  bright  red  obtained  from  the 
insect  coccus  (the  vermiculm,  whence 
the  original  term  "  vermilion"  is 
said  to  be  derived)  would  be  too 
transparent  to  be  so  applied. 

4 


456 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


distillation,  which  they  retain  to  the  present  day.1  The 
knowledge  of  the  latter  they  probably  acquired  from  the 
Arabs  or  Chinese. 


1  "  I  was  frequently  visited  by  one 
old  man,  a  priest,  who  had  travelled 
through  Bengal,  Burmah,  Siam,  and 
many  other  countries,  and  who 
prided  himself  on  being  able  to  make 
calomel  much  better  than  the  Euro- 
pean doctors,  as  his  preparation  did 
not  cause  the  falling  out  of  the 
teeth,  soreness  of  the  mouth,  or 


salivation.  He  learnt  the  secret  from 
an  ancient  sage  whom  he  met  with 
in  a  forest  on  the  continent  of  India ; 
and  often  when  listening  to  him  I 
was  reminded  of  the  mysteries  and 
crudities  of  the  alchemists."  — 
HARDY'S  Eastern  Monachism,  Lond. 
1850,  ch,  xxiii.  p.  312, 


457 


CHAP.  V. 

WORKING   IN   METALS. 

METALS.  Iron.  —  Working  in  metals  was  early  un- 
derstood in  Ceylon.  Abundance  of  iron  ore  can  be 
extracted  from  the  mountains  round  Adam's  Peak ;  the 
black  oxide  is  found  on  the  eastern  shore  in  the  state 
of  iron-sand ;  and  both  are  smelted  with  comparative 
ease  by  the  natives.  Iron  tools  were  in  use  for  the 
dressing  of  stones ;  and  in  the  third  century  before 
Christ,  the  enclosed  city  of  Vijittapoora  was  secured  by 
an  "  iron  gate."  1 

Steel. — The  manufacture  of  arms  involved  the  use  of 
steel,  the  method  of  tempering  which  was  derived  from 
the  Hindus,  by  whom  the  wootz  was  prepared,  of  which 
the  genuine  blades  of  Damascus  are  shown  to  have  been 
made,  the  beauty  of  their  figuring  being  dependent  on 
its  peculiar  crystallisation.  Ezekiel  enumerates  amongst 
the  Indian  imports  of  Tyre  "  bright  iron,  calamus  and 
cassia." 2 

Copper. — Copper  was  equally  in  demand,  but,  like 
silver  and  gold,  it  is  nowhere  alluded  to  as  a  production 
of  the  island.  In  ancient,  as  in  modern  times,  therefore, 
the  numerous  articles  formed  from  this  metal  were  pro- 
bably imported  from  India.  The  renowned  Brazen 
Palace  of  Anarajapoora  was  so  named  from  the  quan- 
tity of  copper  used  in  its  construction.  Bujas  Eaja, 
A.  D.  359,  covered  a  building  at  Attanagalla  with  "  tiles 
made  of  copper,  and  gilt  with  gold,"  3  and  "  two  boats 
built  of  brass,"  were  placed  near  the  Bo-Tree  at  the 
capital  "  to  hold  food  for  the  priests." 4  Before  the 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxv.  p.  152. 
8  ROYLE  an  the  Antiquity  of  Hindoo 
Medicine,?.  98.  EZEKIEL,  ch.  xxvii.19. 


Rajaratnacari.  p.  73. 
Ibid.,  p.  60. 


458 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


Christian  era,  armour  for  elephants  *,  and  vessels  of  large 
dimensions,  cauldrons2,  and  baths3,  were  formed  of 
copper.  The  same  material  was  used  for  the  lamps, 
goblets  4,  kettles,  and  cooking  utensils  of  the  monasteries 
and  wiharas. 

Bells. — Bells  were  hung  in  the  palaces5,  and  bell-metal 
is  amongst  the  gifts  to  the  temples  recorded  on  the  rock 
at  Pollanarrua,  A.  D.  1187.6 

Bronze. — Bronze  was  cast  into  figures  of  Buddha7,  and 
the  Mahawanso,  describing  the  reign  of  Dhatu-Sena, 
A.  D.  459,  makes  mention  of  "  sixteen  bronze  statues  of 
virgins  having  the  power  of  locomotion."  8 

Lead.  —  Lead  was  used  during  the  wars  of  Dutugai- 
munu  and  Elala,  and  poured  molten  over  the  attacking 
elephants  during  the  siege  of  Vijittapoora.9  As  lead  is 
not  a  native  product  of  Ceylon,  it  must  have  been  brought 
thither  from  Ava  or  Malwa, 

Gold  and  Silver.  —  Ceylon,  like  the  continent  of  India, 
produces  no  silver  and  gold,  save  in  the  scantiest  quan- 
tities.10 The  historical  books,  in  recording  the  splendour 
of  the  temples  and  their  riches,  and  the  wealth  lavished 
by  the  kings  upon  the  priesthood,  describe  in  perpetually 
recurring  terms,  the  multitude  of  ornaments  and  vessels 
made  of  silver  and  gold.  In  early  times  the  most  pre- 
cious of  these  were  received  as  gifts  from  the  princes  of 
India,  and  in  the  second  century  before  Christ  the  Maha- 
wanso records  the  arrival  of  ships  in  the  south  of  the 
island,  "laden  with  golden  utensils."  The  import  of 
these  might  possibly  have  been  a  relic  of  the  early  trade 
with  the  Phoenicians,  whom  Homer,  in  a  passage  quoted 


i  Rajavali,  p.  214. 
3  B.C.  204.     Rajavali,  p.  190. 
3  A.D.    1267.      Rajaratnacari,    p. 
104. 


4  Rajaratnacari,  pp.  104,  134. 

5  Mahawanso,   eh. 


129. 


xxi.   pp.    128, 


6  TUHNOTIR'S  Epitome,  fyc.,  Appx. 
p.  91. 

7  A.D.  275.  Mahawamo,  ch.  xxxvii. 
p.  236  ;  Rajavali,  p.  135. 


8  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  257. 

9  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxv.  p.  152. 

10  Amongst    the    miracles  which 
signalised    the  construction    of   the 
Iluanwelle  dagoba   at  Anarajapoora 
was   the    sudden    appearance   in   a 
locality   to    the    north-east   of   the 
capital  of  "  sprouts  "  of  gold  above 
and  below  the  ground,  and  of  silver 
in  the  vicinity  of  Adam's  Peak.  — • 
Mahawanso,  ch.  xxviii.  pp.  166,  1G7. 


CHAP.  V.]  WORKING   IN   METALS.  459 

by  Strabo  (1.  xvi.  c.  2.  s.  24.),  describes  as  making  these 
cups,  and  carrying  across  the  sea  for  sale  in  the  great 
emporiums  visited  by  these  ships.1  A  variety  of  articles 
of  silver  are  spoken  of  at  very  early  periods.  Dutu- 
gaimunu,  when  building  the  great  dagoba,  caused  the 
circle  of  its  base  to  be  described  by  "  a  pair  of  com- 
passes made  of  silver,  and  pointed  with  gold  ;  " 2  parasols, 
vases,  caranduas  and  numerous  other  regal  or  religious 
paraphernalia,  were  made  from  this  precious  material. 
Gold  was  applied  in  every  possible  form  and  combination 
to  the  decoration  and  furnishing  of  the  edifices  of  Bud- 
dhism ;  —  "  trees  of  gold  with  roots  of  coral,"  3  flowers 
formed  of  gems  with  stems  of  silver  4,  fringes  of  bullion 
mixed  with  pearls ;  umbrellas,  shields,  chains,  and  jew- 
elled statuettes  5,  are  described  with  enthusiasm  by  the 
annalists  of  the  national  worship. 

The  abundance  of  precious  stones  naturally  led  to  their 
being  extensively  mounted  in  jewelry,  and  in  addition  to 
those  found  in  Ceylon,  diamonds 6  and  lapis  lazuli 7  (which 
must  have  been  brought  thither  from  India  and  Persia) 
are  classed  with  the  native  sapphire  and  the  topaz. 

The  same  passion  existed  then,  as  now,  for  covering 
the  person  with  ornaments  ;  gold  and  silver,  set  with  gems 
were  fashioned  into  rings  for  the  ears,  nose,  fingers, 
and  toes,  into  plates  for  the  forehead,  and  chains  for 
the  neck,  into  armlets,  and  bracelets,  and  anklets,  and 
into  decorations  of  every  possible  form,  not  only  for 
the  women,  but  for  men,  and,  above  all,  for  the  children 
of  both  sexes.  The  poor,  unable  to  indulge  in  the 
luxury  of  precious  metals,  found  substitutes  in  shells 
and  glass ;  and  the  extravagance  of  the  taste  was  de- 
fended on  the  ground  that  their  brilliancy  served  to 


Mahawanso,  ch.  xxii.  p.  153.  j  from  the  Mediterranean,  is  found  in 
small  fragments  on  the  sea-shore 
north  of  Point-de-Galle. 

Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  p.  179. 


®civiz£f  S'  ot.'yov  otitdetf 

2Tr<r*v  «'•»  A/ywvsoV,,  AC.— Iliad,  xxiii.  745. 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  p.  172. 

3  Red  coral,  equal  in  its  delicacy 
of  tint  to  the  highly-prized  specimens 


5  Mahawanso,  tb.  p.  180. 

6  Rajaratnacari,  p.  61. 

7  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  p.  182. 


460 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


avert  the  malignity  of  "  the  evil  eye  "  from  the  wearer  to 
the  jewel. 

Gilding. — Gilding  was  likewise  understood  by  the  Sin- 
ghalese in  all  its  departments,  both  as  applied  to  the  baser 
metals  and  to  other  substances — wood-work  was  gilded 
for  preaching  places  \  as  was  also  copper  for  roofing, 
cement  for  decorating  walls,  and  stone  for  statuary  and 
carving.2 

Coin. — Although  the  Singhalese  through  their  sacred 
writings  had  a  knowledge  of  coined  money,  and  of  its 
existence  in  India  from  a  period  little  subsequent  to 
the  death  of  Gotama  Buddha  3  ;  and  although  their  annal- 
ists give  the  names  of  particular  coins  in  circulation 
at  various  times  4,  no  Singhalese  money  has  yet  been  dis- 
covered of  a  date  antecedent  to  the  eleventh  century. 
The  Chinese  in  the  fifteenth  century  spoke  with  admira- 
tion of  the  gold  pieces  struck  by  the  kings  of  Ceylon, 


1  Rajaratnacari,  p.  60. 

2  Rock  inscription  at  Pollanarrua, 
A.D  187—196. 

3  The   Mahawanso   mentions    the 
existence  of  coined  metals  in  India 
in  the  tenth  year   of  the   reign   of 
Kalasoka,  a  century  from  the  death 
of  Buddha,  ch.  iv.  p.  15.     According 
to  HARDY,  in  the  most  ancient  laws 
of  the  Buddhists  the  distinction  is 
recognised  between    coined    money 
and    bullion.  —  Eastern  Monachism, 
vol.  vii.  p.  66. 

4  The  coins  mentioned  in  the  Ma- 
haivanso,  Rajaratnacari,    and  Raja- 
vali   are   as  follows:    B.C.    161,   the 
kahapanan  (Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  pp. 
157,  175),  which  TTJRNOTJR  says  was 
a  gold  coin  worth  ten  massakan  or 
massa.     The  latter  are  "  the  pieces  of 
gold  formerly  current  in  Ceylon,"  a 
heap   of   which,   according    to    the 
Rajaratnacari  (p.  48),  was  seen  by 
King  Bhatia  Tissa  when  he  was  per- 
mitted to  penetrate  into  the  chamber 
of  the  Ruanwelledagoba,A.D.137.  The 
silver  massa,  according  to  TFRNOITR, 
was   valued   at   eightpence.      These 
are    repeatedly    mentioned    in     the 
Rajaratnacari  (A.D.  201,  p.  60,  A.D. 


234,  p.  62,  A.D.  1262,  p.  102,  A.D. 
1301,  p.  107,  A.D.  1462,  p.  113).  The 
Raj avali  speaks  of  "  gold  massa  "  as 
in  circulation  in  the  time  of  Dutu- 
gaimunu,  B.C.  161  (p.  201).  The 
word  masa  in  Singhalese  means 
"pulse,"  or  any  description  of 
"  beans ;  "  and  it  seems  not  impro- 
bable that  the  origin  of  the  term  as 
applied  to  money  may  be  traced  to 
the  practice  in  the  early  Indian  coin- 
age of  stamping  small  lumps  of  me- 
tal to  give  them  authentic  currency. 
It  can  only  be  a  coincidence  that  the 
Roman  term  for  an  ingot  of  gold 
was  "  massa  "  (PLLNT,  L.  xxxiii.  c.  19), 
These  Singhalese  massa  were  pro- 
bably similar  to  the  "punched  coins," 
having  rude  stamps  without  effigies, 
and  rarely  even  with  letters,  which 
have  been  turned  up  at  Kanooj, 
Oujein,  and  other  places  in  Western 
India.  A  copper  coin  is  likewise 
mentioned  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
in  the  Rajavali,  where  it  is  termed 
carooshawpa ;  the  value  of  which 
UPHAM,withoutnaminghis  authority, 
says  was  "about  a  pice  and  a  half." 
—P.  136. 


CHAP.  V.] 


WORKING   IN   METALS. 


461 


which  they  found  in  circulation  on  their  frequent  visits 
to  the  emporium  at  Galle  1 ;  but  of  these  only  a  few  very 
rare  examples  have  been  preserved,  one  of  which  bears 
the  effigy  and  name  of  Lokaiswaira 2,  who  usurped  the 
throne  during  a  period  of  anarchy  about  A.  D.  1070. 
Numbers  of  small  copper  coins  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  have  from  time  to  time  been  dug  up 
both  in  the  interior  and  on  the  coast  of  the  island.3  A 
quantity  of  these  which  were  found  in  1848  by  Lieu- 
tenant Evatt,  when  in  command  of  a  pioneer  corps 
near  the  village  of  Ambogamrnoa,  were  submitted  to 
Mr.  Vaux  of  the  British  Museum,  and  prove  to 
belong  to  the  reign  of  Wejaya  Bahu,  A.D.  1071,  Pra- 
krama  I.,  A.D.  1153,  the  Queen  Lilawati,  A.D.  1197, 
King  Sahasamallawa,  A.D.  1200,  Dharmasoka,  A.D.  1208, 
and  Bhuwaneka  Bahu,  A.D.  1303.  These  coins  have 
one  and  all  the  same  device  on  the  obverse, —  a  rude 
standing  figure  of  the  Raja  holding  the  trisula  in  his 
left  hand,  and  a  flower  in  the  right.  His  dress  is  a 
flowing  robe,  the  folds  of  which  are  indicated  rather 
than  imitated  by  the  artist ;  and  on  the  reverse  the 
same  figure  is  seated,  the  name  in  Nagari  characters  being 
placed  beside  the  face.4 


The  Kandyans,  by  whom  these  coins  are  frequently 
found,  give  the  copper  pieces  the  name  of  Dambedenia 


1  Woo  hed  peen,  "  Records  of  the 
Miug  Dynasty,"  A.D.  1522,  B.  Ixviii. 
p.  5.  Suh  Wan  keen  tuny  kaou, 

•     •  •  •  \mmll  T> 


JJ. 


5.    ifuh    Wan 

t(  Antiquarian      Researches, 
ccxxxvi.  p.  11. 

2  Two  gold  coins  of  Lokaiswaira 
are  in  the  collection  of  the  British 
Museum,  and  will  be  found  described 
by  Mr.  VATJX  in  the  16th  vol.  of  the 
Numismatic  Clironicle,  p.  121. 


8  There  is  a  Singhalese  coin  figured 
in  DAVY'S  Ceylon,  p.  245,  the  legend 
on  which  is  turned  upside  down,  but 
when  reversed  it  reads,  "  Sri  Pa-ra- 
kra-ma  Uahu." 

4  Numismatic  Chronicle,  vol.  xvi. 
p.  124. 


462 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


chatties,  and  tradition,  with  perfect  correctness,  assigns 
them  to  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  when  the 
kings  of  that  period  are  believed  to  have  had  a  mint  at 
Dambedenia. 

A  quantity  of  coins  similar  in  every  respect  to  those 
dug  up  in  Ceylon  have  been  found  at  Dipaldenia  or 
Amarawati,  on  the  continent  of  India,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Kistna ;  a  circumstance  which  might  be  accounted 
for  by  the  frequent  intercourse  between  Ceylon  and  the 
coast,  but  which  is  possibly  referable  to  the  fact  re- 
corded in  the  Mahawanso  that  Prakrama  I.,  after  his 
successful  expedition  against  the  King  of  Pandya,  caused 
money  to  be  coined  in  his  own  name  before  returning  to 
Ceylon.1 

Hook-money. —  No  ancient  silver  coin  has  yet  been 
found,  but  specimens  are  frequently  brought  to  light  of 
the  ridis,  pieces  of  twisted  silver  wire,  which  from  their 
being  sometimes  bent  with  a  considerable  curve  have 
been  called  "  Fish-hook  money."  These  are  occasionally 
impressed  with  a  legend,  and  for  a  time  the  belief 
obtained  that  they  were  a  variety  of  ring-money 
peculiar  to  Ceylon.2  Of  late  this  error  has  been 
corrected ;  the  letters  where  they  occur  have  been 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxvi.  pp.  298, 
299,  UPHAM'S  Trans.  The  circum- 
stance is  exceedingly  curious  of 
coins  of  Prakrama,  "  identical "  with 
those  found  at  Dambedenia,  in  Cey- 
lon, having  also  been  discovered  at 
Dipaldenia,  on  the  opposite  con- 
tinent ;  and  it  goes  far  to  confirm  the 
accuracy  of  the  Mahawanso  as  to  the 
same  king  having  coined  money  in 
both  places.  Those  found  in  the 
latter  locality  form  part  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie Collection,  and  have  been 
figured  in  the  Asiat.  Researches, 
xvii.  697,  and  afterwards  by  Mr. 
PRINSEP  in  the  Journ.  of  the  Asiat. 
Soc.  of  Bengal,  vi.  301.  See  also  a 
notice  of  Ceylon  coins,  in  the  Journ. 
As.  Soc.  Bcna.  iv.  673,  vi.  218 ;  CASIE 
CHITTT,  in  the  Journ.  of  the  Ceylon 
Asiat.  Soc.,  1847,  p.  9,  has  given  an 
account  of  a  hoard  of  copper  coins 


found  at  Calpentyn  in  1839 j  and 
Mr.  Justice  STARKE,  in  the  same 
journal,  p.  149,  has  given  a  resume 
of  the  information  generally  pos- 
sessed as  to  the  ancient  coins  of  the 
island.  PRINSEP'S  paper  on  Ceylon 
Coins  will  be  found  in  vol.  i.  of  the 
recent  reprint  of  his  Essays  on  In- 
dian Antiquities,  p.  419.  Lond.  1858. 
2  This  error  may  be  traced  to  the 
French  commentator  on  RIBEYRO'S 
History  of  Ceylon,  who  describes  the 
fish-hook  money  in  use  in  the  king- 
dom of  Kandy,  whilst  the  Portuguese 
held  the  low  country,  as  so  sim- 
ple in  its  form  that  every  man  might 
make  it  for  himself:  "Le  Roy  de 
Candy  avoit  aussi  permis  a  ses  peu- 
ples  de  se  servir  d'une  monnaye  que 
chacun  peut  fabriquer." — Ch.  x.  p. 
81. 


CHAP.  V.] 


MANUFACTURES. 


463 


shown  to  be  not  Singhalese  or  Sanskrit,  but  Persian, 
and  the  tokens  themselves  have  been  proved  to  be- 
long to  Laristan  on  the  Persian  Gulf, 
from  the  chief  emporium  of  which,  Gam- 
broon,  they  were  brought  to  Ceylon  in 
the  course  of  Indian  commerce  ;  chiefly 
by  the  Portuguese,  who  are  stated  by 
VAN  CAKDAEN  to  have  introduced  them 
in  great  quantities  into  Cochin  and  the 
ports  of  Malabar.1  There  they  were 
circulated  so  freely  that  an  edict  of  Pra- 
krama  enumerates  the  ridi  amongst  the  coins  in  which 
the  taxes  were  assessed  on  land.2 

In  India  they  are  called  larins,  and  money  in  imita- 
tion of  them,  struck  by  the  princes  of  Bijapur  and  by 
Sivaji,  the  founder  of  the  Mahrattas,  was  in  circulation 
in  the  Dekkan  as  late  as  the  seventeenth  century.3 


JOOK  MONEY. 


1  "  Les  larins  sont  tout-a-fait  com- 
modes et  ne"cessaires  dans  les  Indes, 
surtout   poiir   acheter  du  poivre   a 
Cochin,  ou  Ton  en  fait  grand  etat." — 
Voyage  aux  Indes  Orientates.     Am- 
sterdam, A.D.  1716,  vol.  vi.  p.' 626. 

2  Hock-inscription     at    Dambool, 


A.D.  1200.  The  Rajavali  mentions 
the  ridis  as  in  circulation  in  Ceylon 
at  the  period  of  the  arrival  of  the 
Portuguese,  A.D.  1505.— P.  278. 

3  Prof.  WILSON'S  Remarks  on  Fish- 
hook Money,  Nmmsm.  Chronic.  1854, 
p.  181. 


464 


SCIENCES  AND   SOCIAL   AETS. 


[PART  IV. 


CHAP.  VI. 


ENGINEERING. 

IT  has  already  been  shown  l  that  the  natives  of  Ceylon 
received  their  earliest  instruction  in  engineering  from 
the  Brahmans,  who  attached  themselves  to  the  fol- 
lowers of  Wijayo  and  his  immediate  successors.2  But 
whilst  astonished  at  the  vastness  of  conception  obser- 
vable in  the  works  executed  at  this  early  period,  we 
are  equally  struck  by  the  extreme  simplicity  of  the 
means  employed  by  their  designers  for  carrying  their 
plans  into  execution ;  and  the  absence  of  all  ingenious 
expedients  for  supplementing  or  effectively  applying 
manual  labour.  The  earth  which  forms  their  prodi- 
gious embankments  was  carried  -by  the  labourers  in 
baskets3,  in  the  same  primitive  fashion  that  prevails 
to  the  present  day.  Stones  were  detached  in  the 
quarry  by  the  slow  and  laborious  process  of  wedging, 
of  which  they  still  exhibit  the  traces ;  and  those  intended 
for  prominent  positions  were  carefully  dressed  with 
iron  tools.  For  moving  them  no  mechanical  con- 
trivances were  resorted  to 4,  and  it  can  only  have  been 
by  animal  power,  aided  by  ropes  and  rollers,  that  vast 


1  See  Vol.  I.  Part  iv.  chap.  ii.  p. 
430. 

2  King  Pandukabhaya,  B.C.  437, 
"  built  a  residence  for  the  Brahman 
Jotiyo,  the  chief  engineer." — Maha- 
wanso,  ch.  x.  p.  66. 

3  Mahaivanso,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  144. 

4  The  only  instance  of  mechanism 
applied  in  aid  of  human  labour  is 


referred  to  in  a  passage  of  the  Ma- 
hauwnso,  which  alludes  to  a  decree 
for  "  raising  the  water  of  the  Abhaya 
tank  by  means  of  machinery,"  in 
order  to  pour  it  over  a  dagoba  during 
the  solemnisation  of  a  festival,  B.C. 
20. — Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  211 5 
Rqjaratnacari,  p.  51. 


CHAP.  VI.]  ENGINEERING.  465 

blocks  like  the  great  tablet  at  Pollanarrua  were  dragged 
to  their  required  positions.1 

Fortifications.  —  Of  military  engineering  the  Singha- 
lese had  very  slight  knowledge.  Walled  towns  and 
fortifications  are  frequently  spoken  of,  but  the  ascer- 
tained difficulty  of  raising,  squaring,  or  carrying  stones, 
points  to  the  inference  which  is  justified  by  the  expres- 
sions of  the  ancient  chronicles,  that  the  walls  they 
allude  to,  must  have  been  earthworks2,  and  that  the 
strength  of  their  fortified  places  consisted  in  their  inac- 
cessibility. The  first  recorded  attempt  at  fortification 
was  made  by  the  Malabars  in  the  second  century  before 
Christ  for  the  defence  of  Vijitta-poora,  which  is  described 
as  having  been  secured  by  walls,  a  fosse,  and  a  gate.3 
Elala  about  the  same  period  built  "  thirty-two  bul- 
warks "  at  Anarajapoora 4 ;  and  Dutugaiinunu,  in  com- 
mencing to  besiege  him  in  the  city,  followed  his  exam- 
ple, by  throwing  up  a  "  fortification  in  an  open  plain,"  at 
a  spot  well  provided  with  wood  and  water.5 

At  a  later  time,  the  Malabars,  when  in  possession  of 
the  northern  portion  of  the  island,  formed  a  chain  of 
strong  "forts"  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  coast, 
and  the  Singhalese,  in  imitation  of  them,  occupied 
similar  positions.  The  most  striking  example  of  me- 
diaeval fortification  which  stiU  survives,  is  the  imperish- 
able rock  of  Sigiri,  north-east  of  Dambool,  to  which 
the  infamous  Kassyapa  retired  with  his  treasures, 
after  the  assassination  of  his  father,  King  Dhatu  Sena, 
A.D.  459  ;  when  having  cleared  its  vicinity,  and  sur- 


1  No  document  is  better  calculated  ;  41,  "  built  a   rampart   seven  cubits 
to  impress    the    reader  with    a  due  j  high,   and   dug  a   ditch   round   the 


appreciation  of  the  indomitable  per- 
severance of  the  Singhalese  in  works 
of  engineering  than  the  able  report 
of  Messrs.  ADAMS,  CHTTBCHILL,  and 
BAILET,  on  the  great  Canal  from 
Ellahara  to  Gantalawa,  appended  to 
the  Ceylon  Calendar  for  1857. 


2  Makalantissa,   who  reigned  B.C. 
VOL.  I.  II  H 


capital." — Mahaivanso,  ch.  xxxiv.  p. 
210. 

3  Rajavati,  p.    212;     Mahaivamo, 
ch.  xxv.  p.  151. 

4  Rajavali,  p.  187. 

5  Rajavali,    p.   216;    Mahawanso, 
ch.  xxv.  p.  152. 


4G6 


SCIENCES   AND    SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


rounded  it  by  a  rampart,  the  figures  of  lions  with  which 
he  decorated  it,  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  Sihagiri, 
the  "Lion-rock."  But  the  real  defences  of  Sigiri  were 
its  precipitous  cliffs,  and  its  naturally  scarped  walls, 
which  it  was  not  necessary  to  strengthen  by  any  artificial 
structures. 

Their  rocky  hills,  and  the  almost  impenetrable  forests 
that  enveloped  them,  were  in  every  age  the  chief  security 
of  the  Singhalese ;  and  so  late  as  the  12th  century,  the 
inscription  engraved  on  the  rock  at  Dambool,  in  de- 
scribing the  strength  of  the  national  defences  under  the 
King  Kirti  Mssanga,  enumerates  the  "  strongholds  in 
the  midst  of  forests,  those  upon  steep  hills,  and  the 
fastnesses  surrounded  by  water."  1 

Thorn-gates.  —  The  device,  retained  down  to  the 
period  of  the  capture  of  Kandy  by  the  British,  when 
the  passes  into  the  hill  country  were  defended  by  thick 
plantations  of  formidable  thorny  trees,  appears  to  have 
prevailed  in  the  earliest  times.  The  protection  of  Ma- 
helo,  a  town  assailed  by  Dutugaimunu,  B.C.  162,  consist- 
ing in  its  being  "  surrounded  on  all  sides  with  the  thorny 
dadambo  creeper,  within  which  was  a  triple  line  of 
fortifications."  2 

Bridges.  —  As  to  bridges,  Ceylon  had  none  till  the 
end  of  the  13th  century3,  and  Tumour  conjectures 
that  even  then  they  were  only  formed  of  timber, 
like  the  Pons  Sublicius  at  Eome.  At  a  later  period  stone 
pillars  were  used  in  pairs,  on  which  beams  or  slabs  were 


1  TTJEXOTJU'S  Epitome  and  Appen- 
dix, p.  95. 

2  Mahawanso,    ch.   xxv.    p.    153. 
When   Albuquerque    attacked   Ma- 
lacca in  A.D.   1511,  the   chief   who 
defended   the    place   "covered    the 
streets  with  poisoned  thorns,  to  gore 
the  Portuguese  coming  in."     FAEIA 

Y  SOTTZA,  vol.  i.  p.  180.  VALENTTIf, 
in  speaking  of  the  dominions  of  the 
King  of  Kandy  during  the  Duteh 
occupation  of  the  Low  Country,  de- 
scribes the  density  of  the  forests, 
"  which  not  only  serve  to  divide  the 


earldoms  one  from  another,  but,  above 
all,  tend  to  the  fortification  of  the 
country,  on  which  account  no  one 
dare,  on  pain  of  death,  to  thin  or  root 
out  a  tree,  more  than  to  permit  a 
passage  for  one  man  at  a  time,  it 
being  impossible  to  pass  through  the 
rest  thereof."  —  VALEXTYN,  Oud  en 
Nieuw  Oost-Indien,  $-c.,  ch.  i.  p.  22. 
Kxox  gives  a  curious  account  of 
these  "  thorn-gates."  (Part  ii.  ch.  vi. 
p.  45.) 

3  TUEXOTJR'S  Epitome  and  Notes, 
p.  72.     Major  Forbes  says,  however, 


CHAP.  VI.] 


ENGINEERING. 


467 


horizontally  rested,  in  order  to  form  a  roadway l,  in  the 
same  manner  that  Herodotus  describes  the  most  ancient 
bridge  on  record,  which  was  constructed  by  Queen  M- 
tocris,  at  Babylon ;  the  planks  being  laid  during  the  day 
and  lifted  again  at  night,  for  the  security  of  the  city.2 
The  principle  of  the  arch  appears  never  to  have  been 
employed  in  bridge  building.  Ferries,  and  the  taxes  on 
crossing  by  them,  are  alluded  to  down  to  a  very  late 
period  amongst  other  sources  of  revenue.3 

In  forming  the  bunds  of  their  reservoirs  and  of  the 
stone  dams  which  they  drew  across  the  rivers  that 
supplied  them  with  water,  the  Singhalese  were  accus- 
tomed, with  incredible  toil,  infinitely  increased  by  the 
imperfection  of  tools  and  implements,  to  work  a  raised 
moulding  in  front  of  the  blocks  of  stone,  so  that  each 
course  was  retained  in  position,  not  alone  by  its  own 
weight,  but  by  the  difficulty  of  forcing  it  forward  by 
pressure  from  behind. 

The  conduits  by  which  the  accumulated  waters  were 
distributed,  required  to  be  constructed  under  the  bed 
of  the  lake,  so  that  the  egress  should  be  certain  and 
equal4,  as  long  as  any  water  remained  in  the  tank. 
To  effect  this,  they  were  cut  in  many  instances  through 
solid  granite ;  and  their  ruins  present  singular  illustra- 
tions of  determined  perseverance,  undeterred  by  the 
most  discouraging  difficulties,  and  unrelieved  by  the 
slightest  appliance  of  ingenuity  to  diminish  the  toil  of 
excavation. 

It  cannot  but  exalt  our  opinion  of  a  people,  to  find 


there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
remains  of  stone  piers  across  the 
Kalawa-oya,  on  the  line  between 
3£ornegalle  and  Anarajapoora,  are  the 
ruins  of  the  bridge  erected  by  King 
Maha  Sen,  A.D.  301. 

1  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxxv.  UPHAM'S 
translation,  pp.  340,  349  ;  Rajaratna- 
cari,  pp.  104,  131.  The  bridge  on 
the  "Wanny  hereafter  described  (see 
vol.  ii.  p.  474)  was  thus  constructed. 


2  Herodotus,!.  186. 

3  Mahawamo,  ch.    xxiii.  pp.  136, 
138,  ch.  xxv.  p.  150;  Rajaratnacari, 
p.  112. 

4  The  Lake  of  Albano  presents  an 
example  of  a  conduit  or  "  emissary" 
of  this  peculiar  construction  to  draw 
off  the  water.     It  is  upwards  of  6000 
feet  in  length.     A  similar  emissary 
serves  a  like  purpose  at  Lake  Nemi. 


H    2 


468 


SCIENCES   AND    SOCIAL   AETS. 


[PART  IV. 


that,  under  disadvantages  so  signal,  they  were  capable  of 
forming  such  a  work  as  the  Kalaweva  tank,  between 
Anarajapoora  and  Dambool,  which  TUENOUE  justly  says, 
is  the  greatest  of  the  ancient  works  in  Ceylon.  This 
enormous  reservoir  was  forty  miles  in  circumference, 
with  an  embankment  twelve  miles  in  extent,  and  the 
spill-water,  ineffectual  for  the  purpose  designed,  is  "  one 
of  the  most  stupendous  monuments  of  misapplied  human 
labour."  l 

When  to  such  difficulties  of  construction  were  added  the 
alarms  of  frequent  invasion  and  all  the  evils  of  almost 
incessant  occupation  by  a  foreign  enemy,  it  is  only  sur- 
prising that  the  Singhalese  preserved  so  long  the  degree 
of  expertness  in  engineering  to  which  they  had  originally 
attained.  No  people  in  any  age  or  country  had  so 
great  practice  and  experience  in  the  construction  of 
works  for  irrigation  ;  and  so  far  had  the  renown  of  their 
excellence  in  this  branch  reached,  that  in  the  eighth 
century,  the  king  of  Kashmir,  Djaya-pida,  "  sent  to 
Ceylon  for  engineers  to  form  a  lake."  2  But  after  the 
reign  of  Prakraina  L,  the  decline  was  palpable  and  pro- 
gressive. No  great  works,  either  of  ornament  or  utility, 
no  temples  nor  inland  lakes,  were  constructed  by  his 
successors ;  and  it  is  remarkable,  that  even  during  his 
own  reign,  artificers  were  brought  from  the  coast  of 
India  to  repair  the  monuments  of  Anarajapoora.3  The 
last  great  work  attempted  for  irrigation  was  probably 
the  Giant's  Tank,  north-east  of  Aripo  ;  but  so  much 
had  practical  science  declined,  that  after  an  enormous 


1  TTTBNOTO'S   Mahawanso,  Index, 
p.  xi.      This  stupendous  work   was 
constructed  A.D.  469.     Mahawanso, 
ch.  xxxviii.  p.  256. 

2  A.D.  745.     Rajataringini,   b.   iv. 
si.  502,  505. 

s  Mahawmtso,  UPHAM'S  transl.,  ch. 
Ixxv.  p.  294.  This  passage  in  the 
MaJtawanso  might  seem  to  imply  that 


it  was  as  an  act  of  retribution  that 
Malabars,  by  whom  the  monuments 
had  been  injured,  were  compelled  to 
restore  them.  But  in  ch.  Ixxvii.  it 
is  stated  that  they  were  brought  from 
India  for  this  purpose,  because  it 
"had  been  found  impracticable  by 
other  kings  to  renew  and  repair 
them."— P.  305. 


CllAP.    VI.] 


ENGINEERING. 


469 


expenditure  of  labour  in  damming  up.  the  Moeselley 
river,  whose  waters  were  to  have  been  diverted  to  the 
lake,  it  was  discovered  that  the  levels  were  unsuitable, 
and  the  work  was  abandoned  in  despair.1 

The  talents  of  the  civil  engineer  were  likewise  em- 
ployed in  providing  for  the  health  and  comfort  of  their 
towns  and  the  Dipawanso,  a  chronicle  earlier  in  point  of 
date  than  the  Mahawanso,  relates  that  Wasabha,  who 
reigned  between  A.D.  66  and  110,  constructed  a  tunnel 
("um-maggo")  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  Anarajapoora 
with  water.2 


1  For  an  account  of  the  present 
condition  of  the  Giant's  Tank,  see 
Vol.  II.  Part  x.  ch.  ii. 


2  Journ.  Asiat.  Soc.  Seng,  vol.  vii. 
p.  933. 


11  H   3 


470 


SCIENCES   AXD    SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


CHAP.   VII. 


THE     FINE    ARTS. 

Music.  —  The  science  and  practice  of  the  fine  arts  were 
never  very  highly  developed  amongst  a  people  whose 
domestic  refinement  became  arrested  at  a  very  early 
stage  ;  and  whose  efforts  in  that  direction  were  almost 
wholly  confined  to  the  exaltation  of  the  national  faith, 
and  the  embellishment  of  its  temples  and  monuments. 

Their  knowledge  of  music  was  derived  from  the  Hindus, 
by  whom  its  study  was  regarded  as  of  equal  importance 
with  that  of  medicine  and  astronomy ;  and  hence  amongst 
the  early  Singhalese,  along  with  the  other  "  eighteen 
sciences,"  1  music  was  taught  as  an  essential  part  of  the 
education  of  a  prince.2 

But  unlike  the  soft  melodies  of  Hindustan,  whose  cha- 
racteristic is  their  gentle  and  soothing  effect,  the  music 
of  the  Singhalese  appears  to  have  consisted  of  sound 
rather  than  of  harmony ;  modulation  and  expression 
having  been  at  all  times  subordinate  to  volume  and 
metrical  effect. 

Eeverberating  instruments  were  their  earliest  inven- 
tions for  musical  purposes,  and  those  most  frequently 
alluded  to  in  their  chronicles  are  drums,  resembling 
the  tom-toms  used  in  the  temples  to  the  present  day. 
The  same  variety  of  form  prevailed  then  as  now,  and 
the  Eajavali  relates,  in  speaking  of  the  army  of  Dutu- 
gaimunu,  that  in  its  march  the  "  rattling  of  the  sixty- 
four  kinds  of  drums  made  a  noise  resembling  thunder 


1  This  fact  is  curious,  seeing  that 
at  the  present  day  the  cultivation  of 
music  belongs  to  one  of  the  lowest 
castes  in  Ceylon. 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixiv. ;  UPHAM'S 


version,  p.  256.  An  ingenious  paper 
on  Singhalese  Music,  by  Mr.  Louis 
Nell,  is  printed  in  the  Journ.  of  the 
Ceylon  branch  of  the  Roy.  Asiat.  Soc 
for  1856-8,  p.  200. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


THE    FINE   ARTS. 


471 


breaking  on  the  rock  from  behind  which  the  sun  rises." 1 
The  band  of  Devenipiatissa,  B.C.  307,  was  called  the 
talawachara,  from  the  multitude  of  drums 2 :  chank- 
shells  contributed  to  swell  the  din,  both  in  warfare3 
and  in  religious  worship 4 ;  choristers  added  then- 
voices  5  ;  and  the  triumph  of  effect  consisted  in  "  the 
united  crash  of  every  description  of  sound,  vocal  as  well 
as  instrumental."  6  Although  "  a  full  band  "  is  explained 
in  the  Mahawanso  to  imply  a  combination  of  "  all 
descriptions  of  musicians,"  no  flutes  or  wind  instru- 
ments are  particularised,  and  the  incidental  mention  of 
a  harp  only  occurs  in  the  reign  of  Dutugaimunu,  B.C. 
161.7  JOINVILLE  says,  that  certain  musical  principles 
were  acknowledged  in  Ceylon  at  an  early  period,  and 
that  "  pieces  are  to  be  seen  in  some  of  the  old  Pah 
books  in  regular  notation;  the  gamut,  which  was 
termed  septa  souere,  consisting  of  seven  notes,  and  ex- 
pressed not  by  signs,  but  in  letters  equivalent  to  their 


1  Rajavati,  pp.  217,  219.  At  tlie 
present  day,  there  are  four  or  five 
varieties  of  drums  in  use : — the  tom- 
tom or  tam-a-tom,  properly  so-called, 
which  consists  of  two  cylinders  placed 
side  by  side,  and  is  beaten  with  two 
sticks; — the  daelle,  a  single  cylinder 
struck  with  a  stick  at  one  end,  and 
with  the  hand  at  the  other; — the  ou- 
tlaellc,  which  is  held  in  the  left  hand, 
and  struck  with  the  right ; — and  the 
berri,  which  is  suspended  from  the 
beater's  neck,  and  struck  with  both 
hands,  one  at  each  end,  precisely  as  a 
similar  instrument  is  shown  in  some 
of  the  Egyptian  monuments. 

Mahawanso,  ch.  xvii.  p.  104. 

B.C.  161.  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxv. 
154. 

B.C.  20.     Rajavali,  p.  51. 

Mahawanso,  ch.  xxv.  p.  157. 

Mahawanso,  ch.  xxvi.  186. 

Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  p.  180. 
The  following  passage  in  LPHAM'S 
translation  of  the  Mahawanso,  ch. 
Ixxii.  vol.  i.  p.  274,  would  convey 
the  idea  that  the  /Eolian  harp  was 
meant,  or  some  arrangement  of 


strings  calculated  to  elicit  similar 
sounds: — "  The  king  Prakrama  built 
a  palace  at  the  city  of  Pollanarrua  ; 
and  the  stone  works  were  carved  in 
the  shape  of  flowers  and  creeping 
plants,  with  golden  networks  which 
gave  harmonious  sounds  as  if  they 
were  moved  by  the  air." 


n  ii    4 


472 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   AETS. 


[PART  IT. 


pronunciation,  sa,  ri,  ga,  me,  qa,  de,  ni.1  At  the 
present  day,  harmony  is  still  superseded  by  sound, 
the  singing  of  the  Singhalese  being  a  nasal  whine,  not 
unlike  that  of  the  Arabs.  Flutes,  almost  insusceptible 
of  modulation,  chanks,  which  give  forth  a  piercing 
scream,  and  the  overpowering  roll  of  tom-toms,  con- 
stitute the  music  of  the  temples  ;  and  ah1  day  long  the 
women  of  a  family  will  sit  round  a  species  of  timbrel, 
called  rabani,  and  produce  from  it  the  most  monotonous, 
but  to  their  ear,  most  agreeable  noises,  by  drumming 
with  the  fingers. 

Painting. — -Painting,  whether  historical  or  imaginative, 
is  only  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  decoration  of 
temples,  and  no  examples  survive  of  sufficient  antiquity 
to  exhibit  the  actual  state  of  the  art  at  any  remote 
period.  But  enough  is  known  of  the  trammels  imposed 
upon  all  art,  to  show  that  from  the  earliest  times,  imagi- 
nation and  invention  were  prohibited  by  the  priesthood  ; 
and  although  execution  and  facility  may  have  varied  at 
different  eras,  design  and  composition  were  stationary 
and  unalterable. 

Like  the  priesthood  of  Egypt,  those  of  Ceylon  regu- 
lated the  mode  of  delineating  the  effigies  of  their  divine 
teacher,  by  a  rigid  formulary,  with  which  they  com- 
bined corresponding  directions  for  the  drawing  of  the 
human  figure  in  connection  with  sacred  subjects.  In 
the  relics  of  Egyptian  painting  and  sculpture,  we  find 
"that  the  same  formal  outline,  the  same  attitudes  and 
postures  of  the  body,  the  same  conventional  modes  of 
representing  the  different  parts,  were  adhered  to  at  the 
latest,  as  at  the  earliest  periods.  No  improvements 
were  admitted;  no  attempts  to  copy  nature  or  to  give 
an  air  of  action  to  the  limbs.  Certain  rules  and  certain 
models  had  been  established  by  law,  and  the  faulty  con- 
ceptions of  early  times  were  copied  and  perpetuated  by 
every  succeeding  artist." 2 


1    JoiNVILLE, 

vol.  vii.  p.  488. 


Asiat.      Researches, 


z  Sin  GARDNER  WILKIXSOX'S  An- 
cient E(/i/ptia)i*,  vol.  iii.  ch.  x.  p.  87, 
204. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


THE   FINE   ARTS. 


473 


The  same  observations  apply,  almost  in  the  same  terms, 
to  the  paintings  of  the  Singhalese.  The  historical 
delineations  of  the  exploits  of  Gotama  Buddha  and  of 
his  disciples  and  attendants,  which  at  the  present  day 
cover  the  walls  of  the  temples  and  wiharas,  follow,  with 
rigid  minuteness,  pre-existing  illustrations  of  the  sacred 
narratives.  They  appear  to  have  been  copied,  with  a 
devout  adherence  to  colour,  costume,  and  detail,  from 
designs  which  from  time  immemorial  have  represented 
the  same  subjects ;  and  emaciated  ascetics,  distorted 
devotees,  beatified  simpletons,  and  malefactors  in  torment 
are  depicted  with  a  painful  fidelity,  akin  to  modern 
pre-Kaphaelitism. 

Owing  to  this  discouragement  of  invention,  one  series 
of  pictures  is  so  servile  an  imitation  of  another,  that 
design  has  never  improved  in  Ceylon ;  one  scene  is  but 
the  facsimile  of  a  previous  one,  and  each  may  almost 
be  regarded  as  an  exponent  of  the  state  of  the  art  at  any 
preceding  period.1 

Hence  even  the  most  modern  embellishments  in  the 
temples  have  an  air  of  remote  antiquity.  The  colours 
are  tempered  with  gum  ;  and  but  for  their  inferiority 


1  The  Egyptians  and  Singhalese 
were  not,  however,  the  only  authori- 
ties who  overwhelmed  invention  by 
ecclesiastical  conventionalism.  The 
early  artists  of  Greece  were  not  at 
liberty  to  follow  the  bent  of  their 
own  genius,  or  to  depart  from  esta- 
blished regulations  in  representing 
the  figures  of  the  gods.  In  the 
middle  ages,  the  influence  of  the 
churches,  both  of  Rome  and  Byzan- 
tium, was  productive  of  a  similar 
result ;  and  although  the  Latins 
early  emancipated  themselves,  the 
painters  of  the  Greek  church,  to 
the  present  hour,  labour  under  the 
identical  trammels  which  crippled 
art  at  Constantinople  a  thousand 
years  ago.  M.  DIDKOK,  who  visited 
the  churches  and  monasteries  of 
Greece  in  1839,  makes  the  remark 
that  "  ni  le  temps  ni  le  lieu  ne  font 


rien  al'artGrec:  auXVIII6  siecle,  le 
peintre  Moreote  continue  et  caique 
le  peintre  Ve'ne'tien  du  Xe,  le  peintre 
Athouite  du  Ve  ou  VI".  Le  costume 
des  personnages  est  partout  et  en 
tout  temps  le  meme,  non-seulement 
pour  la  forme,  mais  pour  la  couleur, 
mais  pour  le  dessin,  mais  j  usque 
pour  le  nombre  et  I'epaisseur  des 
plis.  On  ne  saurait  pousser  plus 
loin  1'exactitude  traditionnelle,  1'es- 
clavage  du  passe."  (Manuel  d1  Icono- 
yraphie  Chretienne  Grecque  et  Latin, 
p.  ix.)  The  explanation  of  this  fact 
is  striking.  Mount  Athos  is  the 
grand  manufactory  of  pictures  for 
the  Greek  churches  throughout  the 
world;  and  M.  DIDRON  found  the 
artists  producing,  with  the  servility 
and  almost  the  rapidity  of  machi- 
nery, endless  facsimiles  of  pictures 
in  rigid  conformity  with  a  recognised 


474 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


in  drawing  the  human  figure,  as  compared  with  the 
Egyptians,  and  their  defiance  of  the  laws  of  perspective, 
their  inharmonious  tints,  coupled  with  the  whiteness 
of  the  ground-work,  would  remind  one  of  similar  pecu- 
liarities in  the  paintings  in  the  Thebaid,  and  the  caves 
of  Beni  Hassan. 

FA  HIAN  describes  in  the  fourth  century  precisely 
the  same  series  of  subjects  and  designs  which  are  deli- 
neated in  the  temples  of  the  present  day,  and  taken 
from  the  transformation  of  Buddha.  With  hundreds  of 
these,  he  says,  painted  in  appropriate  colours  and  ex- 
ecuted in  imitation  of  life,  the  king  caused  both  sides 
of  the  road  to  be  decorated  on  the  occasion  of  religious 
processions.1 

Amongst  the  most  renowned  of  the  Singhalese  masters, 
was  the  King  Detu  Tissa,  A.D.  330,  "a  skilful  carver, 
who  executed  many  arduous  undertakings  in  painting, 
and  taught  it  to  his  subjects.  He  modelled  a  statue  of 


code  of  instructions  drawn  up  under 
ecclesiastical  authority  and  entitled 

'Ep/jrjvtia      rijf       Zwyf)«<.'.i«rjjr,      "  The 

Guide  for  Painting/'  a  literal  trans- 
lation of  which  he  has  published. 
This  very  curious  manuscript  con- 
tains minute  directions  for  the 
figures,  costume,  and  attitude  of  the 
sacred  characters,  and  for  the  pre- 
paration of  many  hundreds  of  histo- 
rical subjects  required  for  the  de- 
coration of  churches.  The  artist, 
when  solicited  by  M.  Didron  to 
sell  "  cette  bible  de  son  art,"  na- 
ively refused,  on  the  simple  ground 
that  "  s'il  se  depouillait  de  ce  livre, 
il  ne  pourrait  plus  rien  faire ;  en 
perdant  son  Guide,  il  perdait  son 
art,  il  perdait  ses  yeux  et  ses  mains  " 
(ib.  p.  xxiii.).  It  was  not  till  the 
fifteenth  century  that  the  painters  of 
Italy  shook  themselves  free  of  the 
authority  of  the  Latin  church  in 
matters  of  art.  The  second  council 
of  Nice  arrogates  to  the  Roman 
church  the  authority  in  such  mat- 
ters still  retained  by  the  Greek ; 
"  non  est  imaginum  structura  picto- 


rum  inventio  sed  ecclesise  catholicae 
probata  legislatio  et  traditio."  In 
Spain,  the  sacro-pictorial  law,  under 
the  title  of  Pictor  Christianus,  was 
promulgated,  in  1730,  by  Fray  Juan 
de  Ayala,  a  monk  of  the  order  of 
Mercy;  and  such  subjects  are  dis- 
cussed as  the  shape  of  the  true  cross ; 
whether  one  or  two  angels  should  sit 
on  the  stone  by  the  sepulchre  ?  and 
whether  the  Devil  should  be  drawn 
with  horns  and  a  tail  ?  In  the  Na- 
!  tional  Gallery  of  London  there  is  a 
j  painting  of  the  Holy  Family  by  Be- 
!  nozzo  Gozzoli,  and  Sir  Charles  L. 
Eastlake  has  permitted  me  to  see  a 
contract  between  the  painter  and  his 
employer  A.D.  1461,  in  which  every 
figure  is  literally  "made  to  order," 
its  attitude  bespoke,  and  its  place 
in  the  composition  distinctly  agreed 
for.  One  clause,  however,  contem- 
plates progress,  and  binds  the  painter 
to  make  the  piece  his  chef-d'oeuvre — 
"  che  detta  dipentura  exceda  ogni 
buona  dipintura  infino  aqui  facto  per 
detto  Benozzo." 

1  Foe-koue-ki,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  335. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


THE    FIXE   ARTS. 


475 


Buddha  so  exquisitely  that  he  seemed  to  have  been 
inspired;  and  for  it  he  made  an  altar,  and  gilt  an 
edifice  inlaid  with  ivory." 1  Among  the  presents  sent 
by  the  King  of  Ceylon  (A.D.  459)  to  the  Emperor  of 
China,  the  Tsih  foo  yuen  kwei,  a  chronicle  compiled  by 
imperial  command,  particularises  a  picture  of  Buddha.2 
The  colours  employed  in  decorating  their  temples  are 
mixed  in  tempera,  as  were  those  used  in  the  ancient 
paintings  in  Egypt ;  the  claim  of  the  Singhalese  to  the 
priority  of  invention  in  the  mixture  of  colours  with  oil, 
is  adverted  to  elsewhere.3 

Sculpture. — In  style  Singhalese  sculpture  was  even 
more  conventional  and  less  imaginative  than  their  paint- 
ing ;  since  the  subjects  to  which  it  was  confined  were 
almost  exclusively  statues  of  Buddha4,  and  its  efforts 
were  mere  repetitions  of  the  three  orthodox  attitudes 
of  the  great  archetype — sitting,  as  when  in  deep  medi- 
tation, under  the  sacred  Bo-tree ;  standing,  as  when 
exhorting  his  multitudinous  disciples ;  and  reclining,  in 
the  enjoyment  of  the  everlasting  repose  of  "  nirwana." 
In  the  contemplative  calmness  of  the  latter  one  is  re- 
minded of  that  sublime  composure  which  characterises  the 
sculpture  of  the  Egyptians ;  a  feeling  so  associated  with 
dignity  that  in  later  times  it  may  possibly  have  suggested 
the  epithet  of  "  Serene"  as  an  honorific  title  of  majesty. 
In  each  and  ah1  of  these  the  details  are  identical ;  the 
length  of  the  ears,  the  proportions  of  the  arms,  fingers, 
and  toes ;  the  colour  of  the  eyes,  and  the  curls  of  the 
hair  5  being  repeated  with  wearisome  iteration.  To  such 


1  Mahawanso.  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  242. 
•  B.  li.  p.  7. 

3  See  p.  490. 

4  Mention  is  made  of  a  figure  of 
an  elephant  (Rnjavali,  p.  242),  and 
of  a  horse  (Mahaivanso,  ch.  xxxix. 
TuKsrotrR's  manuscript  translation), 
and  a  carved  bull  as  amongst  the 
ruins  of  Anarajapoora. 

5  M.  ABEL  KEMUSAT  has  devoted 
a  section  of  his  Melanges  Asiatiques, 
1825,  vol.   i.  p.    100,  to  combating 


the  conjecture  of  Sir  W.  JOKES  in 
his  third  Dissertation  on  the  Hindus, 
drawn  from  the  curled  or  rather  the 
woolly  hair  represented  in  his  sta- 
tues, that  Buddha  drew  his  descent 
from  an  African  origin.  (  Works,  vol. 
i.  p.  12.)  Another  ground  for  Sir.  W. 
JONES'S  conjecture  was  the  large 
ears  which  are  usually  characteristic 
of  the  statues  of  Buddha.  But  it  is 
curious  that  one  of  the  peculiar  fea- 
tures ascribed  to  the  Singhalese  by 


476 


SCIENCES   AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


an  extent  were  these  multiplied,  and  with  an  adherence 
so  rigid  to  the  same  recognised  models,  that  the  Kajavali 
ventures  to  ascribe  to  one  king  the  erection  of  "  seventy- 
two  thousand  statues  of  Buddha," — an  obvious  error1,  but 
indicating,  nevertheless,  that  the  real  amount  must  have 
been  prodigious,  in  order  to  obtain  credence  for  the 
exaggeration.  Many  other  sovereigns  are  extolled  in 
the  national  annals,  who  rendered  their  reigns  illustrious 
by  the  multiplicity  of  statues  which  they  placed  in  the 
temples. 

It  was  doubtless  from  this  incessant  study  of  one 
and  the  same  figure,  that  the  artists  of  Ceylon  at- 
tained to  a  facility  and  superiority  in  producing  statues 
of  Buddha,  that  rendered  them  famous  throughout  the 
countries  of  Asia,  in  which  his  religion  prevailed.  The 
early  historians  of  China  speak  in  raptures  of  works  of 
this  kind,  obtained  from  Singhalese  sculptors  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries ;  they  were  eagerly  sought  after  by 
all  the  surrounding  nations  ;  and  one  peculiarity  in  their 
execution  consisted  in  so  treating  the  features,  that 
"  on  standing  at  about  ten  paces  distant  they  appeared 
truly  brilliant,  but  the  lineaments  gradually  disappeared 
on  a  nearer  approach."2  The  labours  of  the  sculptor 
and  painter  were  combined  in  producing  these  images 
of  Buddha,  that  are  always  coloured  in  imitation  of  life, 
each  tint  of  his  complexion  and  hair  being  in  religious 
conformity  with  divine  authority,  and  the  ceremony  of 
"  painting  of  the  eyes," 3  is  always  observed  by  the  devout 
Buddhists  as  a  solemn  festival. 

Many  of  the  works  which  were  thus  executed  were 
either  golden4  or  gilt,  with  brilliants  inserted  in  the 


the  early  Greek  writers  was  the 
possession  of  pendulous  ears,  possibly 
occasioned  by  their  heavy  ear-rings. 
1  Rajavali,  p.  255.  Most  of  these 
were  built  of  terra-cotta  and  cement 
covered  with  chunam,  preparatory 
to  being  painted.  See  p.  478. 


2  Wei  shoo,  a  "  History  of  the  Wei 
Tartar  Dynasty,"  written    A.D  590. 
B.  cxiv.  p.  9. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxii. ;  UPHAM'S 
version,  vol.  i.  p.  275. 

*  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  pp.  180, 
182 ;  Rajaratnacari,  pp.  47,  48  ;  Ra- 
javali,  p.  237. 


ClJAP.   VII.] 


THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


477 


eyes,  and  the  draperies  enriched  with  jewels.1  FA  HIAX 
in  the  fourth  century,  speaks  of  a  figure  of  Buddha 
upwards  of  twenty-three  feet  in  height,  formed  out  of 
blue  jasper,  and  set  with  precious  stones,  that  sparkled 
with  singular  splendour,  and  which  bore  in  its  right 
hand  a  pearl  of  priceless  value.2  This  may  possibly 
have  been  the  statue  of  which  the  Mahawanso  speaks 
in  like  terms  of  admiration  :  "  the  eye  formed  by  a 
jewel  from  the  royal  head-dress,  each  curl  of  the  hair  by 
a  sapphire,  and  the  lock  in  the  centre  of  the  forehead  by 
threads  of  gold."  3 

Ivory  also  and  sandal- wood 4,  as  well  as  copper  and 
bronze,  served  as  materials  for  statues ;  but  granite 
was  the  substance  most  generally  selected,  except  in 
the  rare  instances  where  the  temple  and  the  statue 
were  hewn  together  out  of  the  living  rock,  on  which 
occasions  gneiss  was  most  generally  selected.  Such  are 
the  statues  at  Pollanarrua,  at  Mihintala,  and  at  the 
Aukana  Wihara,  near  Vijittapoora.  A  still  more 
common  expedient,  which  is  employed  to  the  present 
time,  was  to  form  the  figures  of  Buddha  with  pieces  of 
burnt  clay  joined  together  by  cement ;  and  coated  with 
highly  polished  chunam,  in  order  to  prepare  the  surface 
for  the  painter.  In  this  manner  were  most  probably 
produced  the  "  seventy-two  thousand  statues  "  ascribed  to 
Mihindo  V. 

Figures  of  elephants  were  similarly  formed  at  an  early 
period.5  An  image  of  Buddha  so  composed  in  the  12th 
century,  is  still  standing  at  Pollanarrua 6,  and  eveiy 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  258. 

3  "Parmi  toutes  les  choses  pre"ci- 
euses  qu'on  y  voit,  il  y  a  une  image 
de  jaspe  bleu  haute  de  deux  tchang: 
tout  son  corps  est  forme"  des  sept 
choses  pre"eieuses ;  elle  est  e"tincel- 
lante  de  splendeuretplusmajestueuse 
qu'on  ne  saurait  1'exprimer.  Dans 
la  main  droite  elle  tient  une  perle 
d'un  prix  inestimable." — Foe-koue-ki, 
ch.  xxxviii.  p.  333. 


3  A.D.  459.  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxviii. 
p.  258.    Another  statue  of  gold,  with 
the  features  and  members  appropri- 
ately coloured  hi  gems,  is  spoken  of  in 
the  second  century  B.C.  (Mahawanso, 
ch.  xxx.  p.  180.) 

4  Rajaratnacari,  p.  72. 

5  A.D.  432.     Rajaratnacari,  p.  74. 

6  Possibly  the   "standing    figure 
of  Buddha  "  mentioned  in  the  Raja- 
vail,  p.  253. 


478  SCIENCES   AND    SOCIAL   ARTS.  [PART  IV. 

temple  lias  one  or  more  effigies,  either  sedent,  erect,  or 
recumbent,  carefully  modelled  in  cemented  clay,  and 
coloured  after  life. 

Architecture.  —  In  Ceylon,  as  in  Egypt,  Assyria,  and 
India,  the  ruins  which  survive  to  attest  the  character  of 
ancient  architecture  are  exclusively  sacred,  with  the 
exception  of  occasional  traces  of  the  residences  of  theo- 
cratic royalty ;  but  everything  has  perished  that 
could  have  afforded  an  idea  of  the  dwellings  and 
domestic  architecture  of  the  people.  The  cause  of  this 
is  to  be  traced  in  the  perishable  nature  of  the  sun-dried 
clay,  of  which  the  walls  of  the  latter  were  composed. 
Added  to  this,  in  Ceylon  there  were  the  pride  of  rank 
and  the  pretensions  of  the  priesthood,  which,  whilst  they 
led  to  lavish  expenditure  of  the  wealth  of  the  king- 
dom upon  palaces  and  monuments,  and  the  employment 
of  stone  in  the  erection  of  temples l  and  monasteries,  for- 
bade the  people  to  construct  their  dwellings  of  any  other 
material  than  sun-baked  earth.2  This  practice  continued 
to  the  latest  period  ;  and  nothing  struck  the  British  army 
of  occupation  with  more  surprise  on  entering  the  city 
of  Randy,  after  its  capture  in  1815,  than  to  find  that  the 
palaces  and  temples  alone  were  constructed  of  stone, 
whilst  the  streets  and  private  houses  were  formed  of  mud 
and  thatch. 

Though  stone  is  abundant  in  Ceylon,  it  was  but 
sparingly  used  in  the  ancient  buildings.  Squared 
stones 3  were  occasionally  employed,  but  large  slabs 
seldom  occur,  except  in  the  foundations  of  dagobas. 
The  vast  quantity  of  material  required  for  such  struc- 
tures, the  cost  of  quarrying  and  carriage,  and  the  want 
of  mechanical  aids  to  raise  ponderous  blocks  into  position, 
naturally  led  to  the  substitution  of  bricks  for  the  upper 
portion  of  the  superstructure. 

There  is  evidence  to  show  that  wedges  were  employed 


1  Rajaratnacari,  pp.  78,  79.  I       3  Rajavali,  p.  210;  VALEXTYX,  Owl 

2  Rajavali,  p.  222.  |  en  Nieuw  Oost-Indien,  eh.  iii.  p.  45. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


479 


to  detach  the  blocks  in  the  quarry,  and  the  amount 
of  labour  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  those  in  which 
strength,  irrespective  of  ornament,  was  essential,  is 
shown  in  the  remains  of  the  sixteen  hundred  undressed 
pillars1  that  supported  the  Brazen  Palace  at  Anara- 
japoora, and  in  the  eighteen  hundred  stone  steps,  many 
of  them  exceeding  ten  feet  in  length,  which  led  from 
the  base  of  the  mountain  to  the  very  summit  of  Mihin- 
tala.  A  single  piece  of  granite  now  lies  at  Anarajapoora 
hollowed  into  an  "  elephant  trough,"  with  ornamental 
pilasters,  which  measures  ten  feet  in  length  by  six  wide 
and  two  deep ;  and  amongst  the  ruins  of  Pollanarrua 
a  still  more  remarkable  slab,  twenty-five  feet  in  length 
by  six  broad  and  two  feet  thick,  bears  an  inscription  of 
the  twelfth  century,  which  records  that  it  was  brought 
from  a  distance  of  more  than  thirty  miles. 

The  majority  of  the  columns  at  Anarajapoora  are  of 
dressed  stone,  octangular  and  of  extremely  graceful 
proportions.  They  were  used  in  pro- 
fusion to  form  circular  colonnades 
around  the  principal  dagobas,  and  the 
vast  numbers  which  still  remain  up- 
right, are  one  of  the  peculiar  charac- 
teristics of  the  place,  and  justify  the 
expression  of  Kxox,  when,  speaking  of 
similar  groups  elsewhere,  he  calls  them 
a  "  world  of  hewn  stone  pillars."2 

Allusions  in  the  Mahawanso  show  that 
extreme  care  was  taken  in  the  preparation 
of  bricks  for  the  building  of  dagobas.3 
Major  SKINNER,  whose  official  duties  as 
engineer  to  the  government  have  ren- 
dered him  familiar  with  all  parts  of 
Ceylon,  assures  me  that  the  bricks  in 


1  The  Rajai-ali  states  that  these 
rough  pillars  were  originally  covered 
with  copper,  p.  222. 


2  Kxox,  Relation,  vol.  v.  pt.  iv. 
ch.  ii.  p.  165. 

3  Mahaioanso,  ch.  xxviii.  p.  165 ; 
ch.  xxix.  p.  169,  &c. 


480 


SCIENCES   AND    SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


every  ruin  he  has  seen,  including  the  dagobas  at  Ana- 
raj  apoora,  Bintenne,  and  Pollanarrua,  have  been  fired 
with  so  much  skill  that  exposure  through  successive 
centuries  has  but  slightly  affected  either  their  sharpness 
or  consistency. 

The  sand  for  mortar  was  "  pounded,  sifted,  and 
ground  ;  "  x  the  "  cloud-coloured  stones, "  2  used  to  form 
the  immediate  receptacle  in  which  a  sacred  relic  was 
enclosed,  were  said  to  have  been  imported  from  India ; 
and  the  "  nawanita  "  clay,  in  which  these  were  imbedded, 
was  believed  to  have  been  brought  from  the  mythical 
Anotattho  lake  in  the  Himalayas.3 

Dagobas.  —  The  process  of  building  the  Kuanwelle 
dagoba  is  thus  minutely  described  in  the  Mahawanso  : 
"  That  the  structure  might  endure  for  ages,  a  foundation 
was  excavated  to  the  depth  of  one  hundred  cubits,  and 
the  round  stones  were  trampled  by  enormous  elephants, 
whose  feet  were  protected  by  leather  cases.  Over  this 
the  monarch  spread  the  sacred  clay,  and  on  it  laid  the 
bricks,  and  over  them  a  coating  of  astringent  cement, 
above  this  a  layer  of  sand-stones,  and  on  all  a  plate  of 
iron.  Over  this  was  a  large  pholika  (crystallised 
stone),  then  a  plate  of  brass,  eight  inches  thick,  em- 
bedded in  a  cement  made  of  the  gum  of  the  wood-apple 
tree,  diluted  in  the  water  of  the  small  red  coco-nut."  4 

The  shape  of  these  huge  mounds  of  masonry  was 
originally  hemispherical,  being  that  best  calculated  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  grass  or  other  weeds  on  objects  so 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  p.  175. 

2  The  "  cloud-coloured  stone  "  may 
possibly  have  been  marble,  but  no 
traces  of  marble  have  been  found  in 
any  ruins  in  Ceylon.     Diodorus,  in 
describing  some  of  the  monuments  of 
Egypt  alludes  to  a  "  party-coloured  " 
stone,  Xt'fc'ov  votKiXov,  which  likewise 
remains    without     identification.  — 
Diodorus,  1.  i.  c.  Ivii. 


3  Mahawanso,   ch.  xxix.   p 
ch.  xxx.  p.  179. 


169; 


Mahawanso,  ch.  xxix.  p.  169; 
ch.  xxx.  p.  178.  The  internal  struc- 
ture of  the  Sanchi  tope  at  Bilsah  in 
Central  India  presents  the  arrange- 
ment here  described,  the  bricks  being 
laid  in  mud,  but  externally  it  is  faced 
with  dressed  stone. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


THE  FIXE  ARTS. 


481 


sacred.  Dutugaimunu,  according  to  the  Mahawanso, 
when  about  to  build  the  Euanwelle  dagoba,  consulted  a 
mason  as  to  the  most  suitable  form,  who,  "filling  a 
golden  dish  with  water,  and  taking  some  in  the  palm  of 
his  hand,  caused  a  bubble  in  the  form  of  a  coral  bead  to 
rise  on  the  surface  ;  and  he  replied  to  the  king,  '  In  this 
form  will  I  construct  it. '  "  l  Two  dagobas  at  Anaraja- 
poora,  the  Abay-a-giri  and  Jeyta-wana-rama,  still  retain 
their,  original  outline,  —  the  Euanwelle,  from  age  and 
decay,  has  partly  lost  it, — the  Thupa-rama  is  flattened  on 
the  top  as  if  suddenly  brought  to  a  close  ;  and  the  Lanka- 
rama  is  shaped  like  a  bell. 

Monasteries  and  Wiharas.  —  According  to  the  annals 
of  Ceylon  the  construction  of  dwellings  for  the  de- 
votees of  Buddha  preceded  the  erection  of  temples  for 
his  worship.  Originally  the  anchorite  selected  a  cave 
or  some  shelter  in  the  forest  as  his  place  of  repose  or 
meditation.2  In  the  Eajavali  Devenipiatissa  is  said  to 
have  "  caused  caverns  to  be  cut  in  the  solid  rock  at 
the  sacred  place  of  Mihintala ; " 3  and  these  were  the 
earliest  residences  for  the  higher  orders  of  the  priest- 
hood in  Ceylon,  of  which  a  record  has  been  preserved. 
A  less  costly  substitute  was  found  in  the  erection  of 
detached  huts  of  the  rudest  construction,  in  which 
may  be  traced  the  embryo  of  the  Buddhist  mon- 
astery ;  and  the  king  Walagambahu  was  the  first, 
B.C.  89,  to  gather  these  scattered  residences  into  groups 
and  "  build  wiharas  in  unbroken  ranges,  conceiving 
that  thus  their  repairs  would  be  more  easily  ef- 
fected." 4 


1  Mahawanso,    ch.   xxx.    p.    175. 

This  legend  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
semicircular  form  of  the  dagoba  is  at 
variance  with  the  conjecture  of  Major 
FORBES,  that  these  vast  structures 
were  merely  an  advance  on  the 
mounds  of  earth  similar  to  the  barrow 

VOL.  I.  1 


of  Halyattes,  which  in  the  progress  of 
the  constructive  arts,  came  to  be  con- 
verted into  brickwork. — Eleven  Years 
in  Ceylon,  v.  i.  p.  222. 

z  Mahawanso,  c.  xxx.  p.  174. 

3  Rajavali,  p.  184 

4  Mahawamo,  ch.  xxxiii.  p.  207. 


482 


SCIENCES  AXD  SOCIAL  AKTS. 


[PABT  IV. 


Simplicity  and  retirement  were  at  all  times  the  cha- 
racteristics of  these  retreats,  which  rarely  aspired  to 
architectural  display  ;  and  the  only  recorded  instance  of 
extravagance  in  this  particular  was  the  "  Brazen  Palace  " 
at  Anarajapoora,  with  its  sixteen  hundred  columns  ;  an 
edifice  which,  though  nominally  a  dwelling  for  the  priest- 
hood, appears  to  have  been  in  reality  a  vast  suite  of  halls 
for  their  assemblies  and  festivals,  and  a  sanctuary  for  the 
safe  custody  of  their  jewels  and  treasure. l 

Allusions  are  occasionally  made  to  other  edifices  more 
or  less  fantastic  in  their  design  and  structure,  such  as 
"  an  apartment  built  on  a  single  pillar,"  2  a  "  house  of 
an  octangular  form,"  built  in  the  12th  century3,  and 
another  of  an  "  oval,  "  shape4,  erected  by  Prakrama  I. 

Palaces.  —  The  royal  residences  as  they  were  first 
constructed,  must  have  consisted  of  very  few  chambers, 
since  mention  is  made  in  the  Mahawanso  of  the  ear- 
liest, which  contained  "  many  apartments,"  having  been 
built  by  Pandukabhaya,  B.C.  437.5  But  within  two 
centuries  afterwards,  Dutugaimunu  conceived  the  mag- 
nificent idea  of  the  Lowa  Pasada,  with  its  quadrangle 
one  hundred  cubits  square,  and  a  thousand  dormitories 
with  ornamental  windows. 6  This  palace  was  in  its 
turn  surpassed  by  the  castle  of  Prakrama  I.  at  Polla- 
narrua,  which,  according  to  the  Mahawanso,  "  was  seven 
stories  high,  consisting  of  five  thousand  rooms,  lined 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxvii.  p.  163. 
Like  the  "  nine-storied  "  pagodas  of 
China,  the  palace  of  "  the  Lowa  Maya 
Pay  a "  was  originally  nine  stories  in 
height,  and  Fergusson,  from  the 
analogy  of  Buddhist  buildings  in 
other  countries,  supposes  that  these 
diminished  in  succession  as  the  build- 
ing arose,  till  the  outline  of  the  whole 
assumed  the  form  of  a  pyramid. 
(Handbook  of  Architectttre,  b.  i.  ch. 
iii.  p.  44.)  In  this  he  is  undoubtedly 
correct,  and  a  building  still  existing, 
though  in  ruins,  at  Pollanarrua,  and 


known  as  the  Sat-mal-pasado,  or  the 
(l  seven-storied  palace ',"  probably  built 
by  Prakrama,  about  the  year  1170, 
serves  to  support  his  conjecture. 
See  a  description  of  it,  part  x.  ch.  i. 
vol.  ii.  588. 

2  B.C.   504,  Mahawanso,  ch.  ix.  p. 
56  :  ch.  Ixxii.     UPHAM'S  version,  p. 
274. 

3  Rajaratnacari,  p.  105. 

4  Mahawanno,  ch.  Ixxii.     UPH.VM'S 
version,  p.  274. 

5  Ibid.,  ch.  x.  p.  GO. 

e  Ibid.,  ch.  xxvii.  p.  163. 


ClIAF.  VII.] 


THE  FIXE  ARTS. 


483 


with  hundreds  of  stone  columns,  and  outer  halls  of  an 
oval  shape,  with  large  and  small  gates,  staircases,  and 
glittering  walls."  * 

In  what  now  remains  of  these  buildings  at  Anaraja- 
poora,  there  is  no  trace  to  be  found  of  an  arch,  truly 
turned  and  secured  by  its  keystone ;  but  at  Pollanarrua 
there  are  several  examples  of  the  false  arch,  produced 
by  the  progressive  projection  of  the  layers  of  brick.2 

The  finest  specimens  of  ancient  brickwork  are  to  be 
seen  amongst  the  ruins  of  the  latter  city,  where  the  ma- 
terial is  compact  and  smooth,  and  the  edges  sharp  and 
unworn.  The  mortar  shows  the  remains  of  the  pearl 
oyster-shells  from  which  it  was  burnt,  and  the  chunam 
with  which  the  walls  were  coated  still  clings  to  some  of 
the  towers,  and  retains  its  angularity  and  polish.3 

Of  the  details  of  external  and  internal  decoration 
applied  to  these  buildings,  descriptions  are  given  which 
attest  a  perception  of  taste,  however  distorted  by  the 
exaggerations  of  oriental  design.  "  Gilded  tiles " 4  in 
their  bright  and  sunny  atmosphere,  must  have  had  a 
striking  effect,  especially  when  surmounting  walls  de- 
corated with  beaded  mouldings,  and  festooned  with 
"  carvings  in  imitation  of  creeping  plants  and  flowers."  5 

Carving  in  stone.  —  Carving  appears  to  have  been 
practised  at  a  very  early  period  with  singular  success ; 
but  in  later  times  it  became  so  deteriorated,  that  there 
is  little  difficulty  at  the  present  day,  in  pronouncing  on 
the  superiority  of  the  specimens'  remaining  at  Anaraja- 
poora,  over  those  which  are  to  be  found  amongst  the 
ruins  of  the  later  capitals,  Pollanarrua,  Yapahu,  or 
Kornegalle.  The  author  of  the  Mahawanso  dwells 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxii.     UPHAM'S 
version,  p.  274. 

