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Q^SWirttvmi 


THE    CHRONOLOGY 


OF 


ANCIENT   NATIONS 


AN    ENGLISH   VERSION    OF    THE 


ARABIC  TEXT  OF  THE  ATHIB-UL-BAEITA  OF  ALBtE^Nt, 


y 

"VESTIGES   or  THE   PAST," 


,  OR 


5 


COLLECTED    AND    REDUCED    TO    WRITING   BY   THE    AUTHOR 
IN   A.H.    390—1,   A.D.    1000. 


TRANSLATED  AND  EDITED,  WITH  NOTES  AND  INDEX,  BY 


De.   C.   EDWARD    SACHAU 

PROFESSOE   IN   THE   ROYAL   UNIVERSITY   OF   BERLIN. 


LONDON : 

PUBLISHED  FOR  THE  ORIENTAL  TRANSLATION  FUND  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  &  IRELAND 
By  W.  H.  ALLEN  &  CO.,  13  WATERLOO  PLACE, 

PUBLISHERS    TO    THE    INDIA    OFFICE. 

1879. 


LONDOK : 
PBINTKD   BY   W.    H.    AL^N   AKD  CO. 


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DEDICATED 

TO    THE    MEMBERS 

OF    THE 

COMMITTEE   OP   THE   ORIENTAL   TRANSLATION   FUND    (1878). 

OSMOND    DE    BEAUVOIR  PRIAULX. 
EDWARD    THOMAS,    E.R.S. 
JAMES    EERGUSSON,    E.R.S. 
REINHOLD    ROST,    LL.D.,    Seceetaey. 

AND  TO  THE  MEMORY  OF 

THEODOR    GOLDSTtrCKER,    D.C.L., 

LATE  PROFESSOR  OF  SANSKRIT  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON. 


PEEFACE. 


It  was  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  who  first  directed  public 
attention  to  this  work  of  Albiruni,  in  his  celebrated  article 
on  Central  Asia  in  the  "  Quarterly  E,eview  "  for  1866,  in 
which  he  gave  some  valuable  information  derived  from  his 
own  manuscript  copy,  now  the  property  of  the  British 
Museum.  In  offering  the  book,  both  in  text  and  trans- 
lation, to  the  learned  world,  I  feel  bound  to  premise 
that  it  is  scarcely  of  a  nature  to  attract  the  interest  of 
the  general  reader.  It  appeals  to  minds  trained  in  the 
schools  of  various  sciences.  Even  competent  scholars  will 
find  it  no  easy  matter  to  follow  our  author  through  all  the 
mazes  of  his  elaborate  scientific  calculations.  Containing, 
as  it  does,  all  the  technical  and  historical  details  of 
the  various  systems  for  the  computation  of  time,  invented 
and  used  by  the  Persians,  Sogdians,  Chorasmians,  Jews, 
Syrians,  Harranians,  and  Arabs,  together  with  Greek 
traditions,  it  offers  an  equal  interest  to  all  those  who  study 
the  antiquity  and  history  of  the  Zoroastrian  and  Jewish, 
Christian  and  Muhammadan  religions.* 

The  work  of  Albiruni  has  the  character  of  a  primary 
source.  Oriental  philologists  are  accustomed  to  see  one  book 
soon  superseded  by  another,  Barhebraeus  by  Ibn-al'athir, 
Ibn-al'athir  by  Al-Tabari.     Although  it  is  likely  enough 

*  By  Christians,  I  understand  the  Melkite  and  Nestorian  Churches, 
whilst  the  author  does  not  seem  to  have  known  much  more  of  the 
Jacobites  than  the  name. 


VI  PEEFACE. 

that  on  many  subjects  in  this  book  we  shall  one  day  find 
better  authenticated    and    more   ancient    information,    I 
venture  to  say,  that,  as  a  whole,  it  will  scarcely  ever  be 
.  superseded.     It  is  a  standard  work  in  Oriental  literature, 
and  has  been  recognised  as  such  by  the  East  itself,  repre- 
senting  in    its   peculiar    line  the  highest  development    of 
Oriental  scholarship.     Perhaps  we   shall  one   day  find  the 
literary  sources  themselves  from  which  Albiruni  derived  his 
information,  and  shall   be   enabled  to   dispense   with  his 
extracts   from  them.     But  there  are  other  chapters,  e.g. 
those  on  the  calendars  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Central 
Asia,  regarding  which  we  shall,  in  all  likelihood,  never  find 
any   more    ancient   information,   because   the   author  had 
learned   the  subject  from    hearsay   among   a   population 
which  was  then  on  the  eve  of  dying  out.     As  the  first 
editor  and  translator  of  a  book  of  this  kind,  I  venture  to 
claim  the  indulgence  of  the  reader.    Generations  of  scholars 
have  toiled  to  carry  the  understanding  of  Herodotus  to 
that  point  where  it  is  now,  and  how  much  is  wanting  still ! 
The  work  of  generations  will  be  required  to  do  full  justice 
to  Albiruni.     A  classical  philologist  can  edit  a  Greek  text  in 
a  correct  form,  even   though  he   may  have  no  complete 
understanding  of  the  subject-matter  in  all  possible  relations. 
Not  so  an  Arabic  philologist.     The  ambiguity  of  the  Arabic 
writing — ])roh  dolor  I — is  the   reason   why   a   manuscript 
expresses   only    three-quarters    of   the    author's   meaning, 
whilst  the  editor  is  compelled  to  supply  the  fourth  quarter 
from  his  own  knowledge  and  discernment.     No  number  in 
any  chronological  table  can  be  considered  correct,  as  long 
as  it  is  not  proved  by  computation  to  be  so,  and  even  in 
the  simplest  historical  narrative  the  editor  and  translator 
may  most  lamentably  go  astray  in  his  interpretation,  if 
there  is  something  wrong  with  the  method  of  his  research. 


PREFACE.  Vll 

I  have  boldly  attacked  the  sometimes  rather  enigmatic 
style  of  the  author,  and  if  I  have  missed  the  mark,  if  the 
bewildering  variety  and  multiplicity  of  the  subject-matter 
have  prevented  me  reaching  the  very  bottom  of  every 
question,  I  must  do  what  more  or  less  every  Oriental 
author  does  at  the  end  of  his  work, — humbly  ask  the  gentle 
reader  to  pardon  my  error  and  to  correct  it. 

I.  The  Author. 

The  full  name  of  the  author  is  Abu-Baihdn  Muhammad 
h.  ^ Ahmad  Alhirum.  He  quotes  himself  as  Abu-Baihdn 
(vide  p.  134,  1.  29),  and  so  he  is  generally  called  in  Eastern 
literature,  more  rarely  ATbirum. 

The  latter  name  means,  literally,  extraneous,  being  a 
derivative  from  the  Persian  ^^^^  which  means  the  outside 
as  a  noun,  and  outside  as  a  preposition.  In  our  time  the 
word  is  pronounced  Birun  (or  Beeroon),  e.g.  in  Teheran, 
but  the  vowel  of  the  first  syllable  is  a  ydi-majhul,  which 
means  that  in  more  ancient  times  it  was  pronounced  Berun 
(or  Bayroon).  This  statement-  rests  on  the  authority  of 
the  Persian  lexicographers.  That  the  name  was  pronounced 
in  this  way  in  Central  Asia  about  the  author's  time,  we 
learn  from  an  indisputable  statement  regarding  our  author 
from  the  pen  of  Alsam'ani,  a  philologist  and  biographer  of 
high  repute,  who  wrote  only  one  hundred  years  after  the 
author's  death  (vide  Introduction  to  my  edition  of  the  text, 
p.  xviii.). 

He  was  a  native  of  Khwarizm,  or  Chorasmia,  the  modern 
Khiva;  to  speak  more  accurately,  a  native  either  of  a  suburb 
(Berlin)  of  the  capital  of  the  country,  both  of  which  bore 
the  same  name  Khiudrizm,  or  of  the  country-district  (also 
called  B^rdn)  belonging  to  the  capital. 

Albiruni  was   born  a.h.  362,  3.  Dhu-alhijja  (a.d.  973, 


Vlll  PEEFACB. 

4th  September),  and  died  a.h.  440,  2.  Rajab  (a.d.   1048, 
11th  December),  aged  seventy-five  years. 

The  first  part  of  his  hfe  he  seems  to  have  spent  in 
Khwarizm,  where  he  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  House 
of  Ma^mun,  the  rnlers  of  the  country.  Originally  vassals 
of  the  kings  of  Central  Asia  of  the  House  of  Sdmdn,  they 
became  independent  when  the  star  of  their  masters  began 
to  sink,  i.e.  between  a.h.  384-390.  They  were,  however,  not 
to  play  a  great  part  in  the  history  of  the  East,  for  so  early  as 
a.h.  407  their  power  was  crushed  by  the  great  Mahmud  of 
Ghazna,  and  their  dominions  annexed  to  his  empire.  Like 
Albiruni,  other  scholars  also  of  high  standing  received 
protection  and  favours  at  the  court  of  the  Ma' muni 
princes. 

The  author  is  known  to  have  lived  some  years  also  in 
Jurjan,  or  Hyrcania,  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian 
sea,  under  the  protection,  and  perhaps  at  the  court,  of 
Kabus  ben  "Washmgir  Shams-alma'ali,  who  ruled  over 
Hyrcania  and  the  adjoining  countries  at  two  different 
periods,  a.h.  366-371  and  388-403.  To  this  prince  he  has 
dedicated  the  present  book,  apparently  about  a.h.  390-391, 
(a.d.  1000). 

During  the  years  a.h.  400-407  he  stayed  again  in  his 
native  country  at  the  court  of  Ma'mun  b.  Ma'mim,  as  his 
friend  and  counsellor.  He  was  a  witness  of  the  rebellion 
that  broke  out  a.h.  407,  of  the  murder  of  Ma'mun,  and  of 
the  conquest  of  the  country  by  Mahmud  of  Ghazna,  who, 
on  returning,  carried  off  him  and  other  scholars  to  Afghan- 
istan in  the  spring  of  a.h.  408. 

Among  his  numerous  works,  we  find  mentioned  a 
"  Chronicle  of  Khwarizm,"  in  which  he  probably  had  re- 
corded all  the  traditions  relating  to  the  antiquity  of  his  native 
country,  and  more  especially  the  history  of  those  events  of 


PKEPACE.  IX 

which  he  had  himself  been  a  witness.  This  work  seems  to 
be  lost.  However,  an  extract  of  it  has  come  down  to  us 
as  the  last  part  of  the  great  chronicle  of  the  royal  house 
of  Mahmud,  composed  by  Albaihaki,  the  edition  of  which 
we  owe  to  the  industry  and  learning  of  the  late  W.  H. 
Morley  ("  Bibhotheca  Indica,"  Calcutta,  1862,  pp.  834,  &c.). 

With  A.H.  408  begins  a  new  period  in  the  author's  life, 
when  he  enlarged  the  circle  of  his  researches  on  mathe- 
matics, astronomy,  geography,  chronology,  and  natural 
sciences  by  his  study  of  India,  its  geography  and  history, 
of  the  language  and  literature,  manners  and  customs,  of 
the  Hindus.  It  was  the  period  when  he  gathered  all  those 
materials  which  he  deposited  towards  the  end  of  his  life  in 
his  famous  "  Memoir  on  India." 

After  Albiruni  had  settled  in  Grhazna,  he  paid  at  least 
one  more  visit  to  his  native  country.  He  died,  probably,  at 
Ghazna.  "Whether  he  travelled  much  in  other  countries 
besides  India,  I  have  no  means  of  proving.  From  the 
present  book  we  can  only  infer  that,  besides  his  native 
country  and  Hyrcania,  he  also  knew  parts  of  Media,  e.g. 
Rai  (EhagEe). 

II.  Eis  Work. 

Albiruni  calls  his  work  Aldthdr  Alhdhiya  ^an-il-Kilrun 
Alhhdliya,  i.e.  monuments  or  vestiges  of  generations  of  the 
past  that  have  been  preserved  up  to  the  author's  time, 
meaning  by  monuments  or  vestiges  the  religious  institutes 
of  various  nations  and  sects,  founded  in  more  ancient 
times,  and,  more  or  less,  still  practised  and  adhered  to  by 
the  Oriental  world  about  a.d.  1000. 

With  admirable  industry  the  author  gathers  whatever 
traditions  he  can  find  on  every  single  fact,  he  confronts 
them  with  each  other,  and  inquires  with  critical  acumen 


X  PREFACE. 

into  the  special  merits  or  demerits  of  each  single  tradition. 
Mathematical  accuracy  is  his  last  gauge,  and  wherever  the 
nature  of  a  tradition  admits  of  such  a  gauge,  he  is  sure  to 
verify  it  by  the  help  of  careful  mathematical  calculation. 
To  speak  in  general,  there  is  much  of  the  modern  spirit  and 
method  of  critical  research  in  our  author,  and  in  this  respect 
he  is  a  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  Eastern  learning 
and  literature.  Authors  of  the  first  centuries  of  the  Hijra 
sometimes  betray  a  great  deal  of  common  sense  and  good 
method,  sometimes  also  unmistakable  traces  of  a  marked 
individuality,  whilst  the  later  centuries  are  characterised  by 
the  very  opposite.  Then  the  author  entirely  disappears 
behind  his  book ;  all  literary  work  sinks  down  to  the  level 
of  imbecile  compilation  from  good  and  bad  sources ;  the 
understanding  of  the  life  and  literature  of  the  preceding 
centuries  becomes  rare  and  distorted.  Common  sense  has 
gone  never  to  return,  and  very  seldom  do  we  meet  with  a 
trace  of  scientific  method  or  of  the  individuality  of  the 
author. 

The  fourth  century  is  the  turning-point  in  the  history  of 
the  spirit  of  Islam,  and  the  establishment  of  the  orthodox 
faith  about  500  sealed  the  fate  of  independent  research  for 
ever.  But  for  Alash'ari  and  Alghazzalt  the  Arabs  might 
have  been  a  nation  of  Gralileos,  Keplers,  and  Newtons. 

Originally  I  intended  to  give  a  complete  expose  of  the 
sources  whence  Albiruni  has  drawn  his  manifold  informa- 
tion, but  the  material  hitherto  available  for  researches  on 
the  literary  history  of  the  east  is  still  so  scanty  that  I 
had  to  desist  from  my  plan.  This  applies  in  particular  to 
the  east  of  the  Khalifate,  to  Khurasan.  We  are  com- 
paratively well  informed  regarding  the  literature  of 
Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  the  farther  west  of  Islam, 
whilst  we  have  very  little  information  regarding  the  scien- 


PEEFACE.  XI 

tific  and  literary  life  east  of  Bagdad  as  it  developed  itself 
during  the  first  tliree  centuries  of  Abbaside  rule,  under  the 
protection  of  the  imperial  governors  and  the  later  inde- 
pendent princes,  e.g.  the  House  of  Saman. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  Central  Asia  and  Afghanistan, 
when  once  in  the  grasp  of  European  influence,  will  yield 
us  rich  collections  of  valuable  literary  monuments. 
Hitherto  manuscripts  coming  from  those  countries  are 
seldom  met  with  in  the  great  libraries  of  Europe. 

As  for  the  ivritten  material  which  the  author  had  at  his 
disposal,  he  quotes  many  a  book  of  which  I  elsewhere 
can  scarcely  find  a  trace.  All  the  books,  e.g.  on  Persian 
and  Zoroastrian  history  and  traditions,  composed  in  early 
times,  not  only  by  Zoroastrians  but  also  by  Muslims, 
converts  from  the  Zoroastrian  creed,  are  altogether  un- 
known in  Europe  ;  and  it  seems  very  probable  that  the 
bigoted  people  of  later  times  have  spared  very  little  of  this 
kind  of  literature,  which  to  them  had  the  intolerable 
smell  of  filthy  idolatry. 

As  regards  Persian  history,  Albiruni  had  an  excellent 
predecessor  in  Alisfahani,  whom  he  follows  frequently,  and 
whom  he  was  not  able  to  surpass  in  many  points. 

From  oral  information  Albiruni  seems  to  have  learned 
all  he  knows  of  the  chronology  and  calendar  of  the 
Zoroastrian  populations  of  Persia,  of  his  native  country, 
and  of  Sogdiana  (or  Bukhara).  In  his  time  the  majority 
of  the  country-people  still  adhered  to  Ahuramazda,  and  in 
most  towns  there  must  still  have  been  Zoroastrian  commu- 
nities, so  that  Albiruni  did  not  lack  the  opportunity  for 
studying  the  manners  and  institutes  of  the  then  existing 
followers  of  Zoroaster.  Unfortunately,  the  Zoroastrian 
creed  had  lost  its  clerical  and  political  unity  and  constitu- 
tion.    The  people  practised  their  customs  as  they  had  seen 


Xll  PEEFAOE. 

their  parents  do,  but  they  had  no  longer  a  correct  under- 
standing of  their  origin  and  meaning.  Certainly  a  Mobe- 
dan-Mobed  of  the  time  of  Ardashir  Babekan  would  have 
been  able  to  give  a  more  accurate  and  complete  account  of 
Zoroastrian  life  and  religion;  but  still  we  must  be  thankful 
to  Albiruni  for  his  having  preserved  to  posterity  the  festal 
calendars  as  used  by  Zoroastrians  of  his  time  when  their 
religion  was  on  the  eve  of  dying  out. 

To  oral  information  I  ascribe  also  the  author's  admirable 
knowledge  of  the  Jewish  calendar.  Jewish  scholars  will 
be  able  to  say  whether  his  informants  were  Ananites 
(Karaites)  or  Rabbanites.  My  critics  do  not  seem  to  have 
noticed  that  Albiruni,  a  Muslim,  is  the  first  of  all  the 
scholars  we  know  who  has  composed  a  scientific  system  of 
the  Jewish  chronology.  He  is  much  anterior  to  Moses 
Maimonides,  also  to  Abraham  bar  Chiyya,  being  a  contem- 
porary of  R.  Sherira  and  Hat  Gaon,  who  seem  to  play  a 
prominent  part  in  the  history  of  Jewish  chronology. 

With  Nestorian  Christians  he  must  have  been  acquainted, 
as  he  speaks  of  the  Nestorian  communities  of  his  native 
country.  His  report  of  the  Melkite  feasts,  &c.,  may  have 
been  communicated  to  him  by  Nestorian  priests  from  Syriac 
sources. 

Albiruni  wrote  both  in  Arabic  and  Persian,  as  he  has 
edited  his  "  Kitab-altaf him  "  in  both  languages.  There  is 
a  possibility  of  his  having  had  a  smattering  of  Hebrew  and 
Syriac  {vide  pp.  18,  19 j,  but  of  Greek  he  seems  to  have 
been  ignorant,  and  whatever  he  relates  on  the  authority  of 
Greek  authors — Ptolemy,  Galen,  Eusebius,  &c. — must 
have  been  communicated  to  him  by  the  ordinary  channel 
of  Syriac- Arabic  translation.  His  study  of  Sanskrit  falls 
into  the  latter  half  of  his  life. 

From  occasional  notes  in  the  book  a  description  of  the 


PREFACE.  XIU 

author's  character  may  be  gleaned.  He  seems  to  have 
been  a  truth-loving  man,  attacking  all  kinds  of  shams  with 
bitter  sarcasms.  He  was  not  without  a  humoristic  vein, 
and  his  occasional  ironical  remarks  offer  a  curious  contrast 
to  the  pervading  earnestness  of  the  tenor  of  his  speech. 
As  a  Muslim  he  inclined  towards  the  Shi'a,  but  he  was  not 
a  bigoted  Muslim.  He  betrays  a  strong  aversion  to  the 
Arabs,  the  destroyers  of  Sasanian  glory,  and  a  marked 
predilection  for  all  that  is  of  Persian  or  Eranian  nationality. 
Muslim  orthodoxy  had  not  yet  become  so  powerful  as  to 
imperil  the  life  of  a  man,  be  he  Muslim  or  not,  who  would 
study  other  religions  and  publicly  declare  in  favour  of 
them.  Dakiki,  a  poet  not  long  anterior  to  Albiruni,  a 
favourite  of  the  Muslim  house  of  Saman,  was  allowed  to 
sing —  1 

"  Of  all  that  is  good  and  bad  in  the  world, 
Dakiki  has  chosen  four  things  to  himself : 
A  woman's  lips  as  red  as  rubies,  the  melody  of  the  lute. 
The  blood-coloured  wine,  and  the  religion  of  Zoroaster." 

Not  long  afterwards,  at  the  court  of  the  great  Mahmud 
of  Grhazna,  these  verses  would  probably  have  proved  fatal 
to  their  author. 

Rabent  sua  fata  libelU,  and  I  may  add,  the  fate  of  this 
book,  from  the  time  of  its  composition  till  the  time  when  I 
began  to  study  it,  has  not  been  a  fortunate  one.  Only  a 
few  were  able  to  understand  it,  few  had  an  interest  in 
having  it  copied. 

In  the  form  in  which  I  offer  the  book  to  the  reader  it  is 
not  com^^lete.  Many  most  essential  parts,  both  large  and 
small,  are  missing,  e.g.  the  chapter  on  Zoroaster,  a  most 
deplorable  loss,  arising  probably  from  Muslim  bigotry. 
However,  I  should  think  it  does  not  require  an  apology 
from  me  to  have  edited  the  book  in  this  mutilated  form  in 


XIV  PREFACE. 

which  I  have  found  it  in  the  manuscripts.  Should  the 
favour  of  time  bring  to  light  one  day  a  complete  copy,  I 
shall  be  happy  if  circumstances  will  allow  me  at  once  to 
edit  the  hitherto  missing  parts  in  text  and  translation. 

The  basis  of  my  edition  consists  of  two  manuscripts  of 
the  seventeenth  and  one  of  the  nineteenth  century,  all  full 
of  faults,  and — what  is  worse  ! — agreeing  with  each  other 
almost  in  every  particular.  In  fact,  all  three  copies  repre- 
sent one  and  the  same  original.  Fortunately  a  chronolo- 
gical work  offers  this  advantage,  that  in  many  cases 
mathematical  examination  enables  the  editor  to  correct  the 
blunders  of  the  tradition,  e.g.  in  the  numerous  tables. 

My  notes  are  in  the  first  place  intended  to  give  the  calcu- 
lations on  which  the  tables  rest.  Besides,  they  contain 
contributions  to  the  explications  of  certain  difficult  passages, 
short  information  on  points  of  literary  history,  and,  lastly, 
a  few  remarks  on  the  text  and  corrections. 

For  all  other  introductory  questions  I  refer  the  reader  to 
the  Grerman  preface  to  my  edition  of  the  text. 

In  offering  my  translation  to  the  English  reader,  I  desire 
to  thank  my  friend,  the  Rev.  Robert  Gwynne,  Yicar  of 
St.  Mary's,  Soho,  London,  who  not  only  corrected  the 
whole  manuscript,  but  also  read  the  proof-sheets  of  the 
entire  book. 

EDWARD  SACHAU. 

Berlin,  24<th  May,  1879. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 
Translator's  Preface      ------        v 

Preface      -..-.---1 

Chapter  I. — On  the  Nature  of  Day  and  Niglit,  of  tlieir  Totality 

and  of  tlieir  Beginnings         -  -  -  -  -         5 

Chapter  EC. — On  tlie  Nature  of  tliat  which  is  composed  of  Days, 

viz.  Months  and  Years  -  -  -  -  -       11 

Chapter   III. — On  the  Nature  of  the    Eras    and   the   different 

Opinions  of  the  Nations  regarding  them      -  -  -       16 

Chapter  IV. — The  different  Oj)inions  of  various  Nations  re- 
garding the  King  called  Dhu-al-karnaini  or  Bicornutus        -       43 

Chapter  V. — On  the  Nature  of  the  Months  which  are  used  in 

the  preceding  Eras   -  -  -  -  -  -       52 

Chapter  VI. — On  the  Derivation  of  the  Eras  from  each  other, 
and  on  the  Chronological  Dates,  relating  to  the  Commence- 
ments and  the  Durations  of  the  Keigns  of  the  Kings, 
according  to  the  various  Traditions  -  -  -       84 

Chapter  VII. — On  the  Cycles  and  Year-points,  on  the  Moleds  of 
the  Years  and  Months,  on  their  various  Qualities,  and  on 
the  Leap-months  both  in  Jewish  and  other  Years     -  -     141 

Chapter  VIII. — On  the  Eras  of  the  Pseudo-prophets  and  their 
Communities  who  were  deluded  by  them,  the  curse  of  the 
Lord  be  upon  them  .....     186 

Chapter  IX. — On  the  Festivals  in  the  Months  of  the  Persians     -     199 

Chapter  X. — On  the  Festivals  in  the  Months  of  the  Sughdians  -     220 

Chapter  XI. — On  the  Festivals  in  the  Months  of  the  Khwiiriz- 

mians  .---..-     223 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

Page 
Chaptee  XII. — On  Khwarizm- Shah's  Eeform  of  the  Khwarizm- 

ian  Festal  Calendar  -  -  -  -  -  -229 

Chapter  XTTI. — On  the  Days  of  the  Greek  Calendar  as  known 

both  among  the  Greeks  and  other  Nations   -  -  -     231 

Chapter  XIV. — Of  the  Festivals  and  Fast-days  in  the  Months  of 

the  Jews        .......     268 

Chapter  XV. — On  the  Festivals  and  Memorable    Days   of   the 

Syrian  Calendar,  celebrated  by  the  Melkite  Christians         -     282 

Chapter  XVI. — On  the  Christian  Lent,  and  on  those  Feasts  and 
Festive  Days  which  depend  upon  Lent  and  revolve  parallel 
with  it  through  the  Year,  regarding  which  all  Christian 
sects  agree  among  each  other  _  .  .  .     299 

Chapter  XVII. — On  the  Festivals  of  the  Nestorian  Christians, 

their  Memorial  and  Fast  Days  ....     306 

Chapter  XVIII. — On  the  Feasts  of  the  ancient  Magians,  and  on 

the  Fast  and  Feast  Days  of  the  Sabians       ...     314 

Chapter  XIX. — On  the  Festivals  of  the  Arabs  in  the  time  of 

Heathendom  -  -  -  -  -  -321 

Chapter  XX. — On  the  Festivals  of  the  Muslims  -  -     325 

Chapter  XXI. — On  the  Lunar  Stations,  their  rising  and  setting, 

and  on  their  Images  .  .  -  .  .     335 

Annotations  -  -  -  -  -  -  -367 

Index  ---..-.-     449 


E  R  RATA. 


p.  383,  delete  the  first  two  lines  and  insert — • 

Saiudr.     Perhaps  identical  with  the  ^apeipot  of  Byzantine  authors,  from  whom 
Siberia  derived  its  name, 
p.  451,  col.  2,  last  line,  delete  China,  266,  10. 
p.  452,  col.  1,  line  1,  after  Chinese  insert  266,  10. 
p.  460,  after  line  42  insert — 

Poison-mountain  (rarefied  atmosphei'e),  268,  17. 
p.  462,  col.  2,  after  line  18  insert — 
Tibetans,  263,  17. 


DIEECTION  TO  THE  BINDER. 

Table  of  Kebi'oth         .         .         .         .to  face  p.  154. 


PREFACE. 


IN    THE    NAME    OF    GOD,    THE    COMPASSIONATE,    THE    MERCIFUL. 

Praisb  be  to  God  who  is  high,  above  all  things  (lit.  those  which  are 
■unlike,  and  those  which  are  like  to  each  other),  and  blessing  be  on 
Muhammad,  the  elected,  the  best  of  all  created  beings,  and  on  his  family, 
the  guides  of  righteousness  and  truth. 

One  of  the  exquisite  plans  in  God's  management  of  the  affairs  of  his 
creation,  one  of  the  glorious  benefits  which  he  has  bestowed  upon  the 
entirety  of  his  creatures,  is  that  categorical  decree  of  his,  not  to  leave  in 
in  his  world  any  period  without  a  just  guide,  whom  he  constitutes  as  a 
protector  for  his  creatures,  with  whom  to  take  refuge  in  unfortunate  and 
sorrowful  cases  and  accidents,  and  upon  whom  to  devolve  their  affairs, 
when  they  seem  indissolubly  j^erplexed,  so  that  the  order  of  the  world 
should  rest  upon — and  its  existence  be  supported  by — his  genius.  And 
this  decree  (that  the  affairs  of  mankind  should  be  governed  by  a  proj^het) 
has  been  settled  upon  them  as  a  religious  dvity,  and  has  been  linked 
together  with  the  obedience  towards  God,  and  the  obedience  towards  his 
Prophet,  through  which  alone  a  reward  in  future  life  may  be  obtained — 
in  accordance  with  the  word  of  him,  who  is  the  truth  and  justice — and 
20  his  word  is  judgment  and  decree,  "  0  ye  believers,  obey  God,  and  obey 
the  prophets,  and  those  among  yourselves  who  are  invested  with  the 
command."     (Sura  iv.  62.) 

Therefore,  thanks  be  to  God  for  those  blessings,  which  he  has  bestowed 
upon  his  servants,  by  exalting  our  master,  the  commander,  the  prince, 
the  glorious  and  victorious,  the  benefactor,  Shams-alma'ali,  may  God 

1 


Z  ALBIRUNI. 

give  kim  a  long  life,  and  give  duration  to  his  j)ower  and  majesty,  preserve 
through  the  course  of  time  his  excellence  and  his  splendour,  protect  his 
whole  house  (lit.  the  areas  inside  and  outside  his  house),  prostrate  all 
those  who  envy  him,  and  all  his  enemies,  (by  exalting  him)  as  a  guide, 
who  justly  rules  over  his  creatures,  who  furthers  religion  and  truth,  who 
fights  for  the  altar  and  the  hearth  of  the  Muslims,  and  who  protects  their 
country  against  the  mischief  of  evil-doers.  And  Grod  has  supported  him 
by  giving  him  a  character  similar  to  that  with  which  he  has  blessed  his 
Prophet,  the  bearer  of  his  revelation ;  for  he,  whose  name  be  praised,  has 
said :  "  To  thee  has  been  given  a  high  character."  (Sura  Ixviii.  4.)  10 
How  wonderfully  has  he,  whose  name  is  to  be  exalted  and  extolled, 
combined  with  the  glory  of  his  noble  extraction  the  graces  of  his  generous 
character,  with  his  valiant  soul  all  laudable  qualities,  such  as  piety  and 
righteousness,  carefulness  in  defending  and  observing  the  rites  of  re- 
ligion, justice  and  equity,  humility  and  beneficence,  firmness  and  deter- 
mination, liberality  and  gentleness,  the  talent  for  ruling  and  governing, 
for  managing  and  deciding,  and  other  qualities,  which  no  fancy  could 
comprehend,  and  no  human  being  enumerate  !  And  how  should  a  man 
wonder  at  this,  it  being  undeniable  that  Grod  has  the  power  to  combine 
the  whole  world  in  one  individual  (i.e.  to  create  a  niicrocosmos)  !  There-  20 
fore,  may  God  permit  the  Muslims  still  for  a  long  period  to  enjoy  the 
kindness  of  his  intentions,  the  ingenuity  of  his  plans,  and  his  evidently 
merciful  and  j^itiful  mind,  with  which  he  cares  for  them  !  May  they  from 
day  to  day  derive  more  benefits  from  the  j)erpetual  shade  of  his  majesty, 
to  which  they  are  accustomed !  And  may  God  assist  by  his  kindness 
and  mercy,  high  and  low,  to  fulfil  the  works  of  obedience  towards  God, 
which  are  imposed  npon  them  ! 

Dedication. — The  Author's  Method. — A  learned  man  once  asked  me 
regarding  the  eras  used  by  different  nations,  and  regarding  the  difference 
of  their  roots,  i.e.  the  epochs  where  they  begin,  and  of  their  branches,  i.e.  30 
the  months  and  years,  on  which  they  are  based ;  further  regarding  the 
causes  which  led  to  such  difference,  and  the  famous  festivals  and  com- 
memoration-days for  certain  times  and  events,  and  regarding  whatever 
else  one  nation  practises  differently  from  another.  He  urged  me  to  give 
an  explanation,  the  clearest  possible,  of  all  this,  so  as  to  be  easily  intelli- 
gible to  the  mind  of  the  reader,  and  to  free  him  from  the  necessity  of 
wading  through  widely  scattered  books,  and  of  consulting  their  authors. 
Now  I  was  quite  aware  that  this  was  a  task  difficult  to  handle,  an  object 
not  easily  to  be  attained  or  managed  by  anyone,  who  wants  to  treat  it  as 
a  matter  of  logical  sequence,  regarding  which  the  mind  of  the  student  is  40 
not  agitated  by  doubt.  However,  from  the  majesty  of  our  master,  the 
prince,  the  glorious  and  victorious,  the  benefactor,  Shams-alma'ali — may 
God  make  his  power  to  endure! — I  derived  strength  in  exerting  my 
capabilities,  and  trying  to  do  my  utmost  in  order  to  explain  the  whole 
subject  on  the  basis  of  that  information  which  I  have  gathered  either  as 


PEEFAOE.  3 

an  ear-  or  eye-witness,  or  by  cogitation  and  study.  Besides,  I  was 
encouraged  by  that  robe  of  blessed  service,  in  which  I  have  dressed 
myself,  to  compose  such  an  explanation  for  him,  who  occupies  a  high 
throne,  that  he  may  see  herein  a  new  sign  of  my  service,  and  that  thereby 
I  may  obtain  the  garments  of  such  a  glory,  the  memory  and  splendour  of 
which  will  last  as  my  heirloom  in  posterity  through  the  flood  of  ages  and 
generations.  If,  therefore,  he — whose  noble  mind  may  God  preserve  ! — 
will  favour  his  servant  by  overlooking  his  audacity,  and  accepting  his 
excuses,  he  follows  the  right  idea,  if  it  pleases  God.  And  now  I 
10  commence  and  say  : 

The  best  and  nearest  way  leading  to  that,  regarding  which  I  have  been 

asked  for  information,  is  the  knowledge  of  the  history  and  tradition  of 

former  nations  and  generation's,  because  the  greatest  part  of  it  consists 

of  matters,  which  have  come  down  from  them,  and  of  remains  of  their 

customs  and  institutes.     And  this  object  cannot  be  obtained  by  way  of 

ratiocination  with  philosophical  notions,  or  of  inductions  based  upon  the 

observations  of  our  senses,  but  solely  by  adopting  the  information  of  those 

who  have  a   written  tradition,  and  of   the  members   of   the    different 

religions,  of  the  adherents  of  the  different  doctrines  and  religious  sects, 

20  by  whom  the  institutes  in  question  are  used,  and  by  making  their  opinions 

a  basis,  on  which  afterwards  to  build  up  a  system  ;  besides,  we  must 

compare  their  traditions  and  opinions  among  themselves,  when  we  try  to 

establish  our  system.     But  ere  that  we  must  clear  our  mind  from  all 

those  accidental  circumstances  which  deprave  most  men,  from  all  causes 

which  are  liable  to  make  people  blind  against  the  truth,  e.g.  inveterate 

custom,  party-spirit,  rivalry,  being  addicted  to  one's  passions,  the  desire 

to  gain  influence,  etc.     For  that  which  I  have  mentioned,  is  the  nearest 

way  you  could  take,  that  leads  to  the  true  end,  and  the  most  efficient  help 

towards  removing  all  the  clouds  of  uncertainty  and  doubt,  which  beset 

30  the  subject.    It  is  impossible  in  any  other  way  to  reach  the  same  purpose, 

notwithstanding  the  greatest  care  and  exertion.     On  the  other  hand,  we 

confess  that  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  act  upon  that  principle  and  that  p.  5. 

method,  which  we  have  laid  down,  that  on  the  contrary  from  its  recondite 

nature,  and  its  difficulty,  it  might  seem  to  be  almost  unattainable — on 

account  of  the  numerous  lies  which  are  mixed  up  with   all  historical 

records  and  traditions.     And  those  lies  do  not  all  on  the  face  of  it  appear 

to  be  impossibilities,  so  that  they  might  be  easily   distinguished  and 

eliminated.     However,  that  which  is  within  the  limits  of  possibility,  has 

been  treated  as  true,  as  long  as  other  evidence  did  not  prove  it  to  be 

40  false.     For  we  witness  sometimes,  and  others  have  witnessed  before  us, 

physical  appearances,  which  we  should  simply  declare  to  be  impossible, 

if  something  similar  were  related  from  a  far  remote  time.     Now  the  life 

of  man  is  not  sufficient  to  learn  thoroughly  the  traditions  of  one  of  the 

many  nations.     How,  therefore,  could  he  learn  the  traditions  of  all  of 

them  ?     That  is  impossible. 

1    * 


4  ALBIRUNI. 

The  matter  standing  thus,  it  is  our  duty  to  proceed  from  what  is  near 
to  the  more  distant,  from  what  is  known  to  that  which  is  less  known,  to 
gather  the  traditions  from  those  who  have  reported  them,  to  correct  them 
as  much  as  possible,  and  to  leave  the  rest  as  it  is,  in  order  to  make  our 
work  help  him,  who  seeks  truth  and  loves  wisdom,  in  making  independent 
researches  on  other  subjects,  and  guide  him  to  find  out  that  which  was 
denied  to  us,  whilst  we  were  working  at  this  subject,  by  the  will  of  God, 
and  with  his  help. 

In  conformity  with  our  plan,  we  must  proceed  to  explain  the  nature  of 
day  and  night,  of  their  totality,  i.e.  the  astronomical  day,  and  assumed  10 
beginning.  For  day  and  night  are  to  the  months,  years,  and  eras,  what 
one  is  for  the  numerals,  of  which  they  are  composed,  and  into  which  they 
are  resolved.  By  an  accurate  knowledge  of  day  and  night,  the  progress 
towards  learning  that  which  is  composed  of  them  and  built  upon  them, 
becomes  easy. 


CHAPTER    I. 

ON    THE    NATURE    OF    DAY    AND    NIGHT,    OF    THEIB    TOTALITY    AND    OF 
THEIR    BEGINNINGS. 

I  SAY  :  Day  and  night  (i.e.  wx^^/Acpov)  are  one  revolution  of  the  sun  in 
the  rotation  of  the  universe,  starting  from  and  returning  to  a  circle, 
which  has  been  assumed  as  the  beginning  of  this  same  Nychthemeron, 
whichsoever  circle  it  may  be,  it  being  determined  by  general  consent. 
This  circle  is  a  "  great "  circle  ;  for  each  great  circle  is  dynamically  an 
horizon.  By  ''dynamically"  (ttJ  Swa/Act),  I  mean  that  it  (this  circle) 
10  may  be  the  horizon  of  any  place  on  the  earth.  By  the  "  rotation  of  tie 
universe"  I  mean  the  motion  of  the  celestial  sphere,  and  of  all  that  is 
in  it,  which  we  observe  going  round  on  its  two  poles  from  east  to  west. 

The  Setting  of  the  Sun  as  the  beginning  of  the  Day— Now,  the 

Arabs  assumed  as  the  beginning  of  their  Nychthemeron  the  point  where 
the  setting  sun  intersects  the  circle  of  the  horizon.  Therefore  their 
Nychthemeron  extends  from  the  moment  when  the  sun  disappears  from 
the  horizon  till  his  disappearance  on  the  following  day.  They  were 
induced  to  adopt  this  system  by  the  fact  that  their  months  are  based 
upon  the  course  of  the  moon,  derived  from  her  various  motions,  and 
20  that  the  beginnings  of  the  months  were  fixed,  not  by  calculation,  but 
by  the  appearance  of  the  new  moons.  Now,  full  moon,  the  appearance 
of  which  is,  with  them,  the  beginning  of  the  month,  becomes  visible 
towards  sunset.  Therefore  their  night  preceded  their  day  ;  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  their  custom  to  let  the  nights  precede  the  days,  when  they  p.  6. 
mention   them   in   connection   with   the   names   of   the   seven   days  of 

the  week. 

Those  who  herein  agree  with  them  plead  for  this  system,  saying  that 

darkness  in  the  order  (of  the  creation)  precedes  light,  and  that  light 

suddenly  came  forth  when  darkness  existed  already;   that,  therefore, 

30   that  which  was  anterior  in  existence  is  the  most  suitable  to  be  adopted 


6  ALBiRUNt. 

as  the  beginning.  And,  therefore,  they  considered  absence  of  motion 
as  superior  to  motion,  comparing  rest  and  tranquillity  with  darkness, 
and  because  of  the  fact  that  motion  is  always  produced  by  some  want 
and  necessity ;  that  weariness  follows  upon  the  necessity ;  that,  there- 
fore, weariness  is  the  consequence  of  motion.  Lastly,  because  rest  (the 
absence  of  motion),  when  remaining  in  the  elements  for  a  time,  does  not 
produce  decay ;  whilst  motion,  when  remaining  in  the  elements  and 
taking  hold  of  them,  produces  corruption.  As  instances  of  this  they 
adduce  earthquakes,  storms,  waves,  &c. 

The  Rising"  of  the  Sun  as  the  beginning  of  the  Day.— As  to  the  10 
other  nations,  the  Greeks  and  Eomans,  and  those  who  follow  with  them 
the  like  theory,  they  have  agreed  among  themselves  that  the  Nych- 
themeron  should  be  reckoned  from  the  moment  when  the  sun  rises 
above  the  eastern  horizon  till  the  same  moment  of  the  following  day, 
as  their  months  are  derived  by  calculation,  and  do  not  depend  upon  the 
phases  of  the  moon  or  any  other  star,  and  as  the  months  begin  with 
the  beginning  of  the  day.  Therefore,  with  them,  the  day  precedes  the 
night;  and,  in  favour  of  this  view,  they  argue  that  light  is  an  Ens, 
whilst  darkness  is  a  Non-ens.  Those  who  think  that  light  was  anterior 
in  existence  to  darkness  consider  motion  as  superior  to  rest  (the  absence  20 
of  motion),  because  motion  is  an  Ens,  not  a  Non-ens — is  life,  not  death. 
They  meet  the  arguments  of  their  opponents  with  similar  ones,  saying,  e.g. 
that  heaven  is  something  more  excellent  than  the  earth ;  that  a  working 
man  and  a  young  man  are  the  healthiest ;  that  running  water  does  not, 
like  standing  water,  become  putrid. 

Noon  or  Midnight  as  the  beginning  of  the  Day.— The  greater 

part  and  the  most  eminent  of  the  learned  men  among  astronomers 
reckon  the  Nychthemeron  from  the  moment  when  the  sun  arrives  on  the 
plane  of  the  meridian  till  the  same  moment  of  the  following  day.  This 
is  an  intermediate  view.  Therefore  their  Nychthemera  begin  from  the  30 
visible  half  of  the  plane  of  the  meridian.  Upon  this  system  they  have 
built  their  calculation  in  the  astronomical  tables  (the  Canons),  and  have 
thereby  derived  the  places  of  the  stars,  along  with  their  equal  motions 
and  their  corrected  places,  in  the  almanacks  (lit.  year-books).  Other 
astronomers  prefer  the  invisible  half  of  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and 
begin,  therefore,  their  day  at  midnight,  as  e.g.  the  author  of  the  Canon 
(Zij)  of  Shahriyaran  Shah.  This  does  not  alter  the  case,  as  both 
methods  are  based  upon  the  same  principle. 

People  were  induced  to  prefer  the  meridian  to  the  horizon  by  many 
circumstances.     One   was,   that   they   had   discovered   that   the   Nych-  40 
themera  vary,  and   are   not   always   of  the   same   length ;  a  variation 
which,  during  the  eclipses,  is  clearly  apparent  even  to  the  senses. 

The  reason  of  this  variation  is  the  fact  that  the  course  of  the  sun  in 
the  ecliptic  varies,  it  being  accelerated  one  time  and  retarded  another  ; 
and  that  the  single  sections  of  the  ecliptic  cross  the  circles  (the  horizons) 


ON  THE  NATUEE  OF  DAY  AND  NIGHT.  7 

at  a  different  rate  of  velocity.  Therefore,  in  order  to  remove  that 
variation  which  attaches  to  the  Nychthemera,  they  wanted  some  kind 
of  equation  ;  and  the  equation  of  the  Nychthemera  by  means  of  the 
rising  of  the  ecliptic  above  the  meridian  is  constant  and  regular  every- 
where on  the  earth,  because  this  circle  is  one  of  the  horizons  of  the 
globe  which  form  a  right  angle  (with  the  mei'idian)  ;  and  because  its 
conditions  and  qvialities  remain  the  same  in  every  part  of  the  earth. 
This  quality  they  did  not  find  in  the  horizontal  circles,  for  they  vary 
for  each  place ;  and  every  latitude  has  a  particular  horizon  of  its  own, 

10  different  from  that  of  any  other  j^lace,  and  because  the  single  sections 
of  the  ecliptic  cross  the  horizons  at  a  different  rate  of  velocity.  To  use 
the  horizons  (for  the  equation  of  the  Nychthemera)  is  a  proceeding  both 
imperfect  and  intricate. 

Another  reason  why  they  preferred  the  meridian  to  the  horizon  is 
this,  that  the  distances  between  the  meridians  of  different  places 
correspond  to  the  distances  of  their  meridians  on  the  equator  and  the 
parallel  circles  ;  whilst  the  distances  between  the  hoi'izontal  circles  are 
the  same  with  the  addition  of  their  northern  and  southern  declination. 
An  accurate  description  of  everything  connected  with  stars  and  their 

20  places  is  not  possible,  except  by  means  of  that  direction  which  depends 
upon  the  meridian.  This  direction  is  called  "longitude,"  which  has 
nothing  in  common  with  the  other  direction,  which  depends  upon  the 
horizon,  and  is  called  "  latitude." 

Therefore  they  have  chosen  that  circle  which  might  serve  as  a  regular 
and  constant  basis  of  their  calculations,  and  have  not  used  others  ; 
although,  if  they  had  wished  to  use  the  horizons,  it  would  have  been 
possible,  and  would  have  led  them  to  the  same  results  as  the  meridian, 
but  only  after  a  long  and  roundabout  process.  And  it  is  the  greatest 
mistake  possible  purposely  to  deviate  from  the  direct  route  in  order  to 

30  go  by  a  long  roundabout. 

Day,  Night,  and  the  Duration  of  the  Day  of  Fast.— This  is  the 

general  definition  of  the  day  which  we  give,  the  night  being  included. 
Now,  if  we  proceed  to  divide  and  to  distinguish,  we  have  to  state  that 
the  words"  Yaum"  (day)  in  its  restricted  signification,  and  "Nahdr" 
(day),  mean  the  same,  viz.,  the  time  from  the  rising  of  the  body  of  the 
sun  till  its  setting.  On  the  other  hand,  night  means  the  time  from  the 
setting  of  the  body  of  the  sun  till  its  rising.  Thus  these  two  terms  are 
used  among  all  nations  by  general  consent,  nobody  disputing  their 
meanings,  except  one  Muslim  lawyer,  who  has  defined  the  beginning  of 
40  the  day  to  be  the  rise  of  dawn,  and  its  end  to  be  the  setting  of  the  sun, 
because  he  presumed  that  the  day  and  the  duration  of  fasting  were 
identical.  For  this  view  of  his  he  argues  from  the  following  word  of 
God  (Sura  ii.  183)  :  "  Eat  and  drink  till  you  can  distinguish  a  white 
thread  from  a  black  thread  at  the  light  of  dawn.  Thereupon  fast  the 
entire  day  till  the  night."     Now,  he  has  maintained  that  these  two  terms 


8  ALBIRUNI. 

(dawn  and  night)  are  the  two  limits  of  the  day  (heginnincj  and  end). 
Between  this  view,  however,  and  this  verse  of  the  Coran  there  is  not  the 
slightest  connection  whatsoever.  For  if  the  beginning  of  fasting  was 
identical  with  the  beginning  of  the  day,  his  (God's)  definition  of  some- 
thing that  is  quite  evident  and  well  known  to  everybody,  in  such  terms, 
would  be  like  a  pains-taking  attempt  to  explain  something  void  of  sense. 
Likewise  he  has  not  defined  the  end  of  day  and  the  beginning  of  night 
in  similar  terms,  because  this  is  generally  known  among  all  mankind. 
Grod  orders  that  fasting  should  commence  at  the  rise  of  dawn ;  but  the 
end  of  fasting  he  does  not  describe  in  a  similar  way,  but  simply  says  10 
that  it  should  end  at  " night"  because  everybody  knows  that  this  means 
the  time  when  the  globe  of  the  sun  disappears.  Hence  it  is  evident  that 
God,  by  the  words  of  the  first  sentence  (i.e.  eat  and  drink  till  you  can 
distinguish  a  white  thread  from  a  black  thread  at  the  light  of  dawn), 
does  not  mean  the  beginning  of  day. 

A  further  j)roof  of  the  correctness  of  our  interpretation  is  the  word  of 
God  (Sura  ii.  183)  :  "  It  has  been  declared  as  lawful  to  you  during  the 
p.  8.  night  of  fasting  to  have  intercourse  (lit.  to  speak  obscene  things)  with 
your  wivep,"  &c.,  to  the  passage,  "  Thereupon  fast  the  entire  day  till  the 
night."  Thereby  he  extends  the  right  of  having  intercourse  with  one's  20 
wife,  and  of  eating  and  drinking,  over  a  certain  limited  time,  not  over 
the  entire  night.  Likewise  it  had  been  forbidden  to  Muslims,  before 
this  verse  had  been  revealed,  to  eat  and  drink  after  night-prayer  (the 
time  when  the  darkness  of  night  commences).  And  still  people  did  not 
reckon  their  fasting  by  days  and  parts  of  the  night,  but  simply  by  days 
(although  the  time  of  fasting  was  much  longer  than  the  day). 

Now,  if  people  say  that  God,  in  this  verse  (Sura  ii.  183),  wanted  to 
teach  mankind  the  beginning  of  the  day,  it  would  necessarily  follow 
that  before  that  moment  they  were  ignorant  of  the  beginning  of  day  and 
night,  which  is  simply  absurd.  30 

Now,  if  people  say  the  legal  day  is  different  from  the  natural  day, 
this  is  nothing  but  a  difference  in  words,  and  the  calling  something  by 
a  name,  which,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  language,  means  something 
else.  And,  besides,  it  must  be  considered  that  there  is  not  the  slightest 
mention  in  the  verse  of  the  day  and  of  its  beginning.  We  keep,  how- 
ever, aloof  from  pertinacious  disputation  on  this  subject,  and  we  are 
willing  to  agree  with  our  opponents  as  to  the  expressions  if  they  will 
agree  with  us  regarding  the  subject-matter. 

And  how  could  we  believe  a  thing  the  contrary  of  which  is  evident  to 
our  senses  ?  For  evening-twilight  in  the  west  corresponds  to  morning-  40 
dawn  in  the  east ;  both  arise  from  the  same  cause,  and  are  of  the  same 
nature.  If,  therefore,  the  rise  of  morning-dawn  were  the  beginning  of 
the  day,  the  disappearance  of  evening-twilight  would  be  its  end.  And 
actually  some  Shiites  have  been  compelled  to  adopt  such  a  doctrine. 

Let  U8  take  it  for  granted  that  those   who   do   not   agree  with  us 


ON   THE    NATUEE    OF    DAY    AND    NIGHT.  9 

regarding  tliat  wliicli  we  have  previously  explained,  agree  with  us  as  to 
the  fact  that  twice  a  year  night  and  day  are  equal — once  in  spring  and 
once  in  autumn.  Further,  that  he  thinks,  like  us,  that  we  have  the 
longest  day  when  the  sun  stands  nearest  to  the  north  pole  ;  the  shortest 
day  when  the  sun  is  at  the  greatest  distance  from-  the  north  pole  ;  that 
the  shortest  summer  night  is  equal  to  the  shortest  winter  day ;  and  that 
the  same  meaning  is  expressed  by  the  two  verses  of  the  Goran  :  "  Grod 
makes  night  enter  into  day,  and  he  makes  day  enter  into  night" 
(Sura  XXXV.  14),  and  "  He  wraps  night  around  day,  and  he  wraps  day 

10  around  night"  (Sura  xxxix.  7).  Now,  if  they  do  not  know  this,  or 
pretend  not  to  know  it,  at  all  events  they  cannot  help  admitting  that 
the  first  half  of  the  day  is  six  hours  long,  and  likewise  the  latter  half. 
Against  this  they  cannot  pretend  to  be  bhnd,  because  of  the  well  known 
and  well  authenticated  tradition  which  relates  to  the  prerogatives  of 
those  who  hasten  to  the  mosque  on  a  Friday,  and  which  shows  that 
their  wages  are  the  highest,  although  their  time  of  work  in  the  six  hours 
from  the  beginning  of  the  day  till  the  time  of  the  decline  of  the  sun  is 
the  shortest.  This  is  to  be  understood  of  the  Horce  temporales  obliquce 
(wpat  KaipiKai),  not  of  the  Horce  rectce,  which  are  also  called  cequinoctiales 

20    (oipat  IcrrjfJLepLvai). 

Now,  if  we  should  comply  with  their  wish,  and  acknowledge  their 
assertions  as  truth,  we  should  have  to  believe  that  an  equinox  takes 
place  when  the  sun  moves  on  either  side  of  the  winter  solstice  (i.e.  near 
to  the  point  of  the  winter- solstice  either  arriving  there  or  leaving  it)  ; 
that  this  takes  place  only  in  some  parts  of  the  earth  to  the  exclusion  of 
others  ;  that  the  winter  night  is  not  equal  to  the  summer  day,  and  that 
noon  is  not  then  when  the  sun  reaches  the  midst  between  his  rising  and 
setting  points.     Whilst  just  the  contrary  of  these  necessary  inferences 

30  from  their  theory  is  the  conclusion  generally  accepted  even  by  those  who 
have  only  a  slight  insight  into  the  matter.  That,  however,  similar 
absurdities  must  follow  out  of  their  reasoning  he  only  will  thoroughly 
comprehend  who  is  to  some  degree  acquainted  with  the  motions  of  the 
(celestial)  globes. 

If  somebody  will  stick  to  what  j^eople  say  at  dawn-rise,  "  morning  has 
come,  night  has  gone  ;^'  what  is  he  to  think  of  what  they  say  when  the  sun 
is  near  setting,  and  becomes  yellow — "  evening  has  come,  day  has  gone, 
night  has  come?"  Such  exj^ressions  merely  indicate  the  aj^proaching, 
the  advancing,  and  the  receding  of  the  precise  time  in  which  people  just 

40  happen  to  be.  These  phrases  are  to  be  explained  as  metaphors  and 
metonymies.  They  are  allowed  in  the  usage  of  the  language,  cf.  e.g.  the 
word  of  God  (Sura  xvi.  1)  :  "  The  order  of  Grod  has  come  ;  therefore  do 
not  hurry  it." 

Another  argument  in  favour  of  our  view  is  the  following  saying, 
which  is  attributed  to  the  Prophet,  to  whom  and  to  whose  family  may 
God  be  merciful :  "  The  prayer  of  the  day  is  silent."     And  the  fact  that 


10  ALBIRUNI. 

people  call  tlie  noon-prayer  the  "  first  "  prayer,  because  it  is  the  first  of 
the  two  daily  prayers  ;  whilst  they  call  the  afternoon-prayer  the  "middle" 
prayer,  because  it  is  in  the  midst,  between  the  first  of  the  two  daily 
prayers  and  the  first  of  the  prayers  of  the  night. 

My  only  object  in  all  I  have  discussed  in  this  place  is  to  refute  the 
opinion  of  those  who  think  that  those  things  which  are  necessary  for 
certain  philosophical  or  physical  causes  prove  the  contrary  of  that  which 
is  indicated  by  the  Coran,  and  who  try  to  support  their  opinion  by  the 
doctrine  of  one  of  the  lawyers  and  commentators  of  the  Coran,  G-od 
helps  to  the  right  insight !  10 


11 


CHAPTER    II. 

ON    THE   NATURE    OF   THAT    WHICH    IS    COMPOSED    OF    DATS,    VIZ.,    MONTHS 

AND    TEARS. 

I  SAT :  Tear  means  one  revolution  of  the  sun  in  tlie  ecliptic,  moving  in  a 
direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  universal  motion,  and  returning  to  the 
same  point  which  has  been  assumed  as  the  starting-point  of  his  motion, 
whichsoever  point  this  may  be.  In  this  way  the  sun  includes  in  his 
course  the  four  seasons,  spring,  summer,  autumn,  winter,  and  their  four 
different  natures  ;  and  returns  always  to  the  point  whence  he  commenced. 

10  According  to  Ptolemy  these  revolutions  are  equal,  because  he  did  not 
find  that  the  apogee  of  the  sun  moves ;  whilst  they  are  unequal  according 
to  the  authors  of  Sindhind  and  the  modern  astronomers,  because  their 
observations  led  them  to  think  that  the  apogee  of  the  sun  moves.  In 
each  case,  however,  whether  they  be  equal  or  different,  these  revolutions 
include  the  four  seasons  and  their  natures. 

As  to  the  length  of  such  a  revolution  in  days  and  fractions  of  a  day, 
the  results  of  the  astronomical  observations  do  not  agree,  but  differ 
considerably.  According  to  some  observations  it  is  larger ;  according  to 
others  less.     However,  in  a  short  space  of  time  this  difference  scarcely 

20  becomes  perceptible  ;  but  in  the  long  run  of  time,  when  this  difference 
is  being  redoubled  and  multiplied  many  times,  and  is  then  summed  up 
into  a  whole,  a  very  great  error  becomes  clearly  manifest,  on  account 
of  which  the  sages  have  strongly  recommended  us  to  continue  making 
observations,  and  to  guard  against  errors  which  possibly  might  have 
entered  into  them.  p.  10. 

The  difference  of  the  observations  regarding  the  length  of  one  annual 
revolution  of  the  sun  does  not  arise  from  this  cause,  that  people  do  not 
know  how  properly  to  institute  such  observations,  and  to  gain  thereby 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  real  state  of  the  thing  ;  but  from  this 

80  cause,  that  it  is  impossible  to  fix  the  parts  of  the  greatest  circle  by 


12  ALBiRUNi. 

means  of  tlie  parts  of  the  smallest  circle.  I  refer  to  the  smallness  of 
the  instruments  of  observations  in  comparison  with  the  vastness  of  the 
bodies  which  are  to  be  observed.  On  this  subject  I  have  enlarged  in  my 
book,  called  Kitdh-alistishhdd  bikhtildf-al'arsdd. 

During  this  time,  i.e.  during  one  revolution  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic, 
the  moon  completes  a  little  less  than  12|  revolutions,  and  has  12 
lunations.  This  space  of  time,  i.e.  the  12  revolutions  of  the  moon  in 
the  ecliptic,  is,  technically,  the  lunar  year,  in  which  the  fraction  (beyond 
the  12  revolutions),  which  is  nearly  11  days,  is  disregarded.  The  same 
fact,  further,  is  the  reason  why  the  ecliptic  was  divided  into  12  equal  10 
parts,  as  I  have  explained  in  my  book  on  the  investigation  of  rays  and 
lights  ;  the  same  which  I  had  the  honour  to  present  to  His  Highness. 
May  Grod  increase  his  majesty  ! 

In  consequence,  people  distinguish  two  kinds  of  years — the  Solar  year 
and  the  Lunar  year.  They  have  not  used  other  stars  for  the  purpose  of 
deriving  years  from  them,  because  their  motions  are  comparatively 
hidden,  and  can  hardly  ever  be  found  out  by  eyesight ;  but  only  by 
astronomical  observations  and  experiments.  Further  (they  used  only 
sun  and  moon  for  this  purpose),  because  the  changes  of  the  particles  of 
the  elements  and  their  mutual  metamorphoses,  as  far  as  time  and  the  20 
state  of  the  air,  plants  and  animals,  etc.,  are  concerned,  depend  entirely 
upon  the  motions  of  these  two  celestial  bodies,  because  they  are  the 
greatest  of  all,  and  because  they  excel  the  other  stars  by  their  light  and 
appearance  ;  and  because  they  resemble  each  other.  Afterwards  people 
derived  from  these  two  kinds  of  years  other  years. 

The  Solar  Year. — According  to  the  statement  of  Theon,  in  his  Canon, 
the  people  of  Constantinople,  and  of  Alexandria,  and  the  other  Greeks, 
the  Syrians  and  Chaldseans,  the  Egyptians  of  our  time,  and  those  who 
have  adopted  the  year  of  Almu'ta-did-billah,  all  use  the  solar  year, 
which  consists  of  nearly  365j  days.  They  reckon  their  year  as  366  30 
days,  and  add  the  quarters  of  a  day  in  every  fourth  year  as  one  complete 
day,  when  it  has  summed  up  thereto.  This  year  they  call  an  intercalary 
year,  because  the  quarters  are  intercalated  therein.  The  ancient  Egyp- 
tians followed  the  same  practice,  but  with  this  difference,  that  they 
neglected  the  quarters  of  a  day  till  they  had  summed  up  to  the  number 
of  days  of  one  complete  year,  which  took  place  in  1,460  years;  then  they 
intercalated  one  year,  and  agreed  with  the  people  of  Alexandria  and 
Constantinople  as  to  the  beginning  of  the  year.  So  Theon  Alexandrinus 
relates. 

The  Persians  followed  the  same  rule  as  long  as  their  empire  lasted  ;  40 
11.  but  they  treated  it  differently.  For  they  reckoned  their  year  as  365 
days,  and  neglected  the  following  fractions  until  the  day-quarters  had 
summed  up  in  the  course  of  120  years  to  the  number  of  days  of  one 
complete  month,  and  until  the  fifth  parts  of  an  hour,  which,  according 
to  their  opinion,  follow  the  fourth  parts  of  a  day   (i.e.  they   give  the 


ON    THE    NATUEE    OP    MONTHS    AND    YEAES.  13 

solar  year  the  length  of  365^  days  and  ^  hour),  had  summed  up  to 
one  day ;  then  they  added  the  complete  month  to  the  year  in  each  116th 
year.     This  was  done  for  a  reason  which  I  shall  explain  hereafter. 

The  example  of  the  Persians  was  followed  by  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Khwarizm  and  Sogdiana,  and  by  all  who  had  the  same  religion  as  the 
Persians,  who  were  subject  to  them,  and  were  considered  as  their 
kinsmen,  during  the  time  when  their  empire  flourished. 

I  have  heard  that  the  Peshdadian  kings  of  the  Persians,  those  who 
ruled  over  the  entire  world,  reckoned  the  year  as  360  days,  and  each 
10  month  as  30  days,  without  any  addition  and  subtraction ;  that  they 
intercalated  one  month  in  every  sixth  year,  which  they  called  "intercalary 
month,"  and  two  months  in  every  120th  year ;  the  one  on  account  of 
the  five  days  (the  Epagomense),  the  other  on  account  of  the  quarter  of  a 
day ;  that  they  held  this  year  in  high  honour,  and  called  it  the  "  blessed 
year,"  and  that  in  it  they  occupied  themselves  with  the  affairs  of  divine 
worship  and  matters  of  public  interest. 

The  character  of  the  system  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  according  to 

what  the  Almagest  relates  regarding  the  years  on  which  its  own  system  of 

computation  was  based,  and  of  the  systems  of  the  Persians  in  Islam,  and 

20  the  people  of  Khwarizm  and  Sogdiana,  is  their  aversion  to  the  fractions, 

i.e,  the  j  day  and  what  follows  it,  and  their  neglecting  them  altogether. 

The  Luni-Solar  Year. — The  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  all  the  Israelites, 
the  Sabians,  and  Harranians,  used  an  intermediate  system.  They 
derived  their  year  from  the  revolution  of  the  sun,  and  its  months  from 
the  revolution  of  the  moon — with  this  view,  that  their  feast  and  fast 
days  might  be  regulated  by  lunar  computation,  and  at  the  same  time 
keep  their  places  within  the  year.  Therefore  they  intercalated  7  months 
in  19  lunar  years,  as  I  shall  explain  hereafter  in  the  derivation  of  their 
cycles  and  the  different  kinds  of  their  years. 
30  The  Christians  agreed  with  them  in  the  mode  of  the  computation  of 
their  fasting  and  of  some  of  their  festivals,  the  cardinal  point  in  all  this 
being  the  Passover  of  the  Jews  ;  but  they  differed  from  them  in  the  use  of 
the  months,  wherein  they  followed  the  system  of  the  Greeks  and  Syrians. 

In    a    similar    way    the    heathen    Arabs    proceeded,    observing   the 
difference   between   their  year   and   the    solar   year,  which  is   10  days 
21-|-  hours,  to  speak  roughly,  and  adding  it  to  the  year  as  one  month   p.  12. 
as  soon  as  it  completed  the  number  of  days  of  a  month.    They,  however, 
reckoned  this  difference  as   10  days  and  20  hours.     This  business  was 
administered  by  the  Nasa'a  (the  intercalators)  of  the  tribe  of  Kinana, 
40  known  as  the  Kaldmis,  a  plural  form  of  Kalammas,  which  signifies  a 
fidl-flowing  sea.     These  were  'Abu  Thumama  and  his  ancestors : 
I.  'Abu  Thumama  Junada  ben 
'Auf  ben 
'TJmayya  ben 
Kala'  ben 


14  ALBIEIJNf. 

V.  'Abbadben 
Kala'  ben 
VII.  Hudhaifa. 

They  were  all  of  them  intercalators.     The  first  of  them  who  held  this 
office  was — 

VII.  Hudhaifa  ben 
'Abd  ben 
Fukaim  ben 
X.  'Adijy  ben 

'Amir  ben  10 

Tha'laba  ben 
Malik  ben 
XIV.  Kinana. 

The  last  of  them,  who  held  it,  was  'Abu-Thumama.     The  poet,  who 
celebrates  them,  describes  him  in  the  following  terms  : — 
"  There  is  Fukaim !     He  was  called  Alkalammas, 
And  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  their  religion, 
His  word  being  obeyed,  he  being  recognised  as  a  chieftain." 

And  another  poet  says : 

"  (He  was)  famous  among  the  forerunners  of  Kinana,  20 

A  celebrated  man,  of  exalted  rank. 
In  this  way  he  spent  his  time." 

Another  poet  says : 
"  The  difference  between  the  revolution  of  the  sun  and  new-moon 
He  adds  together  and  sums  it  up, 
Till  it  makes  out  a  complete  month." 

He  (i.e.  Hudhaifa)  had  taken  this  system  of  intercalation  from  the 
Jews  nearly  200  years  before  Islam  ;  the  Jews,  however,  intercalated 
9  months  in  24  lunar  years.  In  consequence  their  months  were  fixed, 
and  came  always  in  at  their  proper  times,  wandering  in  a  uniform  course  30 
through  the  year  without  retrograding  and  without  advancing.  This 
state  of  things  remained  till  the  Prophet  made  his  Farewell  2:)ilgrimage, 
and  the  following  verse  was  revealed  to  him :  "  Intercalation  is  only  an 
increase  of  infidelity,  by  which  the  infidels  lead  astray  (people), 
admitting  it  one  year  and  prohibiting  it  in  another."  (Sura  ix.  37.) 
The  Prophet  delivered  an  address  to  the  people,  and  said :  "  Time  has 
come  round  as  it  was  on  the  day  of  God's  creating  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,"  and,  continuing,  he  recited  to  them  the  (just  mentioned)  verse 
of  the  Goran  on  the  prohibition  of  the  Nasi',  i.e.  intercalation.  Ever 
since  they  have  neglected  intercalation,  so  that  their  months  have  40 
receded  from  their  original  places,  and  the  names  of  the  months  are  no 
longer  in  conformity  with  their  original  meanings. 


ON    THE    NATUEE    OF    MONTHS    AND    YEARS.  15 

As  to  the  other  nations,  their  opinions  on  this  subject  are  well  known. 
They  are  likely  to  have  no  other  systems  besides  those  we  have  men- 
tioned, and  each  nation  seems  to  follow  the  example  of  the  system  of 
their  neighbours. 

Years  of  the  Indians. — I  bave  heard  that  the  Indians  use  the 
appearance  of  new-moon  in  their  months,  that  they  intercalate  one  lunar 
month  in  every  976  days,  and  that  they  fix  the  beginning  of  their  era 
to  the  moment  when  a  conjunction  takes  place  in  the  first  minute  of  any  p,  13. 
zodiacal  sign.  The  chief  object  of  their  searching  is  that  this  con- 
10  junction  should  take  place  in  one  of  the  two  equinoctial  points.  The 
leap-year  they  call  Adhimdsa.  It  is  very  possible  that  this  is  really  the 
case ;  because,  of  all  stars,  they  use  specially  the  moon,  her  mansions 
and  their  subdivisions,  in  their  astrological  determinations,  and  not 
the  zodiacal  signs.  However,  I  have  not  met  with  anybody  who  had 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  this  subject ;  therefore  I  turn  away  from  what 
I  cannot  know  for  certain.     And  God  is  my  help ! 

'Abu-Muhammad  Alna'ib  Alamuli  relates  in  his  Kitdb-alghurra,  on 
the  authority  of  Ta'kub  ben  Tarik,  that  the  Indians  use  four  different 
kinds  of  spaces  of  time  : 

20  I.  One  revolution  of  the  sun,  starting  from  a  point  of  the  ecliptic 

and  returning  to  it.     This  is  the  solar  year. 

II.  360  risings  of  the  sun.    This  is  called  the  middle-year,  because  it 
is  longer  than  the  lunar  year  and  shorter  than  the  solar  year. 

III.  12  revolutions  of  the  moon,  starting  from  the   star  Alsharatdn 

(i.e.  the  head  of  Aries)   and  returning  to  it.     This  is  their 
lunar  year,  which  consists  of  327  days  and  nearly  7f  hours. 

IV.  12  lunations.     This  is  the  lunar  year,  which  they  use. 


16  ALBiEUNl. 


CHAPTER    III. 


ON    THE    NATURE    OP    THE    ERAS,   AND    THE    DIFFERENT    OPINIONS    OF    THE 
NATIONS    REGARDING    THEM. 

Era  means  a  definite  sj)ace  of  time,  reckoned  from  the  beginning  of 
some  past  year,  in  which  either  a  prophet,  with  signs  and  wonders,  and 
with  a  proof  of  his  divine  mission,  was  sent,  or  a  great  and  j)owerful 
king  rose,  or  in  which  a  nation  perished  by  a  universal  destructive 
deluge,  or  by  a  violent  earthquake  and  sinking  of  the  earth,  or  a 
sweeping  pestilence,  or  by  intense  drought,  or  in  which  a  change  of 
dynasty  or  religion  took  place,  or  any  grand  event  of  the  celestial  and  10 
the  famous  tellurian  miraculous  occurrences,  which  do  not  happen  save 
at  long  intervals  and  at  times  far  distant  from  each  other.  By  such 
events  the  fixed  moments  of  time  (the  epochs)  are  recognised.  Now, 
such  an  era  cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  all  secular  and  religious 
affairs.  Each  of  the  nations  scattered  over  the  different  parts  of  the 
world  has  a  special  era,  which  they  count  fi-om  the  times  of  their  kings 
or  prophets,  or  dynasties,  or  of  some  of  those  events  which  we  have  just 
now  mentioned.  And  thence  they  derive  the  dates,  which  they  want  in 
social  intercourse,  in  chronology,  and  in  every  institute  {i.e.  festivals) 
which  is  exclusively  peculiar  to  them.  20 

Era  of  the  Creation. — The  first  and  most  famous  of  the  beginnings 
of  antiquity  is  the  fact  of  the  creation  of  mankind.  But  among  those 
who  have  a  book  of  divine  revelation,  such  as  the  Jews,  Christians, 
Magians,  and  their  various  sects,  there  exists  such  a  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  nature  of  this  fact,  and  as  to  the  question  how  to  date 
P- 14.  from  it,  the  like  of  which  is  not  allowable  for  eras.  Everything,  the 
knowledge  of  which  is  connected  with  the  beginning  of  creation  and 
with  the  history  of  bygone  generations,  is  mixed  up  with  falsifications 
and  myths,  because  it  belongs  to  a  far  remote  age ;  because  a  long 
interval  separates  us  therefrom,  and  because  the  student  is  incapable  of  30 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  ERAS.  17 

keeping  it  in  memory,  and  of  fixing  it  (so  as  to  preserve  it  from  con- 
fusion). God  says:  "Have  they  not  got  the  stories  about  those  who 
were  before  them  ?  None  but  God  knows  them."  (Sura  ix.  71.)  There- 
fore it  is  becoming  not  to  admit  any  account  of  a  similar  subject,  if  it 
is  not  attested  by  a  book,  the  correctness  of  which  is  relied  upon,  or  by 
a  tradition,  for  which  the  conditions  of  authenticity,  according  to  the 
prevalent  opinion,  furnish  grounds  of  proof. 

If  we  now  first  consider  this  era,  we  find  a  considerable  divergence 
of  opinion  regarding  it  among  these  nations.     For   the  Persians  and 

10  Magians  think  that  the  duration  of  the  world  is  12,000  years,  corre- 
sponding to  the  number  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  and  of  the  months ; 
and  that  Zoroaster,  the  founder  of  their  law,  thought  that  of  those  there 
had  passed,  till  the  time  of  his  appearance,  3,000  years,  intercalated 
with  the  day-quarters  ;  for  he  himself  had  made  their  computation,  and 
had  taken  into  account  that  defect,  which  had  accrued  to  them  on 
account  of  the  day-quarters,  till  the  time  when  they  were  intercalated 
and  were  made  to  agree  with  real  time.  From  his  appearance  till  the 
beginning  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri,  they  count  258  years  ;  therefore  they 
count  from  the   beginning   of   the   world   till   Alexander   3,258  years. 

20  However,  if  we  compute  the  years  from  the  creation  of  Gayomarth,  whom 
they  hold  to  be  the  first  man,  and  sum  up  the  years  of  the  reign  of  each 
of  his  successors — for  the  rule  (of  Iran)  remained  with  his  descendants 
without  interruption — this  number  is,  for  the  time  till  Alexander,  the 
sum  total  of  3,354  years.  So  the  specification  of  the  single  items  of  the 
addition  does  not  agree  with  the  sum  total. 

Further,  the  Persians  and  Greeks  disagree  as  to  the  time  after 
Alexander.  For  they  count  from  Alexander  till  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Tazdajird  942  years  257  days.  If  we  deduct  therefrom  the 
duration  of  the  rule  of  the   Sasanian  kings  as  far  as  the  beginning  of 

30  the  reign  of  Tazdajird,  as  they  compute  it,  viz.,  nearly  415  years,  we 
get  a  remainder  of  528  years  as  the  time  during  which  Alexander  and 
the  Muluk-al-tawa  if  reigned.  But  if  we  sum  up  the  years  of  the  reign 
of  each  of  the  Ashkanian  kings,  as  they  have  settled  it,  we  get  only  the 
sum  of  280  years,  or,^ — taking  into  regard  their  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  length  of  the  reign  of  each  of  them, — the  sum  of  not  more  than  300 
years.     This  difference  I  shall  hereafter  try  to  settle  to  some  extent. 

A  section  of  the  Persians  is  of  oj^inion  that  those  past  3,000  years 
which  we  have  mentioned  are  to  be  counted  from  the  creation  of 
Gayomarth ;  because,  before   that,  already  6,000   years  had  elapsed — a 

40  time  during  which  the  celestial   globe  stood  motionless,  the  natures  (of 

created  beings)  did  not  interchange,  the  elements  did  not  mix — during  p.  15. 
which  there  was  no  growth,  and  no  decay,  and  the  earth  was  not  cultivated. 
Thereupon,  when  the  celestial  globe  was  set  a-going,  the  first  man  came 
into   existence   on   the   equator,   so  that   part   of   him   in   longitudinal 
direction  was  on  the  north,  and  part   south  of  the  line.     The  animals 

2 


18"  ALBIEUNi. 

were  produced,  and  mankind  commenced  to  reproduce  their  own  species 
and  to  multiply ;  the  atoms  of  the  elements  mixed,  so  as  to  give  rise  to 
growth  and  decay  ;  the  earth  was  cultivated,  and  the  world  was 
arranged  in  conformity  with  fixed  norms. 

The  Jews  and  Christians  differ  widely  on  this  subject ;  for,  according 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  Jews,  the  time  between  Adam  and  Alexander  is 
3,448  years,  whilst,  according  to  the  Christian  doctrine,  it  is  5,180  years. 
The  Christians  rejDroach  the  Jews  with  having  diminished  the  number  of 
years  with  the  view  of  making  the  appearance  of  Jesus  fall  into  the 
fourth  millennium  in  the  middle  of  the  seven  millennia,  which  are,  10 
according  to  their  view,  the  time  of  the  duration  of  the  world,  so  as  not 
to  coincide  with  that  time  at  which,  as  the  prophets  after  Moses  had 
prophesied,  the  birth  of  Jesus  from  a  pure  virgin  at  the  end  of  time, 
was  to  take  place.  Both  parties  depend,  in  their  bringing  forward  of 
arguments,  upon  certain  modes  of  interpretation  derived  from  the 
Hisdb-al-jummal.  So  the  Jews  expect  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  who 
was  promised  to  them  at  the  end  of  1,335  years  after  Alexander,  ex- 
pecting it  like  something  which  they  know  for  certain.  In  consequence 
of  which  many  of  the  pseudo-prophets  of  their  sects,  as  e.g.  Al-ra'i, 
'Abu-lsa  Al-isfahani,  and  others,  claimed  to  be  his  messengers  to  them.  20 
This  expectation  was  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  beginning  of 
this  era  (iEra  Alexandri)  coincided  with  the  time  when  the  sacrifices 
were  abolished,  when  no  more  divine  revelation  was  received,  and  no 
more  prophets  were  sent.  Then  they  referred  to  the  Hebrew  word  of 
God  in  the  5th  book  of  the  Thora  (Deut.  xxxi.  18),  "^^MD^  "^ilDrr  ^r]i« 
b^inn  DVn  Dn^  '^^Dj  which  means :  "  I,  God,  shall  conceal  my 
being  till  that  day."  And  they  counted  the  letters  of  the  words 
"^'^nOi^  "^JnOn,  the  word  for  "  concealing,"  which  gives  the  sum  of  1,335- 
This  they  declared  to  be  the  time  during  which  no  inspiration  from 
heaven  was  received  and  the  sacrifices  were  abolished,  which  is  meant  30 
by  God's  concealing  himself.  The  word  "being"  (^\j=i^q)  is  here 
synonymous  with  "affair"  (or  "order,  command").  In  order  to 
supjDort  what  they  maintain,  they  quote  two  passages  in  the  Book 
of  Daniel  (xii.  11)  :  f]^«  0^72^  072^  yiptrnn^l  T^Mn  *lDin  r^yl2 
D^i^tlJm  D'^ni^?21)  which  means:  "Since  the  time  when  the  sacrifice 
was  abolished  until  impurity  comes  to  destruction  it  is  1,290." 
and  the  next  following  passage  (Dan.  xii.  12)  :  V^T*)  TTDTV^iTl  "^'lUJt^ 
ntrnni  D^trbtri  ni^^n  ^^h^^  ^h^  n^r^'h  which  means:  "There- 
fore happy  he  who  hopes  to  reach  to  1,335."  Some  people  explain 
the  difference  of  forty-five  years  in  these  two  passages  so  as  to  refer  40 
p.  16.  the  former  date  (1,290)  to  the  beginning  of  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  ; 
and  the  latter  (1,335)  to  the  time  when  the  rebuilding  would  be  finished. 
According  to  others,  the  first  number  is  the  date  of  the  birth  of  Messiah, 
whilst  the  latter  is  the  date  of  his  public  appearance.  Further,  the  Jews 
say,  when  Jacob  bestowed  his  blessing  upon  Judah  (Gen.  xlix.  10),  he 


ON  THE  NATUEB  OF  THE  EEAS.  19 

informed  him  that  the  rule  should  always  remain  with  his  sons  till  the 
time  of  the  coming  of  him  to  whom  the  rule  belongs.  So  in  these  words 
he  told  him  that  the  rule  should  remain  with  his  descendants  until  the 
appearance  of  the  expected  Messiah.  And  now  the  Jews  add  that  this 
is  really  the  case ;  that  the  rule  has  not  been  taken  from  them.  For  the 
t^ni/^  tr^^"^^  i.e.  "  the  head  of  the  exiles "  who  had  been  banished 
from  their  homes  in  Jerusalem,  is  the  master  of  every  Jew  in  the  world ; 
the  ruler  whom  they  obey  in  all  countries,  whose  order  is  carried  out 
under  most  circumstances. 

10  The  Christians  use  certain  Syriac  words,  viz.,  JOOJS  ]m.j.aLo  IQaj 
yo'y,  which  mean  "  Jesus,  the  Messiah,  the  greatest  redeemer."  Com- 
puting the  value  of  the  letters  of  these  words,  they  get  the  sum  of  1,335. 
Now,  they  think  that  it  was  these  words  which  Daniel  meant  to  indicate 
by  those  numbers,  not  the  above-mentioned  years  ;  because  in  the  text 
of  his  words  they  are  nothing  but  numbers,  without  any  indication 
whether  they  mean  years,  or  days,  or  something  else.  It  is  a  prophecy 
indicative  of  the  name  of  the  Messiah,  not  of  the  time  of  his  coming. 
Further,  they  relate  that  Daniel  once  dreamt  in  Babylonia,  some  years 
after  the  accession  of  Cyrus  to  the  throne,  on  the  24th  of   the  first 

20  month,  when  he  had  prayed  to  God,  and  when  the  Israelites  were  the 
prisoners  of  the  Persians.  Then  God  revealed  to  him  the  following 
(Dan.  ix.  24-26)  :  "  'IJrishlim,  i.e.  Jerusalem,  will  be  rebuilt  70  SctbiV, 
and  will  remain  in  the  possession  of  thy  people.  Then  the  Messiah  will 
come,  but  he  will  be  killed.  And  in  consequence  of  his  coming 
'IJrishlim  will  undergo  its  last  destruction,  and  it  will  remain  a  ruin  till 
the  end  of  time."  The  word  Sdbii'  (Hebrew  )^''Qt!?)  means  a  Septennium. 
Now,  of  the  whole  time  (indicated  in  this  passage)  seven  Septennia  refer 
to  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  which  time  is  also  mentioned  in  the 
Book  of  Zekharya  ben  Berekhya  ben  'Iddo'  (Zechariah  iv.  2)  :  "I  have 

30  beheld  a  candlestick  with  seven  lamps  thereon,  and  with  seven  pipes  to 
each  lamp."  And  before  this  he  says  (iv.  9) :  "  The  hands  of  Zerubbabel 
have  laid  the  foundation  of  this  house,  his  hands  also  shall  finish  it." 
The  time  from  the  beginning  of  his  rebuilding  of  the  house  (i.e.  Jeru- 
salem) till  its  end  is  49  years,  or  7  Septennia.  Then,  after  62  Septen- 
nia, they  think,  Jesus  the  son  of  Mary  came  ;  and  in  the  last  Septennium 
the  sacrifices  and  offerings  were  abolished,  and  Jerusalem  underwent  its 
above-mentioned  destruction,  insomuch  that  no  more  divine  revelation 
nor  prophets  were  sent,  as  the  Israelites  were  scattered  all  over  the 
world,  utterly  neglected,  not  practising  their  sacrifices,  nor  having  a   p.  17. 

40  place  where  to  practise  them. 

In  respect  of  all  we  have  mentioned,  each  of  the  two  parties  makes 
assertions  which  they  cannot  support  by  anything  but  interpretations 
derived  from  the  Hisclb-al-jummal,  and  fallacious  subtilties.  If  the 
student  would  try  to  establish  something  else  by  the  same  means,  and 
refute  what  they  (each  of  the  two  parties)  maintain,  by  similar  arguments, 

.    2  *       . 


20  ALBfE^JN!. 

it  would  not  he  difficult  for  him  to  search  for  them.  As  to  what  the 
Jews  think  of  the  continuance  of  the  rule  in  the  family  of  Juda,  and 
which  they  transfer  to  the  leadership  of  the  exiles,  we  must  remark  that, 
if  it  was  correct  to  extend  the  word  "rule"  to  a  similar  leadership  by 
way  of  analogy,  the  Magians,  the  Sabians,  and  others  would  partake 
of  this,  and  neither  the  other  Israelites  nor  any  other  nation  would  be 
exempt  therefrom.  Because  no  class  of  men,  not  even  the  lowest,  are 
without  a  sort  of  rule  and  leadership  with  relation  to  others  who  are 
still  inferior  to  them. 

If  we  referred  the  numerical  value  of  the  word  "  concealing  "  iu  the  10 
Thora  to  that  period  from  the  earliest  date  Avhich  the  Israelites  assign  to 
their  exodus  from  Egypt  till  Jesus  the  son  of  Mary,  this  interpretation 
would  rest  on  a  better  foundation.  For  the  time  from  their  exodus  from 
Egypt  till  the  accession  of  Alexander  is  1,000  years  according  to  their 
own  view ;  and  Jesus  the  son  of  Mary  was  born  Anno  Alexandri  304, 
and  God  raised  him  to  himself  Anno  Alexandri  336.  So  the  sum  of  the 
years  of  this  complete  period  is  1,335  as  the  time  during  which  the  law 
of  Moses  ben  'Imran  existed,  till  it  was  carried  to  perfection  by  Jesus 
the  son  of  Mary. 

As  to  that  which  they  derive  from  the  two  passages  of  Daniel,  we  can  20 
only  say  that  it  would  be  possible  to  refer  them  to  something  different, 
and  to  explain  them  in  a  different  way  ;  and  moi'e  than  that — that 
neither  of  their  modes  of  interpretation  is  correct,  except  we  suppose 
that  the  beginning  of  that  number  precedes  the  time  when  they  were 
pronounced  (by  Daniel).  For  if  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  begin- 
ning of  both  numbers  (1,290  and  1,335)  is  one  and  the  same  time,  be  it 
past,  present,  or  future,  you  cannot  reasonably  explain  why  the  two 
passages  should  have  been  pronounced  at  different  times.  And,  not  to 
speak  of  the  difference  between  the  two  numbers  (1,290  and  1,335)  the 
matter  can  in  no  way  be  correct;  because  the  second  passage  ("Happy  30 
he  who  hopes  to  reach  1,335  ")  admits,  first,  that  the  beginning  of  the 
number  precedes  the  time  when  the  passage  was  pronounced ;  so  that  it 
(the  number)  may  reach  its  end  one  year,  or  more  or  less,  after  the 
supposed  time ;  secondly,  that  the  beginning  of  that  number  may  be 
the  very  identical  time  when  the  passage  was  pronounced ;  or,  thirdly, 
that  it  may  be  after  this  moment  by  an  indefinite  time,  which  may  be 
smaller  or  greater.  Now,  if  a  chronological  statement  may  be  referred 
to  all  three  spheres  of  time  (past,  present,  and  future),  it  cannot  be 
referred  to  any  one  of  them  except  on  the  basis  of  a  clear  text  or  an 
indisputable  argument.  40 

The   first  passage   ("Since  the  time  when  the  sacrifice  was  abolished, 

until  impurity  comes  to  destruction,  it  is  1,290  ")  admits  likewise  of  being 

referred,  first,  to  tlie  first  destruction  of  Jerusalem ;  and,  secondly,  to 

p.  18.    its  second  destruction,  which  happened,  however,  only  385  years  after 

the  accession  of  Alexander. 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  TFE  ERAS.  21 

Therefore  the  Jew.^  have  not  the  slightest  reason  to  commence  (in 
their  calculations  as  tu  the  coming  of  the  Messiah)  with  that  date  with 
which  they  have  commenced  (viz.,  the  epoch  of  the  ^Era  Alexandri). 

These  are  doubts  and  difficulties  which  beset  the  assertions  of  the 
Jews.  Those,  however,  which  attach  to  the  schemes  of  the  Christians 
are  even  more  numerous  and  conspicuoiis.  For  even  if  the  Jews  granted 
to  them  that  the  coming  of  Messiah  was  to  take  place  70  8eptennia  after 
the  vision  of  Daniel,  we  must  remark  that  the  appearance  of  Jesus  the 
son  of  Mary  did  not  take  place  at  that  time.  The  reason  is  this: — The 
10  Jews  have  agreed  to  fix  the  interval  between  the  exodus  of  the  Israelites 
from  Egypt  and  the  ^ra  Alexandri  at  1,000  complete  years.  Prom  pas- 
sages in  the  books  of  the  Prophets  they  have  inferred  that  the  interval 
between  the  exodus  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  and  the  building  of 
Jerusalem  is  480  years ;  and  the  interval  between  the  building  and 
the  destruction  by  Nebucadnezar  410  years ;  and  that  it  remained  in  a 
ruined  state  70  years.  Now  this  gives  the  sum  of  960  years  (after  the 
exodus  from  Egypt)  as  the  date  for  the  vision  of  Daniel,  and  as  a 
remainder  of  the  above-mentioned  millennium  (from  the  exodus  till  ^Era 
Alexandri)  40  years.  Purther,  Jews  and  Christians  unanimously  suppose 
20  that  the  birth  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Mary  took  place  Anno  Alexandri  304. 
Therefore,  if  we  use  their  own  chronology,  the  birth  of  Jesus  the  son  of 
Mary  took  place  344  years  after  the  vision  of  Daniel  and  the  rebuilding 
of  Jerusalem,  i.e  about  49  Septennia.  Prom  his  birth  till  the  time  when  he 
began  preaching  in  public  are  4^  Septennia  more.  Hence  it  is  evident 
that  the  birth  (of  Jesus)  precedes  the  date  which  they  have  assumed 
(as  the  time  of  the  birth  of  the  Messiah). 

For  the  Jews  there  follow  no  such  consequences  from  their  chrono- 
logical system  ;  and  if  the  Christians  should  accuse  the  Jews  of  telling 
lies  regarding  the  length  of  the  period  between  the  rebuilding  of 
30  Jerusalem  and  the  epoch  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri,  the  Jews  would  meet 
them  with  similar  accusations,  and  more  than  that. 

If  we  leave  aside  the  arguments  of  the  two  parties,  and  consider  the 
table  of  the  Chaldsean  kings,  which  we  shall  hereafter  explain,  we  find 
the  interval  between  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus  and  that  of 
the  reign  of  Alexander  to  be  222  years,  and  from  the  latter  date  till  the 
birth  of  Jesus  304  years  ;  so  that  the  sum  total  is  526  years.  If  we 
now  deduct  therefrom  3  years,  for  the  rebuilding  (of  Jerusalem)  com- 
menced in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  and  if  we  reduce  the 
remainder  to  Septennia,  we  get  nearly  75  Septennia  for  the  interval 
40  between  the  vision  (of  Daniel)  and  the  birth  of  Messiah.  Therefore  the 
birth  of  Messiah  is  later  than  the  date  which  they  (the  Christians) 
have  assumed. 

If  the  Christians  compute  the  Syriac  words  (\oO'r£i  ]  ..^  .  «  Vn  vn  »  .. 
io5),  and  believe  that  because  of  the  identity  of  their  numerical  value 
with  the  number  (1,335,  mentioned  by  Daniel),  these  words  were  meant 


22  ALBIEUNI. 

(by  Daniel)  and  not  a  certain  number  of  years,  we  can  only  say  that 
we  cannot  accept  such  an  oj)inion  except  it  be  confirmed  by  an  argument 
as  indubitable  as  ocular  inspection.  For  if  you  computed  the  numerical 
Talue  of  the  following  words:  Xi.i&^.  yiS2\  ^^  ,3lsJ\  SW  (^' the  deliver- 
ance of  the  creation  from  infidelity  hy  Muhammad''),  you  would  get 
the  sum  of  1,335.  Or  if  you  computed  the  words  (^yj*^  (:>?  i^f*  T^- 
19.  jc*^U  ^y^.^\^  Ju<&-*4  ("  the  projohecy  of  Moses  hen  'Imrdn  regarding  Mu- 
hammad; the  prophecy  of  the  Messiah  regarding  'Ahmad"),  you  would  get 

J    C    -» 

the   same  sum,  i.e.  1,335.     Likewise,  if  you  counted  these  words :  o/^ 
^_^%  ji—*<s-*i  (^\)\-«  ^^    ("  The   plain  of  Farcin  shines  with  the  illiterate  10 
Muhammad"),  you  would  again  get  the  same  sum  (1,335).     If,  now,  a 
man  asserts  that  these  numbers  are  meant  to  indicate  a  prophecy  on 
account  of  the  identity  of  the  numerical  values  of  these  phrases  with 
that  of  the  Syriac  words  ("i^J  \oQ\£i  \m.^»^  lQ«-i),  the  value  of  his 
argument  would  be  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Christians  regarding 
those  passages   (in  Daniel),  the  one  case  closely  resembling  the  other, 
even  if  he  should  produce  as  a  testimony  for  Muhammad  and  the  truth 
of  the  prophecy  regarding  him  a  passage  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  of  which 
the  following  is  the  meaning,  or  like  it  (Isaiah  xxi.  6-9)  :  "  God  ordered 
him  to  set  a  watchman  on  the  watchtower,  that  he  anight  declare  what  he  should   20 
see.     Then  he  said :  I  see  a  man  riding  on  an  ass,  and  a  man  riding  on  a 
camel.     And  the  one  of  them  came  forward  crying  and  speahing :  Babylon  is 
fallen,  and  its  graven  images  are  hrohen."      This  is  a  prophecy  regarding 
the  Messiah,  "  the  man  riding  on  an  ass,"  and  regarding  Muhammad, 
"  the  man  riding  on  a  camel,"  because  in  consequence  of  his  appearance 
Babylon  has  fallen,  its  idols  have  teen  broken,  its  castles  have  been 
shattered,  and  its  empire  has  perished-.     There  are  many  passages  in  the 
book  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  predicting  Muhammad,  being  rather  hints 
(than  clearly  out-sj)oken  words),  but  easily  admitting  of  a  clear  inter- 
pretation.    And  with  all  this,  their  obstinacy  in  clinging  to  their  error  30 
induces  them  to  devise  and  to  maintain  things  which  are  not  acknow- 
ledged by  men  in  general,  viz. :  that  "  the  man  riding  on  the  camel,"  is 
Moses,  not  Muhammad.     But  what   connection   have   Moses    and   his 
people  with  Babel  ?     And  did  that  happen  to  Moses  and  to  his  people 
after  him,  which  happened  to  Muhammad  and  his  companions  in  Babel  ? 
By  no  means !     If  they  (the  Jews)  had  one  after  the  other  escaped  from 
the  Babylonians,  they  would  have  considered  it  a  sufficient  prize  to  cany 
off  to  return  (to  their  country),  even  though  in  a  desperate  condition. 

This  testimony  (Isaiah  xxi.  6-9)  is  confirmed  by  the  word  of  God  to 
Moses  in  the  fifth  book  of  the  Thora,  called  Almathnd  (Deuteronomy  4Q 
xviii.  18,  19)  :  "J  will  raise  them  up  a  prophet  from  among  their  brethren 
like  unto  thee,  and  will  put  my  word  into  his  mouth.  And  he  shall  speaJc 
unto  them  all  that  I  shall  command  him.  And  whosoever  will  not  hearhen 
unto  the  word  of  him  who  speaJcs  in  my  name,  I  shall  take  revenge  on  him." 
Now  I  shoTild  like  to  know  whether  there  are  other  brethren  of  the  sons 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  ERAS.  23 

of  Isaac,  except  the  s  ms  of  Isliniael.  If  they  say,  that  the  brethren  of 
the  sons  of  Israel  are  the  children  of  Esau,  we  ask  only  :  Has  there  then 
risen  among  them  a  man  like  Moses — in  the  times  after  Moses — of  the 
same  description  and  resembling  him  ?  Does  not  also  the  following 
passage  of  the  same  book,  of  which  this  is  the  translation  (Deut.  xxxiii. 
2),  bear  testimony  for  Muhammad  :  "  The  Lord  came  from  Mount  Sinai, 
and  rose  up  unto  us  from  Seir,  and  he  shined  forth  from  Mount  Paran, 
accompanied  by  ten  thousand  of  saints  at  his  right  hand?''  The  terms  of 
this   passage   are   hints   for   the   establishing   of   the   proof,   that    the 

10  (anthropomorphic)  descriptions,  which  are  inherent  in  them,  cannot  be 
referred  to  the  essence  of  the  Creator,  nor  to  his  qualities,  he  being  high 
above  such  things.  His  coming  from  Mount  Sinai  means  his  secret 
conversation  with  Moses  there ;  his  rising  up  from  Seir  means  the 
appearance  of  Messiah,  and  his  shining  forth  from  Paran,  where  Ishmael 
grew  up  and  married,  means  the  coming  of  Muhammad  from  thence  as 
the  last  of  all  the  founders  of  religions,  accomjDanied  by  legions  of 
saints,  who  were  sent  down  from  heaven  to  help,  being  marked  with 
certain  badges.  He  who  refuses  to  accept  this  interpretation,  for  which  p-  20. 
all  evidence  has  borne  testimony,  is  required  to  prove   what  kinds  of 

20  mistakes  there  are  in  it.  "  But  he  whose  companion  is  Satan,  woe  to  him 
for  such  a  companion!  "     (Sura  iv.  42.) 

Now,  if  the  Christians  do  not  allow  us  to  use  the  numerical  values  of 
Arabic  words,  we  cannot  allow  them  to  do  the  same  with  the  Syriac 
words  which  they  quote,  because  the  Thora  and  the  books  of  those 
prophets  were  revealed  in  the  Hebrew  language.  All  they  have  brought 
forward,  and  all  we  are  going  to  propound,  is  a  decisive  proof,  and  a  clear 
argument,  showing  that  the  words  in  the  holy  books  have  been  altered 
from  their  proper  meanings,  and  that  the  text  has  undergone  modifica- 
tions contrary  to  its  original  condition.     Having  recourse  to  this  sort  of 

30  computing,  and  of  using  false  witnesses,  shows  and  proves  to  evidence, 
that  then*  authors  purposely  deviate  from  the  path  of  truth  and  right- 
eousness. If  we  could  open  them  a  door  in  heaven,  and  they  ascended 
thereby,  they  would  say  :  "  Our  eyes  are  only  drunlcen.  Nay,  we  are 
fascinated  people."  (Sura  xv.  15.)  But  such  is  not  the  case.  The  fact 
is  that  they  are  blind  to  the  truth.  We  pray  to  God,  that  he  may  help 
and  strengthen  us,  that  he  may  guard  us  against  sin,  and  lead  us  by  the 
right  path. 

As  to  the  doctrine  of  abrogation  (of  one  holy  book  by  another),  and  as 
to  their  fanciful  pretension  of  having  passages  of  the  Thora  which  order 

40  him  who  claims  to  be  a  prophet  after  Moses  to  be  put  to  death,  we  must 
state,  that  the  groundlessness  of  these  opinions  is  rendered  evident  by 
other  passages  of  the  Thora.  However,  there  are  more  suitable  places  to 
speak  of  these  opinions  than  this,  and  so  we  return  to  our  subject,  as  we 
have  already  become  lengthy  in  our  exposition,  one  matter  drawing  us  to 
another. 


24  ALBIEUNI. 

Now  I  proceed  to  state  tliat  both  Jews  and  Christians  have  a  coj^y  of 
the  Thora,  the  contents  of  which  agree  with  the  doctrines  of  either  sect. 
Of  the  Jewish  copy  people  think  that  it  is  conij)aratively  free  from 
confusion.  The  Christian  copy  is  called  the  "  Thora  of  the  Seventy, ^^  for 
the  following  reason :  After  Nebukadnezar  had  conquered  and  destroyed 
Jerusalem,  part  of  the  Israelites  emigrated  from  their  country,  took 
refuge  with  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  lived  there  under  his  protection  till 
the  time  when  Ptolemseus  Philadelphns  ascended  the  throne.  This  king 
heard  of  the  Thora,  and  of  its  divine  origin.  Therefore  he  gave  orders  to 
search  for  this  community,  and  found  them  at  last  in  a  place  numbering  10 
about  30,000  men.  He  afforded  them  jDrotection,  and  took  them  into  his 
favour,  he  treated  them  with  kindness,  and  allowed  them  to  return  to 
Jerusalem,  which  in  the  meanwhile  had  been  rebuilt  by  Cyrus,  Bahman's 
govei'nor  of  Babel,  who  had  also  revived  the  culture  of  Syria.  They  left 
Egypt,  accompanied  by  a  body  of  his  (Ptolemseus  Philadelphus')  servants 
for  their  protection.  The  king  said  to  them :  "  I  want  to  ask  you  for 
something.  If  you  grant  me  the  favour,  you  acquit  yourselves  of  all 
obligations  towards  me.  Let  me  have  a  copy  of  your  book,  the  Thora." 
This  the  Jews  promised,  and  confirmed  their  promise  by  an  oath.  Having 
arrived  at  Jerusalem,  they  fulfilled  their  promise  by  sending  him  a  copy  20 
of  it,  hut  in  Hebrew.  He,  however,  did  not  know  Hebrew.  Therefore  he 
addressed  himself  again  to  them  asking  for  people  who  knew  both 
Hebrew  and  Greek,  who  might  translate  the  book  for  him,  promising 
them  gifts  and  presents  in  reward.  Now  the  Jews  selected  seventy-two 
21.  men  out  of  their  twelve  tribes,  six  men  of  each  tribe  from  among  the 
Rabbis  and  priests.  Their  names  are  known  among  the  Christians. 
These  men  translated  the  Thora  into  Greek,  after  they  had  been  housed 
separately,  and  each  couple  had  got  a  servant  to  take  care  of  them. 
This  went  on  till  they  had  finished  the  translation  of  the  whole  book. 
Now  the  king  had  in  his  hands  thirty-six  translations.  These  he  com-  30 
pared  with  each  other,  and  did  not  find  any  differences  in  them,  except 
those  which  always  occur  in  the  rendering  of  the  same  ideas.  Then  the 
king  gave  them  what  he  had  promised,  and  provided  them  with  every- 
thing of  the  best.  The  Jews  asked  him  to  make  them  a  present  of  one 
of  those  copies,  of  which  they  wished  to  make  a  boast  before  their  own 
people.  And  the  king  complied  with  their  wish.  Now  this  is  the  cojjy 
of  the  Christians,  and  people  think,  that  in  it  no  alteration  or  transposi- 
tion has  taken  place.  The  Jews,  however,  give  quite  a  different  account, 
viz.  that  they  made  the  translation  under  compulsion,  and  that  they 
yielded  to  the  king's  demand  only  from  fear  of  violence  and  maltreat-  40 
ment,  and  not  before  having  agreed  upon  inverting  and  confounding  the 
text  of  the  book.  There  is  nothing  in  the  report  of  the  Christians  which, 
even  if  we  should  take  it  for  granted — removes  our  doubts  (as  to  the 
authenticity  of  their  Bible)  ;  on  the  contrary,  there  is  something  in  it 
which  strengthens  them  greatly. 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  ERAS.  25 

Besides  these  two  coi^ies  of  the  Thora,  there  is  a  third  one  that  exists 
among  the  Samaritans,  also  known  by  the  name  of  Al-ldmasdsiyya.  To 
them,  as  the  substitutes  for  the  Jews,  Nebucadnezar  had  given  the 
country  of  Syria,  when  he  led  the  Jews  into  captivity,  and  cleared 
the  country  of  them.  The  Samaritans  had  helped  him  (in  the  war 
against  the  Jews),  and  had  pointed  out  to  him  the  weak  points  of 
the  Israelites.  Therefore,  he  did  not  disturb  them,  nor  kill  them,  nor 
make  them  prisoners,  but  he  made  them  inhabit  Palestine  under  his 
protection. 

10  Their  doctrines  are  a  syncretism  of  Judaism  and  Zoroastrianism.  The 
bulk  of  their  community  is  living  in  a  town  of  Palestine,  called  Ndbulus, 
where  they  have  their  churches.  They  have  never  entered  the  precincts 
of  Jerusalem  since  the  days  of  David  the  prophet,  because  they  main- 
tain that  he  committed  wrong  and  injustice,  and  transferred  the  holy 
temple  from  Nabulus  to  Aelia,  i.e.  Jerusalem.  They  do  not  touch 
other  people  ;  but  if  they  haj)pen  to  be  touched  by  anyone,  they  wash 
themselves.  They  do  not  acknowledge  any  of  the  prophets  of  the 
Israelites  after  Moses. 

Now  as  to  the  copy  which  the  Jews  have,  and  on  which  they  rely,  we 

20  find  that  according  to  its  account  of  the  lives  of  the  immediate  descend- 
ants of  Adam,  the  interval  between  the  expulsion  of  Adam  from  Paradise 
till  the  deluge  in  the  time  of  Noah,  is  1,656  years ;  according  to  the 
Christian  copy  the  same  interval  is  2,242  years,  and  according  to  the 
Samaritan  copy  it  is  1,307  years.  According  to  one  of  the  historians, 
Anianus,  the  interval  between  the  creation  of  Adam  and  the  night  of 
the  Friday  when  the  deluge  commenced,  is  2,226  years  23  days  and 
4  hours.  This  statement  of  Anianus  is  reported  by  Ibn-Albazyar  in 
his  Kitdh-alHrdndt  (Book  of  the  Conjunctions)  ;  it  comes  very  near  that  p.  22. 
of  the  Christians.    However,  it  makes  me  think  that  it  is  based  ujjon 

30  the  methods  of  the  astrologers,  because  it  betrays  evidently  an  arbitrary 
and  too  subtle  mode  of  research. 

Now,  if  such  is  the  diversity  of  opinions,  as  we  have  described,  and 
if  there  is  no  possibility  of  distinguishing — by  means  of  analogy — 
between  truth  and  fiction,  where  is  the  student  to  search  for  exact 
information  ? 

Not  only  does  the  Thora  exist  in  several  and  different  copies,  but 
something  similar  is  the  case  with  the  Gospel  too.  For  the  Christians 
have  four  copies  of  the  Grospel,  being  collected  into  one  code,  the  first  by 
Matthew,  the  second  by  Mai'k,  the  third  by  Luke,  and  the  fourth  by 

40  John  ;  each  of  these  four  disciples  having  composed  the  Gosjtel  in  con- 
formity with  what  he  (Christ)  had  preached  in  his  country.  The  reports, 
contained  in  these  four  copies,  such  as  the  descriptions  of  Messiah,  the 
relations  of  him  at  the  time  when  he  preached  and  when  he  was  crucified, 
as  they  maintain,  differ  very  widely  the  one  from  the  other.  To  begin  with 
his  genealogy,  which  is  the  genealogy  of  Joseph,  the  bridegroom  of  Mary 


ALBIEUNI. 


23. 


and  step.father  of  Jesus, 
is  this : — 


For  according  to  Matthew  (i.  2-16),  his  pedigree 


I.   Joseph. 

Jacob. 

Matthan. 

Eleazar. 
V.  Eliud. 

Achin. 

Zadok. 

Azor. 

Elyakim. 
X.  Abiud. 


Zorobabel. 

Salathiel. 

Jechonias. 

Josias. 
XV.  Amon. 

Manasses. 

Ezekias. 

Ahaz. 

Joatham. 
XX.Ozias. 


XXV. 


XXX. 


Joram. 

Salmon. 

Josaphat. 

Naasson. 

Asa. 

Aminadab 

Abia. 

Aram. 

Roboam. 

XXXV.Esrom. 

Solomon. 

Phares. 

David. 

Judas. 

Jesse. 

Jacob. 

Obed. 

Isaac. 

Booz. 

XL 

.  Abraham. 

Matthew  in  stating  this  genealogy  commences  with  Abraham,  tracing 


it  downward  (as  far  as  Joseph), 
pedigree  of  Joseph  is  this  : — 


According  to  Luke  (iii.  23-31)  the 


I.   Joseph. 

Esli. 

Salathiel. 

Heli. 

Nagge. 

Neri. 

Matthat. 

Maath. 

Melchi. 

Levi. 

Mattathias. 

Addi. 

V.  Melchi. 

XV.  Semei. 

XXV. 

,  Cosam. 

Janna 

Joseph. 

Elmodam. 

Joseph. 

Judas. 

Er. 

Mattathias. 

Joanna. 

Joseph. 

Amos. 

Ehesa. 

Elieser. 

X.  Naum. 

XX.  Zorobabel. 

XXX 

.  Jorim. 

Matthat. 

Levi. 

Simeon. 

Juda. 
XXXV.  Joseph. 

Jonam. 

Elyakim. 

Melea. 

Menan. 
XL.  Matatha. 

Nathan. 
XLII.  David. 
This  difference  the  Christians  try  to  excuse,  and  to  account  for  it, 
saying,  that  there  was  one  of  the  laws  prescribed  in  the  Thora  which 
ordered  that,  if  a  man  died,  leaving  behind  a  wife  but  no  male  children, 
the  brother  of  the  deceased  was  to  marry  her  instead,  in  order  to  raise 
up  a  progeny  to  the  deceased  brother ;  that,  in  consequence,  his  children 
were  genealogically  referred  to  the  deceased  brother,  whilst  as  to  real 
hirth  they  were  the  children  of  the  living  brother ;  that,  therefore, 
Joseph  was  referred  to  two  different  fathers,  that  Heli  was  his  father 
genealogically,  whilst  Yakob  was  his  father  in  reality.  Further,  they 
say,  that  when  Matthew  had  stated  the  real  pedigree  of  Joseph,  the 
Jews  blamed  him  for  it,  saying :  "  His  pedigree  is  not  coi-rect,  because  it 
has  been  made  without  regard  to  his  genealogical  relation."  In  order  to 
meet  this  reproach,  Luke  stated  his  pedigree  in  conformity  with  the 
genealogical  ordinances  of  their  code.  Both  pedigrees  go  back  to  David, 
and  that  was  the  object  (in  stating  them),  because  it  had  been  predicted 
of  the  Messiah,  that  he  would  be  "  the  son  of  David." 

Finally,  the  fact  that  only  the  pedigree  of  Joseph  has  been  adduced 


10 


20 


30 


40 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  ERAS.  27 

for  Messiali,  and  not  that  of  Mary,  is  to  be  explained  in  this  way,  that 
according  to  the  law  of  the  Israelites,  nobody  was  allowed  to  marry  any 
but  a  wife  of  his  own  tribe  and  clan,  whereby  they  wanted  to  prevent 
confusion  of  the  pedigrees,  and  that  it  was  the  custom  to  mention  only 
the  pedigrees  of  the  men,  not  those  of  the  women.  Now  Joseph  and 
Mary  being  both  of  the  same  tribe,  their  descent  must  of  necessity  go 
back  to  the  same  origin.  And  this  was  the  object  in  their  statement 
and  account  of  the  pedigree. 

Everyone  of  the  sects  of  Marcion,  and  of  Bardesanes,  has  a  special 

10  Gospel,  which  in  some  parts  differs  from  the  Gospels  we  have  men- 
tioned. Also  the  Manichseans  have  a  Gospel  of  their  own,  the  contents 
of  which  from  the  first  to  the  last  are  opposed  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
Christians  ;  but  the  Manichseans  consider  them  as  their  religious  law, 
and  believe  that  it  is  the  correct  Gospel,  that  its  contents  are  really  that 
which  Messiah  thought  and  taught,  that  every  other  Gospel  is  false,  and 
its  followers  are  liars  against  Messiah.  Of  this  Gosj^el  there  is  a  copy, 
called,  "  The  Gospel  of  the  Seventy,"  which  is  attributed  to  one  Baldmis, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  which  it  is  stated,  that  Sallam  ben  ' Abdallah  ben 
Sallam  wi'ote  it  down  as  he  heard  it  from  Salman  Alfarisi.     He,  how- 

20  ever,  who  looks  into  it,  will  see  at  once  that  it  is  a  forgery ;  it  is  not 
acknowledged  by  Christians  and  others.  Therefore,  we  come  to  the 
conckision,  that  among  the  Gospels  there  are  no  books  of  the  Prophets 
to  be  found,  on  which  you  may  with  good  faith  rely. 

Era  of  the  Delug'e. — The  next  following  era  is  the  era  of  the  great 
deluge,  in  which  everything  perished  at  the  time  of  Noah.  Here,  too, 
there  is  such  a  difference  of  opinions,  and  such  a  confusion,  that  you 
have  no  chance  of  deciding  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  matter,  and  do 
not  even  feel  inclined  to  investigate  thoroughly  its  historical  truth.  The 
reason  is,  in  the  iirst  instance,  the  difference  regarding  the  period  between 

30  the  iEra  Adami  and  the  Deluge,  which  we  have  mentioned  already  ;  and 
secondly,  that  difference,  which  we  shall  have  to  mention,  regarding  the 
period  between  the  Deluge  and  the  ^ra  Alexandri.  For  the  Jews  derive 
from  the  Thora,  and  the  following  books,  for  this  latter  period  1,792 
years,  whilst  the  Christians  derive  from  their  Thora  for  the  same  period 
2,938  years. 

The  Persians,  and  the   great  mass  of  the  Magians,  deny  the  Deluge 
altogether  ;  they  believe  that  the  rule   (of  the  world)  has  remained  with 
them  without  any  interruption  ever  since  Gayomarth  Gilshah,  who  was,  p-  24. 
according  to  them,  the  first  man.     In  denying  the  Deluge,  the  Indians, 

40  Chinese,  and  the  various  nations  of  the  east,  concur  with  them.  Some, 
however,  of  the  Persians  admit  the  fact  of  the  Deluge,  but  they  describe 
it  in  a  different  way  from  what  it  is  described  in  the  books  of  the 
prophets.  They  say,  a  partial  deluge  occurred  in  Syria  and  the  west  at 
the  time  of  Tahmurath,  but  it  did  not  extend  over  the  whole  of  the  then 
civilized  world,  and  only  few  nations  were  drowned  in  it ;  it  did  not 


28  ALBinUNi. 

extend  beyond  the  peak  of  Hulwan,  and  did  not  reach  the  empires  of  the 
east.  Further,  they  relate,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  west,  when  they 
were  warned  by  their  sages,  constructed  buildings  of  the  kind  of  the  two 
pyramids  which  have  been  built  in  Egypt,  saying :  "  If  the  disaster 
comes  from  heaven,  we  shall  go  into  them  ;  if  it  comes  from  the  earth, 
we  shall  ascend  above  them."  People  are  of  opinion,  that  the  traces  of 
the  water  of  the  Deluge,  and  the  effects  of  the  waves  are  still  visible  on 
these  two  pyramids  half-way  up,  above  which  the  water  did  not  rise. 
Another  report  says,  that  Joseph  had  made  them  a  magazine,  where  he 
deposited  the  bread  and  victuals  for  the  years  of  drought.  10 

It  is  related,  that  Tahmurath  on  receiving  the  warning  of  the  Deluge 
— 231  years  before  the  Deluge — ordered  his  people  to  select  a  place  of 
good  air  and  soil  in  his  realm.  Now  they  did  not  find  a  place  that 
answered  better  to  this  description  than  Ispahan.  Thereupon,  he  ordered 
all  scientific  books  to  be  preserved  for  posterity,  and  to  be  buried  in  a 
part  of  that  place,  least  exposed  to  obnoxious  influences.  In  favour  of 
this  report  we  may  state  that  in  our  time  in  Jay,  the  city  of  Ispahan, 
there  have  been  discovered  hills,  which,  on  being  excavated,  disclosed 
houses,  filled  with  many  loads  of  that  tree-bark,  with  which  arrows  and 
shields  are  covered,  and  which  is  called  Tilz,  bearing  inscriptions,  of  20 
which  no  one  was  able  to  say  what  they  are,  and  what  they  mean. 

These  discrepancies  in  their  reports,  inspire  doubts  in  the  student,  and 
make  him  inclined  to  believe  what  is  related  in  some  books,  viz.  that 
Gayomarth  was  not  the  first  man,  but  that  he  was  Gomer  ben  Taphet 
ben  Noah,  that  he  was  a  prince  to  whom  a  long  life  was  given,  that  he 
settled  on  the  Mount  Dunbawand,  where  he  founded  an  empire,  and 
that  finally  his  power  became  very  great,  whilst  mankind  was  still  living 
in  (elementary)  conditions,  similar  to  those  at  the  time  of  the  creation, 
and  of  the  first  stage  of  the  development  of  the  world.  Then  he,  and 
some  of  his  children,  took  possession  of  the  KXcfxara  of  the  world.  30 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  he  became  tyrannical,  and  called  himself 
Adam,  saying :  "  If  anybody  calls  me  by  another  name  than  this,  I 
shall  cut  of£  his  head."  Others  are  of  opinion  that  Gayomarth  was 
Emim  (D'^T^'^fc^  ?)  ben  Lud  ben  'Ai'am  ben  Sem  ben  Noah. 

The  astrologers  have  tried  to  correct  these  years,  beginning  from  the 
first  of  the  conjunctions  of  Saturn  and  Jupiter,  for  which  the  sages 
among  the  inhabitants  of  Babel,  and  the  Chaldseans  have  constructed 
astronomical  tables,  the  Deluge  having  originated  in  their  country.  For 
people  say,  that  Noah  built  the  ark  in  Kufa,  and  that  it  was  there  that 
"the  well  'poured  forth  its  tvaters"  (Sura  xi.  42  ;  xxiii.  27)  ;  that  the  ark  40 
rested  upon  the  mountain  of  Aljudi,  which  is  not  very  far  from  those 
regions.  Now  this  conjunction  occurred  229  years  108  days  before  the 
Deluge.  This  date  they  studied  carefully,  and  tried  by  that  to  correct 
25.  the  subsequent  times.  So  they  found  as  the  interval  between  the  Deluge 
and  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  the  first  Nebukadnezar  (Nabonassar) , 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  ERAS.  29 

2,604  years,  and  as  the  interval  between  Nebukadnezar  and  Alexander 
.  436  years,  a  result  which  conies  pretty  near  to  that  one,  which  is  derived 
from  the  Thora  of  the  Christians. 

This  was  the  era  which  'Abu-Ma' shar  Albalkhi  wanted,  upon  which  to 
base  his  statements  regarding  the  mean  places  of  the  stars  in  his  Canon. 
Now  he  supposed  that  the  Deluge  had  taken  place  at  the  conjunction  of 
the  stars  in  the  last  part  of  Pisces,  and  the  first  part  of  Aries,  and  he 
tried  to  compute  their  places  for  that  time.  Then  he  found,  that  they — 
all  of  them — stood  in  conjunction  in  the  space  between  the  twenty- seventh 

10  degree  of  Pisces,  and  the  end  of  the  first  degree  of  Aries.  Further,  he 
supposed  that  between  that  time  and  the  epoch  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri, 
there  is  an  interval  of  2,790  intercalated  years  7  months  and  26  days. 
This  computation  comes  near  to  that  of  the  Christians,  being  249  years 
and  3  months  less  than  the  estimate  of  the  astronomers.  Now,  when  he 
thought  that  he  had  well  established  the  computation  of  this  sum 
according  to  the  method,  which  he  has  explained,  and  when  he  had 
arrived  at  the  result,  that  the  duration  of  those  periods,  which  as- 
tronomers call  "  star-cycles,"  was  360,000  years,  the  beginning  of  which 
was  to  precede  the  time  of  the  Deluge  by  180,000  years,  he  drew  the 

20  inconsiderate  conclusion,  that  the  Deluge  had  occurred  once  in  every 
180,000  years,  and  that  it  would  again  occur  in  future  at  similar 
intervals. 

This  man,  who  is  so  proud  of  his  ingenuity,  had  computed  these  star- 
cycles  only  from  the  motions  of  the  stars,  as  they  had  been  fixed  by  the 
observations  of  the  Persians ;  but  they  (the  cycles)  differ  from  the 
cycles,  which  have  been  based  upon  the  observations  of  the  Indians, 
known  as  the  "  cycles  of  Sindhind,"  and  likewise  they  differ  from  the  days 
of  Arjdbhaz,  and  the  days  of  ArJcand.  If  anybody  would  construct  such 
cycles  on  the  basis  of  the  observations  of  Ptolemy,  or  of  the  modern 

80  astronomers,  he  might  do  so  by  the  help  of  the  well  known  methods  of 
such  a  calculation,  as  in  fact  many  people  have  done,  e.g.  Muhammad  ben 
'Ishak  ben  'Ustadh  Bundadh  Alsarakhsi,  'Abu-al-wafa  Muhammad  ben 
Muhammad  Albuzajani,  and  I  myself  in  many  of  my  books,  particularly 
in  the  Kitdb-al-istishhdd  hikhtildf  aVarsdd. 

In  each  of  these  cycles  the  stars  come  into  conjunction  with  each  other 
in  the  first  part  of  Aries  once,  viz.  when  they  start  upon  and  return 
from  their  rotation,  however,  at  different  times.  If  he  ('Abu-Ma'shar) 
now  would  maintain,  that  the  stars  were  created  standing  at  that  time  in 
the  first  part  of  Aries,  or  that  the  conjunction  of  the  stars  in  that  place 

40  is  identical  with  the  beginning  of  the  world,  or  with  the  end  of  the 
world,  such  an  assertion  would  be  utterly  void  of  proof,  although  the 
matter  be  within  the  limits  of  possibility.  But  such  conclusions  can 
never  be  admitted,  except  they  rest  on  an  evident  argument,  or  on  the 
report  of  some  one  who  relates  the  origines  of  the  world,  whose  word  is 
relied  upon,  and  regarding  whom  in  the  mind  (of  the  reader  or  hearer) 


30  ALBiEXyNf. 

this  persuasion  is  established,  that  he  had  received  divine  inspiration 
and  help, 
26.  For  it  is  quite  possible  that  these  (celestial)  bodies  were  scattered,  not 
united  at  the  time  when  the  Creator  designed  and  created  them,  they 
having  these  motions,  by  which — as  calculation  shows — they  must  meet 
each  other  in  one  point  in  such  a  time  (as  above  mentioned).  It  would 
be  the  same,  as  if  we,  e.g.  supposed  a  circle,  in  different  separate  places 
of  which  we  put  living  beings,  of  whom  some  move  fast,  others  slowly, 
each  of  them,  however,  being  carried  on  in  equal  motions — of  its  peculiar 
sort  of  motion — in  equal  times ;  further,  suppose  that  we  knew  their  10 
distances  and  places  at  a  certain  time,  and  the  measure  of  the  distance 
over  which  each  of  them  travels  in  one  Nychthemeron.  If  you  then  ask 
the  mathematician  as  to  the  length  of  time,  after  which  they  would  meet 
each  other  in  a  certain  point,  or  before  which  they  had  met  each  other  in 
that  identical  point,  no  blame  attaches  to  him,  if  he  speaks  of  billions  of 
years.  Nor  does  it  follow  from  his  account  that  those  beings  existed  at 
that  (past)  time  (when  they  met  each  other),  or  that  they  would  still 
exist  at  that  (future)  time  (when  they  are  to  meet  again)  ;  but  this  only 
follows  from  his  account,  if  it  is  properly  explained,  that,  if  these  beings 
really  existed  (in  the  past),  or  would  still  exist  (in  future)  in  that  same  20 
condition,  the  result  (as  to  their  conjunctions)  could  be  no  other  but 
that  one  at  which  he  had  arrived  by  calculation.  But  then  the  verifica- 
tion of  this  subject  is  the  task  of  a  science  which  was  not  the  science  of 
'Abu-Ma'shar. 

If,  now,  the  man  who  uses  the  cycles  (the  star-cycles),  would  conclude 
that  they,  viz.  the  stars,  if  they  stood  in  conjunction  in  the  first  part  of 
Aries,  would  again  and  again  pass  through  the  same  cycles,  because, 
according  to  his  opinion,  everything  connected  with  the  celestial  globe  is 
exempt  from  growth  and  decay,  and  that  the  condition  of  the  stars  in 
the  past  was  exactly  the  same,  his  conclusion  would  be  a  mere  assumption  30 
by  which  he  quiets  his  mind,  and-which  is  not  supported  by  any  argu- 
ment. For  a  proof  does  not  equally  apply  to  the  two  sides  of  a  contra- 
diction ;  it  applies  only  to  the  one,  and  excludes  the  other.  Besides 
it  is  well  known  among  philosophers  and  others,  that  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  an  infinite  evolution  of  power  (8vm/xts)  into  action  (TrpS^ts), 
until  the  latter  comes  into  real  existence.  The  motions,  the  cycles,  and 
the  periods  of  the  past  were  computed  whilst  they  in  reality  existed  ; 
they  have  decreased,  whilst  at  the  same  time  increasing  in  number; 
therefore,  they  are  not  infinite. 

This  exposition  will  be  sufficient  for  a  veracious  and  fair-minded  40 
student.  But  if  he  remains  obstinate,  and  inclines  to  the  tricks  of  over- 
bearing people,  more  explanations  will  be  wanted,  which  exceed  the 
compass  of  this  book,  in  order  to  I'emove  these  ideas  from  his  mind,  to 
heal  what  is  feeble  in  his  thoughts,  and  to  plant  the  truth  in  his  soul. 
However,  there  are  other  chapters  of  this  book  where  it  will  be  more 


ON  THE  NATUEE  OF  THE  ERAS.  31 

suitable  to  speak  of  this  subject  than  here.  The  discrepancy  of  the 
cycles,  not  the  discrepancy  of  the  observations,  is  a  sufficient  argument 
for — and  a  powerful  help  towards — repudiating  the  follies  committed  by 
'Abu-Ma'shar,  and  relied  upon  by  foolish  people,  who  abuse  all  religions, 
who  make  the  cycles  of  Sindhind,  and  others,  the  means  by  which  to 
revile  those  who  warn  them  that  the  hour  of  judgment  is  coming,  and 
who  tell  them,  that  on  the  day  of  resurrection  there  will  be  reward  and 
punishment  in  yonder  world.  It  is  the  same  set  of  people  who  excite 
suspicions  against — and  bring  discredit  upon — astronomers  and  mathe- 

10   maticians,  by  counting  themselves  among  their  ranks,  and  by  rej)resenting 

themselves  as  professors  of  their  art,  although  they  cannot  even  impose   p.  27. 
upon  anybody  who  has  only  the  slightest  degree  of  scientific  training. 

Era  of  Nabonassar. — The  next  following  era  is  the  Era  of  the  first 
Nebukadnezar  (Nabonassar).  The  Persian  form  of  this  word  (BuJch- 
tanassar)  is  Bukht-narsi,  and  people  say  that  it  means  "  one  who  weeps 
and  laments  much";  in  Hebrew,  "  Nebukadnezar,"  which  is  said  to 
mean  "  Mercury  speaking,"  this  being  combined  with  the  notion  that 
he  cherished  science  and  favoured  scholars.  Then  when  the  word  was 
Arabized,    and   its  form  was  simplified,   people    said   "  Buhhtanassar." 

20  This  is  not  the  same  king  who  devastated  Jerusalem,  for  between  these 
two  there  is  an  interval  of  about  143  years,  as  the  following  chronological 
tables  will  indicate. 

The  era  of  this  king  is  based  upon  the  Egyj)tian  years.  It  is  employed 
in  the  Almagest  for  the  computation  of  the  places  of  the  planets,  because 
Ptolemy  preferred  this  era  to  others,  and  fixed  thereby  the  mean  places 
of  the  stars.  Besides  he  uses  the  cycles  of  Callippus,  the  beginning 
of  which  is  in  the  year  418  after  Bukhtanassar,  and  each  of  which  consists 
of  seventy-six  solar  years.  Those  who  do  not  know  them  (these  cycles), 
try  to  prove  by  what  they  find  mentioned  in  Almagest,  that  they  are  of 

30  Egyptian  origin ;  for  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy  fix  the  times  of  their 
observations  by  Egyptian  days  and  months,  and  then  refer  them  to  the 
corresponding  cycles  of  Callippus.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  The 
first  cycle,  employed  by  those  who  compute  the  months  by  the  revolution 
of  the  moon  and  the  years  by  the  revolution  of  the  sun,  was  the  cycle  of 
eight  years,  and  the  second  that  of  nineteen  years.  Callippus  was  of  the 
number  of  the  mathematicians,  and  one  who  himself — or  whose  people — 
considered  the  use  of  this  latter  cycle  as  part  of  their  laws.  Thereupon, 
he  computed  this  cycle  (of  seventy- six  years),  uniting  for  that  purpose 
four  cycles  of  nineteen  years. 

40  Some  people  think  that  in  these  cycles  the  beginning  of  the  months 
was  fixed  by  the  apjiearance  of  new  moon,  not  by  calculation,  as  people 
at  that  (remote)  age  did  not  yet  know  the  calculation  of  the  eclipses,  by 
which  alone  the  length  of  the  lunar  month  is  to  be  determined,  and  these 
calculations  are  rendered  perfect ;  and  that  the  first  who  knew  the  theory 
of  the  eclipses  was  Thales  of  Miletus.     For   after  having  frequently 


3.2  alb!e^tni. 

attended  the  lectures  of  the  mathematicians,  and  having  learned  from 
them  the  science  of  form  and  motions  (astronomy),  he  proceeded  to  dis- 
cover the  calculation  of  the  eclipses.  Then  he  happened  to  come  to 
Egypt,  where  he  warned  people  of  an  impending  eclipse.  When,  then, 
his  prediction  had  been  fulfilled,  people  honoured  him  highly. 

The  matter,  as  thus  reported,  does  not  belong  to  the  impossible.  For 
each  art  goes  back  to  certain  original  sources,  and  the  nearer  it  is  to  its 
origin,  the  more  simple  it  is,  till  you  at  last  arrive  at  the  very  origin 
itself.  However,  this  account,  that  eclipses  were  not  known  before 
Thales,  must  not  be  understood  in  this  generality,  but  with  certain  local  10 
restrictions.  For  some  people  refer  this  scholar  (Thales)  to  the  time  of 
Ardashir  ben  Babak,  others  to  that  of  Kaikubadh.  Now,  if  he  lived  at 
p.  28.  the  time  of  Ardashir,  he  was  preceded  by  Ptolemy  and  Hipparchus ;  and 
these  two  among  the  astronomers  of  that  age  knew  the  subject  quite 
sufiiciently.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  lived  at  the  time  of  Kaikubadh, 
he  stands  near  to  Zoroaster,  who  belonged  to  the  sect  of  the  Harranians, 
and  to  those  who  already  before  him  (Zoroaster)  excelled  in  science,  and 
had  carried  it  to  such  a  height  as  that  they  could  not  be  ignorant  of  the 
theory  of  the  eclipses.  If,  therefore,  their  rej)ort  (regarding  the  dis- 
covery of  the  theory  of  the  eclipses  by  Thales)  be  true,  it  is  not  to  be  20 
understood  in  this  generality,  but  with  certain  restrictions. 

Era  of  Philippus  Aridseus.  —  The  era  of  Philip,  the  father  of 
Alexander,  is  based  upon  Egyptian  years.  But  this  era  is  also  frequently 
dated  from  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  Macedonian,  the  Founder.  In 
both  cases  the  matter  is  the  same,  and  there  is  only  a  difference  in  the 
expression.  Because  Alexander,  the  Founder,  was  succeeded  by  Philip, 
therefore,  it  is  the  same,  whether  you  date  from  the  death  of  the  former, 
or  the  accession  of  the  latter,  the  epoch  being  a  connecting  link  common 
to  both  of  them.  Those  who  employ  this  era  are  called  Alexandrines. 
On  this  era  Theon  Alexandrinus  has  based  his  so-called  "  Canon."  30 

Era  of  Alexander. — Then  follows  the  era  of  Alexander  the  Greek,  to 
whom  some  people  give  the  surname  Bicornutus.  On  the  difference  of 
opinions  regarding  this  personage,  I  shall  enlarge  in  the  next  following 
chapter.  This  era  is  based  upon  Greek  years.  It  is  in  use  among  most 
nations.  When  Alexander  had  left  Greece  at  the  age  of  twenty-six  years, 
prepared  to  fight  with  Darius,  the  king  of  the  Persians,  and  marching 
upon  his  capital,  he  went  down  to  Jerusalem,  which  was  inhabited  by  the 
Jews  ;  then  he  ordered  the  Jews  to  give  up  the  era  of  Moses  and  David, 
and  to  use  his  era  instead,  and  to  adopt  that  very  year,  the  twenty- 
seventh  of  his  life,  as  the  epoch  of  this  era.  The  Jews  obeyed  his  40 
command,  and  accepted  what  he  ordered ;  for  the  Rabbis  allowed  them 
such  a  change  at  the  end  of  each  millennium  after  Moses.  And  at  that 
time  just  a  millennium  had  become  complete,  and  their  offerings  and 
sacrifices  had  ceased  to  be  practised,  as  they  relate.  So  they  adopted  his 
era,  and  used  it  for  fixing  all  the  occurrences  of  their  months  and  days, 


ON  THE  NATURE  OP  THE  BEAS.  33 

as  they  had  already  done  in  the  twenty-sixth  year  of  his  life,  when  he 
first  started  from  home,  with  the  view  of  finishing  the  millennium  (i.e. 
so  as  not  to  enter  uj^on  a  new  one).  When,  then,  the  first  thousand 
years  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri  had  passed,  the  end  of  which  did  not  coin- 
cide with  any  striking  event  which  people  are  accustomed  to  make  the 
epoch  of  an  era,  they  kept  the  ^ra  Alexandri,  and  continued  to  use  it. 
The  Grreeks  also  use  it.  But  according  to  the  report  of  a  book,  which 
Habib  ben  Bihriz,  the  metropolitan  of  Mosul,  has  translated,  the  Greeks 
used  to  date — before  they  adopted  the  ^ra  Alexandri — from  the  migration 
10  of  Tunan  ben  Paris  from  Babel  towards  the  west. 

Era  of  Aug'UStus. — Next  follows  the  era  of  the  king  Augustus,  the 
first  of  the  Roman  emperors  (Ccesares).  The  word  "  Ccesar  "  means  in 
Frankish  {i.e.  Latin)  "he  has  been  drawn  forth,  after  a  cutting  has  been 
made."  The  explanation  is  this,  that  his  mother  died  in  labour-pains, 
whilst  she  was  pregnant  with  him ;  then  her  womb  was  opened  by  the 
"  Csesarean  operation,"  and  he  was  drawn  forth,  and  got  the  surname 
"  Ccesar."  He  used  to  boast  before  the  kings,  that  he  had  not  come  out 
of  the  jjudendum  muliebre  of  a  woman,  as  also  'Ahmad  ben  Sahl  ben 
Hashim  ben  Alwalid  ben  Hamla  ben  Kamkar  ben  Yazdajird  ben 
20  Shahryar  used  to  boast,  that  the  same  had  happened  to  him.  And  he 
(Augustus)  used  to  revile  people  calling  them  "  so7i  of  the  pudendum 
muliebre." 

The  historians  relate,  that  Jesus,  the  son  of  Mary,  was  born  in  the 
forty-third  year  of  his  reign.  This,  however,  does  not  agree  with  the 
order  of  the  years.  The  chronological  tables,  in  which  we  shall  give  a 
corrected  sequence  of  events,  necessitate  that  his  birth  should  have  taken 
place  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  his  reign. 

It  was  Augxistus  who  caused  the  peoj^le  of  Alexandria  to  give  up  their 

system  of  reckoning  by  non-intercalated  Egyptian  years,  and  to  adopt 

30  the  system  of  the  Chaldseans,  which  in  our  time  is  used  in  Egypt.     This 

he  did  in  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign  ;    therefore,  they  took  this  year  as 

the  epoch  of  this  era. 

Era  of  Antoninus. — The  era  of  Antoninus,  one  of  the  Roman  kings, 
was  based  upon  G-reek  years.  Ptolemy  corrected  the  places  of  the  fixed 
stars,  dating  from  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  and  noted  them  in  the 
Almagest,  directing  that  their  positions  should  be  advanced  one  degree 
every  year. 

Era  of  Diocletianus. — Then  follows  the  era  of  Diocletian,  the  last  of 
the  Roman  kings  who  worshipped  the  idols.  After  the  sovereign  power 
40  had  been  transferred  to  him,  it  remained  among  his  descendants.  After 
him  reigned  Constantine,  who  was  the  first  Roman  king  who  became  a 
Christian.  The  years  of  this  era  are  Greek.  Several  authors  of  Canons 
have  used  this  era,  and  have  fixed  thereby  the  necessary  paradigms  of 
the  prognostics,  the  Tempora  natalicia,  and  the  conjunctions. 

Era  of  the  Flight.— Then   follows   the  era  of   the  Flight   of  the 

3 


29. 


34  ALBiRUNt. 

Prophet  Muhammad  from  Makka  to  Madina.  It  is  based  upon  Lunar 
years,  in  which  the  commencements  of  the  months  are  determined  by  the 
appearance  of  New  Moon,  not  by  calculation.  It  is  used  by  the  whole 
Muhammadan  world.  The  circumstances  under  which  this  very  point 
was  adojDted  as  an  epoch,  and  not  the  time  when  the  Prophet  was  either 
born  or  entrusted  with  his  divine  mission  or  died,  were  the  following  : — 
Maimun  ben  Mihran  relates,  that  Omar  ben  Alkhattab,  when  people  one 
day  handed  over  to  him  a  cheque  payable  in  the  month  Sha'hdn,  said : — 
"  Which  Sha'ban  is  meant  ?  that  one  in  which  we  are  or  the  next 
Sha'ban?"  Thereupon  he  assembled  the  Companions  of  the  Prophet,  10 
and  asked  their  advice  regarding  the  matter  of  chronology,  which  troubled 
his  mind.  They  answered :  "  It  is  necessary  to  inform  ourselves  of  the 
practice  of  the  Persians  in  this  respect."  Then  they  fetched  Hurmuzan, 
and  asked  him  for  information.  He  said  :  "  We  have  a  computation 
which  we  call  Mdh-rnz,  i.e.  the  computation  of  months  and  days."  People 
arabized  this  word,  and  pronounced  tjy*  (Mu' arrahh) ,  and  coined  as 
p.  30.  its  infinitive  the  word  "  TaWiMi."  Hurmuzan  explained  to  them  how 
they  used  this  Mah-ruz,  and  what  the  Greeks  used  of  a  similar  kind. 
Then  Omar  sj)oke  to  the  Companions  of  the  Prophet :  "  Establish  a  mode 
of  dating  for  the  intercourse  of  people."  Now  some  said :  "  Date  ac-  20 
cording  to  the  era  of  the  Greeks,  for  they  date  according  to  the  era  of 
Alexander,"  Others  objected  that  this  mode  of  dating  was  too  lengthy, 
and  said  :  "  Date  according  to  the  era  of  the  Persians."  But  then  it  was  ob- 
jected, that  as  soon  as  a  new  king  arises  among  the  Persians  he  abolishes 
the  era  of  his  predecessor.     So  they  could  not  come  to  an  agreement. 

Alsha'bi  relates,  that  'Abu-Musa  Al'ash'ari  wrote  to  Omar  ben 
Alkhattab  :  "  Tou  send  us  letters  without  a  date."  Omar  had  already 
organized  the  registers,  had  established  the  taxes  and  regTilations,  and 
was  in  want  of  an  era,  not  liking  the  old  ones.  On  this  occasion  he 
assembled  the  Companions,  and  took  their  advice.  Now  the  most  au-  30 
thentic  date,  which  involves  no  obscurities  nor  possible  mishaps,  seemed 
to  be  the  date  of  the  flight  of  the  Prophet,  and  of  his  arrival  at  Madina 
on  Monday  the  8th  of  the  month  Eabi'  I.,  whilst  the  beginning  of  the 
year  was  a  Thursday.  Now  he  adopted  this  epoch,  and  fixed  thereby  the 
dates  in  all  his  affairs.     This  happened  A.H.  17. 

The  reason  why  Omar  selected  this  event  as  an  epoch,  and  not  the 
time  of  the  birth  of  the  Prophet,  or  the  time  when  he  was  entrusted  with 
his  divine  mission,  is  this,  that  regarding  those  two  dates  there  existed 
such  a  divergency  of  opinion,  as  did  not  allow  it  to  be  made  the  basis  of 
something  which  must  be  agreed  upon  universally.  40 

Further  he  (Alsha'bi)  says :  People  say  that  He  was  born  in  the  night 
of  Monday  the  2nd,  or  the  8th,  or  the  13th  of  Eabi'  I. ;  others  say  that 
he  was  born  in  the  forty-sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Kisra  Anoshirwan. 
In  consequence  there  is  also  a  difference  of  opinions  regarding  the  length 
of  his   ife,  corresponding  to  the  different  statements  regarding  his  birth. 


ON  THE  NATUEE  OF  THE  ERAS.  35 

Besides,  the  single  years  were  of  different  length,  some  having  been 
intercalated,  others  not,  alDOut  the  time  when  intercalation  was  prohibited. 
Considering  further  that  after  the  Flight,  the  affairs  of  Islam  were 
thoroughly  established,  while  heathenism  decreased,  that  the  Prophet 
was  saved  from  the  calamities  prepared  for  him  by  the  infidels  of  Makka, 
and  that  after  the  Flight  his  conquests  followed  each  other  in  rapid 
succession,  we  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Flight  was  to  the  Prophet, 
what  to  the  kings  is  their  accession,  and  their  taking  possession  of  the 
whole  sovereign  power, 

10  As  regards  the  well  known  date  of  his  death,  people  do  not  like  to 
date  from  the  death  of  a  prophet  or  a  king,  except  the  prophet  be  a  liar, 
or  the  king  an  enemy,  whose  death  people  enjoy,  and  wish  to  make  a 
festival  of  ;  or  he  be  one  of  those  with  whom  a  dynasty  is  extinguished, 
so  that  his  followers  among  themselves  make  this  date  a  memorial  of 
him,  and  a  mourning  feast.  But  this  latter  case  has  only  happened  very 
seldom.  E.g.  the  era  of  Alexander  the  Founder  is  reckoned  from  the 
time  of  his  death,  he  having  been  considered  as  one  of  those  from  whom 
the  era  of  the  kings  of  the  Chaldseans  and  the  western  kings  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  era  of  the  Ptolemaean  kings,  of  whom  each  is  called  Ptolemy, 

20  which  means  warlihe.  Therefore,  those  to  whom  the  empire  was  trans- 
ferred, dated  from  the  time  of  his  death,  considering  it  as  a  joyful  event. 
It  is  precisely  the  same  in  the  case  of  the  era  of  Yazdajird  ben  Shahryar. 
For  the  Magians  date  from  the  time  of  his  death,  because  when  he 
perished,  the  dynasty  was  extinguished.  Therefore  they  dated  from  his 
death,  mourning  over  him,  and  lamenting  for  the  downfal  of  their  p.  31. 
religion. 

At  the  time  of  the  Prophet,  people  had  given  to  each  of  the  years 
between  the  Flight  and  his  death  a  special  name,  derived  from  some 
event,  which  had  happened  to  him  in  that  identical  year. 

30   The  1st  year  after  the  Flight  is  "  the  year  of  the  permission." 

The  2nd  year  „  "  the  year  of  the  order  for  fighting." 

The  3rd  year  „  "  the  year  of  the  trial." 

The  4th  year  „  "  the  year  of  the  congratulation  on  the 

occasion  of  mamage." 
The  5th  year  „  "  the  year  of  the  earthquake." 

The  6th  year  „  "  the  year  of  inquiring." 

The  7th  year  „  "  the  year  of  gaining  victory." 

The  8th  year  „  "  the  year  of  equality." 

The  9th  year  „  "  the  year  of  exemption." 

40  The  10th  year  „  "  the  year  of  farewell." 

By  these  names  it  was  rendered  superfluous  to  denote  the  years  by  the 
numbers,  the  1st,  the  2nd,  etc.,  after  the  Plight. 

Era  of  Yazdajird. — Next  follows  the  era  of  the  reign  of  Yazdajird 
ben   Shahryar  ben  Kisra   Parwiz,   which    is    based  upon    Persian  non- 

3    * 


36  ALBfRUNi. 

intercalated  years.  It  has  been  employed  in  tlie  Canons,  because  it  is 
easy  and  simple  to  use.  The  reason  why  precisely  the  era  of  this  king 
among  all  the  kings  of  Persia  has  become  so  generally  known,  is  this 
that  he  ascended  the  throne,  when  the  empire  had  been  shattered,  when 
the  women  had  got  hold  of  it,  and  usurpers  had  seized  all  power. 
Besides,  he  was  the  last  of  their  kings,  and  it  was  he  with  whom  Omar 
ben  Alkhattab  fought  most  of  those  famous  wars  and  battles.  Finally, 
the  empire  succumbed,  and  he  was  put  to  flight  and  was  killed  in  the 
house  of  a  miller  at  Marw-i-Shahijan. 

Reform  of  the  Calendar  by  the  Khalif  Almu'tadid.— Lastly,  lo 

the  era  of  'Ahmad  ben  Talha  Almu'tadid-billah  the  Khalif  was  based 
upon  Greek  years  and  Persian  months ;  however,  with  this  difference, 
that  in  every  fourth  year  one  day  was  intercalated.  The  following  is  the 
origin  of  this  era,  as  reported  by  'Abii-Bakr  Alsuli  in  his  Kitdb-aVaurdk, 
and  by  Hamza  ben  Alhasan  Alisfahani  in  his  book  on  famous  poems, 
relating  to  Nauruz  and  Mihrjan.  Almutawakkil,  while  wandering  about 
over  one  of  his  hunting-grounds,  observed  corn  that  had  not  yet  ripened, 
and  not  yet  attained  its  proper  time  for  being  reaped.  So  he  said : 
"  Ubaid-allah  ben  Tahya  has  asked  my  permission  for  levying  the  taxes, 
whilst  I  observe  that  the  corn  is  still  green.  From  what  then  are  people  20 
to  pay  their  taxes  ?  "  Thereupon  he  was  informed,  that  this,  in  fact,  had 
done  a  great  deal  of  harm  to  the  people,  so  that  they  were  compelled  to 
borrow  and  to  incur  debts,  and  even  to  emigrate  from  their  homes  ;  that 
they  had  many  complaints  and  wrongs  to  recount.  Then  the  Khalif 
said :  "  Has  this  arisen  lately  during  my  reign,  or  has  it  always  been  so  ?  " 
And  people  answered  :  "  No.  This  is  going  on  according  to  the  regula- 
tions established  by  the  Persian  kings  for  the  levying  of  the  taxes  at  the 
time  of  Nauruz.  In  this  their  example  has  been  followed  by  the  kings 
of  the  Arabs."  Then  the  Khalif  ordered  the  Maubadh  to  be  brought 
before  him,  and  said  to  him  :  "  This  has  been  the  subject  of  much  re-  30 
search  on  my  part,  and  I  cannot  find  that  I  violate  the  regulations  of 
the  Persians.  How,  then,  did  they  levy  the  taxes  from  their  subjects — 
considering  the  beneficence  and  good  will  which  they  observed  towards 
them  ?  And  why  did  they  allow  the  taxes  to  be  levied  at  a  time  like 
32.  this,  when  the  fruit  and  corn  are  not  yet  ripe  ?  "  To  this  the  Maubadh 
replied  :  "  Although  they  always  levied  the  taxes  at  Nauruz,  this  never 
happened  except  at  the  time  when  the  corn  was  ripe."  The  Khalif 
asked :  "  And  how  was  that  ?  "  Now  the  Maubadh  explained  to  him  the 
nature  of  their  years,  their  different  lengths,  and  their  need  of  intercala- 
tion. Then  he  proceeded  to  relate,  that  the  Persians  used  to  intercalate  40 
the  years ;  but  when  Islam  had  been  established,  intercalation  was 
abolished ;  and  that  did  much  harm  to  the  people.  The  landholders 
assembled  at  the  time  of  Hisham  ben  'Abdalmalik  and  called  on  Khsilid 
Alkasri ;  they  explained  to  him  the  subject,  and  asked  him  to  postpone 
Nauruz  by  a  month.     Khalid  declined  to  do  so,  but  reported  on  the 


ON  THE  XATUEE  OF  THE  EEAS.  37 

subject  to  Hishfim,  who  said :  "  I  am  afraid,  that  to  this  subject  may  be 
applied  the  word  of  God :  "  Intercalation  is  only  an  increase  of  heathenism  " 
(Sura  ix.  37).  Afterwards  at  the  time  of  Alrashid  the  landholders  as- 
sembled again  and  called  on  Tahya  ben  Khalid  ben  Barmak,  asking  him 
to  postpone  Nauruz  by  about  two  months.  Now,  Tahya  had  the  inten- 
tion to  do  so,  but  then  his  enemies  began  to  speak  of  the  subject,  and 
said:  "He  is  partial  to  Zoroastrianism."  Therefore  he  dropped  the 
subject,  and  the  matter  remained  as  it  was  before. 

jN"ow  Almutawakkil  ordered  'Ibrahim  ben  Al'abbas  Alsuli  to  be  brought 
10  before  him,  and  told  him,  that  in  accordance  with  what  the  Maubadh  had 
related  of  Nauruz,  he  should  compute  the  days,  and  compose  a  fixed 
Canon  (Calendar)  ;  that  he  should  compose  a  paper  on  the  postponement 
of  Nauruz,  which  was  to  be  sent  by  order  of  the  Khalif  to  all  the 
provinces  of  the  empire.  It  was  determined  to  postpone  ISTauruz  till  the 
17th  of  Haziran.  Alsuli  did  [as  he  was  ordered,  and  the  letters  arrived 
in  the  provinces  in  Muharram  a.h.  243.  The  poet,  Albuhturi  has  com- 
posed a  Kasida  on  the  ^subject  in  praise  of  Almutawakkil,  where  he 
says  : — 

"  The  day  of  Nauruz  has  returned  to  that  time,  on  which  it  was  fixed  by 
20  Ardashir. 

Thou  hast  transferred  Nauruz  to  its  original  condition,  whilst  before 

thee  it  was  wandering  about,  circulating. 
Now  thou  hast  levied  the  taxes  at  Nauruz,  and  that  was  a  memorable 

benefit  to  the  people. 
They  bring  thee  praise  and  thanks,  and  thou  bringest  them  justice 
and  a  present,  well  deserving  of  thanks." 

However,  Almutawakkil  was  killed,  and  his  plan  was  not  carried  out, 
until  Almu'tadid  ascended  the  throne  of  the  Khalifate,  delivered  the 
provinces  of  the  empire  from  their  usurpers,  and  gaiaed  sufiicient  leisure 

30  to  study  the  affairs  of  his  subjects.  He  attributed  the  greatest  import- 
ance to  intercalation  and  to  the  carrying  out  of  this  measure.  He 
followed  the  method  of  Almutawakkil  regarding  the  postponement  of 
Nauriiz  ;  however  he  treated  the  subject  differently,  inasmuch  as  Almu- 
tawakkil had  made  the  basis  of  his  computation  the  interval  between  his 
year  (i.e.  that  year,  in  which  he  then  happened  to  live) ,  and  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Yazdajird,  whilst  Almu'tadid  took  the  interval  between 
his  year  and  that  year  in  which  the  Persian  empire  perished  by  the  death 
of  Yazdajird,  because  he — or  those  who  did  the  work  for  him — held  this 
opinion,  that  si7ice  that  time  intercalation   had   been  neglected.      This 

40  interval  he  found  to  be  243  years  and  60  days  +  a  fraction,  arising  from 
the  day-quarters  (exceeding  the  365  days  of  the  Solar  year).  These  60 
days  he  added  at  Nauruz  of  his  year,  and  put  Nauruz  at  the  end  of 
them,  which  fell  upon  a  Wednesday,  the  1st  Khurdadh-Mah  of  that  year, 
coinciding  with  the  11th  of  Haziran.     Thereupon  he  fixed  Nauruz  ia  the 


38  '  ALBfEUNI. 

Greek  montlis  for  this  purpose,  that  the  months  of  his  year  should  be 
intercalated  at  the  same  time  when  the  Greeks  intercalate  their  years. 
The  man  who  was  entrusted  with  carrying  out  his  orders,  was  his  Wazir 
'Abu-alkasim  'Ubaid-allah  ben  Sulaiman  ben  Wahb.  To  this  subject 
the  following  verses  of  the  astronomer  'Ali  ben  Tahya  refer : — 

"  0  thou  restorer  of  the  untarnished  glory,  renovator  of  the  shattered 

empire ! 
Who  hast  again  established  among  us  the  pillar  of  religion,  after  it  had 

been  tottering  ! 
Thou  hast  surpassed  all  the  kings  like  the  foremost  horse  in  a  race.        10 
How  blessed  is  that  Nauruz,  when  thou  hast  earned  thanks  besides 

the  reward  (due  to  thee  for  it  in  heaven)  ! 
By  postponing  Nauruz  thou  hast  justly  made  precede,  what  they  had 

postponed." 

On  the  same  subject  'Ali  ben  Yahya  says  :— 

"  The  day  of  thy  Nauruz  is  one  and  the  same  day,  not  liable  to  moving 
backward, 
Always  coinciding  with  the  11th  of  Haziran." 

Now,  although  in  bringing  about  this  measure  much  ingenuity  has 
been  displayed,  Nauruz  has  not  thereby  returned  to  that  place  which  it  20 
occupied  at  the  time  when  intercalation  was  still  practised  in  the  Persian 
empire.  Tor  the  Persians  had  already  begun  to  neglect  their  intercalation 
nearly  seventy  years  before  the  death  of  Tazdajird.  Because  at  the 
time  of  Yazdajird  ben  Shapur  they  had  intercalated  into  their  year  two 
months,  one  of  them  as  the  necessary  compensation  for  that  space  of 
time,  by  which  the  year  had  moved  backward  (it  being  too  short).  The 
five  Epagomense  they  put  as  a  mark  at  the  end  of  this  intercalary  month, 
and  the  turn  had  just  come  to  Aban-Mah,  as  we  shall  explain  hereafter. 
The  second  month  they  intercalated  with  regard  to  the  future,  that  no 
other  intercalation  might  be  needed  for  a  long  period.  30 

Now,  if  you  subtract  from  the  sum  of  the  years  between  Yazdajird  ben 
Shapur  and  Yazdajird  ben  Shahryar  120  years,  you  get  a  remainder  of 
nearly— but  not  exactly — 70  years  ;  there  is  much  uncertainty  and  con- 
fusion in  the  Persian  chronology.  The  Portio  intercalanda  of  these  70 
years  would  amount  to  nearly  17  days.  Therefore  it  would  have  been 
necessary,  if  we  calculate  without  mathematical  accuracy,  to  postpone 
Nauruz  not  60,  but  77  days,  in  order  that  it  might  coincide  with  the 
28th  of  Haziran.  The  man  who  worked  out  this  reform,  was  of  opinion, 
that  the  Persian  method  of  intercalation  was  similar  to  the  Greek  method. 
Therefore  he  computed  the  days  since  the  extinction  of  their  empire.  40 
Whilst  in  reality  the  matter  is  a  different  one,  as  we  have  already  ex- 
plained, and  shall  more  fully  explain  hereafter. 

This   is   the   last   of  those   eras  that  have  become   celebrated.     But 


ON  THE  NATUEE  OP  THE  ERAS.  39 

perhaps  some  other  nations,  whose  countries  are  far  distant  from  ours, 
have  eras  of  then-  own,  which  have  not  been  handed  down  to  posterity,  p.  34. 
or  such  eras  as  are  now  obsolete.  For  instance,  the  Persians  in  the  time 
of  Zoroastrianism  used  to  date  successively  by  the  years  of  the  reign  of 
each  of  their  kings.  When  a  king  died,  they  dropped  his  era,  and 
adopted  that  of  his  successor.  The  duration  of  the  reigns  of  their  kings 
we  have  stated  in  the  tables  which  will  follow  hereafter. 

Epochs  of  the  Ancient  Arabs.— As  a  second  instance  we  mention 
the  Ishmaelite  Arabs.     For  they  used  to  date  from  the  construction  of 

10  the  Ka'ba  by  Abraham  and  Ishmael  till  the  time  when  they  were  dis- 
persed and  left  Tihama.  Those  who  went  away  dated  from  the  time  of 
their  exodus,  whilst  those  who  remained  in  the  country  dated  from  the 
time  when  the  last  party  of  the  emigrants  had  left.  But  afterwards, 
after  a  long  course  of  time,  they  dated  from  the  year  when  the  chieftain- 
ship devolved  upon  'Amr  ben  Eabi'a,  known  by  the  name  of  'Amr  ben 
Tahya,  who  is  said  to  have  changed  the  religion  of  Abraham,  to  have 
brought  from  the  city  of  Balka  the  idol  Hubal,  and  to  have  himself  made 
the  idols  'Isaf  and  Na'ila.  This  is  said  to  have  happened  at  the  time  of 
Shapur  Dhu-al'aktaf.     This  synchronism,  however,  is  not  borne  out  by 

20  the  comparison  of  the  chronological  theories  of  both  sides  (Arabs  and 
Persians). 

Afterwards  they  dated  from  the  death  of  Ka'b  ben  Lu'ayy — till  the 
Year  of  Treason,  in  which  the  Banu-Yarbu'  stole  certain  garments  which 
some  of  the  kings  of  Himyar  sent  to  the  Ka'ba,  and  when  a  general 
fighting  among  the  people  occurred  at  the  time  of  the  holy  pilgrimage. 
Thereupon  they  dated  from  the  Tear  of  Treason  till  the  Year  of  the  Ele- 
phants, in  which  the  Lord,  when  the  Ethiopians  were  coming  on  with  the 
intention  of  destroying  the  Ka'ba,  brought  down  the  consequences  of 
their  cunning  enterprise  upon  their  own  necks,  and  annihilated  them. 

30  Thereupon  they  dated  from  the  era  of  the  Hijra. 

Some  Arabs  used  to  date  from  famous  accidents,  and  from  celebrated 
days  of  battle,  which  they  fought  among  themselves.  As  such  epochs 
the  Banu-Kuraish,  e.g.  had  the  following  ones  : — 

1.  The  day  of  Alfijar  in  the  sacred  month. 

2.  The  day  of  the  Confederacy  of  Alfudul,  in  which  the  contracting 
parties  bound  themselves  to  assist  all  those  to  whom  wrong  was  done. 
Because  the  Banu-Kuraish  committed  wrong  and  violence  against  each 
other  within  the  holy  precinct  of  Makka. 

3.  The  year  of  the  death  of  Hisham  ben  Almughira  Almakhzumi, 
40  for  the  celebration  of  his  memory. 

(4)  The  year  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  Ka'ba,  by  order  of  the 
Prophet  Muhammad. 

The  tribes  'Aus  and  Khazraj  used  the  following  days  as  epochs : — 
1.  The  day  of  Alfa^a. 


40  ALBlEUNi. 

2.  The  day  of  Alrabi*. 

3.  The  day  of  Abuhaba. 

4.  The  day  of  Alsarara. 

5.  The  day  of  Dahis  and  Ghabra. 

6.  The  day  of  Bughath. 

7.  The  day  of  Hatib. 

8.  The  day  of  Madris  and  Mu'abbis. 

Among   the   tribes  Bakr  and   Taghlib,  the   two   sons  of  Wa'il,  the 
following  epochs  were  used : — 

1.  The  day  of  'Unaiza.  10 

2.  The  day  of  Alhinw. 

3.  The  day  of  Tahlak-allimam. 

4.  The  day  of  Alkusaibat. 

5.  The  day  of  Alfasil. 

These  and  other  "  war-days  "  were  used  as  epochs  among  the  different 
tribes  and  clans  of  the  Arabs,  Their  names  refer  to  the  places  where 
they  were  fought,  and  to  their  causes. 

If,  now,  these  eras  were  kept  in  the  proj)er  order  in  which  chronological 
subjects  are  to  be  treated,  we  should  do  with  them  the  same  that  we 
intend  to  do  with  all  the  other  subjects  connected  with  eras.  However,  20 
people  say  that  between  the  year  of  the  death  of  Ka'b  ben  Lu'ayy  and 
the  year  of  Treason  there  is  an  interval  of  620  years,  and  between  the 
year  of  Treason  and  the  year  of  the  Elephants  an  interval  of  110  years. 
The  Prophet  was  born  50  years  after  the  invasion  of  the  Ethioj)ians, 
and  between  his  birth  and  the  year  of  Alfijar  there  were  20  years.  At 
p.  35.  this  battle  the  Prophet  was  present,  as  he  has  said  himself :  "  I  was 
present  on  the  day  of  Alfijar.  Then  I  shot  at  my  uncles."  Between 
the  day  of  Alfijar  and  the  reconstruction  of  the  Ka'ba  there  are  15  years, 
and  5  years  between  the  reconstruction  of  the  Ka'ba  and  the  time 
when  Muhammad  was  entrusted  with  his  divine  mission.  30 

Likewise  the  Himyarites  and  the  Banu  Kahtan  used  to  date  by  the 
reigns  of  their  Tubba's,  as  the  Persians  by  the  reigns  of  their  Kisras, 
and  the  Greeks  by  the  reigns  of  their  Caesars.  However,  the  rule  of 
the  Himyarites  did  not  always  proceed  in  complete  order,  and  in  their 
chronology  there  is  much  confusion.  Notwithstanding,  we  have  stated 
the  duration  of  the  reigns  of  their  kings  in  our  tables,  as  also  those 
of  the  kings  of  the  Banu-Lakhm,  who  inhabited  Hira,  and  were  settled 
there,  and  had  made  it  their  home. 

Chorasmian  Antiquities.— In  a  similar  way  the  peoj)le  of  Khwa- 
rizm  jjroceeded.     For  they  dated  from  the  beginning  of  the  colonization  40 
of  their  country,  a.  980  before  Alexander.      Afterwards  they  adopted 
as   the   epoch   of  an   era   the   event  of  the  coming  of    Siyawush   ben 
Kaika'us  down  to   Khwarizm,  and  the  rule  of  Kaikhusru,  and  of  his 


ON  THE  NATTJEE  OF  THE  EEAS.  41 

descendants  over  tlie  country,  dating  from  tlie  time  when  he  immigrated 
and  extended  his  sway  over  the  empire  of  the  Turks.  This  happened 
92  years  after  the  colonization  of  the  country. 

At  a  later  time  they  imitated  the  example  of  the  Persians  in  dating 
by  the  years  of  the  reign  of  each  king  of  the  line  of  Kaikhusru,  who 
ruled  over  the  country,  and  who  was  called  by  the  title  of  8hdhiya. 
This  went  on  down  to  the  reign  of  Afrigh,  one  of  the  kings  of  that 
family.  His  name  was  considered  a  bad  omen  like  that  of  Tazdajird 
the  Wicked,  with  the  Persians.  His  son  succeeded  him  in  the  rule  of 
10  the  country.  He  (Afrigh)  built  his  castle  behind  Alfir,  A.  Alexandri 
616,  Now  people  began  to  date  from  him  and  his  children  (i.e.  by  the 
years  of  his  reign  and  that  of  his  descendants). 

This  Alfir  was  a  fortress  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city  of  Khwarizm, 
built  of  clay  and  tiles,  consisting  of  three  forts,  one  beiag  built  within 
the  other,  and  all  three  beiag  of  equal  height ;  and  risiag  above  the 
whole  of  it  were  the  royal  palaces,  very  much  like  Grhumdan  in  Yaman 
at  the  time  when  it  was  the  residence  of  the  Tubba's.  Por  this  Grhum- 
dan was  a  castle  in.  San'a,  opposite  the  great  mosque,  founded  upon  a 
rock,  of  which  people  say  that  it  was  built  by  Sem  ben  ISToah  after  the 
20  Deluge.  In  the  castle  there  is  a  cistern,  which  he  (Sem)  had  digged. 
Others  think  that  it  was  a  temple  built  by  Aldahhak  for  Venus.  This 
Alfir  was  to  be  seen  from  the  distance  of  10  miles  and  more.  It  was 
broken  and  shattered  by  the  Oxus,  and  was  swept  away  piece  by  piece 
every  year,  till  the  last  remains  of  it  had  disappeared  A.  Alexandri 
1305. 

Of  this  dynasty  was  reigning  at  the  time  when  the  Prophet  was 
entrusted  with  his  divine  mission — 

10.  Arthamukh  ben 
9.  Buzkar  ben 

30  8.  Khamgri  ben 

7.  Shawush  ben 
6.  Sakhr  ben 
5.  Azkajawar  ben 
4.  Askajamuk  ben 
3.  Sakhassak  ben 
2.  Baghra  ben 
1.  Afrigh. 

When  Kutaiba  ben  Muslim  had  conquered  Khwarizm  the  second  time, 
after  the  inhabitants  had  rebelled,  he  constituted  as  their  king — 
40  14.  Askajamuk  ben 

13.  Azkajawar  ben 
12.  Sabriben 

11.  Sakhr  ben 
10.  Arthamukh, 


42  ALBiR-DNi. 

p.  36.  and  appointed  him  as  their  8Mh.  The  descendants  of  the  Kisras  lost 
the  ofl&ce  of  the  "  Walt"  (the  governorship),  but  they  retained  the 
office  of  the  SMh,  it  being  hereditary  among  them.  And  they  accommo- 
dated themselves  to  dating  from  the  Hijra  according  to  the  use  of  the 
Muslims. 

Kutaiba  ben  Muslim  had  extinguished  and  ruined  in  every  possible 
way  all  those  who  knew  how  to  write  and  to  read  the  Khwarizmi  writing, 
who  knew  the  history  of  the  country  and  who  studied  their  sciences. 
In  consequence  these  things  are  involved  in  so  much  obscurity,  that  it  is 
impossible  to  obtain  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  10 
country  since  the  time  of  Islam  (not  to  speak  of  pre-Muhammadan 
times). 

The  Wildya  (governorship)  remained  afterwards  alternately  in  the 
hands  of  this  family  and  of  others,  till  the  time  when  they  lost  both 
Wildya  (governorship)  and  Shahiyya  (Shahdom),  after  the  death  of  the 
martyr 

22.  'Abu  'Abdallah  Muhammad  ben 

21.  'Ahmad  ben 

20.  Muhammad  ben 

19.  'Irak  ben  20 

18.  Mansur  ben 

17.  'Abdallahben 

16.  Turkasbatha  ben 

15.  Shawushfar  ben 

14.  Askajamuk  ben 

13.  Azkajawar  ben 

12.  Sabri  ben 

11.  Sakhr  ben 

10.  Arthamukh,  in  whose  time,  as  I  have  said,  the  Proj^het  was 

entrusted  with  his  divine  mission.  30 

This  is  all  I  could  ascertain  regarding  the  celebrated  eras ;  to  know 
them  all  is  impossible  for  a  human  being.  God  helps  to  the  right 
insight. 


43 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE    DIFFERENT    OPINIONS    OF    VARIOTTS    NATIONS    REGARDING    THE    KING 
CALLED    DHfr-ALKARNAINI    OR    BICORNUTUS. 

We  must  explain  in  a  separate  chapter  what  people  think  of  the  bearer 
of  this  name,  of  Dhu-alkarnaini,  for  the  subject  interrupts,  in  this 
part  of  the  course  of  our  exposition,  the  order  in  which  our  chronology 
would  have  to  proceed. 

Now  it  has  been  said,  that  the  story  about  him  as  contained  in  the 
Koran,  is  well-known  and  intelligible  to  everybody  who  reads  the  verses 

10  specially  devoted  to  his  history.  The  pith  and  marrow  of  it  is  this,  that 
he  was  a  good  and  powerful  man,  whom  God  had  gifted  with  extra- 
ordinary authority  and  power,  and  whose  plans  he  had  crowned  with 
success  both  in  east  and  west ;  he  conquered  cities,  subdued  countries, 
reduced  his  subjects  to  submission,  and  united  the  whole  empire  under 
his  single  sway.  He  is  generally  assumed  to  have  entered  the  darkness 
in  the  north,  to  have  seen  the  remotest  frontiers  of  the  inhabitable 
world,  to  have  fought  both  against  men  and  demons,  to  have  passed 
between  Gog  and  Magog,  so  as  to  cut  off  their  communication,  to  have 
marched  out  towards  the  countries  adjoining  their  territory  ia  the  east 

20  and  north,  to  have  restrained  and  repelled  their  mischievous  inroads  by 
means  of  a  wall,  constructed  in  a  mountain-pass,  whence  they  used  to 
pour  forth.  It  was  built  of  iron-blocks  joined  by  molten  brass,  as  is 
still  now  the  practice  of  artisans. 

When  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  Alyunani  (i.e.  the  Ionian,  mean- 
ing the  Greek)  had  united  under  his  sway  the  Greek  empire  (lit.  the 
empire  of  the  Eomans),  which  had  previously  consisted  of  single  prin-  p  37 
cipalities,  he  marched  against  the  princes  of  the  west,  overpowering  and 
subduing  them,  going  as  far  as  the  Green  Sea.  Thereupon  he  returned 
to  Egypt,  where  he  founded  Alexandria,  giving  it  his  own  name.     Then 

30  he  marched  towards  Syria  and  the  Israelites  of  the  country,  went  down 


44  ALBIRUNI. 

to  Jerusalem,  sacrificed  in  its  temple  and  made  offerings.  Thence  lie 
turned  to  Armenia  and  Bab-al'abwab,  and  passed  even  beyond  it.  Tbe 
Copts,  Berbers,  and  Hebrews  obeyed  Hm.  Then  he  marched  against 
Dara,  the  son  of  Dara,  in  order  to  take  revenge  for  all  the  wrongs  which 
Syria  had  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Bukhtanassar  (Nebukadnezzar)  and 
the  Babylonians.  He  fought  with  him  and  put  him  to  flight  several 
times,  and  in  one  of  those  battles  Dara  was  killed  by  the  chief  of  his 
body-guard,  called  Naujushanas  ben  Adharbakht,  whereupon  Alexander 
took  possession  of  the  Persian  empire.  Then  he  went  to  India  and 
China,  making  war  upon  the  most  distant  nations,  and  subduing  all  the  10 
tracts  of  country  through  which  he  passed.  Thence  he  returned  to 
Khurasan,  conquered  it,  and  built  several  towns.  On  returning  to 
'Irak  he  became  ill  in  Shahrazur,  and  died.  In  all  his  enterprises  he 
acted  under  the  guidance  of  philosophical  principles,  and  in  all  his  plans 
he  took  the  advice  of  his  teacher,  Aristotle.  Now,  on  account  of  all 
this  he  has  been  thought  to  be  Dhu-alkarnaini,  or  Bicornutus. 

As  to  the  interpretation  of  this  surname,  people  say  he  was  called  so 
because  he  reached  the    two  "  liorns "  of  the  sun,  i.e.  his  rising   and 
setting  places,  just  as  Ardashir  Bahman  was  called  Longimanus,  because 
his  command  was  omnipotent,  wherever  he  liked,  as  if  he  had  only  to   20 
stretch  out  his  hand  in  order  to  set  things  right. 

According  to  others  he  was  called  so  because  he  descended  from  two 
different  "  generations  "  {lit.  horns)  i.e.  the  Greeks  and  Persians.  And 
on  this  subject  they  have  adopted  the  vague  opinions  which  the  Persians 
have  devised  in  a  hostile  spirit,  viz.  that  Dara  the  Great  had  married 
his  mother,  a  daughter  of  King  Philip,  but  she  had  an  offensive  odour, 
which  he  could  not  endure,  and  so  he  sent  her  back  to  her  father,  she 
being  pregnant ;  that  he  was  called  a  son  of  Philip,  simply  because  the 
latter  had  educated  him.  This  story  of  theirs  they  try  to  prove  by  the 
fact,  that  Alexander,  when  he  reached  Dara,  who  was  expiring,  put  his  30 
head  on  his  lap  and  spoke  to  him  :  "  0  my  brother,  tell  me,  who  did  this 
to  you,  that  I  may  take  revenge  for  you  ?  "  But  Alexander  so  addressed 
him  only  because  he  wanted  to  be  kind  towards  him,  and  to  represent 
him  (Dara)  and  himself  as  brethren,  it  being  impossible  to  address  him 
as  king,  or  to  call  him  by  his  name,  both  of  which  would  have  betrayed 
a  high  degree  of  rudeness  unbecoming  a  king. 

On  Real  and  Forged  Pedigrees. — However,  enemies  are  always 
eager  to  revile  the  parentage  of  people,  to  detract  from  their  reputation, 
and  to  attack  their  deeds  and  merits,  in  the  same  way  as  friends  and 
partisans  are  eager  to  embellish  that  which  is  ugly,  to  cover  uj)  the  weak  40 
parts,  to  proclaim  publicly  that  which  is  noble,  and  to  refer  everything 
to  great  virtues,  as  the  poet  describes  them  in  these  words  : — 

"  The  eye  of  benevolence  is  blind  to  every  fault, 
But  the  eye  of  hatred  discovers  every  vice." 


THE    KING   CALLED    BICOENUTUS.  45 

Obstinacy  in  this  direction  frequently  leads  people  to  invent  laudatory 
stories,  and  to  forge  genealogies  which  go  back  to  glorious  ancestors,  as 
has  been  done,  e.g.  for  Ibn-'Abdalrazzak  Altusi,  when  he  got  made  for 
himself  a  genealogy  out  of  the  Shahnama,  which  makes  him  descend 
from  Minosheihr,  and  also  for  the  house  of  Buwaihi,     For  'Abu-'Ishak 
'Ibrahim  ben  Hilal  Alsabi,  in  his  book  called  Altdj  (the  crown),  makes 
Buwaihi  descend  from  Bahram  Gur  by  the  following  line  of  ancestors : — 
I.  Buwaihi. 
Fanakhusru, 
10  Thaman. 

Kuhi. 
V.  Shirzil  junior. 
Shirkadha. 
Shirzil  senior. 
Shiranshah. 
Shirfana. 
X.  Sasananshah. 
Sasankhurra. 
Shuzil. 
20  Sasanadhar. 

XrV.  Bahram  Grur  the  king. 

'Abu-Muhammad  Alhasan  ben  'Ali  ben  Nsma  in  his  epitome  of  the 
history  of  the  Buwaihides,  says  that — 
I.  Buwaihi  was  the  son  of 
Fanakhusra,  the  son  of 
Thaman. 

Then  some  people  continue — 
Thaman,  the  son  of 
Kuhi,  the  son  of 
30  V.  Shirzil  junior  ; 

whilst  others  drop  Kuhi. 

Then  they  continue — 

Shirzil  senior,  the  son  of 
Shiranshah,  the  son  of 
Shirfana,  the  son  of 
Sasananshah,  the  son  of 
X.  Sasankhurra,  the  son  of 
Shuzil,  the  son  of 
Sasanadhar,  the  son  of 
40         Xin.  Bahram. 

Further,  people  disagree  regarding  this  Bahram.  Those  who  give  the 
Buwaihides  a  Persian  origin,  contend  that  he  was  Bahram  Gur,  and 
continue  the  enumeration  of  his  ancestors   (down  to  the  origin  of  the 


46  ALBtRUNi. 

familj  Sasan),  whilst  others  who   give  them  an  Arabic  origin,  say  that 
he  was — 

Bahram  ben 

Aldahhak  ben 

Al'abyad  ben 

Mu'awiya  ben 

Aldailam  ben 

Basil  ben 

Dabba  ben 

'IJdd.  -  10 

Others,  again,  mention  among  the  series  of  ancestors — 
Lahu  ben 
Aldailam  ben 
Basil, 
and  maintain  that  from  this  name  his  son  Layahaj  derived  his  name. 

He,  however,  who  considers  what  I  have  laid  down  at  the  beginning 
of  this  book,  as  the  conditio  sine  qua  non  for  the  knowledge  of  the 
proper  mean  between  disparagement  and  exaggeration,  and  the  necessity 
of  the  greatest  carefulness  for  everybody  who  wants  to  give  a  fair 
judgment,  will  be  aware  of  the  fact,  that  the  first  member  of  this  family  20 
who  became  celebrated  was  Buwaihi  ben  Fanakhusra.  And  it  is  not  at 
all  known  that  those  tribes  were  particularly  careful  in  preserving  and 
continuing  their  genealogical  traditions,  nor  that  they  knew  anything 
like  this  of  the  family  Buwaihi,  before  they  came  into  power.  It  very 
rarely  happens  that  genealogies  are  preserved  without  any  interruption 
during  a  long  period  of  time.  In  such  cases  the  only  possible  way  of 
distinguishing  a  just  claim  to  some  noble  descent  from  a  false  one  is 
the  agreement  of  all,  and  the  assent  of  the  whole  generation  in  ques- 
tion regarding  that  subject.  An  instance  of  this  is  the  lord  of 
mankind, —  30 

I.  Muhammad,  for  he  is  the  son  of 
'Abd-allah  ben 
'Abd-almuttalib  ben 
Hashim  ben 
V.  'Abd-Manaf  ben 
Kusayy  ben 
Kilab  ben 
Murra  ben 
Ka'b  ben 
X.  Lu'ayy  ben  40 

Ghalib  ben 
Fihr  ben 
Malik  ben 
Alnadr  ben 


THE    KING   CALLED   BICOENUTUS.  47 

XV.  Kinana  ben 
Khuzaima  ben 
Mudrika  ben 
'Ilyas  ben 
Mudar  ben 
XX.  Nizar  ben 
Ma'add  ben 
XXn.  'Adnan. 

Nobody  in  the  world  doubts  this  lineage  of  ancestors,  as  they  do  not 
10  doubt  either,  that  he  descends  from  Ishmael,  the  son  of  Abraham.  The  p.  39. 
ancestry  beyond  Abraham  is  to  be  found  in  the  Thora.  However, 
regarding  the  link  of  parentage  between  'Adnan  and  Ishmael  there  is  a 
considerable  divergence  of  opinions,  inasmuch  as  some  people  consider 
as  the  father  the  person  whom  others  take  for  the  son,  and  vice  versa, 
and  as  they  add  considerably  in  some  places,  and  leave  out  in  others. 

Further  as  to  our  master,  the  commander,  the  prince,  the  glorious  and 
victorious,  the  benefactor,  Shams-alma'ali,  may  God  give  him  a  long 
life,  not  one  of  his  friends,  whom  may  Grod  help,  nor  any  of  his 
opponents,  whom  may  God  desert,  denies  his  noble  and  ancient  descent, 
20  well  established  on  both  sides,  although  his  pedigree  back  to  the  origin 
of  his  princely  family  has  not  been  preserved  without  any  interruption. 
On  the  one  side  he  descends  from  Wardanshah,  whose  nobility  is 
well-known  throughout  Ghilan ;  and  this  prince  had  a  son,  besides 
the  prince,  the  martyr  Mardawij.  People  say,  that  the  son  of  Wardan- 
shah obeyed  the  orders  of  'Asfar  ben  Shirawaihi,  and  that  it  was  he, 
who  suggested  to  him  (his  brother  Mardawij)  the  idea  of  delivering  the 
people  from  the  tyranny  and  oppression  of  'Asfar.  On  the  other 
side  he  descends  from  the  kings  of  Media,  called  the  Ispahbads  of 
Khurasan  and  the  Farkhwarjarshahis.  And  it  has  never  been  denied 
30  that  those  among  them,  who  belonged  to  the  royal  house  of  Persia, 
claimed  to  have  a  pedigree  which  unites  them  and  the  Kisras  into  one 
family.     For  his  uncle  is  the  Ispahbad — 

I.  Eustam  ben 
(j>>j5/*  ben 
Eiustam  ben 
Karin  ben 
V.  Shahryar  ben 
(^^^  ben 
Surkhab  ben 
40  jV>  ben 

Shapur  ben 
X.  Kayus  ben 
XI.  Kubadh,  who  was  the  father  of  Anoshirwan. 

May  God  give  to  our  master  the  empire  from  east  and  west  over  all 


48  ALBIRUNI. 

the  parts  of  the  world,  as  he  has  assigned  him  a  noble  origin  on  both 
sides.     God's  is  the  power  to  do  it,  and  all  good  comes  from  him. 

The  same  applies  to  the  kings  of  Khurasan.  For  nobody  contests  the 
fact,  that  the  first  of  this  dynasty — 

I.  'Isma'il  was  the  son  of 
'Ahmad  ben 
'Asad  ben 
Saman-khudah  ben 
y.  (jU*-*.^  ben 

ui;.U«L  ben  20 

OjA>y  ben 

Bahram  Shubin  ben 
IX.  Bahram  Jushanas,  the  commander  of  the  marches  of  Adhar- 
baijan. 

The  same  applies  further  to  the  original  Shahs  of  Khwarizm,  who 
belonged  to  the  royal  house  (of  Persia),  and  to  the  Shahs  of  Shirwan, 
because  it  is  believed  by  common  consent,  that  they  are  descendants  of  the 
Kisras,  although  their  pedigree  has  not  been  preserved  uninterruptedly. 

The  fact  that  claims  to  some  noble  lineage,  and  also  to  other  matters, 
are  just  and  well  founded,  always  becomes  known  somehow  or  other,  20 
even  if  people  try  to  conceal  it,  being  like  musk,  which  spreads  its  odour, 
although  it  be  hidden.  Under  such  circumstances,  therefore,  if  people 
want  to  settle  their  genealogy,  it  is  not  necessary  to  spend  money  and  to 
make  presents,  as  'Ubaid-allah  ben  Alhasan  ben  'Ahmad  ben  'Abdallah 
ben  Maimun  Alkaddah  did  to  the  genealogists  among  the  party  of  the 
40.  Alides,  when  they  declared  his  claim  of  descent  from  them  to  be  a  lie, 
at  the  time  when  he  came  forward  in  Maghrib  ;  finally  he  succeeded  in 
contenting  them  and  in  making  them  silent.  Notwithstanding  the  truth 
is  well  known  to  the  student,  although  the  fabricated  tale  has  been  far 
spread,  and  although  his  descendants  are  powerful  enough  to  suppress  30 
any  contradiction.  That  one  of  them,  who  reigns  in  our  time,  is  'Abu- 
'Ali  ben  Nizar  ben  Ma'add  ben  'Isma'il  ben  Muhammad  ben  'Ubaid- 
allah  the  usurper. 

I  have  enlarged  on  this  subject  only  in  order  to  show  how  partial 
people  are  to  those  whom  they  like,  and  how  hostile  towards  those  whom 
they  hate,  so  that  frequently  their  exaggeration  in  either  direction  leads 
to  the  discovery  of  their  infamous  designs. 

That  Alexander  was  the  son  of  Philip  is  a  fact,  too  evident  to  be 
concealed.  His  pedigree  is  stated  by  the  most  celebrated  genealogists 
in  this  way  : —  40 

I.  ^J.JLi  Philip, 
w^ji^  Hermes, 


THE    KING    CALLED    BIGOENUTUS.  49 


V.    (^J^a-^ 

Meton. 

i^i) 

Rome. 

J^ 

o^y. 

Yunan. 

(.i^U 

Yafetli. 

X.    yy5>^ 

^i) 

Rumiya. 

^y. 

Byzantium. 

J*iy 

Theophil. 

^!» 

Rome. 

Y.  /*^\ 

Al'asfar. 

•aJ\ 

Elifaz. 

10 


^_/u*3\  Esau, 
(j*--.^  Isaak. 
XIX.  f^^ji^  Abraham. 

According  to  another  tradition  Dhu-alkarnaini  was  a  man,  called 
{j^^\  who  marched  against  Samirus,  one  of  the  kings  of  Babel,  fought 
with  him,  made  him  a  prisoner  and  killed  him ;  then  he  stripped  off 
the  skin  of  his  head  together  with  his  hair  and  his  two  curls,  got  it 

20  tamied,  and  used  it  as  a  crown.  Therefore,  he  was  called  Dhu-alkarnaini 
(Bicornutus).  According  to  another  version  he  is  identical  with 
Almundhir  ben  Ma-alsama,  i.e.  Almundhir  ben  Imru'ulkais. 

Altogether  the  most  curious  opinions  are  afloat  regarding  the  bearer 
of  this  name,  that,  e.g.,  his  mother  was  a  demon,  which  is  likewise 
believed  of  Bilkis,  for  peoj)le  say  that  her  mother  was  a  demon,  and  of 
'Abdalhih  ben  Hilal  the  juggler,  for  he  was  thought  to  be  the  devil's 
son-in-law,  being  married  to  his  daughter.  Such  and  similar  ridiculous 
stories  people  produce,  and  they  are  far  known. 

It  is  related,  that  'Umar  ben  Alkhattab,  when  he  heard  one  day  people 

30  entering  into  a  profound  discussion  on  Dhu-alkarnaini,  said,  "  Was  it  not 
enough  for  you,  to  plunge  into  the  stories  on  human  beings,  that  you 
must  pass  into  another  field  and  draw  the  angels  into  the  discussion  ?  " 

Some  say,  as  Ibn  Duraid  mentions  in  his  Kituh-alwisMh,  that  Dhu- 
alkarnaini  was  Alsa'b  ben  Alhammal  Alhimyari,  whilst  others  take  him 
for  'Abu-karib  Shammar  Yur'ish  ben  'Ifrikis  Alhimyari,  and  believe 
that  he  was  called  so  on  account  of  two  curls  which  hung  down  upon 
his  shoulders,  that  he  reached  the  east  and  west  of  the  earth,  and 
traversed  its  north  and  south,  that  he  subdued  the  countries,  and 
reduced  the  people  to  complete  subjection.    It  is  this  prince  about  whom 

40  one  of  the  princes  of  Yaman,  'As'ad  ben  'Amr  ben  Rabi'a  ben  Malik 
ben  Subaih  ben  'Abdallfih  ben  Zaid  ben  Yasir  ben  Yun'im  Alhimyari 
boasts  in  his  poems,  in  which  he  says : — 

"  Dhu-alkarnaini  was  before  me,  a  true  believer,  an  exalted  king  on   p.  41. 
the  earth,  never  subject  to  anybody. 

4 


50  ALBtRUNf. 

He  went  to  the  countries  of  the  east  and  west,  always  seeking 
imperial  power  from  a  liberal  and  bountiful  (Lord). 

Then  he  saw  the  setting- j)lace  of  the  sun,  at  the  time  when  he  sets 
in  the  well  of  fever- water  and  of  badly  smelling  mud. 

Before  him  there  was  Bilkis,  my  aunt,  until  her  empire  came  to  an 
end  by  the  hoopoo." 
Now  it  seems  to  me  that  of  all  these  versions  the  last  is  the  true  one, 
because  the  princes,  whose  names  begin  with  the  word  Dhu,  occur  only 
in  the  history  of  Taman  and  nowhere  else.  Their  names  are  always  a 
comjjound,  the  first  j)art  of  which  is  the  word  Dhu,  e.g.,  Dhu-almanar,  10 
Dhu-al'adh'ar,  Dhu-alshanatir,  Dhu-Nuwas,  Dhu-Jadan,  Dhu-Yazan, 
and  others.  Besides,  the  traditions  regarding  this  Taman  prince,  Dhu- 
alkarnaini,  resemble  very  much  that  which  is  related  of  him  in  the 
Koran.  As  to  the  ramj)art  which  he  constructed  between  the  two  walls, 
it  must  be  stated  that  the  wording  of  the  Koran  does  not  indicate  its 
geograj)hical  situation.  We  learn,  however,  from  the  geographical 
works,  as  JigJirdfiya  and  the  Itineraria  (the  books  called  Masdlih  wa- 
mamcUik,  i.e.  Itinera  et  regna),  that  this  nation,  viz.  Tajuj  and  Majuj 
are  a  tribe  of  the  eastern  Turks,  who  live  in  the  most  southern  parts  of 
the  5th  and  6th  KkifxaTa.  Besides,  Muhammad  ben  Jarir  Altabari  20 
relates  in  his  chronicle,  that  the  prince  of  Adharbaijan,  at  the  time 
when  the  country  was  conquered,  had  sent  a  man  to  find  the  rampart, 
from  the  direction  of  the  country  of  the  Khazars,  that  this  man  saw  the 
rampart,  and  described  it  as  a  very  lofty  building  of  dark  colour, 
situated  behind  a  moat  of  solid  structure  and  impregnable. 

'Abdallah  ben  'Abdallah  ben  Khurdadhbih  relates,  on  the  authority  of 
the  dragoman  at  the  court  of  the  Khalif,  that  Almu'tasim  dreamt  one 
night,  that  this  rampart  had  been  oi^ened  (rendered  accessible).  There- 
fore he  sent  out  fifty  men  to  inspect  it.  They  set  out  from  the  road 
which  leads  to  Bjib-al'abwab,  and  to  the  countries  of  the  Lan  and  30 
Khazar ;  finally  they  arrived  at  the  rampart,  and  found  that  it  was  con- 
structed of  iron  tiles,  joined  together  by  molten  brass,  and  with  a  bolted 
gate.  Its  garrison  consisted  of  people  of  the  neighbouring  countries. 
Then  they  returned,  and  the  guide  led  them  out  into  the  district 
opposite  Samarkand. 

From  these  two  rejjorts,  it  is  evident  that  the  rampart  must  be 
situated  in  the  north-west  quarter  of  the  inhabitable  earth.  However, 
especially  in  this  latter  rejiort,  there  is  something  which  renders  its 
authenticity  doubtful,  viz.  the  description  of  the  inhabitants  of  that 
country,  that  they  are  Muslims  and  speak  Arabic,  although  they  are  40 
without  the  slightest  connection  with  the  civilized  world,  from  which 
they  are  separated  by  a  black,  badly  smelling  country  of  the  extent  of 
many  days'  travelling  ;  further,  that  they  were  totally  ignorant  as  to 
both  Khalif  and  the  Khalifate.  Whilst  we  know  of  no  other  Muslim 
nation  which   is   separated   from   the   territory   of    IsLim,   except   the 


THE    KING    CALLED    BICORNUTUS.  51 

Bulghar  and  the  Sawar,  who  live  towards  the  end  of  the  civilized  world, 
in  the  most  northern  part  of  the  7th  KXcfxa.  And  these  people  do  not 
make  the  least  mention  of  such  a  rampart,  and  they  are  well  acquainted 
with  the  Khalifate  and  the  Khalifs,  in  whose  name  they  read  even  the  p.  42. 
Khutba;  they  do  not  speak  Arabic,  but  a  language  of  their  own,  a 
mixture  of  Turkish  and  Khazari.  If,  therefore,  this  report  rests  on 
testimonies  of  this  sort,  we  do  not  wish  to  investigate  thereby  the 
truth  of  the  subject. 

This  is  what  I  wished  to  propound  regarding  Dhu-alkarnaini.     Allah 
10  knows  best ! 


4    * 


52  ALBfRUNt. 


CHAPTER    V. 

ON    THE    NATURE    OP    THE    MONTHS  WHICH   ARE    USED    IN    THE    PRECEDING 

ERAS. 

Heretofore  I  have  mentioned  already  that  every  nation  uses  a  special 
era  of  its  own.  And  in  tlie  same  degree  as  they  differ  in  the  use  of  the 
eras,  they  differ  regarding  the  beginning  of  the  months,  regarding  the 
number  of  days  of  each  of  them,  and  the  reasons  assigned  therefor. 
Of  this  subject,  I  mention  what  I  have  learnt,  and  do  not  attempt  to  find 
out  what  I  do  not  know  for  certain,  and  regarding  which  I  have  no 
information  from  a  trustworthy  person.  And  first  we  give  the  months  10 
of  the  Persians. 

Months  of  the  Persians.^ — The  number  of  the  months  of  one  year 
is  twelve,  as  God  has  said  in  his  book  (Sura  ix.  36)  :  "With  God  the 
number  of  the  months  was  twelve  months,  in  the  book  of  God,  on  the 
day  when  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth."  On  this  subject 
there  is  no  difference  of  oj)inion  between  the  nations,  except  in  the  leap- 
years.     So  the  Persians  have  twelve  months  of  the  following  names : — 

Farwardin  Mah.  Mihr  Mah. 

Ardibahisht  Mah.  Aban  Mah. 

Khurdadh  Mah.  Adhar  Mah.  20 

Tir  Mah.  Dai  Mah. 

Murdadh  Mah.  Bahman  Mah. 

Shahrewar  Mah.  Isfandarmadh  Mah. 

I  have  heard  the  geometrician  'Abu  Sa'id  'Ahmad  ben  Muhammad 
ben  'Abd-aljalil  Alsijzi  relating  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Sijistan, 
that  they  called  these  months  by  other  names  and  commenced  likewise 
with  Farwardin  Mah.     The  names  are  these — 

I.     o\/  III.     JU^^ 


ON    THE    NATUEE    OE    MONTHS. 


53 


VV>  xn.    \jyU 

Every  one  of  the  Persian  months  has  30  days,  and  to  each  day  of  a  p.  43. 
month   they    give   a   sj)ecial   name   in   their  language.     These  are  the 
names — 


10 


I.  Hurmuz, 

XI. 

Khur. 

XXI. 

Eam. 

Bahman. 

Mah. 

Badh. 

Ardibahisht. 

Tir. 

Dai-ba-din. 

Shahrewar. 

Gosh. 

Din. 

Isfandarmadh. 

Dai-ba-mihr. 

Ard. 

VI.  Khurdadh. 

XVI. 

Mihr. 

XXVI. 

Ashtadh. 

Murdadh. 

Srosh. 

Asman. 

Dai-ba-adhar. 

Eashn. 

Zamyadh. 

Adhar. 

Farwardin, 

Marasfand. 

Aban. 

Bahram. 

Aniran. 

20 


30 


There  is  no  difference  among  the  Persians  as  to  the  names  of  these 
days ;  they  are  the  same  for  every  month,  and  they  follow  in  the  same 
order.  Only  the  days  Hurmuz  and  Aniran  are  called  by  some,  the 
former  FarruJch,  the  latter  Bih-roz. 

The  sum  total  of  the  days  is  360,  whilst,  as  we  have  already  observed 
heretofore,  the  real  year  (i.e.  the  mean  solar  or  tropical  year)  has 
365|  days.  Those  additional  five  days  they  called  Fanji  (Panji)  and 
Andargdh,  arabized  Andarjdh ;  they  are  also  called  Almasruka  and  Almus- 
taraka  (i.e.  rjixipat  KXo7ri/x.atat),  on  account  of  their  not  being  reckoned 
as  part  of  any  one  of  the  months.  They  added  them  between  Aban 
Mah  and  Adhar  Mah,  and  gave  them  names,  which  are  different  from 
those  of  the  days  of  each  month.  These  names  I  never  read  in  two  books, 
nor  heard  them  from  two  men,  in  the  same  way  ;  they  are  these — 

I.   8l^AAjBi\         II.   5l^Ja&.\      III,   fi^JUft-.^  rV.   5V^A<«Jw!A-\  V.   6\XA;vA.9> 


40 


In  another  book  I  found  them  in  the  following  form : 

I.    iy^\  II.    S^\  III.    J^JUft...^         IV,  f^i^  V.    et-JsyiwJi^ 

The  author  of  the  Kitdb-alghurra,  Alna'ib  Alamuli  gives  them  these 
names — 

I.    jyy=»  II.    i.>yi>»\  III.    •X^JUa~.\        IV.  jXJ^^Jbt         V.    (j. •.■>><}> (j:.-*'^^    p.  44. 

Zadawaihi  ben  Shahawaihi  in  his  book  on  the  causes  of  the  festivals 
of  the  Persians,  mentions  them  in  this  form — 

I.   &xi^\  dstfJi  n.   6Ai'jJk>\  A^eii  III.    <!Un«>^\  (^^ 

IV.    O^^J)))^  '^^  V.    yV^y^J^^  &j^ 


54  .  ALBIEUNI. 

I  myself  heard  'Abu-alfaraj  ben  'Ahmad  ben  Khalaf  Alzanjani  say 
that  the  Mobad  in  Shiraz  had  dictated  them  to  him  in  this  form — 

I.  sl^oyui\     II.  S^jy;».\        III.  6^1*,x^\      IV.  i,\^jSJi>s.^j  V.  i>\^<j>J^yxJuJbj 

And  lastly,  I  hare  heard  them  from  the  geometrician  'Abu-alhasan 
Adharkhura,  the  son  of  Yazdankhasis,  in  this  form — 

I.  JyA  II.  JyLA.\  III.  (^^.4ji.fM\  IV.  yi.AN^-&^ 

(Ahunavaiti.)     (Ustavaiti.)     (Spentamainyu.)     (Vohukhshathra.) 

(Vahistoisti.) 

The  sTim  total  of  their  days,  therefore,  was  365.  The  quarter  of  a  10 
day  (beyond  the  365  days)  they  neglected  in  their  computation,  till  these 
quarters  of  a  day  had  summed  up  to  the  days  of  one  complete  month, 
which  happened  in  120  years.  Then  they  added  this  month  to  the  other 
months  of  the  year,  so  that  the  number  of  its  months  became  thirteen. 
This  month  they  called  Kabisa  (intercalary  month).  And  the  days  of 
this  additional  month  they  called  by  the  same  names  as  those  of  the 
other  months. 

In  this  mode  the  Persians  proceeded  till  the  time  when  both  their 
empire  and  their  religion  perished.  Afterwards  the  day-quarters  were 
neglected,  and  the  years  were  no  longer  intercalated  with  them,  and,  20 
therefore,  they  did  not  return  to  their  original  condition,  and  remained 
considerably  behind  the  fixed  points  of  time  {i.e.  real  time).  The 
reason  was  this  that  intercalation  was  an  affair  settled  under  the  special 
patronage  of  their  kings  at  a  meeting  of  the  mathematicians,  literary 
celebrities,  historiographers,  and  chroniclers,  priests,  and  judges, — on  the 
basis  of  an  agreement  of  all  those  regarding  the  correctness  of  the 
calculation,  after  all  the  persons  I  have  mentioned  had  been  summoned 
to  the  royal  court  from  all  parts  of  the  empire,  and  after  they  had  held 
councils  in  order  to  come  to  an  agreement.  On  this  occasion  money  was 
spent  profusely  to  such  an  extent,  that  a  man  who  made  a  low  estimate  30 
said,  the  cost  had  sometimes  amounted  to  one  million  of  denars.  This 
same  day  was  observed  as  the  most  important  and  the  most  glorious  of 
all  festivals ;  it  was  called  the  Feast  of  Intercalation,  and  on  that  day  the 
king  used  to  remit  the  taxes  to  his  subjects. 

The  reason  why  they  did  not  add  the  quarter  of  a  day  every  fourth 
year  as  one  complete  day  to  one  of  the  months  or  to  the  Epagomense, 
was  this,  that  according  to  their  views,  not  the  days,  but  only  the  months 
are  liable  to  being  intercalated,  because  they  had  an  aversion  to  increasing 
the  number  of  the  days ;  this  was  impossible  by  reason  of  the  pre- 
scription of  the  law  regarding  the  days  on  which  zamzama  (whispering  40 
prayer)  must  be  said,  if  it  is  to  be  valid.  If  the  number  of  days  be 
increased  by  an  additional  day  (the  order  of  the  days  of  zamzama 
according  to  the  law,  is  disturbed). 

It  was  a  rule  that  on  each  day  a  special  sort  of  odoriferous  j^lants  and 


ON  THE  NATUEE  OF  MONTHS.  55 

flowers  was  put  before  the  Kisrcis,  and  likewise  a  special  drink,  in  a  well 
regulated  order,  regarding  whicli  there  was  no  difference  of  opinion. 

The  reason  why  they  put  the  Epagomenae  at  the  end  of  Aban  Mah, 
between  this  month  and  Adhar  Mah  (lacuna). 

The  Persians  believe  that  the  beginning  of  their  year  was  fixed  by  the 
creation  of  the  first  man,  and  that  this  took  place  on  the  day  Hurmuz 
of  Farwardin  Mah,  whilst  the  sun  stood  in  the  point  of  the  vernal 
equinox  in  the  middle  of  heaven.     This  occurred  at  the  beginning  of 

10  the  seventh  millenium,  according  to  their  view  of  the  millennia  of  the 
world. 

The  astrologers  hold  similar  opinions,  viz.  that  Cancer  is  the  horo- 
scope of  the  world.  For  in  the  first  cycle  of  Sindhind  the  sun  stands 
in  the  beginning  of  Aries  above  the  middle  between  the  two  ends  of  the 
inhabitable  world.  In  that  case.  Cancer  is  the  horoscope,  which  sign 
according  to  their  tenets,  as  we  have  mentioned,  signifies  the  commence- 
ment of  rotation  and  growth. 

Others  say,  that  Cancer  was  called  the  horoscope  of  the  world,  because 
of  all  the  zodiacal  signs,  it  stands  nearest  to  the  zenith  of  the  inhabit- 

20  able  world,  and  because  in  the  same  sign  is  the  vipwfxa  of  Jupiter, 
which  is  a  star  of  moderate  nature  ;  and  as  no  growth  is  possible,  except 
when  moderate  heat  acts  upon  moist  substances,  it  (i.e.  Cancer)  is  fit  to 
be  the  horoscoj)e  of  the  growth  of  the  world. 

According  to  a  third  view.  Cancer  was  called  so,  because  by  its  creation 
the  creation  of  the  four  elements  became  complete,  and  by  their 
becoming  complete  all  growth  became  complete. 

And  other  comparisons  besides  of  a  similar  kind  are  broxight  forward 
by  the  astrologers. 

Further,  people  relate  :    When  Zoroaster  arose  and  intercalated  the 

30  years  with  the  months,  which  up  to  that  time  had  summed  up  from  the 
day-quarters,  time  returned  to  its  original  condition.  Then  he  ordered 
people  in  all  future  times  to  do  with  the  day-quarters  the  same  as  he 
had  done,  and  they  obeyed  his  command.  They  did  not  call  the  inter- 
calary month  by  a  special  name,  nor  did  they  repeat  the  name  of  another 
month,  but  they  kept  it  simply  in  memory  from  one  turn  to  another. 
Being,  however,  afraid  that  there  might  arise  uncertainty  as  to  the  place, 
where  the  intercalary  month  would  have  again  to  be  inserted,  they 
transferred  the  five  Epagomenss  and  put  them  at  the  end  of  that 
month,  to  which  the  turn  of  intercalation  had  proceeded  on  the  last 

40  occasion  of  intercalating.  And  as  this  subject  was  of  great  importance 
and  of  general  use  to  high  and  low,  to  the  king  and  to  the  subjects,  and 
as  it  is  required  to  be  treated  with  knowledge,  and  to  be  carried  out  in 
conformity  with  nature  (i.e.  with  real  time),  they  used  to  postpone 
intercalation,  when  its  time  happened  to  occur  at  a  period  when  the 
condition  of  the  empire  was  disturbed  by  calamities  ;  then  they  neglected 


56  ALBIRUNI. 

intercalation  so  long,  until  the  day-quarters  summed  up  to  two  months. 
Or,  on  the  other  hand,  they  anticipated  intercalating  the  year  at  once  hy 
two  months,  when  they  exjjected  that  at  the  time  of  the  next  coming 
intercalation  circumstances  would  distract  their  attention  therefrom,  as 
it  has  been  done  in  the  time  of  Yazdajird  ben  Sabur,  for  no  other  motive 
but  that  of  precaution.  That  was  the  last  intercalation  which  they 
carried  out,  under  the  superintendence  of  a  Dastur,  called  Yazdajird 
Alhizari.  Hizar  was  an  estate  in  the  district  of  Istakhr  in  Ears,  from 
which  he  received  his  name.  In  that  intercalation  the  turn  had  come  to 
Aban  Mah ;  therefore,  the  Epagomense  were  added  at  its  end,  and  10 
there  they  have  remained  ever  since  on  account  of  their  neglecting 
intercalation. 

Months  of  the  Sogdians. — Now  I  shall  mention  the  months  of  the 
Magians  of  Transoxiana,  the  j)eo]Dle  of  Khwarizm  and  of  Sughd.  Their 
months  have  the  same  number,  and  the  same  number  of  days  as  those 
of  the  Persians.  Only  between  the  beginning  of  the  Persian  and  the 
Transoxanian  months  there  is  a  difference,  because  the  Transoxanians 
p.  46.  append  the  five  Ej)agomen8e  to  the  end  of  their  year,  and  commence  the 
year  with  the  6th  day  of  the  Persian  month  Farwardin,  Khurdadhroz. 
So  the  beginning  of  the  months  is  different  until  Adliar  Mah ;  afterwards  20 
they  have  the  same  beginnings. 

These  are  the  names  of  the  months  of  the  Sughdians. 

I.  jj-y  of  30  days. 

(;)~*^  JJ 

^^^^  ,, 

Some  people  add  a  Jim  (g)  at  the  end  of  i;y^  and  fj^^,  and  pronounce 
gj^-^-j*  and  ^^f^  ;  they  add  a  Nun  and  a  Jim   (g>)  at  the  end  of  k^L-i   30 
and  ^>u.>j  and  pronounce  g.*^^  and  ^■^fy     They   call  each   day  by  a 
special  name,  as  is  the  custom  with  the  Persians.     These  are  the  names 
of  the  thirty  days — 

11.  >!^  21.  ^:r\ 

12.  e^       ■  22.  o\, 

13.  J^  28.    c:-«^ 

14.  Ji-t^  24.  (^.J 

15.  «:—<.>  25.  c-J)^ 

16.  jji^-ai^  26.   »i\-i-.\ 

17.  u5y  27.  c>*-  40 

18.  0--)  28.  '^s-i*^) 
9.  u-^\                         19.  J^                      29. 

10.  e>v^  20.  yklt;  30.  ^ 


VII.  jUi  of  30  days. 

e'^\ 

>> 

tf 

» 

gyVw 

J) 

\^i 

» 

ON  THE  NATUEE  OF  MONTHS.  67 

Some  people  give  the  day  j>.f^  the  name  ^.  The  names  of  the  five 
Epagomense  are  the  following  : — 

I.   ctwiij^U-         II.    (jOiiy         III.   i^yi^^       IV.    (y  JUj        V.   (,./-A*|«<^j\  P-  47. 

Regarding  these  names  the  same  difference  exists  among  the  Sugh- 
dians  as  among  the  Persians.  They  are  also  called  by  the  following 
names  : — 

I.    Jj^Jj  II.    Oj^>  III.    OjJ^  IV.    Jje;^  V.    fiJJ;^ 

These  five    days  they  add    at    the    end    of   the   last   month    ^y^^. 

The   Sughdian  system  of  intercalation  agreed  with  the  practice  of  the 

10  Persians,   as  also  did   their  neglecting  intercalation.     The  reason  why 

there  arose  a  difference  between  the  beginnings  of  the  Sughdian  and  the 

Persian  years  I  shall  describe  hereafter. 

Months  of  the  Chorasmians. — The  Khwarizmians,  although  a 
branch  of  the  great  tree  of  the  Persian  nation,  imitated  the  Sughdians 
as  to  the  beginning  of  the  year  and  the  place  where  they  add  the 
Epagomense.     These  are  the  names  of  their  months — 

I.      (.5^^^  ^  f^i)  ^11-   iJ>f^ 

S\i.^  ^\io\  Jji^  y.*A\ 

Others  abbreviate  these  names  and  use  them  in  this  form — 
I.  o^;S^  VII.  ^yi\ 

30        The  thirty  days  they  call  by  the  following  names  : — 

1.  ^^*ij  11.  ^\  21.  f,\j 

2.  o:yj\  12.  2U  22.  3\j 

3.  ct^^O;\  13.  4j)^  23.  ^^J 

4.  ^^Jj>,J.^^^  14.   c>A^  24.   ^yi>i 

5.  ^_3.^-«j\.x;-— \  15.  yj  25.  (^fi-j\ 

6.  ^UjjJb  16.  Qui  26.  'iU4.\ 

7.  ^\o^  17.  ^jy-\  27.  (:)i*^\  p.  48. 

8.  jJo  18.  i^j  28.  >^\) 
9-  j)j^  19.  c:>=^jy  29.  Ju^y 

40  10.  e^u^  20.  e>«;^  30.  gyj\ 

I  have  found  that  they  begin  the  Epagomense,  which  are  appended  at 


58  albIeuni. 

the  end  of  the  montli  Ispandarmaji,  with  the  same  name  by  which  they 
begin  the  days  of  the  month ;  the  second  day  they  call  Azmin,  the  third 
Ardawasht,  and  so  on  till  the  fifth  day  Ispandarmaji.  Then  they  return 
and  commence  anew  with  the  first  day  ^y*ij,  the  1st  of  the  month 
Nawasarji.  They  do  not  use  or  even  know  special  names  for  the 
Epagomense,  but  I  believe  that  this  fact  simply  arises  from  the  same 
confusion,  regarding  these  names,  which  prevails  among  the  Persians 
and  Sughdians.  For  after  Kutaiba  ben  Muslim  Albahili  had  killed  their 
learned  men  and  priests,  and  had  burned  their  books  and  writings,  they 
became  entirely  illiterate  (forgot  writing  and  reading),  and  relied  in  10 
every  knowledge  or  science  which  they  required  solely  uj)on  memory. 
In  the  long  course  of  time  they  forgot  that  on  which  there  had  been  a 
divergence  of  oj)inion,  and  kept  by  memory  only  that  which  had  been 
generally  agreed  uj)on.     But  Allah  knows  best ! 

As  to  the  three  identical  names  of  days  (the  8th,  15th,  and  23rd, — 
.Dai  in  Persian,  Dast  in  Sughdian,  DadJm  in  Khwarizmian),the  Persians 
refer  them  to  the  following,  and  compound  them  with  these,  saying 
Dai-ha-Adar,  and  Dai-ha-Mihr,  and  Dai-ha-Din.  Of  the  Sughdians  and 
Khwarizmians  some  do  the  same,  and  others  connect  the  words  in  their 
language  for  "the  first,  the  second,  the  third,"  with  each  of  them.  20 

In  the  early  times  of  their  empire  the  Persians  did  not  use  the  week. 
For,  first,  it  was  in  use  among  the  nations  of  the  west,  and  more  particu- 
larly among  the  people  of  Syria  and  the  neighbouring  countries,  because 
there  the  j)rophets  appeared  and  made  people  acquainted  with  the  first 
week,  and  that  in  it  the  world  had  been  created,  in  conformity  with  the 
beginning  of  the  Thora.  From  these  the  use  of  the  week  spread  to  the 
other  nations.  The  pure  Arabians  adopted  the  week  in  consequence  of 
p.  49.     the  vicinity  of  their  country  to  that  of  the  Syrians. 

We  have  not  heard  that  anybody  has  imitated  the  example  of  the 
Persians,  Sughdians,  and  Khwarizmians,  and  has  adopted  their  usage  (of  30 
giving  special  names  to  the  thirty  days  of  the  month,  instead  of  dividing 
them  into  weeks),  except  the  Copts,  i.e.  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Egypt.  For  they,  as  we  have  mentioned,  used  the  names  of  the  thirty 
days  till  the  time  when  Augustus,  the  son  of  Gajus,  ruled  over  them. 
He  wanted  to  induce  them  to  intercalate  the  years,  that  they  might 
always  agree  with  the  Greeks  and  the  people  of  Alexandria.  Into  this 
subject,  however,  it  would  be  necessary  to  inquire  more  closely.  At  that 
time  precisely  five  years  were  wanting  till  the  end  of  the  great  inter- 
calation period.  Therefore,  he  waited  till  five  years  of  his  rule  had 
elapsed,  and  then  he  ordered  people  to  intercalate  one  day  in  the  months  40 
in  every  fourth  year,  in  the  same  way  as  the  Greeks  do.  Thereupon 
they  dropped  the  use  of  the  names  of  the  single  days,  because,  as  people 
say,  those  who  used  and  knew  them  would  have  required  to  invent  a 
name  for  the  intercalary  day.  They  (the  names  of  the  days  of  the 
month)  have  not  been  handed  down  to  posterity. 


ON   THE    NATURE    OF    MONTHS. 


59 


Months  of  the  Egyptians.- 

months : — 

I.  Thot  30  days. 
Paophi  30 
Athyr  30 
Choiak  30 
Tybi  30 
Mechir  30 


-The  following  are  tlie  names  of  their 

VII.  Phamenoth  30  days. 
Pharmuthi  30 
Pachon          30 
Payni  30 

Epiphi  30 

\a^\  30 


These  are  the  ancient  names  of  the  months.     In  the  following  we  give 
10  the  names  which  were  modernized  by  one  of  their  princes,  after  inter- 
calation had  been  adopted : — 

I.  «i>y  VII.  <^W*;» 

\fcXfr  flMI.X.WM> 


20 


30 


Some  people  call  the  months  «^i^,  y^\^j>,  jj---^,  and  <^7-~*  by  the 
names  u^^,  ^^f.,  (j~i\-^  and  <^jj— 1>».  These  are  the  forms  on  which 
peoj^le  agree ;  in  some  books,  however,  these  names  are  found  in  forms 
somewhat  different  from  those  we  have  mentioned. 

The  five  additional  days  they  call,  'ETrayo/AeVai,  which  means  "  tlie 
small  month ;"  they  are  appended  at  the  end  of  Mesori,  and  at  the  same 
place  the  intercalary  day  is  added,  in  which  case  the  Epagomense  are 
sis  days.     The  leap-year  they  call  ^^\,  which  means  "  the  sign." 

Months  of  the  People  of  the  West. — 'Abu-al'abbas  Alamuli  relates 
in  his  Kitdh-dald'il-alkibla,  that  the  Western  people  (of  Spain?)  use 
months,  the  beginnings  of  which  agree  with  those  of  the  Coptic  months. 
They  call  them  by  the  following  names  : — 

I. 


50. 


May             30  days. 

VII. 

November  30  days. 

June            30     „ 

December  30     „ 

July             30     „ 

January     30     „ 

August       30     „ 

February   30     „ 

September  30     ,, 

March        30     „ 

October       30     „ 

April          30     „ 

Then  follow  the  five  Epagomense  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
Months    of  the  Greeks. — The   months    of  the    Greeks   are    always 
twelve  in  number.     Their  names  are  these : — 


40 


'lavovdpLos    31  days. 

^€J3pOvdpLO<S  28       ,, 

Mdtprios  31      „ 


IV.  'A-TrptXis    30  days. 
Mato?         31      „ 
lovvtos       30     „ 


60  ALBlRTJNf. 

VII.  'lovXios  31  days.  X.  'OKTw/?ptos     31  days. 

AvyovaTo<i      81      „  No€/^/3pios       30      „ 

2e7rTe/x,^ptos  30      „  ^eKe/x/SpLOS      31      „ 

The  sum  of  the  days  of  tlieir  year  is  365,  and  as  in  all  four  years  the 
four  quarters  of  a  day  are  summed  up,  they  append  it  as  one  complete 
day  to  the  month  February,  so  that  this  month  has  in  every  fourth  year 
29  days.  He  who  first  induced  people  to  intercalate  the  years  was 
Julius,  called  Dictator,  who  ruled  over  them  in  bygone  times,  long 
before  Moses.  He  gave  them  the  months  with  such  a  distribution  (of 
the  days),  and  with  such  names  as  we  have  mentioned.  He  induced  10 
them  to  intercalate  the  day-quarters  into  them  (the  months)  in  every 
1461st  year,  when  the  day-quarters  had  summed  up  to  one  complete 
year.  So  that  (this  intercalation)  preserved  these  (the  months,  keeping 
them  ia  agreement  with  real  time).  This  intercalation  they  called  the 
"  great  one,"  after  they  had  called  the  intercalation,  which  takes  place 
every  four  years,  the  "  small  one."  This  "  small "  intercalation,  however, 
they  did  not  introduce  until  a  long  period  had  elapsed  after  the  death 
of  the  king  (Julius  Csesar).  A  characteristic  of  their  system  is  the 
division  of  the  days  of  the  months  into  weeks,  for  reasons  which  we 
have  mentioned  before.  20 

p.  51.  The  author  of  the  Kitdh-ma'kJiadh-almawdMt  (method  for  the  deduc- 
tion of  certain  times  and  dates)  thinks  that  the  Greeks  and  other  nations, 
who  are  in  the  habit  of  intercalating  the  day -quarter,  had  fixed  the  sun's 
entering  Aries  uj^on  the  beginning  of  April,  which  corresponds  to  the 
Syrian  Kissin,  as  the  beginning  of  their  era.  And  we  confess  that  in 
his  account  he  comes  pretty  near  the  truth.  For  astronomical  observa- 
tion has  taught  that  the  fraction  which  follows  the  (365)  days  of  the 
solar  year,  is  less  than  one  comjjlete  quarter  of  a  day,  and  we  ourselves 
have  observed  that  the  sun's  entering  the  first  part  of  Aries  precedes 
the  beginning  of  Nisan.  Therefore  that  which  he  mentions  is  possible,  30 
and  even  likely. 

Further  on  he  says,  si)eaking  of  the  Greeks,  that  "  they,  on  perceiving 
that  the  beginning  of  their  year  had  changed  its  place,  had  recourse  to 
the  years  of  the  Indians  ;  that  they  then  intercalated  into  their  year  the 
difference  between  the  two  years  (viz.,  the  Greek  year  and  the  solar 
year),  and  that  in  consequence  the  sun's  entering  the  first  part  of  Aries 
again  took  place  at  the  beginning  of  Nisan.  If  we  on  our  side  do  the 
same,  Nisan  returns  to  its  original  place."  He  has  tried  to  give  an 
example,  but  has  not  finished  it,  being  incapable  of  doing  so.  On  this 
occasion  he  has  shown  his  ignorance,  as  he,  in  his  accovmt  of  the  Greeks,  40 
has  also  rendered  it  evident  that  he  is  inimical  to  the  Greeks,  and  partial 
to  others.  The  fact  is,  that  according  to  the  Indian  system  he  has  con- 
verted the  difference  between  the  Greek  year  and  the  solar  year  into 
fractions,  putting  it  down  as  729  seconds.     Then  he  changes  also  the  day 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  MONTHS.  61 

into  seconds,  and  divides  them  by  that  difference.  So  he  gets  118  years 
6  months  and  6-|  days.  This  would  be  the  space  of  time  in  which  the 
calendar  would  necessitate  the  intercalation  of  one  complete  day,  on 
account  of  this  plus-difference.  Further,  he  says,  "  Now,  if  we  inter- 
calate the  past  years  of  the  G-reek  era,"  which  were  at  his  time  1,225 
years,  "  the  sun's  entering  the  first  part  of  Aries  again  takes  place  at  the 
beginning  of  Nisan."  But  he  has  dropped  his  example,  and  has  not 
intercalated  the  years.  If  he  had  done  so,  his  conclusions  would  have 
led  to  the  contrary  of  what  he  says  and  maintains,  and  the  beginning  of 

10  Msan  would  come  near  the  sun's  entering  the  first  part  of  Taurus.  For 
that  date,  which  he  wanted  to  treat  as  an  example,  would  necessitate 
the  intercalation  of  10^  days.  Now  the  Greek  year  being  too  short 
(according  to  him),  the  beginning  of  Nisan  precedes  the  sun's  entering 
the  first  part  of  Aries,  and  the  time  which  it  would  be  necessary  to 
intercalate  (joortio  intercalanda) ,  would  have  to  be  added  to  the  first  of 
Nisan,  so  as  to  proceed  as  far  as  to  the  10th  of  it. 

Now  I  should  like  to  know  which  equinox  this  man,  who  is  so  partial 
to  the  Indians,  meant.  For  the  vernal  equinox  took  place  according  to 
their  system  at  that  time  six  or  seven  days  before  the  first  of  Nisan.     I 

20  should  further  like  to  know  at  what  time  the  Greeks  did  what  he  relates 
of  them.  For  they  are  so  deej^ly  imbued  with,  and  so  clever  in  geometry 
and  astronomy,  and  they  adhere  so  strictly  to  logical  arguments,  that 
they  are  far  from  having  recourse  to  the  theories  of  those  who  derive 
the  bases  of  their  knowledge  from  divine  inspiration,  when  their  artifices 
desert  them  and  they  are  required  to  come  forward  with  an  argument ; 
not  to  mention  the  sciences  of  philosophy  and  theology,  physics  and  p.  52. 
arts,  cultivated  among  the  Greeks.  "  However,  everybody  acts  according 
to  his  own  mode,  and  each  community  enjoys  what  they  have  got  of 
their  own."  (Sura  xvii.  86.)     That  man  had  not  read  the  Almagest,  and 

30  had  not  compared  it  with  the  most  famous  book  of  the  Indians,  called 
the  Canon  Sindhind.  The  difference  between  them  must  be  evident  to 
anybody  in  whom  the  slightest  spark  of  sagacity  is  left. 

To  something  similar  Hamza  ben  Alhasan  Alisfahani  has  applied  him- 
self in  his  treatise  on  the  Nauroz,  at  the  time  when  he  was  partial  to  the 
Persian  mode  of  treating  the  solar  year,  because  they  reckoned  it  as 
365  days  and  &-i^  hours,  while  the  Greeks  neglected  in  their  intercala- 
tion the  fraction  following  the  six  hours.  As  a  proof  he  adduced  that 
Muhammad  ben  Musa  ben  Shakir,  the  astronomer,  had  explained  this 
subject,  and  had  enlarged  on  it  in  one  of  his  books  on  the  solar  year, 

40  and  that  he  had  produced  the  arguments  for  it,  and  pointed  out  the 
errors  of  the  ancients,  who  had  held  erroneous  views  in  this  respect. 

Now,  we  have  examined  the  astronomical  observations  of  Muhammad 
ben  Musa,  and  of  his  brother  'Ahmad,  and  we  have  found  that  they 
prove  only  that  these  fractions  are  less  than  six  hours.  The  book,  to 
which  Alisfahani  refers,  is  attributed  to  Thabit  ben  Kun*a,  because  he 


62  ALBiEI^Ni. 

was  a  protege  of  those  people,  entirely  mixed  up  with  them,  and  because 
it  was  he  who  polished  for  them  their  scientific  work.  He  had  collected 
the  materials  of  this  book  with  the  object  of  explaining  the  fact  of  the 
solar  years  not  being  always  equal  to  each  other,  on  account  of  the 
motion  of  the  aj^ogee.  With  all  this  he  was  compelled  to  assume  equal 
circles,  and  equal  motions  along  with  their  times,  in  order  to  derive 
thereby  the  mean  motion  of  the  sun.  But  he  did  not  find  equal  circles, 
except  those  which  move  in  an  excentric  plane,  described  {viz.  the  circles) 
round  a  point  within  it,  which  point  is  assumed  exclusively  for  these 
circles.  And  this  circle,  which  was  sought  for,  extends  the  six  hours  by  10 
additional  fractions  (i.e.  its  time  of  revolution  is  365  days  6  hours  +  a 
fraction),  as  Hamza  has  related.  However,  such  a  circle  is  not  called  a 
solar  year,  for  the  solar  year  is,  as  we  have  defined  already,  that  one,  in 
which  all  natural  occurrences  which  are  liable  to  growth  and  to  decay 
return  to  their  original  condition. 

Jewish  Months. — The  Hebrews  and  all  the  Jews,  who  claim  to  be 
related  to  Moses,  have  the  following  twelve  months : — 

I.  Nisan       of  30  days.  VI.  Tishri  of  30  days. 

Jyar         of  29     ,,  Marheshwan  of  29 

Siwan       of  30     „  Kislew  of  80     .,  20 

Tammuz  of  29     „  Tebeth  of  29 

Abh         of  30     „  Shefat  (Shebhat)  of  30 

Elul  of  29     „  Adhar  of  29 

p.  53.  The  sum  total  of  their  days  is  354,  being  identical  with  the  number 
of  days  of  the  lunar  year.  If  they  simply  used  the  lunar  year  as  it  is, 
the  sum  of  the  days  of  their  year  and  the  number  of  their  months 
would  be  identical.  However,  after  having  left  Egypt  for  the  desert 
Al-tih,  after  having  ceased  to  be  the  slaves  of  the  Egyptians,  having 
been  delivered  from  their  oppression,  and  altogether  separated  from 
them,  the  Israelites  received  the  ordinances  and  the  laws  of  God,  30 
described  in  the  second  book  of  the  Thora.  And  this  event  took  place 
in  the  night  of  the  15th  Nisan  at  full  moon  and  spring  time.  They 
were  ordered  to  observe  this  day,  as  it  is  said  in  the  second  book  of  the 
Thora  (Exodus  xii.  17,  18)  :  "  Te  shall  observe  this  day  as  an  ordinance 
to  your  generations  for  ever  on  the  fourteenth  of  the  first  month."  By 
the  "first  month  "  the  Lord  does  not  mean  Tishri,  but  Msan ;  because  in 
the  same  book  he  commands  Moses  and  Aaron,  that  the  month  of  pass- 
over  should  be  the  first  of  their  months,  and  the  beginning  of  the  year 
(Exodus  xii.  2). 

Further,  Moses  spake  unto  the  people :  "  Remember  the  day  when  ye  40 
came  out  from  bondage.     Therefore  ye  shall  not  eat  leavened  bread  on 
this  day  in  that  month  when  the  trees  blossom."     In  consequence,  they 
were  compelled  to  use  the  solar  year  and  the  lunar  months  ;  the  solar 
year  in  order  that  the  14th  Nisan  should  fall  in  the  beginning  of  spring. 


ON  THE  NATUEE  OP  MONTHS.  63 

when  the  leaves  of  the  trees  and  the  blossoms  of  the  fruit  trees  come 
forth';  the  lunar  months  in  order  that,  on  the  same  day,  the  body  of 
the  moon  should  be  lit  up  completely,  standing  in  the  sign  of  Libra. 
And  as  the  time  in  question  would  naturally  advance  for  a  certain 
number  of  days  (the  sum  of  the  days  of  twelve  lunar  months  not  being 
a  complete  year),  it  was  necessary  for  the  same  reason  to  append  to  the 
other  months  those  days,  as  soon  as  they  made  up  one  complete  month. 
They  added  these  days  as  a  complete  month,  which  they  called  the 
First  Adhdr,  whilst  they  called  the  original  month  of  this  name  the 

10  Second  Adhdr,  because  of  its  following  immediately  behind  its  namesake. 
The  leap-year  they  called  'Ibbur  (1^!13^),  which  is  to  be  derived  from 
Me'tihhereth  (rV)'3,^72),  meaning  in  Hebrew,  "a  pregnant  woman. ''^  For 
they  comj)ared  the  insertion  of  the  supernumerary  month  into  the  year, 
to  a  woman's  bearing  in  her  womb  a  foreign  organism. 

According  to  another  opinion,  the  First  Adhar  is  the  original  month, 
the  name  of  which  without  any  addition  was  used  in  the  common  year, 
and  the  Second  Adhar  is  to  be  the  leap-month,  in  order  that  it  should 
have  its  j^lace  at  the  end  of  the  year,  for  this  reason,  that  according  to 
the  command  of  the  Thora,  Nisan  was  to  be  the  first  of  their  months. 

20  This,  however,  is  not  the  case.  That  the  Second  Adhar  is  the  original 
month,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  its  place  and  length,  the  n\unber  of 
its  days,  the  feast-  and  fast-days  which  occur  in  it,  are  not  liable  to  any 
changes.  And  of  all  these  days  nothing  whatsoever  occurs  in  the  First 
A.dhar  of  a  leap-year.  Further,  they  make  it  a  rule  that,  during  the 
Second  Adhar,  the  sun  should  always  stand  in  the  sign  of  Pisces,  whilst 
in  the  First  Adhfir  of  a  leap-year  he  must  be  in  the  sign  of  Amphora. 

Five  Cycles. — Now  for  the  leap-years  they  wanted  a  certain  principle  p.  54. 
of  arrangement  as  a  help  to  facilitate  their  practical  use.     Therefore 
they  looked  out  for  cycles  which  were  based  upon  solar  years,  consisting 

30  of  lunar  months.     Of  those  cycles  they  found  the  following  five: — 

I.  The  cycle  of  8  years  consisting  of  99  months,  of  which  there  are 
3  leap-months. 
II.  The  cycle  of  19  years,  called  the  Minor  Cycle,  consisting  of  235 
months,  of  which  there  are  7  leap-months. 

III.  The  cycle  of  7Q  years,  consisting  of  940  months,  of  which  there 

are  28  leap-months. 

IV,  The  cycle  of  95  years,  called  the  Middle  Cycle,  consisting  of  1,176 

months,  of  which  there  are  35  leap-months. 
V.  The  cycle  of  532  years,  called  the  Major  Cycle,  consisting  of  6,580 
40  months,  of  which  there  are  196  leap-months. 

Of  these  cycles  they  choose  that  one,  the  observation  of  which  would 
be  the  easiest  and  simplest.  This  quality  is  j)eculiar  to  the  cycles  of  8 
and  of  19  vears,  with  this  diffei'enee,  however,  that  the  latter  one  agrees 


20 


64  ALBlR^JNt. 

more  closely  with  solar  years.  For  this  cycle  contains,  according  to 
them,  6,939  days  16/^%%-  hours.  Those  small  particles  of  an  hour  they 
call  Halaks  (D'^pT'll),  of  which  1,080  make  one  hour.  If,  therefore,  you 
have  got  minutes,  i.e.  the  60th  parts  of  an  hour,  and  you  want  to  change 
them  into  Halaks,  you  multiply  them  by  18,  and  you  get  the  corre- 
sponding number  of  Halaks.  And  if  you  want  the  converse  operation, 
you  multiply  the  number  of  Halaks  by  200,  and  you  get  a  sum  of  thirds 
of  an  hour  {i.e.  the  60th  parts  of  a  second)  ;  these  fractions  you  can 
then  raise  to  wholes. 

Now,  if  we  reduce  this  cycle  (of  19  years)  to  fractions  and  change  it   10 
into  Halaks,  we  get  the  following  sum  of  Halaks : — 

179,876,755,  expressed  in  Indian  ciphers. 

The  solar  year  is,  according  to  them,  365  days  5-|-f§^  hours  long ;  this 
latter  fraction  is  nearly  identical  with  990  Halaks.  If  we  now  also 
reduce  the  solar  year  into  Halaks,  we  get  the  sum  of — 

9,467,190  Halaks. 

If  you  finally  divide  by  this  number  the  number  of  the  Halaks  of  the 

cycle  of  19  years,  you  get  as  the  quotient,  19  solar  years,  with  a  remainder 

55.    of  145  Halaks,  which  is  nearly  the  7th  part  of  an  hour  and  a  fraction. 

If  we  perform  the  same  operation  with  the  cycle  of  8  years  containing 
2,923  days  12  hours  and  747  Halaks,  we  get  as  the  sum  of  its  Halaks 
the  number — 

If  we  divide  this  sum  by  the  sum  of  the  Halaks  of  the  solar  year,  we 
get  8  solar  years,  and  a  remainder  of  1  day  13  hours  and  387  Halaks, 
which  is  nearly  \-\-\  (i.e.  -i^)  hour. 

Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  cycle  of  19  years  comes  nearest  to  real 
time,  and  is  the  best  of  all  cycles  which  have  been  used.     The  other 
cycles  are  simj)ly   composed  of  duplications  of  the  cycle  of  19  years. 
Therefore  the  Jews  preferred  this  cycle,  and  regulated  thereby  inter-   30 
calation. 

The  three  Ordines  Intercalationis. — Now,  although  they  agreed 

on  the  quality  of  the  year  as  to  the  order  of  intercalation  in  the  Mahzor 
(lITn^  cycle),  when  it  has  to  take  place,  and  when  not,  they  differed 
among  each  other  regarding  the  nature  of  the  beginning  of  the  Mahzors. 
And  this  has  also  produced  a  difference  regarding  the  order  of  inter- 
calation in  the  Mahzor.  For  some  take  the  current  year  of  the  ^ra 
Adami,  of  which  you  want  to  know  whether  it  is  a  common  year  or  a 
leap-year,  and  reduce  the  number  of  years  to  Mahzors  by  dividing  them 
by  19  ;  then  you  get  complete  Mahzors,  and  as  a  remainder,  the  years  of  40 
the  Mahzor  not  yet  finished,  including  the  curi'ent  year.  And  then  the 
order  of  the  leap-years  is  fixed  according  to  the  formula  nin'^THH  *-^- 
the  2nd,  5th,  7th,  10th,  13th,  16th,  and  18th  years. 


ON    THE    NATURE    OF    MONTHS. 


6b 


10 


Others  take  the  years  of  the  same  .^ra  Adami,  subtract  one  year,  and 
fix  the  order  of  the  leap-years  in  the  remainder  of  the  years  of  the 
incomplete  Mahzor  according  to  the  formula  'jnni^llt^'  ^'■^"  ^^®  ^^^'  ^^^' 
6th,  9th,  12th,  15th,  17th  years.  These  two  cycles  are  attributed  to  the 
Jews  of  Syria. 

Others  again  subtract  from  the  sum  of  years  two  years,  and  compute 
the  order  of  the  leap-years  by  the  formxda  i^^^jj)  i-^-  the  3rd,  5th 
(5=3+2),  8th,  11th,  14th  (5-h3-f3  +  3),  16th  (16  =  14-i-2),  and  19th 
(19=16  +  3)  years. 

This  latter  mode  of  arrangement  is  the  most  extensively  diffused 
among  the  Jews ;  they  prefer  it  to  others,  because  they  attribute  its 
invention  to  the  Babylonians.  All  three  modes  of  computation  are  to 
be  traced  back  to  one  and  the  same  principle,  on  which  there  cannot  be 
any  difference  of  opinion,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  following  circular 
figure  : — 


66  ALBfEt^Ni. 

The  first  (outer)  circle  indicates  tlie  quality  of  the  year,  whether  it  is 

a  common  year  or  a  leap-year.     The  three  other  circles  contain  the  three 

formulcB,  indicating  the  order  of   the  leap-years  in  the  Mahzors  ;  the 

p,  56.  second    circle,     the  formula    ni^^THl  5    *-^®  third   circle,  the   formula 

lillIO'Tli*^ ;  and  the  inner  circle,  the  formula  ;}^t:3^;i- 

The  cycles  which  we  have  mentioned  hitherto,  are  derived  from  the 
moon,  though  not  exclusively.  The  solar  cycle  consists  of  28  years, 
and  serves  to  indicate  on  what  days  of  the  week  the  solar  years  com- 
mence. For  if  the  Jewish  year  had  simply  365  days  without  the  quarter- 
day,  the  beginning  of  the  year  would  in  every  seven  years  return  to  the  10 
same  week-day.  Since,  however,  they  are  intercalated  once  in  four  years, 
the  begianing  does  not  return  to  the  same  day,  except  in  28  years,  i.e. 
4x7  years.  Likewise  the  other  cycles,  heretofore  mentioned,  do  not,  on 
being  completed,  return  to  the  same  week-day,  except  the  largest  cycle, 
on  account  of  its  arising  from  a  duplication  of  the  cycle  of  19  years  with 
the  solar  cycle. 

The  three  kinds  of  the  Jewish  Year. — I  say  further :  If  the  Jewish 
years  had  simply  the  first  two  qualities,  i.e.  were  either  common  years 
or  leap-years,  it  would  be  easy  to  learn  their  beginnings,  and  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  two  qualities  which  are  proper  to  tliem,  provided  20 
the  above-mentioned  formula  of  computation  for  the  years  of  the 
Mahzor  be  known.  The  Jewish  year,  however,  is  a  threefold  one.  For 
they  have  made  an  arrangement  among  themselves,  that  New  Year  shall 
not  fall  on  a  Sunday,  Wednesday,  or  Friday,  i.e.  on  the  days  of  the 
sun  and  his  two  stars  (Mercury  and  Venus)  ;  and  that  Passover,  by 
which  the  beginning  of  Msan  is  regulated,  shall  not  fall  on  the  days  of 
the  inferior  stars,  i.e.  on  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday,  for  reasons 
on  which  we  shall  hereafter  enlarge  as  much  as  possible.  Thereby  they 
were  compelled  either  to  postpone  or  to  advance  New  Year  and  Passover, 
when  they  happened  to  fall  on  one  of  the  days  mentioned.  30 

For  this  reason  their  year  consists  of  the  following  three  species  : — 

I.  The  year  called  ^^j^jU^,  i.e.  the  imperfect  one  (rTlpn),  in  which 
the  months  Marheshwan  and  Kislew  have  only  29  days. 

II.  The  year  called  y\).x^,  i.e.  the  intermediate  (I'l'lpS),  lit.  secun- 
dum ordinem  suum,  in  which  Marheshwan  has  29  days,  and 
Kislew  30  days. 

III.  The  year  called   f^t^"^,  i.e.  the  perfect  one  (^^^^tZJ)'  ^^  which 
both  Marheshwan  and  Kislew  have  30  days. 

Each  of  these  three  species  of  years  may  be  either  a  common  year  or 
a  leap-year.     So  we  get  a  combination  of  six  species  of  years,  as  we   40 
have  here  illustrated  in  the  form  of  a  genealogical  diagram,  and  dis- 
tributed in  the  following  representation. 


ON   THE    NATUEE    OF    MONTHS. 


Q1 


The  Tear. 


p.  57. 


10 


Common  year  of  12  montlis. 


Leap-year  of  13  months. 


Perfect,  of  355  days. 

Marheshwan,  30  days. 

Kislew,  30  days. 


Intermediate,  of  354  days. 

Marheshwan,  29  days. 

Kislew,  30  days. 


Perfect,  of  385  days. 

Marheshwan,  30  days. 

Kislew,  30  days. 


Intermediate,  of  384  days. 

Marheshwan,  29  days. 

Kislew,  30  days. 


Imperfect,  of  353  days. 

Marheshwan,  29  days. 

Kislew,  29  days. 


Imperfect,  of  383  days. 

Marheshwan,  29  days. 

Kislew,  29  days. 


For  the  deduction  of  these  differences  they  have  many  modes  of  com- 
putation as  well  as  tables,  which  we  shall  not  fail  to  explain  hereafter. 

Determination  of  New  Moon.— Regarding  their  knowledge  of  the 
beginning  of  the  month,  and  the  mode  in  which  it  is  computed  and  used, 
the  Jews  are  divided  into  two  sects,  one  of  which  are  the  Rabbanites. 
They  derive  the  begixming  of  the  month  by  means  of  calculation  from 
the  mean  motions  of  the  two  luminaries  (sun  and  moon),  no  regard  being 
had  as  to  whether  new  moon  is  visible  already  or  not.     For  it  was  their 

20  object  to  have  a  conventional  time,  that  was  to  begin  from  the  conjunc- 
tion of  stin  and  moon.  By  the  following  accident  they  were,  as  they 
relate  themselves,  induced  to  adopt  this  system :  at  the  time  when  they 
returned  to  Jerusalem,  they  posted  guards  upon  the  tops  of  the 
mountains  to  observe  new  moon,  and  they  ordered  them  to  light  a  fire 
and  to  make  a  smoke,  which  was  to  be  a  signal  for  them  that  new  moon 
in  fact  had  been  seen.  Now,  on  account  of  the  enmity  which  existed 
between  them  and  the  Samaritans,  these  latter  went  and  sent  up  the 
smoke  from  the  mountain  one  day  before  new  moon  was  seen.  This 
practice  they  continued  during   several  months,  at  the  beginnings  of 

80  which  heaven  always  happened  to  be  clouded.  Finally,  people  in 
Jerusalem  found  out  this,  observing  that  new  moon,  on  the  3rd  and  4th 
of  the  month,  rose  above  the  horizon  from  the  east.  Hence  it  was 
evident  that  the  Samaritans  had  deceived  them.  Therefore  they  had 
recourse  to  the  scholars  of  their  time,  in  order  to  be  protected  by  a 
system  of  calculation  against  the  deceitful  practices  of  their  enemies,  to 
which  they  were  exposed  by  their  present  method. 

In  order  to  prove  that  it  was  legally  permitted  to  fix  the  beginning  of 
the  month  by  calculation  instead  of  observation,  they  referred  to  the 
duration  of  the  deluge.     For  they  assert  that  Noah  computed  and  fixed 

40  the  beginnings  of  the  months  by  calculation,  because  heaven  was  covered  p.  58. 


68  ALBlRUNi. 

and  clouded  for  so  long  as  six  months,  during  whicli  time  neither  new 
moon  nor  any  other  phase  of  the  moon  could  be  observed. 

The  mathematicians,  therefore,  computed  for  them  the  cycles,  and 
taught  them  how  to  find,  by  calculation,  the  conjunctions  and  the 
appearance  of  new  moon,  viz.  that  between  new  moon  and  the  con- 
junction the  time  of  24  hours  must  elapse.  And  this  comes  near  the 
truth.  For  if  it  was  the  corrected  conjunction,  not  the  mean  one,  the 
moon  would  in  these  hours  move  forward  about  13  degrees,  and  her 
elongation  from  the  sun  would  be  about  12  degrees. 

This  reform  was  brought  about  nearly  200  years  after  Alexander.  10 
Before  that  time  they  used  to  observe  the  Tekufdth  (niD^pri),  i.e.  the 
year-quarters,  on  the  computation  of  which  we  shall  enlarge  hereafter, 
and  to  compare  them  with  the  conjunction  of  that  month,  to  which 
the  Tekufa  in  question  was  to  be  referred.  If  they  found  that  the  con- 
junction preceded  the  Tekufa  by  about  30  days,  they  intercalated  a 
month  in  this  year,  e.g.  if  they  found  that  the  conjunction  of  Tammuz 
preceded  the  Tekufa  of  Tammuz,  i.e.  the  summer- solstice  by  about 
30  days,  they  intercalated  in  that  year  a  month  Tammuz,  so  that  it  had 
one  Tammuz  and  a  second  Tammuz  (t^^n*!  t^^ri).  In  the  same  way 
they  acted  with  the  other  Tekufoth.  20 

Some  Eabbanites,  however,  deny  that  such  guards  were  posted,  and 
that  they  made  a  smoke  as  a  signal.  According  to  their  opinion,  the 
cause  of  the  deduction  of  this  system  of  calculation  was  the  following  : 
the  scholars  and  the  priests  of  the  Israelites,  feeling  convinced  that  their 
people  would  be  scattered  and  dispersed  in  consequence  of  the  last 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  as  they  thought,  were  afraid  that  their  com- 
patriots, being  scattered  all  over  the  world,  and  solely  relying  upon  the 
anpearance  of  new  moon,  which  of  course  in  different  countries  would  be 
different  for  them,  might,  on  account  of  this,  fall  into  dissensions,  and 
a  schism  in  their  doctrine  might  take  place.  Therefore  they  invented  30 
these  calculations, — a  work  which  was  particularly  attended  to  by 
Eliezer  ben  Paruah,  and  ordered  people  to  adhere  to  them,  to  use  them, 
to  return  to  them,  wherever  and  under  whatever  circumstances  they 
lived,  so  that  a  schism  among  them  might  be  avoided. 

The  second  sect  are  the  Milddites,  who  derive  the  beginning  of  the 
month  from  the  conjunction ;  they  are  also  called  Alkurrd  and  AVisli- 
ma'iyya,  because  they  demand  that  people  shall  only  follow  the  wording 
of  the  text,  no  regard  being  had  to  considerations  and  analogies,  etc., 
even  if  it  may  be  illogical  and  impracticable. 

One  party  of  them  is  called  the  'Andnites,  who  derived  their  name  40 
from  'Anau,  the  head  of  the  emigration  (^^r\17^  t!^fc^"l),  who  lived  between 
100  and  110  years  ago.  A  head  of  the  emigration  must  of  necessity  be 
one  of  the  descendants  of  David  ;  an  offspring  of  another  family  would 
not  be  fit  for  this  office.  Their  common  people  relate,  that  only  he  is 
qualified  who,  standing  upright,  can  reach  his  knees  with  the  tops  of  his 


ON  THE  NATUEE  OF  MONTHS.  69 

fingers ;  just  as  people  relate  such  tilings  of  the  prince  of  the  true 
believers,  'Ali  ben  'Abi  Talib,  and  of  those  of  his  descendants  who  are 
qualified  for  the  Imama  and  the  rule  of  the  conimunity  (the  Muham- 
madan  world). 

The  genealogy  of  this  'Anan  is  the  following : — 

Til 'n  pv 'n  ^"li^tij 'n  ^i>^^:-T  p  p:^^  -i 

^^^iion  'n  ^^iin  2  mpi^  'n  t^^3"in  '1  b^^^iiDt  'n  -xxvi 
]^:]^in^  'n  ^t^^n^^tr  'n  ^mt  'n  h^-id  '1  ^^^t'-i^Q  '1  -xxxi 
Q"^in"^  'n  t^nnh^  '1  n^tr^^^  'n  tn^^in^  'n  n^p^in^  'n  -xxxvi 
nn^tr  '1  Di^nm  'n  n^n«  '2  hd^  '1  t^Qtrin*'  '1  -Xli 

^^T  n    XLVI 

He  opposed  a  community  of  Eabbanites  in  many  of  their  observances. 
He  fixed  the  beginning  of  the  month  by  the  appearance  of  the  new 
moon  in  a  similar  way,  as  is  prescribed  in  Islam,  not  caring  on  what  day 
of  the  week  the  beginning  of  the  month  happened  to  fall.     He  gave  up 

20  the  system  of  computation  of  the  Rabbanites,  and  made  the  intercalation 
of  a  month  depend  upon  the  observation  of  barley-seed  in  'Irak  and 
Syria  between  the  1st  and  the  14th  Nisan.  If  he  found  a  first-fruit  fit 
for  friction  and  reaping,  he  left  the  year  as  a  common  year ;  if  he  did 
not  find  that,  he  intercalated  the  year.  The  mode  of  prognosticating  the 
state  of  the  corn  was  practically  this,  that  one  of  his  followers  went  out 
on  the  23rd  Shebat,  to  examine — in  Syria  and  the  countries  of  a  similar 
climate — the  state  of  the  barley-seed.  If  he  found  that  the  Safa,  i.e.  the 
prickles  of  the  beard  of  the  ear  of  corn,  had  already  come  out,  he 
counted  from  that  day  till  Passover  50  days ;  if  he  found  that  it  had 

30  not  yet  come  out,  he  intercalated  a  month  into  the  year.  And  some 
added  the  intercalary  month  to  Shefat,  so  that  there  was  a  She/at  and  an 
U-Shefat ;  whilst  others  added  it  to  Adhar,  so  that  there  was  an  Adhdr 
and  a  We-Adhdr.  The  Ananites  mostly  use  Shefat,  not  Adhar,  whilst 
the  Eabbanites  use  exclusively  Adhar. 

This  system  of  prognosticating  the  state  of  the  corn  is  a  different  one 
according  to  the  difference  of  the  air  and  the  climate  of  the  countries. 
Therefore  it  would  be  necessary  to  make  a  special  rule  for  every  place, 
and  not  to  rely  upon  the  rule  made  for  one  certain  place,  because  this 
would  not  be  applicable  elsewhere. 

40  Syrian  Months. — The  Christians  in  Syria,  'Irak,  and  Khurasan  have 
combined  Greek  and  Jewish  months.  For  they  use  the  months  of  the 
Gi-eeks,  but  have  adopted  the  1st  of  the  Grreek  October  as  the  lieginning 


70  ALBtEl^Nt. 

of  their  year,  that  it  might  be  nearer  to  the  Jewish  new-year,  because 
Tishri  of  the  Jews  always  precedes  that  date  a  little.  And  they  call 
their  months  by  Syrian  names,  some  of  which  agree  with  the  Jewish 
names,  whilst  others  differ.  People  have  derived  these  names  from  the 
Syrians,  i.e.  the  Nabatseans,  the  inhabitants  of  Sawad ;  the  Sawad  of 
'Irak  being  called  Suristan.  But  I  do  not  see  why  they  derive  these 
months  from  them,  because  in  Islam  they  use  the  months  of  the  Arabs, 
and  at  the  time  of  heathenism  they  used  the  months  of  the  Persians. 
Others  say  that  Suristan  means  Syria.  If  that  be  the  case,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  this  country  were  Christians  before  the  time  of  Islam,  and  held  10 
a  middle  position  between  Jewish  and  Greek  theories. 
p.  60.       The  names  of  their  months  are  these  : — 

I.  Tishrm  kedim  of  31  days.  VI,  Nisan       of  30  days. 


Tishrin  hrai  of  30 
Kanun  kedim  of  31 
Kanun  hrai  of  31 
Shebat  of  28 

Adhar  of  31 


lyar  of  31 

Haziran  of  30 
Tammuz  of  31 
Abh  of  31 
Imi  of  30 


In  the  month  Shebat  they  intercalate  one  day  every  four  years,  so  that 
it  then  has  29  days.     Eegarding  the  quality  of  their  year  they  agree  20 
with  the  Greeks. 

These  months  have  become  widely  known,  so  that  even  the  Muslims 
adopted  them,  and  fixed  thereby  the  dates  of  practical  life.  The  words 
Kedim  (primus)  and  Hrcli  (postremus)  have  been  translated  into  Arabic, 
and  in  the  word  ji\  they  have  added  an  Elif,  so  as  to  make  it  ;^\, 
because  a  single  yd  (without  Tashdid)  is  disagreeable  to  the  organ  of  the 
Arabs,  if  this  Elif  is  not  added. 

Months  of  the  Arabs. — The  Arabs  have  the  following  twelve 
months  : — 

I.  Almuharram.  VII.  Rajab.  80 

Safar.  Sha'ban. 

Eabi'  I.  Eamadan. 

B.abi'  II.  Shawwal. 

Jumada  I.  Dhu-alka'da. 

Jumada  II.  Dhu-alhijja. 

Regarding  the  etymology  of  these  names  various  opinions  have  been 
advanced,  Almuharram,  e.g.  was  called  so,  because  it  was  one  of  the 
Hurum,  i.e.  the  four  sacred  months. 

Safar  was  called  so,  because  in  it  people  used  to  procure  their  pro- 
visions,  going  out  in  a  company  of  men  which  was  called  Safariyya.  40 

The  two  months  BabP  were  called  so  on  account  of  the  coming  forth 
of  the  flowers  and  blossoms  and  of  the  continual  fall  of  dew  and  rain. 


ON  THE  NATUEE  OF  MONTHS.  71 

All  of  which  refers  to  the  nature  of  that  season  which  we  call  "  autumn," 
but  which  the  Arabs  called  "  spring"  (Bahi'). 

The  two  months  Jumddd  were  called  so,  because  in  them  the  water 
froze  (;_^). 

Bajab  was  called  so,  because  in  it  people  formed  the  intention  of 
travelling,  there  being  no  fear  of  the  evils  of  war.  For  "  rujba  "  means 
sustentaculum  (a  thing  by  means  of  which  a  tree  is  propped  up),  and 
hence  people  say,  "  a  propped  up  (murajj ah)  palm-tree  which  hears  a  heavy 
load  of  fruit." 
10       Sha'hdn  was  called  so,  because  in  it  the  tribes  were  dispersed. 

Ramadan  was  called  so,  because  of  the  stones  being  roasted  by  the 
intense  heat. 

Shawwdl  was  called  so,  because  of  the  increasing  and  the  decreasing 
of  the  heat. 

Dhu-alkd'da  was  called  so,  because  in  it  people  stayed  in  their  homes. 

Dhu-alhijja  was  called  so,  because  in  it  people  performed  the  Hajj,  i.e. 
the  pilgrimage. 

We  found,  however,  also  other  names  of  the  months  of  the  Arabs, 
which   were   given  to    them    by   their   ancestors.     They   are   the   fol- 
20   lowing : — 

I.  Almu'tamir.  YII.  Al'asamm.  p.  61. 

Najir.  'Adil. 

Khawwan.  Nafik. 

Suwan.  Waghil. 

Hantam.  Huwa'. 

Zabba.  Burak. 

The  forms  as  well  as  the  order  of  these  names  sometimes  differ  from 
what  we  have  given.  One  of  the  poets,  e.g.  has  comprised  them  in  the 
following  verses  : — 

80         "  We  have  commenced  with  Mu'tamir,    Ndjira,   and   Khawwdn,   to 

which  follows  Suwan. 
And  with  Zahhd  comes  Bd'ida,  its  next  follower.     Then  comes  the 

turn  of  *Asamm,  in  which  hatred  was  deaf. 
And  Wdghila,  Ndtila,  and  'Adila,  all  three  are  noble  and  beautiful. 
Then  comes  Banna,  and  after  it  Burak.     Now  are  complete  the 

months  of  the  year,  as  you  may  count  with  your  fingers." 

In   the   following   we    shall   explain   the    meanings   of   these   names 
according  to  the  statements  of  the  dictionaries  : — 

Almu'tamir  means  that  it  "  obeys "  all  the  decrees  of  fortune,  which 
40  the  year  is  going  to  bring. 


72  ALBtnUNI. 

Ndjir  is  derived  from  najr,  wMcli  means  "  intense  heat,"  as  it  is  used 
in  the  following  verse : — 

"  A  stinking  water,  on  account  of  which  a  man  turns  his  face  aside, 
Even  he  who  is  tortured  by  thirst,  if  he  tasted  it  in  a  '  boiling 
hot'  month." 

Khawwdn  is  the  form  JUi  of  the  verb  "  to  deceive,'"  and  Suwdn  is  the 
form  JU*  of  the  verb  "  to  preserve,  to  take  care.'"  And  these  significations 
agreed  with  the  natures  of  the  months  at  the  time  when  they  were  first 
employed  as  names  for  them. 

Zabhd  means  a  "  great  and  frequently  occurring  calamity."     The  month   10 
was  called  so,  because  in  it  there  was  much  and  frequent  fighting. 

Baid,  too,  received  its  name  from  the  fighting  in  it,  for  many  people 
used  to  "perish  "  in  it.  This  circumstance  is  expressed  in  the  following 
proverb :  "All  that  is  portentous  happens  between  Jumddd  and  Rajab." 
For  in  this  month  people  were  in  great  haste  and  eagerness  to  carry  out 
whatever  blood  revenge  or  warlike  expeditions  they  were  upon,  before 
the  month  Eajab  came  in. 

'Asamm  was  called  so,  because  in  it  people  abstained  from  fighting, 
so  that  the  clash  of  weapons  was  not  heard. 

Wdghil  means  "  one  who  comes  to  a  drinJcing -party  without  having  been   20 
invited."     This  month  was  called  so,  because  it  suddenly  comes  in  after 
Ramadan,  and  because  in  Ramadan  there  was  much  wine -drinking,  on 
account  of  the  next  following  months  being  the  months  of  pilgrimage. 

Ndtil  means  "  a  measure,  a  pot  of  wine."  The  month  was  called  so, 
because  in  it  people  indulged  in  drinking  debauches,  and  frequently 
used  that  pot. 

'Adil  is  derived  from  "  'adl "  (which  means  either  "  to  be  just  "  or 
"  to  turn  aside").  The  month  was  called  so,  because  it  was  one  of  the 
months  of  pilgrimage,  when  they  used  to  abstain  from  the  use  of  the 
Natil,  i.e.  the  wine-pot.  80 

Banna  was  called  so,  because  the  sheep  were  "  crying  "  on  account  of 
the  drawing  near  of  the  time  when  they  were  to  be  killed. 

Burah  was  called  so,  because  of  the  kneeling  down  of  the  camels  on 
being  led  to  the  slaughtering-place. 

A  better  versification  of  these  names  than  the  above-mentioned  one  is 
that  by  the  Wazir  'Isma'il  ben  'Abbad : — 

"  You  wanted  to  know  the  months  of  the  pagan  Arabs.     Take  them 
according  to  the  order  of  Muharram  (Safar,  etc.),  of  which  they 
partake. 
g2.  First  comes  MuHamir,  then  Ndjir ;  and  Khawwdn  and  Suwdn  are   40 

connected  by  one  tie. 
Hanin,  Zabbd,  'Asamm,  'Adil,  Ndfik  with  Waghl,  and  Banna  with 
Burah." 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  MONTHS.  73 

If  the  etymologies  of  these  two  classes  of  names  of  the  months  are 
such  as  we  have  related,  we  must  suppose  that  between  the  two  periods 
of  giving  the  names  there  was  a  great  interval  of  time.  Or  else  our 
explanations  and  etymologies  would  not  he  correct.  For  in  one  class  of 
the  months  the  highest  pitch  of  the  heat  is  Safar,  whilst  in  the  other  it 
is  Eamadan ;  and  this  (that  the  greatest  heat  should  be  either  in  Safar 
or  in  Eamadan)  is  not  possible  at  one  and  the  same  period,  or  at  two 
periods  which  are  not  very  far  distant  from  each  other. 

Intercalation  of  the  Ancient  Arabs. — At  the  time  of  paganism 

10  the  Arabs  used  their  months  in  a  similar  way  to  the  Muslims  ;  their 
pilgrimage  went  wandering  around  through  the  four  seasons  of  the  year. 
But  then  they  desired  to  perform  the  pilgrimage  at  such  time  as  their 
merchandise  (hides,  skins,  fruit,  etc.)  was  ready  for  the  market,  and  to 
fix  it  according  to  an  invariable  rule,  so  that  it  should  occur  in  the  most 
agreeable  and  abundant  season  of  the  year.  Therefore  they  learned  the 
system  of  intercalation  from  the  Jews  of  their  neighbourhood,  about 
200  years  before  the  Hijra.  And  they  used  intercalation  in  a  similar 
way  to  the  Jews,  adding  the  difference  between  their  year  and  the  solar 
year,  when  it  had  summed  up  to  one  complete  month,  to  the  months  of 

20  their  year.  Then  their  intercalators  themselves,  the  so-called  Kaldmis 
of  the  tribe  Kinana,  rose,  after  pilgrimage  had  been  finished,  delivered  a 
speech  to  the  people  at  the  fair,  and  intercalated  the  month,  calling  the 
next  following  month  by  the  name  of  that  month  in  which  they  were. 
The  Arabs  consented  to  this  arrangement  and  adopted  the  decision  of 
the  Kalammas.  This  proceeding  they  called  "  Nasi,"  i.e.  postponement, 
because  in  every  second  or  third  year  they  postponed  the  beginning  of 
the  year  for  a  month,  as  it  was  required  by  the  progression  of  the  year. 
One  of  their  poets  has  said  : — 

"  We  have  an  intercalator,  under  whose  banner  we  march  ; 
30  He  declares  the  months  profane  or  sacred,  as  he  likes." 

The  first  intercalation  applied  to  Muharram;  in  consequence  Safar 
was  called  Muharram,  Eabi'  I.  was  called  Safar,  and  so  on ;  and  in  this 
way  all  the  names  of  all  the  months  were  changed.  The  second  inter- 
calation applied  to  Safar ;  in  consequence  the  next  following  month 
(Eabi  I.)  was  called  Safar.  And  this  went  on  till  intercalation  had 
passed  through  all  twelve  months  of  the  year  and  returned  to  Muharram. 
Then  they  commenced  anew  what  they  had  done  the  first  time. 

The  Arabs  counted  the  cycles  of  intercalation  and  fixed  thereby  their 
dates.  They  said  for  instance  :  "  From  the  time  x  till  the  time  y  the 
40  years  have  turned  round  one  cycle." 

But  now,  if  notwithstanding  intercalation  it  became  evident  that  a 
month  progressed  beyond  its  proper  place  in  the  four  seasons  of  the 
year,  in  consequence  of  the  accumulation  of  the  fractions  of  the  solar 
year,  and  of  the  remainder  of  the  plus-difference  between  the  solar  year 


74  '  ALBiEUNt. 

and  the  lunar  year,  to  which  latter  they  had  added  this  plus-difference, 
they  made  a  second  intercalation.  Such  a  progression  they  were  able  to 
recognize  from  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  Lunar  Mansions.  This  went 
on  till  the  time  when  the  Prophet  fled  from  Makka  to  Madina,  when  the 
turn  of  intercalation,  as  we  have  mentioned,  had  come  to  Sha'ban. 
p.  63.  Now,  this  month  was  called  Muharram,  and  Eamadan  was  called 
Safar.  Then  the  Prophet  waited  till  the  "  fare^vell  pilgrimage,"  on  which 
occasion  he  addressed  the  people,  and  said :  "  The  season,  the  time  has 
gone  round  as  it  was  on  the  day  of  God's  creating  the  heavens  and  the 
earth."  (Sura  ix.  38.)  By  which  he  meant  that  the  months  had  returned  10 
to  their  original  places,  and  that  they  had  been  freed  from  what  the  Arabs 
used  to  do  with  them.  Therefore,  the  "  farewell  pilgrimage,"  was  also 
called  "  the  correct  pilgrimage."  Thereupon  intercalation  was  prohibited 
and  altogether  neglected. 

Months  of  the  Themudeni. — 'Abu-Bakr  Muhammad  ben  Duraid 
Al'azdi  relates  in  his  Kitdb-alwisMh,  that  the  people  Thamud  called  the 
months  by  the  following  names  : — 

I.  Mujib  i.e.  Muharram.  VII.  Haubal. 
Mujir.  Mauha. 

Murid.  Daimur.  20 

Mulzim.  Dabir. 

Musdir.  Haifal. 

Haubar.  Musbil. 

He  says  that  they  commenced  their  year  with  the  month  Daimur,  i.e. 
Eamadan.  The  following  is  a  versification  of  these  names  by  'Abu-Sahl 
'Isa  ben  Yahya  Almasihi : — 

"  The   months    of    Thamud  are    Mujib,  Mujir,  Murid ;    then  follow 

Mulzim  and  Musdir. 
Then  come  Haubar  and  Haubal,  followed  by  Mauhct  and  Daimur. 
Then  come  Ddbir,  and  Haifal,  and  Musbil,  till  it  is  finished,  the  most  30 

celebrated  amoug  them." 

Arabic  Names  of  Days. — The  Arabs  did  not,  like  the  Persians,  give 
special  names  to  the  single  days  of  the  month,  but  they  had  special 
names  for  each  three  nights  of  every  month,  which  were  derived  from 
the  state  of  the  moon  and  her  light  during  them.  Beginning  with  the 
first  of  the  month,  they  called — 

The  first  three  nights  (lst-3rd)  ghurar,  which  is  the  plural  of  ghurra, 
and  means  the  first  of  everything.  According  to  others  they  were 
called  so,  because  during  them  the  new  moon  appeared  like  a  Maze 
on  the  forehead  of  a  horse.  40 

The  second  three  nights  (4th-6th)  nufal,  from  tanaffala,  which  means, 
"  beginning  to  make  a  present  without  any  necessity."  Others  call 
them  shuhb,  i.e.  the  white  nights. 


ON    THE    NATUEE    OF    MONTHS.  76 

The  third  three  nights  (7th-9th)  tusa',  because  the  ninth  night  is  the 
last  of  them.  Others  call  them  buh7',  because  in  them  the  darkness 
of  the  night  is  particularly  thick. 

The  fourth  three  nights  (10th-12th)  'tishar,  because  the  tenth  night  is 
the  first  of  them. 

The  fifth  three  nights  (13th-15th)  hid,  because  they  are  7vhite  by  the 
shining  of  the  moon  from  the  beginning  of  the  night  till  the  end. 

The  sixth  three  nights  (16th-18th)   dtira^  because  they  are  black  at 

the  beginning  like  the  sheep  with  a  hlach  head  and  a  white  body.   p.  64. 
10  Originally  the  comparison  was  taken  from  a  coat  of  mail  in  which 

people  are  clad,  because  the  colour  of  the  head  of  him  who  is 
dressed  in  it,  differs  from  the  colour  of  the  rest  of  his  body. 

The  seventh  three  nights  (19th-21st)  zulam,  because  in  most  cases 
they  were  dark. 

The  eighth  three  nights  (22nd-24th)  handdis  (from  hindis-=extrera.Q\Y 
dark).     Others  call  them  duhm,  on  account  of  their  being  dark. 

The  ninth  three  nights  (25th-27th)  da'ddi',  because  they  are  remain- 
ders (or  last  parts).     Others  derive  it  from  the  mode  of  walking  of 
the  camels,  viz.,  stretching  forth  the  one  foot,  to  ivhich  the  other  is 
2"  quicTdy  following. 

The  tenth  three  nights  (28th-30th)  mihdk,  on  account  of  the  waning 
of  the  moon  and  the  month. 

Besides,  they  distinguished  certain  nights  of  the  month  by  special 
names,  e.g.  the  last  night  of  the  month  was  called  sio-dr,  because  in  it  the 
moon  hides  herself ;  it  was  also  called  fahama  on  account  of  there  being 
no  light  in  it,  and  hard' ,  because  the  sun  has  nothing  to  do  with  it. 
Likewise  the  last  day  of  the  month  was  called  nahir,  because  it  is  in  the 
nahr  (throat)  of  the  month.  The  13th  night  is  called  saivd,  the  14th  the 
night  of  "  hadr,"  because  in  it  the  moon  is  full,  and  her  light  complete, 
30  For  of  everything  that  has  become  comj)lete  you  say  hadara;  e.g.  10,000 
dirhams  are  called  one  hadra,  because  that  is  supposed  to  be  the  most 
complete  and  the  last  number,  although  it  is  not  so  in  reality. 

The  Arabs  used  in  their  months  also  the  seven  days  of  the  week,  the 
ancient  names  of  which  are  the  following  : — 

1.  'Awwal,  i.e.  Sunday. 

2.  'Ahwan. 

3.  Jubar. 

4.  Dubar. 

5.  Mu'nis. 
*0               6.  'Aruba. 

7.  Shiyar, 

They  are  mentioned  by  one  of  their  poets  in  the  following  verse : — 
"  I  strongly  hope  that  I  shall  remain  alive,  and  that  my  day  (of 
death)  will  be  either  'Awwal,  or  ^ Ahwan,  or  Jubdr, 


Or  the  following  day,  Buhdr,  or  if  I  get  beyond  that,  either  Munis 
or  'Aruba  or  Shiydr." 

Afterwards  the  Arahs  gave  them  the  following  new  names  : — 

Al-'ahad,  i.e.  one. 

Al-ithnan,  „  two. 

Al-thulatha,  „  three. 

A.l-'arbi'a,  „  four. 

Al-khamis  „  five. 

Al-jum'a,  „  gathering. 

Al-sabt,  „  sabbath.                                                                            10 

The  Arabs  fixed  the  beginning  of  the  month  by  the  appearance  of 
new  moon,  and  the  same  has  been  established  as  a  law  in  Islam,  as  the 
Lord  has  said  (Sura  ii.  185)  :  "  They  will  ask  thee  regarding  the  new 
moons.  Speak  :  they  are  certain  moments  of  time  for  the  use  of  man- 
kind (in  general)  and  for  pilgrimage." 

Determination  of  the   leng-th   of  Ramadan,   the   Month   of 

Fasting. — Some  years  ago,  however,  a  pagan  sect  started  into  existence 
somehow  or  other.  They  considered  how  best  to  employ  the  interpre- 
tation (of  the  Koran),  and  to  attach  themselves  to  the  system  of  the 
exoteric  school  of  interpreters  who,  as  they  maintain,  are  the  Jews  and 
Christians.  For  these  latter  have  astronomical  tables  and  calculations, 
by  means  of  which  they  compute  their  months,  and  derive  the  knowledge 
of  their  fast  days,  whilst  Muslims  are  compelled  to  observe  new  moon, 
and  to  inquire  into  the  different  phases  of  the  light  of  the  moon,  and 
into  that  which  is  common  to  both  her  visible  and  invisible  halves.  But 
then  they  found  that  Jews  and  Christians  have  no  certainty  on  this 
subject,  that  they  differ,  and  that  one  of  them  blindly  follows  the  other, 
although  they  had  done  their  utmost  in  the  study  of  the  places  of  the 
moon,  and  in  the  researches  regarding  her  motions  (lit.  expeditions)  and 
stations.  30 

Thereupon  they  had  recourse  to  the  astronomers,  and  comj^osed  their 
Canons  and  books,  beginning  them  with  dissertations  on  the  elements  of 
the  knowledge  of  the  Arabian  months,  adding  various  kinds  of  compu- 
65.  tations  and  chronological  tables.  Now,  jDeople,  thinking  that  these 
calculations  were  based  upon  the  observation  of  the  new-moons,  adopted 
some  of  them,  attributed  their  authorships  to  Ja'far  Al-sadik,  and 
beheved  that  they  were  one  of  the  mysteries  of  prophecy.  However, 
these  calculations  are  based  not  upon  the  apparent,  but  upon  the  mean,  i.e. 
the  corrected,  motions  of  sun  and  moon,  upon  a  lunar  year  of  364^  days, 
and  upon  the  supposition  that  six  months  of  the  year  are  complete,  six  40 
incomplete,  and  that  each  complete  month  is  followed  by  an  incomplete 
one.  So  we  judge  from  the  nature  of  their  Canons,  and  from  the  books 
which  are  intended  to  establish  the  bases  on  which  the  Canons  rest. 


20 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  MONTHS.  77 

But,  when  tliey  tried  to  fix  thereby  the  beginning  and  end  of  fasting, 
their  calculation,  in  most  cases,  preceded  the  legitimate  time  by  one  day. 
Whereupon  they  set  about  eliciting  curious  things  from  the  following 
word  of  the  Prophet :  "  Fast,  when  she  (new-moon)  appears,  and  cease 
fasting  when  she  re-appears."  For  they  asserted,  that  the  words  "  fast, 
when  she  appears  "  (<i;a«jJ  \^^),  mean  the  fasting  of  that  day,  in  the 
afternoon  of  which  new-moon  becomes  visible,  as  people  say,  "  prepare 
yourselves  to  meet  him  "  ((3j\,;.fl;u.S  ^^j-;^*),  in  which  case  the  act  of  preparing 
precedes  that  of  meeting. 

10  Besides,  they  assert  that  the  month  of  Eamadan  has  never  less  than 
thirty  days.  However,  astronomers  and  all  those  who  consider  the  sub- 
ject attentively,  are  well  aware  that  the  appearance  of  new-moon  does 
not  proceed  regularly  according  to  one  and  the  same  rule  for  several 
reasons :  the  motion  of  the  moon  varies,  being  sometimes  slower,  some- 
times faster ;  she  is  sometimes  near  the  earth,  sometimes  far  distant ; 
she  ascends  in  north  and  south,  and  descends  in  them ;  and  each  single 
one  of  these  occurrences  may  take  place  on  every  point  of  the  ecliptic. 
And  besides,  some  sections  of  the  eclij)tic  sink  faster,  others  slower. 
All  this  varies  according  to  the  different  latitudes  of  the  countries,  and 

20  according  to  the  difference  of  the  atmosj)here.  This  refers  either  to 
different  places  where  the  air  is  either  naturally  clear  or  dark,  being 
always  mixed  up  with  vapours,  and  mostly  dusty,  or  it  refers  to  different 
times,  the  air  being  dense  at  one  time,  and  clear  at  another.  Besides, 
the  power  of  the  sight  of  the  observers  varies,  some  being  sharp-sighted, 
others  dim-sighted.  And  all  these  circumstances,  however  different 
they  are,  are  liable  to  various  kinds  of  coincidences,  which  may  happen 
at  each  beginning  of  the  two  months  of  Ramadan  and  Shawwal  under 
innumerable  forms  and  varieties.  For  these  reasons  the  month  Ramadan 
is  sometimes  incomplete,  sometimes  complete,  and  all  this  varies  accord- 

30  ing  to  the  greater  or  less  latitude  of  the  countries,  so  that,  e.g.  in 
northern  countries  the  month  may  be  complete,  whilst  the  same  month 
is  incomplete  in  southern  countries,  and  vice  versa.  Further,  also,  these 
differences  in  the  various  countries  do  not  follow  one  and  the  same  rule ; 
on  the  contrary,  one  identical  circumstance  may  happen  to  one  month 
several  consecutive  times  or  with  interruptions. 

But  even  supposing  that  the  use  which  they  make  of  those  tables  and 
calculations  were  correct,  and  their  computation  agreed  with  the  appear- 
ance of  new-moon,  or  preceded  it  by  one  day,  which  they  have  made  a 
fundamental  principle,  they  would  require  special  computations  for  each 

40  degi-ee  of  longitude,  because  the  variation  in  the  appearance  of  new- 
moon  does  not  depend  alone  upon  the  latitudes,  but  to  a  great  extent  p.  66. 
also  upon  the  longitudes  of  the  countries.  For,  frequently,  new-moon 
is  not  seen  in  some  place,  whilst  she  is  seen  in  another  place  not  far  to 
the  west ;  and  frequently  she  is  seen  in  both  places  at  once.  This  is  one 
of  the  reasons  for  which  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  special  calculations 


78  ALBtEUNf. 

and  tables  for  every  single  degree  of  longitude.  Therefore,  now,  their 
theory  is  quite  Utopian,  viz.  that  the  month  of  Eamadan  should  always 
be  complete,  and  that  both  its  beginning  and  end  should  be  identical  in 
the  whole  of  the  inhabited  world,  as  would  follow  from  that  table  which 
they  use. 

If  they  contend  that  from  the  (above-mentioned)  tradition,  which  is 
traced  back  to  Muhammad  himself,  the  obligation  of  making  the 
beginning  and  end  of  fasting  precede  the  appearance  of  new-moon, 
follows,  we  must  say  that  such  an  interpretation  is  unfounded.  For  the 
particle  Ldvi  («:^yj^  ,«S)  relates  to  future  time,  as  they  have  mentioned,  10 
and  relates  to  past  time,  as  you  say,  e.g.  '.—jq^\  (j^  ,_j^  \aS3  •..-^ 
("  dated  from  this  or  that  day  of  the  month"),  i.e.  from  that  moment  when 
X  days  of  the  month  were  past  already,  in  which  case  the  writing  does 
not  precede  the  past  part  of  the  month.  And  this,  not  the  first 
mentioned,  is  the  meaning  of  that  tradition.  Compare  with  this  the 
following  saying  of  the  Proj>het :  "  We  are  illiterate  people,  we  do  not 
write  nor  do  we  reckon  the  month  thus  and  thus  and  thus,"  each  time 
showing  his  ten  fingers,  meaning  a  complete  month  or  thirty  days.  Then 
he  repeated  his  words,  saying,  "  and  thus  and  thus  and  thus,"  and  at 
the  third  time  he  held  back  one  thumb,  meaning  an  incomplete  month  20 
or  twenty-nine  days.  By  this  generally  known  sentence,  the  Prophet 
ordained  that  the  month  should  be  one  time  complete,  and  incomplete 
another  time,  and  that  this  is  to  be  regulated  by  the  appearance  of  new- 
moon,  not  by  calculation,  as  he  says,  "  we  do  not  write,  nor  do  we  reckon 
(calculate).'" 

But  if  they  say  that  the  Prophet  meant  that  each  complete  month 
should  be  followed  by  an  incomplete  one,  as  the  chronologists  reckon, 
they  are  refuted  by  the  plain  facts,  if  they  will  not  disregard  them,  and 
their  trickery  in  both  small  and  great  things,  in  all  they  have  committed, 
is  exposed.  For  the  conclusion  of  the  first-mentioned  tradition  proves  30 
the  impossibility  of  their  assertion,  viz.  "Fast  when  she  (new-moon) 
appears,  and  cease  fasting  when  she  re-appears,  but  if  heaven  be  clouded  so 
as  to  prevent  your  observation,  reckon  the  month  Sha'bdn  as  thirty  days." 
And  in  another  tradition,  the  Prophet  says,  "  If  a  cloud  or  black  dust 
should  prevent  you  from,  observing  the  new  moon,  make  the  number  thirty 
complete."  For  if  the  appearance  of  new-moon  be  known  either  from 
their  tables  and  calculations,  or  from  the  statements  of  the  authors  of 
the  canons,  and  if  the  beginning  and  end  of  fasting  is  to  precede  the 
appearance  of  new-moon,  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  give  full  thirty 
days  to  the  month  Sha'ban,  or  to  count  the  month  Eamadan  as  full  40 
thirty  days,  in  case  the  horizon  should  be  covered  by  a  cloud  or  by  dust. 
And  this  {i.e.  to  give  full  thirty  days  to  Ramadan)  is  not  possible,  except 
by  performing  the  fasting  of  the  day  in  the  evening  of  which  the  new- 
moon  is  first  seen. 


ON  THE  NATUEE  OF  MONTHS.  79 

If,  further,  the  month  Ramadan  were  always  complete,  and  its 
beginning  were  known,  people  might  do  without  the  observation  of 
new-moon  for  the  month  Shawwill.  In  the  same  way,  the  word  of 
the  Prophet :  "and  cease  fasting  when  she  (new-moon')  re-apjpears"  is  to  be 
interpreted. 

However,  party  spirit  makes  clear-seeing  eyes  blind,  and  makes  sharp- 
hearing  ears  deaf,  and  instigates  people  to  engage  in  things  which  no 
mind  is  inclined  to  adopt.     But  for  this  reason,  such  ideas  would  not   p.  67. 
have  entered  their  heads,  i£  you  consider-the  traditions  which  occur  in 

10  the  books  of  the  8hi^a  Zaidiyya, — may  God  preserve  their  community  ! — 
and  which  have  been  corrected  by  their  authorities, — may  God  bless 
them  ! — as  for  instance,  the  following :  In  the  time  of  the  Priace  of  the 
Believers  ('Ali)  people  had  been  fasting  twenty-eight  days  in  the  month 
of  Eamadan.  Then  he  ordered  them  still  to  perform  the  fasting  of  one 
day,  which  they  did.  The  fact  was  that  both  consecutive  months, 
Sha'ban  and  Ramadan,  were  imperfect,  and  there  had  been  some  obstacle 
which  had  prevented  them  from  observing  new-moon  at  the  beginning 
of  Eamadan  ;  they  gave  the  month  the  full  number  of  thirty  days,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  month  the  reality  of  the  case  became  evident.     Then 

20  there  is  the  following  saying,  related  to  have  been  pronounced  by  'Abu 
'Abd-Allah  Alsadik  :  "  The  month  of  Ramadan  is  liable  to  the  same  increase 
and  decrease  as  the  other  months.'"  Also  the  following  is  reported  of  the 
same :  "  If  you  observe  the  month  Sha'bdn  without  being  able  to  see  the  new- 
moon,  count  thirty  and  then  fast.''  The  same  'Abu- 'Abd- Allah  Alsadik,  on 
beiag  asked  regarding  the  new-moon,  said :  "  If  you  see  the  new  moon, 
fast,  and  if  you  see  her  again,  cease  fasting .''  All  these  traditions  in  the 
code  of  the  Shi'a  refer  only  to  the  fasting. 

It  is  astonishing  that  our  masters,  the  family  of  the  Prophet,  listened 
to  such  doctrines,  and  that  they  adopted  them  as  a  uniting  link  for  the 

30  minds  of  the  community  of  the  believers  who  profess  to  follow  them, 
instead  of  imitating  the  example  of  their  ancestor,  the  Prince  of  the 
Believers  ('Ali),  in  his  aversion  to  conciliating  the  obstinate  sinners, 
when  he  spoke:  "I  did  not  hold  out  an  arm  to  those  who  lead  astray" 
(i.e.  1  did  not  lend  support  to  them). 

As  regards  the  following  saying,  ascribed  by  tradition  to  Alsadik : 
"  When  you  observe  the  new-moon  of  Eajab,  count  fifty-nine  days,  and 
then  begin  fasting  ;"  and  the  following  saying  ascribed  to  the  same:  "If 
you  see  the  new-moon  of  the  month  of  Eamadan  at  the  time  when  she 
appears,  count  354  days,  and  then  begin  fasting  in  the  next  foUowiag 

40  year.  For  the  Lord  has  created  the  year  as  consisting  of  360  days. 
But  from  these  he  has  excepted  six  days,  in  which  he  created  the  heavens 
and  the  earth ;  therefore  they  (these  six  days)  are  not  comprehended 
in  the  number  (of  the  days  of  the  year)  " — regarding  these  traditions  we 
say,  that,  if  they  were  correct,  his  (Alsadik's)  statement  on  this  subject 
would  rest  on  the   supposition,  that  it  (the  month  Eamadan)  was  really 


80  ALEiEUNi. 

greater  in  one  place,  and  did  not  follow  the  same  rule  everywhere,  as  we 
have  heretofore  mentioned.  Such  a  method  of  accounting  for  the  six 
days  is  something  so  subtle,  that  it  proves  the  tradition  to  be  false,  and 
renders  it  void  of  authenticity. 

In  a  chronicle  I  have  read  the  following :  'Abu-Ja'far  Muhammad  ben 
Sulaiman,  Governor  of  Kufa,  under  the  Khalif  Mansur,  had  imprisoned 
*Abd-alkarim  ben  'Abi-al'auja,  who  was  the  uncle  of  Ma'n  ben  Za'ida, 
one  of  the  Manichseans.  This  man,  however,  had  many  protectors  in 
Baghdad,  and  these  urged  Mansur  in  his  favour,  till  at  last  he  wrote  to 
Muhammad  ordering  him  not  to  put  'Abd-alkarim  to  death.  Meanwhile,  10 
'Abd-alkarim  was  expecting  the  arrival  of  the  letter  in  his  cause.  He 
said  to  'Abu-aljabbar  confidentially  :  "  If  the  'Amir  gives  me  respite  for 
three  days,  I  shall  give  him  100,000  dirhams."  'Abu-aljabbar  told  this 
to  Muhammad,  who  replied :  "  You  have  reminded  me  of  him,  whilst  I 
68.  bad  forgotten  him.  Eemind  me  of  him  when  I  return  from  the  mosque." 
Then,  when  he  returned,  'Abii-aljabbar  reminded  him  of  the  prisoner, 
whereupon  he  (Muhammad)  ordered  him  to  be  brought  and  to  be 
beheaded.  And  now,  knowing  for  certain  that  he  was  to  be  killed, 
he  said,  "  By  God,  now  that  you  are  going  to  kill  me,  I  tell  you  that 
I  have  put  down  4,000  traditions  (in  my  books),  in  which  I  forbid  20 
that  which  is  allowed,  and  allow  that  which  is  forbidden.  And 
verily,  I  have  made  you  break  your  fast  when  you  ought  to  have 
fasted,  and  I  have  made  you  fast  when  you  ought  not  to  have  fasted." 
Thereupon  he  was  beheaded,  and  afterwards  the  letter  in  his  cause 
arrived. 

How  thoroughly  did  this  heretic  deserve  to  be  the  author  of  this 
subtle  interpretation  which  they  have  adopted,  and  of  its  original  (i.e. 
the  text  to  which  the  interj^retation  refers)  ! 

I  myself  have  had  a  discussion  with  the  originator  of  this  sect, 
regarding  the  Musnad-tradition  (i.e.  such  a  tradition  as  is  carried  back  by  30 
an  uninterrupted  chain  of  witnesses  to  Muhammad  himself).  On  which 
occasion  I  compelled  him  to  admit  that  consequences,  similar  to  those 
here  mentioned,  follow  from  his  theories.  But  then  in  the  end  he 
declared,  that  the  subject  was  one  that  of  necessity  resulted  from  the 
language  (i.e.  from  the  interpretation  of  the  Ldm-altaukit) ,  and  that  the 
language  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  law  and  its  corollaries. 
Thereupon,  I  answered :  "  May  God  have  mercy  upon  you !  Have  not 
God  and  his  Prophet  addressed  us  in  the  language  generally  known  among 
the  Arabs  ?  But  the  thing  is  this,  that  you  have  nothing  whatever  to  do 
with  the  Arabic  language ;  and  also  in  the  science  of  the  law  you  are  utterly  40 
ignorant.  Leave  the  law  aside  and  address  yourself  to  the  astronomers. 
None  of  them  would  agree  with  you  regarding  your  theory  of  the  per- 
petual completeness  of  the  month  of  Eamadan  ;  none  of  them  thinks 
that  the  celestial  globe  and  sun  and  moon  distinguish  the  moon  of 
Eamadan  from  among  the  others,  so  as  to  move  faster  or  slower  just  in 


ON  THE  NATURE  OF  MONTHS.  81 

this  particular  month.  The  luminaries  do  not  mark  out  this  month  in 
particular  as  do  the  Muslims,  who  distinguish  it  by  performing  their 
fasting  in  it. 

However,  arguing  with  people  who  are  obstinate  on  purpose,  and  per- 
severe in  their  obstinacy  on  account  of  their  ignorance,  is  not  productive 
of  any  good,  either  for  the  student  or  for  the  object  of  his  researches. 
Grod  speaks  (Sura  lii.  44) :  "  If  they  saw  a  piece  of  heaven  falling  down, 
they  would  say,  '  It  is  only  a  conglomerated  cloud.'  "  And  farther 
(Sura  vi.  7)  :  "  If  we  sent  down  to  you  a  book  (written)  on  paper,  and 
10  they  touched  it  with  their  hands,  verily  the  unbelieving  would  say, 
'  This  is  nothing  but  evident  witchcraft.'  "  God  grant  that  we  may 
always  belong  to  those  who  follow  and  further  the  truth,  who  crush  and 
expose  that  which  is  false  and  wrong ! 

Months  of  the  Reformed  Calendar  of  Almu'tadid.— The  months 
of  Almu'tadid  are  the  Persian  months,  with  the  same  names  and  the 
same  order.  But  the  Persian  days  are  not  used  in  these  months,  because 
to  the  Epagomense  in  every  fourth  year  one  day  is  added  by  way  of 
intercalation  ;  and  so  for  that  reason  which  we  have  mentioned,  when 
speaking  of  the  months  of  the  Egyptians,  the  (Persian)  names  of  the 
20  single  days  have  been  dropped.  The  order  of  intercalation  used  in  these 
months  agrees  with  that  of  the  Greeks  and  Syrians. 

As  to  the  months  of  the  other  nations,  Hindus,  Chinese,  Tibetans, 
Turks,  Khazars,  Ethiopians,  and  Negroes,  we  do  not  intend,  although 
we  have  managed  to  learn  the  names  of  some  of  them,  to  mention  them 
here,  postponing  it  till  a  time  when  we  shall  know  them  all,  as  it  does 
not  agree  with  the  method  which  we  have  followed  hitherto,  to  connect 
that  which  is  doubtful  and  unknown  with  that  which  is  certain  and 
known. 

We  have  collected  in  the  following  table  the  names  of  the  months 
30  which  have  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding  part  of  this  book,  in  order 
to  fardlitate  the  study  of  the  various  kinds  of  them.  God  leads  to  the 
truth ! 


82 


ALBtEi^Nt. 


p.  69. 


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-ance  c 
is  obs 
ited). 

.a 

0 

2 1 2  "i 

i=!td 

^^4 

-a- 

ce 
<d 

rd 

ce 

<d 
rd 

The  beginning  of 

is  the  appeal 

New-Moon  which 

(not  calcuh 

^ 

<^ 

i:o- 

P^      Ph 

H-i 

^     P^ 

OQ 

P^ 

GQ 

p 

P 

to 

1 
bo 

'a 

1 

d 

^       d 

eg 

■J2           so- 
N        <! 

1 — 1 
<<1 

i-H 
rd 

1 

d 

w 

M 

1     bcS   ..      ^5 

eir  beginnin 
le  appearan 

New-Moon 
tieir  niimbei 
begins  with 
aimur  whic 
responds  wi 

Eamadan. 

1 

<d       d 

02 

d 

d       d 

d 

d 

'ci 

15 

02 

d 

g-^oH      Hg 

^ 

% 

^      ^ 

^ 

w    w 

^ 

ft 

p 

K- 

^ 

o          -§ 

d 

■^  a)=s  o 

<cS 

rd 

N 

Beginning 

months  i 

appearan 

New-Mooi 

the  Ver 

Eqnin 

© 

m 

CD 

1 

-4-S. 

02 

<rt         d 
-d      <«i 

1— 1 

d 
m 

<d 

i 

EH 

rd 

3 
P 

I 

rd 

^ 

1 

<C« 

<ci 

M 

d 

-Si 

o  ^ 

.2 

'to 

<?^  ,-d  f^ 

d 

rd 

<cS 

u 
ce 

<ct 

<ce 

d 
ce 

J4_l  F=H 

.s« 

p.* 

^ 

'^  <<  ^  ^  ^e 

S-l 

d 

<CS 

'ce 

-^ 

.S  -^ 

©     M 
©^ 
^g 

a 

-li 

M       H 

^ 

s    g 

<^ 

«j 

P 

M 

02 
1— 1 

•ill 

•1 

c 

It 

i 

:^   ^ 

5> 

3^ 

3 

! 

^ 

1 
^ 

of  their 

the 

iroz. 

1 

f3 

1 

1 

u 

I 

it 

I) 

4 

r 

1 

The  beginning 
months  is 
second  Nat 

m 

lO 

fe.S 

:3 
J 

r 

1^  i 

•1 

j 

'^ 

% 

1 

1 

ON    THE    NATdRB    OP    MONTHS. 


83 


d 

cS 

rd 

M 

c^ 

CO 

s 

r^ 

d 

d 

d 

u 

'M 

S 

d 

t^ 

<9 

rd 

6D 

d 

d 

H 

't:* 

^-1 

<d 

"^ 

o 

d 

~o 

c3 

S 

O 

P^ 

^ 

h; 

H 

>H 

M 

s 

H 

S 

The  beginning  of 
these  months  is  an 
assumed  day 
which  is  not  in  rela- 
tion to  anything 
else. 

GO 

i 

-(-=1 

o 

1            -tJ 

05 

rd 
-1-2 

4^ 

=d 

0) 

PI 

m 

rd 
OS 

d 

<d 

d 

M 

<d 
d 

<ce 

M 

rd 

d 

<si 

02 

^1 

1 

rd 
r^ 

<HH 

1 

1           a> 

02 

of  these  mont 
day  of  the 
h  Kanun  the 

St. 

1    s 

d 

1 

d 

02 

.5 

02 

d 

1 

02 

.2 

<I1 

02 

d 

'd 
d 

02 

.2 

d 

02 

d 

02 

d 

d 
< 

.2 

rS 

a 

CD 

pL, 

0) 

02 

d 

'S 

a 

o 

o 

o 

CO 

.2 

1 

> 

o 

I2; 

02 

.d 

'?H 

■a 

0 

CD 
fi 

bo  ui    a  ^ 

a    >-i   o 

The  beginni: 

is  the  fi 

Syrian  m 

C     IE 

P 

02 

05 

a; 

to 

d 

-1-2 

02 

d 
o 

1 

02 

•  r-t 

1 

03 

.2 

'Sq 

02 

d 

02 

d 

03 

d 
§ 

o 

2 

pi 

1>^ 

02 

d 
3  d 

02 

d 

<l 

^ 

fi 

X 

<I 

fi 

Ph 

Hi 

i) 

w 

■fi 

<1 

u 

rd 

<^ 

d        ID 

+3 

rd 

(D          --H 

<o 

■u 

m 

o 
O 

1 

td 

d 

<d 

d 

<o 

"d 

•r-l 
r^ 

0 

•^■3  ®  ° 

<o 

d 

rSH 

o 

^ 

-I-2 

cS 

c5 

o 

>-> 

m 

(D***!  :S  -«         ' 

rd 

rd 

-tJ 

rd 

>-i 

rd 

rd 

cS 

^ 

'Sh 

lii 

^'^C^^ 

EH 

PM 

-< 

Q 

H 

pLn 

Pm 

PM 

CM 

H 

^ 

beginning 
is  the  29 

e  beginnin 

year  is  t 

Dai- 

<D 

■Sis 

-J 

-^3 

02 

d 

a 

0) 

rO 

d 

rd 

o      :3 

d 
d 

'd 

1-5 

be 

d 
< 

a; 

m 

O 

o 

o 

iX> 

o 

a; 
fi 

1 

1 

'?H 

'inning  of 
months 
3n  junction 
g  place 
he  vernal 
linox. 

D 

J 

J. 
'3 

4^ 

1 

4 

i 

■? 

J 

«j  g  o  a-f^  £, 

M 

a)d,ij  d  S 

H     .2     -d 

leen  ab 
how 
month 
what 
,  nor  0 
hey  ar 

>^, 

t>^ 

>-. 

m          1 

rd 

:d 
:d 

M 

>^ 

< 
I 

<< 

<^ 

•1— J 

>^ 

«< 

>^ 

>-> 

I  have  not  t 

to  learn 

long  these 

are,  nor 

they  mean 

what  kind  t 

Eh 

<< 

'd* 

•  rH 

<-< 
M 

Id 

02 

<D 

•I— s 

_d 

'r^ 

0) 

GO 

d 

d 

1 

d 
O 

I 

-4-3 

«1 

••d 

<< 

'a 

0) 

71. 


6  * 


84  ALBtR^Nt. 


p.  72.  CHAPTER    VI. 

ON  THE  DERIVATION  OF  THE  ERAS  FROM  EACH  OTHER,  AND  ON  THE 
CHRONOLOGICAL  DATES,  RELATING  TO  THE  COMMENCEMENTS  AND 
THE  DURATIONS  OF  THE  REIGNS  OF  THE  KINGS,  ACCORDING  TO  THE 
VARIOUS    TRADITIONS. 

It  is  the  special  object  at  which  I  aim  in  this  book,  to  fix  the  durations 
(of  the  reigns  of  the  kings)  by  the  most  correct  and  perspicuous  method. 
But,  now,  wishing  to  explain  the  derivation  of  the  eras  from  each  other 
in  conformity  with  the  usual  mode  of  the  canons,  which  specify  the 
various  kinds  of  calculation  and  of  derivation  (e.g.  stating  one  era  in  10 
the  terms  of  another),  and  which  contain  rules  and  paradigms,  I  find 
this  subject  to  be  a  very  wide  one,  and  the  wish  to  embrace  this  whole 
science  compels  me  to  cause  trouble  both  to  myself  and  to  the  reader. 

Agreeably  to  the  method  which  I  have  adhered  to  from  the  beginning 
of  this  book,  I  shall  explain  the  intervals  between  the  epochs  of  the 
usual  eras  by  a  measure  which  is  counted  in  the  same  way  by  all  nations, 
i.e.  by  days  ;  for,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  both  years  and  months 
are  differently  measured.  Everything  else  is  generally  mentioned  in 
years,  but  for  the  knowledge  of  the  intervals  between  the  epochs  of  the 
eras  the  statement  in  days\s  quite  sufficient,  since  it  has  been  impossible  20 
to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  real  quality  of  the  years  of  the  various 
eras,  and  there  has  been  but  little  need  for  the  use  of  them. 

Now,  if  we  in  some  places  wander  about  through  various  branches  of 
science,  and  plunge  into  subjects  which  are  not  very  closely  connected 
with  the  order  of  our  discussion,  we  must  say  that  we  do  not  do  this 
because  we  seek  to  be  lengthy  and  verbose,  but  as  guided  by  the  desire 
of  preventing  the  reader  from  getting  tired.  For  if  the  mind  is  con- 
tinually occupied  with  the  study  of  one  single  science,  it  gets  easily 
tired  and  impatient ;  but  if  the  mind  wanders  from  one  science  to 
another,  it  is  as  if  it  were  wandering  about  in  gardens,  where,  when  it  30 
is  roving  over  one,  another  one  already  presents  itself ;  in  consequence 
of  which,  the  mind  has  a  longing  for  them,  and  enjoys  the  sight  of 
them  J  as  people  say,  "Everything  that  is  new  offers  enjoyment." 


EEAS,    DATES,    AND    EEIGNS    OF    KINGS. 


85 


Now  let  us  begin  with  the  traditions  of  those  to  whom  a  divine  book 
was  sent  (Jews  and  Christians)  regarding  Adam,  his  children  and  their 
descendants.  All  this  we  shall  fix  in  tables,  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
pronunciation  of  their  names,  and  the  study  of  the  different  traditions 
regarding  them.  On  this  subject  we  combine  the  traditions  of  the  Jews 
and  Christians,  placing  them  opposite  to  each  other  (in  the  same  table). 
We  commence  by  the  help  of  Grod,  under  his  guidance,  and  with  his 
gracious  support. 


03  A 

O)   J, 

C3    1 

m  o  ^ 

■"  o 

<»  ..; 

hen 
n— ac 

ans. 

of  th 
Chris 

Si 

I  live 
orn  t 
Jews 

)gethereach  c 
-according    t 

fc  S-J3 

0) 

^^  m 

a-^  2 

Z  2 

10 

The  Names  of  the  Descendants 

of  Adam,  who  form  the 

Chronological  Chain  of  the  Era,  and 

w  old  they  were 
on  was  born  to  th 
ording  to  the  Chris 

CU  O 

2^ 

fe       » 

L  of  the 
ad  been 
ing  to  tl 

ai  o      ' 

the  Chronological  Ditferences 

between  Christians 

and  Jews  regarding  them. 

e  sum  of  tl 
ra — accordi 
ians. 

K.     fl     O 

goo 

ow  long  each 
after  a  son  h 
him — accord 

w  long  alt( 
hem    lived- 
he  Jews. 

:S3     ' 

o| 

If 

o  w  o 

^.^ 

O    OQ   CS 

O-M-M 

^"^ 

w 

W 

w 

w 

I. — Adam  the  father  of  mankind — till 

the  birth  of  his  son  Seth    . 

230 

230 

130 

800 

930 

130 

Seth  ben  Adam — till  the  birth  of 

his  son  Enos       .... 

205 

435 

105 

807 

912 

235 

Enos  ben   Seth — till  the  birth  of 

20 

his  son  Cainan  .... 
Cainan  ben  Enos — till  the  birth  of 

190 

625 

90 

815 

905 

325 

his  son  Mahalaleel     . 

170 

795 

70 

840 

910 

395 

V. — Mahalaleel   ben    Cainan — till   the 

birth  of  his  son  Jared 

165 

960 

65 

830 

895 

460 

Jared    ben    Mahalaleel — till    the 

birth  of  his  son  Enoch 

162 

1122 

162 

800 

962 

622 

Enoch  ben  Jared — till  the  birth  of 

his  son  Methuselah    . 

165 

1287 

65 

300 

365 

687 

Methuselah   ben    Enoch — till  the 

30 

birth  of  his  son  Lamech    . 
Lamech  ben  Methuselah — tUl  the 

167 

1454 

187 

782 

969 

874 

birth  of  his  son  Noah 

188 

1642 

182 

595 

777 

1056 

X. — Noah  ben  Lamech — till  the  birth 

of  his  son  Shem 

500 

2142 

500 

450 

950 

1556 

Shem  ben  Noah — till  the  Deluge  . 

100 

2242 

100 

500 

600 

1656 

From  the  Deluge  till  the  birth  of 

Arphaxad  ben  Shem 

2 

2244 

2 

0 

0 

1658 

Arphaxad  ben  Shem— till  the  birth 

of  his  son  Salah 

135 

2379 

35 

463 

498 

1693 

40 

Salah  ben  Arphaxad — till  the  birth 

of  his  son  Eber 

130 

2509 

30 

460 

49U 

1723 

XV.— Eber  ben  Salah— till  the  birth  of 

his  son  Peleg      .... 

134 

2643 

34 

396 

430 

1757 

Peleg  ben  Eber— till  the  birth  of 

his  son  Reu         .... 

130 

2773 

30 

179 

209 

1787 

Reu  ben  Peleg — till  the  birth  of 

his  son  Serug      .... 

132 

2905 

32 

175 

207 

1819 

Serug  ben  Reu — till  the  birth  of 

his  son  Nahor     .... 

130 

3035 

30 

170 

200 

1849 

60 

Nahor  ben  Serug — till  the  birth  of 

his  son  Terah     .... 

79 

3114 

29 

119 

148 

1878 

XX. — Terah  ben  Nahor— till  the  birth 

of  his  son  Abraham   . 

75 

3189 

70 

135 

205 

1948 

73. 


86  albIe^nI. 

74.  Now,  he  wlio  studies  the  numbers  of  years  of  this  table,  till  the  birth 
of  Abraham,  will  become  aware  of  the  difference  between  the  two 
systems  (that  of  the  Christians  and  that  of  the  Jews). 

The  Jewish  copy  of  the  Thora,  although  stating  the  duration  of  the 
lives  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Levi,  Kohath,  and  Moses,  does  not 
specify  how  old  they  were  when  a  son  was  born  to  each  of  them,  nor 
how  long  they  lived  after  that ;  except  in  the  case  of  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob.  For  it  is  stated  that  Isaac  was  born  unto  Abraham  when 
he  was  100  years  of  age,  and  that  he  afterwards  lived  75  years  more  ; 
that  Jacob  was  born  unto  Isaac  when  he  was  60  years  of  age ;  that  10 
Jacob  entered  Egyj)t  together  with  his  sons,  when  he  was  130  years  of 
age,  and  that  he  after  that  lived  17  years  more. 

Now,  the  Israelites  stayed  in  Egypt  210  years,  according  to  the  state- 
ment of  the  Jews,  that  between  the  birth  of  Abraham  and  that  of  Moses 
there  was  an  interval  of  420  years,  and  that  Moses  was  80  years  of  age, 
when  he  led  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt.  Prom  the  second  book  of  the 
Thora,  however,  we  learn  that  the  entire  length  of  the  sojourning  of  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt  was  430  years.  If,  now,  the  Jews  are  asked  to 
account  for  this  difference,  they  maintain  that  that  space  of  time  is  to  be 
counted  from  the  day  when  God  made  the  treaty  with  Abraham,  and  20 
promised  him  to  make  him  the  father  of  many  nations,  and  to  give  to 
his  descendants  the  country  of  Canaan  as  an  inheritance.  But  we  leave 
the  matter  to  God,  who  knows  best  what  they  mean. 

The  chronological  differences  regarding  the  later  periods  of  Biblical 
history,  arising  out  of  the  three  different  copies  of  the  Thora,  are  of  the 
same  kind  as  we  have  already  explained. 

How  little  care  the  Jews  bestow  upon  their  chronology  is  shown  to 
evidence,  by  the  fact,  that  they,  all  of  them,  believe  in  the  first  instance, 
that  between  their  exodus  from  Egypt  and  Alexander  there  is  an  interval 
of  1,000  years,  corrected  (i.e.  made  to  agree  with  the  sun  or  real  time)  80 
by  intercalation,  and  that  they  rely  on  this  number  in  their  computation 
of  the  qualities  of  the  years  (whether  they  be  perfect  or  imperfect  or 
intermediate).  But  if  we  gather  from  their  books  which  follow  after 
the  Thora,  the.  years  of  every  one  of  their  rulers  after  Moses,  the  son  of 
Amram,  and  add  them  together,  we  get  a  sum  which  already  at  the 
building  of  Jerusalem  goes  beyond  the  millennium  by  such  a  space  of 
time  as  cannot  be  tolerated  in  chronological  computations.  If  this  sum 
were  too  small  (less  than  a  millennium) ,  the  difference  might  be  accounted 
for  by  assuming  that  an  interval  between  two  persons  might  have  been 
omitted.  But  a  surplus  in  this  case  does  not  admit  of  any  interj)retation  40 
whatsoever. 

Being  unable  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer  to  such  a,  question,  some  of 
them  assert  that  the  accurate  specification  of  these  years  was  found  in 
the  records  of  the  family  of  Juda,  and  that  these  records  are  no  longer 
at  their  disposal,  but  have  been  carried   off    to  the  countries  of  the 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS.  87 

Greeks.  For  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  the  Israelites  were  split  into 
two  parties.  The  tribes  of  Juda  and  Benjamin  elected  as  their  king  the 
son  of  Solomon,  whilst  the  ten  tribes  elected  as  their  king  Jeroboam, 
the  client  of  Eehoboam,  the  son  of  Solomon.  And  thereupon  he  led 
them  astray  (to  idolatry),  as  we  shall  mention  hereafter  in  the  chapter 
on  the  Jewish  festivals.  His  children  reigned  after  him,  and  both 
parties  made  war  upon  each  other. 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  years  of  their  rulers,  who  ruled 
over  them  after  their  exodus  from  Egypt,  when  they  marched  towards 
10  Bahr-al-kulzum  (the  Eed  Sea)  in  order  to  pass  it,  and  to  march  to  AlWi,  a  p-  75. 
desert  in  Alhijaz,  in  the  direction  of  Jerusalem;  all  of  which  rests  on 
the  authority  of  their  chronicles.  But  they  have  another  book  which 
they  call  Seder-'oldm  (ch^y  ")"1D),  i-e.  the  years  of  the  world,  which 
contains  a  less  sum  of  years  than  that  of  the  hooJcs  which  follow  after  the 
Thora,  whilst  in  some  respects  it  comes  near  to  their  original  system. 
The  statements  of  both  these  kinds  of  their  historical  records  we  have 
collected  in  the  following  synopsis . 


88 


albIr^n!. 


76. 


The  Names  of  the  Rulers,  Governors, 

•g  be" 

i 

to  ^ 

1 

Priests,  and  Judges  of  the 
Israelites  till  the  Foundation  of  the 

1A 

111 

en 

Temple,  which  is  a  space  of 

o 

be  '^O 
PI       "l 

O 

480  years. 

lTf;2 

CQ 

^nS-^ 

QQ 

^^a 

0) 

© 

°  Sw 

rC| 

°  um 

^ 

W 

H 

W 

H 

The  Israelites  left  Egypt  and  dwelt  in 

tlie  desert  till  the  death  of  Moses 

40 

40 

40 

40 

Yehoshu'a   ben   Nun,  the    successor  of 

Moses 

27 

67 

27 

67 

'Othni'el  ben  Kenaz         .... 

40 

107 

40 

107 

'Eglon  the  king  of  Mo'ab  and  the  Ama- 

lekites  of  the  Bani-' Amnion 

18 

125 

— 

— 

'Ehud  ben  Grera,  the  left-handed,  of  the 

Ephraimites 

80 

205 

80 

187 

Shamgar  ben  'Anath       .... 

20 

225 

— 

— 

Debora  the  prophetess   and    her    lieu- 

tenant Barak       ..... 

40 

265 

40 

227 

The  Midianites,  the  oppressors 

7 

272 

7 

234 

Grid' on  ben  'Ofra,of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 

40 

312 

|43 

277 

'Abimelekh  ben  Gid'on  .... 

3 

315 

Tola'  ben  Pu'a,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim 

23 

338 

) 

Ya'ir  from   Gil'ad,  of  the  tribe  of  Ma- 

U4 

321 

nasseh          ...... 

22 

360 

) 

The  sons  of  'Ammon  the  Philistine,  i.e. 

the  people  of  Palestine 

18 

378 

18 

339 

Yiftah  from  Gil'ad          .... 

6 

384 

6 

345 

'Ibsan,  also  called  Nahshon,  from  Beth- 

lehem            

7 

391 

7 

352 

'Elon 

10 

401 

10 

362 

'Abdon  ben  Hillel 

8 

409 

8 

370 

The  Philistines 

40 

449 

— 

— 

Shimshon  the  giant  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 

20 

469 

20 

390 

The  people  without  a  ruler     , 

10 

479 

— 

— 

'£]li  the  priest          ..... 

40 

519 

40 

430 

The  ark  in  the  hands  of  the  enemies. 

until  Samuel  was  sent 

10 

529 

10 

440 

Samuel,  till  they  asked  him  to  give  them 

a  king,  whereupon    he    made    Talut 

their  king 

20 

549 

— 

— 

Saul,  i.e.  Talut 

20 

569 

20 

442! 

David ;     he    commenced    building    the 

Temple  in  the  11th  year  of  his  reign  . 

40 

609 

40 

482 

Solomon  ben  David — till  he  finished  the 

Temple 

3 

612 

3 

485 

10 


20 


30 


40 


ERAS,  DATES,  AND  REIGNS  OF  KINGS. 


89 


The  Names  of  the  Kings  and  other 

1  fl  <^ 

i 

i 

Rulers  of  the  Israelites  from 

''S-IS 

-5^  ^ 

ID 

the  Foundation  of  the  Temple  till  its  first 

;  ^1^ 

®  8  o 

eac 
ceo 

Ian: 

«f-i 

Destruction,  which  is  a  space  of 

PI    03    d 

o 

a 

0        "i 

o 

a 

410  years, 

l^';2 

°f  - 

pi 

^1;^ 

® 

» 

o  Sfp 

rd 

O    SCQ 

r^ 

W 

H 

W 

H 

Solomon   ben  David — after  the  Temple 

was  finished         .... 

37 

649 

37 

522 

Rehab'am  ben  Solomon 

17 

666 

17 

539 

'Abiyya  ben  Rehab'am  . 

3 

669 

2 

541 

10 

'Asa  ben  'Abiyya    . 

41 

710 

41 

582 

Yehoshafat  ben  'Asa 

25 

735 

23 

605 

Yehoram  ben  Yehoshafat 

8 

743 

6 

611 

'Ahazya  ben  Yehoram     . 

1 

744 

11 

622 

'Athalya — till  she  was  killed  by  Yo'ash 

6 

750 

6 

628 

Yo'ash  ben  'Ahazya — till  he  was  killec 

by  his  people       .... 

40 

790 

40 

668 

'Amazya  ben  Yo'ash — till  he  was  killed 

29 

819 

29 

697 

'Uzziya  ben  'Amazya — till  he  died 

52 

871 

52 

749 

Yotham  ben  'Uzziyya— till  he  died 

16 

887 

16 

765 

20 

'Ahaz  ben  Yotham — till  he  died     . 
Hizkiyya  ben  'Ahaz,  the  king  of  all  the 

16 

903 

16 

773! 

tribes 

29 

932 

29 

802 

Menashshe  ben  Hizkiyya 

55 

987 

55 

857 

'Ammon  ben  Menashshe 

2 

989 

2 

859     I 

Yoshiyya  ben  'Ammon — till  he  was  killec 

by  the  king  of  Egypt 

31 

1020 

31 

890 

Yeho'ahaz    ben   Yo'shiyya — till  he  was 

1 

made  a  prisoner  by  the  king  of  Egypi 

3 

1023 

— 

— 

Yehoyakim   ben   Yeho'ahaz,  set  up  by 

1 

80 

the  king  of  Egypt 
Yehoyakhin  ben  Yehoyakim,  till  he  was 

10 

1033 

11 

901  i 

made  a  prisoner  by  Nebucadnezar 

3 

1036 

— 

— 

Sidkiyya — till  he  rebelled  against  Nebu- 

' 

cadnezar,  when  he  was  killed  and  the 

Temple  destroyed 

6 

1042 

11 

912 

The  Temple  remained  in  ruins 

70 

1112 

70 

982 

But  according  to  another  view  between 

the   time   when   they   were   led    intc 

40 

captivity    and   Daniel   there   was    an 

L 

interval  of 

I     90 

1202 

90 

1052! 

From  Daniel  till  the  birth  of  the  Mes- 

■ 

siah     

.     483 

1685 

483 

1536 

From  the  birth  of  the   Messiah  till  the 

epoch  of  the  flight  of  Muhammad 

600 

2285 

600 

2135 

p.  77. 


p.  78. 


90  ALB$R^t. 

It  cannot  be  thought  strange  that  you  should  find  similar  dis- 
crepancies with  people  who  have  several  times  suffered  so  much  from 
captivity  and  war  as  the  Jews.  It  is  quite  natural  that  they  were  dis- 
tracted by  other  matters  from  preserving  their  historical  traditions, 
more  particularly  at  times  of  such  distress,  "  when  each  woman  who 
suckled  a  child  forgot  her  child,  and  each  pregnant  woman  gave  birth  to 
the  burthen  of  her  womb."     (Sura  xxii.  2.) 

Besides,  the  governorships  and  headships  were  not  always  held  by  one 
and  the  same  tribe,  but  came  to  be  divided  (among  several  tribes)  after 
the  death  of  Solomon  the  son  of  David ;  then  one  part  of  them  was  10 
held  by  the  tribes   of  Juda  and  Benjamin,  another  part  by  the  other 
tribes  of  the  Israelites. 

Further,  their  rule  was  not  organized  so  well ;  nor  their  empire  and 
government  handed  over  from  one  to  the  other  in  such  good  order  as  to 
render  it  necessary  for  them  both  to  preserve  the  dates  when  each  of 
their  rulers  ascended  the  throne,  and  to  record  the  duration  of  his  reign, 
except  by  a  rough  method  of  computation.  For  some  people  maintain 
that,  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  Kushan,  the  King  of  Mesopotamia,  of 
the  family  of  Lot,  overpowered  them,  and  held  them  under  his  sway 
during  eight  years  ;  that  then  Othniel  rose.  And  some  people  attribute  20 
to  his  rule  more  years,  others  less. 

Frequently,  one  author  thinks  that  some  ruler  reigned  over  them  so- 
and-so  many  years,  whilst  another  assigns  to  his  rule  a  less  number  of 
years,  and  maintains  that  the  former  number  represents  the  duration  of 
his  whole  life  (not  that  of  his  rule)  ;  or  a  third  possibility  is  this,  that 
by  adding  the  two  spaces  of  time,  mentioned  by  the  two  authors,  you 
get  a  common  space  of  time  for  two  rulers,  during  which  they  ruled 
simultaneously. 

The  chronological  system  of  the  Seder-'olam,  although  coming  near  to 
the  sum  (assumed  by  the  generality  of  the  Jews),  differs  considerably  30 
from  the  statements  in  detail ;  this  applies  specially  to  the  time  of  the 
first  building  of  the  Temple,  not  to  mention  the  uncertainty  which  hangs 
over  those  points  of  their  history  which  we  have  spoken  of  before. 

The  length  of  the  Human  Life. — Some  one  among  the  inexperienced 
and  foolif^h  people  of  the  Hashwiyya  and  Dahriyya  sects,  have  rejected 
as  incredible  the  long  duration  of  life  which  has  been  ascribed  to  certain 
tribes  in  the  past,  specially  to  the  patriarchs  before  the  time  of  Abraham. 
Likewise  they  consider  as  monstrous  what  has  been  related  of  the  huge 
size  of  their  bodies.  They  maintain  that  all  this  lies  altogether  beyond 
the  limit  of  possibility,  drawing  their  conclusions  from  objects  which  40 
they  are  able  to  observe  in  their  own  age.  They  have  adopted  the  doc- 
trine of  astrologers,  regarding  the  greatest  possible  gift  (of  years  of 
life)  which  the  stars  are  supposed  to  bestow  upon  mankind  in  the 
79.  nativities,  if  the  following  constellation  occurs  :  The  sun  must  be  at 
such  a  nativity  both  mater  familiaa  and  paterfamilias,  i.e.  he  must  stand 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS.  9tl 

in  his  domus  (o'lko<;),  or  in  his  altituclo  (vi//-co/;ta) ,  in  a  cardo,  and  in  a  cori' 
cordant  masculine  quarter.  In  that  case  he  bestows  his  greatest  years, 
i.e.  120  years,  to  which  the 

Moon  -  -     adds  25  years. 

Venus         -  -        „       8      „ 

Jupiter       -  -        „     12      „ 

These  are  the  smallest  years  of  each  of  these  three  stars,  for  they  are 
not  able  to  add  a  greater  number  of  years,  if  they  have  a  concordant 
aspect   (in  relation  to  the  horoscope).     Further,  the  two  unlucky  among 

10  the  stars  (Saturn  and  Mars)  must  have  no  aspect  to  the  horoscope,  so  as 
not  to  exercise  any  diminishing  influence.  The  Caput  Braconis  must 
stand  with  the  sun  in  the  same  sign  of  the  eclij)tic,  but  still  sufficiently 
far  from  him,  so  as  not  to  stand  within  the  opoi  iKXuirrLKol. 

If  this  constellation  occurs,  it  increases  the  gift  (of  years  of  life)  of 
the  sun  by  one  fourth,  i.e.  30  years.  So  the  whole  sum  of  years  makes 
215  years,  which  they  maintain  to  be  the  longest  duration  of  life  which 
mortal  man  may  reach,  if  it  is  not  cut  short  by  any  accident.  The 
natural  duration  of  life  is  to  be  120  years,  because  the  existence  of  the 
world  depends  upon  the  sun ;  and  this  number  of  years  represents  the 

20  greatest  years  of  the  sun. 

Those  people  have  settled  this  question  as  it  best  pleases  them.  And 
if  reality  followed  their  desire,  heaven  and  earth  would  be  greatly  the 
worse  for  it.  They  have  built  their  theory  on  a  basis,  the  contrary  of 
which  is  approved  of  by  astronomers,  in  so  far  as  they  ascribe  ' '  greatest 
years  "  to  these  planets.  They  say  in  their  books  that  these  planets 
used  to  bestow  their  "  greatest  years  "  in  the  millennia  of  the  fiery  signs 
of  the  zodiac,  when  in  them  the  rule  was  exercised  by  the  superior 
planets  (Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars),  and  when  the  years  of  the  sun  and  of 
Venus  were  made  to  exceed  by  far  the  longest  duration  of  life  ascribed 

30  to  any  one  of  the  patriarchs. 

This  man  is  their  master  in  chronology ;  they  trust  in  his  word,  and 
do  not  oppose  his  audacity.  He  actually  maintains  that  man  may  live 
during  the  years  of  a,  "  middle  conjunction ''  (of  Saturn  and  Jupiter), 
when  the  nativity  coincides  with  the  transitus  of  the  conjunction  from 
one  trigon  to  another,  whilst  the  ascendens  is  one  of  the  two  houses  of 
either  Saturn  or  Jupiter,  when  the  sun  is  mater  familias  in  day-time,  and 
the  moon  at  night,  exercises  the  greatest  j^ower ;  that  the  same  is 
possible,  if  this  same  constellation  occurs  at  the  transitus  of  the  con- 
junction to  Aries  and  its  trigons. 

40  And  the  argument  for  the  assertion,  that  the  new-born  human  being 
may  live  during  the  years  of  the  "  greatest  conjunction,"  i.e.  about 
960  years,  until  the  conjunction  ret\u-ns  to  its  original  place,  is  of  the 
same  description. 


92  ALBiRUNi. 

He  has  explained  and  propounded  this  subject  in  the  beginning  of  his 
book,  "  De  Nativitatihus." 

This,  now,  is  their  belief  in  the  gifts  (of  years  of  life)  of  the  stars. 

Regarding  these  years,  which  the  single  planets  are  supposed  to 
bestow  upon  mankind,  we  have  had  a  discussion  with  the  astronomers 
who  use  them,  in  the  Kitdb  altanbih  'aid  sind'at  altamwih  (i.e.  the  book  in 
which  the  swindling  profession  is  exposed),  and  we  have  given  a  direction 
how  to  use  the  best  method  in  all  questions  where  these  years  occur  in 
the  book  entitled,  Kitdb  alshumus  alshdfiya  lilnufus. 

Now,  personal  observation  alone,  and  conclusions  inferred  therefrom,  lo 
do  not  prove  a  long  duration  of  the  human  life,  and  the  huge  size  of 
human  bodies,  and  what  else  has  been  related  to  be  beyond  the  limits 
of  possibility.  For  similar  matters  appear  in  the  course  of  time  in 
manifold  shapes.  There  are  certain  things  which  are  bound  to  certain 
times,  within  which  they  turn  round  in  a  certain  order,  and  which 
undergo  transformations  as  long  as  there  is  a  possibility  of  their  existing. 
If  they,  now,  are  not  observed  as  long  as  they  are  in  existence,  people 
think  them  to  be  improbable,  and  hasten  to  reject  them  as  altogether 
80.    impossible. 

This  applies  to  all  cyclical  occurrences,  such  as  the  mutual  impreg-  20 
nation  of  animals  and  trees,  and  the  forthcoming  of  the  seeds  and  their 
fruits.  For,  if  it  were  possible  that  men  did  not  know  these  occurrences, 
and  then  were  led  to  a  tree,  stripped  of  its  leaves,  and  were  told 
what  occurs  to  the  tree  of  getting  green,  of  producing  blossoms  and 
fruits,  etc.,  they  would  certainly  think  it  improbable,  till  they  saw  it  with 
their  own  eyes.  It  is  for  the  same  reason  that  people,  who  come  from 
northern  countries,  are  filled  with  admiration  when  they  see  palm-trees, 
olive-trees,  and  myrtle-trees,  and  others  standing  in  full-bloom  at  winter- 
time, since  they  never  saw  anything  like  it  in  their  own  country. 

Further,  there  are  other  things  occurring  at  times  in  which  no  cyclical  30 
order  is  apparent,  and  which  seem  to  happen  at  random.  If,  then,  the 
time  in  which  the  thing  occurred  has  gone  by,  nothing  remains  of  it 
except  the  report  about  it.  And  if  you  find  in  such  a  report  all  the 
conditions  of  authenticity,  and  if  the  thing  might  have  already  occurred 
before  that  time,  you  must  accept  it,  though  you  have  no  idea  of  the 
nature  nor  of  the  cause  of  the  matter  in  question. 

Irregular  Formations  of  Nature.— There  are  still  other  things 

which  occur  in  like  manner,  but  which  are  called  ^' faults  of  nature" 
(lusus  natures),  on  account  of  their  transgressing  that  order  which  is 
characteristic  of  their  species.  I,  however,  do  not  call  them  "faults  of  40 
nature,"  but  rather  a  superfluity  of  material  beyond  the  due  proportions 
of  the  measure  of  everything.  To  this  category  belong,  e.g.  animals 
with  supernumerary  limbs,  which  occur  sometimes,  when  nature,  whose 
task  it  is  to  preserve  the  species  as  they  are,  finds  some  superfluous  sub- 
stance, which  she  forma  into  some  shape  instead  of   throwing  it  away  ; 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS.  93 

likewise  animals  with  imperfect  limbs,  when  nature  does  not  find  the 
substance  by  which  to  complete  the  form  of  that  animal  in  conformity 
with  the  structure  of  the  species  to  which  it  belongs ;  in  that  case  she 
forms  the  animal  in  such  a  shape,  as  that  the  defect  is  made  to  lose  its 
obnoxious  character,  and  she  gives  it  vital  power  as  much  as  possible. 

This  is  illustrated  by  an  example,  which  Thabit  ben  Sinan  ben  Thabit 
ben  Kurra  relates  in  his  chronicle,  viz.  that  he  had  seen  near  Surraman- 
ra'a  an  Indian  chicken  that  had  come  out  of  the  egg  without  a  defect, 
and  of  complete  structure ;  but  its  head  had  two  beaks  and  three  eyes. 

10  The  same  author  reports,  that  to  Tuzun,  in  the  days  of  his  reign,  people 
brought  a  dead  kid  with  the  round  face,  the  jaws  and  teeth  like  those  of 
man ;  but  it  had  only  one  eye,  and  something  like  a  tail  on  its  forehead. 
Further,  he  relates  that  in  the  district  Almukharrim,  of  Baghdad,  there 
was  born  a  child,  which  died  instantly  ;  it  was  brought  before  Ghurur- 
aldaula  Bakhtiyar  at  the  time  when  his  father  Mu'izz-aldaula  was  still 
alive,  and  he  examined  it.  It  was  one  complete  body  without  a  defect, 
and  without  an  addition,  except  that  two  protuberances  rose  from  it,  and 
upon  these  there  were  two  complete  heads,  with  complete  lineaments, 
with  eyes,  ears,  two  nostrils,  and  two  mouths ;  between  the  loins  were 

20  genitals  like  those  of  a  woman,  out  of  which  the  orifice  of  the  penis  of 
a  man  was  apparent. 

Another  report  of  his  says,  that  one  of  the  nobles  of  the  Greeks  sent 
to  Nasir-aldaula,  in  the  winter  of  a.h.  352,  two  men  grown  together  by 
the  stomach  ;  they  were  Aramaeans,  and  twenty-five  years  of  age.  He  P-  81. 
says,  they  were  called  Multahiydni  (i.e.  two  bearded  men).  They  were 
accompanied  by  their  father.  They  turned  their  faces  towards  each 
other,  but  the  skin,  which  formed  the  common  connecting  link  between 
them,  was  long,  and  besides  susceptible  of  extending  so  far  as  to  permit 
the  one  to  rise  from  the  side  of  the  other.     People  describe  them  as 

30  having,  each  of  them,  separate  and  complete  organs  of  generation ;  that 
they  did  their  eating  and  drinking,  and  the  exoneratio  alvi  at  different 
times  ;  that  they  used  to  ride  on  one  animal,  the  one  closely  behind  the 
other,  but  so  as  to  turn  their  faces  towards  each  other;  that  the  one  had 
an  inclination  for  women,  the  other  for  boys. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Vis  Naturalis  (the  creative  power  of 
nature),  in  all  work  it  is  insj^ired  and  commissioned  to  carry  out,  never 
drops  any  material  unused,  if  it  meets  with  such ;  and  if  there  is  abun- 
dance of  material,  the  Vis  Naturalis  redoubles  its  creating  work.  Such 
a  double-ci'eation  sometimes  proceeds  in  this  way,  that  one  being  comes 

40  into  existence  in  close  proximity  to  another,  being  at  the  same  time 
something  separate  by  itself,  as,  e.g.  in  the  case  of  twins ;  sometimes  a 
being  comes  into  existence  tied  up  to  another  being,  as,  e.g.  in  the  case 
of  the  two  Aramaeans;  at  other  times,  again,  a  being  comes  into  existence 
inserted  into  and  mixed  up  with  another  one,  as  in  that  case  which  we 
mentioned  before  speaking  of  the  two  Aramaeans. 


94  ALBtR^Nt. 

The  various  kinds  of  double-creations  of  this  and  other  descriptions 
are  also  found  among  the  other  animals  (besides  man).  There  are,  e.g. 
said  to  be  certain  species  of  sea-fishes  that  are  double  ones.  I  mean  to 
say,  if  you  open  such  a  fish,  you  find  a  similar  one  inside. 

Frequently,  too,  the  reduplication  of  formation  may  pass  into  a  multi- 
plication. All  of  which  is  also  found  among  the  j^lants.  Look,  for 
instance,  at  the  double-fruits  that  are  grown  together,  at  the  fruits  with 
double  kernels,  which  are  included  in  one  shell.  An  example  of  such  a 
double-formation,  of  which  the  one  thing  is  inserted  into  the  other,  is 
an  orange,  in  the  interior  of  which  you  find  another  orange  of  the  same  10 
kind. 

Frequently  the  Vis  Naturalis  has  not  succeeded  in  finishing  the  double- 
creation,  and  producing  a  complete  whole.  In  which  case,  she  increases 
the  number  of  limbs,  either  in  their  proper  places,  as  e.g.  supernumerary 
fingers — for  although  they  are  more  than  usual  and  than  is  necessary, 
still  they  are  found  in  that  place  which  is  appropriated  to  fingers, — or  not 
in  their  proper  places.  And  in  this  case  it  would  be  correct  to  call  such 
a  formation  an  Error  of  Nature.  An  instance  of  this  is  the  cow  that 
was  in  Jui'jan  at  the  time  of  the  Sahib,  and  when  the  family  of  Buwaihi 
held  the  country  under  their  sway.  Everybody,  both  young  and  old,  20 
had  seen  it,  and  they  related  to  me  that  it  had  on  the  bunch  close  to  the 
neck  a  foreleg  like  its  other  two  forelegs,  quite  complete,  with  its 
shoulder,  its  joints,  and  hoof  ;  and  that  she  moved  it  about  as  she  liked, 
contracting  and  extending  it. 

This  case  may  justly  be  considered  an  error  (of  nature),  because  that 
supernumerary  limb  was  quite  useless,  and  because  it  had  neither  its 
proper  place  nor  direction. 

Now,  all  these  and  similar  classes  (of  uncommon  creations),  on  which 
I  have  composed  special  books,  would  not  be  admitted  as  possible  by 
anyone  who  did  not  witness  them,  because  he  would  not  find  in  them  the  '^O 
conditions  of  authenticity. 

Length  of  the  Human  Life.— The  length  of  human  life  is  taught 
by  experience  to  be  I'egulated  by  a  genealogical  ratio.  For  instance, 
with  the  Himyarites  and  others,  long  life  is  a  peculiarity.  Besides  long 
life  occurs  in  one  place  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  e.g.  in  Farghana  and 
Yamama.  For  well-informed  people  relate  that  in  those  countries  some 
people  grow  older  than  anywhere  else.  And  in  this  respect  they  are  still 
surpassed  by  the  Arabians  and  Indians. 

Of  this  same  ' Abu-Ma'shar . Albalkhi,  the  following  story  is  related  by 
'Abu-Sa'id  Shadhan  in  his  Kitdb-almudhakara-MV asrdr  (i.e.  the  book  in  40 
which  he  l)rings  mysterious  subjects  before  the  mind  of  the  reader)  : — 
p.  82.  The  nativity  of  a  son  of  the  King  of  Serendib  (Ceylon)  was  sent  to  him. 
His  Ascendens  was  Gemini  n ,  whilst  Saturn  stood  in  Cancer  s ,  and  the 
Sun  in  Caj)ricom  Vf .  Now,  'Abu-Ma'shar  gave  his  judgment  that  he 
would  live  during  the  middle  cycle  of  Saturn.     Thereupon,  I  said  to 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OP    KINGS.  96 

him,  "  God  forbid  !  The  otKoSco-TroTiys  moves  backward  in  the  crisis  of 
retrograde  motion  in  a  domiis  cadens  of  the  cardines,  so  as  not  to  give 
more  than  its  small  cycle.  Tou  must  subtract  fifty  years  therefrom  on 
account  of  the  retrograde  motion." 

'Abu-Ma'shar :  "  Those  peoj^le  are  the  inhabitants  of  a  KXijxa,  of  whom 
one  knows  beforehand  that  they  live  very  long,  so  that  they  frequently 
live  on  in  a  decrepit  state,  whilst  Saturn  is  their  comjpanio7i.  I  have  been 
told  that,  if  a  man  dies  before  reaching  the  middle  cycle  of  Saturn, 
people  wonder  that  he  has  died  so  soon.  If,  therefoi'e,  Saturn  occupies 
10  the  dignity  of  ot/coSto-TroTT^s  in  a  KXifxa  of  his  own,  he  does  not,  in  most 
cases,  give  less  than  his  great  and  middle  cycles,  except  he  be  in  cadente 
domo." 

I :  "  But,  surely  he  is  in  cadente  domo." 

'Abu-Ma'shar :  "  Quite  so  !  He  (Saturn)  is  falling  out  of  the  figure 
of  the  Aspectus,  but  he  is  not  falling  out  of  the  Directio." 

(Here  is  a  lacuna.) 

The  mysteries  of  the  second  are  numerous.     It  is  likewise  in  a  well 
beneath  the  earth.     In  this  circumstance  there  is  curious  matter  for 
astonishment.     Now,  in  this  place,  they  have  admitted  that  in  one  KAt/xa 
20  people  live  longer  than  in  another. 

In  another  place  he  ('Abu-Sa'id  Shadhan)  relates  of  the  same  'Abu- 
Ma'shar,  that  he  was  in  his  company  when  he  was  asked  by  'Abu-'Isma, 
the  Wazir  of  Saifar,  regarding  something  in  the  signs  of  his  nativity, 
which  he  ('Abu-'Isma)  was  alarmed  about. 

'Abu-Ma'shar  :  "  Do  you  know  of  what  age  your  father  died  ?  " 

'Abu-'Isma:  "Yes." 

'Abu-Ma'shar :  "  Have  you  already  reached  the  same  age  ?  " 

'Abu-'Isma  :  "  I  have  passed  it  already." 

'Abu-Ma'shar  :  "  Do  you  know  at  what  age  your  mother  died  ?  " 
30       'Abu-'Isma  :  "  Yes.     That  age,  too,  I  have  passed  already." 

'Abu-Ma'shar:  "Do  you  know  how  long  your  paternal  grandfather 
lived  ?  " 

'Abu-'Isma :  "  Yes.     But  that  I  have  not  yet  reached." 

'Abu-Ma'shar :  "  Then  consider  whether  that  difference,  which  is 
indicated  by  your  nativity,  agrees  with  the  life  of  your  grandfather  f  " 

'Abu-'Isma :  "  Yes,  it  does  agree." 

'Abu-Ma'shar :  "  In  that  case  you  are  right  to  be  alarmed."  Then  he 
proceeded  to  explain :  "  Nature  is  most  powerful.  For  in  any  mishap  that 
befals  a  man  when  he  is  as  old  as  his  father  or  mother  or  his  paternal 
40  grandfather  were  at  the  time  of  their  death,  he  is  certain  to  perish, 
except  there  be  strong  evidence  (to  the  contrary).  This  is  clear,  too,  in 
plants  and  seeds.  For  there  are  certain  species  of  them  which  are 
known  to  exist  very  long,  whilst  others  soon  meet  with  mishaps  and 
exist  only  a  short  time." 


96  ALBtEf^Nl. 

Now,  'Abu-Ma' sliar  again  admits  in  this  place  that  the  duration  of 
life  is  regulated  by  a  genealogical  ratio.  Therefore,  that  astrological 
theory,  to  which  they  cling,  is  devoid  of  sense,  since  they  admit  such  a 
genealogical  ratio  as  not  impossible.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  necessary,  as 
we  have  already  mentioned. 

If  this  sect  will  reject  everything  that  does  not  occur  in  their  time  or 
place,  so  as  to  fall  under  their  personal  observation,  if  they  do  not  them- 
selves find  this  everlasting  scepticism  of  theirs  absurd,  if  they  will  not 
admit  anything  that  has  happened  in  their  absence,  we  can  only  say  that 
extraordinary  occurrences  do  not  happen  at  all  times ;  and  if  they,  10 
indeed,  happen  in  some  one  age,  they  have  in  the  course  of  time  and 
the  passing  of  generations  no  other  tie  which  connects  them  with  pos- 
terity except  the  uninterrupted  chain  of  tradition.  Nay,  if  they  would 
draw  the  last  conclusions  from  their  theory,  they  would  be  mere  sophists, 
and  would  be  compelled  to  disbelieve  anybody  who  would  tell  them  that 
there  are  still  other  countries  in  the  world  besides  those  in  which  they 
are  living ;  and  other  absurdities  of  a  similar  kind  would  follow. 

If  you  would  listen  to  them  on  the  subjects  which  they  propound,  you 
83.'  would  find  that  they  refer  to  the  traditions  of  the  Indians,  and  rely  on 

various  sorts  of  tricks  which  they  attribute  to  them.  By  way  of  argu-  20 
ment  they  always  mention  an  Indian  idol,  cut  out  of  stone,  the  neck  of 
which  is  surrounded  by  numerous  iron  collars,  which  represent  the 
Indian  eras  of  10,000  years,  and,  if  counted,  would  amount  to  an  enor- 
mous sum  of  years.  But  if  you  then  tell  them  what  they,  i.e.  the 
Indians,  maintain,  viz.  that  the  King  of  Jamalabadhra,  that  town  whence 
the  Myrohalana,  the  Phyllanthus  emblica,  and  the  Myrobalana  hellerica  are 
exported,  even  at  the  age  of  260  years,  rode  and  hunted  and  married, 
and  behaved  altogether  like  a  young  man,  and  that  all  this  was  the 
consequence  of  a  dietetic  treatment,  they  will  reject  it,  and  declare  that 
the  Indians  are  evident  liars,  not  really  learned  men,  because  they  base  30 
their  sciences  upon  inspiration,  and  that  therefore  their  doctrines  are 
not  trustworthy.  Besides,  they  will  begin  to  speak  of  the  subtlety  of 
all  the  tenets  of  the  Indians  in  all  questions  of  law  and  religion,  of 
reward  and  punishment  (eschatology),  and  they  will  dwell  on  the  various 
sorts  of  torture  which  they  practise  in  castigating  their  own  bodies. 

It  is  this  sect  whom  God  means  in  the  verse  of  the  Koran  (Sura  x. 
40)  :  "  Nay,  they  have  declared  to  be  a  lie  something,  the  science  of 
which  they  did  not  comprehend";  and  in  the  other  verse  (Sura  xlvi.  10)  : 
"  And  as  they  would  not  be  guided  thereby,  verily,  they  will  say :  That 
is  an  old  lie."  They  admit  only  that  which  suits  them,  although  it  be  40 
feeble,  and  they  avoid  everything  that  differs  from  their  dogma,  although 
it  be  true. 

I  have  read  a  book  of  'Abu-'Abdallah  Alhusain  ben  'Ibrahim  Altabari 
Alnatili,  a  treatise  on  the  duration  of  natural  life,  where  he  maintains 
that  its  greatest  length  is   140  solar  years,  beyond  which  no  increase  is 


EEAS,    DATES,    A?^D    EEIGNS    OF    KINGS.  97 

possible.     He,  however,  wlio  denies  this  so  categorically,  is  required  to 
produce  a  proof,  which  the  mind  is  obliged  to  accept,  and  in  which  it 
acquiesces.     But  he  has  not  established  the  least  proof  for  his  assertion, 
except  that  in  his  premises  he  lays  down  the  following  theory  : — 
Three  Status  Perfectionis  are  peculiar  to  man — 

I.  His  attaining  to  manhood  (or  womanhood),  the  time  when  he 
becomes  able  to  propagate  his  own  race.    That  is  the  beginning 
of  the  second  Seventh. 
II.  When  his  thinking  power  ripens,  and  his  intellect  proceeds  from 
1^  Swa/xts  to  7roti7crts.     That  is  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  Seventh. 

III.  When  he  becomes  able  to  govern  himself,  if  he  be  unmarried  ; 
his  family  affairs,  if  he  be  married ;  his  public  affairs,  if  he 
exercise  some  public  authority. 

The  sum  of  these  three  Status  Perfectionis  is  to  be  140  years. 

We  do  not  see  by  what  proportion  'Abii-'Abdallah  has  calculated  these 
numbers.  For  there  is  no  proportion  nor  progression  apparent  among 
them.  Verily,  if  we  conceded  to  him  that  there  are  three  such  Status 
Perfectionis,  if  we  then  counted  them  in  the  way  he  has  done,  and 
declared  finally,  pre-supj^osing  we  did  not  apprehend  being  required  to 

20  establish  a  proof,  that  the  sum  of  these  Stat^ls  is  100  or  1,000  or  some- 
thing like  it,  his  method  and  ours  would  be  quite  the  same.  However, 
there  is  this  difference,  that  we  find,  that  in  our  time  man  attains  those 
phases  of  development,  which  he  rej^resents  as  the  characteristic  signs 
of  the  Status  Perfectionis,  in  quite  other  Sevenths  and  times  than  those 
which  he  mentions.     God  knows  best  his  meaning ! 

As  regards  the  (superhuman)  size  of  the  bodies  (of  former  genera- 
tions), we  say,  if  it  be  not  necessary  to  believe  it  for  this  reason,  that 
we  cannot  observe  it  in  our  time,  and  that  there  is  an  enormous  interval 
between  us  and  that  time,  of  which  such  things  are  related,  it  is  there- 

30   fore  by  no  means  impossible.     It  is  the  same,  the  like  of  which  is  related 

in  the  Thora  of  the  bodies  of  the  giants  (Nephilim,  Eepha'im,  'Enakim),  p.  84. 
and  the  belief  in  this  has  not  been  abandoned  since  the  time  when  the 
Israelites  saw  them  with  their  own  eyes.  Therefore  everybody  may 
attack  and  ridicule  this  subject,  if  he  likes  !  If  the  Thora  was  read  to 
them,  and  they  read  it  themselves,  though  up  to  that  moment  they  had 
not  declared  the  readers  of  the  Thora  to  be  liars,  yet  even  if  the  giants 
were  something  quite  different  from  what  they  are  described  to  be  (i.e. 
less  extraordinary),  they  would  declare  the  reader  of  the  Thora  to  be  a 
liar,  in  case  he  related  anything  that  is  not  borne  out  by  their  experience 

40  and  observation.  If,  indeed,  there  had  never  been  classes  of  men  with 
bodies  of  an  extraordinary  vastness,  God  having  given  them  an  uncom- 
mon size  (vide  Koran,  ii.  24),  no  recollection  of  them  would  have  remained 
in  the  uninterrupted  chain  of  human  tradition,  and  j)eople  would  not 
compare  with  them  everybody  who  in  size  exceeds  their  genus,  as  it  is 

7 


98  ALBtE^Nf. 

known  to  us.  For  instance,  the  people  of  *Ad  have  become  proverbial 
in  this  sense.  But  how  can  I  expect  them  to  believe  me  regarding  the 
j^eople  of  'Ad,  since  they  reject  even  that  which  is  much  nearer  to  our 
time  and  much  more  apparent  ?  They  produce  such  arguments  as  do  not 
counterbalance  the  very  weakest  of  those  arguments  which  are  urged 
against  them.  They  shun  accepting  the  striking  arguments,  flying 
before  them  like  fugitive  asses  that  fly  before  a  lion  (Koran,  Ixxiv.  51). 
What  would  they  say  of  the  monuments  of  larger  races  of  men  which 
exist  still  at  the  present  time,  such  as  the  houses  which  were  cut  into  the 
solid  rocks  in  the  mountains  of  Midian,  of  the  graves  built  in  the  rocks,  10 
and  of  bones  buried  in  their  interior,  which  are  as  large  as  camel-bones 
and  even  larger,  of  the  bad  smell  of  those  localities,  which  is  so  strong 
that  you  cannot  enter  there  without  covering  the  nose  with  something  ? 
And  it  is  the  common  consent  of  all  who  inhabit  those  places  that  they 
(the  authors  of  those  monuments)  are  "  the  peojple  of  darJcness."  But, 
when  they  hear  of  "  the  day  of  darhness,"  they  only  laugh  in  a  mocking 
way,  make  grimaces  in  haughty  disdain,  turn  up  their  noses  in  joy  over 
their  theories,  and  in  the  persuasion  that  they  are  infinitely  sujoerior  to, 
and  altogether  distinguished  from  all  common  people.  But  God  is 
sufficient  for  them ;  they  will  get  the  reward  of  their  doings,  and  we  20 
that  of  ours ! 

Chronolog'ical  Tables. — In  some  book  1  have  found  tables  illustrative 
of  the  durations  of  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  the  Assyrians,  i.e.  the 
people  of  Mosul,  of  the  kings  of  the  Copts,  who  reigned  in  Egypt,  and 
of  the  Ptolemaean  princes,  each  of  whom  was  called  Ptolemaeus.  For 
Alexander,  when  dying,  ordered  that  every  king  of  the  Greeks  after  him 
should  be  called  Ptolemaeus,  in  order  to  frighten  the  enemies,  because 
the  word  means  "  the  warlike.'"  In  the  same  book  I  have  found  the 
chronology  of  the  later  kings  of  the  Greeks. 

In   this   book,   the   interval  between   the    birth    of    Abraham    and   30 
Alexander   was   reckoned   as   2,096   years,   which   is  more  than  Jews, 
Christians,  and  astrologers  (those  who  apply  the  conjunctions  of  Saturn 
and  Jupiter  to  history)  reckon. 

Now  I  have  transferred  those  identical  tables  into  this  place  of  my 
book.  Time  has  not  enabled  me  to  correct  the  names  of  the  kings  on 
the  basis  of  their  true  pronunciation.  I  hope,  therefore,  that  everyone 
will  endeavour  to  correct  and  amend  them,  who  like  myself  wishes  to 
facilitate  the  subject  for  the  student,  and  to  free  him  from  fatigue  of 
research.  And  nobody  ought  to  transcribe  these  tables  and  the  other 
ones  except  him  who  is  well  acquainted  with  the  Hurilf-al-jummal,  and  40 
honestly  endeavours  to  preserve  them  correct.  For  they  are  corrupted 
by  the  tradition  of  the  copyists,  when  they  pass  from  hand  to  hand 
among  them.     Their  emendation  is  a  work  of  many  years. 


ERAS,  DATES,  AND  EEIGNS  OP  KINGS. 


99 


Names  of  the  Kings  of  the  Assyrians, 

How  long 

The  sum 

i.e.  the  people  of  Mosul. 

eacii  01 

of  the 

They  are  37  in  number,  and  they  reigned  during  1305  years. 

tjiieni 
reigned. 

years. 

I.  Belos       ..... 

62 

62 

Ninos.  HebuiltNiniveinMosul.  Abra- 

ham was  born  in  the  [43rd  year]  of 

his  reign          .... 

52 

114 

Semiramis    the  wife   of    Ninos.      She 

10 

founded  the  ancient  Samarra  west  of 

Surra-man-ra'd 

42 

156 

Zames  the  son  of  Nines.    Abraham  was 

tried  by  him,  and  fled  therefore  to  Pa- 

lestine in  the  [23rd  year]  of  his  reign 

38 

194 

V.  Areios     ..... 

30 

224 

Aralios   . 

40 

264 

Xerxes    . 

30 

294 

Armamithres 

38 

332 

Belochos 

35 

367 

20 

X.  Balaios  . 

52 

419 

Altadas  . 

32 

451 

Mamythos 

30 

481 

Manchaleus 

30 

511 

Sphairos 

20 

531 

XV.  Mamylos 

30 

561 

Sparethus 

40 

601 

Askatades 

40 

641 

Amyntes 

45 

686 

Belochos 

25 

711 

30 

XX.  Balatores 

30 

741 

Lamprides 

32 

773 

Sosares  . 

20 

793 

Lampares 

30 

823 

Panyas    . 

45 

868 

XXV.  Sosamos 

19 

887 

Mithraios 

37 

924 

Tautanes.     In  his  time  Hion  was  taken 

by  the  Greeks,  who  had  made  war 

upon  it            ...             . 

31 

955 

40 

Teutaios              .... 

40 

995 

Thinaios              .... 

30 

1025 

XXX.  Derkylos              .... 

40 

1065 

Eupales.     In  his   time   David  reigned 

over  Israel       .... 

38 

1103 

Laosthenes.     In  his  time  the  Israelites 

were  divided  into  two  kingdoms 

40 

1143 

Piritiades             .... 

30 

1173 

Ophrataios          .... 

20 

1193 

XXXV.  Ophratanes.     On  the  167th  day  of  the 

60 

42nd  year  of   his  reign  Homer  was 
born,  who  is  with  the  Greeks  the  first 

poet,  as  Imru'ul-Kais  with  the  Arabs 

50 

1243 

Akraganes           .... 

42 

1285 

XXXVII.  Thonos  Konkoleros 

20 

1305 

7  * 


100 


ALBiRI^Ni. 


87,  Western  authors  relate  that,  diiring  the  reign  of  this  last  king 
(Thonos  Konkoleros,  alias  Sardanapalus),  the  prophet  Jonah  was  sent  to 
Niniveh,  and  that  a  foreigner,  called  Arhdk  (Arbaces)  in  Hebrew,  Bah-ak 
in  Persian,  and  Dahlidk  in  Arabic,  came  forward  against  this  king,  made 
war  upon  him,  put  him  to  flight,  killed  him,  and  took  possession  of  the 
empire,  holding  it  till  the  time  when  the  Kayanians,  the  kings  of 
Babylonia,  whom  western  authors  are  in  the  habit  of  calling  Chaldseans, 
brought  the  empire  under  their  sway.  The  reign  of  Arbaces  lasted 
seventy-two  years. 

Here  we  must  remark  that  the  Chaldseans  are  not  identical  with  the 
Kayanians,  but  were  their  governors  of  Babylonia.  For  the  original 
residence  of  the  Kayanians  was  Balkh,  and  when  they  came  down  to 
Mesopotamia,  people  took  to  calling  them  by  the  same  name  which  they 
had  formerly  applied  to  their  governors,  i.e.  Chaldseans. 

According  to  some  chronicler,  Nimrod  ben  Kush  ben  Ham  ben  Noah, 
founded  a  kingdom  in  Babylonia  twenty -three  years  after  the  Confusion 
of  Languages.  And  that  was  the  earliest  kingdom  established  on  earth. 
The  Confusion  of  Languages  happened  contemporaneously  with  the  birth 
of  the  patriarch  Ee'u.  The  same  chronicler  mentions  other  kings  that  rose 
after  Nimrod,  until  the  empire  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Assyrian 
kings,  the  chronology  of  whom  has  been  illustrated  by  the  preceding 
table.  The  chronology  of  the  kings  that  have  been  recorded,  is  repre- 
sented by  the  following  table  : — 


10 


20 


The  Kings  of  Babylonia. 

How  long 

they 
reigned. 

Sum  of 

the 
years. 

Nimrod 

u-jr^        ...... 

Samirus      ...... 

Arpakhshadh          ..... 

Babylonia  aftaa-iXivros,  till  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Assyrians             . 

69 

85 
72 
10 

6 

69 
154 
226 
236 

241 

30 


p.  88.  I'^oi'  the  kings  of  Babylonia,  we  have  also  found  another  chronological 
tradition,  beginning  with  Nebukadnezar  the  First  (i.e.  Nabonassar),  and 
ending  with  the  time  when  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  Alexander 
6  Ktio-ttj';,  people  began  to  date  by  the  reigns  of  the  Ptolemaean  princes. 
This  tradition,  now,  we  have  transferred  into  this  book,  having  corrected 
the  numbers  for  the  durations  of  their  reigns.  As  to  the  names,  how- 
ever, I  have  simply  transcribed  them  letter  by  letter,  since  I  have  not 
had  an  opportunity  to  correct  them  according  to  their  pronunciation. 
The  following  table  contains  this  chronological  tradition. 


40 


EEAS,    DATES,    AND    EEIGNS    OF    KINGS. 


101 


How  long 

eacli 

The  stun 

Table  of  the  Kings  of  the  Chaldeans. 

of  them 

of  the 

reigned. 

years. 

Bukhtanassar  Primus.     With  him  the  era  in 

the  Almagest  begins 

14 

14 

Nebucadnezar.     Nadios 

2 

16 

Chinzeros         ..... 

5 

21 

Ilulaios             ..... 

5 

26 

10 

Mardokempad              .             .             .             . 

12 

38 

Arceaniis          ..... 

5 

43 

'A/3ao■tAe^;TOS      ..... 

2 

45 

Bilibes              ..... 

3 

48 

Aparanadios    ..... 

6 

.     54 

Erigebalos        ..... 

1 

55 

Mesesimordakos           .... 

4 

59 

'  AfSao-iXevTo?  Sevrepos    .... 

8 

67 

Asaridinos       ..... 

13 

80 

Saosduchinos                .... 

20 

100 

20 

Nabopolassaros  and  Kiniladanos 

22 

122 

Xebucadnezar               .... 

21 

143 

Bukhtanassar,  who  conquered  Jerusalem 

43 

186 

J^'^J^ 

2 

188 

Belteshassar    ..... 

4 

192 

Darius  the  Median,  the  First 

17 

209 

Cyrus,  who  rebuilt  Jerusalem 

9 

218 

Cambjses         .             .             .             .             . 

8 

226 

Darius 

36 

262 

Xerxes 

21 

283 

30 

Artaxerxes  Primus 

43 

326 

Darius 

19 

345 

Artaxerxes  Secundus 

46 

391 

Ochus 

21 

412 

WiT*      • 

2 

414 

^ 

Darius 

6 

420 

Alexander  ben  Macedo,  6  kticttt^s 

8 

428 

Henceforward  people  commenced  to  date 

from  the  reign  of  Philippus, 

p.  89 


102 


ALBIRUNt. 


90. 


p.  91. 


Names  of  the  Coptic  Kings  in  Egypt. 

How  long 

The  sum 

They  are  34  in  number,  besides  the  Persians,  and 

of  "tllSIH 

of  the 

they  reigned  during  894  years. 

reigned. 

years. 

I.  Diospolitse       .... 

178 

178 

Smendis 

26 

204 

Susennes 

101 

305 

Nepherclieres 

4 

309 

V.  Amenoplitliis 

9 

318 

Osoclior 

6 

324 

Psinaches 

9 

333 

Psusennes 

35 

368 

Sesoncliosis 

21 

389 

X.  Osorthon 

15 

404 

Takelothis 

*13 

417 

Petubastis 

25 

442 

Osorthon 

9 

451 

Psammos 

10 

461 

XV.  u-V^J^  (Euphanias  ?) 

44 

505 

Sabakon  ^tbiops 

12 

517 

Sebicbos 

12 

629 

Tarakos  ^tbiops 

20 

549 

Ammeris  ^tbiops 

12 

561 

XX.  Stepbinatbis   . 

7 

568 

Necbepsos 

6 

574 

Necbao 

8 

582 

Psammeticbos 

44 

626 

Necbepso  (?)  Necbao  (?) 

6 

632 

XXV.  Psammutbis    . 

17 

649 

Vapbris 

25 

674 

Amasis 

42 

716 

Tbe  Persians  till  Darius 

114 

830 

Amyrtaios 

6 

836 

XXX.  Nepberites       . 

6 

842 

Acboris 

12 

854 

Psammutbis  and  Mutbatos  ( 

)            * 

2 

856 

Nektanebes     . 

13 

869 

Teos    . 

7 

876 

XXXV.  Nektanebos     . 

18 

894 

Henceforward  people  ceased  to  dat 

e  by  tbe 

reigns  of  tbese  and  tbe  Cbaldean  kings 

and  commenced  to  use  tbe  era  of  Alex- 

ander tbe  Greek. 

*  p.  adds  58,  L.  adds  3,  as  the  reading  of  another  manuscript. 


EEAS,    DATES,    AND    EEIGNS    OE    KINGS. 


103 


Here  we  add  the  chronological  tables  of  the  Ptolemaeans  and  the 
Roman  Emperors.  Chronology  since  the  time  of  Philij)pns  (Aridseus) 
consists  of  three  parts  : — I.  of  Anni  Philippi ;  II.  of  Anni  Augusti ; 
III.  of  Anni  Diocletiani.  The  first  are  the  non-intercalated  years  of  the 
Alexandrians  ;  the  second  are  the  intercalated  years  of  the  Greeks ;  and 
of  the  same  kind  as  the  second  are  the  Anni  Diocletiani.  With  this 
king  a  new  era  commences,  because,  when  the  empire  had  devolved  upon 
him,  it  remained  with  his  descendants,  and  because  after  his  death  the 
Christian  faith  was  generally  adopted.  Another  (later)  era  than  the 
10  ^ra  Diocletiani  has  not  been  mentioned,  although  the  rule  several  times 
slipped  out  of  the  hands  of  his  family.  God  knows  best !  Here  follow 
the  tables : — 


20 


30 


Names  of  the  Kings  of  Macedonia, 

wlio  are  the  Greeks  (loiiians),  also  called 

Ptolemseans. 


Philippus       ...... 

Alexander  II.  filius  Alexandri 

Ptolemgeus  filius  Lagi  6  XoytKos.  He  conquered 
Palestine,  went  uj)  to  Jerusalem  and  led  the 
Israelites  into  captivity.  Afterwards  he  restored 
them  to  liberty  and  made  them  a  present  of  the 
vases  of  their  Temple        .... 

Ptolemaeus  Philadelphus.  He  caused  the  Thora 
to  be  translated  into  Greek 

Ptolemaeus  Euergetes  Phuskon  Primus 

Ptolemaeus  Philometor 

Ptolemaeus  Epiphanes  Phuskon  Secundus 

Ptolemaeus  Philopator  the  Deliverer 

Ptolemaeus  Euergetes  Alexander  Secundus 

Ptolemaeus  Soter  the  Iron-smith,  Artium  Fautor     . 

Ptolemaeus  Dionysius  Optimus 

Cleopatra,  till  the  time  when  Gajus,  in  Latin 
Julius,  became  Dictator    .... 

Cleopatra,  till  the  death  of  Gajus  and  the  succes- 
sion of  his  son  Augustus  .... 

Cleopatra,  till  the  time  when  he  (Augustus)  killed 
her  ...... 


How  long 

Snm  of 

they 

the 

reigned. 

years. 

7 

7 

12 

19 

20 

39 

38 

77 

25 

102 

17 

119 

24 

143 

35 

178 

29 

207 

36 

243 

29 

272 

— 

275 

4a.  6m. 

279 

14a.  6m. 

294 

p.  92. 


The  calling  Cleopatra  by  the  name  of  Ptolemceus  is  a  point  of  dis- 
cussion,  on   account   of  her   being  a  woman.     But  as  she  resided  in 
4,0  Alexandria,  and  was  the  queen  of  it,  she  was  called  by  that  name.    Gajus, 
in  Latin  Julius,  means  "  king  of  the  world." 


104 


ALBIEUNI. 


p.  93. 


p.  94. 


Names  of  the  Eoman  Kings, 

i.e.  the  Caesars  wlio  resided  in  Rome.     They  are 

the  Banu-arasfar,  i.e.  the  descendants 

of  Sepho  ben  'Eliphaz  ben  Esau  ben  Isaak  ben  Abraham. 


Augustus  Caesar,  after  lie  had  killed  Cleopatra 

Tiberius  filius  August!  .... 

Gajus  ...... 

Claudius,  who  killed  the  Apostle  Paul  and  Simeon 
Petrus        ...... 

Nero,  who  killed  the  believers 

Vespasianus.  One  year  after  his  accession  to  the 
throne  he  conquered  Palestine,  and  having  be- 
sieged the  Jews  in  Jerusalem  for  three  years,  he 
destroyed  it,  killed  many,  scattered  the  rest  over 
the  empire,  and  abolished  their  religious  rites     . 

Titus  ...... 

Domitianus.  In  the  9th  year  of  his  reign  Johannes 
the  Evangelist  was  banished.  Thereupon  he  hid 
himself  on  an  island  till  the  emperor's  death. 
Then  he  left  the  island  and  dwelt  in  Ej)hesus     . 

Nerva  ...... 

Trajanus        ...... 

Hadrianus.  It  was  he  who  destroyed  Jerusalem 
and  forbade  anyone  entering  it  in  the  18th  year 
of  his  reign  .... 

Antoninus.  It  was  he  who  rebuilt  Jerusalem 
Galenus  says  that  he  composed  a  book  on  ana- 
tomy in  the  beginning  of  his  reign 

Commodus    ..... 

Severus  and  Antoninus        ... 

Antoninus  alone.  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign 
Galenus  died 

Alexander  filius  Mammsese.  Mammsea  means 
"  weak  " 

Maximinus 

Gordianus 

Philippus 

Decius,   who   occurs 
Sleepers 

G  alius 

Valerianus 

Claudius 

Aurelianus 

Probus 

Carus  and  Carinus 


in   the    story   of   the    Seven 


How  long 

each  of 

them 

reigned. 


43 

22 

4 

14 
14 


10 
3 


15 

1 

19 


21 


23 
32 

25 


13 
3 

6 
6 

1 

3 

15 

1 

6 
7 
2 


Sum  of 

the 
years. 


43 

65 
69 

83 
97 


107 
110 


125 
126 
145 


166 


189 
221 
246 

250 

263 
266 

272 
278 

279 

282 

287! 

288 

294 

301 

303 


10 


20 


30 


40 


EEAS,  DATES,  AND  EEIQNS  OF  KINGS. 


105 


10 


20 


30 


40 


60 


Names  op  the  Kings  of  Christendom. 


Diocletianns  ....... 

Constantinus.     The  first  king  -sviio  adopted  Christianity.     He 
bnilt  the  walls  of  Constantinople.     In  the  1st  year  of  his 
reign  his  mother,  Helene,  sought  for  the  wood  of  the  Cross, 
which    she    finally   found.     In   the  19th  year    the    bishops 
assembled   ta  Niceea  and  established  the  canons  of  Chris 
tianity  ...... 

Constantinus  (Constantius)  .... 

Julianus  Apostata  ..... 

Valentinianus       ...... 

Valens.     He  was  burned,  in  escaping,  in  a  barn 
Theodosius  the  Great      ..... 

Arcadius,  his  son  ..... 

Theodosius    Minor.     In  his  time  Nestorius  was  excommuni 
Gated    ........ 

Marcianns  and  his  wife  Pulcheria.    In  their  time  the  Jacobites 
were  excommunicated  .... 

Leo  the  Great.     He  belonged  to  the  moderate  party    . 
Zeno  Alarminaki.     He  was  a  Jacobite  . 
Anastasius.     He  built  Ammorium,  and  was  a  Jacobite 
Justiaus    ....... 

Justinianus.     He  built  the  church  in  Ruha  (Edessa)     . 
Tiberius    ....... 

Maui'icius.     He  helped  Kisra  against  Bahram  Shiibin  . 
Phocas,  who  was  besieged  in  Constantinople  by  Shahrbaraz 

the  general  of  Kisra    . 
Heraclius  the  wise  . 

Constantinus.     He  was  murdered  in  the  bath 
Constantinus  .... 

Constantinus         .... 

Justinianus.     The  Greeks  cut  off  his  nose 

Leontius.     He  was  found  to  be  a  weak  man,  being  decrepit 

So  he  was  dethroned 
Tiberius.     Apsimarus 
Justinianus  Ehinometos 
Philippicus  ...... 

Anastasius.     Atlimus  (Artemius).     He  was  dethroned,   when 
he  could  not  carry  on  the  war  .... 

Theodosius.     He  was  besieged  by  Maslama  ben  'Abd-almaKk 
Leo  the  Great.     He  deceived  Maslama  and  repulsed  hun  from 

Constantinople 
Constantinus,  the  son  of  Leo  the  Great 
Leo  Junior,  the  son  of  Constantinus  Senior 
Constantinus  Junior,  the  son  of  Leo  Junior 
Augusta  (Irene)  niled  the  Greek  empire 
Nicephorus  and  Stauracius  the  son  of  Nicephorus 
Michael  the  son  of  Georgius        .... 

Leo,  till  he  was  murdered  by  Michael  in  the  church 

Michael  Constantinopolitanus,  the  mm-derer  of  Leo  ben  Theo 

phUus  ben  Michael  Constantinopolitanus 
Basilius  the  Slavonian,  the  last  of  their  kings  . 


How  long 

each,  of 

them 

reigned. 


21 


32 

24 
2 
1 
14 
17 
13 

42 

6 

18 
17 
27 
9 
37 
14 
14! 


31 

1 

27 

16 

10 

3 

7 
6 
3 

2 
1 

24 
34 

4 
18 

5 
18 

2 

7 

7a.  5m. 
3a.  5m. 


p.  96. 


Anni 
Diocle- 
tiani. 


21 


53 

77 
79 
80 
94 
111 
124 

166 

172 
190 
207 
234 
243 
280 
294 
298! 

318! 

349 

350 

377 

393 

403 

406 
413 
419 
422 

424 
425 

449 
483 
487 
505 
510 
528 


p.  96. 


106 


ALBfEUNt. 


97. 


p.  98. 


The  Kings  of  Constantinople, 

How  long 
each  0       ""*'" 

Sum  of 

as  Hamza  Alisfahani  records  them  on  the 

'j 

the. 

rears. 

authority  of  the  judge  Alwaki',  who  took  them 

reigiicu.. 

from  a  book  that  belonged  to  the 
Greek  Emperor. 

1 

Tears. 

Months. 

Tears. 

Months. 

Constantinus,  the  sou  of  Helene,  the  Victorious 

31 

0 

31 

0 

Constantinus,  his  son                .... 

24 

0 

55 

0 

Jalianus  his  nephew     ..... 

2 

6 

57 

6 

Theodosius        ...... 

10 

9 

68 

3 

Gratianus.     Valentinianus       .... 

6 

0 

74 

3 

Arcadius,  the  son  of  Theodosius 

13 

3 

87 

6 

Theodosius,  the  son  of  Arcadiua 

42 

0 

129 

6 

Marcianus         ...... 

29 

0 

158 

6 

Leo  Senior        ...... 

16 

0 

174 

6 

Leo  Junior        ...... 

1 

0 

175 

6 

Zeno      ....... 

17 

0 

192 

6 

Anastasius        ...... 

27 

4 

219 

10 

Antlis    ....... 

11 

9 

231 

7 

Kastrondas.   During  his  reign  the  Prophet  was  born 

38 

3 

269 

10 

Stephanus          ...... 

4 

3 

273! 

1 

Marcianus  (Mauricius).     During  his  reign  the  Pro- 

phet received  his  Divine  mission     . 

20 

4 

293 

5 

Phocas.     During  his  reign  the  flight  of  the  Prophet 

occurred         ...... 

8 

0 

301 

5 

Heraclius  and  his  son.     During  their  reign  the  Pro- 

phet died       ...... 

31 

0 

332 

5 

Constantinus,  the  son  of  Heracles 

25 

0 

367.? 

5 

Constantinus,  the  son  of  Heracles'  wife 

17 

0 

384 

5 

Constantinus,  the  son  of  Heracles 

10 

0 

394 

5 

Leo  or  Leon  (Lawi  or  Elyun) 

3 

0 

397 

5 

Tiberius             ...... 

7 

0 

411? 

5 

Bstinus  (Justinianus)  ..... 

6 

0 

417 

5 

Anastasius         ...... 

6 

0 

423 

5 

Theodosius        ...... 

2 

0 

425 

5 

Leo.     During   his   reign   the  empire  of  the   Banu- 

'Umayya  was  dismembered 

25 

3 

450 

8 

Leo,  the  son  of  Constantinus.     People  think  that  he 

was  a  worthless  character,  notwithstanding   the 

length  of  his  reign    ..... 

5 

0 

455 

8 

Constantinus,  the  son  of  Leo   .... 

9 

10 

465 

6 

Constantinus     ...... 

6 

5 

471 

11 

Irene,  who  received  the  empire  from  her  father 

5 

0 

476 

11 

Nicephorus,  at  the  time  of  Harun  Alrashid    . 

8 

11 

485 

10 

Stauracius,  his  son        ..... 

0 

2 

486 

0 

Michael,  his  son             ..... 

7 

5 

[476  ?] 

5 

Theophilus,  his  son       ..... 

22 

3 

498 

8 

Michael,  the  son  of  Theophilus.     With  this  king  the 

dynasty  expires — at  the  time  of  the  Khalif  Al- 

mu'tazz          ...... 

28 

0 

526 

8 

Basilius  the  Slavonian               .... 

20 

0 

546 

8 

Leo  the  son  of  Basihus.     Anno  Hijrse  273  at  the 

time  of  Almu'tadid   ..... 

26 

0 

[572] 

8 

Alexander,   the   son   of   Basilius.     He   died  from  a 

tumour  in  the  belly,  a.h.  299 

1 

2 

[573] 

10 

Constantinus,  the  son  of  Leo,  A.H.  301. 

— 

— 

— 

EEAS,   DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS.  107 

Chronolog'y  of  the  Persians.  —  The  Persians  call  the  first  raan  p.  99. 
Gayomarth,  with  the  surname  Girshdh,  i.e.  "  hing  of  the  mountain,"  or,  as 
others  say,  Gilshah,  i.e.  "  hing  of  the  clay"  because  at  that  time  there  was 
no  other  man  in  existence  (but  himself,  there  being  nothing  but  clay). 
People  say  that  his  name  (Grayomarth)  means  "  a  living,  rational,  mortal 
being." 

The  chronology  of  the  Persians  beginning  with  Gayomarth  is  divided 
into  three  parts  : — 

A.  Part  I.  From  Grayomarth    till   the    time  when   Alexander   killed 
10  Darius,  seized  upon  the  provinces  of  the  Persians,  and  transferred  their 

scientific  treasures  to  his  own  country. 

B.  Part  II.  From  that  time  till  the  time  when  Ardashir  ben  Babak 
came  forward,  and  the  Persian  empire  was  re-established. 

C.  Part  III.  From  that  time  till  the  time  when  Tazdajird  ben 
Shahryar  was  killed,  when  the  empire  of  the  Sasanian  dynasty  was 
dissolved  and  Islam  arose. 

Regarding  the  beginning  of  the  world,  the  Persians  relate  many 
curious  traditions,  how  Ahriman,  i.e.  the  devil,  was  born  out  of  the 
thought  of  God  and  of  his  pride  in  the  world.     And  also  regarding 

20  Gayomarth :  for  God,  being  bewildered  at  the  sight  of  Ahriman,  was 
covered  with  sweat  on  the  forehead ;  this  he  wiped  off  and  threw  away  ; 
and  out  of  this  sweat  Gayomarth  was  born.  Then  God  sent  him  to 
Ahriman,  who  overpowered  him,  and  began  to  travel  about  in  the  world, 
always  riding  uj)on  him.  At  last,  Ahriman  asked  him  what  was  the 
most  odious  and  horrible  thing  to  him.  Whereupon  he  said,  that  on 
arriving  at  the  gate  of  hell  he  woidd  sufiEer  a  painful  terror.  On  having 
arrived,  then,  at  the  gate  Of  hell,  he  became  i-efractory,  and  managed  by 
various  contrivances  to  throw  off  the  rider.  But  now  Ahriman  re- 
mounted him,  and  asked  him  from  what  side  he  was  to  begin  devouring 

30  him.  Gayomarth  answered :  "  From  the  side  of  the  foot,  that  I  may 
still  for  some  time  look  at  the  beauty  of  the  world,"  knowing  quite  well 
that  Ahriman  would  do  the  contrary  of  what  he  told  him.  Then  Ahriman 
commenced  devouring  him  from  the  head,  and  when  he  had  come  as  far 
as  the  testicles  and  the  sjDermatic  vessels  in  the  loins,  two  drops  of 
sperma  fell  down  on  the  earth.  And  out  of  these  drops  grew  two 
Eibas  bushes  {Wie^im  rihes),  from  among  which  Mesha  and  Meshana 
sprang  up,  i.e.  the  Persian  Adam  and  Eve.  They  are  also  called  Malha 
and  Malhayana,  and  the  Zoroastrians  of  Khwarizm  call  them  Mard  and 
Mardana. 

40  This  is  what  I  have  heard  from  the  geometrician,  'Abu-alhasan 
Adharkhur. 

In  a  different  form  this  tradition,  regarding  the  origin  of  mankind,  is 
related  by  'Abu-'Ali  Muhammad  ben  'Ahmad  Albalkhi,  the  poet,  in  the 


108  albiri^n}. 

Shahnama,  who  premises  that  he  has  corrected  his  report  on  the  basis  of 
the  following  sources  : — 

I.  Kitdh-siyar-almuluk  by  'Abdallah  ben  Almukaffa*. 
II.  „  „  by  Muhammad  ben  Aljahm  Albarmaki. 

III.  „  „  by  Hisham  ben  Alkasim. 

IV.  „  „  by  Bahram  ben  Mardanshah,  the  Maubadh 

of  the  city  of  Sabur. 
V.  „  „  by  Bahram  ben  Mihran  Alisbahani. 

Besides  he  has  compared  his  account  with  that  of  the  Zoroastrian 
Bahram  of  Herat.  He  says  :  Gayomarth  stayed  in  Paradise  3,000  years,  10 
i.e.  the  millennia  of  Aries,  Taurus,  and  Gemini.  Then  he  fell  down  on 
the  earth  and  lived  there  safely  and  quietly  three  other  millennia,  those 
of  Cancer,  Leo,  and  Virgo,  till  the  time  when  all  that  is  evil  in  the  world 
was  brought  about  by  Ahriman.  The  story  is  as  follows :  that  Gayo- 
marth, who  was  called  GirsMh,  because  Gir  means  in  Pahlavi  "moun- 
tain," dwelt  in  the  mountains  (Aljibal-Media),  being  endowed  with  so 
p.lOO.  much  beauty  that  no  living  being  could  view  him  without  becoming 
terrified  and  losing  the  control  of  its  senses. 