2  FORBES' s  Eleven  Years  in  Ceylon, 
vol.  i.  ch.  xvii.  p.  414. 

3  Expressions  in   the  Mahawanso, 
ch.  xxvii.  p.  1(34,  show  that  as  early 


as  the  2nd  century,  B.C.,  the  Singha- 
lese were  acquainted  with  this  beau- 
tiful cement,  which  is  susceptible  of 
a  polish  almost  equal  to  marble. 

*  Rajavali,  p.  73. 

5  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxii.  p.  274, 


i  2 


484 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  AETS. 


[PART  IV. 


with  obvious  satisfaction  on  Ms  descriptions  of  the 
"  stones  covered  with  flowers  and  creeping  plants."1 
Animals  are  constantly  introduced  in  the  designs  exe- 
cuted on  stone,  and  a  mythical  creature,  called  tech- 
nically makara-torana,  is  conspicuous,  especially  on  door- 
ways and  balustrades,  with  the  head  of  an  elephant,  the 
teeth  of  a  crocodile,  the  feet  of  a  lion,  and  the  tail  of  a 
fish. 

At  the  entrance  to  the  great  wihara,  at  Anarajapoora, 
there  is  now  lying  on  the  ground  a  semi-circular  slab 
of  granite,  the  ornaments  of  which  are  designed  in  ex- 
cellent taste,  and  executed  with  singular  skill ;  elephants, 
lions,  horses,  and  oxen,  forming  the  outer  border ;  that 
within  consisting  of  a  row  of  the  "  hanza,"  or  sacred 
goose.  This  bird  is  equally  conspicuous  on  the  vast 
tablet,  one  of  the  wonders  of  Pollanarrua,  before  alluded 
to.2 

Taken  in  connection  with  the  proverbial  contempt  for 
the  supposed  stolidity  of  the  goose,  there  is  something 
still  unexplained  in  the  extraordinary  honours  paid  to 
it  by  the  ancients,  and  the  veneration  in  which  it  is 
held  to  the  present  day  by  some  of  the  eastern  nations. 
The  figure  that  occurs  so  frequently  on  Buddhist  monu- 
ments, is  the  Brahmanee  goose  (casarka  rutila),  which 
is  not  a  native  of  Ceylon ;  but  from  time  immemorial  has 
been  an  object  of  veneration  there  and  in  ah1  parts  of 
India.  Amongst  the  Buddhists  especially,  impressed  as 
they  are  with  the  solemn  obligation  of  solitary  retirement 
for  meditation,  the  hanza  has  attracted  attention  by  its 
periodical  migrations,  which  are  supposed  to  be  directed 
to  the  holy  Lake  of  Manasa,  in  the  mythical  regions  of 
the  Himalaya.  The  poet  Kalidas,  in  his  Cloud  Mes- 
senger, speaks  of  the  hanza  as  "  eager  to  set  out  for  the 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.    Ixxii.    p.    274, 
UPHAM'S  version. 
*  A  sketch  of  this  stone  will  be 


seen  in  the  engraving  of  the  Sat-mal- 
prasada,  in  the  account  of  Pollanarrua. 
Part  i.  ch.  i.  vol.  ii.  588. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


485 


Sacred  Lake."  Hence,  according  to  the  Rajavali, 
the  lion  was  pre-eminent  amongst  beasts,  "the  hanza 
was  king  over  all  the  feathered  tribes."1  In  one  of 
the  Jatakas,  which  contains  the  legend  of  Buddha's 
apotheosis,  his  hair,  when  suspended  in  the  sky,  is  de- 
scribed as  resembling  "the  beautiful  Kala  hanza."2 
The  goose  is,  at  the  present  day,  the  national  emblem 
emblazoned  on  the  standard  of  Burmah,  and  the  brass 
weights  of  the  Burmese  are 
generally  cut  in  the  shape 
of  the  sacred  bird,  just  as 
the  Egyptians  formed  their 
weights  of  stone  after  the 
same  model.3 

AUGUSTINE,  in  his  Civitas 
Dei,  traces  the  respect  for 
the  goose,  displayed  by  the 
Romans,  to  gratitude  for  the 
preservation  of  the  capitol; 
when  the  vigilance  of  this 
bird  defeated  the  midnight  attack  by  the  Goths.  The 
adulation  of  the  citizens,  he  says,  degenerated  afterwards 
almost  to  Egyptian  superstition,  in  the  rites  instituted 
in  honour  of  their  preservers  on  that  occasion.4  But 
the  very  fact  that  the  geese  which  saved  the  citadel 
were  already  sacred  to  Juno,  and  domesticated  in  her 
temple,  demonstrates  the  error  of  Augustine,  and  shows 
that  they  had  acquired  mythological  eminence,  before 


FROM  THE  BURMESE  STANDARD. 


1  Rajavali,  p.    149.     The    Maha- 
wanso,  ch.  xxx.  p.  179,  also  speaks  of 
the  " hanza"  as  amongst  the  decora- 
tions chased  on  the   stem  of  a  bo- 
tree,  modelled  in   gold,  which  was 
deposited    by    Dutugaimunu    when 
building  the   Ruanwelle"   dagoba  at 
Anarajapoora  in  the  2nd  century  be- 
fore Chnst. 

2  HARDY'S  Buddhism,  ch.   vii.  p. 
161. 

3  See  StME's  Embassy  to  Ava,  p. 
330;  YULE'S  Narrative  of  the  British 


Mission  to  Ava  in  1855,  p.  110.  I 
have  seen  a  stone  in  the  form  of  a 
goose,  found  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh, 
which  appears  to  have  been  used  as  a 
weight. 

4  "  And  hereupon  did  Rome  fall 
almost  into  the  superstition  of  the 
^Egyptians  that  worship  birds  and 
beasts,  for  they  henceforth  kept  a 
holy  day  which  they  call  the  goose's 
feast. ' ' — ATJGTJSTINE.  Civitas  Dei,  $c. 
book  ii.  ch.  22 :  Englished  by  F.  H. 
Icond.  1610. 


486 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


achieving  political  renown.  It  must  be  observed,  too, 
that  the  birds  which  rendered  that  memorable  service, 
were  the  ordinary  white  geese  of  Europe  \  and  not  the 
red  geese  of  the  Nile  (the  xyvofawTrrfe  of  Herodotus), 
which,  ages  before,  had  been  enrolled  amongst  the  ani- 
mals held  sacred  in  Egypt,  and  which  formed  the  em- 
blem of  Seb,  the  father  of  Osiris.2  HORAPOLLO,  endea- 
vouring to  account  for  this  predilection  of  the  Egyptians 
(who  employed  the  goose  hieroglyphically  to  denote  a 
son),  ascribes  it  to  their  appreciation  of  the  love  evinced 
by  it  for  its  offspring,  in  exposing  itself  to  divert  the  at- 
tention of  the  fowler  from  its  young.3  This  opinion  was 
shared  by  the  Greeks  and  the  Eomans.  Aristotle  praises 
its  sagacity ;  ./Elian  dilates  on  the  courage  and  cunning 
of  the  "  vulpanser,"  and  its  singular  attachment  to  man  4 ; 
and  Ovid  ranks  the  goose  as  superior  to  the  dog  in  the 
scale  of  intelligence, — 

"  Solicit!  canes  canibusve  sagacior  anser." 

OVID,  Met.  xi.  399. 

The  feeling  appears  to  have  spread  westward  at  an 
early  period;  the  ancient  Britons,  according  to  Cassar, 
held  it  impious  to  eat  the  flesh  of  the  goose 5,  and  the 
followers  of  the  first  crusade  which  issued  from 


1  This  appears  from  a  line  of  Lu- 
cretius : 

"  Romulidarum  arcis  servator  candidus  anser." 
De  Rer.  Nat.\.iv.  637. 

2  SIR     GARDNER     WILKINSON'S 
Manners  and  Customs,  fyc.,  2nd  Ser. 
pi.  31,  fig.  2,  vol.  i.  p.  312  j  vol.  ii. 
p.   227.     Mr.   Birch   of  the  British 
Museum  informs  me  that  throughout 
the  ritual  or  hermetic  books  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians  a  mystical  notion 
is  attached  to  the  goo.se  as  one  of  the 
creatures  into  which  the  dead  had  to 
undergo   a  transmigration.     That  it 
was  actually  worshipped  is  attested 
by  a  sepulchral  tablet  of  the   26th 
dynasty,  about  700  B.C.,  in  which  it 
is  figured^  standing  on  a  small  chapel 
over    which    are    the     hieroglyphic 
words,  "  The  good  goose  greatly  be- 
loved; "  and  on  the  lower  part  of  the 


tablet  the  dedicator  makes  an  offer- 
ing of  fire  and  water  to  "  Amman  and 
the  Goose."  —  Revue  ArcJieco..  vol.  ii. 
pi.  27. 

3  HORAPOLLO,   HieroglypJiica,    lib. 
i.  23. 

4  ^ELIAN,  Nat.  Hist.,  lib.  v.  c.  29, 
30,  50.   ./Elian  says  that  the  Romans, 
in  recognition  of  the   superior  vigi- 
lance of  the  goose  on  the  occasion  of 
the  assault  on  the  Capitol,  instituted 
a  procession  in  the  Forum  in  honour 
of  the  goose,  whose  watchfulness  was 
incorruptible  ;  but  held  an  annual  de- 
nunciation of  the  inferior  fidelity  of 
the  dogs,  which  allowed  themselves 
to  be  silenced  by  meat  flung  to  them 
by  the  Gauls.  —  Nat.  Hist.  lib.  xii. 
ch.  xxxiii. 

5  t(  Anserem  gustare  fas  non  pu- 
tant."  —  (LESAR,  Bell.   Gall,  lib.  v. 
ch.  xii. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


THE  FINE  AETS. 


487 


England,  France,  and  Flanders,  adored  a  goat  and  a 
goose,  which  they  believed  to  be  filled  by  the  Holy 
Spirit.1 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  same  word  appears  to  desig- 
nate the  goose  in  the  most  remote  quarters  of  the  globe. 
The  Pali  term  "  hanza "  by  which  it  was  known  to  the 
Buddhists  of  Ceylon,  is  still  the  "  henza "  of  the  Bur- 
mese and  the  "  gangsa"  of  the  Malays,  and  is  to  be 
traced  in  the  "  xyv  "  of  the  Greeks,  the  "  anser  "  of  the 
Eomans,  the  "ganso"  of  the  Portuguese,  the  "ansar" 
of  the  Spaniards,  the  "gans"  of  the  Germans  (who, 
PLINY  says,  called  the  white  geese  ganza),  the  "  gas  "  of 
the  Swedes,  and  the  "  gander  "  of  the  English.2 

In  the  principal  apartment  of  the  royal  palace  at 
Kandy,  now  the  official  re- 
sidence of  the  chief  civil 
officer  in  charge  of  the  pro- 
vince, the  sacred  bird  occurs 
amongst  the  decorations,  but 
so  modelled  as  to  resemble 
the  dodo  rather  than  the 
Brahmanee  goose. 

In  the  generality  of  the 
examples  of  ancient  Singha- 
lese carvings  that  have  come 
down  to  us,  the  character- 


N  THE  PALACE  AT  KANDY. 


1  MILL'S  Hist,  of  the  Crusades, 
vol.  i.  ch.  ii.  p.  75.  Forster  has  sug- 
gested that  it  was  a  species  of  goose 
(which  annually  migrates  from  the 
Black  Sea  towards  the  south)  that 
fed  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  of 
Sinai,  and  that  the  "  winged  fowls  " 
meant  by  the  word  salu,  which  has 
been  heretofore  translated  "  quails," 
were  "  red  geese,"  resembling  those 
of  Egypt  and  India.  He  renders  one 
of  the  mysterious  inscriptions  which 
abound  m  the  Wady  Mokatteb  (the 
Valley  of  Writings),  "  the  red  geese 
ascend  from  the  sea,  —  lusting  the 
people  eat  to  repletion  j "  thus  pre- 


senting a  striking  concurrence  with 
the  passage  in  Numb.  xi.  31,  "  there 
went  forth  a  wind  from  the  Lord  and 
brought  quails  (salu)  from  the  sea." 
— FORSTER'S  One  Primeval  Language, 
vol.  i.  p.  90. 

2  HARDY  observes  that  the  ibis  of 
the  Nile  is  called  "  Abou- Hanza  "  by 
the  Arabs  (Buddhism,  ch.  i.  p.  17)  j 
but  BRUCE  (Trav.  vol.  v.  p.  172)  says 
the  name  is  Abou  Hannes,  or  Father 
John,  and  that  the  bird  always  ap- 
pears on  St.  John's  day  :  he  implies, 
however,  that  this  is  probably  a  cor- 
ruption of  an  ancient  name  now 
lost. 


i  4 


488 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  AKTS. 


[PART  IV. 


istic  which  most  strongly  recommends  them,  is  their 
careful  preservation  of  the  outline  and  form  of  the 
article  decorated,  notwithstanding  the  richness  and  pro- 
fusion of  the  ornaments  applied.  The  subjects  en- 
graved are  selected  with  so  much  judgment,  that 
whilst  elaborately  covering  the  surface,  they  in  no 
degree  mar  the  configuration.  Even  in  later  times 
this  principle  has  been  preserved,  and  the  chasings  in 
silver  and  tortoise  shell  on  the  scabbards  of  the  swords 
of  state,  worn  by  the  Kandyan  kings  and  their  attend- 
ants, are  not  surpassed  by  any  specimens  of  similar 
workmanship  in  India. 

Temples, — The  temples  of  Buddha  were  at  first  as 
unpretending  as  the  residences  of  the  priesthood.  No 
mention  is  made  of  them  during  the  infancy  of 
Buddhism  in  Ceylon ;  when  caves  and  natural  grottoes 
were  the  only  places  of  devotion.  In  the  sacred 
books  these  are  spoken  of  as  "  stone  houses " 1  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  "houses  of  earth"2  and  other 
materials  used  in  the  construction  of  the  first  buildings 
for  the  worship  of  Buddha ;  such  temples  having  been 
originally  confined  to  a  single  chamber  of  the  humblest 
dimensions,  within  which  it  became  the  custom  at  a 
later  period  to  place  a  statue  of  the  divine  teacher  re- 
clining in  dim  seclusion,  the  gloom  being  increased  to 
heighten  the  scenic  effect  of  the  ever-burning  lamps  by 
which  the  chambers  are  imperfectly  lighted. 

The  construction  of  both  these  descriptions  of 
temples  was  improved  in  later  times,  but  no  examples 
remain  of  the  ancient  chaityas  or  built  temples  in 
Ceylon,  and  those  of  the  rock  temples  still  existing 


1  The  King  Walagambahu,  who  in 
his  exile  had  been  living  amongst  the 
rocks  in  the  wilderness,  ascended  the 
throne  after  defeating  the  Malabars 
(B.C.  104),  and  "caused  the  houses  of 


stone  or  caves  of  the  rocks  in  which  he 
had  taken  refuge  to  be  made  more 
commodious."  —  Itajavali,  p.  224. 
2  Rajavali,  p.  222. 


CIIAP.  VII.]  THE  FIXE  ARTS.  489 

exhibit  a  very  slight  advance  beyond  the  rudest  attempts 
at  excavation. 

On  examining  the  cave  temples  of  continental  India, 
they  appear  to  exhibit  three  stages  of  progress, — first 
mere  unadorned  cells,  like  those  formed  by  Dasartha, 
the  grandson  of  Asoka,  in  the  granite  rocks  of  Behar, 
about  B.C.  200  ;  next  oblong  apartments  with  a  veran- 
dah in  front,  like  that  of  Ganesa,  at  Cuttack ;  and  lastly, 
ample  halls  with  colonnades  separating  the  nave  from  the 
aisles,  and  embellished  externally  with  facades  and  agri- 
cultural decorations,  such  as  the  caves  of  Karli,  Ajunta, 
and  Ellora.1  But  in  Ceylon  the  earliest  rock  temples 
were  merely  hollows  beneath  overhanging  rocks,  like 
those  still  existing  at  Dambool,  and  the  Aluwihara  at 
Matelle,  in  both  of  which  advantage  has  been  taken  of 
the  accidental  shelter  of  rounded  boulders,  and  an  en- 
trance constructed  by  applying  a  facade  of  masonry,  de- 
void of  all  pretensions  to  ornament. 

The  utmost  effort  at  excavation  never  appears  to 
have  advanced  beyond  the  second  stage  attained  in 
Bengal, — a  small  cell  with  a  few  columns  to  support  a 
verandah  in  front ;  and  even  of  this  but  very  few  exam- 
ples now  exist  in  Ceylon,  the  most  favourable  being 
the  Galle-wihara  at  Pollanarrua,  which,  according  to  the 
Rajavali,  was  executed  by  Prakrania  L,  in  the  12th 
century.2 

Taking  into  consideration  the  enthusiasm  exhibited 
by  the  kings  of  Ceylon,  and  the  munificence  displayed 
by  them  in  the  exaltation  and  extension  of  Buddhism, 
their  failure  to  emulate  the  labours  of  its  patrons  in  India 
must  be  accounted  for  by  the  intractable  nature  of  the 
rocks  with  which  they  had  to  contend,  the  gneiss  and 


1  See  FERGUSSON'S  Illustrations  of  1  1845,  and  Handbook  of  Architecture, 
the  Rock-cut  Temples  of  India,  Lond.     ch.  ii,  p.  23. 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxvii. 


490 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


quartz  of  Ceylon  being  less  favourable  to  such  works  than 
the  sandstone  of  Cuttack,  or  the  trap  formations  of  the 
western  ghauts. 

Oil-painting. — In  decorative  art,  carving  and  mould- 
ing in  chunam  were  the  principal  expedients  resorted 
to.  Of  this  substance  were  also  formed  the  "beads 
resplendent  like  gems  ; "  the  "  flower-ornaments  "  resem- 
bling gold  ;  and  the  "  festoons  of  pearls,"  that  are  more 
than  once  mentioned  in  describing  the  interiors  of  the 
palaces.1  Externally,  painting  was  applied  to  the  dago- 
bas  alone,  as  in  the  climate  of  Ceylon,  exposure  to  the 
rains  would  have  been  fatal  to  the  duration  of  the  colours, 
if  only  mixed  in  tempera ;  but  the  Singhalese,  at  a  very 
early  period,  were  aware  of  the  higher  qualities  possessed 
by  some  of  the  vegetable  oils.  The  claim  of  Van  Eyck 
to  the  invention  of  oil-painting  in  the  15th  century,  has 
been  shown  to  be  untenable.  Sir  Charles  L.  Eastlake2 
has  adduced  the  evidence  of  ^Etius  of  Diarbekir,  to  prove 
that  the  use  of  oil  in  connection  with  art3  was  known 
before  the  6th  century ;  and  Dioscorides,  who  wrote 
in  the  age  of  Augustus,  has  been  hitherto  regarded  as 
the  most  ancient  authority  on  the  drying  properties  of 
walnut,  sesamum,  and  poppy.  But  the  Mahawanso 
affords  evidence  of  an  earlier  knowledge,  and  records 
that  in  the  2nd  century  before  Christ,  "  vermilion  paint 
mixed  with  tila  oil,"4  was  employed  in  the  building  of 
the  Euanwelle  dagoba.  This  is,  therefore,  the  earliest 
testimony  extant  of  the  use  of  oil  as  a  medium  for  paint- 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxvii.  p.  163. 

2  EASTLAKE'S  Materials  for  a  His- 
tory of  Oil  Painting,  ch.  i.  p.  18. 

3  AethlS  BijSXi'ov  iarptKOV. 

*  Tila  or  tala  is  the  Singhalese 
name  for  sesamum  from  which  the 
natives  express  the  gingeli  oil.  SIB. 
CHARLES  L.  E\STLAKE  is  of  opinion 
that  "  sesamum  cannot  be  called  a 
drying  oil  in  the  ordinary  acceptation 


of  the  term,"  but  in  this  passage  of 
the  Mahawanso,  it  is  mentioned  as 
being  used  as  a  cement.  A  question 
has  been  raised  in  favour  of  the  claim 
of  the  Egyptians  to  the  use  of  oil  in 
the  decoration  of  their  mummy  cases, 
but  the  probability  is  that  they  were 
coloured  in  tempera  and  their  per- 
manency afterwards  secured  by  a 
varnish. 


CHAP.  VII.] 


THE  FIXE  AKTS. 


491 


ing,  and  till  a  higher  claimant  appears,  the  distinction 
of  the  discovery  may  be  permitted  to  rest  with  the 
Singhalese. 

Style  of  Ornament. — In  decorating  the  temporary  tee, 
which  was  placed  on  the  Kuanwelle  dagoba,  prior  to  its 
completion,  the  square  base  was  painted  with  a  design 
representing  vases  of  flowers  in  the  four  panels,  sur- 
rounded by  "  ornaments  radiating  like  the  five  fingers." l 
This  description  points  to  the  "  honeysuckle  border," 
which,  according  to  Fergusson,  was  adopted  and  carried 
westward  by  the  Greeks,  and  eastward  by  the  Buddhist 
architects.2  It  appears  upon  the  lat  column  at  Allaha- 
bad, which  is  inscribed  with  one  of  the  edicts  of  Asoka, 
issued  in  the  3rd  century  before  Christ. 

The  spire  itself  was  "  painted  with  red  stick-lac," 
probably  the  same  prepara- 
tion of  vermilion  as  is 
used  at  the  present  day  on 
the  lacquered  ware  of  Bur- 
inah,  Siam,  and  China.3 
Gaudy  colours  appear  at  all 
times  to  have  been  popular ;  yellow,  from  its  religious 
associations,  pre-eminently  so4 ;  and  red  lead  was  applied 
to  the  exterior  of  dagobas.5  Bujas  Eaja,  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury, painted  the  waUs  and  roof  of  the  Brazen  Palace 


FRO^i  THE  CAPITAL  OF 


1  Mahawatiso,  ch.   xxxii.  p.  193 ; 
ch.  xxxviii.  p.  258. 

2  FERGTJSSON'S  Handbook  of  Archi- 
tecture, vol.  i.  ch.  ii.  p.  7. 

3  A  species  of  lacquer  painting  is 
practised  with  great  success  at  the 
present  day  in    the   Kandyan    pro- 
vinces, and  especially  at  Matelle,  the 
colours  being  mixed  with  a  resinous 
exudation     collected    from   a  shrub 
called  by  the  Singhalese  Wfel-koep- 
petya      (Croton     laccifentni).      The 
coloured    varnish   thus   prepared    is 
formed  into  films  and  threads  chiefly 
bv  aid  of  the  thumb-nail  of  the  left 


hand,  which  is  kept  long  and  uncut 
for  the  purpose.  It  is  then  applied 
by  heat  and  polished.  It  is  chiefly 
employed  in  ornamenting  the  covers 
of  books,  walking-sticks,  the  shafts  of 
spears,  and  the  handles  of  fans  for  the 
priesthood.  The  Burmese  artists  who 
make  the  japanned  ware  of  Ava,  use 
the  hand  in  laying  on  the  lacquer — 
which  there,  too,  as  well  as  in  China, 
is  the  produce  of  a  tree,  the  Melano- 
rh<ea  fflabra  of  Wallich. 

4  Rajaratnacari,  p.  184. 

5  jMahav-anso,  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  212. 


492 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  AETS. 


[PAET  IV. 


blue1,  and  built  a  sacred  edifice  at  Anarajapoora,  which 
from  the  variety  and  brilliancy  of  the  colours  with  which 
he  ornamented  the  exterior,  was  known  as  the  Monara 
Paw  Periwana,  or  Temple  of  the  Peacock.2 


1  Rajavali,  p.  291.  The  blue  used 
for  this  purpose  was  probably  a  pre- 
paration of  indigo ;  the  red,  vermilion ; 
the  yellow,  orpiment;  and  green  was 


obtained  by  combining  the  first  and 
last. 

2  Rajavali,  p.  73. 


493 


CHAP.  vni. 

DOMESTIC     LIFE. 

CITIES.  —  Anarajapoora.  —  Striking  evidences  of  the 
state  of  civilisation  in  Ceylon  are  furnished  by  the  de- 
scriptions given,  both  by  native  writers  and  by  travellers, 
of  its  cities  as  they  appeared  prior  to  the  8th  century  of 
the  Christian  era.  The  municipal  organisation  of  Ana- 
rajapoora, in  the  reign  of  Pandukabhaya,  B.C.  437,  may 
be  gathered  from  the  notices  in  the  Mahawanso,  of  the 
"  naggaraguttiko"  who  was  conservator  of  the  city,  of  the 
"guards  stationed  in  the  suburbs,"  and  of  the  "chan- 
dalas,"  who  acted  as  scavengers  and  carriers  of  corpses. 
As  a  cemetery  was  attached  to  the  city,  interments  must 
have  frequently  taken  place,  and  the  nichi-chandalas  are 
specially  named  as  the  "  cemetery  men  ;  "  *  but  the  prac- 
tice of  cremation  prevailed  in  the  2nd  century  before 
Christ,  and  the  body  of  Elala  was  burned  on  the  spot 
where  he  feU,  B.C.  161.2 

The  capital  at  that  time  contained  the  temples  of 
numerous  religions,  besides  public  gardens,  and  baths  ; 
to  which  were  afterwards  added,  halls  for  dancing  and 
music,  ambulance  halls,  rest-houses  for  travellers 3,  alms- 
houses  4,  and  hospitals  5;  in  which  animals,  as  well  as  men, 
were  tenderly  cared  for.  The  "  corn  of  a  thousand  fields" 
was  appropriated  by  one  king  for  their  use 6 ;  another 
set  aside  rice  to  feed  the  squirrels  which  frequented  his 


1  Mahmvanso,  ch.  x.  p.  65,  66. 

2  Ibid.,  ch.  xxv.  p.  155. 

"  These  rest-houses,  like  the  Choul- 


4  Rock  inscription  at  Pollanarrua. 
A.D.  1187. 

5  Rajaratnacari,  p.  39 ;  Mahawanso, 


tries  of  India,  were  constructed  by  ch.  x.  p.  67 ;    HARDY'S  Eastern  Mo~ 

private  liberality  along  all  the  lead-  nachism,  p.  485. 

ing  highways  and  forest  roads.     "Oh  6  Mahmvanso,  ch.  Ixviii.    UPHAM'S 

that  I  had  in  the  wilderness  a  lodging-  '  version,  vol.  i.  p.  246. 

place  of  wayfaring  men."— Jer.  ix.  2.  ! 


494 


SCIENCES  AXD  SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


garden  l  ;  and  a  third  displayed  his  skill  as  a  surgeon, 
in  treating  the  diseases  of  elephants,-  horses,  and  snakes.2 
The  streets  contained  shops  and  bazaars 3 ;  and  on  festive 
occasions,  barbers  and  dressers  were  stationed  at  each 
of  the  gates,  for  the  convenience  of  those  resorting 
to  the  city.4 

The  Lankawistariyaye,  or  "  Ceylon  Illustrated,"  a 
Singhalese  work  of  the  7th  century,  gives  a  geogra- 
"phical  summary  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  the 
island,  Kohuna,  Maya,  and  Pihiti,  and  dwells  with 
obvious  satisfaction  on  the  description  of  the  capital  of 
that  period.  The  details  correspond  so  exactly  with 
another  fragment  of  a  native  author,  quoted  by  Major 
Forbes5,  that  both  seem  to  have  been  written  at  one  and 
the  same  period ;  they  each  describe  the  "  temples  and 
palaces,  whose  golden  pinnacles  glitter  in  the  sky,  the 
streets  spanned  by  arches  bearing  flags,  the  side  ways 
strewn  with  black  sand,  and  the  middle  sprinkled  with 
white,  and  on  either  side  vessels  containing  flowers,  and 
niches  with  statues  holding  lamps.  There  are  multi- 
tudes of  men  armed  with  swords,  and  bows  and  arrows. 
Elephants,  horses,  carts,  and  myriads  of  people  pass  and 
repass,  jugglers,  dancers,  and  musicians  of  all  nations, 
with  chank  shells  and  other  instruments  ornamented 
with  gold.  The  distance  from  the  principal  gate  to  the 
south  gate  is  four  gows  ;  and  the  same  from  the  north 
to  the  south  gate.  The  principal  streets  are  Moon 
Street,  Great  King  Street,  Hinguruwak,  and  MahaweEi 
Streets,  —  the  first  containing  eleven  thousand  houses, 
many  of  them  two  stories  in  height.  The  smaller 
streets  are  innumerable.  The  palace  has  large  ranges 


1  Mahmoanso,  ch.  xxxvii.  p.  249. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  244,  245. 

3  Ibid.,  eh.  xxiii.  p.  139. 

*  Ibid.,  ch.  xxviii.  p.  170;  ch. 
xxxiv.  p.  214. 

'"  Eleven  Years  in  Ceylon,  vol.  i. 
p.  235.  But  there  is  so  close  a  re- 
semblance in  each  author  to  the  de- 


scription of  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
kings  of  Ayoudhya  (Oude)  that  both 
seem  to  have  been  copied  from  that 
portion  of  the  Ramayana.  See  the 
translation  by  Carey  and  Marshman, 
vol.  i.  p.  96,  *and  the  French  version 
of  Fauche,  torn.  i.  p.  58. 


CHAP.  VIII.  J  DOMESTIC  LIFE.  495 

of  buildings,  some  of  them  two  and  three  stories  high, 
and  its  subterranean  apartments  are  of  great  extent." 

The  native  descriptions  of  Anarajapoora,  in  the  7th 
century,  are  corroborated  by  the  testimony  of  the  foreign 
travellers  who  visited  it  about  the  same  period.  Fa  Hian 
says,  "The  city  is  the  residence  of  many  magistrates, 
grandees,  and  foreign  merchants  ;  the  mansions  beautiful, 
the  public  buildings  richly  adorned,  the  streets  and  high- 
ways straight  and  level,  and  houses  for  preaching  built  at 
every  thoroughfare."  l  The  Leang-shu,  a  Chinese  history 
of  the  Leang  Dynasty,  written  between  A.D.  507  —  509, 
describing  the  cities  of  Ceylon  at  that  period,  says,  "  The 
houses  had  upper  stories,  the  walls  were  built  of  brick, 
and  secured  by  double  gates."  2 

Carriages  and  Horses. — Carriages3  and  chariots4 
are  repeatedly  mentioned  as  being  driven  through  the 
principal  cities,  and  carts  and  waggons  were  accustomed 
to  traverse  the  interior  of  the  country.5  At  the  same 
time,  the  frequent  allusions  to  the  clearing  of  roads 
through  the  forests,  on  the  approach  of  persons  of  dis- 
tinction, serve  to  show  that  the  passage  of  wheel 
carriages  must  have  been  effected  with  difficulty6,  along 
tracks  prepared  for  the  occasion,  by  freeing  them  of  the 
jungle  and  brushwood.  The  horse  is  not  a  native  of 
Ceylon,  and  those  spoken  of  by  the  ancient  writers 
must  have  been  imported  from  India  and  Arabia. 
White  horses  were  especially  prized,  and  those  men- 
tioned with  peculiar  praises  were  of  the  "Sindhawo" 
breed,  a  term  which  may  either  imply  the  place  whence 


1  Foe-koue-ki,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  334.  !  buy  ginger  and  saffron"  (Mahawatiso, 

2  Leang-shu,  B.  liv.  p.  10.  I  ch.  xxviii.  p.  167) ;  and  in  the  3rd 

3  B.C.    307,  Mahawanso,   ch.  xiv.  j  century  after  Chnst  a  wheel  chariot 
p.  80,  81 ;    B.C.  204,    Ib.,   ch.   xxi.  !  was  driven  from  the  capital  to  the 
p.  128.     A  carriage  drawn  by  four     Kalaweva  tank  twenty  miles  N.  W.  of 
horses  is  mentioned,  B.C.  161,  MaJw,-     Dambool. — Malmicanxo,  ch.  xxxviii. 
wanso,  ch.  xxxi.  p.  186.  I  p.  260.     See  ante,  Vol.  II.  p.  445. 

4  B.C.    307,    Mahawanso,   ch.   xv.         6  FORBES  suggests  that   on  such 
p.  84 ;  ch.  xvi.  p.  103.  journeys  the    carriages    must  have 

5  B.C.  161,  "  a  merchant  of  Anara-  •,   been  pushed  by  men,  as  horses  could 
japoora  proceeded  with  carts  to  the  {  not  possibly  have  drawn  them  in  the 
Malaya  division  near  Adam's  Peak  to  i  hill  country  (vol.  ii.  p.  86). 


496 


SCIENCES  AXD  SOCIAL  AETS. 


[PART  IV. 


they  were  brought,  or  the  swiftness  of  their  speed.1  In 
battle  the  soldiers  rode  chargers2,  and  a  passage  in  the 
Mahawanso  shows  that  they  managed  them  by  means  of 
a  rope  passed  through  the  nostril,  which  served  as  a 
bridle.3  Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  who  considered  the 
number  of  horses  in  Ceylon  in  the  6th  century  to  be  a 
fact  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  recorded,  adds,  that 
they  were  imported  from  Persia,  and  the  merchants 
bringing  them  were  treated  with  special  favour  and 
encouragement,  their  ships  being  exempted  from  all 
dues  and  charges.  Marco  Polo  found  the  export  of 
horses  from  Aden  and  Ormus  to  India  going  on  with 
activity  in  the  13th  century.4 

Domestic  Furniture.  —  Of  the  furniture  of  the  pri- 
vate dwellings  of  the  Singhalese,  such  notices  as  have 
come  down  to  us  serve  to  show  that  their  intercourse 
with  other  Buddhist  nations  was  not  without  its 
influence  on  their  domestic  habits.  Chairs 5,  raised 
seats G,  footstools 7,  and  metal  lamps 8,  were  articles  com- 
paratively unknown  to  the  Hindus,  and  were  obviously 
imitated  by  the  Singhalese  from  the  East,  from  China, 
Siam,  or  Pegu.9  The  custom  which  prevails  to  the 
present  day  of  covering  a  chair  with  a  white  cloth, 
as  an  act  of  courtesy  in  honour  of  a  visitor,  was  ob- 
served with  the  same  formalities  two  thousand  years 


ago. 


Eich   beds u    and   woollen    carpets 12    were    in 


1  Sighan,   swift ;    dhawa,  to  run ; 
Mahaivanso,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  142,  186. 

2  Mahawanso,   ch.   xxii.   p.    132 ; 
ch.  xxiii.  142. 

3  The  Prince  Dutugaimunu,  when 
securing  the  mare  which  afterwards 
carried  him  in  the  war  against  Elala, 
"  seized  her  by  the  throat  and  boring 
her  nostril  with   the   point  of  his 
sword,  secured  her  with  his  rope." — 
Mahawanso,  ch.  x.  p.  60. 

4  Marco    Polo,     ch.    xx.    s.    ii.  : 
ch.  xl. 

5  Mahawanso,  ch.  xiv.  p.  80 ;  ch. 
xv.  p.  84  ;  Rajaratnacari,  p.  134. 

6  Ibid.,  ch.  xiii.  p.  82. 

7  Ibid.,  xxvii.  p.  164. 


8  Mahawanso,    ch.    xxx.  p.  182 ; 
ch.  xxxii.  p.  192. 

9  Asiatic    Researches,    vol.   vi.    p. 
437.     Chairs  are  shown  on  the  sculp- 
tures of  Persepolis;  and  it  is  pro- 
bably a  remnant  of  Grecian  civilisa- 
tion in  Bactria  that  chairs  are  still 
used  by  the  mountaineers  of  Balkh 
and  Bokhara. 

10  B.C.    307,  King   Devenipiatissa 
caused  a  chair  to  be  so  prepared  for 
Mahindo. 

11  Mahawanso,  ch.  xv.  p.  84 ;  ch. 
xxiii.  p.  129.      A  four-post  bed  is 
mentioned    B.C.    180.      Mahawanso, 
ch.  xxiv.  p.  148. 

12  Ibid.,  ch.  xiv.  p.  82. 


CHAP.  VI II.] 


FOEM  OF  GOVEENMEXT. 


497 


use  at  the  same  early  period,  and  ivory  was  largely 
employed  in  inlaying  the  more  sumptuous  articles.1 
Coco-nut  shells  were  used  for  cups  and  ladles2 ;  earthen- 
ware for  jugs  and  drinking  cups3 ;  copper  for  water- 
pots,  oil-cans,  and  other  utensils;  and  iron  for  razors, 
needles,  and  nail-cutters.*  The  pingo,  formed  of  a  lath 
cut  from  the  stem  of  the  areca,  or  of  the  young  coco-nut 
palm,  and  still  used  as  a  yoke  in  carrying  burdens, 
existed  at  an  early  period5,  in  the  same  form  in  which 
it  is  borne  at  the  present  day.  It  is  identical  with  the 
asilla,  an  instrument  for  the  same  purpose  depicted  on 
works  of  Grecian  art6  and  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt. 


EGYPTIAN  YOKE. 


SINGHALESE  PINGO. 


Form  of  Government  —  The  form  of  government  was 
at  all  times  an  unmitigated  despotism ;  the  king  had  mi- 
nisters, but  only  to  relieve  him  of  personal  toil,  and  the 
institution  of  Gram-sabes,  or  village  municipalities,  which 
existed  in  every  hamlet,  however  small,  was  merely  a 
miniature  council  of  the  peasants,  in  which  they  settled 
all  disputes  about  descent  and  proprietorship,  and  main- 
tained the  organisation  essential  to  their  peculiar  tillage ; 
facilitating  at  the  same  time  the  payment  of  dues  to  the 
crown,  both  in  taxes  and  labour. 

Revenue.  —  The  main  sources  of  revenue  were  taxes, 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxvii.  p.  163. 

2  Ibid.,  ch.  xxvii.  p.  164. 
s  Ibid.,  ch.  xv.  p.  85. 

*  Rajaratnacari,  p.  134. 

s  Ibid.,  p.  103.  This  implement  is 
identical  with  the  "  yoke  '  so  often 
mentioned  in  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 


tament as  an  emblem  of  bondage  and 
labour ;  and  figured,  with  the  same 
significance,  on  Grecian  sculpture  and 
perns.  See  ante,  Vol.  I.  Pt.  I.  ch.  iii. 
p.  114. 
6  ARISTOTLE,  Khet.  i.  7. 


VOL. 


K  K 


498  SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  ARTS.  [PART  IV. 

levied  both  on  the  land  and  its  produce.  These  were 
avowedly  so  oppressive  in  amount,  that  the  merit  of 
having  reduced  or  suspended  their  assessment  was 
thought  worthy  of  being  engraved  on  rocks  by  the 
sovereigns  who  could  claim  it.  In  the  inscription  at 
the  temple  of  Dambool,  A.D.  1187,  the  king  boasts  of 
having  "  enriched  the  inhabitants  who  had  become  im- 
poverished by  inordinate  taxes,  and  made  them  opulent 
by  gifts  of  land,  cattle,  and  slaves,  by  relinquishing  the 
revenues  for  five  years,  and  restoring  inheritances, 
and  by  annual  donations  of  five  times  the  weight  of 
the  king's  person  in  gold,  precious  stones,  pearls,  and 
silver;  and  from  an  earnest  wish  that  succeeding  kings 
should  not  again  impoverish  the  inhabitants  of  Ceylon 
by  levying  excessive  imposts,  he  fixed  the  revenue  at 
a  moderate  amount,  according  to  the  fertility  of  the 
land."1 

There  was  likewise  an  imperial  tax  upon  produce,  ori- 
ginally a  tenth,  but  subject  to  frequent  variation.2  For 
instance,  in  consideration  of  the  ill-requited  toil  of  fell- 
ing the  forest  land,  in  order  to  take  a  crop  of  dry  grain, 
the  soil  being  unequal  to  sustain  continued  cultivation, 
the  same  king  seeing  that  "  those  who  laboured  with 
the  bill-hook  in  clearing  thorny  jungles,  earned  their 
livelihood  distressfully,"  ordained  that  this  chena  culti- 
vation, as  it  is  called,  should  be  for  ever  exempted  from 
taxation. 

Army  and  Navy.  —  The  military  and  naval  forces  of 
Ceylon  were  chiefly  composed  of  foreigners.  The 
genius  of  the  native  population  was  at  all  times  averse 
to  arms ;  from  the  earliest  ages,  the  soldiers  employed 
by  the  crown  were  mercenaries,  and  to  this  pecu- 
liarity may  be  traced  the  first  encouragement  given  to 
the  irruptions  of  the  Malabars.  These  were  employed 
both  on  land  and  by  sea  in  the  third  century  before 


1  TTJKNOTJR'S  Epitome,  App.  p.  95 ;  I      2  Rock  inscription  at  Pollanamia, 
M(thawanso}  ch.  xxxiv.  p.  211.  |  A.D.  1187. 


CHAP.  VIII.] 


ARMY  AND  NAVY. 


499 


Christ1 ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  eleventh  century  of  our 
era,  that  a  marine  was  organised  for  the  defence  of  the 
coast.2 

The  mode  of  raising  a  national  force  to  make  war 
against  the  invaders,  is  described  in  the  Mahawanso* ; 
the  king  issuing  commands  to  ten  warriors  to  enlist 
each  ten  men,  and  each  of  this  hundred  in  turn  to 
enrol  ten  more,  and  each  of  the  new  levy,  ten  others  ; 
until  "  the  whole  company  embodied  were  eleven 
thousand  one  hundred  and  ten." 

The  troops  consisted  of  four  classes :  the  "  riders 
on  elephants,  the  cavalry,  then  those  in  chariots,  and  the 
foot  soldiers,"4  and  this  organisation  continued  till  the 
twelfth  century.5 

Their  arms  were  "  the  five  weapons  of  war,"  swords, 
spears,  javelins,  bows,  and  arrows,  and  a  rope  with  a 
noose,  running  in  a  metal  ring  called  narachana.6  The 
archers  were  the  main  strength  of  the  army,  and  their 
skill  and  dexterity  are  subjects  of  frequent  eulogium.7 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxi.  p.  127. 

2  Ibid.,    ch.    xxxix. ;    TURNOUT'S 
MS.  Transl.  p.  269. 

s  Ibid.,  ch.  xxiii.  p.  144. 

4  Rajavali,  p.  208.     The  use  of  ele- 
phants in  war  is  frequently  adverted 
to  in  the  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxv.  p. 
151-155,  &c. 

5  See  the  inscription  on  the  tablet 
at  Pollanarrua,  A.D.  1187. 

6  Mahawanso,  ch,  vii.  48 ;  ch.  xxv. 
p.  155. 

7  One  of  the  chiefs  in  the  army  of 
Dutugaimunu,  B.C.  160,  is  described 
as  combining  all  the  excellences  of  the 
craft,  being  at  once  a  "sound  archer," 
who  shot  by  ear,  when  his  object  was 
out  of  sight;  "a  lightning  archer," 
whose    arrow    was    as    rapid  as   a 
thunderbolt;  and  a  "sand-archer," 
who  could  send  the  shaft  through 
a  cart  filled  with  sand  and  through 
hides  an  hundred-fold  thick." — Ma- 
hawanso, ch.  xxiii.  p.  143.     In  one  of 
the  legends  connected  with  the  early 
life  of  Gotama,  before  he  attained  the 
exaltation  of  Buddhahood,  he  is  re- 


presented as  displaying  his  strength 
by  taking  "a  bow  which  required 
a  thousand  men  to  bend  it,  and 
placing  it  against  the  toe  of  his  right 
foot  without  standing  up,  he  drew 
the  string  with  his  finger-nail." — 
HARDY'S  Manual  of  Buddhism,  ch. 
vii.  p.  153.  It  is  remarkable  that 
at  the  present  day  this  is  the  atti- 
tude assumed  by  a  Veddah,  when 
anxious  to  send  an  arrow  with  more 
than  ordinary  force.  The  following 
sketch  is  from  a  model  in  ebony 
executed  by  a  native  carver. 


VEDDAH  DRAWING    E1S    B>JW. 

I  am  not  aware  that  examples  of 
this  mode  of  drawing  the  bow  are  to 


500 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


The  Eajaratnacari  states  that  the  arrows  of  the 
Malabars  were  sometimes  "  drenched  with  the  poison 
of  serpents,"  to  render  recovery  impossible.1  Against 
such  weapons  the  Singhalese  carried  shields,  some  of 
them  covered  with  plates  of  the  chank  shell2 ;  this  shell 
was  also  sounded  in  lieu  of  a  trumpet3,  'and  the  disgrace 
of  retreat  is  implied  by  the  expression  that  it  ill  becomes 
a  soldier  to  "  allow  his  hair  to  fly  behind"* 

Civil  Justice.  —  Civil  justice  was  entrusted  to  pro- 
vincial judges5 ;  but  the  King  Kirti  Nissanga,  in  the 
great  tablet  inscribed  with  his  exploits,  which  still 
exists  at  Pollanarrua,  has  recorded  that  under  the 
belief  that  "robbers  commit  their  crimes  through 
hunger  for  wealth,  he  gave  them  whatever  riches  they 
required,  thus  relieving  the  country  from  the  alarm  of 
their  depredations."6  Torture  was  originally  recognised 
as  a  stage  in  the  administration  of  the  law,  and  in  the 
original  organisation  of  the  capital  in  the  fourth  century 
before  Christ,  a  place  for  its  infliction  was  established  ad- 
joining the  place  of  execution  and  the  cemetery.7  It  was 
abolished  in  the  third  century  by  King  Wairatissa;  but 
the  frightful  punishments  of  impaling  and  crushing  by 
elephants  continued  to  the  latest  period  of  the  Ceylon 
monarchy. 


be  found  on  any  ancient  monument, 
Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Grecian,  or  Ro- 
man ;  but  that  it  was  regarded  as 
peculiar  to  the  inhabitants  of  India 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  ARRIAN 
describes  it  as  something  remark- 
able in  the  Indians  in  the  age  of 
Alexander.  "  'O7rXi<rtoc  Si  TTJS  'Iv£wv 
OVK  wvrog  flf  rpoTrof,  a\\'  ol  ftiv 
irt&i  avroiffi  TO£OV  rt  EXOVOIV,  ItrofiriKig 
rtf  (poptovn  TO  ro£ov,  icai  TOVTO  tcdriit 
firl  rrjv  yijv  fevrif  icai  T(f  irodi  r<£ 
apiartpy  avTifidvTfe,  ovrwg  tKrofrvovot, 
Tt}v  vtvpijv  ttri  fi'tya  oTrlffto  cnr ay ay 6v- 

rtg" — ARRIAN,  Indica,  lib.  xvi.  Ar- 
rian  adds  that  such  was  the  force 
with  which  their  arrows  travelled 
that  no  substance  was  strong  enough 


to  resist  them,  neither  shield,  breast- 
plate, nor  armour,  all  of  which  they 
penetrated.  In  the  account  of  Brazil, 
by  Kidder  and  Fletcher,  Philad. 
1856,  p.  558,  the  Indians  of  the  Ama- 
zon are  said  to  draw  the  bow  with 
the  foot,  and  a  figure  is  given  of  a 
Caboclo  archer  in  the  attitude;  but, 
unlike  the  Veddah  of  Ceylon,  the 
American  uses  both  feet. 

1  Rajaratnacari,  p.  101. 

2  Rajavali,  p.  217. 

8  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxv.  p.  154. 

4  Rajavali,  p.  213. 

5  Inscriptions  on  the  Great  Tablet 
at  Pollanaxrua. 

6  Ibid. 

1  Mahawanso,  ch.  x.  p.  66. 


501 


CHAP.   IX. 

ASTKONOMY,   ETC. 

EDUCATION. — As  the  Brahmans  had  been  the  first  to  in- 
troduce the  practice  of  the  mechanical  arts,  so  they  were 
also  the  earliest  instructors  of  youth  in  the  rudiments  of 
general  knowledge.  Pandukabhaya,  who  was  afterwards 
king,  was  "  educated  in  every  accomplishment  by  Pandulo, 
a  Brahman,  who  taught  him  along  with  his  own  son."1  The 
Buddhist  priests  became  afterwards  the  national  instructors, 
and  a  passage  in  the  Rajavali  seems  to  imply  that  writing 
was  regarded  as  one  of  the  distinctive  accomplishments 
of  the  priesthood,  not  often  possessed  by  the  laity,  as  it 
mentions  that  the  brother  of  the  king  of  Kalany,  in  the 
second  century  before  Christ,  had  been  taught  to  write 
by  a  tirunansi,  "  and  made  such  progress  that  he  could 
write  as  well  as  the  tirunansi  himself."2  The  story  in 
the  Rajavali  of  an  intrigue  which  was  discovered  by 
"  the  sound  of  the  fall  of  a  letter,"  shows  that  the  mate- 
rial then  in  use  in  the  second  century  before  Christ,  was 
the  same  as  at  the  present  day,  the  prepared  leaf  of  a  palm 
tree.3 

The  most  popular  sovereigns  were  likewise  the  most 
sedulous  patrons  of  learning.  Prakrama  I.  founded 
schools  at  Pollanarrua 4 ;  and  it  is  mentioned  with  due 
praise  in  the  Rajaratnacari,  that  the  King  Wijayo  Bahu 
III.,  who  reigned  at  Dambedenia,  A.D.  1240,  "  esta- 
blished a  school  in  every  village,  and  charged  the  priests 
who  superintended  them  to  take  nothing  from  the  pupils. 


1  Mahawanso,  ch.  x.  p.  GO. 

2  Rajavali,  p.  189. 


4  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxii.     UPHAM'S 
version,  vol.  i.  p.  274. 


502  SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  ARTS.  [PART  IV. 

promising  that  lie  himself  would  reward  them  for  their 
trouble." 1 

Amongst  the  propagators  of  a  religion  whose  lead- 
ing characteristics  are  its  subtlety  and  abstractions,  it 
may  naturally  be  inferred  that  argument  and  casuistry 
held  a  prominent  place  in  the  curriculum  of  instruction. 
In  the  story  of  Mahindo,  and  the  conversion  of  the  island 
to  Buddhism,  the  following  display  of  logical  acumen  is 
ostentatiously  paraded  as  evidence  of  the  highly  cultivated 
intellect  of  the  neophyte  king.2 

For  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  capacity  of  the  gifted 
monarch,  Mahindo  thus  interrogated  him : — 

"  0  king ;  what  is  this  tree  called  ? 

"TheAmbo. 

"  Besides  this  one,  is  there  any  other  Ambo-tree  ? 

"  There  are  many. 

"  Besides  this  Arnbo,  and  those  other  Ambo-trees,  are 
there  any  other  trees  on  the  earth  ? 

"  Lord ;  there  are  many  trees,  but  they  are  not  Ambo- 
trees. 

"  Besides  the  other  Ambo-trees,  and  the  trees  that  are 
not  Ambo,  is  there  any  other  ? 

"  Gracious  Lord,  this  Ambo-tree. 

"  Euler  of  men,  thou  art  wise ! 

"  Hast  thou  any  relations,  oh,  king  ? 

"  Lord,  I  have  many. 

"  King,  are  there  any  persons  not  thy  relations  ? 

"  There  are  many  who  are  not  my  relations. 

"  Besides  thy  relations,  and  those  who  are  not  thy  rela- 
tions, is  there,  or  is  there  not,  any  other  human  being  in 
existence  ? 

"  Lord,  there  is  myself. 

"  Euler  of  men,  Sadhu !  thou  art  wise." 

The  course  of  education  suitable  for  a  prince  in  the 
thirteenth  century  included  what  was  technically  termed 
the  eighteen  sciences :  "1.  oratory,  2.  general  know- 


1  Rajaratnacari,  p.  99.  z  Mahawanso,  ch.  xiv.  p.  79. 


CHAP.  IX.] 


ASTRONOMY. 


503 


ledge,  3.  grammar,  4.  poetry,  5.  languages,  6.  astro- 
nomy, 7.  the  art  of  giving  counsel,  8.  the  means  of 
attaining  nirwana l,  9.  the  discrimination  of  good  and  evil, 
10.  shooting  with  the  bow,  11.  management  of  the  ele- 
phant, 12.  penetration  of  thoughts,  13.  discernment  of 
invisible  beings,  14.  etymology,  15.  history,  16.  law,  17. 
rhetoric,  18.  physic."  2 

Astronomy. — Although  the  Singhalese  derived  from  the 
Hindus  their  acquaintance,  such  as  it  was,  with  the 
heavenly  bodies  and  their  movements,  together  with  their 
method  of  taking  observations,  and  calculating  eclipses  3, 
yet  in  this  list  the  term  "  astrology "  would  describe 
better  than  "  astronomy "  the  science  practically  cul- 
tivated in  Ceylon,  which  then,  as  now,  had  its  professors 
in  every  village  to  construct  horoscopes,  and  cast  the 
nativities  of  the  peasantry.  Dutugaimunu,  in  the 
second  century  before  Christ,  after  his  victory  over 
Elala,  commended  himself  to  his  new  subjects  by  his 
fatherly  care  in  providing  "  a  doctor,  an  astronomer, 
and  a  priest,  for  each  group  of  sixteen  villages  through- 
out the  kingdom ; " 4  and  he  availed  himself  of  the 
services  of  the  astrologer  to  name  the  proper  day  of  the 
moon  on  which  to  lay  the  foundation  of  his  great  religious 
structures.5 

King  Bujas  Eaja,A.D.  339,  increased  his  claim  to  popular 
acknowledgment  by  adding  "  an  astrologer,  a  devil-dancer, 
and  a  preacher."6  At  the. present  day  the  astronomical 
treatises  possessed  by  the  Singhalese  are,  generally  speak- 
ing, borrowed,  but  with  considerable  variation,  from  the 
Sanskrit.7 


1  a  NirWana  "  is  the  state  of  sus- 
pended sensation,  which  constitutes 
the  eternal  bliss  of  the  Buddhist  in 
a  future  state. 

2  Rdjaratnacari,  p.  100. 

3  A  summary  01  the  knowledge 
possessed  by  the   early  Hindus   of 
astronomy   and   mathematical  science 
will  be  found  in  MOUNTSIITART  EL- 


PHINSTOKE'S  History  of  India  during 
the  Hindu  and  Mahomedan  Periods, 
book  iii.  ch.  i.  p.  127. 

4  Rajaratnacari,  p.  40. 

5  Mahaivanso,  ch.  xxix.   p.  169 — 

6  TtTBJfOun's  Epitome,  p.  27. 

7  HABBY'S  Buddhism,  ch.  i.  p.  22. 


K  K  4 


504 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PART  IV 


Medicine. — Another  branch  of  royal  education  was 
medicine.  The  Singhalese,  from  their  intercourse  with 
the  Hindus,  had  ample  opportunities  for  acquiring  a  know- 
ledge of  this  art,  which  was  practised  in  India  before  it 
was  known  either  in  Persia  or  Arabia  ;  and  there  is  rea- 
son to  believe  that  the  distinction  of  having  been  the 
discoverers  of  chemistry  which  has  been  so  long 
awarded  to  the  Arabs,  might  with  greater  justice  have 
been  claimed  for  the  Hindus.  In  point  of  antiquity  the 
works  of  Charak  and  Susruta  on  Surgery  and  Materia 
Medica,  belong  to  a  period  long  anterior  to  Geber,  and 
the  earliest  writers  of  Arabia ;  and  served  as  authorities 
both  for  them  and  the  Mediaeval  Greeks.1  Such  was  their 
celebrity  that  two  Hindu  physicians,  Manek  and  Saleh, 
lived  at  Bagdad  in  the  eighth  century,  at  the  court  of 
Haroun  al  Kaschid.2 

One  of  the  edicts  of  Asoka  engraved  on  the  second 
tablet  at  Girnar,  relates  to  the  establishment  of  a 
system  of  medical  administration  throughout  his  do- 
minions, "  as  well  as  in  the  parts  occupied  by  the 
faithful  race  as  far  as  Tambaparni  (Ceylon),  both 
medical  aid  for  men,  and  medical  aid  for  animals,  toge- 
ther with  medicaments  of  all  sorts,  suitable  for  animals 
and  men."  3 

These  injunctions  of  the  Buddhist  sovereign  of 
Magadha  were  religiously  observed  by  many  of  the 
kings  of  Ceylon.  In  the  "  register  of  deeds  of  piety  "  in 
which  Dutugaimunu,  in  the  second  century  before  Christ, 
caused  to  be  enrolled  the  numerous  proofs  of  his  de- 
votion to  the  welfare  of  his  subjects,  it  was  recorded 
that  the  king  had  "maintained  at  eighteen  different 
places,  hospitals  provided  with  suitable  diet  and  medi- 
cines prepared  by  medical  practitioners  for  the  infirm."  4 
In  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  a  physician 


1  See  Dr.  BOYLE'S  Essay  on   the 
Antiquity  of  Hindu  Medicine,  p.  64. 

2  Professor  Dietz,  quoted  by  Dr. 
ROYLE. 


3  Journal  Asiat.  Soc.  Benyal,  vol. 
vii.  part.  i.  p.  159. 

4  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxxii.  p.  100. 


CHAP.  IX.]  BOTANY.  505 

and  a  surgeon  were  borne  on  the  establishments  of  the 
great  monasteries1,  and  even  some  of  the  sovereigns 
acquired  renown  by  the  study  and  practice  of  physic. 
On  Bujas  Eaja,  who  became  king  of  Ceylon,  A.D.  339, 
the  Mahawanso  pronounces  the  eulogium,  that  he  "  pa- 
tronised the  virtuous,  discountenanced  the  wicked,  ren- 
dered the  indigent  happy,  and  comforted  the  diseased 
by  providing  medical  relief."  2  He  was  the  author  of  a 
work  on  Surgery,  which  is  still  held  in  repute  by  his 
countrymen;  he  built  hospitals  for  the  sick  and  asylums 
for  the  maimed,  and  the  benefit  of  his  science  and  skill 
was  not  confined  to  his  subjects  alone,  but  was  equally 
extended  to  the  relief  of  the  lower  animals,  elephants, 
horses,  and  other  suffering  creatures. 

Botany. —  The  fact  that  the  basis  of  their  Materia 
Medica  has  been  chiefly  derived  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, coupled  with  the  circumstance  that  their  clothing 
and  food  were  both  drawn  from  the  same  source,  may 
have  served  to  give  to  the  Singhalese  an  early  and 
intimate  knowledge  of  plants.  It  was  at  one  time 
believed  that  they  were  likewise  possessed  of  a  com- 
plete and  general  botanical  arrangement;  but  MOON, 
whose  attention  was  closely  directed  to  this  subject, 
failed  to  discover  any  trace  of  a  system ;  and  came 
to  the  conclusion  that,  although  well  aware  of  the 
various  parts  of  a  flower,  and  their  apparent  uses,  they 
never  applied  that  knowledge  to  a  distribution  of  plants 
by  classes  or  orders.3 

Geometry.  —  The  invention  of  geometry  has  been 
ascribed  to  the  Egyptians,  who  were  annually  obliged  to 
ascertain  the  extent  to  which  their  lands  had  been 
affected  by  the  inundations  of  the  Nile,  and  to  renew 
the  obliterated  boundaries.  A  similar  necessity  led 
to  a  like  proficiency  amongst  the  people  of  India  and 


1  Rock   inscription   at    Mihintala,  !       3  MOON'S   Catalogue  of  Indigenous 
and  Exotic  Plants  growing  in  Ceylon. 


>.  262. 

2  Mahawanso.  cb.  xxxvii.  p.  242- 


245. 


4to.  Colombo,  1824,  p.  2. 


506 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  AKTS. 


[PART  IV. 


Ceylon,  the  minute  subdivision  of  whose  lands  under 
their  system  of  irrigation  necessitated  frequent  calcula- 
tions for  the  definition  of  limits  and  the  division  of  the 
crops.1 

Lightning  Conductors.  —  In  connection  with  physical 
science,  a  curious  passage  occurs  in  the  Mahawanso  which 
gives  rise  to  a  conjecture  that  early  in  the  third  century 
after  Christ,  the  Singhalese  had  some  dim  idea  of  the 
electrical  nature  of  lightning,  and  a  belief,  however  erro- 
neous, of  the  possibility  of  protecting  their  buildings  by 
means  of  conductors. 

The  notices  contained  in  THEOPHEASTUS  and  PLINY 
show  that  the  Greeks  and  the  Eomans  were  aware  of  the 
quality  of  attraction  exhibited  by  amber  and  tourmaline.2 
The  Etruscans,  according  to  the  early  annalists  of 
Eome,  possessed  the  power  of  invoking  and  compelling 
thunder  storms.3  Numa  Pompihus  would  appear  to 
have  anticipated  Franklin  by  drawing  lightning  from 
the  clouds  ;  and  Tullus  Hostilius,  his  successor,  was  killed 
by  an  explosion,  whilst  unskilfully  attempting  the  same 
experiment.4 

CTESIAS,  a  contemporary  of  Xenophon,  spent  much 
of  his  life  in  Persia,  and  says  that  he  twice  saw  the 
king  demonstrate  the  efficacy  of  an  iron  sword  planted 
in  the  ground  in  dispersing  clouds,  hail,  and  lightning 5 ; 


1  The  "  Suriya  Sidhanta"  gene- 
rally assigned  to  the  fifth  or  sixth 
century,  contains  a  system  of  Hindu 
trigonometry,  which*  not  only  goes 
beyond  anything  known  to  the 
Greeks,  but  involves  theorems  that 
were  not  discovered  in  Europe  till 
the  sixteenth  century.  —  MOTJNT- 
SXTJART  ELPHINSTONE'S  India,  b.  iii. 
ch.  i.  p.  129. 

2_The  electrical  substances  "lyn- 
curium  "  and  "  theamedes  "  have  each 
been  conjectured  to  be  the  "tourma- 
line" which  is  found  in  Ceylon. 

3  "  Vel  cogi  fulmina  vel  impetrari." 
— PLINY,  Nat.  Hist.  lib.  ii.  ch.  Iii. 

4  Ibid.      There  is   an    interesting 


paper  on  the  subject  of  the  knowledge 
of  electricity  possessed  by  the  an- 
cients, by  Dr.  FALCONER  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Manchester  Philo- 
sophical Society,  A.D.  1788,  vol.  iii. 
p.  279. 

5  PHOTITTS,  who  has  preserved  the 
fragment  (£ibl.  Ixxii.),  after  quoting 
the  story  of  CXESIAS  as  to  the  iron  in 
question  being  found  in  a  mysterious 
Indian  lake,  adds,  regarding  the 
SWOrd,  "  (fiijffl  St  irtfjl  O.VTOV  art  Trriyvv- 
pivng  iv  ry  yrj  t'tfyovG  Kai  ^aXd^r/f  Kid 
TrpriffTijpwv  iffriv  cnroTpoiraioQ.  K«l 
IStlv  avTOV  ravra  (jirirrl  Paai\ew<£  dig 
Troir'iffavTOC."  See  BAEITR' 

Reliquia;  "&c.,  p.  248,271. 


CUAP.  IX.] 


LIGHTNING   CONDUCTOES. 


507 


and  the  knowledge  of  conduction  is  implied  by  an  ex- 
pression of  LUCAN,  who  makes  Aruns,  the  Etrurian  flamen, 
concentrate  the  flashes  of  lightning  and  direct  them 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth  :  — 

"  disperses  fulminis  ignes 
Colligit.  et  terrae  moesto  cum  murmure  cendit." 

Phars.  lib.  i.  v.  606. 

There  is  scarcely  an  indication  in  any  work  that  has 
come  down  to  us  from  the  first  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, that  the  knowledge  of  such  phenomena  survived 
in  the  western  world ;  but  the  books  of  the  Singhalese 
contain  allusions  which  demonstrate  that  in  the  third 
and  in  the  fifth  century  it  was  the  practice  in  Ceylon 
to  apply  mechanical  devices  with  the  hope  of  protecting 
edifices  from  lightning. 

The  most  remarkable  of  these  passages  occurs  in 
connection  with  the  following  subject.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  Dutugaimunu,  by  whom  the  great 
dagoba,  known  as  the  Kuanwelle,  was  built  at  Anara- 
japoora,  died  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  B.  c.  137, 
the  completion  of  which  he  entrusted  to  his  brother  and 
successor  Saidatissa. r  The  latest  act  of  the  dying 
king  was  to  form  "the  square  capital  on  which  the 
spire  was  afterwards  to  be  placed 2,  and  on  each  side  of 
this  there  was  a  representation  of  the  sun."  3  The  Ma- 
hawanso  states  briefly,  that  in  obedience  to  his  deceased 
brother's  wishes,  Saidatissa,  his  successor,  "  completed 
the  pinnacle,"  4  for  which  the  square  capital  before  alluded 
to  served  as  a  base;  —  but  the  Dipawanso,  a  chronicle 
older  than  the  Mahawanso  by  a  century  and  a  half, 
gives  a  minuter  account  of  this  stage  of  the  work,  and  says 
that  this  pinnacle,  which  Saidatissa  erected  between  the 
years  137  and  119  before  Christ,  was  formed  of  glass.5 


1  Mahaicanso,   ch.    xxxii.   p.   198. 
See  ante,  Vol.  I.  Pt.  m.  ch.  v.  p.  358. 

2  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxi.  p.  192. 

3  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxii.  p.  193. 

4  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxiii.  p.  200. 


5  "Karapesi  khara-pindan  malm 
thupe  varuttame."  For  this  refer- 
ence to  the  Dipaicanso  I  am  indebted 
to  Mr.  DE  ALWIS  of  Colombo. 


508 


SCIENCES  AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


A  subsequent  king,  Amanda,  A.D.  20,  fixed  on  the 
spire  a  chatta  (in  imitation  of  the  white  umbrella,  em- 
blematic of  royalty)1,  and  two  centuries  later,  San- 
ghatissa,  who  reigned  A.D.  234  to  246,  "caused  this 
chatta  to  be  gilt,  and  set  four  gems  in  the  centre  of  the 
four  emblems  of  the  sun,  each  of  which  cost  a  lac." 2 
And  now  follows  the  passage  which  is  interesting  from 
its  reference,  however  obscure,  to  the  electrical  nature  of 
lightning.  The  Mahawanso  continues :  "  he  in  like  man- 
ner placed  a  glass  pinnacle  on  the  spire  to  serve  a$  a 
protection  against  lightning."  3 

The  term  "  wajira-chumbatan  "  in  the  original  Pah, 
which  TURNOUR  has  here  rendered  "a  glass  pinnacle," 
ought  to  be  translated  "  a  diamond  hoop,"  both  in  this 
passage  and  in  another  in  the  same  book  in  which 
it  occurs.4  The  form  assumed  by  the  upper  portion  of 
the  dagoba  would  therefore  resemble  the  annexed  sketch. 


1  Mahaivanso,  ch.  xxxv.  p.  215. 

2  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxvi.  p.  229. 

3  Ibid.,  ch.  xxxvi.  p.  229.  This  be- 
lief in  the  power  of  averting  light- 
ning by  mechanical  means,  prevailed 
on  the  continent  of  India  as  well  as 
in  Ceylon,  and  one  of  the  early  Ben- 
galese  histories  of  the  temple  of  Jug- 
gernauth,  written  between  the  years 
A.D.  470  and  A.D.  520,  says  thatwhen 
the  building  was  completed,  "  a  ncel- 
chukro  was  placed  at  the  top  of  the 
temple    to    prevent    the    falling  of 
thunderbolts."     In  an  account  of  the 
modern  temple  which  replaced  this 

•ancient  structure,  it  is  stated  that 
"  it  bore  a  loadstone  at  the  top,  which, 
as  it  drew  vessels  to  land,  was  seized 
and  carried  off  two  centuries  ago  by 
sailors." — Asiat.  Res.  vol.  xv.  p.  327. 

4  In  describing  the  events  in  the 
reign   of   Dhatu-Sena,  the  king  at 
whose  instance  and  during  whose  reign, 
the  Mahawanso  was  written  by  his 
uncle  Mahanamo,  between  the  years 
A.D.  459,  477,  the  author,  who  was 
contemporary  with  the  occurrence  he 
relates,  says,  that  "  at  the  three  prin- 
cipal chetyas  (dagobas^)  he  made  a 
golden  chatta  and  a  diamond  hoop 
(loajira-chumbataii)  for  each." — Ma- 


hawanso, ch.  xxxviii.  p.  259.  Similar 
instances  of  gems  being  attached  to 
the  chattas  of  dagobas  are  recorded 
in  the  same  work,  ch.  xlii.  and  else- 
where. 

The  original  passage  relative  to 
the  diamond  hoop  placed  by  Sangha- 
tissaruns  thus  in  Pali,  "  Wisun  sata- 
sahassagghe  chaturocha  mahamanin 
majjhe  chatunnan  suriyanan  thapa- 
pe"si  mahipati ;  thupassa  muddhani 
tatha  anagghdn  wajira-chumbat(utj"' 
which  Mr.  DE  ALWIS  translates  : 
"  The  king  caused  to  be  set  four 
gems,  each  of  the  value  of  a  lac,  in 
the  centre  of  the  four  emblems  of  the 
sun,  and  likewise  an  invaluable  ada- 
mantine (or  diamond)  ring  on  the  top 
of  the  thupa  (the  shrine)."  Some  diffi- 
culty existed  in  TURN  OUR' s  mind  as  to 
the  rendering  to  be  given  to  these  two 
last  words  "  wajira-chionbaffiti.''  Prof. 
H.  H.  WILSON,  to  whom  I  have  sub- 
mitted the  sentence,  says,  "  TT'c/yV/v/ 
is  either  '  diamond/  or  (  adamant,'  or 
'  the  thunderbolt  of  Indra ; '"  and  with 
him  the  most  learned  Pali  scholars  in 
Ceylon  entirely  concur ;  DE  SARAM, 
the  Maha-Moodliar  of  the  Governor's 
Gate,  the  Eev.  Mr.  GOGERLY,  Mr.  DE 
AI/VVIS,  PEPOLE  the  High  Priest  of 


CHAP.  IX.] 


LIGHTNING   CONDUCTORS. 


The  chief  interest  of  the  story  centres  in  the  words 
"  to  serve  as  a  protection 
against  lightning"  which  do 
not  belong  to  the  metrical 
text  of  the  Mahawanso,  but 
are  taken  from  the  expla- 
natory notes  appended  to  it. 
I  have  stated  elsewhere,  that 
it  was  the  practice  of  authors 
who  wrote  in  Pah  verse,  to 
attach  to  the  text  a  com- 
mentary in  prose,  in  order  -• 
to  illustrate  the  obscurities  *•  grown  of  the  Dagoba. 

B.  The  capital,  with  the  sun  on  each  of  the 

incident   to   the    obligations  c  ThfeusrPiree8' 

Of        rhythm.         In        this       in-  i  T^^ 


the  Asgiria  (who  was  TURXOUR'S 
instructor  in  Pali),  WATTEGAMINE 
UNXANSE  of  Kandy,  BULLETGAMONE 
UNNANSE  of  Galle,  BATTJWANTTJDAWE, 
of  Colombo,  and  DE  SoYZA,the  trans- 
lator Moodliar  to  the  Colonial  Secre- 
tary's Office.  Mr.  DE  ALWIS  says, 
"  I1  he  epithet  anagghan,  '  invaluable ' 
or  '  priceless,'  immediately  preceding 
and  qualifying  wajira  in  the  original 
(but  omitted  by  Tumour  in  the 
translation),  shows  that  a  substance 
far  more  valuable  than  glass  must 
have  been  meant."  "  Chumbatan," 
Prof.  WILSON  supposed  to  be  the  Pali 
equivalent  to  the  Sanskrit  chumbakam, 
"  the  kisser  or  attractor  of  steel ; "  the 
question,  he  says,  is  whether  wajira 
is  to  be  considered  an  adjective  or 
part  of  a  compound  substantive, 
whether  the  phrase  is  a  diamond- 
magnet  pinnacle,  or  conductor,  or  a 
conductor  or  attractor  of  the  thunder- 
bolt. In  the  latter  case  it  would 
intimate  that  the  Singhalese  had  a  no- 
tion of  lightning  conductors.  Mr.  DE 
ALWIS,  however,  and  Mr.  GOGERLY 
agree  that  chumbafca  is  the  same  both 
in  Sanskrit  and  Pali,  whilst  chumbato 
is  a  Pali  compound,  which  means  a 
circular  prop  or  support,  a  ring  on 
which  something  rests,  or  a  roll  of 
cloth  formed  into  a  circle  to  form  a 


stand  for  a  vessel ;  so  that  the  term 
must  be  construed  to  mean  a  diamond 
circlet,  and  the  passage,  transposing 
the  order  of  the  words,  will  read 
literally  thus : 

thapapesi         tatha       muddhani        thupassa 
he  placed  in  like  manner  on  the  top  of  the  thupo 

anagghan    wajira-chumbatan. 

a  valuable  diamond        hoop. 

TTJRNOTJR  wrote  his  translation  whilst 
residing  at  Kandy  and  with  the  aid 
of  the  priests,  who  being  ignorant  of 
English  could  only  assist  him  to 
Singhalese  equivalents  for  Pali  words. 
Hence  he  was  probably  led  into  the 
mistake  of  confounding  icajira,  which 
signifies  "diamond,"  or  an  instrument 
for  cutting  diamonds,  with  the  modern 
word  widura,  which  bears  the  same 
import  but  is  colloquially  used  by 
the  Kandyans  for  "glass."  However, 
as  glass  as  weD  as  the  diamond  is  an 
insulator  of  electricity,  the  force  of 
the  passage  would  be  in  no  degree 
altered  whichever  of  the  two  sub- 
stances was  really  particularised. 
TCRNOTTR  was  equally  uncertain  as 
to  the  meaning  of  chumbatan,  which 
in  one  instance  he  has  translated  a 
"  pinnacle,"  and  has  left  in  the  other 
without  any  English  equivalent,  sim- 
ply calling  "wajira-chumbatan"  a 
"  chumbatan  of  glass." — Mahawanso, 
ch.  xxxviii.  p.  259. 


510  SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  ARTS.  [PART  IV. 

stance,  the  historian,  who  was  the  kinsman  and  intimate 
friend  of  the  king,  by  whose  order  the  glass  pinnacle 
was  raised  in  the  fifth  century,  probably  felt  that 
the  stanza  descriptive  of  the  placing  of  the  first  of 
those  costly  instruments  in  the  reign  of  Sanghatissa, 
required  some  elucidation,  and  therefore  inserted  a 
passage  in  the  "  tika,"  by  which  his  poem  was  accom- 
panied, to  explain  that  the  motive  of  its  erection  was 
"  for  the  purpose  of  averting  the  dangers  of  lightning"  1 

The  two  passages,  taken  in  conjunction,  leave  no 
room  for  doubt  that  the  object  in  placing  the  diamond 
hoop  on  the  dagoba,  was  to  turn  aside  the  stroke  of  the 
thunderbolt.  But  the  question  still  remains,  whether,  at 
that  very  early  period,  the  people  of  Ceylon  had  a  con- 
ception, (however  crude  and  erroneous,)  of  the  nature 
of  electricity,  and  the  relative  powers  of  conducting  and 
non-conducting  bodies,  such  as  would  induce  them  to  place 
a  mistaken  reliance  upon  the  contrivance  described,  as 
being  calculated  to  ensure  their  personal  safety ;  or  whe- 
ther, as  religious  devotees,  they  presented  it  as  a  costly 
offering  to  propitiate  the  mysterious  power  that  con- 
trols the  elements.  The  thing  affixed  was  however  so 
insignificant  in  value,  compared  with  the  stupendous 
edifice  to  be  protected,  that  the  latter  supposition  is 
scarcely  tenable : — the  dagoba  itself  was  an  offering,  on 
the  construction  of  which  the  wealth  of  a  kingdom  had 
been  lavished  ;  besides  which  it  enshrined  the  holiest  of 
all  conceivable  objects  —  portions  of  the  deified  body  of 
Gotama  Buddha  himself ; ,  and  if  these  were  not  already 


1  The  explanatory  sentence  in  the 
"tika  "is  as  follows: 

"Thupassa  muddhani  tatha  naggha 
wajira-chumbatanti  tathewe  maha 
thupassa  muddhani  satasahasaggha 
nikan  maha  manincha  patitha  petwa 
tassahetta  asani  upaddawa  widdhansa 
natthan  adhara  walavamewa  katwa 
anaggha  wajira-chumbatancha  puje- 
seti  atho." 


follows,  "  In  like  manner  having 
placed  a  large  gem,  of  a  lac  in  value, 
on  the  top  of  the  great  thupa,  he 
fixed  below  it,  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
stroying the  dangers  of  I  it/ ht  unit/,  an 
invaluable  diamond  chumbatan,  hav- 
ing made  it  like  a  supporting  ring  or 
circular  rest."  Words  equivalent  to 
those  in  italics,  Mr.  TUKXOTJK  em- 
bodied in  his  translation,  but  placed 


Mr.  DE  SARAM  and  Mr.  DE  ALWIS  I  them  between    brackets    to  denote 
concur  in  translating  this  passage  as  I  that  they  were  a  quotation. 


CHAP.  IX.]  LIGHTNING  CONDUCTOR.  511 

secured  from  the  perils  of  lightning  by  their  innate 
sanctity,  their  safety  could  scarcely  be  enhanced  by  the 
addition  of  a  diamond  hoop. 

The  conjecture  is,  therefore,  forced  on  us,  that  the 
Singhalese,  in  that  remote  era,  had  observed  some  phy- 
sical facts,  (or  learned  their  existence  from  others,)  which 
suggested  the  idea  that  it  might  be  practicable,  by  some 
mechanical  device,  to  ward  off  the  danger  of  lightning. 
It  is  just  possible  that  having  ascertained  that  glass 
or  precious  stones  acted  as  insulators  of  electricity,  it 
may  have  occurred  to  them  that  one  or  both  might  be 
employed  as  preservative  charms.  Modern  science  is 
enabled  promptly  to  condemn  this  reasoning,  and  to 
pronounce  that  the  expedient,  so  far  from  averting,  would 
fearfully  add  to  the  peril.  But  in  the  infancy  of  inquiry 
the  observation  of  effects  precedes  the  comprehension  of 
causes,  and  whilst  it  is  obvious  that  nothing  attained  by 
the  Singhalese  in  the  third  century  anticipated  the  great 
discoveries  relative  to  the  electric  nature  of  lightning, 
which  were  not  announced  till  the  seventeenth  or 
eighteenth,  we  cannot  but  feel  that  the  contrivance 
described  in  the  Mahawanso  was  one  likely  to  originate 
amongst  an  ill-informed  people,  who  had  witnessed 
certain  phenomena  the  sources  of  which  they  were  un- 
able to  trace,  and  from  which  they  were  incapable  of 
deducing  any  accurate  conclusions. 1 


1  I  have  been  told  that  within  a 
comparatively  recent  period  it  was 
customary  in  this  country,  from  some 
motive  not  altogether  apparent,  to 


surmount  the  lightning  conductors 
of  the  Admiralty  and  some  other 
Government  buildings  with  a  glass 
summit. 


512 


SCIENCES  AND  SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


CHAP.    X. 


SINGHALESE    LITERATURE. 

THE  literature  of  the  ancient  Singhalese  derived  its 
character  from  the  hierarchic  ascendancy,  which  was 
fostered  by  their  government,  and  exerted  a  prepon- 
derant influence  over  the  temperament  of  the  people. 
The  Buddhist  priesthood  were  the  depositories  of  all 
learning  and  the  dispensers  of  all  knowledge  : — by  the 
obligation  of  their  order  the  study  of  the  classical  Pah  l 
was  rendered  compulsory  upon  them2,  and  the  books 
which  have  come  down  to  us  show  that  they  were  at  the 
same  time  familiar  with  Sanskrit.  They  were  employed 
by  royal  command  in  compiling  the  national  annals3,  and 
kings  at  various  periods  not  only  encouraged  their  la- 
bours by  endowments  of  lands4,  but  conferred  distinction 
on  such  pursuits  by  devoting  their  own  attention  to  the 
cultivation  of  poetry5,  and  the  formation  of  libraries.6 

The  books  of  the  Singhalese  are  formed  to-day,  as  they 
have  been  for  ages  past,  of  olas  or  strips  taken  from  the 
young  leaves  of  the  Talipat  or  the  Palmyra  palm, 
cut  before  they  have  acquired  the  dark  shade  and 
strong  texture  which  belong  to  the  full-grown  frond.7 


1  Pali,  which  is  the  language  of 
Buddhist  literature  in  Siam,  Ava,  as 
well  as  in  Ceylon,  is,  according  to 
Dr.  MILL,  "no  other  than  the  Ma- 
gadha  Prakrit,  the  classical  form  in 
ancient  Behar  of  that  very  peculiar 
modification  of  Sanskrit  speech  which 
enters  as  largely  into  the  drama  of 
the  Hindus,  as  did  the  Doric  dialect 
into  the  Attic  tragedy  of  Ancient 
Greece."  In  1820  MM.  BunNorjr 
and  LASSEN  published  their  learned 
"  Essai  sur  le  Pali"  but  the  most  am- 
ple light  was  thrown  upon  its  struc- 
ture and  history  by  the  subsequent 
investigations  of  TUBNOUK,  who, 


in  the  introduction  to  his  version  of 
the  Mahaivamo,  has  embodied  a  dis- 
quisition on  the  antiquity  of  Pali  as 
compared  with  Sanskrit  (p.xxii.  &c.). 

2  Rqjaratnacari,  p.  106. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  43-74. 
*  4  Ibid.,  p.  113. 

5  Rajavali,  p.    245 ;    Mahawanso, 
ch.  liv.,  Ixxix. 

6  PMjavali,  p.  244. 

7  The  leaves  of  the  Palmyra,  simi- 
larly prepared,  are  used  for  writings 
of  an  ordinary  kind,  but  the   most 
valuable  books  are  written   on   the 
Talipat.  See  ante,  Vol.  I.  Pt.  I.  ch.  iii. 
p.  110. 


CHAP.  X.] 


PREPAEATIOX   OF   OLAS. 


513 


After  undergoing  a  process  (one  stage  of  which  consists 
in  steeping  theni  in  hot  water  and  sometimes  in  milk)  to 
preserve  their  flexibility,  they  are  submitted  to  pressure 
in  order  to  render  their  surface  uniformly  smooth.  They 
are  then  cut  into  stripes  of  two  or  three  inches  in  breadth, 
and  from  one  to  three  feet  long.  These  are  pierced  with 
two  holes,  one  near  each  end,  through  which  a  cord  is 
passed,  so  as  to  secure  them  between  two  wooden  covers, 
lacquered  and  ornamented  with  coloured  devices.  The 
leaves  thus  strung  together  and  secured,  form  a  book. 

On  these  palm-leaves  the  custom  is  to  write  with  an 
iron  stile  held  nearly  upright,  and  steadied  by  a  nick 
cut  to  receive  it  in  the  thumb-nail  of  the  left  hand. 
The  stile  is  sometimes  richly  ornamented,  shaped 
like  an  arrow,  and  inlaid 
with  gold,  one  blade  of 
the  feather  serving  as  a 
knife  to  trim  the  leaf  pre- 
paratory to  writing.  The 
case  is  sometimes  made 
of  carved  ivory  bound 
with  hoops  of  filigreed 
silver. 

The  furrow  made  by  the 
pressure  of  the  steel  is  ren- 
dered visible  by  the  appli- 
cation of  charcoal  ground  with  a  fragrant  oil1,  to  the 
odour  of  which  the  natives  ascribe  the  remarkable  state 
of  preservation  in  which  their  most  sacred  books  are 
found,  its  aromatic  properties  securing  the  leaves  from 
destruction  by  white  ants  and  other  insects.2 


WRITING  WITH  A  STILE. 


1  For  this  purpose  a  resin  is  used, 
called  dumula  by  the  natives,  who 
dig  it  up  from  beneath  the  surface 
of  lands  from  which  the  forest  has 
disappeared. 

2  In  Ceylon  there  are  a  few  Budd- 
hist books  brought  from  Burmah,  in 
which  the  text  is  inscribed  on  plates 

VOL.  I.  L 


of  silver.     I  have  seen  others  on 
leaves  of  ivory,  and  some  belonging 
i  to  the  Dalada  Wihara,    at  Kandy, 
!  are  engraved  on  gold.      The  earliest 
grants  of  lands,  called  sannas,  were 
written  on  palm-leaves,  but  an  in- 
scription on    a    rock    at    Dambool, 
which  is  of  the  date  1200  A.D.,  re- 
L 


514 


SCIENCES  AND   SOCIAL  ARTS. 


[PAKT  IV. 


The  wiharas  and  monasteries  of  the  Buddhist  priest- 
hood are  the  only  depositaries  in  Ceylon 'of  the  national 
literature,  and  in  these  are  to  be  found  quantities  of  ola 
books  on  an  infinity  of  subjects,  some  of  them,  especially 
those  relating  to  religion  and  ecclesiastical  history,  being 
of  the  remotest  antiquity. 

Works  of  the  latter  class  are  chiefly  written  in  Pah. 
Treatises  on  astronomy,  mathematics,  and  physics  are 
almost  exclusively  in  Sanskrit,  whilst  those  on  general 
literature,  being  comparatively  recent,  are  composed  in 
Elu,  a  dialect  which  differs  from  the  colloquial  Sin- 
ghalese rather  in  style  than  in  structure,  having  been 
liberally  enriched  by  incorporation  from  Sanskrit  and 
Pah.1  But  of  the  works  which  have  come  down  to 
us,  ancient  as  well  as  modern,  so  great  is  the  pre- 
ponderance of  those  in  Pali  and  Sanskrit,  that  the 
Singhalese  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  a  literature  in 
their  national  dialect ;  and  in  the  books  which  they  do  pos- 
sess, so  utter  is  the  dearth  of  invention  or  originality,  that 
almost  all  which  are  not  either  ballads  or  compilations, 
are  translations  from  one  or  other  of  the  two  learned 
languages. 

I.  PALI.  —  Works  in  Pali  are  written,  like  those 
of  Burinah  and  Siam,  not  in  Nagari  or  any  peculiar 
character,  but  in  the  vernacular  alphabet.  Of  these, 
as  might  naturally  be  expected,  the  vast  majority  are  on 
subjects  connected  with  Buddhism,  and  next  to  them 
in  point  of  number  are  grammars  and  grammatical  com- 
mentaries. 

The  original  of  the  great  Pali  grammar  of  Kachcha- 


cords  that  King  Prakrama  Bahu  I. 
made  it  a  ride  that  "  when  permanent 
grants  of  land  were  to  be  made  to 
those  who  had  performed  meritorious 
services,  such  behests  should  not  be 
evanescent  like  lines  drawn  on  water, 
by  being  inscribed  on  leaves  to  be 
destroyed  by  rats  and  white  ants, 
but  engraved  on  plates  of  copper,  so 
as  to  endure  to  posterity." 


to  the  Maha- 
wanso,  p.  xiii.  A  critical  account  of 
the  Elu  will  be  found  in  an  able 
and  learned  essay  on  the  language 
and  literature  of  Ceylon  by  Mr.  J. 
DE  ALWIS,  prefixed  to  his  English 
translation  of  the  Sidath  Simijant,  ;i 
grammar  of  Singhalese,  written  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  Colombo, 
1852.  Introd.  p.  xxvii.  xxxvii. 


CHAP.  X.] 


LITERATUBE. 


515 


yano  is  now  lost,  but  its  principles  survive  in  nu- 
merous text-books  and  treatises,  written  at  succeeding 
periods  to  replace  it.1  Such  is  the  passion  for  versifi- 
cation, probably  as  an  assistant  to  memory,  that  nearly 
every  Singhalese  work,  ancient  as  well  as  modern,  is  com- 
posed in  rhyme,  and  even  the  repulsive  abstractions  of 
Syntax  have  found  an  Alvarez  and  been  enveloped  in 
metrical  disguise. 

Of  the  sacred  writings  in  Pali,  the  most  renowned  are 
the  Pitakattayan,  literally  "The  Three  Baskets,"  which 
embody  the  doctrines,  discourses,  and  discipline  of  the 
Buddhists,  and  so  voluminous  is  this  collection  that  its 
contents  extend  to  592,000  stanzas ;  and  the  Atthakatha 
or  commentaries,  which  are  as  old  as  the  fifth  century  2, 
contain  361,550  more.  From  their  volurninousness,  the 
Pittakas  are  seldom  to  be  seen  complete,  but  there  are 
few  of  the  superior  temples  in  wliich  one  or  more  of  the 
separate  books  may  not  be  found. 

The  most  popular  portion  of  the  Pittakas  are  the 
legendary  tales,  which  profess  to  have  been  related  by 
GOTAMO  BUDDHA  himself,  in  his  Sutras  or  discourses,  and 
were  collected  under  the  title  of  Pansiya-panas-jataka- 
pota,  or  the  "  Five  hundred  and  fifty  Births."  The  series 
is  designed  to  commemorate  events  in  his  own  career, 
during  the  states  of  existence  through  which  he  passed 
preparatory  to  his  reception  of  the  Buddhahood.  In 


1  The  Rev.  R.  SPENCE  HARDY,  to 
whom  I  am  indebted  for  much  valu- 
able information  on  the  subject  of 
the  literature  current  at  the  present 
day  in  Ceylon,  published  a  list  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Ceylon  Branch  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  for  1848,  in  which  he 
gave  the  titles  of  467  works  in  Pali, 
yuiiskrit,  and  Elu,  collected  by  him- 
self during  his  residence  in  Ceylon. 
Of  these  about  80  are  in  Sanskrit, 
150  in  Elu  (or  Singhalese),  and  the 
remainder  in  Pali,  either  with  or 
without  translations.  Of  the  Pali 
books  26  are  either  grammars  or 
treatises  on  grammar. 

This  catalogue  of  Mr.  Hardy  is, 


however,  by  no  means  to  be  re- 
garded as  perfect ;  not  only  because 
several  are  omitted,  but  because 
many  are  but  excerpts  from  larger 
works.  The  titles  are  seldom  de- 
scriptive of  the  contents,  but  in 
true  Oriental  taste  are  drawn  from 
emblems  and  figures,  such  as  "Light," 
"  Gems,"  and  "  Flowers."  The  au- 
thors' names  are  rarely  known,  and 
the  language  or  style  seldom  affords 
an  indication  of  the  age  of  the  com- 
position. 

2  They  were  translated  into  Pali 
from  Singhalese  by  Buddhaghoso, 
A.D.  420.  —  Mahuwamo,  c.  xxxviL 
p.  252. 

i.  2 


516 


SCIENCES  AND   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


structure  and  contents  these  bear  a  striking  resemblance 
to  the  Jewish  Talmud,  combining,  with  aphorisms  and 
maxims,  philological  explanations  of  the  divine  text, 
stories  illustrative  of  its  doctrines,  into  which  not  only 
saints  and  heroes,  but  also  animals  and  inanimate  ob- 
jects, are  introduced,  and  not  a  few  of  the  fables  that 
pass  as  uEsop's  are  to  be  found  in  the  Jatakas  of  Ceylon. 
There  are  translations  into  Singhalese  of  the  greater  part 
of  its  contents,  and  so  attractive  are  its  narratives  that  the 
natives  will  listen  the  livelong  night  to  recitations  from 
its  pages.1 

The  other  Pah  works2  embrace  subjects  in  connection 
with  cosmography  and  the  Buddhist  theories  of  the  uni- 
verse ;  the  distinctions  of  caste,  topographical  narratives, 
a  few  disquisitions  on  medicine,  and  books  which,  like 
the  Milindaprasna,  or  "  Questions  of  Milinda" 3  without 
being  canonical  give  an  orthodox  summary  of  the  national 
religion. 

But  the  chefs-d'oeuvre  of  Pah  literature  are  their  chro- 
nicles, the  Dipawanso,  Mahawanso,  and  others ;  of  which 
the  most  important  by  far  is  the  Mahawanso  and  its 
tikas  or  commentaries.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
historical  literature  of  the  East ;  unrivalled  by  any- 
thing extant  in  Hindustan 4,  the  wildness  of  whose  chro- 


1  HARDY'S  Buddhism,  ch.  v.  p.  98. 

2  A  lucid  account  of  the  principal 
Pali  works  in  connection  with  reli- 
gion will  be  found  in  the  Appendix 
to    HARDY'S   Manual  of  Buddhism, 
p.    509,   and    in    HARDY'S  Eastern 
Monachism,   pp.  27,  315. 

3  The  title  of  this  popular  work 
has  given  rise  to  a  very  curious  con- 
jecture of  Tumour's.     It  professes  to 
contain  the  dialectic  controversies  of 
Naga-sena,   through   whose    instru- 
mentality Buddhism  was  introduced 
into  Kashmir,  with  Milinda,  who  was 
the    Raja  of  an   adjoining  country, 
called  Sagala,  near  the  junction  of 
the  rivers  Ravi  and  Chenab.     These 
discussions  must  have   taken  place 
about  the  year  B.C.  43.     Now  Sagala 
is  identical  with  Sangala,  the  people 


of  which,  according  to  Arrian,  made 
a  bold  resistance  to  the  advance  of 
Alexander  the  Great  beyond  the 
Hydraotes ;  and  it  has  been  sup- 
posed by  Sir  Alexander  Burnes  to 
have  occupied  the  site  of  Lahore. 
Its  sovereign,  therefore,  who  em- 
braced the  doctrines  of  Buddha,  was 
probably  an  Asiatic  Greek,  and  TUR- 
NOUR  suggests  that  the  "  Yons  "  or 
"  Yonicas  "  who,  according  to  the 
Milinda-prasna,  formed  his  body- 
guard, were  either  Greeks  or  the 
descendants  of  Greeks  from  Ionia. 
— Journ.  Asiat.  Soc.  Beng.,  v.  523  ; 
HARDY'S  Manual  of  Buddhism,  p. 
512 ;  RETNATJD,  Memoire  stir  FInde, 
p.  65. 

4  LASSEN,  Indis.  Alt.,  vol.  ii.  p.  13 
— 15. 


ClIAl'  X.] 


LITERATURE. 


517 


nology  it  controls  ;  and  unsurpassed,  if  it  be  equalled, 
by  the  native  annals  of  China  or  Kashmir.  So  conscious 
were  the  Singhalese  kings  of  the  value  of  this  national 
monument,  that  its  continuation  was  an  object  of  royal 
solicitude  to  successive  dynasties1  from  the  third  to 
the  thirteenth  century ;  and  even  in  the  decay  of  the 
monarchy  the  compilation  was  performed  in  A.D.  1696, 
by  an  unknown  hand,  and,  finally,  brought  down  to 
A.D.  1758  by  order  of  one  of  the  last  of  the  Kandyan 
kings. 

Of  the  chronicles  thus  carefully  constructed,  which 
exhibit  in  their  marvellously  preserved  leaves  the 
study  and  elaboration  of  upwards  of  twelve  hundred 
years,  PRINSEP,  supreme  as  an  authority,  declared 
that  they  served  to  "  clear  away  the  chief  of  dif- 
ficulties in  Indian  genealogies,  which  seem  to  have 
been  intentionally  falsified  by  the  Brahmans  and  thrown 
back  into  remote  antiquity,  in  order  to  confound  their 
Buddhist  rivals."  2 

But  they  display  in  their  mysterious  rhymes  few 
facts  or  revelations  to  repay  the  ordinary  reader  for 
the  labour  of  their  perusal.  Written  exclusively  by 
the  Buddhist  priesthood,  they  present  the  meagre  cha- 
racteristics of  the  soulless  system  which  it  is  their 
purpose  to  extol.  No  occurrence  finds  a  record  in 
their  pages  which  does  not  tend  to  exalt  the  genius  of 
Buddhism  or  commemorate  the  acts  of  its  patrons : 
the  reigns  of  the  monarchs  who  erected  temples  for  its 
worship,  or  consecrated  shrines  for  its  relics,  are  traced 
with  tiresome  precision ;  even  where  their  accession 


1  COSMASINDICO-PLETTSTE8,ED:RISI, 

Anou-ZEYD,  and  almost  all  the  tra- 
vellers and  geographers  of  the  middle 
ages,  have  related,  as  a  trait  of  the 
native  rulers  of  Ceylon,  their  em- 
ployment of  annalists  to  record  the 
history  of  the  kingdom.  —  EDEISI, 
Clim.  i.  sec.  8,  p.  3. 

2  PRTNSEP,  in  a  private  letter  to 


Tumour,  in  1836,  speaking  of  the 
singular  value  of  the  Mahaivamo  in 
collating  the  chronology  of  India, 
says,  "had  your  Buddhist  chronicles 
been  accessible  to  Sir  W.  Jones  and 
Wilford,  they  would  have  been 
greedily  seized  to  correct  anomalies 
at  every  step." 


i,  L  3 


518 


SCIENCES  AND   SOCIAL   AETS. 


[PART  IV. 


was  achieved  by  usurpation  and  murder,  their  lives 
are  extolled  for  piety,  provided  they  were  charac- 
terised by  liberality  to  the  church  ;  whilst  those 
alone  are  stigmatised  as  impious  and  consigned  to 
long  continued  torments,  whose  reigns  are  undis- 
tinguished by  acts  conducive  to  the  exaltation  of  the 
national  worship.1 

The  invasions  which  disturbed  the  tranquillity  of  the 
throne,  and  the  schisms  which  rent  the  unity  of  the 
church,  are  described  with  painful  elaboration  ;  but  we 
search  in  vain  for  any  instructive  notices  of  the  people 
or  of  their  pursuits,  for  any  details  of  their  social  con- 
dition or  illustration  of  their  intellectual  progress. 
Although  the  commerce  of  all  nations  swept  for 
ages  along  the  shores  of  Ceylon,  and  the  ships  of 
China  and  Arabia  made  its  ports  their  emporiums ; 
the  national  chronicles,  whose  compilation  was  an 
object  of  solicitude  to  successive  dynasties,  are  silent 
regarding  such  adventurous  expeditions ;  and  utterly 
indifferent  to  all  that  did  not  affect  the  progress  of 
Buddhism  or  minister  to  the  interests  of  the  priest- 
hood.2 


1  Asoka,  "  who  put  to  death  one 
hundred    brothers,"  to    secure    the 
throne  to  himself,  is  described  in  the 
Mahawanso,  ch.  v.  p.  21,  as  a  prince 
"  of  piety  and  supernatural  •wisdom." 
Even  Malabar  infidels,  who  assassi- 
nated the   Buddhist  kings,  are  ex- 
tolled   as    "righteous    sovereigns" 
(Mahawanso,  ch.  xxi.  p.  127) ;  but  a 
Buddhist  king  who  caused  a  priest 
to  be  put  to  death  who  was  believed 
to  be  guilty  of    a  serious  crime,  is 
consigned  by  the  Rajavali  to  a  hell 
with  a  copper  roof  "  so  hot  that  the 
waters  of  the  sea  are  dried  as  they 
roll  above  it." — Rajavali,  p.  192. 

2  It  has  been  surmised  that  in  the 
intercourse  which  subsisted  between 
India  and  the  western  world  by  way 
of  Alexandria  and  Persia,  and  which 
did  not  decline  till  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century,  the  influences  of  Xestorian 
Christianity  may  have  left  their  im- 


press on  the  genius  and  literature 
of  Buddhism ;  and  in  the  legends 
of  its  historians  one  is  struck  by 
the  many  passages  that  suggest  a 
similarity  to  events  recorded  in  the 
Jewish  Scriptures.  The  coincidence 
may  also  be  accounted  for  by  the 
close  proximity  of  a  Jewish  race  in 
Afghanistan  (the  descendants  of 
those  carried  away  into  captivity  by 
Shalmanasar)  which  eventually  ex- 
tended itself  along  the  west  coast  of 
India,  and  became  the  progenitors 
of  the  Hebrew  colony  that  still  in- 
habits the  south  of  the  Dekkan  near 
Cochin,  and  known  as  the  "Black 
Jews  of  Malabar."  The  influence  of 
this  immigration  is  perceptible  in  the 
sacred  books,  both  of  the  Brahmans 
and  Buddhists  ;  the  laws  of  Menu 
present  some  striking  resemblances 
to  the  law  of  Moses,  and  it  was  pro- 
bably from  a  knowledge  of  the  con- 


CHAP.  X.] 


LITERATURE. 


519 


II.    SANSKRIT.  —  In  Sanskrit  or  translations  from  it, 
the  Singhalese  have  preserved  their   principal   treatises 


tents  of  the  Hebrewrolls  still  possessed 
by  this  remnant  of  the  dispersion  that 
the  Buddhists  borrowed  the  nume- 
rous incidents  which  we  find  re-pro- 
duced in  the  historical  books  of 
Ceylon.  Thus  the  aborigines,  when 
subdued  by  their  Bengal  invaders, 
were  forced,  like  the  Israelites,  by 
their  masters  "to  make  bricks"  for 
the  construction  of  their  stupendous 
edifices  (Mahawctnso,  ch.  xxviii.). 
On  the  occasion  of  building  the 
great  dagoba,  the  Ruanwelie,  at 
Anarajapoora,  B.C.  161,  the  materials 
were  all  prepared  at  a  distance,  and 
brought  ready  to  be  deposited  in 
their  places  (Mahawanso,  xxvii.)  ;  as 
on  the  occasion  of  building  the  first 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  "the  stone  was 
made  ready  before  it  was  brought,  so 
that  there  was  neither  hammer,  nor 
axe,  nor  any  tool  of  iron  heard  whilst 
it  was  building."  The  parting  of 
the  Red  Sea  to  permit  the  march  of 
the  fugitive  Hebrews  has  its  counter- 
part in  the  exploit  of  the  King  Gaja 
Bahu,  A.D.  109,  who,  when  marching 
his  army  to  the  coast  of  India,  in 
order  to  bring  back  the  Singhalese 
from  captivity  in  Chola,  "  smote  the 
waters  of  the  sea  till  they  parted,  so 
that  he  and  his  army  marched  through 
without  wetting  the  soles  of  their 
feet."  —  Rqjaratnacari,  p.  59.  King 
Maha  Sen  (A.D.  275),  seeking  a  relic, 
had  the  mantle  of  Buddha  lowered 
down  from  heaven:  and  Buddha 
had,  previously,  in  designating  Kas- 
yapa  as  his  successor,  transmitted 
to  him.  his  robe  as  Elijah  let  fall 
his  mantle  upon  Elisha.  (Xtajarali, 
p.  238;  HAEDY'S  Oriental  Mana- 
chism,  p.  119.)  There  is  a  resem- 
blance too  between  the  apotheosis 
of  Dutugaimunu  and  the  translation 
of  Elijah  when  "  in  a  chariot  and 
horses  of  fire  he  went  up  into 
heaven"  (2  Kings,  ii.  11); — accord- 
ing to  the  MaluiwansOj  ch.  xxii.  p.  199, 
when  the  Singhalese  king  was  dying, 
a  chariot  was  seen  descending  from 
the  sky  and  his  disembodied  spirit 
"  manifested  itself  standing  in  the  car 


in  which  he  drove  thrice  round  the 
great  shrine,  and  then  bowing  down 
to  the  attendant  priesthood,  he  de- 
parted for  tusita1'  (the  Buddhists' 
heaven).  The  ceremonial  and  dog- 
matic coincidences  are  equally  re- 
markable ; — constant  allusion  is  made 
to  the  practice  of  the  kings  to  '•'  wash 
the  feet  of  the  priests  and  anoint 
them  with  oil." — Mahawanso,  ch.xxv. 
— xxx.  In  conformity  with  the 
denunciation  that  the  sins  of  the 
fathers  were  to  be  visited  on  the 
children,  the  Jews  inquired  whether 
a  "  man's  parents  did  commit  sin 
that  he  was  born  blind  ?  "  (John,  ix. 
3) ;  and  in  like  manner,  in  the 
Rajavali,  "  the  perjury  of  Wijayo 
(who  had  repudiated  his  wife  after 
swearing  fidelity  to  her)  was  visited 
on  the  person  of  the  King  Pandu- 
wasa,"  his  nephew,  who  was  afflicted 
with  insanity  in  consequence  (Raja- 
vcdi,  pp.  174 — 178^).  The  account  in 
the  Rajaratnaccm  of  King  Batiya 
Tissa  (B.C.  20),  who  was  enabled  to 
enter  the  •Ruanwelle'  dagoba  by  the 
secret  passage  known  only  to  the 
priests,  and  to  discover  their  wealth 
and  treasures  deposited  within,  has 
a  close  resemblance  to  the  descent 
of  Daniel  and  King  Astyages  into 
the  temple  of  Bel,  by  the  privy  en- 
trance under  the  table,  whereby  the 
priests  entered  and  consumed  the 
offerings  made  to  the  idol  (Bel  and 
the  Dragon,  Apocryp.  ch.  i. — xiii. ; 
Ttajaratnacari,  p.  45).  The  inex- 
tinguishable fire  which  was  for  ever 
burning  on  the  altar  of  God  (Le- 
viticus, ch.  vi.  13)  resembles  the 
lamps  that  burned,  for  5000  years 
continually  in  honour  of  Buddha 
(Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxxi. ;  Eajaratna- 
cari,  p.  49) ;  and  these  again  bad  their 
imitators  in  the  lamp  of  Minerva, 
which  was  never  permitted  to  go  out 
in  the  temple  at  Athens ;  and  in  the 
\v%vov  aafiiaTor,  which  was  for  ever 
burning  in  the  temple  of  Ammon. 
The  miracle  of  feeding  the  multitude 
by  our  Saviour  upon  a  few  loaves 
and  fishes,  is  repeated  in  the  Maha- 


520 


SCIENCES  AXD   SOCIAL   ARTS. 


[PART  IV. 


on  physical  science,  cosmography,  materia  medica,  and 
surgery.  From  it,  too,  they  have  borrowed  the  limited 
knowledge  of  astronomy,  possessed  by  the  individuals 
who  combined  with  astrology  and  the  casting  of  nati- 
vities, the  practice  of  palmistry  and  the  interpretation 
of  dreams.  In  Sanskrit,  they  have  treatises  on  music 
and  painting,  on  versification  and  philology ;  and  their 
translations  include  a  Singhalese  version  of  those  por- 
tions of  the  Ramayana,  which  commemorate  the  con- 
quest of  Lanka. 

TTT.  ELU  AND  SINGHALESE.  —  There  is  no  more 
striking  evidence  of  the  intellectual  inferiority  of  the 
modern,  as  compared  with  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Ceylon,  than  is  afforded  by  the  popular  literature  of 
the  latter,  and  the  contrast  it  presents  to  the  works  of 
former  ages.  Descending  from  the  gravity  of  religious 
disquisition  and  the  dignity  of  history  and  science,  the 
authors  of  later  times  have  been  content  to  limit 
their  efforts  to  works  of  fiction  and  amusement,  and  to 
ballads  and  doggerel  descriptions  of  places  or  passing 
events. 

But,    to    the   credit   of    the   Singhalese,   it   must   be 


wanso,  where  a  divinely  endowed 
princess  fed  Pandukabhaya,  B.C.  437, 
and  five  hundred  of  his  followers 
with  the  repast  which  she  was  taking 
to  her  father  and  his  reapers,  the  re- 
freshment being  "  scarcely  diminished 
in  quantity  as  if  one  person  only 
had  eaten  therefrom." — Mahmcanso, 
ch.  x.  p.  62.  The  preparation  of  the 
high  road  for  the  procession  of  the 
sacred  bo-tree  after  its  landing  (Ma- 
hawanso,  ch.  xix.  p.  116),  and  the 
order  to  clear  a  road  through  the 
wilderness  for  the  march  of  the  king 
at  the  inauguration  of  Buddhism, 
recall  the  words  of  the  prophet, 
"  Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord, 
make  straight  a  highway  in  the 
desert."  (Isaiah,  xl.  3.)  And  we 
nre  reminded  of  the  prophecy  of 


Isaiah  as  to  the  kingdom  of  peace,  in 
which  "  the  leopard  shall  he  down 
with  the  kid  and  the  calf  with  the  lion, 
and  a  young  child  shall  lead  them," 
by  the  Singhalese  historians,  in  de- 
scribing the  religious  repose  of  the 
kingdom  of  Asoka  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  religion  of  Buddha, 
where  "the  elk  and  the  wild  hog 
were  the  guardians  of  the  gardens 
and  fields,  and  the  tiger  led  forth  the 
cattle  to  graze  and  reconducted  them 
in  safety  to  their  pens."  —  Maha- 
wanso,  ch.  v.  p.  22.  The  narrative 
of  the  "judgment  of  Solomon,"  in 
the  matter  of  the  contested  child 
(1  Kings,  ch.  iii.),  has  its  parallel  in 
a  story  in  every  respect  similar  in 
the  Pansyiapanas-jataka. — ROBERT'S 
Orient.  Ittmtr.  p.  191. 


CHAP.  X.]  LITERATURE.  521 

said,  that  their  compositions,  however  satirical  or 
familiar  they  may  be,  are  entirely  free  from  the 
licentiousness  which  disfigures  similar  productions  in 
India;  and  that  if  deficient  in  imagination  and  grace, 
their  verses  are  equally  exempt  from  grossness  and 
indelicacy. 

The  Singhalese  language  is  so  flexible  that  it  admits 
of  every  description  of  rhythm  ;  of  this  the  versifiers 
have  availed  themselves  to  exhibit  every  variety  of 
stanza  and  measure,  and  every  native,  male  or  female, 
can  recite  numbers  of  their  favourite  ballads.  Their 
graver  productions  consist  of  poems  in  honour,  not  of 
Buddha  alone,  but  of  deities  taken  from  the  Hindu 
Pantheon,  —  Patine,  Siva,  and  Ganesa,  panegyrics 
upon  almsgiving,  and  couplets  embodying  aphorisms 
and  morals. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  Sutras  or  Discourses 
of  Buddha  have  been  translated  into  the  vernacular 
from  Pah,  but  the  most  popular  of  all  are  the  jatakas^ 
the  Singhalese  versions  of  which  are  so  extended,  that 
one  copy  alone  fills  2000  olas  or  palm  leaves,  each 
twenty-nine  inches  in  length  and  containing  nine  lines 
in  a  page. 

The  other  works  in  Singhalese  are  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  history,  such  as  the  Bajavali  and  Eajarat- 
nacari,  on  grammar  and  lexicography,  on  medicine, 
topography,  and  other  analogous  subjects.  But  in 
all  their  productions,  though  invested  with  the  trap- 
pings of  verse,  there  is  an  avoidance  alike  of  what 
is  practical  and  true,  and  an  absence  of  all  that  is  in- 
ventive and  poetic.  They  contain  nothing  that  appeals 
to  the  heart  or  the  affections,  and  their  efforts  of 
imagination  aspire  not  to  please  or  to  elevate,  but  to 
astonish  and  bewilder  by  exaggeration  and  fable. 
Their  poverty  of  resources  leads  to  endless  repetitions 
of  the  same  epithets  and  incidents  ;  books  are  multiplied 
at  the  present  day  chiefly  by  extracts  from  works  of 


522  SCIENCES  AND   SOCIAL  AKTS.  [PART  IV. 

established  popularity,  and  the  number  of  qualified 
writers  is  becoming  annually  less  from  the  altered  cir- 
cumstances of  the  island  and  the  decline  of  those 
institutions  and  prospects  which  formerly  stimulated  the 
ambition  of  the  Buddhist  priesthood,  and  inspired  a 
love  of  study  and  learning. 


523 


CHAP.  XL 


BUDDHISM   AND   DEMOX-WOKSHIP.1 

IT  is  difficult  to  attempt  any,  condensed,  and  at  the  same 
time  perspicuous,  sketch  of  the  national  religion  of  Ceylon 
—  a  difficulty  which  arises  not  merely  from  the  volumi- 
nous obscurity  of  its  sacred  history  and  records  ;  but  still 
more  from  confusion  in  the  variety  of  forms  under  which 
Buddhism  exhibits  itself  in  various  localities,  and  the 
divergences  of  opinion  which  prevail  as  to  its  tenets 
and  belief.  The  antiquity  of  its  worship  is  so  extreme, 
that  doubts  still  hang  over  its  origin  and  its  chronological 
relations  to  the  religion  of  Brahma.  Whether  it  took  its 
rise  in  Hindustan,  or  in  countries  farther  to  the  West,  and 
whether  Buddhism  was  the  original  doctrine  of  which 
Brahmanism  became  a  corruption,  or  Brahmanism  the 
original  and  Buddhism  an  effort  to  restore  it  to  its 
pristine  purity2,  are  questions  which  have  yet  to  be 


1  The  details  of  the  following 
chapter  have  been  principally  taken 
from  Sir  J.  EMERSON  TENNENT'S 
Christianity  in  Ceylon,  ch.  v. 

a  Those  early  writers  on  the  reli- 
gions of  India  who  drew  their  infor- 
mation exclusively  from  Brahnianical 
sources,  incline  to  favour  the  preten- 
sions of  that  system  as  the  most  an- 
cient of  the  two.  Klaproth,  a  profound 
authority,  was  of  this  opinion  ;  hut  in 
later  times  the  translations  of  the 
Pali  records  and  other  sacred  volumes 
of  Buddhism  in  Western  India,  Cey- 
lon, and  Nepal,  have  inclined  the 
preponderance  of  opinion,  if  not  in 
favour  of  the  superior  antiquity  of 
Buddhism,  at  least  in  support  of 
its  contemporaneous  development. 
A  summary  of  the  arguments  in 


favour  of  the  superior  antiquity  of 
Buddhism  will  be  found  in  the 
"  Notes,"  &c.,  by  Colonel  STKES,  in 
the  12th  volume  of  the  Asiatic 
Journal  —  and  in  the  Essai  sur 
V  Origine  des  Principaux  Peoples  An- 
dens,  par  F.  L.  M.  MAT/PIED, 
chap.  viii.  The  arguments  on  the 
side  of  those  who  look  on  Brahman- 
ism as  the  original;  are  given  by 

MorXTSTUAKT  ELPHDfSTONE  in  his 
History  of  India,  vol.  i.  b.  ii.  c.  4. 
An  able  disquisition  will  be  found  in 
MAX  MtJLLEE's  History  of  Sanskrit 
Literature,  pp.  33,  260, '  &c.  Mr. 
GOGERLY,  the  most  accomplished 
student  of  Buddhism  in  Ceylon,  says 
its  sacred  books  expressly  demonstrate 
that  its  doctrines  had  been  preached 
by  the  twenty-four  Buddhas  who 


BUDDHISM   AXD   DEMOX  WORSHIP. 


[PART  IV. 


adjusted  by  the  results  of  Oriental  research.1  It  is,  how- 
ever, established  by  a  concurrence  of  historical  proofs, 
that  many  centuries  before  the  era  of  Christianity  the 
doctrines  of  Buddha  were  enthusiastically  cultivated  in 
Bahar,  the  Magadha,  or  country  of  the  Magas.  whose  mo- 
dern name  is  identified  with  the  Wiharas  or  monasteries  of 
Buddhism.  Thence  its  teachers  diffused  themselves  ex- 
tensively throughout  India  and  the  countries  to  the  east- 
ward ; — upwards  of  two  thousand  years  ago  it  became  the 
national  religion  of  Ceylon  and  the  Indian  Archipelago  ; 
and  its  tenets  have  been  adopted  throughout  the  vast  re- 
gions which  extend  from  Siberia  to  Siam,  and  from  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  to  the  western  shores  of  the  Pacific.2 

Looking  to  its  influence  at  the  present  day  over  at 
least  three  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  human  beings 
—  exceeding  one-third  of  the  human  race  —  it  is  no  ex- 
aggeration to  say  that  the  religion  of  Buddha  is  the  most 
widely  diffused  that  now  exists,  or  that  has  ever  existed 
since  the  creation  of  mankind.3 


had  lived  prior  to  Gotama,  in 
periods  incredibly  remote  ;  but  that 
they  had  entirely  disappeared  at 
the  time  of  Gotama's  birth,  so 
that  he  re-discovered  the  whole, 
and  revived  an  extinguished  or 
nearly  extinct  school  of  philoso- 
phy. —  Notes  on  Buddhism  by  the 
Kev.  Mr.  GOGERLY,  Appendix  to 
LEE'S  Translation  of  Eibeyro,  p. 

1  The  celebrated  temple  of  Som- 
nauth  was  originally  a  Buddhist 
foundaton,  and  in  the  worship  of 
Jaggernath,  to  whose  orgies  all  ranks 
are  admitted  without  distinction  of 
caste,  there  may  still  be  traced  an 
influence  of  Buddhism,  if  not  a  direct 
Buddhistical  origin.  Colonel  Sykes 
is  of  opinion  that  the  sacred  tooth  of 
Buddha  was  at  one  time  deposited 
and  worshipped  in  the  great  Temple 
of  Kalinga,  now  dedicated  to  Jagger- 
nath,  by  the  Princes  of  Orissa,  who 
in  the  fourth  century  professed  the 
Buddhist  religion.  (Colonel  SYKES, 


Notes,  &c.,  Asiatic  Journal,  vol.  xii. 
pp.  275,  317,  420.) 

2  FA   HIAJJ-  declares   that  in  the 
whole  of  India,  including  Aftghanistan 
and  Bokhara,  he  found  in  the  fourth 
century    a     Buddhist     people     and 
dynasty,  with  traditions  of  its  endur- 
ance for  the  preceding  thousand  years. 
"As  to   Hindustan  itself,  he  says, 
from  the  time  of  leaving  the  deserts 
(of  Jaysulmeer  and  Bikaneer)  and 
the  river  (Jumna)  to  the  west,  all  the 
kings    of  the    different   ki>tf/<h»ns  in 
Indict  arejirmh/  attached  to  the  laic  of 
Buddha,  and  when  they  do  honour  to 
the  ecclesiastics  they  take  off  their 
diadems." — See  also  MAUPIED,  Essai 
stir  rOriffine  des  Principaux  Peiqrfes 
Ancitns,  chap.  ix.  p.  209. 

3  See  ante,  p.  326.     So  ample  are 
the  materials  offered  by  Buddhism 
for  antiquarian  research,  that  its  doc- 
trines have  been  sought  to  be  iden- 
tified at  once  with  the  Asiatic  philo- 
sophy and  with  the   myths  of  the 
Scandinavians.     Buddha  has  been  at 


CHAP.  XI.]       BRAIIMANISM   TRIUMPHS   OVER   BUDDHISM.         525 


From  the  earliest  period  of  Indian  tradition,  the  strug- 
gle between  the  religion  of  Buddha  and  that  of  Brahma 
was  carried  on  with  a  fanaticism  and  perseverance  which 
resulted  in  the  ascendancy  of  the  Brahmans,  perhaps  about 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  and  the  eventual 
expulsion  some  centuries  later  of  the  worship  of  their 
rivals  from  Hindustan ;  but  at  what  precise  time  the  latter 
catastrophe  was  consummated  has  not  been  recorded  in 
the  annals  of  either  sect.1 

That  Buddhism  thus  dispersed  over  eastern  and  central 
Asia  became  an  active  agent  in  the  promotion  of  whatever 
civilisation  afterwards  enlightened  the  races  by  whom 
its  doctrines  were  embraced,  seems  to  rest  upon  evidence 
admitting  of  no  reasonable  doubt.  The  introduction 
of  Buddhism  into  China  is  ascertained  to  have  been  con- 


one  time  conjectured  to  be  the  Woden 
of  the  Scythians ;  at  another  the 
prophet  Daniel,  whom  Nebuchad- 
nezzar had  created  master  of  the 
astrologers,  or  chief  priest  of  the  Magi, 
as  the  title  is  rendered  in  the  Septua- 
gint  —  Ap\ovTa  Maywv.  An  anti- 
quarian of  "Wales,  in  devising  a 
pedigree  for  the  Cymri,  has  imported 
ancestors  for  the  ancient  Britons  from 
Ceylon ;  and  a  writer  in  the  Asiatic 
ResearcJics,  in  1807,  as  a  preamble  to 
the  proof  that  the  binomial  theorem 
was  familiar  to  the  Hindus,  has 
traced  Western  civilisation  to  an 
irruption  of  philosophers  from  India, 
identified  the  Druids  with  the  Brah- 
mans, and  declared  Stonehenge  to  be 
"  one  of  the  temples  of  Boodh." 
(Asicrt.  Ees.,  vol.  ii.  p.  448.)  A  still 
more  recent  investigator,  M.  MAFPIED, 
has  collected,  in  his  Essai  stir  F  Origins 
des  Peuples  Anciens,  what  he  considers 
to  be  the  evidence  that  Buddhism 
may  be  indebted  for  its  appearance  in 
India  to  the  captivity  of  the  Jews  by 
Shalmanezar,  B.C.  729  (or  according  to 
Bosanquet,  711  B.C.)  to  their  disper- 
sion by  Assar-Addon  at  a  still  more 
recent  period;  to  their  captivity  in 
Babylon,  B.C.  500,  or  60(3  B.C.  ;  their 
diffusion  over  Media  and  the  East, 
Persia,  Bactria,  Thibet,  and  China, 


and  the  communication  of  their  sacred 
book  to  the  nations  amongst  whom 
they  thus  became  sojourners.  He  ven- 
tures even  to  suggest  a  possible  iden- 
tity between  the  names  Jehovah  and 
Buddha :  "  Les  voyelles  du  mot 
Bvuddha  sont  les  memes  que  celles 
du  mot  Jehovah,  qu'on  prononce 
aussi  Jouva ;  mais  d  ailleurs  le  noni 
de  Boudda  a  bien  pu  etre  tire"  du  mot 
Jeoudda  Juda,  le  dieu  de  Joudda 
Boudda." —  Chap.  ix.  p.  235.  To 
account  for  the  purer  morals  of  Budd- 
hism, MATJPIED  has  recourse  to  the 
conjecture  that  they  may  have  been 
influenced  by  the  preaching  of  St. 
Thomas  at  Ceylon,  and  Bartholomew 
on  the  continent  of  India.  "  Or  U 
nous  semble  loyique  de  conclure  de  tous 
ces  faite  que  le  Bouddhisme,  dans  ses- 
doctrines  essentielles,  est  tforigine  Juire 
et  Chretuime;  consequence  inattendue 
pour  la  plus  grande partie  de  nos  lecteurs 
sans  dmite." — MAFPIED,  eh.  ix.  p.  257 : 
ch.  x.  p.  263. 

1  The  final  overthrow  of  Buddhism 
in  Bahar  and  its  expulsion  from  Hin- 
dustan took  place  probably  between 
the  seventh  and  twelfth  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era.  Colonel  STKES, 
however,  extends  the  period  to  the 
thirteenth  or  fourteenth  (Asiatic  Jour- 
nal, vol.  iv.  p.  334). 


526  BUDDHISM   AND   DEMON-WORSHIP.  [PART  IV. 

temporary  with  the  early  development  of  the  arts  amongst 
tliis  remarkable  people,  at  a  period  coeval  with,  if  not 
anterior  to  the  era  of  Christianity.1  Buddhism  exerted  a 
salutary  influence  over  the  tribes  of  Thibet ;  through  them 
it  became  instrumental  in  humanising  the  Moguls  ;  and  it 
more  or  less  led  to  the  cessation  of  the  devastating  in- 
cursions by  which  the  hordes  of  the  East  were  precipitated 
over  the  Western  Empire  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity. 
The  Singhalese,  and  the  nations  of  further  Asia,  are 
indebted  to  Buddhism  for  an  alphabet  and  a  literature  2  ; 
and  whatever  of  authentic  history  we  possess  in  relation 
to  these  countries  we  owe  to  the  influence  of  their  generic 
religion.  Nor  are  its  effects  limited  to  these  objects : 
much  of  what  is  vigorous  in  the  character  of  its  northern 
converts  may  be  traced  in  the  development  of  their  habits 
to  the  operation  of  its  principles,  which,  unlike  those 
of  the  unwarlike  Singhalese,  rejected  sloth  and  effemi- 
nacy to  aim  at  conquest  and  power.  Looking  to  the 
self-reliance  which  Buddhism  inculcates,  the  exaltation 
of  intellect  which  it  proclaims,  and  the  perfection  of  virtue 
and  wisdom  to  which  it  points  as  within  the  reach  of 
every  created  being,  it  may  readily  be  imagined,  that  it 
must  have  wielded  a  spell  of  unusual  potency,  and  one 
well  calculated  to  awaken  boldness  and  energy  in  those 
already  animated  by  schemes  of  ambition.  In  Ceylon, 
on  the  contrary,  owing  more  or  less  to  insulation  and 
seclusion,  Buddhism  has  survived  for  upwards  of  2000 
years  as  unchanged  in  all  its  leading  characteristics  as 
the  genius  of  the  people  has  remained  torpid  and  inani- 
mate under  its  influence.  In  this  respect  the  Singhalese 
are  the  living  mummies  of  past  ages ;  and  realise  in  their 
immovable  characteristics  the  Eastern  fable  of  the  city 
whose  inhabitants  were  perpetuated  in  marble.  If  change 
has  in  any  degree  supervened,  it  has  been  from  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  practice,  not  from  any  abandonment  of  the 


1  MAX    MTJLLER,    Hist.    Sanskrit 
Literature,  p.  264 


sur  le  Pali,  ou  Langue  Sacree  de  la 


See  BTTRNOUF  et  LASSEN,  JEssai  I  &c. 


Presqu'ile  au-dda  du   Ganye,  ch.  i., 


CHAP.  XI.]          BUDDHISM   UNDER  MANY  SHAPES. 


527 


principles,  of  Buddhism  ;  and  in  arts,  literature,  and  civili- 
sation, the  records  of  their  own  history,  and  the  ruins  of 
their  monuments,  attest  their  deterioration  in  common  with 
that  of  every  other  nation  which  has  not  at  some  time  been 
brought  under  the  ennobling  influences  of  Christianity. 

In  alluding  to  the  doctrines  of 'Buddhism,  as  it  exists  at 
the  present  day,  my  observations  are  to  be  understood  as 
applying  to  the  aspect  under  which  it  presents  itself  in 
Ceylon,  irrespective  of  the  numerous  forms  in  which  it 
has  been  cultivated  elsewhere.  Even  before  the  de- 
cease of  the  last  Buddha,  schisms  had  arisen  amongst  his 
followers  in  India.  Eighteen  heresies  are  deplored  in  the 
Mahawanso  within  two  centuries  from  his  death  ;  and  four 
distinct  sects,  each  rejoicing  in  the  name  of  Buddhists,  are 
still  to  be  traced  amongst  the  remnants  of  his  worshippers 
in  Hindustan.1  In  its  migrations  to  other  countries  since 
its  dispersion  by  the  Brahmans,  Buddhism  has  assumed  and 
exhibited  itself  in  a  variety  of  shapes.  At  the  present  day 
its  doctrines,  as  cherished  among  the  Jainas  of  Guzerat  and 
Eajpootana2,  differ  widely  from  its  mysteries,  as  adminis- 
tered by  the  Lama  of  Thibet ;  and  both  are  equally  distinct 
from  the  metaphysical  abstractions  propounded  by  the 
monks  of  Nepal.  Its  observances  in  Japan  have  under- 
gone a  still  more  striking  alteration  from  their  vicinity  to 
the  Syntoos ;  and  in  China  they  have  been  similarly  mo- 
dified in  their  contact  with  the  rationalism  of  Lao-tsen 
and  the  social  demonology  of  the  Confucians.3  But  in  each 
and  all  the  distinction  is  in  degree  rather  than  essence  ;  and 
the  general  concurrence  is  unbroken  in  all  the  grand 
essentials  of  the  system. 


1  Cokbrooke 's  Essays  on  the  Philo- 
sophy of  the  Hindoos,  sect.  v.  part  5,  p. 
401.    See  also  ante,  Vol.  I.  p.  377, 380. 

2  An  account  of  the  religion  of  the 
Jains  or  Jainas,   will  be  found   in 

MOTTNTSTTJART  ELPHINSTOJfE*S  His- 
tory of  India,  vol.  i.  b.  ii.  ch.  4.  They 
arose  in  the  sixth  or  seventh  century, 


were  at  their  height  in  the  eleventh, 
and  declined  in  the  twelfth.  See  also 
MAX  MTJLLER,  Hist.  Samkrit  Litera- 
ture, p.  261,  &c. 

3  Details  of  Buddhism  in  China 
and  Chin-India  will  be  found  in  the 
erudite  commentaries  of  RLAPKOTH, 
EEMUSAT,  and  LANDBESSE. 


528 


BUDDHISM   AND   DEMON   WORSHIP. 


[PART  IV. 


Wliilst  Brahnianism,  without  denying  the  existence,  prac- 
tically ignores  the  influence  and  power  of  a  creating  and 
controlling  intelligence,  Buddhism,  exulting  in  the  idea  of 
the  infinite  perfectibility  of  man,  and  the  achievement  of 
the  highest  attainable  happiness  by  the  unfaltering  practice 
of  every  conceivable  virtue,  exalts  the  individuals  thus  pre- 
eminently wise  into  absolute  supremacy  over  all  existing 
beings,  and  attempts  the  daring  experiment  of  an  atheistic 
morality. :  Even  Buddha  himself  is  not  worshipped  as  a  de- 
ity, or  as  a  still  existent  and  active  agent  of  benevolence  and 
power.  He  is  reverenced  merely  as  a  glorified  remembrance, 
the  effulgence  of  whose  purity  serves  as  a  guide  and  incen- 
tive to  the  future  struggles  and  aspirations  of  mankind.  The 
sole  superiority  which  his  doctrines  admit  is  that  of  good- 
ness and  wisdom ;  and  Buddha  having  attained  to  this 
perfection  by  the  immaculate  purity  of  his  actions,  the 


1  M.  REMTJSAT  announces,  as  the 
result  of  his  researches,  that  neither 
the  Chinese,  the  Tartars,  nor  Monguls 
have  any  word  in  their  dialects  ex- 
pressive of  our  idea  of  a  God. — Foe- 
kwe-ki,  p.  138;  and  M.  BARTHE- 
LEMY  SAINT-HILAIRE  adds,  that  "  il 
n'y  a  pas  trace  de  1'idee  de  Dieu 
dans  le  Bouddhisme  entier,  ni  au 
debut  ni  au  terme." — Le  liouddha, 
&c.,  Introd.  p.  iv.  Colonel  S  TKES,  in 
the  xiith  vol.  of  the  Asiatic  Journal, 
pp.  263  and  376,  denies  that  Bud- 
dhism is  atheistic;  and  adduces,  in 
support  of  his  views,  allusions  made 
by  FA  HIAST.  But  the  passages  to 
which  he  refers  present  no  direct 
contradiction  to  those  metaphysical 
subtleties  by  which  the  Buddhistical 
writers  have  carefully  avoided  whilst 
they  closely  approach  the  admission 
of  belief  in  a  deity.  I  am  not  pre- 
pared to  deny  that  the  faith  in  a  su- 
preme being  may  not  have  charac- 
terised Buddhism  in  its  origin,  as 
the  belief  in  a  Great  First  Cause  in 
the  person  of  Brahma  is  still  acknow- 
ledged by  the  Hindus,  although  ho- 
noured by  no  share  of  their  adoration. 
But  it  admits  of  little  doubt  that 
neither  in  the  discourses  of  its  priest- 


hood at  the  present  day  nor  in  the 

Eractice  of  its  followers  in  Ceylon 
s  the  name  or  the  existence  of 
an  omnipotent  First  Cause  recog- 
nised in  any  portion  of  their  worship. 
MATTPIED  has  correctly  described 
Buddhism  both  in  Ceylon  and  China 
as  a  system  of  refined  atheism  (Essai 
sur  V  Oriyine  des  Peuples  Anciens,  ch. 
x.  p.  277),  and  MOTJNTSTTJART  EL- 
PHINSIONE  gives  the  weight  of  his 
high  authority  in  the  statement  that 
"  The  most  ancient  of  Baudha  sects 
entirely  denies  the  being  of  a  God; 
and  some  of  those  which  admit  the 
existence  of  God  still  refuse  to  ac- 
knowledge him  as  the  creator  and 

ruler  of  the  world The 

theistical  sect  seems  to  prevail  in 
Nepal,  and  the  atheistical  to  subsist 
in  perfection  in  Ceylon." — History  of 
India,  vol.  i.  pt.  ii.  ch.  4.  An  able 
writer  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the 
Calcutta  Revieiv  has  also  controverted 
the  assertion  of  its  atheistic  complex- 
ion; but  whatever  truth  may  be  de- 
veloped in  his  views,  their  application 
is  confined  to  Buddhism  in  Hindustan 
and  Nepal,  and  is  utterly  at  variance 
with  the  practice  and  received  dog- 
mas in  Ceylon. 


CHAP.  XI.]     BRAHMANISM  AND   BUDDHISM  COMPARED.  529 

absolute  subjugation  of  passion,  and  the  unerring  accuracy 
of  his  unlimited  knowledge,  became  entitled  to  the  homage 
of  all,  and  was  required  to  render  it  to  none. 

Externally  coinciding  with  Hinduism,  so  far  as  the 
avatar  of  Buddha  may  be  regarded  as  a  pendant  for 
the  incarnation  of  Brahma,  the  worship  of  the  former 
is  essentially  distinguished  from  the  religion  of  the  latter 
in  one  important  particular.  It  does  not  regard  Bud- 
dha as  an  actual  emanation  or  manifestation  of  the 
divinity,  but  as  a  guide  and  exampfe  to  teach  an  en- 
thusiastic self-reliance  by  means  of  which  mankind,  of 
themselves  and  by  their  own  unassisted  exertions,  may 
attain  to  perfect  virtue  here  and  to  supreme  happiness 
hereafter.  Both  systems  inculcate  the  mysterious  doc- 
trine of  the  metempsychosis  ;  but  whilst  the  result  of  suc- 
cessive embodiments  is  to  bring  the  soul  of  the  Hindu 
nearer  and  nearer  'to  the  final  beatitude  of  absorption  into 
the  essence  of  Brahma,  the  end  and  aim  of  the  Bud- 
dhistical  transmigration  is  to  lead  the  purified  spirit  to 
Nirwana 1,  a  condition  between  which  and  utter  anni- 
hilation there  exists  but  the  dim  distinction  of  a  name. 
Nirwana  is  the  exhaustion  but  not  the  destruction  of 
existence,  the  close  but  not  the  extinction  of  being. 

In  deliberate  consistency  with  this  principle  of  human 
elevation,  the  doctrines  of  Buddha  recognise  the  full 
eligibility  of  every  individual  born  into  the  world  for  the 
attainment  of  the  highest  degrees  of  inteUectual  perfection 
and  ultimate  bliss.  Herein  consists  its  most  striking 
departure  from  the  Brahmanical  system  in  denying  the 
superiority  of  the  "  twice  born "  over  the  rest  of 
mankind  ;  in  repudiating  a  sacerdotal  supremacy  of  race, 
and  in  claiming  for  the  pure  and  the  wise  that  supremacy 
and  exaltation  which  the  self-glorified  Brahmans  would 
monopolise  for  themselves. 

Hence  the  supremacy  of  "  caste  "  is  utterly  disclaimed 


1  "Nirwana"  is  .  Sanskrit,  ni  (r  \  derived  from  newanawa,  to  extinguish, 
euphon.  causa)  wana  desire.  The  See  J.  BARTHELEMY  SAINT-HILAIKE, 
Singhalese  name  "  Ninvana  "  is  also  I  Le  Bouddha,  133,  177,  &c. 

VOL.  I.  M  M 


530  BUDDHISM   AXD   DEMON-WORSHIP.  [PART  IV. 

in  the  sacred  books  which  contain  the  tenets  of  Buddha  ; 
and  although  in  process  of  time  his  followers  have  de- 
parted from  that  portion  of  his  precepts,  still  distinction  of 
birth  is  nowhere  authoritatively  recognised  as  a  quali- 
fication for  the  priesthood.  Buddha  being  in  fact  a  deifi- 
cation of  human  intellect,  the  philanthropy  of  the  system 
extends  its  participation  and  advantages  to  the  whole 
family  of  mankind,  the  humblest  member  of  which  is 
sustained  by  the  assurance  that  by  virtue  and  endurance  he 
may  attain  an  equality  though  not  an  identification  with 
supreme  intelligence.  Wisdom  thus  exalted  as  the  sole 
object  of  pursuit  and  veneration,  the  Buddhists,  with  cha- 
racteristic liberality,  admit  that  the  teaching  of  virtue  is 
not  necessarily  confined  to  their  own  professors  ;  especially 
when  the  ceremonial  of  others  does  not  involve  the  taking 
of  life.  Hence  in  a  great  degree  arises  the  indifference  of 
the  Singhalese  as  to  the  comparative  claims  of  Christianity 
and  Buddhism,  and  hence  the  facility  with  which,  both 
under  the  Portuguese,  the  Dutch,  and  the  British  Govern- 
ment, they  have  combined  the  secret  worship  of  the  one 
with  the  ostensible  profession  of  the  other.  They  in  fact 
admit  Christ  to  have  been  a  teacher,  second  only  to 
Buddha,  but  inferior,  inasmuch  as  the  latter,  who  was 
perfect  in  wisdom,  has  attained  to  the  bliss  of  Mrwana.1 
As  regards  the  structure  of  the  universe,  the  theories 


1  Sir  JOHX  DAVIS,  in  his  account  I  the  Scriptures  and  attendance  at  the 

of  the  Chinese,  states  that  the  Budd-  j  hours   of  worship   and   prayer ;    ac- 

hists  there  worship  the  "  Queen  of  I  counting  for  his  ready  acquiescence 

Heaven"  a  personage  evidently  bor-  j  by  an  assurance  that  he  entertained 

rowed  from  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  ;  an  equal  respect  for  the  doctrines  of 

that  the  name  of  "Jesus  "  appears  in  j  Buddhism  and  Christianity.     "But 

thelistof  their  divinities.  (Chap,  xiv.)  !  how  can  you,"  said   the  principal, 


A  curious  illustration  of  the  preva- 
lence of  this  disposition  to  conform  to 
two  religions  was  related  to  me  in 
Ceylon.  A  Singhalese  chief  came  a 
short  time  since  to  the  principal  of  a 
government  seminary  at  Colombo, 
desirous  to  place  his  son  as  a  pupil  of  j 
the  institution,  and  agreed,  without 
an  instant's  hesitation,  that  the  boy 
should  conform  to  the  discipline  of  the 


"with  your  superior  education  and 
intelligence,  reconcile  yourself  thus 
to  halt  between  two  opinions,  and 
submit  to  the  inconsistency  of  pro- 
fessing an  equal  belief  in  two  con- 
flicting religions  ?  "  "  Do  you  see," 
replied  the  subtle  chief,  laying  his 
hand  on  the  arm  of  the  other,  and 
directing  his  attention  to  a  canoe, 
with  a  large  spar  as  an  outrigger 


school,  which  requires  the  reading  of     lashed  alongside,  in  which  a  fisher- 


CHAP.  XI.]       WHEREIX  THE  TWO  RELIGIONS  AGREE.  531 

of  the  Buddhists,  though  in  a  great  degree  borrowed  from 
the  Brahmans,  occupy  a  much  less  prominent  position  in 
their  mythology,  and  are  less  intimately  identified  with 
their  system  of  religion.  Their  attention  has  been  directed 
less  to  physical  than  to  metaphysical  disquisitions,  and 
their  views  of  cosmogony  have  as  little  of  truth  as  of 
imagination  in  their  details.  The  basis  of  the  system  is  a 
declaration  of  the  eternity  of  matter,  and  its  submission  at 
remote  intervals  to  decay  and  re-formation  ;  but  this  and 
the  organisation  of  animal  life  are  but  the  results  01 
spontaneity  and  procession,  not  the  products  of  will  and 
design  on  the  part  of  an  all  powerful  Creator. 

Buddhism  adopts  something  approaching  to  the 
mundane  theory  of  the  Brahmans,  in  the  multiplicity  and 
superposition  of  worlds  and  the  division  of  the  earth  into 
concentric  continents,  each  separated  by  oceans  of  various 
fabulous  liquids.  Its  notions  of  geography  are  at  once 
fanciful  and  crude;  and  again  borrowing  its  chronology 
from  the  Shastras,  its  legends  extend  over  boundless  por- 
tions of  time,  but  it  invests  with  the  authority  of  history 
those  occurrences  only  which  have  taken  place  since  the 
birth  of  Gotama  Buddha. 

The  Buddhists  believe  in  the  existence  of  lokas,  or 
heavens,  each  differing  in  glory,  and  serving  as  the  tem- 
porary residences  of  demigods  and  divinities,  as  well  as  of 
men  whose  etherialisation  is  but  inchoate,  and  who  have 
yet  to  visit  the  earth  in  further  births  and  acquire  in 
future  transmigrations  their  complete  attainment  of 
Nirwana.  They  believe  likewise  in  the  existence  of  hells 
which  are  the  abodes  of  demons  or  tormentors,  and  in 
which  the  wicked  undergo  a  purgatorial  imprisonment 
preparatory  to  an  extended  probation  upon  earth  Here 
their  torments  are  in  proportion  to  their  crimes,  and 


man  was  just  pushing  off  upon  the 
lake,  "  do  you  see  the  style  of  these 
boats,  in  which  our  fishermen  always 
put  to  sea,  and  that  that  spar  is  al- 
most equivalent  to  a  second  canoe, 


which  keeps  the  first  from  upsetting  ? 
It  is  precisely  so  with  myself :  I  add 
on  your  religion  to  steady  my  oicn, 
because  I  consider  Christianity  a  very 
safe  outrigger  to  Buddhism." 


M  M    2 


532  BUDDHISM   AXD   DEMOtf-WOKSHIP.  [PART  IV. 

although  not  eternal,  their  duration  extends  almost  to  the 
infinitude  of  eternity ;  those  who  have  been  guilty  of  the 
deadly  sins  of  parricide,  sacrilege,  and  defiance  of  the  faith 
being  doomed  to  the  endurance  of  excruciating  deaths, 
followed  by  instant  revival  and  a  repetition  of  these 
tortures  without  mitigation  and  apparently  without  end.1 

It  is  one  of  the  extraordinary  anomalies  of  the  system, 
that  combined  with  these  principles  of  self-reliance  and 
perfectibility,  Buddhism  has  incorporated  to  a  certain 
extent  the  doctrine  of  fate  or  "  necessity,"  under  which 
it  demonstrates  that  adverse  events  are  the  general 
results  of  akusala  or  moral  demerit  in  some  previous 
stage  of  existence.  This  belief,  which  lies  at  the  very 
foundation  of  their  religion,  the  Buddhists  have  so  adap- 
ted to  the  rest  of  the  structure  as  to  avoid  the  incon- 
sistency of  making  this  directing  power  inherent  in  any 
Supreme  Being,  by  assigning  it  as  one  of  the  attributes 
of  matter  and  a  law  of  its  perpetual  mutations. 

Like  all  the  leading  doctrines  of  Buddhism,  however, 
its  theories  on  this  subject  are  propounded  with  the  usual 
admixture  of  modification  and  casuistry;  only  a  portion 
of  men's  conduct  is  presumed  to  be  exclusively  control- 
lable by  fate — neither  moral  delinquency  nor  virtuous 
actions  are  declared  to  be  altogether  the  products  of  an 
inevitable  necessity;  and  whilst  both  the  sufferings  and  the 
enjoyments  of  mortals  are  represented  as  the  general 
consequences  of  merit  in  a  previous  stage  of  existence, 
even  this  fundamental  principle  is  not  without  its  ex- 
ception, inasmuch  as  the  vicissitudes  are  admitted  to  be 
partially  the  results  of  man's  actions  in  this  life,  or  of 
the  influence  of  others  from  which  his  own  deserts  are 
insufficient  to  protect  him.  The  main  article,  however, 
which  admits  neither  of  modification  nor  evasion,  is  that 
neither  in  heaven  nor  on  earth  can  man  escape  from  the 
consequences  of  his  acts;  that  morals  are  in  their  essence 
productive  causes,  without  the  aid  or  intervention  of  any 


1  DATY'S  Account  of  the  Inferior  of  Ci-ylon,  p.  204. 


CHAP.  XI.]  REWAKDS   AND    PUNISHMENTS.  533 

higher  authority;  and  hence  forgiveness  or  atonement 
are  ideas  utterly  unknown  in  the  despotic  dogmas  of 
Buddha. 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  subtleties  enter- 
tained by  the  priesthood,  in  connexion  with  the  doctrine 
of  the  metempsychosis,  as  developed  in  their  sacred 
books;  but  the  exposition  would  be  tedious  to  show  the 
distinctions  between  their  theories,  and  the  opinions  of 
transmigration  entertained  by  the  mass  of  the  Singhalese 
Buddhists.  The  rewards  of  virtue  and  the  punishment 
of  vice  are  supposed  to  be  equally  attainable  in  this 
world;  and  according  to  the  amount  of  either,  which 
characterizes  the  conduct  of  an  individual  in  one  stage 
of  being,  will  be  the  elevation  or  degradation  into  which 
he  will  be  hereafter  born. 

Thus  punishment  and  reward  become  equally  fixed 
and  inevitable :  but  retribution  may  be  deferred  by  the 
intermediate  exhibition  of  virtue,  and  an  offering  or 
prostration  to  Buddha,  or  an  aspiration  of  faith  in  his 
name,  will  suffice  to  ward  off  punishment  for  a  tune,  and 
even  to  produce  happiness  in  an  intermediate  birth.  Hence 
the  most  flagitious  offender,  by  an  act  of  reverence  in 
dying,  may  postpone  indefinitely  the  evil  consequence  of 
his  crimes,  and  hence  the  indifference  and  apparent 
apathy  which  is  a  remarkable  characteristic  of  the 
Singhalese  who  suffer  death  for  their  offences.1 

To  mankind  in  general  Buddha  came  only  as  an  ad- 
viser and  a  friend;  but,  as  regards  his  own  priesthood, 
he  assumes  all  the  authority  of  a  lawgiver  and  chief. 
Spurning  the  desires  and  vanities  of  the  world,  he 
taught  them  to  aspire  to  no  other  reward  for  their 
labours,  than  the  veneration  of  the  human  race,  as 
teachers  of  knowledge  and  examples  of  benevolence. 
Taking  the  abstract  idea  of  perfect  intelligence  and 


Et  vos  barbaricos  ritus,  moremqtie  sinistrum 
Sacrorum  Druidae  positis  repetlstis  ab  armis. 
Solis  nosse  deos.  et  coeli  numina  vobis 
Aut  solis  nescire  datum:  nemora  alta  rcmoti 
Incnlitis  lucis  :  vobis  nuctorihus  umbra; 


tticitas  Ercbi  scdes  Uilisqtic  ]»'•  J'ttmli 


artus 


PaUida  regna  pelunt:  regit  idem  $piritnt 
Orbe  olio :  lonftc  (si  canitis  cognita]  vitas 

redia  <-st.  Certepopul'  quoi  despicitArctos 
errare  suo,  quos  ille  timorum 


, 
Maximus  fraud  vrget  leli  metus,  el 


1.  1  CAN,  1.  i.  450etscq. 


M    M     3 


534 


BUDDHISM   AND    DEMON-WORSHIP. 


[PART  VI. 


immaculate  virtue  for  a  divinity,  Buddhism  accords 
honour  to  all,  in  proportion  to  their  approaches  towards 
absolute  wisdom ;  but  as  the  realisation  of  this  per- 
fection is  regarded  as  almost  hopeless  in  a  life 
devoted  to  secular  cares,  the  priests  of  Buddha,  on  as- 
suming their  robe  and  tonsure,  forswear  all  earthly 
occupations;  subsist  on  alms,  not  in  money,  but  in 
food;  devote  themselves  to  meditation  and  self-denial; 
and,  being  thus  proclaimed  and  recognised  as  the  most 
successful  aspirants  to  Nirwana,  they  claim  the  homage 
of  ordinary  mortals,  acknowledge  no  superior  upon  earth, 
and  withhold  even  the  tribute  of  a  salutation  from  all 
except  the  members  of  their  own  religious  order. 

To  mankind  in  general  the  injunctions  of  Buddha 
prescribe  a  code  of  morality  second  only  to  that  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  superior  to  every  other  heathen  system  that  the 
world  has  seen.1  It  forbids  the  taking  of  life  from  even 
the  humblest  created  animal,  and  prohibits  incontinence, 
intemperance,  dishonesty  and  falsehood — vices  which 
are  referred  to  their  formidable  assailants,  rdga  or  con- 
cupiscence, doso  or  malignity,  and  moha,  ignorance  or 
folly.2  These,  again,  involve  all  their  minor  modifications 
—  hypocrisy  and  anger,  unkindness  and  pride,  ungenerous 
suspicion,  covetousness,  evil  wishes  to  others,  the  betrayal 
of  secrets,  and  the  propagation  of  slander.  Whilst  all 
such  offences  are  forbidden,  every  excellence  is  simul- 
taneously enjoined  —  the  forgiveness  of  injuries,  the 
practice  of  charity,  a  reverence  for  virtue,  and  the  che- 
rishing of  the  learned  ;  submission  to  discipline,  veneration 
for  parents,  the  care  for  one's  family,  a  sinless  vocation, 
contentment  and  gratitude,  subjection  to  reproof,  mo- 
deration in  prosperity,  submission  under  affliction,  and 
cheerfulness  at  all  times.  "  Those,"  said  Buddha,  "  who 


1  "  Je  n'he'site  pas  a  aj  outer  que, 

sauf  le    Christ    tout  seul,   il  n'est 

point,parmi  les  fondateurs  de  religion, 

de  figure  plus  pure  ni  plus  touchante 

ue  celle  de  Bouddha.     Sa  vie  n1a 


point  de  tache." — Le  Bouddha,  par  J. 
BAHTHELEMY  SAINT-HILAIKE,  In- 
trod.  p.  v. 

2  The  Kev.  Mr.  GOGERLY'S  Notes 
on  Buddhism.   LEE'S  Ribeyro,  p.  267. 


CHAP.  XI.]      BUDDHISM   A  SCHOOL   OF   PHILOSOPHY. 