Now,  Ahriman  had  a  son  called  Khrura,  who  one  day  met  with  Gayo- 
marth, and  was  killed  by  him.  Whereupon,  Ahriman  complained  to  God  20 
of  Gayomarth  ;  and  God  resolved  to  punish  him  in  order  to  keep  those 
covenants  that  existed  between  him  and  Ahriman.  So  he  showed  him 
first  the  punishments  of  this  world  and  of  the  day  of  resurrection  and 
other  things,  so  that  Gayomarth  at  last  desired  to  die,  whereupon  God 
killed  him.  At  the  same  moment  two  drops  of  sperma  fell  down  out  of 
his  loins  on  the  mountain  Damdadh  in  Istakhr,  and  out  of  them  grew 
two  Ribas-bushes,  on  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  month  the 
limbs  (of  two  human  bodies)  began  to  appear,  which  by  the  end  of  that 
month  had  become  complete  and  assumed  human  shape.  These  two  are 
Mesha  and  Meshyana.  Fifty  years  they  lived  without  any  necessity  for  30 
eating  and  drinking,  joyfully  and  without  any  pain.  But  then  Ahriman 
appeared  to  them  in  the  shape  of  an  old  man,  and  induced  them  to  take 
the  fruit  of  the  trees.  He  himself  commenced  eating  them,  whereupon 
he  at  once  again  became  a  young  man.  And  now  they  (Mesha  and  Me- 
shyana) began  to  eat.  Then  they  were  plunged  into  misfortunes  and  evils. 
Lust  arose  in  them,  in  consequence  of  which  they  copulated,  A  child 
was  born  unto  them,  but  they  devoured  it  from  sheer  ravenousness. 
But  then  God  inspired  their  hearts  with  mildness.  Afterwards  the  wife 
gave  birth  to  six  other  children,  the  names  of  whom  are  known  in  the 
Avasta.  The  seventh  birth  produced  Siyamak  and  Fravak,  who  married  40 
and  begot  a  son  Hoshang. 

Regarding  the  chronology  of  this  first  part,  the  lives  of  the  kings  and 
their  famous  deeds,  they  relate  things  which  do  not  seem  admissible  to 
the  mind  of  the  reader.     However,  the  aim  of  our  undertaking  being  to 


ERAS,  DATES,  AND  REIGNS  OF  KINGS. 


109 


collect  and  to  communicate  chronological  material,  not  to  criticize  and 
correct  historical  accounts,  we  record  that  on  which  the  scholars  of  the 
Persians,  the  Herbadhs,  and  Mauhadhs  of  the  Zoroastrians  agree  among 
themselves,  and  which  is  received  on  their  authority.  At  the  same  time 
we  collect  the  materials  in  tables,  as  we  have  done  heretofore,  in  order 
that  our  work  may  proceed  on  the  same  j)lan  which  we  have  laid  down 
for  the  chronologies  of  the  other  nations. 

To  the  names  of  the  kings  we  add  their  epithets,  because  they  are 
distinguished  by  individual  epithets,  whilst  as  to  the  other  kings,  if  they 
10  have  any  epithet  at  all,  it  is  one  common  to  their  whole  class,  by  which 
he  as  well  as  everybody  else  who  reigns  in  his  place  is  called.  Those 
common  epithets  correspond  to  the  Shahanshah  of  the  Persians.  A  list 
of  them  we  give  in  the  following  table  : — 


20 


30 


40 


The  Epithets 

The  Classes  of  Princes. 

that  apply  to  the 
Princes  of  these  Classes. 

The  Sasanian  kings  of  the  Persians  . 

Shahanshah  and  Kisra. 

The  G-reek  kings         .... 

Basili,  i.e.  Caesar. 

The  kin 

gs  of  Alexandria    . 

Ptolemseus. 

,, 

Yaman 

Tubba'. 

>) 

the  Turks,  Chazar,  and 

Ta- 

gharghuz  . 

Khakhan. 

)) 

the  Grhuzz-Turks  . 

Hanuta. 

5J 

the  Chinese  . 

Baghbur. 

5J 

India    .         .         . 

Balhara. 

)5 

Kannuj 

Eabi. 

)5 

the  Ethiopians 

Alnajashi. 

55 

the  Nubians 

Kabil. 

)J 

the   islands   in    the    eastern 

ocean 

Maharaj. 

5) 

the  mountains  of  Tabaristan 

Ispahbadh. 

)» 

Dunbawand 

Masmaghan. 

J) 

Gharjistan    . 

Shar. 

5J 

Sarakhs 

Zadhawaihi. 

JJ 

Nasa  and  Abiward 

Bahmana. 

)> 

Kash    .... 

Nidun. 

)J 

Far  gh  ana 

Ikhshid. 

5J 

Asrushana    . 

Afshin. 

5> 

Shash    .... 

Tudun. 

)> 

Marw    .... 

Mahawaihi. 

55 

Nishapur 

Kanbar. 

Samarkand   . 

Tarkhun. 

»J 

Sarir     .... 

Alhajjaj. 

J» 

Dahistan 

Sul. 

>J 

Jurjan 

Anahpadh, 

p.lOl. 


110 


ALBtRI^Nt. 


The  Classes  of  Princes. 


The  Epithets 

that  apply  to  the 

Princes  of  these  Classes. 


p.l02.  The  kings  of  tlie  Sclavonians 

„  tlie  Syrians  . 

„  the  Egyptians 

„  Bamiyan 

Egypt  . 
„  Kabul  . 

„  Tirmidh 

„  Khwarizm 

„  Shirwan 

„  Bukhara 

„  Guzganan 


Kabbar. 
Nimrodh. 
Pharaoh. 
Shir-  i-  Bamiyan. 
Al'aziz. 
Kabul- Shah. 
Tirmidh- Shah. 
Khwarizm- Shah. 
Shirwan- Shah. 
Bukhara- Khudah. 
Guzgan-Khudah. 


10 


Individual  epithets  (of  princes)  were  not  in  use  before  the  reign  of 
Islam,  except  among  the  Persians. 
Part  I.  is  divided  into  three  parts  : — 

1.  Peshdddhians,  those  who  ruled  over  the  whole  world,  founded  cities, 
discovered  mines  and  produced  the  metals,  and  found  out  the  elements 

of  handicrafts  and  arts ;  who  practised  justice  on  earth,  and  worshipped  20 
God  as  is  his  due. 

2.  Kings  of  J^ldn,  which  mesins  "  people  of  the  highlands."  They  did 
not  rule  over  the  whole  earth.  The  first  who  divided  the  empires  of  the 
world  was  Fredun  the  Pure,  for  he  divided  them  between  his  sons,  as  a 
poet,  a  descendant  of  the  family  of  the  Kisras,  says — 

"  Then  we  have  divided  our  empire  in  our  time, 

Just  as  people  divide  meat  on  a  meat-board. 
Syria  and  Greece  as  far  as  the  setting-place  of  the  sun 

We  have  given  to  a  champion,  to  Salm. 
To  Toz  the  Turks  were  given,  and  so  a  cousin  30 

Holds  the  country  of  the  Turks. 
And  to  ^rdn  Al'irak  was  given  by  dint  of  force.     He  has 

Obtained  the  rule,  and  we  have  obtained  the  benefits  thereof." 

3.  Kaydnians,  the  heroes.  In  their  days  the  rule  over  the  world 
became  divided  between  the  various  nations. 

Between  these  parts  (of  ancient  Persian  chronology)  there  are  gaps, 
on  account  of  which  the  order  and  progress  of  chronology  are  much 
troubled  and  obscured. 

Here  follow  the  kings  of  Part  I.,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the 
generality  of  the  Persians.  4q 


EEAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS. 


Ill 


The 

How 

classes 
of  the 
Kings. 

The  Names  of  the  Persian  Kings 
of  Part  I. 

Their 

Epithets. 

long 
each  of 

them 
reigned. 

Sum 
of  the 
years. 

Oaydmarth             ..... 

Girshah    . 

30 

30 

CO 

Till  the  birth  of  Mesha  and  Meshana,  who  is 

^i 

called   "  Mate?-  fiUorum  et  filiarum."     These 

s  i 

two  are  the  Persian  Adam  and  Eve    . 



40 

70 

10 

Till  Mesha  and  Meshana  married 

— 

50 

120 

Till  the  birth  of  H6shang 

— 

93 

213 

Hoshang  ben  Afrawak  ben  Siyamak  ben  Mesha 

Peshdadh 

40 

253 

Tahinurath  ben  Wijahan  ben  Inkahadh  ben  H6- 

shang — till  the  coming-forward  of  Budasaf  . 

Zebawand 

1 

254 

The  same — after  that  event 



29 

283 

Jam  ben  Wijahan.      From  the  time  when  he 

ordered  people  to  fabricate  weapons  till  the 

time   when   he   ordered   them   to   spin   and 

weave    ...... 

Shedh       . 

50 

333 

20 

Till  the  time  when  he  ordered  people  to  divide 

themselves  into  four  classes    . 

— 

50 

383 

Till   the   time   when   he   made  war   upon   the 

1 

demons  and  subdued  them 

— 

50 

433 

Till  the  time  when  he  ordered  the  demons  to 

0 

^ 

break  rocks  out  of  the  mountains  and  to  carry 

-+J 

them      ...... 

— 

100 

533 

oT 

Till   the   time   when   he    ordered   a   wheeled- 

carriage    to    be    constructed.     It    was   con- 

<e3 

straoted,  and  he  rode  upon  it . 

— 

66 

599 

30 

n3 

After  that,  people  lived  in  health  and  happiness 

m 

?? 

— till  the  time  when  he  hid  himself    . 

— 

300 

899 

P-l 

He  continued  to  be  hidden — till  he  was  seized 

J 

by  Aldahhak,  who  tore  out  his  bowels  and 

H 

sawed  him  with  a  saw 
Aldahhak   ben  'Ulwan  of  the  Amalekites  or — 
with  another  name — Bevarasp  ben  Arwand- 
asp  ben  Zingas  ben  Barishand  ben  Ghar,  who 
was   the  father  of  the  pure   Arabians,    ben 

100 

999 

Afrawak  ben  Siyamak  ben  Mesha 

Azhdahak 

1000 

1999 

40 

AfrecMn  ben  Athfiyan   Gao  ben  Athfiyan  Nigao 

ben   Athfiyan   ben    Shahrgao    ben   Athfiyan 

Akhnnbagao   ben   Athfiyan   Sipedhgao    ben 

Athfiyan    Dizagao   ben   Athfiyan  Nigao  ben 

Nefurush  ben  Jam  the  King    . 

Almaubadh 

200 

2199 

O 

Iraj.  He  was   killed  by  his  brothers  Salm  and 

» 

Toj,  who  reigned  after  him.     They  were  'all 

o 

three  sons  of  Afredun               .             .    ^         . 

Almustafa 

300 

2499 

Minoshjihr  ben  Guzan,  the  daughter  of   Iraj — 

Q)   m 

till  the  time  when  he  killed  Toj  and  Salm, 

50 

i.e.  Sharm  in  Persian    .... 

Fer6z 

20 

2519 

S3 

Till  the  time  when  the  son  of   Toj  occupied 

Eranshahr,  and  drove  Minoshjihr  out  of  the 

country              ..... 

— 

60 

2579 

°^ 

Firdsiydh  ben  Bashang   ben  Inat  ben  Eishman 

S)-" 

ben  Turk  ben  Zabanasp  ben  Arshasp  ben  Toj 

.a 

44 

— till  the  time  when  Minushjihr  gained  the 

<D 

victory  over  him  and  drove  him  away.   Thex-e- 

upon  they  made  a  treaty  on  the  basis  of  the 

well-known  arrow-shot 

— 

12 

2591 

p.l03. 


p.l04. 


112 


ALBlE^^Nt. 


p.l05. 


The 
classes 
of  the 
Kings. 

The  Names  of  the  Persian  Kings 
of  Part  I. 

Their 
Epithets. 

i 

How 

long 

each  of 

them 

reigned. 

Sum 
of  the 
years. 

The  kings  of  Elan, 
the  people  of 
the  highlands. 

Min6shjihr — till  his  death 

Tozh  the  Turk  occupying  Al'irak 

Zdh  ben  Tahmasp  ben  Kamjahubar  ben  Zu  ben~" 

Hushab  ben  Widinak  ben  Diisar  ben  Mi- 

noshjihr  together  with — 
Garshdsp,  i.e.  Sam  ben  Nariman  ben  Tahmasp 

ben  Ashak   ben  Nosh  ben  Dusar  ben  Mi- 

noshjihr           .              .              .              .              .^ 

Firasiyab 

The  two 
companions. 

28 
12 

2619 
2631 

2636 

03 

0 

2 

00 

1 

Kaikobddh  ben  Zagh  ben  Nudhaga  ben  Maishu 

ben  Nudhar  ben  Min6shjihr    . 
Kaikdus  ben  Kainiya  ben  Kaikobadh — till  he 

rebelled,  whereupon  he  was  taken  prisoner 

by  Shammar  and  afterwards    delivered   by 

Rustam  ben  Dastan  ben  Garshasp  the  King  . 
The  same — from  the  latter  event  till  his  death 
Kaikhusru  ben  Siyawush  ben  Kaikaus — till  the 

time  when  he  went  away  as  a  holy  pilgrim 

and  hid  himself              .... 
Kailuhrdsp   ben    Kaiwaji   ben   Kaimanish   ben 

Kaikubadh — till   he    sent    Bukhtanassar    to 

Jerusalem,  who  destroyed  it    . 
The  same  after  that  event 
Eaiwishtdsp  ben  Luhrasp — till  the  appearance 

of  Zoroaster      ..... 
The  same  after  that  event 
Kai    Ai'dasMr — Bahnian    ben  Isfandiyar    ben 

WishtasiJ             ..... 
Khumdnt  the  daughter  of  Ardashir — Bahman  . 
Bdrd  ben  Ardashir — Bahman 
Bard  hen  Bdrd — till  he  was  killed  by  Alexander 

the  Greek          ..... 

The  First 

Nimrud     . 

Humayun 
TheBactrian 

Alherbadh 

(-   Tall  in    | 
i  the  body,  i 

Cihrazad  . 

The  great 

The  second 

100 

75 
75 

60 

60 
60 

30 
90 

112 

30 
12 

14 

2736 

2811 
2886 

2946 

3006 
3066 

3096 
3186 

3298 

3328 
3340 

3354 

10 


20 


30 


The  account  of  the  chronology  of  this  Part  I.,  which  we  have  given, 
is  stated  very  differently  in  the  Kitdh-alsiyar.  Our  account,  however, 
comes  nearest  to  that  view  regarding  which  people  agree.  The  chro- 
nology of  this  same  part,  but  in  a  different  shape,  I  have  also  found  in 
the  book  of  Hamza  ben  Alhusain  Alisfahani,  which  he  calls  "  Chronology 
of  great  nations  of  the  past  and  present."  He  says  that  he  has  endeavoured 
to  correct  his  account  by  means  of  the  Abasia,  which  is  the  religious 
code  (of  the  Zoroastrians).  Therefore  I  have  transferi'ed  it  into  this 
place  of  my  book. 


40 


ERAS,    DATES,    AXD    REIGNS    OF    KINGS. 


113 


TABLE  II.  OF  PART  I. 


10 


20 


Names  of  the  Peshdadhian  Kings, 
taken  from  the  Abasttl,  beginning  with 
Gay  6  mar  th. 

Gayomarth  the  first  man      .... 

How  long 

each  of 

them 

reigned. 

Sum  of 

the 
Years. 

40 

40 

An  interregnum  of  170  years. 

— 

— 

Hoshang       ...... 

40 

80 

Tahmurath   ...... 

30 

110 

Jam  ....... 

616 

726 

Bewarasp       ...... 

1000 

1726 

Afredun         ...... 

500 

2226 

Minoshcihr   ...... 

120 

2346 

Firasyab        ...... 

12 

2358 

An  interregnum  of  unknown  length. 

— 

— 

Zab  .             .             

9 

2367 

Garshasp  together  with  Zab 

3 

2370 

An  interregnum. 

— 

— 

Names  of  the  Kayanian  Kings. 

Kaikobadh    .             .             .             . 

126 

2494 

Kaikaus        .             ... 

150 

2646 

Kaikhusrau  ...... 

80 

2726 

Kailuhrasp   ...... 

120 

2846 

Kaibishtasp  ...... 

120 

2966 

Kaiardashir  ...... 

112 

3078 

Cihrazad       ...... 

30 

3108 

Dara  ben  Bahman    . 

12 

3120 

Dara  ben  Dara          ..... 

14 

3134 

p.l06. 


p.l07. 


114 


ALBfEUNt. 


p. 108.  Further,  Hamza  relates  that  he  has  found  also  this  part  of  Persian 
chronology  in  the  copy  of  the  Maubadh,  such  as  is  exhibited  in  the 
following  table: — 

TABLE  III.  OP  PAET  I. 


p.l09. 


Names  of  the  Peshdadhian  Kings, 

How  long 

each  of 

them 

reigned. 

Sum  of 

the 
Years. 

taken  from  the  Copy  of  the  Maubadh. 
Gayomarth    ...... 

30 

30 

Mesha  and  Meshana — till  they  got  children 

50 

80 

Till  their  death         ..... 

50 

130 

Interregnum 

94 

224 

Hoshang 

40 

2G4 

Tahmrirath    . 

30 

294 

Jam — till  he  hid  himself 

616 

910 

He  remained  hidden 

100 

1010 

Bewarasp 

1000 

2010 

Fredun 

500 

2510 

Minoshcihr  . 

120 

2630 

Zu  and  Garshasp 

4 

2634 

Names  of  the  Kayanian  Kings. 

Kaikobadh    ...... 

100 

2734 

Kaikaus 

150 

2884 

Kaikhusrau  . 

60 

2944 

Luhrasp 

120 

3064 

Bishtasp 

120 

3184 

Ardashir 

112 

3296 

Cihrazad 

30 

3326 

Dara  ben  Bahman 

12 

3338 

Dara  ben  Dara 

14 

3352 

10 


20 


30 


p. 110.  1^  the  biographical  and  historical  books  that  have  been  translated 
from  the  works  of  Western  authors,  you  find  an  account  of  the  kings  of 
Persia  and  Babylonia,  beginning  with  Fredun,  whom  they  call,  as  people 
say,  Yaful  (Pul  ?),  and  ending  with  Dtira,  the  last  of  the  Persian  kings. 
Now,  we  find  that  these  records  differ  greatly  (from  Eastern  records)  as 
to  the  number  of  the  kings  and  their  names,  as  to  the  durations  of  their 
reigns,  their  history,  and  their  description.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
they  confounded  the  kings  of  Persia  with  their  governors  of  Babylonia, 
and  put  both  side  by  side.  But  if  we  altogether  refrain  from  mention- 
ing those  records,  we  should  deprive  this  book  of  something  that  forms 
a  due  part  of  it,  and  we  should  turn  away  the  mind  of  the  reader  there- 
from.    We,  now,  exhibit  this  tradition  in  a  special  table  of  its  own,  in 


40 


EEAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS. 


115 


order  to  prevent  confusion  getting  into  the  arrangement  of  the  various 
systems  and  traditions  of  this  book.     Here  it  follows  : — 


The  Kings  of  Persia, 

How  long 
each  of 

Sum  of 

beginning  with  Fredun,  according  to 

the 

Western  authors. 

reigned. 

Years. 

Taful,  i.e.  Fredun     ..... 

35 

35 

Tighlath  Pilesar       ..... 

35 

70 

Salmanassar,  i.e.  Salm           .... 

14 

84 

10 

Sanherib  ben  Salmanassar,  i.e.  in  Persian :  Sana- 

raft            ...... 

9 

93 

Sardum  (Ezarhaddon),  i.e.  Zu  ben  Tumasp 

3 

96 

After    him    the    following   powerful    kings 

reigned : — 

Kaikobadh    ...... 

49 

145 

Sanherib  II.               .... 

31 

176 

Majam           ..... 

33 

209 

Bukhtanassar,  i.e.  Kaikaus 

57 

266 

Evilad  ben  Bukhtanassar     . 

1 

267 

20 

Belteshassar  ben  Evilad 

2 

269 

Dara  Almahi  I.,  i.e.  Darius  . 

9 

278 

Koresh,  i.e.  Kaikhusrau 

8 

286 

Cyrus,  i.e.  Luhrasp  . 

34 

320 

Cambyses      .... 

80 

400 

Dara  II.         . 

36 

436 

Xerxes  ben  Dara,  i.e.  Khusrau  I. 

26 

462 

Ardashir  ben  Xerxes,  called  /xaKpox^ip,  i-e 

Longi- 

manus        .... 

41 

503 

Khusrau  II.  . 

30 

633 

30 

Sogdianus,  ISTotos  ben  Khusrau 

9 

542 

Ardashir  ben  Dara  II. 

41 

583 

Ardashir  III. 

27 

610 

Arses  ben  Ochus 

12 

622 

Dara,  the  last  king  of  Persia 

16 

638 

i 

The  Jews,  Zoroastrians,  Christians,  and  the  various  sects  of  them, 
relate  the  origines  mundi  and  carry  chronology  down  from  them,  having 
previously  admitted  the  truth  of  such  origines,  and  having  gained  certain 
views  regarding  them,  on  which  people  either  agree  or  differ.  He,  how- 
ever, who  denies  such  origines,  cannot  adopt  that  which  is  built  upon 
40  them,  except  after  producing  various  sorts  of  interpretations  which  he 
adds  of  his  own. 

However,  those  origines  mundi,  i.e.  Adam  and  Eve,  have  been  used  as 
the  epoch  of  an  era.  And  some  people  maintain  that  time  consists  of 
cycles,  at  the  end  of  which  all  created  beings  perish,  whilst  they  grow 
at  their  beginning  ;  that  each  such  cycle  has  a  special  Adam  and  Eve  of 
its  own,  and  that  the  chronology  of  this  cycle  depends  upon  them. 


p.m. 


p.ll2. 


116  ALBfRUNt. 

Other  people,  again,  maintain  that  in  each  cycle  a  special  Adam  and 
Eve  exist  for  each  country  in  particular,  and  that  hence  the  difference  of 
human  structure,  nature,  and  language  is  to  be  derived. 

Other  people,  besides,  hold  this  foolish  persuasion,  viz.  that  time  has 
no  terminus  a  quo  at  all ;  they  take  some  dogmas  from  the  founders  of 
religions,  in  order  to  construct  some  system  by  means  of  them.  Many 
philosophers  of  this  class  have  built  up  such  systems.  You  could 
hardly  jB.nd  a  prettier  tale  of  this  kind  than  that  one  produced  by  Sa'id 
ben  Muhammad  Aldhuhli  in  his  book.  For  he  says  :  "  People  lived  in 
bitter  enmity  and  strife  with  each  other ;  the  better  among  them  were  10 
maltreated  and  oppressed  by  the  worse.  But  then,  at  last,  the  just 
king,  Peshdildh,  transplanted  them  to  a  place,  called  Firclaus  (Paradise), 
situated  between  Adan  and  Serendib.  It  was  a  place  where  aloe,  cloves,  and 
various  sorts  of  perfumes  were  growing,  and  all  kinds  of  delicious  things 
were  to  be  found.  There  they  dwelt,  till  one  day  a  demon  ('Ifrit)  came 
upon  them,  the  king  of  the  wicked,  and  began  quarrelling  with  them. 
In  the  same  place  Peshdadh  found  a  boy  and  girl,  the  parents  of  whom 
were  unknown.  These  he  educated  and  called  them  Meshd  and  Meshdna, 
and  made  them  marry  each  other.  Thereupon  they  committed  sin,  and 
so  he  drove  them  out  of  that  country."  The  tale  as  it  has  been  related,  20 
is  extremely  long.  He  says  that  the  interval  between  the  time  of  their 
settlement  in  Paradise,  the  beginning  of  all  chronology,  and  their 
meeting  the  demon  was  one  year;  till  the  time  when  Mesha  and  Meshana 
were  found,  two  more  years  elapsed  ;  till  their  marriage,  forty-one  years  ; 
till  their  death,  thirty  years  ;  and  till  the  death  of  Peshdadh,  ninety-nine 
years  elapsed.  But  then  he  ceases  from  going  on  with  his  chronological 
account  and  does  not  carry  it  on. 

Chronology  of  the  Ashkanians.— As  to  Part  II.  of  Persian  chro- 
nology from  Alexander  till  the  rise  of  Ardashir  ben  Babak,  it  must  be 
known  that  during  this  period  the  "  Petty  Princes "  existed,  i.e.  those  gQ 
princes  whom  Alexander  had  installed  as  rulers  over  certain  special  dis- 
tricts, who  were  all  totally  independent  of  each  other.  To  the  same 
period  belongs  the  empire  of  the  Ashkanians,  who  held  'Irak  and  the 
p. 113.  country  of  Mah,  i.e.  Aljibal,  under  their  sway.  They  were  the  most 
valiant  among  the  "  Petty  Princes  ;"  still  the  others  did  not  obey  them, 
but  only  honoured  them  for  this  reason,  that  they  descended  from  the 
royal  Persian  house.  For  the  first  prince  of  the  Ashkanians  was  Ashh 
ben  Ashkan,  called  Afghurshah  ben  Balash  ben  Shapur  ben  Ashkan  ben 
jU^\  ^jA  ben  Siytlwush  ben  Kaikaus. 

Most   Persian   chroniclers   have   connected   the   reign  of   Alexander  40 
immediately  with  that  of  the  first  Ashkanian  prince,   by   which  that 
period  was  most  improperly  curtailed.     Others  say  that  the  AshkJinians 
came  into  power  some  time  after  Alexander,  whilst  others  go  on  blunder- 
ing without  any  knowledge  of  the  matter, 

I  shall  relate  in  this  place  such  of  their  traditions  as  I  have  learned, 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS. 


117 


20 


30 


40 


and  shall  endeavour,  as  much  as  is  in  my  power,  to  amend  that  which  is 
wrong,  to  refute  that  which  is  false,  and  to  establish  the  truth,  beginning 
with  that  which  corresponds  most  nearly  to  the  Table  I.  of  Parti.,  I  also 
call  it  Table  I.  (of  Part  n.)  :— 


10 


Table  of  the  Names  of  the  Ashkanian  Kings,              How  long  ' 

corresponding  to  the  Table  I.  of  Part  I.                           each              ^^°^ 

Their  Surnames.           reigned.        Years. 

Alexander  the  Greek . 
Ashk  ben  Ashkan 
Ashk  ben  Ashk  ben  Ashk 
Shapur  ben  Ashk 
Bahi-am  ben  Shapur  . 
Narsi  ben  Bahram 
Hurmuz  ben  Narsi     . 
Bahram  ben  Hurmuz 
Feroz  ben  Bahram 
Kisra  ben  Feroz 
Narsi  ben  Feroz 
Ardawan  ben  Narsi    . 

Kloshdih 

Ashkan 

Zarrin 

Khurun 

Gisuwar 

Salar 

Roshan 

Balad 

Baradih 

Shikari 

The  last 

14             14 
13             27 
25             52 
30             82 
21           103 
25           128 
40           168 
25           193 
17           210 
20           230 
'       30           260 
20           280 

Next  follows  what  corresponds  to  the  Table  II.  of  the  same  Part  I., 
that  which  Hamza  has  taken  from  the  Abasta.  This,  again,  I  call  the 
Tabula  II.,  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  those  portions  of  the  three 
parts  of  Persian  chronology  that  bear  the  same  name  (as  Table  I.,  II., 
III.  of  Parts  I.,  II.,  III.)  with  each  other,  and  to  bring  the  tables, 
thereby,  into  a  good  order.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  mention  this 
another  time  : — 

TABLE  II.  OF  PAET  II.  in  the  Arrangement  of  the  Tables. 


p.ll4. 


Names  of  the  Ashghanian  Kings, 
according  to  Hamza. 


Alexander  the  Greek  .  .  .  . 

Ashk  ben  Balash  ben  Shapur  ben  Ashkan  ben  Ash 

the  hero    ..... 
Shapur  ben  Ashk     .... 
Judhar  ben  Wijan  ben  Shapur 
VVijan  ben  Balash  ben  Shapiir,  the  nephew  of  the 

preceding  ..... 
Judhar  ben  Wijan  ben  Balash 
JSTarsa  ben  Wijan      .  .  .  .  . 

Hurmuzan  ben  Balash,  the  uncle  of  the  preceding 
Ferozan  ben  Hurmuzan 
Khusrau  ben  Ferozan 
Balash  ben  Ferozan 
Ardawan  ben  Balash  ben  Ferozan  . 


How  long 

each 
of  them 
reigned. 


i  14 

! 

I 

I  52 

I  24 

j  50 

21 
19 
30 
17 
12 
40 
24 
55 


Sum 
of  the 
Years. 


14 

66 

90 

140 

161 
180 
210 
227 
239 
279 
303 
358 


118 


albIrun!. 


To  this  I  add  that  which  in  the  order  of  the  tables  is  the  third  one, 
which  Hamza  says  he  has  taken  from  the  copy  of  the  Maubadh,  in  order 
that  the  snbject  may  be  carried  on,  as  it  has  been  done  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding tables.     Here  follows  the  Table  III.  of  Part  II. : — 


TABLE  in.  OP  PAET  II. 


p.115. 


How  long 

Sum 

Names  of  the  Ashkanian  Kings, 

each 

of  the 
Years. 

taken  by  Hamza  from  the  Copy  of  the  Maubadh. 

of  them 

reigned. 

Alexander  the  Greek             .... 

14 

14 

After  him  reigned  a  class  of  Greek  princes,  with 

their  Persian  vizirs,  altogether  14  in  number 

68 

82 

Ashk  ben  Bara  ben  Dara  ben  Dara 

10 

92 

Ashk  ben  Ashkan     . 

20 

112 

Shapur  ben  Ashkan 

60 

172 

Bahram  ben  Shapur 

11 

183 

Balash  ben  Shapur  . 

11 

194 

Hurmuz  ben  Balash 

40 

234 

Feroz  ben  Hurmuz  . 

17 

251 

BaLish  ben  Feroz 

12 

263 

Khusrau  ben  Maladhan 

40 

303 

Balashan 

24 

327 

Ardawan  ben  Balashan 

13 

340 

ArdawJin  the  Great,  ben  Ashkanan 

23 

363 

Khusrau  ben  Ashkanan 

15 

378 

Bahafirid  ben  Ashkanan 

15 

393 

1  Judhar  ben  Ashkanan 

22 

415 

1  Balash  ben  Ashkanan 

30 

445 

Narsi  ben  Ashkanan 

20 

465 

Ardawan,  the  last     . 

31 

496 

10 


20 


30 


p.ll6.  Next  I  shall  produce  what  I  found  in  the  chronicle  of  'Abu-aHaraj 
'Ibrahim  ben  'Ahmad  ben  Khalaf  Alzanjani  the  mathematician.  This 
man,  on  having  taken  pains  to  compare  the  discordant  traditions  with 
each  other,  gives  the  following  account  of  the  "  Petty  Princes,"  and  the 
durations  of  their  reigns,  as  is  exhibited  in  the  following  table.  He 
maintains  that  the  Persians  fixed  only  the  historical  tradition  regarding 
the  Ashkanian  princes,  not  regarding  the  other  "  Petty  Princes,"  and 
that  the  Ashkanians  first  brought  'Irak  and  Jibal  under  their  sway  Anno 
Alexandri  246. 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OE    KINGS. 


119 


10 


1 
How  long 

Sum 
of  the 

The  Ashkanians,                                       I    each  of 

according  to  the  Chronicle  of  'Abli-alfarai.                         them 

reigned. 

1 

Alexander  the  Greek             .... 

14 

14 

The  "  Petty  Princes  " 

246 

260 

Af  ghurshah  . 

10 

270 

Shapur  ben  Ashkan 

60 

330 

Judhar,  Senior 

10 

340 

Bizan  the  Ashkanian 

21 

361 

Judhar  the  Ashkanian 

19 

380 

Narsi  the  Ashkanian 

40 

420 

Hurmuz 

17 

437 

Ardawan 

12 

449 

Khusrau 

40 

489 

Balash 

24 

613 

Ardawan,  Junior 

13 

526 

We  have  also  found  a  chronological  synopsis  of  this  same  Part  II.  in 
the  Shahnama  by  'Abu-Mansur  'Abd-alrazzak,  such  as  we  exhibit  in  the 
20  following  table  : — 


30 


How  long 

Sum 
of  the 

The  Ashkanians, 

each  of 

according  to  the  Shahnama. 

them 

reigned. 

Ashk  ben  Dara,  according  to  others  a  descendant 

of  Arish     ...... 

13 

13 

Ashk  ben  Ashk 

25 

38 

Shapur  ben  Ashk 

30 

68 

Bahram  ben  Shapur 

51 

119 

Narsi  ben  Bahram    . 

25 

144 

Hurmuz  ben  Narsi   . 

40 

184 

Bahram  ben  Hurmuz 

5 

189 

Hurmuz 

7 

196 

Feroz  ben  Hurmuz  . 

20 

216 

Narsi  ben  Feroz 

30 

246 

Ardawan 

20 

266 

p.ll7. 


The  nature  of  this  Part  II.  is  brought  to  light  by  a  comparative 

examination  of  these  tables.     It  is  a  period  that  begins  with  Alexander's 

conquest  of  Persia,  and  ends  with  the  rising  of  Ardashir  ben  Babak 

40  and  his  seizing  the  empire  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Ashkanians.     Both 

these  limits  are  well  known,  and  generally  agreed  upon.     How,  then, 


120  ALBiRUNt. 

can  the  interval  between  them  be  a  matter  of  doubt  to  us  ?  However, 
it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  we  are  not  able  to  make  out  by  a  mere 
course  of  reasoning  the  duration  of  the  rule  of  each  of  the  Ashkilnian 
princes,  nor  of  the  other  "  Petty  Princes"  nor  the  number  of  the  persons 
who  occupied  the  throne.  For  all  this  depends  upon  historical  tradition, 
ank  it  is  well-known  to  what  mishap  tradition  has  been  subject.  The 
least,  now,  we  must  try  to  do  is  to  amend  this  Part  II.  as  much  as  is  in 
our  power. 

It  is  evident  and  not  unknown  to  anybody,  that  the  year  in  which 
Yazdajird  came  to  the  throne  was  A.  Alex.  943.      This  undeniable  date  10 
we  shall  keej)  in  mind  as  a  basis,  and  establish  it  as  a  gauge  by  which 
to  measure  all  their  records. 

Let  us  first  take  the  sum  of  years  which  we  get  from  the  Table  I.  of 
Part  II.,  i.e.  280  years.  Hereto  we  add  that  sum  which  we  shall 
p.ll8.  exhibit  in  the  Table  I.  of  Part  III.  for  the  time  from  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  Ardashir  till  that  of  the  reign  of  Yazdajird,  ia  order  to 
combine  the  like  tables  {i.e.  Table  I.,  II.,  III.  of  Part  II.  respectively, 
with  Table  I.,  II.,  III.  of  Part  III.)  with  each  other.  This  latter  period 
is  about  410  years.     So  we  get  a  sum  of 

690  years,  20 

which  is  less  than  our  gauge  by  about  253  years.  We  shall  drop  this 
calcu^lation  and  not  take  further  notice  of  it. 

Next  we  consider  the  sum  of  years  contained  in  the  Table  II.  of 
Part  II.,  i.e.  358  years.  Hereto  we  add  the  sum  which  will  be  exhibited 
by  Table  II.  of  Part  III.,  corresponding  to  the  sum  that  occurs  in  the 
first  calculation,  and  we  get  the  sum  total  of 

818  years, 

which  is  again  less  than  our  gauge  by  about  125  years. 

We  shall  drop  this  calculation,  too,  and  j^roceed  to  the  Tables  III.  in 
Parts  II.  and  III.,   and  add  them  together  in  the  same  way  as  we  have   30 
done  with  Table  I.  and  II.     Then  we  get  the  sum  of 

930  years, 

which  is  again  below  our  gauge  by  about  thirteen  years. 

We  drop  this  calculation,  and  do  not  further  notice  it.  For  chronology 
does  not  admit  of  this  difference,  although  it  may  be  so  slight  as  nearly 
to  ai)i)roach  the  truth. 

If  we  make  the  same  calculation  with  the  years  exhibited  in  the  book 
of  'Abu-alfaraj,  combining  the  corresjjonding  tables  with  each  other,  we 
get  the  sum  of 

949  years,  40 

which  exceeds  our  gauge  by  six  years. 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS.  121 

If  we  pass  by  this  and  add  together  the  years  as  reported  in  the 
Shahnama  for  this  Part  11.,  with  the  result  of  any  of  the  tables  of 
Part  in.,  this  calculation  would  still  less  agree  with  our  gauge  (than  the 
preceding  ones). 

Now  we  shall  put  aside  all  these  calculations,  and  try  to  derive  an 
emendation  of  them  from  the  book  of  Mani,  called  ShdbilrMn,  since,  of 
all  Persian  books,  it  is  one  that  may  be  relied  upon  (as  a  witness)  for  the 
time  immediately  following  the  rise  of  Ardashir  (ben  Babak).  Besides, 
Mani  in  his  law  has  forbidden  telling  lies,  and  he  had  no  need  what- 
10  soever  for  falsifying  history. 

Mani,  now,  says  in  this  book  in  the  chapter  of  the  coming  of  the 
prophet,  that  he  was  born  in  Babylonia  Anno  Astronomorum  Babylonice 
527,  i.e.  Anno  Alex.  527,  and  four  years  after  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  the  king  Adharbdn,  whom  I  believe  to  be  Ardawan  the  Last. 
In  the  same  chapter  he  says  that  he  first  received  divine  revelation  when 
he  was  thirteen  years  of  age,  or  An7io  Astronomorum  Bdbyloni(B  539,  two 
years  after  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Ardashir  the  king  of  kings. 

Hereby  Mani  states  that  the  interval  between  Alexander  and  Ardashir 

is  537  years,  and  that  the  interval  between  Ardashir  and  the  succession 

20  of  Yazdajird  is  406  years.     And  this  result  is  correct,  being  based  upon 

the  testimony  of  a  book,  favoured  by  God  with  a  long  duration,  which 

is  used  as  a  religious  code. 

Further,  we  are  informed  by  traditions,  the  correctness  of  which  is 
proved  by  their  mutual  agreement,  that  the  last  intercalation  was  carried 
out  at  the  time  of  Yazdajird  ben  Shapur,  and  that  the  Epagomense  were 
put  at  the  end  of  that  month,  to  which  the  tui'n  of  intercalation  had  p. 119. 
come,  viz.  the  eighth  month  (Aban-Mah).  If,  now,  we  count  the  interval 
between  Alexander  and  Ardashir  as  537  years,  we  find  the  interval 
between  Zoroaster  and  Yazdajird  ben  Shapur  to  be  nearly  970  years,  in 
30  which  eight  leap  months  are  due,  since  it  was  their  custom  to  inter- 
calate one  month  in  every  120  years.  But  if  we  count  that  interval 
(between  Alexander  and  Ardashir)  as  260-270  years, or  something  more, 
as  300  years,  as  most  authors  do,  we  get  a  sum  of  about  600  years,  in 
which  only  five  leap  months  would  be  due,  whilst  we  have  already  men- 
tioned their  report  stating  that  eight  leap  months  are  due  in  that 
period.  The  latter  is  therefore  an  irreconcileable  supposition  {viz.  that 
the  interval  between  Alexander  and  Ardashir  is  not  more  than  260-300 
years) . 

Likewise  it  is  written  in  the  books  of  astrologers,  that  the  horoscope 
40  of  the  year  in  which  Ardashir  (ben  Babak)  rose  was  about  half  of 
Gemini,  and  the  horoscope  of  the  year  in  which  Yazdajird  rose  was  the 
sixth  degree  of  Cancer.  If,  now,  we  multiply  93j  degrees,  which  is  the 
surplus  of  the  solar  cycle  over  the  whole  days  according  to  the  Persians, 
by  407  years,  we  get  the  sum  of  152|  degrees.  If  we  subtract  this  from 
the  rising-place  of  the  degree  of  the  horoscope  of  that  year,  in  which 
Yazdajird  came  to  the  throne,  and  take  the  ai'c  of  the  remainder  for  the 


122  ALBfET^Nf. 

rising-place  of  the  region  of  'Irak,  which  was  the  residence  of  the 
Kisras,  the  horoscope  is  half  of  Gemini  close  to  the  place,  which  the 
astrologers  mention.  If  the  years,  however,  are  either  more  or  less,  the 
horoscope  does  not  agree  (with  what  it  is  reported  to  have  been).  So,  of 
course,  that  which  is  confirmed  by  two  witnesses  is  more  trustworthy 
than  that  which  is  contradicted  by  many. 

If  we  add  to  the  407  years,  mentioned  by  the  astrologers,  the  537 
years  which  are  reported  by  the  Shaburkan,  we  get  the  sum  of  944 
years.  And  that  is  the  year  of  the  ^Era  Alexandri  for  Yazdajird's 
accession  to  the  throne.  The  surplus  of  one  year  is  only  possible  in  the  10 
reports  of  such  authors  as  do  not  give  detailed  statements  regarding  the 
months  aud  minor  fractions  of  time,  in  consequence  of  the  fact  that 
the  years  of  the  Persians  and  Greeks  commence  at  different  times. 

Hamza  relates  that  Musa  ben  'Isa  Alkisrawi,  on  having  studied  this 
subject,  and  perceived  the  confusion  we  have  mentioned,  said :  "  The 
interval  between  Alexander  and  Yazdajird's  accession  to  the  throne  is 
942  years.  If  we  subtract  therefrom  266  years  for  the  period  of  the 
reign  of  the  Ashkanians,  we  get  for  the  rule  of  the  Sasanians,  from 
Ardashir  till  the  accession  of  Yazdajird,  676  years.  In  their  own 
traditions  the  Persians  have  no  such  chronological  system."  20 

Further,  he  says  :  "  Thereupon  we  studied  and  examined  the  number 
of  their  kings.  And  here  be  it  noticed  that  they  have  forgotten  the 
names  of  some  of  them,  whom  the  chroniclers  have  not  mentioned, 
blending  together  some  of  their  names  on  account  of  their  similarity. 
I  shall  enumerate  them  as  they  really  are."  Accordingly,  he,  i.e.  Musa, 
has  increased  the  durations  of  their  reigns  and  their  number,  as  we 
shall  explain,  when  the  order  of  our  exposition  comes  to  that  subject,  if 
God  permits. 
p.l20.       Chronology  of  the  Sasanians. — Now  we  proceed  to  treat  of  the 

third  part  of  Persian  chronology,  the  beginning  of  which  is  the  rising  30 
of  Ardashir  ben  Babak  of  the  family  of  Bahman  ben  Isfandiyar.  For 
he  was  the  son  of  Babak  Shah  ben  Sasan  ben  Babak  ben  Sasan  ben 
Bahafirid  ben  Mihrmish  ben  Sasan  senior  ben  Bahman  ben  Isfandiyar. 
This  part  of  chronology  also  is  not  free  from  the  same  defects  that  beset 
the  former  two  parts,  but  still  they  are  less  considerable.  I  commence 
this  part  with  the  Table  I.,  corresponding  to  the  (first)  tables  of  each  of 
the  two  preceding  parts,  and  I  shall  proceed  hereafter  with  Table  II. 
and  III.  If  you  gather  the  dates  from  the  single  tables  of  the  three 
parts,  you  get  the  consecutive  course  of  Persian  chronology.  Here 
follows  Table  I.  40 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS. 


123 


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124 


ALijtRUNt. 


p,123.  The  following  Table  II.  rests  on  tlie  authority  of  Hamza,  who  says 
that  he  has  amended  it  by  means  of  the  Abasta,  and  transcribed  it  from 
the  Kitdb-alsiyar-Alkabir. 

TABLE  II.  OF  PAET  III. 


p.  124. 


How  long  each  of  them 

Sum  of  the  Years. 

Names  of  the  Sasanian 
Kings. 

IClgllCU. 

Years. 

Months. 

Days. 

Years. 

Months. 

Days. 

Ardashir  Babak 

14 

6 

0 

14 

6 

0 

Shapur  ben  Ardashir 

30 

0 

28 

44 

6 

28 

Hurmuz  ben  Shapur 

1 

10 

0 

46 

4 

28 

Bahram  ben  Hurmuz 

3 

3 

3 

49 

8 

6.  Bahram  ben  Bahram     . 

17 

0 

0 

6& 

8 

Bahram  ben  Bahram  ben 

Bahram 

0 

4 

0 

67 

0 

Narsi  ben  Bahram 

9 

0 

0 

76 

0 

Hurmuz  ben  Narsi 

7 

5 

0 

83 

5 

Shapur     ben      Hurmuz 

Dhu-al'aktaf 

72 

0 

0 

155 

5 

10.  Ardashir  ben  Hurmuz 

4 

0 

0 

159 

5 

Shapur  ben  Shapur 

50 

4 

0 

209 

9 

Bahram  ben  Shapur 

11 

0 

0 

220 

9 

Yazdagird   ben  Bahram 

Sceleratus  . 

21 

6 

8 

242 

2 

9 

Bahram  ben  Yazdagird, 

Gur    . 

23 

0 

0 

265 

2 

9 

15.  Yazdagird  ben  Bahram 

18 

4 

28 

283 

7 

7 

Feroz  ben  Yazdagird 

27 

0 

1 

310 

7 

8 

Balash  ben  Feroz   . 

4 

0 

0 

314 

7 

8 

Kobad  ben  Feroz    . 

43 

0 

0 

357 

7 

8 

Anoshirwan  ben  Kobad  . 

47 

7 

0 

405 

2 

8 

20.  Hurmuz  ben  Anoshir- 

wan .... 

11 

7 

10 

416 

9 

18 

Parwiz  ben  Hurmuz 

38 

0 

0 

454 

9 

18 

Shirawaihi  ben  Parwiz   . 

0 

8 

0 

455 

5 

18 

Ardashir  ben  Shirawaihi 

1 

6 

0 

456 

11 

18 

Purandukht,  daughter  of 

Parwiz 

1 

4 

0 

458 

3 

18 

25.  Guskanasptadha  . 

0 

2 

0 

458 

6 

18 

Azarmidukht,    daughter 

of  Parwiz    . 

1 

4 

0 

459 

9 

18 

Khurzad  Khusra    . 

0 

1 

0 

459 

10 

18 

Yazdagird  ben  Shahryar 

20 

0 

0 

479 

10 

18 

10 


20 


30 


40 


ERAS,     DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS. 


125 


The  following  Table  III.  in  this  Part  is  that  one  which  Hamza  says  he   p.l25. 
transcribed  from  the  copy  of  the  Maubadh. 


Names  of  the  Sasanian  Kings 

1  How  long  each  of  them 

'»  '                     rpicrnfifl. 

Sum  of  the  Years. 

such  as  Hamza  says  he  has 

taken  from  the  Copy  of 

the  Maubadh. 

j 

Years. 

Months. 

Days. 

Years. 

Months. 

Days. 

Ardashir  b.  Babak  (aftei 

having  made  war  upoi 

the  "Petty  Princes") 

.       14 

10 

0 

14 

10 

0 

10 

Shapur  ben  Ardashir 

.       30 

0 

15 

44 

10 

15 

Hurmuz  ben  Shapur 

3 

3 

0 

48 

1 

15 

Bahram  ben  Hurmuz 

17 

0 

0 

65 

1 

15 

5.  Bahram  Sakan-shah 

.       40 

4 

0 

105 

5 

15 

Narsa  ben  Bahram 

9 

0 

0 

114 

5 

15 

Hurmuz  ben  Narsa 

7 

0 

0 

121 

5 

15 

Shapur  Dhu-al'aktaf 

.       72 

0 

0 

193 

5 

15 

Ardashir  ben  Hurmuz 

4 

0 

0 

197 

5 

15 

10.  Shapur  ben  Shapur 

5 

0 

0 

202 

5 

15 

Bahram  ben  Shapur 

11 

0 

0 

213 

5 

15 

20 

Yazdagird  Sceleratus 

21 

5 

18 

234 

11 

3 

Bahram  Grur  . 

19 

11 

0 

254 

10 

3 

Yazdagii'd  ben  Bahrilm 

14 

4 

18 

269 

2 

21 

15.  Feroz  ben  Yazdagird 

17 

0 

0 

286 

2 

21 

Balash  ben  Feroz   . 

4 

0 

0 

290 

2 

21 

Kobad  ben  Teroz   . 

41 

0 

0 

331 

2 

21 

Anoshirwan    . 

48 

0 

0 

379 

2 

21 

Hurmuz  ben  Anoshirwan 

12 

0 

0 

391 

2 

21 

20.  Parwiz 

38 

0 

0 

429 

2 

21 

Kobad  Shirawaihi  . 

0 

8 

0 

429 

10 

21 

30 

Ardashir  ben  Shirawaih; 

1 

6 

0 

431 

4 

21 

Pur  an,  daughter  of  Parw 

LZ           1 

4 

0 

432 

8 

21 

Feroz      . 

0 

1 

0 

432 

9 

21 

25.  Azarmidukht 

0 

6 

0 

433 

3 

21 

Khurradadh  Khusra 

1 

0 

0 

434 

3 

21 

Yazdagird  ben  Shahryai 

20 

0 

0 

454 

3 

21 

p.l26. 


126 


ALBfRUNi. 


In  the  boot  of  'Abu-alfaraj  Alzanjani  we  have  found  the  chronology 
of  this  Part  differing  from  our  accounts  in  the  preceding  three  tables  ; 
we  have  added  his  account  in  this  place,  in  conformity  with  what  we 
have  done  in  the  preceding  two  Parts.  And  herewith  the  Chronological 
Table  ends. 


p.l27. 


p.l28. 


1 
How  long  eacli  of  them  , 

Sum  of  the  Years. 

Names  of  the  Sasanian  Kings, 

reigned. 

according  to  the  Tradition  of 

'Abu-alfaraj  Alzanjani. 

] 

Years.  Months. 

Days. 

Years.   '. 

ilonths. 

Days. 

Ardashir  ben  Babak 

14 

10 

0 

14     ^ 

10 

0 

Shapur  ben  Ardashir      . 

31     i 

6 

18 

46 

4 

18 

Hurmuz  ben  Shapur 

1     i 

6 

0     i 

47 

10 

18 

Bahram  ben  Hurmuz 

3 

3 

3 

51 

1 

21 

5.  Bahram  ben  Bahram     . 

17 

0 

0 

68 

1 

21 

Bahram  ben  Bahram  ben 

! 

Bahram 

4 

4 

0 

72 

5 

21 

Narsi  ben  Bahram . 

9 

0 

0 

81     1 

5 

21 

Hurmuz  ben  Narsi 

9 

0 

0 

90     j 

5 

21 

Shapur     ben      Hurmuz 

Dhual'aktaf 

72 

0 

0 

162 

6 

21 

10.  Ardashir  ben  Hurmuz 

4 

0 

0 

166 

6 

21 

Shapur  ben  Shapur 

5 

4 

0 

171 

9 

21 

Bahram  ben  Shapur 

11 

0 

0 

182 

9 

21 

Yazdagird  Sceleratus 

21 

5 

18 

204 

3 

9 

Bahram  Gur  . 

18   ; 

11 

3 

223 

2 

12 

15.  Yazdagird  ben  Bahram 

18 

4 

18 

241 

7 

0 

Hurmuz 

7 

0 

0 

248 

7 

0 

Feroz  ben  Yazdagird 

27 

0 

0 

275 

7 

0 

Balash  ben  Feroz    . 

4 

0 

0 

279 

7 

0 

Kobad  and  Tamasp,  sons 

of  Feroz 

43 

0 

0 

322 

7 

0 

20.  AnoshirwanbenTTobad 

47 

7 

6 

370 

2 

6 

Hurmuz  ben  Anoshirwan 

11 

7 

15 

381 

9 

20 

Parwiz  ben  Hurmuz 

38 

0 

0 

419 

9 

20 

Shirawaihi  ben  Parwiz    . 

0 

7 

'       0 

420 

4 

20 

Ardashir  ben  Shirawaihi 

0 

5 

1       ^ 

420 

9 

20 

25.  Khuhan,  who  besieged 

■ 

the  Greeks 

0 

0 

22 

420 

10 

12 

Kisra  ben  Kobad    . 

0 

3 

0 

421 

1 

12 

Puran,  daughter  of  Parwiz 

1 

6 

0 

422 

7 

12 

Gushanasptadha     . 

0 

2 

0 

422 

9 

12 

Azarmidukht,    daughter 

of  Parwiz    . 

0 

4 

0 

423 

1 

12 

30.  Farrukhzad  Khusrau  . 

0 

1 

1       0 

423 

2 

12 

Yazdagird  ben  Shahryar 

20 

0 

0 

443 

2 

12 

10 


20 


30 


40 


EEAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS. 


127 


Next  we  return  to  fulfil  our  promise  of  explaining  the  way  in  which  p. 129. 
Alkisrawi  works  out  the  chronology  of  this  Part  III.,  having  perceived 
the  confusion  of  the  former  two  parts,  although  we  cannot  help  wonder- 
ing very  much  at  him  and  at  his  method.  For,  whilst  trying  and  experi- 
menting, he  has  subtracted  from  the  period  between  Alexander  and 
Yazdagird  266  years  for  the  period  of  the  Ashghanian  rule.  Hamza, 
however,  records  only  that  tradition,  which  he  says  he  has  taken  from 
and  amended  by  means  of  the  Abastd,  and  the  other  tradition  which  he 
says  he  has  taken  from  the  copy  of  the  Maubadh.     And  according  to 

10  both  these  traditions,  this  period  is  longer  even  than  350  years  (Hamza- 
Abasta,  358  years  ;  Hamza-Maubadh,  496  years).  Now  it  is  necessary 
for  us  to  use  either  of  these  two  traditions,  or  to  add  to  them  that  one 
which  Alkisrawi  holds  to  be  correct  (as  a  third  tradition),  in  order  not 
to  use  any  other  tradition  but  those  which  he  himself  mentions.  Or  did 
he  possibly  place  his  confidence  in  that  one  which  we  have  mentioned, 
and  derived  from  the  Shahnama  (266  years)  ? 

Further,  now,  as  Alkisrawi  has  done  this,  and  thinks  that  the  existence 
of  such  confusion  is  an  established  fact,  I  should  like  to  know  why  he 
refers  it  to  the  period  of  the  Sasanian,  not  to  that  of  the  Ashghanian 

20  rule.  For  there  was  much  more  opportunity  for  mistakes  creeping  into 
the  chronology  of  the  Ashghanians  (than  into  that  of  the  Sasanians), 
because  during  their  period  the  Persian  empire  was  disorganized,  every- 
one minded  only  his  own  affairs,  and  people  were  prevented  by  various 
circumstances  from  preserving  their  chronology.  Such  were,  e.g.  the 
calamities  which  Alexander  and  his  Greek  lieutenants  brought  upon 
them,  further  the  conflagration  of  all  the  literature  in  which  people 
delighted,  the  ruin  of  all  fine  arts  which  were  the  recreation  and  the 
desire  of  the  jjeople.  And  more  than  that.  He  (Alexander)  burned  the 
greatest  part  of  their  religious  code,  he  destroyed  the  wonderful  archi- 

30  tectural  monuments,  e.g.  those  in  the  mountains  of  Istakhr,  now-a-days 
known  as  the  Mosque  of  Solomon  ben  David,  and  delivered  them  up  to 
the  flames.  People  even  say  that  even  at  the  present  time  the  traces  of 
the  fire  are  visible  in  some  places. 

This  is  the  reason  why  they  have  neglected  a  certain  space  of  time  in 
the  first  part  of  the  period,  between  Alexander  and  Ardashir,  viz.  when 
the  Greeks  reigned  over  them.  And  they  did  not  begin  to  settle  their 
chronology  until  their  fright  and  terror  had  subsided  in  consequence  of 
the  establishment  of  the  Ashkanian  rule  over  them.  Therefore  the 
period  preceding  this  event  was  much  more  liable  to  confusion  (than  the 

40  later  period  of  the  Sasanians),  because  under  the  Sasanians  the  empire 
was  in  good  order,  and  the  royal  dignity  was  transmitted  in  their  family 
in  uninterrupted  succession,  whilst  in  the  time  of  those  (their  predeces- 
sors) there  was  much  confusion.  This  is  proved  by  all  the  testimonies 
which  we  have  produced  in  support  of  this  our  view. 

Here  follows  the  table  containing  the  so-called  emendation  of 
Alkisrawi. 


128 


ALBIEiyNt. 


p.l30. 


p.l31. 


Names  of  the  Sasanian  Kings, 

How  long  each  of  them 
reis-ned. 

Sum  of  the  Years. 

as  reported  by  Hamza,         1 
according  to  the  Emendation 

1 

of  Alkisrawi. 

Years. 

Months. 

Days. 

Years. 

Months. 

Days. 

Ardashir  ben  Babak 

19 

10 

0 

19 

10 

0 

Sabur-aljunud 

32 

4 

0 

62 

2 

0 

Hurmuz  b.  Sabur-aljunud 

1 

10 

0 

54 

0 

0 

Babram  ben  Hurmuz 

9 

3 

0 

63 

3 

0 

6.  Bahram  ben  Babram 

23 

0 

0 

86 

3 

0 

Babram  ben  Babram  ben 

Babram 

13 

4 

0 

99 

7 

0 

Narsa  ben  Bahram 

9 

0 

0 

108 

7 

0 

Hurmuz  ben  Narsa 

13 

0 

0 

121 

7 

0 

Sbapur  Dbu-al'aktaf 

72 

0 

0 

193 

7 

0 

10.  Ardasbir,    brother    of 

the  preceding    . 

4 

0 

0 

197 

7 

0 

Sbapur  ben  Sbapur  Dbu- 

al'aktaf 

82 

0 

0 

279 

7 

0 

Babram,  son  of  the  pre- 

ceding 

12 

0 

0 

291 

7 

0 

Yazdagird  ben  Babram, 

Clemens,      Prince      of 

Sbarwin 

82 

0 

0 

373 

7 

0 

Yazdagird    ben    Yazda- 

gird, Atrox . 

23 

0 

0 

396 

7 

0 

15.  Babram    Gur,    son   of 

tbe  preceding    . 

23 

0 

0 

419 

7 

0 

Yaz  dagird  b .  Babram  Gur 

18 

5 

0 

437! 

0 

0 

Babram  ben  Yazdagird . 

26 

1 

0 

463 

1 

0 

Feroz  ben  Babram 

29 

0 

1 

492 

1 

Balasb  ben  Feroz    . 

3 

0 

0 

495 

1 

20.  Kubad,brotberof Balasb 

68 

0 

0 

663 

1 

Anoshirwan  ben  Kubad 

47 

7 

0 

610 

8 

Hurmuz  benAnosbirwan 

23 

0 

0 

633 

8 

Parwiz  ben  Hurmuz 

38 

0 

0 

671 

8 

Sbirawaibi  ben  Hurmuz 

0 

8 

0 

672 

4 

25.  Ardasbir  ben  Sbirawaibi 

1 

0 

0 

673 

4 

Sbabrbaraz     . 

0 

1 

8 

673 

5 

9 

Buran,  daughter  of  Kisra 

Parwiz 

1 

0 

0 

674 

5 

9 

Khushnushbanda  (Gush- 

anasptadba) 

0 

2 

0 

674 

7 

9 

Khusrau  ben  Kubad  ben 

Hurmuz 

0 

10 

0 

675 

5 

9 

30.  Feroz,  a  descendant  of 

Ardasbir  ben  Babak  . 

0 

2 

0 

675 

7 

9 

Azarmidukht,    daughter 

of  Parwiz    , 

0 

4 

0 

675 

11 

9 

Farrukhz ad  ben  Khusrau 

b.  Parwiz.    Hismother 

was   Girawaibi,   sister 

of  Bahram  Shubin 

0 

1 

0 

676 

0 

9 

34.  Yazdagird  ben  Shahryar 

20 

0 

0 

696 

0 

9 

EEAS,    DATES,    AND    EEIGNS    OF    KINGS.  129 

On  Titles  in  the  Khalifate. — It  is  a  theory  of  the  astrologers  that  p.l32. 
none  of  the  khalifs  of  Islam  and  the  other  kings  of  the  Muslims  reigns 
longer  than  twenty- four  years.  As  to  the  reign  of  Almuti'  that  extended 
to  nearly  thirty  years,  they  account  for  it  in  this  way,  saying  that  already 
at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Almuttaki,  and  at  the  beginning  of  that  of 
Almustakf i,  the  empire  and  the  rule  had  been  transferred  from  the  hands 
of  the  family  of  'Abbas  into  those  of  the  family  of  Buwaihi  (Buya, 
Boy  a),  and  that  the  authority  which  remained  with  the  Bani-' Abbas 
was  only  a  juridical  and  religious,  not  a  political  and  secular  affair,  in 

10  fact  something  like  the  dignity  of  the  Bosh-gdliWid  with  the  Jews,  who 
exercises  a  sort  of  religious  authority  without  any  actual  rule  and 
empire.  Therefore  the  'Abbaside  prince,  who  at  present  occupies  the 
throne  of  the  KMldfa,  is  held  by  the  astrologers  to  be  only  the  (spiri- 
tual) head  of  Islam,  but  not  a  king. 

Already  in  ancient  times  astrologers  used  to  prophesy  this  state  of 
affairs.  Such  a  prophecy  you  find,  e.g.  in  the  book  of  'Ahmad  ben 
Altayyib  Alsarakhsi,  where  he  speaks  of  the  conjunction  of  Saturn  and 
Mars  in  the  sign  of  Cancer.  The  same  was  distinctly  declared  by  the 
Hindu  Kanaka,  the  astrologer  of  Alrashid,  for  he  maintained  that  the 

20  reign  of  the  Bani  'Abbas  would  be  transferred  to  a  man  who  would  come 
from  Ispahan.  He  determined,  also,  the  time  when  'Ali  bt^n  Buwaihi, 
called  'Imad-aldaula,  should  come  forward  in  Isj)ahan  (as  a  claimant  to 
supreme  power). 

When  the  Bani- 'Abbas  had  decorated  their  assistants,  friends  and 
enemies  indiscriminately,  with  vain  titles,  compounded  with  the  word 
Daula  (i.e.  empire,  such  as  Heljier  of  the  Empire,  Sword  of  the  Empire, 
etc.),  their  empire  perished  ;  for  in  this  they  went  beyond  all  reasonable 
limits.  This  went  on  so  long  till  those  who  were  especially  attached  to 
their  court  claimed  something  new  as  a  distinction  between  themselves 

30  and  the  others.  Thereupon  the  khalifs  bestowed  double  titles.  But  then 
also  the  others  wanted  the  same  titles,  and  knew  how  to  carry  their 
point  by  bribery.  Now  it  became  necessary  a  second  time  to  create  a 
distinction  between  this  class  and  those  who  were  directly  attached  to 
their  court.  So  the  khalifs  bestowed  triple  titles,  adding  besides  the 
title  of  Shahinshah.  In  this  way  the  matter  became  utterly  opposed  to 
common  sense,  and  clumsy  to  the  highest  degree,  so  that  he  who  men- 
tions them  gets  tired  before  he  has  scarcely  commenced,  that  he  who 
writes  them  loses  his  time  and  writing,  and  he  who  addresses  them  runs 
the  risk  of  missing  the  time  for  prayer. 

40  It  will  not  do  any  harm,  if  we  mention  here  the  titles  which,  up  to 
our  time,  have  been  bestowed  by  their  majesties  the  khalifs.  We  shall 
comprise  them  in  the  following  table. 


130 


ALBiRUNi. 


p.l33.  The  Names  of  those  on  whom 

Titles  were  bestowed. 

Alkasim  ben  'Ubaid-allali. 

His  son.  .... 

'Abu-Muhammad  ben  Hamdan 

His  son  .... 

'Abu-alhasan  'Ali  ben  Hamdan 

'All  ben  Buwaihi    . 

'Abu-alhasan  'Ahmad  ben  Buwaihi 

Alhasan  ben  Buwaihi 

'Abu-Mansur  Bakhtiyar  ben  'Abi- 
alhasan. 

'Abu-'Ishak  ben  Alhusain 

'Abu-Harb    Alhabashi    ben    'Abi- 
alhusain. 

'Abu-Mansur  Bisutun  ben  Washm- 
gir. 

'Abu-Mansur  Biiwaihi  ben  Alhasan 

Almarzuban  ben  Bakhtiyar    . 

Kabus  ben  Washmgir    . 

'Abu-'Ahmad  Harith  ben  'Ahmad 

'Abu-Shuja'    Fanakhusra   ben  Al- 
hasan. 

'Abu-Kalinjar  ben  Fanakhusra 

'Abu-Kalinjar       Marzuban       ben 
Fanakhusra. 

'Abu-alfawaris  ben  Fanakhusra 

'Abu-Talib  Eustam  ben  'Ali  . 
p.l34.  'Abu-alkasim  Mahmud  ben  Sabuk- 
tagin. 

'Abu-Nasr     Khurra     Feroz      ben 
Fanfikhusra. 

'Abu-alhasan       Muhammad      ben 
'Ibrahim. 

'Abu-al'abbas  Tash  Alhajib    . 

'Abu-alhasan  Fa'ik-alkhassa  . 

'Abu-'Ali  Muhammad  ben  Muham- 
mad ben  'Ibrahim. 

Sabuktagin,  first    . 

Afterwards  he  received  the  title  of 

Mahmud  ben  Sabuktagin 

'Abu-alfawaris   Bektuzun   Alhajib 

'Abu-alkasim      Muhammad      ben 
'Ibrahim. 

'Abu-Mansur  Alp  Arslan  Albalawi 


The  Titles  which  were  bestowed 
by  Their  Majesties  the  Khalifs. 

Waliyy-al-daula. 

*Amid-al-daula. 

Nasir-al-daula. 

Sa'd-al-daula. 

Saif-al-daula. 

'Imad-al-daula. 

Mu'  iz  z  -  al-  daula . 

Eukn-al-daula.  10 

'Izz-al-daula. 

'Umdat-al-daula. 
Sanad-al-daula. 

Zahir-al- daula. 

Mu'ayyid-al-daula. 

'I'zaz-al-daula. 

Shams-al-ma'ali.  20 

Waliyy-al-daula. 

'Adud-al-daula  wa  Taj-al-milla. 

Fakhr-aldaula  wa  Falak-al-'umma. 
Samsam-al-daula      wa      Shams-al- 

milla. 
Sharaf-al- daula  wa  Zaman-al-milla. 
Majd-al-milla  wa  kahf-al-'umma. 
Yamin-al- daula  wa  'Amin-al-milla. 

30 

Baha-al-daula  wa  Diya-al-milla  wa 

Ghiyath-al-'umma. 
Nasir-al-daula. 

Husam-al-daula. 

'Amid-al-daula. 

Nasir-al-daula. 

Mu'in-al-daula. 

Nasir-al-din  wal-daula.  40 

Saif-al-daula. 

Sintin-al-daula. 

Nasir-al-daula. 

Mu'in-al-daula. 


EEAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS.  131 

Also  tlie  Wazirs  of  tlie  Klialifs  have  received  certain  titles,  cora- 
pounded  with  the  word  Bhu,  as  e.g.  DJiu-al-yaminain,  Dhu-al-ri' dsatain, 
Dhu-al-Jcifdyatain,  Dhu-al-saifain,  Dhil-al-kalamain,  etc. 

The  Buwaihi  family,  when,  as  we  have  mentioned,  the  power  passed 
into  their  hands,  imitated  the  example  of  the  khalifs  ;  nay,  they  made 
it  still  worse,  and  their  title-giving  was  nothing  but  one  great  lie,  when 
they  called  their  Wazirs,  e.g.  Kdfi-al-hufdt,  AlMfi  AVazihad,  'Auhad- 
alkufdt. 

The  family  of  Saman,  the  rulers  of  Khurasan,  had  no  desire  for  such 
10  titles,  contenting  themselves  with  their  hunyas  (such  as  'Abit-Nasr,  'Ahil- 
al-hasan,  'Ahil-Sdlih,  'Ahu-al-kdsim,  'Ahu-al-hdrith).  In  their  lifetime 
they  were  called  Almalih,  Ahnu' ayyad,  Ahnuwaffak,  Almansiir,  Almu'az- 
zam,  Almuntasir,  and  after  their  death,  Alhamid,  Alshahid,  Alsa'id, 
Alsadid,  Alradi,  etc.  To  their  field-marshals,  however,  they  gave  the 
titles  of  Ndsir-aldaula,  'Imdd-aldaula,  Husdm-aldaula,  'Amid-aldaula, 
Saif-aldaula,  8indn-aldaula,  Mu^in-aldaida,  Ndsir-aldaula,  in  imitation  of 
the  ways  of  the  khalifs. 

The  same  was  done  by  Bughrakhan,  when  he  had  come  forward  (to 
claim  supreme  power)  a.h.  382,  calling  himself  Shihdb-aldaula. 
20  Some  of  them,  however,  have  gone  beyond  this  limit,  calling  them- 
selves ' Amir-al-'dlam  and  Sayyid-al-umard.  May  God  inflict  on  them 
ignominy  in  this  world,  and  show  to  them  and  to  others  their  weakness ! 
As  to  the  'Amir,  the  glorious  Prince,  may  God  give  a  long  duration 
to  his  reign  !  (to  whom  this  book  is  dedicated),  His  Majesty  the  Khalif 
addressed  him  in  a  letter,  and  offered  to  him  titles,  such  as  those  com- 
pounded with  the  word  Daula  (e.g.  8aif-al-daula,  Husdm-al-daula,  etc.). 
But  then  he  considered  himself  superior  to  them,  and  abhorred  the  idea 
of  being  compared  with  those  who  were  called  by  such  titles  but  only 
in  a  very  metaphorical  way.  He,  therefore,  selected  for  himself  a  title 
80  the  full  meaning  of  which  did  not  exceed  his  merits  (SJiavis-al-ma'cdi,  p.l35. 
i.e.  Sun  of  the  Heights).  He  has  become — may  God  give  a  long 
duration  to  his  power  ! — among  the  kings  of  the  world  like  the  sun,  who 
illuminates  the  darkness,  in  which  they  live,  by  the  rays  of  his  heights. 
He  has  come  into  high  favour  with  the  khalifs  as  a  prince  of  the 
Believers.  They  wanted  to  redouble  and  to  increase  his  title,  but  his 
noble  mind  declined  it.  May  God  give  him  a  long  life  ;  may  he  enlighten 
all  the  parts  of  the  world  by  his  justice,  and  bless  them  by  his  look;  may 
He  raise  his  affairs  and  those  of  the  subjects  who  dwell  in  his  shadow 
to  perfection,  increasing  them  everlastingly.  God  is  almighty  to  do  this, 
40   and  sees  and  knows  all  the  affairs  of  his  slaves  ! 

Intervals  between  the  Eras. — After  this  digression  we  now  return 
to  the  point  whence  we  started,  and  proceed,  after  having  finished  the 
collection  of  chronological  dates  in  the  preceding  tables.  Next  we  must 
turn  our  attention  towards  fulfilling  our  promise  of  teaching  the  reader 
that  knowledge   by  means  of  which  he  may  compute  the  eras  that  are 

9  * 


132  ALBtRUNi. 

used  in  the  Canons,  for  astronomical  observations,  and  elsewhere,  e.g.  in 
commercial  stipulations  and  contracts.  To  this  we  shall  prefix  a  twofold 
Tailasdn,  which  will  indicate  the  intervals  between  the  single  eras  in  a 
constant  measure,  i.e.  in  days.  In  the  lower  half  under  the  diagonal, 
you  find  the  distances  computed  in  days  and  written  in  Indian  ciphers. 
In  the  upper  half  you  find  two  kinds  of  numbers ;  the  upper  ones  are 
these  identical  days  written  according  to  the  sexagesimal  system,  whilst 
the  lower  ones  are  the  same  days  in  their  various  degrees  (units,  tenths, 
hundreds,  etc.)  transcribed  from  the  Indian  ciphers  into  the  Huruf- 
aljummal.  10 

The  following  well-known  calculation  is  an  example  of  this  system  of 
notation.  If  we  take  {[(16^)^]^}^  or  16^^,  and  subtract  1  from  the 
sum,  we  get  the  total  sum  of  the  reduplications  of  all  the  checks  of  the 
chessboard,  if  we  commence  with  one  for  the  first  check.  This  sum, 
noted  ia  Indian  ciphers,  is  the  following :  18,4<46,744,073, 709,551,615  ; 
noted  according  to  the  sexagesimal  system  :  30.  30.  27.  9.  5.  3.  50.  40. 
31.  0.  15.  ;  and  transcribed  into  the  Huruf-aljummal : 

If  you  transcribe  these  characters  one  after  the  other  into  Indian 
ciphers,  you  get  the  above-mentioned  number.  20 

Now,  in  the  same  way  as  this  example,  our  Tailasdn  is  to  be  under- 
stood. This  threefold  system  of  notation  we  use  for  no  other  purpose 
but  this,  that  each  mode  should  bear  testimony  to  the  other  in  case  a 
doubt  should  arise  regarding  some  of  the  characters  and  figures  that 
denote  the  numbers. 

We  mention  our  method  only  in  a  summary  way,  and  not  at  full 
p.l36.  length,  because  the  reader  of  this  book  must  be  more  than  a  beginner  in 
mathematics.  We  say,  if  a  man  wants  to  find  an  (unknown)  era  by  the 
help  of  a  known  one,  let  him  reduce  the  whole  of  the  known  era  into 
days,  and  this  sum  is  called  "  The  Basis."  Then  he  must  take  the  30 
interval  between  the  two  eras,  viz.  the  known  and  the  unknown  ones. 
This  we  call  "  The  Equation." 

If,  then,  the  known  era  (i.e  its  epoch)  precedes  the  unknown  one,  he 
subtracts  the  equation  from  the  basis.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  known 
era  (i.e.  its  epoch)  follows  the  unknown  one,  he  adds  the  equation  to  the 
basis.  And  the  sum  which  he  gets  is  the  number  of  days  of  the 
unknown  era. 

Thereupon  he  must  divide  this  sum  of  days  by  the  number  of  days  of 
that  kind  of  year  which  is  ascribed  to  the  era  in  question.  By  this 
division  he  gets  complete  years.  And  the  remainder  of  days  is  to  be  40 
distributed  over  the  months  of  the  year  according  to  the  proper  lengths 
which  we  have  mentioned  as  peculiar  to  each  of  the  different  kinds  of 
them. 

Here  are  the  days  of  the  intervals  between  the  epochs  of  the  various 
eras  represented  in  the  twofold  Tailasdn.     God  is  allwise  ! 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OE    KINGS. 


133 


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134  albIeukJ. 

p. 138.  Tll9  CbeSS  Problem. — For  the  solution  of  tlie  chess  problem  (lit.  for 
the  reduplication  of  the  chess  and  its  calculation)  there  are  two  funda- 
mental rules.     The  one  of  them  is  this  : — 

The  square  of  the  number  of  a  check  x  of  the  64  checks  of  the  chess- 
board is  equal  to  the  number  of  that  check  the  distance  of  which  from 
the  check  x  is  equal  to  the  distance  of  the  check  x  from  the  1st  check. 

For  example :  take  the  square  of  the  number  of  the  5th  check,  i.e. 
the  square  of  16  (162)  =  256,  which  is  the  number  belonging  to  the  9th 
check.  Now,  the  distance  of  the  9th  check  from  the  5th  is  equal  to  the 
distance  of  the  5th  check  from  the  first  one.  10 

The  second  rule  is  this  : — 

The  number  of  a  check  x  minus  1  is  equal  to  the  sum  total  of  the 
numbers  of  all  the  preceding  checks. 

Example:  The  number  of  the  6th  check  is  32.  And  32  —  1  is  31, 
which  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  numbers  of  all  the  preceding  checks, 
i.e.  of — 

l  +  2  +  4  +  8  +  16(=31). 

If  we  take  the  square  of  the  square  of  the  square  of  16,  multiplied  by 
itself  (i.e.  {[(163)2]2}2  or  16i6),  this  is  identical  with  taking  the  square  of 
the  number  of  the  33^<i  check,  by  which  operation  the  number  of  the  65th  20 
check  is  to  be  found.  If  you  diminish  that  number  by  1,  you  get  the 
sum  of  the  numbers  of  all  the  checks  of  the  chessboard.  The  number  of 
the  33rd  check  is  equal  to  the  square  of  the  number  of  the  17th  check. 

The  number  of  the  17th  check  is  equal  to  the  square  of  the  number 
of  the  9th  check. 

The  number  of  the  9th  check  is  equal  to  the  square  of  the  number  of 
the  5th  check.  And  this  (i.e.  the  number  of  the  5th  check)  is  the  above- 
mentioned  number  16. 

'Abu-Raihan  says  in  his  Kitdb-al- arkdm  (Book  of  the  Ciphers)  :  "  I 
shall  explain  the  method  of  the  calculation  of  the  chess  problem,  that  80 
the  reader  may  get  accustomed  to  apply  it.  But  first  we  must  premise 
that  you  should  know,  that  in  a  progression  of  powers  of  2  the  single 
numbers  are  distant  from  each  other  according  to  a  similar  ratio. 
(Lacuna  T)  If  the  number  of  the  reduiDlications,  i.e.  the  number  of  the 
single  members  of  a  j)rogression  is  an  even  one,  it  has  two  middle 
numbers.  But  if  the  number  of  the  reduplications  is  an  odd  one,  the 
progression  has  only  one  middle  number. 

The  multiplication  of    the  two   ends  by  each  other  is  equal  to  the 
multiplication  of  the  two  middle  numbers.     (In  case  there  is  only  one 
middle  number,  its  square  is  equal  to  the  multiplication  of  the  two  end  ^(>^ 
numbers.)     This  is  one  thing  you  must  know  beforehand.     The  other  is 
this  : — 

If  we  want  to  know  the  sum  total  of  any  progression  of  powers  of  2, 
we  take  the  double  of  the  largest,  i.e.  the  last  number,  and  subtract 


ERAS,    DATES,    AND    REIGNS    OF    KINGS.  136 

therefrom  the  smallest,  i.e.  the  first  number.  The  remainder  is  the  sum 
total  of  these  reduplications  (i.e.  of  this  progression). 

Now,  after  having  established  this,  if  we  add  to  the  checks  of  the 
chessboard  one  check,  a  65th  one,  then  it  is  evident  that  the  number 
which  belongs  to  this  65th  check,  in  consequence  of  the  reduplications 
of  powers  of  2,  beginning  with  1,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  numbers 
of  all  the  checks  of  the  chessboard  minus  the  1st  check,  which  is  the 
number  1,  the  first  member  of  the  progression.  If,  therefore,  1  is 
subtracted  from  this  sum,  the  remainder  is  the  sum  of  the  numbers  of 
10  all  the  checks  of  the  chessboard. 

If,  now,  we  consider  the  65th  check  and  the  1st  as  the  two  ends  of  a 
progression,  their  medium  is  the  33rd  check,  the  first  medium. 

Between  the  checks  33  and  1,  the  check  17  is  the  medium,  the  second 
medium. 

Between  the  checks  17  and  1,  the  check  9  is  the  medium,  the  third 
medium.  p. 139. 

Between  the  checks  9  and  1,  the  check  5  is  the  medium,  the  fourth 
medium. 

Between  the  checks  5  and  1,  the  check  3  is  the  medium,  the  fifth 
20  medium. 

Between  the  checks  3  and  1,  the  check  2  is  the  medium,  the  sixth 
medium,  to  which  belongs  the  number  2. 

Taking  the  square  of  2  (2^),  we  get  a  sum  which  is  a  product  of  the 
multiplication  of  the  number  of  the  1st  check  by  that  of  the  3rd  check 
(1x4=2").  The  number  of  the  1st  check  is  1.  This  product,  then,  is 
the  fifth  medium,  the  number  of  the  3rd  cheek,  i.e.  4. 

The  square  of  4  is  16,  which  is  the  fourth  medium  in  the  5th  check. 

The  square  of  16  is  256,  which  is  the  third  medium  in  the  9th  check. 

The  square  of  256  is  65,536,  which  is  the  second  medium  in  the  17th 
30   check. 

The  square  of  65,536  is  4,294,967,296,  which  is  the  first  medium  in  the 
33rd  check. 

The  square  of  4,294,967,296  is  18,446,744,073,709,551,616. 

If  we  subtract  from  this  sum  1,  i.e.  the  number  of  the  first  check,  the 
remainder  is  the  sum  of  the  numbers  of  all  the  checks  of  the  chess- 
board. I  mean  that  number  which  at  the  beginning  of  this  digression  we 
have  used  as  an  example  (of  the  threefold  mode  of  numeral  rotation). 

The  immensity  of  this  number  cannot  be  fixed  except  by  dividing  it 
by  10,000.  Thereby  it  is  changed  into  Biclar  (sums  of  10,000  dirhams). 
40  The  Biclar  are  divided  by  8.  Thereby  they  are  changed  into  'Aukdr 
(loads). 

The  'AziMr  are  divided  by  10,000.  Thereby  the  mules,  that  carry 
them,  are  formed  into  Kut'dn  (herds),  each  of  them  consisting  of  10,000. 

The  Kut'dn  a.re  divided  by  1,000,  that,  as  it  were,  they  (the  herds)  might 
graze  on  the  borders  of  Wddis,  1,000  kids  on  the  border  of  each  WddL 


136  ALBiEUNi. 

The  Wddis  are  divided  by  10,000,  that,  as  it  were,  10,000  mountains 
should  rise  out  of  each  Wddi. 

In  this  way,  by  dint  of  frequently  dividing,  you  find  the  number  of 
those  mountains  to  be  2,305.  But  these  are  (numerical)  notions  that  the 
earth  does  not  contain. 

God  is  allwise  and  almighty  ! 
p.l40.      Rules  for  the  Reduction  of  the  different  Eras.— Now  we  shall  give 

a  detailed  exposition  of  the  subject  of  this  chapter  (i.e.  the  derivation 
of  the  eras  one  from  the  other),  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  We 
must,  however,  postpone  our  exposition  of  the  derivation  of  the  ^ra  10 
Adami  and  ^ra  Diluvii  according  to  Jews  and  Christians,  because  they 
are  connected  with  the  years  and  months  of  the  Jews.  And  these  are 
very  intricate  and  obscure,  and  offer  many  difficulties  for  calculation, — 
a  chapter,  part  of  which  we  have  already  mentioned  before.  For  which 
reason  we  must  direct  our  attention  exclusively  to  this  subject,  and 
explain  it  in  a  special  chapter.  And  now  we  commence  with  the  detailed 
exposition  of  the  eras,  pre- supposing  the  number  of  days  which  form 
the  intervals  between  the  epochs  of  the  eras  and  that  day  which  is 
sought  to  be  known.     These  days  we  call  Dies  Paratce. 

If  we  want  to  find  the  ^ra  Diluvii,  according  to  'Abu-Ma'shar,  who  20 
uses  it  in  his  Canon  (or  calendar),  we  divide  its  Dies  Paratce  by  365, 
whereby  we  get  complete  years.  If  there  is  a  remainder  of  days,  we 
change  them  into  Egyptian  months.  The  1st  of  Tot  of  this  JEra 
Diluvii  always  coincides  with  the  18th  of  Bahman-Mah  in  the  non-inter- 
calated jEra  Yazdagirdi. 

If  we  want  to  find  the  jEra  Nabonassari  or  the  ^ra  Philippi,  we 
divide  its  Dies  Paratce  by  365,  whereby  we  get  complete  years.  The 
remainder  of  days  is  distributed  over  the  single  months,  to  each  month 
its  proper  portion.  We  begin  with  Tot,  the  1st  of  which  always  coin- 
cides with  [the  1st  of]  Dai-Mah  in  the  non-intercalated  JEra  Yazdagirdi.   30 

If  we  want  to  find  the  jEra  Alexandri,  we  divide  its  Dies  Paratce  by 
365j  days,  i.e.  we  multiply  the  Dies  Paratce  by  4,  changing  them  into 
fourth-parts,  and  the  sum  total  we  divide  by  1,461,  i.e.  by  the  days  of  the 
year  reduced  into  fourth-parts.  Thereby  we  get  complete  years.  The 
remaining  fourth-parts  we  raise  again  to  whole  days,  dividing  them 
by  4.  Then  we  distribute  them  over  the  single  months,  to  each  month 
its  proper  portion,  beginning  with  Tishrin  I.  If  there  is  a  remainder  of 
days  that  do  not  fill  up  one  month,  this  remainder  represents  the  date  of 
that  identical  month.  To  the  month  Shubat  we  must  give  twenty -nine  40 
days  in  a  leap  year,  and  twenty-eight  days  in  a  common  year. 

The  leap  year  is  recognized  in  this  way,  that  we  consider  the  remainder 
which  we  get  after  dividing  the  fourth-parts  (of  the  Dies  Paratce)  by  4. 
If  the  remainder  is  2,  the  currrent  year  is  a  leap  year.  If  the  remainder 
is  less  or  more  (i.e.  1,  or  3,  4),  the  year  is  a  common  year. 


ERAS,  DATES,  AND  REIGNS  OP  KINGS.         137 

The  reason  of  this  is,  that  intercalation  preceded  the  epoch  of  this 
era  by  two  years,  so  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  era  two  fourth-parts  of 
a  day  had  already  summed  up.  If,  therefore,  at  the  end  of  the  era  there 
is  a  remainder  of  two  fourth-parts,  these,  together  with  the  two  fourth-  p. 141. 
parts  at  the  beginning  of  the  era,  make  up  one  complete  day.  In  that 
case  the  year  is  a  leap  year. 

(In  this  calculation  the  Syrian  year  ar  d  months  are  used.) 

If  we,  however,  compute  this  era  according  to  the  method  of  the 
Greeks,  we  subtract  92  from  the  number  of  its  Dies  Paratce,  because 
10  the  beginning  of  the  Greek  year  differs  from  that  of  the  Syrian  year. 
The  remainder  we  compute  in  the  same  way  as  we  have  done  according 
to  the  method  of  the  Syrians.  The  remaining  fourth-parts  we  raise  to 
whole  days,  and  distribute  them  over  the  single  months,  to  each  month 
its  proper  portion,  commencing  with  Januarius,  i.e.  Kanun  the  Last. 

The  leap  year  is  ascertained  in  the  same  way  that  we  have  mentioned 
before. 

If  we  want  to  find  the  ^ra  Augusti,  we  compute  its  Dies  Paratce  in 
the  same  way  as  we  have  done  with  the  ^ra  Alexandri,  so  as  to  get 
complete  years  and  a  remainder  of  fourth-parts  of  a  day.  These  latter 
20  we  change  into  days,  and  distribute  them  over  the  single  months,  to 
each  month  its  proper  portion,  beginning  with  Tot.  If  the  year  is  a 
leaj)  year,  we  count  the  Epagomence,  i.e.  the  small  month,  as  six  days, 
whilst  in  a  common  year  we  count  it  as  five  days. 

The  leap  year  is  recognized  by  there  being  no  remainder  of  fourth- 
parts  of  a  day  after  we  have  converted  them  into  whole  days.  Of  which 
the  reason  is  this,  that  the  leap  year  preceded  the  beginning  of  the  era. 
On  this  subject  (the  Epagomena;)  there  cannot  be  much  uncertainty,  since 
they  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  the  1st  of  Tot  always 
coincides  with  the  29th  of  the  Syrian  month  Abh. 
30  Of  the  ^ra  Antonini,  we  compute  the  complete  years  in  the  same 
way  that  we  have  explained  for  the  ^ra  Augusti.  The  remainder  (of 
fourth-parts  of  a  day)  we  divide  by  4,  and  distribute  the  whole  days 
over  the  single  months,  to  each  month  its  proper  portion,  beginning  with 
Tot.     In  a  leap  year  we  count  the  Epagomense  as  six  days. 

The  leap  year  is  recognized  by  there  being  one  quarter  of  a  day  as  a 
remainder  of  the  fourth-parts  (of  a  day). 

Of  the  jEra  Diocletiani,  we  compute  the  Dies  Paratce  in  the  same  way 
as  we  have  done  with  the  jEra  Augusti,  etc.,  so  as  to  get  complete  years 
and  to  convert  the  fourth-parts  again  into  complete  days.  Thereupon 
40  we  distribute  them  over  the  single  months,  beginning  with  Januarius, 
i.e.  Kanun  the  Last.  In  a  leap  year  we  give  to  Februarius,  i.e.  Shubat, 
twenty -nine  days,  in  a  common  year  twenty-eight  days. 

The  leap  year  is  recognized  in  the  same  way  as  for  the  JEra  Alexandri, 
by  there  being  two  fourth-parts  as  the  remainder  of  the  fovirth-parts  of 
a  day. 


138  albIeunI. 

As  regards  the  eras  of  the  Arabs  and  their  months,  how  they  inter- 
calated them,  and  in  what  order  they  arranged  them  in  pagan  times, 
this  is  a  subject  that  has  been  utterly  neglected.  The  Arabs  were  totally 
illiterate,  and  as  the  means  for  the  perpetuation  of  their  traditions  they 
relied  solely  upon  memory  and  poetry.  But  afterwards,  when  the 
generation  of  those  who  practised  these  things  had  died  out,  there  was 
no  further  mention  of  them.  There  is  no  possibility  of  finding  out  such 
matters. 
p. 142.       If  we  want  to  find  the  Era  of  the  Hijra  as  used  in  Islam,  we  divide  its 

Dies  Paratce  by  the  mean  length  of  the  lunar  year,  i.e.   354-1-+ -i-  days   10 
(354-i-i  days),  which  is  effected  by  multiplying  the  number  of  days  by 
30,  the  smallest  common  denominator  for  both  fractions,  fifth  and  sixth 
parts.     The  sum  we  divide  by  10,631,  which  is  the  product  of  354  multi- 
plied by  SO,  plus  U=^+h 

The  quotient  represents  complete  lunar  years,  and  the  remainder  con- 
sists of  thirtieth-parts  of  a  day.  If  we  divide  these  by  30,  we  get  again 
whole  days,  which  we  distribute  over  the  single  months,  giving  to  one 
month  thirty  days,  to  the  other  twenty-nine  alternately,  beginning  with 
Almuharram.  The  remainder  of  days  that  does  not  make  up  one  com- 
plete month,  represents  the  date  of  that  identical  month.  20 

This  is  the  method  for  the  computation  of  the  eras  used  in  the  Canons. 
But  if  there  are  still  other  methods  which  people  adopt  for  this  pur- 
pose, they  all  go  back  to  one  and  the  same  principle. 

As  for  the  calculation  which  is  based  upon  the  appearance  of  new 
moon,  it  must  be  remarked  that  two  imperfect  months  (of  twenty-nine 
days)  may  follow  each  other  as  well  as  three  perfect  ones  (of  thirty  days), 
that  the  lunar  year  may  exceed  the  above-mentioned  measure  (of  354^^ 
days),  whilst  it  may  not  attain  this  length  at  other  times,  the  reason  of 
which  is  the  variation  in  the  rotation  of  the  moon. 

Of  the  jEra   Yazdagirdi,  we  divide  the  Dies  Paratce  by  365,  whereby   30 
we  get  complete  years.     The  remainder  we  distribute  over  the  single 
months,  to  each  month  its  proper  portion,  beginning  with  Farwardin- 
Mah.     In  this  way  we  come  to  know  the  era,  the  epoch  of  which  is  the 
beginning  of  his  reign,  that  era  which  is  used  in  the  Canons. 

If  we,  however,  want  to  find  the  Era  of  the  Zoroastrians,  we  subtract 
twenty  years  from  the  ^ra  Yazdagirdi.  The  remainder  is  the  Era  of 
the  Zoroastrians.  For  they  date  from  the  year  in  which  Yazdagird  was 
killed  and  their  national  empire  ceased  to  exist,  not  from  the  year  in 
which  he  ascended  the  throne. 

The  Era  of  Almu'tadid-hilldh  we  compute  in  the  same  way  as  the  40 
JEra  Alexandri.  We  give  to  each  month  its  proper  portion,  as  to  the 
Persian  months,  beginning  with  Farwardin-Mah,  and  proceeding  as  far 
as  the  beginning  of  Adhar-Mah.  If,  then,  the  year  is  a  leap  year,  which 
is  recognized  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  ^Era  Alexandri,  by  there  being 
a  remainder  of  tw     fourth-parts  of  a  day,  (we  count  the  Andargdhs  or 


EEAS,    DATES,    AND    EEIGNS    OF    KINGS.  139 

Epagomence  between  Aban-Mali  and  Adharmali)  as  six  days,  wHlst  in  a 
common  year  we  count  them  only  as  five  days.  New-Tear  (Nauroz) 
always  coincides  with  the  11th  of  Haziran,  for  those  reasons  which  we 
have  already  mentioned  by  the  help  and  the  support  of  Grod  ! 

Now  it  would  seem  proper  to  add  a  chapter  which  is  wanting  in  the 
Canons,  and  has  not  been  treated  by  anybody  except  by  'Abu-al'abbas 
Alfadl  ben  Hatim  Alnairizi,  in  his  commentary  on  Almagest.  And  still 
it  is  a  subject  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  those  who  have  to  employ  it 
may  not  always  know  what  to  do  with  it.  The  thing  is  this,  that  you 
10  may  be  required  to  compute  a  date  for  a  certain  time,  the  known  parts  p. 143. 
of  which  are  various  species  that  do  not  belong  to  one  and  the  same 
genus.  There  is,  e.g.  a  day  the  date  of  which  within  a  Greek,  Arabic, 
or  Persian  month  is  known ;  but  the  name  of  this  month  is  unknown, 
whilst  you  know  the  name  of  another  month  that  corresponds  with  it. 
Further,  you  know  an  era,  to  which,  however,  these  two  months  do  not 
belong,  or  such  an  era,  of  which  the  name  of  the  month  in  question  is 
not  known.     Example  : — 

(a)  On  the  day  Hurmuz 

(b)  in  the  month  Tammuz 

20  (c)  in  the  year  of  the  Hijra  391. 

In  this  case  the  proper  method  is  to  compute  the  vEra  Alexandri  for 
the  1st  of  Muharram  of  a.h.  391.  Thereby  we  learn  with  what  month 
and  day  of  the  Arabian  months  the  1st  of  Tammuz  coincides.  Further, 
we  compute  the  ^Era  Yazdagircli  for  the  1st  of  Tammuz,  whereby  we 
learn  on  what  day  of  Tammuz  the  day  Hurmuz  falls.  In  this  way  the 
three  eras  together  with  their  species  and  genera  are  found  out. 

If  besides  these  elements  the  name  of  the  week-day  is  known,  this  is 
an  aid  and  a  help  for  obtaining  a  correct  result.     Example  : — 

(a)  On  Friday 
30  (V)  in  the  first  third  of  Eamadan 

(c)  in  the  year  of  Yazdagird  370. 

Here  the  right  method  would  be  first  to  compute  the  Arabic  era  for 
the  Nauroz  of  this  year  of  the  ^ra  Yazdagircli,  and  thereby  to  compute 
the  first  third  of  Ramadan.  Then  we  consider  the  week-days,  to  find 
which  of  them  are  the  beginnings  of  the  months.  Thereby  we  find  what 
we  wanted  to  find. 

Likewise,  if  the  week-day  and  its  place  within  some  month,  together 
with  some  era,  are  known,  and  if  also  the  name  of  the  month  is  known, 
you  can  find  this  out  in  the  same  way  as  we  have  mentioned. 
40  The  student  who  thoroughly  knows  all  these  methods  will  be  able  to 
solve  whatever  question  of  this  sort  be  put  to  him  ;  he  will  find  out 
everything,  if  he  considers  the  subject  as  it  ought  to  be  considered.  If 
those  parts  of    such  dates,  the  numerical  values  of  which  are  known, 


140  ALBfRUNt. 

should  be  composed  of  diverse  elements,  so  that  their  units  mean  some- 
thing different  from  what  the  decades  (tenths)  mean, — e.g.  you  say  of  a 
day  :  the  2Bt7i,  referring  the  5  to  a  Persian  month  and  the  20  to  a 
Greek  month,  of  which  either  one  is  known,  or  of  which  the  two  are 
unknown ;  or  if  you  say  :  Anno  345,  referring  the  5  to  a  Greek,  the  40 
to  an  Arabian,  and  the  300  to  a  Persian  era, — in  such  cases  the  clever- 
ness of  the  student  will  manage  to  solve  the  problem,  although  the 
calculations  necessary  for  such  a  derivation  may  be  very  long. 

God  helps  to  find  the  truth ! 


141 


CHAPTER    VII. 

ON     THE      CYCLES     AND     YEAR     POINTS,    ON     THE     M6L:fiDS    OF    THE    YEARS    p.l44. 
AND    MONTHS,     ON     THEIR     VARIOUS     QUALITIES,    AND    ON    THE    LEAP 
MONTHS    BOTH    IN    JEWISH    AND    OTHER    YEARS. 

Having  in  the  preceding  pages  explained  the  derivation  of  the  eras  from 
each  other,  with  the  exception  of  the  jEra  Adami  and  ^ra  Diluvii, 
according  to  the  systems  of  Jews  and  Christians,  we  shall  now  have  to 
explain  the  method  by  which  we  may  obtain  a  knowledge  of  these  two 
eras.  To  this  we  shall  prefix  a  treatise  on  the  Jewish  years  and  months, 
10  their  cycles  and  the  Moleds  of  their  years,  followed  by  an  investigation  of 
the  commencements  of  the  years  of  other  nations.  And  hereto  we  shall  add 
such  things  as  may  prove  a  ready  help  towards  obtaining  the  object  in  view, 

Now  we  proceed  to  state  that  the  yEra  Adami  is  used  by  the  Jews,  the 
jEra  Diluvii  by  the  Christians.  If  the  1st  of  Tishri  coincided  with  the 
1st  of  Tishrin  Primus,  the  ^ra  Alexandri  would  be  equal  to  the  j^ra 
Mundi,  plus  3,448  years,  which  is,  according  to  Jewish  doctrine,  the 
interval  between  Adam  and  Alexander. 

However,  the  1st  of  Tishri  always  falls  between  the  27th  of  Abh  and 

the  24th  of  llul,  on  an  average.     Therefore,   the  ^ra  Alexandri,  minus 

20  that  time  by  which  the  beginning  of   the  Jewish  year    precedes  the 

beginning  of  the  Christian  one,  is  equal  to  the  complete  ^ra  Adami, 

plus  the  interval  between  Adam  and  Alexander. 

The  reason  why  the  1st  of  Tishri  always  varies  within  those  days 
(27th  Abh — 24th  llul),  is  this,  that  on  an  average  the  Jewish  passover 
always  varies  between  the  18th  of  the  Syrian  month  Adhar  and  the 
15th  of  Nisan,  which  is  the  time  of  the  sun's  moving  in  the  sign  of  Aries. 
For  it  is  the  opposition  occurring  within  this  time,  on  which  all  those  cir- 
cumstances depend  which  form  the  conditio  sine  qua  non  for  passover. 

This,  however,  is  only  an  approximate  calculation.  For  if  the  solar 
30  year  went  on  parallel  with  the  days  of  the  Greek  year  {lacuna??). 
But  this  is  impossible,  since  we  have  found  by  astronomical  observation 
that  this  fraction  (beyond  the  365  complete  days  of  the  year)  is 
5h.  46'  20"  56'".  Therefore  the  sun,  rotating  at  the  rate  of  velocity 
found  by  astronomical  observation,  reaches  any  place  whatever  of  the 


142 


ALBIEUNt. 


ecliptic  earlier  tlian  lie  would  reacli  it  by  tliat  rotation  on  which  their 
method  is  hased,  in  each  165  complete  days  (sic  /) 
p.l45.  We  shall  use,  however,  their  own  system,  and  shall  now  explain  how 
we  may  find  the  beginning  of  their  year,  and  how  we  may  ascertain  its 
nature,  whether  it  be  a  common  or  a  leap  year,  imperfect,  intermediate,  or 
perfect.  Now,  if  we  want  to  find  this,  we  add  to  the  date  of  the  ^ra  Alex- 
andri,  for  the  1st  of  the  Syrian  Tishrin  Primus,  3,448  years.  Thereby  we 
get  the  corresponding  date  of  the  ^ra  Adami  for  the  1st  of  (the  Jewish) 
Tishri,  that  falls  either  in  the  end  of  Abh  or  in  llul,  both  of  which  months 
precede  that  Tishrin  Primus  whence  we  started  in  this  calculation.  10 

If  we,  further,  want  to  know  whether  the  year  of  which  we  have 
found  the  beginning  be  a  common  year  or  a  leap  year,  we  subtract  2 
from  the  number  of  years,  and  divide  the  remainder  by  19 ;  the  quotient 
we  get  represents  the  number  of  complete  Minor  Cycles.  The  remainder 
we  compare  with  Circle  I.  of  the  Assaying  Circle.  There  we  find  in 
Circle  II.,  opposite  to  the  year  of  the  cycle,  an  indication  of  its  nature, 
whether  it  be  a  common  or  a  leap  year.  Further,  we  find  in  Circle  III. 
the  date  of  the  Syrian  month  on  which  the  beginning  of  the  year  in  ques- 
tion falls.     And  lastly,  we  find  in  Circle  IV.  the  narae  of  this  Syrian  month. 

Here  follows  the  diagram  of  the  Assaying  Circle  : —  20 


CYCLES,    YEAE     POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP    MONTHS.        143 

If  the  Enneadecateris,  on  being  complete,  returned  to  the  same  day  of 
the  week  whence  it  started,  which,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  is  not 
the  case,  we  should  have  added  in  the  Assayincj  Circle  a  circle  V,,  for  the 
indication  of  the  days  of  the  weeks  on  which  the  New- Year  days  of  the 
single  years  of  the  Enneadecateris  would  fall.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, however,  it  is  impracticable. 

If  we  want  to  find  the  week-day  with  which  the  day  indicated  in 

Circle  III.  corresponds,  we  compute,  by  methods  which  will  be  hereafter 

explained,  the  commencements  of  either  Abh   or   llul  of  the  year  in 

10   question,  in  whichsoever  of  these  two  months  that  day  may  fall.     On 

having  carried  out  this,  we  learn  what  we  wanted  to  know. 

This,  our  calculation  regarding  the  1st  of  Tishri,  is  an  average  cal- 
culation, without  any  other  correction  being  employed.  But  now  the 
beginning  of  Tishri  frequently  falls  on  such  days  which  the  Jews,  as 
we  have  already  mentioned,  do  not  allow  to  be  New- Year's  day.  There- 
fore it  becomes  necessary  to  fix  it  on  a  day  earlier  or  later. 

If  we,   now,   want   to   acquaint   ourselves   with   this   correction    {lit. 

equation),  we  must  first  know  the  conjunction  of  sun  and  moon  at  the 

beginning   of  Tishri,  according  to  the  theory  of  the  Jews  themselves, 

20  not  that  of  the  astronomers.     For  between  these  two  theories  there  are 

certain  divergencies : — 

I.  They  give  to  the  lunar  month,  extending  from  conjunction  to  con- 
junction, the  length  of — 

29d.  12h.  793  Halaks, 
which  is  equal  to 

(29d.  12h.)  44'  3"  20'", 
[whilst  modern  observers  have  found  it  to  be 

29d.  12h.  44'  2"  17'"  21iv.]  I2v 
Therefore  the  difference  between  the  two  computations  is 
30  1"  2'"  38IV- 48V  -  ^^43^ 

II.  They  give  the  solar  year,  if  they  reckon  with  mathematical  accu- 
racy, the  length  of 

365d.  5A|^ih. 
whilst  modern  astronomers  have  found  it  to  be  shorter. 

III.  Astronomers  teach  that  that  portion  of  the  NycUhemeron  which 
elapses  between  the  time  of  conjunction  and  that  moment  when  new 
moon  becomes  visible,  varies  according  to  the  differences  of  both  the 
longitudes  and  latitudes  of  the  places,  whilst  the  Jews  compute  it  every- 
where according  to  one  and  the  same  rule.     "We  do  not  know  for  which 

40  particular  place  this  mode  of  computation  was  originally  calculated,  but 
it  seems  rather  likely  that  it  was  made  for  Jerusalem  or  its  environs,  for 
there  was  their  central  seat. 


144  ALBtnUNI. 

rV.  The  J  determine  this  space  of  time  (between  the  conjunction  and 
the  appearance  of  new  moon)  by  wpat  KaipiKai.  Whilst  it  is  well  known 
that  it  is  not  allowed  to  use  them  for  the  computation  of  conjunction, 
except  on  the  equator. 

V.  They  compute  the  conjunctions  by  the  mean,  not  the  apparent 
motion.  Therefore  passover  frequently  falls  two  complete  days  later 
than  the  real  opposition — one  day  in  consequence  of  the  liquations,  another 
day  in  consequence  of  their  postponing  passover  from  a  Dies  illicita  to  a 
Dies  licita. 

Computation  of  the  Moled  of  a  Year  according  to  the  Jewish  10 

System. — If  we,  now,  want  to  find  the  Moled  of  a  year,  which  term 
the  Jews  apj)ly  to  the  conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  each  month 
as  well  as  the  conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  every  cycle,  we  take 
the  complete  years  of  the  ^ra  Adami,  i.e.  till  the  end  of  the  year 
which  is  preceded  by  the  month  Tishri  in  question.  We  convert  the 
number  of  years  into  Minor  Cycles,  and  multiply  the  number  of  cycles 
by  2d.  16h.  595^,  which  you  get  as  a  remainder  if  you  convert  the  days 
of  the  minor  cycle  into  weeks.  The  product  which  arises  we  keep  in 
mind. 

Thereupon,  we  consider  the  remainder  of  years  that  do  not  fill  up  one   20 
complete  minor  cycle.     How  many  of  them  are  common  years,  how  many 
leap  years,  we  learn  by  the  Ordo  inter calationis, 

(i.e.  the  2nd,  5th,  7th,  10th,  13th,  16th,  and  18th  years  of  the  cycle  are 
leap  years). 

The  number  of  common  years  we  multiply  by  4d.  8h.  876"'^,  the 
number  of  leap  years  by  5d.  21h.  589  .  The  product  of  these  two 
multiplications  we  add  to  the  sum  we  have  kej)t  in  mind. 

To  the  sum  we  always  add 

5d.  14h.,  30 

which  represents  the  interval  between  the  time  of  the  conjunction  and 
the  beginning  of  the  night  of  Sunday  that  was  the  commencement  of 
the  first  year  of  the  ^ra  Adami. 

Then  we  raise  each  1,080  Halaks  to  1  hour,  and  add  it  to  the  other 
hours  ;  each  24  hours  we  convert  into  1  day,  and  add  it  to  the  other 
days.  The  sum  of  days  that  arises  we  convert  into  weeks,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  days  that  are  less  than  a  week  is  the  distance  of  the  Moled 
from  the  beginning  of  the  night  of  Sunday.  Now,  that  time  to  which 
in  the  last  instance  our  calculation  leads  us,  is  the  time  of  the  conjunc- 
p.l47.   tion  at  the  beginning  of  Tishri.  40 

We  have  made  such  a  computation  for  a  year  of  the  jEra  Alexandri, 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  process  and  to  simplify  the  apparatus. 

If  you  want  to  find  the  conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  Tishri,  take 
the  years  of  the  JEra  Alexandri,  and  subtract  therefrom  always  12  years, 
which  are  the  remainder  of  the  minor  cycle  at  the  epoch  of  the  iEra 


CYCLES,    TEAR-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        145 


Alexaudri,  according  to  the  Ordo  intercalationis  Xlt^'lX  The  remainder 
of  years  divide  by  19  ;  the  quotient  you  get  is  the  number  of  minor 
cycles. 

Convert  these  minor  cycles  into  great  cycles,  if  they  are  of  a  sufl&cient 
number  to  give  complete  great  cycles,  and  keep  in  mind  what  remainder 
of  years  you  have  got.  They  are  the  current  years  of  the  cycle  in 
question,  according  to  the  Ordo  intercalationis  y^1^'2.X 

The  great  cycles,  if  you  get  such,  compare  with  the  table  of  the  great 
cycles,  and  take  the  number  of  days,  hours,  and  Halakim  which  you  find 
10  opposite  them. 

The  small  cycles  compare  with  the  table  of  the  small  cycles,  and  the 
number  of  days,  hours,  and  Halakim  which  you  find  opposite  them. 

These  two  numbers  add  together,  days  to  days,  hours  to  hours,  and 
Halakim  to  Halakim. 

This  sum  add  to  the  Basis,  which  is  written  in  the  table  uppermost, 
and  which  is  the  Moled  of  the  12th  year  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri.  Con- 
vert each  1,080  Halakim  into  an  hour,  each  24  hours  into  a  day,  and  the 
days  into  weeks.  The  remainder  of  days  you  get  is  the  distance  between 
the  beginning  of  the  night  of  Sunday  and  the  time  of  the  conjunction. 
20  This  is  according  to  Jewish  calculation. 

We  have  used  as  the  starting-point  in  this  our  calculation  the  begin- 
ning of  the  night  for  no  other  reason  but  this,  that  they  commence  the 
Nychthemeron  with  sunset,  as  we  have  mentioned  in  the  first  part  of  this 
book. 

Here  follows  the  table,  computed  by  that  method  of  calculation  which 
we  have  explained  in  the  preceding  pages : — 


p.l48. 


30 


40 


The  Numbers 

The  Years 

of  the 

of  the 

Days. 

Hours. 

Halakim. 

Small  Cycles. 

Small  Cycles. 

1 

19 

2 

16 

595 

2 

38 

5 

9 

110 

3 

57 

1 

1 

705 

4 

76 

3 

18 

220 

5 

95 

6 

10 

815 

6 

114 

2 

3 

330 

7 

133 

4 

19 

925 

8 

152 

0 

12 

440 

9 

171 

3 

4 

1,035 

10 

190 

5 

21 

550 

11 

209 

1 

14 

65 

12 

228 

4 

6 

660 

13 

247 

6 

23 

175 

14 

266 

2 

15 

770 

15 

285 

5 

8 

285 

10 


146 


ALBiEdNt. 


The  Numbers 

The  Years 

of  the 

of  the 

Days. 

Hours. 

Halakim. 

Small  Cycles. 

Small  Cycles. 

16 

304 

1 

0 

880 

17 

323 

3 

17 

395 

18 

342 

6 

9 

990 

19 

361 

2 

2 

505 

20 

380 

4 

19 

20 

21 

399 

0 

11 

615 

22 

418 

3 

4 

130 

23 

437 

5 

20 

725 

24 

456 

1 

13 

240 

25 

475 

4 

5 

835 

26 

494 

6 

22 

350 

27 

513 

2 

14 

945 

28 

532 

5 

7 

460 

10 


p.l49. 


The  Single 

Years  of  the 

Days. 

Hours. 

Halakim. 

Leap  Years. 

Small  Cycle. 

1 

5 

21 

589 

2 

3 

6 

385 

— 

3 

0 

15 

181 

L 

4 

6 

12 

770 

— 

5 

3 

21 

566 

L 

6 

2 

19 

75 

— 

7 

0 

3 

951 

— 

8 

4 

12 

747 

L 

9 

3 

10 

256 

— 

10 

0 

19 

52 

— 

11 

5 

3 

928 

L 

12 

4 

1 

437 

— 

13 

1 

10 

233 

— 

14 

6 

19 

29 

L 

15 

4 

16 

618 

— 

16 

2 

1 

414 

L 

17 

0 

22 

1003 

— 

18 

5 

7 

799 

— 

19 

2 

16 

595 

L 

20 


30 


CYCLES,    YEAR-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        147 


10 


The  Numbers 

The  Year3 

of  the 

of  the 

Days. 

Hours. 

Halakim . 

Great  Cycles. 

Great  Cycles. 

1 

632 

5 

7 

460 

2 

1064 

3 

14 

920 

3 

1596 

1 

22 

300 

4 

2128 

0 

5 

760 

6 

2660 

5 

13 

140 

6 

3192 

3 

20 

600 

7 

3724 

2 

3 

1060 

8 

4256 

0 

11 

440 

9 

4788 

5 

18 

900 

10 

5320 

4 

2 

280 

11 

5852 

2 

9 

740 

12 

6384 

0 

17 

120 

13 

6916 

6 

0 

580 

p.l50. 


Astronomical  Computation  of  the  Moled  of  a  Year-  If  a  matlie- 

matician   wants   to   know   the   time   of  conjunction   as  determined  by 
astronomical  observation,  not  that  one  which  is  found  by  the  rules  of 

20  the  Jewish  chronologers,  he  may  use  the  (following)  table,  which  we 
have  tried  to  compute  in  the  same  way  as  the  preceding  ones,  on  the 
basis  of  the  corrected  observations  that  have  been  made  not  long  before 
our  time.  For  this  purpose  we  have  consulted  the  view  of  Ptolemy 
regarding  the  mean  length  of  the  month,  the  view  of  Khalid  ben  'Abd- 
almalik  of  Marwarudh,  according  to  his  measurements  made  at  Damas- 
cus, the  view  of  the  sons  of  Musa  ben  Shakir,  and  of  others.  Of  all 
these,  we  found  the  most  deserving  to  be  adopted  and  followed  that  of 
the  sons  of  Musa  ben  Shakir,  because  they  spent  their  whole  energy  in 
endeavouring  to  find  the  truth ;  because  they  were  unique  in  their  age 

30  for  their  knowledge  of,  and  their  skill  in,  the  methods  of  astronomical 
observations  ;  because  scholars  bore  witness  of  them  to  this  effect,  and 
warranted  the  correctness  of  their  observations  ;  and  lastly,  because  there 
is  a  long  interval  between  their  observations  and  those  of  the  ancients 
(Ptolemy,  Hipparchus,  etc.),  whilst  our  time  is  not  far  distant  from 
theirs  (i.e.  from  the  time  when  the  sons  of  Musa  ben  Shakir  made  their 
observations). 

Now  we  have  computed  the  Basis  according  to  their  view,  viz.  the  date 
of  the  conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  the  13th  year  of  the  yEra  Alex- 
andri.     It  occurred  at  Baghdad,  21h.  20'  50"  14'"  291^-  after  noon  on  a 

40  Tuesday.  And  because  the  meridian  of  Jerusalem,  on  account  of 
its  more  western  longitude,  is  behind  the  meridian  of  Baghdad  by 
14  Times,  we  have  subtracted  the  corres]Donding  space  of  time,  i.e. 
66  minutes  from  the  date  of  the  same  conjunction  at  Baghdad.  So  we 
get  as  a  remainder  the  Basis  for  Jerusalem,  i.e. — 

20h.  24'  60"  14'"  29iv.  after  noon. 

10   * 


p.l51. 


148 


ALBiR^JNi. 


.152. 


He  wlio  calculates  on  tHs  basis  subtracts  always  12  from  tbe  incom- 
plete years  of  tlie  jEra  Alexandri  (i.e.  from  tlie  ^ra  Alexandri,  including 
tbe  current  year),  and  converts  the  remainder  into  great  and  small  cycles. 
He  takes  that  portion  of  hours,  minutes,  seconds,  etc.  which  corresponds 
in  the  tables  to  each  of  these  numbers  of  great  and  small  cycles.  The 
remainder  of  single  years  he  compares  with  the  table  of  the  consecutive 
years  of  the  small  cycle ;  he  takes  the  values  which  he  finds  in  the  table 
opposite  this  number  of  years,  and  adds  these  three  Characters  (of  the 
Great  Cycles,  the  Small  Cycles,  and  the  Consecutive  Years  of  the  latter) 
together.  This  sum  he  adds  to  the  Basis,  and  raises  the  hours  and 
fractions  of  an  hour  to  days  and  the  corresponding  wholes.  Thereupon 
he  converts  the  days  into  weeks,  and  the  remainder  which  he  gets  is  that 
time  which  has  elapsed  between  the  noon  of  Sunday  at  Jerusalem  and 
the  conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  Tishri. 

Here  follows  the  table  as  based  upon  astronomical  ohservations: — 


The  Numbers 

1 

The  Tears 

of  the 

of  the 

Days. 

Hours. 

,Minutes. 

Seconds. 

Thirds. 

Fourths. 

Small  Cycles. 

Small  Cycles. 

The  Basts. 

12 

2 

20 

24 

50 

14 

29 

1 

19 

2 

16 

28 

57 

57 

53 

2 

38 

5 

8 

57 

55 

55 

46 

3 

57 

1 

1 

26 

53 

53 

39 

4 

"76 

3 

17 

55 

51 

51 

32 

5 

95 

6 

10 

24 

49 

49 

25 

6 

114 

2 

2 

53 

47 

47 

18 

7 

133 

4 

19 

22 

45 

45 

11 

8 

152 

0 

11 

51 

43 

43 

4 

9 

171 

3 

4 

20 

41 

40 

57 

10 

190 

5 

20 

49 

39 

38 

50 

11 

209 

1 

13 

18 

37 

36 

43 

12 

228 

4 

5 

47 

35 

34 

36 

13 

247 

6 

22 

16 

33 

32 

29 

14 

266 

2 

14 

45 

31 

30 

22 

15 

285 

5 

7 

14 

29 

28 

15 

16 

304 

0 

23 

43 

27 

26 

8 

17 

323 

3 

16 

12 

25 

24 

1 

18 

342 

6 

8 

41 

23 

21 

54 

19 

361 

2 

1 

10 

21 

19 

47 

20 

380 

4 

17 

39 

19 

17 

40 

21 

399 

0 

10 

8 

17 

15 

33 

22 

418 

3 

2 

37 

15 

13 

26 

23 

437 

5 

19 

6 

13 

11 

19 

24 

456 

1 

11 

35 

11 

9 

12 

25 

475 

4 

4 

4 

9 

7 

5 

26 

494 

6 

22 

33 

7 

4 

58 

27 

613 

2 

13 

2 

5 

2 

51 

28 

532 

5 

6 

31 

8 

0 

44 

10 


20 


30 


40 


CYCLES,    YEAE-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        149 


10 


20 


The  Single 

1 

Years  of  the 

Days. 

Hours. 

Minutes. 

Seconds. 

Thirds. 

Fourths. 

Small  Cycles. 

1 

5 

21 

32 

29 

45 

35 

2 

3 

6 

20 

57 

13 

49 

3L 

0 

15 

9 

24 

42 

3 

4 

6 

12 

41 

54 

27 

38 

5L 

3 

21 

30 

21 

55 

52 

6 

2 

19 

2 

51 

41 

27 

7 

0 

3 

51 

19 

9 

41 

8L 

4 

12 

39 

46 

37 

55 

9 

3 

10 

12 

16 

23 

30 

10 

0 

19 

0 

43 

51 

44 

11  L 

5 

3 

49 

11 

19 

58 

12 

4 

1 

21 

41 

5 

33 

13 

1 

10 

10 

8 

33 

47 

14  L 

5 

18 

58 

36 

2 

1 

15 

4 

16 

31 

5 

47 

36 

16  L 

2 

1 

19 

33 

15 

50 

17 

0 

22 

52 

3 

1 

25 

18 

6 

7 

40 

30 

29 

39 

19  L 

2 

16 

28 

57 

57 

53 

p.l58. 


30 


The  Numbers 

of  the 

Their  Years. 

Days. 

Hours. 

Minutes. 

Seconds. 

Thirds. 

Fourths. 

Great  Cycles. 

1 

532 

5 

5 

31 

3 

0 

44 

2 

1064 

3 

11 

2 

6 

1 

28 

3 

1596 

1 

16 

33 

9 

2 

12 

4 

2128 

6 

22 

4 

12 

2 

56 

5 

2660 

5 

3 

35 

15 

3 

40 

6 

3192 

3 

9 

6 

18 

4 

24 

7 

3724 

1 

14 

37 

21 

5 

8 

8 

4256 

6 

20 

8 

24 

5 

52 

9 

4788 

5 

1 

39 

27 

6 

36 

10 

5320 

3 

7 

10 

30 

7 

20 

11 

5852 

1 

12 

41 

33 

8 

4 

12 

6384 

6 

18 

12 

36 

8 

48 

13 

6916 

4 

23 

43 

39 

9 

32 

i 

p.  154. 


(In  this  our  calculation  of  the  conjunction)  we  have  used  noon  as  p.l55. 
40  terminus  a  quo  for  no  other  reason  but  this,  that  we  may  more  easily  find 
the  equation  for  the  moled  by  this  method  than  by  using  the  horizons 
(i.e.  reckoning  from  sunset,  as  the  Jews  do). 

The  hours  of  the  longest  day  for  the  latitude  of  Jerusalem  are  13h. 
'plus  a  fraction.      Therefore  the  calculation  of  the  Jews  by  Jipat  KaipiKaC 


150 


ALBIEI^Nt. 


is  incorrect,  except  in  case  the  conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  Tishri 
should  coincide  with  the  autumnal  equinox.  This,  however,  never  hap- 
pens. On  the  contrary,  the  conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  Tishri  always 
either  precedes  or  follows  the  autumnal  equinox  by  a  considerable  space 
of  time,  as  we  have  explained  heretofore. 

Relation  between  the  beg^inning-  of  the  Year  and  its  Character. 

— If  we,  now,  make  out  the  time  of  the  conjunction  by  the  traditional  cal- 
culation of  the  Jews,  or  by  means  of  the  table  which  we  have  constructed 
according  to  their  theory,  we  arrive  at  the  knowledge  of  the  beginning 
of  the  year  and  of  its  character,  whether  it  be  imperfect,  intermediate, 
or  perfect,  whilst  we  have  already  previously  learnt  how  to  know  whether 
the  year  be  a  common  or  a  leap  year.  Thereupon  we  look  in  the  Table 
of  Limits  for  a  space  of  time  in  the  week  within  the  limits  of  which 
the  conjunction  as  found  by  our  calculation  falls.  If  the  year  be  a  leap 
year,  we  look  into  the  column  of  leap  years  ;  if  it  be  a  common  year,  we 
look  into  the  column  of  common  years.  Having  made  out  this,  we  find 
opposite  the  indication  of  the  week-day  on  which  the  year  commences, 
and  of  the  quality  of  the  year.  Once  knowiag  the  beginning  of  the 
year  (its  precise  date  in  the  week)  and  its  quality,  and  combining  with 
it  our  knowledge  as  to  whether  the  year  is  a  common  or  a  leap  year,  we 
come  to  know  the  beginning  of  the  next  following  year. 
Here  follows  the  Table  of  the  Limits  : — 


10 


20 


p.l56. 


The  Limits  of  the  Time  Spheres  as  distributed 
over  the  Week,  in  Common  Years. 

New- Year's 
Day. 

Character 
of  the  Year. 

From  noon  of  Saturday 

till 
9h.  204H.  in  the  night  of  Sunday 

'r 

Imperfect. 

From  9h.  204H.  in  the  night  of  Sunday 

till 
3h.  589H.  in  the  day  of  Monday,  if  the 
preceding  year  is  a  leap  year; 
till 
Noon  of  Monday,  if  the  preceding  year  is 
a  common  year 

>     2 

Perfect. 

From  3h.  589H.  in  the  day  of  Monday, 

or 
From  noon  of  Monday, 

till 
9h.  204H.  in  the  night  of  Tuesday 

>     3 

Intermediate. 

30 


CYCLES,    YEAE-POINTS,    MOLIIDS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        151 


10 


20 


The  Limits  of  the  Time-Spheres  as  distributed 
over  the  Week,  in  Common  Years. 

New- Year's 
Day. 

Character 
of  the  Year. 

From  9h.  204H.  in  the  night  of  Tuesday 

till 
9h.  204H.  in  the  night  of  Thursday 

}   ' 

Intermediate. 

From  9h.  204H.  in  the  night  of  Thursday     " 

till 
Noon  of  Thursday 

}• 

Perfect. 

From  noon  of  Thursday 

till 
Oh.  208H.  in  the  night  of   Friday,  if  the 
following  year  is  a  common  year ; 
till 
9h.  204H.  in   the  night  of  Friday,  if  the 
following  year  is  a  leap  year 

-     7 

Imperfect. 

From  Oh.  208H.  in  the  night  of  Friday, 

or 
From  9h.  204H.  in  the  night  of  Friday,       i 

till 
Noon  of  Saturday. 

'     7 

Perfect. 

30 


The  Limits  of  the  Time  Spheres  as  distributed 
over  the  Week,  in  Leap  Years. 

New- Year's 
Day. 

Character 
of  the  Years. 

From  noon  of  Saturday 

till 
8h.  491 H.  in  the  day  of  Sunday 

^ 

Imperfect. 

From  8h.  491II.  in  the  day  of  Sunday 

till 
Noon  of  Monday 

1' 

Perfect. 

From  noon  of  Monday 

till 
Noon  of  Tuesday 

!• 

Intermediate. 

152 


ALBiE^N!. 


The  Limits  of  the  Time  Spheres  as  distributed 
over  the  Week,  in  Leap  Years. 

New- Year's 
Day. 

1 
Character 
of  the  Years. 

From  noon  of  Tuesday 

till 
llh.  695H.  in  the  night  of  Wednesday 

!• 

Intermediate. 

From  llh.  695H.  in  the  night  of  Wednesday 

till 
Noon  of  Thursday 

!' 

Perfect. 

From  noon  of  Thursday 

till 
8h.  491H.  in  the  day  of  Friday 

!' 

Imperfect. 

From  8h.  491H.  in  the  day  of  Friday 

till 
Noon  of  Saturday. 

1' 

Perfect. 

10 


p.l58. 


Further,  of  these  conditions  and  qualities  there  are  certain  ones  which 
exclusively  attach  to  the  year  in  case  its  beginning  falls  on  a  certain  day 
of  the  week,  the  other  conditions  being  excluded.  If  you  call  this  cir- 
cumstance to  help,  it  will  prove  an  aid  towards  obtaining  the  object  in 
view. 

In  the  following  figure  we  represent  this  subject  by  means  of  divisions  20 
and  ramifications  : — 

The  Tear 
is  either 
a  common  year  or 


a  leap  year. 
Thursday. 

It  cannot  be  Intermediate. 
In  both  Common  and  Leap  Years. 
Tuesday.  Monday.  Saturday. 


Thursday  {i.e.  if  New- Year's  day 

is  a  Thursday). 
The  year  cannot  be  Imperfect. 


It  is  always 
Intermediate. 


It  can  never  be 
Intermediate. 


It  can  never  be 
Intermediate. 


30 


p. 159.  Further,  of  these  conditions  there  are  certain  ones  which  may  happen 
in  two  consecutive  years,  whilst  others  cannot.  If  we  comprise  them  in 
a  Tailasdn,  it  will  afford  a  help  towards  utilizing  this  circumstance,  and 
will  facilitate  the  method.     We  must  look  into  the  square  which  belongs 


CYCLES,    TEAE-POINTS,    MOLEDS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        153 


10 


20 


in  common  to  the  two  qualities  of  the  two  years  ;  in  that  square  it  is 
indicated  whether  the  two  years  of  two  such  qualities  can  follow  each 
other  or  not. 


30 


3        2        1 

Imperfect. 

Qualities 
of  the  years. 

1 
Imperfect. 

5       4 
Intermediate. 

1 

Cannot  follow 
each  other. 

6 

Perfect. 

4 
Cannot  follow 
each  other. 

2 
Can  follow 
each  other. 

4        2 
Intermediate. 

1             5 
6  Can  follow       ]       Can  follow 
each  other.             each  other. 

3 

Can  follow 
each  other. 

5 
6     Perfect.     3 

The  reason  why  two  intermediate  years  cannot  follow  each  other  is 
this,  that  their  ends  and  beginnings  cannot  be  brought  into  concord  with 
each  other,  as  the  Table  of  Equation  at  the  end  of  this  book  will  show. 

The  reason  why  two  imperfect  years  cannot  follow  each  other  is  this, 
that  the  perfect  months  among  the  months  of  the  cycle  (Enneade- 
cateris)  preponderate  over  the  imperfect  ones.  For  the  small  cycle  com- 
prises 6,940  days,  i.e.  125  perfect  months  and  only  110  imperfect  ones. 

For  the  same  reason,  three  months  which  are  j)erfect  according  to  the 
appearance  of  new  moon,  can  follow  each  other,  whilst  of  the  imperfect 
months  not  more  than  two  can  follow  each  other.  And  their  following 
each  other  is  possible  only  in  consequence  of  the  variation  of  the  motions 
of  the  two  great  luminaries  (sun  and  moon),  and  of  the  variation  of  the 
setting  of  the  zodiacal  signs  (i.e.  the  varying  velocity  with  which  the 
sun  moves  through  the  various  signs  of  the  Ecliptic). 

In  what  Period  the  beginning'  of  the  Jewish  Year  returns  to 

the  same  Date. — If  the  conjunctions  at  the  beginnings  of  two  con- 
secutive great  cycles  (of  682  years)  coincided  with  each  other  (i.e.  if  they 
were  cyclical  in  such  a  way  as  to  begin  always  at  the  same  time  of  the 
week),  we  should  be  able  to  compute  the  qualities  of  the  Jewish  years 
by  means  of  tables,  comprising  the  years  of  a  great  cycle,  similar  to  the 
Chronicon  of  the  Christians.  However,  the  moleds  of  these  3ycles  do 
not  return  to  the  same  time  of  the  week  except  in  689,472  years,  for  the 
following  reason : 

The  Character  of  the  small  cycle,  i.e.  the  remainder  which  you  get  by 
dividing  its  number  of  days  by  7,  is  2d.  16h.  595H.  This  fraction  is 
not  raised  to  one  whole,  except  in  a  number  of  cycles,  which  is  equal  to 
the  number   of  Halakim   of    one   Nychthemeron,   i.e.    25,920.     Because 


p.l60. 


154  ALBintNi. 

fractions  are  not  raised  to  wholes,  except  wten  multiplied  by  a  number 
which  is  equal  to  the  complete  number  of  the  same  kind  of  fractions  of 
one  whole  (i.e.  by  the  denominator). 

But  as  both  the  number  of  the  Halakim  of  the  NychtJiemeron  (25,920) 
and  the  number  of  the  remainder  of  the  Halakim  of  the  cycles  (595) 
may  be  divided  by  6,  the  fractions  will  be  raised  to  wholes  if  multiplied 
by  a  number  of  cycles,  which  is  equal  to  ^  of  the  Halakim  of  the 
Nychthemeron,  i.e.  5184. 

Now,  the  conjunction  (at  the  beginning  of  the  year)  does  not  return 
to  the  same  time  of  the  week  except  in  a  number  of  cycles  which  is  the    10 
sevenfold  of  this  number  (5184),  i.e.  36,288.     And  this  is  the  number  of 
cycles   which  represent   the   above-mentioned   number   of    years    (viz. 
689,472). 

In  general,  conjunction  and  opposition  return  to  the  same  place  (i.e. 
happen  again  at  the  same  time  of  the  week)  in  each  181,440  months, 
which  is  the  product  of  the  multiplication  of  the  number  of  Halakim  of 
one  Nychihemeron  (25,920)  by  7. 

Comparison  between  the  Jewish  Era  and  the  Era  of  Alexander. 

— Since  it  is  not  possible  to  use  this  method  for  chronological  purj)0ses, 
we  have  not  thought  it  proper  to  deviate  from  the  traditional  method,  20 
inasmuch  as  it  tries  to  bring  near  that  which  is  distant,  and  simplifies  and 
facilitates  that  which  is  difficult  and  intricate.  It  is  suflicient  for  us  to 
know  the  beginnings  and  the  qualities  of  the  years,  and  the  corresponding 
days  of  the  Syrian  months  on  which  the  days  of  New  Tear  fall,  for  such  a 
number  of  years  as  that  the  student  will  not  require  more  in  the  majority 
of  cases.     This  information  we  have  recorded  in  three  tables  : — 

I.  The  first  rej)resents  the  day  of  the  week  on  which  the  year  com- 
mences ;  the  Tabula  Signorum. 

II.  The  second,  or  Tabula  Qualitatum,  shows  the  qualities  of  the  years. 
The   letter    c  (pj)    designates    an   Imperfect  year,   because   in   their   30 

language  it  is  called  p"^DrT- 

The  letter  <j^   (2)   means    an  Intermediate  year,  because  they  call  it 

p.l61.       The  letter  v>  (^)  means  a  Perfect  year,  because  they  call  it  D^72''7t2?- 

III.  The  Tabula  Integritatum  et  Quantitatum,  representing  the  days  on 
which  the  Jewish  New  Year  falls,  the  days  of  Abh  in  red  ink,  the  days 
of  llul  in  black  ink. 

Using  these  tables  you  take  the  JEra  Alexand/ri  for  the  current  year, 
beginning  with  Tishrin  I.,  which  falls  always  (a  little)  later  than  Tishri. 
The  whole  number  of  years  you  compare  with  the  vertical  column  of  40 
years  ;  the  single  years  (of  the  periods  of  nineteen  years)  you  compare 
with  the  horizontal  colunrn  of  years.  Then  you  firui  in  the  square  which 
is  common  to  both,  that  which  you  wanted,  if  God  permits  ! 

pp.162       [Here  follow  the  three  tables,  which  I  have  united  into  one.! 
-167.  -^ 


05 

o 

1  i 

1 

1 

o 

to 

2 

2 

III 

1 

CD 

rH 
CO 

CO 

CO 

K 

2 

1 

2 
2 

X             (^ 

1    g 

to 

O 

ii^S 

i 

i 

1 

1 

t» 

1 

1 

1 

CO 

1       1 

1 

1 

i 

ts. 

1 

i 

s 

2 

lO 

2 

i-H 

in 

o 
in 

o>          X 

1 

in 

S 

J 

B^ 
■n  M 

C>-i      Ci-i 

B^ 

M  CO 

B*^     B"^  _ 

mm     t-  co' 

"S 

«5o 

Ci-i. 

B^ 

1-  CO 

s 

m° 

CM, 

ni-i 

B^ 

B^, 

m  CO  ' 

B^ 

CO  o 

c;<,  c^    B^ 

Mm     m  CO     »-  m 

S 

■QW 

.S 

n"  1  B"     ■S" 

«2'k2    «^ 

n'-' 

B"_ 

CO  ^ 

."S 

B" 

in  «* 

B^ 

o)2 

in  t^ 

«S- 

in  '^ 

B" 

n" 

.^2 

«2 

Cl-H 

'K,. 
«rt 

in  '^ 

:e2 

B« 

B" 

in  M 

^r 

"II    t-S? 

B'^ 

B'^ 

B^ 

n'-< 

nS?' 

B^ 

n'-' 

■^  « 

i-«  !  "S 

Bm 

B^ 

«"i 

n« 

.^i 

Bi-i 

in  "* 

B"  1  ""1 

^  CO    1  CO  CO 

in  ^     i>  " 

B". 

B" 
in  " 

ni-H 

CO  M 

C'-' 

t,^* 

B« 

«  CO 

B« 
lO  =0 

B« 

CO  CO*   t,  ^    '  «  CO 

C-- 

in  CO 

BHH 

Bhh 

B" 

in  "^ 

ojco 

ni-H 

CO  «' 

C"     B^ 

t^co     „« 

a*^     n" 

«2    ""2 

3 

in  ■" 

.^2 

"2 

s- 

B" 

« 12 

IT-* 

in  ;£5 

.^^ 

.^3- 

N  2 

in  ;2 

t-2    «3 

fT-i 

1^2    "S    t-2 

n3 

■"3 

.'?• 

B^ 
«  2 

ni-H 

in  CO 

S 

ni-i 

in  m> 

."^ 

S 

J 

n<1 

B^ 

B<^ 

in« 

«!• 

"S 

J^S 
t-^ 

B-^ 

in« 

B^ 

n<t; 

.^s 

mw 

B< 

•S<1 

in  M 

fS 

B< 

B-^ 

in  c< 

a" 

"S 

.^^- 

9 

C" 
w* 

■a" 

in  X* 

Bi-i  i  'B^ 

ni-H 

in  ^ 

CM 

nw     n"     Bi-^ 

in  00     ^  t^     c-j  to 

in  t-  • 

B^-i 

ni-H 

CO  to 

Bw  .  -gw 
in-o  j«t-' 

ni-H 
in  t- 

B« 

BM 

in  to* 

riM 

in  t- 

B« 

ni-H 

in  to 

B" 

1:^  m 

CO  in     in  m  • 

■B^ 

3 

«2 

"2- 

B" 

t^2 

in  ^ 

«2 

inS 

B"     B" 
w2     c»S 

in  *'• 

B" 

CO  J5 

m2 

lO  °° 

s 

«2 

n" 

■"S' 

S 

in* 

S 

S- 

in  *- 

s 

"2 

B" 

in  2* 

«J5 

in  *- 

s 

- 

■3^ 

■n  CO 

=^  CO 

"m  1  t-co" 

«g 

mco 

•S^ 
t-g 

n-«i  1  B"^     n^ 

C< 

l-  CO 

■9^ 
o<^ 

"§*' 

t-eo 

B^     B^     ■B< 
oig     ing     t^g- 

"§ 

a-^    tz< 

ft 

mg5 

« 

in  O 

B« 

n"     B" 

"2'  in"^ 

.S 

n'-'     a'"' 

■"2   t-2- 

B« 

ino 

M  2  1 « :ii  "1 1-  2 

Bi-i 

ni-i     B*-!  1  T-i 
in  05     j^  oi  *i  CO  o> 

a« 

in* 

;,(  OS     in  2" 

B" 

Bi-i 

ni-H 

in  X 

«S- 

„ 

«S 

iT-i 

B" 

ni-i 

■8S 

B^ 

o  ,  .«  o 

t-2 

in  «• 

B^ 

ni-i 

lO  O 

05' 

ni-i 

B'-'     n«  1  B" 
«2    '"2  |t-2' 

- 

B>-i 

ni-H 

eo  « 

Bw 

B-i 

BHH 

in« 

C" 

«« 

CO  rH 

B" 
in  =^ 

B^ 

1^  '^ 

ni-H 

eo  rH 

B", 

C«  1   CM 

M«     in« 

B". 

B«     B-=^ 

«m 

C-i 

«  rH 

a« 

« 

"2 

o2 

C'-'  1  n'-' 

t-2 

B" 

in  "• 

S 

^  CO 

«2 

in  CO 

B" 

iT-i 

co2 

m2 

c^2 

in  " 

«2- 

in  "^ 

B^ 

rt-' 

eo  ;nl 

1-2 

S 

n*-i     B"^ 

„ 

n^ 

"S 

n" 

■9" 

.^^ 

«S 

„  CO         _  CO' 

CO  M     in^ 

1-  w 

'=^. 

t-  M 

n*-'  1  B^ 

^  CO       /^« 

cog?' 

*        ^i 

M«0 

in  =o 

Bw     -B*-* 
M  in     u,  in 

Bi-^     nt-i 
t^  ^      CO  L-.  • 

C<-' 
in  m 

B« 
t^  in' 

riM 

CO  m 

B« 
in  ■* 

«  in 

in  to' 

Bi-i     B« 
c<i  "^     in  ■** 

B« 

CO  ^ 

C^-i 

C-i, 

B" 

CO  ■* 

B« 
in  CO 

CM       C" 
«  m  *l  in  m 

„ 

B" 

"  2  'i »-  £:; 

«^2 

"2 

B"      n" 

^2-  "2 

'^m 

«2 

n'-' 

S 

«  2 

nr 

!>■  2* 

CO  2 

s 

B" 

«  2 

'n2' 

1>    1— i 

=02 

■^5 
m3 

«S- 

in  ^ 

■9" 
t-  2 

«■       4 

«  OS  • 

in  N 

B<1 

=0-1 

in  c^ 

•=2 

m  « 

C5 

B<! 

B-< 

m?5 

.^^ 

n< 

CO  « 

X 

in  oj 

a^ 

io« 

?^ 

B^ 

" 

■Qi-i      riM 
t^ »     cooo 

Cl-H 

B" 

ni-i 

in  OS 

B>-|     ni-H 

l^  00      CO  CO 

B-i 

in  00* 

inCJ 

Bi-i 

B« 

ni-H 

in  X 

Bi-i 

CO  »>• 

Ci-i 
b,=»* 

B-i 

m-H 

in  X 

Bhh 

nrn       a>^ 

eo  X'  in  t- 

C« 

ni-H 

in  X 

B". 

BM 

riHH 

in  1- 

B" 

ni-H 

eo  «-' 

O 

inO 

B« 

1-2 

it!    s'-'     c" 

«2  o2-c!rs 

t>2    «2 

n>-' 

■02 

1-2 

co2 

S 

■"2 

B" 

t-2 

co2' 

a'"' 

X 

«2 

in  °^ 

S- 

B" 

■"2 

.^E 

„  X>    ^05 

ml 

i 

i 

'ji 

to 

CO 

1  o        2 

00 

b. 

3 

to         in          -^ 

^     §     s 

CO 
CO 

M 

— 1          o 

1 

X 

to 

1^ 

to 

to          in 
2          2 

eo 

?? 
t^ 

to          X 

r-H 

X 
00 

s  a  j2 


I  lil 


'     liil 
s    IIP 

fas  «  sl'^ 


•all 


caS 


^     EH^ 


CYCLES,    TEAE-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        155 


The  beginning's  of  the  Jewish  Months.— Let  us  suppose  we  did  p.l68. 

not  know  by  means  of  the  Tabula  Quantitatuvi  on  what  precise  date  in 
the  months  Abh  or  llul  the  Jewish  New  Year  falls,  but  we  knew  from 
the  Tabula  Signorum  on  what  day  of  the  week  it  falls,  and  we  had  pre- 
viously learnt  from  the  Assaying  Circle  on  what  date  of  Abh  or  llul  on 
an  average  it  falls  (no  regard  being  had  to  the  Dahiyyoth).  In  this  case 
we  should  be  sufficiently  informed  to  know  in  what  way  to  advance  or 
to  postpone  the  date  of  the  Syrian  month  if  this  day  of  the  week  should 
be  incompatible  with  Bosh-hashshdnd,  so  as  to  get  at  last  the  legitimate 

10  New-Tear's  day  (lacuna)  more  particularly  as  the  three  festivals  are  to 
be  found  with  perfect  accuracy  in  the  preceding  three  tables. 

(In  this  way)  we  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  era  of  the  Jews,  of  the 
beginning  of  their  year,  and  of  its  complicated  nature.  Hence  we  pro- 
ceed to  learn  the  beginnings  of  the  single  months  of  their  year,  either 
by  distributing  over  the  months  their  proper  portions  of  days  in  con- 
formity with  the  two  qualities  of  the  year  in  question  (whether  it  be 
tL%  D  or  n  or  a  common  or  leaj)  year),  or  by  means  of  the  Tabula 
Initiorum  Mensium.  You  compare  the  Bosh-hashsMnd  with  the  Table  of 
the  Signum  (week-day)  of  Tishri ;  in  the  table  of  common  years,  if  the 

20  year  be  a  common  year  ;  in  the  table  of  leap  years,  if  the  year  be  a  leap 
year.  At  the  side  of  this  column  you  find  another,  which  indicates 
whether  the  year  be  imperfect,  intermediate,  or  perfect.  After  having 
made  out  this,  you  find  in  the  corresponding  sq^^ares  the  beginning  of 
each  complete  month,  and  the  two  beginnings  of  each  incomplete  month. 
For  the  Jews  assign  to  each  month  which  is  preceded  by  a  complete 
month  two  beginnings  (two  first  days),  viz.  one  day  which  is  in  reality 
the  begianing  of  the  month,  and  the  preceding  day,  or  the  30th  day 
of  the  preceding  complete  month.  This  you  must  keep  in  mind,  for  it 
is  part  of  their  bewildering  terminology.     God  is  allwise  and  almighty  ! 

30      Table  showing  on  what  Days  or  the  Week  the  beginning  of     p.l69. 
THE  Months  falls  throughout  the  Year. 
Table  of  Common  Years. 


40 


a 

:S'd 

% 

Qtiality 

^^ 

i 

4in. 

1 

1 

« 

i 

i 

1 

of  the 
Tear. 

ft 
ma 

7 

2 

1  VI. 

6 

5  rv. 

3 

2  I. 

7 

6V. 

4ni. 

2  I. 

Perfect  . 

2  I. 

7 

6  V. 

4 

3  n. 

1 

7  VI. 

5 

4 

3 

2  I. 

Imperfect 

7 

6  V. 

4 

3  n. 

1 

7  VI. 

5 

4  ni. 

2 

1  vn. 

6  V. 

4  m. 

Perfect  . 

2 

4  m. 

2 

1  vn. 

6 

5  IV. 

3 

2  I. 

7 

6 

5 

4  m. 

Imperfect 

2 

6  V. 

4 

3  n. 

1 

7  VI. 

5 

4  in. 

2 

1  VII. 

6 

5  IV. 

Intermediate 

3 

2  I. 

7 

6  v. 

4 

3  n. 

1 

7  VI. 

5 

4in. 

2  I. 

7  VI. 

Perfect  . 

5 

1  vn. 

6 

5  IV. 

3 

2  I. 

7 

6  V. 

4 

3n. 

1 

7  VI. 

Intermediate 

5 

156 


ALBiEUNt. 


p.l70. 


Table  of  Leap  Years. 


^ 

g 

S 

"i^ 

^ 

N 

m 

P4 

Hi"- 

1 

g 

^ 

1 

^ 

m 

1 

1 

1 

5 

1 

"a 
M 

t 

6  V. 

4 

3  II. 

1 

7  VI. 

5 

4  III. 

2  I. 

7 

6  V. 

4  III. 

2  I. 

4  III. 

2 

IVII. 

6 

6  rv. 

3 

2  I. 

7  VI. 

6 

4 

3 

2  I. 

IVII. 

6 

6  IV. 

3 

2  I. 

7 

6  V. 

4  III. 

2 

IVII. 

6  V. 

4  III. 

6  V. 

4 

3  II. 

1 

7  VI. 

5 

4  III. 

2  I. 

7 

6 

5 

4  ni. 

ivn. 

6 

5  IV. 

3 

2  I. 

7 

6  V. 

4  III. 

2 

IVII. 

6 

5  IV. 

4  III. 

2 

IVII. 

6 

5  IV. 

3 

2  I. 

7  VI. 

5 

4  III. 

2  I. 

7  VI. 

2  I. 

7 

6  V. 

4 

3  II. 

1 

7  I. 

5  IV. 

3 

2 

1 

7  VI. 

Quality 
of  the 

11 
'A. 

Year. 

11 

Perfect . 

7 

Imperfect     . 

7 

Perfect . 

2 

Imperfect     . 

2 

Intermediate 

3 

Perfect . 

5 

Imperfect     • 

5 

10 


p. 171.  They  were  induced  to  assume  two  Rosh-HodesTi,  as  I  am  inclined  to  ' 
think,  by  the  circumstance  that  originally  they  counted  the  com- 
plete month  as  29  days  pure  (i.e.  without  any  fraction),  and  that  is 
in  fact  the  correct  time  of  the  interval  between  two  consecutive  conjunc- 
tions. Into  the  30th  day,  however,  fall  the  fractions  of  the  synodic 
month  {i.e.  the  first  12  hours  793  Halakim  of  the  30th  day  belong  to 
the  preceding  month,  whilst  the  latter  llh.  287H.  belong  to  the 
following  month).  Therefore  they  referred  this  30th  day  to  the  month 
that  had  passed,  so  that  thereby  it  became  in  reality  complete,  and  to  20 
the  incomplete  month  (just  commencing),  so  that  this  latter  one  got  two 
beginnings  (i.e.  the  latter  llh.  28 7H.  of  the  30th  day,  and  the  first 
whole  day  of  the  new  month).  But  God  knows  best  what  they 
intended ! 

Computation   of  the   beginning  and  middle  of  the  Months 
according"  to  Jewish  and  Astronomical  Systems.— if  we  now  want 

to  know  the  time  of  conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  a  month,  or  the 
time  of  opposition  in  the  middle  of  the  month,  according  to  the  system 
of  the  Jews,  we  derive  them  from  the  Table  of  Moleds  and  Fortnights, 
where  we  find  the  Conjunction  oj^posite  the  moled  of  each  month,  and  80 
the  Opposition  opjDOsite  its  Fortnight ;  for  the  common  year  in  the 
column  of  common  years  ;  for  the  leaj^  years  in  the  column  of  leap  years. 
The  number  we  find  we  add  to  the  Moled  Tishri,  i.e.  to  the  conjunction 
at  the  beginning  of  Tishri ;  the  fractions  we  convert  into  wholes,  the 
days  into  weeks.     In  this  way  we  find  what  we  wanted  to  know. 


CYCLES,    TEAR-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        157 

If  we  want  to  learn  the  same  according  to  the  doctrine  of  the  astrono- 
mers, we  make  the  same  calculation  with  the  Tahle  of  Conjunctions  and 
Oppositions,  using  the  table  of  common  years  if  the  year  in  question  be 
a  common  year,  and  the  table  of  leap  years  if  the  year  in  question  be  a 
leap  year,  and  with  the  conjunction  at  the  beginning  of  Tishri  as  com- 
puted by  the  astronomers.  In  this  way  we  arrive  at  the  knowledge  of 
both  conjunctions  and  oppositions  which  we  wanted. 

Here  follow  the  tables  : — 


Table  of  the  MolIids  akd  Fortnights. 


Pp.172, 
173. 


10 


20 


30 


Common  Year. 

Leap  Teab. 

The  Moleds 
and  Fortniglits 

The  Moleds 
and  Fortnights 

of  the  Months. 

Days. 

Hours. 

Hala- 
kim. 

of  the  Months. 

Days. 

Hoiirs. 

Hala- 
kim. 

Moled  Tishri 

0 

0 

0 

Mol^d  Tishri  . 

0 

0 

0 

lt3  fortniglit 

0 

18 

396i 

Its  fortnight 

0 

18 

396^ 

Moled  Marlieshwan 

1 

12 

798 

Moled  Marheshwan 

1 

12 

793 

Its  fortnight 

2 

7 

109i 

Its  fortnight 

2 

7 

109i 

M6led  Kislew 

3 

1 

506 

Moled  Kislew 

3 

1 

506 

Its  fortnight 

3 

19 

902i 

Its  fortnight 

3 

19 

9021 

Moled  Tebeth 

4 

14 

219 

Moled  Tebeth 

4 

14 

219 

Its  fortnight 

5 

8 

615i 

Its  fortnight 

5 

8 

6151 

Moled  Shebh^t 

6 

2 

1012 

Moled  Shebath 

6 

2 

1012 

Its  fortnight 

6 

21 

328i 

Its  fortnight 

6 

21 

328i 

Moled  'Adhar 

0 

15 

725 

Moled  'Adhar  I. 

0 

15 

725 

Its  fortnight 

1 

10 

4H 

Its  fortnight 

1 

10 

4U 

Moled  Nisan  . 

2 

4 

438 

Moled 'Adhar  IL    . 

2 

4 

438 

Its  fortnight 

2 

22 

884i 

Its  fortnight 

2 

22 

834i 

Moled 'Iy4r    . 

3 

17 

151 

Moled  Nisan  . 

3 

17 

151 

Its  fortnight 

4 

11 

547i 

Its  fortnight 

4 

11 

547^ 

Moled  Siwan  . 

5 

5 

944 

Moled  'lyar    . 

5 

5 

944 

Its  fortnight 

6 

0 

260i 

Its  fortnight 

6 

0 

260i 

Moled  Tammuz      . 

6 

18 

657 

Moled  Siwan  . 

6 

18 

657 

Its  fortnight 

0 

12 

10531 

Its  fortnight 

0 

12 

1053i 

Moled  Abh     . 

1 

7 

370 

Moled  Tammuz 

1 

7 

370 

Its  fortnight 

2 

1 

766i 

Its  fortnight 

2 

1 

766i 

M6led'Elul    . 

2 

20 

83 

Moled  Abh     . 

2 

20 

83 

Its  fortnight 

3 

14 

479i 

Its  fortnight 

3 

14 

479i 

Moled 'Eliil    . 

4 

8 

876 

Its  fortnight 

5 

3 

192^ 

168 


ALBlRtNl. 


pp.174, 
176. 


Table  of  Conjunctions  and  Oppositions. 


Common  Yeae. 

Leap  Tear. 

The  Con- 
junctions and 
Oppositions 
of  the 
Months. 

The  Con- 
junctions and 
Oppositions 
of  the 
Months. 

m 

1 

0 

18 

1 

0 

22 

1 

s 

02 

0 

1 

1 

0 

8 

1 

o 

0 

40f 

CO 

i 

0 
0 

1 

0 
18 

m 

<i> 

1 

0 
22 

-a 
a 
0 

a 

m 

0 

1 

.a 

0 

8 

1 

0 

40f 

Conjunction  of 

Tishri. 
Its  full  moon  . 

0 
0 

Conjunction  of 

Tishri. 
Its  full  moon  . 

Conjunction  of 

Marheshwan. 

Its  full  moon  . 

1 
2 

12 

7 

44 
6 

2 
3 

17 
26 

21i 
1| 

Conjunction  of 

Marheshwan. 

Its  full  moon  . 

1 

2 

12 

7 

44 
6 

2 
3 

17 

26 

211 
If 

Conjtinction  of 

Kislew. 
Its  full  moon  . 

3 
3 

1 
19 

28 
50 

4 
5 

34 

43 

42| 
23 

Conjunction  of 

Kislew. 
Its  full  moon  . 

3 
3 

1 
19 

28 
50 

4 
5 

34 
43 

42f 
23 

Conjunction  of 

Tebeth. 
Its  full  moon  . 

4 
5 

14 

8 

12 
34 

6 

8 

52 
0 

44i 

Conjunction  of 

Tebeth. 
Its'  full  moon  . 

4 
5 

14 
8 

12 
34 

6 

8 

52 
0 

3| 
441 

Conjunction  of 

Shebhat. 
Its  full  moon  . 

6 
6 

2 
21 

56 
18 

9 
10 

9 
18 

24f 
5| 

Conjunction  of 

Shebhat. 
Its  full  moon  . 

6 
6 

2 
21 

56 
18 

9 
10 

9 

18 

24f 
5| 

Conjunction  of 

'Adhar. 
Its  fuU  moon  . 

0 
1 

15 
10 

40 
2 

11 

12 

26 
35 

46 
26f 

Conjunction  of 

'Adhar  I. 
Its  full  moon  . 

0 
1 

15 
10 

40 
2 

11 

12 

26 
35 

46 

26f 

Conjimction  of 

Nisan. 
Its  full  moon  . 

2 
2 

4 
22 

24 
46 

13 
14 

44 
52 

7i 
47i 

Conjunction  of 

'Adhar  II. 
Its  full  moon  . 

2 
2 

4 
22 

24 
46 

13 
14 

44 
52 

47| 

Conjunction  of 

'lyar. 
Its  full  moon  . 

3 

4 

17 
11 

8 
30 

16 

17 

1 
10 

28| 
9 

Conjunction  of 

Nisan. 
Its  full  moon  . 

3 

4 

17 
11 

8 
30 

16 
17 

1 
10 

28f 
9 

Conjunction  of 

Siwan. 
Its  full  moon  . 

5 
6 

5 
0 

52 
14 

18 
19 

18 

27 

49a 
30i 

Conjunction  of 

'lyar. 
Its  lull  moon  . 

5 
6 

5 
0 

52 
14 

18 
19 

18 
27 

49i 
30i 

Conjunction  of 

Tammuz. 
Its  full  moon  . 

6 
0 

18 
12 

36 

58 

20 
21 

36 

44 

51f 

Conjunction  of 

Siwan. 
Its  full  moon  . 

6 
0 

18 
12 

36 

58 

20 
21 

36 

44 

51| 

Conjunction  of 

Abh. 
Its  full  moon  . 

1 
2 

7 
1 

20 
42 

22 
24 

53 
2 

32 

12f 

Conjunction  of 

Tammuz. 
Its  fuU  moon  . 

1 
2 

7 
1 

20 

42 

22 
24 

63 
2 

32 

12| 

Conjunction  of 
Its  full  moon  . 

2 
3 

20 
14 

4 
26 

25 

26 

10 
19 

53i 
334 

Conjunction  of 

Abh. 
Its  full  moon  . 

2 
3 

20 
14 

4 
26 

25 
26 

10 
19 

53i 
33| 

Conjunction  of 

'Elul. 
Its  full  moon  . 

4 
5 

8 
3 

48 
10 

27 
28 

28 
36 

14f 
55 

10 


20 


30 


40 


CYCLES,    TEAE-POINTS,    MOl^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        159 

We  also  find  what  we  want  to  know  regarding  the  Jewish  years,  by  p,176. 
computing  the  next  opposition  (or  full  moon)  after  the  vernal  equinox, 
occurring  in  that  space  of  time  within  the  limits  of  which  the  Jewish 
passover  varies  ;  then  we  consider  on  what  daj  within  this  time  it  falls, 
reckoning  the  day  from  one  sunrise  to  the  next  one.  If  the  opposition 
occurs  on  one  of  Dies  Licitce,  that  day  is  the  day  of  jDassover  ;  if,  how- 
ever, it  occurs  on  one  of  the  Dies  illicitce,  i.e.  the  days  of  the  three  inferior 
planets,  we  postpone  passover  to  the  -  second  (the  next  following)  day. 
This  postponement  of  passover  they  call  in  their  language  ^r\1  Daht. 

10  Then  you  make  the  same  computation  in  order  to  find  the  passover  of 
the  preceding  year.  To  the  Signum  (i.e.  week-day)  of  this  latter  pass- 
over  you  add  two,  whereby  you  get  the  day  of  the  1st  of  Tishri  that  lies 
in  the  middle  between  the  two  passovers.  Then  you  count  the  days  in- 
tervening between  the  two  passovers  ;  if  they  exceed  the  number  of  days 
of  a  solar  year,  that  year  in  which  the  latter  passover  lies  is  a  leap 
year ;  if  they  are  less,  the  year  is  a  common  year. 

In  this  chapter  you  may  learn  the  primary  qualities  of  the  year  (its 
being  common  or  intercalary),  but  not  its  secondary  qualities  (its  being 
perfect,  intermediate,  or  imperfect).     For  frequently  passover  has  been 

20  postponed,  when  it  ought  to  have  been  advanced  according  to  the  theory 
of  the  Jews,  or  it  has  been  advanced  when,  according  to  them,  it  ought 
to  have  been  postponed.  Therefore,  you  get  no  exact  information  as  to 
the  quality  of  the  year,  whether  it  be  perfect,  intermediate,  or  imperfect. 
Frequently,  even  the  opposition  occtirred  near  to  one  of  the  limits  of 
that  space  of  time,  within  which  passover  varies,  whilst  each  of  the 
places  of  sua  and  moon,  as  made  out  from  appearance,  was  at  variance 
with  its  mean  place,  on  account  of  the  alternate  acceleration  and  retarda- 
tion of  the  motion  of  sun  and  moon,  in  conformity  with  the  total  sum 
of  their   Universal  Equations.     Therefore,  such  an  opposition  not  being 

30  fit  to  be  employed,  either  the  preceding  or  the  following  opposition  was 
adopted. 

For  this  reason  there  is  a  difference  between  the  Jewish  computation 
and  this  (astronomical)  method,  to  such  a  degree  that  frequently 
according  to  the  Jews  the  year  was  a  leap  year,  whilst  this  astronomical 
calculation  proves  it  to  have  been  a  common  year,  and  vice  versa. 

Likewise  there  is  a  difference  between  Jews  and  Christians  regarding 
the  leap  year,  as  we  shall  explain  in  the  chapter  on  the  Christian  Fast,  if 
G-od  permits.  If,  now,  there  is  a  difference  between  them,  and  they  are 
willing  to  accept  our  decision,  we  shall    consider  the  two  oppositions  of 

40  their  two  passovers,  and  shall  say,  that  that  opposition  at  which  the 
moon  moves  in  the  middle  part  of  Spica  or  of  Cancer,  or  the  sun  is  about 
to  leave  Aries,  is  to  be  rejected  according  to  both  systems,  whilst  the  con- 
trary is  to  be  adopted.  To  the  lover  of  truth,  the  correctness  of  these 
two  assertions  will  be  apparent,  if  the  conditions  we  have  mentioned  are 
observed. 


160  ALBIRUNf. 

The  Cycles  of  Yobel  and  Shabu'.— The  Jews  have  still  other  cycles, 
e.g.  the  cycle  of  YohSl  and  the  cycle  of  Shdbu',  i.e.  of  seven  years.  The 
first  years  of  both  cycles  are  called  "  restitution  years."  For  God  says, 
regarding  the  cycle  of  seven  years,  in  the  third  book  of  the  Thora 
(Levit.  XXV.  2-7)  :  "  When  ye  come  into  the  land  of  Canaan,  ye  shall 
sow  and  reap  and  prune  your  vineyards  six  years.  But  in  the  seventh 
year  ye  shall  not  sow  nor  gather  your  grapes,  but  leave  them  to  your 
servants  and  maids,  and  to  those  who  sojourn  with  you,  and  to  the  cattle 
and  the  birds." 
p.177.  The  same  command  God  repeats  in  the  second  book  of  the  Thora  (Exodus  10 
xxiii.  10,  11)  :  "  And  six  years  thou  shalt  sow  thy  land,  and  gather  in 
the  produce  thereof.  But  the  seventh  year  thou  shalt  let  it  rest,  and 
shalt  leave  thy  produce  during  that  year  to  the  poor  and  the  cattle." 

Likewise  their  religion  and  law  allow  a  poor  man  to  sell  his  child  to  a 
rich  man,  i.e.  to  give  it  in  hire  to  him,  to  do  service  unto  him ;  but  not 
for  sexual  intercourse,  for  that  requires  a  marriage-portion  and  a  mar- 
riage-contract. The  child  does  him  service  during  the  cycle  of  SMhiV, 
and  it  is  set  free,  unless  it  does  not  choose  to  be  set  free.  For  God  says 
in  the  second  book  of  the  Thora  (Exod.  xxi.  2-6)  :  "  If  anyone  of  you  buy 
a  servant  from  among  the  Israelites,  six  years  he  shall  serve,  but  in  the  20 
seventh  year  he  will  go  out  of  his  possession,  and  will  be  free  to  go 
where  he  pleases,  he  and  his  wife,  if  he  have  got  one.  But  if  the 
servant  say,  I  love  my  master  and  will  not  leave  his  service,  then  his 
master  shall  bring  him  near  the  door-post,  and  shall  bore  his  ears  with 
an  awl,  and  shall  keep  him  as  a  servant  as  long  as  he  pleases." 

The  cycle  of  Yobel  was  wanted  on  account  of  the  following  command 
of  God  in  the  third  book  of  the  Thora  (Levit.  xxv.  8-13)  :  "  Tou  shall 
sow  the  land  seven  times  seven,  which  is  forty-nine  years.  Then  you 
shall  cause  the  trumpet  to  sound  throughout  all  your  land,  and  you  shall 
hallow  it  for  the  fiftieth  year.  You  shall  not  sow  nor  reap.  And  in  the  30 
fiftieth  year  the  restitution  shall  take  place."  "  The  land  shall  not  be 
sold  for  ever,  for  the  land  is  mine  and  you  are  its  inhabitants  and 
sojourners  with  me  "  (Levit.  xxv.  23).  "  Everything  that  has  been  sold 
is  to  be  restored  in  the  fiftieth  year.  You  shall  sell  according  to  the 
number  of  years,"  i.e.  the  remaining  years  of  the  cycle  of  Yobel  (Levit. 
xxv.  13-15). 

In  the  same  book  (Levit.  xxv.  39,  40),  God  says  :  "  If  thy  brother  be 
waxen  poor,  and  be  sold  unto  thee,  thou  shalt  not  compel  him  to  serve 
as  a  bond  servant,  but  as  a  hired  servant  and  as  a  sojourner  until  the 
year  of  restitution."  40 

Because  of  the  circumstances  brought  about  by  these  regulations  they 
required  these  two  cycles,  in  order  that  in  their  sales  the  higher  and 
lower  prices  should  always  correspond  to  the  remaining  number  of  years 
of  the  cycle.  There  are  still  other  religious  regulations  of  theirs  which 
rendered  them  necessary.     If,  e.g.  a  servant  does  not  wish  to  be  set  free, 


CYCLES,    YEAR-POINTS,    MOLEDS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        161 


10 


and  remains  in  the  condition  of  a  servant  during  the  whole  cycle  of 
Tobel,  he  cannot  be  retained  after  that  period. 

Now,  if  jou  want  to  know  how  many  years  have  elapsed  of  each  of 
the  two  cycles  (at  a  certain  time),  take  the  years  of  the  ^'Era  Adami, 
including  the  current  year,  subtract  therefrom  1,010,  or  add  thereto 
740  ;  divide  the  sum  by  350,  and  neglect  the  quotient.  The  remainder, 
however,  compare  with  the  column  of  numbers  in  the  Tahula  Legum, 
opposite  which  you  find  the  statement  of  the  number  of  years  which 
have  elapsed  in  each  of  the  two  cycles. 

Here  follows  the  Tabula  Legum : 

Tabula  Legitm. 


20 


30 


3'd 

a 

<3 

1 

2 

i 

1 

2 

ID 

<o 

<3 

1 

^25 

J2 

'A 

"a 

|25 

<o 

t 

1 

■I 
•o 

1 

1 

1 

1 

26 

26 

5 

51 

1 

2 

76 

26 

6 

101 

1 

3 

126 

26 

7 

151 

1 

4 

2 

2 

2 

27 

27 

6 

52 

2 

3 

77 

27 

7 

102 

2 

4 

127 

27 

1 

152 

2 

5 

3 

3 

3 

28 

28 

7 

53 

3 

4 

78 

28 

1 

103 

3 

5 

128 

28 

2 

153 

3 

6 

4 

4 

4 

29 

29 

1 

54 

4 

5 

79 

29 

2 

104 

4 

6 

129 

29 

3 

154 

4 

7 

5 

5 

5 

30 

80 

2 

55 

5 

6 

80 

30 

3 

105 

5 

7 

130 

30 

4 

155 

5 

1 

6 

6 

6 

31 

31 

3 

56 

6 

7 

81 

31 

4 

106 

6 

1 

131 

31 

5 

156 

6 

2 

7 

7 

7 

32 

32 

4 

57 

7 

1 

82 

32 

5 

107 

7 

2 

132 

32 

6 

157 

7 

3 

8 

8 

1 

33 

33 

5 

58 

8 

2 

83 

33 

6 

108 

8 

3 

133 

33 

7 

158 

8 

4 

9 

» 

2 

34 

34 

6 

59 

9 

3 

84 

34 

7 

109 

9 

4 

134 

34 

1 

159 

9 

5 

10 

10 

3 

35 

35 

7 

60 

10 

4 

85 

35 

1 

110 

10 

5 

135 

35 

2 

160 

10 

6 

11 

11 

4 

36 

36 

1 

61 

11 

5 

86 

36 

2 

111 

11 

6 

136 

36 

3 

161 

11 

7 

12 

12 

5 

37 

37 

2 

62 

12 

6 

87 

37 

3 

112 

12 

7 

137 

37 

4 

162 

12 

1 

13 

13 

6 

38 

38 

3 

63 

13 

7 

88 

38 

4 

113 

13 

1 

138 

38 

5 

163 

13 

2 

14 

14 

7 

39 

39 

4 

64 

14 

1 

89 

39 

5 

114 

14 

2 

139 

39 

6 

164 

14 

3 

15 

15 

1 

40 

40 

5 

65 

15 

2 

90 

40 

6 

115 

15 

3 

140 

40 

7 

165 

15 

4 

16 

16 

2 

41 

41 

6 

66 

16 

3 

91 

41 

7 

116 

16 

4 

141 

41 

1 

166 

16 

5 

17 

17 

3 

42 

42 

7 

67 

17 

4 

92 

42 

1 

117 

17 

5 

142 

42 

2 

167 

17 

6 

18 

18 

4 

43 

43 

1 

68 

18 

5 

93 

43 

2 

118 

18 

6 

143 

43 

3 

168 

18 

7 

19 

19 

5 

44 

44 

2 

69 

19 

6 

94 

44 

3 

119 

19 

7 

144 

44 

4 

169 

19 

1 

20 

20 

6 

45 

45 

3 

70 

20 

7 

95 

45 

4 

120 

20 

1 

145 

45 

5 

170 

20 

2 

21 

21 

7 

46 

46 

4 

71 

21 

1 

96 

46 

5 

121 

21 

2 

146 

46 

6 

171 

21 

3 

22 

22 

1 

47 

47 

5 

72 

22 

2 

97 

47 

6 

122 

22 

3 

147 

47 

7 

172 

22 

4 

23 

23 

2 

48 

48 

6 

73 

23 

3 

98 

48 

' 

123 

23 

4 

148 

48 

1 

173 

23 

5 

24 

24 

3 

49 

49 

7 

74 

24 

4 

99 

49 

1 

124 

24 

5 

149 

49 

2 

174 

24 

6 

25 

25 

4 

50 

50 

1 

75 

25 

5 

100 

50 

2 

125 

25 

6 

150 

50 

3 

175 

25 

7 

I 

p.l78, 
179 


11 


162 


ALBmUNI. 


p.l80, 

181 


t 
1 

i 

i 

1 
1 

1 

i 

•si 

II 

02 

1 

3 

g 
1 

1 

i 

"A 

2 

1 

m 

'A    1 

■O 

176 

26 

1 

201 

1 

5 

226 

26 

2 

251 

1 

6 

276 

26 

3 

301 

1 

7 

326 

26 

4 

177 

27 

2 

202 

2 

6 

227 

27 

3 

252 

2 

7 

277 

27 

4 

302 

2 

1 

327 

27 

5 

178 

28 

3 

203 

3 

7 

228 

28 

4 

253 

3 

1 

278 

28 

5 

303 

3 

2 

328 

28 

6 

179 

29 

4 

204 

4 

1 

229 

29 

6 

254 

4 

2 

279 

29 

6 

304 

4 

3 

329 

29 

7 

180 

30 

5 

205 

5 

2 

230 

30 

6 

255 

5 

3 

280 

30 

7 

305 

5 

4 

330 

30 

1 

181 

31 

6 

206 

6 

3 

231 

31 

7 

256 

6 

4 

281 

31 

1 

306 

6 

5 

331 

31 

2 

182 

32 

7 

207 

7 

4 

232 

32 

1 

257 

7 

5 

282 

32 

2 

307 

7 

6 

332 

32 

3 

183 

33 

1 

208 

8 

5 

233 

33 

2 

258 

8 

6 

283 

33 

3 

308 

8 

7 

333 

33 

4 

184 

34 

2 

209 

9 

6 

234 

34 

3 

259 

9 

7 

284 

34 

4 

309 

9 

1 

334 

34 

5 

185 

35 

3 

210 

10 

7 

235 

35 

4 

260 

10 

1 

285 

35 

5 

310 

10 

2 

335 

35 

6 

186 

36 

4 

211 

11 

1 

236 

36 

5 

261 

11 

2 

286 

36 

6 

311 

11 

3 

336 

36 

7 

187 

37 

5 

212 

12 

2 

237 

37 

6 

262 

12 

3 

287 

37 

7 

312 

12 

4 

337 

37 

1 

188 

38 

6 

213 

13 

3 

238 

38 

7 

263 

13 

4 

288 

38 

1 

313 

13 

5 

338 

38 

2 

189 

39 

7 

214 

14 

4 

239 

39 

1 

264 

14 

5 

289 

39 

2 

314 

14 

6 

339 

39 

3 

190 

40 

1 

215 

15 

5 

240 

40 

2 

265 

15 

6 

290 

40 

3 

315 

15 

7 

340 

40 

4 

191 

41 

2 

216 

16 

6 

241 

41 

3 

266 

16 

7 

291 

41 

4 

316 

16 

1 

341 

41 

5 

192 

42 

3 

217 

17 

7 

242 

42. 

4 

267 

17 

1 

292 

42 

5  317 

17 

2 

342 

42 

6 

193 

43 

4 

218 

18 

1 

243 

43 

5 

268 

18 

2 

293 

43 

6  318 

18 

3 

343 

43 

7 

194 

44 

5 

219 

19 

2 

244 

44 

6  269 

19 

3 

294 

44 

7 

319 

19 

4 

344 

44 

1 

195 

45 

6 

220 

20 

3 

245 

45 

7  270 

20 

4 

295 

45 

1 

320 

20 

5 

345 

45 

2 

196 

46 

7 

221 

21 

4 

246 

46 

1  271 

21 

5 

296 

46 

2 

321 

21 

' 

346 

46 

3 

197 

47 

1 

222 

22 

5 

247 

47 

2  272 

22 

6 

297 

47 

3 

322 

22 

7 

347 

47 

4 

198 

48 

2 

223 

23 

6 

248 

48 

3  273 

.23 

7 

298 

48 

4 

323 

23 

1 

348 

48 

5 

199 

49 

3 

224 

24 

7 

249 

49 

4 

274 

24 

1 

299 

49 

5 

324 

24 

2 

349 

49 

6 

200 

50 

4 

225 

25 

1 

250 

60 

5 

275 

25 

2 

300 

50 

6 

325 

25 

3 

350 

50 

7 

p.  182  On  the  Tekufoth  or  Year-points.— Besides  the  cycles  we  have 
mentioned,  the  Jews  have  other  cycles  called  Tekufoth  HiD^pp.  Tekufd 
means  with  them  the  commencement  of  each  of  the  quarters  of  the  year. 
Therefore 

the  Tekufd  of  Nisdn  is  the  vernal  equinox, 
the  TeMfd  of  Tammuz,  the  summer  solstice, 
the  Tekufd  of  TisJiri,  the  autumnal  equinox, 
and  the  Tekufd  of  Teheth,  the  winter  solstice. 

The  interval  between  two  consecutive  Tekufoth  they  determine  equally 
at  one-fourth  of  the  days  of  the  year,  i.e.  91  d.  7|h.  And  on  this  rule 
thev  have  based  their  calculations  for  the  determination  of  the  Tekufoth, 


10 


20 


30 


CYCLES,    rBAR-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.         163 

(which  were  rendered  necessary  for  this  reason,  that)  the  Jewish  priests 
forbade  the  common  people  (the  laity)  to  take  any  food  at  the  hour  of 
the  Tekufa,  maintaining  that  this  would  prove  injurious  to  the  body. 
This,  however,  is  nothing  but  one  of  the  snares  and  nets  which  the 
Rabbis  have  laid  for  the  people,  and  by  which  they  have  managed  to 
catch  them  and  to  bring  them  under  their  sway.  The  thing  has  come 
to  this,  that  people  do  not  start  on  any  undertaking  unless  they  are 
guided  by  Eabbinical  opinions  and  Eabbinical  directions,  without  asking 
any  other  person's  advice,  as  if  the  Eabbis  were  Lords  beside  the  Lord. 

10   But  God  makes  his  account  with  them  ! 

The  Jews  maintain,  too,  that  at  the  hours  of  the  Moleds  of  the  months 
the  water  becomes  turbid ;  and  one  Jew,  who  is  considered  a  wise  and 
learned  man,  told  me  that  he  himself  had  witnessed  it.  If  this  be  the 
truth,  it  must,  of  course,  be  explained  by  the  results  of  astronomical 
observation,  not  by  means  of  their  traditional  system  of  chronological 
computation.  On  the  whole,  we  do  not  deny  the  abstract  possibility  of 
such  a  fact.  For  the  students  of  physical  sciences  maintain  that  marrow 
and  brain,  eggs,  and  most  moist  substances  increase  and  decrease  with 
the  increase  and  decrease  of  the  moonlight ;  that  the  wine  in  casks  and 

20  jugs  begins  to  move  so  as  to  get  turbid  with  sediment;  and  that  the 
blood  during  the  increase  of  moonlight  runs  from  the  interior  of  the 
body  towards  the  outer  parts,  whilst  during  its  decrease  it  sinks  back 
into  the  interior  of  the  body. 

The  nature  of  the  Lapis  Limce  is  still  more  strange  than  all  this ;  for 
it  is,  as  Aristotle  says,  a  stone  with  a  yellow  dot  on  the  siirface.  This 
dot  increases  together  with  the  increasing  moonlight,  so  as  to  extend 
over  the  whole  surface  of  the  stone  when  the  moon  has  become  full ; 
afterwards  it  decreases  again  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  moonlight. 
The  Jew  who  told  me  this  is  a  trustworthy  authority,  to  whose  account 

80  no  suspicion  attaches.  Therefore  these  appearances,  as  related  by  the 
Jews,  are  not  impossible  in  the  abstract. 

The  intervals  between  the  Tekufoth,  as  reckoned  by  the  Jewish 
scholars,  are  identical  with  those  of  Ptolemy,  i.e., 

From  the  Tekufa  of  Tishri  to  the  Tekufa  of  Tebeth=88|d. 
),  „  Tebeth         „  „         Msan=90|d. 

„  „  Nisan  „  „         Tammuz=94|d. 

„  „  Tammuz      „  „         Tishri = 92^  d. 

This  gives  a  sum  of  365^  days. 

In  the  computation  of  the  Tekufoth  they  do  not  reckon  the  year  Avith 
40  mathematical  accuracy.     For,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  if  they 
reckon  with  mathematical  accuracy,  they  fix    he  solar  year  at 


365d.  5|4^h 


11    * 


164  albiex^nI. 

p.  183      Computation  of  the  Distance  of  the  Apogee  from  the  Vernal 

Point. — -[f  we,  now,  know  the  days  of  tlie  year-quarters,  we  know  also 
the  place  of  the  apogee  of  the  solar  sphere. 

If  we  want  to  know  the  place  of  the  apogee,  such  as  it  was  at  the  time 
of  their  observations,  we  must  find  the  mean  motion  of  the  sun  for 
one  day. 

We  multiply  the  fractions  of  one  NycMhemeron, 

i.e.  98,496, 

which  they  call  the  Solar  Cycle,  by  360 ;  and  the  product  we  divide  by 
the  length  of  the  solar  year,  after  it  has  been  converted  into  the  same  10 
kind  of  fractions, 

i.e.  35,975,351, 

which  number  they  call  the  Basis. 

By  this  method,  as  they  have  described  it,  you  find  the  mean  motion 
of  the  sun  for  one  Nychthemeron  to  be  about 

0°  59'  8"  17'"  71V.  46V-. 

For  one  day  stands  in  the  same  proportion  to  all  the  days  of  the  solar 
year  as  that  j)ortion  of  degrees  of  the  sphere,  which  the  sun  traverses  in 
one  day,  to  the  whole  circle. 

Now  we    draw   the   circle  abed,  representing  the   solar   sphere   as   20 
homocentric  with  the  Ecliptic,  around  the  centre  li.     Then  you  make 

a  the  beginning  of  Aries  ; 
b  the  beginning  of  Cancer  ; 
c  the  beginning  of  Libra ; 
d  the  beginning  of  Capricorn. 

Further  we  draw  the  two  diameters  a  h  c  and  b  h  d. 

Already  before,  in  recording  their  theory,  we  have  mentioned  that  the 
sun  requires  more  time  to  traverse  the  quarter  a  b  than  the  other 
quarters.  Therefore  the  centre  of  the  Excentric  Sphere  must  lie  in  this 
quarter.  30 

Let  X  be  the  centre  of  the  Excentric  Sphere.  Around  it  we  draw  the 
circle  z  tf  n,  touching  the  homocentric  sphere,  as  a  repi'esentation  of  the 
Excentric  Sphere.     The  point  of  contact  is  t. 

Then  we  draw  the  line  t  x,  the  diameter  r  x  m  Jc  parallel  with  the 
diameter  ah  c  through  the  centre  x,  and  finally  the  radius  I  x,  which  we 
prolong  as  a  straight  line  as  far  as  s,  parallel  with  the  diameter  b  h  d. 

Because,  now,  the  sun  in  his  mean  motion  traverses  the  half  circum- 


CYCLES,    YEAR-POINTS,    MOLEDS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.         1G5 

ference  ah  c,  i.e.  the  sum  of  the  vernal  and  summer  quarters,  in  187  days, 
the  section  zfn  of  the  Excentric  Sphere  is  equal  to 

184°  18'  52"  43"'  121^-. 


If  we  subtract  from  this  the  half  circle  r  tfJc,  i.e.  180  degrees,  we  get 
as  a  remainder  the  sum  of  z  r  and  h  n,  i.e. 

4°  18'  52"  43'"  12IV.. 

However,  these  two  (a  r  and  k  n)  are  equal,  since  the  two  diameters  are 
parallel.     Therefore  each  of  them  is 

2°  9'  26"  21'"  36IV.. 

10  And  the  sine  of  each  of  them,  i.e.  the  line  x  s,  is  equal  to 

0°  2'  15"  30"'  571V., 

if  you  take  the  radius  I  x  a,s  1  degree. 

Since  the  sun  traverses  the  quarter  a  h  in  94|  days,  the  section  z  tfoi 
the  Excentric  Sphere  is  equal  to 

93°  8'  34"  38'"  44iv.. 

And  because  s  Z  is  the  sum  of  z  r,  which  is  known,  and  of  r  I,  which  is 
the  quarter  of  a  circle,  we  find,  on  siibtracting  z  I  from  zf,  If  to  he  equal 
to  the  remainder,  i.e. 

0°  59'  8"  17'"  8IV.. 
20  The  sine  of  Z  /  according  to  the  same  measure  is 

0°  1'  1"  55'"  351^-. 
This  is  the  line  x  m,  which  is  equal  to  s  h. 


Therefore,  in  the  rectangular  triangle  x  s  h,  th     iwo  sides  x  s  and  s  h 
are  known,  whilst  the  longest  side  is  unknown.     Now,  we   take   the  p.  184 
squares  of  each  of  the  two  sides  x  s  and  s  h  and  add  them  together. 
This  gives 

287,  704,  466,  674  eighths. 

If  we  take  the  root  of  this  number,  we  get 

0°  2'  28"  59'"  40IV., 

30  which  is  the  distance  between  the  two  centres,  equal  to  the  sine  of  the 
Ch^eatest  Equation. 

If  we  look  for  the  corresponding  arc  in  the  Sine  Tables,  we  get 

2°  22'  19"  12'"  I6IV., 


166  ALBiiirai. 

which  is  the  Greatest  Equation  (lacuna)  one  degree.  For  half  (!)  of  h  x, 
measured  by  a;  ^  as  1  degree,  stands  in  the  same  proportion  to  ce  ^  as 
(lacuna). 

If  we,  now,  want  to  know  how  long  the  line  x  h  is,  if  measured  by 
the  line  h  x  t  as  1  degree,  we  multiply  a;  ^.  by  1  degree  and  divide  the 
sum  by  ^  a;  plus  1  degree.  Thereby  we  find  x  h,  as  measured  by  the  line 
/  ^,  as  1  degree. 

For  h  X,  if  measured  by  ^  ^  as  1  degree,  stands  in  the  same  proportion 
to  X  t  a.s  X  h,  if  measured  by  a;  f  as  1  degree,  to  the  sum  of  h  x  plus 
1  degree,  i.e.  x  t.  10 

In  this  way  the  distance  between  the  two  centres  in  its  proportion  to 
each  of  the  two  diameters,  that  of  the  homocentric  and  that  of  the  ex- 
centric  sphere,  becomes  known. 

Further  we  draw  the  line  t  u  Sit  right  angles  to  the  diameter  ah  c. 
Now  the  two  triangles  t  ti  h  and  x  s  h  are  similar,  and  their  corresponding 
sides  are  proportional  to  each  other. 

Now,  everybody  who  knows  trigonometry  knows  that  in  a  triangle  the 
side  a  stands  in  the  same  proportion  to  the  side  /8  as  the  sine  of  the 
angle  opposite  the  side  a  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  opposite  the  side  ft. 

Therefore  h  x,  which  is  known,  stands  in  the  same  proportion  to  x  s,   20 
which  is  also  known,  as  the  sine  of  the  right  angle  x  s  h,  i.e.  h  t  the 
Sinus  Totus,  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  s  h  x,  i.e.  the  line  t  u,  which  we 
wanted  to  find. 

Finally  we  compute  this  line,  as  we  compute  the  unknown  number 
out  of  four  numbers  which  stand  in  proportion  to  each  other.    So  we  get 

0°  54'  34"  19'"  48IV.  30^-. 

The  corresponding  arc  is 

66°  26'  29"  32'", 

which  is  the  line  a  t,  or  the  distance  of  the  apogee  from  the  vernal 
equinox.     And  that  is  what  we  wanted  to-  demonstrate.  30 

Here  follows  the  figure  of  the  circle. 


CYCLES,    YEAR-POINTS,    MOLEDS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        1G7 


10 


This  is  tlie  method  of  the  ancient  astronomers  for  the  calculation  of 
the  apogee.  Modern  astronomers,  knowing  that  it  is  extremely  difl&cult 
and  next  to  impossible  to  determine  the  times  of  the  two  solstices,  pre- 
ferred in  their  observations  of  the  four  points  ah  c  d  the  middle  parts 
of  the  year-quarters,  i.e.,  the  middle  parts  of  the  Firm  Signs  (i.e.  of 
Taurus,  Leo,  Scorpio,  Amphora).  The  method,  however,  which  my 
master  'Abu-Nasr  Mansur  b.  'Ali  b.  'Irak,  a  freedman  of  the  'Amir- 
almu'minin,  has  found  out  for  the  solution  of  the  preceding  problem, 
requires  the  determination  of  three  points  of  the  ecliptic,  chosen  ad 
libitum,  and  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  length  of  the  solar  year.  In 
my  Kitdb-alistishhdd  hiJchtildf-ala'rsdd  I  have  shown  that  this  method  is  as 
much  superior  to  that  of  modern  astronomers  as  the  method  of  the  latter 
is  superior  to  that  of  the  ancient  astronomers. 