535 


practise  all  these  virtues,  and  are  not  overcome  by  evil, 
will  enjoy  the  perfection  of  happiness,  and  attain  to 
supreme  renown."  * 

Buddhism,  it  may  be  perceived  from  this  sketch,  is, 
properly  speaking,  less  a  form  of  religion  than  a  school 
of  philosophy ;  and  its  worship,  according  to  the  institutes 
of  its  founders,  consists  of  an  appeal  to  the  reason,  rather 
than  an  attempt  on  the  imagination  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  rites  and  parade.  "Salvation  is  made  de- 
pendent, not  upon  the  practice  of  idle  ceremonies,  the 
repeating  of  prayers  or  of  hymns,  or  invocations  to 
pretended  gods,  but  upon  moral  qualifications,  which 
constitute  individual  and  social  happiness  here,  and 
ensure  it  hereafter." 2  In  later  times,  and  in  the  failure 
of  Buddhism  by  unassisted  arguments  to  ensure  the  ob- 
servance of  its  precepts  and  the  practice  of  its  morals, 
the  experiment  has  been  made  to  arouse  the  attention 
and  excite  the  enthusiasm  of  its  followers  by  the  adoption 
of  ceremonies  and  processions ;  but  these  are  declared 
to  be  only  the  innovations  of  priestcraft,  and  the  Singha- 
lese, whilst  they  unite  in  their  celebration,  are  impatient 
to  explain  that  such  practices  are  less  religious  than 
secular,  and  that  the  Perahara  in  particular,  the  chief 
of  then"  annual  festivals,  was  introduced,  not  in  honour 
of  Buddha,  but  as  a  tribute  to  the  Kandyan  kings  as  the 
patrons  and  defenders  of  the  faith.3 

Whatever  alterations  in  its  formula  Buddhism  may 
have  undergone  in  Ceylon  are  altogether  external,  and 
clearly  referable  to  its  anomalous  association  with  the 
worship  of  its  ancient  rivals  the  Brahmans.  These 
changes,  however,  are  the  result  of  proximity  and  asso- 


Discourse     of    Buddha    entitled 


2  Colonel  SYKES,  Astat.  Journ.,  vol. 
xii.  p.  266. 

3  FA  HIAN  describes  the  proces- 
sion of  Buddhists  which  he  witnessed 
in  the  kingdom  of  Khotan,  and  it  is 


not  a  little  remarkable,  that  along 
with  the  image  of  Buddha  were  as- 
sociated those  of  the  Brahmanical 
deities  Indra  and  Brahma,  the  Lh<t 
of  the  Thibetans  and  the  Toegri  of 
the  Moguls. 


M    M     4 


536  BUDDHISM   AND   DEMON-WOKSHIP.  [PART  IV. 

elation  rather  than  of  incorporation  or  adoption ;  and 
even  now  the  process  of  expurgation  is  in  progress  with 
a  view  to  the  restoration  of  the  pristine  purity  of  the 
faith  by  a  formal  separation  from  the  observances  of  Hin- 
duism. The  schismatic  kings  and  the  Malabar  sovereigns 
introduced  the  worship  of  Vishnu  and  Shiva  into  the 
same  temples  with  that  of  Buddha.1  The  innovation  has 
been  perpetuated ;  and  to  the  present  day  the  statues  of 
these  conflicting  divinities  are  to  be  found  within  the 
same  buildings:  the  Dewales  of  Hinduism  are  erected 
within  the  same  inclosure  as  the  Wiharas  of  the  Buddhists  ; 
and  the  Kappoorales  of  the  one  religion  officiate  at 
their  altars,  almost  beneath  the.  same  roof  with  the 
priests  and  neophytes  of  the  other.  But  beyond  this 
parade  of  their  emblems,  the  worship  of  the  Hindu 
deities  throughout  the  Singhalese  districts  is  entirely  de- 
void of  the  obscenities  and  cruelty  by  which  it  is  cha- 
racterised on  the  continent  of  India ;  and  it  would  almost 
appear  as  if  these  had  been  discontinued  by  the  Brah- 
mans  in  compliment  to  the  superior  purity  of  the  worship 
with  which  their  own  had  become  thus  fortuitously  as- 
sociated. The  exclusive  prejudices  of  caste  were  at  the 
same  remote  period  partially  engrafted  on  the  simpler 
and  more  generous  discipline  of  Buddha  ;  and  it  is  only 
recently  that  any  vigorous  exertions  have  been  attempted 
for  their  disseverance. 

On  comparing  this  system  with  other  prevailing  re- 
ligions which  divide  with  it  the  worship  of  the  East,  Bud- 
dhism at  once  vindicates  its  own  superiority,  not  only  by 
the  purity  of  its  code  of  morals,  but  by  its  freedom  from 
the  fanatical  intolerance  of  the  Mahometans  and  its  ab- 
horrent rejection  of  the  revolting  rites  of  the  Brahmanical 
faith.  But  mild  and  benevolent  as  are  its  aspects  and 
design,  its  theories  have  failed  to  realise  in  practice  the 
reign  of  virtue  which  they  proclaim.  Beautiful  as  is  the 
body  of  its  doctrines,  it  wants  the  vivifying  energy  and 

1  See  ante,  Vol.  I.  Tart  in.  ch.  viii.  p.  378. 


CHAP.  XI.]  BUDDHISM    DESTITUTE    OF   VITALITY.  537 

soul  which  are  essential  to  ensure  its  ascendancy  and 
power.  Its  cold  philosophy  and  thin  abstractions,  how- 
ever calculated  to  exercise  the  faculties  of  anchorets  and 
ascetics,  have  proved  insufficient  of  themselves  to  arrest 
man  in  his  career  of  passion  and  pursuit ;  and  the  bold 
experiment  of  influencing  the  heart  and  regulating  the 
conduct  of  mankind  by  the  external  decencies  and  the 
mutual  dependencies  of  morality,  unsustained  by  higher 
hopes  and  by  a  faith  that  penetrates  eternity,  has  proved  in 
this  instance  an  unredeemed  and  hopeless  failure.  The 
inculcation  of  the  social  virtues  as  the  consummation  of 
happiness  here  and  hereafter,  suggests  an  object  sufficiently 
attractive  for  the  bulk  of  mankind  ;  but  Buddhism  pre- 
sents along  with  it  no  adequate  knowledge  of  the  means 
which  are  indispensable  for  its  attainment.  In  confiding 
ah1  to  the  mere  strength  of  the  human  intellect  and  the 
enthusiastic  self-reliance  and  determination  of  the  human 
heart,  it  makes  no  provision  for  defence  against  those 
powerful  temptations  before  which  ordinary  resolution 
must  give  way ;  and  affords  no  consoling  support  under 
those  overwhelming  afflictions  by  which  the  spirit  is  pros- 
trated and  subdued,  when  unaided  by  the  influence  of  a 
purer  faith  and  unsustained  by  its  confidence  in  a  diviner 
power.  From  the  contemplation  of  the  Buddhist  all  the 
awful  and  un-ending  realities  of  a  future  life  are  with- 
drawn— his  hopes  and  his  fears  are  at  once  mean  and 
circumscribed ;  the  rewards  held  in  prospect  by  his  creed 
are  insufficient  to  incite  him  to  virtue ;  and  its  punish- 
ments too  remote  to  deter  him  from  vice.  Thus,  insuffi- 
cient for  time,  and  rejecting  eternity,  the  utmost  triumph 
of  his  religion  is  to  live  without  fear  and  to  die  without 
hope. 

Both  socially  and  in  its  effects  upon  individuals,  the 
result  of  the  system  in  Ceylon  has  been  apathy  almost  ap- 
proaching to  distrust.  Even  as  regards  the  tenets  of 
their  creed,  the  mass  of  the  population  exhibit  the  pro- 
foundest  ignorance  and  manifest  the  most  irreverent  in- 
difference. In  their  daily  intercourse  and  acts,  morality 


538  BUDDHISM   AND   DEMON-WORSHIP.  [PART  IV. 

and  virtue,  so  far  from  being  apparent  as  the  rule,  are 
barely  discernible  as  the  exception.  Neither  hopes  nor 
apprehensions  have  proved  a  sufficient  restraint  on  the 
habitual  violation  of  all  those  precepts  of  charity  and 
honesty,  of  purity  and  truth,  which  form  the  very  essence 
of  the  doctrine  ;  and  in  proportion  as  its  tenets  have  been 
slighted  by  the  people,  are  its  priesthood  disregarded,  and 
its  temples  neglected. 

No  national  system  of  religion,  no  prevailing  super- 
stition that  has  ever  fallen  under  my  observation  presents 
so  dull  a  level,  and  is  so  pre-eminently  deficient  in  popular 
influences,  as  Buddhism  amongst  the  Singhalese.  It  has 
its  multitude  of  followers,  but  it  is  a  misnomer  to  describe 
them  as  its  votaries,  for  the  term  implies  a  warmth  and 
fervour  unknown  to  a  native  of  Ceylon.  He  believes, 
or  he  thinks  he  believes,  because  he  is  of  the  same 
faith  with  his  ancestors ;  but  he  looks  on  the  religious 
doctrines  of  the  various  sects  which  surround  him  with  a 
stolid  indifference  which  is  the  surest  indication  of  the  little 
importance  which  he  attaches  to  his  own.  The  fervid 
earnestness  of  Christianity,  even  in  its  most  degenerate 
forms,  the  fanatical  enthusiasm  of  Islam,  the  haughty  ex- 
clusiveness  of  Brahma,  and  even  the  zealous  warmth  of 
other  Northern  faiths,  are  all  emotions  utterly  foreign  and 
unknown  to  the  followers  of  Buddha  in  Ceylon. 

Yet,  strange  to  say,  under  the  coldness  of  this  barren 
system,  there  burn  below  the  unextinguished  fires  of 
another  and  a  darker  superstition,  whose  flames  overtop 
the  icy  summits  of  the  Buddhist  philosophy,  and  excite  a 
deeper  and  more  reverential  awe  in  the  imagination  of  the 
Singhalese.  As  the  Hindus  in  process  of  time  superadded 
to  their  exalted  conceptions  of  Brahma,  and  the  benevolent 
attributes  of  Vishnu,  those  dismal  dreams  and  apprehen- 
sions which  embody  themselves  in  the  horrid  worship  of 
Shiva,  and  in  invocations  to  propitiate  the  destroyer ;  so 
the  followers  of  Buddha,  unsatisfied  with  the  vain  preten- 
sions of  unattainable  perfection,  struck  down  by  their  in- 
ternal consciousness  of  sin  and  insufficiency,  and  seeing 


CHAP.  XI.]       DEMON-WORSHIP  OLDER  THAN  BUDDHISM. 


539 


around  them,  instead  of  the  reign  of  universal  happiness 
and  the  apotheosis  of  intellect  and  wisdom,  nothing  but 
the  ravages  of  crime  and  the  sufferings  produced  by  igno- 
rance, have  turned  with  instinctive  terror  to  propitiate  the 
powers  of  evil,  by  whom  alone  such  miseries  are  supposed 
to  be  inflicted,  and  to  worship  the  demons  and  tormentors 
to  whom  their  superstition  is  contented  to  attribute  a  cir- 
cumscribed portion  of  power  over  the  earth.1 

DEMON-WORSHIP  prevailed  amongst  the  Singhalese  be- 
fore the  introduction  of  Buddhism  by  Mahindo.  Some 
principle  akin  to  it  seems  to  be  an  aboriginal  impulse  of 
uncivilised  man  in  his  first  and  rudest  conceptions  of  reli- 
gion, engendered,  perhaps,  by  the  spectacle  of  cruelty  and 
pain,  the  visitations  of  suffering  and  death,  and  the  con-, 
templation  of  the  awful  phenomena  of  nature — storms, 
torrents,  volcanoes,  earthquakes,  and  destruction.  The 
conciliation  of  the  powers  which  inflict  such  calamities, 
seems  to  precede,  when  it  does  not  supplant,  the  adoration 
of  the  benevolent  influence  to  which  belong  the  creation, 
the  preservation,  and  the  bestowal  of  happiness  on  man- 
kind ;  and  in  the  mind  of  the  native  of  Ceylon  this  ancient 
superstition  has  maintained  its  ascendancy,  notwithstanding 
the  introduction  and  ostensible  prevalence  of  Buddhism;  for 
the  latter,  whilst  it  admits  the  existence  of  evil  spirits,  has 
emphatically  prohibited  their  invocation,  on  the  ground 
that  any  malignant  influence  they  may  exert  over  man  is 
merely  the  consequence  of  his  vices,  whilst  the  cultivators 
of  virtue  may  successfully  bid  them  defiance.  The  demons 
here  denounced  are  distinct  from  a  class  of  demigods,  who, 
under  the  name  of  Yakshyos,  are  supposed  to  inhabit  the 
waters,  and  dwell  on  the  sides  of  Mount  Meru,  and  who 
are  distinguished  not  only  for  gentleness  and  benevolence, 
but  even  by  a  veneration  for  Buddha,  who,  in  one  of  his 


1  See  ante,  Vol.  I.  pp.  331,  370. 
The  Spaniards  found  amongst  the 
Indians  of  the  Essequibo  the  same 
worship  of  the  principal  of  evil  based 
on  the  motive  of  fear.  "  Demonem 


tantummodo  venerantur,  non  quod 
malum  esse  ignorant,  sed  ne  illis 
malum  induat." — DE  LAET  Nows 
Orbix,  1.  xvii.  c.  17,  quoted  by  HELPS, 
Spanish  Cotiqitest,  of  America. 


540 


BUDDHISM   AND   DEMON-WOKSHIP. 


[PART  IV. 


earlier  transmigrations,  was  himself  born  under  the  form 
of  a  Yakshyo,  and,  attended  by  similar  companions,  tra- 
versed the  world  teaching  righteousness.  One  section  of 
these  demigods,  however,  the  Rakshyos,  are  fierce  and 
malignant,  and  in  these  respects  resemble  the  Yakhas  or 
demons  so  much  dreaded  by  the  Singhalese,  and  who,  like 
the  Ghouls  of  the  Mahometans,  are  believed  to  infest  the 
vicinity  of  graveyards,  or,  like  the  dryads  and  hamadryads 
of  the  ancients,  to  frequent  favourite  forests  and  groves, 
and  to  inhabit  particular  trees,  whence  they  sally  out  to 
seize  on  the  passer  by.1  The  Buddhist  priests  connive  at 
demon  worship  because  their  efforts  are  ineffectual  to  sup- 
press it,  and  the  most  orthodox  Singhalese,  whilst  they 
confess  its  impropriety,  are  still  driven  to  resort  to  it  in  all 
their  fears  and  afflictions. 

Independent  of  the  malignant  spirits  or  Yakhas,  who 
are  the  authors  of  indefinite  evil,  the  Singhalese  have  a 
demon  or  Sanne  for  each  form  of  disease,  who  is  supposed 
to  be  its  direct  agent  and  inflictor,  and  who  is  accordingly 
invoked  for  its  removal ;  and  others,  who  delight  in  the 
miseries  of  mankind,  are  to  be  propitiated  before  the  arrival 
of  any  event  over  which  their  pernicious  influence  might 
otherwise  prevail.  Hence,  on  every  domestic  occurrence, 
as  well  as  in  every  domestic  calamity,  the  services  of  the 


1  Travellers  from  Point  de  Galle  to 
Colombo,  in  driving  through  the  long 
succession  of  gardens  and  plantations 
of  coco-nuts  which  the  road  traverses 
throughout  its  entire  extent,  will  not 
fail  to  observe  fruit-trees  of  different 
kinds,  round  the  stem  of  which  a 
band  of  leaves  has  been  fastened  by  the 
owner.  This-  is  to  denote  that  the 
tree  has  been  devoted  to  a  demon  ; 
and  sometimes  to  Vishnu  or  the 
Kattregam  dewo.  Occasionally  these 
dedications  are  made  to  the  temples 
of  Buddha,  and  even  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  altars,  as  to  that  of  St. 
Anne  of  Calpentyn.  This  ceremony 
is  called  Gok-bandeema,  "  the  tying 
of  the  tender  leaf,"  and  its  operation 
is  to  protect  the  fruit  from  pillage 


till  ripe  enough  to  be  plucked  and 
sent  as  an  offering  to  the  divinity  to 
whom  it  has  thus  been  consecrated. 
There  is  reason  to  fear,  however,  that 
on  these  occasions  the  devil  is,  to 
some  extent,  defrauded  of  his  due,  as 
the  custom  is,  after  applying  a  few 
only  of  the  finest  as  an  offering  to  the 
evil  one,  to  appropriate  the  remainder 
to  the  use  of  the  owner.  "When 
coco-nut  palms  are  so  preserved,  the 
fruit  is  sometimes  converted  into  oil 
and  burned  before  the  shrine  of  the 
demon.  The  superstition  extends 
throughout  other  parts  of  Ceylon ; 
and  so  long  as  the  wreath  continues 
to  hang  upon  the  tree,  it  is  presumed 
that  no  thief  would  venture  to  plun- 
der the  garden. 


CHAP.  XI.]  DEVIL-DANCERS.  541 

Kattadias  or  devil-priests  are  to  be  sought,  and  tlieir 
ceremonies  performed,  generally  with  observances  so  bar- 
barous as  to  be  the  most  revolting  evidence  still  extant  of 
the  uncivilised  habits  of  the  Singhalese.  Especially  in  cases 
of  sickness  and  danger,  the  assistance  of  the  devil-dancer 
is  implicitly  relied  on :  an  altar,  decorated  with  garlands, 
is  erected  within  sight  of  the  patient,  and  on  this  an 
animal,  frequently  a  cock,  is  to  be  sacrificed  for  his 
recovery.  The  dying  man  is  instructed  to  touch  and 
dedicate  to  the  evil  spirit  the  wild  flowers,  the  rice,  and 
the  flesh,  which  have  been  prepared  as  the  pidaneys 
or  offerings  to  be  made  at  sunset,  at  midnight,  and 
the  morning  ;  and  in  the  intervals  the  dancers  per- 
form their  incantations,  habited  in  masks  and  disguises 
to  represent  the  demon  which  they  personate,  as  the 
immediate  author  of  the  patient's  suffering.  In  the  frenzy 
of  these  orgies,  the  Kattadia  having  feigned  the  access  of 
inspiration  from  the  spirit  he  invokes,  is  consulted  by 
the  friends  of  the  afflicted,  and  declares  the  nature 
of  his  disease,  and  the  probability  of  its  favourable 
or  fatal  termination.  At  sunrise,  the  ceremony  closes 
with  an  exorcism  chanted  to  disperse  the  demons  who 
have  been  attracted  by  the  rite  ;  the  devil-dancers 
withdraw  with  the  offerings,  and  sing,  as  they  re- 
tire, the  concluding  song  of  the  ceremony,  "  that  the 
sacrifice  may  be  acceptable  and  the  life  of  the  sufferer 
extended." 

In  addition  to  this  Yakha  worship,  which  is  essentially 
indigenous  in  Ceylon,  the  natives  practise  the'  invocation 
of  a  distinct  class  of  demons,  their  conceptions  of  which 
are  evidently  borrowed  from  the  debased  ceremonies  of 
Hinduism,  though  in  their  adoption  they  have  rejected 
the  grosser  incidents  of  its  ritual,  and  replaced  them  with 
others  less  cruel,  but  by  no  means  less  revolting.  The 
Capuas,  who.  perform  ceremonies  in  honour  of  these 
strange  gods,  are  of  a  higher  rank  than  the  Kattadias, 
who  conduct  the  incantations  to  the  Yakhas,  and  they  are 


542  BUDDHISM   AXD    DEMOX-WORSHIP.  [PART  IV. 

more  or  less  connected  with  the  Dewales  and  temples  of 
Hinduism.  The  spirits  in  whose  honour  these  ceremonies 
are  performed,  are  all  foreign  to  Ceylon.  Some,  such  as 
Kattregam  and  Pattine,  are  borrowed  from  the  mythology 
of  the  Brahmans  ;  some  are  the  genii  of  fire  and  other  ele- 
ments of  the  universe,  and  others  are  deified  heroes  ;  but 
the  majority  are  dreaded  as  the  inflictors  of  pestilence  and 
famine,  and  propitiated  by  rites  to  avert  the  visitations  of 
their  malignity. 

The  ascendancy  of  these  superstitions,  and  the  anomaly 
of  their  association  with  the  religion  of  Buddha,  which 
has  taken  for  its  deity  the  perfection  of  wisdom  and 
benevolence,  present  one  of  the  most  signal  difficulties 
with  which  missionaries  have  had,  at  all  times,  to  contend 
in  their  efforts  to  extend  Christianity  throughout  Ceylon. 
The  Portuguese  priesthood  discovered  that,  however  the 
Singhalese  might  be  induced  to  profess  the  worship  of 
Christ,  they  adhered  with  timid  tenacity  to  their  ancient 
demonology.  The  Dutch  clergy,  in  their  reiterated  la- 
mentations over  the  failure  of  their  efforts  for  conversion, 
have  repeatedly  recorded  the  fact,  that  however  readily 
the  native  population  might  be  brought  to  abjure  their 
belief  in  the  doctrines  of  Buddha,  no  arguments  or  expe- 
dients had  proved  effectual  to  overcome  their  terror  of 
the  demons,  or  check  their  propensity  to  resort  on  every 
emergency  to  the  ceremonies  of  the  Capuas,  and  the  dismal 
rites  of  the  devil-dancers.1  The  Wesleyans,  the  Baptists, 
and  other  missionaries,  who  in  later  times  have  made  the 
hamlets  and  secluded  districts  of  Ceylon  the  scene  of  their 
unwearied  labours,  have  found,  with  equal  disappointment, 
that  to  the  present  hour  the  villagers  and  the  peasantry 
are  as  powerfully  attracted  as  ever  by  this  strong  super- 
stition, bearing  on  their  person  the  charms  calculated  to 
protect  them  from  the  evil  eye  of  the  demon,  consulting 
the  astrologers  and  the  Capuas  on  every  domestic  emer- 
gency, solemnising  their  marriages  under  their  auspices, 


Houon,  Hist.  Christ,  tw  India,  vol.  iv.  b.  xii.  ch.  v. 


CIIAP.  XL]         BUDDHISM   EXTREMELY   TOLEKAXT. 


543 


and  requiring  their  presence  at  the  birth  of  their  children, 
who,  together  with  their  mother,  are  not  unfrequently 
dedicated  to  the  evil  spirits,  whom  they  dread.1 

As  regards  Buddhism  itself,  whilst  in  the  tenets  and 
genius  of  Brahmanism  there  is  that  which  proclaims  an 
active  resistance  to  any  other  form  of  religion,  Chris- 
tianity in  the  southern  expanse  of  Ceylon  has  to  encounter 
an  obstacle  still  more  embarrassing  in  the  habitual  apathy 
and  listless  indifference  of  the  Buddhists.  In  its  consti- 
tution and  spirit  Brahmanism  is  essentiaUy  exclusive  and 
fanatical,  jealous  of  all  conflicting  faiths,  and  strongly  dis- 
posed to  persecution.  Buddhism,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
the  strength  of  its  self-righteousness,  extends  a  latitudina- 
rian  liberality  to  every  other  belief,  and  exhibits  a  Laodi- 
cean indifference  towards  its  own.  Whilst  Brahmanism 
is  a  science  confided  only  to  an  initiated  priesthood ;  and 
the  Vedas  and  the  Shastras  in  which  its  precepts  are 
embodied  are  kept  with  jealousy  from  the  profane  eye  of 
the  people,  Buddhism,  rejoicing  in  its  universality, 
aspires  to  be  the  religion  of  the  multitude,  throws  open 
its  sacred  pages  without  restriction,  and  encourages  their 
perusal  as  a  meritorious  act  of  devotion.  The  despotic 
ministers  of  Brahma  affect  to  be  versed  only  in  arcana 
and  mystery,  and  to  issue  their  dicta  from  oracular  autho- 
rity ;  but  the  priesthood  of  Buddha  assume  no  higher 
functions  than  those  of  teachers  of  ethics,  and  claim  no 
loftier  title  than  that  of  "  the  clergy  of  reason." 2 

In  the  character  of  the  Singhalese  people  there  is  to  be 
traced  much  of  the  genius  of  their  religion.  The  same 
passiveness  and  love  of  ease  which  restrain  from  active 
exertion  in  the  labours  of  life,  find  a  counterpart  in  the 
adjustment  by  which  virtue  is  limited  to  abstinence,  and 


1  HARVARD'S  History  of  the  Wes- 
Icyan  Mission  in  Ceylon,  Introd., 
p.  iii. 

8  The  sect  of  the  Lao  Tsen,  or 
"  Doctors  of  Reason/'  -whom  LAN- 
DKESSE  regards  as  a  development  of 


Buddhism,  prevailed  in  Thibet  and 
the  countries  lying  between  China 
and  India  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies ;  and  FA  HIAN  always  refers  to 
them  as  the  "  Clergy  of  R 
Foe  Koue  Ki,  chap,  xxxviii. 


544 


BUDDHISM   AND   DEMON-WORSHIP. 


[PART  IV. 


worship  to  contemplation ;  with  only  so  much  of  actual 
ceremonial  as  may  render  visible  to  the  eye  what  would 
be  otherwise  inaccessible  to  the  mind.  The  same  love  of 
repose  which  renders  sleep  and  insensibility  the  richest 
blessings  of  this  life,  anticipates  torpor,  akin  to  extinction, 
as  the  supremest  felicity  of  the  next.  In  common  with 
all  other  nations  they  deem  some  form  of  religious  wor- 
ship indispensable,  but,  contrary  to  the  usage  of  most, 
they  are  singularly  indifferent  as  to  what  that  particular 
form  is  to  be ;  leaving  it  passively  to  be  determined  by 
the  conjunction  of  circumstances,  the  accident  of  locality, 
and  the  influence  of  friends  or  worldly  prospects  of  gain. 
Still,  in  the  hands  of  the  Christian  missionary,  they  are 
by  no  means  the  plastic  substance  which  such  a  descrip- 
tion would  suggest — capable  of  being  moulded  into 
any  form,  or  retaining  permanently  any  casual  im- 
pression-— but  rather  a  yielding  fluid  which  adapts  its 
shape  to  that  of  the  vessel  into  which  it  may  happen  to 
be  poured,  without  any  change  in  its  quality  or  any  mo- 
dification of  its  character. 

From  the  unexcitable  temperament  of  the  people,  com- 
bined with  the  exalted  morals  which  form  the  articles  of 
their  belief,  result  phenomena  which  for  upwards  of  three 
hundred  years  have  more  or  less  baffled  the  exertions  of 
all  who  have  laboured  for  the  overthrow  of  their  national 
superstition  and  the  elevation  of  Christianity  in  its  stead. 
The  precepts  of  the  latter,  when  offered  to  the  natives 
apart  from  the  divinity  of  their  origin,  present  something 
in  appearance  so  nearly  akin  to  their  own  tenets  that  they 
have  been  slow  to  discern  their  superiority.  If  Christianity 
requires  purity  and  truth,  temperance,  honesty  and  bene- 
volence, these  are  already  discovered  to  be  enjoined  with 
at  least  equal  impressiveness  in  the  precepts  of  Buddha. 
The  Scripture  commandment  forbidding  murder  is  sup- 
posed to  be  analogous  to  the  Buddhist  prohibition  to  kill1; 


1  The  order  of  Buddha  not  to  take 
away  life  is  imperative  and  unqua- 
lified as  regards  the  priesthood  ;  but 


to  mankind  in  general  it  forms  one 
of  his  "  Sikfhapada,"  or  advices,  and 
admits  of  modification  under  certain 


CHAP.  XL] 


CHRISTIAN  CONVERTS   FEW. 


545 


and  where  the  law  and  the  Gospel  alike  enforce  the  love 
of  one's  neighbour  as  the  love  of  one's  self,  Buddhism 
insists  upon  charity  as  the  basis  of  worship,  and  calls  on 
its  own  followers  "  to  appease  anger  by  gentleness,  and 
overcome  evil  by  good." 1 

Thus  the  outward  concurrence  of  Christianity  in  those 
points  on  which  it  agrees  with  their  own  religion,  has 
proved  more  embarrassing  to  the  natives  than  their  per- 
plexity as  to  others  in  which  it  essentially  differs  ;  till  at 
last,  too  timid  to  doubt  and  too  feeble  to  inquire,  they 
cling  with  helpless  tenacity  to  their  own  superstition,  and 
yet  subscribe  to  the  new  faith  simply  by  adding  it  on  to 
the  old. 

Combined  with  this  state  of  irresolution  a  serious  ob- 
stacle to  the  acceptance  of  reformed  Christianity  by  the 
Singhalese  Buddhists  has  arisen  from  the  differences  and 
disagreements'  between  the  various  churches  by  whose 
ministers  it  has  been  successively  offered  to  them.  In  the 
persecution  of  the  Eoman  Catholics  by  the  Dutch,  the 
subsequent  supercession  of  the  Church  of  HoUand  by  that 
of  England,  the  rivalries  more  or  less  apparent  between 
the  Episcopalians  and  Presbyterians,  and  the  peculiarities 
which  separate  the  Baptists  from  the  Wesleyan  Methodists 
— ah1  of  whom  have  their  missions  and  representatives  in 
Ceylon — the  Singhalese  can  discover  little  more  than  that 
they  are  offered  something  still  doubtful  and  unsettled, 
in  exchange  for  which  they  are  pressed  to  surrender  their 


contingencies.  A  priest  who  should 
take  away  the  life  of  an  animal,  or 
even  an  insect,  under  any  circum- 
stances, would  be  guilty  of  the  offence 
denominated  Pachittvya  and  subject 
to  penal  discipline ;  but  to  take  away 
human  life,  to  be  accessory  to  murder, 
or  to  encourage  to  suicide,  amounts 
to  the  sin  of  Pardjika,  and  is  visited 
with  permanent  expulsion  from  the 
order.  As  regards  the  laity,  the  use 
of  animal  food  is  not  forbidden,  pro- 
vided the  individual  has  not  him- 
self been  an  agent  in  depriving  it 

VOL.    I. 


of  life.  The  doctrine  of  prohibition, 
however,  although  thus  regulated, 
like  many  others  of  the  Buddhists, 
by  subtleties  and  sophistry,  has  proved 
an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  Mission- 
aries ;  and,  coupled  with  the  permis- 
sion in  the  Scriptures  "  to  slay  and 
eat,"  it  has  not  failed  to  operate  pre- 
j  udicially  to  the  spread  of  Christianity. 
1  From  the  Singhalese  book,  the 
"  Dharmma  Padan,  or  Footsteps  of 
Religion,  portions  of  which  are  trans- 
lated in  "  The  Friend,"  Colombo, 
1840. 
N 


546 


BUDDHISM   AND   DEMON-WOKSHIP. 


[PART  IV. 


own  ancient  superstition.  Conscious  of  their  inability  to 
decide  on  what  has  baffled  the  wisest  of  their  European 
teachers  to  reconcile,  they  hesitate  to  exchange  for  an 
apparent  uncertainty  that  which  has  been  unhesitatingly 
believed  by  generations  of  their  ancestors,  and  which 
comes  recommended  to  them  by  all  the  authority  of  an- 
tiquity ;  and  even  when  truth  has  been  so  far  successful 
as  to  shake  their  confidence  in  their  national  faith,  the 
choice  of  sects  which  has  been  offered  to  them  leads  to 
utter  bewilderment  as  to  the  peculiar  form  of  Christianity 
with  which  they  may  most  confidingly  replace  it.1 


1  A  narrative  of  the  efforts  made 
by  the  Portuguese  to  introduce 
Christianity,  and  hy  the  Dutch  to 
establish  the  reformed  Religion,  will 
be  found  in  Sir  J.  EMERSON  TENNENT'S 
Christianity  in  Ceylon  ;  together  with 
an  exposition  of  the  systems  adopted 
by  the  European  and  "American  mis- 
sions, and  their  influence  on  the  Hindu 
and  Buddhist  races,  respectively. 


Those  who  seek  to  pursue  the  study 
of  Buddhism,  its  tenets  and  econo- 
mies, as  it  exhibits  itself  in  Ceylon, 
will  find  ample  details  in  the  two 
profound  works  published  by  Mr. 
R.  SPENCE  HARDY  :  Eastern  Mona- 
chism,  Lond.  1850,  and  A  Manual  of 
Buddhism,  in  its  Modern  Development, 
Lond.  1853. 


PART  V. 


MEDIEVAL    HISTORY. 


549 


CHAPTEE  I. 

CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  GREEKS  AND  EOMANS. 

ALTHOUGH  mysterious  rumours  of  the  wealth  and 
wonders  of  India  had  reached  the  Western  nations  in 
the  heroic  ages,  and  though  travellers  at  a  later  period 
returning  from  Persia  and  the  East  had  spread  romantic 
reports  of  its  vastness  and  magnificence,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  Ceylon  had  been  heard  of  in  Europe  l  even 


1  Nothing  is  more  strikingly  sug- 
gestive of  the  extended  renown  of 
Ceylon  and  of  the  different  countries 
which  maintained  an  intercourse  with 
the  island,  than  the  number  and 
dissimilarity  of  the  names  by  which 
it  has  been  known  at  various  periods 
throughout  Europe  and  Asia.  So 
remarkable  is  this  peculiarity,  that 
LASSEN  has  made  "the  names  of 
Taprobane"  the  subject  of  several 
learned  disquisitions  (De  Taprobane 
Insula  veter.  cogn.  Dissert,  sec.  2,  p. 
5;  Imlische  Alterthumskunde,  vol.  i. 
p.  200,  note  viii..p.  212,  &c.)  ;  and 
BUBNOUF  has  devoted  two  elaborate 
essays  to  their  elucidation,  Journ. 
Asiat.  1826,  vol.  viii.  p.  129.  Ibid., 
1857,  vol.  xxxiii.  p.  1. 

In  the  literature' of  the  Brahmans, 
Lanka,  from  having  been  the  scene 
of  the  exploits  of  Rama,  is  as  re- 
nowned as  Ilion  in  the  great  epic  of 
the  Greeks.  "  Taprobane,"  the  name 
by  which  the  island  was  first  known 
to  the  Macedonians,  is  derivable  from 
the  Pali  "  Tamba  panni."  The  ori- 
gin of  the  epithet  will  be  found  in 
the  Mahaicanso,  ch.  vii.  p.  56 ;  and 
it  is  further  noticed  in  the  present 
work,  Vol.  I.  P.  I.  ch.  i.  p.  17,  and 
P.  m.  ch.  ii.  p.  368.  —  It  has  like- 
wise been  referred  to  the  Sanskrit 
"  Tambrapani ;"  which,  according  to 
LASSEN,  means  "the  great  pond,"  or 
"the  pond  covered  with  the  red 


lotus,''  and  was  probably  associated 
with  the  gigantic  tanks  for  which 
Ceylon  is  so  remarkable.  In  later 
times  Taprobane  was  exchanged  for 
Simundu,  Palai-simundu,  and  Salike, 
under  which  names  it  is  described 
by  PTOLEMY,  the  author  of  the  Pen- 
plm,  and  by  MAECIANTJS  of  Hera- 
clsea.  Palai-simundu,  LASSEN  con- 
jectures to  be  derived  from  the  San- 
skrit Pali-simanta,  "  the  head  of  the 
sacred  law,"  from  Ceylon  having  be- 
come the  great  centre  of  the  Budd- 
hist faith  (De  Taprob.,  p.  16  ;  Indi- 
sche  Alter,  vol.  i.  p.  200)  ;  and  Salike 
he  regards  merely  as  a  seaman's  cor- 
ruption of  "  Sinhala  or  Sihala,"  the 
name  chosen  by  the  Singhalese  them- 
selves, and  signifying  "  the  dwelling 
place  of  lions."  BTJRNOIJF  suggests 
whether  it  may  not  be  Sri-Lanka,  or 
"  Lanka  the  Blessed." 

Sinhah,  with  the  suffix  of  "  diva," 
or  "dwipa"  (island),was  subsequently 
converted  into  "  Silan-dwipa  "  and 
"Seren-diva,"  whence  the  "  Serendib" 
of  the  Arabian  navigators  and  their 
romances;  and  this  in  later  times 
was  contracted  into  Zeilan  by  the 
Portuguese,  Ceylan  by  the  Dutch, 
and  Ceylon  by  th'e  English.  VINCENT, 
in  his  Commentary  on  the  Periplus  of 
the  Erythraean  Sea,  vol.  ii.  p.  493, 
has  enumerated  a  vai-iety  of  other 
names  borne  by  the  island;  and  to 
all  these  might  be  further  added 


550 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTOEY. 


[PART  V. 


by  name  till  the  companions  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
returning  from  his  Indian  expedition,  brought  back 
accounts  of  what  they  had  been  told  of  its  elephants 
and  ivory,  its  tortoises  and  marine  monsters.1 

So  vague  and  uncertain  was  the  information  thus 
obtained,  that  STKABO,  writing  upwards  of  two  cen- 
turies later,  manifests  irresolution  in  stating  that 
Taprobane  was  an  island  2 ;  and  POMPONIUS  MELA,  who 
wrote  early  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
quotes  as  probable  the  conjecture  of  HIPPAECHUS,  that 
it  was  not  in  reality  an  island,  but  the  commencement 
of  a  south-eastern  continent3;  an  opinion  which  PLINY 
records  as  an  error  that  had  prevailed  previous  to  his 
own  time,  but  which  he  had  been  enabled  to  correct  by 
the  information  received  from  the  ambassador  who  had 
been  sent  from  Ceylon  to  the  Emperor  Claudius.4 

In  the  treatise  De  Mundo,  which  is  ascribed  to  ARIS- 
TOTLE 5,  Taprobane  is  mentioned  incidentally  as  of  less 
size  than  Britain ;  and  this  is  probably  the  earliest  his- 


those  assigned  to  it  in  China,  in 
Siam,  in  Hindustan,  Kashmir,  Persia, 
and  other  countries  of  the  East.  The 
learned  ingenuity  of  BOCHART  ap- 
plied a  Hebrew  root  to  expound  the 
origin  of  Taprobane  (Geogr.  Sac.  lib. 
ii.  ch.  xxviii.) ;  but  the  later  re- 
searches of  TTJRNOTJR,  BTJRNOTIF,  and 
LASSEN  have  traced  it  with  certainty 
to  its  Pali  and  Sanskrit  origin. 

1  GOSSELIN,  in  his  Recherches  sur 
la   Geographic  dcs  Andens,  torn.  iii. 
p.  291,  says   that    Onesicritus,   the 
pilot  of   Alexander's  fleet,    "  avait 
visite"    la     Taprobane     pendant    un 
nouveau  voyage  qu'il  eut  ordre   de 
faire."     If  so,  he  was  the  first  Euro- 
pean on  record  who  had  seen  the 
island  ;  but  I  have  searched  unsuc- 
cessfully for  any  authority  to  sustain 
this  statement  of  GOSSELIN. 

2  STRABO,  1.  ii.  c.  i.  s.  14,  c.  v.  s.  14, 

tlvai  0a(7i  vrjaov;  1.  XV.  C.  i.  8. 14.  OviD 

was  more  confident,  and  sung  of — 

" Syene 

Aut  ubi  Taprobanen  Indica  cingit  aqua." 
Epist.  ex  Ponto,  i.  80. 


3  "  Taprobanen  aut  grandis  admo- 
dum  insula  aut  prima  pars  orbis  al- 
terius   Hipparcho    dicitur."  —  POM- 
PONIUS  MELA,  iii.  7.  "Dubitare  pote- 
rant  juniores  num  revera  insula  esset 
quam  illi   pro    vejieruni    Taprobane 
habebant,  si  nemo  eousque  repertus 
esset  qui  earn  circumnavigasset :  sic 
enim  de  nostra  quoque  Britannia  dubi- 
tatum   est  essetne   insula  antequam 
illam  circumnavigasset  Agricola." — 
Dissertatio  de^Etate  et  Auctore  Peripli 
Marts    Erythrcei;    HUDSON,     Geoff. 
Veter.  Scrip.  Grcec.  Mm.,  vol.  i.  p.  97. 

4  PLINY,  1.  vi.  c.  24. 

5  I  have  elsewhere  disposed  of  the 
alleged  allusions  of  Sanchoniathon  to 
an  island  which  was  obviously  meant 
for  Ceylon.     (See  Note  (A)  end  of 
this  chapter.)     The  authenticity   of 
the  treatise  De  Mundo,   as  a  pro- 
duction of  ARISTOTLE,  is  somewhat 
doubtful  (SCH<ELL,  Liter  at.   Grecque, 
liv.  iv.  c.  xl.)  ;  and  it  might  add  to  the 
suspicion  of  its  being  a  modem  com- 
position,   that    Aristotle   should   do 
no  more  than  mention  the  name  and 


CHAP.  I.] 


THE    GKEEKS. 


551 


torical  notice  of  Ceylon  that  has  come  down  to  us1  as 
the  memoirs  of  Alexander's  Indian  officers,   on  whose 


size  of  a  country  of  which  Onesi- 
critus  and  Nearchus  had  just  brought 
home  accounts  so  surprising1 ;  and 
that  he  should  speak  of  it  with  con- 
fidence as  an  island,  although  the 
question  of  its  insularity  remained 
somewhat  uncertain  at  a  much  later 
period. 

1  FABBICTUS,  in  the  supplemental 
volume  of  his  Codex  Pseudepiyraphi 
veteris  Testamenti,  Hamb.,  A.D.  1723, 
says,  "  Samarita,  Genesis,  yiii.  4,  tra- 
dit  Noae  arcam  requievisse  super 
montem  r»}<;  Serendib  sive  Zeylan.  — 
P.  30;  and  it  was  possibly  upon 
this  authority  that  it  has  been  stated 
in  KITTO'S  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical 
Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  199,  as  "  a  curi- 
ous circumstance  that  in  Genesis, 
viii.  4,  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
has  Sarandib,  the  Arabic  name  of 
Ceylon,"  instead  of  Ararat,  as  the 
resting  place  of  the  ark.  Were  this 
true,  it  would  give  a  triumph  to  spe- 
culation, and  serve  by  a  single  but 
irresistible  proof  to  dissipate  doubt, 
if  there  were  any,  as  to  the  early 
intercourse  between  the  Hebrews  and 
that  island  as  the  country  from  which 
Solomon  drew  his  triennial  supplies 
of  ivory,  apes,  and  peacocks  (1  Kings, 
x.  22).  Assuming  the  correctness 
of  the  opinion  that  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  is  as  old  as  the  separa- 
tion of  the  tribes  in  the  reign  of 
Rehoboam,  B.  c.  975-958,  this  would 
not  only  furnish  a  notice  of  Ceylon 
far  anterior  to  any  existing  autho- 
rity ;  but  would  assign  an  antiquity 
irreconcilable  with  historical  evidence 
as  to  its  comparatively  modern  name 
of  "  Serendib."  The  interest  of  the 
discovery  would  still  be  extraordinary, 
even  if  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
be  referred  to  the  later  date  assigned 
to  it  by  Frankel,  who  adduces  evi- 
dence to  show  that  its  writer  had 
made  use  of  the  Septuagint.  The 
author  of  the  article  in  the  Biblical 
Cyclopaedia  is  however  in  error. 
Every  copy  of  the  Samaritan  Pen- 
tateuch, both  those  printed  in  the 
Paris  Polyglot  and  in  that  of  WALTON, 


as  weU  as  the  five  MSS.  in  the  Bod- 
leian Library  at  Oxford,  which  con- 
tain the  eighth  chapter  of  Genesis, 
together  with  several  collations  of  the 
Hebrew  and  Samaritan  text,  make 
no  mention  of  Sarandib,  but  all  ex- 
hibit the  word  "  Ararat  "  in  its  pro- 
per place  in  the  eighth  chapter  of 
Genesis.  "Ararat"  is  also  found 
correctly  in  BLATNEY'S  Pentat. 
Hebrceo-Samarit.,  Oxford,  1790. 

But  there  is  another  work  in 
which  "  Sarandib "  does  appear  in 
the  verse  alluded  to.  PIETRO  DELLA 
VALLE,  in  that  most  interesting  letter 
in  which  he  describes  the  manner 
in  which  he  obtained  at  Damascus, 
in  A.  D.  1616,  a  manuscript  of  the 
Pentateuch  on  parchment  in  the 
Hebrew  language,  but  written  in 
Samaritan  characters ;  relates  that 
along  with  it  he  procured  another  on 
paper,  in  which  not  only  the  letters, 
but  the  language,  was  Samaritan — 
"che  non  solo  e  scritto  con  lettere 
Samaritane,  ma  in  lingua  anche 
propria  de'  Samaritani,  che  e  un 
misto  della  Ebraica  e  della  Caldea." 
—  Viaggi,  8fc.,  Lett,  da  Aleppo,  15. 
di  Giugno  A.D.  1616. 

The  first  of  these  two  manuscripts 
is  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  the 
second  is  the  "  Samaritan  version  "  of 
it.  The  author  and  age  of  the  second 
are  alike  unknown;  but  it  cannot,  in 
the  opinion  of  Frankel,  date  earlier 
than  the  second  century,  or  a  still 
later  period.  (DAVISON'S  Biblical  Cri- 
ticism, vol.  i.  ch.  xv.  p.  242.)  Like 
all  ancient  targums,  it  bears  in  some 
particulars  the  character  of  a  para- 
phrase ;  and  amongst  other  departures 
from  the  literal  text  of  the  original 
Hebrew,  the  translator,  following  the 
example  of  Onkelos  and  others,  has 
substituted  modern  geographical 
names  for  some  of  the  more  ancient, 
such  as  Gerizim  for  Mount  Ebal 
(Deut.  xxvii.  4),  Paneas  for  Dan,  and 
Ascalon  for  Gerar;  and  in  the  4th 
verse  of  the  viiith  chapter  of  Genesis 
he  has  made  the  ark  to  rest"  upon 
the  mountains  of  Sarandib."  Onkelos 


55'2 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


authority  Aristotle  (if  he  be  the  author  of  the  treatise 
"  De  Mundo ")  must  have  written,  survive  only  in 
fragments,  preserved  by  the  later  historians  and  geo- 
graphers. 

From  their  compilations,  however,  it  ^  appears  that 
the  information  concerning  Ceylon  collected  by  the  Mace- 
donian explorers  of  India,  was  both  meagre  and  erro- 
neous. OXESICRITUS,  as  he  is  quoted  by  Strabo  and 
Pliny,  propagated  exaggerated  statements  as  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  island 1,  and  the  number  of  herbivorous  ceta- 
cea  2  found  in  its  seas ;  the  elephants  he  described  as  far 
surpassing  those  of  continental  India  both  in  courage 
and  in  size.3 

MEGASTHEXES,  twenty  years  after  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  was  accredited  as  an  ambassador  from 
Seleucus  Mcator  to  the  court  of  Sandracottus,  or 
Chandra-Gupta,  the  King  of  the  Prasii4,  from  whose 
country  Ceylon  had  been  colonised  two  centuries  before 
by  the  expedition  under  Wijayo.5  It  was,  perhaps, 


in  the  same  passage  lias  Kardu  in 
place  of  Ararat.  See  WALTON'S 
Pohjqlot,  vol.  i.  p.  31 ;  BASTOW,  Jiibl. 
Diet.  1847,  vol.  i.  p.  71. 

According  to  the  Mahawanso,  the 
epithet  of  Sihale-dwipa,  the  island  of 
lions,  was  conferred  upon  Ceylon  by 
the  followers  of  "VVijayo,  B.C.  543 
(Mahawanso,  ch.  vii.  p.  51),  and  from 
this  was  formed,  by  the  Arabian  sea- 
men, the  names  Silan-dip  and  Seran- 
dib.  The  occurrence  of  the  latter 
word,  therefore,  in  the  "Samaritan 
Pentateuch,"  if  its  antiquity  be  refer- 
able to  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  would 
be  inexplicable ;  whereas  no  anachron- 
ism is  involved  by  its  appearance  in 
the  "  Samaritan  version,"  which  was 
not  written  till  many  centuries  after 
the  "Wijayan  conquest. 

There  is  another  manuscript,  written 
on  bombycine,  in  the  Bodleian  Libra- 
ry, No.  345,  described  as  an  Aa-abic 
version  of  the  Pentateuch,  written 
between  the  years  884  and  885  of 
the  Hejira,  A.D.  1479  and  1480,  and 


ascribed  to  Aba  Said,  son  of  Abu 
Hassan,  "in  eo  continetur  versio 
Arabica  Pentateuchi  quae  ex  textu 
Hebrseico-Samaritano  non  ex  versions 
ilia  qiue  dialecto  quadam  peculiari 
Samaritanis  quondam  vernacula  Scrip- 
ta  est."—Cat.  Orient.  MSS.  vol.  i.  p.  2. 
In  this  manuscript,  also,  the  word 
Sarendip,  instead  of  Ararat,  occurs  in 
the  passage  in  Genesis  descriptive  of 
the  resting  of  the  ark. 

1  These  early  errors  as  to  the  size 
and  position  of  Ceylon  will  be  found 
explained  elsewhere.    See  Vol.  I.  P.  I. 
ch.  i.  p.  81. 

2  STRABO,  xv.  p.  691.     The  animal 
referred  to  by  the  informants  of  One- 
sicritus  was  the  dugong,  whose  form 
and  attitudes  gave  rise  to  the  fabled 
mermaid.     See  ./ELIAI?,  lib.  xvi.  ch. 
xviii.,  who  says  it  has  the  face  of  a 
woman  and  spines  that  resemble  hair. 

4  PLTKY,  lib.  vi.  ch.  24.    See  ILtp 
of  India,  p.  330,  where  it  is  put  down 
Prachi. 

5  See  Vol.  I.  P.  m.  ch.  iii.  p.  336. 


ClIAP.  I.] 


THE   GREEKS. 


553 


from  the  latter  circumstance  and  the  communication 
subsequently  maintained  between  the  insular  colony 
and  the  mother  country,  that  Megasthenes,  who  never 
visited  any  part  of  India  south  of  the  Ganges,  and  who 
was,  probably,  the  first  European  who  ever  beheld 
that  renowned  river  \  was  nevertheless  enabled  to 
collect  many  particulars  relative  to  the  interior  of 
Ceylon.  He  described  it  as  being  divided  by  a  river 
(the  Mahawelli-ganga  ?)  into  two  sections,  one  infested 
by  wild  beasts  and  elephants,  the  other  producing  gold 
and  gems,  and  inhabited  by  a  people  whom  he  called 
Palaeogoni 2,  a  hellenized  form  of  Pali-Putra,  "  the  sons 
of  the  Pah,"  the  first  Prasian  colonists. 

Such  was  the  scanty  knowledge  regarding  India 
communicated  to  Europe  by  those  who  had  followed 
the  footsteps  of  conquest  into  that  remote  region;  and 
although  eighteen  centuries  elapsed  from  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Great  before  another  European  power 
sought  to  establish  its  dominion  in  the  East,  a  new 
passion  had  been  early  implanted,  the  cultivation  of 
which  was  in  the  highest  degree  favourable  to  the  ac- 
quisition and  diffusion  of  geographical  knowledge.  In 
an  age  before  the  birth  of  history3,  the  adventurous 
Phoenicians,  issuing  from  the  Eed  Sea,  in  their  ships, 


1  ROBERTSON'S  Ancient  India,  sec. 
ii. 

z  SCHWANBECK'S  Megastfienes, 
Fraqm.  xviii. ;  SOLINTTS  POLYHISTOR, 
liii.  3 ;  PLINY,  Ivi.  ch.  24.  ^£LIAN, 
in  compiling  his  Natura  Animali- 
um,  has  introduced  the  story  told 
by  MEGASTHENES,  and  quoted  by 
STBABO,  of  cetaceous  animals  in  the 
seas  of  Ceylon  with  heads  resembling 
oxen  and  lions ;  and  this  justifies  the 
conjecture  that  other  portions  of  the 
same  work  referring  to  the  island  may 
have  been  simultaneously  borrowed 
from  the  same  source.  SCHWAN- 
BECK,  apparently  on  this  ground,  has 
included  among  the  Fragmenta  in- 
certa  those  passages  from  ^EiJAN, 
lib.  xvi.  ch.  17,  18,  in  which  he  says, 

VOL.    I.  0 


and  truly,  that  in  Taprobane  there 
were  no  cities,  but  from  five  to  seven 
hundred  villages  built  of  wood, 
thatched  with  reeds,  and  occasionally 
covered  with  the  shells  of  large  tor- 
toises. The  sea  coast  then  as  now 
was  densely  covered  with  palm-trees 
(evidently  coco-nut  and  Palmyra), 
and  the  forests  contained  elephants 
so  superior  to  those  of  India  that 
they  were  shipped  in  large  vessels 
and  sold  to  the  King  of  Kalinga 
(Northern  Circars).  The  island,  he 
says,  is  so  large  that  "  those  in  the 
maritime  districts  never  hunted  in 
the  mterior,  and  those  .in  the  in- 
terior had  never  seen  the  sea." 

3  A  compendious  account  of  the 
early  trade  between  India  and  the 

0 


551 


MEDIAEVAL    HISTOEY. 


[PART  V. 


had  reached  the  shores  of  India,  and  centuries  afterwards 
their  experienced  seamen  piloted  the  fleets  of  Solomon  in 
search  of  the  luxuries  of  the  East.1 

Egypt,  under  the  Ptolemies,  became  the  seat  of  that 
opulent  trade  which  it  had  been  the  aim  of  Alexander 
the  Great  to  divert  to  it  from  Syria.  Berenice  was 
built  on  the  Eed  Sea,  as  an  emporium  for  the  ships 
engaged  in  Indian  voyages,  and  Alexandria  excelled 
Tyre  in  the  magnitude  and  success  of  her  mercantile 
operations. 

The  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Augustus,  so  far  from 
checking,  served  to  communicate  a  fresh  impulse  to  the 
intercourse  with  India,  whence  all  that  was  costly  and 
rare  was  collected  in  wanton  profusion,  to  minister  to 
the  luxury  of  Rome.  A  bold  discovery  of  the  same 
period  imparted  an  entirely  new  character  to  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  previous  impediment 
to  trade  had  been  the  necessity  of  carrying  it  on  in 
small  vessels,  that  crept  cautiously  along  the  windings 
of  the  shore,  the  crews  being  too  ignorant  and  too  timid 
to  face  the  dangers  of  the  open  sea.  But  the  courage 
of  an  individual  at  length  solved  the  difficulty,  and  dis- 
sipated the  alarm.  Hippalus,  a  seaman  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  observing  the  steady  prevalence  of  the  mon^ 
soons  2,  which  blew  over  the  Indian  Ocean  alternately 
from  east  and  west,  dared  to  trust  himself  to  their  in- 


countries  bordering  on  the  Medi- 
terranean will  be  found  in  PARDES- 
sus's  Collection  des  Lois  Maritimes 
anterieures  au  XVIIIs  siecle.  torn.  i. 
p.  9. 

1  It  has  been  conjectured,  and  not 
without  reason,  that  it  may  possibly 
have  been  from  Ceylon  and  certainly 
from  Southern  India  that  the  fleets 
of  Solomon  were  returning  when 
"  once  in  every  three  years  came  the 
ships  of  Tarshish,  bringing  gold  and 
silver,  ivory,  apes,  and  peacocks."  — 
/  Kings,  x.  22,  II  Chron.  xx.  21. 
An  exposition  of  the  reasons  for 
believing  that  the  site  of  Tarshish 


may  be  recognised  in  the  modem 
Point  de  Galle  will  be  found  in  a 
subsequent  chapter  descriptive  of 
that  ancient  emporium.  See  also 
Note  A  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

2  Arabic  "  mcnissam."  I  believe  the 
root  belongs  to  a  dialect  of  India,  and 
signifies  "seasons."  VINCENT  fixes 
the  discovery  of  the  monsoons  by 
Hippalus  about  the' year  A.D.  47,  al- 
though it  admits  of  no  doubt  that  the 
periodical  prevalence  of  the  winds 
must  have  been  known  long  before, 
if  not  partially  taken  advantage  of 
by  the  seamen  of  Arabia  and  India. 
Perils,  $c.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  24—57. 


CIIAP.  I.]  IIIPPALUS.  555 

fluence,  and  departing  from  the  coast  of  Arabia,  he 
stretched  fearlessly  across  the  unknown  deep,  and  was 
carried  to  Muziris,  a  port  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  the 
modern  Mangalore. 

An  exploit  so  adventurous  and  so  triumphant,  ren- 
dered Hippalus  the  Columbus  of  his  age,  and  his 
countrymen,  to  perpetuate  his  renown,  called  the  winds 
which  he  had  mastered  by  his  name.1  His  discovery 
gave  a  new  direction  to  navigation,  altered  the  di- 
mensions and  build  of  the  ships  frequenting  those  seas  2, 
and  imparted  so  great  an  impulse  to  trade,  that  within 
a  very  brief  period  it  became  a  subject  of  apprehension 
at  Eome,  lest  the  empire  should  be  drained  of  its  specie 
to  maintain  the  commerce  with  India ;  —  silver  to  the 
value  of  nearly  a  million  and  a  half  sterling,  being 
annually  required  to  pay  for  the  spices,  gems,  pearls,  and 
silks,  imported  through  Egypt.3  An  extensive  acquain- 
tance was  now  acquired  with  the  sea-coast  of  India,  and 
the  great  work  of  Pliny,  compiled  less  than  fifty  years 
after  the  discovery  of  Hippalus,  serves  to  attest  the  ad- 
ditional knowledge  regarding  Ceylon  which  had  been 
collected  during  the  interval. 

Pliny,  writing  in  the  first  century,  puts  aside  the 
fabulous  tales  previously  circulated  concerning  the 
island4;  he  gives  due  credit  to  the  truer  accounts  of 
Onesicritus  and  Megasthenes,  and  refers  to  the  later 


1  Periplus,  fyc.,  HUDSON,  p.  32 ;  I  tured,  but  without  any  justifiable 
PLINY,  lib.  vi.  ch.  26.  A  learned  |  grounds,  to  be  laid  in  Ceylon ;  and 
disquisition  on  the  discovery  of  the  I  which  is  strangely  incorporated  with 
monsoons  will  be  found  in  VIN-  j  the  authentic  work  of  DIODORUS 
CENT'S  Commerce  of  tJie  Ancients,  j  SICFLTJS,  written  in  the  age  of  Au- 
vol.  i.  pp.  47,"  253 ;  vol.  ii.  pp.  49,  j  gustus.  DIODORUS  professes  to  give 
467 ;  ROBERTSON'S  India,  sec.  ii.  ;  it  as  an  account  of  the  recent  dis- 


PLINY,  lib.  vi.  ch.  24. 
3  PLINY,   lib.   vi.   ch.   26.       The 
nature   of  this  rich   trade   is   fully 
described  by  the  author  of  the  Peri- 


covery  of  an  island  to  which  it  refers ; 
a  fact  sufficiently  demonstrative  of 
its  inapplicability  to  Ceylon,  the  ex- 
istence of  which  had  been  known  to 


pirn  of  the  En/threan  Sea,  who  was  j  the  Greeks  three  hundred  years  be- 
himself  a  merchant  engaged  in  it.          fore.     It  is  the  story  of  a  merchant 


4  I  have  not  thought  it  necessary 
to  advert  to  the  romance  of  JAMBTTLTJS, 
the  scene  of  which  has  been  conjee- 


made  captive  by  pirates  and  carried 
to  /Ethiopia,  where,  in  compliance 
with  a  solemn  rite,  he  and  a  com- 


o  o   2 


556 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PAET  V. 


works  of  ERATOSTHENES  and  ARTEMIDORUS  x  the  geo- 
graphers, as  to  its  position,  its  dimensions,  its  cities, 
its  natural  productions,  and  as  to  the  ignorance  of  navi- 
gation exhibited  by  its  inhabitants.  All  this,  he  says, 
was  recorded  by  former  writers,  but  it  had  fallen  to 
his  lot  to  collect  information  from  natives  of  Ceylon 
who  had  visited  Eome  during  his  own  time  under  sin- 
gular circumstances.  A  ship  had  been  despatched  to 
the  coast  of  Arabia  to  collect  the  Eed  Sea  revenues,  but 
having  been  caught  by  the  monsoon  it  was  carried  to 
Hippuros,  the  modern  Koodra-malie,  in  the  north-west 
of  Ceylon,  near  the  pearl  banks  of  Manaar.  Here  the 
officer  in  command  was  courteously  received  by  the 
king,  who,  struck  with  admiration  of  the  Eomans  and 
eager  to  form  an  alliance  with  them,  despatched  an 
embassy  to  Italy,  consisting  of  a  Eaja  and  suite  of  three 
persons.2 


panion  were  exposed  in  a  boat,  which, 
after  a  voyage  of  four  months,  was 
wafted  to  one  of  the  Fortunate  Is- 
lands, in  the  Southern  Sea,  where 
he  resided  seven  years,  whence  having 
been  expelled,  he  made  his  way  to 
Palibothra,  on  the  Ganges,  and  thence 
returned  to  Greece.  In  the  pre- 
tended account  of  this  island  given 
by  JAMBULUS  I  cannot  discover  a  sin- 
gle attribute  sufficient  to  identify  it 
with  Ceylon.  On  the  contrary,  the 
traits  which  he  narrates  of  the  coun- 
try and  its  inhabitants,  when  they 
are  not  manifest  inventions,  are  ob- 
viously borrowed  from  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  continent  of  India,  given 
by  CTESIAS  and  MEGASTHENES. 
PBINSEP,  in  his  learned  analysis  of 
the  Sanchi  Inscription,  shows  that 
what  JAMBULUS  says  of  the  alphabet 
of  his  island  agrees  minutely  with  the 
character  and  symbols  on  the  an- 
cient Buddhist  lats  of  Central  India. 
Jou.rn.  Asiat.  Soc.  Sen.,  vol.  vi.  p. 
476.  WILFORD,  in  his  Essay  on  the 
Sacred  Isles  of  the  West,  Asiat.  Res. 
x.  150,  enumerates  the  statements  of 
JAMBULUS  which  might  possibly  apply 
to  Sumatra,  but  certainly  not  to 
Ceylon,  an  opinion  in  which  he  had 


been  anticipated  by  RAMUSIO,  vol.  i. 
p.  176.  LASSEN,  in  his  Indische  Al- 
terthumskunde,  vol.  iii.  p.  270,  assigns 
his  reasons  for  believing  that  Bali,  to 
the  east  of  Java,  must  be  the  island 
in  which  JAMBULUS  laid  the  scene  of 
his  adventures.  DIODORUS  SICULUS, 
lib.  ii.  ch.  lv.,  &c.  An  attempt  has 
also  been  made  to  establish  an  iden- 
tity between  Ceylon  and  the  island 
of  Panchcea,  which  Diodorus  describes 
in  the  Indian  Sea,  between  Arabia 
and  Gedrosia  (lib.  v..  41,  &c.) ;  but 
the  efforts  of  an  otherwise  ingenious 
writer  have  been  unsuccessful.  See 
GROVER'S  Voice  from  Stonelienge,  pt. 
i.  p.  95. 

1  FLINT,  lib.  xxii.  ch.  liii.  iv.  ch. 
xxiv.  vii.  ch.  ii. 

2  "Legates  quatuor  misit,  principe 
eorum  Rachia. — PLINY,  lib.  vi.  c.  24. 
This  passage  is  generally  understood 
to    indicate    four    ambassadors,    of 
whom  the  principal  was  one  named 
Rachias.    CASIE  CHITTY,  in  a  learned 
paper  on  the  early  History  of  Jaffna, 
offers  another  conjecture  that  "  Ra- 
chia "  may  mean  Arachia,  a  Singha- 
lese designation  of  rank  which  exists 
to  the  present  day;  and  in  support 
of  his  hypothesis  he  instances  the  co- 


CHAP.  I.] 


PLINY. 


557 


The  Singhalese  king  of  whom  this  is  recorded  was 
probably  Chanda-Mukha-Siwa,  who  ascended  the  throne 
A.D.  44,  and  was  deposed  and  assassinated  by  his  brother 
A.D.  52.  He  signalised  his  reign  by  the  construction  of 
one  of  those  gigantic  tanks  which  still  form  the  wonders 
of  the  island.1  From  his  envoys  Pliny  learned  that  Ceylon 
then  contained  five  hundred  towns  (or  more  properly 
villages),  of  which  the  chief  was  Palassimunda,  the 
residence  of  the  sovereign,  with  a  population  of  two 
hundred  thousand  souls. 

They  spoke  of  a  lake  called  Megisba,  of  vast  magni- 
tude, and  giving  rise  to  two  rivers,  one  flowing  by  the 
capital  and  the  other  northwards,  towards  the  conti- 
nent of  India,  which  was  most  likely  an  exaggerated 
account  of  some  of  the  great  tanks,  possibly  that  of 
Tissaweva,  in  the  vicinity  of  Anarajapoora.  They  de- 
scribed the  coral  which  abounds  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar ; 
and  spoke  of  marble,  with  colours  like  the  shell  of  the 
tortoise ;  of  pearls  and  precious  stones ;  of  the  luxuri- 


incidence  that  "at  a  later  period  a 
similar  functionary  was  despatched 
by  the  King  Bhuwaneka-Bahu  VIII. 
as  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Lisbon." 
— Journal  Ceylon  Asiat.  Soc.,  p.  74, 
1848.  The  event  to  which  he  refers 
is  recorded  in  the  Rajavali :  it  is 
stated  that  the  king  of  Gotta,  about 
the  year  1540,  "  caused  a  figure  of 
the  prince  his  grandson  to  be  made 
of  gold,  and  sent  the  same  under 
the  care  of  Sattappoo  Arachy,  to  be 
delivered  to  the  King  of  Portugal. 
The  Arachy  having  arrived  and  de- 
livered the  presents  to  the  King  of 
Portugal,  obtained  the  promise  of 
great  assistance,"  &c. — Rajavali,  p. 
286.  See  also  VALENTIN,  Oud  en 
Nieuw  Oost-Indien,  ch.  vi.  ;  TTO- 
Norn's  Epitome,  p.  49;  RIBEYRO'S 
History,  trans,  by  Lee,  ch.  v.  But 
as  the  embassy  sent  to  the  Emperor 
Claudius  would  necessarily  have  been 
deputed  by  one  of  the  kings  of  the 
"Wijayan  dynasty,  it  is  more  than  pro- 
bable that  the  rank  of  the  envoy  was 
Indian  rather  than  Singhalese,  and 


that  "  Rachia  "  means  raja  rather 
than  arachy. 

It  may,  however,  be  observed  that 
"  Rackha  "  is  a  name  of  some  renown 
in  Singhalese  annals.  Rackha  was  the 
general  whom  Prakrama  Bahu  sent 
to  reduce  the  south  of  Ceylon  when 
in  arms  in  the  12th  century  (Maha- 
wanso,  ch.  Ixxiii.)  ;  and  it  is  also  the 
name  of  one  of  the  heroes  of  the 
Paramas.  WILFORD,  As.  Res.,  vol. 
ix.  p.  41. 

1  Mahawanso,  ch.  xxx.  p.  218; 
TURNOTTR'S  Epitome,  p.  21 ;  AMMI- 
ANtrs  MARCELLTNFS  mentions  another 
embassy  which  arrived  from  Ceylon 
hi  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Julian, 
1.  xx.  c.  7,  and  which  consequently 
must  have  been  despatched  by  the 
king  Upa-tissa  II.  I  have  elsewhere 
remarked,  that  it  was  in  this  century 
that  the  Singhalese  appear  to  have 
first  commenced  the  practice  of  send- 
ing frequent  embassies  to  distant 
countries,  and  especially  to  China. 
(See  chapter  on  the  Knowledge  of 
Ceylon  possessed  by  the  Chinese.) 


oo3 


,558 


MEDLEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


ance  of  the  soil,  the  profusion  of  all  fruits  except  that 
of  the  vine,  the  natural  wealth  of  the  inhabitants,  the 
mildness  of  the  government,  the  absence  of  vexatious 
laws,  the  happiness  of  the  people,  and  the  duration  of 
life,  which  was  prolonged  to  more  than  one  hundred 
years.  They  spoke  of  a  commerce  with  China,  but  it 
was  evidently  overland,  by  way  of  India  and  Tartaiy,  the 
country  of  the  Seres  being  visible,  they  said,  beyond  the 
Himalaya  mountains.1  They  described  the  mode  of 
trading  among  their  own  countrymen  precisely  as  it  is 
practised  by  the  Veddahs  in  Ceylon  at  the  present 
day2 ;  the  parties  to  the  barter  being  concealed  from 
each  other,  the  one  depositing  the  articles  to  be  ex- 
changed in  a  given  place,  and  the  other,  if  they  agree 
to  the  terms,  removing  them  unseen,  and  leaving  behind 
what  they  give  in  return. 

It  is  impossible  to  read  this  narrative  of  Pliny  without 
being  struck  with  its  fidelity  to  truth  in  many  particulars  ; 
and  even  one  passage,  to  which  exception  has  been  taken 
as  an  imposture  of  the  Singhalese  envoys,  when  they 
manifested  surprise  at  the  quarters  in  which  the  sun  rose 
and  set  in  Italy,  has  been  referred3  to  the  peculiar  system 
of  the  Hindus,  in  whose  maps  north  and  south  are  left 
and  right ;  but  it  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  of  the  sun 
passing  over  and  to  the  north  of  Ceylon,  in  his  transit  to 
the  summer  solstice  ;  instead  of  hanging  about  the  south, 
as  in  Italy. 

The  rapid  progress  of  navigation  and  discovery  in 
the  Indian  seas,  within  the  interval  of  sixty  or  seventy 
years  which  elapsed  between  the  death  of  Pliny  and 
the  compilation  of  the  great  work  of  Ptolemy  is  in  no 
instance  more  strikingly  exhibited  than  on  comparing 
the  information  concerning  Taprobane,  which  is  given 
by  the  latter  in  his  "  System  of  Geography," 4  with  the 


1  "  Ultra    montes  Emodos    Seras 
quoque  ab  ipsis   aspici  notos  etiam 
commercio." — PLTNY,  lib.  vi.  c.  24. 

2  See  the  chapter  on  the  Veddahs, 
Vol.  II.  Part  II.  ch.  iii. 


3  See  WILFORD'S  Sacred  Inland* 
of  the    West,  Asiat.  Res.,  vol.  x.  p. 

4  PXOLEMT,  Geoff.,  lib.  vii.  c.  4,  tab. 
xii.  Asise.     In  one  important  parti- 


CHAP.  I.] 


PTOLEMY. 


559 


meagre  knowledge  of  the  island  possessed  by  all  his 
predecessors.  From  his  position  at  Alexandria  and 
his  opportunities  of  intercourse  with  mariners  return- 
ing from  their  distant  voyages,  he  enjoyed  unusual 
facilities  for  ascertaining  facts  and  distances,  and  in 
proof  of  his  singular  diligence  he  was  enabled  to  lay 
down  in  his  map  of  Ceylon  the  position  of  eight  pro- 
montories upon  its  coast,  the  mouths  of  five  principal 
rivers,  four  bays,  and  harbours ;  and  in  the  interior  he 
had  ascertained  that  there  were  thirteen  provincial 
divisions,  and  nineteen  towns,  besides  two  emporiums  on 
the  coast;  five  great  estuaries  which  he  terms  lakes1, 


cular  a  recent  author  has  done  jus- 
tice to  the  genius  and  perseverance 
of  Ptolemy,  by  demonstrating  that 
although  mistaken  in  adopting  some 
of  the  fallacious  statements  of  his 
predecessors,  he  has  availed  himself 
of  better  data  by  which  to  fix  the 
position  of  Ceylon ;  so  that  the  west- 
ern coast  in  the  Ptolemaic  map  co- 
incides with  the  modem  Ceylon  in 
the  vicinity  of  Colombo.  Mr.  COOLEY, 
in  his  learned  work  on  Claudius  Pto- 
lemy and  the  Nile,  Lond.  1854,  has 
successfully  shown  that  whilst  forced 
to  accept  those  popular  statements 
which  he  had  no  authentic  data  to 
check,  Ptolemy  conscientiously  a- 
vailed  himself  of  the  best  materials 
at  his  command,  and  endeavoured  to 
fix  his  distances  by  means  of  the  re- 
ports of  the  Greek  seamen  who  fre- 
quented the  coasts  which  he  described, 
constructing  his  maps  by  means  of 
their  itineraries  and  the  'journals  of 
trading  voyages.  But  a  fundamental 
error  pervades  all  his  calculations, 
inasmuch  as  he  assumed  that  there 
were  but  500  stadia  (about  fifty  geo- 
graphical miles)  instead  of  sixty  miles 
to  a  degree  of  a  great  circle  of  the 
earth ;  thus  curtailing  the  globe  of 
one  sixth  of  its  circumference.  Once 
apprised  of  this  mistake,  and  reckon- 
ing Ptolemy's  longitudes  and  lati- 
tudes from  Alexandria,  and  reducing 
them  to  degrees  of  600  stadia,  his 
positions  may  be  laid  down  on  a  more 
correct  graduation  ;  otherwise  "  his 


Taprobane,  magnified  far  beyond  its 
true  dimensions,  appears  to  extend 
two  degrees  below  the  equator,  and 
to  the  seventy-first  meridian  east  of 
Alexandria  (nearly  twenty  degrees 
too  far  east),  whereas  the  prescribed 
reduction  brings  it  westward  and  north- 
ward till  it  covers  the  modem  Ceylon, 
the  western  coasts  of  both  coinciding 
at  the  very  part  near  Colombo  likely 
to  have  been  visited  by  shipping." — 
Pp.  47,  53,  See  also  SCH<ELL,  Hist, 
de  Id  Lit.  Grecque,  1.  v.  c.  Ixx. 


1  It  is  observable  that  Ptolemy  in 
his  list  distinguishes  those  indenta- 
tions in  the  coast  which  he  described 


o  o    4 


560 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTOKY. 


[PART  V. 


two  bays,  and  two  chains  of  mountains,  one  of  them 
surrounding  Adam's  Peak,  which  he  designates  as  Ma- 
laea  —  the  name  by  which  the  hills  that  environ  it  are 
designated  in  the  Mahawanso.  He  mentions  the  recent. 
change  of  the  name  to  Salike  (which  Lassen  conjectures 
to  be  a  seaman's  corruption  of  the  real  name  Sihala  x)  ; 
and  he  notices,  in  passing,  the  fact  that  the  natives 
wore  their  hair  then  as  they  do  at  the  present  day,  in 
such  length  and  profusion  as  to  give  them  an  appear- 
ance of  effeminacy,  "  («.aXXo?^  •yvva.ix=ioi$  sl$  OLTTOLV  ava- 


as  bays,  KoXn-oc,  from  the  estuaries, 
to  which  he  gives  the  epithet  of 
"  lakes,"  \tfifjv.  Of  the  former  he 
particularises  two,  the  position  of 
which  would  nearly  correspond  with 
the  Bay  of  Trincomalie  and  the  har- 
bour of  Colombo.  Of  the  latter  he 
enumerates  five,  and  from  their  posi- 
tion they  seem  to  represent  the  pecu- 
liar estuaries  formed  by  the  conjoint 
influence  of  the  rivers  and  the  cur- 
rent, and  known  by  the  Arabs  by 
the  term  of"gobbs."  A  description  of 
them  will  be  found  at  Vol.  I.  Part  I. 
ch.  i.  p.  43. 

1  May  it  not  have  an   Egyptian 
origin    "Siela-Keh,"    the     land    of 
SOaf 

2  The    description    of   Taprobane 
given    by  Ptolemy  proves  that  the 
island  had  been  thoroughly  circum- 
navigated and  examined  by  the  ma- 
riners who  were  his  informants.    Not 
having  penetrated  the  interior  to  any 
extent,  their  reports  relative  to  it  are 
confined  to  the  names  of   the  prin- 
cipal   tribes    inhabiting  the  several 
divisions  and  provinces,  and  the  po- 
sition of  the  metropolis  and  seat  of 
government.       But    respecting    the 
coast,  their  notes  were  evidently  mi- 
nute   and    generally  accurate,    and 
from  them  Ptolemy  was  enabled  to 
enumerate    in    succession   the   bays, 
rivers,  and   harbours,   together  with 
the  headlands  and  cities  on  the  sea- 
borde  in  consecutive  order ;  beginning 
at  the  northern  extremity,  proceed- 
ing   southward    down    the  western 
coast,  and  returning  along  the  east 


to  Point  Pedro.  Although  the  ma- 
jority of  the  names  which  he  sup- 
plies are  no  longer  susceptible  of 
identification  on  the  modern  map, 
some  of  them  can  he  traced  with- 
out difficulty  —  thus  his  Ganges  is 
still  the  Mahawelli-ganga  ;  his  Ma- 
agrammum  would  appear,  on  a 
first  glance,  to  he  Mahagam,  hut  as 
he  calls  it  the  "  metropolis,"  and 
places  it  beside  the  great  river,  it  is 

j  evidently  Bintenne,  whose  ancient 
name  was  "  Maha-yangana"  or  "  Ma- 
ha-welli-gam."  His  Anurogrammum, 
which  he  calls  (3ani\tiov,  "  the  royal 
residence,"  is  obviously  Anaraja- 
poora,  the  city  founded  by  Anuradha 

j  five  hundred  years  before  Ptolemy 
was  bom  (fifahaivanso,  ch.  vii.  p.  50  ; 
x.  65,  &c.).  It  may  have  borne  in 
his  time  the  secondary  rank  of  a  vil- 
lage or  a  town  (gam  or  gramma),  and 
afterwards  acquired  the  higher  epi- 
thet of  Anuradha-poora,  the  "  city  " 
of  Anuradha,  after  it  had  grown  to 
the  dimensions  of  a  capital.  The 
province  of  the  Modutti  in  Ptolemy's 
list  has  a  close  resemblance  in  name, 
though  not  in  position,  to  Mantotte  ; 
the  people  of  Rayagain  Corle  still 
occupy  the  country  assigned  by  him 
to  the  Rhogandani  —  his  Naga  dibii 
are  identical  with  the  Nagadiva  of 
the  Mahawanso  ;  and  the  islet  to 
which  he  has  given  the  name  of 
Sassa,  occupies  nearly  the  position 
of  the  Basses,  which  it  has  been  the 
custom  to  believe  were  so  called  by 
the  Portuguese  —  "  Baxos  _"  or  "  Bai- 
xos,"  sunken  rocks.  It  is  curious 


TAPROBANE  OR  SALIKE , 

(CEYLON) 

according  to 
Ptolemy  and  Pliny. 


^          *&       IB  •••••  v1  ^*\r  fj&~~      -  y 

sap 

M  A  h.i; ..i-:     M  <•  N  r  i 


CHAP.  I.] 


PTOLEMY. 


561 


The  extent  and  accuracy  of  Ptolemy's  information 
is  so  surprising,  that  it  has  given  rise  to  surmises  as 
to  the  sources  whence  it  could  possibly  have  been  de- 
rived.1 But  the  conjecture  that  he  was  indebted  to 
ancient  Phoenician  or  Tyrian  authorities  whom  he  has 
failed  to  acknowledge,  is  sufficiently  met  by  the  con- 
sideration that  these  were  equally  accessible  to  his  pre- 
decessors. The  abundance  of  his  materials,  especially 
those  relating  to  the  sea-borde  of  India  and  Ceylon,  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  he  was  mainly  indebted  for  his 
facts  to  the  adventurous  merchants  of  Egypt  and 
Arabia,  and  to  works  which,  like  the  Periplus  of  the 
Erythrcean  Sea  (erroneously  ascribed  to  AERIAN  the 
historian,  but  written  by  a  merchant  probably  of  the 
same  name),  were  drawn  up  by  practical  navigators  to 
serve  as  sailing  directions  for  seamen  resorting  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.2 


that  the  position  in  which  he  has 
placed  the  elephant  plains  or  feeding 
grounds,  iXtQavTwv  vopoi,  to  the 
south-east  of  Adam's  Peak,  is  the 
portion  of  the  island  about  Matura, 
where,  down  to  a  very  recent  period, 
the  Portuguese,  the  Dutch,  and  the 
English  successively  held  their  an- 
nual battues,  not  only  for  the  supply 
of  the  government  studs,  but  for  ex- 
port to  India.  Making  due  allowance 
for  the  false  dimensions  of  the  island 
assumed  by  Ptolemy,  but  taking  his 
account  of  the  relative  positions  of 
the  headlands,  rivers,  harbours,  and 
cities,  the  accompanying  map  affords 
a  proximate  idea  of  his  views  of 
Taprobane  and  its  localities  as  pro- 
pounded in  his  Geography. 

Post-scriptum.  Since  the  above 
was  written,  and  the  map  it  refers  to 
was  returned  to  me  from  the  engraver, 
I  have  discovered  that  a  similar 
attempt  to  identify  the  ancient 
names  of  Ptolemy  with  those  now  at- 
tached to  the  supposed  localities,  was 
made  by  Gosselin ;  and  a  chart  so 
constructed  will  be  found  (No.  xiv.) 
appended  to  his  Reclierches  sur  la, 


Geographic  des  Anriens,  t.  iii.  p. 
303.  I  have  been  gratified  to  find 
that  in  the  more  important  points 
we  agree  ;  but  in  many  of  the  minor 
ones,  the  want  of  personal  knowledge 
of  the  island  involved  Gosselin  in  er- 
rors which  the  map  I  have  prepared 
will,  I  hope,  serve  to  rectify.— J.E.T. 

1  HEEREN,  Hist.  Researches,  vol. 
ii.  Appendix  xii. 

8  LASSEN,  De  Taprob.  Ins.  p.  4. 
From  the  error  of  Ptolemy  in  mak- 
ing the  coast  of  Malabar  extend  from 
west  to  east,  whilst  its  true  position 
is  laid  down  in  the  Periplus,  VIN- 
CENT concludes  that  he  was  not  ac- 
quainted with  the  Periplus,  as,  an- 
terior to  the  invention  of  printing, 
cotemporaries  might  readily  oe  igno- 
rant of  the  productions  of  each  other 
(VINCENT,  vol.  ii.  p.  55).  Vincent 
assigns  the  composition  of  the  Pe- 
riplus to  the  reign  of  Claudius  or 
Nero,  and  DodweU  to  that  of  M. 
Aurelius,  but  Letronne  more  judi- 
ciously ascribes  it  to  the  period  of 
]  Severus  and  Caracalla,  A.D.  198, 210, 
>  fifty  years  later  than  Ptolemy.  The 
author,  a  Greek  of  Alexandria  and 
I  a  merchant,  never  visited  Ceylon, 


562 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


So  ample  was  the  description  of  Ceylon  afforded  by 
Ptolemy,  that  for  a  very  long  period  his  successors, 
AGATHEMERUS,  MARCIANUS  of  Heraclea,  and  other  geo- 
graphers, were  severally  contented  to  use  the  facts 
originally  collected  by  him.1  And  it  was  not  till  the 
reign  of  Justinian,  in  the  sixth  century,  that  COSMAS 
INDICO-PLEUSTES,  by  publishing  the  narrative  of  Sopater, 
added  very  considerably  to  the  previous  knowledge  of 
the  island. 

As  Cosinas  is  the  last  Greek  writer  who  treats  of 
Taprobane 2,  it  may  be  interesting,  before  passing  to  his 


though  he  had  been  as  far  south  as 
Nelkynda  (the  modern  Neliseram), 
and  the  account  which  he  gives  from 
report  of  the  island  is  meagre,  and 
in  some  respects  erroneous.  ARRI- 
ANI,  Periplus  Mans  Eryih. ;  HUDSON, 
vol.  i.  p.  35  ;  VINCENT,  vol.  ii.  p.  493. 

1  AGATHEMERUS,  Hudson  Geog.,  1. 
ii.  c.  7,  8. ;  MARCIANUS  HERACLEOTA, 
Periplus,  Hudson,  p.  26.  STEPHANAS 
BYZANTINUS,  in  verbo  "Taprobane." 
Instead  of  the  expression  of  PTOLEMY 
that  Taprobane  ex-aXaro  ?raXai  2//ioiV- 
<W>,  which  MARCIANUS  had  ren- 
dered UaXaifftiioin'Sov,  SlEPHANUS 
transposes  the  words  as  if  to  guard 
against  error,  ira\ai  fiiv  t/caXaro  Si- 
n«vvcov,  &c.  The  prior  authority  of 
PTOLEMY,  however,  serves  to  prolong 
the  mystery,  as  he  calls  the  capital 
Palsesimundum. 

8  There  is  another  curious  work 
which,notwithstanding  certain  doubts 
as  to  its  authorship,  contains  internal 
evidence  entitling  it,  in  point  of  time, 
to  take  precedence  of  COSMAS.  This 
is  the  tract  "  De.  Moribus  Brach- 
manorum,"  ascribed  to  St.  Ambrose, 
and  which  under  the  title  "  lltpl  ro>i< 
rtiQ  'Ivfiag  *«'  Twit  'Bpa\pdvitiv''  has 
been  also  attributed  to  Palladius,  but 
in  all  probability  it  was  actually 
the  composition  of  neither.  Early 
in  the  fifth  century  Palladius  was 
Bishop  of  Helenopolis,  in  Bithynia, 
and  died  about  A.D.  410.  He  spent 
a  part  of  his  life  in  Coptic  monas- 
teries, and  it  is  possible  that  during 
his  sojourn  in  Egypt,  meeting  tra- 


vellers and  merchants  returning  from 
India,  he  may  have  caused  this  nar- 
rative to  be  taken  down  from  the 
dictation  of  one  of  them.  CAVE  he- 
sitates to  believe  that  it  was  written 
by  PALLADIUS,  "baud  facile  credem," 
&c.  (Script.  Eccles.  Hist.  Lit.)  ;  and 
the  learned  Benedictine  editors  of 
AMBROSE  have  excluded  it  from  the 
works  of  the  latter.  They  could 
scarcely  have  done  otherwise  when 
the  first  chapter  of  the  Latin  version 
opens  with  the  declaration  that  it 
was  drawn  up  by  its  author  at  the 
request  of  "  PALLADIUS."  "  Deside- 
rium  mentis  tufe  Palladi  opus  efficere 
nos  compellit,"  &c.  Neither  of  the 
two  versions  can  be  accepted  as  a 
translation  of  the  other,  but  the  dis- 
crepancies are  not  inconsistent,  and 
would  countenance  the  conjecture 
that  the  book  is  the  production  of 
one  and  the  same  person.  Much  of 
the  material  is  borrowed  from  PTO- 
LEMY and  PLINY,  but  the  facts  which 
are  new  could  only  have  been  col- 
lected by  persons  who  had  visited  the 
scenes  they  describe.  The  compiler 
says  he  had  learned  from  a  certain 
scholar  of  Thebes  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Ceylon  were  called  Macrobii,  be- 
cause, owing  to  the  salubrity  of  the 
climate,  the  average  duration  of  life 
was  150  years.  The  petty  kings  of 
the  country  acknowledged  one  para- 
mount sovereign  to  whom  they  were 
subject  as  satraps  ;  this  the  Theban 
was  told  by  others,  as  he  himself  was 
not  allowed  to  visit  the  interior.  A 


ClIAP.  I.] 


COSMAS   INDICO-PLEUSTES. 


563 


account  of  the  island,  to  advert  to  what  has  been  re- 
corded by  the  Singhalese  chroniclers  themselves,  as 
to  its  actual  condition  at  the  period  when  Cosmas 
described  it,  and  thus  to  verify  his  narrative  by  the 
test  of  historical  evidence.  It  has  been  shown  in  an- 
other chapter  that  between  the  first  and  the  sixth 
centuries,  Ceylon  had  undergone  "all  the  miseries  of 
frequent  invasions :  that  in  the  vicissitudes  of  time 
the  great  dynasty  of  Wijayo  had  expired,  and  the 
throne  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  an  effeminate  and 
powerless  race,  utterly  unable  to  contend  with  the 
energetic  Malabars,  who  acquired  an  established  foot- 
ing in  the  northern  parts  of  the  island.  The  south, 


thousand  other  islands  lie  adjacent  to 


stone,  which  attracts  iron,  so  that  a 
vessel  coming  within  its  influence, 
is  seized  and  forcibly  detained,  and 
for  this  reason  the  ships  which  navi- 
gate these  seas  are  fastened  with  pegs 
of  wood  instead  of  bolts  of  iron. 

Ceylon,  according  to  this  tra- 
veller, has  five  large  and  navigable 
rivers,  it  rejoices  in  one  perennial 
harvest,  and  the  flowers  and  the  ripe 
fruit  hang  together  on  the  same 
branch.  There  are  palm  trees ;  both 
those  that  bear  the  great  Indian  nut, 
and  the  smaller  aromatic  one  (the 
areka).  The  natives  subsist  on  milk, 
rice,  and  fruit.  The  sheep  produce 
no  wool,  but  have  long  and  silky 
hair,  and  linen  being  unknown,  the 
inhabitants  clothe  themselves  in 
skins,  which  are  far  from  inelegantly 
worked. 

Finding  some  Indian  merchants 
there  who  had  come  in  a  small  vessel 
to  trade,  the  Theban  attempted  to  go 
into  the  interior,  and  succeeded  in 
getting  sight  of  a  tribe  whom  he  calls 
Besadte  or  Vesadfe,  his  description  of 
whom  is  in  singular  conformity  with 
the  actual  condition  of  the"  Ved- 
dahs  in  Ceylon  at  the  present  day. 
«  They  are,"  he  says,  "a  feeble  and 
diminutive  race,  dwelling  in  caves 
under  the  rocks,  and  early  accus- 


tomed to  ascend  precipices,  with 
which  their  country  abounds,in  order 
to  gather  pepper  from  the  climbing 
plants.  They  are  of  low  stature,  with 
large  heads  and  shaggy  uncut  hair." 

The  Theban  proceeds  to  relate 
that  being  arrested  by  one  of  the 
chiefs,  on  the  charge  of  having  en- 
tered his  territory  without  permission, 
he  was  forcibly  detained  there  for 
six  years,  subsisting  on  a  measure  of 
food,  issued  to  him  daily  by  the  royal 
authority.  This  again  presents  a 
curious  coincidence  with  the  deten- 
tion and  treatment  of  Knox  and  other 
captives  by  the  kings  of  Kandy  in 
modern  times.  He  was  at  last  re- 
leased owing  to  the  breaking  out  of 
hostilities  between  the  chief  who  held 
him  prisoner  and  another  prince,  who 
accused  the  former  before  the  supreme 
sovereign  of  having  unlawfully  de- 
tained a  Roman  citizen,  after  which 
he  was  set  at  liberty,  out  of  respect 
to  the  Roman  name  and  authority. 

This  curious  tract  was  first  pub- 
lished by  CAMEBARIFS,  but  in  1665 
Sir  EDWARD  BISSE,  Baronet,  and 
Clarenceux  King-at-Arms,  repro- 
duced the  Greek  original,  supposing 
it  to  be  an  unpublished  manuscript, 
with  a  Latin  translation.  It  is  in- 
corporated in  one  of  the  MSS.  of  the 
Pseudo-  Callisthencs  recently  edited 
by  MiJLLER,  lib.  iii.  ch.  vii.  viii. ; 
I)IDOT,  Script.  Grcec.  Sib.,  vol.  xxvi. 
Paris,  1846. 


564 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


too  wild  and  uncultivated  to  attract  these  restless 
plunderers,  and  too  rugged  and  inaccessible  to  be  over- 
run by  them,  was  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  prin- 
cipalities, whose  kings  did  homage  to  the  paramount 
sovereign  north  of  the  Mahawelli-ganga.  Buddhism 
was  the  national  religion,  but  toleration  was  shown  to 
all  others,  —  to  the"  worship  of  the  Brahmans  as  well 
as  to  the  barbarous  superstition  of  the  aboriginal  tribes. 
At  the  same  time,  the  productive  wealth  of  the  island 
had  been  developed  to  an  extraordinary  extent  by  the 
care  of  successive  kings,  and  by  innumerable  works  for 
irrigation  and  agriculture  provided  by  then-  policy. 
Anarajapoora,  the  capital,  had  expanded  into  extra- 
ordinary dimensions,  it  was  adorned  with  buildings 
and  monuments,  surpassing  in  magnitude  those  of  any 
city  in  India,  and  had  already  attracted  pilgrims  and 
travellers  from  China  and  the  uttermost  countries  of 
the  East. 

With  the  increasing  commercial  intercourse  between 
the  West  and  the  East,  Ceylon,  from  its  central  position, 
half  way  between  Arabia  and  China,  had  during  the 
same  period  risen  into  signal  importance  as  a  great 
emporium  for  foreign  trade.  The  transfer  of  the  seat  of 
empire  from  Eome  to  Constantinople  served  to  revive  the 
over-land  traffic  with  India ;  and  the  Persians  for  the 
first  time  1  vied  with  the  Arabs  and  the  merchants  of 
Egypt,  and  sought  to  divert  the  Oriental  trade  from  the 
Bed  Sea  and  Alexandria  to  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris. 

Already,  between  the  first  and  fifth  centuries,  the 
course  of  that  trade  had  undergone  a  considerable 
change.  In  its  infancy,  and  so  long  as  the  navigation 
was  confined  to  coasting  adventures,  the  fleets  of  the 
Ptolemies  sailed  no  further  than  to  the  ports  of  Arabia 
Felix  2,  where  they  were  met  by  Arabian  vessels  return- 


1  GIBBON,  ch.  xl. :    ROBERTSON'S 
India,  b.  i. 

2  Aden  was  a  Roman  emporium, 


'Pcjfia"iKOv  ifjiiropio 
STORGIUS,  p.  28. 


.  —  PniLO- 


CHAP.  I.] 


COSMAS   INDICO-PLEUSTES. 


565 


ing  from  the  west  coast  of  India,  bringing  thence  the 
productions  of  China,  shipped  at  the  emporiums  of 
Malabar.  After  the  discovery  of  the  monsoons,  and 
the  accomplishment  of  bolder  voyages,  the  great  en- 
trepot of  commerce  was  removed  further  south;  first, 
from  Muziris,  the  modern  Mangalore,  to  Nelkynda,  now 
Neliseram,  and  afterwards  to  Calicut  and  Coulam,  or 
Quilon.  In  like  manner  the  Chinese,  who,  whilst  the 
navigation  of  the  Arabs  and  Persians  was  in  its  infancy, 
had  extended  their  voyages  not  only  to  Malabar  but 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  gradually  contracted  them  as  their 
correspondents  ventured  further  south.  HAMZA  says, 
that  in  the  fifth  century  the  Euphrates  was  navigable 
as  high  as  Hira,  within  a  few  miles  of  Babylon  * ;  and 
MASSOUDI,  in  his  Meadows  of  Gold,  states  that  at  that 
time  the  Chinese  ships  ascended  the  river  and  anchored 
in  front  of  the  houses  there.2  At  a  later  period,  their 
utmost  limit  was  Syraf,  in  Farsistan3;  they  after- 
wards halted  first  at  Muziris,  next  at  Calicut 4,  then  at 
Coulam,  now  Quilon  5  ;  and  eventually,  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  the  Chinese  vessels  appear  rarely  to  have 
sailed  further  west  than  Ceylon.  Thither  they  came 
with  their  silks  and  other  commodities,  those  destined 
for  Europe  being  chiefly  paid  for  in  silver6,  and  those 
intended  for  barter  in  India  were  trans-shipped  into 
smaller  craft,  adapted  to  the  Indian  seas,  by  which  they 
were  distributed  at  the  various  ports  east  and  west  of 
Cape  Comorin.7 

COSMAS  was  a  merchant  of  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Jus- 
tinian, who,  from  the  extent  of  his  travels,  acquired  the 
title  of  ."  Indico-pleustes."  Eetiring  to  the  cloister,  he 
devoted  the  remnant  of  his  life  to  the  preparation  of  a 


1  HAMZA  ISPAHANENSIS,  p.  102 ; 
REiNArD,  Relation,  $c.,  vol.  i.  p.  35. 

2  MASSOFDI,    Meadmvs    of    Gold, 
Transl.  of  SPREXGER,  vol.  i.  p.  246. 

3  ABOU-ZEYD,  vol.  i.  p.  14 ;  REI- 
NAUD,  Discours,  pp.  44,  78. 

4  DTTLAURIER,  Journ.  Asiat.,  vol. 
xlix.  p.  141 :  VIXCEUT.  vol.  ii.  pp. 
464,  507. 


5  ABOTT-ZEYD,  p.   15 ;   REESTATJD. 
Mem.  sur  Vlndc,  p.  201. 

6  PLIXT,  lib.  vi.  ch.  xxvi. ;  Peri- 
plus  Mar.  Erythr. 

7  ROBERTSON,  Am.  Ind.,  sec.  ii.  The 
Periplus  of  the  Erythrean   Sea  de- 
scribes these  Ceylon  crafts  as  rigged 
vessels,  tawirHrvqpfaMC  vtivai. 


566  MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY.  [PART  V. 

work  in  defence  of  the  cosmography  of  the  Pentateuch 
from  the  errors  of  the  Ptolemaic  astronomy.1  He  died  in 
the  year  550,  before  his  task  was  completed,  and  one  of 
the  last  portions  of  it  on  which  he  was  employed  was  an 
account  of  Taprobane,  taken  down  from  the  reports  of 
Sopater,  a  Greek  trader  whom  he  had  met  at  Adule  in 
Ethiopia,  when  on  his  return  from  Ceylon. 

Sopater,  in  the  course  of  business  as  a  merchant,  sailed 
from  Adule  in  the  same  ship  with  a  Persian  bound  for 
Ceylon,  and  on  his  arrival  he  and  his  fellow-traveller  were 
presented  by  the  officers  of  the  port  to  the  king,  who  was 
probably  Kumara  Das,  the  friend  and  patron  of  the  poet 
Kalidas.2  The  king  received  them  with  courtesy,  and 
Cosmas  recounts  how  in  the  course  of  the  interview 
Sopater  succeeded  in  convincing  the  Singhalese  monarch 
of  the  greater  power  of  Eome  as  compared  with  that  of 
Persia,  by  exhibiting  the  large  and  highly  finished  gold 
coin  of  the  Eonian  Emperor  in  contrast  with  the  small  and 
inelegant  silver  money  of  the  Shah.  .  This  story  would, 
however,  appear  to  be  traditional,  as  Pliny  relates  a 
somewhat  similar  anecdote  of  the  ambassadors  from 
Ceylon  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  and  of  the  profound 
respect  excited  in  their  minds  by  the  sight  of  the  Eoman 
denarii. 

As  Sopater  was  the  first  traveller  who  described 
Ceylon  from  personal  knowledge,  I  shah1  give  his  account 
of  the  island  in  the  words  of  Cosmas,  which  have  not 
before  been  presented  in  an  English  translation.  "It 
is,"  he  says,  "  a  great  island  of  the  ocean  lying  in  the 


piTTirti  tic? 

Christianorum  Opinio  de  Mundo. 
This  curious  book  has  been  printed 
entire  by  Montfaucon  from  a  MS.  in 
the  Vatican  Coll.  Patr.,  vol.  ii.  p. 
333.  Paris,  1706  A.D.  There  is 
only  one  other  MS.  known,  which 
was  formerly  in  Florence;  and  from  it 
THEVENOT  had  previously  extracted 
and  published  the  portion  relating  to 
India  in  his  Relation  des  Div.  Voy,, 
vol.  i.  Paris,  1576  A.D. 

2  Cosmas  wrote  between  A.D.  545 


and  550 ;  and  the  voyage  of  Sopater 
to  Ceylon  had  been  made  thirty  years 
before.  Kumara  Das  reigned  from 
A.D.  515  to  A.D.  524.  Vincent  has 
noted  the  fact  that  in  his  interview 
with  the  Greek  he  addressed  him  by 
the  epithet  of  Roomi,  "  av  'Pw/xfi>," 
which  is  the  term  that  has  been  ap- 
plied from  time  immemorial  in  India 
to  the  powers  who  have  been  succes- 
sively in  possession  of  Constantinople, 
whether  Roman,  Christian,  or  Ma- 
hommedan.  Vol.  ii.  p.  511.,  &c. 


CUAP.  I.] 


COSMAS   INDICO-PLEUSTES. 


567 


Indian  Sea,  called  Sielendib  by  the  Indians,  but  Tapro- 
bane  by  the  Greeks.  The  stone,  the  hyacinth,  is  found 
in  it ;  it  lies  beyond  the  pepper  country.1  Around  it 
there  are  a  multitude  of  exceedingly  small  islets 2,  all 
containing  fresh  water  and  coco-nut  palms 3 ;  these 
(islands)  he  as  close  as  possible  together.  The  great 
island  itself,  according  to  the  accounts  of  its  inha- 
bitants, is  300  g audio, 4,  or  900  miles  long,  and  as  many 
in  breadth.  There  are  two  kings  ruling  at  opposite 
ends  of  the  island5,  one  of  whom  possesses  the  hya- 
cinth 6,  and  the  other  the  district,  in  which  are  the  port 


1  Malabar  or  Xarghyl  Arabia. 

2  The  Maldive  Islands. 

3  'ApyfXAta  pro  i'apys\\«fr,from  nari- 
krla,  the  Sanskrit,  and  narghyl,  Arab, 
for  the   "coco-nut  palm.'"     GILDE- 
MESTER,  Script.  Arab.  p.  36. 

4  "  Pavcln."   It  is  very  remarkable 
that  this  singular  word  gaou,  in  which 
Cosmas  gives  the  dimensions  of  the 
island,  is  in  use  to  the  present  day  in 
Ceylon,  and  means  the  distance  which 
a  man  can  walk  in  an  hour.  VINCENT, 
in  his  Commerce  and  Navigation  of 
the  Ancients,  has  noticed  this  passage 
(vol.  ii.  p.  506),  and  says,  somewhat 
loosely,  that  the    Singhalese  gaou, 
which  he  spells  "ghadia"  is  the  same 
as  the  naligiae  of  the  Tamils,  and 
equal  to  three-eighths  of  a  French 
league,  or  nearly   one   mile   and   a 
quarter  English.     This  is  incorrect ; 
a  gaoii  in  Ceylon  expresses  a  some- 
what indeterminate  length,  according 
to   the  nature  of  the  ground  to  be 
traversed,  a  gaou  across  a  mountain- 
ous country  being  less  than  one  mea- 
sured on  level  ground,  and   a  gaou 
for  a  loaded  cooley  is  also  permitted 
to  be  shorter  than  for  one  unbur- 
thened,  but  on  the  whole  the  average 
may  be  taken  under  four  miles.     This 
is  worth  remarking,  because  it  brings 
the  statement  made  to  Sopater  by 
the  Singhalese  in  the  sixth  century 
into  consistency  with  the  representa- 
tions of  the  ambassadors  to  the  Em- 
peror Claudius  in  the  first,  although 
both  prove  to  be  erroneous.     It  is 
curious  that  FA  HIAN,  the  Chinese 
traveller,  whose  zeal  for  Buddhism 
led  him  to  visit  India  and  Ceylon  a 


century  and  a  half  before  Cosmas, 
gives  an  area  to  the  island  which  ap- 
proaches very  nearly  to  correctness ; 
although  he  reverses  the  direction  in 
which  its  length  exceeds  its  breadth. 
Foe-koue-ki,  c.  xxxvii.  p.  328. 

5  "'Evai>Tioid\\i')\<ai:  Thismayalso 
mean  "at  war  with  one  another." 

6  This  has  been  translated  so  as  to 
mean  the  portion  of  the  island  pro- 
ducing hyacinth  stones  ("la  partie  de 
1'isle  ou  se  trouvent  les  jacinthes." 
THEVENOT).     But    besides    that    I 
know  of  no  Greek  form  of  expression 
that  admits  of  such  expansion  ;  this 
construction,  if  accepted,  would  be 
inconsistent    with    fact; — for    the 
king  alluded  to  held  the  north  of  the 
island,  whereas  the  region  producing 
gems  is  the  south,  and  in  it  were  also 
the  "emporium,"   and  the  harbour 
frequented  by  shipping    and    mer- 
chants.    I  am  disposed  therefore  to 
accept  the  term  in  its  simple  sense, 
and  to  believe  that  it  refers  to  one 
particular  jewel,  for  the  possession 
of  which  the  king  of  Ceylon  enjoyed 
an  enviable  renown.     Cosmas,  in  the 
succeeding  sentence,  describes   this 
wonderful  gem  as  being  deposited  in 
a  temple  near  the  capital,  and  Hiouen 
Thsang,the  Chinese  pilgrim,  says  that 
in  the  seventh  century,  a  ruby  was 
elevated  on  a  spire  surmounting  a 
temple  at  Anarajapoora  "  dont  1'eclat 
magnitique  illumine  tout  le  ciel."  — 
Vie  dc  Hiouen  Thmny,  lib.  iv.  p.  199 ; 
Voyages    dc*    Felerins     Bouddhistet, 
lib.  x'i.  v.  ii.  p.  141.     MARCO  POLO, 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  says,  the 
"  king  of  Ceylon  is  reputed  to  have 


568 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


and  emporium  !,  for  the  emporium  in  that  place  is  the 
greatest  in  those  parts. 

"  The  island  has  also  a  community  of  Christians 2, 
chiefly  resident  Persians,  with  a  presbyter  ordained  in 
Persia,  a  deacon,  and  a  complete  ecclesiastical  ritual.3 

"  The  natives  and  their  kings  are  of  different  races.4 
The  temples  are  numerous,  and  in  one  in  particular,  situ- 
ated on  an  eminence 5,  is  the  great  hyacinth,  as  large  as  a 
pine-cone,  the  colour  of  fire,  and  flashing  from  a  distance, 
especially  when  catching  the  beams  of  the  sun — a  match- 
less sight. 


the  grandest  ruby  that  was  ever  seen, 
a  span  in  length,  the  thickness  of  a 
man's  arm ;  brilliant  beyond  descrip- 
tion, and  without  a  single  flaw.  It  has 
the  appearance  of  a  glowing  fire,  and 
its  worth  cannot  be  estimated  in 
money.  The  Grand  Khan  Kublai 
sent  ambassadors  to  this  monarch  to 
offer  for  it  the  value  of  a  city,  but  he 
would  not  part  with  it  for  all  the 
treasures  of  the  world,  as  it  was  a 
jewel  handed  doivn  by  his  ancestors 
on  the  throne"  —  Trans.  MAESDEN, 
4to.  1818.  It  is  most  probable  that 
the  stone  described  by  Marco  Polo 
was  not  a  ruby,  but  an  amethyst, 
which  is  found  in  large  crystals  in 
Ceylon,  and  which  modem  mineralo- 
gists believe  to  be  the  "  hyacinth  "  of 
the  ancients.  (DANA'S  Mineralogy, 
vol.  ii.  p.  196.)  COESALI  says  it  was  a 
carbuncle  (Ramusio,  vol.  i.  p.  180)  ; 
and  JORDAN  DE  SEVERAC,  about  the 
year  1323,  repeats  the  story  of  its 
being  a  ruby  so  large  that  it  could 
not  be  grasped  in  the  closed  hand. 
(Recueil  de  Voy.,  Soc.  Geog.  Paris, 
vol.  iv.  p.  50.)  If  this  resplendent 
object  really  exhibited  the  dimen- 
sions assigned  to  it,  the  probability 
is  that  it  was  not  a  gem  at  all,  but 
one  of  those  counterfeits  of  glass,  in 
producing  which  STEABO  relates  that 
the  artists  of  Alexandria  attained  the 
highest  possible  perfection  (1.  xvi. 
c.  2.  sec.  25).  Its  luminosity  by 
night  is  of  course  a  fiction,  unless, 
indeed,  like  the  emerald  pillar  in  the 
temple  of  Hercules  at  Tyre,  which 
HEEODOTUS  describes  as  "  shining 
brightly  by  night,"  it  was  a  hollow 


cylinder  into  which  a  lamp  could  be 
introduced.     Herod,  ii.  44. 

Of  the  ultimate  history  of  this  re- 
nowned jewel  we  have  no  authentic 
narrative ;  but  it  is  stated  in  the 
Chinese  accounts  of  Ceylon  that  early 
in  the  fourteenth  century  an  officer 
was  sent  by  the  emperor  to  purchase  a 
"  carbuncle  "  of  unusual  lustre.  "  This 
served  as  the  ball  on  the  emperor's 
cap,  and  was  transmitted  to  succeed- 
ing emperors  on  their  accession  as  a 
precious  heirloom,  and  worn  on  the 
birthday  and  at  the  grand  courts  held 
on  the  first  day  of  the  year.  It  was 
upwards  of  an  ounce  in  weight,  and 
cost  100,000  strings  of  cash.  Every 
time  a  grand  levee  was  held  during 
the  darkness  of  the  night,  the  red 
lustre  filled  the  palace,  and  it  was 
for  this  reason  designated  '  The  Red 
Palace-Illuminator.' "  —  Tsih-ke,  or 
Miscellaneous  Record,  quoted  in  the 
Kih  clw-king-yuen,  Mirror  of  Science, 
b.  xxxiii.  p.  1,  2. 

1  The  port  and  harbour  of  Point 
de  Galle. 

2  Nestorians,  whose  "  Catholicos  " 
resided  first  at  Ctesiphon,  and  after- 
wards at  Mosul.     VINCENT,  Periplm, 
Sfc.j  vol.  ii.  p.  507.     For  an  exami- 
nation  of  the  hypotheses  based  on 
this  statement  of  Cosmas,  see  Sir  J. 
EMERSON     TENNENT'S     History    of 
Christianity  in  Ceylon,  ch.  i. 

3  "  AiiTovpyiiir"  literally  liturgy  ; 
which  meant  originally  the  pomp  and 
ceremonial  of  worship  as  well  as  the 
form  of  prayer.  *  '  A\\6(pv\ut. 

5  Probably  that  at  Mihintala,  the 
sacred  hill  near  Anarajapoora. 


Cii.vr.  I.] 


COSMAS   INDIOO-PLEUSTES. 


569 


"  As  its  position  is  central,  the  island  is  the  resort  of 
ships  from  all  parts  of  India,  Persia,  and  Ethiopia,  and, 
in  like  manner,  many  are  despatched  from  it.  From 
the  inner l  countries ;  I  mean  China,  and  other  em- 
poriums, it  receives  silk2,  aloes,  cloves,  clove-wood,  chan- 
dana3,  and  whatever  else  they  produce.  These  it 
again  transmits  to  the  outer  ports  4,  —  I  mean  to  Male 5, 
whence  the  pepper  comes  ;  to  Calliana6,  where  there 
is  brass  and  sesamine-wood,  and  materials  for  dress 
(for  it  is  also  a  place  of  great  trade),  and  to  Sindon7, 
where  they  get  musk,  castor,  and  androstachum*,  to 
Persia,  the  Homeritic  coasts9,  and  Adule.  Keceiv- 
ing  in  return  the  exports  of  those  emporiums,  Tapro- 
bane  exchanges  them  in  the  inner  ports  (to  the  east  of 
Cape  Comorin),  sending  her  own  produce  along  with  them 
to  each. 

"  Sielediba,  or  Taprobane,  lies  seaward  about  five 
days'  sail  from  the  mainland.10  Then  further  on 
the  continent  is  Marallo,  which  furnishes  cochlea n ; 
then  conies  Kaber,  which  exports  '  alabandanum  ;'12 
and  next  is  the  clove  country,  then  China,  which  ex- 
ports silk  ;  beyond  which  there  is  no  other  land,  for 
the  ocean  encircles  it  on  the  east.  Sielediba  being 
thus  placed  in  the  middle  as  it  were  of  India,  and  pos- 


r&v  tvSorepojr,"  the  countries  in- 
side (that  is  to  the  east)  of  Cape 
Comorin,  as  distinguished  from  the 
outer  ports  (rrf.  t^Mrepa)  mentioned 
below,  which  lie  west  of  it. 

2  "/jtraSiv."  Of  this  foreign  word, 
applied  by  the  mediaeval  Greeks  to 
silk  in  general,  as  well  as  to  raw  silk, 
PROCOPITJS  says  : — "  Avrtj  £e  ianv  77 
p'tra^a,  «£  r/c  fiwQaoi  TIJV  faBiJTa  ipyd- 
Ztatiai,  T]v  TraXat  filv  "E\\r)vtf  /i7j^nc/;f, 
TCLVVV  St  aripiKi}v  oVo/ia£ou(r(." — PRO- 
COP.  Persic.  I.  Metaxa,  or  anciently 
mata.ra,  "  thread,"  "yarn,"  seems  to 
be  Latin  rather  than  Greek.  The  me- 
taxarius  was  a  "yam-broker;"  and 
the  word  having  got  possession  of 
the  market,  was  extended  to  the 


woven  stuff.     The  modern  Greeks 
call  silk  {.iiTu^a. 

3  "  T^avSava,"  probably  "  sandal- 
wood  ; "  sometimes  called  ai/allocJium. 

4  "  rd  tKutrepa"  those  lying  west  of 
Cape  Comorin. 

6  Malabar. 

6  Bombay. 

7  Scinde. 

8  te  av£poaTa\nv,n 

9  Southern  Arabia,  chiefly  Hadra- 
maut. 

10  Cosmas  probably  means  "the 
more  distant  ports  on  "  the  mainland 
of  India. 

11  "  KO\\IOVG,"    probably    chank- 
shells,  turbinella  rapa.     See  ABOTJ- 
ZEYD,  vol.  i.  p.  6. 

12  " 


VOL. 


F   P 


570 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[P 


V. 


sessing  the  hyacinth,  receives  goods  from  all  nations, 
and  again  distributes  them,  thus  becoming  a  great  em- 
porium." 

This  description  of  the  Indian  trade  by  Cosmas  is 
singularly  corroborative  of  the  account  that  had  pre- 
viously been  given  by  the  author  of  the  Periplus  •  and 
as  the  Singhalese  have  at  all  times  been  remarkable  for 
their  aversion  to  the  sea,  the  country-craft1,  thus  men- 
tioned by  both  authorities  as  engaged  in  voyages  between 
Ceylon  and  the  countries  east  and  west  of  Cape  Comorin, 
must  have  been  manned  in  part  by  Malabars,  but  chiefly 
by  the  Arabs  and  Persians,  who,  previous  to  the  time  of 
Cosmas,  had  been  induced  to  settle  in  large  numbers  in 
Ceylon  2,  attracted  by  the  activity  of  its  commerce,  and 
the  extensive  employment  for  shipping  afforded  by  its 
transit  trade. 

Amongst  the  objects,  the  introduction  of  which  was 
eagerly  encouraged  in  Ceylon,  Cosmas  particularises 
horses  from  Persia  ;  the  traders  in  which  were  exempted 
from  the  payment  of  customs.  The  most  remarkable 
exports  were  elephants,  which  from  their  size  and  sa- 
gacity were  found  to  be  superior  to  those  of  India  for 
purposes  of  war.  Hence  the  renown  accorded  to  Ceylon, 
as  pre-eminently  the  birthplace  of  the  Asiatic  race  of 
elephants. 


TairpoGavq 


'A.<m}ytvtuv  tXupiivTwv." 

DIONYSITTS  PEREEGETES,  v.  593. 


Cosmas  observes  upon  the  smaUness  of  their  tusks  com- 
pared with  those  of  Africa,  and  mentions  the  strange  fact, 
that  ivory  was  then  exported  from  ^Ethiopia  to  India,  as 
well  as  to  Persia  and  the  countries  of  Europe.  He  makes 
other  allusions  to  Ceylon,  but  the  passages  extracted 
above  present  the  bulk  of  his  information  concerning  the 
island.3 


."  —  Periplus. 
3  EEINAUD, Mem.surTInde,^.  124. 
and  Introd.  ABOTTLFEDA. 

5  The  above  translation  has  been 


from  THEVEXOT'S  version  of 
Cosmas,  which  may  differ  slightly 
from  that  of  MONTFATJCON,  Collect. 
Nov.  Patrum.  Paris,  170G,  vol.  ii.  p. 


.  I.]         CEYLON   AS   KNOWN   TO   THE   PIKENICIANS. 


571 


NOTE  (A). 
Knowledge  of  Ceylon  possessed  by  the  Phoenicians. 

IN  the  previous  chapter,  p.  550,  &c.,  allusion  has  been  made  to 
the  possible  resort  of  the  Phoenicians  to  Ceylon  in  the  course  of 
their  voyages  to  India,  but  I  have  not  thought  it  expedient  to 
embody  in  the  text  any  notice  of  the  description  of  the  island 
which  is  given  in  the  Phoenician  History  of  SANCHONIATHON, 
published  by  Wagenfeld,  at  Bremen,  in  1837,  under  the  title 
of  "  Sanchuniathonis  Historiarum  Ph&nicice  Libri  Novem 
Greece  Versos  a  Philone  Byblio,  edidit  Latinaque  Versione  do- 
navit  F.  WAGENFELD." 

Sanchoniathon  is  alleged  to  have  lived  before  the  Trojan  war ; 
and  in  Asiatic  chronology  he  is  said  to  have  been  a  contemporary 
of  Semiramis.  The  Phoenician  original  perished ;  but  its  contents 
were  preserved  in  the  Greek  translation  of  Philo,  a  native  of  By- 
blus,  a  frontier  town  of  Phoenicia,  who  wrote  in  the  first  cen- 
tury after  Christ,  and  till  the  alleged  discovery  of  the  MS.  from 
which  Wagenfeld  professed  to  publish,  the  only  portion  of  Philo's 
version  known  to  exist  consisted  of  fragments  preserved  by 
Eusebius  and  Porphyry.  Wagenfeld's  statement  was,  that  the 
MS.  in  his  possession  had  been  obtained  from  the  Portuguese 
monastery  of  St.  Maria  de  Merinhao  (the  existence  of  wich 
there  is  reason  to  doubt),  and  the  portion  which  he  first  ven- 
tured to  print  appeared  with  a  preface  by  Grotefend.  Its  ge- 
nuineness was  instantly  impugned  ;  a  learned  and  protracted 
controversy  arose  ;  and  though  Wagenfeld  eventually  pub- 


336.  In  point  of  time,  the  notice  of 
Ceylon  given  by  the  Armenian  Arch- 
bishop Moses  of  Chorene  in  his  His- 
toria  Armcniaca  et  Epitome  Geogra- 
phic, is  entitled  to  precede  that  of 
Cosmos  Indico-pleustes,  inasmuch  as 
Moses  has  translated  into  Armenian 
the  Greek  text  of  Pappus  of  Alex- 
andria, who  wrote  about  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century.  Of  Ta- 
probane  he  says  —  it  is  one  of  the 
largest  islands  in  the  world,  being 
1100  miles  in  length  by  1500  broad, 
and  reckons  1370  adjacent  islands 
amongst  its  dependencies.  He  al- 
ludes to  its  mountains  and  rivers, 
the  variety  of  races  which  inhabit  it, 


and  its  production  of  gold,  silver, 
gems,  spices,  elephants,  and  tigers; 
and  dwells  on  the  fact,  previously 
noticed  by  Agathemerus,  that  the 
men  of  this  country  dress  their  hair 
after  the  fashion  of  women,  by  braid- 
ing it  in  tresses  on  the  top  of  their 
heads,  "  viri  regionis  istius  capillis 
muliebribus  sua  capita  redimiunt." — 
MOSES  CHORENENSIS,  &c.,  edit.  Whis- 
ton,  1736,  p.  367.  The  most  remark- 
able circumstance  is  that  he  alludes 
thus  early  to  the  footprint  on  Adam's 
Peak,  which  is  probably  the  m< •Miiing 
of  his  expression,  ((  ibidem  Sutuntc 
lapsum  narrant,"  t.  iv. 


p  p    2 


572  MEDIAEVAL   HISTOKY.  [PART  V. 

lished  the  whole  of  the  Greek  MS.,  with  a  Latin  version  by 
himself,  he  was  never  prevailed  upon  to  exhibit  the  original 
parchments,  alleging  that  he  had  been  compelled  to  restore 
them  to  the  convent.  The  assailants  of  Wagenfeld  accuse  him 
of  wilful  deception ;  but  the  probability  is  that  the  document 
which  he  translated  is  one  of  those  inventions  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  in  which  history  and  geography  were  strangely  confounded 
with  imagination  and  romance ;  and  that  it  is  an  attempt  to 
restore  the  lost  books  of  Philo  Byblius,  as  Philo  himself  is 
more  than  suspected  to  have  invented  the  history  which  he 
professed  to  have  translated  from  Sanchoniathon.  (See  ERSCII 
and  GRUBER'S  Encyclopaedia,  1847  ;  MOVER'S  Phoenician  His- 
tory, vol.  i.  p.  117.) 

In  books  vii.  and  viii.,  Sanchoniathon  gives  an  account  of 
an  island  in  the  Indian  seas  explored  by  Tyrian  naviga- 
tors, the  description  of  which  is  evidently  copied  from  the  early 
Greek  writers  who  had  visited  Taprobane,  and  the  name 
which  is  assigned  to  it,  "  the  Island  of  Rachius?  is  borrowed 
from  Pliny.  The  period  of  their  visit  is  fixed  by  Sanchoni- 
athon shortly  after  the  conquest  of  Cittium,  in  Cyprus,  by  the 
Phoenicians ;  an  event  which  occurred  when  Hiram  reigned  at 
Tyre,  and  Solomon  at  Jerusalem.  The  narrative  is  given  as 
follows  (book  vii.  ch.  v.  p.  150) :  "  So  Bartophas  died  the 
next  day,  having  exercised  imperial  authority  for  six  years." 
(Ch.  v.)  "  And  on  his  death  they  chose  Joramus,  the  son  of 
Bartophas,  king,  whom  the  Tyrians  styled  Hierbas,  and  who 
reigned  fifty-seven  years.  He  having  collected  seventy-nine 
long  ships,  sent  an  expedition  against  Cittium."  .  .  .  (Ch.  vi.) 
"  At  this  time,  Obdalius,  king  of  the  island  of  Mylite,  sent  all 
his  forces  to  assist  the  Tyrians  at  Cittium ;  and  when  it  came 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  barbarians  who  inhabited  Tenga,  that 
the  island  was  denuded  of  men  and  ships,  they  invaded  it  under 
the  command  of  Plusiacon,  the  son-in-law  of  Obdalius,  and 
having  slain  him  and  many  of  his  people,  they  plundered  the 
country,  and  gave  the  city  to  the  flames."  (Ch.  vii.)  "And 
Joramus  directed  all  the  eparchs  in  the  cities  and  islands  to 
make  out  and  send  to  Tyre  descriptions  of  the  inhabitants, 
their  ships,  their  arms,  their  horses,  their  scythe-bearing 
chariots,  and  their  property  of  all  kinds ;  and  he  ordered  them 
to  send  to  distant  countries  persons  competent  to  draw  up  nar- 
ratives of  the  same  kind,  and  to  record  them  all  in  a  book.  In 
this  manner  he  obtained  accurate  geographical  descriptions  of 


CHAP.  I.]        CEYLON   AS   KNOWN   TO   THE   PHCENICIANS.  573 

all  the  regions  to  the  east  and  the  west,  both  islands  and  inland 
parts.  But  the  ^Ethiopians l  represented  to  the  king  that  to  the 
south  there  were  great  and  renowned  countries,  densely  popu- 
lated, and  rich  in  precious  things,  gold  and  silver,  pearls,  gems, 
ebony,  pepper,  elephants,  monkeys,  parrots,  peacocks,  and  in- 
numerable other  things ;  and  that  there  was  a  peninsula  so  far 
to  the  east  that  the  inhabitants  could  see  the  sun  rising  out  of 
the  sea."  (Ch.  viii.)  "  Joramus  then  sent  messengers  to  Natam- 
balus,  the  king  of  the  Babylonians,  who  were  to  say  to  him, 
( I  have  heard  that  the  countries  of  the  ^Ethiopians  are  numerous, 
and  abounding  in  inhabitants ;  they  are  easy  of  access  from 
Babylon,  but  very  difficult  from  Tyre.  If,  therefore,  I  should 
determine  to  explore  them,  and  you  will  let  my  subjects  have 
suitable  ships,  you  shall  have  in  return  a  hundred  purple 
cloaks.'  Natambalus  was  willing  to  do  so ;  but  the  ^Ethiopian 
merchants,  who  resorted  to  Babylon,  vowed  that  they  would 
take  their  departure  if  he  should  assist  Joramus  to  sail  to 
^Ethiopia."  (Chap,  ix.)  "  Subsequently  Joramus  addressed  him- 
self to  Irenius  of  Judea,  and  undertook  that  if  he  would  let 
the  Tyrians  have  a  harbour  on  the  sea  towards  ^Ethiopia,  he 
would  assist  him  in  the  building  of  a  palace,  in  which  he  was 
then  engaged ;  and  bind  himself  to  supply  him  with  materials 
of  cedar  and  fir,  and  squared  stones.  Irenius  assenting,  made 
over  to  Joramus  the  city  and  harbour  of  Ilotha.  There  were 
a  great  many  date  trees  there,  but  as  their  timber  was  not  suit- 
able for  constructing  vessels,  Joramus  despatched  eight  thou- 
sand camels  to  Ilotha,  loaded  with  materials  for  ship-building, 
and  ordered  the  shipwrights  to  build  ten  ships,  and  he  ap- 
pointed Cedarus  and  Jaminus  and  Cotilus,  commanders.  .  .  . 
They  sailed  from  Ilotha ;  but  furious  tempests  prevented  them 
from  passing  the  straits.2  And  while  they  were  wind-bound, 
they  remained  five  months  in  a  certain  island,  and  having 
sowed  wheat  on  the  low  ground,  they  reaped  an  abundant  crop. 
After  this  they  sailed  towards  the  rising  sun,  and  leaving  the 
land  of  the  Arabians  they  fell  in  with  Babylonian  ships  re- 
turning from  ^Ethiopia.3  And  on  the  following  day  they 
arrived  at  the  country  of  the  ^Ethiopians,  which  they  perceived 
sandy  and  devoid  of  water  on  the  coast,  but  mountainous  in- 
land. They  then  sailed  eastward  along  the  shore  for  ten  days. 


The  ^Ethiopians  alluded  to  were 


a  company  of  Indian  jngglem   and 
snake-charmers,  whose  arrival  from 


Babylon  is  mentioned  lib.  vii.  ch.  i. 
2  Of  Bab-el-mandeb. 


India. 


p  r  3 


574  MEDIAEVAL   IIISTOEY.  [PART  V. 

There  an  immense  region  extends  to  the  south,  and  the  ^Ethi- 
opians dwell  in  numerous  populous  and  well-circumstanced 
cities,  and  navigate  the  sea.  Their  ships  are  not  suited  for 
war,  and  have  no  sails.  And  having  sailed  thirty-six  days  to 
the  southward,  the  Tyrians  arrived  at  the  island  of  Eachius 


(Ch.  9.)  "  The  roadstead  was  in  front  of  a  level  strand,  bor- 
dered with  lofty  trees,  and  coming  on  to  blow  at  night,  they 
were  in  the  utmost  danger  till  sunrise  :  but  running  then  to 
the  south,  they  came  in  sight  of  a  safe  harbour  l  ;  and  saw  many 
populous  towns  inland.  On  landing,  they  were  surrounded  by 
the  villagers,  and  the  governor  of  the  place  entertained  them 
hospitably  for  seven  days  ;  pending  the  return  of  a  messenger 
whom  he  had  despatched  to  the  principal  king,  to  ask  his  in- 
structions relative  to  the  Tyrians  who  had  anchored  in  the 
harbour.  The  messenger  having  returned  on  the  seventh  day, 
the  governor  sent  for  the  Tyrians  the  following  morning,  and 
informed  them  that  they  must  go  with  him  to  the  king,  who 
was  then  residing  at  Eochapatta,  a  large  and  prosperous  city  in 
the  centre  of  the  island.  In  front  marched  several  spearmen, 
sent  by  the  king  as  a  guard  of  honour  to  the  strangers  ;  who 
with  the  clash  of  their  spears  scared  away  the  elephants 
which  were  numerous  and  dangerous  because  it  was  their 
rutting  time.  The  Tyrians  marched  in  the  centre,  and  Cedarus, 
Cotilus,  and  Jaminus  were  carried  in  palanquins.  The  vil- 
lagers as  they  passed  along  offered  them  presents,  and  the 
governor  brought  up  the  rear,  where  he  rode  on  an  elephant, 
surrounded  by  his  body  guard.  In  this  order  of  march,  they 
on  the  third  day  came  to  a  ford  ;  in  the  passage  over  which,  one 
of  the  travellers  was  devoured  by  crocodiles  which  swarm  in 
the  rivers.  Having  proceeded  thus  for  several  days,  they  at 
length  descried  the  city  of  Kochapatta,  environed  by  lofty 
mountains.  And  when  it  was  known  that  they  had  arrived 
(for  the  rumour  of  their  approach  had  preceded  them)  the  in- 
habitants rushed  from  the  city  in  a  body  to  see  the  Tyrians  ; 
some  riding  on  elephants,  some  on  asses,  some  in  palan- 
quins, but  the  greater  part  on  foot.  And  the  commander 
having  conducted  them  into  a  spacious  and  splendid  palace, 
caused  the  gates  to  be  closed,  that  the  crowd  might  not  make 
their  way  in;  and  led  the  Tyrians  to  the  King  Eachius,  who 
was  seated  on  a  beautiful  couch.  Presents  were  then  inter- 


Galle? 


CHAP.  I.]        CEYLON   AS   KNOWN   TO   THE   PIKENICIANS.  575 

changed.  To  the  Tyrians,  who  brought  horses  and  purple  robes, 
and  seats  of  cedar,  the  king  gave  in  return,  pearls,  gold, 
2000  elephants'  teeth,  and  much  unequalled  cinnamon  (xiw«ju.cp 
TroAXcu  TS  x«»  8i«<pepovTi) ;  and  he  entertained  them  as  guests  for 
thirty  days."  (Ch.  xi.)  "  Some  of  the  Tyrians  perished  in  the 
island,  one  indeed  by  sickness,  but  the  others  smitten  by  the  gods. 
One  man,  picking  up  some  pellets  of  sheep's  dung,  drew  lines 
on  the  sand,  and  challenged  another  who  happened  to  be  looking 
on,  to  play  a  game  with  them.  The  challenger  held  the  sheep's 
dung,  but  the  other,  who  could  not  find  any  dung  of  camels 
(for  there  are  no  camels  in  that  island),  took  cow-dung,  of 
which  there  was  a  great  quantity,  and  rolling  up  little  balls  of 
it,  placed  them  on  the  lines.  But  a  priest  who  was  present 
warned  them  to  desist,  because  cow-dung  is  sacred  among 
them,  but  they  only  laughed.  So  the  priest  passed  on,  and 
they  continued  their  game ;  but  shortly  after,  both  fell  down 
and  expired,  to  the  consternation  of  the  bystanders.  One  of 
those  who  died  was  a  native  of  Jerusalem."  (Ch.  xii.)  "  The  sea 
encircles  this  great  island  of  Kachius  on  every  side,  except  that 
to  the  north  and  west  there  is  an  isthmus  which  affords  a 
passage  to  the  opposite  coast.  Baaut  constructed  this  place  by 
heaping  up  mud,  and  her  footprint  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
mountain  (Jts  xa»  T^voj  la-rlv  lv  rol$  opojj). 

"  And  the  great  king  traced  his  descent  from  her  race.  The 
island  is  six  days'  journey  in  breadth,  and  twelve  days'  journey 
in  length.  It  is  populous  and  delightful.  Its  natural  produc- 
tions are  magnificent,  and  the  sea  furnishes  fish  of  the  finest 
flavour,  and  in  the  greatest  abundance,  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
coast.  Wild  beasts  are  numerous  in  the  mountains,  of  which 
elephants  are  the  largest  of  all.  There  is  also  the  most  fragrant 
of  cassia  (xacria  8e  f;  apcojU-a-nxaJTa-nj). 

"  They  find  stones  containing  gold  in  the  rivers,  and  pearls  on 
the  sea-shore.  Four  kings  govern  the  island,  all  subordinate 
to  the  paramount  sovereign,  to  whom  they  pay  as  tribute,  cassia, 
ivory,  gems,  and  pearls ;  for  the  king  has  gold  in  the  greatest 
abundance.  The  first  of  these  kings  reigns  in  the  south,  where 
there  are  herds  of  elephants,  of  which  great  numbers  are  cap- 
tured of  surprising  size.  In  this  region  the  shore  is  inhos- 
pitable, and  destitute  of  inhabitants,  but  the  city,  in  which  the 
governor  resides,  lies  inland,  and  is  said  to  be  large  and 
flourishing.  The  second  king  governs  the  western  regions 
which  produce  cinnamon  (raiv  irpo;  e<nrspav  TeTfja//.ju.=vwv  TOJV 
and  it  was  there  the  Tyrian  ships  cast 
p  P  4 


576  MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY.  [PART  V. 

anchor.  The  third  rules  the  region  towards  the  north,  which 
produces  pearls.  He  has  made  a  great  rampart  on  the  isthmus 
to  control  the  passage  of  the  barbarians  from  the  opposite  coast ; 
for  they  used  to  make  incursions  in  great  numbers,  and  de- 
stroyed all  the  houses,  temples,  and  plantations  they  could  reach, 
and  slew  such  men  as  were  near,  or  could  not  flee  to  the  moun- 
tains. The  fourth  king  governs  the  region  to  the  east,  pro- 
ducing the  richest  gems  in  surprising  profusion ;  the  ruby,  the 
sapphire,  and  diamond.  All  these,  being  the  brothers  of  the 
great  king  in  Rochapatta,  are  appointed  to  rule  over  these 
places,  and  he  who  is  the  eldest  of  the  brothers  has  the  supreme 
power,  and  is  called  the  chief  and  mighty  ruler.  He  has  a 
thousand  black  elephants,  and  five  light-coloured  ones.  The 
black  are  abundant,  but  the  fair-coloured  are  rare,  and  found 
nowhere  except  in  this  island,  and  the  black  ones  do  homage  to 
them.  Having  captured  such  a  one,  they  bring  him  to  the 
king  in  Rochapatta,  whose  peculiar  prerogative  it  is  to  ride  on 
a  white  elephant,  this  being  unlawful  for  his  subjects.  There 
are  many  fierce  crocodiles  in  the  rivers,  and  they  are  killed  by 
crowds  of  men  who  rush  with  shouts  into  the  water,  armed 
with  sharp  stakes.  And  ten  days  after  they  arrived  in  Ro- 
chapatta, many  Tyrians  joined  Rachius  in  hunting  crocodiles." 
(Ch.  xii.)  "When  the  ships  returned  to  Tyre,  Joramus  gave 
orders  to  erect  a  pillar  at  the  temple  of  Melicarthus,  and  to 
engrave  on  it  an  account  of  all  that  had  taken  place.  This 
pillar  was  thrown  down  in  the  earthquake  of  last  year,  but 
it  was  not  broken,  so  that  the  narrative  can  even  now  be  seen." 

BOOK  VIII. 

(Ch.  i.)  "  This  is  the  voyage  which  Joramus,  the  king  of  the 
Tyrians,  ordered  Joramus,  the  priest  of  Melicarthus,  to  recount 
and  to  engrave  on  a  pillar  in  the  temple  of  Melicarthus,  and 
Sydyk,  the  scribe,  having  four  copies,  was  directed  to  send 
them  to  the  Sidonians,  the  Byblians,  the  Aradians,  and  the 
Berythians.  The  other  copies  can  nowhere  be  found,  and  the 
pillar  lies  shattered  in  the  ruins  of  the  temple,  but  the  copy  of 
the  Byblians  is  still  left  in  the  Temple  of  Baaltis,  and  its  words 
are  to  this  effect." 

(Ch.  ii.)  "  Hierbas,  the  son  of  Bartophas,  and  king  of  the 
.Tyrians,  thus  addressed  Joramus,  the  priest  of  Madynus,  at 
the  time  when  figs  were  first  ripe :  (  Taking  a  book  and  pen, 
describe  all  the  cities  and  islands  and  colonies  and  the  countries 


CHAP.  I.].        CEYLON   AS   KNOWN   TO   THE    PHCENICIANS.  577 

of  the  barbarians,  and  the  forces  of  them  all,  and  their  ships  of 
war  and  of  burthen,  and  their  scythe-armed  chariots.  For 
when  our  ships  of  war,  sailing  to  the  island  of  Eachius, 
reached  the  remotest  parts  eastward  that  we  knew,  the  ex- 
tremities of  all  lands,  and  the  nations  that  inhabited  them,  we 
discovered  things  unknown  to  our  ancestors.  For  our  an- 
cestors, sailing  only  to  the  islands  and  the  region  extending  to 
the  west,  knew  nothing  of  the  countries  which  we  have  ex- 
plored to  the  east :  you  will  therefore  write  all  these  things  for 
the  information  of  posterity.'  When  having  prostrated  myself 
before  the  king,  on  his  saying  these  things,  and  having  re- 
turned to  my  own  house,  I  wrote  as  follows :  — 

(Ch.  xvi.)  .  ..."  To  the  eastward  dwell  the  Babylonians 
and  Medians  and  ^Ethiopians.  The  city  of  the  Babylonians  is 
flourishing  and  populous ;  Media  produces  white  horses ; 
Ethiopia  is  barren  and  arid  near  the  sea,  and  mountainous  in 
the  interior.  And  further  to  the  east  is  the  peninsula  of 
Rachius,  whither  the  ships  of  Hierbas  sailed." 


On  this  narrative  of  Sanchoniathon  it  is  only  necessary  to 
remark  that  the  allusion  in  ch.  ix.  to  the  assistance  rendered 
by  the  Tyrians  to  Irenius  of  Judea,  when  building  his  palace, 
in  supplying  him  with  timber  and  squared  stones,  is  almost 
literally  copied  from  the  passage  in  the  Old  Testament  (1  Kings, 
ix.  11),  where  Hiram  is  stated  to  have  furnished  to  Solomon 
"  cedar  trees  and  fir  trees,"  for  the  building  of  the  Temple. 

The  cession  by  Irenius  of  the  city  and  harbour  of  Ilotha 
refers  to  the  resort  of  the  Tyrians  to  Ezion  Greber,  or  Eloth, 
in  the  JElanitic  Gulf  of  the  Eed  Sea,  Ib.,  v.  26,  whence  they 
piloted  the  ships  of  Solomon,  which  once  in  every  three  years 
returned  with  cargoes  of  gold  from  Ophir.  (Ib.,  v.  28.) 

As  to  the  incidents  and  observations  recorded  by  the  Phceni- 
cian  travellers  during  their  journey  to  the  interior  of  Ceylon, — 
the  kings  by  which  it  was  governed,  the  natural  productions  of 
the  various  regions,  the  footprint  on  Adam's  Peak,  the  incur- 
sions of  the  Malabars,  the  ascendency  of  their  religion,  the 
absence  of  camels,  the  abundance  of  elephants,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  cinnamon, — all  these  are  so  palpably  imitated  from  the 
accounts  of  Cosmas  Indico-pleustes,  and  the  voyages  of  Arabian 
mariners,  that  it  is  almost  unnecessary  to  point  to  the  parallel 
passages  from  which  they  are  taken. 


578 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


CHAP.  II. 


INDIAN,   ARABIAN,   AND   PERSIAN   AUTHORITIES. 

ON  closing  the  volume  of  Cosmas,  we  part  with  the  last 
of  the  Greek  writers  whose  pages  guide  us  through  the 
mist  that  obscures  the  early  history  of  Ceylon.  The  reli- 
gion of  the  Hindus  is  based  on  a  system  of  physical  error, 
so  incompatible  with  the  extension  of  scientific  truth,  that 
in  then:  language  the  term  "geography"  is  unknown.1 
But  still  it  is  remarkable  as  an  illustration  of  the  uninquir- 
ing  character  of  the  people,  that  the  allusions  of  Indian 
authors  to  Ceylon,  an  island  of  such  magnitude,  and  so 
close  to  their  own  country,  are  pre-eminent  for  ab- 
surdity and  ignorance.  Their  "  Lanka "  and  its  inha- 
bitants are  but  the  distortion  of  a  reality  into  a  myth. 
So  late  as  the  eleventh  century,  ALBYROUNI,  the  Arabian 
geographer,  says  that  the  Hindus  at  that  day  thought 
the  island  haunted ;  their  ships  sailing  past  it,  kept  at  a 
distance  from  its  shores  ;  and  even  at  the  present  day, 
it  is  the  popular  belief  on  the  continent  of  India  that  the 
interior  of  Ceylon  is  peopled  by  demons  and  monkeys.2 
This  degree  of  popular  ignorance  regarding  a  country  so 
contiguous  to  their  own,  appears  to  have  prevailed  amongst 
the  Hindus  in  ah1  ages.  The  story  embodied  in  their  great 


1  The  Arabians  began  the  study  so 
late,  that  they,  too,  had  to  borrow  a 
word  from  the  Greeks,  whence  their 
term  "  djagrafiya." 

2  MOOR'S  Hindu  Pantheon,  p.  318. 
Moon  speaks  of  an  educated  Indian 
gentleman    who    was     attached    as 
Munshi  to  the  staff  of  Mr.  North, 


Governor  of  Ceylon,  in  1804,  and 
who,  on  his  return  to  the  continent, 
wrote  a  history  of  the  island,  in 
which  he  repeats  the  belief  current 
among  his  countrymen,  that  "  the 
interior  was  not  inhabited  by  human 
beings  of  the  ordinary  shapes."  — 
P.  329. 


CHAP.  II.]       INDIAN,   ARABIAN,   PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES. 


579 


national  poem  the  Ramayana1,  which  is  probably  the 
most  ancient  epic  in  existence,  although  its  main  incidents 
turn  upon  the  invasion  of  Lanka  (Ceylon)  from  India, 
evinces  not  the  most  remote  evidence  of  acquaintance 
with  even  the  physical  features  of  an  island  within  sight 
from  their  shores.  Eama,  the  hero  of  the  poem,  son  to 
Dasartha,  the  King  of  Ayodhya  (the  modern  Oude),  has 
the  misfortune  to  have  his  wife  Sita  carried  off  by  Eawana, 
the  sovereign  of  Ceylon ;  and  the  Ramayana,  like  the 
Iliad,  is  devoted  to  a  description  of  the  expedition  and 
siege  which  he  conducted  for  her  recovery.  In  the  course 
of  it,  the  great  causeway  of  Adam's  Bridge  was  con- 
structed, for  the  passage  of  the  army,  by  Hanuman,  the 
monkey  deity2 ;  and  one  of  the  most  calamitous  incidents 
of  the  war  is  the  conflagration  of  the  capital,  owing  to  the 
demons  having  maliciously  set  fire  to  Hanuman's  tail.3  The 
author  of  the  Ramayana  speaks  of  Ceylon  as  of  prodigious 
dimensions,  and  separated  from  India  by  seas  of  infinite 
width.  lie  describes  the  island  as  covered  by  forests  of 
surpassing  luxuriance,  adorned  with  magnificent  buildings, 
and  protected  by  a  fortified  capital,  whose  battlemented 
castles  and  formidable  bulwarks  bade  defiance  to  all  as- 
sailants. The  whole  narrative  is  an  illustrative  specimen 
of  eastern  romance,  unrelieved  by  a  single  incident  to  im- 
part to  it  an  air  of  reality,  except  some  allusions  to  the 
gems  of  the  island,  its  chank  shells,  and  fishery  of  pearls.4 
But  the  century  in  which  Cosrnas  wrote  witnessed  the  rise 
of  a  power  whose  ascendant  energy  diffused  a  new  character 


1  An  English  version  of  the  first 
and  second  books  of  this  remarkable 
poem  was  published  by  CAREY  and 
MAESHMAN  at  Serampore  in  1806-10; 
and  translations  more  or  less  com- 

flete  have  been  since  published  in 
talian  by  GOKRESIO,  in  Modern  Greek 
by  DEMETRIUS  GALANOS,  and  in 
French  by  FATTCHE,  8vo.  Paris,  1857. 
The  story  of  the  poem  will  be  found 
in  Mrs.  SPIERS'  Ancient  Ittdia,  Sfc.}  ck. 


iv.,  and  in  the   Westminster  Review 
for  October,  1848. 

2  See  a  quotation  from  this  passage. 
Vol.  II.  p.  554. 

3  FAT7CHE,tom.vi.sec.xlix.,p.335. 

•»  Hanuman  is  described  approach- 
ing Lanka.  "  Cette  ville,  que  pro- 
tege une  mer,  riche  en  mines  variees 
de  pierreries,  jonchee  aux  phases  de 
la  lune  par  des  arnas  de  conques  et 
huitres  a  perles." — FAUCIIE,  torn.  vi. 
p.  09. 


MEDLEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


over  the  policy  and  literature  of  the  East.  Scarcely 
twenty  years  elapsed  in  the  interval  between  his  death 
and  the  birth  of  Mahomet — and  during  the  two  centuries 
that  ensued,  so  electric  was  the  influence  of  Islam,  that 
its  supremacy  was  established  with  a  rapidity  beyond 
parallel,  from  the  sierras  of  Spain  to  the  borders  of  China. 
The  dominions  of  the  Khalifs  exceeded  in  extent  the 
utmost  empire  of  the  Kornans  ;  and  so  undisputed  was 
the  sway  of  the  new  religion,  that  a  follower  of  the 
Prophet  could  travel  amidst  believers  of  his  own  faith, 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  from  the 
chain  of  the  Atlas  to  the  mountains  of  Tartary. 

Syria  and  Egypt  were  amongst  its  earliest  con- 
quests ;  and  the  power  thus  interposed  between  the 
Greeks  and  their  former  channels  of  trade,  effectually 
excluded  them  from  the  commerce  of  India.  The 
Persians  and  the  Arabs  became  its  undisputed  masters, 
and  Alexandria  and  Seleucia  declined  in  importance 
as  Bassora  and  Bagdad  rose  to  the  rank  of  Oriental 
emporiums.1 

Early  in  the  sixth  century,  the  Persians  under  Chosroes 
JSTouschirvan  held  a  distinguished  position  in  the  East, 
their  ships  frequented  the  harbours  of  India,  and  their 
fleet  was  successful  in  an  expedition  against  Ceylon 
to  redress  the  wrongs  done  to  some  of  their  fellow- 
countrymen  who  had  settled  there  for  purposes  of 
trade.2 

The  Arabs,  who  had  been  familiar  with  India  before 
it  was  known  to  the  Greeks3,  and  who  had  probably 
availed  themselves  of  the  monsoons  long  before  Hippalus 


1  ROBERTSON  was  of  opinion,  that 
such  was  the  aversion  of  the  Persians 
to  the  sea,  that  "  no  commercial  inter- 
course took  place  between  Persia  and 
India."  —  India,  s.  i.  p.  9.     But  this 
is  at  variance  with  the  testimony  of 
COSMAS  INDICO-PLEUSTES,  as  well  as 
of  HAMZA  of  Ispahan  and  others. 

2  HAMZA  IspAnANENSis;^4«na/.  vol. 


ii.  c.  2.  p.  43.  Petropol,  1848,  8vo. 
REINAUD,  Memoire  sur  FInde,  p.  124. 
3  There  is  an  obscure  sentence  in 
PLINY  which  would  seem  to  imply 
that  the  Arabs  had  settled  in  Ceylon 
before  the  first  century  of  our  Chris- 
tian era  : — "  Regi  cultum  Liberi 
patris,  ca ten's  Arabum." — Lib.  vi. 
c.  22. 


CHAP.  II.]      INDIAN,   AKABIAN,   PERSIAN   AUTHORITIES. 


381 


ventured  to  trust  to  them,  began  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries  to  establish  themselves  as  merchants  at 
Cambay  and  Surat,  at  Mangalore,  Calicut,  Coulam,  and 
other  Malabar  ports1,  whence  they  migrated  to  Ceylon, 
the  government  of  which  was  remarkable  for  its  tolera- 
tion of  all  religious  sects2,  and  its  hospitable  reception 
of  fugitives. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance,  related  by  BELADORY,  who 
lived  at  the  court  of  the  Khalif  of  Bagdad  in  the  ninth 
century,  that  an  outrage  committed  by  Indian  pirates 
upon  some  Mahometan  ladies,  the  daughters  of  traders 
who  had  died  in  Ceylon,  and  whose  families  the  King 
Dalupiatissa  IL,  A.D.  700,  was  sending  to  their  homes 
in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris,  served  as  the  plea  under 
which  Hadjadj,  the  fanatical  governor  of  Irak,  directed 
the  first  Mahometan  expedition  for  subjugating  the  valley 
of  the  Indus.3 

From  the  eighth  till  the  eleventh  century  the  Persians 
and  Arabs  continued  to  exercise  the  same  influence 


1  GILDEMEISTER,  Scriptores  Arabi 
de  Rebus  Indicia,  p.  40. 

2  EDRISI,  torn.  i.  p.  72. 

3  The  chief  of  the  Indus  was  the 
Buddhist      Prince      Daher,     whose 
capital    was    at    Daybal,    near    the 
modem  Kurachee.     The  story,  as  it 
appears  in  the  MS.  of  Beladory  in 
the  library  of  Leyden,  has  been  ex- 
tracted by  EEINATTD  in  his  FrtuHnau 
Arabes   ct  Persons  relatifs  ft  FInde, 
No.  v.  p.  161,  with  the  following 
translation  : — 

"  Sous  le  gouvernement  de  Mo- 
hammed, le  roi  de  1'ile  du  Rubis 
(Djezyret-Alyacout)  oflrit  a  Hadjadj 
des  femmes  musulmanes  qui  avaient 
1-6511  le  jour  dans  ses  e"tats,  et  dont 
les  peres,  livres  a  la  profession  du 
commerce,  e"taient  morts.  Le  prince 
esperait  par  la  gagner  1'amitie"  de 
Hadjadj  ;  mais  le  navire  on  1'on 
avail  embarque"  ces  femmes  fut  at- 
taque  par  ime  peuplade  de  race  Meyd, 
des  environs  de  Daybal,  qui  dtait 
montee  sur  des  barques.  Les  Meyds 


enleverent  le  navire  avec  ce  qu'il 
renfermait.  Dans  cette  extremite", 
une  de  ces  femmes  de  la  tribu  de 
Yarboua,  s'e"cria :  '  Que  n'es-tu  la,  oh 
Hadjadj  ! '  Cette  nouvelle  e"tant  par- 
venue  a  Hadjadj,  il  repondit :  '  Me 
voila.'  Aussitot  il  envoya  un  depute" 
a  Daher  pour  1'inviter  a  faire  mettre 
ces  femmes  en  liberte.  Mais  Daher 
re"pondit :  '  Ce  sont  des  pirates  qui 
ont  enleve"  ces  femmes,  et  je  n  ai 
aucune  autorite  sur  les  ravisseurs.' 
Alors  Hadjadj  engagea  Obeyd  Allah, 
fils  de  Nathan,  a  faire  une  expedition 
contre  Daybal."— P.  190. 