If  I  plunge  into  subjects  foreign  to  the  plan  of  this  book,  it  is  only 
for  the  purpose  of  leading  the  reader,  as  it  were,  about  in  the  gardens  of 
wisdom,  so  as  to  prevent  his  mind  and  eye  becoming  weary  and  getting 
a  dislike  (to  continue  the  reading  of  this  book).  Let  me  hope  that  the 
reader  will  accept  this  apology  of  mine. 


185 


1G8  ALBtKl)^!. 

Computation  of  the  Tekufoth  according  to  the  Jewish  System. 

— Now  we  return  to  our  subject  and  say :  If  the  Jews  want  to  find  the 
year-quarters,  i.e.  the  Teknfuth  of  some  year,  they  take  the  years  of  the 
^ra  Adami,  the  current  year  included,  and  convert  them  into  Solar 
Cycles  (dividing  them  by  28).  As  for  the  remaining  years,  they  take 
for  every  single  year  30  hours,  i.e.  \\  day.  The  number  of  weeks  which 
are  contained  in  this  sum  they  disregard,  so  as  to  get  finally  a  number 
of  days  less  than  seven.  These  days  they  count  either  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  night  of  Wednesday,  or  they  increase  them  by  3  and  count 
the  sum  from  the  beginning  of  the  night  of  Sunday.  This  brings  them  10 
to  the  Tekufa  of  Nisan,  i.e.  the  vernal  equinox  of  the  year  in  question. 

In  the  preceding  we  have  already  explained  the  intervals  between  the 
single  Tekufoth  according  to  both  views,  the  common  and  the  learned 
one.  If,  therefoi'e,  one  of  the  Tekufoth  is  known,  thereby  the  other  ones 
are  known  too. 

Their  counting  the  sum  of  days  from  the  beginning  of  the  night  of 
Wednesday  is  for  no  other  reason  but  this,  that  some  of  them  maintain 
that  the  sun  was  created  on  Wednesday  the  27th  of  llul,  and  that  the 
Tekufa  of  Tishri  (autumnal  equinox)  took  place  at  the  end  of  the  third 
hour  of  the  day  of  Wednesday  the  6th  of  Tishri.  Further,  they  make  20 
the  sun  traverse  the  two  year-quarters  of  spring  and  summer  in 
182  d.  15  h.,  in  case  they  do  not  reckon  with  mathematical  accuracy,  as 
we  have  before  mentioned.  Now,  if  we  convert  these  182 d.  15 h.  into 
weeks,  the  days  disapj^ear,  and  we  get  only  a  remainder  of  15  h.  If  we, 
further,  reckon  from  the  Tekufa  of  Tishri  backward,  and  we  count 
these  hours,  we  come  as  far  as  the  beginning  of  the  first  hour  of  the 
night  of  Wednesday.  And  that  is  the  moment  whence  the  computation 
we  have  mentioned  starts. 

Others  among  the  Jews  maintain  that  the  sun  was  created  in  the  first 
part  of  Aries  at  this  same  moment  whence  the  computation  of  the  30 
Tekufoth  starts ;  that  he  was  in  conjunction  with  the  moon,  so  as  to 
form  the  Moled  of  Nisan,  9h.  642  H.  after  the  creation.  The  solar  year, 
if  not  computed  with  mathematical  accuracy,  is  365j  days.  If  we  convert 
it  into  weeks,  we  get  as  a  remainder  Ij  day,  which  is  the  sxirplus  of  each 
Tekufa  over  the  corresponding  one  of  the  preceding  year  (the  Character 
of  the  Tekufa).  Therefore  we  take  this  Character  for  each  of  the 
remaining  years.  If  we  begin  (in  the  computation  of  the  Tekufoth)  from 
the  beginning  of  the  Solar  Cycle  either  from  the  beginning  of  day  or 
night,  we  come  back  at  the  end  of  the  cycle  to  the  same  moment  whence 
we  started.  40 

According  to  this  mode  of  calculation  we  have  comj)uted  the  Tekufoth 

of  a  Solar  Cycle.     Now  take  the  years  of  the  JEra  Adami,  the  current 

p  186   y©^^  included,  convert  them  into  Solar  Cycles  which  you  disregard  ;  the 

remainder  of  years  compare  with  the  column  of  the  Cycle  till  you  find 

the  corresponding  number.     Then  you  find  opposite,  the  interval  be- 


CYCLEIS,    YEAR-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-J[ONTHS.        169 


tween  the  Tekufa  of  Nisan  and  the  beginning  of  the  night  of  Sunday 
in  the  current  year  in  question ;  there  you  find,  too,  the  next  following 
three  Tekufoth  and  the  JDominus  Horce,  i.e.  the  presiding  planet  of  that 
hour  in  which  the  Tekufa  falls.  For  they  mention  these  Domini 
together  with  the  Tekufoth  and  call  them  "  Horoscopes  of  the  Hours."  If 
the  hours  you  get  are  less  than  12,  they  are  hours  of  the  night ;  if  they 
are  more,  they  are  hours  of  the  day.  So  you  may  subtract  therefrom 
12  hours,  and  the  remainder  represents  the  corresponding  hour  of  the 
day. 

Table  op  Tekufoth. 


10 

The  intervals 

Column  of  the 
Solar  Cycle. 

The  Months  of  the 
Four  Tekufoth. 

between  the 

Tekufoth  and 

the  beginning 

of  the  Night  of 

Sunday. 

The  Masters  of  the  hours 
in  which  the  Tekufoth 

OCCUl". 

d.     h.     H. 

1st  year 

Nisau  . 

4     18      0 

Shabbethai. 

Tammuz 

5       1     540 

jj 

Tishri 

5       9      0 

Sedek. 

20 

Tebeth 

5     16     540 

)j 

2nd  year 

Nisan  . 

6       0       0 

Ma'adhim. 

Tammuz 

6       7     540 

5» 

Tishri 

6     15      0 

Hamma. 

■ 

Tebeth 

6     22     540 

5J 

3rd  year 

Msan  . 

0      6      0 

Nogah. 

Tammuz 

0     13     540 

)) 

Tishri 

0     21       0 

Kokhabh  Hamma. 

Tebeth 

1      4    540 

3J 

4th  year 

Msan  . 

1     12       0 

Lebhena, 

30 

Tammuz 

1     19     540 

?) 

Tishri 

2       3      0 

Shabbethai. 

Tebeth 

2     10     540 

55 

5th  year 

Nisan  . 

2     18      0 

Sedek 

Tammuz 

3       1     540 

jj 

Tishri 

3       9      0 

Ma'adhim. 

Tebeth 

3     16     540 

5> 

6th  year 

Msan  . 

4      0      0 

Hamma. 

Tammuz 

4       7     540 

>j 

Tishri 

4     15      0 

1^6 gah. 

40 

Tebeth 

4    22     540 

J3 

7th  year 

Nisan  . 

5       6       0 

Kokhabh  Hamma. 

Tammuz 

5     13     540 

)> 

Tishri 

5     21       0 

Lebhena. 

Tebeth 

6      4    540 

9  J 

8th  year 

Nisan  . 

6     12       0 

Shabbethai. 

Tammuz 

6     19     540 

3J 

Tishri 

0      3      0 

Sedek. 

Tebeth 

0     10     540 

5> 

p.  187 
-191 


170 


ALBfRTJNi. 


The  intervals 

Column  of  the 
Solar  Cycle. 

The  Months  of  the 
Four  Tek4f6th. 

between  the 

Tekufoth  and 

the  beginning 

of  the  Night  of 

Sunday. 

The  Masters  of  the  hours 

in  which  the'Tekuf6th 

occur. 

d.    h.     chl. 

9tli  year 

Nisan  . 

0     18      0 

Ma'adhim. 

Tammuz 

1       1     540 

j> 

Tishri 

19      0 

Hamma, 

Tebeth 

1     16     540 

>) 

loth  year 

Msan  . 

2      0      0 

Nogah. 

Tammuz 

2       7     540 

J5 

Tishri 

2     15      0 

Kokhabh  Hamma, 

Tebeth 

2     22     540 

j> 

llth  year 

Nisan  , 

3       6      0 

Lebhena. 

Tammuz 

3     13     540 

)) 

Tishri 

3     21       0 

Shabbethai. 

Tebeth 

4      4    540 

5» 

12th  year 

Nisan  , 

4    12      0 

Sedek. 

Tamrauz 

4    19     540 

5J 

Tishri 

5       3       0 

Ma'adhim. 

Tebeth 

5     10    540 

j> 

13tli  year 

Nisan . 

5     18      0 

Hamma. 

Tammuz 

6       1     540 

>» 

Tishri 

6      9      0 

Nogah. 

Tebeth 

6     16     540 

5> 

14tli  year 

Nisan  . 

0      0      0 

Kokhabh  Hamma. 

Tammuz 

0       7     540 

j> 

Tishri 

0     15      0 

Lebhena. 

Tebeth 

0    22     540 

5> 

15tli  year 

Nisan  . 

16      0 

Shabbethai. 

Tammuz 

1     13     540 

j> 

Tishri 

1     21       0 

Sedek. 

Tebeth 

2      4    540 

j> 

16tli  year 

Nisan  . 

2     12      0 

Ma'adhim. 

Tammuz 

2     19     540 

5> 

Tishri 

3       3      0 

Hamma. 

Tebeth 

3     10     540 

>j 

17tli  year 

Nisan  , 

3     18      0 

Nogah. 

Tammuz 

4      1     540 

jj 

Tishri 

4      9      0 

Kokhabh  Hamma. 

Tebeth 

4    16     540 

)j 

18tli  year 

Nisan  . 

5       0      0 

Lebhena. 

Tammuz 

5       7     540 

j> 

Tishri 

5     15       0 

Shabbethai. 

Tebeth 

5     22     540 

j> 

19th  year 

Nisan  . 

6       6      0 

Sedek. 

Tammuz 

6     13     540 

j> 

Tishri 

6     21       0 

Ma'adhim. 

Tebeth 

0      4    540 

>> 

10 


20 


30 


40 


60 


CYCLES,    TKAR-POiXrS,    MOlIiDS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        171 


The  intervals 

Column  of  the 
Solar  Cycle. 

The  Months  of  the 
Pour  Tekufoth. 

between  the 

Tekufoth  and 

the  beginning 

of  the  Night  of 

Sunday. 

The  Masters  of  the  hours 

m  which  the  TeMfoth 

occur. 

20tli  year 

Nisan  . 

0     12      0 

Hamma. 

Tammuz 

0    19     540 

5) 

Tishri 

13      0 

Nogah. 

10 

Tebeth 

1     10     540 

» 

21st  year 

Nisan  . 
Tammuz 
Tishri 
Tebeth 

1  18      0 

2  1     540 
2       9      0 
2     16     540 

Kokhabh  Hamma. 

Lebhena. 

J) 

22nd  year 

Nisan  . 
Tammuz 
Tishri 
Tebeth 

3      0      0 
3       7     540 
3     15      0 
3     22     540 

Shabbethai. 
Sedek. 

28rd  year 

Nisan  . 

4      6      0 

Ma'adhim. 

20 

Tammuz 

Tishri 

Tebeth 

4    ]3     540 

4  21      0 

5  4    540 

>5 

Hamma. 

5> 

24th  year 

Nisan  . 
Tamm.uz 
Tishri 
Tebeth 

5     12      0 

5  19     540 

6  3      0 
6     10     540 

Nogah. 

?) 
Kokhabh  Hamma. 

25tli  year 

Nisan  . 

Tammuz 

Tishri 

6     18      0 
0       1     540 
0       9      0 

Lebhena . 
Shabbethai. 

30 

Tebeth 

0     16     540 

j> 

26th  year 

Nisan . 
Tammuz 
Tishri 
Tebeth 

1       0      0 
1       7     540 
1     15      0 
1     22     540 

Sedek. 

55 

Ma'adhim. 

55 

27th  year 

Nisan . 
Tammuz 
Tishri 
Tebeth 

2      6      0 
2     13     540 

2  21      0 

3  4    540 

Hamma. 

55 

Nogah. 

55 

28th  year 

Nisan . 

3     12      0 

Kokhabh  Hamma. 

40 

Tammuz 

Tishri 

Tebeth 

3  19     540 

4  3      0 
4     10     540 

55 

Lebhena, 

55 

Names  of  the  Planets  and  the  Signs  of  the  Zodiac— The  names 

of  the  planets  which  we  have  mentioned  in  the  Table  of  the  Tekufoth  are 
Hebrew  names,  in  which  form  they  are  used  by  them.  Each  nation, 
howeyer,  if  they  want  to  mention  the  planets,  must  call  them  by  the 
names  of  their  own  language.  Therefore  here  follows  a  table  exhibitiag 
the  names  of  the  planets  in  various  languages.  The  reader  will  find 
here  the  Hebrew  names  which  we  have  mentioned  as  well  as  the  names 
50  in  other  languages. 


192 


172 


ALSfR^Nt. 


Hi 


!Z! 

w 

> 

H 

H 

CO 

<1 

fe 

H 

O 

w 

O 


H 

<oS 

1 

1 

d 
-d 

I 

1 — 1 
< 

'a3 

m 

^ 

«r» 

3 

X) 

«A 

c3 

m 

ffi- 

rS 

2 

r^ 

ca 

'S 

a 

ce 

rd 

C 
d 

d 
PQ 

^ 

^ 

,_ 

^ 

, 

"^ 

•  #N 

ca 

+3 

0 

o 

rd 

S 
2 

^ 

-< 

^ 
^ 

< 
1 

d 

1 

^ 

3 

05 

^ 

d 

GO 

1 

o 

^. 

II 

a 

c3 

CO 

J — 1 

rd 

5 

a 

ca 

ffi- 

\ 

J 

^C 

a 

3 

'eg 

^ 

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rri 

&C 

"a 

<1 

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c3 

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c3 

nS 

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ei 

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1=1 

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CO 

a 

03 

c 

t 

<rH 

<CS 

cS 

EC 

d 

o 

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<rt 

rO 

•  Sh' 

-sa- 
cs 

g 

CQ 

Q" 

Pj 

cS 

o 

^ 

d 

03 

^ 

2 

o 
m 

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03 

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rd 

O 

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.9 

.g 

.9 

.a 

.a 

CYCLES,    TEAE-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.       173 

And  now  natural  relationship  (between  the  planets  and  the  signs  of 
the  zodiac)  demands,  although  it  is  not  necessary  in  this  place  of  our 
book,  nor  is  it  requisite,  that  we  should  do  the  same  with  regard  to  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac  which  we  have  done  for  the  planets,  i.e.  construct  a 
table  containing  all  that  we  know  of  their  names  in  various  languages. 
For  he  who  wants  this  for  the  planets,  wants  something  of  the  same 
kind  for  the  signs  of  the  zodiac. 

Here  follows  the  table  containing  the  names  of  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac  in  various  languages. 


p.  193 


10 

Arabic. 

Greek. 

Persian. 

Syriao. 

Hebrew. 

Sanscrit. 

Choras- 
mian. 

Alhamal 
Alkabsh 

>  Kptds 

Bara 

VAdI 

n^t^ 

Mesha 

m 

Althaur 

Tavpos 

Oau 

lJo2 

"nti? 

Vrsha 

^^- 

Aljauza 
Altau'aman 

|-   AtSuyLtOt 

Duj^aikar 

l^U 

D''nfc^n 

Mithuna 

«^»&>y\ 

Alsaratan 

K.apKivo'i 

Karzang 

U'^ 

Jt^^lD 

Karkata 

«dU^jr£. 

20 

Al'asad 

AeW 

Shir 

U] 

^-^t^ 

Sihha 

er- 

Alsunbula 
Al'adhra 

>  Uapdevo? 

Khosha 

n^ni 

Kanya 

«^^; 

Almizan 

Zuyos 

Tarazu 

]1]SQL0 

D^inn 

Tula 

^jV 

Al'akrab 

^KOpTTiOS 

Kazhdum 

Id'rClL 

n^pi^ 

Vrs'c'ika 

udls«s&^jO 

Alkaus 
Alrami 

/■   To^€VT-^<S 

Nimasp 

r    lAmo 

[ntyp 

Dhanu 

Ui)jj> 

Aljady 

AiyoKcpcos 

Bahi 

^rA 

^i> 

Makara 

^^j\S 

30 

Aldalw 

YSpo^oos 

D61 

Uo? 

^hi 

Kumba 

J}^ 

Alhut 
Alsamaka 

i  'Ix^ves 

Mahi 

Ijqj 

:n 

Mina 

-^ 

174  ALBtEtjXf. 

p.  194      The  Author  criticizeslthe  Jewish  computation  of  the  Tekufoth.— 

We  return  to  our  subject  and  say  :  The  calculation  and  tables,  given 
in  tlie  preceding,  enable  tlie  student  to  find  the  week  day  on  which 
the  Tekufa  falls ;  the  corresponding  day  of  the  Syrian  month,  however, 
to  which  they  bring  us,  differs  from  real  time  to  an  intolerable  extent. 

Let  us  e.g.  take  the  jEra  Adami  for  the  1st  of  Tishri,  the  moled  of 
which  falls  on  Sunday  the  1st  of  llul  in  the  year  1311  of  Alexander. 
The  number  of  complete  years  of  the  ^ra  Adami  is 

4759 

or  8  great  cycles  (8x532=4256),  26  small  cycles  (26x19=494),  and  9  10 
complete  years,  arranged  according  to  the  Ordo  Intercalationis    ni^^til!! 
so  that  six  out  of  these  nine  years  are  common-years  and  three  leap- 
years. 

If  we  convert  this  sum  of  cycles  and  years  into  days,  we  get  the 
sum  of 

l,738,200d.  7h.  253H 

This  is  the  interval  between  the  moled  of  the  first  year  of  the  JEra 
Adami  and  the  moled  of  the  present  above-mentioned  year  (A.  Adami 
4759). 

We  have  already  stated  before  that  according  to  Jewish  dogma  the  20 
Tekufoth- Tishri,  i.e.  the  autumnal  equinox,  occurred  at  the  beginning 
of  the  ^ra  Adami,  5  days  and  1  hour  after  the  moled  of  the  year. 

If  we  subtract  these  5d.  Ih.  from  the  sum  we  have  got,  we  get  as 
remainder  the  interval  between  the  Tekufath-Tishri  of  the  first  year  of 
the  era  and  the  moled  of  the  present  year. 

If  we  divide  this  interval  by  365jd,  we  get 

4,758  years 
and  a  remainder  of 

335|  days. 

Till  this  Solar   year  is  complete,  and  night  and  day  are  again  equal,   30 
29d.  llh.  82 7^  more  are  required.     If  we  add  this  number  of  days, 
hours,  and   Halakim  to  the  moled  of  the  present  year,  i.e.  to  Sunday 
7h.  253^  of  daytime,  we  advance  as  far  as  the  night  of  Tuesday  9h. 
on  the  1st  day  of  the  mouth  Tishrin  Primus. 

Now,  this  Tekufa  falls  by  14  days  later  than  the  equinox  as  deter- 
mined by  astronomical  observation.  Such  a  difference,  even  if  it  be 
much  less,  is  quite  intolerable,  although  popular  use  may  be  based 
upon  it.  This  popular  use  we  have  illustrated  by  our  table  according 
to  the  theory  of  the  Jews. 

If  we,  further,  take  this  interval  between  the  first  Tekufa  and  the  40 
moled  of  the  present  year,  i.e. 

l,738,195d.  6h.  253^, 


CYCLES,    TEAE-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        175 

and  multiply  it  by 

98,496, 

which   is   the  number  of  fractions  of  one  day  of  their  Solar  year  (of 
R.  Adda),  we  get  the  sum  of 

171,280,306 

(Great  lacuna.) 

Methods  showing  how  to  find  the  beginning^  of  a  year  of  any  P- 19^ 
era. 

Table  of  the  Beginnings  of  the  Striac  and  Greek  Months. 


10 


20 


30 


the     Solar 

u 

s 

o 

O 

1 

® 
o 

pi 

1-5 

1 

1 
1 

^ 
3 

i-s 

02 

PI 

3 
<1 

i 

a 
® 

ft 

eg 

Column     of 
Cycle. 

l-H 

.2 

(-1 

M 

. 
M 
l-H 

Pi 

a 

<o3 

M 

!=( 

.id 

CO 

00 

.13 

l-H 

t 

SI 

a 

<< 

<3 

1 

2 

6 

7 

3 

6 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

2 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

7 

3 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

3 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

2 

5 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

L 

4 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

5 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

6 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

5 

1 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

7 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

7 

3 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

L 

8 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

9 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

2 

5 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

10 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

11 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

5 

1 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

L 

12 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

13 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

7 

3 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

14 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

15 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

L 

16 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

17 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

5 

1 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

18 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

19 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

L 

20 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

1 

4 

21 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

22 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

23 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

L 

24 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

7 

3 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

25 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

26 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

2 

5 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

27 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

L 

28 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

6 

1 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

176  ALBtE-^Nt. 

p.  196  If  we  want  to  know  the  same  for  the  jEra  Augusti  (i.e.  to  find  the 
week-day  on  which  a  year  of  this  era  commences),  we  take  its  com- 
plete years  and  add  thereto  j  of  them.  To  this  sum  we  add  6  and 
divide  the  whole  by  7.  Thereby  we  get  the  Signum  (of  the  week-day) 
of  the  1st  of  Thot. 

To  this  Signum  we  add  2  for  each  complete  month  that  has  elapsed 
before  the  date  you  want  to  find,  and  the  sum  we  divide  by  7.  Thereby 
we  find  the  Signum  of  the  month  we  seek. 

The  leap-years  are  in  this  era  ascertained  in  this  way,  that  we  add 
1  to  the  number  of  the  complete  years  and  divide  the  sum  by  4.     If  10 
there  is  a  remainder,  the  current  year  is  not  a  leap-year  ;    if  there  is 
no  remainder,  it  is  a  leap-year. 

If  we  want  to  know  the  same  for  the  yEra  Antonini,  we  increase  its 
complete  years  by  \  of  them,  and  to  the  sum  we  add  4|.  Then  we 
make  the  same  calculation  (as  for  the  JEra  Augusti). 

The  leap-years  in  this  era  are  ascertained  in  this  way,  that  we  add  3 
to  its  complete  years  and  divide  the  sum  by  4.  If  there  is  no  remainder, 
the  year  is  a  leap-year ;  if  there  is  a  remainder,  it  is  a  common-year. 

As  regards  the  ^ra  Diocletiani,  we  add  to  its  years  j  of  them,  and  to  the 
sum  we  add  4^.     With  the  remainder,  and  in  order  to  find  the  be-  20 
ginnings  of  the  single  months,  we  reckon  in  the  same  way  as  we  have 
done  for  the  ^ra  Alexandri  according  to  the  Greek  system. 

The  leap-year  in  the  JSV-a  Diocletiani  is  ascertained  in  this  way,  that 
we  add  2  to  its  complete  years  and  divide  the  sum  by  4.  If  there  is  no 
remainder,  the  year  is  a  leap-year  ;  if  there  is  a  remainder,  it  is  a 
common-year. 

If  we  want  to  learn  the  beginnings  of  the  years  and  months  of  the 
JEra  Fugce  by  chronological  computation,  we  take  its  complete  years 
and  write  them  down  in  three  places.  The  first  we  multiply  by  354  days, 
the  second  by  22  minutes,  and  the  third  by  1  second.  To  the  number  of  30 
minutes  we  add  34  minutes.  Then  we  convert  the  three  sums  in  the 
three  places  into  wholes.  If  the  minutes  are  more  than  15,  we  add 
them  as  one  whole ;  if  they  are  less,  we  drop  them.  The  sum  we  get 
represents  the  time  which  has  elapsed  between  the  beginning  of  the 
^ra  FugcB  and  the  beginning  of  the  year  in  question,  consisting  of 
days.  We  add  5  to  them  and  divide  the  sum  by  7.  Now,  the  re- 
mainder of  less  than  7  is  the  Signum  of  Muharram. 

If  we  want  to  learn  the  Signum  of  another  month,  we  take  for  the 
months,  which  have  elapsed  before  the  month  in  question,  alternately 
for  one  month  2  days,  for  the  other  1  day,  and  the  sum  we  add  to  the  40 
Signum  of  Muharram.  The  whole  we  divide  by  7,  and  the  remainder  is 
the  Signum  of  the  month  in  question,  as  determined  by  chronological 
computation  which  is  based  upon  the  mean  motion  of  the  moon. 

The  computation  according  to  the  appearance  of  new-moon  is  a  subject 
the  exposition  of  which  would  l)e  Ijoth  of  great  length  and  difficulty  and 


CYCLES,    YEAR-POINTS,    MOL^IDS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.  177 

would  require  difficult  calculations  and  numerous  tables.  It  is  sufficient 
to  know  what  on  this  subject  is  said  in  the  Canon  of  Muhammad  b. 
Jabir  Albattani,  and  in  that  one  of  Habash  the  mathematician.  In  case 
of  necessity  the  student  may  consult  them. 

The  same  principle  we  have  explained  has  been  adopted  by  the  sect 
who  claim  to  have  esoteric  doctrines  and  represent  themselves  as  the 
party  of  the  Family  (of  'Ali).  So  they  have  produced  a  calculation 
which  they  maintain  to  be  one  of  the  mysteries  of  prophecy.     It  is  this  :   p.l97. 

If  you  want  to  know  the  beginning  of  Ramadan,  take  the  complete 
10  years  of  the  Hijra,  multiply  them  by  4  and  add  to  the  sum  \  and  ^ 
(i.e.  -|^)  of  the  number  of  years.  If  in  both  these  portions  (in  \  and  \  of 
the  year  of  the  Hijra)  you  get  a  fraction,  add  it  as  one  complete  day  to 
the  other  days,  if  one  of  them  or  both  together  are  more  than  half  the 
denominator  of  either  of  the  two  fractions  {\  and  -L).  Then  add  to  the 
sum  4  and  divide  the  whole  by  7.  The  remainder  beyond  7,  which  you 
get,  is  the  Signum  Ramaddni. 

This  calculation  is  based  upon  what  we  have  mentioned.  For  if 
you  divide  the  days  of  each  Lunar  year,  i.e.  354  days,  by  7,  you  get  as 
remainder  4.  If  therefore  the  years  of  the  Hijra  are  multiplied  by 
20  4,  it  is  the  same  as  if  the  days  of  each  year  and  the  remainders  {i.e. 
the  4  days  which  remain,  if  you  divide  354  by  7)  were  converted  into 
weeks. 

Further,  to  take  \  and  ^  of  the  years  of  the  Hijra  is  the  same 
as  if  you  would  take  \  day  and  \  day  for  each  single  year.  So  this 
method  of  taking  \  and  ^  of  the  years  comes  to  the  same  thing  as  if  you 
multiplied  each  year  by  \  and  ^  day  and  divided  the  products  by  the 
denominators  of  the  two  fractions  (i.e.  5  X  6  =  30). 

If,  therefore,  the  whole  is  divided  by  7  and  the  remainder  is  counted 
from  Friday,  which  is  the  beginning  of  the  jEra  Fugce,  we   come  to 
30  the  Sigmim  Muhavrami.     And  if  we  add  thereto  6  and  count  the  sum 
from  Sunday,  the  matter  comes  to  the  same  result. 

Further,  the  reason  why  those  people  add  4  is  this,  that  you  get — 
by  alternately  taking  2  days  for  one  month  and  1  day  for  the  next  one — 
till  the  beginning  of  Ramadan  the  sum  of  5  days.  If  you  add  these  to 
the  Signum  Muharrami,  you  get  the  Sigmim  Ramaddni.  Having  already 
added  6  for  Muharram  and  combining  with  it  the  5  days,  which  are 
necessary  for  the  time  till  Ramadan,  you  get  a  total  of  11  days.  Sub- 
tract 7  and  you  get  as  remainder  4  ;  this  is  what  remains  of  the  sum 
of  the  two  additions  (i.e.  the  addition  of  6  days  for  the  purpose  of 
40  postponing  the  epoch  of  the  era  from  Friday  to  Sunday,  and  the 
addition  of  5  days  for  the  purpose  of  converting  the  Sigmim  Muharrami 
into  the  Signum  Ramaddni). 

The  two  computations,  the  one  which  is  counted  from  Friday,  the 
other — mentioned  shortly  before — which  is  counted  from  Thursday,  agree 
with  each  other,  for  this  reason,  that  in  the  former  case  the  34  minutes  are 

12 


178  A.LB!R^Ni. 

summed  to  one  day,  whilst  in  the  latter  case  none  of  the  fractions  are 
raised  to  a  whole. 

This  and  similar  modes  of  computation  hare  been  adopted  by  the 
followers  of  this   new  theory  in  this   sect,  who  are  known  in  Khwarizm 
^  as  the  Bdghdddiyya   sect,  so  called  from  their  founder,  a  Shaikh  who 

lives  in  Baghdad.  I  have  found  that  one  of  their  leaders  has  taken  the 
Jadwal-Mujarrad  (i.e.  the  pure  table,  divested  of  any  accessory),  which 
was  constructed  by  Habash  in  his  Canon  for  the  purpose  of  correcting 
the  method  of  dating  employed  in  astronomical  calculations.  Now  this 
sectarian  has  added  to  each  number  of  the  table,  i.e.  the  Signum  Muharrami,  10 
6,  for  the  reason  just  mentioned  ;  further  he  has  altered  the  shape  of  the 
table,  giving  it — instead  of  the  perpendicular  form  of  a  table — the  form 
of  a  screw-like  train,  similar  to  a  wound-up  serpent,  as  some  people  in 
Tabaristan  have  given  it  the  form  of  a  circle,  in  which  the  beginning 
and  the  end  of  the  numbers  meet  together. 

He  has  also  followed  the  example  of  the  people  (of  the  same  sect)  in 
composing  a  book  in  which  he  abuses  those  who  want  to  find  the  new- 
p.l98.  moon  by  observation ;  he  attacks  them  and  blames  them,  saying  that  for 
both  Christians  and  Jews  it  is  rendered  superfluous  by  their  tables 
to  observe  new-moon  for  the  determination  of  their  fast-days  and  the  20 
beginnings  of  their  months,  whilst  Muslims  trouble  themselves  with  a 
subject  of  so  dubious  a  character  (as  the  observation  of  new-moon). 
But  if  he  had  read  farther  (in  the  book  of  Habash)  beyond  that  place 
where  the  Jadwal-Mujarrad  occurs,  as  far  as  the  chapter  of  the  astrono- 
mical methods  for  the  observation  of  new-moon,  if  he  had  acquainted 
himself  with  their  nature  and  with  the  real  character  of  the  practices  of 
both  Jews  and  Christians,  he  would  have  learned  that  that  which  they 
have  adopted  is  obscurity  itself. 

Perhaps  he  who  is  acquainted  with  our  preceding  explanations  will 
find  out  the  truth  of  this.  For  astronomers  agree  that  the  assumed  °" 
measures  in  the  most  difficult  parts  of  the  practice  of  the  observation  of 
new-moon  are  certain  distances  which  cannot  be  ascertained  except  by 
experiment.  Besides,  the  observations  themselves  are  subject  to  certain 
circumstances  of  a  geometrical  nature,  dn  consequence  of  which  that 
which  is  observed  by  the  eye  differs  in  greatness  and  smallness.  A 
man  who  considers  astronomical  affairs  with  an  unbiassed  mind  could 
not  decide  against  the  necessity  of  the  observation  of  new-moon  nor 
against  its  possibility,  particularly  when  new-moon  occurs  near  the 
end  of  that  distance  which  has  been  assumed. 

Here  follows  the  screw-figure   (here   given  in  the  form  of  a  common  40 
table)  which  has  been  transformed  out  of  the  Jadwal-Mujarrad. 


CYCLES,    YEAR-POINTS,    MOLEDS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.  179 


Table  showing  on  what  Week-Days  the  Single  Teaes  of  the  Cycle 
of  210  Lunar  Tears  commence. 


10 


20 


30 


A.  The  Single  Years 
of   the    Cycle    of 
210  Years. 

B.  The    Week-Days 
on  which  the  Sin- 
gle   Years     com- 
mence. 

A 

B 

A 

<i 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

1 

IV 

31 

II 

61 

VII 

91 

V 

121 

III 

151 

I 

181 

VI 

2 

I 

32 

VI 

62 

IV 

92 

II 

122 

VII 

152 

V 

182 

III 

3 

VI 

33 

IV 

63 

II 

93 

VII 

123 

V 

153 

III 

183 

I 

4 

III 

34 

I 

64 

VI 

94 

IV 

124 

II 

154 

VII 

184 

V 

5 

VII 

35 

V 

65 

III 

95 

I 

125 

VI 

155 

IV 

185 

II 

6 

V 

36 

III 

66 

I 

96 

VI 

126 

IV 

156 

II 

186 

VII 

7 

II 

37 

VII 

67 

V 

97 

III 

127 

I 

157 

VI 

187 

IV 

8 

VI 

38 

IV 

68 

II 

98 

VII 

128 

V 

158 

III 

188 

I 

9 

IV 

39 

II 

69 

VII 

99 

V 

129 

III 

159 

I 

189 

VI 

10 

I 

40 

VI 

70 

IV 

100 

II 

130 

VII 

160 

V 

190 

III 

11 

V 

41 

III 

71 

I 

101 

VI 

131 

IV 

161 

II 

191 

VII 

12 

III 

42 

I 

72 

VI 

102 

IV 

132 

II 

162 

VII 

192 

V 

13 

VII 

43 

V 

73 

III 

103 

I 

133 

VI 

163 

IV 

193 

II 

14 

V 

44 

III 

74 

I 

104 

VI 

134 

IV 

164 

II 

194 

VII 

15 

II 

45 

VII 

75 

V 

105 

III 

135 

I 

165 

VI 

195 

IV 

16 

VI 

46 

IV 

76 

II 

106 

VII 

136 

V 

166 

III 

196 

I 

17 

IV 

47 

II 

77 

VII 

107 

V 

137 

III 

167 

I 

197 

VI 

18 

I 

48 

VI 

78 

]V 

108 

II 

138 

VII 

168 

V 

198 

III 

19 

V 

49 

III 

79 

I 

109 

VI 

139 

IV 

169 

II 

199 

VII 

20 

III 

50 

I 

80 

VI 

110 

IV 

140 

II 

170 

VII 

200 

V 

21 

VII 

51 

V 

81 

III 

111 

I 

141 

VI 

171 

IV 

201 

II 

22 

V 

52 

III 

82 

I 

112 

VI 

142 

IV 

172 

II 

202 

VII 

23 

II 

53 

VII 

83 

V 

113 

III 

143 

I 

173 

VI 

203 

IV 

24 

VI 

54 

IV 

84 

■  II 

114 

VII 

144 

V 

174 

III 

204 

I 

25 

IV 

55 

II 

85 

VII 

115 

V 

145 

III 

175 

I 

205 

VI 

26 

I 

56 

VI 

86 

IV 

116 

II 

146 

VII 

176 

V 

206 

III 

27 

V 

57 

III 

87 

I 

117 

VI 

147 

IV 

177 

II 

207 

VII 

28 

III 

58 

I 

88 

VI 

118 

IV 

148 

II 

178 

VII 

208 

V 

29 

VII 

59 

V 

89 

III 

119 

I 

149 

VI 

179 

IV 

209 

II 

30 

IV 

60 

II 

90 

VII 

120 

V 

150 

III 

180 

I 

210 

VI 

In  the  oripfinal  Arabic  this  table  is  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  screw.  In  the 
longitudinal  iields  of  the  screw  there  is  a  steady  progression  of  both  numbers,  the 
numbers  of  the  years  rising  by  21,  the  numbers  of  the  week-days  rising  by  1.  For 
instance,  in  the  field  of  the  first  years  the  years  rise  in  this  way  : — 

1.  22.  43.  64.  85.  106.  127.  148.  169.  190.  (1.  22.  43.  etc.)  ; 

and  the  week-days  rise  in  this  way  : — 
40  IV.  V.  V.  VI.  VII.  VII.  I.     II.  II.  III.  (IV.  V.  etc.). 


12  * 


180  ALBIRUNI. 

Considering  that  in  the  Jadwal  Mujarrad  produced  by  Habash  the 
sage  in  his  canon  known  as  the  Canon  Prohatus  (lacuna).  This  man 
whom  we  have  mentioned,  transferred  thence  the  screw-figure  (into  his 
work),  adding  five  in  places  where  Habash  had  added  the  fractions  as  a 
whole  day  to  the  other  days,  which  he  ought  not  to  have  done.  His 
method  is  the  same  for  the  Tabula  Mediorum,  so  that  by  this  he  was 
preserved  from  error. 

Let  him  who  wants  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  our  words  compare  this 
screw-figure — for  it  is  the  Jadwal- Mujarrad  itself,  only  increased  by  5  so 
as  to  represent  the  Signum  Bamaddni — with  the  Corrected  Table  which  10 
we  have  computed  for  the  Signum  Muharrami.  The  fractions  following 
after  the  whole  days  we  have  also  noticed,  wishing  that  they  should 
come  under  occular  inspection,  and  so  afford  a  help  also  for  other 
things. 

If  you  use  this  corrected  table,  subtract  always  210  from  the  years  of 
the  Hijra,  including  the  current  year,  if  their  number  be  more  than  210. 
With  the  remainder  compare  the  column  of  the  numbers  and  take  the 
days  and  minutes  which  you  find  opposite  in  the  corresponding  square. 
Add  to  the  minutes  5  days  and  34  minutes,  and  convert  them  into 
whole  days.  Eliminate  the  7,  if  the  number  is  moi'e  than  7,  and  you  20 
get  the  Signum  for  the  1st  of  Muharram.  If  you  add  thereto  5,  you 
get  the  Signum  of  Ramadan. 

The  result  of  this  computation  compare  with  the  screw-figure.  For 
in  some  dates  there  is  a  difference  on  account  of  the  conversion  of  the 
minutes  under  60  into  days. 

It  will  be  clear  to  the  reader  why  the  table  has  been  constructed  for 
210  years,  and  not  for  a  less  or  larger  number  of  years,  if  he  studies  the 
subject  thoroughly. 

God  is  all-wise.     He  is  our  sufficiency  and  our  help  ! 


CYCLES,    TEAE-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.       181 


The  Corrected  Table. 


10 


20 


30 


H 

6« 

1 
Pi 

-2 

n 

a  <o 

1 

1 

og 
a  a> 

1 

03 

PI 

CM   • 

O  m 

a  01 

SI 

6« 

oj 

il 
11 

1 

1 

«  9. 

1 

"5 

1 

1 

4 

22 

31 

2 

22 

61 

0 

22 

91 

5 

22 

121 

3 

22 

151 

1 

22 

181 

6 

22 

2 

1 

44 

32 

6 

44 

62 

4 

44 

92 

2 

44 

122 

0 

44 

i52 

5 

44 

182 

3 

44 

3 

6 

6 

33 

4 

6 

63 

2 

6 

93 

0 

6 

123 

5 

6 

153 

3 

6 

183 

1 

6 

4 

3 

28 

34 

1 

28 

64 

6 

28 

94 

4 

28 

124 

2 

28 

154 

0 

28 

184 

5 

28 

5 

0 

50 

35 

5 

50 

65 

3 

50 

95 

1 

50 

125 

6 

50 

155 

4 

50 

185 

2 

60 

6 

5 

12 

36 

3 

12 

66 

1 

12 

98 

6 

12 

126 

4 

12 

158 

2 

12 

186 

0 

12 

7 

2 

34 

37 

0 

34 

67 

5 

34 

97 

3 

34 

127 

1 

34 

157 

6 

34 

187 

4 

34 

8 

6 

58 

38 

4 

56 

68 

2 

58 

98 

0 

53 

128 

5 

56 

158 

3 

53 

188 

1 

56 

9 

4 

18 

39 

2 

18 

69 

0 

18 

99 

5 

18 

129 

3 

18 

159 

1 

18 

189 

6 

18 

10 

1 

40 

40 

6 

40 

70 

4 

40 

100 

2 

40 

130 

0 

40 

160 

5 

40 

190 

3 

40 

11 

6 

2 

41 

4 

2 

71 

2 

2 

101 

0 

2 

131 

5 

2 

161 

3 

2 

191 

1 

2 

12 

3 

24 

42 

1 

24 

72 

6 

24 

102 

4 

24 

132 

2 

24 

162 

0 

24 

192 

5 

24 

13 

0 

46 

43 

5 

48 

73 

3 

46 

103 

1 

46 

133 

6 

46 

163 

4 

46 

193 

2 

46 

14 

5 

8 

44 

3 

8 

74 

1 

8 

104 

6 

8 

134 

4 

8 

164 

2 

8 

194 

0 

8 

15 

2 

30 

45 

0 

30 

75 

5 

30 

105 

3 

30 

135 

1 

30 

165 

6 

30 

195 

4 

30 

16 

6 

52 

46 

4 

52 

76 

2 

52 

108 

0 

52 

136 

5 

52 

166 

3 

52 

196 

1 

52 

17 

4 

14 

47 

2 

14 

77 

0 

14 

107 

5 

14 

137 

3 

14 

167 

1 

14 

197 

6 

14 

18 

1 

36 

48 

6 

36 

78 

4 

36 

108 

2 

36 

138 

0 

36 

168 

5 

36 

198 

3 

36 

19 

5 

58 

49 

3 

58 

79 

1 

58 

109 

6 

58 

139 

4 

58 

169 

2 

5i 

199 

0 

58 

20 

3 

20 

50 

1 

20 

80 

6 

20 

110 

4 

20 

140 

2 

20 

170 

0 

20 

200 

5 

20 

21 

0 

42 

51 

5 

42 

81 

3 

42 

111 

1 

42 

141 

6 

42 

171 

4 

42 

201 

2 

42 

22 

5 

4 

52 

3 

4 

82 

1 

4 

112 

6 

4 

142 

4 

4 

172 

2 

4 

202 

0 

4 

23 

2 

28 

53 

0 

26 

83 

5 

26 

113 

3 

26 

143 

1 

26 

173 

6 

23 

203 

4 

26 

24 

6 

48 

54 

4 

48 

84 

2 

48 

114 

0 

48 

144 

5 

48 

174 

3 

48 

204 

1 

48 

25 

4 

10 

55 

2 

10 

85 

0 

10 

115 

5 

10 

145 

3 

10 

175 

1 

10 

205 

6 

10 

26 

1 

32 

56 

6 

32 

86 

4 

32 

116 

2 

32 

146 

0 

32 

176 

5 

32 

208 

3 

32 

27 

5 

54 

57 

3 

54 

87 

1 

54 

117 

6 

54 

147 

4 

54 

177 

2 

54 

207 

0 

54 

28 

3 

16 

58 

1 

16 

88 

6 

16 

118 

4 

16 

148 

2 

16 

178 

0 

16 

208 

5 

16 

29 

0 

38 

59 

5 

38 

89 

3 

38 

119 

1 

38 

149 

6 

38 

179 

4 

38 

209 

2 

38 

SO 

5 

0 

60 

3 

0 

90 

1 

0 

120 

6 

0 

150 

4 

0 

180 

2 

0 

210 

0 

0 

pp.199, 
200. 


182 


ALB!EUNi. 


p.201.  Further,  I  have  found  with  'Ahmad  b.  Muhammad  b.  Shihab,  who 
was  counted  among  the  leaders  of  the  Haruriyya-sect  and  one  of  the 
greatest  of  their  missionaries,  the  following  table,  which,  he  says,  is  to 
be  used  in  this  way  :  Take  the  complete  years  of  the  ^ra  Fugce,  add 
thereto  4  and  divide  the  sum  by  8.  The  remainder  under  7  you  compare 
with  the  column  of  numbers,  and  opposite  you  find  the  week-day  of  the 
beginning  of  whatever  month  you  like. 


Table  of  the  Months. 


II 


§^ 


10 


p.202. 


This  table,  too,  is  certainly  derived  from  the  Jadwal-Mujarrad.  If  the 
student  would  consider  the  Octaeteris  on  which  this  table  is  based,  he 
would  find  that  the  new-year-days  of  the  years  of  this  cycle  return  to  20 
the  same  day  of  the  week,  that  they,  however,  fall  short  (of  a  complete 
revolution  and  return  to  the  same  day)  by  a  fraction  of  4  minutes. 
Therefore  this  table  does  not  differ  from  the  corrected  Jadwal-Mujarrad, 
except  when  the  Octaeteris  in  the  course  of  time  recurs  many  times.  In 
this  case  the  minus-difference  of  4  minutes  causes  a  very  disagreeable 
confusion. 

This  same  trickster  of  a  missionary  relates  that  this  table  was  the 
work  of  Ja'far  b.  Muhammad  Alsadik  at  the  time  when  he — so  that 
man  says — explained  the  difference  of  opinion  and  the  uncertainty  that 
exists  among  Muslims  regarding  the  month  Ramadan.  According  to  30 
him  Ja'far  said :  "  I  swear  by  him  who  in  truth  has  sent  Muhammad 
as  a  prophet,  that  He  (the  prophet)  did  not  leave  his  people,  before 
he  had  disclosed  before  our  eyes  both  the  past  and  the  future  till  the 
end  of  the  world.  And  the  least  of  this  is  the  knowledge  of  fasting  for 
every   year   and   every  day."     Further,  he   is   reported   to   have   said : 


CYCLES,    YEAR-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        183 

"  Sha'ban  Las  never  been  more — and  Eamadan  laas  never  been  less— 
than  30  days." 

Tbis  malefactor  has  invented  tales  about  that  wise  Lord,  the  noblest 
of  the  nobles,  the  wisest  of  the  Imams — God's  blessing  be  upon  their 
names  ! — by  making  him  responsible  for  something  that  is  inconsistent 
with  the  religion  of  his  ancestor  (i.e.  'Ali).  It  has  been  proved  that  the 
contrary  of  these  assertions  is  the  truth.  That  pious  Imam  was  far  from 
sullying  himself  by  traditions  like  those,  and  never  dreamt  that  he 
would  be  defiled  by  their  insolence  in  referring  them  to  his  authority 
10  — God's  blessing  be  upon  him ! — 

There  are  two  methods  for  the  finding  of  the  Signum  Muharrami,  men- 
tioned by  ' Abu- Ja'f ar  Alkhazin  in  his  Great  Introduction  to  Astronomy : 

I.  Take  for  each  complete  30  years  of  the  ^ra  Hijrce  which  have 
elapsed,  5  days.  As  regards  the  remainder  of  less  than  30  years,  take 
for  each  10  years  If  days,  i.e.  1  day  16  hours.  For  each  5  years  of  the 
further  remainder  take  20  hours,  and  for  each  complete  single  year 
take  4  days  8-|-  hours.  To  the  sum  you  get  in  this  way  add  5  or  subtract 
2.  The  remainder  divide  by  7,  and  the  remainder  you  get  is  the 
Signum  Muharrami. 

20  This  method  is  correct,  and  proceeds  in  the  same  way  as  the  before- 
mentioned  methods.  For  the  days  and  fractions  of  days  that  are  taken 
for  certain  numbers  of  years  are  the  remainders  which  you  get,  if  you 
convert  those  years  into  days  and  divide  them  by  7,  as  the  Corrected 
Table  shows. 

To  the  svim  we  add  5,  in  order  to  make  the  days  begin  with  Sunday, 
as  we  have  mentioned  before.  It  is  the  same  whether  you  add  5  or 
subtract  2,  i.e.  7  minus  5,  as  long  as  you  use  the  hebdomadal  cycle,  which 
must  be  adhered  to. 

If  you  want  the  Signum  of  any  other  month  (but  Muharram),  add  to 

30  the  Signum  Muharrami  2  days  for  each  month  whose  number  in  the 

order  of  months  is  an  odd  one,  and  1  day  for  each  month  whose  number 

is  an  even  one.     Divide  the  sum  by  7,  and  the  remainder  is  the  Signum 

of  the  month  in  question. 

II.  The  second  method  is  this  :  Take  half  of  the  number  of  years,  if 
it  is  an  even  number ;  if  it  is  an  odd  one,  subtract  1  therefrom,  and  keep 
in  mind  for  it  4d.  22min.  (i.e.  make  a  mental  note  of  it).  Then  take 
the  half  of  this  remainder  of  years  and  put  it  into  two  different  places. 
Multiply  this  number  in  one  place  by  3,  and  divide  it  by  4.  So  you  get 
days.     In  the  other  place  multiply  it  by  8,  and  add  the  sum  to  the 

Af\  number  of  days,  with  the  addition  of  5.  From  the  sum  subtract  a 
number  of  day-minutes  which  is  equal  to  half  the  number  of  the  years. 
With  the  remainder  combine  that  which  you  have  kept  in  mind  (4d.  22.), 
if  the  years  are  without  a  fraction.  But  if  there  is  a  fraction  of  more 
than  30  minutes,  count  it  as  a  whole ;  if  it  is  less,  omit  it.  Divide  the  sum 
by  7,  and  the  remainder  is  the  Signum  Muharrami. 


1 84  ALBiEf)N!. 

This  method,  too,  is  correct,  and  based  on  the  circumstances  we  have 
mentioned. 

That  which  you  keep  in  mind  (4d.  22')  is  the  intercalatory  portion  of 
the  year  which  you  subtract  from  the  total  sum  of  years,  the  remainder 
p. 203.   which  you  get  after  having  divided  354d.  22'  by  7. 

To  multiply  the  half  of  the  remaining  years  (i.e.  after  the  sub- 
traction of  1,  in  case  the  number  of  years  be  an  odd  one)  by  8,  is  the 
same  as  to  divide  the  whole  by  4.  These  4  days  are  the  whole  days 
which  you  get  by  dividing  the  Lunar  year  by  7  (354d,  22' :  7,  re- 
mainder 4).  10 

Finally  you  take  \  and  |-  day,  i.e.  ^  or  f |-  day  for  each  year.  How- 
ever, the  half  of  f  (i.e.  f )  of  any  number  is  more  than  \+^  (i.e.  ^)  of  the 
whole  number  by  a  measure  (a  quantity)  which  amounts  for  the  whole 
number  to  the  same  as  a  corresponding  number  of  sixtieth  parts  (or 
minutes)  for  half  the  number  (i.e.  for  the  whole  number  x  this  plus- 
difference  is  Y^o^j  which  is  the  same  as  -^  of  ^x).  If  you,  therefore, 
multiply  half  of  the  number  of  years  by  3  and  divide  the  product  by  4, 
you  get  f  of  the  number,  which  is  more  than  ^+^  (^)  of  the  whole 
number  of  years  by  a  number  of  minutes  which  is  equal  to  half  the 
number  of  years.  If  they,  now,  are  counted  in  60th  parts,  i.e.  in  minutes,  20 
and  you  subtract  them  from  the  sum,  you  get  ^  and  ^  (^^)  of  the  years. 
The  analogy  of  the  other  parts  of  this  calculation  with  what  we  have 
before  mentioned  is  evident. 

If  we  want  to  find  the  Signum  of  the  new-year's  day  of  a  year  of  the 
JEra  Yazdagirdi,  we  take  the  number  of  comi^lete  years  and  add  thereto 
always  3.  The  sum  we  divide  by  7,  and  the  remainder  of  this  division 
is  Signum  of  Farwardin-Mah. 

If  we  want  to  know  the  Signum  of  another  month,  we  take  for  each  of 
the  complete  months,  that  have  passed,  2  days,  except  Aban-Mah,  for 
which  we  take  nothing.     The  sum  we  add  to  the  Signum  of  Farwardin-   30 
Mah,  and  subtract    7,  if  the  number   be  more   than  seven.     The  re- 
mainder is  the  Signum  of  the  month  in  question. 

For  the  ^ra  Magorum,  the  epoch  of  which  is  the  death  of  Yazdagird, 
we  add  always  5  to  the  number  of  complete  years,  and  the  remainder 
we  compute  in  the  same  way  as  we  have  done  for  the  preceding  era, 
in  case  we  use  for  this  era  the  Persian  months.  But  if  we  use  the  months 
of  the  Sughdians  or  Khwarizmians,  we  always  add  3  to  the  number  of 
complete  years,  and  divide  the  sum  by  7.  As  remainder  we  get  the 
Signtim  of  Nausard  or  Ndusdrji.  For  each  following  month  we  add  2 
days  to  the  Signum  Nausardi.  In  this  way  we  find  the  Signum  of  40 
the  month  in  question. 

If  we  want  to  know  the  intercalation,  as  practised  by  the  Persians 
before  the  decline  of  their  empire,  we  take  the  Persian  years  from  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Yazdagird,  which  event  is  the  epoch  of  the  ^ra 
Magorum,  and  add  thereto  70,  for  the  reason  which  we  have  mentioned 


CYCLES,    TEAE-POINTS,    MOL^DS,    AND    LEAP-MONTHS.        185 

in  the  first  part  of  this  book.  The  sum  we  divide  by  120.  The  quotient 
is  the  number  of  intercalations  that  ought  to  have  been  carried  out 
since  the  time  when  they  commenced  to  neglect  intercalation.  Now  we 
take  for  the  total  sum  of  the  years  of  the  era  a  number  of  months 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  intercalations.  If,  then,  these  months 
make  up  complete  years,  without  giving  a  remainder,  the  year  is  a  leap- 
year  approximately,  for  there  is  confusion  in  their  chronology.  But  p.204. 
if  there  is  a  remainder  of  months,  the  year  is  a  common  year.  There- 
upon we  add  the  leap-months  we  have  got  to  the  beginning  of  the  year 
10  in  question,  and  we  find  Nauroz  on  that  day  to  which  this  calculation 
brings  us.  So  ISTauroz  comes  again  to  be  there,  where  it  used  to  be 
in  the  time  of  the  Kisras,  when  it  used  to  coincide  with  the  summer- 
solstice  as  calculated  by  their  astronomical  tables. 

For  the  ^ra  of  Almu'tadid  we  find  the  Signum  of  Farwardin-Mah  by 
adding  to  the  complete  years  j-  of  them,  and  to  the  sum  4j.  The  whole 
we  divide  by  7,  and  the  remainder  is  the  Signum  of  Farwardin-Mah. 
Knowing  the  Signum  of  New-year's  day  of  a  year,  and  wishing  to  find 
the  Signum  of  some  other  month,  we  add  for  each  month  that  has 
passed  2  days,  except  Aban-Mah,  for  which  we  take  1  in  a  leap-year  and 
20  nothing  in  a  common  year.  The  sum  we  divide  by  7,  and  the  remainder 
is  the  Signum  of  the  month  in  question. 

The  leap-years  of  this  era  you  find  by  dividing  its  complete  years 
by  4.  If  there  is  no  remainder  the  year  is  a  leap-year ;  if  there  is  a 
remainder  it  is  a  common-year. 

Now  we  think  that  this  long  exposition  will  be  sufiicient.  Much 
praise  be  unto  Grod,  as  is  due  to  Him  ! 


186  ALBiRl^NL 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

ON  THE  BRAS  OF  THE  PSEUDO-PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  COMMUNITIES 
WHO  WERE  DELUDED  BY  THEM,  THE  CURSE  OF  THE  LORD  BE  UPON 
THEM  ! 

We  shall  explain  tlie  method  of  dating  the  eras  by  the  pseudo-prophets. 
For  in  the  intervals  between  the  prophets  and  kings  whom  we  have 
mentioned,  pseudo-prophets  came  forward,  the  number  and  history  of 
whom  it  would  be  impossible  to  detail  in  this  book.  Some  of  them 
perished  without  having  gained  adherents,  not  leaving  anything  behind 
them  but  a  place  in  history.  Whilst  others  were  followed  by  a  10 
community  who  kept  up  their  institutes  and  used  their  method  of 
dating.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  mention  the  eras  of  the  most 
notorious  among  them,  for  this  affords  a  help,  also,  for  the  knowledge 
of  their  history. 

Budhasaf. — The  first  mentioned  is  BudMsaf,  who  came  forward  in 
India  after  the  1st  year  of  Tahmurath.  He  introduced  the  Persian 
writing  and  called  people  to  the  religion  of  the  Sdhians.  Whereupon 
many  people  followed  him.  The  Peshdadhian  kings  and  some  of  the  Kaya- 
nians  who  resided  in  Balkh  held  in  great  veneration  the  sun  and  moon, 
the  planets  and  the  primal  elements,  and  worshipped  them  as  holy  20 
beings,  until  the  time  when  Zaradusht  appeared  thirty  years  after  the 
accession  of  Bishtasf . 

The  remnants  of  those  Sabians  are  living  in  Harran,  their  name  (i.e. 
Alharrdniyya)  being  derived  from  their  place.  Others  derive  it  from 
Haran  b.  Terah,  the  brother  of  Abraham,  saying  that  he  among  their 
chiefs  was  the  most  deeply  imbued  with  their  religion  and  its  most 
p.205.  tenacious  adherent.  Ibn  Sankild  (Syncellus),  the  Christian,  relates  in  his 
book  which  he,  intending  to  refute  their  creed,  stuffed  with  lies  and 


ON   THE   ERAS    OF   THE    PSEUDO-PEOPHETS.  187 

futile  stories,  tliat  Abraham  left  their  community  simply  because  leprosy 
appeared  on  his  foreskin,  and  that  everybody  who  suffered  from  this 
disease  was  considered  impure,  and  excluded  from  all  society.  There- 
fore he  cut  off  his  foreskin,  i.e.  he  circumcised  himself.  In  this  state 
he  entered  one  of  their  idol-temples,  when  he  heard  a  voice  speaking 
to  him  :  "  0  Abraham,  you  went  away  from  us  with  one  sia,  and  you 
return  to  us  with  two  sins.  Go  away,  and  do  not  again  come  to  us." 
Thereupon  Abraham,  seized  by  wrath,  broke  the  idols  in  pieces,  and  left 
their  community.  But,  after  having  done  it,  he  repented  and  wished 
10  to  sacrifice  his  son  to  the  planet  Saturn,  it  being  their  custom  to  sacrifice 
their  children,  as  that  author  maintains.  Saturn,  however,  on  seeing 
him  truly  repentant,  let  him  go  free  with  the  sacrifice  of  a  ram. 

Also  'Abd-almasih  b.  'Ishak  Alkindi,  the  Christian,  in  his  reply  to 
the  book  of  'Abdallah  b,  'Isma'il  Alhashimi,  relates  of  them,  that  they 
are  notorious  for  their  sacrificing  human  beings,  but  that  at  present 
they  are  not  allowed  to  do  it  in  public. 

All,  however,  we  know  of  them  is  that  they  profess  monotheism  and 
describe  God  as  exempt  from  anything  that  is  bad,  using  in  their 
description  the  Via  Negationis,  not  the  Via  Positionis.  E.g.  they  say  "  he  is 
20  indeterminable,  he  is  invisible,  he  does  not  wrong,  he  is  not  unjust." 
They  call  him  by  the  Nomina  Pulcherrima,  but  only  metaphorically,  since  a 
real  description  of  him  is  excluded  according  to  them.  The  rule  of  the 
universe  they  attribute  to  the  celestial  globe  and  its  bodies,  which  they 
consider  as  living,  speaking,  hearing,  and  seeing  beings.  And  the  fires 
they  hold  in  great  consideration. 

One  of  their  monuments  is  the  cupola  over  the  Mihrdh  beside  the 
Maksura  in  the  great  Mosque  of  Damascus.  It  was  their  place  of 
worship  as  long  as  Greeks  and  Romans  professed  their  religion  ;  after- 
wards it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  who  made  it  their  synagogue. 
30  Then  it  was  occupied  by  the  Christians,  who  used  it  as  their  church  till  the 
time  of  the  rising  of  Islam,  when  the  Muslims  made  it  their  Mosque. 

They  had  temples  and  images,  called  by  the  names  of  the  sun,  the 
forms  of  which  are  known,  aud  the  like  of  which  are  mentioned  by 
'Abu-Ma' shar  Albalkhi  in  his  book  on  the  houses  of  worship.  For 
instance,  the  temple  of  Ba'al-bek  was  sacred  to  the  idol  of  the  Sun. 
The  city  of  Harrsin  was  attributed  to  the  moon,  it  being  built  in  the 
shape  of  the  moon  like  a  Tailasdn.  Close  to  Harran  there  are  another  place 
called  Selemsin,  its  ancient  name  being  Sanam-sm,  i.e.  imago  Lunce,  and 
another  village  called  Tera'-'nz,  i.e.  Porta  Veneris.  People  say,  too,  that 
40  the  Ka'ba  and  its  images  originally  belonged  to  them,  and  that  the 
worshippers  of  those  images  belonged  to  their  community,  and  that 
Allah  was  called  Zuhal  and  AVuzzci,  Alzuhara. 

They  have  many  prophets,  most  of  whom  were  Greek  philosophers,  e.g. 
Hermes  the  Egyptian,  Agathodaemon,  Wdlis,  Pythagoras,  Baba,  and 
Sawar  the  grandfather  of  Plato  on  the  mother's  side,  and  others.     Some 


188  ALBtRUNl 

of  them  did  not  allow  themselves  to  eat  fish,  fearing  it  might  be  a 
Silurus  Electricus,  nor  chickens  because  they  are  always  feverish,  nor 
garlic  because  it  produces  headache  and  burns  the  blood  or  the  sperma 
genitale  on  which  the  existence  of  the  world  depends,  nor  peas  because 
they  stupify  and  imjDair  the  intellect  and  originally  grew  in  the  skull  of 
man. 
V  206.  They  have  three  i^rayers  in  writing,  one  for  the  time  of  sunrise  with 
eight  inclinations,  the  second  immediately  before  the  sun  leaves  the 
centre  of  heaven  (the  meridian)  with  five  inclinations,  the  third  at  sun- 
set with  five  inclinations.  Each  of  the  inclinations  at  their  prayer  10 
consists  of  three  prostrations.  Besides,  they  have  voluntary  prayers, 
one  in  the  second  hour  of  the  day,  another  in  the  ninth  hour  of  the 
day,  and  a  third  one  in  the  third  hour  of  the  night.  Their  prayer  is 
preceded  by  purification  and  washing.  They  also  wash  themselves  after 
a  pollution.  They  do  not  circumcise  themselves,  not  being  ordered  to 
do  so,  as  they  maintain. 

Most  of  their  regulations  about  women  and  their  penal  law  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  Muslims,  whilst  others,  relating  to  pollution 
caused  by  touching  dead  bodies,  etc.,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Thora. 

They   offer   offerings   to   the    stars,   their   images   and   temples,  and   20 
practise   sacrifices   carried  out  by  their  priests  and  seducers.     By  this 
means  they  elicit  the  knowledge  of  the  future  of  the  man  who  offers  the 
offering,  and  the  answer  to  his  inquiries. 

Idris,  who  is  mentioned  in  the  Thora  as  Henokh,  they  call  Hermes, 
whilst  according  to  others  Hermes  is  identical  with  Budhasaf. 

Again,  others  maintain  that  the  Harranians  are  not  the  real  Sabians, 
but  those  who  are  called  in  the  books  Heathens  and  Idolaters.  For 
the  Sabians  are  the  remnant  of  the  Jewish  tribes  who  remained  in 
Babylonia,  when  the  other  tribes  left  it  for  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of 
Cyrus  and  Artaxerxes.  Those  remaining  tribes  felt  themselves  at-  30 
tracted  to  the  rites  of  the  Magians,  and  so  they  inclined  (were  inclined, 
i.e.  Sabi)  towards  the  religion  of  ISTebukadnezzar,  and  adopted  a  system 
mixed  up  of  Magism  and  Judaism  like  that  of  the  Samaritans  in  Syria. 

The  greatest  number  of  them  are  settled  at  Wasit,  in  Sawad-al'irak, 
in  the  districts  of  Ja'far,  Aljamida,  and  the  two  Nahr-alsila.  They 
pretend  to  be  the  descendants  of  Enos  the  son  of  Seth.  They  differ 
from  the  Harranians,  blaming  their  doctrines  and  not  agreeing  with 
them  except  ua  few  matters.  In  praying,  even,  they  turn  towards  the 
north  pole,  whilst  the  Harranians  turn  towards  the  south  pole. 

Some   of  those   to   whom  God  has  given  a  divine  code   (Jews   and  40 
Christians)   say  that  Methuselah  had  another  son  besides  Lamech,  who 
called  himself  Sdbi',  and  that  the  Sabians  derive  their  name  from  him. 

Before  the  first  establishment  of  their  rites  and  the  appearance  of 
Budhasaf  people  were  Sajuavatot,  inhabiting  the  eastern  part  of  the 
world  and   worshipping  idols.      The   remnants   of  them  are  at  pre- 


ON    THE    ERAS    OF    THE    PSEUDO-PROPHETS.  189 

Bent  in  India,  China,  and  among  the  TagJiazghar ;  the  people  of 
Khurasan  call  them  Shamandn.  Their  monuments,  the  Bahdras  of  their 
idols,  their  Farhhdras  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the  frontier  countries 
between  Khurasan  and  India.  They  believe  in  the  eternity  of  time  and 
the  migration  of  souls  ;  they  think  that  the  globe  of  the  xmiverse  is 
flying  in  an  infinite  vacuum,  that  therefore  it  has  a  rotatory  motion, 
since  anything  that  is  round,  when  thrown  off  its  place,  goes  downward 
in  a  circular  motion,  as  they  say.  But  others  of  them  believe  that  the 
world  has  been  created  (within  time),  and  maintain  that  its  duration  is 
10  one  million  of  years,  which  they  divide  into  four  periods,  the  first  of 
four  hundred  thousand  years,  the  Aurea  Mtas. 

{Great  lacuna.  The  end  of  the  chapter  on  Budhasaf,  the 
whole  chapter  on  Zaradusht,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
chapter  on  Bardaisan  are  missing.) 

So  he  gets  the  sum  of  3,457.     We  think  they  will  dispute  with  us  on 
the  astronomical  interpretation  we  projDOse,  for  we,  as  well  as  themselves,   p.207. 
are  familiar  with  the  science  of  the  subject.     Therefore  any  arguing  on 
the  subject  and  any  interjDretation  are  altogether  devoid  of  sense. 

What  we  have  just  mentioned  regarding  the  division  is  a  proof  in 
20  favour  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  matter  of  the  Termini.  For  according  to 
them  the  duration  of  the  Terminus  of  Venus  in  Pisces  is  400  years, 
whilst  Ptolemy  reckons  it  as  266  years.  We  have  already  said  before 
that  the  time  between  Alexander  and  Ardashir  is  longer  than  400  years, 
and  have  endeavoured  to  settle  this  question  of  chronology. 

We  return  now  to  our  subject,  and  go  on  to  state  that  the  Persians 
adhered  to  the  Magian  religion  of  Zaradusht,  that  they  had  no  schism 
or  dissension  in  it  till  the  time  came  when  Jesus  rose,  and  his  pupils 
spread  through  all  the  world  preaching  the  Gospel.  When  they  thus 
spread  through  the  countries,  one  of  them  came  to  Persia,  and  both 
30  Bardaisan  and  Marcion  were  among  those  who  followed  his  call  and 
heard  the  word  of  Jesus.  Part  they  took  from  him,  part  from  what 
they  had  heard  from  Zaradusht.  So  each  of  them  derived  from  both 
systems  a  separate  doctrine,  containing  the  dogma  of  the  eternal 
existence  of  the  two  Principia.  Each  of  them  produced  a  gospel,  the 
origin  of  whicb  he  traced  back  to  the  Messiah,  and  declared  everything 
else  to  be  a  lie.  Ibn-Daisan  maintained  that  the  Light  of  God  was 
residing  in  his  own  heart. 

The  difference,  however,  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  separate  them  and 
40  their  followers  from  the  bulk  of  the  Christians,  nor  were  their  gospels 
in  all  matters  different  from  that  of  the  Christians  ;  in  some  regards 
they  contained  more,  in  others  less.     God  knows  best ! 

Mani. — After  Bardaisan  and  Marcion,  Mdni  the  pupil  of  Fadarun 
came  forward.  On  having  acquainted  himself  with  the  doctrines  of 
the  Magians,  Christians,  and  Dualists,  he  pi^oclaimed  himself  to  be  a 


190  ALBiRUNt. 

prophet.  In  the  beginning  of  his  book  called  Shdburkdn,  which  he 
composed  for  Shapur  b.  Ardashir,  he  says :  "  Wisdom  and  deeds  have 
always  from  time  to  time  been  brought  to  mankind  by  the  messengers 
of  God.  So  in  one  age  they  have  been  brought  by  the  messenger, 
called  Buddha,  to  India,  in  another  by  Zaradusht  to  Persia,  in  another 
by  Jesus  to  the  West.  Thereupon  this  revelation  has  come  down,  this 
prophecy  in  this  last  age  through  me,  Mani,  the  messenger  of  the  God 
of  truth  to  Babylonia."  In  his  gospel,  which  he  arranged  according 
to  the  twenty-two  letters  of  the  alphabet,  he  says  that  he  is  the  Paraclete 
announced  by  Messiah,  and  that  he  is  the  seal  of  the  prophets  (i.e.  the  10 
last  of  them). 

His  doctrines  regarding  the  existence  and  the  form  of  the  world  are  con- 
tradicted by  the  results  of  scientific  arguments  and  proofs.  He  preached 
of  the  empire  of  the  worlds  of  light,  of  the  HpcoTos  "Ai^^ptoTros,  and  of 
the  spirit  of  life.  He  taught  that  light  and  darkness  are  without 
beginning  and  end.  He  absolutely  forbade  his  followers  to  slaughter 
animals  and  to  hurt  them,  to  hurt  the  fire,  water,  and  plants.  He 
established  laws  which  are  obligatory  only  for  the  Siddiks,  i.e.  for  the 
saints  and  ascetics  among  the  Manichseans,  viz.  to  prefer  poverty  to 
riches,  to  suppress  cupidity  and  lust,  to  abandon  the  world,  to  be  20 
p.208.  abstinent  in  it,  continually  to  fast,  and  to  give  alms  as  much  as  possible. 
He  forbade  them  to  acquire  any  property  except  food  for  one  day 
and  dress  for  one  year ;  he  further  forbade  sexual  intercourse,  and 
ordered  them  continually  to  wander  about  in  the  world,  preaching  his 
doctrines  and  guiding  people  into  the  right  path. 

Other  laws  he  imposed  upon  the  Sam^nd'  (laymen),  i.e.  their  followers 
and  adherents  who  have  to  do  with  worldly  affairs,  viz.  to  give  as  alms 
the  tithe  of  their  property,  to  fast  during  the  seventh  part  of  life- time, 
to  live  in  monogamy,  to  befriend  the  Siddiks  (saints),  and  to  remove 
everything  that  troubles  and  pains  them.  30 

Some  people  maintain  that  he  allowed  pederasty,  if  a  man  felt  ni- 
clined,  and  as  proof  of  this  they  relate  that  every  Manichaean  used 
to  be  accompanied  by  a  young,  beardless  and  hairless  servant.  I,  how- 
ever, have  not  found  in  what  I  have  read  of  his  books  a  word  indicating 
anything  of  this  kind.  Nay,  even  his  life  proves  the  contrary  of  this 
assertion. 

Mani  was  born  in  a  village  called  Mardinu  on  the  upper  canal  of 
Kutha,  according  to  his  own  statement  in  his  book  Shaburkan,  in  the 
chapter  on  the  coming  of  the  prophet,  in  the  year  527  of  the  era  of 
the  Babylonian  astronomers,  i.e.  the  yEra  Alexandri,  in  the  4th  year  of  40 
the  king  Adharban.  He  received  the  first  divine  revelation  in  his 
13th  year,  Anno  Astronomorum  Bahyhnice  539,  in  the  2nd  year  of 
Ardashir,  the  King  of  Kings.  This  part  of  chronology  we  have 
already  tried  to  correct  in  the  chapter  preceding  that  of  the  duration 
of  the  rule  of  the  Ashkanians  and  the  Muluk  alfawdHf. 


ON   THE    ERAS    OF    THE    PSEUDO-PROPHETS.  191 

According  to  Yahya  b.  Alnu'man,  the  Christian,  in  his  book  on 
the  Magians,  Manx  was  called  by  the  Christians  Corhicius  the  son  of 
Patecius. 

When  he  came  forward,  many  people  believed  in  him  and  followed 
him.  He  composed  many  books,  his  gospel,  the  Shaburkan,  Kanz-al'ihyd 
(Thesaurus  Bevivicationis) ,  the  Book  of  the  Giants,  the  Book  of  Books, 
and  many  treatises.  He  maintained  that  he  had  explained  in  extenso 
what  had  only  been  hinted  at  by  the  Messiah. 

Manichaeism  increased  by  degrees    under  Ardashir,  his  son  Shapur 

[Q  and  Hurmuz  b.  Shapur,  until  the  time  when  Bahrtim  b.  Hurmuz 
ascended  the  throne.  He  gave  "orders  to  search  for  Mam,  and  when 
he  had  found  him,  he  said  :  "  This  man  has  come  forward  calling 
people  to  destroy  the  world.  It  will  be  necessary  to  begin  by  de- 
stroying him,  before  anything  of  his  plans  should  be  realized." 

It  is  well  known  that  he  killed  Mani,  stripped  off  his  skin,  filled  it 
with  grass,  and  hung  it  up  at  the  gate  of  Gundisapur,  which  is  even 
still  known  as  the  "  Mani-gate."  Hurmuz  also  killed  a  number  of  the 
Manichseans. 

Jibra'il  b.  Nuh,  the  Christian,   says  in  his    reply  to  Yazdanbakht's 

20  refutation  of  the  Christians,  that  one  of  Manx's  pupils  composed  a  book, 
in  which  he  relates  the  fate  of  Mani,  that  he  was  put  in  prison  on 
account  of  a  relative  of  the  king  who  believed  that  he  was  possessed  by 
the  devil ;  Mani  had  promised  to  cure  him,  but  when  he  could  not  effect 
it,  he  was  chained  hand  and  foot,  and  died  in  prison.  His  head  was 
exposed  before  the  entrance  of  the  royal  tent,  and  his  body  was  thrown 
into  the  street,  that  he  should  be  a  warning  example  to  others.  p.209. 

Of  his  adherents,  some  remnants  that  are  considered  as  Manichsean 
are  still  extant :  they  are  scattered  throughout  the  world  and  do  not 
live  together  in  any  particular  place  of  Muhammadan  countries,  except 

30  the  community  in  Samarkand,  known  by  the  name  of  Sdbians.  As 
regards  non-Muhammadan  countries,  we  have  to  state  that  most  of 
the  eastern  Turks,  of  the  people  of  China  and  Thibet  and  some  of  the 
Hindus,  adhere  still  to  his  law  and  doctrine. 

Regarding  their  prophet  Mani  they  hold  two  different  opinions, 
one  party  maintaining  that  he  never  worked  a  mircle,  and  relating  that 
he  only  informed  people  of  the  signs  and  wonders  indicative  of  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah  and  his  companions,  whilst  the  other  party 
maintains  that  he  in  fact  worked  signs  and  miracles,  and  that  the  king 
Shapur  came  to  believe  in  him  when  he  had   ascended  with  him  towards 

Af)  heaven,  and  they  had  been  standing  in  the  air  between  heaven  and 
earth.  Mam,  thereby,  made  him  witness  a  miracle.  Besides,  they 
relate  that  he  sometimes  used  to  rise  to  heaven  from  among  his  com- 
panions, to  stay  there  for  some  days,  and  then  to  redescend  to  them. 

I  have  heard  the  Ispahbadh  Marzuban  ben  Eustam  say  that  Shapur 
banished  him  out  of  his  empire,  faithful  to  the  law  of  Zaradusht  which 


192  ALBiRUNi. 

demands  the  expulsion  of  pseudo-propliets  from  the  country.  He 
imposed  upon  him  the  obligation  never  to  return.  So  Mani  went  off  to 
India,  China,  and  Thibet,  and  preached  there  his  gospel.  Afterwards 
he  returned,  was  seized  by  Bahrani  and  killed  for  having  broken  the 
stipulation,  as  he  had  thereby  forfeited  his  life. 

Mazhdak. — Thereupon  came  forward  a  man  called  Mazlidak  hen  Harna- 
ddddn,  a  native  of  Nasa.  He  was  Mauhadhdn-Mauhadh,  i.e.  chief -justice 
during  the  reign  of  Kobadh  ben  Peroz.  He  preached  Dualism  and 
opposed  Zaradusht  in  many  points.  He  taught  that  both  j)roperty 
and  women  belonged  in  common  to  all.  So  he  found  innumerable  IQ 
followers. 

Kobadh,  too,  believed  in  him.  But  some  of  the  Persians  maintain 
that  his  adhesion  was  a  compulsory  one,  since  his  reign  was  not  safe 
against  the  mass  of  the  followers  of  Mazhdak.  According  to  others, 
again,  this  Mazhdak  was  a  cunning  sort  of  man,  who  managed  to 
concoct  this  system,  and  to  come  forward  with  it  simj)ly  because  he 
knew  that  Kobadh  was  charmed  by  a  woman  who  was  the  wife  of  his 
cousin  ;  and  that  for  this  reason  Kobadh  hastened  to  adopt  it.  Mazhdak 
ordered  him  to  abstain  from  sacrificing  cattle  before  the  natural  term  of 
their  life  had  come.  Kobadh  said  :  "  Tour  entei'prise  shall  not  succeed  20 
unless  you  make  me  master  of  the  mother  of  Anushirwan,  that  I  may 
enjoy  her."  Mazhdak  did  as  he  wished,  and  ordered  her  to  be  handed 
over 

(Lacuna.     Missing,  the  end  of   Mazhdak  and  beginning 
of  Musailima.) 

Musailima. — "  To  Muhammad  the  Prophet  of  God.  Greeting  unto 
thee !  etc.  God  has  made  me  partake  with  thee  in  the  rule.  One  half  of 
the  earth  belongs  to  us  and  one  half  to  Kuraish  But  the  Kuraish 
are  evil-doing  people."  This  letter  he  sent  off  with  two  messengers. 
To  these  the  Prophet  said :  "  What  is  it  you  are  speaking  ?  "  They  30 
answered :  "  We  are  speaking  just  as  He  spoke."  Thereupon  the 
Prophet  said  :  "  If  it  was  not  the  custom  not  to  kill  messengers,  I 
should  behead  both  of  you."  Then  he  gave  them  his  answer  :  "  From 
Muhammad  the  Prophet  of  God  to  Musailima  the  liar.  Greeting  unto 
those  who  follow  the  right  guidance  !  etc.  The  earth  belongs  to  God, 
he  gives  it  as  an  inheritance  to  whomsoever  of  his  servants  he  pleases. 
And  the  end  will  be  in  favour  of  the  pious." 

The  people  of  Yamama  let  themselves  be  deluded  by  him  by  such 
tricks  as  introducing  an  egg  that  had  been  soaked  in  vinegar  into  a  glass- 
bottle,  by  fitting  together  the  wings  of   birds,  which  he  had  previously   ^q 
p.210.  cut  off,  by  means  of  similar  feathers ;  and  by   such-like  humbug  and 
swindle. 

The  Banu  Hanifa  kept  possession  of  Yamama  until  Musailima  was 
killed   by   Khulid    b.    Alwalid   in   the   year  when  'Abu-Bakr  Al§iddi]^ 


ON    THE    ERAS    OP    THE    PSEUDO-PEOPHETS.  193 

succeeded.     Then  they  lamented  liis  death  in  verses ;  one  of  the  Banu 
Hanifa  says  : 

"Alas  for  thee,  o'  Abu-Thumama ! 
[Thou  wa.st]  like  the  sun  beaming  forth  from  a  cloud." 

Before  Musailima  in  the  time  of  heathendom  the  Banu  Hanifa  had 
got  an  idol  of  Hais  (i.e.  a  mixture  of  dates,  butter,  and  dried  curd),  which 
they  worshipped  for  a  long  time.  But  once,  being  pressed  by  hunger, 
they  devoured  it.     So  a  poet  of  the  Banu  Tamim  said  : 

"  The  Banu  Hanifa  have  eaten  their  Lord  for  hunger, 
10  From  which  they  were  suffering  already  a  long  time,  and  from  want." 

Another  said : 

"  The  Hanifas  have  eaten  their  Lord 
At  the  time  of  want  and  hunger. 
They  did  not  guard  against  the  punishment, 
Which  their  Lord  might  inflict  upon  them." 

Bahafirid  b.  Mahfarudhin. — Thereupon  in  the  days  of  'Abu-Muslim, 
the  founder  of  the  'Abbaside  dynasty,  came  forward  a  man  called 
Bahafirid  hen  Mdhfurndhm  in  Khwaf,  one  of  the  districts  of  Nishapur, 
in  a  place  called  Sirawand,  being  a  native  of  Zuzan.     In  the  beginning 

20  of  his  career  he  disappeared  and  betook  himself  to  China  for  seven 
years.  Then  he  returned,  and  brought  with  him  among  other  Chinese 
curiosities  a  green  shirt  which,  when  folded  up,  could  be  held  in  the 
grasp  of  a  human  hand  ;  so  thin  and  flexible  was  it.  He  went  up  to  a 
temple  during  the  night,  and  when  he  thence  descended  in  the 
morning,  he  was  observed  by  a  peasant  who  was  ploughing  part  of 
his  field.  This  man  he  told  that  he  had  been  in  heaven  during  his 
absence  from  them,  that  heaven  and  hell  had  been  shown  unto  him, 
that  Grod  had  inspired  him,  had  dressed  him  in  that  shirt,  and  had 
sent  him  down  upon  earth  in  that  same  hour.     The  peasant  believed  his 

80  words,  and  told  people  that  he  had  witnessed  him  descending  from 
heaven.  So  he  found  many  adherents  among  the  Magians,  when  he 
came  forward  as  a  prophet  and  preached  his  knew  doctrine. 

He  differed  from  the  Magians  in  most  rites,  but  he  believed  in 
Zaradusht,  and  claimed  for  his  followers  all  the  institutes  of  Zaradusht. 
He  maintained  that  he  secretly  received  divine  revelations,  and  he 
established  seven  prayers  for  his  followers,  one  in  praise  of  the  one 
God,  one  relating  to  the  creation  of  heaven  and  earth,  one  relating  to 
the  creation  of  the  animals  and  to  their  nourishment,  one  relating 
to   death,    one   relating   to   the   resurrection   and   last   judgment,   one 

40  relating  to  those  in  heaven  and  hell  and  what  is  prepared  for  them, 
and  one  in  praise  of  the  people  of  paradise. 

He  composed  for  them  a  book  in  Persian.  He  ordered  them  to 
worship  the  substance  of  the  suu,  kneeling  on  one  knee,  and  in  praying 

13 


194  albIruni. 

always  to  turn  towards  the  sun  wherever  he  might  be,  to  let  their  hair  and 
locks  grow,  to  give  up  the  Zamzama  at  dinner,  not  to  sacrifice  small 
cattle  except  they  be  already  decrepit,  not  to  drink  wine,  not  to  eat 
the  flesh  of  animals  that  have  died  a  sudden  death  as  not  having 
p.211.  l^esn  killed  according  to  prescription,  not  to  marry  their  mothers,  daugh- 
ters, sisters,  nieces,  not  to  exceed  the  sum  of  four  hundred  dirhams  as 
dowry.  Further,  he  ordered  them  to  keep  roads  and  bridges  in  good 
condition  by  means  of  the  seventh  part  of  their  property  and  of  the 
revenue  of  their  labour. 

When  'Abu-Muslim  came  to  Nishripur,  the  Maubadhs  and  Herbadhs  10 
assembled  before  him  telling  him  that  this  man  had  infected  Islam 
as  well  as  their  own  religion.  So  he  sent  'Abdallah  b.  Shu'ba  to  fetch 
him.  He  caught  him  in  the  mountains  of  Badaghis  and  brought  him 
before  'Abu-Muslim,  who  put  him  to  death,  and  all  his  followers  of 
whom  he  could  get  hold. 

His  followers,  called  the  Bahcifiridiyya,  keep  still  the  institutes  of 
their  founder  and  strongly  oppose  the  Zamzamis  among  the  Magians. 
They  maintain  that  the  servant  of  their  prophet  had  told  them  that 
the  prophet  had  ascended  into  heaven  on  a  common  dark-brown  horse, 
and  that  he  will  again  come  down  to  them  in  the  same  way  as  he  20 
ascended  and  will  take  vengeance  on  his  enemies. 

Almukanna'. — Thereupon  came  forward  Hashim  b.  Hakim,  known 
by  the  name  of  Almukanna',  in  Marw,  in  a  village  called  Kawakimar- 
dan.  He  used  to  veil  himself  in  green  silk,  because  he  had  only  one 
eye.  He  maintained  that  he  was  God,  and  that  he  had  incarnated 
himself,  since  before  incarnation  nobody  could  see  God. 

He  passed  the  river  Oxus  and  went  to  the  districts  of  Kash  and 
Nasaf.  He  entered  into  correspondence  with  the  Khakan  and  solicited 
his  help.  The  sect  of  the  Muhayyida  and  the  Turks  gathered  round 
hinij  and  the  property  and  women  (of  his  enemies)  he  delivered  up  to  39 
them,  killing  everybody  who  opposed  him.  He  made  obligatory  for 
them  all  the  laws  and  institutes  which  Mazhdak  had  established. 

He  scattered  the  armies  of  Almahdi,  and  ruled  during  fourteen  years, 
but  finally  he  was  besieged  and  killed  a.h.  169.  Being  surrounded 
on  all  sides  he  burned  himself,  that  his  body  might  be  annihilated,  and, 
in  consequence,  his  followers  might  see  therein  a  confirmation  of  his 
claim  of  being  God.  However,  he  did  not  succeed  in  annihilating  his 
body  ;  it  was  found  in  the  oven,  and  his  head  was  cut  off  and  sent 
to  the  Khalif  Almahdi,  who  was  then  in  Halab. 

There  is    still  a  sect   in  Transoxiana  who    practise  his  religion,  but  40 
only   secretly,  whilst   in   j)ublic   they  profess    Islam.      The    history  of 
Almukanna'    I   have   translated   from   the   Persian   into   Arabic ;     the 
subject  has  been  exhaustively  treated  in  my  history  of  the  Mubayyida 
and  the  Karmatians. 

Alhallaj. — Thereupon   came  forward  a  Sufi  of  Persian  origin,  called 


ON  THE  EEAS  OF  THE  PSEUDO-PEOPHETS.       195 

Alhusain  hen  Mdnsur  Alhalldj.  He  was  the  first  to  preach  the  coming  of 
Almahdi,  maintaining  that  he  would  come  from  Talakan  in  Dailam. 
They  seized  upon  him  and  led  him  into  Baghdad,  parading  him  through 
the  streets.  Then  he  was  put  into  prison,  but  he  contrived  to  get  out 
of  it  'again.  He  was  a  juggler  and  artful  sort  of  man,  mixing  himself 
up  with  every  human  being  according  to  his  belief  and  his  views. 
Further,  he  preached  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  dwelling  in  him,  and 
he  called  himself  God.  His  letters  to  his  followers  bore  the  following 
superscription :  "  From  the  He,  the  eternal,  the  first  He,  the  beaming 
10  and  shining  light,  the  original  origin,  the  proof  of  all  proofs,  the  Lord 
of  the  Lords,  who  raises  the  clouds,  the  window  from  which  the  light 
shines,  the  Lord  of  the  Mountain  (Sinai),  who  is  represented  in  every 
shape — to  his  slave  N.  IST."  And  his  followers  began  their  letters 
to  him  in  this  way  :  "  Praise  unto  thee,  0  being  of  all  beings,  the 
perfection  of  all  delights,  0  great,  0  sublime  being,  I  bear  witness  p.212. 
that  thou  art  the  eternal  creator,  the  light- giver,  who  reveals  him- 
self in  every  time  and  age,  and  in  this  our  time  in  the  figure  of 
Alhusain  b.  Mansur !  Thy  slave,  thy  wretched  and  poor  one,  who 
seeks  helj:)  with  thee,  who  flies  for  refuge  to  thee,  who  hopes  for 
20  thy  mercy,  0  thou  who  knowest  all  mysteries ! — speaks  thus  and 
thus." 

He  composed  books  on  the  subject  of  his  preaching,   e.g.  the  Kitdb- 
Niir-AVasl,    the    Kitdb-Jamm-AVa'kbar    and     the    Kitdb-Jamm-AVas- 
'        ghar. 

A.H.  301,  the  Khalif  Almuktadir-billah  laid  hands  upon  him;  he 
ordered  the  executioner  to  give  him  a  thousand  lashes,  to  cut  off  his 
hands  and  feet  and  to  behead  him ;  then  they  besprinkled  him  with 
nafta  and  burnt  his  body,  and  threw  the  ashes  into  the  Tigris. 
During  the  whole  execution  he  did  not  utter  a  syllable  nor  distort  his 
80   face  nor  move  his  lips. 

A  remnant  of  his  followers  who  are  called  after  him  is  still  extant ; 
they  preach  the  coming  of  Almahdi,  and  say  that  he  will  issue  from 
Talakan.  Of  this  same  Mahdi  it  is  said  in  the  Kitdh-Almaldhim 
that  he  will  fill  the  earth  with  justice  as  it  heretofore  has  been 
filled  with  injustice.  Somewhere  in  the  book  it  is  said  that  he  will  be 
Muhammad  b.  'Abdallah,  elsewhere  that  he  will  be  Muhammad  b. 
'All,  Nay,  when  Almukhtar  b.  'Abi-'Ubaid  Althakafi  called  people 
to  rally  round  Muhammad  b.  Alhanafiyya,  he  produced  as  a  testimony 
an  authentic  tradition,  and  maintained  that  this  was  the  predicted 
40  Mahdi. 

Even  in  our  time  people  expect  the  Mahdi  to  come,  believing  that 
he  is  alive  and  resides  in  the  mountain  Radwa.  Likewise  the  Banu- 
'Umayya  expect  the  coming  of  Alsufyani  who  is  mentioned  in  the  Maldhim. 
In  that  book  it  is  also  mentioned  that  Aldajjal,  the  seducer,  will  issue 
from  the  district  of  Isfahan,  whilst  astrologers  maintain  that  he  will 

13  » 


196  ALBfR^Nt. 

issue  from  the  island  of  Bartall  four  hundred  and  sixty-six  years  after 
Yazdagird  ben  Shahryar.  Also  in  the  Gosj^el  you  find  mentioned  the 
signs  that  will  foreshow  his  coming.  In  G-reek,  in  Christian  books,  he  is 
called  'AvTtxptcTTos,  as  we  learn  from  Mar  Theodorus,  the  Bishop  of 
Mopsueste,  in  his  commentary  on  the  Gospel. 

Historians  relate  that  'Umar  ben  Alkhattab  on  entering  Syria  was 
met  by  the  Jews  of  Damascus.  They  spoke  thus  :  "  Greeting  to  thee, 
O  Faruk !  Thou  art  the  Lord  of  ^lia.  We  adjure  thee  by  God,  do  not 
return  until  you  conquer  it,"  He  asked  them  as  to  Aldajjal,  whereupon 
they  answered :  "  He  will  be  one  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  By  God,  10 
you,  O  nation  of  the  Arabs,  you  will  kill  him  at  a  distance  of  ten  to 
twenty  yards  from  the  gate  of  Lydda." 

In  the  times  after  Alhallaj  the  Karmatians  rose  into  power.  'Abu- 
Tahir  Sulaiman  b.  'Abi-Sa'id  Alhasan  b.  Bahram  Aljannabi  marched  out 
and  reached  Makka  a.h.  318  ;  he  killed  in  an  atrocious  way  the  people 
who  were  passing  round  the  circuit  of  the  Ka'ba,  and  threw  the  corpses 
into  the  well  Zamzam;  he  carried  off  the  garments  and  the  golden 
implements  of  the  Holy  House,  and  destroyed  its  aqueduct ;  he  took 
away  the  black  stone,  smashed  it,  suspended  it  afterwards  in  the  Mosque 
of  Kufa,  and  then  he  returned  home.  20 

■n  213  I^^  Abi-Zakariyya. — On  the  1st  Ramadan  A.H.  319  came  forward 
Ihn  'Abi-ZaTcariyyd,  a  native  of  Tamam,  a  young  man  of  bad  character, 
a  male  prostitute.  He  called  upon  people  to  recognise  him  as  the  Lord, 
and  they  followed  him.  He  ordered  them  to  cut  open  the  stomachs  of 
the  dead,  to  wash  them  and  to  fill  them  with  wine ;  to  cut  off  the  hand  of 
everybody  who  extinguished  the  fire  with  his  hand,  the  tongue  of  every- 
body who  extinguished  it  by  blowing  ;  to  have  intercourse  with  young 
men, — but  with  this  restriction,  ne  justo  magis  penem  immitterent.  If 
anybody  infringed  this  rule,  he  should  be  dragged  on  his  face  over  a 
distance  of  forty  yards.  Those  who  would  not  practise  pederasty  were  30 
killed  by  the  butcher.  He  ordered  them  to  worship  and  honour  the 
fires,  he  cursed  all  the  prophets  of  former  times  and  their  companions, 
for  they  were  "  artful  deceivers  and  on  the  wrong  path,"  and  more  of  that 
sort,  which  I  have  sxifficiently  related  in  my  history  of  the  Mubayyida 
and  the  Karmatians. 

In  such  a  conditon  they  remained  during  eighty  days,  till  God  gave 
him  into  the  power  of  that  man  who  had  originally  brought  him 
forward.  He  slaughtered  him,  and  so  their  schemes  turned  back  upon 
their  own  necks. 

If,  now,  this  be  the  time  which  Jamasp  and  Zaradusht  meant,  they  40 
are  right  as  far  as  chronology  is  concerned.  For  this  happened  at  the 
end  of  ^Era  Alexandri  1242,  i.e.  1,500  years  after  Zariidusht.  They  are 
wrong,  however,  as  regards  the  restoration  of  the  empire  to  the 
Magians.  Likewise  'Abu-'Abdallah  Al'adi  has  been  mistaken,  a  man 
who  is  stupidly  partial  to   Magism  and  who  hojjes  for  an  age  in  which 


ox    THE    ERAS    OF    THE    PSEUPO-PROPHETS.  107 

AlkiVim  is  to  appear.  Foi*  he  has  composed  a  book  on  the  cycles  and 
conjunctions,  in  which  he  says  that  the  18th  conjunction  since  the 
birth  of  Muhammad  coincides  with  the  10th  millennium,  which  is 
presided  oyer  by  Saturn  and  Sagittarius.  Now  he  maintains  that 
then  a  man  will  come  forward  who  will  restore  the  rule  of  Magism ; 
he  will  occupy  the  whole  world,  will  do  away  with  the  rule  of  the 
Arabs  and  others,  he  will  unite  all  mankind  in  one  religion  and  under 
one  rule ;  he  will  do  away  with  all  evil,  and  will  rule  during  7i  con- 
junctions. Besides  he  asserts  that  no  Arabian  prince  will  rule  after 
10   that  one  who  is  ruling  in  the  17th  conjunction. 

That  time  which  this  man  indicates  must  of  necessity  refer  to 
Almuktafi  and  Almuktadir,  but  it  has  not  brought  about  those  events 
which,  according  to  his  prophecies,  were  to  have  taken  place  after  their 
time. 

People  say  that  the  Sasanian  rule  existed  during  fienj  conjunctions. 
Now,  the  rule  over  Dailam  was  seized  by  'Ali  b.  Buwaihi  called  'Imad- 
aldaula  during  fiery  conjunctions.  This  is  what  people  used  to  pro- 
mise each  other  regarding  the  restoration  of  the  rule  to  the  Persians, 
although  the  doings  of  the  Buwaihi  family  were  not  like  those  of  the 
20   ancient  kings. 

I  do  not  know  why  they  preferred  the  Dailamite  dynasty,  whilst  the 
fact  of  the  transitus  into  a  fiery  Trigonon  is  the  most  evident  proof 
indicative  uf  the  Abbaside  dynasty,  who  are  a  Khurasani,  an  eastern 
dynasty.  Besides,  both  dynasties  (Dailamites  as  well  as  Abbasides)  are 
alike  far  from  renewing  the  rule  of  the  Persians  and  farther  still  from 
restoring  their  ancient  religion. 

Before  the  appearance  of  that  youth  (Ibn  'Abi  Zakariyya)  the 
Karmatians  believed  in  some  dogmas  of  the  Esoterics,  and  they  were  p.214. 
considered  as  adherents  of  the  family  of  the  blessed  House  (of 
30  'All).  They  promised  each  other  the  coming  of  him  who  is  ex- 
pected to  come  during  the  7th  conjunction  under  a  fiery  Trigonon, 
so  that  'Abu-Tahir  Sulaiman  b.  Alhasan  says  on  V.i;  subject: 

"  The  most  glorious  benefit  I  bestow  on  you  will  be  my  return  to 
Hajar. 

Then,  after  a  while,  verily  the  news  will  reach  you. 

When  Mars  rises  from  Babylonia, 

"When  the  Two  Stars  have  left  him,  then  beware,  beware  1 

Is  it  not  I  who  is  mentioned  in  all  the  scriptures  ? 

Is  it  not  I  who  is  described  in  the  Sura  Alzumar  ? 
40  I  shall  rule  the  people  of  the  earth,  east  and  west, 

As  far  as  the  Kairawan  of  the  Greeks,  to  the  Turks  and  Chazars. 

And  I  shall  live  until  the  coming  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Mary. 

Then  he  will  praise  my  exploits  and  approve  of  what  he  ordered. 

Then,  no  doubt,  my  dwelling-place  will  be  in  paradise. 

Whilst  the  others  will  burn  in  fire  and  hell." 


198  ALBtRUNl. 

Theretipon  came  forward  a  man  called  Ihn  'Ahi-Al'azdkir  b.  'Ali  b. 
Shalmagban.  He  maintained  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  dwelling  in 
him,  and  composed  a  book  which  he  called  The  6th  Sense,  relating 
to  the  abrogation  of  the  rites. 

(The  end  of  this  chapter  and  the  beginning  of  the  following  are  missing.') 


199 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF    THE    PERSIANS.  p.215. 

(Farwardin-Mali.) 

(1.  Nauroz.) 

.     .     .     and   he    divided   the    cup    among  his   companions,    and    said, 

"  0  that  we  had  Nauroz  every  day  !  " 

A  philosopher  of  the  Hashwiyy a- school  relates  that  when  Solomon  the 
son  of  David  had  lost  his  seal  and  his  empire,  but  was  reinstated  after  forty 
days,  he  at  once  regained  his  former  majesty,  the  princes  came  before 
IQ  him,  and  the  birds  were  busy  in  his  service.  Then  the  Persians  said, 
"  Nauroz  dmadh,"  i.e.  the  new  day  has  come.  Therefore  that  day  was 
called  Nauroz.  Solomon  ordered  the  wind  to  carry  him,  and  so  it  did. 
Then  a  swallow  met  him,  and  said,  "O  king,  I  have  got  a  nest  with 
little  eggs  in  it.  Please,  turn  aside  and  do  not  smash  them."  So 
Solomon  did,  and  when  he  again  descended  to  earth  the  swallow  came 
bringing  some  water  in  his  beak,  which  he  si^rinkled  before  the  king, 
and  made  him  a  present  of  the  foot  of  a  locust.  This  is  the  cause  of  the 
water- sprinkling  and  of  the  presents  on  Nauroz. 

Persian  scholars  say  that  in   the  day  of  Nauroz  there  is  an  hour  in 
20   which  the  sphere  of  Feroz  is  driven  on  by  the  spirits  for  the  purpose  of 
renovating  the  creation. 

The  happiest  hours  of  this  day  are  the  hours  of  the  sun.  On  its 
morning,  dawn  is  the  shortest  possible,  and  it  is  considered  as  a  good 
omen  to  look  at  this  dawn.  It  is  a  "preferable"  day  because  it  is 
called  Hurmuz,  which  is  the  name  of  G-od  who  has  created,  formed, 
produced,  and  reared  the  world  and  its  inhabitants,  of  whose  kindness 
and  charity  nobody  could  describe  even  a  part. 

Sa'id  b.  Alfadl  relates  :  On  the  mountain  Dama  in  Pars  every  night 
of  Nauroz  there  is  observed  a  far-spreading  and  strong-shining  light- 


200  ALBIRUWi. 

ning,  whether  the  sky  be  clear  or  covered  with  clouds,  in  every  state 
of  the  weather. 

Still  more  curious  than  this  are  the  fires  of  Kalwadha,  although 
one  does  not  feel  inclined  to  believe  the  thing  without  having  seen  it. 
'Abu-alfaraj  Alzanjani,  the  mathematician,  told  me  that  he  had 
witnessed  it  together  with  a  number  of  other  people  who  went  to  Kalwadha 
in  that  year  when  'Adud-aldaula  entered  Baghdadh,  and  that  there 
are  innumerable  fires  and  lights  which  appear  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Tigris,  opposite  Kalwadha,  in  that  night  with  the  morning  of  which 
Nauroz  begins.  The  Sultan  had  there  posted  his  guards  to  find  out  10 
the  truth  in  order  not  to  be  deceived  by  the  Magians.  All,  however, 
they  found  out  was  this,  that  as  soon  as  they  came  nearer  to  the  fires 
they  went  farther  off,  and  as  soon  as  they  went  away  the  fires  came 
nearer.  Now  I  said  to  'Abu-Alfaraj,  "  The  day  of  Nauroz  recedes 
from  its  proper  place  in  consequence  of  the  Persians  neglecting 
intercalation.  Why,  then,  does  not  this  phenomenon  remain  back  behind 
Nauroz  ?  Or  if  it  is  not  necessary  that  it  should  remain  behind,  did 
it  then  fall  earlier  at  the  time  when  they  practised  intercalation?" 
Upon  which  he  could  not  give  a  satisfactory  answer. 
p.216.  The  charm-mongers  say  :  He  who  thrice  sips  honey  on  Naur 6 z  in  20 
the  morning  before  speaking,  and  perfumes  his  room  with  three  pieces 
of  wax,  will  be  safe  against  all  diseases. 

One  Persian  scholar  adduces  as  the  reason  why  this  day  was  called 
Nauroz,  the  following :  viz.  that  the  Sabians  arose  during  the  reign  of 
Tahmurath.  When,  then,  Jamshid  succeeded,  he  renovated  the  religion, 
and  his  work,  the  date  of  which  was  a  Nauroz,  was  called  New- Day. 
Then  it  was  made  a  feast  day,  havuig  already  before  been  held  in  great 
veneration. 

Another  account  of  the  reason  why  it  was  made  a  feast  day  is  this, 
that  Jamshid,  on  having  obtained  the  carriage,  ascended  it  on  this  30 
day,  and  the  Jinns  and  Dews  carried  him  in  one  day  through  the  air 
from  Dabawand  to  Babel.  Now  people  made  this  day  a  feast  day 
on  account  of  the  wonder  which  they  had  seen  during  it,  and  they 
amused  themselves  with  swinging  in  order  to  imitate  Jamshid. 

Another  report  says  that  Jam  was  going  about  in  the  country, — that  he, 
when  wishing  to  enter  AdharbaijA,n,  sat  on  a  golden  throne  and  was 
thus  carried  away  by  the  men  on  their  necks.  When,  then,  the  rays  of 
the  sun  fell  on  him  and  people  saw  him,  they  did  homage  to  him  and 
were  full  of  joy  and  made  that  day  a  feast  day. 

On  Nauroz  it  was  the  custom  for  people  to  present  each  other  sugar.  40 
According  to  Adharbadh,  the  Maul  adh  of  Baghdadh,  the  reason  is  this, 
that  the  sugar-cane  was  first  discovered  during  the  reign  of  Jam  on 
the  day  of  Nauroz,  having  before  been  unknown.  For  Jam  on  seeing 
a  juicy  cane  which  droj)i)ed  some  of  its  juice,  tasted  it,  and  found  that 
it  had  an  agreeable  sweetness.      Then  he  ordered  the  juice  of  the  sugar- 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF    THE    PERSIANS.     201 

cane  to  be  pressed  out  and  sugar  to  be  made  thereof.  It  was  ready 
on  the  fifth  day,  and  then  they  made  each  other  presents  of  sugar. 
The  same  was  also  the  custom  on  Mihrjan. 

They  have  adoj^ted  the  time  of  the  summer- solstice  as  the  beginning 
of  the  year  for  this  reason  in  particular,  that  the  two  solstitial-points 
are  easier  to  be  ascertained  by  the  help  of  instruments  and  by  observa- 
tion than  the  equinoctial  points,  for  the  former  are  the  beginning  of 
the  advance  of  the  sun  towards  one  of  the  two  poles  of  the  imiverse 
and  of  his  turning  away  from  the  same  pole.  And  if  the  perpendicular 
10  shadow  at  the  summer- solstice  is  observed,  and  the  level  shadow  at  the 
winter-solstice,  in  whatsoever  place  of  the  earth  the  observation  be  made, 
the  observer  cannot  possibly  mistake  the  day  of  the  solstice,  though  he 
may  be  entirely  ignorant  in  geometry  and  astronomy,  because  a  varia- 
tion of  the  level  shadow  takes  place  notwithstanding  the  small  amount 
of  declination,  if  the  Height  is  considerable.  On  the  other  hand  the 
two  equinoctial  days  cannot  be  ascertained,  unless  you  have  found 
beforehand  the  latitude  of  the  place  and  the  General  Declination.  And 
this  nobody  will  find  out  unless  he  studies  astronomy  and  has  profited 
something  thereby,  and  knows  how  to  place  and  how  to  use  the  instru- 
20   ments  of  observation. 

Therefore  the  solstitial  points  are  better  adapted  for  marking  the 
beginning  of  the  year  than  the  equinoctial  points.  And  as  the  summer- 
solstice  is  nearer  to  the  zenith  of  the  northern  countries,  people 
preferred  it  to  the  winter- solstice  ;  for  this  reason,  moreover,  that  it  is 
the  time  of  the  rijDening  of  the  corn.  Therefore  it  is  more  proper  to  p. 21 7. 
gather  the  taxes  at  this  time  than  at  any  other. 

Many  of  the  scholars  and  sages  of  the  Greeks  observed  the  horoscope 
at  the  time  of  the  rising  of  Sirius  and  commenced  the  year  at  that  time, 
not  with  the  vernal  equinox,  because  the  rising  of  Sirius  coincided  in 
30  bygone  times  with  this  solstice,  or  occurred  very  near  it. 

This  day,  I  mean  ISTauroz,  has  receded  from  its  original  proper  j^lace, 
so  that  in  our  time  it  coincides  with  the  sun's  entering  the  sign  of  Aries, 
which  is  the  beginning  of  spring.  Whence  it  has  become  the  custom 
of  the  princes  of  KhurtisiXn  on  this  day  to  dress  their  warriors  in  spring 
— and  summer — dresses. 

On  the  6th  of  Farwardin,  the  day  Khurdadh,  is  the  G-reat  Nauroz, 
for  the  Persians  a  feast  of  great  importance.  On  this  day — they  say — 
Grod  finished  the  creation,  for  it  is  the  last  of  the  six  days,  mentioned 
before.  On  this  God  created  Saturn,  therefore  its  most  lucky  hours 
40  are  those  of  Saturn.  On  the  same  day — they  say — the  Sors  Zara- 
tJiustrcB  came  to  hold  communion  with  God,  and  Kaikhusrau  ascended 
into  the  air.  On  the  same  day  the  happy  lots  are  distributed  among 
the  people  of  the  earth.  Therefore  the  Persians  call  \t  "  the  day  of 
hope." 

The  charm-mongers   say  :    He  who  tastes  sugar   on  the  morning  of 


202  ALBtE^Nt. 

this  day  before  speaking,  and  anoints  himself  with  oil,  will  keep  off  all 
sorts  of  mishap  during  the  greater  part  of  this  same  year. 

On  the  morning  of  this  day,  a  silent  person  with  a  bundle  of  fragrant 
flowers  in  his  hand  is  seen  on  the  mountaia  Bushanj ;  he  is  visible  for 
one  hour  and  then  disappears,  and  does  not  reapj)ear  until  the  same 
time  of  the  next  year. 

Zadawaihi  says  that  the  cause  of  this  was  the  rising  of  the  sun  from 
the  southern  region,  i.e.  AfdMar.  For  the  cursed  'Iblis  had  deprived 
eating  and  drinking  of  their  beneficial  effect,  so  that  people  could  not 
satisfy  their  hunger  nor  quench  their  thirst ;  and  he  had  prevented  the  10 
wind  from  blowing.  So  the  trees  withered  up  and  the  world  was  near 
to  utter  decay.  Then  came — by  the  command  and  under  the  guidance 
of  God — Jam  to  the  southern  region.  He  marched  towards  the 
residence  of  'Iblis  and  of  his  followers,  and  remained  there  for  some 
time  until  he  had  extinguished  that  plague.  Then  people  returned  into 
a  state  of  justice  and  prosperity  and  were  freed  from  that  trial.  Under 
such  circumstances  Jam  returned  to  the  world  (i.e.  Eran)  and  rose  on 
that  day  like  the  sun,  the  light  beaming  forth  from  him,  as  though  he 
shone  like  the  sun.  Now  people  were  astonished  at  the  rising  of  two 
suns,  and  all  dried-up  wood  became  green.  So  people  said  roz-i-nau,  20 
i.e.  a  new  day.  And  everybody  planted  barley  in  a  vessel  or  somewhere 
else,  considering  it  as  a  good  omen.  Ever  since,  it  has  been  the  custom 
on  this  day  to  sow  around  a  j)late  seven  kinds  of  grain  on  seven 
columns,  and  from  their  growth  they  drew  conclusions  regarding  the 
corn  of  that  year,  whether  it  would  be  good  or  bad. 

On  the  same  day  Jamshid  issued  a  proclamation  to  those  who  were 
present,  and  wrote  to  those  who  were  absent,  ordering  them  to  destroy 
the  old  temples  and  not  to  build  a  new  one  on  that  day. 

His  behaviour  towards  the  people  was  such  as  pleased  God,  who 
rewarded  him  by  delivering  his  people  fi"om  diseases  and  decrepitude,  30 
p. 218.  fj^oi^  envy  and  frailty,  and  sorrows  and  disasters.  No  being  was  sick 
or  died,  as  long  as  he  ruled — until  the  time  when  Bewarasp,  his  sister's 
son,  appeared,  who  killed  Jam  and  subdued  his  realm.  In  the  time  of 
Jam  the  population  increased  at  such  a  rate  that  the  earth  could  no 
longer  contain  them ;  therefore  God  made  the  earth  thrice  as  large  as  it 
had  been  before.  He  (Jam)  ordered  peoj)le  to  wash  themselves  with 
water  in  order  to  clean  themselves  of  their  sins,  and  to  do  so  every  year 
that  God  might  keep  them  aloof  from  the  calamities  of  the  year. 

Some  people  maintain  that   Jam  ordei'ed  channels  to  be  dug,  and  that 
the  water  was  led  into  them  on  this  day.     Therefore  peoj^le  rejoiced  at  40 
their   prosperity,  and  washed  themselves  in  the  water  that  was  sent 
them  (by  the  channels),  and  in  this  respect  the  later  generations  have 
considered  it  a  good  omen  to  imitate  the  former  ones. 

Others,  again,  maintain  that  he  who  let  the  water  into  the  channels 
was  Zu,  after  Afrasiab  had  ruined  all  the  dwellings  of  Eranshahr. 


ON  THE  FESTIVALS  IN  THE  MONTHS  OF  THE  PERSIANS.   208 

According  to  anotlier  view,  the  cause  of  the  washing  is  this — that  this 
day  is  sacred  to  Harudha,  the  angel  of  the  water,  who  stands  in  relation 
to  the  water.  Therefore  people  rose  on  this  day  early,  at  the  rising  of 
dawn,  and  went  to  the  water  of  the  aqueducts  and  wells.  Frequently, 
too,  they  drew  running  water  in  a  vase,  and  poured  it  over  themselves, 
considering  this  a  good  omen  and  a  means  to  keei>  off  hurt. 

On  the  same  day  people  sprinkle  water  over  each  other,  of  which  the 
cause  is  said  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  washing.  According  to  another 
report,  the  reason  was  this — that  during  a  long  time  the  rain  was  with- 
XO  held  fiom  Eranshahr,  but  that  they  got  copious  rain,  when  Jamshid, 
having  ascended  the  throne,  brought  them  the  good  news  of  which  we 
have  spoken.  Therefore  they  considered  the  rain  a  good  omen,  and 
poured  it  over  each  other,  which  has  remained  among  them  as  a 
custom. 

According  to  another  explanation,  this  water- sprinkling  simply  holds 
the  place  of  a  purification,  by  which  people  cleansed  their  bodies  from 
the  smoke  of  the  fire  and  from  the  dirt  connected  with  attending  to  the 
fires.  Besides  it  serves  the  purpose  of  removing  from  the  air  that 
corruption  which  produces  epidemic  and  other  diseases. 
20  On  the  same  day  Jam  brought  forward  all  kinds  of  measures  ;  there- 
fore the  kings  considered  his  way  of  counting  as  of  good  omen.  On  the 
same  day  they  used  to  prepare  all  the  necessary  paper  and  the  hides 
on  which  their  despatches  to  the  provinces  of  the  empire  were  written, 
and  all  the  documents  to  which  the  royal  seal  was  to  be  applied  were 
sealed.     Such  a  document  was  called  Esptddnuwisht. 

After    the   time    of    Jam    the    kings   made   this   whole   month,   i.e. 

Farwardin-Mah,  one  festival,  distributed  over  its  six  parts.     The  first 

five  days  were  feast  days  for  the  princes,  the  second  for  the  nobility, 

the  third  for  the  servants  of  the  princes,  the  fourth  for  their  clients, 

30   the  fifth  for  the  people,  and  the  sixth  for  the  herdsmen. 

The  man  who  connected  the  two  Nauroz  with  each  other  is  said  to 
have  been  Hormuz  ben  Shapur  the  Hero,  for  he  raised  to  festivals  all  the 
days  between  the  two  Nauroz.  Besides  he  ordered  fires  to  be  kindled 
on  high  places,  because  he  considered  it  a  good  omen,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  purifying  the  air,  since  they  consume  all  unwholesome 
elements  in  the  air  and  dissolve  and  scatter  those  miasmata  that 
produce  corruption. 

In  these  five  days  it  was  the  custom  of  the  Kisras  that  the  king 
opened  the  Nauroz  and  then  proclaimed  to  all  that  he  would  hold  a 
40  session  for  them,  and  bestow  benefits  uj^on  them.  On  the  second  day 
the  session  was  for  men  of  high  rank,  and  for  the  members  of  the  great 
families.  On  the  third  day  the  session  was  for  his  warriors,  and  for  the  p.219. 
highest  Maubadhs.  On  the  fourth  day  it  was  for  his  family,  his  re- 
lations and  domestics,  and  on  the  fifth  day  it  was  for  his  children  and 
clients.     So  everybody   received  the   rank  and    distinction  he    was   en- 


204  ALBtRUNf. 

titled  to,  and  obtained  those  remunerations  and  benefits  wliich  he  had 
deserved.  When  the  sixth  day  came  and  he  had  done  justice  to  all 
of  them,  he  celebrated  Nauroz  for  himself  and  conversed  only  with  his 
special  friends  and  those  who  were  admitted  into  his  privacy.  Then 
he  ordered  to  be  brought  before  him  the  whole  amount  of  presents, 
arranged  according  to  those  who  had  presented  them.  He  considered 
them,  distributed  of  them  what  he  liked,  and  deposited  what  he  liked  in 
his  treasury. 

The  17th  is  the  day  of  Serosh,  who  first  ordered  the  Zamzama,  i.e. 
expressing  yourself  by  whisj^ering,  not  by  clear  speech.  For  they  said  10 
prayers,  praised  and  celebrated  God,  whilst  handing  to  each  other  the 
food ;  now,  speaking  not  being  allowed  during  prayer,  they  express 
themselves  by  whisj)ers  and  signs.  Thus  I  was  told  by  the  geometrician 
Adharkhura.  According  to  another  authority,  the  Zamzama  is  intended 
to  prevent  the  breath  of  the  mouth  from  touching  the  food. 

This  day  is  a  blessed  day  in  every  month,  because  Serosh  is  the 
name  of  that  angel  who  watches  over  the  night.  He  is  also  said  to  be 
Gabriel.  He  is  the  most  powerful  of  all  angels  against  the  Jinns  and 
sorcerers.  Thrice  in  the  night  he  rises  above  the  world  ;  then  he  smites 
the  Jinns  and  drives  off  the  sorcerers ;  he  makes  the  night  shine  20 
brilliantly  by  his  appearance.  The  air  is  getting  cold,  the  water  sweet ; 
the  cocks  begin  crowing,  and  the  lust  of  sexual  intercourse  begins 
to  burn  in  all  animals.  One  of  his  three  risings  is  the  rising  of  dawn, 
when  the  plants  begin  to  thrive,  the  flowers  to  grow,  and  the  birds  to 
sing ;  when  the  sick  man  begins  to  rest,  and  the  sorrowful  to  feel  some- 
what relieved ;  when  the  traveller  travels  in  safety  ;  when  the  time  is 
agreeable  ;  when  such  dreams  occur  as  will  be  fulfilled  one  day  ;  and 
when  all  angels  and  demons  enjoy  themselves. 

On  the   19th,  or  Farwardin-Roz,  there  is  a  feast  called  Farwardagdn 
on  account  of  the  identity  of  the  name  of  the  day  and  of  the  month  in  30 
which  it  lies.     A  similar  feast-day  they  have  got  in  every  month. 

Ardibahisht-Mah. 

On  the  3rd,  or  Ardibahisht-Eoz,  there  is  a  feast,  Ardibahishtagdn, 
so  called  on  account  of  the  identity  of  the  name  of  the  month  and  the 
day.  The  word  Ardibahisht  means  "  truth  is  the  best,"  or  according  to 
another  explanation,  "  the  utmost  of  good." 

Ardi]:)ahisht  is  the  genius  of  fire  and  light ;  both  elements  stand  in 
relation  to   him.     God  has  ordered  him  to  watch  over  these  elements  ; 
to  remove  the  weaknesses   and   diseases  by   drugs  and  nourishments ; 
to  distinguish  truth  from  falsehood,  the  true   man  from  the  liar,  by   50 
means  of  those  oaths  that  are  manifest  in  the  Avasta. 

The  26th,  or  Ashtjidh-Eoz,  is  the  first  day  of  the  third  Gahanbar; 
it  lasts  five  days,  the  last  of  which  is  the  last  day  of  the  month.  In 
these  days  God  created  the  earth.     This  Gahanbar  is  called  Paitishahim- 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF    THE    PERSIANS.      205 

Gdh.     The  six   Gahanhars,  each   of  which   lasts   five   days,  have  been 
established  by  Zoroaster. 

Khurdadh-Mah.  P-220. 

The  6th  day,  or  Khurdadh-Eoz,  is  a  feast  Khurdadhagan,  so  called  on 
account  of  the  identity  of  the  name  of  the  month  and  the  day.  The 
meaning  of  the  name  is  "  the  stability  of  the  creation."  Harudha  is 
the  genius  instructed  to  watch  over  the  growth  of  the  creation,  of  the 
trees  and  plants,  and  to  keep  off  all  impure  substances  from  the  water. 

The  26th,  or  Ashtadh-Eoz,  is  the  first  day  of  the  fourth  Gahanbar,  the 
10  last  day  of  which  is  the  last  of  the  month.  During  this  Gahanbar  God 
created  the  trees  and  plants.     It  is  called  Ayathrema-Gdh. 

Tir-Mah. 
On  the  6th,  or  Khurdadh-Eoz,  there  is  a  feast  called  Gashn-i-nUufar, 
considered  to  be  of  recent  origin. 

On  the  13th,  or  Tir-Eoz,  there  is  a  feast  Tiragan,  so  called  on  account 
of  the  identity  of  the  name  of  the  month  and  the  day.  Of  the  two  causes 
to  which  it  is  traced  back,  one  is  this,  that  Afrsisiab  after  having 
subdued  Eranshahr,  and  while  besieging  Minocihr  in  Tabaristan,  asked 
him  some  favour.     Minocihr  comj^lied  with  his  wish,  on  the  condition 

20  that  he  (Afrasiab)  shoiild  restore  to  him  a  part  of  Eranshahr  as  long  and 
as  broad  as  an  arrow-shot.  On  that  occasion  there  was  a  genius 
present,  called  Isfandfirmadh  ;  he  ordered  to  be  brought  a  bow  and  an 
arrow  of  such  a  size  as  he  himself  had  indicated  to  the  arrow-maker, 
in  conformity  with  that  which  is  manifest  in  the  Avasta.  Then  he  sent 
for  Arish,  a  noble,  pious,  and  wise  man,  and  ordered  him  to  take  the  bow 
and  to  shoot  the  arrow.  Arish  stepped  forward,  took  off  his  clothes, 
and  said :  "  0  king,  and  ye  others,  look  at  my  body.  I  am  free  from 
any  wound  or  disease.  I  know  that  when  I  shoot  with  this  bow  and 
arrow  I  shall  fall  to  pieces  and  my  life  will  be  gone,  but  I  have  deter- 

30  mined  to  sacrifice  it  for  you."  Then  he  applied  himself  to  the  work,  and 
bent  the  bow  with  all  the  power  God  had  given  him ;  then  he  shot,  and 
fell  asunder  into  pieces.  By  order  of  God  the  wind  bore  the  arrow 
away  from  the  mountain  of  Ruyan  and  brought  it  to  the  utmost 
frontier  of  Khurasan  between  Farghana  and  Tabaristan ;  there  it  hit  the 
trunk  of  a  nut-tree  that  was  so  large  that  there  had  never  been  a  tree 
like  it  in  the  world.  The  distance  between  the  place  where  the  arrow 
was  shot  and  that  where  it  fell  was  1,000  Farsakh.  Afrasiab  and 
Minocihr  made  a  treaty  on  the  basis  of  this  shot  that  was  shot  on  this 
day.     In  consequence  people  made  it  a  feast-day. 

40  During  this  siege  Minocihr  and  the  people  of  Eranshahr  had  been 
suffering  from  want,  not  being  able  to  grind  the  wheat  and  to  bake  the 
bread  because  the  wheat  was  late  in  ripening ;  finally  they  took  the 
wheat  and  the  fruits,  unripe  as  they  were,  ground  them  and  ate  them. 
Thence  it  has  become  a  rule  for  this  day  to  cook  wheat  and  fruits. 


206  ALBtEUNt. 

According  to  another  report,  the  arrow  was  shot  on  this  day,  i.e. 
Tir-Eoz,  and  the  festival  of  this  day  is  the  small  Tiragan ;  on  the  other 
hand  the  14th,  or  G6sh-E6z,  is  the  great  Tiragan,  that  day  on  which  the 
news  arrived  that  the  arrow  had  fallen. 

On  Tir-Eoz  people  break  their  cooking-vessels  and  fire-grates,  since 
on  this  day  they  were  liberated  from  Afrasiab  and  everybody  was  free 
to  go  to  his  work. 

The  second  cause  of  the  feast  Tiragan  is  the  following :  The  Bahu- 
fadhiyya,  which  means  "the  office  of  guarding  and  watching  over  the 
world  and  of  reigning  in  it,"  and  the  Bcihkana,  which  means  "  the  office  10 
of  cultivating  the  world,  of  sowing  in  it,  and  of  distributing  it " — these 
two  are  twins  on  whom  rest  the  civilization  of  the  world,  and  its 
p.221.  duration,  and  the  setting  right  of  anything  that  is  wrong  in  it. 
The  Kitdba  (the  office  of  writer)  follows  next  to  them  and  is  connected 
with  both  of  them. 

The  DaMfadhiyya  was  founded  by  Hoshang,  the  Dahkana  by  his 
brother  Waikard.  The  name  of  this  day  is  Tir  or  Mercury,  who  is  the 
star  of  the  scribes.  Now  Hoshang  s]3oke  in  praise  of  his  brother  on 
this  same  day,  and  gave  to  him  as  his  share  the  Dahkana,  which  is 
identical  with  the  Kitdha.  Therefore  people  made  this  day  a  feast  in  20 
praise  and  honour  of  him  (Waikard).  On  this  day  he  (Hoshang) 
ordered  peoj)le  to  dress  in  the  dress  of  the  Scribes  SindDihkdns.  There- 
fore the  j)rinces,  Dihkans,  Maubadhs,  etc.,  continued  to  wear  the  dress 
of  the  Scribes  until  the  time  of  Gushtasp,  in  praise  and  honour  of  both 
the  Kitdba  and  Dahkana. 

On  the  same  day  the  Persians  used  to  wash  themselves,  of  which  the 
reason  is  this — that  Kaikhusrau,  on  returning  from  the  war  against 
Afrasiab,  passed  on  this  day  through  the  territory  of  Sawa.  He  went  up 
the  mountain  which  overhangs  the  town,  and  sat  down  at  a  fountain 
quite  alone  at  some  distance  from  his  encampment.  There  an  angel  30 
appeared  unto  him,  whereby  he  was  so  terrified  that  he  swooned.  About 
that  time  Wijan  ben  Judarz  arrived,  when  the  king  had  already  recovered 
himself ;  so  he  sprinkled  some  of  that  water  on  his  face,  leaned  him  against 
a  rock,  and  said  ^j^^J^U  i.e.  do  not  be  afraid.  Thereui>on  the  king  ordered 
a  town  to  be  bviilt  around  that  fountain,  and  called  it  Mandish,  which 
afterwards  was  altered  and  mutilated  into  Andish.  Ever  since,  it  has 
been  the  custom  of  people  to  wash  themselves  in  this  water  and  in  all 
fountain-waters,  this  being  considered  a  good  omen.  The  inhabitants  of 
Amul  go  out  to  the  Bahr-alhhazar,  play  in  the  water,  and  make  fun,  and 
try  to  dip  each  other  on  this  day  the  whole  day  long.  40 

Murdadh-Mfih. 

On  the  7th,  or  Murdadh-Eoz,  there  is  the  feast  Murdadhagan,  so 
called  on  account  of  the  identity  of  the  name  of  the  month  and  the  day. 
The  meaning  of  the  word  Murdadh  is  "  the  everlasting  duration  of  the 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF   THE    PERSIANS.     207 

world  without  death  and  destruction."  Murdadh  is  the  angel  appointed  to 
guard  the  world  and  to  produce  vegetable  food  and  drugs  that  are 
remedies  against  hunger,  misery,  and  disease.     God  knows  best  1 

Shahrewar-Mah. 

On  the  7th,  or  Shahrewar-Eoz,  is  the  feast  Shahrewaragan,  so  called  on 
account  of  the  identity  of  the  name  of  the  month  and  the  day.  Shah- 
rewar  means  sjierma  and  love.  It  is  the  angel  who  is  appointed  to 
watch  over  the  seven  substances,  gold,  silver,  and  the  other  metals,  on 
which  2  ests  all  handicraft,  and  m  consequence  all  the  world  and  its 
10  inhabitants. 

Zadawaihi  relates  that  this  feast  was  called  Adhar-cashn,  i.e.  the  feast 
of  the  fires  that  are  found  in  the  human  dwelling-places.  It  was  the  be- 
ginning of  winter,  therefore  people  used  to  make  great  fires  in  their 
houses,  and  were  deeply  engaged  in  the  worship:)  and  praise  of  God ; 
also  they  used  to  assemble  for  eating  and  merriment.  They  maintained 
that  this  was  done  for  the  purpose  of  banishing  the  cold  and  dryness 
that  arises  in  winter-time,  and  that  the  spreading  of  the  warmth  would 
keep  off  the  attacks  of  all  that  which  is  obnoxious  to  the  plants  in  the 
world.  In  all  this,  their  proceeding  was  that  of  a  man  who  marches  out  p-222. 
20  to  fight  his  enemy  with  a  large  army. 

According  to  the  Maubadh,  Khurshed  Adhar-cashn  was  the  first  day  of 
this  month,  and  only  a  feast  for  the  nobility.  It  does,  however,  not 
belong  to  the  feast-days  of  the  Persians,  although  it  was  used  in  their 
months.  For  it  is  one  of  the  feast-days  of  the  people  of  Tukharistan, 
and  is  a  custom  of  theirs  based  on  the  fact  that  about  this  time  the 
season  altered  and  winter  set  in.  In  this  otir  time  the  people  of  Khura- 
san have  made  it  the  beginning  of  autumn. 

This  day,  i.e.  Mihr-Roz,  is  the  first  day  of  the  fifth  Gahanbar,  the 
last  of  which  is  Bahram-Eoz.     During  this  Gahanbar  God  created  the 
30  cattle.     It  is  called  Maidhydirim-Gcih. 

Mihr-Mah. 

On  the  1st  of  it,  or  Hurmuzd-Roz,  falls  the  Second  Autumn,  a  feast 
for  the  common  people,  agreeably  with  what  has  been  before  mentioned. 

On  the  16th,  or  Mihr-Eoz,  there  is  a  feast  of  great  importance,  called 
Mihrajan.  The  name  of  the  day  is  identical  with  that  of  the  month  ; 
it  means  "  the  love  of  the  spirit.'"  According  to  others,  Mihr  is  the  name 
of  the  sun,  who  is  said  to  have  for  the  first  time  appeared  to  the  world 
on  this  day  ;  that  therefore  this  day  was  called  Mihr.  This  is  indicated 
by  the  custom  of  the  Kisras  of  crowning  themselves  on  this  day  with  a 
40  crown  on  which  was  worked  an  image  of  the  sun  and  of  the  wheel  on 
which  he  rotates.     On  this  day  the  Persians  hold  a  fair. 

People  maintain  that  the  special  veneration  in  which  this  day  is  held 
is  to  be  traced  to  the  joy  of  mankind  when  they  heard  of  Fredun's 


208  ALBfR^t. 

coming  forward,  after  Kabi  had  attacked  Aldahhak  Bevarasp,  expelled 
him  and  called  upon  people  to  do  homage  to  Fredun.  Kabi  is  the 
same  whose  standard  the  Persian  kings  adoj)ted,  considering  it  a  good 
omen  ;  it  was  made  of  the  skin  of  a  bear,  or,  as  others  say,  of  that  of  a 
lion;  it  was  called  Dirafsh-i-Kdhiydn,  and  was  in  later  times  adorned 
with  jewels  and  gold. 

On  the  same  day  the  angels  are  said  to  have  come  down  to  help 
Fredun.  In  consequence  it  has  become  a  custom  in  the  houses  of  the 
kings,  that  at  the  time  of  dawn  a  valiant  warrior  was  posted  in  the 
court  of  the  palace,  who  called  at  the  highest  pitch  of  his  voice :  10 
"  O  ye  angels,  come  down  to  the  world,  strike  the  Dews  and  evil-doers 
and  expel  them  from  the  world." 

On  the  same  day,  they  say,  God  spread  out  the  earth  and  created  the 
bodies  as  mansions  for  the  souls.  In  a  certain  hour  of  this  day  the 
sphere  of  Ifranjawi  breathes  for  the  purpose  of  rearing  the  bodies. 

On  the  same  day  God  is  said  to  have  clad  the  moon  in  her  splendour 
and  to  have  illuminated  her  with  her  light,  after  He  had  created  her  as  a 
black  ball  without  any  light.  Therefore,  they  say,  on  Mihrajan  the 
moon  stands  higher  than  the  sun,  and  the  luckiest  hours  of  the  day  are 
those  of  the  moon.  20 

Salman  Alfarisi  has  said  :  In  Persian  times  we  used  to  say  that  God 
has  created  an  ornament  for  his  slaves,  of  rubies  on  Nauroz,  of  emeralds 
on  Mihrajan.  Therefore  these  two  days  excel  all  other  days  in  the  same 
way  as  these  two  jewels  excel  all  other  jewels. 

Aleranshahri  says:  God  has  made  the  treaty  between  Light  and 
Darkness  on  Nauroz  and  Mihrajan. 

Sa'id  b.  Alfadl  used  to   say  :  Persian  scholars  relate,  that  the  top  of 
p.223.   the  mountain  Shahin  appears  always  black  during  the  whole  length  of 
summer,  whilst  on  the   morning   of   Mihrajan  it  appears   white  as  if 
covered  with  snow,  whether  the  sky  be  clear  or  clouded,  in  any  weather  30 
whatsoever. 

Alkisrawi  relates  : — I  heard  the  Maubadh  of  Almutawakkil  say  :  On 
the  day  of  Mihrajan  the  sun  rises  in  Hamin,  in  the  midst  between  light 
and  darkness.  Then  the  souls  die  within  the  bodies;  therefore  the 
Persians  called  this  day  Miragdn. 

The  charm-mongers  say  :  He  who  eats  on  the  day  of  Mihrajfin  a  piece 
of  pomegranate  and  smells  rose-water,  will  be  free  from  much  mishap. 

The  Persian  theologians  have  derived  various  symbolic  interpretations 
from  these  days.  So  they  consider  Mihrajan  as  a  sign  of  resurrection 
and  the  end  of  the  world,  because  at  Mihrajan  that  which  grows  reaches  40 
its  perfection  and  has  no  more  material  for  further  growth,  and  because 
animals  cease  from  sexual  intercourse.  In  the  same  way  they  make 
Nauroz  a  sign  for  the  beginning  of  the  world,  because  the  contrary  of 
all  these  things  happens  on  Nauroz. 

Some  people  have  given  the  preference  to  Mihrajan  by  as  much  as 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF    THE    PERSIANS.     209 

they  prefer  autumn  to  sj)riiig.  In  their  arguments  they  chiefly  rely 
upon  what  Aristotle  said  in  rej)ly  to  Alexander,  when  he  was  asked  by 
him  regarding  them :  "  O  king,  in  spring  the  reptiles  begin  growing,  in 
autumn  they  begin  to  die  away.  From  this  point  of  view  autumn  is 
preferable." 

This  day  used  in  former  times  to  coincide  with  the  beginning  of 
winter.  Afterwards  it  advanced,  when  people  began  to  neglect  inter- 
calation. Therefore  it  is  still  in  our  time  the  custom  of  the  kings  of 
Khurasan,  that  on  this  day  they  dress  their  warriors  in  autumn — and 

10  winter — dresses. 

On  the  21st,  or  Ram-Eoz,  is  the  Gh-eat  Mihrajdn  in  commemoration  of 
Fredun's  subduing  and  binding  Al-Dahhak.  People  say,  that  when  he 
was  brought  before  Fredun  he  spoke :  "  Do  not  kill  me  in  retaliation  for 
thy  ancestor."  Upon  which  Fredun  answered,  refusing  his  entreaty, 
"Do  you  want  to  be  considered  as  equal  to  Jam  b.  Wijahan  in  the 
way  of  retaliation "?  By  no  means.  I  shall  punish  you  for  an  ox,  that 
was  in  the  house  of  my  ancestor."  Thereupon  he  put  him  in  fetters 
and  imj)risoned  him  in  the  mountain  Dubawand.  Thereby  people 
were  freed  from  his  wickedness,  and  they  celebrated  this  event  as  a 

20  feast.  Fredun  ordered  them  to  gird  themselves  with  EustiJcs,  to  use  the 
Zamzaiyia  (speaking  in  a  whispering  tone)  and  to  abstain  from  speaking 
loud  during  dinner,  as  a  tribute  of  thanks  to  God  for  having  again 
made  them  their  own  masters  with  regard  to  their  whole  behaviour  and 
to  the  times  of  their  eating  and  drinking,  after  they  had  been  living  in 
fear  so  long  as  1,000  years.  This  has  come  down  to  posterity  as  a  rule 
and  custom  on  the  day  of  Mihrajan. 

All  the  Persians  agree  that  Bevarasp  lived  1,000  years,  although  some 
of  them  say  that  he  lived  longer  and  that  the  1,000  years  are  only  the 
time  of  his  rule  and  tyranny.     People  think  that  the  Persian  mode  of 

30  salutation,  according  to  which  the  one  wishes  the  other  to  live  as  long 
as  1,000  years — I  mean  the  words  "  Hazctr  sal  hazi  " — comes  down  from 
that  time,  because  they  thought  it  was  allowed  and  possible  (that  a  man 
should  live  1,000  years)  from  what  they  had  seen  of  Al-Dahhak.  God 
knows  best ! 

Zaradusht  has  ordered  that  both  Mihrajan  and  Eam-Eoz  shoiild  be   P-224. 
held  in  equal  veneration.     In  consequence,  they  celebrated  both  days 
as  feast-days,  until  Hurmuz  b.   Shapur,  the  Hero,  connected  the  two 
days  with  each  other,  and  raised  to  feast-days  all  the   days  between 
them,  as  he  had  done  with  the  two  Nauroz.     Afterwards  the  kings  and 

40  the  people  of  firanshahr  celebrated  as  feast-days  all  the  days  from 
Mihrajan  till  thirty  days  afterwards,  distributing  them  over  the  several 
classes  of  the  population  in  the  same  way  as  we  have  heretofore  ex- 
plained regarding  Nauroz.  Each  class  celebrated  its  feast  for  five 
days. 

14 


210  ALBtRf^Nf. 

Ahdn-MoJi. 

On  the  lOtt,  or  Aban-E6z,  there  is  a  feast  Ahdnajdn,  so  called  on 
account  of  the  identity  of  the  name  of  the  month  and  the  day.  On 
this  day  Zau  b.  Tahmasp  ascended  the  throne  ;  he  ordered  the  channels 
to  be  dug  and  to  be  kept  in  good  preservation. 

On  the  same  day  the  news  reached  all  the  seven  Kkiixara  of  the  world 
that  Fredun  had  put  in  fetters  Bevarasp ;  that  he  had  assumed  the  royal 
dignity ;  that  he  had  ordered  people  to  take  possession  of  their 
houses,  their  families  and  children,  and  to  call  themselves  Kadhhhudd, 
i.e.  master  of  this  house  ;  that  he  ruled  over  his  family,  his  children,  and  10 
his  empire  with  supreme  authority ;  whilst  before  that,  in  the  time  of 
Bevarasp,  they  had  been  in  a  deserted  state,  and  Dews  and  rebels  had 
alternately  been  haunting  their  houses,  without  their  being  able  to 
keep  them  off.  This  institute  (that  of  a  Kadhhhudd)  has  been  abolished 
by  Alndzir  AVutrush,  who  made  again  the  rehels  partake  of  the 
Kadhkhudadom  together  with  the  people. 

The  last  five  days  of  this  month,  the  first  of  which  is  Ashtadh,  are 
called  Farwardajan.  During  this  time  people  put  food  in  the  halls  of 
the  dead  and  drink  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses,  believing  that  the  spirits 
of  their  dead  during  these  days  come  out  from  the  places  of  their  20 
reward  or  their  punishment,  that  they  go  to  the  dishes  laid  out  for 
them,  imbibe  their  strength  and  suck  their  taste.  They  fumigate 
their  houses  with  juniper,  that  the  dead  may  enjoy  its  smell.  The 
spirits  of  the  pious  men  dwell  among  their  families,  children,  and 
relations,  and  occupy  themselves  with  their  affairs,  although  invisible 
to  them. 

Eegarding  these  days  there  has  been  among  the  Persians  a  contro- 
versy. According  to  some  they  are  the  last  five  days  of  the  month 
Aban,  according  to  others  they  are  the  Andergah,  i.e.  the  five  Epagomenm 
which  are  added  between  Aban  and  Adhar-Mah.  When  the  controversy  30 
and  dispute  increased,  they  adopted  all  (ten)  days  in  order  to  esta- 
blish the  matter  on  a  firm  basis,  as  this  is  one  of  the  chief  institutes 
of  their  religion,  and  because  they  wished  to  be  careful,  since  they 
were  unable  to  ascertain  the  real  facts  of  the  case.  So  they  called  the 
first  five  days  the  first  Farwardajan,  and  the  following  five  days  the 
second  Farwardajan;  the  latter,  however,  is  more  important  than 
the  former. 

The  first  day  of  these  Epagomence  is  the  first  day  of  the  sixth 
Gahanbar,  in  which  Grod  created  man.  It  is  called  HamaQpatmaedhaem- 
gdh.  40 

The  reason  of  the  Farwardajan  is  said  to  be  this — that  when  Cain 
had  killed  Abel,  and  the  parents  were  lost  in  grief,  they  implored  God 
to  restore  his  soul  to  him.  God  did  so  on  the  day  Ashtadh  of  Abiin-Mah, 
and  the  soul  remained  in  him  for  ten  days.     Abel  was  sitting  erect  and 


ON   THE    FESTIVALS    IN   THE    MONTHS    OF    THE    PERSIANS.      211 

looking  at  his  parents,  but  it  was  not  allowed  to  him  to  speak.    Then  his  p-225. 
parents  collected — {Missing,  the  end  of  Abdn-Mdh). 

[AdMr-Mdh.'] 

[1.  BaJidr-cashn,  the  feast  of  the  Biding  of  Alhausaj.  This  day  was 
the  beginning  of  spring  at  the  time  of  the  Kisras.  Then  a  thin-bearded 
(Kausaj)  man  used  to  ride  about,  fanning  himself  with  a  fan  to  express 
his  rejoicing  at  the  end  of  the  cold  season  and  the  coming  of  the  warm 
season.     This  custom  is  in  Persis  still  kept  up  for  fun.] 

Its  most  lucky  hours  are  those  during  which  Aries  is  the  horoscope. 
10  People  consider  the  hour  of  morning  as  of  good  omen — I  mean  the 
charm-mongers — and  they  maintain  that  everything  that  is  mentioned 
during  this  hour  exists  absolutely.  Besides  they  say  that  he  who  tastes 
a  quince  and  smells  an  orange  in  the  morning  of  this  day  before  speaking 
will  be  happy  during  that  same  year. 

According  to  Tahir  b.  Tahir,  the  Persians,  in  old  times,  used  to  drink 
honey  on  this  day  if  the  moon  happened  to  stand  in  a  fiery  station,  and 
to  drink  water  if  it  stood  in  a  watery  station,  always  adapting  them- 
selves to  the  character  of  the  stations  of  the  moon. 

Aleranshahri  says  :  I  heard  a  number  of  Armenian  learned  men  relate 
20  that  on  the  morning  of  the  Fox-day  there  appears  on  the  highest  moun- 
tain, between  the  Interior  and  the  Exterior  country,  a  white  ram  that  is 
not  seen  at  any  other  time  of  the  year  except  about  this  time  of  this  day. 
Now  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  infer  that  the  year  will  be  prosperous 
if  the  ram  bleats ;  that  it  will  be  sterile  if  he  does  not  bleat. 

On  the  morning  of  the  Fox-day  the  Persians  thought  it  to  be  a  good 
omen  to  look  at  the  clouds  ;  and  from  the  fact  whether  they  were  clear 
or  dark,  thin  or  dense,  they  drew  conclusions  as  to  whether  the  year 
would  be  prosperous  or  not,  fertile  or  barren. 

On  the  9th,  the  day  of  Adhar,  is  a  feast  called  Adharcashn,  so  called 
80  on  accotint  of  the  identity  of  the  name  of  the  day  and  the  month.  On 
that  day  people  want  to  warm  themselves  by  the  fire,  for  this  is  the  end 
of  the  winter  months,  when  the  cold,  at  the  end  of  the  season,  is  most 
biting  and  the  frost  is  most  intense.  It  is  the  feast  of  the  fire,  and  is 
called  by  the  name  of  the  genius  who  has  to  watch  over  all  the  fires. 

Zaradusht  has  given  the  law  that  on  this  day  people  should  visit  the 
fire-temples,  and  that  they  should  there  offer  offerings  and  deliberate  on 
the  affairs  of  the  world. 


40 


Dai-Mah,  also  called  Khur-Mah. 
The  first  day  of  it  is  called  Khurram-Boz.     This  day  and  the  month 
are  both  called  by  the  name  of  G-od,  i.e.   (Hormuzd),  i.e.  a  wise  king, 
gifted  with  a  creative  mind. 

On  this  day  the  king  used  to  descend  from  the  throne  of  the  empire,  to 
dress  in  white  dresses,  to  sit  on  white  carpets  in  the  plain,  to  suspend 
for  a  time  the  duties  of  the  chamberlains  and  all  the  pomp  of  royalty, 

14  * 


212  ALBIEUNI. 

and  exclusively  to  give  himself  up  to  tlie  consideration  of  the  affairs  of 
the  realm  and  its  inhabitants.  Whosoever,  high  or  low,  wanted  to  speak  to 
him  in  any  matter,  went  into  his  presence  and  addressed  him,  nobody  pre- 
venting him  from  doing  so.  Besides,  he  held  a  meeting  with  the  Dihkans 
and  agriculturists,  eating  and  drinking  with  them,  and  then  he  used  to 
say  :  "  To-day  I  am  like  one  of  you.  I  am  your  brother ;  for  the  exist- 
ence of  the  world  depends  upon  that  culture  which  is  wrought  by  your 
hands,  and  the  existence  of  this  culture  depends  upon  government ;  the 
one  cannot  exist  without  the  other.  This  being  the  case,  we  are  like  twin 
brothers,  more  particularly  as  this  (royalty  and  agriculture)  proceeds  10 
from  twin  brothers,  from  Hoshang  and  Waikard." 

This  day  is  also  called  Nuwdd-Boz  (90  days),  and  is  celebrated  as  a 
p.226.  feast,  because  there  are  90  days  between  this  day  and  Nauroz. 

The  8th,  15th,  and  23rd  days  of  this  month  are  feast-days  on  account 
of  the  identity  of  the  names  of  these  days  with  that  of  the  month,  as 
we  have  heretofore  explained. 

The  11th,  or  Khur-Eoz,  is  the  first  day  of  the  (first  ?)  Gahanbar  ;  its 
last  day  is  the  15th,  or  Dai-ba-Mihr.  This  Gahanbar  is  called  Maidhyo- 
zaremaya-gah.     During  it  God  created  heaven. 

On  the  14th,  or  G6sh-E6z,  there  is  a  feast  called  Sir-sawa,  when  people  20 
eat  garlic  and  drink  wine,  and  cook  the  vegetables  with  pieces  of  meat, 
by  which  they  intend  to  protect  themselves  against  the  devil.  The 
original  purpose  of  the  thing  was  to  rid  themselves  of  their  affliction 
when  they  were  oppressed  in  consequence  of  Jamshid's  being  killed,  and 
were  in  sorrow  and  swore  that  they  would  never  touch  any  fat.  This  has 
remained  as  an  usage  among  them.  By  that  dish  they  cure  themselves 
of  the  diseases  which  they  attribute  to  the  influence  of  the  evil  spirits. 

The  15th,  or  Dai-ba-Mihr-E6z,  is  called  (j^^-^,  when  they  used  to  make 
a  human-like  figure  of  paste  or  clay  and  posted  it  at  the  gateways.    This, 
however,  was  not  practised  in  the  houses  of  the  kings.     At  present  this   30 
custom  has  been  abolished  on  account  of  its  resemblance  to  idolatry  and 
heathendom. 

The  niglit  of  the  16th,  or  Mihr-Eoz,  is  called,  (j^y*\)'^,  and  also  J^^. 
Its  origin  is  this,  that  firanshahr  was  separated  and  liberated  from  the 
country  of  the  Turk,  and  that  they  drove  their  cows,  which  the  enemy 
had  driven  away,  back  to  their  houses.  Further :  when  Predun  had  put 
Bevarasp  out  of  the  way,  he  let  out  the  cows  of  Athfiydn  (Athwyana) 
that  had  been  hidden  in  some  place  during  the  siege,  whilst  Athfiyan 
defended  them.  Now  they  returned  to  his  house.  Athfiyan  was  a  man 
of  high  standing  and  noble  character,  a  benefactor  of  the  poor,  40 
busying  himself  with  the  affairs  of  the  poor  and  taking  care  of  them, 
and  liberal  towards  all  who  applied  to  him.  When  Predun  had  freed 
his  property,  people  celebrated  a  feast  in  hope  of  his  gifts  and  presents. 

On  the  same  day  the  weaning  of  Predun  took  place.  It  was  the  first 
day  when  he  rode  on  the  ox  in  a  night  when  the  ox  appears  which  drags 


ON  THE  FESTIVALS  IN  THE  MONTHS  OF  THE  PERSIANS.   213 

the  carriage  of  the  mooB.  It  is  an  ox  of  light,  with  two  golden  horns 
and  silver  feet,  which  is  visible  for  an  hour  and  then  disappears.  The 
wish  of  him  who  looks  at  the  ox  when  it  is  visible  will  be  fulfilled  in  the 
same  hour. 

In  the  same  night  there  appears  on  the  highest  mountain,  as  they 
maintain,  the  spectre  of  a  white  ox,  that  bellows  twice  if  the  year  is  to 
be  fertile,  and  once  (if  the  year  is  to  be  barren).  (Here  follows  a 
lacuna). 

[23.  Feast  of  the  third  day,  Dai.] 

1"  Bahman-Mdh. 

[2.  Bahmanja. 

5.  Barsadhak,  or  Nausadhak. 
10.  The  Night  of  Alsadhak.] 

They  fumigate  their  houses  to  keep  off  mishap,  so  that  finally  it  has 
become  one  of  the  customs  of  the  kings  to  light  fires  on  this  night  and 
to  make  them  blaze,  to  drive  wild  beasts  into  them,  and  to  send  the  birds 
flying  through  the  flames,  and  to  drink  and  amuse  themselves  round  the 
fires. 

May  God  take  vengeance  on  all  who  enjoy  causing  pain  to  another 
20  being,  gifted  with  sensation  and  doing  no  harm ! 

After  the  Persians  had  neglected  intercalation  in  their  months,  they 
hoped  that  the  cold  wotild  cease  at  this  time,  as  they  reckoned  as  the   p.227. 
beginning  of  winter  the  5th  of  Aban-Mah,  and  as  the   end  the  10th 
of   Bahman-Mah.      The    people  of  Karaj  called  this  day  ^^  "t-^,  i.e. 
the  biting  night,  on  account  of  its  being  so  cold. 

Another  report  accounts  for  the  lighting  of  the  fires  during  this  night 
in  the  following  way  :  When  Bevarasp  had  ordered  people  to  provide  him 
every  day  with  two  men,  that  he  might  feed  his  two  serpents  with  their 
brains,  he  commissioned  immediately  after  his  arrival  a  man  called 
30  Azma'il  to  attend  to  this.  Now,  this  man  always  used  to  set  free  one  of 
the  two,  giving  him  food,  and  ordering  him  to  settle  in  the  western  part 
of  mount  Bunbawand  and  there  to  build  himself  some  sort  of  house, 
whilst  he  fed  the  two  serpents  with  the  brains  of  a  ram  instead  of  that 
prisoner  whom  he  had  set  free,  mixing  them  with  the  brains  of  the  other 
victim  who  was  killed.  When  Fredun  had  conquered  Bevarasp,  he 
ordered  Azma'il  to  be  fetched  and  punished  in  revenge  for  those  whom  he 
had  killed.  Thereupon  Azma'il  told  him  the  tale  of  those  whom  he  had 
set  free,  speaking  the  truth,  and  asked  the  king  to  send  out  a  messenger 
with  him  that  he  might  show  them  to  him.  So  the  king  did,  and  Azma'il 
40  ordered  those  whom  he  had  set  free  to  light  fires  on  the  roofs  of  their 
houses,  in  order  that  their  number  might  be  seen. 

This  happened  in  the  10th  night  of  Bahman.    Therefore  the  messenger 


214  albIrt^n!. 

said  to  Azma'il :  "  What  a  number  of  tliem  thou  hast  set  free  !  May 
God  give  thee  a  good  reward  ! "  He  returned  to  Fredun  and  brought  him 
his  report.  Fredun  exceedingly  rejoiced  at  the  matter,  and  set  out 
himself  for  Dunbawand  to  see  the  thing  himself.  Thereupon  he  con- 
ferred great  honour  upon  Azma'il,  he  gave  him  Dunbawand  as  a  fief, 
made  him  sit  on  a  golden  throne,  and  called  him  MasmagMn. 

Regarding  the  two  serpents  of  Bevarasp,  people  say  that  they  came 
out  of  his  shoulders,  feeding  upon  brains ;  whilst  according  to  another 
view,  they  were  two  painful  wounds  which  he  besmeared  with  brains, 
hoping  to  get  relief  from  them,  10 

The  two  serpents  are  something  wonderful — possible,  indeed,  but 
hardly  likely.  For  worms  are  produced  out  of  flesh,  and  in  flesh  lice 
and  other  animals  are  living.  Further,  there  are  other  animals  that  do 
not  entirely  leave  their  birthplace,  like  that  one  of  which  people  relate 
that  it,  living  in  India,  peeps  out  of  the  womb  of  its  mother  to  eat  grass 
and  then  to  return,  that  it  does  not  leave  the  womb  of  its  mother 
entirely  until  it  has  grown  strong  and  thinks  itself  able  to  run  faster 
than  its  mother,  even  if  the  mother  should  run  after  it ;  then  it  jumps 
out  and  runs  away.  People  say  that  the  young  animal  fears  the  tongue 
of  its  mother,  which  is  the  roughest  thing  imaginable.  For  the  mother,  20 
if  she  finds  the  young  one,  licks  it  continually,  until  the  flesh  is  severed 
from  the  bones.  And  out  of  the  hair  of  the  head  that  has  been  torn 
out  together  with  its  white  root  which  originally  is  fixed  in  the  flesh, 
snakes  grow,  in  case  the  hair  falls  into  water  or  some  wet  place  in  the 
midst  of  summer,  growing  within  the  time  of  three  weeks  or  less. 

This  fact  cannot  be  denied,  since  it  has  been  witnessed,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  other  animals  out  of  other  materials  has  also  been  witnessed. 

'Abu-'TJthman  Aljahiz  relates,  that  he  saw  at  'Ukbara  a  piece  of  clay, 
p.228.  ^^e  ^a-lf  of  which  was  a  part  of  the  body  of  a  field-mouse,  whilst  the 

other  half  was  still  a  common  and  unchanged  piece  of  clay,     I  have  30 
heard  this  also  from  a  number  of  people  in  Jurjan  who  had  observed 
something  similar  in  that  country. 

Aljaihani  relates  that  in  the  Indian  Ocean  there  are  the  roots  of  a  tree 
which  spread  along  the  sea-coast  in  the  sand,  that  the  leaf  is  rolled  up 
and  gets  separated  from  the  tree,  and  that  it  then  changes  into  a  king- 
bee  and  flies  away. 

The  formation  of  scorpions  out  of  figs  and  mountain-balm,  that  of 
bees  from  the  flesh  of  oxen,  that  of  wasps  from  the  flesh  of  horses,  is 
well  known  to  all  naturalists.  We  ourselves  have  observed  many 
animals,  capable  of  propagating  their  species,  that  had  originally  grown  40 
out  of  plants  and  other  materials  by  a  clear  process  of  formation,  and 
who  afterwards  continued  their  species  by  sexual  intercourse. 

The  22nd,  or  Badh-K6z,  is  called  by  this  name  (lacuna). 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF    THE    PERSIANS.     215 

On  that  day  certain  usages  are  practised  in  Kumm  and  neighbonrhood 
that  have  a  likeness  to  those  festive  customs  of  drinking  and  making 
fun  which,  are  practised  at  Ispahan  in  the  days  of  Nauroz,  when  people 
hold  a  fair  and  celebrate  a  feast.  At  Ispahan  people  call  it  (^j^.  How- 
ever, Badh-Eoz  is  only  07ie  day,  whilst  ^j^  lasts  a  whole  week. 

The  30th,  or  Aneran,  is  called  Afrijagdn  at  Ispahan,  which  means 
"  pouring  out  the  water."  Its  origin  is  this  :  that  once  in  the  time  of 
Feroz,  the  grandfather  of  Anoshirwan,  the  rain  was  kept  back,  and 
people  in  Eranshahr  suffered  from  barrenness.    Therefore  Feroz  remitted 

10  them  the  taxes  of  these  years,  opened  the  doors  of  his  storehouses, 
borrowed  money  from  the  properties  of  the  fire-temples,  and  gave  all  to 
the  inhabitants  of  firanshahr,  taking  care  of  his  subjects  as  a  parent 
does  for  his  children ;  and  the  consequence  was  that  during  those  years 
nobody  died  of  hunger.  Now,  Feroz  went  to  the  famous  fire-temple  in 
AdharTclmrd  in  Fars ;  there  he  said  prayers,  prostrated  himself,  and  asked 
God  to  remove  that  trial  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  world.  Then  he 
went  up  to  the  altar  and  found  there  the  ministers  and  priests  standing 
before  it.  They,  however,  did  not  greet  him  as  is  due  to  kings.  So  he 
felt  that  there  was  something  the  matter  with  the  priests.     Then  he  went 

20  near  the  fire,  turned  his  hand  and  arms  round  the  flame,  and  pressed  it 
thrice  to  his  bosom,  as  one  friend  does  with  another  when  asking  after 
each  other's  health  ;  the  flame  reached  his  beard,  but  did  not  hurt  him. 
Thereupon  Feroz  spoke  :  "  O  my  Lord,  thy  names  be  blessed !  if  the  rain 
is  held  back  for  my  sake,  for  any  fault  of  mine,  reveal  it  to  me  that  I 
may  divest  myself  of  my  dignity  ;  if  something  else  is  the  cause,  remove 
it,  and  make  it  known  to  me  and  tc  the  people  of  the  world,  and  give 
them  copious  rain."  Then  he  descended  from  the  altar,  left  the  cupola, 
and  sat  down  on  the  ^^J  made  of  gold,  similar  to  a  throne,  but  smaller. 
It  was  a  custom  for  a  famous  fire-temple  to  have  a  golden  \^>i  for  the 

QQ  purpose  that  the  king  should  sit  upon  it  when  he  came  to  the  temple. 
Now  the  ministers  and  priests  came  near  him  and  greeted  him  as  is  due 
to  kings.  The  king  spoke  to  them:  "What  has  hardened  your  hearts, 
what  has  offended  you  and  made  you  suspicious,  that  you  did  not  greet 
me  before?  "  They  replied:  "Because  we  were  standing  before  another 
king  more  sublime  than  you.  We  were  not  allowed  to  greet  you  whilst  p.229 
standing  before  him."  The  king  believed  them  and  made  them  presents. 
Then  he  started  from  the  town  Adharkhura  in  the  direction  of  the  town 
Dara.  But  having  come  as  far  as  the  place  where  is  now  the  village 
called  Kam-Feroz  in  Fars — it  was  at  that  time  an  uncultivated  plain — a 

4Q  cloud  rose  and  brought  such  copious  rain  as  had  never  been  witnessed 
before,  till  the  water  ran  into  all  the  tents,  the  royal  tent  as  well  as  the 
other  ones.  Feroz  recognized  that  God  had  granted  his  prayer ;  he 
praised  God,  and  ordered  that  on  that  spot  his  tents  should  be  pitched. 
He  gave  alms,  made  liberal  presents,  held  assemblies,  and  was  full  of  joy. 
He  did  not  leave  this  place  before  he  had  built  the  famous  village  which 


216  ALBiEUNi. 

he  called  Kam-Feroz.  Feroz  is  his  name,  and  Mm  means  "  wish  ; "  so  it 
signifies  "  that  he  had  obtained  his  wish."  In  the  joy  which  everybody 
felt  over  this  event,  they  poured  the  water  over  each  other.  In  conse- 
quence this  has  become  a  custom  in  firanshahr  ever  since.  In  every 
town  they  celebrate  this  feast  on  that  day  when  they  got  the  rain,  and 
the  people  of  Ispahan  got  the  rain  on  this  day. 

IsfanddrTnadh-Mdh. 

On  the  5th,  or  Isfandarmadh-Eoz,  there  is  a  feast  on  account  of  the 
identity  of  the  names  of  the  month  and  the  day.  The  word  means 
"  intelligence  "  and  "  ripeness  of  mind."  1^ 

Isfandarmadh  is  charged  with  the  care  of  the  earth  and  with  that  of 
the  good,  chaste,  and  beneficent  wife  who  loves  her  husband.  In  past 
times  this  was  a  special  feast  of  the  women,  when  the  men  used  to  make 
them  liberal  presents.  This  custom  is  still  flourishing  at  Ispahan,  Eai, 
and  in  the  other  districts  of  Fahla.     In  Persian  it  is  called  Muzhdgiran. 

This  day  is  famous  for  the  inscribing  of  pieces  of  paper.  For  on  this 
day  common  people  eat  sun-raisins  and  the  kernels  of  pomegranates  un- 
moistened  and  not  kneaded  with  water,  but  pulverized,  believing  that  to 
be  an  antidote  against  the  bite  of  the  scorpions,  and,  besides,  they  write 
in  the  time  between  dawnrise  and  sunrise  upon  square  pieces  of  paper  20 
the  following  charm :  "  In  the  name  of  Grod  the  gracious,  the  merciful — 
Isfandarmadhmah  and  Isfandarmadhroz — I  have  bound  (by  the  charm) 
the  going  and  coming — below  and  above — except  the  cows — in  the  name 
of  the  Tazatas  and  in  the  name  of  Jam  and  Fredun— in  the  name  of 
God — (I  swear)  by  Adam  and  Eve,  God  alone  is  sufficient  unto  me !  " 
Three  such  paper  pieces  they  fix  on  this  day  on  three  walls  of  the  house, 
whilst  they  leave  unmarked  the  wall  opposite  to  the  front  of  the  house, 
believing  that  if  they  fix  something  also  on  this  fourth  wall  the  reptiles 
get  bewildered  and  do  not  find  an  outlet,  and  raise  their  heads  towards 
the  window,  preparing  to  leave  the  house.  Sometimes  you  find  places  80 
influenced  by  some  charm  where  scorpions  do  not  bite,  as,  e.g.  Dinar- 
Eazi  in  Jurjan,  ten  miles  beyond  the  frontier  towards  Khorasan.  For 
there  you  find  under  every  stone  a  number  of  large  black  scorpions, 
p.230.  which  people  touch  and  play  with,  and  which  do  not  bite.  But  when 
they  are  taken  away  and  broiight  over  the  frontier  of  that  district,  which 
is  a  bridge  not  farther  off  than  a  bowshot,  then  they  bite,  causing 
instantaneous  death. 

In  the  district  of  Tus  there  is  said  to  be  a  village  where  the  scorpions 
do  not  bite.  And  'Abu-alfaraj  Alzanjani  has  told  me  that  in  the  city  of 
Zanjan  there  are  scorpions  only  in  one  place,  called  the  "  Cemetery  of  40 
the  Tabaristdnis,"  and  that  a  man  when  he  goes  there  at  night  and 
gathers  some  of  them  in  a  pot  and  leaves  the  pot  somewhere  else,  finds 
that  they  hurriedly  return  to  their  former  places. 

Now,  as  regards  these  pieces  of  paper  we  have  mentioned,  they  are 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF    THE    PEESIANS.      217 

evidently  useless,  because  the  power  of  the  incantation  cannot  affect  the 
object  of  incantation,  though  its  influence  be  strong,  because  the  plane- 
tary cycles  do  not  agree  with  the  Persian  year,  and  because  the  conditions 
of  talismans  are  not  fulfilled  in  them.  Perhaps  we  shall  speak  of  the 
incantations,  charms,  and  talismans  in  the  Book  of  physical  and  technical 
wonders  and  curiosities,  giving  such  explanations  as  will  plant  certain 
persuasions  in  the  minds  of  intelligent  men  and  remove  doubt  from  the 
minds  of  those  who  seek  for  information,  if  God  will  mercifully  postpone 
the  end  of  my  life  and  by  His  grace  remove  mental  calamities.  He  has 
10  the  power  to  do  so. 

The  11th,  or  Khur-Eoz,  is  the  first  day  of  the  second  G-ahanbar,  the 
last  of  which  is  Dai-ba-mihr-E<6z.  It  is  called  Maidhyoshema-gdh.  During 
this  G-ahanbar  God  created  the  water. 

The  next  following  day,  the  16th,  orMihr-Roz,  is  called  MisJc-i-tdza 
(fresh  mtisk). 

The  19th,  or  Parwardin-Eoz,  is  called  Nauroz  of  the  rivers  and  of  all 
running  waters,  when  people  throw  perfumes,  rose-water,  &c.  into 
them. 

The  Zoroastrians  have  no  fasting  at  all.     He  who  fasts  commits  a  sin, 

20  and  must,  by  way  of  expiation,   give  food  to  a  number  of  poor  people. 

They  have  fairs  in  the  days  of  the  months  we  have  mentioned,  but  as 

they  differ  in  different  places,  we  cannot  fix  them,  as  little  as  we  can  the 

watercourses  of  a  torrent,  it  being  impossible  to  count  them. 

'Adud-aldaula  has  founded  two  feast-days,  each  of  which  is  called 
Cashn-i-Kard-i-Fanakhusrau.  The  one  is  the  day  Serosh  in  Farwardin- 
Mah,  when  the  water  of  the  aqueduct  coming  from  a  distance  of  four 
farsakh  reached  the  town,  which  he  had  built  one  farsakh  below  the 
citadel  of  Shiraz,  and  which  he  had  called  Kard-i-Fanakhusra.  The 
other  is  the  day  Hormuz  in  Aban-Mah,  the  day  when  he  commenced 
30  building  that  same  town,  A.  Tazd,  333.  On  both  days  people  hold 
fairs  of  seven  days  duration,  and  they  assemble  for  merriment  and 
drinking. 

The  Persians  divide  all  the  days  of  the  year  into  preferable  and  lucky 
days  and  into  unlucky  and  detested  ones.  Besides  they  have  other  days, 
bearing  names  which  are  common  to  them  in  every  month,  which  are 
festival  days  for  one  class  of  the  people  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other. 

Further,  they  have  certain  rules  regarding  the  appearance  of  snakes 
on  the  different  days  of  the  month,  which  we  unite  in  the  following 
Jadwal-alikhtiydrdt  (Table  of  Selections)  : — 


218 


ALBiEUNl. 


pp.231, 
232. 


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ON  THE  FESTIVALS  IN  THE  MONTHS  OF  THE  PEESIANS.  219 

The  day  Mali  they  consider  to  be  a  preferable  dav  from  its  being  called  p.233. 
by  the  name  of  the  moon,  which  God  created  for  the  purpose  of  distri- 
buting what  is  good  and  agreeable  over  the  world.    Therefore  the  waters 
increase,  and  animals,  trees,  and  jjlants  grow  from  new-moon  till  the 
time  when  the  moon  begins  to  wane. 

The  two  days  of  conjunction  and  opposition  they  hold  to  be  unlucky 
days. 

On  the  day  of  conjunction  the  Demons  and  Satans  feel  the  lust  of 
intermingling  viciously  with  the  things  in  the  world.     Then  madness 

10  and  epilepsy  are  brought  about.  The  seas  begin  to  ebb,  the  waters 
to  decrease,  the  male  turtle-doves  are  suffering  from  epilepsy.  The 
sperma  which  on  this  day  settles  in  the  uterus  is  born  as  a  child 
of  imperfect  structure ;  hair  which  is  torn  out  of  the  body  will 
be  replaced  only  sparsely  ;  everything  that  is  planted  will  only  produce 
scanty  fruit,  more  particularly  so  if  there  be  an  eclipse  on  the  same  day. 
If  a  hen  sits  hatching  her  eggs  at  new-moon,  the  eggs  will  be  bad ;  at 
new-moon  a  narcissus  is  sure  to  wither. 

Al-Kindi  says  :  Conjunction  is  detested  because  then  the  moon  is  being 
burned,  who  is  the  guide  of  all  bodies  ;  and  therefore  people  dread  de- 

20  struction  and  ruin  for  them. 

At  the  time  of  opposition,  people  say,  the  Grhuls  and  sorcerers  feel 
the  lust  to  mix  with  impure  spirits.  In  consequence  there  is  much 
epilepsy.  The  seas  begin  to  flow,  the  waters  to  increase  ;  the  she-turtle- 
doves are  becoming  epileptical.  The  sperma  which  settles  in  the  uterus 
on  the  day  of  opposition  is  born  as  a  child  of  more  than  common  struc- 
ture. The  hair  which  is  torn  out  will  be  replaced  abundantly.  All  that 
is  planted  on  this  day  will  produce  worm-eaten  fruits  and  will  be  very 
impure,  more  particularly  so  if  there  be  an  eclipse  on  the  same  day. 
Al-Kindi   says :  Pull-moon  is  detested  because  then  the  light  of  the 

80  moon  requires  help  from  the  light  of  the  sun,  who  is  the  guide  of  the 
spirits.     Therefore  people  fear  lest  the  spirits  should  leave  the  bodies. 


220  ALBfRUNi. 


CHAPTER    X. 

ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OP    THE    SUOHDIANS. 

The  montlis  of  the  inhabitants  of  Sogdiana  were  likewise  distributed 
over  the  four  quarters  of  the  year.  The  first  day  of  the  Sughdian 
month  Nausard  was  the  first  day  of  summer.  There  was  no  difference 
between  them  and  the  Persians  regarding  the  beginning  of  the  year  and 
the  beginnings  of  some  of  the  months,  but  there  was  a  difference  regard- 
ing the  place  of  the  five  Ejoagomence,  as  we  have  heretofore  explained. 
And  they  did  so  for  no  other  reason  but  this,  that  they  honoured  their 
kings  to  such  a  degree  that  they  would  not  do  the  same  things  which  the  10 
kings  did.  They  preferred  to  use  as  new-year  that  moment  when  Jam 
returned  successful,  whilst  the  kings  preferred  as  new-year  that  moment 
when  Jam  started  (set  out). 

Some  people  maintain  that  these  two  different  new-years  were  to  be 

traced  to  a  difference  that  was  discovered  in  the  astronomical  observations. 

For  the  ancient  Persians  used  a  solar  year  of  365  days  6  hours  1  minute, 

and  it  was  their  universal  practice  to  reckon  these  6  hours  plus  the  1 

p.234.  minute  as  a  unit  (i.e.  to  disregard  the  1  minute  in  reckoning). 

But  afterwards  when  Zoroaster  appeared  and  introduced  the  religion 
of  the  Magi,  when  the  kings  transferred  their  residence  from  Balkh  to  20 
Persis  and  Babel  and  occupied  themselves  with  the  affairs  of  their  reli- 
gion, they  ordered  new  observations  to  be  made,  and  then  they  found  that 
the  summer- solstice  preceded  by  five  days  the  beginning  of  the  year,  which 
was  the  third  year  after  intercalation.  In  consequence,  they  gave  up 
their  former  system  and  adopted  what  astronomical  observation  had 
taught  them,  whilst  the  people  of  Transoxiana  kej^t  the  old  system  and 
disregarded  the  state  of  that  same  year  (i.e.  its  deviation  from  real  time), 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF    THE    SUGHDIANS.    221 

on  which  their  calendar  was  based.     Hence  the  difference  of  the  begin- 
nings of  the  Persian  and  Sughdian  years. 

Other  people  maintain  that  originally  both  the  Persian  and  Sughdian 
years  had  the  same  beginning,  until  the  time  when  Zoroaster  appeared. 
But  when  after  Zoroaster  the  Persians  began  to  transfer  the  five  Epago- 
mence  to  each  of  the  leap-months,  as  we  have  before  mentioned,  the 
Sughdians  left  them  in  their  original  place  and  did  not  transfer  them. 
So  they  kept  them  at  the  end  of  the  months  of  their  year,  whilst  the 
Persians,  after  they  began  to  neglect  intercalation,  retained  them  at  the 
10  end  of  Aban-Mah.     God  knows  best ! 

The  Sughdians  have  many  festivals  and  famous  memorial  days  in  the 
same  way  as  the  Persians.  What  we  have  learned  of  them,  regarding 
this  subject,  is  the  following  : — 

Nausard.     The  1st  day  is  their  Nauroz,  which  is  the  Great  Nauroz. 

The  28th  is  a  feast  for  the  Magians  of  Bukhara,  called  Bdmush-Aghdm, 
during  which  they  assemble  in  a  fire-temple  in  the  village  Eamush. 
These  Aghams  are  the  most  important  of  their  festivals,  which  they  cele- 
brate alternately  in  each  village,  assembling  in  the  house  of  each  chief- 
tain, eating  and  drinking. 
20       Jirjin.     ISTothing  mentioned. 

Nisanaj.     The  12th  is  the  first  Makhiraj. 

Basakanaj.  The  7th  is  the  ^  Agham,  a  feast  of  theirs  at  Baikand, 
where  they  assemble. 

The  12th  is  the  second  Makhiraj. 

The  15th  is  the  feast  (j-^  Khwdra,  when  they  eat  leavened  bread  after 
abstaining  from  eating  and  drinking  and  from  everything  that  is  touched 
by  the  fire  except  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Ashnakhandii.     The  18th  is  the  feast  Baba-Khwara,  also  called  Bami- 
Khwara,  i.e.  drinking  the  good,  pure  must. 
30       The  26th  is  Karm-Khwara. 

Mazhikhanda.  The  3rd  is  the  feast  Kishmin,  when  they  hold  a  fair 
in  the  village  c:-Xs=^.  On  the  15th  they  hold  a  fair  in  Al-tawawis. 
There  the  merchants  of  all  countries  gather  and  hold  a  fair  of  seven 
days  duration. 

Paghakan.     The  1st  is  called  Ntm-sarda,  i.e.  the  half  of  the  year. 

The  2nd  is  a  feast  called  a^  (^  Khwara,  when  they  assemble  in  their  p.235. 
fire-temples  and  eat  a  certain  dish  which  they  prepare  of  the  flour  of 
millet,  of  butter  and  sugar.  Some  people  put  Nim-sarda  five  days 
earlier,  i.e.  on  the  1st  of  Mihr-Mah,  to  make  it  agree  with  the  Persian 
40  calendar,  whilst,  in  fact,  the  middle  of  the  year  ought  to  be  celebrated 
when  after  its  beginning  6  months  and  2^  days  have  passed. 

The  9th  is  the  feast  (j««~-*  Agham. 

The  25th  is  the  first  day  of  Karm-Khwara. 


222  albMnJ. 


Abhanaj.     The  9th  is  the  last  day  of  Karm-Khwara. 

Fugh.     Nothing  mentioned. 

Marsafugh.  From  the  5th  till  the  15th  of  this  month  they  have  a 
feast.  After  that  the  Muhammadans  hold  a  fair  of  seven  days  in 
Alshargh. 

Zhimadanaj.     The  24th  is  the  Badh-Amgham. 

Zhshum.     On  the  last  day  of  this  month  the  Sughdians  cry  over  those 
who  died  in  past  times,  they  lament  over  them  and  cut  their  faces.    They 
lay  out  for  them  dishes  and  drinks,  as  the  Persians  do  in  Farwardajan, 
For  the  five  days,  which  are  the  rjiiipai  Kkomjxalai  to  the  Sughdians,  they   10 
fix  at  the  end  of  this  month,  as  we  have  mentioned  before. 

Besides,  they  hold  fairs  in  the  villages  in  the  districts  of  Bukhara  and 
Sughd  on  those  days  that  have  only  one  name  in  every  month  (i.e.  the 
8th,  15th,  23rd,  which  are  called  Dast). 


223 


CHAPTER    XI. 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF    THE    KHWARIZMIANS. 

The  Khwarizmians  agree  with  the  Sughdians  regarding  the  beginnings 
of  the  year  and  the  months,  and  they  disagree  with  the  Persians  in  the 
same  subjects.  The  cause  of  this  is  the  same  which  we  have  described 
when  speaking  of  the  Sughdians.  Their  usages  in  their  months  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  Sughdians.  The  beginning  of  their  summer  was 
the  1st  of  Nausarji.  They  had  festivals  in  their  months  which  they 
celebrated  before  the  time  of  Islam.     They  maintain  that  God  Almighty 

10  ordered  them  to  celebrate  those  festivals.  Besides  they  celebrate  other 
days  in  commemoration  of  the  deeds  of  their  ancestors.  But  at  the 
present  time  there  are  only  very  few  of  the  Magians  among  the  Khwa- 
rizmians  left,  who  do  not  particularly  care  for  their  religion ;  they  know 
nothing  of  it  except  its  outward  forms,  and  they  do  not  inquire  into  its 
spirit  and  real  meaning.  In  consequence,  they  regulate  their  festivals 
by  the  knowledge  of  their  distances  from  each  other,  not  according  to 
their  real  places  which  they  occupy  in  the  single  months. 

Those,  now,  of  their  days  and  festivals  that  are  not  connected  with 
their  religion  are  the  following : 

20  Nausarji.  The  1st  day  is  the  feast  of  new-year,  the  new-day,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned. 

Ardiwisht.     Nothing  mentioned.  p.236. 

Harudadh.  The  1st  day  is  called  (^\)~*  Utj;^.  In  ante-Muhammadan 
times  this  day  was  the  time  of  extreme  heat ;  therefore,  they  say,  it  was 
originally  called  o^J^  (j-W«r»j^  which  means  :  the  dress  will  be  ^ut  off,  signi- 
fying that  it  was  the  time  for  baring  and  undi'essing  themselves. 


224  ALBIRfjNf. 

In  our  time  this  day  coincides  with  the  time  of  the  sowing  of  sesame 
and  what  is  sown  together  with  it.  So  people  have  come  to  use  it  as  an 
epoch. 

Ciri.  The  15th  is  called  AjgMr,  which  means :  the  firewood  and  the 
flame.  In  bygone  times  it  was  the  beginning  of  that  season  when  people 
felt  the  need  of  warming  themselves  at  the  fire,  because  the  air  was 
changing  in  autumn.  In  our  time  it  coincides  with  the  middle  of 
summer.  From  this  day  they  count  70  days,  and  then  commence  sowing 
the  autumn  wheat. 

Hamdadh.     Nothing  mentioned.  10 

Ikhsharewari.  The  1st  day  is  called  ^„j^  ;  but  originally,  they  say, 
it  was  called  Faghrubah,  i.e.  tJie  exitus  of  the  Shah.  For  about  this  time 
the  kings  of  Khwarizm  used  to  march  out,  because  the  heat  was  then 
decreasing  and  the  cold  drawing  near ;  then  they  went  into  winter- 
quarters  outside  their  residence,  driving  away  the  Ghuzz-Turks  from 
their  frontiers  and  defending  the  limits  of  their  empire  against  their 
inroads. 

tJmri.     The   1st  day  is  the  feast  Azdd  Kand  Khwdr,  i.e.   the  day  of 
eating  the  bread  jprejjared  with  fat.     On  that  day  they  sought  protection 
from  the  cold,  and  assembled  for  the  purpose  of  eating  the  hreadprepared  20 
with  fat,  around  the  burning  fire-grates. 

The  13th  is  the  feast  Cirt-Boj,  which  the  Khwarizmians  hold  in  the 
same  veneration  as  the  Persians  their  Mihrajan. 

The  21st  is  likewise  a  feast,  called  Bdm-BSj. 

Ydndkhun.     Nothing  mentioned  in  this  month. 

Adu.     Nothing  mentioned. 

Eimazhd.  The  11th  is  called  Nimhhah.  People  say  that  it  was 
originally  called  Minac  Ahhih,  which  was  then  wrongly  altered  for  the 
sake  of  easier  pronunciation,  as  it  was  frequently  used.  It  means :  the 
night  of  Mina.  Now,  some  of  them  maintain  that  Mina  was  one  of  their  30 
queens  or  chieftains,  that  she  left  her  castle  intoxicated,  dressed  in  a 
silk  dress,  at  spring  time.  She  fell  down  outside  the  castle  and  lost  all 
self-control ;  she  fell  asleep,  was  smitten  by  the  cold  of  the  night,  and 
died.  Now  people  were  astonished  that  the  cold  had  killed  a  human 
being  about  this  lime  in  spring.  So  they  used  it  as  an  epoch  for  some- 
p  237.  thing  miraculous,  extraordinary,  that  does  not  happen  at  its  proper 
time. 

This  day  has  been  advancing  beyond  its  proper  time  to  such  a  degree, 
that  now-a-days  people  consider  it  as  the  middle  of  winter. 

On  this  day  and  about  this  time  the  people  of  Khwarizm  use  perfumes   40 
and  incense,  and  they  make  the   smells  rise  up  from  the  dishes  which 
they  lay  out  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  off  all  the  injuries  of  the  demons 
and  evil  spirits. 

This  proceeding  is  necessary,  by  way  of  careful  precaution,  if  some 


ON  THE  FESTIVALS  IN  THE  MONTHS  OF  THE  KHWAEIZMIANS.    225 

spiritual  matters  are  connected  with.  it.  I  mean  charms,  incantations, 
and  prayers,  which  the  most  distinguished  philosophers  have  acknow- 
ledged and  allowed,  after  having  witnessed  their  effects,  e.g.  Galenus,  and 
others  like  him,  though  they  are  few.  These  precautions  are  likewise  to 
be  recommended  if  people  in  doing  so  derive  some  help  from  astronomical 
occurrences,  as,  e.g.  the  Tempora  Parata  and  the  Tempora  Selecta,  with 
the  constellations  that  are  mentioned  for  such  purposes.  We  cannot 
help  taking  notice  of  those  who  try  to  prove  that  all  such  precaution  is 
futile  and  false  by  no  other  arguments  but  by  mockery,  derision,  and 

10  sneers. 

The  existence  of  jinns  and  demons  has  been  acknowledged  by  the 
most  famous  philosophers  and  scholars,  e.g.  by  Aristotle,  when  he  de- 
scribes them  as  beings  of  air  and  fire  and  calls  them  "  human  heings." 
Likewise  Yahya  Grammaticus  and  others  have  acknowledged  them, 
describing  them  as  the  impure  parts  of  the  erring  souls,  after  they  have 
been  separated  from  their  bodies,  who  (the  souls)  are  prevented  from 
reaching  their  primal  origin,  because  they  did  not  find  the  knowledge  of 
the  truth,  but  were  living  in  confusion  and  stupefaction.  Something 
similar  to  this  is  what  Mani  indicates  in  his  books,  although  his  indica- 

20  tions  are  expressed  in  subtle  words  and  phrases. 

Akhamman.     Nothing  mentioned  in  this  month. 


Ispandarmaji.     The  4th  is  called  KMzh,  i.e.  the  rising. 

The  10th  is  a  feast  called  WaJchsh-Angdm.  Wakhsh  is  the  name  of  the 
angel  who  has  to  watch  over  the  water  and  especially  over  the  river 
Oxus. 

The  20th  is  called  ^^s^^,  which  means :  houses  that  are  built  close 
together. 

Besides  they  have  other  festivals  which  they  want  for  the  affairs  of 
their  religion ;  they  are  the  following  six  : — 

30       I.  The  first  is  called  »^j  ^^^Us^^i?  on   the  11th  of  Nausarji.     Common 
people  call  it  NdusdrjaJcdnik  by  the  month  in  which  it  occurs. 

II.  The  second  is  called  -^.j  (:>*?-  ^^>-^  on  the  1st  of  Ciri.  It  is  also 
called  Jdwardaminik,  i.e.  i^^^  and  Ajghdrminik,  so  called  from  the 
month  Ajghar,  because  it  falls  15  days  before  that  feast  (on  the  15th  of 
Ciri). 

III.  The  third  is  called  •^j  (j\4>^  on  the  15th  of  Hamdadh.  It  is 
also  called  t£V^Jj.»^\. 

IV.  The  fourth  is  called  j^j  ^jj^»-w»  on  the  15th  of  tTmri,  also  called  p.238. 
40       V.  The  fifth  is  called  (lacuna)  on  the  1st  of  Rimazhd,  also  called 

VI.  The  sixth  is  called  J«j  i:^j\  on  the  1st  of  Akhamman,  also  called 

15 


226  albMnI. 

In  the  five  last  days  of  Ispandarmaji  and  the  following  five  Epago- 
mencethej  do  the  same  which  the  Persians  do  in  Farwardajan,  i.e.  they 
lay  out  food  in  the  temples  for  the  spirits  of  the  dead. 

(The  Lunar  Stations  with  the  Chorasmians).— They  were  in  the 

habit  of  using  the  stations  of  the  moon  and  deriving  from  them  the 
rules  of  astrology.  The  names  of  the  stations  in  their  language  they 
have  preserved,  but  those  who  made  use  of  them,  who  knew  how  to 
observe  them  and  how  to  draw  conclusions  from  them,  have  died  out.  Their 
using  the  lunar  stations  is  clearly  proved  by  the  fact  that  in  the 
Khwarizmi  dialect  an  astronomer  is  called  Ahhtar-wemh,  i.e.  looking  to  10 
the  lunar  stations,  for  AJcUar  means  a  station  of  the  moon. 

They  used  to  distribute  these  stations  over  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
Zodiac,  for  which  they  also  had  special  names  in  their  language.  They 
knew  them  (the  signs  of  Zodiac)  even  better  than  the  Arabs,  as  you 
learn  by  the  fact  that  their  nomenclature  of  them  agrees  with  the  names 
given  to  them  by  the  original  designer  of  their  figures,  whilst  the  names 
of  the  Arabs  do  not  agree,  and  they  represent  these  signs  as  quite 
different  figures. 