The  «  Island  of  Rubies"  was  the 
Persian  name  for  Ceylon,  and  in  this 
particular  instance  FERISHTA  con- 
firms the  identical  application  of  these 
two  names,  vol.  11.  p.  402.  See 
Journal  Asiat.  vol.  xlvi.  p.  131,  163  ; 
REINATJD,  Mem.  sur  VInde,  p.  180 ; 
Relation  des  Voyages,  Disc.  p.  xli. 
AHOULFEDA,  Introd.  vol.  i.  p. 
ccclxxxv. ;  ELPHINSTONE'S  India,  b. 
v.  ch.  i.  p.  2(>0. 


582 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


over  the  opulent  commerce  of  Ceylon  that  was  after- 
wards enjoyed  by  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  in  succes- 
sion between  1505,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  latter  by 
the  British  in  1796.  During  this  early  period,  there- 
fore, we  must  look  for  the  continuation  of  accounts 
regarding  Ceylon  to  the  literature  of  the  Arabs  and 
Persians,  and  more  especially  to  the  former,  by  whom 
geography  was  first  cultivated  as  a  science  in  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries  under  the  auspices  of  the  Khalifs 
Almansour  and  Ahnamoun. 

On  turning  to  the  Arabian  treatises  on  geography,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  Mahometan  writers  on  these 
subjects  were  for  the  most  part  grave  and  earnest  men 
who,  though  liable  equally  with  the  imaginative  Greeks  to 
be  imposed  on  by  their  informants,  exercised  somewhat 
more  caution,  and  were  more  disposed  to  confine  their 
writings  to  statements  of  facts  derived  from  safe  au- 
thorities, or  to  matters  which  they  had  themselves  seen. 
In  their  hands  scientific  geography  combined  theoretic 
precision,  which  had  been  introduced  by  their  prede- 
cessors, with  the  extended  observation  incident  to  the 
victories  and  enlarged  dominion  of  the  Khalifs.  Ac- 
curate knowledge  was  essential  for  the  civil  govern- 
ment of  their  conquests 1 ;  and  the  pilgrimage  to  Mekka, 
indispensable  once  at  least  in  the  life  of  every  Maho- 
metan2, rendered  the  followers  of  the  new  faith  ac- 
quainted with  many  countries  in  addition  to  their 


own/ 


Hence  the  records  of  their  voyages,  though  present- 


1  u  La  science  ge"ographique, 
comme  les  autres  sciences  en  gene- 
ral, notamment  1'astronomie,  com- 
menca  a  se  former  chez  les  Arabes, 
dans  la  derniere  moitie  du  viiie  siecle, 
et  se  fixa  dans  la  premiere  moitie  du 
ixe.  On  fit  usage  des  itineraires 
traces  par  les  chefs  des  arme'es  con- 
querantes  et  des  tableaux  dresses 
par  les  gouverneurs  de  provinces ; 


en  meme  temps  on  mit  a  la  contri- 
bution les  methodes  propagees  par 
les  Indiens,  les  Persans,  et  surtout 
les  Grecs,  qui  avaient  apporte  le  plus 
de  precision  dans  leurs  operations." 
— KEtN.VUD,  Ltirod.  Aboidfi'da,  $c., 
p.  xl. 

2  KEIXATJD,  Inirod.  Aloulfeda,  p. 
cxxii. 

3  Ibid.,  vol.  i.  p.  xl. 


CHAP.  II.]       INDIAN,   ARABIAN,    PERSIAN   AUTHORITIES.  583 

ing  numerous  exaggerations  and  assertions  altogether 
incredible,  exhibit  a  superiority  over  the  productions 
of  the  Greeks  and  'Romans.  To  avoid  the  fault  of 
dulness,  both  the  latter  were  accustomed  to  enliven 
their  topographical  itineraries,  not  so  much  by  "  moving 
accidents,"  and  "hair-breadth  'scapes,"  as  by  mingling 
fanciful  descriptions  of  monsters  and  natural  pheno- 
mena with  romantic  accounts  of  the  gems  and  splen- 
dours of  the  East. 

From  CTESIAS  to  Sir  JOHN  MAUNDEVILLE,  every  early 
traveller  in  India  had  his  "hint  to  speak,"  and  each 
strove  to  embellish  his  story  by  incorporating  with  such 
facts  as  he  had  witnessed,  improbable  reports  collected 
from  the  representations  of  others.  Such  were  their  ex- 
cesses in  this  direction,  that  the  Greeks  formed  a  class 
of  "  paradoxical  "  literature,  by  collecting  into  separate 
volumes  the  marvels  and  wonders  gravely  related  by 
their  voyagers  and  historians.1 

The  Arabs,  on  the  contrary,  with  sounder  discretion, 
generally  kept  their  "  travellers'  histories "  distinct  from 
their  sober  narratives,  and  whilst  the  marvellous  in- 
cidents related  by  adventurous  seamen  were  received 
as  materials  for  the  story-tellers  and  romancers,  the  staple 
of  their  geographical  works  consisted  of  truthful  de- 
scriptions of  the  countries  visited,  their  forms  of  govern- 
ment, their  institutions,  their  productions,  and  their 
trade. 

In  illustration  of  this  matter-of-fact  character  of  the 
Arab  topographers,  the  most  familiar  example  is  that 
known  by  the  popular  title  of  the  Voyages  of  the 


1  Such  are  the  Mirabilfs  Aus- 
cnUationes  of  ARISTOTLE,  the  In- 
crcdibiUa  of  PALEPHATES,  the  His- 
toriantm  Mirabilium  Collcdio  of  AN- 
TiGOJfTTS  CARYSTITJS,  the Historia <Mi- 
rabiles  of  APOLLONTTS  THE  MEAGRE, 
and  the  Collections  of  PHLEGOX  of 


Tralles,  MICHAEL  BELLTJS,  and  many 
other  Greeks  of  the  Lower  Empire. 
For  a  succinct  account  of  these 
compilers,  see  WESTERMAK'S  Haoa- 
£o£6ypadoi,  Scnptores  Serum  Mira- 
bilium Grccci.  Brunswick,  1839. 


584 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


two  Mahometans1,  who  travelled  in  India  and  China 
in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  The  book  pro- 
fesses to  give  an  account  of  the  countries  lying  between 
Bassora  and  Canton ;  and  in  its  unpretending  style,  and 
useful  notices  of  commerce  in  those  seas,  it  resembles 
the  record,  which  the  merchant  ARRIAN  has  left  us  in 
the  Periplns,  of  the  same  trade  as  it  existed  seven 
centuries  previously,  in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks. 
The  early  portion  of  the  book,  which  was  written 
A.D.  851,  was  taken  down  from  the  recital  of  Soley- 
man,  a  merchant  who  had  frequently  made  the  voy- 
ages he  describes,  at  the  epoch  when  the  commerce 
of  Bagdad,  under  the  Khalifs,  was  at  the  height  of  its 
prosperity.  The  second  part  was  added  sixty  years 
later,  by  Abou-zeyd  Hassan,  an  amateur  geographer, 
of  Bassora  (contemporary  with  Massoudi),  from  the 
reports  of  mariners  returning  from  China,  and  is,  to 
a  great  extent,  an  amplification  of  the  notices  supplied 
by  Soleyman. 

SOLEYMAN  describes  the  sea  of  Herkend,  as  it  lay 
between  the  Laccadives  and  Maldives2,  on  the  west, 
and  swept  round  eastward  by  Cape  Comorin  and 
Adam's  Bridge  to  Ceylon,  thus  enclosing  the  precious 
fishery  for  pearls.  In  Serendib,  his  earliest  attention 
was  devoutly  directed  to  the  sacred  footstep  on  Adam's 
Peak  ;  in  his  name  for  which,  "Al-rohoun"  we  trace  the 
Buddhist  name  for  the  district,  Eohuna,  so  often  occur- 
ring in  the  Mahawanso.8  This  is  the  earliest  notice  of 


'  It  was  first  published  by  REXAIT- 
BOT  in  1718,  from  the  unique  MS. 
now  in  the  Bibliotheque  imperiale 
of  Paris,  and  again  by  RETNATJD  in 
1846,  with  a  valuable  discourse  pre- 
fixed on  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  Indian  trade  prior  to  the  tenth 
century. — Relation  des  Voyages  faits 
par  les  Arabes  et  les  Persans  dans 
Flnde  et  Chine  dans  le  ixe  Siecle,  #c. 


2  vols.  18mo.  Paris,  1845. 

2  The  "  Dm"  of  Ammianus  Mar- 
cellinus,  who  along  with  the  Singha- 
lese  t(  Selendivi "   sent   ambassadors 
to    the    Emperor    Julian,    1.    xxii. 
c.  7. 

3  A  portion   of  the   district  near 
Tangalle  is  known  to  the  present  day 
as  "  Rouna." — Mahaivanso,    eh.    ix. 
p.  57  j  ch.  xxii.  p.  130,  &c. 


CIIAP.  II.]     INDIAN,  ARABIAN,  PEESIAN  AUTHORITIES. 


585 


the  Mussulman  tradition,  which  associates  the  story  of 
Adam  with  Ceylon,  though  it  was  current  amongst 
the  Copts  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.1  On  all 
sides  of  the  mountain,  he  adds,  are  the  mines  of  rubies, 
hyacinths,  and  other  gems  ;  the  interior  produces  aloes  ; 
and  the  sea  the  highly  valued  chank  shells,  which  served 
the  Indians  for  trumpets.2  The  island  was  subject  to 
two  kings ;  and  on  the  death  of  the  chief  one  his  body 
was  placed  on  a  low  carriage,  with  the  head  declining 
till  the  hair  swept  the  ground,  and,  as  it  was  drawn 
slowly  along,  a  female,  with  a  bunch  of  leaves,  swept 
dust  upon  the  features,  crying :  "  Men,  behold  your  king, 
whose  will,  but  yesterday,  was  law!  To-day,  he  bids 
farewell  to  the  world,  and  the  Angel  of  Death  has 
seized  his  spirit.  Cease,  any  longer,  to  be  deluded  by 
the  shadowy  pleasures  of  life."  At  the  conclusion  of 
this  ceremony,  which  lasted  for  three  days,  the  corpse 
was  consumed  on  a  pyre  of  sandal,  camphor,  and  other 
aromatic  woods,  and  the  ashes  scattered  to  the  winds.3 
The  widow  of  the  king  was  sometimes  burnt  along  with 
his  remains,  but  compliance  with  the  custom  was  not 
held  to  be  compulsory. 

Such  is  the  account  of  SOLETMAN,  but,  in  the  second 
part  of  the  manuscript,  ABOU-ZEYD,  on  the  authority  of 
another  informant,  IBN  WAHAB,  who  had  sailed  to  the 
same  countries,  speaks  of  the  pearls  of  Ceylon,  and  adds, 
regarding  its  precious  stones,  that  they  are  obtained  in 
part  from  the  soil,  but  chiefly  from  those  points  of  the 
beach  at  which  the  rivers  flowed  into  the  sea  and  to 
which  the  gems  are  carried  down  by  the  torrents  from 
the  hills.4 

ABOU-ZEYD  describes  the  frequent  conventions  of  the 
heads  of  the  national  religion,  and  the  attendance  of 


1  See  the  account  of  Adam's  Peak, 
Vol.  II.  Pt.  vn.  ch.  ii. 

ABOU-ZEYD,  Relation,  $c.,  vol.  i. 


p.  5. 

3  lb.,  p.  50.    The  practice  of  burn- 
ing the  remains  of  the  kings  and  of 


persons  of  exalted  rank,  continued  as 
long  as  the  native  dynasty  held  the 
throne  of  Kandy. — See  KNOX'S  His- 
torical Relation  of  Ceylon,  A.  D.  1681, 
Part  iii.  c.  ii. 

4  Ibid.,  vol.  i.  p.  127. 


VOL.  I. 


Q  Q 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


scribes  to  write  down  from  their  dictation  the  doctrines 
of  Buddhism,  the  legends  of  its  prophets,  and  the 
precepts  of  its  law.  This  statement  has  an  obvious 
reference  to  the  important  events  recorded  in  the 
Mahawanso 1 ; — the  reduction  of  the  tenets,  orally  de- 
livered by  Buddha,  to  their  written  form,  as  they  appear 
in  the  Pittakatayan ;  the  translation  of  the  Atthakatha, 
from  Singhalese  into  Pali,  in  the  reign  of  Mahanamo, 
A.  D.  410-432  ;  as  also  to  the  singular  care  displayed,  at 
all  times,  by  the  kings  and  the  priesthood,  in  preserving 
authentic  records  of  every  event  connected  with  the 
national  religion  and  its  history. 

ABOU-ZEYD  adverts  to  the  richness  of  the  temples  of 
the  Singhalese,  and  to  the  colossal  dimensions  of  their 
statues,  and  dwells  with  particularity  on  the  toleration 
of  all  religious  sects  in  the  island  as  attested  by  the 
existence  there,  in  the  ninth  century,  of  a  sect  of  Mani- 
cha3ans,  and  a  community  of  Jews.2 


1  Mahaivanso,  cli.  xxxiii.  p.  207; 
ch.  xxxvii.  p.  252. 

2  It  was  to  Ceylon  that  the  terri- 
fied worshippers  of  Siva  betook  them- 
selves in  their  flight,  when  Mahmoud 
of  Ghuznee  smote  the  idol  and  over- 
threw the  temple  of  Somnaut,  A.  D. 
1025.     (FERISHTA,  transl.  by  Briggs, 
vol.  i.  p.  71 ;   REINAUD,  Introd.  to 
AHOIJLFEDA,  vol.  i.  p.  cccxlix.     Me- 
moires  sur  FInde,  p.  270.)     Twenty 
years    previously,   when    tke    same 
orthodox  invader  routed  the  schis- 
matic Carmathians  at  Moultan,  the 
fugitive  chief  of  the  Sheahs  found  an 
asylum  in  Ceylon.    (REINAUD,  Journ. 
Asiat.,  vol.  xlv.  p.  283 ;  vol.  xlvi.  p. 
]  29.)   The  latter  circumstance  serves 
to   show  that    the   Mahometans  in 
Ceylon    have    not    been    uniformly 
Sonnees,  and  it  may  probably  throw 
light  on  a  fact  of  much  local  interest 
connected  with  Colombo.    There  for- 
merly stood  there,  in  the  Mahometan 
Cemetery,  a  stone  with  an  ancient 
inscription  in  Cufic  characters,  which 
no  one  could  decipher,  but  which  was 
said  to  record  the  virtues  of  a  man  of 
singular  virtue,  who  had  arrived  in 
the    island    in    the   tenth   centmy. 


About  the  year  1787  A.  D.,  one  of  the 
Dutch  officials  removed  the  stone  to 
the  spot  where  he  was  building,  "  and 
placed  it  where  it  now  stands,  at  one 
of  the  steps  to  his  door."  This  is  the 
account  given  by  Sir  Alexander 
Johnston,  who,  in  1827,  sent  a  copy 
of  the  inscription  to  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  of  London.  GILDE- 
MEISTER  pronounces  it  to  be  written 
in  Carmathic  characters,  and  to  com- 
memorate an  Arab  who  died  A.  D. 
848.  "Karmathacis  quae  dicuntur 
literis  exarata  viro  cuidam  Arabo 
Mortuo,  948  A.  D.  posita,"  Script. 
Arabi  de  Rebus  Indicts,  p.  59.  A 
translation  of  the  inscription  by  Lee 
was  published  in  Trans.  Roy.  Asiat. 
Soc.j  vol.  i.  p.  545,  from  which  it 
appears  that  the  deceased,  Khalid 
Ibn  Abu  Bakaya,  distinguished  him- 
self by  obtaining  "  security  for  re- 
ligion, with  other  advantages,  in  the 
year  317  of  the  Hejira."  LEE  was 
disposed  to  think  that  this  might  be 
the  tomb  of  the  Imaum  Abu  Abd 
Allah,  who  first  taught  the  Maho- 
metans the  route  by  which  pilgrims 
might  proceed  from  India  to  the 
sacred  footstep  on  Adam's  Peak. 


CHAP.  II.]       INDIAN,  AKABIAN,  PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES. 


587 


Ibn  Wahab,  his  informant,  appears  to  have  looked  back 
with  singular  pleasure  to  the  delightful  voyages  wliich 
he  had  made  through  the  remarkable  still-water  channels, 
elsewhere  described,  which  form  so  peculiar  a  feature  on 
the  seaborde  of  Ceylon,  and  to  which  the  Arabs  gave 
the  obscure  term  of  "gobbs."1  Here  months  were 
consumed  by  the  mariners,  amidst  flowers  and  over- 
hanging woods,  with  the  enjoyments  of  abundant  food 
and  exhilarating  draughts  of  arrack  flavoured  with 
honey.  The  natives  of  the  island  were  devoted  to 
pleasure,  and  their  days  were  spent  in  cock-fighting 
and  games  of  chance,  into  which  they  entered  with  so 
much  eagerness  as  to  wager  the  joints  of  then'  fingers 
when  all  else  was  lost. 

But  the  most  interesting  passages  in  the  narrative  of 
Abou-zeyd  are  those  relating  to  the  portion  of  Ceylon 
which  served  as  the  emporium  for  the  active  and  opulent 
trade  of  wliich  the  island  was  then,  in  every  sense  of  the 
word,  the  centre.  Gibbon,  on  no  other  ground  than 
its  "capacious  harbour,"  pronounces  Trincomalie  to 
have  been  the  port  which  received  and  dismissed  the 
fleets  of  the  East  and  West.2  But  the  nautical  grounds 
are  even  stronger  than  the  historical  for  regarding 
this  as  improbable ;  —  the  winds  and  the  currents, 
as  well  as  its  geographical  position,  render  Trinco- 
malie  difficult  of  access  to  vessels  coming  from  the 
Eed  Eea  or  the  Persian  Gulf;  and  it  is  evident  from 
the  narrative  of  Soleyman  and  Ibn  Wahab,  that 


But  besides  the  discrepancy  of  the 
names,  the  Imaum  died  in  the  year 
A.  D.  953,  and  was  interred  at  Shiraz, 
where  Ibn  Batuta  made  a  visit  to  his 
tomb.  (Travels,  transl.  DEFREMERY, 
&c.,  torn.  ii.  p.  79.) 

EDRISI,  in  his  Geography,  writing 
in  the  twelfth  century,  confirms  the 
account  of  Abou-zeyd  as  to  the 
toleration  of  all  sects  in  Ceylon,  and 
illustrates  it  by  the  fact,  that  of  the 
sixteen  officers  who  formed  the  coun- 
cil of  the  king,  four  were  Buddhists, 
four  Mussulmans,  four  Christians, 


and  four  Jews.  —  GILDEMEISTER, 
Script.  Arabi,  $c.,  p.  53;  EDRISI,  1 
Clim.  sec.  6. 

1  "  Aghbab,"  Arab.     For  an    ac- 
count of  those  of  Ceylon,  see  Vol.  I. 
Pt.  i.  ch.  i.  p.  42.      The  idea  enter- 
tained by  the  Arabs  of  these  Gobbs, 
will  be   found    in   a    passage    from 
Albyrouni,  given  by  REINAUD,  Frag- 
ment Arabes,   $<?.,   119,    and   Journ. 
Asiat.    vol.   xlv.    p.  261.     See    also 
EDRISI,  Geoff.,  torn.  i.  p.  73. 

2  Decline  'and  Fall,  ch.  xl. 


Q  Q   2 


MEDLEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


ships  availing  themselves  of  the  monsoons  to  cross  the 
Indian  Ocean,  crept  along  the  shore  to  Cape  Comorin ; 
and  passed  close  by  Adam's  Bridge  to  reach  their  destined 
ports.1 

An  opinion  has  been  advanced  by  Bertolacci  that  the 
entrepdt  was  Mantotte,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar.  Presuming  that  the  voyages  both  ways 
were  made  through  the  Manaar  channel,  he  infers  that 
the  ships  of  Arabia  and  India,  rather  than  encounter 
the  long  delay  of  waiting  for  the  change  of  the  mon- 
soon to  effect  the  passage,  would  prefer  to  "  flock  to  the 
Straits  of  Manaar,  and  those  which,  from  their  size,  could 
not  pass  the  shallow  water,  would  be  unloaded,  and  their 
merchandise  trans-shipped  into  other  vessels,  as  they 
arrived  from  the  opposite  coast,  or  deposited  in  stores  to 
await  an  opportunity  of  conveyance."2  Hence  Mantotte, 
he  concludes,  was  the  station  chosen  for  such  combined 
operations. 

But  Bertolacci  confines  his  remarks  to  the  Arabian  and 
Indian  crafts  alone  :  he  leaves  out  of  consideration  the  ships 
of  the  largest  size  called  in  the  Periplus  xoXavS/oc^ovra, 
which  kept  up  the  communication  between  the  west  and 
east  coast  of  India,  in  the  time  of  the  Eomans,  and  he 
equally  overlooks  the  great  junks  of  the  Chinese,  which, 
by  aid  of  the  magnetic  compass3,  made  bold  passages 
from  Java  to  Malabar,  and  from  Malabar  to  Oman, — 
vessels  which  (on  the  authority  of  an  ancient  Arabic  MS.) 
Eeinaud  says  carried  from  four  to  five  hundred  men,  with 
arms  and  naphtha,  to  defend  themselves  against  the 
pirates  of  India.4 


1  ABOU-ZEYB,  vol.  i.  p.  128 ;  REI- 
NAtTD,  Discours,  Sfc.,  pp.  Ix. — Ixix. ; 
Introd.  ABOULFEDA,  p.  cdxii. 

2  BEETOLACCI'S  Ceylon,  pp.  18, 19. 

3  The  knowledge  of  the  mariner's 
compass,  probably  possessed  by  the 
Chinese  prior  to  the  twelfth  century, 
is   discussed    by  KLAPROTH  in   his 
"  Lettre  a  M.  le  Baron  Humboldt  sur 
T  invention  de    la  boussole"       Paris. 
1834. 


4  See  the  "  Katab-al-adjajab, " 
probably  written  by  MASSOTJDI.  REI- 
KATTD,  Memoires  sur  Vlnde,  p.  200 ; 
Relation  et  Discours,  pp.  Ix.  Ixviii. ; 
ABOTTLFEDA,  Introd.  cclxii.  May  not 
this  early  mention  of  the  use  of 
"  naphtha"  by  the  Chinese  for  burn- 
ing the  ships  of  an  enemy,  throw  some 
light  on  the  disquisitions  adverted  to 
by  GIBBOX,  ch.  Hi.,  as  to  the  nature 
of  "the  Greek Jire"  so  destructive  to 


CHAP.  II.]      INDIAN,  ARABIAN,  PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES. 


589 


On  this  point  we  have  the  personal  testimony  of 
the  Chinese  traveller  Fa  Hian,  who  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century  sailed  direct  from  Ceylon  for  China,  in  a 
merchant  vessel  so  large  as  to  accommodate  two  hun- 
dred persons,  and  having  in  tow  a  smaller  one,  as 
a  precaution  against  dangers  by  sea l : —  and  Ibn  Batuta 
saw,  at  Calicut,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  junks  from 
China  capable  of  accommodating  a  thousand  men,  of 
whom  four  hundred-  were  soldiers,  and  each  of  these 
large  ships  was  followed  by  three  smaller.2  With 
vessels  of  such  magnitude,  it  would  be  neither  ex- 
pedient nor  practicable  to  navigate  the  shallows  in  the 
vicinity  of  Manaar ;  and  besides,  Mantotte,  or,  as  it  was 
anciently  called,  Mahatitta  or  Maha-totta,  "the  great 
ferry,"  although  it  existed  as  a  port  upwards  of  four 
hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era,  was  at  no  period 
an  emporium  of  commerce.  Being  situated  so  close  to 
Anarajapoora,  the  ancient  capital,  it  derived  its  notoriety 
from  being  the  point  of  arrival  and  departure  of  the 
Malabars  who  resorted  to  the  island;  and  the  only 
trade  for  which  it  afforded  facilities  was  the  occasional 
importation  of  the  produce  of  the  opposite  coast  of 
India.3  It  is  not  only  probable,  but  almost  certain, 
that  during  the  middle  ages,  and  especially  prior  to  the 
eleventh  century,  when  the  trade  with  Persia  and 
Arabia  was  at  its  height,  Mantotte  afforded  the  facilities 
indicated  by  Bertolacci  to  the  smaller  craft  that  availed 


the  fleets  of  their  assailants  during 
the  first  and  second  siege  of  Constan- 
tinople in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries  ?  GIBBON  says  that  the 
principal  ingredient  was  naphtha,  and 
that  the  Greek  emperor  learned  the 
secret  of  its  composition  from  a  Syrian 
who  deserted  from  the  service  of  the 
Khalif.  Did  the  Khalif  acquire  the 
knowledge  from  the  Chinese,  whose 
ships,  it  appears,  were  armed  with 
some  preparation  of  this  nature  in 
their  voyages  to  Bassora  ? 

1  Fot-koue-kt,  ch.  xl.  p.  359.     In  a 
previous  passage,  FA  HIAN  describes 


the  large  vessels  in  which  the  trade 
was  carried  hetween  Tamlook,  on  the 
Hoogly,  and  Ceylon: — "A  cette 
dpoque,  des  marchands,  se  mettant 
en  mer  avec  de  grands  vaisseaux, 
firent  route  vers  le  sud-ouest ;  et  an 
commencement  de  1'hiver,  le  vent 
etant  favorahle,  apres  une  navigation 
de  quatorze  nuits  et  d'autant  de  jours, 
on  arriva  au  JRoyaume  dus  Lions" — 
Ibid.  chap,  xxxvi.  p.  328. 

2  IBN  BATUTA,  Lee's  translation, 
p.  172. 

3  Mahawanso,  ch.vii.  p.  51 ;  ch.  xxv. 
p.  155  j  ch.  xxxv.  p.  217. 


Q  Q  3 


590 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


LPART  V. 


themselves  of  the  Paumbam  passage  ;  but  we  have  still 
to  ascertain  the  particular  harbour  which  was  the 
centre  of  the  more  important  commerce  between  China 
and  the  West.  That  harbour  I  believe  to  have  been 
Point  de  Galle. 

Abou-zeyd  describes  the  rendezvous  of  the  ships  arriv- 
ing from  Oman,  where  they  met  those  bound  for  the 
Persian  Gulf,  as  lying  half-way  between  Arabia  and 
China.  "  It  was  the  centre,"  he  says,  "  of  the  trade  in 
aloes  and  camphor,  in  sandal-wood,  ivory  and  lead."  l 
This  emporium  he  denominates  "  Kalah,"  and  when  we 
remember  that  he  is  speaking  of  a  voyage  which  he  him- 
self had  not  made,  and  of  countries  then  very  imperfectly 
known  to  the  people  of  the  West,  we  need  not  be  sur- 
prised that  he  calls  it  an  island,  or  rather  a  peninsula. 

According  to  him,  "  Kalah"  was  at  that  period  subject 
to  the  Maharaja  of  Zabedj,  the  sovereign  of  a  singular 
kingdom  of  which  little  is  known.  It  appears,  however, 
to  have  been  formed  about  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era ;  and  to  have  extended,  in  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries,  over  the  groups  of  islands  south  and  west 
of  Malacca,  including  Borneo,  Java,  and  Sumatra,  which 
had  become  the  resort  of  a  vast  population  of  Indians, 
Chinese,  and  Malays.2  The  sovereign  of  this  opulent  em- 
pire had  brought  under  his  dominion  the  territory  of  the 
King  of  Comar,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dekkan3, 
and  at  the  period  when  Abou-zeyd  wrote,  he  likewise 
claimed  the  sovereignty  of  "  Kalah." 

This  incident  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Singhalese  chro- 
nicles, but  their  silence  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  conclu- 


1  ABOTT-ZEYD,  Relation,  $c.,  vol.  i. 
p.  93 ;  REINATJD,  Disc.  p.  Ixxiv. 

2  Journ.  Asiat.  vol.  xlix.  p.  206  j 
ELPHXNSTONE'S  India,  b.  iii.  ch.  x.  p. 
168  ;  REINATJD,  Memoires  sur  Vlnde, 
p.  39;  Introd.  ABOTJLFEDA,  p.  cccxc. 
JJaron  Walckenaer  has  ascertained, 
from  the  puranas   and  other  Hindu 
sources,  that  the  Great  Dynasty  of  the 
Maharaja   continued    tiU   A.  D.   628, 
after  which  the   islands  were   sub- 
divided into  numerous  sovereignties. 


See  MAJOR'S  Introduction  to  the  In- 
dian Voyages  in  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury, in  the  Halduyt  Soc.  Publ  p. 
xxvii. 

3  MASSOTTDI  relates  the  conquest  of 
the  kingdom  of  Comar  by  the  Maha- 
raja of  Zabedj,  nearly  in  the  same 
words  as  it  is  told  by  Abou-zeyd  ; 
GILDEMEISTER,  Script. "Arab.,  pp.  14/5, 
146.  REINATJD,  Memoires  mr  rinde, 
p.  225. 


CHAP.  II.]     INDIAN,  ARABIAN,  PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES.  591 

sive  evidence  against  its  probability ;  the  historians  of 
the  Hindus  ignore  the  expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  it  is  possible  that  those  of  Ceylon,  indifferent  to  all 
that  did  not  directly  concern  the  religion  of  Buddha,  may 
have  felt  little  interest  in  the  fortunes  of  Gralle,  situated  as 
it  was  at  the  remote  extremity  of  the  island,  and  in  a 
region  that  hardly  acknowledged  even  a  nominal  alle- 
giance to  the  Singhalese  crown. 

The  assertion  of  Abou-zeyd  as  to  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Maharaja  of  Zabedj,  at  Kalah,  is  consistent  with  the 
statement  of  Soleyman  in  the  first  portion  of  the  work, 
that  "  the  island  was  in  subjection  to  two  monarchs  ;  " l 
and  this  again  agrees  with  the  report  of  Sopater  to 
Cosmas  Indico-pleustes,  who  adds  that  the  king  who 
possessed  the  hyacinth  was  at  enmity  with  the  king  of 
the  country  in  which  were  the  harbour  and  the  great 
emporium.2 

But  there  is  evidence  that  the  subjection  of  this  por- 
tion of  Ceylon  to  the  chief  of  the  great  insular  empire 
was  at  that  period  currently  believed  in  the  East.  In 
the  "  Garsharsp-Namah"  a  Persian  poem  of  the  tenth 
century,  by  Asedi,  a  manuscript  of  which  was  in  the 
possession  of  Sir  William  Ouseley,  the  story  turns  on  a 
naval  expedition,  fitted  out  by  Delak,  whose  dominions 
extended  from  Persia  to  Palestine,  and  despatched  at 
the  request  of  the  Maharaja  against  Baku,  the  King  of 
Ceylon.  In  the  course  of  the  narrative,  Garsharsp  and  his 
fleet  reach  their  destination  at  Kalah,  and  there  achieve 
a  victory  over  the  "  Shah  of  Serendib."  3 

It  must  be  observed,  that  one  form  of  the  Arabic 
letter  K  is  sounded  like  G,  so  that  Kalah  would  sound 
like  Gala*  and  to  the  present  day  the  Moors  of  Ceylon 


1  Relation,  vol.  i.  p.  6. 

2  Awo  Si   /3a<riXf7c  ilalv  Iv  rrj  vifffy 
tvdvTtot    dXXjjXwv,     6    tig    i\<»t>    rbv 
vaKivOov,  icai  6  £rf(oo£  rb  /itpof  TO  a\\o 


Iv  <f  earl  f^nropiov 


COSMAS  INDICOPL. 


3  OTJSELEY'S  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  48. 
Kalah  may  possibly  be  identical 


with  the  Singhalese  word  gala,  which 

Q  Q  4 


means  an  "  enclosure,"  and  the  deeply 
baved  harbour  of  Galle  would  serve 
to  justify  the  name.  Galla  signifies 
a  rock,  and  this  derivation  would  be 
equally  sustained  by  the  dangerous 
coral  reefs  which  obstruct  the  en- 
trance to  the  port,  and  by  other  na- 


tural features  of  the  place. 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


write  and  pronounce  Galle  Kaleh,  in  the  same  manner  as 
it  is  spelled  in  the  travels  of  Ibn  Batuta  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  identity,  however,  is  established  not 
merely  by  similarity  of  sound,  but  by  the  concurrent 
testimony  of  Cosmas  and  the  Arabian  geographers  \  as 
to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  intercourse  between  China 
and  Persia,  statements  which  are  intelligible  if  referred 
to  this  particular  point,  but  inapplicable  to  any  other. 

Coupled  with  these  considerations,  the  identity  of 
name  is  not  without  its  significance.  It  was  the  habit 
of  the  Singhalese  to  apply  to  a  district  the  name  of 
the  principal  place  within  it ;  thus  Lanka,  which  in 
the  epic  of  the  Hindus  was  originally  the  capital  and 
castle  of  Havana,  was  afterwards  applied  to  the  island 
in  general ;  and  according  to  the  Mahawanso,  Tam- 
bapani,  the  point  of  the  coast  where  Wijayo  landed, 
came  to  designate  first  the  wooded  country  that  sur- 
rounded it,  and  eventually  the  whole  area  of  Ceylon.2 
In  the  same  manner  Galla  served  to  describe  not  only 
the  harbour  of  that  name,  but  the  district  north  and 
east  of  it  to  the  extent  of  600  square  miles,  and  De 
Barros,  De  Couto,  and  Eibeyro,  the  chroniclers  of  the 
Portuguese  in  Ceylon,  record  it  as  a  tradition  of  the 
island,  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  region  had  acquired 
the  name  of  the  locality,  and  were  formerly  known  as 
"Gallas."3 

Galle  therefore,  in  the  earlier  ages,  appears  to  have 
occupied  a  position  in  relation  to  trade  of  equal  if  not 
of  greater  importance  than  that  which  attaches  to  it  at 
the  present  day.  It  was  the  central  emporium  of  a  com- 
merce which  in  turn  enriched  every  country  of  Western 
Asia,  elevated  the  merchants  of  Tyre  to  the  rank  of 


1  DTTLATJEIEK,  in  the  Journal 
Asiatique  for  Sept.  1846,  vol.  xlix. 
p.  209,  has  brought  together  the 
authorities  of  Ahoulfeda,  Kazwini, 
and  others,  to  show  that  Kalah  must 
be  situated  in  Ceylon,  and  he  has 
combated  the  conjecture  of  M.  Alfred 
Maury  that  it  may  be  identical  with 


Kedah  in  the  Malay  Peninsula. — 
REINATJD,  Relation,  fyc.  Disc.,  pp. 
xli. — Ixxxiv.,  Itdrod.  ABOTJLFEDA,  p. 
ccxviii. 

2  Mahawanso,  ch.  vii.  p.  50. 

3  A  notice  of  this  tribe  will   be 
found  in  another  place.    See  Vol.  II. 
Pt.  vn.  ch.  ii. 


CHAP.  II.]      INDIAN,  AEABIAN,  PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES.  593 

princes,  fostered  the  renown  of  the  Ptolemies,  rendered 
the  wealth  and  the  precious  products  of  Arabia  a  gor- 
geous mystery 1,  freighted  the  Tigris  with  "•  barbaric 
pearl  and  gold,"  and  identified  the  merchants  of  Bagdad 
and  the  mariners  of  Bassora  with  associations  of  ad- 
venture and  romance.  Yet,  strange  to  say,  the  native 
Singhalese  appear  to  have  taken  no  part  in  this  exciting 
and  enriching  commerce  ;  their  name  is  never  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  immigrant  races  attracted  by  it  to 
their  shores,  and  the  only  allusions  of  travellers  to  the 
indigenous  inhabitants  of  the  island  are  in  connection 
with  a  custom  so  remarkable  and  so  peculiar  as  at  once 
to  identify  the  tribes  to  whom  it  is  ascribed  with  the 
remnant  of  the  aboriginal  race  of  Veddahs,  whose  des- 
cendants still  haunt  the  forests  in  the  east  of  Ceylon. 

Such  is  the  aversion  of  this  untamed  race  to  any 
intercourse  with  civilised  life,  that  when  in  want  of  the 
rude  implements  essential  to  then:  savage  economy, 
they  repair  by  night  to  the  nearest  village  on  the 
confines  of  their  hunting-fields.  They  indicate  by  well- 
understood  signs  and  models  the  number  and  form  of 
the  articles  required,  whether  arrow-heads,  '  hatchets, 
or  cloths,  and  depositing  an  equivalent  portion  of  dried 
deer's  flesh'  or  honey  near  the  door  of  the  dealer,  and 
retire  unseen  to  the  jungles,  returning  by  stealth  within 
a  reasonable  time,  to  carry  away  the  manufactured 
articles,  which  they  find  placed  at  the  same  spot  in 
exchange. 

This  singular  custom  has  been  described  without 
variation  by  numerous  writers  on  Ceylon,  both  in  recent 
and  remote  times.  To  trace  it  backwards,  it  is  narrated 
nearly  as  I  have  stated  it,  by  Eobert  Knox  in  16812; 
and  it  is  confirmed  by  VALENTYN,  the  Dutch  historian  of 
Ceylon3;  as  well  as  by  EIBEYRO,  the  Portuguese,  who 
wrote  somewhat  earlier.4  ALBTROUNI,  the  geographer, 


1  " .     .     .     .    intactis  opulentior 
Thesauris   Arabum,    et    divitis 

Indise."  HORACE. 

2  KNOX,   Historical  Relation,  fyc. 


part  iii.  ch.  i.  p.  62. 

3  VALENTTN,  Oud  en  Nieuw  Oost- 
Indien,  ch.  iii.  p.  49. 

Lorsqu'ila  ont  besom  de  haches 


4     . 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTOET. 


[PART  V. 


who  in  the  reign  of  Mahomet  of  Ghuznee,  A.D.  1030,  de- 
scribed this  singular  feature  in  the  trade  with  the  island, 
of  which  he  speaks  under  the  name  of  Lanka,  says  it 
was  the  belief  of  the  Arabian  mariners  that  the  parties 
with  whom  they  held  their  mysterious  dealings  were 
demons  or  savages.1 

Concurrent  testimony,  to  the  same  effect,  is  found 
in  the  recital  of  the  Chinese  Buddhist,  FA  HIAN,  who  in 
the  third  century,  describing  the  same  strange  peculiarity 
of  the  inhabitants  in  those  days,  (whom  he  also  designates 
"  demons,")  says  they  deposited,  unseen,  the  precious 
articles  which  they  come  down  to  barter  with  the  foreign 
merchants  resorting  to  their  shores.2 


ou  de  fleches,  ils  font  un  modele  avec 
des  feiiilles  d'arbre,  et  vont  la  nuit 
porter  ce  modele,  et  la  moitie  d'un 
cerf  ou  d'un  sanglier,  a  la  porte  d'un 
armurier,  qui  voyant  le  matin  cette 
viande  pendue  a  sa  porte,  scait  ce  que 
cela  veut  dire :  il  travaille  aussi-tot  et 
3  jours  apres  il  pend  les  fleches  ou 
les  baches  au  meme  endroit  ou  etoit 
la  viande,  et  la  nuit  suivante  le  Beda 
lesvient  prendre." — RIBEYRO,  Hist, 
de  Ceylan,  A.  D.  1686,  ch.  xxiv.  p.  179. 
1  "  Les  marins  se  reunissent  pour 
dire  que  lorsque  les  navires  sont 
arrives  dans  ces  parages,  quelques  uns 
de  1'equipage  montent  sur  des  cha- 
loupes  et  descendent  a  teiTe  pour  y 
deposer,  soit  de  1'argent, soit  des  objets 
utiles  a  la  personne  des  babitans,  tels 
que  des  pagnes,  du  sel,  etc.  Lelende- 
main,  quand  ils  reviennent,  ils  trou- 
vent  a  la  place  de  1'argent  des  pagnes 
et  du  sel,  une  quantity  de  girofle 
d'luie  valeur  e"gale.  On  ajoute  que 
ce  commerce  se  fait  avec  des  genies, 
ou,  suivant  d'autres,  avec  des  bommes 
restes  al'etat  sauvage." — ALBYROTJXI, 
transl.  by  REINATJD,  Introd.  to  ABOTJL- 
FEDA,  sec.  iii.  p.  ccc.  See  also 
REINATJD,  Mem.  sur  VInde,  p.  343. 
I  hare  before  alluded  (p.  538,  «.)  to 
the  treatise  De  Moribus  Brachma- 
norum,  ascribed  to  Palladius,  one 
version  of  which  is  embodied  in  the 
spurious  Life  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
written  by  the  Pseudo-Callisthenes. 
In  it  the  traveller  from  Thebes,  who 


is  the  author's  informant,  states,  that 
when  in  Ceylon,  he  obtained  pepper 
from  the  Besadoe,  and  succeeded  in 
getting  so  near  them  as  to  be  able  to 
describe  accurately  their  appearance, 
their  low  stature  and  feeble  confi- 
guration, their  large  heads  and 
shaggy  uncut  hair,  —  a  description 
which  in  every  particular  agrees  with 
the  aspect  of  the  Veddahs  at  the 
present  day.  His  expression  that 
he  succeeded  in  "  getting  near " 
them,  i<j>Vaaa  eyyi'C  riLv  iaa\ovfuvttv 
Btcrdduiv,  shows  their  propensity  to 
conceal  themselves  even  when  bring- 
ing the  articles  which  they  had  col- 
lected in  the  woods  to  sell. — PSEUDO 
CALLISTHENES,  lib.  iii.  ch,  vii.  Paris, 
1846,  p.  103. 

2  "  Les  marchands  des  autres  roy- 
aumes  y  faisaient  le  commerce  : 
quand  le  temps  de  ce  commerce 
e"tait  venu,  les  ge"nies  et  les  demons 
ne  paraissaient  pas;  mais  ils  met- 
taient  en  avant  des  choses  precieuses 
dont  ils  marquaient  le  juste  prix, — 
s'il  convenait  aux  marchands,  ceux- 
ci  I'acquittaient  et  prenaient  la  mar- 
chandise." — FA  HIAN,  Foe-kmw-kt. 
Transl.  REMITSAT,  ch.  xxxviii.  p.  332. 

There  are  a  multitude  of  Chinese 
authorities  to  the  same  effect.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  books  in  any 
language  is  a  Chinese  Encyclopaedia 
which,  under  the  title  of  ^Ven-hian- 
thmmy-khao,  or  "  ^Researches  into 
ancient  Monuments"  contains  a  his- 


CIIAP.  II.]       INDIAN,  ARABIAN,  PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES. 


595 


The  chain  of  evidence  is  rendered  complete  by  a 
passage  in  PLINY,  which,  although  somewhat  obscure 
(facts  relating  to  the  Seres  being  confounded  with 
statements  regarding  Ceylon),  serves  nevertheless  to 
show  that  the  custom  in  question  was  then  well  known 
to  the  Singhalese  ambassadors  sent  to  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  and  was  also  familiar  to  the  Greek  traders 
resorting  to  the  island.  The  envoys  stated,  at  Eome, 
that  the  habit  of  the  people  of  their  country  was,  on 
the  arrival  of  traders,  to  go  to  "  the  further  side  of  some 
river  where  wares  and  commodities  are  laid  down  by 
the  strangers,  and  if  the  natives  list  to  make  exchange, 
they  have  them  taken  away,  and  leave  other  mer- 
chandise in  lieu  thereof,  to  content  the  foreign  mer- 
chant." x 


tory  of  every  art  and  science  from 
the  commencement  of  the  empire  to 
the  era  of  the  author  MA-TOTJAN-LIN, 
who  wrote  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
M.  Stanislas  Julien  has  published  in 
the  Journal  Adatique  for  July  1836 
a  translation  of  that  portion  of  this 
great  work  which  has  relation  to 
Ceylon.  It  is  there  stated  of  the 
aborigines  that  when  "  les  marchands 
des  autres  royaumes  y  venaient  com- 
mercer,  Us  ne  laissaient  pas  voir  leurs 
corps,  et  montraient  au  moyen  de 
pierres  pre"cieuses  le  prix  que  pou- 
vaient  valoir  les  merchandises.  Les 
marchands  venaient  et  en  prenaient 
une  quantite  equivalente  a  leurs  rnar- 
chandises." — Jourti.  Asiat.  t.  xxviii. 
p.  402;  xxiv.  p.  41.  I  have  extracts 
from  seven  other  Chinese  works, 
written  between  the  seventh  and 
the  twelfth  centuries,  in  all  of  which 
there  occurs  the  same  account  of 
Ceylon, — that  it  was  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  inhabited  by  dragons 
and  demons,  and  that  when  "  mer- 
chants from  all  nations  come  to  trade 
with  them,  they  are  invisible,  but 
leave  their  precious  wares  spread  out 
with  an  indication  of  the  value  set  on 
them,  and  the  Chinese  take  them  at 
the  prices  stipulated." — Leany-slioo, 
"History  of  the  Leang  Dynasty," 
A.D.  630,  b.  liv.  p.  13.  Ndn-sht, 


"  History  of  the  Southern  Empire," 
A.D.  650,  p.  xxxviii.  p.  14.  Jttnr/- 
teen,  "  Cyclopedia  of  History,"  A.'D. 
740,  b.  cxciii.  p.  8.  The  Toe-piny, 
a  "  Digest  of  History,"  compiled  by 
Imperial  command,  A.D.  983,  b. 
dccxciii.  p.  9.  Tsih-foo-yuen-kivei, 
the  "  Great  Depositary  of  the  Na- 
tional Archives,"  A.D.  1012,  b.  cccclvi. 
p.  21.  Sin-Jany-shoo,  "New  His- 
tory of  the  Tang'Dynasty,"  A.D.  1060, 
b.  cxlvi.  partii.  p.  10.  Wan-heen-tiiny- 
Kwan,  "  Antiquarian  Researches," 
A.D.  1319,  b.  cccxxxviii.  p.  24. 

1  PLINY,  Nat.  Hist.,  lib.  vi.  ch. 
xxiv.  Transl.  Philemon  Holland, 
p.  130.  This  passage  has  been  some- 
times supposed  to  refer  to  the  Serse, 
but  a  reference  to  the  text  will  con- 
firm the  opinion  of  MAKTIANUS  and 
SOLINTJS,  that  Pliny  applies  it  to  the 
Singhalese  j  and  that  the  allusion  to 
red  hair  and  grey^  eyes,  "  rutilis 
comis"  and"cferuleisoculis"  applies 
to  some  northern  tribes  whom  the 
Singhalese  had  seen  in  their  over- 
land journeys  to  China.  "  Later 
travellers,"  says  COOLEY,  "  have  like- 
wise had  glimpses,  on  the  frontiers 
of  India,  of  these  German  features ; 
but  nothing  is  yet  known  with  cer- 
tainty of  the  tribe  to  which  they 
properly  belong." — Hist.  Inland  and 
Maritime  Discovery,  vol.  i.  p.  71. 


5G6 


MEDLEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


The  fact,  thus  established,  of  the  aversion  to  com- 
merce, imrnemorially  evinced  by  the  southern  Singhalese, 
and  of  their  desire  to  escape  from  intercourse  with  the 
strangers  resorting  to  trade  on  their  coasts,  serves  to 
explain  the  singular  scantiness  of  information  regarding 
the  interior  of  the  island  which  is  apparent  in  the 
writings  of  the  Arabians  and  Persians,  between  the 
eighth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  Their  knowledge  of 
the  coast  was  extensive,  they  were  familiar  with  the 
lofty  mountain  which  served  as  its  landmark,  they  dwell 
with  admiration  on  its  productions,  and  record  with 
particularity  the  objects  of  commerce  which  were  to  be 
found  in  the  island  ;  but,  regarding  the  Singhalese  them- 
selves and  their  social  and  intellectual  condition,  little,  if 
any,  real  information  is  to  be  gleaned  from  the  Oriental 
geographers  of  the  middle  ages. 

ALBATEXY  and  MASSOUDI,  the  earliest  of  the  Arabian 
geographers1,  were  contemporaries  of  ABOU-ZEYD,  in  the 
ninth  century,  and  neither  adds  much  to  the  description 
of  Ceylon,  given  in  the  narratives  of  "  The  two  Mahome- 
tans" The  former  assigns  to  the  island  the  fabulous 
dimensions  ascribed  to  it  by  the  Hindus,  and  only  alludes 
to  the  ruby  and  the  sapphire2  as  being  found  in  the  rivers 
that  flow  from  its  majestic  mountains.  MASSOUDI  asserts 
that  he  visited  Ceylon3,  and  describes,  from  actual  know- 
ledge, the  funeral  ceremonies  of  a  king,  and  the  increma- 
tion of  his  remains ;  but  as  his  statements  are  borrowed 
almost  verbatim  from  the  account  given  by  Soleyman4, 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  he  merely  copied  from 


1  Probably  the  earliest  allusion  to 
Ceylon  by  any  Arabian  or  Persian 
author,  is  that  of  TABARI,  who  was 
bom  in  A.D.  838 ;  but  he  limits  his 
notices  to  an  exaggerated  account  of 
Adam's  Peak,    "  than    which    the 
whole   world    does    not    contain   a 
mountain  of  greater  height." — OTTSE- 
LEY'S  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  34,  n. 

2  "  Le  rubis  rouge,  et  la  pierre  qui 


est  couleur  de  ciel."  ALBATENT, 
quoted  by  Reinaud,  Introd.  ABOUL- 
FEDA,  p.  ccclxxxv. 

8  MASSOFDI  in  Gildemeister,  Script. 
Arab.  p.  154.  Gildemeister  discre- 
dits the  assertion  of  Massoudi,  that 
he  had  been  in  Ceylon.  (Ib.  p.  154, ».) 
He  describes  Kalah  as  an  island 
distinct  from  Serendib. 

4  ABOTJ-ZEYD,  Relation,  $c.,  p.  50. 


CHAP.  II.]       INDIAN,  ARABIAN,  PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES. 


Abou-zeyd  the  portions  of  the  "  Meadows  of  Gold " 1  in 
which  reference  is  made  to  Ceylon. 

In  the  order  of  time,  this  is  the  place  to  allude  to 
another  Arabian  mariner,  whose  voyages  have  had  a 
world-wide  renown,  and  who,  more  than  any  other 
author,  ancient  or  modern,  has  contributed  to  familiarise 
Europe  with  the  name  and  wonders  of  Serendib.  I  allude 
to  "  Sindbad  of  the  Sea,"  whose  voyages  were  first  inserted 
by  Galland,  in  Ins  French  translation  of  the  "  Thousand- 
and-one  Nights."  Sindbad,  in  his  own  tale,  professes  to 
have  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  most  illustrious  Khalif  of 
the  Abbassides, — • 

"  Sole  star  of  all  that  place  and  time ; — 
And  saw  him,  in  his  golden  prime, 
The  good  Haroun  Alraschid." 

But  Haroun  died,  A.D.  808,  and  Sindbad's  narrative 
is  so  manifestly  based  on  the  recitals  of  Abou-zeyd  and 
Massoudi,  that  although  the  author  may  have  lived 
shortly  after,  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  he  could  have 
been  a  contemporary  of  the  great  ruler  of  Bagdad.2 

One  inference  is  clear,  from  the  story  of  Sindbad, 
that  whilst  the  sea-coast  of  Ceylon  was  known  to  the 
Arabians,  the  interior  had  been  little  explored  by 
them,  and  was  so  enveloped  in  mystery*  that  any  tale  of 
its  wonders,  however  improbable,  was  sure  to  gain 
credence.  Hence,  what  Sindbad  relates  of  the  shore 
and  its  inhabitants  is  devoid  of  exaggeration:  in  his 


1  A    translation    of    MASSOUDI'S 
Meadows   of    Gold  in  English  was 
begun    by    Dr.     Sprenger    for    the 
"  Oriental  Translation  Fund,"  but  it 
has  not  advanced  beyond  the  first 
volume,  which  was  published  in  1841. 

2  REIXATJD  notices  the  Ketab-al- 
ctjayb,  or  "  Book   of  Wonders,"  of 
MASSOTJDI,  as  one  of  the  works  whence 
the  materials  of  Sindbad's  Voyages 
were  drawn.     (Introd.  ABOTJLFEDA, 
vol.  i.  p.  Ixxvii.)    HOLE  published  in 
1797  A.D.   his  learned   Remarks  on 
the  Origin  of  Sindbad's  Voyages,  and 


in  that  work,  as  well  as  in  LANGLE'S 
edition  of  Sindbad ;  and  in  the  notes 
by  LANE  to  his  version  of  the  '•  Arabian 
Nights'  Etdertainjnent"  EDRISI,  KAZ- 
WINI,  and  many  other  writers  are 
mentioned  whose  works  contain  pa- 
rallel statements.  But  though  Edrisi 
and  Kazwini  wrote  in  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  it  does  not 
follow  that  the  author  of  Sindbad 
lived  later  than  they,  as  both  may 
have  borrowed  their  illustrations 
from  the  same  early  sources. 


598 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PAKT  V. 


first  visit  the  natives  who  received  him  were  Malabars, 
one  of  whom  had  learned  Arabic,  and  they  were  engaged 
in  irrigating  their  rice  lands  from  a  tank.  Such  incidents 
are  characteristic  of  the  north-western  coast  of  Ceylon 
at  the  present  day ;  and  the  commerce,  for  which  the 
island  was  remarkable  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  is 
implied  by  the  expression  of  Sindbad,  that  on  the  occasion 
of  his  next  voyage,  when  bearing  presents  and  a  letter 
from  the  Khahf  to  the  King  of  Serendib,  he  embarked 
at  Bassora  in  a  ship,  and  with  him  "  were  many  merchants." 

Of  the  Arabian  authors  of  the  middle  ages  the  one 
who  dwells  most  largely  on  Ceylon  is  EDRISI,  born  of  a 
family  who  ruled  over  Malaga  after  the  fall  of  the 
Khalifs  of  Cordova.  He  was  a  protege  of  the  Sicilian 
king,  Eoger  the  Norman,  at  whose  desire  he  compiled  his 
Geography,  A.D.  1154.  But  with  regard  to  Ceylon,  his 
pages  contain  only  the  oft-repeated  details  of  the 
height  of  the  holy  mountain,  the  gems  found  in  its 
ravines,  the  musk,  the  perfumes,  and  odoriferous  woods 
which  abound  there.1  He  particularises  twelve  cities, 
but  their  names  are  scarcely  identifiable  with  any  now 
known.2  The  sovereign,  who  was  celebrated  for  the 
mildness  of  his  rule,  was  assisted  by  a  council  of  sixteen, 
of  wThom  four  were  of  the  national  religion,  four  Chris- 
tians, four  Mussulmans,  and  four  Jews ;  and  one  of  the 
chief  cares  of  the  government  was  given  to  keeping  up 
the  historical  records  of  the  reigns  of  their  kings,  the 
lives  of  their  prophets,  and  the  sacred  books  of  their  law. 

Ships  from  China  and  other  distant  countries  resorted 
to  the  island,  and  hither  "  came  the  wines  of  Irak,  and 
Pars,  which  are  purchased  by  the  king,  and  sold  again 
to  his  subjects;  for,  unlike  the  princes  of  India,  who 
encourage  debauchery  but  strictly  forbid  wine,  the 


1  EDRISI  mentions,  that  at  that 
period  the  sugar-cane  was  cultivated 
in  Ceylon. 

2  Marnaba,     (Manaar  ?)     Aghna 
Pereseouri,  (Periatorret}  Aide,  Ma- 
houlouu,  (Putlam?)  Hamri,  Telmadi, 


(TaJmanaar?)  Lendouma,  Sedi,  Hes- 
H,  Beresli  and  Medouna  (Matnra  '?). 
"Aghna"  or  "Ana,"  as  Edrisi  makes 
it  the  residence  of  the  king,  must  be 
Amirajapoora. 


•CHAP.  II.]      INDIAN,  ARABIAN,  PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES, 


King  of  Serendib  recommends  wine  and  prohibits  de- 
bauchery." The  exports  of  the  island  he  describes  as 
silk,  precious  stones  of  every  hue,  rock-crystal,  diamonds, 
and  a  profusion  of  perfumes.1 

The  last  of  this  class  of  writers  to  whom  it  is  neces- 
sary to  allude  is  KAZWINI,  who  lived  at  Bagdad  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and,  from  the  diversified  nature  of  his 
writings,  has  been  called  the  Pliny  of  the  East.  In  his 
geographical  account  of  India,  he  includes  Ceylon,  but  it 
is  evident  from  the  details  into  which  he  enters  as  to  the 
customs  of  the  court  and  the  people,  such  as  the  burning 
of  the  widows  of  the  kings  on  the  same  pile  with  their 
husbands,  that  the  information  he  had  received  had  been 
collected  amongst  the  Brahmanical,  not  the  Budd- 
hist portion  of  the  people.  This  is  confirmatory  of 
the  actual  condition  of  the  people  of  Ceylon  at  the 
period  as  shown  by  the  native  chronicles,  the  king  being 
the  Malabar  Magha,  who  invaded  the  island  from 
Kalinga,  1219,  overthrew  the  Buddhist  religion,  dese- 
crated its  monuments  and  temples,  and  destroyed  the 
edifices  and  literary  records  of  the  capital.2 

KAZWINI  dwells  on  the  productions  of  the  island,  its 
spices,  and  its  odours,  its  precious  woods  and  medical 
drugs,  its  profusion  of  gems,  its  gold  and  silver  work,, 
and  its  pearls3 :  but  one  circumstance  will  not  fail  to 
strike  the  reader  as  a  strange  omission  in  these  frequent 
enumerations  of  the  exports  of  Ceylon.  I  have  traced 
them  from  their  earliest  notices  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  the  period  when  the  commerce  of  the  East 
had  reached  its  climax  in  the  hands  of  the  Persians  and 
Arabians.  My  survey  extends  over  fifteen  centuries, 
during  which  Ceylon  and  its  productions  were  familiarly 
known  to  the  traders  of  all  countries,  and  yet  in  the 
pages  of  no  author,  European  or  Asiatic,  from  the  earliest 


1  EDRISI,  G6ogr.  Transl.  de  Jau- 
bert,  4to.  Paris,  1836,  t.  i.  p.  71,  &c. 
Edrisi,  in  Ms  "  Notice  of  Ceylon/' 
quotes  largely  and  verbatim  from 
the  work  of  Abou-zeyd. 


2  Mahawanso,  ch.  Ixxx.  Rajaratna- 
cari,  p.  93 ;  Rajavati,  p.  256.     TUE- 
NOTJK^S  Epitome,  8,-c.,  p.  44. 

3  KAZWINI,  in  Gildemeister.  Script. 
Arab.  p.  198. 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


ages  to  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  is  there  the 
remotest  allusion  to  Cinnamon  as  an  indigenous  produc- 
tion,  or"  even  as  an  article  of  commerce  in  Ceylon.  I  may 
add,  that  I  have  been  equally  unsuccessful  in  finding  any 
allusion  to  the  tree  in  any  Chinese  work  of  ancient  date.1 
This  unexpected  result  has  served  to  cast  a  suspicion 
on  the  title  of  Ceylon  to  be  designated  par  excellence  the 
"  Cinnamon  Isle,"  and  even  with  the  knowledge  that 
the  cinnamon  laurel  is  indigenous  there,  it  admits  of 
but  little  doubt  that  the  spice  which  in  the  earlier  ages 
was  imported  into  Europe  through  Arabia,  was  obtained, 
first  from  Africa,  and  afterwards  from  India  ;  and  that  it 
was  not  till  after  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  that  its 
existence  in  Ceylon  became  known  to  the  merchants  re- 
sorting to  the  island.  So  little  was  its  real  history  known 
in  Europe,  even  at  the  latter  period,  that  Phile,  who 
composed  his  metrical  treatise,  TIsp]  Zwwv  'ISiOTTjros,  for 
the  information  of  the  Emperor  Michael  XT.  (Pal^eologus), 
about  the  year  1310,  repeats  the  ancient  fable  of  Hero- 
dotus, that  cinnamon  grew  in  an  unknown  Indian  country, 
whence  it  was  carried  by  birds,  from  whose  nests  it  was 
abstracted  by  the  natives  of  Arabia.2 


1  In  the  Chinese  Materia  Medica, 

(C  Pun-tsao-kang-nmh"  cinnamon  or 

cassia  is  described  under  the  name  of 

"  kiuei,"  but  always  as  a  production 

of    Southern   China  and  of  Cochin 

China.     In  the  Ming  History,  a  pro- 

duction of  Ceylon  is  mentioned  under 

the  name  of  "  Shoo-heant/"  or  "tree- 

perfume  ;  "   but  my  informant,  Mr. 

Wylie,    of  Shanghae,    is  unable  to 

identify  it  with  cinnamon  oil. 

2  "OpvtQ  it  Kivvaputpos  aivofiaafjiivog 

To  Kivvafj.(afiov  tvptv  ayvoovfitvov, 

*Y0'  ov  KaXidv  opyavoi  rotg  0iXrdroi£ 

MoXAoi/  Si  rolg  ni\atnv  'Ivdolg,  av- 


PniLE,  xxviii. 

VINCENT,  in  scrutinising  the  writ- 
ings of  the  classical  authors,  anterior 
to  Cosmas,  who  treated  of  Tapro- 
bane,  was  surprised  to  discover  that 
no  mention  of  cinnamon  as  a  produc- 


tion of  Ceylon  was  to  be  met  with  in 
Pliny,  Dioscorides,  or  Ptolemy,  and 
that  even  the  mercantile  author  of 
the  Periplus  was  silent  regarding  it. 
(Vol.  ii.  p.  512.)  D'Herbelot  has 
likewise  called  attention  to  the  same 
fact.  (Bibl.  Orient,  vol.  iii.  p.  308.) 
This  omission  is  not  to  oe  ex- 
plained by  ascribing  it  to  mere  in- 
advertence. The  interest  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  was  naturally 
excited  to  discover  the  country 
which  produced  a  luxury  so  rare  as 
to  be  a  suitable  gift  for  a  king ;  and 
so  costly,  that  a  crown  of  cinnamon 
tipped  "with  gold  was  a  becoming 
Orating  to  the  gods.  But  the  Arabs 
succeeded  in  preserving  the  secret  of 
its  origin,  and  the  curiosity  of 
Europe  was  baffled  by  tales  of  cin- 
namon being  found  in  the  nest  of  the 
Phoenix,  or  gathered  in  marshes 
guarded  by  monsters  and  winged 


CHAP.  II.]       INDIAN,  ARABIAN,  PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES. 


601 


The  first  authentic  notice  which  we  have  of  Singhalese 
cinnamon  occurs  in  the  voyages  of  Ibn  Batuta  the  Moor,. 


serpents.  Pliny  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  to  suspect  that  the  most 
precious  of  spices  carne  not  from 
Arabia,  but  from  ./Ethiopia  (lib.  xii.  c. 
xlii.)  ;  and  COOLEY,  in  an  argument 
equally  remarkable  for  ingenuity  and 
research,  has  succeeded  in  demon- 
strating the  soundness  of  this  con- 
jecture, and  establishing  the  fact  that 
the  cinnamon  brought  to  Europe  by 
the  Arabs,  and  afterwards  by  the 
Greeks,  came  chiefly  from  the  east- 
ern angle  of  Africa,  the  tract  around 
Cape  Gardafui,  which  is  marked  on 
the  ancient  maps  as  the  Regio  Cin- 
namomifera.  (Journ.  Roy.  Geogr. 
Society,  1849,  vol.  xix.  p.  166.) 
COOLEY  has  suggested  in  his  learned 
work  on  "  Ptolemy  and  the  Nile"  that 
the  name  Gardafui  is  a  compound 
of  the  Somali  word  yard,  "  a  port," 
and  the  Arabic  afhaoni,  a  generic 
term  for  aromata  and  spices.  It 
admits  of  no  doubt  that  the  cinna- 
mon of  Ceylon  was  unknown  to  com- 
merce in  "the  sixth  century  of  our 
era  ;  although  there  is  evidence  of  a 
supply  which,  if  not  from  China,  was 
probably  earned  in  Chinese  vessels 
at  a  much  earlier  period,  in  the 
Persian  name  dur  chini,  which  means 
"  Chinese  wood,"  and  in  the  ordinary 
word  "  cinn-amon,"  "  Chinese  amo- 
mum,"  a  generic  name  for  aromatic 
spices  generally.  (NEES  VON  ESEN- 
BACH,  lie  Cinnamomo  Dispittatio,  p. 
12.)  Ptolemy,  equally  with  Pliny, 
placed  the  "Cinnamon  Region  "at  the 
north-eastern  extremity  of  Africa, 
now  the  country  of  the  Somalis ; 
and  the  author  of  the  Periplus,  mind- 
ful of  his  object,  in  writing  a  guide- 
book for  merchant-seamen,  particu- 
larises cassia  amongst  the  exports 
of  the  same  coast ;  but  although  he 
enumerates  the  productions  of  Cey- 
lon, gems,  pearls,  ivorv,  and  tortoise- 
shell,  he  is  silent  as  to  cinnamon. 
Dioscorides  and  Galen,  in  common 
with  the  travellers  and  geographers 
of  the  ancients,  ignore  its  Singhalese 
origin,  and  unite  with  them  in  trac- 
ing it  to  the  country  of  the  Trog- 

VOL.  I.  R 


lodytae.  I  attach  no  importance  to 
those  passages  in  WAGENFELD'S  ver- 
sion of  SancJuniiatJum,  in  which, 
amongst  other  particulars,  obviously 
describing  Ceylon  under  the  name 
of  "the  island  of  Rachius,"  (which  he 
states  to  have  been  visited  by  the 
Phoenicians)  he  says,  that  the  western 
province  produced  the  finest  cinna- 
mon (icivixt/iiip  iroXXtjj  Tf  ica'i  ^inr/fpoiTi), 

that    the    mountains    abounded    in 

cassia  (»ca<Ti<i  ap(u/*ari)cu»Tar>;),'and  that 

the  minor  kings  paid  their  tribute  in 
both,  to  the  paramount  sovereign. 
(SANCHONIATHON,  ed.  Wageufeld, 
Bremen,  1837,  lib.  vii.  ch.  xii.).  The 
MS.  from  which  Wagenfeld  printed, 
is  evidently  a  mediaeval  forgery  (see 
note  (A)  to  vol.  i.  ch.  v.  p.  547).  Again, 
it  is  equally  strange  that  the  writers 
of  Arabia  and  Persia  preserve  a  si- 
milar silence  as  to  the  'cinnamon  of 
the  island,  although  they  dwell  with 
due  admiration  on  its  other  pro- 
ductions, in  all  of  which  they  carried 
on  a  lucrative  trade.  Sir  WILLIAM 
OITSELEY,  after  a  fruitless  search 
through  the  writings  of  their  geo- 
graphers and  travellers,  records  his 
surprise  at  this  result,  and  men- 
tions especially  his  disappointment, 
that  Ferdousi,  who  enriches  his  great 
poem  with  glowing  descriptions  of 
all  the  objects  presented  by  sur- 
rounding nations  to  the  sovereigns  of 
Persia, — ivory,  ambergris,  and  aloes, 
vases,  bracelets,  and  jewels, — never 
once  adverts  to  the  exquisite  cinna- 
mon of  Ceylon. — Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  41. 
The  conclusion  deducible  from 
fifteen  centuries  of  historic  testi- 
mony is,  that  the  earliest  knowledge 
of  cinnamon  possessed  by  the  western 
nations  was  derived  from  China,  and 
that  it  first  reached  Judea  and  Phoe- 
nicia overland  by  way  of  Persia 
(Song  of  Solomon,  iv.  14 :  Revela- 
tion xviii.  13).  At  a  later  period, 
when  the  Arabs,  '*  the  merchants  of 
Sheba,"  competed  for  the  trade  of 
Tyre,  and  carried  to  her  "  the  chief 
of  all  spices"  (Ezekiel  xvii.  22), 
their  supplies  were  drawn  from  their 


II 


602 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


who,  impelled  by  religious  enthusiasm,  set  out  from  his 
native   city   Tangiers,   in   the   year    1324,  and  devoted 


African  possessions,  and  the  cassia 
of  the  Troglodytic  coast  supplanted 
the  cinnamon  of  the  far  East,  and  to 
a  great  extent  excluded  it  from  the 
market.  The  Greeks  having  at 
length  discovered  the  secret  of  the 
Arabs,  resorted  to  the  same  coun- 
tries as  their  rivals  in  commerce,  and 
surpassing  them  in  practical  naviga- 
tion and  the  construction  of  ships, 
the  Sabseans  were  for  some  centuries 
reduced  to  a  state  of  mercantile 
dependence  and  inferiority.  In  the 
meantime  the  Roman  Empire  de- 
clined ;  the  Persians  under  the  Sassa- 
nides  engrossed  the  intercourse  with 
the  East,  the  trade  of  India  now 
flowed  through  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
the  ports  of  the  Red  Sea  were  de- 
serted. "  Thus  the  downfall,  and  it 
may  be  the  extinction,  of  the  African 
spice  trade  probably  dates  from  the 
close  of  the  sixth  century,  and  Malabar 
succeeded  at  once  to  this  branch  of 
commerce." — COOLEY,  Regio  Cin- 
namomifera,  p.  14.  Cooley  sup- 
poses that  the  Malabars  may  have 
obtained  from  Ceylon  the  cinnamon 
with  which  they  *  supplied  the  Per- 
sians ;  as  IbnBatuta,  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  saw  cinnamon  trees  drifted 
upon  the  shores  of  the  island,  whither 
they  had  been  earned  by  torrents 
from  the  forests  of  the  interior  ( Ibn 
Battda,  ch.  xx.  p.  182).  The  fact  of 
their  being  found  so  is  in  itself  suffi- 
cient evidence,  that  down  to  that 
time  no  active  trade  had  been  carried 
on  in  the  article ;  and  the  earliest 
travellers  in  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries,  MARCO  POLO,  JOHN 
OF  HESSE,  FRA  JORDAXUS  and  others, 
whilst  they  allude  to  cinnamon  as 
one  of  the  chief  productions  of  Mala- 
bar, speak  of  Ceylon,  notwithstand- 
ing her  wealth  in  jewels  and  pearls, 
as  if  she  were  utterly  destitute  of  any 
epice  of  this  kind.  NICOLA  DE  CONTI, 
A.D.  1444,  is  the  first  European  wri- 
ter, in  whose  pages  I  have  found 
Ceylon  described  as  yielding  cinna- 
mon, and  he  is  followed  by  Barthema, 
A.D.  150G,  and  Corsali,  A'D.  1515. 


Long  after  the  arrival  of  Europeans 
in  Ceylon,  cinnamon  was  only  found 
in  the  forests  of  the  interior,  where  it 
was  cut  and  brought  away  by  the 
Chalias,  the  caste  who,  from  having 
been  originally  weavers,  devoted 
themselves  to  this  new  employment. 
The  Chalias  are  themselves  an  im- 
migrant tribe,  and,  according  to  their 
own  tradition,  they  came  to  the 
island  only  a  very  short  time  before 
the  appearance  of  the  Portuguese. 
(See  a  History  of  the  Chalias,  by 
ADRIAN  RAJAPAKSE,  a  Chief  of  the 
Caste,  Asiat.  Reser.  vol.  iii.  p.  440.) 
So  difficult  of  access  were  the  forests, 
that  the  Portuguese  could  only  obtain 
!  a  full  supply  from  them  once  in  three 
years ;  and  the  Dutch,  to  remedy  this 
uncertainty,  made  regular  plantations 
in  the  vicinity  of  their  forts  about  the 
year  1770  A.D.,  "  so  that  the  cultivation 
of  cinnamon  in  Ceylon  is  not  yet  a  cen- 
tury old." — COOLEY,  p.  15.  It  is  a 
question  for  scientific  research  rather 
than  for  historical  scrutiny,  whether 
the  cinnamon  laurel  of  Ceylon,  as  it 
exists  at  the  present  day,  is  indigenous 
to  the  island,  or  whether  it  is  identical 
with  the  cinnamon  of  Abyssinia,  and 
may  have  been  carried  thence  by  the 
Arabs ;  or  whether  it  was  brought  to 
the  island  from  the  adjacent  conti- 
nent of  India;  or  imported  by  the 
Chinese  from  islands  still  further 
to  the  east.  One  fact  is  notorious 
at  the  present  day,  that  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  cinnamon  grown  iu 
Ceylon  is  produced  in  a  small  and 
well-defined  area  occupying  the 
S.W.  quarter  of  the  island,  which 
has  been  at  all  times  the  resort  of 
foreign  shipping.  The  natives,  from 
observing  its  appearance  for  the  first 
time  in  other  and  unexpected  places, 
believe  it  to  be  sown  by  the  birds 
who  cany  thither  the  undigested 
seeds  ;  and  the  Dutch,  for  this  reason, 
prohibited  the  shooting  of  crows, — 
a  precaution  that  would  scarcely  be 
necessary  for  the  protection  of  the 
plant,  had  they  believed  it  to  be  not 
only  indigenous,  but  peculiar  to  the 


CHAP.  II.]       IXDIAN,  ARABIAN,  PERSIAX  AUTHORITIES. 


COS 


twenty-eight  years  to  a  pilgrimage,  the  record  of  which 
lias  entitled  him  to  rank  amongst  the  most  remarkable 
travellers  of  any  age  or  country. 


island.  We  ourselves  were  led,  till 
very  recently,  to  imagine  that  Ceylon 
enjoyed  a  "natural  monopoly"  of 
cinnamon. 

Mr.  TinvAiTES,  of  the  Royal  Botanic 
Gardens  at  Kandy,  is  of  opinion  from 
his  own  observation,  that  cinnamon  is 
indigenous  to  Ceylon,  as  it  is  found, 
but  of  inferior  quality,  in  the  central 
mountain  range,  as  high  as  3000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea  —  and 
again  in  the  sandy  soil  near  Batti- 
caloa  on  the  east  coast,  he  saw  it  in 
such  quantity  as  to  suggest  the  idea 
that  it  must  be  the  remains  of  for- 
mer cultivation.  This  statement  of 
Mr.  Thwaites  is  quite  in  consistency 
with  the  narrative  of  VALENTYN  (ch. 
vii.),  that  the  Dutch,  on  their  first 
arrival  in  Ceylon,  A.D.  1601-2,  took 
on  board  cinnamon  at  Batticaloa,  — 
and  that  the  surrounding  district 
continued  to  produce  it  in  great  abun- 
dance in  A.D.  1 726.  (Ib.,  ch.  xv.  p.  223, 
224.)  Still  it  must  be-observed  that 
its  appearance  in  these  situations  is 
not  altogether  inconsistent  with  the 
popular  belief  that  the  seeds  may 
have  been  earned  there  by  birds. 