For  instance,  they  count  Aljauza  among  the  number  of  the  Zodiacal 
signs  instead  of  Gremini,  whilst  Aljauza  is  the  figure  Orion.    The  people  of  20 
Khwarizm  call  this  sign  (Gemini)  AdhupachariJc,  i.e.  having  two  figures, 
which  means  the  same  as  Gemini. 

Further,  the  Arabs  represent  the  figure  of  Leo  as  composed  of  a 
number  of  figures.  In  consequence,  Leo  extends  in  longitude  over  some- 
thing more  than  three  signs,  not  to  mention  its  extension  in  latitude.  For 
they  consider  the  two  heads  of  Gemini  as  his  outstretched  forefoot,  and 
the  nebula,  in  the  foremost  part  of  which  is  Cancer,  I  mean  Alnathra, 
as  his  nose.  The  breast  of  Virgo,  I  mean  AVawwd,  they  consider  as  his 
two  loins  ;  the  hand  of  Virgo,  I  mean  AlsimdJc  AVa'zal,  as  one  of  his 
shanks  ;  and  Alramih  as  his  other  shank.  According  to  their  opinion,  the  30 
figure  of  Leo  extends  over  the  signs  Cancer,  Leo,  Virgo,  and  part  of 
Libra,  and  a  number  of  constellations  both  of  the  northei'n  and  southern 
hemispheres,  whilst  in  reality  the  matter  is  not  what  they  assume. 

If  you,  likewise,  inquire  into  the  names  of  the  Arabs  for  the  fixed 
stars,  you  will  see  that  they  were  very  far  from  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  Zodiacal  signs  and  the  star-figures,  although  'Abu-Muhammad 
'Abdalhih  b.  Muslim  b,  Kutaiba  Aljabali  used  to  make  a  great  to-do 
and  to  be  very  verbose  in  all  his  books,  and  specially  in  his  book 
on  the  superiority  of  the  Arabs  over  the  Persians,  maintaining  that 
the  Arabs  were  the  best-informed  nation  regarding  the  stars  and  40 
the  times  of  their  rising  and  setting.  I  do  not  know  whether  he 
was  really  ignorant,  or  only  pretended  to  be  ignorant,  of  what 
the  agriculturists  and  peasants  in  every  place  and  district  have  got 
in  the  way  of  knowledge  regarding  the  beginning  of  the  agricultural 
works  and  other  things,  and  of  knowledge  of  the  proper  times  for  similar 


ON  THE  FESTIVALS  IN  THE  MONTHS  OP  THE  EBWARIZMIANS.    227 

Bubjects.  For  he  whose  roof  is  heaven,  who  has  no  other  cover,  over 
whom  the  stars  continually  rise  and  set  in  one  and  the  same  course,  p. 239. 
makes  the  beginnings  of  his  affairs  and  his  knowledge  of  time  depend 
upon  them.  But  the  Arabs  had,  moreover,  one  advantage  in  which  others 
did  not  share ;  this  is  the  perpetuation  of  what  they  knew  or  believed, 
right  or  wrong,  praise  or  blame,  by  means  of  their  poetry  (Kasidas),  by 
Eajaz  poems,  and  by  compositions  in  rhymed  prose.  These  things  one 
generation  inherited  from  the  other,  so  as  to  remain  among  them  and 
after  them.     If  you    study  those    traditions    in    the  'Anwd  books,  and 

10  specially  his  book  which  he  called  "  The  Science  of  the  Appearance  of  the 
Stars,"  part  of  which  we  have  communicated  to  the  reader  at  the  end  of 
this  book,  you  will  find  that  the  Arabs  had  no  particular  knowledge  on 
this  subject  beyond  that  which  is  familiar  to  the  peasants  of  every 
country.  The  man  (i.e.  'Abdallah  b.  Muslim  Aljabali),  however,  is  extra- 
vagant in  the  subject  into  which  he  plunges,  and  not  free  from  Jabali 
(i.e.  mountaineer)  character,  as  far  as  obstinacy  of  opinion  is  concerned. 
The  style  of  his  book  which  we  have  mentioned  shows  that  there  must 
have  been  enmities  and  grudges  between  him  and  the  Persians.  For  he 
is  not  satisfied  at  exalting  the  Arabs  at  the  expense  of  the  Persians,  but 

20  he  must  needs  make  the  Persians  the  meanest,  vilest,  and  most  degraded 
of  all  nations,  attribute  to  them  even  more  want  of  belief  and  obstinacy 
against  Islam  than  God  attributes  to  the  Arab  Bedouins  in  the  Sura 
Altauba  (Sura  ix.  98),  and  heap  upon  them  all  that  is  abominable.  If  he 
had  only  taken  a  moment's  consideration  and  had  called  to  mind  the 
first  period  of  those  whom  he  preferred  to  the  Persians,  he  would  have 
given  the  lie  to  himself  in  most  of  what  he  says  about  both  parties  from 
sheer  want  of  moderation  and  equity. 

In  the  following  we  give  the  names  of  the  lunar  stations  in  the  dia- 
lect both  of  the  Sughdians  and  the  Khwarizmians.     Afterwards  we  shall 

30  describe  the  constellations  in  which  they  appear,  when  we  speak  of  the 
times  of  their  rising  and  setting. 


Table  of  the  Lunar  Stations. 


p.240. 


40 


Their  Names  in  Arabic. 

In  Sogdian. 

In  Chorasmian. 

1.  Althurayya 
Aldabaran 
Alhak'a 
Alhan'a 

5.  Aldhira' 
Alnathra 
Altarf 
Aljabha 
Alzubra 

83^ 

15 


228 


ALBfRf^Nf. 


Their  Names  in  Arabic. 


10.  Alsarfa 

Al'awwa 

Alsimak 

Alghafr 

Alzubaniyan 
15.  Al'iklil 

Alkalb 

Alshaula 

Alna'a'im 

Albalda 
20.  Sa'd  aldhabih 

Sa'd  bula' 

Sa'd  alsu'ud 

Sa'd  al'akhbiya 

Alfargh  almukaddam 
25.  Alfargh  almu'akhkhar 

Batn  alhut 

Alsharatan 

Albutain 


In  Sogdian. 


S'^-} 


In  Chorasmian. 


csX^ji 


•^)\'^ 


10 


20 


229 


CHAPTER    XII. 


p.241. 


ON    KHWARIZM-SHAH  S    REFORM    OF    THE    KHWARIZMIAN    FESTAL 
CALENDAR. 

'Abxj-Sa'id  'Ahmad  b.  Muhammad  b.  'Irak  followed  tbe  example  of 
Almu'tadid-billah  regarding  the  intercalation  of  the  Chorasmian  months. 
For  on  having  been  freed  from  his  fetters  at  Bukhara,  and  having  re- 
turned to  his  residence,  he  asked  the  mathematicians  at  his  court 
regarding  the  feast  Ajghar,  whereupon  they  pointed  out  to  him  its  place 
in  the  calendar.     Further,  he  asked  with  what  day  of  Tammuz  it  corre- 

10  sponded,  and  this  also  they  told  him.  This  date  he  kept  in  memory, 
and  when  seven  years  later  at  the  same  time  of  the  year  he  again  came 
to  think  of  it,  he  rejected  this  sort  of  calculation.  He  was  not  as  yet 
acquainted  with  the  intercalations  and  all  matters  connected  with  them. 
Then  he  ordered  Alkharaji  and  Alhamdaki  and  other  astronomers  of  his 
tim.e  to  be  brought  before  him,  and  asked  them  as  to  what  was  the 
reality  of  the  case.  These  scholars  then  gave  him  a  minute  explanation 
and  told  him  how  the  Persians  and  Chorasmians  had  managed  their 
year.  Thereupon  he  said  :  "  This  is  a  system  which  has  become  confused 
and  forgotten.     The  people  rely  upon  these  days  (i.e.  certain  feast-days, 

20  Ajghar,  Nimkhab,  etc.),  and  thereby  they  find  the  cardinal  points  of  the 
four  seasons,  since  they  believe  that  they  never  change  their  places  in  the 
year ;  that  Ajghar  is  always  the  middle  of  summer,  Nimkhab  the  middle 
of  winter  ;  certain  distances  from  these  days  they  use  as  the  proper  times 
for  sowing  and  ploughing.  Something  like  this  {i.e.  the  deviation  of  the 
Chorasmian  year  from  proper  time)  is  not  perceived  except  in  the  course 
of  many  years.  And  this  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  they  disagree  among 
each  other  regarding  the  fixing  of  those  distances,  so  that  some  main- 
tain that  60  days  after  Ajghar  is  the  proper  time  for  sowing  the  wheat, 
whilst  others  put  this  time  earlier  or  later.  The  proper  thing  would  be 
that  we  should  find   some  means  to  fix  those  things  uniformly  and  to 


230  ALBiE^Nt. 

invariable  times  of  the  year,  so  that  the  proper  times  for  these  things 
should  never  differ." 

Now,  the  scholars  told  him  that  the  best  way  in  this  matter  would  be 
to  fix  the  beginnings  of  the  Chorasmian  months  on  certain  days  of  the 
G-reek  and  Syrian  months — in  the  same  way  as  Almu'tadid  had  done — 
and  after  that  to  intercalate  them  as  the  Greeks  and  Syrians  do.  This 
plan  they  carried  out  A.  Alex.  1270,  and  they  arranged  that  the  1st  of 
Njiusarji  should  fall  on  the  third  of  the  Syrian  Nisan,  so  that  Ajghdr 
would  always  fall  in  the  middle  of  Tammuz.  And  accordingly  they 
regulated  the  times  of  agricultural  works,  e.g.  the  time  of  gathering  10 
grapes  for  the  purpose  of  making  raisins  is  40-60  days  after  Ajghdr ; 
the  time  of  gathering  grapes  for  the  purpose  of  hanging  them  up, 
and  the  time  of  gathering  pears,  is  55-65  days  after  Ajghdr.  In  the 
same  way  they  fixed  all  the  times  for  sowing,  for  the  impregnation  of 
the  palm-trees,  for  planting  and  binding  together,  etc.  If  the  Greek  year 
is  a  leap-year,  the  Epagomence  at  the  end  of  Ispandarmaji  are  six  days. 
If  people  had  made  this  reform  of  Khwarizm-Shah  the  epoch  of  an 
era,  we  should  have  added  it  to  the  other  eras  which  we  have  before 
mentioned. 


p. 242.  Regarding  the  festivals  in  the  non-intercalated  months  of  the  Egyp-  20 
tians,  although  it  is  likely  that  they  had  similar  ones  with  the  other 
nations,  we  have  not  received  any  information.  Likewise  we  have  no 
information  regarding  their  festivals  in  the  intercalated  months  which 
they  use  now-a-days,  except  this,  that  people  say  that  new-year  of  the 
Egyptians  is  the  1st  of  Thoth,  and  that  the  water  of  the  Nile  begins  to 
swell  and  to  increase  on  the  16th  of  Payni,  according  to  another  report 
on  the  20th  of  Payni.  It  is  hkely  that  they  would  celebrate  the  same 
festivals  as  the  Greeks  and  Syrians,  because  Egypt  lies  in  the  midst 
between  them  and  because  they  all  use  the  same  kind  of  year.  Some 
matters,  however,  are  quite  peculiar  to  the  Egyptians,  e.g.  their  country,  80 
Egypt,  has  certain  peculiarities,  in  which  no  other  country  shares — 
appearances  of  the  water,  the  air,  the  rain,  etc. 

The  famous  days  of  the  Greeks  and  Syrians  are  of  two  kinds,  one  for 
the  affairs  of  any  sort  of  secular  life,  for  certain  aerial  appearances,  etc., 
as  we  have  already  mentioned,  and  another  kind  for  the  matters  of  their 
religion,  which  is  Christianity.  We  shall  describe  in  its  proper  place  as 
much  as  we  have  learned  about  both  kinds,  and  as  has  been  reported  to 
us,  if  God  permits ! 


231 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR  AS  KNOWN  BOTH  AMONG  THE 
GREEKS  AND  OTHER  NATIONS. 

The  Greek  year  agrees  witli  tlie  solar  year ;  its  seasons  retain  their 
px-oper  places  like  the  natural  seasons  of  the  solar  year ;  it  revolves 
parallel  with  the  latter,  and  its  single  parts  never  cease  to  correspond 
with  those  of  the  latter,  except  by  that  quantity  of  time  (the  Portio 
Intercalationis)  which,  before  it  becomes  perceptible,  is  appended  to  the 
year  and  added  to  it  as  one  whole  day  (in  every  fourth  year)  by  means 
10  of  intercalation.  Therefore  the  Grreeks  and  Syrians  and  all  who  follow 
their  example  fix  and  arrange  by  this  kind  of  year  all  annual,  consecu- 
tive occurrences,  and  also  the  meteorological  and  other  qualities  of  the 
single  days  that  experience  has  taught  them  in  the  long  run  of  time, 
which  are  called  'Anwd  and  Bawdrih. 

Regarding  the  cause  of  these  'Anwd,  scholars  do  not  agree  among  each 
other.  Some  derive  them  from  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  fixed  stars, 
among  them  the  Arabs.     (Some  poet  says) : 

'*  Those  are  my  jDcople  (a  bad  set)  like  the  Banat-Na'sh, 
Who  do  not  bring  rain  like  the  other  stars  ;  " 

OQ  i.e.  they  are  good-for-nothing  people  like  the  Bandt-Na'sh,  whose  rising 
and  setting  do  not  bring  rain. 

Others,  again,  derive  them  from  the  days  themselves,  maintaining  that 
they  are  peculiarities  of  them,  that  such  is  their  nature,  at  least,  on  an 
average,  and  that  besides  they  are  increased  or  diminished  by  other 
causes.  They  say,  for  instance :  The  nature  of  the  season  of  summer  is 
heat,  the  nature  of  the  season  of  winter  is  cold,  sometimes  in  a  higher 
degree,  sometimes  less.    The  excellent  Galenus  says :  "  To  decide  between  p.243. 


232  ALBiRf)Ni. 

these  parties  is  only  possible  on  the  basis  of  experiment  and  examination. 
But  to  examine  this  difference  of  opinion  is  not  possible  except  in  a  long 
space  of  time,  because  the  motion  of  the  fixed  stars  is  very  little  known 
and  because  in  a  short  space  of  time  we  find  very  little  difference  in  their 
rising  and  setting." 

Now,  this  opinion  has  filled  Sinan  b.  Thabit  b.  Kurra  with  surprise. 
He  says  in  his  book  on  the  'Anwd,  which  he  composed  for  the  Khalif 
Almu'tadid  :  "  I  do  not  know  how  Galenus  came  to  make  such  a  mistake, 
skilled  as  he  was  in  astronomy.  For  the  rising  and  setting  of  the 
stars  differ  greatly  and  evidently  in  different  countries.  E.g.  SuJiail  rises  10 
at  Baghdad  on  the  5th  of  llul,  at  Wasit  two  days  later,  at  Basra  somewhat 
earlier  than  at  Wasit .  People  say :  '  the  'Anwd  differ  in  different 
countries.'  But  that  is  not  the  case.  On  the  contrary,  they  occur  always 
on  one  and  the  same  day  (everywhere)  ;  which  proves  that  the  stars  and 
their  rising  and  setting  have  nothing  to  do  with  this  matter." 

Afterwards  he  has  given  the  lie  to  himself,  though  it  is  correct  what  he 
said,  viz.,  that  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  stars  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  forming  one  of  the  causes  of  the  'Anwa,  if  you  limit  his 
assertion  by  certain  conditions  and  do  not  understand  it  in  that  generality 
in  which  he  has  proclaimed  it.  20 

Further  he  (Sinan  b.  Thabit)  says  :  "  The  'Anwd  of  the  Arabs  are  mostly 
correct  for  Alhijaz  and  the  neighbourhood,  those  of  the  Egyptians  for 
Egypt  and  the  coasts  of  the  sea,  those  of  Ptolemy  for  Greece  and  the  neigh- 
bouring mountains.  If  anybody  would  go  to  one  of  those  countries  and 
examine  them  there,  he  would  find  correct  what  Galenus  says  regarding 
the  difiiculty  of  an  examination  of  the  'Anwd  in  a  short  space  of  time." 
In  this  respect  he  (Sinan)  is  right.  Galenus  mentions  and  believes  only 
what  he  considers  as  a  truth,  resting  on  certain  arguments,  and  keeps 
aloof  from  everything  that  is  beset  with  doubt  and  obscurity. 

Sinan  relates  of  his  father,  that  he  examined  the  'Anwd  in  'Irak  about    80 
thirty  years  with   the  view  of  finding   certain  principles  with  which  to 
compare  the  'Anwd  of  other  countries.     But  fate  overtook  him  before  he 
could  accomplish  his  plan. 

Whichever  of  the  two  theories  may  be  correct,  whether  the  'Anwd  are 
to  be  traced  back  to  the  days  of  the  year  or  to  the  rising  and  setting  of 
the  Lunar  Stations,  in  any  case  there  is  no  room  for  a  third  theory.  To 
each  of  these  theories,  whichever  you  may  hold  to  be  correct,  certain 
conditions  attach,  on  which  the  correctness  of  the  'Anwd  depends,  i.e.  to 
prognosticate  the  character  of  the  year,  the  season,  the  month,  whether 
it  will  be  dry  or  moist,  whether  it  will  answer  to  the  expectations  of  40 
people  or  not,  to  prognosticate  it  by  means  of  the  signs  and  proofs,  of 
which  the  astronomical  books  on  meteorology  are  full.  For  if  the  'Anwd 
agree  with  those  signs  and  proofs,  they  are  true  and  will  be  fulfilled  in 
their  entire  extent ;  if  they  do  not  agree,  something  different  will  occur. 

Thus  the  matter  stands  between  these  two  theories. 


ON  THE  DATS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.       233 

Sinan  b.  Thabit  prescribes  that  we  should  take  into  regard  whether  the 
Arabs  and  Persians  agree  on  a  Nau\  If  they  do  agree,  its  probability- 
is  strengthened  and  it  is  sure  to  take  place;  if  they  do  not  agree,  the 
contrary  is  the  case. 

I  shall  mention  in  this  book  the  comprehensive  account  of  Sinan  in 
his  book  on  the  'Anwd  and  the  proper  times  for  secular  affairs  occurring 
in  the  Greek  months.  Of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  Lunar 
Stations  I  shall  speak  in  a  special  chapter  at  the  end  of  this  book.  For 
since  the  astronomers  have  found  that  their  rising  and  setting  proceed 
10  according  to  one  and  the  same  uniform  order  in  these  months,  they  have 

assigned  them  to  their  proper  days,  in  order  to  unite  them  and  prevent  p. 244. 
them  from  getting  into  confusion.     God  lends  support  and  help  ! 

Tishrin  I.  (October.) 

1.  People  expect  rain  (Euctemon  and  Philippus) ;  turbid  air  (Egyp- 
tians and  Callippus). 

2.  Turbid  winterly  air  (Callippus,  Egyptians,  and  Euctemon)  ;  rain, 
(Eudoxus  and  Metrodoras). 

3.  Nothing  mentioned. 

4.  Wearing  wind  (Eudoxus)  ;  winterly  air  (Egyptians). 

20       5.  Winterly  air  (Democritus)  ;  beginning  of  the  time  of  sowing. 

6.  North  wind  (Egyptians). 

7.  South  wind  (Hipparchus). 

8.  Nothing  mentioned.     Winterly  air,  according  to  Sinan. 

9.  'ETTicriy/xatvet  (Eudoxus)  ;  east  wind  (Hipparchus)  ;  west  wind  (Egyp- 
tians). 

10.  Nothing  mentioned. 

11.  Episemasia  (Eudoxus  and  Dositheus). 

12.  Rain  (the  Egyptians). 

13.  Unsteady  wind,  Episemasia,  thunder,  and  rain  ^(Callippus)  ;  north 
80  wind  or  south  wind  (Eudoxus  and  Dositheus).     Sinan  attests  that  this 

is  frequently  true.     On  this  day  the  waves  of  the  sea  are  sure  to  be  in 
great  commotion. 

14.  Episemasia  and  north  wind  (Eudoxus). 

15.  Change  of  the  winds  (Eudoxus). 

16.  Nothing  mentioned. 

17.  Eain  and  Episemasia  (Dositheus);  west  wind  or  south  wind 
(Egyptians). 

18.  Nothing  mentioned. 

19.  Eain    and   Episemasia    (Dositheus) ;    west   wind  or  south   wind 
40   (Egyptians). 

20.  21.  Nothing  mentioned. 

22.  Unsteady,  changing  winds  (Egyptians).  On  this  day  the  air 
begins  to  get  cold.     It  is  no  longer  time  for  drinking  medicine  and  for 


234  ALBiR^N}. 

phlebotomy  except  in  case  of  need.  For  the  Favourable  Times  for  such 
things  are  always  then,  when  you  intend  thereby  to  preserve  the  health 
of  the  body.  For  if  you  are  compelled  to  use  such  means,  you  cannot 
wait  for  a  night  or  day,  for  heat  or  cold,  for  a  lucky  or  unlucky  day.  On 
the  contrary,  you  use  it  as  soon  as  possible,  before  the  evil  takes  root, 
when  it  would  be  difficult  to  eradicate  it. 

23.  Episemasia  (Eudoxus)  ;  north  wind  or  south  wind  (Caesar). 

24.  Episemasia  (Callippus  and  Egyptians). 

25.  Episemasia  (Metrodorus)  ;  change  in  the  air  (Callippus  and  Eucte- 
mon).  10 

26.  Nothing  mentioned. 
p.246.       27.  Winterly  air  (Egyptians). 

28.  Nothing  mentioned.  It  is  a  favourable  day  for  taking  a  warm 
bath  and  for  eating  things  that  are  of  a  sharp,  biting  taste,  nothing  that 
is  salt  or  bitter. 

29.  Hail  or  frost  (Democritus)  ;  continual  south  wind  (Hipparchus) ; 
tempest  and  winterly  air  (Egyptians). 

30.  Heavy  wind  (Euctemon  and  Philippus).  The  kites,  the  white 
carrion- vultures  (vultur  joercnopterus) ,  and  the  swallows  migrate  to  the 
lowlands,  and  the  ants  go  into  their  nest.  20 

31.  Violent  winds  (Callippus  and  Euctemon)  ;  wind  and  winterly  air 
(Metrodorus  and  Caesar)  ;  south  wind  (Egyptians).     Grod  knows  best ! 

Tishrin  II.  (November.) 

1.  Clear  (lit.  unmixed)  winds  (Eudoxus  and  Conon). 

2.  Clear  air  with  cold  north  wind  and  south  wind. 

3.  South  wind  blows  (Ptolemaeus)  ;  west  wind  (Egyptians)  ;  north  or 
south  wind  (Eudoxus)  ;  rain  (Euctemon,  Philippus,  and  Hipparchus). 

4.  Episemasia  (Euctemon)  ;  rain  (Philippus). 

5.  Winterly  air  and  rain  (Egyptians). 

6.  South  or  west  wind  (Egyptians)  ;   winterly  air  (Dositheus).     Sinan  30 
says  that  this  is  borne  out  by  practical  experience. 

7.  Eain  with  whirlwind  (Meton)  ;  cold  wind  (Hipparchus).  This  is 
the  first  day  of  the  rainy  season,  when  the  sun  enters  the  21st  degree  of 
Cancer.  Astrologers  take  the  horoscope  of  this  time  and  derive  there- 
from an  indication  as  to  whether  the  year  will  have  much  rain  or  little. 
Herein  they  rely  upon  the  condition  of  Venus  at  the  times  of  her  rising 
and  setting,  I  believe,  however,  that  this  is  only  peculiar  to  the  climate 
of  'Irak  and  Syria,  not  to  other  countries,  for  very  frequently  it  rains  with 
us  in  Khwarizm  even  before  this  time.  ' Abu-alkasim  'Ubaid-Allah  b.  'Abd- 
allah  b.  Khurdadhbih  relates  in  his  Kitdb-almasdliJc  walmamdlik  that  in  40 
Hijaz  and  Yaman  it  rains  during  Haziran,  Tammuz,  and  part  of  llfil.  I 
myself  have  been  dwelling  in  Jurjan  during  the  summer  months,  but  there 
never  passed  ten  consecutive  days  during  which  the  sky  was  clear  and 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GEEEK  CALBNDAB.        236 

free  from  clouds,  and  wlien  it  did  not  rain.  It  is  a  rainy  country. 
People  relate  that  one  of  the  khalifs,  I  think  it  was  Alma'mun,  stayed 
there  during  forty  days  whilst  it  rained  without  any  interruption.  So  he 
said  :  "  Lead  us  out  of  this  pissing,  splashing  country  !  " 

The  nearer  a  district  is  to  Tabaristan,  the  more  its  air  is  moist,  the 
more  rainy  it  is.  The  air  of  the  mountains  of  Tabaristan  is  so  moist 
that  if  j)eople  break  and  pound  garlic  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  rain 
is  sure  to  set  in.  As  the  cause  of  this  subject,  the  vice-judge,  Alamuli, 
the  author  of  the  Kitdh-Alghurra,  mentions  this,  that  the  air  of  the 
10  country  iii  moist  and  dense  with  stagnant  vapours.  If,  now,  the  smell  of  p.246. 
garlic  spreads  among  these  vapours,  it  dissolves  the  vapours  by  its  sharp- 
ness and  compresses  the  density  of  the  air,  in  consequence  of  which  rain 
follows. 

Granted,  now,  that  this  be  the  cause  of  this  appearance  produced  by 
the  pounding  of  garlic,  how  do  you,  then,  account  for  the  famous  well 
in  the  mountains  of  Farghana,  where  it  begins  to  rain  as  soon  as  you 
throw  something  dirty  into  this  well  ? 

And  how  do  you  account  for  the  place  called  "  the  shop  of  Solomon  the 
son  of  David,"  in  the  cave  called  Ispahbadhan  in  the  mountain  of  Tak 
20   in  Tabaristan,  where  heaven  becomes  cloudy  as  soon  as  you  defile  it  by 
filth  or  by  milk,  and  where  it  rains  until  you  clean  it  again  ? 

And  how  do  you  account  for  the  mountain  in  the  country  of  the 
Turks  ?  For  if  the  sheep  pass  over  it,  people  wrap  their  feet  in  wool  to 
prevent  their  touching  the  rock  of  the  mountain.  For  if  they  touch  it, 
heavy  rain  immediately  follows.  Pieces  of  this  rock  the  Turks  carry 
about,  and  contrive  to  defend  themselves  thereby  against  all  evil  coming 
from  the  enemy,  if  they  are  surrounded  by  them.  Now,  those  who  are 
not  aware  of  these  facts  consider  this  as  a  bit  of  sorcery  on  the  part  of 
the  Turks, 
30  Of  a  similar  character  is  a  fountain  called  "  the  pure  one  "  in  Egypt  in 
the  lowest  part  of  a  mountain  which  adjoins  a  church.  Into  this  fountain 
sweet,  nicely-smelling  water  is  flowing  out  of  a  source  in  the  bottom  of  the 
mountain.  If,  now,  an  individual  that  is  impure  through  pollution  or 
menstruation  touches  the  water,  it  begins  at  once  to  stink,  and  does  not 
cease  until  you  pour  out  the  water  of  the  fountain  and  clean  it ;  then  it 
regains  its  nice  smell. 

Further,  there  is  a  mountain  between  Herat  and  Sijistan,  in  a  sandy 
country,  somewhat  distant  from  the  road,  where  you  hear  a  clear  murmur 
and  a  deep  sound  as  soon  as  it  is  defiled  by  human  excrements  or  urine. 
40  These  things  are  natural  peculiarities  of  the  created  beings,  the  causes 
of  which  are  to  be  traced  back  to  the  simple  elements  and  to  the  begin- 
ning of  all  composition  and  creation.  And  there  is  no  possibility  that 
our  knowledge  should  ever  penetrate  to  subjects  of  this  description. 

There  are  other  districts  of  quite  another  character  from  that  of  the 
mountains  of  Tabaristan,  e.g.  Fustat  in  Egypt,  and  the  adjacent  parts,  for 


236  ALBtR^Nl. 

there  it  rains  very  seldom.  And  if  it  rains,  tlie  air  is  infected,  becomes 
pestilential  and  hurts  both  animals  and  plants.  Such  things  (i.e.  such 
climatical  differences)  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  place  and  its 
situation,  whether  it  lies  in  the  mountains  or  on  the  sea,  whether  it  is  a 
place  of  great  elevation  or  a  low  country;  further,  uj)on  the  degree  of 
northern  or  southern  latitude  of  the  place. 

8.  Rain  and  winterly  air  (Euctemon)  ;  winterly  air  and  whirlwinds 
(Metrodorus)  ;  south  wind  or  eupos,  i.e.  south-east  wind  (Euctemon)  ;  east 
wind  (Egyptians). 

9.  Nothing  mentioned.  jq) 

10.  Winterly  air  and  whirlwinds  (Euctemon  and  Philippus)  ;  north 
wind,  or  cold  south  wind  and  rain  (Hipparchus). 

11.  Episemasia  (Callippus,  Conon,  and  Metrodorus).  Sinan  says  that 
this  is  borne  out  by  experience. 

12.  Wiaterly  air  (Eudoxus  and  Dositheus). 

13.  Episemasia  (Eudoxus)  ;  winterly  air  on  land  and  sea  (Democritus). 
Ships  that  are  at  sea  on  this  day  put  in  to  shore,  and  navigation  to 
Persia  and  Alexandria  is  suspended.     For  the  sea  has  certain  days  when 

p. 247.  it  is  in  uproar,  when  the  air  is  turbid,  the  waves  roll,  and  thick  darkness 

lies  over  it.     Therefore  navigation  is  imj)racticable.     People  say  that  at  20 
this  time  there  arises  the  wind  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  that  puts  the 
sea  in  motion.     This  they  conclude  from  the  appearance  of  a  certain  sort 
of  fishes  which  then  swim  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  sea  and  on  its 
surface,  showing  thereby  that  this  storm  is  blowing  at  the  bottom. 

Frequently,  people  say,  this  submarine  storm  rises  a  day  earlier. 
Every  sailor  recognizes  this  by  certain  marks  in  his  special  sea.  For 
instance,  in  the  Chinese  sea  this  submarine  storm  is  recognized  by 
the  fishing-nets  rising  of  themselves  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  its 
surface.  On  the  contrary,  they  conclude  that  the  sea  bottom  is  quiet  if 
a  certain  bird  sits  hatching  her  eggs — for  they  hatch  in  a  bundle  of  30 
chij)s  and  wood  on  the  sea,  if  they  do  not  go  on  land  nor  sit  down  there. 
They  lay  their  eggs  only  at  that  time  when  the  sea  is  quiet. 

Further,  people  maintain  that  any  wood  which  is  cut  on  this  day  does 
not  get  worm-eaten,  and  that  the  white  ant  does  not  attack  it.  This 
peculiarity  perhaps  stands  in  connection  with  the  nature  of  the  mixture 
of  the  air  on  this  special  day. 

14.  Winterly  air  (Csesar)  ;  south  wind  or  Eurus,  i.e.  south-east  wind 
(Egyptians). 

16.  Nothing  mentioned. 

16.  Winterly  air  (Caesar).  40 

17.  Rain  (Eudoxus)  ;  winterly  air  (Csesar)  ;  north  wind  during  night 
and  day  (Csesar), 

18.  Nothing  registered. 

19.  Sharp  winterly  air  (Eudoxus). 

20.  North  wind  (Eudoxus)  ;  severe  winterly  air  (Egyptians).  People  say 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.       237 

that  on  this  day  all  animals  that  have  no  bones  perish.  This,  however, 
is  different  in  different  countries.  For  I  used  to  be  molested  by  the 
gnats,  i.e.  animals  without  bones,  in  Jurjan,  whilst  the  sun  was  moving 
in  the  sign  of  Capricorn. 

21.  Winterly  air  and  rain  (Euctemon  and  Dositheus). 

22.  Very  winterly  air  (Eudoxus).  On  this  day  people  forbid  to  drink 
cold  water  during  the  night,  for  fear  of  the  Yellow  Water. 

23.  Eain  (Philippus)  ;  winterly  air  (Eudoxus  and  Conon)  ;  continual 
south  wind  (Hipparchus  and  Egyptians).     On  this  day  falls  the  feast  of 

10   gathering  the  olives,  and  the  fresh  olive-oil  is  pressed. 

24.  Light  rain  (Egyptians). 

25.  26.  Nothing  mentioned. 

27.  In  most  cases  a  disttu'bance  of  the  au-  on  land  and  sea  (Demo- 
critus)  ;  Episemasia  (Dositheus)  ;  south  wind  and  rain  (Egyptians). 

28.  Nothing  mentioned.  People  say  that  on  this  day  the  waves  of 
the  sea  roll  heavily  and  that  there  is  very  little  fishing. 

29.  Winterly  air  (Eudoxus  and  Conon)  ;  west  or  south  wind  and  rain 
(Egyptians). 

30.  Nothing  mentioned  by  the  authorities   hitherto   quoted,  nor   by 
20  others. 

Kdnun  I.  (December.)  p.248. 

1.  Winterly  air  (Callippus,  Eudoxus,  and  Csesar).  On  this  day  people 
hold  a  fair  in  Damascus,  which  is  called  "  the  fair  of  the  cutting  of  the 
ben-nut,"  i.e.  Nux  unguentaria. 

2.  Pure  winds  {lit.  not  mixed)  (Euctemon  and  Philippus);  sharp, 
winterly  air  (Metrodorus). 

3.  Winterly  air  (Conon  and  Csesar)  ;  light  rain  (Egyptians). 

4.  (Missing.) 

6.  Winterly  air  (Democritus  and  Dositheus).      The  same  is  confirmed 
30  by  Sinan. 

6.  Winterly  air  (Eudoxus)  ;  vehement  north  wind  (Hipparchus). 

8.  Nothing  mentioned. 

9.  Winterly  air  and  rain  (Callippus,  Euctemon,  and  Eudoxus). 

10.  Sharp  winterly  air  (Callippus,  Euctemon  and  Metrodorus) ;  thunder 
and  lightning,  wind  and  rain  (Democritus). 

11.  South  wind  and  Episemasia  (Callipj)us);  winterly  air  and  rain 
(Eudoxus  and  Egyptians).  According  to  Sinan  this  is  borne  out  by 
practical  experience.  Continued  sexual  intercourse  on  this  day  is  objected 
to,  which  I  do  not  quite  understand.      For  sexual  intercourse  is  not  ap- 

40  proved  of  in  autumn,  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  and  at  the  times  of 
epidemic  disease ;  on  the  contrary,  at  such  times  it  is  most  noxious  and 
pernicious  to  the  body.  Although  we  must  say  that  the  conditions  of 
sexual  intercourse  depend  upon  a  great  many  other  things,  as,  e.g.  age, 


238  ALBtRf^Nl. 

time,  place,  custom,  character,  nourishment,  the  fulness  or  emptiness  of 
the  stomach,  the  desire,  the  female  genitals,  etc. 

12.  Winterly  air  (Egyptians). 

13.  Vehement  south  wind  or  north  wind  (Hipparchus). 

14.  Winterly  air  (Eudoxus)  ;  rain  and  wind  (Egyptians). 
16.  Cold  north  wind  or  south  wind  and  rain  (Egyptians). 

16.  Winterly  air  (Caesar). 

17.  Nothing  mentioned.  People  forbid  on  this  day  to  take  of  the 
flesh  of  cows,  of  oranges,  and  mountain  balm,  to  drink  water  after  you 

lie  down  to  sleep,  to  smear  the  camels  with  Nura  (a  depilatory  unguent  10 
made  of  arsenic  and  quick-lime),  and  to  bleed  anybody  except  him  whose 
blood  is  feverish.  The  reason  of  all  this  is  the  cold  and  the  moistness 
of  the  season.  This  day  people  call  the  "  Great  Birth"  meaning  the 
winter- solstice.  People  say  that  on  this  day  the  light  leaves  those  limits 
withiu  which  it  decreases,  and  enters  those  limits  within  which  it  in- 
creases, that  human  beings  begin  growing  and  increasing,  whilst  the 
demons  begin  withering  and  perishing. 

Ka'b  the  Rabbi  relates  that  on  this  day  the  sun  was  kept  back  for 
Yosua  the  son  of  Nun  during  three  hours  on  a  clouded  day.  The  same 
story  is  told  by  the  simpletons  among  the  Shi'a  regarding  the  prince  of  20 
the  believers,  'Ali  b.  'Abi  Talib.  Whether,  now,  this  story  have  any 
foundation  or  not,  we  must  remark  that  those  who  are  beset  by  calamity 
find  its  duration  to  be  very  long  and  think  that  the  moment  of  liberation 
is  very  slow  in  coming.  So,  e.g.  'Ali  b.  Aljahm  said  in  a  sleepless  night, 
when  he  had  gone  out  to  war  against  the  Greeks,  oppressed  by  wounds 
and  fatigue : 

p.249.  "  Has  a  stream  swept  away  the  morning, 

Or  has  another  night  been  added  to  the  night  ?  " 

Afterwards  on  being  released  he  indulged  in  hallucinations  and  lying 
reports.  3q 

Something  similar  frequently  happens  on  fast-days,  if  heaven  during 
the  latter  part  of  them  be  clouded  and  dark ;  then  people  break  their 
fast,  whilst  shortly  afterwards,  when  the  sky  or  part  of  it  clears  up,  the 
sun  appears  still  standing  above  the  horizon,  having  not  yet  set. 
The  charm-mongers  say  that  it  is  a  good  omen  on  this  day  to  rise  from 
sleeping  on  the  right  side,  and  to  fumigate  with  frankincense  in  the 
morning  before  speaking.  It  is  also  considered  desirable  to  walk  twelve 
consecutive  steps  towards  the  east  at  the  moment  of  sunrise. 

Tahya  b.  'Ali,  the  Christian  writer  of  'Anbar,  says  that  the  rising-place 
of  the  sun  at  the  time  of  the  winter-solstice  is  the  true  east,  that  he  40 
rises  from  the  very  midst  of  paradise  ;  that  on  this  day  the  sages  lay  the 
foundations  of  the  altars.     It  was  the  belief  of  this  ,man  that  paradise 
is  situated  in  the  southern  regions.     But  he  had  no  knowledge  of  the 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.        239 

difference  of  the  zeniths.  Besides,  the  dogma  of  his  own  religion  proves 
his  theory  to  be  erroneous,  for  their  law  orders  them  to  turn  in  praying 
towards  the  east  (i.e.  the  rising-place  of  the  sun),  whilst  he  told  them  that 
the  sun  rises  in  paradise  (i.e.  in  the  south  according  to  Ms  theory). 
Therefore  the  Christians  turn  to  no  other  rising-place  but  to  that  one  of 
the  equator,  and  they  fix  the  direction  of  their  churches  accordingly. 

This  theory  is  not  more  curious  than  his  view  of  the  sun.  For  he 
maintains  that  the  degrees  through  which  the  sun  ascends  and  descends 
are  360  in  number,  corresponding  to  the  days  of  the  year ;  that  during 

10  the  5  days  which  are  the  complement  of  the  year  the  sun  is  neither 
ascending  nor  descending.  Those  are  2|  days  of  Haziran  and  2|  days  of 
Kanun  I. 

A  similar  idea  hovered  in  the  mind  of  'Abu-arabbas  Alamuli  when  he 
said  in  his  book  On  the  Proofs  for  the  Kibla  that  the  sun  has  177  rising 
and  setting  places,  thinking  evidently  that  the  solar  year  has  got  364 
days.  He,  however,  who  undertakes  what  he  does  not  understand,  mcurs 
ignominy.  Those  crotchets  of  his  are  brought  into  connection  with 
the  argument  regarding  the  5  supernumerary  days  of  the  solar  year 
and  the  6  deficient  days  of  the  lunar  year,  of  which  we  have  already 

20  spoken. 

18.  Nothing  mentioned. 

19.  South  wind  (Eudoxus,  Dositheus,  and  Egyptians). 

20.  Winterly  air  (Eudoxus). 

21.  Episemasia  (Egyptians). 

22.  Nothing  mentioned. 

23.  Nothing  mentioned. 

24.  Winterly  air  (Caesar  and  Egyptians)  ;  Episemasia  and  rain  (Hip- 
parchus  and  Meton). 

25.  Middling  winterly  air  (Democritus). 
30       26.  (Missing.) 

27.  Nothing  mentioned. 

28.  Winterly  air  (Dositheus). 

29.  Episemasia  (Callippus,Euctemon,  and  Democritus).     People  forbid  p.250. 
on  this  day  the  drinking  cold  water  after  rising  from  sleep.     They  say 

that  the  demons  vomit  into  the  water,  and  that  therefore  he  who  drinks 
of  it  is  affected  by  stupidity  and  phlegm.  This  serves  as  a  warning  to 
people  against  that  which  they  dread  most.  The  cause  of  all  this  is  the 
coldness  and  moisture  of  the  air. 

30.  Winterly  air  on  the  sea  (Egyptians). 
40       31.  Winterly  air  (Euctemon). 

Kdnun   II.    (January.) 

1.  Nothing  mentioned  by  the  Parapegmatists. 

2.  Episemasia  (Dositheus).  Some  people  say  that  wood  which  is  cut 
on  this  day  will  not  soon  get  dry. 


240  ALBlRf^Nl. 

3,  Cliangeable  air  (Egyptians). 

4,  Episemasia  (Egyptians)  ;  south  wind  (Democritus),  which  observa- 
tion is  confirmed  by  Sinan. 

5,  6.  Nothing  mentioned.  People  say  that  on  the  6th  there  is  an  hour 
during  which  all  salt  water  of  the  earth  is  getting  sweet.  All  the 
qualities  occurring  in  the  water  depend  exclusively  upon  the  nature  of 
that  soil  by  which  the  water  is  enclosed,  if  it  be  standing,  or  over  which 
the  water  flows,  if  it  be  running.  Those  qualities  are  of  a  stable  nature, 
not  to  be  altered  except  by  a  process  of  transformation  from  degree  to 
degree  by  means  of  certain  inedia.  Therefore  this  statement  of  the  10 
waters  getting  sweet  in  this  one  hour  is  entirely  unfounded.  Continual 
and  leisurely  experimentation  will  show  to  any  one  the  futility  of  this 
assertion.  For  if  the  water  were  sweet  it  would  remain  sweet  for  some 
space  of  time.  Nay,  if  you  would  place — in  this  hour  or  any  other — in  a 
well  of  salt  water  some  pounds  of  pure  dry  wax,  possibly  the  saltishness  of 
the  water  would  diminish.  This  has  been  mentioned  by  the  experimenters, 
who  go  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  if  you  make  a  thin  vase  of  wax  and 
place  it  in  sea  water,  so  that  the  mouth  of  the  vase  emerges  above  the 
water,  those  drops  of  water  which  splash  over  into  the  vase  become  sweet. 

If  all  salt  water  were  mixed  with  so  much  sweet  water  as  would  over-  20 
power  its  nature,  in  that  case  their  theory  would  be  realized  (i.e.  all  salt 
waters  would  become  sweet).  An  example  of  this  process  is  afforded  by 
the  lake  of  Tinnis,  the  water  of  which  is  sweet  in  autumn  and  winter  in 
consequence  of  the  great  admixture  of  the  water  of  the  Nile,  whilst  at 
the  other  seasons  it  is  salt,  because  there  is  very  little  admixture  of  Nile 
water. 

7.  Winterly  air  (Eudoxus  and  Hipparchus), 

8.  South  wind   (Callippus,  Euctemon,  Philippus,   and   Metrodorus)  ; 
south  wind  and  west  wind  and  winterly  air  on  the  sea  (Egyptians). 

9.  Violent  south  wind  and  rain  (Eudoxus  and  Egyptians).  30 
'     The  authors  of  talismans  say  that  if  you  draw  the  figures  of  grapes 

on  a  table,  between  the  9th  and  the  16th  of  the  month,  and  place  it 
among  the  vines  as  a  sort  of  offering  [at  the  time  of  the  setting  of  the 
Tortoise,  i.e.  Alnasr  Alwdki',  the  fruit  will  not  be  injured  by  anything. 
p.261.       10-  Violent  south  wind  and  Episemasia  (Csesar  and  Egyptians). 

11.  South  wind  (Eudoxus  and  Dositheus) ;  mixed  winds  (Hipparchus). 

12.  Nothing  mentioned. 

13.  Winterly  air  (Hipparchus) ;  a  north  wind  or  a  south  wind  blows 
(Ptolemy). 

14.  Nothing  mentioned.  40 

15.  East  wind  (Hipparchus). 

16.  Nothing  mentioned. 

17.  Violent  wind  (Csesar). 

18.  Winterly  air  (Euctemon  and  Philippus)  ;  change  of  the  air  (Metro- 
dorus). 


ON  THE  DATS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.        241 

19.  Winterly  air  (Eudoxus  and  Caesar);  suffocating  air  (Egyptians). 

20.  Clear  sky  (Euctemon  and  Democritus)  ;  north  wind  (Hipparchus) 
winterly  air  and  rain  (Egyptians). 

21.  Middling  winterly  air  (Eudoxus). 

22.  Episemasia  (Hipparchus)  ;  rain  (Egyptians). 

23.  Nothing  mentioned.  On  this  day  people  do  not  smear  the  camels 
with  Nura  (a  depilatoiy  unguent  of  arsenic  and  quicklime),  nor  bleed 
anybody  except  in  cases  of  special  need. 

24.  Clear  sky  (Callippus  and  Euctemon) ;  middling  winterly  air  (Demo- 
10  critus).     Besides,  the  rule  of  the  preceding  day  as  regards  the  use  of 

Nura  and  phlebotomy  refers  also  to  this  day. 

25.  East  wind  (Hipparchus). 

26.  Eain  (Eudoxus  and  Metrodorus)  ;  winterly  air  (Dositheus). 

27.  Severe  winter  (Egyptians). 

28.  South  wind  blows  and  Episemasia  (Ptolemy). 

29.  Nothing  mentioned. 

30.  South  wind  (Hipparchus). 

31.  Nothing  mentioned. 

Shubdt.    (February.) 

20  It  is  the  leap-month.  It  appears  to  me  that  the  following  is  the  reason 
— but  God  knows  best ! — why  people  have  shortened  this  month  in  parti- 
cular so  that  it  has  only  28  days,  and  why  it  has  not  had  assigned  to  it 
29  or  30  or  31  days :  If  it  were  assigned  29  days  and  were  then  to  be 
increased  by  the  leap-day,  it  would  have  30  days  and  would  no  longer  be 
distinguishable  from  the  other  months  in  a  leap-year.  The  same  would 
be  the  case  if  it  had  30  days,  whether  the  year  be  a  leaj^-year  or  not. 
Likewise  if  it  had  31  days,  the  same  similarity  with  the  other  months  in 
all  sorts  of  years  would  exist.  For  this  reason  the  leap-month  has  been 
assigned  28  days,  that  it  might  be  distinguished  from  the  other  months 

30   both  in  leap  and  common  years. 

For  the  same  reason  it  was  necessary  that  in  the  GTreek  year  two 
months  of  more  than  30  days  should  follow  each  other.  For  at  the 
beginning  they  intentionally  gave  to  each  month  30  days  and  took  away 
2  from  Shubat.  So  they  got  7  supernumerary  days  (i.e.  the  5  Epago- 
menae  and  the  2  days  of  Shubat),  which  they  had  to  distribute  over  11 
months,  because  Shubat  had  to  be  left  out.  Now,  it  was  not  possible  to  p.262 
distribute  the  complete  months  of  30  days  so  as  to  fall  each  of  them 
between  two  months  of  31  days,  for  the  latter  (i.e.  the  months  of  31 
days)  are  more  in  number  than  the  former.      Therefore  it  was  necessary 

40  to  let  several  months  of  more  than  30  days  follow  each  other.  But  the 
most  impoi'tant  subject  of  their  deliberation  was  to  add  them  in  the 
places  which  would  be  the  most  suitable  to  them,  so  that  the  sum  of  the 
days  of  both  spring  and  summer  is  more  than  the  sum  of  the  days  of 

16 


242  -  ALB^RUNf. 

autumn  and  winter,  a  fact  whicli  is  the  result  of  both  ancient  and  modern 
observations. 

Further,  their  months  are  proportional  to  each  other  in  most  cases  ;  I 
mean  to  say :  the  sum  of  each  month  and  of  the  seventh  following  one 
is  61  days,  which  is  nearly  equal  to  the  time  of  the  sun's  mean  motion 
through  two  signs  of  the  zodiac.  However,  the  sum  of  the  days  of  Ab 
and  Shubat  is  59  days.  This  could  not  have  been  otherwise,  for  the 
reason  we  have  mentioned  for  Shubat.  For  if  Ab  had  been  assigned 
more  than  31  days,  it  would  have  been  diffex'ent  from  all  the  other 
months,  and  people  would  have  thought  that  this  in  particular  was  the  10 
leap-month.  As  for  Tammuz  and  Kanun  the  Last,  the  sum  of  their  days 
is  62.  This,  again,  was  necessary,  because  the  number  of  the  months  of 
more  than  30  days  is  greater  than  that  of  the  months  of  30  days. 
Wherever  the  supernumerary  day  is  placed  the  circumstances  are  always 
the  same.  And,  further,  intercalation  has  been  applied  to  Shubat  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  other  months  only  for  this  reason,  that  Adhar  I., 
which  is  the  leap-month  in  the  Jewish  leap-year,  falls  on  Shubat  and 
near  it. 

1.  Eain  (Eudoxus).     The  cold  decreases  a  little. 

2.  West  wind  or  south  wind  intermixed  with  hail  (Egyptians).     Sinan   20 
says  that  this  is  frequently  the  case. 

3.  Clear  sky  and  frequently  the  west  wind  blows  (Eudoxus). 

4.  Clear  sky  and  frequently  the  west  wind  blows  (Dositheus);  severe 
winterly  air,  rain  and  unmixed  winds  (Egyj^tians). 

5.  Nothing  mentioned.     People  say  that  the  four  winds  are  in  uproar, 

6.  Eain  (Csesar)  ;  winds  (Egyptians);  the  west  wind  begins  blowing 
(Democritus). 

7.  Beginning  of  the  blowing  of  the  west  wind,  frequently  the  air  is 
winterly  (Eudoxus  and  Egyptians).  On  this  day  the  first  Coal  falls, 
called  the  minor  one.  30 

8.  The  time  of  the  blowing  of  the  west  wind  (Callippus,  Metrodorus, 
and  Hipparchus)  ;  rain  (Eudoxus  and  Egyptians).  This  is  confirmed  by 
Sinan  as  borne  out  by  his  observations. 

9.  10.  Nothing  mentioned. 

11.  Winterly  air  (Philippus  and  Metrodorus)  ;  west  wind  (Eudoxus 
and  Egyptians). 

12.  North  and  east  wind  (Hipparchus)  ;   east  wind  alone  (Egyptians). 

13.  14.  Nothing  mentioned.     On  the  14th  falls  the  second  Coal,  called 
{).253.   the  middle  one.     As  the  poet  says  : 

"  When  Christmas  has  passed  and  Epiphany  after  it,  ^q 

And  ten  days  and  ten  days  and  five  complete  days, 
And  five  days  and  six  and  four  of  Shubat, 
Then,  no  doubt,  the  greatest  cold  vanishes. 
That  is  the  time  of  the  falling  of  the  two  Coals  ;    afterwards 
The  cold  remains  only  a  few  nights." 


ON  THE  DATS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAB.        243 

15.  Winterly  air  (Euctemon,  PMlippus,  and  Dositheus)  ;  changing 
wind  (Egyptians)  ;  south  wind  (Hipparchus).  This  day  is  cold  (Arabs), 
during  which  the  coal  is  kindled.  The  Persians  say  :  "  The  Summer  has 
put  his  hands  iuto  the  water."  On  this  day  the  moisture  of  the  wood  is 
flowing  from  the  lowest  parts  of  the  trees  to  the  highest,  and  the  frogs 
begin  croaking. 

16.  A  change  in  the  winds  and  rain  (Egyptians).  People  say  that  on 
this  day  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  getting  warm.  In  Syria  the  mush- 
rooms are  coming  forth ;  those  which  stand  near  the  root  of  the  olive-tree 

10  are  deadly  poison,  as  people  maintain.  This  may  be  true,  for  it  is  not 
approved  of  to  take  much  of  the  mushroom  and  fungus,  nor  of  that  which 
is  prepared  from  them.  Its  pharmacological  treatment  is  mentioned  in 
most  of  the  medical  compilations  in  the  chapter  of  preparing  poisons 
from  these  materials. 

17.  Nothing  mentioned. 

18.  West  wind,  and  hail  falls,  or  rain  (Egyptians). 

19.  Cold  north  wind  (Hipparchus). 

20.  Winds  (Egyptians). 

21.  Nothing  mentioned.     On  this  day  the  third  Coal  falls,  called  the 
20   great  one.     Between  the  falling  of  each  of  the  two   Coals   there  is  an 

interval  of  one  complete  week.  They  were  called  Coals  because  they  are 
days  characterised  by  the  spreading  of  the  heat  from  the  interior  of  the 
earth  to  the  surface,  according  to  those  who  hold  this  theory.  According 
to  those  who  hold  the  opposite  view,  this  change  is  brought  about  by  the 
air's  receiving  heat  instead  of  cold  from  the  body  of  the  sun,  for  the 
body  of  the  sun  and  the  near  approach  of  a  column  of  rays  are  the  first 
cause  of  the  heat.  With  this  subject  also  the  question  is  connected 
why  the  earthen  jars  or  j^ipes  of  which  subterranean  channels  are 
formed,  and  the  water  of  wells,  are  warm  in  the  winter  and  cold  in  the 

30   summer. 

Between  'Abu-Bakr  b.  Zakariyya  Alrazi  and  'Abu-Bakr  Husain 
Altammar  several  questions  and  answers,  ex^jostulations  and  refutations 
have  been  exchanged  that  will  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  the  reader  and 
inform  him  of  the  truth. 

The  Arabs  used  these  three  days  (the  so-called  Goals)  in  their  months 
until  they  got  into  confusion,  as  we  have  mentioned,  and  these  days  no 
longer  fell  at  their  proj^er  times.  Thereupon  they  were  transferred  into 
(i.e.  fixed  on  certain  days  of)  the  Greek  months  which  keep  always  their 
proper  places.     On  the  first  day,  people  say,  the  1st  and  2nd  KAt/xara  are 

40   getting  warm,  on  the  second  the  3rd  and  4th,  on  the  third  the  remaiaing 

KXifxara.      Further,  they  say  that  on  the  OoaZ- days  vapours  are  rising  p. 254. 
from  the  earth  which  warm  the  earth  on  the  1st  Coal-da,j,  the  water  on 
the  2nd,  and  the  trees  on  the  3rd. 

According  to  another  view,  they  are  days  noticeable  for  the  rising  of 
Lunar  Stations,  or  some  special  parts  of  them  ;  whilst  other  subtle  people 

16  * 


244  ALBtR^Nt. 

maintain  that  they  are  the  termini  of  the  cold  in  winter,  and  serve  to 
denote  the  differences  in  the  beginning  of  heat  and  cold  as  known  in 
the  different  countries.  Some  inconsiderate  and  over-zealous  people  of 
our  ancestors  have  introduced  these  Coa^days  into  Khwarizm,  so  that 
the  first  fell  on  the  21st  of  Shubat,  the  second  a  week  later,  and  the 
third  two  weeks  after  the  second  one. 

22.  A  cold  north-east  wind  begins  blowing  and  the  swallows  appear 
(Euctemon  and  Hipparchus). 

23.  Winds  are  blowing  and  the  swallows  appear  (Callippus,  Philippus, 
and  the  Egyptians)  ;  rain  at  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  the  swallows,   10 
north-east   wind   during   four   days   (Eudoxus,    Conon,  Callippus,   and 
Philippus). 

24.  Cold  north  wind  and  west  wind  (Hipparchus)  ;  north-east  wind 
with  other  winds  (Egyptians)  ;  days  with  changeable  air  (Democritus). 

25.  Winterly  air  (Caesar  and  Dositheus). 

26.  27.  Nothing  mentioned. 

28.  Cold  north  wind  (Hipparchus). 

In  this  month  fall  the  Days  of  the  Old  Woman,  i.e.  seven  consecutive 
days  beginning  with  the  26th ;  if  the  year  is  a  leap-year,  four  days  fall 
into  Shubat  and  three  into  Adhar ;  if  it  is  a  common  year,  three  fall  20 
into  Shubat  and  four  into  Adhar.  They  are  called  by  the  Arabs  by 
special  names ;  the  1st  is  called  Al-sinn,  i.e.  the  severity  of  the  cold,  the 
2nd  is  called  Al-sinnabr,  i.e.  a  man  who  leaves  things  as  Sanhara,  i.e.  as 
something  that  is  coarse  and  thick.  The  Niln  in  this  word  is  not  radical, 
the  same  as  in  ^_^<^  halansd,  the  plural  of  (jo^  balasus.  The  third  is  their 
brother  Al-wabr,  so  called  from  the  verb  J^,  i.e.  he  followed  the  trace  of 
these  days.  The  4th  is  called  Aldmir  (commanding)  ,'becSbn^e  he  commands 
people  to  beware  of  him.  The  5th  is  Al-mu'tamir,  i.e.  he  has  an  impulse 
of  doing  harm  to  mankind.  The  6th  is  Al-mu'allil,  i.e.  he  diverts  people 
by  some  relief  which  he  affords.  30 

The  7th  is  MutfV -aljamr  (the  extinguisher  of  coals),  the  most  severe 
of  them,  when  the  coals  used  to  be  extinguished.  It  is  also  called 
MukfV-alkidr  (who  turns  the  kettle  upside  down)  in  consequence  of  the 
cold  wind  of  this  day.  Some  poet  has  connected  these  names  in  a 
versus  memorialis  in  this  way  : 

"  The  winter  is  closed  by  seven  dusty  (days), 
Our  Old  Woman's  Days  of  the  month  ; 
When  her  days  come  to  an  end, 
Sinn,  Sinnabr,  and  Wabr, 

Amir,  and  his  brother  Mu'tamir,  40 

Mu'allil,  and  MutfT-aljamr, 
p. 255.  Then  the  cold  retires,  passing  away  with  the  end  of  the  month. 

And  a  burning  (wind)  comes  to  thee  from  the  beginning  of  the  next 
month," 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.        245 

The  eth  day  is  also  called  SJiaibdn,  and  tlie  7tli  Milhdn.  These  days 
are  scarcely  ever  free  from  cold  and  winds,  the  sky  being  dark  and 
variously  coloured.  Mostly  during  these  days  the  cold  is  most  vehement, 
because  it  is  about  to  hern  aioay  {i.e.  to  cease).  And  hence  the  Lunar 
Station  Alsarfa  has  got  its  name,  because  its  setting  occurs  about  this 
time. 

Nobody  need  be  astonished  at  the  fact  that  the  cold  towards  its  end, 
when  it  is  about  to  cease,  is  the  most  severe  and  vehement.  Quite  the 
same  is  the  case  with  the  heat,  as  we  shall  mention  hereafter.  Similar 
10  observations  you  may  make  in  quite  common  physical  appearances.  U.g. 
if  the  lamp  is  near  the  moment  of  extinction,  because  there  is  no  more 
oil,  it  burns  with  an  intense  light,  and  flickers  repeatedly,  like  the 
quivering  (of  human  limbs).  Sick  people  furnish  another  example, 
specially  those  who  perish  by  hectic  fever  or  consumption,  or  the  disease 
of  the  belly,  or  similar  diseases.  For  they  regain  power  when  they  are 
near  death ;  then  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  these  things  gain  new 
hope,  whilst  those  who  know  them  from  experience  despair. 

I  have  seen  a  treatise  of  Ya'kub  b.  'Ishak  Alkindi  on  the  cause  of  this 
appearance  in  these  days  (i.e.  of  the  vehemence  of  the  cold  during  them). 
20  His  whole  argument  comes  to  this,  that  the  sun  then  reaches  the  quadra- 
ture of  his  apogee,  which  is  the  place  of  all  changes,  and  that  the  sun's 
influence  upon  the  atmosphere  is  greater  than  that  of  anything  else. 
In  that  case  it  would  be  necessary  that  that  change  which  the  sun  effects 
in  its  own  sphere  should  be  proportional  to  that  one  which  it  effects  in 
the  atmosphere,  and  that  this  effect  should  on  an  average  continue  as 
long  as  the  moon  stands  in  that  quarter  (of  her  own  course)  in  which  the 
effect  commenced,  and  in  that  quarter  of  the  sun  in  which  the  effect  took 
place. 

I  have  been  told  that  'Abdallah  b.  'Ali,  the  mathematician,  in  Bukhara, 

30   on  having  become  acquainted  with  this  treatise  of  Alkindi,  transferred 

these  days  into  the  calendar  of  his  people  in  conformity  with  the  amount 

of  the  progression  of  the  apogee.      Therefore  they  were  called  the  Days 

of  the  Old  Woman  of  'Ahdalldh. 

[Lacuna.] 

Regarding  the  reason  why  these  days  were  called  the  Days  of  the  Old 
Woman,  the  ancients  relate  the  following  :  They  are  the  days  which  God 
mentions  in  his  Book  (Sura  Ixix.  7),  "  seven  nights  and  eight  days,  unluchy 
ones,"  and  the  people  of  'Ad  perished  by  their  cold  wind,  their  whirlwinds, 
and  the  other  terrors  which  happened  during  them.  Of  all  of  them  only 
40  one  old  woman  remained,  lamenting  the  fate  of  her  nation.  Her  story 
is  well  known.  Therefore  these  days  are  said  to  have  been  called  the 
Days  of  the  Old  Woman. 

People  say  that  the  wind  which  destroyed  them  was  a  west  wind,  for 
the  prophet  says  :  "  I  have  been  assisted  by  the  east  wind — viz.  on  the 


246  ALBtRUNi. 

Yaum-alkhandak — and  'Ad  has  been  destroyed  by  tbe  west  wind."     A 
poet  says  : 

"  The  west  wind  has  destroyed  the  sandy  tracts  of  *Ad ; 
So  they  perished,  thrown  down  like  the  trunks  of  palm-trees." 

Further,  people  say  that  the  unlucky  days  mentioned  in  the  Coran  (Sura 
xli.  15)  coincide,  each  set  of  four  of  them,  with  a  day  of  the  month  in 
the  date  of  which  there  is  a  4,  i.e.  the  4th,  or  the  14th,  or  the  24th  from 
beginning  or  end  of  the  month. 
p.256.       Some  people  maintain  that  the  Bays  of  the  Old  Woman  received  their 

name  from  this,  that  an  old  woman,  thinking  that  it  was  warm,  threw   10 
off  her  Mihsha'  (a  sort  of  garment)  and  perished  in  the  cold  of  these 
days. 

Some  Arabs  maintain  that  the  Bays  of  the  Old  Woman  (Al'ajuz)  were 
given  this  name  because  they  are  the  'Ajuz,  i.e.  ;pars  jpostica,  of  the 
winter. 

We  find  that  the  Arabs  have  names  for  the  five  Epagomence  between 
Aban-Mah  and  Adhar-Mah  like  those  of  the  Bays  of  the  Old  Woman. 
The  1st  is  called  Hinnabr,  the  2nd  Hinzabr,  both  words  meaning  the 
injury  from  cold  ;  the  8rd  is  called  Kdlib-alfihr  (i.e.  turning  the  braying- 
stone  upside  down),  viz.  through  the  vehemence  of  the  wind ;  the  4th,  20 
Hdlik-alzifr  (i.e.  cutting  the  nail),  for  they  mean  that  the  wind  is  so 
sharp  as  e.g.  to  cut  the  nail ;  the  5th  is  called  Mudahrij-alba'r  (whirling 
about  the  dung),  viz.  in  the  plains,  so  that  the  vehemence  of  the  wind 
carries  it  to  human  habitations.  Somebody  has  brought  them  into  a 
verse  in  this  way : 

"  The  first  of  them  is  Hinnabr,  an  excessive  day, 
After  him  comes  Hinzabr,  one  who  strikes  with  the  fore-foot, 
Striking  till  he  comes  who  exercises  justice. 
And  Kdlib-alfihr  is  justly  called  thus  ; 

And  Hdlik-alzufr  who  evidently  cuts  30 

And  splits  the  rocks  by  the  cold. 
After  them  the  last  of  them,  the  fifth, 
Mudahrij-alba'r,  the  biting  and  licking  one. 
There  is  no  sixth  name  after  it." 


Adhdr. 

1.  Nothing  mentioned  by  the  Parapegmatists.  People  say  that  on 
this  day  the  locusts  and  all  creeping  animals  come  forth,  and  that  the  heat 
of  heaven  and  the  heat  of  the  earth  meet  each  other.  This  is  a  somewhat 
hyperbolical  expression  for  the  beginning  of  the  heat,  its  increase  and 
spreading,  and  for  the  air's  preparing  itself  for  the  reception  of  the  40 
heat.     For  the  heat  is   nothing  but  the  rays  of  the  sun  detached  from 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GEEEK  CALENDAR.       247 

the  body  of  the   sun  towards  the  earth  or  from  the  warm  body  which 
touches  the  inside  of  the  Lunar  sphere,  which  is  called  Fire. 

Regarding  the  rays  of  the  sun  many  theories  have  been  brought  for- 
ward. Some  say  that  they  are  fiery  particles  similar  to  the  essence  of 
the  sun,  going  out  from  his  body.  Others  say  that  the  air  is  getting  warm 
by  its  being  situated  opposite  to  the  sun,  in  the  same  way  as  the  air  is 
getting  warm  by  being  opposite  to  the  fire.  This  is  the  theory  of  those 
who  maintain  that  the  sun  is  a  hot,  fiery  substance. 

Others,  again,  say  that  the  air  is  getting  warm  by  the  rapid  motion  of 
10  the  rays  in  the  air,  which  is  so  raj^id  as  to  seem  timeless,  i.e.  without  time 
("  zeitlos  ").     This  is  the  theory  of  those  who  maintain  that  the  nature  of 
the  sun  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  natures  of  the  four  elements. 

Further,  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  motion  of  the 
rays.  Some  say  this  motion  is  timeless,  since  the  rays  are  not  bodies. 
Others  say  this  motion  proceeds  in  very  short  time ;  that,  however,  there 
is  nothing  more  rapid  in  existence  by  which  you  might  measure  the 
degree  of  its  rapidity.  E.g.  the  motion  of  the  sound  in  the  air  is  not  so 
fast  as  the  motion  of  the  rays  ;  therefore  the  former  has  been  compared 
with  the  latter,  and  thereby  its  time  (i.e.  the  degree  of  its  rapidity)  has 
20  been  determined. 

As  the  reason  of  the  heat  which  exists  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  people 
assign  the  acuteness  of  the  angles  of  their  reflexion.  This,  however,  is 
not  the  case.  On  the  contrary,  the  heat  exists  in  the  rays  (is  inherent  in 
them) . 

Regarding  the  body  that  touches  the  inside  of  the  sphere,  i.e.  the  fire, 
people  maintain  that  is  a  simple  element  like  earth,  water,  and  air,  and 
that  it  is  of  a  globular  form.  According  to  my  oj^inion,  the  warmth  of 
the  air  is  the  result  of  the  friction  and  violent  contact  between  the 
sphere,  moving  rapidly,  and  his  body,  and  that  its  shajte  is  like  a  body  p.257. 
30  which  you  get  by  making  a  crescent-like  figure  revolve  around  its  chord. 
This  explanation  is  in  conformity  with  the  theory,  viz.  that  none  of  the 
existing  bodies  is  ia  its  natural  place,  that  all  of  them  are  where  they 
are  only  in  consequence  of  some  force  being  employed,  and  that  force 
must  of  necessity  have  had  a  beginning. 

On  this  subject  I  have  spoken  in  a  more  suitable  place  than  this  book 
is,  specially  in  my  correspondence  with  the  youth  'Abu-'Ali  Alhusain  b. 
'Abdallah  b.  Sina,  consisting  of  discussions  on  this  subject. 

Both  sorts  of  heat  are  brought  to  bear  upon  the  earth  in  an  equal  manner 
during  the  four  seasons.  The  heat  of  the  earth  consists  either  of  the 
40  solar  rays  that  are  reflected  from  its  surface,  or  of  the  vapours  that  are 
produced — according  to  one  theory — by  the  heat  of  the  interior  of  the 
earth,  or — according  to  another — by  that  heat  which  accidentally  comes 
to  the  earth  from  outside,  for  the  motion  of  the  vapours  in  the  air  causes 
them  to  get  warm. 

The  heat  of  the  fire  (i.e.  the  body  touching  the  inside  of  the  sphere) 


248  ALBfEUNi. 

I'emains  always  at  the  same  distance  (from  us,  i.e.  is  always  of  the  same 
degree),  because  the  rotation  of  the  celestial  sphere  proceeds  always  at 
the  same  rate.  And  the  reflected  rays  are  not  to  be  referred  to  the  earth 
(i.e.  the  earth  is  not  to  be  considered  as  their  source),  and  the  vapours 
reach  only  to  a  certain  limit  which  they  do  not  go  beyond. 

The  author  of  this  theory,  I  think,  must  believe  that  within  the  earth 
heat  is  contained  which  proceeds  from  the  interior  to  the  outside,  whilst 
the  air  has  become  warm  through  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Thus  the  two 
sorts  of  heat  meet  each  other.  This,  at  all  events,  is  a  theory,  if  there  is 
any  ;  one  must  accept  it.  10 

2.  Cold  north  wind  (Hipparchus)  ;  south  wind  and  fall  of  hail 
(Egyptians). 

3.  Nothing  mentioned. 

4.  Cold  north  wind  (Euctemon).     Sinan  says  that  this  is  mostly  true. 
6.  Winterly  air   (Egyptians).     Beginning  of   the  XeAiSovtai  (Caesar)  : 

they  blow  during  ten  days. 

6.  Troubled  air  (Egyptians).  Beginning  of  the  cold  opviOiaL,  which 
blow  during  nine  days  (Democritus). 

7.  Nothing  mentioned.  Some  people  say  that  a  change  of  the  violent 
winds  takes  place.  20 

8.  Episemasia  and  cold  north  wind  (Euctemon,  Philippus,  and  Metro- 
dorus)  ;  swallows  and  kites  appear  (Eudoxus).  On  the  same  day  is  the 
feast  of  the  Small  Lake  of  Alexandria. 

9.  North  wind  (Euctemon  and  Metrodorus)  ;  violent  south  wind  (Hip- 
parchus) ;  light  rain  (Egyptians)  ;   the  kites  appear  (Dositheus). 

10.  Nothing  mentioned. 

11.  The  ancients  do  not  mention  an  apparent  change  on  this  day. 
Sinan  says  that  there  is  frequently  winterly  air. 

12.  Moderate  north  wind  (Callippus).  People  say  that  on  this  day  the 
traces  of  the  winter  disappear,  and  that  phlebotomy  is  advisable.  30 

p.258.       13.  'OpvtOiaL     begin    blowing;     the    kite    appears     (Euctemon    and 
PhilijDpus). 

14.  Cold  north  wind  (Euctemon  and  Hipparchus)  ;  west  or  south  wind 
(Egyptians)  ;  opviOiat  begin  blowing  (Eudoxus). 

15.  Cold  north  wind  (Euctemon  and  Egyptians). 

16.  North  wind  (Callippus).  This  Sinan  confinns  from  his  ex- 
perience. 

17.  Nothing  mentioned.  People  say  that  on  this  day  it  is  agreeable 
to  go  out  on  the  sea.  The  snakes  open  their  eyes,  for  during  the  cold 
season,  as  I  have  found  them  myself  in  Khwarizm,  they  gather  in  the  40 
interior  of  the  earth  and  roll  themselves  up  one  round  the  other  so 
that  the  greatest  part  of  them  is  visible,  and  they  look  like  a  ball.  In 
this  condition  they  remain  during  the  winter  until  this  time. 

On  this  day  (the  17th)  in  a  leap-year,  and  on  the  18th  in  a  common 
year,  takes  place  the  equinox,  called  the  first  equinox.     It  is  the  first  day 


ON  THE  DATS  OF  THE  GEEEK  CALENDAR.        249 

of  the  Persian  spring  and  of  the  Chinese  autumn,  as  we  have  mentioned. 
This,  however,  is  impossible,  for  spring  and  autumn  or  winter  and 
summer  cannot  at  one  and  the  same  time  alternately  exchange  their 
places  except  in  countries  north  or  south  of  the  equator.  And  China, 
having  only  few  degrees  of  latitude,  does  not  lie  south,  but  north  of  the 
equator,  in  the  farthest  end  of  the  inhabited  world  towards  the  east. 

The  country  south  of  the  Line  is  not  known,  for  the  equatorial  part  of 
the  earth  is  too  much  burned  to  be  inhabitable.  Parts  of  the  inhabited 
world  do  not  reach  nearer  the  equator  than  to  a  distance  of  several  days' 
10  journey.  There  the  water  of  the  sea  is  dense,  because  the  sun  so 
intensely  vaporises  the  small  particles  of  the  water,  that  fishes  and  other 
animals  keep  away  from  it.  Neither  we  nor  any  of  those  who  care  for 
those  things  have  ever  heard  that  any  one  has  reached  the  Line  or  even 
passed  the  Line  to  the  south. 

Some  people  have  been  beguiled  by  the  expressions  " yEquator  Diei" 
and  "  Linea  ^quitatis,"  so  as  to  think  that  there  the  air  is  equal 
(moderate),  just  as  day  and  night  there  are  equal.  So  they  have  made 
the  equator  the  basis  of  their  fictions,  describing  it  as  a  sort  of  paradise 
and  as  being  inhabited  by  creatures  like  angels. 
20  As  to  the  country  beyond  the  Line,  someone  maintains  that  it  is  not 
inhabitable,  because  the  sun,  when  reaching  the  perigee  of  his  eccentric 
sphere,  stands  nearly  in  its  utmost  southern  declination,  and  then  burns 
all  the  countries  over  which  he  culminates,  whilst  all  the  countries  of 
65  degrees  of  southern  latitude  have  the  climate  of  the  middle  zone  of 
the  north.  From  that  degree  of  latitude  to  the  pole  the  world  is  again 
inhabitable.  But  the  author  of  this  theory  must  not  represent  this  as 
necessary,  because  excessive  heat  and  cold  are  not  alone  the  causes  which 
render  a  country  uninhabitable,  for  they  do  not  exist  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  two  northern  quarters,  and  still  that  part  of  the  world  is 
30  not  inhabited.  So  the  matter  is  (and  will  be),  because  the  apogee  and 
perigee  of  the  eccentric  sphere,  the  sun's  greater  and  less  distance  from 
the  earth,  are  necessitated  exclusively  by  the  difference  in  the  sun's 
rotation. 

'Abu-Ja'far  has  designed  a  figure  different  from  the  eccentric  sphere  p.259 
and  the  epicycle,  in  which  the  sun's  distance  from  the  earth,  notwith- 
standing the  difference  of  its  rotation,  is  always  identical.     Thereby  he 
gets  two  regions,  a  northern  and  a  southern  one,  equal  to  each  other  in 
heat  and  cold. 

The  day  of  the  equinox,  as  calculated  by  the  Hindus  according  to  their 
40  Canon, — of  which  they  are  impudent  enough  to  pretend  that  it  is  eternal, 
without  beginning  and  end,  whilst  all  the  other  Canons  are  derived 
therefrom,— is  their  Nauroz,  a  great  feast  among  them.  In  the  first  hour 
of  the  day  they  worship  the  sun  and  pray  for  happiness  and  bliss  to  the 
spirits  (of  the  deceased).  In  the  middle  of  the  day  they  worship  the 
sun  again,  and  pray  for  the  resurrection  and  the  other  world.     At  the 


250  ALBiRUNi. 

end  of  the  day  they  worship  the  sun  again,  and  pray  for  health  and 
happiness  for  their  bodies.  On  the  same  day  they  make  presents  to  each 
other,  consisting  of  precious  objects  and  domestic  animals.  They  maintain 
that  the  winds  blowing  on  this  day  are  spiritual  beings  of  great  use  for 
mankind.  And  the  people  in  heaven  and  hell  look  at  each  other 
affectionately,  and  light  and  darkness  are  equal  to  each  other.  In  the 
hour  of  the  equinox  they  light  fires  in  sacred  places. 

The  omina  of  this  day  are  the  following,  viz. :  to  rise  from  sleep  lying  on 
the  back,  the  tree  Salix  ^gyjptia  and  to  fumigate  with  its  wood  before 
speaking.     For  he  who  performs  this  will   be  free  from   all   sorts   of  10 
pain. 

People  say  that  a  man  who  has  no  children,  on  looking  to  the  star 
Al-Suhd  in  the  night  of  this  day  and  then  having  intercourse  with  his 
wife,  will  get  children. 

Muhammad  b.  Mityar  maintains  that  in  the  hour  when  this  day  begins 
to  decline,  (i.e.  after  noon,)  the  shadow  of  everything  is  half  its  size. 
This,  however,  is  only  partially  the  case,  not  in  general.  It  is  true  only 
for  such  places  of  which  the  latitude  is  about  27  degrees. 

On  this  day  the  crocodile  in  Egypt  is  thought  to  be  dangerous.  The 
crocodile  is  said  to  be  the  water-lizard  when  it  has  grown  up.  It  is  an  20 
obnoxious  animal  j)eculiar  to  the  Nile,  as  the  the  skin  g  is  peculiar  to 
other  rivers.  People  say  that  in  the  mountains  of  Pustat  there  was  a 
talisman  made  for  that  district.  Around  this  talisman  the  crocodile 
could  not  do  any  harm.  On  the  contrary,  when  it  came  within  its  limits, 
it  turned  round  and  lay  on  its  back,  so  that  the  children  could  play  with 
it.  But  on  reaching  the  frontier  of  the  district  it  got  up  again  and 
carried  all  it  could  get  hold  of  away  to  the  water.  But  this  talisman, 
they  say,  has  been  broken  and  lost  its  power. 

18.  Winterly  air  and  cold  winds  (Democritus  and  the  Egyptians). 

19.  North   wind    (Hipparchus) ;    winds,   and    cold    in    the    morning  30 
(Egyptians). 

20.  North  wind  (Csesar). 

21.  North  wind  (Eudoxus). 

22.  Nothing  mentioned. 

23.  North  wind  (Caesar)  ;  rain  (Hipparchus). 

24.  Eair)  and  mizzle  (Callippus,  Euctemon,  and  Philippus)  ;  Episemasia 
(Hipparchus)  ;  thunder  and  Episemasia  (Egyptians).  On  this  day  people 
like  to  purify  the  children  by  circumcision.  The  fecundating  winds  are 
said  to  blow. 

p.260.       25.  North    wind    (Eudoxus);    Episemasia   (Meton,    Conon,   and   the  40 
Egyptians). 

26.  Rain  and  snow-storm  (Callippus) ;  wind  (Egyptians). 

27.  Rain  (Callippus,  Eudoxus,  and  Meton). 

Of  the  rest  of  the  month  nothing  is  mentioned.  Sinan  says  that 
the  30th  frequently  brings  an  Episemasia.     God  knows  best ! 


ON    THE    DAYS    OP    THE    GREEK    CALENDAR.  251 

Ntsdn. 

1.  Eain  (Callippus,  Eiictemon,  Me  ton,  and  Metrodorus). 

2.  Nothing  mentioned. 

3.  Wind  (Eudoxus) ;  rain  (Egyptians  and  Conon). 

4.  West  wind  or  south  wind ;  hail  falls.  Sinan  says  that  this  is 
frequently  the  case. 

5.  South  wind  and  changing  winds  (Hipparchus) . 

6.  Episemasia  (Hij^parchns  and  Dositheus).  This  is  confirmed  by 
Sinan. 

10        7.  Nothing  mentioned. 

8.  Eain  (Eudoxus)  ;  south  wind  (Egyptians). 

9.  Rain  (Hipparchus)  ;  unmixed  winds  (Egyptians). 

10.  Unmixed  winds  (Euctemon  and  Philippus)  ;  rain  (Hipparchus  and 
Egyptians).     The  raining  is  confirmed  by  the  experience  of  Sinan. 

11.  West  wind  and  mizzle  (Eudoxus). 

12.  Nothing  mentioned. 

13.  Rain  (Caesar  and  Dositheus). 

14.  South  wind,  rain,  thunder,  and  mizzle  (Egyptians).  Sinan  says 
that  this  is  frequently  the  case. 

20        15.  Rain    and    hail    (Euctemon     and     Eudoxus) ;     unmixed    winds 
(Egyptians). 

16.  West  wind  (Euctemon  and  Philippus)  ;  hail  falling  (Metrodorus). 

17.  West  wind  and  rain  (Eudoxus  and  Csesar)  ;  hail  falling  (Conon 
and  Egyptians). 

18.  Winds  and  mizzle  (Egyptians). 

19.  Nothing  mentioned. 

20.  Wind,  south  wind  or  another  one,  the  air  unmixed  (Ptolemy). 

21.  Cold  south  wind  (Hijiparchus).  Sinan  maintains  that  this  is 
frequently  the  case.     The  water  begins  to  increase. 

30        22.  Rain   (Eudoxus)  ;   winterly  air  (Csesar  and  Egyptians).     People 
fear  for  the  ships  at  sea. 

23.  South  wind  and  rain  (Egyptians).  People  hold  a  fair  at  Dair- 
'Ayyub.  'Abu-Yahya  b.  Kunasa  says  that  the  Pleiades  disappear  under 
the  rays  of  the  sun  during  40  days,  and  this  fair  is  held  when  the 
Pleiades  appear.  So  the  Syrians  make  them  rise  15  days  earlier  than 
in  reality  they  rise,  because  they  are  in  a  hurry  to  settle  their  affairs. 
This  fair  lasts  7  days.  Then  they  count  70  days  until  the  fair  of  Busra. 
Through  these  fairs,  that  are^held  alternately  in  certain  places,  the  com-  p.261. 
merce  of  the  people  of  these   countries   has  been  promoted  and  their 

40  wealth  been  increased.     They   have  proved  profitable  to  the  people,  to 
both  buyers  and  sellers. 

24.  Frequently  hail  falls  (Callippus  and  Metrodorus)  ;  Episemasia 
(Democritus)  ;  south  wind,  or  a  wind  akin  to  it,  and  rain  (Egyptians). 
The  Euphrates  begins  to  rise. 


252  ALBtRT^N?. 

25.  Mizzle  and  rain  (Eudoxus  and  Egyptians). 

26.  Eain  and  frequently  hail  (Callij)pus  and  Euctemon)  ;  Episemasia 
and  west  wind  (Egyptians). 

27.  Dew  and  moisture  (Caesar)  ;  winds  (Egyptians). 

28.  Wind  (Egyptians)  ;  rain  (Eudoxus).  Sinan  confirms  the  rain 
from  his  own  observations.  On  this,  they  say,  the  south  wind  blows, 
and  then  the  streams  and  rivers  begin  to  rise.  This  increase  of  the 
water,  however,  does  not  apply  to  all  streams  and  rivers  uniformly  ;  on 
the  contrary,  they  greatly  differ  from  each  other  in  this  respect.  E.g.  the 
Oxus  has  high  water  when  there  is  little  water  in  the  Tigris,  Euphrates,  10 
and  other  rivers.  The  fact  is  this,  that  those  rivers  the  sources  of  which 
are  situated  in  cold  places,  have  more  water  in  summer  and  less  in  winter. 
For  the  greatest  part  of  the  ordinary  volume  of  their  water  is  gathered 
from  springs,  and  an  increase  and  decrease  of  them  exclusively  depend 
upon  the  fall  of  dew  in  those  mountains  where  the  rivers  originate  or 
through  which  they  flow  ;  thereupon  the  springs  pour  their  volumes  into 
the  rivers.  Now  it  is  well  known  that  dew-fall  is  more  frequent  in  winter 
and  beginning  of  spring  than  at  any  other  season.  In  the  countries  far 
up  to  the  north,  where  the  cold  is  intense,  this  dew- water  freezes  at  those 
seasons.  But  when  the  air  is  getting  warm  and  the  snow  melts,  at  that  20 
time  the  Oxus  rises. 

As  for  the  water  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  their  sources  are  not  so 
high  up  in  the  north.  Therefore  they  have  high  water  in  winter  and 
spring,  because  the  dew  that  falls  flows  instantaneously  into  the  rivers, 
and  that  portion  of  water  that  may  have  been  frozen  melts  away  in  the 
beginning  of  spring. 

The  Nile,  again,  has  high  water  when  there  is  low  water  in  both  Tigris 
and  Euphrates,  because  its  source  lies  in  the  Mons  Lunce,  as  has  been 
said,  beyond  the  Abyssinian  city  Assuan  in  the  southern  region,  coming 
either  exactly  from  the  equator  or  from  countries  south  of  the  equator.  30 
This  is,  however,  a  matter  of  doubt,  because  the  equatorial  zone  is  not 
inhabited,  as  we  have  before  mentioned.  It  is  evident  that  in  those 
regions  there  is  no  freezing  of  moist  substances  at  all.  If,  therefore,  the 
high  water  of  the  Nile  is  caused  by  falling  dew,  it  is  evident  that  the 
dew  does  not  stay  where  it  has  fallen,  but  that  it  directly  flows  off  to 
the  Nile.  But  if  the  high  water  is  caused  by  the  springs,  these  have  the 
most  abundant  water  in  spring.  Therefore  the  Nile  has  high  water  in 
summer,  for  when  the  sun  is  near  us  and  our  zenith,  it  is  far  distant  from 
the  zenith  of  those  places  whence  the  Nile  originates,  and  which  in 
consequence  have  winter.  40 

p,262  As  to  the  question  why  the  springs  have  the  most  copious  water  in 
winter,  we  must  observe  :  the  all-wise  and  almighty  Creator,  in  creating 
the  mountains,  destined  them  for  various  purposes  and  uses.  Some  of 
them  have  been  mentioned  by  Thjibit  b.  Kurra  in  his  book  on  the 
reason  why  the  mountains  were  created.      It  is  the  same  cause  which 


ON  THE  DATS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.        253 

renders  complete  the  intention  (of  the  Creator)  which  he  had  in  making 
the  sea- water  salt. 

Evidently  more  wet  falls  in  winter  than  in  summer,  in  the  mountains 
more  than  in  the  plains.  When,  now,  the  wet  falls  and  part  of  it  flows 
away  in  the  torrents,  the  remaining  part  sints  down  into  the  channels  in 
the  mountain  caves,  and  there  it  is  stored  up.  Afterwards  it  begins  to 
flow  out  through  the  holes,  called  springs.  Therefore  the  springs  have 
the  most  copious  water  in  winter,  because  the  substance  by  which  they 
are  nourished  is  then  most  copious.     If,  further,  these  mountain  caves 

10  are  clean  and  pure,  the  water  flows  out  just  as  it  is,  i.e.  sweet.  If  that 
is  not  the  case,  the  water  acquires  different  qualities  and  peculiarities, 
the  causes  of  which  are  not  known  to  us. 

The  bubbling  of  the  fountains  and  the  rising  of  the  water  to  a  certain 
height  are  to  be  explained  in  this  way,  that  their  reseiwoirs  lie  higher 
than  they  themselves,  as  is  the  case  with  artificial  well-springs,  for  this 
is  the  only  reason  why  water  rises  upward. 

Many  people  who  attribute  to  Grod's  wisdom  all  they  do  not  know  of 
physical  sciences  (i.e.  who  excuse  their  ignorance  by  saying  "  Allah  is 
aZZ-wise.'"),  have  argued  with  me  on  this  subject.     In  support  of  their 

20  view  they  relate  that  they  have  observed  the  water  rise  in  rivers  and 
other  watercourses,  that  the  water  the  more  it  flows  away  (from  its 
source)  the  more  it  rises.  This  they  assert  in  complete  ignorance  of 
the  physical  causes  and  because  they  do  not  sufficiently  distinguish 
between  the  higher  and  lower  situations  (of  the  springs  of  rivers  and  of 
the  rivers  themselves).  The  matter  is  this,  that  they  observed  water 
flowing  in  mountain  streamlets,  the  bed  of  which  was  going  downward  at 
the  rate  of  50-100  yards  and  more  for  the  distance  of  one  mile.  If  the 
peasants  dig  a  channel  somewhere  in  this  terrain,  and  this  channel  is 
made  to  incline  a  little  towards  the  country  (i.e.  if  the  channel  is  rising), 

30  at  first  the  water  flows  only  very  little,  until  it  rises  to  an  enormous 
height  above  the  water  of  the  river;  (then  it  commences  to  flow 
strongly) . 

If,  now,  a  man  who  has  no  training  in  these  things  believes  that  the 
natural  direction  of  the  river  is  to  flow  in  a  horizontal  line  or  with  a 
small  inclination  (upwards),  he  must  of  necessity  imagine  that  the  river 
is  rising  in  height.  It  is  impossible  to  free  their  mind  from  this  illusion 
unless  they  acquaint  themselves  with  the  instruments  by  which  pieces  of 
soil  ai-e  weighed  and  determined,  and  by  which  rivers  are  d\ig  and 
excavated — for   if  they  weigh  the  earth  through  which  the  water  flows, 

40  the  reverse  of  what  they  believe  becomes  evident  to  them  ; — or  unless 
they  study  physical  sciences,  and  learn  that  the  water  moves  towards  the 
centre  of  the  earth  and  to  any  place  which  is  nearest  to  the  centre. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  water  may  rise  to  any  place  where  you  want 
to  have  it,  even  if  it  were  to  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  if  previously  it 
descends  to  a  place  which  is  lower  than  its  maximum  of  ascent  (which  it 


254  ALBiRUNi. 

ultimately  reaches),  and  if  you  keep  away  from  it  any  substance 
which  might  occupy  the  place  instead  of  the  water  when  it  finds  the 
place  empty.  Now,  the  water  in  its  natural  function  is  only  assisted  by 
the  co-operation  of  something  forcible  which  acts  like  an  instrument,  and 
that  is  the  air.  This  has  frequently  been  carried  out  in  canals,  in  the 
midst  of  which  there  were  mountains  which  it  was  impossible  to 
perforate. 

An  illustration  of  this  principle  is  the  instrument  called  Water-thief, 
KXeij/vSpa.  For  if  you  fill  it  with  water  and  put  both  its  ends  into  two 
p.263.  vessels,  in  both  of  which  the  water  reaches  to  the  same  level,  then  the  10 
water  in  the  KXeij/vSpa  stands  still  even  for  a  long  time,  not  flowing  off 
into  either  of  the  two  vessels.  For  the  one  vessel  is  not  nearer  (to  the 
water)  than  the  other,  and  it  is  impossible  that  the  water  should  flow  off 
eqxially  into  both  vessels,  for  in  that  case  the  instrument  would  get 
empty.  Now,  emptiness  is  either  a  non-ens,  as  most  philosophers 
suppose,  or  it  is  an  ens  which  attracts  bodies,  as  others  believe.  If,  now, 
the  vacuum  cannot  exist,  the  matter  is  impossible,  or  if  it  is  something 
which  attracts  bodies,  it  keeps  back  the  water  and  does  not  let  it  flow  off, 
except  its  place  be  occupied  by  some  other  body.  But  if  you  then  place 
the  one  end  of  the  KXcif/vSpa  a  little  lower  (than  the  other),  the  water  20 
flows  immediately  off  into  that  direction.  For  if  its  place  has  once 
become  lower,  it  has  come  nearer  to  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  so  it 
flows  towards  it,  flowing  continually  in  consequence  of  the  adhesion  and 
connection  of  the  water-atoms  amongst  each  other.  It  flows  so  long 
until  the  water  of  that  vessel,  whence  the  water  is  drawn,  is  finished,  or 
until  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  vessel  where  it  flows  is  equal  to  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  vessel  whence  it  is  drawn.  So  the  question 
returns  to  its  original  condition.  On  this  principle  people  have  proceeded 
in  the  mountains. 

Sometimes  even  the  water  rises  in  artificial  fountains  out  of  wells,  in  30 
case  they  have  got  springing  water.  For  one  sort  of  well-water,  which  is 
gathered  from  droppings  from  the  sides,  does  not  rise  at  all ;  it  is 
taken  from  neighbouring  masses  of  water,  and  the  level  of  the  water 
which  is  gathered  in  this  way  is  parallel  to  the  level  of  those  waters  by 
which  it  is  nourished.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  one  kind  of  water 
which  bubbles  (springs)  already  at  the  bottom.  Of  this  water  people 
hope  that  it  may  rise  to  the  earth  and  flow  on  over  its  surface.  This 
latter  kind  of  water  is  mostly  found  in  countries  near  to  mountains, 
in  the  midst  of  which  there  are  no  lakes  or  rivers  with  deep  water. 
If  the  source  of  such  water  is  a  reservoir  much  above  the  level  of  the  40 
earth,  the  water  rises  springing,  if  it  is  confined  (to  a  narrow  bed  or 
channel)  ;  but  if  its  reservoir  be  lower,  the  water  does  not  succeed  in 
rising  to  the  earth.  Frequently  the  reservoir  is  higher  by  thousands  of 
yards  in  the  mountains ;  in  that  case  the  water  may  rise  up  to  the 
castles,  and,  e.g.,  to  the  tops  of  the  minarets, 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.        255 

I  have  been  told  that  people  in  Taman  often  dig  until  they  come  to  a 
certain  rock  under  which  they  know  that  there  is  water.  Then  they 
knock  upon  this  rock,  and  by  the  sound  of  the  knocking  they  ascertain 
the  quantity  of  the  water.  Then  they  bore  a  small  hole  and  examine  it ; 
if  it  is  all  right,  they  let  the  water  bubble  out  and  flow  where  it  likes. 
But  if  they  have  some  fear  about  the  hole,  they  hasten  to  stop  it  up 
with  gypsum  and  quicklime  and  to  close  it  over  repeatedly.  For 
frequently  they  fear  that  from  such  a  hole  a  spring  similar  to  the 
Torrent  of  AVarim  might  originate. 
10  As  to  the  water  on  the  top  of  the  mountain  between  Abrashahr  and 
Tus,  a  small  lake  of  one  farsang  in  circumference,  called  Sabzarod,  one 
of  the  following  three  things  must  be  the  case : 

1.  Either  its  material  is  derived  from  a  reservoir  much  higher  than 
the  lake  itself,  although  it  may  be  far  distant,  and  the  water  flows  into 
it  in  such  a  quantity  as  corresponds  to  that  which  the  sun  absorbs  and 
vaporises.  Thei'efore  the  water  of  the  lake  remains  in  the  same 
condition,  quietly  standing. 

2.  Or  its  material  is  derived  from  a  reservoir  which  lies  on  the  same 
level  with  the  lake,  and  therefore  the  water  of  the  lake  does  not  rise 

20  above  that  of  the  reservoir. 

3.  Or,  lastly,  the  condition  of  its  sources  in  some  way  resembles  that 

of  the  water  of  the  instrument  called  Al-dahj,  and  the  self-feeding  lamp.  p. 264. 
The  case  is  this:  You  take  a  water- jug,  or  an  oil- vase ;  in  several 
places  of  the  edge  or  lip  of  the  vase  you  make  fine  splits,  and  you  bore  a 
narrow  hole  in  it  deeper  than  the  mouth  by  so  much  as  you  wish  the 
water  to  remain  in  the  jug  and  the  oil  in  the  vase  (i.e.  the  hole  is  to 
represent  the  line  to  which  people  wish  the  water  or  oil  to  rise). 
Thereuj)on  you  turn  the  jug  upside  down  in  the  cup  and  the  vase  in  the 
lamp.     Then  both  water  and  oil  flow  out  through  the  splits,  until  they 

30  reach  the  level  of  the  hole.  When,  then,  so  much  has  been  consumed  as 
the  hole  allows  to  pass,  then  comes  forth  that  which  lies  next  to  the 
hole.     In  this  way  both  oil  and  water  keep  the  same  level. 

Similar  to  this  little  lake  is  a  sweet- water  well  in  the  district  of 
the  Kimak  in  a  mountain  called  Maukur,  as  large  as  a  great  shield.  The 
surface  of  its  water  is  always  on  a  level  with  its  margin.  Frequently  a 
whole  army  drinks  out  of  this  well,  and  still  it  does  not  decrease  as  much 
as  the  breadth  of  a  finger.  Close  to  this  well  there  are  the  traces  of  the 
foot,  two  hands  with  the  fingers,  and  two  knees  of  a  man  who  had  been 
worshipping  there;  also  the  traces  of  the  foot  of  a  child,  and  of  the  hoofs 

40  of  an  ass.  The  Ghuzzi  Turks  worshij)  those  traces  when  they  see  them. 
Moreover,  similar  to  this  is  a  small  lake  in  the  mountains  of  Bfimiyan, 
one  mile  square,  on  the  top  of  the  mountain.  The  water  of  the  village 
which  lies  on  the  slope  of  the  mountain  comes  down  from  that  lake 
through  a  small  hole  in  such  a  quantity  as  they  require  ;  but  they  are 
not  able  to  make  it  flow  more  copiously. 


256  ALBtEUNf. 

Frequently  the  springing  (rising  of  water)  occurs  also  in  a  plain 
country  which  gets  its  water  from  a  reservoir  in  a  high  situation.  If 
the  rising  power  of  the  water  were  kept  down  by  an  obstacle,  and  then 
this  obstacle  is  removed,  the  water  begins  at  once  to  spring  (rise). 
I].g.  Aljaihani  has  mentioned  a  village  between  Bukhara  and  Alkarya 
Alhaditha,  where  there  is  a  hill  that  was  perforated  by  diggers  for  hidden 
treasures.  Suddenly  they  hit  upon  water  which  they  were  unable  to 
keep  back,  and  it  has  been  flowing  ever  since  till  this  day. 

If  you  are  inclined  to  wonder,  you  may  well  wonder  at  a  place  called 
Filawan  (Failawan)  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Almihrjan.  This  place  is  10 
like  a  portico  dug  out  in  the  mountain,  from  the  roof  of  which  water  is 
always  dropping.  If  the  air  gets  cold,  the  water  freezes  and  hangs 
down  in  long  icicles.  I  have  heard  the  people  of  Almihrjan  maintain  that 
they  frequently  knock  the  place  with  pickaxes,  and  that  in  consequence 
the  spot  which  they  knock  becomes  dry ;  but  the  water  never  increased, 
whilst  reason  would  demand  that  it  should  always  remain  in  the  same 
condition  if  it  does  not  increase. 

More  wonderful  even  than  this  is  what  Aljaihani  relates  in  his 
Kitab-AlmamdliJc  wal-masdlih  of  the  two  columns  in  the  grand  mosque 
of  Kairawan,  the  material  of  which  people  do  not  know.  People  main-  20 
tain  that  on  every  Friday  before  sunrise  they  drop  water.  It  is  curious 
that  this  should  take  place  just  on  a  Friday.  If  it  occurred  on  any 
week-day  in  general,  it  would  be  combined  with  the  moon's  reaching 
such  and  such  a  place  of  the  sun's  orbit,  or  with  the  like  of  it.  This, 
however,  is  not  admissible,  since  Friday  is  a  conditio  sine  qua  nan  of  this 
occurrence.  The  Greek  king  is  said  to  have  sent  to  buy  them.  He 
said  :  "  It  is  better  for  the  Muslims  to  utilize  their  prize  than  to  have 
two  stones  in  the  mosque."  But  the  people  of  Kairawan  refused,  saying : 
"  We  shall  not  let  them  pass  out  of  the  house  of  God  into  that  of  the 
devil."  30 

Still  more  marvellous  than  this  is  the  self -moving  column  in  Alkaira- 
p.265.  wan.  For  it  inclines  towards  one  side.  People  put  something  under- 
neath when  it  inclines,  and  this  you  can  no  longer  take  away  if  the 
column  again  stands  erect ;  if  glass  is  put  underneath,  you  hear  the 
sound  of  breaking  and  crushing.  This  is  no  doubt  a  got-up  piece  of 
artifice,  as  also  the  place  where  the  column  stands  seems  to  indicate. 

We  return  to  our  subject,  and  say  : 

29.  Winterly  air  (Caesar)  ;  winds,  or  moisture  of  the  ground,  and  rain 
(Egyptians). 

30.  Episemasia  (Egyptians)  ;    winds   and  dew,    moisture  and   mizzle  40 
(Callippus  and  Euctemon). 

Ayydr. 

1.  Mizzle  (Egyptians). 

2.  Nothing  mentioned. 

3.  Wind,  mizzle,  dew,  moisture,  and  thunder  (Egyptians). 


ON  THE  DATS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.       257 

4.  Eain  (Eudoxus),  mizzle  (Egyptians). 

5.  Eain  (Dositheus) .  Sinan  says  that  this  is  frequently  the  case  and 
that  it  brings  a  strong  episemasia. 

6.  Wind  (Egyptians),  rain  (Eudoxus),  mizzle  and  episemasia.   (Lacuna.) 
Some  people  extend  the  rainy  season  as  far  as  this  day.     It  is  the 

time  when  the  sun  passes  the  (first)  20  degrees  of  Leo.  In  this  respect 
the  matter  stands  as  we  have  explained  it  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy 
season,  when  the  sun  moves  in  Cancer. 

7.  Winds  (Egyptians).    Sinan  says  that  this  is  frequently  the  case, 
10   more    particularly  so    if   on    the    preceding   day   heaven  has  a  rainy 

appearance. 

8.  Gushes  of  rain  (Eudoxus  and  Dositheus),  rain  (Egyptians). 

9.  Eain  (Egyptians). 

10.  Episemasia  and  wind  (Callippus  and  Euctemon),  rain  (Egyp- 
tians). 

11.  Episemasia  (Dositheus).    Sinan  says  that  it  is  true. 

12.  Episemasia  (Eudoxus,  Metrodorus,  and  Hipparchus)  ;  rain 
(Caesar) ;  west-wind  (Egyptians).  People  say  that  on  this  and  the 
following  day  there  is  no  fear  of  frost  doing  harm  to  the  fruits.     This 

20  remark  can,  however,  only  apply  to  one  particular  place ;    it  cannot  be 
meant  in  general. 

13.  Eain  (Eudoxus)  ;  north  wind  and  hail  (Egyptians). 

14.  Episemasia  (Callippus,  Euctemon,  and  Egyptians). 

15.  Eain  (Caesar). 

16.  Episemasia  (Caesar).  People  say  that  on  this  day  the  first 
Samum  is  blowing. 

17.  South  wiod  or  east  wind  and  rain  (Hipparchus  and  Egyptians). 

18.  Episemasia  (Eudoxus)  ;  rain  and  thunder  (Egyptians). 

19.  Episemasia  and  mizzle  (Hipparchus  and  Egyptians). 
30       20.  Nothing  mentioned. 

21.  Episemasia  (C«sar) ;  south  wind  (Dositheus),  west  wind  (Egyp- 
tians). 

22,  23.  Nothing  mentioned. 

24.  Episemasia  (Callippus,  Euctemon,  and  Philippus)  ;  winds  (Egyp-  P-266. 
tians). 

25.  Episemasia  (Euctemon,  Philippus,  and  Hipparchus). 

26.  Episemasia  (Callippus  and  Euctemon)  ;  cold  north  wind  (Egyp- 
tians). 

27.  Dew     and     moisture    (Callippus     and    Euctemon)  ;     episemasia 
40  (Egyptians). 

28.  Eain  (Metrodorus  and  Egyptians). 

29.  South  wind  or  west  wind  (Hipparchus). 

30.  South  wind  (Caesar). 

31.  Nothing  mentioned. 

17 


258  ALBtR^Nt 


Hazirdii. 


1.  Dew  and  uioistui'e  (Eudoxus  and  Dositheus)  ;  west  wind 
(Egyptians). 

2.  West  wind  (Egyptians). 

3.  Wind  and  mizzle  (Egyptians),  and  thunder. 

4.  Rain  (Csesar). 

5.  Mizzle  (Egyptians).     Confirmed  by  Sinan. 

6.  7,  8.  Nothing  mentioned. 

9.  West  wind  and  thunder  (Egyptians). 

10,  11,  12.  Nothing  mentioned.     The  11th  is  the  Nauroz  of  the  Khalif ,   10 
when  people  in  Baghdad  splash  in  the  water,  strew  about  dust,  and  play 
other  games,  as  is  well  known. 

12.  Sinan  says  that  frequently  a  change  of  the  weather  takes  place. 

13.  West  wind  and  mizzle  (Egyptians). 

14.  Nothing  mentioned. 

15.  Mizzle  (Egyptians). 

16.  Nothing  mentioned.     People  say  that  on  this  day  the  water  sinks 
into  the  earth,  whilst  the  Nile  begins  to  rise.     The  reason  of  this  is,  as 
we  have  mentioned  before,  the  difference  of  their  sources  and  of  other 
circumstances,  those  of  the  Nile  standing  in  direct  opposition  to  those  of  20 
all  other  rivers. 

On  this  day  in  a  leap-year,  and  on  the  17th  in  a  common  year,  the 
Plenitudo  Maxima  takes  place,  which  is  celebrated  by  Arabs  and 
Persians.  They  call  it  Mirin,  which  means  the  Sun's  getting  full,  i.e.  the 
summer-solstice.  On  this  day  light  subdues  darkness.  The  light  of  the 
sun  is  falling  into  the  wells,  as  Muhammad  b.  Mityar  mentions  ;  but  this 
is  only  possible  in  countries '  the  latitude  of  which  is  like  the  greatest 
declination,  over  which,  therefore,  the  sun  culminates. 

The  Hayawdniyya-sect  maintains  that  on  this  day  the  sun  takes 
breath  in  the  midst  of  heaven  ;  that,  therefoie,  the  spirits  recognise  each  30 
other  in  the  greatest  heat.  It  is  considered  as  a  good  omen  to  look  into 
the  intense  heat.  People  eat  pomegranates  before  having  eaten  anything 
,  else,  and  Hippocrates  is  said  to  have  taught  that  he  who  eats  a  pome- 
granate on  this  day  before  having  eaten  anything  else,  enlightens  his 
constitution  and  his  x»^Atos  is  pure  dui'ing  forty  mornings. 

People  relate,  on  the  authority  of  Hanna  the  Hindu,  that  Kisra  Parwiz 
has  said  :  "  Sleeping  in  the  shadow  of  a  pomegranate  cures  a  man  of  bad 
disease  and  makes  him  safe  from  the  demons." 

It  belongs  to  the  omina  of  this  day  to  rise  in  the  morning  from  sleep 
on  the  left  side,  and  to  fumigate  with  saffron  before  speaking.  40 

p. 267.        17.  Episemasia  (Dositheus)  ;  heat  (Egyptians). 

18.  West  wind  and  heat  (Egyptians). 

19.  Rain  (Egyptians). 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.       259 

20.  West  wind,  rain,  and  thimder  (Egyptians). 

21.  Nothing  mentioned 

22.  Episemasia  (Democritus) . 

23.  South  wind  or  west  wind  (Hipparchus). 

24.  Nothing  mentioned.  People  say  that  on  this  day  the  Samunia 
begin  blowing  during  fifty-one  days.  The  Oxus  rises  and  frequently 
injures  the  shores  and  their  inhabitants. 

25.  West  wind  and  heat  (Egyptians). 

26.  West  wind  (Democritus  and  Egyptians). 
10       27.  Nothing  mentioned. 

28.  Episemasia  (Eudoxus)  ;  west  wind  and  south  wind  and  rain 
(Democritus)  ;  then  the  north  wind  begins  to  blow  during  seven  days. 

29.  Nothing  mentioned.  People  say  that  practical  obververs  examine 
on  this  day  the  dew  ;  if  it  is  copious,  the  Nile  rises  ;  if  it  is  not  copious, 
the  Nile  does  not  rise,  and  they  get  a  barren  year. 

30.  Winds  (Egyptians)  and  unmixed  air. 

31.  Nothing  mentioned. 

Tammuz. 

1,2.  Nothing  mentioned  by  our  authorities. 
20       3.  South  wind  and  heat  (Caesar  and  Egyptians). 

4.  Wind  (Egyptians)  ;  frequently  it  rains  in  their  country. 

5.  South  wind  (Callij^pus,  Metrodorus,  and  Hipparchus)  ;  west  wind 
and  thunder  (Egyptians). 

6.  South  Avind  (Callippus  and  Metrodorus)  ;  west  wind  and  thunder 
(Egyptians). 

7.  Episemasia  (Ptolemy).  According  to  Sinan  the  weather  frequently 
changes. 

8.  Dew  and  moisture,  according  to  Meton,  in  his  country. 

9.  Dew  (Euctemon  and  Philippus)  ;  west-by-west  wind  (Egyptians). 
80       10.  Bad  air  (Egyptians).     On  this  day  they  begin  to  hold  the  fair  of 

Busra  during  25  days  ;  in  the  time  of  the  Banu-'Umayya  this  fair  used 
to  last  30-40  days. 

11.  Nothing  mentioned. 

12.  West  wind  (Metrodorus) ;  winds  (Egyptians). 

13.  Unmixed  winds  (Hipparchus).  According  to  Sinfin  the  weather 
frequently  changes. 

14.  Heavy  wind  (Caesar) ;  the  north  wind  begins  to  blow  (Hipparchus)  ; 
heat  (Egyptians). 

15.  Nothing  mentioned. 

40       16.  Frequently  it  rains  in  rainy  countries  (Ptolemy);  rain  and  whirl-  p.268. 
winds  (Democritus)  ;  heavy  wind  (Egyptians). 

17.  Dew  and  heat  (Dositheus  and  Egyptians). 

18.  The  Etesian  winds  (iTrjcrtat)  begin  to  blow  (Hipparchus).  Ac- 
cording to  the  general  consent  of  seamen  and  peasants,  and  all  those  who 

17  * 


260  ALBtR^Nt. 

have  experience  in  this  subject,  this  is  the  first  day  of  the  dog-days,  i.e. 
seven  consecutive  days,  the  last  of  which  is  the  24th  of  this  month.  On 
each  of  these  days  they  draw  conclusions  from  certain  changes  of  the 
weather  regarding  the  months  of  the  autumn  and  winter  and  part  of 
spring ;  these  changes  mostly  occur  in  the  evening  and  morning. 
People  maintain  that  these  days  are  to  the  year  what  the  critical  days 
are  to  acute  diseases,  when  their  criteria  appear,  in  consequence  of 
which  peoj)le  conceive  either  hope  or  fear  as  to  the  end  in  which  they 
will  issue.  Both  words  bdhur  and  huhrdn  in  the  Greek  and  Syriac 
languages  are  derived  from  a  word  which  means  the  decision  of  the  10 
rulers  (y.  KpiVts  and  KpLcniJio^  rjjxipa).  According  to  another  view,  huhrdn 
is  derived  from  hahr  (the  Arabic  for  sea),  because  the  critical  state  of  a 
sick  person  resembles  the  motion  of  the  sea,  called  ebb  and  flow.  This 
derivation  is  very  likely  correct,  because  of  both  appearances  the  motions 
of  the  moon,  her  cycles  and  phases,  are  the  cause,  whether  the  moon 
revolves  in  a  Ghreat  Circle,  as  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  flow,  for  the  flow  sets 
in  when  the  moon  reaches  the  western  and  eastern  point  of  the  horizon. 
The  same  is  the  case  with  the  ebb,  for  it  sets  in  when  the  moon  reaches 
the  sphere  of  the  meridian  of  noon  and  midnight.  Or  whether  it  be 
that  the  moon  revolves  from  one  certain  point  of  her  cycle  back  to  the  20 
same,  or  from  the  sun  to  that  point.  So  the  flow  is  the  strongest  in  the 
first  half  of  the  lunar  month,  the  weakest  in  the  second  half.  Besides, 
also,  the  sun  has  an  influence  upon  this.  It  is  curious  what  people  relate 
of  the  Western  Sea,  viz.  that  there  is  flow  from  the  side  of  Andalusia 
always  at  sunset,  that  then  the  sea  decreases  at  the  rate  of  about  5-6 
farsang  in  one  hour  and  then  it  ebbs.  And  this  appearance  takes 
place  always  precisely  at  this  time. 

If  on  the  evening  of  the  18th  there  is  a  cloud  on  the  horizon,  people 
expect  cold  and  rain  at  the  beginning  of  Tishrin  I.  If  the  same  is  the 
case  at  midnight,  the  cold  and  rain  will  come  in  the  middle  of  Tishrin  I. ;  30 
and  if  it  is  the  case  towards  morning,  the  same  will  come  in  the  end  of 
that  month.  The  matter  is  the  same,  if  you  observe  a  cloud  on  the 
horizon  during  daytime ;  however,  the  changes  of  the  sky  in  the  night  are 
more  evident.  And  if  you  observe  those  changes  on  all  four  sides  of  the 
compass,  the  same,  too,  will  occur  in  Tishrin  I.  Herein  the  nights 
are  counted  after  the  days,  as  we  have  mentioned  in  the  beginning 
of  this  book,  in  consequence  of  which  those  who  count  the  nights  before 
the  day  s  think  that  the  night  of  the  18th  is  the  19th;  therefore  they 
consider  the  19th  as  the  first  of  the  dog-days  and  the  25th  as  the  last  of 
them.  40 

The  1st  of  these  seven  days  serves  to  prognosticate  the  character  of 
Tishi'in  I.,  the  2nd  that  of  Tishrin  II.,  the  3rd  that  of  Kanun  I.,  etc.  etc., 
and  lastly,  the  7th,  that  of  Nisan. 

Practical  observers  prescribe  the  following :  Take  a  plate  some  time 
before  the  dopf-days,  sow  upon  it  all  sorts  of  seeds  and  plants,  and  let  it 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAR.        261 

stand  until  the  25th  night  of  Tammuz,  i.e.  the  last  night  of  the  dog-  p.269. 
days  ;  then  put  the  plate  somewhere  outside  at  the  time  when  the  stars 
rise  and  set,  and  expose  it  uncovered  to  the  open  air.  All  seeds,  then, 
that  will  grow  in  the  year  will  be  yellow  in  the  morning,  and  all  whose 
growth  will  not  prosper  will  remain  green.  This  experiment  the 
Egyptians  used  to  make. 

Practical  observers  have  produced  many  contrivances  for  the  purpose 
of  prognosticating  the  character  of  the  year  by  help  of  these  (the  dog) 
days  ;  they  have  even  gone  as  far  as  to  use  incantations  and  charms.     So 

10  some  people  maintain  that  if  you  take  the  leaves  of  twelve  different  olive- 
trees,  and  write  upon  each  leaf  the  name  of  some  Syrian  month,  if  you 
then  put  them,  in  the  night  we  have  mentioned,  somewhere  in  a  wet  place, 
you  will  find  that,  if  a  leaf  has  dried  up  in  this  night,  the  month  which 
was  written  upon  it  will  be  rainless. 

According  to  others,  you  learn  whether  the  year  will  have  much  rain 
or  little,  by  this  method :  You  look  out  for  a  level  place,  around  which 
there  is  nothing  that  might  keep  off  the  dew,  wind,  and  light  rain ;  then 
you  take  two  yards  of  a  cotton  dress,  you  weigh  it  and  keep  in  mind  its 
weight.     Then  you  spread  it  over  that  place  and  leave  it  there  during 

20  the  first  four  hours  of  the  night.  Thereupon  you  weigh  it  a  second  time  ; 
then  each  Mithkdl  which  it  weighs  more  the  second  time  than  the  first 
time  signifies  one  rainy  day  in  that  month  which  stands  in  relation  with 
this  particular  dog-day  of  which  we  have  heretofore  spoken. 

These  dog-days  are  the  time  of  the  rising  of  Sirius  (Kalb-aljabhdr  or 
Alshi'rd  Alyamdniya  Al'abilr).  Hippocrates,  in  his  book  of  the  seasons, 
forbids  taking  hot  drugs  and  bleeding  twenty  days  before  and  after  the 
rising  of  this  star,  because  it  is  the  hottest  time  of  summer  and  the 
heat  reaches  its  maximum,  and  because  summer  time  by  itself  warms, 
dissolves,  and  takes  away  all  moist  substances.     However,  Hippocrates 

80  does  not  forbid  those  things  if  you  take  but  very  little  of  them.  After- 
wards, when  autumn  comes  with  its  cold  and  dryness,  you  cannot  be  sure 
whether  the  natural  warmth  may  not  be  entirely  extinguished. 

Some  people  who  have  no  practice  in  physical  sciences  and  no  knowledge 
of  the  fjL€Teoipa,  think  that  the  influence  we  have  mentioned  must  be 
attributed  to  the  body  of  this  star,  to  its  rising  and  revolution.  They 
go  even  as  far  as  to  make  people  imagine  that  the  air  is  warmed  by  its 
great  mass  ;  that,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  indicate  and  to  explain  its 
proper  place  and  to  determine  the  time  of  its  rising.  The  same  ojjinion 
is  indicated  by  the  verse  of  'Abu-Nu'as  : 

40  "  ^lul  has  gone  and  the  hot  night-wind  passed  away, 

And  Sirius  has  extinguished  his  fire." 

For  this  reason  'Ali  b.  'Ali,  the  Christian  secretary,  maintains  that  the 
first  of  the  dog-days  is  the   22nd  of  Tammuz,  suggesting  that  the  dog- 


262  ALBlRiyNl. 

days  have  changed  their  place  along  with  the  star  itself,  whilst  I  maintain 
that  Sirius  always  revolves  during  the  whole  year  in  one  and  the  same 
orbit  parallel  to  the  equator.  Hippocrates,  however,  meant  by  this  time 
the  central  portion  of  the  summer,  the  period  when  the  heat  is  greatest 
p.270.  inconsequence  of  the  sun's  being  near  to  o^^r  zenith,  whilst  he  at  the 
same  time  begins  in  his  eccenti'ic  sphere  to  descend  from  the  apogee  of 
his  orbit.  And  this  event  was  in  the  time  of  Hippocrates  contemporaneous 
with  the  rising  of  Sirius,  Therefore  he  has  only  said  in  general  at  the 
time  when  Sirius  rises,  knowing  that  no  scientific  man  could  misunder- 
stand the  truth.  For  if  Sirius  changed  its  place  so  as  to  advance  10 
even  as  far  as  the  beginning  of  Capricorn  or  Aries,  the  time  during 
which  he  forbids  taking  drugs  wovild  not  therefore  advance  in  the 
same  way. 

Sinan  says  in  his  Kitdh-al'anwd  that  the  shepherds  have  seven 
special  days  of  their  own,  beginning  with  the  1st  of  Tammuz,  which 
they  use  like  the  dog-days,  drawing  from  them  conclusions  regarding  the 
single  winter  months.  They  are  known  as  "  the  dog-days  of  the  shepherds." 
The  weather  of  these  days  is  always  different  from  that  of  the  time 
immediately  preceding  and  following.  During  all  or  at  least  some  of 
them  heaven  is  never  free  from  a  speck  of  clouds.  20 

19.  West  wind  or  heat  (Egyptians).  The  water  dogs  are  getting  strong 
and  do  much  damage. 

20.  West  wind  or  a  similar  one  (Egyptians).  Practical  observers  say 
that  on  this  day  frequent  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  eyes  occur. 

21.  The  Etesian  winds  are  blowing  (Euctemon);  the  heat  begins 
(Callippus,  Euctemon,  and  Metrodorus). 

22.  Bad  air  (Euctemon) ;  beginning  of  the  heat  (Hipparchus)  ;  west    - 
wind  and  heat  (Egyptians). 

23.  Winterly  air  on  sea,  winds  (Philippus  and  Metrodorus)  ;  beginning 

of  the  blowing  of  the  Etesian  winds  (Egyj)tians).  On  this  day  'Abu-  30 
Ja'far  Almansur  began  to  build  Baghdad,  that  part  which  is  called 
MansTir's-town,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Tigris  in  the  present  Baghdad. 
This  was  A.  Alexandri,  1074.  Astrologers  are  obliged  to  know  dates 
like  this,  and  must  date  from  such  an  epoch  by  means  of  their  knowledge 
of  the  Permutationes,  Terminationes,  Cycles,  and  Directiones,  until  they  find 
the  horoscopes  of  those  people  who  were  born  at  those  times.  It  was 
Naubakht  who  determined  the  time  (for  the  commencement  of  building). 
The  constellation  which  heaven  showed  at  the  time,  and  the  stations  of 
the  planets  which  appeared  on  heaven,  were  such  as  are  indicated  in 
the  following  figure. 


ON  THE  DATS  OF  THE  GREEK  CALENDAE. 


263 


Capricomus 


Arciteaens 
Ascendene 


Scorpio 


Xaput  Draconis 
25. 


Jupiter' 


Mars Z ■ 50 


'orv 
19.10 


'^ 


^ 


:4^ 


Svm/ 

MercuT'iU'S  25-7 


I 


p.271 


h 


Tcuznue 


QiZTWirtC 


CoTLC^r 


24.  Winds  (Philippus  and  Metrodorus)  ;  the  Etesian  winds  blow 
(Hipparchus) . 

25.  South  wind  (Eudoxus  and  Caesar)  ;  west  or  south  wind  (Egyptians). 
Sexual  intercourse  and  all  exertion  are  forbidden,  because  it  is  the  time 
of  the  greatest  heat.      The  river  Oxus  begins  to  rise. 

26.  South  wind  and  heat  (Philippus,  Meton,  Metrodorus,  Democritus, 
and  Hipparchus). 

27.  Dew  and  wet,  and  oppressive  air  (Euctemon  andDositheus).  This 
oppressive  air  mostly  occurs  when  heaven  is  covered  and  the  air  is  in 

10  perfect  repose.  But  often,  too,  this  is  peculiar  to  a  place  where  this 
cause  does  not  exist,  e.g.  to  the  region  beyond  that  bridge  which, 
according  to  Aljaihani,  was  in  old  times  built  by  the  Chinese,  reaching 
from  the  top  of  one  mountain  to  that  of  another  on  the  road  that  leads 
from  Khotan  to  the  region  of  the  residence  of  the  Khakan.  For  those 
who  pass  this  bridge  come  into  an  air  which  makes  breathing  diflacult 
and  the  tongue  heavy,  in  consequence  of  which  many  travellers  perish 
there,  whilst  others  are  saved.  The  Tibetans  call  it  the  "poison- 
mountain.'* 

28.  Nothing  mentioned. 

20  29.  Beginning  of  the  Etesian  winds  (Dositheus)  ;  heat  (Egyptians). 
They  hold  the  fair  of  Busra  for  a  whole  month,  and  that  of  Salamiyya 
for  two  weeks. 

30.  The  Etesian  winds  blow  (Eudoxus) ;  west  wind  and  heat 
(Egyptians). 

31.  South  wind  (Csesar). 

Ah. 

1.  Heat  (Hipparchus). 

2.  Nothing  mentioned. 

3.  Dew  falls  (Eudoxus  and  Dositheus) ;  episemasia  (Caesar). 
30       4.  Great  heat  (Eudoxus). 

6.  Heat,  still  and  oppressive  air,  then  blowing  of  winds  (Dositheus 


p.272. 


264  ALBtE^^Nt. 

and  Egyptians).     They  hold  a  fair  at  'AdhriTit  during  fifteen  days,  also 
in  Al'urdunn,  and  in  several  districts  of  Palestine. 
6,  7.  Nothing  mentioned. 

8.  The  air  is  still  and  oppressive  (Callippus)  ;  wind,  and  intense  heat 
(Egyptians).  According  to  Sinan,  frequently  there  occurs  a  change  of 
the  air. 

9.  Heat  and  still  air  (Euctemon  and  Caesar)  ;  south  wind  and  turbid 
air  (Egyptians). 

10.  Heat  and  still  air  (Eudoxus,  Metrodorus,  and  Dositheus) ; 
episemasia  (Democritus).     At  this  time  the  heat  is  very  intense.  10 

11.  The  northerly  winds  cease  to  blow  (Callippus,  Euctemon,  and 
Philippus) ;  heavy  wind  (Eudoxus) ;  different  winds  blow  together 
(Hipparchus)  ;  thunder  (Egyptians).  According  to  Sinan  there  is 
always  a  change  of  the  weather  on  this  day.  He  says  :  I  do  not  know 
whether  we,  I  and  all  those  who  make  meteorological  observations,  are 
correct  in  describing  a  day  like  this.  On  this  day  there  is  almost  always 
a  change  of  the  weather  for  the  better.  It  is  the  first  day  when  the  air 
of  Al'irak  begins  to  be  agreeable.  Sometimes  this  change  is  most 
evident,  whilst  at  other  times  it  is  only  slightly  perceptible.  But  that  the 
day  should  be  free  from  such  a  change,  almost  never  occurs.  20 

Some  of  the  ancients  consider  this  day  as  the  beginning  of  the 
autumnal  air,  whilst  others  take  as  such  the  following  day. 

Sinan  says :  Thabit  used  to  say  :  If  in  a  rare  year  that  which  we  have 
described  does  not  take  place  on  this  day,  it  is  not  likely  to  take  place 
on  the  13th  or  14th,  but  rather  in  the  middle  of  Ab.  If  it  takes  place 
on  the  11th,  a  season  of  agreeable  air  is  sure  to  return  about  the  middle 
of  the  month,  though  it  may  only  be  short. 

12.  Heat  (Euctemon  and  Egyptians). 

13.  Episemasia  and  still  air  (Caesar).  Sinan  says  that  on  this  day  an 
irregular  change  of  the  air  frequently  occurs.  30 

14.  15.  Nothing  mentioned. 

16.  Episemasia  (Caesar). 

17.  Episemasia  (Eudoxus). 

18.  Nothing  mentioned.     The  Samums  are  said  to  cease. 

19.  Episemasia,  rain,  and  wind  (Democritus)  ;  west  wind  (Egyptians). 
p.273.       20.  Episemasia  (Dositheus)  ;  heat  and  density  in  the  air  (Egyptians). 

21.  Nothing  mentioned. 

22.  West  wind  and  thunder  (Eudoxus)  ;  episemasia  and  bad  air  (Caesar 
and  Egyptians). 

23.  West  wind  (Egyptians).  40 

24.  Episemasia  (Eudoxus  and  Metrodorus).  The  heat  relaxes  a  little 
at  the  time  when  the  sun  passes  the  first  6  degrees  of  Virgo. 

25.  Episemasia  (Eudoxus)  ;  south  wind  (Hipparchus)  ;  heat  (Egyp- 
tians). 

26.  Rotating  winds  (Hipparchus).     Between  this  day  and  the  first  of 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GBEEK  CALENDAE.        265 

the  Days  of  the  Old  Woman  (i.e.  26  Shubat)  lies  one  half  of  a  complete 
year.  On  this  day  the  heat,  at  the  time  when  it  is  about  to  disappear, 
returns  once  more  with  renewed  force,  as  does  also  the  cold  at  the  time 
when  it  is  about  to  disappear.  It  is  a  time  of  seven  days,  the  last  of 
which  is  the  1st  of  llul,  called  by  the  Arabs  Wakdat-Suhail  (i.e.  the 
burning  of  Suhail).  It  is  the  time  of  the  winds  that  accompany  the 
rising  of  Aljahha  (Frons  Leonis,  the  10th  Lunar  Station),  but  as  Suhail 
rises  in  its  neighbourhood,  it  has  become  the  prevailing  use  to  call  the 
time  by  Suhail  and  not  by  Aljabha.  The  heat  of  these  days  is  more 
IQ  intense  than  at  any  time  before  or  afterwards.  But  after  this  time  the 
nights  begin  to  be  agreeable.  This  is  an  occurrence  generally  known 
among  people,  which  scarcely  ever  fails.  Muhammad  b.  'Abd-almalik 
Alzayyat  says : 

"  The  water  had  become  cold  and  the  night  long, 
And  the  wine  was  found  to  be  sweet ; 
Haziran  had  left  you,  and  Tammuz  and  Ab." 

27.  Episemasia  (Philippus). 

28.  West  wind  (Egyptians). 

29.  Rain  and  thunder  ;  the  Etesian  winds  are  about  to  cease  (Eudoxus 
20  and  Hipparchus). 

30.  Episemasia  (Hipparchus). 

31.  The  Etesian  winds  are  about  to  cease  (Ptolemseus)  ;  changing 
winds  (Eudoxus)  ;  winds,  rain,  and  thunder  (Caesar)  ;  east  wind 
(Hipparchus). 

!lM. 

1.  Episemasia  and  the  Etesian  winds  are  getting  quiet  (Callippus).  A 
fair  is  held  at  Manbij  (Mabbug). 

2.  Density  in  the  air  (Metrodorus).  Conon  says  that  on  this  day  the 
Etesian  winds  cease. 

30  3.  Wind,  thunder,  and  density  in  the  air  (Eudoxus)  ;  wet  and  dew 
(Hipparchus)  ;  fog,  heat,  rain,  and  thunder  (Egyptians).  On  this  day 
people  begin  to  light  their  fires  in  cold  countries. 

4.  Dense  and  changing  air  (Callippus,  Euctemon,  Philippus,  and 
Metrodorus)  ;  rain,  thunder,  and  changing  wind  (Eudoxus). 

5.  Changing  winds  and  rain,  and  the  Etesian  winds  are  gettmg  quiet 
(Caesar)  ;  rains  and  winterly  air  at  sea,  and  south  wind  (Egyptians).     On 

this  day  midsummer  ends,  and  a  time  comes  which  is  good  for  bleeding  p.274. 
and  for  taking  drugs  during  forty  days. 

6.  West  wind  (Egyptians). 

40        7.  Density  in  the  air  (Philippus)  ;  episemasia  (Dositheus). 

8.  West  wind  and  episemasia  (Egyptians). 

9.  Nothing  mentioned. 

10.  The  air  is  not  troubled  (mixed)  (Dositheus). 


266  albIrt^n!. 

11.  The  north  winds  are  ceasing  (Caesar). 

12.  South  wind  (Eudoxus). 

13.  Episemasia  (Callippus  and  Conon). 

14.  The  north  winds  are  ceasing  (Eudoxus)  ;  episemasia  (Democritus 
and  Metrodorus).     After  this  time  no  swallow  is  seen. 

15.  Wet  and  dew  (Dositheus)  ;  rains  and  episemasia  (Egyptians). 

16.  Density  in  the  air,  and  rain  at  sea  (Hipparchus). 

On  the  16th  in  a  common  year  and  on  the  17th  in  a  leap-year  occurs 
the  second  equinox,   which  is  the  first  day  of  the  Persian  autumn  and 
the  Chinese  spring,  as  people  maintain.     But  we  have  already  explained  10 
that  this  is  impossible. 

The  winds,  now,  blowing  on  this  day  are  said  to  be  of  a  psychical 
nature.  To  look  towards  the  clouds  that  rise  on  this  day  emaciates  the 
body  and  affects  the  soul  with  disease.  I  think  the  reason  of  this  is 
that  people  conceive  fear  on  account  of  the  cold  and  the  disappearance 
of  the  agreeable  time  of  the  year. 

It  is  one  of  the  omina  of  this  day  to  rise  from  sleep  in  a  worshipping 
attitude,  and  to  fumigate  with  tamarisks  before  speaking. 

People  say  that  if  a  woman  who  is  sterile  looks  on  this  day  at  the  star 
Alsulid  and  then  has   intercourse   with   her   husband,    she   is   sure   to  20 
conceive. 

Further,  they  say,  that  in  the  night  of  this  day  the  waters  ai'O  getting 
sweet.  We  have  already  heretofore  shown  the  impossibility  of  such  a 
thing. 

This  second  equinox  is,  according  to  the  Canon  Sindkind,  a  great 
festival  with  the  Hindus,  like  the  Mihrjan  with  the  Persians.  People 
make  each  other  presents  of  all  sorts  of  valuable  objects  and  of  precious 
stones.  They  assemble  in  their  temples  and  places  of  worship  until 
noon.  Then  they  go  out  to  their  pleasure-grounds,  and  there  they 
assemble  in  parties,  showing  their  devotion  to  the  (Deity  of)  Time  and  30 
humbling  themselves  before  God  Almighty. 

17.  Rain  at  sea  and  density  in  the  air  (Metrodorus). 

18.  West,  then  cast  wind  (Egyptians). 

19.  Wet  and  dew  (Eudoxus)  ;  west  wind,  mizzle,  and  rain  (Egyptians). 
On  this  day  the  water  returns  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  trees  to  the 
roots. 

20.  21.  (Missing.) 

22.  Nothing  mentioned. 

23.  Rain  (Eudoxus) ;  west  wind  or  south  wind  (Hipparchus). 

24.  Nothing  mentioned.  On  this  day  the  fair  of  Thu'aliba  is  held.  40 
Practical  observers  say  that  people  mark  on  this  day  what  wmd  is  con- 
stantly blowing  until  night  or  until  the  time  when  the  sun  begins  to 
decline ;  for  this  will  be  the  most  constant  of  all  the  winds  of  the 
year.  This  day  they  called  the  Turning  of  the  winds.  The  white-and- 
black  crows  appear  on  this  day  in  most  countries. 


ON  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  GEEEK  CALENDAR.        267 

25.  Episemasia  (Hipparchus  and  Eudoxus)  ;  west  -wind  or  south  wind   p.275. 
(Egyptians). 

26,  27,  28.  (Missing.) 

29.  Episemasia  (Euctemon  and  Eiidoxus)  ;  west  wind  or  south  wind 
(Hipparchus). 

30.  Nothing  mentioned  by  the  ancients,  either  about  the  air  or  anything 
else. 

This,  now,  is  the  calendar  used  by  the  G-reeks,  to  which  we  have  added 
all  that  Sinan  has  mentioned  in  his  Kitdb-aV anwd.  This  is  the  concise 
10  summary  of  his  book.  We  have  not  kej^t  back  anything  which  we  have 
learned  regarding  the  days  of  the  calendar.  We  quote  them  by  the 
names  of  the  Syrians  (i.e.  as  the  1st  of  Tishrin,  Kanun,  etc.)  only,  because 
they  are  generally  known  among  people,  and  because  this  serves  the  same 
purpose  (as  if  we  were  to  call  them  by  the  Greek  names). 

Next  we  shall  speak  of  the  memorable  days  in  the  months  of  the 
Jews,  if  God  Almighty  permits  ! 


268  ALBtRf^Ni. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

or    THE    FESTIVALS   AND    FAST-DATS    IN    THE    MONTHS    OF   THE    JEWS, 

After  having  explained  the  method  how  to  learn  the  beginning  of  the 
jear  of  the  Jews,  and  its  character, — after  having  solved  this  problem  by 
the  help  both  of  computation  and  tables, — after  having  shown  the 
arrangement  of  the  months  according  to  their  beginnings  and  to  the 
number  of  their  days, — we  hold  it  now  to  be  necessary  to  explain  their 
festivals  and  memorable  days.  For  getting  acquainted  with  them  we 
shall  at  the  same  time  learn  the  reason  why  they,  even  New- Year's  Day 
itself,  are  not  allowed  to  fall  on  certain  days  of  the  week.  We  begin  IQ 
with  the  first  month,  i.e. 


Tishri. 


It  has  30  days  and  only  one  Bosh-Hodesh.  As  we  have  explained 
before,  the  1st  Tishri  cannot  fall  on  a  Sunday,  Wednesday,  or  Friday 
"nt^.  When,  according  to  calculation,  it  ought  to  fall  on  one  of  these 
days,  it  is  disregarded,  and  New- Year's  Day  is  either  the  following  day, 
if  it  is  a  Dies  licita,  or  the  preceding  day,  in  case  the  following  oae  is  not 
a  Dies  licita  according  to  the  conditions  that  have  been  laid  down  in  the 
Tabula  Terminorum  in  the  first  part  of  this  book.  This  proceeding  of 
theirs  they  call  "^rT^.-  The  1st  is  the  feast  of  New- Year,  when  they  blow  20 
the  trumpets  and  trombones,  which  are  rams-horns.  All  work  ceases  on 
this  day  as  on  Sabbath.  On  this  day,  they  maintain,  Abraham  offered 
his  son  Isaac,  but  then  Isaac  was  ransomed  by  means  of  a  ram. 
According  to  Jews  and  Christians,  the  person  offered  was  Isaac,  whilst 
there  is  a  passage  in  the  Goran  in  the  Sura  Wal-sdffdt  (Sura  xxxvii.  99- 
113),  showing  that  it  was  Ishmael.  And,  according  to  tradition,  the 
Prophet  is  reported  to  have  said  :  "  I  am  the  son  of  the  two  sacrificed 
ones,"  meaning  'Abdallah  b.  Almuttalib  and  Ishmael  However,  the 
discussion  of  this  question  is  a  subject  of  great  extent.  God  knows 
best !  30 


FESTIVALS    AND    FASTS    OF    THE    JEWS.  269 

3.  Fasting  of   G-edalya  b.   'Ahikam,   tlie  governor  of  Nebucadnezar 
over  Jerusalem.     On  tbis   day  be  was  killed,  togetber  witb  eigbty-two  p.276. 
people,  in  a  cistern  in  wbicb  tbe  water  collected  until  it  rose  above  tbeir 
beads.     In  consequence  tbe  Israelites  were  stricken  witb  sorrow,  and  bave 
ever  since  fasted  on  tbe  day  of  bis  deatb. 

5.  Fasting  of  'Akibba.  People  wanted  to  compel  bim  to  worsbip  tbe 
idol ;  be,  bowever,  did  not  submit.  So  tbey  put  bim  into  a  cage  wbere 
be  died  of  bunger,  surrounded  by  twenty  fellow  prisoners. 

7.  Fasting  of  punishment.  Its  origin  is  tbis,  tbat  David,  on  baving 
10  counted  tbe  Israelites,  rejoiced  in  tbeir  number,  and  people  tbemselves 
were  puffed  up  on  account  of  tbeir  great  number,  so  as  to  go  astray. 
Tberefore  God  became  angry  witb  tbem,  and  sent  tbe  propbet  Natban  to 
David  and  tbe  assembly  of  tbe  tribes  to  tbreaten  tbem  witb  tbe  sword, 
witb  famine,  and  sudden  deatb.  His  tbreateniug  was  fulfilled.  So  tbey 
were  stricken  witb  f rigbt,  and  bave  ever  since  fasted  on  tbis  day. 

On  tbe  same  day  tbe  Israelites  killed  eacb  otber  on  account  of  tbe 
worsbip  of  tbe  calf.  Tbey  say  tbat  it  was  Aaron  wbo  made  tbe  calf,  and 
so  it  is  related  iu  tbe  Tbora. 

Tbe  Jew  Ta'kub  b.  Musa  Alnikrisi  {i.e.  tbe  pbysician)  told  me  in 
20  Jurjan  tbe  following :  Moses  wanted  to  leave  Egypt  togetber  witb  tbe 
Israelites,  but  Josepb  tbe  propbet  bad  ordered  tbat  tbey  sbould 
take  bis  coffin  along  witb  tbem.  As  be,  bowever,  was  buried  in  tbe 
bottom  of  tbe  Nile  and  tbe  water  flowed  over  bim,  Moses  could  not  get 
bim  away.  Now,  Moses  took  a  piece  of  a  paper  and  cut  it  into  tbe 
figure  of  a  fisb ;  over  tbis  be  recited  some  sentence,  breatbed  upon  it, 
wrote  sometbing  upon  it,  and  tbrew  it  into  tbe  Nile.  Waiting  for  tbe 
result  be  stayed  tbere,  following  tbe  course  of  tbe  river,  but  notbing 
appeared.  So  Moses  took  anotber  j^iece  of  paper  and  cut  it  into  tbe 
figure  of  a  calf,  wrote  upon  it,  recited  over  it,  breatbed  upon  it,  but  tben, 
80  wben  be  was  just  about  to  tbrow  it  into  tbe  water,  as  be  bad  done  tbe 
first  time,  tbe  coffin  appeared.  So  be  tbrew  away  tbe  figure  of  tbe  calf  wbicb 
be  just  beld  in  bis  band,  but  it  was  taken  up  by  one  of  tbe  bystanders. 

Afterwards,  wben  Moses  disappeared  on  tbe  mountain  to  speak  witb 
tbe  Lord,  and  wben  tbe  Israelites  became  anxious  at  bis  staying  tbere  so 
long,  tbey  pressed  Aaron  and  demanded  of  bim  tbat  be  sbould  give  tbem 
a  viceregent  instead  of  Moses.  Aaron,  no  doubt,  did  not  know  wbat  to 
do;  so  be  said  :  "Bring me  all  tbe  precious  ornaments  of  your  women." 
So  be  spoke  in  order  to  gain  time,  knowing  tbat  tbe  women  would  not  be 
in  a  burry  to  part  witb  tbeir  ornaments.  Possibly  Moses  migbt  return 
40  before  tbat.  But  it  bappened  tbat  tbe  women  gave  up  tbeir  ornaments 
most  speedily.  Tbey  fetcbed  Aaron  and  he  melted  tbe  ornaments  and 
poured  tbem  into  a  mould ;  but  tbe  result  was  notbing  but  broken 
pieces  of  ingots.  Tbe  same  work  be  repeated  in  a  burry,  boprug  for  tbe 
return  of  Moses  and  for  news  of  bim.  Now  be  bappened  to  bave  witb 
himself  tbe  figure  of  tbat  calf  (wbicb  Moses  bad  cut  out  of  paper).     So 


270  albIrOn!. 

he  said  to  himself :  "  By  the  figure  of  the  fish  once  a  wonderful  miracle 
has  been  wrought.  Now,  let  me  see  what  the  figure  of  the  calf  will 
produce  !  "  He  took  the  figure  and  threw  it  into  the  molten  gold ;  when 
then  the  liquid  mass  was  poured  into  a  mould,  it  was  formed  into  a  calf 
which  roared.  Thereby  the  people  were  at  that  time  seduced  from  the 
true  belief  without  Aaron's  having  intended  it. 
p.277.  10.  Fasting  of  Kippur,  also  called  Al-'dshurci.  This  fast-day  is 
obligatory,  whilst  all  other  ones  are  voluntary.  Kippur-id^^im^  begins 
half  an  hour  before  sunset  of  the  9th  and  lasts  until  half  an  hour  after 
sunset  of  the  10th  during  25  hours.  In  this  way,  too,  all  the  voluntary  10 
fast-days  are  held.  Therefore  it  is  impossible  that  two  of  their  fast- 
days  should  immediately  follow  each  other,  because  one  hour  would 
belong  to  both  of  them  in  common,  and  because  there  would  be  no 
possibility  of  breaking  the  fast  between  them.  Ya'kub,  however,  main- 
tains that  this  is  a  peculiarity  only  of  this  fast-day,  whilst  in  the  case 
of  all  the  other  fast-days  it  is  allowed  to  fast  in  the  same  way  (i.e.  the 
same  length  of  time)  that  the  Muslims  do. 

On  this  day  God  addressed  Moses  the  son  of  Amram.     The  fasting  of 
this  day  is  an  atonement  for  all  sins  that  are  committed  by  mistake. 
The  Jewish  law  orders  everybody  to  be  killed  who  does  not  fast  on  this  20 
day.     They  recite  five  prayers  on  this  day,  prostrating  themselves  upon 
the  earth,  which  is  not  the  custom  on  the  other  festivals. 

15.  The  feast  of  Tabernacles,  lasting  seven  consecutive  days,  during 
which  they  rest  under  the  shadow  of  willows  and  reeds  and  other  branches 
on  the  roofs  of  their  houses.  This  is  obligatory  only  for  him  who  dwells 
at  home,  not  for  the  traveller.  On  these  days  all  work  ceases,  as  God 
says  in  the  third  book  of  the  Thora  (Levit.  xxiii.  34-43)  :  "  And  on  the 
fifteenth  of  the  seventh  month  is  the  feast  of  Tabernacles.  Then  you 
shall  not  work  during  seven  days.  You  shall  celebrate  a  feast  before  God 
and  you  shall  sit  in  the  tents,  the  whole  house  of  Israel,  during  seven  30 
days,  that  your  (future)  generations  should  know  that  it  was  I  who 
made  the  Israelites  dwell  in  tabernacles,  when  I  led  them  out  of  Egypt." 
This  feast  is  celebrated  by  the  whole  Jewish  nation,  whilst  'Abii-'lsa 
Alwarrak  says  in  his  Kitdb-almakdldt  of  the  Samaritans  that  they  do  not 
celebrate  it. 

The  last  or  seventh  day  of  the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  the  21st  of  the 
month,  is  called  'Ardbhd.  On  this  day  the  clouds  stood  over  the  heads 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  Altih. 

On   the  same  day  is  the  feast   of  the    Congregation,  when  the  Jews 
assemble  in  Hdrhard  of  Jerusalem,  carrying  around  in  procession  the  ^^ 
Ark  of  the   Covenant,  which  in   their   synagogues   is   like  the   pulpit 
(Minhar)  in  a  mosque. 

22.  The  feast  of  Benediction,  by  which  this  feast-time  is  completed. 
All  work  ceases.  They  maintain  that  on  this  day  the  communication  of 
the  Thora  was  finished,  and  that  the  Thora  was  handed  over  to  their 


FESTIVALS    AND    PASTS    OF    THE    JEWS.  271 

chiefs  to  be  deposited  in  their  synagogues.  On  this  day  they  take  the 
Thora  out  of  its  shrine,  they  bless  themselves  by  it,  and  try  to  derive 
auguries  from  unfolding  and  reading  it. 


Marheshwan. 


It  has  always  two  Bosh-HodesJi,  and  it  has  30  days  in  a  Perfect  year 
and  29  days  in  an  Intermediate  year  or  in  an  Imperfect  one.  On  these 
two  Eosh-Hodesh  there  is  no  feast. 

6.  Fasting  of  Zedekia.     Its  origin  is  this,  that  Nebukadnezar  killed  the 
children  of  Zedekia,  whilst  he  stood  before  them,  patient  and  enduring, 
10  not  weeping  nor  manifesting  any  sign  of  despair.     Then  both  his  eyes  p,278. 
were  put  out.     Therefore  the  Israelites  were  stricken  with  sorrow,  and 
have  ever  since  fasted  on  this  day. 

Differing  herefrom,  other  people  fix  this  fast-day  on  the  Monday  falling 
between  the  8th  and  the  13th  of  this  month.  This,  however,  is  not  like 
a  method  suitable  to  Jewish  ways ;  it  is  rather  like  Christian  theories. 
The  generality  of  Jews  fix  their  fast-days  on  certain  dates  in  the  months, 
not  on  week-days. 


Kislew. 

It  has  only  one  Eosh-Hodesh  in  a  Perfect  year.  It  has  30  days  in  a 
20   Perfect   and  Intermediate  year  ;  29  in  an  Imperfect  year. 

8.  A  fast-day.  Its  origin  is  this,  that  Tehoyakim  burned  the  papers, 
called  nii^p  i-e-  the  Lamentations.  They  contained  a  promise  of  God,  and 
were  brought  by  the  prophet  Jeremia.  They  treated  of  the  condition  of 
the  Israelites  in  future  times  and  of  the  calamities  that  would  befall  them. 
Jeremia  sent  the  book  through  Barukh  b.  Neriyja,  but  Tehoyakim 
threw  it  into  the  fire,  and  therefore  there  arose  manifold  lamentations. 

Other  people  fix  this  fasting  on  the  Thursday  falling  between  the  19th 
and  the  25th  of  this  month. 

25.  Beginning  of  the  feast  Hamikhd,  i.e.  pxirification.  It  lasts  eight 
30  days,  during  which  they  light  lamjjs  at  the  door  of  the  hall ;  on  the  first 
night  one  lamj)  for  each  inhabitant  of  the  house,  on  the  second  night 
two  lamps,  in  the  third  three,  etc.  etc.,  and  finally  eight  lamps  on  the 
eighth  night,  by  which  they  mean  to  express  that  they  increase  their 
thanks  towards  Grod  from  day  to  day  by  the  purification  and  sanctification 
of  Jerusalem.  The  origin  is  this :  Antiochus,  the  king  of  the  Greeks, 
had  subdued  and  maltreated  them  during  a  long  period.  It  was  his 
custom  to  violate  the  women,  before  they  were  led  to  their  spouses,  in  a 
subterranean  vault.  From  this  vault  two  cords  led  outside,  where  two 
bells  were  fixed  at  their  ends.  When,  now,  he  wanted  a  woman,  he  rung 
40  the  right  bell,  and  the  woman  entered;  when  he  had  done  with  her,  he 
rung  the  left  bell  and  dismissed  her.  Further,  there  was  an  Israelite 
who  had  eight  sons,  and  one  daughter  whom  another  Israelite  had 
demanded  in  marriage.     Now,  wanting  to  marry  her,  the  father  of  his 


p.279. 


272  ALBfR^Nt. 

bride  said :  "  Grive  me  time ;  for  I  stand  between  two  things.  If  we 
lead  my  daughter  to  you,  sbe  will  be  dishonoured  by  the  cursed  tyrant, 
and  she  then  is  no  longer  a  lawful  wife  for  you.  And  if  she  does  not 
submit  to  him,  he  will  make  me  perish."  For  this  state  of  things  he 
blamed  and  reviled  his  sons,  who  became  greatly  excited  and  angry. 
But  the  youngest  of  them  jumped  up,  dressed  like  a  woman,  hid  a 
dagger  in  his  garments,  and  went  to  the  gate  of  the  king,  behaving  like 
the  whores.  Now,  the  tyrant  rang  the  right  bell,  and  he  was  ushered 
into  his  presence  ;  there,  being  alone  with  him,  he  killed  him  and  cut  off 
his  head  ;  then  he  rang  the  left  bell  and  was  let  out,  and  stuck  up  the  10 
head  (somewhere).  Therefore  the  Israelites  celebrate  a  feast  on  that  and 
the  following  days  (i.e.  seven  days),  corresponding  to  the  number  of  the 
brothers  of  this  youth.     God  knows  best ! 


Tebeth. 


It  has  one  Rosh-Hodesh  in  an  Imperfect  year,  two  in  a  Perfect  and 
Intermediate  year.     It  has  29  days. 

5.  First  appearance  of  darJcness.      Ptolemy,  the  king  of  the  Greeks, 
had  asked  them  for  the  Thora,  compelled  them  to  translate  it  into  Greek, 
and  deposited  it  in  his  treasury.     They  maintain  that  this  is  the  version 
of  the  Seventy.     In  consequence  darkness  spread  over  the  world  during  20 
three  days  and  nights. 

8.  A  fast-day,  the  last  of  the  three  Dark  days,  so  called  for  the  reason 
just  mentioned. 

9.  A  fast-day  which  they  are  ordered  to  keep,  the  origin  of  which  they 
are  ignorant  of. 

10.  A   fast-day,   the   day   on   which    Nebukadnezar    arrived    before 
Jerusalem  and  laid  siege  to  it. 


She  bat. 


It  has  only  one  Eosh-Hodesh  and  30  days. 

6.  A  fast- day  on  account  of  the  death  of  the  saints  in  the  time  of   30 
Josua  b.  Nun.     Other  people  fix  this  fast-day  on  the  Monday  between 
the  10th  and  15th  of  this  month. 

23.  Fasting  of  the  Behellion.  Its  origin  is  this :  The  tribe  of  Benjamin 
were  a  godless  and  lawless  set  of  people,  who  behaved  like  the  people  of 
Lot.  Now,  there  came  a  man  who  wanted  to  pass  through  their  country 
with  his  wife  and  maid-servant,  making  his  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem. 
Some  countryman  of  his  received  him  in  his  house ;  but  scarcely  had 
darkness  fallen  when  the  people  of  the  place  surrounded  the  door  of  his 
house,  demanding  his  guest  for  their  lust.  Now,  the  master  of  the 
house  offered  to  them  his  own  daughter ;  but  they  said :  "  We  do  not  40 
want  her."  Then  he  gave  up  to  them  the  servant-girl  of  his  guest,  and 
then  they  raped  her  the  whole  night.  The  girl  expired  towards  dawn. 
Then  her  master  cut  her  into  pieces  (12)  according  to  the  number  of  the 


FESTIVALS    AND    FASTS    OF    THE    JEWS.  273 

tribes  of  Israel ;  and  to  each  tribe  he  sent  one  of  her  limbs,  in  order  to 
rouse  their  wrath.  Now,  they  assembled  and  made  war  upon  that  tribe, 
but  they  could  not  conquer  them.  Thereupon  they  fasted  on  this  day 
and  humiliated  themselves  before  God.  Finally  He  gave  them  victory 
over  Benjamin  ;  forty  thousand  men  of  this  tribe  were  killed  and  seventy 
thousand  of  the  others. 


Adhar  I. 


It  is  the  leap-month  in  the  leap-year.      It  does  not  exist  in  common 
years,  and  is  not  counted  among  their  months.     It  has  two  Eosh-Hodesh 
10  and  30  days.     There  is  not  fast  or  feast  day  in  this  month. 


Adhar  II. 


This  is  the  original  Adhar,  which  is  called  so  in  general  (without  the 
addition  of  I.  or  II.)  in  common  years.  There  cannot  be  any  ambiguity 
about  what  we  just  mentioned,  speaking  of  another  Adhar  preceding  this 
one  (because  this  only  relates  to  leap-years).  It  has  two  Rosh-Hodesh 
and  29  days. 

7.  A  fast-day,  because  on  this  day  Moses  b.  Amram  died,  and  because 
with  his  death  the  manna  and  the  quails  ceased  to  appear. 

9.  A  fast-day  which  the  Israelites  established  for  themselves  at  the 
20  time  when  the  war  between  the  people  of  Shammai  and  of  Hillel  took   p,280. 
place,  in  which  twenty-eight  thousand  men  were  killed. 

Others  fix  this  fast-day  on  the  Monday  between  the  10th  and  15th  of 
this  month. 

13.  TJie  fasting  of  Albiiri  (Purim),  i.e.  casting  lots.  Its  origin  is  this  : 
Once  a  man  called  Haman,  a  man  of  no  importance,  travelled  to  Tustar 
in  order  to  undertake  some  office.  But  on  the  way  thither  he  met  with  an 
obstacle  which  prevented  him  from  reaching  the  end  of  his  journey,  and 
this  happened  on  the  identical  day  on  which  the  offices  (in  Tustar)  were 
bestowed.  So  he  missed  this  opportunity  and  fell  into  utter  distress. 
80  Now,  he  took  his  seat  near  the  temples  and  demanded  for  every  dead 
body  (that  was  to  be  buried)  3-1-  dirhams.  This  went  on  until  the 
daughter  of  King  Ahashwerosh  died.  When  people  came  with  her 
body,  he  demanded  something  from  the  bearers,  and  on  being  refused  he 
did  not  allow  them  to  pass,  until  they  yielded  and  were  willing  to  pay 
him  what  he  asked  for.  But  then  he  was  not  content  with  his  first 
demand ;  he  asked  for  more  and  more,  and  they  paid  him  more  and 
more,  till  at  last  it  reached  an  enormous  sum.  The  king  was  informed 
of  the  matter,  and  he  ordered  them  to  grant  him  his  desire.  But  after  a 
week  he  ordered  him  into  his  presence,  and  asked  him:  "Who  invested 
40  you  with  such  an  office  ?  "  But  Haman  simply  answered  this :  "  And 
who  forbade  me  to  do  so  ?  "  When  the  king  repeated  his  question, 
Haman  said  :  "  If  I  am  now  forbidden  to  do  so,  I  shall  cease  and  give  it 
up,  and  I  shall  give  you  with  the  greatest  pleasure  so  and  so  many  ten 

18 


274  albirunI. 

thousands  of  denars."  The  king  was  astonished  at  the  great  sum  of 
money  which  he  mentioned,  because  he  with  all  his  supreme  power  had 
nothing  like  it.  So  he  said  :  "  A  man  who  gathered  so  much  money  from 
the  rule  over  the  dead,  is  worthy  to  be  made  wazir  and  councillor."  So 
he  entrusted  him  with  all  his  affairs,  and  ordered  his  subjects  to  obey 
him. 

This  Haman  was  an  enemy  of  the  Jews.  He  asked  the  Haruspices  and 
Aucjures  which  was  the  most  unlucky  time  for  the  Jews.  They  said  :  "In 
Adhar  their  master  Musa  died,  and  the  most  unlucky  time  of  this  month 
is  the  14th  and  15th."  Now  Haman  wrote  to  all  parts  of  the  empire,  10 
ordering  people  on  that  day  to  seize  upon  the  Jews  and  to  kill  them. 
The  Jews  of  the  empire  prostrated  themselves  before  him,  and  appeared 
before  him,  crossing  their  hands  upon  their  breasts,  except  one  man, 
Mordekhai,  the  brother  of  Ester,  the  king's  wife.  Haman  hated  her,  and 
planned  her  destruction  on  that  day  ;  but  the  king's  wife  understood 
him.  Now  she  received  (in  her  palace)  the  king  and  his  wazir,  enter- 
taining them  during  three  days.  On  the  fourth  day  she  asked  the  king 
permission  to  lay  before  him  her  wishes.  And  then  she  asked  him  to 
spare  her  life  and  that  of  her  brother.  The  king  said  :  "  And  who  dares 
to  attempt  anything  against  you  both  ?  "  She  pointed  to  Haman.  Now  20 
the  king  rose  from  his  seat  in  great  wrath  ;  Haman  dashed  towards  the 
queen,  prostrating  himself  before  her,  and  then  kissing  her  head,  but  she 
pushed  him  back.  Now  the  king  got  the  imjDression  that  he  wanted  to 
seduce  her ;  so  he  turned  towards  him  and  said :  "  Hast  thou  in  thy  im- 
pudence come  so  far  as  to  raise  thy  desire  to  her  ?  "  So  the  king  ordered 
him  to  be  killed,  and  Ester  asked  him  to  have  him  crucified  on  the  same 
tree  which  he  had  prepared  for  her  brother.  So  the  king  did,  and  wrote 
to  all  parts  of  the  emj)ire  to  kill  the  partisans  of  Haman.  So  they  were 
killed  on  the  same  day  on  which  he  had  intended  to  kill  the  Jews,  i.e.  on 
the  14th.  Therefore  there  is  great  joy  over  the  death  of  Haman  on  §0 
this  day. 

This  feast  is  also  called  the  Feast  of  Megilld,  and  further  Hdmdn-Sur. 
p.281.   For  on  this  day  they  make  figures  which  they   beat  and   then  burn, 
imitating  the  burning  of  Haman.     The  same  they  practise  on  the  16th. 

Nisan. 

It  has  only  one  Eosh-Hodesh  and  30  days. 

1.  Easting  over  the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  the  sons  of  Aaron, 
who  died  because  they  introduced  foreign  fire  into  the  temple  of  God. 

10.  Fasting  over  the  death  of  Maryam,  the  daughter  of  Amram,  and 
over  the  sinking  and  disappearing  of  the  water,  a  miracle  which  occurred  4,9 
on  account  of  her  death,  as  the  manna  and  the  quails  ceased  to  appear  in 
consequence  of  the  death  of  Moses  b.  Amram.     Some  people  fix  this  day 
on  Monday  between  the  5th  and  the  10th  of  the  month. 

15.  Passover-feast,  of  which  we  have  already  treated  at  such  length 


FESTIVALS    AND    PASTS    OF    THE    JEWS.  275 

that  there  is  no  necessity  for  a  repetition.  This  day  is  the  first  of  the 
Bays  of  Unleavened  Bread,  during  which  they  are  not  allowed  to  eat 
leavened  bread.  For  such  is  the  command  of  God  in  the  third  book  of  the 
Thora  (Levit.  xxiii.  6),  where  He  says  :  "  On  the  fifteenth  of  this  month  is 
the  feast  of  the  unleavened  bread  unto  God.  Then  you  shall  eat  un- 
leavened bread  during  seven  days,  and  you  shall  not  work  during  them." 
These  days  end  with  sunset  of  the  21st.  On  this  day  God  drowned 
Pharao  j  it  is  also  called  (j«*SU5\. 

lyar. 

10       It  has  two  Eosh-Hodesh  and  29  days. 

10.  Fasting  over  the  Arh.  It  is  the  day  when  the  Israelites  were 
deprived  of  the  ark,  and  when  thirty  men  of  them  were  killed.  The 
priest  Eli  then  managed  their  affairs.  His  gall-bladder  split,  and  he 
fell  dead  from  his  seat,  when  he  heard  the  news.  Others  fix  this  fasting 
on  the  Thursday  between  the  6th  and  11th  of  the  month. 

28.  Fasting,  because  on  this  day  the  prophet  Samuel  died. 


Siwan. 


It  has  only  one  Eosh-Hodesh  and  30  days. 

6.  The  Feast  of  the  Congregation,  a  great  festival,  and  one  of  the 
20  D'^^n  of  the  Israelites.  On  this  day  their  elders  were  present  at 
Mount  Sinai,  where  they  heard  the  voice  of  God  from  the  mountain 
speaking  to  Moses,  ordering  and  forbidding,  promising  and  threatening. 
They  were  ordered  to  celebrate  a  feast  on  this  day  as  a  thanksgiving  to 
God  for  having  jDreserved  them  from  all  mishap  in  their  country,  and 
their  crops  from  thunder,  cold,  and  rain.  God  says  in  the  second  book  of 
the  Thora :  "  And  you  shall  make  a  pilgrimage  to  me  thrice  in  every 
year :  first,  at  the  time  of  the  unleavened  bread;  secondly,  when  the  Thora 
was  sent  down,  this  is  the  pilgrimage  of  the  Feast  of  the  Congregation ; 
and  the  third  time,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  when  you  bring  in  your  fruit 
80  from  the  fields.  Tour  feasting  and  your  devotion  to  God  shall  be  in 
sacred  houses." 

On  this  day  they  offer  the  first-fruits.  Then  they  read  prayers  over 
them  and  invoke  the  blessing  of  God  upon  them. 

Between  the  first  of  the  Bays  of  the  Unleavened  Bread  and  the  Feast  of 
the  Congregation  there  are  fifty  days.  These  are  the  celebrated  weeks 
during  which  they  received  their  commandments,  when  their  law  was 
completed,  and  they  were  taught  all  knowledge  relating  to  God. 

Fasting  on  the  Monday  between  the  9th  and  14th.  p. 282. 

23.  Fasting.  They  say  that  on  this  day  Jerobeam  b.  Nebat  ordered  the 

40  ten  tribes  to  worship  two  golden  calves,  and  that  they  obeyed  him.     His 

children  ruled  over  them  about  two  himdred  and  fifty  years,  imtil  Salman 

■    18  * 


276  albieun!. 

Al'a'sliar,  the  king  of  Mosul,  conquered  them  and  led  them  into  cap- 
tivity. Then  they  were  united  with  the  other  tribes  in  the  time  of 
Hizkia. 

Yerobeam  b.  Nebat  was  one  of  the  slaves  of  Solomon,  the  son  of 
David  ;  he  fled  from  his  master,  and  the  Israelites  made  him  their  king. 
Then  he  kept  them  from  making  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem  by  the  worship 
of  these  two  calves,  knowing  that  if  they  went  to  Jerusalem  they  would 
come  to  consider  why  they  had  made  him  their  king ;  they  would  learn 
the  reality  of  his  case,  and  would  depose  and  kill  him. 

25.  Fasting  over  the  death  of  Simeon,  Samuel,  and  Hananya,  10 

27.  Fasting,  for  this  reason :  one  of  the  Greek  kings  wanted  to  force 
Eabba  Hananya  b.  Teradhyon  to  worship  the  idol ;  he,  however,  did  not 
yield.  Therefore  the  king  ordered  a  Thora  to  be  wraj^ped  round  him, 
and  him  to  be  burned  in  it.  Besides  he  put  in  prison  Eabba  'Akiba,  and 
forbade  people  to  follow  him,  and  he  strove  to  abolish  the  Sabbath. 


Tammuz. 


It  has  two  Rosh-Hodesh  and  29  days.     It  has  no  feast. 

17.  Fasting,  for  on  this  day  Moses  broke  the  tables,  and  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Jerusalem  began  to  be  destroyed  at  the  time  when  Nebukadnezar 
besieged  them.  Further,  on  this  day  they  put  up  an  idol  for  worship  in  20 
Jerusalem,  and  placed  it  in  the  altar- place  of  the  temple,  from  sheer  in- 
solence and  rebellion  against  Grod.  On  this  day  the  Thora  was  burned, 
and  the  sacrifices  ceased  to  be  practised. 

Tbh. 

It  has  only  one  Eosh-Hodesh  and  30  days. 

1.  Fasting,  because  on  this  day  Aaron  b.  Amram  died,  and  the  cloud 
was  raised  as  a  miracle  in  his  honour. 

9.  Fasting,  because  on  this  day  they  were  told  in  the  desert  that  they 
should  not  enter  Jerusalem,  and  were  sorry  in  consequence.    On  this  day 
Jerusalem  was  conquered  and  entered  by  Nebukadnezar,  who  destroyed  30 
it  by  fire.     On  this  day  it  was  destroyed  the  second  time,  and  its  soil 
ploughed  over. 

25.  Fasting,  because  the  fire  was  extinguished  in  the  temple.  On  this 
day  Nebukadnezar  left  Jerusalem,  and  the  conflagration  of  its  storehouses 
and  temples  was  put  an  end  to. 

28.  Fasting,  because  the  lamp  of  the  temple  was  extinguished  in  the 
days  of  the  prophet  Alias,  which  was  a  sign  of  God's  wrath  against 
them, 

ETuT 
It  has  two  Rosh-Hodesh  and  29  days,  but  no  feast.  40 


FESTIVALS    AND    FASTS    OF    THE    JEWS.  277 

7.  Fasting  of  the  Spies.  On  this  day  the  spies  returned  to  Moses,  and 
brought  him  the  report  of  the  giants.  Therefore  the  Israelites  were 
sorry,  but  Josua  b.  Nun  refuted  them.  For  this  reason  the  fast-day  was  p.283. 
established.  Other  Jews,  however,  place  this  fast-day  on  the  Monday  or 
Thursday  which  falls  within  the  last  seven  days  before  the  beginning 
of  the  next  year. 

(On  the  nVIlT  of  the  Jewish  Calendar.) — The  reason  why  they 

did  not  allow  that — 

10  The  first  of  Tishri  should  ever  be  11^^  (I.  lY.  VI.  days  of  the  week), 
Kippur  be  i;i^  (I.  ni.  VI.), 

„  Pui-im  or  Haman  Sur  ni  (H-  IV.  VII.), 

Passover  i-yi  (II.  IV.  VI.), 

'Asereth  Tm  (III.  V.  VII.), 

was  this,  that  they  wanted  to  prevent  a  day  for  any  work  falling  on  a 
Sabbath  ;  for  in  that  case  they  would  not  have  been  able  to  celebrate  it, 
since  they  are  not  allowed  to  work  on  a  Sabbath.  For  God  says  in  the 
second  book  (Exod.  xxxv.  2) :  "He  who  works  on  a  Sabbath  shall  be  kiUed." 
And  in  the  fourth  book  (Num.  xv.  32-36)  it  is  related  that  they  found  a 

20  man  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  working  on  a  Sabbath  and  gathering 
wood.  He  was  brought  before  Moses  and  Aaron,  and  they  put  him  in 
prison.  But  God  said  to  Moses,  "  Kill  him,"  and  so  he  was  stoned  to 
death. 

A  second  reason  (why  they  did  not  allow  the  feasts  to  fall  on  the  days 
mentioned)  was  this,  that  they  wished  to  prevent  a  Sabbath  and  another 
day  on  which  all  work  ceases  following  each  other. 

As  for  Sunday,  j^,  they  did  not  allow  it  to  be  New- Year's  Day,  because 
God  says  in  the  third  book  (Levit.  xxiii.  24-25)  :  "  On  the  first  day  of  the 
seventh  month  you  shall  have  rest,  and  a  memorial  of  blowing  of  trumpets. 

30  Then  you  shall  not  work  on  that  day,  but  you  shall  offer  sacrifices."  If, 
now,  this  day  follows  a  Sabbath,  the  Jew  gets  two  consecutive  days  of 
rest ;  the  means  of  his  maintenance  are  getting  scanty,  and  he  is  brought 
to  a  condition  in  which  it  is  difficult  for  him  to  make  good  the  deficiency. 
In  this  case,  'Ardbhd  falls  on  a  Sabbath,  and  almsgiving,  and  the  other 
works  prescribed  for  this  day,  could  not  be  carried  out.  For  the  same 
reason  Kippur  could  not  fall  on  a  Tuesday,  nor  the  preceding  Passover 
on  a  Friday,  nor  the  preceding  'Asereth  on  a  Sabbath,  because  if  this 
were  the  case  the  1st  of  Tishri  would  fall  on  a  Sunday. 

The  reason  why  they  do  not  allow  New- Year's  Day  to  be  a  Wednesday 

40  (-f),  is  that  God  says  in  the  third  book  (Levit.  xxiii.  27-32)  :  "  On  the 
tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month  shall  be  remission.  On  this  day  you  shall 
not  do  the  least  work  from  the  evening  of  the  ninth  of  the  month  till  the 
(next)  evening."     Therefore  all   work  is  suspended  on  Kippur  (the  10th, 


278  alb!rx)n!. 

in  this  case  a  Friday),  and  tlie  following  Sabbath  is  likewise  a  day  of 
rest.  So  Kippur  cannot  fall  on  a  Friday,  nor  the  preceding  Passover  on 
a  Monday,  nor  the  preceding  'Ase^-eth  on  a  Tuesday. 

The  reason  why  they  do  not  allow  New-Tear's  Day  to  fall  on  a  Friday 
(\)  is  this,  that  Friday  is  followed  by  Sabbath,  and  because  in  that  case 
Kippur  would  fall  on  a  Sunday,  following  upon  a  Sabbath,  and  the  Feast 
of  Benediction  would  fall  on  a  Friday  preceding  a  Sabbath,  an  order  of 
days  which  is  forbidden  by  the  law.  For  the  same  reason  Kippur  cannot 
fall  on  a  Sunday,  nor  the  preceding  Passover  on  a  Wednesday,  nor  the 
preceding  'Asereth  on  a  Thursday,  because  all  this  would  necessitate  10 
p. 284.  New- Tear's  Day  being  a  Friday,  and  thence  would  result  those  con- 
sequences which  we  have  mentioned. 

Therefore  people  endeavoured  to  construct  the  calendar  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prevent  two  days  of  rest  following  each  other,  and  'Ardhhd  falling 
on  a  Sabbath,  because  on  this  day  they  must  give  alms  and  must  make 
a  pilgrimage  around  the  puli:)it,  which  they  call  'Aron,  p^l^^,  or  Kilwddh. 
Further,  they  had  to  prevent  Piirim  falling  on  a  Sabbath,  which  would 
keep  them  from  burning  Haman  and  uttering  their  joy  thereat.  And 
lastly,  they  had  to  prevent  'Asereth  falling  on  a  Sabbath,  because  in  that 
case  they  could  not  bring  their  seeds  and  their  first-fruits,  and  other  20 
things  that  are  prescribed  for  this  day. 

'Abu-'lsa  Alwarrak  speaks  in  his  Kitab-Almakdldt  of  a  Jewish  sect 
called  the  Maghribis,  who  maintain  that  the  feasts  are  not  legal  unless 
the  moon  rises  in  Palestine  as  a  full  moon  in  the  night  of  Wednesday, 
which  follows  after  the  day  of  Tuesday,  at  the  time  of  sunset.  Such 
is  their  New-Tear's  Day.  From  this  point  the  days  and  months 
are  counted,  and  here  begins  the  rotation  of  the  annual  festivals.  For 
God  created  the  two  great  lights  on  a  Wednesday.  Likewise  they  do  not 
allow  Passover  to  fall  on  any  other  day  except  on  Wednesday.  And  the 
obligations  and  rites  prescribed  for  Passover  they  do  not  hold  to  be  30 
necessary,  except  for  those  who  dwell  in  the  country  of  the  Israelites. 
All  this  stands  in  opposition  to  the  custom  of  the  majority  of  the  Jews, 
and  to  the  prescriptions  of  the  Thora. 

The  Ananites  fix  the  beginning  of  the  months  by  the  observation  of  the 
appearance  of  new  moon,  and  settle  intercalation  by  that  sort  of  prognos- 
tication which  we  have  mentioned.  They  do  not  mind  on  what  days  of 
the  week  the  feasts  fall,  except  as  regards  Sabbath.  For  in  this  case 
they  postpone  the  feasts  to  the  following  Sunday.  This  postponement 
they  call  fc^^TTl-  On  a  Sabbath  they  do  not  touch  any  work  whatsoever ; 
even  the  circumcision  of  the  children  they  postpone  till  the  following  40 
day,  in  oj^position  to  the  practice  of  the  Rabbanites. 

With  the  suspension  of  work  on  a  Sabbath  certain  curious  affairs  are 
connected.  In  the  first  instance  God  says  in  the  Coran  (Sura  vii.  163)  : 
"  Then  their  fishes  appearing  on  the  surface  of  the  water  come  to  them 
on  the  day  when  they  celebrate  Sabbath;  but  on  a  day  on  which  they 


FESTIVALS    AND    FASTS    OF    THE    JEWS.  279 

do  not  celebrate  Sabbath  the  fishes  do  not  come  to  them."  Further, 
Aljaihani  relates  in  his  Liber  Regnorum  et  Viarum,  that  eastward  of 
Tiberias  lies  the  city  of  Balinas  (Apollonias  ?),  where  the  Jordan  has  its 
source.  There  the  river  drives  mills,  that  stand  still  on  a  Sabbath  and 
do  not  work,  because  the  water  disapj)ears  beneath  the  earth  until  the 
end  of  Sabbath.  For  this  occurrence  I  am  unable  to  find  a  physical  ex- 
planation, because  its  repetition  and  revolution  is  based  upon  the  days  of 
the  week.  Annual  occurrences  are  accounted  for  by  the  sun  and  his  rays, 
monthly  occurrences  by  the  moon  and  her  light,  as  e.g.  the  altar  in  Greece 

10  which  of  itself  burned  the  sacrifices  on  one  certain  day  of  the  year,  under 
the  influence  of  the  reflected  solar  rays  which  were  concentrated  on  a 
certain  sj^ot  of  the  altar,  etc. 

'Abu-'lsa  Alwarrak  relates  in  his  Kitab-Almakdldt  that  a  Jewish  sect, 
the  Alfaniyya  (Millenarii),  reject  the  whole  of  the  Jewish  feasts,  and  p. 285. 
maintain  that  they  cannot  be  learned  except  through  a  prophet,  and  that 
they  keep  no  other  feast-day  but  Sabbath. 

The  following  table,  the  Tabula  Argumentationis,  illustrates  what  we 
have  stated  before  regarding  the  feasts,  and  shows  that  New- Year's  Day 
cannot  fall  on  the  days  mentioned,  i.e.  the  days  of  the  sun,  of  Mercury 

20  and  Venus.  The  red  ink  indicates  a  Dies  illicita,  the  black  ink  a  Dies 
licita.  If,  now,  the  transversal  line  of  numbers  which  correspond  to  the 
feasts  mentioned  at  the  tops  of  the  single  columns  is  black  from  begin- 
ning to  end,  all  these  numbers  signify  Dies  licitce  ;  if,  however,  some  of 
those  numbers,  or  all  of  them,  are  written  in  red  ink,  these  some  or  all  of 
them  are  Dies  illicitce.  Opposite  the  numbers  we  have  placed  a  special 
column  for  the  terms  "  Necessary,"  "  Possible,"  and  "  Impossible."  The 
terms  necessary  and  impossible  do  not  need  an  explanation.  The  term 
possible  means  that  if  New- Year's  Day  falls  on  a  Dies  licita,  but  some  of 
the  numbers  indicating  the  single  feast-days  in  the  transversal  line  are 

80  written  in  red  ink,  those  days  are  Dies  illicitce  in  common  years,  whilst 
they  are  Dies  licitce  in  a  leap-year  of  the  same  quality,  and  vice  versa. 
This  table  shows  clearly  why  some  of  the  (three)  kinds  of  Jewish  years 
can  follow  each  other,  whilst  others  cannot,  as  we  have  mentioned  before. 
For  if  Rosh-hashshana  of  a  year  following  after  a  year  of  a  certain 
quality  (2  or  UJ)  is  such  as  could  not  be  the  beginning  of  a  year  of 
another  quality,  these  two  kinds  may  follow  each  other ;  in  any  other 
case  they  cannot  follow  each  other.  From  this  rule,  however,  we  must 
except  the  Imperfect  years  (n)?  because  the  fact  that  two  years 
n  cannot  follow  each  other  rests  on  another  ground ;  hereof  we  have 

40  already  spoken  in  the  preceding  part. 


280 


ALBiET^Nt. 


Tabula  Argumentation  is  I. 
3.  4.       5.       6. 


10. 


p.286. 


73 

a* 

(>> 

o 

§ 

i 

m 

•r-t 

o 

1st  of  Tiehri,  upon 
which  the  other 
feasts  depend. 

O 

M 

N't; 

«4H 

o 

1ft        . 

--1      fl 

eS 
Ph 

'Asereth,  6th  of 
Siwan. 

Beginning  of  the' 
following  year, 
1st  of  Tishri. 

Imperfect  - 

Impossible 

I. 

III. 

VII. 

VII. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

>> 

Necessary 

2 

4 

1 

1 

3 

4 

6 

» 

Impossible 

3 

5 

2 

n. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

3> 

Impossible 

IV. 

VI. 

3 

3 

6 

6 

7 

>> 

Possible 

5 

7 

4 

IV. 

VI. 

VII. 

I. 

>» 

Impossible 

VI. 

I. 

6 

5 

7 

1 

2 

» 

Necessary- 

7 

2 

6 

6 

1 

2 

3 

Intermediate 

Impossible 

I. 

III. 

VII. 

1 

3 

4 

6 

>> 

Impossible 

2 

5 

1 

II. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

QQ 

» 

Necessary- 

3 

4 

2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

1 

s 

j> 

Impossible 

IV. 

VI. 

3 

IV. 

VI. 

VII. 

I. 

)> 

Possible 

6 

7 

4 

5 

7 

1 

2 

O 

» 

Impossible 

VI. 

I. 

6 

6 

1 

2 

3 

>> 

Impossible 

r 

2 

6 

VII. 

II. 

in. 

IV. 

Perfect 

Impossible 

I. 

III. 

VII. 

II. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

» 

Necessary 

2 

4 

1 

3 

5 

6 

7 

j> 

Possible 

3 

5 

2 

IV. 

VI. 

VII. 

I. 

jj 

Impossible 

IV. 

VI. 

3 

6 

7 

1 

2 

>> 

Necessary 

5 

7 

4 

6 

1 

2 

3 

>> 

Impossible 

VI. 

I. 

6 

VII. 

VI. 

III. 

IV. 

»> 

Necessary- 

7 

2 

6 

1 

3 

4 

5 

*  The  Diea  Licitm,  in  the  Arabic  original  written  in  black  ink,  are  here  written  in 
Arabic  numerals,  whilst  the  Dies  IHiciti",  written  in  the  original  in  red  ink,  are  hero 
written  in  Latin  numerals. 


FESTIVALS    AND    FASTS    OF    THE    JEWS. 


281 


Tabula  Aegumentationis  II. 

3.  4.       5.       6.       7. 


9.       10. 


10 


20 


i 

Ah 

o 
o 

0) 

m 

'> 

Q 

Istof  Tishri,  upon 
which  the  other 
feasts  depend. 

Kippur,  10th  of 
Tishri. 

<1 

o 

rd         . 

Ah 

T— 1      rt 
^   OH 

rid 

CO  a 

Beginning  of  the 
following  year, 
let  of  Tishri. 

Imperfect  - 

Impossible 

1 

'       I. 

1 

III. 

VII 

II. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

>> 

Necessary 

1 

2 

4 

1 

3 

5 

6 

7 

» 

Impossible 

3 

5 

2 

IV. 

VI. 

VII. 

I. 

>» 

Impossible 

IV. 

VI. 

3 

5 

7 

1 

2 

» 

Possible 

5 

7 

4 

6 

1 

2 

3 

)> 

Impossible 

VI. 

I. 

5 

VII. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

»> 

Necessary 

7 

2 

6 

1 

3 

4 

5 

Intermediate 

Impossible 

I. 

ni. 

V. 

3 

5 

6 

7 

>» 

Impossible 

2 

4 

1 

IV. 

VI. 

VII. 

I. 

>> 

Necessary 

3 

5 

2 

5 

7 

1 

2 

>> 

Impossible 

IV. 

VI. 

3 

6 

1 

2 

3 

1-^ 

>» 

Possible 

5 

7 

4 

vn. 

n. 

III. 

IV. 

>> 

Impossible 

VI. 

I. 

5 

1 

3 

4 

5 

j> 

Impossible 

7 

2 

6 

II. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

Perfect 

Impossible 

I. 

ni. 

VII. 

IV. 

VI. 

VII. 

I. 

»> 

Necessary 

2 

4 

1 

5 

7 

1 

2 

>> 

Possible 

3 

5 

2 

6 

1 

2 

3 

>> 

Impossible 

IV. 

VI. 

3 

VII. 

n. 

III. 

IV. 

)> 

Necessary 

5 

7 

4 

1 

3 

4 

5 

>> 

Impossible 

VI. 

I. 

5 

II. 

IV.  1 

V. 

VI, 

>> 

Necessary 

7 

2 

6 

3 

5 

6 

7 

p.287. 


282 


ALBIEUJ^I. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

p.288.    ON    THE   FESTIVALS   AND    MEMOEABLE    DATS    OP     THE     SYRIAN     CALENDAR, 
CELEBRATED    BY    THE    MELKITE    CHRISTIANS. 

The  Christians  are  divided  into  various  sects.  The  first  of  them  are 
the  Melkites  (Boyalists),  i.e.  the  Greeks,  so  called  because  the  Greek  king 
is  of  their  persuasion.  In  Greece  there  is  no  other  Christian  sect  beside 
them. 

The  second  sect  are  the  Nestorians,  so  called  after  Nestorius,  who 
brought  forward  their  doctrine  between  A.  Alex.  720  and  730. 

The  third  sect  are  the  Jacobites.  10 

These  are  their  principal  sects.  They  differ  among  each  other  on  the 
dogmas  of  their  faith,  as  e.g.  on  the  persons  (ra  Trpoo-wira  in  Christ),  on 
the  divine  nature,  the  human  nature,  and  their  union  (eVcocris).  There  is 
another  sect  of  them,  the  Ariani,  whose  theory  regarding  Christ  comes 
more  near  that  of  the  Muslims,  whilst  it  is  most  different  from  that  of 
the  generality  of  Christians.  Besides  there  are  many  other  sects,  but 
this  is  not  the  place  to  enumerate  them.  This  subject  has  been  ex- 
haustively treated  and  followed  up  into  its  most  recondite  details  in  the 
books  treating  of  philosophical  and  religious  categories  and  doctrines, 
and  which  at  the  same  time  refute  those  sects.  20 

The  most  numerous  of  them  are  the  Melkites  and  Nestorians,  because 
Greece  and  the  adjacent  countries  are  all  inhabited  by  Melkites,  whilst 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Syria,  'Irak  and  Khurasan  are 
Nestorians.     The  Jacobites  mostly  live  in  Egypt  and  around  it. 

Certain  days  of  the  Syrian  months  are  celebrated  among  them ;  on 
some  of  them  they  agree,  on  others  they  differ.  The  reason  of  their 
agreeing  is  this,  that  those  days  were  spread  through  the  Christian 
world  before  the  schism  in  their  doctrines  was  brought  about.  The 
reason  of  the  difference  is  this,  that  some  days  belong  to  one  sect  and  to 
one  province  in  particular.  30 


THE    FESTIVALS,    ETC.    OF    THE    SYEIAN    CALENDAR.  283 

Besides  they  have  other  days  depending  upon  their  Great  Fast,  and 
weeks  depending  upon  the  most  famous  days.  On  this  category  of  days, 
as  on  the  former,  they  partly  agree,  partly  disagree. 

I  shall  now  enumerate  the  calendar  days  of  the  Melkites  in  Khwarizm 
according  to  the  Syrian  calendar.  You  find  very  rarely  that  the 
Christians,  Jews,  and  Zoroastrians  in  different  countries  agree  among 
each  other  in  the  use  of  festivals  and  memorial  days.  Only  regarding 
the  greatest  and  most  famous  feasts  they  agree,  whilst  generally  on  all 
others  they  differ. 
10  Secondly,  I  shall  speak  of  their  fasting,  and  all  the  days  connected 
with  it,  on  which  the  various  sects  agree. 

Lastly,  I  shall  treat  of  the  feasts  and  memorable  days  of  the  Nestorians, 
if  God  permits  ! 


Tishrin  I. 