Finding  that  the  Singhalese  works 
accessible  to  me,  the  Jfahawanso,  the 
Rajavah,  the  Rajaratnacan,  &c.,  al- 
though frequently  particularising  the 
aromatic  shrubs  and  flowers  planted 
by  the  pious  care  of  the  native 
sovereigns,  made  no  mention  of 
cinnamon,  I  am  indebted  to  the 
good  offices  of  the  Maha-Moodliar  DE 
SAREM,  of  Mr.  DE  ALWIS,  the  trans- 
lator of  the  Sidath-Sangara,  and  of 
Mr.  SPEXCE  HARDY,  the  learned  his- 
torian of  Buddhism,  for  a  thorough 
examination  of  such  native  books  as 
were  likely  to  throw  light  on  the 
question.  Mr.  Hardy  writes  to  me 
that  he  has  not  met  with  the  word 
cinnamon  (kunmdii)  in  any  early 
Singhalese  books  ;  but  there  is  men- 
tion of  a  substance  called  "  paspala- 
wata"  of  which  cinnamon  forms  one 
of  the  ingredients.  Mr.  de  Alwis 


has  been  equally  unsuccessful,  al- 
though in  the  Saraswate  Niyardu,  an 
ancient  Sanskrit  Catalogue  of  Plants, 
the  true  cinnamon  is  spoken  of  as 
Sinhalam,  a  word  which  signifies 
"  belonging  to  Ceylon,"  to  distinguish 
it  from  cassia,  which  is  found  in 
Hindustan.  The  Maha-Moodliar,  as 
the  result  of  an  investigation  made 
by  him  in  communication  with  some 
of  the  most  erudite  of  the  Buddhist 
priesthood  familiar  with  Pali  and 
Singhalese  literature,  informs  me 
that  whilst  cinnamon  is  alluded  to  in 
several  Sanskrit  works  on  Medicine, 
such  as  that  of  Susrata,  and  thence 
copied  into  Pali  translations,  its  name 
has  been  found  only  in  Singhalese 
works  of  comparatively  modern  date, 
although  it  occurs  in  the  treatise  on 
Medicine  and  Surgery  popularly 
attributed  to  King  Bujas  Kaja,  A.D. 
339.  LANKAGODDE,  a  learned  priest 
of  Galle,  says  that  the  word  lawanga 
in  an  ancient  Pali  vocabulary  means 
cinnamon,  but  I  rather  think  this  is 
a  mistake,  for  lawaiu/a  or  lavanga  is 
the  Pali  name  for  "  cloves,"  that  for 
cinnamon  being  lamayo. 

The  question  therefore  remains  in 
considerable  obscurity.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  understand  how  an  article  so 
precious  coidd  exist  in  the  highest 
perfection  in  Ceylon,  at  the  period 
when  the  island  was  the  very  focus 
and  centre  of  Eastern  commerce,  and 
yet  not  become  an  object  of  interest 
and  an  item  of  export.  And  although 
it  is  sparingly  used  in  the  Singhalese 
cuisine,  still  looking  at  its  many 
religious  uses  for  decoration  and 
incense,  the  silence  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical writers  as  to  its  existence  is 
not  easily  accounted  for. 

The  explanation  may  possibly  be, 
that  cinnamon,  like  coffee,  was  origi- 
nally a  native  of  the  east  angle  of 
Africa;  and  that  the  same  Arabian 
adventurers  who  carried  coffee  to  Ye- 
men, where  it  flourishes  to  the  present 
day,  may  have  been  equally  instru- 


R  R  2 


604 


MEDLEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


On  his  way  to  India,  he  visited,  in  Shiraz,  the  tomb  of 
the  Imaum  Abu  Abd  Allah,  "  who  made  known  the 
way  from  India  to  the  mountain  of  Serendib."  As  this 
saint  died  in  the  year  of  the  Hejira  331,  his  story  serves 
to  fix  the  origin  of  the  Mahometan  pilgrimages  to  Adam's 
Peak,  in  the  early  part  of  the  tenth  century.  When 
steering  for  the  coast  of  India,  from  the  Maldives,  Ibn 
Batuta  was  carried  by  the  south-west  monsoon  towards 
the  northern  portion  of  Ceylon,  which  was  then  (A.D. 
1347)  in  the  hands  of  the  Malabars,  the  Singhalese 
sovereign  having  removed  his  capital  southward  to  Gam- 
pola.  At  this  tune  the  Hindu  chief  of  Jaffna  was  in 
possession  of  a  fleet  in  "  which  he  occasionally  transported 
his  troops  against  the  Mahometans  on  other  parts  of  the 
coast ; "  and  the  Singhalese  chroniclers  relate  that  the 
Tamils  had  erected  forts  at  Colombo,  Negombo,  and 
Chilaw. 

Ibn  Batuta  was  permitted  to  land  at  Battala  (Put- 
lam),  and  found  the  shore  covered  with  "  cinnamon 
wood,"  which  "  the  merchants  of  Malabar  transported 
without  any  other  price  than  a  few  articles  of  clothing 
given  as  presents  to  the  king.  This,  he  says,  may  be  attri- 
buted to  the  circumstance  that  it  is  brought  down  by  the 
mountain  torrents,  and  left  in  great  heaps  upon  the  shore." 

This  passage  is  interesting,  though  not  devoid  of  ob- 
scurity, for  cinnamon  is  not  now  known  to  grow  further 
north  than  Chilaw,  nor  is  there  any  river  in  the  district 
of  Putlam  which  could  bear  the  designation  of  a  "  mountain 
torrent."  Along  the  coast  further  south  the  cinnamon 
district  commences,  and  the  current  of  the  sea  may  possibly 
have  carried  with  it  the  uprooted  laurels  described  in 
the  narrative.  The  whole  passage,  however,  demonstrates 
that  at  that  time,  at  least,  Ceylon  had  no  organised  trade 
in  the  spice. 


mental  in  introducing  cinnamon  into 
India  and  Ceylon.  In  India  its 
cultivation,  probably  from  natural 
causes,  proved  unsuccessful;  but  in 
Ceylon  the  plant  enjoyed  that  rare 


combination  of  soil,  temperature,  and 
climate,  which  ultimately  gave  to  its 
qualities  the  highest  possible  develop- 
ment. 


CHAP.  II.]        INDIAN,  ARABIAN,  PERSIAN  AUTHORITIES.  605 

The  Tamil  chieftain  exhibited  to  Ibn  Batuta  his 
wealth  in  "pearls,"  and  under  his  protection  he  made 
the  pilgrimage  to  the  summit  of  Adam's  Peak  accom- 
panied by  four  jyogees  who  visited  the  foot-mark  every 
year,  "  four  Brahmans,  and  ten  of  the  king's  companions, 
with  fifteen  attendants  carrying  provisions."  The  first 
day  he  crossed  a  river,  (the  estuary  of  Calpentyn  ?)  on 
a  boat  made  of  reeds,  and  entered  the  city  of  Manar 
Mandali  (probably  the  site  of  the  present  Minneri 
Mundal).  This  was  the  "extremity  of  the  territory  of 
the  infidel  king,"  whence  Ibn  Batuta  proceeded  to  the 
port  of  Salawat  (Chilaw),  and  thence  (turning  inland)  he 
reached  the  city  of  the  Singhalese  sovereign  at  Gam- 
pola,  then  called  Ganga-sri-pura,  which  he  contracts  into 
Kankar  or  Ganga.1 

He  describes  accurately  the  situation  of  the  ancient 
capital,  in  a  valley  between  two  hills,  upon  a  bend  of 
the  river  called,  "  the  estuary  of  rubies."  The  emperor 
he  names  "Kina,"  a  term  I  am  unable  to  explain,  as 
the  prince  who  then  reigned  was  probably  Bhuwaneka- 
bahu  IV.,  the  first  Singhalese  monarch  who  held  his  court 
at  Gampola. 

The  king  on  feast  days  rode  on  a  white  elephant, 
his  head  adorned  with  very  large  rubies,  which  are 
found  in  his  country,  imbedded  in  "a  white  stone 
abounding  in  fissures,  from  which  they  cut  it  out  and 
give  it  to  the  polishers."  Ibn  Batuta  enumerates  three 
varieties,  "  the  red,  the  yellow,  and  the  cornelian ;  "  but 
the  last  must  mean  the  sapphire,  the  second  the 
topaz  ;  and  the  first  refers,  I  apprehend,  to  the  amethyst ; 
for  in  the  following  passage,  in  describing  the  decorations 
of  the  head  of  the  white  elephant,  he  speaks  of  "  seven 
rubies,  each  of  which  was  larger  than  a  hen's  egg," 
and  a  saucer  made  of  a  ruby  as  broad  as  the  palm  of  the 
hand. 

In    the    ascent    from  Gampola  to  Adam's  Peak,   he 


1  As  he  afterwards  writes,  Galle,  "  Kaleh.' 
B  R  3 


606 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


speaks  of  the  monkeys  with  beards  like  a  man  (Pres- 
bytes  ursinus,  or  P.  cephalopterus\  and  of  the  "fierce 
leech,"  which  lurks  in  the  m  trees  and  damp  grass,  and 
springs  on  the  passers  by.  He  describes  the  trees  with 
leaves  that  never  fall,  and  the  "  red  roses  "  of  the  rhodo- 
dendrons which  still  characterise  that  lofty  region.  At 
the  foot  of  the  last  pinnacle  which  crowns  the  summit 
of  the  peak,  he  found  a  minaret  named  after  Alexander 
the  Great 1 ;  steps  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  and  "  iron  pins 
to  which  chains  are  appended"  to  assist  the  pilgrims 
in  their  ascent ;  a  well  filled  with  fish,  and  last  of  all,  on 
the  loftiest  point  of  the  mountain,  the  sacred  foot-print 
of  the  First  Man,  into  the  hollow  of  which  the  pilgrims 
drop  their  offerings  of  gems  and  gold. 

In  descending  the  mountain,  Ibn  Batuta  passed 
through  the  village  of  Kalanga,  near  which  was  a  tomb, 
said  to>  be  that  of  Abu  Abd  Allah  Ibn  Khalif2;  he 
visited  the  temple  of  Dinaur  (Devi-ISTeuera,  or  Dondera 
Head),  and  returned  to  Putlam  by  way  of  Kale  (Galle), 
and  Kolambu  (Colombo),  "  the  finest  and  largest  city  in 
Serendib." 


1  In  oriental  tradition,  Alexander 
is  believed  to  have  visited  Ceylon  in 
company  with  the  "philosopher  Bo- 
linus/'  by  whom  De  Sacy  believes 
that  the  Arabs  meant  Apollonius  of 
Tyana.  There  is  a  Persian  poem  by 
ASHBEF,  the  Zaffer  Namah  Stondari, 
which  describes  the  conqueror's  voy- 
age to  Serendib,  and  his  devotions  at 
the  foot-mark  of  Adam,  for  reaching 


which,  he  and  Bolinus  caused  steps 
to  be  hewn  in  the  rock,  and  the 
ascent  secured  by  rivets  and  chains 
— See  OFSELEY'S  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  58. 
2  Abu  Abd  Allah  was  the  first  who 
led  the  Mahometan  pilgrims  to  Ceylon. 
The  tomb  alluded  to  was  probably  a 
cenotaph  in  his  honour ;  as  Ibn  Batuta 
had  previously  visited  his  tomb  at 
Shiraz. 


G07 


CHAP.  III. 


CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE. 

ALTHOUGH  the  intimate  knowledge  of  Ceylon  acquired 
by  the  Chinese  at  an  early  period,  is  distinctly  ascrib- 
able  to  the  sympathy  and  intercourse  promoted  by  com- 
munity of  religion,  there  is  traditional,  if  not  historical 
evidence  that  its  origin,  in  a  remote  age,  may  be  traced 
to  their  love  of  gain  and  eagerness  for  the  extension  of 
commerce.  The  Singhalese  ambassadors  who  arrived 
at  Eome  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  stated 
that  their  ancestors  had  reached  China  by  traversing 
India  and  the  Himalayan  mountains  long  before  ships 
had  attempted  the  voyage  by  sea * ,  and  as  late  as  the 
fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  King  of  Ceylon 2, 
in  an  address  delivered  by  his  envoy  to  the  Emperor  of 
China,  shows  that  both  routes  were  then  in  use.3 

It  is  not,  however,  till  after  the  third  century  of  the 
Christian  era  that  we  find  authentic  records  of  such 
journeys  in  the  literature  of  China.  The  Buddhist 
pilgrims,  who  at  that  time  resorted  to  India,  published 
on  their  return  itineraries  and  descriptions  of  the  distant 
countries  they  had  visited,  and  officers,  both  military 
and  civil,  brought  back  memoirs  and  statistical  state- 
ments for  the  information  of  the  government  and  the 
guidance  of  commerce.4 


1  PLINY,  b.  vi.  ch.  xxiv. 

2  Maha    Nama,   A.D.  428 ;    Sung- 
shoo,   a  "  History  of  the  Northern 
Sung  Dynasty,"  b.  xcvii.  p.  5. 

3  It  was  probably  the  knowledge 
of  the  overland  route  that  led  the 
Chinese  to  establish  their  military 
colonies  in  Kashgar,  Yarkhand  and 


the  countries  lying  between  their  own 
frontier  and  the  north-east  boundary 
of  India, — Journ.  Asiat.  1.  vi.  p.  34-3. 
An  embassy  from  China  to  Ceylon, 
A.D.  607,  was  entrusted  to  Chang- 
Tstten,  "Director  of  the  Military 
Lands."— Suy-shoo,  b.  Ixxxi.  p.  3. 
•*  RKIXATTD,  Memoir  e  sur  Flnde, 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTOEY. 


[PART  V. 


It  was  reasonable  to  anticipate  that  in  such  records 
information  would  be  found  regarding  the  condition 
of  Ceylon  as  it  presented  itself  from  time  to  time  to 
the  eyes  of  the  Chinese ;  but  unfortunately  numbers  of 
the  original  works  have  long  since  perished,  or  exist 
only  in  extracts  preserved  in  dynastic  histories  and 
encyclopedias,  or  in  a  class  of  books  almost  peculiar  to 
China,  called  "  tsung-shoo,"  consisting  of  excerpts  re- 
produced from  the  most  ancient  writers.  M.  Stanislas 
Julien  discovered  in  the  Pien-i-tien,  ("  a  History  of 
Foreign  Nations,"  of  which  there  is  a  copy  in  the  Im- 
perial Library  of  Paris,)  a  collection  of  fragments  from 
Chinese  authors  who  had  treated  of  Ceylon ;  but  as  the 
intention  of  that  eminent  Sinologue  to  translate  them1 
has  not  yet  been  carried  into  effect,  they  are  not  avail- 
able to  me  for  consultation.  In  this  difficulty  I  turned 
for  assistance  to  China ;  and  through  the  assiduous 
kindness  of  Mr.  Wylie,  of  the  London  Mission  at 
Shanghai,  I  have  received  extracts  from  twenty-four 
Chinese  writers  between  the  fifth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, from  which  and  from  translations  of  Chinese 
travels  and  topographies  made  by  Eemusat,  Klaproth, 
Landresse,  Pauthier,  Stanislas  Julien,  and  others,  I 
have  been  enabled  to  collect  the  following  facts  relative 
to  the  knowledge  of  Ceylon  possessed  by  the  Chinese  in 
the  middle  ages.2 


T).  9.  STANISLAS  JULIEN,  preface  to 
his  translation  of  Hiouen-Thsang, 
Paris,  1853,  p.  1.  A  bibliographical 
notice  of  the  most  important  Chinese 
works  which  contain  descriptions  of 
India,  by  M.  S.  JIJLIEN,  will  be  found 
in  the  Journ.  Asiat.  for  October.  1832, 
p.  264. 

1  Journ.  Asiat.  t.  xxix.  p.  39.     M. 
Stanislas  Julien   is   at  present  en- 
gaged in  the  translation  of  the  Si- 
yu-ki,  or   "  Memoires  des  Gentries 
Occidentales,"  the  eleventh  chapter 
of  which  contains  an  account  of  Cey- 
lon in  the  eighth  century. 

2  The  Chinese  works  referred   to 


in  the  following  pages  are : — Simy- 
shoo,  the  "History  of  the  Northern 
Sung  Dynasty,"  A.D.  417 — 473,  by 
CHIN-YO,  written  about  A.D.  487. 
—  Wei-shoo,  "  a  History  of  the  Wei 
Tartar  Dynasty,"  A.D.  380—550,  by 
WEI-SHOW,  A.D.  590.  —  Foe-koue-U, 
an  "  Account  of  the  Buddhist  King- 
doms," by  Cn^-FI-HiAN,  A.D.  399 — 
414,  French  transl.,  by  Remusat, 
Klaproth,  and  Landresse.  Paris,  1836. 
— Leang-shoo,  "  History  of  the  Leang 
Dynasty,"  A.D.  502 — 557,  by  YAOTJ- 
SZE-LEEN,  A.D.  030.—- Suy-s/ioo,"  Ilis- 
tory  of  the  Suy  Dynasty,"  A.D.  581 
— 017,  by  WEI-CHING,  A.D.  033. 


CHAP.  HI.]  CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE. 


Like  the  Greek  geographers,  the  earliest  Chinese 
authorities  grossly  exaggerated  the  size  of  Ceylon  :  they 
represented  it  as  lying  "  cross-wise  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  *,  and  extending  in  width  from  east  to  west  one 
third  more  than  in  depth  from  north  to  south.2  They 
were  struck  by  the  altitude  of  its  hills,  and,  above  all, 
by  the  lofty  crest  of  Adam's  Peak,  which  served  as  the 
land-mark  for  ships  approaching  the  island.  They 
speak  reverentially  of  the  sacred  foot-mark 3  impressed 


His  Life  and 
Travels,  A.D.  645,  French  transl.,  by 
Stanislas  Julien.  Paris,  1853.— 
Nan-she,  "  History  of  the  Southern 
Empire,"  A.D.  317 — 589,  by  LE-YEN- 
snow,  A.D.  G50.— Tuny-teen,  "Cyclo- 
pedia of  History,"  by  Too- YEW,  A.D. 
740.  —  KE-NEE"*  si-ylh  hing-Ching, 
"  Itinerary  of  KE-NEE'S  Travels  in  the 
"Western  'Regions,"  from  A.D.  964 — 
QlQ.—Tae-ping  yu-lan,  "The  Tae- 
ping  Digest  of  History,"  compiled  by 
Imperial  Command,  A.D.  983.  — 
Tslh-foo  yucn-Kicei,  "  Great  De- 
pository of  the  National  Archives," 
compiled  by  Imperial  Command,  A.D. 
1012.—- Sin-Tang-shoo, "  A  New  His- 
tory of  the  Tang  Dynasty,"  A.D.  618 
— 906,  by  Gow- YANG-SEW  and  Snro- 
K£,  A.D.  1060. — Tung-die,  "National 
Annals,"  by  CHING-TSEAOTJ,  A.D. 
1150. —  W tin-keen  tung-kaau,  "Anti- 
quarian Researches,"  by  MA-TWAX- 
rrs,  A.D.  1319.  Of  this  remarkable 
work  there  is  an  admirable  analysis 
by  Klaproth  in  the  Asiatic  Journal  for 
1832,  vol.  xxxv.  p.  110,  and  one  still 
more  complete  in  the  Journal  Asia- 
tique,  vol.  xxi.  p.  3.  The  portion 
relating  to  Ceylon  has  been  trans- 
lated into  French  by  M.  Pauthier 
in  the  Journal  Asiatique  for  April, 
1836,  and  again  bv  M.  Stanislas 
Juli6n  in  the  same  Journal  for  July, 
1836,  t.  xxix.  p.  36.—  Yiih-hae, 
"  The  Ocean  of  Gems,"  by  WAXG- 
TANG-LrN,  A.D.  1338. — Taou-e  che- 
leo,  "A General  Account  of  Island 
Foreigners,"  by  WAXG-TA-YOTTEX, 
A.D.  1350. — Tsih-ke,  "Miscellaneous 
Record ;  "  written  at  the  end  of  the 
Yuen  dynasty,  about  the  close  of  the 


fourteenth  century. — Po-wuh  yaou- 
lan, "  Philosophical  Examiner; "  writ- 
ten during  the  Ming  dynasty,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
— Se-yih-kefoo-choo, "  A  Description 
of  Western  Countries,"  A.D.  1450. 
This  is  the  important  work  of  which 
M.  Stanislas  Julien  has  recently  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  his  trench 
translation,  Memoires  des  Contrees 
Occitlentales,  Paris,  1857 ;  and  of 
which  he  has  been  so  obliging  as  to 
send  me  those  sheets  of  the  second 
volume,  now  preparing  for  the  press, 
which  contain  the  notices  of  Ceylon 
by  HIOUEX-THSANG.  They,  how- 
ever, add  very  little  to  the  infor- 
mation already  given  in  the  Life  and 
Travels  of  Hiouen-Thsang. —  Woo- 
heo-j)een,  "  Records  of  the  Ming  Dy- 
nasty," by  CHING-HEAOTJ,  A.D.  1522. 
— Suh-ioan-heen  tung-kaou, "  Supple- 
ment to  the  Antiquarian  Researches," 
by  WAXG-KE,  A.D.  lGQ3.—Sufi-Hnnf/ 
keen-luh,  "  Supplement  to  the  History 
of  the  Middle  Ages,"  by  SHAOTT- 
YUEX-PIXG,  A.D.  1706.— Ming-she, 
"  History  of  the  Ming  Dvnasty,"  A.D. 
1638—1643,  by  CHANG-TIXG-YUIT, 
A.D.  1739.— Ta-tsing  yih-tung,  "A 
Topographical  Account  of  the  Man- 
choo  Dynasty,"  of  which  there  is  a 
copy  in  the  British  Museum. 

1  Taou-e  che-leo,  quoted  in  the  Hae- 
kico-too  che,  "Foreign  Geography," 
b.  xviii.  p.  15. 

2  Ijeang-shoo,  b.  liv.  p.  10 ;  Nan- 
she,   b.  Ixxiii.  p.  13;   Twig-teen,   b. 
clxxxviii.  p.  17. 

3  The   Chinese   books  repeat  the 
popular  belief  that  the  hollow  of  the 
sacred  footstep  contains  water  "which 


G10 


MEDLEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


by  the  first  created  man,  who,  in  their  mythology,  bears 
the  name  of  Pawn-too ;  and  the  gems  which  are  found 
upon  the  mountain  they  believe  to  be  his  "  crystallised 
tears,  thus  accounting  for  their  singular  lustre  and 
marvellous  tints."  l  The  country  they  admired  for  its 
fertility  and  singular  beauty ;  the  climate  they  compared 
to  that  of  Siam2,  with  slight  alterations  of  seasons ;  refresh- 
ing showers  in  every  period  of  the  year,  and  the  earth 
consequently  teeming  with  fertility.3 

The  names  by  which  Ceylon  was  known  to  them 
are  either  adapted  from  the  Singhalese,  as  nearly  as 
the  Chinese  characters  would  supply  equivalents  for  the 
Sanskrit  and  Pali  letters,  or  else  they  are  translations 
of  the  sense  implied  by  each  designation.  Thus,  Sinhala 
was  either  rendered  "  Seng-kia-lo" 4  or  " Sze-tseu-kwo" 
the  latter  name,  as  well  as  the  original,  meaning  "  the 
kingdom  of  lions."  5  The  classical  Lanka  is  preserved  in 
the  Chinese  "  Lang-keci"  and  " Lang-ya-seu."  In  the 
epithet  "  Chih-too"  the  Red  Land 6,  we  have  a  simple 
rendering  of  the  Pali  Tambapanni,  the  "Copper-palmed," 
from  the  colour  of  the  soil.7  Paou-choo  8  is  a  translation 
of  the  Sanskrit  Eatna-dwipa,  the  "  Island  of  Gems,"  and 
Tsih-e-lan,  Seih-lan,  and  Se-lung,  are  all  modern  modifica- 
tions of  the  European  "  Ceylon." 


does  not  dry  up  all  the  year  round ; " 
and  that  invalids  recover  by  drinking 
from  the  well  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain,  into  which  "  the  sea- water 
enters  free  from  salt."  Taou-e  che- 
leo,  quoted  in  the  Hae-kwo-too-che, 
or  Foreign  Geography,  b.  xxviii. 
p.  15. 

1  Po-wuh  Yaou-lan,  b.  xxxiii.  p.  1. 
WANG-KE,  Suh-  Wan-heen  tung-kaou, 
b.  ccxxxvi.  p.  19. 

2  Tung-teen,   b.    clxxxviii.    p.    17. 
Tac-ping,  b.  dcclxxxvii.  p.  5. 

3  Leang-shoo,  b.  liv.  p.  10. 

*  Hioutn-Thsang,  b.  iv.  p.  194 
Transl.  M.  S.  Julien. 

5  This,  M.  Stanislas  Julien  says, 
should  be  "  the  kingdom  of  the  lion" 
in  allusion  to  the  mythical  ancestry 


of  Wijayo. — Joum.  Asiat.,  torn, 
xxix.  p.  37.  And  in  a  note  to  the 
tenth  book  of  HIOTJEN-THSANG'S 
Voyages  des  Pelerins  Bouddhistes, 
vol.  ii.  p.  124,  he  says  one  name  for 
Ceylon  in  Chinese  is"  Tchi-sse-tseu" 
"  (le  royaume  de  celui  qui)  a  pris  un 
lion." 

6  Suy-shoo,  b.  Ixxx.  p.  3.     In  the 
Se-ylh-ke  foo-choo,  or  "  Descriptions 
of   Warten   Countries,"    Ceylon  is 
called  Woo-yeic-kico, "  the  sorrowless 
kingdom." 

7  Mahftwanso,  ch.  viL  p.  50. 

8  Se-ylh-ke  foo-choo,  quoted  in  the 
Hae-ku-o-too  che,  or^Ioreijrn  (iro- 
graphy,"   1.    xviii.  p.   15;  Hiori-x- 
THSAJTG,    Voyages  dcs  Peler.  Boiidd., 
lib.  xi.  vol.  ii.  p.  125 ;  130  n. 


CHAP.  III.]       CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE. 


611 


The  ideas  of  the  Chinese  regarding  the  mythical 
period  of  Singhalese  history,  and  the  first  peopling  of 
the  island,  are  embodied  in  a  very  few  sentences  which 
are  repeated  throughout  the  series  of  authors,  and  with 
which  we  are  made  familiar  in  the  following  passage 
from  FA  HIAN  :  — "  Sze-tseu-kwo,  the  kingdom  of 
lions  *,  was  inhabited  originally  not  by  men  but  by  de- 
mons and  dragons.2  Merchants  were  attracted  to  the 
island,  by  the  prospect  of  trade  ;  but  the  demons  re- 
mained unseen,  merely  exposing  the  precious  articles 
which  they  wished  to  barter  :  with  a  price  marked  for 
each,  at  which  the  foreign  traders  were  at  liberty  to 
take  them,  depositing  the  equivalents  indicated  in  ex- 
change. From  the  resort  of  these  dealers,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  other  countries,  hearing  of  the  attractions  of 
the  island,  resorted  to  it  in  large  numbers,  and  thus 
eventually  a  great  kingdom  was  formed."  3 

The  Chinese  were  aware  of  two  separate  races,  one 
occupying  the  northern  and  the  other  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  island,  and  were  struck  with  the  resem- 
blance of  the  Tamils  to  the  Hoo,  a  people  of  Central 
Asia,  and  of  the  Singhalese  to  the  Leaou,  a  mountain 
tribe  of  Western  China.4  The  latter  they  describe  as 
having  "large  ears,  long  eyes,  purple  faces,  black 
bodies,  moist  and  strong  hands  and  feet,  and  living  to 
one  hundred  years  and  upwards.5  Their  hair  was  worn 
long  and  flowing,  not  only  by  the  women  but  by  the 
In  these  details  there  are  particulars  that 


men. 


1  Wan-heenlung-kaou,\).  cccxxxviii. 
p.  24 

2  The  Yakkhos  and  Nag-as  ("  devils" 
and  "  serpents  ")  of  the  Mahaicamo. 

3  Foe-koue-ki,      ch.    xxxviii.     p. 
333.     Transl.    REMUSAT.     This    ac- 
count of  Ceylon   is  repeated   almost 
verbatim  in  the  Tung-teen,  and  in  nu- 
merous other  Chinese  works,  with  the 
addition  that-the  newly-formed  king- 
dom   of  Sinhala,    "  Sze-tseu-kwo," 
took  its  name  from  the  "  skill  of  the 
natives  in  training  lions." — B.  cxciii. 


pp.  8,  9 ;  Toe-ping,  b.  dccxciii.  p.  9  ; 
Sin- Tang-shoo,  b.  cxlvi.  part  ii.  p. 
10.  A  very  accurate  translation  of 
the  passage  as  it  is  given  by  MA- 
TOFAN-mr  is  published  by  M. 
Stanislas  Julien  in  the  Jotirn.  Asiat. 
for  July,  1836,  torn.  xxix.  p.  36. 

*  Too-Hiouen,  quoted  in  the  Tuny- 
teen,  b.  cxciii.  p.  8. 

5  Taou-e  che-leo,  quoted  in  the 
Hac-l'ico-too  die,  or  "  Foreign  Geo- 
graphy," b.  xviii.  p.  15. 


612 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


closely  resemble  the  description  of  the  natives  of  the 
island  visited  by  Jainbulus,  as  related  in  the  story  told  by 
Diodorus.1 

The  Chinese  in  the  seventh  century  found  the  Singha- 
lese dressed  in  a  costume  which  appears  to  be  nearly 
identical  with  that  of  the  present  day.2  Both  males 
and  females  had  their  hair  long  and  flowing,  but  the 
heads  of  children  were  closely  shaven,  a  practice  which 
still  partially  prevails.  The  jackets  of  the  girls  were 
occasionally  ornamented  with  gems.3  "  The  men,"  says 
the  Tung-teen,  "  have  the  upper  part  of  the  body  naked, 
but  cover  their  limbs  with  a  cloth,  called  Kan-man, 
made  of  Koo-pei,  '  Cotton,'  a  word  in  which  we  may 
recognise  the  term  '  Comboy,'  used  to  designate  the 
cotton  cloth  universally  worn  at  the  present  day  by  the 
Singhalese  of  both  sexes  in  the  maritime  provinces.4 
For  their  vests,  the  kin^s  and  nobles  made  use  of  a  sub- 


1  DIODORUS    Sicrirs,  lib.  ii.   ch. 
liii.     See  attte,  Vol.  I.  P.  v.  ch.  i.  p. 
555. 

2  Leanff-shoo,  b.  liv.  p.  10 ;  Nan- 
ste,  b.  Ixxviii.  pp.  13, 14. 


3  Kan-she,  A.D.  650,  b.  Ixxviii.  p. 
13 ;  Leang-shoo,  A.D.  670,  b.  liv.  p. 
11.  Such  is  still  the  dress  of  the 
Singhalese  females. 


A  MOODL!AR  AND  Hid  WIFE. 


4  Tu»y-teen,  b.    cb'xxviii.    p.    17  ;  I  shoo,  b.  cxcviii.  p.  2o.     See  p.  iv.  ch. 
Xan-shs,  b.  Ixxviii.  p.  13  ;  Sin-tany-  \  iv.  Vol.  I.  p.  450. 


CHAP.  III.]       CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE. 


613 


stance  which  is  described  as  'cloud  cloth,'1  probably 
from  its  being  very  transparent,  and  gathered"  (as  is  still 
the  costume  of  the  chiefs  of  Kandy)  "into  very  large 
folds.  It  was  fastened  with  golden  cord.  Men  of  rank 
were  decorated  with  earrings.  The  dead  were  burned, 
not  buried."  And  the  following  passage  from  the  Suh-wan- 
he'en  tung-kaou,  or  the  "  Supplement  to  Antiquarian 
Kesearches,"  is  strikingly  descriptive  of  what  may  be  con- 
stantly witnessed  in  Ceylon  ;  —  "  the  females  who  live 
near  the  family  of  the  dead  assemble  in  the  house,  beat 
their  breasts  with  both  hands,  howl  and  weep,  which 
constitutes  their  appropriate  rite."  2 

The  natural  riches  of  Ceylon,  and  its  productive  capa- 
bilities, speedily  impressed  the  Chinese,  who  were  bent 
upon  the  discovery  of  outlets  for  their  commerce,  with 
the  conviction  of  its  importance  as  an  emporium  of 
trade.  So  remote  was  the  age  at  which  strangers  fre- 
quented it,  that  in  the  "  Account  of  Island  Foreigners^ " 
written  by  WANG-TA-TUEN  3  in  the  fourteenth  century,  it 
is  stated  that  the  origin  of  trade  in  the  island  was 
coeval  with  the  visit  of  Buddha,  who,  "  taking  compas- 
sion on  the  aborigines,  who  were  poor  and  addicted  to 
robbery,  turned  their  disposition  to  virtue,  by  sprinkling 
the  land  with  sweet  dew,  which  caused  it  to  produce 
red  gems,  and  thus  gave  them  wherewith  to  trade," 
and  hence  it  became  the  resort  of  traders  from  every 
country.4  Though  aware  of  the  unsuitability  of  the 
climate  to  ripen  wheat,  the  Chinese  were  struck  with 
admiration  at  the  wonderful  appliances  of  the  Singhalese 
for  irrigation,  and  the  cultivation  of  rice.5 

According  to  the  Tung-teen,  the  intercourse  between 
them  and  the  Singhalese  began  during  the  Eastern  Tsin 


1  The  Chinese  term  is  "  yun-hae- 
poo."  —  Leang-shoo,  b.  liv.  p.  10. 

2  B.  ccxxxvi.  p.  19. 

3  Taou-e    che-leo,   quoted    in    the 
Foreign  Geography,  b.  xviii.  p.  15. 

4  The  rapid  peopling  of  Ceylon  at 
a  very  remote  age  is  accounted  for  in 
the  following  terms  in  a  passage  of 


MA-TWAN-LTN-,  as  translated  by  M. 
Stanislas  Julien; — "Les  habitants 
des  autres  royaumes  entendirent  par- 
ler  de  ce  pays  fortun^  ;  c'est  pour- 
quoi  ils  y  accoururent  a  1'envi."  — 
Journ.  Asiat.,  t.  xxix.  p.  42. 

5  Records  of  the  3Iiny  Dynasty,  by 
CHING-HEAOF;  b.  Ixviii.  p.  5. 


614 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTOKY. 


[PART  V. 


dynasty,  A.D.  317  —  419  1 ;  and  one  remarkable  island 
still  retains  a  name  which  is  commemorative  of  their 
presence.  Salang,  to  the  north  of  Penang,  lay  in  the 
direct  course  of  the  Chinese  junks  on  their  way  to  and 
from  Ceylon,  through  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  and,  in 
addition  to  its  harbour,  was  attractive  from  its  valuable 
mines  of  tin.  Here  the  Chinese  fleets  called  on  both 
voyages ;  and  the  fact  of  their  resort  is  indicated  by 
the  popular  name  "  Ajung-Selan,"  or  "  Junk-Ceylon  ; " 
by  which  the  place  is  still  known,  Ajung,  in  the  language 
of  the  Malays,  being  the  term  for  "  large  shipping,"  and 
Selan,  their  name  for  Ceylon.2 

The  port  in  Ceylon  which  the  Chinese  vessels  made 
their  rendezvous,  was  Lo-le  (Galle),  "  where, "  it  is  said, 
"  ships  anchor,  and  people  land."  3 

Besides  rice,  the  vegetable  productions  of  the  island 
enumerated  by  the  various  Chinese  authorities  were 
aloes-wood,  sandal-wood  4,  and  ebony  ;  camphor  5,  areca- 
nuts,  beans,  sesamum,  coco-nuts  (and  arrack  distilled 
from  the  coco-nut  palm)  pepper,  sugar-cane,  myrrh, 
frankincense,  oil  and  drugs.6  An  .odoriferous  extract, 
called  by  the  Chinese  Shoo-heang,  is  likewise  particular- 
ised, but  it  is  not  possible  now  to  identify  it. 

Elephants  and  ivory  were  in  request;  and  the  only 
manufactures  alluded  to  for  export  were  woven  cotton7, 


1  Tung-teen,  A.D.  740.  b.  clxxxviii. 
p.  17. 

2  Singapore  Chronicle,  183G. 

3  WANG-KE,    Suh-wan-lieen  tung- 
kaou,  b.  ccxxxvi.  p.  19. 

*  The  mention  of  sandal-wood  is 
suggestive.  It  does  not,  so  far  as  I 
could  ever  learn,  exist  in  Ceylon ;  yet 
it  is  mentioned  by  the  designation  of 
"  almug-wood,"  among  the  treasures 
which  the  navies  of  Phoenicia  brought 
back  amongst  the  imports  from  Tar- 
shish  and  Ophir  (1  Kings,  x.  2.)  ;  and 
Abou-zeyd  enumerates  it  amongst  the 
exports  of  Ceylon  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury (see  ante,  p.  589).  It  figures, 
too,  amongst  the  exports  of  the  island, 


in  the  records  of  the  Chinese.  Can  it 
be  that,  like  the  calamander,  or  Coro- 
mandel-wood,  which  is  rapidly  ap- 
proaching extinction,  sandal-wood 
was  extirpated  from  the  island  by 
injudicious  cutting,  unaccompanied 
by  any  precautions  for  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  tree  ?  It  appears  to  have 
been  found  in  Ceylon  about  the  year 
1830,  or  later,  when  Moon  drew  up 
his  catalogue  of  Ceylon  plants. 

5  Nan-she,  b.  Ixxviii.  p.  13. 

6  Suh-IIung  keen-luh,  b.  xlii.  p.  52. 

7  Tsih-foo   yaen-kwei,    A.D.    1012, 
b.    dcccclxxi.    p.    15.     At    a    later 
period  "Western  cloth"  is  mention- 
ed among    the    exports    of  Ceylon, 


CHAP.  III.]  CEYLON  AS  KXOWX  TO  THE  CHINESE. 


615 


gold  ornaments,  and  jewelry ;  including  models  of  the 
shrines  in  which  were  deposited  the  sacred  relics  of 
Buddha.1  Statues  of  Buddha  were  frequently  sent 
as  royal  presents,  and  so  great  was  the  fame  of  Cey- 
lon for  their  production  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies, that  according  to  the  historian  of  the  Wei  Tartar 
dynasty,  A.D.  386  —  556,  people  "  from  the  countries 
of  Central  Asia,  and  the  kings  of  those  nations, 
emulated  each  other  in  sending  artisans  to  procure 
copies,  but  none  could  rival  the  productions  of  Nan-te.2 
On  standing  about  ten  paces  distant  they  appeared  truly 
brilliant,  but  the  lineaments  gradually  disappeared  on  a 
nearer  approach."  3 

Pearls,  corals,  and  crystals  were  eagerly  sought  after  ; 
but  of  all  articles  the  gems  of  Ceylon  were  in  the 
greatest  request.  The  business  of  collecting  and  selling 
them  seems  from  the  earliest  time  to  have  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Arabs,  and  hence  they  bore  in  China  the  desig- 
nation of  "  Mahometan  stones."  4  They  consisted  of  rubies, 
sapphires,  amethysts,  carbuncles  (the  "  red  precious  stone, 
the  lustre  of  which  serves  instead  of  a  lamp  at  night  ")5 ; 
and  topazes  of  four  distinct  tints,  "  those  the  colour  of  wine ; 
the  delicate  tint  of  young  goslings,  the  deep  amber,  like 
bees'-wax,  and  the  pale  tinge  resembling  the  opening  bud 
of  the  pine."  6  In  exchange  for  these  commodities  the 
Chinese  traders  brought  with  them  silk,  variegated  lute 
strings,  blue  porcelain,  enamelled  dishes  and  cups,  and 


but  the  reference  must  be  to  cloth 
previously  imported  either  from  In- 
dia or  Persia.  —  Ming-she  History  of 
the  Ming  Dynasty,  A.D.  13(38—1043, 
b.  cccxxvi.  p.  7. 

1  A  model  of  the  shrine  contain- 
ing the  sacred  tooth  was  sent  to  the 
Emperor  of  China  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury by  the  King  of  Ceylon ;  "  Chacha 
Mo-ho-nan,"  a  name  which  appears 
to  coincide  with  Raja  Maha  iSama, 
who  reigned  A.D.  410— 433.—  Shun- 
shoo,  A.  D.  487,  b.  xlvii.  p.  0. 


2  Nan-te"  was  a  Buddhist  priest, 
who  in  the  year  A.D.  456  was  sent 
on  an  embassy  to  the   Emperor  of 
China,  and  was  made  the  bearer  of 
three  statues  of  his  own  making. — 
Tslh-foo  yuen-kivei,  b.  li.  p.  7.     See 
post,  p.  627. 

3  Wei-shoo,  A.  D.  590,  b.  cxiv.  p.  9. 

4  Tslli-ke,  quoted  in  the  Chinese 
Mirror  of  Sciences,  b.  xxxiii.  p.  1. 

•5  Po-wuh  yaou-lan,  b.  xxxiii.  p.  2. 
6  Ibid. 


616 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


quantities  of  copper  cash  wanted  for  adjusting  the  balances 
of  trade.1 

It  will  not  fail  to  be  observed  that  throughout  all 
these  historical  and  topographical  works  of  the  Chinese, 
extending  over  a  period  of  twelve  centuries,  from  the 
year  A.D.  487,  there  is  no  mention  whatever  of  cinnamon 
as  a  production  of  Ceylon;  although  cassia,  described  under 
the  name  of  kwei,  is  mentioned  as  indigenous  in  China 
and  Cochin-China. 

Of  the  religion  of  the  people,  the  earliest  account 
recorded  by  the  Chinese  is  that  of  FA  HIAN,  in  the 
fourth  century2,  when  Buddhism  was  signally  in  the  as- 
cendant. But  in  the  century  which  followed,  travellers 
returning  from  Ceylon  brought  back  accounts  of  the 
growing  power  of  the  Tamils,  and  of  the  consequent 
eclipse  of  the  national  worship.  The  Yung-teen  and 
the  Tae-ping  describe  at  that  early  period  the  prevalence 
of  Brahmanical  customs,  but  coupled  with  "greater  rever- 
ence for  the  Buddhistical  faith."3  In  process  of  time, 
however,  they  are  forced  to  admit  the  gradual  decline  of 
the  latter,  and  the  attachment  of  the  Singhalese  kings  to 
the  Hindu  ritual,  exhibiting  an  equal  reverence  for  the  ox 
and  for  the  images  of  Buddha.4 

The  Chinese  trace  to  Ceylon  the  first  foundation  of 
monasteries,  and  of  dwelling-houses  for  the  priests, 
and  in  this  they  are  corroborated  by  the  Mahawanso? 
From  these  pious  communities,  the  Emperors  of  China 
were  accustomed  from  time  to  time  to  solicit  tran- 
scripts of  theological  works  6,  and  their  envoys,  return- 
ing from  such  missions,  appear  to  have  brought  glowing 
accounts  of  the  Singhalese  temples,  the  costly  shrines  for 


1  Suy-shoo,  "  History  of  the  Suy 
Dynasty,"  A.D.  633,  b.  Ixxxi.  p.  3. 

2  Foe-koue-ki,  ch.  xxxviii. 

3  Tae-ping,  b.  dccxciii.  p.  9. 

*  Woo-heo-peen,  "  Records  of  the 
Ming  Dynasty,"  b.  Ixviii.  p.  4 ;  Tuny- 
nee,  b.  cxcvi.  pp.  79,  80. 

5  Muhawanso,  ch.  xv.  p.  99;  ch. 


123.  In  the  Itinerary  of  KE- 
Travels  in  the  Western  King- 
doms in  tJie  tenth  Century  he  mentions 
having  seen  a  monastery  of  Sin<rli!i- 
lese  on  the  continent  of  India. —  KE- 
NEE,  Sc-ylh  hing-ching,  A.D.  964 — 
976. 

6  Tae-ping,  b.  dcclxxxvii.  p.  5. 


CHAP.  III.]        CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE. 


617 


relics,  and  the  fervid  devotion  of  the  people  to  the 
national  worship. l 

The  cities  of  Ceylon  in  the  sixth  century  are  stated, 
in  the  " History  of  the  Leang  Dynasty"  to  have  been 
encompassed  by  walls  built  of  brick,  with  double  gates, 
and  the  houses  within  were  constructed  with  upper 
stories. 2  The  palace  of  the  king,  at  Anarajapoora,  in 
the  eleventh  century,  was  sufficiently  splendid  to  excite 
the  admiration  of  these  visitants,  "  the  precious  articles 
with  which  it  was  decorated  being  reflected  in  the 
thoroughfares."  3 

The  Chinese  authors,  like  the  Greeks  and  Arabians, 
are  warm  in  their  praises  of  the  patriotism  of  the  Sin- 
ghalese sovereigns,  and  their  active  exertions  for  the 
improvement  of  the  country,  and  the  prosperity  of  the 
people.4  On  state  occasions,  the  king,  "  carried  on  an 
elephant,  and  accompanied  by  banners,  streamers,  and 
tom-toms,  rode  under  a  canopy5,  attended  by  a  military 
guard." 6 

Throughout  all  the  Chinese  accounts,  from  the  very 
earliest  period,  there  are  notices  of  the  manners  of 
the  Singhalese,  and  even  minute  particulars  of  their 
domestic  habits,  that  attest  a  continued  intercourse  and 
an  intimate  familiarity  between  the  people  of  the  two 
countries. 7  In  this  important  feature  the  narratives  of 


1  Taou-e  ch6-Uo.  "Account  of 
Island  Foreigners,"  quoted  in  the 
"  Foreign  Geography,"1  b.  xviii.  p.  15. 
Se-yih-'ke  foo-choo.  Ib.  "  At  day- 
break every  morning  the  people  are 
summoned,'  and  exhorted  to  repeat 
the  passages  of  Buddha,  in  order  to 
remove  ignorance  and  open  the  minds 
of  the  multitude.  Discourses  are  de- 
livered upon  the  principles  of  vacancy 
(nirwana?)  and  abstraction  from  all 
material  objects,  in  order  that  truth 
may  be  studied  in  solitude  and  silence, 
and  the  unfathomable  point  of  prin- 
ciple attained  free  from  the  distract- 
ing influences  of  pound  or  smell."— 
Ttih-foo  yuen-kwei,  A.  D.  1012,  b. 
dcccclxi.  p.  5. 

VOL.  I.  * 


2  Leang-shoo,  A.  D.  630,  b.  liv.  p, 

3  Tslh-foo  yuen-kicei,   b.  dcccclxi. 
p.  5. 

*  Ibid. 

5  The  "  chatta,"  or  umbrella,  em- 
blematic of  royalty. 

6  Leang-shoo,  b.  liv.  p.  10. 

7  This  is  apparent  from  the  fact 
that  their  statements  are  not  confined 
to  descriptions  of  the   customs  and 
character  of  the    male    Singhalese, 
but  exhibit   internal   evidence  that 
thev  had  been  introduced  to  their 
families,  and  had  had  opportunities 
of  noting  peculiarities  in   the  cus- 
toms of  the  females.     They  describe 
their    dress,   their    mode  of    tying 

S 


618 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[P. 


V. 


the  Arabs,  who,  with  the  exception  of  the  pilgrimage 
made  with  difficulty  to  Adam's  Peak,  appear  to  have 
known  only  the  sea-coast  and  the  mercantile  communi- 
ties established  there,  exhibit  a  marked  difference  when 
compared  with  those  of  the  Chinese ;  as  the  latter,  in  ad- 
dition to  their  trading  operations  in  the  south  of  the 
island,  made  their  way  into  the  interior,  and  penetrated 
to  the  cities  in  the  northern  districts.  The  explanation  is  to 
be  found  in  the  original  identity  of  the  national  worship, 
attracting  as  it  did  the  people  of  China  to  the  sacred 
island,  which  was  once  the  great  metropolis  of  their 
common  faith,  and  to  the  sympathy  and  hospitality  with 
which  the  Singhalese  welcomed  the  frequent  visits  of 
their  distant  co-religionists. 

This  interchange  of  courtesies  was  eagerly  encouraged 
by  the  sovereigns  of  the  two  countries.  The  emperors 
of  China  were  accustomed  to  send  ambassadors,  both 
laymen  and  theologians,  to  obtain  images  and  relics  of 
Buddha,  and  to  collect  transcripts  of  the  sacred  books, 
which  contained  the  exposition  of  his  doctrines : ;  —  and 
the  kings  of  Ceylon  despatched  embassies  in  return, 
authorised  to  reciprocate  these  religious  sympathies  and 
do  homage  to  the  imperial  majesty  of  China. 

The  historical  notices  of  the  island  by  the  Chinese 
relative  to  the  period  immediately  preceding  the  four- 
teenth century,  are  meagre,  and  confined  to  a  native 
tradition  that  "  about  400  years  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  kingdom,  the  Great  Dynasty  fell  into 
decay,  when  there  was  but  one  man  of  wisdom  and 
virtue  belonging  to  the  royal  house  to  whom  the  people 
became  attached  :  the  monarch  thereupon  caused  him 
to  be  thrown  into  prison  ;  but  the  lock  opened  of  its 
own  accord,  and  the  king  thus  satisfied  of  his  sacred 
character  did  not  venture  to  take  his  life,  but  drove 


their  hair,  their  treatment  of  infants 
and  children,  the  fact  that  the  women 
as  well  as  the  men  were  addicted  to 
chewing  hetel,  and  that  they  did  not 
sit  down  to  meals  with  their  hus- 


bands, hut  "  retired  to  some  private 
apartments  to  eat  their  food." 
1  Htouen-TTtsanff,      In  trod. 

NISLA.S   JULIEN,  p.  1. 


STA- 


CHAP.  TIL]        CEYLOX  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE. 


619 


him  into  banishment  to  India  (Teen  chuh),  whence,  after 
marrying  a  royal  princess,  he  was  recalled  to  Ceylon 
on  the  death  of  the  tyrant,  where  he  reigned  twenty 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Po-kea  Ta-To"1 
In  this  story  may  probably  be  traced  the  extinction 
of  the  "  Great  Dynasty "  of  Ceylon,  on  the  demise  of 
Maha-Sen,  and  the  succession  of  the  "  Sulu-wanse",  or 
Lower  Dynasty,  in  the  person  of  Kitsiri  Maiwan,  A.D. 
301,  whose  son,  Detu  Tissa,  may  possibly  be  the  Po-kea 
Ta-to  of  the  Chinese  Chronicle. 2 

The  visit  of  Fa-Hian,  the  zealous  Buddhist  pilgrim, 
in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era,  has  been  already  fre- 
quently adverted  to. 3  He  landed  in  Ceylon  A.D.  412, 
and  remained  for  two  years  at  Anarajapoora,  engaged 
in  transcribing  the  sacred  books.  Hence  his  descrip- 
tions are  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  capital ; 
and  he  appears  to  have  seen  little  of  the  rest  of  the 
island.  He  dwells  with  delight  on  the  magnificence 
of  the  Buddhist  buildings,  the  richness  of  their  jewelled 
statues,  and  the  prodigious  dimensions  of  the  dagobas, 
one  of  which,  from  its  altitude  and  solidity,  was  called 
the  "  Mountain  without  fear"  4  But  what  most  excited 
his  admiration  was  his  finding  no  less  than  5000  Buddhist 
priests  at  the  capital,  2000  in  a  single  monastery  on  a 
mountain  (probably  Mihintala),  and  between  50,000  and 
60,000  dispersed  throughout  the  rest  of  the  island.5 
Pearls  and  gems  were  the  wealth  of  Ceylon ;  and  from 
the  latter  the  king  derived  a  royalty  of  three  out  of  every 
ten  discovered.6 

The  earliest  embassy  from  Ceylon  recorded  in  the 
Chinese 7  annals  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century, 


1  Leang-shoo,  "History  of  the 
Leang  Dynasty,"  b.  liv.  p.  10. 

-  JU&MMMO.  c.  xxxvii.  p.  242. 
TmsorR's  Epitome,  &c.,  p.  24. 

3  The  Foe-koue-ki,  or  "  Descrip- 
tion of  Buddhist  Kingdoms,"  by  FA- 
HIAN,  has  been  translated  by  Re- 
musat,  and  edited  by  Klaproth  and 
Landresse,  4to.  Paris,  183G. 


4  In  Chinese,  Woo-wei. 

5  Foe-koue-ki,  c.  xxxviii.  pp.  333, 

6  Ibid,  c.  xxxvii.  p.  328. 

7  A.D.  405.     Gibbon  alludes  with 
natural  surprise  to  his  discovery  of  the 
fact,  that  prior  to  the  reign  of  Jus- 
tinian, the  "monarch  of  China  had 
actually   received   an  embassy  from 


020  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY.  [PABT  V. 

appears  to  have  proceeded  overland  by  way  of  India, 
and  was  ten  years  before  reaching  the  capital  of  China. 
It  was  the  bearer  of  "a  jade-stone  image  of  Buddha, 
exhibiting  every  colour  in  purity  and  richness,  in  work- 
manship unique,  and  appearing  to  be  beyond  human 
art." 1 

During  the  same  century  there  were  four  other  em- 
bassies from  Ceylon.  One  A.D.  428,  when  the  King 
Cha-cha  Mo-ho-nan  (Eaja  Maha  Nama)  sent  an  ad- 
dress to  the  emperor,  which  will  be  found  in  the  history 
of  the  Northern  Sung  dynasty2,  together  with  a  "model 
of  the  shrine  of  the  tooth,"  as  a  token  of  fidelity  ;  — 
two  in  430  and  435 ;  and  a  fourth  456,  when  five 
priests,  of  whom  one  was  Nante,  the  celebrated  sculptor, 
brought  as  a  gift  to  the  emperor  a  "  three-fold  image  of 
Buddha."3 

According  to  the  Chinese  annalists,  the  kings  of 
Ceylon,  in  the  sixth  century,  acknowledged  themselves 
vassals  of  the  Emperor  of  China,  and  in  the  year  515, 
on  the  occasion  of  Kumara  Das  raising  the  chatta,  an 
envoy  was  despatched  with  tribute  to  China,  together 
with  an  address,  announcing  the  royal  accession,  in 
which  the  king  intimates  that  he  "  had  been  desirous  to 
go  in  person,  but  was  deterred  by  fear  of  winds  and 
waves."  4 


the  island  of  Ceylon." — Decline  and  |  lets  for  the  emperor's  favourite  con- 
Fall,  c.  xl.  sort  Pwan.     Nan-she,  b.   Ixxviii.  p. 

1  Leang-shoo,  A.D.  630,   b.  liv.  p.  j  13.     Tung-teen,  b.  cxciii.  p.  8.     Tae- 
13.     The  ultimate   fate  of  this  re-  |  ping,  &c.,  b.  dcclxxxvii.  p.  6. 
nowned  work  of  art  is  related  in  the  j       2  Sung-shoo,    A.D.   487,    b.    xcvii. 
Leang-shoo,  and  several  other  of  the     p.  5. 

Chinese  chronicles.  Throughout  the  j  3  Probably  one  in  each  of  the 
Tsin  and  Sung  dynasties  it  was  pre-  :  three  orthodox  attitudes, — sitting  in 
served  in  the  Wa-kwan  monastery  at  meditation,  standing  to  preach,  and 
Nankin,  along  with  five  other  statues  reposing  in  "nirwana."  Wei-shoo, 
and  three  paintings  which  were  es-  ''•  "History  of  the  Wei  Tartar  Dynasty," 
teemed  chefs-d'oeuvre.  The  jade-  j  A.D.  590,  b.  cxiv.  p.  9. 
stone  image  was  at  length  destroyed  j  *  Leang-shoo,  b.  liv.  p.  10.  Yuh- 
in  the  time  of  Tung-hwan,  of  the  hae,  "  Ocean  of  Gems/'  A.D.  1331,  b. 
Tse  dynasty ;  first,  the  arm  was  :  clii.  p.  33.  The  latter  authority  an- 
broken  off,  and  eventually  the  body  !  nounces  in  like  terms  two  other  em- 
taken  to  make  hair-pins  and  arm-  i  bassies  with  tribute  to  China,  one  in 


CHAP.  III.]        CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE. 


6-21 


But  although  all  these  embassies  are  recorded  in  the 
Chinese  chronicles  as  so  many  instances  of  acknow- 
ledged subjection,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
the  magniloquent  terms  in  which  they  are  described 
are  by  no  means  to  be  taken  in  a  literal  sense,  and  that 
the  offerings  enumerated  were  merely  in  recognition  of 
the  privilege  of  commercial  intercourse  subsisting  be- 
tween the  two  nations.  But  as  the  Chinese  literati  affect 
a  lofty  contempt  for  commerce,  ah1  allusion  to  trade  is 
omitted  in  their  books  ;  and  beyond  an  incidental  remark 
in  some  works  of  secondary  importance,  the  literature  of 
China  observes  a  dignified  silence  on  the  subject. 

Only  one  embassy  is  mentioned  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, when  Dalu-piatissa  despatched  "a  memorial  and 
offerings  of  native  productions  ;  "  l  but  there  were  four 
in  the  century  following  2,  after  which  there  occurs  an 
interval  of  above  five  hundred  years,  during  which  the 
Chinese  writers  are  singularly  silent  regarding  Ceylon ; 
but  the  Singhalese  historians  incidentally  mention  that 
swords  and  musical  instruments  were  then  imported  from 
China,  for  the  use  of  the  native  forces,  and  that  Chinese 
soldiers  took  service  in  the  army  of  Prakrama  TTT. 
A.D.  1266.3 

In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  the  only 
records  of  intercourse  relate  to  the  occasional  despatch  of 
public  officers  by  the  Emperor  of  China  to  collect  gems 


A.D.  523,  and  another  in  the  reign  of 
Kirti  Sena,  A.D.  527.  The  Tsih-foo 
yuen-ktvei  mentions  a  similar  mission 
in  A.D.  531,  b.  dcccclxviii.  p.  20. 

1  A.D.  670.  Tsih-foo  yiten-kwei, 
b.  dcccclxx.  p.  16.  It  was  in  the 
early  part  of  this  century,  during  a 
period  of  intestine  commotion,  when 
the  native  princes  were  overawed  by 
the  Malabars,  that  Hiouen-Thsany 
met  on  the  coast  of  India  fugitives 
from  Ceylon,  from  whom  he  derived 
his  information  as  to  the  internal 
condition  of  the  island,  A.D.  629 — 
633.  See  Transl.  by  STANISLAS  JU- 


LIET, "La  Vic  de  Hiouen-Thsang," 
Paris,  1853,  pp.  192—198. 

3  A.D.  711,  A.D.  746,  A.D.  750, 
and  A.D.  762.  Tslh-foo  yuen-kwei, 
b.  dcccclxxi.  p.  17.  On  the  second 
occasion  (A.D.  746)  the  king,  who 
despatched  the  embassy,  is  described 
as  sending  as  his  envoy  a  "  Brahman 
priest,  the  anointed  graduate  of  the 
threefold  repository,  bearing  as  offer- 
ings head-ornaments  of  gold,  precious 
neck-pendants,  a  copy  of  the  great 
Prajna  Sutra,  and  forty  webs  of  fine 
cotton  cloth." 

3  See  the  Kawia-sakara,  written 
about  A.D.  1410. 


s  s  3 


622 


MEDLEVAL  HISTOKY. 


[PART  V. 


and  medical  drugs,  and  on  three  successive  occasions 
during  the  earlier  part  of  the  Yuen  dynasty,  envoys  were 
empowered  to  negotiate  the  purchase  of  the  sacred  alms- 
dish  of  Buddha.1 

The  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  was,  however, 
signalised  by  an  occurrence,  the  details  of  which  throw 
light  over  the  internal  condition  of  the  island,  at  a 
period  regarding  which  the  native  histories  are  more 
than  usually  obscure.  At  this  time  the  glory  of  Bud- 
dhism had  declined,  and  the  political  ascendancy  of 
the  Tamils  had  enabled  the  Brahmans  to  taint  the 
national  worship  by  an  infusion  of  Hindu  observances. 
The  Se-yih-ke  foo-choo,  or  "Description  of  Western 
Countries,"  says  that  in  1405  A.D.  the  reigning  king, 
A-lee-koo-nae-urh  (Wejaya-bahu  VI.),  a  native  of  Chola, 
and  "an  adherent  of  the  heterodox  faith,  so  far  from 
honouring  Buddha,  tyrannised  over  his  followers." 2 
He  maltreated  strangers  resorting  to  the  island,  and 
plundered  their  vessels,  "  so  that  the  envoys  from 
other  lands,  in  passing  to  and  fro,  were  much  annoyed 
by  him." 3 

In  that  year  a  mission  from  China,  sent  with  incense 


1  " In  front  of  the  image  of  Buddha 
there  is  a  sacred  bowl  which  is  neither 
made  of  jade,  nor  copper,  nor  iron ; 
it  is  of  a  purple  colour  and  glossy, 
and  when  struck  it  sounds  like  glass. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  Yuen 
dynasty,  three  separate  envoys  were 
sent  to  obtain  it." — Taou-e  che-ted, 
"Account  of  Island  Foreigners,"  A.D. 
1350,  quoted  in  the  "Foreign  Geogra- 
phy" b.  xviii.  p.  15.  This  statement  of 
the  Chinese  authorities  corroborates 
the  story  told  by  MARCO  POLO,  pos- 
sibly from  personal  knowledge,  that 
"  the  Grand  Khan  Kublai  sent  am- 
bassadors to  Ceylon  with  a  request 
that  the  king  would  yield  to  him  pos- 
session of  "the  great  ruby"  in  return 
for  the  "value  of  a  city/'— (  Travels, 
ch.  xix.)  The  MS.  of  MARCO  POLO, 
which  contains  the  Latin  version  of 
his  Travels,  is  deposited  in  the  Im- 


perial Library  of  Paris,  and  it  is 
remarkable  that  a  passage  in  it,  which 
seems  to  be  wanting  in  the  Italian 
and  other  MSS.,  confirms  this  ac- 
count of  the  Chinese  annalists,  and 
states  that  the  alms-dish  of  Buddha 
was  at  length  yielded  by  the  King  of 
Ceylon  as  a  gift  to  Kublai  Khan,  and 
carried  with  signal  honour  to  China. 
MARCO  POLO  describes  the  scene  aa 
something  within  his  own  know- 
ledge :  —  "  Quando  autem  magnus 
Kaan  scivit  quod  isti  ambaxiatores 
redibant  cum  reliquis  istis,  et  erant 
prope  ten-am  ubi  ipse  tune  erat,  scili- 
cet in  Cambalu  (Pekin),  fecit  mitti 
bandum  quod  omnes  de  terra  obvia- 
rent  reliquis  istis  (quia  credebat  quod 
essent  reliquiae  de  Adam)  et  istud 
fuit  A.D.  1284." 

a  B.  xviii.  p.  15. 

3  Minff-she,  b.  cccxxvi.  p.  7. 


CHAP.  III.]        CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE.  623 

and  offerings  to  the  shrine  of  the  tooth,  was  insulted 
and  waylaid,  and  with  difficulty  effected  an  escape  from 
Ceylon.1  According  to  the  Ming-she,  or  History  of  the 
Ming  Dynasty,  "  the  Emperor  Ching-tsoo,  indignant  at 
this  outrage  on  his  people ;  and  apprehensive  lest  the 
influence  of  China  in  other  countries  besides  Ceylon  had 
declined  during  the  reign  of  his  predecessors,  sent  Ching- 
Ho,  a  soldier  of  distinction,  with  a  fleet  of  sixty-two 
ships  and  a  large  military  escort,  on  an  expedition  to 
visit  the  western  kingdoms,  furnished  with  proper  cre- 
dentials and  rich  presents  of  silk  and  gold.  Ching-Ho 
touched  at  Cochin-China,  Sumatra,  Java,  Cambodia,  Siam, 
and  other  places,  "  proclaiming  at  each  the  Imperial  edict, 
and  conferring  Imperial  gifts."  If  any  of  the  princes  re- 
fused submission,  they  were  subdued  by  force  ;  and  the 
expedition  returned  to  China  in  A.D.  1407,  accompanied 
by  envoys  from  the  several  nations,  who  came  to  pay 
court  to  the  Emperor. 

In  the  following  year  Ching-Ho,  having  been  de- 
spatched on  a  similar  mission  to  Ceylon,  the  king,  A-lee-ko- 
nae-urh,  decoyed  his  party  into  the  interior,  threw  up 
stockades  with  a  view  to  their  capture,  in  the  hope  of  a 
ransom,  and  ordered  soldiers  to  the  coast  to  plunder  the 
Chinese  junks.  But  Ching-Ho,  by  a  dexterous  move- 
ment, avoided  the  attack,  and  invested  the  capital2, 
made  a  prisoner  of  the  king,  succeeded  in  conveying 
him  on  board  his  fleet,  and  carried  him  captive  to  China, 
together  with  his  queen,  his  children,  his  officers  of  state, 
and  his  attendants.  He  brought  away  with  him  spoils, 
which  were  long  afterwards  exhibited  in  the  Tsing- 
hae  monastery  at  Nankin  3,  and  one  of  the  commentaries 
on  the  Si-yu-ke  of  Hiouen  Thsang,  states  that  amongst 
the  articles  carried  away,  was  the  sacred  tooth  of 


1  Se-yih-ke  foo-choo,  b.  xviii.  p.  15. 
This  Chinese  invasion  of  Ceylon  has 
been  already  adverted  to  in  the  sketch 
of  the  domestic  history  of  the  island, 
Vol.  I.  Part  iv.  ch.  xii.  p.  417. 


2  Gampola. 

3  Suh-Wan-hien    tuwj-kaou,   book 
ccxxxvi.  p.  12. 


624 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


Buddha.1  "In  the  sixth  month  of  the  year  1411," 
says  the  author  of  the  Ming-She,  "the  prisoners  were 
presented  at  court.  The  Chinese  ministers  pressed  for 
their  execution,  but  the  emperor,  in  pity  for  their  ig- 
norance, set  them  at  liberty,  but  commanded  them  to 
select  a  virtuous  man  from  the  same  family  to  occupy  the 
throne.  All  the  captives  declared  in  favour  of  Seay-pa- 
nae-na,  whereupon  an  envoy  was  sent  with  a  seal  to 
invest  him  with  the  royal  dignity,  as  a  vassal  of  the 
empire,"  and  in  that  capacity  he  was  restored  to  Ceylon, 
the  former  king  being  at  the  same  time  sent  back  to  the 
island.2  It  would  be  difficult  to  identify  the  names  in 
this  story  with  the  kings  of  the  period,  were  it  not  stated 
in  another  chronicle,  the  Woo-heo-peen,  or  Eecord  of 
the  Ming  Dynasty,  that  Seay-pa-nae-na  was  afterwards 
named  Pu-la-ko-ma  Ba-zae  La-cha,  in  which  it  is  not 
difficult  to  recognise  "  Sri  Prakrama  Bahu  Raja,"  the 
sixth  of  his  name,  who  transferred  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment from  Glampola  to  Cotta,  and  reigned  from  A.D.  1410 
till  1462. 3 

For  fifty   years   after   this   untoward   event   the   sub- 
jection   of   Ceylon    to     China    appears   to   have    been 


1  See  note    at    the   end    of    this 
chapter. 

2  Ming-she,  b.  cccxxvi.  p.  5.     M. 
STANISLAS  JTJLIEN  intimates  that  the 
forthcoming  volume  of  his  version  of 
the  Si-yu-ki will  contain  the  eleventh 
book,  in  which  an  account  will  be 
given  of  the  expedition  of  Ching-Ho. 
— Memoires  sur  les  Contrees  Occiden- 
tals, torn.  i.  p.  2G.     In  anticipation 
of  its   publication,    M.   JULIEN   has 
been  so  obliging  as  to  make  for  me  a 
translation  of  the  passage  regarding 
Ceylon,  but  it  proves  to  be  an  anno- 
tation of  the  fifteenth  century,  which, 
by  the  inadvertence  of  transcribers, 
has  become  interpolated  in  the  text 
of  Iliouen-  TJisang.    It  contains,  how- 
ever, no   additional   facts  'or  state- 
ments beyond  the  questionable  one 
before   alluded    to,   that  the   sacred 
tooth  of  Buddha  was  amongst  the 


spoils  earned  to    Pekin  by  Ching- 
Ho. 

3  Woo-lwo-peen,  b.  Ixviii.  p.  5. 
See  also  the  Ta-tsing  yih-tung,  a 
topographical  account  of  the  Manchoo 
empire,  a  copy  of  which  is  among  the 
Chinese  books  in  the  British  Museum. 
In  the  very  imperfect  version  of  the 
Rajavali,  published  by  Upham,  this 
important  passage  is  rendered  un- 
intelligible by  the  want  of  fidelity  of 
the  translator,  who  has  transformed 
the  conqueror  into  a  "  Malabar,"  and 
ante-dated  the  event  by  a  century. 
(Rajavali,  p.  263.)  I  am  indebted 
to  Mr.  De  Alwis,  of  Colombo,  for  a 
correct  translation  of  the  original, 
which  is  as  follows  :  "In  the  reign  of 
King  Wijayo-bahu,  the  King  of 
Maha  (great)  China  landed  in  Ceylon 
with  an  army,  pretending  that  he 
was  bringing  tribute ;  King  Wijayo- 


CHAP.  TIL]        CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE.  625 

humbly  and  periodically  acknowledged ;  tribute  was 
punctually  paicl  to  the  emperor,  and  on  two  occasions, 
in  1416  A.D.,  and  1421,  the  kings  of  Ceylon  were 
the  bearers  of  it  in  person.1  In  1430,  at  a  period  of 
intestine  commotion,  "  Ching-Ho  issued  a  proclamation 
for  the  pacification  of  Ceylon,"  and,  at  a  somewhat 
later  period,  edicts  were  promulgated  by  the  Emperor 
of  China  for  the  government  of  the  island.2  In  1459 
A.D.,  however,  the  series  of  humiliations  appears  to 
have  come  abruptly  to  a  close  ;  for,  "  in  that  year,"  says 
the  Ming-she,  "the  King  of  Ceylon  for  the  last  time 
sent  an  envoy  with  tribute,  and  after  that  none  ever 
came  again." 

On  their  arrival  in  Ceylon  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century3,  the  Portuguese  found  many  evidences  still 
existing  of  the  intercourse  and  influence  of  the  Chinese. 
They  learned  that  at  a  former  period  they  had  esta- 
blished themselves  in  the  south  of  the  island  ;  and  both 
De  Barros  and  De  Couto  ventured  to  state  that  the 
Singhalese  were  so  called  from  the  inter-marriage  of 
the  Chinese  with  the  Gallas  or  Chalias,  the  caste  who 
in  great  numbers  still  inhabit  the  country  to  the  north 
of  Point  de  Galle.4  But  the  conjecture  is  erroneous,  the 
derivation  of  Singhala  is  clearly  traced  to  the  Sanskrit 


bahu,  believing  bis  professions  (be- 
cause it  bad  been  customary  in  the 
time  of  King  Prakrama-babu  for 
foreign  countries  to  pay  tribute  to 
Ceylon),  acted  incautiously,  and  be 
was  treacherously  taken  prisoner  by 


c.  vi.  vol.  ii.  part  i.  p.  51.  PTKCHAS 
says :  "  The  Singhalese  language  is 
thought  to  have  been  left  there  by 
the  Chinois,  some  time  Lord  of 
Zeilan.  "  —  Pilgrimage,  c.  xviii. 
p.  552.  The  adventures  of  Ching- 


tke  foreign  king.     His  four  brothers  '  Ho,  in  his  embassy  to  the  nations  of 
were  killed,  and  with  them  fell  many     the  Southern  Ocean,  have  been  made 


people,  and  the  king  himself  was  car- 
ried captive  to  China."  DE  COUTO, 
in  his  continuation  of  DE  BARROS, 
has  introduced  the  story  of  the  cap- 
ture of  the  king  by  the  Chinese ;  but 
be  has  confounded  the  dates,  mysti- 
fied the  facts,  and  altered  the  name 
of  the  new  sovereign  to  Pandar, 
which  is  probably  only  a  corruption 
of  the  Singhalese "Haiida,  "a  prince." 
— DE  COUTO,  Asia,  fyc.,  dec.  v.  lib.  i. 


the  ground-work  of  a  novel,  the 
80-yimff-ke,  which  contains  an  en- 
larged account  of  his  exploits  in 
Ceylon  ;  but  fact  is  so  overlaid  with 
fiction  that  the  passages  are  not  worth 
extracting. 

1  Ming-ste,  b.  vii.  pp.  4,  8. 

2  Ibid.,  b.  cccxxvii.  p.  7. 

3  A.I).  1505. 

4  "  Serem   os  Chijis   senhores  da 
costa  Choromandel,  parte  do  Malabar 


626 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


"  Singha ; "  besides  which,  in  the  alphabet  of  the  Sin- 
ghalese, n  and  g  combine  to  form  a  single  and  insoluble 
letter. 

In  process  of  time,  every  trace  disappeared  of  the 
former  presence  of  the  Chinese  in  Ceylon  —  embassies 
ceased  to  arrive  from  the  "  Flowery  Kingdom,"  Chi- 
nese vessels  deserted  the  harbours  of  the  island,  pil- 
grims no  longer  repaired  to  the  shrines  of  Buddha ; 
and  even -the  inscriptions  became  obliterated  in  which 
the  Limperial  offerings  to  the  temples  were  recorded  on 
the  rocks.1  The  only  mementos  which  remain  at  the 
present  day  to  recall  their  ancient  domestication  in  the 
island,  is  the  occasional  appearance  in  the  mountain 
villages  of  an  itinerant  vendpr  of  sweetmeats,  or  a  hut 
in  the  solitary  forest  near  some  cave,  from  which  an 
impoverished  Chinese  renter  annually  gathers  the  edible 
nest  of  the  swallow. 


NOTE. 

As  it  may  be  interesting  to  learn  the  opinions  of  the  Chinese 
at  the  present  day  regarding  Ceylon,  the  following  account  of 
the  island  has  been  translated  for  me  by  Dr.  Lockhart,  of 
Shanghae,  from  a  popular  work  on  geography,  written  by  the 
late  lieutenant-governor  of  the  province  of  Fuh-kien,  assisted  by 


e  desta  Ilha  Ceilao.  Na  qual  Ilha 
leixaram  huma  lingua,  a  que  elles 
chamam  Chingalla,  e  aos  proprios 
povos  Chingallas,  principalmente  os 
que  vivem  da  ponta  de  Galle  por 
diante  na  face  da  terra  contra  o  Sul, 
e  Oriente :  e  por  ser  pegada  neste 
Cabo  Galle,  chamou  a  outra  gerite, 
que  vivia  do  meio  da  ilha  pera  cima, 
aos  que  aqui  habitavam  Chinyalla  e 
a  lingua  delles  tambem,  quasi  como 
se  dissessem  lingua  ou  gente  dos  Chijo 
de  Galle."— Vv  BAKROS,  Asia,  #c., 
Dec.  iii.  lib.  ii.  c.  i.  DE  COTTTO'S 
account  is  as  follows :  "  E  como  os 
Chins  formam  os  primeiros  que  nave- 
garam  pelo  Oriente,  tendo  noticia  da 


canella,  acudiram  muitos  'juncos' 
aquella  Ilha  a  carregar  della,  e  dalli 
a  levaram  aos  portos  de  Persia,  e  da 
Arabia  donde  passou  a  Europa — de 
que  se  deixaram  ficar  muitos  Chins 
na  terra,  e  se  misturaram  por  easa- 
mentos  com  os  naturaes ;  dantre  quern 
nasceram  huns  mist^os  que  se  Jicaram 
chamando  dm-  Guilds ;  ajuntando  o 
name  dos  nattiraes,  que  eram  Gattas 
aos  dos  Chins,  que  vieram  por  tem- 
pos a  ser  tao  famosos,  que  deram  o 
seu  nome  a  todos  os  da  Ilha." — Asia, 
8,-c.,  Dec.  v.  lib.  ch.  v. 