1.  Commemoration  (fivi^yu,?;)  of  the  bishop  and  martyr  Ananias,  the 
pupil  of  St.  Paul.  It  is  a  Christian  custom  on  these  commemoration 
days  to  celebrate  the  memory  of  the  saint  to  whom  the  day  is  dedicated ; 
they  pray  to  God  for  him,  and  j)raise  him,  and  humble  themselves  before 
God  in  his  name.     To  every  child  which  is  born  on  this  day  or  later, 

20  until  the  next  commemoration  day,  they  give  the  name  of  the  saint  of  the 
day.  Frequently,  too,  they  give  each  other  the  names  of  two  commemo- 
rations, so  as  to  say  ;(,  also  called  N  from  the  commemoration  of  the 
saint  I^.  When  this  commemoration  comes,  people  assemble  in  his 
house,  and  he  receives  them  as  his  guests,  and  gives  them  a  repast. 

2.  Arethas  (Harith)  of  Najran,  martyr  with  the  other  martyrs. 

3.  Mary  the  nun,  who  wore  man's  dress  ;  she  lived  like  a  monk,  and  p.289. 
concealed  her  sex  before  the  monks.     Being  accused  of  fornication  with 

a  woman,  she  bore  this  wrong  patiently,  and  her  sex  did  not  become 
known  before  her  death.     When  they,  then,  wanted  to  wash  her  body, 
30   and  saw  the  genitals,  they  found  out  the  reality  of  the  case,  and — her 
innocence. 

4.  Dionysius,  the  bishop  and  astronomer,  the  pupil  of  St.  Paul. 

These  titles  (like  bishop,  etc.)  indicate  clerical  degrees,  of  which  they 
in  their  religion  have  nine  : — 

1.  Cantor,  i/'aA.Tvys. 

2.  Reader,  ]ijO;jO 

3.  Hypodiaconus. 

4.  Diaconus,  in  Arabic  Shammds. 

5.  Presbyter,  in  Arabic  Kass. 

40        6.  Bishop,  in  Arabic  '  JJskuf.     He  stands  under  the  metropoUta. 

7.  MetropoUta,  who  stands  under  the  catJiolicus.  The  residence  of  the 
metropolita  of  the  Melkites  in  Khurasan  is  Marw. 

8.  Catholicus,  in  Arabic  Jdthelik.     The  residence  of  the  catholicua  of 


284  ALBMNi. 

the  Melkites  in  Muhammadan  countries  is  Baglidad.  He  stands  under 
the  Patriarch  of  Antiochia.  The  Nestorian  catholicus  is  appointed  by 
the  Khalif  on  the  presentation  of  the  Nestorian  community. 

9.  Patriarch,  in  Arabic  Batrik.  This  dignity  exists  only  among  the 
Melkites,  not  among  the  Nestorians.  There  are  always  four  patriarchs 
in  Christendom ;  as  soon  as  one  dies,  at  once  a  successor  is  created,  being 
chosen  by  the  remaining  patriarchs,  the  catJiolici,  and  by  the  other 
dignitaries  of  the  Church.  One  patriarch  resides  in  Constantinople, 
another  in  Eome,  the  third  in  Alexandria,  and  the  fourth  in  Antiochia. 
These  towns  are  called  OpovoL.  10 

There  is  no  degree  beyond  that  of  the  patriarch,  and  none  below  that 
of  the  cantor.  Frequently  they  count  only  from  the  diaconus  upwards, 
and  do  not  reckon  the  singers  and  altar-servants  among  the  officials  of 
the  Church.  To  each  degree  attach  certain  rules,  usages,  and  conditions, 
on  which  this  is  not  the  proper  place  to  enlarge. 

'Abu-Alhusain  'Ahmad  b.  Alhusain  Al'ahwazi,  the  secretary,  reports  in 
his  BooJc  of  the  Sciences  of  the  Greeks,  what  he  himself  has  learned  in  Con- 
stantinople of  the  degrees  of  the  service  both  of  Church  and  State.  Hia 
report  is  this  : — 

I.  Patriarch,  highest  Church  dignitary,  supreme  authority  throughout  20 
the  empire. 

II.  Xpvo-^s  (?)  the  prefect  of  the  greatest  monastery. 

III.  'ETTtcTKOTros,  i.e.  bishop. 

IV.  Mr^rpoTroAtTTys,  i.e.  the  governor  [or  ruler]. 

V.  'Hyou/tei/os,  prefect  of  a  monastery,  highly  revered  by  them. 

VI.  Ka\6yr]po<;.     His  degree  comes  near  to  that  of  the  Hegoumenos. 
VII.  HciTras,  in  Arabic  Kass. 

VIII.  Ata/covos,  in  Arabic  Shammds. 

However,  the  more  trustworthy  account  of  the  matter  is  the  one  given 
above.     Because  'Abu-Alhusain  has  mixed  up  with  the  men  of  the  official  30 
degrees  other  people,  who,  although  important  personages,  are  not  exactly 
dignitaries  of  such  and  such  degree  ;  or  perhaps  they  belong  to  one  of 
those  degrees,  but  then  his  description  does  not  fit. 

The  laic  degrees  cf  the  State  service  are  the  following : — 

I.  BacrtXei;?,  i.e.  Csesar,  king  of  the  Greeks. 
p.290.  II-  AoyoOeTrjs,  his  vazir  and  dragoman. 

III.  IlapaKOLix(])fj.€vo<s,  the  first  of  the  chamberlains. 

IV.  ^ofj.ecTTiKO's,  commander  of  the  army. 

V.  Ak(tiot<s  (?),  a  man  in  the  king's  special  confidence  in  the  army, 

similar  to  the  domestictis,  both  being  of  the  same  rank.  40 

VI.  Kpxvripxv  (?),  the  head  of  the  TrarptKiot. 

VII.  ITaTpiKto?,  in  Arabic  batrik.     These  batriks  are  in  the  army  some- 

thing like  chief-commander,   not  to  be  confounded  with  the 


THE    FESTIVALS,    ETC.    OF    THE    SYRIAN    CALENDAR.  285 

batriks   whom    we   have   mentioned    as    clerical   dignitaries. 
Those  who  fear  the  ambiguity  of  the  words  call  the  clerical 
dignitary  hat  rah. 
VIII.  'Poyarwp,  who  has  to  review  the  army  and  to  pay  the  stipends  of 
the  soldiers. 
IX.  Srjoarr^yos.     His  rank  is  half  that  of  a  IlaT/otKtos. 
X.  TIpwToo-Tra^aptos,  a  man  in  the  king's  confidence  in  the  army  of 

the  liaTpiKLos,  whom  the  IlaT/atKtos  consults  in  every  affair. 
XI.  MayXa/3tT7?s,  the  officer  of  the  royal  whip  (Prcefectus  lictorum). 
10        XII.  "E^ap^os,  an  officer  over  1,000  men. 

XIII.  'EKOTovTapios,  a  commander  of  100  men. 
XIY.  IlevTT^Kovraptos,  a  commander  of  50. 
XV.  T€o-(TapaKoi/Tapto5,  a  commander  of  40. 
XVI.  Tpmi/raptos,  a  commander  of  30. 
XVII.  'EiKocrtTapto?,  a  commander  of  20. 
XVm.  AeKapxo?,  a  commander  of  10. 

Now  we  return  to  our  subject. 

5.  Commemoration  of  the  Seven  Sleepers  of  Ephesus,  who  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Goran.     The  Khalif  Almu'tasim  had  sent  along  with  his 

20  ambassador  another  person  who  saw  the  place  of  the  Seven  Sleepers  with 
his  own  eyes,  and  touched  them  with  his  own  hands.  This  report  is 
known  to  everybody.  We  must,  however,  observe  that  he  who  touched 
them,  i.e.  Muhammad  b.  Musa  b.  Shakir  himself,  makes  the  reader  rather 
doubt  whether  they  are  really  the  corpses  of  those  seven  youths  or  other 
people, — in  fact,  some  sort  of  deception. 

'All  b.  Yahya,  the  astronomer,  relates  that  on  returning  from  his 
expedition,  he  entered  that  identical  place,  a  small  mountain,  the  diameter 
of  which  at  the  bottom  is  a  little  less  than  one  thousand  yards.  At  the 
outside  you  see  a  subterranean  channel  which  goes  into  the  interior  of 

30  the  mountain,  and  passes  through  a  deep  cave  in  the  earth  for  a  distance 
of  three  hundred  paces.  Then  the  channel  runs  out  into  a  sort  of  half- 
open  hall  in  the  mountain,  the  roof  being  supported  by  perforated 
columns.  And  in  this  hall  there  is  a  number  of  separate  compartments. 
There,  he  says,  he  saw  thirteen  people,  among  them  a  beardless  youth, 
dressed  in  woollen  coats  and  other  woollen  garments,  in  boots  and  shoes. 
He  touched  some  hairs  on  the  forehead  of  one  of  them,  and  tried  to 
flatten  them,  but  they  did  not  yield.  That  their  number  is  more  than 
seven,  which  is  the  Muhammadan,  and  more  than  eight,  which  is  the 
Christian  tradition,  is  perhaps  to  be  explained  in  this  way,  that  some 

40  monks  have  been  added  who  died  there  in  the  same  spot.  For  the  corpses 
of  monks  last  particularly  long,  because  they  torture  themselves  to  such 
a  degree  that  finally  all  their  moist  substances  perish,  and  between  bones 
and  skin  only  very  little  flesh  remains.  And  therefore  their  life  is  ex- 
tinguished like  a  lamp  when  it  has  no  more  oil     Frequently  they  remam 


286  ALBtRI^Ni. 

for  generations  in  the  same  posture,  leaning  on  their  sticks.     Such  a 
thing  you  may  witness  in  regions  where  monks  live. 

According  to  the  Christians  these  youths  slept  in  their  cave  three  hun- 
dred and  seventy-two  years  ;  according  to  us  (Muslims)  three  hundred 
solar  years,  as  God  says  in  the  Coran  in  the  chapter  which  specially  treats 
of  their  history  (i.e.  Suraxviii.).  As  for  the  addition  of  nine  years  (Sura 
xviii.  24 :  "  And  they  remained  in  their  cave  three  hundred  years  and 
nine  years  more  "),  we  explain  them  as  those  nine  years  which  you  must 
add  if  you  change  the  three  hundred  solar  years  into  lunar  years.  To 
speak  accurately,  this  addition  would  be  10 

9  years,  75  days,  16f  hours. 

However,  according  to  the  way  in  which  people  reckoned  at  that  time, 
p.291.  they  counted  the  300  years  as  15  Minor  Cycles  (of  19  years)  plus  15  years 
of  the  16th  cycle.  The  number  of  months  that  were  to  be  intercalated 
for  such  a  space  of  time  was  110  according  to  anyone  of  the  Or  dines 
Inter calationis  which  they  may  have  applied  to  the  rest  of  the  (15)  years. 
And  110  months  amount  to  9  years  and  2  months.  Such  fractions, 
however,  (as  2  months  or  ^  year)  are  neglected  in  a  historical  account. 

7.  Commemoration  of  Sergius  and  Bacchus. 

10.  Commemoration  of  the  prophet  Zacharias.    On  this  day  the  angels  20 
announced  to  him  the  birth  of  his  son  John,  as  it  is  mentioned  in  the 
Coran,  and  in  greater  detail  in  the  Gospel. 

11.  Cyprianus,  the  bishop,  the  martyr, 

14.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  the  bishop. 

17.  Cosmas  and  Damianus,  the  physicians,  the  martyrs. 

18.  Lucas,  author  of  the  third  Gospel. 
23.  Anastasia,  the  martyr, 

26.  Commemoration  of  the  sepulture  of  the  head  of  John  the  son  of 
Zacharias. 

Tishrin  II.  30 

I.  Cornutus,  martyr. 

II.  Menas  (M-qvas),  martyr. 

15.  Samonas,  Gurias,  and  Abibos,  the  martyrs. 

16.  Beginning  of  the  fasting  for  the  nativity  of  Jesus,  the  son  of 
Mary,  Messiah.  Peoi^le  fast  forty  consecutive  days  before  Christmas 
(16  NOV.-25  Dec). 

17.  Gregorius  Thaumaturgos. 

18.  Eomanus,  the  martyr. 

20.  Isaac,  and  his  pupil  Abraham,  the  martyrs. 

25.  Petrus,  bishop  in  Alexandria.  40 

27.  Jacob,  who  was  cut  to  j^ieces. 

30.  Andreas,  martyr,  and  Andreas  the  apostle. 


THE    FESTIVALS,    ETC.    OF    THE    SYEIAN    CALENDAR.  287 

Kanun  I. 

1.  Jacob,  the  first  bishop  of  ^lia. 

3.  Johannes,  the  Father,  who  collected  in  a  book  the  rites  and  laws  of 
Christianity.  To  address  a  man  by  the  title  of  "  Father,"  is  with  them 
the  highest  mark  of  veneration,  because  thereupon  (upon  the  veneration 
towards  their  spiritual  fathers  ?)  their  dogmas  are  based.  There  is  no 
original  legislation  in  Christianity  ;  their  laws  are  derived  and  developed 
by  their  most  venerated  men  from  the  canonical  sayings  of  Messiah  and 
the  apostles.  So  they  represent  the  matter  themselves. 
10       4.  Barbara  and  Juliana,  the  martyrs. 

5.  Saba,  abbot  of  the  monastery  in  Jerusalem. 

6.  Nicolaus,  patriarch  of  Antiochia. 
13.  The  five  martyrs. 

17.  Modestus,  patriarch  of  ^lia. 

18.  Sisin,  the  catholicus  of  Khurasan. 

20.  Ignatius,  third  patriarch  of  Antiochia.  p.292. 

22.  Joseph  of  Arimathia  6  /JouXevrrjs,  who  buried  the  body  of  the 
Messiah  in  a  grave  which  he  had  prepared  for  himself,  as  is  related 
towards  the  end  of  all  four  Gospels.     Alma'mun  b.  Ahmad  Alsalami 

20  Alharawi  maintains  that  he  has  seen  it  in  the  Church  of  the  Eesurrection 
in  Jerusalem,  in  a  vault  as  a  grave  cut  into  the  rock  in  a  gibbous  form, 
and  inlaid  with  gold.  To  this  grave  attaches  a  curious  story,  which  we 
shall  mention  when  speaking  of  the  Christian  Lent.  People  say  that  the 
king  does  not  allow  the  Greeks  to  visit  the  grave. 

23.  Gelasius,  martyr. 

25.  In  the  night  after  the  25th  of  this  month,  i.e.  in  the  night  of  the 
25th  according  to  the  Greek  system,  is  the  feast  of  the  Nativity  (|j^), 
the  birth  of  the  Messiah,  which  took  place  on  a  Thursday  night.  Most 
people  believe  that  this  Thursday  was  the  25th,  but  that  is  a  mistake ;  it 

30  was  the  26th.  If  anybody  wants  to  make  the  calculation  for  this  year 
by  means  of  the  methods  mentioned  in  the  preceding  part,  he  may  do  so. 
For  the  1st  of  Kanun  I.  in  that  year  was  a  Sunday. 

26.  David,  the  prophet,  and  Jacob,  the  bishop  of  ^lia. 

27.  Stephanus,  head  of  the  deacons. 

28.  Herodes  killed  the  chilren  and  infants  of  Bethlehem,  searching  for 
the  Messiah,  and  hoping  to  kill  Him  among  the  others,  as  is  related  in  the 
beginning  of  the  Gospel. 

29.  Antonius,  martyr.  Christians  believe  him  to  be  identical  with 
'Ahit-Buh,  the  cousin  of  Harun  Alrashid.     He  left  Islam,  and  became  a 

40  convert  to  the  Christian  Church,  wherefore  Harun  crucified  him.  They 
tell  a  long  and  miraculous  tale  about  him,  the  like  of  which  we  never 
heard  nor  read  in  any  history  or  chronicle.  Christians,  however,  on  the 
whole  are  very  much  inclined  to  accept  and  to  give  credit  to  such  things, 
more  particularly  if  they  relate  to  their  creeds,  not  at  all  endeavouring  by 


2S8  ALBiE^Nl. 

the  means  at  their  disposal  to  criticise  historical  traditions,  and  to  find 
out  the  truth  of  bygone  times. 

Kanun  II. 


1.  Basilius,  also  feast  of  the  Calendce  (Calendas).  Calendas  means 
"may  it  he  good"  (KaXoV  plus?).  On  this  day  the  Christian  children 
assemble  and  go  round  through  the  houses,  crying  with  the  highest  voice 
and  some  sort  of  melody  "  Calendas."  Therefore  they  receive  in  every 
house  something  to  eat,  and  a  cup  of  wine  to  drink.  As  the  reason 
of  this  custom  some  jDeoj^le  assert  that  this  is  the  Greek  New- Year's 
Day,  i.e.  one  week  after  Mary  had  given  birth  to  Christ.  Others  relate  10 
as  its  reason  the  following  story :  Arius  on  having  come  forward  with  his 
theory,  and  having  found  adherents,  took  possession  of  one  of  the  Chris- 
tian churches,  but  the  people  of  that  church  protested  against  it.  Finally 
they  arranged  with  each  other,  and  came  to  this  agreement :  That  they 
would  shut  the  door  of  the  church  for  three  days ;  then  they  would  pro- 
ceed together  to  the  church,  and  read  before  it  alternately.  That  party, 
then,  to  whom  the  door  would  open  of  itself,  should  be  its  legal  owner. 

So  they  did.     The  church  door  did  not  open  of  itself  to  Arius,  but  it 
opened  to  the  other  party.     So  they  say.     Therefore  their  children  do 
p.293.  such  things  in  imitation  of  the  lucky  message  which  they  received  at  that   20 
time. 

2.  Silvester,  the  metropolitan,  through  whom  the  people  of  Constan- 
tinople became  christianized. 

5.  Fasting  for  the  feast  of  Epiphany. 

6.  Epiphany  (]**J>)  itself,  the  day  of  baj)tism,  when  John,  the  son 
of  Zacharias,  baptized  Messiah,  and  made  him  dive  under  the  baptismal 
water  of  the  river  Jordan,  when  the  Messiah  was  thirty  years  of  age. 
The  Holy  Grhost  came  over  him  in  the  form  of  a  dove  that  descended 
from  heaven,  according  to  the  relation  of  the  Gospel. 

The  same,  now.  Christians  practise  with  their  children  when  they  are  30 
three  or  four  years  of  age.  For  their  bishops  and  presbyters  fill  a  vessel 
with  water  and  read  over  it,  and  then  they  make  the  child  dive  into  it. 
This  being  done,  the  child  is  christened.  This  is  what  our  Prophet 
says  :  "  Every  child  is  born  in  the  state  of  original  purity,  but  then  its 
parents  make  it  a  Jew,  or  Christian,  or  Magian." 

'Abu-Alhusain  Al'ahwazi  describes  in  his  book  of  the  Sciences  of  the 
Greeks  the  process  of  christening.  First  they  read  prayers  for  the  child 
in  the  church  during  seven  days,  early  and  late  ;  on  the  seventh  day  it  is 
undressed,  and  its  whole  body  anointed  with  oil.  Then  they  pour  warm 
water  into  a  marble  vessel  which  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  church.  On  40 
the  surface  of  the  water  the  priest  makes  five  dots  with  oil  in  the  figure 
of  a  cross,  four  dots  and  one  in  the  middle.  Then  the  child  is  raised,  its 
feet  are  placed  so  as  completely  to  cover  the  dot  in  the  middle,  and  it  is 
put  into  the  water.     Then  the  priest  takes  a  handful  of  water  from  one 


THE    FESTIVALS,    ETC.    OF    THE    SYEIAN    CALBMDAE. 


289 


side,  and  pours  it  over  the  head  of  the  child.  This  he  does  four  times, 
taking  the  water  successively  from  all  four  sides  corresponding  to  the 
four  sides  of  the  cross.  Then  the  priest  steps  backward,  and  that  person 
comes  who  wants  to  take  the  child  out  of  the  water,  the  same  who  has 
placed  it  there.  Then  the  priest  washes  it,  while  the  whole  congregation 
of  the  church  is  praying.  Then  it  is  definitively  taken  out  of  the  water, 
is  adorned  with  a  shirt,  and  carried  away  to  prevent  its  feet  from  touch- 
ing the  ground,  whilst  the  whole  church  cries  seven  times :  Kvpie  iXerjaov, 
i.e.  "  0  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us !  "  Then  the  child  is  completely  dressed, 
10  always  being  borne  in  the  arms  ;  then  it  is  put  down.  Thereafter  either 
it  remains  in  the  church,  or  it  goes  there  again  and  again  during  seven 
days.  On  the  seventh  day  the  priest  washes  it  again,  but  this  time 
without  oil,  and  not  in  the  baptismal  vessel. 

11.  Theodosius,  the  monk,  who  tortured  himself,  and  loaded  himself 
with  chains. 

13.  End  of  the  feast  of  Epiphany.  On  this  day  the  noble  saints  on 
Mount  Sinai  were  killed. 

15.  Petrus,  Patriarch  of  Damascus. 
17.  Antonius,  the  first  of  the  monks,  and  their  head. 
20       20.  Evithymius,  the  monk,  the  teacher. 

21.  Maximus,  the  anchorite. 

22.  Cosmas,  author  of  Christian  canons  and  laws. 

25.  Polycarpus,  the  bishop,  the  martyr,  who  was  burned  with  fire.  p.294. 

25.  Johannes,  called  Chrysostouuis.  'IwawT^s  is  the  Greek  form  for 
John. 

31.  Johannes  and  Cyrus,  the  martyrs. 

Shubat. 

1.  Ejihraem,  the  teacher. 

2.  Wax  Feast,  in  recollection  of  Mary's  bringing  Jesus  to  the  temple  of 
30   Jerusalem,  when  he  was  forty  days  of  age.     This  is  a  Jacobite  feast,  held 

in  great  veneration  among  them.  People  say  that  on  this  day  the  Jews 
introduce  their  children  into  the  temples,  and  make  them  read  the  Thora. 
If  this  is  the  case,  it  is  in  Sliebat  (the  Jewish  form  of  the  name)  not  in 
Shubat  (the  Syrian  form),  since  the  Jews  do  not  use  the  Syrian  names. 

Between  the  2nd  Shubat  and  the  8th  Adhar  the  beginning  of  their 
Lent  varies,  of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter.  When  fasting  they  never 
celebrate  the  commemoration-days  we  mention,  except  those  that  fall  on 
a  Sabbath  ;  those  and  only  those  are  celebrated. 

3.  Belesys,  martyr,  killed  by  the  Magians. 

40       5.  Sis  Catholicus,  who  first  brought  Christianity  down  to  Khurasan. 

14.  Commemoration  in  recollection  of  the  finding  of  the  head  of  the 
Baptist,  i.e.  John,  the  son  of  Zacharias. 

19 


290  ALBIEUNt. 


Adhar. 


9.  The  forty  martyrs  who  were  tortured  to  death  by  fire,  cold,  and 
frost, 

11.  Sophronius,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem. 

25.  Annuntiatio  Sanctissimce  Deijparce.  Gabriel  came  to  Mary  an- 
nouncing to  her  the  Messiah.  From  this  day  until  the  day  of  His  birth 
is  a  little  more  than  9  months  and  5  days,  which  is  the  natural  space  of 
time  for  a  child's  sojourn  in  the  mother's  womb.  Jesus,  though  he  had 
no  human  father,  and  though  supported  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  was  in  His 
eartbly  life  subject  to  the  laws  of  nature.  And  so  it  is  only  proper  that  10 
also  His  sojourn  in  the  womb  of  His  mother  should  have  been  in  agreement 
with  nature. 

The  mean  place  of  the  moon  at  noon  of  this  day,  Monday  the  25th 
Adhar  A.  Alex.  303,  for  Jerusalem,  was  about  60  minutes  in  the  first 
degree  of  Taurus.  Those,  now,  who  follow  in  the  matter  of  the  Numu- 
dhdr  (i.e.  a  certain  method  of  investigation  for  the  purpose  of  finding 
the  ascendens  or  horoscoj)e  under  which  a  child  is  born)  the  theory  of 
Hermes  the  Egyptian,  must  assume  the  last  part  of  Aries  and  the 
beginning  of  Taurus  as  the  ascendens  of  the  Messiah.  However,  Aries 
and  Taurus  were  ascending  at  the  time  Christ  was  born,  during  the  day-  20 
time,  because  the  mean  place  of  the  sun  for  Jerusalem  for  noon  of 
Thursday  following  after  the  uight  in  which  Christ  was  born,  is  about 
2  degrees  and  20  minutes  of  Capricorn.  The  above-mentioned  time  of 
p.295.  Christ's  sojourning  in  His  mother's  womb  (9  months  5  days)  is,  according 
to  their  theory,  a  conditio  sine  quel  non  for  every  child  that  is  born  in 
the  night  of  Christmas,  when  the  moon  is  standing  under  the  earth  at  a 
distance  of  ^^  circumference  from  the  degree  of  the  horoscope.  Now, 
knowing  so  much  about  the  moon's  place  on  the  day  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion, we  find  that  the  horoscope  (of  the  hour  of  Christ's  birth)  was  near 
24  degrees  of  Pisces.  And  if  we  compute  the  mean  place  of  the  moon  30 
for  the  25th  of  Kanun  I.  for  the  time  when  she  stands  under  the  earth 
at  the  distance  of  J^  circumference,  we  find  the  horoscope  to  have  been 
nearly  20  degrees  in  Aries. 

Both  calculations,  however,  (that  of  the  astrologers  and  Albiruni's 
own)  are  worthless,  because  those  who  relate  the  birth  of  Christ  relate 
that  it  occurred  at  night,  whilst  our  calculations  would  lead  to  the 
assumption  that  it  occurred  in  the  day.  This  is  one  of  the  considera- 
tions which  clearly  sLow  the  worthlessness  of  the  Numudhdrs.  We  shall 
dedicate  a  special  book  to  the  genera  and  species  of  the  Nuniudlidrs,  where 
we  shall  exhaust  the  subject  and  not  conceal  the  truth,  if  God  permits  40 
me  to  live  so  long  as  that,  and  if  He  by  His  mercy  delivers  me  from  the 
remainder  of  pain  and  illness. 


THE    FESTIVALS,    ETC.    OF    THE    SYRIAN    CALENDAR.         291 


Nisan, 

1.  Mary  the  Egyptian,  who  fasted  40  consecutive  days  without  any  in- 
terruption. As  a  rule,  this  commemoration-day  is  celebrated  on  the  first 
Friday  after  breaking  fast ;  therefore,  Friday  being  a  conditio  sine  qua 
non,  it  falls  on  the  1st  of  Nisan  only  four  times  in  a  8ola7'  Cycle,  viz.  in 
the  4th,  10th,  15th,  and  21st  years,  if  you  count  the  cycles  from  the 
beginning  of  the  yEra  Alezandri,  the  current  year  included. 

15.  The  150  martyrs. 

21.  The  six  synods.  Synod  means  a  meeting  of  their  wise  men,  of 
10  their  priests,  bishops,  and  other  church  dignitaries,  for  the  purpose  of 
anathematizing  some  innovation,  and  for  something  like  cursing  each 
other,  or  for  the  consideration  of  some  important  religious  subject.  Such 
synods  are  not  convoked  except  at  long  intervals,  and  if  one  takes  place, 
people  keep  its  date  in  memory  and  frequently  celebrate  the  day,  hoping 
to  obtain  a  blessing  thereby,  and  wanting  to  show  their  devotion. 

1.  The  first  of  the  six  synods  was  that  of  the  318  bishops  at  Nicasa, 
A.D.  325,  under  the  king  Constantine,  convoked  on  account  of  Arius,  who 
opposed  them  in  the  question  of  the  Persons,  and  for  the  purj)ose  of  per- 
petuating the  dogma   which  they  all  agreed  upon  regarding  the  two 

20  Persons  of  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  their  agreement  regarding  thia 
subject  that  Fast-breaJcing  should  always  ,fall  on  Sunday  after  the  re- 
surrection of  the  Messiah ;  for  there  had  come  forward  some  people 
proposing  to  break  the  fast  on  the  14th  of  the  Jewish  Passover  month 
(Teo-o-apecrKaiSeKaTtrai,  or  Quart 0 decimmii) . 

2.  Synod  of  the  150  bishops  in  Constantinople,  a.d.  381,  under  the 
king  Theodosius,  son  of  Arcadius  the  Elder,  convoked  on  account  of  a 
man  called  "  enemy  of  the  Spirit  "  (7rv€D/xaro/xa;;^os),  because  he  opposed 
the  Catholic  Church  in  the  description  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  perpetuating  their  dogma  regarding  this  Third  Person. 

30        3.  Synod  of  the   200  at  Ephesus,  a.d.  431,  under  the  king  Theodosius 

Junior,  convoked  on  account  of  Nestorius, the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  p.296. 
the  founder  of  Nestorian  Christianity,  because  he  opposed  the  Catholic 
Church  regarding  the  Person  of  the  Son. 

4.  Synod  of  the  630  at  Chalcedon,  a.d.  451,  under  the  king  Marcianus, 
on  account  of  Eutyches,  because  he  taught  that  the  body  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  consisted,  before  the  cVwo-ts,  of  two  natures,  afterwards  only  of  one 
nature. 

5.  Synod  under  Justinian  I.,  a.d.  553,  convoked  for  the  purpose  of 
condemning  the  bishops  of  Mopsuestia,  of   Edessa,   and   others,   who 

40   opposed  the  Church  in  its  fundamental  dogmas. 

6.  Synod  of  187  bishops  in  Constantinople,  a.d.  680,  under  Constan- 
tine (Pogonatus)  the  Believer,  convoked  on  account  of  Cyrus  and  Simon 
Magus. 

19  * 


292  ALBIEUNI. 

23.  Mar  Georgios,  the  martyr,  tortured  repeatedly  and  by  various 
tortures,  till  lie  died. 

24.  Marcus,  author  of  the  second  Gospel. 

25.  Elias,  Catholicus  of  Khurasan. 
27.  Christophorus. 

30.  Simeon  b.  Sabba'e  Catholicus,  killed  in  Khuzistan,  together  with 
other  Christians. 

Ayydr. 

1.  Jeremia,  the  prophet. 

2.  Athanasius,  the  patriarch.  10 

3.  The  Feast  of  Roses  according  to  the  ancient  rite,  as  it  is  celebrated 
in  Khwarizm.  On  this  day  they  bring  Juri-roses  to  the  churches,  the 
reason  of  \%hich  is  this,  that  Mary  presented  on  this  day  the  first  roses 
to  Elizabeth,  the  mother  of  John. 

6.  Hiob,  the  prophet. 

7.  Feast  of  the  Apparition  of  the  Cross  in  Heaven.  Christian  scholars 
relate : — In  the  time  of  Constantino  the  Victorious  there  appeared  in 
heaven  the  likeness  of  a  cross  of  fire  or  light.  Now  people  said  to  the 
king  Constantino,  "  Make  this  sign  your  emblem,  and  thereby  you  will 
conquer  the  kings  who  surround  you."  He  followed  their  advice,  he  20 
conquered,  and  therefore  became  a  Christian.  His  mother  Helena  he 
sent  to  Jerusalem  to  search  for  the  wood  of  the  Cross.  She  found  it, 
but  together  with  the  two  crosses  on  which,  as  they  maintain,  the  two 
robbers  had  been  crucified.  Now  they  were  uncertain,  and  did  not  know 
how  to  find  out  which  was  the  wood  of  the  Cross  of  Christ.  Finally 
they  placed  each  cross  upon  a  dead  body :  when,  then,  it  was  touched  by 
the  wood  of  the  Cross  of  Christ,  the  dead  man  became  alive  again. 
Thereby,  of  course,  Helena  knew  that  this  cross  was  the  right  one. 

Other  Christians,  who  are  not  learned  peoj)le,  speak  of  the  cross  in 
the  constellation  of  the  Dolphin,  which  the  Arabs  call  Ka'ud  (riding-  30 
camel),  i.e.  four  stars  close  to  Alnasr  Alwdki',  the  situation  of  which  is 
like  the  angles  of  a  quadrangle.  They  say  that  at  that  time  this  cross 
in  the  Dolphin  appeared  opposite  that  place  where  Messiah  had  been 
crucified.  Now,  it  is  very  strange  that  those  people  should  not  reflect  a 
little  and  find  out  that  there  are  nations  in  the  world  who  consider  it  as 
their  business  to  observe  the  stars  and  to  examine  everything  connected 
with  the  stars  for  ages  and  ages,  one  generation  inheriting  from  the 
p.297.  other  at  least  this  knowledge,  that  the  stars  of  the  Dolphin  are  fixed 
stars,  which  in  this  quality  of  theirs  had  long  ago  been  recognized  by 
their  ancestors  who  cared  for  such  things. 

And  more  than  this.  This  Christian  sect  indulges  m  majorem  Crucis 
gloriam  in  all  sorts  of  tricks  and  hallucinations,  e.g.  God  ordered  the 
Israelites  to  make  a  serpent  of  brass  and  to  hang  it  on  a  beam,  which 
was  to  be  erected,  for  the  purpose  of  keej)ing  off  the  injury  done  by  the 


40 


THE    FESTIVALS,    ETC.    OP    THE    SYRIAN    CALENDAR.  293 

serpents  when  tliey  had  become  very  numerous  among  them  in  the  desert. 
Now  from  this  fact  they  infer  and  maintain  that  it  was  a  prophecy  and 
a  hint  indicative  of  the  Cross  (of  Christ). 

Further  they  say  that  the  sign  of  Moses  (i.e.  the  divine  gift  by  which 
he  wrought  miracles)  was  his  staff,  and  a  staff  is  a  longitudinal  line. 
Now  when  Christ  came,  He  threw  His  staff  over  such  a  line,  and  a  cross 
was  formed,  which  is  to  be  indicative  of  the  fact  that  the  law  of  Moses 
was  completed  (finished)  by  Christ.  But  I  should  think  that  that  which 
is  perfect  in  itself  does  not  admit  of  any  increase  or  decrease,  which  you 

10  might  prove  in  this  way,  that  if  you  threw  a  third  staff  over  the  cross, 
from  whatever  side  you  like,  you  get  the  lines  of  the  word  X  {no),  which 
means  no  increase  and  no  decrease. 

This  is  certainly  the  same  sort  of  hallucination  frequently  occurring 
among  those  Muslims  who  tiy  to  derive  mystical  wisdom  from  the  com- 
parison of  the  name  of  Muhammad  (>x»^a^)  with  the  human  figure. 
According  to  them  the  Mim  is  like  his  head,  the  Ha  like  his  body,  the 
second  Mim  like  his  belly,  and  the  Dal  like  his  two  feet.  These  people 
seem  to  be  completely  ignorant  of  lineaments,  if  they  compare  the  mea- 
sure of  the  head  and  the  belly  (both  expressed  by  the  same  letter  Mim) 

20  and  the  quantity  of  the  limbs  which  project  out  of  the  mass  of  the  body, 
forgetting  at  the  same  time  the  means  for  the  perpetuation  of  our  race. 
Perhaps,  however,  they  meant  individuals  of  the  feminine,  not  of  the 
masculine  sex.  I  should  like  to  know  what  they  would  say  of  such 
names  as  in  their  outward  form,  but  for  the  addition  or  omission  of  one 
letter,  resemble  the  form  of  the  name  of  Muhammad,  for  instance,  a-.*^ 
or  Artjay*  (Hamtd  or  Majid),  and  others.  If  you  would  compare  some  of 
them  according  to  their  method,  the  matter  would  simply  become  ridicu- 
lous and  ludicrous. 

More  curious  still  than  this  is  the  fact  that  this  Christian  sect,  in  the 

30  matter  of  the  Cross  and  its  verification,  refers  to  the  wood  of  Pceonia. 
For,  if  you  cut  this  wood,  you  observe  in  the  plane  of  the  cut  lineaments 
which  resemble  a  cross.  They  go  even  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  this 
fact  originated  at  the  time  when  Christ  was  crucified.  This  wood  is 
frequently  used  in  this  way,  that  a  piece  of  it  is  attached  to  a  man  who 
suffers  from  epilepsy,  being  considered  as  a  symbol  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  Now,  I  should  like  to  know  whether  they  never  study 
medical  books  and  never  hear  of  those  authors  who  lived  long  before 
Christ,  and  on  whose  authority  the  excellent  G-alenus  gives  the  descrip- 
tion of  this   wood.     Those  who  use  the   works  of  soul  and  nature  as 

40  arguments  regarding  physical  appearances,  from  whatever  theory  they 
start,  and  how  widely  soever  discordant  their  theories  may  be,  will 
always  manage  to  find  that  the  starting-point  of  their  argument  agrees 
with  that  which  they  maintain,  and  that  their  first  sentence  resembles 
that  at  which  they  aim.  However,  such  arguments  can  never  be 
accepted,  unless  there  be  a  reason  which  properly  connects  that  which  is 


294  alb!eun!. 

measured  witli  that  by  which  you  measure,  the  proof  with  that  which  is 
to  be  proved.  There  exist,  e.g.  double  formations  or  correlations  in 
things  opposite  to  each  other  {e.g.  black  and  white,  &c.),  triple  formations 
in  many  leaves  of  plants  and  in  their  kernels,  quadruplications  in  the 
motions  of  the  stars  and  in  the  fever  days,  quintuplications  in  the  bells 
of  the  flowers  and  in  the  leaves  of  most  of  their  blossoms,  and  in  their 
veins ;  sextuplications  are  a  natural  form  of  cycles,  and  occur  also  in  bee- 
p.298.  hives  and  snow-flakes.  So  all  numbers  are  found  in  physical  appear- 
ances of  the  works  of  soul  and  life,  and  specially  in  flowers  and  blossoms. 
For  the  leaves  of  each  blossom,  their  bells  and  veins,  show  in  their  10 
formation  certain  numbers  (numerical  relations)  peculiar  to  each  species 
of  them.  Now,  if  anybody  wants  to  support  his  theory  by  referring  to 
one  of  these  species,  he  can  do  so  (i.e.  there  is  material  enough  for  doing 
so),  but  who  will  believe  him  ? 

Also  in  minerals  you  find  sometimes  wonderful  physical  peculiarities. 
People  relate,  e.g.  that  in  the  MaJcsura  (altar-place)  of  the  Mosque  in 
Jerusalem  there  is  a  white  stone,  with  a  nearly-obliterated  inscription  to 
this  effect :  "  Muhammad  is  the  prophet  of  God,  may  God  he  merciful  to 
him ! "  And  behind  the  Kibla  there  is  another  white  stone  with  this 
obliterated  inscription :  "  In  the  name  of  God  the  clement,  the  merciful !  20 
Muhammad  is  the  prophet  of  Grod,  Hamza  is  his  help."  Further,  stones 
for  rings,  with  the  name  'Ali,  the  Prince  of  the  Believers,  are  of  frequent 
occurrence,  because  the  figure  of  the  name  'AU  is  frequently  found  in 
the  veins  of  mountains. 

To  this  category,  too,  belong  certain  forgeries,  e.g.  some  Shi'a  preacher 
once  asked  me  to  teach  him  something  which  he  might  utilize.  So  I 
produced  to  him  from  the  Kitdb-altahvih  of  Alkindi  the  recipe  of  (an 
information  how  to  make)  an  ink  composed  of  various  jDimgent  materials. 
This  ink  you  drop  upon  an  agate  and  write  with  it ;  if  you  then  hold  the 
stone  near  the  fire  the  writing  upon  the  stone  becomes  apparent  in  white  30 
colour.  Now,  in  this  manner  he  wrote  (upon  stones)  the  names  Mu- 
hammad, 'All,  etc.,  even  without  doing  the  thing  very  carefully  or  under- 
standing it  particularly  well,  and  then  he  proclaimed  that  these  stones 
were  formations  of  nature  and  had  come  from  such  and  such  a  place. 
And  for  such  forgeries  he  got  much  money  from  the  Shi'a  people. 

Among  the  peculiarities  of  the  flowers  there  is  one  really  astonishing 
fact,  viz.  the  number  of  their  leaves,  the  tops  of  which  form  a  circle 
when  they  begin  to  open,  is  in  most  cases  conformable  to  the  laws  of 
geometry.  In  most  cases  they  agree  with  the  chords  that  have  been 
found  by  the  laws  of  geometry,  not  with  conic  sections.  You  scarcely  40 
ever  find  a  flower  of  7  or  9  leaves,  for  you  cannot  construct  them 
according  to  the  laws  of  geometry  in  a  circle  as  isoscele  (triangles).  The 
number  of  their  leaves  is  always  3  or  4  or  5  or  6  or  18.  This  is  a  matter 
of  frequent  occurrence.  Possibly  one  may  find  one  day  some  species  of 
flowers  with   7  or  9  leaves,  or  one  may  find  among  the  species  hitherto 


THE    FESTIVALS,    ETC.    OF    THE    SYRIAN    CALENDAR.         29d 

known  such  a  number  of  leaves ;  but,  on  the  whole,  one  must  say  nature 
preserves  its  genera  and  species  such  as  they  are.  For  if  you  would,  e.g. 
count  the  number  of  seeds  of  one  of  the  (many)  pomegranates  of  a  tree, 
you  would  find  that  all  the  other  pomegranates  contain  the  same  number 
of  seeds  as  that  one  the  seeds  of  which  you  have  counted  first.  So,  too, 
nature  proceeds  in  all  other  matters.  Frequently,  however,  you  find  in 
the  functions  (actions)  of  nature  which  it  is  her  office  to  fulfil,  some 
fault  (some  irregularity),  but  this  only  serves  to  show  that  the  Creator 
who  had  designed  something  deviating  from  the  general  tenor  of  things, 
10  is  infinitely  sublime  beyond  everything  which  we  poor  sinners  may 
conceive  and  predicate  of  Him. 

Now  we  return  to  our  subject. 

8.  Commemoration  of  John,  author  of  the  fourth  Gospel,  and  of 
Arsenius,  the  monk. 

9.  lesaia,  the  prophet.     Dadhishu',  in  his  commentary  on  the  Gospel,   p. 299. 
calls  him  W**».     God  knows  best  (which  is  the  right  form). 

10.  Dionysius,  the  bishop. 

12.  Epiphanius,  the  archbishop. 

13.  Julianus,  martyr. 

20  15.  Feast  of  Roses  according  to  the  new  rite,  (postponed  to  this  date) 
because  on  the  4th  the  roses  are  still  very  scarce.  On  the  same  date  it 
is  celebrated  in  Khurasan,  not  on  the  original  date. 

16.  Zacharias,  the  prophet. 

20.  Cyriacus,  the  anchorite. 

22.  Constantine  the  Victorious.  He  was  the  first  king  who  resided  in 
Byzantium  and  surrounded  it  with  walls.  The  town  was  after  him 
called  Constantinople  ;  it  is  the  residence  of  his  successors. 

24.  Simeon,  the  monk,  who  wrought  a  great  miracle. 


Haziran. 


30  1.  Feast  of  Ears,  when  people  bring  ears  of  the  wheat  of  their  fields, 
read  prayers  over  them,  and  invoke  the  blessing  of  God  for  them. 

On  the  same  day  commemoration  of  John  the  son  of  Zakaria,  through 
which  they  purpose  gaining  the  favour  of  God  for  their  wheat.  This 
feast  they  celebrate  instead  of  the  Jewish  'Azereth. 

3.  Commemoration  of  Nebukadnezar's  burning  the  children,  'Azarya, 
Hananya,  and  Michael.  Also  commemoration  of  the  renovation  of  the 
temple. 

5.  Athanasius,  the  patriarch. 

8.  Cyrillus,  the  patriarch,  who  drove  Nestorius,  the  author  of 
40  Nestorianism  out  of  the  Church,  and  excommunicated  him. 

12.  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John,  the  four  evangelists. 

18.  Leontius,  martyr. 


296  ALBtRra!. 

21.  Berekhya,  the  presbyter,  who  brought  Christianity  to  Marw  about 
two  hundred  years  after  Christ. 

22.  Gabriel  and  Michael,  the  archangels.  Their  commemoration  they 
consider  as  a  means  to  gain  the  favour  of  God,  and  they  ask  God  to 
protect  the  creation  from  any  injury  done  by  the  heat. 

25.  Birth  of  John  b.  Zachariah.  Between  the  annunciation  of  his 
birth  and  his  birth  itself  there  elapsed  258  days,  i.e.  8  months  and 
18  days. 

26.  Febronia,  the  martyr,  who  was  tortured  to  death. 

29.  Death  of  Paul,  the  teacher,  the  apostle  of  Christianity.  10 

30.  Peter,  i.e.  Simeon  Kephas,  the  head  of  the  messengers,  i.e.  apostles. 


Tammuz. 


1.  The  twelve  apostles,  the  pupils  of  Christ. 

2.  Thomas,  the  apostle,  who  did  not  believe  in  Christ  when  he  had 
returned  after  His  crucifixion,  until  he  touched  the  ribs  of  His  side.  There 
he  felt  the  trace  of  the  wound,  where  the  Jews  had  pierced  Him.  He  is 
the  same  apostle  through  whom  India  was  Christianized. 

p.300.       5.  Dometius,  martyr. 

7.  Procopius,  martyr. 

8.  Martha,  the  mother  of  Simeon  Thaumaturgus.  20 

9.  Commemoration  of  Nebukadnezar's  burning  the  three  children. 
They  assert  that,  if  they  did  not  keep  this  commemoration,  they  would 
suffer  from  the  heat  of  Tammuz. 

10.  The  forty -five  martyrs. 

11.  Phocas,  martyr. 

13.  Thuthael,  martyr. 

14.  John  of  Marw,  the  younger,  who  was  killed  in  our  time. 

15.  Cyricus,  and  his  mother,  Julitta.  Cyricus  is  said  to  have  argued, 
when  a  child  of  three  years,  with  decisive  arguments  against  some  king. 
Through  him  fourteen  thousand  men  were  converted  to  Christianity.  30 

20.  Feast  of  the  Gra/pes,  when  they  bring  the  first  grapes,  and  pray  to 
God  that  He  may  give  blessing  and  increase,  rich  thriving  and  growing. 

21.  Paphnutius,  martyr. 

26.  Panteleemon,  martyr,  the  physician. 

27.  Simeon  Stylites,  the  monk. 

30.  The  seventy -two  discijiles  of  Christ. 

lb! 

1.  Fasting  on  account  of  the  illness  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Christ;  it 
lasts  fifteen  days,  and  the  last  day  is  the  day  of  her  death. 

On  the  same  day,  commemoration  of  Solomonis  the  Makkabean.     The  40 
magians  killed  her  seven  children,  and  roasted  them  in  roasting-pans. 


THE    FESTIVALS,    ETC.    OF    THE    SYRIAN    CALENDAR.         297 

5.  Moses,  tlie  son  of  Amram. 

6.  Feast  of  Mount  Tabor,  regarding  which  the  Gospel  relates  that  once 
the  prophets,  Moses,  the  son  of  Amram,  and  Elias,  appeared  to  Christ  on 
Mount  Tabor,  when  three  of  His  disciples,  Simeon,  Jacob,  and  John,  were 
with  Him,  but  slept.  When  they  awoke  and  saw  this,  they  were  frightened, 
and  spoke  :  "  May  our  Lord,  i.e.  Messiah,  permit  us  to  build  three  tents, 
one  for  Thee,  and  the  other  two  for  Moses  and  Elias."  They  had  not  yet 
finished  speaking  when  three  clouds  standing  high  above  them  covered 
them  with  their  shadow ;  then  Moses  and  Elias  entered  the  cloud  and 

10  disapjieared .  Moses  was  dead  already  a  long  time  before  that,  whilst 
Elias  was  alive,  and  is  still  living,  as  they  say ;  but  he  does  not  show 
himself  to  mankind,  hiding  himself  from  their  eyes. 

7.  Elias,  the  ever-living,  whom  we  mentioned  just  now. 

8.  Elisha,  the  prophet,  disciple  of  Elias.  ' 

9.  Rabula,  the  bishop. 
10.  Mamas,  martyr. 

15.  Feast  in  commemoration  of  the  death  of  Mary.     The  Christians 
make  a  difference  between  "  Commemoration  "  and  "  Feast "  ;  the  latter  is 
an  affair  of  more  importance  than  the  former. 
20       16.  lesaia,  Jeremia,  Zakaria,  and  Hezekiel,  the  prophets. 

17.  The  martyrs  Seleucus  and  his  bride  Stratonice.  p.301. 

20.  Samuel,  the  prophet. 

21.  Lucius,  martyr. 

26.  Saba,  the  monk,  weak  from  age. 

29.  Decaj^itation  of  John.  Alma'mun  b.  'Ahmad  Alsalami  Alharawi 
relates  that  he  saw  in  Jerusalem  some  heaps  of  stones  at  a  gate,  called 
Gate  of  the  Column ;  they  had  been  gathered  so  as  to  form  something 
like  hills  and  mountains.  Now  peoj)le  said  that  those  were  thrown  over 
the  blood  of  John  the  son  of  Zacharias,  but  that  the  blood  rose  over 
30  them,  boiling  and  bubbling.  This  went  on  till  Nebukadnezar  killed  the 
people,  and  made  their  blood  flow  over  it ;  then  it  was  quiet. 

Of  this  story  there  is  nothing  in  the  Grosj^el,  and  I  do  not  know  what 
I  am  to  say  of  it.  For  Nebukadnezar  came  to  Jerusalem  nearly  four 
hundred  and  forty-five  years  before  the  death  of  John  ;  and  the  second 
destruction  was  the  work  of  the  Greek  kings,  Vespasian  and  Titus.  But 
it  seems  that  the  people  of  Jerusalem  call  everybody  who  destroyed  their 
town  Nebukadnezar, ;  for  I  have  heard  some  historian  say  that  in  this 
case  is  meant  Judarz  b.  Shapur  b.  Afkurshah,  one  of  the  Ashkanian 
kings. 
40       30.  Commemoration  of  all  the  prophets. 

IWL 

1.  Festum  coronce  anni.  They  pray  and  invoke  God's  blessing  for  the 
end  of  the  year,  and  the  beginning  of  the  new  one  because  with  this 
month  the  year  reaches  its  end. 


298  •  ALBiRI^Ni. 

3.  Commemoration  of  tlie  seven  martyrs  killed  in  Nishapur. 
8.  Hanna,  mother  of  Mary,  and  Joyakim,  the  father  of  Mary. 

13.  Feast  of  the  renovation  of  the  temple,  with  prayers.  On  this  day 
they  renovate  their  churches. 

14.  Feast  in  recollection  of  Constantino  and  Helena  his  mother  finding 
the  Cross,  which  they  seized  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  It  was  buried 
in  Jerusalem,  but  on  this  subject  we  have  spoken  already. 

15.  Commemoration  of  the  Six  Synods. 

16.  Euphemia,  martyr. 

20.  The  martyrs  Eustathius,  his  wife,  and  mother.  10 

23.  Vitellius,  martyr. 

24.  Thecla,  martyr,  who  was  burned  to  death.  On  the  same  day,  the 
feast  of  the  Church  of  the  Sweepings  (i.e.  Church  of  Resurrection)  in 
Jerusalem. 

25.  The  martyrs  Sabinianus,  Paulus,  and  Tatta. 

28.  Chariton,  the  monk.     ' 

29.  Gregorius,  the  bishop,  the  apostle  of  the  Armenians. 

This,  now,  is  all  we  know  of  the  commemorations  and  feasts  of  the 
Melkites,  in  some  of  which  they  agree  with  the  Nestorians.     Of  these  we 
p.302.  shall  treat  in  a  special  chapter,  but  first  we  shall  give  an  explanation  of  20 
Lent  as  something  which  lies  in  the  midst  between  both  sects,  being 
common  to  both  of  them. 


299 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

ON  THE  CHRISTIAN  LENT,  AND  ON  THOSE  FEASTS  AND  FESTIVE  DAYS 
WHICH  DEPEND  UPON  LENT  AND  REVOLVE  PARALLEL  WITH  IT 
THROUGH  THE  YEAR,  REGARDING  WHICH  ALL  CHRISTIAN  SECTS 
AGREE    AMONG    EACH    OTHER. 

Heretofore  we  have  explained  in  sucli  a  manner  as  will  suffice  for  every 
want,  and  more  than  that,  all  the  particulars  relating  to  the  Passover  of 
the  Jews,  its  conditions,  the  mode  in  which  it  is  calculated,  and  the 
reason  on  which  this  calculation  rests.  Christian  Lent  is  one  of  the 
10  institutions  dependent  on  Passover,  and  is  in  more  than  one  way  con- 
nected with  it.  We  now  present  such  information  regarding  Lent  as 
corresponds  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  practices  of  Lent  are  intended 
— by  the  help  of  Grod  and  His  mercy. 

Christian  Lent  always  lasts  forty-eight  days,  beginning  on  a  Monday 
and  ending  on  a  Sunday,  the  forty-ninth  day  after  its  beginning.  The 
last  Sunday  before  the  end  of  Lent  (or  Fast-breaking),  is  that  one  which 
they  call  Sa'anin  (i.e.  Hosanna  or  Palm  Sunday). 

Now,  one  of  the  conditions  which  they  have  established  is  this,  that 
Passover  (Easter)  must  always  fall  in  the  time  between  Palm  Sunday 
20  and  Fast-breaking,  i.e.  in  the  last  week  of  Lent.  It  cannot  fall  earlier 
than  Palm  Sunday,  nor  later  than  the  last  day  of  Lent. 

The  limits  within  which  the  Jewish  Passover  revolves,  we  have  already 
heretofore  mentioned.  Regarding  these  the  Christians  do  not  agree  with 
them,  nor  regarding  the  beginning  of  the  cycles  (Gtgal).  The  word 
Jijal,  or  cycle,  is  an  Arabized  Syriac  word,  in  Syriac  Gigal,  meaning  the 
same  as  the  Jewish  Mahzor.  But  it  is  only  proper  that  we  should  mention 
the  Termini  peculiar  to  each  nation.  So  they  call  the  Great  Cycle, 
Indictio  (sic) ;    but   as   it   is  troublesome   to    pronounce   this    word    so 


300  ALBiEl^Nt. 

frequently  in  our  discourse,  we  shall  use  tlie  term  Great  Jijal  (i.e.  Great 
Cycle). 

The  difference  regarding  the  cycles  has  this  origin  :  According  to  the 
Jews  the  first  year  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri  is  the  tenth  year  of  the  Cycle 
(Enneadecateris),  whilst  according  to  the  Christians  it  is  the  13th  year. 
For  some  of  them  count  the  interval  between  Adam  and  Alexander  as 
5069  years,  others  as  6180  years.  The  majority  uses  the  latter 
number ;  it  is  also  well  known  among  scholars  (of  other  nations). 
It  occurs  e.g.  in  the  following  verses  of  Khalid  b.  Yazid  b.  Mu'awiya  b. 
'Abi-Sufyan,  who  was  the  first  philosopher  in  Islam ;  people  say  even  10 
that  the  source  of  his  wisdom  was  that  learning  which  Daniel  had  derived 
from  the  Treasure- Cave,  the  same  one  where  Adam  the  father  of  mankind 
had  deposited  his  knowledge. 

"  When  10  years  had  elapsed  besides  other  3  complete  years, 
And   further  100  single  years,   which  were  joined  in  right  order  to 

6  times  1000, 
He  manifested  the  religion  of  his  lord,  Islam,  and  it  was  consolidated 
and  established  by  the  Flight  (Hijra)  ;  "  i.e.  Anno  Adami  6113. 

p. 303.        The  Hijra  occurred  A.  Alexandri  933.     If  you  subtract  this  from  the 

just  mentioned  6113  years  of  the  ^ra  Mundi,  you  get  as  remainder  20 

6180  years 

(as  the  interval  between  Adam  and  Alexander).     Now  they  converted 
this  number  of  years  into  Sinall  Cycles,  and  got  as  remainder 

12  years, 

i.e.  at   the  beginning  of  the  yEra  Alexandri   12   years    of   the  current 
Enneadecateris  had  already  elapsed. 

Further  they  arranged  the  years  of  the  Enneadecateris  according  to  the 
Ordo  Intercalationis  ni^^TH^  (i-^-  2.  6.  7.  10.  13.  16.  18.),  because  this 
arrangement  stands  by  itself,  as  not  requiring  you  to  subtract  anything 
from  the  years  of  the  era.  30 

In  the  first  year  of  the  cycle  they  fixed  Passover  on  the  25th  of  Adhar, 
because  in  the  year  when  Christ  was  crucified  it  must  have  fallen  on  this 
date.  Starting  from  this  j)oint  they  arranged  the  Passovers  of  all  the 
other  years.  Its  earliest  date  is  the  21st  Adhar,  its  latest  date  the 
18th  JSTisan.     So  the  Terminus  Paschalis  extends  over  28  days. 

Therefore  the  earliest  date  of  Passover  falls  always  by  two  days  later 
than  the  vernal  equinox  as  observed  by  eye-sight  (i.e.  the  19th  Adhar). 
And  this  is  to  serve  as  a  help  and  precaution  against  that  which  is  men- 
tioned in  the  7th  Canon  of  the  Canones  Apostolorum  :  "  Whatever  bishop, 
or  presbyter,  or  diaconus  celebrates  the  feast  of  Passover  before  the  40 
equinox  together  with  the  Jews,  shall  be  deposed  from  his  rank." 


ON    THE    CHRISTIAN    LENT.  301 

If  tlie  Fast-breaTcing  (Fitr)  of  the  Christians  were  identical  with  their 
Passover,  or  if  it  fell  always  at  one  and  the  same  invariable  distance  from 
Passover,  both  would  revolve  through  the  years  either  on  the  same  days, 
or  j)arallel  with  each  other  on  corresponding  days.  Since,  however, 
Past-breaking  can  never  precede  Passover,  its  earliest  possible  date  falls 
by  one  day  later  than  the  earliest  possible  date  of  Passover,  i.e.  on  the 
22nd  Adhar  (the  21st  Adhar  being  the  earliest  date  of  Passover).  And 
the  latest  date  of  Fast-breaking  falls  by  one  week  later  than  the  latest 
date  of  Passover  ;   because  if  one  and  the  same  day  should  happen  (to  be 

10  Fast-breaking  and  Passover,  i.e.  a  Sunday),  Fast-breaking  would  fall  on 
the  next  following  Sunday.  In  this  case  it  would  fall  by  one  week  later 
than  Passover.  If,  therefore,  Passover  falls  on  its  latest  possible  date 
(18th  Nisan),  Fast-breaking  also  falls  on  its  latest  possible  date,  i.e.  on 
the  25th  Nisan. 

Therefore  the  days  within  which  Fast-breaking  varies  are  35.  And 
for  the  same  reason  the  beginning  of  fasting  varies  parallel  with  Fast- 
breaking  on  the  corresponding  days,  the  earliest  being  the  2nd  Shubat, 
the  latest  the  8th  Adhar.  Accordingly  the  greatest  interval  between  the 
beginning   of   Lent   and  Passover   is   49    days,   the    smallest    interval 

20   42  days. 

Between  the  full  moon  of  Passover  and  the  new  moon  of  Adhar  in  a 
common  year,  of  Adhar  Secundus  in  a  leap-year,  is  an  interval  of 

44  days,  7  hours,  6  minutes. 

This  new  moon  falls  always  between  the  beginning  of  the  smallest  in- 
terval and  the  greatest  interval  (between  the  beginning  of  Lent  and 
Passover),  and  falls  near  the  beginning  of  Lent.  And  this  new  moon  p.304. 
has  been  made  the  basis  of  the  whole  calculation  in  this  way:  You 
observe  the  new  moon  of  Shubat  and  consider  which  Monday  is  the 
nearest  to  it,  the  preceding  one  or  the  following.     If  this  Monday  lies 

30  within  the  Terminus  Jejunii,  i.e.  between  the  2nd  Shubat  and  the  8th 
Adhar,  it  is  the  beginning  of  Lent.  If,  however,  this  Monday  does  not 
reach  the  Terminus  Jejunii,  and  Hes  in  the  time  before  it,  that  new  moon 
is  disregarded,  and  you  repeat  the  same  consideration  with  the  following 
new  moon.     In  this  way  you  find  the  beginning  of  Lent. 

As  we  have  mentioned  already,  Passover  may  proceed  towards  the 
beginning  of  the  year  as  far  as  the  21st  Adhar,  which  is  its  earliest 
possible  date.  If  full  moon  falls  on  this  day  and  it  is  a  Sabbath,  the 
year  is  a  common  year,  the  new  moon  by  which  you  calculate  falls  on 
the  4th  Shubat  and  the  preceding  Monday,  which  is  the  nearest  Monday 

40  to  this  date,  and  therefore  the  beginning  of  the  Termimis  Jejunii  is  the 
1st  Shubat,  if  the  year  be  a  leap-year,  but  the  2nd  Shubat  if  the  year 
is  a  common  year.  This  date  lies  within  the  Terminus  Jejunii,  and  so  it 
is  the  beginning  of  Lent. 


302  ALBtE-&N!. 

The  latest  possible  date  of  Passover  is  the  18th  of  Nisan.  If  full 
moon  falls  on  this  day,  and  it  is  a  Sunday,  the  year  is  a  leap-year,  the 
new  moon  by  which  you  calculate,  i.e.  the  new  moon  of  Adhdr  Secundus, 
falls  on  the  5  th  of  the  Syrian  Adhar,  and  the  8th  of  the  same  month  is 
that  Monday  which  follows  after  this  new  moon  and  falls  the  nearest  to 
it,  because  in  this  case  the  1st  of  the  Syrian  Adhar  is  a  Monday.  There- 
fore the  beginning  of  Lent  is  the  8th  Adhar,  which  is  at  the  same  time 
the  latest  possible  date  for  the  beginning  of  the  Terminus  Jejunii. 

If  we  were  to  go  back  upon  the  new  moon  of  Adhar  Primus,  we  should 
find  that  it  falls  on  the  5th  Shubat  in  a  common  year,  whilst  the  1st  Shubat  10 
is  a  Sunday.  In  that  case  the  preceding  Monday  would  be  nearest  to  it 
(the  2nd  Shubat),  which  is  the  beginning  of  the  Terminus  Jejunii.  Now, 
this  day  would  be  suitable  to  be  the  beginning  of  Lent,  if  it  also  corre- 
sponded to  all  the  other  conditions  (but  that  is  not  the  case)  ;  viz.  if  we 
make  this  day  the  beginning  of  Lent,  Fast-breaking  would  fall  about 
one  month  earlier  than  Passover ;  and  this  is  not  permitted,  according  to 
a  dogma  of  theirs.  And  if  the  year  were  a  leap-year,  new  moon  would 
fall  on  the  4th  Shubat,  and  then  the  preceding  Monday,  being  the 
nearest  to  it,  would  be  the  1st  Shubat,  and  this  date  does  not  lie  within 
the  Terminus  Jejunii  (2nd  Shubat — 8th  Adhar).  Therefore  we  must  20 
disregard  this  new  moon  and  fall  back  upon  the  following  one. 

The  followers  of  Christ  wanted  to  know  before-hand  the  Passover  of 
the  Jews,  in  order  to  derive  thence  the  beginning  of  their  Lent.  So  they 
consulted  the  Jews,  and  asked  them  regarding  this  subject,  but  the  Jews, 
guided  by  the  enmity  which  exists  between  the  two  parties,  told  them 
p.305.  lies  in  order  to  lead  them  astray.  And  besides,  the  eras  of  both  parties 
differed.  Finally,  many  of  the  Christian  mathematicians  took  the  work 
in  hand  and  made  calculations  with  the  various  cycles  and  different 
methods.  Now,  that  method  which  they  at  last  agreed  to  'adopt,  is  the 
table  called  XpovtKov,  of  which  they  maintain  that  it  was  calculated  by  80 
Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Csesarea,  and  the  318  bishops  of  the  Synod  of 
Nicsea. 


ON    THE    CHRISTIAN    LENT. 


303 


The  Chronicon  of  the  Christians. 


10 


20 


30 


Limar  Cycle. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

i 

o 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 
1 

pi 

02 

i 

i 

i 
1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

< 

1 

1 

11 

25 

18 

4 

25 

11 

4 

25 

11 

4 

18 

11 

25 

18 

4 

25 

11 

4 

18 

2 

10 

3 

17 

3 

24 

17 

3 

24 

10 

3 

17 

10 

24 

17 

3 

24 

10 

3 

24 

L. 

3 

9 

1 

16 

9 

23 

16 

8 

23 

9 

1 

23 

9 

1 

16 

9 

23 

16 

1 

23 

4 

7 

28 

14 

7 

28 

14 

7 

21 

14 

28 

21 

7 

28 

14 

7 

21 

14 

7 

21 

5 

6 

27 

28 

6 

27 

13 

6 

20 

13 

27 

20 

6 

27 

13 

6 

27 

13 

6 

20 

6 

12 

26 

19 

5 

26 

12 

5 

19 

12 

5 

19 

5 

26 

19 

5 

26 

12 

5 

19 

L. 

7 

11 

3 

18 

4 

25 

18 

3 

25 

11 

3 

18 

11 

25 

18 

4 

25 

11 

3 

25 

8 

9 

2 

16 

9 

23 

16 

2 

23 

9 

2 

16 

9 

2 

16 

2 

23 

16 

2 

23 

9 

8 

1 

15 

8 

22 

15 

8 

22 

8 

1 

22 

8 

1 

15 

8 

22 

15 

1 

22 

10 

7 

28 

14 

7 

28 

14 

7 

21 

14 

28 

21 

7 

28 

14 

7 

21 

14 

7 

21 

L. 

11 

13 

27 

20 

6 

27 

13 

5 

20 

13 

5 

20 

6 

27 

20 

6 

27 

13 

5 

20 

12 

11 

25 

18 

4 

25 

11 

4 

25 

11 

4 

18 

11 

25 

18 

4 

25 

11 

4 

18 

13 

10 

3 

17 

3 

24 

17 

3 

24 

10 

3 

17 

10 

24 

17 

3 

24 

10 

3 

24 

14 

9 

2 

16 

9 

23 

16 

2 

23 

9 

2 

16 

9 

2 

16 

2 

23 

16 

2 

23 

L. 

15 

8 

29 

15 

8 

29 

15 

7 

22 

15 

29 

22 

8 

29 

15 

8 

22 

15 

7 

22 

16 

6 

27 

20 

6 

27 

13 

6 

20 

13 

27 

20 

6 

27 

13 

6 

27 

13 

6 

20 

17 

12 

26 

19 

5 

26 

12 

5 

19 

12 

5 

19 

5 

26 

19 

5 

26 

12 

5 

19 

18 

11 

25 

18 

4 

25 

11 

4 

25 

11 

4 

18 

11 

25 

18 

4 

25 

11 

4 

18 

L. 

19 

10 

2 

17 

10 

24 

17 

2 

24 

10 

2 

17 

10 

2 

17 

3 

24 

17 

2 

24 

20 

8 

1 

15 

8 

22 

15 

8 

22 

8 

1 

22 

8 

1 

15 

8 

22 

15 

1 

22 

21 

7 

28 

14 

7 

28 

14 

7 

21 

14 

28 

21 

7 

28 

14 

7 

21 

14 

7 

21 

22 

6 

27 

20 

6 

27 

13 

6 

20 

13 

27 

20 

6 

27 

13 

6 

27 

13 

6 

20 

L. 

23 

12 

26 

19 

5 

26 

12 

4 

26 

12 

4 

19 

12 

26 

19 

5 

26 

12 

4 

19 

24 

10 

3 

17 

3 

24 

17 

3 

24 

10 

3 

17 

10 

24 

17 

3 

24 

10 

3 

24 

25 

9 

2 

16 

9 

23 

16 

2 

23 

9 

2 

16 

9 

2 

16 

2 

23 

16 

2 

23 

26 

8 

1 

15 

8 

22 

15 

8 

22 

8 

1 

22 

8 

1 

15 

8 

22 

15 

1 

22 

L. 

27 

7 

28 

21 

7 

28 

14 

6 

21 

14 

28 

21 

7 

28 

14 

7 

28 

14 

6 

21 

28 

12 

26 

19 

5 

26 

12 

5 

19 

12 

5 

19 

5 

26 

19 

5 

26 

12 

5 

19 

pp.306, 
307. 


304  ALEtBUNt. 

p.308.      Festivals  depending  upon  Lent. 

[Lacuna.] 

to  give  up  their  religion.     Then  they  fled  one  night  and  perished  to  the 
last  of  them.     This  Friday  they  call  also  The  Small  Hosanna. 

The  first  Sunday  after  Fast-breaking  is  called  the  New  Sunday,  on 
which  day  Messiah  dressed  in  white.  They  use  it  as  the  commencement 
of  all  kinds  of  work,  and  as  a  date  for  commercial  agreements  and 
written  contracts.  For  it  is,  as  it  were,  the  first  Sunday,  because  the 
preceding  one  is  specially  known  by  a  more  famous  name,  i.e.  Fast- 
breakiag.  10 

All  Sundays  are  highly  celebrated  by  the  Christians,  because  Hosanna 
and  Resurrection  fall  on  Sundays.  Likewise  the  Sabbaths  are  celebrated 
by  the  Jews  because,  as  is  said  in  the  Thora,  Grod  rested  on  this  day  on 
having  finished  the  creation.  And,  according  to  some  scholars,  Muslims 
celebrate  their  Friday  because  on  that  day  the  Creator  finished  the 
creation  of  the  world  and  breathed  His  spirit  into  Adam.  According  to 
the  astrologers,  in  all  religions  certain  week-days  are  celebrated,  because 
the  horoscopes  of  their  proj)hets  and  the  constellations  indicative  of 
their  coming  stood  under  the  influence  of  the  planets  that  reign  over 
these  respective  days.  20 

Forty  days  after  Fast-breaking  is  the  feast  of  Ascension,  always  falling 
on  a  Thursday.  On  this  day  Messiah  ascended  to  heaven  from  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  and  He  ordered  His  disciples  to  stay  in  that  room  where  He 
had  celebrated  Passover  in  Jerusalem,  until  He  should  send  them  the 
Paraclete,  i.e.  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Ten  days  after  Ascension  is  Whitsun  Day,  always  on  a  Sunday.  It  is 
the  day  when  the  Paraclete  came  down  and  Messiah  revealed  Himself  to 
His  disciples,  i.e.  the  Apostles.  Then  they  began  to  speak  different 
tongues  ;  they  separated  from  each  other,  and  each  party  of  them  went 
to  that  country  with  the  language  of  which  they  were  inspired  and  30 
which  they  were  able  to  speak. 

On  the  evening  of  this  day  the  Christians  prostrate  themselves  upon 
the  earth,  which  they  do  not  do  between  Fast-breaking  and  this  day,  for 
during  this  time  they  say  their  prayers  standing  erect,  all  in  conse- 
quence of  some  biblical  commandment  to  this  effect.  The  same  (pros- 
tration) is  proclaimed  for  all  the  (other)  Sundays  by  the  last  Canon  of 
the  first  Synod. 

The  beginning  of  the  Fasting  of  the  Apostles,  according  to  the  Melkites, 
is  a  Wednesday,  ten  days  after  Whitsunday.  It  is  broken  always  on  a 
Sunday,  46  days  after  its  beginning,  40 

The  third  day  of  this  fasting,  a  Friday,  is  called  the  Golden  Friday. 
For  on  this  day  the  Apostles  passed  a  lame  man  in  Jerusalem,  who 
asked  people  for  a  gift.  He  invoked  the  name  of  God,  asking  them  for 
alms.     They  answered :  "  We  have  neither  gold   nor  silver.     However, 


ON    THE    CHRISTIAN    LENT.  305 

rise,  carry  away  your  bed,  and  go  to  your  business.  That  is  the  best  we 
can  do  for  you."  The  man  rose,  free  from  pain,  carried  away  his  bed, 
and  went  to  his  business. 

Most  of  these  festivals  are  mentioned  in  the  Table  of  Fasting,  which  is 
arranged  in  seven  columns.  If  you  find  Fasting  by  this  table,  you  find 
at  the  same  time  these  festivals — if  God  permits ! 


20 


306  ALBtEUNI. 


p-309.  CHAPTER    XVII. 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    OP    THE    NESTORIAN    CHRISTIANS,  THEIR   MEMORIAL 

AND    EAST  BATS. 

Nestorius,  from  wliom  this  sect  derives  its  origin  and  name,  opposed 
the  Melkites  and  brought  forward  a  theory  on  the  dogmas  of  Chris- 
tianity which  necessitated  a  schism  between  them.  For  he  instigated 
people  to  examine  and  to  investigate  for  themselves,  to  use  the  means  of 
logic,  syllogism,  and  analogy  for  the  purpose  of  being  prepared  to 
oppose  their  adversaries,  and  to  argue  with  them ;  in  fact,  to  give  up 
the  Jurare  in  verba  magistri.  This  was  the  method  of  Nestorius  himself.  IQ 
He  established  as  laws  for  his  adherents  those  things  in  which  he 
differed  from  the  Melkites,  differences  to  which  he  had  been  led  by  his 
investigation  and  unwearying  study. 

Now  I  shall  proceed  to  propound  all  I  have  been  able  to  learn 
regarding  their  festivals  and  memorial-days. 

Nestorians  and  Melkites  agree  among  each  other  regarding  some 
memorial-days,  whilst  they  disagree  regarding  others. 

Those  days,  regarding  which  they  differ,  are  of  two  kinds : 

1.  Days  altogether  abolished  by  the  ISTestorians. 

2.  Days  not  abolished  by  them,  but  celebrated  at  a  time  and  in  a   20 

manner  different  from  that  of  the  Melkites. 

Further,  such  Nestorian  festivals,  not  celebrated  by  the  Melkites, 
which  are  derived  from  the  feast-times  common  to  both  sects  (Lent, 
Christmas,  Epiphany). 

Besides,  there  is  a  fourth  class  of  Nestorian  feast-days,  not  iised  by 
the  Melkites,  which  are  not  derived  from  the  (common)  feast-times  also 
used  by  the  Melkites. 

A.  Feasts  regarding  which  Nestorians  and  Melkites  agree  among  each 
other :  Christmas,  Epiphany,  the  Feast  of  Wax,  the  beginning  of  the 


THE    FEASTS    AND    EASTS    OE    THE    NESTORIAN    CHRISTIANS.    307 

Fasting,  the  Great  Hosanna,  the  Washing  of  the  Feet  of  the  Apostles, 
the  Passover  of  the  Messiah,  the  Friday  of  Crucifixion,  Eesurrection, 
Fast-breaking,  the  New  Sunday,  Ascension,  and  Whitsunday,  the  fasting 
of  Our  Lady  Mary,  and  some  of  the  memorial- days  which  we  have 
mentioned  heretofore. 

B.  Feasts  common  to  both  sects,  but  celebrated  by  the  Nestorians  at 
a  time  and  in  a  manner  different  from  that  of  the  Melkites  : — 

1.  Ma'aVthd  (Ingressus) .  On  this  feast  they  wander  from  the  naves 
of  the  churches  up  to  their  roofs,  in  commemoration  of  the  returning  of 

10  the  Israelites  to  Jerusalem.  It  is  also  called  \L^  ^sjOfi  (Sanctification 
of  the  Church).  It  is  celebrated  on  the  first  Sunday  of  Tishrin  II.,  if  the 
1st  of  this  month  falls  on  a  Wednesday,  Thursday,  Friday,  Saturday,  or 
Sunday  ;  but  if  it  falls  on  a  Monday  or  Tuesday,  the  feast  is  celebrated 
on  the  last  Sunday  of  Tishrin  I.  The  characteristic  mark  of  the  day,  as  I 
have  heard  John  the  Teacher  say,  is  this,  that  it  is  the  Sunday  falling 
between  the  30th  of  Tishrin  I.  and  the  5th  of  Tishrin  II. 

2.  Subbdr  (Annuntiatio),  Feast  of  the  annunciation  to  Mary  that  she 
was  pregnant  with  the  Messiah,  celebrated  on  the  first  Sunday  in 
Kanun  I.,  if  the  first  of  the  month  falls  on  a  Friday,  Saturday,  or  Sun- 

20  day ;  but  if  it  falls  on  a  Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  or  Thursday, 
the  feast  is  celebrated  on  the  last  Sunday  of  Tishrin  II.  In  every  case 
it  is  the  5th  Sunday  after  the  Sunday  of  Ma'al'thd. 

In  the  year  when  the  Messiah  was  born,  the  1st  of  Kanun  I.  was  a 
Sunday.  Between  this  day  and  that  of  His  birth  there  are  25  days. 
Now,  Christians  say  :  Messiah  differs  from  mankind  in  so  far  as  He 
has  not  originated  through  an  act  of  begetting ;  likewise  the  period  of  p.310. 
His  sojourning  in  the  womb  of  His  mother  is  contrary  to  the  ways  of 
human  nature.  The  annunciation  (of  the  pregnancy)  may  already  have 
occurred  at  a  time  when  the  embryo  (or  growing  child)  was  already 

80  settled  in  the  womb  ;  it  may  also  have  occu.rred  earlier  or  later.  I 
have  been  told  that  the  Jacobites  celebrate  Subhdr  on  the  10th  of  the 
Jewish  Nisan  ;  this  day  fell,  in  the  year  j)i'eceding  the  year  of  Christ's 
birth,  oh  the  16th  of  the  Syrian  Adhar. 

3.  The  Fasting  of  Our  Lady  Marij.  It  begins  on  Monday  after  the 
Sunday  of  Suhbdr,  and  it  ends  on  Christmas-day. 

4.  The  Decollation  of  John  the  Baptist.  The  Nestorians  celebrate  it  on 
the  24th  of  lb. 

5.  Commemoration  of  Simeon  b.  Sabbd'e,  i.e.  son  of  the  dyers,  on  the 
17th  lb. 

40  6.  The  Feast  of  the  Cross,  celebrated  by  the  Nestorians  on  the  13th 
llul.  For  on  this  day  Helena  found  the  Cross,  and  she  showed  it  to  the 
people  on  the  following  day,  the  14th.  Therefore  the  Christians  came 
to  an  agreement  among  each  other,  the  Nestorians  adopting  the  day  of 
the  finding,  the  others  the  day  when  it  was  shown  to  the  people. 

20  * 


308  ALBfEUNt. 

C.  Feasts  celebrated  by  the  Melkites  only,  and  fixed  by  them  on 
certain  dates  of  their  own,  are,  e.g.  : — 

1.  Commemoration  of  John  of  Kashkar,  on  the  1st  Tishrin  I. 

2.  Commemoration  of  Mar  Phetion,  on  the  25th  of  Tishrin  I. 

3.  The  feast  of  the  Monastery  of  John,  on  the  6th  of  Kanun  I. 

4.  The  feast  of  the  Church  of  Mary  in  Jerusalem,  on  the  7th  of 
Kanun  II. 

5.  Commemoration  of  Mar  Wy,  on  the  25th  of  Haziran. 

6.  Beginning  of  the  Feast  of  Revelation,  on  the  6th  of  Ab  ;  it  is  the 
last  day  on  which  Christ  appeared  to  men.     On  the  same  day  the  feast  10 
of  Dair-Alnds.     The  end  of  the  Feast  of  Revelation  is  on  the  16th  Ab. 

7.  Feast  of  Mar  Mart,  on  the  12th  Ab. 

8.  Commemoration  of  Crisp inus  and  Crispinianus,  on  the  3rd  llul. 

D.  Feasts  fixed  by  the  Nestorians  on  certain  week-days,  regarding 
which  the  two  sects  have  nothing  in  common.     For  instance : — 

1.  Commemoration  of  the  monk  Kuta  or  Mar  Sergius,  on  the  7th 
Tishrin  I.,  if  the  1st  of  the  month  is  a  Sunday  ;  in  any  other  case  it  is 
postponed  to  the  Sunday  following  next  after  the  7th. 

2.  Commemoration  of  Solomonis,  on  the  following  Sunday,  according 

to  the  practice  of  the  Christians  of  Baghdad.  20 

3.  The  Feast  of  Dair-Abi  Khalid,  on  the  first  Friday  in  Tishrin  II. 

4.  Feast  of  the  Monastery  of  Alkadisiyya,  on  the  third  Friday  of 
Tishrin  II. 

5.  Feast  of  Dair-Alkahhal,  on  the  fourth  Friday  of  Tishrin  II. 

6.  Commemoration  of  Va-,^  (Mar  Saba  ?),  on  the  last  Sunday  of  llul. 

7.  Feast  of  Dair-Altha'alib,  on  the  last  Sabbath  of  llul ;  but  if  the  1st 
of  Tishrin  I.  of  the  next  year  be  a  Sunday,  the  feast  is  postponed  to 
this  day,  and  falls  no  longer  in  llul.  In  that  case  the  feast  does  not  at 
all  occur  in  the  year  in  question,  whilst  it  occurs  twice  in  the  following 
year,  once  at  the  beginning  and  once  at  the  end.  30 

p.311.       E.  Of  those  feasts,  depending  on  certain  days,  which  are  common  to 
both  sects,  there  are  three  classes : — 

I.  Those  depending  on  the  Lent  or  Fast-breaking. 
II.  Those  depending  on  Christmas. 
III.  Those  depending  on  Epij^hany. 

I.  Feasts  depending  on  the  beginning  or  end  of  Lent  are,  e.g. : — 

1.  The  Friday  of  joW\,  the  12th  day  after  beginning  of  Lent. 

2.  Alfa,ruka,  i.e.  liberation,  on  Thursday,  the  24th  day  after  beginning 
of  fasting. 

3.  Commemoration  of  Mar  V^y  and  commemoration  of  Mar  Cyriacus,  40 
the  Child  who  preferred  death  to  apostasy,  on  Friday  the  20th  day  after 
Fast-breaking. 


THE    FEASTS    AND    FASTS    OF    THE    NESTORIAN    CHRISTIANS.    309 

4.  Commemoration  of  Sunn  and  Duran  the  Armenians,  who  were 
killed  by  the  king  Sha^xir,  on  Sunday  the  29th  day  after  Fast-breaking. 

5.  Fasting  of  the  Apostles,  according  to  the  Nestorians,  always 
beginning  on  Monday,  seven  weeks  after  the  Great  Fast-breaking 
following  after  Whitsunday.  It  lasts  during  46  days,  and  it  is  broken 
always  on  a  Friday. 

6.  Commemoration  of  Mar  Abda,  the  pupil  of  Mar  Mari,  on  Thursday, 
the  14th  day  after  the  end  of  the  Fasting  of  the  Apostles,  which  again 
depends  on  the  Great  Fast-breaking. 

10  7.  Commemoration  of  Mar  Mari  on  Friday,  the  15th  day  after  the  end 
of  the  Fasting  of  the  Apostles. 

8.  Fasting  of  Elias,  beginning  on  Monday,  21  weeks  after  the  Great 
Fast-breaking  ;  it  lasts  during  48  days,  and  it  ends  on  a  Sunday. 

Fasting  of  Ninive,  on  Monday,  22  days  before  the  beginning  of 
Lent,  lasting  three  days.  Tradition  says  that  the  people  of  the  prophet 
Jona,  after  punishment  had  come  upon  them,  and  after  God  had  again 
released  them  and  they  were  in  safety,  fasted  these  three  days. 

10.  The  Night  of  AlmdsMsh  (the   spy)  is  the  night  of  a  Friday,  in 

vvrhich as  people   say — they  seek  Messiah.     There  is,  however,  a  diffe- 

20  rence  ;  according  to  some  it  is  the  night  of  Friday,  the  19th  day  after 
the  Fasting  of  Elias ;  according  to  others  it  is  the  Friday  on  which 
Christ  was  crucified,  called  Alsalahut ;  according  to  others  it  is  the 
Friday  of  the  Martyrs,  one  week  after  Alsalahut.  The  preference  we 
give  to  the  first  of  these  three  opinions. 

If,  now,  you  know  the  beginning  of  Lent  of  a  year  in  question,  com- 
pare the  column  of  the  common  year,  if  the  year  be  a  common  year,  or  the 
coliimn  of  the  leap-year,  if  the  year  be  a  leap-year,  and  opposite,  in 
the  table  of  the  feasts  depending  on  Lent,  you  will  find  the  date  of 
every  feast  in  question,  and  also  the  date  of  the  Fasting  of  Ninive, 
30  which  precedes  Lent. 

Here  follows  the  table. 


310 


ALBlRfjNt. 


pp.312, 
313. 


Table  of  the  Feasts  depending  on  Lent. 


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THE    FEASTS    AND    FASTS    OF    THE    NESTOEIAN    CHRISTIANS.    311 

II.  The  feasts  depending  on  Christmas  are  these  :— The  Feast  of  the   p.314. 
Temple  on  Sunday  after  Christmas ;  the  Commemoration  of  Our  Lady 
Mary,  lit  Mart  Maryam — Mart  means  midier  nohilis,  domma— on  Friday 

after  Christmas.  If,  however,  Christmas  falls  on  Thursday,  it  is  post- 
poned until  the  second  Friday,  for  this  purpose,  that  Christmas  and  this 
Commemoration  should  not  follow  each  other  immediately.  For  only 
the  nigU  of  Thursday  lies  in  the  middle  between  the  day  of  Thursday 
and  the  day  of  Friday  (not  one  complete  day). 

III.  Feasts  depending  on  Epiphany :— The  Fast  of  the  Virgins  on 
10  Monday  after  Epiphany  ;  it  lasts  three  days,  and  is  broken  on  Thursday. 

It  is  also  in  use  among  the  'Ibadites  and  the  Arab  Christians,  who  relate 
this  story :  Once  the  King  of  Al-hira,  before  the  time  of  Islam,  chose  a 
number  of  women  from  among  the  virgins  of  the  'Ibadites,  whom  he 
wanted  to  take  for  himself.  Now,  they  fasted  three  days  without  any 
interruption,  and  at  the   end  of  them  the  king  died  without  having 

touched  them. 

According  to  another    report,  this  fast   was   kept  by  the  Christian 

virgins  among  the  Arabs  as  a  thanksgiving  to  God  for  the  victory  which 

the  Arabs  gained  over  the  Persians  on  the  day  of  Dhu  Kar.     So  they 

20   were  delivered  from  the  Persians,  who  did  not  get  into  their  power  the 

virgin  Al'ankafir,  the  daughter  of  Alnu'man. 

Frequently  this  fast  is  connected  with  the  Ninive-Fast.  For  if  Lent 
falls  on  its  earliest  date,  the  Monday  after  Epiphany  is  the  Fast  of  the 
Yirgins.  Then  there  are  twenty-two  days  between  this  fast  and  Lent. 
In  that  case  this  day  is  also  the  beginning  of  the  Fast  of  Ninive.  Both 
fasts  {Jejunium  Virginum  et  Jejunium  Niniviticum)  last  three  days. 

Thereupon  they  celebrate  the  Commemoration  of  Mar  Johannes  on 
Friday  after  Epiphany. 

The  Commemoration  of  Peter  and  Paul  on  the  second  Friday  after 
80  Epiphany,  that  one  which  follows  after  the  Commemoration  of  Mar 
Johannes.  Paulus  was  a  Jew.  Now,  they  maintain  that  Messiah  worked 
a  miracle  in  blinding  his  eyes  and  making  them  see  again,  whereupon 
he  believed  in  Him.  Then  Messiah  sent  him  as  an  apostle  to  the 
nations.     Petrus  is  the  same  as  Simeon  Kephas. 

The  Commemoration  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  on  the  third  Friday. 

The  Commemoration  of  Stephanus,  martyr,  on  the  fourth  Friday. 
Some  people  place  it  on  Thursday,  one  day  earlier. 

The  Commemoration  of  the  Syrian  Fathers,  on  the  fifth  Friday. 

The  Commemoration  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  i.e.  Diodorus,  Theodoras, 
40  and  Nestorins,  the  bishops,  on  the  sixth  Friday. 

The  Commemoration  of  Mar  Abba  Catholicus,  on  the  seventh  Friday. 

The  Commemoration  of  the  Children  of  Adam,  i.e.  of  all  mankind 
that  have  died  up  to  that  date,  on  the  eighth  Friday.  But  if  there  are 
not  enough  Fridays,  and  Lent  is  near,  they  drop  the  Commemoration  of 
the  Syrian  Fathers,  and  celebrate  instead  the  Commemoration  of  Mar 


312  ALBtRUNi. 

Abba  Catliolicus,  and  then  they  proceed  according  to  the  original  order. 
During  Lent  they  drop  the  Fridays,  and  on  the  evening  of  every  Friday 
they  have  a  Kuddds,  i.e.  worship. 

They  have  constructed  for  the  days  depending  on  Christmas  and 
Epiphany  and  the  week-days  in  question  a  table,  indicating  their  dates 
in  the  Syrian  months.  If  you  want  to  use  it,  take  the  years  of  the  JEra 
p.315.  Alexandri,  including  the  current  year,  and  change  them  into  solar  cycles. 
With  the  remainder  compare  the  Column  of  Numibers  in  the  table  of 
the  Nestorian  festivals.  There  you  find  opposite  the  number  each 
festival  ;  if  in  red  ink,  its  date  in  the  month  written  in  red  ink  at  the  10 
top  of  the  column ;  if  in  black  ink,  the  date  in  the  month  written  in 
black  ink  at  the  toj)  of  the  column.  Over  the  whole  you  find  the  week- 
day on  which  the  feast  always  falls. 

If  we  knew  the  system  of  the  Jacobite  Christians,  we  should  explain 
it,  as  we  have  explained  those  of  the  other  Christians.  However,  we 
never  met  with  a  man  who  belonged  to  their  sect  or  knew  their 
dogmas. 

Here  follows  the  table. 


THE    FEASTS    AND    FASTS    OF    THE    NESTORIAN    CHRISTIANS.       313 


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5 

1 

30 

9 

13 

20 

27 

31 

3 

10 

17 

24 

3 

25 

24 

6 

8 

15 
22 

5 

3 

17 

24 

3 

4 

31 

29 

8 

12 

19 

26 

30 

2 

9 

16 

23 

2 

24 

*7 

7 

14 
21 

4 

2 

16 

23 

2 

3 

30 

28 

7 

11 

18 

25 

29 

1 

8 

15 

22 

29 

30 

1.29 

8 

12 

19 
26 

2 

7 

21 

28 

30 

1 

28 

2 

12 

9 

16 

23 

3 

30 

6 

13 

20 

27 

28 

27 

9 

11 

18 
25 

1 

6 

20 

27 

29 

30 

27 

1 

11 

8 

15 

22 

2 

29 

5 

12 

19 

26 

27 

26 

10 

10 

17 
24 

31 

5 

19 

26 

28 

29 

26 

31 

10 

7 

14 

21 

1 

28 

4 

11 

18 

25 

26 

25 

*11 

9 

16 
23 

30 

4 

18 

25 

27 

5 

1 

30 

9 

13 

20 

27 

31 

3 

10 

17 

24 

2 

25 

24 

12 

7 

14 
21 

4 

2 

16 

23 

2 

3 

30 

28 

7 

11 

18 

25 

29 

1 

8 

15 

22 

1 

30 

29 

13 

13 

20 

27 

3 

1 

15 

22 

1 

2 

29 

3 

13 

10 

17 

24 

4 

31 

7 

14 

21 

28 

29 

28 

14 

12 

19 
26 

2 

7 

21 

28 

30 

1 

28 

2 

12 

9 

16 

23 

3 

30 

6 

13 

20 

27 

28 

27 

ns 

11 

18 
24 

1 

6 

20 

27 

29 

30 

27 

1 

11 

8 

15 

22 

2 

29 

5 

12 

19 

26 

27 

26 

16 

9 

16 
23 

30 

4 

18 

25 

27 

5 

1 

30 

9 

13 

20 

27 

31 

3 

10 

17 

24 

3 

25 

24 

17 

8 

15 
22 

5 

3 

17 

24 

3 

4 

31 

29 

8 

12 

19 

26 

30 

2 

9 

16 

23 

2 

24 

18 

7 

14 
21 

4 

2 

16 

23 

2 

3 

30 

28 

7 

11 

18 

25 

29 

1 

8 

15 

22 

1 

30 

1.29 

n9 

13 

20 
27 

3 

1 

15 

22 

1 

2 

29 

3 

13 

10 

17 

24 

4 

31 

7 

14 

21 

28 

29 

28 

20 

11 

18 
25 

1 

6 

20 

27 

29 

30 

27 

1 

11 

8 

15 

22 

2 

29 

5 

12 

19 

26 

27 

26 

21 

10 

17 

24 

31 

5 

19 

26 

28 

29 

26 

31 

10 

7 

14 

21 

1 

28 

4 

11 

18 

25 

26 

25 

22 

9 

16 
23 

30 

4 

18 

25 

27 

5 

1 

30 

9 

13 

20 

27 

31 

3 

10 

17 

24 

3 

25 

24 

*23 

8 

15 

22 

5 

3 

17 

24 

3 

4 

31 

29 

8 

12 

19 

26 

30 

2 

9 

16 

23 

1 

24 

24 

13 

20 

27 

3 

1 

15 

22 

1 

2 

29 

3 

13 

10 

17 

24 

4 

31 

7 

14 

21 

28 

29 

1.28 

25 

12 

19 

26 

2 

7 

21 

28 

30 

1 

28 

2 

12 

9 

16 

23 

3 

30 

6 

13 

20 

27 

28 

27 

26 

11 

18 
25 

1 

6 

20 

27 

29 

30 

27 

1 

11 

8 

15 

22 

2 

29 

5 

12 

19 

26 

27 

26 

*27 

10 

17 

24 

31 

5 

19 

26 

28 

29 

26 

31 

10 

7 

14 

21 

1 

28 

4 

11 

18 

25 

26 

25 

28 

8 

15 

22 

5 

3 

17 

24 

3 

4 

31 

29 

8 

12 

19 

26 

30 

2 

9 

16 

23 

2 

24 

pp.316, 
317. 


314  albIr^!. 


p.318.  CHAPTER    XVIII. 

ON    THE    FEASTS     OP     THE     ANCIENT     MAGIANS     AND     ON     THE     PAST     AND 
PEAST    DAYS    OP    THE    SABIANS. 

The  ancient  Magians  existed  already  before  the  time  of  Zoroaster,  but 
now  tbere  is  no  pure,  unmixed  portion  of  them  who  do  not  practise  the 
religion  of  Zoroaster.  In  fact,  they  belong  now  either  to  the  Zoroastrians 
or  to  the  Shamsiyya  sect  (sun- worshippers).  Still,  they  have  some 
ancient  traditions  and  institutes,  which  they  trace  back  to  their  original 
creed ;  but  in  reality  those  things  have  been  derived  from  the  laws  of 
the  sun-worshippers  and  the  ancient  people  of  Harran.  10 

As  regards  the  Sabians,  we  have  already  explained  that  this  name 
applies  to  the  real  Sabians,  i.e.  to  the  remnants  of  the  captive  Jews  in 
Babylonia,  whom  Nebukadnezar  had  transferred  from  Jerusalem  to  that 
country.  After  having  freely  moved  about  in  Babylonia,  and  having 
acclimatized  themselves  to  the  country,  they  found  it  inconvenient  to 
return  to  Syria  ;  therefore  they  preferred  to  stay  in  Babylonia.  Their 
religion  wanted  a  certain  solid  foundation,  in  consequence  of  which  they 
listened  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Magians,  and  inclined  towards  some  of 
them.  So  their  religion  became  a  mixture  of  Magian  and  Jewish  elements 
like  that  of  the  so-called  Samaritans  who  were  transferred  from  20 
Babylonia  to  Syria. 

The  greatest  part  of  this  sect  is  living  in  Sawad-al-'Irak.  These  are 
the  real  Sabians.  They  live,  however,  very  much  scattered  and  nowhere 
in  places  that  belong  exclusively  to  them  alone.  Besides,  they  do  not 
agree  among  themselves  on  any  subject,  wanting  a  solid  ground  upon 
which  to  base  their  religion,  such  as  a  direct  or  indirect  divine  revelation 
or  the  like.  Genealogically  they  trace  themselves  back  to  Enos ,  the  son 
of  Seth,  the  son  of  Adam. 

The  same  name  is  also  applied  to  the  Harranians,  who  are  the  remains 
of  the  followers  of  the  ancient  religion  of  the  West,  separated  (cut  off)   30 
from  it,  since  the  Ionian  G-reeks  (i.e.  the  ancient  Greeks,  not  the  PcofxaloL 
or  Byzantine  Greeks)  adopted  Christianity.     They  derive  their  system 


THE  FEASTS  AND  FASTS  OP  THE  MAGIANS  AND  SABIANS.       315 

from  Aghadhimun  (Agathodaemon),  Hermes,  Walis,  Mabfi,  Sawar.  They 
believe  that  these  men  and  other  sages  like  them  were  prophets.  This  sect 
is  much  more  known  by  the  name  of  Sabians  than  the  others,  although 
they  themselves  did  not  adopt  this  name  before  A.  H.  228  under 
Abbaside  rule,  solely  for  the  purj)ose  of  being  reckoned  among  those 
from  whom  the  duties  of  Dhimma  (jx^TotKia)  are  accepted,  and  towards 
whom  the  laws  of  Dhimma  are  observed.  Before  that  time  they  were 
called  heathens,  idolaters,  and  Harranians. 

They  call  the  months  by  the  Syrian  names  and  use  them  in  a  similar 

10  way  to  the  Jews,  whom  they  imitate,  the  Jews  being  the  more  ancient 

and  having  a  greater  claim  to  originality.     To  the  names  of  the  months 

they  add  the  word  Hildl  (new  moon),  so  they  say  Hildl  Tishrin  I.,  Hildl 

Tishrin  the  Last,  etc. 

Their  New  Tear  is  Hilal  Kanun  the  Last,  but  in  counting  the  months 
they  begin  with  Hilal  Tishrin  I.  p.319. 

Their  day  begins  with  sunrise,  whilst  all  others,  who  use  lunar  months, 
make  it  begin  with  sunset. 

Their  lunar  month  begins  with  the  second  day  after  conjunction  (new 

moon).     If,  now,  conjunction  precedes  sunrise  only  by  one  minute,  the 

20  third  following  day  is  the  beginning  of  the  month.     But  if  conjunction 

coincides  with  sunrise  or  falls  only  a  little  later,  the  second  day  after 

conjunction  is  the  beginning  of  the  month. 

When  in  the  course  of  three  years,  one  month  and  some  days  have 
summed  up,  they  add  this  time  as  one  month  to  their  months  after  Hilal 
Shubat  and  call  it  Hildl  Adhdr  I. 

Muhammad  b.  'Abd-Al'aziz  Alhashimi  has  given  in  his  Canon  called 
Alkdmil  a  short  notice  of  the  feasts  of  the  Sabians,  simply  relating  the 
facts  without  investigating  and  criticising  their  origin  and  causes.  His 
report  I  have  transferred  into  this  chapter,  adding  thereto  whatever 
30  I  have  learned  from  other  sources.  Eegarding  the  more  external  part  of 
this  feast-calendar  (i.e.  the  purely  chronological  part)  I  have  made  com- 
putations on  my  own  account,  only  by  way  of  induction,  since  I  have 
not  the  same  means  to  investigate  this  subject  which  I  had  for  the 
others.     God  helj)s  to  what  is  right ! 


Hilal  Tishrin  I. 

6.  Feast  of  Al-Dhahbana. 

7.  Beginning  of  the  celebration  of  the  feast. 

13.  Feast  of  Fudi  Ilahi. 

14.  Feast  of  Ilati  Fudi. 

40       15.  Feast  of  the  Lots  (Festum  Sortium). 


Hiird  Tishrin  II. 

1.  The  Great  Bahht  (i.e.  Fat^^m). 

2.  Mar  Shelama. 


316  albIe^nI. 

5.  Feast  of  ^  y\>i  for  the  shaving  of  the  head. 
9.  Uy  the  idol  of  Yenus. 

17.  Feast  of  Uy  (Tarsa).     On  the  same  day  they  go  out  of  town  to 
Batnse. 

18.  Feast  of  Sarug  ;  it  is  the  day  of  the  renewal  of  the  dresses. 
According  to  'Abu-alfarag  Alzanjani,  they  celebrate  the  Feast  of  Tents 

in  this  month,  beginning  with  the  4th  and  ending  on  the  18th. 


Hilal  Kanun  I. 

7.  Feast  of  the  addressing  (s-»^^)  to  (^\-^  the  idol  of  Venus. 

10.  Feast  of  the  idols  for  Mars.  10 

20.  Feast  of  the  Demons. 

21.  Beginning  of  the  first  fast,  which  is  broken  on  the  next  following 
day  of  conjunction  (new-moon's  day).  During  this  time  they  are  not 
allowed  to  eat  meat.  At  the  time  when  they  break  their  fast  they  are 
wont  to  practise  almsgiving  and  charitable  work. 

28.  Feast  of  the  invocation  of  the  Demons. 

29.  Feast  of  the  Fata  for  the  Demons. 

30.  Feast  of  consultation. 

p.320.       According   to   'Abu-alfaraj    Alzanjani   they   celebrate    on   the   24th 

of  this  month  the  feast  of  the  Nativity.  20 


Hilal  Kanun  II. 
All  the  invocations,  fast  and  feast  days  of  this  month  are  sacred  to 
the  Demons. 

1.  Feast  of  New- Tear's  Day,  like  the  calendar  of  the  Greeks. 

4.  Feast  of  Dair-aljahal,  and  the  feast  of  Balti,  i.e.  Venus. 

8.  Fast  of  seven  days :  it  is  broken  on  the  15th. 

12.  Invocation  of  \^=^j. 

20.  They  pray  to  the  Bel  of  Harran. 

25.  Feast  of  the  idol  of  Tirratha  (Tir'atha,  Atergatis). 

26.  Feast  of  the  nuptials  (wedding)  of  the  year.  30 


Hilal  Shubat. 

9.  Beginning  of  the  minor  fast ;  it  lasts  seven  days  and  is  broken  on 
the  16th.  During  that  time  they  do  not  taste  any  fat,  nor  anything  of 
the  feast-meals  or  what  is  taken  from  them. 

10.  Feast  of  the  House  of  the  Bridegroom  for  the  Sun. 
22.  Feast  of  y.-is.s^  for  the  Sun. 

24.  Feast  of  the  VeneraUe  Old  Man,  i.e.  Saturn. 

25.  Feast  of  the  nuptials  of  UUic. 


Hilal  Adhar. 
1.  Fast  of  <^\ ;  it  lasts  three  days,  and  is  broken  on  the  4th.  40 

7.  Feast  of  Hermes-Mercury. 


THE  FEASTS  AND  FASTS  OF  THE  MAGIANS  AND  SABIANS.       317 

8.  Beginning  of  the  Great  Fast,  during  which  only  meat  is  forbidden. 
Its  Signum  is  this,  that  they  begin  to  lament  on  a  day  of  this  month, 
when  the  sun  stands  in  the  sign  of  Pisces  (and  the  moon? — lac^ma). 
They  continue  their  lamentations  until  the  31st  day,  when  the  sun 
stands  in  the  sign  of  Aries,  and  the  moon  in  the  sign  of  Cancer,  both 
standing  in  the  same  degree.  The  former  day  is  the  beginning  of  the 
fast,  the  latter  is  its  breaking.  Frequently  this  fast  lasts  only  29  days, 
when  Hilal  Adhar  has  less  than  30  days. 

10.  Weaning  of  the  children. 


10  Hilal  Nisan. 

2.  Feast  of  Damis. 

8.  Feast  of  the  Stibium. 

4.  Celebration  of  IIXovtos. 

5.  Feast  of  y^?,  the  idol  of  Venus. 

6.  Feast  of  jU-.  and  of  the  Living  Being  of  the  Moon.     On  the  same 
day  is  the  feast  of  Dair-kadhi. 

8.  The  breaking  of  the  Great  Fast  falls  in  most  cases  on  the  8th  of 
this  month.     On  the  same  day  is  the  feast  of  the  birth  of  the  spirits. 

9.  Feast  of  the  Lords  of  the  Hours. 

20      15.  Feast  of  the  mysteries  of  Alsimak  (Spica). 

20.  Feast  of  the  assembly  at  Dair-Kadhi.  P-321. 

28.  Feast  of  Dair-Sini. 


Hilal  Ayyar. 

2.  Feast  of  Salugha,  prince  of  the  Satans. 

3.  Feast  of  a  Baghdadian  house. 

4.  Feast  of  the  vows. 

3.  Feast  of  c'-^t^^,  or  feast  of  baptism, 

7.  Feast  of  Dahdak,  the  idol  of  the  Moon. 

11.  Feast  of  Dahdak  and  Ws^^i;^. 

80       12.  Feast  of  \^f^. 

13.  Feast  of  Barkhushya. 

15.  Feast  of  Barkhurushya. 

17.  Feast  of  Bdb-altibn  (the  straw-gate). 

20.  Feast  of  perfection  for  Dahdak,  a  blind  idol.     On  the  same  day 
the  feast  of  Tera'uz. 


Hilal  Haziran. 
7.  Commemoration  of  Tammuza  with  lamentation  and  weeping. 
24.  Feast  of  Alkurmus  or  feast  of  genuflection. 
27.  Feast  of  the  butcher's  house. 


40  Hilal  Tammuz. 

15.  Feast  of  the  youths. 
17.  Feast  of  the  nuptials  of  the  elements. 


318  ALBtRdNi. 

18.  Feast  of  the  elements. 

19.  Also  feast  of  tlie  elements. 


Hilal  Ab. 

3.  Feast  of  Dailafatan,  the  idol  of  Venus. 

7.  Also  feast  of  Dailafatan. 
24.  Feast  of  bathing  in  the  Thermce  of  Serug. 
26.  Another  feast. 
28.  Feast  of  Kepharmisa. 
30.  End  of  the  feast  of  bathing  in  the  ThermcR  of  Serug. 


Hilal  llul.  10 

13.  Feast  of  the  Column  of  our  Houses  for  the  women,  the  end  of  a 
fasting. 

14.  Fasting  of  UiiJ. 

24.  Feast  of  the  Lords  of  the  coming  forth  of  the  New  Moons. 

25.  Feast  of  the  candle  on  the  hill  of  Harran. 

In  each  of  these  months  there  is  a  fast  of  certain  days  which  is  obli- 
gatory for  their  priests.  I  think,  either  it  lasts  14  days  of  each  month, 
or  it  falls  on  the  14th.     I  cannot  make  out  the  truth. 

One  of  those  who  record  their  doctrines  says,  that  on  the  17th  of 
each  month  .they  celebrate  a  feast,  the  reason  of  which  is  the  beginning  20 
of  the  deluge  on  the  17th  of  the  month  [lacuna]  ;  further,  that  the  days 
of  the  equinoxes  and  solstices  are  festivals  with  them,  and  that  the 
winter-solstice  is  the  beginning  of  their  year. 
p. 322.  This  is  all  that  Alhashimi  and  others  have  related.  We  have  collected 
these  materials  as  we  found  them,  simply  transcribing  the  names  as 
they  were  written.  When  we  shall  be  in  a  position  to  hear  these  things 
from  the  peoj^le  themselves  (the  Harranians) ,  and  to  distinguish  between 
what  is  peculiar  to  the  Sabians,  the  Harranians,  and  the  ancient  Magians, 
we  shall  follow  in  this  chapter  the  same  method  which  we  have  followed 
elsewhere,  if  God  permits  !  5^0 

(The  author  tries  to  form  his  information  regarding  the 
Harranian  calendar  into  a  system.) — Because  their  great  fasting 

falls  into  the  first  phase  (quadrature)  of  Hilal  Adhar,  whilst  sun 
and  moon  stand  in  two  douhle-hodied  signs  (Pisces  and  Gemini  ?), 
and  because  the  end  of  the  fasting  falls  into  the  first  phase  of  Hilal 
Nisan,  whilst  sun  and  moon  stand  in  certain  two  inclining  signs 
(Aries  and  Cancer),  their  months  must  of  necessity  revolve  in  the 
solar  year  in  a  similar  way  to  the  Jewish  months,  that  is  to  say :  on 
an  average.  And  between  the  causes  of  each  of  these  two  things 
there  is  a  connection.  For  the  Jewish  Passover  demands  that  sun  40 
and  moon  should  stand  in  the  first  opposition  in  two  signs  of  the 
equinoxes — for  they  may  stand  in  opposition,  and  not  only  once,  but 


THE  FEASTS  AND  FASTS  OF  THE  MAGI  AN  S  AND  SABIANS.       319 

twice — and  the  Harranian  fast-breaking  demands  that  which  we  have 
mentioned  (in  Hilal  Adhar).  Hence  follows  tiat  the  phase  (quadrature) 
next  preceding  the  Jewish  Passover  is  the  fast-breaking  of  the  Harra- 
nians,  and  that  the  conjunction  which  falls  next  to  the  autumnal  equinox 
is  the  beginning  of  their  year,  never  falling  beyond  tlul. 

If  we  compute  these  elements  for  a  cycle  of  19  years,  we  get  a  rough 
sort  of  computation,  but  only  a  rough  one,  for  they  themselves  try  to 
correct  it  by  means  of  the  time  of  the  conjunction,  as  we  have  men- 
tioned. 

10  The  methods  of  both  Jews  and  Christians  for  the  computation  of 
Passover  are  based  upon  such  motions  of  the  luminaries,  of  which  we 
have  found  out  that  they  remain  back  behind  real  time,  especially  as 
regards  the  sun  (the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  having  been  neglected). 
If  we  examine  the  oppositions  according  to  the  motions  that  have  been 
found  by  recent  observations,  we  find  that  some  of  them  precede  the 
Easter-limit  according  to  both  Jewish  and  Christian  systems;  they,  how- 
ever, disregard  this  precession,  whilst  it  is  really  the  case,  and  we  find 
that  others  of  them  (the  oppositions)  fall  near  the  end  of  the  Easter- 
limit  ;  these  latter  oppositions  they  adopt  and  ,rely  upon  them,  whilst 

20  they  are  utterly  wrong ;  for  the  real  time  (or  opposition)  precedes  that 
time  already  by  one  month. 

Now,  since  it  has  been  our  object  hitherto  to  point  out  scientific 
truth,  to  mediate  between  the  two  parties  (Jews  and  Christians),  and  to 
adjust  their  differences,  we  have  put  forward  the  methods  of  each  of  the 
two  sects  according  to  their  own  theory  as  well  as  that  of  others,  so  as 
to  show  to  each  of  them  the  pro  and  the  contra  of  the  case.  And  from 
our  side  we  have  proved  that  we  candidly  adopt  their  tradition  and 
lean  upon  their  theory,  in  order  to  make  the  truth  clear  to  them.  In 
all  of  which  we  are  guided  by  the  wish  that  both  parties  should  dis- 

30  miss  from  their  minds  the  suspicion  that  we  are  partial  to  any  side  or 
try  to  mystify  them  ;  that  their  minds  should  not  shrink  back  from  our 
opposition,  when  we  pass  in  review  the  (chronological)  canons  which 
they  produce.  For  if  they  are  left  such  as  they  are,  they  are  not  free 
from  confusion  and  mistakes,  most  of  which  we  have  already  pointed 
out. 

Now  we  shall  assume  as  the  earliest  date  of  the  Terminus  Paschalis  the 
16th  of  Adhar  ;  we  shall  let  the  day  of  opposition  in  reality  fall  into 
the  two  signs  of  the  equinoxes  ;  upon  this  basis  we  shall  arrange  the 
Passovers  of  the  cycle  that  none  of  them  precedes  this  terminus,  and 

40   that  each  of  them  falls  so  that  sun  and  moon  stand  in  opposition  to 

each  other  in  the  manner  prescribed  ;    the  end  of  the  terminus  is  to  P-323. 
be  the  13th  Msan,  and  within  this  space  the  sun  must  once  have  stood 
in   opposition    to   the   moon,   although   the   sun   may   also   after   this 
terminus   still   stand   in  Aries   without    standing  in  opposition  to  the 
moon. 


320 


albIe^n}. 


From  these  corrected  Passovers  we  shall  then  derive  the  fast-breaking 
of  the  Sabians,  and  thence  the  beginning  of  the  year,  i.e.  the  conjunc- 
tion in  Hilal  Tishrin  I. 

All  this  we  have  done  and  arranged  in  a  table.  Now  if  you  take  the 
years  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri — the  current  year  included — for  the  begin- 
ning of  Tishrin  I.,  which  follows  after  the  conjunction  of  their  New  Year, 
and  add  thereto  16  or  subtract  therefrom  3  ;  if  you  divide  the  sum  by 
19,  if  jow  neglect  the  quotient  and  compare  the  remainder  with  the 
column  of  the  numbers  in  the  Table  of  the  Corrected  Cycles,  you  find 
opposite  their  New  Year,  the  end  of  their  Great  Fasting,  the  corrected 
Passover,  and,  hence  derived,  the  mean  fasting  of  the  Christians,  all 
fixed  on  the  corresponding  days  of  the  Syrian  months. 

Here  follows  the  Table  of  the  Corrected  Cycle. 


10 


p.324. 


Table  of  the  Corrected  Cycle. 


•^ 

aj 

^ 

• 

rJ,    <>> 

d 

bn 

4i 

-a 
1 

a 

o 

6 

1 
1 

11 

1 

03 

> 
o 

PM 
Ti 

0) 

o 

o 
1) 

H 

o 

P 

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1 

o  a 

a 
1  . 

ll 

M 

11 

as 

o 

h! 

0 

H 

EH 

H 

H 

H 

H 

1 

28 

1 

Nisan 

8 

Nisan 

20 

Shubat 

18 

Ilul 

2 

L. 

17 

21 

Adhar 

28 

Adhar 

9 

Shnbat 

7 

Ilul 

3 

6 

9 

Nisan 

16 

Adhar 

28 

Kanun  II. 

26 

Ab 

4 

25 

29 

Adhar 

4 

Nisan 

16 

Shubat 

14 

Ilul 

5 

L. 

14 

17 

Adh^r 

24 

Adhar 

5 

Shubat 

3 

Ilul 

6 

2 

5 

Nisan 

12 

Nisan 

24 

Shubat 

22 

Ilul 

7 

L. 

21 

25 

Adhar 

1 

Nisan 

13 

Shubat 

11 

Imi 

8 

10 

13 

Nisan 

21 

Adhar 

2 

Shubat 

31 

Ab 

9 

29 

2 

Nisan 

9 

Nisan 

21 

Shubat 

19 

Ilul 

10 

L. 

18 

22 

Adhar 

29 

Adhar 

10 

Shubat 

8 

Ilul 

11 

7 

10 

Nisan 

18 

Adhar 

30 

Kanun  II. 

28 

Ab 

12 

26 

30 

Adhar 

6 

Nisan 

18 

Shubat 

16 

Ilul 

13 

L. 

15 

19 

Adhar 

26 

Adhar 

7 

Shubat 

5 

Ilul 

14 

4 

7 

Nisan 

15 

Adhar 

27 

Kanun  II. 

25 

Ab 

15 

23 

27 

Adhar 

3 

Nisan 

15 

Shubat 

13 

Ilul 

16 

L. 

12 

16 

Adhar 

23 

Adhar 

4 

Shubat 

2 

Ilul 

17 

1 

4 

Nisan 

11 

Nisan 

23 

Shubat 

21 

llAl 

18 

L. 

20 

24 

Adhir 

31 

Adhar 

12 

Shubat 

10 

IlAl 

19 

9 

12 

Nisan 

20 

Adhar 

1 

Shubat 

30 

Ab 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

20 


30 


321 


CHAPTER    XIX.  p-325. 

ON    THE    FESTIVALS    OF    THE    ARABS    IN    THE    TIME    OF    HEATHENDOM. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  Arabs  had  12  months,  that  they 
used  to  intercalate  them  so  as  to  make  them  revolve  with  the  solar  year 
in  one  and  the  same  order,  that  the  significations  of  the  names  of  the 
months  seem  to  indicate  the  reasons  why  they  agreed  among  each 
other  regarding  this  order,  some  of  them  indicating  the  corresponding 
times  of  the  year,  others  indicating  what  the  people  did  during  them. 
We  have  already  given  the  theory  of  some  etymologists  and  historians 
10  of  the  Arabs  regarding  them ;  we  shall  now  add  another  theory. 

Al-Muharram,  so  called  because  four  of  their  months  were  Hurum, 
i.e.  sacred  ones,  one  a  separate  one,  i.e.  Eajab,  and  three  consecutive  ones, 
i.e.  Dhu-alka'da,  Dhu-alhijja  and  Almuharram,  during  which  fighting 
was  forbidden. 

Safar,  so  called  on  account  of  a  contagious  disease  that  used  to  befall 
them,  when  they  became  ill  and  their  colour  became  yellow. 

Bahi'  Primus  et  Postreimis ;  they  fell  into  the  season  of  autumn,  which 
the  ancient  Arabs  called  BaM'. 

Jumddd  Prima  et  Postrema,  the  time  when  the  cold  mornings,  rime 
20  and  hoar    frost   appeared,  and    when  !the    water    began  to  freeze, — the 
season  of  winter. 

Bajab,  so  called  because  then  peoj)le  said  irjabu,  i.e.  abstain  from 
fighting  and  warlike  exj)editions,  because  it  was  a  sacred  month.  Accord- 
ing to  others,  so  called  because  people  immediately  before  it  made  haste, 
heing  afraid  of  it ;  for  you  say  rajibtuhu,  i.e.  I  was  afraid  of  him. 

Sha'hdn,  so  called  because  then  people  dispersed  to  their  camps  and 
went  out  in  search  of  booty. 

Bamaddn,  the  time  when  the  heat  commenced  and  the  soil  was 
burning  hot.  This  month  was  held  in  high  veneration  in  heathendom 
30  Shawwdl,  so  called  because  then  people  said  shawwiln,  i.e.  break  up ; 
according  to  another  view :  because  about  that  time  the  she-camels  throw 
about  their  tails,  wanting  to  be  covered.  Therefore  the  Arabs  did  not 
like  to  marry  their  children  in  this  month. 

21 


822  ALBtE^Nt. 

Dhu-al1ca'da,\)ecaMse  then  people  said,sti  down  and  abstain  from  fighting. 

Dhu-alhijja,  so  called  because  in  this  month  they  used  to  hold  their 
pilgrimages. 

(The  seasons  with  different  nations.)— Their  months  were  dis- 
tributed over  the  four  seasons,  beginning  with  autumn,  which  they 
called  i2a.&*' ;  then  winter;  then  spring,  called /Sai/,  or  by  others  i^abi' 
Secundus;  then  summer,  called  Kaiz.  This  nomenclature,  however, 
has  altogether  been  drojDped  and  forgotten.  Of  the  way  in  which 
they  divided  the  seasons,  we  know  only  so  much  that  the  beginning 
of  BahP  or  autumn  fell  on  the  3rd  llul,  the  beginning  of  winter  on  10 
the  3rd  Kanim  I.,  the  beginning  of  Saif  or  spring  on  the  6th  Adhar, 
and  the  beginning  of  Kaiz  or  summer  on  the  4th  Haziran.  This 
you  learu  by  the  way  in  which  they  distribute  the  risings  and 
settings  of  the  lunar  stations  over  the  seasons. 

Regarding  the  beginnings  of  these  four  seasons  there  has  been  a  con- 
troversy. Ptolemy  says,  in  his  Introduction  to  the  Spherical  Art,  that 
the  ancient  Greeks  fixed  their  beginnings  on  the  moments  when  the  sun 
p.326.  enters  the  equinoctial  and  solstitial  points,  whilst  the  Chaldeans  are 
said  to  have  commenced  the  seasons  8  degrees  after  the  equinoxes  and 
solstices.  The  reason  of  this  is,  as  it  seems  to  me,  that  the  computations  20 
in  the  Chaldean  canons  are  back  behind  the  computations  to  which  the 
observations  and  canons  of  the  ancient  Greeks  have  led,  and  that  just 
8  degrees  were  assumed  as  the  measure  of  this  difference  because  they 
found  such  a  difference  in  the  progressive  and  retrograde  motion  of  the 
sphere,  the  greatest  extent  of  which  is  8  degrees.  But  God  knows  best 
what  they  meant !  The  explanation  of  this  motion  you  find  in  the  Zij- 
alsafcVihoi  Abu-Ja'far  Alkhazin,andintheBook  of  the  Motions  of  the  Sun 
by  Ibrahim  b.  Sin;in,  the  best  and  most  appropriate  explanation  possible. 

The  Byzantine  Greeks  and  Syrians  fixed  the  beginnings  of  the  seasons 
earlier,  one  half  sign  (i.e.  15  degrees)  before  the  equinoctial  and  solstitial  30 
points.     In  consequence,  their  seasons  commence  when  the  sun  enters 
the  middle  of  the  signs  that  lie  before  the  year-points.     Therefore  these 
signs  were  called  the  corporeal  ones  (Gemini,  Virgo,  Arcitenens,  Pisces). 

Sinan  ben  Thabit  relates  two  theories  on  this  subject  on  the  authority 
of  the  Egyptians  and  of  Hipparchus,  both  nearly  to  this  effect,  that 
they  fix  the  beginnings  of  the  seasons  one  whole  sign  before  the  four 
year-points.  The  radicals  among  physical  scholars  make  them  precede 
the  year-points  by  one  sign  and  a  half,  and  those  of  them  who  more 
than  all  deviate  from  the  truth  fix  them  on  the  times  when  the  sun 
stands  towards  the  equator  at  the  half  of  his  total  inclination  (15°  Am-  40 
phora,  15°  Taurus,  15°  Leo,  15°  Scorpio).  Such  a  division  stands  in 
direct  opposition  to  common  usage  of  mankind,  and  is  in  no  way  to  be 
harmonized  with  the  significations  of  the  names  of  the  seasons. 

These  theories  in  all  their  varieties  are  represented  in  the  following 
table. 


THE  FESTIVALS  OF  THE  HEATHEN  AEABS. 


323 


The  natural 

philosophers  who 

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21 


324  ALBin^NI. 

p.328.      (On  the  fairs  of  the  ancient  Arabs.)— The  Arabs  used  to  hold  fairs 

in  certain  places  and  on  certain  dates  of  their  months  which  were  inter- 
calated so  as  to  agree  with  the  solar  year.  Some  of  them  have  been 
mentioned  by  Abu-Ja'far  Muhammad  ben  Habib  Albaghdadi  in  the 
Kitdb-Almujir.     He  says : 

The  fair  of  Diimat-aljandal  was  held  from  the  1st  of  Rabi'  I.  till  the 
middle  of  the  month.  There  a  bargain  was  concluded  by  the  throwing 
of  a  stone,  viz.  if  people  gathered  round  an  article  of  merchandise,  he 
who  liked  to  have  it  threw  a  stone.  Now,  frequently  several  people 
gathered  around  the  same  article,  then  the  owner  had  to  sell  it  to  that  10 
man  who  threw  the  stone. 

The  fair  of  Almushakkar  commenced  on  the  1st  of  Jumada  II.  There 
the  touching  was  the  mode  of  bargaining,  viz.  only  to  hint  and  to  whisper, 
which  they  did  for  fear  of  swearing  and  lying. 

The  fair  of  Suhar,  from  the  10th  till  15th  of  Rajab. 

The  fair  of  Daba,  on  the  last  of  Rajab.  There  the  mode  of  bargaining 
was  Almusdwama  (i.e.  chaffering). 

The  fair  of  Al-shihr,  in  the  middle  of  Sha'ban.  There  the  mode  of 
bargaining  was  the  throwing  of  a  stone. 

The  fair  of  'Adan,  from  the  1st  till  10th  of  Ramadan.  20 

The  fair  of  San'a,  from  the  middle  of  Ramadan  till  the  end. 

The  fairs  of  Alrabiya  in  Hadramaut,  and  of  'Ukaz  in  the  highest  part 
of  Alnajd,  not  far  from  'Arafat,  fell  on  the  same  day,  viz.  the  middle  of 
Dhu-alka'da.  The  fair  of  '  Ukfiz  was  one  of  the  most  important,  being 
frequented  by  the  tribes  Kuraish,  Hawazin,  Ghatafan,  'Aslam,  'Ukail, 
Almustalik,  the  'Ahabish,  and  by  a  motley  crowd  of  other  people.  The 
fair  was  held  from  the  middle  of  Dhu-alka'da  till  the  end.  As  soon  as 
the  new  moon  of  Dhu-alhijja  was  observed,  people  went  to  Dhu-almajaz, 
a  place  in  the  neighbourhood  of  'Ukaz.  Then  they  held  there  a  fair 
until  the  day  of  Altarwiya  (the  8th  of  Dhu-alhijja).  Then  they  went  up  30 
to  Mina. 

The  fair  of  Nata  in  Khaibar  and  that  of  Hajr  in  Alyamama  were  held 
.   from  the  1st  till  the  10th  of  Almuharram.     Since  God  has  sent  Islam, 
most  of  these  customs  have  been  abandoned. 


325 


CHAPTER    XX. 


ON    THE    FESTIVALS    OF    THE    MUSLIMS. 

Muslims  use  the  months  of  the  Arabs  without  any  intercalation,  for  a 
reason  which  we  have  heretofore  mentioned.  They  declared  the  four 
sacred  months  as  sacro-sanct  in  consequence  of  the  divine  word  (Sura 
ix.  86) :  "  Four  of  them  are  sacred  ones  (such  is  the  right  law). 
Therefore  you  shall  not  wrong  yourselves  in  them." 

The  months  Shawwal,  Dhu-alka'da,  and  the  first  ten  days  of  Dhu- 
alhijjathey  call  the   Months  of  Pilgrimage,  of  which  Grod  says  (Sura  ii. 

10  193)  :  "  Pilgrimage  lasts  for  certain  months.  Therefore  those  on  whom 
He  has  imposed  the  duty  of  pilgrimage  shall  not  speak  indecently,  nor 
commit  any  wrong,  nor  quarrel  during  pilgrimage."  They  were  called 
the  Months  of  Pilgrimage  because  before  this  time  the  pilgrim  is  not 
allowed  to  enter  the  holy  precincts.  There  are  controversies  regarding 
them  between  the  lawyers  of  the  four  orthodox  law-schools  ;  they  belong, 
however,  to  the  science  of  law,  and  would  swell  this  book  too  much  if  p.329. 
we  were  to  propound  them.  These  (two  and  one-third)  months  are 
named  with  the  Phiralis  Paucitatis  (not  dual),  because  the  fraction,  i.e. 
the  third  of  a  month,  is  added  to  the  other  months  as  one  complete 

20  month. 

The  Months  of  the  Treaty,  which  God  describes  in  the  following  words 
(Sura  ix.  2)  :  "  Therefore  ye  shall  go  about  on  earth  during  four  months," 
are  the  time  from  the  Day  of  Sacrifice  (the  10th  of  Dhu-Alhijja)  till  the 
10th  of  Eabi'  II.,  for  the  Prince  of  the  Believers  ('Ali)  recited  this  Sura 
to  the  people  (as  a  messenger  of  the  Pi-ojihet)  on  the  Dies  mactationis  (i.e. 
the  10th  of  Dhu-Alhijja)  on  the  fair. 

The  Arabs  celebrate  the  following  days  of  their  calendar. 

Almuharram. 
The  1st  is  celebrated  because  it  is  the  beginning  and  opening  of  the 
30  year. 


326  albirun}. 

The  9tli  is  called  TasxVd,  a  word  like  ^Asliurd.  It  is  a  day  on  whicli 
the  devotees  of  the  Shi'a  say  prayers. 

The  10th  is  called  'Ashurd,  a  most  distinguished  day.  The  Prophet  is 
reported  to  have  said :  "  0  ye  men,  hasten  to  do  good  works  on  this  day, 
for  it  is  a  grand  and  blessed  day,  on  which  God  had  mercy  on  Adam." 

People  celebrated  this  day  until  the  murder  of  Alhusain  b.  *Ali  b. 
'Abi-Talib  occurred  on  it,  when  he  and  his  adherents  were  treated  in 
such  a  way  as  never  in  the  whole  world  the  worst  criminals  have  been 
treated.  They  were  killed  by  hunger  and  thirst,  through  the  sword ; 
they  were  burned  and  their  heads  roasted,  and  horses  were  made  to  10 
trample  over  their  bodies.  Therefore  people  came  to  consider  this  day 
as  an  unlucky  one. 

On  the  contrary,  the  Banu  'TJmayya  dressed  themselves  on  this  day  in 
new  garments,  with  various  kinds  of  ornaments,  and  painted  their  eyes 
with  stibium;  they  celebrated  a  feast, and  gave  banquets  and  parties,  eating 
sweetmeats  and  various  kinds  of  confiseries. 

Such  was  the  custom  in  the  nation  during  the  rule  of  the  Banu 
'TJmayya,  and  so  it  has  remained  also  after  the  downfall  of  this  dynasty. 

The  Shi'a  people,  however,  lament  and  weep  on  this  day,  mourning 
over  the  protomartyr  (Alhusain)  in  public,  as,  e.g.  in  Baghdad  and  in  20 
other  cities  and  villages  ;  and  they  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  blessed  soil 
(the  tomb  of  Alhusain)  in  Karbala.  As  this  is  a  mourning-day,  their 
common  people  have  an  aversion  to  renewing  the  vessels  and  utensils  of 
the  household  on  this  day. 

When  the  news  of  the  murder  of  Alhusain  reached  Medina,  the 
daughter  of  'Akil  b.  Abi-Talib  came  forward  and  said  : 

"  What  will  you  say,  if  once  the  Prophet  speaks  to  you : 

'  What  have  you  done,  you,  the  last  of  all  nations. 
With  my  next  relations  and  my  family,  if  I  inquire  for  them  ?  ' 
One  half  of  them  are  prisoners  and  one  half  tinged  witli  blood.  30 

It  was  not  the  proper  reward  for  the  advice  I  gave  you. 
That  you,  in  playing  the  part  of  my  successors,  should  bring  woe 
over  those  who  had  sprung  from  my  loins." 

On  the  same  day  Ibrahim  b.  Al'ashtar,  the  helper  of  the  Prophet's 
family,  was  killed. 

People  say  that  on  this  day  God  took  compassion  on  Adam,  that  the 
ark  of  Noah  stood  still  on  the  mountain  Aljudi,  that  Jesus  was  born, 
that  Moses  was  saved  (from  Pharao),  and  Abraham  (from  the  fire  of 
Nebukadnezar),  that  the  fire  around  him  (which  was  to  burn  him) 
became  cold.  Further,  on  this  day  Jacob  regained  his  eye-sight,  Joseph  40 
was  drawn  out  of  the  ditch,  Solomon  was  invested  with  the  royal  power, 
the  punishment  was  taken  away  from  the  people  of  Jona,  Hiob  was  freed 
from  his  plague,  the  prayer  of  Zacharias  was  granted  and  John  was 
given  to  him. 


THE    FESTIVALS    OF    THE    MUSLIMS.  327 

People  maintain  that  the  Dies  omationis,   which  is  the  time  for  the   p. 330. 
rendezvous  of  the  sorcerers  of  Pharao,  is  this  day  'Ashura,  especially 
the  time  after  noon. 

Although  it  be  possible  that  all  these  events  should  have  occurred  on 
this  day,  we  must  state  that  all  this  rests  only  on  the  authority  of  popular 
story-tellers,  who  do  not  draw  upon  learned  sources  nor  upon  the 
agreement  between  the  owners  of  a  divine  writ  (i.e.  Jews  and  Christians). 
Some  people  say  that  'Ashura  is  an  Arabized  Hebrew  word,  viz. 
'Ashur,  i.e.  the  10th  of  the  Jewish  month  Tishri,  in  which  falls  the  fasting 
10  Kipj)ur ;  that  the  date  of  this  fasting  was  compared  with  the  months  of 
the  Arabs,  and  that  it  was  fixed  on  the  10th  day  of  th.e\v  first  month,  as 
it  with  the  Jews  falls  on  the  10th  of  their  first  month. 

The  Prophet  gave  orders  to  fast  on  this  day  in  the  first  year  of  the  Hijra, 
but  afterwards  this  law  was  abrogated  by  the  other  law,  to  fast  during 
the  month  of  Eamadan,  which  falls  later  in  the  year.  People  relate 
that  the  Prophet  of  Grod  on  arriving  in  Medina  saw  the  Jews  fasting 
'Ashura.  On  inquiring  of  them,  he  was  told  that  this  was  the  day  on 
which  Grod  had  drowned  Pharao  and  his  people  and  had  saved  Moses 
and  the  Israelites.  Then  the  Prophet  said :  "  We  have  a  nearer  claim  to 
20  Moses  than  they."  In  consequence  he  fasted  on  that  day  and  ordered 
his  followers  to  do  the  same.  But  when  he  afterwards  issued  the  law 
regarding  the  fasting  of  Ramadan,  he  no  longer  ordered  them  to  fast 
on  'Ashura,  but  neither  did  he  forbid  them. 

This  tradition,  however,  is  not  correct,  since  scientific  examination 
proves  against  it.  For  the  1st  of  Muharram  in  the  year  of  the  Hijra 
was  a  Friday,  the  16th  Tammuz,  A.  Alexandri  933.  But  if  we  compute 
the  Jewish  New- Year's  Day  for  the  same  year,  it  was  a  Sunday,  the  12th 
of  Elul,  corresponding  to  the  29th  of  Safar,  Therefore  the  fasting 
'Ashura  fell  on  Tuesday,  the  9th  of  Rabi'  I.,  and  the  flight  of  the 
30   Prophet  occurred  in  the  first  half  of  Eabi'  I. 

When  the  Prophet  was  asked  regarding  the  fasting  of  Monday,  he 
said :  "  On  this  day  I  was  born,  I  received  my  prophetical  mission  and 
divine  revelation,  and  on  this  day  I  fled." 

Further,  it  is  a  question  on  which  Monday  the  flight  occurred.  Ac- 
cording to  some,  it  was  the  2nd  of  Eabi'  I.,  according  to  others  the  8th, 
according  to  others  the  12th  of  Eabi'  I.  However,  according  to  the 
generally-adopted  view,  it  was  the  8th  of  Eabi'  I.  Both  the  2nd  and 
the  12th  are  excluded,  since  they  were  not  Mondays,  because  the  1st  of 
Eabi'  I.  of  this  year  was  a  Monday  (in  consequence  the  2nd  was  a 
40  Tuesday  and  the  12th  a  Friday).  Now,  for  this  reason  the  arrival  of 
the  Prophet  in  Medina  (on  Monday,  the  8th  of  Eabi'  I.)  falls  one  day 
before  the  Jewish  'Ashura  (on  Tuesday,  the  9th  of  Eabi'  I.),  and  'Ashura 
did  not  fall  in  Muharram,  except  at  the  time  3-10  years  before  the  year  of 
the  flight,  or  20-30  years  after  the  year  of  the  flight. 

Therefore  you  could  not  maintain  that  the  Prophet  fasted  'Ashura  on 


328  ALBlRf^Nt. 

account  of  its  coinciding  with,  the  10th  in  this  year,  unless  you  transfer 
'Ashura  from  the  first  of  the  Jewish  months  to  the  first  of  the  Arabian 
months,  so  as  to  make  them  fall  together.  (In  the  first  year  of  the  flight 
the  1st  of  Muharram  was  a  Friday,  and  therefore  the  10th  or  'Ashura, 
Monday).  Also  in  the  second  year  of  the  flight  the  Jewish  'Ashura  and 
the  date  of  Muhammad's  arrival  in  Medina  cannot  have  coincided. 

The  assertion  of  the  Jews  that  on  this  day  God  drowned  Pharao  is 

refuted  by  the  Thora  itself.     For  this  took  place  on  the  21st  of  Nisan, 

p.331.  the  seventh  of  the  days  of  unleavened   bread.      Now,  the    beginning 

of  the  Jewish  Passover  after  the  arrival  of  the  Prophet  in  Medina  was  a  10 
Tuesday,  the  22nd  Adhar,  A.  Alex.  933,  coinciding  with  the  17th  Eamadan, 
and   the   day  on  which  God  drowned  Pharao  was  the  23rd  Ramadan. 
Therefore  this  tradition  is  altogether  unfounded. 

The  16th,  Jerusalem  was  made  the  Kibla  of  the  Muslims. 

The  17th,  the  Companions  of  the  Elephants  (Ethiopians  from  the  south 
of  Arabia)  arrived  before  Mekka. 

Safar. 

1.  The  head  of  Alhusain  was  brought  to  Damascus.  Then  he  (Yazid 
b.  Mu'awiya)  placed  it  before  himself,  and  with  a  stick  in  his  hand  he 
struck  out  the  fore-teeth  (the  central  four  incisors),  reciting  these  verses:  20 

"  I  am  not  a  descendant  of  Khindif,  if  I  do  not  revenge 
On  the  sons  of  Ahmad  what  he  has  done. 
O  that  my  chieftains  in  the  battle  of  Badr  had  witnessed 
The  pain  of  Khazraj,  caused  by  the  hitting  of  the  spears. 
They  would  have  praised  God,  and  their  faces  would  have  beamed 

with  joy, 
And  then  they  would    say :     '  O  Yazid,  do  not  ask  for  anything 

more ! 
We  have  killed  the  generation  of  their  chieftains  ; 
We  have  tried  to  take  vengeance  on  him  for  Badr,  and  we  have  30 

got  it.'" 

On  this  day  the  Imam  Zaid  b.  'Ali  was  killed  and  crucified  on  the 
border  of  the  Euj)hrates  ;  then  his  body  was  burned,  and  the  ashes 
thrown  into  the  water. 

16.  First  appearance  of  the  illness  in  the  Proj»het.  This  was  the 
illness  in  which  he  died. 

20.  The  head  of  Alhusain  was  again  laid  to  the  body,  and  both 
were  buried  together. 

On  this  day  the  pilgrimage  of  the  forty  men  occurred,  when  they 
entered  the  holy  district  after  their  return  from  Syria.  40 

23.  Alma'mun  b.  Alrashid  (the  Abbaside  Khalif)  gave  up  again 
the  green  dress,  after  he  had  dressed  in  it  during  five  and  a  half  months. 


THE    FESTIVALS    OF    THE    MUSLIMS.  329 

He  again  adopted  the  black  colours,  tlie  colours  of  the   Abbaside  party, 
after  they  had  become  excited  against  him. 

24.  Muhammad  left  Mekka  and  concealed  himself  in  a  cave  together 
with  Abu-Bakr. 

BaW  I. 

1.  Death  of  the  Prophet. 

8.  The  Prophet  arrives  in  Medina  on  the  flight. 

12.  The  Prophet  is  born  on  a  Monday  in  the  Year  of  the  Elei>hants. 

BaW  11. 

10       3.  The  Ka'ba  was  burned  at  the  time  when  Alhajjaj  besieged  'Abd- 
allah  b.  Zubair. 

15.  Birth  of  'Ali  b.  Abi-Talib. 

Jumddd  I. 

3.  The  Battle  of  the  Camel  in  Basra  with '  A'isha,  Talha,  and  Alzubair. 
8.  The  death  of  the  virgin  Fatima,  the  Prophet's  daughter. 

Jumddd  II. 

2.  Death  of  Abu-Bakr. 

4.  Fatima  was  born  of  Khadija  bint  KhuwaiUd. 

Rajah. 

20       4.  'All  and  Mu'awiya  meet  at  Siffin. 

26.  God  made  Muhammad  His  Projjhet  to  all  mankind. 

27.  Night  of  Ascension  and  the  night- journey  to  Jerusalem. 

8ha''Mn. 

3.  Birth  of  Alhusain  b.  *Ali. 

15.  The  great  Liberation-night,  also  called  Lailat-alsakh. 

15.  The  Ka'ba  was  made  the  Kibla  instead  of  Jerusalem.  The 
Harriinians  turn  in  praying  towards  the  south  pole,  the  Sabians  towards 
the  north  pole.  I  believe  that  the  Manichseans,  too,  turn  towards  the 
north  pole,  because  this  is,  according  to  them,  the  middle  of  the  dome  of 
heaven  and  its  highest  place.  I  find,  however,  that  the  author  of  the 
Booh  on  Marriage,  who  is  a  Manichsean  and  one  of  their  missionaries, 
reproaches  the  j^eople  of  the  three  religious  with  turning  to  one  direction 
to  the  exclusion  of  another.  With  this  he  reproaches  them,  besides  other 
things,  and  he  seems  to  indicate  that  a  man  who  prays  to  God  does  not 
need  any  Kibla  at  all. 


30 


330  ALBiE^Nl. 


Bamad&n, 

the  month  of  the  obligatory  fasting. 
p.332.       6.  Birth  of  Alhusain    b.   'Ali  according  to    all    authorities    except 
Alsalami. 

7.  Alma'mun  adoj)ted  the  green  colours. 

10.  Death  of  Khadija. 

17.  The  cursed  'Abd-alrahman  b.  Muljim  Almuradi  struck  'Ali  b.  Abi- 
Talib  on  the  head  so  as  to  injure  the  brain. 

On  the  morning  of  the  17th  the  battle  of  Badr  occurred  ;  according  to 
another  report,  it  occurred  on  the  19th.  But  this  is  not  correct,  because  10 
there  is  an  uninterrupted  tradition  saying  that  it  occurred  on  a  Monday 
in  the  second  year  of  the  flight.  If  we  compute  the  1st  of  Ramadan  for 
this  year,  we  find  that  it  was  a  Saturday,  and  the  Monday  in  question 
falls  upon  the  17th. 

19.  Mekka  was  conquered.  The  Prophet  did  not  perform  the 
pilgrimage,  because  the  Arabian  months  were  back  behind  real  time  in 
consequence  of  the  Nasi^  (postponement  of  certain  months  in  the  times  of 
heathendom).  Therefore  he  waited  till  the  months  returned  to  their  proj)er 
places,  and  then  he  performed  the  farewell-pilgrimage,  and  forbade  to 
use  the  NasV.  20 

21.  Death  of  the  Prince  of  the  Believers,  'Ali  b.  Abi-Talib  ;  also  death 
of  'Ali-Alrida  Ibn  Musa  Alkazim  b.  Ja'far  Alsadik  b.  Muhammad 
Albakir  b.  'Ali  AlsajjadZain-al'abidin  b.  Alhusain,  the  j^rotomartyr,  son 
of  the  Prince  of  the  Believers  'Ali  b.  Abi-Talib.  According  to  others, 
his  death  (that  of  'Ali-Alrida)  occurred  on  the  23rd  Dhu-Alka'da. 

22.  Birth  of  'Ali  b.  Abi-Talib,  according  to  Alsalami. 

25.  'Abu-Muslim  'Abd-alrahman  b.  Muslim  first  raised  the  standard 
of  the  'Abbasides  in  Khurasjin. 

26.  Revolt  of  Alburku'i  in  Basra ;  according  to  some,  he  was  'Ali  b. 
Muhammad  b.  'Ahmad  b.  'Isa  b.  Zaid  b.  'Ali  b.  Alhusain  b  'Ali  b.  Abi-   30 
Talib  ;  according  to  others,  he  was  'Ali  b.  Muhammad  b.    'Abd-alrahim 

b.  'Abd-alkais.  There  is  a  rej)ort  saying  that  Alhasan  b.  Zaid,  the 
Prince  of  Tabaristan,  wrote  to  him  at  the  time  when  he  came  forward  in 
Basra,  asking  for  his  genealogy,  in  order  to  learn  the  truth  of  the 
matter,  whereupon  he  received  this  answer  :  "  Do  you  mind  my  business 
as  much  as  I  mind  yours  (i.e.  as  little).  My  compliments."  A  wonderfully 
short  and  cutting  answer,  very  much  like  that  which  Wali-aldaula  'Abu- 
'Ahmad  Khalaf  b.  'Ahmad,  the  Prince  of  Sijistan,  gave,  when  Nuh  b. 
Mansur,  the  Prince  of  Khurasan,  had  written  to  him  threatening  him 
with  various  things.  He  answered  :  "  0  Nuh,  you  have  quarrelled  with  us  40 
a  great  deal.  Now  carry  out  that  with  which  you  threaten  us,  if  you 
are  a  true-speaking  man." 

27.  The  night  of  this  day  is  called  Lailat-alkadar  (Night  of  Fate),  of 
which  God  says  (Sura  xcvii.  3)  that  it  is  better  than  a  thousand  months. 


THE    FESTIVALS    OF    THE    MUSLIMS.  331 

The  date  of  this  night  rests  on  universal  agreement,  because  its  real 
date  is  not  known.  People  say  :  "  See,  this  night  is  the  night  of  the 
17th  or  the  19th,  for  it  was  between  these  two  nights  that  the  battle 
of  Badr  occurred,  the  conqiiest  of  Mekka,  the  descending  of  the  angels 
as  a  help,  marked  with  certain  badges  (Sura  iii.  121)."  This  may  be 
correct,  for  God  says  (Sura  xcvii.  4)  :  "  The  angels  descend  and  the 
Spirit.  There  is  freedom  from  everything  in  that  night  by  the  permission 
of  their  Lord." 
People  say  that  on  the  following  days  the  holy  books  were  communicated 
10  to  the  Prophet — 

on  the  1st  of  Ramadan,  the  leaves  to  Abraham,  p.333. 

the  6th  the  Thora  to  Moses, 
the  12th  the  Psalms  to  David, 
the  18th  the  Grospel  to  Jesus,  and 
the  24th  the  Furkdn  to  Muhammad. 

As  regards  the  Goran,  God  says  (Sura  ii.  181) :  "  The  month  of 
Ramadan  in  which  the  Goran  was  sent  down."  Thereby  we  learn  that  it 
was  revealed  in  this  month.  Some  people  quote  besides  the  passage 
(Sura  viii.  42)  :  "  And  that  which  we  have  sent  down  upon  our  servant 
20  on  the  day  of  the  decision  (Alfurkan),  on  the  day  when  the  two  hosts 
met,"  inferring  from  this  passage  that  the  Goran  was  revealed  on  the 
17th  of  Ramadan,  because  on  this  day  the  two  hosts  (that  of  Muhammad 
and  his  opponents)  met  at  Badr.     But  God  knows  best ! 

Regarding  the  Thora,  we  have  already  mentioned  that  it  was  revealed 
on  the  6th  of  Siwan,  on  the  feast  of  congregation  ('Azereth).  If,  at  that 
time,  Ramadan  coincided  with  Siwan,  the  matter  is  so  as  has  been  said. 
But  there  is  no  possibility  of  settling  this  question,  because  the  year  in 
which  the  Thora  was  revealed  is  not  known  ;  if  it  were  known,  we  should 
inquire  into  the  subject  by  chronological  comjDutations.  The  report 
30  regarding  the  Gospel  is  the  saying  of  a  man  who  does  not  know  its 
character,  nor  arrangement,  nor  composition,  and  the  revelation  of  the 
other  books  is  altogether  unknown  and  cannot  be  found  out.  God 
knows  best ! 

Shawwdl. 

1.  Feast  of  fast-breaking,  also  called  the  day  of  mercy.  God  selected 
Gabriel  as  the  bearer  of  His  revelation.  He  inspired  the  bees  and  taught 
them  how  to  make  honey  (Sura  xvi.  70). 

People   maintain  that   on   this  day   God   created   Paradise.     But  why 

do  they  mention  in   their  report  such  a  thing  with  all  that  it  may  be 

4i)   supposed  to  indicate  and  that  may  l)e   inferred  therefrom?      They  go 

even  so  far  as  to  attribute  to  Him  an  ugly  anthropomorphism — as  to  say 

.   that  on  this  day  He  planted  the  tree  Tuba  with  His  own  hand.    And  this 


832  ALBlnt^Nf. 

they  have  not  tried  to  explain  in  any  way ;  on  the  contrary,  they  believe 
it  just  as  it  stands,  from  sheer  ignorance. 

2.  Beginning  of  a  voluntary  fasting  of  six  consecutive  days. 

4.  Muhammad  and  the  Christians  of  Najran  argued  with  each  other. 
Muhammad  installed  Hasan  and  Husain  in  the  right  of  sons  of  his,  and 
Fatima  in  the  right  of  his  wives,  and  'Ali  b.  'Abi-Talib  he  made  his 
intimate  friend,  complying  with  the  order  of  God  in  the  verse  of  the 
cursing. 

17.  Battle  of  'XJhud ;  according  to  others,  it  occurred  in  the  middle  of 
the  month.     In  this  battle  Hamza  was  killed,  and  Muhammad  lamented  lo 
over  his  loss. 

19.  Death  of  Abu-Talib. 

28.  On  this  day,  they  say,  Yonas  was  devoured  by  the  fish. 

Dhu'Alka'da. 

6.  The  Ka'ba  was  sent  down.  God  took  compassion  on  Adam. 
Abraham  and  Ishmael  raised  the  bases  of  the  temple  of  Mekka. 

14.  Jonas,  they  say,  came  forth  from  the  belly  of  the  fish.  According 
to  this  view  he  must  have  stayed  there  twenty-two  days,  whilst  according 
to  the  Christians  he  stayed  only  three  days,  as  is  mentioned  in  the 
Gospel.  20 

29.  On  this  day,  they  say,  the  tree  Yaktin  grew  over  Yonas. 

Bhu-Alhijja. 

1.  The  Prophet  of  God  married  his  daughter  Fatima  to  his  cousin, 
p. 334.  'All  b.  Abi-Talib.  The  first  10  days  of  this  month  are  also  called  Dies 
noti  and  Bies  sacri.  According  to  some,  they  are  the  time  by  which  God 
completed  the  time  which  He  had  promised  to  Moses,  saying  (Sura  vii. 
138) :  "  And  we  have  j^romised  Moses  thirty  nights — which  are  the 
nights  of  Dhu-alka'da — and  we  have  completed  their  number  by  ten  " — 
which  are  the  Dies  sacri. 

8.  This  day  is  called  Altarwiya,  because  the  pilgrim's-well  in  the  holy  30 
mosque  of  Mekka  used  to  be  full  of  water  about  this  season  in  the  time 

of  both  heathendom  and  Islam,  and  the  pilgrims  drank  from  it  so  much 
as  to  quench  their  thirst.  According  to  another  view,  it  was  called  so 
because  they  used  to  carry  the  water  from  Mekka  on  Bawdyd,  i.e.  camels 
which  are  used  to  draw  water  from  a  well.  According  to  a  third  opinion, 
because  God  made  spring  forth  for  Ishmael  the  well  Zamzam,  from  which 
he  drank  so  much  as  to  quench  his  thirst.  According  to  a  fourth 
opinion,  because  on  this  day  God  revealed  Himself  to  the  mountain,  as 
has  been  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Moses. 

9.  This   day   is   called  'Arafa,  the  day  of  the  great   pilgrimage   on  40 
'Arafat.     It  is  so  called  because  on  that  day  people  recognise  each  other 

at  the  time  when  they  assemble  for  the  performance  of  the  rites  of 


THE    FESTIVALS    OF    THE    MUSLIMS.  833 

pilgrimage,  or,  because  Adam  and  Eve  recognised  each  other  after  they 
had  been  driven  out  of  Paradise  in  the  place  where  people  assembled, 
i.e.  in  'Ao'afdt. 

On  this  day  God  selected  Abraham  as  a  friend  (KhaliT).  It  is  also 
called  the  day  of  forgiving. 

10.  It  is  called  the  day  of  the  victims,  also  Dies  tmtctationis,  because  on 
this  day  the  animals,  that  had  been  brought  to  Mekka  to  be  sacrificed, 
were  slaughtered.  It  is  the  last  day  of  the  days  of  the  pilgrimage.  On 
this  day  Isaak  was  ransomed  with  the  ram.     On  this  day,  too,  the  Road 

10   (via  strata)  to  the  Last  Judgment  is  said  to  have  been  created. 

11.  The  day  of  sojourning,  because  on  this  day  people  sojourn  in 
Mina. 

12.  The  day  of  goiiig  away,  because  on  this  day  people  go  away  from 
the  holy  district  hurrying. 

11,  12,  13.  The  days  of  Tashrik,  so  called  because  on  these  days  the 
meat  of  the  sacrificed  animals  was  cut  to  pieces  and  exposed  to  the  sun 
for  drying.  The  name  is  also  derived  fi'om  the  saying,  "  'Ashrik  thabir 
Tcaimd  nughlr  "  (i.e.  Shine  forth,  O  mountain  Thabir,  that  we  may  break 
up).  According  to  Ibn-Al'a'rabi  they  were  so  called  because  the  victims 
20   (hostlce)  were  not  killed  before  the  sun  had  risen. 

These  are  the  days  which  God  means  in  His  words  (Sura  ii.  199)  : 
"  And  ye  shall  remember  God  on  certain  counted  days." 

In  the  time  immediately  before  and  after  these  days  people  say  Allah 
aJcbar  after  every  prayer.  Among  the  theologians  there  are  differences 
regarding  the  beginning,  the  end,  and  the  limits  of  the  prayer  of  Takhir 
(i.e.  Allah  akbar),  differences  peculiar  to  their  science. 

17.  'Uthman  b.  'Affan  the  Khalif  was  killed. 

18.  It  is  called  Ghadir  Khumm,  which  was  the  name  of  a  station  on 
the  road- side  where  Muhammad  alighted  when  returning  from  the  fare- 

80  well  pilgrimage.  He  gave  orders  to  collect  the  saddles  and  all  the  riding- 
instruments  into  one  heap  ;  this  he  ascended,  supported  by  the  arm  of 
'All  b.  'Abi-Tjilib,  and  said :  "  0  men,  am  I  not  nearer  to  you  than  you 
yourselves  ?  "  They  answered,  "  Yes."  Then  he  said  :  "  To  every  man 
whose  friend  I  am,  also  'Alt  is  a  friend.  0  God,  befriend  him  who 
befriends  'All,  and  oppose  him  who  opposes  'Ali,  help  him  who  helps 
'All,  and  desert  him  who  deserts  'Ali.  Let  truth  go  about  with  him 
wherever  he  goes."  Then  he  is  said  to  have  raised  his  head  towards 
heaven  and  said 

(Lacuna.) 

40       24.  'All  gave  away  his  seal-ring  as  alms,  in  praying.  p.335. 

25.  'Umar  b.  Alkhattab  was  killed,  and  the  Sura  Hal  'Aid  (Sura 
Ixxvi.)  was  revealed. 

26.  David  was  inspired  to  ask  for  pardon  (Sura  xxxviii.  23). 


334  albirunI. 

29.  Battle  of  Alharra,  in  which  the  Banu-'TJmayya  killed  the  people 
of  Medina,  when  the  honour  of  the  Muhdjirun  (companions  of  the  flight 
of  Muhammad)  and  of  the  ^Ansdr  (his  partisans  in  Medina)  was  stained 
and  their  wives  were  given  up  to  the  enemies.  Therefore  may  God 
curse  all  those  whom  His  Prophet  cursed,  of  those  who  rebelled  in 
Medina  against  the  law  of  God,  and  may  He  let  us  belong  to  those  who 
do  not  like  wickedness  on  earth.  God  is  the  best  Helper,  and  infinite 
thanks  are  His  due  ! 


335 


CHAPTER    XXI.  P.336. 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS,    THEIR    RISING   AND    SETTING,    AND    ON 
THEIR    IMAGES. 

It  is  now  time  for  us  to  finish,  after  we  have,  as  best  we  could, 
fulfilled  our  promise  in  explaining  the  science  of  that  subject  which 
our  friends  wanted  to  know,  and  in  relating  all  we  know  regarding  it. 
But  above  every  knowing  man  there  is  Grod  all-wise  !  To  complete  the 
representation  of  this  science,  only  one  more  chapter  is  required,  that 
of  the  rising  of  the  Lunar  Stations  in  the  days  of  the  solar  year.     For 

10  this  science  is  practised  on  account  of  its  general  usefulness  for  the 
purpose  of  prognosticating  all  meteorological  occurrences  which  revolve 
together  with  the  Lunar  Stations.  Therefore  we  shall  now  proceed  to 
explain  this  subject  both  at  large  and  in  detail,  and  we  shall  add  some 
of  the  proverbial  sayings  relating  to  them,  which  we  gather  from  the 
literature  of  this  kind,  e.g.  from  the  book  of  Alkulthumi,  that  of  Ibra- 
him b.  Alsari'i  Alzajjaj,  that  of  Tahya  b.  Kunasa,  of  Abu-Hanifa  Aldi- 
nawari  on  the  'Anwd,  the  book  of  'Abu-Muhammad  Aljabali  on  the 
science  of  the  configurations  of  the  stars,  the  book  of  Abu-Alhusain  on 
the  fixed  stars,  and  from  other  books. 

20  The  Hindus  divided  the  globe,  in  conformity  with  their  27  Lunar 
Stations,  into  27  parts,  each  Station  occupying  nearly  Idj  degrees  of  the 
ecliptic.  From  the  stars  entering  these  Stations,  which  are  called  Jufur, 
they  derived  their  astrological  dogmas  as  required  for  every  subject  and 
circumstance  in  particular.  The  description  of  these  Astrologoumena 
would  entail  a  long  explication  of  things,  foreign  to  our  purpose,  all  of 
which  may  be  found  in—  and  learned  from — the  books  on  Astrologou- 
mena. 

The  Arabs  divided  the  celestial  globe  into  28  parts,  so  that  each  Station 


336  ALBIRUNt. 

occupies  nearly  12f  degrees  of  the  ecliptic,  and  eacli  zodiacal  sign  con- 
tains 2|  Stations.     Some  poet  says  : 

"  Their  number  is,  if  you  want  to  count  them, 
Twenty  stars,  and  a  number  8  after  them. 
In  each  of  the  zodiacal  signs  there  are 
Two  Stations  and  one  complete  third  of  a  Station. 
A  jjeculiar  system  of  computation  belongs  to  them,  and  they  haye 

their  heliacal  risings  and  settings. 
Which  are  the  reason  that  winter  and  summer  revolve." 

The  Arabs  used  the  Lunar  Stations  in  another  way  than  the  Hindus,  10 
as  it  was  their  object  to  learn  thereby  all  meteorological  changes  in 
the  seasons  of  the  year.  But  the  Arabs,  being  illiterate  people,  could 
not  recognize  the  Lunar  Stations  except  by  certain  marks,  visible  to  the 
p.337.  eye.  Therefore  they  marked  the  Stations  by  those  fixed  stars  which  lie 
within  them.  And  the  rising  of  the  fixed  stars  in  the  east  early  after 
the  rise  of  dawn  they  considered  as  a  sign  of  the  sun's  entering  some 
one  of  the  Stations,  and  so  they  could  do,  since  the  stars  do  not  recede 
from  their  places  except  after  the  lapse  of  long  spaces  of  time,  and, 
besides,  the  Arabs  were  not  educated  enough  to  notice  such  a  variation. 
Further,  they  composed  verses  and  rhymed  poetry,  so  that  these  things  20 
could  easily  be  remembered  by  illiterate  people,  and  recorded  therein 
the  annual  physical  influences  which,  according  to  their  observation  and 
experience,  coincided  with  the  rising  of  each  particular  Station.  These 
sayings  and  verses  they  use  to  indicate  certain  circumstances  of 
theirs,  e.g. : 

"  When   the    moon    joins    (i.e.    stands   in    conjunction   with)    the 
Pleiades, 
In  a  third  night  (of  a  month),  then  the  winter  is  gone." 

For   the  Pleiades   occupy  the  place  from  10°  of  Taurus  till  about  15°  of 
Taurus.     When,  therefore,  the  moon  joins  the  Pleiades  in  the  3rd  night   30 
of  a  month,  the  distance  between  sun  and  moon  is  about  40  degrees. 
Then  the  sun  stands  in  the  first  part  of  Aries.     Further : 

"  When  full-moon  is  complete  and  stands  with  the  Pleiades, 
Then  you  get  the  beginning  of  the  cold  season,  the  winter." 

For  when  the  moon  stands  in  opj^osition  to  the  Pleiades,  the  sun  stands 
in  the  middle  of  Scorpio,  and  that  time  is  the  beginning  of  the  cold 
season.     Further : 

"  When  full-moon  joins  Aldabaran 
In  the  14th  night  of  a  month, 

Then  winter  encircles  the  whole  earth,  40 

Being  like  riders  who  ride  about,  telling  people  to  warm  them- 
selves. 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS.  337 

And  full  moon  risea  in  heaven  high  overhead,  so  that 
The  shadow  of  the  teut-poles  disappears, 
When  the  night  has  reached  its  middle 
And  the  air  is  free  from  dark  clouds," 

For  at  that  time  the  sun  stands  in  Scorpio  close  to  Alkali  (the  18th 
Lunar  Station)  ;  it  is  the  time  of  cold  and  of  morning  frosts.  The 
moon  stands  in  some  degree  of  northern  declination,  and  frequently 
she  stands  in  such  a  latitude  from  the  ecliptic  towards  the  direction  of 
the  declination,  that  she  culminates  (stands  right)  over  the  heads  of  the 
10  Arabs.  In  consequence,  the  shadows  of  all  bodies  disappear  at  the  time 
when  she  reaches  the  middle  of  heaven,  i.e.  at  the  time  of  midnight. 
Further : 

"  When  the  new  moon  of  a  month  first  appears 
To  the  eyes  of  people  at  the  beginning  of  a  night,  standing  in 

Alna'd'imf 
Then  you  get  cold  winds  from  every  side, 
And  you  find  it  agreeable  a  little  before  dawn  to  wrap  a  turban 

round  the  head." 

For  at  that  time  the    sun    stands    in    the    first   part   of   Sagittarius. 
20   Further: 

"  The  complete  night,  with  all  that  belongs  to  it,  has  become  cold, 
And  the  sun  stands  in  the  Station  of  Al'awivd." 

For  the  stars  of  Al'awwa  (the  13th  Lunar    Station)    lie    aroimd    the  P-338. 
vernal  equinox,  as  the  table  of  the  Lunar  Stations  will  show. 

However,  if  I  were  to  communicate  to  the  reader  all  the  verses 
and  sayings  in  rhymed  prose  which  relate  to  the  rising  of  each  Lunar 
Station,  I  should  also  have  to  interpret  their  meanings,  and  to  explain 
the  rare  words  that  occur  in  them.  This,  however,  we  may  omit,  since 
it  has  been  sufficiently  done  by  the  authors  of  the  books  of  'Anwd,  whom 

80  we  mentioned  above. 

Since  the  Arabs  attribute  all  meteorological  changes  to  the  influence 
of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  stars,  in  consequence  of  their  ignorance 
of  physical  sciences,  thinking  that  all  changes  of  the  kind  depend  upon 
the  bodies  of  the  stars  and  their  rising,  not  upon  certain  parts  of  the 
celestial  globe  and  the  sun's  marching  therein,  they  believe  a  great 
many  things  similar  to  that  which  we  have  mentioned  of  the  Sirius 
Jemenicus,  during  the  rising  of  which  Hippocrates  in  his  time  forbade 
taking  hot  drugs  and  phlebotomizing. 

And  this  subject  reminds  me  of  an  occurrence  in  my  life  which  serves 

40   to  confirm  the  verses  of  Ahmad  b.  Faris  : 

"  A  wise  man  of  by- gone  times  has  said  : 
'  The  importance  of  a  man  lies  in  his  two  smallest  things.' 

22 


838  ALBiRUNt. 

I  on  my  part  also  speak  like  a  wise  man,  saying : 

*  The  importance  of  a  man  lies  only  in  his  two  dirhams.' 

If  he  has  not  his  two  dirhams  with  him, 

His  bride  does  not  care  for  him. 

In  consequence  of  his  poverty  he  is  despised, 

So  that  people's  cats  jdIss  at  him." 

For  when  I  was  separated  from  the  court  of  His  Highness,  and  was 
bereft  of  the  hapj)iness  of  the  royal  service,  I  met  a  man  in  Eai  (Rhagae) 
who  was  counted  among  the  learned  astronomers.  He  had  studied  the 
conjunctions  of  the  stars  which  form  the  Lunar  Stations,  and  he  had  10 
commenced  to  collect  them  in  order  to  derive  certain  sentences  (astrolo- 
goumena)  from  the  Stations  and  their  single  parts,  and  thereby  to  prog- 
nosticate all  changes  of  the  air.  Now,  I  told  him  that  the  truth  is  the 
very  reverse  of  his  theory,  that  the  nature  and  peculiarities  which  are 
attributed  to  the  first  Station,  and  all  that  which  the  Hindus  relate  of 
the  connection  of  this  Station  with  others,  are  peculiar  to  the  first  part  of 
Aries,  and  never  leave  this  place,  although  the  star  (or  stars  which  form 
the  Lunar  Station)  may  leave  it.  In  a  similar  way,  all  that  is  peculiar  to 
Aries  does  not  move  away  from  the  place  of  Aries,  although  the  constel- 
lation of  Aries  does  move  away.  But  then  the  man  became  very  haughty,  20 
and  treated  me  slightingly,  though  he  was  inferior  to  me  in  all  his 
knowledge.  He  told  me  my  theory  was  a  lie,  and  behaved  very  rudely 
to  me,  being  very  lengthy  about  the  difference  between  us  in  wealth 
and  poverty,  which  changes  subjects  for  glory  into  subjects  for  blame. 
For  at  that  time  I  was  in  a  miserable  condition,  tried  (troubled)  on 
all  sides ;  afterwards,  however,  when  my  troubles  had  subsided  (ceased) 
to  some  extent,  he  chose  to  behave  in  a  friendly  way  towards  me. 

It  is  evident  that,  if  the  science  of  meteorology  were  to  depend  upon 
the  rising  of  the  bodies  of  the  stars,  as  observed  by  eye-sight,  the  times 
and  seasons  of  the  Meteora  would  differ  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  30 
stars  change  their  places  ;  besides,  they  would  be  different  in  different 
p.339.  countries,  and  we  should  require  for  them  as  well  as  for  the  appearing 
and  disappearing  of  the  planets  various  kinds  of  tiresome  methods  of 
calculations. 

In  reality  the  rising  of  the  Lunar  Stations  means  this,  that  the  sun 
on  entering  one  of  them  covers  it  and  the  preceding  one  too,  whilst  the 
third  one,  according  to  the  inverted  order  of  the  zodiacal  signs,  rises 
between  the  rise  of  dawn  and  that  of  the  sun,  at  that  time  which  Ibn 
Alrakka'  describes  in  the  following  verses  : 

"  The  observers  saw  Sirius  distinctly,  40 

As  he  turned  away,  when  the  morning  prayer  approached. 
I  recognize  Sirius   shining  red,  whilst  the  morning  is  becoming 

white. 
The  night,  fading  away,  has  risen  and  left  him. 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS,  339 

The  night  is  not  afraid  to  lose  him,  since  he  follows  her, 
But  the  night  is  not  willing  to  acknowledge  that  he  belongs  to 
the  night." 

The  rising  of  a  Lunar  Station  ther  called  its  Nau\  i.e.  rising.  The 
influence  of  the  rising  they  called  Bcirih,  the  influence  of  the  setting 
they  called  again  NmC.  The  interval  between  the  risings  of  two  con- 
secutive Lunar  Stations  is  13  days,  except  the  interval  between  the  rising 
of  Aljabha  (the  10th  Station)  and  of  the  following  Station,  which  is  14 
days.     So  the  following  verses  : 

10  "  All  time,  you  must  know,  consists  of  fourths. 

And  each  fourth  consists  of  sevenths. 
A  complete  seventh  belongs  to  the  rising  of  a  star. 
And  to  the  influence  (Nau')  of  a  star  setting  in  the  west. 
Between  the  rising  of  each  star 
And  that  of  the  following  star  there  are  four  nights 
And  nine  nights  more." 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  'Anwd.  Some  maintain 
that  each  influence  (of  a  Lunar  Station)  is  brought  about  between  the 
risings  of  two  consecutive  Stations,  that  therefore  the  influence  is  attri- 
20  buted  to  the  former  of  these  two  Stations.  According  to  others,  a 
certain  si>ace  of  time  is  peculiar  to  the  rising  and  setting  of  each  Lunar 
Station,  and  everything  that  occurs  in  this  time  is  attributed  to  the 
Station  in  question ;  occurrences  which  fall  after  the  end  of  this  space 
of  time  are  no  longer  attributed  to  it.  The  last  view  is  the  generally 
adopted  one. 

Besides,  there  are  differences  about  the  length  of  these  spaces  of  time, 
which  we  shall  afterwards  describe. 

When  the  influence  of  some  Station  has  been  found  out  and  is  known, 
and  nothing  happens  at  its  time,  people  say :  the  star  was  empty ;  or : 
80  the  Station  was  empty,  i.e.  the  time  of  its  Nau'  has  gone  by  without  there 
being  any  rain,  or  heat,  or  cold,  or  wind. 

(On  the  Winds.) — Regarding  the  directions  of  the  winds,  the  planes 
over  which  they  blow,  and  their  number,  there  are  different  opinions. 
Some  maintain  that  the  directions  of  the  wind  are  six,  as  Ibn  Kunasa 
relates,  on  the  authority  of  'Abu-Muhammad  Ja'far  b.  Sa'd  b.  Samura  b. 
Jundub  Alfazari,  whilst,  according  to  most  others,  there  are  only  four, 
as  Khalid  b.  Safwan  relates ;  the  latter  is  the  opinion  of  most  nations, 
although  they  differ  regarding  the  planes  of  the  blowing  of  the  winds. 
Both  these  opinions  of  the  Arabs  are  comprised  in  the  following  two 
40  circles  ;  the  former  view  is  represented  in  the  inner  circle,  the  latter  in  p.340. 
the  outer  circle.  There  you  also  find  the  names  of  the  winds  and  the 
directions  of  their  planes.     Here  follows  the  circle. 

22    * 


340 


ALBtnUNi. 


SotUfv 


JEasb 


West 


UTorttU 


In  the  first  theory  the  author  (Ibn  Kunasa)  places  the  wind  Mahwa 
near  the  south  wind,  whilst  it  is  well  known  that  Mahwa  is  the  north 
wind,  because  it  extinguishes  (destroys)  the  clouds  when  they  are  empty, 
after  the  south  wind  has  driven  them  on,  full  of  rain.  In  the  same 
theory  he  assigns  a  separate  plane  to  the  wind  Nakhd,  whilst  it  is  well 
known  that  Nakba  is  every  wind,  the  plane  of  which  lies  between  the 
planes  of  any  two  other  winds  of  the  four  cardinal  winds.  Dhu-alrumma 
mentions  the  winds,  NabTcd  included,  in  this  way  : 

"  Heavy  rain-showers  of  some  Anwct  and  the  two  Haif  (south  wind 

and  west  wind). 
Which  drove  the  sand-masses  of  the  dusty-coloured  mountains 

away  over  the  house. 
And  a  third  wind,  blowing  from  the  side  of  Syria,  a  cold  one, 
Blowing  with  whirlwinds  along  its  road  over  the  sand. 
And  a  fourth  wind  coming   from   the   rising-place   of  the  sun, 

driving 
The  fine  dust  of  AlmiTi  and  of  Kurakir  over  the  house. 


10 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS. 


341 


10 


The  side  winds,  carrying  along  the  dust,  excited  it  (the  east  wind) 

to  still  greater  vehemence, 
So  that  it  frequently  roared  like   the  she-camels  'in  the  tenth 

month  of  their  pregnancy,  when  the  throes  are  near." 

The  two  Half  a,re  the  south  wind  and  west  wind;  the  windy  blowing 
from  Syria  is  the  north  wind ;  the  wind  coming  from  the  rising-place  of 
the  sun  is  the  east  wind. 

The  planes  of  the  winds  with  the  Persians  are  the  same  as  with  the 
ancient  Grreeks,  and  all  physical  scholars  ;  their  centres  correspond  to  the 
four  directions.     They  are  represented  in  the  following  circle : 


Southy 


'EaeV 


West 


orthj 


Any  wind  that  lies  between  the  centres  of  the  planes  of  two  other 
winds  is  referred  to  that  centre  which  is  the  nearest  (and  receives  its 
name  therefrom).  Other  people  refer  an  intermediate  wind  to  the  rising 
and  setting  places  of  the  sun  at  the  time  of  the  solstices,  and  call  it  by 
a  Greek  name. 

(Method  for  finding  the  time  of  the  Nau'  and  Barih  of  a  Lunar 
Station.) — The  following  is  a  good  method  to  find  the  times  of  the 


342  ALBIRUNt. 

iuliiionces  (eTna-rjixaaLo)  of  the  rising  and  the  setting  of  the  Lunar 
Stations :  Take  the  time  from  the  1st  of  Ilul  till  that  day  the  nature  of 
which  you  want  to  find  out,  and  divide  the  sum  of  days  by  13.  If  there 
is  no  remainder,  proceed  in  this  way  :  If  the  moon  stands  opposite  the 
sun  or  in  one  of  her  quadratures,  you  get  rain,  if  it  is  the  season  for 
rain,  or  some  change  of  the  air  in  consequence  of  wind,  or  heat,  or  cold. 
For  if  there  is  no  remainder  (as  in  this  case),  it  is  the  time  of  the  rising 
of  one  Lunar  Station  and  the  setting  of  the  opposite  Station.  On  the 
1st  of  Ilul  falls  the  JBdrih  (influence  of  the  rising)  of  Alsarfa  (the  12th 
Station)  and  the  Nau'  (influence  of  the  setting)  of  Sa'd-aVaJcJihiya  (the  10 
25th  Station).  Prom  this  date  you  begin  counting,  for  this  special 
reason,  that  it  is  the  first  of  a  month  and  the  beginning  of  autumn.  If, 
besides,  the  moon  happens  to  be  in  one  of  her  Foundations,  the  influence 
(of  the  Lunar  Station)  will  come  out  very  strong. 

Abu-Ma'shar  says  :  "  We  have  tried  this  method  A.  H.  279  in  Shawwal 
p.341.  ^^  ^^®  ^^^^®  o^  ^^^  moon.  We  counted  the  days  from  the  1st  Ilul  till  this 
full  moon.  They  were  130  days;' dividing  them  by  13  you  get  no  re- 
mainder, and  the  Ascendens  of  the  full  moon  (or  opposition)  was  Amphora. 
So  we  got  rain  on  that  day,  and  when  the  moon  stood  in  her  right  quad- 
rature, also  on  that  day  we  had  rain."  20 

Further,  he  says :  "  We  tried  it  also  in  the  following  year.  We 
counted  the  days  from  the  1st  Ilul  till  Thursday  the  13th  of  Kanun  I. ; 
the  sum  of  days  we  divided  by  13,  and  there  was  no  remainder ;  the 
distance  between  sun  and  moon  was  as  much  as  half  a  zodiacal  sign 
(i.e.  15  degrees),  the  moon  had  turned  away  from  the  hexagon  of  Mars 
and  stood  in  conjunction  with  Yenus.     At  that  very  time  we  got  rain." 

Now,  this  is  a  testimony  of  Abu-Ma'shar,   showing  that  through  this 
method  you  obtain  correct  results.     If,  besides,  you  take  to  help  the 
mansions  (the  places  of  the  Lunar  Stations)  of  the  Hindus  and  their 
single  parts,  you  are  pretty  sure  in  your  calculation  to  come  near  the   gQ 
truth. 

People  relate  that  among  the  Arabs  the  Banu-Mariya  b.  Kalb  and  the 
Banu-Murra  b.  Hammam  b.  Shaiban  had  the  most  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  configurations  of  the  stars. 

In  enumerating  the  Nujum-aVaMidli,  i.e.  the  Lunar  Stations,  the  Arabs 
commenced  with  Alsharatdn,  since  in  their  time  they  stood  in  the  first 
part  of  A^'ies.  Other  nations  begin  with  the  Pleiades.  I  do  not  know 
whether  they  do  this  because  the  Pleiades  are  more  easily  and  clearly 
visible  without  any  study  or  research  than  the  other  Stations,  or  because, 
as  I  have  found  in  some  books  of  Hermes,  the  vernal  equinox  coincides  40 
with  the  rising  of  the  Pleiades.  This  statement  must  have  been  made 
about  three  thousand  and  more  years  before  Alexander.  God  knows  best 
what  they  intended ! 

We  shall  adopt  the  Arabian  system  in  enumerating  the  Lunar  Stations, 
and  shall  begin,  as  they  do,  with 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS.  343 

1.  Alsharatdn  (J3,  y  Arietis), 

i.e.  the  two  signs.  They  are  called  so  for  the  same  reason  that  the 
soldiers  of  the  body-guard  of  a  prince  are  called  Shurat,  since  they 
mark  themselves  by  some  sign,  by  the  black  colour,  or  something  else. 
It  consists  of  two  stars  belonging  to  Aries  (JS  and  y).  Sometimes,  also, 
a  third  star  near  them  is  added,  and  then  this  Station  is  called  AVashrdt 
(plural  instead  of  the  dual  Sharatan).  Between  the  two  stars,  when 
standing  in  the  middle  of  heaven,  there  is  an  interval  of  two  yards 
according  to  eye-sight ;  one  of  them  belongs  to  the  northern  half,  the 

10  other  to  the  southern. 

All  measures  of  distances  between  the  stars  according  to  eye-sight  are 
to  be  understood  only  for  that  time  when  they  stand  in  the  middle  of 
heaven,  for  these  distances  appear  greater  near  the  horizon  in  consequence 
of  the  intense  refraction  of  the  ray  of  light  in  the  watery  vapours  that 
surround  the  earth.  This  has  been  explained  in  the  books  on  the  geo- 
metrical configurations  (of  the  stars).  Further,  the  distance  between 
two  stars  increases  iti  the  direction  from  north  towards  the  south  ; 
frequently,  too,  when  the  stars  march  towards  the  horizon,  it  increases 
in  the  direction  from  east  to  west,  or  pretty  nearly  in  the  direction  of  one 

20  of  the  cycles  of  altitude.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  spheres  decline 
from  the  perpendicular  direction  which  they  have  on  the  equator. 

The  Station  AVashrdt  is  also  called  Alnath  (i.e.  horn),  because  the  two 
Sharat  are  placed  on  the  root  of  the  two  Jiorns  of  Aries.  The  meteoro- 
logical influences  of  this  Station  are  peculiar  to  the  first  (i.e.  original) 
position  of  Aries,  and  in  no  way  depend  upon  the  stars  from  which 
the  Station  has  got  its  name.  These  stars  have  migrated  from  their 
original  place  (in  consequence  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes)  and  have 
in  our  time  come  to  occupy  a  second  jjosition  (different  from  the  former),   p.342. 

2.  Albutain  (e,  8,  tt  Arietis). 

80  It  consists  of  three  stars  at  the  end  of  the  womb  of  Aries,  forming  an 
isosceles  triangle.  The  word  is  the  diminutive  of  Batn,  so  as  to  mean 
the  little  womb,  so  called  in  comparison  with  Batn-allmt  (the  womb  of  the 
fish),  which  is  the  28th  Station. 

3.  Althurayyd  (Pleiades) 

consists  of  six  stars  close  to  each  other,  very  similar  to  a  cluster  of 
grapes.  According  to  the  Arabs  they  form  the  clunis  of  Aries,  but  that 
is  wrong,  because  they  stand  on  the  hump  of  Taurus. 

The  word  is  a  diminutive  of  Tharwd,  which  is  originally  identical  with 

Tharwa,  i.e.  a  collection  and  great  number  of  something.     Some  people 

40   maintain  they  were  called  so  because  the  rain,  which  is  brought  by  their 


34^  ALBlEUNi. 

Nau\  produces  Thanva,  i.e.  abundance.  They  are  also  called  Alnajm 
(i.e.  The  Star). 

Ptolemy  mentions  only  four  stars  of  the  Pleiades,  since  lie  had  not 
observed  more  of  them,  because  to  eye-sight  they  seem  to  lie  quite  close 
together. 

The  forty  days  during  which  this  Station  disaj)pears  under  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  are,  according  to  the  Arabs,  the  worst  and  most  unhealthy  of 
the  whole  year.  Al'asadi  says  :  "  Althurayya  never  rises  nor  sets  unless 
bringing  some  harm."  And  one  of  their  medical  men  says  :  "  Warrant 
me  the  time  between  the  disappearing  and  the  rising  of  Althurayya,  and  10 
I  shall  warrant  you  all  the  remainder  of  the  year,"  The  Prophet  is 
related  to  have  said  :  "  When  the  Star  rises,  all  harm  (mishap)  rises  from 
the  earth  ;  "  and  according  to  another  tradition :  "  When  the  Star  rises, 
all  mishap  is  raised  from  every  place." 

4.  Aldabardn  (a  Tauri), 

a  bright  red  star,  so  called  because  it  follows  after  the  Pleiades,  standing 
over  the  southern  eye  of  Taurus.  It  is  also  called  Alfanik,  i.e.  a  great 
camel- stallion  (not  servingfor  riding),  because  they  call  the  stars  around 
it  Kilds,  i.e.  young  she-camels  (serving  for  riding).  Other  names  of  it 
are  "  The  follower  of  the  Star,"  because  in  rising  and  setting  it  follows  20 
immediately  after  the  Pleiades,  and  Almukhdij  (i.e.  a  she-camel  giving 
birth  to  a  young  one  of  imperfect  formation). 

5.  Alhak'a  (A,  ^',  ^"  Orionis) 

consists  of  three  small  stars  close  to  each  other,  looking  like  so  many 
dots  impressed  upon  the  earth  by  the  thumb,  the  fore-finger,  and  the 
middle-finger,  the  fingers  being  closely  pressed  together.  They  were  so 
called  because  they  were  compared  with  a  circle  of  hairs  on  the  side  of 
the  horse  at  the  joint  of  the  foot ;  such  a  horse  is  called  MahhV.  They 
are  also  called  Altahd'i  (or  Altahdyi).  Ptolemy  considers  them  as  one 
cloudy  star,  and  calls  them  the  nebula  on  the  head  of  Aljabbar,  i.e.  30 
Aljauza  (Orion). 

6.  Alhan^a  (y,  ^  Geminorum) 

consists  of  two  bright  stars  in  the  Milky  Way  between  Orion  and  the 
head  of  Gemini,  distant  from  each  other  as  far  as  the  length  of  a  whip. 
The  one  is  called  Zirr  (button),  the  other  Maisdn  (walking  along 
proudly)  ;  they  stand  on  the  foot  of  the  second  twin.  According  to 
Alzajjaj,  Han'a  is  derived  from  the  verb  Hana'a,  i.e.  to  wind  and  twine 
one  thing  round  the  other,  as  if  each  of  them  were  winding  and 
twining  round  the  other.  According  to  others,  this  name  is  to  be 
understood  of  a  third  star,  standing  behind  their  middle,  which  gives  40 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS.  346 

them  the  appearance  of  an  inclined  neck.     The  Arabs  consider  Alhan'a 

and  six  other  stars  as  the  bow  of  Orion,  with  which  he  shoots  at  the  p.343. 

Lion. 

7.  AldJiird'  (a,  jB  Geminorum) 

consists  of  two  stars,  one  yard  distant  from  each  other.  The  one  is  the 
hlear-eyed  Sirius  or  Sirius  Syriacus,  according  to  the  Arabs,  the  out- 
stretched arm  of  Leo ;  the  other  is  Sirius  ^Ahiir  or  Sirius  Temenicus,  the 
arm  of  Leo  which  is  not  stretched  out.  According  to  the  astronomers,  the 
outstretched  arm  is  the  head  of  Gemini,  and  the  other  arm  belongs  to 
10  the  stars  of  Alhalb  Ahmdakaddim  (Procyon).  But  people  differ  greatly 
regarding  these  stars  and  produce  various  futile  traditions  and  stories 
in  support  of  the  names  which  they  give  them.  The  rising  of  Ghumaisd 
(the  blear-eyed  Sirius)  in  the  year  1300  of  Alexander  took  place  on  the 
10th  Tammuz,  and  that  of  Sirius  Temenicus  on  the  23rd  Tammuz. 

8.  Alnathra  (Prsesepe  (e)  et  duo  Aselli  (y,  S)  Cancri) 

is  the  place  between  the  mouth  and  the  nostrils  of  the  Lion.  It  is  also 
called  AllaM  (the  uvula),  and  consists  of  two  stars,  between  which  there 
is  a  nebula,  the  whole  belonging  to  the  figure  of  Cancer. 

9.  Altarf, 

20  the  eye  of  Leo,  two  stars  close  to  each  other,  one  belonging  to  Leo,  the 
other  to  the  stars  outside  the  figure  of  Cancer.  In  front  of  them  there 
are  stars  called  AVashfdr,  i.e.  the  eyebrows  of  Leo. 

10.  Aljabha  ((,  y,  rj,  a  Leonis), 

the  front  of  Leo,  four  stars,  each  star  distant  f rom^the  other  by  the  length 
of  a  whip,  lying  athwart  from  north  to  south  in  a  curve,  not  in  a  straight 
line.  According  to  astronomers,  they  stand  on  the  mane  of  Leo.  The 
most  southern  star  of  them  they  call  the  Heart  of  the  Boycd  Lion ;  it 
rises  when  Suhail  rises  in  Alhijaz.  Suhail  is  the  44th  star  of  Ai'go 
Navis,  standing  over  its  oar.  Its  latitude  is  75  degrees  in  the  southern 
80  half.  Therefore  it  does  not  rise  very  high  above  the  horizon,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  it  has  something  unsteady  for  the  eye.  People  say  that 
a  man,  if  his  eye  falls  on  this  star,  dies,  as  they  also  relate  that  on  the 
island  of  Eamin,  belonging  to  Ceylon,  there  is  an  animal  the  sight  of 
which  kills  a  man  within  forty  days  afterwards.  The  most  curious 
instance  of  the  connection  between  animal  life  and  its  material  influence 
is  the  fish  called  Sihirus  Electrictis.  For  the  hand  of  the  fishennan  who 
has  caught  it  takes  care  not  to  touch  it  as  long  as  it  is  in  the  net  still 
living.  If  you  take  a  i*eed  and  touch  the  living  fish  with  one  end  and  keep 
the  other  end  in  your  hand,  the  hand  becomes  feeble  and  drops  the  reed. 