1  Suh-Wan-hecn  tung-kaou,   book 
ccxxxvi.  p.  12. 


CHAP.  UI.]        CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  CHINESE.  627 

some  foreigners.      The   book  is   called  Ying-hwan-che-ke,   or 
"  The  General  Account  of  the  Encircling  Ocean." 

"  Seih-lan  is  situated  in  Southern  India,  and  is  a  large 
island  in  the  sea,  on  the  south-east  coast,  its  circumference 
being  about  1000  le  (300  miles),  having  in  the  centre  lofty 
mountains ;  on  the  coast  the  land  is  low  and  marshy.  The 
country  is  characterised  by  much  rain  and  constant  thunder. 
The  hills  and  valleys  are  beautifully  ornamented  with 
flowers  and  trees  of  great  variety  and  beauty,  the  cries  of 
the  animals  rejoicing  together  fill  the  air  with  gladness,  and 
the  landscape  abounds  with  splendour.  In  the  forests  are 
many  elephants,  and  the  natives  use  them  instead  of  draught 
oxen  or  horses.  The  people  are  all  of  the  Buddhistic  religion  ; 
it  is  said  that  Buddha  was  born  here :  he  was  born  with  an 
excessive  number  of  teeth.  The  grain  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
inhabitants,  and  they  depend  for  food  on  the  various  districts 
of  India.  Gems  are  found  in  the  hills,  and  pearls  on  the  sea 
coast ;  the  cinnamon  that  is  produced  in  the  country  is  excellent, 
and  much  superior  to  that  of  Kwang-se.  In  the  middle  of  the 
Ming  dynasty,  the  Portuguese  seized  upon  Seih-lan  and  esta- 
blished marts  on  the  sea  coast,  which  by  schemes  the  Hol- 
landers took  from  them.  In  the  first  year  of  Kia-King  (1795), 
the  English  drove  out  the  Hollanders  and  took  possession  of 
the  sea  coast.  At  this  time  the  people  of  Seih-lan,  on  account 
of  their  various  calamities  or  invasions,  lost  heart.  Their  city 
on  the  coast,  called  Colombo,  was  attacked  by  the  English,  and 
the  inhabitants  were  dispersed  or  driven  away ;  then  the  whole 
island  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  who  eventually  sub- 
jected it.  The  harbour  for  rendezvous  on  the  coast  is  called 
Ting-ko-ma-le." 

To  this  the  Chinese  commentator  adds,  on  the  authority  of  a 
work,  from  which  he  quotes,  entitled,  "  A  Treatise  on  the 
Diseases  of  all  the  Kingdoms  of  the  Earth  :  "- 

"  The  Kingdom  of  Seih-lan  was  anciently  called  Lang-ya- 
sew ;  the  passage  from  Soo-mun-ta-che  (Sumatra),  with  a 
favourable  wind,  is  twelve  days  and  nights;  the  country  is 
extensive,  and  the  people  numerous,  and  the  products  abun- 
dant, but  inferior  to  Kwa-wa  (Java).  In  the  centre  are  lofty 
mountains,  which  yield  the  A-kiih  (crow  and  pigeon)  gems; 
after  every  storm  of  rain  they  are  washed  down  from  the 
hills,  and  gathered  among  the  sand.  From  Chang-tsun,  Lin- 
yih  in  the  extreme  west,  can  be  seen.  In  the  foreign  language, 


628 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


the  high  mountain  is  called  Seih-lan ;  hence  the  name  of  the 
island.  It  is  said  Buddha  (Shih-ka)  came  from  the  island  of 
Ka-lan  (the  gardens  of  Buddha),  and  ascended  this  mountain, 
on  which  remains  the  trace  of  his  foot.  Below  the  hill  there  is 
a  monastery,  in  which  they  preserve  the  nee-pwan  (a  Bud- 
dhistic phrase,  signifying  the  world ;  literally  rendered,  his 
defiling  or  denied  vessel)  and  the  Shay-le-tsze,  or  relics  of 
Buddha. 

"In  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign  (1407),  Yung-15,  of  the  Ming 
dynasty,  sent  an  ambassador  extraordinary,  Ching-Ho  and 
others,  to  transmit  the  Imperial  mandate  to  the  King  A-lee- 
jo-nai-urh,  ordering  him  to  present  numerous  and  valuable 
offerings  and  banners  to  the  monastery,  and  to  erect  a  stone 
tablet,  and  rewarding  him  by  his  appointment  as  tribute- 
bearer;  A-lee-jo-nai-urh  ungratefully  refusing  to  comply,  they 
seized  him,  in  order  to  bring  him  to  terms,  and  chose  from 
among  his  nearest  of  kin  A-pa-nae-na,  and  set  him  on  the 
throne.  For  fourteen  years,  Teen-ching,  Kwa-wa  (Java), 
Mwan-che-kea,  Soo-mun-ta-che  (Sumatra),  and  other  coun- 
tries, sent  tribute  in  the  tenth  year  of  Chin-tung,  and  the 
third  year  of  Teen-shun  they  again  sent  tribute."  l 

"  I  have  heard  from  an  American,  A-pe-le2,  that  Seih-lan 
was  the  original  country  of  Teen-chuh  (India),  and  that  which 
is  now  called  "Woo-yin-too  was  Teen-chuh,  but  in  the  course 
of  time  the  names  have  become  confused.  According  to  the 
records  of  the  later  Han  dynasty,  Teen-chuh  was  considered 
the  Shin-tuh,  and  that  the  name  is  not  that  of  an  island,  but 
of  the  whole  country.  I  do  not  know  what  proof  there  is 
for  A-pe-le's  statement." 


1  There  is  here  some  confusion  in 
the  chronology,  as  Teen-shun  reigned 
before  Ching-tung. 


2  Mr.   Abeel;   an  American  mis- 
sionary. 


629 


CHAP.  IV. 

CEYLON  AS  KNOWN   TO   THE   MOORS,   GENOESE,  AND 
VENETIANS. 


THE  rapid  survey  of  the  commerce  of  India  during 
the  middle  ages,  which  it  has  been  necessary  to  in- 
troduce into  the  preceding  narrative,  will  also  serve  to 
throw  light  on  a  subject  hitherto  but  imperfectly  in- 
vestigated. 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  many  tribes  which  in- 
habit Ceylon  are  the  Mahometans,  or,  as  they  are 
generally  called  on  the  island,  the  "Moor-men,"  ener- 
getic and  industrious  communities  of  whom  are  found 
on  all  parts  of  the  coast,  but  whose  origin,  adventures, 
and  arrival  are  amongst  the  historical  mysteries  of 
Ceylon. 

The  meaningless  designation  of  "  Moors,"  applied  to 
them,  is  the  generic  term  by  which  it  was  at  one  time 
customary  in  Europe  to  describe  a  Mahometan,  from 
whatsoever  country  he  came,  as  the  word  Gentoo1 
was  formerly  applied  in  England  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Hindustan,  without  distinction  of  race.  The  prac- 
tice probably  originated  from  the  Spaniards  having 
given  that  name  to  the  followers  of  the  Prophet,  who, 
after  traversing  Morocco,  overran  the  peninsula  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries.2  The  epithet  was 
borrowed  by  the  Portuguese,  who,  after  their  discovery 


1  The  practice  originated  with  the 
Portuguese,  who  applied  to  any  un- 
converted native  or  India  the  term 
gentio,  "  idolater  "  or  "  barbarian." 

2  The  Spanish  word  "  Moro  "  and 
the  Portuguese    "  Mwuro"   may  be 


traced  either  to  the  "Mauri,"  the 
ancient  people  of  Mauritania,  now 
Morocco,  or  to  the  modern  name  of 
"Moghrib,"  by  which  the  inhabi- 
tants, the  Mognribins,  designate  their 
country. 


MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


of  the  passage  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  bestowed 
it  indiscriminately  upon  the  Arabs  and  their  descen- 
dants, whom,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  they  found 
established  as  traders  in  every  port  on  the  Asian  and 
African  coast,  and  whom  they  had  good  reason  tb 
regard  as  their  most  formidable  competitors  for  the 
commerce  of  the  East. 

Particular  events  have  been  assumed  as  marking  the 
probable  date  of  their  first  appearance  in  Ceylon.  Sir 
Alexander  Johnston,  on  the  authority  of  a  tradition 
current  amongst  their  descendants,  says,  that  "  the  first 
Mahometans  who  settled  there  were  driven  from  Arabia 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century,  and  estab- 
lished themselves  at  Jaffna,  Manaar,  Koodramalie, 
Putlam,  Colombo,  Barberyn,  Point  de  Galle,  and  Trin- 
comalie."1  The  Dutch  authorities,  on  the  other  hand, 
hold  that  the  Moors  were  Moslemin  only  by  profession, 
that  by  birth  they  were  descendants  of  a  mean  and 
detestable  Malabar  caste,  who  in  remote  times  had 
been  converted  to  Islam  through  intercourse  with  the 
Arabs  of  Bassora  and  the  Eed  Sea;  that  they  had 
frequented  •  the  coasts  of  India  as  seamen,  and  then  in- 
fested them  as  pirates ;  and  that  their  first  appearance 
in  Ceylon  was  not  earlier  than  the  century  preceding 
the  landing  of  the  Portuguese.2 

The  truth,  however,  is,  that  there  were  Arabs  in 
Ceylon  ages  before  the  earliest  date  named  in  these 


1  Tram.  Rmj.  Asiat.  Societij,  1827, 
vol.  i.  538.  The  Moors,  who  were 
the  informants  of  Sir  Alexander 
Johnston,  probably  spoke  on  the  equi- 
vocal authority  of  the  Tohfut-ul- 
mujahideen,  which  .is  generally,  but 
erroneously,  described  as  a  narrative 
of  the  settlement  of  the  Mahometans 
in  Malabar.  Its  second  chapter  gives 
an  account  of  "the  manner  in  which 
the  Mahometan  religion  was  first 
propagated  "  there  ;  and  states  that 
its  earliest  apostles  were  a  Sheikh 


and  his  companions,  who  touched  at 
Cranganore  abont  822  A.D.,  when 
on  their  journey  as  pilgrims  to  the 
sacred  foot-print  on  Adam's  Peak. 
(KOWLANDSOX,  Orient.  Traiisl.  Fund, 
pp.  47,  65.)  But  the  introduction  of 
the  new  faith  into  this  part  of  India 
was  subsequent  to  the  arrival  of  the 
Arabs  themselves,  who  had  long  be- 
fore formed  establishments  at  nume- 
rous places  on  the  coast. 

•   Y.VLENTTN,  ell.  XV.  p.  214. 


CHAP.  IV.]        CEYLON  AS  KNOWN  TO  THE  MOOES.  631 

conjectures1 ;  they  were  known  there  as  traders  centuries 
before  Mahomet  was  born,  and  such  was  their  passion 
for  enterprise,  that  at  one  and  the  same  moment  they 
were  pursuing  commerce  in  the  Indian  Ocean2,  and 
manning  the  galleys  of  Marc  Antony  in  the  fatal  -sea- 
fight  at  Actium.3  The  author  of  the  Periplus  found 
them  in  Ceylon  about  the  first  Christian  century,  Cos- 
mas  Indico-pleustes  in  the  sixth ;  and  they  had  become 
so  numerous  in  China  in  the  eighth,  as  to  cause  a  tumult 
at  Canton.4  From  the  tenth  till  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  Arabs,  as  merchants,  were  the  undisputed  masters 
of  the  East;  they  formed  commercial  establishments  in 
every  country  that  had  productions  to  export,  and  then- 
vessels  sailed  between  every  sea-port  from  Sofala  to 
Bab-el-Mandeb,  and  from  Aden  to  Sumatra.5  The 
"  Moors,"  who  at  the  present  day  inhabit  the  coasts  of 
Ceylon,  are  the  descendants  of  these  active  adventurers ; 
they  are  not  purely  Arabs  in  blood,  but  descendants 
from  Arabian  ancestors  by  intermarriage  with  the 
native  races  who  embraced  the  religion  of  the  Prophet.6 


1  MOTTNTSTTJART  ELPHiNSTpNE,  on    language    in    the    service   of    their 
the   authority  of  Agatharchidos  (as     mosques  (c.  i.  note,  p.  34).     There  is 
quoted   by  Diodorus  and  Photius),     reason  to  believe  that  at  a  former 
says,  that  "  from  all  that  appears  in    period  there  were   Mahometans   in 
that  author,  we  should  conclude  that     Ceylon  to  whom  this  description  would 
two  centuries  before  the  Christian     apply;   but  at  the  present  day  the 
era,  the  trade  (between  India  and  the     Moors  throughout  the  island  are,  I 
ports  of  Sabtea)  was  entirely  in  the     believe,  universally  Sonnees,  belong- 
hands  of  the  Arabs." — Hist.  India,  b.     ing  to  one  of  the  four  orthodox  sects 
iii.  c.  x.  p.  167.  |  called  Shafces,  and  using  Arabic  as 

2  Pliny,  b.  vi.  c.  22.  i  their  ritual  dialect.     Their  vernacular 

3  ••  omnis  eo  tprrore  ,Epyptiis  et  indi    is  Tamil,  mixed  with  a  number  of 

O.nnes  Arabes  ve~ -S^V..    ^         ^  ^  ^  g 

books,  except  the  Koran,  are  in  that 

4  ABOTJ-ZETD,  vol.  i.  p.  xlii.  cix.       i  dialect.     Casie  Chitty,   the   erudite 

5  VINCEXT,  vol.   ii.  p.    451.     The     District  Judge  of  Chilaw,  writes  to 
Moors  of  Ceylon  are  identical  in  race     me  that  "  the   Moors  of  Ceylon  be- 
with  "the  Mopillees  of  the  Malabar    lieve  themselves  to  be  of  the  posterity 
coast." — M'KEXZIE,  Asiat.  Res.,  vol.     of  Hashem ;  and,  according  to  one 
vi.  p.  430.  tradition,  their  progenitors  were  dri- 

6  In  a  former  work,  "  Christianity    ven  from  Arabia  by  Mahomet  himself, 
in  Ceylon"  I  was  led,  by  incorrect    as  a  punishment  for  their  cowardice 
information,  to  describe  a  section  of    at  the  battle  of  Ohod.  But  according 
the  Moors  as  belonging  to  the  sect  of    to  another  version,  they  fled  from  the 
the  Shiahs,   and  using   the  Persian  |  tyranny  of  the  Khalif  Abu  al  Melek 


632 


MEDLEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


The  Singhalese  epithet  of  "  Marak-kala-minisu "  or 
"Mariners,"  describes  at  once  their  origin  and  occu- 
pation ;  but  during  the  middle  ages,  when  Ceylon  was 
the  Tyre  of  Asia,  these  immigrant  traders  became 
traders  in  ah1  the  products  of  the  island,  and  the  brokers 
through  whose  hands  they  passed  in  exchange  for  the 
wares  of  foreign  countries.  At  no  period  were  they 
either  manufacturers  or  producers  in  any  department ; 
their  genius  was  purely  commercial,  and  their  attention 
exclusively  devoted  to  buying  and  selling  what  had 
been  previously  produced  by  the  industry  and  ingenuity 
of  others.  They  were  dealers  in  jewelry,  connoisseurs 
in  gems,  and  collectors  of  pearls ;  and  whilst  the  con- 
tented and  apathetic  Singhalese  in  the  villages  and  forests 
of  the  interior  passed  their  lives  in  the  cultivation  of 
their  rice-lands,  and  sought  no  other  excitement  than 
the  pomp  and  ceremonial  of  their  temples  ;  the  busy  and 
ambitious  Mahometans  of  the  coast  built  their  ware- 
houses at  the  ports,  crowded  the  harbours  with  their 
shipping,  and  collected  the  wealth  and  luxuries  of  the 
island,  its  precious  stones,  its  dye-woods,  its  spices  and 
ivory,  to  be  forwarded  to  China  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

MARCO  POLO,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  found  the 
Moors  in  uncontested  possession  of  this  busy  and  lucra- 
tive trade,  and  BARBOSA,  in  his  account  of  the  island,  A.  D. 
1519,  says,  that  not  only  were  they  to  be  found  in  every 
sea-port  and  city,  conducting  and  monopolising  its  com- 
merce, but  Moors  from  the  coast  of  Malabar  were  con- 
tinually arriving  to  swell  their  numbers,  allured  -by  the 
facilities  of  commerce  and  the  unrestrained  freedom  en- 


ben  Merivan,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
eighth  century.  Their  first  settle- 
ment in  India  was  formed  at  Kail- 
patam,  to  the  east  of  Cape  Comorin, 
whence  that  place  is  still  regarded  as 
the  '  father-land  of  the  Moors.'  " 

Another  of  their  traditions  is,  that 
their  first  landing-place  in  Ceylon 
was  at  Barberyn,  south  of  Caltura, 
in  the  402nd  year  of  the  Ilejira 


(A.  i).  1024).  These  legends  would 
seem  to  refer  to  the  arrival  of  some 
important  section  of  the  Moors,  hut 
not  to  the  first  appearance  of  this 
remarkable  people  in  Ceylon.  The 
Ceylon  Gazetteer,  Cotta,  1834,  p.  254, 
contains  a  valuable  paper  by  Casie 
Chittyon  "the  Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  Moors  of  Ceylon." 


CJIAI-.  IV.]       CEYLON   AS   KNOWN   TO   THE   MOOES. 


G33 


joyed  under  the  government.1  In  process  of  time  their 
prosperity  invested  them  with  political  influence,  and  in 
the  decline  of  the  Singhalese  monarchy  they  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  feebleness  of  the  King  of  Cotta,  to  direct 
armed  expeditions  against  parts  of  the  coast,  to  plunder 
the  inhabitants,  and  supply  themselves  with  elephants 
and  pearls.2  They  engaged  in  conspiracies  against  the 
native  princes  ;  and  the  assassin  of  Wijayo  Bahu  VII., 
who  was  murdered  in  1534,  was  a  turbulent  Moorish 
leader  called  Soleyman,  whom  the  eldest  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  the  king  had  instigated  to  the  crime.3 

The  appearance  of  the  Portuguese  in  Ceylon  at  this 
critical  period,  served  not  only  to  check  the  career  of  the 
Moors,  but  to  extinguish  the  independence  of  the  native 
princes ;  and  looking  to  the  facility  with  which  the  former 
had  previously  superseded  the  Malabars,  and  were  fast 
acquiring  an  ascendancy  over  the  Singhalese  chiefs,  it 
is  not  an  unreasonable  conjecture  that,  but  for  this 
timely  appearance  of  a  Christian  power  in  the  island, 
Ceylon,  instead  of  a  possession  of  the  British  crown, 
might  at  the  present  day  have  been  a  Mahometan  king- 
dom, under  the  rule  of  some  Arabian  adventurer. 

But  although  the  position  of  the  Arabs  in  relation  to 
the  commerce  of  the  East  underwent  no  unfavourable 
change  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  Portuguese  in  the 
Indian  seas,-  numerous  circumstances  combined  in  the 
early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  to  bring  other 
European  nations  into  communication  with  the  East. 


1  "  Molti  Mori  Malabar!  vengono  a 
stantiare  in  questa  isola  per  esser  in 
grandissima  liberta,  oltra  tntte  le 
commodita  e  delitie  del  mondo,"  etc. 
— ODOARDO  BABBOSA,  Sommario  dette 
Indie  Orientate,  in  Ramusio,  vol.  i.  p. 
313. 

-  liajavali,  p.  274. 

3  Ib.,  p.  284.  PORCACCIII,  in  his 
Isolario,  written  at  Venice  A.D.  1576, 
thus  records  the  traditional  reputa- 


tion of  the  Moors  of  Ceylon: — "I 
Mori  ch'  habitano  hoggi  la  Taprobana 
fanno  grandissirui  traffichi,  nauigando 
per  tutto  :  et  piu  anchora  vengono  da 
diverse  parte  molte  mercantie,  massi- 
mamente  dal  paese  di  Cambaia,  con 
coralli,  cinabrio,  et  argento  vivo. 
Ma  son  questi  Mori  perfidi  et  arn- 
mazzono  spesse  volte  i  lor  Re ;  et  ne 
creano  degli  altri." — Page  188. 


VOL.  I. 


T  T 


634 


MEDLEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


The  productions  of  India,  whether  they  passed  by 
the  Oxus  to  the  Caspian,  or  were  transported  in  cara- 
vans from  the  Tigris  to  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea, 
were  poured  into  the  magazines  of  Constantinople,  the 
merchants  of  which,  previous  to  the  fall  of  the  Lower 
Empire,  were  the  most  opulent  in  the  world.  During 
the  same  period,  Egypt  commanded  the  trade  of  the 
Eed  Sea;  and  received,  through  Aden,  the  luxuries  of 
the  far  East,  with  which  she  supplied  the  Moorish 
princes  of  Spain,  and  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean.1 

EJyen  when  the  dominion  of  the  Khalifs  was  threat- 
ened by  the  rising  power  of  the  Turks,  and  long 
after  the  subsidence  of  the  commotions  and  vicissitudes 
which  marked  the  period  of  the  Crusades,  part  of  this 
lucrative  commerce  was  still  carried  to  Alexandria, 
by  the  Nile  and  its  canals.  The  Genoese  and  Vene- 
tians, each  eager  to  engross  the  supply  of  Europe, 
sought  permission  from  the  emperors  to  form  establish- 
ments on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  former  advanced  their  fortified  factories  as 
far  eastward  as  Tabriz,  to  meet  the  caravans  returning 
from  the  Persian  Gulf2,  and  the  latter,  in  addition  to 
the  formation  of  settlements  at  Tyre,  Beyrout,  and 
Acre 3,  acquired  after  the  fourth  crusade,  succeeded  (in 
defiance  of  the  interdict  of  the  Popes  against  trading 
with  the  infidel)  -in  negotiating  a  treaty  with  the 
Mamelukes  for  a  share  in  the  trade  of  Alexandria,4  It 
was  through  Venice  that  England  and  the  western  na- 


1  ODOARDO  BARBOSA,  in  Ramusio, 
vol.  i.  p.  292.  BALDELLI  Boirr,  Hela- 
ziane  delF  Europa  e  dell'  Asia,  lib.  ix. 
ch.  xlvii.  FARIA  Y  SOITSA,  Poring. 
Asia,  part  i.  ch.  viii. 

3  GIBBON,  Decl.  and  Fall,  ch.  Ixiii. 

3  DARTT,  Hist,  de  Venise,  lib.  xix. 
vol.  iv.  p.  74.    MACPHERSON'S  Annals 
of  Commerce,  vol.  i.  p.  070. 

4  So  impatient  were  the  Venetians 


to  grasp  the  trade  of  Alexandria 
that  Marino  Sanuto,  about  the  year 
1321  A.D.,  endeavoured  to  excite  a 
new  crusade  in  order  to  wrest  it  from 
the  Sultan  of  Egypt  by  force  of 
arms.  Secrefa  Ficlelium  Crucis,  in 
BONGARS,  Gesta  Dei  per  Franco*, 
Han  an,  1611.  ADAM  SMITH,  Wealth 
of  Nations,  b.  iv.  ch.  vii.  DARTT,  Hist. 
de  Venise,  lib.  xix.  vol.  iv.  p.  88. 


CHAP.  IV.]       CEYLON   AS   KNOWN   TO   VENETIANS.  635 

tions  obtained  the  delicacies  of  India  and  China,  down 
to  the  period  when  the  overland  route  and  the  Eed  Sea 
were  deserted  for  the  grander  passage  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.1 

Another  great  event  which  stimulated  the  commercial 
activity  of  the  Italians  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries,  was  the  extraordinary  progress  of  the  Mongols, 
who  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time  absorbed  Cen- 
tral Asia  into  one  powerful  empire,  overthrew  the 
ancient  monarchy  of  China,  penetrated  to  the  heart  of 
Eussia,  and  directed  their  arms  with  equal  success  botli 
against  Poland  and  Japan.  The  popes  and  the  sovereigns 
of  Europe,  alarmed  alike  for  their  dominions  and  their 
faith,  despatched  ambassadors  to  the  Great  Khan ;  the 
mission  resulted  in  allaying  apprehension  for  the  further 
advance  of  their  formidable  neighbours  towards  the 
west,  and  the  vigilant  merchants  of  Venice  addressed 
themselves  to  effect  an  opening  for  trade  in  the  new 
domains  of  the  Tartar  princes. 

It  is  to  this  commercial  enterprise  that  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  first  authentic  information  regarding 
China  and  India,  that  reached  Europe  after  the  silence 
of  the  middle  ages  ;  and  the  voyages  of  the  Venetians, 
in  some  of  which  the  realities  of  travel  appear  as  extra- 
ordinary as  the  incidents  of  romance,  contain  accounts 
of  Ceylon  equally  interesting  and  reliable. 

MAKCO  POLO,  who  left  Venice  as  a  youth  in  the  year 
1271,  and  resided  seventeen  years  at  the  court  of  Kubla 
Khan,  was  the  first  European  who  penetrated  to  China 
Proper ;  whence  he  embarked  in  1291,  at  Fo-Kien, 
and  passing  through  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  rested  at 
Ceylon,  on  his  homeward  route  by  Ormuz.  He  does  not 
name  the  port  in  Ceylon  at  which  he  landed,  but  he 


1  GIBBOX,  Decl.  and  Fall,  eh.  Ix. 
The  last  of  the  Venetian  "  argosies" 


which  reached  the  shores  of  England 

T   T     2 


was  cast  away  on  the  Isle  of  Wight, 


A.D.  1587. 


636 


MEDLEVAL  HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


calls  the  king  Sender-naz,  a  name  which  may  possibly  be 
identified  with  the  Malay  Chandrabami,  who  twice 
invaded  the  island  during  the  reign  of  Pandita  Prak- 
rarna-bahu  III.1 

He  repeats  the  former  exaggerated  account  as  to  the 
dimensions  of  Ceylon;  states  that  it  was  believed  to 
have  been  anciently  larger  still,  and  shows  incidentaUy 
that  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Arab  sailors 
possessed  charts  of  the  island  which  they  used  in  navi- 
gating the  Indian  seas.2  Then,  as  now,  the  universal 
costume  of  the  Singhalese  was  the  cotton  "comboy," 
worn  only  on  the  lower  half  of  the  body 3,  their 
grains  were  sesamum  and  rice ;  their  food  the  latter  with 
milk  and  flesh-meat;  and  their  drink  coco-nut  toddy, 
which  Marco  calls  "wine  drawn  from  the  trees."  He 
dwells  with  rapture  on  the  gems  and  costly  stones,  and, 
above  all,  on  the  great  ruby,  a  span  long,  for  which  Kubla 
Khan  offered  the  value  of  a  city.  With  singular  truth  he 
says,  "  the  people  are  averse  to  a  military  life,  abject  and 
timid,  and  when  they  have  occasion  to  employ  soldiers, 
they  procure  them  from  other  countries  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Mahometans."  From  this  it  would  seem  that  six 
hundred  years  ago,  it  was  the  practice  in  Ceylon,  as  it 
is  at  the  present  day,  to  recruit  the  forces  of  the  island 
from  the  Malays. 

The  next  Venetian  whose  travels  qualified  him  to 
speak  of  Ceylon  was  the  Minorite  friar  ODOKIC,  of 
Portenau  in  the  Friuli  4,  who,  setting  out  from  the  Black 
Sea  in  1318,  traversed  the  Asian  continent  to  China, 
and  returned  to  Italy  after  a  journey  of  twelve  years. 
In  Ceylon  he  was  struck  by  the  number  of  serpents, 


1  Pandita    Prakrama    Bahu   III. 
was  also    called    Kalikalla  Saahitya 
Sargwajnya.  —  TURNOUT'S  Epitome, 
p.  44. 

2  I  have  seen  with  the  sailors  of 
the  Maldives,  who  resort  to  Ceylon 


at  the  present  day,  charts  evidently 
copied  from  very  ancient  originals. 

3  See  the  drawing,  page  613. 

4  Itinerarium  Fratns  ODORICI  de 
Foro  Julii  de  Portu-Vahonis. 


CHAP.  IV.]      CEYLON   AS   KNOWN   TO   VENETIANS. 


637 


and  the  multitude  of  wild  animals,  lions  (leopards?), 
bears,  and  elephants.  "  In  it  he  saw  the  mountain  on 
which  Adam  for  the  space  of  500  years  mourned  the 
death  of  Abel,  and  on  which  his  tears  and  those  of  Eve 
formed,  as  men  believed,  a  fountain ; "  but  this  Odoric 
discovered  to  be  a  delusion,  as  he  saw  the  spring  gush- 
ing from  the  earth,  and  its  waters  "  flowing  over  jewels, 
but  abounding  with  leeches  and  blood-suckers."  The 
natives  were  permitted  by  the  king  to  collect  the  gems ; 
and  in  doing  so  they  smeared  their  bodies  with  the  juice 
of  lemons  to  protect  them  from  the  leeches.  The  wild 
creatures,  they  said,  however  dangerous  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  island,  were  harmless  to  strangers.  In 
that  island  Odoric  saw  "  birds  with  two  heads,"  which 
possibly  implies  that  he  saw  the  hornbill  *,  whose  huge 
and  double  casque  may  explain  the  expression. 

In  the  succeeding  century2  the  most  authentic  ac- 
count of  Ceylon  is  given  by  NICOLO  DI  CONTI,  another 
Venetian,  who,  though  of  noble  family,  had  settle^  as  a 


1  Buceros  Pica.     See  ante,  Part  n. 
ch.  ii.  p.  167. 

2  Among  the  writers  on  India  in 
the  14th  century,  A.D.  1323,  was  the 
Dominican      missionary     JOTTKDAIK 
CATALANI,  or  "  Jordan  de  Severac," 
regarding  whose  title  of   Bishop  of 
Colombo,  "  Episcopus  Columbensis," 
it  is  somewhat  uncertain  whether  his 
see  was  in   Ceylon,   or  at   Coulaui 
(Quilon),  on  the  Malabar  coast.    The 
probability  in  favour  of  the  latter  is 
sustained  by  the  fact  of  the  very 
limited  accounts  of  the  island  con- 
tained in  his  Mirabilia,   a  work   in 
which  he  has  recorded  his  observa- 
tions on  the  Dekkan.       Cinnamon  he 
describes  as  a  production  of  Malabar, 
and  Ceylon  he   extols  only  for  its 
gems,    pre-eminent     among    which 
were  two  rubies,  one  worn  by  the 
king,  suspended  round  his  neck,  and 
the  other  which,  when  grasped  in  the 
hand,  could  not  be  covered  by  the 
finffers,  "  Non  credo  mundum  habere 
universum  tales  duo  lapides,  nee  tanti 


pretii."  The  MS.  of  Fra.  JORDA- 
NTIS'S  Mirabilia  has  been  printed  in 
the  Recuett  des  Voyages  of  the  So- 
cie"te"  Ge"ogr.  of  Paris,  vol.  i.p.  49. 
GIOVANNI  DE  MARJGNOLA,  a  Floren- 
tine and  Legate  of  Clement  VI., 
lauded  in  Ceylon  in  1349  A.D.,  at 
which  time  the  legitimate  king  was 
driven  away  and  the  supreme  power 
left  in  the  hands  of  a  eunuch  whom 
he  calls  Co/a-  Joan,  "  pessimus  Sara- 
cenus."  The  legate's  attention  was 
chiefly  directed  to  "the  mountain 
opposite  Paradise." — DOBNER,  Mo- 
num.  Jlistor.  Boemice.  Pragre,  1764- 
85. 

JOHN  OP  HESSE,  in  his  "  Itinerary" 


Taprobar 

et  moribus  asperi :  permagnas  habent 
aures,  et  illas  plurimis  gemmis  ornare 
dicuntur.  Hi  cames  humanas  pro 
8it>n»ii*  ddidis  comedunt." — JOHAN- 
NIS  DE  HESSE,  Presbyter!  Itinerarium, 
etc. 


T   T     3 


MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


merchant  at  Damascus,  whence  he  had  travelled  over 
Persia,  India,  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  China. 
Keturning  by  way  of  Arabia  and  the  Eed  Sea,  in  1444, 
he  fell  into  danger  amongst  some  fanatical  Mahometans, 
and  was  compelled  to  renounce  the  faith  of  a  Christian, 
less  from  regard  for  his  own  safety  than  apprehension  for 
that  of  his  children  and  wife.  For  this  apostacy  he  be- 
sought the  pardon  of  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  who  absolved 
him  from  guilt  on  condition  that  he  should  recount  his 
adventures  to  the  apostolic  secretary,  Poggio  Bracciolini, 
by  whom  they  have  been  preserved  in  his  dissertation  on 
"  The  Vicissitudes  of  Fortune" l 

Di  Conti  is,  I  believe,  the  first  European  who  speaks 
of  cinnamon  as  a  production  of  Ceylon.  "  It  is  a  tree," 
he  says,  "  which  grows  there  in  abundance,  and  which 
very  much  resembles  our  thick  willows,  excepting  that 
the  branches  do  not  grow  upwards,  but  spread  hori- 
zontally ;  the  leaves  are  like  those  of  the  laurel,  but 
somewhat  larger ;  the  bark  of  the  branches  is  thinnest 
and  best,  that  of  the  trunk  thick  and  inferior  in  flavour. 
The  fruit  resembles  the  berries  of  the  laurel ;  the  In- 
dians extract  from  it  an  odoriferous  oil,  and  the  wood, 
after  the  bark  has  been  stripped  from  it,  is  used  by  them 
for  fuel."2 

The  narrative  of  Di  Conti,  as  it  is  printed  by  Eamusio, 
from  a  Portuguese  version,  contains  a  passage  not  found 
in  Poggio,  in  which  it  is  alleged  that  a  river  of  Ceylon, 
called  Arotan,  has  a  fish  somewhat  like  the  torpedo,  but 
whose  touch,  instead  of  electrifying,  produces  a  fever  so 
long  as  it  is  held  in  the  hand,  relief  being  instantaneous 
on  letting  it  go.3 


1  De     Varietate    Fortuna,    Basil, 
1538.     An  admirable  translation  of 
the  narrative  of  Di  CONTI  has  re- 
cently been  made  by  R.  H.  Major, 
Esq.,  for  the  Hakluyt  Society.     Lon- 
don, 1857. 

2  POGGIO  makes  Nicolo  di  Conti  say 
that  the  island  contains  a  lake,  in  the 
middle  of  which  is  a  city  three  miles 


in  circumference ;  but  this  is  evi- 
dently an  amplification  of  his  own, 
borrowed  from  the  passage  in  which 
Pliny  (whom  Poggio  elsewhere 
quotes)  alludes  to  the  fabulous  Lake 
Megisba. — PLINY,  lib.  vi.  ch.  xxiv. 

3  Di  CONTI  in  Itamusio,  vol.  i.  p. 
344.  There  are  two  other  Italian 
traveller's  of  this  centuiy  who  touched 


CHAP.  IV.]         CEYLON   AS    KNOWN   TO    VENETIANS. 


G39 


The  sixteenth  century  was  prolific  in  navigators,  the 
accounts  of  whose  adventures  served  to  diffuse  through- 
out Europe  a  general  knowledge  of  Ceylon,  at  least  as 
it  was  known  superficially  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Portuguese.  Ludovico  Barthema,  or  Varthema,  a 
Bolognese  \  remained  at  a  port  on  the  west  coast 2  for 
some  days  in  1506.  The  four  kings  of  the  island  being 
busily  engaged  in  civil  war3,  he  found  it  difficult  to 
land,  but  he  learned  that  permission  to  search  for 
jewels  at  the  foot  of  Adam's  Peak  might  be  obtained 
by  the  payment  of  five  ducats,  and  restoring  as  a 
royalty  all  gems  over  ten  carats.  Fruit  was  delicious 
and  abundant,  especially  "  artichokes "  and  oranges  4,  but 
rice  was  so  insufficiently  cultivated  that  the  sovereigns 
of  the  island  were  dependent  for  their  supplies  upon 
the  King  of  Narsingha,  on  the  continent  of  India.5 
This  statement  of  Barthema  is  without  qualification ; 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  applied  chiefly  to  the 
southern  parts  of  the  island,  and  that  the  north  was 
still  able  to  produce  food  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  the 
inhabitants. 

Barthema  found  the  supply  of  cinnamon  small,  and 
so  precarious  that  the  cutting  took  place  but  once  in  three 
years.  The  Singhalese  were  at  that  time  ignorant  of 


at  Ceylon;  one  a  "GENTLEMAN  OF 
FLORENCE,"  whose  story  is  printed 
by  Raiuusio  (but  without  the  author's 
name),  who  accompanied  Vasco  de 
Gama,  in  the  year  1479,  in  his  voyage 
to  Calicut,  and  who  speaks  of  the 
trees  "  che  fanno  la  canella  in  molta 
perfettione."— Vol.  i.  p.  120.  The 
other  is  GIROLAMO  DI  SANTO  STEFANO, 
a  Genoese,  who,  in  pursuit  of  com- 
merce, made  a  journey  to  India  which 
he  described  on  his  return  in  1499, 
in  a  letter  inserted  by  llamusio  in  his 
collection  of  voyages.  He  stayed  but 
one  day  in  the  island,  and  saw  only 
its  coco-nuts,  jewels,  and  cinnamon. 
—  Vol.  i.  p.  345. 

1  Itinerario     de     LUDOVICO      DE 
VARTHEMA,  Bolognese,  no  fa  Etjypto, 


ne  la  Suria,  ne  la  Arabia  Deserta  e 
Felice,  ne  la  Persia,  ne  la  India,  e 
ne  la  ^Ethiopia  —  la  fede  el  vivere  e 
costume  de  tutte  le  prefatte  provincie. 
Roma.  1511,  A.  D. 

*  Probably  Colombo. 

3  These  conflicts  and  the  actors  in 
them  are  described  in  the  Rajavali, 
p.  274. 

*  "  Carzofoli  megliori  che  li  nostri, 
melangoli   dolci,   li  megliori   credo, 
che  siano  nel  mondo." —  Vartlierna, 
pt.  xxvii. 

5  "  In  questo  paese  non  nasce 
riso  ;  ma  ne  li  viene  da  terra  ferma. 
Li  re  de  quella  isola  sono  tributarii 
d'  il  re  de  Narsinga  per  repetto  del 
riso."  —  Itin.,  pt.  xxvii.  See  also 
BARBOSA,  in  llamusio,  vol.  i.  p.  312. 


640 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


the  use  of  gunpowder  \  and  their  arms  were  swords  and 
lance-heads  mounted  on  shafts  of  bamboo ;  "  with  these 
they  fought,  but  their  battles  were  not  bloody."  The 
Moors  were  in  possession  of  the  trade,  and  the  king  sent 
a  message  to  Barthema  and  his  companions,  expressive 
of  his  desire  to  purchase  their  commodities ;  but  in  con- 
sequence of  a  hint  that  payment  would  be  regulated  by 
the  royal  discretion,  the  Italians  weighed  anchor  at  night- 
fall and 'bade  a  sudden  adieu  to  Ceylon. 

Early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  ODOARDO  BARBOSA, 
a  Portuguese  captain,  who  had  sailed  in  the  Indian 
seas,  compiled  a  summary  of  all  that  was  then  known 
concerning  the  countries  of  the  East2,  with  which  the 
people  of  Portugal  had  been  brought  into  connection  by 
their  recent  discovery  of  the  passage  round  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  Writing  partly  from  personal  observation, 
but  chiefly  from  information  obtained  from  the  previous 
accounts  of  Di  Conti,  Barthema  and  Corsali 3,  he  speaks 
of  that  "  grandest  and  most  lovely  island,  which  the 
Moors  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Syria  call  Zeilam,  but  the 
Indians,  Tenarisim,  or  the  land  of  delights"  Its  ports 
were  crowded  with  Moors,  who  monopolised  commerce, 
and  its  inhabitants,  whose  complexions  were  fair  and  their 
stature  robust  and  stately,  were  altogether  devoted  to 
pleasure  and  indifferent  to  arms. 

Barbosa  appears  to  have  associated  chiefly  with  the 
Moors,  whose  character  and  customs  he  describes  almost 
as  they  exist  at  the  present  day.  He  speaks  of  their 
heads,  covered  with  the  finest  handkerchiefs ;  of  their 
ear-rings,  so  heavy  with  jewels  that  they  hang  down  to 


1  The  Rajavali,  p.  279,  describes 
the  wonder  of  the  Singhalese  on  wit- 
nessing for  the  first  time  the  discharge 
of  a  cannon  by  the  Portuguese  who 
had  landed  at  Colombo,  A.  D.  1517. 
"  A  ball  shot  from  one  of  them,  after 
flying  some  leagues,  will  break  a 
castle  of  marble,  or  even  of  iron." 
.  2  II  Sommario  dclle  Inde  Oriontalc 


di  ODOAEDO  BARBOSA,  Lisbon,  1519. 
A  sketch  of  the  life  of  BARBOSA  is 
given  in  CRAWFTJRD'S  Dictionary  of 
the  Indian  Islands,  p.  39. 

3  Two  letters  written  by  AJ«TDREA 
CORSALI,  a  Florentine,  dated  from 
Cochin,  A.  D.  1515,  and  addressed  to 
the  Grand  Duke  Julian  de  Medicis. 


CHAP.  IV.l       CEYLON   AS   KNOWN   TO   VENETIANS.  641 

their  shoulders  ;  of  the  upper  parts  of  their  bodies  ex- 
posed, but  the  lower  portions  enveloped  in  silks  and 
rich  cloths,  secured  by  an  embroidered  girdle.  He 
describes  their  language  as  a  mixture  of  Arabic  and 
Malabar,  and  states  that  numbers  of  their  co-religionists 
from  the  Indian  coast  resorted  constantly  to  Ceylon, 
and  established  themselves  there  as  traders,  attracted  by 
the  delights  of  the  climate,  and  the  luxury  and  abundance 
of  the  island,  but  above  all  by  the  unlimited  freedom 
which  they  enjoyed  under  its  government.  The  duration 
of  life  was  longer  in  Ceylon  than  in  any  country  of  India. 
With  a  profusion  of  fruits  of  every  kind,  and  of  ani- 
mals fit  for  food,  grain  alone  was  deficient ;  rice  was 
largely  imported  from  the  Coromandel  coast,  and  sugar 
from  Bengal. 

Di  Conti  and  Barthema  had  ascertained  the  existence 
of  cinnamon  as  a  production  of  the  island,  but  Barbosa 
was  the  first  European  who  asserted  its  superiority 
qver  that  of  all  other  countries.  Elephants  captured  by 
order  of  the  king,  were  tamed,  trained,  and  sold  to  the 
princes  of  India,  whose  agents  arrived  annually  in  quest 
of  them.  The  pearls  of  Manaar  and  the  gems  of 
Adam's  Peak  were  the  principal  riches  of  Ceylon.  The 
cat's-eye,  according  to  Barbosa,  -  was  as  highly  valued 
as  the  ruby  by  the  dealers  in  India;  and  the  rubies 
themselves  were  preferred  to  those  of  Pegu  on  ac- 
count of  their  density1 ;  but,  compared  with  those  of 
Ava,  they  were  inferior  in  colour,  a  defect  which  the 
Moors  were  skilled  in  correcting  by  x  the  application  of 
fire. 

The  residence  of  the  king  was  at  "  Colmucho"  (Co- 
lombo), whither  vessels  coming  for  elephants,  cinnamon, 


1  CESAEE  DE  FREDEBICI,  a  Vene- 
tian merchant,  whose  travels  in 
India,  A.  i>.  1563,  have  been  trans- 


that,  "  they  find  there  some  rubies, 
but  I  have  sold  rubies  well  there 
that  I  brought  with  me  from  Pegu." 


lated  by  HICKOCKE,  says  of  Zeilan,     —In  HaMuyt,  vol.  i.  p.  226. 


642 


MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY. 


[PART  V. 


and  gems  brought  fine  cloths  from  Cambay,  together 
with  saffron,  coral,  quicksilver,  vermilion,  and  specie,  and 
above  all  silver,  which  was  more  in  demand  than  all  the 
rest. 

Such  is  the  sum  of  intelligence  concerning  Ceylon 
recorded  by  the  Genoese  and  Venetians  during  the 
three  centuries  in  which  they  were  conversant  with  the 
commerce  of  India.  Their  interest  in  the  island  had 
been  rendered  paramount  by  the  events  of  the"  first 
Crusades,  but  it  was  extinguished  by  the  discovery  of 
the  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  the 
period  which  intervened  the  word  traveller  may  be  said 
to  have  been  synonymous  with  merchant1,  and  when 
the  occupation  of  the  latter  was  withdrawn,  the  adven- 
tures of  the  other  were  suspended.  The  vessels  of  the 
strangers,  in  a  very  few  years  after  their  first  appear- 
ance in  the  Indian  seas,  began  to  divert  from  its  accus- 
tomed channel  the  stream  of  commerce  which  for  so 
many  ages  had  flowed  in  the  direction  of  the  Eed  Sea 
and  the  Persian  Gulf;  and  the  galleons  of  Portugal 
superseded  the  caravans  of  Arabia  and  the  argosies  of 
Venice. 


1  CAESAR  FREDERIC  opens  the  ac- 
count of  his  wanderings  in  India, 
A.D.  1563,  as  follows:  —  "Having  for 
the  space  of  eighteen  years  continu- 
ally coasted  and  travelled  in  many 
countries  beyond  the  Indies,  ivherein 
I  have  had  both  yood  and  ill  success 
in  my  travels"  &c.  He  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  last  of  the  merchant 
voyagers  of  Venice.  His  book  was 
translated  into  English  almost  simul- 
taneously with  its  appearance  in 
Italian,  under  the  title  of  "  The 
Voyayes  and  Travaile  of  M.  Ccesar 
Fredrick,  Merchant  of  Venice,  into 
the  East  Indies,  and  beyond  the 
Indies,  written  at  sea,  in  the  Hercules 
of  London,  the  25th  March,  1588,  and 
translated  out  of  Italian  by  Mr. 
THOMAS  HICKOCKE,  Lond.,  4to. 
1588."  The  author,  who  left  Venice 
in  1563,  crossed  over  from  Cape 
Comorin  to  Chilaw,  to  be  present  at 


the  fishery  of  pearls,  which  he  de- 
scribes almost  as  it  is  practised  at  the 
present  time.  The  divers  engaged  in 
it  were  all  Christians  (see  Christianity 
in  Ceylon,  ch.  i.  p.  11),  under  tin; 
care  of  friars  of  the  order  of  St. 
Paul.  Colombo  was  then  a  hold  of 
the  Portuguese,  but  without  "  walles 
or  enemies ; "  and  thence  "to  see  how 
they  gather  the  ?innamon,  or  take  it 
from  the  tree  that  it  groweth  on 
(because  the  time  that  I  was  there, 
was  the  season  that  thejr  gather  it, 
in  the  moneth  of  Aprill)  I,  to 
satisfie  my  desire,  went  into  a  wood 
three  miles  from  the  citie,  although 
in  great  danger,  the  Portugals 
being  in  arms,  and  in  the  field  with 
the  king  of  the  country."  Here  he 
gives  with  great  accuracy  the  par- 
ticulars of  the  process  of  peeling 
cinnamon,  as  it  is  still  practised  by 
the  Chalias. 


CHAP.  IV.]         CEYLON   AS   KNOWN   TO   VENETIANS. 


643 


In  his  dismay  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  threatened  to 
demolish  the  sacred  remains  of  Jerusalem,  should  the 
infidels  of  Europe  persist  hi  annihilating  the  trade  of 
the  Desert.  Stimulated  by  the  Doge,  he  attacked  the 
Portuguese  merchantmen  in  the  Indian  seas,  and  de- 
stroyed a  convoy  off  the  coast  of  Cochin  ;  an  outrage  for 
which  Albuquerque  meditated  a  splendid  revenge  by 
planning  an  expedition  to  plunder  Mecca  and  Medina, 
and  to  consummate  the  desolation  of  Egypt  by  diverting 
the  Nile  to  the  Eed  Sea,  across  Nubia  or  Abyssinia  I x 

But  the  catastrophe  was  inevitable ;  the  rich  freights 
of  India  and  China  were  carried  round  the  "Cape  of 
Storms,"  and  no  longer  slowly  borne  on  the  Tigris 
and  the  Nile.  The  harbours  of  Ormus  and  of  Bassora 
became  deserted;  and  on  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor, 
where  the  commerce  of  Italy  had  intrenched  itself  in 
castles  of  almost  feudal  pretension,  the  rivalries  of  Genoa 
and  Venice  were  extinguished  in  the  same  calamitous 
decay. 


1  DABtr,  Hist,  de  Venise,  lib.  xix. 
p.  114.  ItAYNAL,  Hist.  d?s  Detix 
Indes,  vol.  i.  p.  150.  FAEIA  Y  SOUZA, 


Poring.  Asia,  pt.  i.  eh.  viii.  vol.  i.  pp. 
64,  83,  107,  137. 


END    OF   THE    FIRST   VOLUME. 


NEW-STBEET    SQUABK 


LIST 

OF 

WORKS  IN  GENERAL   LITERATURE 

PUBLISHED    BY 

MESSRS.  LONGMAN/  GREEN,  LONGMAN,  AND   ROBERTS 

39  PATEBNOSTER  Row,  LONDON. 

CLASSIFIED      INDEX. 

Agriculture    and    Rural 
Affairs. 

Bavldon  on  Valuing  Rents.  &c.    -      4 

Maunder's  Treasury  of  Knowledge     15 
Biographical  Treasury      15 
"         Geographical  Treasury     IS 
Scientific  Treasury       -    14 

Mackintosh's  Miscellaneous  Work.    14 
"            History  of  England  -    14 
M'Culloch'.GeographicalDictionary  14 
Maunder*.  Treasury  of  History      -    15 

"            Road  Legislation        -      4 

"         treasury  of  History      -    16 

Caird's  Prairie  Farming         -               6 

"          Natural  History  -       -    15 

"  _        Roman  Republic  - 

Cecil's  Stud  Farm          -        -               6 
Hoskyns's  Talpa    -                              10 
Loudon's  \ericulture     -        -             13 

Piesse's  Artof  Perfumery      -        -    18 
Pitt's  How  to  Brew  Good  Beer      -    18 
Pocket  and  the  Stud      ...      9 

Moore's  (Thomas)  Memoirs,  &c.    - 
Mure's  Greek  Literature        -        - 

Low's  Elements  of  A  zriculture            1? 
Morton  on  Landed  Property                16 

Arts,   Manufactures,    and 

Pvcroffs  English  Reading     -        -    18 
Rich's  Comp.  to  Latin  Dictionary    18 
Richardson's  Art  of  Horsemanship    18 
Riddle's  Latin  Dictionaries    -        -     18 

Normanby's  Year  or  Revolution   - 
Perry's  Frank.       -        ... 
Porter's  Knights  of  MaiU      - 
Raikes's  Journal    .... 

Architecture. 

Rogers  English  Thesanius  -        -     19 
Rowton'a  Debater  ...        -     19 

Riddle's  Latin  Lexicon 
Rogers'*  Essays  from  Edinb.  Review 

Bourne's  Catechism  of  the  Steam 
Brandies  Dictionarv  of  Science,&c.      4 

Short  Whist    20 
Simpson'.  Handbook  of  Dining    -    20 
Thomson's  Interest  Tables    -        -    23 

"       (Sam  .)  Recollections 
Rogefs  English  ThcsauruH   - 
SchimmelPennincV's  Memoirs  of 

«        Organic  Chemistry-       -      4 
Cresy's  Civil  F-nsineering      f        -      6 
Fairbairn's  Infofma.  for  Engineers      7 

Webster's  Domestic  Economy       -    24 
Willich's  Popular  Tables       -        -    24 
Wilmofs  Blackstone                      -    24 

Port  Uotal 
SchimmelPenninck's  Principles  of 

Gwilt's  F.ncyclo.  of  Architecture  -      8 

SchmiU's  History  of  Greece 

Harford'B  Plates  Irom  M.  Angelio  -    ^ 

Botany  and  Gardening. 

Southey's  Doctor  -        ... 

*me«°n  *  Monastic'ord'ers'  -        -     11 
Legends  of  Madonna    -     11 

Hassall's  British  Freshwater  Algoe      9 
Hooker's  British  Flora                     -      3 

Sydney  Smith"  Work."-        "'°r- 
"             Lectures 

"         Commonplace-Book     -    11 
KBnig's  Picto  lal  Lifr  of  Luther   -      8 
Loudon's  Rural  Architecture         -     13 
MacDougall's  Campaigns  of  Han- 
nibal         l* 
MacDougull'8  Theory  of  War         -    U 

"        Guide  to  Kew  Gardens  -      9 
Lindlev's  Introduction  to  Botany      13 
"  '     Synopsis  of  the  British 
Flora     -        -        -        -    IS 
"         Theory  of  Horticulture  -     13 
London'.  Hortu.  Britannicus        -    13 

Memoirs 
Taylor'.  LoyoU     -        ... 

Thirlwall's  History  of  Greece"       - 
Turner's  Anglo  Saxons 
U  wins'.  Memoirs   -         -        -        .. 

Moseley's  Engineering  -       -       -16 
Piesse's  Art  of  Perfumery      -         -     18 
Richardson's  Artof  Horsemanship    18 

Trees  ami  Shrubs"-        -    13 

Vehse's  Austrian  Court 
Wade'.  England'.  Greatness 
Young'.  Christ  of  History    - 

Scoflern  on  Projectiles,  &c.  -        -    19 
Steam-EnRine.by  the  Artisan  Club      4 
U  re's  Dictionary  of  Arts,  &c.          -    23 

Pereira's  Materia  Medica       -        -    17 
Rirers's  Rose-Amateur's  Guide    -    19 
Watson's  Cybele  Britanmca          -    24 

Geography  and  Atlases. 

Biography. 

Arago's  Live,  of  Scientific  Men    -      3 
Baillie'sM-mo.rofBate        -       -      3 

Chronology. 

Brewer'.  Historical  Atlas      - 
Butler'.  Geography  and  Atlases   - 
Cabinet  Gazetteer  -        ... 
Johnston's  General  Gazetteer 

Briulmont's  Wellington         -        -      4 
Bunsen's  HippoMus     -        -       -      6 
Bunting's  (Dr.)  Life      -        -        -      5 
Crosse's  (Andrew)  Memorials        -      6 
Green's  Princesses  of  England      -      8 
Harford'sLifVofMuh^l  \imelo-      8 
Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopedia      -    12 
Marshman's  Life  of  Carev,  Marsh- 
man,  and  Ward                            -    14 

Brewer's  Historical  Atlas      -        -      4 
Bunsen's  Ancient  Egypt       -       -      6 
Haydn's  Benson's  Index       -        -      9 
Jaquemef.  Chronology         -        -    11 
»          Abridged  Chronology  -    11 
Nicolas'.  Chronology  of  History  -    12 

Commerce  and  Mercantile 

M'Culloch's  Geographical  Dictionary 
Maunder's  Treasury  of  Geography 
Murray's  Encyclo.  of  Geography   - 
Sharp's  British  Gazetteer       -       - 

Juvenile  Books. 

Amy  Herbert          - 

Maunder's  Biographical  Treasury-     15 

Affairs  • 

Cleve  Hall       ... 

Morris's  Life  of  Becket          -        -    16 
Mountain's  (Col.)  Memoirs    -       -    16 
Parry's  (Admiral)  Memoirs   -        -    17 
Russell's  Memoirs  of  Mooie  -       -    16 
(Dr.)  Mezzofanti  -        -    19 
SchimmelPennmck's  (Mrs.)  Life  -    19 

Gilbert's  Logic  of  Banking    -        -      8 
Treatise  on  Banking       -      8 
Lorimer's  Young  Master  Mariner  -    13 
M'CuUoch's  Commerce*  Navigation  14 
Thomson's  Interest  Tables    -       -    23 

Earl's  Daughter  (The)   - 
Experience  of  Life           - 
Gertrude         - 
Howitt's  Boy's  Country  Book 
"       (Mary)  Children  'sY  ar    - 

Southey'.  Life  of  Wesley       -       -    21 
Stephen'sEcclesiastical  Biography    21 
Strickland's  Queens  of  England    -    21 
Sydney  Smith's  Memoirs       -        -    20 
Symond's  (Admiral)  Memoirs        -    21 
Taylor'.  LoyoU      -       -        -       -    21 

Tooke's  History  of  Piices      -       -    23 

Criticism,     History,     and 
Memoirs. 

Brewer's  Historical  Atlas     -    -    -      4 

Katharine  Ash'ton  "        -                ~- 
Laneton  Parsonage         ... 
Marzaret  Percival  - 
Piesse's   fhrmical,    Natural,   and 
Phvsical  Magic  .                  -        - 
Pycrofl's  Collegian's  Guide    -       - 

XJwins's  Memoirs                            -    23 

Bunsen's  Ancient  Egypt       -        -      6 

Witerton's  Autobiography  &  Essays  24 

Books  of  General  Utility. 

Acton's  Bread-Book                               3 

"         Hippolytus     -        -        -      S 

Chapman  'sGustavus  Adolphu.     -      6 
Conybeare  and  Howson's  St.  Paul       6 
Connolly's  Sapper?  and  Miner.     -      6 
Crowe's  History  of  France     -        -      6 

Medicine,  Surgery,  tec. 

Brodie's  Psychological  Inquiries  -      5 
Bull's  Hints  to  Mothers                 -      5 

"       Cookery                              -      3 

Frazer's  Letters  during  the  Penin- 

«    Management  of  Children     -      6 

Black's  Treatise  on  Brewing  -       -      4 
Cabinet  Gazetteer                           -      6 

sular  and  Waterloo  Campaign.       8 
Gleig's  Essays         -       ...      8 

"      on  Blindness       ...      5 
Copland's  Dictionarvof  Medicine  -      6 

Cust's  Invalid's  Own  Book     -       -      7 
Hints  on  Etiquette         -        -       -      9 

Curacy's  Historical  Sketches         -      8 
Hayward's  Essays  -        -       -        -      9 
Herschel's  Essays  and  Addresses  -      9 

Cust's  Invalid's  O«nBook     -       -      7 
Holland's  Mental  Physiology        .      9 
"        Medical  Notes  and  Reflect.    9 

Hudson's  Executor's  Guide    -       -    10 

Jeffrey's  (Lord)  Essays          -        -     11 

Kesteven's  Domestic  Medicine      -    12 

"     on  Making  Wills        -       -    10 
Kesteven's  Domestic  Medicine      -    12 
Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopedia      -    12 

Kemble's  Anglo-Saxon,        -        -    11 
Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopedia      -    12 
Macdulay's  Crit.  and  Hist.  Essay.      13 

Pereira's  Materia  Medica        -        -17 
Richardson's  Cold-  Water  Cure      -    18 

Loudon's  Lady's  Country  Compa- 

"         History  of  England     -    13 
"         Speeches       -        -        -    13 

Twid's   Cyclopedia    of  Anatomy 

an         5.10  ogy            . 

2                      CLASSIFIED  INDEX  TO  GENEEAL  CATALOGUE, 

Miscellaneous  and  General 
Literature. 

Ivors  ;  or,  the  Two  Cousins           -     20 
Jameson's  Sacred  Legends     -       -    11 
"        Monastic  Legends  -        -     11 

Peschel's  Elements  of  Physics       -     17 
Phillips'sMineraloev       -        -        -     17 
"        Guide  to  fJeology    -        -    17 

Bacon's  (Lord)  Works   - 
Defence  of  Eclipse  of  Fa.it\    - 

"       Leeendsof  the  Madonna      11 
"        Lectures  on  Female  Em- 

Powell's  Unity  of  Worlds       -        -      18 
Srnee's  Electro-MeUllurgy    -        -    20 

De  FOttblanque  on  Army  Adminis                          ployment     -----    11 

tration                                                                            '               Jfrpmv  Tavlnr's  Wnrke  -          _           -      11 

Steam-Engine  (The)       -         -        -       4 
Webb's  Celestial  Objects  for  Com- 

Eclipse of  Faith      - 

Katharine  Ashton           -        -         -    20 

mon  Telescopes          -       -       -    24 

Fischer's  Bacon  and  Realistic  Pki- 

Konig's  Pictorial  Life  of  Luther    -      8 
Laneton  Parson  aee                 -       -    20 

Greathed's  Letters  from  Delhi 
Greyson's  Select  Correspondence  - 

Letters  to  my  Unknown  Friends         13 
Lyra  Germanica     -        -      '-        -      6 

Rural  Sports. 

Hassal'l'sAdullerationsDetected,&c. 
Havdn's  Book  of  Dignities    -        - 
Holland's  Mental  Physiology 

Marshman'sSerampore  Mission  -     14 
Martineau's  Christian  Life  -        -    14 

Elaine's  Dictionary  of  Sports 
Cecil's  Stable  Practice   -        -       - 
"      Stud  Farm  -        -        -       - 

Hooker's  Kew  Guide      -        - 
Hewitt's  Rural  Life  of  England     -    1 
«'        VisitstoRemarkablePlacesl 

"                Hymns       -        -         -     14 
Studies  of  Christianity  14 
Merivale's  Christian  Records         -    15 

Davy'sFishing  Excursions,2  Series 
Ephemera  on  Angling   - 
"         's  Book  of  the  Salmon  - 

Jameson's  Commonplace-Book     -     1 

Milner's  Church  of  Christ       -        -     15 

Freeman  and  Salvin's  Falconry    - 

Last  of  the  Old  Squires          •        -    1 
Letters  of  a  Betrothed    -        -        -    13 

Moore  on  the  U«e  of  the  Body        -    16 
"          "       Soul  and  Body          -     16 

Hawker's  Young  Sportsman  - 
The  Hunting-Field         -       -        - 

Macaulay's  Speeches                      -     13 
Mackintosh'sMiscellaneous  Worts    14 

"    's  Man  and  his  Motives       -    16 
Morning  Clouds              -        -        -    16 

Idle's  Hints  on  Shooting 
Pocket  and  the  Stud       -        -        - 

Martineau's  Miscellanies       -        -    14 
Pycroffs  English  Reading     -        -     18 
Rich's  Comp.  to  Latin  Dictionary    18 
Riddle's  Latin  Dictionaries   -        -    18 
Rowton's  Debater          _       -        -     19 

Neale's  Closing  Scene                      -     16 
Pattison's  Earth  and  Word  -        -     17 
Powell's  Christianity  without  Ju- 
daism     -        -        -        -    18 
"        Order  of  Nature       -        -    18 

Practical  Horsemanship 
Pycroffs  Cricket-Field  -        -       - 
Richardson's  Horsemanship  -        -    1     | 
Ronalds'  Fly-Fisher's  Entomology 
Stable  Talk  and  Table  Talk  -       -          I 

Sir  Roger  De  Coverley    -                 -    20 
Southey's  Doctor,  &c.    -        -        -    21 

Readings  for  Lent                            -    20 
"           Confirmation    -        -    20 

Stonehenge  on  the  Dcg  -        -        -    2     1 
"           on  the  Greyhound            2 

Spencer's  Essays    -        -        -        -    21 

Robinson's  Lexicon  to  the  Greek 

The  Stud,  for  Practical  Purposes  - 

Stow's  Training  System         -        -    21 
Thomson's  Laws  of  Thought        -    23 

Testament  -         -        -        -        -     19 
Self-Examination  for  Confirmation    20 

Trevelvan  on  the  Native  Languages 

Sewrtl's     History    of    the    Early 

of  India       23 
Willich's  Popular  Tables       -        -    24 
Yonge's  English-Greek  Lexicon  -    24 

Church         -        -                           -    20 
Sinclair's  Journey  of  Life       -        -    20 
Smith's  (Sydney)  Moral  Philosophy  21 

Veterinary  Medicine,  &c. 

Cecil's  Stable  Practice 

«       Latin  Gradus           -       -    24 

"        (G.)  Wesleyan  Methodism     20 

"     Stud  Farm          - 

Zumpt's  Latin  Grammar       -        -    24 

NaturalHistoryingeneral. 

"       (  J.jSU  Paul's  Stapwreek  -    20 

Southey's  Life  of  Wesley       -       -     21 
Stephen's  Ecclesiastical  Biography    21 
Taylor's  Loyola      -        -        -        -    21 

Hunt's  Horse  and  his  Master         -    1     1 
Hunting-Field  (The)     -       -        -          , 
Miles's  Horse-Shoeing  -        -        -    1     ! 
"    on  the  Horse's  Foot     -        -    1 

Agassiz  on  Classification       -        -      3 
Callow's  Popular  Conchology        -      6 
Ephemera's  Bonk  of  the  Salmon    -      7 
Garratfs  Marvels  of  Instinct         -      8 
Gosse's  Natural  History  of  Jamaica    8 
Kirby  and  Spence's  Entomology    -     12 
Lee's  Elements  of  Natural  History    12 

"        Wesley      -                         -    21 
Theologia  Germanica                            5 
Thumb  Bible  (The)                -        -    23 
Ursula    20 
Young's  Christ  of  History      -        -    24 
"        Mystery  -        -        -        -    24 

Pocket  and  the  Stud       -                           : 
Practical  Horsemanship 
Richardson's  Horsemanship          -    1     ( 
Stable  Talk  and  Table  Talk  •       -          I 
Stonehenge  on  the  Dos  -       -        -    2     ' 
Stud  (The)               -       -        -       -          1 
Youatt's  Work  on  the  Dog    -        -    2 

Maunder's  Natural  History    -        -    15 

Youatt's  Work  on  the  Horse          -    2     I 

Morris's    Anecdotes    in     Natural 
History        18 

Poetry  and  tbe  Drama. 

Stonehenee  on  the  Dng          -        -     21 

Aikin's  (Dr.)  British  Poets     - 

Voyages  and  Travels. 

Turton'sShellsoftheBritishlslands    23 

Van  der  Hoeven's  Zoology    -        -    23 
Waterton's  Essays  on  Natural  Hist.    24 
YonaU's  Work  on  th*  Dog    -        -    24 

Arnold's  Merope  4  - 
"        Poems      - 
Baillie's  (Joanna)  Poetical  Works 
Goldsrrith's  Poems   illustrated     - 

Baker's  Wanderings  in  Ceylon       - 
Earth's  African  Travels         -        - 
Burton's  East  Africa      - 

Youatt's  Work  on  the  Horse         -     24 

L.  E.  L.'s  Poetical  Works               -     1 

"        Medina  and  Mecca  - 

1-Volume     Encyclopaedias 
and  Dictionaries* 

Linwood's  Anthologia  Oxoniensis  -    1 
Lyra  Germanica    -       -        -        - 
Macaulav's  Lavs  of  Ancient  Rome    1 
Mac  Donald's  Within  and  Without   1 

Domenech's  Texas         - 
"      Deserts  of  North  America 
FirstlmpressionsoftheNewWorld 
Forester's  Sardinia  and  Corsica    - 
HinchhrPs  Travels  in  the  Alps      - 

Blaine's  Rural  Sports      -       -        -      4 
Brande's  Science,  Literature,  and  Art  4 
Copland's  Dictionary  of  Medicine  -      6 
Cresy's  Civil  Engineering       -        -      S 
Gwilt's  Architecture                        -      8 

Montgomery's  Poetical  Works      -    15 
Moor?'s  Poetical  Works          -        -    16 
"        Selections  (illustiated)     -    16 
||       LallaRookh      -        -        -    16 

Howitt's  Art-Student  in  Munich  -    10 
(W.)  Victoria  -       -        -     10 
Hue's  Chinese  Empire    -       -        -    10 
Hudson     and     Kennedy's    Mont 
Blanc  -        -       -                         -    10 

Johnston's  Geographical  Dictionary  11 
London's  Agriculture                      -     13 
"         Rural  Architecture         -    13 
"        Gardening       -       -        -     13 
"        Plants     -       -        -        -    13 
"        Trees  and  Shtubs    -       -     13 
M'Culloch'sGeographicalDictionaryH 

"        National  Melodies    -        -    16 
Sacred  Songs  (u-ithMulic)    16 
"        Songs  and  Ballads   -        -    16 
Shakspeare,  by  Bowdler         -        -    19 
Southey's  Poetical  Works       -       -    21 
Thomson's  Seasons,  illustrated     -    23 

Humboldt's  Aspects  of  Nature      "    10 
Hutchinson's  Western  Africa         -     11 
Kane's  Wanderings  of  an  Artist    -     11 
Lady's  Tour  round  Monte  Rosa    -     12 
M'CIure's  North-AVest  Passage      -     17 

Minturn?s  New  York  to  Delhi        -     15 

"          DictionarvofCom'merce  14 
Murray's  Encyclo.  of  Geography  -    16 
Sharp's  British  Gazetteer      -        -    20 

Mollhausen's  Journey  to  the  Shores 
of  the  Pacific      -        -        -        -     15 
Osborn's  Quedah    ...        -    17 

Ure's  Dictionary  of  Arts,  &c.  -        -    23 
Webster's  Domestic  Economy       -    24 

The   Sciences    in    general 

and  Mathematics. 

Peaks,  Passes,  and  Glaciers           -  •  17 

Senior's  Journal  in  Turkey   and 

Religious  &  Moral  Works. 

Arago's  Meteorological  Essays      -      3 

Greece          -        -        -        -        -     19  i 
Snow's  Tierra  del  Fnego        -        -    21 

Afternoon  of  Life                             -      3 
Amy  Herbert          -        -        -       -    20 

<r       Popular  Astronomy  -        -       3 
Bourne's    Catechism    of    Steam- 

Tennent's  Ceylon  -        -        -        -    21  ) 
Von  Tempsky's  Mexico         -        -    23 

Bunvan's  Pilgrim's  Progress         -      5 
Calverfs  Wife's  Manual           -         -       6 

Boydl'Naval  Cadet's  Manual        - 
Brande's  Dictionary  of  Science,  *c. 

Wanderings  in  Land  of  Ham         -    23 
Weld's  Vacations  in  Ireland  -        -    24 
"        Pvrenees    -        -        -        -     24 

Catz  and  Farlie's  Moral  Emblems       6 

"  Lectures  on  OreanicChemistry 

"        United  States  and  Canada-    24 

Cleve  Hall       -----    20 

Conington's  Chemical  Analysis    - 

Conybeare  and  Howson's  S*.  Paul       6 
Cotton's  Instructions  in  Christianity   6 
Dale's  Domestic  Liturgy                        7 
. 
Earl's  Daughter  (The)    -       -        -    20 
Eclipse  of  Faith      - 

Cresy's  Civil  Engineering       -       - 
De  la  Rive's  Electricity           -        - 
Grove's  Correhx.  of  Physical  Forces 
Herschel's  Outlines  ol  Astronomy 
Holland's  Menial  Physiology 
Humboldt's  Aspects  of  Natura      - 

Works  of  Fiction. 

Connolly's  Romance  of  the  Ranks    6 
Cruikshank's  Falstaff    -        -        -      7 

Englishman's  Greek  Concordance      7 

"            Cosmos      ...    10 

S  •wilt's  Tallangetla      -        -        -     10 

n    "            Heb  AChald  Concord.     7 

Hunt  o»  Light       -        -        -        -    11 

ildred  Norman     -        -        -        -     15 

Experieiwe  (Tbe)'of  Life  '      -        -    20 
Gertrude          -        -        -         -        -     20 

Lirdner's  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia       -    12 
Marcel's  (Mrs.)  Conversations       -     14 

Moore's  Epicurean         -        -        *     16 
Sewell'su'sula       -        -        -        -     20  , 

Harrison's  Light  of  the  Forge        -      8 
Home's  Introduction  to  Scriptures    10 
"         Ahridsrment  of  ditto           -     10 
Hue's  Christianity  in  China  -        -     10 
Humphreys*  Parablei  Illuminated    11 

Morell's  Elements  of  Psychology   -     16 
Moseley'sEngineering&Arcrnteeture  16 
Ogilvic'i  Master-  Builder's  Plan     -     17 
Owen's  Lectureson  Comp.  Anatomy     17 
Pereira  on  Polarised  Light    -        -     17 

Sir  Roger  De  Coverley    -       -       -    20 
Sketches  (The),  Three  Tales         -     20, 
Soulhey's  The  Doctor  Ac.      -         -     21 
Trollope's  Burchester  Towers        -    23 
«          Warden           -        -        -    23 

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1.  Dr.  Chalmer?. 

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ment. 

:;.  Natural  Theology. 

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5.  TheWarofthePunjaub. 


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The  Poetical  Works  of  Oliver  Goldsmith. 

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1.  Sydney  Smith. 

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4.  George  Selwyn, 

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7.  General  Von  Kadowitz. 


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Statesmen. 

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15.  Parisian    Morals   and 

18.  The  Imitative  Powers  of 


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11.  Lord    Eldon   and   the 

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18.  Science   and  Literature 

of  Etiquette. 

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Hooker.— Kew  Gardens ;  or,  a  Popular 

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B  5 


10 


NEW  WORKS  AND  NEW  EDITIONS 


Home's  Introduction   to   the    Critical 

Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
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tion 
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quities.    By  t 


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11 


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THE  LOVE  STORY,  PBOM  SOUTHEY'S  DOCTOR. 
SIR  ROGER  DE  COVERLEY. . . .  }  S^^TOR 
MEMOIRS  OF  A  MAITRE-D'ARMES,  BY  DUMAS. 

CONFESSIONS  OF  A   1  _ 

WORKING  MAN  . .    / BT 


PHER  IN  PARIS.. 
SIR     EDWARD    SEA 
HIS  SHIPWRECK. 


2 


AN  ATTIC   PHILOSO-  ^_  ^ 

/  ......  BY  E. 

ARD'S    NARRATIVE   OF 


NATURAL   HISTORY  OF  1  „„     T 

CREATION  ..............  |  BT   DR-  L- 

INDICATIONS  OF  INSTINCT,  BY  DR.  L.  KEMP. 


NATURAL  HISTORY,  &c. 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH,  Ac.  BY  DR.  G.  WILSON. 
QU1{  ooAL-MELDS  AND  6\'U  COAL-PITS. 


CORNWALL,  ITS  MINES,  MINERS,  &c. 


MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS. 


LECTURES  AND  ADDRESSES  {  ""ARLISIJE  °* 
SELECTIONS   FROM  SYDNEY  SMITH'S 

WRITINGS. 
PRINTING BY  A.  STARK. 


»  BYH.SPENCER. 
MORMONISM  . .  BY  IHS  REV.  W.  J.  CONYBEARE. 
.LONDON  BY  J.  R.  M'CULLUCII. 


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Thirlwall.—  The  History  of  Greece.    By 

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Thomson's  Seasons.    Edited  by  Bolton 

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Thomson  (the  Rev.  Dr.)  — An  Outline  of 

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Thomson's  Tables  of  Interest,  at  Three, 

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Todd  (Dr.)  —The  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy 
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TODD,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  &c.,  Physician  to 
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24 


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Young. -The  Christ   of  History:  An 

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[September  1859. 


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