346  ALBlR^Nt. 

Further,  the  worms  in  Eaghad,  one  of  the  districts  of  eastern  Jurjan. 
For  there  you  find  in  certain  places  small  worms ;  if  a  man  carrying 
water  treads  upon  them,  the  water  becomes  bad  and  foul ;  if  he  does 
not  tread  upon  them,  the  water  remains  good  and  keeps  its  nice  odour 
and  sweet  taste. 

The  death  of  a  man  bitten  by  a  panther,  when  a  field-mouse  pisses  at 
him 

\_Lacuna.'\ 

p.344.  11.  Alzuhra  (8,  $  Leonis), 

i.e.  the  shoulder  of  the  Lion,  the  place  where  the  neck  begins.  According  10 
to  Alzajjaj,  it  is  the  place  of  the  mane  on  his  neck,  because  the  mane 
bristles  up  when  he  is  in  wrath.  According  to  Alna'ib  Alamuli,  Zubra  is 
a  piece  of  iron  by  which  the  two  shoulder-blades  of  a  lion  are  imitated. 
This  station  consists  of  two  stars,  distant  from  each  other  by  the 
length  of  a  whip.  They  are  also  called  the  Two  Khurt,  i.e.  holes,  as  if  each 
of  them  were  penetrating  into  the  interior  of  the  Lion,  but  in  reality 
they  stand  upon  the  shank  of  the  Lion,  one  of  them  on  the  root  of  the 
tail.     When  they  rise,  Suhail  is  seen  in  Al'irak. 

12.  Alsarfa  ((3  Leonis), 

a  bright  star  near  to  some  very  dim  ones,  called  the  Claw  of  the  Lion.  20 
It  stands  on  the  end  of  the  Lion's  tail,  and  is  called  so  because  the  heat 
turns  away  when  it  rises,  and  the  cold  turns  away  when  it  disappears. 

13.  AVawwd  (/3,  rj,  y,  8,  e  Virginis) 

consists  of  five  stars  in  a  line,  the  end  of  which  is  turned.  And  there- 
fore the  Station  is  called  so  because  the  verb  'Awd  means  to  turn. 
Alzajjaj  says:  "I  do  not  know  of  anybody  else  besides  me  who  has 
exjilained  the  word  in  this  way.  Those  who  say  that  these  stars  are 
dogs  running  behind  the  Lion  and  harking  are  wrong."  They  stand  on 
the  breast  and  wing  of  Virgo. 

14.  AlsimdJc  Al'a'zal  (Spica).  30 

It  is  also  called  the  Calf  of  the  Lion,  and  AlsimdJc  Alrdmih  is  his  other 
calf. 

This  Simak  is  called  'A'zal  (i.e.  bare),  because  whilst  the  other  Simak 
Alramih  (the  shooter)  is  accompanied  by  a  star,  said  to  be  his  lance, 
this  one  has  no  such  accessory,  and  is  therefore  said  to  be  bare  of 
weapons. 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS.  347 

According  to  Sibawaihi,  Siinak  is  called  so  on  account  of  its  rising 
higli,  or,  according  to  others,  (because  the  moon  does  not  enter  this 
Station.  But  if  that  were  the  case,  Alsimdh  Al'a'zal  would  not  deserve 
the  name  of  a  Lunar  Station,  for,  of  course,  the  moon  enters  it  and 
frequently  covers  it  (so  as  to  make  it  disappeai"). 

It  is  a  brilliant  star  on  the  left  palm  of  Virgo,  which  some  people  call 
Stmhula  (the  ear).  But  this  is  wrong,  because  the  Ear  (Spica)  is 
Alhulba  (i.e.  hog's  bristle),  which  Ptolemy  calls  Aldafira,  i.e.  Crines  plexi. 
This  is  a  number  of  small  stars  behind  the  tail  of  the  Great  Bear,  very 
10  much  like  the  leaf  of  Luhldb,  i.e.  helxine.  The  whole  zodiacal  sign  is 
also  called  so  (i.e.  Spica). 

According  to  the  Arabs,  Alhulba  (the  hog's  bristle)  stands  on  the  end 
of  the  Lion's  tail,  being  the  small  hairs  on  the  end  of  the  tail. 

15.  Algliafr  (i,  k,  \  Virginis) 

consists  of  thi'ee  not  very  brilliant  stars  on  the  train  and  the  left  foot  of 
Virgo.  According  to  the  Arabs,  it  is  the  best  of  the  Lunar  Stations, 
because  it  stands  behind  Leo  and  before  Scorpio.  The  evil  of  the  Lion 
lies  in  his  teeth  and  claws,  the  evil  of  the  Scorpion  lies  in  its  venom  and 
the  sting  of  its  tail.     A  Eajaz  poet  says  : 

20  "  The  best  night  for  ever 

Lies  between  Alzubana  and  Al'asad  (Leo)." 

People  say  that  the  horoscopes  of  all  the  prophets  lie  in  this  Station  ; 
but  this  does  not  seem  to  be  true  except  in  the  case  of  Messiah,  the 
Prophet  who  keeps  off  all  mishap.  The  birth  of  Moses— according  to 
the  report  of  the  Jews — must  have  coincided  with  the  rising  of  the 
tooth  of  Leo  and  the  moon's  entering  the  claws  of  Leo.  p  345 

It  is  called  Ghafr,  because  the  light  of  its  stars  is  imperfect,  from  the 

verb  Ghafara,  i.e.  to  cover  a  thing,  or,  because  it  rises  above  the  claws  of 

Scorpio  and  becomes  to  it  like  a  Mighfar  (i.e.  coat  of  mail).      According 

30  to  Alzajjaj,  the  name  is  derived  from  Ghafar,  i.e.  the  hair  on  the  end  of 

the  Lion's  tail. 

16.  Alzubana  (a,  ^  Librae) 

consists  of  two  brilliant  stars,  separated  from  each  other  as  far  as  five 
yards,  and  standing  in  a  place  where  the  two  claws  of  Scorpio  mi^ht  be ; 
they  belong,  however,  to  Libra.  The  word  is  also  derived  from  zabana 
(i.e.  to  push),  as  if  the  one  of  them  were  being  pushed  away  from  the 
other,  not  united  with  it. 

17.  AViUil  (j3,  8,  TT  Scorpii) 

is  the  head  of  Scorpio,  consisting  of   three  stars  which  form  one  line. 
40   Ibn-Al^ufi  declares  this  to  be  impossible,  and  maintains  that  it  consists 


848  ALBtH^Nt. 

of  the  8th  star  of  Libra  and  the  6th  one  of  the  stai'S  outside  Libra,  as 
also  Ptolemy  has  it  in  his  Almagest.  According  to  Ihn-Alsufi,  those 
who  consider  the  three  bright  stars  in  one  line  as  Al'iMil  are  mistaken, 
for  he  says  that  the  Crown,  (i.e.  Al'iklil)  could  not  be  anywhere  but  upon 
the  head.  However,  the  general  view  of  the  Arabs — in  opposition  to  that  of 
Ibn-Alsufi — is  this,  that  the  three  stars  in  one  line  are  AVihlil.  The 
Arabs  have  a  proverb  applicable  to  this  subject,  saying  :  "  The  two 
contending  parties  were  content,  but  the  judge  declined  to  give  a 
judgment." 

[18.  Alkalb  (a  Scorpii)  10 

is  a  red  star  behind  Al'iklil  and  between  two  stars  called  Alniya^ 
(praecordia).] 

19.  Alshaula  (A,  v  Scorpii) 

is  the  sting  of  Scorpio,  so  called  because  it  is  always  mushdla,  i.e.  raised. 
It  consists  of  two  bright  stars  near  each  other  on  the  top  of  the  tail  of 
Scorpio. 

20.  Alna^cfim  (y,  S,  e,  rj,  a,  <f},  t,  t,  Sagittarii) 

consists  of  eight  stars,  four  of  them  lying  in  the  Milky  Way  in  a  square, 
which  are  the  Descending  Ostriches,  descending  to  the  water,  which  is  the 
Milky  Way ;  and  four  of  them  lying  outside  the  Milky  Way,  also  in  a  20 
square,  which  are  the  Ascending  Ostriches,  ascending  and  returning  from 
the  water. 

Alzajjaj  reads  the  word  Alnu'd'im,  i.e.  the  beams  placed  above  the 
mouth  of  a  well,  where  the  sheaves  of  the  pulley  and  the  buckets  are 
fixed  (attached). 

The  stars  were  compared  to  ostriches,  as  if  four  of  them  were 
descending,  four  ascending.  The  Descending  Ostriches  stand  on  the  bow 
and  arrow  of  Sagittarius,  and  the  Ascending  Ostriches  stand  on  his 
shoulder  and  breast. 


21.  Albalda 

is  a  desert  district  of  heaven  without  any  stars,  at  the  side  of  the  Horse, 
belonging  to  Sagittarius.  According  to  Alzajjaj,  this  station  was  com- 
pared to  the  interstice  between  the  two  eyebrows,  which  are  not  connected 
with  each  other.  You  say  of  a  man  'ahlad,  which  means  that  his  eyebrows 
do  not  run  into  each  other. 


30 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS. 


22.  Sa'd-Aldhdhih  (a,  /8  Capricomi) 


349 


consists  of  two  stars,  the  one  to  the  north,  the  other  to  the  south,  distant 
from  each  other  about  one  yard.     Close  to  the  northern  one  there  is  a  p. 346. 
small  star,  considered  as  the  sheep  which  he  (Sa*d)  slaughters.     The  two 
stars  stand  on  the  horn  of  Cajpricorn. 


23.  8a'd-Bula'  (jj.,  v,  c  Aquarii) 

consists  of  two  stars  with  a  third  and  hardly  visible  one  between 
them,  which  looks  as  if  one  of  them  had  devorired  it,  so  that  it  glided 
down  from  the  throat  to  the  breast.  According  to  others,  it  was  called 
10  so  because  Sa'd  is  considered  as  he  who  devoured  the  middle  star,  robbed  it 
of  its  light  and  concealed  it.  According  to  Abu-Yahya  b.  Kunasa,  this 
Station  was  called  so  because  it  rose  at  the  time  when  God  said :  "  0 
earth,  devour  thy  water  "  (Sura  xi.  46).  This  is  a  rather  subtle  derivation. 
These  stars  stand  on  the  left  hand  of  Aquarius  or  Amphora. 


24.  Sa'd  Alsu'ud  (JS,  ^Aquarii) 

consists  of  three  stars,  one  of  which  is  more  bright  than  the  two  others. 
It  is  called  so  because  people  consider  its  rising  as  a  luchy  omen,  because 
it  rises  when  the  cold  decreases,  when  the  winter  is  past  and  the 
season  of  the  continuous  rains  sets  in.  Two  of  these  stars  stand  on  the 
20  left  shoulder  of  Aquarius  ;  the  third  one  stands  on  the  tail  of  Capricorn. 


25.  Sa'd-AVaJchhiya  (y,  C,  tt,  -q  Aquarii) 

consists  of  four  stars,  three  forming  an  acute-angled  trigone,  and  one 
standing  in  the  middle,  as  it  were  the  centre  of  a  circumscribed  circle. 
The  central  star  is  Sa'd,  and  the  three  surrounding  stars  are  his  tents. 
According  to  others,  this  Station  was  called  so  because  at  the  time  when 
it  rises  all  rejjtiles  that  had  been  hidden  in  the  earth  come  forth.  These 
stars  stand  on  the  right  hand  of  Aquarius.     God  is  all-wise  ! 


26.  Alfargh  AVawwal  (a,  /3  Pegasi), 

also  called  the  Upper  Handle  (of  the  bucket),  and  the  First  Two  wlio 
3Q  move  the  Btichet  in  the  Well  (in  order  to  fill  it).     It  consists  of  two  bright 
stars,  separated  from  each  other,  standing  on  the  spine  and  shoulders  of 
Pegasus. 


350  ALBtRf)Nl. 


27.  Alfargh  Althdni  (7  Pegasi  and  a  Andromedse), 

also  called  the  Lower  Handle  (of  tlie  bucket),  and  the  Later  Two  who 
move  the  BucJcet  in  the  Well  (in  order  to  fill  it).  It  consists  of  two  stars 
similar  to  Alfargh  Al'atvwal.  According  to  the  Arabs  Amphora  consists 
of  these  four  stars. 

28.  Batn-Alhut  (ft  Andromedse), 

also  called  Kalb-AlMt,  is  a  bright  star  in  the  one  half  of  the  womb  of 
a  fish  (a  star)  called  Ribbon,  which  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
Two  Fishes,  one  (the  12th)  of  the  zodiacal  signs.     These  stars  stand 
above  Libra  and  belong  to  Andromeda  {lit.  the  chained  wife  who  had   10 
not  seen  a  husband). 


The  preceding  notes  we  have  condensed  and  have  added  thereto  other 
notes  relating  to  Lunar  Stations  ;  this  we  have  arranged  in  the  form  of 
a  table,  showing  the  nature  of  the  Lunar  Stations  according  to  the 
different  theories.  We  have  also  noted  the  rising  of  the  stars  of  the 
Stations  for  the  year  1300  of  Alexander  according  to  mean  calculation ; 
this  we  have  also  deposited  in  a  table  of  the  conditions  of  the  stars  of 
the  Lunar  Stations.  If  you  look  into  these  two  tables  you  will  find  that 
the  superscriptions  at  the  top  of  each  column  render  it  superfluous  to 
consult  anybody  beforehand  as  to  their  use.  Here  follow  the  two  20 
tables. 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS. 


361 


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ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS.  353 

(On  the  interstices  between  tlie  Lunar  Stations.)— The  moon's  p.361. 

standing  in  conjunction  with  a  star  or  with  stars  which  give  the  name 
to  a  Lunar  Station  and  belong  to  it,  is  called  her  MuMlaha ;  it  is  disliked 
as  foreboding  evil. 

If  the  moon,  accelerating  her  course,  passes  by  (beyond)  a  Station,  or 
if  her  course  is  slackened  and  she  has  not  yet  reached  the  Station,  so 
that  she  is  seen  standing,  as  it  were,  in  an  interstice  between  two  Lunar 
Stations,  this  is  called  the  moon's  '  Udill ;  and  this  phase  is  liked  as  fore- 
boding something  good. 
10  Some  of  these  interstices  are  called  by  special  names,  e.g.  the  interstice 
between  the  Pleiades  and  Aldabaran  is  called  Aldaika.  This  interstice 
they  consider  as  a  bad  omen,  foreboding  evil.  It  is  called  Daika, 
because  it  sets  very  rapidly,  for  between  the  degree  of  the  setting  of  the 
Pleiades  and  the  degree  of  the  setting  of  Aldabaran  there  are  six 
degrees  on  the  ecliptic,  and  nearly  seven  degrees  on  the  equator. 
According  to  some  authors  of  'Anwa-books  Daika  consists  of  the  21st 
and  22nd  stars  of  Taurus,  which  the  Arabs  call  the  Bog  of  Aldabaran, 
but  this  is  not  correct. 

Sometimes  the  moon,  not  reaching  Alhan'a  stands  in  Al-tahdyi,  i.e.  the 
20   24th,  25th,  and  26th  of  the  stars  of  G-emini.     According  to  others  Alta- 
hdyi  is  identical  with  Alhak'a ;  whilst  others  again  maintain  that  it  is 
neither  the  one  nor  the  other. 

Sometimes  the  moon,  not  reaching  Alsimak  (Spica),  stands  in  her 
throne  of  Alsimak,  which  some  Arabs  call  the  Backside  of  the  Lion,  i.e. 
the  3rd,  4th,  5th,  7th  of  the  stars  of  AlgJmrdb  (Corvus). 

Sometimes,  not  reaching  Alshaula  (Aculeus  Scorpii),  the  moon  stands 
among  the  Kharazdt,  i.e.  the  vertehrce  of  the  tail  of  Scorpius. 

Further,  not  reaching  Albalda,  the  moon  stands  in  Alkildda  (Monile), 
also  called  AVudhiijtj  (Nidus  Struthiocameli)  i.e.  the  9th,  10th,  11th,  12th, 
30  13th,  14th,  of  the  stars  of  Sagittarius.     Some  people  take  these  stars  to 
be  the  bow,  but  they  are  the  head  of  Sagittarius  and  his  two  locks. 

Sometimes,  not  reaching  Sa'd-alsu'ild,  the  moon  stands  in  Sa'd-Ndshira, 
i.e.  the  23rd  and  24th  of  the  stars  of  Capricornus. 

Sometimes,  not  reaching  Alfargh  Althani,  the  moon  stands  in  Alkarab, 
which  means  the  place  where  the  two  cross-woods  of  the  bucket  meet, 
where  the  string  is  fastened,  i.e.  the  5th  and  7th  of  the  stars  of  the 
Great  Horse  (Pegasus).  Or  (not  reaching  Alfargh  Althani),  the  moon 
stands  in  the  Balda  of  the  Fox,  i.e.  an  empty  starless  region  between 
Alfargh  Althani  and  Alsamaka  (Pisces). 
40  Some  one  of  the  authors  of  'Anwa-books  thinks  that  AVantsdn,  i.e.  the 
1st  and  2nd  of  the  stars  of  the  Triangulum,  stand  between  Batn-alhut  and 
Alsharatd.n,  where  he  saw  them  setting  after  Alsharatun  ;  therefore  he  main- 
tains that  the  moon,  not  reaching  Alsharatan,  stands  in  Al'anisan.  But  this 
is  wrong,  for  Al'anisan  stands  in  Aries  more  westward  {lit.  at  more  degrees) 
than  Alsharatan.    However,  the  retardation  of  the  setting  of  Al'anisan 

23 


354  ALBiRUNi. 

(that  they  set  after  Alsharatan)  was  caused  by  their  northern  latitude. 
For  it  is  peculiar  to  the  stars  that  those  which  have  much  northern  lati- 
tude rise  earlier  than  those  that  have  less,  that  in  consequence  the 
former  set  earlier  than  the  latter,  and  vice  versa  in  the  south. 

Because,  now,  the  fixed  stars  which  give  the  forms  and  names  to  the 
p.352.  Lunar  Stations  move  on  in  one  and  the  same  slow  motion,  you  must  add  one 
day  to  the  days  of  their  rising  and  setting  in  every  66  solar  years,  since  in 
such  a  ijeriod  they  move  on  one  degree.  We  have  represented  in  a  table 
the  places  of  the  stars  of  the  Lunar  Stations  for  A.  Alex.  1300,  along 
with  the  names  given  to  them  by  the  astronomers,  with  their  longitudes  10 
and  latitudes,  and  the  six  degrees  of  magnitude  to  which  each  star 
belongs.  Now,  if  the  reader  wants  to  know  the  reality  about  the  Lunar 
Stations,  he  must  correct  their  places  for  his  time  according  to  the  pro- 
gression we  have  mentioned,  i.e.  adding  one  degree  for  every  66  years. 
Further,  as  to  their  disappearing  in  the  rays  (of  the  sun)  and  their 
coming  out  of  the  rays,  he  uses  the  rules  mentioned  in  the  Canons.  The 
demonstration  of  these  things  is  found  in  the  Almagest.  The  eastward 
and  westward  motions  of  the  Lunar  Stations  differ  at  the  same  rate  as 
the  latitudes  of  the  countries,  further  according  to  the  six  classes  of 
magnitude  to  which  the  stars  belong,  and  according  to  their  distances  20 
from  the  ecliptic.  In  so  doing  he  will  arrive  at  certain  astonishing  facts 
when  he  has  to  do  with  high  degrees  of  latitude  north  of  the  ecliptic ; 
e.g.  when  Venus  stands  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  in  the  sign  of 
Pisces,  the  time  of  its  being  concealed  binder  the  rays  is  one  day  or 
nearly  two  days,  whilst  it  is  nearly  16  days  when  she  stands  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  sun  in  the  sign  of  Virgo. 

Mercury  is  observed  in  the  sign  of  Scorj^ius  in  the  mornings  as  pro- 
gressing towards  the  sun,  whilst  the  interstice  between  them  is  as  much 
as  l-ths  of  a  sign  (i.e.  24°),  and  receding  from  the  sun,  whilst  he  is  not 
at  all  seen  in  the  evenings.  The  reverse  of  this  takes  place  when  he  30 
moves  in  the  sign  of  Taurus,  for  then  he  is  observed  in  the  evenings 
progressing  towards  the  sun  and  receding  from  him,  whilst  he  is  not 
seen  in  the  mornings.  All  these  particulars  are  explained  and  accounted 
for  in  Ptolemy's  Almagest. 

Here  follows  the  table  of  the  places  of  the  stars  of  the  Lunar  Stations. 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS. 


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ON   THE    LUNAR    STATIONS. 


357 


(On  projection,  and  the  construction  of  star -maps.)— I  tave  p.357. 
followed  in  this  book  a  method  which  the  student  of  this  science  will 
not  disapj)rove,  treating  in  each  chapter  the  subject  as  fully  as  pos- 
sible, and  not  referring  the  reader  to  other  books  until  I  had  myself 
nearly  exhausted  the  subject.  Now,  I  must  add  to  the  book  another 
chapter  on  the  representation  of  the  Lunar  Stations  and  of  other 
constellations  on  even  planes,  for  the  human  mind,  once  knowing  at 
what  different  times  the  different  stars  rise,  forms  an  idea  as  to  the 
positions  which  they  occupy  in  the  ecliptic.     Our  remarks  in  the  pre- 

10  ceding  pages  will  enable  the  student  to  recognise  the  stars  of  the  Lunar 
Stations  by  eye- sight,  and  to  point  them  out.  However,  not  everyone 
who  requires  these  things  knows  the  positions  of  the  ecliptic.  Besides, 
the  representation  of  the  Lunar  Stations  as  well  as  the  other  stars 
comprehended  by  the  48  constellations  (on  an  even  plane),  offers  many 
conveniences  in  common  to  all  classes  of  scholars.  The  same  applies  to 
the  representation  of  countries,  cities,  and  what  else  there  is  on  earth, 
on  an  even  plane.  Therefore,  not  knowing  any  special  treatise  on  this 
subject,  I  shall  treat  it  myself,  mentioning  whatever  occurs  to  my 
mind.     The  reader,  I  hope,  will  excuse  ! 

20  The  projection  of  great  and  small  circles  and  points  on  globes  may 
be  done  in  this  way,  that  you  make  one  of  the  two  poles  the  top  of 
cones,  the  envelopes  of  which  pass  through  them  (the  circles  and 
points),  and  cut  a  certain  plane  which  is  assumed.  For  the  parts 
(lines  or  points)  which  are  common  to  this  plane  and  the  envelopes 
of  these  cones  if  they  pass  through  circles,  or  common  to  this  plane 
and  the  lines  (of  this  cone)  if  they  pass  through  points,  are  their 
projections  on  this  even  plane. 

This  is  the  method  of  the  astrolabe  (stereographic  polar  projection), 
for  ia  the  north  the  southern  pole  is  made  the  top  of  the  cones,  and 

80  in  the  south  the  northern  pole  is  made  the  top  of  the  cones,  and  the 
plane  which  we  want  to  find  (the  plane  of  projection)  is  one  of  the  p)lanes 
parallel  with  the  plane  of  the  equator.  Then  they  (i.e.  the  cones)  repre- 
sent themselves  as  circles  and  straight  lines. 

'Abu-Hamid  Alsaghani  has  transferred  the  tops  of  the  cones  from  the 
two  poles,  and  has  placed  them  inside  or  outside  the  globe  iu  a  straight 
line  with  the  axis.  In  consequence  the  cones  represent  themselves  as 
straight  lines  and  circles,  as  ellipses,  parabolas,  and  hyperbolas,  as  he 
(Abu-Hamid)  wants  to  have  them.  However,  people  have  not  been  in 
a  hurry  to  adopt  such  a  curious  plane.     (This   is    the  central  projec- 

4Q  tion,  or  the  general  perspective  projection.) 

Another  kind  of  projection  is  what  I  have  called  fhe  cylindrical  pro- 
jection (orthographic  projection),  which  I  do  not  find  mentioned  by  any 
former  mathematician.  Tt  is  carried  out  in  this  way :  You  draw 
through  the  circles  and  lines  of  the  globe  lines  and  planes  parallel  to 
the  axis.     So  you  get  in  the  day-plane  straight  lines,  circles,  and  ellipses 


358  ALBIEUNI. 

(no  parabolas  and  hyperbolas).  All  this  is  explained  in  my  book,  which 
gives  a  complete  representation  of  all  possible  methods  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  astrolabe. 

However,  lines,  circles,  and  points  do  not  represent  themselves  in  the 
same  way  on  a  plane  as  on  a  globe ;  for  the  distances  which  are  equal 
on  a  globe  differ  greatly  in  a  plane,  especially  if  some  of  them  are 
near  to  the  one  pole  and  others  to  the  other  pole.  But  it  is  not  the 
pui'pose  of  the  astrolabe  to  represent  them  (the  lines,  circles,  points) 
as  agreeing  with  eye-sight,  but  to  let  some  of  them  revolve  whilst  the 
others  are  at  rest,  so  that  the  result  of  this  process  agrees  with  the  10 
'  appearances  in  heaven,  including  the  difference  of  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  purpose  of  the  representation  of  the  stars  and  countries 
(on  even  planes)  is  this,  to  make  them  correspond  with  their  position 
in  heaven  and  earth,  so  that  in  looking  at  them  yon  may  form  an 
idea  of  their  situation,  always  keeping  in  mind  that  the  straight 
lines  are  not  like  the  revolving  (circular)  lines,  and  that  the  spherical 
planes  have  no  likeness  to  the  even  planes  that  are  equal  among  each 
other. 

"We  must  give  an  illustration  to  make  the  reader  familiar  with  these 
methods.     One  way  serving  for  this  purpose  is  the  construction  of  the  20 
flat  astrolabe. 

Draw  a  circle  as  you  like  it,  the  greater  the  better.  Divide  it  into  four 
parts  by  two  diameters  which  cut  each  other  at  right  angles.  Divide 
one  of  the  radii  into  90  equal  parts.  Then  we  make  the  centre  of 
the  circle  a  new  centre,  and  describe  round  it  circles  with  the  distances 
of  each  of  the  90  parts.  These  circles  will  be  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  will  be  at  equal  distances  from  each  other.  Divide  the  circumference 
of  the  greatest  circle  into  the  (360)  parts  of  a  circle,  and  connect  each 
part  of  them  and  the  centre  by  straight  lines. 

In  doing  this  we  imagine  the  periphery  of  this  first  circle  to  be  the  30 
ecliptic,  and  its  centre  to  be  one  of  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic.  On  the 
ecliptic  we  mark  a  point  as  the  beginning  of  Aries.  Then  we  fix  the 
places  of  the  stars  according  to  Almagest,  or  to  the  Canon  of  Muhammad 
b.  Jabir  Albattani,  or  to  the  Booh  of  Fixed  Stars,  by  'Abu-Alhusain 
Alsufi,  taking  into  account  the  amount  of  precession  up  to  our  time,  and 
changing  accordingly  the  places  of  the  stars  as  determined  by  our  pre- 
decessors. Take  one  of  the  stars  of  that  half  (of  heaven)  for  which  you 
have  constructed  this  circle,  and  count  from  this  assumed  point  (the 
beginning  of  Aries),  proceeding  from  right  to  left,  as  many  degrees  as 
the  star  is  distant  from  Aries.  That  place  where  you  arrive  is  the  40 
degree  of  this  star  in  longitude. 

Further  count,  from  the  same  point  in  a  straight  line  which  extends 
to  the  centre,  the  corresponding  number  of  the  star's  latitude  in  the  90 
circles.  Then  the  place  you  arrive  at  is  the  place  of  the  body  of  the 
stars  (i.e.  the  point  determined  by  both  the  degrees  of  longitude  and 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS.  359 

latitude).  There  you  make  a  dot  of  yellow  or  white  colour,  according  to 
the  class  of  magnitude  and  brilliancy  to  which  in  the  six  classes  the  star 
may  belong. 

The  same  process  you  repeat  with  every  star. the  latitude  of  which 
lies  in  the  same  direction,  till  you  have  finished  all  the  stars  of  this 
direction.  The  same  you  continue  to  do  with  the  stars  of  another  direc- 
tion, until  you  have  fixed  the  stars  of  the  whole  sphere  in  two  circles. 
We  mark  these  circles  with  the  blue  of  lapis  lazuli,  in  order  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  stars,  and  we  draw  round  the  stars  of  each  con- 
10  stellation  the  image  which  the  stars  are  believed  to  represent,  after 
having  fixed  all  the  stars  in  their  proper  positions.  In  this  way  the 
object  we  had  in  view  is  realized. 

This  method,  however,  we  do  not  like,  because  the  figures  on  the 
ecliptic  cannot  completely  be  represented,  since  some  parts  of  them  fall 
into  this  half,  some  into  the  other  half.  If  you  drew  round  the  circle  p.369. 
of  the  ecliptic,  outside  of  it,  90  circles,  parallel  to  and  distant  from 
each  other  as  far  as  in  the  former  construction,  in  the  same  way  as  is 
done  with  the  flat  astrolabe,  the  matter  would  evidently  proceed  in  the 
same  order.  Further,  we  do  not  like  this  method,  as  the  places  of  the 
20  stars  in  heaven  and  those  in  the  design  (drawing)  greatly  differ  from 
each  other.  For  the  more  southern  the  stars  are,  the  distances  between 
them  which  appear  equal  to  the  eye  are  the  greater  and  wider  in  the 
figure,  if  its  centre  be  the  north  pole,  till  at  last  they  assume  quite 
intolerable  dimensions.  The  same  applies  to  the  method  of  him  who 
wants  to  represent  the  stars  in  the  plane  of  a  circle  which  passes  through 
the  two  poles  of  the  ecliptic,  in  those  points  where  the  straight  lines  of 
their  heights  touch  the  plane  (i.e.  the  foot-points  of  the  verticals),  which 
method  is  similar  to  the  astrolabic  projection ;  for  then  the  figures  of 
the  stars  are  in  an  undue  manner  compressed  towards  the  periphery,  and 
30  they  become  too  large  about  the  centre. 

We  shall  now  try  to  find  another  method,  which  is  free  from  the  in- 
conveniences of  the  process  just  mentioned. 

We  draw  a  circle,  divide  it  into  four  parts  (by  two  diameters  cutting 
each  other  at  right  angles),  and  upon  the  points  of  the  four  parts  (i.e. 
where  the  diameters  touch  the  periphery)  we  write  the  names  of  the 
directions  (i.e.  north,  west,  south,  east). 

We  continue  the  two  diameters  that  divide  the  circle  into  fourths, 
straight  on  in  their  directions  in  infinitvim. 

Each  radius  we  divide  into  90  equal  parts,  and  the  perij)hery,  into  360 
40  parts. 

Next  we  try  to  find  on  the  line  of  the  east  and  west  the  centres  of 
circles,  each  of  which  passes  through  one  of  the  parts  (degrees)  of  the 
diameter  and  through  both  the  north  and  south  poles. 

When  these  centres  have  been  fixed,  and  we  draw  all  the  possible 
circles  round  them  within  that  first  (and  largest)  circle,  we  get  180  arcs, 


860  ALBIRUNt. 

which  divide  the  diameter  into  equal  parts,  and  which  cut  each  other  at 
each  of  the  two  points,  the  north  and  south  points. 

These  circles  are  the  cii'cles  of  longitude. 

Then  we  return  to  that  line  which  proceeds  from  the  north  point  as 
the  straight  continuation  of  the  diameter.  On  this  line  we  try  to  find 
the  centre  of  a  circle,  passing  through  those  points  of  the  periphery 
which  are  distant  from  the  east  and  west  points  1  degree,  2  degrees,  etc. 
until  90  degrees,  and  through  those  points  of  the  diameter  which  are 
distant  from  the  centre  1  degree,  2  degrees,  etc.  until  90  degrees. 

The  same  we  do  in  the  southern  half,  on  the  line  which  proceeds  from   \Q 
the  south  point  as  the  straight  continuation  of  the  diameter. 

The  circles  we  get  in  this  way  are  the  circles  of  latitude,  180  in  number, 
which  divide  each  of  the  circles  of  longitude  into  180  parts. 

Further,  we  assume  the  west  point  to  be  the  beginning  of  Aries,  and 
the  line  from  east  to  west  to  be  the  ecliptic.  From  the  beginning  of 
Aries  we  count  the  distance  of  each  star;  so  we  find  its  degree  (of 
longitude) . 

Then  we  count  the  latitude  of  the  star  in  the  proper  direction  on  the 
circle  of  longitude.     Thereby  we  find  the  place  of  the  star. 

We  make  another  figure  similar  to  the  first  one,  where  we  assume  the  20 
west  point  to  be  the  beginning  of  Libra.     In  this  way  we  can  give  a 
complete  map  of  all  the  stars  in  the  two  figures.    Lastly,  in  representing 
the  single  star-groups  or  constellations,  we  draw  those  images  which  we 
have  heretofore  described. 

If  we  want  to  make  a  map  of  the  earth,  we  construct  a  similar  figure 

as   described  in  the  preceding.     We  count  the  assumed  longitude  of  a 

place  from  the  west  point,  and  then  we  count  the  degrees  of  latitude  of 

p.360.  the  place  on  the  circle  of  longitude.   So  we  find  the  position  of  the  place. 

The  same  we  continue  to  do  with  other  places. 

This   is   the   technical   (graphic)   method   for   the   solution    of    this  30 
problem. 

As  some  people  have  a  predilection  for  calculations,  and  like  to 
arrange  them  in  tables,  and  prefer  them  to  technical  (graphic)  methods, 
we  shall  also  have  to  show  how  we  may  find,  by  calculation,  the  dia- 
meters of  the  circles  of  longitude  and  latitude,  and  the  distances  of  their 
centres  from  the  centre  of  the  (great)  circle.  And  with  that  we  shall 
finish  our  work. 

We  draw  the  circle  ABCD  round  the  centre  H,  and  divide  it  into  four 
parts  by  means  of  the  two  diameters  AHC  and  BHD. 

A  is  to  be  the  west.  40 

B         „  south. 

C  „  east. 

D  ,,  north. 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS.  361 

The  radii  we  divide  into  90  parts,  and  the  whole  circle  into  360 
parts. 

Now,  e.g.  we  want  to  find  the  radius  of  the  circle  BZD,  which  is  one 
of  the  circles  of  longitude,  and  the  distance  of  its  centre  (from  the 
centre  H). 

Now,  ifc  is  evident  that  HZ  is  known,  being  determined  by  the 
degrees,  of  which  the  radius  HC  as  well  as  the  radii  BH  and  HD 
hold  90. 

The  multiplication  of  HZ,  which  is  known,  by  the  unknown  sum  of 
10   HK  +  KZ,  which  is  the  diameter  we  want  to  find,  minus  ZH, 

is  equal  to 

the  multiplication  of  HB  by  HD,  i.e.  the  square  of  one  of  them. 

We  take  the  square  of  HB,  i.e.  8,100,  and  divide  it  by  ZH,  which  is 
known.  Thereby  we  get  the  sum  of  HK  +  KZ.  To  this  we  add  ZH, 
and  take  the  half  of  the  whole  sum.  That  is  ZK,  the  radius  of  that 
circle  to  which  BZD  belongs. 

Now,  after  having  found  out  so  much,  we  open  the  compasses  to  such 
an  extent  as  the  new-found  radius  is  long ;  one  of  the  legs  of  the  com- 
passes we  place  on  the  point  Z,  which  is  known,  and  the  other  leg  we 
20  place  on  the  continuation  of  the  line  HA,  to  whatever  point  it  reaches. 
The  latter  poiat  is  the  centre  of  the  circle,  i.e.  K. 

In  this  way  we  can  dispense  with  the  knowledge  of  the  distance 
between  the  two  centres. 

(In  the  following  the  text  is  corrupt.) 
This  is  the  solution  of  the  problem  by  means  of  calculation. 

If  you  want  to  find  the  distance  of  the  passage,  i.e.  that  point  on  the 
periphery  of  the  circle  where  the  line  which  connects  the  two  points  B 
and  K  cuts  the  periphery,  viz.  the  arc  AT,  di-aw  the  line  BK  which  cuts 
the   periphery  in  T,  draw  the  vertical  (i.e.  Loth-Linie,  the  line  which 

30  represents  the  height  of  a  trapeza  or  cone)  TS  upon  BD,  and  draw  the 
line  TD. 

Because,  now,  in  the  triangle  BHK  the   sides  are  known  according 
to  the  parts,  of  which  the  radius  counts  90,  we  change  each  side  into 
that  measure,  according  to  which  the  radius  counts  60  degrees,  i.e.  we 
multiply  it  by  60  and  divide  it  by  90.     So  it  is  changed  into  the  sexage-  p. 361. 
simal  system. 

The  triangles  BHK  and  BTD  and  BST  are  similar  to  each  other. 
Therefore  we  multiply  KH  by  BD,  and  the  product  we  divide  by  KB. 
So  we  get  DT  as  the  quotient. 

40  Next  we  multiply  DT  by  HK,  and  divide  the  product  by  KB.  So 
we  get  DS  as  quotient  (changed  into  that  measure,  according  to  which 
DT  holds  60  parts). 


862 


ALBtEX^Ni. 


If  we  take  the  corresponding  arc  in  the  table  of  sines  and  subtract  the 
arc  from  90,  we  get  AT  as  remainder. 

If  we  want  to  find  the  passage  (T)  by  an  easier  method,  we  change 
the  triangle  BHK,  the  sides  of  which  are  known,  into  that  measure 
according  to  which  the  radius  of  the  circle  ABCD  contains  60  parts. 
Then  the  angle  TDB  in  the  first  figure,  and  the  angle  TBD  in  the  second 
figure,  is  that  which  determines  the  whole  distance  of  the  passage  (from 
A),  as  a  chord  determines  the  distance  between  the  two  ends  of  an  arc. 

If  we  want  to  change  each  side  of  this  triangle  into  the  measure 
according  to  which  BK  holds  60  parts,  we  multiply  it  by  60  and 
divide  the  product  by  BK,  according  to  the  measure  of  which  the  radius 
holds  60  parts.     So  we  find  what  we  wanted  to  find. 

If  we,  then,  know  the  side  HK  according  to  this  measure,  we  take 
the  corresponding  arc  from  the  table  of  sines.     So  we  get  the  arc  DT. 

So,  by  whatever  method  we  solve  the  problem,  the  end  we  aim  at  is 
the  same,  and  also  the  results. 

Here  follow  Figures  I.  and  II. 


10 


I. 


ON    THE    LUNAR    STATIONS. 


363 


10 


Let  us  again  construct  tlie  same  figure  to  show  the  same  thing  for  the 
circles  of  latitude. 

The  circle  of  which  we  want  to  find  the  radius  is  that  one  to  which 
MQL  belongs.  AM  as  well  as  HQ  and  CL  are  to  correspond  in  number 
(i.e.  to  hold  the  same  number  of  parts). 

We  draw  the  vertical  (Loth-Linie)  MX,  which  is  the  sine  of  DM, 
which  is  known,  and  we  draw  HX,  i.e.  the  sine  of  AM,  which  is  also 
known. 

Then  we  subtract  HQ  from  HX,  after  we  have  changed  it  from  the 
nonagesimal  system  into  the  sexagesimal  system.  The  remainder  we 
get  is  QX. 

By  this  we  divide  the  square  of  MX,  and  add  QX  to  the  product. 
Of  this  sum  we  take  the  half,  which  is  QK,  the  radius  of  the  circle  to 


364 


ALBIRUNI. 


which  MQL  belongs,  according  to  the  measure  of  which  the  radius  of  the 
circle  ABCD  holds  60  parts. 

If  we  want  to  find  the  distance  of  the  passage  (T)  from  A,  we  draw 
the  line  AK,  which  cuts  the  periphery  of  the  circle  in  T. 

Further,  we  draw  the  line  TC  and  draw  the  vertical  (Loth-Linie) 
TS  upon  AC. 

Then  we  multiply  AC  by  HK  and  divide  the  product  by  AK. 
Thereby  we  get  TC. 

If  we  multiply  this  divisor  by  HK,  and  divide  the  product  by  AK,  we 
get  SC. 

Multiply  it  by  AS,  and  the  root  of  the  product  is  TS,  which  is  the 
sine  of  the  arc  of  the  passage  (i.e.  of  the  arc  AT). 

Likewise,  if  we  change  AH  into  the  measure  according  to  which  AK 
holds  120  parts,  and  we  take  the  arc  from  the  tables  of  whole  chords,  we 
get  the  arc  AT,  i.e.  the  distance  of  the  passage  (from  A). 

This  method  applies  in  the  same  way  to  the  direction  of  C  as  to  the 
direction  of  A,  to  that  of  B  as  to  that  of  D,  without  the  slightest 
difference. 

And  here  ends  my  work.     Here  follows  Figure  III. 

C 


10 


p.362. 


(Conclusion.) — Now  I  have  fulfilled  my  promise,  and  I  have  compre- 
hended in  my  exposition  all  the  j)arts  of  this  science,  agreeably  to  the 
wishes  of  my  friends,  exerting  myself  to  the  best  of  my  capability. 
Every  man  acts  according  to  his  fashion,  and  the  value  of  a  man  lies  in 
that  which  he  understands.  I  hope  that  the  elements  which  I  have  laid 
down  are  sufficient  to  train  the  mind  of  the  student,  and  to  lead  him  to 


20 


ON    THE    LUNAE    STATIONS.  365 

a  correct  consideration  of  tlie  origines  of  mankind,  sufficient  to  lay  open 
all  that  is  doubtful  in  the  eras  of  prophets  and  kings,  and  to  give  a  cor- 
rect idea  of  their  own  system  to  those  of  the  Jews  and  Christians 
who  are  led  astray. 

If  the  reader  be  like  me  (in  knowledge),  he  will  thank  me  for  the  task 
I  have  carried  out ;  if  he  be  superior  to  me  (in  knowledge),  he  wUl  be  so 
kind  as  to  correct  my  errors  and  to  pardon  whatever  mistakes  I  may 
have  made.  If  he  be  inferior  to  me  ia  knowledge,  he  will  not  do  me  any 
harm,  because  he  will  either  acquiesce  in  being  led  by  me  for  the  purpose 

10  of  his  instruction,  or,  in  case  he  opposes  me,  he  will  offer  opposition  to 
things  which  he  has  not  the  power  of  mind  to  handle  successfully. 

But  why  should  I  mind — or  be  afraid  of — the  enmity  of  any  adversary, 
since  my  badge  is,  wherever  I  am,  the  power  of  our  lord,  the  noble 
prince,  the  glorious  and  victorious,  the  benefactor.  Shams-alma' dli — may 
God  give  long  duration  to  his  power  !  Its  firm  column  is  my  trust;  from 
the  fact  that  it  spreads  secretly  and  openly  I  derive  strength ;  its  brilliant 
light  is  the  guide  of  my  path ;  his  undisturbed  happiaess  is  my  trust 
and  my  hope.  May  God  teach  me  and  all  Muslims  to  be  truly  thankful 
for  his  benefits  by  fulfilliag  all  the  duties  of  obedience  as  prescribed  by 

20  the  law,  and  by  continually  praying  to  God  that  He  may  reward  him 
according  to  His  mercy  and  grace. 

Let  us  finish  our  book  with  the  praise  of  God,  who  afforded  me  help 
and  guidance,  and  who  taught  me  to  distinguish  the  path  of  truth  from 
the  path  of  blindness.  "  Let  those  who  want  to  perish  (as  infidels, 
idolaters,)  perish,  after  a  clear  proof  (of  the  true  religion)  has  been  pre- 
sented to  them,  and  on  the  strength  of  it,  and  let  those  who  want  to  live 
(the  life  of  the  true  religion)  live,  after  a  clear  proof  (of  the  true  religion) 
has  been  presented  to  them,  and  on  the  strength  of  it."  (Goran,  S. 
viii.  44). 

30       The  mercy  and  blessing  of  God  be  in  all  eternity   upon   the  Prophet 
who  was  sent  to  the  best  of  nations,  and  upon  his  holy  family  ! 


367 


ANNOTATIONS, 


p.  1, 1.  25.  Shams-almo'dlL  This  prince,  Kabus  ben  Washmgir  ben 
Mardawij,  wlio  bad  received  from  the  Khalif  the  honorary  name  of 
Shams-alma'dU,  i.e.  Sun  of  the  Heights,  belonged  to  the  family  of  the 
Banu-Ziyad,  who  ruled  over  Jurjan  (Hyrcania),  Tabaristan,  and  other 
countries  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea  during  155  years,  viz.  a.h.  315-470. 
Kabus,  after  having  reigned  a.h.  366-371,  was  driven  away  and  fled  into 
the  dominions  of  the  Samanian  dynasty,  where  he  lived  as  an  exile, 
whilst  his  country  was  occupied  by  a  prince  of  the  family  of  Buwaihi 
A.H.  371-388.  To  this  period  the  author  alludes,  p.  94, 1.  19  ("  at  the 
time  of  the  Sahib  (i.e.  Sahib  Ibn-'Abbad  the  Yazir  of  the  Buyide  prince) 
and  when  the  family  of  Buwaihi  held  the  country  under  their  sway  "). 

Kabus  returned  to  the  throne  a.h.  388,  and  was  killed  403.  This 
book  was  dedicated  to  him  according  to  all  probability  a.h.  390  or  391 
=A.D.  1000.  The  history  of  this  prince  is  found  in  Sehir-eddin's  "  Ge- 
schichte  von  Tabaristan,"  etc.,  ed.  Dorn,  pp.  185-198. 

p.  2, 1.  27.  Wading.  Although  all  three  MSS.  have  c^"^",  I  think  it 
would  have  been  more  idiomatic  to  read  ^.^•^.  The  second  form  occurs 
rn,  17  -,^^,7;  p*,  19. 

p.  3,  1.  14.  Which  have  come  down  from  them.  The  words  ^*6-ai  J^^^ 
are  very  bad  Arabic,  next  to  impossible.  It  seems  rather  likely  that 
between   them   a   word   has  fallen  out,  e.g.  i^aU,  or  some  synonym  of 

p.  5, 1.  15.  Nychthemeron.  To  meet  the  inconvenience  that  the  word 
day  means  the  totality  of  day  and  night  as  well  as  the  light  half  alone,  I 
have  ventured  to  adopt  for  the  former  meaning  the  word  Nychtliemeron, 
for  which  I  beg  the  reader's  pardon. 


368  ANNOTATIONS. 

p.  6, 1.  37.  Canon  of  Shahriydrdn  AlsMh.  The  word  Canon  (so  I 
translate  the  word  Zvj)  means  a  collection  or  handbook  of  astronomical 
tables  of  various  kinds.  They  were  always  the  depositories  of  the  latest 
discoveries  of  Eastern  astronomy.  For  more  information  on  these 
Canons  I  refer  to  the  excellent  work  of  L.  A.  Sedillot,  "  Prolegomenes  des 
Tables  Astronomiques  d'Olough-Beg,"  Paris,  1847,  p.  viii.  ff.  (Table 
verifiee,  etc.) 

A  Canon  of  Shahriydrdn  Alshdh  is  not  known  to  me.  However,  there 
is  a  Zij-i-Shahrydr  and  a  Zij-Alshdh,  with  either  of  which  this  Canon 
may  be  identical. 

The  former  was  of  Persian  origin,  and  was  translated  into  Arabic  by 
Altamimi,  vide  "  Hamzae  Ispahanensis  Annalium,"  libri  x.,  p.  V",  and 
"Kitab-alfihrist,"  ed.  Pliigel,  p.  241,  244,  and  notes. 

The  second,  with  several  other  canons,  was  composed  by  the  famous 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  a  native  of  Marw,  Habash  ('Ahmad  ben 
'Abd- Allah),  who  lived  in  Bagdad,  end  of  the  second  and  beginning  of 
the  third  century.  Cpr.  Sedillot,  "Prolegomenes,"  p.  x.,  note  3,  and  the 
"  Kitab-Alfihrist,"  ed.  by  G.  Fliigel,  p.  Vv*^  and  the  annotations. 

p.  6,  1.  42.  A  variation  which  during  the  eclipses,  etc.  I  have  not  been 
able  to  ascertain  what  relationship  between  the  eclipses  and  the  different 
length  of  the  days  is  meant  by  the  author  in  this  passage. 

p.  7,  1.  39.  Except  one  Miislim  lawyer.  The  following  discussion  is  of 
more  interest  to  a  Muhammadan  theologian  than  to  us.  The  canonical 
time  of  fast  was  from  the  rise  of  dawn  till  sunset,  and  some  too  pious 
people  mistook  this  day  of  fast  for  the  astronomical  day. 

p.  8,  line  22.  Likewise  it  had  been  forbidden,  etc.  This  passage  refers 
to  a  custom  which  existed  among  the  Muslims  in  the  time  before  the 
verse  Sura  II.,  183,  was  pronounced  by  Muhammad.  We  learn  from  the 
commentaries  of  Alzamakhshari  and  Albaidawi  that  the  time  of  fast 
extended  over  the  whole  Nychthemeron,  except  the  time  from  sunset  till 
the  second  or  last  night-prayer,  i.e.  about  midnight,  or  till  a  man  fell 
asleep,  during  which  eating  and  drinking  and  women  were  allowed. 
Omar  once  had  intercourse  with  one  of  his  wives  after  he  had  said  the 
last  night-prayer ;  this  breach  of  the  custom  made  him  feel  penitent, 
and  he  apologized  to  the  Prophet.  Thereujjon  the  Prophet  abolished 
the  old  custom,  and  pronounced  the  verse  in  question,  allowing  his 
people  to  eat  and  drink  and  have  intercourse  with  their  women  not  only 
from  sunset  till  the  second  night-prayer,  but  also  farther  till  the  rise  of 
dawn,  i.e.  nearly  the  whole  night.  For  the  traditions  concerning  this 
subject  vide  "  Bokhari,"  ed.  Krehl,  I.,  P^^,  P^^. 

In  my  translation,  p.  8, 1.  23,  read  "  after  the  last  night-prayer  "  instead 
of  "  after  night-prayer." 


ANNOTATIONS.  369 

p.  9,  1.  14.  Tradition  which  relates,  etc.  It  is  not  quite  clear  to  what 
tradition  the  author  refers  in  this  passage.  Prof.  L.  Krehl  kindly  directed 
my  attention  to  a  tradition  which  occurs  several  times  in  Albokhari 
{"  Becueil  des  Traditions  Mahometanes,"  public  par  L.  Krehl),  e.g.i.  149, 
ii.  50,  etc.  Here  Muhammad  compares  Jews,  Christians,  and  Muslims 
to  workmen.  The  Jews  work  fj'om  sunrise  to  noon,  and  receive  one 
Kirat  as  wages.  The  Christians  work  from  noon  till  the  afternoon- 
prajer,  j'0»i\  i>^  and  receive  one  Kirat.  The  Muslims  work  from  the 
afternoon-prayer  till  sunset,  and  receive  two  Kirat.  So  the  Muslims 
receive  twice  the  wages  of  the  Jews,  whilst  they  only  work  half  the 
time. 

To  a  similar  tradition  the  author  seems  to  refer.  He  calls  the  Mus- 
lims ^' those  who  hasten  to  the  mosqiie  on  a  Friday''  thereby  distinguishing 
them  from  Jews  and  Christians. 

In  any  case  this  tradition  must  have  proved,  according  to  the  author, 
that  Muhammad  represented  the  day,  whether  it  be  short  or  long,  as 
divided  into  twelve  equal  parts,  the  so-called  wpai  KaipiKai. 


p.  9,  1.  36.  What  is  he,  etc.  The  reading  of  the  MSS.  (^})  1  have 
changed  into  e)*V  It  seems  preferable,  however,  to  read  <j^\i,  as  Prof. 
Fleischer  suggests. 


p.  9, 1.  46.     The  prayer  of  the  day  is  silent  (or,  rather,  mute). 

The  two  prayers  of  the  night  (>-->j*^\  '/'»  and  bU«5\  i^)  are  (j\^^ 
i.e.  these  prayers  are  spoken  with  a  clear  audible  voice.  The  two  prayers 
of  the  day  (j^\  'i>^  and  ^-a*5\  'i^)  are  y^^  i.e.  these  prayers  are  not 
spoken  with  an  audible  voice  or  whisi^er ;  the  lips  move,  but  no  sound 

is  produced.  Therefore  they  are  called  (jj\^^.«.a^\  i.e.  the  two  silent  or 
mute  ones,  which  name  is  derived  from  the  tradition  quoted  by  the 
author. 

This  division  does  not  comj^rehend  the  morning-prayer  ^^^  ^^. 
But  it  can  be  proved  from  tradition  that  this  prayer  is  to  be  spoken  with 
an  audible  voice.  In  the  M%iwatta'  of  Msilik  ben  'Anas  (published 
with  the  commentary  of  Alzurkani  at  BuLik,  a.h.  1279,  torn.  i.  p.  ^'^*), 
Alfurafisa  ben  'TJmair  Alhanafi  relates  that  he  learned  the  Surat-Yusuf, 
i.e.  Sura  xii.  by  hearing  it  from  Omar,  who  recited  it  repeatedly  as  his 
morning  prayer. 

The  author  wants  to  prove  that  the  5-^^\  i^-=  is  not  a  day-prayer, 
because  it  is  spoken  at  the  rise  of  dawn,  i.e.  before  the  beginning  of  the 
day.  According  to  holy  tradition  the  prayer  of  the  day  is  silent  (or  mute), 
whilst  the  morning  prayer  is  not. 

24 


370  ALBIEUNI. 

p.  10,  1.  1.  The  '^  first "  prayer,  etc.  The  five  canonical  prayers  of  the 
Nychthemeron  are  these : 

cli*J^  l^  or  ly^V^  oUi«J\  S^uo     ?      Prayers  of  the  night. 

u  "  \        (      P^^ye^s  of  the  day. 

The  author's  argument  is  this,  that  ^^\  '^-o  or  morning-prayer  is 
not  a  prayer  of  the  day,  because  the  j4^\  2^^-=  is  called  the  first,  i.e.  the 
first  of  the  two  day-prayers,  and  because  the  ^^\  '^^  is  called  the 
middle  prayer,  i.e.  the  middle  between  the  first  day-prayer  and  the  first 
night-prayer.  If  the  ^~t^\  6^  belonged  to  the  day-prayers,  the  6^^- 
j^\  would  not  be  the  exact  middle  in  the  way  we  have  described,  for  in 
that  case  the  ^\  'i>^  as  well  as  the  j^\  'i^'o  would  be  in  the  midst 
between  the  first  day-prayer  and  the  first  night-prayer. 

p,  11,  1.  12.  Sbidliind.  An  astronomical  hand-book  of  Indian  origin, 
edited  the  first  time  by  Alfazari,  a.h.  154,  and  a  second  time  by  Albe- 
runi's  famous  countryman  Muhammad  ben  Musa  Alkhwarizmi.  Alberuni 
wrote  a  book  (commentary  ?)  on  the  Sindhind  with  the  title  Jy?-^\  ^'^f^ 
^♦*<s!^\  v_jlwjt.  ^_ji  jy^\  ^\^.  For  the  literature  on  this  subject  I  refer  to 
Fliigel's  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  274,  notes. 

The  word  Sindhind  is  supposed  to  be  the  Sanskrit  Siddhdnta.  1  must, 
however,  observe  that  Alberuni  writes  this  word  in  the  more  correct  form 
of  4\>U>j~a,  e.g.  in  the  title  of  his  book,  "  On  the  mathematical  methods  of 
the  Brdhmasiddhdnta,"  s^U^esJ^  ^j,^  ^^  JiUsA«.  fi^\f.  ^  U  &^i^y. 

p.  11,  1.  15.     The  four  seasons.     Eead  ^jS\  instead  of  ^.ji\. 

p.  12,  1.  88.  The  quotation  of  Theon  refers  to  the  introduction  of  his 
Upoxeipoi  Kavoves,  where  he  speaks  of  the  Julian  year  of  the  people  of 
Alexandria,  of  the  Egyptian  year  of  365  days,  and  of  the  Sothis  period 
of  1460  years  ;  vide  "  Commentaire  de  Theon  d'Alexandrie  sur  les  tables 
manuelles  astronomiques  de  Ptolemee,"  par  M.  I'Abbe  Halma ;  Paris, 
1822,  p.  30.  On  the  Sothis  period,  vide  R.  Lepsius,  "  Chronologie  der 
Aegypter,"  Berlin,  1849,  p.  165  if. 

p.  12,  1.  40.  On  the  year  of  the  Persians,  cf.  a  short  treatise  of 
A.  V.  Gutschmid,  Ueber  das  iranische  Jahr,  "  Sitzungsberichte  der  Kgl. 
Sachsischen  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften,"  1862,  1  July. 

p.  13, 1.  22.  The  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  all  the  Israelites.  It  is  difficult  to 
explain  what  differences  the  author  meant  to  express  by  these  three 
words,  which  to  us  mean  all  the  same.  Perhaps  he  meant  by  Hebrews 
the  ancient  Jews,  Samaritans,  and  other  kindred  nations  ;  by  Jews,  the 


ANNOTATIONS.  371 

monotheistic  people  in  particular  ;  and  by  all  the  Bant-Israel,  the  totality 
of  the  Jewish  sects,  Eabbanites,  'Ananites  (Karaer),  and  others.  Vide 
a  similar  expression  on  p.  62, 11.  16,  17. 

p.  13,  1.  34.  In  a  similar  way  the  heathen  Arabs,  etc.  C£.  with  Albe- 
runi's  theory,  the  description  of  ancient  Arabic  chronology  by  A. 
Sprenger,  "  Leben  und  Lehre  des  Mohammad,"  iii.  p.  530  ff.,  and 
"  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft,"  torn.  xiii. 
p.  134,  and  tom.  xxxi.  p.  552. 

p.  13, 1.  42.  The  genealogy  of  the  Kalamis  occurs  also,  but  with  some 
differences,  in  Ihn  Hishdm,  "Life  of  Muhammad,"  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  i.  pp. 
29,  30. 

p.  14,  1.  16.  The  text  of  this  verse  is  incorrect,  for,  according  to  the 
context,  it  does  not  contain  a  description  of  Fukaim,  but  of  'Abu  Thu- 
mama ;  and,  secondly,  the  metre  is  disturbed,  for  I  do  not  think  that 
the  licentia  poetica  allowed  a  poet  to  distort  the  word  t~4aJ\  into  L<.*iai\. 

p.' 15,  1.  13.  The  leap-year  they  call  Adhimdsa.  According  to  the 
double  construction  of  the  verb  j_5*— ,  the  Indian  word  may  either  be 
&M.UJk>  or  i—UJ.  It  seems  preferable  to  read  <5— UJV>,  and  to  explain  <iuUJ\. 
as  Adhimdsa,  although  it  must  be  observed  that  this  means  "intercalary 
month,"  not  "  intercalary  year,"  as  the  author  maintains.  Cf .  Eeinaud, 
"  Memoire  sur  I'lnde,"  p.  352. 

p.  15,  1.  15.  And  their  subdivisions.  Eead  U>j^  (as  depending  on 
^gJUjtx^i),  i.e.  the  Jufur  of  the  Lunar  Stations. 

Our  dictionaries  do  not  explain  the  meaning  which  the  word  Jafr,  pi. 
Jufur,  has  in  this  passage.  It  is  a  term  peculiar  to  the  Indian  system  of 
astrology  ('TJtarid  ben  Muhammad  wrote  a  book  On  the  Indian  Jafr, 
^^^.i^\  jst:^\  s_jU',  vide  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  278),  and  it  means  something 
connected  with  the  Lunar  Stations,  perhaps  certain  subdivisions  (but 
this  translation  of  mine  is  entirely  conjectural). 

The  word  occurs  in  four  other  places  in  this  book : — p.  336, 1.  9. 
The  Indians  derive  their  daTpoXoyovfieva  from  the  fact  of  the  stars 
entering  the  Bibdtdt  (i.e.  resting-places,  road-side  iuns)  of  the  Lunar 
Stations.  These  Ribdtdt  are  called  Jtfur,  and  each  of  them  is 
thought  to  refer  to  some  special  matter  or  event  (life,  death,  travelling, 
victory,  defeat,  etc.).  Their  number  must  have  been  very  great,  be- 
cause the  author  says  that  he  will  refrain  from  enumerating  them,  as 
this  would  detain  him  too  long  from  the  subject  of  his  book.  p.  338, 
1.14:  The  author,  sj)eaking  of  the  same  subject,  mentions  the  Ribatat 
and  the  Jufur  of  the  Lunar  Stations  side  by  side;  also,  p.  341, 
1.  7.     On  p.  347,  both  words  occur  in  the  superscription  of  column  5, 


372  ALBIRUNI. 

but  liere  tlie  writing  of  the  manuscript  is  such  a  bad  scrawl  that  I  do 
not  feel  sure  of  having  made  out  a  correct  text. 

As  the  subject-matter  seems  to  be  of  Indian  origin,  one  may  presume 
that  the  word  also  is  derived  from  the  same  source. 

p.  15,  1.  17.  Ahu-  Muhammad  AlndHb  Aldmuli  (i.e.  a  native  either  of 
Amul  in  Tabaristan  or  of  Amul  or  Amu  on  the  Oxus),  the  author  of 
a  Kitdb-alghurra  is  mentioned  four  times,  vide  p.  53,  1.  34 ;  p.  235,  1.  8 ; 
p.  344,  1.  2,     He  is  not  known  to  me  from  other  sources. 

p.  16,  1. 14.  Cannot  he  dispensed  'with.  Read  i^^  instead  of  ^^^ 
(Fleischer). 

p.  17,  1.  6.  A  tradition  for  which,  etc.  Instead  of  ^  tf-^^  (^P,  4), 
read  ^f>'^<^  or  ^  tf^'^^  (Fleischer). 

p.  17, 1.  8.  Perhaps  we  shall  facilitate  the  understanding  of  the 
following  pages,  if  we  state  the  order  of  the  author's  arguments. 

A.  Notions  of  the  Persians  regarding  the  Era  of  Creation,  p.  17, 1.  8. 

B.  Notions  of  the  Jews  on  the  same  subject,  p.  18,  1.  5. 

C.  Notions  of  the  Christians,  p.  19, 1.  10. 

D.  Refutation  of  the  Jewish  theory,  p.  19, 1.  41. 

E.  Refutation  of  the  Christian  theory,  p.  21,  1.  5,  and  Biblical  pro- 

phecies relating  to  Muhammad,  p.  22,  1.  17. 

F.  On  the  Thora  of  Jews,  Christians,  and  Samaritans,  p.  24,  1.  1. 

G.  On  the  difference  of  the  Gospels,  p.  25, 1.  36. 
H.  On  sectarian  Gospels,  p.  27,  1.  9. 

p.  17,  1.  9.  For  the  Persians,  etc.  Cf.  with  the  following  traditions, 
chapter  xxxiv.  of  Bundehesch,  ed.  F.  Justi,  1868. 

p.  18,  1.  5.  The  Jews  and  Christians  differ,  etc.  An  extract  of  the 
following  by  Almakrizi  has  been  published  by  S.  de  Sacy,  "  Chresto- 
mathie  Arabe,"  tom.  i.  p.  284. 

p.  18, 1.  16.  By  Hisab-aljummal  the  author  understands  the  notation 
of  the  numerals  by  means  of  the  letters  of  the  Arabic  alphabet,  arranged 
according  to  the  sequence  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 

p.  18,11.19,20.  AlrcVi,Abu-'IsdAlisfahdm.  Of  these  two  pseudo-Mes- 
siahs the  latter  is  well  known.  For  his  history,  vide  H.  Graetz, 
"  Geschichte  der  Juden,"  2nd  edition,  tom.  v.  p.  167  and  p.  438.  Of  the 
former  name  there  is  no  j)seudo-Messiah  known  in  Jewish  history. 
However,  Graetz  reports  of  a  pseudo-Messiah  (loc.  cit.  p.  162),  whom 
he  calls  Serene.  The  oldest  Hebrew  report  concerning  this  man 
begins : 

n^ni  inu?  lirntDi  ii^niS:ii  i^:^^  ni^ton  b^nm  Dn^trtri 


ANNOTATIONS. 


373 


"  Wtat  you  have  asked  regarding  the  deceiver  (or  heretic)  who  has 
risen  in  our  exile,  and  whose  name  is  i^^"),"  etc.  Whether  this  name 
has  any  connection  with  the  Arabic  ^^V^  whether  the  reading  ^"^"y 
is  to  be  changed  into  "i^~),  students  of  Jewish  history  may  decide. 
Certainly  a  later  Latin  chronicle  calls  him  Serenus  (Grraetz,  loc.  cit. 
p.  434  ff.)  A  pseudo-Prophet,  Bd%  in  Tiberias,  is  also  mentioned  by 
Al-Jaubari  in  "Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlandischen  Gesell- 
schaft,"  XX.  490. 

p.  18, 1.  25.  The  author's  transliteration  of  Hebrew  words  resembles 
very  much  the  present  pronunciation  of  the  Jews  of  Galizia.  Between 
the  words  Dn?2  ^^^^  DVl  the  Arabic  has  the  signs  o>^},  a^ud  the  last 
word  ^inn  is  written  ^.yfcU>  for  both  of  which  variations  I  am  unable 
to  account. 

p.  18,  1.  35.  Since  the  time  when.  The  Arabic  translation  of  this 
passage  is  not  quite  correct,  and  next  to  unintelligible.  It  betrays  a 
certain  likeness  to  the  translation  of  the  Syriac  Bible  (Peshita),  where 
this  passage  is  rendered  by — 

"  And  from  the  time  when  the  sacrifice  passes  away,  impurity  will 
be  given  to  destruction." 
Accordingly  I  read  the  Arabic  text : 

although  I  am  aware  that  this  is  bad  and  ungrammatical  Arabic.     On 
p.  ^*,  1.  20,  read^--a>  with  PL  instead  of  ^--aj. 

p.  19, 1.  12.  Sum  of  1335.  Eead  i^^  instead  of  U^  e>*^;  o^  P-  ^"^' 
1.  8. 

p.  19, 1.  22.  Urishlim,  i.e.  Jerusalem,  etc.  The  author  gives  to  this  pro- 
phecy of  Daniel  a  wrong  date.  It  falls  into  the  first  year  of  Darius, 
V.  Dan.  ix.  1,  not  in  the  time  some  years  after  the  accession  of  Cyrus  to  the 
throne.  This  latter  date  the  author  has  taken  from  Dan.  x,  1  ("  in  the 
third  year  of  Cyrus,"  etc.),  and  Dan.  x.  4. 

Perhaps  in  the  Arabic  text  (p.  ^\  1.  11)  the  word  *^^'  has  fallen  out 
between  the  words  ^y>^  and  (j^-^^. 

1.  19,  p.  31.  And  before  this,  etc.  This  is  a  blunder  of  the  author's. 
It  ought  to  be,  "  And  after  this,"  etc. 

1.  20,  p.  43.  Jerusalem.  Here,  p.  17,  1.  21,  and  in  all  other  passages 
(p.  16, 11. 1, 13,  etc.)  the  con-ect  reading  is  y-A»4J\  c^-o  according  to  Yakut, 


374  ALBfEUNI. 

"  Greographisches  Worterbuch,"  iv.  590,  not  (j-AftJ\  o^.     In  the  follow- 
ing line,  p.  18,  1.  1,  read  <^i3\  instead  of  i\  (Fleischer) . 

p.  22,  1.  17.  For  Muhammad,  etc.  Read  J^i^s^i  instead  of  A*i*-*^  on 
p.  19,  1.  3. 

p.  22,  1.  40.  Almatlmd.  Eead  ^^^^\i  instead  of  ^yli^W ;  and  in  the 
following  line  read  <u*  ^^  instead  of  <$-*  ^^  (p.  19, 1.  13). 

p.  23, 1.  16.  Legions  of  saints  who,  etc.  This  passage  is  of  Koranic 
origin,  and  formed  upon  the  pattern  of  Sura  iii.  121.  The  idea  of  war- 
riors wearing  certain  badges  (as  e.g.  the  cross  of  the  Crusaders)  occurs 
also  in  a  tradition,  vide  Albaidawi  ad  Sura  iii.  121,  and  Lane,  Arabic 
Diet.  s.v.  f»j~-j'. 

p.  24,  1.  5.  After  Nehuhadnezar  had  conquered,  etc.  The  last  source  of 
this  tradition  regarding  the  origin  of  the  version  of  the  Seventy  is  the 
letter  of  Aristeas,  well  known  to  Biblical  scholars,  and  now  generally 
admitted  to  be  apochryphal,  vide  Be  Wette,  "  Lehrbuch  der  historisch- 
kritischen  Einleitung,"  edited  by  E.  Schrader,  part  i.  p.  92. 

p.  24, 1.  28.  And  each  couple,  etc.  Read  "  and  every  one  of  them  had 
got  a  servant  to  taJce  care  of  him."  And  in  the  Arabic,  ^\  2,  read  J^j 
instead  of  eh^jj  ^^  instead  of  ^U>>,  and  1.  3,  ^e^^^^y  instead  of  ^^Ju^y. 
On  the  same  page,  1.  6,  read  J^  instead  of  J^. 

p.  25, 1.  2.  AUdmasdsiyya.  This  name  is  derived  from  the  expression 
^^.w.  S  ("  do  not  touch  "),  in  Sura  xx.  97  ;  vide  S.  de  Sacy,  "  Chrestomathie 
Arabe,"  i.  pp.  339,  342,  344.  It  is  identical  with  'AOiyyavoi,  the  Greek 
name  of  a  heretical  sect,  vide  Du  Cange,  "  Lexicon  infimae  Grsecitatis," 
and  "  Etymologicum  Magnum,"  ed.  Gaisford. 

p.  25,  1.  25.  Anianus.  The  Arabic  manuscripts  give  the  name  u-^'\ 
i.e.  AthencBus ;  but  the  well-known  Athenaeus  cannot  be  meant  here.  I 
prefer  to  read  (j^y^i\,  Anianus.  This  author,  an  Egyptian  monk,  con- 
temporary of  Panodorus,  is  known  as  a  chronographer ;  he  is  quoted  in 
the  fragmentary  chronology  of  Elias  Nisibenus,  cf.  Forshall,  "  Cata- 
logue of  the  Syriac  MSS.  of  the  British  Museum,"  p.  86,  col.  2,  no.  5. 

p.  25,  1.  28.  Ihn-albazydr,  from  whose  Kitab-alkiranat  the  author  has 
taken  the  statement  of  Anianus,  was  a  j)upil  of  Habash,  and  lived  in  the 
9th  century,  vide  "  Kitab-alfihrist,  p.  276. 

p.  26, 1.  30.  But  no  male  children,  etc.  Read  (^i  S  instead  of  (^y*  3, 
p.  tv,  20. 


ANNOTATIONS.  375 

p.  27,  1.  5.  Now  Joseph  and  Mary,  etc,  Eead  J>\i  instead  of  \^\h,  on 
p.  vr,  6,  and  Ut  instead  of  ^jie,  1. 15  (Fleischer). 

p.  28,  1.  11.  It  is  related  that  Tahmurath,  etc.  The  last  source  of  this 
report  is  the  Booh  on  the  Differences  of  the  Canons  (astronomical  hand- 
books), by  Abu-Ma'shar,  cf.  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  240,  and  also 
"  Hamzae  Isj^ahanensis  Annalium,"  libri  x.  ed.  Gottwaldt,  p.  197.  The 
word  1*^  in  this  report,  p.  24,  1.  9,  means  scientific  hooJcs,  as  also  in  the 
"  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  240,  1.  28:  "And  he  ordered  a  great  quantity  of 
scientific  books  (^'j^  U^^)  to  be  transported  from  his  storehouses  to  that 
place." 

p.  28,  1.  16.    Least  exposed,  etc.    Eead  \q^  instead  of  ^i*.^,  on  p.  24, 1. 10. 

p.  28, 1.  23.  That  Gayomarth  was  not,  etc.  The  same  tradition  occurs 
in  the  chronicle  of  Ibn-Alathir,  ed.  Tornberg,  i.  p.  34,  1.  5. 

p.  28,  1.  34.  Some  genealogists  make  the  Lud  of  Genesis  x.  (in  Arabic 
•i^^)  the  father  of  the  Persians,  Hyrcanians,  of  Tasm  and  Amalek,  etc. 
(Tbn-Alathir,  i.  56).  The  Arabs  have  mistaken  the  Hebrew  0**?^^^ 
{Emaei,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country  of  Moab)  for  a  singular, 
and  for  the  name  of  a  man  ('Amim  ben  Lud,  Ibn-Alathir,  i.  56). 

p.  29,  1.  4.  Abu-Ma'shar,  a  native  of  Balkh,  one  of  the  fathers  of 
astrology  among  the  Arabs.  He  wrote  numerous  books  on  all  branches 
of  astrology,  many  of  which  are  still  extant  in  the  libraries  of  Europe. 
He  lived  in  Bagdad,  was  a  contemporary  of  Alkindi,  and  died  a.h.  272, 
at  Wasit.  Cf.  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  tw  and  notes  ;  Otto  Loth,  "  Alkindi 
als  Astrolog,"  p.  265.  In  the  middle-ages  he  was  well  known  also  in 
Europe  as  Alhumaser,  and  many  of  his  works  have  been  translated  into 
Latin ;  whilst  modern  philology  has  hitherto  scarcely  taken  any  notice 
of  him.  Wherever  Alberuni  quotes  him,  he  wages  war  against  him,  and, 
to  judge  by  the  quotations  from  his  books  which  our  author  gives,  it 
seems  that  the  literary  work  of  Abu-Ma'shar  does  not  rest  on  scientific 
bases. 

p.  29,  1.  18.  On  the  star-cycles,  cf.  J.  Narrien,  "Historical  account 
of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Astronomy,"  London,  1833,  p.  112. 

p.  29,  1.  28.  Days  of  Arjabhaz  and  days  of  Arhand.  According  to 
Eeinaud,  "Memoire  sur  I'lnde,"  p.  322,  the  correct  form  of  the  former 
name  would  be  Aryabhatta,  and  the  latter  would  be  the  Sanskrit  ahargana. 
Alberuni  made  a  new  edition  of  the  Days  of  Arkand,  putting  it  into 
clearer  words  and  more  idiomatic  Arabic,  since  the  then  existing  trans- 
lation was  unintelligible,  and  followed  too  closely  the  Sanskrit  original, 
vide  my  "  Einleitung,"  p.  xL,  in  the  edition  of  the  Arabic  text. 


376  albirun!. 

p.  29, 1.  31.  Muhammed  ben  Ishak  ben  Ustadli  Bundadh  Alsarakhsi, 
and  Abu-alwafa  Muhammad  ben  Muhammad  Albuzjani. 

The  latter  was  born  at  Buz j an  in  the  district  of  Mshapur,  a.h.  328,  he 
settled  in  'Irak,  a.h.  348,  and  died  887.  Cf.  Sedillot,  "  Prolegomenes," 
p.  58 ;  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  283  ;  Ibn-Al'athir,  ix.  ^^,  3. 

The  former  scholar  is  not  known  to  me. 

p.  31, 1,  15.  In  Hebrew,  "  Nebukadnezar."  In  the  Arabic,  Vv,  3^  read 
jVaiJ^y^  instead  oij^^f„  (De  Goeje,  Noeldeke). 

p.  31,  1.  35.  Callippus  was  one  of  the  number,  etc.  Behind  the  words 
<^yi  ^  i^^-^.  (^j  there  seems  to  lurk  a  gross  blunder  of  the  copyists, 

p.  32,  1.  16.  Zoroaster,  who  belonged  to  the  sect,  etc.  The  passage, 
&^U^\  i-Jui  yfej,  VA,  2,  seems  hopelessly  corrupt.  My  translation  is 
entirely  conjectural  (i-Jiu,  ^^  ysi^). 

p.  32, 1.  22.  Philip  the  father  of  Alexander.  This  is  a  mistake  of  the 
author's.  He  ought  to  have  said  :  Philip  the  brother  of  Alexander.  The 
source  of  this  statement  regarding  the  era  of  Philippus  Arridseus  is 
Theon  Alexandrinus,  Ilpox'^i-poi  Kavoves,  ed.  Halma,  p.  26  ;  cf .  L.  Ideler, 
"  Handbuch  der  mathematischen  und  technischen  Chronologie,"  ii.  630. 

p.  33,  1.  8.  Habib  ben  Bihriz,  metropolitan  of  Mosul,  is  known  as  one 
of  those  scholars  who  translated  Greek  books  into  Arabic  at  the  time  of 
the  Khalif  Alma'mun  (a.h.  198-218).  Cf.  "Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  244, 
1.  7  ;  p.  248, 1.  27  ;  p.  249, 1.  4. 

p.  33.  1.  18.  'Ahmad  hen  Sahl.  This  man  of  Sasanian  origin  was  a 
DihMn  (i.e.  great  landholder)  in  the  district  of  Marw.  He  played  a 
great  role  in  the  history  of  his  time,  and  was  commander-in-chief  to 
several  princes  of  the  house  of  Saman.  His  history  is  related  by  Ibn- 
Alathir,  viii.  86  ;  "  Histoire  des  Samanides,"  par  M.  Defremery,  Paris, 
1845,  p.  134. 

p.  33.  1.  28,  It  was  Augustus  who,  etc.  On  the  origin  of  the  yE7-a 
Augusti,  cf .  Theon  Alexandrinus,  Upox^i-pot  KavoVe?,  ed.  Halma,  p.  30, 
1.  32  ;  Ideler,  "  Handbuch  der  mathematischen  und  technischen  Chrono- 
logie," i.  153  ff. 

p.  33, 1.  34.  Ptolemy  corrected,  etc.  The  source  of  this  information  is 
Ptolemy,  fiaOrj/xaTtKr]  crvvTa^L<;,  book  vii,  ch.  4  (ed.  Halma,  tom.  ii.  p.  30). 

p.  33,  1.  44.  The  prognostics,  JIU~J\,  are  questions  relating  to  the 
decrees  of  the  stars  ((•^«s-J\  f^^\  ^).  The  books  on  this  subject  con- 
tain the  astrological  answers  to  all  sorts  of  questions,  and  the  methods  by 
which  these  answers  are  found. 


ANNOTATIONS.  377 

p.  34,  1.  7.  Maimun  hen  Mihrdn,  a  dealer  in  cloths  and  stuffs  of 
linen  and  cotton,  was  at  the  head  of  the  administration  of  the  taxes  of 
Northern  Mesopotamia  (Aljazira)  under  the  Khalif  Omar  ben  'Abd- 
al'aziz,  and  died  a.h.  117 ;  vide  Ibn-Kutaiba,  "  Kitab-alma'arif  "  ed.  Wus- 
tenfeld,  p.  228. 

p.  34, 1.  26.  Alsha'hi,  i.e.  'Amir  ben  Sharahil  ben  'Abd  Alsha'bi,  of 
South-Arabian  origin,  was  born  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  'TJth- 
man  ;  he  was  secretary  to  several  great  men  of  his  time,  e.g.  to  'Abdallah 
ben  Tazid,  the  governor  of  Alkufa,  for  the  Khalif  Ibn-alzubair,  and 
died  A.H.  105  or  104 ;  vide  Ibn-Kutaiba,  "  Kitab-alma'arif,"  p.  229. 

p.  36,  1.  10.  Reform  of  the  calendar  hy  the  Khalif  Almu'tadid.  Cf. 
Ibn-Alathir,  vii.  p.  325. 

p.  36,  1.  14.  Abu-Bakr  Alsult,  i.e.  Muhammad  ben  Yahya  ben  'Abdal- 
lah ben  Al'abbas,  most  famous  as  a  chess-player  in  his  time,  the  com- 
panion of  several  Khalifs,  died  a.h.  335  or  336,  at  Basra.  In  his  Kitdb- 
aVaurdk  he  related  the  history  of  the  Khalifs,  and  gave  a  collection 
of  their  poems  and  those  of  other  princes  and  great  men.  Cf.  Ibn- 
Khallikan,  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  nr.  659,  and  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  150. 

p.  36, 1.  19.  'Ubaid-allah  ben  Yahya  ben  Khakan  was  made  the  Vazir 
of  the  Khalif  Almutawakkil,  a.h.  236  (Ibn-Alathir,  vii.  37),  and  died 
A.H.  263  {loc.  cit.  p.  215). 

p.  36,  1.  42.  Khiilid  ben  'Abdallah  Alkasri  was  made  governor  of  Al'irak 
by  the  Khalif  Hisham  ben  'Abd-almalik  a.h.  105  (Ibn-Alathir,  v.  93), 
and  held  this  office  during  15  years,  till  a.h.  120,  (loc,  cit.  p.  167).  Cf. 
Ibn-Kutaiba,  "  Kitab-alma'arif,"  p.  203. 

p.  37, 1.  6.  The  Barmak  family  were  accused  of  adhering  secretly  to 
the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  cf.  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  338,  1.  14. 

p.  37,  1.  9.  Ibrahim  ben  Al'ahhds  Alsidi,  an  uncle  of  the  father  of 
Abu-Bakr  Alsuli  (on  p.  36,  1.  14),  a  most  famous  poet  and  high  official 
of  the  Khalif  in  Surra-man-ra'a,  died  a.h.  243.  The  family  of  Suli,  a 
family  of  poets,  of  eloquent  and  learned  men,  of  whom  sevei*al  acquired 
a  great  fame,  descended  from  a  princely  house  of  Hyrcania.  According 
to  our  author,  p.  109, 1.  44,  the  princes  of  Dahistan  were  called  Sul.  For 
the  biography  of  Ibrahim  and  the  history  of  his  family,  vide  Ibn-Khalli- 
kan,  nr.  10  (ed.  Wustenf eld) . 

p.  37, 1.  19.  These  verses  of  Albuhturi  form  part  of  a  larger  jDoem  in 
the  poet's  diwan  which  exists  in  the  Imperial  Court-Library  at  Vienna 
(Mixt.  125  f.  293,  294),  vide  Fliigel's  Catalogue,  i.  436. 

p.  38,  1.  5.  'All  ben  Yahya  was  famous  in  his  time  as  an  asti'o- 
nomer  and  poet,  and  as  a  friend  of  several  Khalifs.  He  died  a.h.  275  at 
Surra-man-ra'a,     Ibn-Khallikan,  nr.  479.    He  was  one  of  a  whole  family 

25 


378  ALBfEUNi. 

of  distinguished  poets  and  scholars  who   traced    their  origin  back  to 
Tazdagird,  the  last  Sasanian  king.     Cf .  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  143. 

p.  39,  1.  16.  On  these  mythological  traditions,  cf.  L.  Krehl,  "  Die 
Eeligion  der  Vorislamischen  Araber,"  Leipzig,  1863,  p.  83 ;  Almas'udi, 
"  Prairies  d'or,"  ed.  B.  de  Meynard,  iv.  46  ;  Ibn-Alathir,  ed.  Tornberg, 
ii.  30. 

p.  39,  ,1.  33.  Banu-Kuraish.  In  the  Arabic,  p.  34,  1.  12,  read  u^^ 
instead  of  u^yjS ;  and  p.  34,  line  13,  read  Ji^ji  instead  of  Ji^y» 
(Fleischer). 

p.  39, 1.  34.  The  following  famous  battle-days  of  the  ancient  Arabs  are 
well  known  to  Arab  historians.  For  more  detailed  information  I  refer  to 
the  chronicle  of  Ibn-Alathir,  of  which  nearly  one  half  of  torn.  i. 
(p.  320  ff.)  is  dedicated  to  this  subject.  Cf .  also  Ibn  Kutaiba,-  "  Kitab- 
alma'arif,"  p.  293;  "Arabum  Proverbia,"  ed.  Freytag,  tom.  iii. 
p.  553  fe. 

The  pronunciation  of  the  word  Alfadd  (p.  39,  1.  44)  seems  doubtful. 
Yakut,  iii.  804,  mentions  Alghadd,  a  place  in  the  district  of  the  Banu- 
Kilab,  where  once  a  battle  took  place.  Therefore  it  would  perhaps  be 
preferable  to  read  "  The  day  of  Alyhadd" 

p.  40, 1.  26.  On  this  war  of  Alfijar,  in  which  Muhammad  took  part, 
cf.  A.  Sprenger,  "  Das  Lebenund  die  Lehre  des  Mohammad,"  i.  351, 423. 

p.  40,  1.  35.  Notwithstanding,  we  have  stated,  etc.  This  passage  proves 
that  there  is  a  lacuna  in  the  order  of  the  chronological  tables,  such  as 
exhibited  by  the  manuscripts.  According  to  the  author,  his  work  con- 
tained also  the  tables  of  the  princes  of  South-Arabia  and  of  Alhira,  but 
no  such  tables  are  found  in  the  manuscripts.  Their  proper  place  would 
have  been  between  the  Sasanians  and  the  Khalifs  (after  p.  128),  but  the 
table  of  the  Khalifs  is  lost,  too. 

I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  author  had  scarcely  any  other  in- 
formation but  that  of  Hamza  Alisfahjini  (transl.  by  Gottwaldt,  pp.  73 
and  96).  The  manuscript  of  the  University  Library  of  Leyden  proves  a 
considerable  help  for  the  emendation  of  Hamza's  work,  but  more  manu- 
scripts will  be  wanted  before  a  reliable  and  clear  text  can  be  made  out. 

p.  40,  1.  39.  For  the  following  rej)ort  on  the  antiquities  of  Chorasmia 
I  refer  to  my  treatise,  Zur  GescUcUe  und  Chronologie  von  Khwdrizm  L, 
published  in  the  "  Sitzungsberichte  der  Kais.  Academie  de  Wissen- 
schaften  in  Wien,"  Philosophisch-historische  Classe,  1873,  p.  471  ff. 

p.  41, 1.  7.  On  the  name  of  Afrigh,  vide  my  treatise  Conjectur  zu  Ven- 
didad,  i.  34,  in  "  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlandischen  Gesell- 
schaft,"  xxviii.  p.  450. 


ANNOTATIONS.  379 

p.  41,  1.  23.  Piece  hy  piece.  Read  UUaS  instead  of  VcUsS  (text,  p.  35, 
1.  16  (Fleischer). 

p.  41, 11,  33,  41,  I  prefer  to  read  Azkdkhwdr  instead  of  Azkajawar; 
also  J),  42, 1,  26, 

p.  43, 1.  24.  The  chief  source  of  all  information  of  eastern  authors 
regarding  Alexander  is  the  book  of  Pseudo-Callisthenes  (edited  by  C, 
Miiller,  Paris,  1846,  Dido t).  The  book  has  been  treated  with  the  same 
liberty  both  in  east  and  west,  and  it  seems  that  the  eastern  transla- 
tions have  not  less  differed  from  each  other  than  the  various  Greek 
manuscripts  of  the  book.  The  passage  p.  44, 1.  30  ff.  does  not  occur  so 
in  the  Greek  original,  but  something  like  it,  cf.  book  ii.  ch.  20, 
p.  *?7.  The  murderer  of  Darius,  p.  44,  1.  8,  has  a  Sasanian  name  (N"au- 
jushanas),  whilst  in  the  original  there  are  two  murderers,  Bessus  and 
Artabarzanes  (ii.  20).  That  Nebukadnezar  is  introduced  into  the  tale, 
occurs  also  elsewhere — Mas'udi,  "  Prairies  d'or,"  ii.  247  ;  Tabari  (Zoten- 
berg),  i.  516.  That  Alexander  was  originally  a  son  of  Darius,  is  the 
tradition  of  the  Shahnama  of  Firdausi,  vide  also  Tabari,  i.  512 ;  Ibn- 
Alathir,  i.  199,  1.  For  more  information  I  refer  to  Fr.  Spiegel,  "  Die 
Alexandersage  bei  den  Orientalen,"  Leipzig,  1851, 

p,  45,  1.  3.     Ibn-'Ahd-AIrazzdk  Altusi.     A  man  of  this  name,  i.e.  Ibn 
'Abd-alrazzak  is  mentioned  in  the  history  of  the  Buyide  prince  Eukn- 
aldaula,  by  Ibn-al'athir,  viii.  p.  396,  among  the  events  of  a.h.  349. 

p.  45,  1.  5.  Abu-Ishak  Ibrahim  ben  Hilal,  the  Sabian,  was  the  secre- 
tary of  the  Buyide  prince  'Izz-aldaula  Bakhtiysir,  famous  as  an  eloquent 
writer  in  prose  and  verse.  He  died  a.h.  384,  or,  according  to  another 
statement,  before  a.h.  380.  Cf .  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  134 ;  Ibn-Khallikan, 
nr,  14;  F,  Wilken,  Mirchond's  "  Geschichte  der  Sultane  aus  dem  Ge- 
schlechte  Bujeh,"  Berlin,  1835,  p.  105. 

The  title  of  his  book  (p.  45,  1.  6)  read  Altdji  instead  of  Alfdj. 

On  the  pedigree  of  the  family  of  Buwaihi,  cf.  Ibn-Kutaiba,  "  Kitab- 
alma'arif,"  p.  36;  Ibn-Alathir,  viii.  197;  F.  Wiistenfeld,  G  enealogische 
Tabellen  T.  10  and  Register,  p.  152.  Most  of  the  names  which  occur 
in  this  pedigree  are  also  found  in  Sehir-eddin's  "  Geschichte  von 
Tabaristan,  Rujan  und  Mazandaran,"  ed.  Dorn,  p.  101,  and  the  whole 
pedigree,  loc.  cit.  p.  175. 

p.  45, 1.  9.     Read;i;~^U*  instead  of  j|^M.ja.U»  (text,  p.  38, 1,  3). 

p.  45, 1.  22,  Abu-Muhammad  Alhasan  ben  'Ali  ben  Nana,  mentioned 
as  the  author  of  a  history  of  the  Buyide  princes,  is  not  known  to  me. 


380  ALBIEUNI. 

p.  46,  1.  8.  Eead  J-U  instead  of  J-.Vj  (text,  p.  38,  1.  10)  ;  and  J~.W 
instead  of  J-W  (p.  38, 1.  11).     Eead  j_j*~-J  instead  of  ^J*'^„  (p.  38,  1.  11). 

p,  46, 1.  12.  The  names  of  Laliu  and  Layahaj  (p.  15)  are  unknown  to 
me  ;  perhaps  they  have  some  sort  of  relation  with  the  word  Ldhijdn, 
(jVjss&S,  which  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  two  capitals  of  Grhilan,  cf.  Dorn, 
"  Sehir-eddin's  Geschichte  von  Tabaristan,"  etc.  Yorwort,  p.  11, 
note  1. 

p.  47,  1.  23.     GMUn.     Eead  J*«sJ\  instead  of  J-&J\  (text,  p.  39, 1.  5). 

p.  47,  1.  25.  Asfdr  hen  SMrawaiM.  Under  the  Khalifate  of  Almnk- 
tadir  (a.h.  295-320)  the  party  of  the  Alides  tried  to  occupy  the  countries 
south  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  Tabaristan,  Dailam,  Ghilan  and  Jurjan, 
fighting  against  the  troops  of  the  Samanian  princes  of  Khurasan  and 
those  of  the  Khalif.  The  first  Alide  whose  efforts  were  crowned  with 
success  was  Hasan  ben  'Ali,  called  Alndsir  AVutrush,  about  a.h.  302. 
Soon,  however,  the  generals  of  the  Alide  princes,  Laila  ben  Alnu'man, 
Makan  ben  Kaki,  Asfar  ben  Shirawaihi,  were  more  successful  than  they 
themselves.  The  latter,  Asfar,  who  abandoned  the  party  of  the  Alides, 
succeeded,  a.h.  315,  in  occupying  Tabaristan,  and  in  rendering  himself 
an  independent  ruler.  He  did  not  long  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  labours. 
After  having  made  himself  thoroughly  unpopular,  he  was  killed  by  his 
generals,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Mardawij,  a.h.  316.  Mardawij  was 
now  the  ruler  of  Tabaristan  and  Jurjan,  and  tried  to  extend  his  sway 
over  the  neighbouring  countries.  He  was  the  founder  of  a  dynasty  who 
held  the  supreme  power  in  those  countries  during  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years.  He  abandoned  the  party  of  the  Alides,  and  adopted  the 
black  colour  of  the  Abbasides.  To  the  Khalif  he  made  himself  so 
formidable  that  he  was  invested  and  proclaimed  as  the  legitimate 
governor  of  all  the  provinces  which  his  sword  had  conquered.  Cf. 
Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Khalifen,"  ii.  613-621.  A  history  of  this  man 
and  of  his  descendants  is  found  in  Sehir-eddin's  "  Geschichte  von 
Tabaristan,  Eujan  und  Mazandaran,"  ed.  by  Dorn,  1850,  on  pp.  171-201 
and  322. 

Mardawij  was  a  ^J'■t^,  i.e.  native  of  Ghilan  (not  ^^^W,  native  of  Aljabal 
or  Media).  The  name  of  his  father  is  written  jUj  and  ol>j,  and  I  have 
not  been  able  to  make  out  which  form  is  the  correct  one.  In  Sehir- 
eddin's  chronicle,  the  name  is  always  written  jUj. 

In  the  text,  r«i,  6,  read  J^\  instead  of  J<-*!J\.  Between  the  words  ^^ 
and^  (line  6),  there  seems  to  be  a  lacuna  which  I  have  no  means  of 
filling  up.  This  lacuna  is  the  reason  why  the  following  words  do  not 
offer  a  clear  meaning.  It  is  not  clear  who  was  the  son  of  Warddnshdh 
who  instigated  MardiWij  to  free  the  people  from  the  tyranny  of  Asfar. 


ANNOTATIONS.  381 

p.  47, 1.  29.     Khurasan.     Read  yU^^i-,  r«\,  8,  instead  of  (^jU-^-i.. 

The  name  FarJchwdrjirshdh  may  possibly  be  identical  witb  tbat  name 
which  Anoshirwan  is  said  to  have  had  as  the  governor  of  Tabaristan  in 
the  lifetime  of  his  father,  Hamza  Isfahani,  ed.  Grottwaldt,  "^  3,  4.  Cf. 
^  J\y&,ji  and  eU  ^  j\y»jj  in  Sehir-eddin's  "  Chronik  von  Tabaristan,"  ed. 
Dorn,  pp.  19,  31,  42 ;  P.  de  Lagarde,  "  Beitrage  zur  Baktrischen  Lexiko- 
graj^hie,"  p.  50  ff. 

p.  47, 1.  30.  In  the  text  on  p.  39,  read  JCi\  instead  of  «dW\,  1.  9  ; 
JA»^  instead  of  J^,  1.  13  ;  and  ii^\  instead  of  4y^\,  1.  19  (Fleischer). 

p.  47,  1.  32.  The  Ispahbad  Bustam,  the  uncle  of  Shams-alma'ali  is 
also  mentioned  by  Ibn-Al'athir,  viii.  506.  To  a  son  of  this  Rustam, 
Marzuban  ben  Eustam,  the  Ispahbad  of  Jiljilan,  our  author  has  dedi- 
cated one  of  his  books,  vide  my  edition  of  the  text,  Einleituug,  p.  xl. 
nr.  7. 

The  history  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Ispahbad  Eustam  is  related  in 
Sehir-eddin's  "  Geschichte  von  Tabaristan,"  etc.,  ed.  Dorn,  j)p.  201-210, 
270,  322.     They  are  called  "  the  family  of  Sdwand." 

In  p.  47, 11.  34  and  38,  read  (^^^/>  instead  of  e^ji/'.  Cf.  Yakut,  "  Geo- 
graphisches  Worterbuch,"  iii.  283. 

p.  48, 1.  5.  The  same  pedigree  of  the  house  of  Saman  is  also  given 
by  Ibn-al'athir,  vii.  192,  and  in  the  geography  of  Ibn-Haukal,  pp.  344, 
345. 

p.  48,  1.  16.  The  Shahs  of  Shirwdn.  According  to  Kazwini,  "  Athar- 
albilad,"  p.  403,  Shirwan  was  first  colonized  by  Kisra  Anoshirwan.  The 
kings  of  the  country  were  called  yU-i.^.  Anoshirwan  is  said  to  have 
installed  the  first  governor  and  prince  of  Shirwan,  a  relative  of  his 
family.  Cf.  Dorn,  "  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  der  Shirwanshahe,"  j).  12 
and  25.  Mas'udi,  "  Prairies  d'or,"  ii.  4,  makes  the  Shirwanshah  of  his 
time  descend  from  Bahram-Gur. 

p.  48, 1.  24.  Vhaid-Alldh,  etc.,  founded  the  empire  of  the  Fatimide 
dynasty  in  Kairawan  and  Egypt,  a.h.  296.  He  pretended  to  be  a 
descendant  of  'Ali  ben  Abi-Talib.  Cf.  Ibn-Al'athir,  viii.  27;  Ibn- 
Kutaiba,  "  Kitab-alma'arif ,"  p.  57;  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  ii. 
598. 

That  prince  of  this  dynasty  who  ruled  at  the  time  of  our  author,  Abu- 
*Ali  ben  Nizar,  etc.  (p.  48,  1.  31)  was  Khalif  of  Egypt,  a.h.  386-411,  and 
is  better  known  under  the  name  of  Alhakim,  cf .  Ibn-Al'athir,  ix.  83,  2  ; 
82,  14  ;  221,  14. 


382  ALBiEUNt. 

p.  48, 1.  41.  I  feel  inclined  to  suppose  that  in  this  pedigree  there  is 
a  lacuna  between  <^^\i.  and  oy^y,  that  wi-^Vj  the  son  of  Noah  was  ori- 
ginally the  end  of  the  first  pedigree,  and  that  the  second  commenced 
with  Alexander  ben  Barka,  etc.  This  opinion  is  supported  by  Mas'udi, 
"  Prairies  d'or,"  ii.  248,  and  Spiegel,  "  Alexandersage,"  p.  60.  However, 
I  must  state  that  the  pedigree — such  as  it  is  given  by  Alberuni — also 
occurs  in  Mas'udi,  ii.  293,  294,  and  Ibn-Al'athir,  i.  200,  5-9.  If,  there- 
fore, there  is  a  lacuna,  as  I  suppose,  it  is  a  blunder  of  older  date,  and 
must  have  occurred  already  in  the  source  whence  all,  Mas'udi,  Albe- 
runi, and  Ibn-al'athir  have  drawn. 

Some  of  the  names  of  this  pedigree  exhibit  rather  suspicious  forms. 
II.  yy^,  perhaps  ^j-a-  Egyptus  ?     Cf.  Ibn-Alathir,  i.  p.  200, 1.  6. 
VI.  fj=^.     Read  (^^^  Latinus. 

XV.  ^S\  is  a  corruption  of  'IQ^.  Genesis,  xxxvi.  11,  15  ;  vide  Ascoli, 
"  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft," 
XV.  143. 

p.  49,  1.  22.  The  combination  of  Dhu-alkarnain  with  Almundhir  ben 
Imru'alkais,  vide  Hamza  Isfahani,  translated  by  Gottwaldt,  p.  82. 

p.  49,  1.  26.  'Abdalldh  ben  Hildl.  On  this  famous  juggler,  vide 
"Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  310,  and  note. 

p.  49,  1.  37.  On  the  supposed  South- Arabian  origin  of  Dhu-alkarnain, 
vide  Mas'udi,  "Prairies  d'or,"  ii.  244,  249  ;  A.  v.  Kremer, " Sildarabische 
Sage,"  pp.  70-75  ;  Hamza,  transl.  p.  100. 

p.  49, 1.  41.  The  name  Suhaih  occurs  also  in  Ihn-HisMm.  The  life 
of  Muhammad,  i.  486.  It  seems  to  be  the  diminutive  of  j-*-*^  'Ashah 
(Ibu-Duraid,  "  Kitab-alishtikak,"  p.  41),  as  Nu'aim  ^•^  is  the  diminu- 
tive of  'An'a^n  fit*>\  according  to  Ibn-Duraid,  loc.  cit.  p.  85,  1.  14.  Another 
name  of  the  same  root  is  cW^  in  Hamza,  ed.  Gottwaldt,  p.  132. 

The  spelling  of  the  name  Alhammdl,  1.  34,  is  uncertain. 

For  the  spelling  of  the  name  Tan'um,  vide  Ibn-Duraid,  loc.  cit.  p.  84, 
note. 

p.  50, 1.  4.  Fever-water.  Eead  muddy  water.  Eead  U=^  instead  of  ^_J♦^ 
(text,  p.  41, 1.  3),  and  read;,-:^^\  instead  of  j^S\  (text,  p.  41, 1.  5)  (Flei- 
scher). 

p.  50, 1.  7.  The  following  reasoning  occurs  already  in  Hamza,  transl. 
p.  100. 

p.  50,  1.  26.  Ibn-Khurdddhhih  was  postmaster  in  Media,  and  wrote 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  of  the  Flight  (between  240-260). 
His  geographical  work  has  been  edited  and  translated  by  B.  de  Mey- 
ni-iJ,  "  Journal  Asiatique,"  1865. 


ANNOTATIONS.  383 

p.  51,  1.  1.  Sawdr.  This  nation  is  mentioned  by  Byzantine  authors 
under  the  name  of  %a/3ipoL 

p.  52, 1.  24,  Abu-Sa'id  'Ahmad  ben  Muhammad,  a  native  of  Sijistan, 
is  not  known  to  me  from  any  other  source. 

p.  53,  1.  31.  The  same  names  occur  in  Mas'udi,  iii.  415.  These  days 
have  also  Arabic  names  (Zoc.  cit.  p.  416,  and  this  book,  p.  246, 1.  16). 

p.  53,  1.  34.     Bead  ^U3\  instead  of  «wUJ\  (text,  p.  43, 1.  22). 

p.  63, 1.  37.  ZddawaiJii  hen  ShdliawaiJii,  a  native  of  Isfahan,  is  men- 
tioned in  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  245,  as  one  of  those  who  translated  Per- 
sian works  into  Arabic.  He  is  also  mentioned  on  p.  202, 1.  7,  and  p.  207, 
1.  11. 

p.  54, 1. 1.  Abu-alfaraj  Ahmad  ben  Khalaf  Alzanjani ;  "Kitab-alfihrist," 
p.  284,  mentions  an  Ahmad  b.  Khalaf  among  those  who  made  astrono- 
mical and  other  instruments  ;  also  mentioned  p.  118,  1.  31. 

p.  54,  1.  4.     Abu-alhasan  Adharkhur  ben  Tazdankhasis  is  not  known 
to  me  from  any  ot;her  source ;  vide  p.  107,  1.  40  and  p.  204,  1.  14. 
Eead  (^.  j)^)^'\  instead  of  <^\y^j'^'\  (text,  p.  44, 1.  6). 

p.  54, 1.  29.     Eead  ^i\»\j  instead  of  y3\»\}  (text,  p.  44,  1.  15). 

-a  a 

p.  54, 1.  39.  The  reason  why  the  Persians  did  not  like  to  increase  the 
number  of  days  of  the  year  was,  according  to  Mas'udi,  iii.  416,  that 
thereby  the  established  sequence  of  lucky  and  unlucky  days  would  have 
been  disturbed. 

p.  55, 1.  3.  The  words  1.  5-27  do  not  in  the  least  harmonize  with  the 
preceding,  which  makes  me  believe  that  after  the  word  Adhar-Mdh  there 
is  a  gap,  although  the  manuscripts  do  not  indicate  it.  The  explanation 
which  is  commenced  in  11.  3,  4,  is  continued  in  1.  28  ff. 

p.  56, 1.  7.  Yazdajird  AlMzdrt  is  also  mentioned  by  Yakut,  "  Geogra- 
phisches  Worterbuch,"  iv.  970.  Yakut  may  have  drawn  his  information 
from  this  book. 

p.  56,  1.  22.  As  these  names,  the  scanty  remnants  of  a  long-lost 
Eranian  dialect,  are  of  considerable  philological  interest,  I  shall  add  the 
readings  of  the  Canon  Masudicus  of  Alberuni  according  to  two  manu- 
scripts,  MS.  Elliot   (now   the  property  of  the  British  Museum,  dated 


384  ALBiEUNt. 

Bagdad,  a.h.  570,  Eabi'  I.),  and  MS.  Berlin  (tlie  property  of  the  Eoyal 
Library,  ace.  ms.  10,  311,  or  MSS.  Orr.  8°.  276). 


MS.  Elliot,  f .  14a. 

MS.  Berlin. 

^T-y 

'V-y 

C)^J^ 

t)^^ 

\jUi.U6.\ 

^Jc;j£.U&\ 

^y^ 

•^j 

^j 

rr^ 

u^y^ 

whoever  wants  to  explain  these  names  will  also  have  to  consult  the 
six  manuscripts  of  the  Kitdh-altafMm  of  our  author,  and  the  most  ancient 
copy  of  the  Canon  Masudicus  in  the  Bodleian  Library. 

In  this  book  Alberuni  does  not  mention  the  months  of  the  Armenians, 
but  I  have  found  them  in  a  copy  of  the  "  Kitab-altafhim  "  (MS.  of  the 
Bodleian  Library)  in  the  following  form  (p.  165)  : 

iJr^'^^i  (4)^  (_r»^  tsj^  u-^^^  (read  ,j^y^\^)  (j^\j\  ^-^^  i£kj\  ijW)  (!) 
<Sjf.j^  (j-»^U  (read  (j-i'^U)  (j^^^yb  (MS.  .  .  ^^yfc) 

Cf.  E.  Dulaurier,  "  Eecherches  sur  la  chronologie  Armenienne," 
p.  2. 

p.  57,  1.  17.  I  am  sorry  to  state  that  there  are  no  tables  of  these 
Chorasmian  names  in  the  Canon  Masudicus,  nor  in  the  "Kitsib- 
altafhim." 

The  form  (,j>*a\  (p.  57,  1.  2)  reminds  one  of  the  Cappadocian  name 
Ocr/xav,  ■yicZe  Benfey  und  Stern,  "Ueber  die  Monatsnamen  einiger  alter 
Yolker,"  Berlin,  1836,  pp.  110-113. 

The  name  ^Jj  (name  of  the  8th,  15th,  and  23rd  days)  is,  like  the 
Persian  Dai,  to  be  retraced  to  Badhvdo  (Benfey  and  Stern,  ih.  pp.  109, 
110). 

The  corresponding  Sogdian  name  (p.  56)  is  written  e:.w.j,  which  is, 
perhaps,  a  metathesis  for  u-i"^,  which  would  be  equal  to  Datlmeho,  the 
genitive  of  Dadhvdo,  and  would  resemble  the  Cappadocian  Aa^oucra  (Ben- 
fey und  Stern,  ib.  p.  79). 

The  reader  will  easily  recognize  the  relationship  between  the  Sogdian 
and  Chorasmian  names  of  the  days  of  the  month  and  the  Persian 
names ;  this  is  more  difficult  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  names  of  the 
months. 


ANNOTATIONS.  385 

p.  58,  1.  10.  And  relied,  etc.  Read  (:})^)*i  instead  of  (:))^)si  (text,  p.  48, 
1. 14). 

p.  58, 1.  16.     Dai,  vide  note  ad  p.  57, 1.  17. 

p.  58,  1.  33.  It  is  not  known  that  the  Egyptians  called  the  single 
days  of  the  month  by  special  names. 

p.  59, 1.  3.  On  the  names  of  the  Egyptian  months,  their  forms  and 
meanings,  vide  R.  Lepsius,  "  Chronologic  der  Aegypter,"  pp.  134-142. 

p.  59, 1.  22.  The  small  month.  The  Coptic  name  for  the  Epagomense 
is  JO  abot  n  Jcouji,  "  the  small  month,"  cf .  R.  Lepsius,  "  Chronologic 
der  Aegypter,"  p.  145  ;  and  this  book,  p.  137,  1.  22.  On  the  Egyptian 
names  of  the  5  Epagomenae,  cf.  E.  Lepsius,  loc.  cit.  pp.  146,  147. 

p.  59,  1.  25.     S=w^\.     It  seems,  one  must  read  this  word  IsaJ^,  since  the 

Coptic  word  for  leap-year  is   't'A-TTOKTl'  >  'i-e.  'ETraKT?;,  as  Mr.  L.  Stem 

kindly  informed  me.     In  that  case  the  author  was  wrong  in  translating 
the  word  by  ^1^  i.e.  signum. 

p.  59,  1.  26.  Abu-arabbas  Alamuli,  the  author  of  a  book  on  the 
Kibla,  is  mentioned  by  Haji  Khalifa,  iii.  p.  236.  His  full  name  is  Abu- 
al'abbas  'Ahmad  b.  Abi-' Ahmad  Altabari  Alamuli,  known  as  Ibn-alkas§, 
and  he  died  a.h.  335. 

The  months  which  this  author  ascribes  to  the  People  of  the  West 
are  our  names  of  months  in  forms  which  can  hardly  be  traced  back 
to  a  Latin  source  (ancient  Spanish  ?).  I  suppose  that  by  the  People 
of  the  West  he  means  the  inhabitants  of  Spain. 

p.  60,  1.  21.  Kitdb-ma'Jchadh-almawdkit.  This  book  is  not  known 
to  me. 

p.  61,  1.  1.  Twenty-four  hours  are  =  86,400  seconds,  which,  divided 
by  729,  give  a  quotient  of  118|-|-f . 

p.  61, 1.  13.    Read  (»Aa;uJ^  instead  of  ^Ift^\  (text,  p.  51,  1.  17). 

p.  61,  1.  45.  Thabit  ben  Kurra  was  born  a.h.  221  and  died  288  ;  vide 
"  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  272,  and  notes.  On  his  astronomical  theories,  vide 
Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'astronomie  du  moyen  age,"  p.  73. 

On  the  family  of  the  Banu-Musa  vide  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  271.  Mu- 
hammad died  A.H.  259. 

p.  62,  1.  16.  The  Hebrews  and  all  the  Jews.  The  wovdi'Ibrdm= Hebrew, 
was  a  learned  name,  known  only  to  scholars ;  it  meant  that  people  of 

26 


S86  ALBIR^NI. 

antiquity  who  spoke  the  Hebrew  tongue  and  who  lived  in  Syria  under 
the  law  of  Moses.  Jew  is  a  popular  name  which  means  the  descen- 
dants of  that  people,  who  no  longer  live  in  Syria,  but  are  scattered  all 
over  the  world,  who  no  longer  speak  Hebrew,  but  who  still  live  under  the 
law  of  Moses. 

p.  62,  1.  18.  The  names  of  the  months  of  the  Jews  occur  also  in 
Assyrian,  cf.  E.  Norris,  "  Assyrian  Dictionary,"  p.  60. 

Part  of  the  following  chapter  has  been  edited  by  S.  de  Sacy,  "  Chresto- 
mathie  Arabe,"  i.  p.  '^^  (taken  from  Almakrizi). 

p.  62,  1.  40.  "  Remember  the  day,"  etc.  This  quotation  is  an  extract 
from  Exodus  xiii.  3,  4  (Deut.  xvi.  1).  The  words  in  that  month  when  the 
trees  blossom  are  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  iD^^^^^n  tlJIPQ-  The 
month  'Abib  has  always  been  identified  with  Nisan  by  the  whole  exege- 
tical  tradition  of  both  Jews  and  Christians,  but  I  do  not  see  for  what 
reason. 

p.  63, 1.  15.  This  view,  that  Adhar  11.  is  the  leap-month,  was  held  by 
the  Karaeans,  according  to  Eliah  ben  Mose  in  Selden,  "  Dissertatio  de 
civili  anno  Judaico,"  cap.  v.  p.  166  O^tl?  m«  imt^  ("^"ll^n  VH). 

p.  63,  1.  31.  On  the  invention  of  the  Octaeteris  by  Cleostratos  of 
Tenedos  (about  500  b.c.)  vide  Ideler,  "  Handbuch  der  mathematischen 
und  technischen  Chronologic,"  ii.  605. 

The  cycle  of  19  years  is  the  cycle  of  Meton,  invented  about  432  b.c, 
vide  Ideler,  loc.  cit.  i.  297  ff. 

The  cycle  of  76  years  is  the  improvement  of  the  Metonian  cycle  by 
Callippus  of  Cyzicus  (about  330  b.c),  Ideler,  loc.  cit.  i.  299,  344. 

The  cycle  of  95  years  (5  x  19)  has  been  used  by  Cyrillus  for  the  com- 
putation of  Easter,  vide  Ideler,  loc.  cit.  p.  259. 

The  cycle  of  532  (=19x28)  was  invented  by  the  Egyptian  monk 
Anianus,  vide  Ideler,  loc.  cit.  pp.  277,  451. 

p.  63,  1.  37.  In  the  author's  statement  regarding  the  4th  cycle  of  95 
years  there  is  a  mistake:  we  must  read  1,175  months  instead  of  1,176 
months. 

The  synodical  month  or  one  lunation  is=29  d.  12h.  793  H. 

1,176  lunations  =  34,727  d.  23  h.  528  H  =  900,149,208  H. 

If  we  divide  this  sum  by  the  length  of  the  solar  year,  i.e.  365  d. 
/o^s'o  h.=9,467,190  H,  we  get  as  quotient  95  (years),  and  a  remainder  of 
29  d.  13  h.  438  H,  i.e.  1  lunation  plus  725  H.,  i.e.  one  lunation  too 
much. 

If  we  reckon  1,175  lunations,  we  get  as  the  remainder  725  H.,  and 


ANNOTATIONS.  387 

this  result  is  correct,  because    it   is   five   times  the  remainder  of    the 
cycle  of  19  years,  of  which  this  cycle  is  a  five  times  multiplication. 

95  years  =  5  x  19 

1,175  lunations       =  5  x  235 

35  leap-months  =  5x7 

725  H.remainder=  5  x  145 

This  remainder  represents  the  difference  between  the  rotations  of  the 
sun  and  the  moon  at  the  end  of  the  cycle. 

p.  64, 1.  3.  Halak,  as  I  have  written,  according  to  the  Arabic,  is  the 
Hebrew  word  yr^r\,  which  in  the  Canon  Masudicus  is  sometimes  rendered 
by  (jLa..  Of  the  still  smaller  division  of  time,  of  the  D''i^^*\  (one  Eega' 
=^'7Q  Halak),  I  have  not  found  any  trace  in  the  works  of  Alberuni. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  who  want  to  examine  the  following 
computations,  I  give  a  comparison  between  the  Halaks  and  the  other 
measures  of  time : 


I. 

1  hour 

=  1,080  H. 

1  minute 

=  18  H. 

III. 

=  ^H. 

liii. 

=     1     H 

2  00      .^• 

liv. 

=       1       H 

12  000      .^* 

IV. 

—         1         TT 

7  3  0  0  0  0      ,' 

n 

.       1  Halak 

=  lo'so  liour. 

1  H. 

=  ^  minute. 

1  H, 

=  2^  seconds, 

IH. 

=  200  in. 

IH. 

=  12,000  IV. 

IH. 

=  720,000  V. 

ni. 

1,080  Halaks 

=  1  hour. 

1  Halak 

=      1      h 

1080    "• 

1  Eega' 

—        1       h 

8  2  080    "■• 

In  Jewish  chronology  there  occur  two  kinds  of  years,  the  Julian  year 
(in  the  calculation  of  E.  Samuel),  and  a  scientific  year  derived  from 
the  researches  of  Hipparchus,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  calculation  of 
E.  'Adda  bar  'Ahaba. 

The  year  which  Alberuni  mentions,  consisting  of  365  d.  61111  h.,  is 
the  year  of  E.  'Adda,  equal  to 

365  d.  5  h.  997  H.  48  Eeg. 

Cf .  Lazarus  Bendavid,  "  Zur  Berechnung  und  Geschichte  des  Jiidischen 
Kalenders,"  Berlin,  1817,  p.  32. 

Eegardiag  the  origin  of  this  year  there  cannot  be  any  doubt.    The 


388  albirunI. 

Jewish  chronologists  found  it  by  dividing  by  19  tbe  Enneadecateris  of 
Meton,  which  consists  of  235  Hipparchical  synodical  months  (i.e.  6,939  d. 
16h.  595H.). 

It  will  not  be  superfluous  for  the  valuation  of  the  following  calcu- 
lations to  point  out  the  difference  between  the  ancient  Greek  astrono- 
mers and  the  Jewish  Rabbis  who  constructed  the  Jewish  calendar. 

The  elements  for  the  comparison  of  the  rotations  of  sun  and  moon 
are  two  measures  :  that  of  the  length  of  the  synodical  month  and  that 
of  the  length  of  the  solar  year.  When  Meton  and  Callippus  con- 
structed their  cycles,  these  two  measures  had  not  yet  been  defined 
with  a  great  degree  of  accuracy.     Hence  the  deficiencies  of  their  cycles. 

Centuries  later,  when  the  sagacity  of  Hipparchus  had  defined  these 
two  measures  in  such  a  way  that  modern  astronomy  has  found  very 
little  to  correct,  comparisons  between  the  rotations  of  sun  and  moon 
could  be  carried  out  with  a  much  higher  degree  of  accuracy.  Thereby 
the  Jewish  chronologists  were  much  better  situated  than  Meton  and 
Callippus,  and  the  following  calculations  prove  that  they  availed  them- 
selves of  this  advantage. 

p.  64, 1.  10.     Computation  of  the  Octaeteris  and  Enneadecateris. 

I.  Octaeteris. 

The  ancient  GTreeks  counted  the  solar  year  as  366|  days  (i.e.  too 
long),  and  the  synodical  month  as  29|  days  (i.e.  too  short).  The  Jews 
counted — 

the  solar  year  as  365  d.  ^HH  h, 

and  the  synodical  month  as  29  d.  12  h.  783  H. 

The  99  lunations  of  the  Octaeteris,  each  lunation  at  29  d.  12  h.  783  H., 
give  the  sum  of — 

2,923  d.  12  h.  747  H. 

which  is  equal  to  the  sum  of — 

75,777,867  H. 

If  we  divide  this  sum  by  the  length  of  the  solar  year,  i.e.  365  d, 
51111  h.=9,467,190  H.,  we  get  as  quotient  8  (years)  and  a  remainder 
of— 

1  d.  13  h.  387  H. 

This  would  be  the  difference    between    the   rotations  of   the    sun    and 
moon  at  the  end  of  the  first  Octaeteris,  i.e.  the  moon  reached  the  end 
of   her  99th  rotation,  when   the    sun    had    still  to   march  during  1  d. 
13  h.  387  H.,  till  he  reached  the  end  of  his  8th  rotation. 
According  to  the  calculations  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  this  difference 


ANNOTATIONS.  389 

was  less,  viz.   1|  days.     Cf.  L.  Ideler,  "Handbuch  der  mathematischen 
und  teclinisclien  Chronologie,"  i.  p.  294  ff. 

As  the  author  says,  387  Halaks  do  not  correspond  to  ii  h.  with  mathe- 
matical accuracy  (p.  64, 11.  24,  25).     There  is  a  difference  of  -^  h.,  for 

387      },  _         _iJ5_  -^ 

1080*  120"* 

whilst 
iJ-  h      =     ■**   h 

30-"'         120    "• 

II.  Enneadecateris. 

Meton  discovered  that  235  synodical  months  pretty  nearly  correspond 
to  19  solar  years.  In  constructing  his  cycle  of  19  years,  he  reckoned 
the  solar  year  at  365y^9-  d.,  i.e.  by  -^  d.  longer  than  it  had  been  reckoned 
in  the  Octaeteris  (a  mistake  which  afterwards  Callippus  strove  to 
retrieve).  More  correct  was  the  following  Jewish  calculation  with  Hip- 
parchic  measures  : 

235  lunations,  each  =  29  d.  12  h.  793  H.,  give  the  sum  of — 

6,939  d.  163^5^  h.  =  179,876,755  H. 

If  we  divide  this  sum  of  Halaks  by  the  length  of  the  solar  year  of — 
865  d.  6%iU  ^'  =  9,467,190  H., 
we  get  as  quotient  19  (years),  and  a  remainder  of  only  145  H. 

According  to  this  computation,  the  difference  between  the  rotations 
of  sun  and  moon  at  the  end  of  the  first  Enneadecateris  would  not  be 
more  than  145  H.,  or  -^^  h.,  i.e.  a  little  more  than  j-  h.,  or  than  ytw  ^-y 
whilst,  according  to  Callippus,  this  difference  was  greater,  viz.  -fl  d. 
=  id. 

This  reform  of  the  Metonic  Enneadecateris  enabled  the  Jews  to 
dispense  with  the  76  years  cycle  of  Callippus,  which  he  constructed  of 
four-times  the  Enneadecateris  with  the  omission  of  one  day.  The 
Jewish  calculation  is  more  correct  than  that  of  Callippus,  who  reckoned 
the  solar  year  too  long. 

p.  64, 1.  33.  On  the  meaning  of  the  word  TlTll^  cf.  an  interesting 
chapter  in  the  '^'H'^i^ri  "IDD  of  Abraham  Bar  Chyiah,  edited  by  H. 
Filipowski,  London,  1851,  book  ii.  ch.  iv.  CntllDn    DtiJ    tyTl*"Dl)- 

At  the  beginning  of  this  exposition  (p.  64,  1.  31,  text,  p.  55,  1.  8)  there 
seems  to  be  a  lacuna.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  author  should  intro- 
duce a  technical  foreign  work  (like  Mahzor)  without  having  previously 
explained  what  it  means  (and  this  is  not  the  case). 

p.  65.  The  difference  of  the  Ordines  intercalationis  is  caused  and 
accounted  for  by  the  difference  of  the  beginning  of  the  Jewish  JEra 
Mundi. 


390  albIeun!. 

The  world  was  created  at  tlie  time  of  the  vernal  equinox,  i.e.  the 
Tekufat-Nisan.  But  the  year  as  reckoned  by  the  Jewish  chronologists 
does  not  commence  at  the  time  of  the  vernal  equinox,  but  at  that  of 
the  autumnal  equinox,  i.e.  the  Tekufat-Tishri.  Now,  the  question 
whence  to  begin  the  first  year  of  the  ^ra  Mundi,  has  been  answered 
in  various  ways.  Some  commence  with  the  vernal  equinox  preceding 
the  creation  of  the  world,  others  with  the  first  vernal  equinox  following 
after  the  creation  of  the  world.  Some  counted  the  year  in  the  middle  of 
which  the  creation  took  place  as  the  first,  others  counted  the  following 
year  as  the  first  year  of  the  first  Enneadecateris.  Cf.  "^Ili^n  "^QD 
of  Abraham  bar  Chyiah,  iii.  7,  p.  96.  In  conformity  with  this  diffe- 
rence also  the  order  of  the  leap-years  within  the  Enneadecateris  has 
been  fixed  differently. 

The  Ordo  intercalationis  ^ItOl^l,  which  reckons  the  second  (complete) 
year  of  the  creation  as  the  first  year  of  the  first  Enneadecateris, 
occurs  also  in  the  valuable  TesMhJid  (Eesponsum)  of  E.  Hai  Gaon 
ben  Sherira,  a  contemporary  of  the  author,  vide  Abraham  bar  Chyiah, 
p.  97,  1.  36. 

The  Ordo  intercalationis  lOnb^rTI^  which  has  become  canonical  since 
and  through  Maimonides,  is  not  mentioned  by  Alberuni. 

The  three  Ordines  intercalationis  which  the  author  has  united  in  the 
circular  figure,  are  constructed  upon  this  principle : 

Of  [the  seven  intervals  between  each  two  leap-years,  there  are  five 
intervals  each  of  2  years,  and  two  intervals  each  of  1  year. 

p.  66,  1.  7.  The  solar  cycle  (nr2)l^  "\1tHD)  of  28  years  consists  of 
Julian  years  of  365^  days.  At  the  end  of  this  cycle  time  returns  to  the 
same  day  of  the  week.     Cf .  L.  Ideler,  "  Handbuch,"  etc.,  i.  72. 

p.  66, 1.  23.  Of  the  five  DehiyyotJi  of  the  Jewish  calendar  1"l^  "  rT^  " 
lli^  rr^  ■  1"^t5^  ■  t^QprritiSl  which  are  certain  rules  ordering  a  date,  e.g. 
New-year's-day,  to  be  transferred  from  one  week-day  to  another,  our 
author  mentions  only  the  first  one,  viz.  "^I^,  i.e.  the  rule  that  New- 
year's-day  can  never  be  a  Sunday  or  a  Wednesday  or  a  Friday. 

The  words  that  Passover  hy  which  the  beginning  of  Nisdn  is  regulated  I 
understand  in  this  way,  that  Passover,  i.e.  the  15th  Nisan,  and  the  1st 
Nisan  always  fall  on  the  same  week-day. 

The  rule  11^^  is  connected  with  the  rule  111  i.e.  that  Passover  shall 
never  fall  on  a  Monday,  Wednesday,  or  Friday,  in  the  following  way : 

Passover  must  be  the  163rd  day  from  the  end  of  the  year.  The  divi- 
sion of  163  by  7  gives  the  remainder  of  2. 

If  New-year's-day  were  a  Sunday,  the  last  day  of  the  preceding  year 
would  be  a  Saturday,  and  the  163rd  day  from  the  end  would  be  a 
Friday. 

If  New-year's-day  were  a  Wednesday,  the  163rd  day  from  the  end 
would  be  a  Monday. 


ANNOTATIONS.  391 

If  New-year's-day  were  a  Friday,  the  163rd  day  from  the  end  would 
be  a  Wednesday.  Cf .  Lewisohn,  "  Geschichte  und  System  des  Jiidischen 
Kalenderwesens,"  Leipzig,  1856,  §  92,  §  127. 

On  the  correspondence  between  the  four  days  that  can  be  New-year'a- 
days  (called  D''"li/t2J  Hi^nt^)  and  Passover,  cf.  Abraham  bar  Chyiah, 
ii.  ch.  9. 

p.  67,  11.  28,  35.  I  should  prefer  to  read  JW«si\  instead  of  J^^  and 
^^  ^U^  ^^  instead  of  (^  ^U-;^  (^  (text,  p.  57, 11.  18  and  21). 

p.  68, 1.  4.  On  the  calculation  of  the  arc  of  vision  H^t^in  TWp  *'■«• 
that  part  of  the  moon's  rotation  between  conjunction  and  the  moment 
of  her  becoming  visible  at  some  place,  vide  Selden,  "Dissertatio  de 
anno  civili  Judaico,"  cap.  xiii.  ;  Lazarus  Bendavid,  "  Zur  Geschichte  und 
Berechnung  des  Jiidischen  Kalenders,"  §  36. 

The  mean  motion  of  the  moon  is  called  in  Hebrew  *'^2Jtt!t^  1]7nD>  the 
real  motion  ^1^2^  'Tp'HT^,  vide  Maimonides,  tlJIHil  UJIlp?  vi.  1 ;  xi.  15. 

p.  68, 1.  32.     Pdruah  t^f  is  a  Biblical  name,  vide  1  Kings  iv.  17. 

p.  68, 1.  35.  If  the  Mtladites  commenced  the  month  with  the  moment  of 
the  conjimction,  they  differed  from  the  Eabbanites  in  this,  that  the  latter 
made  the  beginning  of  the  month  (e.g.  the  beginning  of  the  first  month 
or  New-year's-day)  depend  7iot  alone  upon  conjunction,  but  also  upon 
certain  other  conditions,  e.g.  the  condition  jl'^  (Lazarus  Bendavid,  §  36) . 
The  Eabbanites  tried  in  everything  to  assimilate  their  calendar,  based 
upon  the  astronomical  determination  of  conjunction,  to  the  more  ancient 
calendar  which  had  been  based  upon  the  observation  of  New  Moon.  The 
conservative  tendency  of  this  reform  of  the  Jewish  calendar  is  pointed 
out  by  A.  Schwarz,  "  Der  Judische  Kalender,"  pp.  59-61.  Cf .  also 
Abraham  bar  Chyiah  nili^H  *\DD'  P-  68, 1.  6;  p.69, 1.  21. 

p.  68, 1.  36.  Read  A^\  instead  of  oVJsJ^  as  plural  of  <^j\i  (text,  p.  58, 
1.  17). 

p.  69,  1.  5.  'Andn,  the  founder  of  the  great  schism  in  the  Jewish 
world,  lived  in  Palestine  in  the  second  half  of  the  8th  century.  For  his 
history,  vide  Graetz,  "  Greschichte  der  Juden,"  ii.  ed.,  tom.  v.  p.  174;  for 
'Anan's  reform  of  the  calendar,  ih.  p.  454. 

The  pedigree  of  'Anan  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion,  vide 
Graetz,  ib.  pp.  417,  418,  and  J.  Triglandii,  "Notitia  Karaeorum,"  Ham- 
burg, 1714,  p.  46. 

p.  69, 1.  25.  Eead  '^\  instead  of  ^\  (text,  p.  59, 1.  9). 

p.  70, 1.  16.     Eead "5  instead  of  J  (text,  p.  60, 1.  4,  after  ^\;^  ^yl^). 


392  albIeun!. 

p.  72,  1.  36.  Ismd^il  hen  'Ahhdd,  born  a.h.  326,  was  Vazir  to  tlie 
Buyide  princes  Mu'ayyid-aldaula,  and  afterwards  to  Fakhr-aldaula.  He 
died  A.H.  385.  Cf.  Ibn-Al'athir,  ix.  p.  77.  The  same  man  is  quoted  by 
Alberuni  as  the  Sdhih,  p.  94, 1.  19.  On  tliis  title,  vide  Hammer, "  Lander- 
verwaltung  unter  dem  Khalifat,"  pp.  34,  35 ;  "  Abulfedse  Annales  Mos- 
lemici,"  ii.  p.  586. 

p.  74, 1.  7.  The  farewell  pilgrimage  is  described  by  A.  Sprenger,  "Leben 
und  Lehre  des  Mohammad,"  iii.  p.  515  ff.  On  Muhammad's  prohibiting 
intercalation,  etc.,  ib.  p.  534  ff. 

Eead  ^Us^-  instead  of  ^aa=^  (text,  p.  63, 11.  1,  3).     (Fleischer.) 

p.  74,  1. 15.  Ibn-Duraid,  a  famous  philologist  of  the  school  of  Basra, 
died  A.H.  321,  in  Bagdad.  Cf.  G.  Miigel,  "  Grammatische  Schulen  der 
Araber,"  p.  101. 

p.  74, 1.  25.  Abu-Sahl  'Isaben  Yahya  Almasihi,  a  Christian  physician, 
was  a  contemporary  of  Alberuni,  who  lived  at  the  court  of  'Ali  ben 
Ma'mun  and  Ma'mun  ben  Ma'mun,  princes  of  Khwarizm.  The  year 
of  his  death  is  not  kaown;  probably  he  died  between  a.h.  400-403, 
Cpr.  Wiistenfeld,  "  Geschichte  der  Arabischen  Aerzte  und  Naturfor- 
scher,"  p.  59,  nr.  118. 

p.  75,  1.  26.     Kead  \^^  instead  of  W  (text,  p.  64,  1.  6,  t,/*^^  jy-Ju 

p.  76,  1.  36.  Abu-'Abdallah  Ja'far  ben  Muhammad  Alsadik  is  one  of 
the  twelve  Imams  of  the  Shi'a.  He  was  born  a.h.  80,  and  died  a.h. 
146.  On  the  sect  who  derived  their  name  from  him,  vide  Shahristani, 
ed.  Cureton,  p.  124.  Cf.  also  Wiistenfeld,  "  Geschichte  der  Arabischen 
Aerzte  und  Naturforscher,"  nr.  24. 

p.  77, 1.  4.  This  tradition  occurs  in  Bukhari,  "  Eecueil  des  traditions 
Mahometanes,"  ed.  L.  Krehl,  i.  p.  474.  The  other  traditions  to  which 
the  author  refers  in  the  course  of  his  discussion  (p.  78)  are  also  men- 
tioned by  Bukhari,  i.  476  f£.  Cf .  the  Muwatta'  of  Malik  ben  'Anas,  ed. 
Bulak,  ii.  chap.  84. 

p.  77, 1.  22.  Eead  C;?.J^\j  instead  of  cj^A^J^^  (text,  p.  65,  1.  14),  and  i\ 
instead  of  \3\  (p.  65, 1.  15).    (Fleischer.) 

p.  80, 1.  4.    Eead  Ji^j  instead  of  Ji^^  (text,  p.  67, 1.  17). 

p.  80, 1.  5.  The  same  fact  is  related  by  Ibn-Al'athxr,  vi.  p.  3.  In  con- 
sequence of  his  killing  'Abd-alkarim,  the  governor  of  Kufa,  Muhammad 
was  removed  from  his  oSice  a.h.  155  (or  153).    The  story  shows  that  the 


ANNOTATIONS.  393 

falsification  of  tradition  has  at  certain  times  been  practised  wholesale  in 
the  Muslim  world.  Ibn-'abi-arauja,  also  mentioned  in  "Kitab-alfihrist," 
p.  338, 1.  9. 

p.  80,  1.  27.  Eead  and  its  origin  instead  of  and  of  its  original,  etc. 
Eead  'Si«\j  instead  of  <jM^  (text,  p.  68,  1.  4).     (Fleischer.) 

p.  80,  1.  34.  Eead  «yWy  instead  of  «i>Wy»  (text,  p.  68, 1.  6),  and 
y^  _  ^usyi  -  t_jkY.».»J\j  (text,  p.  68,  11.  9,  10),  as  in  the  manuscripts. 

p.  82,  col.  1.  Kuba  was  the  second  largest  town  of  Farghana,  not  far 
from  Shash,     It  is  described  by  Ibn-Haukal,  p.  394  ;  Yakut,  iv.  24. 

The  word  «£\?jUrf  («£\>jl^)  I  have  not  been  able  to  explain  hitherto. 
Perhaps  the  word  bears  some  relation  to  \jVa5j  i.e.  Bukhara. 

p.  82,  coll.  1,  8.  The  names  of  col.  1  are  in  use  among  the  eastern 
Turks  (of  Kashghar  and  Yarkand),  vide  E.  B.  Shaw,  "  A  Sketch  of  the 
Turki  Language  as  spoken  in  Eastern  Turkistan,"  Lahore,  1875» 
p.  77 ;  J.  Grave,  "  Epochse  celebriores,"  London,  1650,  p.  5. 

The  names  of  col.  8  seem  to  be  in  disorder ;  they  mean :  The  Great 
Month,  the  Small  Month,  the  First  Month,  the  Second  Month,  the 
Sixth  Month,  the  Fifth  Month,  the  Eighth  Month,  the  Ninth  Month, 
the  Tenth  Month,  the  Fourth  Month,  the  Third  Month,  the  Seventh 
Month.     Cf.  Shaw,  "  Sketch,"  etc.,  p.  75. 

Both  columns  are  of  particular  interest  in  so  far  as  they  exhibit  the 
most  ancient  specimen  of  the  Turkish  language. 

p.  82,  col.  5.  Octomhrius.  Perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  read 
Octembrius,  in  conformity  with  Octembre,  which  occurs  in  Proven9al 
beside  Octohre,  vide  Eeynouard,  "  Lexique  Eoman  ou  dictionnaire  de  la 
langue  des  troubadours,"  torn  vi.  p.  390. 

p.  86, 1.  13.     The  210  years  for  the  stay  of  the  Jews  in  Egypt  are  found 
in  this  way : 

Interval  between  the  birth  of  Abraham  and  that  of 

Moses        ......     420  years. 

Moses  was  80  years  of  age  when  he  left  Egypt         -       80     „ 

Interval  between  the  birth  of  Abraham  and  the 

Exodus           .....  600  „ 
Further : 

Abraham  was  100  years  of  age  when  Isaak  was  born  100  „ 

Isaak  was  60  years  of  age  when  Jacob  was  born      -  60  „ 

Jacob  entered  Egypt  when  he  was  130  years  of  age  130  „ 

Interval  ibetween  the  birth  of   Abraham   and 
Jacob's  entering  Egypt  -  -  -    290    „ 

27 


394  ALBiEUNi. 

Now,  the  difference  between  the  two  numbers  (500 — 290),  i.e.  210 
years,  represents  the  time  during  which  the  Jews  stayed  in  Egypt. 

p.  87, 1.  11.     Eead  ^U'  instead  of  &^\S  (text,  p.  75,  1.  1).     (Fleischer.) 

p.  87,  1.  13,  The  8eder-'6ldm,  i.e.  Ordo  Mundi,  is  a  well  known  He- 
brew book  on  the  Chronology  of  Jewish  history,  carrying  it  down  as 
far  as  22  years  after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  by  Titus.  It  is  the 
^^-^  ch^^  "^ID  to  which  our  author  refers,  not  the  i^toit  D71i^  TlD- 
Cf.  "  Chronicon  Hebraeorum  Majus  et  Minus,"  ed.  Joh.  Meyer,  Am- 
stelodami,  1699.  I  am,  however,  bound  to  state  that  some  of  the 
numbers  which  Alberuni  quotes  on  the  authority  of  this  book  are  not 
found  in — or  do  not  agree  with — the  text  as  given  in  the  edition  of 
Meyer. 

pp.  88,  89.     In  these  tables  there  are  three  blunders  in  the  addition. 

The  last  three  numbers  in  the  addition  of  the  years  of  the  Seder- 
'Olam  ought  to  be  460,  500,  503  (on  p.  88)  ;  and  in  the  same  column 
on  p.  89  the  eleven  last  numbers  of  the  addition  ought  to  be :  781, 
810,  865,  867,  898,  909,  920,  990,  1080,  1563,  2163. 

p.  90,  1.  18.     On  Kushan,  vide  Judges,  iii.  8,  10. 

p.  90,  1.  35.  Hasliwiyya  and  Dahriyya.  The  Hashwiyya  or  Hasha- 
wiyya  are  a  heterodox  sect  of  Muslim  philosophers  who  adhere  to  an 
exoteric  interpretation  of  the  divine  revelation,  and  consider  God  as  a 
bodily  being,  vide  "  Dictionary  of  Technical  Terms,"  i.  p.  396. 

The  word  DaJir  seems  nearly  to  correspond  to  the  Zrvdnem  akerenem 
("  endless  time")  of  the  Avasta.  The  Dahriyya  are  a  heathenish  school 
of  philosophers  who  believe  the  DaJir  (time)  to  be  eternal,  and  who  trace 
everything  to  the  Dahr  as  last  cause,  vide  "Dictionary  of  Technical 
Terms,"  i.  p.  480. 

p.  90,  1.  44.  In  the  following  the  author  attacks  'Abu-Ma'shar,  the 
author  of  the  book  De  nativitatibus  (p.  92, 1.  2 ;  p.  91,  1.  31 ;  p.  94, 1.  44  ; 
p.  96, 1.  1).     Cf.  note  ad  p.  29,  1.  4. 

The  subject  of  the  discussion  is  the  Dona  astrorum  (vide  Delambre, 
"  Histoire  de  I'astronomie  ancienne,"  ii.  546),  i.e.  the  question  how  long 
a  man  may  live,  if  at  the  moment  of  his  birth  the  planets  occupy  such 
places  and  stand  in  such  relations  to  each  other  as  are  considered  the 
most  favourable. 

For  a  detailed  explication  of  the  astrological  terms  which  occur  in  the 
following,  and  all  of  which  are  of  Greek  origin,  I  refer  to  the  Dictionary 
of  the  Technical  Terms  used  in  the  Sciences  of  the  Musalmans,  Calcutta, 
1862. 

The  Materfamilias  (y^>^)  is  the  indicium  corporis,  the  Paterfamilias, 
the  indicium  animoe  (p.  90,  1.  45) . 


ANNOTATIONS.  396 

The  house  of  the  Sun  is  Leo,  his  altihido  is  the  19th  degree  of  Aries. 
Cardines  are  four  points  of  the  ecliptic : 

I.  Cardo  horoscopi,  or  Cardo  prirmis,  that  point  which  rises  in  the 
east  at  the  moment  of  the  birth. 
II.  Cardo  occasils  or  Cardo  Septimus,  that  point  which  at  the  same 
moment  sets  in  the  west. 
ITT.  Cardocoeli  or  Cardo  decimus,  the  point  between  the  preceding  two 

points,  but  above  the  earth, 
IV.  Cardo  terrce  or  Cardo  quartus,  the  point  between  the  points  I.  and 
II.,  but  under  the  earth.    Cf. "  Dictionary  of  Technical  Terms," 
i.  465. 
In  a  concordant  masculine  quarter.     By  quarter  I  understand  the  divi- 
sion of  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac  into  four  trigones,  the  trigonum  igneum, 
trigonum   terreum,  etc.,  which  are    either    masculine   or  feminine.     Cf. 
M.  Uhlemann,  "  Grundziige  der  Astronomie  und  Astrologie  der  Alten," 
pp.  66,  67. 

The  term  concordant  is  applied  to  any  two  places  of  the  ecliptic  which 
lie  at  equal  distances  from  one  of  the  two  equinoctial  points  so  as  to 
form  with  each  other  the  constellations  called  Tasdis  or  Tathlith  or  Mu- 
kdbala.     Cf.  "  Dictionary  of  Technical  Terms,"  ii.  1392,  s.  v.^\^. 

p.  91,  1.  10.  Have  no  aspect.  The  word  5=2-.  is  the  contrary  of  ^. 
There  are  five  aspects  : 

Tasdis,  i.e.  the  planets  are  distant  from  each  other  by  60  degrees. 

TarM',  i.e.  the  distance  between  them  is  90  degrees. 

Tathlith,  i.e.  the  distance  between  them  is  120  degrees. 

Mukdhala,  i.e.  the  distance  between  them  is  180  degrees. 

Istikhdl,  is  the  Mukabala  of  Sun  and  Moon.  Any  other  relation  be- 
tween two  planets  is  called  Sukut  {i.e.  falling  out). 

Cf.  "  Dictionary  of  Technical  Terms,"  ii.  1385,  s.-y.  ji=». 

p.  91, 1.  13.  The  Caput  Draconis  is  that  point  of  the  ecliptic  which  a 
planet  cuts  when  moving  northward.  If  sun  and  moon  meet  at  this 
point  in  the  same  zodiacal  sign  and  degree,  they  are  said  to  stand  within 
the  opoL  eKXeiTTTtKot  (Ptolemy,  "  Almagest,"  vi.  cap.  5  ;  limites  ecliptiques, 
vide  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'astronomie  ancienne,"  ii.  226),  and  an 
eclipse  takes  place.     Every  ecHpse  is  considered  as  unlucky. 

p.  91,  1.  16.  The  elements  of  this  sum  (215  years)  are  not  quite  clear. 
If  the  Sun  gives  120  and  30  years.  Moon,  Venus,  and  Jupiter,  25,  8  and 
12  years,  we  get  the  sum  of  195  years.  Whence  the  astrologers  derive  the 
missing  20  years  is  not  stated.  They  are  hardly  to  be  considered  as  a 
gift  of  Saturn  or  Mars,  since  they  are  unlucky  stars  ;  perhaps  they  are 
traced  to  the  influence  of  Mercury.  One  may  suppose  that  there  is 
somewhere  a  lacuna  in  the  text. 


396  ALBIEUNI. 

p.  91,  1.  31.  Eead  ^_^^'i^  SjU*3^  cs^^  ^_^  f^^^  instead  of  v>3y  ^^ 
^h^\  ^  J^S\  lji4jd\  (text,  p.  78,  1.  19). 

p.  91,  1.  34.  The  middle  conjunction  of  Saturn  and  Jupiter  is  240 
years,  the  minor  conjunction  20  years,  the  major  conjunction  960 
years.  Cf.  0.  Loth,  "  Al-Kindi  als  Astrolog  in  Morgenlandische  For- 
schungen,"  Leipzig,  1875,  p.  268. 

p.  93,  1.  10.  Tuzun  was  'Amir-al'umara  in  Baghdad  a.h.  331-334,  at 
the  time  of  the  Khalif  Almuttaki,  whose  eyes  he  put  out.  He  was 
of  Turkish  origin,  and  commander  of  the  Turkish  troops  who  held 
Baghdad  and  some  other  parts  of  central  Mesopotamia. 

p.  93,  1.  15.  Ghurur-aldaula.  Eead  'Izz-aldaula.  Mu'izz-aldaula  died 
A.H.  356,  and  'Izz-aldaula  died  a.h.  367,  both  princes  of  the  family  of 
Buwaihi. 

p.  93,  1.  23.  Ndsir-aldaula,  prince  of  Mosul  and  the  north  of  Meso- 
potamia, of  the  family  of  Hamdan,  died  a.h.  358. 

p.  93,1.  42.  Eead  «t4^  instead  of  q}\S  (text,  p.  81, 1.  7),  J^^  o^(:)^ 
(p.  81, 1.  9),  and  (^'^'i]^  instead  of  f%W:J\j  (p.  81,  1.  12).     (Fleischer.) 

p.  94,  1.  19.  Sahib.  The  author  means  'Isma'il  ben  'Abbad,  Vazir  of 
the  Buyide  prince  Fakhr-aldaula.  Vide  note  ad  p.  72, 1.  36.  The  time 
during  which  Fakhr-aldaula  held  the  country  of  Jurjan  under  his  sway 
was  A.H.  372-388. 

p.  94,  1.  40.  ^Ahu  Sa'id  Shddhdn  is  not  known  to  me  from  other 
sources.  A  man  called  Shadhan  is  mentioned  by  Yakut,  i.  p.  204, 
1.  20,  and  Haji  Khalifa,  v.  p.  102. 

p.  95,  1.  2.  According  to  "  Dictionary  of  Technical  Terms,"  i.  p.  568, 
retrograde  motion  is  any  motion  which  does  not,  like  that  of  the 
planets,  proceed  conformably  with  the  order  of  the  zodiacal  signs. 

The  ecliptic  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts,  called  houses.  The 
12th,  2nd,  6th,  and  8th  houses  are  called  Domus  cadentes. 

p.  95,  1.  22.  'Ahu-'Isma.  A  man  of  this  name  was  general  to  the 
Khalif  Alhadi,  and  was  killed  by  Harun  Alrashid  a.h.  170.  Cf.  Ibn- 
Al'athir,  vi.  p.  74.     The  epithet  Sdhih  alsaffdr  I  cannot  explain. 

p.  96,  1.  12.  Eead  J/o^  instead  of  J-=^  (text,  p.  82,  1.  21),  and 
(:>«flss,fe^^  instead  of  (^j^i^sJ^as^  (p.  83,  1.  1). 

p.  96,  1.  25.  Jamdlabadhra,  a  town  in  India,  is  not  known  to  me ; 
the  word  can  be  read  in  various  ways. 


ANNOTATIONS.  397 

p.  96,  1.  43.  Abu-'Abdallah  Alhusain,  etc.  Alnatili,  a  native  of 
Natila,  a  town  in  Tabaristan,  is  sometimes  mentioned  as  the  teacber  of 
'Abu-'Ali  ben  Sma.  He  lived  in  Bukhara,  and  afterwards  at  the  court 
of  the  prince  Ma'mun  ben  Muhammad  of  Khwarizm.  Cf .  my  edition 
of  the  text,  "  Einleitung,"  p.  xxxiv. 

c  -  -  - 

p.  98,  1.  13.  Covering.  Read  ^^^  instead  of  ^y^  (text,  p.  84,  1.  10). 
(Fleischer.) 

p.  98,  1.  22.  In  some  hook.  Alberuni  does  not  mention  the  author  of 
the  work  whence  he  took  the  chronological  tables  of  the  kings  of  Assyria ; 
in  any  case  it  must  have  been  derived  from  the  "  Chronicon  "  of  Euse- 
bius.  Cf.  A.  Schoene,  "  Eusebii  Chronicorum  libri  duo,  Berolini,  1866 
and  1875  " ;  vol.  i.  p.  63,  and  vol.  ii.  p.  11  ff. 

p.  100,  1.  24.  Another  table  of  successors  of  Nimrod  is  given  by 
Mas'udi,  "  Prairies  d'or,"  pp.  96-100. 

A  similar  table  is  also  found  in  Alberuni' s  Canon  Mas'udicus  (MS. 
Elliot,  fol.  28a). 

Years  of  reign.  Anni  Adami. 


Nimrod    -  -  -  -         59  2951 

Interval   after    the   confusion  of 

languages  and  the  destruction 

of  the  tower 


43 

2994 

85 

3079 

72 

3151 

42 

3193 

18 

3211 

7 

3218 

u-j); 

Interval 
Then  follow  the  Assyrian  kings,  Belos,  Ninos,  etc. 

p.  101.  Table  of  the  Kings  of  the  Chaldeans.  It  is  the  table  of  Pto- 
lemy. Cf .  "  Chronologie  de  Ptolemee,"  par  I'abbe  Halma,  Paris,  1819, 
2de  Partie,  pp.  3,  4,  and  "  Georgius  Syncellus,"  ed.  Dindorf,  Bonn,  1839, 
p.  390  ff. 

p.  102.  This  table  of  kings  of  Egypt  begins  with  the  20th  dynasty 
of  Manetho.  Cf.  "  Eusebii  Chronicorum  libri  duo,"  vol.  i.  p.  145  ;  vol.  ii. 
p.  62. 

p.  103,  1.  13.  This  table  of  Ptolemaeans  is  based  upon  that  of 
Ptolemy.  "  Chronologie  de  Ptolemee,"  par  Halma,  2de  Partie,  j).  4.  In 
1.  32  read :  Cleopatra,  till  the  time  when  Gajus  Julius  obtained  supreme 
power  in  Rome.     Read  ^}f.  instead  of  ^);^\  (text,  p.  92,  1.  15). 


398  albie^nJ. 

p,  104.  The  last  source  of  this  table  of  the  Eoman  emperors  seems  to 
be  the  "  Chronicon  of  Eusebius."  Cf.  also  "  Hamzae  Ispabanensis 
annalium,"  libri  x.,  translation,  pp.  61,  54,  In  the  addition  of  the  years 
there  is  a  mistake ;  tbe  last  sum  is  313,  not  303. 

p.  105,  Part  of  this  table  of  Byzantine  emperors  seems  to  have  been 
taken  from  Hamza  Isfahani,  translation,  p.  62  and  56  ff.  In  this  table 
the  sum  of  the  years  is  526,  not  528.   In  the  text  (p.  96, 1. 12),  read  <Ulw» 

J  '^   C   -» 

instead  of  <Ulw»  (De  Groeje), 

p.  106.  The  tradition  of  the  judge  Alwahi^,  see  in  Hamza  Isfahani, 
translation,  p.  57-59.  Alwaki'  seems  to  have  lived  in  tbe  first  half  of 
the  4th  century  of  the  Flight,  vide  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  114, 

Tbe  addition  of  the  years  of  this  table  is  in  great  confusion,  and  Albe- 
runi  has  not  made  an  attempt  at  correcting  it. 

J —  jC 

In  tbe  text  (p.  98, 1.  10),  read  U-.  instead  of  Saa-., 

p.  107,  1.  1.     The  following  chapter  on  Persian  chronology  bears  a 
close  resemblance  to  that  of  Hamza  Isfahani,  translation,  p,  6  ff. 
The  explication  of  the  word  Gayomarth,  1.  5,  see  in  Hamza,  p.  48. 

p.  107, 1.  43.  Abu-'Ali  Muhammad  ben  'Ahmad  AlbalkM,  mentioned 
only  in  this  place,  is  not  known  to  me  from  other  sources.  Haji  Khalifa, 
iv.  p.  13,  quotes  from  Alberuni. 

p.  108,  1.  3.  The  following  sources  of  ancient  Persian  history  are 
also  quoted  by  Hamza,  p,  7, 

'Abdallab  b,  Almukaffa'  was  killed  in  Albasra,  probably  a,h,  146.  Cf . 
"  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  118 ;   Ibn-Kballikan,  nr,  186, 

Muhammad  b,  Aljahm,  of  the  family  of  Barmak,  lived  under  the 
Khalif  Almu'tasim  (a.h.  218-227),  Cf.  "Kitab-alfihrist,"  pp.  81,  245, 
277,  and  notes  ;  Ibn-Kballikan,  nr.  31,  p.  40. 

Hisbam  b.  Alkasim  and  Bahram  b.  Mardanshah,  Zoroastrian  priest  in 
Shapurstown,  in  Persis,  are  mentioned  in  the  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  245, 
among  those  who  translated  Persian  books  into  Arabic. 

p.  108,  1.  19.  The  manuscripts  have  Tclizura.  My  reading,  hhrura, 
is  a  conjecture.  The  word  may  be  identical  with  hhrura  of  tbe  Avasta 
{vide  Justi,  "  Handbucb  der  Zendsprache,"  p.  92),  and  also  with  Vjj^ 
mentioned  by  Mas'udi,  "  Prairies  d'or,"  ii.  88,  in  a  very  curious  chapter, 
where  the  author  enumerates  Ahriman  and  his  son  Huriyd  in  a  table  of 
kings  of  the  Syrians. 


ANNOTATIONS. 


399 


p.  108,  1.  34.  A  young  man.  In  text  (p.  100, 1.  7)  read  ^\^\  inste^ad 
of  w\yu5\ ;  ^Jftis— >  (1.  11)  instead  of  "f^i^^. ;  and  A«a&»J\  instead  of  'i^oa^\ 
(1.  12).     (Fleischer.) 

p.  109, 1.  14.  Similar  tables  of  the  words  for  king,  emperor,  prince, 
etc.  in  various  languages  are  given  by  several  authors,  e.g.  by  Ibn- 
Khurdadhbih,  "  Journal  Asiatique,"  1865,  p.  249-257. 

Tadan.  Perhaps  we  must  read  TudMn,  and  compare  the  following 
note  of  the  "  Etymologicum  Magnum,"  ed.  Gaisford,  p.  763:  TouSowot: 
01  TOTroTTjprjTai  rrapa  TovpKots. 

On  Sul,  vide  note  at  p.  37,  1.  9. 

The  wordjCs  Kahbdr  (p.  110,  1.  1)  is  supposed  by  my  learned  friends 
P.  Lerch,  of  St.  Petersburgh,  and  W.  Tomaschek,  of  Gratz,  to  be  a  mis- 
spelling for  }^,  i.e.  Knaz,  Knaez  (a  derivation  from  the  Teutonic 
cuninga),  a  conjecture  which  I  recommend  to  the  students  of  Slavonian 
antiquities. 

The  title  BuMdrd-Khuddh  has  been  found  by  P.  Lerch  on  the  coins 
of  the  satraps  of  Bukhara  under  Sasanian  rule  and  later  (as  far  as  the 
time  of  Almahdi).  The  coins  offer  an  original  writing  of  Semitic  origin ; 
the  legend  is  without  any  doubt  to  be  read  Bukhara  Khudddt  (or 
Khudddh,  Kliudddi).  A  number  of  these  coins  are  found  in  the  coin- 
collection  of  the  Eoyal  Museum  of  Berlin. 

p.  110,  1.  26.  The  following  verses  are  also  found  in  Mas'udx, 
"  Prairies  d'or,"  ii.  p.  116. 

p.  111.  On  the  pedigree  and  family  relations  of  the  Peshdadhians 
from  Hoshang  till  Fredun,  cf .  Bundihish,  chap,  xxxii.  On  the  chrono- 
logy of  the  Peshdadhians  and  Kayanians,  ih.  chap,  xxxiv. 

In  the  text  (p.  103, 11.  11,  15),  read  &*^^.  instead  of  ^«^->>. 

p.  112.  On  the  descendants  of  Kawi  Kawata  or  Kaikubadh  and  their 
names,  cf.  Noldeke,  "  Kayanier  im  Awesta,  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen 
Morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft,"  tom.  xxxii.  p.  570. 

p.  113.  With  this  table  compare  that  of  Hamza,  translation,  pp. 
9, 10. 

p.  114,  1.  4.     With  this  table,  compare  Hamza,  pp.  17,  18. 

p.  116, 1.  3.  A  similar  table  occurs  also  in  the  author's  Canon  Masu- 
dicus  (MS.  Elliot,  fol.  29a). 


400  ALBIRUNI. 

After  the  kings  of  Assyria  and  Arbaces  tlie  Median  follow  the  kings 
of  Babylonia  and  Media. 

Years  of  reign.     Anni  Mundi. 

Pul  Jy,  a  descendant  of  Sardanapal 
Tiglatpilesar          -         .         .         .         . 
Salmanassar    (;j*.*Jl«)    i.e.    Bukhtanas- 

sar  I.  ...... 

Sanherib  Sargon  (^j^^  »_-j-jVjs,*«, 
Ezarhaddon  f«^>^j—         .         .         .         . 

Merodakh   Baladan    ben    Baladan,   i.e. 

Mardokempad  ..... 
Sanlierib  Minor  ..... 
Kiniladan  (jjJlw.*  .... 

Nabopolassar  tlie  Magian      ... 
His  son  Nebukadnezar,  i.e.  Bukhtanas- 

sar  II,,  who  destroyed  Jerusalem 
Evilmerodakh  ben  Nebukadnezar  - 
His  brother  Belteshassar 
Darius  the  Median         .... 

Then  follow  the  kings  of  the  Persians : 
Cyrus  --..... 
His  son  Cambyses  .... 

Darius  the  son  of  Vishtasp  ... 
Xerxes,  i.e.  Xerxes  Kisra  b.  Darius 
Artaxerxes  (cy;^-----v^i=;^),  i.e.  Ardashir 
Longimanus  ..... 
Darius  Nothos  -  .  .  .  '. 
Artaxerxes  j«>\j^\  ^i  .  .  .  . 
Artaxerxes  Ochus,  i.e.  the  black     - 

Arses  ben  Ochus 

Darius  ben  Arsak  -         .         .         . 

Then  follow  Alexander  and  the  Ptolemseans.  In  a  special  column  the 
author  mentions  some  contemporary  events  of  Jewish,  Egyptian,  Greek 
and  Roman  history, 

p,  115,  1,  45,  In  the  text  (p,  112,  1.  4)  read  f>S\j>  instead  of  ^ol? 
(Fleischer), 

p.  116,  1.  8.  Sa'id  b,  Muhammad  Aldhuhli  is  perhaps  the  same 
Dhuhli  with  whom  Bukhari  (died  a,h,  256)  had  a  controversy,  vide 
Haji  Khalifa,  iii,  172. 

p.  116,  1,  34.  Mah  is  Media  or  Aljihal  or  Aljabal  in  the  later  geogra- 
phical terminology.     Eead  JWV^  instead  of  the  misprint  JW*:>\. 


35 

4709 

36 

4744 

14 

4758 

9 

4767 

3 

4770 

48 

4818 

31 

4849 

17 

4866 

21 

4887 

43 

4930 

2 

4932 

4 

4936 

[17] 

[4953] 

9 

4962 

8 

4970 

36 

5U06 

20 

5026 

41 

5067 

18 

6085 

40 

5125 

27 

5152 

4 

5156 

6 

5162 

ANNOTATIONS.  401 

They  ivere  one  of  the  families,  etc,  is  a  literal  translation  of  the 
reading  of  the  manuscripts,  but  I  do  not  believe  that  this  reading  is 
correct,  nor  that  Arabic  grammar  allows  such  a  construction. 

My  conjecture,  f^f-\  instead  of  (^^  is  not  satisfactory,  as  it  is  not 
conformable  to  the  usual  consti'uction  of  this  word. 

One  might  think  of  reading  \y^\  ("  They  were  the  most  daring 
and  enterprising  of  the  petty  pi'inces,"  etc.),  but  this,  too,  does  not 
seem  to  settle  the  difficulty. 

I  am  sorry  to  state  that  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  the  original 
upon  which  the  term  Muliih-altawcVif,  "  Petty  princes,"  has  been 
coined. 

Cf .  with  this  passage  Hamza,  p.  30 ;  Tabari,  ed.  Zotenberg,  i.  523  ff. ; 
Ibn-Alathir,  i.  208-210,  271,  272 ;  Mas'u'di,  "  Prairies  d'or,"  ii.  136. 

The  pedigree  of  Ashk  is  carried  back  to  a  son  of  Siyawush,  whose 
name  I  do  not  know  how  to  pronounce.  Another  son  of  Siyawush  is 
mentioned  by  Ibn-Alathtr,  i.  173  (Ferozad  ^j^yt^)  and  Tabari,  ed.  Zoten- 
berg, i.  467  (Afroud). 

For  another  pedigree  of  Ashk,  vide  B.  Dorn,  "  Sehir-eddin's  Ge- 
schichte  von  Tabaristan,  Eujan  und  Masanderan,"  p.  152. 

For  the  chronology  of  the  Ashkanians,  cf.  Miihlau-Grutschmid  in 
"Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgeuliindischen  Gesellschaft,"  tom.  xv. 
p.  664;  Blau,  ih.  tom.  xviii.  p.  680;  Grobineau,  ib.  tom.  xi.  p.  700;  Muj- 
mil-altawarikh  in  "  Journal  Asiatique,"  1841,  p.  164  :  H,  Schneiderwirth, 
"  Die  Farther,"  Heiligenstadt,  1874. 

p.  117,  1.  9.  On  the  surnames  of  the  Ashkanians  I  offer  a  few 
conjectures  : 

Khoshdih,  i.e.  well-born,  de  race  pure  =  setrivahya,  vide  Gobineau, 
"Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft,"  tom.  xi. 
p.  702. 

Zarrin,  i.e.  golden. 

Khurun  seems  to  be  a  mistake  for  jjJ^  i.e.  Gotarzes. 

Gesuwar,  i.e.  curled,  cf.  the  Persian  word  Gesudar=a  man  of  au- 
thority. 

Barddih-=^>^  cV  happy-born. 

Baldd=^>i  SW  high-born  ;  but  see  note  at  p.  118,  1.  21. 

p.  117, 1.  30.     See  this  table  in  Hamza,  translation,  p.  10. 
p.  118, 1.  5.     See  this  table  in  Hamza,  p.  18. 

p.  118,  1.  21.  Besides  the  name  Malddhdn  there  occurs  a  Parthian 
name  Mildd,  in  Mujmil-altawarikh,  "  Journal  Asiatique,"  1843,  pp. 
393,  415,  416.  Pei-haps  there  is  some  connection  between  J^  >i%» 
and  the  surname  of  Feroz  ben  Bahram,  mentioned  p.  117,  1. 17  (J^?)- 

28 


402  ALBfRUNI. 

p.  119, 1.  19.  Abu-Mansur  'Abd-alrazzak  is  not  known  to  me  from 
other  sources. 

p.  119,  1.  37.     In  the  text  (p.  117,  1.  13)  read  (^  ^.  U  instead  of 

p.  120,  1.  22.     In  the  text  (p.  118,  1.  3)  read  j^sjj  instead  of  '^-sSSj 

p.  121, 1.  6.  Shdhurkdn.  Of  this  work  of  Mam's  very  little  is  known, 
vide  G.  Fliigel,  "  Mani,  seine  Lehre  und  seine  Schriften,"  Leipzig,  1862, 
pp.  365-367. 

p.  121, 1.  36.  In  the  text  (p.  119, 1.  5)  read  ^  with  the  MSS.,  instead 
of  y-i'^ 

p.  121,  1.  40.  The  following  calculation  is  known  in  astrology  by  the 
name  of  Tasyir  ^th>«-^  (Directio).     The  calculation  is  this  : 

407x93i=37,925|. 
If  you  divide  this  product  by  360,  you  get  a  remainder  of  152f  degrees. 
The  meaning  of  the  93|  degrees,  the  nature  of  the  solar  cycle  here  men- 
tioned, and  the  further  details  of  the  calculation,  I  do  not  understand, 
and  cannot,  therefore,  guarantee  the  correctness  of  the  text. 

p.  122,  1.  14.  Musa  ben  'Isa  Alkisrawi  is  also  mentioned  in  the 
"  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  128.  His  chronological  theory  is  stated  by  Hamza, 
translation,  pp.  11-16. 

p.  122,  1.  32.  For  the  pedigree  of  Ardashir  ben  Babak,  cf.  B.  Dorn, 
"  Sehir-eddin's  Geschichte  von  Tabaristan,  Rujan  und  Masanderan," 
pp.  146,  151. 

p.  123.  With  this  table,  cf.  the  history  of  the  Sasanians  according  to 
Mirchond,  translated  by  S.  de  Sacy  in  Memoires  sur  diverses  antiquiUs  de 
la  Perse,  p.  273  ff. 

Instead  of  ^-^f.  read  SJ^"  Tiridates,  surname  of  Shapur  I. 

The  word  5a-aU  is  explained  by  Mirchond  as  j^^^  hienfaisant  (Sacy, 
p.  296). 

Instead  of  ci.s«^jaU  Mirchond  has  o-^^osU-. 

Instead  of  (iiU^U^  Mirchond  has  <Si>U(j\j^ 

Read  J\jci)y  instead  of  'i\j  Jy  with  "  Mujmil-altawarikh  "  (see  "  Journal 
Asiatique,"  1841,  p.  265  ;  1843,  p.  403). 

I  have  to  add  in  this  place  that  opposite  the  name  of  Ardashir  ben 
Babak  the  MSS.  have  the  following  note  : 

jJ^  ^j  &>Uj  ^^j  {j'>/^\  t^iU  <i(JU.&J  ^l«sJW  "-r-vak^ 
I  have  not  been  able  to  make  out  the  meaning  of  the  last  word. 

In  the  note  which  is  written  opposite  the  name  of  Shapur  ben  Arda- 


ANNOTATIONS.  403 

shir,  the  MSS.  have  the  reading  cw?.^:&ju.\  which  I  have  altered  into 
g^isj;*.\  as  the  word  ^y^  is  in  the  masculine. 

The  surname  of  Shahrbaraz  (:)U/-  is  perhaps  to  be  read  (^\^j&-  or  to  be 
considered  as  a  corruption  of  (^j^*^     He  is  also  called  Farkhdn. 

In  the  text  (p.  122, 1.  7)  read  ^3J^j  instead  of  o^j- 

p.  124.     With  this  table  compare  Hamza,  translation,  pp.  10,  11. 

p.  125.     With  this  table,  cf.  Hamza,  pp.  18,  19. 

p.  126, 1.  27.  Jushanasptadha  or  Jushanastadha  is  the  correct  reading 
of  the  signs  SJ*--' — ^-^  G.  Hoffmann  read  first  the  beginning  of  the  word 
as  Jushanas  or  Jushanasp  (v^^  (J-^»  Armenian  form  Veshnasp,  vide 
Langlois,  "  Collection  des  historiens,"  etc.,  ii.  p.  345).  The  second  part 
of  the  compound  I  read  Tada  or  Tadha  (a  word  of  unknown  etymology), 
and  found  the  whole  name  in  the  Armenian  form  of  Vishnasptad  (vide 
Langlois,  "Collection  des  historiens  de  I'Armenie,"  tom.  ii.  p.  387).  Gr. 
Hoffmann  added  a  further  support  of  this  identification  by  pointing  out 
the  Greek  form  of  the  name,  viz.  FovcravacrTaSy/s  (cf.  P.  de  Lagarde, 
"  Gesammelte  Abhandlungen,"  p.  185). 

p.  127, 1.  23.  In  the  text  (p.  129, 1.  9),  read  ,^q\*''--:  instead  of  ^'■*--> ; 
ylasj  (1.  11)  instead  of  (j-*«?. ;  and  (^^-^^  (1.  14)  instead  of  j,^^ 

p.  128.     With  this  table,  cf.  Hamza,  pp.  14,  15. 

p.  129, 1.  16.  'Ahmad  b.  Altayyib  Alsarakhsi,  a  pupil  of  Alkindi  and 
companion  of  the  Khalif  Almu'tadid,  was  killed  a.h.  286.  Cf.  "  Kitab- 
alfihrist,"  pp.  261,  300,  and  Wustenfeld,  "  Geschichte  der  Arabischen 
Aerzte  und  Naturforscher,"  nr.  80. 

p.  129, 1.  19.  On  the  Indian  astrologer  Kanaka,  vide  "  Kitab-alfihrist," 
p.  270,  and  note. 

p.  129, 1.  24.  In  the  text  (p.  132,  1.  10),  read  ^J<^\^^}  ^\^\  instead 
of  ^oUi3^j  t^^p^  ,  <^^  c^  0--  12)  instead  of  <s^U.  ^*^^  and  »^»>S^ 
(1.  13)  instead  of  '•M  (Fleischer). 

p.  130.  This  table  contains  a  number  of  mostly  well-known  princes, 
statesmen,  and  generals  : 

No.  1  was  Vazir  to  the  Khalif  Almu'tadid,  and  died  a.h.  291.  Cf. 
Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  iii.  pp.  514,  539. 

His  son,  'Amid-aldaula,  is  not  known  to  me. 

No.  3-5  are  princes  of  the  house  of  Hamdan  in  Syria  (Mosul). 

No.  6-11,  13,  14,  17-21,  23,  are  princes  of  the  house  of  Buwaihi  or 
Buya,  vide  the  pedigree  of  this  family  in  T.  Wilken,  "  Mirchond's  Ge- 


404  ALBIRUNI. 

schichte  der  Sultane  aus  clem  Hause  Bujeh,"  p.  12  ;  the  Turkish  chronicle 
of  Munajjim  Bashy,  ii.  pp.  484,  488,  495,  501. 

No.  12,  15,  are  two  princes  of  the  family  of  the  Banu-Ziyad  of  Jurjan. 

Wo.  16  is  not  known  to  me. 

No.  22,  28,  29,  are  the  two  founders  of  the  famous  Ghaznawi  dynasty. 

No.  24,  27,  32,  belong  to  the  family  of  Simjur,  governor  of  Khurasan 
under  the  Samanide  dynasty.  Cf.  Defremery,  "  Histoire  des  Samanides," 
pp.  261,169,188,201,203. 

No.  25.  Abu-arabbas  Tash  was  governor  of  Nishapur  under  Sama- 
nide rule,  and  died  a.h.  879.     Cf.  Defremery,  ib.  p.  168. 

No.  26.  Abu-alhasan  Alfa'ik,  a  general  of  the  last  Samanide  princes, 
disappears  before  a.h.  389.     Cf.  Defremery,  ih.  p.  196. 

No.  31.  Abu-alfawaris  Begtuzun  was  governor  of  Khurasan  and 
Vazir  to  the  last  Samanide  princes  ;  he  seems  to  have  died  before  a.h. 
389. 

No.  33.  Abu-Mansur  Alp-Arslan  Albalawi  was  Vazir  to  the  last 
Samanide  prince  Muntasir,  and  was  still  alive  when  this  book  was  com- 
posed.    Cf.  Defremery,  ih.  p.  202. 

p.  131,  1.  18.  On  Bughrakhan,  prince  of  Kashghar,  the  conqueror  of 
Transoxiana,  vide  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  iii.  Anhang  1. 

p.  131,  1.  23.  Here  the  author  speaks  of  the  prince  of  Jurjan,  Kabus 
ben  Washmgir,  to  whom  he  has  dedicated  his  book,  vide  note  at  p.  1, 
1.  25. 

p.  131,  1.  41.  In  the  text  (p.  135,  1.  6)  read  Ujc-  instead  of  UJ^s.^ 
(Fleischer), 

p.  132,  1.  3.  Tailasdn.  (Cf.  p.  152,  1.  34.)  By  the  term  twofold  (or 
redoubled)  Tailasdn,  the  author  means  an  oblong  quadrangular  field, 
divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  a  diagonal.  Tailasan  is  the  name  of  a 
piece  of  dress,  vide  Dozy,  "  Dictionnaire  des  noms  desvetements  chez  les 
Arabes,"  p.  278,  and  Lane,  "Arabic  Dictionary  "  under  this  word. 

p.  132,  1.  7.  The  Greek  name  of  the  sexagesimal  system  is  k^-qKoara, 
vide  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'astronomie  ancienne,"  ii.  pp.  577,  608 
(Hexecostades).  There  is  a  chaj^ter  on  the  sexagesimal  system  of  calcu- 
lation in  Barlaam's  XoyumKr]  aa-rpovofxiKr]  (Delambre,  ib.  i.  320). 

p.  133.  A  similar  table  of  intei-vals  between  the  epochs  of  the  various 
eras  is  also  given  by  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'astronomie  du  moyen 
age,"  I).  96,  on  the  authority  of  Ibn-Yiiuus.  In  the  text  of  this  table  I 
had  to  correct  some  mistakes : 

At  notes  a,  c.  PL  have  the  correct  reading,  101  4933,  guaranteed  by 
^_J\.^^s<^  The  corresponding  sexagesimal  numbers  54,  7,  43, 4,  are  wrong 
in  all  manuscripts,  for  they  re j) resent  the  erroneous  number  101,  9274. 


ANNOTATIONS.  405 

I  have  i)rinted  instead  of  them  the  sexagesimal  numbers  which  represent 
the  number  101,  4933,  i.e. 

33,  55,  41,  4. 

At  notes  b,  e,  d.  The  reading  of  the  manuscripts  123,8523  is  wrong, 
for  the  addition  of  the  constituent  numbers  gives  the  sum  of  123,8516. 
Accordingly  also  W«s«5a«^  must  be  changed  into  Was«BjB>\^ 

The  sexagesimal  numbers  have  also  been  derived  from  the  wrong 
number,  for  3  (not  43),  2,  44,  5,  represent  the  number  123,8523,  whilst 
we  must  read 

56,  1,  44,  5 
as  representing  the  number  123,8516. 

At  d,  read  y  \  A/*  a  instead  of  y  s-»  »3>^  8 

p.  134.  The  chapter  on  the  chess  problem  I  have  separately  edited 
and  explained  in  the  "  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlandischen 
Gesellschaft,"  tom.  xxix.  pp.  148-156. 

Regarding  the  English  terminology  of  this  chapter,  I  must  say  a 
word  to  justify  the  use  of  the  word  check.  If  I  had  lased  the  com- 
mon expression  for  a  field  on  the  chess-board,  i.e.  square,  my  translation 
would  have  become  very  ambiguous,  as  frequently  in  one  sentence  I 
should  have  had  to  speak  of  a  square  (in  the  mathematical  meaning) 
and  a  square  (a  field  on  a  chess-board).  The  square  (former  meaning) 
of  the  number  of  a  square  (latter  meaning)  would  have  been  intoler- 
able. To  avoid  this  ambiguity  I  have  adopted  the  word  check  in  the 
common  meaning  of  square,  as  check  seems  to  be  the  next  synonymous 
term,  meaning  a  quadrangular  field  in  a  piece  of  Scotch  cloth  or  tartan 
plaid. 

p.  136,  1.  7.  The  days  of  the  epochs  of  the  various  eras  according 
to  Ibn-Tunus  have  been  communicated  by  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de  I'as- 
tronomie  du  moyen  age,"  p.  96. 

Albatini's  rules  for  the  comparison  of  eras  between  each  other,  see  ib. 
p.  41. 

p.  136,  1.  20.  The  epochal  day  of  the  jiEra  Biluvii  is  a  Friday,  vide 
Ideler,  "  Handbuch  der  mathematischen  und  technischen  Chronologie," 
ii.  p.  627. 

p.  136,  1.  26.  The  epochal  day  of  the  ^ra  Nabonassari  is  a  Wed- 
nesday, that  of  the  JE'm  Philippi  is  a  Sunday  ;  Ideler,  ib.  ii.  pp.  627, 
628.  The  correspondence  between  the  I.  Tot  and  the  I.  Daimah,  is  also 
stated  by  Alfarghani,  "  Elementa  astronomica,"  ed.  Golius,  p.  5. 

p.  136,  1.  30.  The  epochal  day  of  the  M-a  Alexandri  is  a  Monday; 
Farghani,  p.  6  ;  Ideler,  ii.  628. 


406  ALBiEUNi. 

p.  137,  1.  9.  The  Syrian  year  commences  witli  the  1  Oct.,  the  Greek 
year  with  the  1  January.  The  interval  between  these  two  New  Year's 
Days  is  92  days. 

p.  137,  p.  17.  The  epochal  day  of  the  JSra  Augusti  is  a  Thursday  ; 
Ideler,  ii.  p.  628. 

p.  137,  1.  37.  The  epochal  day  of  the  jTJra  Diocletiani  is  a  Wednesday, 
see  Ideler,  ii.  628. 

p.  138,  1.  9.  The  epochal  day  of  the  Era  of  the  Flight  is  a  Thursday  ; 
Ideler,  ii.  629. 

p.  138,  1.  30.  The  epochal  day  of  the  jiEra  Yazdagirdi  is  a  Tuesday, 
see  Farghani,  p.  6,  and  Ideler,  ii.  629. 

p.  139, 1.  7.  Read  Alnairizi  instead  of  Altibrizt  (also  in  the  text,  p. 
142,    1.    22).     In    the   text,   p.    142,   1.    21,  read  y-W«3\  j>\   instead  of 

p.  141,  1.  29.  The  following  lines  (till  p.  142,  1.  2),  are  a  torso  of 
which  I  do  not  know  a  proper  restoration.  It  seems  the  author  gave  an 
exposition  of  the  length  of  the  Jewish,  the  Christian,  and  the  astro- 
nomical years,  and  pointed  out  some  incongruity  between  Jewish  and 
scientific  astronomy.  Both  Jewish  Years,  that  of  E.  Samuel  (the  Julian 
year),  of  365  d.  6  h.  and  that  of  R.  'Adda  of  365  d.  5  h.  997  H.  48 
Eeg.  are  too  long,  vide  Dr.  A.  Schwarz,  "  Der  Jiidische  Kalender," 
pp.  65,  120.  In  the  present  state  of  the  text  I  am  not  able  to  say 
what  the  165  days  (p.  142, 1.  2)  mean, 

p.  142,  1.  12.  The  subtraction  of  two  years  in  this  calculation  is  neces- 
sitated by  the  Babylonian  Ordo  inter calationis,  ^3,15^^,  which  the  author 
uses  in  this  place.     Cf.  p.  65,  1.  6. 

p.  142, 1.  20.  The  Assaying  Circle  is  based  on  the  assumption  that 
the  Enneadecateris  corresponds  to  19  solar  years  (whilst  there  is  a  dif- 
ference between  them  of  145  Halakim,  vide  p.  64,  1.  16),  and  that  the 
mean  Lunar  year  has  354  days  in  a  common  year  and  384  days  in  a  leap 
year.  The  former,  if  compared  with  the  Julian  year,  is  too  short  by  11 
days  ;  the  latter  is  too  long  by  19  days. 

In  the  squares  of  the  thirteenth  year  of  the  cycle  read  Ilul  7,  instead 
of  Ilvl  6  (also  in  the  text). 

No  regard  has  been  had  of  the  intercalation  of  the  Julian  years. 

p.  143, 1.  28.     In  the  text  (note  i,  last  line,)  read  tyi^  5«— ;  instead  of 
p.  144,  1.  5.     By  the  apparent  motion  the  author  means  that  motion 


ANNOTATIONS.  407 

which  at  any  time  is  found  by  astronomical  observation,  no  equation  or 
correction  being  used. 

p.  144.  1.  17.  This  space  of  time,  i.e.  2  d.  16  h.  595  H  is  the  so-called 
Character  of  the  Enneadecateris. 

p.  144,  1.  26.  The  4  d.  8  h.  876  H.  are  the  Character  of  the  Common 
Year,  the  6  d.  21  h.  589  H.  the  Character  of  the  Leap-year.  Cf .  Lazarus 
Bendavid,  "  Zur  Geschichte  und  Berechnung  des  Jiidischen  Kalenders," 
Berlin,  1817,  §  32. 

p.  144, 1.  30.  These  5  d.  14  h.  are  the  Moled  of  the  Creation  (T  '\) 
i.e.  Friday  morning,  8  o'clock.  Cf.  Dr.  A.  Schwarz,  "  Der  Jiidische 
Kalender,"  p.  50,  note  2. 

p.  145, 1.  15.  With  the  12th  year  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri  begins  a  new 
Enneadecateris  of  the  Jewish  JS'ra  Adami,  the  182  d.  one. 

The  Basis,  i.e.  the  Moled  of  ^.  Alex.  12  (i.e.  yE.  Adami  3460)  has  been 
omitted  in  the  tables  of  all  manuscripts.  It  is,  however,  easy  to  find  by 
the  help  of  the  tables  on  pp.  145-147.     3460  years  are  : 

d.     h.  H. 

6  G-reat  Cycles            -             -             -          =     3     20  600 

14  Small  Cycles            -            -            -          =     2     15  770 

2  single  years              -             -             -          =36  385 

9     18    676 

Therefore  the  Moled  of  the  12th  year  of  Alexander  is  2  d.  18  h.  675  H. 
(cf.  the  astronomical  calculation  of  this  Moled  on  p.  148,  1.  19). 

p.  145, 1.  30.  The  numbers  of  days,  hours,  and  Halakim  of  this  table 
the  reader  may  check  by  always  adding  the  Character  of  the  Enneade- 
cateris, i.e.  2  d.  16  h.  595  H.,  and  by  subtracting  7,  as  soon  as  the  addition 
of  the  days  gives  more  than  seven  days. 

p.  146, 1.  20.  The  number  of  days,  hours,  and  Halakim  the  reader 
may  check  by  always  adding  for  a  common  year  4d.  8h.  876  H.,  for  a 
leap-year  5  d.  21  h.  589  H.,  and  by  subtracting  7,  as  soon  as  the  addition 
of  the  days  goes  beyond  this  number. 

p.  147,1.  1.  The  Character  of  the  G-reat  Cycle  is  5  d.  7h.  460  H., 
which  you  get  by  multiplying  the  Character  of  the  Enneadecateris,  i.e. 
2  d.  16  h.  695  H.  by  28,  dividing  the  sum  by  7,  and  taking  the  re- 
mainder. 

p.  147, 1.  42.     Times.     One  time  is  equal  to  four  minutes. 


408  albIe^^n}. 

p.  148,  1.  16.  In  the  following  tables  these  measures  have  been 
used : 

Character  of  the  Enneadecateris  2  d.  16 h.  28 1-  57  ii-  57™.  53 1^- 

Accordingly  the  length  of  the  Enneadecateris  according  to  the  sons  of 
Musa  ben  Shakir  was 

6939  d.  16  h.  28 1-  67  "•  57  m-  53  i^- 
The  division  of  this  sum  by  the  number  of  the  lunations  of  the  Ennea- 
decateris, i.e.  235,  gives  the  length  of  the  synodical  month  as  assumed  by 
the  sons  of  Musa  ben  Shakir,  i.e. 

29  d.  12  h.  44 1-  2  n-  17  m-  21  iv.  lO  v. 
Cf .  p.  143, 1.  28,  where  the  same  measure  is  mentioned,  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  there  the  number  of  fifths  is  stated  to  be  12.     Cf.  note  at 
p.  168. 

The  Character  of  the  Common  Tear  is 

4d.  8h.  481-  27"-  28™-  14  iv. 
The  Character  of  the  Leap-Year  is 

6  d.  21  h.  32 1-  29  "•  45  ™-  35  iv. 
The  Character  of  the  Great  Cycle  is 

6  d.  6  h.  31 1-  3  "•  0  ™-  44  iv. 

p.  150, 1.  22.  The  Limits  within  which  the  Moled  of  a  year  may  fall 
are  determined  by  the  four  Dehiyyoth,  i.e.  -^-y^,  lli"^"!!*'^  '1"^I0^  and 
t^Dpnil^^n*  Cf .  Lazarus  Bendavid,  "  Zur  Berechnung  und  Geschichte 
des  Jiidischen  Kalenders,"  §§  35-39. 

On  the  relations  between  New  Tear's  Day  and  the  character  or  nature 
of  the  year,  cf.  Lazarus  Bendavid,  §§  46-48. 

p.  152,  1.  34.  Tailasdn,  vide  note  at  p.  132, 1.  3.  Perhaps  it  would  be 
better  to  read  \Ji>\ij^=s,  instead  of  U>UjAa:^\  (text,  p.  159,  1.  1). 

p.  153, 1.  4.  In  this  table  as  it  occurs  in  the  MSS.  there  is  a  mistake. 
^  and  '2  can  follow  each  other,  as  the  Table  of  Kebi'dth  (at  p.  164) 
plainly  shows.  Therefore,  read  in  the  text,  in  the  corresponding  field, 
^J\f^  y\  e>^^^  instead  of  ^J\f^  o^  5"^*^- 

The  three  values  of  the  table  give  the  following  six  permutations : 


3  +  Di 


cannot  follow  each  other. 


3  +  n  (^  can  follow  each  other, 
p.  153,  1.  14.     The  Table  of  Equation,  vide  pp.  280,  281. 


ANNOTATIONS.  409 

p.  153,  1.  18.  The  number  of  6,940  days  is  a  round  number,  for  in 
reality  tbe  Enneadecateris  has  only  6,939  d.  16  h.  595  H.  Regarding  the 
preponderance  of  the  Perfect  years  over  the  Imperfect  ones  in  the  Ennea- 
decateris, cf.  Lewisohn,  "  G-eschichte  und  System  des  Jiidischen  Kalen- 
derwesens,"  Leipzig,  1856,  §  90.  125  months  of  30  days  each,  and  110 
months  of  29  days  each,  give  the  sum  of  6,940  days. 

Table  at  p.  154.  There  was  a  fatal  mistake  in  the  first  square  of  this 
table.  The  MSS.  have  tlie  20tJi  Ilill  instead  of  the  19th  Ilul  (text,  pp. 
166,167).  Dr.  Schi-amm,  of  Vienna,  kindly  settled  the  question  for  me 
by  computing  the  date  in  question  by  means  of  the  formula  of  Gauss. 

The  New- Year's  Day  of  the  Jewish  A.  Adami  4754  was  the 
\9th  lUl  A.  Alex.  1304. 
However,  according  to  Alberuni,  the  corresponding  Greek  year  is  A.  Alex. 
1305,  not  1304.     This    difference  is  to  be  explained  in  the  following 
way: 

The  Jewish  year  4754  falls  together  or  runs  parallel  with  A.  Alex. 
1305,  with  one  difference :  The  New-Tear's  Day  (or  1st  Tishri)  of 
A.  Adami  4754  was  the  19th  Ilul  A.  Alex.  1304.  The  Jewish  New- 
Tear's  Day  (1st  of  Tishri)  fell  11  days  earlier  than  the  Greek  New-Tear's 
Day  (or  1st  of  Tishrin  Primus). 

Therefore — to  speak  accurately — the  beginning  (i.e.  the  first  11  days) 
of  the  Jewish  year  4754  falls  into  the  Greek  year  1304,  but  the  whole 
remainder  of  the  year  corresponds  with  A.  A.lex.  1305. 

This  seems  to  be  the  reason  why  the  author  has  in  this  table  com- 
pared the  Jewish  year  4754  with  the  Greek  year  1305. 

The  Jewish  New-Tear  always  precedes  the  Greek  New-Tear  by  a  small 
number  of  days,  vide  the  Assaying  Circle  on  p.  142. 

The  table  comprises  the  years  of  Alexander  1305-1818,  i.e.  532  years, 
or  one  Great  Cycle  of  28  Small  Cycles. 

The  Ordo  Intercalationis  in  each  Small  Cycle  is  ^^.t;^^^  i.e.  the  3rd,  5th, 
8th,  11th,  14th,  16th,  19th  years  of  the  cycle  are  leap-years. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  in  every  247  years  (i.e.  13  Small  Cycles) 
nearly  (not  accurately)  the  same  Kebi'oth  return,  which  the  reader  will 
find  confirmed  if  he  compares  the  years  1305  ff.  with  1552  ff.  and  1799  ff. 
On  this  subject,  cf.  Lazarus  Bendavid,  "  Zur  Berechnung  und  Geschichte 
des  Jiidischen  Kalenders,"  §  45. 

p.  155,  1.  26.  On  the  two  beginnings  of  a  Jewish  month,  or  the  two 
Eosh-Hodesh,  cf.  Lazarus  Bendavid,  §  11. 

In  the  following  tables  I  have  printed  the  real  1st  of  a  month  in 
Arabic  numerals,  and  the  fictitious  first  of  a  month,  i.e.  the  last  day  of 
the  preceding  complete  month  in  Latin  numerals. 

29 


410  ALBIEUNI. 

p.  157, 1.  10.  The  computation  of  this  table  rests  on  the  theory  that 
between  the  Moled  of  one  month  and  that  of  the  following  there  is  an 
interval  of  29  d.  12  h.  793  H.  The  half  of  this  (the  Fortnight)  is  14  d. 
18  h.  396|  H. 

The  Character  of  the  month  is  1  d.  12  h.  793  H.  i.e.  the  Moled  of  a 
month  falls  by  1  d.  12  h.  793  H.  later  in  the  week  than  the  Moled  of  the 
preceding  month. 

The  Character  of  the  Fortnight  is  0  d.  18  h.  392|  H.  The  table  con- 
sists  of  additions  of  these  two  values. 


p.  158.  The  checking  of  this  table  gave  some  difficulty,  as  in  the 
column  of  the  fourths  the  fractions  have  been  omitted  in  all  the 
manuscripts  of  the  text,  whilst  in  the  computation  they  have  not  been 
disregarded. 

This  table  shows  that  Alberuni  reckoned  the  interval  between  two  con- 
secutive conjunctions  (after  the  sons  of  Musa  b.  Shakir)  at 
29  d.  12  h.  44 1-  2  n.  17  ni.  21  iv.  12  v. 

The  half  of  this  is 

14  d.  18  h.  22  !•  1  "•  8  "i-  40  iv.  36  v. 
or 
14d.  18h.  221- III- 8™.  401 IV. 

With  this  measure,  cf.  my  conjecture  on  p.  143, 1.  28,  and  note  at  p. 
148, 1.  15. 

Accordingly  the  Character  of  this  synodical  month  is 
1  d.  12  h.  441-  2  n.  17  ni.  21  iv.  12  v. 

i.e.  the  beginning  of  a  month  falls  by  so  much  later  in  the  week  than 
that  of  the  preceding  month.     The  half  of  this  Character  is 
Od.  18h.  22i-lii-8m-40fiv. 

The  table  consists  of  additions  of  these  two  values. 

p.  159,  1.  11.  The  reason  of  the  following  calculation  is  this,  that 
Passover  always  falls  on  the  163rd  day  from  the  end  of  the  year.  The 
division  of  163  by  7  gives  2  as  remainder. 

If,  therefore,  you  add  2  to  the  week-day  of  the  Passover  of  a  year, 
you  get  the  week-day  on  which  the  New- Year's  Day  of  the  following 
year  falls. 

p.  159, 1.  29.  The  universal  equations  refer  to  the  various  inequalities 
in  the  rotation  of  both  sun  and  moon,  and  they  serve  the  purpose  of 
changing  their  real  motion  into  mean  motion. 


ANNOTATIONS.  411 

p.  160, 1.  6.     In  the  text  (p.  176, 1.  21),  read  \^\j  instead  of  \f!^\y 

p.  160,  1.  29.     In  the  text  (p.  177, 1. 10),  read  \^5i«\  instead  of  \^s»«\ 

p.  161, 1.  4,  The  number  350  is  the  miiltij)lication  of  the  7  years  of 
the  Cycle  of  Shabu'  by  the  50  years  of  the  Cycle  of  Yobel.  Aiter  this 
cycle  of  350  years  the  single  years  of  both  cycles  in  question  return 
again  in  the  same  order. 

p.  163, 1.  20.  With  sediment.  Eead  ^JjJ^  instead  of  AjOj^  (text,  p.  182, 
1.  12). 

p.  163,  1.  38.  The  solar  year  of  365j  days,  i.e.  the  Julian  year,  is 
called  the  year  of  Eabbi  Samuel,  whilst  the  year  of  365  d.  5ffg^  h.,  the 
second  of  the  two  kinds  of  solar  years  which  occur  in  Jewish  chronology, 
is  called  the  year  of  E.  'Adda  bar  'Ahaba.  Converting  this  latter  space 
of  time  into  Jewish  measures  we  get 

365  d.  5h.  997  H.  48  Eega'im. 
This  length  of  the  solar  year  has  been  foimd  by  dividing  by  19  the 
Enneadecateris  of  Meton  (6,939  d.  16  h.  595  H.),  which  comprehends 
235  synodical  months  of  HipjDarchus,  and  which  has  been  adopted  by  the 
Jewish  chronologists.  Cf.  Dr.  Ad.  Schwarz,  "  Der  Jiidische  Kalender," 
p.  65  fE. 

p.  164,  1. 1.  For  an  astronomical  examination  of  the  following  chapter 
(as  far  as  p.  167),  I  refer  the  reader  to  Eine  Berechnung  der  Entferntmg 
des  Sonnen-AjpogaeunCs  von  dem  FrilMingspunMe  bei  Alhcruni  Mitgetheilt 
von  Prof.  Ed.  Sachau  und  Dr.  Joh.  Holetscheh  (j).  19  ff),  in  the  "  Sitz- 
ungsberichte  der  Kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  in  Wien, 
Phil.-hist.  Classe,"  1876,  February. 

X?.  167,  1.  7.  Abu-Nasr  Mansur,  etc.,  a  mathematician  and  astronomer, 
lived  in  Khwarizm  and  Ghazna  and  died,  as  it  seems,  in  the  latter  place 
in  the  first  quarter  of  the  5th  century  of  the  Flight.  Cf.  the  text,  "  Ein- 
leitung,"  p.  xxxiii. 

p.  168.  The  Tekufoth  are  the  chronological,  not  the  astronomical 
year-points.  Their  calculation  is  based  upon  the  Julian  years  of  Eabbi 
Samuel. 

The  following  are  the  elements  of  this  calculation : 

1.  The  year  contains  four  quarters,  each  of  91  d.  7  h.  540  H.  Dividing 
this  by  7,  you  get  the  remainder  of  7  h.  540  H.,  i.e.  7\  hours. 


412  ALBIRUNI. 

2.  The  Character  of  the  Tekufa  is  7^  hours,  which  is  the  amount  of 
the  precession  of  each  year-point  within  the  week.  This  precession 
amoTints  for  one  complete  year  to  30  hours  or  1|  day. 

3.  If  you  multiply  30  hours  by  28  and  divide  the  product  by  24,  you 
get  no  remainder,  which  means  that  after  a  cycle  of  28  such  years  the 
year-points  fall  again  on  the  time  within  the  week. 

4.  The  question  is :  whence  to  begin  with  this  calculation  ?  with  the 
Tekufa  of  Tishri  or  that  of  Nisan  ? 

The  author  fixes  the  Tekufa  of  Tishri  on  the  5th  Tishri,  a  Wednes- 
day, 9  o'clock  in  the  morning,  i.e.  4d.  15  h.  after  the  Moled  of  Tishri. 

By  subtracting  herefrom  the  amount  of  the  weekly  precession  of  two 
Tekiifoth  (i.e.  15  hours),  the  author  finds  the  first  hour  of  the  night 
of  Wednesday  (or,  according  to  our  method,  Tuesday,  6  o'clock  in  the 
evening,)  as  the  time  of  the  Tekufa  of  Nisan,  i.e.  4 d.  Oh.  after  the 
Moled  of  Nisan. 

5.  In  the  Table  of  Tekufoth  the  author  has  assumed  as  the  beginning 
of  his  calculation  the  time  of  noon  (of  Wednesday),  i.e.  4  d.  18  h.  instead 
of  the  sunset  (of  Tuesday)  or  4  d.  0  h. 

On  this  subject,  cf.  Dr.  Ad.  Schwarz,  "  Der  Jiidische  Kalender,"  pp. 
65-69. 

p.  169,  1.  10.  The  names  of  the  planets  as  given  by  the  author  are 
well  known  in  later  Hebrew.  As  a  matter  of  interest  for  the  history  of 
Hebrew  i>ronunciation,  I  mention  the  spelling  of  j-»^=:nt2n  and  ^-»*-  _j^^ 
=  n^n  ^^13  which  reminds  one  of  the  pronunciation  of  the  Jews  of 
Gralicia. 

p.  172.  Regarding  Oriental  names  of  the  planets,  I  refer  the  reader 
to  Chwolsohn,  "  Sabier  und  Sabismus,"  ii.  pp.  156-175. 

In  the  square  of  the  Syriac  names  of  Venus  there  occur  two  other 
names,  which  I  have  not  been  able  to  decipher.  The  one,  ^J  is,  perhaps, 
a  corruption  for  vi5^J*^ 

p.  174.  The  author  shows  that  a  year-point,  as  calculated  by  the 
Tekufoth  of  Eabbi  Samuel  (i.e.  according  to  the  Julian  year),  in  no  way 
agrees  with  reality,  i.e.  with  a  year-point  as  determined  by  astronomical 
observation,  and  that  on  the  other  hand  the  Tekufoth,  as  calculated  by 
the  system  of  Eabbi  Adda,  come  pretty  near  reality.  The  proof  for  this 
atter  assertion  has  fallen  out,  as  the  chapter  is  a  torso. 

Here  (1.  21)  the  author  states  that  the  first  Tekufa  of  Tishri  fell  5  d. 
1  h.  after  the  Moled  of  the  year,  whilst  on  p.  168,  1.  19,  he  has  said  that 

fell  4  d.  15  h.  after  the  same  Moled.  I  cannot  account  for  this 
divergency . 


ANNOTATIONS.  413 

p.  174,  1.  16.     The  constituent  parts  of  this  sum  are  the  following: 

d.  h.  H. 

8  Great  Cycles        -         -         =     1,554,490  11  440 
26  Small  Cycles         -         -         =        180,431  22  350 

9  years  or  111  months     -         =  3,277  21  543 


Sum     -       1,738,200       7     253 
~5       1 


Eemainder     -      1,738,195-     6    253 

This  is  the  interval  between  the  Tekuf a  of  Tishri  of  the  first  year  of 
the  ^ra  Adami  and  the  Moled  of  A.  Alex.  1311. 

The  division  of  this  sum  by  364 j  days  gives  4,758  Julian  years,  and  a 
remainder  of  335f  d.  253  H.  i.e.  one  year  minus  29  d.  11  h.  827  H. 

Sunday,  7  h.  253  H.  of  daytime  is  0  d.  19  h.  253  H.,  which,  added  to 
29  d.  11  h.  827  H.,  gives  the  sum  of 

30d.  7h. 

If  we  count  30  d.  7  h.  from  the  beginning  of  a  Sunday  {i.e.  the  pre- 
ceding sunset),  the  1st  of  Elul,  we  come  as  far  as  a  Tuesday  night,  7  h., 
the  first  of  Tishrin  Primus. 

In  1.  33,  read  7  h.  instead  of  9  h.,  and  in  the  text,  p.  194, 1.  15,  read 
uyUsU  ^<~.  ^J\  instead  of  uwUU  ^^-J  ^J\ 

p.  175,  1.  2.  The  year  of  Rabbi  Adda  contains  365  d.  5f|^  h.  Of 
this  kind  of  fractions  {i.e.  4104th  parts  of  an  hour)  one  day  contains 
98,496. 

The  following  is  the  conversion  of 

1,738,195  d.  6h.  253  H 
into  these  fractions : 

1,738,195  d. =171,205,254,720 
6h.=  24,624 

253  H.=  96U 


Sum    -     171,206,280,305|. 

Hence  it  is  evident  that  in  the  number 

171,280,3051  (line  5,  for  so  it  is  to  be  read) 
205  millions  have  fallen  out. 

If  we  divide  this  sum  of  4104th  parts  of  an  hour  by  35,975,351  (which 
is  the  solar  year  of  R.  Adda,  reduced  into  the  same  kind  of  fractions), 
we  get  as  quotient  4,758  years,  and  a  remainder  of  350  d.  ^^-^^ii;  ^• 

If  we  compare  this  remainder  with  that  of  the  former  calculation,  i.e. 


414  ALBfRUNI. 

335  d.  18  h.  253  H.,  we  get  a  difference  of  15  d.  3  h  ^^f^H.,  whicli  means 
that,  according  to  Rabbi  Adda,  the  Tekufa  of  Tishri  of  A.  Alex.  1311 
falls  by  16  d.  3  h.  -^^  H.  earlier  than  that  of  Eabbi  Samnel. 

This  difference  shows  that  the  system  of  Eabbi  Adda  comes  pretty 
near  astronomical  truth,  for,  whilst  Ms  autumnal  equinox  fell  15  d. 
3/^y^  h.  earlier  than  that  of  R.  Samuel,  the  astronomical  equinox  fell 
14  days  earlier,  as  the  author  says  himself  on  p.  174,  1.  35. 

p.  174, 1,  21.     Read  ct>5»^  instead  of  <j>Ji^\  in  the  text,  p.  194, 1.  9. 

p.  175, 1.  5.  That  part  of  the  text  which  is  missing  in  this  place  (i.e. 
between  the  words  ^£>U*--3  and  ci^U^^  in  the  text,  p.  194,  1.  21,  not  be- 
tween the  number  and  ,_5~--*j^j)  originally  contained  rules  by  which  to  find 
the  week-days  on  which  the  years  of  the  eras  of  the  Deluge,  Nabonassar, 
and  Philippus  commence.  Of  the  chapter  relating  to  the  Era  of  Alex- 
ander only  the  end  is  extant. 

The  table  on  p.  175  contains  a  cycle  of  28  Julian  years,  after  which 
the  single  years  begin  again  on  the  same  week-days. 

The  reason  why  the  beginning  of  Tishrin  I.  in  the  first  year  of  the 
cycle  is  fixed  upon  2,  i.e.  Monday,  is  this,  that  Monday  is  the  epochal 
day  of  this  era.     Cf.  L.  Ideler,  "  Handbuch,"  ii.  p.  628. 

p.  176, 1.  1  ff.  Similar  rules  for  the  derivation  of  the  beginnings  of 
the  years  of  the  different  eras  are  also  given  by  Delambre,  "  Histoire  de 
I'astronomie  du  moyen  age,"  p.  41. 

The  epochal  days  of  the  single  eras  are  also  given  by  Delambre,  p.  96. 

p.  176, 1.  27.  This  rule  for  the  derivation  of  the  Signum  Muharrami 
of  any  year  of  the  Flight  is  very  intricate,  and  the  author  does  not 
explain  the  principle  upon  which  it  is  based. 

Most  people  take  Thursday,  others  Friday,  as  the  epochal  day  of  the 
era  of  the  Flight. 

The  lunar  year  of  this  era  is  generally  reckoned  at 
354iid.=354d.  8h.  48', 
but  in  reality  the  mean  lunar  year  is  longer.     Ideler  ('*  Handbuch,"  ii. 
p.  479)  reckons  it  as 

354  d.  8  h.  48' 36", 

and  the  author  seems  to  reckon  it  as 

354  d.  22'  1"=354  d.  8  h.  48  min.  24  sec. 
(It  must  be  noticed  that  in  the  former  number   minutes  are   60th 
parts  of  a  day,  seconds  60th  parts  of  a  60th  part  of  a  day,  whilst  in  the 
second  number  minutes  are  60th  parts  of  an  hour,  seconds  60th  parts  of 
a  60th  part  of  an  hour.) 


ANNOTATIONS.  416 

The  author  does  not  explain  why  he  adds  34  to  the  minutes.  To  add 
5  days  and  34  minutes  is  the  same  as  if  you  add  6  days.  In  this  case 
we  must  assume  Friday  (6)  as  the  epochal  day  of  the  era,  and  the  addi- 
tion of  6  days  brings  us  back  to  Sunday,  the  beginning  of  the  week  in 
which  the  Flight  occurred  (cf.  p.  177, 1.  43  &.,  and  p.  180,  1.  19). 

Further :  why  does  the  author  count  all  minutes  above  15  as  07ie  hour, 
whilst,  according  to  the  general  practice,  the  minutes  below  30  ought  to 
be  disregarded,  and  those  above  30  to  be  counted  as  one  hour  ? 

The  intricacies  of  this  rule  have  not  revealed  to  me  the  mystery  of 
their  mathematical  ratio.  As  it  seems,  the  author  intended  by  some 
contrivance  to  meet  the  incorrectness  of  the  common  year  (of  354^^  d.) 
being  too  short. 

p.  176,  1.  38.  The  sum  of  the  days  of  two  months  is  59,  which, 
divided  by  7,  gives  the  remainder  of  3,  i.e.  the  day  on  which  a  month 
begins,  advances  in  two  months  as  far  as  3  days  within  the  week. 

p.  177, 1.  2,  Muhammad  ben  Jabir  Albattani,  a  famous  astronomer  of 
Harranian  origin,  died  a.h.  317  ;  vide  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  279. 

Habash  the  mathematician,  a  native  of  Marw,  author  of  famous  astro- 
nomical tables,  vide  "Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  275,  and  notes,  and  Haji  Khalifa, 
V.  p.  515. 

p.  177,  1.  44.    Eead  J*-i  instead  of  J^jj  in  the  text,  p.  197.  1.  15. 

p.  179.  This  table  is  the  invention  of  the  mathematician  Habash, 
indicating  the  Signa  Muharrami  for  210  years ;  but  some  sectarian  has 
in  every  place  added  5  to  the  number  of  days,  and  thereby  changed  it 
into  a  table  indicative  of  the  Signa  Bamaddni  for  the  cycle  of  210  years. 
In  this  form  the  table  is  given  by  Alberuni. 

The  title  of  the  table,  as  given  by  me,  must  be  corrected :  "  Table 
showing  on  what  week-days  the  Ramadans  of  the  single  years  of  the 
cycle  of  210  years  commence."  Accordingly  also  the  superscription  of 
col.  B.  is  to  be  altered. 

For  the  intercalary  system  of  the  lunar  calendar  I  refer  the  reader  to 
L.  Ideler,  ii.  p.  479  ff.  As  the  lunar  year  is  reckoned  as  354  days,  11  days 
must  be  intercalated  within  30  years. 

After  the  cycle  of  30  years  the  New-Tear  days  do  not  again  fall  on  the 
same  week  days,  as  there  is  a  remainder  of  5  days.  There  is  no 
remainder  of  days  if  this  cycle  is  repeated  seven  times,  i.e.  after  a  cycle 
of  210  years  the  New- Year  days  fall  again  on  the  same  week-day. 

This  is  the  reason  why  the  table  was  constructed  for  a  period  of  210 
years,  cf.  p.  180, 1.  26. 


416 


ALBtBUNt. 


The  following  'is  tlie   Ordo  inter calationis  according  to  wliich  Habash 
has  constructed  his  table. 


L. 


Cycle  of  30 

Portio 

years. 

intercalanda, 

d. 

1 

1 1 
■30 

2 

2  2 
To 

3 

3 

30 

4 

1  4 

To 

5 

2  5 
30 

6 

6 

To 

7 

30 

8 

2  8 

To 

9 

9 
30 

10 

20 
30 

11 

31 

To 

12 

1  2 

To 

13 

2_3 
30 

14 

4 
30 

15 

1  5 
30 

L. 


L. 


L. 


Cycle  of  30 

Portio 

years. 

intercalanda, 

d. 

16 

^ 

17 

^ 

18 

M 

19 

■B 

20 

\% 

21 

\h 

22 

2 

To 

23 

\% 

24 

i^ 

25 

5 
To 

26 

M 

27 

U 

28 

^ 

29 

1  9 
To 

80 

M 

L. 


According  to  Habash,  the  following  years  of  the  cycle  of  30  years  are 
leap-years : 

2,  5,  8,  11,  13,  16,  19,  21,  24,  27,  30, 
whilst,  according  to  the  common  Ordo  intercalationis,  the  following  years 
are  leap-years : 

2,  5,  7,  10,  13,  16,  18,  21,  24,  26,  29, 

or 
2,  5,  7,  10,  13,  15,  18,  21,  24,  26,  29. 
The  principle  of  Habash  is  obvious :     He  intercalates  the  portio  inter- 
calanda as  one  whole  day,  when  the  fraction  has  risen  to  more  than  f§, 
i.e.  -|rds  of  a  whole  day. 

Habash  has  used  Friday  as  the  epochal  day,   because  IV.  (Signum 
Ramadani)  minus  5  gives  VI.  (Friday)  as  the  Signum  Muharrami. 
In  the  text  (vide  the  screw-figure,  p.  198)  there  are  four  mistakes  : 

1.  In  the  first  square  o  (the  Signum  of  the  first  Eamadan)  has  fallen 

out. 

2.  The  Signum  Ramadani  for  the  year  9  has  fallen  out,  viz.  J 

3.  The  Signum  of  the  year  25,  read  J  instead  of  ^ 

4.  The  Signum  of  the  year  131,  read  '>  instead  of  ; 


p.  180, 1.  7.     Tabula  mediorum.     The  word    Wasat  or  Medium  means 
the  corrected  or  mean  motion  of  any  celestial  body. 


ANNOTATIONS.  417 

p.  180,  1.  27.  Eead  Ji\  instead  of  ^J}\  in  the  text,  p.  198,  1.  22 
(Fleischer). 

p.  181.  The  Corrected  Table  of  the  author  contains  the  Characters  of 
the  single  years  of  the  cycle  of  210  years,  i.e.  the  remainders  which  you 
get  if  you  divide  the  sum  of  the  days  of  the  years  by  7. 

The  addition  of  5  d.  34'  shows  that  the  table  is  calculated  for  Friday 
as  the  epochal-day. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  in  order  to  find  the  Signum  Muharrami 
for  any  year,  we  must  look  out  in  the  Corrected  Table  for  the  Signum  of 
the  preceding  year ;  e.g.  to  find  the  Signum  Muharrami  of  a.h.  100,  we 
take  the  Sigmim  of  the  year  99, 

viz.  5  d.  18' 

+  5d.  34' 


10  d.  52' 
-7d. 


3  d.  52'= IV.  or  Wednesday. 
The  author  does  not  explain  what  system  of  intercalation  he  follows. 


p.  182, 1.  1.  The  following  passage  and  table  are  also  found  in  the 
Kosmographie  of  Alkazwini,  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  p.  74. 

The  Octaeteris  of  lunar  years  is  the  basis  of  the  Turkish  calendar,  vide 
Ideler,  ii.  p.  564.  It  rests  on  the  observation  that  the  beginnings  of 
consecutive  cycles  of  eight  years  fall  nearly  on  the  same  identical  time 
of  the  week,  but  there  is  a  difference  of  four  minutes,  i.e.  the  beginning 
of  one  Octaeteris,  falls  by  four  minutes  later  than  that  of  the  preceding 
one. 

If  we  compute  the  beginnings  of  the  first  Octaeteris  by  the  help  of 
the  corrected  table,  we  get  the  following  Signa  : 


Tears  of 

Sigua 

the  Cycle. 

Muharrami. 

1 

3         = 

4i^  +  6 

2 

7        = 

lM+6 

3 

5         = 

6  3% +  6 

4 

2         = 

3M  +  6 

6 

6         = 

Ofl+6 

6 

4         = 

Sa^+e 

7 

1         = 

2M  +  6 

8 

6         = 

6ff+6 

30 


418  ALBIEUNi. 

I  do  not  see  the  reason  why  the  author  orders  4  to  be  added  to  the 
complete  years  of  the  jEra  Fugce  (11.  4,  6). 

The  first  Signum  Muharrami  of  the  table  belongs  to  the  second  year 
of  the  Flight.     In  1.  7,  read  under  8  instead  of  under  7. 

'Ahmad  ben  Muhammad  ben  Shihab  is  not  known  to  me  from  other 
sources.  The  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  282,  mentions  a  mathematician  Ahmad 
ben  Muhammad,  a  contemporary  of  Muhammad  ben  Musa,  who  died 
A.H.  259. 

p.  183,  1.  12.  'Abu-Ja'far  Alkhazin,  a  famous  astronomer  and  mathe- 
matician, vide  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  282.  He  was  a  contemporary  of 
Abu-Zaid  Albalkhi,  who  died  a.h.  322.  Cf.  "Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  138, 
and  Gr.  Fliigel,  "  Grammatische  Schulen  der  Araber,"  p.  204. 


p.  183,  1.  13.  The  Characters  of  30,  10,  5  years,  and  of  1  year,  as 
given  by  the  author,  will  be  found  to  agree  with  the  Corrected  Table,  if 
converted  into  the  sexagesimal  system. 

Character  of  30  years=5  d.  =5  d.  0' 

10yea;rs=ld.  16h.  =  ld.  40' 
„  6  years=0  d.  20  h.=0  d.  60' 

1  year=4d.  8fh.=4d.  22' 

The  remainder  of  the  rule  does  not  require  an  explanation. 


p.  183,  1.  34.  The  second  rule  of  Alkhazin  is  as  correct  as  the  first 
one,  but  it  is  unnecessarily  complicated. 

The  character  of  the  lunar  year  is  4^^  d.  It  is  easy  to  multiply  any 
number  of  years  by  4  (or  half  the  number  by  8),  but  for  the  multiplica- 
tion by  ^  Alkhazin  has  sought  for  a  simplified  method. 

ii  of  a  number  is  nearly  equal  to  f  of  it,  i.e.  f  of  a  number  are  more 
than  ii  of  it  by  -^  of  the  number,  or  -^  of  half  the  number,  e.g. : 

f  of  60=22| 
ii  of  60=22 

The  difference  between  both  numbers  is  \,i.e.  -^^  of  60  (or  -^  of  30). 

If,  therefore,  we  multiply  a  number  of  years  by  f  {i.e.  if  we  multiply 
half  the  number  by  3  and  divide  the  product  by  4),  we  must  subtract 
from  the  product  ^i  o  of  the  number  (or  -^  of  half  the  number),  in  order 
to  get  -i-i  of  the  same  number  of  years. 

Example :  a.h.  90. 

The  number  of  complete  years  is  89,  an  odd  number. 


ANNOTATIONS. 


419 


We  subtract  1  year,  and  write  down  its  character,  i.e.  4  d.  22', 
Half  of  the  remainder  (88) =44. 
I.)    44  X  8=352  d. 
II.)     44x3=132  :  4=33  d. 

352  d. 
33  d. 
6  d.      (we  add  6,  taking  Friday  as  epochal  day, 
in  agreement  with  Wiistenfeld's  Tables, 


sum     391  d.         whilst  Alkhazin  adds  5,  taking  Thurs- 
day as  epochal  day.) 
— 0  d.  44'  (60th  parts  to  the  amount  of  half  the 

number.) 

390  d.  16' 

+  4d.  22'  {character  of  the  one  year.) 


394  d.  38'  (these  38'  are  counted  as  one  day.) 


Therefore  395  :  7= remainder  3=C. 
i.e.  A.H.  90  commenced  on  a  Tuesday  (cf.  Wustenfeld,  "  Vergleichungs- 
Tabellen"). 

p.  184,  1.  24.  The  same  rule  for  the  ^ra  Yazdagirdi,  vide  in  Delambre, 
"  Histoire  de  I'astronomie  du  moyen  age,"  p.  41. 

p.  184,  1.  33.  On  the  ^ra  Magorum,  cf.  Ed.  Sachau,  "  Zur  Geschichte 
und  Chronologie  von  Khwarizm  I."  ("  Sitzungsberichte  der  Kais. 
Wiener  Akademie  der  Wissenschafteu,  phil.-hist.  Classe,"  1873,  torn.  93, 
p.  485). 

p.  184,  1.  42.  The  author's  report  on  the  intercalation  of  the  ancient 
Persians,  vide  on  p.  38. 

p.  186, 1.  27.  Ibn-Sankila  (the  son  of  Syncellus  ?)  is  not  known  to 
me  "from  other  sources. 

p.  187,  1.  13.  'Abdallah  b.  'Isma'il  is  unknown  to  me,  but  'Abd- 
almasih  Alkindi  seems  to  be  the  famous  philosopher  of  this  name.  As 
an  authority  on  Sabians  he  is  also  quoted  by  the  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p. 
318,  vide  also  Chwolsohn,  "  Sabier  und  Sabismus,"  ii.  pp.  3  and  56. 

p.  187,  1.  37.  Tailasdn,  name  of  a  piece  of  dress,  cf.  note  at  p.  132, 
1.  3. 

p.  188, 1.  35.  Aljdmida  was  a  large  village  in  the  district  of  Wasit, 
between  this  town  and  Basra.     Yakut,  ii.  p.  10. 

A  Nahr-alsila  in  Wasit  is  mentioned  by  Yakut,  iv.  p.  841. 


420  ALBIEUNI. 

A  place,  Al-ja^far,  I  do  not  know,  but  Al-ja'fari  was  a  castle  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Samarra,  built  by  the  Khalif  Almutawakkil,  vide 
Yakut,  ii.  p.  86. 

p.  188,  1.  44.  On  the  %afiavaLot,  vide  a  note  in  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p. 
346. 

p,  189, 1.  2.  Bahdr  is  the  Sanskrit  word  vihdra;  of  FarJchdra  1  do  not 
know  the  origin.  The  author  seems  to  think  of  the  Buddhistic  monu- 
ments of  the  Kabul  valley. 

p.  189,  1.  14.  On  the  sects  of  Bardesanes  and  Marcion,  cf.  "  Kitab- 
alfihrist,"  i.  pp.  338,  339,  G.  Flugel,  Mani,  "Seine  Lehre  und  seine 
Schriften,"  1862,  pp.  159,  161. 

p.  189,  1.  20.  The  Termini  opoi  are  an  astrological  term,  meaning  the 
division  of  each  zodiacal  sign  into  five  parts.  These  parts  stand  under 
the  influence  of  the  planets  (except  Sun  and  Moon).  They  are  deter- 
mined differently  in  different  systems  (that  of  the  Egyptians  and  that 
of  Ptolemy). 

p.  189,  1.  43.  The  chapter  on  Mani,  cf.  with  G.  Flugel,  Mani,  "  Sein 
Leben  und  seine  Schriften,"  Leipzig,  1862. 

p.  190,  1.  37.  Yakut  (iv.  p.  317)  mentions  the  canal  of  Kutha,  but  he 
does  not  mention  the  name  of  Mardinu  (sic). 

p.  191, 1.  1.  Yahya  b.  Alnu'man,  the  Christian,  is  not  known  to  me 
from  other  sources. 

p.  191,  1.  19.  Jibra'il  b.  Nuh  is  not  known  to  me.  Yazdanbakht  was 
a  Manichsean  chief  in  the  time  of  the  Khalif  Ma'mun,  vide  Fliigel, 
Mani,  pp.  108  and  99,  etc. 

I).  191,  1.  44.  On  this  prince  Marzuban  b.  Rustam,  vide  note  at  p.  47, 
1.  32. 

p.  192,  1.  6.  The  "  Kitab-alfihrist "  mentions  two  hooks  on  Mazdak, 
one  by  Ibn-almukaffa'  (p.  118),  and  one  by  'Aban  b.  'Abd-alhamid 
(p.  163).     In  the  same  book,  p.  342,  a  chapter  on  Mazdak. 

p.  192, 1.  26.  This  correspondence  took  place  a.h.  10,  cf .  Ibn-Hisham, 
pp.  965.  946;  Ibn-al'athir,  ii.  227;  Ibn-Kutaiba,  "  Kitab-alma'arif ," 
p.  206. 

p.  193,  1.  3.     In  a  different  form  this  verse  is  quoted  by  Ibn-Kutaiba, 

"  Ma'arif,"  p.  206. 


ANNOTATIONS.  421 

p.  193,  1.  6.  The  story  of  tlie  idol  that  was  eaten  by  its  worshippers 
is  told  by  many  Arab  authors.     Cf.  "  Muhit-almuhit,"  s.v.  ^. 

p.  193,  1.  16.  On  Bahafirid,  cf.  Shahristani,  ed.  Cureton,  p.  187 ; 
"  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  344. 

The  village  or  town  of  Sirawand  is  also  mentioned  by  Yakut,  s.v.  <-i\^ 
ii.  p.  486. 

p.  194, 1.  12.  I  do  not  know  an  'Abdallah  b.  Shu'ba  in  the  early  history 
of  the  Abbasides.  In  the  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  344,  1.  24,  one  of  the  two 
officers  who  were  sent  out  in  pursuit  of  Bahafirid,  is  called  'Abdallah 
ben  Sa'id,  and  a  man  of  this  name  is  known  as  provincial  governor  of 
the  Khalifs  Harun  and  'Amin,  vide  Ibn-al'athir,  vi.  pp.  156,  214. 

p.  194,  1.  22.  Ibn-al'athir,  vi.  pp.  25,  35,  relates  the  coming  forward 
of  Almukanna'  under  a.h.  159,  and  his  death  under  a.h,  161. 

p.  194, 1.  45.  The  history  of  Alhallaj  is  told  by  Ibn-al'athir,  viii.  pp. 
57,  92. 

J).  195, 1.  33.  On  the  literature  of  the  Kutuh-almaldhim,  cf.  M.  Stein- 
schneider,  Apokalypsen  mit  polemischer  Tendenz  ("  Zeitschrift  der 
Deutschen  Morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft,"  xxviii.  p.  627  ff.). 

p.  195, 1.  37.  On  Almukhtar,  who  was  killed  a.h.  67,  cf.  Ibn-Kutaiba, 
"  Ma'arif,"  p.  204,  and  Ibn-al'athir,  iv.  p.  220. 

p.  195,  1.  42.  Eadwa  is  a  mountain  in  Alhijaz,  between  Yanbu'  and 
Medina,  also  mentioned  by  Yakut  (ii.  p.  790,  1.  20)  as  the  residence  of 
Almahdi.     Cf.  also  Alkazwlm,  "  Kosmographie,"  ii.  p.  160. 

p.  196,  1.  1.  On  the  island  of  Barta'il,  cf .  Alkazwini,  "Kosmographie," 
i.  p.  53. 

p.  196,  1.  13.  On  the  history  of  the  Karmatians,  cf.  De  Goeje,  '*  Me- 
moire  sur  les  Carmathes  du  Bahrain,"  Leyde,  1862. 

p.  196,  1.  21.  Tamam  is  mentioned  by  Yakut,  iii.  p.  547,  as  a  town  near 
Hadramaut. 

p.  196,  1.  44.  Abu-'Abdallah  Al'adi  is  not  known  to  me  from  other 
sources.  An  Abu-'Abdallah  Aldd'i  (^^jUJ\  a  mistake  for  ^\j^\  ?)  is 
known  in  history  as  a  chief  of  the  Shi'a  iu  Dailam,  vide  Ibn-al'athir, 
viii.  p.  424,  at  a.h.  355,  and  viii.  p.  443. 

p.  197,  1.  39.  The  Sura  called  Alzumar  is  Sura  39.  These  verses  were 
also  translated  by  de  Goeje,  "  Memoire  sur  les  Carmathes,"  p.  51. 


422  ALBIEUNt. 

p.  198, 1.  1.  Read  j^\^\  Al'azakir  instead  of  ^^^\  Algliurakir,  and 
froTii  Shalmaghdn  (jUJi&i  (^  instead  of  b.  Shalmakdn  (jUiJ^  (^  (text, 
p.  214,  1.  9).  Cf.  Yakut,  iii.  p.  314,  and  Ibn-al'athir,  viii.  p.  216.  Shal- 
maghan  was  the  name  of  a  district  belonging  to  Wasit. 

p.  199, 1.  1.  An  extract  from  the  author's  chapter  on  the  festivals  of 
the  Persians  is  given  by  Alkazwini,  "  Kosmographie,"  ii.  pp.  79-84 ;  see 
also  Alfarghani,  "  Elementa  astronomise,"  notae,  pp.  20-42. 

p.  199, 1.  20.  I  am  unable  to  tell  what  the  author  means  by  the  sphere 
of  Feroz  (not  Feroza)  and  by  the  sphere  of  Afranjawi  (or  Ifranjawi)  on 
p.  208,  1.  15. 

p.  199, 1.  28.  Said  b.  Alfadl.  (vide  also  p.  208, 1.  27)  is  not  known  to 
me  from  other  sources. 

Yakut,  ii.  p.  584,  mentions  a  place,  Dummd,  below  Baghdad.  Per- 
haps it  would  be  preferable  to  read  "  On  the  mountain  of  Dumma,"  etc. 

p.  200, 1.  3.  Kalwadha,  a  place  not  far  south  from  Baghdad.  Yakut, 
iv.  301. 

The  year  in  which  'Adud-aldaula  entered  Baghdad  was  a.h.  364. 
On  Abu-alfaraj  Alzanjani,  cf.  note  at  p.  54,  1.  1. 

p.  201,  1.  4  ff.  If  popular  use  may  more  easily  determine  the  sol- 
stices than  the  equinoxes,  it  is  just  the  reverse  for  their  scientific  deter- 
mination, as  the  author  himself  observes  on  p.  167,  1.  2.  Cf.  Sachau 
and  Holetschek,  "  Berechnung  der  Entfernung  des  Sonnenapogaeums 
von  dem  Priihlingspunkt,"  p.  25. 

p.  202,  1.  4.  BusTianj.  It  would  be  better  to  translate  "  on  the  moun- 
tain of  Bushanj,"  as  Bushanj  is  a  village  in  the  district  of  Herat,  not  far 
from  the  road  to  Mshapur,  vide  Yakut,  i.  p.  758. 

p.  203,  1.  32.  With  this  innovation  of  Shapur  the  Hero,  cf.  p.  209, 
1.87. 

p.  204,  1.  8.  Afdhtar.  Apakhtara  means  in  the  Avesta  north,  not 
south, 

p.  204,  1.  51.  Manifest  in  the  Avastd  (vide  also  p.  205, 1.  24)  is  the 
common  mode  of  quotation  in  Parsee  books,  vide  "Bundihish,"  ed.  Justi, 
Glossary,  s.v.  ^U*j.. 

p.  204,  1.  52.  On  the  Gahanbars,  cf.  F.  Spiegel,  "  Avesta,"  ii.  p.  c. 
and  p.  4,  note  1  ;  on  the  etymologies  of  their  names,  vide  A.  Bezzen- 


ANNOTATIONS.  423 

berger,  "  Einige  Avestische  Worter  und  Formen  in  Grottinger  Gelehrte 
Anzeigen,"  1878,  p.  251. 

p.  205,  1.  13.     Gashn-i-nilufar  means  the  feast  of  the  water-lily. 

p.  205,  1.  25.  Arish.  The  older  form  of  this  name  is  Arshan,  vide 
Noeldeke,  "  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft," 
xxxii,  p.  570. 

p.  206,  1.  28.  Sdwa  was  a  town  half-way  between  Rai  and  Hamadan, 
vide  Yakut,  iii.  p.  24.  A  town  of  the  name  of  Andish  or  Mandish  is  not 
known  to  me. 

p.  207,  1.  11.  Here  something  seems  to  be  missing,  viz.  that  Adhar- 
cashn  fell  on  Mihr-Roz,  i.e.  the  16th  of  the  month. 

p.  208,  1.  21.  Salman  Alfarisi,  originally  a  slave  of  Persian  descent, 
afterwards  one  of  Muhammad's  companions.  He  died  in  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  'Uthman. 

p.  208,  1.  25.  Alerdnshahri  (also  p.  211,  1.  19)  is  not  known  to  me 
from  other  sources. 

I).  208,  1.  28.     Shdhm.     A  mountain  of  this  name  is  not  known  to  me. 

p.  208,  1.  32.     Alkisrawi,  vide  note  at  p.  122, 1.  14. 

p.  208,  1.  33.  Hamin.  This  place  seems  to  be  something  like  the 
Hamestagdn,  an  intermediate  place  between  heaven  and  hell,  vide  West, 
"  Mainyo-i-Khard,"  Glossary,  p.  97. 

p.  209,  1.  20.  Kustik  means  girdle,  still  an  essential  part  in  the 
costume  of  a  Zoroastrian. 

p.  210,  1.  15.  Alnasir  Al'utrush  was  a  descendant  of  Ali,  who  ruled 
for  some  years  in  Dailam  and  Tabaristan,  and  was  killed  a.h.  304.  As 
a  missionary  he  had  endeavoured  to  spread  Islam  among  the  Zoroastrian 
people  of  these  countries.  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Khalifen,"  ii.  pp. 
613-615. 

In  the  text,  p.  224,  1.  9,  read^U\  Alnasir  instead  of  ^UJ\  Alndzir. 

p.  210,  1.  18.  For  a  description  of  the  feast  of  Farwardagan,  vide 
F.  Spiegel,  "  Avesta,"  ii.,  "  Einleitung,"  p.  ci. 

p.  211,  1.  3-8.  The  lines  between  bi-ackets  have  been  taken  from  the 
Canon  Masudicus  of  Alberuni,  MS.  Elliot  (British  Museum),  fol.  50a. 

p.  211,  1.  15.     Tahir  b.  TTihir,  unknown  to  me. 


424  ALBIRUNI. 

p.  212, 1.  28.  The  name  of  the  feast  of  the  15th  Aban  is  also  in  the 
Canon  Masudicus  (ff.  49a,  50a)  written  ^V^--^. 

p.  212,  1.  33.  The  second  name  of  this  feast  is  written  in  the  Canon 
Masudicus  (ff.  49a,  50a)  J^^^  which  is  certainly  more  correct  than  J^^. 

p.  213,  11.  11-13.  On  these  festivals,  cf.  Canon  Masudicus,  fol.  50a,  11. 
18-22  :  "  On  the  day  of  Bahmanja  they  cook  in  caldrons  all  sorts  of 
plants,  kernels,  blossoms,  and  all  sorts  of  eatable  meat.  They  drink  the 
white  Bahman-root,  mixed  with  the  purest  white  milk,  maintaining  that 
this  helps  to  preserve  the  body  and  to  defend  it  against  evil. 

"  Barsadhak  means  above  sadhak,  because  it  precedes  Sadhak  by  five 
days.     It  is  also  called  Nausadha,  i.e.  the  new  Sadhak. 

"  Sadhak.  They  say  that  on  this  day  the  creation  of  a  hundred  souls  of 
the  family  of  Mesha  and  Meshana  had  become  perfect,  and  that  there- 
fore the  day  was  called  SaddaJc,  i.e.  Hundred-day.  According  to  others 
there  is  an  interval  of  100  days  between  this  day  and  Nauroz,  if  you 
count  days  and  nights  separately,  and  therefore  the  day  was  called 
Hundred-day  in  the  same  way  as  M"uwad-E6z  "  (vide  p.  212,  1.  12). 

p.  213,  1.  24.  Karaj,  a  town  midway  between  Hamadan  and  Ispahan, 
also  a  village  near  Eai,  and  another  between  Hamadan  and  Nahawand. 
Yakut,  iv.  p.  251. 

p.  214,  1.  28.  Abu-'Uthman  Aljahiz  is  the  well-known  zoologist, 
author  of  a  Liher  animalium,  Kitdb-alhayawdn,  who  died  at  Basra  a.h. 
255. 

p.  214,  1.  28.  'Ukbara,  a  village  in  the  district  of  Dujail,  near  Sarifin 
and  'Awana.     Yakut,  iii.  p.  705. 

p.  214,  1.  33.  Aljaihani,  a  famous  polyhistor,  vezir  to  the  dynasty  of 
the  Samanides,  beginning  of  the  4th  century  of  the  Flight,  vide  Reinaud, 
"  Geographie  d'Aboulfeda,"  i.  p.  Ixiii. 

p.  215,  1.  15.  Adharkhura  is  not  mentioned  by  Yakut,  nor  does  he 
know  anything  about  Kam-Feroz  (1.  39).  Dara  (1.  38)  is  not  known  as 
a  place  in  Persis  ;  perhaps  Darabjird  was  meant. 

p.  216, 1.  22.  In  the  text,  p.  229,  1.  16,  read  jj  instead  of  ^j  as  in  the 
manuscripts. 

p.  216,  1.  31.  Dinar-Razi,  The  spelling  of  this  name  is  not  quite 
certain.  It  is  mentioned  by  Ibn-Haukal,  ed.  de  Goeje,  p.  275, 1.  pen. 
It  is  a  place  on  the  road  from  Jurjan  to  Khurasan. 

p.  216,  1.  40.  Zanjan,  a  town  in  Media  towards  Adharbaijan,  not  far 
from  Kazwin.     Yakut,  ii.  p.  948. 


ANNOTATIONS.  425 

p.  217, 1.  25.  On  the  Feast  of  Kardfanndhhusra,  and  the  city  of  this 
name,  cf.  Yakut,  iv.  p.  258. 

p.  221, 1.  6.  Ramush  is  mentioned  by  Yakut,  ii.  737,  as  a  village  in 
the  district  of  Bukhara. 

p.  221,  I.  21.  The  festivals  called  Makhiraj  fell,  according  to  the 
author's  "  Kitab-altafhim  "  (MS.  of  the  Eoyal  Library  in  Berlin,  Peterm. 
67,  fol,  62b.),  always  on  the  13th. 

p.  221,  1.  22.  Instead  of  ^U\  ^  the  "  Kitab-altafhim  "  has  f,\t\  g^ 
i.e.  the  Agham  or  feast  of  Baikand,  cf.  Eamush-Agham,  1.  15. 

p.  221,  1.  32.  Al-tawawis,  a  town  in  the  district  of  Bukhara,  between 
this  place  and  Samarkand,  vide  Yakut,  iii.  555.  e,s^»4^  is  not  known 
to  me. 

p.  222, 1.  5.  Shargh  ("Kitab-altafhim,"  fol.  62b),  called  tj^  by  Ibn- 
Haukal,  p.  360, 11.  5,  6,  was  a  large  village  near  Bukhara,  vide  Yakut,  iii. 
p.  276. 

p.  224,  1.  4.  According  to  the  "Kitab-altafhim"  (fol.  63a)  the 
festival  Ajghar  fell  on  the  16th  of  Ciri. 

p.  224,  1.  12.  Faghruhah  is  baga=:  God,  and  some  derivative  from  the 
root  srp  ((^j). 

p.  224,  1.  18.  Eead  Azdd  instead  of  Azdd,  and  cf.  Azmti=fat  in  the 
Avesta. 

p.  224, 1.  22.     Instead  of  Ciri-Eoj  the  "  Kitab-altafhim  "  has  Cir-roz 

p.  224,  1.  28.  Instead  of  ATcMh  s-<i5.  one  may  think  of  reading 
Tkhshah  y-.-^-^\=.>.r^  the  night  (as  <_5j^y^\=j^^). 

p.  225,  1.  14.  Yahya  GTrammaticus,  a  Jacobite  bishop  in  Egypt  who 
translated  from  the  Greek  and  wrote  philosophical  and  polemical  books, 
lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  7th  century  of  our  era. 

p.  225,  1.  22.  Khezh  I  hold  to  be  a  derivative  from  the  same  root 
whence   (,^y^^\c^  has  sprung  (cf .  ^*:£>U~ij  and  uzqaezanuJia  in  the  Avesta). 

p.  225,  1.  30.     The  following  Chorasmian  names  of  the  Gahanbars  are 
dialect- varieties  of  the  names  of  the  Avesta  in  the  following  order : 
Paitis-hahya  (26-30  Shahrewar). 
Maidhyo-shema  (11-15  Tir). 

31 


426  ALBIEUNI. 

Maidhydirya  (16-20  Bahman). 
Maidhyo-zaremaya  (11-15  Ardibahisht). 

Hamaqpathmaedaya,  which  is  omitted  in  this  place,  the  five  intercalary- 
days  at  the  end  of  Spendarmat. 
Aydthrema  (26-30  Mihr). 

p.  225,  1.  33.  What  the  author  means  by  ,^^\  I  do  not  know. 
^jS  means  young  camels,  and  j_3e;5  means  relating  to  gourds  (^j*). 

p.  226,  1.  10.  Whatever  the  true  Chorasmian  form  may  be,  Akhar, 
Akhkhar,  or  Akhtar,  it  is  certainly  identical  with  the  Persian  jA^-^  AMitar 
■=■  star. 

p.  226,  1.  14.  The  author's  criticisms  on  the  constellations  of  the 
single  zodiacal  signs  as  represented  by  Arabians  and  Chorasmians, 
may  be  compared  with  the  book  of  L.  Ideler,  "  Untersuchungen  iiber 
den  Ursprung  imd  die  Bedeutung  der  Sternnamen,"  Berlin,  1809. 

p.  226,  1.  21.  AdJiu^pacharik  is  a  Bahuvrihi  compound  of  two  words 
corresponding  to  the  Persian  du  jO=two,  and  ^aifcarj^,= figure. 

p.  226, 1.  37.  Abu-Muhammad  'Abdallah  b.  Muslim  b.  Kutaiba  Aldi- 
nawari  is  in  Europe  known  as  Ibn-Kutaiba.  He  was  a  native  of  Kufa, 
and  lived  as  judge  in  Dinawar.     He  died  a.h.  270. 

According  to  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  77,  his  books  were  highly  esteemed, 
especially  in  Aljabal,  i.e.  Media,  and  to  his  Jabali  or  Median  character 
Alberuni  seems  to  have  certain  objections  (p.  227,  1.  16).  That  one  of 
his  books  which  our  author  quotes  is  perhaps  identical  with  that 
mentioned  by  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  78,  1.  3  {f^\i  ^f^^  i:^.  h)^\  v>^). 

p.' 227,  1.  23.  In  Suraix.  v.  98,  Muhammad  blames  the  ^A^rdh,  i.e.  the 
Arab  Bedouins,  in  the  strongest  terms  :  "  The  'A'rab  are  the  worst 
infidels  and  hypocrites,  they  do  not  deserve  to  learn  the  laws  which 
God  reveals  unto  His  prophet,  but  God  is  all-knowing,  all-wise,"  etc. 

p.  227, 1.  32.  Three  of  the  Sogdian  names  resemble  the  corresponding 
Sanskrit  names : 

Proshtha;padd=*^\i  <s,^ji  (No.  24). 
Bevati=  -iify  (No.  26). 

MagM=  ^  (No.  8.) 

Of.  E.  Burgess,  Surya-Siddhanta  (•"  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental 
Society,"  vol.  vi.  p.  327  ff.),  and  A.  Weber,  "  Jenaer  Literatur-Zeitung," 
1877  (7  April),  p.  211. 


ANNOTATIONS.  427 

The  name  (^^-x-.  in  No.  7  is  tlie  catavaeea  of  the  Avesta ;  the 
name  •>-i>^  in  No.  20,  cf .  with  the  vanant  of  the  Avesta. 

p.  229,  1.  3.  Ahmad  was  the  last  prince  but  one  of  the  ancient 
house  of  the  Shahs  of  Khwarizm,  who  undertook  a  reform  of  the 
calendar  A,  Alex  1270=a.d.  959,  i.e.  13  years  before  the  author  was 
born.  Cf.  Sachau,  Zur  Geschichte  und  Chronologie  von  Khwarizm  I. 
("  Sitzungsberichte  der  Wiener  Akademie,"  phil.  hist.  Classe,  1873, 
p.  503).  A  short  report  of  this  reform  is  also  found  in  the  "Kitab- 
altafhim,"  fol.  63. 

p.  229, 1.  13.  Alkharaji  and  Alhamdaki  are  not  known  to  me  from 
other  sources. 

p.  230, 1.  8.  According  to  the  "  Kitjib-altafhim  "  the  1st  Nausarji  was 
fixed  so  as  to  fall  on  the  2nd  Nisan  ((^^-~-^  (^  ,J^\  f>y^\  ^^). 

p.  230,  1.  26.  According  to  p.  258,  1.  18,  the  Nile  begins  to  rise  on 
the  16th  Haziran,  i.e.  the  16th  Payni. 

p.  233,  1.  5.  Simin  b.  Thabit  died  at  Baghdad  A. h.  331,  and  his  father, 
Thabit  b,  Kurra,  a.h.  288.  They  were  both  famous  as  philosophers, 
mathematicians,  and  physicians,  both  Harranians,  the  last  representa- 
tives of  ancient  Greek  learning,  through  whom  Greek  sciences  were 
communicated  to  the  illiterate  Arabs.  Cf.  "  Kita,b-alfihi*ist,"  pp.  302, 
272. 

Sinan  had  made  a  collection  of  meteorological  observations,  called 
Kitdh-aV anwd,  compiled  from  ancient  sources,  and  enriched  by  the 
observations  of  his  father  and  his  own.  The  work  of  Sinan  has  been 
incorporated  by  Alberuni  into  his  chronology,  and  thereby  he  has  pre- 
served to  us  the  most  complete  Parapeyma  of  the  ancient  Greek  world. 

With  the  works  of  Sinan  other  works  of  a  similar  character  may  be 
compared : 

Geminus,  'Eio-aywy^  eis  to.  (f>aLv6fieva,  the  16th  chapter,  edited  by  Halma 
in  "  Chronologie  de  Ptolemee,"  Paris,  1819,  pp.  79-87.    (Cf.  Boeckh, 
"Ueber  die  vierjahrigen  Sonnenkreise,"  p.  22  ff.) 
Ptolemceus,  (ftda-u^  a-rrXavSiV  dcrrepoov  koI  avvayoryrj   e7rt(j7//xacrtwv  edited  by 

Halma,  "  Chronologie  de  Ptolemee." 
Johannes  Lydus  ("Corpus   scriptorum   Historise   Byzantinae,"   Bonn, 
1837),  De  mensihus,  cap.  iv.,  and  De  ostentis,  in  the  same  volume, 
pp.  357-382. 
For  calendaria  of  more  recent  times,  vide 

J.  Selden,  "  De  synedriis  et  prsefecturis  juridicis  veterum  Ebrseorum 
1734  (contains  three  calendaria). 


428  ALBlEUNi. 

Lobstein,  "  Nachrichten  und  Ausziige  aus  den  Handschriften  der  Kgl. 

Bibliothek  in  Paris,"  i.  pp.  415-424. 
Vide  Hamtner,  "  GeschicMe   der   Osmanischen    Dichtkunst,"   i.    pp. 

76-81. 
Fleischer,  "  Abulfedse  Historia  anteislamica,"  p.  163  ff. 
Kazwini,  "  Kosmographie,"  ii.  p.  76  fE.  (extract  from  Alberuni). 
A  calendarium  of  Spanish- Arabic  origin  bas  been  edited  by  R.  Dozy, 

"  Le  Calendrier  de  Cordoue,"  Leyde,  1873. 
Regarding  the  authorities  quoted  by  Sinan,  as  Euctemon,  Eudoxus, 
Philippus,    Metrodorus,    Dositheus,    Conon,    Csesar,    etc.,    I   refer    the 
reader  to  the  excellent  work  of    A.  Boeck,    "  Ueber   die    vierjahrigen 
Sonnenkriese  der  Alten,  vorziiglich  den  Eudoxischen,"  Berlin,  1868. 

p.  233,  1.  9.  By  Episemasia  iTTurqfxxLaia  I  have  translated  the  word 
Nau^  cy. 

According  to  Alberuni,  p.  339,  1. 4,  Nau*  means  the  rising  of  a  Lunar 
Station.  The  meteorological  influence  of  this  rising  is  called  Bdrih ;  the 
influence  of  the  sinking  of  a  Lunar  Station  is  called  Nau\  Alberuni 
uses  the  word  Nau^  in  either  of  these  two  meanings. 

Comparing  the  conflicting  opinions  of  the  Arab  philologists  on  this 
word  {vide  W.  Lane,  "  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlandischen 
Gesellschaft,"  iii.  p.  97  ff.).  I  am  led  to  believe  that  Nau^  is  an  ancient 
Arabic  word,  probably  much  used  in  ante-Muhammadan  times,  the 
meaning  of  which  was  no  longer  fully  and  distinctly  understood  by 
the  Muslim  Arabs.  Afterwards  when  the  Greek  calendars  were  to  be 
translated  into  Arabic,  the  word  Nau'  was  used  to  render  the  Greek 
iTna-rjixaivH,  as  the  comparison  of  Sinan' s  compilation  with  Geminus,  Pto- 
lemy, and  Johannes  Lydus  shows.  The  single  days  of  these  calendars 
do  not  correspond  with  each  other,  but  the  technical  terms  are  every- 
where the  same. 

p.  234,  1.  40.     Ibn-Khurdadhbih,  vide  note  at  p.  50,  1.  26. 

p.  235,  1.  19.  Ispahbadhan,  a  town  in  Tabaristan,  two  miles  distant 
from  the  Caspian  Sea.  Further  inland  in  the  mountains  the  castle 
Tdk,  with  caves  and  wells  in  the  neighbourhood.  Cf.  Yakut,  iii.  pp. 
490,  491 ;  Kazwini,  ii.  p.  270, 1.  10  ab  inf. 

p.  238,  1.  24.  *Ali  b.  Aljahm  was  a  famous  poet  at  the  time  of 
the  Khalif  Almutawakkil,  who  died  a.h.  249.  As  he  had  made 
satirical  verses  on  the  Khalif,  he  fled,  and  was  hunted  about.  At 
last,  after  having  been  wounded  in  a  fight  with  his  pursuers,  in  the 
agonies  of  expiring  he  is  said  to  have  recited  this  verse.  Cf.  Ibn- 
Khallikfm,  ed   Wiisteufeld,  No.  473. 


ANNOTATIONS.  429 

p.  238,  1.  39.     Yahya  b.  'Ali  is  not  known  to  me  from  other  sources. 

p.  243,  1.  31.  Abu-Bakr  Husain  Altammar,  a  contemporary  of  Eazi, 
who  died  a.h.  320,  is  also  mentioned  by  Wiistenfeld,  "  Geschichte  der 
Arabischen  Aerzte  und  Naturforscher,"  p.  46,  1.  3. 

p.  245,  1.  29.  'Abdallah  b.  'Ali,  a  mathematician  of  Bukhara,  is  not 
known  to  me. 

p.  247,  1.  2.  On  the  fire  as  a  spherical  body  within  the  lunar  sphere, 
cf .  also  Kazwini,  "  Kosmographie,"  ii.  p.  90 ;  translated  by  Dr.  Ethe, 
p.  185. 

p.  247,  1.  37.  On  the  correspondence  of  Alberuni  with  Ibn-Sina,  cf. 
my  edition  of  the  text,  "  Einleitung,"  p.  xxxv. 

p.  248, 11.  17,  31,  34.  In  the  text,  p.  257,  11.  16,  23,  and  p.  258,  1.  2, 
read  WVj^\  instead  of  ^jj\  The  word  y<.^UjJj\  if  a  genuine  Greek 
word,  might  be  read  in  various  ways,  but  I  hold  it  to  be  a  mistake 
for  ^Jay^^^  Eudoxus. 

p.  250,  1.  15.  Muhammad  b.  Mityar  (also  p.  258,  1.  26)  is  not 
known  to  me  from  other  sources. 

p.  251,  1.  33.  Abu- Yahya  b.  Kunasa,  the  author  of  a  famous  Kitab- 
al'anwa,  was  born  at  Kufa  a.h.  123,  and  died  at  Bagdad  a.h.  207  ; 
vide  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  70. 

p.  252,  1.  6  fO.  The  following  discussion  on  the  circumstances  under 
which  water  rises,  is  of  a  technical  nature,  the  due  appreciation  of 
which  I  must  leave  to  physical  scholars. 

p.  255,  1.  23.  The  word  Dahj  does  not  occur  in  any  Arabic  dic- 
tionary. If  the  writing  is  correct,  it  is  probably  a  word  of  foreign 
origin. 

p.  255,  1.  34.  Kimak,  or  Kaimak,  a  province  of  the  Chinese  empire, 
inhabited  by  Turkish  nomades,  vide  Kazwini,  "  Kosmographie,"  ii. 
p.  395,  and  Ibn-Khurdadbih,  in  "Journal  Asiatique,"  1865,  pp.  267- 
268. 

p.  256, 1.  5.     Alkarya  Alhaditha  is  not  known  from  other  sources. 

p.  256,  1.  10.  Mihrjan  was  the  ancient  name  of  Isfara'in,  a  village 
between  Jurjan  and  Nishapur,  also  the  name  of  a  village  in  the  district 
of  Isfara'in  and  of  another  village  between  Ispahan  and  Tabs.  Cf. 
Ya^ut,  i.  p.  246 ;  iv.  p.  699. 


430  ALBtEX^NJ. 

p.  258,  1.  29.     Hayawaniyya-sect,  not  known  to  me. 

p.  261,  1.  39.  Abu-Nu'as,  the  famous  poet  at  the  time  of  the  Khalif 
Harun,  died  a.h.  199. 

p.  261,  1.  42.  'All  b.  'All  is  not  known  to  me  from  other 
sources. 

p.  262,  1.  37.  Naubahht.  If  the  text  is  correct,  and  we  must  not 
rather  read  Ibn-NaubaJcM,  this  man  may  have  been  the  father  of  Abu- 
Sahl  Alfadl  b.  Naubakht,  librarian  to  the  Khalif  Harun,  and  a  great 
astrologer.     Cf.  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  274. 

p.  263, 1.  21.  Salamiyya,  a  village  in  the  district  of  Hims,  Yakut,  iii. 
p.  123, 1.  18  ;  p.  124, 1.  1. 

p.  266,  1.  40.  TJiu'dliha.  This  reading  may  seem  doubtful,  as  no 
place  of  this  name  is  mentioned  anywhere.  The  nearest  approach  is 
Thu^dlibdt,  in  Yakut,  i.  p.  925. 

p.  268,  1.  1.     As  useful  material  for   the   explication  of   the  festal 
calendar  of  the  Jews  the  following  works  have  been  used : 
Canon  Masudicus,  MS.  Elliot  (British  Museum,  fE.  37b-38a). 
Abulfedce,  "  Historia  anteislamica,"  ed.  Fleischer,  p.  156  f£. 
Bartolocci,  "  Bibliotheca  Eabbinica,"  ii.  553  ff. 

A.  G.  Waehner,  "  Antiquitates  Ebraeorum,"  Gottingen,  1742,  sect.  v. 
T.  C.  G.  Bodenschatz,  "  Kirchliche  Verfassung  der  heutigen,  sonderlich 

der  teutschen  Juden,"  Erlangen,  1748,  vol.  ii.  pp.  87,  106. 
M.  Bruck,  "Eabbinische  Caeremonialgebrauche,"  Breslau,  1837. 
n^'ii^n  n7^^  ed.  Jo.  Mayer,  Amstelodami,  1724  (cap.  xii.). 
n^'i^n    n^D?:2  ^^  est  .•  "  Codex  Talmudicus  de  Jejunio,  ex  Hebrseo 

Sermone  in  Latinum  versus  commentariisque  illustratus  a  Daniele 

Lundio  Succo."     Trajecti  ad  Khenum,  1694. 

p.  268,  1.  20.  Eead  ^TH  instead  of  ''II^.  It  is  a  Hebrew  form  J-*i 
vaeaxiin.^  protrusuSji.Q.  advanced  ox  postponed;  feminine:  H'^n'^. 

p.  269,  1.  1.  For  the  fasting  of  Gedalya,  cf.  2  Kings  xxv.  25,  and 
Jerem.  xli.  2. 

p.  269, 1.  20.  The  following  story  in  a  Hebrew  garb  is  found  in  J.  Zed- 
ner's  "  Auswahl  historischer  Stiicke  aus  hebraeischen  Schriftstellern," 
Berlin,  1840,  pp.  6-11,  as  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  Prof.  H.  Strack. 

p.  269, 1.  27.  Read  "  quietly  "  instead  of  '^ following  the  course  of  the 
river." 


ANNOTATIONS.  431 

p.  270,  1.  29.  You  shall  celebrate  a  feast,  etc.  The  words  U^  ^.>^« 
(text,  p.  277,  1.  11),  can  only  be  explained  as  a  too  literal  translation  of 

:in  '^ni^^  Dninm  in  Levit.  xxiii.  41. 

p.  270,  1.  33.  Abu-'Isa  Alwarrak  (also  p.  278,  1.  22)  is  mentioned  in 
"  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  338,  as  one  of  those  who  in  public  professed  Islam, 
but  in  reality  were  heretics. 

p.  270,  1.  39.  On  the  same  day  (i.e.  the  21st)  is  the  Feast  of  Congrega- 
tion. This  is  a  mistake.  Congregation,  or  Jl'^^i^  falls  on  the  22nd 
Tishri,  i.e.  the  following  day.  Cation  Masudicus  gives  the  following 
series : 

21st  Tishri=ni"l^ 

22nd     „     =r\"l2J^ 

23rd     „     =«a«^\  A^ 
Cf.  Bodenschatz,  ii.  p.  235. 

The  word  Hdrhdra  (1.  40)  I  cannot  explain.  The  court  of  the  temple 
is  called  rT^tii^n  a-nd  the  place  where  the  willows  are  gathered  is  called 

i^JJID  (Mishna)  or  t^^i^J^D  (Talmud  Palaestinensis). 
Canon  Masudicus  (fol.  38a)  says  : 

i.e.  "  The  feast  of  Arabha  consists  of  a  procession  round  the  altar."    The 
(^>,jj\  of  the  text  is  the  Hebrew  1'i*^^. 

p.  270,  1.  43.  The  feast  of  benediction  is  called  H^iil  JirTOU??  ^ifZe 
Waehner,  v.  p.  Ill,  and  Bodenschatz,  ii.  p.  245. 

p.  271,  1.  14.  Between  the  8th  and  Idth  of  this  month.  As  possibly 
between  the  8th  and  13th  there  is  no  Monday  at  all,  it  may  happen  that 
this  fast-day  does  not  occur  in  some  year  (if  the  rule  is  correct). 

p.  271, 1.  21.  This  fast-day  falls  according  to  Megillath-Ta'anith  on 
the  7th  Kislew,  according  to  Waehner  and  Bodenschatz  on  the  28th 
Kislew.     Cf.  on  the  origin  of  this  fasting,  Jerem.  xxxvi.  27-32. 

p.  271,  1.  35.  The  following  story  occurs  also  in  Abulfedae,  "Hist, 
anteislamica,"  pp.  160-162.  Instead  of  the  ^_^yuLiui.\  of  the  manu- 
scripts, Canon  Masudictis  (fol.  38a)  has  (j-^Ua>\  i.e.  Antiochus,  and  so 
I  have  translated. 

In  the  text  (p.  278,  1.  11)  the  words  &^\^\  ^  y^  ^^\  J\  are  a  rather 
short   and   incorrect   expression   for  i^\  ^  ijJU*  g^\  jjkc  ^yi  (^\  ^J\ 


432  ALBtR^Ni. 

p.  272,  1.  17.  Ptolemy  is  liere  called  Talma,  as  if  the  initial  _p  were 
the  Coptic  article.  In  the  Megillath-Ta'anith,  which  fixes  this  fast-day 
on  the  8th  Tebeth,  he  is  called  Tf^DH   xhn  (cap.  12). 

p.  272, 1.  30.  According  to  Megillath-Ta'anith,  cap,  12,  this  fast-day 
falls  on  the  8th  Shnbat. 

p.  273, 1.  17.  In  the  text,  p.  279,  1.  20,  there  is  a  lacuna,  which  I 
have  filled  up  with  the  help  of  Canon  Masudicus,  fol.  37b.  and 
Waehner,  v.  p.  112. 

p.  275,  1.  8.    In  the  "  Kitab-altaf him  "  (Cod.  Berolin.  fol.  58b),  the 
author  says :  (j**^W  f*^^  \^  '^j^h  5  ^^^  ^^  ^^®  Canon  Masudicus  (fol.  38v) 
he   says :    j_3»^^V>  J.^\  yfcjj  ij^\  (•^\  \^  (_5*--^j.     In   the   same  work, . 
fol.  37v,  the  feast  is  called  (j^\  •^i^.     Accordingly  the  reading  (j-i" seems 
to  be  preferable  to  that  of  (j**S^. 

This  word  Kas  seems  in  some  way  to  be  connected  with  the  Syriac 
]£D2  which  means  middle  of  the  month,  indicating  the  15th,  on  which 
this  feast  falls. 

p.  275, 1.  12.  Thirty  men,  a  mistake  for  thirty  thousand.  The  Canon 
Masudicus  (f.  38b)  has  correctly  Je-j  <-^\  (jy^^'.     Cf.  1  Sam.  iv.  10. 

p.  275,  1.  15.  Canon  Masudicus  (f.  37b)  mentions  a  feast  also  for 
the  15th  lyar : 

"  The  feast  of  the  Small  Passover,  also  the  day  of  fast  in  commemo- 
ration of  the  death  of  Samuel." 

p.  275,  1.  19.  The  plural  e^*:^  (text,  p.  281, 1.  16)  seems  to  be  a  form 
coined  by  Alberuni  from  a  singular  g=-  i.e.  the  Hebrew  ^H?  for  the  pure 
Arabic  word  gf>  has  the  plural  g^!=- 

In  the  Canon  Masudicus  the  author  gives  two  days  to  the  Feast  of 
Congregation,  the  second  of  which  is  called  ij^  W^\  |*^  i.e.  Fasting  of 
the  First-fruit. 

p.  275,  1.  26.  With  this  biblical  quotation,  cf.  Exod,  xxiii.  14-17; 
Exod.  xxxiv.  22,  23 ;  Deut.  xvi.  16. 

The  reading  of  the  MS.  (text,  p.  281, 1.  20),  ^V«s=-  is  unintelligible 
to  me.  My  conjecture  ,.»^Us=^  must  be  exj)lained  as  the  infinitive  of 
a  verb  ^  a  denominative  formation  from  gc.=;in. 


ANNOTATIONS.  433 

p.  276,  1.  12.  The  Megillath-Ta'anitli,  cap.  xii.,  has  the  following 
note  on  this  fast-day  : 

p.  276,  1.  18.  There  are  two  unlucky  days  in  the  Jewish  calendar, 
the  17th  Tammuz  and  the  9th  Abh.  A  short  review  of  the  disasters 
that  have  happened  on  these  two  days  is  given  in  the  Massehheth- 
Ta'anith,  p.  55. 

The  text  (p.  282, 1.  11)  is  not  quite  correct  in  the  manuscripts.  With 
the  text  as  given  by  me,  cf.  Canon  Masudicus  (ff.  37b  38b)  : 

p.  276,  1.  37.  With  the  story  of  the  lamp,  cf.  2  Chron.  xxix.  7, 
and  Megillath-Ta'anUh,  cap.  xii.  pp.  113,  122. 

The  name  of  the  prophet  as  given  in  the  manuscript,  (^yi\  etc.,  seems  to 
be  corrupt.  There  was  at  that  time  a  prophet  '6ded  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  9), 
and  Isaia  (Isaia  vii.  and  viii.),  but  no  prophet  of  such  a  name. 

In  the  Canon  Masudicus  (f .  39a),  the  author  relates  that  it  was  the 
king  Ahaz  ^va^U  jW^  who  extinguished  the  lamp.  Therefore  I  have 
changed  (yy^\  into  jj=A  and  "  Ahaz  the  prophet "  seems  to  be  a  mistake 
for  "  Ahaz  the  Jcing." 

p.  277,  1.  4.  There  is  no  lacuna  as  I  have  indicated  in  the  text, 
p.  283,  1.  3. 

This  fast-day  is  fixed  by  some  on  the  7th  Elul,  by  others  on  the  17th 
(vide  Bodenschatz,  Waehner,  and  Megillath-Ta'anith).  If,  therefore,  the 
author  says  that  some  people  place  this  fast-day  within  the  last  week  of 
the  month,  I  know  nothing  by  which  to  test  this  assertion. 

In  later  times  there  was  a  fast-day  on  the  last  of  Elul  as  an  atonement 
for  the  sins  of  the  past  year,  but  this  is  an  institute  of  modern  times.  Cf . 
Bodenschatz,  p.  88,  §  2,  1.  1. 

Also  in  the  Canon  Masudicus  the  Fasting  of  the  Spies  (on  the  7th  Elul) 
is  the  last  of  the  feast-  and  fast- days  of  the  Jewish  year.  Therefore  the 
words  (text,  p.  283, 1.  3)  "  LiicJce,"  etc.  are  to  be  cancelled. 

p.  277,  1.  10.  To  this  table  of  Dehiyyoth  may  be  added  that  'Arabha 
can  never  be  'j  i.e.  Saturday. 

The  reason  why  the  feast-day  cannot  fall  on  certain  days  of  the  week 
is  this,  that  they  wanted  to  prevent  two  non-working  days  from  imme- 
diately following  each  other,  as  this  might  interfere  with  the  practical 
welfare  of  the  people.  Besides,  certain  feasts  cannot  fall  on  a  Sabbath, 
because  they  require  a  certain  amount  of  work  (e.g.  the  burning  of 
Haman,  etc.). 

32 


434  ALBfEUNI. 

p.  277,  1.  29.  The  words  hjS^\  /J  (text,  p.  283, 1. 11)  are  the  rendering 
of  the  bible-words  tlJ"Tn"fc^"^pp  n:^^lJn  Ji'^^t-  Cf.  P.  de  Lagarde, 
"  Materialien  zur  Kritik  und  Geschichte  des  Pentateuchs,"  ii.  p.  134. 
The  Peshitta  has  translated  thus  :  |00U  |>  \tl9  \Kt'f^^  (*t;*0  ,*i^ 
♦35   .QO^  loCTU  I—AjjOO  ]—^'rO  1Aa*^>   ]__JpO>0  ]     »»iJ   ,0      n^ 


p.  280.  In  the  text,  pp.  286,  287,  I  read  the  c  in  the  fourth  columns, 
as  JW^  i.e.  impossible. 

It  stands  always  with  \  which  the  MSS.  write  with  black  ink.  It 
ought,  however,  to  have  been  written  with  red  ink,  since  a  year  beginning 
with  \  is  impossible.  Therefore,  in  order  to  indicate  what  elsewhere  is 
indicated  by  the  red  ink,  the  letter  c=  JW<«  has  been  added. 

Impossible  means  that  a  year  beginning  on  such  a  day  is  a  calen- 
darian  impossibility. 

Necessary  means  that  in  a  year  beginning  on  such  a  day  there  is 
no  possibility  of  a  nTl*!?  i-&-  of  postponing  or  advancing. 

Possible  means  that  a  year  beginning  on  such  a  day  is  possible,  if  the 
year  be  pj  (Imperfect)  and  a  common  year,  whilst  it  is  impossible,  if  it 
be  p[  and  a  leap-year,  and  vice  versa. 

The  single  numbers  of  the  table  may  easily  be  checked  in  this  way  : 

1.  The  [intervals  between  New- Year's  Day  and  Kippur,  i.e.  the  10th 
Tishri  and  'Arabha,  i.e.  the  21st  Tishri,  are  the  same  in  every  kind  of 
year. 

2.  The  intervals  between  New- Year's  Day  and  the  other  three  festivals, 
Purim,  Pesah,  and  'Asereth,  are  different  in  different  years. 

In  a  common  year — 

Purim  is  in  n  ^^^  161st,  in  ^  the  162nd,  in  tlj  the  163rd  day  of  the 
year. 

Pesah,  in  j-f  the  191st,  in  ^  the  192nd,  in  ^  the  193rd  day. 

'Asereth,  in  |-j  the  241st,  in  ^  the  242nd,  in  tij  the  243rd  day. 

In  a  leap-year — 

Purim  is  in  H  the  191st,  in  ^  the  192nd,  in  ^  the  193rd  day  of  the 
year. 

Pesah,  in  j-j  the  221st,  in  ^  the  222nd,  in  ^  the  223rd  day. 

'Asereth,  in  ^  the  271st,  in  ^  the  272nd,  in  'Q^  the  273rd  day. 

These  sums  of  days  are  to  be  divided  by  seven,  and  the  remainders 
represent  the  distances  from  New- Year's  Day. 

To  this  table  the  author  has  referred  the  reader  already  on  p.  153, 
1 .  15.  It  shows  why  two  intermediate  years,  i.e.  ^  cannot  follow  each 
other,  in  this  way  : 

Of  the  seven  years  ^  only  those  two  are  possible  that  begin  with  III. 
andV. 

1.  If,  now,  after  a  common  year  J  beginning  with  III.,  another  year  3 


ANNOTATIONS.  435 

were  to  follow,  it  would  begin  with  a  VII.,  Saturday,  and  that  is  impos- 
sible, as  the  table  shows. 

If  after  a  leap-year  3  beginning  Jwith  III.,  another  year  ^  were  to 
follow,  it  wotdd  begin  with  II.,  which  is  again  impossible,  as  the  table 
shows. 

2.  If  after  a  year  ^  beginning  with  V.  another  year  ^  were  to  follow, 
it  would  begin  with  II.  in  a  common  year,  with  IV.  in  a  leap-year ;  and 
both  cases  are  impossible,  as  the  table  shows. 

p.  283,  1.  14.  For  the  emendation  of  the  names  of  saints  in  the 
following  chapter,  I  have  used  the  Menologium  Grcecorum,  jvissu  Basilii 
Imperatoris  olim  editum  Greece  et  Latine.  Studio  et  opera  Albani. 
Urbini,  1727. 

p.  283, 1.  35.  Eegarding  the  degrees  of  the  clergy  of  the  Oriental 
churches,  cf.  Assemani,  "  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,"  iii.  pp.  788-790  ;  also 
Ami  Boue,  "  La  Turquie  d'Europe,"  iii.  p.  421 ;  Maurer,  "  Das  Grie- 
chische  Volk,"  Heidelberg,  1835,  i.  pp.  389,  403,  410. 

p.  284,  1.  16.  Abu-alhusain  'Ahmad  b.  Alhusain  Al'ahwazi.  An 
author  of  this  name  is  mentioned  by  Haji  Khalifa,  iy.  p.  81. 

p.  284, 1.  20.  There  are  certain  Greek  names  which  I  have  not  been 
able  to  decipher,  Xpvax's  (1.  22),  aKo-iors  (1.  39),  and  some  others.  The 
answer  to  these  questions  I  must  leave  to  those  who  are  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  archaeology  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 

The  word  ^j**^;— iy^-  might  be  a  corruption  for  (j**{.a-^j!J>  ;^cop€7ricrK07ros,  but 
in  that  case  the  exj)lication  which  Abu-alhusain  gives  is  not  correct. 
According  to  the  explication,  one  would  expect  the  word  'A/);(6/xavS/)tTr/s. 

On  TrapaKOLjxwfxevos,  vide  Du  Cange,  "Lexicon  infimae  grsecitatis,"  where 
it  is  explained  as  apxL£wov)(os,  irpanroa-iTOs. 

A  word  poyaTOip  (p.  285,  1.  4),  I  do  not  know.  It  seems  to  be  a  deri- 
vation from  poya  present  and  stipend,  vide  Du  Cange  (rogator). 

On  the  fiayXa/^LTT]';,  cf .  Reiske,  commentary  to  "  Constantini  Porphyro- 
geniti,  De  cerimoniis  aulae,"  ii.  pp.  53-55. 

On  Tccrcrapa/covTaptos,  a  soldier  who  received  40  aurei  as  stipend,  etc.  vide 
Du  Cange. 

p.  285,  1.  23.  Muhammad  b.  Musa  b.  Shakir,  the  eldest  of  three 
brothers,  all  great  scholars  in  mathematical  and  technical  sciences /or 
whom  Greek  books  were  translated  into  Arabic.  Muhammad  died  a.h. 
269,  vide  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  271. 

p.  285,  1.  26.     'All  b.  Yahya,  cf.  note  at  p.  38, 1.  5. 


436  ALBtEUNi. 

p.  286,  1.  31.  The  reading  Cornutus  is  not  beyond  all  donbt.  A  saint 
of  this  name  is  mentioned  in  the  "  Menologium  G-rsecormn,"  at  12th 
Sept. 

p.  287, 1.  3.  Johannes  the  Father  seems  to  be  identical  with  Johannes 
Scholasticus,  who  died  a.d.  578,  as  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  He 
had  made  a  new  arrangement  of  the  canones  of  the  church.  Cf .  K.  Hase, 
"Kirchengeschichte"  (8th  edition),  p.  149. 

p.  287,  1.  14.  On  this  Modestus,  vide  Le  Quien,  "  Oriens  Christianus," 
iii.  102  ff.  p.  258.     He  was  Patriarch  after  a.d.  614. 

p.  287, 1.  15.  The  word  Sisin  is  perhaps  to  be  changed  into  Sis,  vide 
p.  289, 1.  40. 

p.  287,  1.  17.  The  epithet  j_5>UsjJ^\  seems  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  Syriac  Bible,  where  Joseph  is  called  « i  ^o\no  Luke  xxiii.  51. 

p.  287, 1.  19.  Alma'mun  b.  Ahmad  Alsulami  Alharawi  (also  p.  297, 
1.  25)  is  unknown  to  me. 

p.  287, 1.  39.     Abu-Euh  is  not  known  to  me  from  other  sources. 

p.  288, 1.  34.  Every  child  is  horn,  etc.  On  this  well-known  tradition, 
cf.  L.  Krehl,  "  TJeber  die  koranische  Lehre  von  der  Prsedestination," 
p.  99  (in  "Berichte  der  Kgl.  Sachsischen  Gresellschaft  der  Wissen- 
schaften,"  hist.-phil.  Classe,  1870,  the  1st  July). 

p.  289, 1.  39.  The  reading  Belesys  is  entirely  conjectural.  The  word 
might  also  be  read  Blasius  (vide  Calendar  of  Armenian  saints,  Asse- 
mani  "  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,"  iii.  1,  p.  645,  at  10th  Shubat),  but  Blasius 
Episcopus  was  killed  by  the  Eomans,  not  by  the  Persians. 

p.  292, 1.  12.  Juri-roses,  the  most  famous  of  the  east,  so  called  from 
Jur,  a  town  in  Persis,  vide  Yakut,  ii.  p.  147  ;  Kazwini,  "  Kosmographie," 
ii.  121. 

p.  293,  1.  10.  The  author  seems  to  mean  that  two  straight  lines, 
cutting  each  other  in  the  middle,  and  connected  at  the  bottom  by 
another  straight  line  give  the  Cufic  form  of  the  word  no,  i.e.  X>  ^s  it 
frequently  occurs  in  monumental  writing. 

p.  293,  1.  30.  On  the  wood  Pceonia,  cf.  Kazwini,  "Kosmographie," 
i.  p.  260. 


ANNOTATIONS.  437 

p.  295,  1.  15.  Dadhisliu',  author  of  a  commentary  on  the  Gospel, 
is  not  known  to  me  from  other  sources. 

p.  295,  1.  25.  A  Oyriacus  anachoreta  is  mentioned  in  the  "  Menolo- 
gium  G-raecorum,"  at  29th  Sept. 

p.  296,  1. 18.  Dometius  is  mentioned  in  the  "  Menologivim  Grsecorum," 
at  7th  Aug.,  and  Thuthael  (1.  26)  ih.  at  6th  Sept. 

p.  297,  1.  29.  With  his  tale  regarding  the  blood  of  John,  cf.  Ibn- 
al'athir,  i.  pp.  214-216,  also  iv.  p.  140. 

p.  297, 1.  36.  Cf.  with  this  Tabari,  traduit  par  Zotenberg,  i.  p.  569  ; 
Ibn-al'athir,  i.  pp.  208,  215. 

p.  298,  1.  13.  Church  of  the  Sweepings  &^U55\  &~-^  is  a  corruption  of 
i^\^\  L,^  Church  of  the  Resurrection,  invented  by  Muslim  malice.  Cf . 
Farghani,  "  Elementa  astronomies,"  ed.  Golius,  p.  138. 

p.  298,  1.  15.  Among  40  martyrs  who  were  killed  by  the  Persians, 
Maruthas  (Assemani  "  Bibl.  Orient."  i.  pp.  192,  193)  mentions  Paul, 
Sabinus  (not  Sabinianus)  and  |^.  Besides  Tatta  also  the  form  #0^4 
Tattun  occurs,  ib.  i.  p.  190,  col.  1. 

p.  299.  The  following  chapter  contains  the  computation  of  Easter, 
as  Alberuni  had  learned  it  from  the  Christians  of  his  time. 

The  Easter  which  he  means  is  the  iraa-xa  o-Taupcocrt/x,di/,  not  the  iraa^a 
dvacTTacri/Aov ;  cf .  Augusti,  "  Christliche  Archaeologie,"  ii.  p.  30. 

The  chief  elements  of  this  computation  are  the  following  : 

1.  Easter  depends  upon  the  Jewish  Passover,  i.e.  the  full  moon  of 
the  Jewish  month  Nisan. 

2.  Counting  1|  lunation,  i.e.  4i4i  d.  7  h.  10'  backward  from  the  full 
moon  of  Nisan,  you  find  the  new  moon  of  the  preceding  month. 

3.  The  Monday  nearest  to  this  new  moon,  if  it  does  not  fall  earlier 
than  the  2nd  Shubat  nor  later  than  the  8th  Adhar,  is  the  beginning  of 
Lent. 

4.  Lent  ends  on  the  49th  day  from  the  beginning.  It  begins  on 
Monday  and  ends  on  a  Sunday.  Easter  lies  between  this  Sunday  and 
the  preceding  Sunday,  i.e.  Palmarum. 

To  use  modern  language :  The  Trao-xa  a-Tavpwa-tixov  was  celebrated  on 
some  day  between  Palm  Sunday  and  Easter  Sunday,  but  on  what 
particular  day  it  was  celebrated  the  author  does  not  explain. 


438  ALBiEUNi. 

p.  299,  1.  27.  It  may  seem  doubtful  whether  I  have  correctly  inter- 
preted the  word  y»^J^^  (text,  p.  302, 1.  13).  Indictio  is  certainly  not 
identical  with  the  Great  Cycle  of  28  years. 

p.  300,  1.  4.  The  Jews  count  3,448  years  between  Adam  and  Alex- 
ander. If  you  divide  this  sum  by  19,  you  get  9  as  a  remainder,  i.e. 
the  first  year  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri  is  the  10th  year  of  the  cycle. 

The  division  of  5180  by  19  gives  a  remainder  of  12,  i.e.  the  first 
year  of  the  ^ra  Alexandri  is,  according  to  the  Christians,  the  13th 
year  of  the  cycle. 

p.  800,  1.  8.  The  whole  passage,  from  "  it  is  also  well  known,"  etc. 
(line  8),  till  "you  get  as  remainder  5180  years  (as  the  interval  be- 
tween Adam  and  Alexander),"  .in  the  Arabic  text,  p.  302,  1.  17 
(^  ^jfyU^\  yfej)  till  p.  303,  1.  2  (oyUJj  AfU^  u>f{  ^--.♦i.  ^),  seems 
to  be  a  later  interpolation. 

p.  300,  1.  9.  Khalid  b.  Yazid  is  considered  as  the  father  of  alchemy 
among  the  Arabs,  vide  Haji  Khalifa,  v.  p.  280. 

p.  300, 1.  30.     The  Easter-limits  extend  over  28  days,  i.e. 

from  21st  Adhar  to  18th  Msan. 
The  limits  of  Lent  extend  over  48  days,  i.e. 

from  the  2nd  Shubat  to  22nd  Adhar, 
or 
from  the  8th  Adhar  to  25th  Nisan. 
The  smallest  interval  between  the  beginning  of  Lent  and  Easter  is 
42  days ;  the  greatest,  49  days. 

p.  301, 1.  23.  By  44  d.  7  h.  6  min.  the  author  means  \\  synodical 
month.     One  synodical  month  is  reckoned  at 

29  d.  12  h.  44'. 

p.  301,  1.  36.  If  full  moon  falls  on  a  Sabbath,  the  21st  Adhar, 
count  44  d.  7  h.  6',  i.e.  45  days  backward,  and  you  find  the  new  moon  of 
the  preceding  month,  viz.  the  4th  Shubat,  a  Wednesday  in  a  common 
year,  a  Thursday  in  a  leap-year. 

The  next  Monday  is  the  preceding  one,  the  1st  Shubat  in  a  leap- 
year,  the  2nd  Shubat  in  a  common  year. 

As,  however,  the  1st  Shubat  lies  before  the  Terminus  Jejunii,  the  year 
in  question  must  be  a  common  year. 

p.  302,  1.  1.  If  the  Jewish  Passover  fell  into  Nisan,  and  the  Jewish 
year   was   a   leap-year,   it    might    seem    doubtful    to    the    Christians 


ANNOTATIONS.  439 

whether  they  were  to  make  the  new  moon  of  Adhar  I.  (i.e.  Shubat, 
February)  or  that  of  Adhar  II,  (i.e.  Adhar,  March)  the  basis  of  their 
computation  of  the  beginning  of  Lent.  The  author  gives  the  computa- 
tions for  both  cases. 

I.  Computation  on  the  basis  of  the  new  moon  of  Adhar  II.  (Adhar)  of 
a  leap-year : 

If  full  moon  falls  on  the  18th  of  Nisan,  a  Sunday,  count  44  d.  7  h. 
6'  backward,  and  you  find  the  new  moon  of  Adhar  II.,  or  the  Syrian 
Adhar  (March),  viz.  the  5th  Adhar,  a  Friday. 

The  next  Monday  is  the  following  one,  the  8th  Adhar,  which  is 
the  latest  day  of  the  Terminus  Jejunii. 

II.  Computation  on  the  basis  of  the  new  moon  of  Adhar  I.  (Shubat) 
in  a  leap-year : 

If  full  moon  falls  on  the  18th  ISTisan,  a  Sunday,  count  2|  lunations, 
i.e.  73  d.  19  h.  60'  backward,  and  you  find  the  new  moon  of  Adhar 
Primus  or  Shubat,  viz.  the  5th  Shubat,  a  Thursday,  if  the  Christian  year 
is  a  common  year. 

The  next  Monday  is  the  preceding  one,  i.e.  the  2nd  Shubat. 

This  calculation  is  impossible,  for  the  reason  which  the  author  states 
on  p.  302, 11.  14-16. 

If  the  corresponding  Christian  year  is  a  leap-year,  we  find  the  4th 
Shubat,  a  Thursday,  to  be  the  beginning  of  Lent. 

The  next  Monday  is  the  preceding  one,  i.e.  the  1st  Shubat,  and  this 
date  is  impossible,  as  being  outside  the  Terminus  Jejunii  (the  2nd 
Shubat  to  8th  Adhar), 

p,  302,  1.  30,  In  the  genuine  20  canones  of  the  Synod  of  Nicaea 
there  is  no  mention  of  Easter,  In  the  Arabic  collection  of  84  canones 
the  21st  refers  to  Easter  (vide  Mansi,  "  Collectio  nova,"  ii,  p,  1048), 
but  this  collection  is  an  invention  of  later  times,  vide  Hefele,  "  Theolo- 
gische  Quartalschrift,"  Tubingen,  1851,  p,  41. 

That,  however,  the  bishops  of  the  Synod  of  Nicsea  had  handled 
the  Easter-question,  is  evident  from  the  letter  of  Constantine,  vide 
"  Eusebii  vita  Constantini,"  iii.  p.  18. 

To  decide  the  question  whether  Alberunt  is  right  in  ascribing  the 
authorship  of  this  Ghronicon  to  Eusebius  and  the  Synod  of  NicEea,  I 
must  leave  to  scholars  in  Church  History. 

p.  303.  This  table  contains  the  beginnings  of  Lent  for  a  period  of 
532  years  (i.e.  19x28).  It  resembles  the  period  of  Victorius,  cf. 
Ideler,  "  Handbuch  der  mathematischen  und  technischen  Chronologie," 
ii.  p.  278. 

p.  304, 1.  3.  This  fragment  treats  of  Still-Friday  in  the  Easter-week. 
Cf.  Augusti,  "  Christliche  Archaeologie,"  ii.  p.  136. 


440  ALBiE^Nt. 

p.  304, 1.  6.  New  Sunday,  or  Dominica  nova,  Dominica  in  albis,  also 
Dies  neophytorum,  cf.  Augusti,  ii.  p.  302. 

p.  304,  1.  33.  The  canon  to  which  the  author  refers  is  this  :  "  Quo- 
niam  sunt  quidam  qui  in  die  Dominico  genuflectunt  et  ipsis  diebus 
pentecostes,  ut  omnia  similiter  in  omni  parochia  serventur,  visum  est 
Sanctae  Synodo  ut  stantes  Deo  orationes  effundant."  This  is  the  last 
(the  20th)  of  the  canones  of  the  Synod  of  Nicsea,  vide  Mansi,  "  Col- 
lectio  conciliorum  nova,"  ii.  p.  678,  §  20.  Hence  it  is  evident  that 
Alberuni  used  the  ancient  and  genuine  canones  of  this  Synod,  not  the 
later  spurious  collection,  vide  Hef ele,  Acten  des  ersten  Concils  zu  Nicaea, 
"  Theologische  Quartalschrift,  Tubingen,"  1851,  p.  41. 

p.  304,  1.  38.  On  the  Im.1^9  "^^S  ^^^  l^^??  1^^0'A  cf.  Asse- 
mani,  "  Bibliotheca  orientalis,"  ii.  p.  305,  and  iii.  2,  p.  382  ;  also  Acts, 
iii.  2-8. 

p.  305, 1.  4.  The  Table  of  Fasting  of  seven  columns,  mentioned  in  this 
place,  is  not  found  in  the  manuscripts.     It  must  have  fallen  out. 

p.  306.  With  the  chapter  on  the  festivals  of  the  Nestorians,  cf.  a 
similar  chapter  in  Assemani,  "Bibliotheca  Orientalis,"  iii.  p.  2,  and 
"  Abulfedse  Historia  anteislamica,"  p.  162  ff. 

p.  308, 1.  3.  Johannes  Cascarensis  and  Phetion  were  killed  in  Hulwan 
between  a.d.  430  and  465,  vide  Assemani,  "  Bibl.  Orient."  ii.  p.  403, 
col.  1. 

Phetion  Martyr  is  mentioned  by  Assemani,  iii.  2,  p.  386,  on  the  25th 
October ;  vide  also  W.  Wright,  "  Catalogue  of  the  Syriac  manuscripts  of 
the  British  Museum,"  part  iii.  p.  1134,  No.  66. 

Yakut  (ii.  p.  683)  mentions  a  "  Monastery  of  Phetion  "  tJ^s^  jj-J. 

p.  308, 1.  8.     I  have  not  been  able  to  decipher  the  name  Wy. 

p.  308, 1.  16.  The  name  Kuta  is  known  to  me  from  Yakut,  ii.  p.  689, 
where  a  Monastery  of  Kutd  ^^  j> J  is  mentioned. 

p.  308, 1.  19.  The  Syriac  form  of  the  name  Solomonis  (mother  of  the 
Maccabseans)  is  t-AJOSQA,  vide  W.  Wright,  "  Catalogue,"  etc.  iii.  p.  1137, 
col.  1. 

p.  308, 1.  25.     I  do  not  know  a  saint  of  the  name  of  U-.^?  or  U-y. 

p.  308,  1.  37.  The  word  j»iU\  seems  to  be  a  corruj)tion.  In  the  Canon 
Masudicus  (fol.  47a)  a  Friday  of  Eliezer  jjW^^  is  mentioned,  but  this 
Friday  falls  40  days  after  the  beginning  of  Lent. 


ANNOTATIONS.  441 

p.  308,  1.  40.  The  two  saints  mentioned  in  this  paragraph  are  not 
known  to  me.  ^/  may  be  W^^  Bereshya,  i.e.  Berelchyd,  and  a  martyr 
child,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  is  mentioned  by  W.  Wright,  "  Catalogue,"  etc., 
iii.  p.  1136,  col.  2. 

p.  309,  1.  1.  Two  Armenian  martyrs  of  the  names  of  Ourenius  and 
Surinus  are  mentioned  under  the  11th  March  by  Asaemani,  "  Bibl. 
Orientalis,"  iii.  2,  p.  650.  The  name  Buranus  occurs,  ih.  p.  653,  under 
the  2nd  October. 

p.  309, 1.  26.  The  common  year  is  here  called  hf"^  ^^^  (text,  p.  311, 
1. 18).  This  term  the  author  must  have  borrowed  from  the  source  whence 
he  took  the  information  of  this  chapter,  for  everywhere  else  he  calls  the 
common  year  ^^t~»>  &j^. 

p.  310.  This  table  is  based  upon  the  beginning  of  Lent,  which  in 
a  common  year  falls  between  the  2nd  Shubiit — 8th  Adhar ;  in  a  leap- 
year,  between  the  3rd  Shubat — 8th  Adhar.  The  festivals  keep  certain 
invariable  distances  from  this  date.  The  Latin  numerals  at  the  top  of 
the  table  denote  the  week-days  on  which  the  single  festivals  fall. 

p.  311,  1.  7.  The  reason  why  Christmas  and  the  Commemoration  of 
Our  Lady  Mary  should  not  immediately  follow  each  other  seems  to 
be  this,  that  each  two  feasts  must  be  separated  not  only  by  a  night, 
but  by  one  complete  day.  The  idea  seems  to  be  this,  that  each 
feast  requires  a  certain  preparation  on  the  preceding  day. 

p.  311,  1.  11.  The  'Ihddites  are  the  Arab  tribe  to  which  the  poets 
'Adi  b.  Zaid  and  Zaid  b.  *Adi  belonged,  mtZe  Masudi,  "  Prairies  d'or," 
iii.  p.  205,  and  Caussin,  "  Essai  sur  I'histoire  des  Arabes  avant  I'ls- 
lamisme,"  ii.  148. 

p.  311,  1.  18.  The  expression  JV  v>;*5\  ^ycxi\  e,^^  (test,  p.  314, 1.  8) 
was  coined  upon  the  pattern  of  a  word  of  the  Prophet,  vide  Ibn-Al'athir, 
i.  p.  352,  1.  16. 

The  name  ^Ankafir  is  mentioned  by  Freytag  and  Muhit-almuhit,  not 
by  the  Turkish  Kamus  ;  it  occurs  also  in  Hamza  Isfahan!,  text,  p.  112, 
1.  6 ;  translation,  p.  88. 

p.  311, 1.  22.  On  the  Ninive-fast,  cf.  Assemani,  "  Bibliotheca  Orient." 
iii.  2,  p.  387. 

p.  31 3.  This  table  is  based  upon  the  cycle  of  28  Julian  years,  after 
which  every  date  falls  again  on  the  same  week-day. 

In  the  Column  of  the  number  I  have  marked  the  leap-years  by  a 
star. 

33 


442  ALBIEUNI. 

As  all  the  festivals  of  this  table  are  attached  to  certain  weet-days, 
they  wander  about  within  the  space  of  7  days. 

In  common  years  each  festival  falls  one  day,  in  leap-years  two  days, 
later  than  in  the  preceding. 

The  double  column  of  numbers  under  the  head  Commemoration  of 
Solomonis,  is  to  be  explained  in  this  way : 

The  first  column  represents  the  common  computation  of  this  day, 
whilst  the  second  column  represents  the  practice  of  the  people  of 
Bagdad,  who  made  it  fall  a  week  later.  So,  according  to  Canon  Ma- 
sudicus  (fol.  46b). 

The  numbers  of  the  column  Feast  of  Dair-altha'dlih  are  corrupt  in 
the  manuscrij)t ;  I  have  computed  them  according  to  the  rule  given  on 
p.  308,  11.  26-30.  The  numbers  I.  29,  etc.,  mean  that  in  this  year  the 
feast  is  celebrated  twice,  on  the  1st  Tishrin  I.  and  on  the  29th  llul, 
whilst  the  blank  means  that  in  this  year  the  feast  is  not  celebrated 
at  all,  which  is  the  case  if  the  last  Sunday  of  the  year  (or  the  Com- 
memoration of  Bar  Safd  in  the  preceding  column)  falls  on  the  24th 
llM. 

The  Latin  numerals  at  the  top  of  the  table  denote  the  week-days  of 
the  single  festivals. 

p.  314.  The  following  chapter,  of  which  the  text  in  many  passages 
seems  to  be  corrupt  beyond  hope,  is  to  be  compared  with  the  re- 
searches of  Prof.  Chwolsohn  ("Die  Sabier  und  der  Sabismus").  It 
would  require  a  special  commentary  of  its  own,  and  whoever  wants 
to  undertake  it  must  be  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  knowledge  of  the 
last  phases  of  Neo-Platonism  and  of  the  popular  belief  and  supersti- 
tion of  the  dying  Greek  heathendom. 

The  author  distinguishes  between  the  heathens  of  Harran  and  the 
Mandaeans  of  the  south  of  Babylonia.  His  festal  calendar  is  that  of 
the  people  of  Harran. 

This  calendar,  on  pp.  315-318,  the  author  has  transferred  from  a  book 
of  Alhdshimi  just  as  it  was,  with  all  the  mis-spellings,  faults,  and  lacunas, 
and  since  the  time  of  the  author  the  text  has  become  worse  and  worse. 
He  expresses  the  hope  (on  p.  318)  that  he  will  be  able  one  day  to 
correct  this  chapter,  but  his  hope  does  not  seem  to  have  been  fulfilled. 

It  would  have  been  more  cautious  not  to  translate  this  chapter  at  all, 
but  I  hope  that  the  reader  will  accept  my  translation  with  indulgence  as 
a  first  essay  at  unravelling  the  mysteries  of  this  enigmatic  but  never- 
theless most  valuable  chapter, 

p.  314,  1.  7.     On  the  Shamsiyya,  vide  Chwolsohn,  i.  pp.  292-295. 

p.  315,  1.  4.  Chwolsohn,  i.  p.  140,  gives  for  this  event  another  date, 
viz.  A.H.  215. 


ANNOTATIONS.  443 

p.  315, 1.  26.  Muhammad  b.  'Abd-al'aziz  Alhashimi  is  not  known  to 
me  from  other  sources.  Perhaps  he  was  a  son  of  Abu-Muhammad  'Abd- 
al'aziz  b.  Alwathik,  mentioned  in  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  39. 

p.  315,  1.  36.  Dhahbana,  a  place  near  Harran,  vide  Chwolsohn,  i. 
p.  306,  note  6 ;  ii.  p.  630 ;  and  also  Yakut  ii.  p.  725,  s.v.  iCiWjfc-^\  In  Syriac 
the  place  is  called  (l2Cn>,  vide  Assemani,  "  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,"  i. 
p.  278. 

p.  317,  1.  1.  The  text  of  this  passage  is  very  uncertain.  If  the  moon 
stands  on  the  31st  Adhar  in  Cancer,  it  must  on  the  8th  Adhar  have 
stood  in  Gemini  or  in  the  first  degree  of  Cancer. 

p.  317,  11.  21,  22.  On  Dair-Kadhi  and  Dair-Sini,  cf.  Chwolsohn,  ii. 
pp.  24,  37,40,  41,  630,  and  808. 

p.  317,  1.  38.  I  do  not  know  a  word  Ktirmus,  but  Turmus  (^  u^yj° 
v>-i^  means  pants  m  cinere  coctus,  vide  Chwolsohn,  ii.  p.  27  at  15, 
Tammuz. 

p.  318, 1.  4.  Dailafatan,  an  old  name  of  Venus,  known  as  AcAee^aT 
from  the  Greek  lexicographers,  vide  Hesychius,  ed.  M.  Schmidt :  AeAe^ar 
6  T'^s  'AdpoSiTr]<s  acTT-qp  vtto  XaXSatwv.     The  name  occurs  also  in  Assyrian. 

p.  318, 1.  32.  From  the  rules  relating  to  the  computation  of  the  Lent 
of  the  Harranians  the  author  infers  that  their  year  was  not  a  vague  lunar 
year,  running  through  all  the  seasons,  but  a  kind  of  luni-solar  year,  like 
that  of  the  Jews,  which,  though  based  upon  lunar  years,  is  made  to  agree 
with  the  course  of  the  sun  by  means  of  the  cycle  of  19  years.  Further, 
he  infers  that  the  Harranian  Fast-breaking  depends  upon  the  vernal 
equinox  and  their  New  Year  upon  the  autumnal  equinox. 

The  double-bodied  signs  (^.>»--c.  v^^^j  S^r^^  ^^^  Gemini,  Virgo,  Arcitenens, 
Pisces. 

The  inclining  signs  Ma^\   tip^\  are  Aries,  Cancer,  Libra,  Caper. 

The  stable  signs  c;-^>\yi\   5^\  are  Taurus,  Leo,  Scorpio,  Amphora. 

In  the  following  we  give  a  survey  of  what  seem  to  have  been  the 
elements  of  the  calendar  of  Harran : 

1.  The  day  begins  with  sun-rise. 

2.  The  month  begins  on  the  second  day  after  conjunction. 

3.  The  year  begins  with  Ksinun  II. 

or  with  Tishrin  I.  (with  new  moon,  the  next  to  the  autumnal 

equinox), 
or  with  the  winter  solstice. 

4.  Lent  begins  the  8th  Adhar,  when  the  sun  stands  in  Pisces,  and 
ends  after  3]  or  29  days,  when  the  sun  stands  in  Aries.     The  last  quad- 


444  ALBtRUNf. 

rature  of  the  moon  before  Passover  (of  the  Jews)  is  the  time  of  their 
fast-breaking. 

Hence  the  luni- solar  character  of  the  calendar. 

5.  As  Terminus  PascTialis  Alberuni  adopts  the  time  between  the  16th 
Adhar  and  13th  Nisan,  i.e.  28  days. 

6.  The  difference  between  the  lunar  and  solar  years  (11  d.  6  h.  45', 
etc.)  they  insert  in  every  fourth  month  as  a  leap-month,  viz.  Hilal 
Adhar  I.  (after  Shubat). 

p.  320,  1.  14.  I  am  not  able  to  explain  this  table  in  a  satisfactory 
manner ;  however,  I  offer  a  few  remarks  to  which  an  examination  of  the 
nature  of  this  table  has  led  me : 

1.  On  an  average  the  common  year  is  counted  at  354  days,  the  leap- 
year  at  384  days.  The  one  is  11  days  shorter,  the  other  19  days  longer, 
than  the  Julian  year  of  365  days. 

2.  Once,  however,  in  the  19  years  of  the  cycle,  the  common  year  has 
been  counted  at  353  days,  so  that  between  its  beginning  and  that  of  the 
following  year  there  is  an  interval  of  12  days. 

This  subtraction  of  one  day  is  perhaps  to  be  explained  in  this  way : 

12  common  years,  each  of  354  days=4,248  days. 

7  leap-years,  each  of  384  days        =2,688  days. 

19  years         ...         -         =6,936  days. 

As,  however,  19  solar  years,  each  of  365  days,  give  only  the  sum  of 
6,935  days,  this  difference  of  one  day  was  to  be  removed  by  the  sub- 
traction of  one  day  in  one  of  the  19  years  of  the  cycle. 

3.  The  following  are  the  years  which  are  counted  at  353  days  : 

Year  5  in  col.  3. 

Tear  4  in  col.  4. 

Year  2  in  col.  6. 

Year  2  in  col.  8. 

Year  2  in  col,  10. 

4.  In  the  columns  of  the  Sabian  New- Year  and  Fast-breaking  we  find 
the  Ordo  intercalationis  t}'^-)^  i-e-  the  2ad,  5th,  7th,  10th,  13th,  16th, 
18th  years  are  leap-years,  whilst  in  the  columns  of  the  Corrected  Passover, 
Mean  Fasting  of  the  Christians,  and  the  1st  of  Tishrin  I.  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  we  find  the  Ordo  intercalationis  g-fia«-  i.e.  the  3rd,  5th,  8th, 
11th,  14th,  16th,  19th  years  are  leap-years. 

I  cannot  say  on  what  principle  this  difference  rests. 

5.  The  New- Year  in  col.  3  and  Fast-breaking  in  col.  4  are  Sabian. 
The  Corrected  Passover  in  col.  6  is  Jewish. 

The  Mean  Fasting  and  the  1st  of  Tishrin  I.  of  the  following  year  in 
col.  10  are  Christian. 

6.  The  computation  of  the  Corrected  Passover  rests  upon  an  astro- 


ANNOTATIONS.  446 

nomical  computation  of   the    vernal  equinox,  special  regard  being  had 
to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  which  had  been  neglected. 

The  author  does  not  communicate  this  astronomical  computation  of 
his, 

7.  The  comparison  between  col.  3  and  col.  10  shows  that  the  Sabian 
New-Tear  falls  always  by  one  day  (in  some  cases  by  two  days)  earlier 
than  the  Christian  I^ew-Year. 

8.  The  author  gives  directions  (p.  320,  1.  7),  to  add  16  to  the  years 
of  the  jEra  Alexandri,  or  to  subtract  3  therefrom.  This  indicates  that 
at  the  epoch  of  the  era  which  he  uses,  already  three  years  of  an  Ennea- 
decateris  had  elapsed.  Which  era  this  is,  I  have  not  been  able  to 
find  out. 

p.  322, 1.  28.  Ibrahim  b.  Sinan,  known  as  an  astronomer,  of  Harra- 
nian  origin,  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  10th  century  of  our  era. 
Cf.  Mhrist,  p.  272,  and  Wiistenfeld,  "  Geschichte  der  Arabischen  Aerzte," 
p.  37. 

p.  324, 1.  4     Albaghadi  died  a.h.  204,  vide  Haji  Khalifa,  v.  p.  411. 

p.  324,  1.  22.  The  reading  Alrabiya  is  uncertain,  as  I  do  not  know 
a  place  of  this  name  in  Hadramaut.  A  place  of  this  name  is  mentioned 
by  Yakut,  iv.  p.  391,  s.v.  0rj=-3U5\  but  it  cannot  be  identical  with  that 
mentioned  by  Alberuni. 

Some  of  these  fairs  are  also  enumerated  by  Kazwini,  "  Kosmographie," 
ii.  p.  56. 

p.  325, 1. 1.  A  festal  calendar  of  the  Muslims  is  also  found  in  Canon 
Masudicus  (f  ol.  48)  and  in  Kazwini,  "  Kosmographie,"  i.  p.  67  &.  (taken 
from  Alberuni). 

p.  326, 1.  27.     The  same  verses  occur  in  Ibn-al'athir,  iv.  p.  76. 

p.  328, 1.  21.  Two  of  these  verses  occur  also  in  Kazwini,  "  Kosmo- 
graphie," i.  p.  68. 

p.  328,  1.  39.  On  this  day  the  pilgrimage  of  the  forty  men,  etc.  This 
fact  is  not  mentioned  by  Canon  Masudicus  nor  by  Kazwini.  I  have  not 
been  able  to  find  out  what  is  the  historical  basis  of  this  statement. 

p.  329,  11.  3-26.  This  passage  is  missing  in  the  manuscripts.  I  have 
supplied  it  from  the  Canon  Mas  adieus. 

p.  330, 1.  4.  Alsalami.  A  poet  of  this  name  of  the  4th  century  of  the 
Flight  is  mentioned  in  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  168.  Another  author  of  the 
same  name,  author  of  the  "  Kitab-nutaf-alturaf  "  is  mentioned  by  Yakut, 
iv.  p.  203. 

p.  330,  1.  32.  Hasan  b.  Zaid,  the  Alide  prince  of  Tabaristan  and 
Jurjan,  died  a.h.  270,  vide  Weil,  "  Geschichte  der  Chalifen,"  ii.  p.  450. 


446  ALBlE^Nt. 

p.  330,  1.  37.  Khalaf  b.  'Ahmad  ruled  over  Sijistan  at  the  end  of  the 
4th  century  of  the  Hijra,  It  was  Mahmud  ben  Sabuktegin  who  put  an 
end  to  his  rule.     Weil,  "  G-eschichte  der  Khalifen,"  iii.  p.  62. 

p.  331,  1.  39.  The  Arabic  text  of  this  passage  (text,  p.  333,  1.  12, 
^  ^y  ^  j^^  ^j)  seems  to  be  corrupt. 

p.  332, 1.  7.  The  verse  of  the  cursing  is  Sura  iii.  54.  Muhammad's 
negotiations  with  the  Christians  of  Najran  are  related  in  a  special 
chapter  of  Ibn-Hisham,  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  p.  401  f£. ;  vide  A.  Sprenger, 
"  Leben  und  Lehre  des  Mohammed,"  iii.  p.  488  ff. 

p.  332,  1.  21.  The  tree  Yaktin  is  mentioned  in  the  Goran,  Sura 
xxxvii.  146. 

p.  333, 1.  17.  Thabir  is  a  hill  near  Mekka,  cf.  Yakut,  i.  p.  917,  where 
also  this  saying  is  mentioned  (line  18).  Muhit-almuhit,  i.  p.  1077, 
1.  8ff. 

p.  333,  1.  19.  Ibn-al'a'rabi,  a  famous  philologist  of  the  school  of 
Kufa,  died  a.h.  231,  vide  Gr.  Fliigel,  "  Grammatische  Schulen  der  Araber," 
p.  148. 

p.  334, 1.  1.  The  battle  of  Alharra  occurred  a.d.  683,  the  26th  Aug. 
The  troops  of  the  Khalif  Yazid  b.  Mu'awiya  stormed  Medina  under  the 
command  of  Muslim  b.  'Ukba.  Weil,  "  G-eschichte  der  Chalifen,"  i. 
p.  331. 

p.  335, 1.  15.     Alkulthuml  is  not  known  to  me  from  other  sources. 

Ibrahim  b.  Alsarri  Alzajjdj,  a  famous  philologist,  died  a.h.  310,  vide 
"  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  61.  Ibn-Khallikan,  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  No.  12,  men- 
tions  his  "  Kitab-al'anwa." 

Abu-Yahyd  b.  Kundsa,  vide  note  at  p.  251,  1.  33. 

Abu-Hanifa  Aldinawari,  a  grammarian  and  mathematician,  died  a.h. 
150  ;  cf.  Ibn-Khallikan,  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  No.  775,  and  "Kitab-alfihrist," 
pp.  78,  88. 

Abu-Muhammad  Aljabali,  better  known  under  the  name  of  Ibn- 
Kutaiba,  vide  note  at  p.  226,  1.  37,  and  "  Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  88. 

Abu-alhusain  is  'Abd-alrahman  b.  'Umar  Alsufi,  who  died  a.h.  376. 
His  book  of  fixed  stars  has  been  translated  by  Dr.  Sjellerup,  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1874.     Cf.  "Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  284,  and  notes. 

p.  335,  1.  22.     Jufur,  vide  note  at  p.  15, 1.  16. 

p.  336,  1.  20.  Verses  and  rhymed  poetry.  The  author  means  the 
Kutub-aVanwd  (vide  p.  337,  1.  29),  frequently  mentioned  in  the  more 


ANNOTATIONS.  447 

ancient  Arabic  literature.  As  far  as  I  know,  there  is  no  standard  work 
of  this  kind  in  the  libraries  of  Europe,  but  it  is  highly  desirable  to 
search  for  one  and  to  publish  it,  since  most  likely  many  of  the  verses,  to 
the  interpretation  of  which  these  books  are  dedicated,  may  claim  a 
much  higher  antiquity  than  the  Kasidas  and  Eajaz-poems  of  the  earliest 
Arab  poets. 

p.  337,  1.  40.  Ahmad  hen  Fdris,  a  native  of  E.ai,  a  famous  philologist 
and  writer  both  in  prose  and  verse,  died  at  Eai,  a.h.  390.  Cf.  Ibn- 
Khallikan,  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  No.  48. 

p.  338,  1.  7.  The  author  alludes  in  this  passage  to  certain  events  in  his 
own  life,  but  unfortunately  in  such  vague  terms  that  we  learn  very  little 
for  his  biography.  Was  he  banished  from  the  court  of  the  prince  ?  Of 
what  kind  were  his  troubles,  mental  or  material  ?  At  present  it  is 
impossible  to  give  an  answer  to  these  questions, 

p.  338,  1.  39.  Ibn-alrakkd'  is  not  mentioned  by  Ibn-Khallikan,  nor 
by  the  Fihrist,  nor  by  Haji  Khalifa. 

p.  339,  1.  35.  Abu-Muhammad  Ja'far  Alfazari  is  unknown  to  me. 
Perhaps  he  was  a  relative  of  the  two  brothers  Muhammad  and  Ishak, 
the  sons  of  Ibrahim  Alfazari,  vide  "Kitab-alfihrist,"  p.  164,  and  Reinaud, 
"  Memoire  sur  I'lnde,"  p.  310. 

p.  339,  1.  37.  Khalid  ben  Safwan,  a  famous  orator  at  the  time  of  the 
first  Abbaside  Khalif  Alsaffdh,  vide  Ibn-Khallikan,  ed.  Wustenfeld, 
No.  808  (end),  p.  315,  and  Ibn-Kutaiba,  "Ma'arif,"  p.  206. 

p.  341  med.  The  same  division  is  mentioned  by  Eeinaud,  "  Geo- 
graphic d'Aboulfeda,"  i.  p.  231.  Instead  of  y^\i  i.e.  Apdkhtara,  the 
north  is  here  called  by  the  name  of  Adharbaijan  (Atropatene). 

p.  342,  1.  13.  Foundations.  I  do  not  know  the  word  cuU-^\j'  as 
denoting  some  particular  part  of  the  path  of  the  moon,  but  I  suppose 
that  the  author  means  the  four  Cardines,  vide  note  at  p.  90,  1.  44  (on 
p.  395). 

p.  342,  1.  31.  Banv-Mdriya  hen  Kalh  and  Banil-Murra  hen  Hammdm. 
Assuming  that  the  writing  of  the  manuscripts  is  correct,  I  must  state 
that  these  two  clans  are  not  known  to  me  from  any  other  source. 

p.  343, 1.  1.  With  the  following  description  of  the  Lunar  Stations, 
cf.  Ideler,  "  Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Ursprung  und  die  Bedeutung  der 
Sternnamen,"  Berlin,  1810,  and  Schier,  "Globus  coelestis  cuficus," 
Dresden,  1866. 


448  ALBtE^NT. 

p.  345,  1.  33.  Bdmm.  I  do  not  know  an  island  of  this  name. 
Perhaps  the  author  meant  the  island  Bdmam,  described  by  Alkazwini, 
"  Kosmographie,"  i.  p.  107.  An  island  Rami,  in  the  Indian  ocean,  is 
mentioned  by  Yakut,  ii.  p.  739. 

p.  346,  1.  1.  Baghad.  The  reading  of  this  name  is  conjectural,  as 
I  cannot  prove  it  from  other  sources. 

p.  351.  The  distance  between  two  Stations  is  not,  as  the  second 
number  of  the  table,  12°  51'  26",  would  have  us  believe,  but  12°  51'  25|", 
as  the  reader  will  find  if  he  examines  the  addition  in  the  column  of 
seconds.  The  author  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  note  the  fractions  in 
this  column,  but  he  did  not  disregard  them  in  his  calculation. 

p.  357, 1.  1.  The  following  chapter  on  the  projection  of  a  globe  on  a 
plane  (^--Ja^^  ^)  is  j)urely  mathematical.  Dr.  H.  Bruns,  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  has  kindly  undertaken  the 
trouble  of  revising  my  translation  of  this  chapter. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  as  regards  both  the  subject-matter  and 
the  termini  technici  I  refer  the  reader  to — 

L.  Am.  Sedillot,  "  Memoire  sur  les  instruments  astronomiques  des 
Arabes,"  Paris,  1844. 

B.  Born,  "  Drei  in  der  Kaiserlichen  ofEentlichen  Bibliothek  zu  St. 
Petersburg  befindliche  astronomische  Instrumente "  ("  Memoires  de 
I'Academie,"  tom.  ix.  No.  1)  1865. 

F.  Woepche,  "  Ueber  ein  in  der  Kgl.  Bibliothek  zu  Berlin  befindliches 
Astrolabium  "  ("  Abhandlungen  der  Kgl.  Akademie,"  etc.),  1858.  On 
pp.  7-10  and  15,  vide  an  explication  of  the  stereographic  projection  and 
the  graphic  method,  of  other  methods,  on  p.  17. 

p.  357,  1.  34.  Abu-Hamid  'Ahmad  ben  Muhammad  Alsaghani,  a 
famous  constructor  of  astronomical  instruments  in  Bagdad,  died  a.h.  379. 
Vide  L.  A.  Sedillot,  "  Prolegomenes  des  tables  astronomiques  d'Olough- 
Beg,"  Paris,  1847,  Introduction,  p.  56,  note  1. 

p.   358,   1.  1.     My  hooh.     The  author  means   his   Cy^y\  v»W>^^  v»\^ 

i.e.  the  booh  in  which  all  possible  methods  for  the  construction  of  the  astro- 
labe are  comprised,  of  which  there  are  several  copies  in  European  libra- 
ries, e.g.  Eoyal  Library  of  Berlin,  Sprenger  1869;  Bodleian  Library, 
Marsh.  701. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Aaron,  269,  35  ;  276,  26. 

Aaron's  Golden  Calf,  270,  4. 

Mar    Abba,    catholicus,    311,    41  ; 

313. 
Banu- 'Abbas,  129,  7,  20,  24. 
Abu-al-'abbas    Al-amuli,    59,   26 ; 

239  13. 
Mar  'Ab'da,  309,  7  ;  310. 
'Abd-alkarim  b.  'Abi-al  'auja,  80, 

7. 
'Abdallah  b.  'All,  mathematician, 

245,  29. 
'Abdallah  b.  Hilal,  49,  26. 
'Abdallah     b.    Ismail    Alhashimi, 

187,  14. 
Aljabali,  226,37;  335,  17. 
'Abdallah  b.  Almukaffa',  108,  3. 
Abu-'Abdallah  Alsadik,  79,  21. 
'Abdallah  b.  Shu'ba,  194,  12. 
'Abd-almasih    b.     Ishak    Alkindi, 

187,  13.' 
'Abd-alrahman   b.  Muljim   Almu- 

radi,  330,  7. 
Ibn-'Abdalrazzak  Altusi,  45,  3. 
Abraham    with     the     Harranians, 

187,  1. 
Abrashahr,  255,  10. 


'Adan,  324,  20. 

Adhar  I.,  Jewish  leap-month,  63, 

9. 
Idharbad,  Mobed  of  Baghdad,  200, 

41. 
Adharban,  121,  14  ;  190,  41. 
Adharc'ashn,  207,  11 ;  211,  29. 
Abu-alhasan  Adharkhur    (or  Ad- 

harkhura),  son  of  Yazdankha- 

sis,  geometrician,  54,  4  ;  107, 

40 ;  204,  14. 
Adharkhura,  fire-temple  in  Persia, 

215,  15,  37. 
'Adhri'at,  264,  1. 
'Adites,  98,  1. 
'Adud-aldaula,  217,  24. 
iElia,  25,  15. 
Equator,  249,  15. 
^ra,  definition,  16,  4. 
^ra  Adami,  18,  5  ;  141,  6  ;  142,  8  ; 

300,  6,  22. 
^ra     Alexandri,    32,     31  ;      136, 

31. 
^ra   Antonini,    33,   33;  137,  3U; 

176,  13. 
^rae  Arabum  ethnicorum,  39,  8. 
.^ra    Astronomorum     Babylonise, 

121,  12,  16  ;  190,  42. 
iEra    Augusti,    33,    11;  137,  17; 

176,  1. 
^ra  Diluvii,  136,  20. 

34 


450 


INDEX. 


-ffira  Diocletiani,  33,  38;  137,37; 

176,  19. 
^ra  Fugse,  33,  45  ;  74,  6  ;  138, 9  ; 

176,  28. 
^ra  Magorum,  138,  35  ;  184,  34. 
^ra  Mundi  with  the  Persians,  17, 

10,37. 
^ra  Almu'tadid  Chalife,  36,  10 ; 

138,  40  ;  230,  5. 
^ra  Nabonassari,  31, 13  ;  136,  26. 
^ra  Philippi,  32, 22  ;  136,  26. 
^ra  Yazdagirdi,  35,  43  ;  138,  30 ; 

184,  25. 
Afrasiab,  205, 17. 
Afrijagan,  215,  6. 
Afrigh,  41,  7. 
Aghamat,   feasts   of    the    Zoroas- 

trians,  221,  17. 
Ahasverus,  273,  32. 
Ahaz,  276,  37. 
Abu-Sa'id  'Ahmad  b.  'Abd-aljalil 

Alsijzi,  geometrician,  52,  23. 
'Ahmad  b.  Faris,  337,  40. 
Abu-alhusain  'Ahmad  b.  Alhusain 

Al'ahwazi   Alkatib,    284,    16, 

30;  288,36. 
Abu-Sa'id  'Ahmad  b.  Muhammad 

b.  'Irak  Khwarizm-Shah,  229, 

7. 
'Ahmad  b.  Muhammad  b.  Shihab, 

182,  1. 
'Ahmad  b.  Musa  b.  Shakir,  61,  43. 
'Ahmad  b.  Sahl  b.  Hashim  b.  Al- 

walid,  33, 18. 
'Ahmad    b.    Altayyib   Alsarakhsi, 

129,  17. 
Ahriman,  107, 18. 
'Akiba,  269, 6  ;  276, 14. 
•Alfll  b.  'Abi-Talib,  326,  26. 
Alexander,  32,  31  ;  35, 16  ;  48,  38 ; 

127,5. 
'Alfaniyya,  Jewish  sect,  279, 14. 
'All  b.   Abi-Talib,   69,  2;  230,  7, 

21,  26  ;  294,  22. 
•All  b.  'All  Alkatib,  261,  42. 
'All  b.  Al'jahm,  238, 24. 
'All  b.  Muhammad  b.  Ahmad,  etc. 

Imam,  330,29. 
'All  b.  Muhammad  b.  'Abd-alrah- 

man  b."  'Abd-alkais,  380,  31.  ' 
'Abu-'Ali  Ibn  Nizar  b.  Ma'add,  48, 

32. 
'Ali-alrida  b.  Musa,  330,  22. 


'All  b.  Yahya,  the  astronomer,  88, 

5, 15  ;'  285, 26. 
Almagest,  13,  18 ;  31,  29  ;  354, 17, 

34;  358,33. 
'Amr.  b.  Eabi'a,  39, 15. 
'Amr  b.  Yahya,  39, 16. 
Amul,  206, 39. 
'Anan,  68,  41. 
'Ananites,  68, 40  ;  278, 34. 
Andargah,  63,  25  ;  210,  29. 
Andish,  206, 36. 
Anianus,  26,  26. 
'Ankafir,  daughter  of  Nu'man,  811, 

21. 
Antichrist,  196, 4. 
Antonius  Martyr,  alias  Abu-Euh, 

287,38. 
Apogee,  164,1;  167,1. 
'Arabha,  270,  37. 
Ibn-al-'a'rabi,  333,19. 
'Arafat,  332,  40. 
Aramaeans,  93,  24, 43. 
Arbaces,  100, 3. 
Ardashir  b.  Babak,  122, 31. 
Ardawan,  121, 14. 
Arians,  282, 14. 
Arish,  205,  25. 
Aristoteles,  163,  25  ;  209,  2  ;  225, 

12. 
Arius,  288, 11 ;  291,17. 
Arjabhaz,  29,  28. 
Arkand,  29, 28. 
Armenia,  211,  19  ;  298, 17. 
Armenian  martyrs,  309, 1. 
Arpakhshad,  100, 30. 
Arthamukh,  b.  Buzkar,  41, 28. 
'As'ad  b.  'Amr  b.  Eabi'a,  49,  40. 
Al'asadi,  344, 8. 

Al-'a§far  b.  Elifaz  b.  Esau,  49,  9. 
'Asfar  b.  Shirawaihi,  47,  25. 
Ashkanians,  116,  28  ;  119. 
'Ashura,  270,  7;  326, 3  ;  327, 2. 
Askajamuk  b.  Azkakhwar,  41,  40. 
Assaying-circle,  142  ;  155,  5. 
Assuan,  252, 29. 
Assyrian  kings,  99. 
Athfiyan,  212,37. 
Augustus,  58,34. 
Avesta,  108,  40;  113,3;  117,  22; 

127, 11 ;  204, 40  ;  205,  24. 
Al-'awwa,  246, 23  ;  337,22. 
'Azereth,  275, 19  ;  277, 14. 
Azma'il,  213,  80. 


INDEX. 


451 


B. 

Baalbek,  187, 35. 

Babylonian  kings,  100. 

Badbagbes,  194,  13. 

Badr,  date  of  tbe  battle  of  Badr, 

330,  9. 
Albagbdadiyya,    religious    sect  in 

Kbwarizm,  178,  5. 
Babafirid  b.  Mab-Furudbin,    193, 

16. 
Bahr-almagbrib,  260, 24. 
Babram,  ancestor  of  tbe  Buyides, 

45,  7,  41. 
Babram,  of  Herat,  108,  9. 
Babram  b.  Hurmuz,  191,  10. 
Babram   Jusbanas,    Marzuban    of 

Adbarbaijan,  48,  12. 
Babram  b.  Mardansbab,  Mobed  of 

Sbapur,  108,  6. 
Babram  b.  Mibran  Alisfabani,  108, 

8. 
Babram  Sbubin,  48,  11. 
Baikand,  221,  22. 
Abu-Bakr  Alsuli,  36,  14. 
Balamis,  27,  17. 
Albalda,  348,  30. 
Balka,  39,  17. 

Balkb,  100,  12  ;  186,  19  ;  220,  20. 
Balti,  316,  25. 
Bamiyan,  255,  41. 
Banat-Na'sb,  231, 18, 
Banu-al'asfar,  104, 3. 
Banu-Hanifa,  193,  19. 
Banu-Mariya  b.  Kalb,  342,  32. 
Banu-Murra  b.  Hammam  b.  Sbai- 

ban,  342,  33. 
Banu-Musa  b.  Sbakir,  147,  26. 
Banu-yarbu',  39,  23. 
Baptizing  of  tbe  Cbristians,  288, 

25. 
Bardesanes,  27, 9  ;  189,  30, 43. 
Barib,  339,  5. 

Barukb  b.  Neriyya,  271,  25. 
Batn-alhut,  250,  6. 
Batnan,  316,  4. 
Ibn-Albazyar,  25,  27. 
Bel  of  Harran,  316,  8. 
Benjamin,  272,  33. 
Beresbja,  apostle  of  Marw,  296, 1. 


Bevarasp,  202,  32;  209,  37;  213, 
37. 

Bib-roz,  53,41. 

Bilkis,  49, 25. 

Al-biruni,  12,  4,  11;  29,  35;  80 
29  ;  92,  6,  9  ;  134,  29 ;  167 
11  ;  194,  42  ;  196, 34 ;  214, 30 
217,  5;  234,  38,  41;  237,2 
247,  35;  248,  40;  256,  13 
269,  19;  290,  38;  294,  26 
338,  7  ;  357,  41. 

Buddba,  190,  5. 

Budbasaf,  186,  15. 

Bugbrakban,  Sbibab-aldaula,   131, 
18. 

Al-buhturi,  37,  16. 

Bukbtanassar,  297,  30. 

Bulgbaren,  51,  1. 

Al-burku'i,  330,  29. 

Busbanj,  202,  4. 

Busra,  251,  37  ;  259,  31 ;  263,  21. 

Al-butain,  343,  29. 

Buwaibi,  bouse  of,  45  ;  94, 19. 


c. 


Caesar,  33, 12. 

Caesar,  parapegmatist,  234,  7. 

Calendte,  288,  4. 

Calendar,  reform  of  tbe  Calendar 

during  tbe  Cbalifate,  36, 10. 
Calendar,  reform  of  tbe  Calendar 

in  Cborasmia,  229,  1. 
Callippus,   parapegmatist,  31,  26 ; 

233,  15. 
C'asbu-i-nilufar,  205, 13. 
Catbolicus   of  tbe   Melkites,  283, 

43. 
Catbclicus  of  tbe  Nestorians,  284, 

2. 
Cbaldseans,  tbeir  seasons,  322,  18  ; 

323. 
Cbald8eans=Kayanians,  100,  6,  12. 
Cbaldsean  kings,  101. 
Cbalifate,  129, 13. 
Cbessboard,  132, 14. 
Cbildren  of  Adam,  feast,  311,  42  ; 

313. 
Cbina,  266,  10. 


452 


INDEX. 


Chinese,  249, 1 ;  263, 12. 
Chinese  sea,  236,  27. 
Chorasmians,  40,  39;  57,13;  244, 

4;  292,  12. 
Chorasmian  names  of  the  planets, 

172. 
Chorasmian  names   of  the  figures 

of  the  zodiac,  173. 
Chorasmian  characters,  42,  7. 
Chorasmian  names  of  the  months, 

67. 
Christ,  21,  23  ;  25,  42 ;  33,  23  ;  287, 

28 ;  290,  20. 
Christians,  their  months,  70, 11. 
Christians  in  Chorasmia,   283,  4 ; 

292, 12. 
Christians  in  Khurasan,  295,  22. 
Christian  feasts,  306,  29. 
Christian  Arabs,  311,  11. 
Chronicon  of  the  Christians,  153, 

32;  303. 
Chronology  of  the  Persians  before 

Islam,  38,  22. 
Cleopatra,  103,  38. 
Coals,  242,  29, 38, 44  ;  243,3. 
Commentary  to  the  Almagest,  139, 

7. 
Concilia  cecumenica,  291, 9. 
Confusion  of  languages,  100,  16. 
Conjunction,  middle  one,  greatest, 

91,33,41. 
Conon,    parapegmatist,     234,    24; 

236,  13. 
Constantinus,  33,  41;  291,  17,  41 ; 

292,  19  ;  295,  25. 
Corbicius  b.  Patecius,  191,  2. 
Creation  of  man  according  to  the 

Persians,  17,  20,  43  ;  107, 1. 
Creation  of  the  world  and  begin- 
ning of  the  year  with  the  Per- 
sians, 55,  5. 
Creation  of  the  world,  its  horoscope, 

55,6. 
Crocodile,  250,  20. 
Cross,  invention  of  the,  292,  18. 
Cross,  symbol  of  the,  293,  3,  10. 
Cycle  of  8  years,   63,  31 ;  64,  20 ; 

182, 19. 
Cycle  of  19  years,  31,  35  ;  63,  33  ; 

64,  1;  319,6. 
Cycle  of  76  years,  31, 28 ;  63,  35. 
Cycle  of  95  years,  63,37. 
Cycle  of  532  years,  63, 39. 


Cyriacus    Infans,    208,    40;    310, 

col.  5. 
Cyrus,  24, 13;  291,42. 


D. 


Daba,  324,16. 

Al-dabaran,  336, 38  ;  344, 15. 

Dadhishu',  295,  15. 

Dahak,  100, 3. 

Al-dahriyya,  90,  35. 

Al-dahufadhiyya,  206,  8. 

Dai,  58,  15. 

Dair-'Ayyub,  251,  32. 

Dair-Kadhi,  317, 16,  21. 

Dair-Sini,  317,22. 

Al-dajjal,  195,  44  ;  196,  9. 

Dama,    mountain   in  Persis,    199, 

28. 
Damascus,  237,  23. 
Damdadh,  108,  26. 
Daniel,  18,  34,  37  ;  19, 13 ;  20,  20 ; 

300,  11. 
David,  333,  43. 
Day,  definition  of,  4,  10. 
Day. — Beginning  of  the  day,  7,  31, 

35. 
Day. — Beginning  of  the  day  with 

the  Arabs,  5, 14. 
Day. — Beginning  of  the  day  with 

the  astronomers,  6,  28. 
Day. — Beginning  of  the  day  with 

the   Greeks   and   Persians,  6, 

10. 
Day. — Beginning  of  the  day  with 

the  Sabians,  315,  16. 
Days. — Battle  days  of  the  heathen 

Arabs,  39,  31. 
Days. — Battle   days  of    the    'Aus 

and  Khazraj,  39,43. 
Days. — Battle    days  of  Bakr  and 

Taghlib,  40,8. 
Days. — Battle  days  of  the  Kuraish, 

39,  33. 
Days. — Canicular     days     of      the 

shepherds,  262, 17. 
Days  of  bad  luck,  245,  37. 
Days  of  the  month  with  the  Cho- 
rasmians, 57, 17. 


INDEX. 


453 


Days  of  the  montli  with  the 
Egyptians,  58, 32. 

Days  of  the  month  with  the  Per- 
sians, 53, 5. 

Days  of  the  month  with  the  Sog- 
dians,  56,  34. 

Days. — Lucky,  unlucky,  and  indif- 
ferent days,  218. 

Days  of  the  Old  Lady,  244,  18,  37  ; 
245,  33. 

Saints'  days  of  the  Melkites,  283, 
4. 

Delephat= Venus  with  the  Sabians, 
318,3. 

Deluge,  27, 24  ;  28,7,11,38. 

Democritus,  parapegmatist,  233, 
20. 

Deuteronomium,  22,40  ;  23,6. 

Al-dhira,  245,  4. 

Dhu,  50,  8. 

Dhu-alhijja,  321,  13. 

Dhu-alka'da,  321, 13. 

Dhu-kar,  311,  19. 

Dhu-alkarnain,  43,  5. 

Dhu-almajaz,  324,  28. 

Dhu-alrumma,  340,  7. 

Domini  horarum,  317, 19. 

Dona  astrorum,  90,  42;  92,  4. 

Dositheus,  parapegmatist,  233,  27. 

Dumat-aljandal,  324,  6. 

Dunbavand,  213,  32  ;  214, 5. 

Ibn-Duraid,49,  33. 

Duration  of  the  world,  18, 11. 


E. 


Easter  calculation,  318, 40 ;  319, 3. 
Easter  time,  corrected,  320,  cols.  6, 

7. 
Ecclesiastical    degrees,    283,     33 ; 

284,  18. 
Egyptians,   ancient,    modern,    12, 

28,33;  13,17;  58,33. 
Egyptian  kings,  102. 
Egyptians  as  parapegmatists,  233, 

16. 
Egyptians,  their  seasons,  322,  36  ; 

323. 
Eli,  the  high-priest,  275, 13. 
Elias,  catholicus  of  Khurasan,  292, 

4. 


Eliezer  b.  Paruah,  68, 32. 

Emim  b.  Lud,  28,  34. 

Emperors  of  Byzantium,  106. 

Enos,  314,  27. 

Epagomense  with  the  Arabs,  246, 

13. 
Epagomense  with  the  Persians,  53, 

24. 
Epagomense    with    the    Sogdians, 

57,2;  220,8;  221,5. 
Ephesus,  285,  18. 
Al-eranshahri,  208,  25  ;  211, 19. 
Esther,  274, 26. 

Euctemon,  parapegmatist,  233,  14. 
Eudoxos,  parapegmatist,  233,  17. 
Euphrates,  251,  44  ;  252,  22. 
Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  302,  31. 
Eutyches,  291,  35. 
Abu-al'abbas  Alfadl  b.   Hatim  Al- 

nairizi,  139,  7. 


F. 


Eahla,  216, 15. 

Fairs  of  the  ancient  Arabs,  324,  1. 

Panakhusra,  45, 25. 

Fanakhusrau,  45,  9. 

Al-fanik,  344,17. 

Abu-alfaraj   Alzanjani,  54,  1  ;  118, 

31;  120,  38;   126,   1,    7;  200, 

5,14;  216,39;  316,6,19. 
Al-fargh    al'awwal,   althani,    349, 

28. 
Parghana,  94, 35  ;  235,  16. 
Farkhwarwic'irshahiyya,  47,  29. 
Farrukh,  53,  21. 
Farwardagan,  210,  36. 
Fasts  of  the  Apostles,  304,  38  ;  309, 

3  ;  310. 
Fasts  of  the  Christians,  299,  2,  3  ; 

320,  14,  cols.  8,  9. 
Fasts  of  Elias,  309,  12 ;  310,  col. 

12. 
Fasts  of  the  'Ibadites,  313,  col.  12. 
Fasts  of  the  Jews,  270,  7 ;  271,  16. 
Fasts  on  Mondays,  327,  31. 
Fasts  of  the  Muslims,  7, 41 ;  77,  1 ; 

327  13. 
Fast  of  Niniveh,  309, 14 ;  310. 


454 


IXDEX. 


Fasts  of  the  Sabians,  316,  12,  27,   , 

32,  40;   317,  1,  17;   318,  13, 

16,  28  ;  320,  2,  14,  cols.  4,  5. 
Fasts  of  the  Spies,  277, 1. 
Fatima,  332,  6,  23. 
Feasts  of  the  Church  of  St.  Mary 

in  Jerusalem,  308,  6. 
Feast  of  the  Crown  of  the  Year,  297, 

42. 
Feast,   "Discovery  of  the  Cross," 

298,  5. 
Feast    of     the  Equinox    with    the 

Hindus,  249,  39  ;  266, 25. 
Feast  of  the  Grapes,  296, 31. 
Feast,  "  Harvest-home,"  295,  30. 
Feast  of  Lent-breaking,  331,  35. 
Feast  of  Mar-Mari,  308,  12. 
Feast  of  the  Megilla,  274,  32. 
Feast  of  Mount  Tabor,  297,  2. 
Feasts  of  the  Muslims,  325,  2. 
Feasts  of  the  Persians,  199, 2, 
Feast  of  the  Roses,  292,  11 ;  296, 

20. 
Feasts  of  the  Sabians,  318, 20. 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  270,  23. 
Feast  of  the  Temple,  311, 1 ;  313. 
Feast  of    the  Eenovation  of    the 

Temple,  298, 3. 
Feast  of  Wax,  289,  29. 
Feast   of   Wax    of   the   Jacobites, 

289, 29. 
Feast  of  the  Virgins,  311, 9  ;^  313. 
Feroz,  grandfather  of  Noshirwan, 

215,8. 
Feroz,  199,  20. 
Figures  in  the  zodiac,  173. 
Al-far,  41,  10. 
Fire,  its  nature,  246,  41. 
Formation  of  blossoms,  294, 10. 
Formation    of    double   organs    or 

members  in  animals  and  plants, 

94,6. 
Fredun,  114,33;  115,  4;  207,  43; 

209,12;  210,7;  212,36,42. 
Friday,  the  golden  one,  310,  col.  9. 
Friday  with  the  Muslims,  304, 15. 
Fukaim,  14,  8. 
Fustat,  235, 46. 


a. 

Gabriel,  331,  36. 

Gahanbars,  204,  42;  205,  9;  207, 
28;  210,38;  212,17;  217,11. 

Gahanbars  with  the  Cuorasmians, 
225,  30  ff . 

Gajus  Julius,  103,32,40. 

Galenus,  225, 3  ;  231,  27  ;  232,  25, 
27;  293,38. 

Gedalja  b.  'Ahikam,  269, 1. 

Geometrical  progression,  134,  4. 

Al-ghafr,  347, 14. 

Ghumdan,  41,16. 

Ibn-Abi-Alghuriikir,  198,  1. 

Ghuzz-Turks,  109,  23  ;  224, 15. 

Gilshah,  27,  38  ;  107, 3. 

Girshah,  107,  2  ;  108,  15. 

Gomer  b.  Yapheth,  28,  24. 

Gospel,  25, 39  ;  331,  14,30. 

Gospels  of  Bardesanes,  Marcion 
and  Mani,  27,  9  ;  189,  43 ; 
190,  7. 

Gospel,  commentary  to  the,  296, 
15. 

Gregorius,  apostle  of  the  Arme- 
nians, 298, 17. 

Greek  fathers  (Diodorus,  Theodo- 
ras, Nestorius),  311,39  ;  313. 

Greek  names  of  the  planets,  172. 

Greek  names  of  the  figures  in  the 
zodiac,  173,  col.  2. 

Gundisapur,  191,  16. 

Gushtasp,  206,  24. 


H. 


Habash,  177,3;  178,8;  180,4. 
Habib   b.  Bihriz,  Metropolitan  of 

Mosul,  33,  8. 
Hajr  in  Yamama,  324,  32. 
Alhak'a,  344,  23. 
Alhakim,  Chalif  of  Egypt,  (Abu- 

■  'All  ben  Nizar),  48,32. 
Haman,  273,  25. 
Haman-Sur,  274,  32. 
Hamdadhan,  192,  6. 
Hamin,  208,  33. 


INDEX. 


456 


Hamza  b.  Alhasan  Alisfahani,  36, 

15;  61,  33; 62, 12;  106;  112, 41; 

114,   1;   117,  22,  30;   118,  2; 

122,  14  ;  124,  1  ;  125,  1  ;   127, 

6;  128,  2. 
Hamza,  294,  21. 
Alhan'a,  344,  32. 
R.  Hananja  b.  Teradjon,  276, 12. 
Abu-Hanifa  Aldinawari,  335,  16  ; 

351,  col.  13. 
Hanna  the  Hindu,  258,  36. 
Hanukka,  271,  29. 
Al-harra,  334, 1. 
Harran,  186,  23. 
Harranians,  13,  23  ;    32,  16  ;  186, 

24;  188,  26;  314,29;  315,8; 

329,27. 
Harun  Alrashid,  287,  39. 
Al-hasan  and  Al-husain,  332,  5. 
Abu-Muhammad  Alhasan  b.  'Ali  b. 

Nank,  45, 22. 
Hashim    b.    Hakim    Almukanna', 

194, 22. 
Alhashimi,  318,  24. 
Alhashwiyya,  90, 35  ;  199,  7. 
Alhayawaniyva,  258,  29. 
Hebraica,  18^25,  34,  38;  19,6. 
Hebrew  names  of  the  figures  of  the 

zodiac,  173,  col.  5. 
Hebrew    names    of    the    planets, 

172. 
Helena,    mother    of    Constantine, 

292,21;  307,41. 
Herat,  235,  37. 
Hermes,  187, 44  ;  188,  24 ;  290, 18  ; 

315, 1 ;  316, 41  ;  342,  40. 
Hijra,  327, 13. 
Hilal,  315, 12. 
Hillel,  273,  20. 
Himyarites,  40,  31 ;  94,  34. 
Hindus,  15,  5  ;  83,  col.  2  ;  96,  19  ; 

249,    39;    266,  26;   335,    20; 

342,  29. 
Hipparchus,    233,    22;     322,    35; 

323. 
Hippocrates,  258, 33  ;  261,  25  ;  262, 

3 ;  337,  37. 
Al-Hira,  40,  37. 

Hisham  b.  'Abd-almalik,  36, 43. 
Hisham  b.  Alkasim,  108,  5. 
Hizar,    estate    in    the   district  of 

Istakhr,  56, 8. 
Homer,  99, 60. 


Hoshang,  108,  41 ;    206,  16 ;  212, 

11. 
Hours,  9, 18. 

Hubal,  'Isaf,  Na'ila,  39, 17. 
Hudhaifa  b.  'Abd  b.  Fukaim,  14,  6. 
Hulwan,  28,  1. 
Hurmuz  b.  Shapur    Abbatal,  203, 

32;  209,37. 
Hurmuzan,34,  13,  17. 
Alhusain   b.  'All,   326,  6,  20,  22 ; 

328,  18,  37;  330,  3. 
Abu- Alhusain  Alsufi,  335,18. 
Abu-Bakr  Husain  Altammar,  243, 

31. 
Abu-'Ali  Alhusain  b.  'Abdallah  b. 

Sina,  247,  36. 
Abu-Abdallah   Alhusain    b.  Ibra- 
him Altabari  Alnatili,  96,  43  ; 

97,15. 
Albusain  b.  Mansur  Alhallaj,  195, 

■  1,  18. 
Alhusain  b.  Zaid,  prince  of  Taba- 
'  ristan,  330, 32. 


I. 


'Ibadites,  311,  11,  13. 

'Ibbur,  63,  11. 

Ibrahim  b.  Al'abbas  Alsuli,  37,  9. 

'Abu-alfaraj  Ibrahim  b.  Ahmad  b. 
Khalaf  Alzanjani  (vide  Abu- 
alfaraj),  54,  1 ;  118,  31  ;  120, 
38 

Ibrahim  b.  'Ashtar,  326,  34. 

Abu-Ishak  Ibrahim  b.  Hilal  Alsabi, 
45,'  5.' 

Ibrahim  b.  Alsarri  Alzajjaj  (vide 
Alzajjaj),  335,15. 

Ibrahim  b.  Siuan,  322,  28. 

Al-'iklil,  347,  38. 

Ilion,  99,37. 

'Imad-aldaula  'Ali  b.  Buwaibi,  129, 
22. 

Indian  names  of  the  figures  of  the 
zodiac,  173,  col.  6. 

Indian  names  of  the  planets,  172. 

Intercalary  cycles  of  the  ancient 
Arabs,  73, 9. 

Intercalation  of  Almu'tadid,  81, 
14. 


456 


INDEX. 


Intercalation  of  the  'Ananites,  69, 

33. 
Intercalation  of  the  heathen  Arabs, 

13,34;  14,27;  73,9. 
Intercalation    (of     days,    months, 

years,  etc.)  of  the  Egyptians, 

68,  33  ;  59, 1. 
Intercalation  of  the  Greeks,  60,  4. 
Intercalation  of  the  Hindus,  15,  6. 
Intercalation  of  the  Jews,  68,  15. 
Intercalation  of  the  Persians,  12, 

40;  38,  32;    54,  10;  55,  29; 

184,  42  ;  220,  22. 
Intercalation  of   the  Peshdadians, 

13,  11. 
Intercalation  of  the  Sabians,  315, 

24. 
Intercalation   of    the  Syrians,  70, 

19. 
Intercalation  of   the  Zoroastrians, 

55,  29. 
Interval   between   Alexander    and 

the  accession  to  the  throne  of 

the  last  Yazdagird,  17,  30. 
Ion,  son  of  Paris,  33,  10. 
Abu-'lsa  Al'isfahani,  18,  20. 
Abu-Sahl  'Isa  b.  Tahya  Almasihi, 

74,  25. 
Abu  'Isa  Alwarrak,  270,  33  ;  278, 

22  ;  279, 13. 
'Isaf,  39,  18. 
Isaia,  22,  18,  28,  89. 
Isfahan,  215,  3,  4. 
'Ishma'iyya,  68,  36. 
Abu-'Isma,  95,  22,  24. 
Ismail,  268,  28. 
Isma'il  b.  'Abbad,  72,  36. 
Ismail  the  Samanide,  48,  5. 
Ispahbadhan,  235,  19. 
Ispandarmadh,  205,  22. 
'Izz-aldaula  Bakhtiyar,  93,  15. 
Abu-aljabbar,  80,  13. 
Aljabha,  339,  8  ;  345,23. 


J. 


Jacobites,  282,  10,  24  ;  289,  30. 
Ja'far  b.  Muhammad  Alsadik,  76, 

36;   182,28;  188,35'. 
Abu-Mahmud  Ja'far  b.  Sa'd  Alfa- 

zari,'  339,  35. 


Abu-Tthman  Aljahiz,  214,  28. 

Jai,  28,  17. 

Aljaihani,   214,   33;    256,   5,   18; 

263,  12  ;  279,  2. 
Jam,  202,  13,  33  ;  203,  20  ;  220, 11. 
Jamasp,  196,  40. 
Jamshedh,  200,  25. 
Jeremia,  271,  23. 
Jerobeam,  87,  3. 
Jerusalem,  294,  16. 
Jews,  13,  22  ;  14,  28  ;  62,  16  ;  196, 

7. 
Jibra'il  b.  Nuh,  191,  19. 
John  of  Kashkar,  308,  3. 
John  of  Dailam,  313,  col.  16. 
John,  the  teacher,  307,  15. 
John  of  Marw,  296,  27. 
John  Baptist,  297,  25. 
Jona,  102,  2  ;  309, 16  ;  332,  17,  21. 
Josua  b.  Nun,  272,  31 ;   277,  3. 
Joseph  of  Arimathia,  287, 17. 
Judarz   b.    Shapur  b.  Afkurshah, 

297,38. 
Judges,  their  chronology,  88. 
Al-judi,  28,  41. 
Jumada,  321,  19. 
Julius  Csesar,  60,  8. 
Abu-Thumama  Junada  b.  'Auf,  18, 

42. 


K. 


Ka'b  Al'ahbar,  238,  18. 
Ka'b  b.  Lua'yy,  39, 22. 
Ka'ba,  332,  15. 
Kabi,  208,  1. 

Kadhkuda  (oecodespotes),  95,  1. 
Alkadhkhudahivya,  210,  14. 
Kaikhusrau,  206,27. 
Kain  and  Abel,  210,  41. 
Kairawan,  256,  28,  31. 
Kalammas,  13,  40  ;  14,  16  ;  73,  20. 
Kalb-aljabbar  (Sirius),  201, 28. 
Kalwadha,  200,  6,  9. 
Kamferoz,  215,  39  ;  216, 1. 
Kanka  the  Hindu,  129, 19. 
Karseans  (Alkurra'),  68,  36 
Alkaraj,  213,  24. 
Karbela,  326,  22. 


INDEX. 


457 


Kardfanakliusra,  217,  28. 
Karmates,  196,  13  ;  197,  28. 
Alkarya  Alhaditha,  256,  5. 
Kayanians,  ■  100,   11,   12;  110,34; 

111  ;  113,  20  ;  114,  21. 
Kayomarth,  107,  2, 5,  7. 
Khalaf     b.    'Ahmad     (see     Wali- 

aldaula),  330,  38. 
Khalid   b.   Abd-almasih  of  Marw- 

rudh,  147,  24. 
Khaiid  Alkasri,  36,  43. 
Khalid  b.  Alwalid,  192,  44. 
Khalid  b.  Safwan,  339,  37. 
Khalid  b.  Tazid  b.  Mu'awiya,  300, 

9. 
Abu  Ja'far  Alkhazin,  183, 12  ;  249, 

34;  322,27. 
Khindif,  328,  21. 
Ibn  Khurdadbih,  50,  26. 
Khurram-Roz,  211,  39. 
Khurshedh,  Mobed,  207,21. 
Khusrau  Parwiz,  258,  36. 
Khutan,  263, 14. 
Khwaf,  193,  18. 
Khwarizm-Shahs,  48, 15. 
Kibla,  328, 14. 
Kilwadh,  278,  16. 
Kimak,  255,  34. 
Kinana,  13, 39  ;  14, 13, 20. 
Alkiiidi    (see    Ya'kub    b.    Ishak), 

187,  13;  219,  18,  29;  245,18; 

294,  27. 
Kings  of  the  Jews,  89. 
Kippur,  270,  7  ;  277,  11 ;  327,  10. 
Alkisrawi,  127,  2  ;  208,  32. 
Klepsvdra  (water-thief),  254,9. 
Koran,  331,  16. 
Kosmas,  author  of  Christian  canons, 

289,  22. 
Kuba,  82,  col.  10. 
Kubadh  b.  Feroz,  192,  8. 
Kufa,  28, 39. 
Al-Kulthumi,  335,  15. 
Kumm,  215,  1. 

ibn-Kunasa  (see  Yahya),  339,34. 
Kushan,  King  of  Mesopotamia,  90, 

18. 
Kutaiba   b.  Muslim   Albahili,   41, 
38  ;  42,  6  ;  58,  8. 


L. 


Lahu  b.  Dailam  b.  Basil,  46,  12. 
Lake  of  Alexandria,  248, 23. 
Lakhmides,  40,  37. 
Al-lamasasiyya,  25,  2. 
Lamp,  self-acting,  255,  22. 
Leap-month,  February,  241,  19, 20. 
Life.— Duration  of  life,  90,  34. 


M. 


Maghribis  (Spaniards),  59,  27. 

Maghribis,  Jewish  sect,  278,23. 

Mah,  Media,  116, 34. 

Almahdi,  194,  33, 39. 

Mah-roz,  34,  15, 18. 

Al-mahwa,  340,  1. 

Mahzor,  64,  33  ;  66, 22  ;  146. 

Maimun  b.  Mihran,  34,  7. 

Makhiraj  I.,  221,  21. 

Makhiraj  II.,  221, 24. 

Ma'mun,  235,  2  ;  330,  5. 

Al-ma'mun    b.    Ahmad    Alsalami 

Alharawi,  287,  19  ;  297,  25. 
Ma'mun  b.  Eashid,  328,  41. 
Ma'n  b.  Za'ida,  80,  7. 
Manbij,  265,  27. 

Mani,    27,    11;    121,  6;  189,   43; 
225   19 

ManichE^ans,  80,  8  ;  329,  28,  31. 

Manichaeans    of   Samarkand,   191, 
27. 

Mani.— Gate  of  Mani,  191,  17. 

Mankur,  a  mountain,  265,  34. 

Abu-Mansur  b.  'Abd-alrazzak,  119, 
19  ;  i27, 16. 

Abu-Nasr  Mansur  b.  'Ali  b.  'Irak, 
167,  7. 

Abu-Ja'far   Mansur,   80,    5;    262, 
30. 

Marcian,  291, 34. 

Marcion,  27,9;  189,30. 

Mard,  Mardana,  107,  39. 

Mardawij,  47,  24. 

Mare  clausum,  236,  17. 

Mar  Mari,  309,  7,  10  ;  310,  col.  11. 

Martyrs  of  the  Melkites,  283,  4. 
35 


458 


INDEX. 


Marw,  283,  42  ;  296, 1. 
Marw-alshahijan,  36,  9. 
Marzuban  b.   Eustam,  Ispahbadh, 

191,  44 
Abu-Ma'shar,  29,  4  ;  31,4 ;  91,  31 ; 

94,  39,  44 ;   95,  5  ;   187,  34 ; 

342,15,27. 
Masmaghaii,  214,  6. 
Al-masruka,  53,  25, 
Mazdak,  i92,  6  ;  194,  32. 
Medinet-almansur,  262,  32. 
Melkites,  282,5,21,22. 
Melkites  of  Cborasmia,  283,  4. 
Menoshc'ihr,  205,  19,  40. 
MesM  and  Mesliana,  107,  36  ;  116, 

23 
Messiah,  18,  16,  43  ;  19,  4,  11,  17. 
Meton,  234,  32  ;  239,  28. 
Metrodorus,    parapegmatist,    233, 

17. 
Midian,  98, 10. 
Mihrjan,  201,  3  ;  207,  35  ;  208,  29, 

33,  36,  39,  40,  45  ;  209,  11,  26, 

35,41. 
Milad,  Moled,  144, 10. 
Miladites,  Jewish  sect,  68,  35. 
Milhan,  245,  1. 
Mina,  324,  31. 
Miragan,  208,  35. 
Mirin,   summer-solstice    with    the 

Persians,  258,  24. 
Moled,  its  calculation,  147. 
Moled-limits,  150,  22. 
Months  of  the  Arabs,  71,  18 ;  75, 

35  ;  82,  cols.  3,  4. 
Months  of  the  Chorasmians,  57, 13 ; 

82,  col.  1. 
Months  of  the  Egryptians,  58,  33  ; 

59,  1  ;  83,  col.  3. 
Months  of  the  Greeks,  83,  col.  5  ; 

241,  31. 
Months  of  the  Hindus,  83,  col.  2. 
Months   of   the   Jews,  62,16;  82, 

col.   5  ;  143,  19. 
Months  of  Almu'tadid,  81,  14. 
Months  of   the    Persians,  52,   12 ; 

82,  col.  4. 

Months    of  the  Romans,  59,  26  ; 

83,  col.  3. 

Months  of  the   Saci,  52,  25;    82, 

col.  3. 
Months  of  the  Sogdians,  56,  22 ; 

82,  col.  2. 


Months   of  the  Syrians,    69,    40 ; 

70,  12  ;  83,  7. 
Months  of  the  Thamud,  74,  27  ;  82, 

col.  6. 
Months  of  the  Turks,  83,  cols.  1,  8. 
Months  of  the  people  in  the  west 

(Spaniards  ?)  59,  26  ;  83,  3. 
Months  of  the  inhabitants  of  Kuba, 

82,  col.  10. 
Months  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bu- 

kharik  (?)  82,  col.  9. 
Month. — The  small  month  of   the 

Egyptians,  59,  23. 
Months  :  beginnings  in  the    cycle 

of  28  years,  175,  10. 
Months  of  the  Pilgrimage,  325,  9. 
Moon,  163,  18  ;  219,  4. 
Stations  of  the  moon  of  the  Arabs, 

226,  23  ;  335,  28. 
Stations  of  the  moon,  calculations 

of  their  risings  and  settings, 

342, 1 ;  354,  6. 
Stations  of  the  moon  of  the  Choras- 
mians, 226,  4. 
Stations    of    the   moon,    distances 

between  them,  353, 1. 
Stations  of  the  moon  of  the  Sog- 
dians and  Chorasmians,  227, 32. 
Stations    of     the     moon :     tables, 

351;  352;  355;  356. 
Moonstone,  163,  24. 
Mordekhai,  274,  14. 
Mosque  of  Salome,  127,  31. 
Mosque  of  Damasc,  187,  27. 
Al-Mubahala,  332,  4. 
Muhammad,  22,  17  ;  46,  31  ;  293, 

15  ;  294,  18,  21. 
Muhainmad  b.  'Abd-al'aziz   Alha- 

'shimi,  315,26. 
Muhammad  b.  'Abd-almalik  Alzay- 

■yat,  265,  12. 
Abu- All    Muhammad    b.  'Ahmad 

Albalkhi,'l07,  43. 
Abu-Abdallah  Muhammad  b.  'Ah- 
mad, Khwarizm-Shah,  42,  17. 
Muhammad  b.  'All  b.  Shalmaghan, 

"198,1. 
Abu-alwafa    Muhammad    Albuza- 

jani,  29,  32.  ' 
Abu-Bakr  Muhammad   b.    Duraid 

or  Ibn  Duraid,  74,  15. 
Abu-Ja'far   Muhammad   b.    Habib 

Albaghdadi"  324,  4. 


INDEX. 


459 


Muhammad   b.  Alhanafiyya,    195, 

'38 
Muhammad    b.    Ishak    b.   Ustadh 

Bundfidh  Alsarakhsi,  29,  32. 
Abu-Muhammad  Aljabali,  335, 17. 
Muhammad     b.    Jabir    Albattani, 

'177,  2  ;  358,  33. 
Muhammad  b.  Aljahm  Albarmaki, 

'108,4. 
Muhammad  b.   Jarir  Altabari,  50, 

'20. 
Muhammad   b.    Mityjir,   250,    15  ; 

'258,26. 
Muhammad  b.  Musa  b.  Shakir,  61, 

'38,43;  285,23. 
Abu-Ja'far  Muhammad   b.    Sulai- 

man,  80,  5. 
Abu-B  ikr  Muhammad  b.  Zakariyya 

Alrazi,  243,  31. 
Muharram,  calculation  of  the   1st 

'of  Muharram,   183,   11;  321, 
11. 
Mu'izz-aldaula,  93, 15. 
Mukharrim,  93,  13. 
Al-mukhtfir  b.  Abi-'Ubaid  Altha- 

kafi,  195,  37. 
Al-multahiyani,  93,  25. 
Muluk-altawa'if,  17,  32. 
Aliuundhir  b.  Ma-alsama,  49,  22. 
Musa  b.  'Isa  Alkisrawi,  122, 14,  25  ; 

127,  1 ;  128. 
Abu-Musa  Al'ash'ari,  34,  26. 
Musailima,  192,  26. 
Al-mushakkar,  324,  12. 
Abu-Musl'im,  193, 16;  194, 10;  330, 

27. 
Almu'tadid,  his  months,  81,  14. 
Almu'tadid,  12,  29;  229,  5  ;  230,  5  ; 

232,  8. 
Almu'tasim,  50,  27  ;  285, 19. 
Almutawakkil,  37,  9. 
Alna'a'im,  337,  15  ;  348, 17. 


N. 


Nabatseans,  70,  5. 
Nabulus,  25, 15. 
Nadab  and  Abihu,  274,  37. 
Al-na'ibAhimuli,  Abu-Muhammad, 
15,17;  53,34;  346,12. 


Na'ila,  39, 18. 

Nairanjat,  astrologico  -  dietetical 
rules,  200,  20 ;  201,  45  ;  208, 
36  ;  211,  10  ;  238,  35. 

Al-najm,  344,  1. 

Wajriin,  332,  4. 

Al-nakba,  340,  5. 

Names  of  the  planets,  171,  43. 

Nasa,  192,  7. 

Nasi',  14,39;  73,25;  330,17. 

Nasir-aldaula,  93,  23. 

Nata,  324,  32. 

Al-nath,  343, 22. 

Nathan  the^prophet,  269, 12. 

Al-nathra,  345,  15. 

Nau',  339,  6. 

Naubakht,  262,  37. 

Naujushanas  b.  Adharbakht,  44,  8. 

Nauroz  the  great,  201,  36. 

Nauroz  of  the  Khalif,  258,  10. 

Nauroz,  myths  relating  to,  199, 1. 

Nebakadnezar,  272,  26;  276,  19, 
30,34;  314,  13. 

Nestorians,  282,  8,  21. 

Nestorius,  282,  8  ;  291,  31 ;  306, 
4. 

New-year's  feast  "of  the  Sabians, 
316,  24. 

New-moon,  its  calculation,  68,  1. 

New-moon,  observed  by  the  Mus- 
lims, 76, 12,  35. 

New-moon  calculation,  introduced 
amongst  the  Jews,  63,  3. 

New-moon,  according  to  the  Rab- 
banites  and  'Ananites,  67,  16  ; 
69,  20,  33. 

Nights. — Names  of  several  nights 
with  the  Arabs,  74,  37  ;  240, 
24;  252,  27;  258,  18;  259, 
14. 

Nile,  230,  25. 

Nimrud,  100,  20,  25. 

Nim-sarda,  221,35,38. 

Ninive-fasts,  311,  22. 

Notes  from  natural  history,  pro- 
portion of  numbers  in  the 
formation  of  blossoms,  stones, 
etc.,  294,  2,  36. 

Abu-Nu'as,  261,  39. 

Nuh  b.  MansLir,  prince  of  Kliura- 
'  san,  330,  38, 

Nuwad-roz,  212,  12. 


460 


INDEX. 


0. 

Observations   of   the   Hindus,   29, 

26. 
Observations   of  the  Persians,  29, 

25. 
October,  first   month  of   the  year 

with  the  Syrians,  69,  42. 
Ordo    intercalationis,    64,  32 ;    65, 

1,6. 
Oxus,  252,  10,  21 ;  259,  6 ;  263,  5. 


P. 


Pahlavi,  108,  15. 

Paraclete,  190,  9  ;  304,  25,  27. 

Paradise,  238,  41. 

Parun,  22, 10. 

Parapegnia,  233, 13. 

Passover  of  the  Jews,  66,  29  ;  141, 

28;  159,6. 
Passover,  274,  44;  277,  13. 
Patriarch  of  Antiochia,  284,  2. 
Patriarchs,  284, 20. 
Patriarchs  of  the  Bible,  85,  9. 
St.  Paul,  314, 29. 
Pentecontarius,  285,  12. 
Persians,  their  sera  of  creation,  17, 

19. 
Persian  kings,  13,8. 
Persian  chronology,  107,  1. 
Persian  characters,  186,  16. 
Persian    names    of     the    zodiacal 

figiires,  173, 10,  col.  3. 
Persian  names  of  the  planets,  172. 
Peshdadh,  116,  17. 
Peshdadians,  13,  8  ;  110, 18  ;   111  ; 

113;   114. 
Petrus,  311,  34. 
Pharao,  275,  8  ;  327,  18  ;  328,  12, 

7. 
Phetion,  308, 4. 

Philippus,  parapegmatist,  233,  14. 
Pilgrimage. —  Farewell-pilgrimage, 

74,7. 
Projection,  357,  1. 
Prophets,  347,  22. 
Psalter,  331,  13. 
Ptolemseus,  parapegmatist,  234,  26. 


Ptolemffius,  11, 10 ;  33,  34 ;  35, 19  ; 

98,  25, 27  ;  232, 23  ;  322, 16. 
Ptolemseus  Philadelphus,  24,  15. 
Ptolemseans,  103. 
Public  ofiices  in  Byzantium,  283, 

33. 
Purim,'273,  24;  277,  12. 
Pythagoras,  187,  44. 


R. 

Eabbanites,  67,  16 ;    68,  21 ;    278, 

41. 
Eabi',  321,  17. 
Alrabiya,  324,  22. 
Eai,  338,  8. 
Alra'i,  Jewish  pseudo-prophet,  18, 

19. 
Eajab,  321, 12. 
Ibn-alrakka',  338,  38. 
Eamadan,  77,  10  ;  321,  28. 
Eamush,  221, 15. 
Eamush-Agham,  221,  15. 
Eata'il  (Barta'il  ?),  196,  1. 
Eestoration     of     the    Zoroastrian 

creed,  196,  43. 
Eesurrection  Church  in  Jerusalem, 

287  20 
Eibas,  107,  36  ;  108,  27. 
Eoman  emperors,  104  ;  105. 
Eosh-Galutha,  19,  6. 
Eosh-hashshana,  152,  16  ;  268,13  ; 

277,  10,27,39;  278,4. 
Eosh-Hodesh,  155,  18  ;  157. 
Abu-Euh  (see   Antonius  Martyr), 

287,'  39. 
Euscam  b.   Shirwin,  Ispahbad,  47, 

32. 
Euyan,  205,  33. 
Alsa'b  b.  Alhammal  Alhimyari,  49, 

34. 


S. 


Sabians,  13,  23  ;  186,  23  ;  188,  26, 

42;  314,  11,23;  329,27. 
Sabzarud,  255,  11. 
Sa'd-aldhabih,  349,  1. 
Sa'd-bula',  249,  6. 


INDEX. 


461 


Sa'd-alsu'ud,  349,  15. 
Sa'd-al'akhbiya,  349,  21. 
Sa'd-Nashira,  353,  32. 
Alsadik  (vide  Ja'far),  79,  21. 
Safar,  321,  15. 

Abu-Hamid  Aisaghani,  357,  34. 
Sa'id  b.  Alfadl,  199,  28  ;  208, 27. 
Sa'id  b.  Muhammad  Aldhuhli,  116, 

8. 
Abu- Sa'id  Shadhan,  94,  40. 
Sail-ararim,  255,  9. 
Alsalami,  330,  4. 
Salimiyya,  263,  21. 
Sallam  b.  'Abdallah  b.  Sallam,  27, 

18. 
Salman  the  Persian,  27,  19 ;  208, 

21. 
Salman  as  sar,  275,  41. 
Salomo-Legend,  199,  7. 
Samanides,  48,  5. 
Samaritans,  25,  2  ;  67,  27  ;  270,  34; 

314,  20. 
Samarkand,  191,  30. 
Samarra,  99,  10. 
Siimirus,  49, 17. 
Samma'un  with   the  Manichseans, 

190,  26. 
Samuel,  275,  16. 
San'a,  324,  21. 

Ibn-Sf  nkila  (Syncellus),  186,  27. 
Sarandib,  94,  42  ;  345,  33. 
Al-sarfa,  346,  19. 
Saruj,  316,  5  ;  318,  6,  9. 
Sasanians,   123;    124;    125;  126; 

128. 
Sawa,  206, 28. 
Sawad-al'irak,  314,  22. 
Sawar,  51, 1. 
Seasons,  table  of,  323. 
Seasons  of  the  Arabs,  322,  4,  15  ; 

323,  cols.  8,9. 
Seasons    of    the    Byzantines    and 

Syrians,    322,    29;   323,  cols. 

2,  3. 
Seasons  of    the    Greeks,  322,  17 ; 

323,  (^ols.  4,  5. 
Sects,  Muhammadan,  76,  16. 
Seder-'olam,  87, 13  ;  88,  col.  4  ;  90, 

29. 
Septuaginta,  24, 4. 
Seven  Sleepers,  285,  18. 
Sexagesimal  system,  132, 16. 
Al-sha'bi,  34,  26. 


Shahin,  208, 28. 

Shahiya,  41,  6. 

Shahaama,  108,  1  ;  121,  2. 

Shahraziir,  44, 13. 

Shaiban,  245, 1. 

Shamanians,  189,  2. 

Shamma,  273,  20. 

Abu-Karib   Shammar  Yur'ish,  49, 

35. 
Shams-alma'ali,   1,  25  ;  2,  42 ;  12, 

12;    47,    17;    131,    30;    365, 

14. 
Al-shamsiyya,  314,  7. 
Shapur,  Dhu-al'aktaf,  39, 19. 
Shapur  b.  Ardashir,  190,  2. 
Shapur,  309,  2. 
Al-sharatan,  343, 1. 
Al-shargh,  222,  5. 
Al-shaula,  348,  13. 
Shawwal,  321,  30. 
Shefat,  69,  31. 
Shi'a,  177,7;  326,2,19. 
Al-shihr,  324,  18. 
Shiraz,  217,  28. 
Shirwan-Shahs,  48, 16. 
Siamese  twins,  93,  23. 
Sibawaihi,  347,  1. 
Siddikun    with    the    Manichseans, 

190, 18,  29. 
Sijistan,  52,  25  ;  235, 37. 
Alsimak,  317,  20  ;  346,  30. 
Simeon  b.  Sabba'e,  catholicus,  292, 

6. 
Simon  Magus,  291,  43. 
Sinan  b.  Thabit,  232,  6,  21,  27,  30  ; 

233,  1,  5;  262,  14;    267,   9; 

322  34. 
Sindhind,  11,  12  ;  29,  27 ;  31,  5  ; 

61,31;  266,25. 
Sirius,  261,  24 ;  337, 36  ;  338,  40. 
Siyamak  and  Frawfik,  108,  40. 
Siyawush,  40, 42. 
Slavonians,  110,  4. 
Snake,  signification  of  the  appear- 
ance of  a,  218. 
Solar  cycle,  66,  7  ;  164,  9. 
Solar  year,  141,  29. 
Solar  year  of  the  Jews,  64, 1 ;  143, 

31;  163,42. 
Solar  year  of  Muhammad  b.  Musa 

and  Ahmad  b.  Musa,  61,  39. 
Solar  year  of  the  Persians,  61,  35  ; 

220,  16. 


462 


INDEX. 


Sophists,  96,  14. 

Spring  of  the  Chinese,  266,  10. 

Star  cycle,  29,  18. 

Abu-alhusain  AlsMi,  195,  1 ;  355  ; 

358,  34. 
Ibn-alsufi,  347,  40. 
Al-suha,  250,  13  ;  266,  20. 
Suhar,  324,  15. 
Abu-Tahir     Sulaiman     Aljannabi, 

196,13;  197,32. 
Al-suli,  36,  14;  37,9. 
Sun,  168,  21,  29. 
Sunday. — New  Sunday,  304,  5. 
Sun. — Eays  of  the  sun,  247,  3. 
Suristan,  70,  6. 

Surnames  of  the  Ashkanians,  117. 
Surnames  of  the  Peshdadians  and 

Kayanians,  111. 
Surnames  of  the  Sasanians,  123. 
Surra-man-ra'a,  93,  7  ;  99, 11. 
Synodus,  291,  9. 
Syriaca,  19,  10. 
Syrian  names  of  the  planets,  172, 

col.  4. 
Syrian  fathers,  311,  38  ;  313. 
Syrian  names  of  the  figures  in  the 

zodiac,  173,  col.  4. 


T. 

Tabaristan,  235,  5,  6. 

Al-tahir,  235,  30. 

Tahir  b.  Tahir,  211, 15. 

Tahmurath,  27,44;  28,11. 

Tahrif,  23,  27. 

Tak,  235, 19. 

taiakan,  195,  2,  33. 

Abu-Talib,  332, 12. 

Talisman,  217,4. 

Tall-Harran,  318,  15. 

Tammuz,  317,37. 

Al-tarf,  345, 19. 

Ta'rikh,  34, 17. 

Tasu'a,  326,  1. 

Al-tawawis,  221,  32. 

Tekufoth,  their  calculation,  162,27 ; 

168,  3, 13, 14  ;  169  ;  174, 1. 
Terminus  paschalis,  300,  35. 
Thabir,  333,  18. 

Thabit  b.  Kurra,  61,  45  ;  252, 44. 
Thabit  b.  Sinan,  93,  6  ;  264,  23. 


Thales  of  Miletus,  31,  45. 
Thamud,     the     names     of     their 

months,  74,  27. 
Theodorus  of  Mopsuestia,  196, 4, 
Theodosius  Minor,  291,  30. 
Theodosius,  son  of  Arcadius,  291, 

26. 
Theon   Alexandrinus,  12,    26,  38  ; 

32,30 
Thora,  331, 12,  24. 
Thora  of  the  Jews,  22,  40 ;  23, 39. 
Thora  of  the   Seventy,  24,  4;  25, 

36. 
Thora  of  the  Samaritans,  24,  18, 

27;  29,3. 
Al-thurayya,  336,  27,  29,  33  ;  342, 

37,38,41;  343,34. 
Tiberias,  279,  3. 
The  tides,  260, 13. 
Tigris,  252,  22. 
Tinnis,  240,  23. 
Tiragan,  205, 15. 
Titles  of  princes,  109, 14. 
Titles  of  the  Samanides,  131,  9. 
Titles  of  the  Vizirs,  131, 1. 
Titles  during  the  Chalifate,  129,  1. 
Titles.— Table  of  Titles,  130. 
Tuba,  331,  42. 

Turks,  their  months,  83,  cols.  1, 8. 
Turtle-doves,  219, 11,  23. 
Tus,  216, 38. 
Tustar,  273,25,28. 
Tuzun,  93, 10. 
Abu-alkasim  'Ubaid- Allah  b.  'Abd- 

allkh  b.  Khurdadbih,  234,  39. 


u. 


'Ubaid- Allah  b.  Alhasan  Alkaddah, 

48,  38. 
Abu-alkasim  'TJbaid-Allah  b.  Sulei- 

min  b.  Wahb,  38, 4. 
'Ubaid-allah  b.  Yahya,  36, 19. 
'Ukaz,  324,  22. 
'Ukbara,  214,  28. 
'Umar  b.  Alkhattab,  34,  7  ;  49,  29  ; 

196,6;  333,41. 
Umayyades,  326, 13. 
Al'.'urdunn,  264, 2. 
Urishlem,  19, 22,  25. 
'Uthman  b.  'Affan,  333,  27. 


INDEX. 


468 


Y. 

Vacuum,  254,  15. 

w. 

Waikard,  brother  of  Hosliang,  206, 

17;  212,  11. 
Wakhsh,  225,  23. 
Wakhsh-Angam,  225,  23. 
Waki'  Alkadi,  106,  3. 
Wali-aldaula   Abu-Ahmad  Khalaf 

b.  Ahmad,  prince  of  Sijistan, 

330, 37. 
Wardanshah,  47,  24. 
Warmth,  246,  41. 
Waterspout,  253, 16. 
Wasit,  188,  34. 
Water. — Rising  of  the  water,  253, 

13. 
Weather. — Predicting     the     wea- 

thei",  with  the  Arabs,  336,  26. 
Week,  58,  21,  32  ;  60, 19. 
Week-days,  75, 33. 
Wijan  b.  Judarz,  206,  32. 
Winds,  Etesian,  259,  43  ;  262,  25, 

30;  339,32. 
Winds. — Swallow-winds,  248,  22. 
Winds.— Bird-winds,  248,  17,    31, 

34. 


Y. 

Yahya  b.  'AK   Alkatib  Al'anbari, 

■  238,  39. 
Yahya  grammaticus,  225, 14. 
Yahya  b  Khalid  b.  Barmak,  37,  4. 
Abu-Yahva  b.    Kunasa,   335,    16 ; 

339,' 35;  351,  col.  12. 
Yahva  b.  Alnu'man,  191, 1. 
Ya'kub  b.  Ishak  Alkindi,  245,  18. 
Ya'kub  b.  Musa  Alnikrisi,  269,  19  ; 

'270,14. 
Ya'kub  b.  Tarik.  15, 18. 
Yamama,  94,  36  ;  192,  38. 
Yaman  255, 1. 
Yazdagird  Alhizari,  56,  7. 
Yazdagird  b.  Shahryar,  120, 16. 


Yazdagird  b.  Shapur,  38,  24,  31; 
56,  5;  121,  25. 

Yazdanbakht,  191, 19. 

Year,  definition,  11,  4  ;  12,  8. 

Great  years,  91,  2,  20,  24. 

Small  years,  91,  7. 

Solar  year,  12,  26. 

Year,  its  beginning  in  the  cycle  of 
28  years,  175. 

Year,  its  beginning  with  the  Chor- 
asmians,  184, 3 7  ;  223,  1. 

Year,  its  beginning  with  the  Egyp- 
tians, 230,   24. 

Year,  its  beginning  with  the  Jews, 
66,  10. 

Year,  its  beginning  with  the  Per- 
sians, 201, 4. 

Year,  its  beginning  with  the  Sa- 
bians,  315,  14,  18;  316,  24; 
318,  22  ;  319, 5  ;  320, 2,  col.  3. 

Year,  its  beginning  with  the  Sog- 
dians,  184,37;  220,20.  ■ 

Year  of  the  heathen  Arabs,  13,  34. 

Year  of  Augustus,  103,  3,  5. 

Year  of  the  Chorasmians,  13,  5,  20. 

Year  of  the  Christians,  13,  30. 

Year  of  Diocletianus,  103,  4. 

Years  between  the  Flight  of  Mu- 
hammad  and  his  Death,  35, 28. 

Years  of  the  Harranians,  318,  32. 

Years  of  the  Hindus,  15,  5. 

Year  of  the  Jews,  62,  25  ;  153. 

Kinds  of  Years  with  the  Jews,  66, 
17. 

Year  of  the  Jews,  Sabians,  Harra- 
nians, 13,  22. 

Year  of  the  Persians,  12,  40 ;  13, 
19. 

Year  of  the  Peshdadians,  13,  8. 

Year  of  Philippus,  103,  3,  4. 

Years  of  Restitution,  160,  3. 

Year  of  the  Sogdians,  13,  5,  20. 

Year-quarters,  their  length  with 
the  Jews,  163,34. 

Yehoyakim,  271,  21. 


z. 

Zacharia  the  prophet,  19,  29. 
Zadawaihi,  53,  37  ;  202,  7 ;  207, 11, 
Zaid  b.  'All'  Imam,  328,  32. 


464 


INDEX. 


Zaidites,  79, 10. 

Alzajjaj,  344,  37  ;  346, 11,26  ;  347, 

30 ;  348,  32. 
Ibn-Abi-Zakariyya,  196,  21. 
Zamzam,  332,  36. 
Zamzama,  194,  2  ;  204,  9, 14 ;  209, 

21. 
Zamzami,  194, 17. 
Zanjan,  216,  40. 

Zau  b.  Tahmasp,  202,  45  ;  210,  4. 
Zedekia,  271,  8. 
Zoological  Botes,  92,  42  ;  94,  18  ; 

214,  11,  29. 


Zoroaster,  17,  12  ;  55,  29  ;  186, 21 ; 

189,    26;  191,    45;    193,  34; 

196,40;  201,40;  205,2;  209, 

35  ;  211,  35  ;  220,  19  ;  221,  4, 

6;  314,4,6. 
Zoroastrians,  17,  10;  35,23;  314, 

4 ;  318,  28. 
Zoroastrians    in    Chorasmia,    223, 

12. 
Zoroastrians    in    Transoxiana,  56, 

14. 
Alzubana,  347,  32. 
Alzubra,  346,  9. 


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